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 CHAMBERS'S 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA
 
 CHAMBERS'S 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A DICTIONARY 
 
 OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 WITH MAPS AND NUMEROUS WOOD ENGRAVINGS 
 
 VOL.1 
 
 
 
 ¥K 
 
 'It 
 
 J 
 
 LONDON 
 
 W. AND R. CHAMBERS 47 PATERNOSTER ROW 
 
 AND HIGH STREET EDINBURGH 
 
 1SG8 
 
 WITH St'BSEQUENT COItKECT: 
 
 All rj^/ils art re.
 
 Fdinburfih : 
 Trlntcd by W. and R. Chambers.
 
 AvE5 
 C35I 
 
 NOTICE. 
 
 IT is now considerably more than a hundred years since Eihraim Chambers gave 
 to the world his Cyclopaedia, cr Universal Dictionary of Knowledge — the prototype, 
 as it proved to Le, of a numLer of siniilar works, in Britain as well as in other 
 countries, which must have contributed in no small measure to increase the sum ot 
 general intelligence. In nearly all these works there has Leen a tendency to depart 
 from the plan of their celebrated original, as concerns some of the great departments of 
 science, literature, and history ; these being usually presented, not under a variety 
 of specific heads, as they commonly occur to our minds when information is required, but 
 aggregated in large and formal treatises, such as would in themselves form books of 
 considerable bulk. By such a course it is manifest that the serviceableness of an 
 Encyclopaedia as a dictionary for reference is greatly impaired,- whatever may be the 
 advantages which on other points are gained. 
 
 W i tli a view to bring back the Encyclopaedia to its original purpose of a. Dictionary 
 of Knowledge, even down to matters of familiar conversation, the Germans formed the 
 plan of their Conversations- Lexicon, a work which, extending to a long series of volumes, 
 has passed through ten editions, and obtained a world-wide celebrity. Believing that a 
 translation of the latest edition of that well-conceived and laboriously executed work 
 would be generally acceptable, the Editors made an arrangement for that purpose with 
 the proprietor, Mr Brockhaus of Lcipsic. After some time, however, had been spent in 
 translating, the task of adapting the information to English requirements was found 
 so difficult, that the resolution was taken to bring out a substantially new work, following 
 in its construction the admirable plan of the Conversations-Lexicon, but making use of 
 its valuable matter, only so far as it might be found suitable. 
 
 Chambers's Encyclopaedia, therefore, although constructed on the basis of the 
 latest edition of the Conversations-Lexicon, is, in no part, a mere translation of that 
 work. All that specially relates to Great Britain nnd her colonies, as well as to the 
 slates of North and South America, is collected from new and more direct sources. 
 I he articles also on the physical sciences and practical arts receive greater prominence 
 than in the German work, and are nearly all original, being mostly the work of 
 contributors having special knowledge of the subjects. Even in the articles of the 
 Conversations-Lexicon relating to Germany and other continental countries, as well as 
 
 691063
 
 NO'l 
 
 to subjects of a universal interest, the lapse of time (now ten years) since the publication 
 of that work began, as well as the difference in the relative importance of the same 
 subject in different countries, has rendered great alterations necessary in order to 
 adapt the information to the present time and to Great Britain. The employment 
 of illustrative engravings and maps, is another feature in which the present work differs 
 from the German. 
 
 The general character of the work, now thus far advanced, is indicated by its title — 
 A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for tie People. The several topics are not handled 
 with a view to the technical instruction of those who have to make a special study of 
 particular branches of knowledge or ait. The information given may be characterised as 
 non-professional, embracing those points of the several subjects which every intelligent 
 man or woman may have occasion to speak or think about. At the same time, every 
 effort is made that the statements, so far as they go, shall be precise ami scientifically 
 accurate. One great aim in the arrangement of the work has been to render it easy of 
 consultation. It is expressly a Dictionary, in one alphabet, as distinguished on the one 
 hand from a collection of exhaustive treatises, and, on the other, from a set of Dictionaries 
 of special branches of knowledge. To save the necessity of wading through a long treatise 
 in order to find, perhaps, a single fact, the various masses of systematic knowledge have 
 been broken down, as it were, to as great a degree as is consistent with the separate 
 explanation of the several fragments. In the greater number of articles, however, there will 
 be found copious references to other heads with which they stand in natural connection; 
 and thus, while a single fact is readily found, its relation to other facts is not lost sight of 
 It will be observed, that by means of accentuation, some assistance is given in the 
 pronouncing of the proper names which form the heads of the articles. At the 
 conclusion of the work, it is intended to give a copious General Index, referring not only 
 to the distinct articles, but to subjects casually noticed — an arrangement which cannot 
 fail to be of considerable use to those who wish to consult the work on many matters of 
 interest 
 
 W. & R CHAMBERS. 
 
 Edinburgh, ifarcJi 31, 1SG0.
 
 LIST OF MAPS FOR VOL. L 
 
 Fagi 
 
 AFKICA, ....... G.J 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA, 200 
 
 NORTH AMERICA, 201 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 196 
 
 ASIA, 473 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 561 
 
 AUSTRIA, 5G8
 
 UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE 
 
 sound ; 
 
 is the fir t letti t in almost all 
 alphabets; the only exceptions, 
 . are the Ethiopi n, 
 where it stands thirteenth, and 
 the Runic, in which the order is 
 altogether different (see Bra ks). 
 It lias in English at least four 
 distinct sounds, as heard in <>'< . 
 \j "3 man, father, all. Of these, the third may 
 \J " be considered its primitive and proper 
 it is its name-sound in perhaps all lan- 
 except English, and is that which is 
 assigned to it in comparative grammar. This 
 sound is the purest and fullest iu human speech; 
 it is that which the child learns first and most 
 easily to produce, and its sign stands as if by 
 right at the head of the alphabet. In the oldest 
 languages it is the predominating vowel, and gives 
 them their peculiar fulness and strength. 1'hilolo- 
 gists consider it th ! of the three fundamental 
 
 vowels ; the other two, i and u (whose primitive and 
 
 E roper sounds are heard in me and do), seem to 
 ave arisen out of a, by lightening or weakening it 
 (Lat. cadence incidence, calco — incidco). By com- 
 bining with these, n gives ri au, which in 
 their turn c islesce into i and <>.-- In the Phoenician 
 alphabet, the letter A bears the name of aiephj i.e., 
 'ox.' with reference to its most ancient form, which 
 rudely represented an ox's head. From this came 
 the Greet name alpha. For engraving or tracing 
 on stone or other hard materials, characters com- 
 posed of straight lines are best adapted, and BUch 
 was naturally the earliest form of A and the other 
 letters. It is easy to trace the growth of our small 
 a or a out of the monumental A. In Greek and 
 Roman inscriptions executed hastily or carelessly, 
 
 the form /\ is often found ; and this, written 
 
 with a flexible reed, became rounded into £1 . 
 
 — For A and the other letters as abbreviations, see 
 Abbreviations. 
 l 
 
 A, as a note in Music, is the major sixth of the scale 
 of < 1, major. fectly in tune to C, it stands 
 
 in tli'- proportion of 9 of 1. But in this state it 
 would not be a fifth to D, the second note of the 
 scale of C, being a comma too flat, which difference 
 is as 80 to 81. The ear being sensibly offended with 
 this deficiency, the note A is therefore made the least 
 degree higher than perfect— namely, Mr, by which 
 the advantage is gained, that A is a fifth above 1) 
 (|j|'j\ or only deficient in the propori 
 — a deficiency so trilling that the pts th B 
 
 fifth, D, A, and the sixth. ( '. A, as perfect, alt 1. 
 mathematically calculated, the one istm 
 
 other too small. — For A Major and A Minor, 
 see Kr.v. 
 
 Al, a symbol by which first-cl Is are 
 
 known in Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign 
 Shipping (<[. v. ), and by which the operations of 
 shippers of goods and insurers are governed. Sur- 
 veyors appointed by the Bociety examine all \ 
 in course of building, with a view to ascertaining 
 their character, and inscribin r them accordingly in 
 the register. Ade racter of the hull 
 
 of the vessel ; the figure I. the efficient state 
 anchors, cables, and stores ; when these are insuffi- 
 cient, in quantity or quality, the figure 2 is used. 
 I haracter A is assigned to a new ship for a 
 certain number of years, varying from four to 
 G .: I, according to the material and mode of 
 building, but on condition of tl being 
 
 statedly surveyed, to see that the efficien 
 maintained. A vessel built under a roof is allowed 
 an additional year on that account. An additional 
 period of one year, and, in certain cases, of two 
 years, is also allowed to vessels whose decks, outside 
 
 on condition of certain specified repairs. — When 
 
 . passed the age far the character A. 
 
 but is still found lit for conveying perishable 
 
 goods to -iii parts of the world, it is registered A 
 
 | in red. (The symbol for this class was formerly JB
 
 A CAPELLA— ABANDON 
 
 as! i risk in r 5& in black form the third 
 
 ind consist of sui till found, on sur- 
 
 Me goods on 
 
 s E and [ © ships sufficient to oon- 
 
 vey goods not lial le one class, 
 
 for voyages of any length, the other, for shorter 
 
 A CArELLA, or A LA CAPELLA, in Jim., 
 means, in the church style; it is equivalent to Alia 
 i (q. V.), a time-signature which frequently 
 
 appears in church-music. It also denotes that the 
 instruments are to play in unison with the 
 or that one part is to be played by a number of 
 instrumental 
 
 AA, the name of a number of rivers and 
 in the north of France, Holland, Germany, ami 
 Switzerland. As many as forty have been enume- 
 rated. The word is said to be of Celtic origin, but 
 it is allied to the Old German aha, Gothic aliva, 
 identical with the Latin aqua, 'water.' Ach or 
 Aaeli is another form of the same word. Four 
 streams of the name of Aeli fall into the I, 
 I nee. The word, in both forms, occurs as final 
 
 syllable in many names of places, as, Futda (for- 
 merly Fuldaha), Biberach, Biberich, &c. In the 
 it i, A then (waters, springs), which is the 
 ' .11 name of Aix-la-thapelle (q.v.). Aix, the 
 
 h name of so many places connected with 
 springs, is derived from Lat. AqucB, which became 
 in old French Aigues, and then Aix. Compare the 
 Celtic Esk, Ex, AJce, Ouse. 
 
 AALBORG (meaning Eel-town), a seaport in the 
 north of Jutland, with considerable trade ; pop. 8000. 
 
 AAK, next to tin- Rhine and Rhone, tin 
 
 river in Switzerland, rises in the glaciers near the 
 Grimsel in Berne, forms the Falls of Hamlck, 
 200 feet high, flows through Lakes Rrienz and 
 Than, and passing the towns of Interlaken, Thun, 
 Berne, Solothurn, Aaran, Bragg, and Klin 
 joins the Rhine at the village of Coblenz, in Aargau, 
 after a course of nearly L >( H) miles. It is a b 
 
 1 stream, ami, though rapid, is navigable for 
 small-craft from Lake Thun. There arc several 
 small rivers of the same name in Germany. 
 
 AARGAU (ARGOVTE), a canton of Switz 
 on the lower course of the Aar, and having the Rhine 
 I north boundary. Its surface is diversified 
 with hills and valleys, is well wooded, and generally 
 fertile. The area is about 530 sq. miles, and the 
 population in 1860 was nearly 200,000, rather more 
 than half being Protestants. Besides agricultui 
 siderablc manufacturing industry in coi 
 is earned on both in the towns and country, and 
 
 <>f late m i 
 [n this canton is the castle of Hal 
 or Hapsburg, the original seat of the im 
 family of Austria. The chief town is Aakau, 
 situated on the Aar ; pop. 4G57. 
 
 AARHUTTS, a seaport on the east coast of 
 Jutland ; pop. 6800. 
 
 AARON, the elder brother of Hoses, was ap- 
 pointed his assistant and spokesman, and at the 
 giving of the Mosaic Law received for himself and 
 his descendants the hereditary dignity of the 
 Aaron assisted his brother in the : 
 istratinn of public affairs. He died in tli 
 year of his I nut Hor, on the borders of 
 
 Ldui i. Hi. third son, Eleazar, succeeded him in 
 i 'i-iest. 
 
 ABACA, or MANILLA HEMP, is the fibre of a 
 species of plantain or banana {Mum trOj 
 a native of the Philippine Isles, where it is exten- 
 sively cultivated. The leaf-stalks are spUt into long 
 stripes, and the fibrous part is then separated from 
 
 the fleshy pulp. A labourer can in this way prodnce 
 daily 50 lbs. of hemp. Before ISl'o, the qu 
 produced was in but BOfl H " 
 
 to nearly 3000 tons annually, In .Manilla there is 
 
 ii rope-work for making ropes of it for naval 
 purposes. They are very durable, but not very 
 flexible. — The dine ol a inui. i ][u*a 
 
 is used in tropical com it i u.v. 
 
 AT.ACUS, an instrument seldom seen exi 
 ' , where it 
 
 1 to make the ele- 
 mentary operations of 
 arithmetic palpable. It 
 
 n of a frame with 
 a number of p 
 wires, on which 
 or counters are 
 
 
 Cliineso Abacus. 
 
 In ancient times, ii 
 
 l ii practical reckoning, and is said to 1 
 still in China and elsewhere. — Abacus Pythag 
 meant the multiplication-table. — Abai is. in arch., 
 is a square or oblong level tablet on the capital of a 
 column, and supporting the entablature. In the 
 Doric, old Ionic, and Tuscan orders, the abacus is 
 
 Doric Abacus. 
 
 Inr oblong ; but in the new Ionic, Corinthian, 
 IB i ; . the abacus 1; 
 
 with truncated angles. Square marble tabli 
 
 1 iiitlii.-in Abacas. 
 
 into walls, and fields with figures in them in 
 
 in mosaic floors, were al i hided under the 
 
 term abacus in ancient architecture. 
 
 ABAD (allied both in etymology and meaning to 
 the Eng. aboil<\, an affix to nanus of Pel 
 as Hyderabad, the 'dwelling' or city of II 
 
 ABAISSE (lowered), a term used in Heraldry, 
 the fesse, or any other armorial fign 
 led, or situated below the c atre of tin 
 it is said to be abai ■'. k to back), 
 
 affronli or COnfronti (facing or fronting one anc 
 
 ' (sharpened at the point), aile (winged), are 
 other heraldic term3 borrowed, like aba 
 the French, and U3ed by En 
 not differing essentially from their ordinary signifi- 
 cations in that language. 
 
 ABANDON (Abandoning, Abandonment). This 
 term, in its different grammatical and etymol 
 forms, has various applications in legal phras 
 but all more or less corresponding to its [ 
 i g. The following are exami 
 
 Abandoning as Action is a technical exp: 
 in Scotch legal procedure, signifying the act by 
 which a plaintiff — or ' pursuer,' as be is called in 
 Scotland — abandons or withdraws from his aei 
 the payment of the costs incurred, and with the 
 appn 'val of the judge before whom the action had pre- 
 viously been conducted. The same purpose is effected 
 in England by the plaintiff in a Court of Common
 
 ABANDONMENT— ABAUZFT. 
 
 Low either entering a No" I' ■■', or at the 
 
 • onl. In the Courts of Equity, 
 the plaintiff may move the diemiaml of his own bill, 
 or the defendant may move to dismiss the suit for 
 uxmt of pro '•'. Suits may also 
 
 abode by the death or supervening incapacity of the 
 parties. See Action. 
 
 Abandonment, in Marine Insurance, signifies 
 the relinquishment to the insurer or underwriter of 
 goods or property saved from a shipwreck, and of 
 all interest in the same, previous to the owners' 
 demanding payment in terms of the policy. See 
 Insci: 1 
 
 Ab.\ of Railways, By the act of 
 
 parliament 13 and 14 Vict. c. 83, facilities are 
 afforded for the A. of railways, and the dissolution 
 of railway companies by consent of the holders of 
 three-fifths of the shares or stock, and by warrant of 
 the ' Commissioners of Railways,' or, as it now is by 
 the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 64. by warrant of the Board of 
 Trade, who, in this respect, as well as in other 
 matters regarding the regulation of railways, have 
 aupenedi d the former body. .See Railway. 
 
 Abandoning or deserting seamen, by masters 
 of merchant-vessels, is, by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 30, a 
 misdemeanour, and punishable by imprisonment. 
 
 . MKN. 
 
 ABATEMENT. This is a term used in various 
 
 senses in the law of England, as follows : 1. A of 
 
 Id, where a stranger without right enters and 
 
 gets possession. See Freehold. 2. A of 2Vut«- 
 
 . which is a i nst injury by nuisance. 
 
 See Nuisance. .". Plea in A. by means of which 
 
 nlant, on some formal and technical ground, 
 
 to abate or quash the action. See Action. 
 
 4. A of Legacies and Debit, where the estate is 
 insufficient for payment in full. See Id I 
 
 5. A. by the death of parties to actions at law and 
 suits in equity, which are in consequence stopped 
 till revived. The marriage of a plaintiff, the change 
 
 of interest and right, and other similar con- 
 siderations, have also the effect of abating legal pro- 
 ceedings. See Action. G. A. or discount, in 
 Commercial Law. Bee t w. Law. 7. A. 
 
 or deduction of duties levied by the Custom-house. 
 9 
 
 ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, is a mark placed 
 over a parti rmu coat-af-arms of a 
 
 family, significative of some base or ungcntleman-like 
 act on the part of the bearer. is then said 
 
 to be abated, or lowered in dignity. Guillim 
 nine sue] all of which are of either one or the 
 
 of the two i 
 and sanguin 
 
 to him who revokes his challenge; the 
 I r to him who offends the 
 
 . or widow, om his 
 
 miO, due to 
 him who overmuch boa his martial 
 
 acts ; and the like. Marks oi gener- 
 
 ally 
 
 Lie author!' 
 
 . and 
 Montagu is of opinion that we 
 shall seek in vain for a more 
 
 / X menta are carefully to be distin- 
 
 r ( J \J pushed from such subtractive 
 
 •atinns in coats-of-arms as 
 
 y juniority of birth, or 
 
 1 from the principal house 
 
 or senior branch of the family. 
 
 are commonly called marks of cadency, 
 
 ires. The latter 
 
 term is generally applied to marks of bastardy, 
 
 o, c 
 
 Abatement. 
 
 which might with less impropriety be classed with 
 abatem 
 
 ABATTIS, a species of intrenchment, and one 
 of the oldest. It consists of trees felled (abattu.) 
 and laid side by side, with the branches directed 
 towards the enemy, the softer twigs being cut off. It 
 thus forms a breastwork to fire over, and is very 
 useful in field-works and in the out-works of regular 
 fortifications, for retarding the enemy's advance. 
 ABATTOIR (Fr. abattre, to f. 11 or destroy), a 
 use. The use of this term has passed 
 .gland from France, where the example was 
 first given of public establishments for the slaughter 
 of animals used as food, on such a scale and with 
 such sanitary arrangements 03 to obviate the injuri- 
 ous effects that are found to result from the existence 
 of private slaughter-houses in the midst of a crowded 
 population. This great public improvement origin- 
 ated with Napoleon, who passed a decree in 1807 
 for the erection of public abattoirs. The extensive 
 works connected with this design were nearly com- 
 pleted before the fall of the Empire ; but it was 
 not till the close of 1818, that the Parisian butchers 
 ceased to slaughter in their private establishments. 
 There are now five of these abattoirs in Paris — three 
 on the right, and two on the left bank of the - 
 containing 240 slaughter-houses in all — which, both 
 in architectural propriety and completeness of 
 internal arrangement, may be regarded as models of 
 their kind. The charge per head is, for an ox 6 
 francs, a cow 4 fr., a calf 2 fr., and a sheep 50 cents. 
 Of the appearance and management of one of the 
 great Parisian abattoirs, a good account is given by 
 Sir Francis Head, in his amusing woi! 
 
 < Uher towns in France have similar 
 abattoirs ; and so have Mantua and Brussels. 
 
 The erection of similar establishments in Britain 
 is of comparatively recent date. Public slai 
 houses formed part of the plan in the establishment 
 of the new cattle-market in the Metropolis in 
 Copenhagen Fields. Those built are well arranged ; 
 but th in number, and the old system is 
 
 still in full operation, to the great detriment of the 
 public health. In Edinburgh, an establishment of 
 this kind, excellent in its construction and arrange- 
 ments, was erected by the town-council in 1851. 
 
 A BATTUTA (ItaL), in Music, in strict or 
 
 measured time. 
 
 ABAUZ1T, Fin-.ny, a French savant, was born 
 
 doc, L679, and died at Geneva 
 
 His parents were Protestant, and at the 
 
 •ion of the Edict of Nantes, being only six 
 
 years of age, he ilty, by his 
 
 r's contrivance, from the hands of the a 
 
 tics who wis' 1 ate him into i I 
 
 .1. Here he prosecuted his studies 
 
 with such int '".that he became 
 
 in abuost all thi '• d in 
 
 ■I Holland in 1008, whew he made the 
 
 acquaintance of Newton, Baj Bier eminent 
 
 writers. Newton, in sending him one of his c 
 
 i compli- 
 m r.t I I 
 
 '. and me.' King William wished to retain 
 him permanently in England, and to that end made 
 him several advai Sera; but his no 
 
 for his mother induced him to return to < 
 translated t! t into French in 17^(> ; 
 
 and for his lucid investigations into the ancient 
 history of Geneva, he received from its authori- 
 ties the rights of citizenship. He likewise wrote 
 numerous theological and archaeological tr 
 
 . leaving one or two scientific and artistic 
 
 itions in manuscript, but the greater )>ortion 
 
 of these were burned by his heirs, who were Catholics.
 
 ABBADIE-ABBOT. 
 
 His orthodoxy has lx-on disp i some of his 
 
 that he was a Unitarian. 
 Hi.- p. rsonal qu •' L him unii I 
 
 iuld not bear to praise a contem- 
 porary, p ii i .1 ins solitary panegyric on A. 
 
 ABBADIE, Am.iink ami Abnould-Mice 
 t w ,, brothers, French travellers, known for their 
 reeearches in Abyssinia, from lS.'i" i .. I-- 1 i. \ 
 ing to their own account, their objects won- purely 
 ethnological anil but they were 
 
 regarded by certain En llera and m 
 
 aries as agents employed by the French government 
 for religious and political purposes ; and were ai 
 of inducing Pnnce Dme to expel the Lutheran 
 missionaries from Adoa. Arnould returned a second 
 time to Abyssinia in 1853, and continui d his explor- 
 ations for a year. Tl oi their travels 
 appeared from time to time in the French ^graphical 
 journals. They an chiefly valuable in a philological 
 ami ethnological point of view. 
 
 ABBANDONAMENTH (Hal.), in Music, with 
 sol I- abandonment ; deepondingly. 
 
 ABBAS, the umlo of Mohammed, the Arabian 
 prophet, and the chief promoti rof his religion (d. 652), 
 was the founder of the family of the Abbasides, 
 who ruled as califs of Bagdad from 749 to 12.58, 
 and afterwards exercised the spiritual functions of 
 the califate in Egypt, under the protection of the 
 Mamelukes, tiil 1517, when that dignity passed 
 to the Turkish sultan. Di cendants of this family 
 still live in Turkey and India. — The Abbasedbs in 
 Persia were descended from the race of the Soli, who 
 ascribed their origin to the calif Ali. This race 
 acquired dominion in 1500, and became extinct in 
 1736. Among them, Abbas I., surnamed the Great, 
 was the most eminent ruler. He came to the throne 
 15SG, and died 1028. His reign was marked by 
 a series of victories over the Turks. In alliance with 
 England, he destroyed, in 1021, the Portuguese 
 colony at Ormuz. 
 
 ABBAS-MIKZA, a Persian prince, well known 
 by his wars against Russia, was the son of tli 
 Feth-Ali, and was born in 17s:. Abbae po 
 great talents and acquirement . and a love for the 
 manners and culture of the West. When he was 
 yet young, his father made him governor of the 
 province Azerbijan, where, by the help of English 
 officers, he applied himself to the reform of the 
 army. When Persia, in 1811, influenced by France, 
 declared war against Russia, Abbas was com- 
 mander-in-chief of the main body of the Persian 
 army, but was un-u cessful Persia lost, at the 
 peace of Gulistan, in 1S13, its remaining 
 in the Caucasus, and was forced to ackr, 
 flag of Russia on the Caspian S i. At the u 
 tion of Abbas, a new war broke out in 1826, ; 
 Feth-Ali and Russia. The prin :e fought a second 
 time with extraordinary bravi > v a1 th head of the 
 army, but was again obliged to yield to the 
 riority of th Liu i mil to CO lude p 
 
 on February 22, 1S28, at Turkmantschai, by which 
 Persia lost all share in Armenia. In tins treaty, 
 Russia had guaranteed to Abbas the succession to 
 the Persian throne, the consequence of which was 
 that he became dependent on Russia, and was 
 obliged to give up his connection with England. 
 When, in 1829, the Russian ambassador at Teheran 
 was murdered in a popular tumult, which he had 
 provoked by imprudence, Abbas went in person to 
 >St Petersburg, to prevent any ill consequences, and 
 to maintain the peace. Ho was i eived by the 
 emperor with kindness, and went back to Persia 
 loaded with presents. He died in 1833. His death 
 was a great loss to his coimtry, although he could 
 not have prevented the encroachments of Russia, 
 
 His eldest son, Mohammed Mirza, mounted the 
 throne in 1S.14, on the death of Feth-Ali, under the 
 united protection of England and K 
 
 ABBATE, Niiioi.o Dell, or Niocolo Abati, 
 was born at Modena in 1509 or 1512, and died at 
 i 1571. II' was an able and skilful arti I in 
 painting, and was a follower both of B 
 o; yet he rather blent the two Btj 
 
 i tthi r separat iy. His influi nee is 
 i I art which prevailed dining the 
 1 ; Bry. Hie earlier works 
 
 are to be seen at Modena; his later ones at B 
 among which is his ' Adoration of the Shepherds,' 
 it; but he is best known by the 
 pi hi it i for tic i ntain- 
 
 bleau, from ti of 1 'rimaticcio. These, how- 
 
 ever, with tl ■- , ic ption of the tabli aux representing 
 tli-' bistorj of Alexand r the <ii at. were unfortun- 
 ately destroyed in 1738, at th 
 of an architect who wish, d to enlarge the blinding. 
 
 AH HE, the French name for an ibbot (q. v.). but 
 often used in the general si ose of a priest or i ; 
 man. By a cone reen Pope Leo X, and 
 
 Francis L (1516), ; had the ri 
 
 nominate upwards of 200 A 
 
 who, without having any duty to | dn w a 
 
 considerable proportion of the revenues of the 
 PI obtaining one of those sine- 
 
 cur, a led multitudes of young men, many of tie m 
 
 ! - birth, to i titer the 
 however, seldom went further than taking the 
 
 inferior ord i0 . Hoi nd it became 
 
 nary to call all such aspirants abbi jocularly, 
 of st Hop,-. They formed a considerable 
 and influential class in society; and an 
 
 bed by a short black or violet-colour 1 
 
 liar style of wearing the hair, 
 
 found as friend or ghostly adviser in 
 
 every family of consequence. When a candidate 
 
 obtained an abbey, he was enjoined to take boly 
 
 orders; but many procured dispensatii 
 
 d to draw the revenues as secular 01 
 abbots. 
 
 ABBESS, the superior of a religious community of 
 women, corresponding in rank and authority to 
 an abbot (q.v.), except in not being allow 
 
 the spiritual functions of the priesthood — 
 such as preaching, confession, &c. 
 
 ABBEVILLE [Ahbatia VUla), in Franc-, next to 
 
 Ami. ns, the most considerable town in the di 
 ment of Somme, is situated on the river Somme ; pop. 
 1S,000. The town is well built, and i- ; 
 
 rable woollen manufactj B re a factory, 
 
 I in 1669, under the patronage of the mil 
 t, still employs above 500 hands. SeeScpp. 
 
 ABBEY. Sec Monastery. 
 
 AliliEY is used in a legal sense in Scotland, 
 i ' I ii ii-y or protection to a d 
 
 s afforded by the A. of Holyrood. 
 See Sah( h'aisy. 
 
 ABBOT (' father '). This name, originally given 
 to any aged monk, was afterwards more strictly 
 applied to the superior of a monastery or al 
 Since the 0th c, abbots have belonged to the 
 clerical orders, but at first they were not neces- 
 sarily priests. After the second Nicene Council 
 (787), abbots were empowered to consecrate monks 
 for the lower sacred orders; but they remained 
 in subordination under their diocesan bishops 
 until the 11th c. As abbeys became wealthy, 
 abbots increased in power and influence ; many 
 ed episcopal titles; and all were ranked as 
 9 of the church next to the bishops, and had 
 the right of voting in church-councils. Even
 
 ABBOT-ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 sea contended for the same honours and privi- 
 but without success. In the 8th and ttth 
 c., abbeys began to come into the hands of lay- 
 men, as rewards for military service. In the 10th 
 c, many of the chief abbeys in Christendom were 
 under lay-abbots I 
 
 while subordinate deans or priors had the spiritual 
 at The members of the royal h... 
 as their mainti 
 and the king kept the richest for himself, 
 Hugo Capet of Fi lay-abbot of 8t Denis, 
 
 near Paris. Sumetimes convents of nuns were 
 granted to men, and monasteries to women of 
 rank. These abuses were, in a great measure, 
 reformed during the 10th c. Aft motion 
 
 of the order of Benedictines, i i arose 
 
 that were dependent upon the mother-monastery 
 _ny and without abl presided over 
 
 by prion at j . Of the orders founded after 
 
 the 11th c, only some named the superi 
 their convents abbots; most, from humility or other 
 cause, used the titles of prior, major, guardian, 
 almost always remained under 
 tion of their diocesan bishop ; but the 
 abbots of independent or liberated abbeys aeknow- 
 
 d no lord bat the pope. In the middle : 
 so-called Insulated Abbots frequently enjoyed 
 copal titles, but only a few had dioceses. Before 
 
 eriod of secularisation in Germany, several of 
 the abbots in that country bad princely titles and 
 
 i land there were a considerall 
 ber of itiin ./ A boots who sat anil voted in the House 
 of Lords. The election of an abbot belongs, as a rule, 
 to the el. apt r or assembly of the monks, and is 
 afterwards confirmed by the pope or by the b 
 according as the monastery is independent « 
 episcopal jurisdiction. But from early times, the 
 
 m Italy has claimed the right of conferring 
 many abbacies, and the concordat of 1510 
 similar right to the king of France. Laymen who 
 possessed monasteries were styled Secular Abbots; 
 while their vicars, who discharged the duties, as 
 well as all abbots who belonged to the mo 
 
 In France, the 
 abuse of appointing secular abbots was carried to 
 a great extent previous to the time of the I 
 ti'Oi. | often monasteries them 
 
 chose .lid person as their secidar abbot, 
 
 with a view of ' commending ' or committing their 
 abbey to hi i ' ' -). In 
 
 coimtries which joined in the He-formation, the 
 possessions i ted by 
 
 the crown ; but in Hanover, Brunswick, and WUr- 
 ' ics and convents were 
 
 retained as educational establishments. In the 
 Greek Church, the superiors of convents are called 
 // ' -, and general abbots, 
 
 ABBOT, Georc.e, an English prelate under the 
 
 biefly remarkable for the position he held, 
 
 ae part he acted, as the opponent of the policy 
 
 of baud and a despotic court was the son of a 
 
 cloth-manufacturer in Guilford, and was born 1562. 
 
 I appointed chaplain 
 
 to the Karl of Dunbar (1608), with whom he went 
 
 to Scotland. This appointment was the I 
 
 A.'s subsequent promotion. For a short time 
 
 he held the see of Lichfield and < 'oventry, and in 
 
 1010 v. Archbishop of Canterbury. As a 
 
 1 and abb- man, bin 
 friend of tolcni! ined the esteem of all 
 
 ..nsities. .1 
 
 employed the advice of A. in the most important 
 affairs of state, and the prelate often opposed the 
 arbitrary principles of the king. A.'s intolerance 
 
 "f Arnunian d ..as an exception to his gene- 
 
 ral rule of conduct His independent and liberal 
 spirit incurred the displeasure .-: - I. A. 
 
 translation of the 
 1. His other literary prodn 
 are not important He .lied at Croydon, 1033, ami 
 a mom ,, rv ;„ hU native 
 
 town, Guilford. His brother, Bobkbt A., I;. 
 of Salisbury (b. 1560 - d. 1617), was a b 
 . and the author of i 
 
 Regia I Kill,', writl a to controvert the 
 doctrines of Bellarmine and Suarez, 
 
 ABBOT8FOED, tl. g ,, tt , u 
 
 situated on the south bank of the Tweed, a little 
 its confluence with the Gala, and about 
 three miles from the t ...re it 
 
 became, iu 1811, the ] . the 
 
 site of the house and grounds of A. form. .1 a small 
 farm known by the name of ( The 
 
 new name was the invention of the poet, who 
 loved! i meet himself with the days when 
 
 Melrose abbots passed over the fords oi I 
 On ilii; Bpot, a Bloping bank overhanging the river, 
 with the Selkirk Hills behind, he built at first a 
 small villa, now the western wing of the castle. 
 Afterwards, as his fortune i' .elded the 
 
 remaining portions of the building, ..n no uniform 
 plan, but with the desire of combining in it 
 • n actual remains) of 
 ancient works of Scottish architecture which he 
 rated. The result was that singularly 
 picturesque and irregular pile, which has been aptly 
 characterised as 'a romance in stone and lime.' 
 The present proprietor .•! A. is Mr II Scott, who 
 i the granddaughter of sir \V. Scott A 
 considerable addition has recently been made to the 
 building, 
 
 A IiBOTT, Charles. See Tenterden, Lord. 
 
 AliBOTT, Rev. Jacob, a native of Maine, 
 
 i u in 1S03, and graduated at Bowdoin College 
 in 1820. He is a remarkably voluminous writer, 
 and has acquired a large measure of popularity from 
 the simplicity and earnestness of his thought. He 
 has addressed himself principally to the young, 
 and it is perhaps not too much to say, that of 
 all works intended for the juvenile mind, his are 
 the best in the English language. So thoughtful an 
 instructor of youtn even as l'r Arnold, speaks in 
 high t- 1 in i of' The Way to do <o '. Nearly all his 
 books have been repeatedly republished iu En 
 and some have been translat. d into various European 
 and Asiatic languages. His most popular work is 
 /'/,. Young Christ I s this, he has written 
 
 The r 10 vols. ; Histories for tin 
 
 I P, l'.l vols. ; : 
 
 ; &c. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS are contrivances in writing 
 ing time and Bpace. They are of two I. 
 ag either iu the omission ..f some letters or 
 words, or in the substitution of some arbitrary sign. 
 u uncial or lapidary eliarac- 
 b rs were used, abbreviations by ..mission prw 
 such as we find in the inscriptions on monuments, 
 . &c In th.se. the initial letter is often put 
 mst.ad of the whole word, as M. for M 
 Films. It was after the small Greek and Roman 
 letters had been invented by transcribers for I 
 
 of abbreviation orchar- 
 ; 
 whole won' . Greek i cripts 
 
 abound wil I and ofti n only one thai 
 
 expressly studied Greek nalseographycan make them 
 out From the manuscripts, they pas-. 1 into the 
 early printed editions of Cr.rk books, and it is only 
 recently that they have quite disappeared. Anion ; 
 
 6
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 the Roman-. abbreviation were called 
 
 and professt I acribea who employed them 
 notani. To such an extent was the system ca 
 that L. Anux'iis Seneca collected and ( I 
 abbreviations. The same practice has prevailed in 
 all languages, but nowhere more than in the 
 Rabbinical writings. — The abbreviations used by the 
 ancient Romans were continued and increa led in the 
 middle ages. They occur in inscripti' ms. I 
 and legal documents ; and the practice continued in 
 these last long after the invention of print, 
 
 it unnecessary in books. An act of parliament 
 ■was passed in the reign of George II., forbidding the 
 use of abbreviations in legal documents. Ch. 
 these abbreviations, the deciphering of old writ- 
 ings requires special study an I training, and forms 
 a separate science called Diplomatic (q.v.), on which 
 numerous treatises have been written. T 
 .V l /.'"■ (0 vol 
 
 1750-65) contains, in the third volume, an exposi- 
 tion of Roman abbreviations. Other works on 
 the subject are — Gatterer's Abrisa der Di : 
 (2 vols., Gott 1798) ; Pcrtz's Schriftlajb n (4 Nos., 
 Hannov. 1S4C) ; and Kopp's Palecographica < 
 (4 vols., Manh. 1817-29). — In oribnary writing and 
 printing, few abbreviations are now employed. The 
 sign <fc, originally an abbreviation for the Lat. et, 
 'and,' is perhaps the oidy one of the arbitrary kind 
 still to be met with. It does not stand properly 
 for a icord, for it is used in different languages, but 
 for an idea, and is as much a symbol as +. The 
 abbreviations by using the initials of Latin words 
 that are still in use, are chiefly confined to titles, 
 dates, and a few phrases ; as, MA. [magith r <■■ 
 Master of Arts; A.D. (anno domini), in the year 
 of our Lord; e.g. (exempli gratid), for example. 
 Many are now formed from English words in 
 the same way ; as, F.G.S., fellow of the Geo- 
 logical Society; B.C., before Christ. — Most of the 
 sciences and arts have sets of signs of abbreviation, 
 or symbols, peculiar to themselves. These . 
 
 use both for brevity and clearness. See 
 Chemical Symbols, ftc. 
 
 The following is a list of the more important 
 Abbreviations in general use : 
 
 Abp., Archbishop. 
 
 AC. (Ante Christum), Before Christ. 
 
 AD. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. 
 AH. (Anno Hegira), In the year of the Hegira. 
 AM. (Ante Meridiem), Before noon ; (A. , 
 
 In the year of the world. 
 A.R.A, Associate of the Royal Academy (London). 
 A.R.S.A., Associate of the Royal Scottish A> 
 A.U.C. (.46 Urbe Condita), From the building of the 
 
 city — that is, Rome. 
 B.A or AB. (Arlium Baccalaurcue), Bachelor of 
 
 Arts. 
 Bart, or Bt., Baronet 
 B.C., Before Christ 
 B.C.L., Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 B.D., Bachelor of Divinity. 
 B.M., Bachelor of Medicine. 
 Bp., Bishop. 
 
 C. (Centum), A hundred ; chapter. 
 C.A., Chartered Accountant. 
 C.B., Companion of the Bath. 
 C.C., Cains College. 
 C.E., Civil Engineer. 
 Clk., Clerk. 
 C.M.G., Companion of the Order of St Mieln 
 
 St George. 
 Crim. Con., Criminal conversation. 
 Ct, Count, 
 cwt, Hundredweight. 
 D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Law. 
 G 
 
 D.D., Doctor of Divinit v ; / ' 
 
 D.G. (/ I. 
 
 >>,' said ), The said ; the same. 
 
 or Debtor. 
 D.V*. (Deo Volenti), God willing. 
 dwt, penny-weight 
 
 1 1 pie. 
 Etc. (Et altera), And the o on. 
 
 Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. 
 Fellow of the B 
 P.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defend I ith. 
 
 ., of the Geological Society. 
 F.L.S., Fellow of the Limuean Society. 
 
 Field-marshal 
 F.R.A.8., Fellow i 1 Astronomical, or of 
 
 the B 
 r.u.i UP., Fellow o 
 
 F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Sol 
 England. 
 
 . Fellow of the Royal Geographical Sot 
 K.K.s.. the Royal Soci ty. L., London; 
 
 E., Edinburgh. 
 F.R.S.S.A.. r. Hi. iv oi the Royal Scottish So 
 
 Arts. 
 
 . Fellow of the Society of Antiqi 
 
 l-'.s.A.Seut., Da of Scotland. 
 F.8.S., Fellow of the Stat al . iety. 
 F.Z.S., Fellow of the Zoo 
 G.C.B., (Knight) Grand Cross of the Bath. 
 G.C.H., (Knight) Grand Cross of B 
 G.C.M.G., (Knight) Grand Cross of .St Michael and 
 
 orge. 
 Gr., Greek ; Lat. Latin ; Ital., Italian ; &c. 
 H.E.I. C.S., Hon. East India Company's Service, 
 II. M.S., Jlis or Her Majesty's Service, or Ship. 
 H.K.H., His or Her 1: 
 lb. or fbid. (J ' the i une place. 
 
 I.l'.TH.U.S. (.*««), lesous Christos, Theoti lluioa, 
 
 Soter — Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour. 
 Id. (Idem), The same ; (Idua), The Ides. 
 i.e. (Id est), That is. 
 I.H.S.* Iesus Hominum Salvalor, Jesus the Saviour 
 
 of men ; In hdc (Cruce) Salus, In this (cross) 
 
 salvation. 
 Incog. (Incognito, Ital.), Unknown. 
 1. N.U.I. (Ietua Ncaaremu Hex Iudaorum), Jesus of 
 
 Nazareth, king of the 3 
 Inst (/, menee understood), Instant, of the 
 
 present (month) ; Institute. 
 I.P.D. (In Prtesenlid Doi Iu presence of the 
 
 Lords (of Session). 
 J.C. (Juris Oonsultut), Juris-consult 
 J.P., Justice of the Peace. 
 J.V. (or P.) D. (Juris Utrivsqw Doctor), Doctor 
 
 both of Civil and of Canon Law. 
 Kal. (KalendcB or Kalendis), The Kalends. 
 K.B., Knight of the Bath. 
 K.C.B.. uunander of the Bath. 
 
 K.C.H., Knight Commander of the Order of 
 
 over. 
 
 Commander of St Michael and St 
 
 George. 
 K.G., Knight of the Garter. 
 K.H., Knight of Hanover. 
 KM. Knight of Malta. 
 K.P., Knight of St Patrick. 
 K.T., Knight of the Thistle. 
 K. r. /., Km t« >.:m,u!ta (Kai ta leipomena), same as 
 
 ' Et cjetera,' 
 
 • This was originally IH2, the first three Greek letters of 
 the name Je6Us ; but its origin having hern lost Fight of, by 
 fubstituting S for 2, and then mistaking the (Jr. H [«aj for 
 Lat. II, a signification was subsequently found out km 
 letter. The symbol was still furttier altered by converting the 
 horizontal stroke, which was the usual sign of abbrcvintlun, 
 Into a cross, as it now generally appears, Irl S. 

 
 ABBREVIATIONS— ABD-EL-KADER. 
 
 Lb. (libra), Pound. 
 
 L.D., Lady Day. 
 
 LL.B. (Leyum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws (the 
 plural being denoted by tin; double L). 
 
 LL.D. j r of Laws. 
 
 I 8 . Licentiate of the Koyal College of Sur- 
 
 geons. 
 
 I ... Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. 
 
 L.8.D. (Libra, Solidi, Denarii), Pounds, shilling-!, 
 pence. 
 
 M. (Mille), A thousand. 
 
 M.A. or A.M. (Allium Mayister), Master of Arts. 
 
 Mass.. Massachusetts ; Vt, Vermont ; Pa., Pennsyl- 
 vania ; &c. See United States. 
 
 M.D. (Medi p. Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 M.P., M I arliainent 
 
 M.R.C.S., Her ! red the I loyal College of Surgeons. 
 
 Mil. I. A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 
 
 MS., Manuscript; MSB., .Manuscripts. 
 
 Mug. D. (Mwriaz Doctor), Doctor of Music. 
 
 M.W'.S . Member of the Wernerian Society. 
 
 N.B. (Nota bene), Mark well : observe. 
 
 Nem. con. (Nemine contradicente), or Nem. dis3. 
 (X* mine dissidenle), No one contradicting or dis- 
 ; unanimously. 
 
 N.P., Notary Public. 
 
 N.S., New Style, 
 
 O.S., Old Style. 
 
 Oxon. (Oxonienais), Of Oxford. 
 
 07., Ounce. 
 
 P., President ; professor ; &c. 
 
 P.C., Privy Councillor. 
 
 P.C.S., Principal Clerk of Session. 
 
 Per ann. (Per annum), By the year. 
 
 Per cent. (Per centum), By the hundred. 
 
 Ph.D. (Philosophic Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 P.M. (Post Meridiem), After noon. 
 
 I'.l'.. Parish priest. 
 
 pp.. Pages. 
 
 Pro tem. (Pro tempore), For the time. 
 
 Prox. (Proximo), in the next (month). 
 
 P.S. (Post geriptum), Postscript 
 
 Q., Query or Question. 
 
 Q.C., Queen's Counsel 
 
 Q.E.D. demonstrandum), Which was to be 
 
 demonstrated. 
 
 Q.E.I". [Quod tratfaciatdvm), Which was to be done. 
 
 Q.S. (Quan , Enough. 
 
 <]. v. (Quod ridi |, Which see. 
 
 . King or Queen. 
 
 B.A., Boyal Academician ; Royal Artillery. 
 
 U.K., Boyal Engineers. 
 
 R.M., Royal Mari 
 
 R.N.. Boyal Navy. 
 
 ELS V. Soy ! Scottish Academician. 
 
 S., South ; saint ; seconds. 
 Meet, same as viz. 
 
 N.I,.. Solicitor at Law. 
 
 S.M. (f>a Majesli), llis or Her Map -ty. 
 
 S.P.Q.B. (Si '• Romanus), the Roman 
 
 senate and people. 
 
 . tb ■ following ; Sqq., do. in the plural. 
 . Solicitor before the Sopreme Courts. 
 
 S.T.P. (Saruta Theoloyice Professor), Professor of 
 
 T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 Ult (Ultimo — mense understood), In the last 
 
 (month). 
 tJ.P., United Presbyterian. 
 U.S., United States ; United Service. 
 V.D.M. (Yuhi Ltd Minister), Preacher of the 
 
 Word. 
 
 Po wit ; namely. 
 W.s.. Writer to the Signet 
 
 ristian, 4c. 
 Vc, Y' ; Ilie, That. (This use of Y originated in the 
 
 Anglo-Saxon character fi,\ ■juivalentto 
 
 the modern th. In manuscripts, this ch... 
 
 itraU j into a form like a black letter y, 
 retained in these contractions after its 
 origin and real sound had been lost sight of.) 
 Besides the generally current abbreviations given 
 above, other short methods of statement are fre- 
 quently employed in particular circumstances. In 
 the present work, for instance, in which the saving 
 of space is of great mon. tie or head- 
 
 ing of a subject recurs in the body of the article, it 
 is generally — especially if a 
 sented by its initial 1 A. for . 
 
 Kader. Two dates thus (121 j — 1250j. following the 
 name of a king, a pope, &c., indicate briefly the 
 beginning and end of his reign or term oi oil 
 thus (b. 1215— d. 1250), the dates of his birth and 
 death. The meaning of these and similar contrac- 
 tions is in general sufficiently obvious from the 
 connection in which they stand. Si 
 
 ADD signifies in Arabic ' slave ' or ' servant,' aud 
 enters, along with the name of God, into the com- 
 position of many proper names; as, Al 4- Allah. 
 nt of God;' Abd-el-Kader, 'servant of the 
 mighty God ; ' Abd-ul-Latif, ' servant of the gracious 
 God,' &c. 
 
 ABD-EL-KADER, properly El-Hadji-Abd-el- 
 Kadcr- Ulid-Mahiddui, is the descendant of a 
 Marabout family of the race of Haschein, who trace 
 their pedigree to the califs of the lineage of Fatiina. 
 I a born at Ghetna, an educational institution of 
 
 the Marabouts, near Mascara, which belonged to 
 his family. His father, who died in 1834, being 
 esteemed a very holy man, had exercised 
 influence over his countrymen, which influence he 
 bequeathed to his son. In his eighth year, A. made 
 a pilgrimage to Mecca with his father; and in 1S27, 
 he visited Egypt, where, in Cairo and Alexandria, 
 he first came in contact with western civili 
 
 us enthusiasm and melancholy were the 
 most prominent features of his character. He 
 early shewed an uncommonly gifted mind, and at 
 the chief school of Fez he acquired such know- 
 ledge as composes Arabian science. A. was free 
 from the savage cruelty, as well as from the 
 sensuality, of the Arabs ; he maintained purity of 
 manners, and did not suffer himself to lje misled 
 by anger or passion. Although he firmly adhered 
 to the faith of his nation, and used their fanaticism 
 as one of his most important sources of influence, 
 yet he had no sympathy with the tana! 
 ance of the majority among them. His public 
 i at the time of the conquest of Algiers 
 by the French. No sooner was the power of the 
 Turks brok.' i trills of the 
 
 ice of Oran seized the opportunity to make 
 
 Ives independent Having got possession 
 
 . they elected A. as thi ;r emir, who 
 
 soon succeeded in a authority over 
 
 a number of the neighboui He now 
 
 attacked the French ; 
 
 fought on December 3, 1833, and January 6, 
 against General Desmichels, then commanding in 
 Oran, obliged the latter to enter into a treaty 
 with him. In the interior of the country, the 
 power I spread in an alarming way. In 
 
 consequence of vid • hiefs, 
 
 he became master of Miliaua and Medi a. All 
 the cities and trilies of the provinces of Oran and 
 Titcri ackn. . their sultan; till 
 
 distant I him ambassadors with presents. 
 
 It was .. '-'es broke out 1 I 
 
 him and the French. The commencement was 
 favourable to him, for the fir ■; us of 
 
 . tzel kd to that fatal retreat, during
 
 ABDICATION— ABDOMEN 1 . 
 
 which the French army was attacked at Makl i. 
 
 on June 2S. 1S.'!5, by the whole assniilj. i 
 
 nearly 20,000 cavalry, and Buffered 
 ul defeat. 
 
 ! t nggle of six year-;, A. found 
 I I'll (IS U) to take refuge in Marocco. 
 
 II. i h ncceeded in getting np a sort of crusade 
 against the enemies of Islam ; and the arms of 
 
 I , . i now turned against Marocco for the 
 
 count' i to A. An t the decisive battle 
 
 of tsly (l s l I) ti sultan was obliged to give up A.'s 
 . luit soon found that the latter v. as i 
 [ual in power, and that he could not even pre- 
 vent him from in irehii I. Hi 
 hi. both in October 1845, and in March 
 
 1847. Bui : of A was inc.-. In 
 
 the aightof the 11th I Ii 
 
 on the Moorish camp, in wl defeated, and 
 
 had to resolve on Bight, Se m i i ly have 
 secured his own safety, but he would not abandon 
 In ;.i bached follow era, men, v. omen, and cl 
 to the plunder and massacre of the Mara 
 After a heroic combat on the 21st December, lie 
 effected their retreal across the Muluia into the 
 I ory of Algerie, where they mostly surrcndi"! d 
 
 II" himself, with a few hoi 
 resolved to fight his way through to the aouth ; but 
 coming to the Pass of Eerbous, he found the 
 way closed, and was received with musketry. Dis- 
 ii, A. surrendered, on December 
 2'-', IS 17, to General Larnoriciere and the Due 
 d'Aumale, upon condition that he should be per- 
 mitted to withdraw cither to Egypt or to St Jean 
 d'Acrc. The French government, who at last saw 
 the man in their power who had given them so 
 much (rouble for fifteen years, refused to ratify this 
 A. was embarked with his family and 
 Bent to Toulon, whence he was removed, in January 
 7, lsis, to Fort Lamalgue, afterwards to Pau, and 
 
 finally to the Chateau d'Amboise. He was liberated 
 in 1852 by Louis Napoleon, and bad Brussa, in 
 Asia Minor, assigned as a residence. Since the 
 destruction of Brussa by an earthquake in 1855, he 
 has been permitted to reside in Constantinople. 
 The ex-emir has several children, both male and 
 female. See Delacroix, Sistoire Privieet Politique 
 ,r.\i.,i-,r-K,«i.r (] i ; Bautruche, Vied? Aid- 
 d-Kader (Paris, 1848). 
 
 ABDICATION is the act of giving up an office, 
 generally the office of ruler or sovereign. It is 
 rarely done out of pure preference of a private station, 
 but is generally the result of vexation and disappoint- 
 ment. It was perhaps voluntarily, and from being 
 wearied with dominion, that Diocletian, and along 
 with him Maximian, abdicated (305). Christina of 
 Sweden retired from the throne (1G54) out of prefer- 
 ence for the freedom of private life, but wished I ill 
 to exercise the rights of a sovereign. Charles V. laid 
 down the crown (155G) because his great schemes 
 had failed. Philip V. of Spain did so (1721) in a lit 
 of melancholy, but resumed it on the death of his 
 son. Amadeus of Savoy abdicated (1494) to become 
 a priest. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia, who abdi- 
 I in 17-'io, wished to recall the Btep, but was not 
 allowed. Louis Bonaparte resigned the crown of 
 Holland, because he woidd not consent to treat that 
 country as a province of France. Charles Kmanuel 
 • .I Sardinia retired from the throne in 1802, not 
 finding himself equal to the crisis; and the same 
 was the case with Victor Emanuel in 1S19. William 
 I. of the Netherlands resigned (1S40), as his policy 
 had become impossible from the turn of affairs in 
 Belgium. Foreign force compelled the abdication 
 of Augustus of Poland (1707), and later, that of 
 laus Leszczynski (1735) and of Poniatowski 
 (1705) ; as well as that of Charles IV. of Spain 
 
 (1,m is), and of Napoleon (1814 and 1S15). Insurrec- 
 tions have been the most frequent cause of forced 
 abdications. The early history of th" Scandinavian 
 kingdoms abounds in instances. In England the 
 compulsory abdication of Richard II. (1399) 
 early example. In the case of James II., it was 
 
 disputed whether the kins bad 'abdicated' or 
 
 ed.' Mure recent limes saw I Oar! V 
 
 (1830) and Louis-Philippe (1848) retin 
 storm of revolution, without the conditions they 
 made b led. The abdication of Ferdinand 
 
 of Austria (1848) was an indiri of the 
 
 of the Mar of revolutions; that of Charles 
 Albert of Sardinia (1849), of the battle of Novara. 
 Of sevei i i ■ i ■ cases anion; (Jen . -. tic 
 
 that of I.udwig of Bavaria (ISIS), 'lie 
 instance is that of Soulouque, Emperor of Haiti, who 
 has (Jan. 1850) rather been driven from his domi- 
 nions than abdicated 
 
 In some countries, the king can abdicati 
 be pleases ; but in England the constitutional relation 
 ii the crown and the nation being of the nature 
 of a contract, the king or queen, it is considered ean- 
 not abdicate without the consent of parliament. It 
 is, however, said that the king does abdicate, or. to 
 Bpeak perhaps more con i tly, an A. may be pre- 
 sumed, and acted on by the people, if Ins conduct 
 politically and overtly is inconsistent with, and sub- 
 of, the system of constitutional government, 
 of which the qualified monarchy of his office forms 
 part. 
 
 At the conference between the two Hon 
 Parliament previous to the passing of the statute 
 which settled the crown on William 1 1 1., it would 
 appear that the word 'abdicated' with 
 to King James II. was advisedly used instead of 
 'deserted' — the meaning, it is presumed ' 
 that King James had not only deserted his i 
 but that by his acts and deeds, of which the said 
 ion formed part, he had, in view of the con- 
 stitution, ceased to have right to the throne. From 
 this it may be inferred that A. was considered to 
 have a twofold political signification, involving 
 maladministration as well as desertion. The Scotch 
 Convention, however, more vigorously and dis- 
 tinctly resolved that King James ' had fore 
 [forfeited] the crown, and the throne was become 
 vacant.' 
 
 ABDO'MEN. The trunk of the human body is 
 divided by the diaphragm into two cavities — the 
 upper being the thorax or chest, and the under, the 
 abdomen or belly. Both the cavity and the viscera 
 
 10 
 U 
 
 Organs of the Abdomen. 
 
 1. Diaphragm. 2. Gall-bladder. 3. Pyloric end of Stomach. 
 4. Right Lobe of Liver. 5. Duodenum. C. Great end of 
 Stomach 7. Spleen. 8. Piece of Caul, or Omentum. 
 9. Pancreas (Sweetbread). 10. Small Intestine (Jejunum). 
 11. Great Intestine (Colon). 12. Small Intestine (Ilium).
 
 ABDOMEN— ABDUCTION. 
 
 it contains are included in the term A. It con- 
 tains the liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidnej 
 well at the stomach, small intestine, and the colon. 
 The lower bowel, the bladder, and internal organs 
 of generation lie in the lowest part of the cavity, 
 which is called the pelvis. The A. is lined by a 
 
 membrane, tie- peritoneum, which is folded 
 
 over the i ci i ', allowing them a certain freedom of 
 motion, but keeping them in their proper re] 
 
 to each other. The A. i< divided externally by 
 two horizontal lines into time principal region* ■ 
 the upper or epigastric, the middle or umbilical, 
 and the lower or hypogastric The.-r are . tin 
 subdivided by two vertical lines the side-divi 
 being called the hypochondriac, lumbar, and iliac 
 . . 1 1 pi ; u elj ; the names i pigaatric and 
 I plied i.i a i i ■! bo 
 
 middle divisions oi thi two t ppi r | rincipal 
 region i ; w bile the middle divi ion oi tie 1" 
 .-;■ 1 1. . 1 the region oi the pubis. Diseases oi tie 
 abdominal viscera are frequent, and chiefly consist 
 either of chronic disorders of the dig fcive organs, 
 or oi derangements of the nerve-plexu esand 
 there situated. These di orders announce th unserves 
 partly in bodily pain, and partly in mental affections, 
 such as hypochondria and hysterics. 
 
 AjBDOMBN, in Entomology, the last of the three 
 i the liodyof an insect is divided. 
 It is composed of a number of rings or e igments, 
 frequently nine, more or h-.s distmct from each 
 Other. It contains a portion of the intestines and 
 the sexual oralis. In the perfect insect, its 
 s, nt. bear no legs nor wings ; but the hind-legs 
 
 of larva or eati-q.ill.irs, which afterwards disappear, 
 
 are attached to them. In many insects, its last 
 mi ill i bear appendages of various uses and forms, 
 as pincers, stings, borers or ovipositors, &c. 
 
 ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, in the 
 I.inna-an arrangement, an order of Fishes including 
 all the Osseous Fishes of which the ventral tins are 
 placed upon and beneath the abdomen, and so 
 in hi.nl the pectoral fins. Subsequent natur li 
 have thought it right in classifying Fish to give a 
 I i In i place to other characters; and in the SJ Stem 
 of Cuvier, the name A. is given to an order 
 of much more limited extent, a subdivision of 
 
 the ifalacopterygii or Soft-rayed Osseous Fishes, 
 distinguished by having the ventral tins placed 
 beneath the abdomen and not attached to the bones 
 of the shoulder. It includes the Cyprinidw (Carp, 
 
 Minnow, &c), Exnciibn (Pike, ,'■,,-.), Sihu-i'la; Sel- 
 la (Trout, Salmon, &c), and Clupeida 
 (Herring, &c). 
 
 _ ABDUCTION, in the criminal law of England, 
 signifies the unlawful taking away of the person of 
 a female. Such is the usual limitation of the word ; 
 although, under the Jewish law, and subsequently 
 according to the principles oi the Civil law, the 
 A. or 'stealing' of the per on was applied to the 
 male m ... s.;v.eii as to women, coming more nearly 
 
 to wl understand by Kidnapping (q. v.). 
 
 In the Civil law, the offence was called / ' 
 or crimen plagii, under which name it still has 
 place in the Scotch criminal law, and, in practice, 
 is applied to the A. of children of either : , i 
 of women generally. Hie A. may be accomplish,,! 
 either by force ,>r 1,;, any fraudulent or sinister means; 
 and this latter quality seems more appropriate to the 
 strict meaning of the term, as ,1 rived from the Latin 
 v • 1 1 > abducere, to hid off, or induce, or persuade 
 away. 
 
 This subject will be best explained under the 
 heads to which we have already refc ml. 
 
 1. Abduction or Child.— It is provided by the 
 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 21, that if any person shall 
 
 maliciously, cither by force or fraud, lead or take 
 away, or decoy or entice away, or detain any child 
 uinl, r the age of ten years, with intent to deprive 
 ! rent or parents, or other person having hoe 
 lawful charge of si ■• ih- -possession of such 
 
 child, or with intent to steal any article on ii 
 or shall with any such intent as af- 
 
 or harbour such child, kno ime t > 
 
 have been so stolen or entio -1, . very such offi nder 
 
 shall be guilty of felony, and .-lull be bah!,- to be 
 transported for seven years, or imprisoned, « 
 without hard labour, for any term not more than 
 two years, and also, if a male, to be whipped, if the 
 ii ,11 so think fit. 
 'Ih,- Scotch law on this subject is more severe 
 than the English, and there also a distinction is 
 taken between stealing a child, at 
 The stealing a child is in that legal system a capital 
 crime. Sir Archibald Alison, in his work oi 
 Principles of the Criminal Lair ,/' N, ,,//,,,,,/ fp, -jsni, 
 says: 'This [sf aling a child] is obviou I 
 of the very greatest atrocity, from the unequalled 
 a -hi;, and distr « hich it m o arilj .. lict en the 
 unfortunate parents who are in this cruel manner 
 
 bereaved of their offspring From 
 
 earliest times, accordingly, this atrocious offi ncc has 
 been punished with death by the .Scotch law. No* 
 is it any defence that the child is taken av. 
 affi ction to its.-lr, or from any other motive, and hot 
 for the sake of lucre, taken in its ordinary sense, for 
 th.- detainer has at least that advantage and benefit 
 which he coveted in taking away the child ; and thi 
 is sufficient to constitute theft in the estimation of 
 the law.' The same principle is recognised by the 
 1 a ,-. - i England, which holds that as the offence 
 of A. is positively prohibited, th,- absence of a 
 Corrupt motive will n,,t be a I large. 
 
 i- on, in the same work (p. 630), Sir Archibald 
 lays it down that 'The wickedly ami felon, 
 enticing or inducing an infant child to leave its 
 parents or guardians without their knowled 
 consent is a crime at common law;' and in Bupport 
 of this he refers to a case where the prisoni r. who 
 was a teacher of elocution, and was desirous ' 
 a little child to recite poetry to his aud 
 applied to a girl, an infant of i 
 the Orphan Hospital I] ! on her, by pro- 
 
 of tine clothes, and making a lady of her, to 
 leave the bespital, and coin,- t , him, where she was 
 
 soon found after in his custody. This was done at 
 clandestine interviews with the child, and without 
 tin- knowledge or concurrence of her i 
 had placed her in the hospital. '11,,- flight of the 
 accused, who was out on bail, prevented any furthi r 
 lure in the ease, beyond his outlawry. 
 2. Abduction op Wife. — Blacl 
 Stephen loth lay down that tl. 
 may be either by fraud and persuasion or op.-n 
 violence; though the law supp rce and con- 
 
 straint in the former case as well as in tin- ; 
 the wife having no legal power t-> cor 
 remedy to the husband is :u action by which he 
 
 ' i ra int. the possession of his wife, but dan 
 for the A. of her; and by statute •'< Edw. I. 
 e. l.'i, tlie offend r b dl al o be impi - om l t* ■ ] 
 
 fined at the of th,- crown. Bo 
 
 eiown and the husband may tl, refore have this 
 action. The husband is also entitled to i 
 
 uch a : pen ui de and entice the 
 ■ live separate from him without a sufficient 
 
 But, although such appears i 
 law of England, it is too antiquated, and is quite 
 
 I t,, tie- pri n "i, dy 
 
 for the oil, nee, or rather injury in question, will 1 e 
 
 ppropriately found in the recent act 20 and 
 2] Vict c. So, to amend the law relating to divorce
 
 ABDUCTION-ABD-UK-RAHMAN. 
 
 ami matrimonial causes, and under wlii. h ill inn- 
 l ther annulled, with, in the case of 
 
 lull iy i.f tiir wife, tli>- punishment of the 
 adulterers; or the partus may bo 'judicially 
 Beparai 
 
 3. op Ward, or Pirn. — By the 
 England, a guardian was always, and 
 
 ■tion, if his wanl or pupil be taken 
 from him ; but the proper remedy now is by an 
 application to the Court of Chancery, which is the 
 supremi gu rdian of, and lias independent jurisdic- 
 tion over, all the infants in the kingdom, in Soot- 
 land, a Bimilar jurisdiction as to the charge and 
 
 ly of all Scotch pupils is 
 Court of Session. 
 
 4. Abduction os Heiress. — The law on this 
 subject is very distinct. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, it is 
 
 d that where any woman shall have in! 
 lit or future, in any real or | 
 shall be bob 
 
 I such interest, if any | ball, from 
 
 motives of lucre, take away or detain Buch woman 
 tst her will, with intent to m lie her, 
 
 or to cause her to be married or defiled by an;, 
 person; every sue] and every person coun- 
 
 selling, aiding, or abetting him, shall be guilty of 
 subject to Iran p i f or 1 oi Eor any 
 
 term not less than seven years, or to imprisonment, 
 with or without hard labour, for any term not 
 four years. 
 By section 'M of the 8amo statute, it is enacted 
 that if any person shall unlawfully take, or cause to 
 be taken, any unmarried girl under sixteen years 
 . out of the possession and against the will of 
 I ther, or mother, or other person havii 
 
 lawful charge of her; every such ofl 
 I lilty of a misdemeanour, subject to fine or 
 imprisonment, or both, as the court shall awa 
 
 It is an offence within the statute to take away 
 y of her putative father a natural 
 child under sixteen years of age. 
 
 the 10th Geo. IV. c. 34, the same law is 
 
 d to Ireland, with tie's difference in the case 
 
 resses, that while the ICnglish act applies to 
 
 'any woman,' the Irish act provides for the offence 
 
 iy unmarried girl under eighteen years of 
 
 The marriage of an heiress under sixteen years of 
 vhen obtained by means of force, may be set 
 on that ground. And the force may be actual 
 or Co: Thus, in law, fraud is hi 
 
 dent to force ; and ly where (G 
 
 | both the A. a triage were 
 
 in fact, they were held in law to be 
 forcible, the consent to both having been obi 
 by fraud. 
 
 5. Abduction ok Women generally. — The 
 A. and forcible or fraudulent marriage of women 
 and girls is a felony ; and by 5 and Vict. c. 3S, 
 s. 11, must be tried by o 
 
 Abduction of \ 
 of, Election, Parliajientaky. 
 
 ABD-UL-LiATIF, a celebrated Arabian writer of 
 multifarious acquirements, was born at 
 1161. During hi-i youth, he underwent an iimaziit' 
 amount of mental drudgery, in accordance with the 
 i n fashion of his time, in order to lit himself for 
 a scholar. d in his 
 
 committing to memory a large number of stai 
 works, suck as the Koran, the novels of Hariri, and 
 not a few grammatical treatises. To com]'! 
 culture in the various branches of Moham 
 lot , he betook himself to Damascus, where the 
 is Saladin had gathered round him the most 
 learned men of the time. Through the liberality of 
 10 
 
 the] FadheL, he 
 
 > proceed delivered 
 
 1 
 
 at St Ji :l me intimate with 
 
 Maimonidea, the great Jewish writer. He 
 
 rated him— if chienj to the study of me 
 
 i n | lated 
 
 into Latin by Professor \'\ I 
 
 >. lie 
 died ai II, on his way to Mecca, in 
 
 j i c of his age. 
 
 ABDUL- MED J ID-KHAN, the Grand 
 
 ... b of May 1822, and sui 
 father, Mahmud II., July 1, 1839. 'i 
 
 then in a vei ■ 'I he 
 
 Egj p- 
 of Nisili (June 29 
 
 on Constant 
 
 party . 
 
 party wished to lo I 
 
 Ali. i hakan (the ancient title of the Grand Suit 
 
 as the onl. 
 capable of uphol i 
 
 .ih within and without, 
 not been for the intervention o 
 the House of Osman was lost. Tl of July 
 
 1S40, from which France kept alfl 1 the 
 
 young Padishah from sure destruction. M 
 
 I) ; and the 
 treaty of July 1841, to which France subsequently 
 adhered, set 1 1 on of 
 
 Egypt to Turkey. The sul 
 energetic in body or mind, pi 
 
 reform begun by Selim 111. and 1 1. In 
 
 this he had for his e'.i i ha, an 
 
 intelligent and humane Mussulman, - 
 France. The aim 
 
 the Osman population on a footing with the ci 
 inhabitants of ] 
 
 of all' hi without n pect of creed. A sort 
 
 of proclamation of their rights was issued in the 
 hatti-sherif of November 1839. '1 his was foil I 
 by numerous reforms in all and in 
 
 1850, the professors of all 
 
 . I ii the of the law. That these decrees 
 
 remained, in a great measn 
 
 not attributable to the will of tl 
 
 chivalrous part acted by A. (1850) in n fusing, at the 
 
 risk of losin ne, to give up E 
 
 the otb 
 
 and Austria, will make b 
 
 annals of humanity. 
 
 The sovei ! long been in an 
 
 anomalous position. Ti 
 
 ! the divan ; and the sultan b 
 
 Russia ations 
 
 to it. A. was 1 
 tee ,,! man, and the I enty-eighth 
 the takin : of < lonstantinoj 
 
 mod Murad, was born September l'l'. I 
 but accordin apire, his hi 
 
 \xiz ib. Is.'iO), succeeded to the throni 
 his death in l8Cl. 
 
 ABD-UK r, the sultan of 
 
 Marocco, born 177s, was the rightful heir to the 
 throne when his father died, 1704; but was super- 
 
 I 23. His lirst four years. of rule were 
 
 1 in quelling insurrections. Next, some 
 
 to the state of Marocco was threatened by 
 
 isal of Austria to pay the tribute for safety 
 
 against pirates; but the sultan wisely adjusted the
 
 ABEL— ABENCERRAGES. 
 
 dispute l.y relmqmshing this sort of 'black-mail,' for- 
 o on European ships in the 
 i oub war and 
 
 ast the Pren sd the 
 
 sultan in its m i nenl ; b u by the 
 
 ibjeote 
 brink of «ar with mon 
 an .state. The sultan was a zealous M 
 
 man, without the wild fans i ion among 
 
 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 1 . 1 1 ; :i - a ruli r, he was strict, and 
 cruel. I! ded in 1869 by his eldest 
 
 son, Sidi-Mohammed (b. lsn.'i). 
 
 ABEL appears in the 1 k of Qeni is as the 
 
 get I Bon "i Adam, and a shi phi id. 1 [e was slain 
 
 | influence of 
 
 i the offering of the latter had been 
 
 1 by. I. hovah, and that of I 1 
 I ; 
 
 the sacrifice of Abel; 1 ■ iour, u) the 
 
 ks of 'right from which 
 
 ded that there dwelt in him as] 
 
 :. in tfa sea I ■' d, of which his 
 
 i, tute. The writer of tfa 
 
 the Hebrews opens his enumerati Ethe 'faithful' 
 
 lltli chapter of Hebrews, with these words: 
 'By faith Abel offered unto God, a more excellent 
 sacrifice than Cain.' Such, also, has bei D in ■ < 
 
 1 opinion of the Christian Church, which 
 ! I as a type of innocence and faith. 
 
 ABEL,* i-', a native of Ccethcn, 
 
 in G i many, born in 1719, was a distinguished musi- 
 cian. He was a pupil of Sebastian Bach, and ful- 
 some years a member of the i den band of 
 r of Saxony, king of Poland. In 1758, 
 ly forty years of age, he came to El 
 in a state of great destitution; but his taleni 
 quickly recognised, He was appointed cb 
 in. i i ■' i 1 1 queen of George III. His p 
 
 nt. tii" viola da gamba, a small violoncello, 
 
 with six strings, was never played by any one in 
 equal perfection. He also obtained considerable 
 p >n i anposer, though bis pieces are not 
 
 now held in very great estimation. He died in 17b7, 
 having shortened bis life by his intemperate 1 
 
 ABELABD, Petei:, a scholastic philosopher and 
 
 : ian, unquestionably the boldest thinker of 
 
 th e., was born in France, in 1079, at Paletz or 
 
 , not far from Nantes, a village which belonged 
 
 to his ad Lucie. An irrepn s- 
 
 sible thirst for knowledge, and a special 1 1 
 
 logic, moved him to resign his rights 
 of prim' in favour of his your 
 
 He left] in order to hear the pre- 
 
 i I of WiBiam of < . but soon incurred 
 
 tli" hatred of his master, whom 1 
 wonderful subtlety. He fled to Mclwn 
 
 L persecuted and a 
 he went i for I oration 
 
 H. With i" ngtb, he i I 
 
 to Paris, reconciled himself with his opponents, and 
 led, by his influence as a lecturer, some of the 
 most distinguish" 
 were the Eul ore Pope ' leli I ine 1 1. 
 
 bis future "Id of 
 
 B uvea in Paris, 1 1 
 
 the niece of the Canon Fulb. it, thi 
 
 irkable for her beauty, taunts, 
 and knowledge. She soon kindled in the b. 
 A., then thirty-eight yean < at and over- 
 
 ling 
 with no less fervour. By means of Full 
 I ie teacher and companion of Heloise, and the 
 
 ther until A.'s ardent | 
 effusions reached the ears of the canon, Ho sought 
 
 to separate the lovers; but it was too late. 
 Bed together to the country. loise bore a 
 
 i privately married to A., with the 
 
 i of her uncle. Not long ait 
 returned to Fulhert's house, and denied the mar- 
 
 that her love might be no hindcrance t 
 
 • d at this, and at 
 a second flight which with her 
 
 Fulbert, in order to make him canonically incapable 
 of ecclesiastical preferment, caused A. to be emascu- 
 lated, in deep humiliation. . v l monk the 
 abbey of St Denis, and indui : to take the 
 veil at Argenteuil But the lectures wh 
 
 cms (1121) d opinions on 
 
 ,iity to be fa i - 1 Den ] 
 
 built at Nogent-on-the-Seine a chape] and hen 
 
 Paraclete, which, by his 
 
 scholars to a monastic found,' i ii ; .] oint- 
 
 ment as abbot of St-Gildas-do i 
 overtoHelo aoodforadw 
 
 struggle against hi of the 
 
 monks ; till at last, in 1140,1 1 con- 
 
 demned by Pope Innocent 1 ' ' I 
 
 to be imprisoned. But Peter the \ 
 of Clugny, after A. had retracted his opinions on 
 the Trinity and Redemption, recoi to his 
 
 enemies. A. died with the reputation of a model of 
 
 ic propriety, on April 21, 1142, in the 
 of St Marcel, not far from I 
 Heloise had him interred at the Pal 
 day to lie by his side. She survived A. t v. 
 The ashes of both were taken to Peris in 180 
 in 1828 were buried in one sepulchre in Pere la i 
 — The doctrines advanced by A. in liis contr 
 
 t Bernhard, have a decided!} t tend- 
 
 ency; and he, and his pred rigena, may 
 
 be looked upon as the first avowed representatives 
 of that school. A. laid down the principle, that 
 nothing is to be believed but what has 
 
 xl; while the church held that we 
 
 must believe in order to understand ; and Bernhard 
 was for banishing inquiry altogether from the pro- 
 vince of religion. In judging of A.'s merit 
 are not to look so much to 1 to the 
 
 which his wonderful power of publi 
 
 him to exercise on bis aj •. His 
 ter, no less than his i 
 
 ly, it is chiefly t 
 of his love that hi 
 Xhe chief biography that fa 
 : it, under the title of A. (2 
 
 ling his life, character, v, i 
 The Latin writings and letters of A 
 i • were collected by Al 
 
 by Duchesne (Par. 1G1G). Some winks 
 
 Xun. a collection of di 
 
 | 
 (far. 183G), partly by RheinwaJd (Bed. 
 
 ABELE. v:. 
 
 ABELITi:s, a : ,l11 '.'■• 
 
 hiefly in ti ■■ 
 
 North Africa. Thi ir chii f d 
 marrying but abstaining from m 
 
 in i 
 held that Abel so lived, because tin 
 no children of his. 
 ABELMOSCHUS. See llir.i 
 ABENCERRAGES, a noble Moo 
 
 family of tlie Zegris, and t 
 
 in the royal palace of the All. 
 
 aada, in the time of Abu-Hassan lli'
 
 ABENDBERG -ABERDEEN. 
 
 t but one of the kings <'f Granada, famish the 
 Spanish work of f 
 Histoi ■ • ' • 
 
 From this Chateaubriand composed /• 
 
 the text of an opera of Cherubim's. Mie work, 
 however, seems to be destitute of historical founda- 
 tion; at least Conde is perfectly silent on the 
 subject in his Hittoric de lu.t 
 
 j,. i i EapaSia (3 vols., Madrid, 1829). 
 
 ABENDBERG, a liill in tJ i of B 
 
 rising abruptly out of the waters bun, on 
 
 mth side. It is in! resting asl 
 tution, established bj Dr GuggenbUhl, for the cure 
 of Cretins (q. v.), and supported by contributions 
 from far ana mar. Ihe sanguine ho] 
 to the good to be effect d by the healthiness of the 
 in, and the mo le oi treatment followed, 
 
 have been greatly di ip] ted, little alleviation 
 
 being ] I I still exists 
 
 as an asylum for these unfortunate beings. 
 
 ABEN-ESRA, properly Abraiam-Ben-Meir-Ben- 
 
 barn 1093 in Spain, died 110s in Rome, was one 
 
 of the most learned Jews of his timi --. Be under- 
 
 B «r, Arabic, and Aramaic langn 
 had considerable knowledge of mathematics, astro- 
 jcientific observer; and 
 
 fished himself as a sagacious thinker, 
 laving left his native land, he visited Lombardy, 
 pt, and England, and | 
 tin- later years of his life in Koine; ever;. 
 giving lectures on grammar, theology, astronomy, 
 
 I ad translating several wo 
 
 Hebrew and Arabic. His Comnu 
 1 are the most important of his works, 
 
 which include some, treatises on astrology, since 
 published in Latin. The scholastic writers m 
 Aben-Esra as Abbnabb or Avenabd. 
 
 ABER is a Celtic word which enters into the 
 
 ,iti"!i of several nami ol ; . chiefly in 
 Wales and Scotland. It indicates the mouth or 
 i mbouchure of a stream, either into the sea, or into 
 
 i- river as Aberbrothock, at the month of 
 the Brothock, in Forfarshire; Abergavenny, at the 
 jun ion of the Usk and G ivenny, in Wales. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, .MIL, in his own day 
 the most eminent of Scottish physicians, and still 
 worthy of remembrance for his professional and 
 moral excellence, was born in 1781, at 
 where his father was long a parish minister. He 
 
 I medicine in Edinburgh, taking liis degree in 
 1801, and thenceforth devoted him 
 of his profession in the ttd b i '. At a com- 
 
 i ively early age, he attained a high reputation ; 
 
 and after the death (in 1821) of tli lebi 
 
 1 cognised as the first consulting 
 
 physician in Seotlaml. His professional writings 
 contributed to his celebrity, which was still further 
 extended by the publication, in 1830 and 1833, of 
 
 t 771 Mora' 
 Feelings. These works have no preten i< 
 
 lity or depth of thought, bul d iquired, from 
 the high personal character of the author, a reputa- 
 tion during his life, which a few years have sufficed to 
 impair. Tin;, pos iss, however, the merit of being 
 more readable than many works cd I ae class, 
 
 and ■ led by a moral and feeling, 
 
 which, in the case of their pious and benevolent 
 author, was perfectly genuine. Dr A. died 
 suddenly, Nov. 14, 1S44. Among the honours 
 bestowed upon liim during his life were the 
 degree of Ml I. from Oxford, the rectorship of 
 
 hal College, the vice-presidency of the Royal 
 
 Society of Edinburgh, and the offii ! Physician in 
 
 Ordinary to Her Majesty for Scotland. 
 
 12 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sib Ralph, was horn at 
 
 1 i lT.'l. He was 
 
 1 by his father for I 
 l from 1782 to 1765 at the univer itics of 
 Edinbui b I I His natural inclination, 
 
 I to a military life ; and in 1758, he 
 went to Germany as a cornet in the 3d Di 
 Guards, in 17mi I ment in Ireland, 
 
 which was called tin- 103d, or King alri h. It v. 
 banded in lTs.'i ; and th 
 
 by Sir Ralph in the retirement i rylife, He 
 
 had married in 1 7 i 7 [n 1793, i 1 1 the 
 
 i York to Holland. I 
 that unfortni 
 
 i . : at in the winter of 1794 ■". won! ithe 
 love and admiration of th ■ whole army. On his n 
 
 i I maud 
 
 dition to the West Indies, which, 
 u ith landing the vexatiou i ob trui 
 he conducted with < I success, tal 
 
 Grenada, Demerara I St] E \ 
 
 and Trinidad. S 
 
 mander of the forces in Ireland ; bul 
 and in. ■■ i DSt the 1 "I ; ey of 
 
 government towards that country occasioned his 
 ! to a similar command in Scot] ad. In 
 17'.*'1, lie was appoi I 
 
 Duke of York in the expedition to Holland, still 
 more unhappy and than 
 
 the former. A. alone a quitted himself on all 
 is with entire credit. On his return, lie 
 was appointed to © 
 
 Mediterrani an. The fleet anchored in Aboukir Day 
 on the 2d of March. On the 7th, A. I 
 the shore in person. Before mid-day of the 8th, 
 were in possession of the sand- 
 hills that commanded the shore, bavii I 11 in 
 the face of a storm of shot that ploughed the 
 water around them. On the 13th, the enemy were 
 driven within the line of Alexandria, On the 
 morning of the 21st, Menou attempted to surprise 
 the Briti-h camp. He found them ready, under 
 !n the glorious action that ensued, the 
 British commander was Btruck by a musket-ball in 
 the thigh ; but not till the battle was won, and 
 the i nemj retri ing, did he shew any 
 sign of pain. He was a the Held in a 
 
 hammock, cheered by the tale ings of the soldiers 
 as he passed, and conveyed o M 
 
 ship. The ball could not be e\i 
 
 : and on the 28th he died, in the sixty- 
 eighth year of bis age. In the characf 'i A. 
 ombined the qua] uliarly 
 
 characteristic of a I li Boldier. He was at 
 
 once gentle and brave, cl ighted and cool in 
 ation, in a ag, even to 
 
 hardihood. Apart from his qualities as a soldier, 
 he was a man of libera] accoi 
 prejudices, and of sound practical judgment, 
 national gi ok the 
 
 form of a pi i his v. idow, afterwards 
 
 i in, with the title of Baron 
 unby. — His third on, 3 ! OMBT, 
 
 after being MP. for Edinburgh and Speaker of the 
 id House of Commons, was raised to the 
 British peerage in 1839, with the title Babon 
 He dii d in March 1858. 
 ABERDEEN, the principal city in the north of 
 Scotland, is situated in the S.E. angle of the 
 county of the same name-, at the month of the river 
 Dee, which forms its harbour. This city i I of high 
 ity, its privileges as a royal burgh bein 
 to have been conferred by William the Lion 
 as early as the- year 1179. In 1336, it was burned 
 I by the English ; the city erected on the old site 
 | was thenceforth locally designated New A. The
 
 ABERDEENSHIRE -ABERDEEN. 
 
 present town of Old A. included within the 
 ',inilarie3 of the city, is) situated 
 about a mile distant to the north. In 1494, EaBg'e 
 College and University was founded in <>M 
 A. Man chal College and University was i I ' 
 lished in the ni w town in 1593. In the 17th c., 
 A. had Income a place of considerable import- 
 ance, but it suffered severely from Ij'jUi parties 
 during the civil wars. It is now a rlourishii 
 of bade and manufactures ; and its handsome 
 granite architecture excites the admiration of all 
 
 i ■>. The harbour has been greatly ini] 
 The number of ve sela belonging to the port in 
 ! wag, Bailing-vessels, 231— tonnage, 56,8G7 ; 
 
 steamers, 14 — tonnage, 4070. The principal ezpi u 1 ! 
 arc, line cotton and woollen fabrics, granite, cattle, 
 grain, preserved meat, and fish. The granite quar- 
 I .-works afford occupation to a large 
 
 number of people. The manufacture of combs is a 
 branch of industry. There are also consider- 
 able ironworks, and ship-building is < \t 
 I on. The A. clippers are celeb ated 
 sailers. As a seat of learning, A. has always main- 
 tamed a high place. Connected with ii. 
 cally or a idemically, are the names of Barbour and 
 Boece ; Bishops FJphinstone, Dunbar, and Forbes ; 
 Arthur Johnston, James Gregory, Arbuthuot. 
 Beattie, Gerard, and Campbell. The average num- 
 ber of students annually attending both univer- 
 ia nearly COO. The burgh of A. is governed 
 by a provost, four bailies, and fourteen councillors. 
 Pop., in 1851, of municipal burgh, 53.S08 ; parlia- 
 71,973. [1871— par. burgh, 88,125.) 
 ABERDEENSHIRE, an extensive maritime 
 county in the E. of Scotland, bounded, N., by Banff 
 and the North Sea; S., by Kincardine, Forfar, and 
 Perth; W., by Inverness and Banff. Its a 
 length is about 90 miles; its greatest breadth 
 40; its extent of sea-coast about CO. It is 
 the fifth in size of the Scottish counties. Estimated 
 area, 1970 Bquare miles; pop. in ISol, 212,032. It 
 
 1 described under the five ancient dri 
 (proceeding from south-west to north-east) of Mar, 
 Strathbogie, Garioch, Formartin, and Buchan. The 
 south-western parts of the ci runty arc' entirely moun- 
 tainous, the principal range of the Grampians running 
 all mg the southern 1 lonndary, from which a lesser chain 
 branches to the north and north-east. The 1 
 
 are, Ben-Macdhui, 4390 feet; Caimtoul, 4095; 
 Cairngorm, 4000; Btn-na-Buird, 3940; andLoch-na- 
 gar, 3815. The predominant rock-formation is mica 
 slate ; and, in the mountain district of Braemar, 
 granite, which also underlies the whole ncighbour- 
 
 h I of the city of Aberdeen, yielding large supplies 
 
 of a valuable building-stone. The principal river is 
 tic I 1 mountains of the south-west, 
 
 and falling, alter an eastward course of 90 nule3, into 
 
 • rman Ocean. In its upper course arc 
 falls ; and on its banks, in the parish of Crathie, 
 amid will mountain scenery, is Her M 
 favourite residence, Balmoral. Next in size to the 
 Dee is the Don, rising in the west, and flowing into 
 r a comae of about 80 miles. 
 The Ythan rises in the north-west, and Hows, with 
 alight variation, south-eastward. Its pearl n 
 was once reckoned of some importance; the 
 mussel still inhabits its bed, but few pearls of any 
 value are found. The Deveron rises on the borders 
 of Aberdeen and Banff, and Hows to the north-east, 
 into the Moray Firth, at Banff, after a course of 
 about GO miles, chiefly within the boundaries of 
 Banffshire, but partly in A. The arable land 
 of the county lies chiefly in the districts b 
 the Don and Ythan, in the centre of the county, 
 and in its north-eastern angle. Breeding more 
 cattle than any other county in Scotland, A. 
 
 i ses about three times as much oats and turnip3 
 as any other. The est duce of the 
 
 former, in 1855, was 5,347,118 bushels; of the 
 latter, 1,232,007 tons, I 'in the 
 
 lower coast-lands ; in the upjx r districts, there is a 
 ■ i sandy loam. A.ii- 
 culture ha3 made great and in no | 
 
 the kingdom have natural di > of soil ami 
 
 climate l»ecn more successfully overcome. The prin- 
 cipal towns and villa_< t, Peterhead, 
 Iluntly, Fraserburgh, Kintore, ami Inverury. The 
 county returns one member to parliament ; the city, 
 one; and the burghs of Pet ! id, Kintore, ami 
 Inverury, in conjunction with Elgin, CuUen, and 
 Banff; one. P 51, 21 2,032 ; day-school - 
 with 30,271 pupils ; plaa - 7 (70 of the 
 Established, and 70 of the Free Church. Owing to 
 it Dick and Mill beq or parochial 
 schoolmasters, A. holds a high place in the st..' 
 ication. (Pop. 1871—244,607 
 ABERDEEN, GeOBGE Hamii.i. <:. G MX . E.U:L 
 as born at Edinburgh in 17M. II 
 educated at Harrow and at St John I 
 Cambridge, where he took his degree of MA. in 
 1804. Before this, on succeeding to the earldom in 
 1801, he made a torn- through Greece, the record 
 of which is preserved in Byron's well-known 
 line — 
 
 'The travelled thane, Athenian Arcrdecn.' 
 
 In his twenty-second year, he was elected one 
 of the sixteen Scottish representative peers, and 
 I public life as a Tory. In 1813, he 
 was appointed ambassador to the Austrian court, 
 and conducted the negotiations which terminated 
 in the alliance of that power with Britain. At 
 this time he formed that close friendship with 
 Prince Metternich which so decidedly influenced 
 Ilia subsequent policy as a statesman. On the 
 conclusion of the war, he \ to the 
 
 British peerage as Viscount Gordon. From this 
 time till the year 1S28, his lordship made no 1 
 nent appearance in public life. In that year he took 
 office in the new ministry formed under the I Hike of 
 -.ton. The general principle which guided his 
 policy, as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, was 
 that of non-interference in the internal affairs of 
 foreign states, which, joined t> bis well-known 
 thy with such state-men as Mette rn i c h, has 
 exposed nim — not always justly— to the 
 being inimical to the cause of popular liberty. His 
 gradual abandonment of high Tory principles was 
 evinced by his support of the bill for the repeal of 
 st and Corporation Acts and of the Roman 
 Catholic Emancipation Act From the fall of the 
 .ton ministry till tine Peel administration in 
 1S41. his lordship was out of office, with the • 
 tion of his brief administration of the Colonial I 
 in the Tory ministry of 1S34 5. In 1841, h 
 received the seals of the Foreign I Hi',, e. M. G 
 was at that time foreign minister in France, and 
 , . .. cordial alliance. The 
 
 lion of the < Ehinese War. the Ashburton 1 
 and the Oregon Treaty, were the princi] 
 
 1 to the country during his adminisi 
 of foreign affairs. His" act in 1843 for removing 
 doubts regar Unission of ministers to bi ae- 
 
 fice3 in Scotland, was too late to save the dis. 
 of the Church, and in working it does not seem t" have 
 
 i verysatisfai tory. Be had long been in ■ 
 of the repeal of the corn-laws, and from the time that 
 that question became the raUying-point of Uw P 1 
 party, he became identified with their policy. In 
 1S4C, hi with Sir Robert FeeL In l v 
 
 the r. Lord Derby, the extraordinary 
 
 state of parties necessitated a coalition, and 1
 
 \ BERDEVINE— ABDTODON. 
 
 was selected as the fittest mm to head ft 
 
 1 ich for some tiro s popu- 
 
 lar, 'i Hating p 
 
 ftc conduct of the war with I undi r- 
 
 niin.-.l it i stability, and the d 
 
 in I h I 
 
 : public I ii ■■■■ i ted with 
 
 , filled up tli" measure of the popular i 
 tent. ()» t! bruary 1855, I 
 
 offi :e. His lordship was author i I .1 
 
 ! in 1822, He died in I860. 
 
 ABERDEVINE, or £ 
 
 . ,. 
 
 it is placed by Guvier ami others in ft 
 
 ' It is rather smaller than the goldfinch, 
 
 nii.l less elongated in form. 
 
 and the throat are black, the nape, dusky green, and 
 
 t broad 
 eye. it is only a win in, and 
 
 its nest in 
 high trees. It is frequently ki 
 
 tamed; and lywith the canary. It 
 
 i- of the thistle, alder, bin!' 
 
 elm, and occasionally iloes great da aage to Hie hop 
 
 plant:' i rmany. In France it injures the 
 
 as of the apple-trees. The nest of the A 
 
 is rarely found. 
 
 ABERNETilY, John, a very eminent English 
 surgeon, was born in London in 17G4. His 
 father was the Rev. John ' hy, an Irish 
 
 Presbyterian clergyman, who acquired distinction 
 by his writings, and his bold adoption of Bishop 
 Hoadh " of private judgment ana 
 
 the subscription of Co A.'s early t' 
 
 1 him to the bar; but in 1780 he was 
 apprenticed to Mr (afterwards Sir P.licke, 
 
 1 nl St Bartholoni bal B 
 
 at the same time the lectures of John Hunter and 
 Sir W. Blizard. In 1787, A was elected assistant- 
 1 to St B s, an ollice which he 
 
 filled for twenty-eight years; at the end of which 
 time he was appointed surgeon, with a salary. 
 Soon after his election, he began to lecture in the 
 I 1 on anatomy and surgery, and maybe said 
 
 to have laid the toundatioi 1 iracter as a 
 
 school of surgery. At first, he ma ■ rtraor- 
 
 dinary diffidence, but his power soon developed 
 bis lectures at last attracted such or 
 
 that, in 17 ( J", it was found necessary to build a 
 hospital for his use. His clear, 
 simple, and positive style, illustrated by an inex- 
 haustili! . yari fcy of apt anecdotes, made him the 
 popular med sail r of his day. In 1S13, 
 
 he was appointed surgeon to Christ's Hospiti ! 
 in 1814, Professor of Anatomy and Surgery to the 
 I ons. His practii d with 
 
 bis celebrity, which ft c eccentricity and 
 
 oal rud .^ of his mann co itributed to 
 hstanding, however, the irritability 
 as which he so 
 who knew him best bear unanimous testimo 
 the generosity and kindliness of his character. He 
 married in 1800, and h d several children. Hi 
 at Enfield, in 1831. Of his works, the most oi I 
 
 and important is his <ns on the Go 
 
 tional < (if Load J< 
 
 bed in 1806, in which a simple principl 
 
 then httle attend 1 to, was made the foundation of 
 
 much important and ingenious observation. His 
 
 Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Surgery were 
 
 l in 183 '. 
 
 ABERRATION OF EIGHT is an apparent 
 
 ation in the place of a star, arising from the motion 
 
 of the earth in its orbit combined with the progres- 
 
 LSsage of light. When rain is falling perpen- 
 
 dicularly, a 1 
 
 r. !, w ill gO I 
 
 carried forward horizontally. 
 
 will stril 1 Defo it; and to 
 
 ■ 1 1 thai ion, we 
 
 must in line 1 be top of it forward in the 
 the motion. The amount of this ii will be 
 
 the gi-i pid tlie motion of the I 
 
 compared with that of the falling drops. If in 
 the time that a drop takes to , 
 
 fall through tie- height AB of • 
 
 the parallelogram in tin- 1 _JC C' 
 
 cut, the inclined tube BU is 
 lly over a space 
 equal to its b < '. a drop 
 
 entering the top of the tube will 
 descend without touching the 
 the 
 le position, B'( !', 
 and thi d m d; 
 
 ad 1 far 1 oth< r portion of 
 the time. This exactly illus- 
 trates the astronomical pheno- B 
 111.111.11 in question. The tube B' 
 
 is a telescope directed to receive the light of a 
 star; this tube, and the person look 
 it, arc moving along with the earth in its orbit, 
 and the light may be conceived as particles co 
 from the star like drops of rain, moving much 
 , no doubt, still time. That a 
 
 particle or ray of light from the star may pa a 
 through the tube, it mu t be direi traight 
 
 to the star, but at a slight angle in the direction of 
 i th's motion. Tims the plan where we see 
 i- is not its true place. As the earth's motion, 
 however, is slow compared with the velocity of 
 light, ft inclination is small n 
 
 lit -il". The result is, that, if we conceive the 
 true place of a star as a fixed point, the apparent 
 place of the star d about this true place, in 
 
 the course of a year, aii ' Uipse « hose greater axis is 
 about 40". The aberration of light was disco 
 by the English astronomer Bradley, in 17-7. while 
 seeking to determine the parallax of certain fixed 
 stars. 
 
 ABERY'STWITH, a seaport and munici] ' and 
 parliamentary borough, in Cardiganshire, 
 There are about 280 vessels belonging to thi 
 with a tonnage of 29,000. A. is much 
 for sea-bathing, and is well provided with I 
 
 hotels and lodging-houses, Pop. 5641 (1871- 
 
 ABEYANCE, a legal term importing that .1 free- 
 hold inheritance, dignity, or 
 
 anyone, but is in expectation, or suspended, until 
 the true owner appears, or the right then 
 detenniiii d. Titles of honour are : aid to 1, 1 
 A when it is uncertain who .shall enjoy them. V 
 parsonage remaining void is also . L to b in A 
 This A. or suspense, being repugnant to the general 
 1 'inn •■ of 1 I 
 
 1 it is un 
 iu the law of Scotland, where it is a mavim that 
 the fee of an inheritance, or the right of property, 
 cannot b in p ndente, but must be somi whi re, for 
 this, among other reasons, that creditors must know 
 with whom the right of property is. Titles of honour 
 and office stand on a chili rent footing in Scotland, 
 where, however, the gi m ral provisions of the law are 
 so comprehensive as almost to exclude a case of A. 
 
 ABIES. See Fir. 
 
 ABINGDON, a market town in Berkshire, 
 ■ 1. situated at the junction of the Ock and the 
 Thames. The name was originally Abbendon (town 
 of the Abbey). It sends a member to pari, 
 Pop. of parliamentary borough, 5954.
 
 ABJURATION— ABOLITIONISTS. 
 
 ABJURATION, Oath of. Formerly there were 
 tin-, oaths, called the Oaths of Allegiance, Supre- 
 
 ; ad Abjuration, required of all person 
 admission to any public ollice ; but now, by the 21 
 and 22 Vict. c. 48, one oath is substituted for the 
 three referred to, and is as follows : 
 
 'I, A. B., do swear, That I will be faithful, 
 and bear true allegiance to her Majesty Q 
 Victoria, and trill A fend her to the utmost of my 
 power against all conspiracies and attempts what- 
 ever which shall be made against her person, Crown, 
 or dignity, and I will do my utmost endeavour t.> 
 disclose and make known to her Majesty, her heirs 
 and successors, all treasons and traitorous con 
 cics which may bo formed against her or them ; and 
 I do faithfully |> maintain, support, and 
 
 defend to I b of my power, the succession 
 
 of the Crown, which succession, by an Act, intituled 
 An Act for the further limitation of the Oroum, and 
 hi ih,- securing th \d liberties of the Sub- 
 
 ads limited to the Princess Sophia, 
 Electi aover, end the heirs of her body, 
 
 being Protestants; hereby utterly renouncing and 
 abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto any 
 m claiming or pretending a right to the 
 ii of this realm; and I do declare, that no 
 i prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate, 
 hath or ought to have any jm-isdiction, power, 
 superiority, pre-eminence, or authority, ecclesias- 
 '. within this realm: And I make 
 this declaration upon the true faith of a Christian. 
 So help me God.' 
 
 The act provides for a form of affirmation by 
 Quakers and other persons permitted to decline 
 taking an oath. 
 
 By another act passed at the same time, the 21 and 
 22 Vict. c. 41), it is permitted to either house of 
 parliament to resolve that thenceforth any | 
 
 ing the Jewish religion, in taking the above 
 oath to entitle him to sit and vote in parliament, 
 may omit the words, ' And I make this declaration 
 
 i of a Christian ; ' but on the occa- 
 
 two members professing the Jewish rel ion 
 recently taking their scats in the House of Ci mi- 
 nions, according to a resolution by the House, 
 under the powers of this act, it was decided by the 
 r that such resolution could only remain in 
 during the continuance of the session when it 
 was adopted; and it would therefore appeal 
 
 solution must be renewed, and of course at 
 the pleasure and discretion of the House during 
 on of the parliament in which 
 any Jew or Jew.; may have 1 t to sit. An 
 
 re modification on this point! iposed. 
 
 The act further provides, that in all other 
 it for sitting in parliament, or in qualifying to 
 exercise the right of presentation to any ecc! 
 tical benefice in Scotland, whenever any Jew shall 
 i to take the above oath, he may omit 
 (ted. 
 t iken by Roman I 
 of till . and Abjura 
 
 ■I by the 10 Geo. i V. o. ~. 
 monly called the tan 'atholic Relief Act, and 
 is in the foil 
 
 ' I, A. B., and swear, That I 
 
 will be faithful and bear true allegiance I 
 
 n Victoria, and will defend In r to the 
 
 i of my i" 1 
 attempts whatever, whi dnst her 
 
 person, Crown, or dignity; and I will do my utmost 
 endeavour to disclose and make known to her 
 Majesty, her heirs and successors, all treasons and 
 traitorous conspiracies which may be formed against 
 her or them : Anil I do faithfully promise to main- 
 tain, support, and defend, to the utmost of my 
 
 power, the succession of the Crown, which succession, 
 by an Act, intituled An Act i 
 
 of the C'roum, and Letter securing tlr , liberties 
 
 of tin Subject, is and stands limited to the Princess 
 Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and tho heirs of her 
 body, being Protestants; hereby utterly renouncing 
 and abjuring any obedience or all to any 
 
 other person clan , ight to the 
 
 ( 'row ii of this realm : And I do further declare, That 
 it is not an article of my Faith, and that I do 
 renounce, reject, and abjure the opinion, that 
 
 nmunicated or deprived l>y the 1' 
 any other authority of the me, may lie 
 
 deposed or murdered by tl or by any 
 
 i : Ami I do declare, That I 
 believe that the Po le, or any other t i a 
 
 prince, prelate, person, state, or potentate, hath, or 
 to have, any temporal or i iiction, 
 
 . superiority, or pre i tly or 
 
 indirectly, within this realm. I . That I 
 
 will defend, to the utmost of my power, the 
 
 iperty within thi i 
 by the laws; and I do her- n, disavow, 
 
 ilemnly abjure any intention to subvert the 
 at church establishment, as settled by law 
 within this realm: And I do loli mnly swear, "• ' 
 never will exercise any privilege to which I 
 may become entitled, to disturb or weaken the 
 Protestant Religion or Protestant Government in 
 the United Kingdom: And I do solemnly, in the 
 presence of God, profess, testify, and declare, that I 
 laration, and every part thereof, in 
 the plain and ordinary 'he words of this 
 
 oath, without any evasion, i i, or mental 
 
 ■ration whatsoever. So 1.' 
 
 This oath itself, however, has been considered 
 objectionable, as covertly imputing disloyalty and 
 insincerity to the Roman Catholic body, and a Bill 
 has been introduced into parliament for the purpose 
 of modifying its terms still further. 
 ABLATIVE CASE. See Declension. 
 ABLUTION. See PrmrjiCATiON. 
 ABO (pronounced Ohn), the chief town of the 
 government of Alio, in Finland, now belonging to 
 sian Empire, is situal Aura- 
 
 jokki, near its embouchure in the ' Sulf of Bothnia ; 
 pop. 14,000. The town was founded by the S I 
 in 1157, and remained the capital of Finland until 
 L819. In the year 1827, a great part of the town, 
 including the university bufldings, was di itroyed by 
 
 msequently the univeri 
 to llelsingfors, now the capital. — The 
 Abo, c ; 17, 1743, between Sweden 
 
 and Russia, put an end to tile war comn 
 by Sweden, under French instigation, in 1741. 
 
 of the 
 whole of Finland through the misconduct of the 
 two ."' inhanpt and Bi 
 
 1, d. In this treaty, tl 
 lvymeiie was made the ' terri- 
 
 i Sweden and Russia . but by another , 
 led in 1809, the "h as far as 
 
 led to llussia. 
 ABOLITIONISTS, a term used to designate a 
 m the I .8., wl i di re the immediate and 
 solition of I i;v- , They 
 
 arc most numerous and powerful in the Northern 
 
 id thoughtful pel-sons Od 
 
 1 to possess, in a larger measure 
 
 than is generally suppi of the 
 
 and enlightened minds of the south. 
 
 . as well as by m my 
 
 who profess to dislike the institution, the A. are 
 accused of entertaining views so cxtrem
 
 ABORIGINES-ABRAHAM -MEN. 
 
 impracticable, as to l>e damaging to the cause which 
 the \ espou 
 
 ABORIGINES ( Lat.), properly the earliest 
 inhabitants of a country. The corresponding term 
 used by 1 I Us was Avb Che nam in 
 
 and Greek historians, however, apply tho name 
 t , , j. cial people, who, according to tradition, had 
 id seats in the mount. tins about E&eate, 
 now Etieti; but, being driven out by the Sabines, 
 descended into Latium, and in conjunction with a 
 tribe of Pelasgi, subdued or expelled thence the 
 SiciUi, and occupied the country. The A. thi 
 
 i as a distinct people, they and their allies the 
 
 6 having taken the name of Latini. The non- 
 
 I ' jic element of the Roman population is supposed 
 
 to repres at these A., who would thus belong to the 
 
 Oscans or Auson. 
 
 ABORTION, in Criminal Law. Neither in the law 
 of England nor of Scotland is it murder to Uill a child 
 in the mother's womb (although perhaps it would 
 be different where the mother herself dies in conse- 
 quence of the treatment). But the oil. nee in question 
 falls under the name A., which may be defined 
 as the crime of administering to a pregnant woman 
 any medicine, poison, or noxious drug, or of using 
 any surgical instrument or other means, with the 
 intent of procuring miscarria e. The English law on 
 the subject is now regulated by the 7 Will. IV.and 1 
 Vict. c. 85, s. G, which makes the offence felony, and 
 subjects offenders to transportation for life, or for 
 not less than fifteen years, or to be imprisoned for 
 any term not more than three years. In the law 
 of Scotland, the procuring of A. is an offence at 
 common law, punishable with 'an arbitrary pain,' 
 and that equally whether the desired effects be pro- 
 duced or not. As in England, transportation or 
 imprisonment, according to circumstances, is the 
 ihment usually awarded. See Si itle.ment. 
 
 ABOUKI'H, the ancient CanopUS, is now an 
 
 insignificant \ ill age on the coast of Egypt, about 13 
 miles north-east of Alexandria. The castle of 
 Aboukir stands on the west side of the bay of the 
 same name. This bay is celebrated on account of 
 Nelson's victory here gained over the French fleet, 
 August 1, 1798. The French fleet was stationed in 
 a curved line near a small island guarded by a 
 battery; but Nelson, with his usual intrepidity, 
 forced a passage with half of his fleet of fifteen 
 between the island and the French line of 
 battle, while the other half attacked the enemy in 
 front. The French admiral Be Brueys was killed 
 by a cannon-hall, and his flag-ship, V Orient, was 
 destroyed by lire. Only sixty or seventy men were 
 saved out of a crew of 1000. The French fleet 
 was completely defeated, and only two vessels 
 escaped. 
 
 ABOUSA'MBTTL, or irSAM HUB, a place on the 
 left bank of the Nile, in Nubia, lat. 22° 22', Hi 
 of two very remarkable rock-cut temples, perhaps 
 the oldest existing specimens of architecture in the 
 world. The larger temple contains fourteen apart- 
 ments, hewn out of the solid rock. The first and 
 largest of these is 57 feet long, and 52 broad, and is 
 r| id by two rows of massy square pillars (four 
 in each row), 30 feet high. To each of the pillars is 
 attached a standing colossus, reaching to the roof, 
 overlaid with a kind of stucco, and painted with 
 gaudy colours. In front of the temple are four 
 ores— -the largest pieces of Egyptian 
 sculpture yet discovered Reproductions of two 
 of these, on the scale of the original (05 feet in 
 height), form very striking objects in the Crystal 
 Palace at Sydenham, where also may be seen a fac- 
 simile, on a small scale, of the temple itself. These 
 figures are supposed to represent Rameses the Great 
 
 A B It A C A D A H It 
 
 ABRACADAB 
 
 A B B A O A A 
 
 A B I! A A D 
 
 A B K-A C A 
 
 A B R A C 
 
 A B R A 
 
 A B R 
 
 A B 
 
 A 
 
 (or Sesostris), whose achievements are described on 
 tu | tinted walls of the temple. 
 
 ABRACADABRA, a word said to be of 1' 
 origin, and to designate in that language Mithra, 
 the sun-god. It was, in fanner tunes, the most 
 venerated of tho '1 formulas that wen 
 constructed out of the letters of the alphabi t. and 
 was supposed to be highly efficacious for thi 
 
 fevers, and esp -dally quartan and semi-tertian agues. 
 
 is Sammonicus gives the following dire 
 for its use: Write the letters of the word K> as to 
 form a triangle, capable of being lead many ways, 
 on a square pit w paper. Fold the paper so as to 
 conceal the writing, and stitch it into the form of a 
 
 cross with white thread. . .„.„.„ 
 
 This amulet wear in the A B 
 bosom, suspended by a 
 linen ribbon for nite 
 Then go in dead silence, 
 before sunrise, to tho 
 banks of a stream that 
 ' e istward. take the 
 
 amulet from off the neck, 
 and lling it backwards 
 into the water. If you 
 open or read it, the charm 
 is destroyed. The adjoining is one of the principal 
 forms of arranging this mystic word, 
 
 ABRAHAM, the progenitor of the Earaelitish 
 nation, lie was a native of Chaldfiea, but migrated, 
 with his wife Sarah anil his nephew Lot, to Canaan, 
 where he lived a nomadic life, and worshipped the 
 one God, Jehovah, in the midst of the polytheistic 
 Canaanites. The details of the narrative, as 
 in the book of Genesis, arc familiar to every 
 one. A. died at the age of 175 (about 1S00 B.C.). 
 Of his two sons, Isaac was the ancestor of the 
 Israelites; and the Arabs claim to be descended 
 from Ishmael. whose mother was Hagar, a bond- 
 woman. Later tradition ascribed to A. a complete 
 knowledge of astronom\ and philosophy, the inven- 
 tion of alphabetic writing, the art of interpreting 
 dreams, &c. Even among Mohammedans, A. is 
 reckoned a prophet and the friend of God; and 
 they attribute to him the building of the sacred 
 Kaaba at Mecca. 
 
 ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLAK A, a very eccen- 
 tric but popular and useful German preacher, was 
 born 1G42, and died in Vienna 17i'0. His real name 
 was UlrICH Milium:, but he is generally know n 
 fay the name given to him in his monastery. 
 Uncouth puns, coarse expressions, and strange 
 freaks of humour, marked his sermons; but beneath 
 
 their fantastic shells they had _ 1 kernels. A. 
 
 was an honest, faithful, and devoted priest, as was 
 proved by his self-sacrificing conduct during the 
 plague in 1079. Though very severe in his reproof 
 of vice, he was highly esteemed. The singular style 
 of his writings is indicated by their very titles, e.g., 
 Oaek Gail:, i.e.. Walljarth M aria Stern in Texa; 
 Ileikames Qemuch-GemascJi (Wholesome II 
 podge). His collected works amount to twenty vols. 
 (1S35). A selection was published in 2 vols. (Vien. 
 184G). 
 
 ABRAHAM-MEN, a class of sturdy beggars who 
 simulated lunacy, and wandered about the country in 
 a disorderly manner ; at one time working on the 
 sympathy, and at another on the fears of women, 
 children, and domestics. They were common in 
 Shakspeare's time, and, it would seem, existed even 
 as late as the period of the civil wars. The term is 
 a cant one. ' An Abram cove,' as Decker, in his 
 English ViZUmies, calls one of these mendicants, 
 meant one who personated a ' Tom o' Bedlam.' He 
 would 'disguise himself in grotesque rags, with
 
 ABRAHAMITES— ABSCESS. 
 
 knotted hair, long ."tall', ami with many 
 
 bing contrivances to excite pity,' but he did 
 not hesitate to live by thieving too, and when 
 • 'I pilfering or in any species of depredation, 
 he pleaded the immunities 01 the real Bedlamite, 
 who was formally permitted to roam about the 
 eountrywh I from 'Bethlem Hospital.' 
 
 A verbal relio ol Una class is still pres erved iu the 
 slang phrase, ' to sham Abraham.' 
 
 A BBAHAMITES, or Bohemian deists. Under 
 this name, a number of residents in Bol 
 
 tmstin'.' in th lici of toll I 
 
 II. , avowed themselves (1782) as believers of the 
 
 to have be< a held by Al 
 before his circumcision. 
 c, a sect of the same name had arisen in 
 aud had denied the divinity of Christ But the 
 ian deists professed t.j be followers of John 
 JIu-;, though they held no Christian doctrine 
 
 .1. and a 
 nothing of the Bible save the Lord's Prayer. As 
 I join neithi r .Jewish nor Christian 
 ,i • them ; and 
 
 ; from their native Ian 
 .1 them in various parts of Hungary, 1 
 Bylvania, and Slavonia, where many were made 
 convei aurch, while 
 
 as martyrs to their simple en 
 ABRANTES, Dckk • U . - I not. 
 ABRA'XAS STONES are so called from having 
 the word abraxas or abnuaz engraved on them. 
 They are cut in various forms, and bear a variety 
 of capricious symbols, mostly composed of human 
 limbs, a fowl's head, and serpent's body. These 
 gems, whose value and significance have been 
 greatly exaggerated, arc common in collection 
 are represented as coming from Syria. Egypt, and 
 Spain. It is certain that the use of the name 
 abraxas was at first peculiar to the Gnostic 
 
 Basilidians (q. v.i ; and j the word, by 
 
 taking the numerical value of it; i rieek letters, may 
 signify the number 365, so t 
 have recourse to old Persian or Egyptian, 
 sometimes done. The Basilidians, however, did not 
 designate by this name the highest deity, but the 
 - of the world collectively. At a later period, 
 the doctrines and prad were carried 
 
 by the Prisccllianists to Spain, whence many of 
 stones are got. ' rmbolswere after- 
 
 wards adopted by all aects given to magic and 
 alchemy; and thus there is little doubt that the 
 r part of the abraxas-stones were made in the 
 middle ages as taliam 
 
 ABROGATION of laws is the repealing or recall- 
 ing of them — as where als a previous 
 
 1 rally, in England, all -• 
 how old, or how onsnited soever to the times, 
 remain in force until I cpressly r | 
 
 But in Scotland a statute ma; obsolete and 
 
 virtually repealed, so that it may not owing to 
 the lapse of time be founded on. See STATUTE. 
 
 A'liurs, a genus at rural order 
 
 Leguminoaas, sub-order PapiltimaatB, at which the 
 only known spec: . is ■ shrub, origin- 
 
 ally belonging to India, where it is chietly found in 
 ■ now ii"t uncommon in the West 
 Indies and "thcr tropii The roots possess 
 
 properties exactly similar to those of the common 
 liquorice. The seeds are nearly spherical. 
 as small peas, of a scarlet colour, with a blacl 
 and are familiar enough to le in Britain, 
 
 la, They are narcotic. 
 ABRU'ZZO, t 1 the kingdom 
 
 of Naples, lies between the - he Church on 
 
 the west, and the Adriatic on the east, and is divided 
 
 into three parts Abruzzo Ulteriore 1st and 'Jd, and 
 Abruzzo ' i, ho called in relation to the - 
 
 The whole district contains about 5000 
 square miles, and 800,000 inhabitants. Its chief 
 towns are I hieti, Teramo, Aquila, Sulmona. It 
 fonns the wildest and loftiest portion of the Apen- 
 nines. The streams are numerous, but the only 
 river of any consequence is the Pescara, which flows 
 into the Adriatic. The rent and jagged mountain- 
 groups arrange themselves in picturesque si. 
 reaching in 11 Gran Sasso d'ltalia, or 'the great 
 rock of Italy,' which i3 the hi chain, the 
 
 on of 10,000 feet. The highlands slope pre- 
 cipitously on all sides, but especially towards the 
 north-eastern shore. The climate of A is raw 
 in the higher regions ; snow rests on the lulls from 
 r to April, and on some of the peaks all the 
 >und ; but the valleys are extremely fertile, 
 i husbandry is in a wretched condition, 
 and the low open plains are left without the 
 n from inundations of the rivers 
 in spring, or means for irrigation in the arid 
 summer. Dense forests of oak and fir clothe the 
 sides of the mountains ; at the base, almond, wal- 
 nut, and other fruit-trees grow abundantly ■, 
 in the deep-lying valleys. Fine cattle pasture in 
 regions ; herds of swine roam through the 
 lofty pine-woods; and the remoter fast 
 the haunt of bears, wolves, and wild boars. The 
 chief importance of A is its military position .as a 
 
 defeni f the kingdom of Naples. There ai 
 
 roads into it, so that it is very difficult for an enemy 
 to reach Naples from the north. It is admirably 
 suited for the purposes of guerilla warfare. I 
 people have ceased to possess a reputation as banditti. 
 Hi i trace of the old spirit which made their ancestors, 
 the Marsi, Sabines, and Samnites, so terrible to the 
 Romans, and which in modern times manifested 
 itself in a love of petty plundering, is to be found. 
 They have become a race of rude and simple shep- 
 iondly attached to their mountain homes, 
 musical, superstitious, and hospitable ; but they are 
 and powerful, and during the French invasion 
 of Naples, in 1799, displayed a vigorous courage in 
 opposing the soldiers of the Revolution. 
 
 ABSALOM, the third son of David, king of 
 Israel, remarkable for his beauty, and for his 
 unnatural rebellion against his father. By popular 
 
 • rived to win the affections of the p 
 and then stirred up a formidable rebellion. The 
 adherents of the king having rallied round him, a 
 was fought in the forest of Kphraim, in wlu'ch 
 the rebels were defeated. En i. was 
 
 riding under a tree, his hair caught in the branches, 
 and he was left suspended ; in which position J 
 the commander of David's army, thru-t him through, 
 contrary to the ki - orders that he should 
 
 be spared. The griej of David for his loss was 
 i Si ' - Sam. c 18. 
 ABS \ r.i IM, .Vrchbishop of Lund. See Axel 
 A'BSCESS {Aposlema), a collection of purulent 
 matter formed by disease within some tissue or organ 
 of the body. The process by which an abscess is 
 formed is the following : First, the capillary vessels 
 become overcharged with blood, in consequence of 
 inflammation. From the blood thus made stagnant, 
 or flowing very feebly, a fluid ex h the 
 
 walls of the capillary vessels, and, containing a large 
 portion of albumen, becomes pus or purulent matter. 
 
 .tter.at tirst contained in the minute in* I 
 of the t di tally dissolves them, and so makes 
 
 for itself a larger cavity ; and frequently, by gradual 
 tion of the adjacent parts, works its way 
 either to the surface or to some natural cavity of the 
 body. Pus thus makes its appearance often in a
 
 ABSCISSA— ABSORPTION. 
 
 different part of the body from where it was f 
 It also occurs, that win n the purulent matter does 
 ii"t find any outlet eith Ij or artificial 
 
 ia gradually dried up or absorbed. In afc 
 
 icially seated— either in or close under the 
 Bkin — the early treatment consists chiefly in pro- 
 moting tin' formation of pus by tin' applical 
 \'. .inn bandages or poultices. Thi 
 step is the removal of the pus. When this is too 
 long delayed, serious distal of the organ, or 
 
 even poisoning of the blood, may ensue. An 
 must It- p [aided not as a distinct, cm 
 in itself, but as the result of another di- 
 
 on ; or as an effort of nature for the removal 
 of injurious matters from the system. 
 
 ABSCISSA. See Parabola. 
 
 ABSENTEE', a term applied, by way of reproach, 
 to capitalists who derive their income from one 
 country, and spend it in another. It ha 
 cially used in discussions on the social condition of 
 Ireland. As long as Ire! bs own parliament, a 
 
 great portion of the ! 
 
 ly in the country during summer, and passe 
 winters in Dublin; thus spend portion 
 
 of their incomes among their . or at least 
 
 among their countrymen. The Union changed the 
 I ; of the Irish nobility and gentry, who wi re 
 attracted to London as the political metropolis, or 
 were induced, by the disturl 
 
 to choose residences on the continent. Such Irish 
 landed ors were styled 'absentees;' and 
 
 it was argued that their conduct was the 
 source of Irish poverty, as it drained the resources 
 of the land, or, in other words, sent money out of 
 Ireland. One class of political economists — among 
 
 M'Culloch — maintain that, economically viewed, 
 1 has 110 injurious effect on the country 
 from which the absentee draws his revenue. An 
 Irish landlord living in France, it is argued, receives 
 his remittances of rent, not in bullion, but in bills of 
 exchange ; and bills of exchange represent, in the 
 end. the value of British commodities imported into 
 France. The remittance could not be made unless 
 
 I to the same amount were also drawn from 
 
 in. Thus, although the landlord may consume, 
 for the most part, French productions, he 
 indirectly, a demand lor as much of British | 
 
 ; and his income goes, in the end, to pay for 
 them. His residence abroad, then, does no harm to 
 
 idustry and resources of the country at 
 although it is admitted that it may be felt as an 
 evil in a particular locality. The truth of this 
 doctrine, however, in its full extent, is disputed. 
 
 ng other objections to it, it is argued, that 
 whatever may lie true of the amount 1 
 sumed, all the tradesmen and others who supply the 
 
 r-e's wants have their profits, and have thus 
 the means of aecuinulating; and that these accumu- 
 lations which are thus added to the national wealth 
 of a foreign country, woidd have b ! to the 
 
 fcb of his native country had he been li. 
 result of the contri 
 that absenteeism does, to some extent, act injuriously 
 
 le wealth of a country, though it is not true 
 that the whole revenues thus spent are so much 
 clear loss, there being several indirect compensa- 
 tions. — On the evil of absenteeism, in a moral point 
 of view, all are agreed; especially in a country in tho 
 comhtion of Ireland, where nearly the whole 
 is in the hands of extensive landed proprietors, with 
 almost no middle class. The possessors of land 
 have duties to perform which cannot be di 
 the very least of these obligations being that of 
 setting a good example in a neighbourhood, and one 
 not less important being that 01 giving personal aid 
 18 
 
 in effecting local improvements. It is a bad sign ot 
 cial condition of a country when its pro- 
 prietors systematically live abroad, or in great 
 away from their estates. The relations 
 1 and tenant then become more 
 and more cold and distant; while, to,, . 
 
 ents of the landlords have no good feeling 
 I 'lit strive only to raj 
 ! 'i- their principals, and tu 1 
 elves. But 1 ■ vils of such a s: 
 
 evident, it is not ei sound 
 
 remedy. Fo 
 
 n 
 
 is to make Ireland a more pleasant home for lauded 
 tors. 
 
 AT.SOLUTE stand osed (0 rdali S, and 
 
 1 ed iii itself, and 
 
 without refer her things. In physics, we 
 
 velocity of a body — i.' 
 ind ot the 1 
 velocity of two bodies— i.e., the rate at winch 
 om one anoth 
 
 of modern meta- 
 
 unconditioned, onalter- 
 
 1— that which is the ultimate cause 
 
 1 lie visible world. 
 
 ite, in politics, is applied to a ndcr whoso 
 
 authority is unrestricted by constitutional checks. 
 
 , ABSOLUTION, originally a term of Roman law, 
 
 In the primitive Christian Church, it- 
 was this : Members that had 
 
 and open sins, were excluded from the Lord's Bupp 
 or from the congregation altogether, anil could bo 
 readmitted only if they repented and underwent the 
 
 e laid upon them by the church, 
 had done bo, the presbyter, along with 
 pronounced the absolution in presence ■ 
 gregation — meaning, that the congregation forgave 
 the offence, on their part, and received the 
 again into their number. Down to the 3d c, tho 
 concurrence of the congregation continued 
 necessary to absolution. But by the 4th c, it had 
 become a right of bishops to absolve, and the 
 confession h lly turned into a private 
 
 confession before the priest, who now imposed tho 
 penance of himself, mollified or remitted it, and then 
 absolved. Absolution In i t, been extended 
 
 but open and gross sins; but when the 
 
 on of the hierarchy over men's minds had 
 .and the fourth Lateran Council 
 (1215) macular confession, at least onco 
 
 a year, obligatory, confession and its attendant 
 absolution were extended to all sins whatever ; and 
 the absolution was made to convey, not merely, as 
 before, forgiveness on the part of the church, but 
 forgiveness in the sight of God. The formula, 
 
 istus absolvit le, which was used till the l'2th 
 c., was changed into Ego afmolvo le; thus ascribing 
 to the priest the power to forgive sins in the sight 
 of God. This is still the received theory of i 
 lution in the Roman Catholic Chi ioncd 
 
 by the Council of Trent, and grounded on John xx. 
 21. — The 1'rotcstant churches ascribe to the absolu- 
 tion of the clergy only a declarative, and not an 
 v.- power; on the ground of repentance, it 
 announces and assures forgiveness on the part of 
 God, but does not impart it. See PENANCE. 
 ABSORBENTS. See Lacteals and Lvmiija- 
 
 ABSORPTION (in Botany).— It is believed 
 
 that plants absorb carbonic acid gas, and 
 to some extent fluids, by their leaves and other 
 aerial organs ; and it is supposed that this absorption 
 takes place principally through the stomala of tho
 
 ABSTINENCE-ABUTMENT. 
 
 leaves (see Leaves), and both ljy the upper and 
 under surface of the leaf, in some plants by both 
 surfaces indifferently, in others much more power- 
 fully by the one surface or the other. But plants 
 principally depend upon their roots for nourishment, 
 and it is at the extremities of their fibrils that 
 absorption takes place most rapidly, according to a 
 peculiar process to which has been given the name 
 of Endosmose (q. v.). 
 
 ABSTINENCE. See Faxtim:. 
 
 ABSTINENCE SOCIETIES, associations for 
 
 rnmotion of abstinence from all kinds of alco- 
 olic liquors, and the members of which usually 
 
 i' the designation of abstainers or teetotalers — 
 
 last phrase inferring an utter and imcompro- 
 
 i " abstinence; or at least that the only 
 tion snail be for sacramental and medical purposes. 
 Abstainers usually take a pledge or vow to thai 
 
 round of their abstinence from alee! 
 being that they are injurious to, or at least ij 
 promotive of, health, and that from the great 
 evils of intemperance it is important to set an example 
 
 ' ire abstinence. A. S. exist in great numbers in 
 
 i America and the United Kinudom. In the 
 growth of this remarkable social movement, 
 A. S. were called Temperance Societies, aid 
 tliat head the subject will lie treated in its various 
 
 i of development. 
 
 ABSTRACTION is that intellectual process by 
 
 the mind withdraws (abstraJto) some of the 
 
 attributes of objects from the others, and tliinks of 
 
 them to the exclusion of the rest. The abstract is 
 
 ed to the concrete. John, William, my brother, 
 form concrete images iu my mind, each with a mul- 
 titude of attributes peculiar to hiniself. But they 
 have also certain attributes common to them and to 
 all individuals of the race ; I can overlook the others, 
 and attend to these, and thus form a notion or con- 
 eption, which is called a man. Man is, therefore, 
 an abstract notion, the word connoting, as it is 
 called, a certain though not very well-defined num- 
 ber of attributes. With the exception of proper 
 names, all nouns are tlms abstract. There are 
 
 ies, however, in abstraction. The abstract 
 notion animal rises above that of man, embracing 
 all men and innumerable organised beings besides. 
 An organised bang, again, is a still higher stage, and 
 embraces both animals and plants. Being, time, 
 space, are among the highest abstractions. The 
 higher abstractions rise, the fewer attributes are 
 implied or connoted in the name; hence the pro- 
 priety of the phrase, empty abstractions. On the 
 other hand, the number of objects to which the 
 name is applicable, increases; and thus reasoning 
 tract terms has the ail. > ing general, 
 
 .ir extensive in its application. But such reasoning 
 is apt to Income vague and fallacious, unless constant 
 regard is had to concrete instances. Abstract 
 
 lage is best adapted for scientific exposition; 
 
 ete, for graphic and poetical effect — Abstract 
 in Arith. is applied to numbers considered in them- 
 selves, and without reference to any objects nuni- 
 bered ; thus 7. 20, are abstract numbers ; but 7 feet, 
 
 ■rses are concrete numtx.'rs. 
 
 AI'.SURDUM, Reductio ai>, the metli 
 proving a truth by shewing that to suppo 
 proposition untrue would lead to a contradiction or 
 rdity. 
 
 ABSYNTHIUM. See Wormwood. 
 
 ABUorBU (Arab, fur 'father') is prefixed to many 
 Arabic proper names, as the equivalent syllabi 
 
 fixed to Hebrew Hallux : ex., Alui-hckr, ' I 
 
 of the virgin 1 (Aysha). But Abu, like Ab, often 
 signifies merely possessor ; as in Abulfeda (possessor 
 
 of fidelity), 'the Trusty;' Abner, 'the Brilliant'— 
 literally, ' father or possessor of light.' 
 
 ABU-BEKR ('Father of the virgin' Aysha, the 
 wife of Mohammed), was a man of great influence in 
 the Koreish tribe ; and in G32, when Mohammed 
 died, was made the first calif or successor of the 
 Prophet. After defeating his enemies in Arabia, 
 ainl warring successfully against Babylonia, Syria, 
 and the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, Abubckr died 
 63S a. u., aged 63, and was buried at Medina, near 
 the remains of Mohammed and his wife A •■ 
 
 ABULFARA'J (Lat. Ab\ called also 
 
 Barhebreeus— i. e., Son of the Hebrew, . 
 birth a Jew, though afterwards a Christian — was 
 at Malatia, in Armenia, 122G, and became so 
 distinguished for his knowledge of the Syriac, 
 Arabic, and Greek Ian . | of philosophy, 
 
 v, and medicine, that he was called the 
 phoenix of the age. At the age of twenty, he was 
 
 lishop of Gida, and afterwards of A! 
 and rose to the rank of Maphrian. the i 
 dignity among the Jacobite Christians next to 
 Patriarch. Of his numerous Syriac and Arabic 
 writings, most of which yet lie buried in the library 
 of the Vatican, the best known is a Chronicle, in 
 Syriac, of universal history from Adam down to his 
 own time. Only the first part has been published, 
 by Brans and Kirsch (Leipz. 17S9). A. himself 
 
 d this work in Arabic, under the title of 
 History of the Dynasties (edited by 1' < 
 and Lat., Oxf. 16G3). Among bis writings of a 
 theological kind may be mentioned his ' 
 of Mysteries, being a Commentary on the Syriac 
 Version of the Bible. 
 
 AEU'LFEDA, a Moslem prince, known as a 
 writer of history, was born 1273 A.D., at Damascus; 
 and during his youth, distinguished himself iu 
 ral campaigns against the Christian kingdom fo 
 by the Crusaders. From 1310 to the time of his 
 death, he ruled over the principality of Hamat, in 
 Syria, was a true ally of the sidtan, \isited Egypt 
 and Arabia, patronised literature and science, and 
 died in 1331. lie left several important works in 
 Arabic, among which are his Anna's, the earlier 
 portion of which has been edited by Fleischer, under 
 the title of Historia Anteislamiea (Leip. 1831), and 
 the rest by Rciske, in his Annates 
 
 ih. 17S9-94). This work was in great part 
 compiled by A. from earlier Arabic authors, and is 
 a valuable source of history, especially of the Arabic 
 
 ■ . He also wrote a Geography, from which 
 
 extracts are given in Kohler's Tabula Syria', 
 
 Michaclis's Descriptio Egypti, and Rommel's Arabia: 
 
 i lie whole work has been edited, with 
 
 1 and De ! 
 
 the title Geoyraphie tV AbuljXda (Paris, 1848). 
 
 ABUSHE'HR(variously written Bushehr, I'mshire, 
 in Pers. Benderahehr) is the name of a seaport on 
 t of the Persian Gidf. It is situated at 
 tremity of a peninsula. The district is liable 
 to be devi si ited by earthquakes, iwarms of locusts, 
 and the simoom, and is deficient iu water; but tho 
 situation, so favourable for commerce, has rais. 
 town to importance, so that it numbers about 1 
 inhabitants. It is the emporium of the Indian 
 trade with Persia ; and the East India government 
 has a factoiy here. The exports are horses, fruits, 
 shawls, pearls, silk, rose-water, asafcetida, &c. ; 
 imports, sugar, indigo, iron, cotton goods, &c. 
 
 ABUTMENT, in Arch., is the part of a pier 
 
 or wall from which an arch springs, and which 
 
 the outward thrust. The term impost is 
 
 use I win ii the arch is a semicircle, so that the 
 
 pressure is vertical. In reference to a bridge, tho 
 
 19
 
 ABYDOS— Al.YSSINIA. 
 
 abutrc Ua adjoining the land, which 
 
 support the end of the roadway, or the extra 
 
 ABY1 HIS, a town in Asia Minor, situated at the 
 narrowest p I ! 
 
 It is celebrated as Que place whence Xerxes and 
 his vast army passed into Europe in 480 B.O. : 
 also as the scene of the stun of Hero (q i 
 Leander. En the latex times of antiquity, the ■ 
 of A. were reproached for their effeminate and 
 di lolute manners.— There was another Abyi 
 Upper Egypt (Thebais), on the left l«nk of the Nile, 
 and "i\ the main rout.- of i with Libya. 
 
 Even in the time of Stratlo, this town was in rains. 
 Sere the remains of the Memnonium and of a 
 temple of Osiris are still remarkable. Jn the former, 
 \V. .1. Bankes, in 1818, discovered the celebrated 
 
 Tablet of A., bearing, in h lyph . a 
 
 |i j oi the • Meenth dynasty ofthe Pharaohs. Jt 
 is now in Paris, and copies have been published. 
 
 ABYSSI'M A. 
 large tract of highlands in the i ast of Africa. From 
 the Bed Sea on thenort i in a succes- 
 
 berra towards thi 
 the highlands and the Red Sea lies a flat tract o ill< d 
 narrow at the north (in lat. 15° M), and 
 widening to the south. The plains of Nubia and 
 Eordofan form the boundarii a on the north and 
 west, while the southern limits are not well known. 
 The country consists of high table-lands, intei 
 by deep ravines formed l>y tin; rivers, ami 
 tone terraces. Numerous mountain-i 
 
 mostly of volcani igin, rise above the tab! I 
 
 {he 1 he mountains of Samen or Samien, 
 
 rising to about 15,000 I ovi the Bea level. Some 
 
 of the plains have an elevation of from 7 to 10,000 
 feet A. gives birth to numerous rivers, the largest 
 of which are the \!>ai or Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek or 
 Blue Kiver), and the Takkazie, an affluent of the 
 Nile. In the south is the Hawash — from which 
 the country takes its name which flows eastward 
 into the salt-lake of Assal in Ada! The largest 
 lake is that of Tzana or Dembea, through which the 
 Abai or Blue Nile flows. The climate in the elevated 
 tracts of Abyssinia is temperate and salubrious; in 
 the low tracts along the coast, and in the north and 
 north-west, the heat is excessive, and the climate 
 noxious. On the whole. A. is a country of great 
 fertility; but, like the climate, the productions of 
 the soil vary greatly with the different degrees of 
 elevation. Wheat and barley are cultivated, also 
 
 maize, the grains called Toff (Poo Abysrinica) and 
 Tocussoi/.v Ti into), various leguminousplants, 
 
 cotton, coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco, &c. The coffee- 
 plant grows wild. Among carnivorous animal-, the 
 lion, leopard, hyena, v jackal, are found. 
 
 There are also elephants, buffaloes, rhinoceroses, 
 zebras, &c 
 
 The people of A. belong mostly to the Shemitic 
 race, and resemble the Arabs both in physical 
 characteristics and structure of language. See 
 Ethiopia. The ethnology of the country is vari- 
 ously given by different authorities. According 
 : ' RUppell, there are throe principal races. The 
 aboriginal Abyssinians, inhabiting the greater part 
 of Amhara, and numerous also in Tlgre, are of 
 middle size, with oval faces, lips not thicker 
 than those of Europeans, pointed noses, and 
 straight or slightly curled hair. In this i 
 inclul the lalashas, or Jews, the Gamant, and 
 the Agows. A second race, abounding most in 
 the north of Tigre, have thick lips, noses blunt and 
 somewhat carved, and thick hair, verging on woolli- 
 ness. The third are the Gallas, inhabiting the south 
 of Shoa and the regions west of Lake Dembea and 
 20 
 
 the Abai; a large-bodied race, round-faced, short- 
 « ith a depression between the nose and brow, 
 I lively eyes, and thickish lips. The colour 
 of tin-so races is brown of variou hades. The only 
 . roes in A. arc slaves from the country of the 
 ■ 'i in ' i to thi 
 
 The "Mi' t accounts of tin- Abj siuiati I alv full of 
 
 fables, but see oi n i Hi. ii nt to prove thai they attained 
 
 s tegree of civilisation even in remote antiquity. 
 
 ianity was introduced about the mid 
 the ftb c, and s i prevailed extensively. Ixum 
 
 was at that time the capital. Two centuries 
 
 the Abyssinians were powerful enough to 
 
 \rabia, and conquer a pari of Yemen. In 
 
 the subsequent struggles against the invading 
 
 Mi. [em, the i I and the country 
 
 1 were lost. In the 10th e., :i Jewish pi 
 
 irew the reigning dynasty, the surviving 
 
 itative of | I i to Shoa. After three 
 
 centuries of confusion, the em]. ire was restored 
 
 [con Alulae, and some progress was I 
 
 in improvement Early in the 1 5th c the Abys- 
 
 enti fed UltO close I'.bilioUS V. itll tlie 
 
 . e, ';, tance the empire was 
 
 saved, in 1540, from falling into the hands . 
 
 r Granie, sultan of Ada! The southern pro- 
 vinces, however, were lost, ami il -.it of empire 
 
 n ved from shoa to Gondar. Under the 
 
 influence of the Portug royal 
 
 family adopted the B an Catholic faith; and the 
 
 old I optic Church was formally united to the see of 
 
 The | pi.- and eccl . 
 
 1 the innovation; the emperor gave way; 
 and ultimately, in 1632, the Romish prie ts were 
 expelled or put to death. In consequence of the 
 commotions thus excited, the monarchical power 
 declined, while that of the governors of provi 
 greatly increased, and, indeed, became almost 
 lute. The governor [Bos) of Gondar now nomirj 
 the emperor [Negus). The political divisions of the 
 
 country aie subject to continual alteration. Iff the 
 
 existing states, the following are tin- most import- 
 ant: — 1. The kingdom of Vtgri, extending between 
 the river Takkazie or Bahr-el-Aswad [Black Kiver), 
 
 and the m lins i Samen on one. side, and the 
 
 district of Samhara on the other. Its chief towns 
 are Antalo and Adowa. 2. The kingdom of Qondar 
 or Amhara, extending on the west of the b i 
 
 and tlie Samen Mountains. i: • . 
 
 situated in the north-east of the plain of Demi 
 Gondar, at an elevation of 7420 bet. .'i. The 
 doni of Shoa [including Efal), lying south of Amhara, 
 and separated from the Galla tribes by the Hawash. 
 This is, by all accounts, the b. 1 and most 
 
 powerful state ii og in A. The capital, 
 
 Ankobar, at an elevation of 8108 feet, contains 
 from 8000 to 10,000 inhabitants, and enjoys a 
 delightful climate. The Gallas, a savage but enter- 
 prising race, effected a settlement in the south of 
 A. in the loth c. They inhabit the whole of the 
 eastern part of tropical Africa. Several of their 
 tribes have been modified in character and en 
 by conversion to Mohammedanism, and have 
 founded kingdoms— such as Enarea, one of the 
 highest mountain countries of Africa, and rich in 
 .; Kit-//", on the river (loshob, where the 
 slave-trade is actively carried on by the Po 
 and several smaller independent states of which little 
 is known. 
 
 In consequence of invasions and civil warfare, 
 the present social and political condition of A. 
 is very unfavourable. Tlie kingdom of Shoa is in 
 better circumstances than the other states. Though 
 Christianity is .still the professed religion of the 
 majority of Abyssinians, it exists among them oidy 
 in its lowest form, and is little more than ceremonial
 
 ACACIA— ACADEMY. 
 
 Their church is national and independent, but the 
 1, or Allium ('our father ') is ordained by 
 the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines 
 of the Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic 
 ii, especially in the monophysite heresy; out 
 several peculiar rites are observed, including circum- 
 cision of both Bexee, and observance of the M 
 laws respecting food, &c. : love-feasts, and adult bap- 
 tism. 1 he old! t Abyssinian vhurches are hewn out 
 of rocks. The modern churches are mostly small, 
 round, or conical buildings, thatched with straw, 
 and surrounded by pillars of cedar, 
 
 Imrchea, but paint- 
 are numerous. The state of manners and 
 morals in A. is as low as might be looked for in 
 a country bo long a prey to anarchy and violence. 
 Human in'.' is lightly valued, the administrai 
 
 justice is liarbarously negligent and corrupt, and the 
 Ige-bond is tied and loosed with extreme 
 v. The land generally yields at least two 
 crops annually; but the agriculture is miserable, 
 and the condition of the lower classes proportion- 
 ally wretched Among fruits, the fig is the most 
 plentiful Wine is used only for the Eucharist ; the 
 common drink is bouza, a kind of sour beer, made 
 from the fermentation of bread The manufac- 
 tures of A. are rude, but sufficient, with a few 
 exceptions, for the wants of the natives; cotton 
 stllll's and leather goods are the staple articles. The 
 foreign trade is carried on principally through 
 Massowah ; the chief exports being 3] 
 butter, musk-horns, wax, and ivory. 
 
 A. has been frequently visited in recent 
 l.y Christian missionaries, scientific travellers, and 
 mercantile and political agents ; and our know- 
 ledge of its literature has received great addi- 
 tions. See the Travels and Journals of Bruce, 
 Lord Valentia, Salt. Hitter, Gobat, faenberg and 
 Krapf, Rochet d'Hericourt, Ruppell, and Parkyns; 
 the Report of the French Scientific Commission 
 (1845); Contributions of MM. d'Abbadie to Journ. 
 Asiat., and of Beke and Kirk in Journ. of Buy. 
 Qeogr. Hoc. See Theodore in Supplement. 
 
 ACACIA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Lc'juminosa', sub-order Mimosece. Tie- genus A. 
 differs from Mimosa in 
 i at. r number of 
 its stamens (10—200), 
 and in the want of 
 transverse partitions in 
 its bivalvular legU] 
 The aeaeiasaiv diffused 
 over all quarters of the 
 globe except Europe. 
 The greater number ..f 
 them have a singular 
 appearance, becan 
 the leaf-stalks spread- 
 ing out in a leaf- 
 like form Iphyllodium) ; 
 while the leaflets are 
 more or less stunted 
 in appearance, and fre- 
 quently an- altogether 
 absent. Other species 
 have bipinnate leaves, with a gnat numb i' .>: 
 leaflets) and are extremely beautiful. Many are 
 reat importance in an economical point of 
 view, be.-ause of the juice which Sows from them, 
 which, when inspissated, 1 a article of 
 
 commerce under the nan f Gum (q. v.). Thi 
 
 species called A. gunvmifira, .1. Seyal, A. Ehren- 
 bergii, A. lortUis, A. tfilotica, and .1. vera, natives 
 of Africa, produce gum-arabic, also A. spi 
 and A. Arabica, natives of the south of Asia. A. 
 Arabiai is called the Babul-tree in India, and its 
 
 Acacia Arabica (Gum-arabic 
 Tree). 
 
 gum, babul. A gum similar to gum-arabic i 
 duced by A. dea the Silver 
 
 Wattle), and A.affinis (the Black Wattle), in New 
 
 ipe of Good Uoj . 
 
 Gum Senegal is the produce of .1. Verdi, and A. 
 
 Ada 1 , coast of '. 
 
 fel .1. Perei i. al o i.l to j Id true white gum- 
 I techu (q. v.) 1 fn.m the wood 
 
 of A. catechu. The astringent bark and pods of 
 some species are used for tanning. The bark of A. 
 Arabica is administi red is India i a powerful tonic 
 medicine. The pods of A. condnna form an article 
 of commerce; in India, its seeds being saponaceous 
 and used in washing; A decoction of the pods of 
 A. Arabica is sometimes used in tl A 
 
 considerable number of ird useful timber. 
 
 The flowers of many spec rant Am 
 
 of species from New Holland and other countries 
 have been introduced into the south of Europe. 
 are of frequent occurrence in green-houses in 
 Britain ; and a few of the Australian species SU 
 tolerably m the open air in the south of Eng- 
 land. The foliage of the acacias with bipinnate 
 leaves shews a peculiar sensitiveness to char. 
 weather ; when a thick cloud obscures the sun, the 
 opposite leaflets close together, and so remain till 
 tie- sun lea]. pears. The Locust-tree of North 
 America [Robvnia pseud-acacia] is often called 
 A. both in Britain and upon the continent of 
 Europe. Other species of Robinia also receive the 
 .:...'. Sei l."> ' - 1 i l i a. and Kose A. Flares 
 Icada (A. Blowers) is an old medical name for 
 Sloe flowers. 
 
 ACADEMY, a name originally applied to the 
 philosophical school of Plato, and derived from the 
 place in which that philosopher was accustomed 
 to meet and converse with his pupils. This was a 
 garden or grove in the suburbs of Athens, said to 
 have onfce belonged t<> the hero Academus, and by 
 him to have been presented to the citizens for a 
 gymnasium. The spot is at this day known under 
 the name of Akaaimia. The variations of doctrine 
 among the successors of Plato gave rise to the 
 distinctive titles of Old, Middle, and New A. 
 The first is a]. plied to the philosophic teaching of 
 Plato himself and his immediate followers; the 
 . to that modification of the Platonic phil- 
 osophy taught by Arcesilaus (ij.v.) ; and the third, 
 to the half-sceptical school founded by Carneades 
 (<l-v.)- 
 
 In its common English acceptation, the word 
 aea.l.niy is loosely applied to anyspeci. I 
 
 which professes to communicate more than the mere 
 elements of instruction. Thi^, however, though 
 perhaps more in affinity with the original application 
 of the term, must be regarded as an abuse of its 
 more general and strict acceptation in modern usage, 
 iety of savans or artists, established 
 for the promotion of literature, science, or art. The 
 first institution in ancient times that seems to merit 
 the name, in this sense, of academy, was tie 
 1. rated Museum founded at Alexandria in the 3d 
 
 century s. a by Ptolemy Soter, which concentrated 
 
 in that intellectual capital all that was most eminent 
 ■phy. poetry, and criticism. After 
 this model, the .lews, and, at a later period, the 
 Arabians, founded numerous institutions for the 
 promotion of learning. During the middle ages, with 
 tin- , \, eptioii of the Moorish institutions at Granada 
 and Cordova, in which poetry and music formed 
 prominent subjects of study, we find nothing corre- 
 sponding to the modern idea of an academy, save 
 the learned Wished in his own palace, at 
 
 his teacher Alcuin, by Charle- 
 This association was dissolved by the 
 monarch's death; and not till the middle of the 
 
 SI
 
 ACADEMY. 
 
 16th C, when the conquest of Constantinople drove 
 many learned Greeks to seek an asylum in Italy, 
 do we find any trace of a similar institution. 
 Under the enlightened patronage of I o 
 Cosmo do' Medici, the lovers of Greek learning and 
 were united in the bond of a co 
 . and zealously laboured to revive the long 
 ,' i ! i ic literature. After the 
 decline o) the Greek and Platonic Ac 
 
 arose institutions of a mure com- 
 cter, the example of which 
 from Italy throughout all the states of Europe. 
 
 ! may be divided into I blished 
 
 11 ml ends, ami such as contem] 
 
 The memhers are usually classified as 
 Ordinary, Honorary, and Corresponding, i 
 suits of their labours in their various departments 
 are reported at the periodic meetings, and p 
 in the records of the academy. Prizes are 
 rally established as the rewards of distinguished 
 in original discovery, or excellence in the 
 ,ent of subjects proposed for competition. 
 Among general academies, deserving of m< 
 in the first place is the A. of 
 Paris, established by Colbert in lGb'li, and now 
 entitled the InsiitUt <"/,< France (see iKSTITuT). The 
 first scientific academy founded in modern times 
 was tie- Academia Secretorum Natures, established 
 at Naples in 1560, and afterwards put down by a 
 papal interdict. It was succeeded by the A. of the 
 . founded at Rome by Prince Ceci, which 
 attained distinguished success. Galileo was one of its 
 members. Subsequently arose the A. a\ I < 'imt 
 Florence, and the A. degV Inquieti, of Bologna, after- 
 wards incorporated into the A read, delta Trot 
 finally, in 1711, merged in the Institute of Bologna, 
 or Clementine A.- -The /,'- rlin A. of Arts and s,i. ncet, 
 founded in 1700 by Frederick 1., was in 1710 
 divided into four sections: 1. Physics, Mei 
 and Chemistry; 2. Mathematics, Astronomy, and 
 Mechanics; 3. German Language and II 
 4. Oriental Literature, in special connection with 
 mi ms. The first president was Leibnitz, who : 
 extraordinary versatility of genius qualified him for 
 a leading place in all its departments. Under the 
 Great Frederick, new life was infused into the 
 academy by the encouragement offered to learned 
 men of all countries to settle at Berlin. Maupertuis 
 was now appointed president, and the academy was 
 re-organised under the four classes of Physics, 
 Mathematics, Philosophy. History and Phi] 
 The public meetings are held twice a year. The 
 transactions did not appear regularly till after 
 1811. They were formerly published in French, 
 but now in German. — The Imperial A. of 
 of Si Petersburg was planned in 17-4 by Peter 
 the Great, with the advice of Leibnitz and Wolf. 
 It was established in the following year by Cathe- 
 rine I., and liberally supported by the empre : 
 fifteen members received pensions as professors of 
 various branches. Of these wen Wolf, Biilfin i . 
 Nicolas and Daniel Bernonilli, and the two De 
 Lisles. After various fluctuations, the a 
 attained a position of high eminence and utility 
 under the patronage of Catherine II. Among the 
 most important results of her liberality are the 
 travels and researches of such men as Pallas and 
 Klapn.th. The academy is still composed of fifteen 
 salaried members, besides a president and director, 
 and four pensioned supernumeraries, who attend the 
 meetings and sueceed to the vacant chairs. It pos- 
 Besses an extensive library and a x>:ry valuable 
 iiie sum. The lirst series of its transactions (1725- 
 47) bears the name of Commcntarii : the 
 (1748-77), of NoviCommentarii the third (1777-*-). 
 of Acta. Up to this date, they were written in 
 t2 
 
 Latin ; thenceforth in Latin or French. From 178.'! 
 to 1795, tie-; i ; from thai d 
 
 to the present they are entitled Miinoiir.1. The 
 
 A. of Sciences a/ Stockholm, founded in 1739, 
 
 consisted at first of six members, one of whom was 
 the celebrated Liniueus. It received a royal charter 
 in 1711. but no endowment, Its publications, 
 ITT'- 1 , are distinguished as New Transactions. Papers 
 i-ulture are separately published, under the 
 
 title of I" 1799, it was divided 
 
 into six classes: 1. Political and Rural Economy, 15 
 members; 2. Commerce and Mechanical Arts, 15; 
 .". Swedi h Physics and Natural History, 15; 
 -1. Foreign Physics and Natural History, 15; 
 ;.. Mathematics, 1*; 6. History, Philolo 
 Arts, \1. The resident meml" i pre ide in rotation, 
 during a term of three months: the transactions 
 appear quarterly. At the annual meeting in 
 April, prizes are distributed. — The /,'mi-il A. of 
 ill i'nprnhai]in owes its origin, lil 
 
 med, to six learned men, employed by 
 Christian VI. in 1 7-4— to arrange his cabinet of 
 medals. In 1743, the kin:,', on the recommendation 
 of Count Ho] I'-in, their iii>t president, took the 
 ny under his protection, endowed it, and 
 "ill, -red that natural history, physics, and n 
 
 niaties should 1 inbiaeed within the sphere of its 
 
 li I uiled to the national history 
 The academy's transactions are in 
 Danish; s-mie of them are translated into Latin. 
 — The A. of Sciences of Mannheim was founded 
 in 17."io by the Elector-palatine Karl Thcodor, and 
 divided into the sections of history and ph] I 
 science; the latter was subdivided in 17*0 into 
 physics proper and meteorology. The transactions 
 
 under the two fonner heads are published under the 
 of Actaj the meteorological memoirs are 
 entitled Ephemerides. — The A. iff Sciences qf Munich 
 was founded in 1759. Soon after the erection 
 of Bavaria into a kingdom, it was reorganised on 
 a very extensive footing, under the presidency of 
 Jacob!. Its memoirs are published under the title 
 ,,f Abhandlungen der Baterischen Akademie. — The 
 A. qf Lisbon, established by Queen Maria in 177!', 
 numbers 60 members; viz., 24 ordinary, and 30 
 honorary and foreign; and is divided into three 
 sections: 1. Natural Science; 2. Mi 
 :i. Portuguese Literature. It is liberally endi 
 by government, and has a library, museum, i 
 vatory, and printing-office. Its Memorial have 
 appeared since 1787. — The Royal Iri.^Ii A. dates its 
 origin from 1782, when a number of gentlemen, 
 chiefly connected with the university of Dublin, 
 associated themselves for the pursuit of science, 
 
 , and literatirre. The plan of the society 
 was afterwards extended. The first volume of its 
 transactions appeared in 1788. — The American A. 
 of Art* Km! Sciences was established at Boston in 
 17S0 : it had previously existed in another form, 
 the original institution being due to Franklin. The 
 lirst volume of its transactions was published in 
 1785. — The A. of Sciences al Vienna was founded 
 in 1S46. It is divided into the sections of History 
 and Philology; Mathematics and Natural Science; 
 Philosophy, Political Economy, and Medicine ft 
 published Reports of its meetings since 1S48, and 
 since 1S50, Memoirs. 
 
 Among the academics established for the cultiva- 
 tion of particular departments of knowdedge, are the 
 followinir: — 1. Languages. The Academia della 
 
 , or Academia Fwfuralorum was founded at 
 Florence in 15S2, chiefly for the purpose of promoting 
 the purity of the Italian language ; .whence it s 
 what fantastic designation — crusca signifying chaff 
 or bran. It lirst drew attention by its attacks on 
 Tasso. Its principal service has been the compilation
 
 ACADIE -ACALKl'll .]■:. 
 
 of an excellent dictionary, and the publication of 
 
 correct editions of the older Italian poets. A new 
 edition of this dictionai nt ID preparation, 
 
 but from the slow rate of its prog i kulatcd 
 
 that many centuries must elapse before its comple- 
 tion. For an account of the Aeademu Fra 
 instituted in 1629, as a private society, see In 
 The Royal Spanish A. was founded at Madrid in 
 1711, by the Duke of Escalona, for the cultivation 
 and improvement of the national 1 e, in which 
 
 it has done good service particularly l>y the com- 
 pilation of a Spanish dictionary. A similar insti- 
 tution was founded at St Petersburg in 17 
 afterwards united to the Imperial A. At Stock- 
 holm, a similar academy was established in 178G ; 
 and at Pesth (for the cultivation of the .V. 
 language) in 1830. 2. AechjKolocy. At the head 
 of antiquarian institutions stands the Acadfraii d> 
 Insaipaons, founded at Paris in 1663, by Colbert. 
 See I.nsiiii i. For the elucidation of northern lan- 
 guages and antiquities, an academy was founded in 
 1710 at Upsala, in Sweden ; a similar institution was 
 established ai Cortona, in Italy, in 17-7. Both 
 have issued valuable works. The .1. of 1 1 < rndaneum 
 was founded at Naples in 1755, by the Marquis of 
 Tanucei, for the elucidation of Herculanean and 
 Pompeiau antiquities. Its publications, commencing 
 in 1775, boar the title of Antichita di Ercolano. An 
 academy for the investigation of Tuscan antiquities 
 was established at Florence in 1807 ; and at Paris, in 
 1S05, a Celtic A. for the elucidation of the language, 
 history, and antiquities of the Celts, especially in 
 France. This society changed its name, in 1S14, 
 to SoeUU dee Antiguaires de France. — 3. History. 
 The Royal A. of Portugues< History was founded 
 at Lisbon, in 1720, by John V. At Madrid, in 1730, 
 a learned association was formed for the elucidation 
 of Spanish history. It was constituted an academy 
 in 1738, by Philip V. It has published editions of 
 Mariana, Sepulveda, Solis, and the ancient Cas- 
 tilian chronicles, some of which had never before 
 been printed. A historical academy has existed 
 for some time at Tubingen. — 4. Mkdkink. The 
 Acadania Naturtv Curiosorum was established at 
 Vienna, in 1G52, by the physician Bauschius, for the 
 investigation of remarkable phenomena in the animal, 
 ile, and mineral kingdoms. In honour of 
 Leopold L, who patronised it liberalry.it took the 
 additional name oi -Leopoldina ; and, since 
 
 1S08, has had its chief seat at Bonn. Its valuable 
 memoirs have appeared at irregular intervals under 
 the title of Miscellanea, Ephemerides, and Acta. 
 The Academic Imperials <!■ Medecine of Paris, was 
 founded in 1820, for the prosecution of re?' 
 into all matters connected with the public health, 
 such . The Surgical A. of Paris 
 
 (whose functions have partly descended to the 
 preceding) n 1 in 1731. It was dissolved 
 
 during the troubles of the Erst revolution. The 
 Vienna A. of Surgery, established in 17S3, is, pro- 
 speaking, a college. — 5. Fine Arts. The 
 eiies of painting and sculpture of St Peters- 
 burg (connected with the Imperial A) and Paris, 
 Institutions for the education of pupils. The 
 French .! Beaux Aria is a branch 
 
 [nstitut (q. v.). The Royal A. of Art* m 
 London was founded in 1 70S, for the promotion ol 
 ,n, painting, sculpture, &S. The 
 
 number of academicians is 40. Connected with 
 it is a school, with professors selected from among 
 the academicians. The annual exhibition of the 
 
 my i- open to all artists of merit. Tie 
 Scottish A. of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, 
 was founded at Edinburgh in 1825, and received a 
 royal charter in 1836. The number of academicians 
 is 15; the general plan of the institution is BJ 
 
 to that of the London A. Similar to these also is 
 the Royal Hibernian A. incorporated at 1 1 
 in 1803. K the fine ai I 
 
 heen e in Italy— at Home, Milan, Turin, 
 
 Florcm and Mod.ua; as also at Madrid, 
 
 Vienna, ami Stockholm. 
 
 Many learned S. ,■ f rora Academies only 
 
 in name; such arc- The Roj of London, 
 
 Tic British Association, The Washington Smith- 
 sonian Institution, &c. 
 
 ACADIE. See Ni v.v Scotia. 
 
 ACALE'PH.E (Or. nettles), one of 
 
 the classes of tli i hated Animals, 
 
 in the system of Cuvier. They are commonly !. 
 by such nam- ' re." and are 
 
 si mi, tunes called S.'i-neUles, on account of the 
 . ' i- which many of them po seas. Most 
 of them were included in the Limuean genus M 
 and the name Medusa is still vi ry frequi ntly \ 
 to them. They are all inhabitants of the ocean, in 
 which they swim or float singly and freely. They 
 abound in all parts of it, although some are" tropical, 
 and others belong to high latitudes. Some of 
 them are of a large size, reaching to two i 
 diameter, others are very small, and the phosphor- 
 escence of the sea is caused by multitudes of minute 
 A. They consist of an extremely soft gelatinous 
 tissue, which in most of them, and in all the true 
 89, is unsupported by any harder substance. 
 The quantity of solid matter even in a large Medusa 
 
 
 A, under surface, shewing the DKmtb in the centre, surrounded 
 by the tectui ulii. and the onrial chaml i r to the 
 
 origins "i these; B, side-view, shewiagthe tentocola hanging 
 don a in their natural position. 
 
 is very small, and the appearance of muscular fibre 
 en only be detected by a microscope near the 
 
 i of the disk or umbrella-like body, which 
 
 at of the genera constitutes the principal 
 part of the animal, by alternate contractions and 
 expansions of which it moves in the water, and on 
 the under side of which is its mouth. The n 
 of the disk is generally provided with tent 
 
 which are of very various tonus, often 
 thread-like, sometimes foliflceous; and many have 
 also tentacular appendages, presenting a similar 
 variety of form, but often much larger in proportion, 
 connected with the mouth, or attai robos- 
 
 ciileun prolongation of it. 1 her- is no appearance of 
 teeth. Prom the gastric cavity, a system of \ 
 
 da through tie- body. No appearance ot blood 
 has been detected; nor is it certain that the A. 
 possess any of the senses except that of touch; 
 the nature of the organs sometimes called eyes or 
 
 being by no means satisfactorily determined. 
 These organs" are situate! on the margin, and in 
 some are protected by membranous hoods or cover- 
 ings ; in others, are unprotected ; those which 
 have them protected, having also a much ramified 
 and anastomosing system of vessels ; the others, an 
 extremely simple vascular system. The A. feed on
 
 ACANTHOPTERYGD -A< AKXAXIA. 
 
 small marine animal*, often of much higher 
 
 i themselves. Small G 
 the prey of the large Medusa. In the class A., as 
 at present constituted, there are included animals 
 differing much from the typical form ami i 
 tars, as thi genera Ba , having two 
 
 orifices to the alimentary canal ; and others, as 
 Phyaalia (the Portuguese Man-qf-toar), in which 
 
 Beriie. 
 
 a a, tentacula ; b, mouth ; 
 c, termination of intcslinc. 
 
 lives of the south of Europe, 
 are thi -t known. The twin 
 
 the plants, their large white How, i 
 
 4V : /f\ 
 
 Pliysalia. 
 
 there is no proper mouth, but the fuoil is conveyed 
 to the digestive cavity through a number of fiask- 
 like app which hang down 1» u ith, 
 
 having an orifice and a sort of sucker. The stinging 
 power seems to be used to benumb the prey. Repro- 
 duction takes place in the A. both by mean, of 
 ova and by germination. The organs of the two 
 appear generally to exist in each individual. 
 The young Medusa differ very much in appearance 
 from the mature animal, and in the process of their 
 development, assume forms resembling those of 
 hydraform polypes, and like them are attached by 
 the base ; whilst a still more wonderful fact has 
 been discovered of the formation of a number of 
 Medusa? from a single polypedike individual of this 
 kind, which become detached, and swim off in the 
 water. — The A. have of late been diligently studied 
 by a number of eminent naturalists, of whom 
 may be mentioned Eschscholtz, De Blainvill. 
 of X..rway, and the late Professor E. Forbes. 
 
 ACAXTHol'TERY'GII, in Zoology, one of the 
 two primary divisions of the Osseous Ftslies in 
 the system of Cuvier, distinguished by having 
 spinous rays in the lirst portion of the dorsal 
 
 ■sus, natural. 
 
 Ornamental A. Leaf. 
 
 Perch. 
 
 fin, or in the first dorsal, if there are two. The 
 name is derived from the Greek aicantha, a 
 thorn, and pteryx, a wing. The A. arc divided 
 by Cuvier into fifteen families, amongst which are 
 Percida (Perch, Bass, 4c), Triglidai (Gurnard, 
 Flying-fish, &c), and Scomberitl'e (Mackerel, 
 Tunny, 4c). 
 
 ACA'XTHl'S, the name given by the Greeks and 
 Romans to the plants sometimes called Brancursine, 
 of which it is also the botanical generic name. A. 
 24 
 
 titiiul form of their dark and shining Ii 
 have led to their artistical application, especially 
 in tic- capitals of Corinthian columns. > Dl 
 of Ai'.i'MiTF.<Ti 1:1:. Roman drinking- cups have 
 been found whose handles are twined with A. 
 leaves. i huts made the J. mollis chiefly 
 
 their pattern ; but in I 
 
 is matte of the smaller and less beautiful leaves of 
 A. s/'iiiosa. 
 
 The genus A. is the type of the natural order 
 AcaxtiI-U'EE, which contains nearly HIM) known 
 They arc herbaceous plauts or shrubs, 
 chiefly tropical; dicotyledonous. The greater 
 are mere weeds, but the genera J I landra, 
 
 and Buettia contain some of our finest hot-house 
 flowers. The leaves arc opposite, rarely in 6 
 simple; two oi~three bracts, winch are often 1 irge 
 and leafy, accompany each flower. The calyx is 
 
 nt, usually 5 leaved, occasionally cut into 
 many pieces, sometimes obsolete. The corolla is 
 monopetalous, hypogynous, usually irregular, i 
 nous. The stamens are generally two; sonn; 
 four, didynamous, the shorter ones sometimes sterile; 
 the anthers l-2-celled, opening lengthwise. The 
 glandular ; the ovary free, 2-celled, with two 
 or more ovules in each cell; placentae adhering in 
 the axis; style one The fruit is a capsule bursting 
 
 ally with two valves, the dissepiment 
 separating into two pieces through the axis. 
 seeds are roundish, hanging by hard, usually hooked 
 processes of the placenta; testa loose; albumen 
 wanting; embryo curved or straight; cotyledons 
 large ; radicle subcylindrical, next the hilum. — Some 
 of the Acantliacece are used in their native countries 
 as medicines. A valuable deep-bine dye. called 
 
 is obtained in Assam from a species of 
 Buettia. 
 
 ACAPU'LCO, the best harbour belonging to 
 Mexico in the Pacific, and a place of considerable 
 commercial importance; situated in lat. 16 J 50' N. ; 
 long. 9'J" 4,,' \V. The harbour is so well sheltered 
 that deeply laden vessels may lie safely at ai 
 close to the granite rocks. The town, defended 
 by Fort Diego, on an eminence, has a very unhealthy 
 site, and is one of the places most frequently visited 
 by cholera, which proves especially fatal to new 
 settlers. Since the discover}- of the California gold- 
 mines, it has become the most important port in 
 i, and the principal point for the embarkation 
 of passengers between the Atlantic and Pacific ports 
 of the United States. Pop. 5000. 
 
 ACARNA'XIA, a country of ancient Greece, 
 separated from Fpirus on the north by the Ambra- 
 ciau Gulf, now the Gulf of Arta ; from ^Etolia on 
 the east by the river Achelous ; and washed south 
 and west by the Ionian Sea. Along with -Etolia, it 
 forms one of the nomes or departments of the modern
 
 ACARUS— ACCEPTANCE. 
 
 kingdom of Greece. The western part "f A. — 
 oi the AohelOua or Aspropotamo to 
 
 i ap A. timii in the north-west is occupied by a 
 in. of rocky and thickly-wooded 
 abruptly from the indented coast, and culminating 
 in the summit oi Berganti. A considerable part oi 
 
 , with woo 
 modern Greece. There is no town of importance 
 in the whole district, though naturally it is not 
 destitute of resources. 
 
 A'CARUS, a genus of Arachnidcs (q. v.), of the 
 order Tracheariee, the type of a tribe called Acar- 
 which corresponds with the genus Acarus as 
 defined by Liumeus. The species of the Acarides 
 are very numerous. All of them are small ; many 
 copicaL Some are familiar to us under the 
 Dames of Mites (q. v.), Ticks (q. v.), &c. 8ome live 
 upon the juices of plants; some in the dung of 
 minimis ; many species are found in the vegetable 
 and iin lances used for human food, espe- 
 
 cially have been kept for a considerable 
 
 i in , as in cheese, flour, sugar, on the sm-face of 
 ii dried fruits, Sus.; others are parasites 
 upon the bodies of animals, particularly in di 
 conditions, as in cases of itch. A minute species 
 has been detected in the follicles of the human 
 skin, and others even in the human brain and 
 Some insects, particularly beetles, are often 
 covered with Acarides. A species [Troml 
 holosericeum) common in gardens in spring, is 
 kable for its blood-rca colour; and a nearly 
 allied but much larger species [T. tim' 
 
 found in the East Indies, yields 
 a fine dye. A Persian species 
 [Argas Persieus) is poisonous, 
 and causes sores. The bite of 
 many species is annoying, as of 
 the common Harvest-hie,' [Leptus 
 tCUtumnoMs). The Acarides have 
 eyes. Some of them have tin- 
 mouth furnished with mandibles, others with a 
 sucker. They are oviparous, and extremely prolific. 
 They have generally eight legs ; but. when young, 
 many of them have only six, and in some genera 
 the additional pair seems never to be acquired. A 
 few are aquatic, and have legs covered with hairs 
 to adapt them for swimming. 
 
 ACATHI'STUS, a hymn sung in the ancient 
 Greek Church in honour of the Virgin. 
 
 ACCELERA'NDO (ItaL), in Music, with 
 ally increasing velocity of movement. 
 
 ACCELERATED MOTION, in mechanics, is 
 motion in which the velocity is continually increas- 
 When the increments of velocity are equal in 
 equal times, the motion is said to be uniformly 
 accelerated. The best example of such a motion is 
 that of a falling body. It is found that near the 
 earth's surface a body, descending from a state of 
 rest, falls 16 TI feet in the lirst second. Now. a 
 little co u will shew that at the end of the 
 
 first second, it is moving at the rate of 3 - 2A feet 
 jht second. For, since the velocity was nothing at 
 tirst and increased uniformly, 16 T r feet must have 
 been the mean velocity, i.e.. the velocity at the 
 middle of the time; and therefore the velocity at 
 the end must be double, or 32} feet : .'!'-" hit h 
 thus the measure of the accelerative force of gravity. 
 At the end of the second and third seconds, the 
 velocity is found to be doubled, trebled, &c, or 64J, 
 96£ feet 
 Acceleration of thb Moon. It was first 
 
 observed by Bailey, that tie- tune ..f the moon's 
 revolution round the earth has fur several thousand 
 years been decreasing, or her velocity has been 
 increasing. This phenomenon remained for a 
 
 Acarus (llite). 
 
 Table time inexplicable; at last, Laplace, in 
 1787, discovered the came in the varying eccentricity 
 of the earth's orbit, which has been on the decrease 
 since about 12,000 years B.C. Since that tim 
 
 en gradually coming nearer to the earth ; 
 and this will go on till 30,900 after Christ, when the 
 eccentricity of the earth's orbit will ain to 
 
 increase. — ACCELERATION of THB I LBS is 
 
 the excess of a mean solar day over a sidereal day ; 
 i. e., a day measured by the transits of a star over 
 the meridian; the excess is about .7 56}" sidereal 
 time. 
 
 A'CCENT, in Grammar, is a special stress of voice 
 laid upon one syllable of a word, by which it is made 
 more prominent than the rest ; the accented syllable 
 is sometimes indicated by a mark, . >'rtify. 
 
 Every word in English has one syllable thus bn 
 markedly into notice. When the accented syllable 
 falls near the end of a long word, there may bo 
 one or more secondary accents, as in ? 
 BuMrdind'tion. A. depends upon force of vocal or 
 articulative effort, not upon highness or lowni 
 pitch. Variations of pitch produce what elocu- 
 tionists call inflection. It is the confoundie 
 A. with a rise of tone, and the contrasting of it 
 with a sinking of tone, that has produced so much 
 confusion on this subject, especially as regards the 
 accents of the ancients. In English, many nouns are 
 converted into verbs simply by transposing the A., 
 as object — object. It is A., and not quantity, that 
 determines English measures or metres in versi- 
 fication. No rule can be given as to what syllable 
 of a word shall be accented! There seems to lie an 
 increasing tendency in our language to throw the 
 A. towards the beginning of words. In the Fin- 
 nish language, the A. is said to be invariably on 
 the tirst syllable. — Emphasis is to sentences what 
 A. is to words; it is a stress laid upon one word 
 of a sentence to make it prominent. If A. is 
 syllabic emphasis, emphasis is logical A. 
 
 A'CCENT, in Music, is analogous with A. in 
 language. It consists of a stressor emphasis given 
 to certain notes or parts of bars in a compi i 
 and may lie divided into two kinds— grammatical, 
 and rhetorical or aesthetic. The first kind of A. is 
 perfectly regular in its occurrence — always falling 
 on the "first part of a bar. It is true that long or 
 conrpound measures of time have, besides the chief 
 A. in every bar, some subordinate accents ; but 
 these are only slightly marked. As a general rule, 
 we may observe, that the grammatical or regu- 
 lar A. must not be exaggerated. It should be 
 marked only so far as to give a clear sense of 
 rhythm. The ,-esthetical A. is irregular, and 
 depends on taste and feelinj is does the 
 
 A. and emphasis used in oratory. In vocal music 
 well adapted to words, the words serve as a guide 
 to the right use of ajsthetical accer 
 
 ACCE'PTANCE is the act whereby the drawee 
 engages to pay a bill according to the terms of 
 the A. K may be said to consist in the drawee 
 writing the word 'accepted' on the bill and sub- 
 cribing his name; or writing, as has been decided 
 in England, the word 'accepted' only (although it 
 is not so in Scotland, where the act of A. must 
 be shewn by the actual signature of the acceptor) ; or 
 merely subscribing his name at the bottom or across 
 the bill, lint there are other and various forms 
 cif A., in England and Scotland, as to which, 
 and generally, see Bill of BXCBAHSK In com- 
 mon parlance, the accepted bill is called oh A., 
 and the drawee, or party who engages to pay the 
 bill, is called the 
 
 A. is also a term in the Scotch law of contracts. 
 A mutual contract may commeuce by an offer, and
 
 ACCESSOR Y—ACCL1 MATISE. 
 
 be completed by A. The offer is viewed as an 
 1 "ii ti.. \., lint ni.i-. . before 
 A., be recalled, or condition oi muHng repai 
 
 v loss fairly occasioned by 1 1 1 ■ - offer. 'II"' 
 offer may be verbal, l>y Letter, or even t 
 when goods are sent without an order, or contrary 
 
 ' r, in which case, acquii 
 may be either tacit or express. The word is not a 
 
 ical one in the law of England, but the matt * 
 to which it relates in that system will 1"' found 
 under i !ok hi li r. 
 
 A'CCESSARY or ACCESSORY. In the criminal 
 
 law ot England, an A. is a person who is not tin' 
 
 in a felony, nor even present at its 
 
 perpetration, hut who i^ in Borne way concerned, 
 
 either btfort or after the fact committed. An A. 
 
 1 who procures or counsels 
 
 r to commit a crime, he himself being absent. 
 
 An A. after the fact is a person who, knowing a 
 
 felony to. have been co m A receives, protects, or 
 
 the felon. In sudden and unpremeditated 
 
 i, there can 1»' no accessaries oe/bre the 
 
 .and in all cri] ■ ' of f'inny there are 
 
 no accessaries at all, either before or after the fact, 
 but all persons concerned therein are held to be 
 equally guilty as principals. 
 
 There are no , but all are 
 
 principals, on account of the heinousness of the 
 crime. 
 
 In the Scotch law, 'art and part' in the indict- 
 ment, or formal accusation, is the phrase by which 
 accession to a crime is signified ; and it applies to 
 
 all offences against the criminal law, there being, 
 according to the practice of the Scotch courts, no 
 tion in this respect between felonies, properly 
 so called, and misdemeanours. 
 
 ACCESSORY ACTIONS, in the practice of the 
 Scotch law. i those which are, in some il gi >c, 
 subservient or ancillary to other actions. For 
 example, actions for reviving a cause, or prosecuting 
 it against the heir of a deceased defendant, or for 
 restoring lost deeds or other documents, are of the 
 nature of A. A. 
 
 ACCESSORY OBLIGATION is a technical 
 term in the Scotch law signifying an obligation 
 annexed to another obligation which is antecedent 
 or primary. Thus, an obligation for the regular pay- 
 ment of interest, or by way of further security, is an 
 A. 0. 
 
 ACCESSION. In the law both of England and 
 Scotland, property may lie acquired by A., and this 
 A. may be either natural or artificial. The young 
 of cattle and other animals, for example, belong to 
 rson who is the owner of the mother, and tin- 
 fruits and produce of the earth to the proprietor of 
 the soil ; and for the same reason, the gradual addi- 
 tion to lands on the bank of a river belongs to the 
 proprietor of the land receiving the addition. These 
 arc instances of natural A. Property, again, is said 
 to be acquired by artificial A. when it is the result 
 of human industry ; thus trees planted, or build- 
 ings erected, on the ground of another, belong to 
 owner of the ground itself, and not to the 
 planter or builder; and so with regard to the con- 
 II of wood or metal, which, in whatever form, 
 remain the property of the original owner. 
 
 ACCESSION TO THE THRONE signifies the 
 commencement of the sovereign's reign. 
 
 ACCESSION, Deed of. In the practice of Scotch 
 conveyancing, this is a deed by which the creditors 
 of a bankrupt or insolvent debtor approve of a 
 trust-settlement executed by the debtor for the 
 1 behoof, and consent to the arrangement pro- 
 posed. The corresponding deed in English practice 
 
 is a deed of trust for creditors, or, under the Bank- 
 nipt Law Consolidation Act, 1! and lo Vict. c. 10G, 
 a deed of am ditors. 
 
 ACCIDENTAL COLOURS. See Light. 
 
 A'CCIDENTS, in Mns,, occasional sharps, fiats, 
 and naturals placed fo fore not B in the i 
 piece. 
 
 ACCIDENTS, in Log., areoppoi id to Essentials, 
 or to Sub bancs. \n Occident is a property of an 
 
 object which may I d, or even b 
 
 ■led. without the object ceasing to I 
 
 tially what it is. But many of the distinctions 
 by the older philosophi rs 1» tween 
 lential are fallacious. 
 
 AC0TPITRE6 (plural ,,f the Lat. acdpUer, a 
 
 hawk), the name given by Linn.-eus to an order of 
 Birds, including, . 
 Yultur (Vultures), Falco (Ea ins, Hawks, 
 
 Head and Foot of Gulden Eagle. 
 
 kc), Strix (Owls), and Laniits (Shrikes), and princi- 
 pally distinguished by a hooked bill, short strung 
 feet, and sharp hooked claws. The name has m i 
 generally been adopted by subsequent ornithologists, 
 but the order, as a truly natural one, has been 
 retained under the names Rapaces, Saptores, &c. ; 
 the Shrikes, however, being generally excluded 
 from it. 
 
 ACCLI'MATISE, to accustom an animal or plant 
 to a climate not natural to it. The process, of conn ". 
 varies widely, according to the amount of dill- 
 between the old and the new climate, in oases where 
 the difference is extreme, important changes take 
 place in the constitution, and arc often attended 
 with certain diseases described as 'diseases of accli- 
 matisation.' Thus, Europeans settling in tropical 
 parts, are liable to disease of the liver, while natives 
 of tropical lands, when resident in England, arc 
 
 exposed to pulmonary disease. The power of bearing 
 changes of climate, or the capability of acclimatisa- 
 tion, is remarkable in mankind, but especially in the 
 Anglo-German race, now bo widely spread ovi 
 globe. Among animals, we find great powers of 
 adaptation to various climates in the horse, dog, cat, 
 rat, &c. ; and among plants, in the variou < , real . 
 in potatoes, and several weeds common to almost all 
 climates. Intelligence, of course, as-i 1 i he physical 
 power of man in bearing changes of climate ; but 
 there seems to be a limit to the power, at least 
 as seen in the individual. To A. beyond a 
 certain point is the work of some few generations. 
 — The Acclimatising of domestic animals is one of 
 the most important triumphs of human enterprise. 
 Almost all the domestic animals now- commonly 
 spread over Europe, and even in high northern 
 latitudes, were originally natives of warm dim 
 The change produced by the acclimatising of animals 
 may be cither an improvement or a deterioration; 
 of the latter, we have an instance in 11 sin tland 
 pouy ; of the former, we see an example in the
 
 ACCOLADE— ACETIC ACID. 
 
 merino sheep of Spain. As an instance of want of 
 the faculty of being acclimatised, the reindeer may 
 serve. Kemoved from the mosses and lichens of the 
 cold north to the fertile valleys of a temperate clime, 
 the reindeer degenerates and dies. On the other hand, 
 the horse, whose native land is the Bast, arrives at 
 its highest development in England ; and the £ 
 
 p, brought northwards as far as Spain, becomes 
 remarkable Cor its fine fleece. Spain, on the whole, 
 has a climate much wanner than that of Silesia and 
 Pomerania ; and yet the merino sheep, bred in 
 countries, have liecome superior to their ancestors 
 imported from Spain. Tins is a proof that art may 
 do rary much in modifying the influences of climate. 
 Silk-worms, brought from China first into Italy, 
 have been acclimatised not only in the south of 
 France, but even on tin- coast of the Baltic. 
 Recently, attempts have been made to A. in France 
 the llama, the vicugna, and the alpaca of Peni, 
 and with some success in the last instance, as 
 alpacas have been found to thrive pretty well in the 
 Pyrenees.— . ! ing <>/ Plants. It has been 
 
 very generally believed that plants may become 
 illy inured to a climate so different from that 
 to which they have be < aeon omed, that if they 
 had been at once transferred to it, they would have 
 perished; and that their adaptation to it becomes 
 more perfect when successive generations are raised 
 by seed. On the other hand, it is maintained by 
 some of the most distinguished botanists of the 
 
 at time, that each species of plant has certain 
 limits of temperature, within which it will succeed, 
 and that alleged instances of acclimatising have 
 merely instances of plants formerly supposed 
 to be more delicate than they really were, lint as it 
 is certain that different varieties of the same species 
 are often more and less hardy, it would seem that in 
 the production of new varieties by seed, there is still 
 a prospect of the acclimatising, to a certain extent, 
 of which the existing varieties are too 
 delicate to grow well iu the open air. 
 
 ACCOLA'DE, the term applied to the ceremony 
 with which a knight was admitted into the order 
 <>f chivalry. The grand-master, in receiving the 
 neophyte, embraced him by folding the arms round 
 the neck (adcollum). — In music, the A. is the couplet 
 uniting several staves, as in part-music or pianoforte- 
 
 ■ 
 
 ACM 'I I'MPABTIMENT, in Music, is the assisting 
 
 or aiding of a solo part by other parts, which may 
 t of a whole orchestra, or a single instrument, 
 or even subservient vocal parts. It serves to elevate 
 and beautify the solo part, and is subject fo certain 
 rules for composition as well as for performance. 
 It must be subservient, and therefore should not 
 predominate, bui -ist to place the solo 
 
 part in its brightest light. In this point of view, 
 modern oomposers have often erred by making the 
 A. too l'nll, and causing it to stand out so inde- 
 nt and en foa me. that the solo part is often, 
 
 were, entir Ij list. This abuse takes place 
 
 ly in vocal music; and not only is the effect 
 
 -e.l, but the vocal organ of the singer is 
 
 frequently ruined. Were it not too true that this 
 
 bad practice has become the t'a-li'o m. it would be 
 
 difficult to believe that a composer would lend him- 
 self to it. In proper A., after faithfully fulfilling its 
 duty to the solo part, there always remains oppor- 
 tunity enough for display in the ritornells and 
 Symphonies. The Italians in their best period were 
 celebrated for the simplicity and effectiveness of their 
 A. Now. tlev have entirely lost this claim. In A.. 
 the composer must keep three principal points in 
 — namely, harmony, rhythmical figure, and suitable 
 choice of instrumentation, in respect to number and 
 
 character of tone ; but all must be subservient to 
 the ruling character of the solo part. Right or 
 proper harmony is, or should be, easily found 
 by every experienced o It is, as it 
 
 born at the same time with the melody, and only 
 requires to be here and there adjusted with 
 When this is not the I 
 character, which interrupts and total' 
 the melody. The figure oi tl»- A. should 
 so as to be conformable to the solo part 1 
 to express what the solo part cannot I 
 to do, and may also, by a succession of secondary 
 ar and certain the- individuality 
 of the principal solo part, such a tering 
 
 of the poltroon, tin- daring of the courageous, or 
 the fear of the timid. The necessity of a iud 
 choice of instrumentation for the proper support of 
 the solo part is evident. Tin- A. should, above all 
 things, by its certainty and fij 
 ing. (food A. is as creditable as solo p] 
 all qualified orchestras view it as i 
 ance. — The word also means the art of pi 
 
 my from a figured bass; this, though more in 
 use formerly, is still a necessary study for the A. of 
 tative. See FIGURED B 
 
 ACCO'RDIOX, a simple musical instrument, but 
 little better than a toy, which produces its toe 
 the vibration of metallic tongues of various sizes, 
 while wind is supplied by the action of bellows. 
 The concertina and the hcarmonivm are superior 
 instruments, constructed on the same principle — the 
 action of a gust of air on metallic tongues. 
 
 ACCUM, FREDERICK, a native of Westphalia, 
 came to London in 1803. He is known in 
 country chiefly on account of his work, A Pro 
 Treatisi on Oas-ligtU, which had the effect of intro- 
 d of illumination into London and 
 all tie- large towns of England. It was translated 
 into several languages, and became very popular. 
 Subsequently, he wrote a book upon practical 
 chemistry, which was well received, ami is still 
 held in considerable estimation. Ultimately, he 
 quitted England, and went to Berlin, where be 
 obtained employment. He died in 183S. 
 
 ACCUSATIVE CASE. See Declension'. 
 
 ACE'PHALA. 
 
 A'CER and ACERACi:.". See Maim;. 
 
 ACE'TIC ACID, the sour principle in vinegar, is 
 the most common of the vegetable acids. If alcohol, 
 diluted with water, be mixed with a ferment, such 
 
 t, and exposed to the air at, or a Little 
 its ordinary temperature, it is rapidly converted into 
 vinegar or A. A. The change is accompanied by 
 tin- absorption of oxygen, 2 atoms of which combine 
 with as many of hydrogen to form water, whilst 
 other 2 take the place of the hydrogen which has 
 water, so that A. A. is produced from 
 alcohol by the substitution of 2 aton -n for 
 
 •_' of hydrogen. Tims alcohol is C" 4 H <>,. if we 
 take from this 2 atoms of hydrogen, and add 2 of 
 oxygen, it becomes C 4 H 4 4 . But from the mode 
 in which A. A. acts when it combines with 
 bases, it is certain that one of the equivalents of 
 hydrogen and one of oxvgen are united as wat 
 that the formula of A." A. is 4 B BO. A 
 
 striking experiment may be made illustrating the 
 mode in which alcoh 1 is converted into A. A. If 
 slightly diluted alcohol be dropped upon platinum- 
 Mack, the oxygen condensed in that sub ' 
 with great enei j on the spirit, and A. A. is evolved 
 in vapour. Ibi.' the whole office of the pi itinum is 
 to determine the oxygen of the air. and the bye 
 of the alcohol to unite. Iu the commercial pro
 
 ACHAIA UTUU..F.A. 
 
 formanufact 
 
 Ibu .uncus priii; 
 the place of the platinum-black, and 
 A. A. i- n..t known in 
 tin' anhydrous form. In its most concentrafc d 
 
 nt of water, i' ,11 ,' », I HO. 
 When it combines with mel I they take 
 
 tli.- pUv of the wati rj acetate of sod ' for example, 
 of anhydrous soda and anhydrous A. A.. 
 Nat i.l \ iT ,( >,,. flu- salts of A. A., .all. ilAu i 
 arc numerous and important in tin- arts. The most 
 important is acetate or sugar of lead. See Leas. 
 Forth i ea of manufacturing A. 
 
 A., sec Vinegar 
 
 AC'HA'IA, a small district in the north of the 
 Peloponnesus, was divided into twelve little status; 
 and was bounded K. by the Saronic Gulf; N. and 
 W. bj the Bay of Corinth ; and S. by Arcadia 
 and Elis. Ihe land, rising gradually from the 
 i the hills of the ulterior, was famed, 
 in ancient times, for fertility in the produce of 
 oil, wine, and fruits. When the Bomans divided 
 the whoU- of Greece into Macedonia and A., the 
 latter included till Greece excepting Xhessaly. In 
 the modern kingdom of Greece, A. forms, along 
 with Elis, a nome or department, in the extreme 
 north-west of the Morea, and its chief town is 
 l'atras (q.v.). Excepting the west coast, the land 
 is fertile, and produces corn, wine, and oil. Ihe 
 ancient \.l,. .mi. were, in a great measure, separ- 
 ated from the other people of Greece. Their twelve 
 little towns, of which .Egium was the chief, 
 formed a confederacy which was dissolved in the 
 Ionian times; tut was renewed in 280 B.c, 
 anil subsequently extended itself, under the name of 
 the J. /(<..„ League, throughout Greece, until 14U 
 b.c, when Grecian liberty fell under the power of 
 Home. 
 
 ACHAKD, FRANZ Karl, a meritorious naturalist 
 and chemist, born April 28, 1754, in Berlin, chiefly 
 distinguished himself by his improvements in the 
 process of preparing sugar from beet-root In these 
 labours he was supported by the king of Prussia, 
 The results of his experiments were acknowledged 
 as partK succe -fill in 1799 and 1800; but were 
 not carried into extensive application until the 
 king gave to A. a farm in Lower l.usatia, where he 
 founded a model manufactory of beet-root sugar. 
 Sere, after six years of experiments, conducted 
 with the aid of Neubeck, a medical man, A. found 
 out the true method of extracting beet-sugar; and 
 in 1812, when the factory had Income a very pro- 
 fitable investment, the lung annexed to it a school 
 for teaching the process of manufacture. A. was 
 called to Berlin as director of the physical class in 
 the Academy of Sciences, and died April 20, 1S21. 
 He wrote, among other similar i ays, one on the 
 tan Uanuftuture of Sugar from H"< (Leip. 
 1809). 
 
 ACHELO'TJS, now called ASPROPOTAMO (i. e., 
 White River, from the cream-colour of its waters), 
 the largest river in Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, 
 flows through the land of the Dolopians, divides 
 iEtolia from Aearnania, and falls into the Ionian 
 Sea. The extensive alluvial deposits at the mouth 
 river have been observed from ancient times. 
 It i said that the banks of the A. were anciently 
 the haunt of lions. 
 
 ACHENIUM,ACH(F.XIX*M,orAKKNH'M,a 
 term now very frequently employed by botanists, to 
 di : date a dry, hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, 
 in which the integuments of the seed arc close! 
 applied to it, but distinct from it. Such are what 
 are popularly called the sffd* of borage, and other 
 plants of the same natural order. They were termed 
 
 nuts by Linns us. aare ag p 
 
 i a i man recepl iclei forming wl 
 called an etaerio, as in the ranunculi! b b they 
 
 ced upon a dry receptacle, or in the straw- 
 berry, in which th.- receptacle is fleshy. Somi tunes 
 i ,, edachi « ithin the B 
 
 I 1 ..- calyx, as in the rose. Ihe Eruil of the 
 OomposiUe is also sometimi called an A.; but a 
 different appellation [cypeela) • to it, 
 
 because the tube of the calyx coheres with the 
 fruit, the nunc A. being limited to Sli 
 fruits. 
 
 A'CHI'.IM IN, the name given to leveral rivers by 
 the ancients, always with reference to some peculi- 
 arity, such as black or bitter waters, or mephitic 
 The A. in rhesprotia, which flows through 
 the lake Acheritsia, and pour- itself into the Ionian 
 Sea; another river of the same name in Klis, 
 now called Sacuto; and BeveraJ streams in E 
 
 I to have innii it « ith 
 
 the infernal world. According to Pausanias, Homer 
 borrowed from the riverin Thesprotia the name of 
 his infernal A., which the later poets surrounded 
 with many imaginary horrors. Other lib. bi idi 
 
 bove mentioned, bore the name of Acherusia; 
 e. g., the lake near Hermione in Argolia. 
 
 A-CHEVA'L POSITION. When troops are 
 arranged BO that a river or highwaj p 
 
 i tic centre and forms a perpendicular to 
 the front, they are Baid to be drawn up in A. 1'. 
 Wellington's army at Waterloo was drcJteval on the 
 road froi oi to Brussels, lu eases where a 
 
 river forms the perpendicular to the front, secure 
 possession of a bud-.- is necessary ; otic 
 half of the troops might be routed, while the 
 remainder stood idly as spectators. 
 
 A'CHILL, or 'Eagle' Isle, off the west coast 
 of Ireland, is reckoned within the county of Mayo. 
 It is 151 Hides long by 12J miles broad, and has a 
 very irrcgidar coast-line, though its general shape 
 is almost that of a right-angled triangle. It has a 
 wild and desolate appearance; mosl of the surface 
 is boggy; of the 35,000 acres which the island 
 contains", not half a thousand are cultivated. There 
 are three villages in A., and a number of hovels 
 or huts scattered over it- barren moors. 
 
 in :-ni ill clusters, forming hamlets, but BO Ill ( 
 
 as hardly to be lit tor beasts. A. rises tOV. 
 the north and west coast, where the mountains 
 attain an elevation of 2000 feet. One of them, 
 composed, like the rest of the island, wholly of 
 mica-slate, presents, towards tin- sea, a she* C preci- 
 pice from its peak to its base, a height of -g-jus feet. 
 is a mission. station in the island, which forms 
 an exception to the general wretchedness of the 
 houses. It possesses, amongst other agencies of 
 civilisation, a printing-press. The population is 
 decreasing, from emigration and other causes: in 
 1841, it amounted to 5000 ; in 1851, to 4000. 
 
 ACHILL-E'A, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Composita (q.v.), having small flowers (heads 
 .,f flowers) disposed in corymbs, and the receptacle 
 covered with chaffy scales (small bractess). The 
 florets of the ray are female, and have a short, 
 roundish tongue or lip; the florets of the disk are 
 hermaphrodite, the -tube of the corolla flatly com- 
 pressed and two-w inged ; the involucre is imbricated. 
 
 The common V u:i:ow or Milfoil (A. mfflefoUwrn) 
 abounds in all parts of Europe and in some parts of 
 North America- into which, however, it has perhaps 
 been carried from Europe— growing in meadows, 
 pastures, &c. It is about a foot in height : its leaves 
 hipinnate, the pinna deeply divided, the segments 
 narrow and crowded. It has white or rose-coloured 
 flowers. The leaves have a bitterish aromatic,
 
 ACHILLES-ACHROMATIC. 
 
 somewhat austere taste, ami little smell ; the flowers 
 have a strong aromatic smell, with an aromati 
 taste, and contain an essential oil, a resin, bitter 
 extractive, gum, several salts, ami traces of sulphur. 
 Both haves and flowers are used in medicine as a 
 powerful stimulant an The leaves were 
 
 formerly much used for h—Ung wounds, and are 
 
 still so employed by th tnunon people in the 
 
 lands of Scotland and in some parts of the 
 continent. The expressed juice is a popular spring 
 medicine in Germany. Yarrow is often sown along 
 with grasses intended to form permanent | 
 for sheep; and .1. mo times called Musk 
 
 .Mil foil, is cultivated as food for cattle in Switzer- 
 land. A. mosclmta, A. atrata, and A. nana — all 
 natives of the Alps --are very aromatic, and bear 
 the name of t.KMi'i or GKHIPP. The inhabitants 
 of the Alps value them very highly, and use them 
 for making what is called Swug Tea. Tiny are 
 luting and tonic ; as are also A. sr.tacea 
 Hit, both natives of Switzerland and other 
 middli Europe, and .1. ageratum,a native 
 
 of the south of Europe, used by the French as a 
 vulnerary, and called Herbe au Cha 
 
 BWOBX [A. Ptarmica) is a native of Britain and 
 other puts of Europe, 1—3 feet high, with lanceolate 
 . and nnieh larger flowers than the common 
 1. It grows in meadows and damp* | 
 The runt, which is aromatic, is used as a substitute 
 for Pellitory of Spain (q. v.), and the whole plant 
 is pungent and provokes a flow of saliva. 
 
 Ai IH'LIjES, the hero of Homer's ///or/, was the 
 son of KingPeleus and Thetis, a sea-goddess, belong- 
 ing tfl a line descended from Jove, Of bis life 
 before the Trojan war, and of bis .Lath after the 
 fall of Troy, the poets after Homer first pro 
 give accounts. We are told that he was dipped in 
 the river Styx by his mother, and was thus made 
 invulnerable, except in the heel, by which he was 
 held during the process ; hence ' the heel of A.' 
 became a proverbial phrase to denote any vulnerable 
 point in a man's character. It had been prop 
 at his birth that his life v.. mid be short; and, 
 fore, when the seer Calchas announced that without 
 A. Troy could not be taken, his mother, to keep 
 lurn from the dangers of the expedition, concealed 
 him at the court of King Lyeomedes, among 
 daughters the boy lived disguised as a girl. But 
 
 discovered him by a stratagem. He o 
 to the young ladies a number of articles, some of 
 
 nine attire and others of arms; and the 
 warrior was betrayed by his choice. A., in the Greek 
 campaign against Troy, appeared with fifty vessels 
 manned by his followers, the Myrmidons; but 
 remained sullen and inactive during a great p 
 the contest. When the city of Lyrnessus was taken, 
 he had seized and carried away the beautiful Briseis. 
 -V pestilence in the Greek camp being ascril 
 the anger of Apollo, whose priest had been robbed 
 of his daughter, Chrysela, by Agamemnon; Aga- 
 memnon was compelled by the army to send Chrysi ; 9 
 back to her father. On this, he took away Briseis 
 from A., which greatly offended the latter. With 
 this incident, the Iliad begins. Neither the splendid 
 offers made by A i nor the disasters of the 
 
 Greeks, could aft >\v A. to take any part 
 
 in the contest, until bis friend 1'atroelus was slain by 
 Hector. The hero then buckled on his armour, which 
 had been made for him by Vulcan, and of which the 
 shield i at great length by Homer. The 
 
 fortunes of the held were now suddenly I hanged in 
 favour of the Greeks; and the vengeance of A. was 
 not satiated until he had slain a great number of 
 the Trojan heroes, and lastly. Hector, whose body 
 he fastened to Ins chariot, and dragged into the 
 Grecian camp. He then buried his friend Patroclua 
 
 with great funereal honours. King Priam, the father 
 of Ho I by night to the tent of A., and 
 
 prayed that the body of his 
 son might be given back to 
 
 the Trojans. A. COnSl 
 and with the burial of II 
 
 loses. We are 
 told, that soon after the fall 
 of Hector, A. made a contract 
 of marriage with P.,1. 
 r of the J 
 king, but was slain by her 
 brother Paris, in the temple of 
 
 . where the mai 
 should have been celeb 
 According to other accounts, 
 he was slain by Apollo, who 
 assumed the likeness of Paris 
 as a disguise. His ashes were 
 placed in an urn, with those of 
 his friend Pal 1 were 
 
 buried on the promontory of 
 Sigeum, where, after the fall 
 of Troy, the princess Polyxena, 
 who had been made a prisoner, 
 was offered as a propria 
 sacrifice. 
 
 Achilles, from an 
 ancient statue. 
 
 ACHILLES' TEXDOX(7V»./o.' taches 
 
 the soleus ami gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of 
 the leg to the heel-bone. It is capable of rt 
 a force equal to a 1000 lbs. weight: and yet is fre- 
 quently ruptured by the contraction of these mu 
 in sudden extension of the foot. The name was given 
 with reference to the death of the Grecian hero 
 Achilles by a wound in the heel. Ancient surgeons 
 I wounds or serious bruises of the A. T. as 
 fatal. 
 
 ACHIME'XES, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Qemeracea (q. v.), much cultivated in stoves 
 and greenhouses for the beauty of their flowers. 
 The species are numerous — natives of the warm 
 parts of America. 
 
 ACHROMATIC (without colour), the name 
 applied to lenses and telescopes through which objects 
 are seen without false colours, or, in other words, free 
 bom that coloured fringe- which, in the old " 
 copes, surrounded the object, and diminished its < ■ 
 tinctness. The white, or rather colourless ray of 
 light is composed of several cob" which 
 
 arious degrees of refrangibility. See Ei i 
 Tioy, Light, Colour. When the direct ray is 
 
 d, e divides itself into coloured rays, d< 
 ing in various degrees from the right line of the 
 primitive ray. The rays thus refracted by the con- 
 vex object-glass do not meet exactly in one point, 
 the focus of the glass, but rather at several p 
 
 the various colours, red, blue, and 
 yellow, which surround the object Newton, misled 
 by imperfect experiment ie to 
 
 find an. for this defect ; but Enler, in 
 
 174", exprei ed his com ction that the desh 
 improvement was praci belief was 
 
 confirmed by the dish niathe- 
 
 matii -inn Klingensticrna. The practical solution of 
 the difficult lerved for John Dollond; 
 
 i. when he obtained a patent for his A. teles- 
 cope, a priority of invention was claimed for a 
 
 man of the name of Hall. Dollon.i 
 m forming an A. object-glass by a combination 
 of crow 1 flint-glass, which follow one 
 
 law as to their relative refractive po 
 another as to their powers of dispersing the colours. 
 By uniting a convex lens of crown-glass with a cou- 
 caye one ol Bint-glass, in certain relative dimei 
 a reunion of the coloured rays may be effected, and 
 
 n
 
 ACI KEALE— ACONITE. 
 
 the object will lie seen without false colours. 
 
 In the construction of A. telescopes, I'-' 1 ! I 
 
 followed by his son Peter, and also by the 
 
 ii. A further improvement was 
 
 bj Fraunhofer of -Munich, who am ded is 
 
 ily pure glass— a very difficult 
 
 i in the case of llint gla . \V ,vo 
 
 an important improvement oi tin- A. tel 
 to the Viennese optician Plb'sal, who lias lately 
 invented what he calls the dialytie telescope, in 
 which the Beveral kinds of glass composing the 
 compound object-glass are not placed close to 
 lated distances apart. This arran 
 
 Hie tube. Sec Telescope. 
 
 A'OI KEA'Lri, a town of Sicily, in the district of 
 .it tin- foot "i Mount Etna, on the 
 small river Aei. Sowing from Etna, 
 • a. The town is 1 
 
 id contains 19,000 inhabitants, who 
 
 uployed elm Bj in tin- manufacture of linen 
 
 id . ilk ;' it also on a not inconsid 
 
 ids in llax and grain. -Many of the edifices 
 
 a, A. K. is famed for it mineral 
 
 i , , and cave of l'olyphemus ami the 
 
 grotto oi t 1 llatea in its vicinity. 
 
 A'CIDS. An acid i 
 
 ishedbythe prop mbiningwith bases 
 
 ; ions to form salts (q.v.J. The most 
 
 strikin of A. are a sour taste, and 
 
 iperty of reddening vegetable blues. They 
 
 are also mostly oxidi . and at one time 
 
 :i was thought to be essential to an arid, as tile 
 d-producer) indicates. Subse- 
 quent experience has extended the definition. There 
 is an important class of undoubted A. that con- 
 tain no oxygen ; and silex, or Hint, which, being 
 insoluble, neither tastes sour nor reddens litinus- 
 , is held to be an acid because it conibin. 
 and forms compounds like acknowledged 
 A. '! I ■ ' A., which are by far the most 
 
 i ' i id of elements (sulphur, 
 
 nitrogen, chromium, &c), with two or more equiva- 
 lents of oxygen. The elements that form the 
 strongest A. with die, and 
 
 of them have more than one stage of acid 
 lion. Thus sulphur, with two equivalents of 
 oxygen, forms sulphurous acid, symbol S0 2 ; with 
 three equivalents it forms sulphuric acid, symbol 
 SO,. Similarly, arsenic gives rise to arsenious acid 
 (AsOj) and arsenic acid (AsO). The higher 
 of oxidation forms the stronger and more 
 a.id. All metals, except arsenic, that form A. with 
 n, have also, at a lower stage of oxidation, 
 one or more oxides. To these oxygen A. must be 
 added the organic A., composed cither of carbon 
 
 and 0x3 11, as oxalic acid (C 2 O s ), or of these two 
 
 dn .gen, as acetic acid (C^HjO,) and 
 acid (C,HO,). There are also A. found in 
 1 fluids or resulting from their decomp 
 which contain nitrogen in addition to the three 
 elements above nan id ; Midi is uric acid (C^N,!!^). 
 The hydrogen -1. are formed of hydrogen and a 
 I, 11! her simple or compound. The most im- 
 pe of it ■ claf 1, 1 1 hydro- 
 chloric or muriatic acid (CI II) ; others are liydi iodic 
 (III) and hydrocyanic A. (NC.H). As all A., I ow- 
 ever, even oxygen A, possess acid properties — i.e., 
 combine with bases — only when in combination 
 with water, a new view of the constitution of A. 
 is beginning to prevail, which makes hydrogen the 
 
 : lement in all A. Thus, in 
 of considering vitriol as a compound of sulphuric 
 acid and water (S0 3 +HO), the hydrated acid is held 
 to he the real sulphuric acid, and its rational formula 
 to be (S0 4 U). It thus becomes analogous to hydro- 
 
 chloric acid (C1H). This view has not oidy the 
 
 advantage of bringing all A. into one .lass, but 
 
 iin theory of uieir combination with bases 
 
 and of their capacity of saturation uniform anil 
 
 1 11 usTiiv, iii Supplement. 
 
 ack r.i;.M AN' N, Rudolph, a native of Saxony in 
 
 ny (b. 17(14 — (1. 1834), cami I 1 1 ondon, where 
 
 In opened a repository of the tine arts in the Strand, 
 
 which succeeded will. lb- ii I the art of 
 
 aphy into England, and was ator of 
 
 iniials' (i|. v.), which he eon in I- 'iice. 1 by his For- 
 not, published iii 1823 and following years. 
 
 Among his numerous illui bated publications maybe 
 n .1 his H I Arts, Lib rature, and 
 
 : Microcosm of London ; Westmit 
 
 and l 
 
 v, l-engraving, Q 
 
 really 
 
 fc. i by this 1 ' n. His kind- 
 
 nrhom he had left in 
 Si onj ought aot to be left unmentioned. 
 
 A'COLYTKS, a name occurring first abon 
 .Id c, and applied to fun. i i ..ho assisted 
 
 hops and priests in the performance of reli- 
 gious rites, lighting tl I" rating the 
 
 and water at the communion, > 
 were con idered as in holy ord 
 next to sub-deacons. These mi. have, since the 
 7th c, been performed by laymen and boys, who 
 are improperly called A. ; but in the Romish 
 Church, aspii-auts to the priesthood are still at one 
 stage consecrated as A., receiving caudles and 
 cups as the symbols of the office. See Orders, Holy 
 
 A'CONITE (Aconitum), a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Iln 1111 iiciilun CB (q. v.), having live 
 
 petaloid sepals, of which the upper one is helmet- 
 shaped, and two hammer-headed petals concealed 
 
 within the helmet-shaped sepal. The tin 
 of 3 — 5 follicles. A. NapdhiS, the common Wolf's- 
 cam: or Monk's-hood, often cultivated in flower- 
 gardens for the sake of its erect racemes of blue 
 
 k's-hood [Aco ellut): 
 
 ,1, fruit ; b, root, 
 
 , is a somewhat doubtful native of England, 
 but common in some parts of Europe. The rool 
 fusiform and clustered. The root and whole plant 
 are very poisonous, containing an alkaloid, called 
 I'iia; one of the most virulent of 
 all known poisons; but an extract of the leaves 
 is a valuable medicine, administered in small 1 
 for nervous and other diseases. An A., sometimes 
 called A. Stoerckianum, but generally regarded as a
 
 ACORN-SHELL-ACOUSTICS. 
 
 variety of A. Cammarum (also known as A.pani- 
 eulatum), was brought into great repute on the 
 continent during last century by Dr Stoerck, an 
 Austrian imperial physician, and is still much 
 cnltival iicinal use. Tho same prop 
 
 or less degree to belong to a 
 
 number, if not to all, of the species of this genus, 
 
 ntain the same alkaloid Tho virulent 
 
 poison of India, equally fatal in its effects 
 
 •a In tlier introduced into wounds or taken into the 
 
 stomach, is prepared from the roots of ; 
 
 -. The A. ferox of Nepaul, from which 
 much of it is obtained, lias been identified by 
 Drs Hooker and Thomson with .4. Napdlua. Two 
 other Himalayan specii i, .1- pahnatonn and .-1. luri- 
 dwm, are equally employed in its preparation. A. 
 nil, nm, or white-flowered monk's-hood, a native of 
 Hie Levant., and A. lycodonum, yellow-fl 
 
 monk's-b 1, or wolfs-bane, a native o 
 
 are not unfrequent in our flow 
 
 ACORN-SHELL. See Lalams. 
 A'CORUS, .1 genus of plants of the natural 
 
 1 i;i it), or, according to other botanists, 
 i natural order OronHaeeas, which is rei 
 connecting-link between Aroideai and J 
 The plants of this genus have a leaf-like scape, 
 which bears upon its side a dense, cylin 
 greenish spike of Bowers, with 6-p aceous 
 
 th and six stamina in eaeli flower. To this 
 belongs the Sweet Flag [A. ailamus), which 
 ago brought from Asia, and in the 
 c. was planted in the gardens of princes and 
 rich men, but has now become naturalised in 
 ny, &c, growing in marshes and 
 ditches. Its root (rhizome) is perennial, divided into 
 long joints about the thickness of the thumb, has a 
 bitterish acrid taste, and is very aromatic. It is a 
 powej ml medicine of transient tonic effect, occasion- 
 ally used, especially in cases of weak digestion. In 
 many places of the continent it is to be found in 
 every confectioner's, cut into slices, and prepared with 
 sugar. It is also used to correct the empyreumatic 
 odour of spirits, and to give them a peculiar flavour. 
 It is called Calamus Boot. In Britain it is chiefly 
 employed by perfumers in the manufacture of 
 hair-powder. — The other species of A. are likewise 
 aromatic, and are applied to the same A> 
 
 gramineut is cultivated in China. 
 
 ACOSTA, Gabriel, a Portuguese nobleman, 
 ruled from a Jewish family, bom at Oporto in 
 1587. After being educated in the doctrines of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, ho became sceptical, and 
 leaving Portugal, went to Amsterdam, where he 
 adopted the Jewish faith. He did not remain long 
 inted with his new creed; but wrote against 
 the Pentateuch, disputed the doctrine of the soul's 
 immortality, and became involved in controversy 
 with his rabbinical teachers. On account of his 
 work, entitled Examende Tradifoens Phariseas con- 
 las ron a ley Bteripta (Examination of Pharisaic 
 Traditions compared with ffle Scriptures), lt'.j I, 
 he was charged with atheism liy the Jews before a 
 Christian magistracy. Having lost his property, 
 and being sentenced to a seven years' excommuni- 
 cation, he sought reconciliation with the synagogue, 
 and submitted to very ignominious chastisements, 
 which were repeatedly inflicted as often as his reli- 
 gious doubts arose again ; until, ina state of in 
 he ended his career by suicide in 1G40, or, as others 
 say, in 1047. His autobiography was published in 
 Latin and German (I.eip. 1847). 
 
 ACOTYLE TDONOTTS PLANTS (Acotyledones oi 
 Jussieu), one of the great primary classes into which 
 the vegetable kingdom is divided, according to 
 the structure of tho seed and whole development 
 
 therewith connected. See Cotyledon'. The class of 
 Acotyledones contains those plants which, in the 
 l.innaan system, form the class CBYPTOGAjriA (rj. v.). 
 
 * irtly of Acror/enous Plants (i). v 
 Ferns and (losses, and partly of Tludloaenous J' 
 (q. v.), as Lichens, Fungi, and AlgSft It thus includes 
 
 t organisation, v 
 embryo exhibits no distinct seed-lobes (cotyledons), 
 but is a mere cell i th -.Tanular matter in 
 
 its interior, and germinates indifferently from any 
 point of its surface. 
 
 ACOU'STICS (Or. < r) is the science 
 
 of sound. This part of physics is often treated in 
 connection with the atmosphere — an arrangement 
 that seems inappropriate ; for the atmosphere is only 
 the most common conductor of sound ; and every 
 substance, whether solid or fluid, is capable, as 
 well as air, of soimding itself, or of conveying the 
 sound of other bodies. A. is rather a part of 
 the science of motion. All motion is either 
 lineal, circular, or vibratory ; and when a vibratory 
 motion is quick enough to affect the sense of hi 
 — for which at least thirty vibrations in a second 
 required — it constitutes a sound. A definable, 
 uniform sound is a note or tone, and the rapidity of 
 the vibrations is its pitch ; a confused indeterminate 
 soimd is a noise. The chief subjects treated of in 
 A. are : 1. .Musical sounds, or Notes (q.v.). Here tho 
 cpiestion is concerning the absolute and relative velo- 
 cities of the vibrations, and those modifications, called 
 iinent, to which their original proportions 
 are subjected for the practical purposes of music. 
 
 2. The origin of Soimd (q. v.), and the laws which 
 guide the vibrations of sound i . and which 
 give rise to different phenomena in different sub- 
 stances. In all sounding bodies, it is elasticity that 
 is to be looked upon as the moving power. Tl 
 
 i icity "f a soimding body may arise from stretching, 
 as in the strings of a violin or the head of a drum ; 
 or from its own stiffness, as in rods, bells, te. 
 
 3. The propagation of sound, as well through the air 
 and other gases as through solids and liquids; and 
 the reflection of sounds or echoes. All ela 
 conduct soimd, many much more powerfully than 
 air. In water the conducting power is four times 
 stronger than it is in air ; in tin, seven times ; in 
 sUver, nine times ; in iron, ten times ; in glass, 
 seventeen times. 4. Perception of sound, or tho 
 structure and functions of the Ear (q. v.). 
 
 The ancients had made attempts to cultivate 
 A. Pythagoras and Aristotle were aware of the 
 way that soimd is propagated through the air, 
 but as a science independent of its application to 
 music, it belongs almost entirely to modern times. 
 Bacon and Galileo laid the foundation of this new- 
 mathematical science ; Newton shewed by calcula- 
 tion how the propagation of soimd depends upon the 
 elasticity of the atmosphere or other conducting 
 medium. He observed that a sounding body acts by 
 condensing the portions of air that lie next it, and 
 in the direction of the impidse. These condensed 
 portions then spring back by their elasticity, aud at 
 the same time impel forward the portions lying next 
 Bach separate portion of air is thus driven 
 forwards and backwards; and thus all rouim 
 sounding body then- is an alternate condensation 
 and rarefaction of air, constituting, as it I 
 waves of sound. In determining the velocity of 
 sound, Newton, Lagrange, and Eider erred in their 
 calculations ; the best researches on this subjt 
 those of Laplace. Chladni first raised A. to an 
 independent science. In recent times, compar- 
 atively little has been done in this branch of physics. 
 Savart has determined more exactly the number of 
 vibrations in a second necessary to produce an audiblo 
 sound; aud Cagniard do Latour invented the
 
 ACQUI— ACROGEXOUS PLANTS. 
 
 and discovered man; of the conditions under which 
 both solids and fluids sound. The Bounding of heati d 
 metals, when laid on cold metallic support 
 
 i i li ili eusaion. Bee Eainb. Phil 
 
 Journal. Faraday and Marx have examined the 
 
 of Bound; Wheatetone, the phenomena of 
 
 sympathetic sounds; and Willi-, the formation of 
 
 vowel nl- by the human voice. 
 
 While tin' principles of A. arc well known in 
 j , they are seldom carried out to a satisfactory 
 result iii practice. We allude more particularly to 
 the many instances in which costrj as embly halls 
 anil church. . .hi ill 1. 1 tivi i public peaking ; 
 
 it. In in . . linn \y a mere chance that new edifici 
 of this kind exhibit proper acoustic qualities. Cn 
 some cases, the sounds uttered cause echoes anil 
 revi rberations, perpli ring alike to a speaker and his 
 auditory, and in others the sound- are dispersed at a 
 high elevation and are lost. This subject urgently 
 demands consideration in connection with architec 
 ture. As a general rule, the ceilings of halls should 
 be at a in. .derate elevation : the lowering of a ei iling 
 and the removal of chandeliers, have been known to 
 
 improve the peaking and hearing properties; and 
 
 the hanging u j...i il.. ; and draperies has, in a variety 
 
 of instances, had a similarly s 1 effect. The 
 
 whispering gallery of St Paul's, London, oilers an 
 interesting example of one of the phenomena in 
 acoustics. See El HO. 
 
 A'CQTJI (Lat. Aqua; Statielhe), a walled town of 
 Piedmont, on the left hank of the Bormida, and 
 distant. 18 miles from Alessandria. It derives its 
 name from its hot sulphur springs, which were 
 known to 11"' Romans, and which are much fre- 
 quented by invalids from the north of Italy. The 
 town is of great antiquity, and contains many 
 remarkable buildings, especially of an ecclesiastical 
 character. It has some silk-factories, &c. Pop., 8000. 
 
 ACRE. The word is identical with Lat. ager, Gr. 
 
 , ' a lielil ; ' the i ler. acker means both 'a field' 
 
 i 'measure of land.' Most nations have some 
 
 measure nearly corresponding; originally, perhaps, 
 
 the quantity which one plough could plough in a 
 
 day; uniformity, then fore, is not to be looked for. 
 
 The English statute A. consists of 4840 square 
 yards. The chain with which land is measured 
 IS 22 yards long, and a square chain will contain 
 '22 x 22, or 48 I J ard - ; so that 10 square chains make 
 an acre. The acre is divided into -1 roods, a rood 
 into 40 perches, and a perch contains 30.} square 
 yards. The Scotch A. is larger than the English, 
 and the Irish than the Scotch. 121 Ir. ae. = 190 
 Eng., nearly; 48 Sc. ac. = til Eng. The following 
 table shews the values of the more important corre- 
 sponding measures compared with the English A. : 
 
 English acre, 
 
 Scotch » 
 
 Irish » , . . 
 
 Austria, Joeh 
 
 l. nil n, Morgen or Acre, . 
 Belgium, Hectare (French), . 
 
 1 i elc, Tocndc, 
 
 ,. (Hectare (= 100 arcs), 
 
 tnam t&rpent (common), 
 Hamburg, Morgen, . . 
 Hanover, » , . 
 Holland, • , 
 
 Naples, Moggia, . 
 Poland, Morgen, . 
 Portugal, Gcira, 
 Prussia JLittle Morgen, 
 1 nls '■' (Great Morgen, . 
 Pussia, licciatina, 
 Sardinia, Giornate, . 
 Saxony, Morgen, . 
 Spain, ranegada, 
 Sweden, T.innclanil, . 
 Switzerland, Faux, . 
 
 » , Geneva, Arpent, 
 
 Tuscany, Saccata, 
 33 
 
 United States, English aero, . . . 1*00 
 
 Wurtemberg, Morgen, . .... - 10 
 
 n'C'i 
 
 t'leiiiron [ancient), 1*39 
 
 win:, Si .li .-. d', the biblical Accho, known as 
 wis in the middle ages, is a seaport town situ- 
 ated "ii the coast hi Syria, not far lYoni the base of 
 Mount I'armel, and contain. 111 15,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The harbour is partly choked with sand, yet i 
 
 of the best on this const. A. has often been the 
 arena of warfare, and has Buffered man;. 
 
 i-.i i une. In 1004, it was taken by the Gene 
 
 1 187, bj the Sultan Saladin ; afterw ■ it bei ime 
 
 the i inef landing-place of the Crusaders, tin eal of 
 
 hi hop and of the Order of St John ; next, it. fell 
 into the hands of the Egyptians; and in 1 .".1 7 was 
 
 captured by the Turks ; in 1799, ii i I Lby 
 
 ili.. French for sixty-one days, luit was mi. sci 
 defended bythe garrison, aided bj I oglish 
 
 sailors and marines under Sidney Smith. In 1832, 
 
 it was stormed by Ibrahim Pacha, s fthe viceroy 
 
 ..f Egypt, and continued in his possession till ii 
 bombarded and taken, in 1840, by a combined 
 
 English, Austrian, and Turkish licet. See I'.gvit. 
 
 A'CROBAT, a word di rived from the Greek, and 
 nearly synonymous with rope-dancer. It literally 
 
 one win. walks on tip-toe [aJcron, an ■ 
 tremity, and baino, I go) i ami is employed to 
 designate those who p erf orm difficult feats, vaulting, 
 sliding, tumbling, and dancing on or tight 
 
 rope, stretched either horizontally or obliquely. 
 These feats rei|iiire great skill, suppleness, and 
 steadiness. For a longtime, acrobat wi re contented 
 to divert and astonish only children or Hie most, 
 nt of the populace ; lmt the extraordinary 
 skill of some recent performers has given this 
 perilous art a great celebrity. Within tin' present 
 century. Farioso, Madame Saqui,&nd Signor Diavolo 
 have excited the admiration of all Paris by their 
 marvellous agility. The acrobats of antiquity 
 appear to have closely resembled those of our 
 
 own day. 
 
 ACRO'GENOTJS PLANTS (Gr., growing at the 
 summit) are plants in which the structure of the 
 stem is aavj- .".•'.'••.' that is, in which the vascular 
 bundles are developed simultaneously, and not in 
 succession, the stem increasing by the coin 
 
 Section of Acrogcnous 
 
 Stem. 
 
 $tim* 
 
 '•tree Fern. 
 
 of the bases of the leaves and by elongation at 
 the summit. In a transverse Bection of the stem, 
 a circle of vascular tissue is found near the cir- 
 cumference, and the centre is composed of cellular 
 tissue, some portion of winch frequently disappears, 
 so that the stem, although solid when young, 
 becomes hollow in a more advanced stage of its 
 growth. Tree-ferns afford the finest specimens of 
 the acrogenous stem. All A. P. have ttomata, or 
 breathing-pores, on the surface. In general, they 
 have a "distinct stem and leaves arranged with
 
 ACROLITHS— ACT. 
 
 most perfect symmetry. Some plants, in which the 
 distinct stem in absent, are tanked with A. P., 
 because the thallua has the texture of leaves, 
 and exhibits a higher organisation than in Thcilio- 
 
 genous Plants ((\. v.). A. I', an; all Acolylrihuinus 
 
 [a. v.); ami under this designation are included 
 Ferns, Eguisetacece, Lycopoaiaeae, Marsileacece, 
 Mosses, and Bepaticce, 
 
 A'CROLITHS (Gt. acron, extremity; lithos, a 
 stone), the name given to the oldest works of 
 ( toeek plastic art, in which wood-carving is seen in 
 transition into marble statuary. The trunk of the 
 figure is still, in the old style, of wood, covered with 
 the usual temple-vestments ; but the extremities — 
 head, amis, feet — which are meant to appear naked 
 from below the ib-apcry, are of stone. 
 
 ACROPOLIS, ' the highest point of the city.' 
 
 Many of the important cities of Greece and Asia 
 Minor were protected by strongholds, so named. 
 The A. occupied a lofty position, commanding the 
 city and its environs ; inaccessible on all sides 
 except one, which had, for the most part, artificial 
 defences. It contained some of the most important 
 
 ~^.:': m 
 
 Acropolis at Athens. 
 
 public buildings, especially temples, besides afford- 
 ing a last refuge in case of a hostile attack. The 
 A., like the castle of the middle ages, had formed 
 the centre or nucleus around which the town gradu- 
 ally grew. Among the most celebrated of the 
 ancient Acropolises was that of Argos, whose name, 
 Larissa, indicates its Pelasgie Orion ; that of 
 Mesaenia, which bore the name of Ithome; that 
 of Thebes, called Cadmeaj that of Corinth, known 
 as Acro-Corinthus ; but especially that of Athens, 
 which was styled pre-eminently the A. See 
 Athens. 
 
 ACROSTIC is a Creek term for a number of 
 verses the hist letters of which follow some piv- 
 determined order, usually forming a word -most 
 commonly a name or a phrase or sentence. Some- 
 times the final letters spell words as well as the 
 initial, and the peculiarity will even run down the 
 
 middle of the poem like a seam, sir .John Davies 
 composed twenty-four Hymns to Aetna (Queen 
 
 Elizabeth), in every f which the initial letters 
 
 of the lines form the words Kusabetha Recsixa. 
 The following is one of the twenty-four; 
 
 E v'ry nicht from ev'n to morn. 
 
 1* ovi's chorister nmitl the thorn 
 
 I s now so sweet a ringer : 
 
 S sweet, as for her son? I scorn 
 
 A polio's voice and linger 
 
 It ut, nightingale, sith you delight 
 E ret to watch the starry night, 
 T ell all the stars of heaven, 
 1 1 caven never had a star so bright 
 A s now to earth is given. 
 
 H oyal A«trea makes our day 
 E ternal with her beams, ner may 
 G ross darkness overcome her : 
 I now perceive why some do write 
 >' o country hath so short a night 
 A s England hath in Bummer. 
 
 In the A. poetry of the Hebrews, the initial letters 
 of the lines or of the stanzas were made to run over 
 the letters of the alphabet in their order. Twelve of 
 the psalms of the Old Testament are written on tins 
 plan. The 119th Psalm is the most remarkable. It is 
 composed of twenty-two divisions or stanzas (cor- 
 responding to the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew 
 alphabet), each stanza consisting of eight coup 
 and the first line of each couplet in tic first stanza 
 begins, in the original Hebrew, with the letter aleph, 
 in the second stanza, with belli, &c. The divisions 
 of the psalm are named each after the lett. I 
 begins the couplets, and these names have been 
 retained in the English translation. With a view to 
 aid the memory, it was customary at one time to 
 compose verses on sacred subjects after the fashion 
 of those Hebrew acrostics, the successive verses or 
 lines beginning with the letters of the alphabet in 
 their order. Such pieces were called Abecedarian 
 Hymns. See Hook's Church Dictionary. 
 
 ACROTE'RION (Gr., the summit or extremity), a 
 term in Arch, for a statue or other ornament placed 
 on the apex or at one of the lower angles of a pedi- 
 ment. Some understand by A., the pedestal on 
 which such ornament stands. 
 
 ACT, in the Drama, is a distinct part of tile 
 general plot or action, and its conclusion is usually 
 marked by a fall of the curtain. An act should 
 be, in a certain sense, complete in itself, and at 
 the same time shoidd form a necessary- part of the 
 whole drama. As every dramatic plot naturally 
 divides itself into three parts — the exposition, the 
 development, and the conclusion or catastrophe — a 
 division into three acts woidd seem most natural ; 
 but in practice it has been found inconvenient to 
 enclose extended plots in such limits, and since the 
 time of the ancient Greek tragedy, five acts have 
 generally been considered necessary. In the first 
 act, the general nature of the drama is indicated, the 
 characters are introduced, anil the action commences, 
 The plot shoidd rise in interest in the second, and 
 reach its climax in the third act. In the fourth act, 
 the conclusion or catastrophe should bo prepared, 
 but shoidd by no means be anticipated so as to 
 weaken the effect of the denouement, which most 
 occupy the fifth act. This is a rather difficult task ; 
 and, accordingly, many dramas fail in the fourth art. 
 
 ACT, in the University sense, is an exercise pre- 
 paratory to receiving a degree. The student who 
 ■ keeps the Act,' and who is called the ' Respondent,' 
 reads a Latin thesis on some proposition which he 
 has announced that he is to maintain. Three other 
 students, who have been naiied by the Proctor as 
 ' Opponents,' then try, one after another, to refute 
 his arguments syllogistieally in Latin. The practice 
 of keeping Acts is still adhered to, as a form at I 
 at Cambridge. 
 
 ACT, in Law, has various meanings. In its 
 more general acceptation it is used to denote 
 solemn accomplishment of some distinctive pro- 
 ceeding, as when a person in England, when execut- 
 ii!" a legal instrument, declares it to be bis act and 
 deed. Formerly, in Scotland, the word A. was fre- 
 quently applied to tin- procedure in a liti 
 
 U
 
 ACT OF BANKRUPTCY— ACT OF PARL] \MENT. 
 
 cause; and to this day the technical term t" 
 
 a plaintiff in Scotch pleading is . 
 
 Ada <•/ Sederunt (q. v.). By an A. ia 
 
 tin. s meant an act or proceeding, or rather the 
 
 record of an act or proceeding, of a public na1 
 
 and in this sense it is used when "■• speak "i 
 
 an A. of Parliament (q.v.). This ose of the 
 
 woid appears to be derived from the Romans, who 
 
 employed Acta i" signify specially public official 
 
 transactions, and oftener perhaps the records of such 
 
 transactions. The Ada Dwrna was a kind of official 
 Roman gazette, giving an account of the public 
 
 tious and events of the day. The Germans 
 use Aden, and the French A < airy official or 
 
 legal documents, or papers generally, lie' title Acta 
 has been applied in modern times to the journals 
 or records of learned societies : Acta Soeu tatu R< gia 
 — the Transactions of the Royal Society. Acta 
 Erudiloriim, tlie oldest journal of erudition in 
 Germany, was begun at Leipsic in 1GS0, and iv.u .1 
 pubbcation in 1782, when it had extended to 117 
 quarto volumes. To these may he added (shewing 
 the close connection between the Roman and Scotch 
 legal institutions and their phraseology) the Acta 
 Auditonan, or the records of the proceedings of the 
 Lords Auditors, who were a committee of the old 
 Scotch Parliament appointed to hear causes, by way 
 of appeal, and otherwise to exercise supreme juris- 
 diction. Also the Acta Dominorum Concilii, or 
 ancient records of the supreme court in Scotland. 
 
 But the word A. has at the present day several 
 precise legal applications, the principal of which we 
 now proceed to mention and explain : 
 
 Act of B.vnkui rrcv, by which is meant a 
 certain ostensible indication of insolvency on the 
 part of a debtor, sufficient to bring him within the 
 operation of the bankrupt laws. .Section 67 of the 
 existing Bankrupt Law Consolidation Act, 12 and 
 13 Vict. c. 106, defines Acts of B. in the follow- 
 ing terms : ' That if any trader, liable to become 
 bankrupt, shall depart this realm, or being out of 
 this realm, shall remain abroad, or shall depart from 
 bis dwelling-house, or otherwise absent himself, 
 or begin to keep his house, or suffer himself to be 
 arrested or taken in execution for any debt not due, 
 or yield himself to prison, or suffer himself to be 
 outlawed, or procure himself to be arrested or taken 
 in execution, or his goods, money, or chattels to be 
 attached, sequestered, or taken in execution, or 
 make or cause to be made, either within this realm 
 or elsewhere, any fraudulent grant or conveyance of 
 any of his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels, or 
 make or cause to be made any fraudulent surrender 
 of any of his copyhold lands or tenements, or make 
 or cause to be made any fraudulent gift, debvery, or 
 transfer of any of his goods or chattels, every such 
 trader doing, suffering, procuring, executing, permit- 
 ting, making, or causing to be made any of the acta, 
 deeds, or matters aforesaid, with intent to defeat or 
 dfil&y his creditors, shall be deemed to have thereby 
 committed an A. of B.' — The expression, A. o/B., is 
 unknown in the phraseology of the Scotch law ; but 
 in the definition of notour bankruptcy, and of mercan- 
 tile bankruptcy in the Scotch sequestration statutes, 
 there will be found an enumeration of the evidences 
 of insolvency analogous to the English Acts of B. 
 
 Act of God is a legal expression, and signifies 
 any natural or accidental occurrence, not caused 
 by human negligence or intervention; such as the 
 consequences arising from storms, lightning, tempests, 
 &c, and which are deemed fatalities and iosses such 
 as no party under any circumstances (independently 
 of special contract) is bound to make good to another. 
 It has been ruled in England that the loss must be 
 immediate, and the necessary consequence of the 
 accident. 
 34 
 
 V [ ok Grace is the name given to an old 
 Scotch act (1696, o. 82) for the msinti nance of poor 
 
 persons imprisoned for debt. It is usually applied in 
 England to insolvent acts, and general pardons, at 
 the beginning of a new reign or on other great 
 occasi. 
 
 Ai i nr Imif.mnitv is an annual act of parliament 
 passed for omissions in taking the oaths and assur- 
 ances required by law of persons admitted to any 
 i employment. See ABJURATION. 
 
 ACT OF PARLIAMENT U a resolution or law 
 I dby all the three branches of the legislature; — 
 the King [or Queen], Lords, and Commons. The 
 expression is generally used to signify the record of 
 an A. of P., and such records are strictly synonymous 
 with the term ' statutes ' or 'statutes of the realm.' 
 An A. of P. thus made is the highest legal authority 
 acknowledged by the constitution. It hinds every 
 subject in the land, and even the sovereign himself, 
 if named therein. And in England it cannot be 
 altered, amended, dispensed with, suspended, or 
 repealed, but in the same forms and by the same 
 authority of parliament. In Scotland, however, a 
 long course of contrary usage or of disuse may have 
 the effect of depriving a statute of its obligation, for, 
 by the Scotch law, a statute may become obsolete 
 by disuse, and cease to be legally binding. It was 
 formerly held in England that the king might in 
 many cases dispense with penal statutes ; but by the 
 statute 1 W. and M. st. 2, e. 2, it is declared that the 
 suspending or dispensing with laws by royal autho- 
 rity, without consent of parliament, is illegal. 
 
 An A. of P. or statute is either public or private. 
 
 A public act regards the whole c inutility, but the 
 
 operation of a private act is confined to particidar 
 persons and private concerns, and some private acts 
 are local, as affecting certain places only. As the 
 law till lately stood, the courts of law were bound 
 ex officio to take judicial notice, as it is called, of 
 public acts, that is, to recognise these acts as known 
 and published law, without the necessity of their 
 b.ing specially pleaded and proved; but it was 
 otherwise in regard to private acts ; so that in order 
 to claim any advantage under a private act, it was 
 necessary to plead it, and set it forth particularly. 
 But now, by the 13 and 14 Vict. c. 21, s. 7, every act 
 made after the then next session of parliament is; 
 to be taken to be a pubbc one, and judicially noticed 
 as such, unless the contrary be expressly declared. 
 
 Acts of P. are also sometimes described as ib dara- 
 lory, or penal, or remedial, according to the nature of 
 their object or provisions. Declaratory statutes are 
 where the old custom of the kingdom has almost 
 fallen into disuse, or become disputable, in which 
 case the parliament has thought proper (in pcrpetuum 
 rei testimonium, and for avoiding all doubts and 
 difficulties) to declare what the common law is and 
 ever has been. Penal acts are those which merely 
 impose penalties or punishments for an offence, as in 
 the case of the statutes relative to game. Remedial 
 acts are such as supply some defect in the existing 
 law, and redress some abuse or inconvenience with 
 which it is found to be attended, without introducing 
 any provision of a penal character. There is also a 
 distinction of Acts of P. as being either enlarging 
 or restraining, enabling or disabling acts. 
 
 An A. of P. begins to operate from the time when 
 it receives the royal assent, unless some other time 
 be fixed for the purpose by the act itself. The rule 
 on this subject, in England, was formerly different ; 
 for at common law, every A. of P., which had no 
 provision to the contrary, was considered, as soon as 
 it passed (i. e., received the royal assent),_ as having 
 been in force, retrospectively, from the first day of 
 the session of parliament in which it passed, though, 
 in fact, it might not have received the royal assent,
 
 ACTS OF SEDERUNT— ACT OF TOLERATION. 
 
 or even been introduced into parliament, until long 
 after that day; and this strange principle was 
 
 observed for centuries. The ancient aets of the 
 Scotch parliament were proclaimed in all the county 
 towns, burghs, and even in the baron courts. This 
 mode of promulgation was, h o wever, gradually 
 dropped as the use of printing became common ; 
 and in 1581, an act was passed declaring publication 
 at the Market Cross of Edinburgh to be sufficient. 
 I British statutes require no formal promulgation; 
 and in order to lix the time from which they shall 
 become binding, it was enacted by the 33 Geo. III. 
 c. 13, that every A. of P. to be passed after 8th 
 April 1793 shall commence from the date of the 
 endorsement by the clerk of parliam.-nt, stating the 
 day, month, and year when the act was passed and 
 received the royal assent, unless the comnii-ncenient 
 shall, in the act itself, be otherwise provided for. 
 
 An A. of P. consists of various parts — such as the 
 title, the preamble, the enacting sections and clauses, 
 and sometimes certain forms or schedules added by 
 way of appendix — and it is referred to by the year 
 of the sovereign's reign, and the chapter of the 
 statutes for that year. The old acts of the Scotch 
 parliament, before the union with England, are 
 acted by the year in which they were passed, and 
 the order of the number or chapter. See Statutes, 
 Scotch Statutes, and Parliament. 
 
 ACTS OF SEDE'RUNT are ordinances of the 
 Court of Session or supreme civil court in Scotland, 
 made originally under authority of the Scotch Act 
 1540, o. 93, whereby the judges are empowered to 
 make such rides or ordinances as may be necessary 
 for the regulation of legal procedure and the expedit- 
 ing of justice. The power thus conferred was 
 exceeded, and it became necessary to ratify several 
 of the A. of S. in the Scotch Parliament. In so far, 
 however, as A. of S. are confined to declarations of 
 the purposes of the court to decide in a particular 
 way, on an occurrence of similar circumstances, they 
 seem to amount to little more than authoritative 
 announcements of the intention of the court to adhere 
 judicially to certain precedents ; and for upwards of 
 a century and a half, they have been almost exclu- 
 sively confined to the regulation of judicial procedure, 
 and to matters therewith connected. In several 
 recent statutes, express power is given to the Court 
 of Session to pass A. of S., for carrying the purpose 
 of the legislature into more complete effect ; and it 
 is usually provided that the A. of S. made in 
 virtue of such power shall be laid before parliament 
 within a limited time. The old quorum of nine 
 judges is requisite in passing an Act of S., 48 
 Geo. III. c 151, s. 11. 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT, a name given to the 
 statute 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, by which the 
 crown was limited to the family of her present 
 Majesty, Queen Victoria, It was towards the end 
 .if ting WiIIkuu III.'s reign, when all hopes of ..tl„ r 
 issue died with the Duke of Gloucester, that, as 
 we are told by Blackstone, the king anil parlia- 
 ment thought it necessary again to exert their 
 power of limiting and appointing the succession, 
 in order to prevent another vacancy of the throne, 
 which must have ensued upon their deaths, as no 
 further provision was made at the Revolution than 
 for the issue of Queen Mary, Queen Anne, and Kin^' 
 William. The parliament had previously, by the 
 statute of 1 W. and M. st, 2, .-. 2, enacted, that every 
 person who shoidd bo reconciled to, or hold com- 
 munion with, the see of Rome, should profess the 
 Roman Catholic religion, or should many a Roman 
 Catholic, should be excluded from succession to, and 
 be for ever incapable to inherit, possess, or 
 the crown ; and that in such case the people should 
 
 be absolved from their allegiance-, and the crown 
 shoidd descend to such persons, being Protestants, 
 as would have inherited the same, if the p 
 so reconciled, holding communion, professing or 
 marrying, were naturally dead. To act, therefore, 
 consistently with themselves, and, at the sane 
 pay as much regard to the old hereditary line .as their 
 former resolutions would admit, they 'tune 
 eyes on the Princess Sophia, Electress and Duchess- 
 dowager of Hanover ; for upon the imp. a< 
 tion of the Protestant posterity of Charli I., 
 law of regal descent direct. A i . ,., to the 
 
 descendants ..i .lames I.; and the Princess Sophia, 
 being the youngest daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of 
 Bohemia, who was the daughter of James I., was 
 the nearest of the ancient blood-royal who was 
 not incapacitated by professing the Roman Catholic 
 religion. On her, therefore, and the heirs of her 
 body, being Protestants, the remainder of de- 
 crown expectant on the death of King William and 
 Queen Ann.- without issue, was settled by statute 
 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2. And at the same time- 
 it was enacted, that whosoever should then 
 come to the possession of the crown, should join in 
 the communion of the Church of England as by 
 law established. 
 
 This is the last limitation of the crown that has 
 been made by parliament ; and the several actual 
 limitations, from the time of Henry IV. to tie- 
 present, clearly prove the power of the king and 
 parliament to re-model or alter the succession. It is 
 even made highly penal to dispute such power, for 
 by the statute 6 Anne, c." 7, it is enacted, that if 
 any person maliciously, advisedly, and directly, shall 
 maintain, by writing or printing, that the kings of 
 this realm, with the authority of parliament, are 
 not able to make laws to bind the crown and the 
 descent thereof, he shall be guilty of high treason ; 
 or if he maintains the same by only preaching or 
 advised speaking, he shall incur the penalties of 
 prepmunire. 
 
 The Princess Soplua dying before Queen Anne, 
 the inheritance, thus limited, descended on her 
 son and heir, King George I. ; and having, on the 
 death of the queen, taken effect in his person, from 
 him it descended to King George II. ; from him to 
 his grandson and heir, King George III. ; from him 
 to his son, George IV., who was succeeded by his 
 brother, William IV. ; and from the monarch bust 
 mentioned the crown descended to his heiress, the 
 daughter of his brother Edward, Duke of Kent, our 
 present gracious sovereign, Queen Victoria. 
 
 ' Hence,' Blackstone remarks, ' it is easy to collect 
 that the title to the crown is at present hereditary, 
 though not quite so absolutely hereditary as for- 
 merly ; and the common stock or ancestor from 
 whom the descent must be derived, is also different. 
 Formerly, the common stock was King Egbert, 
 afterwards William the Conqueror, and now it is 
 Princess Sophia, in whom the inheritance was \ 
 by th.- new king and parliament. Formerly, the 
 descent was absolute, and the crown went to the 
 next heir without any restriction ; but now, upon 
 the new settlement, the inheritance is conditional ; 
 being limited to such heirs only of the body of the 
 Princess Sophia as are Protestants, members of the 
 Church of England, and are married to none but 
 Protestants.' 
 
 ACT OF TOLERATION is the name commonly 
 given to the act of parliament 1 William and Mary, 
 statute 1, c. IS, continued by 10 Anne. c. 2, by 
 which all persons dissenting from the Church of 
 England (i-xcept Koman Catholics and persons deny- 
 ing the Trinity) were relieved from such of the 
 against nonconformists as prevented their assem- 
 or religious worship according to their own 
 
 86
 
 ACT OF UNIFORMITY— ACTINIA. 
 
 forms, or otherwise restrained their religious liberty, 
 on condition of their taking the oaths of allegiance 
 and Bnpremacy, and subscrioing a declaration 
 
 traiisubstantiation ; and in the oas ' dissenting 
 
 ministers, Bubscribing al.su to certain of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles. The clause of this act whi 
 persons denying the Trinity from the benefits ol its 
 enactments, was repealed by 63 I reo. 1 1 1, c, 160. 
 
 Tin' Protestant dissenters, however, still remained, 
 notwithstanding these provisions, Bubject to the 
 obligation imposed by the Test and Corporation 
 Acts (q. v.) on all those who were admitted to 
 any office, of taking the sacrament of the Lord's 
 Supper according to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
 land; 1. at this disability was at length removed bj 
 the 9 Geo. IV. c. 17. And to this list of con© 
 si. .us we are now to add the act of 15 and 1 » » Vict, 
 c. 30, allowing the dissenters to certify their places 
 of worship to, and register tin m with, the Kegistrar- 
 general of Births. Deaths, and Marriages, in.-t. ad of 
 the Archbishop, Bishop, or Court of Quarter-sessions. 
 These various Lets of T. operated, however, to 
 the exclusive benefit of Protekani dissenters, and 
 afforded no relief to Roman Catholics. With respect 
 to the latter, the progress of emancipation was 
 slower and more reluctant. Bv statutes, however, 
 of 18 Geo. III. c. GO, 31 Geo. III. c. 32, and 43 Geo. 
 III. c. 30, most of the severer penalties and disabili- 
 ties to which they were formerly subject, were 
 removed ; and by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, commonly called 
 the Catholic Emancipation Act, Roman Catholics 
 were restored in general to the full enjoyments of all 
 civil rights, being only excluded from holding ecclesi- 
 astical offices, and certain high appointments in the 
 state. By another act of the 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 
 llf>, it was provided that Roman Catholics should be 
 subject in this particular to the same laws as were 
 applicable to Protestant dissenters ; the effect of 
 which provision is to empower them to acquire and 
 hold property for such purposes. And now, by the 
 acts of 7 and 8 Vict. c. 102, 9 and 10 Viet. c. 59, and 
 21 and 22 Vict. c. 48, Roman Catholics and Jews 
 are relieved from all enactments calculated to 
 oppress them, and are thus practically admitted to 
 all the privileges of the constitution. 
 
 In Scotland, toleration in religious matters is 
 secured by various old Scotch statutes passed before 
 the Union with England, particularly by the act 
 1G90, c. 27; and this was followed up after the 
 Union by the British statute 10 Anne, c. 7, S. 6, which 
 declares that ' it shall be free and lawful for all the 
 subjects in that part of < Ireat Britain called Scotland 
 to assemble and meet together for divine service 
 without any disturbance; and to settle their con- 
 gregations in what forms or places they shall think 
 fit to choose, except parish churches;' an enactment 
 which amounts to a legal recognition of dissenters, 
 if, indeed, it may not be called their charter in 
 Scotland. 
 
 ACT OF UNIFORMITY is the name by which 
 the statute 13 and 14 Car. c. 4, is usually described. 
 By that statute it was enacted, that the Book of 
 Common Prayer, as then recently revised, should be 
 used m every parish church and other place of public 
 worship in England, and ■&«* every schoolmaster and 
 person instructing youth should subscribe a declara- 
 tion of conformity to the Liturgy, and also to the 
 . ffect of the oath 'and declaration mentioned in the 
 act of 13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1. It further enacted that 
 no person should thenceforth be capable of holding 
 any ecclesiastical promotion or dignity, or of conse- 
 cr.Ltin.j or administering the sacrament, till he should 
 be ordained priest according to episcopal ordination, 
 and with respect to all ministers who then enjoyed 
 any • d benefice, it directed that they 
 
 should, within a certain period, openly read morning 
 30 
 
 and evening service, according to the Book o£ 
 Common Prayer, and declare before the congregation 
 their unfeigned assent and consent to the use of all 
 things therein contained, upon pain of being ipso 
 deprived of their spiritual promotions. By this 
 statute, two thousand of the clergy, who refused to 
 comply with its provisions, were deprived of their 
 pr. t.i lueuts. This statute also contained a regula- 
 tion that no schoolmaster in a private house should 
 instruct youth without having obtained a licence 
 from the I (rdiuary ; but this regulation was repealed 
 l.\ and 10 Vict. c. 59. 
 
 ACTS, Test and Corporation. See Test and 
 Corpokation Acts. 
 
 ACTA SANCTO'RUM or MA'IITYRUM (Acts 
 of Saints or Martyrs), the collective title given to 
 several old writings, respecting saints and martyrs, 
 in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, but 
 now a]. pli.d especially to one extensive collection 
 begun by the Jesuits in the 17th c, and intended 
 to serve as a better arrangement of the materials 
 found in ancient works. This great undertaking, 
 which was commenced by the Jesuit, Heribcrt 
 Rosweyd of Antwerp, has considerable importance, 
 not only in a religious and ecclesiastical point of 
 view, but also with regard to history and archae- 
 ology. After Rosweyd's death, in 1629, J. Holland 
 was commissioned by the order of Jesuits to continue 
 the work ; and with the assistance of G. Henschcn, 
 he prepared two volumes, which appeared in 1G43. 
 After the death of this editor (16G5), the work was 
 carried on by a society of learned Jesuits, who were 
 styled ' Bollandists,' until 1794. when its further 
 progress was prevented through the invasion of 
 Holland by the French. In recent times, the 
 undertaking has been resumed ; and in 184G the 
 fifty-fourth volume was published at Brussels. Three 
 or four additional volumes have appeared since. 
 The lives are arranged in the order of the calendar. 
 The first two volumes, published in 1043, contained 
 the lives of the saints for January. The volumes 
 last published are for October. For notices of other 
 collections of the same kind, see the articles Sain rs., 
 Maiitvi:, and MabTYKOLOGY. 
 
 ACTiE'A, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Ranunculacece (q. v.), the type of the _ sub-order 
 Adaea?, distinguished by the coloured imbricated 
 calyx and indehiscent succulent fruit. The genus 
 Actaea has four deciduous sepals, four petals, and a 
 single baccate carpel. — A. spicala, the Baneberry or 
 lbrb ( 'hristophcr, is a native of the north of Europe, 
 found in bushy places in some parts of England. It 
 is a perennial herbaceous plant, about 1—2 feet 
 high, with triternate leaves, and the leallets deeply 
 cut and serrated, the flowers in racemes, the berries 
 black ami poisonous. The root is anti-spasmodic, 
 expectorant, and astringent, and is sometimes useful 
 in catarrh. Botrojihis aelmviil'.i (Adam racemosa of 
 Linnams) is a native of the United States, whose 
 roots are said to possess similar qualities, and 
 are also reputed as a remedy for the bite of tho 
 rattlesnake. 
 
 ACT^E'ON, a mythical personage, a grandson of 
 Cadmus. He was trained as a hunter by Chiron. 
 Having once surprised Diana while bathing in a 
 fountain, he was changed by the offended goddess 
 into a stag, and his own dogs, not knowing him, 
 tore him in pieces. According to Euripides, Diana 
 was jealous because Actieon nad boasted that he 
 excelled her in hunting. 
 
 ACTI'NIA, a genus of marine animals closely 
 allied to the Hydraforni Polypi, but of much greater 
 size, and always living separately, very generally 
 affixed by the base to rocks or shells. The old 
 genus Actinia has been subdivided into a number
 
 ACTION— ACTON. 
 
 of genera, and is now the type of a family, Actiniada: 
 They consist of a fleshy sac with one orifice, around 
 which are numerous tentacula, and when these arc 
 expanded, much resemble Bowers, and have there- 
 fore been called Animal Flowers and Sea An- 
 They are found on all shores ; those of Britain 
 
 Actinia seen from above. Section of Actinia : 
 
 a, cavity of stomach ; 6, sur- 
 rounding chambers. 
 
 possess a number of very beautiful species, but they 
 are most abundant, and attain their greatest size 
 and beauty in tropical seas. They are capable of 
 moving by alternate contractions and expansions of 
 the fleshy base, and can also make use of their 
 tentacula for locomotion. The tentacula appear to 
 act as suckers in capturing prey, which they promptly 
 convey to the mouth, and which consists of small 
 , mollusks, Crustacea, &c. They produce living 
 young, the germs of which are formed in ovarian 
 chambers, divided by radiating vertical partitions in 
 the fleshy substance around the stomach cavity, and 
 which pass into the stomach cavity, ami are ejected 
 from the mouth ; but simple gemmules, furnished 
 with cilia, are also discharged through the tenta- 
 cula. The Actiniada; possess a remarkable power of 
 reproducing parts which have been cut away, and 
 may be multiplied by division. They are very sensi- 
 tive to light. In many parts of the world they are 
 eat'ii, and are esteemed a delicacy. A small A. was 
 kept by Sir John G. Dalyell for twenty-six years. 
 
 ACTINISM, the property of the sun's rays 
 which produces chemical changes. See Spectrum. 
 
 ACTION, in its large and general sense, means a 
 judicial proceeding before a competent tribunal for 
 the attainment of justice ; and in this sense it is 
 applied to procedure, whether criminal or civil. In 
 its more limited acceptation, it is used to signify 
 proceedings in the civil courts, where it means the 
 form prescribed by law for the recovery of a right, 
 or what is one's due. And it is in this sense that it 
 is regarded by the Roman law, which defines an 
 action as jus teauendiiv judicio quod nbi debetur. 
 In the law of England, the term A. is usually 
 applied to proceedings in the courts of common laio, 
 as distinguished from those of equity, where the 
 word suit is commonly used to denote litigation. 
 Thus, in the courts of Queen's Bench, Common I 
 and Exchequer, we speak of an A.-at-law ; whereas 
 in the courts of Chancery, the forensic controversy 
 is described as a suit in equity. 
 
 In the Scotch law, which recognises no distinction 
 in legal administration between law and equity, the 
 won! A. is defined comprehensively as a demand 
 regularly made mid insisted on before the judge 
 
 competent for the recovery of a right. \eeord 
 ingly. while in Scotland there is, as in l\r 
 a remedy for every wrong, the law rec 
 and gives effect to the right of a party t" i 
 and to have declared a particular interest or right, 
 evil although tli I or right may not be 
 
 withhold, or called in question. It is sufficient that 
 it is doubtful, and that the ascertainment of it is 
 necessary for the position and purposes of tho 
 
 plaintiff, or pursuer, as the Scotch law calls the 
 
 active party. This procedure is known by the name 
 of an A. of declarator, which has been described as a 
 suit in which something is prayed to be decreed in 
 favour of tie- plaintiff, but nothing sought to be 
 paid, performed^ or done by the defendant. Lord 
 Stair, in his Institutes of the Law of Scotland, says 
 ' such actions may be pursued for instructing or 
 clearing any kind of right relating to 111 
 dominion, or obligation;' and he further oh- 
 ' there is no right but is capable of declarator.' 
 Various attempts have been made to introduce this 
 mode of proceeding into the practice of the law in 
 England, but as yet without success. The idea of 
 the declarator has been said to have been derived by 
 the Scotch lawyers from the French legal system, 
 according to whose forms the existing administration 
 of the Scotch law was originally moulded. In the 
 Institutes of Justinian there are, however, indications 
 of the partial use of this form of A. by the Roman 
 lawyers. 
 
 We may add that the word A. is derived from 
 the Latin actio (agere), and that the plaintiff in a 
 suit or action was originally said to be the 
 which, indeed, in the recorded pleadings of the 
 Scotch courts, his counsel or advocate still is called. 
 
 A'CTIUM (now Azio), a town and promontory on 
 the west coast of Greece, at the entrance of the 
 Ambraciot Bay, now the Gulf of Arta, is memoral >le 
 for the sea-fight which took place near it, 2d Sep- 
 tember, 31 E. c, between Octavianus (afterwards 
 the Emperor Augustus) and Marcus Antonius. These 
 two had for some time ruled the Roman world 
 between them — the former in the west, the latter in 
 the east ; it now came to a straggle for the sole 
 sovereignty. The two armies were encamped on 
 the opposite shores of the gulf : Oetavian had So.OCIO 
 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 200 ships of war; 
 Antony, 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 
 ships. Antony's ships were large, and well provided 
 with engines for throwing missiles, but clumsy in 
 their movements ; Octavian's were smaller and 
 more agile. Antony was supported by Cleopatra, 
 Queen of Egypt, with sixty vessels, who ind 
 him, against the opinion of his most experienced 
 generals, to determine upon a naval engagement, 
 dtle continued for some hours undecided ; at 
 last, Agrippa, who commanded Oetavian's fleet, suc- 
 ceeded, by a skilful manoeuvre, in compelling Antony 
 end his line of battle, whose compactness had 
 hitherto resisted all attempts of the enemy to break 
 through. Cleopatra, whose ships were stationed 
 behind Antony's line, apprehensive of that line 
 being broken, took to flight with her auxiliary fleet, 
 and Antony recklessly followed her with a few of 
 his ships. The deserted fleet continued to n sist 
 bravely for some time, but was finally vanquish' d ; 
 the land-army, after waiting in vain seven days for 
 Antony's return, surrendered to Oetavian. As a 
 memorial of the victory that had given him the 
 empire of the world, and out of gratitude to the 
 gods, Oetavian enlarged the temple of Apollo at 
 A., dedicated the trophies he had taken, and 
 tuted games to be celebrated every live years, lb' 
 also built, on the spot where his army had been 
 encamped, the splendid city of Nicopohs (city of 
 , near where Prevesa now stands. 
 
 ACTON, Joseph, Prince, prime-minister of 
 
 nd IV. of Naples, was the son of an Irish 
 physician, and was bom at Besancon in 1737. After 
 acquiring distinction in the naval service of France 
 and Tuscany, he gained a position in the Neapolitan 
 government, anil became the favourite of Q 
 Caroline, Sis measures, prompted by his extreme 
 hatred of France, were cruel and intolerant, ami 
 ultimately caused a reaction against the royal family
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES— ADAM AND EVE. 
 
 of Naples, and in favour of the French party and the 
 
 I'm] u i. \\ In n left unaided by English influence, 
 
 A. 1 ■ .^t the power he had so often abused, and died 
 in 1SI 1, deservedly contemned by all pal 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the tilth book of 
 tin' New Testament, the authorship of which is 
 ascribed by tradition, and with the highest proba- 
 bility, to the Evangelist Luke. Beginning with the 
 ascension of Christ, it gives an account of the spread 
 oi the Christian Church; confined, however, chiefly 
 to the part taken therein by the Apostle Paul. 
 Notwithstanding its title, little is said of the other 
 apostles, with tlie era ption of Peter. The narrative 
 closes with the year (V2 a. d., Paid being then a 
 prisoner at Home. The book has always been 
 
 red as canonical, except by a few Man 
 heretics. In the early centuries, numerous spurious 
 Acts of the Apostles were put in circulation by 
 various sects. 
 
 A'CTTJARY. The Acluarii, in ancient Rome, 
 were clerks who recorded the Acta of the 
 and other public bodies. The term ought tic 
 so far as its etymology is concerned, be applied to 
 men of business iu general. But in the constantly 
 increasing tendency to subdivide labour and speci- 
 alise functions, there has arisen, in recent times, a 
 distinct branch of business, embracing all monetary 
 questions that involve a consideration of the separate 
 or combined effect of Interest and Probability, 
 especially as connected with the duration of human 
 life ; and it is to one who devotes himself to this 
 department of business that the name of A. has been 
 specially assigned. The investigations and calcula- 
 tions of the A. supply the principles of operation for 
 the numerous institutions now engaged in the trans- 
 action of Life-assurance, Annuity, and Reversionary 
 business. His functions might be briefly defined as 
 the application of tlie doctrine of probabilities to five 
 affair* o/' life. There are two Societies of Actuaries 
 in this country : ' The Institute of Actuaries of Great 
 Britain and Ireland,' established in London in 1S48 ; 
 and the ' Facidty of Actuaries in Scotland,' estab- 
 lished in Edinburgh in 1S5C. 
 
 ACU'LETJS, in Botany. See Prickle. 
 
 ACUPTT'NCTURE (Lat., puncturing or pricking 
 with a needle \acus\), is a very ancient remedy, 
 and one practised extensively in the East, for 
 the cure of headaches, lethargies, &c. In Europe 
 it is principally employed to relieve neuralgic 
 pains, and those of chronic rheumatism. Steel 
 needles arc made use of, about three inches long, 
 and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotatory 
 movement, passes one or more to the desired depth 
 in the tissues, and leaves them there from a few 
 minutes to an hour. Their insertion is accompanied 
 by no pain, except the first prick — a fact the 
 quacks of the 16th c. did not fail to take advan- 
 tage of. According to Jerome Cardan, they travelled 
 from place to place practising A., and before insert- 
 ing the needle, they rubbed it with a peculiar kind 
 of magnet, cither believing, or pretending, that this 
 made the operation painless. The relief to pain 
 afforded by this simple operation is sometimes 
 astonishing, and the woimds are so minute as to be 
 perfectly harmless. — The needles are sometini 
 as conductors of the galvanic current to deep-seated 
 parts, and are sometimes made hollow — on the 
 suggestion of Dr Alexander Wood of Edinburgh — 
 to allow of a small quantity of some sedative solution 
 being injected into the tissues, by which even the 
 terrible pain of Tic Douloureux may be almost 
 immediately relieved. See Neuralgia. 
 
 ADAGIO, a slow movement or measure of time 
 in Music, between largo, grave, and andante. In 
 our more extended compositions of instrumental or 
 38 
 
 chamber music, the second or third movement is 
 
 My marked adngiti, and serves as a contrast 
 
 with the rapid and energetic movement of the 
 ling and following parts of the sonata or 
 symphony. The A. must be written in a measure 
 of time which wdl afford scope for a flowing ami 
 expressive slow melody with a gracefully \ . , i 
 accompaniment. Without contrasted movement 
 and a lively variety in the accompaniment, the slow 
 air would have a monotonous or dull effect. A cjlear 
 and expressive execution of the A is a sure test 
 of ability and good taste in the player or singer, as 
 it demands a pm'e and beautiful intonation, a true 
 reading and phrasing of the cantilena, even in its 
 most minute details, and a careful attention to all 
 points of effect. The finest specimens of the A. 
 are found in the works of the old masters, Haydn, 
 Mozart, and Beethoven, and are as distinct in their 
 features as were the composers in their personal 
 characteristics. La recent works, our composers 
 have generally succeeded better in their rapid 
 movements than in the A. 
 
 ADA'L and ADE'L. The name Adal is applied 
 by geographers to the flat country lying between 
 AbyBsinia and the Bed Sea. from Mossowa in N. lat. 
 15° 40', to the Bay of Tajurra, lat. 11° 30'. Add 
 would seem to designate the coast-country from 
 Tajurra to Cape Guardafui. part of which is known as 
 the country of the Somauli. 
 
 ADA'LIA anciently AttaBa, the chief seaport 
 on the south coast of Asia Minor, in N. lat. 36 52 : 
 E. long. 30" 45'. The streets rise like the seats of a 
 theatre, up the slope of the hill behind the harbour. 
 Pop. 13,000. 
 
 ADAM and EVE. The narrative of the creation 
 and fall of A. and 10. is given in Genesis. To the 
 Scriptural account, the later Jewish writers in the 
 Talmud have made man}' tasteless additions. They 
 tell us that the stature of A., when first cr> 
 reached to the heavens, while the splendour of his 
 countenance surpassed that of the sun. The very 
 angels stood in awe of him, and all creatures 
 hastened to worship him. Then the Lord, in order 
 to shew the angels his power, caused a sleep to fall 
 on A., and removed a portion of every limb. A 
 thus lost his vast stature, but remained perfect and 
 complete. His first wife was Lilith, the mother of 
 demons ; but she fled from him, and afterwards E. 
 was created for him. At the marriage of A. and K. , 
 angels were present, some playing on musical instru- 
 ments, others serving up delicious viands; while the 
 sun, moon, and stars danced together. The happi- 
 ness of the human pair excited envy among the 
 angels, and the seraph Sammael tempted them, and 
 succeeded in leading them to their fall from inno- 
 cence. — According to the Koran, all the angels paid 
 homage to A., excepting Eblis, who, on account of 
 his refusal, was expelled from paradise. To gratify 
 his revenge, Eblis seduced A. and E., and they 
 were separated. Adam was penitent, and lived in 
 a tnt on the site of the temple of Mecca, where 
 he was instructed in the divine commandments 
 by the archangel Gabriel. After 200 years of 
 separation, he again found E. on Mount Arafat. 
 Many other traditions of the Jews and the Moham- 
 medans respecting A and E. may be found in Her- 
 bert's BiSUaOiique Orientate. — In the system of 
 the Christian Gnostics and Manicmeans, A. is one 
 of the highest iEons. — According to the Calvinistic 
 theology, A was the covenant liead or federal 
 representative of the whole human race, who were 
 thus involved in the consequences of his breach 
 of the Covenant (q. v.) which God made with him 
 at his creation. This view is supported by reference 
 to the parallel drawn between A and Clirist in Bom.
 
 ADAM— ADAM'S PEAK. 
 
 v. and 1 Cor. xv., in the latter of which <■! 
 Christ is called, in contradistinction to A., 'the 
 Si caild man,' and 'the last A.' 
 
 ADAM (of Bremen), an old historical writer, 
 
 work entitled Gesta Haamu riburg 
 
 i 'ontificum, gives a history of the archbishopric 
 
 of Hamburg from 788 a. d. to the death of the 
 
 Archbishop Adalbert in li>72. This work has great 
 
 historical value ; in addition to its notices of eccle- 
 
 cal affairs, it gives accounts of the northern 
 
 lie tribes, which the author collected during a 
 
 visit to the Danish king Svend-Estrithson. A. was 
 
 canon and magister schdarum at Bremen from 10G7 
 
 to the time of his death, which took place in 1076. 
 
 ADAM, Ai.kxanL'KR, LL.D., an eminent scholar 
 and teacher, WHS born in the parish of Kafford, near 
 Forres, in 1741. His father was a small farmer, 
 with limited means and a numerous family, so that 
 young Adam had to struggle through much hardship 
 in the pursuit of the learning for which he thirsted. 
 While studying at the University of Edinburgh, he 
 bad to support himself by giving private lessons, for 
 which he was paid at the rate of one guinea a 
 quarter. He breakfasted and supped on porridge 
 and small-beer; a penny loaf served him for dinner. 
 Such was the stern initiation — not, indeed, a singular 
 case in Scotland — of the brave young scholar. His 
 patient merits, however, soon gained recognition. 
 A-'s first public office was that of classical master 
 in Watson s Hospital, Edinburgh ; and not long after 
 (1761), he succeeded to the head-mastership of the 
 institution. In 1768 he was appointed rector of the 
 High School ; and this situation he filled for nearly 
 forty years with distinguished ability and success, 
 giving himself to its duties with singular devotion, 
 and raising the reputation of the school beyond 
 what it had ever been before. In some of his 
 efforts to that end he encountered such opposition 
 as now seems almost fabulous. He composed a 
 new Latin grammar (1772), in which he aimed at 
 combining the study of English and Latin ; but the 
 town-council prohibited bun from teaching it. In 
 1701 he published his Human Antiquities, the work 
 which did most to promote his reputation, and 
 which, though now generally superseded by more 
 accurate and comprehensive dictionaries, was for 
 many years the best manual of the kind in exist- 
 ence. His Summary of Geography and History 
 appeared in 1794, his Classical Biography in 1800, 
 and his Latin Dictionary — an abridgment of a 
 larger work unfinished at his death — in 1805. On 
 the 18th of December 1809, Dr A. died of a fit 
 of apoplexy, the effect of intense study, by which 
 he had been seized in bis class-room live days 
 before. 'Amidst the wanderings of mind that 
 accompanied it,' says the writer of the biography 
 in the Encyclopedia Briiannica — who afterwards 
 filled bis chair — ' he was constantly reverting to 
 the business of the class, and addressing his boys; 
 and in the last hour of his life, as ne fancied 
 himself examining on the lesson of the day, he 
 stopped short and said: "But it grows dark; you 
 may go," and almost immediately expireiL.' 
 
 ADAM, Robert, a distinguished architect, was 
 born at Edinburgh in 1728. His father, William 
 Adam of Mary burgh, in Fifeshire, was also an 
 architect of no mean repute. After receiving a 
 university education, Robert A. proceeded in 1754 
 to Italy, and thence to Dalmatia, where he devoted 
 some time, in conjunction with Clerisseau, a French 
 architect, t<i exploring and making drawings of the 
 ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. On his 
 return to Britain he rapidly rose to distinction, was 
 appointed architect to the king, and obtained exten- 
 sive employment. The publication, in 1764, of the 
 
 results of his labours at Spalatro, contributed to his 
 reputation. In opposition to the heavy style of 
 architecture prevalent at the time, A. introduced 
 a taste for ligni oesa and decoration, which, however, 
 tended to the opposite extreme of weakness and 
 triviality. Those, however, who form the lowest 
 estimate of the general character of his designs, 
 grant him the merit of having effected great reforms 
 in British domestic architecture generally. In 1768 
 A. was elected M.P. for the county of Kinross. 
 During upwards of twenty-five .ears, his practice, 
 in partnership with bis brother James, was more 
 extensive than that of any other architect of the 
 time. In 1773, the brothers commenced to publish 
 a series of engravings of their chief designs, which 
 was continued for some years, Robert died in 1792 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The most 
 generally a d mired of his works is the Register 
 House, Edinburgh. Reddleston Hall, near Derby, is 
 regarded by some as bis greatest work. Among his 
 other principal works are the University buildings 
 and St George's Church, Edinburgh (both altered 
 from the original design), the Glasgow Infirmary, 
 the Adelphi buildings, London, the screen to the 
 Admiralty, Caen Wood House, Luton House 
 (altered), Lansdowne House, &c. 
 
 ADAMANTINE SPAR. See CoECxnra. 
 
 A'DAMITES, a sect of fanatics who spread them- 
 selves in Bohemia and Moravia in the 15th and 16th 
 centuries, but had no connection with the Hussites. 
 One Picard is said to have been the founder of the 
 sect about 1400. He styled himself Adam, the son 
 of God, rejected the sacrament of the supper and 
 the priesthood, and advocated the community of 
 women. After his death, his followers spread 
 themselves in Bohemia under several leaders. They 
 even fortified themselves on an island in a tributary 
 of the Moldau, and committed depredations around. 
 They were detested as much by the followers of 
 Huss as by the Catholics. Ziska (q. v.) made war 
 against them, and slew great numbers; but they 
 were never entirely rooted out. Even as recently as 
 1S49, when the Austrian government declared reli- 
 gious liberty for all its subjects, certain members of 
 this sect appeared and endeavoured to gain prose- 
 lytes. The official investigation into their character 
 which took place at that time, represents their 
 creed as a mixture of freethinking, quietism, and 
 communism. The members belong to the peasant 
 or labouring class ; and both men and women are 
 generally industrious, temperate, and discreet in 
 their ordinal-)' course of life; but at their nightly 
 meetings, at which they dispense with clothes, the 
 utmost licentiousness is said to prevail. — As early as 
 the 2d c, there was a sect of Gnostic tendency, 
 called Adamites, who sought, by abstaining from all 
 indulgence of the senses, to recall the state of inno- 
 cence men were in before the fall. They therefore 
 rejected marriage, and in order to exercise the virtue 
 of continence, went naked. They held that for 
 those who had once attained the state of innocence, 
 all actions were alike indifferent — neither good nor 
 evil. This doctrine led directly to the greatest 
 licentiousness. Aberrations of this kind, under 
 various disguises and modifications, have made their 
 appearance from time to time in all ages of the 
 world. 
 
 ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of shoals extending 
 across the Gulf of Manaar, between Ceylon and the 
 peninsula of Hindostan. It forms a great obstruc- 
 tion to vessels proceeding through the channel. 
 
 ADAM'S PEAK, the name given by Moham- 
 medans, and after them by Europeans, to a mountain 
 summit in the south oi Ceylon, 7420 feet high (not, 
 however, the highest of the group*. The native
 
 ADAMS. 
 
 name is Samanhela. The cone forming the summit 
 is a naked mass of granite, terminating in# narrow 
 platform, in the middle of which is a natural hollow, 
 live feet long, artificially enlarged, having a rude 
 resemblance to a human footstep. Mohammedan 
 tradition makes this the scene of Adam's penitence, 
 after his expulsion from Paradise ; he stood a thou- 
 sand years on one foot, and hence the mark. To the 
 iiuddhists, the impression is the Bri-pada, or sacred 
 footmark, left by Buddha on his departure from 
 Ceylon. Over the sacred spot stands a temple, like 
 a wooden canopy, and multitudes of devotees, 
 Buddhist, Hindu, and Mohammedan, frequent it. 
 
 ADAMS, John, the second president of the 
 United States of North America. was bora at Brain- 
 tree, in Massachusetts, on the 19th of October lT.'io. 
 His parents were descended from a Puritan family 
 which had emigrated from England to Massa- 
 chusetts in 1G40. Before the revolution, A. had 
 distinguished himself as a jurist, and wrote in the 
 Boston Journal an essay on Canon Law and 
 feudal Laio (1765). He was sent by Massachusetts 
 to the congress which commenced its sittings in 
 Philadelphia in 1774. With Lee and Jefferson, he 
 bolilly argued for a separation from the mother- 
 country ; and Lee's proposition of a declaration of 
 independence was carried on the 4th of Jidy 1770. 
 A. and Jefferson had been appointed to draw up 
 the Declaration of Independence, but it appears 
 that Jefferson is the sole author of it. In succeeding 
 years, A. was employed on many important nego- 
 tiations with European powers; among others, he 
 assisted Franklin, Jay, Jefferson, and Laurens, 
 in 1782, in settling the conditions of peace with 
 England. In 17S5 he came to London as the first 
 ambassador from the Union. George III. expressed 
 his pleasure in receiving an ambassador who had 
 no prejudices in favour of France, the natural 
 enemy of the English crown, and A. replied : ' I 
 have no prejudices but in favour of my native 
 land.' He published in London his Defence of 
 the Constitutions of Government of the United 
 Stales (3 vols. 1787). On his return to America, in 
 the same year, he was elected as vice-president 
 of the United States, and on the retirement of 
 Washington (in 1797) became president. The 
 enmity of the democratic party, which had already 
 been excited against him, was now increased by the 
 measures which he judged necessary to uphold the 
 national honour against the pretensions of France, 
 and still more by his decided favour for a hereditary 
 aristocracy. In 1801, when his term of four years 
 of office had expired, his adversary Jefferson was 
 elected by a majority of one vote. A. now retired 
 to his estate of Quincy, near Boston, where he 
 occupied himself with agricultural pursuits. After 
 this retirement, he received many proofs of respect 
 and confidence from his countrymen. When 85 
 years old, we find him still in his place as member 
 of the convention appointed (1820) to revise the 
 constitution of Massachusetts. He died on the 4th 
 of July 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of the day 
 when lie had proclaimed in congress the independ- 
 ence of the United States. 
 
 ADAMS, John Couch, discoverer, simultaneously 
 
 with Le Verrier, of the planet Neptune, was born 
 
 near Launceston in Cornwall, 1S16. He early niani- 
 
 i an aptitude for mathematics; and after the 
 
 usual amount of school-training, he was sent to St 
 
 John's College, Cambridge, where he attained the 
 
 honour of senior wrangler, and became an 
 
 matical tutor. In 1841, he undertook to find out the 
 
 cause of the irregularities in the motion of Uranus, 
 
 anticipating, indeed, his own and Le Verrier's dis- 
 
 y — namely, that they are due to the inlluence 
 
 40 
 
 of an unknown planet Le Verrier did not com- 
 mence his researches till the Bummer of 1845; but 
 on the 10th of November published the results of 
 his calculations, demonstrating the existence of an 
 
 unknown planet, declaring it to be the cause of the 
 known disturbance, and assigning to it almost the 
 same place as A. had il in a piper which he left 
 
 with the Astronomer Boyal at Greenwich Obser- 
 vatory in the previous October, but which he 
 neglected i" publish. Le Verrier has thus acquired, 
 naturally, the whole honour of the discovery; but 
 the merit of A. is not less. The researches of the 
 latter commenced earlier; his discovery, too, was 
 earlier ; and it was only unfortunate for the reputa- 
 tion of the young astronomer that he omitted to 
 publish the results he hail obtained. The council of 
 the Royal Astronomical Society shewed that they 
 appreciated the value of A.'s labours, by awarding 
 equal honours to both. In 1.S5S, A. was appointed 
 to the chair of mathematics in St Andrews, which, 
 however, he vacated within a few months, on being 
 nominated to the Lowndean Professorship of Astro- 
 nomy, Cambridge. 
 
 ADAMS, John Qi'incv, the sixth president of 
 the United States of North America, and son of the 
 second president, was born in Massachusetts, July 
 11, 1767. In his boyhood he accompanied his father 
 on an embassy to Europe, and passed a considerable 
 part of his youth in Paris, at the Hague, and lastly 
 in London. When his father was elected president, 
 the younger Adams was sent on an embassy to 
 Berlin, and travelled through Silesia. Of this 
 country he gave a description in his letters, which 
 were first published in the Portfolio, a Philadelphia 
 journal, and afterwards translated into French and 
 German. In his political views, A. perfectly agreed 
 with his father, and, consequently, he was recalled 
 from Berlin when Jefferson was elected president 
 in 1801. On his return to America, he was engaged 
 as professor of rhetoric, at Harvard University, 
 in Massachusetts, the stronghold of the federalists ; 
 but he soon left his academical post to engage again 
 in politics, and was chosen as senator for Massa- 
 chusetts. He soon became prominent as a leader 
 of the federal party; but in later years he adroitly 
 changed his course, and seemed inclined towards 
 the party of Madison. By Madison he was sent as 
 plenipotentiary to Russia, and afterwards to Eng- 
 land. On this embassy he took a part in the nego- 
 tiation of peace with England, and assisted with his 
 counsel the deputies sent from America to Ghent. 
 When Monroe was elected president, he recalled 
 A. from Europe, and made him secretary of state. 
 On the retirement of Monroe from office, A. gained 
 the presidency, after a hard contest against Jackson, 
 in February 1825. He had now to strive against 
 democratic majorities ; for, though he endeavoured 
 to make liinisdf popular by betraying the schemes of 
 his former political associates, he could never win 
 the confidence of the growing party of democrats ; 
 and on the expiration of his term of office, he had 
 to give place to General Jackson. A. retired to his 
 estate of Quincy, near Boston; but in ls.'il) was 
 chosen as representative of his district. He now 
 joined the party of abolitionists, and frequently 
 raised the whole House of Representatives against 
 himself by his incessant petitions on the slavery 
 question. On one occasion (in 1842), in order to 
 assert strongly in the abstract the right to petition, 
 he went so far as to present a petition for the disso- 
 lution of the union! This was misunderstood, and 
 turned against him. He died at Washington during 
 the session of congress, February 17. 1848. Among 
 American statesmen of the old school, he was one 
 of the most able, and, as a diplomatist, was we'll 
 acquainted with foreign relations.
 
 ADAMS— ADDISON. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, one of the leading men of the 
 American revolution, was born at Boston, I.S., 
 September 27, 1722. His political IfmnrnCT wen 
 early manifested; on taking the decree of A.M. at 
 Harvard College, 1743, he maintained the affirmative 
 of the question: Whether it be lawful to resist the 
 supreme magistrate, if the commonwealth cannot be 
 otherwise preserved? He intended at first to become 
 a clergyman, but afterwards commenced a small 
 business, and was made a collector of taxes. 1 1 
 displayed on all occasions an unflinching zeal for 
 popular rights, and was, by the patriotic party, placed 
 m the legislature in 1700. A. was a manner of 
 the first congress, and signed the declaration of ! 
 independence in 1770. He took an active part in 
 framing the constitution of Massachusetts, and was j 
 for several years [■resident of the senate of that , 
 state. He held the office of its lieutenant-governor I 
 from 1789 to 1794, and of governor from that time ' 
 till 1797. He then retired from public life, and 
 died at Boston, October 2, 1S02, poor as he had 
 lived. A.'s character was one of great courage j 
 and determination. He was, at the same time, 
 somewhat narrow-minded and bigoted, both in 
 religion and politics. He was prejudiced against 
 Washington, whose conduct of the war his ignorance 
 of military matters led him to think weak and dila- 
 tory ; and the confidence reposed in Washington, 
 as first president of the republic, seemed to A. to 
 savour of aristocracy. 
 
 ADA'NA, a Turkish ejalet or province in tho 
 south-east of Asia Minor, derives its name from its 
 chief city Adana, containing 25,000 inhabitants. The 
 city is distant almost thirty miles from Tarsus, on 
 the way to Aleppo, commands the pass of the Taurus 
 mountains, and carries on a considerable trade 
 between Syria and Asia Minor. Pompey peopled 
 Che territory' of Adana with pirates. The Syrian 
 kings made the place a city, under the name of 
 Antiocliia ad Sarum, and on the ruins of Antiochia 
 the caliph Haroun al Baschid built Adana. The 
 present inhabitants are mostly Turks, mixed with 
 some Greeks and Armenians. 
 
 A'DANSON, Michel, a celebrated French bot- 
 anist, born at Aix, April 7, 1727. He soon left the 
 clerical profession, for which he was educated, and 
 devoted himself to the study of natural history. 
 In his early career, he entertained the ambition 
 of superseding the Linmean system by a clearer 
 and more comprehensive method of arrangement. 
 When about twenty-one years old, he went to 
 Senegal in Africa, and, fearless of the unwholesome 
 climate, stayed there live years, afterwards returning 
 to France, with a large collection of specimens in 
 natural history. Soon after his return, he laid before 
 the French East India Company his plan of a colony 
 on tho African coast, in which all colonial produce 
 was to be raised without slave-labour. But bis 
 plan was neglected. He published, in 1757, his 
 Histoirt Xalurclle du Senegal, and, in 1703, his 
 Pamittee itt flantet, in which he endeavoured to 
 give a new form to botany; but he could not prevail 
 it the established Linmcan system. His next 
 dung was one on a vast scale — nothing less 
 than a complete Encyclopaedia, for which he honed to 
 
 fain the patronage of Louis XV. and the Academy; 
 ut though his hold plan was regarded with admir- 
 ation, he received little substantia] encouragementi 
 This, however, did not check Ins enthusiasm; he 
 proceeded with the work until he exhaust 
 means. During the Revolution he fell ini 
 indigent circumstances. When invited to 
 a member of the National Institute, he answered 
 
 that he was unable to attend for want of a pair of 
 shoes. Afterwards, he received a pension, and untd 
 
 the time of his death, August 3, 180C, he was 
 iy devoted to the prosecution of his plan, too 
 vast to be carried out by an individual. 
 
 ADANSO'NIA, a genus of the natural order 
 Sterculiacece (q. v.), sub-order Bmrdxicef, named by 
 Linnaeus in honour of the botanist Adanson la. v.), 
 and distinguished by a simple deciduous calyx, a 
 very long style, with numerous stigmas, and a woody 
 capsule containing a farinaceous pulp. The only- 
 known species, A. digilata, the Badoab, also called the 
 Monkey-bread Tree, is a native of the tropical parts 
 of Western Africa, but now introduced into the East 
 and West Indies. It is the largest known tree — not 
 indeed rising to a very great height, but exceeding 
 all other trees in the thickness of its trunk (20 — 30 
 feet). Even its branches (GO — 70 feet long) are often 
 as thick as the stems of large trees, and they form a 
 hemispherical head of 120 — 150 feet in diameter; 
 their outermost boughs drooping to the ground. 
 The leaves are digitate or 7-fid ; the flowers are 
 white and extremely large, on drooping peduncles of 
 a yard in length. The fruit (Monkey-bread) is of the 
 size of a citron. The bruised leaves (Lalo) are mixed 
 with the daily food of the inhabitants of tropical 
 Africa ; and Europeans in that country employ them 
 as a remedy for diarrhoea, fevers, and diseases of the 
 urinary organs. The pulp of the fruit, which is 
 slightly acid and pleasant to the taste, is eaten with 
 or without sugar ; and the expressed juice mixed 
 with sugar is much esteemed as a beverage, being 
 very refreshing, effectual in quenching thirst, and 
 regarded as a specific in putrid and pestilential 
 fevers. The bark is said to be powerfidly febrifugal. 
 ADDA, the Latin Addua, a river of Lombard v, 
 rising in the Bhaetian Alps above Bormio. It 
 flows into the Lake of Como, issuing from which 
 below Lecco, it traverses the plain of Lombardy in 
 a direction S.S.E., passing Lodi and Pizzighetone, 
 and falls into the Po about 8 mdes above Cremona. 
 It formerly bounded the republic of Venice and tho 
 duchy of Mdan. 
 
 ADDER, a common English name of the Viper 
 (q. v.), but also often more vaguely used for poison- 
 ous serpents of the fanuly Viperidce. Where the 
 name occurs in the authorised version of the 
 Scriptures, it appears to be always in this vague 
 sense ; although the terms in the same places of 
 the original may probably be more precise. A very 
 venomous serpent of New South Wales {Aeonthopis 
 tortor) is sometimes called the Death or Biaek A. 
 ADDISCOMBE. See Cadet. 
 ADDISON, Joseph, the son of an eminent clergy- 
 man of the Church of England, was born at Milston, 
 near Amesbury, in Wdtshire, on the 1st May 1072. 
 After a preliminary education at various schools, he 
 entered the university of Oxford when only 61 
 years of age, where he greatly distinguished himself, 
 especially by the facility with which he wrote Latin 
 vers,'. He was originally intended for the church, 
 but various circumstances conspired to draw him 
 aside into literature and politics; the principal of 
 which were, his acquaintance with Dryden, who 
 red the young poet with his patronage, and his 
 intimacy with Lord Seiners, whose favour he g 
 by dedicating a him on one of King 
 
 William's campaigns. In 1099 he received a p 
 of £300 a year, and then set out on a continental tour. 
 Wliile in France, he perfected himself in 
 of the country. On the outbreak of the Sp 
 war of succession, he departed to I; 
 lie penned his charming 'Letter' to Lord Halifax. 
 Towards the end of 170.'!, he returned home by way 
 of Switzerland and Germany ; but his expectations 
 of a 'place' were disappointed, for the Whigs were 
 out of office. The battle of Blenheim, however, 
 
 11
 
 ADDISON. 
 
 which occurred in the next year, presented a bril- 
 liant opportunity to him, which hi did not fail to 
 
 the most of. The ministry wished the victory 
 commemorated in verse, and A. was appoint.. I 
 to do it. Lord llodulphin, the treasurer, was so 
 
 lively delighted with the first half of the 
 triumphal poem, that before the rest was finished, he 
 made A a Commissioner of Appeals. Thepoei was 
 now fairly involved in politics. He acoomp 
 Halifax to Hanover; became under-seen i 
 state in 1706, and in 1709 went to Ireland in the 
 . apacity of secretary to the Lord-lieutenant, where 
 he also obtained the office of Keeper of the Eteoords, 
 worth £300 a year. In the same year, his friend 
 Steele commenced The Taller, to which A. soon 
 became a frequent contributor. lie also wrote a 
 number of political articles in the 117././ Examiner. 
 On the 1st of March 1711, appeared Tlie Spectator, 
 
 the most popular and elegant miscellany in English 
 literature. It ceased to appear on the 6th of 1 lecem- 
 ber 1712. A.'s fame is inseparably associated with 
 this periodical. The quality uf his genius is now 
 determined by it, rather than by the cold, sonorous, 
 artificial rhetoric of his Tragedy ofCato, which was 
 extravagantly admired in his ow n .lay, and even 
 later. He was the animating spirit of the magazine, 
 and by far the most exquisite essays and criticisms 
 which appeared in it are tin 1 work of his hand. Next 
 followed a similar work, entitled The Guardian. In 
 1713 appeared The Tragedy ofCato, the popularity 
 of which, considering its total absence of dramatic 
 power, was amazing. It was generally imderstood to 
 have a political as well as a poetical inspiration; but 
 so prudently had A expressed himself, that both 
 parties, Whig and Tory, received its frigid declama- 
 tion with rapture. It was translated into various 
 European languages ; and even the monarch of 
 French criticism, Voltaire, held Sliakspeare a bar- 
 barian in tragedy compared with our author. ' All 
 the laurels of Europe,' says Thackeray, 'were 
 scarcely sufficient for the author of this "prodigi- 
 ous " poem.' Every one in England praised it i 
 Dennis. A. was called the 'great Sir A.' after that 
 wondcrfid night in the theatre, when, as Pope says, 
 ' the numerous and violent claps of the Whig party 
 on the one side, were echoed back by the Tories 
 on the other.' This enthusiasm was a delusion 
 which time has effectually dispelled. In 1716, A. 
 42 
 
 married the Dowager-countess of Warwick, and in 
 the following yesj was appointed secretary of state. 
 For neither of his new situations was he at all 
 suited. La.ly Mary Wortlcy Montague, in a letter 
 to Top.-, expressed her fear that 'a day might come 
 when he would be heartily glad to resign both.' He 
 was so extremely timid ami awkward in large com- 
 panies, that it was out of the question for him to 
 attempt debating in parliament— -a thing indispens- 
 able to one in his position. He consequently 
 resigned in 171S. Then as to the other matter, Dr 
 Johnson sarcastically remarks, that ' the lady was 
 
 I . . 1 to marry him on terms much like those 
 on which a Turkish princess is espoused — to whom 
 the sultan is reported to pronounce : "Daughter, I 
 give thee this man for thy slave." ' No one can 
 doubt that this marriage was a mistake on the 
 part of A. His health had been for some time in a 
 very precarious state ; and at length, after an illness 
 of a few months, he died at Holland House, Ken- 
 sington, on the 17th June 1719, in the 48th year of 
 his age, three years after what Thackeray calls ' his 
 splendid but dismal union.' A. had appointed Mr 
 Tickell his literary executor, who published his 
 works shortly after in 4 vols, quarto. Besides those 
 to which we have incidentally alluded, he wrote 
 .1 Treatise on the Usefulness of Ancient Medals, 
 Especially in Relation to the LaJiu ami Greek 
 Poets, which, however, excited little interest. He 
 also left an unfinished work on The Evidences of the 
 Christian Religion. lint the most delightful and 
 
 1 of all his productions is that series of 
 sketches in The Spectator of which Sir Roger de 
 Coverley is the central figure, and Sir Andrew Free- 
 port and Will Honeycomb the side ones. Sir Roger 
 himself is an absolute creation; the gentle yet vivid 
 imagination, the gay and cheerful spirit of humour, 
 the keen, shrewd observation, and fine raillery of 
 foibles which A. has displayed in tins felicitous 
 characterisation, render it a work of pore genius. 
 But A in prose is always excellent. He has given a 
 delicacy to English sentiment, and a modesty to 
 English wit which it never knew before. Elegance, 
 which in his predecessors had been the companion of 
 immorality, now appear. .1 as the advocate of virtue. 
 Every grace was enlisted in the cause of a benign 
 and beautiful piety. His style, too, is perfect after 
 its fashion. There are many nobler and grander 
 forms of expression in English literature than A.'s, 
 l.ut there are none comparable to it in sweetness, 
 propriety, and natural dignity. ' Whoever wishes,' 
 says L)r Johnson, ' to attain an English style, familiar 
 but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, 
 must give his days and nights to the volumes of A.' 
 His various writings, but especially his essays, fully 
 realised the purpose which he constantly had in view ; 
 ' to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit 
 with morality.' They materially helped to reform 
 the manners of their time, and created, in addition, 
 that class of readers, which has now become so 
 prodigious in numbers, and on which all literature 
 now depends for its support — the middle class. It 
 must, however, be admitted, that since the beginning 
 of the present century, their popularity has under- 
 gone a considerable decline. The chief cause of 
 this is, that much in them relates to temporary 
 fashions, vices, rudenesses, and absurdities which are 
 now out of date. Yet, after making every abatement, 
 it is certain that there are in the collected works of 
 A. so many admirably written essays on subjects of 
 abiding interest and importance, on characters, 
 virtues, vices, and manners, which will chequer 
 society while the human race endures, that a 
 judicious selection can never fad to present 
 indescribable charms to the man of taste, piety, 
 philanthropy, and refinement.
 
 A 1 1 ELAAR— ADHESION. 
 
 A'DELAAR, Cord StTEBTSEN, one of the greatest 
 naval commanders of the 17tU c, was bom at 
 Brevig, in Norway, in 1622, and in his twei 
 year was employed in the naval service of Vi m e 
 t th'- 'luil.,-:. Courage and good-fortune con- 
 spired in his favour. On one occasion, he broke 
 igh a line of sixty-seven Turkish galleys 
 v bich surrounded his ship, siuik fifteen, burned 
 several others, and destroyed about 6000 of the 
 enemy. The various naval powers now contended 
 for his services. Frederic III., by the offer of the 
 then unheard-of salaiy of 7200 dollars per anniun, 
 engaged him as admiral of the Danish fleet ; and, in 
 1675, under Christian V., he commanded the whole 
 of the Danish naval force in the war with Sweden. 
 He died at Copenhagen in 1C75. 
 
 ADELAI'DE, the capital of the colony of South 
 Australia, is situated on the Gulf of St Vincent, 
 wh re the first Betters arrived on the 27th July 
 1836, without knowing where they were to locate 
 themselves. It was not till March 1837 that the site 
 of the capital was fixed, ami the town-lands surveyed, 
 t tiers living in the meantime in tents or in huts 
 of mud, reeds, and brushwood. The town stands on 
 both sides of the river Torrens, but at some distance 
 from the sea. It is connected by railway with Port 
 Adelaide, which stands on a creek about seven mile3 
 distant, and has a very fair harbour. The plan of 
 the town is extensive, and the streets are broad. 
 There are many line buildings recently erected, and 
 an unusual number of churches. Water is abund- 
 antly supplied by the river and by sinking wells. 
 Around the city, a public demesne has been reserved, 
 called the Parklands. Pop. (1871) 27.20S. 
 
 A'DELSBERG, a district and market-town in 
 Carniola, in the vicinity of which is a large stalactite 
 cavern called the A. Grotlo, through which flows 
 a rapid stream. This cavern, the largest in Europe, 
 is divided into the Old and the New Grotto: the 
 former is 858 feet in length; the latter, 8550 feet 
 in length, contains some most remarkable stalactites, 
 among which is 'the curtain' (vorhang), a white 
 semi-transparent wall. The grotto ends in two paths, 
 one of which leads to a lake, beyond which more 
 wonders of nature are likely to be discovered. The 
 cavern is shut, and can only be entered in company 
 with an appointed guide. The town of A. is 22 
 miles N.E. of Trieste. 
 
 A'DELUNG, Jon. Chmstoph, a distinguished 
 linguist and lexicographer, was born, 1732, in Pome- 
 rania, and died, 1S0C, at Dresden, where he had held 
 the office of chief-librarian. His chief works are his 
 WUrk rbudl dt r Hochdeutschen Mumlart (Dictionary 
 of High German), in which he took Dr Johnson as 
 his model; and his Mitkridatu oder albjenveine 
 tb . a work on general philology. 
 
 A'DEN, a peninsula and town on the south-west 
 coast of Arabia. The most southern promontory of 
 the peninsula, Cape Aden, is in N. lab 12 47 , and E. 
 long. 45' 9'. This peninsida, the area of which is 
 18 — 20 square miles, is doubtless of volcanic origin, 
 and consists chiefly of a range of hills not exceeding 
 1770 feet in height. It is joined to the mainland by a 
 narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. In a valley which 
 forms the crater of a submarine volcano, stands 
 the town of A., which is also named from the neigh- 
 bouring promontory. Bah-cl-Mandeb, or the Gate of 
 Maudeb. It was styled by the native Arabs Aden or 
 Eden (Paradise), on account of its fine climate and 
 great commerce, for which it was celebrated from the 
 oldest times. It enjoys almost perpetual sunshine ; 
 a cloudy day is of rare occurrence ; the heat is 
 pleasantly tempered by the sen 1 and the 
 
 inhabitants are generally healthy. Pliny the Elder 
 seems to have known the native name of the 
 
 place, for which he writes 'Athana.' It wa 
 known by the name of 'Emporium Bamai 
 Up to the time of the circumnavigation of Africa, 
 A., so favourably situated at the entrance of the 
 Red Sea, was the chief mart of all Asiatic produce 
 and manufactures, and even the Chinese traded 
 here. Marco Polo and other voyagers of the middle 
 ages told wonders of the riches and splendour of 
 the place. In the course of time, however, it was 
 reduced to a small vdlage, which in 1838 contained 
 only about 600 inhabitants, including some 250 
 Jews and about 50 Indian merchants. The Anglo- 
 Indian government had long been on the o i 
 for a speedy route by steam from India to Europe. 
 The explorations on the river Euphrates at; 
 no satisfactory results, and ultimately the old com- 
 mercial route by the Red Sea was chosen. This, of 
 course, gave to the shores and harbours of that sea 
 a new importance, and the English soon saw the 
 advantages of a position like that of A. About 
 this time, a British vessel suffered ship wreck off the 
 coast of A., where the passengers were plundered 
 and in other ways ill treated by the natives. A 
 vessel was therefore despatched from Bombay, in 
 
 1838, to compel the sultan of the country to make 
 restitution, and also to learn on what terms the 
 Arabs woidd be willing to cede A, to the English. 
 Captain Haynes, by fair promises, succeeded in 
 gaining a cession of the country from the sultan, a 
 weak and covetous old man. Afterwards, fearing 
 the displeasure of some neighbouring tribes, and 
 partly moved by the suggestions of religious sheiks, 
 the sultan repented of the transaction, but was held 
 to his contract by force of arms; and on January 11, 
 
 1839, after a few hours' contest, A. fell into the 
 hands of the British. Here they have now a strong 
 garrison and fortifications. In its medieval pros- 
 perity, A. had had a magnificent system of cisterns 
 for collecting the rain-water from the circle of 
 hills that surround it. Who built them is unknown; 
 but it is conjectured that they had been begun about 
 the 6th or 7th century. They had been allowed 
 to fall into disuse, and were rilled with rubbish, and 
 in ruins ; but recently a considerable number have 
 been excavated and restored by the British govern- 
 ment. If all restored, they seem capable of con- 
 taining 30 million gallons. Owing to the hard and 
 naked character of the rocks, there is little absorp- 
 tion, and a few hours of rain send torrents down 
 the ravines, which soon fill the cisterns. A. is of 
 great importance in a mercantile and nautical point 
 of view, having a position between Asia and Africa 
 hkc that of Gibraltar between Europe and Africa. 
 The population and resources of the place have 
 rapidly increased since 1838. It has now a busy 
 population of 20,000, gathered from every nation 
 under heaven. There is a telegraph cable from 
 Suez to Aden, laid down in 1870. 
 
 ADERSBACH ROCKS, a remarkable labyrinth- 
 ine group of sandstone rocks situated near the village 
 of Adersbach, in Bohemia. The aspect of some parts 
 of the group has been compared to that of a city 
 ruined by a conflagration. One of the pirn 
 rises to a height of 218 feet. The structure of the 
 rocks has been produced, not by any commotion of 
 the earth, but by the influences of rain, frost, and 
 other atmospheric changes, wearing down the soft 
 sandstone into many fantastic forms. During the 
 Thirty Years' War, the miserable people of Bohemia 
 often found refuge in this locality. 
 
 ADHE'SION is the species of attraction that is 
 manifested between two separate bodies when their 
 surfaces are brought to a considerable extent into 
 close contact. It is nearly allied to Cohesion (q. v.). 
 Adhesion is seen in the case of two solid 1 
 
 43
 
 ADIANTUM— ADJUDICATION. 
 
 when their polished surfaces are laid on one 
 another ; but it acts more powerfully between Bolide 
 and fluids, owing to their intimate contact, Wo 
 have instances of this in the 61m "f water adhering 
 
 to auy body dipped in that fluid, and in water 
 tanning down the side of an inclined vessel from 
 which it is being pcnuvd. All .solids and liquids 
 do n"t exhibit this mutual attraction. Thus, though 
 bright metals are wetted by mercury, glass and 
 
 wood are not ; nor does water adhere to fat. I apil- 
 lary attraction (q.V.) is a special manifestation of 
 adhesion. — The adhesion of gases to the surface of 
 solids is described by Licbig as playing an important 
 part in many processes. A more or less condensed 
 atmosphere of gases surrounds every body, and every 
 particle of a powdered or porous body; and gases, 
 such as oxygen, have in this condition an intensified 
 chemical action. Platinum in the state of powder 
 condenses 800 times its volume of oxygen ; and 
 when hydrogen comes in contact with the oxygen 
 iu this state, the two gases combine, though, when 
 free, they require the application of flame before 
 they will combine. 
 
 Ai'iiisioN, iu Pathology, is when two siu'faccs of a 
 living body become united. If they have been separ- 
 ated by the cut of a sharp instrument) and are imme- 
 diately and accurately placed in apposition to each 
 other, they may adhere at ouce without any apparent 
 bond of union. But, generally, the blood-vessels of 
 the part pour out, between the surfaces, a fluid, 
 con isting of the watery port of the blood holding 
 librine in solution. The liquid part of this is 
 reabsorbed or escapes from lie' wound, leaving the 
 til nine, in which first cells are developed, and then 
 blood-vessels : it is now a living tissue, and forms a 
 uniting medium between the sides of the wound. 
 
 Serous membranes, as the pleura, pour out this 
 thud when inllamed ; and hence the adhesions go 
 often the residt of pleurisies. — If two granulating 
 (see ( iKAM i.AiioN) surfaces be kept in contact, the 
 opposite granulations may fuse together, ami the 
 wound mute by secondary adhesion. 
 
 ADIANTUM. Sec MAIDENHAIR. 
 
 A'DIGE, after the Po, the most important river 
 in Italy, rises in the lUia-tian Alps. Various stream- 
 lets descend from these mountains, ami, uniting at 
 Glarus, form the Etsch, which is, properly speaking, 
 
 tli begin g of the A., and the name, by which the 
 
 entire river is known in I rermariy. From Glarus it 
 flows cast into the Tyrol, then, after a slight 
 d&oiw to the south-east, it Hows due south past 
 Trent and Uoveredo, into Lombardy, and, passing 
 Verona, takes a south-eastern sweep, discharging its 
 waters into the Adriatic, between the mouths of the 
 To and the Brenta. In ancient times (when it was 
 called tie- Aihesis), it had a more northerly ./»'»•»- 
 chwe. It is very rapid, and subject to sudden swell- 
 ings and overflowings, which cause great damage to 
 the surrounding country. The two most remarkable 
 inundations on record are those which occurred in 
 1721 and 172-1. During the Italian wars, its banks 
 were repeatedly the scenes of bloody engagements. 
 Its length is about 250 miles; its breadth in the 
 plain of Lombardy, 650 Eeet; its depth, from HI to 
 16 feet. It is navigable as far as Trent, but the 
 navigation is rendered extremely arduous, ,.n account 
 of the swiftness of the current. The A. is a fcran it 
 river for the trade of Germany and Italy, 
 
 ADIPOCE'RE (Lat. adept, fat, and c ra, wax), a 
 substance resembling a mixture of fat and wax, and 
 resulting from the decomposition of animal bodies 
 in moist places or under water. Human bodies 
 
 have been found, on disinterment, reduced to this 
 state. Lean beef kept under running water for 
 three Weeks, was found reduced to a fatty sul> 
 44 
 
 Adipose Tissue, 
 mtgolflsd. 
 
 stance. A piece of a liver that has suffered what 
 is called fatty degeneration, if immersed for some 
 time in water, is said to become exactly like A. 
 
 ADIPOSE TISSUE is a peculiar kind of animal 
 membrane or tissue, consisting of an aggregation 
 of minute spherical pouches or 
 vesicles tilled with fat or oiL 
 The tissue itself is organic and 
 vital, the vesicles Secreting the 
 fatty matter from the capillary 
 blood-vessels with which they ' 
 
 .11'.' Min minded ; tin >■<■ Lil 
 product, or fat (q. v.), is in- 
 organic, and devoid of vitality. 
 The adipose tissue differs from 
 cellular or filamentous tissue in 
 having the vesicles closed, so that the fat does not 
 escape even when fluid. A dropsical effusion, which 
 infiltrates the filamentous tissues, does not affect the 
 adipose tissue. There is a considerable layer of 
 adipose tissue immediately under the skin ; also 
 around the large vessels and nerves, in the omen- 
 tum and lie sentery, around the kidneys, joints, &c. 
 
 A'DJECTIVE is the name of one of the classes 
 into which grammarians have divided words. An 
 adjective is so called, not so much from its being 
 added to a substantive, as because it add) to the 
 meaning, or more exactly describes the object, than 
 the simple substantive or general name does. The 
 effect of an adjective is also to limit the application 
 of the name to wdiich it is joined. Thus, when tall 
 is joined to man, there is more meaning conveyed ; 
 there are more properties suggested to the mind by 
 the compound name tall man, than by the simple 
 name man; but lull man. is not applicable to so 
 many individuals as man, for all men that are not 
 tall are excluded. — Nouns, or names of things, 
 are often used iu English as adjectives ; thus, we 
 say a silrer chain, a stone wall. In such expressions 
 as ' Income Tax Assessment Bill,' Inconu plays the 
 part of an adjective to Tax, which is, iu the first 
 place, a noun ; the two together then form a sort o£ 
 compound adjective to Assessment ; and the three, 
 taken together, a still more compound adjective to 
 Hill, which, syntactically, is the only noun in the 
 expression. This usage seems pecidiar to English. — ■ 
 Languages differ much in their way of using adjec- 
 tives. In English, the usual place of the adj. is beforo 
 the noun. This is also the ease in German; but in 
 French and Italian, it comes after. In these Languages, 
 again, the adj. is varied for gender, number, and, in 
 the German, for case. In English it is invariable ; 
 and in this simplicity there is a decided superiority ; 
 for in modern languages these changes in the adj. 
 serve no purpose. The only modification the Eng, 
 A. is capable of is for degrees of comparison. 
 
 ADJUDICATION is a technical tenn used in 
 the practice both of the English and Scotch law, but 
 with a totally different meaning in the two systems. 
 Iu the law of England, the term A. is commonly 
 used to denote tin- judicial determination at a certain 
 stage of the proceedings in bankruptcy. The pro- 
 cedure is regulated by 32 and 33 Vict. c. 71. The 
 petition prays that the trader may be adjudicated 
 a bankrupt, and, after proof of the petitioning 
 creditor's debt, and of the Act of Bankruptcy 
 (q_. v.), which must have been committed within 
 twelve months before the issuing of the fiat, an A. 
 is made by the court that the party is bankrupt. 
 Formerly, a trader might be adjudicated bankrupt 
 summarily, and without previous petition for A. — 
 namely, where, after filing a petition for ai i 
 inent with his creditors, he appeared not entitled to 
 the benefit of the arrangement. See I'.ankui new 
 Iu Insolvency, which differs from bankruptcy in this
 
 ADJUSTMENT— AD LIBITUM. 
 
 respect, that it is not confined in its operation to 
 traders, or to any particular class of men, but 
 applies to the community at large, tlie A. is made 
 by the debtor delivering into tin London Bank- 
 ruptcy Court, if the debtor resides or carries on 
 business within the district of that court, or in the 
 Bankruptcy Court of the district within whii b he 
 resides i>r carries on business, a declaration admit- 
 ting Ilia inability to pay his debts, which may be 
 H,d as the ground of an A. by his creditors, if the 
 oourt think it requisite ; or if "the creditors neglect 
 
 to pass a resolution for liquidation or composition, or 
 resolve in favour of bankruptcy; or if after the 
 passing of a resolution for liquidation or composition, 
 the court shall for some sufficient cause adjudge the 
 debtor bankrupt, This A. authorises the discharge 
 of the prisoner from custody as to all debts and 
 sums of money due or claimed to be due to his 
 several creditors. See Insolvency. 
 
 The distinction between bankruptcy and insolv- 
 ency has for some time been generally disapproved 
 in England ; and it may now lie held as practically 
 abolished. The Insolvent Debtors Court is abol- 
 ished, and its jurisdiction transferred to the Bank- 
 ruptcy Court. Insolvent persons can now be 
 adjudged bankrupts in every case in which their 
 creditors wish that, or the court think it proper. 
 
 In the law of Scotland, A. signifies a process by 
 which creditors may attach heritable or real pro- 
 perty of their debtors. It applies to real estate in 
 its most extensive signification, including not only 
 feudal rights, but all rights or interests affecting or 
 connected with land, such as bonds and mortgages, 
 as also annuities, and all rights 'having a tract of 
 future time,' life-interests, reversions, rights of lease, 
 offices of dignity or jurisdiction, personal rights to 
 lands, a certain class of personal bonds, rights of 
 patronage, stock of any chartered bank, with, where 
 the process of arrestment (the process, in the Scotch 
 law, for attaching personal estate ; see Arrestment) 
 is excluded, the husband's right in his wife's real 
 estate, fair, harbour, and ferry duties, entailed estates 
 during the life of the heir, and the like. 
 
 The arrangements for the equitable administration 
 of this law are regulated by various orders of the 
 Scotch courts and by different statutes. 
 
 There are various other forms of the A. in the 
 Scotch law, one of the most important and useful of 
 which is called the A. -ill-implement, a form of legal 
 proceeding devised for the completion of defective 
 titles to landed property. 
 
 ADJU'STMENT, in the Law of Insurance, is the 
 ascertaining the exact amount of indemnity which 
 the party insured is entitled to receive under the 
 policy, ami fixing the proportion of the loss to be 
 DO] ie by each underwriter. The nature and amount 
 of damage being ascertained, an endorsement is 
 made on the back of the policy, declaring the 
 proportion of loss falling on each underwriter; and 
 on this endorsement being signed by the latter, the 
 loss is said to have been adjusted. After an A. has 
 been made, it is usual for the underwriter at once to 
 pay the loss. As a question of law, however, it does 
 ooi appear to have been decided how far the A. is 
 
 conclusive and binding upon the underwriters. In 
 the opinion of some mercantile lawyers, the A. is 
 merely presumptive evidence against an insurer, 
 
 and it is, notwithstanding, open to the underwriter 
 
 to shew facts which, if proved, would have the 
 
 effect of relieving him from liability. 
 
 A'DJUTANT, as the derivation of the word 
 implies (adjuvare, to help), is the title of an officer 
 
 who assists tie- commanding-officer of a garrison 
 or regiment in all the details of duty, lie receives 
 orders, and promulgates them to the several 
 
 companies ; he inspects escorts and guards before 
 proceeding on their duty ; attends to the drill 
 of recruits, is accountable for the keeping of the 
 regimental books, and ought to note every infrac- 
 tion of established mis. An Adjutant-general 
 
 performs analogous duties for the general of an 
 army. He keeps an account of the strength of 
 each regiment, distributes the orders of the day 
 to the brigade-majors, and sees tie- troops drawn 
 up for action. The Adjutant-general of the Forces 
 is an officer of high rank at the Horse-Guards. 
 To him all communications are addressed regarding 
 leave of absence, discharging, recruiting, &c. Besides 
 the adjutant-general at the Horse-Guards, there are 
 deputy and assistant adjutants-general for special 
 military districts. 
 
 ADJUTANT (Ciconia Argala), a bird closely 
 allied to the Stork, made by some naturalists the 
 type of a separate genus, Argala. Adjutant is tho 
 popular name given to it by the English in India — 
 Argala the native name. It is a native of tie- 
 warmer parts of India. It is of large size, and has 
 
 Indian Adjutant. 
 
 very long legs ; in its erect attitude, it is about five 
 feet high; its extended wings measure fourteen or 
 fifteen feet from tip to tip; its lead and neck are 
 nearly bare; a sausage-like pouch hangs from the 
 mi. lei- part of the neck ; the bill is of enormous size. 
 It is very voracious, swallows a cat or a leg of 
 mutton quite readily, and is of great use in devour- 
 ing snakes, lizards, and all sorts of offal. It - 
 times catches birds upon the wing. Tie- beautiful 
 Marabou feathers are obtained from the under side 
 of the wings of this bird, and of another very similar 
 species which inhabits Senegal. 
 
 AD LI'BITUM (in Ital., a piacere, or a pin- 
 Ctmento) is a musical term which implies that tho 
 part so marked may be performed according to 
 the taste of the performer, and not necessarily in 
 strict time. When there is an accompaniment to 
 the music thus marked, it must strictly follow 
 the ad libitum time of the principal performer. 
 Sometimes the words, coUa parte, meaning with the 
 leading part, are written over the accompanying 
 Ad Libitum also frequently means, that a 
 part for a particular instrument or instruments, in 
 instrumental scores or pianoforte arrangements, 
 may either be played or entirely left out; thus: 
 'Overture arranged for the pianoforte as a dint, 
 
 45
 
 ADMINISTRATION'— ADMIRALTY COURT. 
 
 with ml liliitiim accompaniments for the violin, 
 or vi< ill medio.' 
 
 Al-MIMvn: A TION, in Politics, in its-. 
 
 is equivalent to the executive government 
 of a state, .13 distinguished from its permanent 
 
 constitution, ami embraces not only the political 
 ministry, but all the offices of judicature, ftc. In 
 a more restricted sense, as used in England, it 
 
 i he Privy Council (q. v.), and more especially 
 that select committee of it known as the Cabinet 
 or Ministry (q. v.). 
 
 ADMINISTRATION' and Al >M INISTl: \- 
 TOR. An administrator, in the law of England, is 
 the person to whom, in default of an executor named 
 in the will, the ordinary or bishop of the diocese 
 commits the administration or distribution of the 
 estate of a person dying intestate. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF CHARITIES falls 
 in the last resort to the sovereign as parens pa 
 and in the case of any charity being dilapidated or 
 d, the attorney-general will tile an informatimi 
 in the Court of Chancery. The A. of C. is now, 
 however, chiefly regidated by 16 and 17 Vict. c. 137, 
 1 v which the crown is empowered to appoint com- 
 missioners and inspectors for the purpose. The act 
 contains a reservation of the rights of the Church 
 of England ; and it does not extend to the universi- 
 ties, or to such charities as are partially dependent 
 on voluntary contributions. Charities for Roman 
 Catholic purposes were also excluded from its 
 tion for two years, and this term has been extended 
 by subsequent enactments. 
 
 ADMINISTRATOR-IN LAW. In the Scotch 
 law, a father is A.-in-L. for his children, and as such, 
 is their guardian during minority. This power in 
 tin- father ceases by the child's discontinuing to 
 reside- with him, unless he continues to five at the 
 father's expense ; and in the case of daughters, it 
 ceases on their marriage. 
 
 A'DMIRAL, the title of the highest rank of naval 
 officers. The word is generally supposed to have 
 been derived from the Arabic J-.'mir or Amir, a lord 
 or chief (Amir-al-Mumenim, 'Commander of the 
 Faithful;' Amir-al-Omra-, 'Commander of the 
 Forces '). Thus the early English form was . I 
 or Ammiral (occurring once in Par. Lost) ; and so 
 it is still preserved in French. In Spanish the word 
 is Admirante or Almirante ; in Italian, Ammiraglio. 
 The term seems to have been introduced into 
 Europe during the Crusades, and to have been 
 first used in a definite sense by the Sicilians, and 
 afterwards by the Genoese. About the end of the 
 13th c. it came into use in France and England. 
 The first English Admiral of the Seas (.1 
 de la Met du Roy d 1 Anglet'rre) of whom there is 
 record was William de Leybourne, 12S0. His office, 
 however, was not that of a commander, hut 
 embraced those general and extensive powers after- 
 wards associated with the title of Lord High 
 Admiral of England ; that is, both the admini- 
 strative functions now vested in the Lords Commis- 
 sioners qftlie Admiralty (five in number), and the 
 judicial authority belonging to the present High 
 Court of .1 The niiice of Lord High 
 
 Admiral was last filled by HUH. the Duke of 
 1 ace, afterwards William IV. It had pre- 
 viously been in commission from 170S to 18*27. On 
 his resignation in 1828, the office was again put in 
 commission. See Admiralty, Court op. 
 
 In the British navy, the admirals are ilistinguished 
 into three classes: Admirals, Vice-admirals, and 
 Rear-admirals ; the admiral carrying his colour at 
 the main, the Wee-admiral at the fore, and the rear- 
 admiral at the mizzen mast-head. In former times, 
 each grade was subdivided into three sections, 
 is 
 
 as Admirals (or Vice or Rear-admirals) of 
 of the White, and of the Blue, reap* itively. 
 
 The Hag hoisted by the admiral (thence called a ll.ig- 
 l in colour with his section; and all 
 the ships under his command carried ensign and 
 pendant, of the same hue ; but the distinction was 
 otherwise without praei 
 
 Fleet is a higher rank, conferred at the will of the 
 ign. The rates of full or sea pay of Bag- 
 ire as follow : Admiral of the fleet, per day, 
 £6; admiral, 65; vice-admiral, 64; rear-admu 
 An admiral cominanding-iu-chief receives £3 a day 
 additional at home, and '-'I, 10s. abroad, as table- 
 money, when his Hag is Hying within the limits of 
 his station. 15y an order in council, 1 •>'> I 
 of flag-officers in the British navy was i 
 BO: vis. '■'< admirals of the fleet, 7 admirals, 16 
 vice-admirals, and 25 rear-admirals. The ne 
 of admirals on 'reserved half-pay' and -retired' 
 amounts (1873) to 159, The admiral of the 
 takes rank with a field-marshal, admirals with 
 erals, vice-admirals with lieutenant-general-, 
 rear-admirals with major-generals. 
 
 ADMIRALTY COURT. This court, the 
 object of wliich is to try and decide maritime causes, 
 is said by Sir Henry Spelman and Lambard to have 
 been first erected by Edward III. Till recently, the 
 maritime courts of England were divided into the 
 Instance Court and the Prize Court; and these 
 courts were in reality separate tribunals. The same 
 judge usually presided in both, but his authority to 
 hear and decide questions as to prizes of war was 
 under a special and separate commission, issued at 
 the commencement of each war ; and the court itself 
 existed only during the war, or untd the litigations 
 to which it had given rise were brought to a conclu- 
 sion. In this respect it differed from the Instance 
 Court, which was a permanent institution. The 
 jurisdiction in question of booty of war, and the dis- 
 tribution thereof, has now, however, been conferred 
 on the A. C. itself, and the Prize Court has thus 
 been virtually abolished (3 and 4 Vict. c. 65, s. 22 ; 
 see also Kerr's Blackslone, viii. p. 77). By a later 
 statute, jurisdiction relating to the attack and cap- 
 ture of pirates is vested in the A. C. in this 
 country, and in the vice-A. courts abroad (13 and 
 14 Vict c. 26, 27). Whilst there was a Lord High 
 Admiral, the judge of the A. C. usually presided in 
 virtue of a patent from him ; but since the office has 
 been intrusted to commissioners, the judge holds a 
 direct commission from the crown imder the great 
 seal. By 3 and 4 Vict c. 65, s. 1, the Dean 
 of the Arches is authorised to sit for the judge 
 of the A. C. in certain cases ; and advocates, 
 surrogates, and proctors of the Court of Arches are 
 admitted to practise in the A. C. (s. 2). The pro- 
 ceedings of the A. C, like those in the ecclesias- 
 tical courts, were originally based on the civil law, 
 and upon this account it is usually held at Doctors' 
 Commons. But it is merely as the basis of the 
 earlier mercantile codes, such as the Rhodian laws 
 and those of Oleron, and by no means exclusively, 
 that the civil law is of authority in these courts. 
 Questions of the utmost nicety in the law of nations 
 fall to be decided by maritime courts in time of war ; 
 and it was as an A. judge that many of the 
 most remarkable of Lord Stowell's famous judg- 
 ments were pronounced. The appeal from the A. 
 C, which was originally to the king in Chancery, 
 and afterwards to certain commissioners of appeals, 
 consisting chiefly of the privy council, and not 
 of judges delegated by that body, is now to 
 the judicial committee of the privy couued (3 
 and 4 Will. IV. c. 41). The jurisdiction of the 
 vice-A. courts in the colonies and foreign dominions 
 of the Queen has been extended and defined, and
 
 ADMIRALTY DROITS— ADOPTIAH I ONTROVERSY. 
 
 their procedure regulated l>y statute (2 Will. IV. 
 c. 51). Appeals from these courts formerly lay to 
 the A. C. in England, and were also c om p e tent to 
 
 the Queen in council; lmt .in the 
 
 A. C. itself, they are now carried to the judicial 
 committee (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 41, s. 2). The 
 ci\il jurisdiction of the A. Courts was B 
 extended by 3 and 4 Vict. c. 20, by whi. E 
 practice was much improved. It now ext- -mis 
 generally to all marine contracts and other questions' 
 of maritime right, such as disputes between part- 
 is of a ship, suits for mariners' and officers' 
 . suits for pilotage, suits on bottomry and 
 ndentda bonds, and relating fa) soli 
 collision of ships, &c. In criminal matters, the 
 A. 0. formerly took cognizance of piracy and 
 t offences on the sea, or on the coasts 
 Beyond the limits of any county, and, concur- 
 rently with the common law courts, of certain 
 felonies committed in the main stream of great 
 rivers below the bridges. The criminal juris- 
 in of the A. is regulated by 4 and 5 Will. 
 IV. c. 36, and 7 and 8 Vict. c. 2. By the 
 former statute, the judge of the A. is made 
 one of the judges of the Central Criminal Court, 
 and that court is empowered to try offences com- 
 mitted within the jurisdiction of the A. By 
 the latter, any court of assize, oyer and ter- 
 miner, or jail-delivery, may inquire of and deter- 
 mine such offences without special commission. 
 Since the passing of these enactments, the criminal 
 jurisdiction of the A. C. may be regarded as 
 obsolete. There is a separate Court of A. in 
 Ireland. The A. C. of Scotland has been abolished, 
 and its ordinary jurisdiction transferred to the 
 Court of Session, the Court of Justiciary, and 
 the sheriffs; questions of prizes, captures, condem- 
 nations, and the like, being vested exclusively in 
 the High Court of A. in England. 
 
 ADMIRALTY DROITS are a portion of the 
 hereditary revenues of the crown, arising from 
 enemies' ships detained in the prospect of a 
 declaration of war, or coming into port in ignorance 
 of the commencement of hostilities, or from such 
 ships as are taken by non-commissioned c 
 the proceeds of wrecks, the goods of pirates, and 
 the like. The proceeds of the Droits of A. are now 
 paid into the Exchequer for the public use. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLAND lies on the X.W. coast 
 of N. America, between 57° 2 1 and 5S° 24' lat. X.. 
 and 134° 52' and 135° 30' long. W. It is about 
 80 miles long, well wooded and watered. It is 
 inhabited, and belongs to Russia. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about 40 
 islands, to the X.I1 of New Guinea, between 2' and 
 3° lat. S., and 14G° 18' and 147° 4G' long. E. They 
 red by the Dutch in 1616. The largest 
 lut 50 miles long from E. to W, Th. v al 
 in cocoa-nut trees, and are inhabited by a race of 
 tawny frizzle-headed sa\ 
 
 ADO'XIS, a mythical personage, whose beauty as 
 a child so attracted the love of Venus and 1' 
 pine, that they quarrelled about the ]>ossession of 
 him. Jupiter, appealed to, settled the dispute 
 by deciding that A. should spend part of the 
 year with \ enus, and part with Proserpine, so that 
 he lived eight months of the year in the 
 world, and four in the under. A. was afterwards 
 killed by a boar while hunting, and Venus, coming 
 too late to his rescue, changed his blood into flowers. 
 — A yearly festival was celebrated in honour of 
 A., and consisted of two parts — a mourning for his 
 departure to the under world, and a rejoicing for 
 his return to Venus. This festival, wi 
 among the countries bordering on the Bfedrtecranean, 
 
 lebrated with peculiar pomp at Alexandria. 
 th were the Gardens of ! 
 
 i- 're the festival, wheat, fennel, and 
 lettuce were sown in earthen, and even in silver 
 
 Adonis. 
 
 pots, and forced by heat; intended to indicate, 
 doubtless, by their brief bloom, the transitoriness 
 of earthly joy. The myths connected with A belong 
 originally to the east. They display a worship 
 of the powers of nature conjoined with that of the 
 ily bodies, and A. himself appears to lie the 
 god of the solar year. The similarity of the name 
 to the Phoenician Adon, which signified 'lord,' i3 
 unmistakable ; and this word Adon was specially 
 applied to the king of heaven, the sun. — In refer- 
 ence to the brilliant beauty ascribed to A, a beauti- 
 ful man is called ' an Adonis.' 
 
 ADONIS, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Iianunculacece (a. v.), 
 in which the flower 
 has 5 sepals and 5 — 10 
 petals without scales 
 at the base, and the 
 fruit consists of awn- 
 less pericarps. The 
 species are all her- 
 baceous—some of them 
 annual and some per- 
 ennial. Several are 
 natives of Eiu'ope, but 
 only one, A. a< 
 
 sometimes called 
 Pheasant's Eye, is a 
 doubtful native of 
 Britain. Its bright 
 scarlet petals have obtained for it the name of Flo» 
 I, their colour having been fancifully ascribed 
 to their being stained with the blood of Adonis. It 
 is a well-known ornament of our gardens ; in which 
 also A. asUvalit frequently appears, and A. r-malis, 
 a perennial species common upon the lower hills of 
 the middle and south of Germany, with early and 
 beautiful flowers. 
 
 ADO'PTIAN CONTROVERSY, The, was an 
 echo of the Arian controversy, and originated 
 about the end of the Sth c. in Spain, the country in 
 which the doctrine of Arius had longest held out. 
 Elipandus. Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, the 
 learned Bishop of Urge], advanced the opinion that 
 Christ, in respect of his divine nature, was doubtless 
 by nature and generation the Son of God ; but that 
 as to his human nature, he must be considered as 
 only declared and adopted, through the divine 
 grace, to be the first-born Son of God (Rom. viii. 
 20), just as all holy men are to be adopted as 
 sons of God, although in a less lofty sense. Tho 
 flame of controversy thus kindled, spread into the 
 Prankish empire, the special domain of 'Catholic' 
 Christianity, and gave occasion to two synods, one 
 held at Ratisbon (792). and another at Fraukfort 
 [794), in which Charlemagne took part in person, 
 and which condemned Ad oj nanism as heresy. The 
 Catholic doctrine of the unity of the two natures of 
 
 47 
 
 Adonic autii-.
 
 ADOPTION— ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 Clnist in one divine person, anil tin- i sequent 
 
 impossibility of there being a twofold Son an 
 original and an ;i<Ii >[ >t<-<l was upheld by Alcuin and 
 the "tli. t learned men of i marlemagne's court At a 
 queni synodal \i\ la-Chapeus, Felix, yielding 
 to compulsion, recanted Ins opinions, without, as it 
 would seem, being convinced, Etfpandna a 
 fanatically to his views, which were, in after tunes, 
 defended by Folmar (1160), Huns Scotua (d. 1308), 
 Durandus (a 1322), the Jesuit Vasquez (1606 
 the Protestant divine Calixtus (I64.'f). 
 
 ADOPTION (Lat. adapt* .1 institution 
 
 of much importance in both oJ thi nations 
 
 of antiquity. A., in the stricter sense, in the Roman 
 law, applied only to the case in which a person in 
 the power of his lather or grandfather wa 
 to that of the person adopting him. Where the 
 
 person adopted wa.s already emancipated from the 
 
 iiaternal power {patria potcsUu), and was regarded 
 >y the law as his own master [mti jvrit . t!ie pro- 
 
 ceeding was called adrogation to), A,how- 
 
 ever, was also used as a generic term comprehending 
 the two species; and in Greece, where then 
 nothing corresponding to the paternal power of the 
 Romans, this distinction did not obtain. At Athens, 
 the adopted child was transferred from ln> own family 
 and parish ortribi into those of the adoptive 
 
 father, whose property he inherited in the absence 
 of legitimate children, and whose sacred rights he 
 was bound to maintain, (inly Athenian citizens 
 could be adopted, so that not only the next of kin, 
 lmt the w hole community were interested in prevent- 
 ing fraudulent adoptions. With this view, registra- 
 tion in the demus of the adoptive father was requisite, 
 in order to entitle the son to the rights of citizenship 
 as a member of it. In Home, the adopted child 
 assumed the name, ami became hound to discharge 
 the religious duties, of the- adoptive father, which 
 usually consisted in saerilices to the jirnnia or other 
 
 divinities. These observances were for the most 
 part connected with the geru or tribe to which the 
 individual and his family belonged; and Savigny 
 has even denied the exist* nee of sacra peculiar to 
 the family. A. was effected under the authority of 
 a magistrate, the pra-tor at Rome, or the governor 
 [prases) in the provinces. Adrogation originally 
 
 required a vote of tie ] pie m the < 
 
 Cvriataj lmt under the emperors, it became the 
 practice to effect it by an imperial rescript. A 
 patrician was sometimes adrogated into a plebeian 
 family for political purposes. OlocUus, tie- enenrj 
 of Cicero, was so adrogated, in order that he might 
 be eligible to a tribuncshipof the people. If a father. 
 having children in his power, was adopted, both he 
 and his children passed into the power of the adop- 
 tive father. It wa.s requisite that the adoptive father 
 shoidd have no children at the time, and no i 
 able prospect of having any. He was also required 
 to be older than the person adopted. Females could 
 not be adrogated, nor. from their not sharing in the 
 paternal power, could they adopt in any form. An 
 opposite rule has prevailed where the institution has 
 been received in modern times. A. was unknown to 
 the law of the Teutonic nations; and though most 
 of the states of the continent have borrowed it from 
 the Roman law, it has never existed as an institnt em 
 either in England or Scotland. The patrimonial 
 benefits of A. may. however, be conferred by deed; 
 and there is no illegality in any one assuming the 
 name, arms, and other distinguishing ch n n teristies, 
 and corresponding responsibilities, of a person who 
 does not belong to his family. In France, A. is 
 
 used only in a very modified form 1 1 
 art. 34.'i, et eeij.). 
 
 ADOU'R, a river in France, rises near Tour- 
 43 
 
 inalet, in the department of the Cpper Pyrenees, 
 
 waters in it.s course of 'Jllll miles the department 
 
 nli' part of the department l.andes, 
 
 and enters the Atlantic belovi Bayonne. It p 
 
 -> \. i.il tributaries, and is navigable to the extent of 
 
 80 miles. r.agncres-dc-Bigorre, celebrated for its 
 
 hot baths, i- sitbated on tie A. 
 
 A'DKIA. in the delegation of Rovi o i" Lorn- 
 
 hardy, is situated between the river rO and the 
 
 Adeje, contains alioiit 1(1.0011 inhabitants, and is 
 
 chiefly remarkable as being one ,,f the oldesl i 
 in Europe. According to tradition, it was founded 
 
 by tin' Tela _i. 1376 B.& In the time of the 
 
 Romans, A. was one of the most frequented har- 
 bours in the Adriatic Sea; but by the continual 
 deposition of alluvium on the east coast of !tal\, 
 it has been gradually separated from tin sea, from 
 which it is now almost ten miles distant. It still 
 - several interesting remains of Etruscan and 
 Roman antiquity; but its wine, formerly so cele- 
 brated, is now deplorably bad. 
 
 \ I'KIAN". the name of six popes, none of them 
 very remarkable. A. IV. was by birth an Eng- 
 lishman, the only one of that nation that ever 
 sat in the papal chair. His name was Nicolas 
 Breakspeare. He was a native of Langley, near 
 St Albans, became first a lay-brother or servant 
 in the monastery of St Kufiis, near Avignon, and 
 in 1137 was elected abbot His zeal for strict 
 discipline raised a combination to defame his char- 
 acter, and he had to appear before Eiigciiius III. 
 at Home. Here lie not only chared himself of all 
 
 charges, but acquired the esteem of the pope, who 
 appointed him cardinal-bishop of Albano in 1146. 
 
 I in the death of Anastasius in 1154. he was raised 
 to the papal see. A. was at first on friendly 
 terms with the Emperor Frederic I. ; but his high 
 notions of the papal supremacy, which he carried as 
 far as even Gregory VII., led to the beginning of 
 that long contest of the pones against the house of 
 Hohenstaufeu, which ended in the destruction of 
 the dynasty. He was about to excommunicate 
 Frederic, when he died at Anagni, 1150. It was 
 in A.'s time that the doctrine of Transuhstantia- 
 tion (q. v.), advanced by IVtnis Lombardus, was 
 established. 
 
 A'DRIAJS'OPLE, the second city in the Turkish 
 empire, was founded by the Emperor Hadrian on 
 the left hank of the navigable river EDebrus (now 
 
 Maritza). Here the sultans ruled from 13GG to 
 1453, when Constantinople was made the capital, 
 The city has now about 50,0110 inhabitants, the 
 half of whom are Turks. Two palaces, forty 
 mosques, twenty-four public schools, twenty-two 
 baths, and the numerous gardens laid out on the 
 hanks of the Maritza. may be named as the prin- 
 cipal features of A. Its trade consists in opium, oil 
 of roses, with silk and other manufactures.- The 
 Russian-Turkish war was here concluded, September 
 19, 1829, by the Peace of A., which left the Porte 
 in possession of Wallachia, Moldavia, and the con- 
 quests made by Russia in Bulgaria and Roumelia. 
 On the other side, Russia got possession of the whole 
 of the coast of the Black Sea, from the mouth of 
 the Kuban, in lat. 4.V 15', to the haven of St 
 Nichola, lat. 42", with the territories of the Cau- 
 casus, and the greater part of the pachalic of 
 Akalzik. This Peace of A. sei ly to 
 
 confirm the power of Russia in Eastern Europe 
 and in Western Asia. 
 
 ADRIATIC SEA, a large arm of the sea, 
 
 extending, in a north-westerly direction, be! 
 
 the cast coast of Italy and the west coast of the 
 
 (e continent, being connected with the Ionian 
 
 Sea by the Strait of Otranto. In the north, it forms
 
 ADULE— ADVENT. 
 
 the Gulf of Venice, ami in the north-east, the Gulf 
 of Trieste ; while, on the Italian side, it forms the 
 bays of Ravenna and Tremiti, and the narrower 
 and deeper Gulf of Manfredonia. On the 
 side, the coasts of Illyria. Croatia, Dalmatia, and 
 Album, rocky, and barren, and begirt with 
 
 a chain of almost innumerable small rocky i 
 The chief bay in tl no, lying 
 
 of I -tria. The mi 
 able rivers Bowing into the A. 
 and the Po, which are continually dep 
 an the coast, so that places once on the sin 
 now inland. Xhi saltness of the A. is 
 
 probably owing to the comparatively BmaH quan- 
 tity ol ired into it by rivers. Navi- 
 i in the A. ind pleasant in gammer, 
 but in winter the Dorth-wesi gales are formidable, 
 on account of the rocky and dangerous coasts on 
 
 ^lia are the 
 D 
 
 AIM Us, an ancient town oc the coast of the 
 
 Red Sea, rt of Aimu, and is noticed 
 
 chiefly on account 01 an inscription, of sonic import' 
 
 ancient geography of those 
 
 ■'. first pub- 
 
 5th c, in the Top 
 
 iii"i Indie 'Hie modern town is 
 
 called Zulkv 
 
 ADULTERATION OP FOOD, ic. The more 
 important adulterations will be noticed under the 
 is articles. See also Food. 
 
 ADC LTJXY (Lat. l) has been well 
 
 defined as 'the voluntary sexual intercourse of 
 a married person with a person other than the 
 offender's husband or wife.' 
 
 , g 415). By the Roman law, there 
 was no A. unle- .as married, and 
 
 the same was the rule in Athena It was iu 
 this limited form also that A. was recognised by the 
 law. By the canoi ad and 
 
 footing; and thi 
 has b 1 by all the nations of mi 
 
 i the American state of NewJei 
 ided that a married man does not commit 
 this crime in having connection with an unmarried 
 woman. 1 1 Ij I ) But such has not 
 
 the prevalent doctrine even in America ; and it 
 has never been doubted that the offence necessary 
 to found the sentence of divorce is committed by 
 unlawful sexual intercourse equally whether the 
 is were married or single. A. was 
 recogi. crime even before '. 
 
 xxxvni. -J4|. and it is probable that in affix:- 
 the punishment of death (Lev. xx. 10), he i : 
 
 revailing custom. A very remarkable law was 
 introduced for the trial of A., by causing the woman 
 
 of jealousy 
 (Numb. v. 26). In Kome, the Julian law, i 
 in the tune of 
 
 et, and imposed special 
 
 ing of forfeiture of g Is and banish. 
 
 and the paramour. The 
 
 tin cases, was permitted to kill the 
 
 latter, and tie- father might sometimes kill both. 
 
 ne, the authenticity of 
 
 which has be.n doubted, made A. a capital - 
 
 part Whatever Constantino's law was, 
 Mid by Justinian, who further condemned 
 the wife to be whipped, ami imprisoned in a convent 
 for tin- rest of her days, unless relieved by her hus- 
 band within two years {Novel, 134, c 10). The 
 offence was visited in Athens with punishments 
 closely resembling those of Che earlier Roman 
 lation. In many continental countries. A. is still 
 treated as a criminal offence, but in none of thi m 
 
 .'■ punishment now exceed imprisonment for 
 a limited period, which is frequently accompanied 
 with a line. Lord Coke says, thi I taw of 
 
 id in early times, A. wa by line and 
 
 mment i.'i i During the Common- 
 
 . it was made a capital off i 
 partii, p. 121); but this 1 onfinned at 
 
 the Re (oration. ] f the 
 
 iiciary shew that capital punishment 
 equently inflicted. At tin- pi , it is 
 
 punishable in Great Britain 
 censure ; and even this may be regarded as in ■ 
 tude. But when coin;. 
 
 a civil injury, and, till I of the 
 
 star. Jn and L'l Vic. c. 55 and 59, : , 
 
 of an action of damages for criminal convei . 
 
 I (commonly known as an action of by the 
 
 husband against the paramour. N 
 action was compet snt to tin- wife, • it 
 or America ; and her only 
 
 obtaining a separation or divorce. In Sc itland, A. 
 forms a ground for dissolution of the mama 
 the suit of the injured party. .See SepaB 
 
 DlVOJ 
 
 A 1 >VKXT, or Time of Advent (Lat. the approach, 
 or coming), a term applied, by tin i bristian ' 
 
 tain weeks before Christmas. In the Greek 
 Church, the time of A. comprises forty 
 but in the Romish Church, and those Brot 
 Churches in which A. is observed, only four v. 
 
 irigin of this festival, as a Church onlinance, 
 i is not clear. The lirst notice of A., as an appoint- 
 ment of the Church, is found in the Synod of 
 Lenda (524 A. D.), at which marriages were inter- 
 dicted fmrn tin- beginning of A. until Christmas. 
 or Sundays of A., as observed in the Romish 
 Church and the Church of England, were probably 
 introduced into the calendar by Gregory tin I 
 It was common from an early pel ik of 
 
 the coming of Chi-. id: his ' lirst con 
 
 : tin- hour ol 
 
 isions 
 u -I'll by St John) ; his coming at the fall of Jerusalem 
 
 _ nent. 
 According to this fourfold view of A., the 'go 
 were chosen for the four Sundays, as was 
 in the Western Church by tin /i of 
 
 Charlemagne. The festival of A. is intend 
 accord in spirit with the object As 
 
 mankind were once called upon to prepare tl 
 selves for tin- persona] coming of Christ, so, a» 
 ing to the idea that tin should 
 
 ■nt the life of the founder arch, 
 
 Christians are exhorted, during thi- to look 
 
 for a spiritual advent of Christ. The time "i the year 
 when the shortening days are ! ward 
 
 the solstice — which almost coincides witli the festival 
 of the Nativity— is thought to harmonise with the 
 • I a> ntiment proper during A. In opposition, 
 heathen festivals, observed by ai 
 Romans and Germans, which took place at the 
 sun.' season, the Catholic CI I that 
 
 ii- weeks of A. should be 1. me of 
 
 penitence; according to the words of Christ: 
 • Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.' 
 During tlnse weeks, therefore, pul nents, 
 
 marriagi -. and dan 
 
 fasts were appointed, and sombre garments were 
 used in religious ceremonies. The Protestant Church 
 [many has also abstained from public 
 recreations and celebrations of marriage during 
 A. It was perhaps a natural thought to begin 
 the ecclesiastical year with the days of pi 
 ation for tin- coming of Christ. This was first 
 don. by thi Neetonan Church in the Bast in 
 the 6th c. ; the example was soon followed in 
 
 tt
 
 ADVERB— ADVOC \TK. 
 
 and often tne general throug] t 
 
 the '■■■ e 
 
 •VERB. As an adjective is joined to .1 noun, 
 
 an A., for 
 an adjective, or another \. Prom the frequency 
 with which adverbs are joined to verba, thi 
 their name. An A. cannot be the abj 
 copula, or the predicate of a proposition : d 
 
 therefoi idary part of speech, 1 Uy 
 
 ing. According to their signification, adverbs 
 
 ded nto 1. Adverbs of Pla 
 
 /. ; 2. of lime, .' •'!. of 
 
 Degre 1. of Manner, as, thus, 
 
 . 1 of Belief or Doubt, as, pi rhaps, no, &c. — 
 
 ■ 11. 1. nly said, that ' ■ bs admit of 
 
 d ;' as if in this reap differed from 
 
 adjectives. The truth is, that adverbs admit of 
 
 limitations, neither more 
 
 nor li the comparison ol 
 
 Tims, goon is compared as naturally as hard. It now 
 
 or thus cannot be 1 red, neither can wooden nor 
 
 lory and in both cases, foi reason — the 
 
 iinnv prevent alike 
 
 rabli and miserably from aparedgram- 
 
 ■lly, i. i'.. by the addition of 1 r and est ; hut both 
 
 admit of logical comparison bj of more 
 
 l large of adi erbs in English are 
 
 formed from adji ag the syllable ly, 
 
 which is just the word like. \b> t languages have 
 
 the A. from the 
 
 ' ive, except the* lerman, in which tin van- alike. 
 
 il may be looked upon as abbre\ ia- 
 
 tions .1!' phrases; thus, Acre in this place, then = at 
 
 .. ( lombinations of 
 winds that can thus be represented by a single 
 adv. 1I1, and all combinations that are analogous, 
 thou 11 they may have no single word equivalent to 
 them, are called 1 pre -ions. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT (Pr. avertissemeat). The 
 
 public notification of a fact. This is now commonly 
 
 effected either by means of the ordinary newspapers, 
 
 or of newspapers, printers' lists, and other public*- 
 
 ■dly devoted to the purpose. Advertise- 
 
 1, hoth printed and written, are still posted on 
 
 b-doors, and other places of public resort, in 
 
 which case they are commonly called I .ills or placards. 
 
 The 1 1 1 kind of A., and that which is cm- 
 
 {■'. ' 1 "lis and the 
 
 ike, is publication in t (q.v.); but so little 
 
 is the (j 'I ■ mis, that the courts 
 
 of law have held that publication in it alone is not a 
 sufficient notice of a dissolution of partnership to 
 free the partners from debts afterwards contracted 
 in name of the company. Public notifications are 
 Enjoined by si , for example, under 
 
 I Bridge Acts, the Bankrupt Statutes, &c. 
 In many other ways, their legal effects are import- 
 ant. " tents by public carriers, railway com- 
 panies, and the like, are equivalent to offers whereby 
 
 advertiser will be bound to those wl 
 
 on the faith 
 
 \. By advertising a gi neral ship, for a parti- 
 cular > .hi the foot- 
 ing of a public carrier, and is bound to receive goods 
 port to which the vessel is advertised to 
 sail. A merchant in such < 
 
 on Ins goods being received, unless the ship be 
 full, or the entire Er 
 
 of affreightment is completed by the A., and the 
 shippi poods in conformity and with 
 
 to. See 1 Iraki ER-PARTY, Ca&BIKR. — In 
 
 lutyon adv . which was ;; 1, 64 
 
 in Great Britain, and 2s. (i</. in Ireland for each A., 
 
 was reduced to 1 •. f>7. in the former country, and 
 
 Is. in the latter (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 23). In 1S33, 
 
 50 
 
 v. holly repealed (16 and 17 Vict c. 62). In 
 1832, the year previous to the reduction, (1"' duty 
 .111.1.111.1 .1 i" 170,690; in 1841 it »:. 131 608; and 
 in Is;,:;, the year of the repeal, it had increased to 
 
 £180,000, thus exi Iiiilc the amount before the 
 
 period of reduction. Advertisements are found in 
 middle of the 17th c, ; but 
 was not genera] till the beginning 
 18th. In America, where adi rl isne\ rbeen 
 
 taxed, it has long been practised to an enormous 
 extent; and repeal of the duty, it has iu- 
 
 creased in this country at a very rapid rate. Must 
 nevi spapers are rendered remunei ir pro- 
 
 prietors only by means of th 1 mts which 
 
 they contain. Sec Newspaper. 
 
 ADVICE. See Bill of Exchange. 
 
 ADVOCATE (Lit. advoeatut). An A. is gener- 
 
 ally defined 'the patron of a cans.-,' though it 
 
 n"i appear that the 'patrons' who, in ancient 
 
 Rome, assisted tln-ir clients with advice and pleaded 
 
 their causes, were ever 'ailed by that name. Keen 
 
 in the t 1 E Cicero, the term advoeatus was not 
 
 applied to the patron or orator who pleaded in 
 public, but rather, in strict accordance with the 
 
 etymology of the word, to anj who in an] 
 
 of business was called in to assist another. There 
 .■mi bo no doubt, however, that the forensic orators 
 and jurisconsults of the later period of the republic, 
 who followed law as a profession, and received fees 
 {honoraria) for their services, occupied a position 
 closely analogous to that of the A. of modern times, 
 and thus it has been said that the profession is older 
 than the name. The occupations of a jurisconsult 
 and a forensic orator Beem t" have differed pretty 
 much as those of a consulting and a practising counsel 
 do with us. They might be exercised separately, 
 but were generally combined; and thus Cicero 
 speaks of his master, Scaevola, as 'the most eloquent 
 of the learned, and the most learned of the eloquent' 
 (jurisperitorum eloquentissimus, eloquentiiun juris- 
 peritissimus, De Or., i. .'19). Ulpian defined an A. 
 I., be any person who aids another in the conduct of 
 a suit, or action (Dig. oil, til. 13), and in other parts 
 of the digest it is used as equivalent to an orate 
 also Ta. it. ItmaL, x. til, so that the word would 
 seem gradually to have assumed its modern mean- 
 ing. The office of the A. or barrister who conducted 
 the cause in public, was, in Home, as with us, alto- 
 gether distinct from that of the procurator, or, as we 
 should say, attorney or agent, who n pi 
 person of th" client in 1 1 ion, and fun. 
 
 the A. with information regarding the facts of the 
 Case. The distinction between these two occupa- 
 tions, however, obvious and important as it seems to 
 us, does not everywhere prevail ; and in many of the 
 states of Germany, 111 Geneva, in America, and in 
 some of our own colonies, as, for example, in Canada, 
 they are united in the same person. In England 
 and Ireland, advocates are called Barn 
 which title will be found a statement of the duties 
 and responsibilities which the A. undertakes to his 
 client, and of the state of the profession in 
 countries. In Scotland, as in France, the more 
 ancient name has been retained. See ADVOCATES, 
 FACULTY of. 
 
 In France, the avocal and avoue correspond very 
 
 nearly to the barrister and attorney in England. 
 
 The advocates do not form a corporation, in the 
 
 technical sense, but are a free society or association 
 
 (ordre), which has the power of protecting its mem- 
 
 i.l of exercising internal surveillance and 
 
 i" over them. Neither do they exercise any 
 
 rial functions like those which public atitl. 
 
 1. under certain conditn.11- and respon- 
 sibilities, on avoues and notaries. The French A. is
 
 ADVOCATE, LORD— ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF. 
 
 simply a free man, who lias graduated in law, ami 
 
 of 
 The advocates who practise in each court forma 
 i col] !ii ion to which can be obtained 
 
 only with the approval o) those who are already 
 
 members. Enrolment in the hooks of the eoll ■■■■■ 
 
 does not confer the title of A., for this i ' 
 
 to every licentiate who ha taken the oaths before a 
 
 court; but it gives tin: right of communicating [droit 
 
 de ccrmmunuTuer) with the other members of the 
 
 body, without which the exercise ol tin profession 
 
 would be impossible. As a necessary consequence 
 
 of this arrangement, erasure of the name of any 
 
 individual from the list is oquivalentto a prohibition 
 
 to practise. The French A. pi • same privi- 
 
 legi as to irresponsibility for his advice, and for 
 
 the facts contained in his instructions, which belong 
 
 gibers of the corresponding branch of the legal 
 
 don in this country. He is also entitled to plead 
 
 covered (see RajsI'L'itk), and as In- has no action 
 
 they are, a; with us, paid in ail 
 
 'flu- French advocates have, on several occasions, 
 
 id, as an encroachment on their privileges, the 
 
 attempt to compel them to grant receipts for their 
 
 fees. It further belongs to the etiquette of the bar of 
 
 : :i ie that, in communicating articles of process to 
 
 i ich other, no acknowledgment shall be exchanged; 
 
 and we are told, with honest pride, that during the 
 
 many centuries that tins custom has existed, not one 
 
 instance of its abuse lias occurred. 
 
 In Belgium, in Geneva, and also in those of the 
 
 German states by which the Code Napoleon has 
 
 been received, tin* organisation and discipline of this 
 
 branch of the legal profession are similar to those 
 
 which prevail in France. In the other German 
 . with the exception Of Saxony, the formation 
 111 Ih" advocates into a body has been persevering] y 
 ! by tie' governments, A general assembly 
 of German advocates wis attempted at Mayence in 
 1844, and in Hamburg in 1846; and iu the latter 
 city, it actually took place in the following year, but 
 it led to no permanent results. 
 
 ADVOCATE, Lord. The L. A. for Scotland, 
 i also the King's or Queen's A., is the public 
 prosecutor of crimes, senior counsel for the crown 
 in civil causes, and a political functionary of very 
 great importance in the management of Scottish 
 may issue warrants for arrestment and 
 imprisonment in any part of Scotland, and po 
 many other discretionary and indefinite ] 
 Previous to the Union, the King's A. had a 
 the parliament of Scotland ex officio; and sin.'-- tli.it 
 event, he has been almost invariably a ne m 
 parliament, lb- is appointed by tin' crown, and his 
 tenure of office ceases with that of the ailmini 
 of which he is a member. As first law-officer of the 
 crown for Scotland, the 1,. A., when in parliament, 
 is expected to answer all qu -stions relating 
 bu 'in IBS of Sootiand, and to take the superintend- 
 ence of legislation for that portion of the I 
 Lorn. Notwithstanding his multife 
 
 , tic I,. A. a. pts ordinary : at the 
 
 bar, ami. ind 1, is usually the mo 
 
 -I'd with the party in 
 
 power. He is assisted in tin' duties of public pro- 
 secutor by the aolicitoi ad by four junior 
 its, called advocates-deput ed by 
 himself. 'I'll- 1.. A. and solicitor i ■ alone 
 entitled to plead within the bar, and they B 
 only barristers in Scotland who have the dis 
 
 of silk gowns. When the L A. declines to prose- 
 cute, it IS competent for a private party to do so; 
 and in this ease the coiieuien. or * concourse,' 
 as it is called, of the L. A., which is granted 
 as a matter of course, must be obtained. Such 
 a proceeding, however, is scarcely known in 
 
 practice in Scotland. Tie best historical account of 
 this important, and, in many respects, anomalous 
 office, with which wo ai i outlined in 
 
 dgment of tie- la;- Lord Medwyn in King's 
 uist Lord Doug] I ber 21, 183& In 
 
 Eni land, the sovereign pursues in Ids own name; 
 and such was tie- practice in Si otland also, till about 
 
 the middle of the Iffth c., when wo tiiid <,n n Mary 
 
 prosecuting by lni '. . probably in imitation 
 
 of the French custom, lor after the 
 
 institution of the College of Justice in 1532, tie- A. 
 for the crown was always one of the judges of the 
 Court of Session, and as in Fiance the king's advo- 
 cates were also at I | |,i, coinci- 
 dence has been mentioned by Sir ( (eorge .Mackenzie 
 
 in i i of the French oi if I ; ' but a 
 
 combination of offices, now held to 1..- incompatible, 
 • I then uncommon. Lord Medwyn informs 
 i lat among tin' original fifteen ordinary ju 
 was Sir Adam Otterburne, who was King's A. from 
 1525 to 1538, and also provost of Edinburgh from 
 1524 to 1535. So late as 1686, Sir George Lockhart, 
 when president of the court, was ordered by a letter 
 from King James VII. to officiate as his A. in parlia- 
 ment. It is not certain that the King's A. was ■ 
 ally authorised to act as public pros rimes; 
 
 but he certainly possessed that power in 1587 (c. 77), 
 and it seems to !»■ implied in an earlier statute (1579, c. 
 78). It was indeed, as Lord Medwyn remarks. 1 
 an anomaly that a judge of the Court of Session sin mid 
 act as the representative of the crown in criminal 
 than in civil causes, seeing that the former 
 adjudge, 1 in another court. The King's A. i 
 mentioned as Lord A. in the record of the Court of 
 Justiciary in 1598. But although it was not till the 
 institution of the College of Justice tie 
 was placed on its present footing, we have mention of 
 its existence in 1479 ; but the King's A. was not then 
 one of the officers of state, a dignity, indeed, which 
 he does not seem to have attained till 1540. In 
 15,8:2, the salary of the L. A. was only £40 Scots. His 
 present salary is £2387, and he is entitled to per- 
 quisites which raise his emoluments greatly above 
 that sum. The L. A.'s deput I a year, 
 
 and his secretary in Loudon £350. The crown-i 
 who is a Writer to the Signet (q. \ 
 forms in refer ice : i crown causi s pn tty much the 
 nine duties that fall to an atton mt in 
 
 ordinary litigation, receives £1400. As i 
 tion in which the L. A. stands to the public 
 ntors of crimes in the inferior courts, see 
 PrOOUBATOI ;. e\i.. The L. A., though not a 
 
 iirivy-councillor, is, by court as the 
 
 light Honourable during bis tenure i 
 
 ADVOCATES, Fa< m Hand. The 
 
 constitution of this body. lis 
 its members are known, 
 from France. The pro: 
 
 in Scotland from a very early time; and in 1424 
 
 curing the 
 
 an E A. to The words of the s 
 
 are remarka'' 
 
 period, highly inity and enlight- 
 
 enment oft : eh. ' And git ti' 
 
 creature, for faulte of cunning, or dispenses, that 
 cannot, nor may not follow his cause, the king, for 
 
 tod, sail eni line the jud 
 
 use guide be di I xmined, to purwey and get a 
 
 leill and a wise advocate, to follow sik pure creatures 
 
 causes; and ued [gained], the 
 
 wronger [wrong-doer] sail sssyith baith the partie 
 
 skaithed, and the advoeatis eoastcs and 1: 
 This institution ha 1 with little alteration 
 
 to the present tint ft'S boll I. I'.ut though 
 
 Ig as a profession, the A. of Scotland did not 
 form a Faculty or Bociety till the institution of the 
 
 SI
 
 ADVOCATES' LIBRARY ADVOWSOX. 
 
 i ■ i.|. v.) iii 1532. At first, their 
 
 r was limited to ten, but there is now no 
 
 The number on the rolls of the body is 
 
 125; but the number of the 
 
 not exceed 120. Even i small 
 
 m live by the pro From 
 
 iprovements which have I d made in the 
 
 sheriff-courts, and from 
 
 .■Hi in the < "in i of Si 
 
 lining of the 
 and the continued of new men 
 
 Faculty of A. is to be a >r only by th 
 
 that the Bar is still regarded a i the regular avenue 
 t.i public and official Life in Scotland. Two examin- 
 ations are imposed on candidates for admission, the 
 one in general schol it in law; the first, 
 
 however, I I he intrant 
 
 shall produce e\ Sen is a Ma 
 
 of any British uni> i i I j , o that he ha i 
 attained such degree in a foreign univi 
 the opinion of the Dean of I 
 affords evidence oi 
 
 i afforded bj ilaster of Arts of 
 a Scottish whim rsitj . Should no in b degri i be 
 posse ed, an exam mtion takes place before a com- 
 mittee of the Fi ■ i lb; three or more 
 
 ling (generally pro in the 
 
 ibur in. mi the following subj 
 1. l.i. i; 2. Gr k, oi [in the intrant' op 
 two of the follow in.- languagi uami ly, French, 
 n, Italian, - 3 Ethical and Mi I iphj - 
 
 Philosophy ; 4. Lo ;ic, or otrantrs 
 
 i) M.iih. n .I :. be found 
 
 holarship, he may, after the 
 Eor in pi ■:■> i e i Kamination 
 mi lav. . The exarnin i ot take 
 
 him on trial if, during the yeai befo uch examin- 
 ation, i igaged in any trade, bu 
 
 ion, either on bis 6w a ace i , or as assist- 
 ant to, or in the employment of another. Proof of 
 attendance on the Law-classes in the univer 
 Edinbu is also requisite, 
 to plead hi everj court in Scotland, civil, eci 
 
 iperior or inferior; and also 
 befori - I A party ! 
 
 his om • ■ I 
 
 I, but with 
 defene ■ ' aed by 
 
 an advocate. There i- a widow's fund belonging to 
 .lv. which Iso regul 
 
 heriffs, 
 and tl tui ..'■i.illy, 
 
 ted from the bar. The fees on i 
 the Faculty of A. 
 
 ADVOCATES' LIBRARY. Thislibrary, which 
 longs to the Facu ■ ' . . it in Edi 
 - itablished by Sir Ge ' trie in 1682. 
 
 It had at fil 
 
 to time, set apart sums for its maintenance, and 
 donations were made for its 
 
 By the copyright Law of 1709, 
 it nl'i ' lit othi r Libraries, the 
 
 privilege of receiving i every aev 
 
 This privilege is still I to the A. I.. 
 
 (."> ami 6 Vict, C. 45, B. 8), although withdrawn 
 mm i'i. otb r Scottish Libraries ; and I 
 is mainly owing the complete charai ter of the 
 
 collection in British 1 ks. It com] ratively 
 
 at in foreign lit' 
 
 Faculty have no other funds at their disposal Chan 
 
 ees di rived from ' into u»1 -.' and th Bum tin y 
 
 il.-vutc to tin- maintenance of the library 
 
 is quite inadequate. The number of volumes is 
 
 ited at 160,000 perhaps twice as many 
 
 as any other Scottish library. It is particularly 
 
 rich in law; in Scottish history and antiquities; 
 
 Lathers and a, and 
 
 in theology generally. The Spanish department is 
 particularly valuable. The b 
 
 . notwithstanding the reci nt improvi i 
 
 ... ■■ 
 under the Parliament House, where the courts of 
 h the library bale I ly to 
 
 the l'li'ii't'. of vdvo >t< , yet, under their 
 managemenl 
 
 of a public institution. Any stranger arriving in 
 
 Edinburgh is admitted to see the library; and with 
 
 an introduction, any on >r1 to it to consult 
 
 books. Books may even be borrowed through the 
 
 I ■ -ulty. who are remarkably Liberal 
 
 in tins respect Thomas Ruddiman and David 
 
 both held the office of librarian or ' keeper of 
 
 the \. L.' 
 
 ADVOCA'TION, a form of in the law of 
 
 Scotland, tl « hich is to i 
 
 i supreme i i 
 
 for the purpose of review, or that the cause in its 
 
 i may be conducted in the Court of 
 
 m. Final judgments of inferior courts are 
 
 thus brought under i of tl Court of S 
 
 by lodging a written note of A. with one of the 
 
 of S it (1 and 2 
 
 ■ . 86). A certified notio 
 
 top to all further steps in tl 
 rails.-. The party advocating mu I find caution 
 for the ea pen ■■ aire 
 be incurred, in the Court of Session. See Cai 
 
 and Jura roRH I '.\ (f. \ eneral rule, A. 
 
 is competent, unless debarred either by statute or 
 confirmed practice; but no cause can be advocated 
 I exceed the value of £25 (16 and 17 \ ict 
 c, 80, s. 22). A. is incompetent in ad 
 to particular court itute, 
 
 Small Debt Ads. Road Acta, •Ve. Eh 
 which the claim exceeds £40, may be removed into 
 irt of Session, so sunn as an order allowing a 
 
 proof has I o pronou 1. Bhould either party be 
 
 nf opin ought tn !"■ tried by jury. It is 
 
 i: o -.'. ' "ii.'i" tent in all a vo thiol for either party, 
 ling of the ca th Lord 
 
 Ordinary, to move for its removal to the liner 
 House by report On the other hand, the parties 
 have it in th udicial con- 
 
 t that the Lord ( >rd 
 final, and n : to review ; 
 
 in. i i he - . prt i ■ '"'ih parties i 
 
 (16 and 17 Vict i 25). 
 
 ADVOCA'TUS DIA'BOLI, the Devil's Advocate. 
 
 In the Romi b I tun '< when it is proposed that a 
 
 1 l person shall b i i.an examination 
 
 i his past Life takes place. In this process, one 
 
 party holds 1 1 Iliee ol aeeii it, or <i'l rorati&diaboli ; 
 
 and it is his duty to bring forward all possible 
 i linst the proposed canonisation ; while, 
 
 Ih , il iod's Adv. .rati) 
 
 ikes the defe Hence the term A. I). 
 
 n applied to person who brings 
 
 forward malicious accusations. 
 
 ADVOWSOX. The right of presentation to a 
 church or ecclesiastical benefice in England. Advow- 
 sonsare either appi ndant or in grost. Lords of manors 
 
 re "i 1 1 1. dly the only founders, and, of course, the 
 only patrons of churches : and B0 long as a right of 
 bage continues annexed or appended to the 
 in in. ir, it i- i.'alN'd an A. appendant. Such rights are 
 conveyed with the manor as incident thereto, by a 
 grant of the manor only, without adding any other 
 words, tint whore the property of the A. has been 
 "in" separated from the property of the minor liy 
 li"_;al conveyance, it is called an A. in QT088, or at 
 and is annexed to the person of its owner, and
 
 jEDILES— /EGIS. 
 
 not to his manor or lands. Advowsons are further 
 divided into presentative, collaiive, or donative. The 
 where the patron haa the right of preeenta- 
 tiMn to the bishop or ordinary, and may demand of 
 him to institute hi a clerk, it" he find him canonically 
 qualified. This is the most usual A. The second or 
 collative A. is where thi bi bop and patron ai 
 and the im pel on. ! . 
 
 present to himself , but he do i by 1 oi col 
 
 Lation the whole that is done in common i bj 
 
 both presentation and institution. The third or 
 donative A. is when tb n, or a subject bj 
 
 hia licence, founds a church or chapel, and ordains 
 that it shall be at the sole dispo dot the patron, sul 
 
 jed to hi ' ■ itati uly, and not thai o 
 
 nary, and rested in the clerk by the patron 
 of donation, without pn entation, institution, 01 
 induction. 'Thisissaid to have been anciently the 
 only w conferrin i cclesiastica] benefit i 
 
 England; tin- method of institution by the bishop 
 not being i than the tunc of 
 
 Archbishop in the reign of Henry II.' — 
 
 Kerr's Black&one, vol. it p. 20. 
 
 A'. DILES, Roman magistrates, who had the care 
 of public buildings ("./'.<), especially the temples, and 
 a] i attended to the cleansing and repairing of the 
 streets, the preparations for funerals, public games 
 and spectacles, the inspection of weights and 
 measures, the regulation of markets, Jfce. At lirst 
 there were only two .1*.., who were chosen from 
 the plebeians, and styled ./,'. plebUj afterwards, two 
 
 .■tilers, styled .1'. rHrilli.i, Were eh, , sell from tile 
 
 patricians (366 B.O.), and Julius Caesar appointed 
 
 a new order of ./■'. cereales to take charge of the 
 public granaries. 
 
 iEGI'NA, now written Egina, an island funning 
 part of the kingdom of Greece, of about forty 
 
 Bquare miles, in area, in the ancient Saronieus 
 Sinus, now the (iulf of Egina. It is mountainous, 
 
 with deep valleys and cliasms ; and the i 
 all. nds only one haven on the north-west. The 
 modem town of Egina stands cm the site of the 
 ancient town, at the north-west end of the island. 
 The island contains about 7000 inhabitants, who 
 are eliielly occupied in trade, navigation, and 
 agriculture. The soil produces the best almonds 
 
 in Gr -v, with wine, oil, corn, and various fruits. 
 
 Partridges abound in such numbers that the 
 people find it necessary to thin them by destroy- 
 ing their eggs. The most ancient name of the 
 island was CEnone, and, according to tradition, the 
 
 Myrmidons dwelt in its valleys and caverns. in 
 
 ancient times, the people of . K. had considerable 
 importance in Greece; and their fleet distinguished 
 itself lor valour in the battle of Salamis. " Their 
 
 prospi I -I the envy of the Athenians, who 
 
 made the island tributary, and afterwards expelled 
 
 I lea the en i.i ii .ni... i i ,. The Ian ... 
 
 manners, and style of art among the ancient people 
 of .E. were Dorian, 
 
 ■UCINKTAX SOTJLPTUKEa The small 
 island of /Egina holds an important position in the 
 history of Grecian art. \ leverely natural characl r 
 belon to its works of sculpture, of which sevei . 
 have li.en discovered in modern times, (hi an 
 
 ace in the eastern pari ..i tie- island 
 the rums i.f a temple. usunlK called the temple of 
 Jupiter Panhellenius, but now believed t.. bai 
 a temple of Paling or Minerva. Among 
 ruins a series of statues were excavated by a 
 c pany of German . Mines, and Englishmen, 
 
 ulish. in 1811, were purchased by I.. .ins, then 
 cr.'.'.n priuee of Bavaria, and are now the most I 
 
 re i n. ukable ornaments of the Glyptothek at Munich. I 
 Thej are of various heights, and were evidently 1 
 
 1 to decorate the tympana of the temple 
 beside which they were found. The group that 
 
 Kuins of Temple of ^Egina. 
 
 seems to have been designed for the hinder tym- 
 panum is superior in preservation, and represents 
 a combat of LI reeks and Trojans for the body of a 
 
 Front elevation of Temple of -Egina, rasto 
 
 fallen hero. The other group is the contest of Tela- 
 ni. m with Laomedon. The 
 
 are true to nature, 
 as in the old Greek style, 
 with the structure of boi 
 
 s, and even veins, dis- 
 tinctly marked ; but the faces 
 
 have that unpleasant, foro d 
 
 smile which is characteristic 
 of all sculpture before the 
 tune of Phidias. 
 
 .K'UIS. the shield of 
 
 . had be.-n 
 
 fashioned by Heph 
 
 i Vulcan). \\ ben Jupiter was 
 
 ;.. u i .. ,1 and 
 
 ... making a sound 
 that of a tempest, by which 
 the nation iwed. 
 
 I be b. was the symbol of 
 
 divine protection, and be- 
 came, in course of time, the 
 
 Minerva, wi 
 1 rum an ancient statue. 
 
 - attribute of Jupiter and Minerva. 
 
 H
 
 iEGLE— AERATED BREAD. 
 
 l.li, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Haeca (q. v.), distinguished by a five-1 
 
 , lini ir elongate mucronafc and a 
 
 many-celled fruit. ./•.'. Mm which 
 
 produces the hhd fruit of India, hi petdo- 
 
 ]:iti . • ■■. -. and the flowers in panicles. 
 
 It i- found from the south of India tSthe base of the 
 Himalaya .Mountain-'. Tlie fruit is delicious, frag- 
 
 and nutritious. In an imperfectly ripened state, 
 i astringent of \ teati 
 
 dysentery: ai ■< intro- 
 
 duced into English medical practice. Tin- rout, bark, 
 ami Leaves, cinaL The Du1 
 
 m i .i i | pan a perfume from the rind 
 fruit : and the mucus of the seed is emp 
 
 at for many purposes. 
 .HcusPo'TAMIor.-EnnsiMT Win- Gi 
 river), in the Tin lonese, is famous for the 
 
 defeat of the Athenian fleet bytl uonians 
 
 under Lysander, which put an end to the Pelopon- 
 War and to the predominance of Athena in 
 ■ 
 
 .E LI'RIC, or A LFRIC, a distinguished 
 ecclesiastic of the lOtl 
 
 writings, and personality even, there has been a 
 great difference of opinion ammi I 
 lli.' ie son of tli 
 
 or Earl oi Kenl ; hut early manifesting a dcvotioii.il 
 spirit, he ent of Abingdon, the 
 
 members of which belonged to the B nedictine 
 order. Towards the close of the Kith c, he 
 
 ' • a priest in the cathedral of Wind 
 II ;ii next appointed Abbot of St Albans, then 
 Bishop of Wilton, and finally Archbishop of York, 
 althou ■ bunk him that ./.'. « ho 
 
 Lrchbishop of Canterbury. .1'., Archbishop of 
 York, did in 1060; .E, Archbisho ' . rbury, 
 in 1005. Ihe writer .10.. whether oi York or of Can- 
 
 ty, was a man of superior attainments for his 
 client charac one whose religious 
 
 convictions were less disfigured by superstition than 
 those of his cont The principal works 
 
 !. A Latin and Saxon glos- 
 sary, printed at Oxford in 1659; '-'■ A Saxon version 
 of most of the historical books of the did Testa- 
 i .'■ \ char clergy ; -1. Two 
 
 of Saxon homilies ; .">. A Saxon grammar in Latin. 
 CHILIAN PROVINCES. See Emilia* Pao- 
 
 .KMl'LIUS PAULTJS. The most remarkable 
 of this name was the son of the consul .E. J'., who 
 fell in tie- battle of < lannse, 216 B.C. Young . Emilius. 
 
 ited his father's valour, and cnj<- 
 wonti public csti ' 
 
 1GS B.C. he I nl for the second time, 
 
 ami intrusted with the war again t Perseus, king of 
 Macedcn, whom he defeated m tic battle of Pydna. 
 During the war, his two younger sous died; and 
 
 been i is to avert calamity from the 
 
 pie. 
 .EN K'A- Virgil's ./.'«• id, was, accord- 
 
 ing to Homer, the son of Anchises and Venus, and 
 was ranked next to Hector among the Trojan hi roes, 
 raditions of his adventures before and after 
 U of Troy are various and 
 lie- followii warned 
 
 by Priam in tic night when tie I ntered 
 
 Troy. ; i:a the 
 
 city, r eo itest until Priam 1. 11. 
 
 with him his family, he escaped fron 
 , hut. m tie- confusion of his ! 
 lost his wife Crei • la fleet of 
 
 d to Thrace, where he 
 buildiug the city of .Enos, but was terrified by an 
 
 unfavourable omen, and abandoned his plan of a 
 settlement hen-. A mistaken mi rpretation 
 oracle of Delphi now led him to Crete; hut from 
 
 be was driven by a pestilence. P 
 tie- promontory of Aathim, l. 
 
 • i i round Sicily 
 
 to tin- promontory of Drepanum on where 
 
 died. A storm drove 
 
 ca, and land ngi r( 
 hospitably received and entertained by 
 B in th I ii.lo was pn i 
 
 by Jupiter, who sent Mercury with a coiniuaud that 
 1 I v, lie sailed 
 
 away, leaving tie- disappointed queen, who com- 
 mitted suicide. During Ins stay in Sicily, where he 
 celebrated tie- ran of his 
 
 companions and seamen, weary of long voyages 
 
 without e. rtamty of finding a le , set lire to his 
 
 fleet. After building tie- city Acesta, he sail 
 
 Italy, leaving behind him tie- women, and some of 
 tin- men lid fleet. On landing in Italy, 
 
 I • ived intima- 
 tions of his future destiny. Then, sailing along the 
 ast side of the river, he 
 found himself n, intry of I.atinus. king 
 
 of tie- Aborigines. Lavinia, the daughter oi I. 
 had bt iii marry a stranger; but her 
 
 mother had prom • her in mam. 
 
 .kiiiijof the Eutuh. A waron-eied. . 
 i tie marriage ol /Eneas with Lavinia. Their 
 Bon, -K\r.\s Sylvius, as the ancestor of th I 
 
 Alba 1 ga, and also of Romulus and Renins, was 
 
 rej arded as tie- founder of the Roman empire, 
 hardly to add that all tin-- statements 
 
 an- merely mythical, having no historical basis. 
 
 iEO'LIAX HARP, a very simple musical instru- 
 ment which produces harmonic sounds when placed 
 irrent of wind. It is formed by stretching 
 eight or ten strings of catgut, all tuned in u 
 over a wooden shell or box, made generally in a 
 form slop in k. The sounds produced by 
 
 lli rising ami falling wind, in passing over the 
 . are of a drowsy and lulling character, and 
 
 have been beautifully described by tie ] I Thomson, 
 
 as supplying the most suitable kind of music for the 
 Cattle of J ml 
 
 JEO'LIANS, one of the principal races of tho 
 Greek people, who were origu 
 saly, from which they spread and formed inn- 
 settlements in the northern parts of Greece and in 
 the- west of Peloponnesus. In the 11th c B.O., 
 art of them emigrated to Asia Minor, where 
 they founded, mi tie- \. W. coast, in Mysia. and 
 the adjacent isles, more than thirty cities; among 
 them, Smyi 1 Mitylene in tie- island of Lesbos, 
 
 where tie' .Rohan dialect of tie- Greek Ian 
 chiefly developed itself in the- forms employed in the 
 and Sappho, The .Eolian shared 
 the fate of the other Grecian colonies in Asia Minor. 
 First oppressed by the Lydian kings, then deprived 
 tence by the Persians, they became 
 real empire founded by Alexander, 
 ami, passing through a stage of subjection to the 
 oi tin- Seleucids , were ultimately absorbed 
 in the Roniau empire. 
 
 .H'OX, a Creek word signifyinc an age, and also 
 
 eternity. The Gnostics spoke of .-Eons, in a peculiar 
 
 vers that had emanated from Cod i 
 
 inning of time, and existed as distinct entities 
 
 or spirits. They were called .Eons either as partak- 
 
 the eternal existence of God, or because they 
 
 thought to preside over the various ages and 
 
 transformations of the world. See < ■ 
 
 A'EKATED BREAD, a term that has been 
 applied to bread prepared by a process very recently
 
 AERATED WATERS. 
 
 patented, and likely to come into use. In ordinary 
 bread-making, the wheat- Hour is moistened with water 
 and worked into dough, to which common salt and 
 yeast are added. The latter causes the flour to 
 ferment or decompose, when carbonic acid is given off 
 at every part ; and when the fermented don 
 
 1 in an oven, the bubbles of carbonic acid gas 
 expand, and cause the formation of the spongy 
 mass characteristic of well-made loaf-bread. The 
 new process of preparing A. B. consists in placing 
 the flour in a strong enclosed iron box, and moisten- 
 ing it with carbonic acid water, prepared as stated 
 under A. Waters. The dough is then worked 
 up by machinery inside the box, and in ten mi 
 or so, it is taken out, shaped into loaves, and | 
 in an oven, when the carbonic acid, previously 
 introduced with the water within the dough, 
 ex] lands, and forms a light palatable bread. The 
 advantages which this method of working 
 has, as set forth by the patentees, are — 1. There 
 is a saving of the whole of the waste caused bj 
 fermentation, which averages fully 10 per cent. 
 Thus lo per cent, more bread is made out of a sack 
 of flour than by the old process, 2. The i' 
 instead of occupying eight or ten hours, is completed 
 in half an hour. 3. The cost of machinery and gas 
 
 I than that of yeast used in the old process. 4. 
 The dough requires scarcely any handling to form it 
 into loaves. 5. The bread is absolutely pure — it is 
 simply Hour, water, and salt. Finally, should the 
 whole of the bread in the kingdom be thus made, a 
 
 B would be effected in one year equal in amount 
 to the entire ordinary importation of foreign wheat. 
 AERATED WATERS are employed largely 
 as refreshing, refrigerant beverages to allay thirst 
 during warm weather, and dm h conditions 
 
 of the animal frame. The most common A beverage 
 is Carbonic acid water, generally spoken of as Soda- 
 water, though it seldom contains any soda. It is pre- 
 pared on the large scale by placing whiting, chalk, 
 or carbonate of lime (CaO,<J0 2 ) in a lead 
 
 Gazogene. 
 
 with water and sulphuric acid (SO,), when the 
 sulphuric acid combines with the Erne to form 
 stucco or sulphate of lime (CaO.SO,), and carbonic 
 
 acid (CO,) is evolved as -as. The latter is received 
 ill a reservoir, and is thereafter forced into water, 
 so that the utter dissolves about five times its 
 own \olumo of the gas. The water then consti- 
 tutes a brisk sparkling liquid, with a pungent) bul 
 nt acidulous taste. On the small scale, and 
 for family use, carbonic acid water may be con- 
 illy prepared in the apparatus known as the 
 
 The Complete apparatus is 
 
 at A. and di i t B and C. Ln pro 
 
 ing to use the ( I obe al B is 
 
 tilled with water by means of the long funnel K, 
 taking care that no water runs into the smaller and 
 
 upper division. The powders, consisting of 1 
 of soda (XaO,HO,2CO,) and tartaric ae: 
 are then placed in the upper globe by means of the 
 small funnel D, and care is taken, by plugging up 
 the tube communicating with the lower part by the 
 stopper I', that no powder passes into the larger 
 globe. The long tube, C, is then inserted int. 
 
 and senwed wall in. The apparatus is 
 inclined till water from the lower i and 
 
 fills the upper globe about one. third; then it is 
 placed erect, and allowed to 1> a1 n it tor two hours, 
 when, if the screw stop-cock at the upper part be 
 opened, the carbonated water will flow out readily 
 into any vessel placed to receive it. The explana- 
 tion of the action which goes on in thi 
 that tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda have 
 no action on each other so long as they are dry ; 
 but whenever water is admitted, the tartaric acid 
 th the soda and water to form tartrate 
 of soda and water fNaOJBCO I t the same 
 
 time, carbonic acid (CO„) is given off, and descend- 
 ing the tube into the lower glob e. dissolves in the 
 water contained therein. Occasionally, bisulphate 
 of potash is used instead of the tartaric acid, to save 
 iter expense of the latter. — The gazogenes can 
 e be used in the preparatii soda- 
 
 water, or Eau de Vichy, by addii s little car- 
 bonate of soda to the water in the 1 •■ 
 charging with carbonic acid. A. wine may be 
 obtained by placing white wine with a little 
 candy in the lower globe instead of wate . .\. 
 ling Itmonade is procured when the carbonic acid 
 water is run into a tumbler containing a little 
 sirup of sugar; and A. fruit-beverages, when the 
 water charged with carbonic acid 1 in a 
 
 glass containing about a table-spoonful of either of 
 the fruit-sirups. 
 
 The less common A. W., prepared on the large 
 seale.are — \.A.tod tamed 
 
 by adding 15 grains de of 
 
 soda to each bottle before it is charged witl 
 carbonic acid water; 2. A. by employ- 
 
 ing in a similar way 20 grains of bicarbonai 
 potash ; .'I. A. Seltert-wal irbonate of soda 
 
 and chloride of sodium (common salt) arc dissolved 
 in carbonic acid water; 4. A. I ', when 
 
 finely divided Carrara marble is dissolved in the 
 acid-charged water; 5. A. lime-l 
 forms of lime than the Carrara marble are used; 
 6. A. ma r, when magnesia, or the car- 
 
 bonate of magnesia, is used ; and . I . 
 when a compound of iron is dissolved in the carbonic 
 acid water. The latter beverage has lately 
 employed in medicine, as an easy means of intro- 
 ducing iron into the blood, and with good effect. 
 A. Carrara and lime v. now admini 
 
 s where the bony structure requires to be 
 I : and A. magnesia-water is a very 
 agreeable mode of patient a dose of mag- 
 
 Tile well-known effervescing draughts i 
 
 I leUUitz-powden, are two other 
 kinds of A. drinks. In the former, bicarbonate of 
 soda and tartaric acid are added to water in a 
 tumbler, and a refreshing draught iustantau' 
 prepared. Sodliti mtain tarn 
 
 and bicarbonate of soda in o and tartaric 
 
 aeid in the other; and when both are added to 
 wat r. and the liquid is then 
 
 partaken of. 
 
 A. \V. bk naturally. Water, as it is 
 
 drawn from a BU rcntly from the 
 
 same water after being boiled and cooled ; and this 
 is due to the unboiled water containing the 
 
 ly the 
 Ived in it. Spring-water is 
 
 ,-. at' r has a ma 1
 
 AERIAL POISONS U'.llOUTE.S. 
 
 insipid taste, mainly 1" ■ minute quantity 
 
 1 1,. i in dissolved ; but when thai 
 trick! ^ dow ii the mountain-side, and is d 
 
 i i.iiii led ■ to ledf f roi k, it absorbs an I d 
 
 rom i id orally 
 
 l. M:mv waters are aerated in a natural but 
 
 peculiar way, wh upon them important 
 
 m idicinal properties; and these will i te before us 
 
 under their more popular title of Mineral Sp< 
 
 AERIAL POISONS. -Musma. 
 
 AERODYNAMICS , thai bi ini b oi 
 which treats of an- ami other ■ es in motion. It 
 ■ phenomem Ei m a 
 
 :, which corre ipond in many respects with 
 of water. See Hydrodynamics. Much depends, as 
 in the case of wati r, upon I lie oatuj i of the oi ifice, 
 whether a mere hole in the side of the vessel, or a 
 Another smbji ct of A. is the motion 
 of air in long tubes, where the 
 &c., ha i to be a < rtained. That n i tance is found 
 to 1»-' nearly in proportion to the square of the velo- 
 city, to the 1» ogth of the tube, and invi 
 width. A. examines also the veld ity of air ru 
 into a vacuum, of wind, Ac. The instrument 
 for the latter purpose i led an i oemometer. See 
 Winds, Air is round to rush into a void spa e 
 
 I.' of from 1300 to 1 WO feet per second. One 
 oi the most important in A. is the resist- 
 
 ance offi red to a bodj moving in air, or— which is 
 pr< ure exerted by air in 
 motion upon a bod The law may be stated, 
 
 with sufnci practical purpo i 
 
 follows: Tht vesistanc* or prt 'sure w proportioned 
 sqitart of Ou velocity. We might conclude 
 
 from teas without experiment, that such would 
 
 be the case; for if one body is moving through the 
 air four times Easter than another of the same size, 
 not only will it encounter four times as many par- 
 ol air, but it will give each of them four times 
 as great an impulse nr shock, ami thus eiieuuntiT 
 4x4, or sixteen times as much n 
 
 This - i tance is greatly increased by another 
 circumstance, especially with great velocities The 
 air in front of the moving bod) becomes accumulated 
 or condensed, and a partial or even entire vacuum 
 is formed behind it. With a velocity of 1700 feet 
 
 per second, for instance, the re t is found to be 
 
 about three times as great as the simple law of the 
 square of the velocity would give. By the operation 
 of these lay of resi tarn . a heavj body let fall 
 with a parachute attached to it, comes, afi 
 tame, to move with a velocity approaching mure and 
 more nearly to a uniform motion. 
 
 A'EROLITKs [Gr. a r, air, u i liOios, Btone), or 
 
 M I .i OEI( STOK l -. FlR] U 0OTE»l PA] 
 
 are now classed together as being merely varieties 
 
 of the same phenomenon. Aerolites (hat tall during 
 the day, are observed to he projected from a 
 small dark i loud, accompanied by a noise like 
 thunder, or the firing of cannon ; at ni ht, i bej 
 proceed from a fireball, which splits into fragments 
 with a similar sound. It is believed that the dark 
 cloud that accompanies the fall of aerolites by day, 
 would be luminous at night; and smoking, exploding 
 
 fireballs havi aetimi □ luminous even in 
 
 the brightness of tropic i [he conn 
 
 a aerolites and fireball is thus established, 
 cannot b 
 . the two phenomena being sometim 
 and also being found to merge into one another, both 
 with re peci to the size of their disk . the emanation 
 the velocities of their motion. 
 Tnei rous records and stones in all ages 
 
 and countries oi the fall of stones from the sky; 
 but until recent times, they were treated by pkiloso- 
 66 
 
 pliers l of popular credulity and super- 
 
 iot till the beginning of the ll'th c 
 
 i h it the i." I i ibli lied bej I a doubt. — 
 
 According to I, ivy, a shower of si a fell on the 
 
 Uban Mount, not far from Rome, i I I 654 B.O. 
 
 The fall of a great sto tami, on 1 be 
 
 l telle ipont, about ti>7 B.O., is recorded in the Parian 
 
 iicle (q. v.), ami mentioned by Plutarch and 
 
 Pliny. It was still shewn in the daj oi Pliny 
 
 hi. T'.i A.m. who i it as of toe sii a 
 
 in, and of a burned colour. In the year 1492 
 
 A. D., a ponderous st , weighing 260 lbs., fell from 
 
 the sky near the village in Alsace; 
 
 part oi it is still i" be seen in lib church. 
 
 An extraordinary shower of stones fell near I,' 
 in Normandy, on the '-'lith April 1803. The cell 
 brated French philosopher, M. Biot, wa i deputed by 
 government to repair to the spot, and collect the 
 
 authentic facts; and since the date of his report, the 
 
 ■ . ,i in \ oi Buch occurrenoi - ha i qo Longer been que 
 
 ti d. Nearly all the inhabitants oi a In c district 
 
 had seen the cloud, heard the noises, and observed 
 the stones fall. Within an elliptical area 
 
 nulls by three, tic number of stones that had fallen 
 
 could not be less than two or three fchou and; the 
 
 i i w.re 17 lbs, iii weight. These are only a few 
 out of hundreds of instances on n cord. 
 
 As was natural with such mysterious 
 
 mi in. meteoric stones have always been regarded 
 wiiii religious veneration. At Eknesa, in Syria 
 
 sun was worshipped under the form of a Mack stone, 
 reported to have fallen from heaven. 'I he holy 
 Kaalia of Mecca, and the ureal, stone of the pyramid 
 ol I 1 1 , . 1 1 1 1 .' i . in Mexico, have all the same history. 
 
 The existence of such bodies once admitted. led 
 i > oi a meteoric character to strange ferru- 
 
 ginous masses found in different countries, and which 
 
 li.nl no history, or were only adverted to in 
 tradition. (if this kind is the immense ma en 
 
 by Pallas in Siberia, now in tin- Imperial Museum 
 at St Petersburg. The largest known is one in 
 Brazil, estimated at 14,000 lbs. 
 
 One eon. taut characteristic of meteoric ston 
 tie fused black crust, like varnish, with winch the 
 surface is coated. From the circumstance of this 
 being very thin, and separated Erom the inner 
 ily defini d line, it is thought to 
 sunn rapid action of heat, which has not had 
 time to penetrate into the substance of tin- stoic 
 This view is favoured by tic fact thai 
 ai found in a strongly heated, hut. not incandi 
 Btate, when they fall. Their specific gravity ran 
 oto on v n eight times that of wati 
 
 mposition, tic pred in; 
 
 ,i is iron, m a, native or metallic 'at., gener- 
 ally combined with a small proportion of nickel. 
 According to Humboldt, the aerolites that fell in the 
 neighbourhood of Agram, in Croatia, in 1751, the 
 
 Siberian stone, an 1 ii em. ht by that 
 
 philosopher from Mexico, coni i 96 per cent, of 
 
 iron; while in those of Sienna the iron scat 
 
 lis to "J per cent , and. in some rare iustania ^, 
 metallic iron is altogether wanting. A writer in the 
 QuarU rly !!• vu »■, No. CLXXXI1IT, thus sums up the 
 i nli of all the chemical analyses hitherto made: 
 • We find the actual number of recognised elements 
 
 discovered in aerolites to be nineteen or twenty — 
 that is, about one-third of the whole number of 
 elementary substances (or what we are yet forced to 
 i as such) discovered on the earth. Further, 
 all these aerohtic elements actually exist in the 
 earth, though never similarly combined there. No 
 new substance has hitherto come to us from without; 
 and the most abundant of our terrestrial lie lals, 
 iron, is that which is largely predominant in aerolites, 
 forming frequently, as in some of the instances just
 
 AEROLITES. 
 
 mentioned, upwards of 90 parts in 100 nl tli 
 Seven other metals — copper, tin, nickel, i 
 chrome, manganese, and molybdena en1 
 into the composition of these stones. Cobalt and 
 nickel are the most invariably present; but the 
 
 proportion of all is trifling npared with tl 
 
 iron. Further, there have been found in different 
 
 aSroliteS, sin alkalies aiel earths namely, soda, 
 
 pota ii. magnesia, lime, silica, and alumina; and, in 
 addition to these, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and 
 hydrogen. Finally, oxygen must also be named as 
 .' con tituent of many ae*roliti ;. enterj 
 composition "i several of the Bubstances i> 
 tioned. \ ■■ respects the manner of conjunction of 
 tie ie elemi n1 , ri lingly variou i m d 
 
 tea. A few there are. especially examined by 
 Berzelius i I augite, horn- 
 
 blende, and other earthy minerals; and closely 
 n ' mbl a i i i ■ ifline compounds which we 
 
 find on ili' of 1 be earth.' 
 
 lose solid masses of considerabl 
 
 of dust 
 
 that 
 suchdu i has generally been lund I i c in mull 
 
 hard i D 
 
 the sky are 
 ranked by Humboldt among the mythical fab 
 
 mi t •ology. It h .posed that such 
 
 may have originated in the very rapid growth of 
 gelatinous al toe (q. v.). 
 
 
 Shower of Shooting-stars witnessed in North America. 
 
 Fireballs and Shoohng-stars. From the I 
 and apparent diameter, the actual chain iter i 
 in i t fireballs is estimated by Humboldi to \ ■••. 
 
 front BOO to -sou feet; others allowadia ter of 
 
 about a mile. Shooting-stars are though! to 
 diameters varying from St) to l'.M feet. In most 
 cases "f Illinium; i of light many 
 miles iii length is left behind. < hie or two instance 
 are on record where the train qf th i ball con- 
 tinued shining for an hour after the body disap- 
 peared > tin are I to 
 
 range from 15 to 150 miles, a1 the poL 
 
 1 1"'. I in and cease to be \ isible. Their u 
 
 vary from IS to .'111 miles in a : eond. When it is 
 
 I ih i the velocity of Mercury in it 
 is 26"4 lnil.s iii a second, of Venus 19'2 
 Earth Hi t, we have in this fart a Btrong confirmation 
 of tie- planetary nature of me1 
 
 (hie of tie' most remarkable facts conned d with 
 shooting-stars is, that certain appearani 
 are j>< nodic < in most occasion i tn 
 that is, tiny appear singly, and traverse tie' sky in 
 all directions. At other times, they appear in 
 swarms of thousands, moving parallel; and these 
 
 ', arm i are pet iodic, or recur on the same .1 1 
 the j ear. Attention wa ' t dir cted to thit 
 mi occasion of the prodigious .-warm which app 
 
 In t ween the 12th and 13th of 
 November l^.'i.'i. described by Professor Olmsted of 
 Newhaven. 6 11 on this > like 
 
 flakes of snow, ,.. the number, as was estimated, of 
 
 -J40.000 in i ' hour-, and van 
 
 borescent line to 
 globes i important 
 
 observal ion mad i they all appeared to 
 
 proceed from the same tjnai . leavens the 
 
 Nation 
 
 Leo; and alt] igh c had changed greatly 
 
 its bei hi ami azimuth due me that the 
 
 phnioiii lie from the 
 
 Bame point [( wasafl rwai ts computed by Encke, 
 ■ at was the very direction in which the 
 earth was moving in her orbit at the time, atten- 
 tion being d ' • it" i ■"' ■"■ I'd appearan 
 
 same kind, it was observed w ith surprise that t 
 
 tired on th 
 illy that seen by Humboldt 
 at i 'uiuaiia j n IT'. 1 '.', and by other over a 
 
 47
 
 AER0NADT1CS— AEROSTATIC l'KESS. 
 
 great extent of the earth. The November stream 
 was a i '1 in the a 1834, 
 
 between tin- 13th ami 14th, though leas tnt 
 Thou we, and in Borne yean altogether 
 
 alis. nt. this phenomenon lias recurred with Buch 
 in America and Europe, 
 liah its peril oter. 
 
 Another periodic awi i derable regularity 
 
 i he 9th and tin' llth of 
 
 d noticed in ancient legends as the 'fiery 
 .ii st Lawrence, n boss festival is on the loth 
 at month. There are other perio 
 ; and Humboldt gives the to 
 
 >, of remark: *-"-M to 25th of April; 
 ITU. of July; 10th of August; 12th to llth of 
 November; 27th to 29th of November; 6th to 12th 
 of December. 
 
 It remains to notice briefly the various opinions 
 that have been advanced as to the origin of aerolites, 
 
 and the theory of meteors i 
 
 thesi that have been Eo d in answer to the 
 
 question — Wnenc i is solid mat 
 
 upon the earth ? are of two kinds; Borne ascribing 
 to them a telluric origin, and others making them 
 alien to the earth, t If the first kind, is the conjecture 
 that they may be Btones ejected from terrestrial 
 volcanoes, revolving for a time along with the earth, 
 and at last returning to it. Another theory, which 
 at one time found considerable favour, supposed that 
 the matter of which aerolites are composed existed 
 in the atmosphere in the form of vapour, and was by 
 some unknown cause Buddenrj ted and pre- 
 
 cipitated to the earth. These conjectures are un- 
 tenable in G of the phenomena 
 
 Btated above, and are now tpletely given up. 
 
 In seeking a Bource beyond the earth, the □ 
 
 d itself. Olbers v. as the first to 
 IT'.io, the initial velocity necessary to 
 
 i'i masses projected from the n i. 
 
 This ' ballistic problem,' as Humboldt calls it, occu- 
 pied during ten or twelve years the geometricians 
 Laplace, Biot, Brandes, and Poisson. It. was calcu- 
 lated that, setting aside tin- resistance of air, an 
 initial velocity of about 8000 feet in a second, which 
 is about five or six times that of a cannon-ball, would 
 suffice to bring too stones to the earth with a velo- 
 city of 35,000 feet But Olbers lias shewn, that to 
 
 neooiiut for the actual measured velocity of meteoric 
 stones, the original velocity of projection must be 
 fourteen times greater than the above. It is a 
 this lunar theory, that we have no proof of active 
 volcanoes UO\\ existing in the moon; and with the 
 improvement of the telescope, the probability of the 
 contrary is increasing. It is, accordingly, giving 
 place to tie- planetary theory, which we noticed at 
 the outset — a theory which harmonises better with 
 ndency of physical research and of speculation 
 generally. 
 
 Tii' discussion of hypotheses as to the genesis of 
 then gnised planets out of portions of the gradu- 
 ally contracting vaporous mass of the sun ; the con- 
 i discovery of hitherto unobserved planets 
 between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter ; the 
 
 adtitudes of cornets th rved travera- 
 
 our system in all directions, and und 
 appreciable alteration both ol 
 
 all prepare us for the idea, that matter may exist 
 
 in the inter-plan- I , in every variety of form 
 
 i iccount for the pie n n.'i ol 
 
 irs a above described, we must Buppose that 
 
 are both detached masses, each revolt 
 
 an independent orbit, and givin VOradic 
 
 ors ; and also connected systems, forming rings 
 
 ound the sun. The intersection o 
 
 earth's orbit by such zones or .streams, wotdd account 
 
 for the periodic swarms of meteors; and if we 
 
 the asteroids eompi»in_' ii nl.irly 
 
 .in why tin bream 
 
 should not be always of equal intensity. I 111 P 
 
 eM u be periodicity in this respect too. Between 
 1799 and 1833- the two most brilliant manifestations 
 of the November stream on record th 
 ,'il year..; and Olbers has predicted that the 
 Will be in lsr.7, 
 Web to enter upon such qui 
 
 a : \\ hat CaUSei the luminous and ignited com: 
 of aerolite.,? The height at which many meteors 
 
 . n. pe, i he ■" ■ mo) I he at m 
 ignition ont of tl n, ami the terrestrial 
 
 . Ban 
 
 As to those meteors that are unattended b 
 
 that they are merely deflected from 
 
 their path by the proximity of the earth, are rendered 
 
 luminoi a a. short arc, an l continue their 
 
 it we are not to assume, 
 
 that wlure no precipitation of matter is \ 
 
 e takes place ; it in 
 
 dissipated in powder. See Meteors in 
 
 AERONAU'TICS, the art of navigating tl 
 See Balloon. 
 
 AEROSTA'TICS. This branch of science I 
 of the equilibrium ami pressure ol air and other 
 ami of the methods of measuring it by the barometer 
 
 and other instruments. The expansive ton e oi pri - 
 sure of atmospheric air varies with time and place. 
 In a medium tdition of the atmosphere, and 
 
 near the sea-level, barometrical obeen 
 
 ,, are or weight equal to thai ol a coin 
 
 oil inchi high, or of a column of water 
 about ,'il feet high. Tins makes die mean pi 
 of the atni" ily 15 lbs. on every Bquare 
 
 inch. Tins mean pressure of the atmosphere is 
 
 the unit or measure oi 
 or elastic forces generally; any particular pi 
 is said to be equal to bo many atmospheres. Aero- 
 also investigates the phenomena of the 
 compression of gases; in other wands, the ■ 
 bill n the elasticity and the density or v 
 of a gas. According to the law of Mariotte, tin 
 
 expansive force of and the same body of 
 
 proportional to its density; or, which i 
 thing, the expansive force of a body of gas under 
 different degrees of compression, varies inversely as 
 e which it occupies. If its elastic force, at 
 one stage, be measured by oil lbs., when eompn ed 
 into half the space, that force will be lull His. ( 'mi. 
 I with this is the investigation of tie- variation 
 of density and pressure in the e ■■< ral vi rtical strata 
 of tin- atmosphere. It is obvious that the weight of 
 the atmosphere must diminish as we ascend, as part 
 of it is left below; and it results from Mariotte's 
 law, that, at different distances from the earth's 
 surface, increasing in arithmetical progression, the 
 atmospheric pressure diminishes in geometrical 
 progression. This principle furnishes the means of 
 mi ,1-iu in | hi i his by the Barometer (q. v.). 
 
 The clastic force of air and other gases is very 
 much increased by heat; and consequently, when 
 allowed, they expand. It is found that a rise of 
 temperature of 1° of Fahrenheit, causes any gas to 
 expand -jJ-^ of its own bulk ; and this expansion is 
 uniform. If adding 10° to the temperature of a 
 body of gas increases its bulk .'! cubic inch- 
 addition of 20° will give an increase of inches ; of 
 50°, 1") inches, and so on. Tins law was discovered 
 by I lay-Lussac, and has been verified by subse- 
 ,'ators. Both it, however, and that of 
 Mariotte, can be looked upon as only nearly true, 
 and that within certain limits. 
 
 AEROSTATIC PRESS. This is a macliine used 
 for extracting the colouring-matter from dye-woods
 
 .ESCHINES— /ESOP. 
 
 and such like A divided bya horizontal 
 
 Upon this the 
 substance containing 1 1 1 * - colour is laid, and a 
 also perforated, is placed upon it The extracting 
 liquid ia then poured on the top, and the air being 
 drawn from the under ]>art of the vessel by a 
 pump, the liquid is forced through the substance by 
 the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 JE'SCHINES, an Athenian orator, second only to 
 
 Demosthenes, whose contemporary and rival he was. 
 
 Philip in Macedon was then pursuing hie designs for 
 
 ibjugation of the several Greek states to his 
 
 own sway; and while Demosthenes advocated the 
 
 policy of opposing him before it was too late, 
 
 the peace-parly. -E. was 
 
 re than one embassy sent by the 
 
 Athenians to deal with Philip; and Demosthenes 
 
 ivin_' bribes from the Macedonian 
 
 nd of betraying the cause of Ath i 
 
 DO proof that this v, 
 
 ami perhaps .E. was deceived by the wily 
 
 ing that he meant no harm to the 
 
 liberties of Athens, and that peace was the best 
 
 policy for his countrymen. The result justified the 
 
 OUS fears of Demosthenes, and condemned the 
 
 ■ ting policy of .E. When it was proposed 
 
 to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown, for his 
 
 patriotic exertions in defence of his country, -E. 
 
 ition of illegality against the pro- 
 
 < 'tcsiphon. Demosthenes replied, and .Esdiim s 
 
 vanquished, and having thus incurred the 
 
 . to an unfounded accusation, was 
 
 obliged iom Athens. He finally established 
 
 in Rhodes, which enji 
 
 On one occasion, he read t<> his 
 
 I Rhodes his oration a. siphon; 
 
 and sonic of them expressing their astonishment that 
 
 he should i nd in spite of such a 
 
 he replied : ' STou would o 
 be astonish' id heard l> The 
 
 oration against Ctesiphon and two others are the 
 only authentic productions of -E. that have come 
 down to us. He was bom 389 B.C., and died at 
 Samos 314 B.c. 
 
 -E'SCHYLTJS, the father of Greek tn 
 was born at Eleusis, in Attica. 525 B. C. We have 
 but scanty notices of his life. He fought in the 
 battles of Marathon, Salamis, and I'lataa. witnessed 
 tie- fall of Darius and Xerxes, and shared in the 
 ing sentimeuts which afterwards pervaded 
 liberated Greece, Of the seventy or ninety tn 
 ascribed to .E., only seven have been preserved — 
 PromdSum Sound, tie -. the 
 
 . the Choiphory 
 and the Suppliants. These are sufficient to prove 
 that .E. was the creator of the Greek drama in its 
 r form. He introduced action in place of the 
 perpetual chorus, and dramatic dialogue to supersede 
 thelong narrations of his predecessors Thespis and 
 rilus. Scenic effects, masks, and dresses, were 
 other improvements introduced in the plays of . K. 
 I he plots of Ins pieces are very simple, an. I display 
 no ingenuity of construction or solution, I lis general 
 tone is elevated anil earnest, and slews a pre 
 
 le emotions. Destiny is repn 
 
 in its sternest aspect; gigantic heroes. Titans, and 
 rather than men, appear on the scene, ami the 
 lofty grandiloquence of the language is in accordance 
 with we characters. In the choruses, the language 
 is often turgid ami obscure, Tor some reason, not 
 well known, .E. left his native city, and went to 
 
 Sicily, wh h.- was hi Drably received by King 
 
 lliero. Here he died at Qela, 456 a. a, ami the 
 inhabitants of the city raised a monument to Ins 
 memory. In the poetical translation by BUckie, 
 
 a very tolerable 
 randeur and fire of this greatest 
 of all ancient dramatists. 
 
 -iESCULA'PIUS appears in Homer as an i 
 lent physician, of human origin ; in the later 
 Is, he becomes the god of the healing art. 
 The accounts given of his . .rious. 
 
 According to one story, he was the son of C'oronig 
 and the Arcadian Isclr. by the 
 
 infidelity "f I moriis, caused her to lie put to death 
 by Diana, but spared the boy, who was afterwards 
 educated by Chiron. In the hauling art, .E. soon 
 surpassed his teacher, and succeeded so far as to 
 the dead to life. This offended Pluto, who 
 
 to fear that his realm would not be Buffic 
 peopled; he therefore complained to Jove of the 
 innovation, and Jove slew A'., by a flash of lightning. 
 Alter this he was raised to the rank of the yods by 
 ratitude of mankind, and was especially wor- 
 shipped at Epidaurus, on the coast of I.aconica, 
 where a temple and grove were consecrated to him. 
 Here oriental elements, especially serpent-worship, 
 seem to have been mingled with the rites ami 
 monies. From Epidaurus the worship of the healing 
 nod extended itself over the whole ol I 
 to Rome. According to Homer, .E. left two sons, 
 Machaon and Podalirios, who, as physicians, attended 
 the Greek army. From them the race of the 
 Asclepiades descended. Hygieia, Panaceia, and 
 .H_lo are represented as his daughters. His temples 
 usually stood without the cities in health j 
 on hillsides, and near fountains. Patients that 
 were cured of their ailments, offered a cock or a goat 
 god, and hung up a tablet in his tempi e. 
 recording the name, the disease, and the mam 
 cure. Many of those votive tablets are still extant 
 The statue of the god at Epidaurus, formed of gold 
 and ivory by Thrasymedes, represented .E. as I 
 on a throne, and holding in one hand a staff with a 
 snake coiled round it, the other hand resting on the 
 head of a snake ; a < 
 at the foot of the deity. Praxiteles and ol her sculp- 
 
 presented the god as an ideal of manly beauty, 
 and closely res cabling Jupiter; with hair thrown up 
 from the brow, and falling in curls on each 
 The upper part of the body was naked, and the 
 lower was covered l>y a mantle falling in folds from 
 the shoulders. He had sone 
 
 on his head, and a cock or owl at his feet ; or was 
 attended by a dwarf-figure named Tclesphorus. — 
 Asclepiades, the followers of .E., who inherited and 
 kept the secrets of the healim: art ; or, a -siuning 
 that ^E. was merely a divine symbol, the Ascli | 
 must be regarded as a medical, priestly caste who 
 preserved as mysteries the doctrines of medicine. 
 The members of the caste, or medical order, were 
 bound by an oath — the Hipp du m 
 
 not to divulge the secrets of their profession. In 
 Rome, 282 & <•.. when a fatal pestilence prevailed, 
 the Sibylline books commanded that .-Escidapius 
 must be brought from Epidaurus. Accordingly, an 
 embassy was sent to this place, and. when they had 
 made their request, a snake crept out of the temple 
 into their ship. Regarding this as the god .11. they 
 
 to Italy, and. as they entered the Tiber, the 
 snake sprang out upon an island, where, afterwards, 
 a temple was erect, d to .E. and a company of priests 
 appointed to take charge of the service and practise 
 the art of medicine. Hippocrates is said to have 
 descended from the Asclepiades of Cos, who I 
 their descent, on the mother's side, from Hercules. 
 
 .ESOP, an and . writer, whose name is 
 
 attached to t he most popular of the existing collections 
 of Fables, His history is very uncertain, and some 
 critics have even denied his i lint Ml 
 these is Luther, in his preface to the Oinnan .t'eoj;
 
 .ESTHETICS. 
 
 i 130. We are told, however, on the authority of 
 
 Herodotus (ii 134), Diog. Laeitius (L 72), ai 
 
 torch [Sept Sap. I '■ 
 
 that . Esop lived in thi latb r hall i 
 
 B.c. ; that he was a slave at Samoa j that, on rei 
 
 he vi ii dl Iro as and P by the 
 
 I'm he was c ini~^i."in-<l to distribute 
 
 Borne moni i ol Di Iphi, and that, 
 
 on Ins refusal to pay it, in consequi 
 he was thrown over a precipice by the infui 
 m.il.. We are further informed thai the Athi 
 1 a statue to him from 
 
 \\ 1 1. 1 her thi pel i ioi o 
 
 in i olio i ."ii or ii"t, we! ' 
 
 anes, and other an bearing his 
 
 name wi re popul in mo i brillianl period 
 
 of Athenian literature. The conjecture of Bentley, 
 however, aeems well founded, thai thi le fables were 
 transmitted entirely through oral tradition. So 
 [Phxdo, p. 61) turned Buch of them as he could 
 remember into verse, of which Diog. Ijaertius 1ms 
 presei rod a specimen ; and the sami •■ ■ done bj 
 briusPhal reus, 320 b.c. The only Greek version, 
 however, of \\ hich any entire fables remain, and 
 which, us shewn bj Bentley, has furnished materials 
 to subsequent collections, is that of Babrius (q. v.), a 
 writer of Borne mark, who is supposed to have hved 
 in tin ire Augustus. Of the fables now 
 
 bearing the nam.- of jEsop, there are three Bets, 
 the first from a MS. of the 13th c, published at. 
 Florence in 1809 ; the second, a collection bj 
 
 Maximus Planudes, a monk of tin' 1 Itli c, < tain- 
 
 bag ;i fife (supposed to have been th" work of 
 Planudes, till it, was found iii the earlier MS.) o) 
 .I.Mji, mil cif fabulous particulars; ami tin 
 a collection published m 161.0, from MSS. found at 
 
 pul 
 Heidelberg. All tins.' are contained in the i 
 ol Schneider, Breslau, 1810. The resemblance 
 between Borne of the fabli b, ami tin- personal peculi- 
 arities attributed in common t" Esop ami to the 
 Arabian fabulist Lokman, have led Borne persons to 
 conclude that tin- two nan were identical; am! 
 others, thai the fable attributed t" bin m in common 
 
 belong tu tin- same east rn i . See Ph 
 
 — A Roman actor of this name, Clai DIUS .Ksoits, 
 
 a i temporary ami friend of < !icero, was as eminent 
 
 in tragedy as Roscius was in comedy. 
 
 . >:s'i'ii E Tics, a term invented about the middle 
 
 of last centurj bj Bi n, a professor of philos- 
 
 iii the university of Frankforl on the-Oder, to 
 
 denote the science i le uitiful, pai ticul 
 
 Art, as th" mosl perfed mar tation o the B 
 
 t'ul. It has the merit of being a unprehen ive 
 
 and clear, and has tin n tty widely 
 
 adopted, of late years, by critics both in Prance and 
 England. 
 
 Tim Beautiful (Gr. tokalon) was a faM.iintsul.jrri 
 of conti in]. lata. n amongst the and ni ■. Th 
 of Plato is inseparably associated with it. but in bis 
 philoaophisings, he nowhere separated the Beautiful 
 from ii." G I. Aristotle, again, from the immense 
 
 tance which he p i ( « itb objects of art, 
 
 deduced the most admirable laws and rules (Canons 
 i i riticism), so that his Poe£u», , according to Schiller, 
 
 constitute a true Khadamanthme tribunal for] ts. 
 
 I'.ut ii,.- results he arrived at are regarded by the 
 a priori school of sestheticians as i 
 than science. Baumgarten they hold to 1." th 
 who considered the subject from the true 
 tific point of view, and therefore entitled to be 
 called the Eoundei of the philosophy of art. All 
 sensuous apprehension, not in one form or mam- 
 El iti: ni only, but in every possible form or mani- 
 festation, was included in his view of the subject, 
 ami this conception he expressed by the word 
 .^Esthetics, from the Greek aittfumomai, I feel, 
 60 
 
 indicating ii"t absolute or objective knowledge of 
 
 bul ach I.iiinn .1 Bubjectivelj bj 
 
 the play of our Ben ibilitii , The term is thus not 
 i ... l; tutiful ■ on h a 
 point of fact we emploj it in tins 
 imii. Beauty was, with Baumgarten, the n nil oi 
 , i hi hi i and pun I asstb itdc perception, I 
 realisation of which the finer portion of our nature 
 
 ; and to trace which through the whole 
 
 philosophy 
 [Sinni ■ '■■ " '"■' J 
 
 il il "lit til! 
 
 on ■ d power of the 
 
 Jud i . i'i- I ver I bin | he red maj be 
 
 da .. Sea lj , wi U as ah olutely, in refer- 
 as well as in reference to nature. 
 ni harmony with our 
 as well as in harmony with the totality of material 
 phenomena; m- it may no1 be in harmony with the 
 former, and yettruly arn.nl with the latter. So, too, 
 with the judgment It maj choose to apprehend I 
 in their adaptation to man, or in v. hat is called the 
 teleological point of view that is, their final end or 
 obji ctivi ad kptal iontoi u b oth r. Hi aci these thet- 
 tgmentconsii i titiful, agreeable, 
 
 .1 i si .al ; while th" t. leological judgmi al 
 " i. b their absolute design, and remains mdifferent 
 to personal predilections. Why certain objects 
 excite in us a purely selfish interest, and others a 
 purelj unselfish pleasure, Kant does not venture to 
 determine, for he ni vi r ini i 
 qualitj of the Beautiful, but confines himself strictly 
 inflvi "" ■ upon the feelings and desires. 
 Schelling was the first to undertake this in 
 after Schiller had paved the way for him ii 
 treatise on .1-Mh. I Chelatb r, p i hap- the 10 
 
 lucid and intelligible of German a ithetacians, in a 
 i la i twentieth letter on .I'.-iln tu- ( lulture, 
 explains his conception of the new scii ni e as fo 
 
 All things that can ever 1 bjecis of per© ption 
 
 d under four different relationships. 
 A fa. a "...I !■ ; ."" din itlytoour Bensuous condition 
 
 [qu i ; or to the undi i 
 ;l , quality ; or to the will that 
 
 is its moral quality; or to the entirety of our 
 different powers, rather than to anj particular mani- 
 ,. [i ese thai i i its esthetic quality. 
 There i - a culture for the health, for the understand- 
 and for ta t oi b uty ; the last 
 
 . . ... ii ha ■ for ii - '■' pul 1 1 
 
 f our I. a"" and piritual powers in thi ir greatest 
 possibli . Schiller's idea of the Beautiful is 
 
 arily as comprehensive a hi ptionofthe 
 
 of .i:-t!i"t:' . He will not admit that it is 
 i oited experience, taught us 
 
 , the operation of phe nena, animate and 
 
 inanimate, on our senses, bul of pure abstraci reflec- 
 tion. It is. therefore, a transcendental idea. It 
 
 i pel . U i of matter ami spirit. 
 
 tfollo i: ' Beauty can be exclusively 
 
 i ,ih er mere life, as Borne ingenious observers have 
 
 Mill, nor mere form, as has been decided by 
 
 ..i speculative philo .phen and philosophising 
 
 (for instance, Burke and Raphael Mengs). 
 i ... Schelling's transcendental specula- 
 
 which are couched in a style not very-intelli- 
 gible to the English mind, we come to the theory of 
 ii. . i, I..L. thai of Si hellm .. H : o proce d 
 
 o-called metaphysics of tie Beautiful ft is the 
 
 absolute ideal realising itself. Nothing is truly beauti- 
 
 cept this. Nothing, therefore, which exists can 
 
 .1. .I such. Out ol tin phe f the pure n :i on 
 
 we have only an eternal aspiration. Iu the linite 
 
 the absolute ideal is always striving to realise 
 
 itself, but never completely succeeds. There is only 
 
 a c.aseless approximation. Hegel then traces the
 
 /K-riir/ni < 
 
 growth and develo] mt of the Beautiful, th 
 
 form of whose existence is n 
 
 Be raty unfolded in b 
 Bni this Beauty, whether of nature* 
 accidi atal, fugitive, and mixture 
 
 with the ii' ■ ■ or limitation 
 
 Erom ii '" '"" 'I'll'' 
 
 Beaul if ul is, so to a its infani 
 
 her that it is or what it is. It first 
 ]'■ in the 'lawn of human 
 
 mtelligi nee, and its i 
 
 - proportion to i ure ol the r 
 the ind ition of 
 
 it is Art j for fl- 
 it is '■ pea according to as idea. The 
 looks on 1 
 
 dea — everj < 
 
 nature being stripped o 
 
 ■ matter, is thus a deliverance from d 
 and the particular Art maj cons quently be 
 pded as the gradual working of the mind out 
 ol in ' ■ tecture, 
 
 Sculpture, Painting are silent, heavy, still partly 
 rial Music is an advance on these. It breathes 
 in a ; . ton. The material m Sound 
 
 bee all hut ideal Poetry is a furthi i ad . race, 
 
 i the pathway of the intellect to pure th 
 i' of view, is a sc 
 
 ' i knowled I the historic development of the 
 
 Beautiful It wanders throvi 
 of « bioh Art is only a provim 
 : ien, the richest ana most valu 
 Such was the aspect in which Hegel regarded the 
 i it int- > his b 
 di i:ii metaphysic, and so stirred up regarding it the 
 old quarrel which had agitated the latter. Realists 
 made their appearance, who vigorously assailed the 
 principh nf Kiclito, S ml liogcl, in their 
 
 various applications to Philosophy, Theology, and 
 l' thi tics. The reaction was and is most conspicuous 
 in the second of these, but has as certainly man 
 itself in the others also. It is denied t bat the [di al 
 conceived bj minis superior to the Real, as it is in 
 It is man who lowers it by his inadequate 
 apprehension of its harmony and perfection. The 
 
 1 hi f : I does not strn \ I it bine or rex 
 
 to i i'li the beauty of nature, but to m 
 in it. The whole historic theory of Hegel is like- 
 rejected, after severe and searching cril 
 from :i ' nt of view. I lege! conceives 
 
 the first effort of art to have arisen from a lonj 
 the pari ol the human spit 
 
 This is the ideal 
 
 U on tl ther hand, 
 
 affirms that it ari ■ I ch man 
 
 is mi'l' r to bind his thoughts to one firm spot, and 
 rial a form « bich 
 ' i is thus 
 
 ospecth e. This maj be 
 'listio view " b ning. So the 
 presei 
 In Prance, the rounder of the Eclectic School of 
 i nil "i'h> . Victor ( Ion ounded 
 
 the Platonic view of .11. In the si 
 Ins treati e Da I ! du Bu n (( >n the 
 
 True, the Beautiful, and the < rood), he b i a 
 chapter on 'the Beautiful in 01 which, 
 
 after discussing the pi of the mate- 
 
 rialists and i -lit what he 
 
 conceives to be t ml limitat on 
 
 theorii I -Is to a consideration of ph; 
 
 intellectual, and i to dis- 
 
 cover the quality or qualities in which thej 
 from this rises to the apprehension of an Heal 
 beauty whose realisation he finds in Qod, 'God,' 
 says Cousin, 'in whom is combined absolute unity 
 
 'finite variety, is necessarily the realised ideal 
 
 uty.' 
 
 abject in Britain havi 
 moetlj lina autiful in form and colour. 
 
 ought, like the ' 
 i the Beautiful, but the Beautiful 
 Our criticism may. and indeed does seem 
 • and imphilosophical to them, but it is at least 
 ml its purpose obvious. We have put to our- 
 re, or are there not, 
 in certain bich make 
 
 them what we call Beautiful? I arise 
 
 nything inhen at in th pend 
 
 upon ;i com- 
 
 "1 niiiul .■ rl i iation? Is 
 
 it objective 
 
 Tim first [ml. lien;, mi "ii this subject of any con- 
 ice if we except Lord 
 , in which there is set forth a 'rapturous 
 Platonic doctrine' impo cause 
 
 imnii'M as Dr Huteheson's Inquiri 1725). 
 
 In this worl tence of an - 
 
 through which we cither obtain a perception of the 
 Beautiful or are made in some waj ■ mscious of its 
 presence, was maintained. The notion of a 
 
 sense has 1 u very severely criticised by Jeffrey in 
 
 his celebrated article on Beauty. 
 
 Certain explanations and mollifications of this 
 theory were made by the followers of Hnt< : 
 but; nothing really new was brought out till Edmund 
 Burke published his T ■• and 
 
 There is no work upon the 
 subject so popular or so worthless. Every one 
 has heard or it, large numbers have read it 
 yet the fundamental principli 
 He confounds the beautiful with the luxurious. 'All 
 
 appear beautiful which have the pov 
 producing a peculiar relaxation of our nerves and 
 fibres, and thus inducing a certain degree of I 
 languor ami sinking !' 
 sir Joshua Reynolds, a contemporary of Burke, 
 
 maintained a very remarkable tl \ of tl 
 
 which he borrowed from the celebrafc 'l Pere Burner, 
 and illustrated at great length. Beauty wai 
 
 "nan between two i This 
 
 doctrine is open to the fatal objection that the most 
 ordinary is therefore thi autiful, and that, 
 
 consequently, the greatest poem or the finest land- 
 si ape i, at which is the most commonplace. 
 N'ev. rtheless, Sir Joel to push 
 
 leoryto extremities, declaring that if wl 
 term the deformed or monstrous were only more 
 common than what we call the beau would 
 
 exchange names and sensations — a statement which 
 may safely be left to refute r 
 
 The next work on this subject that excited any 
 measure of popular attention - 
 //, -Ye'/,-, and Principles of 7 The 
 
 theory propounded by this wr I rally known 
 
 as the theory of Association. Thi iwerful 
 
 exposition of the Association theory is that given by 
 Jeffrey, in his famous article hi | 
 Britanniea, and in his critique on Alison in the 
 ■ (181 1). A i Ji Efrey : 
 
 'These emotions (that is, tln.se excited ] 
 i "lit' niplation of certain oh i i r.ginal 
 
 emotions, nor produced directly by ai 
 in the objects which excite them ; but are reflec- 
 of the more radical and familiar 
 emotions to which we have already alluded, and 
 occasioned not by any inherent virtue in 
 the objects before us, but by the accidents, if we 
 may BO express ourselves, by which these may have 
 been enabled to BUggest or recall to us our own 
 
 past sensations or sympathies.' In his defence of 
 
 this theory, Jeffrey is obliged to consider those of 
 
 61
 
 I VATIOX-.F.TOLIA. 
 
 le Knight, the fanner of which 
 is partly, and the latter entirely, op] 
 own. Ho long as he confines his argument to 
 
 association in connection with landscapes, it seems 
 \t i y conclusive; but when he coiner to CO 
 
 Knight's doctrine as to the intrinsic beauty 
 of colours, it ceases to be satisfactory. This writer 
 maintains that colours possess a primitive and 
 original beauty, which may be enriched by asso- 
 ciation, but which does not depend upon it. Jeffrey 
 
 • this, and attempts to prove that our ; 
 tion of the beauty of colour, instead mere 
 
 organic sensation,' arises from association aloni 
 the same way, he refuses to believe that there is any 
 independent or intrinsic beauty in form; and 
 
 that architecture owes its beauty not 
 essential harmony of its proportions, but to a 
 of curious considerations on our part. He con 
 
 of this beauty, with special refer- 
 ence t<> Greet architecture, 'perfectly satisfactory.' 
 It arises, 1st, from the association of utility ; 2d, of 
 l.ill of the architect; 4th, of 
 magnificence; 5th, of antiquity; Gth, of Grecian 
 uess! To this it may be replied, that such 
 ease, but do l . our percep- 
 
 tion of the beauty of Greek architecture. 
 The theory of Association in this its primitive 
 lannot be said to be held now by any who 
 think on the subject. It is felt to be more plausible 
 and ingenious than sound or adequate. Raskin, 
 Professor Blackie, and others, have nearly destroyed 
 ipularity. Profesf iys on 
 
 ., which are remarkable for the brisk and 
 biting humour with which they assail the Asso- 
 ciation theory, as well as for the passages of tine 
 nee which they contain, make a vigorous 
 effort to indoctrin - con brain with the ideal 
 
 speculations of Plato. Professor Blackie is a 
 Platonist in theory, but the elaboration of that 
 theory is entirely modern and original. 'F 
 
 [ement, oi 
 power, or in one proportion, but 
 
 i proportions ;' the principal of these are 
 r, congruity (or harmony), actuality, perfec- 
 tion (in the Platonic sense — viz., the fidl result of a 
 creative energy), expressiveness, smoothness, deli- 
 and curvature. With reference to this last 
 Efl [mints to the fact that 
 
 nature everywhere avoids angular lines, especially 
 in the human figure, and most of all in th 
 which has era been considered the highest symbol 
 of the beautiful. In the second volume of his 
 a on Metaphysics, the late Sir William 
 HamUton (Lecture 46th) distinguishes Beauty 
 into Absolute and Relative. "In the former case,' 
 lys, 'it is not necessary to have a notion of 
 what the object ought to be before we pronounce 
 it beautiful nr not; in the latter case, such a 
 previous notion is required. Flowers, shells, ara- 
 besques, &c., are freely or absolutely beautiful. We 
 judge, for exam] 'le, a Bower to be beautiful, I 
 unaware of its di 
 
 pparatus of organs all admirably adapted 
 ion of the plant. When we are 
 made cognizant of this, an addi- 
 
 tional gratification, but one wholly ,1 
 
 . Inch we experience in the contemplation of 
 the Bower itself apart from all consideration of its 
 adaptations.' Sir William thus states his theory of 
 r Absolute Beauty : ' In the case of beauty — 
 -both the imagination and the under- 
 standing find occupation ; and the pleasure we 
 experience from such an object is in proportion as it 
 affords to these faculties the opportunity of exerting 
 fully and freely their respective energies. Now, it is 
 the principal function of the understanding, otrf oftlte 
 62 
 
 irious presented to ii, to form a I entire 
 
 activity i<. in fact, v towards unity; and 
 
 it is only satisfied when this object is so constituted 
 as to afford the opportunity of an easy and p 
 performance of this its function. In t!. 
 object is judged beautiful or pleasing.' Sir William 
 conclude I by defining the beautiful to be that 
 • whose form occupies the imagination and the 
 understanding in a free, full, and consequently au 
 ble activity.' 
 There would seem, on the whole, to be a I 
 ency at present towards an amalgamation of what 
 have hitherto been considered irreconcilable 
 trines — towards the behef that there is an easi 
 
 >n the harmony of forms and in the com- 
 bination of colours, and that the keen delight which 
 we experience in beholding them is incapable of being 
 explained by any number of associations; wliile it 
 IS admitted, on the other hand, that many things 
 are made beautiful by association, that all t' 
 have their beauty enriched by it, and that some 
 things even have their intrinsic beauty called forth 
 by it operating in the form of, 
 
 .FSTIVA'TIOX, in Botany (from the Latin as- 
 tivus, belonging to summer), a term employed to 
 denote the manner in which the parts of the Bower 
 are disposed in the flower-bud prior to its opening. 
 Sometimes the JE. is valval*' o r, when the 
 
 parts of the same verticil exactly meet together by 
 their edges, like valves. But if the edges are turned 
 in, the M. is indupUcate; if they are turned out, it 
 llplicate. In many flowers, the .1'.. is contorted 
 or twisted; sometimes it is spirally A. In 
 
 pentamerous flowers, it is very generally 7 
 two of the parts being external, two internal, and 
 one intermediate. In Papilionaceous Flowers (q. v.), 
 the other parts of the corolla Uy included 
 
 in the standard or vexillum, and this is sometimes 
 called vexiUary .1'.. In poppies, the petals are 
 generally crumpled together before flowering. 
 jE. of the calyx is frequently of a different kind 
 from that of the corolla. Thus, in Gere 
 
 the calyx is imbricated, that of the corolla 
 twisted. The manner in which the stamens and 
 pistils are disposed in the bud is not so much taken 
 into account in the characters of orders and genera, 
 but is sometimes also noticed ; thus, it is a character 
 of Rosacea that the stamens are curved inwards 
 in .F. 
 
 JETO'liTA, a district of ancient Greece, lying on 
 the north coast of the Gidf of < 'orinth. The ancient 
 JB. was divided from Acamani 
 
 ended as far as the: river Fuenos. On tl 
 it was bounded by Locris and Dons; on the X., 
 and Fpinis; on the W., by Aearnania; 
 the S., by the Bay of Corinth. In later times, 
 
 1 to the 
 X. and E. The country had few cities, was generally 
 wild and barren, and. according to Bel 
 Aristotle, was infested by lions on the banks 1 
 id in other places. Here, accord 
 
 1 boar 
 
 ilians make a great figure in the 
 
 heroic age of Greece; but at IVlo- 
 
 ponnesian war, they were nnl reus. The 
 
 rst called into existence by 
 
 the l.amian war (323 B.C.), became more important 
 
 time of the Acha:-an League (q. v.). The 
 
 assembled annually in autumn at 
 
 Therm um. This assemblage was styled the / 
 
 At first, they called in the aid of the 
 Romans against the Achiean League ; but as they 
 saw that the Komans had designs against the 
 pendence of .E., they next allied themselves with 
 Antiochus of Syria, afterwards with Perseus of
 
 AFFIDAVIT— AFFRE. 
 
 In ISO B.O., they wei i compelled to 
 
 , runl were subjugated 
 
 by the Romans.— .1'. now forms a governmental 
 
 department, or noma, of the modern kingdom of 
 
 . The moi 
 Viena— form a wild offset of the Pindus chain, and 
 steeply on the 8.W. down to the tint ml 
 . partly covered with morasses and partly 
 cultivated. 8. of the lakes Apokuro (anciently, 
 Trichoma) and Zyu">s (Hyria) rise a range of moun- 
 tains — the Aracynthxu mountain of the ancients — 
 ■which fall on the 8.W. to a broad coasl 
 occupied by morasses and lagoons; but on the 
 s.i:. ramon- 
 
 tory of Antirrhion reaches to within 24(H) yards 
 of the opposite cape Rhion, thus fanning tin- 
 Strait a). The chief rivers of 
 
 (Achelous), in the \\'., and 
 
 the Fi in the E. The people in the 
 
 mployed fa agriculture and fishing; while 
 m the mountain-.] cesoftheruc 
 
 ill be found. 
 in i" towns are Missolonghi and Lepanto (q.v.). 
 
 AITIDA'VIT, an oath in writing, or a written 
 ration made before a magistrate, or other person 
 
 i to administer an oath, the truth 
 of which is confirmed either by an oath sworn, or a 
 solemn atlirmation emitted in terms of 18 Vict. c. 
 L'."i, and the other statutes referred to under Affir- 
 mation. Where evidence is required in England to 
 •1 before a court or a judge, it is usually 
 ed to the form of an A., in place of being 
 delivered orally, as in jury trial. An A. ought to 
 
 bfi the matter of fact only, and not to declare 
 : . of which the court is to 
 
 21 i Sar. 1. B. EL). The name and designation 
 
 party making the A. are written at length, 
 and he signs it at the foot. Win n tie- paper is 
 shewn to hnn, he is required to swear or affirm that 
 its contents are true, and that the name and hand- 
 writing are his. Affidavits in the Sigh Court of 
 i ressed in the first 
 
 person of the deponent, 'IT. Jurat, with which the 
 
 A. clo i tl Hie. r before whom, the place 
 
 where, and the time when it . and this is 
 
 by the officer or n When an 
 
 A. is sworn in open court, that cireumst. 
 mentioned, and > , < named. In Scotland, 
 
 voluntary affidavits are not generally received as 
 evidi nee, because they are ,./• parte statement-;, no 
 opportunity being afforded for cross-examix 
 To this rule, how ons. Claim- 
 
 ants are required by the Bankrupt statute to lodge 
 their claims with A. or oaths of verity; and 
 ■re other similar statutory provisions. An A. is 
 sometimes required also at common law, as in 
 applications for warrants By 
 
 ii Will. I V. c. 62, various unnecessary oaths 
 and affirmations wire abolished, and dcclar 
 
 substituted in hi ii id voluntary and 
 
 judicial oaths and affidavits were suppressed. The 
 oath of allegiance, and all oaths in 
 were . mptedfrom of the 
 
 statute; and by (! and 7 Vict. c. 43, thi 
 was extended to ratifications by married v. 
 The Lord Chancellor of England is empowered by 
 I 7 Vict. c. 82, to u'raut commissions for taking 
 affidavits, affirmations, and declarations in Scotland. 
 
 AIITXITY , the relationship 
 
 1 by man reen the husband and the 
 
 bl 1-rclations of the wife, and between the wife and 
 
 I uiil-lelatious of the husband. The relations 
 
 of the wife stand to the husband in the s nne degree 
 of A. in which they stand to the wife by blood or 
 consanguinity, and r But between the 
 
 relations of the two parties by A. there is no A Thus, 
 there is no A between the husband's brother and the 
 wife's sister ; and by our law, there is no impedi- 
 ment to their marriage. The question as to whether 
 those who are related 1 •>• A. stand in all respects in 
 the same position as regards marriage with those 
 connected by blood, is one on which much difE 
 of opinion at present prevails. Marriage between ■ 
 man and the sister of his deceased wife is at present 
 forbidden by statute (5 and f> Will. IV. c. 64) ; but 
 an attempt is annually made in parliament to obtain 
 its repeat Bee Mabbiaox. 
 
 AFFINITY. Chemical A, or chemical attrac- 
 tion, is the force which produces all chemical pheno- 
 mena. It differs from the attraction of gravita- 
 tion in acting, not between masses, but b. I 
 atoms, and only when the atoms are at insensible 
 distances. It differs also from cohesion, which 
 unites the particles of the same substance, while A 
 unites atoms of different substances. The compounds 
 thus formed are new bodies, often bearing no 
 lance in appearance or other properties to the 
 elements which combine to produce them. Thus, 
 water results from the combination of two gases. 
 
 The strength of chemical A. is different between 
 different substances. Sulphuric acid combines 
 with lime, and forms gypsum ; but if potash is 
 added, the sulphuric acid leaves the lime, and 
 combines with the potash. As a sort of choice is 
 here manifested, it is called a case of elective A 
 These elective affinities, however, are often altered 
 by a change of temperature, or other accompanying 
 circumstance. 
 
 AFFIRMA'TIOX, a solemn declaration, which, in 
 the case of members of certain religious ■ 
 is admitted in lieu of an oath. By ■'■ and 1 Will IV. 
 c. 49, 3 and 4 Will. IV. e. 82, "and 1 and -J Vict, 
 c 77, it is provided that Quakers, Moravians, and 
 Separatists (q. v.) who, from conscientious scruples, 
 
 to take an oath in courts of justice, may, 
 both in civil and criminal cases, make a solemn A., 
 according to a prescribed formula, I ikers 
 
 and Moravians the formula is: 'I do solemnly, 
 
 [y, and truly declare and affirm.' In the 
 case of Separatists, this A. further bears to be 
 
 1 'in the presence of Almi 
 penalties of perjury are imposed on those who 
 shall be proved to have affirmed falsely. A later 
 statute (IS Vict. c. 25) has extended the pri\ 
 of substituting an A. for an oath to all persons who 
 refuse to be sworn from conscientious motives 
 
 ■I (hat (he motives are eoiudentiout. 
 See Oath. 
 
 AFFRE, Denis 
 who fell in the insurrection of Jul 
 At the time of the Restoration, he was pro! 
 of theology at the semiuary of ; and 
 
 on account of his prudent and temperate character, 
 was made Archbishop of Paris by the government 
 of Louis Philippe in 1840. Though not yield- 
 ing a blind submission to all the measu] 
 '.-eminent, he abstained from all oil 
 
 n Louis Philippe became an exile, 
 and a republic was proclaimed, the archbishop 
 kept aloof from political strife, but displayed 
 earnest care for the public welfare. During the 
 insurrection in Paris, lslS, he climbed upon 
 a barricade in the Place >lo Bastille, carrying a 
 
 in his hand, as a messenger of ■ 
 and wished to persuade the insurgents to lay 
 down their amis. He had scarcely uttered a few 
 words, wlnii the insure. nts and the troops com- 
 menced tiring again, and he fell, mortally wounded 
 by a musket ball, coming apparently from a window 
 Be was carried by the insurgents into the
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 
 
 i.i I .1, oved to 
 
 ! i lie died, J i 27, 1848. B 
 
 it hor "i several tl : >l of a 
 
 work I i hieroglyph 
 
 AFGB \.\ 1ST \ N, the land of the Afghans, for- 
 merly known by the names of Drangiana and 
 
 in lit. from 28 to 36 LN 
 from 62 to 7." I'. 1 1 soul b 
 
 . irlj 150 miles; its bri adth, 470, with mi 
 of 212 000 square miles. Afghan is a Pi 
 
 : the inhabitants style themselves Pti 
 [plural of Puthtu). Their count] ded on 
 
 the X. by Turkistan; on the Ii. by Peshawur and 
 
 Sinde; on the S., by Bel diistan; and on the 
 
 W., by the Persian highlands of EChorassan. It has 
 I. en calculated to i mtain from five to six millions 
 i.i inhabitants. In the N.E., the alpine region of 
 the Hindu fCush,awild mountain isthmus cleft by 
 numerous ravines, and towering up el me of 
 
 perp itual ice, unit thi hi ■ [and in 
 
 Bastern, w ith those in . and presents 
 
 formidable obsi i ad .... to c tion be! ween 
 
 the territory of the Indus. In 
 
 the E.. the parallel cl ains ... i e Soliman M ..mtain.?, 
 
 together with those of ECalabagh and 1\ 
 
 V, abruptly dii ide the count 
 
 of the Pui plains of : Indus. 
 
 There are only two ] ' the higl 
 
 lands ol 
 
 formed byt ol 
 
 strong p.. :. at Jelalabad 
 
 wiir, not far from the Khyber Pass; whil 
 
 tin- south, I'l. I'.. .Km P of i •inmu- 
 
 nication with Sinde. The mounl rinth of 
 
 Paropam the G reeks called i 1 1 * - rai 
 
 Hazareh and ba a been Little e - plorei I i 
 
 in its eastern parts or in the ; 
 
 ing out towards Persia, although the historical 
 
 important f this re 
 
 The elevated terraces of (.'abul ami (!hi/.ncc slope 
 gently down towards the south-west. I 
 outline of the country is snllici.-ul to shew 1 1 1 : n A. 
 holds a very important position I" twe< n Bast and 
 West Asia, and may be regarded bj fndia a 
 datural fortification against all inroads from the 
 we :. Though the dim ; 
 
 ter, j . t the differenc ol eleva and 
 
 unequal distribution of water render it var 9. The 
 
 dat i-palm ornaments thi oasi in the i ind] de ■ a I 
 to the south-west, and in the deep sheltered valleys 
 of the east, the cultivation ol cotton and 
 succeeds; but the high I I bul and 
 
 G-hiznee (8 9000 feet aboi i the li vel ol the sea) 
 are exposed to a severe winter, with heavy falls 
 of snow, still, the average temperature of this 
 tabli -land i about I . and the hi at ol I be summer 
 ripens the I i The < ine flourishes here 
 
 in company with apricots, apples, pears, plums, 
 
 cherries, and fields of Europ an i :i. Tulips, 
 
 aromatic herbs, rhubarb, tobao da are 
 
 vi U grown ; and in the well-watered valleys, 
 pomegranates and oranges, with a profu ion i 
 display the luxury and splendour of an Indian clime. 
 The mulberry-tree flourishes in the cool valli ys. In 
 particular, vast plantations of it are grown in the 
 valleys of the Hindu Cush, where the fruit i xhibits 
 iiian\ \ arii Ld< and when dried and ground intoflour 
 is largely used for food by the inhabitants. The 
 animal life found in the country corresponds in 
 van.-ty with the climate and vegetation. In the colder 
 mountain. his regions, we find the bear, the wolf, 
 and tin- ii ix ; in the tropical valleys, the Hon. ti_'.r, 
 leopard, jackal, and hyena; while fertile pastures 
 support Bheep, goats, horses, and horned - 
 Horses, mules, and asses are numerous, and the 
 camel is used in the table-lands. A. is rich in 
 
 lis; iron and copper especially, are abundant. 
 
 liner is of such [lent quality that, if 
 
 i.i li.it it would 
 
 rival r i Juable Guropean iron; while tin. 
 
 Latl to yield in a places 
 
 nearly 80 per cent, of tl:.- metal Lead, pluml 
 lllphur, salt, and alum, are also . 
 
 Lined. The four principal plao I labul, 
 e, Candahar, and Hei q. v.) ha i e import- 
 
 . i'u t be hi h ... ;:\ . . 
 
 India to Central and Western Asia. Cabul and 
 
 Jelalabad guard the passage to India on the V. as 
 
 iron the s. ; while in the extreme \\\, 
 
 : the border near Pel 
 
 The variety which nature has given to the co 
 
 - found in the pi ople ; but all are united by 
 
 Dt. Love of independence and 
 
 equality n .t to old customs and simple 
 
 ; itality, carried indeed to a 
 
 irti.d spirit, are their 
 
 ■-. The A ■ ' i ' . i. rally power- 
 
 fully i.i bough tl I'll are - of the men 
 
 bones being high, 
 
 ■ very large, they are often expp 
 
 -. and delih Tin ir 
 
 language, th i Pushtu, is allied t i tl..- Persian ; at 
 lea i . .i ' i proportion of the words are r. 
 
 .... language belong to 
 
 ■i I i hi the 
 
 Pushtu language are lyri writers, but 
 
 the Persian is empl composition, and the 
 
 Persian auth< » the educated \\- bans. 
 
 In rein ■ ■.; duns according to the 
 
 :. of the Sunites, and are strongly opt I 
 
 to the Persians and the Sikhs, who belong to 
 
 other Beets, Yet they are not bigoted, for those 
 
 heretical Shiite sect may hold almost any 
 
 official position in the state, while Hindus and 
 
 Christian i enjoy the utmost toleration. The Afghans 
 
 bed among orientals for their truth- 
 fulness, the respect with which they treat women, 
 their indifference to rank, and then- reverence for 
 i in j cannot be said to 1"- well armed, as they 
 employ matchlocks, and their artillery is unwieldy ; 
 but, lis tern people, they are expert in the 
 
 ; be sabre. 
 The first i \. as an independi at 
 
 power took pi. ii .■ during I be internal discords of 
 Persia aft r the death of Nadir shah. Ahmed Chan, 
 of the race of Abdalli (1717 — 1773), took advai 
 nf these feuds, and liberated A. from Persian rule. 
 :ess founded the Douranee dynasty. Winn 
 n Timur died, in 1793, a contest for the throne 
 brothers Zemaun, Mahmud, 
 
 and Shah Suj.ili. which ended m the 
 
 Mahmud, who, bowever, was compelled to abdicate 
 
 the throin- in 1823, : m 1829. The empire 
 
 ii'ivi till into the hands of three brothers, of whom 
 the oldest. Dost Mohammed, ruled at Cabul, the 
 m> t important of the three rlh isious of the country, 
 where he had a revenue of 1,400,000 dollars, and 
 
 an army of 18,000 men. Still, the country was 
 in an unsettled state ; for Dost Mohammed was at 
 with Lahore in the east, and in the wast, the 
 Persians had invaded Herat. On the 1st of October 
 1838, the governor-genera] of India (Lord Auck- 
 land) declared war against A., on the grounds, 
 that l>nst Mohammed had unlawfully atta I 
 the British ally, Runjeet Singh; that the military 
 
 operations of the Afghans had betrayed a hostile 
 purpose towards India; and that Shah Sujali, as 
 the rightful heir to the Afghan throne, had placed 
 under British protection. All this was true, 
 but did not make the invasion of A. by the Anglo- 
 Indian forces either just or politic. However, the 
 British forces advanced through the Bolan l'ass to
 
 
 "> 
 
 I ft R CHAMBERS lOHOOM I EDINBURGH 
 
 r
 
 AFRICA- 
 
 ■ Shah Sujah formally claimr '1 pos- 
 mo 'itry. < in thi 
 
 ped before Ghiznee, and after some hard 
 ki ii. On th: 7tl • 
 
 Eorci ■, entered < labul, 
 and the conquest i ! '1 ae complete. It was 
 
 ake ol iii e aa1 are of the country and the 
 pie. l hi land had been invaded, 
 but was by no meant conquered. Doet Mohammed 
 had surrender .1 to the Enj liafa ; but his son, Akbar 
 Khan, was m aged in a conspiracy, of « hich 
 
 Sir Al' randi t Burni and the envoy Macnaghten 
 
 intil it was too late. At tli' 
 nine of winter, when help from India was inq 
 
 i itbri ■! to. I; place at Cabul, when 1 
 
 M acnaghten, and several Brit were slain. 
 
 Another serious error was nov. committed: in 
 
 decided and bold movement, which 
 
 red r | ' i b British forces, 
 
 humiliating terms of c ipit ol ition were ai 
 r. It was agreed tli 
 i ; while, mi the 
 
 other hand, Akbar Khan and stipu- 
 
 lated to provide an • reort, and make other nei 
 arrangements for the retreat. Depending or 
 
 the liritish army left Cabul mi tli' 1 6th oi 
 
 January 1st-, in order to return by tin- Khyber Pass 
 
 into India; but neither escort nor provisions were 
 
 supplied by the Afghan leaders, ami tin- severity of 
 
 • 'I the misery of the retreat. The 
 
 fanatical tribes of the districts harassed the flanks 
 
 ar of tie- army, and slew women and children 
 
 : ii. Out of a host of 16,000 or, if we 
 
 include women and children, about L'G.UIN) — only 
 
 man (Dr Brydon) escaped t<> carry the dismal 
 
 I Sale, who still held his position at 
 
 Jelalabad, Almost against his own will, the new 
 
 r-generaJ, Lord Ellenborough, sent other 
 
 o ei nit" A. < ieneral Nott marched from I ! and ah ar 
 to Q iii/.nec. which was again taken after a 
 
 and tlen pjoc led to meet the army 
 
 .1 Pollock, had marched through 
 the iChyber Pass to CabuL Here the force of Akbar 
 
 defeated and runted, and the pb was as 
 
 ilili desolated. The English officers and 
 their ladies who had surrendered l 1, 
 
 aers to Akbar Khan, were restored to liberty ; 
 and soon afterwards, the troops marched bach bo 
 
 ft was believed now that the Afghan 
 deprived ol to confederate again 
 
 mment of India: but this conclusion was fcoo 
 hasty, for in 1S4(> they formed an alliance with 
 the sikhs against the British; and the disturb- 
 in the Punjab were not quelled without 
 igements. After the decisive 
 
 battle of Gujerat (February 21, If Sikhs 
 
 . the Afghans! and Dost Moham- 
 med, with about 16,000 men, fled over the tndus. 
 
 1,1 more the British arm I through the 
 
 K li\ Ix t Pa wed tin- work of Bubju 
 
 .■ ml Afghan tribes. Si of tie Sikn 
 
 war, they b u3 ; and there is 
 
 that, as they learn to recognise the 
 in '•• England not to extend the boundai i - 
 t beyond the Indus, th.y w ill ,. ase to ex- 
 ing which h 
 ed their n lations and intercourse w ith her. 
 1 
 Lady Sale (Lend., 1843); Eyre's Military Opt 
 • I I ond i ' la History of tin War in 
 
 . by J. W. ECaye (2 Tola Lond., ls:.| |, 
 A'FRICA, one of the great divisions of th. 
 — the second in point of size, hut by far t! ■ 
 
 important as regards the civilisation and pro 
 
 the human species. This continent, so long a land of 
 
 mystery, has, in modern times, been partly 
 
 a 
 
 for us by the enterprise of explorers, the / 
 lines, tie- p er sever a nce of commercial 
 l.ition. and the military aggressions of Europeans. 
 
 X. ami N.E. borders, which in a 
 
 times - civilisation, while all the 
 
 other parts lay hi' I . had fallen back into a 
 
 barbarism, but are now partially restored to 
 
 ition of importance in , with the 
 
 political ami commercial interests of Europe. I 
 
 also been made, from the s. 
 ( lolony, in exploring the elevated land of the ii 
 and introducing commerce among the natives. The 
 efforts of England to suppress the slave-trade, and 
 to open new channels for manufacturing imi 
 seem likely, in the course of time, to make great 
 alterations m the condition of th , an ,J 
 
 tribes of people on the we . while the 
 
 recent ami present attempts to tan ii ate thi Quoits, 
 or Niger, have considerably advanced our know 
 H the interior. The chief hindrances are found in 
 the comparatively few accessible points on the coast, 
 the pestilential climate of the marshy lowland bor- 
 dering on the sea. the barrenness of vast tracts like 
 the desert of Sahara, over which one must travel 
 rapidly, and only by certain routes; and lastly, the 
 barbarism ami sanguinary character of thenai 
 On the other hand, the position of A. is favourable 
 to its exploration by Europeans. Its most remote 
 harbours are almost as near as North America- 
 nearer than the Brazils, and much nearer than 
 British India. A sailing-vessel from Bristol can 
 reach the river Senegal in about twi 
 Sierra Leone in thirty; Cape Coaaf in thirty-live; 
 and the Congo in fifty. Of course, steam-communi- 
 cation is far more rapid. 
 
 The valley of the Nile was known in the earliest 
 period "f history as the nursery of commerce, arts, 
 and sciences; but while Egypt was Hourishii 
 rest of A. was almost totally unknown, ami was 
 vaguely spoken of as Libya. In later times, the 
 Greeks and the Romans became more 
 with the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, ami 
 trated into A., probably as far as the Niger: hut. 
 tiny had scarcely any definite knowledge of the 
 countries lying beyond Nuniidia, while South A. 
 entirely unknown. The tradition thai Jewish 
 and Tyrian merchants, on their voyages to ( ipliir, 
 explored the east coast of A., is dubious; but 
 another account, that, in the time of Pharai ih- V 
 tli Phoenicians circumnavigated A., seems to be 
 well authenticated ; and it is probable that thi ' 
 thaginians had a better knowledge of the interior 
 than we have in the present day. For a history of 
 the older discoveries in A., we may refer to Murray's 
 
 (2 vols., E.lin. 1817), and to Leyden's SketA 
 ,,{ n,. Discoveries in _Y H 
 
 (Edm. 1799). 
 
 The 15th e. was marked by an extension of 
 
 geographical knowledge in A. as elsewhere. Henry 
 
 the Navigator sailed round the formidable i ape Nun 
 
 I Diaz and Vasco de Gama dis- 
 
 G Hop 1 both the 
 
 ii ami tl re partly explored 
 
 by several European voyagers. The older travels 
 and discoveries may be arranged in thi 
 order: in the 14th e., the travels of the Arabian Elm 
 in the north of A. In the loth c, the 
 l'ortu.i of Madeira. Tape l'.laneo, 
 
 ■I. Guinea, Benin, the Cape of Good Bone, 
 
 ■ 1 the navigation of the east coast by the 
 Portuguese Covilham, who first travelled in Abys- 
 sinia. In the 16th c. th" travels of Leo Africanus 
 through I'.arhary and Sahara to Abyssinia ; the 
 i '-man Kanwolf in North A., and 
 
 Windham's voyage to Guinea, which was followed
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 etions in 1554 and 1662, In 
 1570 and 1600 the Portugal icrtapa, 
 
 ■ powerful state uear the Mozaml 
 In the 17th c, the Rnglinhmm Jobson and Thom- 
 son, in their journey to Timbuktu, opened B 
 
 with A., and the slave-trade immediately 
 followed. In 1662, we find a French colony on the 
 il, ami many exploring journeys to the interior 
 li i: nouard and others. In 1624, the 
 endeavoured to find a way from tile equator through 
 the interior as far a 1 Ale . . 
 to E ypt in 1652, the English occupation of Cape 
 Coast in 1004, Brue's voyage to S a, and 
 
 several other visits to the westeni I. the 
 
 progress made in tin 1 latter hall of the 17th c. One 
 German traveller, Wan a description of 
 
 his journeys on the west coast : and another, Von 
 an, in 1683, founded in Cpp i Guinea the colony 
 of Fredericksburg, which afterwards fell into the 
 hands of the Dutch, bu1 now abandoned. 
 
 In the course of the 18th C, various additions were 
 made to our store of information on Africa ; but 
 they an- not all trust worthy. In the year 17S8. the 
 African Society was founded uj London, and, undi r 
 its direction, Ledyard and Lucas were sent to explore 
 the Niger, and were followed by Major Houghton, 
 The English colony of Sierra Leone was founded in 
 1790. The French expedition to Egypt, towards the 
 close of this century, gave a new impulse to researches 
 in A. 
 
 In the 19th c, the most various motives have co- 
 operated in favour of an extended knowledge of this 
 vast continent. The captains of English cruisers, 
 employed to suppress the slave-trade, have supplied 
 some valuable information; the governors of the 
 colonies and private merchants have contributed 
 their share ; and enterprising travellers from all 
 sides of tho coast have endeavoured to strike out 
 paths to the interior. The works published on A. 
 since the year 1S00 are consequently very numerous. 
 It would be useless to specify the whole of these, 
 inasmuch as many of them are only hasty and frag- 
 mentary sketches by casual travellers, and have 
 recently been superseded by volumes containing the 
 results of more accurate and extensive researches. 
 A few of the more important may be mentioned. In 
 1S02 — 1805, Lichtenstein travelled in the • 
 north of the Cape of Good Hope, and first furni 
 formation regarding the Bechuana tribe. The trawls 
 of Mungo Park from Timbuktu to Bussa arc familiar 
 to every one. In 1809, Burckhardt was sent out by 
 the African Society, and his explorations, rich in 
 manifold results, occupied the years 1812 — 1810. To 
 the French we are indebted for lunch valuable 
 information concerning Marocco, Algeria, and the 
 neighbouring parts of Sahara. In 1821, Oudney, 
 Clapperton, and Denham set out from Tripoli, in 
 a southerly direction, through the border-land that 
 separates the Libyan from the Sahara Desert, intend- 
 ing to proceed to Bornu, and explore the course of 
 the Niger. Oudney died in 1824 ; but Clapperton 
 and Denham continued their journey, and reached 
 Sokoto or Sacatoo, the residence of the rider of Sudan. 
 They discovered the fresh- water lake Tchad. In the 
 following year, Clapperton, accompanied by three 
 friends, started from Benin, intending to travel 
 through the whole region lying between Timbuktu 
 and Abyssinia, but died of dysentery at Sokoto, 
 April 13, 1827. His servant, Richard Lander, after 
 g an account of their discoveries, was employed 
 
 in another exploration of the Niger, and tra 1 its 
 
 lower course to the embouchure in the Bay of Benin. 
 During the last twenty years, our knowledge of 
 South A. has received many important additions 
 from the nussionaries stationed there, especially 
 Moffat; while David Livingstone, who, since 1S43, 
 
 has be. u ino to op d the conn- 
 
 Good 1 lope, penetrated in 
 
 1849 as Ear as Lake N'gami, in 20 s. kit.; and in 
 1853,1 - Leeambye (Zambesi) northward 
 
 far several hundred mill ngthe 
 
 nt to Loando on tin- \v. ■ oast, in the Portu- 
 guese province of Angola. Having retraced h 
 steps to the point of the Zambesi from which he 
 rted. the adventurous traveller next followed 
 thai stream, which there bends eastward, till he 
 
 I the EL coast, in 18 . s . Lit. He is still (1859) 
 engaged in prosecuting discoveries in that rich 
 
 L Further north, the geography, 
 e, and manners of the inhabitants oi 
 sinia, Seimaar, and Kordofan, have, during late 
 
 I ;ly illustrated by the effm 
 
 various Europeans, who have travelled thither 
 with the hope of exploring the con Nile. 
 
 Finally, the extensive and long-continued res. 
 of Dr Barth and his companions, proceeding by the 
 Same general route from Tripoli as Clapperton and 
 Denham, and investigating, though more compre- 
 hensively, the same central division of the continent, 
 have enriched our store of knowledge regarding this 
 land of mystery. (Notices of subsequent explora- 
 tions will be found under Nii.r, Nvan.'a, \ . 
 
 Zambesi; and Albert Nvanz.v and Spike in 
 Supplement.) 
 
 A. is situated in the eastern hemisphere, to the 
 S. of Europe, and the 8. W. of Asia, and lies 
 between hit. 37* 20" N. SO" 8., and long. 
 
 17° 30' \Y., and 51" 3C 10. It is of an im 
 triangular form, with the vertex towards the S., 
 having the Mediterranean on the N., the Isthmus 
 of Suez, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean on the E., 
 and the Atlantic on the W. It is thus almost 
 insular, the connecting isthmus being only 72 
 miles across, of no great elevation above the 
 level, and even in part occupied by salt lakes and 
 marshes — ottering in this respect every facility 
 for the connection of the Red Sea and Mediter- 
 ranean by canal. The coast-line is marked by few 
 indentations or projections ; the most important 
 gulf being that of Guinea, on the YV. ; and Capes 
 Bon, Verde, Cooil Hope, and ( luardafui, the extreme 
 points respectively on the -V. \V., S., and E. 
 The greatest length of the continent, taken from 
 north to south, is about 49S5 miles; its grei 
 breadth, from east to west, 4015; and it 
 including the adjacent islands, not less than 
 1 1.854,000 square miles. 
 
 What is known of the physical features of A 
 may be shortly sketched under the following heads : 
 1. The triangular region south of Cape Guardafui and 
 the Gulf of Guinea, is mostly a high table-land, 
 having fringes of mountains crowning its • 
 Between the coast and the beginning of the elevation 
 runs a belt of lowlands, varying from 50 to 300 
 miles in breadth. The Lupata range, seen running 
 parallel with the coast, forms the eastern crest of 
 the table-land. Between ,S° and 4° S. lat., it reaches, 
 in the snow-clad Kilimandjaro and Kenia. the 
 height of 20,000 feet. These are believed to be the 
 real Mountains of the Moon, which have hitherto 
 been represented as running across the continent from 
 E. to W. The mountainous country of Abyssinia 
 is the eastern prolongation of the plateau and its 
 elevated crest ; in the summit of Abba Yared, at 
 the northern extremity, it rises to 15,000 feet. At 
 the south, the lulls of Cape Colony rise in stages 
 from Table Mount to the summits of the Nieuwveld 
 and Sneeuwberg, in the N. of the colony, which 
 are estimated at 7 — 10,000 feet ; the spaces between 
 the ranges being shrubby kloofs or valleys, and 
 broad elevated terraces or karroos. From the 
 elevated crest that runs parallel to the west coast
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 from Cape Colony to Valiish Bay, Mr I 
 
 the country as sloping both W, and V... 
 thus giving a cup or 
 
 hi the continent. Towards the N.W. 
 the border of the table-land rises in the I 
 roons to the height of 13,000 feet Its northern 
 boundary is not determined; but it is likely that 
 the valley of the western branch of the Nile pens- 
 into it, dividing it into twx> portions, an 
 in and a western. A m< niiitiiin Men 
 sn nth from Lake Tchad is BU] i be one of its 
 
 northern outposts. 
 
 2. North of the great triangular table-land 
 nor I ' n tin! Nigrii may be 
 
 comprehended the countries watered by tin- 9 
 
 in, and Niger, along with the coast of Lower 
 
 Guinea ; and the he in of Lake Tchad. In the west 
 
 •tion is a mountainous table-land of no 
 
 elevation, in which the riven above named 
 
 their rise; the Kong Mountains, which run 
 
 . 1 to the Guinea coast, are a branch of this 
 
 mi. Eastward of the Niger, the country is 
 
 hilly, alternating with rich, often swampy | 
 
 In the basin of Lake Tchad is a vast alluvial plain, 
 
 ... .hi' great fertility. 
 
 3. Bed ween Sudan and tin' cultivated tract which 
 borders tin- Mediterrai i mra or 
 Great Desert. It extends smith nearly to the 
 
 il, the northern bend of the Niger, and Lake 
 
 l, northward to the Atlas range in Marocco 
 
 \ Igi i in. and towards Egypt it reaches to the 
 
 .Mediterranean. ! breadth from N. to 
 
 s. is about 1000 miles. Its length from the 
 
 i tic to the v |ge of the valley of the 
 
 Nile is 2000. Over a great part of tins , 
 
 . and everywhere it is rare; it is thus 
 nimil tn sterility. It consists partly of tracts 
 of line shifting sand, which frequent Storms of 
 wind raise into the air, so as often to overwhelm 
 travellers. Hut the greater part of the surface 
 consists of naked but lirm soil, composed i I 
 indurated Band, sandstone, granite, and quartz-rocks, 
 into ridges or hills. Tim desolation is 
 interrupted at intervals by patches, sometimes of 
 considerable extent, covered with bushes and coarse 
 grass, and often of great beauty and fertility. Theee 
 oasen, i. tin v in' called, which are occa- 
 
 l by subterranean springs, are most numerous 
 and fertile in the eastern portion of the Desert. 
 The easiest route across the Desert to Sudan runs 
 from Tripoli through the kingdom of Fczzan to 
 l.l.i 1 Tchad. Fezzan enjoys periodic rain from the 
 
 winds of the Mediterranean, which . 
 further into the continent here than elsewhere. 
 i of the Desert lying east of the route 
 above described is called the Libyan Desert. 
 It is chiefly in this region that the oasi 
 fsu ceptible of cultivation; the tracts of vegetation 
 in the western portion are fit for Lttle else than 
 .'ts and sheep. The principal 
 iiM re fertile oases is dates; but 
 other fruits and grain are also cultivated. Gum- 
 arabio is another production. Some of the 
 oases support thousands of inhabitants living in 
 villages. Commerce is carried on across the Desert 
 by various routes by means of caravans, con 
 Of from 600 to 2000 camels, with their attendants. 
 The distance between the wells sometimes ■ 
 ten days' journey ; and when a well is found dry, 
 men and animals are in danger of perishing. The 
 inhabitants consist of independent tribes of Moors, 
 Berbers, and Arabs. 
 
 4. The Atlas region, comprehending the mountain- 
 ous oountries of Mai'i'ii, Algeria, and Tunis. The 
 northern slope towards the Mediterranean, called 
 the Tell, is, in aspect, climate, and productions, 
 
 similar ate coast of Europe ; the southern 
 
 illy into the Sahara. Some parts 
 of the chain are considerably above the snow-line, 
 and the highest summits may i D feet 
 
 6. Thi j mi the fled Sea, consisting 
 
 of Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt, Abyssinia, we 
 
 have seen, is the mountainous termination of the 
 
 u. I:, tween this and the 
 
 bends the low valley of the Nile, 
 
 in the Red Sea on the es t by a rugged 
 
 mountainous region, and from tin- Libya 
 
 the west by a low ridge of limestone and sands- 
 
 riling the hydrography of A., much is still 
 I ii which, until recently, 
 
 nil. I tic • unexplored territory,' seems to be 
 anything but the barren and rivcrlcss desert that 
 we imagined ; still it may be safely stated that A., 
 as a whole, is far from being a Wei] A con- 
 
 tinent, though hardly one of its streams has been 
 traced throughout its entire course, while nearly the 
 entire tributaries of these, ii (as is probable) such 
 exist in abundance, are almost wholly unknown. 
 Those of the south, which mostly rise in the neigh- 
 bouring highlands, arc, in many instances, little 
 better than mountain-torrents, having short and 
 rapid courses ; and the embouchure, generally i 
 delta form, is commonly obstructed by a bar of 
 sand. The Orange Liver, for instance, is filled with 
 sand at its mouth. 
 
 Rivers. — The great rivers of A. are the Nil 
 Nigei-, the Zambesi, the Orange, the Congo, the 
 
 1. and the Gambia. Sec arts. Nile, Nil 
 &c. The first bf these is formed by the junction of 
 two rivers — the White Nile (Balir-el-Abiad) and the 
 Blue Nile (Bahr-el-Asrak). The former flows from 
 an unknown source near the equator, through a 
 region as yet unvisitcl by Europeans, skir 
 eastern edge of Kordofan, and passes into Nubia, 
 where it is joined by the Blue Nile at Khartum, 
 after the latter has broken through the highlands of 
 Abyssinia. The single stream then rcuit- 
 
 ously through Nubia in a succession of cataracts, 
 and descending into Egypt, reaches the Mediter- 
 ranean through the far-tamed Delta. The second 
 of the great rivers the Niger, Joliba, or Quorra — 
 for it goes by tins,- and other names in different 
 parts of its course — rises in the Kong Mountains of 
 Guinea, about 9° 25' Y Lit.. 9 r> \V. long., and flows 
 first N.L. till it reaches Timbuktu, where it bends 
 E. for a short distance, and then descends in a S.K. 
 direction into the (lull of Guinea, Its length is 
 estimated at 2600 miles; and its navigability has 
 been ascertained for a distance of upwards of 4ihi 
 miles ; but its banks are very pestilential. I 
 principal tributary is the Tchadda or Benm'. At 
 the extreme west of the mountains of Kong, and not 
 far from the source of 1 ! 
 
 which flows with a crescent sweep to the N.W. 
 through Senegambia, and enters the Atlantic north 
 of Cape Verde. The Gambia, a BCC . runs 
 
 in a smiil.ir direction through the same country, and 
 falls into the sea south of Cape Verde. i 
 which has its origin somewhere in that great division 
 of A. south of the equator that has recently been 
 I to us, is very imperfectly known. It empties 
 its waters into the Atlantic I 'adrone, in 
 
 South Guinea. The UraiiL'e River flows from east 
 to west with many windings through what is 
 popularly termed 'the country of the Bottenf 
 while the Zambesi, though only partially arj 
 seems rich in affluents, and runs in a genera] easterly 
 :<n, entering the channel of Mozambique about 
 l s S. lat. 
 
 Lakes. — The lakes of A. are, as yet, no 1 
 known to us than its rivers. I. or mare 
 
 oorrectiy, according to DrBarth, Ttad, the chief lake 
 
 07
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 of Sudan or Central A., has a circumference ol about 
 •Jim miles, with a depth varying from 8 1~> feeti 
 and an elevation of 850 feet above the sea-level. 
 Though it has do outlet, its waters are cool and 
 clear, and abound with Bah. Besides a multitude 
 of temporary .streams, it is the recipient of 
 large rivers. The chief is the Shary or Ami, from 
 the south-east. ' T/ana, in Ah\ 
 
 li which tlie Blue Nile (lows, is about 65 miles 
 long, and 30 broad, and lies 6000 feel above the 
 Bea-Ievel Lake N" garni, in Southern A., has been 
 iiin.no, I. I i incurring accounts 
 
 of Arali travellers and natives, it i led that 
 
 there is a large lake in the interior called Nyassi 
 
 or I'niamesi, about .">' S. lat.. ami '-".I K. Ion,-. It is 
 
 in tin- midst of a fertile and populous country, and 
 feeds a large river, the Lutlia, which flows eastward 
 into the sea on the Zanzibar coast. 
 
 <•'■ ology. The geology of A. is known as yet only 
 from cursory observations made at isolated i 
 
 character of the Sahara has been already indi- 
 cated. The section traversed by l>r Livingstons 
 
 presents a \ Bhales, sandstoni 
 
 tufa, through which protrude granite and trap-rocks. 
 In one place towards the east side of the continent, 
 i found overlying coal. Between 
 Tripoli and Mnr/iik there is a plateau, the dark 
 sandstone of which disintegrated, nils up the 
 inequalities of the surface, from which the black 
 :and. out in fantastic cones. The lofty harrier 
 of limestone winch forms the western boundary of 
 Egypt, reappears in the rugged ranges of hills 
 which break the monotonous waste of Sahara; they 
 sometime:; contain marine shells. Secondary lime- 
 stone also constitutes the lower skirts of the Atlas 
 Mountains, but what constitutes their basis has not 
 yet ben discovered. 
 
 There are three great varieties of climate, 
 corresponding to the physical structure of the con- 
 tinent : first, that of the plateaus; second, that of the 
 
 terraces which had to them ; and third, that of the 
 
 coasts. In the vast desert of Sahara, extending over 
 
 ia equal to that of the Mediterranean Sea. almost 
 
 di statute ofwatei and vegetation, and partly covered 
 with tracts of sand and bare low rocks, the heat of 
 the day is uniformly contrasted with the coldness 
 
 of the night; whfl i the terrace-land of Limbu, 
 
 for instance, situated behind the Sierra Leone region, 
 we find a temperate and wholesome climate ; and in 
 
 that rising bel I the Slave I 'oast, we have beautiful 
 
 landscapes, abundant springs, new- forms of vegeta- 
 tion, ami a mild Italian air. The natives of Congo 
 call their terrace-lands, which are well cult i 
 and thickly peopled, 'the Paradise of the World.' 
 Hut the flat coasts, which are often over-flooded in 
 the rainy season, have a very oppressive atmosphere, 
 and from the morasses at the mouths of the rivers, 
 a malaria arises which is pestilential to Europeans. 
 This malaria has been supposed to arise from the 
 decay of the vegetable matter brought down by 
 the rivers from the dense mangrove-woods, which, 
 mixing with the salt water on the coast, pro- 
 duces sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Nothing can be 
 more unfavourable to the health and energy of 
 Europeans than the climate of Sierra Leone, the 
 Gambia, and M'Carthy's Island. In the last, the 
 thermometer is often at 106° in the shade during the 
 dry season, and the whole island is little better than 
 a morass in the four rainy months. The region of 
 pestilential air has been calculated to extend about 
 Hill miles inland ; but only 4H miles out at sea, and 
 to rise to a height of 400 feet above the sea-level. 
 
 Productions. — The vegetation of A. is decidedly 
 less varied than that of Europe or Asia. Along the 
 Mediterranean sea-board, it greatly resembles that 
 of Southern Europe. The tropical regions are not 
 
 so rich in I plants as those of South 
 
 .A no a iea, but still they exhibit many ] uliar genera. 
 
 As we have the sultry coasts, and ascend the 
 terraces towards the interior, we pass gradually from 
 
 tropica] productions to th'tse of the temp 
 
 cones, which all Sourish well in several parts of A. 
 
 b the forests cannot rival those of Brazil, 
 
 tiny are rich in valuable woods, especially tits 
 
 harder kinds; some of them excellent for ship- 
 building. Here we find the gigantic Adam 
 (q.v.) digitata or baobab. Ebony, certain bands of 
 rosewood, and the timber called African teak, are 
 among the productions of the tropical forest 
 Butter-tree i Basria, q. v.) is one of the most remark- 
 able productions of the central regions. Ext 
 level tracts are covered with acacias. Certain palms 
 are very chai •■■ diffi " at parts of A., and 
 
 are of the greatest importance to the inhabitant . 
 particularly the Date-palm (q. V.) in the north, and 
 in an inferior degree, the Doom-palm (q. v.), both of 
 them growing in regions comparatively arid, and 
 
 Often surrounded by the \<ry sands of tin- d 
 
 whilst the Oil-palm (q. v.) flourishes ai 
 
 tropical luxuriance of the west, and supple an 
 
 of commerce which now attracts the shil 
 Europe, in constantly increasin j cumbers, to snores 
 once frequented only for the prosecution of the 
 
 slave-trade. The Cocoa-palm (q.v.) flourishes on 
 many parts of the tropteal coast i. A large quantity 
 of oil is produced also by a plant of a very different 
 description, thi Ground-nut [Araehis, q.v.), a legum- 
 inous herbaceous plant, which has the remarkable 
 peculiarity of thrusting its pods into the ground to 
 ripen there, ami which is now so extensively culti- 
 vated, that nine millions of bushels of ground-nuts 
 arc annually exported from the Gambia. The 
 southern extremity of A. is remarkable for the \, i 
 number of its species of mescinbrvantheniums and 
 heaths. Pelargoniums, iridacete and proteacesB, are 
 
 inong the most character; e h Hires of its 
 vegetation. Euphorbiaec.'e abound in most parts of 
 the continent. Many of the productions of other 
 countries have been introduced, both in the tropical 
 and temperate parts of A. Maize is now extensively 
 cultivated, as well as rice, wheat, and millet. A 
 peculiar kind of grain, called fundi, or fundungi 
 [Paspalwm Bttl , IS cultivated in tie- west, ami 
 grains called teff and tocusso (Pun .1' 
 
 Toauso) in Abyssinia, Coffee grows luxuri- 
 antly, and ol I quality. Indigo and tobacco are 
 
 easily cultivated, and cotton has succeeded well 
 where it has been introduced, as in Egypt) where, 
 however, it requires artificial and laborious irriga- 
 tion; while in the rich and well- watered soil of 
 Sennaar, it flourishes even with a most careless 
 style of cultivation, and might, without doubt, be 
 produced in enormous quantity, other region 
 Natal, seem likely soon to produce it abundantly. 
 Tie' vine is cultivated with BUCCeSS at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and the sugar-cane in different parts of 
 the continent. 
 
 In tie animal kingdom, we find the lion, the 
 leopard — often called the tiger, but the tiger is not 
 yet known except as a native of Asia and the Asiatic 
 
 hyenas, jackals, and others of the canine 
 family, a species of elephant, differing in some 
 particulars from that of Asia, several species of 
 rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, wart-hogs (Phasco- 
 dtrrriix), and many kinds of monkeys, particularly 
 within the tropics. The giraffe, the zebra, and the 
 quagga, are peculiar and characteristic, as are also 
 numerous species of antelope, which occupy, in 
 African zoology, the place of deer in other parts of 
 the world. The gnu is one of the most remark- 
 able of the antelope genus. Some of the smaller 
 species occasionally appear m prodigious numbers,
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 devastating the fields Of tin: colonists. The ostrich is 
 found in almost all jiarts of A. Parrots, flamingoes, 
 rnioea-fowls may also be mentioned among the 
 birds. I rocodiles are found in the rivers, and many 
 kinds of lizards and serpents occur, not a few of the 
 latter being poisonous. There are also tortoises and 
 turtles of different species. The domestic animals 
 I wi 11. Camels are said to have been intro- 
 duced by the Arabs, and are plentiful in the northern 
 regions. 
 
 It would be hazardous to assert that A. is deficient 
 - though, judging from our pi 
 imperfect knowledge, it does not seem to be extremely 
 rich. Gold is much more plentiful than .silver, being 
 found abundantly in the sands of the great rivers 
 that flow out of the central region, on the coast of 
 ' a. and also in the south-east of A. The 
 
 i Leone coast has valuable iron ore, which is 
 also found in the Upper Senegal, the region of 
 Timbuktu, the Congo chain of mountains, Egypt, 
 and Darfur. ( lopper is plentiful at Majomba, and in 
 some' other places; salt may lie obtained from almost 
 every district in A. except Sudan, and sal-ammi 
 
 fcre, sulphur, and emery- in various portions of 
 ontinent. 
 Population. — The population is vaguely estimated 
 at above 100,000,000. The native inhabitants belong 
 of the three great di visions of the human 
 family, called, by l>r Latham. Atlantid:e. the Ethiopic 
 of other ethnologists. Tin subdivision into tribes is 
 endless, but they may be all classed in six groups : 
 Is', Tli \ - Atlantidce. — These have, in an exag- 
 1 Conn, the black unctuous skin, woolly hair, 
 ting jaws, Mat nose, and thick lips, character- 
 istic of the whole variety. But it is important to 
 observe the comparatively narrow area to which the 
 negroes proper are confined. They- occupy Western A., 
 < raboon, Sudan in the centre, 
 and the low parts of the Upper Xde. The dusky or 
 brown hue is more prevalent through A. as a whole 
 than the jet-black of the negro; which seems nearly 
 coincident with river valleys and deltas lying within 
 •_''/, Kafir Atkmtidas. — In physical con- 
 formation, tiny are modified negro; the jaws are less 
 ting; their language has some singular pecu- 
 liarities. Tiny occupy from north of the equator 
 ith of the Tropic of Capricorn. .'!>/. II 
 
 cording to Dr Latham, have a 
 claim to be considered a second species than 
 any other section of mankind. Their colour is brown 
 rather than black ; the hair grows in tufts. The 
 stature is low, and the bom a of the pelvis peculiar. 
 Their language has a characteristic dirk. They 
 inhabit the south of the continent, and are divided 
 in I.. Hottentots and Saabs, or Bushmen. Oh, 
 Atlantida, occupying the water-system of the Upper 
 and Middle Nile." The leading tribes are the I tajiks, 
 -, .Nubians, ami Bishari, forming the population 
 of Abyssinia, Add, and Nubia. It connects by 
 imperceptibl one the Coptic and Semitic 
 
 groups with the rest of the African. 5th, J 
 
 tufa, usually called Berbers. In conformation, 
 they vary linni the negro to the Arab type. The 
 
 langn i Si untie. They inhabit thi i 
 
 Hi-, tli.- Sahara, the Canary Isles, and are 
 is far south even as the centre of Sudan, ith, 
 
 ptians, represented 
 
 by the modern Copts. Both language and physical 
 
 conformation connect them, on the one hand, with 
 
 rs and Nubians; on the other, with the 
 
 Assyrians, .bus, &c. 
 
 In religion, the natives are a.s various as in Ian- 
 
 : but it may be questioned whether some of 
 
 the tribes, especially in South A., can be Fairly 
 
 described as having any religion. In not a few of 
 
 these, the religious consciousness seems wholly 
 
 1, and the very terms which express it, 
 
 dropped out of their hu - tch, at 
 
 was the result of Moffat ttions, though 
 
 perhaps the degradation in which he found some 
 phmged was in itself a barrier to a just and 
 adequate communication with them; for the lower 
 that races or individuals sink, the less easy is it to 
 understand them. Throughout the north, and to a 
 ti rablc extent in the interior, the creed of 
 Mohammed is received, but held very loosely by 
 many. Tin: Mohammedan tribes on the west coast 
 divide themselves into two classes — the MaraljouU 
 and the Sonnacheea; but it is not easy to under- 
 stand the exact nature of this distinction, beyoud the 
 simple fact, that the Marabouts profess to adhere 
 rather strictly to the laws of tin- Prophi t. while the 
 Sonnachees are more secular, make little profession 
 of sanctity, but eat pork and will drink spirituous 
 liquors. The lowest form of superstition. 
 I ...... among the uncurl a 
 
 as well as among the Gallas. a nation widely spread 
 south-east of Abyssinia; and the practice of ofl 
 human sacrifices is found in many tribes. The 
 inians hold by tradition a crude form of 
 Christianity. 
 
 Of the forms of government among the several 
 nations and tribes, our knowledge is not sufficiently 
 definite. Though there is despotism, it appears to 
 be limited to some extent by a respect for the ' head 
 men ' in every tribe, who form a sort of aristocracy, 
 and whom the king must consult on all important 
 affairs. The liberty of .sp.och employed in a native 
 parliament, or rather palaver,' is often considerable. 
 Though women are generally found in a de_ 
 position, the wives of the. king often take a part in 
 council, and exercise their influence in the affairs of 
 state. Civilisation, in the proper sense of the term, 
 is only to be met with in the settlements of t le- 
 ans ; for the condition of the M oors. J 
 and Egyptians is scarcely entitled to rank higher 
 than that of semi-civilisation. 
 
 ( if science, art, and literature, we can say little; 
 for all that had been achieved under the Pharaohs 
 and Ptolemies disappeared with the conquest of the 
 Moslems, A schoolmaster is found in almost every 
 Mohammedan village ; but the Koran is the only 
 book studied. Medicine is little understood, though 
 the tribes in the south and elsewhere havi 
 faith in its powers, and practise it in a very absurd 
 and superstitious style. Among many tnl>es, the 
 religion might lie styled medicine-worship. Inocu- 
 lation, as a preservative against the smaQ-pox, is 
 common among the Mohammedan tribes. Mechan- 
 ical skill is generally respected ; and the smith or 
 worker in iron is reckoned among the "head-men' 
 in every tribe. To the African mind, the products 
 of European skill and industry an- the strongest 
 arguments that can be brought forward to prove 
 tin- superiority of our n i thus com- 
 
 merce seems indispensable to prepare the way for 
 any extensive changes of cxei d. 
 
 Of the interior t or barter, if the natives 
 
 among themselves, our km>.\ ' nty. Cara- 
 
 vans of camels pass over tin wide deserts by such 
 
 as lead tln-m t i number ol 
 
 springs, brooks, and oases, or comparatively/ fertile 
 The chieftains in the di Bert are the principal 
 traders; ami on.- feature in their character, though 
 carried to a cruel extreme, is certainly favourable to 
 commerce : debtors are treated with great severity. 
 When payments are delayed, not only the debtor 
 If, but. if he is absent, any member of his 
 family, may be seized as a slave. Timbuktu, on 
 
 of Sahara, is the chief conim 
 depot and central station for the caravans which 
 arrive from Tafilet, Tripoli, and other places in 
 
 69
 
 AGA— AGAMA. 
 
 North A. From Timbuktu they proceed nil their 
 route along the course of the Niger to B 
 another station of commercial importance, which is 
 d by the caravans from Sudan and 
 Bornu. From Kaslnia the caravan-rout' li 
 Bornu and Lake Tchad or Tsad ; thence to the 
 territories of the Tibboug and the Tawarcks, and on 
 to Murzuk in the oasis of Fezzan. Kulfa is another 
 great meeting-place of the caravans coming from 
 I lahomey in the south-west, Borga in tlie north-cast, 
 and Nine m the south-east. Then- Beema to be no 
 
 doubt that these caravans are in communication 
 with others from the east, and thus connect, in ■ 
 primitive style of commerce, the Indian Ocean with 
 the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. Ihi 
 cipal places of commerce in the east are Main- ar, 
 
 Berbera, Ancobar, Gondar, Sonnaar, and Kolilie. In 
 Bengnela and Angola, negro caravans from the 
 interior arrive at the chief places on the coast, 
 linn in slaves, ivory, and gold-dust, which are 
 i it for various commodities. 
 Though A. is so rich in natural productions, and 
 capable of maintaining a thriving commerce with 
 other parts of the world, it is still a painful fact that 
 alone; its coasts, and in the caravan-roads of the 
 interior, the principal trade is in slaves. Bcgarding 
 the cruelty and wickedness of this traffic, it is 
 unnecessary that a single word should be said here. 
 The verdict of enlightened Christendom lias eon- 
 denmed it, but the prejudice against the negro race 
 remains, and they are still considered by a large 
 
 number incapable or unworthy of culture, it is prob- 
 able that B more thorough knowledge of the Africans 
 will dissipate so erroneous and pernicious an idea 
 As yet, we have chiefly come into contact with the 
 barbarous tribes who dwell around our settlements 
 on the coast; and it is unfair to judge the whole 
 population by these. We must remember that 
 several tribes have independently, and by their own 
 exertions, arrived at a certain stage of culture, and 
 seem to be on their way to civilisation. As we 
 advance towards the interior, we do not find the 
 people in a condition which can he fairly described 
 as savagism; but with fixed dwellings, though they 
 are merely mud-huts, defended by stockades, and 
 possessed of some laws or customs which are favour- 
 able to commerce. Among several tribes, the native 
 merchant is highly respected ; and his goods are 
 safe even in times of feud or warfare. The land is 
 cultivated; the natives wear dyed cotton dresses, 
 thicker and more durable than those exported from 
 England, and consequently far dearer, (odd and 
 iron are manufactured with ingenuity. The principal 
 tribes on the Gambia, the Bulahs, the Johnes, and 
 the Mandingoes, have qualities which forbid us to 
 despair of the progress of A. in culture All that 
 is wanted is a free commercial intercom with the 
 civilised world. Commerce must carry into A. the 
 doctrine that it is better to employ nun in trade, 
 such as collecting palm-oil, than to sell them as 
 slaves. Ability to understand such a truth will not 
 be wanting ; and when it is known and practised, 
 the negro will prove that he is human, and will 
 break through all the natural obstacles placed in the 
 way of liia development and improvement. 
 
 That portion of A. which is known is divided 
 as follows: Native states and , hanti, 
 
 Dahomey, Fezzan, Barea, Bornu, Darfur, Kordofan, 
 Dongola, Guinea, Abyssinia, Marocco, Senegainlua. 
 Sennaar, Sudan with Sahara, the territory of the 
 Iniaum of .Muscat, and the countries of the interior, 
 with others on the east coast. British possessions 
 are — Cape Colony and Natal, atthe south; the island 
 of Mauritius, St Helena, Ascension, Sierra Leone, 
 Cape Coast, and the Gambia Colony. — The French 
 have settlements on the Senegal, with the islands 
 70 
 
 of St Louis and Coree, the Isle de Bourbon, St M 
 and the great ri.lony of Algeria. Egypt, Nubia, 
 Tunis, and Tripoli belong nominally to Turkey. — 
 Danes and North as well as the Dutch, 
 
 have forts and i :i Guinea.— The Porta- 
 
 have the Aran rod Cape Verde [elands, with 
 
 i. Porto Santo, st. Thomas, Angola, Bengnela, 
 
 and Mozambique. — The Canary Island In Ion to 
 
 e island of Madagascar and the 
 
 Comoro group are under native rulers; but in 
 of these on fchei coast the French have 
 
 established themselves, as at Mayotta. 
 
 AGA or A01IA, the Turkish title ol 
 military commander; also of the higher office) oi 
 the seraglio. 
 
 A'GADKS, formerly a very important city of 
 Central Africa, but at present in a declining eon- 
 
 dition. It is the capital of Air or Asben (q. v.), 
 and is built upon the eastern edge of a 
 table-land, at an elevation of not less than 2500 
 f.et, inlat. 16° 33* N., long. 7 3ff K. It hold; little 
 intercourse with the northern cities, such as Murzuk, 
 which, indeed, is never visited, except by pilgrims 
 on their way to Mecca ; but its merchants still 
 frequent the markets of Katsena, Tasawa, Maradi, 
 Kami, and Sokoto. At one time A. was a sort of 
 ■ D repfll for the vast trallic carried on with Gogo — • 
 ient capital of the Songhavoinpire (q. v.) - but 
 I and destruction of this city, the centre 
 of the gold-trade, has fatally injured the prosperity 
 of the former, 'cutting away the vary roots through 
 which it received life. 1 A. was founded some hundn ds 
 of years ago, in all likelihood by the Berbers, 
 
 who were expelled by the great Songhar iqueror, 
 
 llaj, Mohammed Askia, in 1616. Its highest degn S 
 of power had been reached previous to this, when it 
 
 probably contained 60,000 inhabitants. At present, 
 
 it has not more than 0000 or 7000. The Ian 
 
 is the Emgedesiye, the same as that spoki a at 
 
 Timbuktu, with which place, however, it has no 
 urse now. There is a large admixture of 
 Berber blood in the people of A. The trade and 
 manufactures are trilling in extent. Dr Barth is of 
 opinion that A. would form, for a European agent, 
 a very good and comparatively healthy place from 
 which to open relations with Central Africa. See 
 Barth's Travels in Central Africa, vol. i. 
 
 A'GAMA, a genus of Saurian Reptiles, the type of 
 a family call d Igamida. The Agamas are allied to 
 the i lianas, and have a lax akin, which they have 
 the power of inflating with air. None of them arc 
 of a large size. They are found in warm climates, 
 and are of various habits, some of them living in 
 trees, and others confined to the ground. The 
 
 Egyptian A. (.1. SgypHaca at Trapthw I 
 
 Frilled Agama. 
 
 is remarkable for changing colour, like the cha- 
 meleon. Some of the most common lizards of 
 Australia are of this family. The Frilled A. (cWomy- 
 ilumurtix) is a remarkable Australian lizard, having 
 a sort of frill around the neck, which usually bes
 
 AGAMEMNON— AGAPEMONE. 
 
 back in plaits, but is raised when the annual is 
 alarm'. I. 
 
 AGAME'MNON", son of King Atreus, and brother 
 of tlenelaus. After his father's death, he reigned in 
 Mycenae, and married Clytemneatra, by whom he 
 had three children — Iphigenia, Electra, and Orestes, 
 rwards celebrated in the Greek drama. When 
 Paris, son of the Trojan Icing, Priam, seduced and 
 carried away Helena, the wife of Menelaus, A., 
 with his injured brother, made a tour throughout 
 Greece,- exhorting all the leaden of the people to 
 unite their forces in an expedition against Troy. 
 Having gained their alliance, A. was appointed 
 general-in-chief of the united forces assembled at 
 Aulis 111 Bceotia, where they were delayed some 
 tune. In the following campaign against Troy, 
 which forma the subject of Homer's Iliad, 
 A. is described as a very stately and dignified 
 character. After the fall of Troy, he returned 
 home, taking with hiin Cassandra, the daughter of 
 Priam. Shortly afterwards, he was murdered by 
 Clytemnestra, aided by j-Egisthus, in whose care he 
 had left his wife and children. A tragical fate had 
 always lowered over the house of A. ; and the 
 lies of his children — Iphigenia, Electra, and 
 Orestes — were the favourite subjects of the Greek 
 drama. 
 
 A'GAMI [PsopMa), a genus of South American 
 
 . allied to Cranes, Only two species are known. 
 
 They are sometimes called Trumpeters, from a peculiar 
 
 Z - 
 
 Againi. 
 
 Bound which they make. The best known species is 
 d Trumpeter (P. crepitans), which is 
 of the size of a large pheasant, but with much longer 
 legs and neck, and a very short tail. It runs very 
 quickly; so much so, that a tame one in England 
 lias been known to keep up with hounds. It is 
 capable of the most perfect domestication. 
 
 At:.YI\E were love-feasts, or feasts of charity, 
 usually celebrated by the early Christians in 
 
 lion with the Lord's Supper. The name is 
 derived from the Greek word agape, which signifies 
 love or charity. At these feasts, the rich Christians 
 presented their poorer brethren in the faith with 
 
 and all ate together, in token of tleir equality 
 before God ami their brotherly harmony. The 
 ineetie eened and closed with payer; and 
 
 during the feast, spiritual songs were 
 first, a bishop or presbyter presided, who read a 
 i of Scripture, proposed questions upon it, and 
 l the various answers of the brethren. After- 
 wards, whatever information had been obtained 
 regarding the other churches, was read such as the 
 official letters of overseers, or private communiea- 
 tiwis from eminent members; and thus a spirit of 
 
 teal sympathy was engendered. Before the 
 conclusion of the proceedings, money was collected 
 
 for will m, the poor, prisoners, and I 
 
 who hail Buffered shipwreck, Then the members 
 embraced, and the feast was ended with a ' philau- 
 prayer.' As early as the l ustom 
 
 of celebrating the A. and the Lord's Supper to- 
 had ceased, on account of the persecutions. Justin, 
 when writing on the latter subject, does not speak 
 of the former; but Ignatius, on the other hand, 
 seems to regard them as identical. Generally, the 
 feast of the A. preceded the celebration of the Lord's 
 Supper. But during the period of the persecutions, 
 when the Christians had often to hold divine service 
 before dawn, the A. were, for the most pan, 
 delayed till the evening. Later, a formal separation 
 was made between the two rites. In the 3d and 
 4th centuries, the A. had degenerated into a common 
 banquet, where the deaths of relatives, and the 
 anniversaries of the martyrs, were commemorated, 
 and where the clergy and the poor were guests ; but 
 with the increase of wealth, and the decay of reli- 
 gious earnestness and purity in the Christian Church, 
 these A. became occasions of great riotousness and 
 debauchery. Councils declared against them, forbade 
 the clergy to take any share in their celebration, 
 and finally banished them from the church. At the 
 same time, it must be admitted that the heathens 
 ignorantly calumniated the practices of the Chris- 
 tians in these A., and that the defences made by 
 Tertullian, Minuchis, Felix, Origen, &c, are emi- 
 nently successful. The Moravians have attempted 
 to revive these A., and hold solemn festivals, with 
 prayer and praise, where tea is drunk, and wheaten 
 bread, called Love-bread, is used. 
 
 AGAPE MOXE (Gr. love-abode), a conventual 
 establishment of a singular kind, consisting of 
 persons of both sexes, founded at Charlynch, near 
 Bridgewater, in the county of Somerset, by Mr 
 Henry James Prince, formerly a clergyman of the 
 Church of England. The inmates are called 
 Lampeter Brethren, and belong to a new re] 
 sect originating with Mr Prince, and a Mr St 
 also a clergyman. The adherents of the sect 
 generally, of whom there are many hi the south- 
 western counties, are known as Princeites or 
 Starkcyites. 
 
 As curate in a village on the coast of Dorsetshire, 
 Mr Starkey, who possessed the gift of eloquence to 
 an extraordinary degree, effected real good. His 
 parishioners, most of them lawless smugglers, and 
 those who flocked to hear his discourses, listened 
 to him as to one inspired ; and many who did net 
 follow him in his wild theories, ascribe their first 
 real impressions of religion to his ministry while 
 he was yet a clergyman of the Established Church. 
 Gradually, his doctrine changed, and in company 
 with Mr Prince, he began to hold forth in barns, 
 whence loud bowlings were heard by I 
 by. People of all classes flocked to hear the new 
 preachers ; even clergymen's families were in 
 with the taint of this heresy, which spread through 
 eluded villages on the coast, obtaining especial 
 bold among the farmers, several of whom, as in the 
 times of the apostles, brought their wealth, and laid 
 it at 'Brother Prince's' feet — community of goods 
 being the tenet most strenuously insisted upon. 
 
 meanwhile, funds accumulated rapidly. Three 
 of the Brothers — Messrs Price, Thomas, and Cobb — 
 married three sisters, daughters of a wealthy widow 
 lady named Kottidge. These young women, hand- 
 some, clever, and of independent fortune, began 
 by listening, against the wish of their parent, to 
 Mr Prince's preaching, and finally left their home 
 to marry Ins disciples. A fourth sister afterwards 
 followed" their example. So strong was the feeling 
 under which they acted, that, on their aged mother 
 coming in person to remonstrate on their conduct, 
 
 71
 
 AGAFEMONE Ac U3SLZ. 
 
 they rejected her claims of authority, savin- thai 
 the di king to them by her ■- a 
 
 The affairs ot the A. have Ben rat time 
 to proceedings in the courts of law, mi which 
 ■ions tin- public obtain 
 
 internal regulations of the establishment In 1846, 
 one of tin- ladies above mentioned, having bi 
 dissatisfied with tin- doctrine ami ride of Life in the 
 A., was expelled from tin- society, and put away by 
 her husband, Mr Thomas, though then about I 
 birth to a child. After she had lived four years 
 with her mother, who had made provision fi 
 child, Mr Thomas wrot ing her for ever, 
 
 and < ■ 1 .- 1 1 1 1 1 i n •_; tli- "i liis son. This was 
 
 resisted; and in the coins.- of tin' Lav. 
 
 that took place, much that was oil 
 in the conduct of the Agapemonians trail 1 
 
 Although the inmates were in 
 appeared that they entertained Borne religioui 
 taon to the increase of population, as if believing 
 that the perfection of all things will be the extinc- 
 tion of the human lace. In short, the doeti n 
 peculiar notions of this remarkable Beet are seemingly 
 a natural and not unusual c in equence of allowing 
 an excited i - the judgmi nt ; 
 
 and, h ■ 'is hut a new or r 
 
 form of extrem e religious fanaticism. 
 
 Mr Prince's Brat i atablishmi ut was at Weymouth. 
 The present A, which has existed now (1859) for 
 about ten years, is a beautiful and spacious building, 
 most luxuriously fitted up, and co itaining a mag- 
 nificent ill, with all kinds of melodious 
 instruments. When summoned thither, 
 
 his Bocks, herds, and crops, even in the 
 midst of harvest, and 
 will of his 'Lord'— such is the title by which Mr 
 
 i'rin. k of him. At other times, the 
 
 i at Ins own dwelling I ■ 
 
 of the Princeites, and entertain, them with 
 hospitality. For this, it is to be supposed, he has 
 his reward, since one of Mr i ciples, upon 
 
 being offered assistance towards the recovery of a 
 large sum which he had lost, replied that the money 
 ' had been repaid by the I thefriendof.fi 
 
 who sticketh closer than a bro 
 
 Letters intended for Mr Pi igh the 
 
 post-office directed to 'The Lord;' and his fol- 
 lowers have to say that he is their 
 'creator.' In 1851, Mr Prince took up a party of 
 them to London bition. lie 
 drove about town and in the parks in a ca 
 ntlv attendi d by oul riders, ban 
 rase tin y were in th pri lence of 'i 
 Mr Prince ha-s put forth many pane 
 in the highest degree objet tionable ; othei -. in which 
 the tenets of the christian religion are mingled with 
 his own peculiar doctri t came to redeem 
 the soul. Prince affirms that hit errand is to 
 
 m the body. One test applied to his di 
 from which many shrank, m-.-ls, that they v 
 in si punishment of those whom 
 best loved, and to rejoice in it as redounding to 
 
 -lory. When this Mas pro] 
 several persons oi «*ho had hi 
 
 along with Mr I Lined to proceed 
 
 further; others agreed to it cord: illy. There is 
 now, it is said, no necessity for prayer; mourning 
 for deceased relatives is forbidden; a sort ot 
 millennium is attained, in which no exertion is 
 
 aded nothing but joy and thanks 
 Pain and grief, sorrow and sickness, have Fo 
 lost their dominion over the Princeites; yet still, 
 to the incredulous, it appears that consumption, 
 matism, and other infirmities of human nature, 
 do at- and that they die, and 
 
 : hi r in n. In one of Mr Prince's latest pamph- 
 72 
 
 lets, the following words occur, which may 
 
 to elm .v hat mysterious doctrine: 
 
 is i 'hrist has again .lit 
 with man at the i i of mankind, and this 
 
 etion, and DOW 1 
 llis witm is." 'This on.- man. Brother Prince, bs 
 ted and appointed His witm 
 
 nis. 1 and purp i Lido the day of 
 
 grace, and to introduce the day of judgment. To 
 
 .1 the dispensation of tin 
 
 and to i nter into covenant with t! 
 I.. 1 859 appear .1 /.v..'/.- 1 
 ■ 
 
 l/-u»>//l 
 
 ■ '. tt was commenced, according to Bi 
 
 twenty-tin i, and more- than nine- 
 
 > ars have elapsed sine.- it s completion. It- 
 aim is simply this: to shew t- in the 
 soul, from its first struggling manifestations 
 to that absolute harmony in utteri] 
 1 and swallowed up in God. Brother Pi 
 a nal, deliberately 
 
 1 i.h is him - of fur- 
 ther improvement. 'Ih Is: 'Having 
 neither wish. ires, my will can havi 
 
 tioli whatever to move in any one din 
 
 than another, but like the finely poised 
 of a well-adjusted balai icatelysus- 
 
 i on th.- divine will, in a holy equilibrium of 
 inward -.' ft was some time after Br 
 
 Prince had reached thi ilation 
 
 of self-consciousness, that he started his Bin 
 ishment at Weymouth. 
 It Mould appear that a society, similar in its 
 
 and character, though not c 
 
 el m the loth and 17th cent 
 1 the ' family of Love.' Its four li 
 generally supposed to have been Henry Nichol 
 
 native of Miinst.-r. in Westphalia, but who In- 
 considerable time in Holland. He held himself to 
 i.r than Moses or Christ, for tin- form.. 
 
 id the latter tO I 
 
 he hrst annoiui 1 the - Love. He 
 
 n.-e about 1540. Othei . nowi » 
 of ..pinion that the real fat her ol t hi ' Familj 
 on-- David George, a fanatical Anabaptist of Delft, 
 
 in Holland, who died in 1556, and who impart 
 
 'damn t.. (Nicholas, an old friend - 
 
 In the reign of Edward VI.. according to Fuller, 
 
 Nichols er to England, and comn 
 
 ion of silly people in a secret way. By 1573, 
 they had apparently increased in numbers consider- 
 ably, for in that year one John Bo bed a 
 work against them, entitled, qf an 
 and Wit '■ i II > 
 
 g On mselves the Family of Lom , with tht 
 of their J - y teach in 
 
 i In 1580, Queen Elizabeth issued a procla- 
 
 mation for the hunting out and p of the 
 
 'damnable Beet. 1 The Love, 'ot Lust, 
 
 ,' as old Fuller has it, 1 1 mat.' them- 
 
 races of King James, by pre- 
 
 | a petition. . ... - i I 1 
 
 At length, the society expired from continual - 
 
 in prose and v. i 
 well as from its own intrinsic worthlessneas. Their 
 
 m to have been a species of ]. 
 spiritual sentimcntalism. resulting in gross impurity. 
 See Muckers, in Supplement. 
 
 A'GARIC and ACA'KK '- . oom. 
 
 AG SlSSIZ, Lot is. one of the most distinguished 
 of modern naturalists, Mas born at Orbe, in the 
 
 \"aml, in 1807. After passing through fhe 
 usual course of elementary learning at Bid and 
 Lausanne, he prosecuted his studies at Zurich and
 
 AOATE— AGAVE. 
 
 Heidelberg, and lastly, studied medicine at Munich. 
 In •arly youth, ho had displayed a Btrong love of 
 natural history; ami at Heidelberg and Monich 
 comparative anatomy was Ins favourite occupation, 
 
 In Munich he 1 ame acquainted with .Martins ami 
 
 Spix, the well-known travellers in Brazil; and when 
 died (in 1826 ction of lib' s|>ecies of 
 
 fish collected in B left in the care of A.. 
 
 who published it tinder tit -, <(■''., quos 
 
 fit , < ping 
 ch 1829 1831, with 91 illustrations in trthog- 
 .i Led by this work to study ichtiij 
 mote closely, A. next ondertook a systi 
 
 ement of i water fishes found in 
 
 (if this work, the first fasciculus, 
 
 containin.' tile family of the Salmonide, appeared at 
 
 Nenfchfitel in 1839, with . "it illustration 
 
 criptionsin French, English, and < lennan. A second 
 
 cuius, prepared by his friend \ 
 
 -•. was published ill 1840; and a third, 
 des Salmon?*, appeared in 1845 as a part 
 third volume of the M 
 
 y of Naha B ond this, the work 
 
 ■was not continued, A. at the same time devoted his 
 attention to tiie fossil remains of fishes, and during 
 his stay in Paris (1831 1832), i uunini d 
 private and public fossil collections. The results of 
 
 m his work l!*rh*rch> - 
 PoUi' , published a! Neufchatel, with 311 
 
 lithographed illustrations, 1833 1842. Meanwhile, 
 he had been invited to take the professorship of 
 natural history at Neufchfite] ; and here he found two 
 active young fi-i> i 
 
 considerable aid iu the completion of his w< irks. With 
 their assistance, his work on fossil fishes was brought 
 to a conclusion in 1842. During several visits to 
 England, A. made himself well acquainted with the 
 collections of fossils in this country; and in 1844, 
 published a monograph on fo- I found in the 
 
 old rid sandstone of the Devonian system. His 
 study of these remains led him to examine other 
 fossils; and the results appeared in his works 
 
 ption '!■ • E 
 and Monographies d'Echinodi < met Vivants et Fossiles. 
 In the hitter work, Profi Bsor Valentin of Berne sup- 
 plied tin a on the ' Anatomy of the Sea-urchin.' 
 
 A. next turned his attention to the mollus. 
 produced his Cri - lies on Fossil Mottusca, 
 
 which was soon followed by his on the 
 
 i and Fossil Moilusca. His work 
 1 great interest, as it opened new 
 views in geology. The results of further study 
 were given in a second work on Th 
 I : or ].'■ Marches on Glaciers 1 1 ' 
 In preparing tins work, lie was assisted by his 6 
 Guyot and Desor. In 1846, a. went to North 
 America, where hi anted to a professorship 
 
 in Harvard College, near Boston ; from which he was 
 ouently removed to occupy the chair of com- 
 parative anatomy in the 1 
 11. recently declined the offer of a chair in I 
 made him by the fonp tor of the French. He 
 has published in America P of Zoology, \ 
 
 and Collo, 
 and Lake I 
 
 1850 . Iu | 
 ■.■■. written in conjunction with 
 .Mr A. A. Gi A. upholds the doctrine 
 
 of the creation of higher orgi 
 
 on the surface of the earth. 
 lion, by A., has just been published (Lond., 
 at presenl rest w.>rk. I 
 
 History of 
 (Boston, 2 vol-, it , to be oompleted in 10 vi 
 
 A'GATE, a mineral layers of e 
 
 generally of different varieties or colours, intimately 
 
 ther. The layers are often concentric, 
 ami in - appear nearly circular 
 
 or elliptical, ingolar. • 
 
 amethyst, common quartz, jasper, flint, la-... 
 
 ra in A. It takes a fine polish, and is much 
 used for o rna m enta l ; It is common in 
 
 • Many a| - itland, 
 
 and are sold under the nam.' , 
 
 A'GATHA, ST, a noble : dy of great 
 
 beauty, who rejected the love of the Pi 
 vianus, and suffered a cruel martyrdom in 
 cution of Christians under Dei 
 a high rank amon_ 
 church ; her day falls February 5. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, one of the boldest bul 
 unworthy adventurers of antiquity, was born at 
 
 Thenire. in Sieily. in .'ibl B.C. Be 1 amble 
 
 circumstances through the patronage of llamas, a 
 noble citizen of Syracuse, and received a command 
 in the expedition against Agrigentum. Aften 
 he married the widow 01 Damas, and became 
 one of the most wealthy men in Syracuse, Under 
 the rule tratus, he was obliged to lb 
 
 Lower Italy, where he collected a band of par- 
 tisans. Returning to Syracuse, after the death 
 
 tratus, he _ suprem acy, confirmed 
 
 it by a massacre of several thousands of n 
 
 , and took possession of the greater 
 part of Sieily. To establish 1 . and 
 
 keep his army employed, he now attempt) 
 expel the Carthaginians from Sieily; but b 
 undertaking he was defeated. His next plan \ 
 pass ov. t to Africa with a part of his army, and there 
 attaek the Carthaginians. This war lie carried "ii 
 with success for four years, or until 307 B.C., when 
 
 auce3 in Sicily compelled him to leal 
 army for a time. On his return to Africa, he found 
 his troops in a state of mutiny i son Areha- 
 
 gathus, whom he had left in command, but pacified 
 them by promises of large booty. Soon afterwards, 
 he suffered a serious defeat, and with deli 1 
 treachery, left his own son exposed to the veng 
 of the disappointed soldiers. The son was put to 
 
 and the troops surrendered themselves to 
 enemy, while A escaped safely into S caly, whi i 
 fraud and cruelty, he soon r mar 
 
 . and was afterwards engaged in pree 
 inroads upon Italy. It was lus intention to li ave tie- 
 throne to his youngest son, A.; but his gran 
 
 dims, made an insurrection, slew the royal 
 heirs, and persuaded Mamon,one of the favour; 
 the aged tyrant, to destroy him by i 
 
 1 toothpick This took pi 
 '.. was 72 years old, and had n igni d 28 
 
 AG A' VJS,a genus of plants belonging to the natu- 
 ral order AmaryUidea (q.v.), and having a tubular 
 perianth with 6-partito limb, and a triangular, 
 many-seeded inferior ca] I y are herbs' 
 
 plants, of remarkable and beautiful appeal 
 There are a numl>cr of species, all natives of the 
 wanner parts of America, By unscientific pi 
 they are often confounded with Aloes (q.v.) ; and A. 
 nerally known by the name of 
 AUKBICAB Ai.ok. The Agaves have either no pro- 
 
 : , or a vi-ry shorftine, bearing at its summit a 
 crowded head of huge, fleshy leaves, which are spiny 
 at the margin. From the m otsup 
 
 the straight, upright scape, 24— .')<> feet high, and at 
 ii one foot in diameter, along which are 
 small, appressed, lanceolate bractess, with a terminal 
 
 . often bearing as many as 4000 flowers. In 
 South often flower in tho 
 
 eighth year, but in our hot houses m>t until they 
 
 ached a very advanced age; when, 
 
 i tlieir flowi once in oue
 
 AGDE— AGE. 
 
 hundred years. After flowering, the plant always 
 dies down to the ground, but the tool oontinuing to 
 live, sends up new shoots. The best known 
 
 ; . was first brought from South 
 America to Europe in 1661, and b nropa- 
 
 by suckers, is employed tor fences in Italian 
 Switzerland, and has !■ tnralisedin Naples, 
 
 Sicily, and the north of Africa. By maceration of 
 the leaves, which are G to 7 !• > I Ion are obtained 
 coarse fibres, which arc used in America, undi r the 
 
 American Aloe. 
 
 name of maguey, for the manufacture of thread, 
 twine, ropes, hammocks, &c. This iibre i 
 known as Pita Flax. It is now produced to some 
 extent in the south of Europe. It is not very strong 
 nor durable, ami if exposed to moisture, it soon 
 decays. The ancient Mexicans employed it for the 
 preparation of a coarse kiud of paper, and the 
 Indians use it for oakum. The leaves, cut into 
 
 . are used for feeding cattle. — Another species, 
 A. ifexicana, is particularly described by Humboldt 
 upon account of its utility. When the inni 
 leaves have been torn out, a juice continues to flow 
 for a year or a year ami a half, which, by inspissation, 
 yields sugar ; and which, when dilated with water, 
 and subjected to four or five days' fermentation, 
 becomes an agreeable but intoxicating drink, called 
 pulque, to which the Mexican Indians not unfre- 
 qucntly sacrifice both fortune and life. It is made 
 likewise from A. Americana, and from several other 
 species. — The roots of A. saponnria are u 
 Mexico for washing, being a powerful detergent, and 
 fonnmg a lather with salt water as well as v. ith 
 fresh. The juice of the leaves, made into cakes, is 
 
 for the same purpose. 
 AGDE, an ancient French town inthedepai 
 of Herault, founded by the Greeks, and situated 
 
 : a league from the Mediterranean .Sea, on the 
 left bank of a navigable stream. To the north, under 
 the walls of the town, flows the Languedoc Cai 
 The mouth of the stream forms a harbour, which 
 is entered by 400 vessels yearly. The coast-trade 
 
 74 
 
 of A., in particular, is wry brisk, while it is also 
 the entrepot for the traffic of die south and 
 i ace. 1 1 has, besides, cor iderable inti i 
 with H ily. Spain, and Africa. It carries on a large 
 and prosperous trade in wine, oil, salt, corn, til 
 \inul, Milk, and cloth ; but tie' geni of the 
 
 mbre and forbidding, on of tie' 
 
 black basalt oi which tie- hen in lilt, n hence it 
 has popularly received the name of tie' black Town. 
 esses a Naval Academy, :: ml i- acted in history 
 as the place at which Alaric, king of tie: Goths, con- 
 vened a council. Pop., 9000. 
 
 ACE. The legal divisions of human life, beiug 
 
 sometimes arbitrary, and sometimes founded on 
 
 nature, differ considerably in different countries. In 
 England, the whole period previous to twenty-one 
 
 of A. is usually spoken of as infancy, a term 
 which has a totally different signification in tho e 
 es that have followed the civil law. Bat 
 notwithstanding tins general division, which is 
 common to both sixes, the ages of male ami female 
 are different for different purposes. 'A male, at 
 twelve years old, may take the oath of allegiance; 
 at fourteen, is at years of disi n Bon, ad thi 
 
 may consent oi i to marri , may choose his 
 
 guardian, may lie an executor, although he cannot 
 act until of age; and at twenty-one, is at his own 
 disposal, and may alien and devise his lands, goods, 
 and chattels. A female, also, at seven y . i 01 age, 
 betrothed or given in marriage; at fourteen, 
 is at years of legal discretion, anil may choose a 
 guardian; at seventeen, may he an executrix; ami 
 at twenty-one, may dispose of herself and her lands. 
 So that full A. in male or female is twenty-one 
 
 which A. is completed on the day pre 
 
 of a person's birth, who, till that 
 lime, is an infant, and so styled in law.' — (Is- 
 Illiirlc.itime, vol i. p. -I!!.'!.) 
 
 By the law of Si ain, life is divided into 
 
 periods — pupilan ". and maj 
 
 The first extends from birth to the age of 
 puberty, which is fourteen in males and twelve 
 in females, at which ages they may respectively 
 marry; the second embraces the period from 
 the termination of pupilarity till the attainment 
 of majority, which takes place at tho age of 
 twenty-one in both sexes; and the third incl 
 tin v, hole of after-lib'. The term Minority, how- 
 ever, is often applied to the whole period anterior 
 to majority, and is thus equivalent to infancy 
 or nonage in England. Infancy in Scotland can 
 scarcely be said to possess a technical meaning ; but 
 when used at all, it is always in the sense of the 
 Roman infantia, to indicate the period from birth 
 till seven years of age, during which a child, 
 in very unusual circumstances, is intrusted 
 to the care of the mother. The office of tutory cor- 
 ids in duration to pupilarity, that of curatory 
 lority. See Ti Tot:, ( i i: Mm:. By the Roman 
 law, an approach to majority was held to modify 
 the character of minority, and so of the other periods ; 
 but this rule has not been followed by the law of 
 Scotland; and a youth who wants but a day of 
 twenty-one, is as much incapacitated as if he were 
 In France, the marriageable A. is eighteen 
 in males, and fifteen in females (Code ( 
 art. 144), an arrangement which seems more reason- 
 alile than that which we have borrowed from the 
 Romans, and which, however suitable it may have 
 been to the climate of Italy, could never have been 
 free from inconveniences in this country. Twenty- 
 one is generally the age at which men arc eligible for 
 public offices; and at this age they may elect, and be 
 elected members of parliament. But a man must bo 
 twenty-four before he can be admitted to priests' 
 orders, and thirty before he can be a bishop. In
 
 AGEN— AGES. 
 
 rica, a membi must be thirty, and 
 
 a member of the House of Representatives, twenty- 
 five; this latter was a] n the |» rioel of majority |jy 
 the civfl law. The li ' attaching to 
 
 the different stages of minority, or, to speak more 
 correctly, the privileges which the law confers on 
 minors for their protection, will be treated of 
 under the different subjects to which they relate. 
 9ee < ;< a im iia n .mi', • lorn eht, I 'own u r, : 
 Marriage, &c. 
 
 AGE'N, (ho chief town of the depart mi 
 Lot-et-Garonne in France, is situated in a fertile 
 i ion on the right hank of the Garonne. The 
 
 town is old and gloomy in appearance ; but carries 
 on an active trade in woollen and linen fabrics, 
 leather, coloured paper, colours, cordage, and sail- 
 cloth. It forms the connecting-link of the inter- 
 course bet we d Toulouse and Bordeaux, ami exports 
 plums, brandy, hemp, flax, and poultry. Close by it 
 is the old-fashioned house in which Joseph Scaliger, 
 the prince of scholiasts, was born. In ancient 
 of many a tierce martyrdom 
 , when it was under the rule of 
 
 in pnetors. Afterwards it suffered the miseries 
 of war, during the barbaric irruptions from Ger- 
 many, to a most incredible extent, having been taken 
 and plundered by Goths, Vandals, ami Huns, in their 
 turn. Next it came under the thraldom of the 
 English, in their early French wars, ami, at a later 
 pi nod, was twice taken by the Huguenots, in the 
 religious contests of the lUth e. Pop., 16,000. 
 
 AGENT (Lat. ar/en.i). An A. is one who is 
 authorised or delegated to transact business for 
 another (wdio in this relation is called his Principal 
 or constituent) in whose place he comes, and who 
 is bound by his acts in the business to which the 
 agency extends. The appointment of an A. may 
 
 ■lie ,/, //end, having reference to all the princi- 
 pal's affairs, or medal, concerning some particular 
 object It may further be limited by instructions 
 " . coi duct he is to pursue, or unlimited, in 
 which case liis conduct is left to his own discretion, 
 in the last case, however, the A. is not 
 freed from all responsibility for his conduct; he is 
 bound to do his best for his employer, and he oughl 
 not to accept or retain tie- agency unless he is com- 
 petent to its performance. The mutual relations of 
 principal and agents, and their respective responsi- 
 bilities to the public in mercantile transactions, will 
 be treated under Pwnctpai and Agent, S 
 
 I'mioi;, BROKER, ( 'uii missiuNKI:, ( 'n'Jll issicin- 
 
 Aqi '.i'. 
 
 Ai SENT and CLIENT. The employer of a law- 
 agent is entitled to presume that he is possessed of 
 competent professional knowledge, and the A. is 
 consequently responsible to his 0. for the conse- 
 oui aces of gross professional ignorance, or llagrant 
 negligence in the conduct of the business inn 
 1" hnn. It is not enough to entitle the 0. to 
 ■s that the A.'s proceedings have not had 
 
 tin' effect which was exj ted, or which he himself 
 
 led from them, it has been observed in the 
 House of Lords, that it is of the very essence of an 
 action against a professional man by his einpl,,y,r, 
 that there shall be gross (l'urves V. 
 
 i ni'hll, t i'„ii, hi). See Attorney, Solicitor, 
 
 \\ RITES TO i in: Niom r. 
 
 AGENT, ARMY. A person authorised by the 
 
 government to manage the monetary affairs "' 
 
 lnents in the army, as a kind of military banker. 
 
 Formerly, persons were employed to effect thepur- 
 
 and Bale pi cemmi dona in the British army 
 
 (the only army in whirh this strange system of pur- 
 
 eli i ■ exists), without much reference to 
 
 fitness; but to prevent pernicious trafficking, no 
 
 one is now permitted to manage these transactions 
 
 I the authoi i ieler a heavy 
 
 penalty. The Army Agent ! are also bound down by 
 
 lions, in ri lation to any pecuniary ads 
 derivable by them m the sale and purchase. 
 
 Their business, hoi ore intimately con 
 
 with the regular expenditure of government money. 
 Every regiment has an agent," a lected by the 
 eol I, and empowered by him to be his representa- 
 tive in the monetary arrangements of the corps. The 
 colonel is responsible to a for tin' honesty 
 
 of the Army A.; but tie- agent is in many ways 
 regarded as a servant of the public. When money 
 is wanted for the regular expenses of the regiment, 
 the agent applies to the War-office; whereupon 
 the Secretary of State for War issu t., the 
 
 Paymaster of the Forces to advance thi requisite 
 sum; the Paymaster does so, and tal 
 from the agent. There is an annual settlement of 
 accounts between the Paymaster and thi 
 one paying or receiving, according to the side on 
 which excess or deficiency m 
 
 then distributes the pay and other charges of the 
 regiment. The percentage allowed to Army A 
 for their trouble in paying the full-pay of officers, is 
 allowed for ley the state, ami is included among the 
 annual army estimates; but the 
 this charge in relation to half-pay and allowance a 
 I iinv Agents conduct all correspondence 
 
 send all the requisite notices concerning pay and pay- 
 ment ; the colonel of the regiment takes no part in the 
 matter. The details of the- system have- varied con- 
 siderably at different times, and in different portions 
 of the British dominions. .Sometimes the agent re- 
 ceives twopence in the pound on the amount of pay ; 
 sometimes three-halfpence in the pound, with an addi- 
 tion varying from sixpence to one shilling per day for 
 each company of infautry or troop of cavalry ; some- 
 times (in li'el.'ind, and in the colonies) a fixed 
 
 The amount paid for this agency is about 
 £40,000 a year. Many i mrii need government- 
 otlicers have recommended the abandonment o 
 system, and the paying of all moneys by the War- 
 office direct, as a measure of simplification and 
 economy; but there is not a unanimity of opinion 
 
 on this point. When the colonels of regi Bpro- 
 
 vided the men's clothing, under a Byst em now aban- 
 
 the Army Agents were very intimately mixed 
 up with the transactions; but at present, tin- duties 
 
 of those agents are limited t . • the following: applying 
 
 monthly to the- War-office for the money required 
 
 for each regiment; receiving that in v; app 
 
 part of it to the payment of officers; disbursm 
 regimental paymasters' bills for the cost of the 
 expenditure; paying soldiers' remittances for the 
 il of their families: settling the- effects and 
 credits of soldiers; distributing prize-money; ami 
 
 managing the sale and purchase of eoninii 
 
 AGENT, N.wv, a naval banker, who l>car3 
 some such relation to Admiralty expenditni 
 tin' Army A. (q. v.) to War-office expenditure. 
 His employment consists in managing the pecuniary 
 matters of naval office I s. men, in all that 
 
 concerns pay. prize-m ly, &C. All su 
 
 must be sanctioned by the government, and must 
 conduct their operations according to certain pre- 
 scribed rules. The Navy List for 1888 contained 
 the names of 17 navy ami m for officers 
 
 of the royal navy, resident in London ; 1 agent for 
 otlicers of the Koyal Marines ; and Id li 
 Navy Agents ie'i' p whom 
 
 four hail tie ii' offices in London, an. I the rest 
 at Ports. a. . Chatham, Plymouth, and 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 AGES, a term employed to designate tie .
 
 AGESILAUS— AiiN \TR. 
 
 of civilisation in the history of t !».- human race. The 
 
 old poets and philosophers Hesonbed these in har- 
 
 with what they conceived to have been the 
 
 and political condition of thi ii anc 
 
 The idea of n '•> ^- presented itself at a 
 
 very early period to the Greek mind. The life of the 
 
 was like 1 to that of the individual hence 
 
 i , . ' inner n 
 i ii.it of the latter, the mo 
 
 and Berei E all. Eeaiod mentions Eve A. the 
 
 Bimple and patriarchal ; the silver, voluptu- 
 ous and god brazen, warlike, wild, and 
 violent ; the heroic, an aspiration towards the better; 
 the iron, in which justice, piety, and taithfulne 
 vanished from the earth, the time in which n 
 
 l that he himself lived. Ovid closely imitates 
 
 he omits the 
 This idea, at first perhaps a mere poi tic 
 comparison, gradually worked its way into prose, 
 and finally became a portion of scientific philosophy, 
 the divisions of the 
 great world-year, which would be completed when 
 the stars and planets had performed a revolution 
 round the heavens, after winch di m>> would repeat 
 
 Thus mythology 
 
 was In-ought into CMiin. ■■■ti..n with astronomy. The 
 
 golden 1 '" be governed by Saturn ; the 
 
 by Jupiter : the brazen, by Neptune ; and the 
 
 bj Pluto. Many curious calculations were 
 
 entered into by ancient writers to ascertain the 
 
 i of the heavenly year, and its various dw 
 The great si discrepancy prevailed, as might natur- 
 ally i„ ag that it-was 3000, 
 and others, as many at 18,000 olar years. The 
 Sibylline books compared it to the seasons of the 
 solar year, calling the golden age the spring, &c. ; 
 and on tine . ,,ini.l. fcion oi the cycle, tie- old order 
 was renewed The idea of a succession of A. is 
 po natural, that it has inwrought itself into the n li- 
 convictions of almost all nations. It is sanc- 
 i by Scripture, for it is symbolically adop 
 
 the Apocalypse to a certain extent; it al anifesta 
 
 itself m the sacred books of the I tfod rn 
 
 philosophy, at least in Germany and France, has 
 
 ttempted to divide human history into definite 
 
 A. or periods. Fichte numbers five, of which he 
 
 ives that we arc in the third; Hegel and 
 
 ■ ite Comte reckon three, placing us in the last 
 Fortunately, the course of history is not arrested 
 bj such speculations, but proceeds hi quiet indiffer- 
 ence to all metaphysical di > 
 
 AGESILA'US, king of Sparta [399 360 B.C.), was 
 d to the throne chiefly by the exertions of 
 I., inder. Being called upon by the lonians to 
 assist them against Artaxerxes, he commenced a 
 splendid campaign in Asia; but was compelled by 
 the I orinthian war, in which several of the Gl 
 states were allied against Sparta, to leave his con- 
 
 ■ over the Persians incomplete, and return to 
 Greece. At I Ihceronea (394 B.O.), he gained a victory 
 over the allied forces, ami in 378 the war was 
 concluded by a treaty of peace in favour ol - 
 
 I wards, 'in the Thckan war. though hard pressed 
 by l'.lopidas and Epaminondas, he bravely and ably 
 defended his country, lb di 1 in his 84th \ i 
 , described s of "small stature but commanding 
 et, blameless in his private character, and. in 
 public life, just, as far as his partiality for b 
 country allowed. His biographers are Xenophon, 
 Plutarch, and i rornelius Nepos. 
 
 A CIXOOURT. See AziNvc.rr.T. 
 
 A'GIO, an Italian word, signifying 'accommoda- 
 tion,' was first used in Italy to denote the premium 
 taken by money changers in giving gold for silver, 
 on account of the greater convenience of gold for 
 
 ime woid is now UBt d to d 
 the rfi •■•cell the r al and the nominal 
 
 mi y ; also t ! . fixed pars 
 
 I iily to 
 
 'premium.' 
 A SIS, the name of several kings of Sputa. Men- 
 tion is made of a king A. as early as about 1000 yean 
 i:,c, who subdued the old inhabitants oi Sparta, 
 and made the Helots vassals or slaves. (it the 
 others, \. I. i ! ing thi gl iter part oi the 
 
 Peloponnesian war, from 4-_'(i to 397 B.a A. II. 
 
 aso ndi •! the thr in '■■'■'•* b.c. Hi hi I of the 
 
 Macedonian supremacy led him to form alliances 
 with s '• tan satraps again I Uexanderthe 
 
 \ . aft r extending Ins conquests to 
 o Pi toponni us, fell in battle 330 B.O. \. 
 1 1 1. came to the throne in 'JU B.C., when thi 
 
 la had fallen into a ruinous condition through 
 ontinui d war. Though only twenty years old 
 when hi bi gan to ri ii. he D 
 
 institution ' 3parta ; 
 
 but intrigues and self-interest in thi higher classes 
 frustrated his d. -ens. The rich, s of the state were 
 now in of a few persons, while o 
 
 majority of the people were in extreme indigence. 
 
 A., therefore, in accordance with the old laws 
 
 state, proposed a redistribution of landed estates by 
 lottery. The new ephorns, AgpffilauB, who wa i i 
 m landed property, but burdened with man-, 
 astutely proposed that first all debts should be can- 
 celle L and next the lands should be divide, 1. Tie- 
 
 first part of tics plan was BOOH efifect d ; but great 
 
 hindrani opposed to the carrying out oi the 
 
 remainder. Meanwhile, the disappointed people 
 
 ■ led that A. had end, avoured to 
 introduce measures inimical to the welfare oi the 
 state. Pursued by his fled for i 
 
 to a temple, but v. d by false friends into 
 
 the hands of the magistrates." who immediately 
 
 h b put to death by strangulation 
 
 (240 B.O.). His mother ami Imother, who 
 
 had favoured his mes ares, were barbaroii 
 m the same manner. Allien, the Italian pa t. wrote 
 a powerful tragedy on the fate of A. III. 
 
 AGNA'NO, a small lake near Naples, is about 
 sixty feet m depth, and has no 
 
 in i, country is vi 
 
 ous. Formerly, the lake was named 
 
 from the number of snakes in thi 
 
 ici the right of Lake \. Ii i the Grotto ad Cane— so 
 
 from the stratum of carbonic acid gas, s e 
 
 18 inches deep, which always covers the floor, and 
 which i dog (cone) or other small 
 
 taken into it— and on the left are found the n 
 
 t baths of San C ed for the cure of 
 
 gout, rheumatism, Ac, but inferior in virtue to tic- 
 baths (>''»/ di Nerone) at Baue. The vol 
 surrounding the lake have been extinct since 
 1198 A.i>. Further on the left from A. lies the lake 
 of Astroni, which occupies the crater of an i 
 volcano, and is surrounded by beautiful woodlands. 
 
 A'GNATE ll.at. agnahu). Agnates, in the law 
 both of England and Scotland, are persons related 
 through the fath re pi rsons n 
 
 her. In the Roman law, both of 
 
 terms had a somewhat different signific 
 
 a, by that system, were persons i 
 
 i ; ii males only, whilst cognates were all those in 
 
 whose connection, though on the father's aid 
 
 or more female links interv ned Thus, a brother's 
 
 is his uncle's A., because the propinquitj 
 wholly by males; a sister's son was Ins , 
 because a female was interposed in that relationship. 
 
 With US the intervention of females is immaterial, 
 led the connection be on the male, or paternal,
 
 AGNESI AGBA. 
 
 side of the house. The cause of our having thus 
 changed the meaning of term tly borrowed 
 
 the Koman law, seems to be that in Borne 
 tli" distinction between agni 
 founded on an institution which baa not been 
 adopted in the Roman sense by any modern nation 
 — that, namely, of the patria potesUu (a. v.). Roman 
 defined by Qugo to be all I 
 
 were actually under the sum- pa 
 or would have been so had he been alive; and tlms 
 it was that, as no one could belong to two different 
 families at the same time, the agnation to the 
 
 d family was destroyed, and a new agnation 
 
 oundation of cognation, again, was a 
 marriage. All who c up tin ir ori 
 
 i 'it; and thus the term 
 
 comprehended atjnatus. 
 
 thus almost always a 
 
 - nly when liis 
 
 p by blood was traceable through males. 
 
 Justinian abolished entirely the distinction b 
 
 bee and cognates, and admitted, both to 
 
 4on and to the office of tutor of law, not only 
 
 i . the father, thou '•■ hail been 
 
 ■ >scd, lmt •-. uy the mother 
 118, c. -1. ')). As to the legal effects of thi 
 
 it in the modern sense, see 3 
 <;i AKWANSIIIP. 
 
 AGXESI, Matua O.ktana, a woman remarkable 
 for her varied attainments, was born at Milan, 
 171s. In hi r ninth year .she could c 
 Latin, ami gave a lecture in this language, in which 
 sin- argued that a knowledge of the ancient lan- 
 guages was a proper accomplishment in women. In 
 
 ■ leventh year she could also speak Greek 
 fluently, and subsequently acquired with great 
 
 i Mental Ian ud also 
 
 i, Spanish, and German. She was ji 
 
 i 'the walking polyglot,' This precocious 
 
 development of intellect was encouraged by her 
 
 father, who invited parties of learned nun to his 
 
 . with whom Maria disputed on philosophical 
 
 points. Of! s in these parties, her father 
 
 published some specimens, entitled Proposi 
 
 ■ (Milan, 1738). After her twentieth 
 
 year, sue devoti d her mind to the study of mathe- 
 
 , on C 
 
 .-■. ami published her ItutUuzioni Ana 
 
 ■■.. Milan, 174S). This work so extended her 
 
 •ion, that, when her father was disabled by 
 
 ■r of Matln- 
 ■ ■ University of Bologna, by the appoint- 
 of Pope Benedict XIV. Jt is said thai 
 her devotioi idy of mathematics, her i 
 
 fulness vanished, she avoided Bociety, and at last 
 le a nun, and gave the who] time to 
 
 attend 
 was a remarkab] 
 
 t and short life, as she lived to the 
 of 81. 
 
 \ i. NTS DEI (Lat'Lamh of G d'), on i of the 
 i the name given 
 to a certain prayer used in tin- Roman G 
 service of Mass. The litanies generally conclude 
 with the same prayer : ' 1 1 Lamb of I tod, that takest 
 away the sms of the world, have mercy upon us.'- — 
 The figure of a lamb hearing a cross, stamped 
 upon an oval of wax, silver, or gold, is also styled 
 an A. IK Such medals have been consecrated by 
 the pop.s since the Hth c, and are generally 
 distributed among the faithful on the tirst Sunday 
 after Easter. In the ancient church, Candida: 
 baptism received similar medals of wax. and wore 
 them as ainulets. See Amulet, la the I 
 
 Church, the cloth which covers the cup in tho 
 
 is Dei. 
 
 hears the image of a lamb, and 
 is styled the A. J). 
 AGOU'TI (Daxypzoct ' a smaU quadruped 
 
 allied to the < lavy or ' luini a-pig, very abund- 
 ant in some parts of the \V- I South 
 ten very injnrion 
 
 Agouti. 
 
 ane. It is gregarious. II enables 
 
 that of the hare or rabbit. Other species are found 
 in the same regions, and even in the colder parts of 
 South America. The Pampas Hare is Da*<ji>rocta 
 Patactt" 
 
 A'GRA, a British district in the lieutenant- 
 governorship of the North- west mProvino -.hounded 
 >,'. and ]'.. by the districts of Muttra. Mini 
 and Etawah. S. and \V. by the territories of Dhort- 
 r,andBhnrtpore. Its area is 1860 square 
 nidcs. The surface of the country is for the most 
 part very level, the principal elevation of tie- l'utteli- 
 s.kri lulls, a sandstone range on the west 
 frontier, being about Tim f t. The principal 
 rivers are the Jumna — flowing along the north-east 
 frontier, and its tributary the Chumbu] 
 southern boundary), both of which are 
 the channel to be of much avail for irrigation, 
 district generally is, in com ient in 
 
 water ; and the failure of tl 
 
 1837, I s -* hi - I- ■ a follow,,! by 
 famine. The temperature has a wide range, : 
 during the hot winds of April, May, and Jui 
 high that the city of A. is scarcely habitable by 
 Europeans, while m January, severe frosts occur at 
 night, though the thermometer at mid-day is 
 important commercial product is ■ 
 which generally occupies about a tenth of (he arable- 
 land. There are two 1 1 
 consisting of varii 
 
 plants. Sax, tobacco, Ac, the autumnal 
 crop of maize, mung, nu-'li. melons, Ac. The cultiva- 
 tion of rue is very limited, owing to the want of 
 water. The population in 1848 
 86,557 were Mohammedans, Europeans, Ac., tl 
 Hindus. Of the Hindu population, aliout two-
 
 A.GRA \<:i:\i:i \\ LAW. 
 
 thirds are agricultural; of the al one-fourth, 
 
 — The 'division' of A. which constitutes one of the 
 six North-western Provinces, embraces the districts 
 oi \.. Muttra, Furruckabad, Minpooree, and Etawah, 
 and coi o iboul 9000 Bquare 
 
 with a population in 1849 of 3,600,000. In 1833 il 
 was resolved (3 and 4 Will. IV. cap. 85) to divide the 
 Bengal Presidency into two, one oi which was to !»■ 
 called the A. Presidency. This act was never carried 
 into effect, and a mo ded its 
 
 operation, substituting the present arrax 
 NORTE-WBBTSBK PROVINCES. Tile seat I 
 lieutenant-governor is i om which oircum- 
 
 t hat functionary is sometimes called the 
 lieutenant-governor of A. 
 
 AGRA, the capital of the B 
 Provinces in India I in tin' district of the 
 
 sum' name on the right bank of the Jumn 
 
 S.E. from Delhi, and 7N.'! NAY. from Cal- 
 cutta. The ancient walls of the city embrs 
 area of about 11 Bquare miles, ol whi h about one- 
 halfis at present occupied. The houses are for the 
 most part built of the red sandstone of the i 
 bouring hills. The principal street, running north- 
 we t from the fort, is verj Bpacious, but the real are 
 generally narrow and irregular, though clean. Some 
 of the public buildings, monuments of the house of 
 Timonr, are on a scale of striking magnifii 
 Anion- the fortress built by Akbar, within 
 
 the walls of which are the palaoe and audience-hall 
 of Shah Jehan, and the Mod Masjid or Pearl 
 Mosque, bo called for its surpassing architectural 
 beauty. Still more celebrated is tin- Taj Mahal, 
 situated without the eity, about a mile to the 
 the fort This extraordinary and beautiful i 
 Ii him was built by the Emperor shah Jehan for 
 himself and his favourite wife, Arjimand Banoo 
 (surnamed Mumtaz Mahal). 20,000 men, says 
 Tavernier, who saw the work in progress, were 
 employed incessantly on it for twenty-two 
 Tin' principal parts of the building are constructed 
 or overlaid outside and in with white marble; 
 and the mosaic work of the Bepulchral apartment 
 and dome is described hy various travellers in 
 terms of glowing admiration. It is composed of 
 twelve kinds of stones, of which lapis-lazuli is the 
 most frequent, as well as the most valuable. Of 
 British edifices in and near the eity, the principal 
 are the Government House, the College (for the 
 i in ition of natives), the Metcalfe Testimonial, the 
 h Church, and the barracks. The climate at 
 A., during the hot and rainy seasons (April to Sep- 
 tember), is very injurious to Europeans ; but on the 
 whole, the average health of the city is equal to that 
 of any other station in the North-western Pro\ 
 As the seat of the lieutenant-governor of these 
 provinces and of the administrative, judicial, and 
 military establishments, A. is a place of considerable 
 importance, independently of its past history. The 
 population, before the late revolt, was estimated 
 at 70,000. The principal articles of trade are cotton 
 and salt, which arc conveyed in large quantities 
 down the Jumna to the lower provinces. This city 
 is held in great veneration by the Hindus, as 
 the scene of the incarnation of Vishnu under the 
 name of Farasu llama. It first rose to import- 
 ance in the beginning of the loth c, and from 
 loiO to 1658, it was the capital of the Mogul 
 sovereigns. In that year, Aurungzebo removed 
 to Delhi; henceforth, A. declined. It was taken 
 in 17S4 by Scindia. and surrendered in ISO.'! to 
 Lord Lake, after a bombardment of a few hours. 
 Among the spoils on that occasion was a cannon of 
 23 inches calibre, 11'. inches metal at the muzzle; 
 hngth, 14 feet 2 inches; weight, 96,000 pounds. 
 The balls, of cast iron, weighed 1500 pounds. 
 78 
 
 I !. of ordnance is said to bai i 
 
 been wantonly reduced to Eragmi nt . by blast 
 
 ; i tdUery-afficere in is.';;;. (Tho 
 of India.) During the late mutiny, A. was oi 
 the places in which the Europeans were shut up. 
 At the outbi •'•■.. the gan coi 
 •iith and 07th regiments of B. N. [nfantry, the 
 3d European Fusiliers, and a few artillery. The 
 native i were disarmed in .Inne 1N,">7; 
 
 and the defence of this important city devolved 
 
 upon the Europeans. The ladies resorted at night 
 to places of refuge appointed by th< 
 while the gentlemen patrolled the streets; but 
 matters growing worse both in the eity and count i v. 
 it was resolved, after a battle with the mutinei 
 
 abandon the city and retire to the Fort or Residency. 
 It was time ; for some thousands of prisoners gi 
 loose, began to fire all the European buildings in the 
 city. Hardly a house escaped destruction ; num- 
 bers of traders were ruined, and had to endure the 
 
 of beholding their ruin from the Fort. 
 
 the Fort was bol and strongly defended, 
 
 . a Docked in from all parts of the country, 
 
 and the numbers soon swelled to 6846. Heroic 
 
 sullies were occasionally made. Major Montgomery's 
 
 march to Allygiirh, and his defeat of the rebels. 
 though twenty t imes as numerous, was a feat worthy 
 of llaveloek. When Delhi fell, its rabble of 
 ders hurried off in the direction of A., which 
 place was seriously threatened by them, bul 
 nlieved by the rapid and brilliant march of Colonel 
 Greathed, who discomfited the enemy, and despoiled 
 them of nearly all their baggag 
 
 AGRAM, the capital of Croatia, finely situated a| 
 the foot of a richly wooded range of mountain 
 about two miles from the Save, in lat. 45" -ID' .Y, 
 
 long. 16° 4' E. King Bela rV. raised it in 1266 to 
 
 the dignity of the royal town, in sequence 
 
 having assi dust the Tatars. The town 
 
 ded by a small stream into I . each 
 
 of which is under a separate jurisdiction. The e at 
 — the royal town proper, or upper town, built upon 
 two eminences; the capital, or lower town ; and the 
 
 epil pal town, under the jurisdiction of the bishop. 
 
 The inhabitants are principally Croats, who carry 
 on an insignificant trade in wood, corn, ami tobacco. 
 The lower town is the newest and finest in appear- 
 ance, many of the houses having Italian roofs. 
 A. is the residence of the governor of Croatia, 
 of the military commander-in-chief of the ( v 
 and of a Catholic bishop. It also possesses a 
 academy, with a public library, and various other 
 educational institutions. Pop. 11,800. 
 
 AGRARIAN DAW. With the name of A. I., 
 used to be associated the idea of the abolition of 
 property in land, or at least of a new distribution of 
 it. This notion of the A. laws of the Romans was 
 not only the popular one, but was also received by 
 most scholars. The French Convention, in 1793, 
 passed a law punishing with death any one who 
 should propose an A. L., understanding by the term 
 an equal division of the soil among all citizens. Now, 
 it would have been strange if the Romans, with 
 whom private property was so sacred, could ever 
 have been brought to sanction any measure of the 
 kind. It was the German scholars, Heyne. Ss I 
 and especially Nicbuhr, who first explained the true 
 nature and character of the Roman A. laws, lie re 
 are still some disputed points on this matter, but 
 one thing seems made out — that those lawB had no 
 reference to private lands held in absolute property, 
 but to public or state land . 
 
 As the dominion of Rome extended, a portion 
 more or less of each conquered territory was confis- 
 cated to the state, and became public domain. All
 
 AGRARIAN LAW. 
 
 laws respecting th lands were . 
 
 \. laws ; which are therefore of various kinds. 
 What modi these laws be so long mistaken for an ' 
 interference with private rights, and excited such 
 opposition to them at the tone, was the use which 
 was made of the public domains while unappro- 
 priated. 'It was the practice at lys Dr 
 I, 'and doubtless in other states of Italy, to 
 allow individuals to occupy such lands, and to enjoy 
 all the benefits of them, on condition of paying to 
 
 he of the produce; as an ai I 
 ledgment that the state was the proprietor ofthe 
 land, and the individual merely the occupier. Now, 
 although the land was undoubtedly the prop 
 :, the occupiers of it w 
 on to the sta : iints-at-will, yut it is in 
 
 human nature that a long undisturb & possession 
 
 hould give a feeling of ownership; the more so as, 
 
 while the state's claim lay dorms i or 
 
 was, in fact, proprietor, and the land would tin b i 
 
 g by regular sale from one oo 
 
 ! 1'T.' 
 
 state, however, was often obliged to interfere 
 
 with these spiers of the public lauds, and i 
 
 very idea of a citizen, in ancient 
 
 involved that of a landholder, and when new 
 
 us were to be admitted, they had each to 
 
 then: portion out of the unallotted public 
 
 domain; which was attended, of course, with the 
 
 ion of the tenants-at-will. It appears, also, 
 
 that the right to enjoy the public lands in this 
 
 temporary way was confined to the old burghers 
 
 or patricians. This, taken in conjunction with the 
 
 tendency, strong at all times, of larger possessions to 
 
 ow up smaller, kept up an ever-incn 
 number of landless commons, whose destitution and 
 iition came from time to time to such a pitch, 
 that alleviation was necessary, to prevent the very 
 dissolution of the state. It is easy, however, I 
 what motive the patricians, as a body, had to oppose 
 all such measures, since it was their interest, though 
 not their right, to keep the lands unallotted. 
 The enactment of A. laws occasioned some of the 
 itruggles in the internal history of 
 Roma Most of the lungs of Home are said to have 
 oai i ied an A. L., that is, to have divided a portion 
 of the public land among those whom they admitted 
 to the rights of citizenship. 'The good king,' 
 Serviui Tvillius, may be looked upon as the lirst 
 victim of the hostdity of the nobles to A. laws. 
 About twenty-four years after the expulsion of the 
 Tarquins, the distress of the commons called aloud 
 for remedy, and the consul, NpuriusCassius, proposed 
 an A. L. for a division of a certain proportion of the 
 public land, and for enforcing the regular payment 
 of the rout or tithe from the occupiers of the 
 remainder. The aristocracy, however, contrived to 
 I the proposal, and wdien the year of his 
 consulship was out, (.'assies was accused of trying to 
 make himself king, was condemned, scourged, and 
 beheaded, and his house razed to the ground. 
 
 The lirst important A. L. of a permanent nature, 
 actually passed, was that proposed by the tribune, 
 Licinius Stolo, and carried, after a struggle of live 
 years, in the year of Home .'1S.J. The provisions of 
 I jeniius's bill, or rogation, were as follows: * Every 
 
 Roman citizen shall be entitled to occupy any portion 
 
 of the unallotted state land not exceeding bwjugi ra 
 (see Aihk), and to feed on the public pasture-land 
 any number of cattle not exceeding liM) head of 
 large, or BOO head of small, paying in both cases 
 the usual rates to the public treasury. Whatever 
 portions of the public land beyond 5IMI jugera are at 
 ,i occupied by individuals, shall be taken from 
 them, and distributed among the poorer citizens as 
 absolute property, at the rate of seven jugera apiece. 
 
 public land shall also be bound to 
 
 ly a certain number of freemen as laboui i 
 This law produced for a time very saint I . 
 But before the year 621, when Tiberius Gracchus 
 was elected tribune, the Lieinian law hail 
 
 1 to fall into abeyance; and although 
 tracts had been acquired by the Italian, the Punic, 
 and the Greek wars, no regular distribution of land 
 among the destitute citizens had taken place for 
 upwards of a century. Numerous mditary coli 
 had indeed been founded in the conquered districts, 
 and in this way many of the poor r Romans or their 
 allies had been provided for ; but stdl there remained 
 territories, the property of the state, which, 
 instead of being divided among the poorer members 
 of the state, were entered upon, and brought into 
 cultivation, by the rich capitalists, many of whom 
 
 ime to hold thousands of jugera, instead of 
 the live hundred allowed by the Tamilian law. To a 
 Roman statesman, therefore, looking on the one 
 hand to the wretched pauper population of tiie 
 meaner streets of Rome, and on the other, to the 
 enormous tracts of the public land throughout Italy 
 which the wealthy citizens held in addition to their 
 own private property, the question which would 
 naturally present itself was — Why should not the 
 state, as landlord, resume from these wealthy 
 capitalists, who are her tenants, as much of the 
 public land as m sary to provide little 
 
 farms for these pauper citizens, and so convert them 
 into respectable and independent airriculturists ? 
 This question must have presented itself to many ; 
 but there were immense difficulties in the way. Nol 
 only had long possession of the state lands, an 
 expenditure of large sums in bringing them into 
 cultivation, given the wealthy tenants a sort of 
 proprietary claim upon them, but in the course of 
 generations, during which estates had been bought, 
 sold, and inherited, the state lands had become so 
 confused with private property, that in many cases 
 it was impossible to distinguish between the two. 
 Notwithstanding these difficulties, Tiberius Gracchus 
 had the boldness to propose an A. L., to the effect, 
 that every father of a family might occupy GOO 
 
 of the state land for himself, and 250 jugera 
 additional for each of his sons; but that, in every 
 case where this amount was exceeded, the state 
 shoidd resiune the surplus, paying the tenant a price 
 for the buildings, eve, which he had been at the 
 expense of erecting on the lands thus lost to him. 
 The recovered land3 were then to be distributed 
 among the poor citizens; a clause being inserted in 
 the bill to prevent these citizens from selling the 
 lands thus allotted to them, as many of them would 
 have been apt to do. 
 
 According to the laws and constitution of Rome, 
 there was nothing essentially unjust in this proposal, 
 which was, iu private, at least, approved of bj 
 of the most distinguished men of the time. The 
 energy of Gracchus carried the measure, iu spite of 
 the opposition of the aristocratic party, v. 
 
 uce, however, could only be satisfied wit! 
 assassination of Gracchus and his brother, 
 Gracchus, The attempts to carry' out the ' 
 proaian law,' as it was called, were at t end e d with 
 great difficulties, and although not formally repealed, 
 
 it continued to be evaded and r. inbred inoperative. 
 Various A. laws were subsequently passed, some by 
 the victorious aristocratic party, in a spirit directly 
 opposed to the Licinian and Sempronian laws. 
 
 dea A. laws having for then: object the division 
 among the commons of public lands usurped by the 
 nobles, there were others of a more partial and local 
 nature, for the establishment of colonies in particular 
 conquered districts; theso naturally met wit' 
 opposition. Still more different were those violent
 
 Af;i;n m,.\ a«;i:h i " i/ji' i; k. 
 
 by tin- victorious 
 military leaders in the latter 
 
 i.. reward their soldiers, and establish exclu- 
 sive]} i colonies, [n these the private rights 
 occupants v.' led. 
 
 ACUICOLA, (is \i:i sm-l i i 
 of the imperial times, distinguished not less by bis 
 great ah uq and a Boldii r t 1 
 
 the beauty of his private character, was born a1 Forum 
 Julii (now Frejus in Pi n < no 1, 37 u o. 1 1 
 with distinction in Bril '"1 Aquitania, ami 
 
 through the round of civil offices, he was, in 
 
 77 a.i>., elected i auL and in the following year 
 
 1 1 rnor, to Britain the Bcene oi bi 
 military and civil administration durin 
 seven II i' was tliriir-t Human general who 
 
 effectually subdued the island, ami the only one 
 
 v. ho displayed as much "cuius ami success in training 
 
 the inhabitants t" tic amenities of civilisation as in 
 breaking their rude force in war. In his seventh 
 and last campaign (84 A.D.), his decisive victory 
 over the Caledonians under Galgacus, at tin- foot of 
 the Grampians, established the Roman dominion 
 
 in Britain to that ext'-nt northward. At tie- close 
 
 of this campaign, his fleet circumnavigated the 
 coast, for tie- first time, discovering Britain to he 
 an island. Among the works executed by A. 
 during his administration, were a chain efforts 
 between the Solway and the Tyne, and another 
 between the I lyde and Forth, Numerous traces 
 of his operations are still to be found in Anglesey 
 ami North Wales, and in Galloway, Fife, Perth- 
 shire, and Angus. The new. of A.'s successes 
 inflamed the jealousy of Domitian, and he was 
 speedily recalled. Thenceforth he lived in i 
 
 ineiit ; ami when the vacant pr iBulships of 
 
 and Africa lay within his choice, he prudently 
 declined promotion. The jealousy of the emperor, 
 
 however, is supposed to have hastened his death, 
 
 which took place at the early age of 55. His life. 
 
 by bis son-in-law Tacitus, has always been regarded 
 as one of the choicest specimens of biography in 
 
 literature. 
 
 ACRICOLA, John |«1 true name was 
 
 Schnitter or Schneider, hut who was also called 
 
 Magister [slebius and John EUsleben, after tin' name 
 of his native town), born 1492, was one of the 
 . ealous founders of Protestantism. Having studied 
 at Wii id Lcipsic, he was sent (1525) by 
 
 Luther, who highly appreciated his talents and 
 learning, to EYankfort-on-the-Main, to institute 
 there, at the desire of the magistrates, the Protestant 
 np. On his return, he resided as a teacher and 
 preacher in his native town of Eiajeben, till 1536. 
 in 1537, Ic became a professor at Wittenberg, 
 where the Antinomian controversy, already begun 
 between him and Luther and Melanethon, broke 
 out openly. See Antino.miam.sm. The trouble.: 
 in which he was thus involved obliged him to 
 withdraw (1538) to Berlin, where he was reduced 
 to extreme want, and was thus induced to make a 
 recantation, never altogether sincere. Hethi a found 
 a protector in tic Elector John of Brandi a 
 who appointed him preacher to the court ami 
 
 general superintendent. He made great exertions 
 for the spread of the Protestant doctrine in the 
 Brandenburg states; but ere his death, which took 
 place at Berlin. °.'2d September 1566, he had become 
 as much hated for his share in the drawing up of 
 the Augsburg /iii< rim (q. v.), as he had formerly 
 been for his Antinomian opinions. Besides his 
 numerous theological writings, his country pos 
 a truly national work of his, entitled Die Gemanen 
 '< ii SprUchw&rU r mit ihnr auAegwig [i 'onunon 
 German Proverbs, with their Explanation ; Hagcnau, 
 
 1592; and a very complete but somewhat altered 
 edition at Wittenberg, 1592). 'Ike patriotic Eei 
 
 pure morals, ami pithy language of this book, have 
 
 procured for it one ,,i" the first places among the 
 
 1 ' orks of thai 
 
 AC Kll 'OLA, Ki iioi.riti s. one of the mo t 
 
 i of the 15th c, and a 
 
 chief instrument in transplanting tic taste for lit i i. 
 
 M i rived ill Italy, into his native country of 
 
 Germany, was born, 1443, in tb 3o, near 
 
 B was properly Rolef Huys- 
 
 mann (Le., houseman or husbands |, which 
 
 Latinised by him into A., after the usage of the time. 
 He was also called I'risius, and Rudol G aingen, 
 from his native place; and sometimes Rudolf of 
 Ziloha, from the monastery of Silo, where In 
 
 some tune, ibn me bei " tn -t a disciple of 'I'll a .i 
 
 K em] lis at Zwolle, he weni to Louvain, then to Paris, 
 and thence to Italy, where, during the years L476 
 and 1477. he attended the lectures of the mo i i l. 
 brated men of his age. Sere he entered into 
 friendship with Dalberg, who afterwards became 
 Bishop oi Worms. Me was the first German who 
 distinguished himself in Italy in public s|ie;ikin and 
 lecturing, and this he did not only by his erudition, 
 but by the elegance of his language ami the correct- 
 ness of his pronunciation. Jle likewise acquired 
 reputation as an accompli bed mil aciar ; and hi 
 were popular throughout Italy. On his return 
 to Germany, he endeavoured, in connection with 
 several of his former co-disciples ami friends, among 
 whom were Alexander Hegius and Rudolpbus I. 
 to promote a taste for literature and eloquence in 
 .. Several cities of Holland vainly strove 
 
 with each other to obtain his presence, by offering 
 him public functions; but not even the brilliant 
 overtures made to him by the court of the emperor 
 Maximilian L, to which he had repaired in connec- 
 tion with atl'airs of Hie town of GrBningen, could 
 
 induce him to re tnce his independence. At 
 
 length yielding (1483) to the solicitations of Dalber , 
 who was now chancellor to the Elector Pal 
 ami Bishop of Worms, he established him i i 
 Palatinate, where he sojourned altornatelyat Heidel- 
 berg and Worms, dividing his time between private 
 studies and public lectures, ami . njoj ing high popu- 
 larity. He distinguished himself a] os s painter; 
 and at the age of -III set with ardour to learn 
 Hebrew, in order to study theology, lie went, a air 
 (14(34) with Dalberg into Italy, ami died shortly 
 after his return to Germany (on the '_'Mh October 
 1485). Hi- i ■ oi il\ on the personal influ- 
 ence he exerted. His compositions, which are 
 written in Latin, are neither BO numerous nor so 
 important as those of many of his learned contem- 
 poraries. The first nearlj complete edition of them 
 was that published by Alard (2 vols., ( lologne, 1539). 
 < '< insult Tresling, Vita •■ Merita /.'..I. (GAningen, 
 L830). 
 
 AGRICULTURE (Lat ager, a field, and colo, I 
 till) is the art of rearing those plants and animals 
 that are best suited to supply the wants of man. 
 Man has found the earth, in almost every clinic, 
 I with vegetation, yet this often yields little 
 that he can use. The spontaneous growth of nature 
 affording but a limited quantify oi food, he at lot 
 attempts to supply tin' deficiency by capturing the 
 wild animals, which often feed upon what is unsuiti d 
 for his sustenance. Sometime., however, the most 
 fertile lands under luxuriant forests, or other natural 
 vegetation, only support a small number of animals. 
 In the most favourable circumstances, a given ana 
 of territory cannot maintain many of the human 
 family, so long as they depend upon the natural 
 vegetation or on the chase. It is only after those
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 plants which yield man an abundant Supply of food 
 are selected and made the objed oi etui 
 ili.it population auj Bents, and civilisation takes its 
 rise. 
 
 Man has selected a great variety of plants for 
 cultivation to afford him food and clothing. 1" 
 northern latitudes, wheat, barl rye, and the 
 
 potato form the chief plant ■ del 
 
 subsistence. Thcso crop an most productive when 
 i ow ii in Bummer in the tempi rate elima 
 , iiili. being fced to the heats of the torrid 
 
 zone. 'I In ii ■■ ■"■■ra pi ileal In nil i, 1 j • ■ %v • - vi r, ar.- •_'!'' ally 
 
 i .1. mil il bj growing them as winter crops on the 
 In. rilers of, and even within, the tropics. In these 
 i on hoi i maize, millet, and other grain ■ 
 
 [armorer of food than the already 
 
 mentioned < reals are in high latitudes, as they 
 flourish during the heats of summer. Where heat 
 
 and Hi" tin' i 
 
 banana, thi tree, and other herb 
 plants and trees, are most prod human 
 
 tood. — A short historical nntlii E the A. of different 
 
 parts of th 
 
 nlate the pi iiuan. 
 
 The . ins for it tie 
 
 mil line '" the chi I ry items of A. 
 The teeming popul itdontl i in ancient 
 
 in the narrow valley of the Nile, th riding 
 
 army which was maintained, thi rs i unary 
 
 works of engineering and architecture still visible 
 
 Modem Shadoof. 
 
 in our day, and the exportation of corn to other 
 nations, indicate an advanced state of the art of 
 A. Rain is a ram phenomenon in Upper Egypt, 
 
 and fertility is only maintained by the waters 
 
 of the Nile, winch are subject to annual floods. 
 The risings and ebbinga are as regular new as 
 
 they were iii (he ilays of HeiodotUSJ and the 
 
 agricultural systems are also in a -real measure 
 the Bame. The iimitdatinii which, unless prevented 
 by embankments, covers the whole land, occurs at 
 
 tile hottest season. As the waters retire m I I. . ,1 >. r. 
 
 the land is sown with what are there styled winter 
 ctops, consisting of wheat, barley, Lentils, 
 
 tlax, lupines, eluek-pease. \c. All tl ceouire 
 
 uo further watering, as the moisture which the sod 
 9 
 
 ui.ilied during the inundation is sufficient to 
 bring them to maturity about the end of Apia], or 
 
 \ n a month a ler in I pper Egypt Only one 
 
 crop in the year is grown upon most of the inun- 
 d ii >1 lands. Buton those lands which are pro! 
 from the inundati crops a year may bo 
 
 raised by means of artificial watering. Few of the 
 plants used as winter crop i • b grown in summer 
 
 1 mts adapted for summer OOn 
 
 rice ii I d in the Delta), durra, millet, maize, 
 
 sesame, m I a is, I D 01 thej are sown from A].ril 
 
 to August, and of several of them two crops in the 
 
 ripen under the cloudless sky of Egypt. A 
 
 miial labour and animal power is 
 
 I -p ml. din watering the ground for thesummcr
 
 AGRTcn/rrnr:. 
 
 The peasants use the tliarfnqf for the purpose, which is 
 .1 simple oontxiranosj used in drawing water, over a 
 large portion of the Last. 1 ' i wheel, driven 
 
 n, is hugely employed ; so much BO, that about 
 a arc at pr in the 
 
 valley of the Nile, ■ rope, cotton, ii 
 
 and sugar-cane are now cultivated to a : r ill i 
 Winn the waters rest long on the land, it answers all 
 the ends of a fallow, by extirpating the land-weeds 
 and disintegrating the soil. The ground, in such 
 cases, requires iii) further ou i treading in 
 
 the seed by anim 
 
 face with bushes. On the other hand, the summer 
 orops require a great deal of tending, both in 
 cultivating and watering the soiL The diminution 
 of the population in Egypt lias in some measure 
 deprived tho country o the m ans of its former 
 advanced state of A.; nor is its present poUtical 
 condition at all likely to lead to much improvement. 
 
 Few historical records of the state of 23 
 A. have come down to us. We can only judge of its 
 
 productiveness by the i pula i that was 
 
 Supported in the plains liordoring the Kuphrat. s, 
 where the summer climate is almost as arid as that of 
 Egypt. That river also was subject to overflow, 
 when the snows melted on the- mountains of Armenia 
 in summer. Further than this, however, we have 
 no knowledge of the syeti led or crops 
 
 cultivated) 
 
 The Scriptures arc full of allusions to the opera- 
 tions of the husbandman in Palestine as well as in 
 Egypt, The operations in the two countri l 
 sarily formed striking contrast the crops in the 
 former being chiefly dependent on the rains tor 
 growth; in the latter, on the inundations of the Kile, 
 In the Holy Land, tier are extensive plains of 
 fertile sod which yielded the finest Wheat, The 
 hillsides were covered with vines and olives, often 
 planted on terraces formed with much labour, to 
 el lad mass of soil, in which the plants 
 
 might flourish in the almost rainless Bummers. The 
 valleys were well watered, and afforded pasture 
 for numerous flocks. Of the smaller cultivated 
 plants, millet was the chief summer crop, but it 
 was only cultivated to a limited extent, being confined 
 to those spots that could be artificially watered. 
 Wheat and barley were thechi as the winter 
 
 rains were sufficient to bring them to maturity. The 
 large number of inhabitants that Palestine supported 
 under the Jews is the wonder of all modern travel- 
 lers, wdio are struck with the ruins of ancient cities 
 and the desolation of the country. The means of 
 cultivation, however, disappeared with the inhabit- 
 and the destruction of the wood has added to 
 the aridity of the climate. Concurring testimony 
 indicates that the systems of cidtivation v, ere 
 what similar in all the countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean, which arc characterised by arid 
 summers, and autumn and winter rains. Irrigation, 
 therefore, was bad recourse to wherever it was 
 practicable. 
 
 The A. of Italy in the present day exhibit 
 contrasts in its condition ; for while a garden-like 
 cidtivation is seen in Lombardy, the utmost rude- 
 ness and backwardness prevail in the southern parts 
 of the peninsula. Into the social causes that have 
 led to these results our limits forbid us to enter. The. 
 literature of the A. of the ancient Romans, throws 
 much light on tho systems that then existed in the 
 countries bordering on the Mediterranean. As is 
 well known, the wide-spread dominion of Home 
 rose out of a diminutive colony planted on the banks 
 of the Tiber. In the time of the early kings, its 
 original territory did not extend above five miles 
 towards the Alban Hills, and still less in other direc- 
 tions. Romulus is said to have divided a portion of 
 
 his small territory amos the rate of 
 
 little more than an acr I mint. 
 
 'i in perpetuitj . wa i not liable to be I 
 and could 1"- Bold I hole ten 
 
 was in' . to the citizen 1, but the larger part 
 
 ' ■. which yielded a revenue 
 let to the wealthy cl 
 ... lands were i i i.liivate.l or 
 
 allowed to remain i 
 
 i upants of the corn-land paid one- 
 ol the produce as rent ; of vines and fruit 
 one-fifth ; and a n for sleep or 
 
 cattle i : he occupant 
 
 andthi Id resum 
 
 at anytime. A similar policy seems to have been 
 pursued by the nu a\ Italy. As 
 
 ',. were all conquered in succession by the 
 Romans, their lands became the property of the 
 Roman state Sometimes the inhabitant i 
 wholly extirpated, or Bold into slavery, and their 
 partly assigned tn tic poorer c I 
 d in the war ; the r mainder, ■:, hii ' 
 ; the much larger part, I d 'main lands. 
 
 In other instances, only a portion of the land 
 tab i from the conquered nations; the former 
 
 owners were allowed to retain them as tenants, paj 
 ing the ordinary rent. Thus, from the earliest times, 
 two classes of Cultivators were in existence tie- 
 small proprietors, and hi ■' \a tenants, hoi 
 the lauds of the state. Betwixt the two, thi i 
 almost a perpetual strife— Hie one demanded the 
 distribution of the state domains, while the ot 
 constantly resisted it. Even after the Ro 
 
 e masters of the whole of Italy, the citizens 
 had little more than four acres of land assigned to 
 
 > ■! i : an.l Hi ■ domain lands Increased enonn 
 Attempts were constantly made to restrict the 
 extent of domain held by the patricians, but ■ 
 
 ally Without i lee Ai:i:ai:ian Laws. The 
 
 extent of domain lands gave rise to the 
 
 employment of slave labour in their cultivation 
 
 Wealthy citizens. This led to the dlscoun 
 jeeni of i mall proprietors, bo that the free population 
 
 1 in A. diminished throughout Italy. I I 
 evil was furl her aggravated by the policy that 
 the (tomans pursued towards the inhabitant 
 the conquered provinces: there, none of the land 
 told, but it wa) solely vested in I he 
 
 Roman ] pie, being all Let out for the benefit i 
 
 elate. On the conquest of Sicily, the wet 
 Romans flocked over, and farmed the rents, as well 
 as cultivated tee lands by means of slave-labour. 
 Indeed, the chief supplies of grain sent to Lome from 
 Sicily, Sardinia, ami Cartilage, were raised by d 
 of slaves. A. was long the only source of wealth 
 open to the patricians ; and it was deemed the most 
 honourable of occupations. Its operations were 
 I'nrn directed by men of wealth and learning; and 
 I wonder that its literature was so copious, and 
 held in BO high estimation. Cato, the first and 
 most celebrated agricultural writer (who died aged 
 ,ss, 150 ».<:.), was in the middle period of life at tho 
 enil of the second Punic war. The large farming 
 system bad then been fully established ; and he gives 
 m. not only the mo-t minute particulars regarding 
 the management of the slaves on his Sabine farm, but 
 all the details of husbandry, from the ploughing of 
 the fallows to the reaping and threshing of the crop. 
 The chief gram ctdtivated by the Romans was 
 wheat, but barley was also cultivated to a consider- 
 able extent. Land devoted to grain was fallowed for 
 a whole year every alternate year ; in other words, 
 the rotation consisted of let, wheat, 2d, fallow. One- 
 third of the fallow was manured and sown with 
 some green crop as cattle-food. Fallow received from 
 four to five furrows before the wheat was sown in
 
 AGIilCULTURE. 
 
 autumn. The last ploughing left the land in narrow 
 ridges ; and u the seed was bowo broadcast, it come 
 ii)p in rows, which admitted of the crop being several 
 times hand-hoed, The craps of wheat ripened about 
 tin- middle of June, but the summers were too dry to 
 allow of millet and other summer crops being 
 with certainty. Kyi', hemp, Sax, beans, turnips, 
 lupines, vetches, and lucerne are also men 
 as occasionally cultivated. Meadows were highly 
 
 d, and irrigation to some extent adopted. 
 
 wire fed i" the plains in winter, and driven 
 towards the Apennines us the snows melted in Bpring, 
 and when the pastures below became parched by 
 the heat. Hie greater proportion of the surface of 
 Southern 1 tahy consists of thin calcareous soils, ill 
 adapted for the growth of grain or grass; and the 
 vine, the olive, and the mulberry become the chiel 
 
 objects of culture. The principal district i Effl 
 ing wheat are, in the neighbourhood of Naples, 
 and in the ancient Apulia, where Hannibal gener- 
 ally wintered when he overran Italy. Some of 
 the e rich plains are still held directly from the 
 government, and cultivation is of the rudest char- 
 acter. One-third of the land is in pasture 
 the other two-thirds in fallow and grain. Tliree 
 or four crops are taken in succession, and the soil 
 is I Inn allowed to recruit its exhausted strength by 
 remaining under pasture. 
 
 In the great plain of Northern Italy watered by 
 the I'o, agriculture is now in a very advanced con- 
 dition. A great part of it is of great natural fertility ; 
 it drew forth the praises of Polybius, who visited it 
 about fifty years after it came into the hands of the 
 Romans. The oak-groves which he found scattered 
 over the plain, fed the immense droves of swine 
 that were then raised in Italy. Now, however, 
 rich and poor soils arc subjected to the fertil- 
 ising influences of irrigation, and the region has 
 become the best cultivated in Europe. No less than 
 1,600,000 acres of land are under irrigation, and the 
 results are of the most striking character. The land 
 is forced to produce a constant succession of grass 
 and grain. The irrigated meadows, like the pastures 
 of Ireland and Scotland, are made the comer-stone 
 of the systems of rotation. In general, three years 
 in meadow arc succeeded by three years in rice; 
 two years in Indian corn and flax; one year in 
 wheat sown out with grass-seeds. Large numbers 
 of cattle are kept on the farms of Lnmbardv, where 
 the land is often a complete net-work of canals, 
 with their smaller distributing channels. There is 
 b i irgs exportation both of grain and dairy produce, 
 Mi vast ranges of snowy mountains that bound 
 the plain te the north, afford a never-failing supply 
 oi water during tin- heats of summer. The Nine 
 and mulberry beautify the country, and also give 
 
 employment to the dense population. 
 
 The lower latitude of Bpain gives i a still more 
 arid summer climate than Italy. Rains commonly 
 fall only during the autumn and winter, and the 
 Supply is scanty and irregular. This renders Spain 
 a poor and unproductive country, excepting where 
 the sod can be irrigated. For this reason, the 
 resources of its agriculture are chiefly confined te 
 
 its well-watered valleys, which are capable of being 
 made to outstrip Egypt itself in productiveness. 
 
 The M -s early introduced the art of irrigation m 
 
 II uth of Spain, and carried it to a high pitch in 
 
 the kingdom of (Iranada. Before the comjuesl oi 
 that country by Ferdinand and Isabella, the valley 
 of (,'rannda was one well-cultivated garden. Though 
 tile undiminished poWBTS of the land arc still 
 attested by a few spots in the Vegas of Mureia and 
 Granada, its present condition cannot be compared 
 to its condition under the Moors. The high tempera- 
 ture admits of a succession of crops being raised in one 
 
 year, as in Egypt. After wheat has been gal 
 in June, a emp of maize or millet, or of vegot 
 is got. Maize is scarcely grown in 8p 
 
 where the land is irrigated, so that every valley is 
 more or less under the productive influem 
 The melting of tic- snows in sumn 
 the high ran of mountains, affords a supply 
 when it is most needed in th 
 
 olives, and oranges find a . i tlnir 
 
 growth in the southern nd are important 
 
 of culture. 
 France musl be regarded as one of the richest 
 agricultural countries in Europe. In the 
 the climate is sufficiently hot for olive-, mai?e, toe 
 mulberry, and the vine. The summer rain 
 arc more abundant than in Spain, and penult 
 maize to be extensivi I alternately with 
 
 wheat, which forms a most, productive course of 
 crops. Irrigation has received considerable attention 
 in lie- southern valleys, and the reclamation of the 
 
 barren wastes of the Trail in Provi nee. testifies to 
 its fertilising effects. Much of the soil is poor in 
 I lc iithern provinces, and not suited to the growth 
 of grain ; but such soil admits of the growth of 
 the mulberry, the olive, or the vine. All these crop, 
 demand a large amount of labour in their cultur. 
 and sustain a dense population. Normandy i 
 celebrated for its pastures. The north-wi 
 France generally is the most fertile tract of land 
 in Europe. In the less advanced districts, fallow. 
 wheat, and oats is the rotation still followed 
 Clovers and lucerne are largely sown m the chalk) 
 districts. In the best cultivated di diets in tie 
 north, wheat and beet-root or poppy are sown 
 alternately. Beet forms a most important plant 
 in the agriculture of France in the present day, as 
 
 a large part of the sugar consumed in tin- 
 
 is derived from it. Much of France is divided 
 small properties, which is more especially tic 
 in the less fertile provinces. This division of pro- 
 perty is, so far, a necessity, as no other industrial 
 occupation is open to the ] pie. As soon as manu- 
 factures raise the standard of living in the town, 
 it will influence the condition of the rural population, 
 and had to the enlargement of prop I 
 
 In Austria, Hungary, and tic countries on both 
 sides of the Danube, the dim ibles that of 
 
 Cithern half of France. Maize and wheat are 
 the chief products, but the agriculture labours under 
 so many impediments to progress, tint it is yet in a 
 backward state. In Southern Russia, there are vast 
 tracts of rich land bordering on the rivers flowing 
 into the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, from which 
 Western Europe derives large supplies of wheat and 
 flax-seed, as well as some maize. The noi ; 
 parts of Russia arc less fertile, and as yet the 
 means of transport is defective and limited, 
 flax, skins, and tallow are the chief products sent 
 
 to market, bye forms the common bread-corn of 
 the lower classes. Prussia, unless i shores 
 
 of the Baltic, has no great proportion of i 
 land within her territory ; the chief article exported 
 i- wheat from the Baltic provinces, which is of tine 
 quality. The potato enters largely into the food of 
 the i imon people in Prussia, and is also used in the 
 
 manufacture of an!. allure, how- 
 
 ever, has no peculiarities deserving of special notice 
 
 in this cursory .sketch. 
 
 Flanders has lone been celebrated for its farming, 
 and its cultivators arc generally Supposed to have 
 carried improved systems into the cistern counties 
 of England. It is characterised by painstaking 
 management, ami. at the same time, liberal appli- 
 cation of manure. The general size of the farms 
 would be considered rather small in England, but 
 considerable capitals arc invested in stock and 
 
 U
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 implements, and Beveral hands of crop 
 
 unknown to British A. A large part of the stock is 
 
 stabled throughout the year, the gram being cut and 
 
 i d from the fields, The rearing and the feedin 
 of cattle, as veil as the dair} i combined on 
 
 one faun. Flax is a crop which receives s 
 deal of careful management. Hemp and 
 
 ' i i'H Iil»'i I treatment with iv- p 
 
 manure, and only enter into the rotation where 
 high farming is followed, The ero] 
 
 in the rotation, that tw real crops do not an 
 
 each other. In no country are th" fields 1 
 free from v. they are in I landei . and in 
 
 none do the agriculturists sutler so little from fluctu- 
 ations in the prices of grain, owing to 
 variety of crops that are raised, 
 
 England had made con er Ivances in A. 
 
 bo far back as the I6thc. This far athered 
 
 from the writings of Ertehi rVx rt, Tusser, and others. 
 \t an earlier period, her chief article of export had 
 been wool, which supplied t J i - - leata of manufacturing 
 industry in Holland, hut now she also erp 
 large quantity of wheat. The increasing pro 
 of the country caused a demand for butcher-meat, 
 which began to rise in price much sooner than it did 
 in Scotland By the middle of the 17th c, turnips 
 and red clover as field-croj 
 
 by the cud of it, tile two wen- extensively cultivated 
 in many parts, in alternation with corn. In 1760, 
 the four-coin bift was not uncommon in many 
 parts of Norfolk. Under tins system of 1st, wheat; 
 2d, turnips ; 3d, barley; 4th, grass, one half of tho 
 land was constantly under corn-crops, and the other 
 under cattle-crops. Large numbers of sheep and 
 cattle were fatten i i pa and clover. In 
 
 the preparation of the land for turnips, it was well 
 cultivated and weeded, and the ci in of the 
 
 roots on the land increased the yield of the barley. 
 The four-course shift has formed tho basis upon 
 which furthi tnents have been made in the 
 
 southern and eastern parts of England The strong 
 soils of Suffolk an ; ' : pasture, and 
 
 about a century ago, tiny were mostly devoted to 
 dairy-fanning. The high price of corn, however, 
 encouraged the conversion oil thi elands into i 
 farms. The course followed was 1st, wheat; 2(z, 
 fallow; 3d, barley; 4th, clover. Instead of the 
 fallow, mangel-wurzel is now largely substitut 1, 
 which enables the farmers to feed large numbers of 
 bullocks in the yards, without so large an expendi- 
 ture in the purchase of oil-cake as was at one time 
 it necessary. In . until a, where 
 
 the climate is mom suitable for :n i ■. and less so for 
 wheat, dairy and stock-rearing become g 
 objects of attention. The demand for dairyproduce 
 in the neighbourhood of the large manufacturing 
 towns of the west, renders tie' land of much i 
 value under grass than under corn, more especially 
 where the soil is tenacious. In the more friable 
 soils of the north-western counties of England the 
 systems of A. resemble somewhat that i 
 
 Instead of the land lying I year under grass, it 
 
 lies two, followed by oats, then turnips or potatoes, 
 and the wheat-crop is taken after this grei n • 
 and not after the grass. Tie nristic 
 
 which distinguishes the arable farming in the v, 
 from that in the eastern counti- I nd. A 
 
 large portion of the surface of England is under 
 permanent pasture, and the beauty of the meadows 
 is unrivalled in any part of the world. The surface 
 of England is very unequally fanned, for while 
 A. has attained a L'reat degree of perfect 
 such counties as Suffolk, Norfolk, and Lincoln, it 
 is in a comparatively primitive state in others. 
 The causes which have led to this state of things 
 are often difficult to trace. The spirit of improve- 
 
 in, nt now seems, however, far more generally 
 diffused and spirited farmers are everywhere spring- 
 ing up. who, . will find many imitate 
 
 In Ireland, the want of manufactures has con- 
 tinned to act as a great hindrance to agricultural 
 
 improvement. The c pi I ition thai arc e among a 
 
 population in taking small i 
 fed to extravagant rente, the payment of which 
 involved the starvation of the tenants. The faithful 
 pictures, which Arthur Sonne drew, toward 
 
 of the last cen iiuy. ahi wed the workings of such 
 a system. The genera] introduction of the pi 
 upon which the people chiefly subsisted enabled ruts 
 > be | I / Uing the scanty produce of gram, 
 or the pigs that were reared. 1 
 
 o crop in 1846 produ 1 the most heart-rending 
 
 of n that have been witnessed in our 
 
 When Young made his tour, it was the 
 inoii practice, among the small fanners, to take from 
 four to six en i] is of oats or bail' y in succession, after 
 which the land was allowed to n powers 
 
 by the growth of the natural grasses. On the 
 moderate-sized farms, the cultivation was better; 
 but turnips had little place in a course of cropping 
 i ly a century after thi ' ivfttea 
 
 ■■folk. Tim Protestant population in the north 
 of Ireland introduced at an early period tile culture 
 of tlax, which still forms a peculiar feature in the A. 
 of that part of tin country. The huge amount of 
 manual labour which it requires in its prop; i 
 for market, has so far served to preserve I he cultiva- 
 tors from descending so low in the scale oi 
 
 ice as those in tin- south. As a general rule, 
 it is found that the worst land is most densely 
 peopled; the secondary descriptions are in moderate- 
 sized farms; while the best land has hitherto been 
 devoted to pasture, for which the climate is admir- 
 ably suited. The winters are so mild in the south, 
 it tie are often not stabled. In Young's time, 
 the Irish graziers were the only class of agriculturists 
 that were possessed of capital. Tho , todus which 
 took place after the potato-failure, has relieved the 
 country- of a portion of the redundant population, 
 but it is still too dense in many places. 
 
 Scotland made comparatively tittle or no advance 
 to V for ages previous to the beginning of the 
 18th e. Donaldson, who published bis //<< 
 Anatomised ten years before the Union, affords 
 a pretty accurate picture of the art as then prac- 
 The farms were small, and divided into 
 outfield and infield land, (hi the former, which was 
 fin tie -t from the homestead, tie- rotation con bed 
 in grass, succeeded by two years in oats. 
 (In the infield land, barley, oats, and pease were 
 sown in succession, and the whole manure was com- 
 monly applied to the barley-crop. The yield of corn 
 was fiom three to four times the quantity of '■ 
 re of the poorest description, as no artili- 
 cial grasses were sown. Little encouragement was 
 held out to rear cattle, for a heifer did not bring 
 
 i v than twenty shillings in the market — scarcely 
 
 the price of two quarters of barley at that time. At 
 fli'- Union, however, Scotland gained free trade 
 with her wealthier rival, from which flowed the 
 happiest consequences. Every branch of industry 
 
 i iu the new field opened up, and \> I 
 
 than A. A lai'L'e trade soon arose in sending the 
 lean cattle and sheep that were reared on tic 
 i mtainous wastes, as well as in the low country, 
 
 fattened on the pastures and green crops in the 
 south. A great rise in the prices of stock 
 followed, which not only encouraged improved 
 breeds, but enabled cultivators to devote a certain 
 portion of the arable-lands to the growth of artificial 
 grasses and turnips. Neither of these were grown pre- 
 vious to the Union ; but in little more than lifty years
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 afterwards, one fanner in Roxburghshire is said to 
 have had MM) acres of turnips in one year. Towards 
 tli. end of the century, turnips and artificial ■_ 
 
 of improved A. in every county. 
 A great rise in the value of land took place. The 
 trar-prices in the beginning of the present cex 
 
 • -Initiation ol 
 I nts, however, were not effected 
 
 without a great revolution in the state of the rural 
 population, Formerly, the farms were small, and 
 often lain uired by the members of a single family. 
 A consolidation of farms took place, which 
 sitated a great change in the social condition of 
 employers and employed, producing often painful 
 1 if late yi an, the commercial prosperity 
 of the country has neatly helped to elevate the 
 rural population, and necessitated impn 
 
 . ■ accommodation. 
 Scottish A. is distinguished for great economy in 
 labour, forming a contrast in this respect to that in 
 
 nef com districts of England. Few farms are 
 jeen in the richer districts without having a 
 fixed steam-engine for driving the Kara and other 
 machinery. Labour-saving machines have also been 
 freely introduced. With sod, climate, and situation, 
 the mode of cropping varies greatly over the country. 
 In the Lothians, the six-course shift is common: 
 namely, 1st, wheat ; 2d, beans or potatoes; 3d, wheat ; 
 Hit, turnips; f«7i, barley or wheat; 6th, grass-seeds. 
 In certain situations, the potato-crop has lately'becn 
 still more extensively planted, occupying the place of 
 the li an or the turnip. On secondary farms, the'five- 
 course rotation becomes more common: 1st, wheat, 
 or barley; 2d, grass; 3d, grass; 4th, oats; 5th, 
 turnips or potatoes. The larger proportion of the 
 surface of Scotland, however, is devoted to pasture 
 for sheep and cattle. The mountainous tracts are 
 
 ally unfit for cultivation. Little else has been 
 done in the way of improving them than digging a 
 few surface-drains, and improving the breeds of the 
 sfeek they feed. Sheep-farms vary in extent from 
 1000 to 60,000 acres. A few of the best stock-farms 
 may summer and winter a sheep to the acre, but 
 most require three acres. The black-faced are i 
 upon the most elevated and exposed ground, whde 
 the Cheviots thrive on those parts that are less so. 
 No other food is usually given in winter than what 
 is left on the fields in autumn. Cross-breeds between 
 the Cheviot and the Leicester are reared in the 
 lower ranges, where a supply of turnips may be had 
 to give to the ewes while suckling their offspring. 
 When the sheep are to be fattened, they arc taken 
 to the arable districts. The opening of steani- 
 and lately, the system of railways, have 
 bei ii of infinite benefit to Scottish A. in getting a 
 market for Eat animals. 
 
 In North America, the same crops are raised as 
 in corresponding latitudes in Europe. The winters 
 in Canada and the United States are much more 
 than those of Western Em-ope. while the 
 summers are quite as hot, and far more moist, 
 ami hence arise considerable variations in the 
 practices of agriculture. In Canada and the 
 northern states, wheat is the staple article of export 
 In all the chief exporting districts, wheat and red 
 clover are grown as alternate crops. Betwixt 
 latitudes !'j and 39", wheat is often grown alter- 
 nately with maize, after the land has been under 
 pasture for Borne years. Again, betwixt la- 
 39° and 35*, the climate is better suited for 
 
 than wheat, which becomes less produi 
 The 1 ! r ,1,-ns are in south Ohio and 
 
 throughout Kentucky. Below latitude 86°, maize 
 is much less productive, and the climate becomes 
 suitable for cotton. This plant furnishes the 
 staple article of production from latitude 36 to 
 
 res of the Gulf of Mexico. Rice is the 
 profitable crop in the southern states; but its 
 culture is chiefly confined to the tidal sv. 
 which can be flooded by fresh water. The sugar- 
 cane is limited to the rich alluvial lands on the 
 of the Mississippi as far north as latitude 31°. 
 a principal crop in Virginia and some 
 i I surrounded 
 
 by the warm waters of the gulf, s im the 
 
 cold mirth winds of the Aire i 
 circumstance favours the growth i which 
 
 is so susceptible of injury from frosts. The rich 
 lands of these islands prodii' 
 Coffee is also grown to a a extent on 
 
 I of the Antilles. On the Pacific coa 
 climate is characterised by ludd winters and dry- 
 summers, so that the methods of agriculture must 
 conform to those of the countries bordering on the 
 sfediterrani 
 
 The soil of South America appears to be much 
 more fertile than that of North America. In the 
 southern parts, the winters i i itively mud, 
 
 when contrasted with those on the same latitude s in 
 the British possessions. The valli y of the Bio de la 
 Plata is admirably suited for rearing sheep and 
 cattle, which are found in immense herds in the 
 interior. Brazd is densely wooded, shewin 
 abundance of the rains, and the capabUities ol 
 country for the growth of the sugar-cane. In the 
 north, where the dry seasons are of longer duration, 
 there arc immense grassy plains called savannahs, 
 covered with herds of wild-cattle. Though no cattle 
 were found on the continent when discovered by 
 Europeans, it has been asserted that more cattle 
 are now running wild in South America than the 
 whole domesticated cattle of Euro] ie. 
 
 China possesses a climate having a great simi- 
 larity to that of the United S; of the 
 Rocky Mountains. The winters are cold, and the 
 summers moist and hot. Rice forms the great 
 staple crop in the warmer regions of the 
 wherever the land can be irrigated. This plant is 
 also cultivated to a limited extent on dry lands, 
 along with millet and maize. The density of the 
 population in China, is an indication of the advano d 
 state of its A. The careful manner in which all the 
 refuse of the towns and villages is husbanded and 
 applied to the land, wlnlc w ot suffered 
 to grow among the crops, is the true secret of the 
 productive A. of the Chn 
 
 The condition of A. in China shews what we 
 might expect from eidightencd policy in the pi 
 tion of that of India. The monsoons which prevail 
 over Hindustan during summer cause a great luxuri- 
 ance of vegetation while they last ; but the extreme 
 droughts that precede and follow them parch and 
 wither up the shallower-rooted plants. < rver a 
 part of India, irrigation is required to produce many 
 of the crops with certainty. In the tropical latitudes, 
 rice is the most abundant gram-yielding plant, and 
 forms the chief food of the people. The numerous 
 rivers of Northern India supply the means of irriga- 
 tion, and the production of food then becoa 
 matter of comparative certainty. Where the winters 
 are cool, wheat and barley are grown at that - 
 and riee, maize, millet, ic. in summer, just as we 
 find in the irrigated valleys of the south of Spain. 
 At the present time, the principal drawbacks to the 
 better cultivation of land are the deficiency in the 
 of transporting the produce, and the tenure 
 by which the land is held. The immense qua 
 of cotton and flax which are grown and literally lost 
 for want Of a market, is a Subject that is thinning 
 
 to attract attenti out manufacture] 
 
 Buffering from the scarcity of raw material. 
 
 It would 1 ut of place to give an outline of the 
 
 8S
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY— AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 
 
 A. of the other intertropical count i of the world, 
 which have contributed bo little to the common 
 civilisation of mankind. Where rains are abundant, 
 tli. ease with which a subsistence can b 
 from large herbaceous plants, and trees yieldm 
 
 fruit at all i i the year, has been justly 
 
 regarded as inimical to the progress of society. The 
 productiveness of the banana and the bri 
 tree, considering the small amount of cultiva- 
 tion they require, is calculated to strike natdvi a 
 of colder climates with a sit. Captain 
 
 eloquently remarks: "Whoevei l planted the 
 bread-fruit trees, has fulfilled his duty to his own 
 and succeeding generations as completely and amply 
 as au inhabitant of our rude clime who, throi 
 his whole life, has ploughed during the rigour of 
 winter, reaped in the heat of Bummer, and not only 
 provided las present household h ith bread, but pain- 
 fully saved some money for his children.' 
 
 In the southern hemisphere, the extent of sea 
 greatly predominates over the land. The vapours 
 which are raised over so vast an expanse of water 
 flow towards the equator, and are chiefly deposited 
 there in copious rains. They arc not diverted by 
 the peninsulas of South America, South Africa, or 
 New Holland, as they are by the continents of 
 America and Asia. Comparatively sterile regions are 
 the result. Australia and the Cape of Oood Hope 
 arc sparingly Supplied with rains, so that their soil is 
 not very productive of grain. Cultivation languishes, 
 and the agriculturist devotes his attention to the 
 rearing of cattle and sheep. New Zealand, however, 
 possesses a climate having considerable resemblance 
 to that of England, and is favourable for the produc- 
 tion of grass and grain. 
 
 Under the heads of Cultivated Plants, Dairy, 
 Domestic Animals, Drainage, Irrigation, Imple- 
 ments, Manures, Soil, Rotation of Crops, Lease, &c, 
 will be more particularly treated the systems and 
 rationale of farm-management pursued in the 
 British Islands. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, that branch 
 of chemical science which treats of the composition 
 of soils and manures, and of the vegetable and 
 animal substances which it is the object of agriculture 
 to produce. Instead of considering the subject by 
 itself, it will receive attention under the heads of 
 Drainage, Irrigation, Manures, Soils, &c. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, as at pre- 
 sent understood, is a comprehensive term, including 
 instruction in chemistry, geology, botany, zoology, 
 mechanics— embracing, in short, the science as well 
 as the practice of agriculture. However important 
 the branching off of education into this special 
 track, it is only of late years that adequate attention 
 has been paid to it. The lirst agricultural school 
 landed by Follenberg at Hofwyl, in Switzer- 
 land, in 1S0G. His pupils were taken from the 
 poorest class of peasantry, of whom lie truly 
 observed, that having 'no other property than their 
 physical and mental faculties, they should be taught 
 how to use this capita] to the best advantage,' by 
 a combination of ' discipline, study, and manual 
 labour.' No fewer than 3000 pupils were trained in 
 this school, which flourished for thirty years under 
 the able direction of Wehrli. Since then, various 
 institutions of the same character have sprung up 
 ou the continent. In France, several have been 
 supported by the state — the principal being the one 
 at Grignon, to which an old royal palace with its 
 domain of 11S5 acres has been given up. One of 
 the lirst duties undertaken by the new government 
 Of Marshal MacMahon, in 1873, has been the 
 nomination of a commission to re-organise the 
 system of agricultural education. In Prussia, there 
 86 
 
 is Bcarcely a proviuoe that docs do i agri- 
 cultural scl 1 and model farm; and, indeed, 
 
 throughout Germany, as well as in Russia, we find 
 educational institutions supported by the state, in 
 
 all of which, with some alight '1 Herein ( detail, 
 
 agriculture is practically as well as theoreti 
 tan-lit. More recently, experimental stations have 
 bed in various parts of the BS 
 
 In England, there are as yet no state institutions 
 
 of tins hind. In 1846, an Agricultural Colli 
 
 established, by private enterprise, at Cirencester, for 
 the education of both resident and aon n lident 
 pupils —the' former paying as high as £130 per 
 annum, the tatter £50, a ml the oourse of instruction 
 
 extending over two years. A large farm i l tttl 
 to the school. Iii Scotland, special instruction in 
 agriculture has taken the form of lectures at uni- 
 versities, provincial associations, ftc, by which, as 
 
 well as by the labours of the Highland Society, 
 
 much valuable educational knowledge has bei a 
 ciliated. Private agricultural instruction is 
 
 also given by fanners, who board and educate 
 students for a stipulated sum per annum. Many 
 of the counties m Scotland are exceedingly well 
 adapted for agricultural student-, a, the ttatUl 
 the ground permits of both sheep and ordinary 
 farming being practised together. 
 
 But it is in Ireland, where peculiar eircum-l 
 
 rendered it eminently expedient, that the most 
 
 matic and successful efforts have been male. For 
 several years past, the Commissioners of National 
 Education have judiciously paid special attention to 
 agriculture. Altogether, Ireland has 205 farm- 
 schools, with land attached of very various extent, 
 ranging from 2 to 180 acres. These schools may 
 be divided into three classes, and present a gradual 
 ascent from small to great: 1st, There are 169 
 Ordinary National Agricultural Schools, where, by a 
 slight addition to the ordinary salary of a national 
 schoolmaster, the teachers are encouraged to culti- 
 vate school-gardens and small holdings, and thus to 
 give daily practical lessons to the children under 
 their care. 2c/, There are 36 Model Agricultural 
 Schools in various parts of Ireland ; 10 of them 
 under local management, 20 under the exclusive 
 management of the Board. These, whether their 
 scale of culture be small or extensive, present 
 to the iuferior schools standards of excellence and 
 imitation, linking the lowest of the agricultural 
 establishments — namely, the cottar farm attached 
 to the Ordinary Agricultural School — with, 3d, 
 the highest establishment of the kind, the Central, 
 or Albert School at Glasnevin, containing 180 
 acres, and cultivated by some 00 pupils, from all 
 parts of the country. With regard to these 
 minor schools, which are annually visited by two 
 inspectors, the reports are, with very few excep- 
 tions, highly favourable, both as to the success of 
 the establishments themselves, and their influence 
 on the surrounding population. An Irish rector has 
 given it as his opinion that they tend to make 
 districts 'more orderly and quiet, to diminish 
 drunkenness, and to keep down agrarian disturb- 
 ances.' Another good authority states that their 
 example has introduced 'rotation of crops' and 
 encouraged 'attention to winter-feeding of stock, 
 and to toe collection and pn of manure.' 
 
 Glasnevin Training Farm was established by the 
 toners of National Education in 1838, and 
 
 considerably enlarged in 1849. Its prof' 
 is to supply young men with instruction in the 
 science and' practice of agriculture. Three classes 
 are admitted to its benefits. The 6rsl 
 consists of prospective land-stewards or farmers, 
 drafted, as we have seen, from minor institutions, 
 undergoing au eutrauce-examiuation, and receiving
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. 
 
 a two-years' braining, and who are admitted free by 
 competitive examination ; the second, of farmers' 
 
 sons, prospective tenant-farmers, who desire to 
 advance themselves in life by punning new modes 
 of managing, and who pay for tine of their 
 
 and lodging. The third class is comp 
 men who board and lodge, at their own 
 . in the immediate neighbourhood, and who 
 Imitted on the payment oftn i quar- 
 
 ter. For all these classes alike, labour and study 
 a itii -ally alternate, the entire number of pupils 
 
 formed into two divisions, the one devoting 
 
 orning of one day to the farm, the other to the 
 
 room, and via v i on the morrow, bah 
 working together on the land in the afl 
 winding up the day with two hours of study. Obe- 
 
 . punctuality, and habits of cleanliness and 
 order are strictly insisted upon. Various rotations of 
 
 are exemplified upon separate divisions of the 
 farm, and the system of house-feeding cattle is 
 
 I on, both summer and winter. Tin- training 
 institution situated on the farm comprises, in addi- 
 tion to dormitories, school and lecture room, &c, a 
 museum, library, and laboratory. The chief super- 
 vision of the whole establishment devolves upon 
 
 or Baldwin, head of the agricultural depart- 
 
 who makes it his hea Iqv The chief 
 
 labours of the farm, including draining operations, 
 
 i formed by the pupils, under the direction of 
 
 a resident agriculturist. Practical horticulture is 
 
 also taught, and a good general education imparted 
 
 i by two competent literary instructors. Two ses- 
 
 | sional courses of lectures are annually delivered on 
 
 animal and vegetable physiology, <ii mistary, 
 
 botany, and practical agriculture. Between Jan- 
 
 7 and December 1872, no fewer than 111G 
 
 men left the Albert Institution at Glasnevin, 
 
 to carry out its principles either ou farms of their 
 
 own, or, in the still more responsible post of land- 
 
 of teachers, to impart them to hundreds. 
 
 The ordinary schoolmasters trained in the literary 
 
 uicnt, to the number of about 150 yearly, 
 
 iceive two lectures on agriculture weekly, and 
 
 practical instruction on the model farm twice a 
 
 The Templemoyle Agricultural Seminary, 
 
 established in the county of Londonderry 40 years 
 
 1 ] I .me years since, in connection with 
 
 ttional system of education, is also worthy 
 
 ial notice, as having sent forth fully 1000 
 well-trained agriculturists. The benefits of the 
 
 a are obvious, and it is gratifying to add that 
 their annual cost is comparatively small; the actual 
 current expenses of all the agricultural schools 
 throughout Ireland amounting to somewhat less 
 than £7000 a year, while the number of pupils 
 who attend them is estimated at 8000. 
 
 AGEIC1 I.TtUAL SOCIETIES, a iations 
 purpose of promoting the science and pi 
 societies were establish 
 
 u-th of Italy in the beginning of the last cen- 
 tury. As early a IT'-'-". I Improvers in 
 i i itfand 1 wa 
 
 i :.■!.- i 
 
 b f : ociation was felt, and another 
 
 in 1755. Ibis also did not Bucceed well; 
 
 i r, hi 1783 a mi men met in 
 
 Edinburgh and founded one d uency, 
 
 iwn ' liiglil . The first at 
 
 masting Of this body was held in 1784, and it was 
 incorporated by royal charter in 1787. Originally 
 
 d for the improvement of the Highlai 
 extended its op rations over the whole oi .Scotland, 
 and confined its efforts more to the advancement of 
 agriculture. Its title is now. under a royal char- 
 ; uited in 1834, the 'Highland and A 
 
 tural Society of Scotland.' Its earliest 
 
 I by a grant of £3000 out of the moneys 
 ir the estates of the noblemen and gentle- 
 men who were attainted in consequence of their 
 
 ion to the rebellion of 174o. The : 
 required to defray the expense of the charter. 
 ever, were raised by subscription, and the members 
 then were only about 150. In , 
 began to publish its Transactions or prize i 
 At present (l*>7:i) its members number 4500. The 
 ordinary subscription is £1, \U. id. annually, which 
 may be redeemed by one payment of £12, I- . 
 Tenant-farmers are admitted on a subscription of 
 10a annually, or £5, Si. for life. Th more import- 
 is aimed at by the society are — 
 
 1. Agricultural meetings and general shows of 
 stock, implements, and dairy produce held in the 
 principal towns of Scotland. 
 
 2. Encouraging a system of district shows, for the 
 improvement of breeds of stock most suitable to the 
 different parts of the country. 
 
 3. The encouragement and promotion of a proper 
 system of agricultural and forestry education, by 
 means of powers conferred by a supplementary 
 royal charter in 1850. authorising 'the Cow 
 
 the Highland and A. Society an Education' to pre- 
 scribe a curriculum of study, and to _ r rant diplomas 
 and certificates to students of agriculture who shall 
 pass the requisite examination. 
 
 4. The advancement of the veterinary art, by con- 
 ferring the Society's certificate on students who 
 have passed through a regulated curriculum in tin- 
 Edinburgh Veterinary College, and who are found 
 by a rigid examination qualilied to practise. 
 
 te appointment of two chemists for the pur- 
 pose of analysing soils, manures, &c. to members, 
 and for promoting the application of scien 
 agriculture. 
 
 6. The establishment of an agricultural museum, 
 illustrative of the vegetable products of the country; 
 but this collection has been handed over to the 
 Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. 
 
 7. The annual publication of reports and piusi - 
 essays on all branches of agriculture and arboricul- 
 ture, as well as the proceedings of the laboratory. 
 
 The general shows of stock, 4c, are held once 
 every year, at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, or 
 some other principal town, and are attended by vast 
 numbers of persons. The business of the society is 
 conducted by a secretary at an office in Edinburgh. 
 The writings of Arthur Young directed attention 
 to the agricultural condition of England, shortly 
 after the middle of the last century. In l~'J'3 the 
 ' Board of Agriculture ' was incorporated. This 
 was a private association, but being supported by 
 parliamentary grants, it so far partook of the nature 
 of a pubbc institution. Its ' surveys' of the different 
 counties collected and diffused an immense amount 
 of information of the most valuable kind. It lat- 
 terly encouraged experiments and improvements of 
 all kinds in agriculture, but was dissolved in 1S16. 
 have sprung up since then in 
 ■ut parts of England; oi ' Sinithticld 
 
 t'.ittL Club,' 'The Bath and V. .land 
 
 .' and the 'Yorkshire A. S 
 
 is the most influential. ;hnnd 
 
 vigour of the national society, ' The Royal A. 
 Society of Englani D beyond all precedent. 
 
 ashed in May 1838, ^nd thi 
 of 460' members, but in l>7:i the members were 
 as many in number as 6 00. The objects wh 
 with those of th. 
 lin.l. Ordinary mein- 
 , t'l annually, or £10 for life. The Journal, 
 containing interesting and original reports on A. 
 subjects is scut free to all the members. Ireland 
 also boasts of its 'Royal A. Society of Ireland.' 
 
 87
 
 agiugi-atpm acrm'Pa. 
 
 It was formed in lsu, and 
 
 in adi ultuiv of the (■■unit iv. 
 
 ally by introducing improved dp bue. 
 
 utriee of continental Eur .p.- have 
 followed the example i otain in the form- 
 
 ation di' A. Associations of various kinds. 
 
 In the Erei mea tea, where the land is 
 
 owned by those who farm it. A. s. have 
 sprung op in great numbers. Every state hi 
 central Society, which in its torn number 
 
 of local associations. Indeed, in all 
 grain-producing d 
 its own society. These being all partly Bupi 
 
 ill inf.iriiiati.nl i 
 published, and sold at a cheap rate in B 
 
 l. follows i" the wake of her enterprising 
 neighbours, and supports bj of money a 
 
 ocial Bhow in each province, while the county 
 societies are numerous, and supply mat. -rials for the 
 Reports of the Boards oi Toronto and 
 
 n al. In ( lanada and the I nil d States, the 
 A. S. are nf a highly popular charai ter. 1'n. 
 given, not only f..r animals, implements, and dairy 
 produce, but also for fruits. 1 1 
 nature, combining agricultu culture, and 
 
 domestic economy, such exhibitions are 
 
 by all classes. They are u tall} deno 
 
 though partaking little of the character and 
 ance of what is understood by a 'fair' in Bi 
 The diffusion of education among the farmers of the 
 free stairs lias mad.- them i of A. 
 
 writings, and the numerous i eti 
 
 knowledge of improved stock, implements, and 
 
 I hen wide territories. 
 
 AGRIliE 'X'lTM (6r. A 
 Girgenti, a town on I of Sicily, in 
 
 lat 37 17' V. and long. 13" 28' E., founded by 
 a colony from I '■■ la (582 b.i i, and, in the earlier 
 ages, one of the most important places in the 
 
 island. In its palmy days, it to liave 
 
 contained 200,000 inhabitants, \it.r being 
 free, and then subject to tyrants, it was demo 
 by the Ians (405 b.i 
 
 again. In the course of the Punic wars, it was 
 compelled to submit to the Romans. From S2."> to 
 10SG A. D., it was in the possession of the Sai 
 from whom it was conquered by Count B 
 1 .id. The modem citj about 15,000 
 
 inhabitants, and exhibitB numero plendid 
 
 ruins, which, glittering in the brilliant light of a 
 southern sky, afford inexhaustible material 
 pictorial representation. Among the bi t preserved 
 of these remains of antiquity is the Tempi. ' 
 of which only the roof and part of the front are 
 wanting. The most extensive ol les was 
 
 of Jupiter, 340 feet long, 120 ... I high, and 
 160 feet wide, which, at the tune of its di rtru 
 appears not to he I. Only the base- 
 
 in. nt and somo fragments remain. Considerable 
 ruins of the temples of Juno Lucdna, of H> 
 and . K-culapius, are still found. The trade of the 
 modern city is inconsiderable. Some cum, fruit, oil, 
 &c., is exported, but the harbour is little frequented. 
 
 A'GRIMoNY [Agrimonia), a genus of plant- of 
 the natural oi i CE(q. v.), sub-order Po 
 
 The calyx is five-cleft, without bracts ; the hardened 
 
 l is covi i d 
 with hook.d bristles. — The CoMJJO 
 Eupatoria) is a native of Britain and other p 
 Eur<>]" in borders ..f ti.l.ls, on waj 
 
 &c. It has an upright habit, attains a lie) 
 two feet or more, and has interruptedly pinnate 
 
 . with the leaflets serrate and downy bi 
 The flowers are small and yellow, in close ia 
 Tic whole plant has a pleasant, slightly aromatic 
 
 smell, and is bitter and styptic. ' D of it 
 
 is used as a gargle; the dr.. form a kind 
 
 of herb tea; and the root has some celebrity as a 
 
 Common Agrimi 
 
 vermifuge. Very similar to tk I. 
 
 of Virginia, Carolina, &c It has a very 
 
 !•■ fragrance. 
 
 ackipi'A, Cornelius Hknby, a remarkable 
 
 character of the 16th c, distinguished as writer, 
 
 opher, and physician, who united great ability 
 
 and . d acquiremi its with quackery, was 
 
 born of a noble family at l lol I4sg. lie led an 
 
 turoua and unsettled life, quite in the spirit 
 of his tunes. As early as 1509, he was appointed 
 teacher of theology at Mole, in Fro . and 
 
 attract..! real attention by hi ; but 
 
 having by his bitter . res on the monks drawn 
 
 upon hiin.-clf the hatred of that body, he was .-.. 
 
 of heresy, and obliged to leave Dole. Be next 
 taught theology for sonic time in I olognc, occupying 
 himself at the same time with alchemy, and then 
 . Italy, where he took militai under 
 
 Maximilian i., and was knighted. He was after- 
 and of Me.ii. in.-, and 
 gave lectures at I ■'. burdened with 
 
 1 to Casale. After a time, he was appointed 
 Syndic of Metz; but in 1520, he was again in 
 •.cited the hostility of the inquisi- 
 tion and uf the monks by hi Of a witch. 
 His old enemies, the monks, persecuted him still in 
 
 . ■, so that he n int to Freiburg in Sw itzerland, 
 where he began to practise as a physician. In 1524, 
 he went again to Metz. and ther I Buch 
 
 a reputation that the mother of Francis 1. chose him 
 
 eiall. As he declined fa) p TO ] ' 1 1 •' S\" 1 1 1 
 
 ue . campaign that Francis L undertook in 
 
 log.") in Italy, he lost his post, and went to Holland. 
 
 Here he wrote his eelebr.it.,1 1 k. I), Incertitudim 
 
 . 1527), a biting satire 
 on the sciences as th.\ : osation 
 
 . n i him havin ibi Chai lea V., 
 
 on account of thi again became a fugitive, 
 
 and i. pan. .1 to l.\ on. Bte i here found the i 
 he had early . raited in France not yet i xtinguished, 
 and was imprisoned; but bene liberated, through 
 the exertions of his friends, he retired to Grenoble, 
 when- he died (1535). A. was a char headed man, 
 and had the merit of successfully comba' in _• many 
 of th. ; f his age. Jlis hook, /v Ocmlla 
 
 Philosophic!, which contains the most 
 
 nt of the Cabbala (q. v.), stands in direct 
 
 .In 'turn with the work above mentioned. The 
 most complete collection of his writings appeared at 
 
 Ly in two vols, without date (about 1550). 
 
 AGRIPPA, lliiion, I., son of Aristobulus and
 
 AGRIPPA— AGUADO. 
 
 Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great, was 
 educated at Rome. lie lived there in a very 
 extravagant style, giving splendid entertainments, 
 especially to the princes of the imperial i 
 ami scattering his money lavishly in gifts to the 
 freedmen of the emperor, until his debts tendered 
 it unsafe for him to remain longer in the city. Be 
 then took refuge in Idumea. From this period almost 
 to the death of Tiberius, he sutured a variety of 
 misfortune's, but having formed a friendship with 
 
 i laligula, the latter, on his acce to the thi 
 
 him the tetrarchies of Abilene Bs 
 Traohonitis, and Amanitas. After the- banishment 
 
 of Herod Antipas, he t Lved his tetrarchy also 
 
 namely, Galilee and Perea. Claudius, whom 
 A. helped to secure Hie possession of the empire, 
 added to his dominions .lud.ea and Samaria, ami he 
 was thus the ruler of a more extensile territory 
 than even Herod tie- Cleat had 1 u. His govern- 
 ment was mild towards the .lews, witli whom 
 he was remarkably popular ; hut he severely 
 persecuted the Christians. He caused James, the 
 brother of John, and the head of the' Church at 
 Jerusalem, to he beheaded, and Peter to be thrown 
 into prison. lie died of a peculiarly loathsome 
 disease at Caesarea, in Palestine, while celebrating 
 games in honour of the emperor, in the 55th year 
 of his age, and the 44th of the Christian era. The 
 account 'jiven of this in the Acts of the Apostles, 
 substantially agrees with that of Josephus. 
 
 AGRII'l'A, HEROD, II., son of Agrippa I., was 
 
 at Rome when his father died, and only 17 years of 
 age. Claudius, therefore, resolved to detain him for 
 some time, and in the meanwhile re-transformed 
 tie' kingdom info a Etonian province, but presented 
 him with tie- little territory of Chalcis when his 
 uncle lb-rod, who was its ruler, died. In 63 A. I>., 
 he 1. it Rome, :md received from the emperor nearly 
 tie- whole of his paternal possessions, which were 
 subsequently enlarged by Sera. Like his father, 
 A. was fond of line buildings, a taste which he 
 probably acquired by his long sojourn at Rome, 
 if apenl area! sums in adorning Jerusalem, 
 Berytua, and other cities; but he was not prudent 
 in the distribution of his favours, or just in his 
 treatment of the high-priests, so that he failed to 
 secure the good-will of the .lews. He did all in 
 Ins power, howev.r. to dissuade t linn from rebelling 
 against the Romans ; but when he found his adl ices 
 ami warnings neglected, he abandoned his country- 
 men, and joined the imperial troops. When Jeru- 
 salem was taken, he went with his sister to hvo at 
 Rome, where he was made pnetor, and where he died 
 in the 70th year of hi last of the Herods. 
 
 1 1 n as before him Paul made Iris memorable del. nee. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcos VrpsAHius (63—12 b.c), 
 
 a I! all. who, though n"t: of high birth, rose to mi 
 
 exalted position through Ins own talents. He lirst 
 
 espoused Marcella, the niece, and then Julia, the 
 daughter of I tetw ins. He was eminent both in war 
 and in peace ; and as a general, counsellor, and friend 
 of the emperor, did good service to him and to the 
 Roman state. As a general, he hud the foundation 
 for the sol..' dominion of 1 1 . and commanded 
 
 his Ihs t in the battle of Aetium (31 B.C.). H 
 generous, upright, and a friend to the arts; Koine 
 owed to him the restoration and construction of 
 
 il aqueducts, and of the Pantheon, 1 
 other public works of ornament and utility. 
 
 A< I KHM'l'X A. I. The daughter of M. Vipsanius 
 A rippa, by his wife Julia, was one of the most 
 heroic and virtuous women of antiquity. She 
 was married to Cessai Germanicus (see Ckumwi- 
 ii si, whom she accompanied in all his campaigns. 
 She openly accused Tiberius before the senate 
 
 of having hired the murderers of her husband ; 
 and the tyrant, who hated her for her virtues, and 
 the esteem in which she was held by the- people, 
 banished her to the island of I'audataria, near 
 Naples, where she voluntarily died of 1. 
 (.'i.'i A. Ii.). The antiquarian museum at Di 
 possesses four excellent busts of her. — II. A very 
 different character was Ai;i:irriv\, the daughter of 
 the last mentioned, one of the most deb 
 women that have lived. In hi 
 she induced the Emperor Claudius, her own 
 to marry her, and espoused his daughl 
 already betrothed to another, to her son Nero. In 
 order to bring tlie latter to the ii 
 many rich and noble Romans, excluded Uritannicus, 
 the son of Claudius by M and finally 
 
 poisoned the emperor, her husband. She then 
 endeavoured to govern the empire through her son 
 Nero, who was chosen emperor ; but her ascendency 
 proving intolerable, Nero caused her to be put to 
 death (Oil A. le). She enlarged and adorned her 
 native city, Cologne, which received from le 
 name of Colonia Agrippina. 
 
 ACTELEK, Cavern of (in Hungarian, Bm 
 i. e., a suffocating place), one of the largest and 
 remarkable stalactitic caverns of Europe, is •■■ ■ 
 near the village of Agtelek, in the county ol I 
 not far from the road from Pesth to Kaschau. It 
 opens at the foot of a mountain with an en 
 scarcely 3 .", feet high by 5 feet wide. It O 
 a labyrinth of caverns communicating with one 
 another, many of which it is difficult, and even 
 lore, v. Inn the streams that flow 
 through them are high. Numerous stalactite 
 tuns occur in all the caverns, which, from their 
 singular shapes, have given rise to the var 
 of -the Great Church,' 'the Mosaic Altar.' 'the 
 [mage of the Virgin,' &c. The 1 1 most 
 
 imposing of those caverns, sii 
 from the entrance, is called the FU 
 is 96 feet high, 90 feet wide, and runs 
 feet in a straight line. 
 
 AGUADO, Ai rwM'i r Mama, Marquis de I. a; 
 del Guadalquiver, one of the weal 
 bankers of modern times, was born at Si villi . I i 
 and died 1 1th April 1842. He was descended from 
 a Jewish family, and in his youth bore anus as a 
 Boldier. During the Spanish war of independ 
 he fought with distinction on tie 
 
 i the French army to the rank of colon ■!. and 
 acted as aide-de-camp to Marshal S mi:, bul 
 in 1815, and 1" gan a commission htisiie 
 In this In- soon realised such wealth as enahl 
 to found a bank. Good-fortune, energy, and bold- 
 ness, with a singular talent for con 
 1 i H in .■ 
 
 bankers in Paris. He al 
 
 tation bj ui ol iatingthe Span h of 1823 1828, 
 
 L830, and 1831. S these op i eons, the Sp 
 government frequently invested him with unlimited 
 powers, which he dexterously employed to sav e his 
 country from national bank] i inand VII. 
 
 conferred on him the title of Maron de I 
 
 Mariamas del Guadalquiver. His s. rvices wi r 
 recompensed by privileges in mining and in execut- 
 ing pubhe undertakings. All the Spanish bonds 
 issuing from his hoo d the name ol ' 
 
 tt -was through A. that the Greek loan of [834 
 
 naturaliscl in France in 1828, 
 his death left a fortui ill 1 million 
 
 francs, ol which he had invested part in landed pro- 
 perty; the castle of Chateau. Mar.-aux. eel! 
 for its wine, belonged to him. His distingu 
 collection of pictures gave occasion to Gavari 
 the publication of the U'alerie A. (Paris, lSoT— 1 8 i- .
 
 AGUAS CALIENTES— A-HUXL. 
 
 A'(;r.vs c.\[.ir.NTi:s, a well-built town in 
 Mexico, in the province of Zaoi , ] 
 
 in [J. lat. -i 53', and W. bng. lul" -l.V. in a plain 
 6000 feet above the i a level d on a stream 
 of the s.na.' name, which is tributary to tl 
 Grande de Santiago. It contains a population of 
 20,000; and beaidea the cultivation of field 
 gardens, the manufacture of woollen cloth i 
 considerable, and isoarriedon on the fin ; 
 The town is favourably situated for trade, as the 
 
 great road from Mezioo to 8 ra and Dun 
 
 here crossed by that from San Louis Poto 
 Quadalaxara. The environs abound in hot 
 from which the town takes its nai 
 
 A'GTJE (/' hrii ■ . ■ amon Dome 
 
 for an intermitting fever, accompanied by paroxysms 
 or fit-s. Each lit is composed of three stages; the 
 
 •Id, the hut, and tin' swi I B 
 
 a lit, the patient has a sensation of debility and die- 
 about the epigastrium; feels weak and disin- 
 clined for exertion ; the surface of Ids body becomes 
 cold, and th" bloo Hi akin shrivels up into the con- 
 tlition termed C i i -skin (mti.i aii/nrina). A cold 
 sensation ereeps up the back, and spreads over the 
 body ; the patient shivers, his teeth shatter, Ins knees 
 i. fa lip i are, and nails turn 
 blue; he has pains in his head h I ami loins. 
 This condition is succeeded by flushes of heat, the 
 coldness gives place to warmth, and the surface 
 as its natural appearance. The warmth con- 
 tinues to increase, the face becomes red and turgid, 
 i he head aches, the breathing is deep and oppret u d, 
 the pulse full an 1 i n - The third stage now 
 comes on; the skin Incomes soft and moist, the 
 pulse resumes its natural force and frequency, and 
 a copious iweai breaks from the whole body. 
 
 Tin -I' paroxysms recur at regular intervals. The 
 interval Between them is called 'an intermission.' 
 When they occur every day, the patient has quo- 
 tidian A.; every second day. /■rtimi; and when 
 they are absent for two days, quartan. .Ml ages 
 are liable to this disease; and a ease is on record 
 of a pregnant woman having a tertian A. which 
 attacked her of course every other day; but on 
 the alternate days, when she was well, she felt that 
 the child also had A., although the paroxysn 
 not coincide with her own. 
 
 The exciting causes of th visible 
 
 effluvia from the surface of the earth (marsh mias- 
 mata). A certain degree of temperature seems 
 ■iry— hiidier than G0° Fahrenheit — for the 
 production of the poison. It does not exist within 
 the Arctic Circle, nor does it appear in the cold 
 i- of temperate climates, and seldom beyond 
 the 56° of N. lat. (Watson). It also requires moist- 
 ure. In Kngland, A. is almost exclusively eontined 
 to the eastern coast ; and the extension of dr. 
 has rendered agues far more rare than before, .bum , 
 
 I. and Oliver Cromwell died of A. contracted in 
 London. 'The Pontine Marshes to the S. of Borne 
 
 have long been notorious as a source of aguish fevers. 
 Peat bog, or moss, is not productive of malaria, as is 
 in parte of Ireland and Scotland. Neither is 
 \. ever seen among the inhabitants of the Dismal 
 •Swamp — a ' of 160,000 acres on the fron- 
 
 tiers of Virginia and North Carolina in North 
 America. — The treatment of aguish fever consists 
 i illy in calomel given in purgative doses, followed 
 by preparations of cinchona -bark, and in applying, 
 the paroxysm, external warmth t 
 
 AGUE'SSEAU, Henui Francois i>\ a distin- 
 guished lawyer and chancellor of France, and pro- 
 nounced by Voltaire to have been the most learned 
 magistrate that France ever possessed, was born at 
 Liiuoge, 1 GG8 A. D. He received his earliest education 
 
 from his father; and afterwards devoted himself to 
 
 idyof law, became one ' at Paris in 
 
 lii'.nt. and .it the age of thirty-two, proem 
 
 parliament. In this office, he effected many 
 improvements in the laws and in the administration 
 of justice. He displayed gnat benevolence during a 
 famine which occurred in the winter of 1709, appl.v- 
 iii'; all the means in his power for the alleviation of 
 i lamity. As a steady defender of the rights of 
 i in- people, and of the Gallican Church, he suo 
 fully opposed the decrees of Louis XIV. and the 
 Chancellor Voisin in favour of the papal bull Uni- 
 gcnilus (q. v.). I luring the government of the I > n! 
 
 of Orleans, he became chancellor ; but in the follow- 
 
 ar fell into disgrace by opposing Law's system 
 
 oi ice, and retired to his country-seal aj Pre ae . 
 
 \\ Inn. however, the ruin induced by Law's systl m 
 
 i In ed a ral outcry of dissatisfaction, A. was 
 
 reinstated, in 1 1"' people. Hut his 
 
 well meant efforts could not retrieve the desperate 
 
 state of affairs. A. was afterwards exiled a second 
 in consequence of bis opposing Cardinal 
 
 Dubois; and though he (in 17-7) obtained from 
 ( 'animal Floury permission to return, yet, he did not 
 again resume the office . lor till 17.'I7. He 
 
 resigned in 1750, and died, Feb. 9, 1751. His works, 
 oj ol pL adin i ad i pet ches at the opi 
 
 of the partial t, occupy thirteen volumes (Pans, 
 
 1759 1789. Newest edition, Paris, 1819). 
 
 AGU'LHAS, CAPE, (meaning Needles), the most 
 southern point of Africa, lies about 100 miles B.S.E. 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, in lat. 34" 61' S., long. 
 Ill o.V E. In 1849, a light-house was erected on it, 
 at an elevation of 52 feet above high-water. The 
 A. Hank extends .along the whole southern coast of 
 Africa. It is 5(51) miles in length, and, oppo 
 Cape of Good Hope, as many as 200 in breadth. 
 
 A'HAB, the son and successor of Omri, wa 
 of Israel from 918 to 897 B.C. He married Jezebel, 
 the daughter of Kthbaal, king of Salon; through 
 whose injurious influence the Phoenician worship of 
 Baal was introduced, the king himself seduced to 
 idolatry, and the priests and prophets of Jehovah 
 cruelly persecuted. Yet the propfii ta retained their 
 influence over the people ; and Elijah dared openly 
 to attack the priests of Baal, and reprove the 
 wickedness of the king with the most severe threat- 
 enings of punishment. A. prosecuted tlircc wars, 
 with various success, against Bcnhadad, king of 
 Syria ; but in the last ca was killed by an 
 
 .arrow. His whole fanidy was afterwards extirpated 
 under King Jehu. 
 
 AHASUE'RUS is the name, or rather, perhaps, 
 the title, by which several kings of Media and 
 1 '. t - ia are mentioned in Scripture. The best known 
 of these is Esther's husband (see Ksnir.u), who is 
 probably the same as the Persian king Xerxes; the 
 Sebrew form of his'name (Achaaehverosch) pointing 
 to the old Persian form of the name Xerxes 
 yaxschan). 
 
 A- HULL, a maritime term, used to denote the 
 position of a ship when all her sads are furled, and 
 her helm lashed on the lee-side ; in such a position, 
 she lies nearly with her side to the wind, but with the 
 head turned a little towards the direction of the wind. 
 
 It may be convenient to mention in this place 
 that the phraseology adopted by British naval 
 officers and seamen, whether belonging to the royal 
 navy or to the mercantile marine, comprises a large 
 number of words formed on a principle similar to 
 that of ahead, with the vowel a (a corruption of the 
 Anglo-Saxon preposition on, meaning on, in, al) pre- 
 fixed to a noun. Such are the following: Aback, 
 abaft, aboard, abreast, a-coclcbill, adrift, afloat, afore, 
 aground, ahead, ahull, a-hr, aloft, aloof, amain.
 
 AHMEDABAD— AIDE-TOI ET LE CIEL T'AIDERA. 
 
 amidships, an-end, apea I li 
 
 n-wi-fii/i' r, w-weigh. Such of these tern 
 
 to require it, will bo found briefly explained under 
 
 their proper head 
 
 AH.MEDABA'D, or more properly AHMADA- 
 BAD, the chief town in the district of the same 
 name, in the Pn id ncy ol Bombay, is situated on 
 the left bank <>f the Sabermutty, which flows nearly 
 doe south into the Gulf of Cambay. It was built 
 in the year 1412, by Ahmed or A1ith.u1 Shah, and 
 underwent all the vicissitudes of government u 
 to the ci1 1. j of Hindustan, till the year 1818, whi n 
 it finally came under the power of the British. It 
 was formerly one of the largest and d 
 ficent capitals in the East— in the opinion of a 
 Dative writer, 'the handsomest city in Hindustan; 
 perhaps in the world.' Its architectural relics are 
 gorgeous, even in the midst of decay. The Jumna 
 or Juma'ah Maajid, or Great Mosque, rises from 
 the centre of the city, and is adorned by two 
 superbly decorated minarets, 'each of which con- 
 tain! a circular (light of steps, leading to a gallery 
 near the summit, Its domes are supported by 
 
 lofty columns, regularly disposed ; the concave of 
 thi 8 cupolas is richly ornamented with D 
 and fret-work. The pavement is of the finest 
 marble.' The mosque of Sujaat Khan is extremely 
 elegant. There is likewise an ivory mosque, which 
 has obtained that name from the circumstance, that 
 although built of white marble, it is ' curiously lined 
 with ivory, and inlaid with a profusion of gems, 
 to imitate natural (lowers, bordered by a 
 
 on mother-of-pearL' There are also the Fire 
 Temple and the Tower of Silence of the l'arsis. A. 
 once abounded in gardens, aqueducts, reservoirs, 
 &c. ; but these, especially the gardens, are now sadly 
 
 defaced and injured. Its prosperity has been almost 
 wholly destroyed by the rapacity of the Mahrattas, 
 although at one time it was famous for its manu- 
 facture of rich fabrics of silk and cotton, articles of 
 gold, silver, steel, and enamel. ' It employed many 
 artists in portrait-painting and miniatures,' and had 
 extensive trade in indigo, cotton, and opium. The 
 old city-walls, built in 14S.5, which had in the course 
 SB, and through tie assaults of enemies, become 
 very dilapidated, were repaired in 183-1 at an expense 
 of 250,000 rupees, and water conveyed from the river 
 through the city by means of pipes. It is distant 
 from Bombay 290 miles north; in lat. ^.'1 X., long. 
 72" 3ff. Pop. 130,000. 
 
 All MEDNTJ'GGUR, or AHMADNUGGUK, an 
 important town in the Presidency of Bombay. It 
 was founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah. 
 During the reign of his son, Boorhan Nizam 
 it reached a high degree of prosperity; but after 
 his death, it Witnessed an incessant series of wars, 
 confusions, and murders. In 1707, it fell into the 
 hands of the Hiahrattaa; and in 1803 was sur- 
 rendered, after a trivial resistance of two days, to 
 General Wellealey. It was, however, shortly after 
 re bored to I as Pi i hwa ; but in 1 s 1 7 , the fort 
 
 was again occupied by the British. The town has 
 
 ed rapidly since it came under British pro- 
 tection and rule. It possesses a mo I : 11 :l 1 
 
 a, in addition to its wall ; this consists ol in 
 'immense prickly-pear hedge about 20 feet high. 
 
 which is SO full of sap that no lire will kindle it, and 
 so vigorous that it is almost impossible to force one's 
 way through it.' a. contains an Knglish church, a 
 i (or place of entertainment for travellers) 
 ca|iable of holding 250 persons. It also 
 good supply of water b\ It is 
 
 11 from Bombay 122 miles east, in lat. 19° 6', 
 long. 74° 40'. There are several places of the same 
 name in Hindustan. 
 
 A' HR IMA N (in tin Zend. aKhro mainyus, i.e., 
 the malignant, destroying spirit) is, according to the 
 dualistic doctrine of Zoroaster, the personifii 
 
 of malignity, the original source of all moral and 
 
 I evil, the chief of the devils and ma] 
 
 spirits, the king of llarkneas and of .1- ati 
 consequently the eternal enemy and ppponi 
 Orrauzd and of bis kingdom of light. .Sec 
 Z0B.0A.STK1:. 
 
 AIDE-DE-CAMP, an officer who may 1 
 garded as a kind of superior confidi ntial at* 
 
 upon a general in active service. The A. is the 
 of the general. He carries all 01 
 
 lield of battle ; these- he Is to dohvc r ill tile pi 
 
 terms, bo hi to be distinctly understood ; and when 
 so understood, the orders are to be as implicitly 
 obeyed as if the general himself were pri si 
 speaking. Aa an example of theimpori 
 matter, may be adduced i he brill ai bu 
 light-cavalry charge at Balaklava in the antra 
 18f>4. Lord Laglan - nt a message, partly \ 
 and partly written, to the Earl of Lucan, concerning 
 a particular piece of strategy at a certain time and 
 place; the message was misconceived, and the Earl 
 of Cardigan was directed to make a military move- 
 ment, perfectly hopeless in its character, resulting 
 
 in a very serious cavalry loss; although the inci- 
 dent presented a fine display of heroism united 
 with discipline. An A. also acts as secretary to 
 the general, and assists him in his correspondence, 
 
 he has not specifically a military 
 He aids likewise in dispensing the courtesies of the 
 general's bouse or tent. Generals arc much 
 tamed to appoint their sons or other relations to this 
 confidential post. The Aides-de-camp vary from 
 one to four in number, according as the comm 
 is a brigadier-general, major-general, lieutenant- 
 general, general, or field-marshal : each t 
 li./. a day besides regimeutal pay. Ben 
 Cer can be appointed as A., he must ha\ 
 years with bis regiment, and must pass B 
 tion. Aides-de-camp are not removed from the list 
 of their regiments; and, most e ptains. 
 
 Besides these Aides-de-camp to generals, the 1 • 
 has the power to appoint any number ol 
 camp to herself, in her capacity of nominal head of 
 the army. There are no particular duties at: 
 to the office ; but it is much sought after, both as an 
 honour, and as conferring on the holder the rank of 
 colonel in the army. There are G who receive daily- 
 pay as Aides-de-camp, and who take it in turn to 
 attend the Queen on state occasions. In the year 
 Is;:;, there were no fewer than thirty-three military 
 Aides-de-camp to the Queen, of whom seven were 
 peers of the realm ; but of the thirty-three, only 
 nineteen belonged to the army, the rest, 1 
 of the marines, being mibtia officers, whose appoint- 
 ments are purely honorary. In addition to all the 
 
 there are' naval Aides-de-camp to 
 of whom there were eleven in the year l s 7o. 
 AIDE-TOI ET LE CIEL T'AIDERA 
 yourself, and Heaven will help yo moral 
 
 aphorism was the cry of certain Frei 
 writers to the middle classes, about the 
 and became the watch-word and title of a society. 
 
 having for U 1 ;i nl «te the electoral body in 
 
 Opposition to the government. Tins, however, was 
 done by means strictly legitimate, and chiefly 
 by out and political poblicatii 
 
 founders and active members belonged to the 
 
 party of Doctrinaires (q. v.). as Guixot, who was 
 
 it for some time, Duchatel. Duvergier de 
 
 Du Kemusat, Thiers, Cava 
 
 ewspaper was the organ ■ 
 
 association, and afterwards Le National. It had 
 
 U
 
 ATniX-ATNMrr.LEfi. 
 
 a great share in bringing about the revolution of 
 .lulv 1S30, and was at lirst cnuntcnanc d by the 
 government; but after a short time it waa 
 dissolved (1832). 
 
 AIIM'N, or lUZKLinsSAi:. a town of ' 
 Turkey, on the river Meander, in the pachalio of 
 Anatolia, bnilt out of the rains of the ancient 
 Tra lies, which was situated Mi. a plateau above tie' 
 it, town. It lies sixty miles south-east of 
 Smyrna, contains 6000 houses, and a popu 
 estimated at from 36,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, is 
 f..ur milrs in circuit, ami earn. . on a trade D 
 importance to that, of Smyrna. It. is adorned, like 
 all eastern cities, with numerous mosques and other 
 . and lias a pictun 
 
 AIDS. These were originally mere benevolences 
 granted by a tenant to his lord, in times of di 
 I mt gradually they came to In- regarded as matters 
 of right, and not of discretion. There were three 
 principal objects for which A. were demanded: 1 '. 
 To ransom the person of the lord when taken pri- 
 soner; "2<l, To make his eldest son a knight; and 3d, 
 To provide a suitable portion to liis eldest daughter 
 on her marriage. Ties.- A. were abolished by 12 
 Car. II. c. 24. 
 
 Am of the Ki.w, is where tie- king's tenants 
 pray A. qf the K. on account of rent demanded of 
 them by others. In such eases, the proceedings are 
 stopped till the king's or queen's counsel are heard 
 to say what they think fit for avoiding the king's 
 prejudice. 
 
 AI'GIIF.TTK, a French word, osed to denote the 
 down or plume (botanically, r ,i rr n.:) which is found 
 attach' d to i i table seeds, as the thistle and 
 
 dandelion. It is also used in reference to the !■ 
 tuft on the heads of several birds, as the heron ; and 
 in English zoology the name aigret or egret (q. v.) is 
 a] i] 'lied to the lesser white heron, an elegant bird, with 
 a white 1 'ody and a feathery ei . Hern I the term 
 A. came to be used to designate the long, delicate 
 white feathers which, being stuck upright in a lady's 
 dress, are calculated to give a majestic appear- 
 ance to the person. More recently, the usage has 
 been still further extended, and any head-dress 
 bearing an analogy to a plume, even a bouquet of 
 flowers, fastened with precious stones, is denominated 
 an A. 
 
 AIGUES MOETES | I, a Morttm), a small 
 town in Prance (pop. 3833), in the department of 
 (lard, which claims to have been founded by the 
 Roman Marius. It is situated in an extensive 
 marsh, impregnated with sea- salt, and is about 
 three miles from the Mediterranean, with which it 
 is connected by a canal. It was from A. M. that 
 St Louis sailed in 124s. and again in 1270, for the 
 Crusades— a proof that the sea then reached this 
 spot. In 1538, Francis I. had an interview at A. M 
 with Charles V. 
 
 AIGUI'LIjE (Fr. a needle), an instrument often 
 used by military engineers, to pierce a rock for the 
 reception of gunpowder, when any blasting or blow- 
 ing-up is to be effected. 
 
 AIGUILLE TTE, a part of the decorations of 
 military dress. It was formerly worn on the right 
 shoulder by general officers of various grades; but is 
 now chiefly confined to officers of the Ufe-Guards 
 and Horse-Guards. It is merely an ornament, com- 
 posed of gold or silver cords and loo 
 
 Al'GUIiET, a rope called a lashing-rope, 
 employed in ships-of-war for securing the breeching 
 of a gun. 
 
 AILAXTO (.IV. ,.'/,.,' glandulosa), a lofty and 
 beautiful tree, of the natural order Xanthoxylaeece 
 (see Xantiioxylon), a native of China, but now 
 
 itly planted to shade public walks in the 
 south ol i '" . and not uncommon in England 
 The styles are i tied base, the fruit con- 
 
 rata, i|. v.). 
 
 are large and pinnate, with an odd leaflet, 
 
 ■ling those of the ash. The tree grows better 
 than almost any other on ■ ils, and is 
 
 hardy enough to end limai i of the 
 
 north of Scotland. It is easily propagated bj 
 suckers and cuttings of the roots. The wo id i fine 
 grained, sat iny, and suited for cabin 
 
 AILETTES (Fr. little wings) were app i ■ 
 to the armour worn by knights in the 13th c. 
 They ' times made of leather, covered 
 
 with a kind of cloth called tarda, and I. 
 with silk laces. The form was sometimes cir- 
 cular, sometimes pentagonal, cruciform, or h i 
 shaped, but more usually square. Sometimes they 
 were not larger than the palm of the hand ; in othi r 
 instances, as large as a shield. In uio.^t hist 
 the A. were worn behind or at the side ot tin 
 shoulders. Whether the purpo b "i these append- 
 
 i I as a defence to the shoulders in we 
 
 so ' .i . mark, to indicate to the follow. 
 
 the knight his place in the Geld; or as arm i l 
 
 bearings, is not now clearly known; but the I" t 
 supposition is the most probable. A. an 
 many effigies, monumental brass) and I tained 
 windows, in our cathedrals and old churches. 
 
 AI'LSA CXLAIG, a remarkable islet about 10 
 miles from the southern coast of Ayrshire, oppo ite 
 Girvan, lat. 55' Iff 12" N. : long. 5° 7' W. I. 
 abruptly out of the sea to a height of 1114 feet, it 
 forms a most striking object, even at a COnsidi 
 distance. It is about two miles in circumfi n 
 and is accessible only at one point, wheri 
 accumulation of debris has formed a rough I 
 The rock may be described generally as a ml 
 trap, assuming in some places a distinct columnar 
 form, with dimensions far exceeding those of the 
 basaltic pillars of Staffs. On the north-west, per- 
 pendicular cliffs rise to a height of from 200 to 300 
 feet; on the other sides, the Cl to the 
 
 sea with a steep slope, covered with ■ ra and wild- 
 tlowers, with numerous scattered fragments of 
 rock. The only inhabitants are goats, rabbits, 
 and wild-fowl. Solan geese, in particular, breed 
 in the cliffs in countless numbers. About 200 
 feet from the summit are some springs, and on the 
 ledge of a crag on the eastern front, are the remains 
 of an ancient stronghold. In 1831, the lat- Earl of 
 Cassillis, tin' proprietor of A. C, was raised to the 
 dignity of Marquis of ,\ 
 
 AIN, a river in France, rises in the mountains of 
 the Jura, flows through the departments of .1 ura and 
 Ain, and after a course of about 1U0 nules, falls ml" 
 the Rhone, IS miles above Lyon. 
 
 AIN, a frontier department of France, i j bounded 
 on the N. by tin- departments of Jura and SaAne-et- 
 Loire, on the E. it is separated from Switzerland and 
 Savoy by the Rhone, which also divides it from I i re 
 on the S., while on the W. the Saflne separati 
 from the departments of the Rhone and Sadn 
 Loire. The eastern part is mountainous; but the 
 southern portion Of that part which lies to the west 
 of the Ain. tonus an argillaceous plateau, abounding 
 with marshes, which occasion epidemic fevers. This 
 dep, is divided into live arrondissements — Bourg, 
 Gex, Nantua, Trevoux, and into .':■"' cantons. 
 -JU5S sq. m. Pop. 363,290. Chief town, Bourg. 
 
 AINMULLER, Max. E.man., to whom we owe 
 the restoration of the art of painting on glass, was 
 born at Munich, 1S07. He began the study of 
 architecture, but afterwards entered the royal por- 
 celain manufactory as decorator; and it was here
 
 atnsworth— ai r- r, eds. 
 
 that he first succeeded in overcoming the t clinical 
 difficulties in the execution of glass-painting, A 
 separate institution was now established for the 
 art; and A., as inspector, succeeded in raising it 
 tu a high degree of perfection. He is said to 
 have first conceived the happy thought of laying 
 coloured glass on coloured, instead of the i 
 hitherto foil, i we. 1, of laying coloured glass on white ; 
 thus giving the command of above 100 variously 
 I [asses, in all gradations of tint, lie was 
 
 i the first, in conj rtion with Wehrstorfer, to 
 
 be pictnn i. ii ■ a. .s, and thus revive the art of 
 miniature glass-painting. Nor was it only technical 
 improvemi ots and inventions thai he contributed to 
 
 ewart; his artistic culture qualified him p 
 fully to aid the pegei ktion of taste that has 
 accompanied it. The first work of the new in 
 ti"M was the n toration of the windows of the 
 cathedral of R&tisbon (1826 1833), to which A. con- 
 tributed the ornamentation, and painted several of 
 the figures. lie made a like contribution to the 
 id windows of the church of Maxia-Hilf (1833 
 ■ — 1838), in Munich. In the contribution of 
 Ludwig of Havana to the cathedral I 
 and the numerous other windows > I 
 
 Munich for all parts of the world England among 
 the n at— A. displayed the highest artistic faculty in 
 giving to the figures a rich setting of architi 
 
 ornamentati in such away as to] ■ with 
 
 the style of the building. — A. has also acquired a 
 great reputation as an architectural painter in oil. 
 Anion.; bis pieces are St Mark's Church, in Vi 
 the interior of St Stephen's Church, Vienna; the 
 interior of Windsor Chapel, of Westminster Abbey, 
 and the Poets' Corner. He died December 1870. 
 
 AI'NSWORTII, Robert, the author of a once 
 extensively used Latin Dictionary, was born at 
 Wbodvale, near Manchester, in 1660. He was 
 educated at Bolton, and taught a school there for 
 time, but afterwards went to London, where 
 lie v. 1 for many years in educational 
 
 pin-suits. In 1711, he commenced his Dictionary 
 [Latin-English and English-Latin), which, however, 
 was not published until 1730. A. died near London 
 on the 4th of April 1743. He wrote also some 
 Latin poems, and a few treatises on various sub- 
 
 . but nothing keeps his memory alive i 
 the Dictionary, which itself is now f 
 away into obhvion. The labour expended on su u 
 a production was indeed highly honourable to the 
 author, hut the work has no claim to the character 
 of an accurate or philosophical li neon, and, in spite 
 of the numerous emendations it has received, it 
 remains essentially what it was at first. Tt ha 
 superseded by Riddell's, and more recently by 
 , and other Lexicons. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Willum Francis, an English 
 
 physician, .1 traveller, a relation of the 
 
 foregoing, was Bom at Exeter, lsi>7. He studied 
 I Edinburgh, and iving ( 1827) 
 
 his medical diploma, he travelled in France, and 
 i [ical investigations in the Auvergne 
 and Pyrenean mountains. Returning to Edinl 
 in 1828, he conducted the publication of the J< 
 of Natural and Geographical Science, and delivered 
 lectures on '..I- ii 35, he wa 
 
 physician and geologist to the Euphrates expedition 
 under Colonel Chesney, at the recommendation of 
 Colonel Sabine, and returned heme in 1 s.'i7 through 
 Kurdistan, the Taurus, and Asia Minor. In tie 
 following year, he went s ain to Asia Minor, being 
 Bent with Rassam and Russell by the G 
 Society, and the Societj for the Diffusion of I tu - 
 tiau Knowledge. The objc cts were cliietly to ex])lore 
 the course of the Halys, and to visit the Christians 
 
 in Kurdistan. On his return (1841) he publish d 
 
 I- ', 
 and Travels in tlie Tr< 10,000. He has 
 
 edited Xenophon' M I 
 
 published, among other • I alley 
 
 Boyle to 1 
 
 bytht VaUeyqfth Tigris — a project which the Turk- 
 ish government has since carried out He is (Isy.j) 
 tor and editor of the A', w Monthly Mag 
 AINSWOBTH, Wim.iam Haebjbon, a well- 
 known writer of fiction, wi >, 1805, at 
 
 Manchester, where his father was a solicitor. His 
 creative fancy began early to ■ in ballads 
 
 and tales, which appeared in the local news] ■ 
 and in contributions to the London Magazine and 
 other p d hi.s 
 
 1 after a while 
 
 he lor. ook law for literature, and at first began a 
 ; in London, which, however, he 
 soon gavi up in di appointment. He had pre\ 
 published his first novel, Sir ' Hon (1825). 
 
 After spending some time on the continent, he 
 returned to England, and wrote .'■ 1834), 
 
 which was favourably received. It was follov 
 Crichton (1837) and Jack Sheppard (1839 
 edited for a time !>• ntley'a M 
 began his own Ai in 1 345 he 
 
 acquired also the N< u> Monthly Mogozim from 
 Colburn. He published the Lancaslurt Witt 
 
 1S4S ; six years later, appeared the Star Ch imbi r : 
 in 1860, Ovingdean Orangt ; the Lord Mayor of 
 London was published 1862, Cardinal Pole the 
 following year, and John Law,th< Projector, in 1864. 
 His more recent works are the Spanish Match, the 
 ConstabU d* Bourbon, Old Court, Middleton Pom- 
 plin t, and Hilary Si Ives. 
 
 AIR, or ASBEN, a kingdom of Centre' 
 extending from about 17 to 19 1J. lafc, and fro 
 to :r E. long. Agades (q.v.) is the capital, and 
 residence of the sultan, but his power is in a large 
 measure merely nominal. The country contains 
 various towns and villages, and is principally 
 inhabited by three large tribes— the Kel-owi, the 
 Kel-geres, and [tisan, each of which has nun 
 subdivisions. There are, besides, the Kel-n-Ni 
 the Imgbad, &c. The word tel means 'people,' 
 but specially denotes sfttlrd people, in opposition to 
 Thus, Kel-owi is people settled in the 
 valley of Owi. Many of the tribes and families live 
 not in fixed dwellings, but movable tents made of 
 mats. The valleys of A. are naturally rich, but 
 they are poorly cultivate! 1. Food end clothii 
 both imported. The population, which 
 
 lerable, could not be 8u n L, v ri I 
 
 salt-trade of Bilma, a town lying to the east of 
 A., in the Tebu country. Although the valleys 
 of A. are in the region of the tropics, the dim 
 comparatively temperate. See Earth's i 
 d Africa, vol. i. 
 
 AIR is the name given to that compound of 
 constituting tie- substance of our atmosphere. 
 
 merly, all aeriform tbi" : I'd 'airs,' but in 
 
 this sense the word gas is now- used. The chief 
 properties of air. and the phenomena they give 
 rise to, will be found treated ondi r Atmosphere, 
 igrodj nmp, Baron 
 
 All!, in Music, s-e Am w 
 
 AIR-EEL'S and AIR-CUSHIONS. Ail 
 known as early as the beginning of the 1" 
 ing made of feather, were expensive, It was 
 
 only after the invention of air-tight 01 Mai 
 cloth that it became possible to use air in this way 
 at a moderate cost. An air-bed consists of a sack in
 
 AiR-BLADDER-AIR-CHN. 
 
 the form of a mattress, divided into a number of 
 comportments, each air-tight; a projection . 
 end forms a bolster. Each compartment lias a 
 valve, throu h which the air is blown in by a 
 The advantages of such beds, in point of 
 cleanness, coolness, Hghtna—, and elasticity are 
 obvious. They are specially valuable in man', 
 
 knees. The travelling-cuthion is another con- 
 trivance of the same kind. Recently, vnle i 
 India-rubber, instead of cloth, has been used in the 
 fabrication of such articles. The chief drawback to 
 
 itrivancee is the liability to being spoil, d by 
 
 a rent or other injury. 
 
 AIR-BLADDER, or SWIMMING-BLADDER, 
 iii Fishes. An organ apparently intended to aid them 
 in ascending in deep water, and for the accoiu 
 tion of their specific gravity to various depths. It is 
 made to serve this purpose by the increase or dimi- 
 nution of its voluiti ig to the degree of pres- 
 sure exerted upon it by the ribs. Its place is in the 
 abdomen, under the spine; and it is very various in 
 size and form in different kinds of tishes. It gene- 
 rally has an opening into the phagus, or into the 
 
 oh, but apparently only for the ejection, and 
 not for tin admission of air. In some lislies, it has 
 no opening. The air with which the A. is filled 
 appears tobe the result of secretion; and in fresh- 
 water lislies. consists in general almost entirely of 
 nitrogen, but contains a larger proportion of oxygen 
 in sea-fishes; the oxygen in deep-sea fishes having 
 
 found to amount to 87 per cent. The A. is 
 in some tishes very small; in others, it is entirely 
 wanting, particularly in lislies that are destined to 
 live chiefly at the bottom of the water, as flat fishes, 
 
 D 
 
 
 Air-bladder of Carp : 
 
 Consisting of two parts -1! ami (', Joined by a narrow necl< ; 
 
 A 1», a canal communicating with oesophagus, IS. 
 
 eels, &c. ; but there arc remarkable instances of its 
 absence also in species of very different habits, such 
 as the common mackerel, whilst it exists in other 
 species of the same genus or family. The A. of 
 tishes affords the finest kind of isinglass, 
 AIR-CELLS, or AIR-SACS, in Birds, are remark- 
 cavities connected with 1 1 1 ■ - respiratory sys- 
 tem. They are distributed 
 along the inside of the 
 whole cavity of the chest 
 and abdomen ; and in 
 birds of Btrong win 
 rapid Hi lit, oi ben send 
 prolongations into the 
 bones. They are con- 
 nected with t lie ex tivnn In- 
 active respiratory 
 and communicate with 
 the lungs, giving an im- 
 mense extension to the 
 surface with which thei i 
 inhaled come inci 
 The cells in the lungs of 
 
 m 
 
 , Jtc, of Ostrich : 
 a a ,/ a 'i, air-cells; b ft, lun^s; 
 c, heart ; d, stomach J 
 c, intestines. 
 
 the mammalia, into which the air is 
 conveyed by minute ramifications 
 of the windpipe, in order to be 
 brought into contact with the - 
 blood distributed on their walls. Air-tubes of Insect, 
 are very small ; in man, only about 
 one-hundredth part of an inch in diameter. — Air- 
 94 
 
 cells, or air gaos, iiny be said to form tie- wholi 
 in .some of the lower kind 
 animals (see A\M LtDA), whilst in others, higher in 
 
 misatton, particularly in in 
 , arising from these ramify throughout the 
 
 whole body. Thi' air-tubes ol in i are formed 
 of a spiral fibre within a membrar. 
 
 spiral vessels of plants, so that they po 
 
 i I city. 
 AIR-CELLS in plan ontaining air 
 
 stems or leaves. Thi of the inter- 
 
 cellular passages are closed up, bo as to prevent the 
 oi the plant from entering them. They are 
 very variable in size, figure, ami arrangement, but 
 are formed according to a uniform rule in each parti- 
 cular species in which they are found. They are 
 
 large and numerous in many aquatic plants, evi- 
 
 dently serving tin; purpose of buoying them up in the 
 
 r \. of regular form, there are irregular 
 
 cavities, also called by the same name, which 
 to be formed by the tearing of the cellular tissue in 
 the rapid growth of the plant, as in grasses and 
 umbelliferous plants. 
 
 AIR-ENGINE. See Caloric K\c;i\i:. 
 
 AIR-GUN, an instrument for firing bullets or 
 other projectiles, by the force of compressed air 
 instead of gunpowder. Various forms of construc- 
 tion have been adopted, 'lie- most usual plan is to 
 insert a condensing syringe in lie n I. of the gun. 
 The piston of this syringe is worked by an apparatus 
 which passes through to the exterior of the gun ; 
 and this working causes a small body of air to be 
 condensed into a chamlwr. The chamber lias a 
 valve opening into the barrel, just, behind the place 
 the bullet is lodged. The gun is loaded from 
 the muzzle, as ordinary muskets or fowling-pieces ; 
 and there is at that time just behind it a small body 
 of highly compressed air, ready to rush out at any 
 opening. This opportunity is afforded by a move- 
 ment of the trigger, which opens the valve ; the 
 air rushes forth with such impetuosity as to propel 
 the bullet. By a certain management of tic 
 i. two or three bullets, successively and 
 separately introduced, can be tired oil' if firing it 
 can be called — by one mass of cone 
 Another form of A. contains several bullets in a 
 receptacle or channel under the barrel ; by the 
 movement of a cock or lever, one of these bullets 
 en readily be shifted into the barrel; and thus 
 several successive discharges can be made after one 
 loading — on a principle somewhat analogous to 
 that of the revolving pistol. Some varieties of A. 
 have the condensing syringe detached, by which 
 a more powerful condensation of air may be 
 produced; this done, the air-chamber is replaced in 
 lis proper position behind the bullet in the barrel, 
 air-guns which present the external appear- 
 ance of stout walking-sticks, and arc thence called 
 air-canes, have a chamber within the handle for 
 containing condensed air, which can be unscrewed, 
 and subjected to the action of the condensing ; \ i 
 One inventor has devised a form of A. with two 
 barrels — one of small bore for the reception of the 
 bullets, and another of larger bore for the reservoir 
 of condensed air; the condensing syringe being 
 within the stock of the gun. An attempt has more 
 recently been made to combine the action of elastic 
 springs with that of compressed air, in an A. ; 
 springs of gutta-percha, or of vulcanised india- 
 rubber, are employed in substitution of, or in co- 
 operation with, a condensing syringe. No form 
 of A. hitherto made has had power enough to 
 propel a bullet to any considerable distance ; and 
 therefore the instrument is scarcely available in 
 war ; there are, however, circumstances in which
 
 AIR-PLANTS— AIRY. 
 
 such an arm may be useful — seeing that then is no 
 expense for gunpowder, do noise, no smoke, no 
 unpleasant Odour. The A. was known in Franc- 
 more than two centuries ago ; but the ancients 
 wit': acquainted with some kind of apparatus, by 
 which air was made to act upon the shorter arm 
 of a lever, while the larger arm impelled a bullet. 
 
 \ir-PLA.\ts. Bee Enra 
 AIR-PUMP, an instrument far removing the air 
 
 from a vessel. 'I 1 part is a hollow 
 
 or glass cylinder, in which an air-tight piston is 
 made to move up and down by a rod. From the 
 bottom of the cylinder, a connecting tube leads to 
 the space which is to be exhausted, which is usually 
 formed by placing a bell-glass, called the receiver, 
 with edges ground smooth, and smeared with 
 lard, on a flat, smooth plate or tabic. When the 
 bottom of the barrel, and is then 
 drawn up, it lifts out the air from the barrel, and 
 
 a portion of the air under the receiver, by ib 
 expansive force, passes through the connecting tube, 
 and occupies the space below the piston, which 
 would otherwise be a vacuum. The air in the 
 
 er and barrel is thus rarefied. The piston is 
 now forced down, and the effect of this is to close 
 a valve placed at the mouth of the connecting 
 and opening inwards into the barrel The air in 
 the barrel is tints cut off from returning into the 
 ad, as it becomes condensed, forces up a 
 valve in the piston, which opens outwards, anil thus 
 escapes into the atmosphere. When the piston 
 reaches the bottom, and begins to ascend again, this 
 valve closes ; and the same process is repeated as at 
 the first ascent. Each stroke thus diminishes the 
 quantity of air in the receiver ; but from the nature 
 of the process, it is evident that the exhaustion can 
 never be Complete. Even theoretically, there must 
 always lie a portion left, though that portion may be 
 rendered lees than any assignable quantity ; and 
 practically the process is limited by the elastic force 
 of the remaining air being no longer sufficient to 
 open the valves. The degree of rarefaction is indi- 
 
 by a i/iiiye on the principle of the barometer. 
 By means of the partial vacuum formed by the 
 A., a great many interesting exp 
 
 rated, illustrating the effects of atmospheric 
 her mechanical properties of gases. 
 A. was invented by Otto Guerickc (i 
 1664 ; and though many improvements and varieties 
 have been principle of 
 
 all is the same. Two barrels are generally 01 
 as to double the effect of one stroke. I 
 pumps, Stop-COCks tuned by the hand take th 
 
 of valves; and in others, the entrance of the con- 
 ' i tube into the cylinder is so contrived that 
 the valve through the piston is not required. 
 
 AIRD, XHOHAn, a poet of considerable g 
 born at Bowden, in Roxburghshire, in 180ft 
 
 Hfe received the rudiments of education at schools 
 in his native county, from which he passed to the 
 
 university of Edinburgh. While in the metropolis, 
 
 he made the friendship of many lUstingiushed men, 
 
 especially Professor John Wilson, who was accus- 
 
 to speak of him in the b L In 
 
 1835, he became editor of TV Herald, a 
 
 BOW journal, started rativs prin< 
 
 Ills genius is of a purely literary character, and 
 
 Teethe in the discuss. 
 
 is. His works are not so well 
 
 known as they deserve to be, from their intrinsic 
 
 f very warm eulogy from 8< 
 the greatest names in popular criticism, and in 
 spite of many elaborate and discriinina: 
 in various important magazines, they 1 
 to secure a large measure of public a]. pro! 
 The Dt e ■■''" •« Dn am is perhaps an exception I 
 rest, for it is both well known and adin 
 petent judges have asserted that there is 
 
 utesque in the stern, intense, and 
 sublime literalness of the conception. This | 
 of realisation in painting object .rand 
 
 characteristic of Mr A.'s mind. Whether th* 
 scenes are colossal, as in The 1) 
 minute, as in The Summer's Day, there is the same 
 clear, vigorous, and picturesque word-painting. 
 Herein lies Mr A.'s chief originality, I 
 thought and sentiment, though always pur.- and 
 
 re not strikingly novel. In 1^-7, he published 
 us Characteristics, a piece of exalted prose- 
 poetry; in 1845. Tlie Old Badtelor, a volume of 
 tales and sketches ; in 1848, a collected edition 
 of his poems — a second edition of which appeared 
 in 1850 ; and in 1852, he edited the Bali 
 of David Macbeth Moir (the 'Delta' of / 
 prefixing a memoir for the benefit of l)r I 
 family. 
 
 AI'RDUIK. a town recently separated from th-> 
 parish of New Monkland, and erected into a quoad 
 
 parish, Lanarkshire, 11 miles E. of Ola 
 The high-road between Edinburgh and 01 
 intersecting it, forms its principal street. It lias 
 . and is now one of the most flourishing 
 inland towns in Scotland. Little more than a cen- 
 tury ago, it consisted of a solitary farmhouse or two ; 
 but the abundance of iron and coal in the vicinity 
 
 •en its progress an imjietus like that of an 
 American city (see G vrtshf.rrie). The Monkland 
 Canal and the Caledonian Railway receive the pro- 
 duce of the coal-pits and iron mines. The tow 
 some neat buildings, is well paved, and lighted with 
 gas. The weaving of cotton goods for I 
 manufacturers is carried on t .tent, 
 
 as is also the distillation of spirits, silk-w. 
 anl paper-making. Fop. in 1871, 15,671. 
 
 A.IT.Y, George BrnDEix, D.C.L., M.A., A-v 
 nier Royal, was born at Alnwick in 1801. 11 
 educated principally at Colchester, from which he 
 I in 1S19 to the university of Cambridge. In 
 1828, he was lolar; in If k the 
 
 of B.A.. with the honour of .Seiner Wrangler ; 
 and in 1S26. that ofM.A. In the same >ear, hi 
 
 d to the chair of Science founded by Lucas, 
 which he rescued from the reproach of bein g a 
 sinecure, by delivering a course of public lectures on 
 experimental philosophy. In 1828, he was made 
 Plnmian professor, and had the management I 
 newly erected Cambria tory intrust 
 
 him. On account of his Bevere and unintcrmitting 
 labours in connection with this office, his income 
 was augmented from the funds of the university. 
 He published his observations (Astronomic 
 
 arranged in 
 
 a olear and simple manner ; and they have served 
 as a model ever since for those of Greenwich and 
 other observatories. In 1S35, the office of Astro: 
 
 H
 
 AISLE-AIX-LA-C'ITArELLE. 
 
 I loyal becoming vacant, MrA. was appointed toil by 
 Lord Am lv 1. 1 1 m I . then Krst Lord of the Admiralty. 
 He lias introduced new ox more perfect scientific 
 instruments, more rapid methods of calculation, and 
 irches in magnetism, meteorology, photography, 
 &c. Mi' contributed the well-known article on 
 'Gravitation,' to the Penny Gyclopcedia (18.17). 
 Equally excellent ami popular is his treatise on 
 Trigonometry, which was written for the E 
 
 1 '■urn ( 1 855). He ; has deservedly 
 
 obtained the reputation of being one of the most 
 able and indefatigable of living eavans. He served 
 on the Royal Commission appointed in 1868, to 
 inquire into the standard weights and measures. In 
 1809, he communicated, in a 'Note' to the EtoyaJ 
 Astronomical .Society, a remarkable discovery on 
 'Atmospheric Chromatic Dispersion, a 
 Telescopic Observation, and the mode of correcting 
 it.' lie was nominated a Companion (Civil) of the 
 Bath in 1871. Mr A. is an I'.ll.s. ; an Honorary 
 
 Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, C 
 
 sponding Member of the French Institute, a D.C.L. 
 of Cambridge and Oxford, and LL.D. of Edinburgh. 
 AISLE (fromLat. ala, 
 
 
 (Melrose Abb J I. 
 
 i I means any lat- 
 eral division of any part 
 of a church, whether 
 nave, choir, or transept. 
 The number of aisles 
 
 varies in II Imivlies 
 
 of differenl countries. 
 In England, there is only 
 
 n each side of the 
 
 eue or choir ; in most 
 foreign countries, there 
 
 i nerally two, and 
 .it i lologne there are even 
 tluve. The continental 
 
 edifices, it would seem, 
 
 have antiquity in their 
 i.i our for this arrange- 
 ment (see Basojca). The 
 word is often incorrectly 
 applied to the open 
 ^ pace in the nave of 
 churches between the Beal i of the congregation. 
 
 AISNE, a tributary of the Oise, in France, rises 
 in the department of Mense, anil Hows north-west 
 through the departments of Marne and Ardennes, 
 and then west through that of Aisne and part of 
 Oise, where it falls into the river Disc, above 
 
 i gne. Its course extends to 150 miles, of 
 
 v. hich 7" are navigable. 
 
 AISNE, a department in the north of France, 
 form, d of a part of ancient Picardy and the Isle of 
 France. It belongs to the basin of the Seine, and is 
 intersected by the river A, and by other na\ igable 
 streams and canals. The soil is fertile; the chief 
 culture is wheat, and other grain. Its rich meadows 
 supply Paris with hay. The ana is 2830 Bquare 
 miles,' with a population of (1871) 652,439. It is the 
 seat of considerable cotton and other manufactures, 
 the centre of which is St Quentin (q. v.), and at St 
 Cm!, m is the famous manufactory of mirrors. The 
 department is divided into 6 anondissements and 
 "tons. The chief town is Laon (q. v.). 
 AIX, a town in France, formerly the capital 
 of Provence, now the chief town of an arron- 
 • nt in the department of the Bonehos-dn- 
 Khone. It is believed to have been built by the 
 Roman consul, C. Sextius (120 B.O.), on accounl of 
 the mineral springs in the neighbourhood, and 
 thence called Aquas Sextiai. A. is the seat of a 
 court of appeal ; and possesses an academy for 
 theology and law, aud a public library which 
 96 
 
 reckons marly 1(1(1,00(1 vols., and 1100 MSS. The 
 baptistery of file cathedra] is believed to have been 
 onginallj a temple Of Apollo. The numerous public 
 fountain ivi a i hi rful air to the place. One of 
 them has a sculpture of the Good Kong i;.n. . 
 cuted by David. There is also an old clock tower, 
 the machinery of which, when the dock Btriki , 
 
 ' a quaint-looking figures in motion. The 
 
 industry of this again flourishing town consists 
 chiefly in the cultivation of the olive, in cotton- 
 spinning, leather-dressing, and trade in oil, wine, 
 almond . a c. Tie' warm springs are slightly sulphu- 
 
 i . with a temperature from tin to loo' f., clear 
 
 and transparent as the purest well-water, almost 
 loe from smell, yet with a slightly bitter 
 Thej have tie- reputation of improving the beauty 
 
 of the shin, and are on this a m , pecially fre- 
 quented by the fair sex. The field on which Marins 
 defeated the Teutones lies in the plain between A. 
 ami Aries. In the middle ages, under the I 'oinil ot 
 Provence (see lli.s k), A. was Ion;.' the literary capital 
 of Southern Europe. The population of the muni- 
 cipality of Aix in 1871 was 18,905. 
 
 AIX (Aqmi (,'riii'umn, AUdbrogwm), a small town 
 of Savoy, pop. 2 3000, in :i delightful valley near 
 
 i Bourget, seven miles north from Chambery. 
 
 It was a much frequented bathing-place ni t he times 
 of the lioman empire, and among its numerous 
 remains of ancient times, are the arch of Pompom'us, 
 the ruins of a temple and of a vaporarium. The 
 king of Sardinia has a palace hi re. The hot springs, 
 two in number, are of sulphurous quality, and of a 
 temperature above 100° !•'. They are used both for 
 drinking and as baths, and attract annually above 
 
 •-' visitors. 
 
 AIX-LA-OHAPELT.1-: (Ger. Aachen) is the 
 capital of a district in llhenish Prussia, It is situati d 
 in a fertile hollow, surrounded by heightB, eel 
 v.iii' red by the \Vunn ; N. lat. 50° <17', E Ion 6 
 5' ; pop. (1871) 71,-38, of whom a very small propor- 
 tion arc Protestants. A. is the centre of numerous 
 thriving manufactories, especially for spinning ami 
 weaving woollen fabrics, and for needle and pin- 
 making. There are also immense manufacture of 
 machinery, bells, glass-buttons, chemicals, cigars, &c. 
 As a principal station on the Belgian- llhenish rail- 
 ways, A. is an important staple place of Prussian 
 trade. The city is rich in historical associations. It 
 
 emerges Eronuhistorical obscurity about the tin f 
 
 Pepin, ami Charlemagne founded its world-wide 
 
 celebrity. Whether it was the birthplace of ( Iharle- 
 
 ,. is doubtful, but it became his grave 814 
 
 A. li. In 700 A.le. Charlemagne caused the already 
 
 existing palace, called the Imperial Palace, to be 
 
 entirely rebuilt, as well as the chapel, in which 
 Pepin had celebrated Christmas in 705 A. n. The 
 two buildings Mere connected by a colonnade, which 
 fell into ruins a short time before the emperor's 
 death, probablyfrom the effects of an earthquake. 
 The present town-house has been built on the ruins 
 of the palace; the chapel, after being destroyed by 
 the Normans, was rebuilt on tin- ancient plan by 
 Otho III., in OS.'!, and forms the nucleus of the 
 present cathedral. This ancient cathedral is in the 
 form of an octagon, which, with various additions 
 round it, forms, on the outside, a sixteen-sided 
 figure. I" tli" middle of the octagon, a stone, with 
 the inscription * Cap.oi.o Mac.no,' marks the grave of 
 Charlemagne. Otto III. opened the vault in the 
 year 007 a. n. The body of the emperor was 
 found in a wonderful state of preservation, seated 
 upon a marble chair, dressed in his robes, his sceptre 
 in his hand, the Gospel on his knee, a piece of the 
 holy cross on his head, and a pilgrim's scrip attached 
 to his girdle. Otto caused the tomb to be built up 
 again, after repairing the injuries of the arch. In
 
 ATX-LA-CHAPELLE. 
 
 ] L65 a.d., when the emperor Frederick I. caused the 
 vault to be re-opened, the limn suf tin- great emperor 
 were enshrined in a casket of gold and silver, ami a 
 large and beautifully wrought chandelier was hong 
 up over th - tomb as a memorial In 1215 a.d., 
 
 Frederick II. caused the remains c.f tin' emperor to 
 In- 1'iielosi'il in a costly chest, in which they are yi t 
 kept iii the sacristy. The marble chair was, in later 
 
 times, overlaid with gold plates, and used till 1558 
 A. n. at the imperial em'"iiations, as a throne for the 
 newly crowned emperor. The imperial inaignia were 
 removed to Vienna in 1795. In the 14th c, a choir 
 in the Gothic style was added to the east side of the 
 Octagon, which had been 1 milt in the Byzantine 
 
 style; while mi the west side, a square belfry was 
 
 joined to it, as well as two small round towers, with 
 winding stairs leading to the treasury. Here are 
 kept the so-called 'great relics,' which, once in 
 seven years, arc still shewn to the people, in the 
 month of duly, from the gallery of the tower. This 
 spectacle attracts many thousands of strangers to A. 
 Much has of late years been done to restore tins 
 venerable pile. The columns brought by Charle- 
 magne from the palace of the Exarch at Ravenna, 
 to decorate the interior of the octagon, had been 
 
 carried off by the French; and although pan m 
 them had been restored at the peace of I'aris, they 
 v. ti in 'I replaced in the building till recently. 
 
 Tin- town-house which encloses the remains of 
 tie I in |" i id I 'a lace —adorns the market-place, having 
 the ISell or Market Tower on the left, and on the 
 right the Granus Tower, a memorial of old Roman 
 tunes. The coronation-hall, I (jl! feet long, by 60 
 feet wide, in the interior of the town-house, was, in 
 the last century, divided in the middle by a wooden 
 hi. Tins noble hall, in which thirty-seven 
 m emperors and eleven empresses have been 
 crowned, has been restored to its original form, 
 and the walls are in process of being decorated 
 with large fresco-paintings of scenes from the life of 
 Charlemagne, by Bethel. Before the town-house 
 stands a beautiful fountain, with a bronze statue of 
 Charlemagne. In the church of the Franciscans, 
 :in tn be seen a tine picture of the Taking Down of 
 Christ from the Cross, by Vandyck, and two other 
 pictures representing the Crucifixion, by A. lliepen- 
 beeck. At a Bhort distance from A., and surrounded 
 by the river, stands I'rankenburg, once the favourite 
 
 abode of Charlemagne and of Fastrada, and still 
 
 rich in legends. It has been rebuilt from its romantic 
 nuns. As a town, A. has recently been much im- 
 proved. It now possesses many tine buildings, 
 among which are several large and splendid hotels. 
 I'' i "in being a quiet old city of historical interest, 
 it has become a busy centre of manufacturing 
 industry. In 1S70, a new Polytechnic School was 
 erected. A. was formerly noted for its gambling- 
 i tbles; but these are now disallowed. 
 
 I In- name of Aix or Aachen is evidently derived 
 from the springs, for which the place has been 
 
 always fa l . (Sec \ \.) The name \ipiis C.ranuni, 
 
 which it i iv.d about the .'id c, may possibly be 
 
 derived from On . one of the names of Apollo, 
 
 who was w.irshipped by the Romans near springs. 
 The French name. A., refers to tli" Chapel i>! the 
 
 Palace. Charlemagne granted extraordinary privi- 
 leges to tins city. The citizens \miv exempted, in 
 all parts of tic empire, from personal and military 
 
 service, from imprisonment, and from all taxes. 
 
 The cits al o] ssed the right of sanctuary : 'the 
 
 air of A. made all free, even outlaws.' In the 
 
 middle agi -. tin-' Eree imperial city (thru included 
 in tin- circle ol Westphalia) contained more than 
 
 Inn. olio inhabitants; and held an important place 
 
 smong the confederated cities of the Rhine. The 
 
 emperors were crowned in A. from Louis the Pious 
 7 
 
 to Ferdinand I. (813—1531 A.D.). 17 imperial diets 
 and 11 provincial councils were held wit I 
 walls. The removal of the coronations to Frankfort, 
 th.- religions contests of the 16th and 17th centuries, 
 a in at fire which in 1656 a.d. consumed about loco 
 
 b in the city, combined with other causes to 
 
 bring into decay this once flourishing community. 
 In January 1793, and again in 1794, A. -was occu- 
 pied by the French. By the treaties concluded at 
 i 'ampo Formic and Luneville, it was formally ceded 
 i ' I i nice, and became the capital of the d 
 ment of Boer; at length, in 1815, the city fi 
 Prussia. S,e Quix, QeschiclUt dor Stadt . I .'( History 
 of A.), 2 vols., A., 1841. J 
 
 The Mineral Sriaxos of A., of which six arc hot, 
 and two cold, were known in the time ( if I harlemagne, 
 and were much frequented as early a- IITn. The hot 
 springs are strongly sulphurous, and contain also 
 
 hydra hlorates. The temperature varies from 1 1 1° 
 
 L36 F. They chiefly act on the liver, and on the 
 mucous surfaces and skin, and are therefore efficaci- 
 ous in eases of gimt, rheumatism, entam m 
 ivo. The most remarkable is tin- - Emp u-i <)iritiL.',' 
 which rises in the middle of tin- H rbad. 
 
 The baths themselves are from 4 to 5 feet deep, and 
 are built quite in the old Boman style. Th' 
 springs arc chalybeate, and not so copious. The 
 new ' Eiscnquelle ' (iron spring), first discovered in 
 1829, is provided with an elegant bath-house. The 
 well-proved medicinal virtues of the mineral spi 
 of A. firing yearly to the city many thousands of 
 strangers. 
 
 Treaties of Peace, and Congress of A. — The 
 first Peace of A. ended the war carried on between 
 France and Spain for the possession of tin- Spanish 
 Netherlands. On the death of Philip IV., Louis 
 XTV. laid claim to a large portion of those territories 
 in the name of his wife, Maria Theresa, the daughter 
 of Philip, urging the law of succession prevailing in 
 Brabant and Nainur respecting private prop 
 The victorious progress of Louis was checked by 
 the triple alliance between England, Holland, and 
 Sweden ; and a treaty of peace was concluded at 
 A. in 1668, by which France retained possession of 
 the fortresses of Charleroi, Lille, &c, winch she had 
 already taken. 
 
 The second Peace of A. concluded the war respect- 
 ing tlie succession of Maria Theresa to the empire. 
 .•s.e Si i cession, Wars of. After the war had Been 
 earned on with various success for eight years, 
 peace was concluded in 1748. En i. the 
 
 possessions of the several Btates remained as 
 before the war. Austria ceded Parma and Plaeentia 
 to the Spanish infanta, Philip; and the po 
 sion of Silesia was guaranteed to Prussia. The 
 privilege of the Assicnto Tnaty anew 
 
 confirmed to England fur four years, and the pre- 
 tender was expelled from France. Owing chiefly to 
 the exertions of her minister. Kaunitz. Ai 
 oil' with but small sacrifice, while England, notwith- 
 standing her splendid victories, derived little solid 
 advantage, and was left with a debt raised t" 80 
 millions. 
 
 The Congress of A. was held in 1818, for regulating 
 
 the affairs of Europe after the war. Ii began on the 
 
 30th September, and ended mi the 21sl November. 
 
 Its principal object was the withdrawal from France 
 
 of the army of occupation, 150,000 strong. :is well 
 
 as the receiving of France again into aoeof 
 
 ..t powers. Hie emperors of Russia and 
 
 Austria, and the king of Prussia, were personally 
 
 fin plenipotentiaries were — Metternicli, 
 
 and Wellington, Sardenberg and Bern- 
 
 storrT, Nesselrode and Capo aVIstrias, with Richelieu 
 
 on tin- part of France. France having engaged to 
 
 complete the payment of the stipulated sums of 
 
 97
 
 AJACCIO— AKBAR. 
 
 money, was admitted to take part in tho delibera- 
 i and tlv 1 five great powers assembled, signed a 
 
 | ol announcing a policy, known as that of the 
 
 < Holy Alliance' (q. v.) (1867— pop. 68,000.) 
 
 AJA'CCIO, the chief town of tip 
 which forma a department of France. Pop. in 1872, 
 13,580. The chief employments are tin- anchovy 
 
 -. ami thi' bade in \\ Mi 
 oil, which the neighbourhood produces in abundance, 
 and of good quality. 33 ■ is protected by a 
 
 strong fort. A. is remarkable as the birthpl 
 Teon; the house is still to be seen. 
 
 AJA'N, a portion of tie E. coast of A < 
 ing from Cape Guardafui nearly to the equator. 
 
 A .1 AX was the name of two of the Greek heroes 
 of the Trojan war. One of them was called A. the 
 Less, or the Locrian, being the son of Oilens, king of 
 the Locrians. At the head of forty Locrian ships, he 
 I against Troy, and was one of the bravest of the 
 Greek heroes; in swiftness of foot, he excelled all 
 except Achilles. When Cassandra fled to the temple 
 of .Minerva, after the taking of Troy, it is said that 
 A. tore her from it by force, and dragged her away 
 captive. Others make him even violate the pro- 
 phetess in the temple. Though he exculpated him- 
 self l>y an oath when accused of this crime by Ulysses, 
 yet he did not escape the vengeance of the goddess, 
 who caused him to be engulfed in the waves. 
 
 The other A., called by the Greeks the Greater, 
 was the son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and, by 
 lus mother's side, a grandson of .Eacus. He 
 
 t Troy with twelve ships, and is represented 
 l>. Homer as, next to Achilles, the bravest and 
 handsomest of the Greeks. After the death of 
 Achilles, A. and Ulysses contended for the arms of 
 the hero, and the prize was adjudged to Ulysses, 
 which threw A. into such a state of rage and despair 
 that he killed himself with his sword. This melan- 
 choly fate of the hero is the subject of one of the 
 extant tragedies of Sophocles. 
 
 AJMEE'R, a British 'non-regulation' district in 
 the North-west Provinces of India, lying between 
 lat. 25° 43'— 26" 42' ; long. 74° 22'— 75" 33'. Its 
 length from south-east to north-west is about 80 
 miles; breadth, 50; area, 2029 square miles. The 
 surface of the country towards the south-east is 
 generally level. In the north, north-west, and west, 
 it is broken by mountains and hills belonging to the 
 Aravulli range. The mountain of Taragurh, above 
 the city of Ajmeer, contains carbonate ot lead, man- 
 ganese, copper, and abundance of iron ore. The 
 general elevation of the plain of A. is about 2000 
 feet, and the frosts in winter are sometimes severe. 
 Strong breezes are prevalent, and the climate 
 on the whole is healthy. The scarcity of water, 
 however, often occasions great distress. The only 
 permanent stream is the Koree, the water of which 
 is so impregnated with mineral salts as to bo unlit 
 for alimentary use except during the rains. To 
 compensate for this deficiency, water- tanks are nume- 
 rous. The staple crop is bajra (Jlulcus tpi 
 Sheep are reared in great numbers, and wool is 
 cheap, affording the material of their clothing to the 
 lower orders. Among the more prevalent diseases 
 are small-pox and ophthalmia. The population in 
 1848 was 224,891, of whom 27,288 were Mussulmans, 
 &c, the rest Hindus. The principal race are the 
 Rajpoots, tho conquerors of the native Bheels, 
 Minors, and Neenas. The present limits of this 
 district by no means correspond to its former 
 importance. In the 12th c., at the time of the 
 Mussulman invasion, the sultan of A. and Delhi 
 was the most powerful monarch in India. Under 
 Akbar also, who acquired this territory in 1559, 
 A. was a large aud important province. It after- 
 98 
 
 wards fell into the hands of the Mahrattas, from 
 whom it was wrested by the British in 1S17. 
 
 AJMEER, an ancient city of Hindustan, the 
 
 capital of the British district ot Hie same name, 228 
 west from Agra. It is situated in a pictur 
 
 ami reeky valley, at the foot of the mountain of 
 nil, which is crowned by a fort, onco strong, 
 but now dismantled. The city is surrounded by a 
 stone wall, with live lofty and handsome gateways 
 en tie 1 west and north. Must of the streets are 
 narrow and dirty, but some of them are spacious, 
 and contain many tine residences, besides Beveral 
 land temples of very massive architecture. 
 A. is the seat of a British political agency, a medical 
 school, and an English and Oriental school. The 
 tomb of tie- Mussulman saint, Kwajah, within the 
 
 town, i hi Id in great veneration, and pilgrim 
 are made to it even by Hindus. The Emperor 
 Akbar journeyed to it from Agra on foot in 1570, 
 in fulfilment of a vow after the visit of his son 
 Jehanghir. In October, a great annual fair is held in 
 honour of the saint, at which ridiculous miracli 
 pretended to be wrought. The pop. of A. is probably 
 about 30,000. 
 
 AKBAR (i.e., 'Very Great'), properly JELAL- 
 
 ED-DIN-MOIIAMMi;'D, emperor of Hindustan, the 
 greatest Asiatic monarch of modern times. II is 
 father, Humayun, was deprived of the tin-" 
 usurpers, and had to retire for refuge int > Persia ; 
 and it was on the way thither, in the town of 
 Amerkote, that A. was born, in 1542 A. D. Humayun 
 recovered the throne of Delhi after an exile of twelvo 
 years ; but (bed within a year. Tho young prince 
 at first committed the administration to a regent- 
 minister ; but finding his authority degenerating into 
 tyranny, he, by a bold stroke, shook it off, and took 
 the power into his own hands ( 1 5S8). At this time, 
 only a few of the many provinces once subdued by 
 the Mongol invaders were actually subject to the 
 throne of Delhi ; in ten or twelve years, A.'s empire 
 embraced the whole of Hindustan south of the 
 Deocan ; but although great in subduing, A. was 
 yet greater in ruling. The wisdom, vigour, and 
 humanity with which he organised and administered 
 liis vast dominions, are unexampled in the east. He 
 promoted commerce by constructing roads, establish- 
 ing a uniform system of weights ami measures, and 
 a vigorous police. He exercised the utmost vigi- 
 lance over his viceroys of provinces and other officers, 
 to see that no extortion was practised, and that 
 justice was impartially administered to all classes of 
 liia subjects. For the adjustment of taxation, the 
 lands were accurately measured, and the statistics 
 taken, not only of the population, hut of the re- 
 sources of each province. For a Mohammedan, the 
 tolerance with which he treated other religions was 
 wonderful. He was fond of inquiries as to religious 
 beliefs ; and Portuguese missionaries from Goa were 
 sent at his request to give him an account of the 
 Christian faith. He even attempted to promulgate 
 a new religion of his own, which, however, never 
 took root. Literature received the greatest encour- 
 agement. Schools were established for the education 
 both of Hindus and Mohammedans ; and numbers 
 of Hindu works were translated from Sanscrit into 
 Persian. Abu-1-Fazl, the able minister of A., has 
 left a valuable history of his master's reign, entitled 
 A.-nameJt (History of A.) ; the third volume, con- 
 taining a description of A.'s empire, derived from 
 the statistical inquiries above mentioned, and 
 entitled Ayin-i-Akbari (Institutes of A.), has been 
 translated into English by Gladwin (3 vols., 
 ( aleutta, 1786 ; and London, 1800). A.'s latter 
 days were embittered by the death of two of his sons 
 from dissipation, and the rebellious conduct of the
 
 AKEE- ALABAMA. 
 
 third, Selim (known as Jehanghir), who succeeded 
 his father at his death in 101 15. 
 
 AKEE' (Cupania or Blighia tapida), a fruit-tree 
 
 •nig to the natural order aapindacea (q. v.), 
 a native of Guinea, introduced into Jamaica in the 
 end of last century. It grows to the height of 
 'jo 25 feet or upwards, with numerous branches and 
 alternate pinnate leaves, resembling those of the 
 ash. The flowers are small, white, on axillary 
 racemes ; the fruit is about the size of a goose's egg, 
 with three cells and three seeds, and its succulent 
 aril has a grateful subacid flavour. The fruit is 
 little inferior to a nectarine. Boiled down with 
 Sugar and cinnamon, it is used as a remedy i'"r 
 diarrheea. The distilled water of the flowers is 
 used by negro women as a cosmetic. The A. 
 sometimes produces fruit in stoves in Britain. In 
 order to obtain this, the roots should be cramped 
 in pots. — The Aki of New Zealand is a totally 
 different plant, Melroai<l [folia, of the natural 
 
 order ■ ' ■ hard-w jded shrub, which sends 
 
 out lateral roots, and by means of them, climbs to 
 the summits of the loftiest trees. 
 
 A KKXSIDE, Makk, an author of considerable 
 celebrity, in his own day, on account of his didactic 
 poem, The Pleasures of the Imagination, and some 
 medical works. He was born November 9, 17-1. at 
 Ncwcastlc-on-Tyne, where his father was a butcher. 
 Being intended for the Presbyterian Church, he 
 was sent to study theology at Edinburgh, but soon 
 abandoned it lor that of medicine. II.- graduated 
 as a physician at Levden in 1744, and practised at 
 Northampton, then at Hampstead, and finally in 
 London. His success as a practising physician was 
 never very great, owing, it is said, to bis haughty 
 and pedantic manner. He died in London (June 
 '-■': 177U), soon after being appointed one of the 
 
 ians to the queen. At Leyden, he had formed 
 an intimacy with Jeremiah Dyson, and this rich and 
 generous friend allowed him £300 a year. Some of 
 his medical treatises, as those on the lymphatic 
 
 ) and on dysentery, possess considerable merit. 
 His later poetry, consisting chiefly of odes and 
 hymns, did not attain the same reputation as his 
 Pleasures of tJte Imagination, which was written in 
 his twenty-third year, and to which is owing 
 whatever celebrity has attached to his name. 
 Dyson published his poetic works in 1772, and 
 another edition appeared in 1S07. In Peregrine 
 
 . Smollett has satirically sketched the char- 
 acter of A., under that of the pedant who under- 
 takes to give an entertainment after the manner 
 of the ancients. A. has little originality of con- 
 ception, or even of expression ; the reader is carried 
 along for a time by the evident enthusiasm of the 
 
 and rapid and stately march of lofty images 
 ami ideas; but, as it has been well expressed, 
 'all is operoee, cumbrous, and cloudy, with abund- 
 
 ■y colouring and well-sounding \ 
 but filling the eye oftener than the imagii 
 and the ear oftener than either.' A. became 
 tisfied with his juvenile production, and at his 
 death, had written a portion of a new poem on the 
 same subject. Botli poems were published in the 
 complete edition of his works, Lond 1773. His life 
 has recently been written by Bucks : Life, Writings, 
 ami Omiua of A. (Svo, Lond. 1832). 
 
 AKETON, another name lor a portion of armour, 
 used in the feudal times, called theGambeson 
 
 A'K.II'KM \\\ .r AKKI'.KM ANN", a town in 
 Bessarabia on the Black Sea, at the mouth of the 
 
 bar, with a citadel and harbour; pop. - 
 It is the Alba Julia of the Romans ; and called, by 
 the Poles, Bialogrod, which, as well as A., siumifies 
 the white town. It is considered a town of some 
 
 importance, on account of its harbour, fortifications, 
 commerce, and especially its extensive salt-pits. 
 
 The Treaty (supplementary of that of Bucharest, 
 1812) concluded at A. in 1826, between Russia and 
 Turkey, secured to Russia the free navigation of the 
 Black Sea, and indemnification for losses sustained 
 by her subjects from the Barbary corsairs; the insti- 
 tution of divans in Moldavia and Wallaehia, and the 
 power of re-electing the hospodars after their term of 
 office ; and the restoration of the privileges of S 
 in which Turkish troops were only to retain posses- 
 sion of the fortresses. The boundaries in Asia were 
 to remain as they then stood ; Russia consequently 
 retaining the Turkish fortresses of which she had 
 gained possession. The non-fulfilment of this treaty 
 on the part of the Porte, occasioned the war of 1828, 
 which was terminated by the peace of Adrianople. 
 
 ALABAMA, one of the states composing the 
 Union of North America, -was first known to Euro- 
 peans in the year 1541, half a century after the dis- 
 covery of America. The celebrated exploring expedi- 
 tion of De Soto had to fight its way fiercely through 
 the tribes who peopled its wilds at that period, and 
 who were much less savage and far more numerous 
 than the northern aborigines. In one instance, a chiefs 
 house measured 120 feet by 40, and included small 
 buildings like offices. Upon the Savannah River, at 
 Silver Bluff, there was found a remarkable temple, 
 100 feet long, 40 feet wide, and proportionably high. 
 In the beginning of the 18th c, the French built 
 a fort on Mobile Bay, but the city of that name 
 was not commenced till nine years later (1711). In 
 1763, when the entire French possessions east of the 
 Mississippi (except New Orleans) fell into the hands 
 of the English, A. was incorporated first with 
 Georgia, afterwards, in 1S02. with the Mississippi 
 territory; but finally, in the year 1819, it became an 
 independent member of the great American confe- 
 deracy, and is now the fourth in point of population 
 among the southern states. 
 
 A. very nearly forms a rectangle, widening a little 
 towards the south-east and south-west, so that we 
 woidd naturally expect a fine sea-board; but of this 
 1 'rived by Florida, which occupies fully three- 
 fourths of the coast-line. It lies between 30* 10' 
 and 35" N. lat, and between S5° and 88* 30' W. 
 long. ; being about 330 miles in extreme length from 
 north to south, and 300 miles in breadth. It contains 
 an area of 50,722 square miles, or 32,462,080 acres, 
 only 6,385,724 of which, or rather less than one- 
 (ifth, were improved in 1860. The country i< neither 
 mountainous nor level, but rugged and broken, 
 especially in the centre, with many picturesque views 
 and wild romantic gorges. The Aileghanies termi- 
 nate in the north in a series of elevated hills, and 
 the ground gradually slopes to within 60 miles of 
 the Gulf of Mexico, when it becomes level. There 
 are three bays in A., the principal of which is 
 Mobile Bay, stretching north for about 30 miles. 
 There are also three large rivers — the Tenni ssee, the 
 Tombigbee, and the A. ; the first of which only 
 makes a sweep into the state at the north-east angle, 
 and then another sweep out at the north-west ; the 
 second comes into A from Mississippi, receives an 
 affluent (Black Warrior), and Hows due south, until 
 it is joined by the A., flowing out of Georgia in 
 a south-westerly direction. Alter the onion 
 
 -, and discharges its waters 
 into the Gulf of Mexico. The Tombigbee is about 
 500 miles in length, and navigable for steam-boats 
 throughout its entire course in Alabama. The 
 A. is about 600 miles long, and may lie as.-- 
 in steam-lioats to Wi tumpka sa branch), 
 
 460 miles from the Gulf ; but the navigation of the 
 Tennessee, which has 130 miles of its course in A., 
 is obstructed by the Muscle-shoals, a series of rapids.
 
 \[,\r. \M \ ALABASTER. 
 
 The climate of this state is almost tropical, reach- 
 ing to •within 7 of the torrid zone^ and its productions 
 are allied to those of the tropica. Rivers rarely 
 
 freeze. In 1S50, 1851, the maximum temperature of 
 tlic three winter months was ascertained to be 82°, 
 
 tlic niiuimum, IS', ami tin; iiican.it 3 o'clock p.m., 
 48° 25'. The lowlands are \<tv unhealthy, mar the 
 rivers and muscle-shoals, but the hilly regions are 
 salubrious. The soil is exuberantly fertile in many 
 places, yielding more cotton in 1860 than any 
 other state except Mississippi. There arc fine 
 grazing-lands in the low hills of the north, where 
 the AQeghanies terminate, and the long fiat valleys 
 between them arc extremely rich. The central part 
 is a great, broken, ami swelling prairie, remarkably 
 fertile ; while the southern, though often sandy and 
 inferior in productiveness, has many fertile alluvial 
 bottoms, which yield rice. Besides cotton, A. pro- 
 duces large quantities of Indian-corn, oats, sweet 
 potatoes, ami butter; a considerable amount of 
 wheat, rye, rice, wool, hay, pease, beans, potatoes, 
 fruits, market-vegetables, and sugar; sonic tobacco, 
 barley, buckwheat, wine, cheese, grass-seeds, hops, 
 tlax, and silk, are also raised. In 1800 there were 
 marly 50,001 farms in A., with a live-stock valued 
 at 43,411,711 dollars, and farming implements 
 and machinery worth more than 7,433,000 dollars. 
 There is abundance of wild deer and turkeys; and 
 Wild geese and ducks frequent the Muscle-shoals of 
 the Tennessee in immense numbers. Bears, wolves, 
 and foxes are likewise still met with. The trees, 
 like the animals, are numerous, but not remarkably 
 varied, in the centre and north, there are oaks, 
 poplar, hickory, chestnut, and mulberry ; in the 
 south, cypress and loblolly : pine is also abundant 
 south of the mountains. A. is, however, very rich 
 in mineral treasures, particularly in coal, iron, 
 limestone, and marble. Red ochre, lead, and man- 
 ganese are also found. A vein of bituminous coal 
 of a superior quabty rims eastward from Tusca- 
 loosa into Georgia. There are, in various sections 
 of the state, salt, sulphur, and chalybeate springs. 
 At Blount's Springs, a fashionable watering-place, 
 there are several different varieties of sulphur 
 waters. A gold-mine was also wrought for a short 
 time in St Clair county, wlule the statuary granite 
 of A. is admitted to be the best in the whole of the 
 United States. 
 
 A. does not excel in manufactures, though it is 
 beginning to improve. According to the census of 
 I860, there were in the state 1459 manufacturing 
 establishments, employing 78S0 persons, consuming 
 raw material worth $5,489,963, producing goods to 
 the value of $10,588,571 annually. Total amount of 
 capital invested, $9,098,181. Of th. , 31 were 
 cotton manufactories, 336 saw-mills, 236 flour estab- 
 lishments, 27 turpentine distilleries, 3 liquor distil- 
 leries, 16 machine shops, 62 carriage manufactories, 
 132 leather establishments, 140 blacksmiths' simps. 
 Value of home-made manufactures, $1,817,520. 
 
 In 1860, there were in A. 713 miles of railroad 
 completed, and several hundred in course of con- 
 struction. The commerce of A. is very extensive ; 
 for the steamboat navigation on her rivers (1500 
 miles in all) affords an outlet not only for her own 
 productions, but also for those of Mississippi and 
 Georgia. 
 
 Education is progressing satisfactorily in A. In 
 1S60, there were 17 colleges, 1903 public schools, 
 and 206 academies and other schools. The number 
 of pupils attending school was 74,649. The annual 
 income of the state university, located at Tusca- 
 loosa, is $15,000. The newspaper and periodical 
 literature, as everywhere else in America, is very 
 prolific. There are 96 publications of different 
 kinds ; the circulation being, dailies, 8820 ; tri- 
 100 
 
 weekly, 2886; semi-weekly. 400 ; weekly, 74.2S9 ; 
 monthly, 72011. Religious denominations exhibit n 
 •similar fecundity ; but the Baptists and Methodists 
 have a vast preponderance over the others. There 
 arc various public institutions in A., such as a 
 lunatic asylum at Tuscaloosa, a blind asylum at 
 Mobile, ami a state penitentiary at Wetumpka, 
 An asylum for the deaf and dumb was also recently 
 organised. The buildings of A. University are very 
 fine, and cost $150,000. In 1S50, there were 56 
 libraries, with 20,623 volumes in the state. 
 
 A. was one of the slave-states. Its government 
 
 resembles that of the other states in its gem I 
 features. The senate consists of 33 members, 
 elected for 4 years ; and the house of representa- 
 tives of 100, elected for 2, both by the people. The 
 judiciary consists of a supreme court, a court of 
 chancery, nine circuit courts, and the city court 
 
 of Mobile. The preponderance of the fanning 
 interests is very remarkable; though, of cour B, 
 extremely natural, and even inevitable. While 
 grocers, shoemakers, engineers, wheelwrights, 
 masons, &e. are reckoned only by the hundred, 
 there are upwards of 00,000 farmers, that is, more 
 than eight times the number of persons employed 
 in manufacturing establishments throughout the 
 state. A. has not received a very great infusion 
 of modern European blood. After the war, the 
 government of A. became provisional. On July 14, 
 186S, the requirements of Congress having been 
 complied with, General Meade restored to the civil 
 powers the direction of affairs in the state. At the 
 presidential election in that year, the Democrats 
 polled a majority of 40,000 votes. The commercial 
 metropolis is Mobile, with a population, in 1870, of 
 32,039; but the state metropolis is Montgomery, 
 with a population of 10,588. The other chief towns 
 are Huntsville, Selma, and Marion. The popula- 
 tion of A., in I860, was 964,201 ; in 1870, 996,992. 
 
 A'LABASTER. This name is given to two kinds 
 of white stone, chemically distinct, but resembling 
 each other in appearance, and both used for orna- 
 mental purposes. A. proper is a white, granular, 
 semi-transparent variety of gypsum (q. v.) 01 SlUphaU 
 
 Alabastra. 
 
 of lime. It occurs in various countries, but the 
 finest is found near Volterra, in Tuscany, where it is 
 worked into a variety of the smaller objects of 
 sculpture, vases, time-piece stands, Sc. Gypseous 
 A. of good quality is also found in Derbyshire, and 
 many ornamental articles are made of it at Matlock 
 and other places. Not being quite insoluble in 
 water, it cannot be exposed to the weather; and 
 its softness makes the surface easily become rough 
 and opaque. Nor is it generally found in sufficient 
 masses for large works. The other stone is a 
 compact, crystalline carbonate of lime deposited 
 from water in the form of stalagmite, &e. It is 
 distinguishable from the gypseous alabaster by its 
 effervescing with an acid, and by its hardness ; real
 
 ALAGOAS— ALARIC I. 
 
 alabaster may be scratched with the nail. — The name 
 is derived from Alahastmn, .1 town in Cppcr Egypt, 
 where this kind of stone was abundant, and was 
 manufactured into ]">ts for perfumes. Such pots 
 were called alabattra, even when made of other 
 materials. 
 
 ALAGO'AS, a maritime province of Brazil, which 
 d at one time a district of the province ol 
 Pernambuco. It is bounded on the X. and W. by 
 Pemambnco, and on the s. is divided from the 
 province of Sergipe by the navigable riv 
 Francisco. The country, which is mountainous in the 
 north-vest, and low, marshy, and unhealthy on the 
 coast, contains 300,000 inhabitants. The chief pro- 
 ductions are the sugar-cane, cotton-plant, mandioc 
 or cassava, maize, rice, Ac, and also timber and 
 dye-woods. Tlie capital, A., is situated on the 
 Lake Manguaba. The name A. is derived from the 
 lakes (lagoas) in which the province abounds. 
 
 ALA.M AN N I, Ll »;i. a distinguished Italian poet, 
 born at Florence, October 28, 1 196. His father, a 
 man of noble birth, was a zealous partisan of the 
 Mi dici, and Luigi stood high in their favour, till, in 
 revenge for some real or fancied wrong, he conspired 
 against the life of < Sardinal • ruuiano, the representa- 
 tive of Leo X. This being found out, A. fled to 
 Venice, and thence, on the accession of the cardinal 
 to the papal chair, to France. In 1527, encouraged 
 by the pope's reverses, he returned to Florence, ami 
 urged the Republic to seek the protection of Charles 
 V., by means of Andrea Doria's friendly mediation. 
 The Republic declared such a proposal treachery, 
 and A. saded with Doria for Spain. Finally, he 
 settled in France, employed as a diplomatist by 
 Francis I. and Henry II. A. died at Arnboise in 
 1536. He wrote epics, dramas, and minor poems, 
 much admired in their day, and disputes with 
 Trissino the claim of iirst introducing blank verse 
 into Italian poetry. 
 
 ALAND ISLANDS (pronounced Oland), a 
 numerous group of small islands and rocks at the 
 1 i.t r. nice of the Golf of Bothnia, opposite Abo, about 
 -J."> miles from the Swedish coast, and 15 from that 
 of Finland. They are called, by the Finns, Ahven- 
 anmaa. About 80 of them are inhabited. Although 
 these rocky isles are covered with but a thin 
 stratum of soil, they bear Scotch fir, spruce, and 
 birch trees, and with proper cultivation, produce 
 barley and oats, besides affording subsistence to a 
 hardy breed of cattle. The inhabitants are of 
 Swedish origin, skdfid sailors, tishermen, and seal- 
 hunters. The total population is about 16,000. 
 The largest of the islands, which gives its name 
 (signifying ' Land of Streams') to the whole group, 
 is about IS niilcs long by 14 broad. It is tolerably 
 wooded and fruitful, and contains nearly 11,1100 
 inhabitants. These islands belonged formerly to 
 Sweden, but were seized by Russia in 1809. Previous 
 to this, they had several times changed hands between 
 ; wo powers. In 1717, the Swedes were defeated 
 by the Russians in a naval engagement near Aland, 
 the first in ol the Muscovite navy, 
 
 The importance of these islands as a military position 
 led to the construction, in the reign of the Eumperor 
 Nicholas, of those strong fortitieations at Bomarsund 
 which, in August l.-v'ii. were destroyed by the 
 Anglo-French force, commanded by sir Charles 
 Napier and Baragnay d'Huliers. Two thousand 
 prisoners were taken. Tins extensive fortress (which 
 
 is supposed to have been but the first of an intended 
 seriesof similar menacing fortifications in the Baltic) 
 commanded the anchorage of YttenuBS, capable of 
 
 containing a large fleet. 
 
 ALANC1A ( K.K, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 donous plants, allied to Mt/rtucca (q. v.), and 
 
 containing only about eight known species, trees and 
 large shrubs, of which the greater number bel 
 the American genus Xyssa (see 1 
 from the rest of the order in the absence of 
 petals. The one-celled fruit, and pendulous albu- 
 minous seeds, constitute marks of distinction from 
 Myrtacea;. The fruit of Alangium decapetalum 
 and A. hexapetalum, natives of the East Indies, are 
 eatable, but mucilaginous and insipid. The timber 
 is good, the roots aromatic. 
 
 ALAKCON Y MENDOZA, Jew Hi 17. he, 
 
 the most eminent of Spanish dramatists, born 
 at the town of Tasco in Mexico, about the end of 
 the 16th c. He belonged to the ancient family of the 
 Ruizes of Alarcon. of which a branch hail emigrated 
 to America. Having studied at the college that had 
 been instituted in Mexico, he removed to Spain, 
 where he is mentioned as Relator del real cunsejo de 
 las Indias (Reporter of the royal councU of the 
 Indies) in 1622. The success that early attended his 
 pieces, joined to the haughty disdain with which, in 
 the consciousness of his own powers, he treated the 
 opinion both of the public and of his brother-writers, 
 excited the envy and jealousy of his contemporaries, 
 so that he became the object of venomous epigrams 
 by the most famous poets of the time, in which 
 deformed upstart from New Spain, with his pride 
 and contemptuousness, was held up to pubbc ridi- 
 cule. This kind of persecution continue, 1 till his 
 death, which occurred in 1639. Even during his 
 lifetime, his best pieces were attributed to others, 
 and ware printed and represented under the names 
 of more favoured poets. This early withdrawal and 
 oblivion of his name, together with the scarcity of 
 his works, have been the cause that he has seldom 
 been mentioned, and still less appreciated by histo- 
 rians of literature, even down to the latest times. 
 Yet some of the best critics rank him next to 
 Calderon and Lope de Vega as a dramatic writer. 
 
 ■ many single or detached pieces printed in 
 collections, he published a number in his Comedias 
 (vol. i., Madrid, 1628; vol. ii., Barcelona. 1634). 
 Hartzenbusch began a collected edition at Mailrid, 
 1848. A. attempted almost all the kinds of drama 
 in vogue in his tune ; and was especially eminent in 
 the heroic, as the best specimens of which may be 
 mentioned, El Trjedor de Segovia,and 
 or La que viuclio rale mucho chesta. A.'s ma 
 in delineating character is shewn in the Comedias de 
 
 '■res, or character-comedies, of which he may 
 be held as the creator. The best known an 
 Verdad Sospechosa (imitated by ComeiHe in his 
 M enteur) and Lou Parades Oyen (Wallshave I 
 which arc yet represented on the Spanish 
 Of his comedies of intrigue, the best specimen is 
 Todo a venturo. 
 
 It does not appear that A. wrote any Autot (q. v.), 
 fchnngh his two pieces, El AntichristO, and (,'ui'en mal 
 ande en ■■'«', betray a t end e n c y to ascetic 
 
 mysticism. Although, through the artifices of his 
 contemporaries, as well as the 6 lot of Lo] 
 and Calderon's dramas, the compositions of A 
 soon driven from the stage, yet he remains, together 
 with Tirso de Molina, the most ■ 1 and 
 
 original among the successors of Lope. Lope and 
 Calderon, the coryphaa of that age, arc the only 
 dramatists that excel A. Combining, in no mean 
 
 . the charae. both, he excels them 
 
 in purity of language and elevation of moral feeling. 
 
 A'LARIC I. (in Gentian Al-ric, i. e., all rich) 
 belonged to one of the noblest families of the 
 \ ilis. He makes his !ir>t appearance in hi9tory 
 
 in 394 A.te. as leader of the Gothic auxdiai 
 Theodosius in his war with Eugenmi : but after tin- 
 death of the former, he took advantage of the 
 
 101
 
 ALARIC IT.— ALATERNUS. 
 
 dissensions and weakness that prevailed in the 
 Roman Empire to invade (395) Thrace, Macedon, 
 Thessaly, and lllyria, d the country, and 
 
 threatening Constantinople itself. Rulinus, the 
 minister of Areadins, appears to ha\ 
 Greece in order to rescue the capital, and Athens 
 was obliged to secure its own safety by r 
 A. proceeded to plunder and devastate the P 
 ponnesus, but was interrupted by the landing of 
 Stilicho in Elis with the troops of the 
 Stilicho endeavoured to liem in the lioths on the 
 Peneius ; but A. broke through his lines, and 
 led with his prisoners and Booty to lllyria, of 
 which he was appointed governor by the Emperor 
 Arcadioj, who was frightened by his successes, 
 and hoped, by conferring this dignity on him, 
 to make him a peaceful subject instead of a 
 96). In 402, he invaded Upper 
 Italy, and Honorius, the emperor of the west, fled 
 from Rome to the more strongly fortified Ravenna. 
 On the way to Gaul, A. was met and defeated 
 by Stilicho at Pollentia on the Tanaro ; but it 
 was not till the following autumn that the residt 
 of the battle of Verona forced him to retire 
 into lllyria. Through the mediation of Stilicho, 
 A. concluded a treaty with Honorius, according 
 to which he was to advance into Epims, and thence 
 attack Areadius in conjunction with the troops of 
 Stilicho. The projected expedition did not take 
 place, yet A. demanded indemnification for having 
 undertaken it ; and Honorius, by the advice of 
 Stilicho, promised him 4000 pounds of gold. When, 
 after the death of Stdicho (q. v.), Honorius faded 
 to fulfil his promise, A. advanced with an army, 
 and invested Rome, which he refused to leave 
 till he had obtained the promise of 5000 pounds of 
 gold, and 30,000 of silver. But neither did this 
 negotiation produce any satisfactory result, and A. 
 again besieged Rome (409 a.d.). Famine soon ren- 
 dered it necessary that some arrangement should be 
 made; and in order to this, the senate proclaimed 
 Attalus, the prefect of the city, emperor instead of 
 Honorius. But Attalus displayed so little discretion, 
 that A. obliged him publicly to abdicate. The 
 I'-ii'Wi ions with Honorius proved equally 
 
 fruitless with the former, and A. was so irritated 
 at a perfidious attempt to fall upon him by surprise 
 at Ravenna, that he advanced on Rome for the 
 third time. His victorious army entered the city 
 on August 24, 410, and continued to pillage it 
 for six days, A. strictly forbidding his soldiers to 
 dishonour women or destroy religious buildings. 
 When A. quitted Rome, it was only to prose- 
 cute the conquest of Sicily ; the occurrence 
 of a storm, however, which his ill-constructed 
 vessels were not able to resist, obliged him to 
 abandon the project for the time; and his death, 
 which took place at Cosenza, in Calabria, soon 
 after (410), prevented his resuming it. In order 
 that his remains might not be discovered by the 
 Romans, they were deposited in the bed of the 
 river Busento, and the captives who had been 
 employed in the work were put to death. Rome 
 and all Italy celebrated the death of A. with pubbc 
 festivities : and the world enjoyed a momentary 
 repose. But A. himself was much less barbarous 
 than his followers. He admired those monuments 
 of civilisation with which the Eternal City abounded, 
 and sought to preserve them ; he checked the 
 excesses of his fierce soldiery, and at times gave 
 indications that the lessons of Christianity which he 
 had learned from the Arian missionaries had not 
 been altogether forgotten. Yet through him, the 
 Goths learned the way to Rome. 
 
 ALARIC II., eighth king of the West Goths, or 
 Visigoths, succeeded his father in 4S4 A. 1). He was of 
 102 
 
 a peaceful disposition, and wished to live on friendly 
 terms with tin- Franks. His dominions were \ ■ ry 
 ext. -nsive. Besides Ilispania Tarraconensis and 
 
 Bictica, he possessed numerous rich provinces in 
 
 Gaul, and formed an alliance, which still further 
 increased his power, with Gondebandand Tl doric, 
 
 the latter of whom was his father-in-law, and king 
 
 of the Fast Goths. At length, however, he came 
 into collision with the Prankish monarch, Clovis, 
 whose cupidity had been ■ SO -it.-.l by the extent and 
 fertility of the territories over which A. ruled. An 
 excuse was found for breaking the peace which 
 existed between the two nations, in the fact that A. 
 was a zealous Arian. This circumstance had given 
 great offence to many of bis subjects, who 
 orthodox Catholics; and ostensibly to vindicate tie- 
 true doctrine, the newly converted barbarian, Clovis, 
 declared war against him. The result was fatal to 
 A. He was shun by the hand of Clovis himself at 
 Vouille, near Poitiers, and his forces completely 
 
 l'ollted. 
 
 A. is said to have been indolent and luxurious in 
 his youth; but this may simply implytli.it I 
 not fond of those sanguinary | which capti- 
 
 vated hi* savage contemporaries. He was tolerant 
 in his religious convictions. Though an Arian, he 
 did not persecute the Catholics. He even permitted 
 the orthodox prelates to hold a council at Agde in 
 500. In his secular capacity, he displayed an appre- 
 ciation of the blessings of law and order. I If enacted 
 several useful statutes, and kept a watchful eye on 
 all parts of his kingdom. It was during his reign 
 that the Breoiariwm Alaricicmum, or code of A., 
 was drawn up. It is a selection of imperial statutes 
 and writings of the Roman jurisconsults. A. sent 
 copies of it to all his governors, ordering them to use 
 it, and no other. An edition of it was published by 
 Sichard, at Basle, in 1528. 
 
 ALA'RM. In military matters, the word alarm 
 has a more defined meaning than mere terror or 
 fright. An alarm, among soldiers in an army, is not 
 so much a danger, as a warning against danger. An 
 alarm, signified by the firing of a gun or the beating 
 of a drum, denotes to an army or camp that the 
 enemy is suspected of intending a sudden surprise, 
 or that the surprise has actually been made. There 
 is an alarm-post in camp or garrison arrangements, 
 to which the troops are directed to hasten on any 
 sudden alarm being given. 
 
 ALA'SKA or A LI ASK A, a peninsula, formerly 
 part of Russian America, occupying nearly the same 
 latitudes as Kamtchatka and Britain. Forming the 
 south-eastern boundary of the Sea of Kamtchatka, 
 it may I I, physically, as a continuation of 
 
 its southern limit, the Aleutian Isles. It was, 
 accordingly, assumed by the Russians to be an 
 island— a link in that great chain of stepping-stones, 
 wliich had certainly guided them, and perhaps 
 successive shoals of adventurers before them, to the 
 New World. The connection of A. with the conti- 
 nent was left to be ascertained by Captain Cook, 
 whose explorations in search of an Arctic passage — 
 for Behring's Strait was still a matter of doubt — 
 were recorded in the adjacent names of Bristol Bay 
 westward, and Cook's Inlet to the eastward. 
 Thus A, though materially known only as a home 
 for the hunter and his game, becomes morally a word 
 of interest in connection with the history of dis- 
 covery and colonisation. All that was formerly 
 Russian America now belongs to the United States. 
 
 ALATE'RNUS, according to some, a genus of 
 plants of the natural order Jthamnacea (q. v.), 
 akin to Rhamnus (see Buckthorn) ; but more 
 generally regarded as a sub-genus of Rhamnus, 
 consisting of evergreen shrubs, of which the best
 
 ALAVA— ALBA. 
 
 known is Rhamnua A., or A. phillyrea, a large 
 shrub, densely branched, with shining alternate 
 leaves, which are more or less ovate. The flowers 
 are dioecious, racemed, numerous, and small, much 
 sought after by bees. This shrub is abundant 
 in the south of Europe, and is often planted in 
 town-gardens in England to conceal walls and 
 other objects, being of rapid growth, readily pro- 
 pagated by cuttings, bearing to be clipped into any 
 shape, and not eat lly injured by smoke. Both tin- 
 bark and wood have been used in dyeing. 
 
 ALA'VA, Don Miguel Ricardo de, a Spanish 
 general, born at Vittoria, in 1771, of a noble family 
 in the province of Alava. He entered the navy 
 in early life ; but afterwards changed to the land- 
 service. After the abdication of Ferdinand VII., 
 he was for a time a zealous partisan of France ; 
 however, in 1811, when he saw the fortunes of 
 Joseph beginning to wane, he abandoned the cause 
 of this prince, to embrace that of the national 
 party, and accepted the office of Spanish com- 
 missary on the staff of Wellington. He gained 
 the confidence of this general, and from this time 
 manifested the strongest predilection for England 
 and English institutions. The war of independence 
 furnished him with numerous occasions of dis- 
 tinguishing himself. After the restoration of the 
 king, however, he was arrested, on the suspicion 
 of entertaining liberal opinions ; but on the appli- 
 cation of his uncle, Ethenard, the inquisitor, 
 seconded by the influence of Wellington, he was not 
 only liberated, but appointed ambassador to the 
 Hague. He returned to Spain in 1S20, after the 
 revolution ; became captain - general of Aragon, 
 made himself conspicuous among the Exaltados, 
 and figured in the ranks of the militia on occasion 
 of the revolt of the royal guard at Madrid, July 7, 
 1822. In the Cortes assembled at Seville in 1823, 
 he voted for the suspension of the royal authority, 
 and took part in the negotiations carried on with 
 the Duke of Angouleme, at Cadiz. The re-establish- 
 ment of absolute monarchy in the Peninsula drove 
 him, as a political refugee, to Brussels and England, 
 till, at the death of Ferdinand, he was recalled by 
 the regent, Maria Christina. In 1S.34, he was 
 appointed Spanish ambassador to London ; and 
 towards the end of 1835, he undertook a mission 
 to Paris. Under the administration of Isturiz, 
 A. shewed himself as zealous for the moderate 
 system as he had been for the preceding one, 
 and advocated the French intervention, which 
 he had opposed during his embassy to London. 
 Alter the insurrection of La Granja, he refused 
 to swear to the constitution of 1812, declaring 
 that he was tired of constantly taking new oaths ; 
 he gave in his resignation accordingly, and retired 
 to France, where he died in 1S43. 
 
 A'LBA, or A'LVA, Ferdinand Alvarez von 
 Toledo, Duke of, prime-minister, and general of the 
 Spanish armies under Charles V. and Philip II., was 
 born in 1508, of one of the most illustrious families 
 of Spain. He was educated under the eye of his 
 grandfather, who instructed him in the arts of war 
 and of government. He fought, while yet a youth. 
 at the battle of Pavia, and had the custody of Francis 
 I. while a prisoner. He commanded under Charles 
 V. in Hungary, was present at the siege of Tunis, 
 and accompanied the expedition against Algiers. He 
 defended Perpignan against the dauphin, distin- 
 guished himself in Navarre and Catalonia, and was 
 in consequence created Duke of A. His cautious- 
 ness and his taste for political intrigue afforded as 
 yet no very high evidence of his military talents ; 
 and even Charles V., whom he counselled, when in 
 Hungary, to build a bridge of gold for the Turks, 
 
 rather than hazard a decisive battle, seems to 
 have intrusted him with the command rather as 
 matter of personal favour than recognition of his 
 9. His pride was hurt at the low estimation 
 in which he was held ; and his real genius began to 
 : shew itself. The victory which Charles V. gained 
 at MiilUberg over John Frederic, Elector of S 
 in 1547, was due to the able generalship of the Duke 
 of A. Under his influence, as president of the 
 council of war, the cap' r was condemned 
 
 to death ; and it was entirely against his wish that 
 the emperor commuted the sentence. He took part 
 under the emperor in the expedition against Henry 
 II., king of France, who had taken possession of 
 Mctz ; but here his exertions, as well as those of the 
 emperor, proved unavailing. He was more fortunate 
 in Italy against the combined armies of the pope 
 and the French king, which he repeatedly d' 
 during the campaign of 1555. After the abdication 
 of the emperor Charles V. in 1 566, he continued to 
 hold the command of the army, and overran the 
 States of the Church, which, after the retreat of the 
 French army in 1557, lay entirely at his mercy. He 
 was obliged, however, by the command of Philip H., 
 to conclude a peace with Pope Paul IV., and restore 
 all his conquests. Being recalled from Italy, he 
 appeared in 1559 at the court of France, with which 
 Spain had become reconciled by the peace of Chateau- 
 Cambresis (April 3, 1559) ; and, as proxy for his 
 sovereign, espoused Elizabeth, Henry 1 1.'s daughter. 
 When the inhabitants of the Netherlands, who 
 had been accustomed to freedom, revolted against 
 the tyranny of Spain, and especially against the 
 hated inquisition, the Duke of A.'s counsel was to 
 suppress the insurrection forcibly and with rigour. 
 The king accordingly committed the matter to his 
 hands, and sent him to the Netherlands, 1567, with 
 unlimited power and a large military force. His 
 first step on arriving was to establish what was 
 called the ' Bloody Council,' in which he himself at 
 first presided, and over which he afterwards 
 appointed the sanguinary Don Juan de Vargas. This 
 tribunal condemned all without distinction whose 
 opinions appeared dubious, or whose wealth excited 
 y. The present and the absent, the living and 
 the dead, were subjected alike to trial, and their 
 property confiscated by the council. A number of 
 the merchants and mechanics emigrated to England; 
 above 100,000 abandoned their native country, and 
 many others enlisted under the banners of the pro- 
 scribed princes, Louis and William of Orange. A., 
 rendered still more savage by a defeat which bcfcl 
 his lieutenant, the Duke of Aremberg, put to death 
 the Counts Egmont and Horn on the scaffold. Ho 
 after wards defeated Prince Louis, and compelled 
 William of Orange to retire to Germany ; upon which 
 he entered Brussels in the greatest triumph on the 
 22d December 1568. The pope piooantl d him with a 
 consecrated hat and sword, as Defender of the Catho- 
 lic faith ; an honour which, having been hitherto 
 conferred only on crowned heads, increased his inso- 
 lence to the highest degree. He caused a statue to 
 be cast, in which he was represented as trampling 
 under Coot two human figures, representing the 
 nobles and people of the Netherlands ; and this he 
 set up in Antwerp. His executioners shed more 
 blood than his soldiers ; and none now withstood 
 his arms except Holland and Zealand. But these 
 provinces continually renewed their efforts against 
 him, and succeeded m destroying the fleet which had 
 quipped by bis orders. This disaster, and per- 
 haps still more the apprehension that he might lose 
 the king's favour, induced him fa) request that ho 
 might be recalled. Philip gladly acceded : as ho 
 perceived that the obstinacy of the rebels was only 
 increased bv these cruelties : and he was desirous of 
 
 10S
 
 ALBA LONGA— ALBANIA. 
 
 trying the effect of milder measures. A. accordingly 
 
 resigned the command of the troops to Don I.mui. 
 de Requescns, and (Di ior IS, l.">7.'i) left the 
 
 country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had 
 executed 1S,000 men. The war which he had 
 kindled burned for sixty-eight years, and COS! Spain 
 800,000,000 dollars, her finest troop., and the loss oi 
 seven of the richest provinces of the Netherlands. 
 
 A. was received al Madrid with the highest di 
 taon, but did not long enjoy his former consideration. 
 Don Frederic, one of his sons, having seduced one 
 of the -item's Ladies of honour under promise of 
 marriage, and bring arrested on this account, the 
 father assisted him to escape, and in opposition to 
 the desire of the king, united him in 111:11 
 of his relatives. He was in consequence banished 
 from the court to his castle of Uzeda, where he 
 lived two years. But now the troubles in Por- 
 tugal, the crown of which Philip claimed as his 
 hereditary right, indued the king to draw A. anew 
 from his retreat. The duke accordingly led an army 
 into Portugal, and drove out Hon Antonio, who, as 
 grandson of John 111., had taken possession of the 
 throne. The whole country was speedily conquered 
 (15S1) ; and A., with his accustomed cruelty and 
 rapacity, seized the treasures of the capital himself, 
 whde he allowed the soldiers to plunder without 
 mercy the suburbs and the surrounding country. 
 Philip, dissatisfied with these proceedings, desired to 
 have an investigation of the conduct of the duke ; 
 but the haughty bearing of the latter, and the fear 
 of a revolt, induced him to abandon it. A. died at 
 Lisbon, December 11, 1582, at the age of 74. He had 
 a fine countenance, with a haughty air and a robust 
 frame ; he slept little, while he both laboured and 
 WTote much. It has been said of him, that during 
 sixty years of military service he never lost a battle, 
 and never allowed himself to be surprised. 
 
 A'LBA LO'NGA, one of the most ancient cities of 
 Italy, situated on the rocky ridge that runs along the 
 eastern shore of the Allan Lake, between the lake 
 and the Alban Mount. Sec Axbaxo. According to 
 legendary history, it was built by Ascanius, the son 
 of -Eneas, about 3tl0 years before the foundation of 
 Kome, which is represented as a colony of A. Xot- 
 withstandingthis, the Romans, underTullus Hostilius, 
 destroyed the city, and removed the inhabitants to 
 Rome. It seems certain that A. was an important 
 city long before the existence of Rome, and the head 
 of a confederation of Latin towns, and that when it 
 was destroyed, many of its inhabitants settled at 
 Rome. Some traces of its walls are yet to be seen. 
 
 A'LBAN, St, the first martyr of Britain, was 
 
 born at Verulam, in the 3d c, and after having long 
 lived as a heathen, was converted to Christianity, 
 but put to death at the commencement of Diocle- 
 tian's persecution of the Christians. His anniversary 
 is celebrated on the 22d June. The town of St 
 Albans (q. v.), which bears his name, is believed to 
 stand on the site of his birthplace, or the scene of 
 his martyrdom. 
 
 ALBA'NI is the name of a rich and celebrated 
 family of Rome, who came originally from Albania 
 in the 16th c, and settled first at Urbino. The great 
 influence of the family dates from the accession (1700) 
 of Giovanni Francesco A to the papal throne, as 
 Clemens XL It has since furnished a succession of 
 cardinals. It was Cardinal Alessandro A. (b. 1002 — 
 
 d. 1770) Who formed tile fallloUS collection of objects 
 
 of art in the Villa A, outside the Porta Salaria 
 at Rome. It is still a rich collection, although part 
 of it was carried off by the French. The pieces 
 taken away were restored in 1S15; but the then 
 possessor being unable to pay for their removal to 
 Rome, sold them to the king of Bavaria. 
 104 
 
 ALBA \ I, li im i sco, a painter of the Bnlognese 
 school, of the time of the Caracci ; born at Bologna, 
 
 L578, and died there in 1660. He studied, along 
 with Guido Eteni, first under Calvert, and afterwards 
 
 under the Caracci. lb- has painted above fifty 
 altar-pieces, worthy of the Caracci school; but his 
 inclination lay more to the representation of scenes of 
 a plaj ful and pastoral, or of a mj thical hind, and of 
 this nature arc the greater pari of his pieces, lie bad 
 by his second wife a family of twelve children of 
 extraordinary beauty, in whom he found exqui ite 
 models for his Yeuuses. Kalateas, and angels' heads; 
 
 with the disadvantage, however, of imparting a certain 
 
 uniformity to the countenances of his figures. His 
 
 representation of the hour Seasons, so often imitated, 
 gamed him great renown. A.'s chief defect lies in 
 the expression of life and feeling. 
 
 ALBANIA (allied to Air, and meaning 'moun- 
 tain region') forms the south-west province of Euro- 
 pean Turkey, having Montenegro, Bosnia, and Scrvia 
 on the N., Macedonia and Thessaly on the E., Greece 
 on the S., and the Ionian and Adriatic seas on the 
 W. It is divided into four circles, following the four 
 confederations of tribes that people it — the Jegani, 
 Tohkaui, Liapuri, and Jamuri. These circles differ 
 both in climate and in the manners of their inhabit- 
 ants. A distinction is also made between Upper 
 Albania, the Illyria of the Romans, in the north, and 
 Lower Albania, the ancient Epirus, in the south. On 
 the east boundary, forming the water-shed of the 
 peninsula, rises the range of the. Bora-dagh and the 
 Pindus. The first detaches itself from the wild 
 masses of the Tshar-dagh (dagh in Turkish means 
 mountain) and Argentaro mountains; and west of 
 it lie parallel chains, enclosing on the one side, long 
 elevated valleys, and sinking on the other in 
 terraces, down to level strips along the coast, con- 
 sisting mostly of unhealthy swamps and lagoons. 
 Pindus, to the south, is also flanked by isolated 
 basins or hollows, whose western edges pass into tho 
 jagged and thick-wooded Epirotic highlands. These 
 highlands advance to the sea, forming steep rocky 
 coasts ; one promontory, the Acroceraunian, project- 
 ing m Cape Lingiiett.i far into the sea, reaches a 
 height of 4—5000 feet. 
 
 The chief rivers are the Bojana, the Drin, the 
 Skombi, Ergent, Vojussa, Glykys or Acheron (which 
 follows for some distance a subterranean channel, 
 and on reappearing, is called Mauropotamos), the 
 Ai'ta, and the upper course of the Aspropotamos. 
 Among the lakes, those of Bojana, Oehri, and Janina, 
 are the most important. 
 
 A fine climate, the heat of which is tempered 1 >y 
 high mountains and the proximity of the sea, and a 
 favourable soil, would seem to invite the inhabitants 
 to agriculture; but for the most part in vain. In 
 the north, little or nothing is cultivated but maize; 
 in the moist valleys, a little rice and barley are 
 produced ; but the mountain-terraces are used as 
 pastures for numerous herds of cattle and sheej i. I n 
 Epirus, there is more variety. Here the slopes of the 
 lower valleys are covered with olives, fruit and mul- 
 berry trees, intermixed with patches of vines and 
 maize, while the densely wooded mountain-ridges 
 furnish valuable supplies of timber. The plateau of 
 Janina yields abundance of grain ; and in the valleys 
 opening to the south, the finer fruits are produced, 
 along with maize, rice, and wheat. Even cotton and 
 indigo might be profitably cultivated in the moist 
 valleys ; but in its present wTetched condition, the 
 country can barely support its scanty population. 
 
 The inhabitants, estimated at about a million, form 
 a peculiar people, the Albanians or Arnauts ; they 
 call themselves Skypetars. They are descendants of 
 the ancient Illyrians, mixed with Greeks and Slaves, 
 and not to be confounded with the Albani that live
 
 ALBANO— ALBANY. 
 
 on the Caspian Sea. The Albanians are half-civilised 
 mountaineers, frank to a friend, vindictive to an 
 enemy- Miry are constantly under arms, ami are 
 more devoted to robbery and piracy than to cattle- 
 Feeding and agriculture. They Live in perpetual 
 hy, every village being at war with its neigh- 
 bour, and even the several quarters of the Bame town 
 carrying on mutual hostilities. Many of them 
 as mercenaries in other countries, and they form the 
 best soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time, the 
 Albanians were all Christians; after the death oJ 
 their last chief, the hero Scanderbeg, and their sub- 
 jugation by th'' Turks, a large part became Moham- 
 medans, who distinguished themselves l>y ' 
 and treachery towards the tribes that remained true 
 to their old faith. The st'-'-p valleys of the Achi ron 
 in the south, forming the district of Suli. arc inhabited 
 by a powerful tribe, the Suliotes, who till their fields 
 SWOTU in hand, and conceal their harvests in the 
 earth. They made themselves famous by their long 
 resistance to Ali Pacha. In the north, between the 
 Black Urin and the sea, is the country or circle of 
 the Mirdites, i e., the brave, who arc always ready 
 with weapons in their hands to defend their freedom 
 and their religion- the Boman Catholic A. is 
 divided into the pachalica of Janina, Ilbcssan, and 
 Scutari, and the sandjaks of Delvino and Avloua. 
 The chief towns are the ports of Durazzo, Avlona, 
 I i I BBS, and Parga ; the more inland towns, Scutari, 
 Bi rat, Argyro Castro, and Arta ; and in the eastern 
 mountain districts, Akhrida and Joannina. 
 
 ALBA NO, a town formerly in the States of the 
 Church, ou the declivity of the lava-walls which 
 encompass the lake Albano, about IS miles from 
 Borne, It is the seat of a bishop, numbers 5000 
 inhabitants, and is siu-rounded with handsome man- 
 sions of the wealthier Romans. It is on the op] 
 side of the lake from where Alba Longa stood, and 
 owed its origin to the villas of ancient Boman 
 magnates, such as Pompeius, Domitian, and Clodius. 
 A valuable wine is produced in the environs. At a 
 short distance from the town, on the old Appian 
 Way, are found the remains of an amphitheatre, and 
 a sepulchre of Etruscan architecture. 
 
 The Ai.ban Lakk, or Lago di Castello, is formed 
 in the basin of an extinct volcano, and has a circum- 
 
 ferenc 1 li miles, with the enormous depth of more 
 
 than looo feet Its elevation is nearly 1000 feet 
 above the Bea-leveL While the Romans were at war 
 with the Vcicntes (390 B.C.), this lake rose to an 
 ordinary height in the heat of summer, aud 
 ut any apparent cause. Etruscan diviners 
 declared that the conquest of Yeii depended upon 
 letting off the waters "I the lake. Stimulated by this, 
 the Romans, under the direction of the Etruscans, 
 opened an emissary or tunnel through the lava- 
 wall which bounds it. In the execution of this work 
 they acquired the art of raining, which they now 
 applied to undermine the walls of Yeii. The tunnel, 
 which still remains, ami still fulfils its ancient office, 
 
 I mil s in length, with a height of 7 feet, and a 
 width ol 'I feet On the eastern bank of the lake, 
 
 Ifonte Cavo, the ancient Mount Albanus, 3 
 
 feet high, affording an extensive and magnificent 
 view from its summit I pan it once stood the mag- 
 nificent temple of Jupiter I.atialis, which was 
 approached by a paved way, for the ascent of the 
 solemn processions of the Latin confederation 
 (F>rr: Latince), and for the ovations of B 
 generals. The road remains, in great part, perfect to 
 this day. 
 
 The Albano stone, called Peperino, was much used 
 in Roman buildings. It is a kind of volcanic tufa, of 
 an ash-colour, and is still quarried extensively at A. 
 
 A'LBAXS, St, an ancient borough in Hertford- 
 
 shire, situated on tic top and northern side of a 
 picturesque hill. 2] miles north-west from I. : 
 The Ver, a small tributary of the t olm 
 it from the . rulamium (Ycru- 
 
 lam |, an important station in tl f the 
 
 scene of a terrible slaughter in 
 the insurrection under Boadicea. In honour of St 
 Alban, said to have Buffered martyrdom lure in 
 -'• '7. a Benedictine monastery was founded by Offa, 
 lung of Mercia, in 796. The foundation of the 
 town is supposed to be due to I Ung (or ' 
 who was abbot about 150 years later. Two I 
 were fought near St A. during the V, 
 Roses, in 1455 and 1461. In the first, Henry YI. 
 a captive ; in the other, he was set at liberty 
 by his brave queen, Margaret of Anjou. The most 
 noteworthy object in the town is the old abbey- 
 church, aerueiform building, of irregular architi 
 •"•IT feet in length, by 206 in breadth, with an 
 embattled tower 146 feet high. The Abbot of St A. 
 had a seat in the Bouse of Peers, and had preced 
 of all other English abbots. In St Michael's i Ihurch 
 is to be seen a monument to the memory of the 
 great Bacon, who bore the titles of Baron Yerulam 
 and viscount St A. More recently, the Beauclerk 
 family have taken from this place tiie title of duke, 
 and the Grimston family that of earL The po 
 tion, in 1871, was S293, many of whom are emp 
 in straw-plaiting and silk-spinning. In the n 
 bourhood are great numbers of corn-mills. '1 he 
 borough, which formerly returned two members, 
 was disfranchised in 1852 for notorious bribery. 
 
 A'LBANY, or ALBAINN, an ancient name for 
 the Highlands of Scotland, and retained in some 
 degree of use down to our own day. Conn 
 with it is the term Atbiona, applied to the inhabit- 
 ants of the entire British island in FeStns A\ i 
 account of the voyage of llannlcar. the ( 'arthaginian, 
 in the 5th c. B.C. ; also the term Albion, which appears 
 as the name of the island in Aristotle's 'IV 
 of the World. It may, indeed, be pretty safely 
 assumed that Albion or Albany was the original 
 name of Britain among its Celtic population; and 
 that it only became restricted to the north-west 
 provinces of Scotland, when the Celts had for the 
 most part become confined to the same region. 
 Albainn means a country of heights (the root being 
 alb or alp, a height); and it is remarkable to find 
 .Albania also a mountainous country. The modern 
 use of the name A. may be said to have taken its 
 rise in an act of a Scottish council held at Scone in 
 dune l.'JOS, when the title of Duke of A. was con- 
 ferred on the brother of King Eobert 1 1 I., then a 
 as regent of the kingdom. The title, being forfeited 
 in the son of the first holder, was afterwards con- 
 ferred on Alexander, second son of Kin,' Jami i II.. 
 in the person of whose son, John, il ctinct 
 
 in 1636. Subsequently it was conferred in sue© 
 on Henry Lord Darnley, on Charles I. in in! 
 on James II. in infancy, and (as a British title) on 
 Frederick, second son of George LTX The unfortunate 
 Prince Charles Stuart, in his latter years, assumed 
 the appellation of Count A. as an incognito title. 
 and gave the title I ! of A. to his legrtii 
 
 titer. 
 
 ALBANY, the capital of Yew York, is situated 
 on the west bank of tin- Hudson River, 145 miles 
 north of New York city, in 1 at. I'J 39" -V. and long, 
 7.'i l-V W. After Jamestown and St Augustine, 
 in Virginia, it is the oldest town in the Union, 
 having been founded by the Hutch in 162 
 it did not receive ita present appellation until 1664, 
 
 when it came into the possession of the English, and 
 was so named in honour of the Duke of York and 
 Albany. It is situated in the midst of a fertile and
 
 ALBANY— ALBE. 
 
 well-cultivated country, and is one of the most flour- 
 cities in the States, being the chief emporium 
 for the transit-trade of the coast-towns with those 
 of the north and north-west. It is advantageously 
 built for commerce, at the head of the sloop-navi- 
 gation on the Hudson, communicating by means 
 of canals with Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Lake 
 Champlain. It is also the centre in which a number 
 of railways meet, connecting it with New York, 
 Buffalo, Boston, &c. One of the most important 
 articles in its commerce is timber. It is one of the 
 largest timber-markets in the world ; the quantity 
 ed in 1SG3 amounting to 243,611,500 feet of 
 boards and scantling, and 140,740,000 lbs. of staves, 
 and thousands of cubic feet of other articles — the 
 whole valued at over 7,000,000 dollars. \i>>\. 1 
 from some [parts of the river, A. has ■ picturesque 
 and imposing appearance. In general, it is not very 
 remarkable lor the regularity of its streets or the 
 elegance of its houses ; nevertheless, it contains 
 some of the most splendid edifices in the Union. A 
 new state capitol, in the Renaissance style, is being 
 erected, at a cost of 4,000,000 dollars, which will be 
 one of the finest public buildings in America. A. is 
 honourably distinguished for its educational and 
 literary institutions. The university, incorporated 
 in 1852, has for its aim the discipline of the 
 
 it is seen sweeping the surface of the ocean in 
 pursuit of flying-fish. It seems rather to float 
 and glide in the air than to tly like other birds, 
 cept when it is rising from the water, the 
 motion of its long wings is scarcely to be per- 
 ceived, The plumage is soft and abundant, mostly 
 white, dusky on the upper parts, some of the 
 feathers of the back and wings black. The bill 
 is of a delicate pinky-white, inclining to yellow 
 at the tip. The A. is extremely voracious ; it 
 feeds chiefly on fish and mollusca, but has no 
 objection to the flesh of a dead whale, or to any 
 kind of carrion. It is not a courageous bird, and 
 is often compelled to yield up its prey to sea-eagles, 
 
 tne most important Drancnes / v<' .,--- 
 
 The medical college, founded K ='' .^>-E 
 
 of practical science. xiie meuicui uuiicge, luuii'ini ■ 
 in 1839, has one of the best museums in the S 
 States, and is otherwise amply furnished with 
 the means of instruction. There is likewise a 
 number of public schools. Top. in 1870, 
 69,422. 
 
 ALBANY, Louisa - Maria - Carolixi:, also 
 Aloysia, Countess of, wife of the unfortunate 
 Prince Charles-Edward (q. v.), grandson of James II. 
 of England, She was the daughter of the Prince 
 Gustavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Gedern, who fell in 
 the battle of Leuthcn in 1757. This lady was born 
 in 175.1, and, during her married life, bore the name 
 of the Countess of A. She had no children ; her 
 marriage proved an unhappy one ; and in order to 
 escape from the ill-usage of her husband, who lived 
 in a state of continual drunkenness, she sought n fuge 
 in a nunnery, 17S0. At the death of the prince in 
 178S, the court of France allowed her an annual 
 pension of 60,000 livres. She outlived the House of 
 the Stuarts, which became extinct at the death of 
 her brother-in-law, the Cardinal of York, in 1807. 
 She died at Florence, which was her usual place of 
 residence, on the 29th of January 1824 Her name 
 and her misfortunes have been transmitted to pos- 
 terity through the works and autobiography of 
 Alfieri (q. v.), to whom she was privately married. 
 Their remains repose in the same tomb in the Church 
 of Santa Croce at Florence, between the tombs of 
 Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo. 
 
 A'LBATROSS (Diomedea), a genus of web-footed 
 birds of the family of the Laridce, nearly allied 
 to Gulls and Petrels. Their feet have no hind toe 
 nor claw; they have a large strong beak — the 
 upper mandible, with strongly marked sutures, and 
 
 a 1 ked point. The common Albatross (/'. r-sitliiiix), 
 
 also called the Wandering A., is the largest of web- 
 footed birds, the spread of wing being sometimes 
 twelve feet, and the weight twenty pounds or 
 upwards. The wings are, however, narrow in pro- 
 portion to their length. This bird is often seen at a 
 great distance from land, and abounds in the southern 
 seas, particularly near the Cape of Good Hope, 
 whence sailors sometimes call it the Cape Sheep. 
 It often approaches very near to vessels, and is one 
 of the objects of interest which present themselves 
 to voyagers far away from land, particularly when 
 i'O 
 
 Albatross, 
 
 and even to the larger kinds of gulls. When food 
 is abundant, it gorges itself, like the vultures, and 
 then sits motionless upon the water, so that it may 
 sometimes be taken with the hand. Not unfre- 
 quently, however, on the approach of a boat, it 
 yea the undigested food, and thus lightened, 
 
 off. Its cry has been compared to that of 
 the pelican ; it also sometimes emits a noise which 
 has been likened to the braying of an ass. Its flesh 
 is unpalatable. It heaps up a rude nest of earth not 
 far from the sea, or deposits its solitary egg in a slight 
 hollow which it makes in the dry ground. The egg 
 is about four inches long, wliite, and spotted at the 
 larcer end ; it is edible. There are seven species of 
 this genus. One of these (D. fidiijinosa), chiefly 
 found within the Antarctic Circle, is called by sailors 
 the Quaker Bird, on account of the prevailing brown 
 colour of its plumage. Albatrosses appear in j*reat 
 numbers towards the end of June, about the lvurile 
 Islands and Kamtchatka. The Kamtchadales take 
 tin m by baited honks, blow up the entrails for floats 
 to their nets, and make 
 tobacco-pipes and vari- 
 ous domestic articles of 
 the wing-bones. 
 
 ALBE, or ALB (Eat. 
 , white), the long 
 
 linen vestment 
 worn in early times by 
 all ecclesiastics at divine 
 service. It differed from 
 the more modern sur- 
 plice (q. v.), which is 
 only a modification of 
 it, in having narrower 
 sleeves. At the foot 
 and wrists were em- 
 broidered ornaments 
 called apparels. In 
 the ancient church, 
 
 Albc
 
 ALBERONI— ALBERT. 
 
 newly baptised persons were obliged to wear a similar 
 garment for eight days ; and hence catechumens 
 were called albati ; and the Sunday after Easter, on 
 which they usually received baptism, came to be 
 called Dominica in Albi-. See WH1IHUJIKAT. 
 
 ALBERO'NI, Grcnjo, Cakmnai, the son of a poor 
 vine-dresser, was born on the 31st of May Kill I at 
 Firenzuola in Parma. From being merely a chorister 
 in a church at Piacenza, he quickly rose, through his 
 abilities, to tin' dignity of chaplain and favourite of 
 Count Roncovien, Bishop of St Donino. Ho was 
 afterwards scut to .Madrid as chargt (Caffaire*, by 
 the Duke of Panua, where he gained the favour of 
 Philip V. of Spam, and had the honours successively 
 rred on lum of grandee, cardinal, and prime- 
 minister. In this last capacity he was of singularly 
 ce to Spain, overthrowing the intriguing 
 family of L'rsini, bringing about the second ni.'o 
 oi Philip V. with Elizabeth Farnese, and stimulating 
 the expiring energies of Spain. A new life dawned 
 upon the nation, which learned to forget the hard- 
 ships it had suffered in the Spanish Wars of Succes- 
 : HMi ; although, on the other hand, it must be 
 admitted that it was principally through his instru- 
 mentality that the last libertic'3 and rights of the 
 people were sacrificed in favour of absolutism. He 
 was ambitious, and ambition is always despotic and 
 unscrupulous ; hence, to gratify the covetous desires 
 of his new mistress, he suddenly invaded Sardinia, 
 in violation of the Peace of Utrecht, cherishing tin- 
 hope of re-establishing the monarchy of Charles V. 
 and Philip II., and startling Europe by his insolent 
 audacity. The Regent of France broke oil' his 
 alliance with Spain, ami united himself with England 
 and the Emperor; but A. was not dismayed. Even 
 when the Spanish fleet in the Mediterranean was 
 destroyed by an Engbsh one, he contemplated an 
 extensive war by land, in which all the European 
 powers would have been entangled. He patronised 
 the Pretender, to annoy England, and the French Pro- 
 testants, to annoy Louis, lie sought to unite h tei- 
 of Russia and Charles XII. with him, to plunge 
 Austria into a war with the Turks, to stir up an 
 insurrection in Hungary, and, through his influence 
 with one of the parties at the French court, he 
 actually accomplished the arrest of the Regent him- 
 self (the Duke of Orleans). But so universal became 
 the complaints against A., that Philip lost con 
 and concluded a treaty of peace, the chief condition 
 of which was that the cardinal should be dismissed, 
 which was effected through the influence of Elizabeth 
 herself, now weary of the arrogance of her late 
 favourite. On the 20th of December 1720, A- re- 
 1 a command b > quit Madrid within twenty-four 
 hours, and the kingdom within five days. Exposed 
 to the vengeance of even,- power whose hatred he 
 had drawn upon himself, he knew no land where he 
 could remain. Not even to Rome could he venture, 
 for Clement was more bitterly inimical to him than 
 any secular potentate. He wandered about in 
 disguise, and under fictitious names. At length, he 
 was imprisoned in the Genoese territory, through (he 
 itiou of the pope and the Spanish monarch; 
 but he speedily recovered his liberty, and two 
 ti- i the death of Clement, was reinstated by 
 Innocent X1I1. in all the rights and dignitii 
 cardinal. In 1710 he retired to Pi - Bfire lie 
 
 died twelve years after (June 'JO. 1752) at the 
 age of ss. II.- bequeathed his possessions in Lorn- 
 bardy to Philip V., while Ins cousin and heir, i lajsar 
 A., became possessor of 1,000,000 duc.it-. 
 
 A'LBERT, Alexander Mautin, a member of the 
 Provisional Government of France after the revolu- 
 tion of February 1848, was born at Bury (Oise) in 
 1815. His father was a peasant, and he himself 
 
 learned a mechanical bade at Paris. He took part 
 in the revolution of July 1830, and was implicated m 
 the celebrated trial of 1834; after which he devoted 
 himself to the study and discussion of political 
 -us, yet not abandoning his workshop, lb- 
 commenced at Lyon tic- republican journal called 
 La Glanen.se, on account of which he was ■ 
 to a fine of 5000 francs when the insurr- 
 out at Lyon. In 1840 he began L' Atelier, a paper 
 conducted exclusively 1 .and dev-i 
 
 their interests. On the evening before the proclam- 
 ation of the republic in February 1S48, he was 
 milking buttons in his workshop; and on the nomi- 
 nation of Louis Blanc, he was called t<> take part in 
 the Provisional Government. He was afterwards 
 chosen president of the Commission for Natl 
 Rewards; but he ned this post. He was 
 
 elected by a large majority of voices as the repre- 
 sentative of the department of the Seine in the 
 National Assembly; but involving himself m the 
 attempt of May 15, 1848, against the government as 
 it then existed, he was arrested the same day, and 
 condemned to a lengthened imprisonment. 
 
 ALBERT, Coot op Bollstadt, usually called 
 Albcrtus Magnus, also Albertus Teutonicus, a man 
 less distinguished for originality, than for the 
 extent of his acquirements and his efforts for the 
 spread of knowledge, especially of the works and 
 doctrines of Aristotle, was born at Lauingen, in 
 Swabia, in 1205, or, as some say, in 1111.'!. After 
 finishing his studies at Padua, he entered the order 
 of the Dominican friars, and taught in the schools 
 of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where 
 Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1230 he 
 repaired to Paris, where he publicly expounded 
 the doctrines of Aristotle, in spite of the prohi I - 
 of the Church. In 1240. be became rector of 
 the school at Cologne; and in 1254, provinci 
 the Dominican order in Germany. In 1260, he 
 received from Pope Alexander IV. tin- bishopric of 
 Ratisbon. But in 12G2, he retired to his co- 
 at Cologne, to devote himself to literary pm 
 and here he composed a great number 01 '-' 
 especially commentaries on Aristotle. He had fall- d 
 into dotage some years before his death, v 
 occurred in 1280. The fullest edition of his works 
 was prepared by Pierre Jammy. tin- Dominican 
 (21 vols., Lyon and Leyden, 1651); but it is far 
 from being complete. Many of the wril 
 attributed to A seem to be spiu-ious ; among others, 
 that entitled J> n, which was 
 
 widely circulated during the middle ages. The 
 extensive chemical and mechanical know] 
 which A. possessed, considering tin- age in which 
 he lived, brought upon him the imputation of 
 sorcery; and in German tradition he has a very 
 ambiguous reputation. It is recorded, for instance, 
 that m the winter of 1240, he gave a banquet in 
 iden of his com I to \\ illiam 
 
 of Holland, king of the Romans; and that during 
 the entertainment, the wintry scene was suddenly 
 transformed into one of summer bloom and beauty. 
 This myth rests most likely on the fact of A. 
 having had a green-house. — The scholastics who 
 d A.'s opinions took the name of Allierlitts. 
 
 ALBERT, Fu.vsi'is | ' S-l ii vr.i i:s- 
 
 Emm am i:i.. Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Consort of 
 Victoria, Qneen of Great Britain, l-om August 2ii. 1819 
 was the second son of the late 1 >uk burg- 
 
 Gotha, by his iirst marriage with Louisa, daughter 
 of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. The Prince, 
 after a careful domestic education, along with his 
 elder brother, the reigning Duke, attended the 
 university of Bonn, when.', in addition to tho 
 sciences connected with state-craft, he devoted 
 
 107
 
 ALBERT-ALBERT THE BEAR. 
 
 himself with ardour to the Btudy of natural history 
 ami chemistry, and displayed great taste for the fine 
 arts, especially painting and music. Several compo- 
 sitions of his obtained publicity, and an opera was 
 afterwards performed in London, Bald to have been 
 composed by him. Gifted with a handsome figure, 
 lie attained ezpertness in all knightly exercises. It 
 was this accomplished Prince thai the yung Quern 
 of Croat Britain selected as her partner tor life. 
 The marriage was celebrated in London on the loth 
 of February 1840. On his marriage, Prince Albert 
 received the title of Royal Highness, was naturalised 
 as a subject of (ireat Britain, and obtained the rank 
 of Field-marshal, the knighthood of the Order of the 
 Bath, aud the command of a regiment of Hussars. 
 As the union proved, in the highest degree, a happy 
 one, the prince was loaded with honours and dis- 
 tinctions both by the Queen and the nation. The 
 
 title of Consort of Her Most Gracious Majesty was 
 formally conferred in 1842, and that of Prince Con- 
 sort, in 1867, made him a prince of the United King- 
 dom. He was also made a member of the Privy 
 Council, Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle, 
 Colonel of the Grenadier Guards, Acting Grand 
 Master of the Order of the Bath. Chancellor of the 
 University of Cambridge, Master of the Trinity 
 House, &e. Notwithstanding his high and favoured 
 position, the Prince, with rare prudence and tact, 
 abstained from meddling with state affairs, anil 
 thus escaped the jealousy and detraction of parties. 
 When the Whig ministry of 1840 proposed for 
 him the income of £50,000, as Consort of Queen 
 Victoria, the Tories, in conjunction with the Radicals, 
 succeeded in limiting the sum to £30,000. This 
 appears to have been the only instance of any mani- 
 festation of party feeling with reference to the 
 Prince. On the other hand, he opened for himself 
 an influential sphere pf action, in the encouragement 
 and promotion of science and art, appearing as the 
 patron of many useful associations and public under- 
 takings. The Industrial Exhibition of 1851 owed 
 much to the suggestions and encouragement of the 
 Prince. He died 14th December 1801, to the pro- 
 found grief of the whole nation. 
 
 ALBERT or ALBRKCHT. Five sovereign 
 dukes of Austria (q. v.) bore this name, of whom 
 two (I. and V.) were also emperors of Germany, 
 A. I., Duke of Austria and Emperor of Germany, 
 was the eldest son of Rudolph L, and born in 
 the year 1248. Rudolph, about the close of his 
 career, made an effort to have A. appointed his 
 successor ; but the electors, tired of his authority, 
 and emboldened by his age and infirmities, refused 
 to comply with his request. Alter Rudolph's death, 
 Austria and Styria revolted; but A., having vigor- 
 ously crushed the insurrection, had the audacity 
 to assume the insignia of the empire without waiting 
 for the decision of the Diet. This violent measure 
 induced the electors to choose, in preference to 
 him, Adolphus of Nassau. Disturbances in Switzer- 
 land, and a disease which cost him an eye, now 
 rendered liim more humble ; he delivered up the 
 insignia which he had so rashly assumed, and 
 took the oath of allegiance to the new emperor, 
 who, however, after some years, so completely 
 disgusted his subjects, that A. began to entertain 
 hopes of recovering his imperial dignity. In 1298, 
 Adolphus was deposed, and A. elected ; but the 
 former having resolved to maintain his title, A. 
 was obliged to fight for the crown. The rivals 
 drew up their forces near Worms, where a battle 
 ensued, in which Adolphus was defeated and slain. 
 A., feeling that he might now safely display magna- 
 nimity, voluntarily resigned the crown which had 
 been recently conferred upon him ; and, as he had 
 anticipated, was unanimously re-elected. His 
 
 coronation took place al Us la-Chapelle, in August 
 L298. But the pope; Boniface Vlll., denied the 
 right of the princes to elect A., declared himself the 
 only true emperor and legitimate king of the 
 Romans, summoned the former before him, required 
 him to ask pardon and do penance, forbade Che 
 princes to acknowledge him, and released them 
 from their oath of allegiance. A., on the other 
 hand, with his usual intrepidity, tidied his Holiness, 
 formed an alliance with Philip the Pair of France, 
 ii cured the neutrality of Saxony and Brandenbur , 
 invaded the electorate of Met/, and forced the 
 archbishop to break off his alliance with Boniface 
 and to form one with himself for the next five 
 years. The pope was alarmed by his success, and 
 entered into negotiations with him. A., whose 
 duplicity and unscrupulousness equalled his courage, 
 suddenly broke oil' his alliance with Philip, admitted 
 t lie western empire to be a papal grant, and declared 
 that the electors derived their right of choosing from 
 the Holy See. Moreover, he promised upon oath to 
 defend the rights of the Romish court whenever he 
 was called upon. As a reward, Boniface gave him 
 the kingdom of France, excommunicating Philip, 
 and declaring him to have forfeited the crown ; 
 but the latter severely chastised the pope for Ins 
 insolence in daring to give away what was not 
 his own. In the following year, A. made war 
 unsuccessfully .against Holland, Zealand, Friesland, 
 Hungary, Bohemia, and Thuringia. .Shortly after- 
 wards, news reached him that a rebellion had 
 broken out amongst the Swiss in Dnterwalden, 
 Schweitz, and Uri, in January 1308. A. had not only 
 foreseen, but desired this, in order that he might 
 find a pretext for completely subjugating the 
 country. A new act of injustice, however, 
 occasioned a crime which put an end to his 
 ambition and life. His nephew, Duke John, claimed 
 Swabia as his rightful inheritance, aud had set 
 his claims before A., but in vain. When the latter 
 was departing for Switzerland, the former renewed 
 his demand. A. scotiingly refused; and Duke 
 John resolved to be revenged. Along with four 
 othcrs, he conspired against his uncle's life, and 
 assassinated him on the way to Rheinlelden, while 
 separated from his followers by the river Reuss. 
 The emperor expired May 1, 1308, in the arms 
 of a beggar-woman sitting by the wayside a 
 spectacle calculated to excite stern reflection on 
 the vanity of human ambition. His daughter 
 Agnes, queen of Hungary, frightfully revenged her 
 father's death. See John, tiii: Pauuicide. A. 
 left five sous and five daughters, the children of 
 his marriage w itli Elizabeth, daughter of the Count 
 of Tyrol. 
 
 ALBERT THE BEAR (so called, not from any 
 peculiarity of character or appearance, but from the 
 heraldic cognizance that he assumed), Margrave of 
 Brandenburg, one of the most remarkable princes of 
 l.i age, was born HOG. He was the son and successor 
 of Otho, the rich Count of Ballenstadt, and of Ekca, 
 eldest daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony. Having 
 proved faithful to the Emperor Lothario, he received 
 from the latter Lusace, to be held as a fief of the 
 empire ; but the Duchy of Saxony, to which he had 
 the best claim, was given to Henry of Bavaria (11 27), 
 the son of the youngest daughter of the duke. As a 
 compensation, A. was made Margrave (Markgraf) of 
 the Northern March or Marck (Salzwedel) ; but in 
 the year 1138, Henry having been put under the 
 imperial ban, the duchy reverted to the former, 
 when he took the title of Duke of Saxony. Henry, 
 however, again got the upper hand, anil A. was com- 
 pelled to fly, and to content himself with the mar- 
 graviate of Northern Saxony, and the government 
 of Swabia, which was given him as an indemnity.
 
 ALBERT— ALBIG ENKEft 
 
 Returning to his own country, he got himself invested 
 with the lands which he bad conquered Erom tin.' 
 \Y. nds as a hereditary fief of the empire, ami thus 
 became M' founder ami tirst Margrave of the new 
 state of la'and. nl.m j. I ii.ii- \ . tli. \l.-n ■. i avi dom 
 
 was afterwards raised to be an Electorate, and he 
 
 I If became Elector oi Brandenburg. After he 
 
 had quelled a revolt of the Wends in 1157, he 
 determined to take extreme measures against the 
 
 younger son of the elector. John Cicero of Branden- 
 burg, was born in 1489. In 1513 he became 
 hi hop of Magdeburg; in the i 
 Adminis trator of the bi Qalberstadt, and 
 
 in the following year, Archbi hop and Elector of 
 Mentz. LeoXnavii d him permission to sell 
 
 indulgences, on cmihtion that he should deliver up 
 half the booty to the papal ezcheqi 
 the Domini: an Ti tzi I ' indi her, who, 
 
 vanquished. He almost depopulated their country, by the shameless mam ich he went about 
 
 anil then colonised it with I'lcmings. (Mi his return his work, firsl itirred Luther to post Op 1 
 
 from a pil vniicojo |,, pair -tine iu company with his known line l fivi thl i i iii the are], 
 
 wife in 1159, he exerted himself to suppress the 
 
 language and paganism of the Wends, and to intro- 
 duce ( 'liri tiaiuty aniongst them. I [e died in I I7n. 
 at Ballenstftdt, where he was buried. Brandenburg 
 continued in tie- possession of his descendants for 
 two centuries, and finally (1416] fell to the house of 
 HohenzoUern (q. v.). 
 
 ALBERT, last grand-master of the Teutonic 
 Order, and first Duke of Prussia, was horn in 14!)0. 
 lie was the son of the Margrave Frederic of 
 Anspach and Balreuth, who, having several children, 
 wished to make him enter the church. He was 
 educated under the care of Archbishop Hermann, 
 of Cologno, where he became canon. He did not, 
 however, neglect knightly exercises. He accom- 
 panied the emperor Maximilian 1. in his expe- 
 dition against Venice, and was present at the 
 
 of I'avia. In 1511, when scarcely twenty-one 
 
 years old, he was chosen grand-master of the 
 Teutonic Order, the knights expecting their feudal 
 allegiance to Poland to Be abolished, on account of 
 his near relationship to Sigismund, the monarch of 
 that country, while they also hoped for protection 
 against the latter from his friends in Germany. 
 He was consecrated at Mcrgcntheini with his 
 father's consent. In 1512 he removed to KBniga- 
 berg, having been acknowledged by Poland like- 
 wise; but refusing to take the oath of allegiance, 
 he was plunged into a war with Sigismund in 
 1520. The year after, a four years' truce was 
 agreed to at Thorn. A. next made his appearance 
 at the imperial Diet at Nurnberg, as a German 
 prince of the empire, to induce the other princes to 
 him against the Poles. But Germany could 
 at that time grant no assistance to any one. Dis- 
 appointed in his hopes, A. tlirew himself into the 
 cause of the Reformation, which had rapidly spread 
 into Prussia, and broken the last strength of the 
 declining order, whose possessions now appeared a 
 certain prey to Poland. A. still hoped to preserve 
 these, by acting upon Luther's advice, which was, to 
 declare himself secular Duke of Prussia, and place 
 In ; land under the sovereignty of Sigismund. This 
 was done with great pomp at Cracow, on the 8th 
 April 1525, the duchy being secured to him and his 
 descendants. During the remainder of his life, A. 
 zealously BOUght to further the weli'ai f his duchy. 
 
 lb- regulated the administration of all affairs, both 
 secular and ecclesiastical, established the ducal 
 
 library, founded in 1543 the university of Konigs- 
 berg, gathered many literary men around him, and 
 caused their works to be printed. In 1527, he 
 married Dorothea, daughter of Frederick, king of 
 Denmark. A. earnestly desired peace, but hi 
 
 --hishop'a 
 own diocese, the reformer's doctrini found not a 
 few adherents, so that A. ft 
 
 mil" rial Diet at Augsl.i the part of peace- 
 
 maker. When he joined the Holy Alii 
 the Treaty of Schmalkal.l, Luther made a 
 attack on him in writing. He v.. is the first of all 
 the German princes who received the Jesuits into 
 his dominions. In 1541, he granted religious liberty 
 to his subjects, under the condition 
 pay his debts, amounting to 500,000 florins. He did 
 this, not from any love of religious liberty, but either 
 because of the consideration n i< rred to, or from a 
 dread of popular compulsion. The last days of his 
 life were spent in Aschaffenburg, where he di 
 1545. 
 
 ALBERT, or ALBREi !HT, Archduke of Austria, 
 born in 1559, was the third son of the emperor 
 Maximilian II. He was brought up at the Spanish 
 court, and dedicated himself to the church. In 1577 
 he was made cardinal, in 1584, Archbishop of Toledo, 
 and during the years 1594—96, held the ollice of 
 viceroy of Portugal He was next appointed Stadt- 
 holder of the Netherlands, where he continued, until 
 his death, the representative of the Spanish monarch, 
 discharging the duties of his function with prudence 
 and dignity. Cardinal Beutivoglio, who resided a 
 considerable time at his court, praises his upright- 
 ness, his moderation, his love of serious study, his 
 industry, his perseverance, and his discretion, t£ 
 he does not conceal the fact that he was a prince 
 better fitted for peace than for war. He display.,! 
 at first both courage and enthusiasm, but afterwards 
 he was accused of dilatorincss and timidity. Mean- 
 while, he did not receive from Spain the promised 
 help; and, moreover, affairs ! » • i bed. such a 
 pitch, that they could hardly become worse. A., 
 how ever, did the best that could be done. His mild, 
 moderate, and unpersecuting character, essentially 
 contributed to the re-establishment of the Spanish 
 authority in the Netherlands. Philip employed him 
 to mediate amid the disturbed provinces. A. now 
 abandoned his ecclesiastical profi ssion, and married 
 (159S) the Infanta, Isabella, who reci iv. .1 the Nether- 
 lands for her dowry. He died in 1621. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS. See Albert of 
 
 BOLLSTADT. 
 
 ATilJI, capital of the department of Tarn in 
 I . is luult on a height. It is very old. and 
 
 suffered greatly during the religious wars which 
 devastated the land in the time of the Albi 
 Besides the usual government offici ises a 
 
 public library- of 12,000 volumes, and a museum. 
 The most remarkable b lie the eatl 
 
 built in the style of the 13th c. the old pall 
 
 not an age m which peace could be purchased. The t)ll , ,.,„ mt , ,,, xn 
 
 transition period from the old to the new is always considerable trade m corn. wine, anise. prUE 
 
 violent, and the duke found hims.li entangled m clover-seed. The chief manufactures are table-linen, 
 
 conflicts with the nobles, and in theological disput ■. 
 which, along with other crosses of a more pi I ion 1 
 
 character, saddened the close of his life. He died 
 in 1508. See Psuasi \. 
 
 ALBERT, Archbishop of Magdeburg, and Elector 
 
 cotton and WOOlli I Is, leather. .Ye. Pop. 13,008. 
 
 A'LBIGEN'SKS is n name applied loosely to the 
 
 •heretics,' belonging to various sects, that abounded in 
 
 the south of Frani about I hi of the l.'ith 
 
 C. The chief s.ct was the Cathari (q.V.); but they 
 of Mentz, generally called A. of Brandenburg, all agreed in renouncing the authority of the popes 
 
 109
 
 ALBIGENSES— ALBOKXt >Z. 
 
 and the discipline of the Romish Church. The name 
 arose from the circumstance that the district of 
 AlbigeoiB in Languedoo— now in the department i if 
 
 Tarn, of winch All>i is the capital— was the first 
 
 Foint against which the crusade of Pope (nnooeni 
 II., 1209, was directed. The immediate pi 
 
 crusade was the murder of the papal legate 
 
 and inquisitor, Peter of Castclnau, who had been 
 commissioned to extirpate heresy in the dominions 
 of Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; hut its real 
 object was to deprive tin 1 count of his lands, as he 
 had become an object of hatred from his toleration 
 of the hereties. It was in vain that lie had submitted 
 to the most humiliating penance and flagellation 
 from the hands of the legate Milo, ami had purchased 
 the papal absolution by great sacrifices. 'I 
 Arnold, Abbot of Citeaux and Milo, who directed 
 the expedition, took by storm Beziers, the capital 
 of Raymond's nephew, Roger, and DUU 
 20,000— some say 40,000— of the inhabitants, 
 Catholics as well as heretics. ' Kill them all,' 
 said Arnold; ' God will know his own!' Simon, 
 Count of Montfort, who conducted the war under 
 the legates, proceeded in the same relentless way 
 with other places in tin- territories of Raymond and 
 his allies. Of these, Roger of Beziers died in 
 prison, and Peter I. of Aragon fell in battle. The 
 conquered lands were given as a reward to Simon of 
 Montfort, who never came into quiet possession ,.i 
 the gift. At the siege of Toulouse, 1218, 1 
 killed by a stone, and Counts Raymond VI. and 
 VII. disputed the possession of their territories with 
 his son. But the papal indulgences drew fresh 
 crusaders from every province of France, to continue 
 the war, Raymond VII. continued to struggle 
 bravely against the legates and Louis VIII. of 
 France, to whom Montfort had ceded his preten- 
 sions, and who fell in the war in 1226. After 
 hundreds of thousands had perished on both sides, a 
 peace was concluded, in 1220, at which Raymond 
 piu'chased relief from the ban of the church by 
 immense stuns of money, gave up Narbonne and 
 several lordships to Louis IX., and had to make his 
 son-in-law, the brother of Louis, heir of his other 
 possessions. These provinces, hitherto independent, 
 were thus, for the first tune, joined to the kingdom 
 of France ; and the pope sanctioned the acquisition, 
 in order to bind Lotus more firmly to the papal 
 chair, and induce him more readily to admit the 
 inquisition. The heretics were handed over to the 
 proselytising zeal of the order of Dominicans, and 
 the bloody tribunals of the Inquisition; and both 
 used their utmost power to bring the recusant A. to 
 the stake, and also, by inflictii punishment 
 
 on the penitent converts, to inspire dread of incur- 
 ring the church's displeasure, [from the middle of 
 the 13th c, the name of the A. gradually disappears. 
 The remnants of them took refuge in the east, and 
 settled in Bosnia. Compare Fauriel, Croisade conlre 
 lea Alhigeois (Par. 1838); Faber, Inquiry int>< Hit 
 Hwloryand Theology of die Vallenscs and Albigenses 
 (Lou. 1838). 
 
 ALBI'NOS— called also Leuccethiopes, or wdiite 
 negroes, and by the Dutch and Germans Rakerlaken 
 — were at one time considered a distinct race ; but 
 closer observation has shewn that the same pheno- 
 menon occurs in individuals of all races, and that 
 the peculiar appearance arises from an irregularity 
 in the skin, which has got the name of leucopaUiy or 
 leucosis. It consists in the absence of the colouring 
 matter which, in the normal state, is secreted 
 between the cuticle and the true skin, and also of 
 the dark pigment of the eye ; so that the skin has a 
 pale, sickly white colour, while the iris of the eye 
 appears red, from its great vascularity. As the pig- 
 ment in the coats of the eye serves to diminish the 
 
 stimulus of the light upon the retina, A. generally 
 cannot bear a strong light; on the other hand, they 
 Bee better in the dark thin others, The colouring 
 matter of the hair is also wanting in A., so that their 
 hair is white. All these differences are of course 
 more striking in the darker varieties of tho sp 
 and mot "i all in the negro albinos. 
 
 Albinoism is always born with the individual, 
 and occurs not only in men, but also in other mam- 
 malia, in birds, and probably in insects. It is not 
 improbable that the peculiarity may. to some extent, 
 be hereditary. The opinion that A. ai lushed 
 
 from other nun by weakness of body and mind, is 
 completely refuted by i 
 
 A'LBION is the most ancient name on record of 
 the island of Great Britain. See \i raww Ai.bai.vn. 
 
 A'LBOIN, the founder of the Lombard dominion 
 in Italy, succeeded his father in 561 A.D., as king of 
 the Lombards, who were at tint time settled in 
 l'annoina. His thirst for action first vented itself 
 in aiding Xarses against the Ostrogoths; and after- 
 wards, m a war with the Gepidffl, whom he, in con- 
 junction with the Avari, defeated in a great battle 
 (566), slaying their king Cunimond with his own 
 hand. Hn the death of his first wife. Klodoswinda, 
 he married Rosamond, daughter of Cunimond, who 
 was his prisoner. Some of his warriors, who had 
 accompanied Narses into Italy, brought back reports 
 of the beauties and riches of the country. This 
 determined A., in 568, to enter Italy with his own 
 nation of Lombards, the remains of the Gepidffi, 
 and 211,11110 Saxons. He soon overran and subdued 
 lie north of the country as far as the Tiber, fixing 
 his principal residence at Pavia — wdiich long con- 
 i lined to be the capital of the Lombards; when 
 his barbarity cost him his life. During a feast at 
 Verona, he made his queen drink out of the skull 
 of her father, which he had converted into a wine- 
 cup. In revenge, she incited her paramour to 
 murder her husband, who fell 574. Strangely eni High, 
 A. was a just and beneficent ruler. He was beloved 
 by his subjects, whom he stimulated into that vital 
 activity that characterised their descendants for 
 For several centuries, his name continued to be 
 illustrious among the German nations, who cele- 
 brated lus praises in martial songs. To escape the 
 fury of the Lombards, PLOsamond fled with her 
 associate and the treasure to Longinus, the exarch, 
 at Ravenna. Longinus becoming a suitor for her 
 hand, she administered poison to Helmichis, her 
 paramour, who, discovering the treachery, caused her 
 to swallow the remainder of the cup, and die with 
 him. 
 
 ALBORNOZ, .r>.nurs Alvarez Carillo, a 
 warlike prelate of the middle ages, was born at 
 Cuenca. He studied at Toulouse, and subsequently 
 became almoner to Alfonso XL, king of Castile, 
 who appointed bun Archdeacon of Calatrava, and 
 finally Archbishop of Toledo. He took part in 
 the wars against the Moors, saved the life of the 
 king in the battle at Tarifa, and was present at 
 the siege of Algeciras, where the king dubbed 
 him knight. On account of the Christian boldness 
 with which he denounced the criminal excesses 
 of Peter the Cruel, he fell into disgrace, and had 
 to flee to Pope Clement VI., at Avignon, who made 
 him a cardinal. Innocent VII, also recognised 
 his political talents, and sent him as cardinal-legate 
 to Rome, where, by his tact and vigour, he secured, 
 in spite of the intricate complication of affairs, 
 the restoration of the papal authority in the States 
 of the Church (1353—62). Pope Urban V. owed 
 the recovery of liis dominions to him, and out 
 of gratitude, appointed him legate at Bologna, in 
 1367. In the same year he died at Viterbo, but
 
 ALBUERA— ALBUQUERQUE. 
 
 expressing a wish to be buried at Toledo, almost 
 royal honours were rendered to his dead body 
 by the Spanish monarch, Henry of Castile; and 
 Urban even granted an indulgence to all who 
 had assisted in the transference of his remains from 
 Vtterbo to Toledo. He left a valuable work upon 
 the constitution of the Romish l.'hurch, printed for 
 the first time at Jesi in 1473, and now very i 
 
 ALBUE'R A, in the Spanish province of Estrema- 
 dura, an insignificant hamlet, famous for the battle 
 of May 16, 1811, between the combined Ei 
 Spanish, and Portugese forces under General 
 Beresfard; and the French under Marshal Soult, 
 who were scarcely BO numerous, but had abundant 
 artil]<ry. The object of the latter was to compel the 
 1 lie siege of Badajos. The result was, 
 
 that Soolt was obliged to retreat to Seville, with the 
 loss of 9000 men; the loss of the allied forces was 
 abont 7000. In proportion to the numbers en 
 the battle was the most sanguinary in the whole 
 contest. The French had at first not possession of 
 a height which commanded the whole position of 
 the allied army, but they were thriven from it by 
 0000 British, only 1500 of whom reached the top 
 unwoundc L 
 
 ALBUFE'RA (an Arabic word meaning 'The 
 Lake'), a lake near Valencia, in Spain, about 
 10 miles in length and the same in breadth, divided 
 from the sea by a narrow tongue of land ; a canal 
 connects it with the city of Valencia. It is rich in 
 fish and fowl, and is said to have been excavated 
 by the Moors. From it, Marshal Suchct (q. v.) 
 lie title of Duke. 
 
 A'LBUM, amongst the Romans, was a white 
 tablet overlaid with gypsum, on which were written 
 the Annates Maxirm of the pontifex, edicts of the 
 [motor, and roles relative to civil matters. It 
 was so called, either because it was composed of 
 a white material, or because the letters used were of 
 that colour. To tamper with the names written on 
 an A. was regarded by the Romans as a serious 
 i lived a severe penalty. In the 
 middle ages, the word was used to denote any list, 
 catalogue, or register, whether of saints, soldiers, or 
 civil functionaries. In the gymnasia and universi- 
 ties on the continent, the list of the names of the 
 members is called the A. The name is also applied 
 to the ' black board ' on which public notifications of 
 lectures, &c, are written up. But its popular signi- 
 fication in modern times is that of a blank book 
 of ornamental exterior fitted for a drawing-room 
 table, and intended to receive fugitive pieces of 
 . or the signatures of distinguished persons, or 
 sometimes merely drawings, prints, marine plants, ic. 
 
 ALBUMEN" is an organic compound, found both 
 in animal and vegetable substances. It forms the 
 ingredient in the white of egg, and abounds in 
 the blood and chyle, and more or less in all the 
 serous fluids of the animal body : it also exists in the 
 sap of vegetables, and in their seeds and other edible 
 parts. A forms the starting-point of animal tissm a, 
 for in an egg during incubation all the parts of the 
 chick are formed out of it. The organised sub- 
 stances, iibrine and caseinc, have a chemical composi- 
 tioii similar to A. ; and hence, along with A, they 
 are called all mminous compounds. A may be 
 considered the raw material of fibrine, and fibrine 
 as animalised A. 
 
 The chief component elements of A. are carbon, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with small pro- 
 portions of phosphorus and sulphur. It is believed 
 to be a definite chemical compound, though the 
 exact proportions and the rational formula have 
 not been definitely ascertained. Carbon forms about 
 54 per cent, of it; nitrogen, 16 ; and sulphur, 2. It 
 
 is the sulphur of the A. that blackens silver when 
 brought in contact with eggs, and the smell of 
 rotten eggs arises from the formation of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen during the decomposition. 
 
 A is soluble in water, and in such a state of solu- 
 tion is found in the egg, the juice of flesh, the serum 
 of blood, and the juice of vegetables; but when 
 heated from 140 to 16 ulates, and is no 
 
 longer soluble in water. With bichloride of mer- 
 cury (corrosive sublimate), sidphate of copper (blue 
 vitriol), acetate of lead (sugar of lead), nitrate of 
 silver (lunar caustic), it forms insoluble compounds, 
 and is therefore used as an antidote to these )«jisons. 
 lie property of coagulating with heat adapts A 
 for the purpose of clarifying in sugar-refining and 
 other processes. The A. is added to the liquid in the 
 cold state, allowed to mix thoroughly therein, and 
 then, when heated, it coagulates, entangling and 
 separating all the impurities susjiended in the liquid. 
 A. is likewise coagulated by the majority of the 
 mineral acids, but not by acetic acid. Alcohol, ether, 
 creasote, and tannic acid likewise cause the coagu- 
 lation of A, and hence the efficacy of these sub- 
 stances, especially the two latter, in coagulating 
 and thereby killing the nerves which cause so much 
 pain in toothache. The importance of A. as an 
 article of diet, will be discussed under Food. 
 
 ALBUMEN", in Botany, a store of nutritive 
 matter, distinct from the embryo, but enclosed 
 along with it within the integuments of the seed. 
 It is also known by the names Perisperm and 
 Endosperm. When a seed has a store of A. separate 
 from the embryo, it is said to be albuminous or 
 perispermic. When the nutritive matter is stored 
 up in the cotyledons or lobes of the seed itself, as 
 in the bean, pea, wall-tiower, ftc, the seed is said to 
 be exalbuminous or aperispermic. In these the A, 
 as a distinct part of the seed, i3 wanting, and the 
 entire seed consists of embryo and integument, 
 When the A. is present, it is sometimes very small, 
 as in the nettle ; in other instances, on the contrary, 
 it is very much larger than the embryo, as in the 
 cocoa-nut, of which it forms the edible part. It is 
 also the edible or useful part of many other seeds 
 — as in the different kinds of corn — and in coffee, 
 nutmeg, &c. It is sometimes mealy or farinaceous, 
 as in the cereals ; oily, as in the poppy ; liorny, as 
 in coffee ; cartilaginous, as in the cocoa-nut ; muci- 
 laginous, as in the mallow. Vegetable ivory is the 
 A. of a palm (genus Phytelepftas) which grows on 
 the banks of the Magdalena, and is used in place 
 of ivory. The presence or absence, and various 
 peculiarities of A., afford botanical characters of 
 great value. The A. appears to be a store provided 
 for the nourishment of the embryo, and cons: 
 starchy, oily, and albuminous matter. Vegetable A., 
 in a chemical sense, exists, and often in large quan- 
 tity, even in seeds, which, according to the language 
 of descriptive botany, are exalbuminous or destitute 
 of A. ; and to prevent confusion, perisperm has 
 begun to lie employed as the botanical term; but it 
 is not yet in general use. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Alfonso the G reat, viceroy 
 of the Indies, and also called the Portuguese Mars, 
 was born, in 1453, near Alhandra, a town not far from 
 Lisbon, of a family of the royal blood of Portugal. In 
 that age, the Portuguese people wore distinguished 
 for heroism and a spirit of adventure. They had 
 discovered and subjugated a great part of the 
 
 ' a coast of Africa, and were ljeginning to 
 extend their dominion over the seas and the people 
 of India. A. being appointed viceroy of these 
 
 : issessions, landed on the coast of Malabar 
 on September 26, 1503, with a tlect and some 
 troops ; conquered Goa, which he made the seat 
 
 111
 
 AT/nn;xrM, on sap-wood— alcantai: \. 
 
 of the Portuguese government, and the centre of 
 its Asiatic commerce; and afterwards the whole 
 of Malabar, Ceylon, the Soiida Isles, the pen insula 
 ... Malacca, and (in 1515) the island of Ormuz at 
 the entrance of the Persian Gulf. When the king 
 of Persia sent for the tribute which the p 
 of this island had formerly rendered to him, A. 
 pp tit.. I bullets and swords to the ambassador, 
 saying: "This is the coin with which Portugal pays 
 ribute.' II.- made the Portuguese name pro- 
 foundly respected among the princes and i pie of 
 
 tie- East ; and many of them, ■ 
 
 Siam and Pegu, sought his alliance and protection. 
 
 All bis undertakings bore the .-tamp of an extra- 
 ordinary mind. lie maintained .strict military 
 discipline, was active. far-8eeing, wise, humane, and 
 
 Nile, respected and feared by his ueighl rs, 
 
 while beloved by his subjects. His virtues made such 
 an impression on the Indian people, that long after 
 his death, they resorted to his grave, to implore 
 his protection against the mis government of his 
 successors. Notwithstanding his valuable services, 
 A. did not escape the envy of the courtiers and 
 the suspicions of King Emmanuel, who appointed 
 Lopez Soarez, a personal enemy of A., to supersede 
 him as viceroy. This ingratitude affected him 
 deeply. Ismael, the shah of Persia, offered his 
 
 nice to resist the arbitrary decree of the 
 Portuguese court; but A. WOUld not violate his 
 
 allegiance. A few days alter, commending his son 
 to the king in a short letter, he died at sea near 
 Goa, December 16, 1515. Emmanuel honoured his 
 memory by a long repentance, and raised his son to 
 the highest dignities in the state. His life is well 
 portrayed in the Commentariot do Qrandi Alfonso 
 it ■ .1. (Lisbon, 1576 and 177-1), published by his son 
 Blasius. 
 
 ALBU'ENUM, or SAP-WOOD, in Botany, is 
 that part of the wood of exogenous trees which 
 is still imperfectly hardened, and, consisting of 
 the woody layers most recently formed, is interposed 
 between the baric (q. v.) and the heart-wood or 
 duramen (q. v.). There is often a very marked divi- 
 sion between it and the duramen, in trees whose 
 age is such that the latter has been perfected. The 
 A. differs from the duramen in having its tidies 
 still open for the passage of fluids; and these tubes 
 appear to be the vessels which chiefly serve for 
 the ascent of the sap. (See Sap.) It gradually 
 hardens, and is transformed into duramen, new 
 layers being added externally. It is almost always 
 of a white or very pale colour, whilst in many trees 
 the duramen is highly coloured. The A. is pale 
 even in ebony, in which the duramen is black. 
 In general, the A. is much inferior in value to the 
 hardened or perfected wool, and the different pro- 
 portions which they bear to each other in the 
 thickness of the stem, go far to determine the 
 relative values of some kinds of trees. These pro- 
 portions,, however, are different not only in trees 
 of different kinds, but even in trees of the same kind 
 at different ages, and according as circumstances 
 have been favourable or otherwise to rapidity of 
 growth. When there is a great proportion of A., 
 the wood dries slowly, and with difficulty, owing to 
 the quantity of sap it contains. 
 
 A'LCA and AXCAD^l. See ArK. 
 
 AliCiE'TJS, of Mitylene, one of the greatest lyric 
 poets of Greece, flourished about the end of the 
 7th, or the beginning of the 6th c. B.C. His odes, 
 in the .Eolic dialect, are occupied with his grief 
 for the dissensions of his country, his hatred of 
 tyrants, his own misfortunes, and the sorrows of 
 exile ; while on other occasions he celebrates the 
 praises of love and wine. He is said to have been 
 112 
 
 811 admirer of Sappho, who was a contemporary. A. 
 himself took part in the civil war. first as the coad- 
 jutor of Pittaeus. but afterwards against him, when 
 lie proved tyrannical. Being banished from Mitylene, 
 I endeavoured, at the head of the other exiles, to 
 
 i his way back; but in this attempt he. fell 
 
 into the hands of 1'ittacus, who, however, granted 
 him Ins life and freedom. He was the inventor 
 of the form of verse which after him is called the 
 Alcaic, ami which Horace, the happiest of his imi- 
 tators, transplanted into the Latin language. ( If the 
 
 t D 1 ks of A.'s odes, only fro main, which 
 
 are collected in the Cambridgi livtewm < nticum, 
 
 and in liergk's /'.«'. r l.i/rhi (.'run (Lcip. IM.'.i. 
 
 ALCALA' DE BLENAEE8 I El < 'tdaat, in Arabic, 
 means 'the castle'), a town in Spain, in the province 
 of [few Castile, situated on the Henares, 22 miles 
 from the capital, pop. 5300. It is built in the old 
 style, and boasts of a university, which was found. .1 
 by Cardinal Ximcnes in 1510, and once enjoyed a 
 world-wide fame, second to that of Salamanca alone. 
 When Francis I. visited it, while a prisoner in 
 Spain, he was welcomed b\ I dents. The 
 
 library contains the original of the celebrated 
 polyglot Bible which was printed in this town, and 
 called the ( oinphitensian, from the ancient name of 
 the place (Complutum). A. has, besides, a military 
 academy, and a celebrated powder and bather 
 factory. It is said to have been the birthplace of 
 l'c rvantes, and various other distinguished persons. 
 — There are several other towns in Spain which 
 bear the name of Alcala; as A. of Chisbcrte, in 
 Valencia (pop. 6000); A. de Guadaira. mar Seville 
 (5200), and A. la Ileal, in Jaen (10,000), with superior 
 wine, fruit, sheep, &c. 
 
 ALCA'LDE, a corruption of the Arabic elrcadi, 
 'the judge,' a word introduced by the Moors. It is 
 still used in Spain as the general title of judicial and 
 magisterial office, the special function being denoted 
 by another term. Thus, there are alcaldes de aldea, 
 alcaldes pedaneos, justices of the 
 peace ; alcaldes de corte, judges of the court, &c. 
 
 ALCA'NTARA (Al-kcmtarali, Arabic, 'the 
 bridge'), the Norba f'a>sarea of the Romans, an old 
 fortified Spanish town, built by the Moors in the 
 province of Bstremadura. The present population is 
 about 4000. It was plundered 1 >y the French under 
 General Lapisse in 1809. The bridge from which it 
 takes its naiin- was built for Trajan. 105 A.D. It 
 consists of six arches, the two central ones with a 
 span of 110 feet; the whole length is 070, and the 
 height 210 feet. This remarkable structure was 
 partially blown up by the 
 English in 1812, anil was 
 again destroyed during lie.. 
 civil war of 1836 ; and though 
 el be easily repaired, it 
 is h ft in a state of ruin, the 
 lazy Spaniards being fen led 
 over m a lumbering boat. 
 
 The Obdf.ii of A. (formerly 
 .St Julian), one of the reli- 
 gions orders of Spanish 
 knighthood, was founded 
 II..10 as a military frater- 
 nity for the defence of Estre- 
 madura against the Moors. 
 Iu 1197, Pope Celcstine HI. 
 raised it to the rank of a reli- 
 gious order of knighthood ; 
 bestowed great privileges on 
 it, and charged it with the 
 defence of the Christian faith, 
 and the maintenance of eternal war with the infidel. 
 AJphonso LX., having taken the town of Alcantara, 
 
 Order of Alcantara.
 
 ALCEDO ALCHEMY. 
 
 it in 1218 to On < ' rava (q. v.) ; 
 
 but tli' '" i" hold ' 
 
 with tl yielded it to the 
 
 knighta of St Julian, who tral it their scat, 
 
 and hencefortil were known by its name. At I 
 the grand-masteiahip of the order was, by 
 
 nder \'i.. unit '1 to thi ■•■•■ o in 1 195. 
 
 The order is still richly h,who 
 
 follow the rule of St B <w only the 
 
 . since 1540, 
 \ special 
 vow binds defend the immaculate con- 
 
 ception of tie- Virgin. At th-ir nomination, they 
 must prove four generations of nobility. 
 
 the knighta of A. acknowledged the superiority 
 
 of the knighta of Calatrava, but they were latterly 
 
 absolved from it. Both the costume, however, ami 
 
 ! 1 the same, with the i 
 
 ilour, which is green. The crest of the order 
 
 is a pear-tree. 
 
 ALCEDO. See KiNi;n-iti:i:. 
 AI.< H EMI LEA. See Last's Mantle. 
 A I.i HI'MY is to modern chemistry what astrol- 
 to astronomy, or legend to history. In the 
 
 ■ the astrologer, a knowledge of the stars was 
 valuable only as a means of foretelling, or even 
 of influencing, future events. In like manner, the 
 genuine alchemist toiled with his crucibles and 
 
 Joining, subliming, distilling, not with a 
 view to discover the chemical properties of sub- 
 stances, as we understand them, hut with two grand 
 tfl, as illusory as those of the astrologer — to 
 discover, namely, (1) ffu secret 0) ",7 'A' 
 
 .' 
 prolonging human 
 dition points to Egypt as the birth p] 
 ■'. Hermes Trismegistus (q.v.) i 
 
 i of it; and the i: "lology 
 
 of the name is that which connects it with the most 
 
 it and native name of Egypt, C7iemi(the 
 ture Cham or Ham). The Greeks ai ' under 
 
 the E Id seem to have become acqv 
 
 with it from tli" lv_\ ptians ; there is no reason to 
 
 ■ ■ tli.tt, in early times, either people had the 
 or the thing, ( % mia (Gr. 6 ■ curs in 
 
 the li ilas. written in the 11th c., and is 
 
 explained by him to he 'the conversion of silver and 
 
 It is to the Arabs, from whom Europe got the 
 
 and the art, that we owe the prefixed arl 
 
 id had been ing all 
 
 common chemical operations, such as the decocting 
 and compounding of ordinary drugs, the grand 
 
 ;ion of transmutation was denominated </« 
 hemy) — the chemistry of ches 
 The Roman emperor Caligula is said to have insti- 
 tuted experiments for the produci out of 
 orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic) ; and in the time of 
 Diocletian, the passion for this pursuit, conjoined 
 with magical arts, had ..dent in the 
 empire, that that emperor is s;iid to 1, 
 all Egyptian works tr. iatryofgold 
 and silver to he burnt. For at that time, multitudes 
 
 of 1 ks on this art were appearing, written by 
 
 inks ami by hermits, but bearing 
 
 i, names of antiquity, such as I 
 l . I ! nnea 
 
 At a later period, the Arabs took up the art: 
 and it is to them that European A. is directly 
 
 Ue. The school of polypharmacy, as it has 
 
 called, flourished in Arabia during the kalifatee 
 of the Ahha-sidcs. The earliest work of Una 
 now known is the Summa 1' . or •Summit 
 
 of Perfection,' composed byGebir (q.v.) in the 8th 
 c. ; it is consequently the oldest book on ehemistry 
 proper in the world. It contains so much of what 
 
 ■ipih r. let when viewed in 
 light, it i- a wonderful [x-rformance. It is a 
 kind"' , of all that was then 
 
 known and believed. It appears that the..- Arabian 
 potyph i long been engaged in firing and 
 
 boiling, dissolving and precipitating, suJblimir, 
 
 tin.' chemii | with 
 
 gold and m- and sulphur, salts and 
 
 and had. in short, become familiar with a 
 large range of what are now called chemicals, i.ebir 
 taught that there are tin-- elemental chemicals — 
 mercury, sulphur, and arsenic. These substances, 
 two, seem to have fascinated the 
 the alchemists by their potent and 
 qualities. They saw mercury dissolve 
 gold, the most incorruptible of matters, as 
 dissolves sugar ; and a stick of sulphur presented to 
 hot iron penetrates it like a spirit, and makes it run 
 down in a shower of solid drops, a new and remark- 
 able substance, possessed of properties beloi 
 neither to iron nor to sulphur. The Arabians held 
 that the metals are compound bodies, made up of 
 mercury and sulphur in different proportions. With 
 these very excusable errors in theory, they were 
 genuine practical chemists. They toiled away at 
 the art of making 'many medicines' (polyphar- 
 macy) out of the various mixtures and - 
 .such chemicals as they knew. Tin y had their ] 
 and mortars, their crucibles and furnaces, their 
 alembics and aludels, their vessels for infusion, for 
 decoction, for cohabitation, sublimation, fixation, 
 lixiviation. filtration, coagulation, ftc Their scien- 
 tilic creed was transmutation, and their ne I 
 were mostly blind i and yet, in this way, 
 
 they found out many a new body, and invented 
 
 :i the Arabs. A. found its way through Spain 
 into Europe, and speedily becam< ei ed with 
 
 the fantastic subtleties of the philosophy. 
 
 In the middle agi "■ '■ ' monks that 
 
 occupied themselves with A. rope John AXII. 
 took gnat delight in it, though it was afterwards 
 
 Hen by his earliest autl 
 
 works on European A now extant are tin 
 
 lb. 1-214, d. 1-2*4) and All.ertus Magnus |b. 
 1206, d. 1280). Soger Bacon (q.v.) am 
 the earlier of the two as a writer, and is really the 
 
 ; man in all the school. He was acquainted 
 with gunpowder. Although he condemns magic, 
 necromancy, charms, and all si 
 in the convertibility of the inferior metals into 
 but does not profess to have ever effected the con- 
 version. He had more faith in the elixir of life than 
 in gold-making. He followed (b-bir in regarding 
 potable gold -that is. gold dissolved in nitm-hydro- 
 chloric acid or aqua regia — as the elixir yi life. 
 
 ■ it on the attention of Pope Nicholas IV., 
 he informs his llolin. SS of an old man who found 
 some yellow liquor (the solution of gold is yellow) 
 when ploughing one day in Sicily. 
 Supposing it to be dew. he drank it off He was 
 thereupon transformed into a hale, robust, and 
 iiplished youth. Bacon no doubt t.*,k 
 many a dose of this golden water himself. — Albertus 
 
 is (q.v.) had istery of the practical 
 
 try of Ins times; he was acquainted with 
 
 alum, caustic alkali, and the purification of the 
 
 metals by means of had. In addition to the 
 
 sulphur and mercury theory of tie- metals, drawn 
 
 from Gebir, he regarded the element water it 
 
 the soul of natur these bodies. 
 
 Heapp thought it the primary 
 
 matter, or the radical source of all things — an 
 opinion held by 'Eludes, the father of Greek 
 
 111
 
 A LC 1 1 KM Y— A I.CTBI ADES. 
 
 speculation. Thomas Aquinas (q.v.) also wrote on 
 A., and was the first to employ the word amalgam 
 ((i. v.). — Raymond Lully (q.v.) is another great name 
 in the annals of A. His writings arc much mors 
 
 ired by nnintelli on than tho 
 
 Bacon and Albertns M«gnn« if.. «-as the lirst 
 to introduce the use of chemical symbols (q.v.), 
 
 Hem consisting of .1 scheme of arbitrary mi ro- 
 glypbica. He 111:1 the spirit of wine (the 
 
 art of distillin: spirita would seem to have been 
 then recent), imposing an it the name 
 
 .-. In his enthusiasm, he pro 1 it the 
 
 elixir of life. One oJ 1 celebrated of the 
 
 alchemists was Basil Valentine (q.v.), (b. 1394), who 
 introduced antimony into medical use. He, along 
 with some previous alchemists, 1 alt, sul- 
 
 phur, and mercury as the thj 
 
 the metals. He inferred that the philosopher's-stone 
 must be the same sort of combination — a compound, 
 namely, of Salt, Sulphur, and mercury; so pare, 
 that its projection on the baser metals should be 
 able to work them np into greater and greater purity, 
 bringing them at last to the state of silver and gold. 
 Hi practical knowledge was great; he knew how- 
 to precipitate iron from solution by potash, and 
 many similar processes, BO that he is ranked 
 founder of analytic. J chemistry. 
 
 But more famous than all was Paracelsus (q.v.), 
 in whom alchemy proper may be said to have cul- 
 minated. He held!, with Basil Valentine, that the 
 elements of compound bodies were salt, sulphur, 
 and mercury — representing respectively earth 
 and water, fire being already regarded as an impon- 
 
 ile — but these substances were in his 
 purely repr . All kinds of matter were 
 
 Me under one or other ..,' these typical forms; 
 everything was either a salt, a sulphur, or a 
 
 iry, or, like the metals, it was a 'mixt' or 
 compound. There was one element, ho 
 common to the four; a lii or 'quintes- 
 
 sence' of creation ■ an unknown and only true 
 element, of which the four generic principles were 
 nothing but derivative forms or embodiments: in 
 other words, he inculcated the dogma, that there 
 is only one real elementary matter nobody knows 
 what This one prime element of things he appears 
 to have considered to be thi I solveni oi 
 
 which the alchemists were in quest, and to 1 
 which he introduced the term alcah st — a word of 
 unknown etymology, but supposed by some to be 
 composed of the two German woi 
 spirit.' He have had the notion, that if 
 
 this quintessence or fifth element could be got at, 
 it would prove to be at once the philosopher*! 
 the universal medicine, and th Me solvent. 
 
 After Paracelsus, the alchemists of Europe 1 
 divided into two classes. The one class was com- 
 posed of men of diligence and sense, who .1 
 themselves to the discovery of new compounds and 
 re-actions — practical workers and observers of facts, 
 and the legitimate ancestors of the posit 
 of the era of Lavoisier. The other class took up the 
 visionary, fantastical - older alchemy, 
 
 and carried it to a degree of extravagance before 
 unknown. Instead of useful work, they CO 
 
 ical trash into Looks, and fathered them on 
 Hermes, Aristotle, Albertns Magnus, Paracelsus, 
 and other really great men. Their language is a 
 fan-ago of mystical metaphors, mil of 'red bride- 
 grooms' and 'lily brides, 'green dragons,' ' ruby 
 Dons,' ' royal baths,' ' waters of life.' The seven 
 metals correspond with the seven planets, tie 
 cosmical angels, and the seven openings of the 
 head — the eyes, the ears, the m si rib. and the 
 Silver was Diana, gold was Apollo, iron was Mars, 
 tin was Jupiter, lead was Saturn, and so forth. 
 
 They talk for ever of the powder of attra 
 which drew all men and women after the possessor; 
 of the I th rand elixir, which 
 
 r immortal youth u|m.ii the student who 
 should approve himself pure and brave enough t > 
 
 ad quaff the golden draught. Th 
 
 great mystery, the mo 
 
 grandmother of the stars. There was the philo- 
 and there was the pit 
 1 ophical-stone v. 
 , yet at her virgin touch t! 
 re) among them all would blush 
 jrold. The philo 
 other hand, was the iirst-born of nature, and 
 
 u- king of metal who had attained 
 
 full insight into tli rtyled 
 
 who were only striving after th ■ 
 
 v.r i Phil Op] am; while the ordinary practi- 
 
 tlie axi ; onaries 
 
 that formed themselves into Rosicrucian Societies 
 and ot'i OS. It was also in con- 
 
 nection with this mock-A., mixed up with astrology 
 and magic, that quackery and imposture so 
 abounded! 88 ia depicted bj Scott in th 
 of Doustcrswivcl in 1 vary, Desj 
 
 knaves would, for instance, make up large nails, 
 half of iron and half of gold, and lacker them, so 
 that they appeared common nails; and when their 
 Credulous and avaricious dupes saw them extract 
 from what seemed plain iron an ingot of gold, they 
 
 I ady to advance any sum that the 1... 
 pretended to be necessary tor pursuing the process- 
 on a large scale. It is from this degenerate and 
 effete school that the prevailing notion of A. is 
 derived :: notion which is unjust to the really 
 meritorious alchemists who paved the way for 
 genuine chemistry. 
 
 It is interesting to observe that tie- leading tenet 
 in tiie alchemists creed — namely, the d 
 
 msmutability of other metal, into gold and 
 silver — a doctrine which it was at one time 
 i that modern chemistry had utterly explodi 1 
 — receives not a little countenance from a variety of 
 racts every day coming to light. 'ITie multitude of 
 phenomi ine of 
 
 - <y (q. v.), 1 1 more 
 
 ami more to the opinion that many subs! 
 
 considered chemically distinct, are only 
 
 the same substance under some different condition 
 
 or arrangement of it, it molecules, and 
 
 that the number of really distinct elements may 
 
 ry few indeed. See Kopp' '■' der 
 
 by Dr 
 Samuel Brown, in t i .-.< for (lie 
 
 (No. CO), from which the above sketch is 
 chiefly condensed. 
 
 ALCIBI'ADES, a son of Clmias and Dinomache, 
 born at Athens. 4511 B.C. He lost his father in the 
 battle of Chajronea ; and was in consequence educated 
 in the house of Pericles, his uncle. In his youth he 
 gave evidence of his fm g both 
 
 m mental and bodily exercises. His handsome 
 person, his distinguished parentage, and the high 
 position of Pericles, procured him a multitude of 
 friends and admirers. Socrates was one of the 
 former, and gained considerable influence over him ; 
 but was unable to restrain his love of luxury and 
 dissipatii in, which found ample means of gratific 
 in the wealth that accrued to him by his union witli 
 Hipparete, the daughter of Hipponicus. His | 
 rs, especially at the Olympic games, 
 incredibly expensive. He bore anus for the first 
 time in the expedition against Potkhca (432 B.C.) 
 where he was wounded, and where his life was 
 saved by Socrates — a debt which he liquidated 
 eight years after at tho battle of Delium, by saving,
 
 ALCMAX— ALCOHOL. 
 
 in his turn, the life of the philosopher ; but he 
 seems to have taken no part in political matters till 
 after the death of the demagogue Cleon, when Xicias 
 brought about a treaty of peace for fifty years 
 between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians. A., 
 jealous of the esteem in which Nicias was held, 
 i laded the Athenians to ally themselves with 
 of Argos, ESia, and Mantinea, and did all 
 in his power to stir up afresh their old antipathy 
 to Sparta. It was at his suggestion that they 
 
 ed in the celebrated enterprise against Sicily, 
 to tie- command of which he was elected, along 
 with Xicias and Lamachus. But while preparations 
 
 being made, it happened during one mght that 
 all the statues of Mercury in Athen3 were mutilated. 
 The enemies of A. threw the blame of this mi 
 upon him, but [>osti>oned the impeachment till he 
 had set sail, when they stirred up the people 
 
 t him to such a degree, that he was recalled, 
 in order to stand his trial. On his way home, he 
 
 1 at Thurii, Bed, and Ix-took himself to 
 Sparta, where, by conforming to the strict manners 
 of the people, he scon became a favourite. He 
 induced the Lacedaemonians to send assistance to 
 
 j racusans, persuaded them to form an alliance 
 with the king of Persia, and after the unfortunate 
 issue of the Athenian exjiedition in Sicily, to support 
 
 eople of Chios in their endeavours to throw off 
 ke of Athens. He went thither himself, and 
 all Ionia in revolt against that city. But 
 
 i nd the other leading men in Sparta, jealous of 
 
 the success of A., ordered their generals in Asia to 
 
 have him assassinated. A. discovered this plan, and 
 
 . Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap, who had 
 
 ! to act in concert with the Lacedaemonians. 
 He now resumed his old manners, adopted the 
 luxurious habits of Asia, and made himself indis- 
 pensable to Tissaphernes. He represented to the 
 latter that it was contrary to the interests of Persia 
 entirely to disable the Athenians. He then sent 
 word to the commanders of the Athenian forces at 
 Samos that he would procure for them the friend- 
 ship of the satrap if they would control the extrava- 
 gance of the people, and commit the government to 
 an oligarchy. This offer was accepted, and Pisander 
 was sent to Athens, where he got the supreme 
 power vested in a councU of 400 persons. When it 
 appeared, however, that this council had no intention 
 
 Balling A., the army at -Samos chose him as 
 
 eommantler, desiring him to lead them on 
 
 instantly to Athens, and overthrow the tyrants. 
 
 \. did not wish to return to his native country 
 till he had rendered it some service, and he accord- 
 ingly attackeel and defeated the Lacedaemonians 
 <■ and land. Tissaphernes now ordered 
 him to be arrested at Sardis on his return, the 
 Batrap not wishing the king to imagine that he had 
 been accessory to his doings. But A. founel means to 
 escape ; placed himself agam at the head of the army ; 
 beat the Lacedaemonians and Persians at Cyricus; 
 took Cyzieus, Chalcedon, and Byzantium; restored 
 nians the dominion of the sea; and then 
 retained to his country (407 B.c), to which he had 
 formally invited. He was received with 
 general enthusiasm, as the Athenians attributed to 
 his banishment all the misfortunes that had befallen 
 them. 
 
 The triumph of A., however, was not dest ; 
 last. Hew t to Asia with 100 shi; 
 
 not b 1 with money for the soldier 
 
 he wa k assistance at Caria. where 
 
 he transferred the command in the meantime to 
 Antiochus, who, being lured into an ambuse 
 Lysander. lost his life and part of the ships. The 
 enemies of A. took advantage of this to accuse him 
 and appoint another commander. A. went to 
 
 Thrace, where he lived in voluntary exile in Pactyae, 
 one of the castles which he had built out of 
 his earlier spoils. But being threatened here with 
 the iK>wer of Laecdaemonia, he removed to Bithynia, 
 with the intention of repairing to Artaxerxes, to gain 
 him over to the interests of his country. At the 
 request of the Thirty Tyrants^ nd with the 
 
 concurrence of the Spartans, Pharnabazus, a satrap 
 of Artaxerxes, received orders to put A. to death. 
 He was living at this time in a castle in l'hrygia ; 
 I'harnabazus ordered it to be set on fire during 
 the night, and as his victim was endeavour 
 escape from the (lames, he was pierced with a volley 
 of arrows. Thus perished A. (404 B.C.), about the 
 forty-fifth year of his age. He was singularly 
 endowed by nature, being possessed of the most 
 fascinating eloquence (although he could not articu- 
 late the letter r, and stuttered in his speech), and 
 having in a rare degree the talent to win and to 
 govern men. Yet in all his transactions, he allowed 
 himself to be directed by external circumstances, 
 without having any fixed principles of conduct. 
 On the other hand, he possessed that boldness 
 which arises from conscious superiority, and shrunk 
 from no difficulty, because he was never doubtful 
 concerning the means by which an end might be 
 attained. His life has been written by Plutarch and 
 Cornelius Nepos. 
 
 ALCMAN, an ancient lyric poet, was born at 
 Sardis, the capital of Lydia, in Asia Minor, but lived 
 first as a slave, and afterwards as a freeman in Sparta. 
 He is the earliest erotic poet, and is said to have intro- 
 duced some new metrical forms called Alcmanica 
 metra. He composed in the Doric dialect a poem 
 on the Dioscuri, Parthenia, or songs sung by choruses 
 of virgins, bridal-hymns, verses in praise of love and 
 wine, &c. We possess only a few fragments of A., 
 nor do these justify the high opinion entertained of 
 his merits by the ancients, though some of them 
 exhibit considerable beauty. A. died of a loath- 
 some disease (morbus pedicuiaris). 
 
 ALCO, a variety of dog, domesticated in Mexico 
 and Peru before the discovery of America by 
 Europeans, and also found in a wild state in these 
 countries. But whether it is originally a native of 
 them, or has escaped from domestication, is uncertain, 
 nor is the variety well known to naturalists. It is 
 described as having a very small head and pendulous 
 ears : the latter being in dogs one of the ordinary 
 results of domestication. Humboldt supposed it to 
 be allied to the shepherd's dog. It has been 
 attempted to elevate it into a species under the 
 name of Cams A. It is not improbable that the 
 name A. was given to more varieties than one, 
 
 A'LCOHOL is a limpid, colourless liquid, of a 
 hot pungent taste, anel having a slight but agri 
 smelL It is the characteristic ingredient of fer- 
 mented elrinks. and L'ives them their intoxicating 
 quality. Looking at the extraordinary consumption 
 e liquors, and to the extensive application of 
 A. for other purposes, it becomes one of the most 
 important substances proeluced by art. 
 
 There is only one source of A. — namely, ti. 
 mentation of sugar or other saccharine matter. Sugar 
 is the produce of the vegetable world. Some plants 
 contain free sugar, and still more contain starch, 
 which can be converted into sugar. TI: 
 able substances, then, for yielding A. are those that 
 contain the greatest abundanc r of starch. 
 
 .. and I'lMlLLATION. 
 
 i the attraction of A. for water, it is 
 
 impossible to procure pure A. by distillation alone. 
 
 Common spirits, such as brandy, wl 'utain 
 
 cent of A.; in other words, they are 
 
 about half A, half water. Proof-spirit, which is tho 
 
 no
 
 AI.COHOLOMF.TKY- AIX'l HI \. 
 
 of A. 
 ling ."'7 -7 per cent, by i 
 and 49*50 per cent, bj 
 gravit] o pi - piril 918*6; and when 
 is call '"''. it denoh a that it conta 
 
 ctified spirit, 
 with ' proof, 
 
 and requir 1 54 to added 
 
 lo it. to bring thi i dow n to thai i 
 
 spirit ; whilst the 
 
 to a li lit than the standard. See 
 
 \ n iimi 1 1 ::. The most primitive tni thod of learning 
 
 A i' with 
 
 it, bi t fire to tin- spirit, and if it inflamed the gun- 
 
 i mt, then thei 
 
 1 i |iirit. The highe 
 
 ■Him possib] '.'ii per cent, 
 
 of A., still leaving 10 per cent, of water. tn 
 to remove ( I calcium, quicklime, 
 
 or fused carbonal 
 
 holic liquid, the whole allow ■' far twelve 
 
 hours, and then the spirit may be distilled off quite 
 free from water. Spirit of wine may also be di p 
 of its remaining water by suspending it in a bladder 
 in a v bladder allows d 
 
 water to pa littl ■ 
 
 of the A. The latti r method is called Soi 
 i Is on the different di 
 
 pidity with which the bladder admits of 
 and A. passing through it. Thus, introduce 
 
 r, and iiitu 
 a second, eight ounces of A., and allow both 
 bladders to be similarly exposed on a sandbath, 
 t.ll all the water lias evaporated through thi 
 of the memb bich will b accompli hed in 
 
 about four days, and it will tl lerved, 
 
 that whilst a les water 
 
 exil from tl . that only one ounce of A. 
 
 h«is thus evaporated, and 
 
 in the bladder. This experiment explains why 
 smugglers, a few generation 
 
 ky which v,. r, and hi D 
 
 prefers y carriea the whisky in bladders 
 
 from in much gn iter proportion than the A., a 
 r spirit was left 
 V rnally and 
 
 nally. I runon form for int rnal use is 
 
 ly, and is that generally recommend 
 physici 
 
 1 
 
 re in the 
 later Btages o rnally 
 
 i p ' ] it fainting ■ 
 
 operations, and to ration in cases of 
 
 aded animation. In cases of diarrhoea, unac- 
 
 I great 
 ally, A. is applied to 
 . the cuticle over tender parts, as 
 
 the nipple- livery, 
 
 and to feet which have been blistered from 
 walking or tight-fitting 
 
 Absolute or anhydrous A. has a specific gravity 
 of 793 al the temperature of tit*. It boils at 17.'i . 
 and ha been frozen by .any cold hitherl 
 
 duced. Red d to a t mperature of ■ — 130", \. 
 ■ ty and greasy consistence; a1 I 16 . 
 it assumes the aspect of melted wax ; and at 166°, 
 
 it 'jets still thicker, 1 mt does not congeal at the 
 lowest attainable temperature. This prop 
 non-freezing at any degree of cold to which the 
 
 objected, has led to the emplcyn 
 A. coloured red ' al, in the thermal 
 
 sent out to the Arctic regions. It at 
 
 ■ : from the parts it touches. It 
 is hi rhly inflammable; its combustion yielding only 
 116 
 
 lie .acid and water. When mixed with water, 
 
 I 
 ormula of A. is C 4 H,0,. In luo pounds, 
 therefore, of A., about 63 are carbon, 13 hydrogen, 
 I oxygen. Bi \. consumed in w ine, 
 
 beer, and spirits, it is much mployedi 
 and in the arts. It is a powerful solvent tor resins 
 and nil : ■ mployed in the preparation 
 
 of varnish,;, [n Germany, a cheap piril made from 
 i inn. li ii i-d for cooking on a small cale. 
 See Minnimi' SPIRIT. The use and abuse of 
 lie drinks will be considered under FOOD isn 
 ., and Teupebaki i 
 M.COIIOI.O'METRY is the process of esti- 
 the percentage of Icohol in a 
 
 sample of Spirits. See Alli-'.oM 
 
 ALCORAN. See Km ■ ■.. 
 
 AI.( 'I lA'K (Spanish, o'er,/,,/, which is derived from 
 the Arabic, El-kauf, a I ectural term, 
 
 denoting a sort of niche or recess in a chamber 
 where one may recline, or where a bed ma 
 placed. An A. is either hung with curtains or closed 
 with doors during the day. ft was known to the 
 ancients, and at one time very common in Franco, 
 when the immoderate size of the apartments ren- 
 dered it absolutely necessary as a preventive 
 against the cold during sleep. It is no longer 
 fashionable, tie- most eminent physicians b 
 
 declared it to be prejudicial to hearth 
 
 ALCO'T, a town in the province of Valencia, 
 Spain, about 24 miles north-west of Alicante. It is 
 'built in a funnel of the hills, on a tongue of land 
 hemmed in by two streams, with bridges ami arched 
 viaducts.' The old, quainl looking leu - hang 
 pictures, pi Jy ,,v, r tie- terraced gardens ami ravines. 
 The walls of A. an- of clay, and suffered consider- 
 able damage during the last war; but the I 
 
 contains new edifices, and has numerous 
 
 manufactories. 'Hi re is mad, the papel ,/ /, 
 book J. which forms the entire , 
 
 iino library of nine-tenths of Spaniards, and 
 with which they make their papebitoa, or little ] 
 
 200,000 reams are annually made, of which 
 In. noil ure used tor writing. 10,000 for packing, and 
 I sii. imii) for the pa] L is also 
 
 ir-plums. It les a parish church, schools, 
 - , lum, ], ill, lie granary, 
 
 ( , . Pop 27,000. 
 ALCI'IMA. M i ini>!<: D EOF, known 
 
 i jos, in Spain, 
 
 12th t>f May 1767. Poor, but! and musical, 
 
 tit the age of twenty, he entered tin- king's body- 
 guard at Madrid, anil olirite ,,f the 
 weak ( lharles I V.. as well as of his queen. Honours 
 ,:,! emolun I in i pidly. In 1801, he 
 I,,! the Spanish army against tin- Portuguese, and 
 i igned ■ of 1 1. I so !. he w .i, 
 
 of tin- Spanish forces on sea and land, 
 
 and invested with unlimited power. The alliance 
 
 ,,f Spain with and tin- war with Kngland 
 
 which ensued, in spite of the I by Spain to 
 
 secure neutrality, the defeat of Trafalgar, and con- 
 
 lerce — all tended t,, exasper- 
 
 e, 1, said a court-party was formed 
 
 against him, with the Prince of Aaturias at its head. 
 
 A. now resolved to shake off the French alliance, 
 
 and to treat secretly with the Lisbon court. Hut 
 
 howevei i on ly taken, bis warlike measures 
 
 oi Napoleon, and determined him 
 
 roji '! ,,f dethroning the Bourl . 
 
 Meanwhile, the people had been further exasperated 
 
 against the favourite by his unprincipled accusations 
 
 i the Prince of Asturias; and when, in 1808, 
 
 Charles abdicated in favour of his son, the duke's 
 
 ' life was only saved by the promise of his trial.
 
 ALCUIX— ALCY0N1 1 IM. 
 
 This trial, however, never took place. Napoleon, 
 who knew his influence over the minds oi 
 
 Spanish maje bii . had him liberated, and 1>i ght 
 
 to B lyonne, where hi takes 
 
 by the ex-king and queen, retaining their favour till 
 their death. After his fall, he lived Chi By in 
 France. Iu 180S, his income had been esthn 
 
 oillion piastres. After the revolution of 1830, 
 we find him subsisting in Paris upon asm.!]] a 
 
 ved by Louis-Fhilippe. In 1847, his return 
 bo Spain was permitted, and his titles, togi ther with 
 great part of his wealth, restored. He died al 
 •1th October 1851. 
 
 ALCUIX, or FLACCUS ALBTNUS, the most 
 distinguish! d scholar of the 8th c, the conJ 
 aud adviser of Charlemagne, was l">ni at York 
 about the year 735. He was educated under the 
 care of Archbishop Egbert, and his relative, 
 Aelbert, and succeeded the latter us master of the 
 School of York. Charlemagne became acqua 
 with him at Parma, as he was returning from i I 
 whither he had gone to bring home the ^.e'V/.e i . . i- 
 a friend; and in the year 782, this monarch invited 
 him to his court, and availed himself of his assist- 
 in his endeavours to civilise his subjects. A. 
 ptorof Charlemagne himself, whom 
 he instructed iu the various sciences. To render 
 
 tractions more available, Cnarlem 
 lished at his court a school called Schola Pala 
 the superintendence of which, as well us of 
 monasteries, was committed to him. In the learned 
 society of the court, A. went by the name of Flaccus 
 Albums. Most of the schools in France were 
 founded or improved by him. Among others, he 
 founded the school in the Abbey of .St Martin, in 
 Tours (796), taking as his model the School of York; 
 and in this school he himself taught after his retire- 
 ment from court (801). While Irving at Tours, he 
 ntly corresponded with Charlemagne. At his 
 death, in S04, he left, besides numerous theological 
 writings, a number of elementary works on phil- 
 osophy, mathematics, rhetoric, and philology; also 
 
 ! d , and a great number of letters. His letters, 
 
 while they betray the uncultivated character of the 
 morally, shew A. to have been the most a 
 I man of his time. He understood Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew. The most complete edition of 
 his works appeared at Ratisbon in 1777- See the 
 life of A. by Lorenz (Halle, 1829), translated into 
 English (Loud. 1S37). 
 
 ALCYO'NIUM, a genus of Zoophytes, the type of 
 a family called Alcyonidce, belonging to the class 
 
 Alcyonium digitatum : 
 1. Reduced Rencnil 2. A portion shaving the 
 
 figure- polypes protruded, tad 
 
 wits extended tentaeula 
 
 AntfiKoa, and order Asteroida, and consisting of a 
 
 polype-mass with starlike pores and protrusive 
 
 A. digitatum is extremely common on the 
 
 British shores, on stones, old shells, &c., in deep 
 
 !' -"'"• I ''■ crust, about 
 
 Mb of an inch in thickness, but commonly 
 
 lines forms 
 which : ired for it the popular name of 
 
 td other similar appellations. 
 The polype-mass is gelatin., us within, and co 
 with a sort of leather} skin, the ma 
 by a multitude of minute canals, terminating on the 
 tarlike figures, which, 
 
 from the surface, and appear as pd . eight 
 
 • Sei ins to 
 
 to I e, whi e placed in its proper element, a structure 
 of wonderful beauty and full of animal life, 
 tder peculiar and wonderful cond 
 ■ in which I b pol p p 
 them elves, has been likened to thai in which the 
 horns of a snail are protruded and Their 
 
 i short, obtuse, and elegantly fringed at 
 the margins. The external part of the 
 polype is a m mbrane so transparent, that by the 
 employment of a magnifying-glass the whole 
 rial structure can be seen through it. See fig. 3, 4. 
 
 3. Alcyonium digitatum : 
 
 b, the polype fully protruded, magnified; c, the polype partially 
 
 protruded, magnified. 
 
 This delicate membrane, however, is Ci 
 two very thin membranes, intimately united, the 
 outer of which increases in thickness at the I 
 the polype, coal ith that of adjao ai polypes, 
 
 and is continuous with the common leathery skin 
 of the polype-mass. The inner membrane retains 
 its extreme delicacy 
 "ilt : it ex- 
 tends into and lines 
 the cell of the polype 
 (see fig. 4) and the 
 tube or canal which 
 I from the cell 
 mass, and is 
 thus also continuous 
 with the correspond- 
 ing membra: 
 o1 her pob pi s; for the 
 canals divide into 
 branches in their 
 
 : ! i'i k 
 
 of the polj pe-mass to 
 rface, and the 
 intimacy of union in 
 the whole is increased 
 by a fine tubular net- 
 work which occupies i between 
 principal canals. If a portion of an A. is irri- 
 tated, not only the particular polypes named 
 subjected to irritation retract themselves as to 
 withdraw from danger, but the gradual collapse 
 
 117 
 
 4. Alcyonium digitatum : 
 Section shewing internal structure. 
 
 the
 
 ALDEBARAN— ALDER. 
 
 and contraction of the whole polype-mass shews 
 that the irritation has been felt through it all. The 
 contraction of the mass is owing to a dischu 
 water, which the polypes, when protruded, imbibe, 
 and which circulates through and distends the 
 polype-mass, so that when the polypes are ondis- 
 
 1, and in full activity, it has twice or 
 times the size w hi as we find it cs 
 
 upon the beach. The stomach of each polype is 
 cylindrical (as m tin fig. '■'■. b, immediately 
 
 under the oval disk or expanded tentacula), and 
 ill it i3 a comparatively large cavity, into 
 which hang loosely (as may all in the 
 
 figure just referred to) eight twisted filami 
 is, the use of which is not well ascerl 
 and lias been the subject of very different op 
 among naturalists. In the gelatinous ml 
 the polype-mass, which tills the interstices of the 
 tubular net-work, numerous crystalline calc 
 spicula lie immersed, like t 1 [q. v.) found 
 
 in the iutercellu!. a pa ! of some plants. They 
 
 are toothed on the sides, but are of various forms, 
 and ha i inflection with an;, 
 
 animal structure; th 
 
 to impart some degree i th to the whole. 
 
 These spicula are of g i 
 
 of this order, and bed by the common skin 
 
 of the polype-mass. The polype-mass 
 
 IKS or buds, which grow into new braa 
 but the pn the Bpeci s takes place by 
 
 Ova "r eggs, which first appear as minute ■ 
 warts on the membrane of the canals in the interior. 
 The constriction of the neck, by which the . 
 separates them from the parent membrane, and they 
 move through the canal by means of very i 
 \ tbrating cilia or hail v. tth « bich they arc fur- 
 y reacli tin i of a polype, 
 
 into which they enter, and through which 
 inure slowly proceed till at last they are ejected 
 by the mouth (the only opening), and committed to 
 the waves and tl as if capable 
 
 of feeling wl ilst within the parent mass, and may 
 be observed to move backwards and forwards, and 
 to contract their sides as if by voluntary action in 
 their passage through the body of the polype. These 
 wonderful phenomena of nature are the more easily 
 observed, because the ova are of 
 colour, beautifully contrasting with the pure white 
 of the polype, through the tunic of which they are 
 seen. — One of the most remarkable known 
 of A., and the largest, is that called A. pocn 
 Neptune's Cup, which was .1; n over d by S r 
 ford Raffles upon the coral-reefs of Sumatra, and is 
 found in the neighbour- 
 hood of Singapore. It 
 grows erect, sonn 
 banting nearly thn 
 in height and eighteen 
 -» inches m diami 
 
 OS are now frequent in 
 museums in this coin 
 
 The name Aleyonium 
 was fonnerly also given 
 to many zoophytes now- 
 found to be of very differ 
 ent structure, some of 
 which now bear the name 
 others that 
 of . I The genus 
 
 Alcyonidium belong 
 class of Zoo] 
 . 'i Hyzoa, order Iiifn n - 
 
 a. See Zoophytes. 
 
 The most common British 
 
 ics w -'■ 
 
 Bedu, t'tnosum. It resi I 
 
 us 
 
 a sponge m appearance, but is more pellucid and 
 gelatinous, and IS full of polypes, each having 15 
 or 16 long slender tentacula. It is attached to 
 old shells and stones, and is sometimes much lobed, 
 as in the pp ii almost simple. 
 
 The colour varies from a very pale brown to 
 
 surface is speckli d with minute dots, 
 
 from which, when it is placed in sea-water, the 
 
 protrude. The polype differs widely from 
 
 that of A Icyoninm in having an intestine, which, pro- 
 
 ■ from the stomach to the aperture of ti U, 
 
 opens there by an orifice distinct from the mouth, a 
 
 difference characteristic of the classes to which they 
 
 . The ova are clothed with cilia, 
 
 and their mot ions either are or most stnkinely re- 
 
 voluntary motions. — AlcyoneUa belongs to the 
 
 I r Hypoartpta. See Zoophytes. 
 is one llriti I Alcyondla stagnorum, found 
 
 in stagnant waters, especially in autumn, in 
 
 ! lly-like masses, of a blackish-green colour, 
 usually adhering to th uatic plants. 
 
 lly-like mass is ti > in base to BUI 
 
 by multitudes of tubes, which open by a round 
 
 [i d aperture ; the heads of the polypes project 
 a little way from the aperture, and i xpand into 
 a circle of about fifty tentacula. About 1600 polypes 
 an- situated on a square inch of the surface of the 
 mass. The number of tentacula on a specimen of 
 
 ite size has been computed at more than 
 .",00(1.1100. The tentacula are covered with minute 
 cilia, only to be observed with a high magnii 
 power, by means of which a constant whirlpool is 
 
 centering in the mouth of ; 
 and essential. ig as well I 
 
 the supply of food. Each polype is organically 
 connected with the mass, its tunic being continuous 
 with the tube. The alimentary canal has two 
 op, Dings. The ova are to be found in vast numbers 
 in the tubes which traverse the mass. They are 
 dark brown, whilst the tubes arc colourless or tinted 
 with green, of a lens-like form and destitute of 
 cilia. They are produced from all parts of the 
 side of the gelatinous tubes; and as there seems to 
 
 aperture for their escape, it is supposed that 
 
 they are liberated from the parent mass only on its 
 and decomposition. The Alcyondla is an 
 interesting object in a fresh- water aquarium, but 
 is rather difficult to preserve. It is not, however, 
 always to be found even in ponds where it might be 
 expected, and is abundant in particular seasons and 
 rare in others. The ova arc probably capable of 
 remaining long dormant, until some concurrence of 
 circumstances favours the development of the ucrm 
 of life which they contain. See Johnston's History 
 of British Zoophyti . 2 vols., Lond. 1S47 — a most 
 interesting and valuable work. 
 
 ALDE'IiARAN, the Arabic name of a star of 
 the first magnitude in the constellation Taurus. It 
 i the lamest and most brilliant of a cluster of five 
 which the Greeks called the Hyades. From its 
 position in the constellation, it is sometimes termed 
 Bull's Eye.' 
 
 ALDER (Almu), a genus of plants of the natural 
 
 order Betuiacas (regarded by many as a sub-order of 
 
 tlacae; seeEnaii and Ame>.tace.e). Thegenus 
 
 consists entirely of trees and shrubs, natives of 
 
 1 temperate climates; the flowers in terminal, 
 
 imbricated catkins, which appear before the I 
 
 the male and female flowers in separate catkins on 
 
 ie plant; the male or barren catkins loose, 
 
 cylindrical, pendulous, having the scales 3-lobed, and 
 
 each with three flowers whose perianth is single and 
 
 4- partite; the fertile catkins oval, compact, hi 
 
 the scales sub-trifid, and each with two flowers 
 
 destitute of perianth ; styles two ; fruit, a compressed
 
 ALDERMAN— ALDER NEY. 
 
 nut without wings.— The Common" or Black A. (A. 
 
 ,,l,ili,iosa) is a native of Britain, and of the northern 
 i .f Asia and America. It has roundish, •wedge- 
 shaped obtuse leaves, lobed at the margin and 
 
 < 
 
 
 &&&£ 
 
 ^m^ 
 
 ■ Tree. 
 
 serrated. The bark, except in very young trees, is 
 
 ,- black. It succeeds best in moist soil . 
 
 tn secure swampy river-banks against the 
 
 hi' tloods. It attains a height of 30 — 60 feet. 
 
 I ts leaves are somewhat glutinous. The wood is of 
 
 an orange-yellow colour, not very good for fuel, but 
 
 ling one of the best kinds of charcoal for the 
 
 manufacture of gunpowder, upon which account it is 
 
 often grown as coppice-wood. Great numbers of 
 
 small A. trees are used in Scotland for making staves 
 
 fur herring-barrels. The wood is also employed by 
 
 turners and joiners; but it is particularly valuable 
 
 on account of its property of remaining for a long 
 
 time under water without decay, and is therefore 
 
 used for the piles of bridges, forpumpg, sluices, pipes, 
 
 cogs of mill-wheels, and similar purposes. The bark 
 
 is used for tanning and for dyeing, also for staining 
 
 fishermen's nets. It produces a yellow or red colour, 
 
 Alder leaves, &c. : 
 i, a lir.mchkt with male and fi-male catkins, reduced; b, a 
 brancblfit v, itli taavoti Hid female catkins in a more advanced 
 reduced; c, the fruit-bearing female catkin; d, the 
 aamfl, cut across, to shew the small nuts or seeds. 
 
 or with copperas, a black colour. The leaves and 
 female catkins are employed in the same way, by the 
 rs and dyers of some countries. The bark is 
 bitter and astringent, and has been used for gargles, 
 and also administered with success in ague. The 
 are a favourite food of greenfinches. — The 
 Allrr is one of the ornaments of many of the most 
 exquisite landscapes in Britain. The dark gp i 
 its foliage, and the still darker hue of its bark, con- 
 trast beautifully with the colours of the other trees 
 with •which it is usually associated on the banks of 
 our rivers. Iu boggy grounds it is often almost the 
 only kind of tree that appears, and in many parts of 
 the Higldands, groups of alders a I over 
 
 the lower and moister parts of the mountain-slopes. 
 The individual tree vi ■■« ed 1 ly itself may be regarded 
 
 as somewhat stiff and formal in appearance ; but in 
 groups or clusters, it is always far otherwise. — The 
 common A. ceases on the Swedish shore of the Gulf 
 of Bothnia, in the south of Angermannland, and is 
 there called the Sea A ., because it is only in the 
 lowest grounds near the sea that it occurs. — The 
 Gray or Whtte A. {A. ineana), a native of many 
 parts of continental Europe, especially of the 
 and also of North America, and of Kamtchatka, 
 but not of Britain, differs from the common A. in 
 having acute leaves, downy ben i not gluti- 
 
 nous. It attains a rather greater height, but in very 
 cold climates and unfavourable situations appears 
 as a shrub. It occurs on the Alps at an ele\ 
 above that to which the common A. extends, 
 and becomes abundant also where that species 
 irs in the northern part of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. The wood is white, tine-grained, and 
 compact, but readily rots under water. The bark 
 is used in dyeing. — A. conHfolia is a large and 
 handsome tree, with cordate acuminate leaves, a 
 native of the south of Italy, but found to be cpiite 
 hardy in England. Some of the American species 
 are mere shrubs. The bark of A. semdaia is used 
 in dyeing. — Several species are natives of the Hima- 
 layas. — The BEKRY-BEAKING A., or A. i 
 is a totally different plant. See Buckthorn". 
 
 ALDERMAN, a title derived from the Anglo- 
 Saxon ealdorman, compounded of ealdor (older) and 
 man. Whether any definite and invariable functions 
 were connected with the ancient rank of ealdorman, 
 does not seem to be very clearly ascertained. The 
 term was generally applied to persons of high and 
 hereditary distinction, such as princes, earls, and 
 governors. Its special signification in the titles 
 ' A. of all England ' (Alderrri totmsAngliatyanA 
 
 ' King's A.' (Aldermannns Regis), is not distinctly 
 indicated. There were also aldermen of counties, 
 hundreds, cities, borouglis, and castles. In modern 
 times, aldermen are officers invested with certain 
 powers in the municipal corporations of En, 
 Wales, and Ireland, either as civil magistrates, or as 
 assessors of the chief civil magistrates in cities and 
 towns corporate. The corresponding title in Scot- 
 land is Bailie. The London Court of Aldermen 
 consists of twenty-six aldermen, including the Lord 
 Mayor, and constitutes the bench of magistral 
 the city, besides having judicial and legislative 
 authority in the corporation. 
 
 A'LDERNEY (Fr. Aurigny, Lat. Aurinio), an 
 island in tin i unel (see CHANNEL Islands), 
 
 lat. 49 s 45' N, long. 2° 13' W., separated from the coast 
 of Normandy by a strait about 7 miles in breadth, 
 called the Race of Alderney. Through this channel, 
 which is very dangerous in rough weather, the 
 remnant of thar French fleet escaped after then- 
 defeat at La Hogue in 1692. The d tween 
 Alderney and the nearest points of Gun 
 Jersey, and Great Britain, are respectively about 
 15, .'::!, and CO miles. The length of the island is 
 about 4 miles, the breadth about 1 J. The coast to 
 the south-east is bold and lofty, to the north-east 
 and north, it descends, forming numerous small 
 ■ eie of which, that of Crabby, affords the 
 only anchorage in the island. A harbour of 
 : l ' water have been constructed on 
 the north side of sive works 
 cted with which have greatly increased the 
 population. Six miles to the west are the t'askets, 
 a small cluster of rocks, on which light- 
 The soil in the centre of the island is highly 
 productive; and the A. til but han 
 breed, have always been celebrated. The climate is 
 mild and healthy, and gOi -1 water abounds. The popu- 
 lation had il creased between 1813 and 1S41 from 
 
 119
 
 ALDERSHOTT CAMP— ALDINE EDITIONS. 
 
 1308 to 1030; in 1861 it amounted to 
 
 i..u to some extent is universal. The 
 population was originally French, but half the 
 inhabitants now liah, and all understand 
 
 it. P ii has prevailed bare Bin 
 
 Reformation. A. is a dependency of Gui 
 
 id I ch il powi t 
 
 ii a judge appointed by the i 
 and e chosen by the peopli . 
 
 with twelve popular representatrvi 
 (who do ncit vote), constitm 
 The court • 1 of the jud 
 
 jurats, the royal procureur and comptroller and 
 the registrar <. ■/'"'..'"''• *"•• nominate)} by the governor. 
 
 ipanies 
 of infantry, and a Town.' 
 
 rituated ma picturesque valley oear theci utreofthe 
 
 d, contains a few public buildings, among which 
 is the old ehurch, said to have been erected in the 
 12th <-., and a new one in the early English 
 with a tower ln4 feet high. The living us a perpe- 
 tnal curacy in the archdeaconry and diocese of 
 Winch 
 
 A'LDEKSHOTT CAMP. When England and 
 France declared war against Russia in 1854, in rela- 
 tion to Turkish affairs, the British army was known 
 to be in an unsatisfactory state. Thirty-nine 
 
 tee had all- . important elements in 
 
 military organisation to fall into a Btate of ineffi- 
 ciency'. Among ' power of acting 
 ides and divisions had scare ;. 
 taughi to our i Jdiers, who had been familiar with 
 N lore than the discipline and tactics of battalions 
 and companies. To P rl I u ■ 
 
 the bbject held in view in establishing the 
 camp at A. It was to lie a permanent camp, with 
 barracks and huts, instead oi mere canvas tents ; 
 and was to be provided with all the appli 
 for a military school, valuable to officers as well as 
 to privates. A dreary waste, on the 
 Surrey, Hants, and Berks, called A. Heath, was 
 purchased by the government as the locality tor tie- 
 new camp. The area was Ti'o.'i acres, and the 
 purchase-price about £130,000. The spot was 
 deemed suitable as being distant from auy thickly 
 inhabited district; as being with 
 three or four stations on the South-western and 
 South-eastern railways ; and as being conveniently 
 placed for the quick transmission of troops to any 
 part of the southern coast. The camp was ready for 
 the reception of troops in 1S55. At first, no brick 
 structures were attempted. The soldiers were 
 accommodated in wooden huts, each furnishing 
 living and sleeping room for about twenty-live men. 
 When p was inaugurated, in April of the 
 
 year last named, by a review at which the Queen 
 was present, there were 18,000 troops, regulars and 
 militia, temporarily stationed there. The huts for 
 each regiment were grouped apart, for 
 maintenance of regimental discipline. Bach hut had 
 a range of iron bedsteads on eitln I is hie of 
 
 being doubled up; and a long table through the 
 middle, in a line with two doors at the ends of the 
 huts. The officers' huts, though of course superior 
 in construction and convenience, were as simple as 
 they could well be. The cooking was performed in 
 huts especially set apart for that purpose, pr 
 with efficient cooking apparatus. The wooden huts 
 have gradually been superseded by brick barracks, 
 at a cost of more than a quarter of a million sterling. 
 These will be briefly described in a future article 
 (Rai:i;acks), as examples of the finest barracks 
 hitherto constructed in this country. The B 
 stoke Canal, running directly across the 1 
 has occasioned a division into North Camp and 
 South Camp ; but each of these is susceptible 
 
 120 
 
 of a good deal of extension. On various occasions 
 spring of 18.">."> and that of 1859, 
 rand 'field-days 
 and reviews at the camp; but the more n 
 ant operations are those whicl ed on daily, 
 
 and are known to very few besides those 
 
 rind. There are many square miles of 
 plain, heath, shrub, morass, valley, and hill sur- 
 rounding the camp, on which soldiers, and esp 
 the militia regiments, are 1 in the various 
 
 evolutions and strategic movements connected with 
 the battle-field ai vorks. It is no child's 
 
 the men are often scv. 
 a foretaste of some of the fatigues of militai ■ 
 On otl they are exercised in various quiet 
 
 tnd huts, barracks and kii 
 intended to teach them many of the useful knacks 
 in which French soldiers ai I dged to bo 
 
 more skilled than the English. Difl 
 regulars as well as militia, artillery as well as 
 cavalry and infantry, take it in turn, to cxp< 
 camp-life at A. At the time when this article is 
 written (May 1859), there are about 15,000 
 mp, comprising infantry, cavalry, 
 artillery, and militia. The war authorities have 
 i or leased a portion of forest-land 
 i A. and Winchester ; i i rangements 
 
 of a temporary kind wi] 
 will be occasionally exercised with a tough man 
 a dozen miles. One unfortunate circumstance con- 
 with the camp is. that the barracks have been 
 built at the very . i round belon 
 
 : consequence, private speculators 
 
 built li and haunts of dissipation, almost 
 
 close to the barracks, greatly to the demorali 
 of the soldiers ; and it is not easy to buy up I 
 people, owing to the enormous rise in the value of 
 i near the camp. 
 ATjDINE EDITIONS, the name given to the 
 works that issued from the press of Alio Mai 
 (q.v.) (I. at. Aldus Manutras) and his family in Venice 
 (1490 1597). Recommended bj their intrinsic value, 
 as well as by their he ■ ' . have 
 
 been highly prized by the learned and by book- 
 is. Many of them are the firs! 
 [edition* i of Greek and Roman classics; 
 
 others contain corrected texts of modern . 
 
 . care- 
 fully collated with the MSS. AH of them are 
 distinguished for the remarkable correctness of the 
 aphy ; the Greek works, how i 
 
 what inferior to the Latin and Italian. 
 
 Irtdons published by Aldus, the father, form an 
 
 epoch in the annals of printing, as they contributed 
 
 in no ordinary measure to the perfecting of types. 
 
 had ever before used such beautiful Greek 
 
 types, of which he got nine different kinds made, 
 
 and of Latin as many as fourteen. It is to him, or 
 
 rather to the engraver. Francesco of Bologna, that 
 
 we owe the ; led by the Italians Cortivi, 
 
 and known to us as Italics, which he used for 
 
 rat time in the 8vo edition of ancient 
 
 and modern classics, commencing with \ 
 
 ns on parchment arc 
 exceedingly beautiful ; he was the first printer who 
 introduced the custom of taking some impressions 
 on better paper — that is, finer or stronger than 
 the rest of the edition. The first example of this is 
 l in the Epistola Orceca (1499). It would be 
 another who has brought so much 
 zeal, disinterestedness, taste, and knowledge to the 
 furtherance of literature, especially classical litera- 
 ture. After lus death, in 1515, his business was 
 superintended by his father-in-law, Andreas Asu- 
 lanus. Paul, the son of Aldus, possessed the 
 enthusiasm for Latin classics that his father had for
 
 ALE— ALEMBERT. 
 
 Greek. He (lied at Rome in 1597. The printing 
 [ishment founded by Aldo continued in active 
 lion for 100 years, and during tliis time printed 
 908 different works. The distinguishing mark is an 
 anchor, entwined by a dolp] !Iy with the 
 
 motto. Under the direction of the 
 
 -<>n of the founder, it lost the superiority which 
 it had formerly maintained over all the other print- 
 in Italy. The demand which arc 
 in this office, and especially for the earlier 
 induced the printers of Lyon and Florence, 
 1502, to begin the system of issuing counter- 
 feit Aldines. The Aldo-mania has considerably 
 diminished in later times. Among the A. works 
 which have now become very rare may be mentioned 
 the flora- !>■ "' • Mnrite Virginia of 1497; the Virgil 
 of 1501 ; and the Rhetores Grirci; not to mention 
 the editions from 1494 to 1497, which are now 
 extremely rare. The moat complete collections known 
 are those of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and of 
 Henouard, the bookseller of Paris. In 1834 appeared 
 a third edition of the monograph published by 
 Renouard, ' Us Aides, ou 
 
 Histoire des Trdit Mamuxs, tt de lew Editions: 
 (Paris, 1834). Ebert has published 
 a catalogue of all the authentic A. E. in the sup- 
 plement to the first volume of his Bibliographical 
 miry. 
 ALE would seem to have been the current name 
 in England for malt liquor in general before the 
 introduction of hops. This took place, according to 
 Johnston {Che mistry »f Common Lift), as late as the 
 reign of Henry VIII., about the year 1524, As the use 
 i - was ill-rived fn an Germany, the l rerman name 
 for malt liquor (bier), beer, was used at first to dis- 
 tinguish the hopped liquor from ale, the unhopped. 
 The word ale had in all likelihood been 1 introduced 
 1 ry the Danes and other Scandinavian settlers — for til 
 (allied probably tootf) is still the name for inalt liquor 
 in the Scandinavian tongues — and must have driven 
 out the bear of the Anglo-Saxons, which that people 
 had in common with the other Teutonic nations. 
 As now used, ale signifies a kind of beer (q. v. and 
 Fermentation), distinguished chiefly by its strength 
 and the quantity of sugar remaining imdi compost d. 
 Strong ale is made from the b ilt; and the 
 
 fermentation is allowed to proceed slowly, and the 
 ferment to be exhausted and separated. This, 
 together with the large quantity of sugar still left 
 uiidecomposcd, enables the liquor to keep long with- 
 out requiring a large amoimt of hops. The Scotch 
 ales are distinguished for the smallness of the 
 quantity of hops they contain, and for their vinous 
 flavour. They are fermented at an unusually low 
 nature. The ales of Edinburgh and rVestonpans 
 have a high reputation. Burton ale is the strongest 
 made, containing as much as 8 per cent, of alcohol; 
 while the best brown stout has about t> per cent., 
 and common beer only 1 per cent. India pale ale 
 differs chiefly in having a larger quantity of hops. 
 
 A-LEE, expressed by the French sous le vent, or 
 ' under the wind,' is a maritime term applied to the 
 position of the helm when so worked, as to bring 
 the head of the ship to windward. 
 
 ALEMAX, Matko, a famous Spanish novelist, 
 was born about the middle of the 16th c, at Seville, 
 and died in .Mexico during the reign of Philip III. 
 In 1604 '"' published a poetical biography of St 
 Antonius of Padua; and in 1608, while in the New 
 World, an Ortogrofia •■■■ ritten during his 
 
 voyage ; but his gnat work is I I Alfarache, 
 
 a novel with a rogue for the hero, like some of the 
 more recent English fictions. It was first published 
 at Madrid in 1699, became immensely popular, and 
 in half-a-dozen years had gone through twenty-six 
 
 editions, consisting of not less than 50,000 copies, in 
 Spain and other countries. Both as regards the 
 ition of manners and the purity of style, this 
 masterly creation of A. ranks next to that most 
 celebrated of all tin- Spanish novels of the same 
 character— the A Tormu of Mendoza. It 
 
 displays keen powers of observation ; and is readily 
 recognised as the work of a ripe and cultivated mind. 
 Mi ndoza's hero has the advantage in 
 freshness, and vivacity; but Guzman exhibits a 
 richer variety of gifts in the various characters 
 he is compelled by circumstances to assume, such 
 as stable-boy, beggar, thief, coxcomb, mercenary, 
 valet, pander, merchant, &c The manners of the 
 authors own age are hit off with great skill and 
 effect, a wide knowledge of human nature is mani- 
 fested, and the whole narrative is interspersed with 
 shrewd and solid reflections and moralising. A. is 
 considered to rank with Mendoza, Cervantes, &c, 
 as one of the masters of the Castilian style. 
 
 ALEMAXXI (that is, all-men), the name of a 
 military confederacy of several German tribes 
 which began to appear on the Lower and Middle 
 Maine about the beginning of the 3d c. i iracalla 
 fought with them first on the Maine in 211 a.d., but 
 without conquering them : Alexander Severus wa3 
 equally unsuccessfid ; but Maximums at length 
 succeeded against them, and drove them beyond the 
 Rhine. After his death, they again invaded ( Jaul, 
 1 mt were defeated by Posthtimius, who pursued them 
 into Germany, and fortified with ramparts and 
 ditches the boundary of the Roman territory, called 
 the Agri Decumatee. The moimds near Pforung, 
 on the Danube, the rampart extending through the 
 principality of Hohenlohe to Jaxthausen, and the 
 ditch with palisados on the north side of the 
 Maine, are remains of these works. The A., how- 
 ever, did not desist from their incursions, although 
 they were repeatedly driven back. After 2m\ 
 being pressed upon from the north-east by the 
 Burgundians, they took up permanent settlements 
 within the Roman boundary from Maintz to Lake 
 Constance. At last, Julian came (357) to the relief 
 of Gaul, which had been suffering from the in- 
 cursions of the A., and soon compelled eight of their 
 chiefs to sue for peace. Their united force, in their 
 principal battle with Julian, amounted to 35,000 
 men. After the 5th c, the Co 1 nation is 
 
 spoken of as A. and Suavi or Suevi. In the c 
 of the 4th c, they had crossed the Rhine, and 
 extended as far west as tin- Vosges, and south to the 
 Helvetian Alps. At length, Clovis, king of the 
 Franks, broke their power in 490, and made them 
 subject to the Frankish dominion. The south part 
 of their territory was formed into a duchy, called 
 Alemannia. The name of Swabia came afterwards 
 to be applied to the part of the duchy lying east of 
 the Rhine. From the A., the French have given the 
 name of AUemands and : -and 
 
 (ierrnany in general, the of the 
 
 north of Switzerland, with these of Alsace and 
 part of Swabia, are the proper -descendants of the 
 Alemanni. 
 
 ALEMBERT, Jean if. Rond d', one of the most 
 distinguished mathematicians and writers of the 
 ISth c, was born in Paris, November 16, 1717. He 
 was the illegitimate .-en of Madame de Tencin, a 
 lady of considerable notoriety in the time of the 
 Regency, and of a M. Destouchea lie wxs exposed 
 by his mother on the steps of the church of St 
 Jcande-Rond, and the policeman who found him 
 committed the seemingly dying infant to the care of 
 
 the wife of a i r glacier, thinking it too weak I 
 
 taken to the depot. The father, without publicly 
 avowing the child, secured to him an allowance of 
 
 121
 
 ALEMBIC— -ALEMTEJO. 
 
 L200 Eranca a year. At the age of twelve, he entered 
 the CoU < \Ii rin, where he soon gave indication 
 of that inclination, or rather passion for mathemati- 
 
 idies which distinguished him through life. <>n 
 
 tg college, he returned to the humble home of 
 
 his kind foster- fcher, where he continued to live 
 
 and pursue his favourite studies for aearly forty 
 ring with her household his small revenue. 
 
 ingh the g 1 woman loved him as a son, so 
 
 little did she i □ lour i ition to 
 
 -'. that v ben he spoke of hi i d 
 writings, she replied with a sort of pity : ' You will 
 never be anything but a er; and what is a 
 
 philosopher, but a fool who torments himself during 
 his life, thai peo] I about him when he is 
 
 dead.' At first, bis friends urged him to qualify 
 himself for trying 
 
 for a time the study of law, and then of m 
 ive up the attempt as hopeless, and abandoned 
 
 If without reserve to his passion for 
 
 In 1741, at the age of 23, he was admitted a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences, having already 
 attracted attention by several [ihysieo-mathematieal 
 tracts. Two yi ed his Treatise on 
 
 Dynamics, founded on a new and fertile principle 
 ■ makes an epoch in mechanical philosophy. 
 'This principle consists,' says Condorcet, 'in 
 Halting the equality, at every instant, between the 
 changes which the motion of the body has under- 
 did the forces which have been employed to 
 produce them;' in other words, it reduces all (he 
 laws of motion to li ration of Equilibrium. 
 
 Among the more important of his other scientific 
 works are : his 77 . which gained the 
 
 prize of the Academy of Berlin, 1740, and which 
 contains the i' t conception and use of the Calculus 
 of Partial Differences; a treatise on the Precession 
 of the Equinoxes, 1740, giving for the first time an 
 analytical solution of that phenomenon, as well as of 
 the nutation of the ear' I on (Iteliesist- 
 
 once qfJPluids, 1702; JlesearcJies on some Imp 
 Points in Vie System of Ike Universe, \~~<i and 1756. 
 His Mathematical Opuscules contain an immense 
 number of memoirs, some on new subjects, some 
 containing developments of his previous works. 
 
 But A. did not confine himself to physical science. 
 Diderot (q. v.) having conceived the idea 
 famous Encydopidie, enlisted the sen-ices of A., who 
 wrote the Preliminary Discourse, which is allowed 
 by all to be a noble tribute to literature and philos- 
 ophy — a model of lucid and eloquent exposition, 
 and displaying an immense extent of knowledge 
 combined with rare judgment. Besides numerous 
 articles in the Encyclope'die, he published Elements 
 of Philosophy, 1769; Mi'Innnes of Literature and 
 Philosophy; The Destruction of the Jesuits, &c He 
 also wrote a great many Hopes of members of the 
 Academy of Sciences, of which he was elected 
 secretary in 1772. His literary works have been pub- 
 lished in a collected form, new edition, by Bossange 
 (Paris, 1821, 5 vols. 8vo). Tins edition contains the 
 correspondence of A with Voltaire and the king of 
 Prussia. His scientific works have never been 
 collected. 
 
 A. gave striking proof of how little he regarded 
 riches and distinctions, or the flatteries of th. 
 and how genuine was his love of indepen 
 Frederick i I. of Prussia offered him the presidency 
 of the Academy of Berlin, 1752, but he declined to 
 leave France, and only accepted a sub, 
 of a pension of 1200 francs. The king of I 
 granted him a similar sum. In 1702, Catharine II. 
 of Russia invited him, through her ambassador, to 
 undertake (he education of her son, with a salary of 
 100,000 francs; and when he declined, she wrote 
 him a letter with her own hand, urging that to 
 122 
 
 refuse to contribute to the education of a whole 
 nation was inconsistent with his own principles ; 
 and inviting him, if he could not reconcile himself to 
 the breaking-oil" of his pursuits and friendship-, to 
 bring all his friends with him, and she would provide 
 both for them and for him everything they could 
 desire. But A. remained steadfast. When the Grand 
 Duke afterwards visited Paris, lie good-humourcdly 
 reproached A. with his refusal ; and to the excuse of 
 our of the climate and feeble health, the prince 
 .with the compliment: 'In truth, monsieur, it is 
 the only false calculation you have made in your life.' 
 A. was never married, lie was tenderly at 
 many years to a Mademoiselle Kspinasse, although 
 icy, it is believed, never went beyond a 
 warm friendship. The death of the lady was a severe 
 Mow to A. His own health began to give way ; for 
 he was Buffering from the stone, and would not con- 
 sent to an operation, lb' died, ( Ictober 29, 1783. 
 
 A. was truthful, frank, and extremely benevolent. 
 He held it as a principle of morals that a man has no 
 right to dispose at will of his own superfluous means 
 while ti. others in want of the necessaries of 
 
 \ stigma has attached to the name of A from 
 his intimate association with Voltaire and other 
 assailants of Christianity ; but A. never attacked 
 id in his published writings, which might be 
 read without knowing what his opinions regarding 
 revelation were. It is only from his private corre- 
 spondence that it appears that he thought the 
 probabilities were in favour of theism. 
 
 ALE'MBIC (formed by the Arabs from their 
 article al and Gr. ambix, a goblet), is a form of 
 still introduced into chemistry by the alchemists, 
 and used by the more ancient experimenters in 
 in i nipulative chemistry for the distillation and sub- 
 limation of substances, such as alcohol, or formic 
 acid obtained by heating a decoction of red ants in 
 water. The vessel consisted of a body, cucurbit or 
 matrass (A), in which the material to be volatil- 
 ised w-as placed; a heatl or capital (B) into which the 
 vapours rose, were cooled, and then trickled down 
 to the lower part ((.'), from whence by a pipe (1)) the 
 distilled product passed into the receiver (Ii). Where 
 very volatile liquids were being distilled, it was 
 customary to introduce the receiver (E) into a \ 
 with cold water, so as to increase the perfectuess 
 
 Alembic. 
 
 of the condensing part of the arrangement. The 
 A has now been entirely superseded by the retort 
 and receiver, or by the Hash attached to a Liebig's 
 condenser. See Ketort. 
 
 ALEMTE'JO, a large province of Portugal, con- 
 it 300,000 inhabitants, is the second most 
 southerly province of the country. It is partly 
 I by the Atlantic on the west, and stretches 
 to the Spanish frontier on the east. It is traversed by 
 a number of mountain-chains, and is watered by the 
 Tagus, Guadiana, and Saado or Sado. In the south
 
 ALENCON— ALESSANDRIA. 
 
 and west, the climate is hot and dry ; the plains are 
 covered with brown heath, unrelieved by a tree or 
 a shrub, and only broken at intervals by marshy 
 wastes, wliile the vegetation is extremely scanty. 
 In the east, on the contrary, the valleys are fertile, 
 and the mountains adorned with forests. The pro- 
 ductions are singularly abundant. They consist of 
 wheat, barley, rice, maize, the vine, and a variety of 
 choice fruits — such as the citron, the lemon, the fig, 
 the pomegranate. In the valleys, the principal trees 
 are the oak with edible fruits, the evergreen-oak, the 
 cork-oak, the chestnut, and the pine ; in the plains, 
 wr find lavender, rosemary, juniper, the myrtle. The 
 pasturage, also, is extraordinarily line. Great attention 
 IS paid to the rearing of swine, goats, and sheep, anil 
 in a less degree, of horned cattle, asses, and mules. 
 As the population is sparse, more grain is produced 
 than is consumed ; but manufactures are in a back- 
 ward condition. Even mining, which might be very 
 profitably carried on, is neglected. The chief towns 
 are Evora (the capital), Elvas, Portalegre, Beja, 
 Estremoz, and Mertola. 
 
 ALE'NCON, chief town of the department of 
 Orne, in France, is situated on the Sarthe, in 
 lit. 4S° 25' N., and long. 0° 51' E. The town- 
 church— a structure of the 16th c, containing the 
 remains of the tombs of the A. family, which 
 were almost completely destroyed at the Revolution 
 — is built in the Gothic style. It has a fine porch 
 and exquisitely painted windows. A. is a clean and 
 handsome town, with good streets and a delightful 
 public walk. The inhabitants produce excellent 
 woollen and linen stuffs, embroidered fabrics, straw- 
 hats, lace-work, artificial flowers, hosiery, &c. The 
 manufacture of A. point-lace {points d'A.), although 
 still important, is not carried on to the same extent 
 as formerly. The cutting of the so-called A. 
 diamonds (quartz-crystals), found in the vicinity of 
 the town, is a branch of industry which has also 
 greatly declined. 
 
 The old Dukes of A. were a branch of the royal 
 family of Valois, and were descended from Charles 
 of Valois, who perished at the battle of Crecy in 
 l.'!4G. His grandson, John I., fell at Agincourt in 
 1415. His successor, John II., allying himself with 
 the enemies of the court, was twice condemned to 
 death, but pardoned both times. Reng, son of John 
 II., also excited, not without cause, the suspicion of 
 the French monarch, Louis XL, who confined him 
 for three months in an iron cage at Chinon ; but as 
 the parliament had never condemned him, he was 
 d at the death of Louis, and restored by 
 Charles VIII. to his title and estate. Rene's son, 
 who had married the sister of Francis I., was general 
 of the advance-guard of the French army in the 
 Netherlands. He commanded the left wing at the 
 battle of l'avia, where, instead of supporting the 
 king at a critical moment, he fled with his troops ; 
 and to him, therefore, has been attributed both 
 the disastrous defeat sustained by the French, and 
 his sovereign's falling into the hands of the enemy. 
 With him expired the old House of A. The duchy 
 was then given to the Duke of Anion. Louis XIV. 
 conferred it upon the Duke of Berri, and Louis 
 XVI. on the Count of Provence. 
 
 ALE'PPO, a town in the north of Syria, between 
 flu ( ironies and the Euphrates, on the banks of the 
 little desert stream, Nahr-el-Haleb, at the north-west 
 entrance of the great Syro-Arahian waste. It stands 
 in a large hollow, Bnrronnded by rocky hills of 
 limestone. The fruitful gardens, celebrated for their 
 exccllent plantations of pistachios, are the sole con- 
 trast to the desolation which environs the city, whose 
 numberless cupolas and minarets, clean, well-paved 
 streets, and stately houses, make it even yet one of 
 
 the most beautiful in the east. It contains about 
 80,000 inhabitants, of whom 17,000 are Christians, 
 and 4700 Jews, with a small number of Europeans. 
 Sixty years ago, it had above 200,000, and supplied a 
 great part of the east with fabrics of silk, cotton and 
 wool, and gold and silver stuffs ; but in 1822 an earth- 
 quake swallowed up two-thirds of the inhabitants, 
 and transformed the citadel into a heap of ruins. 
 The plague of 1827, thi of 1832, and the 
 
 oppression of the Egyptian government, all but com- 
 pleted its destruction. During the sway of the last, 
 however, anew citadel and some other edifices were 
 erected ; but scarcely half of the mosques and baths 
 have been rebuilt. The aqueduct is the ol 
 monument of the town. A. is one of the principal 
 emporiums of the inland commerce of Asia. Its 
 port is Iskanderoou (q. v.), situated GO miles to the 
 N.E., on the bay of the same name. A. has a 
 large trade in cotton and silk goods, skins, tobacco, 
 wine, oil, &c. It was once the centre of Saracenic 
 power, still retains much of the Arabic char 
 and its citizens are famed throughout the east for 
 legant manners. 
 
 ALE'SIA, a town of ancient Gaul, the siege and 
 capture of which form one of Csesar's greatest exploits. 
 The Gauls were making a last effort to shake off 
 the Roman yoke; and Vereingetorix, their bravest 
 leader, after several defeats, had shut himself up 
 with S0,000 men in A., there to await the reinforce- 
 ments which he expected from a general insurrec- 
 tion of the country. The town was situated on a 
 lofty hill, and well calcidated for defence. C 
 with his army of 60,000 men, completely sur- 
 rounded the place, with the view of starving it into 
 a surrender. He fortified his position by two lines 
 of rampart of prodigious extent and strength; one 
 b .wards the town, for defence against the sallies of 
 the besieged ; the other towards the plain, against 
 the expected armies of relief. Before they could 
 assemble, 250,000 strong, he was ready for them; 
 and- all their assaults, combined with the desperate 
 efforts of the besieged, were of no avail. A. was 
 obliged to surrender, and Vereingetorix was made 
 prisoner. A. was afterwards a place of some note 
 under the empire, but was destroyed by the Normans 
 in 864. Near the site of the ancient A., west from 
 Dijon, stands the modern village of Alise or Saint) - 
 Reine. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA, the principal fortress and 
 town of the province of the same name in the 
 kingdom of Sardinia, is situated in a marshy country 
 mar the confluence of the Bormida and Tanaro. It 
 was built in 1168 by the inhabitants of Cremona, 
 Milan, and l'lacentia, as a bulwark against the 
 emperor Frederick I. Its original nam.' v.. 
 but it was afterwards called A. in honour of 
 Alexander III., who established a bishopric in it. 
 Designed at first as a fortress to guard the pas 
 of the Bormida ami Tanaro, and being the central 
 point of intercourse between Genoa, Milan. 
 Turin, the town has frequently been the obi 
 sanguinary strife. It was taken and plunder 
 1522 by Duke Sforza; besieged, but without SU 
 by the French, under the Prince of I'onti. in 1667; 
 and again taken, in spite of an obstinate I 
 anoe, by Prince Eugene in 17*>7. Vfter the pr 
 
 tria at'the battle of Marengo in 1800, 
 parte concluded an arm V. with his 
 
 s, according to which. Dipper Italj 
 the Mincio, was ceded to the French, with twelve 
 
 sea. It was the principal armory of the 
 Piedmontese duri irrection of the 
 
 hardo-Venetian states in 1848—9, when man; 
 fortifications were added to it. At present, the 
 
 1 is one of the strongest fortresses in Europe ;
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS— ALEXANDEK THE CHEAT. 
 
 of enonnoi . larger, it is said, than many a 
 
 town, and in the event of a war in Italy, will 
 probably be once ! cene of many a de p 
 
 ami bl ly struggle. A. contains, exclusive of the 
 
 garrison, about 10,000 inhabitants, who earn ■ 
 trail'- in linens, woollens, 
 
 The culture of Bowers is also 
 much attended t". Two fairs are held in A. annually, 
 which are largely frequent d, 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, or the CATHEK1NI: 
 ARC EHPELAGO, is tin- name of a group of islands. 
 numbering above 150, ami consisting of si vera! elus- 
 b is. 'liny belong to Km-sian Ami nca, and form an 
 insular continuation of the North American peninsula 
 of Alaska, in the shape of an arch or bridge betwe a 
 the former continent and Asia. They lie in 55° N. 
 lat., separating the Sea of Kamtchatka from the 
 Pacific, and naturally Bubdivide themselves into live 
 groups : 1. Behring's [slands (where Behring died 
 in 1741); 2. the Sasignan, or 'Nearest' Islau 
 called becan tto the coast of Kamtchatka ; 
 
 3. the ltat Islands ; 4. the Andreianowsky, \\ hich are 
 very small and little frequented; 5. the Fox Islands, 
 aniMiy which is L'nimak, the largest in the archi- 
 pelago. Tin' islands are all craggy, and have a di "- 
 
 lat. appearance from the sea. They exhibit traces of 
 violent internal commotion. .Several volcanoes are 
 stiU periodically active ; and warm volcanic I | 
 are numerous. The whole chain or group forms 
 a connectingdink between the volcanic range of 
 the west coast of America and Kamtchatka. On 
 .nn, nut iif the numerous rocks which lie off their 
 shores, they are not very aco ible to ships. Under 
 a climate which exchanges only for a short time the 
 monotonous rigour of winter for a cloudy spring and 
 a hot summer, little can be expected of so niggardly 
 a soil. There are pi niy of low scrubby bushes, 
 gra si -. moss, and lichens, hut no strong and stately 
 growth of trees. An experiment tried at TJnalaska 
 of planting pines had very little success. Here and 
 there, however, European kitchen-gardens have been 
 
 apted with better results; and the cultivation 
 of the potato has likewise succeeded. The islands 
 abound in springs, and are overrun with foxes, 
 dogs, and reindeer, while the coasts swarm with fish, 
 
 . and otters. The inhabitants, who an- extremely 
 rude, and of Kamtchatkan origin, were converted to 
 Christianity by Russian priests. They are reckoned 
 about 9000. Their occupation is hunting and fishing. 
 Their trade is chiefly in furs and fish, of which the 
 ipal tntrepOt is Alexandria, in the island of 
 Kojak. (See United Status in Supp.) 
 
 ALEXANDEK THE CHEAT, son of Philip of 
 Mao don and Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus of 
 Epirua, was hum at iVlla, 366 B.C. Endowed by 
 
 nature with aha; lie early announced his 
 
 I character. Philip's triumphs saddened him. 
 On one occasion he exclaimed : ' My father will 
 leave nothing for me to do.' His education was 
 committed first to beonidas, a maternal relation, 
 then to Lysimachus, and afterwards to Ari 
 This great philosopher withdrew him to a distance 
 from the court, and instructed him in every branch 
 of human learning, especially in what relates to the 
 art of government, while at the same time he dis- 
 ciplined and invigorated his body by gymnastic 
 exercises. As Macedon was surrounded by danger- 
 ous neighbours, Aristotle was anxious to inspire his 
 pupil with military ardour, and with this yievi 
 recommended him to study the Iliad, a revision 
 of which he himself undertook for his use. A. was 
 16 years of age when his father marched . 
 Byzantium, and left the government in his ban ' 
 during his absence. Two years afterwards, he 
 displayed singular courage at the battle of Ch 
 
 (338 B.C.), where he overthrew the Sacred Hand of 
 the Tic Kins. • My son,' said Philip, as he embraced 
 him after the conflict, 'seek for thyself another 
 kingdom, for that which 1 leave is too small for 
 The father and son quarrelled, however, when 
 
 i, | H i. haled Olympias. A. took part with 
 
 Ins mother, and Bed, to escape bis father's i 
 
 to Epiru ; but ring his pardon soon afterwards, 
 
 he returned, and accompanied him in an expedition 
 against the Triballi, when hi saved Ins life on the 
 field. Philip being appointed generalissimo of the 
 Creeks, was preparing f"r a war with Persia, when 
 inated (336 B.C.), and A., not yet twenty 
 years of age, ascended the throne. After punishing 
 Lis father's murderers, he went into the Peloponri 
 and in a general assembly of the Creeks he caused 
 himscll tn be appointed to tin- command of tin- | 
 against Persia, tin his return to Macedon, he found 
 the Ulyrians ami Triballi up in arms, whereupon he 
 marched against them, forced his way through 
 
 Thrace, and was every where victorious. Hut now 
 the Thehans had been induced, by a report of his 
 death, to take up anus, and the Athenians, stimu- 
 lated by the clnipieuce of Demosthenes, were pre- 
 paring t.i join them. To prevent this coalition, A. 
 rapidly marched against Thebes, which, refusing to 
 
 surrender, was ' ai red, and razed to the ground: 
 
 (Hi: id ..I the inhabitants were slain, and 30,0(10 sold 
 into slavery; the house and family of the poet 
 Pindar aloi pared. This severity struck 
 
 terror into all Greece. The Athenians were treated 
 with more leniency, A. only requiring of them the 
 banishment of Charidemus, who bad been most I 
 in his invectives against him. 
 A., having appointed Antipater his deputy in 
 
 . now prepared to ] the war with 
 
 pi Jlc crossed the Hellespont in the spring of 
 
 334 n.c. with 30.000 foot and .".000 horse, attacked 
 the Persian satraps at the river Granlcus, and gained 
 a complete victory, overthrowing the Bon-in-law oi 
 Darius with his own lance. The onl\ real res 
 the Macedonians met with was from the G 
 auxiliaries of the Persians, who were marshalled 
 in phalanxes, under the command of Memnon of 
 
 , hut finally they were all slam exci p1 2000, 
 vim were taken prisoners. A. celebrated the 
 
 ob plies of his fallen warriors in a splendid manner, 
 
 and bestowed many privileges on their relations. 
 
 of Asia Minor, Sardis not excepted, 
 
 opened theii to thee merer, nor did Miletus 
 
 or Haliearnassus offer longer resistance. A. restored 
 democracy in all t be Creek cities, cut the Gordian-knot 
 (q. v.) with his sword as he passed through Gordium, 
 ami proceeded to the conquest of Lycia, Ionia, ('aria, 
 Pamphylia, and ( lappadocia. His career was cheeked 
 for a time by a dangerous illness, brought on by 
 
 ; in the Cydnus. On this occasion he displayed 
 his magnanimity in the following circumstances. 
 He received a letter from Parmenio, insinuating 
 that Philip, his physician, intended to poison 
 him, having been bribed by Darius. A. handed the 
 letter to Philip, and at the same time swallowed the 
 draught which had been prepared for him. As soon 
 as he recovered, he advanced towards the defiles of 
 Cilicia, in which Darius had stationed himself, 
 with an army of above 500,000 men. He arrived 
 in November 333 B. c. in the neighbourhood of 
 Issus, where a battle took place, between the 
 mountains and the sea. The disorderly masses of 
 the Persians were thrown into confusion by the 
 charge of the Macedonians, and Bed in terror. On 
 
 I wing, 30,000 Creeks, in the pay of the 
 Persian kino, held out longer, hut they, too, were 
 at length compelled to yield. All the treasures as 
 well as the family pf Darius fell into the hands of the 
 conqueror, who treated the latter with the greatest
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 magnanimity. The king, who fled towards the 
 
 Euphrates, twice made overtures oi peace, which A. 
 
 tily refused I bal I larius must n gard 
 
 linn as the ruler of ^sia, and the lord of all hi* 
 
 people. I hie of the condition- of the mul overture 
 
 was that A. should possess all Asia to the Eiiphrat 
 On hearing which bis | eneral, Parmenio, exclaimed : 
 'I wouhl do it, if I weir A.' ' So would 1,' replied 
 the monarch, "if I were Parmenio.' The victory at 
 
 i as opened the whole couni ry to the Ma Ionian : 
 
 A. now turned towards Syria and Phoenicia, to cut 
 off Darius's escape by sea. He occupied Damascus, 
 where he found princely t> i ad secured to 
 
 himself all the cities along the shore lof the Mediter- 
 ranean. Tyre, confident in its strong position, 
 bed him, hut was conquered and destroyed after 
 
 : \ en nth of incredible exertion (332b. a), 'i 
 
 b.e marched victoriously tliroi 1 i ■ .- . 1 . ■ line, where all 
 the cities submitted to him except Gaza, which 
 ■ ha red the same fate as Tyre- Kgypt, weary of the 
 Persian yoke, welcomed him ns a deliverer; and in 
 order to strengthen his dominion here, he re 
 all the old customs and religious institutions of the 
 country, and founded Alexandria in the beginning 
 of 331 B.C., which became one of the first cities of 
 ancient times. Thence he marched through the 
 Libyan Desert, in order to consult the oracle of 
 Jupiter Amnion, whose priest saluted him as a son 
 of Jove; and at the return of Bpiing went against 
 I loins, who had assembled an army in Assyria, 
 A battle ensued, in October 331 B.C., on the plains 
 of Arbela, or rather Guagamela, for Arbela, the 
 point to which A. pursued the Persians, is 50 miles 
 from the scene of the tight. See Arbela. Notwith- 
 standing the immense superiority of his adversary, 
 who hail collected a new army of 500,000 men. A, 
 was not for a moment doubtful of victory. Heading 
 the cavalry himself, he rushed on the Persians, and 
 put them to flight; hut as soon as he had entirely 
 dispersed them, he hastened to the assistance of his 
 left wing, winch, m the meanwhile, had been sorely 
 pressed, fin was anxious to make, a prisoner of the 
 Persian king himself, Imt the latter escaped by 
 flight on horseback, leaving his baggage and all his 
 treasures a prey to the conqueror. Babylon and 
 Susa, the. storehouses of the treasures of the east, 
 opened their gates to the conqueror, who next 
 marched towards l'erscpolis, the capital of Persia, 
 which he entered in triumph. 
 
 The marvellous successes of A. now began to 
 dazzle his own judgment, and to inflame his passions. 
 He became a slave to debauchery, and his cap] 
 were as cruel as they were ungrateful In a lit of 
 drunkenness, and at the instigation of Thais, an 
 Athenian courtezan, he set lire to l'erscpolis, the won- 
 der of the world, and reduced it to a heap of ashes ; 
 then, ashamed of the deed, he set out with his cavalry 
 to pursue Darius. Learning that Bcssus, the satrap of 
 Bactriana, held the king a prisoner, he hastened his 
 march, in tie' hope of saving him, hut he found him 
 mortally wounded on tin- frontiers of that country 
 (330 B.O.). He mourned over his unfortunate enemy, 
 and caused his body to he buried with all the usual 
 rites observed in Persia; but he pursued Bcssus, 
 who himself aspired to the throne, through llyr- 
 cania, Iran, P.actriana, over the OxQS to Sogdiana 
 (now Bokhara), whose satrap, Spitaniencs, surrendered 
 Bcssus to him. Having discovered a conspiracy in 
 which the sen of Parmenio was implicated, he put both 
 
 father and son to death, though Parmenio himself was 
 
 innocent of all knowledge oi the affair. This cruel 
 injustice excited universal displeasure. In 329 he 
 penetrated to the furthest known limits of Northern 
 Asia, and overthrew the Scythians on the banks of 
 the Jaxartes. In the following year, he subdued the 
 whole of Sogdiana. and married Koxana, whom he had 
 
 taken prisoner. She was the danj : of 
 one of the i oi m; cap! i d said to 1 
 
 '■ oi " conspiracy 
 
 broke i, ut again t A, at . which were lb r- 
 
 molaus and Callisthi d . a pupil of Aristotle, which 
 occasioned the death of many of the culprits; while 
 
 Callisthenes himself was rnutS ted at I 1 about 
 
 in an iron cage through the army, till some one put 
 an end to hi* sufferings by poison. 
 
 In the year 327 B. C, A. proceeded to the 
 conquest of India, then known only by name, He 
 crossed the Indus near to the modem At 
 and pursued his way under tl ■ 
 prince to the Hydaapi : [modi rn Jelum), whi 
 
 was opposed by Porus, another native pro , whom 
 
 he overthrew after a bloody contest. Tie nee he 
 marched as lord of the country through thai part of 
 India which is now called, the Pi 
 Greek colonies. He then wished to advance to the 
 Ganges, but the general nnirniuriii": oldest i 
 him, at the Hyphasis (modern Sutledge), t 
 his retreat, which was accomplished under circum- 
 stancesof extreme danger. When he had a' ain r ad A 
 the Hydaspcs, he built a fleet, and sent one division 
 of his army in it down the river, while the other 
 followed along the banks, fighting its way through 
 successive Indian armies. At length, having reach I 
 the ocean, he ordered Nearchus, the commander of 
 the fleet, to sail thence to the Persian Gulf, while 
 he himself struck inland with one division of his 
 army, in order to return home through Gedrosia (now 
 Beloochistan). Here he had to traverse immense 
 deserts, where a great part of his army perished tin- 
 want of food and water, and were buried in the sand. 
 The other division marched through Axachosia and 
 Drangiana (Afghanistan) under Craterus, but they 
 united again in Cannania. of all the troops, how- 
 ever, which had set out with A., only about a 
 fourth part arrived with him in r i is. c). 
 
 At Susa he married Stateira, the daughter of 
 Darius, and he bestowed presents on those Mace- 
 donians (about 10,000 in number) who had married 
 Persian women, his design being to unite the two 
 nations as closely as possible. He also distributed 
 liberal rewards among his soldiers. At Opis on 
 the Tigris he declared it to be his intention to send 
 home the invalids richly rewarded; and t 1 ' 
 i omplished, but not till he had with seme diffi- 
 culty repressed the mutiny which bloke , ut on the 
 occasion. Soon afterwards he was deprived, by d 
 of his favourite Hephsestion, en which occasion his 
 grief was unbounded, and he interred t 1 
 with kingly honours. As he was returning from 
 Ecbatana to Babylon, it is said that the Magi fore- 
 told that the latter city would prove fatal to him; 
 but A. despised their warnings, and, in spite of 
 
 the advii f his friends, marched to Babylon, 
 
 before reaching which, howi ' by 
 
 ambassadors from all parts of the world Libya. 
 Italy. Carthage, Greece, the Scythians. Celts; and 
 Iberians. Here he .-train occupied himself with 
 gigantic plans for the future, both of conquest and 
 civilisation, when he was suddenly talon ill after a 
 ha in i let. and died eleven da ys afterwards, on tl ■ I I lh 
 or 13th of Mayer .line. 323 B C, in the 32d year 
 of his age, having reigned twelve yeai and 
 months. His body v. i de] ted in a golden 
 Coffin at Alexandria, by Ptolenueus, and e 
 
 honours were paid to him, net only in Egypt, but 
 ill other countries. A. had appo I heir to 
 
 his immense dominions; but In the question . 
 friends: 'Who should inherit them?' he replied: 
 ' The most worthy.' After many disturbances. 
 his general- recognised a kings tin' weak-minded 
 Ariiiaus — a SOU of Philip by l'hilinna. tie- CUU 
 and A.'s posthumous sen by Roxana, while they
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS— ALEXANDER I. 
 
 shared the provinces among themselves, under the 
 
 name of satraps. Perdiccas, to whom A. had, 
 death-bed, delivered his ring, became guardian of 
 tin- kings during their minority. 
 
 It is l>ul 
 
 more than shed blood during his life He d 
 the language ami civilisation of Greece whi 
 victory led him, ami planted Greek kingdoms in 
 
 b continued to exist for son. 
 At the very time of his death, ho was 
 
 ing plans for the drainage of the unhealthy 
 marshes around Babylon, and a 1 
 
 ive plains. It is even supposed that the 
 which he caught then, rather than his famous 
 drinking-bout, was the real cause of his death. To 
 A., the ancient world owed a vast increase of its 
 knowledge in geography, natural history, tec. He 
 taught Bun road to India, and gave 
 
 them the first glimpses of that magnificent 
 iplendour which has dazzled an .1 I their 
 
 imagination for two thousand years. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Roman emperor 
 (222 — 2.'l.">A.R),\vas the opted son, and suc- 
 
 cessor of Hch'ogabalus. The excellent education 
 which he received from his mother, Jidia Mammaea, 
 rendered him one of the best princes in an age when 
 virtue was reckoned more dangerous than vice in a 
 monarch. He sought the society of the learned; 
 1'aulus and I'lpian were his counsellors, Plato and 
 Cicero were, next to Horace and Virgil, his fa\ 
 authors. A B, he reverenced the 
 
 doctrines of Christianity, and often quoted that 
 saying: 'Whatsoever ye would that men should do 
 to you, do ye so also to them.' Beloved as he was 
 by the citizens on account of his equity, he soon 
 became an object of hatred to the unruly praetorian 
 guards. His first expedition, against Artaxerxi 
 of Persia, was happily terminated by a speedy over- 
 throw of the enemy. But during one which he under- 
 took against the Germans on the Rhine, to d 
 the frontiers of the empire from their incursions, an 
 insurrection broke out among his troops, headed 
 by Maximin, in which Alexander was mm 
 along with his mother, not far from Mentz. The 
 nl people, however, placed him among the 
 . After his death, mil it ism obtained 
 
 the ascendency, and the Roman power rapidly 
 declined. 
 
 ALEXANDER NEWSKI, or NEVSKT. a Rus- 
 sian hero and saint, born at Vladimir in 1219 a. d., 
 was the son of the Grand Duke Jaro I 
 
 orod. In order to defend the empire, which 
 was attacked on all sides, but especially by the 
 Mongols, Ins father quitted Novgorod, leaving the 
 cares of the government to his sons, Fedor and 
 Alexander, the former of whom died soon after- 
 wards. The latter vigorously resisted the enemy; 
 yet Russia was forced to submit to : 
 
 ■ ion in 1238 a.i>. A. now fought to defend 
 9 gainst the 1 1 
 and the Teutonic knights. He received the surname 
 of Xewski, on account of the splendid victory over 
 the Swedes, which he achieved in 1240, on theNewa 
 (Neva), hi the province where St Petersburg now 
 stauLs. In 1243 A. P.. on the ice of Lake I 
 h.' defeated the Livonian Knights of the Sword, 
 n stimulated by the pope to attack the 
 in heretics. At the death of his father in 
 1217, he became Grand Duke of Vladimir. Pope 
 Innocent IV. now made a diplomatic attempt to 
 reunite the Greek and Roman churches, since his 
 military scheme had faded, and with this view, sent 
 an embassy to A., which, however, proved as ineffec- 
 tual as the former. To the end of his life, however, 
 he remained a vassal of the Tatars or Mongols. 
 120 
 
 renew lus oath of fealty to the 
 
 barbarians, making in each instance a 
 
 journey to their camp. He died in I2(j.'i a.d., at 
 
 meow, on his return from the last of these 
 
 journeys; and the gratitude of the nation perpe- 
 
 I his memory in popular songs, and even 
 
 ! Peter the Great honoured his 
 
 memory by building a magnificent convent on the 
 
 ijlit his great battle, and by 
 
 founding the knightly order of A. N. 
 
 ALEXANDER VI. fBoKOlA), 1492—1503, the 
 
 most celebrated of the eight popes (see Popes) of 
 ne, but at the same time the most infamous 
 one that ever lived, as well as the most vicious 
 prince of his age. His most conspicuous qual 
 were a cunning and insidious cruelty, united with 
 great fearlessness in danger, an unwearied perse- 
 verance and vigilance in all his undertakings, a 
 soft and plausible manner towards his inferiors, a 
 harsh and grasping spirit towards the rich. In 
 of his talents and his love of art and science, he 
 disdained, throughout his dissolute career, no means 
 of gratifying his lust — not even perjury, murder, 
 and poisoning. He was born at Valencia, in Spain, 
 1 130. His own name was P»odrigo Lenzuoli, but he 
 assumed the ancient and famous one of his mother's 
 family, Borgia. He had five children by Rosa 
 Vanozza, a woman celebrated for her beauty, two of 
 whom equalled himself in criminality, Csesar and 
 Lucretia (ses BORGIA). A. was made a cardinal by 
 his uncle Calixtus III., and on the death of Innocent 
 viii., was elevated to the papal chair, which be had 
 previously secured by flagrant bribery. The long 
 absence of the popes from Italy had weakened their 
 authority and curtailed their revenues. To com- 
 pensate for tliis loss, A. endeavoured to break the 
 of the Italian princes, and to appropriate their 
 possessions for the benefit of his own family. To 
 gain this end, he employed the most execrable 
 means. He died in 1503, from having partaken, by 
 it, as is commonly believed, of poisoned wine, 
 I d for his guests. Under his pontificate, the 
 censorship of books was introduced, and Savonarola, 
 nest and eloquent Florentine priest, who had 
 ted his deposition, was condemned to be 
 burned as a heretic. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., PauXOWTTSCH, Emperor and 
 it of All the Kussias (1S01 — 1825), was born 
 December 23, 1777. His education, in which his 
 father, Paul L, had no hand, was conducted by his 
 grandmother, Catharine II., and < 'oloncl Laharpe and 
 other tutors. He always shewed great affection for 
 his mother, Maria, daughter of Engine, Duke of 
 inlier - With a humane and benevolent dis- 
 position, the 'northern Telemaque' was imbued by 
 Laharpe with the enlightened principles of the 
 
 ir Kraft instructed him in experimental 
 
 physics, and Pallas in botany. It was thought 
 
 better not to devote his attention to poetry and 
 
 music, as it woidd have required too much time to 
 
 i at acquirements. In 1793 he married 
 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Karl Ludwig, Crown Prince 
 
 of Baden, and, on the assassination of his father 
 
 Paid (q. v.), on the 24th of March 1801, succeeded 
 
 him upon the throne. Although A. doubtless 
 
 knew of the conspiracy to dethrone his father, 
 
 , . no reason to believe that he contemplated 
 
 the crime of murder. His ace rion was celebrated 
 
 by Klopstock in an ode. To Humanity, indicative 
 
 of the high expectations formed of him. The young 
 
 ruler seemed deeply penetrated with a sense of his 
 
 I ion to make his people happy and to promote 
 
 eivilisation and prosperity. He was the first 
 
 to lay the foundation of the national culture and 
 
 popular instruction on a regular plan, to introduce
 
 ALEXANDER I. 
 
 ligation into the internal administration, un- 
 i hackle tin.- industry of the nation, raise the foreign 
 commerce of Russia, and awaken in tin; 1" 
 f< eling of unity, and a spirit of patriotism. 
 
 Of specific internal improvement effected l>y A., 
 his exertions on behalf of tin; language, literature, 
 and general culture of the Slavonic nations deserve 
 . i notice. Seven universities, at Dorpat, Kasan, 
 Charkow, Moscow, Wilna, Warsaw, and St Peters- 
 were either instituted or remodelled by him ; 
 204- gymnasiums and normal schools, and above 2000 
 district elementary schools, v. 
 
 life and activity given to the higher scientific insti- 
 tutions in St Petersburg and Moscow, lie did more 
 than any other sovereign in Europe for the spread of 
 Bible, by supporting the Bible Society (which 
 was suppressed, however, in 1S-G) ; and in 1820, he 
 had a bishop instituted for the evangelical Lutheran 
 church, and a general consistory in St Petersburg 
 for the whole empire. He devoted large sums to 
 the printing of important works, such as Krusen- 
 BternS TraciU, and Karamsius Sistory of Russia, 
 and prized and rewarded scientific merit both at 
 home and abroad. Several scientific collections were 
 purchased by liim, and in ISIS he invited two 
 orientalists, Demange andCharnioy, from Paris to St 
 Petersburg, to promote the study of the Arabic, 
 Armenian, Persian, and Turkish languages. Young 
 men of talent were sent to travel at his expense. 
 P.y the ukase of 1S10 he prepared the way for the 
 abolition of slavery in the Baltic provinces ; he also 
 declared that no more gifts of peasants would be 
 made on the crown-lands. As early as 1S01 he had 
 abolished the secret tribunal which is said to have 
 extorted confession from political offenders by means 
 of hunger and thirst. The practice of slitting the 
 nose and branding, which had been customary in 
 connection with knouting, was also done away with. 
 Laws were enacted to prevent the abuses of power 
 by governors. The privilege of the nobles, that their 
 inherited property coidd not be confiscated as a 
 punishment, was raised by him to a common right 
 for all subjects ; and much was done in composing 
 ,. code of civil law. He promoted the manufactures 
 and trade of the empire by amending the laws 
 regarding debt and mortgages ; and by the institution 
 of an imperial bank, the construction of roads 
 and canals, making Odessa a free port, and, above 
 all, by the ukase of ISIS, permitting all peasants in 
 the empire to carry on manufactures, wdiich was 
 before only allowed to nobles and to merchants of 
 the iirst and second guilds. 
 
 A-'s far-sighted policy with regard to the foreign 
 commerce of Russia is shewn in various expeditions 
 round the world sent out by him ; in the embassy 
 to Persia in 1S17, in which was the Frenchman 
 Gradanne, who was acquainted with all the plans 
 of Napoleon respecting India and Persia; in the 
 missions to Cochin China and to Khiva ; in tile 
 treaties with the United States, Brazil, and Spain ; 
 in the naval and commercial treaties with the I 
 and in the settlement on the north-west coast of 
 America. 
 
 A.'s foreign policy was characterised at the outset 
 by a desire for peace; in 1S01 he concluded a con- 
 vention, putting an end to hostilities with England, 
 and made peace with Prance and Spain. He 
 entered, along with France, into negotiations 
 respecting the indemnification of the minor states 
 in Germany and Italy, but soon discovered how 
 little the French ruin- intended any real compen- 
 sation. As Bonaparte encroached more and more, 
 took possession of Hanover, and annihilated Hol- 
 land, A. bioke with l' ranee, and joined the coalition 
 of 1S05. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz, 
 when the allied armies of Austria and Kussia were 
 
 defeated, and retin d with the remains of his forces 
 into Russi ... declining to enter into the treaty that 
 followed. Next year, he came forward as the ally 
 of Prussia ; but ait r t battles of Eylau 
 
 and Friedland, in 1S07, he was obliged to conclude 
 til- peace of Til-it. in which he managed to prevent 
 the restoration of im of Poland, and to 
 
 mitigate the hard fate of the king of Pni ia. D 
 the war with France, A. had also had to carry on 
 hostilities with Persia and with Turkey. 
 
 Dazzled by the fortun ius of Napoleon, 
 
 A., in pursuance of the stipulations of Tilsit, ace. 1. .1 
 with his huge empire to the Fi hental 
 
 system, thus altering entirely . .ijcy of 
 
 Kussia. He began by declaring war on England in 
 1S0S, and attacking her ally Sweden, wn sti A from 
 that country, by the peace of Friedrichahamm (1S0D), 
 the province of Finland. On the other hand, the 
 Russian fleet sent to the aid of the French at 
 Lisbon, fell into the hands of the British. In the 
 autumn of 1808, the two great potentates held a 
 meeting at Erfurt, attended with great splendour, 
 at which A. represented, as it were, the empire of 
 the east of Europe, while Napoleon assumed the 
 dominion of the west. In the war of France against 
 Austria in 1S09, A. took only a lukewarm part, 
 although at the peace of Vienna he received the 
 
 rcleol Tarnopol as his share of the spoil of Galieia. 
 Against the Porte, which had not observed the 
 armistice of Slobosta, he renewed the war, which 
 was continued till the peace of Bucharest in 1812. 
 
 The alliance, however, of A. with the Corsican 
 conqueror involved such an inconsistency, and was 
 so contrary to the real interests of Russia, that a 
 rupture and a complete change of the Russian policy 
 wei-e inevitable. The pressure of the continental 
 system on the material resources of Russia, the 
 despotic changes made by Napoleon, the augment- 
 ation of the duchy of Warsaw, the proffer 
 alliance by England and Sweden, awoke in A. first 
 discontent and aversion, and soon the thought of a 
 decisive contest against the subjugator of I 
 and the disturber of the peace of the world. When 
 this gigantic struggle at last began (1812), B 
 brought into the field an army of nearly 900,000 
 men. During this war (see Russo-Gkrmas War), 
 A. repeatedly exposed himself to person 
 in order to fire the courage and patriotism of his 
 troops. His magnanimity towards France after the 
 taking of Paris facilitated the negotiatioi 
 and won for him great personal regard, amounting 
 to a kind of enthusiasm. He was ri ith the 
 
 same feeling in London, which he visited after the 
 treaty of Paris in June 1S14. When he returned 
 to St Petersburg, his first care was to provide for 
 tin- wounded, and for the families of the Soldiers 
 that had fallen. The senate wished to give him 
 the title of 'Blessed,' which, from Christian humility, 
 he declined. After a short i in bis own 
 
 capital, he repaired to the Congress of Vienna. 
 
 i claim to Poland as essential to the interests 
 of Kussia, but promised to confer on it a constitution, 
 and, on the whole, appeared to act for the good of 
 humanity and the Ereedoj of oat 
 
 lu the return of Napoleon, A. saw the con 
 of Europe begun again, d the 
 
 fulfilment of the treat , ont and the out- 
 
 lawry of the com ' iy. His appearance in 
 
 the French capital after the battle of Waterloo 
 raised less enthusiasm than previously; yet on this 
 occasion, too, France owed much :■ 
 It was about this time that the tendency of A. to 
 i, fostered i\ intercourse with Madame 
 Kriidcner (q. v.). was most strongly man;i 
 and exercised decided influence on his political 
 views. It was under the influence of this religiosity 
 
 Si
 
 ALEX \m.i:i: L— ALEXANDER 11. 
 
 that I & the Holj Alliance (q. i 
 
 rf which was | 
 
 ■ I in the ( 
 arrangements of the world, but which became, in 
 fact, a no re handli 
 
 In the end of Octobi t 1815, \. returned 
 own dominions. His policy, and the march ol 
 events, had completely changed the i 
 
 of Russia and hex foreign relations. Her 
 weight in European politics had I 
 the Limits of the empire bad i rl mded in all 
 d rectiona j and notwithstanding the war, the 
 
 1 Legi lative reforms had begun to act favour- 
 ably on the industry and well-being of the i 
 
 1805, A. had remodelled th ter the 
 
 >n of the west rn pow< re, and ra 
 
 tion that menaced Europe. Winn peace was 
 attained, he not only sought to heal the w 
 inflicted by the war, but to carry forward the work 
 of reform formerly begun. Numerous administrative 
 abuses were done away with, and the condition of 
 the peasants was more and more alleviated. In 
 1816, the Jesuits, who were cau t deal 
 
 of disturbance, were made to leave St Petersburg 
 and Moscow, and in 1820 were Bent out of the 
 On ill-' other hand, proselytism was 
 
 > prohibited, and the Duchol sect of 
 
 the Russo-Greek church, were allowed the free 
 hip. 
 But however good A.'s intentions might be, his 
 internal policy met with obstructions, partly arising 
 from his personal views and character, parti} from 
 the nature of his position. Affected with a morbid 
 ir Li baity, worn out and shaken perhaps in body 
 and mind by the vast events in the vortex of which 
 he had moved for the last ten years, the emperor 
 became possessed by the dread of another Euro- 
 pean revolution ; and the political struggles a 
 reaction in Germany, and the outbreaks 
 despotism in Italy and spam, appeared to him as the 
 beginning of a new and terrible catastrophe. The 
 attention now bestowed by A. on foreign relations 
 ■ internal improvements into the background; 
 and the liberal reformer and pupil of Lohorpe found 
 
 If involved in hopeless inconsistency, when he 
 fully concurred in the policy of the Austrian cabini t. 
 and, at the congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and 
 \ i rona, helped to crush, along with the insurrec- 
 tions, the just requirements and political progn ol 
 
 nons. 
 This complete reversal of policy could not fail 
 to produce fruits, especially as llussia peculiarly 
 abounded in fermentable materials. Poland saw 
 
 i ompletely disappointed in its national expecta- 
 tions, and required the actual carrying out of the 
 promised constitution. The contact into which the 
 Russians had come during the war with the civilisa- 
 tion and institutions of the western nations, had 
 excited in different classes of Russian society n 
 and views by no means compatible with their 
 condition at home. On the other hand, tli rt had 
 
 long existed in the most influential circles an Old- 
 Russian party, who cither found their interests hurt 
 by the enlightened measures of the emperor, or aau 
 in them the downfall of the national church, and of 
 the nation itself. Resides, the army was kept up 
 on the war-footing, and in 1821 number d about 
 830,000 regular troops ; and this pressed severely on 
 the people, and produced discontent, along with 
 exhaustion and disorder of the finances. Xo meet 
 this evil, A. began the planting of military colonies, 
 which, however, met with insuperable ol 
 
 ration, and did not attain the end in view. 
 But to exorcise the spirit of political discontent and 
 the phantom of a Russian revolution, the emperor j 
 adopted the same measures that were very generally 
 
 applied over the ra l of Bui nilar views. 
 
 n rlhe 
 
 importation of I a n reduced ; n 
 
 pui on science. Literature, and edui 
 
 linquirii bed into all d cratic movement 
 
 ■ lodges and missionary societies suppn 
 and gradually all plans for reform and pro 
 up. ( Iver all the provina • oi the empin . a net of 
 
 open and secret, was spread, which intei 
 with the ordinary inter iety. 
 
 The experience thai, in spite of this system of 
 repri lion, public opinion could not he stifled,' and that 
 partii ■ and indh [duals only expn ed i 
 more bitterly; the variance with his former self in 
 which A. found himself involved ; and the difficulties 
 of governing the huge empire, which were now 
 a « in. mile I and tartlin ; all this tor- 
 mented and imbittered bis morbid mind, and led 
 him to complain o) ingratitude and of a want of 
 oition of his good intentions. Sometimes he 
 his position in the dissipation 
 Splendid court, in which luxury and piety were 
 trangely Mended ; at other times, he plunged i I i 
 the darkness of religious mysticism. The pro 
 "' the r. volt m < Lreece brought the polii , oi the 
 emperor into complete opposition to public opinion 
 and the most sacred sympathies of the nation. The 
 Russian people, restrained from all participation in 
 political movements, were profoundly affected by 
 the religious' element of the Greek strug Le; but the 
 emperor condemned the rising as insurrection, dis- 
 claimed the favour he had formerly shewn to the 
 < Lreek cans.-, and confined himself to exhortations to 
 the Porte to act with humanity. The death of his 
 only and much-loved natural daughter, the terrible 
 inundation suffered by St Petersburg in 1824, in 
 which he exposed himself to personal danger, and 
 the alarm caused by a I lusso- Polish conspiracy 
 against all the members of the lions,, of Romanow, 
 buted not a Little to break the heart of the 
 emperor, and completely destroy the composure of 
 
 i el. Sick in body, weary of life, and possessed 
 
 by thou iih, Im commenced, iii September 
 
 1825, a journej to the Crimea, with a view to benefit 
 the health of the empress, who was ailing, and that 
 he himself might enjoy retirement. Leaving the 
 empress at Taganrog, he continued his journey, but 
 wa nddenlj eized by a fever peculiar to the 
 country, and obliged to return to Taganrog. Sere, 
 in spite of all care, he became worse, ai,,l died, 
 December 1, L825. The rumour that he had been 
 poisoned is altogether groundless. He is said to 
 have learned, shortly before his death, the details 
 oi the eon. piracy which his brother and successor, 
 Nicholas I. (i). v.), had to begin his reign by putting 
 down. Interesting notices of the life and chart 
 of A. are given in Choiseul-Gouffier's M&moirea 
 Historiquis sur V Empereur Alexandre et la C our de 
 AV.We (Par. lSi'tli. 
 
 ALEXAXDKIl II., Kmperor of Russia, was 
 
 ' pril '20, ISIS. He was carefully educated by 
 
 his father, Nicholas, who professed himself delighted 
 
 with the manifestations of 'true Russian spirit' in 
 
 At sixteen, he was declared of age, made 
 
 commandant of the Lancers of the < ruard, Hetman of 
 
 i ossacks, lirst aide-de-camp of the emperor, and 
 
 :• d daily to a life of manoeuvring, reviewing, 
 
 and military parade, which at last seriously injured 
 
 In- health. He then travelled through Genua 
 recruit his energies, and while there, concluded a 
 marriage with the Princess Maria, daughter oi the 
 Grand Duke of liannstadt, in 1841. He now 
 vigorously applil '1 himself to his duties as chan- 
 cellor of the university of Finland. By his di 
 ous and subtle manners, he insinuated himself 
 into the affections of the Finns, and weakened
 
 ALEXANDER I— ALEXANDER OP HALES. 
 
 love of independence. He founded a chair of 
 the Finnish language and literature, patron i 
 academy for the culture of Finnish literature, and 
 defrayed the expenses of remote explorations under- 
 taken by their savans, such as Cygnceus, W.-dlin, 
 and Castren. In 1S50, he visited Southern Russia, 
 Nicolaieff, Sebastopol, Tiflis, Erivan, &c. It is said 
 tliat he witnessed with regret the attitude which 
 his father assumed towards Europe, and that he 
 a fcher disapproved of the Crimean war. On his 
 accession to the throne, March 2, 1855, lie found 
 himself in a very critical position, lie had two 
 parties to conciliate at home — the old Muscovite 
 party, Mindly zealous for war, and the more peace- 
 able and intelligent portion of the nation, who 
 personal sympathies. He pursued a 
 ed to encourage both ; spoke of 
 adhering to the policy of his ' Ulu ■ 
 and at the same time concluded peace. Since 
 then, he has .shewn a strong desire to purge the 
 internal administration of its impurities; he has 
 sharply rebuked the corruption of functional-! 
 leverely punished some, as a warning to the rest. 
 An honourable recognition has been given to public 
 instruction, which he has placed under his own 
 superintendence. His moderation has even raised 
 the hopes of the Poles. By a ukase of May 27, 1856, 
 he granted to all Polish exiles who were willing to 
 express repentance for the past, permission to return 
 home ; but though desirous of preserving the nation- 
 ality of Poland,' he will not have it separated from 
 tie- - great Russian family.' The grand achievement 
 of his reigu, however, as yet, is the emancipation of 
 the serfs -2.i , ,000,000 souls— by a ukase of March 3, 
 1861. This marks an epoch in the national history. 
 In 1SC5, A. established elective representative assem- 
 blies in the provinces. He carried on a war against 
 the Ameer of Bokhara in 1S6G; and during the year 
 1873, a war against the khan of Khiva. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., king of Scotland, a younger 
 son of Malcolm Ceannmor (big-head), succeeded his 
 brother, Kdgar, in 1107, and amidst incessant dis- 
 turbances, governed Scotland for seventeen yeara 
 with great ability. In addition to good natural 
 powers, he had enjoyed, through his mother, 
 Margaret of England, the advantages of a higher 
 mental cultivation than any of his predecessors. 
 One of the most formidable insurrections whi 
 
 i energy enabled him to quell, was that 
 excited in 1120 by Angus, great grandson of the 
 wife of Macbeth; in allusion to which, old Wynton 
 says : 
 
 Pra that day forth his lieges all 
 
 Used him Alexander the Fierce to call. 
 
 lbs determined resistance to the pretensions of the 
 English hierarchy secured the independence of the 
 Scottish church, while his liberal patronage of the 
 monasteries promoted her strength at home. In 
 1123 he founded the Abbey of Inchcolm. He died 
 at Stirling in 1124. 
 
 ALEXANDER II. was born in 1198; succeeded 
 
 fcher, WUliam the Lion, in 1214. He early 
 
 tyed that wisdom and strength of character, is 
 
 '■■'< t which he holds so high a place in history 
 
 among Scottish kings. The first act of his reign was 
 
 ' nil cms who 
 
 had ''"mi 1 to resist the tyranny of King John. 
 
 This drew down upon him and his kingdom the 
 papal excommunication; but two years subsequently 
 1 1 'JIM. the ban was removed, and 'the liberties of the 
 Scottish church were even continued. On the acces- 
 sion mi' Henry II I. to the English throne. V 
 the lends of the two nations to a temporary clo 
 a treaty of peace (1217), in accordance with which 
 he married Henry's eldest sister, the Princes3 Joan 
 9 
 
 (1221). The alliance thus established was 1 
 after the death, without if sue, of Queen Joan (1238), 
 and the second marriage of A. with the daughter of 
 ileman of France. In 1211. Henry marched 
 against Scotland, to compel A.'s homage. In this 
 emergency, the Scottish kin I the steady 
 
 support of the barons, whose ordinary policy was 
 opposition to the crown, and is said, in a short time, 
 
 to have found himself at the ) foot, 
 
 and 101X1 horse. A peace was concluded without an 
 appeal to arms. While engaged in one of those 
 warlike expeditions which the turbulence of his 
 subjects so frequently rendered necessary, A. died 
 of fever at Ken-era. a small island opposite Oban, 
 on the west coast of Argyleshire, iu the thirty-fifth 
 year of his reign. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. succeeded his father. A. If., 
 on the Scottish throne at the age of eight, and, 
 two years later, in 1251, he married the Princess 
 
 laughter of Henry III. [ 
 The tender age of the sovereign enabled Henry to 
 prosecute successfully for some time his schemes for 
 obtaining entire control over the Scotti-1 
 but long before he reached manhood, A. displayed 
 so much energy and wisdom as to give- assurance 
 that when the aciTrunistration of affairs should come 
 under his personal direction, it would be vain to 
 think of reducing him to submission. Very shortly 
 after he had come of age, his energies were sunn 
 to the defence of his kingdom against the formidable 
 invasion of Haco, king of Norway (1263 
 claimed the sovereignty of the Western Isles. Qj 
 attempting a landing at Largs, on the coast of Ayr, 
 the Norwegian prince sustained a total defeat ; and 
 A., as the result of this important victory, secured 
 the allegiance both of the Hebrides and i 
 
 oi Man. The alliance between Scotland and 
 Norway was strengthened in 1282 by the m 
 of A.'s only daughter, Margaret, to Erie, kin,' of 
 Norway. This princess died in the foUowin 
 leaving an infant daughter. Margaret, commonly 
 designated the Maiden of Norway, wln.se untimely 
 death, on her way to take possession of her throne, 
 was the occasion of so many calamities to Scotland. 
 During the concluding years of A.'s reign, the king- 
 dom enjoyed a peace and prosperity which it did 
 not taste again for many generations. The ju 
 liberality, and wisdom of the king, endear.. 1 his 
 memory to his subjects, while the misfortunes that 
 followed Ins death, heightened the national sense of 
 his loss. His only son. A., who had married the 
 daughter of Guy, Count of Flanders, died without 
 issue in 12S4. A. contracted a second marriage in 
 1285 with Joleta, daughter of the Count de 1 1 
 The hopes of the nation were soon after cloud. 
 his untimely death. Riding on a dark night between 
 Burntisland and Kinghorn. he fell with his horse 
 over a precipice, and was killed on the - 
 
 ALEXANDER OF HALES (in Latin, Alex- 
 ander Halensis), a famous theologian, known as the 
 'Irrefragable Doctor' (d. 1245 I is originally 
 
 an ecclesiastic in Gloucestershire, but had attended 
 the schools of Paris, got the degn r, and 
 
 had become a noted professor of philosophy and 
 theology there, when (1222) he suddenly entered the 
 
 of the Minorite Friars. From that thx 
 lived the life of a studious recluse. His chief and 
 only authentic work is tile Gumma 
 
 L.st ed., Venice, 1576, 4 vols.), written at the 
 command of Pope Innocent IV., and enjoined by his 
 successor, Alexander [V.,to be used by all prof 
 and students of theology in Christendom. A. gave 
 the doctrines of the church a more rigorously syllo- 
 gistic form than they had previously had. and may 
 thus be considered as the author of the scholastic 
 
 i...
 
 ALEXAOTERS— ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 theology. Instead of appealing to tradition and 
 authority, he deduces with great Subtlety, from 
 assumed" premises, the. most startling doctrines of 
 Catholic "i, ' pepially in favour of the prerogatives 
 of the papacy. He refuses any toleration to hi 
 and would have them deprived of all property; he 
 absolves subjects from all obligation to obey a 
 prince that is not obedient to the church. The 
 spiritual power, which blesses and consecrates kings, 
 is, by that very fact, above all temporal pon 
 
 thing of the essential dignity of its nature. It 
 has the rigid to appoint and to judge these powers, 
 while the pope has no judge but God. In ecc 
 Idea] affairs, also, he maintains the pope's authority 
 to be full, absolute, and superior to all laws and 
 customs. The points on which A. • 
 dialectics are sometimes simply ludicrous ; as when 
 he discusses the question, whether a mouse that 
 should nibble a consecrated wafer would thereby 
 eat the body of Christ. He arrives at the conclusion 
 that it would. 
 
 ALEXANDERS (Smwrniu 
 Dial plant of the natural order I (q. v.), 
 
 found in waste ground, near ruins, I >., in 
 and the south of Europe. The stem is.'; 1 Eeet high, 
 very stout and furrowed ; the leaves twice or thrice 
 
 . stalked, serrate, of a bright yellowish-green 
 
 I the leafli I i very 1 irge, 'I be Bowers are 
 yellowish-green, in very dense, numerous rounded 
 umbel i, of involucres; the fruit almost Mark. 
 
 The plan! ha i an aromatic taste, strong and pungent, 
 but becomes rather pleasant when blanched, and was 
 formerly much cultivated and used in the same way 
 
 rv. although at present it is little regarded. 
 
 The frequency of ltsoccum nee near ruins in Britain, 
 
 probably be referred to its former cultivation. 
 
 The fruit is carminative. — .V. }•• rfoliatum, a native of 
 
 Italv. with the upper stem-leaves embracing the. stem, 
 
 1 in the same way. — The genus Smi/rniumcoa- 
 
 t iins only a few known species, chiefly natives of 
 
 mperate parts of the northern hemisphere. It 
 
 has compound umbels; is variable in the involucres; 
 
 ilyx is obsolete; the petals inflected at the 
 
 point: the fruit consists of two nearly globose 
 
 carpels, each with three prominent sharp dorsal 
 
 ribs; the lateral ones distant and obsolete; several 
 
 a the interstices; the albumen involute. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA (called Skanderi'eh by the 
 Turks and Arabs) was founded by Alexander the 
 Great in the autumn of the year 333 B.C. It was 
 bed originally on the low tract, of bind 
 ites the lake Maieotis from the Meditern 
 about 14 mdes west of the Canonic mouth of the 
 Nile. Before the city, in the Mediterranean, lay the 
 upon the north-east point of 
 
 e (ITiaros), and which 
 wis connected with the mainland by a mole, called, 
 from its Length, tile Heptastadium, or 'Seven Pur- 
 long' mole, thus forming the two harbours. The 
 plan of A. was designed by the architect 
 rates, and its original extent is said to hav 
 
 •1 miles in length, with a circumference of 
 
 15 miles. It was intersected by two straight main 
 
 reets, ci . each other at right angles in the 
 
 middle of the city. Colonnades adorned the whole 
 
 h of these streets, which were in j 
 very regularly built. The most magnificent quarter 
 of the city was that called the Bnicheium, which 
 was situated on the eastern harbour. This quarter 
 of the city contained the palaces of the Ptolemies, 
 with the Mu eum and the old library : the S 
 mausoleum of Alexander the Great and of the Ptole- 
 mies, the Poseidonuin, and the great theatre. Further 
 ■west was the emporium or exchange. The Serapeion, 
 or temple of Serapis, stood in the western division of 
 130 
 
 the city, which formed the Egyptian quarter, and 
 I Ethacotis : a small town of that name had 
 occupied the site before the foundation of A. To 
 the "e-t of the city lay . Necropolis, and to 
 
 mi beyond which was the 
 suburb of -Nieopolis. The greater part of the space 
 under the houses was occupied by vaulted subter- 
 ranean cisterns, which were capable of containing 
 .1 sufficient quantity of water to supply the whole 
 population of the city for a year. From the time of 
 its foundation, A. was the Creek capital of I 
 Its population, in the time of its prosperity, is said 
 by Diodorns to have amounted to about 300,000 free 
 Citizens, and if we take into account the slaves and 
 strangers, that number must be more than doubled. 
 population consisted mostly of Greeks, Jews, 
 and Egyptians, together with settlers from all 
 nations of the known world. After tie- di 
 Alexander the Great, A. became the residence of the 
 Ptoli uiies. They made it, next to Rome and Antioch, 
 the most magnificent city of antiquity, as well as 
 the chief scat of Grecian learning and literature, 
 which spread hence over the greater part of the 
 ancient world. The situation of the city, at the 
 point of junction between the east andwest, rendered 
 
 it th ntre of the commerce of the world, and 
 
 raised it to the highest degree of prosperity. 
 
 A. had readied its greatest splendour, when 
 it came into the possession of the Romans, 
 about 30 B. o. From this moment its prosperity 
 i i decline— at Srst almost imperceptibly, but 
 afterwards more rapidly, in consequence of the 
 removal of the works of art to Home, the ma 
 of Caracalla, the laying waste of the Bnicheium 
 by Aurelian, the siege and pillage of the city by 
 Diocletian, and, lastly, the rising prosperity of the 
 rival city of Constantinople. All these causes 
 combined, to destroy A. so speedily, that, in the 4th 
 c. no building of any importance was left in it 
 except the temple of Serapis. The strife between 
 Christianity and heathenism gave rise to b 
 contests in A. The Serapeion, the last seat of 
 heathen theology and learning, was stormed by 
 the Christians in 389 A.D., and converted into a 
 Christian church. This put an end to heathi i 
 and A. became henceforward a chief tristian 
 
 theology, and continued to be so till it was taken 
 
 by the Arabs, under Amru. in dune C.'.'S a. l>. This 
 siege, and, stdl more, its conquest by the Turks in 
 868 a. d., completed the destruction of the city. 
 It revived, indeed, in some degree under the 
 Egyptian califs, and continued during the middle 
 to be the most important emporium of trade 
 n the cast and west ; but the discovery of 
 America, and of the passage to India by the Cape of 
 
 <! 1 Hope, very much diminished the trade of A.; 
 
 and the dominion of the Mamalukes, and the con- 
 quest of the Osmanli, annihilated even the little 
 which the Arabs had restored. The result was. that 
 in 1778 A. D. A. contained no more than 6000 inha- 
 bitants. After the conquest of Egypt by the French 
 in the end of the lSth c, A. once more began to 
 revive, and under Mehemet Ali, who resided in it a 
 part of every year, it prospered to such a degree, that 
 it may now be reckoned one of the most important 
 commercial places on the Mediterranean. As steam- 
 navigation has increased, the city has assumed moro 
 and more a European aspect. 
 
 The present city is not situated exactly on the 
 site of the old one, but is built on the mole called 
 the Heptastadium, which has been increased by 
 alluvial deposits till it has become a broad neck of 
 land between the two harbours, of which the eastern 
 is called the New Port, and the western the Old 
 Port. A. is connected with Cairo by rail and by 
 the canal of Mahmoudieh. Although originally,
 
 ALEXANDRIA— ALEXANDRINE AGE. 
 
 like other oriental cities, dirty and ill-built, it is in 
 this respect rapidly improving. In 1869, 2884 
 vessels, of 1,263,144 tons, entered and cleared. In 
 1870, the population was 238,888— Arabians, Turks, 
 1 ' ' and Franks. Of the few 
 
 remains of antiquity still to be seen in A., the 
 most prominent is Pompey's Pillar, as it is crro- 
 ly called, the shaft of which, of red granite, is 
 7-J feet long. According to the Greek inMtiption OK 
 the base, which is still legible, this Pillar was erected 
 by the Egyptian prefect) Publius, in honour of the 
 Emperor Diocletian. There are also the so-called 
 Cleopatra's Needles, two obelisks of the time of 
 Kim; Thothmes 1 11., who lived in the 16th c. before 
 the Christian era. One of the Needles lies prostrate 
 on the ground, half covered with sand ; the other, a 
 monolith, of about 72 feet in height, is still standing. 
 The other antiquities of A. are, some catacombs of 
 the ancient city of the dead, and some of the cisterns 
 below the city, which are almost entirely rilled up. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a port of entry on the right or 
 Virginian bank of the Potomac, U. S., about 7 miles 
 below Washington, on the opposite side of the river, 
 lat. 38' 49' N., long. 77° 4' W. Though A. is fully 100 
 miles from the entrance of the Potomac into Chesa- 
 peake Bay, yet the stream in front of it, which 
 forms its harbour, is still a mile wide. The place is 
 accessible, all the way from the sea, to the largest 
 vessels. In this commanding position with respect 
 to the coast, A. has, since 1852, facilitated its com- 
 munications with the interior, being connected by a 
 branch-canal with the Chesapeake and Ohio, and 
 by a branch-railway with the Virginia Central. 
 A canal also connects A. with Georgetown, and 
 railways have been opened to Gordonsville, on the 
 Central Railroad, and to Washington. Owing to 
 these combined advantages, the trade of the city is 
 steadily increasing, while cotton manufactures also 
 have been introduced on an extensive scale. Pop. in 
 1870, 13,670. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, an important manu- 
 script of the sacred Scriptures in Greek, now in the 
 British Museum. It is written on parchment, in 
 finely formed uncial letters, and is without accents, 
 marks of aspiration, or spaces between the words. 
 Its probable date is the latter half of the 6th c. 
 With the exception of a few gaps, it contains the 
 whole Bible in Greek (the Old Testament being in 
 the translation of the Septuagint), along with the 
 epistles of Clemens Romanus. For purposes of 
 biblical criticism, the text of the Epistles of the 
 New Testament is the most valuable part ; for with 
 t to the Gospels, it is clear that the original 
 text which the copyist had before him must have 
 been far inferior. This celebrated manuscript 
 belonged, as early as 1098, to the library of the 
 patriarch of Alexandria. In 1628 it was sent as a 
 present to Charles I. of England by Cyrillus Lucaris, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, who declared that he 
 t it from Egypt; and that it was written 
 then appears from internal and external evidence. 
 Grabe made this manuscript the foundation of his 
 edition of the Septuagint (4 vols., Oxf. 1717 — 17211). 
 Fac-similee have been published, of the New Testa- 
 ment, by Woide (Loud. 1786, fol); of the Old 
 Testament, by Baber (Lond. 1816, fob). 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. This remark- 
 able collection of books, the largest of the ancient 
 world, was founded by Ptolemy Soter, in the city 
 of Alexandria, in Egypt Even in the time of 
 its first manager, Demetrius Phalerens, a banished 
 Athenian, the number of volumes or rolls alreadv 
 ainounted to 50,000; and during its most flourish- 
 ing period, under the direction of Zenodotus, 
 Aristarchus of Byzantium, Apollonius Rhodius, and 
 
 othere, is said to have contained 400.000, or, accord- 
 ing to another authority, 700,000. The greater part 
 of this Library, which embraced the collected liter- 
 ature of Rome, Greece, India, and Egypt, was con- 
 tained in the Museum, in the quarter of Alexandria 
 called Brucheium. During the siege „f Alexandria 
 by Julius Cajsar, this part of the library was 
 .ed by lire; but it was afterwards replaced by 
 the collection of Pergamoe, which was presented to 
 Queen Cleopatra by Mark Antony, to the great 
 annoyance of the educated Romans. The other 
 part of the Library was kept in the Sernpeion, the 
 temple of Jupiter Serapis, where it remained till the 
 time of Theodosius the Great. When this emperor 
 permitted all the heathen temples in the Roman 
 empire to be destroyed, the magnificent ten 
 Jupiter Serapis was not spared. A mob of fanatic 
 Christians, led on by the Archbishop Theophilus, 
 stormed and destroyed the temple, together, it is 
 most likely, with the greater part of its literary 
 treasures, in 391 A.D. It was at this time that the 
 destruction of the Library was begun, and not at 
 the taking of Alexandria by the Arabians, under 
 the Calif Omar. The story, at least, is ridicu- 
 lously exaggerated which relates that the Arabs 
 found a sufficient number of books remaining to heat 
 the baths of the city for six months. The historian 
 Orosius, who visited the place after the destruc- 
 tion of the temple by the Christians, relates that he 
 then saw only the empty shelves of the Library. 
 See Petit-Radel, ifec/ieic/ie.? sur Us BibliaiJiiqua 
 Andennes et Moderneg (Paris, 1819); and Kitsch!, 
 ZKe Alej-andrinisc/ien Bi'itio'/u-km (Berlin, 1838). 
 
 ALEXA'NDRINE AGE. After liberty and 
 intellectual cidtivation had declined in Greece, 
 Alexandria in Egypt became the home and centre of 
 science and literature. The time in which it held 
 this position is styled the A. A., and may be divided 
 into two periods : the first including the reigns of 
 the Ptolemies, from 323 to 30 B. c ; the second, 
 from 30 B. c. to 640 A. d., or from the fall of the 
 Ptolemiean dynasty to the irruption of the Arabs. 
 
 Ptolemaeus Soter, the first ruler who introduced 
 and patronised Greek science and literature in 
 Alexandria, was followed by that yet more munifi- 
 cent patron, Ptolernauis Philadelphus, who regularly 
 established the celebrated Alexandrian Library and 
 Museum, which had been probably begun by his 
 father. This Museum contained porticos, a 1 
 room, and a large hall, in which the learned men 
 — the professors and fellows, as they might be 
 called — dined together. The A. school consisted of 
 Egyptians, Greeks, Jews, and latterly, Romans. The 
 grammarians and poets made the greatest figure. 
 The grammarians were both philologists and I 
 teurs, who explained things as well as words, and 
 were thus a kind of encyclopaedists. Among these 
 rank Zenodotus of Ephesus, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samo- 
 thrace, Crates of Mallus, Dionysius the Thracian, 
 Apollonius the Sophist, and Zodus. Their chief ser- 
 vice consists in having collected the writings then 
 existing, prepared corrected texts, and preserved 
 them for future generations. The most noted of 
 the poets of the A school were A]>ollonius 
 Rhodius, Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, Euphorion, 
 Callimaiims. Theocritus. I >i onysius, and the seven 
 tragedians called the A. Pleiades. 
 
 The A. school has a spirit and character altogether 
 different from the previous intellectual life of tii 
 From the attention paid to the study of language, it 
 was natural that correctness, purity, and elegance of 
 expression should becomi , cultivated: and 
 
 in these respects many of the A. writers are distin- 
 guished. But what no study and no efforts coidd 
 give — the spirit, namely, that animated the earlier 
 
 131
 
 ALEXAXDRTXES— ALEXirS COM X i:\IS. 
 
 poetry, wbb, in most of these works, wanting. 
 In place of it, there was displayed greater :irt in 
 composition; what had formerlj me by 
 
 genius, was now to be done by the rules furnished 
 by criticism, only a few display real geniuB; the 
 works of tin 1 rest, faultless acoording t * > rule, are 
 destitute of life and soul In a Bel I, where imita- 
 tion and nil'' thus took tin- |> [ 
 
 Minn of disciples became more artificial and 
 lifeless than thru- masters. Criticism degenerated 
 into frivolous fault-finding, and both prose and 
 
 poetry became laboured affectation. 
 
 The Alexandrine Philosophy is characterised 
 by a blending of the philosophies of the East and 
 of the West, and by a general tendency to eclec- 
 ticism, as it is called, or an endeavour to reconcile 
 conflicting systems of speculation, by bin ■ << 
 together what seemed true in each. No! that the 
 A. philosophers were without their sects; the most 
 
 fa is of which wen- the Neoplatonists (q. v.). 
 
 Iininc.' the religious notions of the Bast with Greek 
 dialectics, fchej represent the struggle "f ancient 
 civilisation with < hnsti mil v ; and thus tie ir system 
 was not without influence on the form that Christian 
 dogmas took in Egypt The amalgamation of 
 eastern ideas with < Ihristian, gave rise to the system 
 of the Gnostics (q.v.), which was elaborated chieflj 
 
 in Alexandria. — The A. sc] 1 was no less di til 
 
 ■ill. 1 1 . 1 1 I'm' the culture of the mathematical and 
 physical sciences, which here n ached a greater height 
 than anywhere else in ancient times. As early as 
 the 3d c. B.C., Euclid had here written his ii 
 workon geometry. Tin astronomers of the A. school 
 were distinguished from all their predecessors bj 
 their setting aside all metaphj leal speculation, and 
 devoting themselves to strict observation. Among 
 the distinguished physicists and mathematicians of 
 fie A. school, were Archimedes, Eratosthenes, 
 Aristarehus of Samos, I'tolcm.ous, ,Vc. For about 
 four centuries, the A. school was the centre of learn- 
 ing and science in tho ancient world. Counting 
 from it, origin to its complete extinction, it lasted 
 1000 years. 
 
 ALEX AX DIM X MS are rhyming vei 
 each of twelve syllables or six measures. Tic 
 is most probably derived from an old French | >■ ■• m 
 On Alexander flic Great, belonging to the 12th or 
 13th c, in which this measure was firsf used; accord- 
 ing to others, it was bo called from the name of one 
 of the authors of that poem being Alexander. The 
 Alexandrine has become- the regular epic or heroic 
 verse of the French, among whom each line is 
 divided in the middle into two hemistichs, tli 
 syllable always ending a word. In English, this 
 rule is not always observed, as in the following 
 verse from Spenser : 
 
 That all the woods shall an|SWCT f anil their echo .ring. 
 The only considerable English poem wholly written 
 in A. is Drayton's Pciyou/ion : but the Spenserian 
 stanza regularry ends in an Alexandrine, and the 
 measure occurs occasionally in our common heroic 
 verse, as the last line of a couplet : 
 
 When t'otli arc full, the; feci! cur I. lest abode, 
 
 Like those that watered onee|thc paradise of God.— /' 
 
 ALEXANDRO'VSK, a town in the south of 
 Russia, capital of the district of the same name, 
 situated on the left bank of the Dnieper, below the 
 cataracts. It is 48 miles south of Ekaterinoslav, is 
 fortified, and has considerable trade. Inland pro- 
 ductions are shipped here for the Black Sea. Pop. 
 4G01. — There are various other towns and districts 
 of the same name in Russia ; the most important of 
 which is that in the government of Vladimir, in the 
 centre of the empire. It was a favourite summer 
 132 
 
 i idi nee of the Czar Ivan Vasiliewitch, who intro- 
 duced there the first printing press known in Russia. 
 
 It has also .-, ai imperi I stud, commenced 
 
 by the Empress Elizabeth in 1761, and completed 
 id,., ut twenty years after. Pop. (1867)5810. 
 
 ALEXE'I MICHA'ILOWITCII, the second 
 Russian czar of the I [ouse of Romanow (b. March Id, 
 10 - 29— d. January 29, 1676), succeeded his father, 
 
 M i,i,i,l ]•'• ■d.ii-ow itch, iii 1645. The young Czar A. 
 yielding himself to the control of his chancellor, 
 i'l, -mi, and his tutor. Morosow, the avarice of 
 these bad advisers caused an insurrection in 1648, 
 in which Plessow lost his life. Popular discon- 
 tent favoured the plans of two pretenders to the 
 throne Demetrius III. (q. v.) and Ankudinow. 
 'I he Latter, professing to be a son of the Czar 
 Wasili Shui ' cecuted at Moscow in 1653. 
 
 A. possessed good qualities, which appeared when 
 
 1 ame to riper years. In his two campaigns 
 
 the Poles (1654 lOol'i, and llit'.ll KiCTl, he 
 took Smolensko, conquered and devastated almost 
 
 iin whole of Lithuania, and even secured for I self 
 
 the possession of several provinces, lie also gained 
 a put of the Ukraine ; and though his war with 
 Sweden (1656 1658) was unfortunate, he lost 
 nothing by Hie following peace, a. conferred great 
 benefits on his countrymen, by the introduction of 
 various important reforms into the Russian laws; 
 he ordered translations of numerous scientific works, 
 chiefly of a military nature, into Russian; and even 
 ventured on some ecclesiastical changes. In his 
 private character, he was amiable, temperate, and 
 
 pious. Ills second wife, the beautiful X ,' 1 1 1 1 1 : a 
 
 Xarischkin, was the mother of Peter tin ( licit. 
 
 ALEXEI, PETBO'WITCH. The eldest son 
 of l'i ter the Great of Russia, was born at Moscow, 
 I', bruary Is, 1690. Having shewn himself ,,;. 
 to the reforms and ii rations made by the emperor, 
 
 he was excluded by Peter from the line of succession 
 to the throne. With this decision, he appeared to 
 be satisfied, and ,1, clam] Ids intention oi spending 
 the remainder of his days in a monastery. But 
 when I', ter the Great undertook his second tour m 
 
 Northern Europe, A. .under the pretence of foll,,v, nig 
 the Ozar, escaped in 171" to Vienna, and thence 
 v., nt to Naples. He was induced to return to 
 Russia, where, by the ukase of February 2, 1718, he 
 
 was disinherited, and an investigation was ordered 
 to detect all parties concerned in his recent (light 
 from Russia. His mother, Eudoxia, with .Mario 
 Mm, wnii, step-sister to the czar, and several other 
 eminent persons, were made prisoners, and either 
 
 C.eelltcl er otherwise pUnisllCll. A. WHS C lellllled 
 
 to death, but soon afterwards received a pardon. 
 II, oiever. tin- terror and agitation of the trial so 
 affected his health, that he dad June 26, 1718. The 
 czar, to avoid cm, Id, ordered the trial to be 
 published. Other accounts assert that A. was 
 beheaded in prison. By his wife, Charlotte Christine 
 Sophie, Princess of Brunswick- Wolfenbtlttel, A. left 
 a son, who, as I'eter II., was elevated to the throne. 
 
 ALEXIUS COMNE'NUS, one of the ablest 
 rulers of the Byzantine empire, was born at Con- 
 stantinople in 1048. He was the third son of 
 Johannes Comnenus, the brother of the emperor, 
 ' "inneuus. The family came originally from 
 Italy, and settled in Asia .Minor. J lis father I, 
 refused tin purple on the abdication of Isaac, it was 
 
 given to i Ducas, the son of a distinguished 
 
 general. A. in his youth gave brilliant promise of 
 the rigorous military genius which he afterwards 
 manifested ; and at length, after a series of anarchic 
 reigns of brief duration, his soldiers succeeded in 
 elevating him to the throne, while the old and feeble 
 Xiecphorus Botaniates, his predecessor, was obliged
 
 ALFIERI-ALFONSO I. 
 
 to retire to a monastery. Gibbon graphically paints 
 the position and achievements of A. in the 48th 
 chapter of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 1 vwhriv he a\ ;is encompassed with foes. The 
 Scythians ami Turks were pouring down from the 
 north and north-east; the fierce Normans, who had 
 violently effected a lodgment in .Sicily and Italy, 
 were menacing his western provinces ; and, finally, 
 the myriad warriors of the first crusade had burst 
 into his empire on their way i" Palestine, and had 
 encamped around the gates of his capital. Vet ha 
 contrived to avoid all perils and disgraces by the 
 wisdom of his policy, the mingled patience and 
 promptitude of Ins character, his discipline in the 
 camp, and his humanity on the throne. lie 
 reigned for .'i7 years; and if it had been possible to 
 preserve the weak and corrupt Byzantine empire 
 in its integrity, a ruler like A. might have done 
 it. He could only delay its inevitable destruction. 
 Undoubtedly, the great interest which attaches 
 to A. arises from his relation to the crusaders. 
 Historians differ as to the purity and sincerity of his 
 conduct towards them. His daughter Anna, who 
 wrote his life, defends his ' policy ' with idial piety ; 
 but it seems clear that he entertained a profound 
 dread and suspicion of the half-civilised Franks, and, 
 knowing the weakness of his own empire, was 
 compelled to dissimulate. He certainly promised 
 them help, and persuaded them to go off into Asia ; 
 it is equally certain that he did not fulfil his 
 promises, and that he simply used them as instru- 
 ments to reconquer from the Turks the islands and 
 coasts of Asia Minor. Perhaps, however, little 
 apology is needed for a monarch who ' subdued the 
 envy of his equals, restored the laws of public and 
 private order, caused the arts of wealth and science 
 to be cultivated, and transmitted the sceptre to his 
 children of the third and fourth generation.' He 
 died in 1118. 
 
 ALFIERI, Vittorio, Count, a modern Italian 
 dramatic poet, was born at Asti, in Piedmont, on 
 the 17th January 1749. He received a very defec- 
 tive education in his father's house, and was then 
 sent to the academy of Turin, which he quitted, as 
 ignorant and uninformed as he had entered it, to 
 join a provincial regiment. After a hurried tour 
 through the greater part of Europe, he returned to 
 Turin in 1772. He then left the military service, 
 and renouncing idleness and unworthy amours, 
 devoted himself to literary occupation. The applause 
 which his lirst attempts received, encouraged him in 
 his determination to win fame as a dramatic author. 
 But as he clearly saw the deficiencies of his educa- 
 tion, lie began at a mature age to learn Latin, and 
 also to study the Tuscan dialect, for which purpose 
 he went to Tuscany. On his journey thither, A. 
 made the acquaintance of the Countess of Albany 
 (q. v.), to whom he became deeply attached. To 
 render himself worthy of her esteem, he strove with 
 unremitting earnestness alter poetic excellence ; and 
 in order to he perfectly free and independent of all 
 other cares, he transferred his whole property to 
 his sister, in exchange for an annuity. A. now- 
 lived alternately in Florence and in Borne. After- 
 wards, when his friend the Countess was released 
 from other ties by the death of her husband, tie. 
 lived together in the closest intimacy in Alsace 
 or in Paris, where A. was incessantly occupied in 
 writing, revising, and publishing his works. There 
 appears to have been a marriage, although it was 
 never made public. On the first outburst of the 
 French Revolution, A. went to England, but soon 
 returned to Paris. In 1792 lie was again forced 
 to ilee from France, and he then settled with his 
 inseparable coin]. anion in Florence. Here he died, 
 on the 8th October 1S03. The ashes of A. and 
 
 those of his friend repose in the church of Santa 
 Croce, in Florence, under a beautiful monument 
 by Canova, between the tombs of Micha.-l Angelo 
 and Macchiavelli. As a dramatic, author, A. has 
 attempted three different departments of his art. 
 He published 21 tragedies, G comedies, and 1 
 ' tramelogedia,' a name- invented by lihnself. His 
 dramatic works shew a want of fresh imaginative' 
 vigour, and betray the laborious perseverance with 
 whi.h he did violence both to himself and to art. 
 A. was inspired more by politics than by poetry. 
 lh wished to breathe a spirit of freedom into the 
 dormant minds of his countrymen, and considered 
 the theatre as a school in which tic people might 
 learn to be ' free, strong, and noble.' In order to 
 preserve the purity of his muse, A. had resolved to 
 read no other poet. He wished to produce an effect 
 by the very simplest means, and, renouncing the 
 aid of ornament, to please by manly strength and 
 earnestness alone. His works are on this account 
 cold and stiff, his plots simple even to poverty, his 
 verse hard and unpleasing, and his language destitute 
 of that magic splendour of colouring which stirs the 
 inmost soul. Notwithstanding tins, A. did good 
 service to Italian tragedy. He corrected the effemin- 
 ate taste which had before prevailed, as well as the 
 pedantry of an affected imitation of Attic model-. 
 Succeeding writers endeavoured to imitate his 
 strength and simplicity. A. was more unsuccessful 
 in his comedies than in his tragedies. They manifest 
 the same serious political tendency ; the invention is 
 poor, the development of the plot uninteresting, 
 and the characters are only general sketches, without 
 individuality. The most successful of his dramatic 
 works is Abel, a mixture of tragedy and opera, 
 invented by himself, which he designated by the 
 singular name of ' tramelogedia.' Besides the 
 dramatic works of A., we possess an epic poem, in 
 four cantos, written by him, also many lyrical poems, 
 16 satires, and poetical translations of Terence, 
 Virgil, and portions of /Eschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, 
 and Aristophanes. After his death, appeared his 
 Misogallo, a memorial of his hatred to the French. 
 The Countess of Albany had a collected edition of 
 his works pubbshed (3."> vols. 4to, Pisa, rSHo -l.sl.1) 
 containing his autobiography; Centofauti published 
 Tragedie e Vila d'AIJieri (Florence, 1842). 
 
 ALFONSO I., earliest king of Portugal, was the 
 son of Henry of Burgundy, conqueror and Count of 
 Portugal. He was born in 1 1 111 A.D., and being only 
 two years of age at In; latin i ■' ■■ . I ■ . 
 
 ment of affairs fell into the hands of his ambitious 
 and dissolute mother, Theresa of Castile, from whom 
 he was compelled forcibly to seize it, on attaining Ins 
 majority. He then entered on a war with Castile, 
 whose supremacy he did not recognise, and le 
 himself with Navarre, made several conquests m 
 Oalicia, after which he proceeded to .attack the 
 Moors, whose invasions he had already begun to 
 check by building the fortress of Leiria. A battle 
 was fought in the plains of Ourique, July 25, 1 1 .39, 
 wh.n victory declared for the Portuguese, after 
 a bloody struggle, in which, it is said, not less than 
 21 H l.l II II I Moors perished. From that day. A. assumed 
 the title of king, which the pope confirm! d. On the 
 26th October ll47,he took Lisbon.hythe help of the 
 English licet of crusaders ; and ill 1158, after a 
 ■i< e of two months, made himself master of Alcazar- 
 de-Sal and Evora. in 1171, be took by assault 
 the fortress of Santarem from thi . and 
 
 annihilated the garrison ; and tit the same place he 
 defeated the Almohadian ruler, Jusuf-ben-Jakub, in 
 list. He invited to his land the Knights-Templars 
 and Knights of Si John, and • -taUished, the orders of 
 Avis, and of St Michael. The Portuguese style him 
 El Conquistador (the Conqueror). But he was also a
 
 ALFONSO VL— ALFORD. 
 
 legislator, establishing the Cortes of Lanugo, tad 
 promulgating a node of laws relating to the order of 
 urn, the privileges of the nobility, the admi- 
 nistration of justice, &c. He died at Coimbra, 
 December 6, 1 185. 
 
 ALFONSO VI. , king of Portugal, second son of 
 .John IV., was .it first destined for tiie church, bu1 
 the death of his elder brother in 10.10 alto 
 changed his circumstances. Being then a minor, the 
 government <>f tin- kingdom was intrusted to his 
 mother, Louisa de Guzman, a woman of great 
 wisdom and prudence, who felt it her duty to 
 retain the power in her own hands, even alter A. 
 had reached his majority; for the sickly anil dis- 
 solute prince displayed little aptitude for business. 
 But the court minions, who had their own reasons 
 for wishing him to rule, ur ad him to remove his 
 mother from her office. This was accomplished in 
 1(36:2. The minister, Count Castel-Melhor, a mere 
 tiill.T, possessed supreme authority. Nevertheless, 
 Portugal was victorious in the war which she under- 
 took against Spam, although for this sin- had to 
 thank her English and French allies. In 1666, A 
 married Maria-l-'ranci>ca-K!izahcth of Savoy, who, 
 however, soon conspired with his brother Pedro 
 against him. The plot succeeded. A. 
 
 and imprisa 1 at Cintra, where he died on the 12th 
 
 of September 1683. Pedro then obtained the throne, 
 and married the widow of his deceased brother. 
 
 ALFONSO III., surnamed Tin: GREAT, king of 
 
 Leon, Asturios, and (bilicia, horn SIS a. i>. IL- 
 succeeded his father, Qrdofio 1.. in 800, but had to 
 maintain his rights by force of anus against Count 
 Froda, who had usurped the throne. Having caused 
 the latter to be murdered, he proceeded terabyte 
 reduce to obedience the powcrftd nobdity of the 
 kingdom, who looked with a jealous eye on the 
 monarchy remaining in one family ; and then, 
 carrying his anus against other enemies, he fought 
 through more than 30 campaigns, and gamed numer- 
 ous victories over the Moors. Be crossed the 
 Douro, broke down the walls of Coimbra, penetrated 
 to the Tsgus and Fstremadura, enlarged Ins terri- 
 tories by a portion of Portugal and I lid 1 lastile, and 
 re-peopled the conquered and desolated Burgos, 
 But these wars entaued great expense and misery 
 on the nation. In 888, A. bad to endure the pain 
 of beholding, at the bead of a rebel army, his own 
 son Garcias, who wished to seize the crown, although 
 pretending a simple desire for the prosperity of the 
 commonwealth. A. collected his forces, conquered 
 his son, and threw him into prison. But Oarcias' 
 mother, by the help of several of the grandees. 
 excited a m-w conspiracy, which resulted in the 
 abdication of the monarch in favour of liis im- 
 prisoned son. In order, however, to be still useful 
 to his country, A. became commander of Garcias' 
 forces in an expedition against the Moors. Alter 
 returning in triumph, he died at Zamora, 'Jill. 
 
 ALFONSO V., king of Aragon, Naples, and 
 Sicily (1416 — 1458 A. 1).), received the surname of 'the 
 Magnanimous, 1 because on his accession to the throne 
 he destroyed a document containing the names of 
 all the grandees who were bostde to him. His 
 historical importance arises from his having brought 
 Southern Italy under the dominion of Aragon. In 
 1420, he attacked Corsica, but speeddy hastened to 
 Naples, at the request of Queen Joanna II., who 
 besought his assistance against Louis of Anjou. For 
 some time he enjoyed the highest favour; but, in 
 1423, having thrown into prison her minion I laraocioli, 
 who was his enemy, the queen declared for his rival. 
 Louis. At her death, in 1435, A. resolved to claim 
 the kingdom, but Rene of Anjou, whom Joanna had 
 apjiointed her successor after the death of Louis, 
 134 
 
 opposed him, Bonn and Genoa sided with Bene, 
 
 and the Gi He. ie Beef attacked and defeated that of 
 A . tie- monarch himself being taken prisoner. Ho 
 
 nt to Duke Philip of Milan, who. charmed 
 
 by his manner and talent, set him at liberty, and 
 even formed an alliance with him, After several 
 battles, ami a long mountain-war in the Ahru/z.i, A. 
 
 overthrew his adversary, and entered Naples in 
 triumph. Having once lirinly established his power, 
 he proceeded b' suppress the disorders which had 
 sprung up during the worthless reign ot Joanna, and 
 
 b airably distinguished himself by his patronage 
 
 of letters. He died at Naples while his troops were 
 ring Genoa, June 'J7, 1458. 
 
 ALFONSO X., surnamed ■ the Astronomer,' 'the 
 Philosopher,' or • the Wise' (/,'/ Sabio), king of Leon 
 and Castile, born lL'Jl, succeeded Ins father, Ferdi- 
 nand lib. in 1252, As early as the storming of Seville 
 in l'JIS, he had given indications of his COU 
 spirit, But, instead of wisely attempting to expel 
 tliu Moors and subdue the nobility, lie lavished the 
 resources of his kingdom in fruitless efforts to secure 
 Ins election to tie imperial throne of Germany, 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg was chosen in opposition to 
 
 him. Nor would Pope (Iregory X. recognise bis 
 claims even to the Duchy of Swabia. Soon after, 
 
 his throne was threatened by tic turbulciu f the 
 
 nobdity, and his wars with the Moors. The latter, 
 however, he defeated in 1263, in a bloody battle, and 
 took from them Xcres, Medina-Sidonia, San-Lucar, 
 and a part of Algarve, uniting at the same time 
 Murcia with Castile. In 1271, an insurrection broke 
 out in his dominions, at tin- head of which was his 
 son Philip. Three years elapsed before it was finally 
 quelled. In the mildness with which he treated 
 the rebels, men saw only indications of his weak- 
 ness. But afterwards determining to employ more 
 stringent measures, his son Sanclio also rebelled, 
 and in 1282 deprived him of his throne. He now 
 sought the help of the Moors; but after fruitless 
 efforts to recover his power, he died at Seville, April 
 ■1, P284. He was the most learned prince of his 
 time, and has acquired lasting fame through the 
 completion of the code of laws commenced (though 
 this i- disputed) by his father, and called /.;/<« </- Ins 
 Partidaa, which in 1501 became the universal law 
 of the land. There are still extant several long 
 poems of his. besides a work on chemistry, and 
 another on philosophy. He is also credited with 
 a history of the church and of the crusades, and 
 is said to have ordered a translation of the Bible 
 into Spanish. He laboured much to revive know- 
 increasing both the privileges and professor- 
 ships ei the university of Salamanca. He sought 
 to improve the Ptolemaic planetary tables, \ 
 anomalies had struck observers even at that early 
 time. I'm- this purpose, iii PJ40, he assembled at 
 Toledo upwards of titty of tin- most celebrated ostro- 
 nomerso] thai age, His improved tables, still known 
 under the name of the Alfousine Tables, were com- 
 pleted in 1252 at the cost of 40,000 ducats — an 
 unprecedented sum to be expended on such a work 
 in those days. The results obtained by means of 
 the Alfonsine Tables were no more accurate than 
 those of the older ones, for both were based on the 
 same erroneous hypothesis of Epicycles (q. v.). The 
 Oputeuloa Legates of A. were published by the 
 Royal Historical Society of Madrid in 1830. 
 
 ALFORD, Rev. Hurt, D.D., a biblical critic 
 of the highest reputation, and also a poet of consi- 
 derable genius, was born in London in 1810, but was 
 educated first at Qminster grammar-school in Somer- 
 setshire, and finally at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 where he took his degree, anil entered the church. 
 His first volume, pubbshed at Cambridge in 1831, was
 
 ALFRED. 
 
 entitled Poems and Poetical Fragments. Three years 
 afterwards, the young author was elected a Fellow 
 of Trinity, aud in the following year (1835), appeared 
 his most popular work, The School of tlie Heart, 
 and other Poems, which lias been frequently re-i BUi d, 
 especially in America. About the same time, A. was 
 appointed vicar of Wymeswold, Leicestershire, where 
 lie remained till 1853, gradually enlarging the circle 
 of his studies, and obtaining fresh honours. In 1841, 
 lie published Chapters on (he Qreek Poets, which 
 exhibit both purity of taste and breadth of scholar- 
 ship. In 1844 appeared the first volume of his 
 magnum opus, the Greek Testament with no! 
 various readings ; the second was not published till 
 1852, In 1853, he was removed to Quebec Street 
 I 'liapcl, London, where he continued to maintain his 
 high reputation as a sound and eloquent preacher, 
 until, in 1S57, he was appointed Dean of Canterbury 
 by Lord Palmerston. A.'s poetry is characterised, not 
 so much by depth or originality, as by freedom 
 from affectation, obscurity, or bombast. His Greek 
 orient, which was completed in 1S01, occupies 
 
 the lii t rank among English editions. Among his 
 latest writings was A Pin for the Queen's English, 
 contributed to Good Words, which excited consider- 
 able discussion. He also published several volumes 
 of sermons. He died January 12, 1871. 
 
 ALFRED, surnamed The Gkeat, was born at 
 Wantage, in Berkshire, in 849. His father was 
 Ethelwolf, son of Egbert, king of the West Saxons; 
 and though the youngest of four sons, he succeeded 
 to the crown, on the death of his brother Ethelred, at 
 the age of 23. He had already given decisive 
 ] Hoofs of high ability as a general in repelling the 
 incessant incursions of the Danes, at that time the 
 most terrible warriors in Europe. After he suc- 
 ceeded to the throne, he redoubled his exertions 
 to restore the independence of his country. At first 
 he strove without success, whilst the Danes con- 
 tinued to pour fresh bands upon the coast, and the 
 Anglo-Saxous either bent to the yoke or forsook 
 their homes. In S7S, the invaders had completely 
 Overrun the whole kingdom of the West Saxons. A., 
 no longer able to collect an effective army, was 
 obliged to seek security in the hills and forests, and 
 for some tune found refuge in a cowherd's hut. He 
 still, however, kept up some communication with his 
 friends ; and as soon as the people began once more 
 to arm against the Danes, he built a stronghold on 
 an elevation or island (still known as Athelney, i.e., 
 the 'island of the nobles,' or the 'royal island') 
 amid the marshes of Somersetshire, to which he 
 summoned his faithful followers. From this fortress 
 he made frequent successful sallies against the 
 enemy, and after a comparatively short time, he 
 found liimself at the head of a considerable army, 
 with which lie totally routed them (S78) near Eding- 
 ton, in Wiltshire. After holding out for some time 
 in a stronghold to which they had retreated, the 
 invaders capitulated. A. accepted hostages, and 
 their solemn oath to ipiit his territory of Wessex, aud 
 
 receive baptism. Their king, Godrun or Guthrun, 
 
 was baptised, with thirty of his followers, and ever 
 after proved faithful in his allegiance to A. 
 
 After this decisive victory, the power of A. steadily 
 increased, both by land and sea — for already he had 
 built England's first fleet — he beat the Danes in 
 numerous battles, and gradually their possessions 
 were confined to the northern and eastern coasts. In 
 SSlj, A., without any formal installation, became 
 recognised as the sovereign of all England, a title to 
 which he had proved his right by the most indis- 
 putable of arguments. During the ensuing years of 
 peace, he rebuilt the cities that had suffered most 
 during the war, particularly London: 
 fortresses, and trained the people to the use of anus ; 
 
 while at the same time he encouraged husbandry 
 and other useful arts, and founded those wise laws 
 and institutions which contributed so much to 
 future greatness and welfare of England. The 
 grateful reverence of posterity has, as is usual with 
 mankind, become prodigal in its awards, ascribing to 
 A. the entire credit of having established many 
 beneficial institutions, some of which had already 
 existed among the Anglo-Saxons, but were by him 
 revived, remodelled, and improved. Of his political 
 institutions, little is known beyond the fact that he 
 compiled a code of laws, divided England into 
 counties, hundreds, and tithings, and thoroughly 
 reformed the administration of justice by making 
 these tithings, hundreds, &.O., so far as was practi- 
 cally possible, responsible for the offences committed 
 within their jurisdiction. William of Malmesbury, 
 with enthusiastic exaggeration, declared that 'a 
 purse of money, or a pair of golden bracelets,' might 
 in A.'s day be exposed for weeks in complete safety 
 on the common highways. A. is also said — though 
 erroneously, as is now bebeved — to have been the 
 author of ' trial by jury.' In an age of ignorance 
 and barbarism, A. was an accomplished scholar 
 and a zealous patron of learning. No prince 
 of bis age did so much for the diffusion of know- 
 ledge, and few monarchs at any time have shewn an 
 equal zeal for the instruction of their people. He 
 caused many manuscripts to be translated into 
 Anglo-Saxon from Latin, and himself translated 
 several works, such as Boethius on the Conso- 
 lation of Philosophy, the History of Orosius, Bede's 
 Ecclesiastical History, aud Selections from the Solilo- 
 quies of Si Augustine. Among his original works in 
 the Anglo-Saxon language, are Laws of the West 
 Saxons, Institutes, Chronicles, Meditations, &c. All 
 his works strikingly indicate the serious, elevated, 
 and yet practical character of the man. In his 
 translations, A. is frequently more than a translator. 
 He adds his own reflections to those of his author ; 
 and expands the geographical outline of Orosius, by 
 a chart of Germany, an account of the Baltic, and 
 the icy regions towards the north pole, which are 
 pretty accurate, considering the means which then 
 existed for acquiring a knowledge of these places. 
 Several works attributed to A. are believed not to be 
 genuine. 
 
 The peacefid labours of A. were, in 893, interrupted 
 by a fresh invasion of Northmen under HeSSteo or 
 Hastings, more formidable than any that had yet 
 been attempted in bis reign. The defection of 
 the East Anglians and Northumbrians added to 
 the difficulties with which he had to contend. 
 A., however, was fully prepared, and though, dur- 
 ing their protracted stay in his dominions, the 
 invaders overran a large extent of coimtry, and 
 committed considerable depredations, they were 
 beaten in almost every encounter with the Eng- 
 lish, and finally quelled. A. died on the 27th of 
 October 901, aged 52, leaving his country in the 
 enjoyment of comparative peace and prosperity, the 
 fruit of that wise anil energetic rue which has 
 made his memory dear to all generations of English- 
 men, as that of their best and greatest king. We 
 cannot perhaps realise the resolute patience of A., 
 in his political and military capacity, for we have 
 but a very imperfect knowledge of the obstacles 
 which stood in his way ; but it must excite both our 
 highest wonder and reverence to behold a man pur- 
 suing solitarily, in the midst of ferocity, barbarism, 
 and ignorance, and in spite of the perpetual pains 
 with which his body \v;us racked, so many various 
 aud noble schemes for the civilisation and true glory 
 of his country. — The most authentic and interesting 
 of the original sources of information on the history 
 of A., is" the life by Asser, bishop of Sherborne, a 
 
 1S6
 
 ALGA MARINA— ALG.E. 
 
 i by extreme simplicity and affec- 
 
 : lition is that of Wise (Oxford, 1782). 
 
 , if the i l ' complete and careful is 
 
 I'auli, edited by T. Wright; published 
 
 bj Bentley. 
 
 ALGA MARINA. See GbaSS WRACK. 
 
 \ l.G.E, a natural order of plants, belonging to 
 
 - of Linnaeus, and to the 
 
 Acotyledone* of the natural system. It contains a 
 
 li. at number of species, about 2000 being known and 
 
 ad among these then 
 of forms. Tiny grow for the most part in water, 
 some in fresh, and some in salt water, hut some also 
 on moist r" rnnd; whilst others are fre- 
 
 quently found covering the glass and pots of hot- 
 Some species occur even npon • 
 animal tissui ' n * "' 
 
 fish, whilst Sard* ippearstobe 
 
 formed in the human stomach. I re most 
 
 numerous in still or Btagnant water and in warm 
 climates. Their structure is very various ; thi y are 
 
 Algrc. 
 
 1. Alaria esculents. 
 V. Dictrota dichotoma. 
 
 3. Jlimanlhalia lorea. 
 
 4. Kytiphla'a thuyoides. 
 
 found of all grades, from the lrftle microscopic 
 
 vesicle, to great sea-weeds, which ramify tiki 
 
 The diversity in size is as great as in form ; some 
 
 species being visible only through the microscope, 
 
 and resembling mould or rust ; some a few inches, 
 
 others several feet in length ; whilst thi 
 
 which tloat in the South American 
 
 more than 100 feet ; and Macrocystis pyrifera of 
 
 tlic Pacific Ocean reaches the length of loon te. t. 
 
 Yet they are seldom to be found as thick as the 
 
 finger, or as broad as the hand, although some far 
 
 d these dimensions, the trunk of / 
 fitscesceru attaining the thickness of e man's thigh. 
 Some species are firmly fixed at the bottom of the 
 water, some adhere to rocks and stones left dry by 
 the retiring tide; some frequently break loo 
 float about upon and beneath the surface. They 
 have in no case proper roots, but merely processes for 
 thi ir attachment to the surfaces on which ti 
 fixed ; they seem to derive their nourishment by all 
 parts of tlmir surface from the water or moist air in 
 which they grow. The Gulfweed [Sargcutum) floats 
 in long pieces in the Atlantic Ocean and all the 
 great seas; a large portion ef the 
 
 Indies and the Canary Islands, is specially called 
 the Ma- dt Sorgo*":. The weed is carried in such 
 quantities by the current into the Gulf of M 
 that it covers the sea in tracts of many miles in 
 
 ill, and gives it the appearance of a meadow. 
 Many fabulous stories were related of this Gulfweed 
 by the mariners of the 15th c. Ships were said to 
 
 have 1 ii stopped in their course, and the crews 
 
 obliged to cut their way through with hatchets. 
 
 Fucus vcsiculosus : 
 
 The discoveries of Columbus put an end to these 
 
 rated reports. 
 A. are entirely cellular in their structure, how- 
 ever elongated may be thi Ir fronds, having no proper 
 i consisting of 
 
 an irregular tissue of utri- 
 . alar cells. The fronds 
 of many are articn 
 
 amplest or 
 lowest Of u arc- 
 
 ied by spoi 
 
 nation ; in ■ 
 the reproductive 
 
 I'i ink) cn- 
 
 iepora, and 
 variously disposed in recep- 
 tacles of cliffcrent kinds; 
 sometimes in the interior 
 of the ■ 
 
 (ip v.) also occur in some; 
 and zv<jsi><>ri.x, or spores 
 
 with mo\ ing cilia, w hieh 
 exhibit phenomena of 
 motion resembling those 
 of animal life. The Dto- 
 
 -. in which the rflOTrillgthereceptlc!e , oft i ie 
 ordinary mode of repro- fructification «, a, at the 
 duction is by spontaneous endsofthebranchlngfroiid; 
 separation, have by some M, ». targe air-cells which 
 
 . * - , . .£ help to float the l.lunt. 
 
 I.. en referred to the am- ' 
 
 mal kingdom. They are entirely microscopic, 
 resemble the animalcules called Infusoria, and are 
 generally found iu still waters and moist places, 
 
 but occur in j li. !"■! 1 1 1 1 ml ii i - in """ parts of 
 
 the Antarctic Ocean, where they give a colour to 
 . iter. 
 
 A. differ from Fungi (q. v.) in deriving their 
 nourishment exclusively, as it would seem, from the 
 medium by which they are surrounded, and not from 
 the substance upon which they grow. The sub- 
 
 of which they are composed is also 
 different. Yet it has been felt not a little diflicult 
 to determine to which order some of the lowest 
 forms of vegetable life should b 
 
 As to their sal .stance, A. consist chiefly of \ 
 able gelatine, winch dissolves in water when 
 are boiled in it. The harder parts of I 
 
 fnetimes coriaceous, or horny, or cartilaginous, 
 but never really ligneous. Their colour is not alw a\ s 
 green, but mostly brown or yellow, BOmel 
 purple or violet, or rose colour; and many of them 
 i a very beautiful appearance when examined 
 through a micro-cope. Many contain an abundance 
 of iodine. Different species of Wrack i/ 
 (q. v.), which are cast on shore in vast confused 
 masses by the waves, are gathered and burned in 
 I. my Islands, in Normandy, and other parts 
 of the world, the ashes funning an article of com- 
 merce under the name of Kelp (q. v.), and contain- 
 ing much of the iodide of sodium. Sea-weeds of all 
 kinds are an excellent manure. None of the species 
 are poisonous, and some of them are used for food, 
 as CaekaOKEN (q. v.) or Irish-moss, Dti-sj; (q. v.), 
 (q. v.), 8SC. The edible swallows' nests of 
 i lian Archipelago are composed of a species of 
 sea- weed. Several kinds are eaten as articles of 
 luxury by the Chinese. Plocaria tenaz, one of the 
 bo used, furnishes them also with an admir- 
 able glue, of which great quantities are prepared and 
 brought to the market. /'/..■ niitliurmiun, 
 
 an moss, a native of the Mediterranean, and 
 found principally around the shores of Corsica, is 
 used as a vermifuge. See 1'i.m LABIA. 
 
 This natural order is divided into five sub-orders, 
 regarded by some as distinct orders — namely,
 
 ALGARDI— ALGEBRA. 
 
 CharacevE (q. v.), FacAcas (q. v.), Cerami 
 (q. v.), Contervace.e (see Conferva), and Diato- 
 : (q. v.i. Tlie Characeoe are sometimes sepa- 
 rated as a distinct order of higher organisation, 
 whilst the rest are united under the name Algaj. 
 See Kiitzing's I '/■;," >hnjin (,'enei iHs (Leip. 1 ^13), and 
 his Species Algarum (Leip. 1849); Greville's A. 
 Britannicce (Lond. 1830); and Harvey's Manual qf 
 British A. (Lond. 1841). 
 
 ALGA'RDI, Alessaudro, an Italian sculptor 
 (b, at Bologna 1602 -d. 1654), ranked next to Lor. 
 
 Bernini among Italian sculptors of the 17tH c, 
 and especially excelled in the representation ol nude 
 figures. His works, however, suffered from the 
 faults prevalent in bus time, especially from a striv- 
 ing after pathos and picturesque effects, opposed to 
 the true character of sculpture. His must important 
 work is a colossal relievo of Attila in .St I 
 Rome. His statue of the God of Sleep in the Villa 
 Borghese has frequently heen mistaken for an 
 antique. 
 
 ALGARO'BA. See Carob. 
 
 ALGARO'TTI, Francesco, Count, an Italian 
 author, was born at Venice in 171—, studied in Rome 
 and Bologna, and when 21 years old, published in 
 i \~:::',) a work, entitled Newtonianismo per le 
 (The Newtonian Pliilosophy adapted to the 
 Ladies), which was the basis of his subsequent 
 reputation. Until 1739, he lived in France. On his 
 return from a journey to Russia, A became 
 acquainted with Frederick II. of Prussia, who 
 elevated him to the rank of count, and made him. 
 in 1747, lord chamberlain. He was also patronised 
 by Augustus III. of Poland, and lived alternately in 
 Berlin and Dresden until 1754, when he returned to 
 Italy. He died March .'{, 1764, at Pisa, where, in the 
 Campo Santo, Frederick the Great raised a monu- 
 ment to his memory. In his own time he was recog- 
 I as a good judge of painting and architecture, 
 and his reputation is confirmed by his work Saggi 
 sopra le Belle Arti (Essays on the Fine Arts), and by 
 the paintings he selected for the Dresden Gallery. 
 His poetry displays no great genius ; but his other 
 works shew that he was an accomplished man; and 
 bis letters rank with the best in the Italian language. 
 
 ALGA'RVE, the smallest and most southerly of 
 the provinces of Portugal, Lies between Andalucia 
 and the Atlantic Ocean. In ancient times, it was 
 much mure extensive. It received its name from 
 the Aral.s. in whose language A. signifies "a land 
 lying to the west.' It was a Moorish province till 
 125$ when Alphonso III. united it to the crown of 
 Portugal as a separate kingdom. Its area is < bi- 
 mated at ^7.'H> square miles, and its population is 
 177,000. The northern part of the province is occu- 
 pied by a lj-i ■ . i tntains of an avers i height 
 
 oi WOO feet, which form the continuation of the 
 Morens of Spain, and terminate in Cape 
 St Vincent, the south-western extremity of Europe. 
 The highest entirely destitute of \- 
 
 tion ; and the mountainous tract in general admits 
 ol but little cultivation. From the main ridge, the 
 ry slopes southward in jagged terraces and low 
 hills, leaving a levi I brad of a tew miles along tin- 
 coast The soil of this plain is but indifferently 
 i d for the production of grain, or even of 
 pasturage; but it produces abundance of the finest 
 
 fruits of the south, even plantains and dates. The 
 
 wine is also of excellent quality. Tin \ can heat 
 
 of the climate is mitigated by the cool Bea I 
 
 The only river of importance is tin- Guadiana, on 
 
 the frontiers of Spam. The inhabitants ' 
 
 themselves chicll) in fishing, in manufacturin 
 
 and in cultivating fruit. They are considered the 
 
 best sailors and the truest friends in Portugal. The 
 chief town is Faro (pop. 8500). 
 
 A'LGEBHA is a branch of pure mathematics. 
 The name is derived from the Arabs, who call the 
 science Al gebr wal mok&bala — Le., supplementing 
 and equalising — in reference to the t m and 
 
 reduction of the terms of an equation. Among the 
 Italians in early times it was call, d Arte Mag 
 as having to do with the higher kinds of calculation, 
 and still oftener Jiegola de la < 'osa, because the un- 
 known quantity was denomin the 'thin'.':' 
 hence the name of Cossike Art, given to it by early 
 English writers. 
 
 The term Algebraical is generally used somewhat 
 vaguely, to denote any expression or calculation in 
 which signs are used to denote the operations, and 
 letters or other symbols are put instead of numbers. 
 But it is perhaps better to restrict the name A to 
 the doctrine of Equations (q.V.). Literal arithmetic, 
 then, or multiplying, dividing, 4c., with letters to 
 of Arabic ciphers, is properly only a preparation for 
 A ; ■while Analysis (q. v.), in the widest .-ens.', would 
 embrace A. as its first part. A. itself is divided 
 into two chief branches. The first treats of equations 
 involving unknown quantities having a determinate 
 value; in the other, called the Diopnantine or Inde- 
 terminate Analysis, the unknown quantities have no 
 exactly fixed values, but depend in some d 
 upon assumption. 
 
 The oldest work in the West on A. is that 
 of Diophantus of Alexandria, in the 4th c. after 
 Christ. It consisted originally of 13 books, and 
 contained arithmetical problems; only six 
 are now extant. They are written in ' 
 and evince no little acuteness. The modern Euro- 
 peans got their first acquaintance with A., not 
 directly from the Greeks, but, like most other 
 knowledge, through the Arabs, who derived it. again, 
 from theHindus. The chief European source was the 
 work of Mohammed Ben Musa, who lived in the 
 time of Calif Al Mamun (813— S33); it has been 
 translated into English by Dr Rosen (Lond. IS.'ll). 
 An Italian merchant, Leonardo Bonacciu, of Pisa, 
 travelling in the east about 1200, acquired a know- 
 ledge .of the science, and introduced it among his 
 countrymen on his return; he has left a work on 
 A, not yet printed. The first work on A. after the 
 revival of learning is that of the Minorite friar 
 Paciolo or Luca Borgo (Ven. 1494). v pio Ferreo 
 in Bologna, discovered, in 1505, the solution of one 
 case of cubic equations. Tartaglia of Br< -cia (died 
 1557) carried culm- equations still further, and 
 imparted his discoveries to Cardan of Milan, as a 
 secret. Cardan extended tin overy himself, and 
 published, in 1545, the solution known as 'Cardan's 
 Rule.' Ludovico Ferrari and Bombelli (1579 
 the solution of biquadra ms. A. was first 
 
 cultivated in Germany by Christian Rudolf, in a 
 work printed in 1524; Stifel follow) dwith his Arilh- 
 metica Integra (Ntirnb. 1544i. Robert Recorde, in 
 Kneland, and Pelletier, in France, wrote about 1550. 
 a Frenchman (died 1603 di the grand 
 
 step of using letters to denote tin- known 
 as well as the unknown. Harriot, in England 
 and Girard, in Holland (1633), still further improved 
 on the advances made by Vieta. The 
 (1637) of Descartes makes an epoch in A.; it is 
 I - ii in new invi 
 
 to Geometry, and was the lirst to represent the 
 nature of curves by means of equations. Fcrmat 
 contributed much I nee; ami so ,ii,l 
 
 the ArtiJani Hea I Newton. 1 
 
 names may be added Maclaurin, Moivrc. Taylor, 
 and Fontaine. Among the chief promo 
 in more recent times, are Buler, I Causs, 
 
 Abel, Fourier, Peacock. De Morgan. &a 
 
 137
 
 ALGECIRAS-ALGERIA. 
 
 ALGECI'RAS, or ALGK/.IKAS, .1 town in 
 Spain, in the province of Cadiz, on the Gulf of 
 1 Itar. [ta harbour is bad, but it possesses a 
 good dock, and the inhabitants arc supplied with 
 fine aqueducts. The citadel is in a very dilapi- 
 dated condition, and the trade iii corn and brandy 
 is no longer important. The place, however, 
 which is pleasantly situated, has a picturesque 
 appearance. It was the first town in Spain taken 
 bj the Moors (713), in whose possession it remained 
 for 7 centuries; but in 1344, after a siege of 20 
 months, it was retaken by the brave Alfonso XI., 
 king of Castile. It is said that crusaders En 
 parts of Europe were present at this siege, which 
 was (he siege of the age, and is spoken OI a3 such. 
 Edward 111. of England puqiosed coming in person 
 to the assistance of the Spanish monarch, whom he 
 greatly admired. Alfonso destroyed the old Mi 
 town; the modern one was built by Charles 111. in 
 1700. On the 6th of June 1801, between Algeciras 
 and Tarifa, the English admiral Saumarvz attacked 
 the combined French and Spanish lints uniler Bear- 
 admiral Luinois. lie was defeated, but renewed the 
 
 engagement a few days after, and gained a complete 
 victory. A. is 5 miles from Gibraltar, across the 
 bay or gulf, and 10 round by land. Top. 11,500. 
 
 ALGE'lUA 1 in French, Auaian. a country 
 on the north coast of Africa, which was a sub- 
 ordinate part of the Turkish Empire till 1830, 
 and is now a French colony. It lies between 2' 8' 
 W. long, and 8' ."'2' E. long. It is bounded on the 
 north by the Mediterranean, on the east by Tunis, 
 on the south by Sahara, and on tho west by Marocco. 
 The French have extended their dominions more 
 than 200 miles into the interior, but those of the 
 deys — the former rulers of A. — comprehended terri- 
 tories lying nearly twice as far south. The area of 
 A., now that the southern limit is defined, is about 
 173,000 s.|. miles: and the pop. 2,004,014, includ- 
 ing '_'I7.'.)'.KI Europeans. The chief towns are Algiers, 
 Bona, Constantino, and Tlemzen. Upwards of 
 5,000,000 acres are under cultivation. Physically, 
 A. forms a part of the northern border of the great 
 plateau of North Africa, which here rises from 
 the sea in three terraces. The Atlas Mountains 
 run parallel to the coast-line. Behind these, a vast 
 tract of heathy plains, called the Sebkhas, interspersed 
 with salt-lakes, stretches southwards, until bounded 
 by a second chain of mountains of various heights ; 
 beyond which, again, lies the great desert of Sahara, 
 extending to the banks of the Niger. The plains 
 and valleys which open out towards the sea in the 
 north of A., such as those round Bona, Algiers, 
 Oran, &c., are extremely fertile, abound in wood and 
 water, consist mostly of a calcareous soil, and are 
 well adapted for agriculture. They form the Tell, 
 which was once one of the granaries of Italy. In 
 strong contrast to these are the Sebkhas or lesser 
 deserts, covered with herbs and brushwood, but 
 almost destitute of fresh water, except where here 
 and there they are interrupted by an oasis. The 
 most southern part of the country beyond the Atlas 
 partakes of the nature of the Sahara, but contains 
 oases covered with palm-trees, and well peopled. 
 Tliis is a part of the 'date-country,' or 'Blad-el- 
 Djerid.' There are no rivers of any importance in 
 the entire colony, nothing beyond mere coast- 
 streams, wliich rise in the neighbouring Atlas. The 
 largest is the Shelif, about 230 miles in length. With 
 respect to the climate, the heat in the Tell is some- 
 times very great. On the coast it is mitigated by 
 the sea-breeze ; and among the high mountains of the 
 interior, the winters are even cold. The average 
 temperature of Algiers is about 63° F. A. is not 
 unfrequently visited by the simoom, or hot wind, 
 called by the Italians sirocco, and by the Spaniards 
 138 
 
 sulano. Its mineral wealth is considerable ; iron, 
 had. copper, and manganese are found. The marble 
 of Numidia was in requisition in ancient times. 
 Extensive forests of oaks, cedars, pines, and pistacbio- 
 nut trees cover large portions of the country, and 
 furnish an abundant supply of timber and 1 sin. The 
 
 . 1 reals and the olive are cultivated in the Tell ; and 
 
 the oases of Sahara are famed for their dates. The 
 domestic animals of A. are the ox, the sheep, the 
 goat, and the camel; but the once noble race of 
 Mumidian horses is degenerated. The population is 
 composed of various elements. Besides Europeans, 
 tin re are Kabyles and Arabs, who compose the bulk 
 of the people ; also Moors, Negroes, and Jews. 
 
 Language, - Four languages are spoken in A. The 
 Berber, the Arabic, the Turkish, and the Negro dia- 
 lects. The Berber, which is the most ancient of all, 
 has a variety of dialects, and is spoken by all the 
 Kabylo tribes. It possesses no literature written m 
 its own alphabet, Arabic characters alone being used. 
 The Arabic is of course an importation from the East, 
 and has borrowed expressions and idioms from (lie 
 various native languages with which it came into 
 contact ; but its ditiereiices are comparatively slight. 
 The Koran is the great bond of union. The Turkish, 
 since the French conquest, has become almost ex- 
 tinct. The Negro dialects are of little consequence. 
 History. — In the most ancient times we find the 
 Numidians settled in the eastern part of the regency, 
 and the Moors (or Mauri) in the west. Under the 
 Romans, the former was included in the province of 
 Africa, while the latter was called Mauritania Caesar- 
 iensis. Like the rest of North Africa, it had then 
 reached its highest prosperity. It had numerous 
 cities, which were principally l'.oman colonies. But 
 its conquest by the Vandals, under the famous 
 Genseric about 440, threw it hack into a state of 
 barbarism, from which it only partially reco 
 after the Mohammedan immigrants had estab- 
 lished their dominion. About tho year 93"), the 
 city, Al-Jezira, i. e., the island, and later AI-Gazie, 
 i.e., the warlike, now called Algiers, was built by 
 an Arabian prince, Zeiri, whose successors ruled the 
 land till 1148, after which it was governed by the 
 Almohades (q.v.) till 1200. It was then split up into 
 many small territories. In 1402, the Moors and 
 • lews who had been driven out of Spain, settled in 
 A., and began to revenge themselves on their perse- 
 cutors by piracy. Ferdinand, the Spanish monarch, 
 attacked them on this account, took the city of 
 Algiers in 1509, and erected fortifications on the 
 island which forms its harbour. One of the Algerine 
 princes, the Emu' of Metidja, whose territories were 
 threatened by the Spaniards, now invited to his 
 assistance the Greek renegade, Horuk or llarudo 
 Barbarossa, who had made himself famous as a 
 Turkish pirate chief. This laid the foundation 
 of the Turkish dominion ; for when Barbarossa 
 arrived in 1510, he treacherously turned his corsair 
 bands against the emir, whom he murdered, and 
 then made himself Sultan of Algiers. His subse- 
 quent successes alarmed the Spaniards, who marched 
 an army against him from Oran. Barbarossa was 
 defeated in many encounters, and, at last, being 
 taken prisoner, was beheaded in 1518. His brother 
 was then chosen sultan. He put himself under the 
 protection of the Ottoman court, by the help of 
 a Turkish army drove the Spaniards out of tho 
 country, and established that system of military 
 despotism and piracy which lasted till 1830, ami 
 which sunk A. into a state of ruinous degradation. 
 In 1541, the Emperor Charles V. made a bold 
 attempt to crush this nation of corsairs. He landed 
 in A. with a fleet of 370 ships, and 30,000 men; but 
 a fearful storm, accompanied by earthquakes and 
 water-spouts, destroyed the greater portion of tho
 
 ALGERIA. 
 
 former, and rendered the latter destitute of victuals, 
 &c. ; so that the expedition proved a failure, and 
 Charles was glad to re-embark, which he managed 
 to do with extreme difficulty. 
 
 Tin- history of A., under the Moslems, offers few 
 episodes worthy of notice. The AJgerines continued 
 to carry on their piratical war against the powers of 
 
 Christendom, venturing even to land on the Italian 
 and Spanish coasts. Inland, too, they were con- 
 stantly fighting tn extend their territories. Before 
 the end of the 16th c, they had subdued the whole 
 country to the verge "i Marocco, with the exception 
 of Oran, which belonged to Spain. The Spaniards 
 were invariably unsuccessful in their attempt* at 
 
 <^5S~ VT^} C0NSTAHTIHE9 <~~± J* 
 
 \ irtlf 
 
 'fa OH ""«s»'E| 
 
 reprisals. Emboldened by success, the Algerines 
 pushed their piratical expeditions even beyond the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. In the year 1G00, the Turkish 
 janissaries of Algiers obtained from the Constanti- 
 nopolitan court the right to choose a dcy from 
 among themselves, who should share the power 
 with the pacha appointed by the Sultan, and be 
 |Im si' rommauder-iu-chief. The result of this divided 
 authority was internal strife and confusion. Never- 
 theless, the insolence of the Algerines at sea increased. 
 They attacked even the coasts of Provence, compel- 
 ling Louis XIV. to chastise them thrice ; which he 
 did, however, with very little effect. An incident 
 occurred during the first bombardment of Algiers 
 by the French fleet in 1682, which illustrates 
 the reckless ferocity of these corsairs. By way of 
 answer to the cannonading of lus enemies, the dey 
 caused the French consid, Vacher, to be shot off 
 from the mouth of a mortar! After the third bom- 
 bardment in 1687, the dey scornfully inquired of the 
 French how much money the burning of Algiers bad 
 .■list their master, and on being told, coolly replied 
 that ' he would have done it himself for half the sum, 
 and spared their king the trouble.' No more decisive 
 result followed the attack of Admiral Blake in 1655, 
 in ii' of the English and Dutch fleets in 160!) and 
 1670; yet (he English were the first to form treaties 
 with the Algerines. In 1708, the dey, Ibrahim, 
 made himseli master of (Iran; and his successor, 
 Baba-Ali, succeeded in effecting the virtual emanci- 
 pation of the country from the dominion of the 
 Porte, lb' banished the Turkish pacha; craftily 
 persuaded the Sultan of Turkey to leave the power 
 solely in Ins hands; carried on war, and concluded 
 peace at his own pleasure) and paid no more tribute. 
 A. was now ruled by a military oligarchy, at the 
 head of which stood the dey, and after him the 
 powerful Turkish militia, recruited from Constantin- 
 ople and Smyrna, because their cluldren by native 
 mothers could not enjoy the same privileges as 
 themselves. Besides these, there was a divan, or 
 
 council of state, chosen from the sixty principal 
 civil functionaries. The internal history of the 
 country henceforth presents nothing but a Moody 
 series of seraglio revolutions, caused by the lawless 
 janissaries, who permitted few of the deys to die 
 a natural death. In the year 1775, Spain under- 
 took her last great expedition against A., with 44 
 ships of war, 340 transports, and 25,000 soldiers. 
 This, however, was as singularly unfortunate as all 
 her previous ones. Everything went wrong, and the 
 Spaniards had to re-embark as speedily as possible, 
 leaving behind them 1800 wounded, and all their 
 artdlery. Thus A continued to defy the greater 
 Christian powers, and to enforce tribute from the 
 lesser. During the French Revolution, and the time 
 of the Empire, its piracies were much diiniuished in 
 consequence of the presence of powerful fleets in the 
 Mediterranean Sea; but at the close of the war, they 
 were recommenced as vigorously as ever. This 
 brought down upon ' the nation of corsairs ' the 
 vengeance of the Christian powers. The Americans 
 took the lead, attacked the Algerine Beet off Cartha- 
 gena, on the 20th June 1815: defeated it- a" 1 ' 
 pelled the dey to acknowledge the inviolability of 
 the American flag. About the same tune, the Kn 
 lish admiral, Lord Exmouth, extorted from the other 
 states of Barbary the recognition of an internal 
 law respecting the treatment of prisoners. A. alone 
 refused to consent to it; and after a delay of six 
 weeks, the English and Dutch fleets, under the 
 command of Lord Exmouth, fiercely bombarded the 
 capital. The batteries of the pirates were soon 
 silenced; and in a few hours the half of the city lav 
 in ruins; its naval force and its magazines being all 
 destroyed. The dey, an ignorant and obstinate 
 barbarian, still wished to protract the tight, but lus 
 soldiery forced him to yield, and a treaty was con- 
 cluded (1816), by which all Christian slaves were 
 released without ransom (the number was 1211), 
 and a promise was given that both piracy and 
 Christian slavery shoidd cease for ever. But nothing 
 
 13J
 
 ALGKRIA. 
 
 could ka p these wretches from piiacy. As early 
 as 1817. they ventured as Ear as the North 8ea, ana 
 
 ! .,11 ,1,|], . ,1, I In II' ,',,11, -J' lint l,i 1 . » 1 1 ■ ■ i 1 1 ■ ' In :ill\ 
 
 ,,i the powers who sent them tribute or pn ei 
 
 was ,1 by Sweden, l», cmark, Portugal, 
 
 Naples, Tuscany, and Sardinia. Nor did i 
 avail to proti i I European vessels at all times. The 
 Spanish. the Papal.. -in, I. in particular, the < lennan ship- 
 ping, suffered severely; while the dey mocked by Ins 
 ins,, lent replies the remonstrances addressed to him. 
 Meanwhile, the internal condition oi A. continued 
 to pi-> sen! the spectacle of a cruel pnetorian despot- 
 Ism. In the year 1M7, the power of thi 
 was greatly weakened by the skilful tactics of I 
 Ali. Upon Ins death, which wi i occi ioned by the 
 
 in the following year, Be is in was cho 
 his s(,a,l. under whom the Moslem dominion was 
 terminated by a conflict with France. The can 
 this conflict were various. A French tradin 
 was plundered in Bona in 1818; the dwelling oi thi 
 French consul was attacked in 1 n-j:j ; Roman ships 
 Bailing under the protection of the French Bag were 
 .1 . and ™ u French ships were detained and 
 plundered. But the chief cause of the quarrel was 
 a dispute about the payment of a debt incurred by 
 Hi, French government to two Jewish merchants of 
 
 \l :, , . at the time of the expedition to Egypt This 
 
 debt was fixed at seven millions of francs; four and 
 a half millions were immediatelj paid; thereat was 
 reserved until the counter-daims of certain Fn rich 
 creditors should be decided in the French law-courts. 
 For three years the lawsuit dragged its slew length 
 along, till the dey became impati, i himself 
 
 a principal creditor of the Jewish Ugerine house — 
 and angrily demanded payment from the lving of 
 France. To his letter no answer was returned. 
 Th, feast of Beiram occurring soon after, wl 
 was customary for the dey to receive all the consuls 
 
 publicly, he asked the French i sul why Ins master 
 
 had remained silent. The latter haughtily replied 
 thit ' a king of France could not condescend to cor- 
 respond with a dey of Algiers.' Upon this, the dey 
 struck him on the I ■ e, and Sera Ij abused his sove- 
 reign. In consequence of this insult, a Fn ai b qu id 
 ron Was sent to Algiers, which received the con ul 
 on board, and blockaded the cttj (12th June 1827) 
 Six days after, the (ley caused the French coral- 
 fisherii i at Bona to be destroyed. For three years the 
 blockade was listlessly carried on ; but in April ls::o. 
 during the ministry of Polignac, a warlike mai 
 appeared; and a month later, a fleet sailed for the 
 African coast, consisting of l'«i slops ,,f war. and 
 3S7 transports, having on board an army of 37,000 
 infantry, 4000 cavalry, and a proportionate number 
 of artillery, under tie- command of Lieutenant 
 general Bourmont The landing was effected under 
 trifling opposition. A perpetual Bkiimishin 
 took place previous to the bombardment of 6 
 which commenced on the 4th July. Next, day. a 
 capitulation was agreed to. The Turkish soldiers 
 
 hed out — for such were the conditions 
 their families and private ons, and the 
 
 French took possession of the place. Fiffe a hundred 
 guns, 17 ships of war. and 60,000,000 Eram 
 into their hands as spoil. The dey retired to Port 
 Mahon, with his private property and a train oi 
 I is persons, while the greater number of the Turkish 
 janissaries were conveyed to Asia Minor. The 
 conduct of the French soldiery, however, it must be 
 
 confessed, tarnished the -lory of their conquest 
 They went about plundering remorselessly the 
 
 beautiful villas and gardens in the neighbour!) 1 
 
 of Algiers, as well as the ancient valuables and 
 
 works of art ; thus exciting a universal spirit of 
 ity in the natives, who kept up an incessant 
 guerilla warfare outside the capital. 
 
 After the revolution of July, Mai hal Bourmont 
 
 and I -i .i 1 < lausel was appointed his 
 
 or. The latter, who was a prompt and 
 ; man, set about subduing the country, and 
 ii government Ei 
 had en, nutted a great mistake in driving out 
 the Turks, who might have 1» i a aa Eullj • mpl 
 in subordinate functions ei authority. Aftei 
 
 banishment, the ECabylea and Bed d b 
 
 Ives emancipated from all . and 
 
 stun, dated by intense fanaticism against the new 
 conquerors, rose in rebellion, or rather commi 
 
 draggles, winch obstructed the 
 
 colonisation of i. for many years, and which cannot 
 i i,, have altogether ceasi d i ren yi t. The 
 ii, ,n of French laws .and institutions 
 made not in the wisest spirit, most of the old 
 Turkish regulations being summarily abrogated. 
 :■.. des this, the natives were wounded in their 
 most susceptible point Their mosques and bur; 
 grounds were frequently desecrated and destroyed; 
 and Clausel, whose vigour was more remark- 
 able than his justice <,r prudence, confiscated 
 in direct contradiction to the very WO 
 capitulation— all the immovable property ol the 
 and other exiled Turks, and of the town- 
 ships, besides various religious institutions. The 
 effect of these political crimes was instant The 
 entire | determined obstinately to n 
 
 some even of the provincial rulers who had pre- 
 w,,u lv submitted, now appeared in arm 
 
 l was compelled to undertake a mil 
 expedition against the refractory beys; but his 
 uncertain successes only inflamed the hatred and 
 tisrn of the Kabyles and Arabs, who opposed 
 him energetically. A young emir at last appi 
 on the scene, Abd-el-Kader (q.v.), who boos b 
 came the rallying-point of the Jad ['holj 
 winch tin- Marabouts had begun to preach, I 
 these circumstances, it becami impossible for< llausel 
 to carry out his scheme oi colon] ation, and only 
 a reckless speculation in land took place, 
 was in every way injurious. To stiei 
 position, the French general, whose arm\ was now 
 
 , reduced, made a treaty with the B 
 Tunis, but the home-governmeni 
 it. he was recalled in consequence, lb 
 General Berthezene, having achieved nothing but, 
 defeat and disgrace in spite of his cruelties, was 
 1,., lily recalled, and Lieutenant-general tin' 
 Duke of Bovigo appointed to th,. command. Hi 
 on the 25th ei li, ci ml,, r 1831, 
 .in,! , stablishea a most Bevere and relentless system. 
 lie scrupled not to perpetrate the most arbitral j 
 
 cruelties, and treacheries. His two mOBt remarkable 
 
 acta, ns were, first, the complete annihilation of the 
 
 Arab tribe FJ-Uffia, when even old men, 
 
 women, and children were massacred during the 
 
 night, on account of a robbery committed by some of 
 
 the cabers of the tribe ; second, the execution of 
 
 two \i 'I' chiefs who were hostile to him, and whom 
 he had treacherously allured into the city by the 
 written promise of a safe-conduct. Such monstrous 
 proceedings fired the entire nation. The most 
 il tribes tlew to arms, and the French were 
 attacked on all sides. The Emperor of Marocco, 
 who secretly fomented the strife, and even m ,ii 
 tated the conquest of Oran, assisted the tierce and 
 impetuous Abd-el-Kader in hi The health 
 
 of the duke now declined. He returned 
 in March 1833, and the administration of affairs was 
 provisionally intrusted to General Avizard. who 
 -amed some credit by establishing the Burma 
 AraJbe. After the death of the duke, & 
 Voirol, a man exactly the reverse of his | 
 ccssor, was made interim commander-in-chief. His
 
 ALGERIA. 
 
 efforts were more directed to promote the material 
 rte of the colony, than to extend the power 
 of Prance He met with little opposition in the 
 province of Algiers, and in the eastern districts; 
 trat, "ii tli'- other hand, the war raged fiercely in the 
 we i, where Abd-el-Kader had either gained over or 
 subdued all thr tribes between Mascara and i I 
 At 1' ngth a treaty was effected with him, in which 
 he pledged himself to make peace, and to deliver up 
 all his prisoners. In return, he received a monopoly 
 corn-trade, ami the right to buy arms and 
 ammunition in 1 the French ports. Towards the end 
 of 1834, the French government, having resolved to 
 retain permanent possession of the colony, organised 
 its administration anew, placing the supreme power, 
 both civil and military, in the hands 01 
 
 I, who received his orders from the minister 
 of war. General Drouet d'Erlon was the first 
 appointed to this high dignity. (Tnder him there 
 were a commander of the troops, a commander of 
 1 be naval force, a military intendant, a civil intend- 
 ■ nit, and a director of finance. The administration 
 is also regulated by the erection of many 
 ils. Frenchmen and foreigners were to he 
 I to French laws, hut the natives to their 
 own. Moreover, the ,,ld Algerine courts of justice 
 still to he kept up. D'Erlon apparently 
 desired, at first, to occupy himself with the internal 
 administration of the regency, and, in truth, 
 ed much credit for the introduction of French 
 dpal institutions, and the French system of 
 education and police arrangements; bnt a disgrace- 
 ful defeat suffered by the French army at Makta, 
 on an expedition against Abd-el-Kader, who had 
 ly broken the treat}', caused the recall both 
 of the officer in command and of D'Erlon himself. 
 Clansel was now sent back to A. with the title of 
 marshal. He arrived on the 10th of August 183o, 
 his first anxiety being to wipe away the disgrace 
 of the defeat at Makta. About three months 
 after, he marched out at the head of 11,000 men, 
 to attack Mascara, the centre of Abd-el-Kader' s 
 power: he had to fight many petty battles on 
 his way. but was always successful On reaching 
 Ma ira, he resolved to set it on fire, winch he 
 did on the Sth December, and then commenced 
 his retreat, in which his army suffered severely 
 from bad weather, and from perpetual harassments 
 by the enemy. Abd-el-Kader was soon more 
 powerful than ever, and General Bugeaud had to 
 be sent out from France with reinforcements; but 
 nothing came of this save a few fruitless victories 
 over Abd-el-Kader, which did the latter no real harm. 
 Bugeaud was at length compelled to make peace 
 on the 30th May ls:;7. Abd-el-Kader recognised 
 the sovereignty of France over the regency: he 
 I, in return, the government of the provinces 
 of Oran, Titeri, and Algiers, with the exception of 
 the cities of (Iran, Arzeu, Masagran, Mostaganem, 
 Algiers, Blidah and Koleah, Sane! (or the 'sea- 
 . and the plain of Metidja. In exchange for 
 the city of Tlemzen, he delivered to the French 
 army 60,000 sacks of corn, and 6000 oxen: he was 
 e permitted to buy anus and ammunition in 
 France. In February 1837, Marshal Clause] was 
 recalled, and Lieutenant-general Pamremont suc- 
 ceeded him. The condition of the colony was at 
 this moment desperate, for the disgraces which 
 followed the rash an. I even reckless measures of 
 Clausel had everywhere' lowered the pnstigi Ol 
 
 the French army. The duty of the new governor- 
 general was clear, but difficult : he had to wipe 
 
 out the stain which attached to the honour of his 
 Soldiery, and to re-create the conviction of their 
 Superiority. Tie first attacked the Kahyles of 
 the province of Algiers, and chastised them with 
 
 considerable severity, and then commenced his 
 great work of taking Constantine, from which his 
 predecessor had been compi ininiously to 
 
 rtire. In the month with an army of 
 
 12,000 disciplined troops, besides Zuam 
 hght infantry raised among the natives), .Sato 
 WAfrique (convict-battalions at first), the TiraU- 
 
 h UTS <l'.\,h :'•/>". and the 
 
 well as the Spahis (a cavalry corps composed of 
 native soldiers commanded by French oC 
 Damremont march d to I. of ( tons! n 
 
 and in spite of fearfid weathi led in 
 
 storming the city on the 13th. This victory laid 
 the foundation for the entire subjugation of the 
 province of Constantine, which was completed in 
 the course of the two follow itnout any 
 
 i il'ort. 
 On December 1, 1837, General Vail 
 pointed governor-general in the stead of Damremont, 
 who had fallen at the storming of Constantine. He, 
 like the others, misunderstood the character of 
 Abd-el-Kader when he considered it possible for 
 him to remain quiet. New treat 
 which only delayed hostilities. Meanwhile, the 
 work of colonisation went on in spite of numerous 
 obstacles. The province of Constantine was much 
 improved by the building of towns and the making 
 of roads ; but suddenly, in October 1830, Abd-el- 
 Kader, whose power had now become formidable to 
 an unprecedented extent, violated the treaty on an 
 insignificant pretext, and fell upon the unprepared 
 French with an overwhelming force. The Em 
 settlements in the open plain were attacked and 
 laid waste, bodies of French troops were -uqirised 
 on their march and cut to pieces, small outposts and 
 encampments were taken in a moment, and by the 
 "24th of November, the dominion of the French was 
 confined to the fortified cities and camps. Even the 
 settlements in the plain of Metidja were lost Forty 
 thousand Arabs swept over it, and threatened 
 Algiers itself. This state of things demanded ener- 
 getic measures. The spring campaign was vigorously 
 opened on both sides: everywhere the French gained 
 splendid successes ; while the heroic defence of the 
 fort of Masagran, near Mostaganem (garrisoned 
 by only 123 men), against from 12,000 to 15,000 
 Arabs, who stormed it incessantly, and with the 
 utmost fury, for three days, raised the /»■<.-■'/ ■ of 
 the invaders higher than ever. Still, however, 
 nothing was really accomplished. After rep 
 bloody defeats, the native tribes again rushed to 
 arms, swept the plains, and rendered hie insecure at 
 the very gates of Algiers. The only tiling of any 
 practical importance which took place during the 
 whole year, was the beginning of the eiivumvallation 
 by which the fertde plain of Metidja was to be 
 secured against the hostile Incursion 
 Marshal Valee was now recalled, and Lieutenant- 
 general Bugeaud appointed his The 
 latter arrived at Algiers on February 22, 1841, and 
 adopted a new system, which was completely suc- 
 cessful. A brave, inexorable, and unscrupulous man, 
 he resolved to employ any and every means for the 
 attainment of his purpose. He wearied out the 
 
 enemy by incessant ro - (predatory excui 
 
 against individual tribes, corrupted them (not 
 a difficult thing to do) by all the arts of brib- 
 ery, and on special occasions undertook great 
 expeditions to annihilate the regular power of 
 U "1 el-Kader, whose strong defensive positions he 
 destroyed, and whose authority he spared no pains 
 to undermine. The French army wa 
 SO.0OO or 100,000 men. Its operations were c 
 on from three principal points. Victory fol 
 Bugeaud wherever he went. He relieved and 
 victualled hard-pressed garrisons; intimidated the 
 
 HI
 
 ALGERIA. 
 
 surrounding country ; penetrated to Tekedcmpt — the 
 very stronghold i>f Abd-el-Kader himself 
 ho bud in ashes; marched thence to Mascara, which 
 was also taken; and on all sides received the 
 
 iion of the terrified Arabs. Even the I 
 period of the summer was made 086 of. Bi 
 
 I and Beduced fmm thi ir tho i 
 
 Arabs who were under the sway of Abd-el I 
 The autumn campaign was for the tun 
 
 - the last i gallant 
 
 emir, was utterly destroyed, and now almost the 
 entire country waa subdued. Abd-el-Kader ti 
 
 Ifarocco, where he raised a new army, for 
 his old one had been completely annihilated. He 
 was, however, defeated by Genera] Bedeau, and 
 again compelled to retreat into Marocco, from which, 
 however, he issued a second time, in the summer of 
 1842, and contrived to maintain a Here,- hut desultory 
 warfare, for two or three years, aided by the Saltan 
 of -Marocco. At last, however, deserted by most 
 of his followers, pursued by his late ally, and, in 
 fact, hemmed in on all sides, he was forced to 
 surrender to General Lamoriciere, at tho close of 
 December 1847. See Aed-KL-KadER. 
 
 The revolution of February 1848, somewhat dis- 
 turbed the progress of conqui I and subjugation in 
 A. That superb race of mountaineers, the Kabyles. 
 
 of thirty members. Tn 1863, the Emperor Napoleon 
 announced that he was willing to give the colony a 
 new constitution, with a Chamber of I 
 tiers f.ir provincial affairs : he also addressed a letter 
 to the governor-general, in which he explained that 
 A. was no colony in the strict sense Of the word, 
 but an Arabian kingdom ; and that the nath 
 
 : •■ li.-ht t" protection as the colonists. In 
 
 1864, however, strife again arose between the colo- 
 nists and the Arabs ; and it was only . 
 
 nents, during the months of April and May, 
 tiiit peace was restored by the submission of the 
 conquered tribes. Pelisaier having died in May 
 I sill. Marshal MacMahon was appointed to succeed 
 him. In the following year the emperor himself 
 made a journey to A., and, on M led a 
 
 mation, in \\ Inch, although explain! 
 Arabs that A. must continue to be united to France, 
 he promised to maintain their nationality ; and at 
 the same time gave them assurance that they should 
 always remain in Undisturbed possession of their 
 territories. Yet these and other measures for con- 
 ciliating the Arabs were all in vain; for, shortly 
 after the emperor's return to Franoe, insurrections 
 broke out in the province of Oran and 
 Si-Hamed, a native chief, with 12,000 horsemen at 
 his command, began to harrass those tribes which 
 
 descendants of the ancient Numidians, and possessed remained in submission, until he was routed by 
 of the same fiery and dauntless spirit, broke out into ' 
 a new insurrection, which, however, was speedily 
 quelled. The National Assembly now offered to the 
 European population of A. to incorporate the country 
 with the republic of France, and to grant it ail 
 the accompanying political privileges of a French 
 province ; but intelligent men of all parties acknow- 
 ledged the uselessness and danger of this stej ; 
 was, therefore, simply declared to be a permanent 
 possession of the republic. Four deputies from the 
 colony were permitted to take a part in all d 
 sions in the National Assembly on Algerian affairs. 
 Meanwhile, the work of conquest, colonisation, and, 
 ill some respects, civilisation went on. The French 
 troops penetrated into the far south, almost to the 
 borders of .Sahara, sternly reducing ace the 
 
 desert tribes, who manifested a not unnatural 
 antipathy to these inroads, and in sonic eases fiercely 
 resisted the invaders. Various tribes of the Kabyles, 
 I >. opposed every attempt at organised taxation, 
 and the imposition of civilised discipline ; the result 
 of which patriotic obstinacy was, a new campaign 
 against them by the French general, Bugia. Fortune 
 again declared for the invaders ; but the most 
 alarming insurrection was that excited by the ( Iherif 
 Bou-zian, who fled for freedom to Zaatcha in the 
 oases. The French pursued him thither ; but were 
 beaten, and had to retreat. Some months after, 
 they returned, largely reinforced, and in spite of the 
 broad belt of palm-trees which hindered 
 operations, and the wild and strenuous heroism of 
 the besieged, the place was stormed and destroyed. 
 The defenders all perished. 
 
 In 1S53— 1S54, and again in 1S">G— 1S57, expedi- 
 tions were organised against the Kabyles ; though 
 not altogether with the will of the colonists, who 
 could not but recognise the great intelligence and 
 industry displayed by that highland race. The 
 was sanguinary and barbarous on both 
 1 mt the French at last subdued their enemies. 
 For two years (185S— 1860) the military government 
 of A. was superseded by the institution of a special 
 ministerial department for A. and the col 
 which was first of all intrusted to Prince Nap 
 In December 1860, however, a military govern- 
 ment was re-instituted, and Marshal Pi-Ussier made 
 Governor-general, with a Vice-governor under him, 
 
 Colonel Colomb of Gervville, and forced to i 
 into Sahara : after which, in the beginning of Isn7, 
 two expeditions, led by Colomb and Bonis, succeeded 
 in reducing to submission the other tribes which 
 had revolted. In 1807 and 1S08, a severe and 
 general famine checked the military enterpi 
 of the Arabs ; and there was peace till 1870, when, 
 the Franco-Prussian war having begun, the em] 
 found it necessary to withdraw to Europe the 
 greater part of the forces in Africa. MacMakon's 
 
 was then taken by General Durieu, as 
 interim governor-general ; and the natives be 
 entertain hopes of freeing themselves from the yoke 
 of France. Movements were begun in the provinces 
 of Constantine and Oran, which it required all Gen- 
 eral Durieu's vigilance and activity to hold in check. 
 After this, again, some disorder arose among the 
 colonists themselves, who strongly desir> > 
 t ii hi of the military government — a change which 
 the new republican government at Paris soon grati- 
 fied them by effecting. To Durieu's place was 
 appointed a civil governor, and under him pn 
 
 h of the three provinces. A council was 
 formed — composed of the prefects, archbishop, com- 
 mander of the army, and other members appoint 1 
 by the French government —with which, in all 
 important cases, the governor has to take counsel. 
 The present (1873) governor is Vice-admiral J. do 
 ! Ion, appointed August 1871. 
 
 The French troops still stationed in A. consist of 
 one 'corps d'armee,' numbering 60,000. It is said 
 that the possession of A. has cost France the lives 
 of, 150,000 men, besides £120,000,000 in money. The 
 revenue of A. is derived ehiclly from indirect I 
 licenses, and customs duties on imports. In 1870, 
 it amounted to 4. r i..'!lj0.8.VJ francs, and the expendi- 
 ture to 51,762,316 francs. The cost of maintaining 
 the army, however, the outlay for public works, and 
 other large sums disbursed — amounting in 1873 to 
 24,49G, 109 francs— are not included in the ex p 
 ture, being provided out of the French budget. 
 ' Since the subjugation of A., the French have con- 
 ferred various benefits on the colonists and native 
 tribes, not the least important of which has been the 
 ..f Artesian wells (q. v.). In May 1856, a 
 'boring' was commenced in an oasis of the Sahara 
 or desert of the province of Constantine. A civil 
 
 a Director-general for Civil Affairs, and a Council | engineer, a sergeant of Spahis, and a detachment of
 
 ALGHERO— ALGOA BAY. 
 
 soldiers of the Foreign Legion, succeeded in bringing 
 to light a splendid fountain or river, yielding not 
 leas than 4010 quarts of water per minute. The 
 work was considered a miracle. From all quarters 
 the Arabs flocked to behold and enjoy it. The 
 native priests blessed it, naming it the ' Fountain of 
 Peace.' Another well was termed the ' Fountain of 
 Benediction.' In the oasis of Sidi-ltached, unpro- 
 ductive for want of water, a well was dun, and at a 
 depth of 54 metres, yielded 4300 quarts per minute. 
 It is known as the 'Fountain of Gratitude,' and the 
 enthusiasm excited at its opening was boundless. 
 The idea of providing such wells has rightly been 
 considered 'a stroke of strong political wisdom.' 
 
 The government has done service to the colonists 
 by encouraging the formation of banking-companies, 
 
 while the former is almost wholly Moorish both in 
 its edilices and inhabitants. The great centre of 
 bustle and activity in A. is the Place Eoyale— a 
 large oblong apace in the centre of the town, planted 
 with orange and lime trees, and surrounded by houses 
 in the European style. Sere may be found as 
 motley a crowd as anywhere in the world, denizens of 
 all nations— Arabs, Moors, Jews, French, Spaniards, 
 Maltose, Germans, Italians, &c. The city is inter- 
 sected by two large parallel streets, Bab-el-Ouad and 
 Bab-azoun, running north and south for more than 
 half a mile. They are flanked by colonnades, but 
 are very narrow, and therefore inconvenient for 
 traffic ; as promenades, however, nothing could 
 be more agreeable. In 1833, A had upwards of 
 10 mosques and marabouts. The mosque - 
 
 &.c. In July 1800, arrangements were made with divided into two classes — the djamas, or principal 
 the state, and a great company formed, to construct! mosques, and the mesjids, or inferior mosques. The 
 railways throughout the colony : difficulties occurred, I marabouts are the tombs and sanctuaries of saints. 
 
 however, and, of all the projected lines, that from 
 the sea to Constantine was the only one approaching 
 completion by the beginning of 1870. A telegraph 
 cable was laid in 1S70 between Bona and Mar- 
 . ill". 
 
 It would be too much to affirm that the colonisa- 
 tion of A. has advanced rapidly. The French 
 government has acted neither very promptly nor 
 VI ry liberally towards settlers; and the number of 
 formalities which require to be gone through before 
 one can properly secure the land which he nas pur- 
 chased, often disgusts the poor farmer. However, 
 great efforts have been made for the improvement 
 of agriculture : altogether, 5,139,136 acres are stated 
 as being under cultivation; 413,112 acres being 
 cultivated by Europeans. The total exports of A 
 amounted in 1870 to A'4,07S,250 ; the imports to 
 £6,907,628. Large quantities of 'esparto' for mak 
 ing paper are exported to Great Britain. A number 
 of Mohammedan schools for instruction in French 
 and Arabic have been established, and are regularly 
 attended by pupils of both sexes, who learn to read 
 and write fluently in the French language, and to 
 keep accounts. In Algiers itself there are several 
 of these schools where the female children are taught 
 the art of sewing. Thus, although progress is slower 
 than might have been anticipated, it is real, and 
 its pace accelerating. When fierce memories have 
 been softened by time, and such atrocities as those 
 of Dahra (q. v.) have been forgotten in the substan- 
 tial blessings which an enlightened civilisation can- 
 net fail to bestow, the presence of the French in A. 
 will cease to be deplored by the natives. 
 
 ALGHERO, or ALGHEBX a seaport on the 
 west coast of the Island of Sardinia, lfi miles S.W. 
 from Sassari. It is well defended towards the sea, 
 being built on a rocky point, and surrounded by thick 
 Walla, but is commanded by some lulls which over- 
 hang the town. A. 1ms acsthi dial, Beveralcom 
 a college, and public schools. It exports wine, 
 tobacco, anchovies, skins, coral, bones, to. It was 
 a favourite residence of Charles V., in whose 1 
 ■d to Spain. Pop., 8000. 
 
 ALGIERS (Arabic, Aljezira. the island), the 
 capital of Algeria, was built about 935 a.d. by an 
 Arab chief. It rises from the sea-shore up" the 
 sides of a precipitous hill in the form of an equi- 
 lateral triangle. The apex is formed by the Casbah, 
 the ancient fortress of the deys, which is 500 feet 
 above the sea-level, and commands the whole town. 
 The base is a mile in length. The present eit j 
 be regarded as divided into two parts: 
 
 own; and the new, or low town. With the 
 exception of some mosques, the latter consists of 
 wharfs, warehouses, government houses, squares, and 
 streets, principally built and inhabited 1 .y the French ; 
 
 Everywhere A. wears the aspect of a rising colonial 
 city. Other towns in the province still retain their 
 oriental character, with the exception of a few 
 military buildings ; but the new town of A might 
 deceive the traveller into the belief that he i 
 in Europe, were it not for the throng of s- 
 faces he meets. The streets are regular, spacious, 
 and elegant; some of them as handsome as the 
 Parisian Boulevards, and adorned with arcades. The 
 shops, too, are occasionally very good. The houses 
 are in some instances five stories high, which, t ' 
 it gives a massive and imposing appearance to the 
 city, is yet a very perilous innovation in a 
 which has suffered dreadfully from earthquakes. 
 
 But perhaps greater interest attaches to the old 
 Moorish town, which is connected with the new by 
 a steep, narrow, jagged-looking street called the 
 Casbah, leading down from the fortress of the deys. 
 The houses are square, substantial, flat-roofed ; rise 
 irregularly one over the other; and have no 
 dov.-s, but only peep-holes, which are intended to 
 exclude impertinent eyes, and are therefore foi 
 with iron gratings instead of glass, so that the houses 
 have a very prison-like appearance. Although the 
 streets at first contrast unfavourably with those of 
 Europe, on account of their narrowness, the coolness 
 which this secures soon reconciles the traveller to 
 other inconveniences. The inhabitants have recourse 
 to their flat roofs or terraces in the evening, fc 
 the dehcious sea-breeze. The French have introduced 
 many useful reforms. There are conduits in 
 part of the city, public baths, coffee-houses, 1 
 omnibuses, tec. The markets are held in the & 
 de Chartres. Malum, and d'Isly. Horse-racing is 
 the great amusement. The Arabs are passionately 
 fond of it. The French have also unproved, a: 
 expense and labour, the port, which was in 
 carious condition. The town has supreme courts 
 of justice, a chamber and tribunal of conm 
 a college and schools, a Catholic cathedral and 
 severed churches, a French Protestant church, a 
 synagogue, a bazaar for the exhibition of i. 
 industry, tin aires, and 1 « 
 
 A., which had 1 verned by a 
 
 long succession of Turkish deys, fell into the hinds 
 of the French in 1830 [see Alosbia), who swept 
 away evety trace of the ferocious despotism that had 
 prevailed, The Turks withdrew in great numbers 
 to Tunis and Alexandria ; a small remnant, however 
 is still left. Pop. in 1866, 52,614, of whom about 
 34,000 were Europeans. 
 
 ALGO'A BAY, an extensive inlet at the east ex- 
 tremity of the south coast of Africa, being inter- 
 by the parallel of Cape Town, from which it is dis- 
 tant about 8 degrees of longitude. t»m is 
 sheltered, excepting on the south-east, the hoi 
 ground being excellent. It receives two livei ,
 
 ALGONQUINS— All PASIIA. 
 
 Sunday and t ? j . - Baaaher. At the month of the 
 a Port EHizabi th. \. B. La ti 
 
 by Ear the most flourishing action 
 
 my; and it will ever !«• locally menu 
 
 as tli- l.i ii. linu'- 1 'l.n'i- of about 40(10 sunk in 1 S'.'O, the 
 lirst IJritisli emigration to this once I'm. I p.. ... ssinn. 
 
 Si then, the had.- of thi 
 
 rapidly increased. See ifurther, Cap] 
 JIoi-i:. 
 
 AXGO'NQTJINS. The A. formed the mosl pro- 
 minent of the tin - that the French 
 
 found in the great basin of the St L.iwrei Th. v 
 
 were then the lords not merely of the best part of 
 i ! i t:i. Ihi: of much adjacenl ten boi the north 
 and west At the present day. the A., as well as 
 the Hurons and the Iroqn i i rist, a1 least within 
 pale of settlement, only as the shadow of a 
 mighty name, being chiefly confined to several 
 miserabl \ lis a, with hardly anything of civilisa- 
 tion but its individual helplessness. This deplorable 
 result, from whatever causes it may have arisen, is 
 certaii ■■■ imputed either to oppre aion or 
 
 to indifference on the pan of the French, who, polit- 
 ically, religiously, and socially, have always treated 
 the red man with consideration and humanity. On 
 this interesting subject, see further under the general 
 head of Ameeic \. 
 
 A'LGTJACIIi, or LLGUAZIL (derived from the 
 
 Arabic WasU, i.e., the 'power' derived from the 
 
 bang), is the general name in Spain of the officers 
 
 ted with the execution of justice. There are 
 
 'AJguaciles mayores,' who either inherit the office 
 
 justice in a town as a hereditary right 
 
 belonging to their fam lii , i • are chosen to the 
 
 by the municipality ; formerly, the name was 
 
 also given to the officers that executed the sentences 
 
 or orders of tribunals, such as the tribunal of the 
 
 Inquisition, and of the various orders of knights. 
 
 But usually, under the name of V. is under, t I 
 
 the ' Alguaciles menores,' or 'ordinarios,' that is to 
 
 say, the attendants or officers of the courts of in tice, 
 
 d'armes, bailiffs -in short, all the u 
 
 Jul and poln . 
 
 ALHA'GI. Sec .Manna. 
 
 ALHA'MKKA is the name given to the fortress 
 which forms a sort of acropolis or citadel to the city 
 
 Entrance to the Court of the Lions — Alhainbra. 
 
 of Granada, and in which stood the palace of the 
 anei.nt Moorish kings of Granada. The name is a 
 corruption of the Arabic Kul-'at al ltamra, 'the 
 lit 
 
 tie.' It is surrounded by a strong wall, i 
 than a mile in circuit, and studded with towers. 
 The towers on the north wall, which is defended by 
 
 nature, were used 1 with the 
 
 palace. One of them I in the famous Hall of 
 
 /!■ .l»l.i..,o./..«. The n mains of the Me.. , 
 
 palace are called by the Spaniards the ( 'asa Ileal. 
 
 i.. mi by Hum lalimar. and continued by his 
 
 1248 1348). The portions still stand- 
 
 • ranged round two oblo com i .-, one calli .1 
 
 the Court of tlie Fish-pond, the other the Court of 
 
 Tin J nsist ..1 porticos, pill. ii. .1 halls, 
 
 cool chambers, small gardens, fountain mo uc 
 
 pavements, &c. The lightness and si I the 
 
 columt i i hi and the richness ,,f th na- 
 
 ni. nt 1 1 m ,n, are unsurpassed. The colouring is but 
 little altered by time. The most character be parts 
 
 of the i asa ileal have 1 n reproduced in the 
 
 ' Alhambra Court' of the Crystal Palace at Syden- 
 ham. A great part of the ancient palace was 
 removed to make way for the palace begun by( lharles 
 
 \ . I. n 'I I I ..iej.il \ p.nl of 
 
 the M ash palace was inhabited ; but it, is kept in 
 
 a state of preservation as a work of art, and as a 
 
 .al of the tragic legend of the Al.. ac n 
 (q.v.). 
 ALI PASHA, one of the most ferocious and 
 
 unscrupulous men that even the east lias produced, 
 was descended, from an Albanian pasha, who perished 
 at the siege of Corfu in 171b. He was born at 
 Tepcliu, a small place at the foot of the Klissoura 
 
 Mountains, in Albania, in 1741. His tier was a 
 
 vindictive and merciless woman, who never hesitated 
 to employ the most revolting means of accomplishing 
 her purposes. Saving lost his father, a comparatively 
 quiet and enlightened man, his education necessarily 
 devolved upon her; and she did not fail to inspire 
 him with the same remorseless sentiments that 
 animated herself. His youth was passed in extreme 
 
 peril and hardship, for the neighbouring pashas • 
 
 bining, had robbed his father of nearly all his pos- 
 sessions, in the effort to recover which, young Ah was 
 repeatedly defeated, and at last had to betake him- 
 self to the mountains, and even CO pledge Ins sword 
 to save himself from dying of hunger. These 
 calamities were not calculated to soften the native 
 ferocity of his disposition ; they only nurtured a 
 mingled boldness and cunning, which afterwards 
 
 developed itself in a variety of qualities, such as 
 subtlety, dissimulation, foresight, treachery, vigour, 
 and diabolical cruelty. It is said that the change in 
 his fortune arose from his having accidentally dis- 
 covered a chest of gold, with which he raised an 
 army of 2000 men, gained his lirst victory, and 
 entered Tepelen in triumph. < hi the very day of his 
 return, he murdered his brother, and then imprisoned 
 his mother in the harem on the charge of poisoning 
 him, where she soon after died. He next reconciled 
 himself to the L'orte by helping to subdue the rebel, 
 lions Vizier of Scutari; and thus acquired not only 
 the lands that had been WTested from his father, but 
 likewise several Greek cities. He also attacked and 
 slew (with the permission of the sultan) Selim, Pasha 
 of Delvino, and, as a reward, was appointed lieu- 
 tenant to the new Pasha of Derwend ; but instead of 
 attending to the security of the high roads (which 
 was his office), he rendered them more insecure than 
 ever, by participating in the plunder which the 
 Hephtis (robbers) were allowed to make. The result 
 was, his deposition by the Porte; but he speedily 
 purchased back its favour, for lie was a master-hand 
 at bribery. Shortly after this, he acquired a high 
 reputation as a soldier, and did such good service to 
 the Turks in their Austro- Russian war of 17S7, that 
 he was named Pasha of Trikala in Thessaly ; at the 
 same time he seized Janina or Joannina, of which he
 
 AIJBATJD- ALIEN. 
 
 got himself appointed pasha by the instrumentality 
 of terror, a forged iirman, and brihery. It must be 
 admitted that, as a ruler, he now displayed many 
 excellent qualities. Jle swept his old friends, the 
 robbers, from the mountain-roads, incorporated them 
 into military troops, quelled the wretched I 
 that prevailed, and everywhere introduced order in 
 the place of anarchy, by the vigour and vigilance of 
 his administration. 
 
 A short time after this, he entered into an alliance 
 wiili Napoleon Bonaparte, who sent him engineers. 
 When Bonaparte was defeated in Kgypfc -Mi, in 1798, 
 took the places in Albania possessed by the French. 
 
 After a three years' war, he snlidued the Snliotos, 
 
 for which the Porte promoted him to he governor of 
 Romania. About this time, he revenged upon the 
 inhabitants of I iardiki an injury done to his mother 
 forty years before, by the murder of 73!) male 
 descendants of the original offenders, who them- 
 s 'l\ eS were all dead. 
 
 In the' interior of his dominions, Ali maintained 
 the strictest order and justice. Security and peace 
 reigned, high loads were constructed, and industry 
 llonrished, so that the European travellers, with 
 whom he willingly held intercourse, considered him 
 aai active and intelligent governor. From the year 
 1807, when he once more entiled into an alliance 
 with Napoleon, tin- dependence of Ali on the Porte 
 was merely nominal. Saving failed, however, in his 
 principal object, which was to obtain, at the peace of 
 Tilsit, through the influence of Napoleon, Parga, on 
 the coast of Albania, and the [onian Islands, he now 
 entered into an alliance with the English, to whom 
 he made many concessions. In return for these, 
 they granted Parga, nominally to the sultan, hut 
 really to Ah. As he now considered his power to be 
 securely established, he caused the commanders of the 
 Greek Arinatoles (or Greek militia), who had hithei-to 
 given him assistance, to be privately assassinated 
 one by one, while at the same time he put to death 
 the assassins, to save himself from the suspicion of 
 having been their instigator. The Porte at length 
 determined to put an end to the power of this daring 
 rebel; and in 1820, Sultan .Mahinoud sentenced him 
 to lie deposed. Ali resisted for a time several pashas 
 that were sent against him; hut at last surrendered, 
 on the security of an oatli that his life and property 
 would he granted him. RegardleBS of this, he was 
 put to death, February 5, 1822. Ali possessed, 
 indisputably, great natural gifts; hut along with 
 them, a character of the worst description. He 
 
 never scrupled t :m\ means, provided it speedily 
 
 secured his end. Yet we cau hardly help aclmiring 
 the singular talent which he invariably displayed. 
 like many other half-civilised monarchs and cni fs 
 who have lived within the sphere of European influ- 
 ence, he was keenly alive to whatever transpired 
 
 ai g the powers of Christendom. Though utterly 
 
 illiterate himself, he had all the foreign journals 
 translated and read to him. He watched every 
 
 political change, as if conscious that the interest i of 
 his little region depended for their future prosperity 
 on the west, and not on the cast; and made friendly 
 advances to both the French and the English, 
 nising, with a sagacity remarkable in a bar- 
 barian, that the practical dominion of the world had 
 1 from the Crescent to the Cross. 
 ALIBATTI), Loi is, notorious for his a I 
 to murder King Louis-Philippe, was, at, the Revo- 
 lution of July, quarter-master in the loth regiment 
 of the line. Having been degraded subsequently for 
 an accidental brawl in tic streets of Strasbourg, he 
 demanded his discharge in 1834, and went to live at 
 Perpignan, and then at Barcelona, where, having 
 become a fanatical republican, he returned to Paris, 
 with the determination to murder the kiug. A 
 
 10 
 
 weariness of life had also seized him, so great, 
 
 that he thought of suicide. It was on the 25th 
 of June 1836, al tic moment that the king, when 
 driving through the gate of tic TuilerieS, bowed to 
 the national guard as they presented anus, that 
 A. fired the well-aimed hall, which passed close 
 by the king's head. Being i ;." seized, he 
 
 regretted notion _' hut tie- failure of his attempt. 
 
 Alter a short trial, he was sentenced to death, and 
 
 was guillotined on the 1 1 til of .Inly. 
 
 ALI-BEN -ABI-TALEB, the. first convert to 
 Mohammedanism, and fourth calif, was the bravest 
 and most faithful follower of the Prophet, whose 
 daughter, Fatima, he married. Being made calif in 
 tic place of the murdered Othman, he was \ 
 cms over the rebels in ninety er He took 
 
 prisoner Aysha, the young widow of Mohammed, 
 and his greatest enemy, in the battle of the < | 
 
 bo called because Aysha appeared in tic field 
 riding on a camel. Ali was murdered by a fanatic 
 in the year CCO. He was buried near Kufa, where 
 a monument was afterwards erectcil . I,,m, 
 to which his votaries still go on pilgrimage, and 
 which caused the building of the city Medjed Ali. 
 The religious sect formed by the followers of Ali, 
 called Shiites (q. v.), has spi nsively under that 
 
 name in Persia and Tatary. The descendants of Ali 
 and Fatima, called the Fatimites (q. v.), although much 
 persecuted by the Ommaiades, have neverthi 
 ruled on the hanks of the ^iile and of the Tagus, in 
 West Africa and in .Syria. The In -t i ditioD of the 
 Proverbs or Maxims ascribed to Ali has been pub- 
 lished ly Fleischer (Ali's Hundred Proverbs, A 
 and Pervitin, I.eip. 1S37) ; Ali's Jiii-mi, the most 
 complete collection of his lyrical poems, mostly On 
 religious subjects, appeared lately at Bulek, near 
 Cairo. 
 
 A'LIBI, Lat., signifying ' elsewhere.' This is a 
 defi nee resorted to in criminal prosecutions, when the 
 party accused, in order to prove that he could not 
 have committed the crime with which he is charged, 
 tenders evidence to the effect that he was in a dif- 
 ferent place at the time the offence was committed. 
 When true, there can be no better proof of innocence; 
 but as offering the readiest and most obvious oppor- 
 tunity for false evidence, it is always regarded 
 suspicion. In the case of crimes the place of commit- 
 ting which is immaterial — as, for example, the act of 
 fabricating the plates, or of throwing oft the spurious 
 notes, iu a case of forgery — a proof of A. is of no 
 avail. 
 
 ALICA'XTE, chief town of a province of the 
 same name in Spain. Tin." province, formed el pails 
 of tic old king. hiins of Valencia and Muroia, contains 
 (18G7) 42G.C56 inhabitants. The town, one of the 
 most considerable seaports of Spain, has 31,500 inha- 
 bitants, and is tic staple place tor the produi 
 Valencia, especially soda, cotton and linen fabrics, 
 
 rapes, corn, oil, silk, and the wine ol I hbour- 
 
 ing district, known as A. or vino (into, on account of 
 
 i ink colour. A good deal of this rough, and at 
 the same time sweet, wine is used to doctoi 
 clarets for tic British market. In 1331 the town 
 was besieged by the Moors ; and again by the 
 
 French under Asfeld in 1709, when the English 
 commandant of tin' citadel, Colonel Richards, with 
 
 all Ins staff, perished hy the i of a mine. 
 
 ALIEN (Lat. alienus, belonging to another, 
 foreign). The citizen of one state, when resident in 
 another, unless natural B u.isatiox), 
 
 is an alien. The condition of an alien does not 
 necessarily result from foreign birth, for the son of 
 a natural-bom or naturalised Englishman is not an 
 alien, wherever he may he hoi a M i,,,,. II. & 21, 
 s. 1). This privilege even extends to the e 
 
 US
 
 ALIGNMENT— ALIM FATA I: V < ' A XA I, 
 
 t iciii on the father's side; and thus a man 
 whose paternal grandfather was an Englishman, is 
 an Englishman himself, unless either his father or 
 grandfather be liable to the p< aaltiee of felony, 
 1i;i.m been attainted of treason, or be serving in the 
 army of a prince at war with England at the 
 of his birth (13 Geo. III. c 21, b. 1). Neither is this 
 privilcgo affected by the fact that the mothers of 
 such pei ion wi re foreigners. The children of aliens 
 burn in England, except in the case of a ! 
 invasion, are natural-born subjects ; bnt the children 
 of Englishwomen by aliens are al born 
 
 within the British dominions. l!y 7 and 8 Vict. c. 
 C6, s. 16, alien women married to natural-born 
 subjects are naturalised. The allegiance due by an 
 alienor stranger to the prince in minions 
 
 he reside", is usually called local or temporal 
 
 . It differs from natural allegiance chiefly in 
 this, that whereas natural allegiance is perpetual, 
 and unaffected by change of residence, local alle- 
 giance ceases when the stranger transfers himself to 
 another Ungflnm See A FIANCE. In 1792 and 
 
 1793, in consequence of the influx of foreigners 
 
 i used by the French Revolution, several :• 
 
 parliament were p ed, which are Known by the 
 
 name of the Alien Acts. The object of these acts 
 was expressly to confer on the crown the power of 
 banishing aliens from the realm; a power which 
 there is reason to think was included in the general 
 prerogative which the crown possesses of declaring 
 war against the whole or any portion of the inhabi- 
 tants of a foreign state. They were superseded 
 by the Peace Alien Act (G Will. IV. e. 11, 1836). 
 
 CI i ling the power of aliens to hold 
 
 property, were introduced by 7 and S Vict, c 66, 
 and 10 and II Vict. c. S.'l; and the whole legislation 
 regarding aliens was revised and placed on its 
 present looting by the Naturalisation Act of 12th 
 .May 1870 (33 Viet. c. 14). By this act both real 
 and' personal property of every description may now 
 
 be acquired, held, and disposed of, by an alien, in 
 the same manner, in all respects, as By a natural- 
 born British subject; and a title to real and 
 personal property of every description may be 
 derived from an alien, in the sane' manner, in all 
 
 respects, as from a British subject. An alien is not 
 qualified for any office or municipal, parliamentary, 
 or other franchise, unless naturalised in accordance 
 with the provisions of the act. The act does not 
 affect any interest arising in pursuance of any 
 disposition made before the passing of the act, or in 
 pursuance of any devolution by law on the death of 
 
 any person dying before the passing of the net. 
 Where a convention has been entered into with a 
 foreign state to the etl'cct that the subjects, or 
 citizens, of that state, who have been naturalised as 
 British subjects, may divest themselves of such 
 status, any person, originally a citizen of the state 
 with which the convention exists, may make a 
 declaration of alienage, and on so doing he I hall lie 
 regarded as an alien and subject of the state to 
 which he originally belonged. Even a British-born 
 subject may now cease to bo such, provided that, 
 at the time of his birth, he was, and still continues 
 to be, the subject of another state, by making a 
 declaration of alienage. The privilege of aliens of 
 being tried by a jury dc medktate lingual is abolished, 
 and it is provided that henceforth they shall be tried 
 in the same manner as natural-bora subjects. On the 
 subject of expatriation, it is enacted, that any British 
 subject who has at any tune before, or may at any 
 time after the passing of this act, when in a foreign 
 state and not under any disability, voluntarily 
 become naturalised in such state, shall thenceforth 
 cease to be a British subject In the case of a 
 British subject who, before the passing of the act, 
 HO 
 
 a naturalised in a foreign state, desiring to 
 retain his British nationality, he may do BO by 
 making a declaration and tal.iu ; the oath of sis 
 
 Whilst, resident within the limits of the 
 i..>. n tate, however, he shall not be deemed 
 
 e subject unless hehascea ed to be a subject 
 of that state. On naturalisation .nil the n 
 , British nationality, Bee N 4 n n lusatiow, 
 By the above provi ions it will he seen, that in o 
 far as Great Britain is concerned, the injustice lis; 
 been obviated of a man who had been nature 
 
 in state being still held to bis citizenship in 
 
 another, and thus exposed, in the event of war, to the 
 guilt of treason if he fool, part on either side. The 
 right of merchants to reside in England, and 
 
 Bg is, money, and other personal effects, 
 
 is recognised by Magna Charts (Art. -lb). Si a 
 i i I '.i i.i,. 
 
 ALI'GNMENT, a term used in military tactic ■ 
 
 equivalent to 'in line.' Thus, the A. of a battalion 
 ii effected when the men are drawn up in line; 
 
 the .\. of a camp is a rectilinear arrangement of the 
 tents, according to some prearranged plan. 
 
 A'LIMEXT(l.at. alimentum), that which feeds or 
 
 es. A. is not known as a technical term in 
 
 the law of England. In the law of France and in 
 
 that of Scotland, it has retained the meaning which 
 
 ii possessed in tiie Ken em law [Dig. 34, 1. 6), and 
 
 signifies the food, dwelling, clothing, and other 
 
 .! lo the support of life, or such 
 
 niouey as may be judicially demanded in lieu of 
 
 them. In this sense, it is applied in Scotland to the 
 
 allowance granted to a wife des rted by her hus- 
 
 1m nd, or whilst an action of divorce is in dependent a, 
 
 i- it be at his instance or at hers, to a paupi c 
 
 parish, to a prisoner for debt by his creditors, 
 
 and the like. Alimentary allowances, being 
 
 generally barely sufficient for the support of the 
 
 lit, and made to him in consequence of his 
 
 being in want of such support, are not att ■■', ' J,. I. 
 
 lent (q. v.). 
 
 ALIME'NTAET f'AXA'b, in Mammalia, is that 
 apparatus through which the 
 
 food paS ' afl ' ei' Is It is lined by a 
 
 I membrane, whii b exti I i I from the lips to 
 
 . I modifi id in ■ i -a region. Si e 
 
 Mucous Membrane. The A. C. n ally begins al in. 
 
 bach of the mouth, in the lower part of the bag 
 called the pharynx, which communieates with the 
 above, and the gullet or oesophagus below, 
 and also with the mouth and the larynx. The 
 pharynx i; surrounded by three muscles, the con- 
 strictors, which grasp the f 1, and force it into tin' 
 
 next portion of the A. ( '., the (esophagus. This is a 
 tulie composed of an outer layer of longitudinal 
 muscular fibres, and an inner of circular, > 
 
 i down to, and spread out upon the stomach. 
 ' i, by a series of peristaltic contractions, 
 
 I he morsel of food along into the stomach. 
 In vomiting, there is a reversal of these actions, 
 which i animals can accomplish at will. 
 
 The oesophagus passes through an opening in the 
 ud joins the stomach, which is a pouch 
 curved with the concavity upwards, expanded into 
 a ad ile. sac on the left side (the cardiac extremity), 
 and gradually narrowed to the right or pyloric end. 
 
 data of muscular fibres continuous witli the' 
 of the oesophagus, which become thicker towards, the 
 pylorus. Its external surfaces are covered by peri- 
 toneum, and it is lined by a thick soft mucous 
 membrane, which, when the stomach is empty, lies 
 in folds. Between the muscular and mucous layers 
 is a fibrous layer, in which the blood-vessels lie 
 before they pass into the mucous layer. See 
 STOMACH. At its pyloric or left extremity the
 
 ALIMONY— ALISON. 
 
 stomach communicates with the 6inall intestine, 
 which is about 21) feet in length, becoming gradually 
 narrower towards its lower end, and arranged in 
 numerous convolutions, which occupy the mi'MI" of 
 the abdominal cavity, and are kept in position by 
 the peritoneum, which attaches them to the hack of 
 the abdomen. 
 
 The small intestine is subdivided into three parts. 
 The first 10 inches from the stomach is the duodenum, 
 into which open the duct of the pancreas and the 
 common bile duct; of the remainder, the jejunum 
 includes about two-fifths, and the ileum, three-tilths. 
 
 The differei s between these last two are not 
 
 visible externally, but consist in modifications of 
 their internal structure. The tube consists of 
 peritoneum, longitudinal and circular muscular fibres, 
 a fibrous layer, and the mucous membrane. See 
 iNTBsrnrjSB, Small. 
 
 The ileum ends at the right iliac region in the 
 large intestine, which is from 5 to 6 feet in length. 
 It begins at the pouch called the blind gut (caput 
 cecum eoli) or cul de sac (see Cecum) which has a 
 small worm-like appendage (appendix vcrmiformis) ; 
 a double valve guards the opening of the small into 
 the large intestine. The colon passes upwards on 
 the right side to below the liver (ascending colon), 
 then crosses from the right hypochondrituu across the 
 upper umbilical region to the left hypochondrium 
 (transverse colon), then descends to the left iliac fossa 
 (descending colon), when it bends twice like an S 
 (sigmoid flexure), and then joins the rectum at the 
 left margin of the true pelvis. The colon is distin- 
 guished by its pouched or sacculated appearance, the 
 saes being separated by tliree fiat bands of longitu- 
 dinal muscular fibres. The peritoneum only covers 
 it in parts. See Colon. The Rectum is not saccu- 
 lated, but its muscular coat becomes much thicker; 
 at its lower end the longitudinal fibres stop, but 
 the muscular become more numerous, forming the 
 internal sphincter muscle. The rectum is not 
 straight, but takes a curved course. 
 
 The A. C. thus consists of a continuous passage 
 lined by mucous membrane, which rests on a fibrous 
 and muscular basement. Its length is generally 
 about live or six tunes the length of the body, 
 or, in other words, about thirty feet. It begins 
 below the base of the skull, and passes through tie- 
 thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, and consists shortly "I 
 the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small 
 intestine, and large intestine. The above is the 
 description of the A. C. in human anatomy ; its 
 parts are variously modified in different animals, 
 as will be found in the articles on its several 
 Subdivisions. 
 
 A'LIMONY signifies, in English law, the allow- 
 ance which a married woman is entitled to receive 
 out of her husband's estate, on separation or divorce 
 a mensd el thoro. It is generally proportioned 
 to the rank and quality of the parties. Where 
 the wife elopes and lives with an adulterer, the 
 law allows her no A. By Scotch legal writers, 
 the term i ; used as synonymous with 
 
 Aliment (q.v.). 
 
 A'LIQUOT PART. One quantify or number is 
 
 said to be an A. P. of another, when it is contained 
 in this other an exact number of" times without 
 remainder. Thus 2, -'.. 4, and 5 are A. parts of 20, 
 being contained in it 11), 8, 5, and 4 times. The 
 consideration of A. parts occurs chiefly in the rule of 
 Practice. Suppose we have to find the price of a 
 number of articles at 6%d. : since J;/, is the 8th part 
 of Gd. , to the price at iid. (which is found at once in 
 shillings, by taking half the number of articles), add 
 J of that price. 
 ALISMA'OEJE, a natural order of monocotyle- 
 
 donous plants, consisting of herbaceous plants either 
 floating m water or growing in swamps. The leaves 
 have parallel veins, even if expanded into a broad 
 blade. The flowers are in umbels, racemes, or 
 panicles ; the Bepals 8, the petals .'i, the number of 
 stamens definite or indefinite. The ovaries are several, 
 superior, one-celled, distinct or united ; the styles 
 and stigmas equal to them in Dumber. The fruit 
 is dry, with one. or two seeds in each carped ; 
 tho seeds exalbuminous. — There are about fifty 
 
 Water Plantain (Alisma plantayo). 
 
 known species, excluding the natural order Ji ■ • , - 
 cink.k, which is very nearly allied, and is included 
 in this by some botanists. The species of both 
 orders are chiefly natives of the northern parts of 
 the world. Water Plantain [Alisma plat 
 is a very common plant in stagnant waters iu 
 Britain, and is not destitute of beauty. Its li 
 which have long footstalks, shoot "up above the 
 water and amongst them, but far above them 
 the erect scape or leafless stem, (hviding into slender 
 whorled branches and brancldets, among which the 
 little flowers appear to he thinly scattered. The 
 fleshy rhizome, or root-stock, is eaten by the ( Kal- 
 mucks, after it has been deprived of its acridity by 
 drying. The conns of the Arrowhead [Saijittaria) 
 possess somewhat similar properties. See ARROW- 
 HEAD. 
 
 A'LISON, Rev. Archibald, was born in Edin- 
 burgh in 1757. He studied at the university of 
 Glasgow, and afterwards at Oxford. He took 
 orders in the church of England in 17S4, and sub- 
 sequently held several preferments, among others, 
 a prebendal stall in Salisbury, and the perpetual 
 curacy of Kenley, in Shropshire. From lsoo, M r 
 A. ceased to reside iu England, and of!; 
 in a chapel in his native city, where he died in 
 1839. A. is principally known by his Essays on the 
 Nature and Principles of Taste, first published in 
 1790. The second edition, in 1811, gave occasion 
 to an article by Jeffrey, in the Edinom 
 which brought the book more before the public, 
 Tt has since gone through several editions, and 
 been translated into German and French. The 
 Essays advocate what is called the 'association' 
 theory of the sublime and beautiful, and are distin- 
 guished for their pleasing and ell ant style, and the 
 fine feeling that pervades them. See ^Esthetics. 
 
 ALISON, Sn; Ar.nmiALi', Bart., born at Kenley, 
 Shropshire, in 1792, was the younger son of the Rev. 
 Archibald A., author of the Essays on the Nature 
 
 117
 
 ALISOX-ALKAUMF.TFn. 
 
 awl Principles of Va ' . Bis mother was Dorothea 
 i i v, daughter of Dr .(•■lm Qregory of l-Min- 
 ln 1.300, his father removed to the Scottish 
 metropolis, where he had accepted the senior 
 charge in the Episcopal chapel in the Cowgat 
 thns A. had the advantage of studying in a city 
 then, as now, distinguished far its politeness and 
 learning. At Edinburgh University he obtained 
 the holiest honours in Greek and math/ m 
 After he had finished Ids curriculum, he became a 
 member of the Scottish liar in 1814, but spent a 
 considerable number of years <m the continent, 
 before devoting liimself to legal avocations. In 
 1822, he was named advocate-depute, which 
 he held till ls.'io. Be hot began to appear as a 
 writer ou law, politics, and literature. His Prin- 
 ciples of the Criminal Law of Scotland, published at 
 Edinburgh in 1832, is considered a standard authority 
 on the subject. In the following year he pub] 
 a sequel to the work, entitled Tht Pracuct of the 
 Criminal J.""-. In 1834, he was appointed sheriff 
 of Lanarkshire-, by Sir Robert Peel ; in 1845, the 
 students of Aberdeen elect -1 him ' fiord Rei I 
 Monachal College; in 1851, he received the same 
 honour from tin- student y, and 
 
 liientlv. tie- title of D.C.li. from the mm 
 of Oxford. His great work is undoubtedly The 
 History of Europi during the French Retio 
 (10 vols. 8vo, 1839 42) 
 
 that occurred from 1789 > 15; a continual on, 
 ondi r tie- tule of '/'/"■ Hi pi from the 
 
 . •■ 1 
 ('.I vol's.), was finished in 1S5'.>. He also published a 
 /. f, of th Duke of Marlborough, The Frindi oj 
 
 ■ 
 ,.-. i'-i;, ,,. i i-i:>, besides contributing for many 
 years to Blackwood's Maga of tedious 
 
 articles on Tory politics. It is very ditlicttlt to char- 
 acterise Sir Archibald's magnum opus, Thi History 
 of Europe, Although a work of immense industry, 
 of very respectable accuracy, « ritten with great ani- 
 mation ana tolerable candour, h has failed to impress 
 critics with a high idea of sn- Archibald A.'s abilities. 
 The style is at times exci j wordy, and even 
 
 when animated, it is never picturesque. Neither has 
 he much insight into events or characters. Never- 
 theless, as his work supplied a felt want, and is 
 sufficiently entertaining for a large class of readers, 
 it met with an excessive popularity. It has gone 
 through numerous editions, and has been translated 
 into German, French, Arabic, and other languages. 
 A. died May 1867. 
 ALISON, William Puxtkxey, M.I>., political 
 
 ( nomist, physician, and professor of the practice of 
 
 medicine, in the university of Edinburgh, from which 
 last office, however, he retired in 1855, was an elder 
 brother of the historian. He was extremely popular 
 with all classes of the community, from the amiable 
 and humane disposition which he invariably shewed 
 in his efforts to alleviate tie oj the poor. 
 
 A pamphlet published by Dr A. in 1840, to shew 
 Imw the inadequate provision for the poor in Scot- 
 land led to desolating epidemics, was the principal 
 
 means of bringing about an improved i r law for 
 
 that country. His other writings are 
 Physiology, and Outlines of Pathology and Practia 
 ofMediciii'. In a work published at Edinburgh in 
 is:, (i. entitl.d a Di^rttititiii <■<> tlu Reclamation of 
 Waste Lands, he fully examines the subject, and 
 recommends the colonisation of these by paupers 
 and criminals. He died .September 1S59. 
 
 ALIYV.Y'L, a village near the southern bank of 
 
 tlei. and not far from the town of Loodianah. 
 
 in lat. .'>o r>7' >,".. long. 7-V ,'i(i' E. It was the scene 
 
 of a fierce conflict between the British and Sikh 
 
 HS 
 
 forces on the 28th of January 1846. The latter 
 having crossed the river for the purpose of foraging, 
 or otherwise obtaining supplies, had threatened 
 Loodianah, when they were attacked by sir II utj 
 Smith, defeated, and driven hack with great slaugh- 
 ter. The victory of A. is said by g 1 judges to 
 
 have been ' without a fault.' 
 
 AT.KAHI'.ST. or LLCAHEST, the uni 
 solvent of the alchemi See Alobckmy. 
 
 ALKALIES. The word alkali is of Arabic o 
 /..- , b ing the name of the plant from the ashes of 
 which an alkaline substan ! procured. 
 
 name now denotes a class of substances b 
 similar properties. The alkal 
 number — potash, soda, lithia, and ammonia. The 
 
 first three i rid ol metals ; the- last 
 
 pound of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, and. being 
 in the farm of a gas, is called the volatile alkali. 
 Potash, being large!] presi nt in the ashes of plants, is 
 called the vegetable alkali ; and soda, predominating 
 in th ■ mineral kingdom, is designated the mineral 
 alkali. The alkalxni earths, as they are called— 
 lime, magnesia, baryta, and strontia are distin- 
 I from the former by their '-ail... nates not 
 being soluble in water. The distinguishing property 
 of alkalies is that of toning vegetable blues green, 
 and vegetable yellows reddish brown. Blues red- 
 dened by an acid are re tored by an alkali. The 
 alkalies have- great affinity for acids, and combine 
 with them, forming salts, in which the- peculiar quali- 
 ties of he.tli alkali and acid are generally destroy i ; 
 hence they are said to neutralise one an. ether. In 
 a pure state-, alkalies are extremely caustic, and act 
 as corrosive poisons. Combined with carbonic acid, 
 especially as bi-carbonates, they are uscel to correct 
 acidity in the stomach; but the injudicious and 
 continued us< of them is attended with great evil. 
 
 ALKALI'METER. Commercial pota 
 always contain greater or less quantities of foreign 
 ii. i in.-.- - . such as sulphate of potash, oommon salt, 
 silicates, oxide of iron, water, &c., which diminish the 
 percent;' ;e of real alkali in a given weight. It is 
 important, then, fen- the manufacturer to have Borne 
 simple- and ready means of determining thepropoi 
 tion of pure carbonate of potash or Boda contained in 
 any sample, that he may he able to judge of its 
 value. Ordinary chemical analysis takes too much 
 time. The A. serves this purpose. It consists of a 
 graduated glass tube, filled with diluted sulphuric 
 acid, and containing as much absolute sulphuric acid 
 as we.nlel neutralise a given weight, say loo grains, of 
 
 carl ate of potash, ion grains of the article to be 
 
 judged of is then dissolved in water, and as much 
 gradually added to it from the tube as to 
 neutralise the solution, that is, take- up all the 
 alkali. The application of coloured 
 when the neutralisation is complete. The purer the 
 article, the more of the acid will be required; and 
 if the tube, which is divided into 100 degrees, has 
 ■ mptied tee the- ,sir, the impure article contains 
 80 per cent, of pure carbonate or potash. 
 
 This method of determining the strength of alkali.-s 
 
 is called tin- tilhiilini'ii-ii /eiuce .... .- but the instrument 
 
 is not confined in its use to the estimation of the 
 
 It of alkaline- substances. It is likewise 
 
 employed in the determination of the strength of 
 
 . ■ ii. Ii as sulphuric acid, hydrochloi ic acid, nitric 
 
 >l and acetic aciel (vinegar). For this end, the 
 
 graduated instrument is charged with a solution of 
 
 an alkali of known strength, such as a given weight 
 
 ed carbonate of see.la (washing soda), 
 
 dissolved in wate-r, and according to the numh ■ r of 
 
 divisions of the liquid poured from the A., the 
 
 strength of the acid into which the- alkaline liquid has 
 
 been decanted, is calculated. The latter appkeation
 
 ALKALOIDS— ALLAH. 
 
 of this instrument is called oxidimetry. Again, 
 the same graduated glass tube has been recently 
 employed in many other ways, such as the deter- 
 mination of the strength of a solution of silver, by 
 brnment with a known or standard 
 solution of common salt; and fortius purpose it is 
 used largely by i j Royal Mint, and 
 
 other metailurgie chemists. This mode of analysis is 
 every day becoming of more and more impoi 
 and, in fact, has given rise to a new department of 
 analytical chemistry, which has I ..mated 
 
 ysis. 
 
 A'LKALOIDS form an important class of rob- 
 es discovered by modern chemistry. They are 
 divided into two classes — namely, natural 
 
 ial. The natural A are found in plants and 
 animals, and are often designated organic Oases. 
 Those obtained from plants are likewise called 
 vegelo-alkalies. They are composed essentially of 
 carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen; besides which, 
 number contain oxygen. The A have 
 generally an energetic action on the animal system, 
 and hence are every day employed in small dosi - 
 as medicine; whilst in comparatively large dosi 
 they are powerful poisons. They have-, aUhont 
 low degree, the characteristic alkaline properties on 
 iMe colours, &C; have generally a hitter, acrid 
 , and form the active principles of the plants m 
 which they are found. .Such are morphia, codeine, 
 and narcotine, Eonnd in opium; quinine and chinco- 
 niue, in chincona bark; strychnine, in nux-vomica; 
 hycocyamine, in henbane; nicotine, in toba 
 prperine, in black pepper; caffeine or theine, in 
 coffee and tea, &c. 
 
 The animal A. are few in number, the more 
 important being urea, found in the urine of the 
 mammalia; and kreatine and kreatinine, two of 
 the constituents of the juice of flesh. The arti- 
 ficial A. are those organic bases which are not found 
 in any known plant or animal, but of which 
 the later researches of chemists have contrived to 
 form a large number. As the artificial A. do not 
 differ essentially from the natural A. in comp 
 structure, or properties, it is confidently believed 
 that the day is not far distant when all of the A. 
 will be prepared artificially ; indeed, recently several 
 of the natural A. have- been manufactured on the 
 small scale without the intervention of the living 
 plant or animal. For instance, urea can be formed 
 from the simplest form of dead organic nitrogenous 
 matter. 
 
 A'LKANET (Anclwsa), a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the natural order Boragineos, and having a 
 ite calyx, a funnel-shaped or salver-shaped 
 corolla, with live scales closing its mouth, live 
 stamens, an i ma, and ovate achfenia, which 
 
 are surrounded at the base by a plaited tumid 
 ring. The species are herbaceous plants, rough 
 with stiff hail's, and having lanceolate or elon 
 ovate leaves, and spike-like, bracteated, lateral and 
 terminal racemes of flowers, which very much 
 resemble those of the species of Myosn' 
 Forget-me-not.— The Commok A. [A. officinalis) 
 grows in dry ami sandy places, and by waysides. 
 in the middle and north of Europe. It is rare 
 and a very doubtful native in Britain. The 
 flowers are of a deep purple colour. The roots, 
 leaves, and flowi ra were formerly used in medicine 
 
 as an emollient, i ling, and soothing application. 
 
 — -The r.vuioKiiN A. [A. ens) is also a 
 
 native of Europe, and a doubtful native of Britain, 
 although not uncommon in situations to which it 
 may have escape, 1 from gardens, being often culti- 
 vated for the sake of its beautiful blue Bowers, 
 which appear early in the season, and for its leaves, 
 
 which retain a pleasing verdure all winter. It 
 is a plant of humble growth, rising only a few 
 inches above the ground. — A 
 number of othi arc 
 
 tonally seen in our flov 
 borders. — A. tinctcria, to which 
 the name A. or Ai.kanna (Arab. 
 
 more strictly beloi 
 is a native of the Levant and of 
 the south of Euri ading 
 
 as far north as Hungary. I 
 root is sold under the name of A. 
 or Alkannaroot ; it is sometimes 
 cultivated in England ; but the 
 i part is imported from the 
 at or the south of France. 
 It appears in commerce in pi< 
 of the thickness of a quill or of 
 the finger, the rind blackish exter- 
 nally, but internally of a beauti- 
 ful dark-red colour, and adha 
 rather loosely to the whitish 
 heart. It contains chiefly a resin- 
 ous red colouring-matter, called 
 Alkanna A'"/. An ' id, or 
 
 The colour wliich it 
 yields is very beautiful, although 
 not very durable. It is readily 
 soluble in oils, and is therefore officinalis). ^ 
 
 in very general use amongst perfumers for colouring 
 oils, soaps, pomades, lip-salves, Ac. It is extensively 
 used i,,r colouring spurious port-wine. It also enters 
 into compositions for rubbing and giving colour to 
 furniture. Its solutions in oils and alcohol have 
 almost a carmine red colour, although to water it 
 gives only a brownish hue. It combines with alka- 
 lies, forming blue solutions ; with chloride of tin, it 
 becomes of a carmine red ; with acetate of lead, 
 blue ; with sidphate of iron, dark violet ; with 
 alum, purple; and with acetate of alumina, violet. 
 — Viki-imax A. [A. Yir'ihnrn) yields a similar 
 colouring-matter, and is used in the same way. 
 
 ALKA'NXA (Alrlienna) \< also a name given to 
 a colouring-matter prepared from the lea' 
 Lawsonia memos, and used by oriental ladies to 
 give a red colour to their nails. See Hknna. 
 
 ALKMAAE, an i Id town in the province of North 
 Holland, in tie Netherlands, situated on tie Selder 
 Canal, 20 nides N.X.W. of Amsterdam, in lat. 32° 
 .'is' N., h.ng. 4° 43" E. Pop. 10,500. It is well built, has 
 very clean streets, and is intersected by broad ca 
 It possesses a town-house, ornamented with curious 
 Gothic carving. The inhabitants support themi 
 by important manufactures of sail-cloth, sea-salt, 
 &c, as well as by trade in grain, butter, and cl 
 A. is said to export more of the last-mentioned 
 niodity than any other town in the world ; 9,000,000 
 lbs. annually is the quantity sp rifled It is the 
 birthplace of Henry of \. - I "lis. 
 
 Here, on October IS. 17911. the Duke of York signed 
 a not very honourable capitulation, after his B 
 British army had been twice del', ated by the French 
 general Brune. 
 
 A'LLA BREVE. In old music, the breve c . 
 as the longest note, was equivalent to our s. mi- 
 breve, O, the longest not I in modern 
 music. Consequently', the minims ancientij 
 were equivalent to our crotchets. Music written 
 with four minims in a bar I ' Bttve, 
 which implies that the four minims must be Bung as 
 four crotchets. The difference between tile two 
 of writing is in. ivlv formal. Other signs for A. B. 
 time are — }, 2, or Q or Alia Capdla 
 
 A'LLAH (compounded of the article, ol and 
 il&h — i. e., ' the worthy to be adored') is the 
 
 Ml
 
 ALLAHABAD. 
 
 Arabic name of the one God, to whoso worship 
 Mohammed pledged his followers; and th 
 has passed into all languages wherever the name 
 of Islam has been heard. The notions of the 
 character of this God given by Mohammed in the 
 Koran bear manifest traces of Jewish and I : 
 influence, and are much superior to the national 
 superstitions and impassioned fancies of the orientals 
 in general. Above all other things, Mohammed 
 inculcated the unity of God in i 
 in opposition not only to idolatry, but also in some 
 points to the belief of the .Jews and ( 'hri 
 seen in the following formula or creed : 'There is 
 no God but Ute God (Allah). This only true 
 and highest God has his existence of himself, is 
 eternal, not begotten, and begets not, suffices for 
 himself, tills the universe with his infinity, is the 
 centre in whom all things unite, manifest and 
 concealed, Lord of the corporeal and spiritual 
 worlds, creator and ruler, almighty, all-wise, all- 
 
 S 1, merciful, and bis decrees are irrevocable.' 
 
 Mohammed has ventured on very bold illustrations 
 of these attributes for popular representation, as in 
 the passage of the Koran where he says: 'If all 
 the trees on earth were pens, and if there were 
 seven oceans full of ink, they would not suffice to 
 describe the wonders of the Almighty.' The 
 different attributes of God, divided under his ninety- 
 nine names, and connected together in a certain 
 order m a litany, form the rosary of the Moham- 
 medans, which c In. Irs with the name A., as the 
 
 hundredth, including in itself all the former epithets. 
 
 ALL UIAIJA'D. a I'.ritish district in the North- 
 West Provinces of India, between lat. 24° 49', 25° 
 44' ; long. 81° 14', 82° 26'. It is 85 miles in length 
 by 50 in breadth — area, 2801 square miles. The 
 surface of the country is in general level, with a 
 slope towards the S.E. The principal rivers are 
 the Ganges (flowing partly within it, ami partly 
 dividing it from (hide and Mirzapore), ami its great 
 affluent the Jumna, which joins it at the city of 
 A. The district is well watered, and vegetation is 
 luxuriant The native agriculture at the end of the 
 last century was singularly rude and deficient, but the 
 efforts of British residents have done much for its 
 
 improvement. The principal | luctc of the district 
 
 are cotton and salt; and there is a brisk transit- 
 trade by the Jumna in cotton, indigo, and sugar. 
 The population, in 1S72, was 1,382,826, chiefly agri- 
 cultural, about 100,0(10 being Mohammedans and 
 others not Hindus. The four principal towns are 
 Allahabad. Shahzadpore, Bhugeisur, and Adampore, 
 — The Province or ' Division' of A. comprehends 
 the districts of Cawnpore, Futtehpur, Humeerpore, 
 and Gal pee, I'.auda. and A. It is bounded X. by 
 Oude and Agra, EL by Behar, S. by Gundwana, 
 and W. by Mahva. Its length is about 270 
 breadth. 120; area, 11,83!) square miles ; population, 
 4,527,000, It comprises one of the must populous 
 and productive territories in India. 
 
 ALLAHABAD. This ' city of God '—for that is 
 the meaning of its variously pronounced name — 
 occupies the fork of the Ganges and Jumna, lat. 
 -V 26 N., long. 81° 85" E., thus forming the lowest 
 
 extremity of tie region which, as lying 
 
 between those natural boundaries, is distinguished 
 as the Doah, or the country of Turn Sim rs — an 
 analogous term to the Punjab, or the country of 
 
 !'"■■ h'irir.1. The .situation of A., at tile ConlllleUec 
 
 of the holy streams of India, besides giving the city 
 ! • ■■> ippellati.ni, has rendered it a much-fre- 
 quented place of pilgrimage for the purposes of 
 ablution, some of the devotees sinking themselves 
 with weights to rise no more. In point of appear- 
 ance, A. was scarcely worthy of its character and 
 150 
 
 renown. With the exception of a few ancient 
 monuments of costly, elaborate, and tasteful work- 
 manship, the native part of the city consists of 
 houses and narrow streets. As in the towns 
 generally of India, the Kuropean quarter, on the 
 whole, is vastly superior. Its nucleus appears to 
 have been the native fort, which, on the east and 
 south, rises directly from the banks of both rivers, 
 while towards the land its artificial defences, of 
 great strength in then 
 
 from the net hi rl I by any higher ground. This 
 
 citadel, described by Heber as having been at one 
 time 'a very noble ca ti .' has lost much of its 
 
 romance by having had its lofty towers pr d down 
 
 lions and cavaliers. The Europeans of the 
 garrison occupy well-constructed barracks. Beyond 
 the fort are the cantonments for the native t; 
 In connection with these are numerous villas and 
 
 bungalows, few other spots in India 1 
 
 handsome buildings of this kind ; and these showy 
 retreats are rendered still more attractive and 
 agreeable by avenues of trees, which wind between 
 them, and connect them with the fort, the city, and 
 several of the circiuujac, I 
 
 The summer of 1857 I nought disaster to A. On 
 the 6th of June of that year, the insurrection, 
 which had begun at Meerut on loth May, extended 
 itself to A. Though tie- Europeans continued to 
 hold the fort, yet the mutineers were, for some 
 days, undisputed masters of all beyond; and 
 between the ravages of the marauders and the lire 
 of the garrison, the city soon became little better 
 than a heap of blackened ruins. In the history of 
 this fearful outbreak, A. must be 'a magic word' to 
 every English ear, as the spot where the fiery Neill 
 entered on his brief career of glory. It was here 
 also that Lord Canning, after the close of the 
 mutiny, distributed three millions sterling in 
 presents to the chiefs who had remained loyal. 
 But although situated thus in the heart of the out- 
 break, and feeling its disastrous effects, the city 
 es natural advantages that have allowed it 
 to recover. Its position at the confluence of the 
 holy rivers, which has so long made it a centre of 
 superstitious reverence and worship, now renders it 
 naturally a centre of commerce and civilisation, 
 and has been fully appreciated by government. It 
 Commands the navigation both of the Ganges and of 
 the Jumna. It is on the direct water-route between 
 Calcutta and the Upper Provinces; and is a main 
 station, not only on the Grand Trunk Road, but 
 also on tin: Last Indian Railway. -New buil'lin , 
 many of them possessing great architectural merits, 
 have accordingly sprung up with rapidity since 
 1S57 ; the most noteworthy buildings being still, 
 . the ( i at Mosque and the Sultaun K les- 
 sor's Caravanserai — a fine cloistered quadrangle. 
 The Fort is of red stone, and is approached by a 
 very handsome gate: it contains the palace or 
 ncy, and the < lada pillar or Club of Lhin Sen, 
 in the Chalee Satoom Temple, which is said to 
 communicate with Benares by a subterranean [pas- 
 sage, through which Hows a third holy river, the 
 . ati, visible only to the eye of faith. A. 
 possesses a college, an hospital, theatres, bazaars, 
 &c. The inhabitants number 75,000. So many 
 poor pilgrims throng the city, especially at the 
 time of the Great Eair, which is held once every 
 twelve years, that instead of Allahabad, the natives 
 call it ' Fakirabad,' or the City of Beggars. The 
 cotton, sugar, and indigo produce of the fertile 
 district of A. is brought in large quantities into 
 the city, to be transported thence to Calcutta and 
 
 re. Steamers sail to Calcutta, and I 
 to Delhi. A. is distant from Calcutta, by laud, 
 406 miles; by water, SOS miles iu the rainy season;
 
 ALLAMANDA— A LLASTOIS. 
 
 by water, !>S5 miles in the dry season. From 
 Delhi it is distant 380 miles; ami from Bombay, 
 hy the Jubbulpore branch of the East Indian Bail- 
 way, 840 mill . 
 
 ALLAMA'X DA, a genua of plants of the. natural 
 order Apm-i/mintr (i|. v.), distinguished by a !>■ 
 parted calyx without glands, a funnel-shaped corolla 
 with its limli campanulate, and the fruit a prickly 
 A. caUiartica, a native of the West Indies, 
 is a shrub with whorled or opposite oblong leavi j, 
 and large yellow flowers on many-flowered footstalks. 
 It has violently emetic and purgative properties; 
 but in small doses, an infusion of the leavi is 
 e teemed a valuable cathartic medicine, especially in 
 the cure of painter's colic. All the species are 
 natives of the tropical parts of America. 
 
 A'LLAN, Bridge of, a beautiful village, con- 
 : chiefly of lodging-houses, lying within the 
 Iter of a spur of the Ochils, on the road from 
 Stilling to Perth, from the former of which towns 
 it is only three miles distant. It is situated on the 
 banks of the Allan, which, like the heights behind 
 the place, arc richly wooded. It owes its prosperity 
 partly to its mineral (saline) wells, and partly to its 
 sheltered situation and mild climate, which render 
 it a, favourite resort of invalids, especially in spring 
 and autumn. There are excellent hotels, and 
 abundance of good lodgings. Pop. (1S71) 3055. 
 
 ALLAX, David, a distinguished Scottish painter 
 of domestic subjects, in which he was the fore- 
 runner of Wilkie, was born at Alloa in 1744. 
 In 1755, be entered the academy for drawing, 
 painting, and engraving, established in Glasgow 
 by the celebrated printer l'oidis, where he studied 
 for seven years. The liberahty of Mends enabled 
 him, in 1704, to go to Rome, where he resided 
 for sixteen years. In 1773, he gained tho gold 
 medal given by the Academy of St Luke for 
 the best historical composition. The subject was 
 the 'Origin of Painting,' the old legend of the 
 Corinthian maid who drew her lover's profile from 
 the shadow. This picture, the highest effort of 
 Allan's powers, was engraved by ( 'unego. Of his 
 other pictures executed at Home, the best known 
 are four humorous pieces illustrating the Carnival, 
 which were engraved by Paul Sandby. In 1777, 
 A. came to London, where he painted portraits ; 
 after a year or two, lie removed to Edinburgh; 
 and in 1780, succeeded Runciman at the head of 
 the art academy established there by the Board of 
 Manufactures. Ilis works subsecpient to this date 
 were chiefly of a humorous description, and illus- 
 trative of Scottish domestic life. His illustrations 
 of Allan Ramsay's Gentle S/ieplterd became very 
 popular, but are of no great merit. A. died 
 at Edinburgh in 17%. 'His merits,' says Allan 
 Cunningham, 'arc of a limited nature; he neither 
 excelled m line drawingnor in harmonious colouring j 
 and grace and grandeur were beyond his reach. 
 Ilis genius lay in expression, especially in grave 
 humour and open drollery.' 
 
 ALLAN, Si i: William, a distinguished Sci 
 
 historical painter, was born at Edinburgh in 17S2. 
 lie was educated at the High School; and having 
 early displayed a taste for drawing, was entered as 
 a pupil in tin- School of Design connected with the 
 Royal Institution, with the intention of becoming a 
 coach-painter. Among his fellow-students and 1. 
 were I (avid Wilkie, .1 dim Burnet, and others who after- 
 wards rose to eminence. He subsequently studied for 
 some time at; the Royal Academy of London. Find- 
 ing difficulties in the way of professional advance- 
 ment in the metropolis, he determined to go abroad ; 
 and in 18115, set out for St Petersburg, where tho 
 friendly interest of his countryman, Sir Alexander 
 
 C'richton, the imperial family physician, soon pro- 
 cured him employment. In the Russian capital, he 
 spent several years, diligently pursuing his profes- 
 sional labours, and making occa ional tours to tho 
 south of Russia, the Crimea, Turkey, and Circassia, 
 where he made numerous sketches, some of which 
 supplied the materials of his best known works. In 
 1Mb be returned to Edinburgh, and soon after 
 exhibited his 'Circassian Captives,' a large picture, 
 
 ii till; llislleil bj' Hie picture;-, ( ||,. |i. 
 
 and the elaborate fidelity and spirit of its treatment. 
 
 lie bid exhibited several pictures before this, but 
 not till now was Ins reputation as an artist fairly 
 established. The remuneration of his labours, how- 
 ever, was not so ready as the public acknowledgment 
 of their worth. The purchase of two of his pictures 
 by the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards em 
 when on a visit to Edinburgh, contributed in no 
 small degree to promote the sale of his works. A 
 severe attack of ophthalmia obliged him for a time 
 to suspend his exertions. He employed his leisure 
 in visiting Italy, Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor. 
 On returning home, be resumed his brush, and for 
 many years laboured with great assiduity. In 1826, 
 he was elected an Associate of tho Loudon Academy ; 
 in 1 S35, an Academician. In 1 S38, on the death of Mr 
 George Watson, the Royal Scottish Academy elected 
 
 i,i as its president, and on the death of Sir David 
 Wilkie in 1841, he was appointed Limner to Her 
 Majesty for Scotland. He was at the same time 
 knighted. At intervals, be made excursions into 
 continent, visiting Spain and Marocco in 1834, St 
 Petersburg in' 1841, and Germany and Belgium in 
 1847. At St Petersburg, he received a commission 
 the emperor to paint a large picture of 'Peter 
 the Great teaching Shipbuilding to his Subjects;' 
 it was exhibited at London in 1845, and is now in 
 the imperial Winter Palace. For some time before 
 his death, he had been diligently working at a 
 great picture of 'Bruce at Bannockburu.' He (lied 
 in his painting-room, to wliieh bis bed had been 
 removed, on the 22d of February 1S50. The great 
 merits of Sir W. A. as a painter consist in his 
 conscientious fidelity - , his skill in composition, and 
 the dramatic force of bis representations. The 
 impulse contributed by him to historical painting, 
 especially of national subjects, entitles him tb a very 
 high place in the history of Scottish art. Among 
 his chief works, many of which are well known 
 through engravings, arc — 'John Knox admonishing 
 Queen Mary,' 1S23; 'Queen Mary signing her 
 abdication,' 1821; 'Death of the Regent Moray,' 
 1825; 'Polish Exiles,' 1834; 'The Slave-market at 
 Constantinople,' 1837; 'Battle of Prestonpans,' 1S42; 
 'Waterloo,' two pictures, from the French and 
 i ii Ii Ii positions, the first of which was bought by 
 the Duke of Wellington. 
 
 ALLA'XTOLS, a delicate membranous bag, 
 which makes its appearance in tie ej of birds 
 during incubation, and is a provision chiefly for 
 ration of the blood of the embryo or chick. 
 It sprouts from the lower part of the intestine of 
 the chick, and rapidly enlarges, so as almost com- 
 pletely to enclose it, lining nearly the whole extent 
 of the membrana putamims the double membrane 
 which is immediately within the egg-shell. It is 
 covered with a net-work of arteries and veins. 
 Corresponding to the umbilical artery and vein of 
 Mammalia; and the aeration of the blood is accom- 
 l.y tie sir which enters through the pores of 
 the shell; but as the lungs become capable of their 
 function, the circulation in the A. diminishes, and 
 its footstalk contracts, and at bust divides. Ii 
 only a ligamentous remnant. The A. is never 
 
 developed in tie , ! and Amphibians, 
 
 hence these arc called Auallautoid Vertebrates ; 
 
 151
 
 ALLAJLD— ALLEC ORY. 
 
 while Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia, in which it is 
 present, are called Allantoid In the Mammalia, it 
 is superseded at an early period of fa to] life bj 
 contrivances, but continues to exist in the lower 
 t be urinary secretion th 
 rachus, a purpose which it Berves in bird 
 reptili - ill. v. ise. in the human sp< ippears 
 
 very early, only a minute vi -i. I "ing. 
 
 ALL.Y'KI), ^I'ln -nilis, iini> ,,i' the army of Lahore, 
 .•mil previously adjutant to Marshal Brune under 
 Napoleon, was born in 1 7^.;. After the murder of 
 Marsha] Brune (q. v.), A. left Prai 
 intending to emigrate to America] but ch 
 his plan, entei i mto the sei \lu. . 
 
 ol Persia, and afterwards wenl to Lai (1820), 
 
 where be engaged in I of Etunjeel 
 
 (q. v.). by \\ bom be 
 
 i ined iu the 
 
 European i lea of warfare. Saving married a 
 
 native of Lahore, l"' identified himself with the 
 interests <>f his adopted country, but could not 
 
 i. rely forget France, The July revol 
 
 brought liim back to Paris, where he was ved 
 
 with distinction, and was made French chargt 
 aires in Lahore. He presented to the Royal 
 Library of Paris a valuable collection of coins, and 
 returned to Lahore 1 1836), l< ai inj Ins n i 
 children in Paris. In the subsequent battles ol 
 Runjeet Singh with the Afgnn.na, A. repeatedly dis- 
 tinguished liimself. and died at Peshawur, January 
 23, 1839. His remain rding to Ins own 
 
 wish, buried with military honours at Lahore. 
 
 ALLEOHANlKs, a name perhaps originally 
 limited to the iiMnuitain-eiM.il,- of the river next 
 mentioned, hut often popularly extended to the 
 whole chain, otherwise called th Appalachians (q. v.). 
 
 ALLEi :i I \ 'N "V, a river, which, rising in the 
 north part of Pennsylvania, unites with the Monon- 
 - ■ . 1 1 1 , I . i si Pitt burs to Form the i Hiio. 'I'll. . 
 Bows through a hilly country, yet it is navi 
 
 for nearly 200 miles above Pittsbui i I • oin, 
 
 with a trifling impi dii u or Loui rille, 9 bich 
 
 has been overcome bj : I canal, the aavi 
 
 embraces, down to 111" Gull' ..) Mexico, 950 mill I 
 
 on the Ohio, and 1216 on the \li sippL What 
 a 'sugge! i'\. Fact i i • sh am-1 iat i b inneJ of 2366 
 miles in one section of a continent, i qua! in length 
 
 to the : lie that e.'tn be m:iv. u in I 
 
 whether from Brest to Astrakhan, or from I ipe 
 Matapan to North Cape ; 
 
 ALLE'GIAJNCE (IV. aUigeance, from Lit. aJXigo 
 or ad-ligo, to bind to, or attach). ' A.,' says Blafck- 
 Btone, 'is the tie ox ligamen which binds the 
 Bubject to the sovereign, in return for that protection 
 
 ■which the sovereign affords the subject A. is the 
 highest legal duty of a subject, and consequently 
 its violation, Treason (a. v.), is the highest le al 
 
 offence. A. is of three kinds : 1. Natural or implu d 
 A., which every native or naturalised citizen owes 
 to the community to which he belongs, inde- 
 pendently of any, express promise, every man, by 
 availing himself of the benefits which society 
 allurds, comes under an implied obligation to defend 
 it, and this equally whether the attack be from 
 without or from within. In time of war, this obli- 
 gation involves the duty either of bearing arms in 
 defence of the state, or of contributing to the addi- 
 tional taxes and other impositions which the support 
 of a standing army may render necessary. In 
 peaceful times, it will he adequately fulfilled bj an 
 efficient performance of ordinary citizen duties. 
 2. Expri i .1. is that obligation which arises from 
 an expressed promise, or oath of A. The old 
 ' li of A. corresponded in the case of the 
 
 sovereign, as absolute superior of all the lands in 
 
 England, to the oath of fealty which, by the feudal 
 
 law, all vassals were required to take t<> Bubject 
 superiors : 'As administered for upwards of six 
 hundred years, it contained a promise to bi 
 and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth 
 
 and faith 1" bear of lite and limb ami terrene h r, 
 
 and not to know or hear of any ill or dam:: in 
 tended him, without defending him therefrom.' 
 Blackstone, Kerr's edition, vol. i. 368. Thi 
 
 thought to favour too much the notion ofnon- 
 another form was introduced by the Con- 
 vention Parliament That in usi ino bep lingof 
 the new Naturalisation Act in 1S70 (33 Victc. 14), is 
 as follows: 'I do swear that I will be Faithful and 
 lie A. to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, her 
 heirs and successors, according to law. So help me 
 God.' From the reign of Queen Elizabeth down to 
 -.Tit time, the oath of A. has been required 
 from all public functionaries, before entering on 
 then offices, and by all professional persons before 
 being permitted to practise. 3. Local or temporary 
 \. i that obedience and temporary aid due bj an 
 Alien (q. vA to the state or community in which be 
 resides. Local differs from the higher kinds of A. 
 in this, that it endures only so long as the alien 
 resides within the Queen's dominions, when m 
 natural A., whether implied or expressed, is per- 
 petual, following not only the individual himself, 
 but his children and grandchildren. By the provi- 
 sions of the act above referred to, A. may new be 
 renounced, even by natural-born subjects, and this 
 whether born within the realm or not, by a declara- 
 tion of alienage (sect. 4), and it is Forfeited by the 
 acceptance of the allegiance i if a foreign state (sect. 6). 
 But the allegiance thus forfeited maybe resumed. 
 A natural-burn British subject who has become an 
 alien in pursuance of this act. may, mi perfoi 
 the same conditions as are required of an alien 
 applying for a Certificate of Nationality 
 N mi i:\i.is\rn.\l, apply to one of Her Maji 
 principal Secretaries of State for a certificate of re- 
 i mi: don to British nationality (sect. 8). In a colony, 
 Mn like powers are conferred on the Govi 
 
 By the lav, of England, and agreeably to the spirit 
 of the constitution, a usurper in undisputed PO 
 sion of the crown, or king <!■ fmi", is entitled to A., 
 I. mm he then represents, not the sovereign whom 
 he has dispossessed, but the general will in which 
 the ultimate sovereignty of England resides. This 
 doctrine was applied when Edward IV. recovered 
 the crown from the House of Lancaster, and tree mis 
 committed against Henry Vi. were capitally pun- 
 ished. The sovereign may by proclamation summon 
 his subjects to return and take part in the defence 
 of the kingdom, when menaced or endangered. Of 
 this, an instance occurred in 1807, when all seamen 
 and seafaring men who were natural-born subjects 
 were recalled from foreign service. The option of 
 accepting the foreign A. would now be given them, 
 and the same legal outlet is furnished from the 
 provisions of the otherwise unenforceable Foreign 
 Enlistment Act (q. v.). 
 
 ALLEGORY, as a figuro of rhetoric, signifies 
 properly, the embodiment of a train of thought in a 
 visible form, by means of sensible images, hen. 
 some resemblance or analogy to the thoughts. A., 
 tin rehire, is one of the Tropes (q. v.), for it involves 
 
 a transfer of meaning. It differs from metaphor 
 chiefly in extent; metaphor is confined to a 
 expression, or at most to a sentence, A. is earned 
 through the whole representation. It is not abstract 
 ideas .!,. ne l hat are adapted to allegorical treatment; 
 not only may virtue and vice, for instance, be 
 personified and treated allegorieally, but real persons 
 may be represented by allegorical persons. 
 
 \S'e tind A. in use from the earliest ages. Oriental
 
 ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION— ALLLVCEOTTS PLANTS. 
 
 people are specially fond of it. As examples from 
 anti.jiiity may I"- cited, tin- comparison of Israel to 
 a vine iu the 80th Psalm; the Beautiful passage in 
 Plato's Phaedrus, where the soul is compared to a 
 charioteer drawn by two horses, one white and one 
 black; the description of Fame in the 4th Book of 
 the J'.iK-id. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is perhap 
 the most fully carried out A. of modern times. 
 — A. is not confined to language) hut is carried 
 into painting and sculpture, and also into Bcenic 
 entation — as in the ballet and pantomime ; 
 the consideration of it is, therefore, of importance 
 iu the fine arts generally. 
 
 Al.t.EiioKii At. I \ 1 1 i:i'i:i:i'A'nuv is that kind of 
 interpretation by which the literal significance of a 
 i '• is either transcended or Bet aside, and a more 
 spiritual and profound meaning elicited than is con- 
 tained in the form or letter. The common idea is 
 that it originated with the Alexandrine school, 
 but this is by no means the case, as we find it 
 employed by the older Hindus. From the scholars of 
 Alexandria, however, it was adopted by the .lews uf 
 Palestine, a sect of whom in particular, namely, 
 the Kssenes, made abundant use of it. The apostle 
 Paul himself allegorises, or at least spiritually 
 interprets the history of the free-born Isaac and 
 the slave-born Ishniael (Gal. iv. 24). Allegorical 
 interpretation, however, with reference to the 
 Old Testament, was most extensively employed by 
 Philo Judajus, a philosophical Jew of Alexandria, 
 and a contemporary of Jesus Christ. His writings 
 stimulated the allegorising tendencies of the Alex- 
 andrine school of Christian theologians, the most 
 famous of whom are Clemens Alexandrinus and 
 Origen. The latter went so far as to say that ' the 
 Scriptures are of little use to those who understand 
 them as they are written.' As a specimen of his 
 method of biblical interpretation, we may adduce 
 the following : He maintained that the Mosaic 
 account of the Garden of Eden was allegorical ; that 
 Paradise only symbolised a high primeval spirit- 
 uality ; that the fall consisted in the loss of such 
 through spiritual and not material temptation; and 
 that the expulsion from the I larden lay in the semi's 
 being driven out of its region of original purity. 
 The Neo-platonists were at first averse to allegor- 
 ising, but gradually acquired a relish for it from 
 the -lews and Christians, and applied it to the 
 ancient myths, 
 
 ALLE'GRO, the fourth of the five principal 
 degrees of movement in music, implying that the 
 piece is to be performed in a quick or lively style. 
 A., like all the other degrees of movement, is often 
 modified by other terms, such as A. non tanto, A. ma 
 non Iriip/jn, A. tuml'-rnlo, nwi.*t'>xo, i/iusto, nmunoilo, 
 vivace, assia, ill molto, con brio, &c. As a substan- 
 tive, A. is used as the name of a whole piece of 
 music, or a movement of a symphony, sonata, or 
 quartet. 
 
 A'LLEMAXDE, the name of a dance invented 
 by the French in the time of Louis XIV.. and which 
 again became popular at the Parisian theatres during 
 the ivi'jn of the first emperor. It has a slow waltz 
 kind of tempo, and consists of three steps (/)n.< 
 marches) made in a sliding manner, backwards and 
 forwards, but seldom waltzing or turning round. 
 The whole charm of the dame lies in the graceful 
 manner nf entwining anil detaching the arms iu the 
 different steps. Both the dance and the music are 
 said to have originated in Alsace ; and thus the 
 introduction of the A. at the court of Versailles was 
 a sort of artistic way of symbolising the incorpora- 
 tion of the newly acquired (lennan provinces. 
 
 A'LLEN, Boo OF, a general name applied to 
 a congeries of morasses east of the Shannon, iu King's 
 
 County and Kild.ir-, Inland, comprising in all 
 about 238,500 i land 
 
 which intersect tb occasionally watered by 
 
 livers which have tle-ir sources in the - 
 fens, such as the Harrow, Boyne, and Brosna 
 Grand Canal al o pi es through it. The a-. 
 
 elevation of the moras-. : i ■■ 250 feet abon 
 seadevel. They approach to within 17 miles of 
 Dublin on tie- east, and almost to the Shannon on 
 
 est. The depth of the peat found in tb 
 about -2r, feet. 
 
 ALLKN", John, M.D., a litterateur of con 
 able talent, was born at Bedford, in the parish of 
 Colinton, near Edinburgh, in ITT'i. II- v, as edu- 
 cated at the university of Edinburgh, where he 
 took his degree at the age of twenty - 
 years later, he entered the lists against DrOregory 
 in defence of Hume's speculations on 
 necessity. In 1801, he published An I 
 to the Study of the Animal Economy, translated 
 Cuvier. About a year after, along with 
 Lord and Lady Holland, he set out on a tour 
 through France aud Spam, where he resided till 
 1805. On his return, he devoted himself | 
 discussion of political questions in the- pages 
 Edinburgh Review. He was a keen reformer, and 
 brought to bear upon constitutional q 
 wealth of research, a closeness of reasoning, and 
 a vigour of understanding that rendered him a 
 formidable adversary. He is said to have contri- 
 buted upwards of forty articles to the Edinburgh 
 Review, chiefly on British. French, Spanish, and 
 South American politics. His most valuable work 
 is considered to be his Inquiry into (Iu Si 
 Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England (1 
 On one or two occasions, he held temporary political 
 offices, and was, in addition, for some tim 
 Dulwich College. He died in 1843. 
 
 A'LLBNTOWU", a thriving borough of Pennsyl- 
 vania, U. S., 85 miles to the east of Harrisburg, and 
 oil to tin- north of Philadelphia. It is situated on an 
 affluent of the Lehigh, with a canal and a railway 
 passing through it. It is within easy reach of slate, 
 limestone, coal, and iron. Pop. in 187", lo,SS4. 
 
 ALLEYN, Edward, a distinguished actor, the 
 contemporary and fneud of Shakspeare, was boi 
 1566, and died in 1626. His connection with the 
 English stage during the period of its highest prospe- 
 rity, invests his life with interest to the stua 
 literary history ; but it is as the munificent and pious 
 founder,,! Dulwich College (q.v.) that he principally 
 claims tile remembrance of posterity. The building 
 of the college was begun in 1613, and in 1619 the 
 institution obtained the royal charter, after some 
 obstruction on the part of Lord Bacon, who 
 the king to apply part of tie' grant to tie- foundation 
 of two lectureships at Oxford and Cambl 
 A. himself took up his quarters in the coll. i 
 master, living, with his wile as a pensioner, on equal 
 terms with "the sharers of his bounty. 11 
 founded numerous almshouses in London. 
 
 A'LLIA. a small stream which fell into the Tiber, 
 eleven mil. 9 north of Feme. It is cell brated 
 scene of the defi al of the Roman army by the I 
 under Brennus in .').s7. or. according to others, 390 
 B.C. Immediately afterwards, Feme was taken, 
 plundered, and burnt. It is difficult to identity 
 the A. with any of the modern streams; but the 
 evidence seems in favour of the Scolo del Co.va/t'. 
 
 ALLIA'CEOl's PL \\ I 
 Allium (q. v.), or others nearly allied to it. The 
 term is generally empli tote not only the 
 
 ! son of certain botanical . but also of 
 
 a certain smell and taste, wall known by the term 
 alliaceous, and of which examples arc readily found 
 
 'liJ
 
 AL LT ANCE— A LLIG ATOR. 
 
 in the onion, leek, garlic, and other familiar species 
 of Allium, much employed for culinary pnj 
 
 plants contain free phosphoric acid, and a 
 sulphuretted oil, which is partly dissipated in boiling 
 or roastiDg. The A. flavour is, however, found also, 
 although in comparatively rare instances, in plants 
 of entirely different botanical affinities— for example, 
 in Alliaria officinalis, of the natural order ' V 
 (see AllIAMA), in the young shoots of ( 
 angustjfolia, a tropical American tree of the natiu-al 
 order & ^allied to mahogany; and in i 
 
 species of Dysoxylon ami Hartighsea, of the kindred 
 order Mdiaceas, the fruit of which is used in 
 of garlic by the mountaineers of Java. 
 
 ALLI'ANCE, a compact between independent 
 families or nations. See Ti.eatv, SOLY ALLIANCE, 
 TiariE ALLIANCE. 
 
 ALLIA'RIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Crucifera (q. v.), closely allied to i 
 and Erysimum, but differing from both in ha\ 
 stalks of the seeds flat and winged. The best 
 known speaics is A. officinalis {Erysimum A. of 
 Linnssus, and ranked l>y some botanists in the 
 Sisymljrium), known by the popular names of : 
 alone and Jack-by-the-Hedge. It is a native of 
 Britain, not unfrequcntly found on hedge-banks and 
 in waste places in dry rich BO common in 
 
 most parts of Europe. It is a biennial, with a stem 
 2 — 3 feet high; large, stalked, heart-shaped leaves; 
 
 Alliaria officinalis. 
 
 a, upper part of stem, with leaves and (lowers; I, extremity 
 
 of a branch, in fruit. 
 
 white flowers, and pods much longer than their 
 stalks, wliich are somewhat spreading. It is remark- 
 able for its strong alliaceous odour, is occasionally 
 OS 1 as a pot-herb in Britain, and very generally, 
 at least by the poorer classes, in some continental 
 countries. It seems more deserving of cultivation 
 than many other plants which have long received 
 the constant care of the gardener, being wholesome, 
 nutritious, and, to most persons, pleasant. The 
 powdered seeds were formerly employed as a ster- 
 nutatory. 
 
 ALLICE, or ALUS. See Siiad. 
 
 A'LLIER, a river in France, a tributary of the 
 Loire, has its source in the water-shed of the east 
 of the department of Lozere ; flows with a northerly 
 course through Il.mte-Loire, Puy-de-Dome, and 
 Allier; and after a course of more than 2'«) miles, 
 falls into the Loire below the town of Nevers. It 
 is navigable for a considerable portion of its length. 
 
 154 
 
 ALLIER, a department in the centre of France, 
 has an area of 2830 square miles, and a pop. of 39 
 It is a hilly district, especially in the south, sloping 
 down towards the river Loire in the north, and is 
 partly woody, but generally well cultivated, pro- 
 ducing 1li" nana] kinds of grain with wine and oil. It 
 is also rich in minerals, especially iron, coal, antimony, 
 manganese, and marble. There is some manufac- 
 turing industry in cotton, wool, linen, < 
 
 y, and glass; but the majority of the popu- 
 lation is engaged in agriculture. Mineral ; 
 are found at Vichy, Neris, and Bourbon-l'Archam- 
 bault. The chief town is Moulins. Other im] 
 places are Montlucon, La Palisse, Gannat. At 
 Chantelle-le-Chateau are the extensive ruins of King 
 Pepin's Castle. 
 
 ALLIGA'TION", from a Latin word signifying 'to 
 bind together,' is a rule in arithmetic which I 
 to solve such questions as the following: 3 lbs. of 
 at Oil. are mixed with "> lbs. at lOd. ; what is 
 the price of a pound of the mixture? or: In what 
 proportion must sugar at G ■/. be mixed with sugar at 
 life/., to produce a mixture at S'd 1 The solution of 
 
 the first is — —-: = {> 
 
 In the second, the proportional number for one 
 ingredient is the difference between the price of the 
 other and that of the mixture; the number for the 
 cheap sugar is thi refore 1 ', and for the dear, 2!, 
 winch are as :) ; 5, so that there must be 3 lbs. at 6V. 
 for every 5 lbs. at 10(2. If there are more than two 
 ingredients, the problem becomes indeterminate ; 
 that is, it admits of a variety of answers. Thus: 
 Of three metals, whose specific gravities arc 10, 15, 
 and 16, it is required to compose an alloy, whose 
 gravity shall be 14. The conditions will be 
 answered by mixing them in any of the following 
 proportions: 1,2,1; 2, 2, 3; G, 2, 11, &c. 
 
 ALLIGA'TOK, a genus of saurian reptiles, of 
 the family of the CrocodUidce, and still regarded by 
 some naturalists as a mere sub-genus of Crocodilus ; 
 although it has recently been proposed to constitute 
 a family or sub-family of Allipa/orida', and to divide 
 it into the genera Jacarc, Alligator, and Caiman, 
 The alligators differ from the true crocodiles in the 
 shorter and flatter head, the existence of cavities or 
 pits in the upper jaw, into which (and not int< 
 notches between the teeth, as in the crocodiles) the 
 long fourth tei th of the under jaw are received, and 
 the much less Webb, d I' > t. In consequence of the 
 different manner in which provision is made in the 
 upper jaw lor the reception of the longest teeth of 
 the lower, the head of the alligators is broader 
 and the snout more obtuse than in the crocodiles. 
 
 Alligator. 
 
 Their habits are less perfectly aquatic ; they 
 frequent swamps and marshes, and may be 
 
 Ig on the dry ground during the day, in 
 
 the heat of the sun. They are most active during 
 
 the night, and then make a loud bellowing. They 
 
 feat strength in their tails, with wni 
 
 ones can easily upset a light canoe. They 
 
 luefly on fish, but do not object to other 
 
 animal food. The females lay their eggs, 20—60 
 
 in number, in the mud, and leave them to bo 
 
 hatched by tie- heat of the sun, but keep watch over 
 
 the spot, and Bhew much affection for their young
 
 ALLIGATOR APPLE— ALLIUM. 
 
 ones, manj' of which, however, fall a prey to the old 
 males, and to vultures and fishes. There are several 
 -. varying from two to twenty feet and upwards 
 in length. Perhaps the most fierce and dangerous 
 is that found in the southern parts of the I 
 States, as far up the Mississippi as the Bed River, 
 A. Lucius. The snout is a little turned up; and 
 its resemblance to that of a pike has led to the 
 specific name Lucius. In cold weather, these animals 
 bury themselves in the mud, and become so torpid, 
 that they may be cut to pieces without shewing signs 
 ibility; 1j ut a few hours of bright sunshine are 
 them. Like the other species, they 
 are so protected by their mailed plates, that they are 
 not easily killed, except by a shot or blow over the 
 A very strong kind of leather is prepared 
 1 lie skin, which is used for making saddles. 
 It is said that a considerable quantity of oil can 
 be extracted from an A., which IS transparent and 
 burns well. The alligators of South America are 
 there very often called Caymans, probably an Indian 
 name, and some of them bear the name of Y 
 particularly A. sclerops, also distinguished as the 
 Spectacled Cayman, on account of a prominent bony 
 rim surrounding the orbit of each eye. This species 
 appears to lie widely distributed over tropical 
 America, and attains a great size. Alligators are not 
 known to exist in any quarter of the world except 
 America, in which, however, true crocodiles are also 
 found. But among the fossils of the south of 
 England are remains of a true A. (A. XTantonUnsis) 
 in the Hordle beds. The flesh of alligators is eaten 
 by Indians and negroes. It has a musky flavour. 
 — The origin of the name is uncertain, but it is 
 supposed to be a corruption of the Portuguese 
 >, a lizard. Cuvier adopted it as a scientific 
 name. 
 
 ALLIGATOR APPLE. See Custard Arr-LE. 
 
 ALLIGATOR PEAR. See Avocado Peak. 
 
 ALLITERA'TION is the frequent occurrence in 
 a composition of words beginning with the same 
 letter. In Old Herman, Anglo-Saxon, and Scandina- 
 vian poetry, A. took the place of rhyme. This 
 kind of verse, in its strict form, required that in 
 the two short lines forming a couplet, three wards 
 should begin with the same letter, two in t 1 
 line or hemistich, and one in the second; as in the 
 following couplet of Anglo-Saxon poetry : 
 
 .Firum /oMan 
 
 /rca almuitig.— Grrfmon. 
 
 A. has not quite disappeared from Icelandic poetry 
 to tins day. Alliterative poems continued to be 
 written in English after it had assumed its modern 
 form; the most remarkable is Pierce Ploicman, a 
 poem oi the 1 Ith c, of which the following is a 
 iien, the two hemistichs being written in one 
 line: 
 
 J/ercy hight that maid, 1 a meek thing withal, 
 A full ocnign turd, | and fluiom of speech. 
 
 iter the introduction of rhyme, A. continued 
 to be largely used as au embellishment of poetry, 
 and is so, though to a less extent, to this day : 
 
 The fair Areeze fclcw, the white /unm /lew, 
 Tbe/urrow/ullowcd/ree.— L'vlcridgt. 
 
 les the < '.othic, there are other nations widely 
 separated from each other, among whom the essential 
 distinction of verse is A.; theTinns, for instance, 
 and the Tamuls in the south of In- 
 
 But A. is not confined to verse ; the charm that 
 i great influence on human speech 
 generally, as may be seen in many current phrases 
 and proverbs in all languages: Ex., 'life and lirab;' 
 'house and home,' 'wide wears, tight tears.' sec. 
 It often constitutes part of the point and piquancy 
 
 of witty writing. Among modern writers this appli- 
 cation of A. is perhaps most felicitously exemplified 
 by Sidney Smith, as, when in contrasting the 
 conditions of a dignitary of the English Church and 
 of a poor curate, he speaks of them as ' the Bight 
 nd Dives in the palace, and Lazarus-in-orders 
 at the gate, doctored by t/ogs and comforted 
 crumbs. 
 
 In the early part of the 17th c, the fashion of 
 hunting after alliterations was carried to an absurd 
 ; even from the pulpit, the chosen people of 
 God were addressed as ' the chickens of the church, 
 the sparrows of the spirit, and the sweet swallows 
 of salvation.' A* , or address, pre- 
 
 sented to Mary Queen of Scots by the poet, Alex- 
 ander Scott, concludes with a stanza running thus : 
 
 Fresh, fulgent, flourist, fragrant flower formoso, 
 
 Lantern to lore, of ladies lamp and lot, 
 
 Clu rry maist chaste, chief carbuncle and chose, Ac. 
 
 In the following piece of elaborate trifling, given 
 (but without naming the author) in IL Southgate's 
 Matty Thoughts on Many Things, Alliteration is 
 combined with Acrosticism : 
 
 A n Austrian army, awfully arrayed. 
 
 It oldly by battery besieged Belgrade : 
 
 C ossack commanders cannonading come, 
 
 i> eating destruction 1 ' devastating; doom ; 
 
 V. very endeavour engineers essay 
 
 J i r lime, for fortune, forming furious (ray. 
 
 <; mint gunners grapple, giving gashes good; 
 
 II eaves high liis head heroic hardihood; 
 
 1 braliam, Islam, fsmael, imps in ill. 
 
 J octie .lolin .larnvlUz, Jem, Joe, Jack, Jill; 
 
 K ick kindling EEutUBofT, king- 1 kin-nun kill 
 
 L abour low levels loftiest, longest lin ■ ; 
 
 M en march 'mid moles, 'mid mounds, *mid murd'rous 
 
 N ow nightfall 's near, now needful nature nods, 
 O pposed, opposing, overcoming odds. 
 
 V oor peasants, partly purchased, partly pressed, 
 
 Q uite quaking, ' Quarter! quarter!' quickly quest. 
 
 K eason returns, recalls redundant rage, 
 
 B aves linking soldiers, softens signiors sage. 
 
 T nice, Turkey, truce! truce, treach'rous Tartar train! 
 
 U niriae, anjuat, uamerciml rkraine, 
 
 V anish, vile vengeance! vanish, victory vain ! 
 
 t\" isdom wails war — wails warring words. What were 
 X erscs. Xantippe, Ximenes, Xa 
 
 V et Y assy's youth, ye yield your youthful vest. 
 Z ealously, zanies, zealously, zeal's zest. 
 
 A'LLIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Liliacece (ci. v.), containing a large number of species, 
 perennial — more rarely biennial — herbaceous plants, 
 more or less decidedly bulbous-rooted, natives chiefly 
 of the temperate and colder regions of the northern 
 hemisphere. The flowers are umbellate, enclosed in 
 a spathe, and the umbel often bears also small bulbs 
 with its flowers. The jicrianth is of six spread- 
 ing pieces, resembling petals, having the stamens 
 d in tluir base. The fruit is a t riangular 
 capsule, and the seeds are angular. The leaves are 
 generally narrow, although in some species, as A. 
 ur.-inum, they are rather broad, and in a considerable 
 number they are rounded and tistulose. Garlic 
 fa. v.), Omox fa. v.), L*bk (q.v.). Shallot (q.v.), 
 Chive (q.v.), and I ! fa., v.), are species of 
 
 this genus in common 1 The first four 
 
 are cultivated in the gardens of India as well as 
 of Europe, along with md the hill- 
 
 Ot India eat the bulbs of .1. leptophyUvm, and 
 dry the lea-. rve them as a condiment. A 
 
 number of other species are occasionally used in 
 
 :it countrii s. Eight or nine species are 1 
 of Britain, of which the most common 
 (.1. ur sinum ), a species with much broader leaves 
 than- most of its congeners. It is most frequently 
 found in moist woods and hed^e-banks ; but occa- 
 sionally in pastun s. in which it proves a trouble- 
 some weed, communicating its powerful odour of 
 garlic to the whole dairy produce. Crow Garlic
 
 ALLOA— ALLOTMENT OF LAND. 
 
 f.I. vineale), another British species, is sometimes 
 
 a the same way, in drier pa 
 
 Both are perennial, an. I to rid i, th< ir 
 
 must be perseveringly rooted out, when the 
 ppear in spi 
 
 A l.l.ii. \, a seaport town in Clackmannanshire, 
 
 aid, is situated on the left bank o! the Forth, 
 
 where the river widens into its estuary, 7 m 
 
 road) below Stirling, Population in 1871, 9362. 
 
 a town of considerable antiquity, and is an 
 
 active 1 1 nl t ■ of b ide and m 
 
 eipal articles manufactured arc w hisky ami ale, the 
 latter of which is highly esteemed. 'I 
 tensive glass, iron, and brick works, and ship-building 
 yards. Copper utensils, shawls, and blankets, 
 
 leather, toba , and snuff are manufactured to a 
 
 [erable extent; andalarge quantity of coal is 
 regularly exported from the pits in the immediate 
 
 neighbour] I of the town. The latter Conns one 
 
 of tin- chief items in the coasting trade, besides 
 which there is a considerable foreign trade, chiefly 
 outwards. The total tonnage registered at the 
 porl amounts to about 8400 tons. The harbour 
 is good, with 16 feet of water at neap, and 22 at 
 spring tides ; it is furnished with a dry-dock. There 
 is a steam-boat ferry across the Forth, connecting 
 the town by a short junci ion line with the Scoti i I 
 Central Railway. It is also connected with thai 
 line, and with the Edinburgh and Northern Railway, 
 by the Stirling and Dunfermline branch. There is 
 regular steam-communication by the river with 
 
 Edinburgh and Stirling. In the neighbour}] I is 
 
 Alloa Tower, 89 feet high, supposed to have been 
 built in the l.'itli c, once the residence of the 
 Erakines, and at different times of Scottish p 
 
 ALLOCU'TION,whichsiiii|l\ tneansan 'address,' 
 is applied, in the language of the Vatican, to denote 
 specially the address delivered by the pope at the 
 College of Cardinals on any ecclesiastical or pol 
 
 circumstance. It may lie considered as corre p I 
 
 ing in some measure to the official explanations 
 which constitutional ministers give when questions 
 are asked in parliami nt, or to the political m 
 of the French emperor. The eom i makes 
 
 abundant use of this method of address, when it 
 di res to guard a principle which it is compelled to 
 give up in a particular case, or to i rve a claim 
 tor the future which has no chance of recognition 
 the present. 
 
 ALLO'DIUM, or ALLODIAL TENURE (in 
 T.aw). is the free and absolute right of property in 
 land, independent of any burden of .homage or fidelity 
 to a superior. When the principal landholders of 
 England submitted to the yoke of military tenure, 
 
 and surrendered their lands into the bands of the 
 
 Conqueror at the council of Sarum, feudality, the 
 previous existence or non-existence of which has 
 been a subject of much discussion, was formally 
 recognised, and it henceforth became a fundamental 
 
 in i ■.mi in the law of real property, that 'the kin," 
 is the universal lord and original proprietor of all 
 the lands in his kingdom, and that no man doth 
 or can possess any part of it, but what has mediately 
 or imincdiati ly been derived as a gift from him, to 
 be held upon feudal services' (Blackstone, vol. ii. 
 p. 51, Kerr's edition). Ibis maxim, though, as 
 J'.Iackstone remarks, it was even at first little more 
 than a fiction, was not peculiar to Kngland. but 
 prevailed wherever the feudal system obtained, 
 and still forms what may be called the starting- 
 point in all feudal tenures of land. Even where 
 subinfeudations have prevailed to the 
 extent, every title is traceable, in the last instance, 
 to the paramount and universal superiority of the 
 Sec FEUDAL System. The surrender of 
 166 
 
 lauds in England being the result of political 
 
 , e. is one universal national act, and. - 
 
 qui ntl> . allodia] tenun a ased to exist ; but 
 
 in in. in. other countries ii was accomplished by 
 private arrangements between the allodial pro]. 
 and the prince, the former being anxious I 
 their nominal independence foi the rea 
 
 Is of i iverei m the latter 
 . i\e them a i dependents, I 
 
 either oi tl i a] > in war, or 
 
 the equivalents of these servi 
 
 e, the produce of the lauds. In such 
 countries, feudality, though s neral, was not uni- 
 versal; and allodial tenures consequi nil\ continued 
 to subsist alongside of those originating with the 
 
 crown. In this position was Denmark, and it i ■ 
 
 curious that . only i camples of allodial tenures to 
 be met with iii Great Britain are the CTdal rights in 
 
 the islands of Orkney and Shetland, which formerly 
 
 belonged to that country. 'When these islands,' 
 
 says Mr Erskine, 'were first transferred from the 
 
 crown of Denmark to that of Scotland, the right of 
 
 ! lands was held by natural possession, and 
 
 be proved by witnesses, without any title in 
 
 writing, which had probably been their law formerly 
 while they were subject to Denmark; and to this 
 day, the lands, the proprietors of which have never 
 applied to the sovereign, or those deriving right from 
 him, for charters, are enjoyed in tins manner.' By 
 the law of Scotland, all properly and Buperioritii 
 belonging to the crown itself, and all churches, 
 churchyards, man and gli ! " . the ri hi to which 
 does not How from the crown, are regarded B8 
 allodial ; and the term in a wider SI use, as opposed 
 to/ tidal generally, is sometimes used with refi renci 
 to movable property. 
 
 The etymology of the word A. lias been much 
 discussed, and both I clue and Teutonic origin 
 been a ■ tied to it. The latter s.-. m the more 
 probable conjectures, as the word, in senses closely 
 resembling that which we attach to it. is to be 
 found in all Se,'ini]in:i\ ian and Uci manic Ian: oages. 
 On this supposition, its derivation from nil (all, 
 or wholly) and od (property), seems probable. 
 
 Anotle ■• assigns it to nil and o. ./. (w; 
 
 That adopted by .Mr Erskine, of its having 
 
 coin] J oi .i privative, and leude or leute, people 
 
 (taken from the poop ins wholly in 
 
 as being inconsistent with the forms of Teutonic 
 
 speech. 
 
 ALLO'PATHY. See Homoeopathy. 
 
 ALLOTMENT OF LAND, although not a 
 technical, is a well-understood expression in the law 
 of England; and under the General Kuclosure Act 
 ! 41 ( In. 111. c. 109), is used to denote the kind of 
 conveyance or distribution direci d to be made to 
 the pel ion or persons who at the time of the drt 
 and enclosure shall have the actual possession of the 
 lands, b nements, or hereditaments, m lieu of, or in 
 right of which the allotment is made, but wil 
 
 ■ any question of title. By the ancient 
 Statute of Merton (-20 Henry III. c 4), the lord of 
 the manor, or any other owner of a common, mi. 
 enclose so much of the waste as he pleases for tillage 
 or wood-ground, provided sutlieielit is left for otln 
 parties entitled to the use of the same. This right, 
 to enclose common fields and waste lands lias in 
 modern times been very generally extended through- 
 out England by means of local acts of parliament, a 
 number of the regulations of which have been con- 
 solidated by the act above referred to, by section 7 
 of which commissioners are appointed to make the 
 allotment. 
 
 Generally speaking, this term, as a legal word, 
 may be considered as signifying the grant or
 
 ALLOTROPY— ALLOW A1JCES, OFFICEES". 
 
 allowance of a portion of land too inconsiderable to 
 be made the Bubject of a forma] conveyance ; and in 
 this sense it has been used to denote tlie system or 
 species of agricultural holding which prevailed to 
 some extent in England towards the close "f the 
 last Century, but which was not in common use 
 throughout the country till is.'iii, when the a 
 tural labourers In many counties owing to thi a 
 of thrashing-machines and other improvements, 
 which they dreaded would lower their wages 
 rose in insurrection against their employers. To 
 this danger, the A. system was resorted to, 
 and different societies were established for its 
 promotion; and by the comparative contentment 
 and comfort it produced, it may be considered 
 to have been successful in its object. It has 
 been stated to have diminished crime among the 
 peasantry, and generally to have improved and 
 elevated their character. By the form of agreement 
 usually signed by A. truants, the use of the spade 
 in the cultivation of land is insisted upon, and the 
 plough prohibited, and there are other conditions 
 of the occupancy more or less capricious. The A. 
 may be forfeited for non-payment of the rent, 
 
 ii tenant's misconduct or crime, or wilful [i ci 
 
 of his land; but it has been thought (inadvisable to 
 exclude any one from enjoying an A. on account 
 of his previous bad character, a , from thi nature of 
 the industrious occupation which the A. nece; it, ib -, 
 there is the chance of Ins reclaiming his ch i 
 See Spade Husbandry. 
 
 ALLOTROPY is the term applied in chemistry 
 to the existence of the same clement in various 
 forms, each of which, though containing no extra- 
 neous substance, possesses dlffi rent properties from 
 the others. The various conditions in which a single 
 element can be obtained are known as its aflo- 
 tropic modifications, and though as yet only a few 
 elementary substances have ben observed to exhibit 
 such modifications, yet it is generally believed that 
 every element is capable of existing in 
 
 allotropie forms. Phosphorus affords an excellent 
 illustration of this doctrine. In ordinary circum- 
 stances, and when freshly prepared, phosphorus is a 
 pale, yellow solid, of the consistence and aspect of 
 wax, and to some extent flexible and translucent. 
 It requires to be placed in a vessel with water to 
 keep it from taking fire spontaneously. At any 
 lary natural temperature it appears luminous, 
 and evolves an alliaceous odour when exposed to air. 
 Owing to a slow process of combustion taking place ; 
 and when wanned to 140° P., it bursts into flame, 
 and burns vividly. Common phosphorus is soluble 
 in alcohol, ether, the fixed aud volatile oils, and 
 especially in bisulphuret of carbon, 1111) parts of 
 which, when warm, dissolve 20 parts of phosphorus. 
 But tic imeel m at, when dried and kept for some 
 days, with little or no access of air, at a temper- 
 ature tanging from 446° to 482° P., passes, weight 
 for weight without addition or Mil. tract ion of 
 matter -into a reddish substance, which is known to 
 chemists a.s (imor/i/iuiis phosphorus. The colour of this 
 new variety is scarlet, brownish red, or even blackish 
 ted ; and It exists as a powder or cake, w Inch does 
 
 not evolve anj odour, or readily take fire, and 
 fore needs no! to be preserved under water. When 
 I to 140 . and even to a. temperature a little 
 short of 482°, it refuses to burn; and, in fact, it is 
 questionable if phosphorus in this condition will take 
 fire at all ; though at 482°, and above, the red variety 
 pa bach again to the ordinary or yellow phos- 
 phorus, and then bursts into flame. Moreover, amor- 
 phous phosphorus is insoluble in alcohol, i 
 
 the fixed and volatile ods, and even in bisulphuret 
 of carbon. Probably the most striking difference 
 between these two forms of the same substance is, 
 
 that ordinary phosphorus is a deadly poison, as is too 
 often evider of children from suck- 
 
 ing the ends of In, m r-ii ivhilst the red or 
 
 lions phosphorus is not known to be poisonous 
 at all.- Besides the two varieties already men- 
 tioned, and which are best known, there a,\- black 
 phoaphonu, whUi j . and scaly \ 
 
 i he only manner of accounting for the c 
 
 ! properties evinced by ordinary and red 
 phosphorus, is to refer tl to an absoi 
 
 of heat during the pa igi of the ordinary inl 
 ted variety. It is an observed fact that such 
 
 absorption or disappear: i ol hi ' di then take 
 
 place ; whilst, when the red phosphorus is heated 
 till it passes back to the ordinary kind, a very 
 rapid disengagement of hi 
 
 Sulphur furnishes another example of A. In 
 the ordinary condition of roll-sulphur, 
 yellow, brittle, crystalline solid ; insipid to taste, 
 odourless when cold, and evolving a peculiar odour 
 when heated or rubbed. It dissolves in small 
 quantity in turpentine and the G . nd to 
 
 the extent of 35 per cent, in bisulphurel of carbon. 
 When common sulphur is heated to 232 . n 
 and forms a thin, yellow, limpid liquid I 
 oil; at 480°, it passes into a thick. dark-brown. 
 Liquid, resembling in consiste] ordinary treacle; 
 
 and if, at this stage, it be poured into water, the 
 
 sulphur forms itself into a thread-like mass or net- 
 work, possessing great elasticity, like india tubbi cue: 
 at all brittle, and so soft, that it can be moulded by 
 tie fingers into casts and seals. Again, this elastic 
 form of sulphur is no! soluble in turpentine ani 
 
 US, or even in bisulphuret Of carbon. There 
 
 i other allotropie forms of sulphur. 
 ( Kvgen may be taken as a third illustration of the 
 same doctrine. In the ordinary form in wh 
 exists in the atmosphere and elsewhere, it is 
 with no odour, no bleaching properties, and no dis- 
 infectant powers. To a certain extent, it oxi 
 metals. &c; but comparatively, it maybe regarded 
 
 eble oxidising agent. By several pro© - 
 namely, the introduction of a heated glass rod into a 
 jar containing ordinary air and a little ether; or 
 the presence of clean-scraped sticks of phosphorus 
 in a glass vessel with a confined portion of air; 
 or the passage of electric discharges through or 
 
 round a glass tube or bottle with air — tl Eygen 
 
 of the atmospheric air is transformed into an 
 allotropie form called ozone. In the latter condition, 
 oxygen possesses a verystroi] 
 
 long known as the electrical odour; has great bleach- 
 ing powers, and is regarded as the agent in the air 
 which bleaches clothes on the household bh ach- 
 ing-green ; and possesses such powerful disinfe 
 properties, that tainted meat introdu 
 air, has Hie di agreeable odour destro] d, and smells 
 fresh when taken out. Ozone is doubtless the 
 gnat natural agent which removes man-. 
 gases and . e. after 
 
 fhiating in or diffused through the air. See Ozonk. 
 
 ALLOWANCES, Officf-rs - . In the British 
 army— and to i other 
 
 countries military officers, besides their I 
 niscd pay, receive certain A. tot duties, 
 
 or ■when placed under , cceptional circumstances. 
 
 Without detailing the actual amount of these 
 
 A., it may be well to en rate the principal 
 
 modes in which they arise. An officer command- 
 ing and paj op or company, 
 contingent allowance as an indemnification for the 
 
 expense of repairing | , and scabbards; 
 
 for burials; and for the debts of soldiers who b 
 non-effective. A kind of general average is struck 
 for the probable amount of these charges. An officer 
 on duty in the United Kingdom, m a situation 
 
 167
 
 ALLOWAY KIRK-ALLOY. 
 
 entitling him to be lodged at the public expense, 
 and whose lodging is not otherwise paid for by the 
 public, receives an allowance as 'lodging-n 
 
 ag in amount according to his rank, in officer 
 mg with troops i» the [Jnited Kingdom, on 
 a route determined bycompetent authority, if unable 
 s with In ment on a 
 
 particular day, receives an allowance in camp 
 (ion. An officer scut on permanent or temp 
 duty from one place to anotli' • . a travelling 
 
 allowance of so much per mile. An officer 
 on a court-martial receives an allowance . \ lomuch 
 per day, besides a travelling allowance if the place 
 bant. An officer temporarily detached on 
 duty, where lie cannot join his regjm 
 has an allowance for mess-money. Besides those 
 here enumerated, there are A. for detention at ports 
 of embarkation, &c, and othi rs of a minor kind. 
 
 A. or extra payments to private soldiers and 
 non-commissioned officers, will be noticed under 
 Pay, Pension, &c. — The daily food served out at 
 the public expense, which is called . 
 
 rs, is more usually known to sailors as an 
 \nce. See Ration. 
 
 A'LLOWAY KIRK, an old ruined church in the 
 parish of Ayr, mar the mouth of the J loon, celebrated 
 in Burns's Ta wiler. At very short dii 
 
 from it are the cottage in which the poet wa 
 the monumei ! lo his memory in 1S2.'S, and 
 
 the ' Twa Brigs,' 'theAuld Brig o' Doon' and the 
 new bridge over that river. 
 
 ALLOY' (in Chemistry) is .1 mixture of two or 
 more metals, either natural, or produced artificially 
 by melting them together. The A., or mixture, has 
 often different properties from the component metals, 
 and hears a distinct name. Thus, bell-metal is an A. 
 of copper and tin; tombak, of copper and zinc; 
 brass, of copper, with a larger proportion of zinc, 
 &c. Alloys are generally harder than the 1 
 thai eompo ;e them, and this is the motive for alloy- 
 ing the precious metals. Until gold and silver, « hen 
 pure, are very soft, and easily worn away by use; 
 and ther. -fore, a certain proportion of copper is 
 added, to give these metals the requisite hardness. 
 In this case the word 'alloy' signifies the inferior 
 metal added, and not the mixture. For coin, the 
 proportion "f copper to be added is fixed by law 
 (see the following article), and differs in differenl 
 It has been found by experiment that ,'5 of 
 A. gives the greatest durability. This is exactly the 
 proportion in British gold coin, a pound troy of the 
 metal containing 11 parts gold and 1 part copper. 
 The A. in our silver coin is somewhat less, being IS 
 dwt in the pound instead of 20dwt. Forconveni- 
 ence in reckoning, the standard of the coinage in 
 France, and other countries that adopt its monetary 
 system, as well as in the United State,;, is made ,';, 
 pure metal and -j'rr A., usually stated 900 (in NKlli) 
 parts line. Our gold and silver standards similarly 
 stated WOUld be !H7 and 925 respectively. I 
 
 limes alloyed with silver, or with a mixture of 
 silver and copper. The colour of gold and silver is 
 affected by the nature and amount of the A. A 
 strong A of copper makes gold red ; of silver, green ; 
 and a still stronger of silver, a bright yellow. A 
 compound of mercury with another metal is an 
 Amalgam (q. v.). 
 
 Alloys seldom possess the density which theory or 
 calculation from tho specific gravity of their con- 
 stituents would indicate. Thus, many alloys po 
 a greater density than the mean density of their cou- 
 nts, whilst others have a less density. The 
 increase in density of tho A. indicates that the 
 metals have contracted; in other words, that the 
 metallic molecules have approached each other more 
 
 ; whilst the decrease in density denotes ■ 
 separation of the molecules to greater distances from 
 
 each other. 
 
 AI.I.OVS 
 
 which exhibit ■ greater denolty 
 Ityofthe 
 
 metals composing them. 
 
 Gold and Zinc. 
 
 „ ,, I 
 
 n » Bismuth. 
 
 n ii Antimony. 
 „ Cobalt. 
 Silver „ Zinc. 
 ,. Tin. 
 
 i, n Bismuth. 
 
 ,, » Antimony. 
 C ii. Zinc 
 , Tin. 
 
 I, .. Palladium. 
 
 n ., Bismuth. 
 Lead ii Antimony. 
 Platinum and Molybdenum. 
 Palladium .. bismuth. 
 
 The strength or cohe i if an A. is generally 
 
 greater than that of the mean eh. ■ ..hi nl I lie metal . 
 
 contained therein, or even of that of the most cohesive 
 of its constituents. Thus, the breaking weight of a 
 bar of copper or tin (meaning the longitudinal 
 strain it can bear) is very much lower ihan the 
 breaking weight of a bar composed of an A. of tin 
 and copper. The following bibles represent the 
 
 ALLOYS 
 
 which poma ii !.■- 
 
 than tl ii mi .In.- It] ni lie- 
 
 metala composing them. 
 Hold and Silver, 
 n ii Iron. 
 ., bead. 
 
 a H Co] 
 •i h Irid 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 i loppei . 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Bilvi r. 
 
 Antiii. 
 
 Silver 
 
 llell 
 
 Tin 
 
 Nickel 
 Zinc 
 
 COHESION OF 
 
 51 ETA I.S. 
 
 
 
 
 Bar, one Incl 
 
 
 
 hreuks v. nl. 
 
 
 
 
 it >i. 
 
 Barbary Copper, 
 
 
 
 22,570 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 20,272 
 
 lish Block Tin, . 
 
 
 
 6,650 
 
 ii .1 a 
 
 
 
 6,322 
 
 Bar a Tin, . 
 
 
 
 3,679 
 
 Malacca Tin, 
 
 
 
 3,211 
 
 Bismuth, 
 
 
 
 3.00S 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 
 
 2.6S9 
 
 Antimony, . 
 
 
 
 1,060 
 
 bead, 
 
 
 
 8S5 
 
 When any two of the 
 
 al 
 
 iovo metals combine 
 
 her, they generally — 
 
 hough not al 
 
 grays — yield 
 
 an A. which is much stronger than 
 
 wo slioidd 
 
 expect ; thus the 
 
 
 
 
 COHESION OF 
 
 ALLOYS. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Bar, one inch square, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 L-iils with 
 
 lb.. 
 
 10 parts of Copper and 1 
 
 part of Tin, . 
 
 32,093 
 
 8 „ n 1 
 
 it 
 
 ii 
 
 36,088 
 
 G i, „ 1 
 
 i, 
 
 ii 
 
 44,071 
 
 4 „ „ 1 
 
 ii 
 
 „ 
 
 85,739 
 
 2 „ „ 1 
 
 i, 
 
 it • 
 
 1,017 
 
 1 „ ,. 1 
 
 „ 
 
 „ 
 
 725 
 
 ■1 „ English Tin and 1 
 
 „ 
 
 Lead, . 
 
 10,607 
 
 4 i, lianca ii ii 1 
 
 ,, 
 
 Antimony,13,4S0 
 
 4 „ , 1 
 
 ii 
 
 bismuth, 10,0U2 
 
 4 „ English Tin » 1 
 
 „ 
 
 Zinc, . 
 
 10,258 
 
 4 n ii ii ii 1 
 
 « 
 
 Antimony, 11,323 
 
 The power of conducting electrical currents is 
 not so great in an A. as the mean conducting- 
 [lower of its components. 
 
 The composition of the more commonly occurring 
 and commercially important alloys, is as follows : 
 Plumber's solder, 1 tin and 2 lead ; soft solder, 2 tin 
 and 1 lead ; common pewter, 4 tin and 1 lead ; 
 gun-nietal, 9 copjier and 1 tin ; bronze, 9 copper and 
 1 tin and zinc ; cymbals and Chinese gongs, 4 copper
 
 ALLOY— ALLSTOX. 
 
 and 1 tin ; bell-metal, .'; copper and 1 tin ; speculum 
 metal, - copper and 1 tin ; pot-metal or cock-metal, 
 2 copper and 1 lead; gilding-metal, 16 copper and 1 
 to 1 1 zinc; Mannheim gold pinchbeck or bath- 
 metal, L6 copper and 4 zinc; Bristol brass, for 
 Soldering, 16 copper and 6 zinc; ordinary I 
 
 ting, 16 copper and 8 zinc; Muntz sheathing- 
 metal, 16 copper and 10J zinc; spelter Bolder, for 
 rand iron, L6 copper and 12 zinc; gp liter solder, 
 for brass- work, 16 copper and 16 zinc; Mosaic gold, 
 16 copper and 16* zinc; hardest silver Bolder, 4 silver 
 and 1 copper; hard .silver solder, 3 silver and 1 
 copper; soft silver solder, 2 .silver and 1 copper; 
 German silver, 100 i ipper, 60 zinc, and 40 nickel; 
 type-metal, ordinary, 15 lead, -1 . ■ . and 1 
 
 tin, or 14 lend, 7> antimony, and 1 tin small types, 
 4 lead and 1 antimony — lar • type . 6 lead and 
 1 antimony; stereotype metal, 48 lead, 6 antimony, 
 and 1 tin ; Britannia metal, 50 tin, 4 antimony, 4 
 In ninth, and 1 copper. 
 
 ALLOY, or ALLAY (in Law), the term used to 
 denote the base metal mixed with gold and silver in 
 the coinage of tho realm. The gold and silver to be 
 converted into sovereigns, half-sovereigns, shillings, 
 and the other current silver coins, must be of the 
 I in standard, or ol sterling quality, as it is called; 
 and by the statute 25 Edward 111. c. 13, all the 
 coin ot the kingdom must be made of such ster- 
 ling metal. By the 50 Geo. III. c. liS, gold coin — 
 with certain exceptions recited in the act — is declared 
 to he tho only legal tender for payments, and that 
 such gold coin shall be of the weight and linencss 
 prescribed by the indenture with the Master of the 
 Mint; and according to the standard thus indicated, 
 the pound troy of gold, consisting of twenty-two carats 
 — or twenty-fourth parts — fine, and two of A., is 
 divided into forty-four guineas and a half, of the pre- 
 sent value of twenty-one shillings each. In the case 
 of silver, the pound troy is declared by the same 
 act — extended by a recent statute, the 12 and 13 
 Vict. c. 41 — to consist of eleven ounces two penny- 
 weights of fine silver, and eighteen pennyweights 
 of A., and in weight to be divided into sixty-six 
 shillings. The regulation of the coinage forms part 
 of the prerogative of the crown, although parliament 
 also exercises a control over it; indeed, since the 
 Revolution, the coinage has been chiefly regulated 
 by the authority of parliament. See COINAGE and 
 .Mint. 
 
 ALL-SAINTS' BAY, in the province of Bahia, 
 Brazil, in 12°— 13" S. lat., and 38°— 39° W. long. 
 
 It forms a superb natural harbour, iu which the 
 _ navies of the whole world might anchor. Its length 
 from X. to S. is 37 miles ; its breadth from E. 
 to W. 27. It contains several islands, the largest of 
 which, Itaparica, is 18 miles long, and 3 broad. The 
 entrance to the bay is easy. The town of Bahia 
 (q. v.) lies just within it, on the right hand. 
 
 ALL-SAINTS'-DAY, in old English, All-ITal- 
 lows, All-Hallowmas, or simply Hallowmas, a festival 
 of the iioman Catholic Church, introduced because of 
 the impossibility of keeping a separate day for every 
 saint. As early as the 4th c, on the cessation of 
 the persecution of the Christians, the Sunday after 
 Easter was appointed by the Greek Church for 
 commemorating the martyrs generally; and in the 
 i mirch of Homo a similar festival was introduced 
 about G10 A.D., when the old heathen Pantheon (the 
 present liotouda, or Santa Maria dei iMartiri) was 
 consecrated, on the 13th of March, to Maiy and all 
 the Martyrs. But the real festival of All Saints was 
 iirst regularly instituted by Gregory IV., in 835, and 
 appointed to be celebrated on tho 1st November. It 
 was admitted into England about 870. The choice 
 of the day was doubtless determined by the fact, 
 
 that November 1, or rather the eve or night preceding 
 
 it, was one of tie . ,|-, d-t I'ebruary, 
 
 1st May, 1st An 1st November) of the 
 
 heathen nations of the north; for it was the 
 of the church to supplant heathen by Christian 
 observances. .. I. ; , m: and Hallow i 
 
 ALL-SOTTLSVDAY, a festival of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, which falls on the iM of Novem- 
 ber, 'l lie object of it is, by prayers and almsi 
 to alleviate i i js of the souls in purgatory! 
 
 It was Iirst instituted in tin- monastery of Clugny, 
 993, and the following is the account givi n i 
 circumstance in which it originated: A pUgr m return- 
 ing from the Holy Land, was compelled by a storm 
 to land on a rocky island somewh n en Sicily 
 
 and Thessalonica. Here he- found a hermit, who told 
 him that among the cliffs of Un- island was situated 
 the opening into the under world, thn 
 huge flames ascended, and the groans and cries of 
 souls tormented by evil angel ndible. The 
 
 hermit had also frequently heard the compl 
 and imprecations of the devils, at the number of 
 souls that were torn from them by the pi 
 and alms of the pious; they were especially enraged, 
 he said, against the Abbot and monks of (1 
 The pilgrim on his arrival acquainted OdUo, ' 
 of Clugny, with what had come to his know- 
 ledge, and tho abbot thereupon appointed the day 
 after All Saints to be kept in his monastery as 
 an annual festival for 'All Souls.' The observance 
 was quickly adopted by the whole Catholic world. 
 By another account, the scene of the incident is 
 transferred to Sicily, and the institution to the 
 year 90S. 
 
 In some parts of the west of England it is still 'the 
 custom for the village children to go round to all 
 their neighbours sending, as they caU it — collecting 
 small contributions, and singing the following . 
 taken down from two of the children themselves : 
 
 Soul! bouII for a soul-cake ; 
 
 Pray, g i mistress, for a M>ul-cako. 
 
 One f"i Peter, two for Paul, 
 Three for Them who made us Ml. 
 
 Soul ! rouI ! for an apple or two : 
 
 If you 've got no Apples, pears will do. 
 
 Up willi \our kettle, and down with your pan [ 
 
 Give me a good big one, and 1 11 be gone. 
 
 The soul-cake referred to in the verses is a sort of 
 bun, which, untd lately, it was an almost general 
 custom for people to make, ami to give to one 
 another on the 2d of November.' — Xotes and < t >. 
 First Series, vol. 4. 
 
 A'LLSPICE, a name frequently given to the 
 kind of spiee called 1'iMr.M.v (q. V.) or Jamaica 
 pepper, the fruit of Eugenia pimenta and £'. 
 The name originated in its being supposed to com- 
 bine the flavour of differen particularly 
 cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. — The name Caboi isa 
 A., or A.MKKICAX A., is given to the aromatic bark of 
 Calycanthiu floridus (see Caxycaotitob), which is 
 employed in tho United States as a substitute for 
 cinnamon. — The berries of B ri/erum, of 
 the natural order Lauracete, are said to have been 
 used for A. in the same country during the war with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 ALLSTOX, WASHINGTON, one of the best known 
 of the painters and poets of America, was born at 
 George Town, South Carolina, in 1770. He at tirst 
 prosecuted the study of medicine, but was after- 
 wards induced, by his acquaintance with the painter 
 Malbone, to devote himself to art. When he had 
 completed his studies in America, he went to London, 
 where he became a friend of his countryman Wi it, 
 who was at that time president of the Academy. 
 In the year 1804, he proceeded to Home, where he 
 
 US
 
 ALLUVION— AT. MM : P.O. 
 
 lived for some yean in the closest intimacy with .1. 
 Vanderlyn, Thorwaldsen, and Colerid e. after a 
 short stay in America, to which be retained in 1809, 
 In- once more visited England in 1811, when he 
 
 fthi 200 guinea prize of the British Institution, 
 ii 1817 1"' went to Paris with Leslie, and tl • 
 after returned to America. In 1819, he was elected 
 .in Associate of the Royal Academy of London. He 
 now permanently fixed his n > I ambridge 
 
 Port, near Boston, where he lived, cultivating b 
 ami the muses, till liis death on the Stli of Jul} 
 |s(:;. His pictures are very munero 
 of them are mostly taken from Scripture, such as, 
 
 -i ii . Dream, Elijah in the Wilderness, Saul and 
 
 . itch of Endor, the Deliveiance of Peter out of 
 Prison, &c The style of A. is noble, bis ideas 
 are imaginative, and man) of bis paintin 
 true poetic spirit. In cohiuring, ho ■ ■ i- tin' 
 
 old masters than most modern painters do. Among 
 bis printed works, tin- most remarkable and 
 known is the poem, The Sylpi 
 
 (published first in Lond 1813), and the art-novel, 
 
 Monaldi (Bost 1842). 
 
 ALLU'VIOX. This is .-i I gal term, nifyinc 
 land gained fro up of sand 
 
 and earth bo as to mak< the right 
 
 of pro lated as follows in 
 
 the laws o) Eingland and Scotland: By the law of 
 i land, if the addition to the soil thus made be by 
 little and little, by small i 
 it goes t'i the owner of the land immediately 
 
 in' I; bul if ! L, be a Budden and considerable 
 
 acquisition from the ihore, the ground acquired 
 shall belong t" the crown. Where, however, the 
 crown ma} bavi mad< s grant to a subject cum 
 that is. the Bpace between the bigh 
 and low water marks it would seem that a sudden 
 iiii increase of lands by A. within these 
 limits must belong to the grantee. In the Scotch 
 law, again, if the A. is mad. insensibly, it is said to 
 'accresce' to, or become the propertj w the owner of 
 the ground to which the addition is made; but if it 
 
 be caused bj a violent il 1. or by any convulsion 
 
 of nature, the ground so added to the Boil does not 
 
 belong i" tl « in <ii the latter, but remains the 
 
 property of the person of whose land it originally 
 I part. The Scotch law does not recognise such 
 right iif the crown on this subject as is allowed by 
 the law of England. In Scotland, the shore is not 
 co tderedto be the property of the sovereign; but 
 it is presumed to 1"- grant* '1 as a part and pertinent 
 of the adjacent land, under the burdi a of the 
 crown's right as trustee for the public asi 
 navigaf bing are the chief, 
 
 ALI.I VMM. a term originally applied to those 
 deposits which were supposed to I formed 
 
 quently to the Fl 1. while Diluvium (q. v.) 
 
 included its products. In modern gi ologic J classifi- 
 cation, these two terms, in this d e, bave been 
 abolished, as their connection with the Di 
 denied. The diluvial and alluvial deposits are 
 included under the Plcistoci ne I'm in i n (q. v.). 
 The nam.' is now given to those deposits of mud, 
 i, 4c, which .ire brought down by 
 streams and rivers and spread over lower lands. 
 Sec Delta; Dkst/dation. 
 
 Ahl.Yid "lifl. a fort in the district of the same 
 nam- m India. Lit. 27 66' N\. long. 78 8' E. It 
 lies on the route between Agra and Delhi, being 
 65 miles from the former, and 74 from the latter. 
 Partly to this commanding situation, and partly to 
 the strength derived from its surrounding marshes, 
 it owes any importance that it possesses. It was 
 stormed hy the British in 1S03, being then the 
 principal depot of the French party in the Doab — 
 loo 
 
 iloit of sufficient consequence to lie emmom- 
 bj a ne. id m 1851. But within six yean 
 after 1851, A. became the arena of a still more 
 ., Ten days atter the outbreak at 
 Mei int. tin native troops in garrison nun 
 Fortunately, the Europeans escaped witl 
 tn.lv little oi life. But the temporary 
 
 the place was severely felt far bey I the 
 
 iinnic. I: bourh 1. as alum t cuttin 
 
 tho communications between the south-east and 
 the north-vi i t, 
 
 A'LM A. a river in the Crimea, rising at the foot 
 of the Tchadir Dagh, and Bowing westward into the 
 
 Pay of k.'ilalnita, about balf-Vi D Eupatoria 
 
 baatopoL On the steep hanks of this Btr 
 
 i the channel of which the Briti Ii troops 
 
 waded i bower of bullets, a brilliant victory 
 
 won on the 20th of September 1854, by the 
 
 ailed armies of Britain and France, under Lord 
 
 Raglan and .Marshal St Arnaiid, over the Ru i 
 
 army commanded by Prince Menschikoff 
 
 \ LMAOK'S, A suite of assembly-rooms in 
 Bung sire, i. si James's. Thej were built in 17ti.i 
 by Almack, a tavern-l n b< ace called 
 
 Umack's Rooms;* they are now generally c 
 
 Rooms, from the name of the present pro- 
 prietor. The name of A. is chiefly associated with 
 
 iii balls that have, -mee tl pening of the rooms, 
 
 been held there under the management of a com- 
 
 of Indies of high rank ; and ha hi c 
 
 synonymous with aristocratic exclusivi 
 
 ices".* Jmirnal, First, lies, vol. vi. p. P_'."i. 
 ALMADF.X or ALMADE1S DEL LZOGTJE 
 (Aral lie. 'the mine of quick Iver'), a town in Spain, 
 50 miles S.W. ot ( liudad Real, is the ( 
 ( '. tobrix of the Romans, and is situated between two 
 mountains in the chain of the Sierra Morena. 
 9000. It is famous for its quicksilver mines, the 
 richest in the world, producing annually about 
 
 2,1 ,090 lbs. These mines were worked by the 
 
 a ot Iberian ; afterwards l>y the I; us. They 
 
 were rented by the Fu ei of Augsburg in the 16th 
 
 c, but were taken under the eaie ot the Spanish 
 
 government in 1645. Some years since, the hrm of 
 Rothschild undertook the working of these mines. 
 There is a Bchool of mines in the pi 
 
 A'LMAGEST, the name given by the Arabs to 
 the great work of Ptolemy the astronomer (q. v.). 
 
 ALMAGRO, Dikoo i>', a Spanish conquistador 
 — i.e„ advent in c in the conquest of South Ami ri a, 
 im in 1 Ifi I. He was a foundling, and derived 
 his name from the town in the vicinity of which lie 
 v i found. Alone with many other adventurers, 
 he went, as was common in thos ■ days, to Seek his 
 
 fortune in the new* world which Columbus had 
 
 Opened up. There he insiderable wealth 
 
 by plunder, and became one of the most influential 
 
 in tic new colony "f Darieii, when he was 
 
 led to join Pizarro in his attack on Peru. 
 
 The undertaking was crowned with astonishing 
 
 Ei now appointed, in the absence 
 
 of Pizarro, who bad returned to Spain with rich 
 
 i\ r of the conquered country, and 
 
 1 permission from the Spanish court to conquer 
 for himself a special province south of the territory 
 subdued by Pi/arro. In I'M, therefore, he man 1" d 
 on Chili, penetrated deeply into the land, and 
 returned in 1536, just when the Peruvians had 
 flown to arms under their young Inca, Mungo L'apae, 
 and shut up the Spaniards in CUZCO and Puna. A< 
 these towns lay south of Pizarro's district, they were 
 
 * Almack, it is said, was originally a poor Scottisli 1 1 i trli - 
 lander, named M'Call. As a preparatory step to rising into 
 importance in London, he inverted the syllables of his name.
 
 ALMALEE— ALMANAi . 
 
 claimed by A. He dispersed the Peruvian army 
 before Cuzco, and advanced with his forces against 
 
 Lima, hoping to make In !i sole master of the 
 
 coimtry. But the crafty Pizarro contriyedj by means 
 
 of a truce, to pain time for collecting his forces. 
 On the Oth of April 1538, a desperate engaj i mi al 
 took place near Cuzco, in which A. was defeated 
 and taken prisoner. He was condemned to death; 
 and on the 26th of the same month, he was stra 
 in prison, and his corpse beheaded in the market- 
 place of Cuzco. His s.m, Diego d'A., gathering 
 together Beveral hundreds of his father's followers, 
 stormed the palace of Pizarro, whom he assassinated 
 (loll); he then proclaimed himself captain-general 
 of Peru; but, the I'm nils of tin- murdered governor 
 ng his claims, Baca de Castro was sent out 
 Spain, as Bupreme arbiter, to quell all disturb- 
 ances. Diego was now requested to submit; and 
 on In attacked by the troops of Baca, 
 
 i the bloodiest battle took place that had evi r 
 known in America (1542). Diego, having 
 defeated and taken prisoner, was executed 
 along with forty of his companions. 
 
 ALMALEE, or A I, .MA LI', a large town of Asiatic 
 Turkey, in the pashalic of Anatolia. It is .-■ 
 on the river Myra. about 25 miles from the sea, and 
 is much frequented by European merchants from 
 .Smyrna, &c, who purchase the various products of 
 the place. A. has numerous mills propelled by 
 
 r, tan-yards, dye-works, and factories. The 
 inhabitants are very industrious, and everywhere 
 may be seen indications of their prosperity — in the 
 clean and comfortable houses, neat apparel, excellent 
 roads, fences, bridges, &c. A. is built m a picturesque 
 valley at the edge of a large plateau, 5000 feet above 
 the sea, and is embosomed in gardens, which, together 
 with the minarets and lofty poplars interspersed 
 through the town, give it a striking appearance. 
 Top. 20,000. " 
 
 A'LJIA MATER (I.at. nourishing mother) is a 
 name given to a university in relation to those who 
 have studied at it, to distinguish it from inferior 
 schools of learning. The word Alum (nourishing, 
 sustaining, or kind) was applied by the Latin authors 
 to such of tlie deities as were friendly to men — I lares, 
 Venus, &C, and also to the earth, the light, the day, 
 wine, and the soil. 
 
 A'LMANAC, from the Arabic article at, and 
 manah, to count, a word received by tic European 
 nations from the east, denoting a book or table con- 
 taining a calendar of the civil divisions of the year, 
 the times of the various astronomical phenomena, 
 and other useful m- entertaining information. Till a 
 comparatively modern date, this additional matter 
 consisted of astrological predictions and other analo- 
 gous absurdities; it now embraces, in the best 
 almanacs, a wide variety of useful notes and infor- 
 mation, chronological, statistical, political, agricul- 
 tural, &c. — The Alexandrian Greeks had almanacs. 
 The tune at which they first appeared in Europe is 
 
 not precisely known. The oldest of which copies (in 
 
 manuscript) still exist, are of the 14th c. ; there 
 are specimens in the libraries of the British M 
 
 and of Corpus Christi College. Cambridge, The 
 
 earliest European A. worthy of notice was compiled 
 by the celebrated astronomer 1'urbach, and appeared 
 between the years 1450 and 1401 ; but the first 
 printed A. was thai composed by his pupil. I: 
 montauus, for the thirty years from 1475 to 1500, 
 for whuh he received a munificent donation from 
 Mathias Corvinus, king of Hungary. Bernard de 
 
 Or; lacks of Barcelona commenced the publication 
 
 of an A. in 14S7 ; the printer Kngel of Vienna, in 
 1491; and stoillcr of Tubingen, in 1524 Copies of 
 these are now very rare. In 1533 Rabelais published. 
 
 at Lyon, his A. for that year, and renewed the 
 publication in 1535, 1548, and 1550. The fane 
 [popularity of the celebrated astrologer, Nostradamus, 
 who prophesied minutely the death of Henry II. 
 of France, the execution of i harles I. of England, 
 the great lire of London, the Restoration, &&, gave 
 u impulse to the publication of predictions, 
 that, in 1579, Henry III. of France prohibited the 
 insertion of any political prophecies in almanacs — 
 a prohibition renewed by Louis XIII. in 1628. 
 ;io . .ii the reign of Charles IX., a royal 
 ordonna red every a. to be stamped with 
 
 the approval of the diocesan bishop, 
 
 I'rophetic almanacs still circulate to an incr 
 extent in Prance in the rural districts, and among 
 the uneducated. The most popular of all these is 
 tl,.- Almanac]) LitgeoU, a vem remnant of 
 
 superstition. It was lirst published at Liege — 
 according to the invariable title-page which takes no 
 note of tune — in 1036, by one Matthieu Laensbergh, 
 whose existence, however, at any time seems very 
 problematical The Abnanach LiigeoU is . 
 convenient one for those who are unable to read, for 
 by certain symbols attached to certain dates, the 
 most unlettered persons can follow its instructions ; 
 thus the rude representation of a phial announces 
 the j. roper phase of the moon under which a draught 
 of medicine should be taken; a pill-box desigi 
 the planet most propitious for pills ; a pair of scissors 
 points out the proper period for cutting hair, a lancet 
 for letting blood. Of course, amidst innumerable 
 [predictions, some may naturally be expect 
 come to pass. So in 1774, this A. predicted that in 
 the April of that year a royal favourite would play 
 her last part. Madame Dubarry took the prediction 
 to herself, and repeatedly exclaimed : 'I wish this 
 villanous month of April were over.' In May Louis 
 XV. died, and Madame Dubanv's la-t [part was 
 really played. The credit of old Matthieu was 
 established more firmly than ever. In 1s5l' a 
 number of commissioners, appointed fay M. Maupas, 
 minister of police, having examined between 7000 
 and 8000 of the national chapbooks, which included 
 a great number of almanacs, pronounced thi 
 deleterious, that it became necessary forcibly to 
 check their circulation. Although still in vogue 
 amongst tin- ignorant peasantry, it is gratifying to 
 learn that then; popularity is greatly on the wane, 
 ami that various periodicals on a better plan have 
 starteil up in France of late years. 
 
 In England, so far was any restraint from being 
 put upon the publication of prophetic almanacs, or 
 • Prognostications,' as they were usually called, that 
 tic royal letters-patent _:tve a monopoly of the 
 trade to the two Universities and the Stationers' 
 Company, under whose patronage, ami with the 
 imprimatur of the Archbishop of Canterbury, such 
 productions as Moore's A. and Poor Robin's A. 
 flourished rigorously; although 'it would be diffi- 
 cult t'l find, in so small a COmpaSS, an equal .plau- 
 
 tity of ignorance, profligacy, and imposture, aa was 
 condensed in tins' publications.' The met 
 ef Partridge, long employed as the prophet of the 
 Stationers' Company, is preserved in the lively 
 diatribe of Sv, n't. writing under the name of Bicker- 
 stall'. In 1775. a < the Court . if Common 
 Pleas, in favour of a bookseller named Carnan, 
 abolish dl n ipoly of tie- Stationers' Company. 
 In 1779, Lord K ht in a bill renewing 
 their [privileges. 
 
 the measure by Erskine, who exposed the pernicious 
 influence of the productions published and 
 monopoly . it was I Statio iers' • !om- 
 
 [i.inv, however, still maintained their ground by 
 buying up all rival almanacs; and it was not until 
 the publication, in I.S28. of the J!,itU'i A. by the 
 
 161
 
 ALMANAC— ALMEIDA. 
 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, that 
 
 tin? eyes nf the English public became opened tu the 
 irrational and del lure of the comm 
 
 which their own indifference or folly, as much aa 
 the selfishness of their purveyors, had hitherto 
 maintained in exist ei hi i icceaB of this admir- 
 publication — which still continues to appear 
 annually — stimulated the Stationers' Company to 
 improvement, ami they accordingly published the 
 Englishman's .-!., which is entirely tree from the 
 superstitious absurdities of its predecessors. 
 
 hi Scotland the earliest almanacs seem to have 
 beginning of the 16th c. 
 ly after the beginning of the 17th c, the 
 Almanacs or 'Prognostications' published at Aber- 
 deen had begun to establish that celebrity which is 
 hardly yet extinct. About the year 1077, they were 
 sold for a pi ; and the annual circulation 
 
 amounted, on an average, to 60,000 [n lO.s.'i 
 
 appeared a rival publication, under the title of 
 Edinburgh's . or a Nt to PrognosH- 
 
 '. For a long time the Scottish almanacs con- 
 tinued, like all others of that age, to contain little 
 besides a calendar, with a list of fairs, and — what 
 ' uted the great attraction — predictions of the 
 weather. But sumething more instructive and com- 
 prehensive became requisite, and the Edinburgh A. 
 seems to have been among the first to respond to this 
 requirement of advancing civilisation ; for, by vari- 
 dditions, such as a list of Scottish members of 
 parliament, it had, in 1 7-1-""'. been extended from the 
 original 10 pages to 36. In twelve years from that 
 date, it had swelled to 72 pages; in 1779 it had 
 reached 252pa i . Since 1837, it has been published 
 under the title oi ' Boyd's New 
 
 burgh A., and now (1859) extends to 800 pages. It 
 contains an amount of information on all public 
 matters, especially on those connected with North 
 Britain, which, in its completeness, leaves little to 
 be de- 
 
 What Oliver and Boyd's Edinburgh A. is to Scot- 
 land, is Thorn's Irish A. to Ireland— a work not less 
 excellent, and even more extensive. 
 
 Almanacs, containing astrological and other pre- 
 dictions, are still published in Great Britain, but 
 their influence is extremely limited, even among 
 the most ignorant portion of the community, and 
 their contents are fitted to excite amusement rather 
 than any stronger emotion. 
 
 Of important national almanacs are the French 
 Almanack Imperial, begun in 1079, a bulky octavo 
 volume, fidl of useful information; the B 
 
 ' A., very similar in character; the Prussian 
 Royal A. ; and the American A., a very meritorious 
 publication. The Almanack •' Ootha, begun in 
 1703, has a European, or rather a cosmopolitan 
 character. See Gutha, A. de. 
 
 The most important astronomical A. published in 
 Britain is the Nautical A., projected by the 
 nomer-royal, Dr Maskelyne, and first, publi bed, 
 with the authority of government, in 1 T < '■ T - 
 lu3 death it gradually lost its character, and in 
 1S30, in consequence of the numerous complaints 
 made against it, the government requested the 
 Astroi - i sty to pronounce upon the sub- 
 
 ject. The - of the Society were adopted, 
 
 I be first number of the new 
 
 appeared, with such additions and improvem 
 the advanced state of astronomical science re 
 necessary. Still older than this A. is the Freni b 
 commenced in 107!' by 
 . and now published under the authority 
 Bureau des Lontfitu les. Its plan is similar to that 
 of the Nautical A., but it contain .mount 
 
 j.iual memoirs, many of them of great value. 
 Equally celebrated is the Berlin Ephcmcris, published 
 
 under the superintendence of Professor Encke, being 
 an improvement on tin I ./ ultrliuch, so 
 lncteil by Ins predecessor B 
 
 Another kind of A., which has especially flour- 
 ished in Germany and France, belongs rather to the 
 class of publications known in Bi 
 Such are the A 
 
 Populairc, Icarien, Wapoteonien, &c, the latter of 
 whichare specially devoted to the interests of parti- 
 cular parties, political or i .Of this kind, the 
 examples in Britain are innumerable, and, in fact, 
 the publication of an A. has now become a favourite 
 medium of advertising and puffery. 
 
 The heavy stamp-duty of fifteenpenoe per copy, to 
 which almanacs were long liable in the United 
 Kingdom, was abolished in 1834, since which time, 
 the character, number, and circulation of this class 
 of publications have strikingly advanced. There is 
 new a very large sale of almanacs in Great Britain 
 for popular use, at not more than one penny each. 
 
 A i.man wo is also the term applied by antiquaries 
 to calendars found carved, usually on staves, but 
 also on tablets of wood, scabbards of swords, handles 
 of hatchets, &c. The inscribed charactei 
 sometimes the Runic — hence the name of runstaffs, 
 Sri/iion and sometimes the Gothic. The 
 
 Saints' days are denoted by symbols, as a pair of 
 shoes for St Crispin's Day. These primitive almanacs 
 were in use among the Scandinavian nations, and 
 the examples of them found in Britain are thought 
 to have been introduced by the Norsemen. 
 
 ALMANSOR, or, with his full name, Abu-Jafer- 
 Abdallah - ben - Mohammed - al - Manser (al - mansor, 
 'helped by God'), the second calif of the house 
 
 Abbasides (q. v.), reigned from 754 to 775. Warfare, 
 treachery, and murder were his steps to the throne, 
 and his whole rule was as cruel as its beginning. 
 He especially persecuted the Christians in Syria and 
 Egypt. In war against external foes, he had but 
 little success. He removed the seat of the califate 
 from Kufa to Bagdad, which he built at immense 
 cost, raising the money by oppressive taxation. He 
 introduced the pernicious custom of making his freed 
 slaves, mostly foreigners, rulers of provinces. The 
 best feature in his character was his patronage of 
 learning. He can mails of Euclid to be 
 
 translated from the Syriac, and the famous fables of 
 Bidpai (q. v.) from the Persian lai L died 
 
 during a pilgrimage to Mecca, in the sixty-third year 
 of his age. 
 
 ALMETDA, one of the strongest fortified places 
 in Portugal, is situated on the river Coa, on the 
 Spanish frontier, in the province of Beira. Pop. 
 6000. In 1762, it was captured by the Spaniards, 
 who soon afterwards surrendered it. Here, in 1S10, 
 when the French, under Marshal Ney, attempted to 
 cross the Coa into Portugal, the English colonel, 
 Cox, defended the town against Marshal Mas 
 but the explosion of a powder-magazine compelled 
 him to capitulate. In their retreat from Portugal, 
 1811, the French, under General Brenier, destroyed 
 at portion of the fortifications of A.; which, 
 Id. .ever, were speedily repaired by the English. 
 
 ALMEIDA Dos Francesco d', a famous 
 Portuguese warrior, who flourished in the latter part 
 of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th c. He 
 was the seventh son of the Count of Abrantes, and 
 at an early period distinguished himself in the wars 
 with the Moors, but especially at the conquest of 
 Granada, in 1492. In 1505 his sovereign, Emanuel 
 L, in consideration of his great abilities, appointed 
 lihn viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in the 
 Indies. On the 25th of March, he set sail 
 from Lisbon with a fleet of 36 vessels, containing 
 1500 men, many of whom were noblemen, and all
 
 ALMERIA— A LMONTX 
 
 of good family. On the 22d of July, he reached 
 Quiloa, on the Mozambique coast, where he was 
 Boon involved in a quarrel with the king of that 
 city, the result of which was that A. deprived him 
 of his crown, built a fortress to overawe the inhabit- 
 ants, and proceeding to Zanzibar, destroyed the 
 'if Mombaza. He then saUed for the Indies, 
 
 rting ( verywhere the superiority of the I'ortu- 
 flag. At Cananor, Cochin, Coulan, Ceylon, 
 umatra, he either built fortresses, to protect 
 
 factories and commercial interests of his nation, 
 bablished new factories. With the king of 
 Malacca, a commercial treaty was formed about the 
 same time. His son, Lorenzo, carried on several 
 Htions as his father's lieutenant, visited Ceylon, 
 iscovered the Maldive Islands and Madagascar. 
 The chief design of A. was to make the Portuguese 
 sole masters of the Indian seas, and by block 
 Ih- Persian and Arabian gulfs, to exclude the 
 Egyptians and Venetians from commerce with the 
 To frustrate his endeavours, the Egyptian 
 sultan fitted out, by the help of the Venetians, a 
 large fleet, which, under the command of the 
 vi, _Mii- Hakim (or Hossein, according to 
 others), was sent to the assistance of the king of 
 Calicut. In the port of Chaul, young Lorenzo was 
 attacked in very disadvantageous circumstances by 
 Mr- Hakim. He fought with astonishing bravery; 
 his ships had all but made their escape out to 
 the open sea, when his own was separated from 
 the others, and struck upon a rock ; one chance 
 shot carried off one of his legs, and another, tearing 
 away a part of his side, killed him. His father 
 speedily took measures to revenge the death of 
 hi upon the hated Mussulmans, when Alfonso 
 d' Albuquerque appeared on the scene (1507), having 
 been sent out by the Portuguese government to 
 supersede A., whom it had begun to distrust, on 
 account of his brilliant successes. The latter refused 
 to recognise Albnqnerqne as viceroy, and for some 
 months kept him prisoner at Cochin. He now- 
 sailed along the coasts, burning and plundering 
 various seaports, amongst others Goa, and at length 
 utterly destroyed the Egyptian fleet at Diu. From 
 this lierce anil avenging expedition, he returned to 
 Cochin, resigned his office into the hands of Ins 
 successor, and set out on his homeward voyage, 
 November 13, 1~>I>8. But he was not destined to 
 see his native land again, for he was slain in an 
 obscure affray with the savages at ('ape Saldanha, 
 in the south of Africa, where his men had landed. 
 He was a man of stern, rigorous, and yet impulsive 
 character, capable of severe retaliation of injuries, 
 but not destitute of clemency and generosity. 
 
 ALMERI'A (Arab. Al-Meryah, 'the conspicu- 
 ous'), anciently Murgis, or Porta* Magma, the 
 chief town in the Spanish province of the same 
 name, at the mouth of the river Almeria. It has a 
 well-defended harbour, a cathedral, besidi 
 churches and monasteries, and a grammar-school. 
 In the time of the Moors, it was, next to (Jranada, 
 the richest and most important town in the kingdom, 
 and flourished alike in arts, industry, and commerce, 
 being the 'great port' of traffic with Italy and the 
 At one time, it was as terrible a nest of 
 as Algiers itself, under the Moorish chief 11m 
 Mayman, when even Granada, according to the 
 proverb, was merely its 'farm.' New, it has only a 
 few trifling manufactures, although it still keeps up 
 considerable trade in cochineal, red silk, lead, grapes. 
 and especially wine. The cotton-tree has been 
 planted in the environs of A. by English merchants. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 ALMOIIADES, the name of a dynasty that 
 ruled in Africa and Spain during the 12th and 13th 
 
 centuries. The word is Arabic, and signifies Uni- 
 tarians. It was taken as a term of distinction ; for 
 the A. considered themselves the only Mohammedans 
 ! who worshipped God properly. The founder of this 
 ! sect, which at first was religions rather than polit- 
 .-. as called Mohammed [bn-Toumert, a native 
 : of the Atlas region. He was a man of a bo] 
 subtile intellect, and extremely ambitions. He had 
 led much, and acquired a manifold knowledge 
 and experience. His first measures wen- extremely 
 prudent. He commenced preaching with great zeal 
 the reformation of all abuses, affecting himself an 
 austere and unselfish life. He went about covered 
 with rays, prohibiting wine, music, and all pleasures. 
 At first, his denunciations were generally held in 
 contempt; but at length his partisans became so 
 numerous, that Ali, bine of Marocco, was compelled 
 I to take measures against him. It was, ho 
 too late. The Arabs and Berbers flocked to his 
 standard ; and at the end of a few years, he was 
 J master of the provinces of Fez, Marocco, 'Denizen, 
 Oran, and Tunis. Mohammed imposed on his 
 disciples new ceremonies, and composed for their 
 benefit a special treatise, entitled On ilt, : l_ 
 God. The A. extended their conquests into Spain, 
 sul i jugating Andalueia. Granada. Valencia, and a part 
 of Aragon, and Portugal as far as the Ebro and 
 Tagus. Mohammed was succeeded in his authority 
 by Abdelmoumen, who had formerly been his lieu- 
 tenant. Under him and his descendants, Jussuf and 
 Jacob, the dynasty of the A. continued to flourish 
 in great splendour. But in 1212 they were com- 
 pletely defeated by the Spaniards in the famous 
 battle of Tolosa, the residt of which was a general 
 revolt of the Christian provinces under their sway. 
 The power of the A. was destroyed in Spain in 
 1257, and in Africa in 1269. 
 
 A'LMOND (Amygdalus), a genus of the natural 
 order Rosacea (q. v.), sub-order eorDntp- 
 
 acece, consisting of trees or shrubs, distinguished by 
 
 
 
 Almond [Amyytlalus communis). 
 
 the coarsely furrowed and wrinkled shell (. mlocarp 
 or puiamen) of the drupe, and by the young leaves 
 being COnduplicate, or having their sides 1 
 
 r. According to the greater number of 
 botanists, it includes the Peach (q.v.), consti- 
 tuted by some into a distinct genus, Persica, in 
 
 163
 
 ALMOXDS, FIXED OIL OF— ALMONDS, VOLATILE OIL OF. 
 
 which the drape has a fleshy covering [sara 
 whereas, in toe bo which the name \. i 
 
 [Only given, this part is a dry Gbrona husk, 
 which shrivels as the fruit ripens, and finally *>|>ciis 
 of its own accord. The A.-tn e | 
 
 i is very similar to the ] and is 
 
 distinguished from it principally, besides the differ- 
 of the fruit, by the fine glandulous Berraturee 
 of the leaves, the stalk of which equal 
 
 eds, in length the breadth of the blade. [1 
 
 t 20 .'in feet high, a native of the East 
 
 and of Africa, bat has now be ipletely wild 
 
 in the whole south of Europe. Even in the re 
 
 northern parts of Germany and of Britain it is 
 planted for the sake of its beautiful flowers, which 
 are produced in great abundance, and resemble those 
 of the peach in form and often in colour, although 
 illy paler and sometimes white. The Uossonis 
 appear before the Leaves, and are ■ ■'/■ oraai 
 in shrubberies in March and April; ami even when 
 frosts destroy the germ of tie- fruit, the brilliancy of 
 the flower is not impaired. The wood of the A. -tree 
 is hard, and of a reddish colour, ami is used by 
 cabinet-makers, &c. But it is chiefly valued on 
 account of the kernel of its fruit, well known by the 
 
 name of Ai mohds, 
 and forming an im- 
 portant article of 
 commerce, for the 
 of which it is 
 extensively culti- 
 :n the south 
 of Europeand other 
 countries of similar 
 climate. It in men- 
 tioned in the Old 
 Testament, and ap- 
 pears to have been 
 cultivated from a 
 very early period. 
 It was introduced 
 into Britain as a 
 fruit-tree before the 
 
 middle of the llitli 
 
 c; but it is only in tip' most favoured situations in 
 the south of England that it ever product 
 fruit. — Almonds are either sweet or bitter. The 
 bitter appear to be the original kind, and the 
 
 sweet to be an accidental variety, perpetuated and 
 
 improved by cultivation. Sweet Llmonds contain 
 a large quantity of a very bland, fixed oil, emulsion, 
 gum, ami mucilage sugar, an- of a very agreeable 
 . and very nutritious, and in the 
 
 it. in confectionary, and medicinally in an 
 i niMlsiou. which forms a pleasant, cooling, diluent 
 drink. Bitter Almonds contain the sane- Bub- 
 stances, ami, in addition, a substance called amyg 
 dalin, from which is obtained a peculiar volatile oil. 
 i For tie' oils derived from almonds, Bee the following 
 articles.) — The muddy water of tin Nil'' is clarified 
 by robbing bitter almonds on the sides of the water- 
 vessels, in the same way in which the nuts of the 
 Strychnos potatorum (see Clearing Not) are used 
 in India. The principal varieties of A. in cultivation 
 are — the common sweet A., with thick hard shell; 
 tie- on ■''. with a very thin, almost leathery 
 
 brittle shell, and sweet kernels; the bitter A., witli 
 thick hard shell (sometimes also with a brittle 
 shell), and bitter kernels; the la ', with 
 
 large flowers of a whitish rose-colour, aud very 
 large sweet fruit; the smaU-frmted, with very small 
 sweet fruit ; and the peacli A., with a slightly suc- 
 culent blackish sarcocarp (see above), yellow shell, 
 and sweet kernels. The sarcocarp is, in the different 
 varieties, more or less dry, or somewhat fleshy and 
 juicy, so that some authors have disputed even the 
 
 Almond. 
 
 specific distinction between tin- A. and tin- peach. In 
 commercr, the long almonds of M iwn as 
 
 Jordan almonds, and tin- broad almonds of Valencia, 
 
 -t valued. Large quantities of almond 
 annually imported into Britain ami America from 
 
 Prance, Spam, Italy, and the Levant, Bitter 
 almonds are brought to Britain chiefly from Moga- 
 don.— The Dwarf A. [A. nana) a very shjiilar to 
 immon A., except that it is a low shrub, seldom 
 more than - or ;i feet in height. Its fruit i 
 similar, but much smaller. It is common in the 
 plains of the south of Russia, ami is frequently 
 planted a, an ornamental shrub in Britain, flow i 
 
 in March and April, but not producing fruit. 
 
 It is very beautiful when covered with its pink 
 flowers in spring, ami deserves to be more frequently 
 
 I than ii i-- A sheltered but sunny situation 
 is favourable to it. other species, little known, but 
 very similar to these, are found in the east, and one 
 on arid hills in Mexico. 
 
 ALMONDS, Fixr.t. On, m. When almonds 
 
 aiv subjected to pressure, a li 
 lather bitter or .-■.. .Is may be employed; 
 
 I ait tin- former are generally used, as they are chi 
 than the bwi i ^pressed cal 
 
 valuable in the | preparation of the essential oU. 1 cwt. 
 of the almonds generally yields 4s to 52 lbs. of 
 the lixed nil. \\ In n first obtained, it possesses a 
 turbid or milky appearance; but when allowed to 
 stand at rest, the impurities settle, and B ■!. ir, light, 
 yellow oil remains above. It has the specific gravity 
 of 918, and solidities when reduced to — l.'i° F. It 
 
 has i dour, and to the taste is truly oleaginous and 
 
 bland. I i in medicine, ami 
 
 possesses a mild laxative property, when administered 
 in large doses. It is often given to newly born 
 infants, mixed with sirup 01 violets or sirup of 
 roses. It is beneficial, also, iu allaying tronbli 
 coughs, when administered with confection of roses 
 and sirup of poppies. 
 
 ALMONDS, Volatile On, or Essential 
 
 On. of. The cake which is left after the e 
 sion of the lixed oil from bitter A., contains, 
 among other matters, a portion of two substa 
 called, respectively, anivgdalin, and cmulsin or 
 synaptase. When the' eake is bruised ami 
 into a paste with water, the synaptase acts 
 ferment upon the amygdalin, and 1 atom of the 
 latter resolves itself into ■_' atoms of volatile oil of 
 bitter A., 1 atom hydrocyanic (prussic i acid, 1 atom 
 pe-sugar, '2 atoms formic acid, and 7 atoms of 
 water. This paste is placed in a retort, and allowed 
 to stand for 24 hours, when beat is cautiously 
 applied, and distillation carried on. The volatile oil 
 rises in vapour, and passes over into the receiver, 
 accompanied by much water, and contaminated 
 with a considerable amount of prussic acid. The 
 oil is not originally present iu the hitter A. ; in fact, 
 the latter do not contain a trace of the oil i 
 formed, so that the oil is purely the product of the 
 fermentation of amygdalin, 100 parts of which 
 yield 47 of crude oil. Commercial oil of bitter A. 
 has a golden yellow colour, but may be purified so 
 as to be almost colourless. The crude oil is very 
 poisonous, owing to the prussic acid dissolved 
 therein, and many fatal cases have occurred from 
 the wilful, accidental, ami careless use of the oil. 
 It is unfortunate that the manufacturers of the 
 volatile oil should not subject the crude oil to the 
 action of lime and an iron salt, and then re-distil, 
 when the prussic acid would be left lixed bytho lime 
 ' and iron, and the pure volatile oil be alone obtained 
 I in the receiver. As so procured, the pure oil is not 
 j a dangerous poison. The oil has an agreeable odour, 
 j an acrid, bitter taste, and burns with a smcky white
 
 ALMONER— ALOES. 
 
 flame. It is heavier than water, being of the den- 
 sity of 1083; is soluble in water to the extent of 
 1 port in 30 parts of water, and is very soluble in 
 alcohol and ether. Heated to 356° F., it boil 
 distils over unaltered ; and, exposed to the air, it is 
 gradually oxidised into benzoic acid. The oil is 
 called by the chemist the hydride of benzoyle. In 
 medicine, the volatile oil is used in place of prussic 
 acid, but is very variable in strength, being some- 
 times four times the strength of medicinal prussic 
 arid. The dose is a quarter of a drop to a drop and 
 a half in an emulsion. The cook and confectioner 
 employ the oil for flavouring custards, &c, and the 
 perfumer uses it for scenting toilet-soap, &c. 
 
 A'LMONER is the name given originally to that 
 member of a religions order who had the distribu- 
 tion of the money and other things set apart for 
 alius, which, by canonical law, was to amount to at 
 least a tenth of the revenues of the establishment. 
 Afterwards, those ecclesiastics also received this 
 name who were appointed by princes to the same 
 in their households. The Grand A. of 
 France was one of the principal officers of the court 
 and of the kingdom, usually a cardinal, and, in right 
 of his office, commander of all the orders, and also 
 chief director of the great hospital for the blind. 
 Qui us, princes, and princesses had also their 
 almoners, and bishops were usually appointed to this 
 office. In England, the office of Hereditary Grand 
 Ah/toner is now a sinecure, his only duty being 
 lo distribute the coronation medals among the 
 assembled spectators. The Lord High Almoner, 
 who is usually a bishop, distributes twice a year 
 the Queen's bounty, which consists in giving a silver- 
 penny each to as many poor persons as the Queen 
 is years of age. 
 
 A'LMUG TREE, or ALGUM TREE This 
 name, occurring in the Old Testament, was formerly 
 supposed to denote a species of Acacia, or a conifer- 
 ous tree like the cypress ; but it is now thought 
 more probable that it was one of the kinds of Sandal- 
 wood (q. v.), the Santalum album, a native of India. 
 
 ALNTIS. See Alder. 
 
 A'LNWICK (town upon the Alue), the county 
 town of Northumberland, is situated in lat. 55 25' 
 N., long. 1° 42' W., and is distant about 34 miles 
 from Newcastle. The streets are broad, well paved, 
 and well lighted, the houses modern, built of stone, 
 and in some instances handsome. A large market- 
 place occupies the centre of the town. The 
 town-hall is a spacious building crowned with a 
 tower. -V. was at an early period a fortified town, 
 and same fragments of the ancient walls even yet 
 remain. An ancient gate, built by Hotspur, still 
 forms one of the entrances to the city. A. ' 
 
 tic resideaj I the Dukes of Northumberland, 
 
 stands at the north entrance of the town. It 
 was repaired some years ago, and is con 
 one of the most magnificent baronial structures 
 in England. During the middle a'.'es. it was a 
 bulwark against the invasions of the Scots, who 
 thrice besieged it. A. is the election town for the 
 north division of the county. It has various charity 
 schools, a mechanics' institute, a theatre, &C, but 
 the trade is insignificant: Pop. C300. 
 
 A'LOE (Aloe), a genus of plants belonging to the 
 natural order LUiacea (q. v.) sub-order Alointat, dis- 
 tinguished by a regular cylindrical perianth in six 
 pieces, , \paiided at the mouth, and nectariferous at 
 the base, the stamens hypogynous, or springing 
 from beneath the germen, the ovules indenni 
 number, the fruit a membranous three-celled capsule. 
 The species are numerous, natives of warm coun- 
 tries, especially of the southern parts of Africa. 
 About fifty miles from Cape Town is a mountainous 
 
 tract completely covered with aloes, and the hills 
 on the .„■ Socotra eviiil.it them in similar 
 
 profusion. The species all have stems, but vary 
 in height from a few inches to thirty feet. They 
 have permanent succulent leavi s. 'I he mgroes of 
 
 -i of Africa mat irds and nets of the 
 
 til. res of their leaves, and stockings are woven from 
 the fibres of a species found in Jamaica. But aloes 
 are chiefly valuable for their medicinal prop 
 The well-known drug called ALOES (q. v.) is the 
 inspissated juice of the leaves of several almost tree- 
 like speei.s, and particularly of A. 6 
 native of the island of Socotra ; A . purpurascens: A. 
 tpieata, and A. JrvHeosa, which principally yield the 
 Cape aloes; A. Indira ; A. n 
 A. Unguaformis; A. Commelini ; and A. vv 
 which is found in the East and West Indies, in Italy, 
 and in some of the islands of the .Mediterranean, 
 being the only species which can be reckoned Euro- 
 pean, although it also is probably an introduced 
 plant. The extract prepared from its lea-. 
 known as Hepatic aloes, or as Barbadoes aloes. 
 The bitter principle of aloes has been called 
 Aloesin. It forms several compounds with 01 
 which possess the properties of acids.— The y.. 
 aloes was anciently used in embalming, to preserve 
 dead bodies from putrefaction. In the East Indies, 
 it is employed as a varnish to prevent the attacks of 
 insects; and has even been applied to bottoms of 
 ships to protect them from 
 marine worms. A l>eau- 
 tiful violet colour is ob- 
 tained from the leaves of 
 the Socotrine A, which 
 does not require any mor- 
 dant to fix it. It also 
 affords a fine transparent _„ 
 colour for miniature paint- 
 ing. — Mohammedan pil- 
 grims suspend an A. over 
 their doors on their re- 
 turn from Mecca, to sig- 
 nify that they have per- 
 formed the pilgrimage. 
 
 The Americah A. is a 
 totally different plant. See 
 
 Ac A VI'. 
 
 ALOES is a drug of 
 great antiquity, for we 
 find Dioscorides (50 a.d.) 
 making mention of AloK 
 as a substance obtained 
 from a plant, and pos- 
 sessing cathartic proper- 
 ties. The great demand 
 for A. in Britain has led 
 to its importation from 
 numerous sources, includ- 
 ing l'.ombay. Arabia, Socotra, Madagascar, tie - 
 of Good Hope, the Levant, and the West Indies. 
 The drug is the inspissated juice of various B] 
 of Aloe (q. v.). All these are characterised more 
 or less by producing large, thick, fleshy leaves, still' 
 and brittle, pointed, and generally terminating in 
 a strong spine, tilled with a mucilaginous pulp 
 internally, and containing in the proper vessi 
 their exterior portion an intensely bitter juice, 
 which yields the medicinal substance A. It is 
 obtained, sometimes in the form of tears, by incision. 
 Spontaneous exudation, and inspissation upon the 
 plant; sometimes by spontaneous evaporation of the 
 which drops or exudes by pressure from the 
 leaves when cut away mar the base ; sometimes by 
 evaporating the same juice with the aid of heat; 
 and lastly, by evaporating together the juice and a 
 ion of the leaves. 
 
 in 
 
 -*mm. 
 
 Aloe fruticosa: 
 
 f; the fl
 
 ALOES WOOD— ALOYSTA. 
 
 Owing to the gnat difficulty of determining the 
 true botanioa] source of any given ample, the fol- 
 lowing namee are made use of in commerce to denote 
 the various kinds of A. found in the market — namely, 
 Socotrine, Clear, Cape, East [ndiau, Barbadoes, and 
 Caballino A. The moat important an : 
 
 1. Socotrine A. (Ale eallcd from 
 its supposed source, the island of Socotra, near the 
 mouth of the Arabian Gulf. This is the most 
 esteemed of all the varieties used in medieal practice. 
 Many hold that tins is only a tine variety of East 
 Indian A., but the characters given in the Edin- 
 burgh Pharmacopoeia a garnet-red fcranslueency in 
 thin pieces, and almost complete solubility in spirit 
 of the strength of sherry — define a particular e 
 which is the true Socotrine A. of pharmacologists. 
 
 2. East Indian A. [Aloi Indica), alaocallcd i lepatic 
 A., from its liver-brown colour, is imported into 
 Bombay from Arabia a . and is known in 
 India by the name of Bombay A. A considerable 
 portion is probably obtained from the same sources 
 as the Socotrine A., which it resembles in colour; 
 and according to Dr Pereira, 'the two are some- 
 times brought over intermixed, the Socotrine occa- 
 sionally forming a vein in a cask of Hepatic A.' 
 
 3. Barlxadoes A. (Alov Barbadensis) is prepared in 
 the West Indies from A. Socotrino, and from a 
 variety of A. vulgaris. We learn from Browne's 
 Xn'iirirf History of Jamaica thai the largest and 
 most succulent leaves are placed upright in tubs, 
 that the juice may dribble out. This evaporated, 
 forms what is sold as Socotrine A. ; but the com- 
 mon A. is obtained by expressing the juice out of the 
 leaves, boiling it with water, evaporating and pour- 
 ing it into gourds ; whence this kind is often called 
 gourd A. It is much used for veterinary medicine, 
 and thus brings a high price in the market. 
 
 Caballine A. (Aloi caballina) is a very coarse 
 kind, and is so called because it is considered 
 tit only for horses. It contains many impurities, 
 such as wood, sand, and charcoal, and evidently con- 
 stitutes the lowest stratum in the vessels in which 
 the better sorts are allowed to cool. It is now in a 
 great measure superseded in veterinary practice by 
 Barbadoea A. 
 
 All kinds of A. are remarkal ile for their disagree- 
 able taste. The odour is peculiar, and is more per- 
 ceptible when the drug is breathed upon. A. is in a 
 great measure soluble in water, and more so in hot 
 than cold water. A. was former! 1 to be 
 
 a gum-rcsiu ; but the portion which was thought to 
 be of the nature of gum is now regarded as a varietj 
 of extractive, and to it the name of Alocsin has been 
 given. 
 
 Action. — When employed in small doses, A exerts 
 a tonic, and in larger doses, a cathartic action. It 
 is considered by some authorities to stimulate the 
 liver, and also to supply the place of deficient bile 
 in torpidity of the intestinal canal, and mot 
 cially towards its lower part. Both taken singly. 
 and also in combination with other cathartics. A. is 
 perhaps the most important and th nsively 
 
 if vegetable remedies of its class ; and there is 
 no end to the variety of cases in which it i 
 employed with advantage. 
 
 ALOES Wool) (ca! igilaWood, 
 
 Wood, or Agallochum) is the inner part of the trunk 
 of .1 / ' and A. AgaUochuTn, trees of the 
 
 natural order J , (q. v.), natives of the 
 
 tropical parts of Asia, and supposed to be thi 
 or lign aloes of the Bible. They are large spreading 
 trees with simple alternate leaves. Aloes-wood con- 
 tains a dark-coloured, fragrant, resinous substance, 
 and is much prized in the east as a medicine, and 
 for the pleasant odour which it diffuses in burning. 
 It has been prescribed in Europe in cases of gout 
 166 
 
 and rheumatism. The resinous substance is found 
 only in the inner part of the trunk and branches; the 
 younger wood is white, and almost scentless. A 
 -miliar substance, still more esteemed, is obi l 
 
 in the south-eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent 
 islands, from the central part of the trunk otAU) 
 
 . an upright-growing tree with simple 
 alternate leaves, and terminal panicles of small 
 flowers, of the natural order Ltgvminosat, sub 
 Ccesalpiniece. This tree abounds particularly on the 
 highest mountains of Cochin-China and the Mob. 
 a character of sacredness is attached to it. and it is 
 cut with religious ceremonies. The A. W. which 
 it yields is not only much prized in the caM 
 perfume, but many medicinal virtues are ascribed 
 to it. The ancients ascribed to it similar virtues, 
 and so valued it for these and its fragrance, that 
 Serodotus says it once sold for more than its weight 
 in gold. It was regarded almost as a universal 
 medicine. Its very fragrance was supposi d to 
 a beneficial influence, and it was therefore wen, 
 about the person. As it admits of a high polish and 
 exhibits a beautiful graining, precious gems were set 
 in it; and it was cut into fantastic forms and worn 
 in head-dresses, &c. There seems to be allusion to 
 a similar use of it in Psalm xlv. 8, ' All thy garments 
 smell of myrrh and aloes and cassia." < >r perhaps 
 this merely refers to its being employed to perfume 
 clotlung. It was also from a very early period much 
 used to perfume the apartments of the great. The 
 fragrance continues undiminished for years. Lign 
 Aloes is a corruption of Lignum Aloes (Aloes Wood). 
 
 ALONG-SHORE, a phrase applied in navigating 
 coast, to denote a passage near to, and parallel 
 with, the shore. ' Along-shore-men,' or ' 'long-shore- 
 men,' is a peculiar designation given to some of the 
 humbler and rougher men employed about docks 
 and shipping, in the Thames and other rivers. 
 
 ALOO'F, at sea, is simply 'at a distance.' To 
 ' keep the loof,' or ' keep the luff,' is a command 
 given to the man at the helm. 
 
 ALOPECU'RUS. Sec Foxtail. 
 
 ALO'SA See Clupeida: and Shad. 
 
 ALOST (the name signifies 'to the east,' and 
 was probably given to the town because it lay 
 near the eastern frontier of the province), a town 
 in Belgium, the old capital of the province of East 
 Flanders, is situated on a tributary of the Scheldt, 
 called the Dender, which is here converted into 
 a canal. It is a walled city with live gates, has 
 
 trad.' in hops, corn, &c, and I 
 manufactures,' besides numerous breweries, distd- 
 hleach-fields, print-works, copper and iron 
 foundries, flax and cotton mills, &e. The finest 
 building in A. is the church of St Martin, an 
 unfinished edifice, but one of the grandest in 
 Belgium, and containing a famou3 painting by 
 Rubens — 'St Roch beseeching our Saviour to stay 
 the Plague of A.,' and also the mausoleum of Thierry 
 Martens, who was born here, and who introduced 
 the art of printing into Belgium, 1475 A.l). A. 
 has a town-hall (founded in 1200 a. i>.), a college, 
 a hospital, chamber of commerce, academy of design, 
 4c Pop. 15,000. 
 
 ALOYSIA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Verbenaceai (q. v.), to which belongs a shru! 
 
 ora, much cultivated in greenhouses and apart- 
 ments in Britain for the grateful fragrance which 
 its leaves emit when slightly bruised. It i 
 quently to be seen in the windows of oottagi re, and 
 is by them generally named Verbena. It was for- 
 merly known to botanists as Verbena triphylln, and 
 has also been referred to the allied genus Lippia. 
 The leaves are in whorls of three. It is a native of 
 Chili. In the Channel Islands and the south of
 
 ALP— ALP-ARSLAN. 
 
 Ireland, it becomes a luxuriant shrub in the open 
 air, reaching a height of 10 — 25 feet, with osier-like 
 shoots. 
 
 ALP, ALB, also called the Rauhe or Swabian Alp, 
 is a chain of mountains above 00 miles in length, 
 and from 12 to 15 in breadth, situated between the 
 Heckar and the Danube. It forms the water-shed 
 between these two rivers and the basin of the 
 Rhine, and Ilea almost entirely within the kingdom 
 of Wurtcmberg. It is also in the vicinity of the 
 Black Forest, but presents a totally different 
 appearance, on account of its being clothed with 
 forests of hard wood instead of pine. It forms a 
 table-land intersected by a few narrow deep valleys. 
 The average height of the system is rather more 
 than 2000 feet. On the north, it descends to the 
 Neckar in ridges of rocky cliffs, and abrupt pointed 
 headland s ; but on the south, it gradually slopes ! 
 away to the level of the valley of the Danube. I 
 The scenery is often very picturesque, for the sharp, 
 precipitous crags are frequently crowned with the 
 ruined castles and strongholds of the famous old 
 German families, such as the Hohenzollerns, Hohen- 
 staufens, &c. The geological formation of the Alp 
 is calcareous, and presents a regular stratification. 
 Caverns of a very remarkable character abound 
 among the rocks. The valleys at the base of the 
 hills are fertile, and produce abundance of wine 
 and fruit, but the high table-land has an extremely- 
 poor and barren soil. 
 
 ALPA'CA, or PAC'O {AucJienia Paco ; see 
 Acchexia), an animal of the same genus with the 
 Lama (q. v.), and so closely allied to it, that many 
 naturalists regard it as a variety rather than a 
 distinct secies. It is remarkable for the length and 
 fineness of the wool, which is of a silken texture, and 
 of an uncommonly lustrous, almost metallic appear- 
 ance. The A. is smaller than the lama ; the legs 
 and breast are destitute of callosities. In form, it 
 somewhat resembles the sheep, but with a longer 
 neck and more elegant head. It carries its long 
 neck erect ; its motions are free and active, its 
 ordinary pace a rapid bounding canter. The eyes 
 are very large and beautiful The wool, if regularly 
 shorn, is supposed to grow about six or eight inches 
 iu a year ; but if allowed to remain upon the animal 
 for several years, attains a much greater length, 
 sometimes even thirty inches, and not (infrequently 
 twenty. Its colour varies ; it is often yellowish 
 brown ; sometimes gray, or approaching to white ; 
 sometimes almost black. 
 
 The A is a native of the Andes, from the equator 
 to Tierra del Fuego, but is most frequent on the 
 
 Alpaca. 
 
 highest mountains of Peru and Chili, almost on the 
 borders of perpetual snow, congregating in flocks of 
 
 one or two hundred. In a wild state, it is very shy 
 and vigilant ; a sentinel on some elevated station 
 gives notice of the approach of danger by snorting 
 to alarm the flock. Alpacas seem instinctively 
 to know when a storm is coming on, and seek the 
 most sheltered situation within their reach. Flocks, 
 the property of the Peruvian Indians, arc allowed to 
 graze throughout the whole year on the elevated 
 pastures, and are driven to the huts only at shear- 
 inu'-tmie. When one is separated from the rest, it 
 throws it If on the ground, and neither kindness nor 
 severity will induce it to rise and advance alone. 
 It is only when brought to the Indian huts very 
 young, that they can De domesticated so as to live 
 without the companionship of the flock ; but then 
 they become very bold and familiar. Their habits 
 are remarkably cleanly. 
 
 The Indians have from time immemorial made 
 blankets and ponchos or cloaks of A wool. It is 
 not quite thirty years since it became an article of 
 commerce, but its use for the manufacture of shawls, 
 coat-linings, cloth for warm climates, umbrellas, &c., 
 has gradually increased, and more than 2,000,000 
 lbs. are now annually imported into Britain. The 
 credit of introducing and raising to its present 
 magnitude the Alpaca wool-manufacture in Britain, 
 is due to Mr Titus Salt. 
 
 Attempts have been made to introduce the A. into 
 Europe ; but not yet with very satisfactory results. 
 The only considerable flock known to exist is in the 
 Pyrenees. There seems no reason, however, to doubt 
 that the mountains of Wales and Scotland are 
 suitable for this branch of husbandry ; and it is to 
 be hoped that enterprise such as has been directed 
 to the manufacture of A wool in Britain, will soon, 
 and with equal success, be directed to the production 
 of it. There are probably not yet more than two 
 or three hundred alpacas in Britain, and these 
 mostly in parks connected with the residences of 
 en and gentlemen, not iu the situations for 
 which they seem to be peculiarly adapted. An 
 attempt is now being made to introduce the A 
 Australia. The animals intended for this 
 purpose were brought from South America to 
 Glasgow, and again shipped for a second long 
 
 A. wool is straighter than that of the sheep, 
 very strong in proportion to its thickness, and 
 breaks little in combing. The fibre is small, and it 
 is very soft, pliable, and elastic. — The tlesh of the 
 animal is said to be very wholesome and pleasant. 
 
 ALP-ARSLA'X. a Persian sultan, the second of 
 ljukide dynasty, born in Turkestan in 1028 
 or KloO. In 1053, he ascended the throne of Khor- 
 after the death of his father Daoud, and in 
 1003 he also succeeded his uncle. His first act 
 was to unite the whole of his dominions in one vast 
 monarchy. He next embraced Islamism, and it 
 was on this occasion that he took the surname of 
 Alp-Arslan (the Lion-heart), his real name bein" 
 .Muhammcd-Lhaz-ed-Dyn-Abou-Choudja. The Calif 
 of Bagdad gave him the title of Adhad-eddin 
 (Defender of the Faith), with this extreme honour 
 — namely, that prayer should be made in bis 
 name. He had an excellent vizier, Xisam-al-Muik, 
 one of those lettered ornaments of early Jloham- 
 sm. This vizier was the founder of all the 
 colleges and academies in the kingdom, 
 he directed the internal administration of affairs, 
 A. made war successfully. He suppressed r. 
 and extended the northern boundaries of his 
 dominions. In 1007 and 100S be pursued the coarse 
 of his conquest-, carrying off the gates of the church 
 of St Basil . which were enriched with 
 
 fold and pearls, and overthrowing the Greeks under 
 licephorus Botoniates. In 1069, he invaded 
 
 16;
 
 ALPICS— ALI'HAHKT. 
 
 Armenia and Georgia, at that time Christian 
 
 The mnel p 1,1 irkable incident is 
 dition was tin- blockade of the convent of Mariam- 
 . situated on an island in the middle of a lake, 
 and considered impregnable An earthquaki 
 threw the walls during the siege, when it imme- 
 diately surrendered. He next proceeded t mist tin- 
 Greeks who, under their brave emperor, Bomanue 
 
 IV., had thru,- driven back the Turks bey 1 the 
 
 Euphrates. In August L071 a a bloody battle was 
 fonght near the fortress of Malaakerd, between the 
 towns of Van and Eraaroum. A. gained the victory. 
 The Greek emperor was taken p ad only 
 
 obtained his liberty by a ransom of il.OOO.OOO, and 
 an annual tribute of £160,000. Bather more than 
 a year after this (December 15, 1072), A. perished 
 at Berzem in Turkestan by the poniard 01 
 Cothuol, whom he had insult' d. He was buried at 
 Merve, in tin- tomb of his ancestors. 
 
 ALPES is the name of two departments in 
 
 France, tin- /.'■■■ or L iwer Alps), and the 
 
 i a (or Upper Alps). Ihe department 
 of the Basses-Aipes occupies tin- N.E part of 
 Provence, ami includes an area of 2680 square 
 miles. It is, for the most part, mountainou 
 sisting of spurs or offshoots from tin- Maritime 
 Alp-, which run in numerous chains towai 
 Khone. In the north, the climate is cold, the soil 
 poor, and the cultivation bad; in tile south, the 
 climate is much better — almonds, apricots, p 
 ami various other choid re grown, am 
 
 which the plums of liignolles form a well-known 
 article of commerce. The wines of this n 
 are reckoned excellent. On the sides of the Alp-. 
 oxen and sheep find admirable pasturage. Tin- 
 mines produce lead, green marble, &e. At Digne 
 and Greoulz there are hot mineral sprir Pop, 
 
 150,000; the trade carried on is insignificant. The 
 department is watered by the Durance. The chief 
 town is Digne; pop, 3720. 
 
 The 11m hes-A-LPEB, lying north of the Basses-A., 
 and forming a part of the old province of Dauphine, 
 is traversed by the chief range of the I 
 Alps, which here rise, in Mount Pelvoux, to the 
 height of 14,000 feet, and .Mount ( Plan to 13,120 
 feet. The scenery, especially along the course 
 of the impetuous Durance, is singularly picturesque. 
 The Hautet-A. is the highest di partment in France ; 
 the fierce north wind and the perpetual snow 
 lofty peaks, make the climat id the winter 
 
 long, so that the barren soil will yield little else 
 than potatoes, a little rye, oats, and barley. Here 
 and there, in the most southerly valleys, mi: 
 chestnuts, vines, and other choice fruits, thrive. ( inlv 
 horned cattle, asses, and mules are bred profitably. 
 The most important roads through this department 
 are: 1st, The road from Grenoble to Uriancon ; 
 '2d, The road from Briancon to Susa, in Piedmont, 
 over the Col-de-Gcnevre (which has recently been 
 used to transport masses of French soldiery into 
 Italy) ; 3d, The road from Gap to Id ' The 
 
 area is 213G square miles ; pop. 130,000. Tin- inhabit- 
 ants are employed in the manufacture of leather, 
 linen, and woollens. A number arc likewise engaged 
 in the unties, which produce lead, copper, iron, and 
 anthracite. About 4000 leave the department 
 annually to seek employment. Chief I 
 pop. 5450. 
 
 ALPHABET. The A. of any language is the 
 series of letters, arranged in a fixed order, with 
 which that language is written. Picture-writing was 
 doubtless the earliest method invented of conveyin g 
 thought through the eye. The idea of an ox was 
 readily expressed by a sketch of the animal, or, 
 for shortness, by an outline of his head and horns. 
 
 picture was used symbolically; as the figure 
 of aii eye, to express the action > or the 
 
 attribute of wisdom. In process of time, some of 
 
 i . Lev, to 
 
 at. not ideas, lmt sounds. But the sounds 
 1 would at first be whole words, or, at 
 
 lee; and the important step •. m 
 yet to be taken of analysing syllables into their 
 elementary sound-, ami of agreeing upon son 
 unvarying picture or sign (a letter) to represent 
 each. This constituted the invention of the A. By 
 what steps alphabetic writing most probably rose 
 "it of picture-writing, will be seen and) 
 Ol H 1 1 lo m ; l 1 111 l. s. S.,. .-,].,, ChINJOU! IiANGl 
 
 and Ci KE "i.M i iiai: M inns. 
 
 The Phoenician A. is the oldest of which we have 
 any account ; and from it hi ■ ■ 
 
 or indirectly, all the modes of writing now iii use in 
 the world. It is the foundation of the Greek, the 
 Latin, and the Arabic alphabets; and the great 
 influence of the nations speaking these tol 
 
 ace, nnt. for the wide-spread similarity. Taking 
 
 :t and modem times into account, as 
 
 many as 400 alphabets have been enumerated ; lmt 
 
 m in use, if we set aside slight van a 
 of form, the number does not exceed 50. Auer's 
 S/ii-'i'/i/i.tll, (Vienna. Is' a rich collection 
 
 of alphabets. We must confine ourselves lure to 
 those more immediately connected with the 1. 
 of the English A. 
 
 A point of considerable importance is the order 
 of the letters. In modern alphabets, this apj 
 at first Bight to be quite arbitrary; but traces of a 
 principle of arrangement, or natural system accord- 
 ing to which the series grew, have recently 
 brought to light.* The evidences of such a natural 
 order are best seen in the Hebrew A., which was 
 almost identical with the Phoenician. The following 
 table exhibits the Hebrew letters, with their names, 
 and sounds or powers; and also the names of the 
 letters composing the early Greek A., as borrowed 
 from the Phoenician : 
 
 
 XtlTtlt. 
 
 Sound or Power. 
 
 
 f ^ Aleph, 
 
 a vowel or breathing. Alpha. 
 
 
 2 Beth, 
 
 B. 
 
 Beta. 
 
 1 
 
 J GimeL 
 
 G(gun). 
 
 Gamma. 
 
 
 1 Daleth, 
 
 r>. 
 
 Delta. 
 
 
 n ii >, 
 
 a vowel or breathing. E(psilon). 
 
 
 1 Vau, 
 
 V or F. 
 
 F = V (diganuna). 
 
 L' 
 
 [f Zayn, 
 
 Z.] 
 
 Zeta. 
 
 
 PI Ivlieth, 
 
 KHorCH. 
 
 
 
 tO Theth, 
 
 TH. 
 
 Theta. 
 
 
 ' Vod, 
 
 J. 
 
 Iota. 
 
 
 ID Kaph, 
 
 K, variety of.] 
 
 Kappa. 
 
 ■• 
 
 U Lamed, 
 
 L. 
 
 Lambda. 
 
 ■ • 
 
 Q .Mem, 
 
 M. 
 
 Mu. 
 
 
 J Nun, 
 
 N. 
 
 Xu. 
 
 
 [Q Samelfh 
 
 S, variety of.] 
 
 Sigma. 
 
 
 V -Vvn, 
 
 a vowcL 
 
 O(mikron). 
 
 
 3 Pe, 
 
 P. 
 
 J'i. 
 
 
 [^ Tsadi, 
 
 TS.] 
 
 
 -1 
 
 p Koph, 
 
 K or Q. 
 
 Koppa. 
 
 
 [1 Besh, 
 
 E.] 
 
 Bio, 
 
 
 [li/Sin, 
 
 s.] 
 
 San. 
 
 
 . D T.m, 
 
 T. 
 
 Tau. 
 
 Leaving out of account the letters enclosed in 
 brackets, which are not easily accounted for, and 
 
 * The theory was first propounded in 183.1, by Pro 
 K. y, di" Inivcrsity College, London, in the Penny Cj/clopadta, 
 art. "Alphabet.*
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 are possibly later interpolations, the whole fall into 
 four groups, the law of which will best appear iu 
 the following scheme : 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 '2 
 a 
 i-J 
 
 Palatals. 
 Dentals. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 g d 
 
 Flats or medials. 
 
 e 
 
 V 
 
 eh th 
 
 Aspirates. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 P 
 
 k t 
 
 •Sharps. 
 Liquids. 
 
 I 
 
 m n 
 
 Without entering at present into the nature of the 
 relation between the letters in the several rows, 
 horizontal and vertical, of the scheme (for which see 
 Lkttkks), it will be seen that group (1) in the Hebrew 
 A. consists of a vowel followed by three mute letters, 
 all having one character (flats or medials) ; that 
 group (2) consists of a vowel followed by three 
 mutes, also having one character (aspirates); and 
 that group (4) consists in like manner of a vowel 
 followed By three mutes, all of the same character 
 (sharps). The order, moreover, according to the 
 organ of utterance, in which the mutes follow in 
 each group, is invariable: the labial (lip-sound) 
 coming first ; the palatal (palate-sound), second ; and 
 the dental (tooth-sound), last. This principle of j 
 arrangement is characterised by Dr Latham as a 
 circulating order. Group (3) likewise consists of a 
 vowel and four consonants of one character (liquids) ; 
 but in this case the order of the vocal organs is not 
 observed — at least in the form in which the Hebrew 
 A. is known to us ; in order to be symmetrical with 
 the other groups, the sequence would require to be 
 m, I, n. 
 
 The nucleus of the original A. would thus seem 
 to have consisted of sixteen letters, grouped in four 
 tetrads or quaternions, on an organic principle of 
 arrangement. This principle is obscured in English 
 and other modern alphabets, by some of the letters 
 having gradually come to represent quite other 
 sounds than their original. There is .sufficient 
 evidence, for example, that in the earliest Latin 
 alphabet, from which the English is derived, the third 
 letter, C, bad the power of G (in gun). There was 
 a subsequent period in the development of that 
 language when the distinction between the sharp 
 and flat palatal sounds seems to have been lost, and 
 when two syllables like ham and gam would have 
 been both pronounced alike (kam). C thus acquired 
 the power of K, and the letter K itself went almost 
 out of use. But about the time of the First Punic 
 War (264—241 B.C.), the distinction between the 
 sharp and the flat sounds revived ; and while the 
 original C continued ever after to have the power 
 of K (Cicero, for instance, was pronounced Kikero), 
 a new character (('.) was formed from it. by a very 
 slight alteration, to express the flat sound. Again, 
 the modern II, which has in most cases bee. 
 mere evanescent breathing, can be traced back 
 until it becomes a strong guttural, like ell in the 
 Scotch word loch. The place of the third consonant 
 in the cycle of aspirates is a complete blank in the 
 alphabets derived from the Latin; because that 
 language being originally destitute of the Bound, 
 dropped the sign of it, from the first. The Latins 
 were, in fact, completely destitute of the genuine 
 aspirate sounds; for even the letter F had not the 
 sound we give it. Therefore, when they had to 
 represent the aspirate consonants of the Greek 
 language, f, x-i 'i tle-v had recourse to the combina- 
 tions ph. cli. Oi — a clumsy expedient still followed 
 in modern alphabets derived from the Roman, and 
 constituting one of their most serious defects. — The 
 
 cycle of the sharps is pretty perfect in the English 
 alphabet, for Q is only a variety of K. 
 
 It is easy to conceive a language represented by 
 sixteen characters of the nature above described. 
 The most serious deficiency would seem to be the 
 want r>f r and n. But the sound of th is very nearly 
 allied to that of s (witness 'loves or lo 
 the pronunciation of a person who and one 
 
 character might be mad.- to stand for both, as 
 easily as in English c is i present two 
 
 sounds so different as those exemplified in cat and 
 city. Some nations, again, are said to make no 
 distinction between r and /, so that one character 
 might stand for both these sounds. 
 
 But whether or not the Phoenician A had origin- 
 ally only sixteen letters, it is evident that when 
 transplanted into Greece, it had twenty-one letters, 
 if not twenty-two. In accommodating' itself to the 
 necessities of the Greek tongue, it gradually under- 
 went a series of changes. Some of the letters were 
 modified: J/e became e; C/iet/i, m; Sigma became 
 ; = x, and the name Sigma was transferred to 
 Other letters were altogether dropped, as Digamma 
 ( = v) and Kappa, On the other hand, for 
 simple sounds as had no representatives in the 
 Phoenician, new characters were invented, and 
 annexed to the end (u, f, x, V> ")• 
 
 Another important change was in the direction 
 of the writing. In the Phoenician and other Semitic 
 languages, the writing proceeded from right to left. 
 The Greeks, on borrowing the Phccnician A., also 
 wrote for some time from right to left The mode 
 called bustropliedon (turning like an ox in ploughing), 
 of writing alternately from right to left and from 
 left to right, was then introduced; and finally the 
 direction from left to right prevailed throughout 
 the West, to the exclusion of the other modes. 
 
 In the classical period of the ( Ireek language, the 
 A. had come to consist of twenty four letters, as in 
 columns 2, 3, 4 of the following table. Column 1 
 (copied from Ballhorn's Alphabet! i gives some of 
 the earlier forms of the Greek letters, found on coins 
 and other inscriptions, of the period when writing 
 still proceeded from right to left; column 2 is from 
 the Alexandrian Codex (q.v.), as given in Key's 
 Alphabet ; and N'os. 3 and 4 are the modern printed 
 forms of capitals and small letters. The small 
 characters are merely cursive forms or variations of 
 the capitals ; and it would not be difficult to shew 
 how, in each case, the endeavour to trace the capital 
 on soft material rapidly and without lifting the 
 hand, would bo the form non used as the 
 
 small letter. 
 
 GREEK AI.l'H via r. 
 3 4 .Y.o/if. 
 
 
 4 
 
 x_ 
 
 1 
 
 G 
 
 "\ 
 
 r 
 
 V 
 
 £w 
 
 3 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 
 I 
 
 * 
 
 B 
 
 H 
 
 ■•"< 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 :l 
 
 K 
 
 A a. Alpha a 
 
 B J3 b 
 
 r y Gamma 
 
 A 5 Delta d 
 
 E i e (short) 
 
 H r. 
 
 e t 
 
 I I 
 
 K ■ 
 
 Zeta 
 
 Eta 
 
 Th.ta 
 
 Iota 
 
 Kappa 
 
 da 
 
 e (long) 
 
 th 
 
 1CS
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 Ml 
 
 // 
 
 tSS 
 
 f 
 
 3> 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 •I I 
 
 9 
 
 
 °l 
 
 p 
 
 MJ 
 
 c 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 <j> 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 (JO 
 
 J 4 Mam Poxrer. 
 
 A x Lambda 1 
 
 m p My m 
 
 n > Ny u 
 
 3 5 Xi x 
 
 o o Oinikron o (ahort) 
 
 II «• Pi p 
 
 P f Rho r 
 
 5 «■,- Sigma s 
 
 T •> Tau t 
 
 X u Ypsilon U 
 
 * p Phi 
 
 x * Chi 
 
 v ^ Psi 
 
 !i * Omega 
 
 f ph 
 
 ch 
 
 ps 
 
 o (long) 
 
 by the Dorian Greeks of Cumx and Sicily. The 
 writing in the oldest Latin inscriptions u never 
 from nght to left, as is mostly the case in Etrurian. 
 On the other band, tin- Kaph and the Koph (K and 
 Q) of the Phoenician, which disappear in Etrurian, 
 lined in Latin. The Creek A. of Cumie had 
 noi yet received the addition of 4 and *; but it still 
 il the representative of the Phoenician Cow, 
 the I n gamma, and also Koppa, and thus consisted of 
 twenty-four letters. The Latin tongue, being i 
 tute of aspirate sounds, dropped the three letters t, 
 », %, so that the original Latin A. consisted of 
 twi ntv-one letters, the forms of which, as seen on 
 the oldest inscriptions, were as in the following table. 
 See Corssen's Axisspradie, Vocalismus und Betonung 
 der Laleinuchen Spraclie (Lcip. 1858). 
 
 II. 
 
 With regard to the figures or shapes of the letters, 
 it is believed that they all arose out of pictures or 
 hieroglyphic characters. The names of the Hebrew 
 letters 'are also the names of material objects; aud 
 the letters themselves were at first, in all probability, 
 rode outlines of the objects. Aleph, for example, 
 means an - ox,' and the letter was in its origin an 
 , .inline of an ox's head. The history of GimeL 
 which means 'camel,' is probably similar. The 
 Hebrew characters known to us are believed to l,e 
 comparatively modern, and much corrupted from 
 their original forms, and the likenesses are more 
 difficult to trace in them than in the Samaritan and 
 the early Greek, or even in the Latin. Mem, again, 
 is the Hebrew word for 'water,' and some of the 
 earliest forms of the letter M are zigzag 
 similar to the sign of Aquarius (Sgj) in the zodiac, 
 intended no doubt to represent the undulations of 
 water. Ayn, the name of the Hebrew letter equi- 
 valent to 0, also means an 'eye,' and the picture 
 of an eve would naturally degenerate into a circle, 
 in the centre (which some ancient 
 O's actually have), and then without a dot. 
 
 The A. came into Italy not directly from Phoenicia, 
 but from Greece, and that at a time when the Greek 
 A. had undergone some of the changes described 
 above, although not all of them; a, f, and x na(1 
 been added, but not 4 and ». Moreover, there 
 must have been distinct and independent importa- 
 tions into more than one part of Italy, and that, 
 probably, from different parts of G or, at all 
 
 events, "at different periods. The Etrurian A. is 
 evidently an earlier importation than the more 
 southerly Latin, as it departs less from the Phoeni- 
 cian. There are even differences i:i different parts 
 of Etrnria itself. The alphabets of Etruria north of 
 the Apennines (for numerous inscriptions recently 
 discovered shew that this remarkable race must 
 have extended at one time as far north as the 
 Alpine valleys of Provence, Tyrol, Graubundten, and 
 Styria) differ slightly from the alphabets of the in- 
 scriptions in Etruria proper, which are demonstrably 
 taken from the A. of the Greek colony of Ca?re. 
 
 The Latin A, which became that of Rome, and 
 thus of the whole western world, was borrowed from 
 a newer form of the Greek — namely, that imported 
 170 
 
 i. a A, A, A, A. 
 
 la m M.W,AV. 1 
 
 2. b fc, B. 
 
 13. n N, N. 
 
 3. c <. C, C. 
 
 14. o <>. °, 0. O. 
 
 4. d D. 
 
 i5. p n r 
 
 5. e E. 1 I. 
 
 10. q Q. 
 
 6.1 |> F. 
 
 17 - r K. R. 
 
 7-* Z. 
 
 18- » $ £. S. 
 
 8. h H. 
 
 i9. t r, t. 
 
 9.i 1. 
 
 20. v (u).V. 
 
 o. k K.(t) 
 
 21.x X. 
 
 1L1 fcA,L. 
 
 Z was early dropped, and the new letter G (see 
 above) substituted for it; and thus the Latin A. 
 continued to the last to consist of twenty-one letters, 
 until it was applied to the modern tongues of Western 
 Europe. The distinction made between U and i', 
 and between i and j, in printing Latin books, is a 
 modern innovation; and no Latin word contains 
 cither y or z. The five additional letters that make 
 up the twenty-six of the English A., arose from the 
 addition of :, and the development of i into j, and 
 of » into 10, r, and y. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon A. had two usefid letters, wdiich 
 have disappeared from modern English — namely, 
 one for the sound of th in thin, and one (or rather 
 two) for that of tli in thinr. These v. ere derived, in 
 all probability, from the Moseo-Gothic A., which (as 
 well as the Russian and other Slavonic alphabets) 
 was foimded on the Greek rather than the Latin. 
 The loss of these letters is owing to the influence 
 of the Xorman-Frcnch, the alphabet of which is 
 exclusively Latin. The forms of the Anglo-Saxon 
 letters are as under : 
 
 A 
 
 * 00 
 
 N 
 
 n 
 
 JE 
 
 re (ye) 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 C 
 
 c (C) 
 
 B 
 
 r (?) 
 
 D 
 
 d 0) 
 
 S 
 
 s (r) 
 
 E 
 
 e (e) 
 
 T 
 
 t (c) 
 
 F 
 
 f (f) 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 G 
 
 g (Pi) 
 
 w 
 
 w(r y?) 
 
 X 
 
 H 
 
 h (ftp) 
 
 X 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 Y 
 
 y 
 
 L 
 
 i 
 
 V 
 
 P th {dim) 
 
 M 
 
 m (0>) 
 
 D 
 
 4 th (i/dne)
 
 ALPHETUS— ALPINE PLANTS. 
 
 ' The characters between brackets were written by 
 the Anglo-Saxons, but, being for the most part mere 
 corruptions of the Roman forms, are now seldom 
 I.' — Vernon's Anylo-Buxon Oram*. 
 
 The peculiarities of the several letters will be 
 noticed in their proper places. For their classifica- 
 tion, and the defects and redundancies of the 
 English A., see Letters and Articulate Sot ms. 
 Other points connected with this subject will be 
 found under Ruck-Letter, ORTnOGRArrry, and 
 
 Puonetic Wetting. 
 
 ALPHEIUS (nowRuiea, Rufia, or Rofia) is the 
 chief river of Peloponnesus (Morea), rising in the 
 south-east of Arcadia, and flowing west through Elis, 
 and past the famous Olympia, into the Ionic Sea. 
 This river is one of the most celebrated in ancient 
 song, and is connected with a beautiful and charac- 
 teristic Greek legend. The nature of the upper 
 course of the A. was calculated to affect strongly the 
 imagination of the Greeks. In its passage through 
 Arcadia, a country consisting of cavernous limestone, 
 and abounding in shut-in basins and valleys, it 
 repeatedly disappears under ground and rises again. 
 After these feats, it was capable of anything — even 
 of flowing under the sea — and the Greek colonists of 
 thought they recognised it in their new country. 
 Close on the margin of the sea in the island of Ortygia 
 (the site of Syracuse), there was a beautiful and 
 copious fountain ; and just where the water of this 
 fountain joined the sea, another strong spring bubbled 
 up under the salt water. This could only be another 
 freak of the A. ; and it was popularly believed that 
 the sweepings of the temple of Olympia, after the 
 great festival, when thrown into the river, reappeared 
 in the springs at Ortygia. Strabo asserts as a fact 
 that a cup did so. 
 
 This wonderful phenomenon found its explanation, 
 as usual, in a myth, connecting it with the history of 
 the gods. The river-god AJpheius became enamoured 
 of the nymph Arethusa while bathing in his stream. 
 To escape him, she prayed to Diana, who changed 
 her into a fountain, and opened up an underground 
 passage for her to < htygia. The river still pursued 
 the object of his love, passing from Greece to Sicily 
 below the sea. without mingling his waters with it, 
 and appearing in the spring that bubbles up by the 
 shore. 
 
 A f.PIXE HUSBANDRY. The characteristic 
 feature of A. fanning is, that the preparation of 
 fodder is the chief object, and the cultivation of 
 main only secondary. In the less elevated regions 
 Bordering on the flat country, it is the practice to 
 break up the grass from time to time, and take a 
 succession of grain crops. In more elevated districts, 
 the moisture of the climate and the shortness of 
 the season of vegetation, prevent crops requiring 
 tillage from coming to perfection, and there the 
 whole attention is devoted to pasturage and the 
 preparation of meadow-hay. The top-dressing of 
 the plots devoted to hay-growing, with the solid and 
 liquid manure of the cattle the cutting and making 
 of the hay, and transporting it to the farm- 
 occupy a great part of the labour of the population 
 of the Alps. They turn to account for hay-making 
 those shelves and crevices among the mountains 
 which arc inaccessible to cattle, and even goats ; tin- 
 herbage, which often grows luxuriantly in such situ- 
 ations, is cut. bound up ill cloths or lets, and carried 
 down ditlicidt paths on the head, or is flung over the 
 precipices. 
 
 The grass-lands in the lower regions near the 
 dwellings being mostly reserved for hay. the cattle 
 are pastured in summer in those regions that lie too 
 high or too remote to be inhabited m winter. These 
 pastures consist of plateaus and slopes, which imme- 
 
 diately on the disappearance of the snow, become 
 clothed with a rich carpet of herbage and flowers. 
 Each separate locality or pasture is called an A lp. 
 Some of these * alps ' belong to individuals ; others 
 to the commune or parish. The more rocky and 
 steep places are pastured by sheep and goats. There 
 are three zones or stages in the A. pastures. The 
 cattle are driven to the first and lowest stage about 
 the end of May ; about a month later, they ascend 
 to the ' middle Alps ' ; and by the end of July, they 
 reach the Upper Alps. As the days shorten, they 
 descend in the same gradual way, so that the whole 
 ' Alp-time' lasts about 20 weeks. The pastures are 
 provided with huts for those who have charge of 
 the cattle, who also convert the milk into cheese. 
 Little butter is made. The departure for the 'Alps ' 
 in spring, and the return in autumn, are made the 
 occasion of popular festivals. 
 
 ALPINE PLANTS. This appellation is given 
 not only to those plants which are found at eleva- 
 tions approaching the limit of perpetual snow in the 
 Alps of Central Europe, but also to plants belonging 
 to other mountainous regions in any part of the 
 world, whose natural place of growth is near snows 
 that are never melted even by the beams of the 
 summer's sun. As the elevation of the snow-line, 
 however, varies very much in different countries, 
 according to the latitude, and also from peculiar 
 local circumstances, the term A. P. is not so much 
 significant of the actual elevation of the habitat, as 
 of the average temperature which prevails there. 
 On the Andes, near the equator, at an elevation of 
 12,000—15,000 feet above the level of the sea, many 
 kinds of plants are found, of humble growth, resem- 
 bling in their general appearance those which occur 
 in Germany and Switzerland at an elevation of 6000 
 feet ; and these, again, either resemble, or are even 
 identical with, the species which in Lapland grow 
 upon hills of very little elevation, or which, in the 
 northern parts of Siberia, are found at the level of 
 the sea. Similar plants occur also in the Himalaya 
 Mountains, at elevations varying remarkably within 
 very narrow geographical limits from local causes, 
 which also create great differences in the general 
 dryness or humidity of the atmosphere. The Taws of 
 this natural distribution of plants have been in our 
 own day for the lirsttime investigated and elucidated 
 by Humboldt, Wahlenberg, Schouw, Dccandolle, and 
 others, and form the most essential part of a branch 
 of science still in its infancy, and much requiring 
 further study, phytogeography, or the science of tho 
 geographic distribution of plants. When the A. P. 
 of Central Europe are spoken of, those are meant 
 which grow at an average height of 6000 feet, mark- 
 ing what, in the language of phytogeographic science, 
 is called a zone. This, on its northern limit, the 
 Riesengebirge, or Giants' Mountains, falls as low as 
 
 ( i ieet, and rises, in the southern Alps and Pyrenees, 
 
 to an elevation of 90(10 feet, and sometimes even 
 t. Although very rich in forms peculiarly its 
 own, tliis zone contains many plants winch are like- 
 wise found on much lower lulls, and even in the 
 plains. The number of these, however, diminishes 
 as the elevation increases. Hence the small spaces 
 clear of snow in the highest regions possess a very 
 characteristic flora, the plants of which are distin- 
 guished by a very low diminutive habit, and an 
 inclination to form a thick turf, frequently, also, by 
 a covering of woolly hairs, whilst their stems are 
 "ften cither partly or altogether woody, and 
 their flowers are in proportion remarkably lai 
 brilliant colours, and in many instances very odori- 
 ferous, upon which accounts, they remarkably attract 
 and please the occasional visitors from the plains. 
 In the Alps of Central Europe, the eye is at once 
 caught by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, and
 
 ALPLXIA— ALPS. 
 
 various species of primrose. With these and othi r 
 
 Shanerogamous plants, are associated a Dumber of 
 ehcate ferns and exceedingly beautiful n 
 i mountains in Scotland exhibit a some- 
 
 what similar flora, and beautiful plants, both phane- 
 rogamous and cryptngamoiis, are found on 
 
 wlii.U never appear in lower situat 
 
 Alpine Speedwell ( Veronica Alpina), the small Alpine 
 ( li-ntiaii [Oi "' is), the Bock Scorpion Grass, 
 
 or Alpine Forget-me-not (jfjosotis Alpi itris), 
 i vmbens, Woodtia Uveitis and hyperborea, &c. 
 Many A. P. are limited to a very small district 
 Thus, the llor.i of Switzerland differs considerably 
 from that of Germany, the latter being now known 
 to contain .'MOO phanerogamous plants, of which the 
 former contains 2200, and along with them also 126 
 sp cies which have hitherto been found only in the 
 Swiss Alps. There are, moreover, particular species 
 of plants which are found only in a litres, OS 
 
 Hypericum com, upon the mountain of \\ r i, in the 
 canton of Giants; WtJfenia Carinthiaca, upon the 
 KUweger Alp. in Upper Carinthia, and many others. 
 There are. however, many species which, occurring 
 on the mountains of Central Europe, app. ar also in 
 those of Britain ami of Scandinavia at low vr altitudes, 
 but are not found in the inti rvening plains. See 
 Species, lMsiuna iion ok. Cryptogamip plants are 
 generally found in Alpine regions in much great] 
 abundance than elsewhere. The transplanting oi A. 
 P. into gardens is attended with great difficulties, 
 and is rarely successful. Their great beauty, even 
 ■when dried, makes them favourites with those 
 plant-collectors who have amusement more in view 
 than the mere interests of seience. Small herbaria 
 of them are offered for Bale everywhere in Switzer- 
 land; and in some places, large collections have 
 been prepared and thrown open to the public. 
 
 ALPI'NIA See Galaxcai v.. 
 
 A'LPXACH, or ALPXACHT, a Swiss village, 
 in the canton of Dnterwalden, at the foot of 
 Mount Pilatus, 1.J- miles from that part of Lake 
 Lucerne called Lake A. It is known principally 
 on account of its celebrated ' slide.' This was a sort 
 of wooden trough by which the felled timber of 
 Mount Pilatus was conveyed with amazing velocity 
 from a height of 2500 feet down to the lake. In 
 order to prevent friction, the trough was perpetually 
 lubricated by a slender rill of water. It is no I 
 used, the wood being now drawn down by horses 
 ami oxen. Population of A., 1500. 
 
 ALPS, the most extensive system of lofty moun- 
 tains in Europe, raise their giant masses on a basis 
 of 90,0(111 square miles, between ty iff and Is I ■:. 
 long., and extending in some places from the 44th 
 to tli- 48th parallel of latitude. The word Alp 
 or Alb, signifying in the Celtic language ' wind .' 
 was the name given to these mountains on account 
 of their tops being perpetually com red with snow. 
 The Alpine system is bounded on the N. by the 
 hilly ground of Switzerland and the upper plain 
 of the Danube; on the E., by the low plains of 
 Hungary; on the S., by the Adriatic Sea, the plains 
 of Lomiiardv. and the Gulf of Genoa; and on the 
 W., by the plains of Provence and the valley of the 
 Rhone. A string of lakes encircles both tlie northern 
 and southern bases of these mountains, the tenner at 
 an elevation of 1200— 2000 feet j the latter, con 700 
 feet. The varied natural Bcenery of France, Italy. 
 Germany, and Hungary has a common centre oi 
 union in this lofty region. Valleys open out in all 
 
 directions, sending their melted snows on side 
 
 into the North Sea. on another into the l;lack Sea, 
 and on another into the Mediterranean. 
 
 The water-system of the A. may be thus 1 
 sketched: 1. In the basin of the Khillc, there is 
 173 
 
 the Rhine itself, which partly forms the Lake of 
 ( onstage, at the north-eastern extremity of Switzer- 
 land, and receives on the hit the important tribu- 
 rif the Thur and the Aar; the latter of which 
 SOWS through bale s Brienz and Thun. and i 
 
 augmented by various affluents, th< ■ t ol which 
 
 are the EteuSS and the l.immat. 2. In the basin 
 
 of the Danube there flow from the south the Dler, 
 
 I I . and flu- Inn. Still further east, the 
 
 Danube has for its tributaries the Traun. tie- Ens, 
 tie- Baab, the Drive, and the Save, the last thl 
 
 which have their sources in the extreme Eastern 
 A. 3. In the basin of tie- Po, there are numerous 
 streams, which rise in the Southern A.; the prin- 
 cipal of these are the Dora Laltea, the See: 
 Ticino from Lake Ma ior . the Mincio from Lake 
 < tarda, and the Adige. -1. In the basin of the Rhone, 
 there are the Rhone (flowing through the Lake of 
 Geneva), and various Alpine tributaries, the most 
 important of which arc the Arve. the Iscre. and the 
 Durance. 5. The Var is the principal I.igurian 
 coast stream; the l'iave. ami the Taguamento, the 
 largest of those which fall into the Adriatic from the 
 Soui Is 'i'ii A. 
 
 Divisions. —In order to give a clear view of the 
 manifold ranges of this mountain land, a distinction 
 s rally made between the East, the West, and 
 the Middle A.; the last of which is again divided 
 into a northern, central, and southern chain; while 
 a natural separation by river-valleys into groups is 
 also made. 1. WEST A. The principal ranees of 
 these are : 1. The Maritime A., extending from the 
 middle Ihlrance southwards to the Mediterranean, 
 and rising in the Col Roburent to the height of 
 9400 feet 2. The Cottian A., north of these, 
 highest summit, Monte Viso, is 13,599 feet. 3. The 
 Graian A., forming the boundary between Savoy 
 and Piedmont, ami attaining In Mont Iser 
 elevation of 13,272 feet, and in Mont Cenis, an 
 elevation of 11,457 feet. II. Middle A. Central 
 Chain. — 1. The Pennine A., between the plains of 
 Lombardy and the valley of the Lhone. Highest 
 summits: Mont Blane, 15,744 feet; Monte Rosa, • 
 15,151 feet; Mont Cervin. 14,836 feet. 2. The 
 Lcpontian or Helvetian A., from the depression of 
 the Simploii, .along the plateau aiel masses of St 
 Gothard (12,000 feet)', to the pass of Mont SplUgen. 
 3. The Klcetian A., between the I mi. tic Adda, and 
 the I'pper Adige. Northern Chain. 1. The B 
 A., between the Rhone and the Aar; highest sum- 
 mits: Einstcraarhorn, 14,020 feet; Jungfrau, 13,716 
 feet; Sehreckhorn. 13,397 feet. 2. The A. of the 
 Four 'Forest Cantons,' tin- Schwytz A., &c The 
 Soutliem C'lmin. 1. The ( lertler A., between the 
 Adda and the Adige; highest summit. Ocrthrspit/, 
 12,822 feet. 2. The Trientine A., between the 
 Adige and the l'iave ; highest summit, La Marnio- 
 9802 feet. III. East A. — The principal chains 
 of these are: 1. The Noric A., between the plains 
 of the Drave and the Danube; highest summit, 
 I Glockner, 12,431 feet. 2. The Carnic A., 
 
 between the Dirave and the Save. 3. The Julian 
 A., between the Save and the Adriatic Sea; highest 
 summit, Mont Terglu, O.'IGG feet. 
 
 7.7. valion.- With respect to height, it is a general 
 rule that the A. are lowest where' the system is 
 broadest, that is, in the E., and highest where the 
 system is narrowest, that is, towards the A\ . 
 Making a threefold distinction of crests, summit , 
 and passes, tlie principal ranges maybe charai I 
 as follows. The crest-line (1) of West A., 6000— 
 11,000 feet; (2) of Middle A., 9000— 13,000 feet; (3) 
 of bast A., 3600—9000 feet. The summits: (1) of 
 West A., 9000—14,000 feet; (2) of Middle \, 
 9000—15,800 feet; (3) of East A., 0000—12.0110 feet. 
 Height of the passes: (1) of West A., 4000— S000
 
 ALPS. 
 
 feet; (2) of Middle A., 6500—1 1,000 feet ; (3) of East 
 A , .TjOO— 6000 feet. 
 
 A comprehensive classification leads to a division 
 of the elevations into three regions: 1. The lower 
 range forming the buttresses of the main mas- 
 
 Dg a height of 2500—6000 feet ; that is, to the 
 extreme limit of the growth of wood. 2. lbs middle 
 zone lying between the former limit and the snow- 
 line, at the elevation of 8000—9000 feet. :i. The 
 high A.. ri^liiL.' to 15.744 feet. The middle zone forms 
 the region of mountain-pasturages, where the charac- 
 teristic Alpine dairy-farming is carried on. These 
 
 res consist of a rich carpet of grass and flowers. 
 This threefold division of heights, however, does not 
 everywhere coincide with the same phenomena of 
 
 it ion: the line of peqietual snow descends 
 
 i in the north side, and the boundaries of the 
 zones above described vary accordingly. 1. The line 
 of demarcation between the region of mosses and 
 ad that of peqietual snow, is from 
 8000—9000 feet on the northern declivities ; but 
 on the southern, it approaches 10.000 feet. 2. The 
 highest limit to which wood attains on the north is 
 
 6000 I-, t, while on the south it is nearly 7000 
 feet. 3 ' beech, and oak, on the north, disap- 
 
 I at the elevation of 4000 feet; on the smith, 
 contrive to exist, some hundreds of feet higher. 
 t. The region of the vine, as well as of maize and 
 chestnuts, extends to an elevation of 1900 feet on the 
 northern declivity; and on the southern declivity, 
 
 i i feet. The ranges of outlying lower moun- 
 tains which flank the high central Alps on the X., 
 E,, and W., are mostly wanting on the S., especially 
 where the Middle A. descend into the plains of 
 Lombard}-. Thus the A. rise in steep rocky preci- 
 pices from the level of the flat plains of the Po, 
 whilst they sink more gradually into the plains on 
 the north; hence their mighty masses closely piled 
 together present an aspect from the south more 
 grand and awful; from the north, more extended 
 and various. 
 
 Valleys. — The variety in the valleys as to form 
 and arrangement is not less striking than in the 
 elevations. Most worthy of notice is the characteristic 
 form of the wide longitudinal valleys that lie at the 
 foot of the high central chains. On the E. side, 
 they open directly into the plain; on the N., they 
 are connected with the plain through transverse 
 valleys which often end in lakes. The transverse 
 
 valleys on the S. side are mostly in the aha] ! 
 
 steep rocky ravines, forming in some parts long- 
 stretching lakes. Besides the deep-sunk principal 
 valleys, there are extensive scries of basin-shaped 
 idary valleys, which are the scenes of Alpine 
 life, properly so called. Many of the Alpine valleys 
 have names distinct from the rivers flowing through 
 them. Thus, the valley of the Rhone is styled the 
 Upper and Lower Vallais; that of the Adda, the 
 Valtcline ; of the Arve, Chamotmix. 
 
 tunications -Pasta.- The valleys of the high 
 A. form the natural means of communication. Sum 
 are more accessible than others. The entrance into 
 a longitudinal valley is almost always smooth and 
 easy; art baa often had to force an entrance into 
 a transverse valley. On many of the high roads 
 which link the principal with the secondary valleys. 
 it has been found necessary to blow up long I 
 of rock, to build terraces, to make stone-bridges 
 and long galleries of rock as a protection against 
 avalanches, as well as to erect places of e 
 
 >m storms. The construction of these 
 roads may be reckoned among the boldest and most 
 skilful works of man. In crossing the A., several 
 denies (usually seven) have to be traversed ; for in 
 addition to the pass of the main crest, there are 
 other defiles on both sides, at the entrances of the 
 
 different valleys. In the E, the number of these 
 narrow passes or defiles is considerably increased. 
 The nan I to the Alpine passes vary accord- 
 
 ing to tie ir natural features or the local dialect; as 
 
 3attel (Saddi , J ch 5 oke) Scheidi 
 CoL Chiusa. The traveller on these beautiful 
 mountain-roads passes in a short time through the 
 phenomena of the various seasons. In the com 
 a day's journey, he experiences a succession of 
 climatic changes, which is accompanied with an 
 equal variety in the manners of the peop 
 
 No lofty mountains in the world can boa«t of 
 being so easily crossed as the European A. Hence 
 we can understand how the plains of Upper Italy, 
 accessible from the French, German, and Bur. 
 
 Sides, have been the til' : 
 
 The passage of the West A is made by five principal 
 1. The military road. La Cornii he, a coast- 
 road at the foot of the A. from .Nice to G 
 2. The causeway over the Col-di-Tenda, between 
 Nice and Coni, made in 177s : highest point, 5890 
 feet. 3. The high road so much used in ancient 
 times over Mount Genevre, connecting Provence 
 and Dauphinc with Turin ; highest point, 6550 feet 
 4. The carriage-road made by Napoleon in 1805, 
 over Mount Cenis, connecting Savoy with Piedmont ; 
 highest point, 6770 feet. 5. The pass of the I 
 St Bernard, connecting Geneva, Savoy, and Pied- 
 mont; highest point, 7190 feet By this pass, 
 Hannibal crossed into Italy. It is not much used 
 now. Besides these great roads, there are many 
 smaller ones branching otf from them, which form 
 a pretty close net-work of communication. The 
 of the Middle A. is made by eight principal 
 roads. 1. That of the Great St Bernard, con- 
 
 < the valley of the Rhone with Piedmont ; 
 highest point, 8170 feet. Itwas crossed by Napoleon 
 in lSOO. 2. The magnificent road over the Simplon, 
 constructed by Napoleon, 1801 — 1806, and cos 
 ing the Vallais with the confines of Piedmont and 
 Lombardy; highest point, 6570 feet .'!. Bel 
 the Great St Bernard and Monte Rosa is the Col 
 of Mont Gervin, the loftiest pass in Europe, being 
 nearly 11,200 feet, connecting Piedmont with the 
 Vallais. 4. The pass of St Gothard, conn. 
 Lucerne with Lago Maggiore ; highest point, 6800 
 feet. This road passes through scenery of exquisite 
 beauty. 5. The Beruardin Pass, made 1819 
 by the - GriBOns and Sardinia; highest point, 
 
 6800 feet. 6. The Splugen Pass, repaired i 
 
 ting the sources of the Rhine with the Adda. 
 This pass was the one used by the Romans in their 
 intercourse with the countries bordering on the 
 Danube and the Rhine, and also by the (German 
 armies on their marches into Italy in the middle 
 ages. 7. Tie- Wbrmser Joch, also called the Orteles 
 opened by Austria m 1824 It 
 is the loftiest carriage-road in Europe, and con- 
 nects the Tyrol with Lombardy. 8. The Brenner 
 Pass, known to the Romans. It also connects the 
 Tyrol with Lombardy; highest point. 4650 
 B the-.- great roads, leading south into Italy, 
 
 tiler.' are two which lead north from tie' valley of the 
 
 Ilhone, and cross the Bernese A., over the Grimsel 
 Pass, O.-.iio feet high, and the Gemini Pass, 71" 
 high. The roads over the East A. are much 1 
 and also much more numerous than those in the 
 
 Middle or West A. The principal are l. The 
 road from Venice to Salzburg, crossing tl 
 
 at an elevation of rather more than 5100 feet. 
 2. The road over the Carnic A., which divides into 
 three branches- tic first hading to Laybach,; the 
 second, to the valley of the bonzo; and the third 
 to tic valley of the Tagliamento. ;>. The roads from 
 the Danube at Linz to Laybach. 
 
 Geology. — The A. offer a rich field for geological 
 
 173
 
 ALPS— ALPTTJ ARRAS. 
 
 investigations, the results of which hitherto may he 
 thus summed op: The highest central mass — the 
 ry A., as they are called— that rises from the 
 plain to the S.W. of Turin, and stretches in a 
 mighty curve to the Neunedlaraee, in Hungary, 
 sts chiefly of the crystalline rocks i;nei- ; I 
 Mica-slate, with a much smaller proportion of 
 Granite. Enclosed among the Centra] A. 
 
 •ntatives of the Carboniferous and .Turassic 
 formations : hut so altered and become so crystal- 
 line that their age can only be guessed from a 
 few remaining petrefactions, which are accom- 
 panied here aud there by garnets. In the Graian. 
 Pennine, aud Phatian A occur great masses of 
 serpentine; in the N. of Piedmont, and in the 
 upper valley of the Adige, quartz-porphyry. In the 
 E. there are, on the N. and S. aides of the chief: 
 range, vast deposits of clay-slate and grauwacke 
 mixed with transition limestone. 
 
 Beginning on the Mediterranean coast, and follow- 
 ing in general the direction of the central chains, a 
 belt of sedimentary rocks runs along the W. and N. 
 sides to the neighbourhood of Vienna. On the south 
 side, a similar belt runs f> Maggiore to 
 
 Agram. The undulating curves and colossaidisloca- 
 tions presented by these regions, shew that the 
 form of their mountains must have been the residt 
 of a mighty force acting northwards and southwards 
 from the Central A In respect of age, these sediment- 
 ary or calcareous A. include all the members of the 
 series of formations from magnesian limestone up to 
 the lowest strata of the tertiary group. The south- 
 eastern portion of these calcareous mountains, form- 
 ing the Julian A., mostly consist of cavernous rocks 
 of the Jurassic and chalk groups ; and are continued 
 with this character into Dalmatia. 
 
 Mineral*. — Precious Stones are found in abund- 
 ance in the trap .and primary mountains, especially 
 in the region of the St Gothard. The rock-< 
 of St Gothard has a world-wide reputation. Milling 
 and smelting become more and more productive as 
 we advance eastward. Switzerland itself is poor in 
 useful ores. Gold and silver are foimd in Tyrol, 
 Salzburg, and Carinthia ; there are also silver-mines 
 in Styna and Illyria, anil one near G 
 France. Copper is found in the French A., in Tyrol, 
 and Styria. The lead-mines near Villach, in Car- 
 inthia, yield yearly about .io.000 cwt. The yield of 
 iron in Switzerland. Savoy, and Salzburg is trifling; 
 Carinthia, on the other hand, produc 260 BOO cwt., 
 and stiria 450,000 cwt Quicksilver is extracted at 
 Idria, in Canuola, to the amount of 1000 — 1500 
 cwt. The Alpine region is rich in salt, especially 
 at Hall in Tyrol, and Hallein in Salzburg. Coal 
 is found in Sv.it/erlaiid. in Savoy, and in the French 
 A., but in no great quantity ; the Austrian A. are, 
 again, richer in this important mineral. The mineral 
 springs, hot and cold, that occur in the region of 
 the A. are innumerable. See Ai\, l.-vni., Leuk, 
 Baden, «Vc 
 
 Animals.- The Alpine mountains present many 
 peculiarities worthy of notice in the animal as well 
 as in the vegetahle kingdom (see Alpink Plants). 
 On the sunny heights, the number of insects is 
 very grea^j; *'"' butterflies are especially numerous. 
 There are few fishes, although trouts are sometimes 
 caught in ponds even 61X10 feet above the level of 
 a. Although the lofty mountains are inha- 
 bited by eagl B, hawks, and various species of 
 owls ; yet the birds are few in comparison with 
 the numbers in the plains, and those few are 
 mostly confined to the larger valleys. Among the 
 quadrupeds, the wild goat is sometimes, though 
 rarely, to be met with ; the chamois is more fre- 
 quently Been, chiefly in the eastern districts. The 
 marmot inhabits the upper Alpine regions. Wolves 
 m 
 
 are seen more frequently in the west than in the 
 east ; in the latter, on the other hand, liears, lynxes, 
 and wild found, although constantly dunin- 
 
 r, • it the domestic annuals. 
 and oxen are scattered herds. 
 
 are fewer sheep and horses, and these are not 
 of good breeds. Mules and asses are used more 
 
 iitly i" the south than in the north 
 as beasts of burden. Swine and do 
 common ; the latter are used almost solely 1 
 herdsmen, or are kept in the hospices, to assist in 
 searching for the unfortunate wanderers who may 
 be lost in the snow. 
 
 The Alpine mountains are rich in singularly beau- 
 tiful natural scenery, of which the inhabitants of 
 flat countries can scarcely form an idea. Nature in 
 the A. has an infinite variety of aspects. Here the 
 hardened masses of the icy glacier cover the naked 
 rock, avalanches are hurled into immeasurable 
 
 9, the fall of rocks or mountain-slips overwhelm 
 the dwellings, and cover the fields in the valleys ; 
 and in the east, the bora, with its hurricane strength, 
 hurls before it the upraised masses of snow. There 
 the sun glances upon the scattered silver threads 
 of a water- fall, or mirrors himself in the pe 
 waters of a glassy lake, while his rising ami his 
 innonnced to the expectant traveller by 
 the ruddy -low on the snowy mountain-tops. The 
 inhabitant of the A, surrounded on every side by 
 mountains, is unconsciously subdued by their pres- 
 ence, aud receives from them a peculiar stamp of 
 rs fascinate him as well as 
 their charms. The most ceaseless variety of occupa- 
 tion demands all his time and his thoughts; in 
 the mountains he acknowledges his only despot-, 
 who seize his soul, and lead it unresistingly. In 
 his constant struggle with the elements, the Alpine 
 dweller strengthens both his mind and body ; he 
 opens bis heart to the impressions of nature; he 
 gives utterance to his childlike gladness in simple 
 songs, and at the same time defends with self- 
 
 ing devotion bis inountain-fortre 
 
 i aggression. But the manners and spirit of 
 uring plains have penetrated into the 
 1 along with the dust of the highway. 
 There the true Alpine life has more and more 
 passed away. The simplicity and characteristic 
 industry of the Alpine farms are now preserved only 
 in the higher secondary valley-'. 
 
 Six states share the A. The western portion is 
 shared by France and Sardinia. Switzerland claims 
 the Middle A. almost exclusively for her own. 
 Bavaria has only a small share. Austria has tho 
 largest share of the A. — in Lombardy, the Tyrol, 
 LUyria, Styria, and the archduchy. The wide valleys 
 opening to the east allow the civilisation of the 
 plains to en1 ' the mountains. The 
 
 value of the minerals, and the fertility of the soil, 
 have permitted: mining, manufactures, and agricul- 
 ture to take firm root, and a flourishing trade 
 has caused large towns to usurp the place of mere 
 Alpine villages. In the Tyrol, the pastoral life of 
 the mountains has long been mixed up with the 
 working of mines of salt or other minerals. The 
 inhabitants of whole valleys are occupied in various 
 branches of industry to a greater extent than in any 
 other district of the A, and their sons travel far 
 and near as artisans. See H. and A. Schlagintweit, 
 Researdies into tlie Pltyxical Geoqrajiloj qf tlie A. 
 (Untersuchunnen ii/>er die Phygilcalisdte Geo'jraphie 
 der Alpen), Leip. 1850. 
 
 ALPU JA'RRAS (a corruption of an Arabic word 
 
 which signilies ' grass '—an allusion to the splendid 
 
 pasturage on the north side), a range of mountains 
 
 1 to the Sierra Nevada, and approaching the 
 
 coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Their southern si<b»
 
 ALSACE— ALTAI. 
 
 is precipitous, but the northern slopes away into 
 broad valleys, beyond which rises the Sierra Nevada. 
 They commence in the west at Motril, where they are 
 separated by the Guadalfeo, from the lower Sierra 
 de Holucar, and the adjacent vine-covered hills of 
 .Malaga, and stretch as far east as the river Almeria. 
 The range is divided into two parts by the Adra, 
 each of which bears a particular name. The highest 
 peaks reach an elevation of 7000 feet. On the 
 north side, owing to the copious rains, there is the 
 richest pasturage, both in the deep valleys and 
 on the uplands. The southern slope, however, is 
 almost destitute of trees or shrubs, with the excep- 
 tion of the fertile valleys near the sea, which are 
 abundantly watered by numerous little streams. 
 II ere Hourish, under an almost tropical climate, all 
 the products of the south, even the date-palm and 
 the sugar-cane. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 in rearing sheep, and in cultivating the vine and 
 other fruits. A little mining also goes on. Lead, 
 antimony, and silver are got. The Moorish element 
 is still quite discernible in the population of this 
 mountain region. 
 
 ALSA'CE, a province of France, now forming the 
 deps. of Kiii-v, Bvs-, and Rhi.v, Haut- (q. v.). It lies 
 between the Rhine on the east, and the Vosges moun- 
 tains on the west, extending south to Switzerland, 
 and north to Rhenish Bavaria, and occupying 3360 
 English square miles. It is one of the most fertile 
 parts of France; rich also in mines and manufac- 
 tures, and contains the important cities of Strasburg, 
 C'olmar, and Miihlhausen. In Caesar's time, A. was 
 occupied by Celtic tribes ; but during the decline of 
 the empire, the Alemanni and other tribes from 
 beyond the Rhine occupied and completely German- 
 ised it. It afterwards formed part of the German 
 empire, under various sovereign dukes and princes, 
 latterly, of the House of Hapsburg ; till a part of it 
 was ceded to France, at the peace of Westphalia, 
 and the rest fell a prey to the aggressions of Louis 
 -\I\\, who seized Strasburg (1681) by surprise in 
 time of peace. By the peace of Ryswick (1697), the 
 cession of the whole was ratified. Thus — as the 
 Germans complain — was this tine land, and one of 
 the noblest branches of the race, alienated from the 
 German people, and the command of the German 
 Rhine disgracefully surrendered to the enemy in the 
 time of misfortune, and more disgraceful still, not 
 demanded hack when fortune favoured. German is 
 still the language of the people, and all newspapers are 
 printed in both languages. [A.,witha part of Lorraine, 
 was re-annexed to Germany at the peace of 1S71.] 
 
 A'LSEN (Dan. Als), an island in the Baltic 
 belonging to the Duchy of Schleswig, and extend- 
 ing from the Apenrade to the Flensborg Fiord, 
 panted from the mainland by the Sound of 
 A., in part very narrow but deep. Its greatest 
 length is nearly 20 miles ; its greatest breadth 
 about 12 ; pop. 24,000 ; lat 54° Iff X.. long. 9° 
 62 1 E. The island, one of the finest in the Baltic, lias 
 a picturesque appearance, is very fertile, with rich 
 woods, and numerous lakes abounding in fish. Its 
 fruit-trees are celebrated over all Scnleswig. The 
 Gravenstoin apple, in particular, forms an important 
 article of commerce. The chief towns arc Sonder- 
 liorg or Siidborg (South Town), and Norborg or 
 Nordburg (North Town). The former has an excel- 
 lent harbour, with a population of 3300, and possesses 
 more than 80 vessels. Close to the harbour arc the 
 ruins of an old and famous castle, belonging to the 
 Augustenborg family, which even yet owns a large 
 portion of tin- island. Here Christian II. of Den- 
 mark and Norway was confined from 1532 to 1549. 
 During the Sehleswig-Holstein war, A. was a place 
 of considerable military importance. 
 
 ALSTER, a river in Holstcin, is formed by the 
 continence of three streams, and, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Hamburg, spreads itself out, and forms a 
 lake, called the Great or Outer A., and, within the 
 town, the Inner A. It flows by several canals into 
 the Elbe. 
 
 ALSTRCEME'RIA, or AL>T1:<F.M KR'S LILY, 
 a genus of plants of the natural order Amaryl- 
 lideoe (q. v.), and, according to Lindley, of the tribe 
 
 Aktrameriece, which is distinguished by librous not 
 
 bulbous — roots, and by having the outer segments 
 of the perianth different in form from the inner. In 
 DOS, the two lower segments are somewhat 
 tubular at the base, the capsules do not gape when 
 ripe, arc 3-valved or pulpy witlun, and the seeds 
 globose. The leaves are twisted, so that what shoidd 
 be the upper surface, becomes the lower. The 
 species are numerous, natives of the warmer parts 
 of America. Many of them have tuberous roots. 
 Some are sufficiently hardy to endure the open air in 
 Britain, and are admired ornaments of our flower- 
 gardens. Some have climbing or twining stems ; 
 amongst these is the salsilla {A. salsilla), a plant of 
 great beauty, with lanceolate leaves, a native of 
 Pent, which is cultivated in the West Indies, and its 
 tubers eaten like those of the potato. In Britain, it 
 requires the stove or a hot-bed. A. ovata, also a 
 beautiful plant, with a slender twining stem, and 
 ovate leaves, is cultivated in Chili for its tubers, 
 which are used as food. It has been introduced into 
 Britain, but its cultivation has made little progress. 
 The tubers weigh from 3 to 6 ounces. A kind of 
 arrow-root is also prepared in Chili from the succu- 
 lent roots of A. pallida and other jp 
 
 ALTA'I (i. e., gold mountain) is the term vaguely 
 applied to the high range in the east of Asia, formin" 
 the northern border of that vast table-laud known 
 by the name of Chinese Tatary, and extending 
 from 80° to 142° E. long. The A. mountains con- 
 stitute the boundary between the Russian and 
 Chinese empires, or between the long icy lowlands 
 of Siberia, stretching away to the Arctic Sea, and 
 the variegated central plateau that lies south of 
 them. Their general direction is from east to 
 west. They are divided into many ranges and 
 groups, each having a distinctive name. From 
 the Sea of Okhotsk, in the extreme east of Asia, 
 they extend in a broad and winding mass to the 
 plains of Turkestan, a Uttle to the west of Lake 
 Zaisan, or Zaizang, a distance of more than 3000 
 miles. The breadth of the system is, in some places, 
 not less than S00— 900 miles. From Okhotsk 
 to the Lena, it is called the Aldan Chain ; it is next 
 separated into three groups by the valleys of the 
 Amur, Yenisei, and Irtish, the last of which is called 
 the Little A., to distinguish it from the spar that 
 strikes off into Chinese Tatar,- in a south-easterly 
 direction, and which is called the Great A., a range 
 that in some places towers into the region of per- 
 petual snow, and whose most easterly cliffs abruptly 
 disappear in the dark clouds which overhang the 
 sandy steppes of Gobi. The Russian A., between 
 Semipalatinsk and the sources of the Obi, have 
 been colonised by the Russians, and as they rival 
 the Ural Mountains in their mineral wealth, they 
 have already become one of the most important 
 districts of the Russian empire. This chain consists 
 of a broad Alpine range on the north-western edge of 
 Chinese Tatary, and is called the Altai-Bjclki, or 
 Snowy Mountains. It reaches in its highest peaks 
 an elevation of nearly 1 1,000 feet. Little is known of 
 the geology of the Altaian system, Jasper is found 
 in considerable abundance near the summits, red por- 
 phyry lower down, and granite still lower. Around 
 Lake Baikal there are numerous granitic mi 
 
 in
 
 ALTAI! -ALIEN. 
 
 persed witt newer igneous formations, bul 
 
 i olc ino - do 1 1 • ■ t n | . j >. eg until the ra n achi 
 
 Kamtchatka. The mines ore rich in gold, silver, 
 copper, ami lead. The botany of the mount 
 
 ..ii.rily known as the geology, bul 
 be worthy of closer attention. North of the A.- 
 Bjelki, lies the broad zone of the A. mineral di 
 the inhabitants of which are employed 
 
 igricultural labourers, over whom a strut watch 
 is kept. The south-east is peopled by the < lalmucks 
 of the mountains, a Mongolian race. They are 
 heathens, and their government is a patriarchal one. 
 They hail a nomadic lite, encamping in summer 
 among the rich pastures on the mountain-terraces, 
 and in winter within the sheltered recesses of the 
 
 « ly glens. See Altai in Supplement. 
 
 A 'L'I'.UI i Lit. aUare, from altug, high), the place 
 
 .hi offerings were laid both by .lows and 
 heathens. The Brat on record is that which Noah 
 built on leaving the ark. The Israelites, after the 
 ig of the Law. were commanded to make one. 
 We and, from the. Old Testameni (1 Kings, iii. 3; 
 1 Kings, xi. 7; and 2 Bongs, xxiii. 15), that altars 
 were often erected on high places — sometimes, also. 
 on the roofs of houses. Both in the .Jewish taber- 
 nacle and temple ill re were two altars, one for 
 sacrifices, and another for incense. Tor a minute 
 description of these, see Exodus, Leviticus, and 
 Numbers. The Je^ i )h and oriental altars were gener- 
 ally either square, oblong, or approximating to such; 
 i,i ece and Koine, on the other hand, were 
 often round. Sacrifices were offered to the infernal 
 gods, not on altars, but in cavities dug in the ground. 
 
 Roman Al 
 
 The word has been transferred into the Christian 
 
 system. For upwards of five centuries, altars in the 
 ( Ibxistian churches were, for the most part, made of 
 wood; but in oim a.h., it was di creed by a council 
 held at Epone, in France, that none should be con- 
 secrated with chrism except those built of stone. In 
 the first ages of Christianity, there was only one 
 A. in a church; but. from a very •ally time, the 
 Latins have used more than one. In the 12th c, the 
 adorning of churches with imagi a and numerous 
 altars was carried to a great extent, and they were 
 embellished with "old, silver, and precious stones. 
 The Greek Church use but one \. Altars were fie- 
 quently placed at the west end of the ancient churches, 
 instead of the east, but in England almost uniformly 
 in the east. The only perfect A. of the old tunes 
 m England is the high A. of Arundel < Ihurch, Sussex. 
 The slab is 12 feel 6 inches long, by -I fei t wide, and 
 •_", inches thick. The support is of solid stone, quite 
 plain, and plastered over. For 300 years after the 
 time of Christ, the word A. was constantly u 
 
 be the table of the Lord; subsequently, 'table' 
 and ' altar ' were used indifferently. In the first 
 Prayer-book ol King Edward, 1549, the word A. was 
 in the Rubric, and the Lord's Supper was still 
 called the Mass; but in 1550, an order was issued 
 for the setting up of tables instead of altars, and in 
 the second Prayer-book of 1552, the word altar was 
 everywhere replaced by tabic. The table was further 
 "17G 
 
 tJ to be of wood, and movable. In Mary's 
 
 reign the altars were n erected; but in Queen 
 
 Mi's, some were riotously pulled down, and 
 
 injunctions were then issued directing that tins 
 
 should not In' .lone, except under the oversight of 
 
 the curate and at lea-tone churchwarden. It was 
 charged . . i n I Archbishop Laud that he had con- 
 I communion-tables into altars. What he really 
 did was to remove the tables out ot the body - 
 church, and place them ' altarwise,' i.e., north and 
 south, at the upper end of the chancels, where the 
 
 altars formerly St 1 ; and a dog having on oni I 
 
 sion run away with a piece of tie' consecrated b 
 
 he directed that Tails sllollld !>0 ClVcted to pi 
 
 such desecrations in future. The old stone altars 
 us. d frequently to be made in the shape of tombs, 
 and they enclosed reins; this was from the early 
 
 Christians having often celebrated theeucharist at 
 
 the tombs of the martyrs, or, as others say. tie \ 
 were thus made with the design of representing 
 
 > ' s humanity as having 1 u rial, and vouched 
 
 for by the fact of his body lying in the tomb. The 
 Credence Table and Piscina are adjuncts of an 
 A. By the judgment in the Arches Court, 1845, in 
 the case of Faulkner r. Litchfield, it was decided 
 that altars may not be erected in churches. This 
 case arose out of the erection, by the Cambridge 
 i '. iiiel. n Society, of a stone A. in the Church of the 
 Holy Sepulchre in that town. 
 
 The old English divines, and, indeed, all Pro- 
 testant ecclesiastical writers of any importance, are 
 
 unanimous in the opinion, that an g Christians 
 
 (lie word cannot mean what tl and heathens 
 
 expressed by it. The later fathers used various 
 phrases to denote the solemnity which should 
 attach to the communiontable, such as 'the 
 Mystical and Tremendous Table,' 'the M\ 
 Table,' ' tin Holy Table.' &C. And tiny termed it an 
 A., because, first, the holy eucharist was regarded as 
 a kind of commemorative sacrifice, or. more properly, 
 a consecrated memorial before Cod of the o,reat 
 sacrifice on Calvary; and, second, the prayers of the 
 communicants were held to l.e in 
 sacrifices or oblations — sacrifices of thanksgivic 
 it were. Tins is the view of those who hold High 
 Church opinions, but does not exclude the other view. 
 \ mi. tiny termed it a table when the eucharist 
 was considered exclusively in the fight of a sacra- 
 ment, to be partaken of by believi rs as spiritual 
 food. In the former case, the sacrifice was com- 
 memorated ; in the latter, it was applied : in the 
 i i : . rpn ed more directly the gratitude ; in 
 the latter, more directly the faith of the Christian. 
 
 A LTDORFEli, Arm: re fit. painter and engraver, 
 was born at Altdorf, in Bavaria, 14SS, and died at 
 Etatisbon, 1538. H" i< said to have been a pupil 
 of Albert Diirer; but this is not certain. He belongs, 
 however, to that religious school of artists of winch 
 I lUrer was tin- head. His pictures are also animated 
 by a glowing and romantic spirit of poetry, which is 
 delightful to any one who appreciates the conditions 
 of old German life. The landscape is delineated 
 with tin- same truth and tenderness as the li ■ 
 a rich manifold life p rvades the scenes, and 
 everything is handled with the utmost delicacy. 
 His master-piece, now in Munich, is 'The Victory 
 of Alexander over Darius,' a painting which, it 
 is said, affects the beholder like a heroic poem. 
 As an engraver, A. is reckoned among the lesser 
 masters. 
 
 A I.TE2T, Kael August, Count of, one of the 
 chief Hanoverian generals in the French and 
 German war, was born October 20, 1764 ; entered 
 the army in 1781, and gained distinction at the siege
 
 ALTEXEURG— ALTO. 
 
 Hondschooten. He was first lieutenant in 1S00, lmt 
 on account of the unhappy capitulation at Lauen- 
 burg, found it advisable to leave Hanover, ami came 
 bo England. Here he was d i of tie- 
 
 tirst i 1 •_' 1 s t battalion in the German Legion 
 In 1808 he a siated, as general of brigade, in 
 covering the retreat of General Moore to Coruuna, 
 ami in the following year commanded the troops 
 stationed in Sussex. In 1811. he took part, under 
 General Beresford, in the si< of Badajoz and the 
 battle of Albuera, and in the followin 
 promoted l>y the Duke of Wellington. In almost 
 all the en.' of the Spanish war of libera- 
 
 tion — at .Salamanca, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelte, 
 Nive, Orthez, Toulouse, &c, A. took a prominent 
 part, and had the command of a corps of 30,000 
 men, stationed near Madrid, in 1S1"2. lie fought 
 with great distinction at Quatre-Bras and at 
 Waterloo, where he was severely wounded ; Ins 
 efforts greatly coutrihuted to the decision of the 
 battle. After Ins return to Hanover, he wa 
 minister of war, and in this capacity died, April 
 20, 184tt 
 
 A LTEXBURG, the capital of the duchy of 
 Saxe-Altenburg, is situated in a fertile country 
 about -i miles from Lcipsic, and contains 16,000 
 inhabitants. Standi ij on an almost perpendicular 
 rock of porphyry, the old castle of A. forms a 
 striking feature in the landscape. Its foundations 
 are probably as old as the 11th c. It is remarkable 
 • scene of the historical incident known as the 
 Prinzenraub (q. v.). Brushes, gloves, and cigars are 
 among the chief manufactures carried on in A., and 
 the book-trade is considerable. A railway connects 
 it with Leipsic and Bavaria. 
 
 A'LTENGAARD, or A I.TEX, a seaport town in 
 the province of Finmarken, Norway, situated at the 
 month of the river Alten, in lat. G9° 55' X., and 
 1 this point, no cultivation is 
 attempted; and even ha ley alone 
 
 oduced. A. has a harbour and considerable 
 trade. It is visited principally by Russian and 
 Norwegian vessels. 
 
 ALTEN-OTTING, or ALTOTTIXG, a place of 
 pilgrimage not far from the Inn, is situated in one 
 of the most beautiful and fertile plains of Upper 
 Bavaria. It is frequented by thousands of Roman 
 Catholics from Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia. on 
 account of a famous image of the Virgin Mary 
 (the ' Slack Virgin') which it possesses, and may 
 be called the Loretto of German}'. The Redemp- 
 torist fathers, who were invited hither in 1838, 
 have built an educational institution, which may 
 be held as a virtual revival of the old Jesuit col- 
 
 i ivcted in 177o. A. was originally 
 Several German emperors, such as Henry HI. and 
 Henry IV., held their court here. The emperor 
 Leopold I., and other princes of the House of 
 Hapsburg, made pilgrimages to it. It also con- 
 tains the tomb of Count Tilly, who was buried 
 t his ov. a request. This tomb is called Tilly's 
 Chapel, and is held in such high veneration, that 
 Maximilian 1.. and nil princes and 
 
 srs of tic- Bavarian family, have had their 
 hearts interred in it. 
 
 A'LTr.RATivr.s, i„ Medicine, a term 
 remedies that have the power of changing to 
 of the living solids of the body, and consequently 
 altering the functions which they perform. It is 
 generally applied, however, to medicines which are 
 irritant in full d i but which almost imperceptibly 
 alter disordered actions or secretions; acting speci- 
 ally on certain glands, or upon absorption in 
 when they are given in comparatively small doses, 
 the treatment being continued for a considerable 
 12 
 
 of time. For example, mercury is an irritant 
 in some of its preparations ; but when small doses of 
 blue pdl, Rummer's pill, or corrosive sublimate are 
 given at intervals for some length of time, they 'pro- 
 duce alti . so as to cause an 
 improvement in the nutrient and digestive functions, 
 of eruptions, anil the removal of 
 iing of the skin or of other tissues' (Royle); 
 and they will effect these changi a without otherwise 
 affecting the constitution or inducing salivation. So 
 iodine, also an irritant in concentrated doses, and 
 poisonous in some forms, is most useful, when given 
 in small doses, in effecting the removal of enlarged 
 glandular organs, and need not cause iodism, if 
 illy given. 
 
 The preparations of gold are likewise stimulants 
 of the absorbents, and are used in cases of scrofula. 
 Some preparations of arsenic are powerful A. in 
 of skin-disease. So also are the decoctions of the 
 woodn and their substitutes, such as decoction of 
 sarsaparilla, and the like, which, when taken in large 
 quantities of water, must operate partly by their 
 diluting and solvent properties, and partly by the 
 stimulant effect of the active principles of the 
 several ingredients in these diet-drinks, conveyed 
 into the capillaries. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, that the term A . - 
 implies the method in which some dru . Imin- 
 
 i. than any special alterative I 
 
 by them. The most useful it may be added, are 
 also the most dangerous in unskilled hands. 
 
 ALTE'RXATE, in Botany. See Leaves. 
 
 ALTHiE'A. See Mak.sii Mallow., and Holly- 
 hock. 
 
 A'LTITUDE, in Astronomy, is the height of a 
 heavenly body above the horizon. It is measured, 
 not by linear distance, but by the angle which a line 
 drawn from the eye to the heavenly body makes 
 with the horizontal line, or by the arc of a vertical 
 circle intercepted between the body and the horizon. 
 Altitudes are taken in observatories by means of a 
 telescope attached to a graduated circle i ;.- 
 which is fixed vertically. The telc-< 
 directed towards the body to be observed, the angle 
 which it makes with the horizon is read off the 
 graduated circle. The A. thus observed must 
 receive various corrections — the chief being for 
 parallax (q. v.) and refraction (q. v.) — in order to get 
 the true A. At sea, the A. is taken by means of a 
 sextant (q. v.), and then it has further to be cor- 
 rected for the dip of the visible horizon below the 
 true horizon (see HORIZON). The correct determina- 
 tion of altitudes is of great importance in most of 
 the problems of astronomy and navigation. See 
 Longitude. — An Altitude and Azimuth INSTRU- 
 MENT consists essentially of a vertical circle with its 
 telescope so arranged as to be capable of being 
 turned round horizontally to any point of the 
 is. It thus differs from a Transit Circle (q. v.), 
 which is fixed in the meridian. See Azimuth. 
 
 A'LTO (<:■■ cuo) is the deepest or lowest 
 
 species of musical voice in boys, in eunuchs, and 
 
 of all in females, where its beauty of tone 
 
 gives it the preference. This quality of the human 
 
 voice has been too much neglected by modern com- 
 
 i g-masters. The powers of ■ 
 
 sion which it | ' culiar, and 
 
 cannot be supplied by any other kind of voice. Its 
 ton. -character (timbre) is serious, spiritual, tender, 
 and romantic. The low A. in particular has a I 
 of tone combined with power in the lower rang.-. No 
 other voice expresses so decidedly dignity, greatness, 
 and religious resignation : it can also represent 
 youthful manly power as well as romantic heroism. 
 The high A. has generally the same range of 
 6 177
 
 ALTOX-ALTO-RELIEVO. 
 
 compass as the mezzo soprano, hut differs from it in 
 ■sition of the cantabile and in its character ■ .; 
 tone. A. voices generally consist of two r 
 the lowest beginning at P or <; below middli 
 
 ng as high xs the A or II al 
 The higher notes op to the next P or ( '. partake more 
 of the character of the soprano. . 
 
 ALTON, Jos. Wilh jsorof 
 
 Archseology and the History of Art at Bonn, was 
 born, 177*2, at Aqoileia, and died in 1840. In early 
 . his attention was directed to natural 
 dally that of the horse, on which 
 a splendid illustrated work ( .'. 
 
 1810), which was completed in 
 1817. In concert with his friend I'ander, he pro- 
 jected an extensive work on comparat ive 
 of which the first division was published at Bonn 
 1821 — 1828. His etchings of animals, &c. are 
 esteemed as valuable. Albert, Prince Consort of 
 Queen Victoria, was a pupil of A. in the History of 
 Art. 
 
 A'LTOXA, the largest and richest city in the 
 duchy of Hoistein in Denmark, is situated on the 
 Elbe, so near Hamburg, that the two cities ai 
 divided by the state-boundaries. It contains 32,20 I 
 inhabitants. A. lies higher than Hamburg, and is 
 much healthier; but, on the other hand, it is destitute 
 of the num I ■- so necessary for the tr, 
 
 of good hich Hamburg is so abundantly pro- 
 
 vided. In a commercial point of view, it forms one 
 city with Hamburg. Its trade i England, 
 
 France, the Mediterranean Sea, and th 
 Indies. There are many important Industrie 1 
 lishments in A. ; among others, the manufacture of 
 tobacco is largely carried on, one factory working np 
 600,000 lbs. yearly. A. is a free port, and 
 many privileges in respect of trade, and also of civil 
 freedom ; all sects are allowed the free exercise of 
 their religion. The city is connected by a railway 
 with Kiel, Kendsburg, and Glllckstadt. The observa- 
 tory is a private institution, which has gained a 
 great reputation under the direction of Schumacher, 
 who died in 1851. The rise of A. to its present 
 importance ha3 been recent and rapid, for a conti- 
 nental town. 
 
 A'LTORF, the chief town in the Swiss canton 
 Uri, is situated in a sheltered spot at the bae 
 Grunbcrg, about two miles from the head of the 
 Lake of the Four Cantons, and contains about 2000 
 inhabitants. It is a well-built town, having several 
 open places, a church, a nunnery, and the oldest 
 Capuchin monastery in Si L The little 
 
 tow r on which the exploits of William ' 
 painted in rude frescoes, is known to be older than 
 the legend of Tell. The lime-tree under which the 
 scene of the shooting of the apple was laid, was 
 removed in 1657, and a stone-fountain erected in its 
 stead. Situated on the St Gothard road, A. has 
 some transit trade, but little or no industry of its 
 own. 
 
 A'LTO-RILIE'VO (ItaL), high-relief, the term 
 in sculpture to designate that mode of repre- 
 senting objects by which they are made to 
 strongly and boldly from the background, without 
 being entirely detached. In Alto-Rilievo, some por- 
 tions of the figures usually stand quite free, and in 
 this respect it differs not only from basso-rilievo, or 
 low-relief, but from the intermediate kind of 
 known as mezzo-rilievo, in which the figures are fully 
 rounded, but where there are no detached portions. 
 In order to be in high-relief, objects ought actually 
 to project somewhat more than half their thi 
 no conventional means being employed in this style 
 to give them apparent prominence. In bass-relief, 
 on the other hand, the figures are usually flattened ; 
 178 
 
 but means are adopted to prevent the projection 
 
 from appearing to the eye to be less than half; 
 
 ■ if an object projects less than half, or, to 
 
 •. be more than half buried in the 
 
 round, it is obvious that its trn 
 
 tented, This rule, that in all 
 
 : i I 1 or I 
 
 projection of at lertst half the tl round 
 
 . was strictly observed in t 
 art, but it has 1 I in the 
 
 i . in lab i- times, and hence attempts 
 made at fori and perspective, 
 
 which have ed in partial failure. 
 
 Relief forms a kind of intermedia tween 
 
 art and painting, the mode of represi ntation 
 b mowed from the former, whilst the mode of 
 arrangement, to a ceil . is in accordance 
 
 with the latter. The plastic principle occupi 
 most prominent place in the simple and tranquil 
 
 of the earlier art of Greece, v 
 pictorial principle preponderates in the crowded and 
 often excited seen ited in the later Roman 
 
 reliefs. In such reliefs as have been produced in 
 modern times, the one element or the othi 
 prevailed, according as the one model or the other 
 has been followed. The works which have 
 nd from the ruins of Persepolis, Nib 
 and Babylon, still attest the i mployment 
 
 of relief in 1 Vivian and Assyrian art. Of the 
 which usually belongs to the class of n 
 some of the finest specimens in existence are now to 
 
 Winged Bull. 
 
 be seen in the British Museum. Though never 
 exhibiting the life and freedom of classical or modern 
 European art, the elaborately executed and majestic 
 reliefs of these semi-oriental nations are greatly 
 in advance not only of the wlu'msical distortions 
 of nature exhibited by the Hindus, but of the 
 inanimate and motionless representations of the 
 ians. 
 earliest Greek reliefs possessed a hard and 
 character, somewhat approaching to the art 
 of those earlier nations of which we have just 
 spoken, and were very slightly raised. Of this wo 
 have an example in the two lions over the gate 
 at Mycenas — probably the oldest Greek relief in 
 Phidias who gave to relief its true 
 character, and finally brought it to a degree of perfec- 
 tion which it has never since att • alti- 
 rilievi which adorned the metopes of the Parthenon 
 at Athens, and the Temple of Apollo at Phi- 
 Arcadia, now preserved in the British Museum, are 
 still not only unsurpassed, but unapproached as 
 examples of the style. In none of these do we see 
 any attempt at perspective, and even foreshortening 
 for the most part is avoided. 
 
 Under the Romans, sculpture was employed
 
 ALTO-RELIEVO- A LUM. 
 
 to an enormous extent in the decoration of 
 tombs ami sarcophagi, whole str eta of such monu- 
 ments i " n tne 
 Appian ■ result of i 
 
 that sculpture became a manufacture rather 
 
 in art, ami attempts were made to supply by 
 
 technical execution and mere mass what had be a 
 
 lost in thought and spirit. Relief was nowa] 
 
 often by Greek artists resident in Italy, to purposes 
 
 Panathenaic Frieze. — From the Parthenon. 
 
 for which the Greeks, in their own land and in their 
 better times, had rightly conceived it to be unsuited. 
 Behind figures standing nearly free, a second rank 
 was introduced, and those numerous examples of a 
 false style, still to be found in every gallery in 
 Europe, were produced, the imitation of which after- 
 wards led to such a lavish expenditure of artistic 
 talent in Italy. The attempt which the Romans had 
 made to invade the province of painting, by means 
 of sculpture, was carried still further by the 1 
 tine artists of the 16th and 17th c. Not only were 
 several rows of figures represented in 
 but even landscape was introduced with a success 
 which, in the hands of such artists as Ghiberti, was 
 positively marvellous. If the highest perfection in the 
 true plastic style of relief was attained by Phidias 
 in the metopes of the Parthenon at Athens, a corre- 
 sponding merit may be claimed as regards the 
 pictorial style by Ghiberti in the cele- 
 brated bronze doors of the Baptistery of San 
 < I iovanni at Florence. Even Canova's reliefs ] i 
 to far too great an extent of the character of paint- 
 ings in stone; and to Flaxuian, and above all, to 
 
 aldsen, must be assigned the merit of restoring 
 tins style of art to its genuine and original prin- 
 ■ it is to be remembered, in studying the 
 
 reliefs of c ues, that studiously as the 
 
 Greeks avoided a pictorial conception of their sub- 
 ject, they did not eschew the use of colour w : 
 could be employed to heighten the effect 
 
 There is reason to believe that in many 
 
 excellent examples the background was painted 
 
 blue, and that the hems of ants of the 
 
 figures, and the like, were often coloured or gi 
 
 A'LUM, a whitish. saline substance; 
 
 ly it is a double salt, being compi 
 sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumina. 
 
 with a certain proportion of water, crystallise 
 i r in octahedrons or in cubes. Its formula 
 IB KOSO,-rAl,0,3SO,+24HO. A. is soluble in 
 eighteen times its weight of cold water, and in its 
 own weight of hot water. The solution thus ol 
 has a peculiar astringent taste, and is stroii 
 to coloured test papers. When heated, the crystals 
 melt in their water of crystallisation ; and when the 
 
 water is completely driven off by heat, there is left 
 a spongy white mass, called burnt A, or anhydrous 
 
 is much used as a mordant in dyeing. This 
 property it owes to the alumina in it, which has a 
 strong attraction for textile tissues, and also for 
 colouring matters ; the alumina thus becomes the 
 ig the colour in the cloth. The manu- 
 facture of the colours or paints called lakes depends 
 on this proi>erty of alumina to attach to itself certain 
 colouring matters. Thus, if a solution of A. is 
 coloured with cochineal or madder, and ammonia or 
 carbonate of soda is added, the a'mrnina of the A. is 
 precipitated with the colour attached to it, and tho 
 Liquid is left colourless. Alumina, the basis of pure 
 clay — which is a silicate of alumina — deriv 
 name from being first extracted from A. A. is also 
 used in the preparation of leather from skins, anil, 
 licine, as a powerful astringent !' 
 ig and mucous discharges. Its use in the 
 
 of bread, to give a white appearance and 
 more pi nee to bread made from 
 
 at Hour, is highly objectionable. A. rarely 
 occurs in nature, except in a f :id in some 
 
 extinct volcano, s. where it appears to be formed from 
 the action of sulphurous acid vapours upon felspathic 
 rocks. In this country, it is prepared artificially from 
 A.-shale, obtained from coal-mines at Hurlett and 
 Campsie. near Glasgow ; and alum-slate, which occurs 
 at Whitby, in Yorkshire, and there forms precipitous 
 cliffs, extending about thirty miles along the east 
 coast of England. The alum-slate, shale, or schist, 
 consists mainly of clay (silicate of alumina), iron 
 pyrites (bisulphuret of iron), and coaly or bituminous 
 matter. When the shale is exposed to the air — as it 
 is in the old coai-vxutea or mines from which the 
 coal has been extracted — the oxygen of the air, 
 assisted by moisture, efl led change upon 
 
 it. The original hard stony substance begins to 
 split up into thin leaves, and becomes studded over 
 and ini crystals. The latter are the 
 
 result of the oxidation of the sulphur of the j 
 into sulphuric acid, and the iron into oxide of iron, 
 both of which iu part combine to form sulphate of 
 iron, whilst the excess of the sulphuric acid unites 
 with the alumina of the clay, and produces sulphate 
 of alumina. When the alum-shale thus weathered 
 is digested in water, there dissolve out, the sulphate 
 
 aina (Al O .'!S0 3 ) and • sulphate of iron 
 •lution is treated with chloride 
 of potassium (KC1), which decomposes the sulphate 
 of iron, forming sulphate of potash (KOSO,) and 
 chloride of iron (FeCl). When this li 
 porated to concentration, and allowed to cool, 
 1 .irate, consisting of sulphate of 
 
 :. sulphate of potash and water, thus, 
 i.u.Mi, ; Al (i :;sn : _ d the chlor 
 
 iron is left in the solution or moffier-Uquor. The 
 crystals of A. obtained from the first crystallisation 
 arc not free from iron, and hence require to 
 be redissolved in v, at r, ^concentrated, ai 
 
 , This operation d 
 
 a 'third time before the A. is obtained pure. — 
 As the preliminary weathering of the shade takes 
 >some years . "S method 
 
 is now largely resorted to. The shale is broken in 
 
 its," and piled up over brushwood in long 
 ■ huge potato-pits, and the brush- 
 wood b dy matter of the shale 
 begins to burn, and the who! ridge undergoes the 
 process of roasting ; the results of which are the 
 sanio as that ithering operation— namely, 
 the oxidation of the sulphur and iron, and the for- 
 i of sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron, 
 laterial is afterwards worked up as prc\ 
 led. The roasting operation is so much more 
 expeditious than the weathering process, that months
 
 ALUM BAfiH— ALUMINA. 
 
 1 i, \. urn! ■ :i' To] i. DJ U < Si . I 
 
 Vecchia, is extracted from alum-stone, a mineral con- 
 taining sulphate of potash and sulphat • of alumina, 
 
 : id hi such a to lerthem insoluble. 
 
 , tin- mineral i; calcined, tin 1 sulphates become 
 soluble, and are extracted by lixiviation. 1 
 thus manufactured is prized, as being free of iron. 
 The potash in A. can In- replaced partly or alto- 
 gether by sods or ammonia; the alumina by oxide 
 of chromium or bi [uioxide of in in m e; o 
 sulphuric acid bj ■ icid, or peroxide of iron, 
 
 ■it altering! ' rj rtals. There are 
 
 thus soda, ammonia, chrome, Ac, alums, form 
 gi nus of salts of which i .is onlj oni 
 
 The more important 
 a ril in symbols, at 
 
 KOS0 3 + A1.0 | \. 
 
 NaOSO.+AJ o 3 10 24HO, oda A. 
 Nil O.SO. + A1 <> 3S0, l -Ml!" \. 
 
 KOS0, + Cr,O. 1 3S0 : 24HO, chromic pofc 
 FeOSO a +Al,d 3 3SO,+24HO, ferrous A. 
 
 ALUM BAGH, a fort rendered famous, during 
 the battles and siegi ari ing out of tin' Indian 
 mutiny in 1857, by t£e indom lution of its 
 
 defenders. The A. B. ('G ird m of tin- Lady Alum, 
 
 or Beauty <>f tli" Soul') was a domain about four 
 from the city of I, u. know, inr the Caw opore 
 road. It comprised Beveral buildings, includii a 
 i, a mosque, and an emanbarra or private temple, 
 bounded by a beautiful garden, which was itself in 
 the middle <>f a park, and the park enclosed by a 
 wall with corner towers, ft had belonged to some 
 members of the royal family of I Huh-; 1 ut when the 
 wars of the mutiny had be n fairly be on, the A. B. 
 was converted by the rebels into a fort. It was 
 large enough to contain a powerful military 
 ami might have bi irmidable stron ;hold, if 
 
 well defended; but it proved powerless against a 
 
 small British force. In Si pi I , Ol 
 
 lock, and Neill crossed the Ganges from Cawnpore, 
 marched rapidly towards Lucknow, and captured 
 the A. B. on the way. About 300 
 at the place, with f oui a number of sick, 
 
 wounded, and 4000 n p followers, under 
 
 Colonel M'lntyrc; while tl i nerals pro- 
 
 ceeded with the main body of their force to 
 Lucknow. It was intended that M'Intyre should 
 soon he relieved or reinforced; but Havelock and 
 Ou i in, shut up for two months within the 
 Residency at Lucknow, could scarcely send even 
 a small note in a quill to the A. B. Not until 
 the close of November did the British, under Sir 
 Colin Campbell, relieve both Lucknow and the 
 A. B. lie brought away all the garrison from the 
 former place, but left Sir James Outrun, with 3500 
 men, to hold the A. B. It was at that time the 
 only spot in the whole province of Oude in the 
 hands of the British; and during the whole 
 Sir James had to defend it against Hie enemy. On 
 the 12th of January 185S, he was attacked by an 
 anmd rabble of sepoys and other malcontents, 
 amounting to 30,000 men. These, however, he 
 completely defeated. They attacked him again with 
 
 20, men on the 21st of February, at a tune when 
 
 nail force was weakened by the absence of a 
 liment employed in escorting a convoy of pro- 
 visions and stores from Cawnpore; he, however, met 
 th.m with the same heroic resolution, and effectually 
 repulsed them. In the next following month, Sir 
 Colin Campbell re-COnquered Lucknow; and the 
 garrison at the A. B. was relieved from its perilous 
 isolation. Although only a domain converted 
 temporarily into a fort, the A. B. must ever occupy 
 a memorable place in military history. 
 
 ALUM BOOT. This name is given in the 
 
 180 
 
 United States to two plants, natives of that country, 
 
 very different from oni another, but agreeing in the 
 
 remarkable ncy of their roots, which aro 
 
 IS. ii i. t)ne of these plants is Geranium 
 
 ■'-,;.: n i , :i plant of general habit 
 
 and appearance very much resembling some of the 
 
 of geranium which are common weeds in 
 
 Britain. The root contains more tannin than kino 
 
 (q. v.) dors. The tini ture is of use in sore throat and 
 
 ulcerations of the mouth, and is also administered 
 
 The property of a tringency 
 
 belongs, in an inferior degree, to some other species 
 
 of Ot ranium, and of the kindred genera, Wrodium and 
 
 /'. 1 1, •goniwm. -The other American plant to which 
 
 the name A. II. is given is Heuchera Americana, a 
 
 plant of the natural order Saxifragea (q.v.),an o I 
 
 in which aJ o a tringency is a prevalent property. 
 
 The genus Ii '< ra ha I the calyx ."id. ft, the petals 
 
 undivided, five stamens, and the styles remarkably 
 
 long. //• Americana is everywhere covered with a 
 
 , down; the leaves are roundish, lobed, and 
 
 toothed ; the peduncles, diehotoinnus and stra 
 
 The root is D powerful styptic, and is used to form 
 
 a wash for wounds and obstinate ulcers. 
 
 ALU'MINA, the most abundant of the earths 
 (q. v.), is the oxide of the metal Aluminium (q. v.), 
 
 the formula being A1..0.,. It occurs in n 
 
 abundantly in combination with silica, associated 
 with other bases. The most familiar of its native 
 compounds is felspar, a silicate of A. and 
 potass (Al ,0 ..-JSiO, +KO,SiO ,). This is one of 
 the constituents of granite, and of several other 
 igneous rocks. Certain varieties of these, by expo- 
 sure to the atmosphere, become completely disinte- 
 , passing from the state of hard, solid rock, 
 such as we are accustomed to see in buildir ranite, 
 into soft, crumbling, earthy masses. It is the Ei 
 which undergoes the change; and it appears to be 
 owing to the action of rain-water charged with car- 
 l, which dissolves the potass and some of 
 the silica of the felspar, leaving the excess of 
 and Hi- A. still unit' 1 1. It is not known, however, 
 why certain specimens of granite are rapidly cor- 
 roded and crumbled down, whilst others have 
 
 ! the same causes of decay. By 
 
 suchaproc ofdi ate ration as we have described, 
 the clays ol i if arable soils are produced. <'lay 
 consists of silica and A. in a state of chemical 
 i ibination. It never is pure A, but the quan- 
 tity of silica united to the latter is variable. 
 I it is pure, clay is quite white, as we see in 
 the porcelain clay o D ' re and Cornwall, which 
 
 is derived from colourless felspar. More frequently, 
 clay is red. owing to the presence of oxide of iron ; 
 or black, from the diffusion through it of vegetable 
 
 From alum, A. is prepared by adding to a 
 solution of the former, water of ammonia, as long 
 as it occasions a precipitate. The A. appears as a 
 voluminous, wl i nous substance, consist 
 
 ide of the metal combined with water. When 
 A. is precipitated from a solution containing colour- 
 ing matter, sueh as logwood, &C., it carries down the 
 colour chemically united to the flocculent precipi- 
 tate; in this way are formed the coloured earths, 
 called lakes (q. v.). A. in the state of precipitate, 
 after b itiy dried, is readily soluble in 
 
 acids and ill alkalies; but if heated to whiteness, 
 ,. loses the associated water, contracts greatly in 
 bulk, and forms a white, soft powder, not at all 
 gritty, and with difficulty soluble in alkalies and 
 acids. A., as generally prepared, whether hydrated 
 or anhydrous, is insoluble in water, possesses no 
 taste, and dons not alter colouring matters; but 
 recently Mr Walter Cnun has obtained A. in an 
 allotropic form, in which it is soluble in water.
 
 ALUMIN IUM— ALUF.ED. 
 
 It is quite different, therefore, in properties from 
 the alkaline earths, and is a much weaker base. 
 In the anhydrous state it absorbs water with 
 readiness without combining with it, so that it 
 adheres to the tongue, and is felt to parch it. 
 Clay retains this property ; and the ends of tobacco- 
 pipes are glazed, to prevent adhesion to the lips or 
 tongue. A. is not fusible l>y a forge or furnace 
 heat, but it ne ll i before the ozyhydrogen blow-pipe 
 into a clear globule, possessing great hardness. It 
 occurs in nature in a .similar state. The more 
 
 coarsely crystallised si imens form the em ry 
 
 which is used for polishing; the l transparent cry itals, 
 when of a blue colour, owing to a trace of metallic 
 
 oxid ■, stitute tin' precious gem the sapphire, 
 
 ..Inn red, (he ruby. A., in common with other 
 sesquioxides, is a feeble hasc. The salts it forms 
 with the acids have almost all a sour taste, and an 
 arid action on colouring matter. 
 
 ALUMI'NIUM is one of the metals present in 
 clay, granite, and other rocky and earthy substances. 
 It was discovered by WoMer iu, 1S'2S, and was re- 
 examined by him in 1846, when he obtained the 
 metal in minute globules or beads, by heating a 
 mixture of chloride of A. and sodium. Within the 
 last live years, however, the subject has been re- 
 investigated by Deville and others, and it appears 
 probable that the metal A., recently SO rare and 
 costly, will soon rank among the more common 
 metals both in use and price. The original experi- 
 ments of Deville were mad- at the cost of Napoleon 
 III., who subscribed £1500, and was rewarded by 
 the presentation of two bars of the metal. Tie' 
 process followed by Deville was the same as that 
 suggested by Welder, and appears to have been so 
 successful, that the metal could, in 1857, be purchased 
 in Paris at the price of 7s- Grf. an ounce. In 1855, 
 Hose announced to the scientitic world that A. 
 could be more readily and cheaply prepared from a 
 mineral called cryolite, found in Greenland in large 
 quantity, and cargoes of which are regularly im- 
 ported into Germany under the name of 'Mineral 
 Soda,' at the price of 9s. a cwt. This mineral is a 
 double fluoride of A. and sodium, is used on the 
 Rhine as a washing-soda, and also in the manu- 
 facture of soap, and only requires to be mixed w ith 
 an excess of sodium, and heated, when the metal 
 A. at once separates. The latter process for the 
 preparation of the new metal is about to be carried 
 out on the large scale at works which are now in 
 
 progress of erection at Battexsea, London; and it 
 is expected that the price will not exceed 3s. 9 ■■'. 
 per ounce. Indeed, an order for 500 ounces at that 
 sum has already been accepted. 
 
 The properties of A. are, that it is a wdiite metal, 
 somewhat resembling silver, but possessing a bluish 
 hue, which reminds one of zinc. It is very malleal le 
 and ductile, and in tenacity it approaches iron. 
 When heated in a furnace, it fuses, and can then be 
 cast in moulds into ingots. Exposed to dry or moist 
 air, it is unalterable, and does not oxidise so much 
 as lead and zinc do. Cold water has certainly no 
 action upon it, and in the majority of experiments, 
 hot water has not sensibly affected it. Sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, the -is win h so readily tarnishes the 
 silver in households, forming a black film on the 
 3urface, does not act on A. When fused and cast 
 into moulds, it is a soft metal like pure silver, and 
 has a density of 2"56j but, when hammered <>r rolled, 
 it becomes as hard as iron, and its density increases 
 to 2"67. It is therefore a very light metal, being 
 lighter than glass, and only one-fourth as heavy as 
 silver. This property has been taken advantage of 
 by Napoleon III., who some tune ago ordered lie 
 eagles surmounting the standards of the French 
 army to be made of A. instead of silver; and thus 
 
 the sau u ced to one-fourth of its 
 
 former weight. A. is very sonorous ; and when a 
 
 rod or small bell made ,,; it, i i struck, it gives out a 
 
 ■ t clear I i ad ; hence it has been 
 
 1 that the metal would be useful in making 
 
 A. forms, with 
 
 light, very hard, white alloys, which will doubtless 
 
 i " find their way into our manufactures of ; . 
 
 tea-kettles, dish-covers, &c. ; and also a yellow 
 alloy, which, though much ligl 'gold, 
 
 similar to it in colour, and in being faintly ad I - 
 by acids. With iron, the new metal yield 
 alloys, one of which, thou I, con! lining 75 per cent. 
 
 of i yet will not ru | to a damp 
 
 a1 phere, and may therefore bo useful in m 
 
 i pipes, &e. Ornaments for the mantel 
 lis- arm, and the neck, have been fashion 
 A., hut hitherto they have proved unacceptable to 
 the public eye, on account of its peculiar blue or 
 
 zinc hue; but recently, Dr Stevenson Macadam, of 
 Edinburgh, has suggested a process of imm 
 
 the A. iii a heated solution of [potash, which partially 
 eats into the surface of the metal, ami produces a 
 fine white frosted appearance, like that of fl 
 
 silver. A number of medals of A. have I" 
 
 m this way, ami after a year's exposure, have not 
 lost their original beauty. 
 
 ALU'NNO, Niccolo, or Niccolo of Fuligno, one 
 of the old I nibrian painters, whose works first 
 indicated the qualities discernible in that school. 
 His earliest known piece is a ' Madonna with Angels 
 and Saints,' 1458 A. D. ] dso a gonfalon — a 
 
 banner used in religious processions— of the year 
 1466, in tin' church of Santa Maria Nuova at 
 i. which A. painted for the brotherhood, as 
 the inscription testifies: 'Soeietcu Annuncia 
 fecit fieri hoc opus.' ft is a work of peculiar beauty, 
 displaying deep religious feeling and exquisite i 
 ness. A. painted several of these gonfalons. Some 
 of his pictures were carried oil" by the French, and 
 sent to Paris; but at the restoration of artistic 
 
 spoil, ' The Nativity,' 'The Resurrect ,' &c., were 
 
 returned, although 'The Agony in the Garden' still 
 remains in the Louvre. There is also a 'Madonna 
 between 'Two Angels,' of the year l-l!l'.), to he seen in 
 the parish church of the village of Bastda. Frag- 
 ments, too, are still in existence of an altar-piece 
 for tie' cathedral of Assisi. The picture repp 
 a Fieta, with two angels bearing torches, and, 
 according to Vasari, weeping so naturally, thai 'no 
 one,' he thinks, 'could have painted them bitter.' 
 A. is not so remarkable for the originality or fertility 
 of Ins invention, as for his selection of details, warmth 
 of feeling, purity, and devout faith. His earnestness, 
 however, leads turn at times into exaggeration. 
 
 ALT7RED, or AUtED, of Beverley, in York- 
 shire, an old English historian of the time of Henry 
 I. Little is known regarding him ; but he is said 
 to have been educated at Cambridge, and to have 
 greatly distinguished himself by the variety of his 
 ttg. It is also stated that he had enriched 
 his mind by travel, both in France and Italy. 
 
 and that at Koine he became domestic chaplain to 
 
 Cardinal Othobom. H I office, however, 
 
 to have been thai of canon and treasurer of 
 
 the church of St John in his native town of Beverley, 
 
 ■>. hi re he wi . i hi work commences 
 
 with a fabulous period of British history, and 
 ; ilov, ii to the twentj ointh \. u of lb m j l. 
 ll was publi Is d at t Ixford in 171(1 by 'I b 
 lleanie, and i 
 
 Its Latin is extremely good, and even 
 
 elegant, while it sadly in dates, is 
 
 unusual for the age in which its author lived. He 
 
 IS very doubtful, to have written,
 
 ALVARADO— AMADEUS. 
 
 besides the Annals, a work on the libertie I ur privi- 
 
 nf the church of St John of Beverley. The 
 
 work, whoever wrote it, is a translation of old 
 
 , charters, &c, relative to that 
 
 . and is still in manuscript. A. died in 1128 
 
 or 1129. 
 
 ALVARA'DO, ■ ", a famous companion 
 
 of Corl joz in Spani 
 
 dura, 1 the clo3e of the loth c. In 1517 or 
 
 world, and in the 
 patched from Oul 
 governor of that island, to explore, and 
 command of Grijalva, the shores of the Am 
 continent. The expedition touched mil (the 
 
 Isle of Swallows), and at various places in Yucatan. 
 Ascending also the rivers Tabai i 
 Grijalva was so enchanted with the 
 country, its line cultivation, and the numerous traces 
 of advanced civilisation, that I i un d it New 
 Now, for the first tiro paniards 
 
 I of the riches of Montezuma, and I 
 
 A. was ord r d to return to Cuba, and 
 
 inform Velasquez of the result of the exn 
 
 The sight of the gold which A. brought with him, 
 
 stimulated the covetousness and ambition of Vilas- 
 
 quez, who became greatly incensed against Grijalva, 
 
 because the latter had not i further into 
 
 w region, and on ; bo I aba deprii I 
 
 him of his command. In February 1519, Cortes 
 
 sailed from Havanna, solely for the purpose of con- 
 
 i ships, containing 508 soldiers, and 
 
 109 seamen. A. i landed one of these ships; 
 
 but a storm separating the licet, he arrived at the 
 
 [ale of Swallows, three days earlier 
 
 otl Here the conquest of Mexico •■ 
 
 planned by these intrepid ail venturers. A. ,. 
 in every conspicuous incident; he was, i 
 hardly less distinguished than the sagacious Cortes 
 himself, who knew his worth, and whom he served 
 with unfalti and fidelity. While 1 
 
 the city of Mexico, during the absence of his chief, 
 he massacred, in the midst of a fete, a great hi 
 of Aztec nobles, which act is said to hi ve i 
 the ind I but, on the other hand, 
 
 it is asserted that the had 
 
 d istruction of the Spi si A. had 
 
 become cognizant of . [n the famous 
 
 night-retreat of 1st duly 1520, A. commanded the 
 rear-guard. Alter the conquest of Mexico, he was 
 
 . o. 1523, at the head of 300 foot, 160 hon 
 4 pieces of cannon, and a tree], of auxilia- 
 
 ries, to subdue the tribes on the coast of the I 
 in the direction of Guatemala. He: was completely 
 successful, reci iving everywhere the submission of 
 the native chiefs, while the people brought him 
 presents, in token of the sincerity of their friend- 
 amed to Spain, where the em 
 
 les V., gave him a splendid reception, and 
 appointed him governor of Guatemala. On depart- 
 ing again for the new world, he was accom 
 by numerous friends and cavaliers desirous of making 
 their fortune. His adventurous spirit soon launched 
 him into new enterpris -. Pizarro and Almagro 
 were prosecuting a brilliant career of conquest in 
 South America. A. resolved not to intrude upon 
 i i territories. He considered the province of 
 
 i to be without the limits of these, and so, 
 ting with a force of 500 soldiers, 227 of whom 
 were cavalier . fa i I aded at Bahia de los Ca 
 near Cape San Franeiseo, whence he ponetr.il 
 the heart of the country, crossing the Andes by as 
 bold and hazardous a march as it is possible to con- 
 In the plain of Km Bai IDS ' I was met by 
 some of the troops of Pizarro, headed by Almagro; 
 but instead of disputing by force of anus his right 
 to the possession of the country in which he found 
 
 himself, he agreed to retire, on receiving nn indemnity 
 for his arduous undertaking. Se therefore retired to 
 Honduras, and aided the . i n cstablishin w 
 
 tnents, amongst others, ( tracias-a-Dios and San 
 Juan de Puerto dc Caballos. Meanwhile, Pizarro, 
 loaded with wealth, went back to Spain in 153 
 misrcpiv-. ntedthe conduct of A to the emperor; but 
 
 I I i e ■ -..fully, 
 
 that he received the govern men l, of B luraa in 
 
 addition to Guatemala. Again he embarked for the 
 new world, and pursued his course of discovi 
 
 I ; but ill an affray with the Indians upon 
 oacan, in 1511. he was accidentally 
 killed by his horse falling upon him and crushing 
 him. In the same year, an inundation, accom; 
 by a fr overthrew the walls of the 
 
 i < iv. n of San Jago, when his wife and children all 
 perished. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Dox Jose, a Spanish sculptor, was 
 born April 23, 1768; at Priego, in the provii 
 < lordova. During youth he laboured with his 
 a stone-mason; and when twenty years old, K i 
 to study drawing and sculpture in the academy at 
 Granada. His early essays in sculpture seem 
 him the patronage of the Bishop of Cordova, and 
 in 1794, he was received into the academy of San 
 Fernando, where, in 1799, he gained the first prize in 
 
 t cl Subsequently, he gained the 
 prize for sculpture in the Institute of Paris, and in 
 1804, increased h j by a plaster-model of 
 
 Ganymede, which proved that he could rival i Janova 
 in gracefidness of style. He now attempted g 
 
 i i In- more severe style, and prepared a model 
 
 for a wounded Achilles, which was accidentally 
 
 broken. Ik mved to Home, he was here 
 
 employed by Napoleon to design bass-reliefs for the 
 
 Quirinal Palace on Moni iCavallo; but, on account 
 
 of political changes, his works were not allowed to 
 
 occupy the places for which they bad been di 
 
 In Rome, where he lived on terms of friendship with 
 
 Canova and Thorwaldsen, he executed, among oth 
 
 works, his Qrupo Golosal de Zaragaza, now in the 
 
 [ l mm of Madrid, > a scene in 
 
 . I of I This work alone is 
 
 nttoestahl I -ss of design, 
 
 - ! mplicity in execut m, trueness to nature, 
 
 intiment, mark the sculptures of A, who, 
 
 next to nature and classical studied the 
 
 works of Michael Angelo. Se dii I, in Madrid, 
 
 Nov nb. :■ 26, 1827. 
 
 AMADE'US (i.e. Love-God), a common name in 
 ,'i House of Savoy. The first who bore it was 
 V., eldest son of Count Humbert, who lived 
 about the commencement of the lithe. His suc- 
 cessors gradually enlarged their paternal dominions ; 
 but the lirst to make an important figure in history 
 was A. V., who was born in 12 19, succeeded his uncle 
 Filippn in 1285, and dinl in 1323. lb 1 acquired the 
 ■ of a prince of the empire. He had a brother 
 who resided for a long period in England, and while 
 there, built the Savoy Palace in London. — His son, 
 A. VI., the ' Green Count,' born in 1334, succeeded 
 his father in 1343. He was a sagacious, moderate, 
 and vigorous ruler, won various places from the 
 Dauphin of France, became lord - paramount of 
 Piedmont, and through the favour of the emperor 
 Charles IV., obtained the viceregency over a great 
 part of Upper Italy. His influence among tire I talian 
 states was very great, lie died in 13S3. — A. Yilf., 
 born in 1383, was at first under the guardianship 
 of his grandmother, a woman of superior talents; 
 but in 1398 he assumed the reins of government 
 himself, and displayed a spirit of moderation, and, 
 at the same time, a love of order which augured 
 well for his people. The zeal with which he
 
 AMADIS— AMADOU. 
 
 aided the policy of the Emperor Sigismund secured 
 mm tin.' imperial favour, and the elevation of Savoy 
 into a duchy (1416). On the extinction of its 
 native dynasty, in 1418. Piedmont chose liim for its 
 ruler, : I kin. But a religious melan- 
 
 choly taking possession of his mind, he (Novi 
 7, 1434) laid down his authority, and along with 
 six of liis I elf to a moE 
 
 hermitage which b i had caused to be built on the 
 shores ofthe Lake of Geneva. H edpope 
 
 in 1430, whi ttl med the name of Felix V. ; but 
 
 he resigned the papal chair in 1448, and died three 
 '. — A. IX., after govern- 
 ing for four over his authority to his 
 wife Jolanthe, on account of ill health; but she 
 1 it very imprudently. While he lived, A. was 
 a mere tool in the hands of grasping factions. He 
 died in 1472. 
 
 A'MADIS, a much-used heroic name in chivalric 
 poetry. At the head of those heroes of romance, 
 stands A. of Caul, called the Lion Knight, from the 
 on his shield, and also Beltenebros, or the 
 Darkly Beautiful The other Amadises that figure 
 in romance are represented as descendants more or 
 less remote of A. of Gaul. He himself was what the 
 ins call a love-child of the fabulous King Perion 
 of France and of Elisena, a princess of Bretagne. The 
 relationship of several of the other Amadises to the 
 princes and princesses of Colchis, Trebisond, Greece, 
 and Cathay, that figure as their parents, is of the 
 same unsanctioned kind. Nor do such irregularities 
 seem at all to have shocked, in these fabulous 
 regions, or to have derogated from the dignity of 
 any of the personages concerned. The romance 
 ■which narrates the adventures of A. of Gaul is both 
 the most ancient and the best of all the A. romances, 
 (t even found favour in the sight of Cervantes, who 
 won immortal honour by overthrowing the long 
 usurped dominion of this ' evil sect.' This one, how- 
 ever, has maintained its reputation even to the pre- 
 sent day, not only because it was regarded by him as 
 a literary curiosity, but also f n >m its own merits, as 
 the original production of a creative fancy. 
 
 The question which was early raised, and cannot 
 yet be demonstratively settled, as to whether this 
 romance was originally a Portuguese, a Spanish, or 
 a French production, proves at least the absence in 
 it of all national peculiarities, and the entire want 
 of all national traditions connected with it ; and 
 hence the want also of a living historical back- 
 ground, which, in the case of all really national 
 ds, is discerni h the purely epic struc- 
 
 ture. It may lie asserted with certainty, both from 
 internal and external evidence, that this romance is 
 the pur hi!/ rei lation of the fancy of a single 
 individual ; and that it was composed at a time when 
 the genuine epic style of chivalric writing was bear 
 
 nently, not earlier than the 1-lth c. 
 It is also apparent that this romance must have 
 been originally written in prose, and intended to be 
 read, and not to be recited. Lastly, it is not to bo 
 doubted that the author was well i iquainted with 
 the earlier le , and has imitated it in 
 
 many things, but i theless, struck ont for 
 
 himself a perfectly new path, in an opposite direc- 
 tion, which natut 1 to lead his less 
 imitators into a bottomless abyss, and at ! 
 about the extinction of tin' wl le class. For 
 chivalric romances — doubtless, unintentionally 
 becam>' '■ ; more and more of an ironical 
 
 and only a. g< oius like Cervantes was w 
 in order to compli te their extinction, by mains 
 
 nt the fundamental tone, and exagger- 
 
 lity inherent in such compo-, 
 The Span b ' . ices consist of fourteen 
 
 books, of which the first four contain the history of 
 
 A. of Gaul. Yet, according to the researches of the 
 learned ! I in his ) 
 
 (Madrid, 1S33), it can scarcely be 
 doubted that I ancient part was originally 
 
 written in the Portuguese language, by the knight 
 Vasco.l t orto, who died in 1403 ; and 
 
 that it must I composed b I 18 12 and 
 
 1567. Tii-. ipt is said to have been 
 
 first in ti po -ion of the Infant Alfonso of Portu- 
 gal, the son of John L, the f. in .use of 
 Braganza, who died in 1401 ; that of the 
 Duke o. ad to have been I during 
 the earthquake in 1755. At feast these 
 first four hooks have only 1. , ed in the 
 Spanish translation which was made by Garcia 
 I de Montalvo, about 14G0, and was first 
 printed between 1402 and 1505. The same Montalvo 
 added to it the fifth book, Las Serga* [ergo 
 actions or deeds] de Espland :•■„, //;/'„ dt Am 
 
 lie began this book in 14S5, but did not 
 complete it till 1492. The books from the Gtk to 
 the 14th contain the Exploits and Adventures of 
 Florisando, by Paez de Ribera ; of Lisuarte of 
 Greece, and of Perion of Gaul, by Juan Diaz ; of A. 
 of Greece, of Florisel of Nicea, and of Anaxarte, 
 by Feliciano de Silva ; of ltogel of Greece, and of 
 Silves de la Selva, by the same ; of Lcpolemo, and 
 of Leandro the Fair, by Pedro de Lujan ; and lastly, 
 of Penelva, by an anonymous Portuguese. The 
 French translators and continuators, beginning with 
 Nicolas de Herberay, Sieur des Essarts, who pub- 
 lished the first eight books between 1540 — 1548, 
 have increased this series of romances to twenty- 
 four books. Gilbert Saunier, Sieur de Duverdier, 
 has written a conclusion, in seven large volumes, to 
 all the adventures begun in the whole series of 
 legends, which he has called Le Roman des Romans. 
 How popular and widely circulated these romances 
 were in their day, may be proved by the many 
 editions of single legends, by the translations of 
 most of them into Italian, English, German, aud 
 even into Dutch, and also by the numerous chivalric 
 romances written in imitation of them. As, never- 
 theless, a change came over the public taste, they 
 almost all fell into oblivion, and indeed justly so, 
 because of their want of intrinsic merit. They were 
 ired from the Ten the .Muses to the 
 
 literary lumber-room, where I 1 they only 
 
 serve to feast the eyes of bil .1 io . A. of Gaul 
 
 has been deservedly excepted from this fate, and has 
 not only found readers in the present day. 1 nit has been 
 in modern times translated, revised, and imitated. 
 The Portuguese Gil Vicente, and the Spaniard 
 Andres Rei de Artieda, extra ted from it the mate- 
 rials for two Spanish o De Lubert and 
 Count Tressan revived this romance in tasteful 
 extracts ; and as Bernardo Tasso formerly did in 
 his - 1 madigi, so now Creuze de Lesser and Wilbam 
 Stewart Rose have extract 1 Erom it the materials 
 for epic poems: A. de G 
 
 auxCIi la Table rondi (Paris, 1813), and A. 
 
 I id, a poem in three books (London, 1803). On 
 
 the other hand, Wicland's A* ■■■ r A. has nothing in 
 common with the more ancient Amadises, except the 
 title, and the multitude of adventures encountered 
 by the hero. 
 
 A MADOU, a name given to Polyppru* ignianug 
 
 and /'./(.. or division 
 
 ii'iiv included in the genus 
 
 ■ in Britain, and 
 
 Europe. "■ 
 
 1 with the hj in. 3 with 
 
 d. rather angular, tubular, vertical passages 
 
 the who . ithery 
 
 ; the undi r side of which is pi 
 
 by deep pores. P. igniarius is called Hard A., or
 
 AMAIN— AMAI.c \M. 
 
 Touchwood. P. ) i i is called Soft V. or 
 
 a 'I'nhl r. ' Tiny are used as sty] 
 stanching sli hi wou id ; and « In i teeli ad Hint 
 w. re ,,i geni ral use for striking fire, 
 employed as tinder, beii d for this purpo 
 
 by boiling in a solution ol oiti . The Soft A. i ■ i 
 for making small surgical pads, for which it 
 ticity peculiarly fits it. P. , ■ or a very 
 
 similar Bpeci -. is found in India, and used 11 
 in Europe. It is also employed by the Laplanders 
 and others for moxa (q. v.). It i i made 
 
 into razor-straps, and this use is likewise made of P. 
 betulinus. P ! ' 
 
 which grows upon larch-trees in the smith of Europe, 
 is a drastic purgative, now rarely employed. P. 
 suaveoluw, which grows upon the I ms of willows, 
 and is easily recognised by LI I e smell, was 
 
 Polyporus suaveolens. 
 
 formerly employed in medicine, in cases of consump- 
 tion, under the name of Fungus solicit. All these 
 species are very similar in appearance. Another 
 species of the same genus, P. destructor, is one of the 
 fungi known by the name of Dky Hoi (q. v.). — The 
 remarkably light wood of J/< Ouianensis, a 
 
 shrub of the natural order ThymeUeaceas (q. v.), is 
 readily kindled by Hint and steel, and is used in 
 Guiana a I \. 
 
 AMAI'N, a peculiar phrase applied by sailors 
 to signify at once or suddenly; in Buch orders or 
 directions as 'lower amain,' 'strike amain,' &c. 
 
 AJMAXEKITES, one of the most fierce and 
 warlike of the Canaanitish nations. They dwelt 
 'in the land of the south' (Numbers, xiii. 29), 
 that is, in the land south of Palestine, or be! 
 Idumea and Egypt. From the very lir.d, they 
 manifested an uncompromising hostility to the 
 Israelites, whose rear-guard they smote after the 
 
 i through the Red Sea, In consequence of 
 
 this, they received no mercy at the hands of the 
 Israelites, when the latter had established them- 
 selves in Palestine. Saul (1 Samuel, xv. 2) nearly 
 annihilated them. Twenty years later, David, while 
 dwelling amongst the Philistines, penetrated into 
 their land, and made dreadful slaughter of them. 
 After this, they made a last dei pi rate reprisal but 
 were overtaken by David in the midst of their 
 drinking and dancing; and 'from twilight, even 
 unto the evening of the next day,' he smote them, 
 'and there escaped not a man of them, save 41 ill 
 young men who rode upon camels and fled' The 
 descendants of these were finally eztirpati 'I in the 
 days of Ile/.ekiah, king of Judah, by the Simeonites. 
 
 AM VI. IT. . | i the Gulf of Salerno, on 
 
 the IS. coast of the kingdom of Napli , contains about 
 3000 inhabitants ; has a at cathedral, and 
 
 is the seat of a bi hop. ft is said to have been 
 founded under Constantino the Great, and during 
 the middle b i e a n public; afterward 
 
 was ruled h\ dill OJ A.; and about the close of 
 
 : . m.'i c, fell under the power of the .Normans. 
 The maritime laws of A. [Tabula Amalpkitana] 
 once prevailed throughout Italy. The unique manu- 
 script of the pandects (q.v.) was discovered at A.; 
 and Flavio Gioja, the inventor of the com] , and 
 Masaniello, were born thi 
 
 AMALGAM i i applied to thai i 
 
 alloys (q.v.) in which one ol the combinin ; metals is 
 
 On tin na w ol the uni it has been 
 
 o . d thai ' on adding successive small quantities 
 . r to mercury, a great variety of fluid amal- 
 gams are apparently produced; but in reality, the 
 chief, if not the ole compound, is a solid A., which 
 ' . difiu ' '1 throu (hout the fluid ma -' 'I he 
 of an A. would tuns seem to depend on 
 there being an excess of mercury above what is 
 necessary to form a definite compound. Mercury 
 unites readily with gold and silver at the usual 
 tempi rature. It has no disposition to unite with 
 iron even when hot. A solid A. of tin is used to 
 silver looking-glasses. 
 
 Amalgamation is employed on a small scale in 
 sonic processes of • Ldin the Bilver or other metal 
 being overlaid with a film of gold A., and the 
 mercury being then driven off By heat. But its 
 most extensive use is in separating gold, and especi- 
 ally silver, from certain of tin Lr ores. The mercury 
 dissolves the particles of the metal, and leaves the 
 earthy particles ; it IS Hen easily separated from 
 the gold or sihar. Tins process, discovered in 
 Mexico in 1557 by BartolomS de Medina, is very 
 ively used in Mexico at the present tune, 
 and has lately been introduced with great BUCCeSS 
 into the Cahforaian and Australian gold-fields. 
 The mode of application is to crush the quartz 
 rock which Bervi the matrix in which the 
 
 small particles of gold i abi Ided; place the 
 
 Era toents in a barrel or revolving drum with 
 i ! I!, tune. The mercury 
 
 to itself ; and in the 
 
 apparatus, when fully agitated, there is found a 
 semi-fluid mass, which is the mercury, appearing 
 half congealed, and containing all the gold. It is 
 
 only tessary to place this A. in a retort and apply 
 
 heat, when the mercury sublimes over and can be re- 
 employed for furtl unation and leaves the 
 -old in the body of the retort. This process is the 
 only known m idol iting the liner particles 
 
 of gold from a E ro -.and is always used by 
 
 the gold-cm I panies. Indeed, it is now 
 
 truly commercial mode of gold- 
 
 ■ is the only one which, in a few years, will 
 be had recur i to. 
 
 Several amalgams may be I '1 as definite 
 
 chemical compounds, 'thus, when gold-leaf is placed 
 in mercury, and the A. bo produced filtered by 
 being squeezed in a cha j: r bag, the uucom- 
 
 u " ury oozes through the skin, but a definite 
 A. of 2 of gold and 1 of mercury remains behind in 
 the leader filter. Tin A. is employed in silvering 
 looking-glasses, and is formed by laying a ahi 
 tin-foil on a table, covering it with mercury, and 
 then plaeiiiL', by uovement, the sheet of 
 
 glass over it. 'IT as 3 of mercury and 1 
 
 of tin; -lass balls are silvered with an A. of 10 
 mercury, 1 tin, 1 lead, and 2 bismuth. A silver A. 
 highly crystalline — and, from the clusters of crystals 
 
 bat resembling a tree, called Arbor Diana , or 
 Tree of Diana— is prepared from 3 parts of tho
 
 AMALIA— AMARANTH. 
 
 strongest solution of nitrate of silver, 2 parts of 
 solution of junto-nitrate of mercury added to an A. 
 of 7 mercury and 1 Bilver. In a day or two, the 
 arborescent appearance presents itself, and the 
 crystals contain Go per cent. mercury, and 35 silver. 
 The A. used for frictional electric mach 
 from I tin, I zinc, and 3 mercury, to which sand is 
 afterwards added. 
 
 AMALIA, Anxa, Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, an 
 amiable lady, and generous patron of literatui 
 born in 1739, and, during the I rt of the 18th 
 
 c, was the centre of the court of Weimar. Left a 
 widow in tli ■ seemd year of her marriage (1758), her 
 judicious rule, as guardian of her infant son, enabled 
 t!i" country to recovi r from the effects of the Seven 
 years' War; while her I Hurts were no less effectual 
 in promoting the education of the people, she 
 appointed Wieland tutor to her son, afterwards 
 I take, and attracted to Weimar such men as Herder, 
 (iocthe, Ivnebol, iiijttiu'er, Musaus. Schiller; forming 
 a galaxy of genius such as oo single court, perhaps, 
 was ever graced with. How much the fine qualities 
 I and heart possessed by the duchess herself 
 contributed to this success, was shewn by the fj .■: 
 that, when she resigned the government into the 
 hands of her son in 1775, she continued to be sur- 
 rounded by the same society. She has the high 
 distinction of having honoured and encouraged the 
 greatest writers that Germany has produced. The 
 battle of Jena is said to have broken her heart; she 
 died (1807) six months after that event. 
 
 AMALIE, Marie, the wife of Louis Philippe, 
 king of the French, was the daughter of King 
 Ferdinand [, (IV.) of the Two Sicilies, and' was born 
 April 26, 17S2. When she married Louis Philippe 
 (then Duke of Orleans), he was a political exile, 
 ■without a hope of ever rising to the throne of 
 
 l'i i It was a marriage of personal choice on 
 
 both sides, and was consequently happy. After 
 Louis Philippe's elevation to the throne, the queen 
 avoided interference in political affairs, and devoted 
 her attention to plans of beneficence. In her 
 domestic relations, her conduct was highly exem- 
 plary, and won the esteem of all parties ; indeed, 
 the only charge ever preferred against her, was her 
 supposed excess of piety. She shared the fortune 
 of her exiled husband, and was very respectfully 
 1 in England. Louis Philippe, shortly before 
 his death (at Claremont, 1850), gave expression to 
 the love and esteem with which he regarded his 
 faithful wife. 
 
 AMANDE DE TERRE. See Cyteihs. 
 
 AMANI'TA, a genus of Fungi, nearly allied to 
 Agarieus, but bursting from a volva. A. mil 
 
 
 Amanita M 
 in a young stats. 
 
 Amanita Huscaria, 
 full-grown, moN reduced* 
 
 which i- pretty common in woods, especially of 6r 
 and beech, in Britain, is one of the most dangerous 
 
 fungi. It is sometimes called Fly Ai;ai:ic, being 
 I Sweden and other countries to kill Hies anil 
 bugs, for which purpose it is steeped in milk. The 
 or cap is of an orange-red colour, with white 
 warts, the gills white, and ; bulbous. It 
 
 grows to a considerable size. Notwithstanding its 
 
 very poise us nature, it is used by the Kamchat- 
 
 kadale3 to produce into t imp its an 
 
 intoxicating property to the urine of those who 
 swallow it, of which they or otl i avail 
 
 themselves, when abundance of the fungus is not 
 at 1 1 I ■ i L 
 
 A'MARANTH (Amaranthm), a genus of plants 
 of the natural order Anua laceai. This 
 contains nearly SOU known species, natives of to 
 and temperate countries, but chiefly abounding within 
 the tropics. They are herbs or shrubs, with simple 
 exstipulate leaves, and flowers in heads or spikes ; 
 the perianth usually coloured, 3— 5-partite, hyp 
 nous, scarious, persistent, generally surrounded with 
 small bractese; the stamens hypogynous, either 5, 
 and opposite the segments of the perianth, or some 
 multiple of 5, distinct or united into a tube, some- 
 times partly abortive ; the anthers either 2-celled 
 or 1-celled; the ovary single, superior, 1-celled, with 
 1 or few ovules, which hang from a free central 
 cord; style single or absent ; stigma simple or com- 
 pound ; fruit, a small membranous bag or utricle, 
 or a caryopsis (q. v.), rarely baccate; 
 shaped, externally crustaceous, embryo curved 
 round the circumference ; albumen farinaceous. 
 — The genus Amaranthm has mostly mono 
 flowers (although the order is generally hermaphro- 
 dite), with two or three stigmas, and a 1-celled, 
 1 -seeded utricle, bursting all round transv 
 Some of the species are naturally of singular 
 form, and others assume singular but monstrous 
 forms through cultivation. A. cauda/us (Love-lies- 
 
 Love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthm caudatm). 
 
 . .!. hypocho (Prince's 
 
 : i, and other species, are common animals 
 in our flower-gardens. The spikes of A. caudabu 
 are sometim i several feet in length. The dry red 
 
 which surround the flower retain their fresh- 
 ness for a long time after being gathered ; for which 
 reason the plant has been employed by poets as
 
 AMAEAPURA— AMARYLLIS. 
 
 an emblem of immortality. — The Globe A. (Oom- 
 
 > and tin- Cockscomb (q. v.), well- 
 
 known tender annuals, belong 1" the I 
 
 ord r. The Globe A. ia much cultivated in 1 
 
 ami other Roman Catholic countries for adorning 
 
 hes in winter, [ta Sowers, which arc of a 
 
 ag purple, retain their beauty and freshness for 
 
 as a true native of Britain. 
 
 Blitum found in waste places near Lo 
 
 \ A. oleraceus (Chusan 
 Han-tsi), and other species, are used as pol 
 but i i Britain. Wholesome mucila 
 
 uerally found in the leaves 
 ; hout the order. The seeds of Amari 
 
 US (called Kiery) and of A. am 
 are gathered as corn-crops in India. — Medicinal 
 
 rties arc ascribed to some species of the 01 
 particularly tits and maer 
 
 (da, which have a high and probably exaggerated 
 reputation in Brazil as cores for many diseases. 
 
 AMARAPU'RA, or TJMMERAPOORA, a town 
 
 • left hank of the Irrawaddy, miles 
 
 north-east from Ava. in lat. 21° 57', long. 06° 7'. It 
 
 founded in 17S.'!, and made- the capital of the 
 
 empire, which, with a short interval (ltS'22 — I 
 
 atinued to be. It wt o the ■ round 
 
 in 1810. The population at that 1 
 at 170,000; in 1827, it had sunk to 30,000. In 
 1830, it was aga a ' 10 t di troyed by an earth- 
 . The whole city is built of bamboo, with the 
 exception of some temples; the most eel' 1 
 of which is that containing a colossal bronze image 
 of Gaudama. 
 
 AMARA-SINHA, a celebrated Hindu 
 marian of great antiquity, who wrote a variety 
 of works, only one of which has come down to 
 us, the Amara-Ki sha, or Thesaurus of Amara; some- 
 times called the Trileanda, i. e., the Tripartite. 
 irding the author's life, little is known, nor 
 is the precise period during which he flourished 
 definitely ascertained. Il<' is generally supposed to 
 have been one of the 'nine gems' who adorned the 
 throne of King Vikramaditya I. (56 n.c). But Mr 
 Bentley(/lK '< | \ ilaces him as late as the 
 
 11th c. A.D., while Mr Colebrooke assigns the close 
 of the 5th as the most probable. He is known to 
 have been a Buddhist ; and it is universally believed 
 that his writings perished during the fierce persecu- 
 tion to which that sect was subjected by the ortho- 
 dox Brahmins, in the 3d, 4th, and 5th cenl 
 This tradition harmonises with the earliest of the 
 three ages in which he is said to have lived. 
 
 The Amara-Kosha is a Sanscrit vocabulary, 
 divided into 3 books and 18 chapters, and containing 
 in all about 10,000 words. The words are classed 
 according to the nature of the things signified by 
 them. Almost all the grammarians of Hindustan 
 imitate, translate, or comment upon the work of A. 
 
 An excellent edition of the Amara-Kosha, with 
 notes in English and an index, was published by 
 H. T. Colebrooke, Serampore, 1808; reprin 
 1S29 : the Sanscrit text at Calcutta in 1813; and in 
 1S39 a French translation appeared in Paris. 
 
 AMARI, MiniKix, an Italian historian and 
 orientalist, was born at Palermo, July 7, 1S0G. At 
 the age of sixteen, he entered a government office; 
 and shortly after — his father being condemned to 
 thirty years' imprisonment for a political crime — the 
 <lnty of supporti ng his mother and the other mem- 
 bers of the family devolved upon him. His straitened 
 circumstances soured him ; and he even meditated 
 becoming a bandit, but was roused from his morbid 
 wretchedness by falling passionately in love with an 
 English lady. Although he did not win her hand, 
 
 186 
 
 he secured a knowledge of the English language, the 
 
 I was a translation of Sir 
 
 : Scott's Sfarmion, published at Palermo in 
 
 is:;2. A. soon became a political 'suspect;' and 
 
 h he bad conducted himself during the 
 
 tumult of 1*.">7 with exi 
 
 summarily transferred to a situation in "'- 
 where I I four years, and where he pur- 
 
 sued with the utmost diligence his historical 
 
 In 18 1- apnea ri d hi I La Out rra dd 
 w ar of the Sicilian Vespers), 
 
 which 1 ten republished, and i 
 
 piece of its author. I 
 from its having successfully comb: It! 
 notion, that the terrible massacre so named v 
 result of a deep and ramified conspiracy on the part 
 of the nobles. A. m a letter o • 
 
 i bin If , as well as from numerous 
 ■■, that it was a popular or national outl 
 occasioned by the tyranny of the for ign rul us, that 
 really brought about the deliverance of Sicily. The 
 
 I k was quickly prohibited, and, as a consequence, 
 
 widely read. It was translated into German by Dr 
 Hildesheim, and into English by Lord 
 . I-. A. was now ordered to Maples, but fled 
 to France, where he gave himself nn to the study of 
 Arabic and modern Greel I to 1 ae preparation of 
 
 his History of the Mn ulmans in Sicily. Atthe revo- 
 lution of 1848, he returned to Palermo, where he had 
 been appointed professor of public law, but shortly 
 after his arrival was elected vice-president of the 
 Ci immittee of war. He was next sent on a diplomatic 
 mission by the provisional government to France and 
 4. In 1849, he published at Paris a brochure, 
 entitled La Sicile ct les Bourbons, the aim of which 
 was to shew the incompatibility between the rights 
 of the Sicilians ami the pretensions of the Neapolitan 
 sovereign. After the Sicilian insurrection had been 
 quelled, A. took up his residence in Paris, where he 
 I a number of learned papers upon 
 the language and history of the Arabs, in the /.'■ vut 
 . Ik Journal AsiaUque, &c., besides an 
 English translation of the Solwan of Ibn Bjafer 
 (London, 1852). 
 
 AMARYLT.I'DE.E.or AM\EYLLII>.\'('i:.E. a 
 natural order of Monocotyledonous plants, including 
 many species distinguished 1 of their 
 
 . They are Berbac is plants, or when, as 
 
 in the genera Agave and / they form 
 
 woody stems, (hey have still the character of gij 
 herbaceous plants rather than of shrubs. The 
 part are bulbous-rooted. The leaves are 
 sword-shaped, with parallel veins ; the flowers have 
 spathaceous bracts. The pi rianth is regular, G-cleft, 
 sometimes with a corona. The stamens are 6, 
 arising from the perianth, sometimes cohering by 
 I bases; the anthers bursting inwardly. 
 The ovary is infe lied, with 1, 2, or many 
 
 anatropal ovules; the stylo is single; the si 
 .'Moled. The fruit is a 3-cclled, 3-valved capsule, 
 or a 1 — 3-seeded berry. The seed is albuminous, 
 with the embryo nearly straight.— There are about 
 400 known species of this ore of tropical, 
 
 or sub-tropical, and more sparingly, of t< 
 ate regions — particularly abundant at the Cape 
 of Good Hope. A few species only arc European. 
 Many of tie in are much prized ornaments of 
 our gardens and hot-houses. Amongst these are 
 different species of NaBCISSOS (q. v.), Amakyi.i.is 
 
 (q. v.), Crdtom (q. v.), Alstbcemebia ( 
 
 NERINE,COBtrRQIA,BRUKBVIOIA, PANCRATIUM, I'm K- 
 
 croya, &c. To this order belong the Snowdrop 
 
 (q. v.) and Snowflakf. (q. v.), and it includes also 
 the American Aloe (Agave, a. v.). 
 
 AMARYLLIS, a genus of bulbous-rooted plants
 
 AMASIS— AMAZON. 
 
 .A mar His ' sima. 
 
 of tlip natural order Amaryllidem (q. v.), having a 
 simple G-partite perianth, 
 and containing a large 
 number of sp icie I, na- 
 tives of the wanner re- 
 gions of the globe. Many 
 of them have Sowers of 
 very great heauty. A 
 species of this genus, 
 .1. ,/' . ', v. 
 
 at to Euro; 
 i America in the 
 end of the 17th c, and 
 has since been in com- 
 mon cultivation as a gar- 
 den-flower. Its flowers 
 are of a beautiful red 
 colour, exhibiting a play 
 of golden gleams in 
 the snnslune. They are 
 J. a/mabUis, 
 A. Jo. ' , and A. 
 vittata are amongst the 
 most admired bulbous-rooted plants. A. 8ami< nets 
 is one of the most hardy species, flowering freely 
 in Guernsey, with a little protection during winter, 
 and commonly called Guernsey Lily, although it is 
 supposed to be a native of Japan. By artificial 
 impregnation, a great number of hybrid forms have 
 been produced in this gi 
 
 AMA'SIS, a king of Egypt. Of humble origin, he 
 rose to be general under A pries, the last king of the 
 line of Psammetichus. Being sent to put down an 
 insurrection, he joined the rebels, and was proclaimed 
 king (HGO B.C.). He cultivated the friendship of the 
 Gre l.s, opened up to them the commerce of Egypt, 
 previously confined to Naucratis, married a Greek 
 wife, and took a body-guard of Greeks into pay. 
 Pythagoras and Solon are said to have visited him. 
 For his alliance with Polyerates, and the singular 
 reason for which Herodotus makes him break it off, 
 ■ During his reign of 44 years, he 
 
 I the lity .unl adornment of 
 
 Egypt. Immediately after his death, the country 
 was conquered by Cambyses of Persia. 
 
 AMATITLA'N, a district of Central America, 
 
 near Guatemala city, embosomed in abrupt moun- 
 
 of volcanic origin. It produces cochineal 
 
 larg ■!■ 
 
 AMATJEO'SIS (Gr. amauros, obscure) is a blind- 
 or obscurity of vision caused by disease of the 
 optic nerve, and this cause may be situated either 
 at the origin of the nerve in the brain, in some part 
 of its course, or at its termination in the retina ; and 
 of course the degree of blindness will be in propar- 
 ti hi t" the exl nt these parts are involved by the 
 le. See Oi-tic NERVE. A. may also depend 
 i causes remote from the organ of vision : the 
 suppression of accustomed discharges from tin- body 
 lead to congestion of the vessels of the brain, 
 use A. ; and it may spring from many very 
 causes, if a predisposition to the di 
 This is occasionally hereditary. Beer mentions 
 several oases in One family; for three successive 
 generations, all the females who had not borne 
 blind in middle age; the males 
 shewed a tendency to tin disi at . but did not become 
 A common cause is exposure to bright light 
 or great heat ••unl light, either natural or artificial, 
 ■hum nil in minute objects, and employment of 
 es during the hours which ought to be devoted 
 to sleep. In many instances, a prudent 
 
 exposure of the eyes to the operation of anne such 
 cause, has been sufficient to extinguish the sensi- 
 bility of the retina ; but, in general, it is from 
 
 ntiimid over-excitement of the organs of 
 that they begin to fail, and at last become 
 totally unable Tin- heat of 
 
 the sun, rage, continued stooping, and fevers or 
 1 cat inflammation, or 
 
 serous effusion in tin ■■■, ■ poisonous 
 
 aces cause A. suddenly, as belladonna, stra- 
 monium, and other oar doses; 
 and others, applied to . small 
 quantities, have the same effect, but more slowly. 
 Tobacco may be justly signalised as a poison of this 
 sort, as also mercury and had. 
 
 i of the body and depressing mental 
 affections also are causes of A. But we can a 
 attribute its occurrence to the influence of any single 
 cause, but to a number of circumstances 
 which have been acting for a length of time upon 
 one individual, either consecutively or together. 
 
 We recognise the presence of A. by the history of 
 the case and the appearance of the eyes. '1 he latter 
 have generally a vacant, unmeaning stare, dilated 
 pupils, and do not converge towards an object, but 
 appear to be looking steadfastly at something in 
 the distance. The sclerotic or white of the eye is 
 lly altered in colour, and mossed by enlarged 
 blood-vessels. The history of the ease varies with the 
 patient. Among th aptozns are difficulty in 
 
 calculating distances, as in threading a needle or 
 pouring fluid into a glass; and sometimes there 
 is occasional loss of sight in one eye [amaurosis 
 vaga), confusion of 'vision — sometimes a part of the 
 field of vision will be clear, and part obscured. 
 There are also present spectra or mimcm volitantes, 
 which sometimes are p ag from the 
 
 existence of insensible patches on the retina. Float- 
 ing specks are merely coincident with the disease. 
 
 A. is treated by depletion in the robust, altera- 
 tives and tonics hi the feeble, and by those remedies 
 wliieh act upon the nervous system, and counter- 
 irritation by blisters or issues behind the ears, or in 
 the neighbourhood. Except in very recent cases, 
 the prospect of recovery is slight. 
 
 AMAXI'CHI, the capital of the Ionian island of 
 Maura or Leucadia, is built o of the 
 
 shallow lagoons that separate the north- a t part of 
 the island from the mainland. The harbour con- 
 structed by the Anglo-Ionian government is pro- 
 tected by a mole, at the end of which is a light- 
 house. It is fitted only for small-craft. A. derives 
 its name from the Greek m ' which the 
 
 Venetian garrison employed in bringing down the 
 oil and wine from the inland districts to the point 
 
 t the fort of Santa Maura, w] 
 quently, houses be oi to be erected. Tim town has 
 a very mean the buibliu 
 
 partly of wood, on account of the frequent 
 
 .Slight shocks occur not seldonmr than 
 once a month. Behind A. there is an old oliye- 
 ■ o '. extending to the base of the neighbouring 
 lulls, and checkered with cypres irdena 
 
 The town is ti > i Greek archbishop and 
 
 of a British governor. Pop. 4000. 
 
 A'MAZOX, MARAN0.N, or OKEIX VXA. a 
 river which, after traversing nearly the entire 
 i of South America, enters the Atlantic 
 a Brazil and Guiana, by a mouth of about 
 160 miles in width— a mouth which, though it 
 admits the tide for nearly 500 miles, is yet so 
 far from meeting our ordinary notion of an estuary 
 that it or at least overlays, the 
 
 to a distance of more than 50 With 
 
 its various tributaries the I Putumayo, 
 
 the Yapura, end the Rio Negro from the north, 
 and the i i the Vavari. the Jutay. the Jurua, 
 
 the Coary. the Purus, the Madeira, the Ti
 
 AMAZON— AMAZONS. 
 
 and tip- Xingo Erom tl 1 ■ • south — the A. drains 
 
 equal to that 
 
 rope, and is i itimated to afford an inland 
 navigation of 50,000 miles, a line double t Ii ■ ■ circum- 
 1 u every i i, tin- 
 
 A. may well claim t" 1" 
 
 dy that, in volume of contents as 
 gnished from volume of the St Lav 
 
 with its con 
 
 to bi equal to .-ill tin- other bodies of 
 fresh water a ■ down- 
 
 wards. With tl i on, which as I 
 
 Lawrence is really a series of l rather 
 
 nt than real, the Aina 
 as thi- king of rivers, whether trunk be com- 
 pared with trunk, or branches with branches, alike 
 
 1 in the area of 
 
 Viewed as one grand system, the A., fr.nn its 
 sources, from which the Pacific may be seen within 
 
 a distan E 60 j mprises 
 
 a course of about 4000 miles; while, gathering its 
 tribute from both Bides of the equator along more 
 than 20* of latitude, it pn 
 
 south ami north, a longer line of natural com- 
 munication than even between west and east. 
 
 sing from tin- western range of the And 
 A. i< but little better than a inountain-torrent, 
 till it lias burst through the gorges of the ■ 
 ran."- of th" chain, where it is overhung by peaks 
 that tower thousands of feet above its bed. But, 
 within 300 miles from the Pacific — a journey of 
 about 20 days for loaded mul the branch 
 
 .In.- Huallaga is practicable for canoes, while, 
 after a run of 325 mill aes navigable for 
 
 and more and more available as it rolls its steadily 
 
 swelling tl 1 towards the ocean. Nor is this the 
 
 remotest point of clear navigation from the sea, for 
 the Maranon itself is estimated by Herndon to 
 carry the clear navigation about one-fifth higher up, 
 amounting in all to 3300 miles. What an 
 these single threads afford of this matchless net-work 
 of inland navigation ! But it is not to its own basin 
 alone, vast as that basin is, that the value of the 
 A. is confined. The Rio Tapajos has its na\ 
 separated only by a portage of IS miles from that of 
 an affluent of the Plata; the Etio Branco, the main 
 tributary of the Rio Negro, water-communi- 
 
 cation which is only two hours distant from that of 
 the Essequibo ; while the Etio Negro itself is doubly 
 connected with the Orinoco, receiving from it the 
 navigable Cassiquiare (q. v.), and wanting only a 
 ver a portage of six hours to complete a still 
 more useful bond of union, whose superior advan- 
 v. ill certainly one day lead to the necessary 
 improvement. In addition to all this, the outlet 
 of tliis mighty river, besides washin. I 
 
 If, under nature's guidance, a feeder, as it 
 of that highway of nations, the Gulf Stream. 
 Thus does the A., to say nothing more of its 
 maritime relations, bring its inland navi 
 mediately or immediately, to bear, Chili alone 
 ry country in South America — 
 Venezuela, Ecuador, New Granada, Bolivia, Peru, 
 Brazil, the Guianas, and the E ntine 
 
 Republics. This is not mere prospect; not only 
 has the basin proper of the A. been more or less 
 frequently traversed, but also the various joints 
 that knit it to other basins have been b -' id by 
 experience. The grandest and most singul 
 them all, 1 colored by llumbol.lt. 
 
 has been placed beyond a doubt by the d 
 of the country. The barge-builders of San I 
 at the entrance of the Cassiquiare into the Rio 
 j sent vessels, not only down the 
 lliu Negro to Para, on the Lower A., but likewise up 
 iss 
 
 \ngostura, on the Lower Orinoco ; 
 Iving, in their own way. the problem 
 systems pherawere elsewhere deridh 
 
 than a fable — as a sheer imj il.ihtv. But 
 
 still the navigation of the A. is only in its ml 
 I'ara. its maritime- emporium, having a business that 
 lis to only 2,000,000 dollars. 
 But the little that exists has been achieved under 
 steward circumstances. badly 
 
 built and badly rigged, have been worse m 
 
 the rapids above, all safe and easy for the 
 downward trip, are often rendered m 
 
 upward voyager by a depth which forbids 
 poling, ilka which, if not actual! 
 
 in thickly tangled for towing. 
 What a noble field for steam! Brazil and 
 have tl. en this truth. But unfortunately 
 
 to think more of monopolising the 
 of this nevi 'nan of developing the 
 
 resources of the country. If opened to all-c 
 the magnificent region of the A. might become 
 the gard n of the world, teeming as it does with 
 game,: ragar, cotton, tobacco, maize, 
 
 sarsapanlla, cocoa, indigo, grapes, bananas, spices, 
 dyes, drugs, india-rubber, cabinet woods, bu 
 . and precious metals. Yet so feebl] 
 
 1 n seconded by man. red and white alike, 
 
 that Herndon, on his long downward voj 
 got anything better than farinha and salt fish, 
 and even ... not always 
 
 What is wanted is an infusion of new 
 blood. The colonists, tl I sufficiently indo- 
 
 lent, di igines as bad citizens and 
 
 worse slaves. In short, whether for trade or 
 for colonisation, this almost untrodden world is 
 as promising as it is boundless. In the pi 
 
 i try, every difficulty would vanish. S 
 must there work wonders that it his 
 
 worked in similar wildernesses. Nor will 
 steam have all the burden to bear. In spite of the 
 of the river, which lias been already stated to 
 drive back the sea, as such, out of sight of land, the 
 tide, as the reader will remember, makes its influ- 
 ence felt for nearly 500 miles from the coast; while 
 the easterly trades are ready to waft the adventurer 
 to his d and, lastly, what is more than all, 
 
 the v. ind on tie- river, appan 
 
 that from th - almost invariably upwards, 
 
 to help the screw or the paddle 
 
 .- current. 
 
 A UEAZONS, AM AZONES. According to a very 
 
 ancient tradition, the A. were a nation of women, 
 
 who suffered no men to remain among them, but 
 
 marched to battle onder t ml of their 
 
 queen, and Eormed for a long tune a formidable 
 
 state. They held occasional intercourse with the 
 
 If boys were born 
 r s.nt them to their fathers, or 
 killed them. But they brought up the girls for 
 war, and bm i i their right breasts, that they 
 \ .at. d from bending the bow. 
 this custom, they received the name of A., 
 that is. ' less.' Such is the ordinary tale ; the 
 
 of which is perhaps to be accounted for by 
 i- r.ports, exaggerated and poeti- 
 cally embellished, had reached the Greeks of the 
 ■ way in which the women of various Cauca- 
 sian districts lived, performing military duties which 
 elsewhere devolved on husbands, and also of the 
 numerous examples of female heroism which, travel- 
 lers inform us, still distinguish the women of that 
 region. In later times, however, the word Amazon 
 has been supposed to have some connection with the 
 Circassian word ' Maza,' signifying the moon, as if 
 the myth of the A. had taken its origin in the 
 worship of the moon, which prevailed on the borders
 
 AMBASSADOR. 
 
 of Asia. Three nations of A have been mentioned 
 by tlie ancients. 1. Tin- Asiatic A., from whom 
 the others branched off'. These dwelt on the shores 
 of the Black Sea, and among the mountains of 
 l lucasus, especially in the neighbourhood of 
 the modern Trebisond, on the river Then 
 (now Termeh). They are said to have at one time 
 subdued the whi da, and to have built 
 
 i. Ephesns, Cumae, and other c 
 queen, Hippolyte, or, according to 
 was killed by Hercides, as the ninth of the ! 
 imposed on him by Kurystheus consisted in taking 
 f r. mi her the shoulder-belt bestowed on her by 
 Mars. On one of tic ir expeditions, tin' A. came to 
 Attica, in the time of Theseus. They also marched 
 under the command of their queen, Penthesilea, to 
 assist Priam against the < Ira ka They even appear 
 upon the scene in the time of Alexander the Great, 
 when their queen, Thalestris, paid him a visit, in 
 order to become a mother by the conqueror of Asia. 
 2. The Scythian A., who, in after-times, married 
 among the neighbouring Scythians, and withdrew 
 further into Sarmatia. 3. The African A., who, 
 under the command of their queen, Myrina, subdued 
 the Gorgons and Atlantes, march I thro b Egypt 
 and Arabia, and founded their capital on the Lake 
 Tritonis, but were then annihilated by Hercules. 
 See NageL Geschichte d>:r Amawnen (Stuttgart, 
 1838). 
 
 AMBASSADOR is a title by which the highest 
 order of diplomatic ministers is di 1, and 
 
 the person holding such a high commission may be 
 1 to be an officer sent by one sovereign power 
 to another to treat on affairs of state. The creden- 
 tials, or letters of credeuce, of an A. are addressed 
 directly by his own sovereign to the sovereign to 
 whom he is sent, and with win mi he has the privilege of 
 personal communication. In the performance of all his 
 diplomatic duties, an A. is understood to represent, 
 not only the affairs, but the dignity and the poi 
 his master ; and by the law of nations, he has many 
 important rights and p the chief of which 
 
 i nption from the control of the municipal laws 
 
 of the nation wherein he is to exercise Iris functions, 
 an exemption that is not confined to the A himself, 
 but is extended to all his suite, including not only 
 the persons employed by him in diplomatic services, 
 but his wife, chaplain, and household generally. 
 But there is a dispute among legal writers whether 
 this exemption extends to all crimes, or whether it 
 is limited to such offences as are mala pt-n. 
 as coining, and not to those that are mala in se, 
 as murder. The law of England appears to have 
 formerly allowed the exemption in the restricted 
 sense only; and in the year 1654, during the 
 Protectorate of Cromwell, the Portuguese A. was 
 tried, convicted, and executed, for an atrocious mur- 
 der. But now, according to the general pract 
 this country, as well as that of the rest of Euri 
 is considered that the security of an A. in conducting 
 the intercourse of nations, is of mare importance than 
 the punishment of a particular crime, and therefore 
 few examples have happened iii modern times where 
 .u A. has been punished for any offence. In i 
 to civil suits, the privilege of exemption is clear and 
 undoubted, and has been expressly recognised by an 
 act of parliament, the 7th Anne c, 12, the history 
 of which, as given by Blackstone, is curious. That 
 learned commentator cites the (.pinion of sir Edward 
 Coke, who was disposed to qualify the absolute 
 exemption of ambassadors in civil proceedings, by 
 maintaining, that if an A. to the English court make 
 a contract, which is good according to the law of 
 nations, he shall answer f. or it in England. Blackstone 
 then proceeds: 'But the truth is, so few c 
 any) had arisen, wherein the privilege was either 
 
 claimed or disputed, even with regard to civd suits, 
 
 that our law-books are (in general) quite silent uj-.n 
 
 it, l' 1 ' Anne, when an A. 
 
 from Pet. r the Great, Czar oJ was actually 
 
 arrested, an. I • of his coach in London, for 
 
 ; of £50, which he had there 
 
 i of applyu hargi .1 upon his privi- 
 
 i e gave bail to the action, and the next day 
 
 complained to the queen. The persons who were 
 
 mined before the 
 privy-conned (of which the Lord Chief-justic 
 was at the same time sworn a member), and seven- 
 teen were committed to prison, most of whom were 
 prosecuted by information in the Court of Queen's 
 Bench, at the suit of the Attorney-general; and at 
 their trial before the Lord Chief-justice, were con- 
 victed of the facts by the jury; reserving the ques- 
 tion of law, how far those facts were criminal to be 
 afterwards argued before the judges; which question 
 was never determined. In the meantime, tl. I 
 resented this affront very highly, and demanded that 
 the sheriff of Middlesex, and all others concerned in 
 the arrest, should be punished with instant death. 
 But the queen (to the amazement of that <! 
 court) directed her secretary to inform him, I: 
 
 meanest of 
 ' >■>/ the law of thl 
 and therefore was persn '• would not insist 
 
 upon impossibilities. To satisfy, however, the cla- 
 mours of the foreign ministers, who made it a com- 
 mon cause, as well as to appease the WTath of Peter, 
 a bill was brought into parliament, and afterwards 
 into a law (the 7th Anne c. 12), to prevent 
 and punish such outrageous insolence for the future ; 
 and with a copy of this act elegantly engrossed and 
 illuminated, accompanied by a letter from the queen, 
 an A. extraordinary was commissioned to appear at 
 Moscow, who declared, Oiat though her maj '.</ could 
 not inflict sud aent as was retpv 
 
 of the defect in that pa rticular of 'die former estal 
 of her kingdom, yet, u-ith the tenon 
 consent of Oie parliamen'. used a new act to 
 
 be passed, to serve as a law for the future. This 
 tep,' says Blackstone, ' was accepted a3 
 a full satisfaction by the Czar; and the oft. 
 at his request, were discharged from all further 
 prosecution.' 
 
 But although an A. is not amenable to any 
 tribunal of the country he resides in, he cannot mis- 
 conduct himself with impunity. He must respect 
 the laws and customs of the country in which he is 
 officially resident ; and if lie violates or offends these 
 laws and customs, he may be complained of to the 
 court or government which he represents ; or if the 
 offence is of a very serious nature, his recall n 
 demanded, or the sovereign to whom he has 
 such offence may dismiss him peremptorily, and 
 further require that he be brought to trial in his own 
 country. It hardly need be added, that if an A. is 
 guilty of o ice which threatens the safety of 
 the state, he ceases to enjoy the privdeges of the 
 exemption in question. 
 
 There are some other and inferior privileges which 
 
 are very generally allowed to am : they 
 
 are, for instance, permitted the free of their 
 
 i ; they arc, in general, exempted from direct 
 
 taxation, they have special 1. tt.r-l.ags, and they 
 
 are usually allowed to import their goods without 
 
 _■ any custom-house duties— a privilege, how- 
 
 . liable to abuse, has sometimes 
 
 been limited. 
 
 Ambassadors are of two kinds — first, those who 
 reside regularly at the court to which they are 
 accredited; and, secondly, those who are sent on 
 special occasions, when they receive the designation 
 of Ambassadors Extbaordlmai.y. 
 )89
 
 AMBER— AMBO. 
 
 There are other inferior diplomatic agents, who, 
 according to the nature of their duties, receive the 
 title of Charge d'Ai faires, Minister PLENIPOTEN- 
 TIARY, or Envoy (q.V.). 
 
 A'MBER, a substance analogous to f 
 resins, and, in all probability, d rived from an 
 extinct conifi rous tree, although now a] 
 
 i ; of which it is usually 
 
 found, as a product of the mineral kingdom. It is 
 usually of a pale How i lour, samel 
 or brownish, is sometimes tr it, sometimes 
 
 almost opaque. It occurs in round irregular lumps, 
 grains, or drops ; has a perfectly conchoidal fracture, 
 
 'itly brittle, emits an 
 
 i. in lis at 550° i'\. and burns with a bright 
 flame and pleasant smell It becomes negatively 
 electric by friction, and possesses this property in a 
 high degree — which, indeed, was first observed in 
 
 i city is derft d from ■ ' 
 the Greek name of A. The specific gravity of A. 
 is TO — 11. It is ultimately composed of carbon 
 70, hydrogen 10*5, and oxygen 10'5. An acid called 
 succinic acid (named from the Lat. sua. 
 is obtained from it. A. had formerly a high reputa- 
 oe, but the virt 1 to it 
 
 lmost entirely imaginary. An antispasmodic 
 volatile oU is obtain I i it by distillation. 
 
 mployed in the arts, for the manufacture of 
 many ornamental articles, and for the preparation 
 of a kind of varnish. Great quantities are con- 
 sumed in Mohammedan worship at Mecca, and it 
 is in great di mand throughout the east. It was 
 obtained by the ancients from the coasts of the 
 
 Amber, with enclosed insects. 
 
 Baltic Sea, where it is still found, especially between 
 Kbnigsberg and Memel, in greater abundanc 
 anywhere else in the world. It is there par: 
 up by the sea, partly obtained by means of nets, 
 and partly dug out of a bed of bituminous wood. It 
 is found elsewhere also in coal, and occasionally in 
 diluvial deposits, as in the gravel near London ; but 
 it is very rare in Britain. It is obtain 
 quantities from the coasts of Sicily and the Adriatic, 
 and is found in different parts of Europe, in Siberia. 
 land, &c It sometimes encloses insects of 
 species which no longer exist. Leaves have also 
 been found enclosed in it. Specimens which contain 
 insects or leaves being much valued, fictitious ones 
 are often manufactured and imposed upon collectors. 
 According to an ancient fable, A. is the tears of the 
 sisters of Phaethon, who, after his death, were 
 d into poplars. The ancients set an immense 
 upon it. Pieces of A. have occasionally been 
 found of 12 or 13 lbs. weight, but such pieces are 
 extremely rare. 
 
 I BERG, the old capital of the Upper Palatinate 
 in Bavaria, 35 miles east of Numbers, and 32 north 
 of Ratisbou. It is situated on both sides of the Vilz, 
 190 
 
 is well built, with double walls and live strong gates, 
 and contains 11.000 inhabitants. It is the seat 
 of the court of appeal for the district, possesses a 
 library of 34,000 volumes, a lyceum, an agricultural 
 and industrial school, a house of correction, an 
 arsenal, &c. The principal products are fin 
 earthenware, woollen cloths, iromni I beer. 
 
 A. has 14 breweries, a large cattle and swine no 
 a market for hops, and an important salt-trade. 
 Many of the inhal mployed as miners in 
 
 During mountains. The suburbs are 
 adorned with beautiful gardens and shaded alleys. 
 
 AMBERGRIS (i. e., gray amber), a fatty sub- 
 of an ash-gray colour, with yellow or reddish 
 
 !:ke those of marble, which is found in I 
 of from half an ounce in weight to i i 
 upwards, floating on the sea, or cast upon the 
 shore in different parts of the world, and is also 
 Ushers from the bowels of tho 
 spermaceti whale {Phyaeter macrocephalus). Much 
 A. is obtained from tho coasts of the Bal 
 Islands; it is also brought from different parts of 
 
 it Indies, and the coasts of Africa and 
 It is pi it all of it is produced by the 
 
 spermaceti whale, and that it is a morbid secretion 
 in the intestinal canal of that animal, derived from 
 the bile. It is highly valued, upon account of its 
 agreeable smell, and is much used in perfumery. 
 The price is about 20*. an ounce. It has 
 strongly recommended for medicinal uses, but is 
 
 ly employed in Europe ; although, in some 
 parts of Asia and Africa, it is much used as a 
 
 He, and also in cookery as a condiment. The 
 specific gravity of A. is scarcely more than 09. It 
 almost always contains black spots, which appeal 
 to be caused by the presence of beaks of the Sepia 
 odopodia, the principal food of the spermaceti whale. 
 It consists in great part (85 per cent.) of i 
 brilliant white crystalline substance called .1. 
 which is obtained from it by treating it with 
 alcohol. 
 
 A'MBO (Lat.), a kind of reading-desk or pulpit, 
 which, in early churches, was placed in the choir. 
 The Gospels and Epistles were read from the A., and 
 sermons were sometimes preached from it. alt! 
 the more usual practice in the primitive church was 
 for the preacher to stand on the steps in front of 
 
 Arnbo, St Clement's Church, Rome. 
 
 the altar. The Jt. is still to be found in oriental 
 churches, and specimens of ilynay be seen in Rome. 
 The A had two ascents — one from the east, and the 
 other from the west. In the Roman churches, there 
 were two ambos, one on each side of the choir, from 
 one of which the Gospel was read, and from the 
 other, the Epistle. Where two such ambos were 
 used, their construction was somewhat different. 
 The name A. was also given to the analoAuni or
 
 AMBOISE— AMBROSE. 
 
 reading-desk used in monastic choirs, which was 
 usually in the form of an en 
 
 AMBOI'SE, a town on the left bank of the Loire, 
 in the department of Indre-et- Loire, France. It is 
 ■5 by railway east of Tours, and lie3 in a region 
 so rich in vineyards that it has been called 'the 
 Garden of France.' It3 manufactures are unim- 
 portant. A. possesses a castle, in 
 the French kings have resided. Charles VIII. was 
 born here. It was also the scene of his death. The 
 town is memorable as the place in which the religious 
 wars that devastated the kingdom during the 16th 
 c. broke out, and where the word ' Huguenot' was 
 first applied to the Protestant party. The castle of 
 much improved by Louis Philippe, and was 
 the residence of the gallant Arab chief, . 
 Kader, during his captivity in France. Pop. - 
 
 AMBOISE, GbobQB d\ cardinal and prime- 
 minister under Louis XII. of France, was born, 1460, 
 at Chaumont-sur-Loirc. When only fourteen years 
 old, he was made Bishop of Moutauban, and almoner 
 to Louis XL, and, in 1*93, was made Archbishop of 
 Rouen. Initiated in early years into the intrigues of 
 court, he soon, by his zealous sen-ices, secured the 
 confidence of Louis of Orleans (Louis XII.), by whom 
 he was made premier in 1498. From this time, A. 
 became the prime mover in all the political affairs of 
 France. By his advice, the king undertook the 
 capture of Milan, which had such great influence on 
 the fortunes of France. After the death of Pope 
 Alexander VI., A. endeavoured to raise himself to 
 the papal see, and having failed, became the danger- 
 ous enemy of the succeeding popes. Pius III. — who 
 occupied the papal chair only 27 days — and Julius 
 IT. To secure his own election, A. enconr, 
 schism between the French Church and the See of 
 Rome, and convened a separate council, held first at 
 Pisa, afterwards at Milan and Lyon ; but his plans 
 were frustrated by the failures of the French army 
 in Italy. He died at Lyon, May 25, 1510. The 
 Cardinal A. was a dexterous and experienced states- 
 man; bat wi accused of avarice, vanity, and 
 ambition, and it was said that his vast fortune of 
 11,000,000 livre3 had not been accumulated by 
 over-scrupulous means. His biography was written 
 by Montagnes (1631) and Legendre (Rouen, 1 7 
 
 AMBOY'XA, one of the Molucca or Spice Islands 
 in the Eastern Archipelago. It is the chief of a 
 
 1 1 which the next in importance are Ceram, 
 Pulu-Buru, Haruco or Oma, tec, and lies in lat. 
 3° 26'— 3° 48' S., long. 127" 5ff— 12S° 15' E. It is 
 about 32 miles long, with an average breadth of 10, 
 and is irregular in shape, being nearly divided in two 
 by the deep Bay of Binuen ; it is mountainous, well 
 
 I, and thickly wooded. The climate is healthy 
 — average temperature, 82° F. ; lowest, 72° — but the 
 monsoons bring deluges of rain. It is worthy of 
 remark that the monsoons are quite reversed on 
 the opposite sides of 120° long., the east monsoon 
 I _; rain and storm in A., while in Borneo it 
 
 fair weather ; and oics veraA, the west monsoon 
 ng sunshine in the Moluccas, and tempest in 
 Java. This island produces the usual spice3 and 
 fruits of these regions, but has been specially appro- 
 priate! isessors, the Dutch, to the cultiva- 
 tion of the clove, to secure the monopoly of which 
 they have stooped to the most eonteinptib! 
 clients, extirpating all the tr :;i particular 
 localities, where they are carefully numbered. The 
 annual produce, which varies considerably, averages 
 about 500,000 lbs., each tree yielding from 2 to 5 
 lbs. The cajepnt tree, which yields a valuable 
 medicinal oil, grows in A. ; and the sago-palm, which 
 affords the chief food of the inhabitants, is exten- 
 sively cultivated. Fine indigo is also raised. The 
 
 Srincipal wild animals are hogs and deer. The pre- 
 omicant race are the Malays. The aborigine: 
 the Iloraforas, live in a wild state in the forests. The 
 Chinese form a small but important section of the 
 populat 'he principal merchants; and still 
 
 fewer are the ruling race, the Dutch. 
 
 AmBOVHA, the principal town in the island, 
 on the south-east shore of the Bay of Binncn, is 
 clean and well built, and contains 9000 inhabit- 
 ants. It is protected by Fort Victoria, an irregular 
 i, with a horn- work towards the sea, and a 
 ditch and covered- way on the land-side, commanded, 
 however, by two neighbouring hei_ 
 
 The population of the whole group of islai 
 
 which A. is the chief, was, by the last official return, 
 
 .V. was discovered by the Portuguese in 
 
 1511, and 16 years afterwards they formally took 
 
 possession of this among the rest of the Moluccas. 
 
 s succeeded by 
 that of the Dutch. The English East India Company 
 formed a settlement here in 1612, which 
 pated in 1622 by the Dutch, with those circum- 
 stances of diabolical cruelty which made the ' A. 
 massacre' long memorable. For this barbarous 
 proceeding due retribution was exacted many years 
 after by C'romwelL The island was taken by the 
 British in 1796, restored at the peace of Amiens, 
 recaptured in 1S10, and again given up to the Dutch 
 in 1S14, whose rule, though mitigated from its 
 former severity, is still characterised by an intoler- 
 ance and harshness unworthy of a civilised nation. 
 
 AMBROSE, Saint, one of the most celebrated of 
 the ancient fathers of the church, was born about 
 the year 340, probably at Treves, where his father, 
 as Prefect of Gaul, was wont to reside. A. received 
 a fortunate omen even in his cradle : a swarm of 
 bees covered the slumbering boy ; and the astonished 
 nurse saw that the bees clustered round his mouth, 
 without doing him any harm. His father, perhaps 
 remembering a similar wonder related of Plato, 
 foreboded from this a high destiny for A. He n 
 an excellent education, and went with his brother 
 Satyrus to Milan, in order to follow the legal 
 profession. He soon distinguished himself so much, 
 that, in 369, he was appointed, by Valentinian, I' 
 of Upper Italy and Milan. In this office, his gentle- 
 ness and wisdom won for him the esteem and love of 
 the people, whose prosperity had been much injured 
 by the troubles caused by Arianism. Accordingly, 
 by both Arian3 and Catholics, he was unanimously 
 called to be Bishop of Milan, in 374. A. long 
 refused to accept this dignity, and even left the 
 yet he soon returned, was baptised, as hitherto he 
 had been only a catechumen, and was consecrated 
 eight days afterwards. The anniversary of thi 
 is still celebrated as a fete by the Catholic Church. 
 As a bishop, A. won the mi 
 
 by his mild and gentle, though, towards wickedness 
 of every kind, severe and unbending character. 
 Thus, he repulsed the Emperor Theodosius himself 
 even from the door of the church, on account of his 
 : caused the rebellious Thessalonian3 to be 
 cruelly massacred by Rufinus, excommunicated him, 
 and only restored him to the church after 
 months of severe penance. A. d ". 'lhe 
 
 ■ Ution of his works, in which he folio 
 [ many t 
 
 I published by the Benedi 
 169o)- The hymn, '/'■ D La 
 | ascribed to A., but it is proved to have been \ 
 
 a ritual has also 
 . only because A. had i u 
 i upon it. which are retained at the | I 
 day in the Milanese Church. A commentary on 
 the epistles of Paul, which was formerly ascr 
 , A, was probably composed by the Roman deacon
 
 AMBROSIA— AMBULANCE. 
 
 Hilarius, and is usually quoted as the Commentary 
 of the A ' s the patron aaint of 
 
 Milan, ami the Ambxosian Library r. ceived its name 
 in honour of him. 
 
 AMBROSIA, in Greek and Roman Mythol 
 
 the name <>i the 1 1 of the gods, which coi 
 
 immortal youth and beauty. It was brought by 
 i to Jupiter, and was occasionally bestowed upon 
 such human beings as wen- the peculiar favourites 
 of the gods. A. was also used as a fragrant salve, 
 which the goddesses employed to heighten their 
 beauty; with which Jupiter himself anointed his 
 locks; and which had the property of pn 
 bodies from corruption. Hindu mythology has also 
 (from ". signifying 'without or 'not,' 
 and the Sanscrit root, allied to the Lat. mort, and 
 Greek broC),oi liquor of immortality, that n 
 
 from the churning of t!i an l.\ the ^..ds; and 
 
 the gods of the Scandinavian panth 1 wei epn erved 
 
 in perpetual vigour by eating the apples guard d 1 j 
 [dun. 
 
 AMBRO'SIAN CHAXT. the choral music of the 
 early Christian Church, introduced from the eastern 
 church into the western by St Ambrose, Bishop of 
 Milan, in the 4th c. ; it was founded on the lirst 
 four authentic modes of the ancient Greeks, and was 
 sung antiphonally. It continued in use until the 
 6th c, when Pope Gregory the Great reformed the 
 music of the church by introducing the Gn 
 chant. Tlie! 11 another specimen of music 
 
 by Ambrosius, which is now known oidy in the 
 German- Lutheran Church by Luther's translation of 
 the words. Nun komml der Heiden Heiland; it is 
 beyond a doubt 1400 years old, and remains to this 
 day a beautiful specimen of melody, expressive of 
 filial humility and submission. The A. C. continued 
 to be still sung in the cathedral at Milan long 
 I ry's reformation, and till this day, it is said, it 
 
 may be heard there. 
 
 AMBROSIAN LIBRARY, a library in Milan, 
 so named in honour - of St Ambrose, the : 
 of that city. It was established in 1GU9 by the 
 Cardinal Archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a lover of 
 art, who employed leaned men to collect books both 
 in Europe and Asia. This Library was afterwards 
 enriched by the acquisition of the MSS. of the 
 l'inelli collection. Borromeo intended to establish, 
 in connection with the Library, a college of 
 learned men, each having charge of a particular 
 department, whose dutyshould be to make known the 
 works contained in the Library, and as , 1st Strang ra 
 in their researches. The want of funds limited 
 this college to two members, wdio bear the title of 
 Doctores Bibliotheca; Ambrosianoe. The library 
 contains above GD,000 printed books and 15,000 
 MSS. Among the many 
 rarities belonging to it, 
 lea the I'alimpsests 
 and other as yet un 
 MSS. discovered by Mai". 
 1 lione, and Mazzu- 
 
 chelli, it contains a ' Vir- 
 gil,' in which Pet 
 had written an account 
 of his lirst meeting with 
 Laura. 
 
 A'MRRY.AT'MERY, 
 
 ALMERY (supposed by 
 
 some to be a corruption 
 
 Ambry, Bushden, North- of Almonry), a niche in 
 
 amptonshire — 14th century, the wall of a church, shut 
 
 in by a door ; or a small 
 
 cabinet of wood placed by the side of the altar, for 
 
 the purpose of holding the vestments and utensils, 
 
 192 
 
 such as the chalices, basins, cruets, Jfcc, used for the 
 service of the mass. In monastic buildings, ami ins 
 
 used for vai ious pui poses, such as 1. 
 
 plate, lun:.iir towels for the monks to dry then 
 '.mIIi before dinner, and the like. In this 
 
 I he term A. Seems to have hern applied t'i any 
 
 kind of cupboard which was closed in and locked, 
 
 and it is so n 1 .1 m Scotland :.t tie- present day. 
 
 AMBULACRA (from the Latin ambulare, to 
 walk), tie- name given to peculiar organs of locomo- 
 tion with which star-tishes and other EcMrwd . 
 are furnished. They are fleshy, more or less .In 
 Hid terminated by suckers. They pass through 
 orifices is tin- shell or other external integument of 
 tlie animal, and are generally arranged in rows. 
 Those of the Echini, or Sea-urchins, are long enough 
 
 Ambulacra of Star-fish, 
 As seen in a longitudinal mil vertical section of one of the 
 rays; and three of them in a se on a larger 
 
 scale, in which they an' shewn in different coiei 1 
 a, a, a, tubular feet ; 6, 6, o, internal vesiolea ; c, the orguD 
 Which supplies the fluid with Which llicy are filled. 
 
 to extend beyond the point of the spines, ami by 
 means of them the animal is able to chin' 
 dicular rock. They are tubular, and each has at its 
 base a vesicle, Idled with a fluid which, on the con- 
 traction of the vesicle, is forced into the tube, 
 dilating it to its full extent, whilst, on the contrac- 
 tion of the tube, the fluid returns again into the 
 vesicle. The fluid is n deles, 
 
 but provided for them by distinct secreting organs. 
 
 A'MBULANCE, a military term which is some- 
 what differently applied in different countries. In 
 
 France, an A. is a portable hospital, one of which ii 
 attached to every division of an army in the field, 
 and provided with all the requisites for the medical 
 succour of sick and wounded troops. Such an A. 
 is stationed at some spot removed from immediate 
 danger; and soldiers are sedulously employed after 
 a battle in Beeking out those who have fallen, and 
 conveying them to the A. Baron Lai-ny, during 
 the great wars of the First Napoleon, brought this 
 department of medical business to a high degree of 
 v. nd set an example to the rest of Europe. 
 When England engaged in war with Russia in 1854, 
 lh" A. arrangements, like many others relating to the 
 army, were in a very imperfect state. In the English 
 army, an A. sometimes means a litter for carrying 
 from the field of battle those who have been placed 
 hors de combat ; while at other times the name is 
 applied to a four-wheeled wagon or a two-wheeled 
 cart lifted up for the reception of wounded men. 
 When Lord Raglan was about to be sent out with 
 the army, Dr Guthrie, President of the College of 
 Surgeons, devised a new form of A. cart ; while 
 Dr Andrew Smith, Director-general of the Army and 
 Ordnance Medical Department, invented a new A. 
 watron. Annexed is a figure of Dr Guthrie's A. cart.
 
 A MBUL ANCE CORPS— A MENDM EN T. 
 
 The badly wounded wore laid on it at full length, 
 while tli"-'' slightly hurt sat in front and 
 and on the sides. A stretcher is slung from the 
 r the accommodation of the former. The 
 
 ' - 
 Ambulance cart. 
 
 1 is let down for cases requiring ampu- 
 tation. The hospital chests are lashed under- 
 I my of Smith's A. I and of 
 
 Guthrie's A. carts were at once made and sent 
 out to tin- Bast; but they were Dot at the proper 
 place when most wanted. After the battle of the 
 Alma, in \ ' i Beers and soldiers 
 
 wire killed or wounded. Lord Raglan, who was 
 almost without A. and draught-animals, was much 
 I for the means of dealing with his poor 
 
 og men; the conveyance of them down to 
 pmentto the military hospitals at 
 Scutari, was a work of delay and misery to all 
 concerned. The French, who had 1360 lulled or 
 wounded at the same bati '• i xccllent 
 
 arrangements for conveying their invalids down to 
 
 ach; they had a large number of cacolels, 
 which had been suggested to them by their experi- 
 ence in Al i of these consists of a sort 
 
 . -chair—or rather two easy-chairs — slung in 
 oss the back of a mule: they are com- 
 
 • to the wounded men, and are available 
 
 tracks where no wheel-carriage could pass. 
 During the siege of Sebastopol, the English were 
 — in the early months at least— much dil 
 in their A. arrangements by the want of men, 
 draught-animals, forage, and vehicles; but the 
 experience thence gained will doubtless be valuable' 
 in future years. 
 
 AM T,L : LANCE CORPS. When the A. wagons 
 and carts, noticed in the last article, were ordered 
 for construction, the War authorities made a I 
 
 for supplying a body of men, to drive the 
 
 vehicles and to attend the sick and wounded. These 
 
 men were to constitute an A. C., to which there had 
 
 D ithing before' analogous, in the English army. 
 
 The experiment was unsuccessful; and at a later 
 
 1 i . ih • A. C. was superseded by the 
 
 i [ransport Corps; which, sine aclusion 
 
 of the war, has given way to the -Military Train. 
 
 See l.\sii l'i: lnsport Corps, -Military Train. 
 
 AMBULATORY. A name occasionally given 
 in architecture to the cloisters of a cathedral, col- 
 I , or the like. 
 A'MBTJSCADE is one of the manoeuvres adopted 
 
 in war. II riginal Italian, imboscata ('concealed 
 
 in a wood'), denotes the general nature of tin- A.; 
 but the meaning is now much more extended, seeing 
 that it applies to any attempt to attack an enemy 
 by lying m wait and coming upon him unexpectedly. 
 In fore .'inn soldiers fought hand to hand 
 
 frequently than at present, the A. was much 
 resorted to; but the tactics of modern times render 
 it less available. It was by an A. on the part of the 
 revolted sepoys that so many British soldiers were 
 lulled and wounded in that adventure which was 
 known, during the wars of the Indian mutinv, as 
 
 13 
 
 the 'disaster at Arrah,' in July 1857. An A. is 
 neither an 'attack' nor a 'surprise,' in military 
 language ; it is sometliing more sudden and unex- 
 pected than either. — A another name for 
 ambuscade. 
 
 AMELANCHIER, a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Rosacea (q. v.), sub-order Pomea, 
 distinguished by having five ovaries, each of which 
 is divided into two cells, with one ovule in each 
 e ripe fruit including 3_5 carpels. It con- 
 of a few species of small trees with deciduous 
 simple leaves, abundant racemes of white flowers, 
 and small fruit of the size of a pea, or a little larger, 
 but soft, juicy, and agreeable. The common A. 
 | is a native of the Alps, Pyrenees, ic. 
 The other species are natives of North America. 
 A. botryapium is sometimes called June-berry, from 
 its fruit ripening in June, before that of any other 
 tree or shrub; and A. ovalis produces a very plea- 
 sant fruit, which makes excellent puddings. The 
 aim ■lanchiers are planted in Britain merely as 
 ornamental trees. They are very hardy. 
 
 A'M EN", a 1 [el irew word of asseveration, is equiva- 
 lent to 'Yea,' 'Truly,' and has been commonly 
 adopted in the forms of Christian worship. In 
 lea, the A. is pronounced by the 
 congregation at the conclusion of the benediction 
 given at parting. Among the early Christians, the 
 prayer offered by the presbyter was concluded by 
 the word A., uttered by the congregation. Mention 
 is made of the practice in the 1st Epistle to the 
 Corinthians (xiv. 10). Justin Martyr is the 
 earliest of the fathers who alludes to the use of 
 the response. ' In speaking of the sacrament, he 
 says that, at the close of the benediction and 
 prayer, all the assembly respond "A." Accord- 
 ing to Tertullian, none but the faithful were per- 
 
 1 to join in the response.' A somewhat, 
 and irreverent practice prevailed in the celebration 
 of the Lord's Supper until the 6th c, after which it 
 ■ continued. ' Upon the reception both of the 
 bread and of the wine, each person uttered a loud 
 "A.;'' and at the close of the consecration by the 
 priest, all joined in shouting a loud "A."' The same 
 custom was observed at baptism, where the sponsors 
 and witnesses responded vehemently. In the Greek 
 Church, the A. was pronounced after the name of 
 each person of the Trinity; and ac the close of 
 the baptismal formula, the people responded. At 
 the conclusion of prayer, it signifies (according to 
 the English Church Catechism) So be it; after the 
 n petition of the Creed, So is it. 
 
 AMENDMENT is a term used both in judicial 
 and parliamentary proceedings. In the former, it is 
 a ] lower of correction of any errors in actions, 
 or prosecutions, which has been greatly extended of 
 late, and which has largely improved and 
 lied the administration of the law, both in I i 
 and in Scotland. In parliament, the word A. is 
 us.d when it is intended to oppose, vary, or qualify 
 a question or resolution ; and in the case of bills, it is 
 employed as a courteous method of dismissing the 
 bill from any further consideration, by movin 
 
 1 of ' now,' it be n ad at the end of three months, 
 
 six months, or any other term beyond the probable 
 
 duration of the session. It at to a 
 
 IS an A. to thequ olutii n 
 
 declaratory of some principle adverse to that of the 
 
 1 II, provided it be strictly relevant, as was lately 
 
 ifully by Lord John Russell, when he 
 
 I and carried, as an A. t" the motion far the 
 
 second reading of the Reform Bill of Lord Derby's 
 government, a n laratory of a principle 
 
 which the supporters of that measure considered to 
 be subversive of it. 
 
 15S
 
 AMENTACE.-E— AMERICA. 
 
 AMENTA'CEiE, according to some botanists, a 
 natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, 
 consisting entirely of trees and aural Bowers 
 
 are unisexual, the male flowers, and vei 
 tho female flowers, disposed in amenta or Catkins 
 fa. v.), and the perianth either wanting or incomplete. 
 This order, which contains I 'known and 
 
 important trees, is divided into a number of sub- 
 . which by man] hai - be i erected into 
 distinct orders, forming the ' I 
 
 Lindley. Under A. ai 
 
 l^e Wu.i.uw), Myric&E (see Cl 
 
 (see Bibch), Alti called also Balsamacew, 
 
 but not to be confounded with 1 -. a 
 
 ■ (see IilQuTDAMBAK) j by some also 
 
 vxa or CttJ . v.), and I'hrfanae (see 
 
 Plane), both of ' a from his 
 
 tad Alliance, associating the former with 
 Juglandacea (sec Waini r), as a distinct a 
 and referring the latter to the 
 See Ukticai i;.r.. On tlie other hand, he unites with 
 the Amental Alliance the order Elaagnacea. See 
 Eleaqnds. 
 
 AME'NTHES, an Egyptian mythological word 
 equivalent in meaning to the I ord Hades, 
 
 the unseen world. Plutarch explained it as signify- 
 ing ' tho giving and taking, an interpr 
 
 1, but erroneously. A. literally 
 
 biding '(-place understood). On Egyptian 
 
 monuments we and the god Anul 
 
 the souls which, in the form of birds, are escaping 
 
 from the body through the mouth. Ho conducts 
 
 the throne of Osiris, who sits as judge, 
 
 with a council or jury of forty-two persons. The 
 
 deity, Ami. nt, represented on monuments 
 
 ly :v female form of Amnion, 
 
 and her name has no connection with that of A. 
 
 AME'RICA, one of the four quarters of the globe ; 
 being smaller than Asia, but larger, perhap 
 both Europe and Africa taken together. It is the 
 only one of the four main divisions of the land that 
 led by all the four great oceans — the Northern, 
 the Atlantic, the and the Pacific 
 
 If Tierra del Fuego and Greenland are included 
 — as ought to be done on geological grounds — A. 
 occupies about 150° of 1 of lat. 
 
 \ : ng generally, its extreme length may 1 
 to be on a meridian, and its extreme breadth on a 
 parallel — facts which, in the light of analogy, look 
 more like a law than an accident. As the map will 
 shew, similar coincidences occur in South A. by itself ; 
 in Africa, in Europe, in Asia, and in Australia. As 
 between Asia and A., moreover, it deserves to be 
 I that the meridional semicircles, along which 
 run their respective lengths, form, with an interval of 
 IS! I 1 , one and the same meridional circle. 
 
 Like the old continent, A. has been divided by 
 nature into two peninsulas — Darien and Suez being 
 the isthmuses, while South A. corresponds with 
 Africa, and North A. with Asia and Europe, 
 to this extent, however, the resemblance is by no 
 means close. In the new world, the whole of the 
 lower peninsula is to the south of the whole of the 
 upper one, while Asia overlaps half the latitude, and 
 more than half the magnitude, of Africa. 
 
 Of the northern half of A., the southern section, 
 on account of essential differences in character and 
 appearance, is in general contemplated by itself 
 under the name of Central A. — the most convenient 
 limit, perhaps, being a line drawn from the mouth of 
 Rio Bravo del Norte to the lower end of peninsular 
 California; and this line, besides its geographical 
 propriety on both coasts, has the recommendation of 
 marking, on the nearer coast, the international 
 1M 
 
 boundary of I Slates and Mexico. Central 
 
 A., it is to be observed, has a political signification 
 as well ! al one, comprising, in the former 
 
 the comparatively small states between 
 i New Granada Guatemala, Honduras, 
 San Salvador, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. 
 
 Physically, however, these three subdivisions of 
 A. may be i one, being knit together on 
 
 the west Bide by a backbone, as it were, of moun- 
 tains, which, under various names and various 
 , stretches from the extreme' south at Cape 
 Horn to nearly the extreme north at the mouth of 
 the Mackenzie. To this mountain, v.- 1 in we shall 
 have occasion to refer under the distiuct heads of 
 .mi.i.r.r.As of Central A., and B 
 
 , restricting ourselves at present, in 
 accordance with the general aim of this article, to 
 atures of tb chain as may incidentally 
 
 come under our notice in connection with earth- 
 quakes, volcanoes, climate, or hydrography . 
 with regard to this article generally, the subject 
 as a whole, we shall, as seldom and as 
 little as ii ils, which, even if 
 
 anticipated here, must still be repeated under the 
 i e leads of their proper iocs 
 In thus treating of A., we shall consider separately 
 nnoejs, its climate, its hydro- 
 ii/ and 
 its COM . but excluding anything like the 
 
 annals of any individual state — and, lastly, its 
 /, botany, and zoct 
 The moes of A. are to be 
 
 ■ hi By in the backbone of mountains already 
 mentioned. In South A. they may be said to be 
 exclusively so found, being confined to the Andes 
 
 . that skirt the Pacific, and to the 
 zuelan spur or branch of the main range. The 
 pplied to ( lentral A. Hut in 
 North A., the energy which produces both i 
 of phenomena app hi ve followed rather the 
 
 coast, than the continuous chain which d 
 gradually from it — earthquakes being often felt in 
 the maritime towns of I pper Calif rnia, and vol- 
 . having left their traces behind them on the 
 islands of Russian A. The agency in question seems 
 travelled from north to south along the coast, 
 having exhausted itself in its more ancient seats ; 
 and this view derives Support from the obvious 
 formation of the Sandwich Islands, which are as 
 as possible parallel with the west coast of 
 A., between Benring's Strait and the equator, 
 (in this interesting subject we quote from Sir 
 George Simpson's Overland Journey: ' The whole 
 group appears to have been thrown up from the 
 ly volcanic action advancing from the north- 
 i the south-cast, and increasing in force as it 
 led; so that, while island rose after island, 
 w at once in height and in breadth according 
 the power that heaved it upwards 
 from the waters. Thus Bird Island, a barren rock 
 taking its name from its only inhabitants, must be 
 considered as the germ of the archipelago, as the first 
 fruits of a submarine energy that was here only 
 kindling its tires ; while the other links in the chain, 
 Kauai, Won!, a, and Hawaii, not only differ, 
 
 as I have just mentioned, at once in extent and in 
 elevation, but also present, as they proceed, 1 
 less evidence of antiquity in their gradually diminish- 
 ing proportions of land capable of cidtivation — a 
 proof the more conclusive, inasmuch as the soil of the 
 whole group undeniably consists of the successive 
 gifts of years and ages and centuries. Moreover, 
 the visible laboratories of the subterranean fire, 
 which are scattered over the archipelago, confirm 
 the same view : the craters are all extinct, excepting 
 on Hawaii; and even on Hawaii, Moima Loa, the
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 most south-easterly of its three great safety-valves, 
 alone bean living testimony to the creative impulse 
 that has called the whole chain into existence, and 
 bears it, too, only through its lateral volcano of 
 Kilauea, which, besides itself looking to the east, 
 appears, by the gradual advance of subsidiary out- 
 
 j*vn it3 eastern declivities, to be rolling the 
 
 •i sources of its strength — pcradventiue there 
 to forge fresh islands — under the bed of the ocean.' 
 
 note. — In comparing A. with the old i 
 tiii'-nt, we must contrast not east and west with 
 
 ■ titer, but west with west, and east with east — 
 neither Newfoundland with England, nor British 
 Columbia with Kamtchatka, but Kamtchatka 
 
 Newfoundland, and England with British 
 
 iliia. Such a comparison shews that the 
 dill'erence lies not, as is often assumed, between 
 the two continents, but between the opposite 
 of either continent within itself. For instance, 
 at Nain, in Labrador, the mean temperature is 7° 
 ; while at Archangel, in Russian 
 A., it is 12' above freezing. This difference of 19° 
 between the east and west coasts of the New World, 
 is otdy a very little less than the difference b 
 the east coast of the New, and the west coast of the 
 
 r.ir the temperature of Gottcnburg, in Sweden, 
 is only 21° higher than that of Nain. It is to be 
 
 led, however, that this difference between the 
 
 opposite coasts of the two continents diminishes as 
 
 we proceed southwards. New York is only ~' colder 
 
 than Naples; and Florida has the same temperature 
 
 iiro. 
 
 Jn illustration of the contrast between the east and 
 
 ■ E A., we are ■ traveller already 
 
 sited, that, at the mouth of the Columbia River, 
 
 the first half of December presented one deluge 
 
 of rain after another from the south-cast, this 
 
 weather winding up on the lGth of the month 
 
 with a storm of thunder and lightning ; ' while, to 
 
 mark the difference of climate 1 • two 
 
 of the continent, the good folks of Montreal, 
 though occupying a lower parallel than ourselves, 
 were deigning it merrily through the clearest and 
 driest of ati, Nor is tin d accord- 
 
 i the same authority, less palpable in the old 
 continent than in the new. ' To place in the most 
 striking light the contrast in point of climate between 
 the opposite shores of the old continent, Kamtchatka 
 and the British Isles may be said, with sufficient 
 accuracy for this purpose, to lie in the same la; 
 and to present the game area, and even to occupy 
 the same position with respect to the proximity of 
 water; and yet, while the British Isles, with but 
 I aid, feed at least 25,000,000 inhabitants, 
 Kamtchatka, with the help of extraneous supplies, 
 can barely prevent its population of 4000 souls from 
 starving.' 
 
 But whatever influences may be common to 
 the climates of both continents, the climate of A. 
 is subject to two peculiar influences — that con- 
 
 'a prolongation southward, and its backbone 
 of mountains. With respect to the former point, A. 
 advances at least 20° further southward than Africa 
 — fully more than half the interval between the 
 latter and antarctic ice ; so that the southern 
 breezes which, in summer, bring freshness and 
 delight to the I aft cold and 
 
 misery to Cape Horn. Two of Cook's people, on 
 his first voyage, were frozen to death in Tierra del 
 
 i towards the end of January — in a month 
 corresponding with our July, anil in a latitude the 
 same as that of Edinburgh. The backbone of moun- 
 tains, again, that other point which peculiarly 
 influences the climate of A, does its work in two 
 ways. Throughout almost its entire course, its height 
 arrests the passage of the clouds and rains. Within 
 
 and about the tropics, these are borne from the 
 east by the trades ; in the more temperate regions, 
 they are brought from the west by the prevailing 
 counter-currents of air. But in either case, the 
 windward slope of the mountain barrier is a fertile 
 garden, the leeward slope a barren desert. In the 
 more central plateaus, again, of Quito and Mexico, 
 the various terraces present as many climates, and 
 bring together, under the same parallel, all the 
 temperatures and energies of nature. 
 
 But there exist, more particularly in North A, 
 peculiarities of climate which cannot, perhaps, be 
 • 1 to any known cause. On the opposite sides, 
 for instance, of the r-shed between the Gulf 
 
 of Mexico and Hudson's Bay, antagonistic results are 
 said to shew themselves in winter. On the northern 
 side, the climate is understood to improve as one 
 advances westward, the Saskatchewan, though in a 
 considerably higher latitude, opening earlier in spring 
 than the St Lawrence; whereas, on the southern side, 
 ice forms in New Orleans, at the mouth of the Mis- 
 , strong enough to bear half-grown boys, a 
 thing wholly unprecedented on the corresponding 
 parallel of the Atlantic shore. Even in summer, at 
 least on the northern side of the water-shed in ques- 
 tion, something of a similar change of climate has 
 been observed, for maize, which, in Lower Canada, 
 is a precarious crop, even on the international line 
 of 4.V, regularly ripens, in Red River s ttlement, 
 which, besides 5° more of latitude, is at least 1000 
 feet higher above i f the sea. 
 
 With respect to that portion of A. which is best 
 known, a popular misapprehension generally prevails 
 as to the steadiness of its climate in any given season 
 of the year. The Canadian summer, for instance, is 
 supposed to be an unbroken period of tropical heat ; 
 and the Canadian winter to be, in its turn, an 
 unbroken period of hyperborean cold. Now, in 
 both directions, this is a great mistake. The sum- 
 mer of British A is often tropical, and its winter 
 often hyperborean, the extreme ranges of the 
 thermometer, according to the experience of credible 
 informants in localities to the south of London, 
 sometimes being, in one and the same year. lu-i 1 V. 
 above zero, and 52' below it. But this difference 
 of 156°, which is measured probably by an inter- 
 val of six months, is far less remarkable than 
 the differences which a few days may bring forth. 
 The highest range occurred within four days 
 after parlour-fires had been given up ; and the 
 Call on a day which, a year or so befo: 
 thaw. In 
 Montreal its.lt, CG hours, or less, have som 
 exhibited a difference, up or down, of 60" F. in 
 winter ; and even in summer, whether in Lower 
 Canada or in the north an seldom reckon 
 
 on any other month than July as free from night- 
 In this respect, the Canadian climate may 
 betaken as a sample of the climate of North A. in 
 general, extreme ranges of temperature, as prevailing 
 respectively in summer and winter, being naturally 
 attended by more or less considerable vicissitudes in 
 each individual season. 
 
 In the tropical regions, however, of A, whether 
 Central or Southern, a singular uniformity of tem- 
 perature does exist on each of the various terraces of 
 the mountain chain. The same parallel, as has been 
 already mentioned, presents at once the torrid, the 
 temperate, and the frigid zones. Such a view of the 
 
 is. to a certain extent, 
 for in not one of the three cases are the vicissitudes 
 of the respective zones, properly so called, found to 
 shew themselves. Each level is said to be so steady 
 in its temperature as to enfeeble and enervate the 
 inhabitants through the monotony even of that 
 which is in itself good ; ami in such cases, the 
 
 195
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 salutary prescription is to ascend or to descend, for 
 a time, from one terrace to am 
 Hydrography.— With the backbone of mountains 
 
 as the principal water-shed of A., the riv 
 site shies of the continent are still more di 
 than the climates, Excepting in Central A., the 
 difference in question is enormous. Even in North 
 A., where it is less than in .Smith A., the < utrast is 
 sufficiently striking. On the west side of the Rocky 
 Mountains, the only streams worthy of notice in 
 such a summary as this are the( loloraido, which Hows 
 into the head of the Gulf of California; the 
 mento, which enters the harbour of San I 
 ami tl iiia, which empties itself into the 
 
 open ocean— three rivers which, if con 
 the waters of the opposite coast, are. in practical 
 value, inferior singly to the Hudson, and collectively 
 to the Rio iiravo del Norte. On the east side, how- 
 ever, there exist rivers to which the Rio Bravo del 
 Norte and the Hudson are but as brooks. To 
 with the extreme north: i ii/ii-, besides 
 
 draining a large basin on its own side of the Rocky 
 Mountains, draws from beyond them two of its 
 principal feeders, the Peace and the Liarde, burying 
 itself, however, under the pi rennial ices of the 
 Arctic Ocean. Passing, without further notice, the 
 Coppermine and the bish River, of both whi 
 interest is purely historical in a with arctic 
 
 discovery, we conn ■ to the Nelson, which brings down 
 to Hudson's Bay the Winnipeg and the Red River, 
 two streams bordering respective!] on the head- 
 waters of the St Lawrence and the Mississippi, 
 and also the two branches of the Saskatchewan, 
 which all Imt touch the Bources of the Columbia 
 and the Missouri. Is'ext in order is that long 
 alternation of mighty river and mightier lake 
 
 that reservoir of half the life-hl I ol the earth — 
 
 which, under the name of the St Lawrence, gradu- 
 ally becomes a sea. South of the St Lawrence, 
 along the coast, we meet the Atlantic stream of 
 New Brunswick and the United States, all of them 
 valuable beyond their magnitude, and most of th an 
 connected, more or less closely, with the Allegbanies 
 — the .St John, the Penobscot, the Connecticut, the 
 Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and the 
 Potomac. Round into the Gulf of Mexico, and we 
 reach, besides many second-rate rivers in either 
 direction, perchance the most important stn 
 the face of the globe — a stream which, after uniting 
 the Mississippi and the Missouri under the name of 
 the former, receives on the right the Arkansas and 
 the Eed River, and on the left the Ohio, enriched, 
 as it is, with the tributes of the Wabash and the 
 Tennessee. 
 
 In South A., again, the difference between cast 
 and west is still more remarkable. On the we t, the 
 Guayaquil, the only stream worth mentioning, is not 
 to be compared even with the rivers that flow fn im 
 the subordinate ranges of Brazd or Guiana; while, 
 on the east, the Andes send down, besides the Mag- 
 dalena flowing into the Caribbean Sea, the Orinoco, 
 the Amazon, and the Plata, into the open ocean across 
 the almost entire breadth of the continent — three 
 networks of inland navigation, which, under the 
 head of the Amazon (q. v.), we have already shewn 
 to be virtually one, and, beyond that, to be virtually 
 linked with the Essequibo of British < ruiana. 
 
 Nor wdl the disparity between tie- two coasts of 
 the continent be less striking, if the harbours are 
 considered as well as rivers, the external outlets 
 as well as internal channels. On the Pacific, South 
 A. possesses, to the north of Chili, only two ports 
 entitled to the name, Panama and the Guayaquil 
 already mentioned ; while, on the same 
 North A., along a line of 3000 mdes up to British 
 Columbia, presents only five safe and convenient 
 
 havens — Acapulco, Mazatlan, Magdalena Bay, San 
 U o, and San Francisco. But the Atlantic side 
 presents a contrast to which no language can do 
 To take the divisions as they come: New- 
 foundland has its St •!"' i's, Cape ] l its Louis- 
 burg, Nova Scotia its Halifax, New Brunswick its St 
 Andrews, Mum' its Portland, New Hampshire its 
 Portsmouth, Massachu ' Co tecticut 
 
 its Newhaven, Rhode Island its New fc, and so on. 
 
 is 1 his all. While fully a third part of the rivers 
 
 of Europe and Asia are lost to the commerce of the 
 
 v, nil at large in the frozen seas of the north, or in 
 
 such land-locked l Is as tie- Aral and tin- < '; 
 
 all the considerable rivers of A., with the Mackenzie 
 as tie' i.nly exception, are, more or less, channels of 
 communication between the open ocean and the 
 interior. To take the three grandest examples — 
 The Amazon, with a basin estimated to contain 
 1.. ",110,1 II lit square miles, is navigable fur steam-Vi 
 ii] i every one of its main branches, nearly to the 
 eastern foot of the Andes; thus comprising Si \'i.il 
 available lines of 2500 miles each, and presenting, as 
 a whole, a network of such lines to the amount of at 
 least ten times that length. The Mississippi, ■ 
 
 !" as it ii at once to the Alleghanies and to 
 the llocky Mountains, ami between them, more to 
 the north, as far as tie- falls of St Anthony, has 
 been computed to afford to the steam-vessel an unin- 
 terrupted career of 36,000 miles. But perhaps the 
 st Lawrence, it' less extensive, is mure marvellous 
 still Owing to British improvements of its channel, 
 New York and Pennsylvania have virtually a sea- 
 board on their inland shores ; while Ohio, Indiana, 
 and Illinois, accessible to ships from the fiulf of 
 St Lawrence by the lakes, and from the Gulf of 
 Mexico by tie- far eclipse, in the 
 
 heart of a continent, the peculiar boast of ancient 
 Corinth as the mart of two seas. 
 
 To append a few subordinate examples : nearly all 
 the considerable rivers along the coast between the 
 St Lawrence and the Mississippi possess far more 
 than an average value, in proportion to their lengths, 
 as arteries of urb i aal communication. The Atlantic 
 if the Alleghanies, in particular, presents, as a 
 whole, perhaps twice as many facilities in this way 
 on of equal extent on the face of 
 the earth- facilities, too, which have been not less 
 zealously and successfully improved than those of 
 the St Lawrence. The Hudson has been, at vast 
 expense, and with indomitable energy, connected 
 with the basin of the St Lawrence at three points — 
 on Lake Erie, on Lake Ontario, and on Lake Cham- 
 plain; and the Susquehanna has been in like manner 
 connected with the basin of the Mississippi by a 
 canal which terminates at Pittsburg on the Ohio. 
 
 But in one part of A., still smaller streams than 
 these last are entitled to particular attention. We 
 allude to those streams, live in number, which pro- 
 mise to vie with each other in connecting together 
 the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. 
 
 The five rivers in question form parts of tliree 
 different routes. The Atrato of the Atlantic side 
 co-operates with the San Juan of the opposite 
 coast a little below the Isthmus of Darien ; the 
 San Juan of the Caribbean Sea, with the lake of 
 Nicaragua, and with the smaller lake of Leon more 
 to the westward; and, lastly, the Coatzacoalcos 
 of the Gulf of Mexico, with the Tehuantepec of the 
 bay of its own name. 
 
 To begin with the firtl route: the Atrato and the 
 San Juan flow, in contrary directions, through the 
 slightly undulating country into which the Andes 
 gradually subside as they approach the Isthmus. 
 Their head-waters are said to he near to each other, 
 the Atrato being already navigable for small vessels, 
 and the San Juan, manifestly a considerable stream,
 
 , 
 
 r
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 entering the sea by several mouths, after a course of 
 160 miles. With such streams separated by such a 
 country, a ship-channel between the two oceans 
 does not by any means appear to be impracticable. 
 Next, as to tin- second route, which, .03 well as the 
 third, is already in actual use as a place of transit : 
 tin- Ban Juan itself, about loo miles long, has a 
 gentle current, which, though in some places 
 impeded by short rapids, is stated to be always 
 navigable throughout for boats of 10 tons, and for 
 much larger vessels to a considerable distance limn 
 the sea. Lake Nicaragua, again, said to measure 
 14(1 miles by 40, is adapted for ships of any burden, 
 bring fifteen fathoms dee]). At its west end it 
 receives the Tipitapa from Lake Leon, which, with 
 a length of 35 miles, and a breadth of 15, is only 23 
 f. .1 higher than itself, or 150 above the level of the 
 Pacific. Two schemes seem to be agitated with 
 respect to the more westerly portion of the route — 
 one scheme proposing to avail itself of Lake Leon, 
 
 and tl i!i i to carry the ship-canal at once from 
 
 Lake Nicaragua. Lastly, as to the third route, 
 where the intervening land, actually designated as 
 an isthmus, is only 130 miles wide: the Coatzacoalcos 
 alone is said to traverse marly the entire breadth; 
 while the Tehuantepec, which givi name to the 
 isthmus, goes far to complete what the other has 
 begun. 
 
 The practical value of the enterprise of connecting 
 by navigation the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is 
 already evidenced by the fact, that, in the face of 
 the competition of the last two routes, the Panama 
 Railroad is perhaps the most profitable undertaking 
 of the kind in the new world. In fact, the comple- 
 tion of any one of those three routes for sen 
 ships, would be to realise Columbus's idea of a 
 western passage to the East. 
 
 Of the Lain i of A. a brief notice will be sufficient. 
 In North A., besides the vast reservoirs of the 81 
 Lawrence, a line drawn north-west from the centre 
 of Lake Superior, appears, on the face of the map, to 
 intersect a kindred series — LakeWinipeg, Lake Atha- 
 basca, Great Slave Lake, anil Great Bear Lake — the 
 first of the four lieing connected with the Nelson, 
 ami the remaining three with the Mackenzie. It 
 may not be out of place to observe, that the general 
 direction indicated is pretty nearly parallel with the 
 Pacific coast, just as the general direction of the 
 from the "Teat bend at the head of 
 Lake Erie is pretty nearly parallel with the Atlantic 
 . As to the secondary lakes of North- we ( \,. 
 then- name is legion, almost every stream, whether 
 large or small, expanding itself here and there 
 vastly beyond its average width, and being, as it 
 were, a St Lawrence in miniature. One lake, or 
 rather pond, is too singular to be overlooked. 
 On the Athabasca Pass of the Rocky Mountains, 
 where the read, little better than a succession of 
 glaciers, runs through a region of pi rpetua] snow, a 
 small body of water, named by the lie 
 Company's voyageurs as the 'Cot Punch- 
 
 bowl, 1 sends its tribute from one end to the Columbia, 
 and from the other to the Mackenzie. 'I'" proceed 
 southwards along tin' continent, Centra] A. abounds 
 in lakes. The Leon and the Nicaragua have been 
 already noticed. But such bodies of water are 
 
 perhaps most numerous on the table land ol M 
 
 or as it is often termed, the plateau of Anahuac. 
 The largest of r estimated to con- 
 
 tain 1300 BQUare miles an area which, ho 
 insigniticant in comparison with the 
 of the north, is more than equivalent to a circle 
 of hi miles in diameter. .Many of these reservoirs 
 of the table-land have no outlet. Such is the 
 ease with the various lakes of the valley of M 
 enclosed as they are by mountains at a height of 
 
 7471 feet above the sea-level. Of the same descrip- 
 tion, too, is tie- Lake- of Titica- ily the 
 in S. .nth A. Raised by the table-land 
 of Peru ia to a height of 12,846 feet, it yet 
 
 tli't to tlv . i a ; for the Desaguadero, which 
 
 empties it, loses itself in the apparently land-locked 
 Lake' Lies to the southward. Ofti body of 
 
 water, the magnitude is not so well ascertained 
 as its altitude. Besides such round numbers as 
 16,000 and 6000 square mils, which are never 
 meant to be accurate, one is perplexed to meet 
 statements so minute, and yet so discordant, as 
 4032 and 2225 square miles. But even 
 estimate is more than equivalent to a square of 
 47 miles a side — an area which, with a depth rai 
 up to 120 fathoms, excei -I i, perhaps, anything to be 
 found to the south of the basin of the St Law] 
 
 The vast advantage in point of fluvial communica- 
 tion possessed by the- new world over the- old, has 
 already been adverted to. There is, however, a 
 uydrographical feature in which • 
 divisions of the eastern continent is decidedly supe- 
 rior to A. The coast-line of Europe, in proportion to 
 extent of surface, is incomparably longer than that 
 of even the northern half of the western continent. 
 Tlii.-. is at once apparent on glancing at the two maps. 
 It is surely a suggestive fact, that the two portions 
 of the earth which are best fitted for human inter- 
 course, are also hydrographically so connected as to 
 be beyond comparison the most accessible to each 
 ether. The dividing sea. besides being itself physi- 
 cally by far the narrower of tin- two interconti- 
 nental oceans, is virtually narrowed still more by its 
 end its currents. Along a belt of about 30° on 
 either side of the equator, the easterly trade with 
 its attendant current wafts the \ ". , , i- westward 
 from Africa; while above that belt, the reaction, 
 Tiled and accelerated by the peculiar forma- 
 tion of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of M 
 is ready to carry him round again to Europe, under 
 the double pressure of the Florida stream and its 
 
 generally prevailing breezes tin' Bouth-west 
 
 Nor yet can the hydrographies! relations of A. with 
 Asia be denied their proportion of sign 
 influence, linked as the two continents a 
 llehring's Strait, and twice bridged "cean, 
 
 first by the Aleutian Isles — a continuation of the 
 K miles and Japan — and then by the Polynesian 
 clusters, that series of offshoots, as it were, from 
 the Indian Archipelago. 
 
 History.— We propose to glance at this under the 
 three heads of Aboriginal Ages, Discovery, and 
 Colonisation. 
 
 As to the .', Ages, there arises a question, 
 
 too interesting to be overlooked, and yet too doubt- 
 ful to be solved, as to the origin of the native tribes 
 and peoples of A. Without prejudicing the question 
 (which will be considered under Indians) whether 
 original inhabitants <" A. are to be considered, 
 in an ethnological point of view, as subst an ti ally of 
 ighly probable that they did 
 not all spring from one me primeval band 
 
 of adventun raj in ether words, that different colo- 
 nies, voluntary or involuntary, must have reached 
 i!i- nev, continent al different times. This view, 
 nothing of the i inn. my of local 
 
 traditions, seems to be in itself more than probable, 
 when v. er that, through the length and 
 
 breadth of the universal ocean, even the most 
 insigniticant specks of land had each received, at 
 least, eiie influx of human wanderers. Put. beyond 
 such probabilities, and such I the view in 
 
 heued by facts, which it is difficult 
 otherwise to explain by diversities of langua 
 different c Uinds. of civilisation, and. 
 
 all, by monuments, architectural or otherwise, of
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 defunct races of bygone days. On this 
 whence ci me the successive shoal r»J To 
 
 tliis question no direct answer can he given. We 
 can only Bean the various rontea by which, pre- 
 viously to what we call the discovery of A., the old 
 world was most likely to people the A 
 contin To 1 i with the natural routes on tie- 
 
 side of the Pacific — Bearing's Strait, the Aleutian 
 and the I 1 . ire can 
 
 hardly conceive anything but barbarism havin 
 conducted to A. by any one of them. 'II:- country 
 which stretches back from Bearing's Strait 
 K0I3 >a. i. m ..- in- .-i - 1 to be, v rut 1 
 tli most inhospitable portion even of 8 
 and, moreover, the strait itself has more prob- 
 ably been a channel of migration fro 
 than from Asia, tie- Tchuktchi of the latter ) 
 ing themselves rather as a branch, than as the 
 stem, of the Tchuktchi of tli 
 again, both to the Aleutian Isles and tie- r 
 
 Archipelagoes, the successive stepping-stones in 
 either series, in -t adc presumed t 
 
 so man}' halts for 
 
 must rather be viewed .13 each a mother-country to 
 a new colony, as each a point of departure for a 
 fresh swarm. Thus would the avating 
 
 blight of isolation exemplified even in the old 
 world among tie- Laplanders, the Kamb ' 
 and tli-- Sottentots prepare at each 
 deeper and deeper barbarism to land at last on 
 the western shores of A. Furthi r, if civilisation, 
 as certainly appears to have been the case, 
 ever did find its way to A., it must have come 
 ly and immediately from the old world, and 
 that under circumstanci 1 and conditions of by no 
 means a favourable character. In remote times, 
 such :n il it il, or, to speak more, correctly, 
 unintentional visits of Burop ans ami Asiatics 
 may have occurred, as we know to have actually 
 taken place in more modem days. Japanese junks 
 have repeatedly been driven, by stress of v. 
 across the Pacilic to the new world ; and 
 on the Atlantic, the easterly trades, with 1 
 years after Columbus's earl , wafted tin- 
 
 to Brazil, during their second 
 to India— the very first, in fact, which they 
 had attempted by ste ring elear of the headlands of 
 Africa. Such incidents, however frequently they 
 might have happened, were much more lil 
 civili.se existing community 
 
 ones ; and it is at least a curious fact, that the only 
 aboriginal nation ' as in 
 
 any sense civilised at the date of the Spanish con- 
 quest, pointed in their traditions to such ev 
 we have endeavoured to describ -. Mexico and Peru 
 had each had its Cecrops, or semi-divine ci 
 — the former referring him to the east across the 
 Atlantic, and 11 . across the 
 
 Pacitic. Sow far such hypotheses may account 
 for the admitted fact-. 
 
 to conjecture. I luals of om 
 
 nation have enabled us to brim.; the light of the 
 present to bear on tie- past. Wl consider 
 
 what William Adams achieved in Japan, two 
 hundred years ago, and what John ' 
 James Brooke have, more recently, effected in the 
 Sandwich Islands and in Borneo, we can p 
 the more easily understand certain undeniable 
 traces and traditions of aboriginal civilisation. 
 
 Discovery. — 'Whatever may have been the kind 
 and degree of aboriginal civilisation, A. was not 
 destined to be the per; ritance of 1 
 
 man. New actors were to appear on the scene, 
 before whom the old possessors were in a great 
 measure to pass away. 
 
 Previously to the times of Columbus, Europeans 
 
 had certainly visited A. The Scandinavians, after 
 bavin Iceland in 876 a. c, and Ore- 
 
 8, had, by tin- year 1000, discovered 
 
 far down as 41" .'ill' N. lat., a point near to New 
 Bedford, in the state of Massachusetts. These 
 Scandinavians aftcrwn libmir- 
 
 , hood— the mother-country, most probably t' 
 Ltervention of Iceland and Greenland, d 
 
 - an intercourse with down to 
 
 th o. But these enterprises do not 
 
 to have left any special impress on the chara 
 prospects of the new continent, being more akin, 
 
 s, to similar incidents in \ . , earlli 
 t-p the long and well-matun - : 
 
 the illustrious Genoese. Subsequently bo the I ■ 
 navian discovery, and previous to that of Coin 
 
 si. uc- to hi i by a 
 
 i prince. In Cardoe's Histotie of Cambria it 
 
 is stated that Madoc, son of Owen Gwynnedd, 
 
 Bail w< itward in 1 17K with a 
 
 small licet, and after a voyage of several weeks, 
 
 both in itl inha- 
 bitants and productions from Europe. Madoc is 
 supposed to have reached the coast of Virginia. 
 Neither this, however, if true, nor the earlier Scandi- 
 navian n to have i 
 i the A. of the red 
 and the A. of his white brother. Even if the north- 
 
 1 resources worthy of their heroic 
 
 -, the old world was not yet ripe for the 
 appropriation of tin- new. 
 
 At the end of the loth c, however, sciouee and 
 politics were alike strengthening Europe for in 
 task Tin- mariner's compass and the astrolabe 
 had facilit.il -vages out of sight of land : 
 
 while, in almost every country of Christendom, 
 -s were consolid raiment, and 
 
 promotil rowth of population — a ]"i 
 
 which ' -iiii the 
 
 fact that the capture of (Iranada — the last fool 
 of the receded by only a few 
 
 month of A. 
 
 Columbus (q. v) set out on his great enterprise to 
 .- the patronage of the crown of 
 . on Friday, the .'id of August 1492 ; at which 
 date, properly speaking, ■ deeply interest- 
 
 ing history 01 A. Had the Atlantic been broader, 
 or had not the easterly tiv 
 
 almost on a parallel from the Canaries to the 
 Bahamas, he must have failed in his bold attempt-, 
 and, in fact, those d . li , assisted by a 
 
 still nearer approach of the two continent 
 
 I their own value in this respect by carrying 
 
 ivithout their own consent, to the 
 
 of Brazil. Nay, Columbus's discovery of A., 
 
 if not SO ad tlite as unintentional as 
 
 the Portuguese. It was towards tin 
 that his lne ■ tern course, 
 
 whose supposed fulfilment still lives in tin- i 
 plication to the new world of the terms Indian and 
 
 of our subsequent knowlcl 
 America ha to the same desu 
 
 led to its disce 
 
 The got t was the aim alike of Davis, 
 
 el at the north, and of Magellan, 
 Schouten, and Lemaire at the south, to say- 
 nothing of the earlier enterprise of Balboa on 
 tlimus of Darien ; while, under a similar 
 impulse, the French of Canada were ascending 
 lake after lake as nature's ready-made ! 
 the same goal. Even to more r < may 
 
 these remarks be applied. While the eastern 
 coasts of Africa, and the upper shores of Asia 
 not bearing on the grand question of oriental 
 traffic, were comparatively neglected and forgotten, 
 our own Cook and Vancouver, in quest of a passage
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 between the two oceans, surveyed every nook ami 
 cranny of A. from Columbia River to Behring's 
 Strait. Nor yi t have the aspirations of Columbus 
 and his noble band of successors and imitators 
 been altogether disappointed. That same continent 
 which, in their case, barred a westward advance 
 along nearly the whole interval between the arctic 
 and antarctic circles, has to us already become, 
 or is gradually becoming, more than a substitute 
 for the ocean which it was found so extensively 
 to displace. By means of the railway across the 
 Isthmus of Panama, the Caribbean 8 
 for passengers or for goods, is virtually nearer to 
 the Pacific than an open channel could have 
 rendered it to any sea-going vessels. Ivor is it 
 merely across the scanty span of Central A. that 
 art is outstripping nature in the race. For, to 
 take one instance, the Grand Trunk Railway runs 
 a steep obstacle, Bt LawTence 
 
 not excepted, for 1000 miles from the Atlantic to 
 Lake Huron, fully one-third of the entire distance to 
 be accomplished. Since October 11, 1492, the date of 
 Columbus's first discovery, little more than three 
 mid a half centuries have elapsed ; and if we look 
 at the future in the light of the past, it seems not 
 unreasonable to suppose, that, by 1892, the locomo- 
 tive will, within three days, connect together oceans 
 physically as distant from each other as are the 
 Bahamas from the Canaries. 
 
 But Columbus found something better than what 
 he himself or his successors and imitators looked for. 
 He had discovered a land which, besides eclipsing 
 India in the richness and variety of its commerce, 
 was to confer on Europe a still more solid benefit. 
 Colonisation, which, since the early ages of Greece, 
 had slumbered for 2000 years, received an impetus, 
 which, after building up empires in the West, was 
 to build up others in an East richer far than that 
 which was so long the loadstar of European i 
 tors — an east where, almost without a metaphor, the 
 grass was to be wool, and the stones to be gold, 
 The first-fruits of Columbus's enterprise were the 
 Guanahaui, or Cat Island, being the spot 
 
 lie landed on the 11th of October 1492. With- 
 out attempting, in so summary a sketch as this, to 
 
 irish the results of each of his four voyages 
 from each other, it may be sufficient f - 
 
 reatman, besides Hispaniola, or st Domingo, 
 I Jamaica, and others of the Antilles, discovered 
 
 colored Central A. from Honduras southward 
 along the coast of Yeragua, and South A. from the 
 mouths of the Orinoco w e stward, as far as Mai 
 It was on this last-mentioned scene of hi 
 that he was followed by Hojeda, whose pilot, 
 Amerigo Vespucci (q. v.), has been allowed t ■ 
 from Columbus the glory of giving his name to the 
 new world. Within twenty years after Columbus's 
 first discovery, Ponce de Leon discovered Florida; 
 and, what was certainly of far more consequence, 
 he ascertained that, through the strait which separ- 
 ated that peninsula from the Bahamas, there con- 
 stantly ran a strong current to the north-east. In 
 1513, again, just one year later, Vasco Nunez de 
 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien to the Greaf 
 South Sea, or, as it was afterwards named, the Pacific 
 Ocean. About thirteen years before this last event, 
 almost immediately after Columbus's own continental 
 explorations, the interval left between his most 
 southerly point from Honduras, and his most westerly 
 noint from the Orinoco, was, in a great a 
 filled up by the voyage of Bastidas. To the south, 
 ■gain, of the Orinoco, Pinzon and Solis sailed along 
 the continent down to 40° S. lat., between the years 
 1500 and 1514. The former, after anticipate 
 few months, the Portuguese on the shores of Brazil, 
 had seen the Amazon ; and the latter, sent out for 
 
 the express purpose of entering, if possible, Balboa's 
 Great South Sea, found his way into the La Plata or 
 Plate, being there slain by the neighbouring natives. 
 Moreover, to return to the northward, by the year 
 1519, different navigators had between them com- 
 thc examination of the Gulf of Mexico. 
 Within twenty-seven years, therefore, after Colum- 
 
 irst departure from Spain, the eastern shores 
 of South ana Central A. had been almost continu- 
 ously explored by the Spaniards down to within 
 15° of the southern extremity of the continent. 
 Nor had other nations been idle in the north. The 
 
 . on behalf of England, had discovered New- 
 foundland, and portions of the adjacent continent, 
 in 1497. In 1500, the Portuguese, under the Oor- 
 tereals, sailed along the coast of Labrador nearly op 
 to Hudson's Bay, having, it is supposed, entered the 
 Gulf of St Lawrence, long known among them as 
 the Gulf of the Two Brothers. Thus gradually 
 there grew up the opinion, since proved to have 
 been the true and sound one, that any practicable 
 passage between the two oceans must be looked for 
 towards the south of the Plate. Accordingly, in 
 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of 
 Spain, undertook the voyage in which was dis- 
 covered the strait that bears his name — a voyage 
 which furnished the first instance of the circumna- 
 vigation of the globe. Thus there remained little to 
 be done, unless in the extreme north and the extreme 
 south. In the extreme smith, Schouten, a Dutch 
 navigator, discovered, in 1G10, the passage round 
 Cape Horn ; while, six years thereafter, Lemaire, a 
 mariner of the same nation, through the 
 
 strait of his own name between Staten Land and 
 Tierra del Fuego. Towards the north, again, the 
 French and English divided the labours and honours 
 of the enterprise between them. Scarcely had 
 Magellan's companions — for he had himself been 
 
 -returned to Europe, when Vexazzano, 
 mull :• the auspices of Francis I. of France, sailed 
 
 what are now the Atlantic shores of the 
 states, thereby connecting the 
 of the Cabots with those of Ponce de Leon ; and 
 again, about ten years later, Jacques Cartier, in the 
 service also of the same prince, explored the gulf 
 and river of St Lawrence, penetrating as far to the 
 westward as the island of Montreal In the extreme 
 north, however, the English may be said to have 
 been without a rival. It is unnecessary, in this 
 summary sketch, to do more than mention names 
 :!ieir own story on every map — Davis, 
 Baffin, Lancaster, and Hudson. (See tin Be H 
 
 To pass now to the western coast of A. The con- 
 querors of Mexico and Peru effected, in a few years, 
 more perhaps than they left behind them for future 
 ages to cflect, ranging along the coast from the 
 southern extremity- of Chili to the peninsula and Gulf 
 of California. Beyond Lower California, the only direc- 
 tion in which there was much to do. the English 
 Drake, whose voyage took pla videdwrtb. 
 
 niards the credit of having discovered ! 
 California. For nearly two centuries, excepting the 
 half-fabulous voyages of Fonte and Fuca. the 
 Spaniards and the English alike slumbered over their 
 task ; and it was not till towards the close of the 
 
 ntnry, that Cook and Vancouver co-operated 
 with Spanish and American navigators in (lis; 
 the mystery that had so long hung over the north- 
 west coast of A. 
 
 To advert to inland discoveries: As early as 
 1637, within six years after the landing of Pizarro 
 in Peru, and within two after the founding of 
 Buenos Ayr 9, the Spaniards met each other on the 
 eastern borders of Peru, from the opposite shores of 
 the continent ; and. in 1540, within three years more, 
 they sent forth that eastward expedition which ended
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 in Ordlana's expl ftWIMtm, from its 
 
 source to its month. In the northern half of the 
 were of a much Later 
 date. It was in 1682 that the French fit 
 , j it was in 1771 that II 
 traversed the 'wilderness from Hudson's EJaytothe 
 month of the Ci 
 
 in 1789 and 1793 that Alexander M 
 the mouth of the river that bears bis name, and 
 hat is now British Colombia, to the 
 shores of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Colonisation. — Anions the European powers that 
 colonised A., the most prominent were Spain, Por- 
 tugal, Prance, and England. 
 
 Spain, of course, took the lead, having with few 
 exceptions, accompli bed it j task before any rival 
 state had entered on its share of the work. In one 
 respect, its colonics differed from all others on the 
 new continent. .Spain alone came in contact with 
 civilisation, such as it was among the aboi 
 ami, accordingly, in the cases of Mexico and Pern, 
 ition required to he preceded by something 
 like regular war ami formal conqu 
 standing this peculiar obstacle, the colonies of Spain 
 grew at first with a rapidity wh ■ ips, has 
 
 ly found its pan I a in the e 
 
 congenial case of Australia. As an i 1 1 11 
 this — for the statement needs no proof — it was 
 colonial resources that armed Corb rro for 
 
 their respective enterprises. Without the direct and 
 immediate aid, in either instance, of the old country, 
 Cuba, within twi 1, after the fit 
 
 covery, equipped the conquerors of Mexico; while 
 the town of Panama, only twelvi 
 forth the adventurers that v. jugate Peru. 
 
 So use degree of vigour and vitality con- 
 
 tinue. 1 to a ' i tin! Iain's transat I- at ic 1 
 precisely while they were so oigani ed andcoi 
 as to afford scope to individual ambition. 
 perhaps, was this so ipe snffii and full, for, 
 
 ment often embar- 
 rassed and blighted thi :hi mes bj ; 
 ous and suspicion But, for a time, it 
 generally found its account in tolerating the unre- 
 
 1 liberty, or lie instrument 
 
 was. therefore, only after law and 01 
 lished, and the original actors had 1 from 
 
 the scene, that the authorities of 1 1 
 stereotyped, as it were, ti. ir de potism along the 
 length and breadth of every colony. From that 
 moment, vigour and vitality 
 
 nation and torpor. .Still, will lents of pros- 
 
 perity on every sid-- above the earth and 1>, low it — 
 ' rial interests could not fail to flourish But 
 the soul had fled ; the body alone remained behind. 
 Under these circus h continuing 
 
 to claim the entire continent to the north, more espe- 
 cially on the Pacific, did very little to enforce its 
 p , To1 mark, New Mexi 
 
 California were the only exceptions. It was not 
 before 1594 that New Mexico was at all occupied ; 
 and it was not till a century later that the province, 
 after ten years of bush-light ■ 
 
 while it was only in 17t>7 that the Franciscans, on 
 of Spain, took possession of Upper California. 
 But Spain never abandoned the hope of exl 
 its dominions towards the north-west coast. As 
 late as 1790, that power, while ri Nootka 
 
 Sound, and acknowledging England's right of 
 planting other settlements, took the precaution, 
 useless as it proved, of expressly reserving a similar 
 right to itself ; and it was only m 1819, nearly thirty 
 later, that Spain formally ceded to the United 
 States all its claims to the coast above the parallel 
 oi -PJ'. See further under the separate head of 
 America, Spanish. 
 soo 
 
 Tin- efforts of Portugal, in the cause of American 
 
 i . Portugal, which had doubled, the 
 
 Cape of Good Hope in the year 1497, v ilously 
 
 1 in the East as to allow an a 
 
 eg any colony to I'.ia/il. 'I h 
 
 of the oounii j took place in 1500; bul itecolonisa- 
 
 alyin 1531, or rather 1548. Within 32 years 
 
 thereafter, in 1580, Bl the I one t,me as 
 
 Portugal itself, was annexed to the Spanish monarchy, 
 falling, in t! <> new chat 
 into the hands of the revolted Hollanders. 
 In ltilo. lirazil, as well as Portugal, threw oil' the 
 Spanish yoke with the help of the Hutch settlers. 
 lint the continued presence of the latl 
 the progress of the colony. It was only after their 
 
 expulsion, that the Portuguese, who had lost nearly 
 thing in India, turned their attention more 
 largely to Brazil. It accordingly became tie 
 tlouri h i BS I eeii, to the south oi 
 
 i settlements ] alol. as the refuge of tie i 
 
 aganza from French domination, it n 
 about fifty years ago, an impetus which b 
 it. as an independent stale, the most flourishing powi r 
 i A. 
 
 France, as the claimant to the basins of the St 
 ; ace and tie 
 
 have pitched camps than to have planted c ; 
 in those vast possessions. She regarded A. chiefly 
 as a supplementary battle-field for England and 
 Every French settlement was but an inert 
 part of a political machine, powerful, indeed, but 
 . e, and anpn dud ive. The | 
 
 ment was ■ . and the individual subject 
 
 tiling. Hence, neither Louisiana nor Canada 
 at all realised our idea of a colony, in corrobora- 
 tion of this maybe cited two authentic and ol 
 facts. As an enco it to marriage, rewards 
 
 and exi re hi Id out to tie i . three 
 
 children; and the erection of a dwcllin 
 
 ty arpents (about thirty-two acres) was 
 prohibited by a royal ord In 1762, France 
 
 gave up Cai oid, and, as an indirect con- 
 
 power, transferred lee 
 to Spain events whii urly enough, i 
 
 much to facilitate France's grand schem the seps 
 ration from England of her old colonies. 
 
 ■ml. the n etic and BUCCeSsful of 
 
 all in the work of colonisation, was the last in the 
 field among the four powers al< 
 
 her continental colon y nothing of 
 
 mdland, Virginia, the i 
 in 1IJII7. just four years after the union of the , 1 
 and Georgia, the youngest, as late as 17.'!.'S. With 
 bhi e two exceptions, the rent 11 ere, one 
 
 and all, founded during that 1 ril and 
 
 religious troubles which, in the mother-cot 
 own history, sent one Stuart to the scaffold, and 
 drove another into 1 [n 1620, Ma achusetts 
 
 was occupied by tic Puritan fathers; in 1C'23 and 
 1631 respectively, Hen Hampshire end 1 
 ; in 163 I, Maryland \ 
 .1. ilic nohli man ; in 
 
 1636, I Fsland becai 1 1 be sec- 
 
 tarian intolerance of Massachua It-; in 1653, North 
 an offshoot from Virginia ; in 1664, 
 New Voik, New Jersey, and Delaware were taken 
 1 1 lie Dutch; in 1G70, South Carolina was 1 tab- 
 ; and in 1CS2, Pennsylvania was granted to 
 William Pi in, the Quaker, continuing to be a proprie- 
 overnment down to the Revolution. In nearly 
 all these cases, the civil and religious hbcrl- 
 which chii fly the colonists expatriated them 
 were secured by liberal, nay, virtually republican 
 charters. Subject only to the appointment of a 
 governor on the part of the crown, every colony waa
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 J 
 
 ^^\ » & k CEAK8ERS LOWDi 
 
 C
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 practically a state within itself ; and it is a 
 tire fact that the very earliest assertion of legislative 
 i-ity on the part of the mother-country was 7 
 and 8 Will III. c. 22, which, however, only operated 
 
 rely l<y forbidding every col i ke laws 
 
 i nit to those of England. With such aspir- 
 ations and such institutions, the enterprising inha- 
 bitants of a new home could not fail to prosper ; 
 while tin ir prosperity was rendered more solid and 
 
 j- -lit by the comparative poverty of a region 
 where steady industry, in agriculture or in the 
 iishi srii s, was, as it were, a necessary of life. Under 
 these circumstances, the germs of political ind 
 enee were at work long before 1765; and it is not 
 i . a probability, but a fact, that the expulsion 
 of the dreaded power of France from Canada and 
 Louisiana, in 170.', was closely connected with the 
 troubles which so soon began, S « A H 
 British. 
 
 The colonisation of the West Indies, Guiana 
 included, wiii i at a glance in the appended 
 
 table of American Governments, 
 
 It may 1 1, in conclusion, that the whole of 
 
 A. is now in the hands of European races, excepting 
 only (1 1 Araucania to the south of Chili, 
 
 and the African republic of llayti, otherwise known 
 J I ipaniola or St Domingo, the oldest among the 
 colonies of Spain. 
 
 \ — The architectural remains, 
 to which we have already alluded in connection with 
 a general estimate of aboriginal civilisation, are to 
 be found in each of the grand divisions of the new 
 continent. To begin from the north. That portion 
 of the United States which lies between the Appa- 
 lachians and the Rocky Mountains, presents in 
 groups at once the oldest and the rudest monuments 
 imes: the first group extending from the 
 of the Alleghany to the waters of the Missouri; 
 the second occupying the Mississippi Valley, \ 
 
 : and the third stretching from South 
 Carolina to Texas. These several groups, apparently 
 with very little difference among t! consist 
 
 of numberless mounds, and circumvaUationa of earth 
 and stone— 1500 of the latter, and 10,000 of the 
 former, being said to stud Ohio alone. The erections 
 themselves range from 5 to 30 feet in height; while 
 
 eas enclosed — generally of some symmetrical 
 
 . such as circle or ellipse, rectangular parallelo- 
 gram or regular polygon — vary from twenty to forty 
 
 U among a few of greater extent, 
 Arkansas is stated to embrace a square mile. The 
 
 .vallations, moreover, seem generally to con- 
 the mounds ; and sometimes a smaller circum- 
 vallation is surrounded by a larger one. Whether 
 these colossal structures were intended for worship 
 or for defence, it is impossible to decide; more prob- 
 ably, 1 icy were of a military character, 
 provided, as they ordinarily Were, with cisterns for 
 water. But, whatever their origin, I 
 interest from the analogous fact, that, within the 
 Bame territorial limits, have been dug up vases of 
 
 aware or copper in elegant forms, pi] 
 
 ■ I ed with human heads of the typ 
 ing aborigines, or with those of bh omestic 
 
 utensils, personal ornaments, hater 
 lastly, weapons of copper or mica, or shell or obsidian. 
 — The architecture ntralandSoi 
 
 are at once of more modern origin and more elaborate 
 character, and D th the 
 
 cyelopeau ruins in Italy and Gre Uniformly in 
 
 tile pyramidal style — a style likely enough to be 
 
 nous in a region of earthquakes— they are 
 composed of blocks generally huge, and sometimes 
 enormous ; those in the walls of Ti ihuanaco in 
 Bolivia being equivalent to cubes of about 16 feet 
 each way. Between those of South A. and Central 
 
 A., however, there are diversities as well as resem- 
 blances. Those of South A., situated, as they are, 
 within the native limits of Peru, and r f rred, as 
 they must be, to its closing era under the Incas, 
 leek beyond the Spanish conquest more 
 than 300 or -ioo years : the principal ruins are those 
 
 Of Tiahuanaeo, already mentioned; of a temple on 
 an island in Lake Titicaca ; of another edifice of the 
 kind at Fachacamac, not far from Lima; and of the 
 and mausoleums of the royal race. Those 
 of Central A., again, are reckoned to be considerably 
 more ancient, reaching live or six centuries further 
 back, and being partly the work of the Aztecs, 
 whom the Spaniards conquered, and partly i 
 
 whom the Aztecs had themselves supplanted, 
 Nor U the fact altogether without significance, that, 
 in the two more southerly divisions of the continent, 
 those mysterious records of the past are generally 
 i] in di relopment in proportion as they are 
 anterior in age; those of Central A., as a whole, 
 of South A. ; and, again, within 
 Central A. itself, the earlier of Oaxaca, 
 
 Guatemala, and Yucatan, eclipsing the later ones of 
 Mexico Proper, While attempting, in the light of 
 these remains, to appreciate 
 we cannot fail to be struck rather with their magni- 
 
 Front and back of a stone idol found at Cc pan, in 
 Central America. 
 
 rude than with their beauty, rather with the evidence 
 of despotism in the ruler than with traces of skill in 
 dine us infinitely more 
 rallel than Windsor C i or Westminster 
 Hall. 1 idiary 
 
 ivhitecture. lead to a more favourable infer- 
 K- rude and clumsy, and some- 
 times gr. I hideous. The only safe eonclu- 
 that. in the new world as in the old, 
 lion; some 
 of them confessedly hi her than one could have 
 of the useful metals, 
 and the nine I utt r - of burden. 
 Nor has . \, u this conclusion any i 
 ,„, the communities at large. Stray 
 visitors of a higher type might have produced all the 
 phenoir ra precisely such as appear to have 
 i in the traditions both of Mexico and Peru. 
 Otology.— tint geology of the new world pi
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 some remarkable contrasts to that of the districts 
 old world which have supp] 
 
 Bcation. Ximh.' of th 
 in the enormous extent of country 
 one formation occupies, and that without interrup- 
 
 It has long I n noticed that the rock-strnc- 
 
 i varied than that ol conl 
 
 and thus it is that th 
 I nt compelli 
 
 acquainted with geology. A journey of a few hours 
 bo ti traveUi r racks which, as 
 their iiiiin ral and fossil content •, are 
 different. In A., on the other hand, one may travel 
 fur days oi i belon 
 
 American strati ten from the Atlantic 
 
 west b i. 'I hey have, on the 
 
 whole, been subjected to tew disturbinj 
 as is evidenced bythe ab i luntain- 
 
 range, except the Appalachians, cast of the 
 Mountains. The rocks of Britain, from thi 
 position and variety, have been, so to speak, the 
 'primer' and 'pocket manual' of this science, and 
 will always continue to I the ■ ■ . ' of the 
 
 iiit should he desire to peruse t! 
 ' folios' that contain the 
 
 history, in i and natural vastneBS, he must 
 
 betake himwlf to the new world. 
 
 It is not many years since attention v.-as first 
 I I " An ) ,-, l.ut during the short 
 
 time that has in'. progress has been very 
 
 remarkable. This has resulted from the appoint- 
 ment of a geological fin connection with nearly 
 every province of the United States, from the 
 vigorous operations of the Canadian survey under 
 Sir W. E. Logan, and from the < fcions of 
 
 arctic explorers, whose frequent visits to these 
 
 i of the ill-fated Franklin hai 
 plied d isition of their natural b 
 
 Humboldt, though the first, is yet the most u 
 ant of South Am rvers. TI 
 
 facts recorded bj i ■■ been confirmed and 
 added to by t cent travellers. Data have been thus 
 supplied to form au approximate estimate of the 
 geological structure of this portion of the American 
 continent. 
 
 The names of North American observers are 
 
 almost past reckoning, yet the various systems may 
 
 be said to It: pen by tour i 
 
 observers —Morton for the Cretaceous, Conrad for 
 
 rtiary, Hall and tli" New York geologists for 
 
 lie, and the Professor for the 
 
 iniferous strata ami the Appalachians. 
 
 In the followi: '.etch of this subject, 
 
 we can do nothing more than at the various 
 
 formations, and must refer for details to the articles 
 under tie' different divisions of A. 
 
 The oldest strata are a range of Cky.-TALUNK 
 Rocks which, in North A., occupy an area tint 
 extends from the northern shores of Lake Su] 
 and the banks of the St Lawrence, north-west to the 
 Arctic Ocean, and lies between the line of minor 
 lakes (Slave, Winnipeg, &c.) and Hudson's Bay. The 
 average width of tins area is about 200 miles, and its 
 length from Lake Superior to its termination on tie. 
 ..f tin- Arctic Sea is more than L600 miles. The 
 rocks are chiefly gneiss, with granite and trap. They 
 form a flat plateau, very little el. svi t id above the 
 surrounding coimtry, and only in the Copper Moun- 
 tains rising to the altitude of hills, the higl 
 which is 800 feet above the sea-level. In this 
 immense plain we have an example of the great 
 characteristic of American geology — the te 
 operation of an upheaving force, exerted over a 
 area, with limited and regulated intensity, and 
 constancy of direction. This scries of rocks stretches 
 over nearly the whole of the eastern portion of 
 
 ling from the northern shores to 
 
 Qu mouth of lie- I.i Plata, being, however, hiddi o Ni 
 
 ii by its alluvial di 
 
 i . n ..i tli.' 
 
 and Rocky Mountains, and the plains oi 
 
 :i A. In the central district, in which wi 
 
 i!i. in, they dip east and west under the 
 
 Siluria Tiny are them elvi free from 
 
 superincumbent beds, even in the 
 
 they formed dry land ; and ever since, 
 although subject, like the rest of tli.' world, to 
 ii. m, it has apparently held its plac 
 iful stability, for it is now, as probably then, 
 level of the sea. 
 On i exists, as we have 
 
 I Iiat on the eastern side, 
 m's Bay, has a low and uniformly 
 swam] : the strata are hid by supi 
 
 fly boulder clay or drift, large boulders 
 
 from which are scattered along the shore. The 
 Silurian rocks under which tli i ryi I dline strata dip 
 on their we ;, cover a Large extent of the 
 
 North ' i is continent. Tiny have been traced 
 
 from Canada and New England, bounding tho 
 southern limits of the azoic rocks along the line of 
 , and extending in a broad band of 
 200 1 to the more ancient forma- 
 
 tion, ] a II they reach the Arctic Ocean, 
 
 rocks are on] d aveloped in Southern 
 
 A., on the easi i el i of the Andes. 
 
 'Hie Silurians have been divided into Lower and 
 and each of these contains three p 
 Beginning with the Lower, we have tirsl 
 
 ./, comprising beds of slate and 
 sandstone, and containing fossils representative of 
 the three great divisions of the animal kingdom — 
 Molluscs, Articulates, and Radiates. Next follows 
 
 nton Period, a period of limestones indica 
 sea of greater depth, and teeming with life, for some 
 
 lly of shells and corals. 
 ■■■. and rocks of a clayey and shaly 
 structure are. deposited, containing numb 
 tea and other fossils, and forming the /. 
 
 The Upper Silurian division also comprises three 
 epochs: 'l'i>' \d Clinton, composed oi 
 
 stones and shales ; then The Niagara and Ono 
 with limestones and saline rocks ; and, lastly, The 
 r Period, a richly fossiliferou 
 
 nicks. 
 
 The Silurian belli on their southern and western 
 
 borders dip under the Devonian rocks, which are 
 
 to a large extent north of lat. 72" N, 
 
 where they appear to r>st upon the azoic rocks. 
 
 They have been divided into live periods : Ori 
 
 i, and Cat/kill. 
 Vast beds of conglomerate overlie the Devonian 
 and form the basis of the CabBONE 
 strata. This formation covers large districts in New 
 
 . 1 Pennsylvania, and in the Ohio and 
 
 ippi valleys, with an enormous thickness of 
 limestone, shale, and other beds, which stdl con- 
 tinue parallel to the previous. At the close of tho 
 carbon. . Ii. t lie whole character of North A. 
 
 was altered by the formation of its mountain systems. 
 No hill higher than Copper Mountain seems to have 
 1 at this time, although the land occupied 
 much the same area, and had a similar outline as at 
 present. The Professors Rogers, having with perfect 
 success unravelled the contortions of the Appa- 
 lachians, have shewn that the Silurian, Devonian, 
 irboniferous strata, wdiich were originally laid 
 out in horizontal layers, were afterwards pressed on 
 to the north-westward, and folded up till the folds 
 were of mountain height. To similar causes do the
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Rocky Mountains and the Andes owe their origin 
 — only the directions of the forces are different. 
 
 The Appalachian fires have long been extinguished ; 
 tiny have, however, left traces of their former violence 
 in the highly metamorphosed .Silurian and Carboni- 
 ferous rocks of New York and Pennsylvania, I 
 were long supposed to be primary granite, &c. The 
 igneous agency, which at lirst raised the western 
 range, is still active at intervals throughout its 
 course. 
 
 There seems to have been a rest in the deposition 
 of sedimentary strata at this time. The only activity 
 was that of toe earthquake and the volcano. Two 
 whole formations — the Permian and Triassio — have 
 no place in the rock-structure of A. The lirst renewed 
 signs of life are discovered in the sandstones which 
 occupy the valleys on the eastern side of the 
 Appalachians. In these beds, which belong to the 
 Oolitic period, occur the tracks of buds and reptiles, 
 disco vi red and described by Professor Hitchcock. 
 
 Iii the • 'i:i:i'aci:his beds which follow, evidence is 
 given that the Mexican Gulf extended far up the 
 Missouri Valley, and sufficiently deep to cover Texas 
 and Nebraska with the beds which belong to this 
 formation. 
 
 The Tcrttatiy formation is developed as a band of 
 about CO miles, forming the south Baity of 
 
 North A., and stretching from North Carolina to the 
 peninsula of Yucatan, leaving the coast-line only 
 at the delta of the Mississippi Tin's formation 
 occupies a large amount of the surface of South 
 A. From Patagonia to Venezuela it can lie traced 
 occupying the space intervening between the base of 
 the Andes and the azoic rocks of Brazil and Guiana. 
 The older Silurian and ( 'arl loniferous deposits are not 
 found in the positions they occupy in the northern 
 continent; the gneiss, &o, dip directly under the 
 i s.— The valleys of the Amazon and the La 
 Plata, and the mouth of the Mississippi, contain 
 extensive All osits. 
 
 There only remain two post-tertiary beds, which, 
 however, .-in! of considerable importance — viz., the 
 Boulder CI";/, and the River Terraces or Loess, 
 containing the remains of the mastodon and of the 
 elephant. The boulder clay occurs in the country 
 north of lat. 40° N., and in Patagonia in South A. 
 Its characteristics are the same as that in the old 
 a still' day, containing boulders of all sizes, 
 somo being as much as one or two thousand tons 
 weight. The origin of this remarkable deposit — one 
 of tic most stupendous events in geological history — 
 is still involved in mystery. 
 
 ill- pampas of Southern A. are covered with a 
 
 of clay and sand, containing the bones of the 
 
 me [atherium and mylodon, genera allied to the sloths, 
 
 and of the glyptodon, a huge armadillo. I'm- details, 
 
 ■ii \\s. Rock; Moi stains. 
 
 Botany. On the discovery of A., Euro 
 regarded with astonishment its vegetable and 
 annual productions, so difl m all that 
 
 thej had en re. 'He. difi rence between 
 
 the productions of the old and new wo 
 
 most northern re 
 Around Hie north pole, a region having a flora and 
 fauna which may properly be di D I arctic, 
 includes portions of the three continents of i 
 Asia, and A. ; and many productions are common 
 to these three confine i hout this I 
 
 whilst those which are peculiar to one, are generally 
 represented in the otl i nearly allied. 
 
 In A.., this region extends to the northern shores 
 of Lake Superior. The polar hear haunts the arctic 
 regions of the old and new worlds alike; and further 
 south, in both, the b caver builds his dam. and is 
 pursued for his skin. Pine and birch are the chief 
 trees of all the moat northern forests, and struggle 
 
 on, dwarfed and stunted, towards the regions of 
 perpetual snow ; whilst the berries of different species 
 of Rubus and Vaccinium (bilberry, &c.) are the last 
 fruits which the soil offers to man during the brief 
 summer of the north — alike to the Laplander and 
 
 quimaux. 
 More to the south, the flora and fauna of A. 
 become more decidedly different from those of the 
 old world; yet the ditl'erence consists not so much 
 in the appearance of new families as in new species, 
 i to speak, those of Europe and of Asia. 
 The forests consist chiefly, as in these contini 
 pines, oaks, birches, and willows; but the pim 
 oaks, and birches, and willows, are not the same as 
 those which cover the plains and mountains eastward 
 of the Atlantic. The same remark applies to poplars, 
 elms, planes, maples, hazels, and other k a 
 
 and to plants of humbler growth, as roses, 
 brambles, strawberries, bilberries, &c, the pasture 
 
 . and the common flowers and weeds, ah 
 umbelliferous and cruciferous plants are compara- 
 tively rare. >,ot unfreijuently, also, forms oocur 
 moro completely different from those of the other 
 
 rs of the world, and these become more 
 numerous as we proceed southward ; although the 
 magnolias, which form so admirable a feature of the 
 flora of the Southern AUeghanies and other southern 
 parts of North A., have recently been found 
 to characterise that of the east of Asia and of the 
 Himalaya Mountains, where magnificent species of 
 rhododendron have also been discovered, rivalling 
 or excelling those which are natives of the I 
 States, and very different from the dwarf shrubs 
 which represent the same genus on the mountains of 
 Europe. It is remarkable that no true species of 
 heath is found in A., although many shrubs of the 
 same family occur, but none of them so strongly 
 exhibiting the social character, or covering 
 tracts, as tl do in Europe. Where the 
 
 climate begins to assume a tropical character, how- 
 ever, A. is distinguished by the abundance of the 
 Cacti (the prickly pear and its allies), which are 
 found on its plains, often forming the greater part of 
 their vegetation. The species of this order, so far as 
 is yet known, are exclusively American, alt! 
 some of them have been introduced into the v. 
 parts of the old world, and are now very common 
 in the south of Europe an < . The mountains 
 
 of Mexico are, to a large extent, clothed wii i 
 and pines, most of them, however, different not only 
 from those of the eastern continents, but even from 
 those of the more northern parts of A. I he flora of 
 I hat of Asia and Africa in its 
 
 although these also are with few exc 
 
 nt in species; and the species are more 
 abundant than in part of the world. It 
 
 i like the 
 South A. scarcely exist elsewhere. The forests of 
 
 I test parts of South A. produce also many 
 remarkable trees of other kinds, among which may 
 be mentioned the b ies of the order Liri.lhidacece 
 (q. v.), one of them known as the cannon-ball tree, 
 id all of i hi in producing huge fruits, with thick hard 
 shells, which are often used for domestic puri 
 whilst within the shell of a particular species are 
 packed together the well-known Brazil Nuts (q, v.) 
 of our shops. In the waters of the same region baa 
 u discovered the Victoria Regia, the 
 most magnificent of water-lilies, and for the growth 
 of which, hot-houses containing ponds of water have 
 been erected in our own country. The for 
 this part of A. are so dense and full of under 
 and the trees so bound together by lianas or twining 
 plants, that they arc in many places impenetrable) 
 and the animals which inhabit them either find 
 their way amoug the branches, or by narrow 
 
 203
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 paths, which thi The 
 
 i plains of South A., like those of North 
 v.. hi general, much of a 
 Part oi the elevated regions of the Cord 
 within the i irkably chai 
 
 by the pri ■•. v. Inch form its 
 
 principal bo1 inical feature, and yield the celebrated 
 b irk. In Mill more eli rated ■ 
 ; i Cal laricB give a i t to :i 
 
 ition otherwise very similar t.i that ol 
 in it -i general character, and con! unin : i a 
 gentians, and many other plants o common 
 
 in the old world. The Bora of t'hili presei 
 
 resemblance to that of 
 New Holland and New Zealand. An -l.< 
 now not unfrequent in our pie rnnds, appears 
 
 as a representative of the pines; and its 
 afford a large pari of the food of the natives of the 
 district in which it abounds Towards the Strait 
 of Magellan, vegetation again assumes forms 
 similar to those of Europe. The forests coi 
 great part of peculiar Bpecies of beech. Barb 
 different from those of other parts of the world, but 
 very nearly i . , . particularly 
 
 dant; and with them occur brambles, saxifrages, 
 gentians, primroses, &e. There are also vegetable 
 productions very different and peculiar, 
 Winter's bark, which has obtained some reputation 
 as a medicine. From this region are derived not a 
 few of the fuchsias now SO familiar an ornament 
 ihouses, and cottage windows in 
 
 in, and which are exclusively American. 
 Maize is one of the most important of I 
 productions of A. It is the only cultivated grain of 
 American origin; it was in cultivation before the 
 discovery of A. by Europeans, by whom, however. 
 its value was soon recognised, and it has now b 
 an important crop in climates suitable for it in all 
 quarters of the world. The other grains b 
 been introduced into A. by Europeans, with the 
 sugar-cane, the banana and plantain, coffee, cotton, 
 flax, and many other plants nov generally cultivated 
 both in the tropical and ten i is. The 
 
 yam is regarded as amongst its native productions, 
 common to its tropi J i oris with those of other 
 quarters of the world. Tobacco is a native produ - 
 tion of A., the cultivation and use of which extended 
 from it to the old world, and rapidly became pre- 
 valentan mankind. (It is indeed 
 
 i : ome that there is a i peci s of t 
 indigenous to the furthest cast; but this, and the 
 
 in of its use there before it was made known 
 from A., are still involved in uncertainty.) But of all 
 the vegetable productions of A., the potato is the 
 most important and useful. We owe to it also the 
 Jerusalem artichoke; and it produ I other 
 
 plants, valuable for their roots and tubers, as the 
 arracacha, the melloco, &c, the ■ of which has 
 
 ly yet extended beyond th 
 With them may he men which is 
 
 not a grain (the seed of a grass), but the Beed of a 
 
 ng the 
 seeds of the eei 
 
 Bively cultivated on the high table ■ ■■ Chili and 
 Peru. Tapioca, arrow-root, cocoa, vanilla, pimenta 
 ■ ' r. and < enne pepper, are among 
 
 itive productions of the tropical parts of A. 
 The Agave (ij. v.) or American aloe, valu, 
 for its iilji-e and it b nue common 
 
 warm parts of Europe, and in similar climates 
 in other quarters of the globe. The pine-apple is a 
 native of tropica] A., although now natural 
 nearly so, in other fcro 
 
 and the West Indies produce also many other fine 
 fruits, among which are the guava, dill, rent species 
 of anona or custard-apple, and of granodilla or pas- 
 
 si. hi llowcr. — The forests of North A. yield much 
 valuable timber, chiefly consisting of different kinds 
 
 of oak and pine. The Mack walnut and hickory of 
 
 the 1 > mucl med. The 
 
 nei bl ing parts of the mainland 
 
 |\ ; and li. .in Hi., same iv ""ii | 
 
 I, one ni the nmst useful of dyewoods. The 
 
 ol South \. produce many valuable 
 
 , of which perhaps the most deserving 
 
 of notice are the I . (q. v.) or iilbiri. and 
 
 the Mora. Brazil wood and Pernambuco wood are 
 
 ' ... most remarkable 
 
 productions oi tins region is the ( low-tree (q. v.), the 
 
 many properties in common 
 
 with milk, and is used instead of it. The milky 
 
 juice of i other tn opical A thickens into 
 
 caoutchouc. — Different parts of .South A. produce 
 . i. v.) or Paraguay Tea, a species of boll 
 of which possess properties similar to those of 
 tea an. ; 1 afford a beverage whi 
 
 sively i I yet an article of export to 
 
 of tli" weld; and the Coca (q. v.), a 
 shrub oi which the leaf has been, from 
 
 I I,, the In. bans as a narcotic. 
 
 Zoology. In the animal bur .1 as in the 
 
 vi d and new to Eur 
 
 when they in fcfo ca> Set here also 
 
 the difference fr the productions of Europe is not 
 
 ; as in South Africa or Australia. Ln North 
 
 A., many of the animal plants, of Europe 
 
 ited by others of the same genera or 
 
 A few are i i to 1 old and the 
 
 new world; and in some which arc now r. 
 
 iically different, the difference is not so great 
 
 as readily to attract the notice of unscientific 
 
 rs. North A. has iis elk and its deers, its 
 
 oxen (the bison, calbd buffalo in the United stabs, 
 
 and thei i (the Rocky Mountain 
 
 ne of them 
 : for their fur), mice, ra wea I . 
 bats, r b tdger , fo ce i, « olves, and 
 
 I which are 
 
 the puma and the lynx. The tore power- 
 
 ful and dangerous than any other of the 
 
 Is of the new world, and the only very for- 
 midable I prey whi.h it produces, inhabits 
 th" tropical ton ts of South A. The warm parts of 
 Smith A. produce the great tapir, | loths, 
 ant-eaters, ai .; but the elepl 
 
 ■ iiibtiiius, and boar of the old 
 world, have no more nearly allied 
 
 The luna and it a , ami og which is the 
 
 alpaca. liar to South A., inhabiting 
 
 Andes of < Inli and Peru. I If the animals of the old 
 
 the most, nearly allied to them is the c 
 which is entirely wanting in the in W ; as WS 
 
 I ith all its congeners), until it was 
 
 introduced by Europeans— a sight of wonder and 
 ir to the M id Peruvians who first 
 
 found themselves oppo ed to Spanish cavalry, but 
 now thoroughly n d, and roaming in vast 
 
 multitudes on the South American plains. Th 
 
 of Columbus; it existed 
 
 in different varietii domesticated animal, and 
 
 me difficult] mcerning the origin of 
 
 ties as when those of the 
 
 old wo Id re considered. The chinchil 
 
 valuable for its fur, is a small quadruped, peculiar to 
 
 be i b of C • • opossums of North A 
 
 the first known of marsupial quadrupeds — i. e., 
 
 a pouch for their young -and are 
 
 described as objects of great curiosity by the earlier 
 
 writers on the new world and its productions. 
 
 .Monkeys arc numerous in the warm parts of the 
 
 lew world as well as of the old, and of many 
 
 species ; but they are not only of different species
 
 :>
 
 AMEnrrw. 
 
 from those of Asia and Africa ; tiny form a different 
 section of the monkey family. There are do 
 resembling the orang-outang or chimpanzee, and no 
 baboons; but all of the American monkeys have 
 long tails, and many of them prehensile tails, the 
 
 of the 
 old world. The absence of cheek-pouches is another 
 character of the American monkeys. 
 Among the birds of A. a: ' 
 
 me family, vultures {am 
 condor of tl 
 
 * of many kinds (of which the mocking-bird 
 may be mentioned as a species particularly interest- 
 fcings, warbl 
 1 are identical in 
 
 with those' of Europ i or of Asia. F< w things in the 
 natural history of North A. are more remarkable 
 than its multitudinous Hocks of frig* ons. There are 
 I partridge. Of the large 
 gallinaceous birds, the first place in importance most 
 be assigned to the turkey, now so common in a 
 domesticated state in Europe, although in a wild 
 i< has almost disappeared from great part of 
 its native regions. Alectors and curassoes arc large 
 gallina rico, Guiana, and other 
 
 parts of A. Parrots abound in the tropical forests, 
 and although only one species extends northward 
 into the United States, yet in South A., birds of 
 i amily range to the southern extremity of the 
 nt. Humming-birds are peculiar to A., and 
 are found not only in its tropical but in its tern; 
 regions, of numerous species, and many of them of 
 dazzling beauty, passing like bees from flower to 
 flower, and often constituting a characteristic feature 
 of the scenes in which they abound. Toucans and 
 aracaris are among the other kinds of birds peculiar 
 to A., and are found in South A. alone. Swans, 
 eeese, and ducks, with other waterfowl of many 
 kinds, exist in great numbers in North A., and in 
 the warmer parts the brilliant colours of the flamingo 
 enliven some of the coasts. 
 
 Serpents are numerous. Among them are boas, 
 remarkable for their great size. Rattlesnakes, the 
 most venomous and dreaded of the serpent tribe, 
 are peculiar to A. Alligators abound in the 
 rivers of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. 
 Turtles are caught in great numbers in the 
 Indian seas, and ft turtles abound is 
 
 tropical rivers. The bull- frog is a native of 
 I I sited States, remarkable for the loud noise 
 which it makes, ami which those who have been 
 accustomed to it from their childhood learn to 
 
 itewith all that is pleasant iii nature. Tl 
 and rivers of A. abound in lish, of which many arc 
 
 ion family, the common salmon 
 found as far south as M N. lat. and some arc of the 
 sturgeon f ' : ' ■■ cod-fisheries of the Bank of 
 
 Newfoundland and of the coasts of Xova Scotia are 
 unequalled in productiveness; and herrings, and 
 other species of the herring family, are taken in 
 cumbers in the same seas. 
 
 Some rievously infested by mos- 
 
 quitoes and other insect tribes, the vast numbers of 
 which are extremely annoying, so that son i pi toes 
 on the banks of tropical rivers are rendered almost 
 uninhabitable. Ants and termites, or white ant", 
 are very abundant in some parts of South A. Many 
 Id bees are found in the Brazil, 
 
 some of them very productive of honey; but the 
 common hive bee was unknown in A. till it was 
 
 introduced from Europe, ft has now become natur- 
 alised, and is found in the forests far beyond the 
 settlements of white men. The cochineal insect of 
 the opuntia is a native of Mexico and Central A., 
 and the plant on which it feeds has loner \ioe-ti culti- 
 vated there and in the West Indies for its sake. 
 
 Pi ' Divitriong. — The following are the chief 
 
 political divisions of America, each of which will 
 
 cribed in its proper place. In North A., 
 
 strict^ 1 so called, are | \.. British A. a; 
 
 commonly understood, i I part 
 
 rico. In i lentral A. . 
 Mexico, Central A., in its political sense, compris- 
 ing Guatemala, San Salvi lor, Honduras, Nicaragua, 
 and Costa liica ; and, lastly, a .small portion of 
 Granada. In South A. are New 
 
 Granada; thence along the Pacific are Ecuador, 
 Peru, Chili, and aboriginal Araucania; while round 
 by Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, the Atlantic 
 i dos Ayres, Uruguay, Brazil, Guiana, 
 and Venezuela — the i ng occupied by 
 
 Bolivia, Paraguay, and the Argentine Confederation. 
 ; Indies consist of the Bahamas, 
 the i In ater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles. 
 
 1 he annexed tables, from the A ' 'utanac 
 
 for 1859, give the states of America, with their areas 
 and populations. 
 
 1. Governments of North Amen 
 
 
 Are* hi 
 
 
 
 GoYcrnmcnt*. 
 
 HUM. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Capuals, 
 
 I lanlab. Araericaccrccolnd; 
 
 
 9,400 
 
 ■■rifelS. 
 
 FliIK'll PoBSS -n , 
 
 118 
 
 L'. Q 
 
 St Pierre. 
 
 Russian America, 
 
 
 
 hangyl. 
 
 New Britain, "i 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 York! - 
 
 Canada .a •■ it, 
 
 
 
 147,832 
 
 999,847 
 
 1 Toront i. 
 bee. 
 
 Canada East, 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 New Bra i 
 
 - - ■ 
 
 
 27,700 
 
 200,000 
 
 Prederlckton. 
 
 Nova Scotia, &&, 
 
 pq 
 
 
 18,746 
 
 . 
 
 Halifax. 
 
 Prince Ed's, [aid., 
 
 
 2,134 
 
 1 
 
 tteTn. 
 
 NnwISnnndl&nd, J 
 
 ^ 
 
 57,100 
 
 ISO i' 1 
 
 St John's. 
 
 British Columbia, 
 
 213,500 
 
 . 
 
 Ft. Langley. 
 
 United 8. of America, 
 
 3,306,834 
 
 23,191,876 
 
 ■\\ asbingion. 
 
 United s. of .Mexico, 
 
 1, 038,865 
 
 . 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 San Salvador, 
 
 ,. . ,. 
 
 
 ' i>equc. 
 
 i.i, . . 
 
 44, 
 
 
 Granada. 
 
 Honduras, . . . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 mala, . • 
 
 
 
 temala 
 
 Costa Rica, . . 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 S.in J 
 
 Mosquitia, 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 rldS. 
 
 Honduras (Brit, colony), 
 
 
 : 
 
 Balize, 
 
 Total, . 
 
 7,779.218 
 
 35,774.498 
 
 
 2. West Indian Gov n 
 
 GofernmciiU. 
 
 San 
 
 ' Duigo 
 
 
 IlllVli. 1 
 
 Dominica, J 
 
 .. '-Spanish, 
 Porto Rico, J * 
 
 V '- British, 
 lad, i 
 Windward Inland*— 
 es, • 
 Grenada, &<:•, 
 St Vincent, 
 Tobago, . 
 St Lucia, 
 Lnward inlands— 
 ■i. . 
 rrat, 
 StCnristpbr.&Anguilla, 
 Nevis, 
 
 Virgin Islands, . 
 Dominica, 
 Bahama islands, 
 Turk's Island, 
 Bermuda islands, 
 Guadalupe, fee. 
 Martinique 
 
 St Martin's V 9 
 
 St .Martin's S. Sd. <Duuh\ 
 
 Curaeoa, &o. t » v 
 Santa Cruz, &C, 
 Bt Thomaaj 
 
 St John's, 
 
 Stllartliulomew'fltSweJlib) 
 Total, 
 
 DU5, 
 
 Side, 1 1 ( 
 
 d. <Doteh\ 
 
 ( ■ ) 
 
 : II! 
 
 
 
 '.MiK. 
 
 Population. 
 
 11,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,007,624 
 
 
 
 5,466 
 
 
 2,00(1 
 
 tiJ,Jl!l 
 
 
 115,939 
 
 165 
 
 
 131 
 
 
 
 
 
 21,500 
 
 168 
 
 36,178 
 
 19 
 
 7.305 
 
 
 
 :<n 
 
 UMBO 
 
 137 
 
 1,097 
 
 291 
 
 22.469 
 
 5,4~ 
 
 27.519 
 
 4. ,i 
 
 3,400 
 
 47 
 
 14,INN> 
 
 934 
 
 134,544 
 
 
 ui,i4a 
 
 21 
 
 9^00 
 
 11 
 
 3.500 
 
 580 
 
 99,311 
 
 81 
 
 
 37 
 
 U.IKHI 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 9,009 
 
 ti.ua 
 
 3,669,917 
 
 Capital*. 
 
 ■ 
 
 "-.in I tomingo, 
 : 
 
 D in. 
 Spanish Town 
 
 i 
 Bridgetown. 
 
 Scarboro'. 
 
 ■ 
 
 St John's. 
 
 Bas-v-torrc. 
 Cbarlestown 
 
 Roeseau. 
 
 Nassau. 
 
 Hamilton. 
 
 I 
 
 Port Royal. 
 
 Wilhemstadt. 
 
 Christ'nsUidt. 
 
 La Carcn3gc
 
 AMERICA, BRITISH-AMERICANISMS. 
 
 3. Governments of South America. 
 
 
 Ar*» In 
 
 
 
 Gorvrniatnu. 
 
 Siiuiro 
 
 uiu«. 
 
 1\ 1 ulillun. 
 
 C*J>lul». 
 
 la, RepubllO, 
 
 
 1,116,11011 
 
 Caraccas. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 085,000 
 
 Quito, 
 
 tlo. 
 
 
 
 1 liui;n.bae;i. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 2,4UO,OUO Lima. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 1,439,191 - 
 
 1 
 
 .'(«",< Mt 
 
 
 
 
 1 na. 
 
 
 
 
 < iriental 1 
 t 
 
 120,000 
 
 ' 
 
 ■ Mic, . 
 
 74,00(1 
 
 
 ■ "f, . 
 
 
 ; 
 
 Guiana [British), 
 
 78,0011 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 I'iir.m. 
 
 Galons. (French), . 
 
 
 30,001 
 
 Cayenne. 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 d Isl.inds, 
 ToUl, 
 
 ill of America, 
 
 
 a»: Tort Louis. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 AMERICA, Bbxtish. From the small 
 
 led in the general article above, British A., 
 
 . is now, in mere 
 
 extent, at least equal to the Amerii <■, and 
 
 superior to any otlicr state in the v 
 hemisphere — occupying, as Ith of 
 
 about 90' of long., and - with more or 1' 98 
 
 interruption, over a length of I touch- 
 
 ing, actually or virtually, every CO power 
 
 n. w world as in 
 the old, commands nearly every turning-point in 
 ion and c In co-operation with 
 
 1 I, NVv, [oundland is p ady 1" link I 
 
 two oontinenta by a submarine b 
 with the gulf and river of St Lawrence as i 
 'i A., in i 
 Nova Scotia, New Brui 
 sland, and the Canadas, has received from 
 an advantage in respect of the western trade, which 
 
 even the en " r hi ! 
 
 : Halifax, 
 the Bahamas, are so many guardians of the gulf- 
 '. as it is, v, porta of half 
 
 ,-v continent Jamaica forms the lirst link of a 
 the Caribbean sea; Trinidad fronts 
 tl Orinoco, which is connected by tie < 
 with the Amazon ; Wi '.ready 
 
 meiit i i another head, fin 
 
 . its own communication with the 'K 
 
 ;' and. lastly, at least on tie le, the 
 
 Falklands, with their Port Egmont, flank alii 
 
 ' [ate and the Strait of Magellan. R 
 in the Pacific, British .'.. Q influence which. 
 
 ilutely less, is perhaps relatively greater. At 
 the upper extremity of a coast, which, in 
 some splendid exceptions, is, as n idarly 
 
 deficient in harbours, NewColumb 
 work of islands from Vancouver's upwards, and its 
 succession of indentations or arm -., 1 ids 
 
 fair, more especially with its inexhaustible supplies 
 of magnificent timber, to become a congenial base 
 ms for sustaining the maritime greatness 
 of Britain. 
 
 AMERICA, RussiAJr.— Russian V i the remotest 
 
 m of the new world, being bounded, on the 
 side of British A., above, between the two bordering 
 oceans, ridian of 141° W., and below, down 
 
 to the parallel of ;i4° 40' N., by a conventional line 
 to be drawn at a distance of 30 miles from the con- 
 tinental coast. It was discovered by a Russian expedi- 
 tion conducted by Behring (q. v.), which sailed from 
 Kamtchatka in 1741. It is little better than a vast 
 hunting-ground, having, in this aspect, been long held 
 by the Imperial Pur Company, which differs, hov 
 but little from the imperial government itself. Its 
 
 only town, or rather village, worthy of the name, is 
 New Archangel, on the island of .Sitka. The most 
 
 i i ography ar 
 Wale-, on Behring's Str ' sonnd, Nor- 
 
 ton Sound, peninsula of Ala 
 Mount E ES in Si it. 
 
 AMERICA Spanish. — Spanish A., shrunk, ns it 
 is, into Porto Rico and Cuba, now belongs rather 
 ■ ry than to geography. For many years it 
 embraced absolutely the entire continent, having 
 Brazil, as Spain itself al 
 1. at a date prior to the intrusion of any 
 i oiropean settlement. But, boundless as it 
 was, it contained, from the beginning, tb 
 its ultimate and irremediabli 
 as hunters aft Is, disdained that 
 
 steady industry, which, to their English competitors, 
 ary of life ; while tl roountry, by 
 
 i I I] but its own actual D 
 
 from public employments, did nothing to prep 
 dependencies feir the rational use of that indi 
 enee which was sure at last to come. At the same 
 time, those very circumstances did tend to prolong 
 the subjection of Spanish A. ; for the colonics 
 their first motive for rebellion in their fidelity to 
 off the yoke of Spain 
 primarily on account of Napoli 
 
 tand VII. Similarly, Brazil, as I 
 
 a from French domination, 
 remained faithful to the House of Braganza. 
 
 AMERICANISMS are words and phrases current 
 in the United States of America, and not current in 
 
 id. These peculiarities are much more promi- 
 nent in conversation than in writing; indeed, m the 
 American writers that are usually consi 
 cal, it is difficult to detect anything of the kind. 
 The number of absolutely new words introduced 
 iuto tie I nguage in America is remarkably 
 
 small. As an instance may be !.i utioned < 
 for a secret political assembly. This is a corn 
 of calk-house, a calker's shed in Boston, where 
 
 triota before the revolution I 
 The term 5 
 corruption of the French Anglais) is another. The 
 great body of A. consist in giving an unusual sense 
 
 ting words : as clever, in the sense of amiable, 
 
 tart for clever; wagon for a very light kind 
 of carriage ; book-store for bookseller's shop ; 
 for wW k for a small river, instead of a 
 
 small arm of the sea. 
 
 al divisions of the Union have their 
 characteristic peculiarities. Thus, in the New- 
 t's — Yaukeeland proper — ugly is used 
 for ill-natured; friends for relations (so used also 
 in Scotland) ; and guess for a great variety of things 
 — to think, presume, suppose, Aic. This use of 
 is confined to New England; the inhabitants of New 
 and of the Middle States generally i 
 in the same way ; while those of the Southern 
 States reckon ; and those of the Western 
 
 ate. Several words current in the Middle 
 
 are of Dutch origin, as loafer for a vaga- 
 bond, from the Dutch looptn, to run; and 
 for a head workman or employer. The Southern 
 States have fewer peculiarities than any of the 
 other divisions. In the Western States, again, there 
 is hardly any recognised standard of speech, and in 
 some districts 'it would hardly be an exaggeration to 
 say that every prominent person has his own private 
 vocabulary.' The verb to fix is made to do duty for 
 expressing every conceivable kind of action. The 
 
 use of this word is common all over the Union, 
 but in the West the abuse is carried to the extreme. 
 Help, in the sense of servant, is common to the 
 West and to New England, but is nearly unknown
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI— AMERSFOORT. 
 
 in the Middle States. The well-known phrase 
 go a-hcad is a coinage of the West ; it is sufficiently 
 expressive of the leading characteristic of the 
 American people. /'• in a subject, for 
 
 ' well informed,' is one of a clas3 of metaphors indic- 
 i the prominence of mercantile pursuits. 
 The tendency to the use of slang is excessive' in 
 America, especially in the Western States. ' Every 
 state, every city has its own flash vocabulary ; but 
 it is in the political world that this tendency to 
 cant phrases inost develops itself. Every new 
 
 I tarty, every new modification of an old party, is 
 lound to have at least one new name, cither assumed 
 
 If, or attached to it by its opponents.' 
 A variety of causes have been enumerated to 
 account for the existence of those deviations from 
 standard English, such as, the influence of the 
 ludian languages; the various tongues spoken by 
 settlers from Europe other than English : tl 
 nal provincial peculiarities of portions of the I 
 
 a, &c. But even supposing the Language of 
 the United States were at this moment i;i 
 respect identical with that of England, and to be 
 henceforth unaffected by the importation of foreign 
 elements, the complete identity could not '• 
 pected to continue long. Not only do new circum- 
 stances and wants make new terms necessary, and 
 modify the application of old, but those changes 
 of structure which constitute the organic growth of 
 every living tongue, are evolved more or less rapidly 
 according to the industrial and political activity of 
 
 that speak it To complain, then, that the 
 in America, or in any of the British 
 aid exhibit deviations from the standard 
 of the mother country, is 03 unreasonable as to 
 complain that an animal should exhibit changes in 
 its coat or its habits when removed from one 
 climate to another. Nothing is more desirable for 
 the interests of humanity than that the language 
 
 i by all the sections of the great Angli 
 race should continue to be substantially one. All 
 wanton innovations are to be reprobated ; but when 
 a great and diversified community adopt ge 
 any new term or mode of expression, it is to be 
 presumed that the cause lies deeper than any that 
 can be controlled by criticism. 
 
 As {he Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin do not 
 
 1 one-third of the whole population of the 
 United States, it seems wonderful that the E 
 language should have held its ground so well — that 
 it should not have been completely corrupted, or 
 
 in some places extruded by other tongues. Y- 1 
 
 is apparently no danger of this. The original 
 
 I of New York has disappeared, with the 
 
 turn of a very few stray words; and although 
 
 h is still spoken in one-half of the city i 
 Orleans, it has been preserved at the expense of the 
 listing themselves and losing their due 
 influence. The same is the case with those islands 
 dug population that still hold out 
 in Pennsylvania and elsewhere ; and, what is remark- 
 able, the proximity of these Germans has no sen- 
 
 ■ Elect upon the language of th 
 
 ■lire ; while, on the other hand, 
 the influence of the English is reducing the la 
 of the Germans to a corrupt patois, swarmii 
 
 h words. See The English Language in 
 in the Cambridge Essays for 1S.">5: also 
 
 tfs Dictionary of Americanisms, New York, 
 new ed 185S. 
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI, a naval astronomer, 
 from whom America accidentally received its name 
 
 born at Florence. March 9, 1461. His father 
 was a notary. The education of A. was intrusted 
 to his uncle, Giorgio Antonio A i monk 
 
 and apparently a man of superior enlightenment. 
 
 The youth made but indii ress in his 
 
 Latin grammar, though he shewed great aptitude 
 and bking for natural philosophy, astronomy, and 
 
 phy — at that period, f avourite objects of 
 study, on account of their commercial importance. 
 It is not precisely ascertained whi n he tirst went 
 to Spain. We find him there, however, in 
 
 I in mercantile pursuits. He was at the 
 head of a large Florentine lirm in Seville in 
 when Columbus wa3 making preparations for a 
 second voyage to the new world. The success of 
 the great discoverer inflamed A. with a passion for 
 discover} - , and having abandoned ' business,' he 
 sailed from Cadiz on the 20th May 1499, in the 
 
 lion command' d by Admiral Hojeda, and, 
 
 . voyage of thirty-seven days, arrived at that 
 portion of the continent of America now • 
 Cumana, explored the Bay of Paria, lyi 
 the isle of Trinidad and the mainland, and some 
 hundreds of miles along the coast. He returned in 
 the autumn of the same year, but commen 
 second voyage under Admiral Pinzon in December, 
 which resulted in the discovery of a crowd of small 
 islands on the south of the Gulf of Mexico. He 
 was now allured by promises into the service of 
 Emanuel, king of Portugal, and undertook two 
 other voyages with Portuguese ships ; the first 
 on the [ay 151)1, and the second on the 
 
 10th of May 1503. His purpose was to sail west- 
 ward, in hopes of discovering a passage to Malacca, 
 the extreme point of discovery in the east. He lost 
 one of his ships ; and it was only after encounter- 
 
 at perils that the other five four - 
 All Saints' Bay, on the coast of Brazil, The monarch 
 lers that some remains of the ship Victoria, 
 in which A. made his last , should be sus- 
 
 : in the cathedral of Lisbon, but fulfilled 
 none of the promises which he had made. A. 
 sequently returned to Spain, and in thi 
 succeeded in obtaining the office of piloto-major. 
 He died at Seville on the 22d of February 1512. 
 
 character oi A. V. hi 1 with 
 
 a great deal of unmerited obloquy. B 
 accused of endeavouring to claim the honour of 
 discoveries which he never made, and ha 
 commonly regarded as an unprincipled adventurer. 
 Humboldt, however, 1 fully vini 
 
 him from such aspersions. He had a very i 
 
 knowledge of various brai 
 and it was on account of his superior attainments 
 in these that he was selected to accompany the 
 expeditions r.s naval astronomer. He was a 
 prompt and skilful inspector of the commissariat 
 whUe under his control ; vigorous, practical, and 
 severe in his demands for i 
 
 rt of the naval functionaries under him; 
 an earnest navigator and close frii I Iambus 
 
 in the last years of the ;_r at admiral's life. How 
 America came to I name from him is not 
 
 quite clear; but it is certain, from Humboldfs i 
 
 i. that A. himself had nothing to do with it. 
 The name of the new world probably came from 
 Germany. A selection from A.'s narrative of his 
 American voyages found U* way into that country. 
 Martin WaldseemUller of Freiburg in Baden trans- 
 lated it for a booksclli r 3 in Lorraine. As 
 the first account of the wonderful discover}-, it was 
 greedily devoured. Edit lition was printed 
 off, and, according to Humboldt, it was Wald- 
 seemUller who proposed that the new world should 
 be called America in honour of the author. Aft' r- 
 wards, this name was generally employed by 
 
 fphical writers, and even the Spaniards and 
 .uese adopted it. 
 AM BBSFi H >RT, an ancient town of the Nether- 
 lands, province of Utrecht. It is situated on the 
 807
 
 AMETHYST— AMMANATE. 
 
 Eem, which flows in t< > tlic Zuiderzee. There are 
 
 plantations in the district, and a 
 
 considerable trade i> carried on both in cotton and 
 
 :i and 
 ,\r. 1 ] mmunical with Amsterdam, 
 
 tint 24 miles, by means of 
 i 1 inrt of 
 
 1 red municipal privileges in 1259. 
 
 It was captured in 1483 by the Maxi- 
 
 milian, in 1672 by Montecuculi, and in 1785 by the 
 : :. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 A'.M BTHTST, .". varii iy of quartz (q. v.), d 
 from common quartz and rock-cr ly in its 
 
 lue or ptirplish violei colour— well 
 known ■ h is owing to the pre- 
 
 sence of a little peroxide of iron or 01 man 
 
 of tlr- most esteei niartz, 
 
 being comp bundant, it is mu 
 
 • to' the true gems. An 
 
 which often 
 
 very faint, and is frequently sum- 
 
 mits or 
 
 of A. are brought fro; 
 
 It is, a common mineral in Ehirop 
 
 occurs in many parts of Scotland. i 
 occurs 1 nterior of 1 
 
 and i:i 1 cavities in 
 
 rocks. Tli aid it to 
 
 rty of preventing intoxication, and persons 
 much addicted to drinking therefore wore it on 
 their necks. The name is d I 
 
 word which 
 
 mineral h that sometimes 
 called the . which is a variety of spinel 
 
 (q. v.) having an amethystine colour, and is a very 
 valuable gem. — False amethysts made .of glas3 or 
 union, and in general very coarse; 
 but a very perfect imitation can be, and 
 
 is m ide. 
 A'MHEBST, a sea-port of Tenasserim, on the 
 E. shore of the Bay of Bengal, in lat 16° -1' N"., 
 and long. 07 W E.. at the entrance of the 
 Marti' in. (xt 1826, thi having 
 
 I by the Burmese, A. was founded, 
 after a special survey of all the avail 
 the commercial capital, being named after the then 
 governor-general of India, and pro I to bean 
 
 asylum for the m rs, still su'.> 
 
 '1; but policy, 1 t aUke 
 
 have in some men , other- 
 
 wise commodious enough, labours under two serious 
 defects— difficulty of access, and exposure to the 
 Boutb-west monsoon. Even in trad.-, A. has been 
 distanced by Moul at lirst merely to 
 
 be the mditary station of the territory. Its experts. 
 however, are said to be considerable, con 
 chiefli from the upper basin of the river, 
 
 and partly of grain from Belu, an island at its 
 mouth. 
 
 A MHERSTBURG, a town on the river 1 1 
 which empties Lake St Clair into Lake Erie. It is 
 one of the oldest settlements in Upper Canada, being 
 named from Lord Amherst, who, By the 
 Montreal in 1760, completed what Genera] Wolfe had 
 ' ' n bee in 1759. It occupies the sou! 
 
 ityofthe province, the tnrning-point of climate 
 and character to the basin of the St Lawrence, the 
 spot where its waters, after having gained southing 
 from the 50th to the 42d parallel, suddenly assume 
 a direction which pretty uniformly carries them 
 back to their oritnlnal latitude above the island of 
 
 sti. Top. 1300. 
 AMI DOGEX is a substance procured Ly the 
 20s 
 
 action of the mi I il potassium on dry gaseous 
 ammonia. The latter contains one atom of mi 
 
 ims of hydrogen (Nil,), whilst A. 
 to two . mi ' ' very import- 
 
 ant cl ■• sod 
 
 1 a cumber 1 aces closely allied 
 
 of which, indeed, may bo 
 natural aim 
 
 AMIENS, an ancient city in the plain of Picardy, 
 and capital ni the department of Somme; it is the 
 [ a bishop and of a court of justice, and 
 has a citadel and fortifications. It posse 
 
 ' my, a theological seminary, an 
 indnsti public 
 
 llery, garden, and 
 
 1 institutions. Among 
 iblic buildings, the cathedral is a noble 
 , built in 1220, an 1 1 La master- 
 
 piece of Gothic architecture. Pet r the Hermit 
 A. has con 
 
 I, and cotton g Is. ribl 
 
 and car] I the place ov. irity chiefly 
 
 ■ Peace of A.,' e in this city, 
 
 , i .-i p Joseph Bonaparte, the Marquis 
 ra, ami Schimmelpennink, and 
 intend d to 1 puted poml 
 
 England, France, Spain, and Holland. r 
 land retained poasi 
 
 port at the Cape of 
 i ba k her col 
 public of the Seven Islands was 
 Malta h 1 to the order of 1 
 
 John; .Spain and Holland regained tlnir colonies, 
 with lb m of Trinidad and Ceylon; the 
 
 French quit Rome, Naples, and Elba; and 
 
 Turkey ■' • the 
 
 war. I with any 
 
 i and further 
 
 difficult i ration and obstin- 
 
 acy of the 1 id war 
 
 declared against Bonaparte in 18 '■'■■ 
 
 AM LET II. or HAMLETH, Prince of Jutland, is 
 said to have lived in the 2d c. b.c. According to 
 
 IS, he was the son o! 
 and Gerutti ■■ of Ins father by 
 
 his uncle Fengo, who married Gerutha, he 1 
 himself a fool his own life. .Saxo relates a 
 
 number of little t ; A., which are a 
 
 curious medley of sharp ami lively observation, and 
 apparent madness. We are told that, on one 
 
 that he was watched, he commenced to crow like 
 a cock and dance idiotically about the apartment, 
 untd b 1, hidden in a heap of straw, a 
 
 spy, in the person of one of F whom 
 
 he immedial d; he then so terrili 
 
 mother by bis reproaches, that she promised to aid 
 him in his intended revenge on his father's murderer, 
 and, according to the old chronicler, really did so. 
 Scandinavian traditions confirm the existence of a 
 prince of this name. A field is still pointed out in 
 Jutland with a tomb bearing the name of A. In the 
 vicinity of Elsinore is shewn the spot where the father 
 of A. v it' 1. Saxo himself does not men- 
 
 tion thi or circumstances of his death; but 
 
 H h translator says that be was murdered at a 
 banquet. Most of the 1 ..f Denmark 
 
 r the history of A. fabulous, but Midler thinks 
 is a substratum of fact in the old myth. It 
 is the source of Shakspeare's tragedy of J> 
 and thus possesses a perennial interest for all the 
 civdised world. 
 
 A M M AX A'TE, Bartoi.f.me'o, architect and sculp- 
 tor, born at Florence in 1511, died in 1592. He was 
 at first a pupil of Baccio Bandinolli, and afterwards
 
 AMMIANUS MARCELLENUS— AMMONIA. 
 
 of Sansovino at Venice. In 15.50, he married Laura 
 Battiferri of Urbino, a lady celebrated for her poetical 
 gifts. Pope Julius III. employed him in the decora- 
 tion of the Capitol, and Cosmo de Medici appointed 
 him his architect. His principal works are, the 
 statues which adorn the tomb of Sannazar at Maples, 
 the tomb of Cardinal de Monti at Rome, the bridge 
 of the Trinity and several fountains at Florence. 
 He also completed the Pitti Palace, commenced by 
 Brunelleschi, and ornamented the court with three 
 orders of columns, which were subsequently imitated 
 by J. de Brosse in the palace of the Luxembourg at 
 Paris. In the collection of architectural designs in the 
 Florence Gallery, there is one by A., exhibiting the 
 plans of different buildings, by which a city may be 
 rendered at once magnilicent anil convenient His 
 works have all a certain grandeur of character, 
 1, probably, from his early admiration of 
 Michael Angelo, but are somewhat marred by a 
 quaint mannerism. His bronzes are executed with 
 great delicacy. 
 
 AM M I A'XUS MARCELLI'NUS, a Roman his- 
 torian of the 4th c, was present in several campaigns 
 in Gaul, Germany, and the cast, and afterwards 
 lived at Rome, devoted to literature. Though a 
 Greek by birth, he wrote in Latin a history of the 
 Roman empire from 91 to 378 A.D., in 31 books, 
 of which 13, containing the years from 91 to 352, 
 are lost. This work, which commenced with the 
 accession of Nerva, may be regarded as a continuation 
 of Tacitus, and though the portions remaining have 
 many faults of style, they are valuable on account 
 of the author's love of truth, his careful descriptions 
 of countries, and events from personal observation, 
 and especially his remarks on Germany. After his 
 time, Latin ceased to be employed by any Roman 
 writer in the composition of secular history. The 
 best edition of A. M. is that by Wagner and Erfurdt, 
 in 3 vols. (Lap. 180S.) 
 
 AMMON, an Egyptian deity, styled Amun on 
 hieroglyphic monuments, was compared by the 
 Greeks with their supreme deity Zeus. The sacred 
 name of Thebes, A.'s city (' No- Amnion,' in the Old 
 Testament), was therefore translated into Greek by 
 Diospolis. In the temples of this town, his peculiar 
 residence, A. is represented as sitting on a throne, 
 holding the symbols of life and power, and wearing 
 a crown with a peculiar ornament of two feathers, 
 and a band falling behind and hanging down to his 
 feet He was especially the god of Thebes ; though 
 his temples are found in other places, as at Meroe, 
 and over the whole of Nubia and Libya. The name 
 Amun signifies the hidden, unrevealed deity, and, in 
 Egyptian mythology, he held the highest place. His 
 undefined character may serve to explain how other 
 deities were identified with A. After the eighteenth 
 dynasty, we find in hieroglyphics the name Ainun- 
 Ra frequently inscribed, indicating a blending of A. 
 with the sun-god Ra. Similarly, the representation 
 of A. with a ram's head shews the blending of him 
 with Kneph. The worship of A. spread at an early 
 period to Greece, and afterwards to Rome, where he 
 was identified with Zeus and Jupiter. Temples for 
 his worship were erected in Thebes (Bceotia), Sparta, 
 Megalopolis, and other places. 
 
 AMMON, Cnius. Fred., a German theologian, 
 born January 16, 17C6. died May 21, 1850, is chiefly 
 known by his work on tho Development of Christ 
 as a Universal Religion (4 vols., Leip. 1833 — 1840), 
 in which he argues in favour of such liberal 
 development of doctrine as may keep theology in 
 harmony with the progress of science. A. was a 
 leader of the Rationalist school. He was a man 
 of extensive learning, united with great industry 
 and earnestness, and was generally respected in 
 
 Saxony, where he resided. — His second son, Fked- 
 Ei:if k AUUURTW A., is well known in Germany as 
 an able physician, and the writer of several works on 
 practical medicine and surgery. 
 
 AMMO NIA, Hartshorn, or the Volatile Alkali, 
 was one of the few substances known to the chemistry 
 of the ancients ; being referred to by Pliny under the 
 name of vehement odour, which he evolved by mixing 
 lime with nitrum (probably sal ammoniac). It 
 derives its name A. from its being obtained from sal 
 ammoniac, which was first procured by heating 
 camels' dung in Libya, near the temple of Jupiter 
 Ammon. The atmosphere contains a minute quan- 
 tity of A, amounting to 210 — 237 parts in the 
 10,000,000,000 parts of air, which is equal to 1 
 volume of A. in 28,000,000 of air. It is likewise 
 present in rain-water in variable proportion. The 
 supply of A. to the atmosphere is its evolution 
 during the putrefaction of animal and vegetable 
 substances, during the vinous fermentation, and the 
 combustion of coal. It is likewise present in respired 
 air, and is therefore a product of the daily wear and 
 tear of the animal system. The principal source of A. 
 at the present time is the destructive distillation of 
 coal, as in gas-making. The materials which pass 
 over from the retort are partly uncondensable and 
 truly gaseous, and these are carried to our gas-jets, 
 and burned; but in other parts they are condens- 
 able, and are received during the purification of the 
 gas, as a mixed tarry and watery liquid. On allowing 
 this liquid to settle, the water portion, containing A., 
 can be separated, and, hydrochloric acid being added 
 to it, there is formed a compound of A. and hydro- 
 chloric acid, called chloride of ammonium, which can 
 be obtained dry, by evaporating the solution down 
 in shallow vessels. Pure A. is manufactured from 
 this impure chloride of ammonium by mixing it with 
 its own weight of slaked lime in a retort, and apply- 
 ing a gentle heat, when the A. as a ga3 passes over, 
 and is received in a vessel containing water. The 
 solubility of A. in water is very great, 1 volume of 
 water dissolving 670 volumes of ammoniacal gas, 
 increasing in bulk, and forming a liquid (liquor 
 ammonia; of the chemist and hartshorn of the shops), 
 which is fighter than water, its density beii 
 The solution of A. is transparent, colourless, and 
 strongly alkaline. In taste it is acrid caustic, and 
 in odour very pungent. Applied to the skin in a 
 concentrated form, it blisters. Exposed to the air, 
 the A. escapes, and the solution thus gets weaker, 
 and, reduced to —40° F, it freezes. As generally 
 obtained, even in the gaseous condition, it is in com- 
 bination with the elements of 1 atom of water, and 
 contains 1 of nitrogen, 4 hydrogen, and 1 
 (NH 4 0). Dry A. can be procured bypassing the 
 vapour of A., as ordinarily obtained, over fused 
 chloride of calcium, when the water is abstracted, 
 and true gaseous A. is left, having the composition 
 1 nitrogen, and 3 hydrogen (Ml j. Caseous A. 
 can be "liquefied under pressure and cold, and then 
 yields a colourless, clear, mobile liquid, with the 
 characteristic odour and other properties of A. much 
 intensified. A. combines with acids to form a class 
 of salts which are of considerable importance. Thus, 
 the crystallised sulphate of A. (HO,NH 4 0S0,) is 
 very extensively used as a top-dressing by farmers, 
 and is also mixed with manures where an increase of 
 ammoniacal matter is desirable. The chloride of 
 ammonium is also employed in agriculture ; likewise 
 largely by the Russian peasantry, as a condiment for 
 flavouring food in place of common salt 
 
 In medicine, the gaseous A. has been rarely used. 
 The solution of A. is employed as a means of rousing 
 the respiratory and vascular systems ; and of the 
 speedy alleviation of spasm. It is also used as a local 
 irritant and antacid. It is serviceable in dyspeptic 
 
 2U9
 
 AMMONIACUM— AMMONIUM. 
 
 complaints with preternatural acidity of stomach and 
 flatulence ; to produce local irritation or destruction 
 of certain parts, and to render comparatively harm- 
 leas the bites of poisonous animals, such as serpents 
 and insects. 
 
 Ammonium is a hypothetical metal, which is said 
 to consist of 1 volume of nitrogen with 4 of 1 
 gen. It has never been produced in an isolated 
 state ; but a singular amalgam of A. and mercury 
 may be formed, by subjecting a globule of mercury, 
 surrounded by a little water of ammonia, to the 
 action of the galvanic current : when the galvanic 
 y ceases, this amalgam i3 decomposed into 
 mercury, ammonia, and water. A. may likewise be 
 prepared by acting on an amalgam of sodium and 
 mercury with a solution of chloride of A. A portion 
 of mercury is slightly heated in a porcelain \ . 
 and pieces of sodium introduced, when the sodium 
 and mercury combine, and form an amalgam of 
 sodium and mercury, which is a semi-solid sub- 
 stance, and scarcely occupies more space than the 
 bulk of the mercury employed. If this be intro- 
 duced into a vessel containing a 
 strong or saturated solution of chloride 
 of A. (NH 4 C1), the chlorine combines 
 with the sodium (Na) of the amalgam, 
 forming chloride of sodium (NaCl), and 
 the A. unites with the mercury, form- 
 ing the amalgam of A. and mercury. 
 As the change referred to proceeds, 
 the amalgam increases in size many 
 times, and forms a spongy mass of 
 the consistence of butter, which rises 
 through the saline solution and floats 
 on the surface. The amalgam of A. 
 and mercury very readily decomposes, 
 and hence the difficulty of determin- 
 ing its exact composition. 
 
 AMMONI'ACUM, or AMMO'NIAC, a gum 
 resin, used in medicine on account of its stimulant 
 and discutient qualities, is obtained from Dorcma A., 
 a plant of the natural order UnibellijcriT, a native 
 of Persia — a perennial, about seven feet high, with 
 large doubly pinnate leaves. The leaves are about two 
 feet long. The whole plant is abundantly pervaded 
 by a milky juice, which oozes out upon the slightest 
 puncture, and which hardens, and becomes A. The 
 A. exudes from punctures made by an insect, which 
 appears in great numbers at the time when the 
 plant has attained perfection. Much of it is sent to 
 India, and it is generally imported into Britain from 
 Bombay, although sometimes from the Levant. It 
 occurs in commerce either in tears, or in masses 
 formed of them, but mixed with impurities. It is 
 whitish, becoming yellow by exposure to the atmo- 
 sphere, is softened by the heat of the hand, and has 
 a peculiar heavy unpleasant smell, and a nauseous 
 taste, at first mucilaginous and bitter, afterwards 
 acrid. It is not fusible, but burns with white crepi- 
 tating flame, little smoke, and strong smell.— It was 
 for some time erroneously supposed to be the pro- 
 duce of a species of Heracleum, the seeds of which 
 were found enclosed in it. — A similar substance is 
 obtained from Ferula Tinrjitana, an umbelliferous 
 plant, growing on light sandy soils in the north of 
 Africa ; and is said also to be obtained from F. Ori- 
 entails, a native of Asia Minor and of Greece. Both 
 these plants have branched stems, and very com- 
 pound leaves, somewhat resembling fennel. It 
 would seem that the A. of the ancients was the 
 gum resin of the Ferula, which has a more faint 
 odour and less powerful medicinal properties than 
 that of the Dorema. 
 
 A'MMONITES, a Semitic race of people, living 
 on the edge of the Syrian Desert : the descendants 
 210 
 
 of Ben-ammi, the son of Lot (Gen. xix. 3S). They 
 inhabited the country lying to the north of Moab, 
 between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok, i. e. the 
 desert country east of Gad. Their chief city was 
 Kabbatk-Ammon, to which the Greeks afterwards 
 gave the name of Philadelphia. The Israelites wero 
 often at war with them and their other Bedouin 
 confederates. Jephthah defeated them with great 
 daughter. They wero also overcome by Saul, David, 
 Uzziah, and Jotham ; but after the fall of the king- 
 dom of Israel (720 B. a), spread themselves in the 
 districts of Jud.'ea on the east of the Jordan. In 582 
 they were Bnbdued by the Babylonians. After the 
 captivity, they recommenced their feuds with the 
 Jews, but were conquered by Judas Maccabsus. 
 The intermarriages of Jews with the A., which had 
 been frequent, were prohibited by Nehemiah. The 
 chief deity worshipped by the A. was named Milcom, 
 who in his character seems to have resembled 
 Moloch. Justin Martyr affirms that in his timo tho 
 A. were still numerous. 
 AMMONI'TES, a genus of fossil shells, nearly 
 
 Ammonites : 
 
 1. Ammonites obtusns; 2. Section of Ammonites obtiuus, shewing tho 
 
 interior chambers and siphunclo ; 3. Ammonites nodosus. 
 
 allied to the recent genus Nautilus, being, like it, 
 chambered and spiral. The molluscous inhabitant 
 appears to have lodged in the last and largest cham- 
 ber of the shell, the spaces left behind as it increased 
 in size being successively converted into air-chambers, 
 and all connected by a tube (siphuncle), so that tho 
 animal could at pleasure ascend or descend in the 
 Sea ; whilst the transverse plates dividing the cham- 
 ive strength to the whole structure without 
 great increase of weight. A. have long been popu- 
 larly called Cornua Ammonis, from a fancied resem- 
 blance to the horns on scidptured heads of Jupiter 
 Ammon. They are found throughout tho entire 
 series of fossiliferous rocks from the transition strata 
 to the chalk. They abound in the cretaceous and 
 oolitic groups. Particular kinds distinguish particu- 
 lar formations, a circumstance which renders them 
 of particular interest and importance to the geologist. 
 The number of species is very great, considerably 
 above two hundred; and several genera have been 
 constituted, as Baculites, Hamites, Scaphiles, Tn, n ■■//- 
 lies, forming with Ammonites, the family of Ammoni- 
 tida. A. are of very different sizes, from a very 
 small size, to two, or even three or four feet in 
 diameter. The larger ones were in former times 
 ignorantly mistaken for petrified snakes ; and impo- 
 sitions have been practised upon collectors by adding 
 to specimens nicely carved snakes' heads ; whilst the 
 general absence of the heads was popularly accounted 
 for by a legend of a saint decapitating the snakes, 
 and turning them into stone. 
 
 AMMO'NIUM, now known as the oasis of Siwah, 
 in the Libyan Desert, was in ancient times celebrated 
 on account of the oracle of Ammon, the unfortunate 
 expedition of Cambysos, and the subsequent journeys 
 of Alexander the Great and Cato. Besides the 
 temple of Jupiter, placed in the centre of a grove 
 of palms, the ruins of which still exist, and which
 
 AMMONITTS SACCAS— AMNESTY. 
 
 contained an image of the god, composed of smarag- 
 dus and other gems, A. was remarkable for the 
 palace of its ancient kings, surrounded by a triple 
 wall, in the very heart of the oasis, and for its 
 ' Well of the Sun,' of which the waters were coldest 
 at noonday, and warmest at midnight. Here the 
 Emperor Justinian built a Christian church. The 
 length of the oasis is 15 miles, by 12 broad; it is 
 about 150 miles distant from the Mediterranean, 
 and is situated ill lat. 29" N., and in long. 26° E. 
 
 AMMC-'NIUS SACCAS, a Greek philosopher, 
 founder of the Neoplatonic School, is said to have 
 been in his earlier days a porter in Alexandria. His 
 parents were Christian, but he himself is said to 
 have abandoned his early religion, in which he had 
 been instructed by Clemens Alexandrinus, and to 
 have devoted himself to the study of heathen phil- 
 osophy under Athenagoras ; although both Eusebius 
 and St Jerome deny that he ever formally aposta- 
 tised from the Christian faith. His great endeav- 
 our was to harmonise, through a comprehensive 
 eclecticism, the various philosophical theories which 
 prevailed in the Roman world, especially those of 
 Aristotle and Plato. He also laboured to amalgam- 
 ate with these the doctrines of the Magi and 
 Brahmans; but instead of boldly announcing the 
 result as his own, he claimed for his system the 
 highest antiquity. His most distinguished pupils 
 were Longinus, flerennius, Origen, and Plotinus, the 
 last of whom, by far the most subtle and profound 
 of the Neoplatonists, always expressed the highest 
 respect for his master. A. died at Alexandria, 241 
 A.D. He left no writings behind him. 
 
 A. is the name of several learned men in the later 
 periods of Greek history ; such as A., the master of 
 Plutarch, who lived during the reign of the Emperor 
 Adrian, and, like A. Saccas, taught a species of eclec- 
 ticism in philosophy; A., the Christian philosopher 
 of the 3d c, who wrote a Harmony of the Gospels; 
 A., son of Hermeas, a Peripatetic philosopher of 
 the 5th c, and disciple of Proclus; A., the famous 
 surgeon of Alexandria, who lived in the time of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphia ; and A., the Grammarian, 
 who was at lirst high-priest in an Egyptian temple, 
 sacred to the god Apis, and afterwards (3S9 A. D.) 
 became teacher at Constantinople, where he had the 
 church historian Socrates for his pupil. 
 
 AMMO'PHILA, a genus of Grasses, closely allied 
 to Arundo (see Reed), and distinguished by a spike- 
 like panicle, and by the glumes being nearly equal, 
 keeled, longer than the palem of the single floret, 
 and surrounded at the base by a tuft of hairs. — A. 
 arundinaeea, formerly called Arundo armaria — a 
 grass about 2—3 feet high, with rigid bluish leaves, 
 the edges of which are rolled in, and very creeping 
 roots— is frequent on the sandy sea-shores of Britain 
 and the continent of Europe. It is sometimes called 
 8 1 14 EtEED or Si \ n Reed, and sometimes Mat Grass, 
 the culms being wrought into foot-mats, coverings 
 for stairs, &c, in the manufacture of which many 
 families residing along the coast of Ireland are 
 employed most of the year. It is also called Marum, 
 Mamtm, <>r Marram, by which name it is designated 
 in laws both English and Scottish, by -which the 
 destruction of it was prohibited under severe penal- 
 ties, because of its great utility in fixing the shifting 
 ■and. In Holland, and in Norfolk, it is extensively 
 
 employed — along with the Sea Lyme Grass (q. v.) 
 
 in preserving the banks of sand which prevent the 
 inroads of the sea. It is of little value as food for 
 Oattle, although they eat the very young 1 
 The fibre has Deen used instead of flax, but is too 
 short. 
 
 AMMUNITION. Sometimes this name is given 
 to camion and mortars, as wall as to the projectiles 
 
 and explosive substances employed with them ; but 
 more usually A. is considered to apply to the latter 
 — such as shot, shell, gunpowder, cartridges, fuses, 
 wads, grenades. Muskets, swords, bayonets, and 
 other small-arms are sometimes, but improperly, 
 included under this term. The Royal Laboratory at 
 Woolwich is the place where A. is chiefly prepared 
 for the British army and navy. The cannon-balls 
 may be cast at some of the great iron-foundries in 
 the north ; the shells may be cast or forged in the 
 shell-factory at Woolwich ; the muskets may lie 
 made at Birmingham, and the rifles at Enfield ; the 
 1 mllets at the shot- factories ; the gunpowder at 
 Waltham-Abbey — and so on ; but the ' making np' 
 of the A. is mostly conducted at the establishment 
 above mentioned. Bags of serge, in enormous 
 number, are cut out and made, and filled to form 
 the cartridges for large ordnance. Bags or tubes 
 of paper are made and rilled to constitute cartridges 
 for small-arms. The tubes and combustibles for war- 
 rockets and fuses are also manufactured. The cart- 
 ridges for small-arms (rifles, muskets, carbines, and 
 pistols) are made in millions ; since it is on those that 
 the main offensive operations of an army depend. It 
 has been calculated by the Woolwich authorities, 
 that a British army of 60,000 men, comprising a fair 
 avcrage of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers, 
 ought to be provided with no less than 18,000,000 
 bali-cartridges for small -arms, for six months' 
 operations. These would require 1000 A. wagons, 
 and 3600 horses, to convey them all at once. It 
 is therefore deemed better that, under any such 
 circumstances, there should be established entrepOU 
 for supplying the troops from time to time. The 
 wagons constructed for this kind of service will 
 carry 20,000 rounds of small-arm A. each; the 
 cartridges are packed in boxes, and the wagons are 
 drawn by four horses each. Several wagons are 
 organised into an ' equipment,' under the charge of 
 a detachment of artillery ; and there are several 
 such equipments for an army of the magnitude 
 above mentioned — one for each division of infantry, 
 a small portion for the cavalry, and the rest in 
 reserve. It has been laid down that an army of 
 60,000 men ought to have 2,6SO,000 cartridges with 
 them, besides those in reserve ; and that the convey- 
 ance of such a quantity, with a few forges and 
 stores, would require 150 A. wagons, S30 men, and 
 704 horses. The equipment would return to the 
 entrepot for a new supply when needed. In the 
 Peninsular War, and at Waterloo, the English used 
 two-horse carts, carrying about 10,000 rounds of 
 small-arm A. each; but a superior kind of wagon 
 has been since introduced. In the field, an infantry 
 soldier usually carries about 60 rounds, put in 
 compartments in his pouch ; the pouch having a 
 separate receptacle for percussion-caps. When the 
 word A. is used in connection with artillery matters, 
 the ' fixed ' A. comprises the loaded shells, cartridges, 
 and carcasses ; whereas the ' unfixed ' are the unfilled 
 case-shot, grape-shot, and shell. During peace, the 
 Woolwich Laboratory serves out little less than a 
 million lbs. of gunpowder annually, in A. for tho 
 army and navy, for purposes of exercising, saluting, 
 &c. : the quantity in war is of course indeterminable. 
 
 The chief kinds of A. will be found briefly described 
 under their proper headings. 
 
 A'MNESTY signifies an act of pardon or oblivion, 
 and tho effect of it is, that tho crimes and offences 
 against the state, specified in the act, are so 
 obliterated that they can never again be charged 
 against the guilty parties. Tho A. may be either 
 absolute, or qualified with exceptions. Instances 
 of the latter are to be found in ancient and modern 
 history : thus, Thrasybulus, when ho overthrew 
 the oligarchy in Athens, caused an A. to bo 
 
 311
 
 AMNION— AMORITES. 
 
 proclaimed, from the operation of which the Thirty 
 Tyrants, who had formed the oligarchy, ami sonn' 
 few persons who hail acted under them, were 
 excluded. Again, Bonaparte, on his return from 
 Elba in lSl. r >, issued a decree, which was published 
 at Lyon, declaring an A., from the benefits of which 
 he excepted thirteen persons whom he named. And 
 in our own country, the historical reader "ill be 
 able to recall the act of indemnity passed upon the 
 restoration of Charles II., by which the persons 
 actually concerned in his father's execution, v. 
 a class, excluded from the A. 
 
 A'MNION is the membrane which immediately 
 invests the embryo, appearing very early in the 
 development of the latter, and adhering closely to 
 it. As gestation proceeds, this membr 
 from its inner surface a fluid which separates it from 
 the foetus. This fluid, the liquor amnii, consists of 
 water, with albumen, salt of soda, ami extractive 
 matters in solution; it has a specific gravity of 
 1008. It supplies nutriment to the foetus, pi 
 around it an agreeable temperature, and when 
 tion is completed, by projecting the membrane 
 through the os uteri, is the primary agent in opening 
 the way for the foetus. At this time, the A. is thin 
 and transparent, slightly flocculent on the side next 
 its enveloping membrane, the chorion, but smooth 
 on the surface next the fietus. Within it, the latter 
 is suspended in the fluid which not only serves the 
 purposes just mentioned, but protects it from injury. 
 For further particulars, see Embryo, and for many 
 curious superstitions connected with the subject, sec 
 Caul. 
 
 AJIO'MUJI, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order ScitamimcK [a. v.) or Zinffiberacem distin- 
 guished by perennial stems; the flowers in close 
 heads resembling cones, not upon the leafy 
 but arising by themselves from the root, and little 
 elevated above the ground; the corolla without inner 
 lateral lobes, and with a very large flat lip ; the 
 filament flat, extended beyond the anther, with two 
 lateral lobes, and an emarginate middle lobe. It 
 contains a number of species, natives of tropical 
 countries, and almost exclusively of the eastern 
 
 hemisphere, of which several yield the CARDAMOMS 
 
 (q. v.) of commerce, and several the spiee known by 
 the name of Grains or I'ahauim: (q. v.). The genus 
 A. was formerly more extensive, and ini-l :!■!■ ■ 1 . j> -vies 
 now forming the genus Zingiber (see Ginger), &c. 
 
 AMOO'R, or AMUR, a river formed by the junc- 
 tion (about lat. .53° N., and long. 120° E.) of 'the Shilka 
 and the Argoun, which both come from the south- 
 west — the former rising in Russian Siberia, near the 
 head-waters of the Yenisei ; and the latter in Chinese 
 Tatary, not far from the sandy plateau of Kohi. 
 From this starting-post, the A. presents, on its right, 
 a tolerably symmetrical curve, which, after receiving, 
 at its most southerly point, the Songari from beyond 
 the Wall of China, besides other considerable fin Ins 
 on both sides of cither segment, enters, on nearly 
 its original parallel, the Gulf of Saghalien, about a 
 degree below the Sea of Okhotsk, properly so called. 
 For more minute details, the reader must look 
 forward to the steadily pursued researches of the 
 Russians, who, according to our latest information, 
 had, last season, fixed in position about 120 points 
 in the various sections of the basin of the A. 
 But they have already thrown much light on a 
 stream wliich, always physically interesting, as the 
 only bond of union between the central steppes of 
 Asia and the world at large, is now, by a recent 
 change of its political relations, redeemed from an 
 isolation virtually more thorough than that of any of 
 the tributaries of the Arctic Sea. The Russians, then, 
 have ascertained that the A. offers great facilities 
 212 ° 
 
 for colonisation, and still greater for navigation. 
 To begin with the latter. They have traversed by 
 steam, in the season, too, of low water, the entire 
 length upwards to the grand fork of the Argoun and 
 the Shilka, accomplishing the stretch of :;oiki \ . i.,| , 
 or 2000 miles, in 30 days— and that, from want of 
 preparation, in spite of the delay of cutting wood, 
 and tiie difficulty of utilising it when greeii; and 
 they have discovered that even the Chinese, mar 
 
 in f their motley garrisons, have a fleet of 30 or 
 
 40 sailing-craft. With respect, again, to colonisation: 
 while tin' stream itself is said to be stocki'd 1 i li • ■ a 
 fishpond, the Russians have found, more particularly 
 on the Lower A., much land fitted for pasturage and 
 cultivation, whole oceans, as they express themselves, 
 of timber — oak, elm, ash, larch, pine, and maple ; 
 vast supplies of limestone, and decisive indications 
 nf inm ore — the climate, though severe in both its 
 extremes, not being more B0 than in many thriving 
 
 parts of Russia, whether European or Asiatic But 
 
 far beyond these merely local considerations, the 
 A. has an extraneous importance, and that not 
 mi rely to Russia itself. Touching, as it nearly does, 
 the Yenisei, it forms a far more available continua- 
 tion of the eastward route through Siberia than the 
 only other possible Hue, which, crossing to the Lena, 
 and following that river to its most easterly point, 
 runs from Yakutsk to Okhotsk, by a wretched 
 bridle-path of 18 days, through a country as rugged 
 as it is inhospitable. Nor is the A. likely to lie 
 less valuable in connection with the south, for 
 there, on an arena where might will be everything, 
 its waters are ready to carry the proverbially 
 aggressive Muscovites within easy reach of the Gulfs 
 ofCorca and Pe-che-le. But it is towards the cast 
 that the A. assumes the most serviceable aspect. 
 Already has it been a channel of traffic between the 
 outside world and Central Asia — carrying down to 
 the former the salted pork of the region of the 
 Baikal, and bringing up to the latter the produc- 
 tions and commodities of more genial climes. This, 
 however, is but as a drop in the bucket to the 
 ambition of Russia. Even now, the significant 
 nanus of Nicholajesk and Petrowsk stand forth 
 as naval stations of the empire— the background, 
 as we have Been, being one huge arsenal of naval 
 of timber, of iron, and doubtless, at pleasure, 
 of hemp. It was at the commencement of the 
 reign of Peter the Great that the indefatigable 
 Russians, with the open ocean — Russia's most 
 special want — looming in their mind's eye, wero 
 arrested on the A. by the Chinese ; and it was 
 fortunate for the Anglo-Saxon race that that 
 gigantic power did not find the fulcrum for putting 
 forth its strength on the Pacific, till England 
 and America had each established a permanent 
 foothold on its shores. Even here, however, Russia 
 has to face its almost universal enemy, the ice of 
 winter. As in the White Sea, as in the Baltic, 
 and as, to some extent, in the Euxine, the frost 
 encumbers this, the newest and noblest outlet; for, 
 in the last four springs, or rather summers, it has 
 chained the A., on an average, down to the 21st of 
 May. 
 
 A'MORITES, a powerful nation of Canaan, ex- 
 tending on both sides of the Jordan. They wero 
 vanquished by the Hebrews under Moses, and their 
 lands beyond Jordan were distributed among the 
 tribes of Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh. Their two 
 most famous kings were Sihon, king of Heshbon, 
 and Og, king of Bashan. Og was the last of the 
 giants, or at least of that gigantic race, the Rephaim. 
 In Dcut. iii. 11, his iron bedstead is mentioned 
 as measuring 134 f ee t in length ; but the whole 
 of this verse, with the exception of the first clause, 
 is considered by some an interpolation. The Rabbins
 
 AMOROSO— AMPHIBIA. 
 
 hold this bedstead to have been Og's cradle, and 
 aflirm that his full-grown stature was 120 feet ! 
 Joshua subdued, but did not wholly exterminate, the 
 Amorites in Canaan. The residue of this people 
 became tributary under Solomon. (Gen. x. 15 — 20 ; 
 xv. 19—21; Numb. xiii. 2'J ; xxi. 13; Deut. xx. 16; 
 xii. 31 ; Joshua, ix.) 
 
 AMORO'SO, in Music, affectionately, tenderly. 
 
 AMO'RPHA. See Indioo. 
 
 AMORPHOPHALLUS. See Ap.um. 
 
 AMO'RPHOUS (Gr., a, priv., morphe, form), 
 shapeless. In chemistry, the term A. is used to 
 describe the uncrystallised, in opposition to the crys- 
 tallised, condition of bodies. There are substances 
 winch, in certain conditions, are capable of crystal- 
 lisation, but in other conditions remain A. Thus, 
 pure sugar contains carbon, which appears as an A. 
 substance after the sugar has been burned in a 
 platma crucible. The same substance, carbon, 
 appears in its crystallised form in the diamond. 
 
 A'MOS, the Hebrew prophet, was a herdsman of 
 Tekoa, in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, and also 
 a dresser of sycamore trees. During the reigns 
 of Uzziah in Judah, and Jeroboam in Israel (about 
 784 B. a), he came forward to denounce the idolatry 
 then prevalent. His prophetical writings, as given 
 in the Old Testament, contain, in the first six 
 chapters, denunciations of the Divine displeasure 
 against several states, particularly that of Israel, on 
 account of the worship of idols. As Ruckert poeti- 
 cally expresses it, the thunder-storm rolls over all 
 the surrounding kingdoms, touches Judah in its 
 progress, and at length settles upon Israel. The three 
 remaining chapters contain his symbolical visions of 
 the approaching overthrow of the kingdom of Israel, 
 and lastly, a promise of restoration. The style of A., 
 remarkable for its clearness and picturesque vigour, 
 abounds with images taken from rural and pastoral 
 life. The canonicity of the book of Amos is well 
 attested both by Jewish and Christian authorities. 
 Philo, Josephus, and the Talmud include it in the list 
 of inspired writings. It is, moreover, twice quoted in 
 the New Testament (Acts vii. 42, and Acts xv. 16). 
 
 AMOY', a seaport town of China, in a small 
 island of the same name, in the province of Fo-kien, 
 on the sea-coast, lat. 24° 10' N, long. 118° 10' E. 
 It is one of the chief commercial emporiums of the 
 east, and contains a population estimated at 250,000. 
 It is divided into an outer and inner town, and has 
 an outer and inner harbour, the entrance to the 
 former of which, as well as the inner town itself, is 
 strongly fortified. In 1841, it was taken by the 
 British ; by the treaty of Nan-king, a British consul 
 and British subjects were permitted to reside there. 
 The trade is now open to all nations. The chief 
 imports are rice, sugar, camphor, raw cotton, cotton- 
 twist, and British long cloths ; the exports are tea, 
 porcelain, paper, grass-cloths, &c. Smuggling is 
 carried on extensively. Mr Fortune describes A. 
 as one of the dirtiest towns in the world. 
 
 AMPERE, AndriS Marie, a distinguished mathe- 
 matician and naturalist, was born at Lyon, January 
 20, 1775. The death of his father, who fell under 
 the guillotine in 1703, made a deep and melancholy 
 
 impression on the mind of young A., who 
 for solace in the study of nature and antiquity. 
 In 1805, after lie bad been engaged for some time 
 as private mathematical tutor at Lyon, he was 
 called to Paris, where he distinguished himself as an 
 able teacher in the Polytechnic School, and began 
 his career as an author by his essay on the Mathe- 
 matical Theory of Chances (Stir la Thcorie ilatliC- 
 mabiquA die Jm). In 1814, he was elected as a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences ; and in 1S24, 
 
 was appointed as Professor of Experimental Physics 
 in the College de France. He died June 10, 1836. 
 Scientilic progress is largely indebted to A, especi- 
 ally for his electro-dynamic theory and liis original 
 views of the identity of electricity and magnetism, 
 as given in his liecuetl d'O 
 
 iques (Paris, 1822), and his Thforie del Pltinomines 
 Electro-dynamiquea (Paris, 1830). These researches 
 prepared the way for the experiments of Dr Faraday. 
 Several of A.'s writings may be found in the Annul. i 
 de Physiqtu <' di Chvmie. 
 
 AMPERE, Jean Jacques A.ntoise, son of the 
 above named, Professor of Modern Literature in 
 the college de Prance, at Paris, and member of 
 the French Academy, was burn at Lyon, A. 
 12, 1800. He acquired a brilliant reputation, on 
 account of the keen and searching character of his 
 manifold literary efforts. After laying the ground- 
 work of his comprehensive studies in Paris, lie pro- 
 ceeded to Italy, Germany, and Scandinavia. In 
 1S29, when he returned from his travels, he saw 
 no prospect of becoming a professor in Paris, and 
 sc i e. insented to give a course of lectures on the history 
 of literature at Marseille. After the July revolution, 
 he succeeded Andrieux as professor in the College 
 de F ranee, and also took the place of Villemain in 
 the Normal School. In both chairs he taught with 
 great success. lie was especially versed in the 
 knowledge of German literature; while his valuable 
 writings upon China, Persia, India, Egypt, and 
 Nubia, as well as his Levantine voyages, proved that 
 the Ear east itself was embraced within the circle of 
 his studies. A. allowed many of his linguistic and 
 historico-literary investigations to see the light first 
 in reviews, especially the Heme </■.■,■ I) u,- Monde*. 
 In 1833 he published an essay on the relations of 
 French literature to that of other countries in the 
 middle ages ; in 1841, an Essay on lite Formation of 
 tin Fit itch Language — a most valuable contribution 
 to philology in general ; and in 1850, a work entitled 
 Greece, Some, and Dante, which shews his acquaint- 
 ance with classical and south-European literature. 
 Many of his papers for periodicals have been collected 
 under the title LiW'rattire el Voyages (2 vols., Paris, 
 1834). Deep research and judicious criticism, 
 expressed in a clear and classical style, disting u is h 
 his various compositions. He died April 1S64. 
 
 AM PHI'BIA, in the Linnrean system of zoology, a 
 class containing Reptiles and Cartilaginous I 
 The term amphibious (Gr., having a double life) had 
 been previously employed, as it still popularly is, to 
 denote animals capable of sustaining existence for a 
 considerable time either on dry laud or in water. 
 I II the animals of the Linmean class, however, some 
 only are capable of this, whilst some are strictly 
 limited to the one element, and some to the other, 
 and only a very few arc truly amphibious, or 
 adapted by the possession of bums and gills at the 
 same time for breathing either in air or in water. 
 The Linneean classification was soon altered by the 
 removal of the Cartilaginous Fishes from the class 
 Amphibia, and the name was retained for a class 
 consisting of Rei 'tiles alone — the BeptUia of Cuvier. 
 See Reptiles. Some recent naturalists have divided 
 this into two cla- ia and Amphibia, the 
 
 former having lung's only, the latter having both 
 lungs and gills; the former including the Chelonian, 
 Saurian, and Ophidian Reptiles; the latter only the 
 Batrachian Reptiles, or the formal order Batrachia. 
 But if it must be admitted that these differ from the 
 other orders more than they do from each other, yet 
 the propriety of separating them as a distinct class 
 is not acknowledged by naturalists in general; and 
 only a very few of them possess lungs and gills at 
 the same iieriod of their existence. Sec Batrachia. 
 
 an
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL-AMPHITHEATRE 
 
 AMPHIC'TYONIC COUNCIL. This central 
 politico-religions court of several Grecian tribes, was 
 held twice a year. In spring, the members assembled 
 in the Temple of Apollo, at Delphi; in autumn, in 
 the Temple of Ceres, at the village of Anthela, mar 
 Thermopylae. Their purpose was twofold: I. To 
 determine questions of international law ; 2. To 
 preserve the religious institutions of the Greeks. As 
 there were many amphictyonics in the early I i 
 Greek history — of which, however, by far tho most 
 important was that which forms the subject of our 
 article— it has generally been supposed that they 
 originated out of a desire for social union, and were, 
 consequently, a result of the national instinct for 
 civilisation. Like the Olympic games of a later 
 period, their tendency was to develop a spirit of 
 brotherhood where it was greatly required The 
 restless Greek intellect, in its application to political 
 life, had naturally an excessive and perilous love 
 of individualism, out of which rose the numerous 
 strifes and animosities of the various states. These 
 councils, on tho other hand, were calculated to 
 exert a wholesome centralising intluence. They 
 knit together, for a time, the distracted tribes in a 
 bond of common interest and piety. Like the 
 Olympic games, too, they became the occasion of 
 vast gatherings of the Greek peoples, who crowded 
 thither for every variety of purpose, sacred and 
 Bccular; and thus a feeling of unity and pure national 
 patriotism was, temporarily at hast, excited in the 
 popular mind. The special origin of the A. C. or 
 league is unknown, though we know that it was com- 
 posed of twelve tribes. The ancient writers differ in 
 the names of these ; but the list given by the orator 
 ^Eschines, though containing only eleven, is perhaps 
 the safest to adhere to : the Thessalians, Boeotians, 
 Dorians, Ionians, lVrrhabians, Magnetes, Locrians, 
 GJta;ans, Phthiots, Malians, and l'hocians. Probably 
 tho remaining tribe was the Dolopians, who are 
 mentioned in other accounts. It has been justly 
 concluded that the great preponderance of the 
 northern tribes, who were of the old Pelasgic race, 
 proves the antiquity of the Council. It must have 
 been older than the descent of the Dorians upon the 
 Peloponnesus, or the emigration of the Ionians to the 
 coasts of Asia Minor. Each of the twelve tribes sent 
 to the A. C. two members. These twenty-four repre- 
 sentatives possessed equal authority, although some 
 of the tribes were very small, and hardly independ- 
 ent. They bound themselves by an oath that 'they 
 would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut 
 off their streams in war or peace ; and if any should 
 do so, they would march against him and destroy his 
 cities; and should any pillage the property of the 
 god, or be privy to, or plan anything against what 
 was in his temple at Delphi, they would take venge- 
 ance on him with hand, and foot, and voice, and 
 all their might' (.Eschines). It is onlyright to state, 
 what indeed most people would naturally conclude 
 for themselves, that so excellent an oath was very 
 indifferently kept. In the primitive period of Greek 
 history, it, in all likelihood, exerted the beneficial 
 and civilising influence of which we have spoken ; 
 but it opposed only a feeble check to the passions 
 and ambition of a more powerful age. The members 
 at times connived and even took part in many 
 political crimes, and thus violated their oath. By 
 the time of Demosthenes, the A. C. had ceased to 
 command respect ; in the 2d c. after Christ, it still 
 existed, but was then just wavering on the verge of 
 extinction. 
 
 AMPHI'POLIS, a city of Macedonia, built on an 
 island at the mouth of the river Strymon, which 
 flowed almost round the town, whence it derived its 
 name (Gr. amphi, around, and polis, a city). In 
 ancient times its position must have been invaluable, 
 21* 
 
 as it commanded the only safe entrance from the 
 Strymonic Gulf into the broad Macedonian plains. 
 It belonged originally to the Edonians, a Thracian 
 people, and wan called, on account of the 
 which met here, Ennca Hodoi (Nine Ways). The 
 first who attempted to colonise it, Aristagoras of 
 Miletus, was cut off with his followers by tho 
 Edonians. The Athenians next tried to gain posses- 
 sion of it. Their first anny, amounting to 10,000 
 men, was utterly cut to pieces at Drabescus, 405 
 B.O., but their second, 437 B.C., under Agnon, son 
 of Nicias, was successful. The Thracians were 
 expelled, and a new city built, to which Agnon gave 
 the name of A. On account of its situation . 
 emporium for Upper Thrace, and of its neighbour- 
 ing forests of timber for ship-building, A. was an 
 important place. In 424 B.C., it was taken from the 
 Athenians by the Spartan Brasidas, was restored 
 to Athens by the Antalcidean treaty of peace, and 
 afterwards was taken by Philip of Macedon. 
 Under the Tiomans, it was made the capital of East 
 Macedonia. In the middle ages, it was called 
 Popolia. Its site is now occupied by a Turkish 
 town, hut a few of its ruins arc still visible. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRE, a spacious building, gener- 
 ally elliptical in form, used by the Romans for 
 exhibiting gladiatorial combats, fights of wild beasts, 
 and other spectacles. The A. differed from a theatre 
 for dramatic performances {theatrum) in this, that 
 win leas the theatre had only a semicircle of scats 
 fronting the stage, the A. was entirely surrounded 
 by them ; and hence the name of Amphitheatre (Gr. 
 amphi, ' on both sides ' or ' all round '). Till a 
 late period at Home, these erections were of wood, 
 and merely temporary, like a modern race-stand. 
 They seem, however, to have been of enormous size, 
 as Tacitus mentions one, during the reign of Tiberius, 
 which gave way, and caused the death or injury of 
 50,000 spectators. Amphitheatres of stone had begun, 
 however, to be erected at an earlier period than this, 
 the first having been built at the desire of Augustus. 
 The Flavian A. at Rome, known as the Colosseum, 
 which was begun by Vespasian, and finished by 
 
 Colosseum. 
 
 Titus 80 A. D., ten years after the destruction of 
 Jerusalem, was probably the largest structure of the 
 kind, and is fortunately also the best preserved. It 
 covers about five acres of ground, and was capable 
 of containing 87,000 persons. Its greatest length is 
 620 feet, and its greatest breadth 513. On the occa- 
 sion of its dedication by Titus, 5000 wild beasts were
 
 AMPHITRITE— AMPUTATION. 
 
 slain in the arena, the game3 having lasted for nearly 
 100 days. The exterior is about ICO feet in hi 
 and consists of three rows of columns, Doric, Ionic, 
 and Corinthian, and, above all, a row of Corinthian 
 pilasters. Between the columns there are arches, 
 which form open galleries throughout the whole 
 building ; and between each alternate pilaster of the 
 upper tier there is a window. There were four tiers 
 or stories of seats, corresponding to the four external 
 stories. The first of these is supposed to have con- 
 tained twenty-four rows of seats ; and the second, 
 sixteen. These were separated by a lofty wall from 
 the third story, which is supposed to have contained 
 the populace. The podium was a kind of covered 
 gallery surrounding the arena, in which the emperor, 
 the senators, and vestal virgins had their seats. The 
 building was covered by a temporary awning or 
 wooden roof, called velarium, the mode of adjusting 
 and fastening which has given rise to many anti- 
 quarian conjectures. The open space in the centre 
 of the A. was called arena, the Latin word for sand, 
 because it was covered with sand or saw-dust during 
 the performances. The taste for the excitement of 
 the A which existed at Home, naturally spread to 
 the provinces, and large amphitheatres were erected 
 not only in the provincial towns of Italy, as at 
 Capua, Verona, Pompeii, &c, but at Aries and 
 B, in France ; and even in this country, at 
 Cirencester, Silchester, and Dorchester. 
 
 AMPHITRITE, the daughter of the sea-god 
 Nereus and of Doris — or, according to Apollodorus, 
 of a daughter of Oceanus — was the wife of Neptune. 
 When the latter demanded her in marriage, she fled 
 to Mount Atlas, but was discovered by a dolphin, 
 which Neptune had sent after her, and borne back 
 to him. As goddess and queen of the sea, she is 
 represented with her husband's trident in her hand, 
 ntting in a car of shells drawn by Tritons, or on 
 a dolphin, before which a Cupid swims. 
 
 AMPHORA, among the Greeks and Romans, 
 was a large vessel, usually made of clay, shaped 
 like our pitchers, with a narrow neck and 
 >S\ two handles (hence the name, from Gr. 
 amphi, on both sides, and phiro, to carry), 
 and often ending in a sharp point below, 
 for being inserted in a stand or in the 
 ground. Several of this sort, and in an 
 upright position, were found in the cellars 
 at Pompeii The A. was chiefly used for 
 the preservation of various liquids, especi- 
 ally wine, the age of which was marked on 
 tickets affixed to the vessel. There is also 
 evidence that amphorae were employed as 
 cinerary urns and as coffins. The A. among 
 the ancients was likewise a measure for 
 In Greece, it contained about 9 English 
 The Roman amphora was only two-thirds 
 In modern times, Anfora is the 
 
 Am- 
 phora. 
 
 liquids. 
 
 gallons. 
 
 of the Greek A. 
 
 name of a wine-measure in Venice. 
 
 AMPLIFICATION, i.e., enlargement, a term in 
 Rhetoric, meaning that an idea, an opinion, or an 
 inference is presented to the mind, accompanied by 
 accessory circumstances. Its aim is to produce a 
 powerful and vivid impression through tne instru- 
 mentality of epithets, particulars, or other methods of 
 elaboration. Phetorical A is generally produced — 
 1st, by similitude ; 2d, by contrast ; 3d, by illustrat- 
 ing the universal in the particular ; 4th, by piling 
 up logical arguments. Exaggeration is an i 1 
 mate kind of A. ; being the result of an undue 
 enlargement of particular facts and circumstances. 
 
 A'MPLITTJDE, in Astronomy, is the distance of 
 a heavenly body, at the time of its rising or setting, 
 from the east or the west point of the horizon. YVh. n 
 the sun is in the equator (i. c., at the time of either 
 
 Ami ... . 
 
 equinox), he rises exactly east, and sets exactly west, 
 and therefore has no A. His A. is at its maximum 
 at midsummer, and again at mid- winter ; and that 
 maximum depends upon the latitude of the place, 
 being 234° a * * ne equator, and increasing to the 
 Arctic Circle, where it becomes 90°. The A of a 
 fixed star remains constant all the year round. 
 
 AMPULLA was a kind of bottle, used by 
 the Romans for the preservation of 
 liquids. It was made either of earthen- 
 ware or glass, and sometimes, though 
 very rarely, of more costly materials. 
 Great numbers of such vessels have 
 found their way into collections 
 of antiquities. They are generally 
 ' bellied,' i.e., approaching to globular, 
 narrowing towards the mouth, and 
 provided with two handles. They 
 ara frequently mentioned in connec- 
 tion with the baths of ancient times. 
 The A. olearia was a 'bottle of oU' 
 which the Roman took with him 
 when he went to the bath, and with which he 
 anointed himself after his ablutions. Sometimes the 
 oils were perfumed. 
 
 The A. Remensis (the holy vessel, Fr. la sainle 
 ampoule) was the name of that famous vessel in 
 which was contained the unguent (believed to have 
 been brought by a dove from heaven) that anointed 
 Clovis, king of the Franks, at Rheim3 in 496 A.D., 
 and with which every succeeding monarch of France, 
 down to Louis XVI., was anointed at his corona- 
 tion. The A Remensis was shattered, along with a 
 great many more valuable things, at the revolution 
 of 1789 ; but a fragment of it was preserved by 
 some devout royalist, and handed over at the 
 Restoration to the Archbishop of Rheims. Curious 
 to say, a little of the miraculous substance still 
 remained, which was mixed up with oil, and used 
 to anoint Charle3 X. in 1S23. 
 
 AMPUTATION (Lat amputo, I lop or prune) is 
 the cutting off of a part which, by its diseased condi- 
 tion, endangers, or may endanger, the safety of the 
 whole body. The A of a limb was in ancient times 
 attended with great danger of the patient's dying 
 during its performance, as surgeons had no efficient 
 means of restraining the bleeding. They rarely 
 ventured to remove a large portion of a limb, and 
 when they did so, they cut in the gangrened parts, 
 where they knew the vessels would not bleed ; the 
 smaller limbs they chopped off with a mallet and 
 chisel ; and in both cases had hot irons at hand with 
 which to sear the raw surfaces, boding oil in which 
 to dip the stump, and various resins, mosses, and 
 fungi, supposed to possess the power of arresting 
 haemorrhage. Some tightly bandaged the limbs 
 they wished to remove, so that they mortified and 
 dropped off; and others amputated with red-hot 
 knives, or knives made of wood or horn dipped 
 in vitriol. The desired power of controlling the 
 haemorrhage was obtained by the invention of the 
 tourniquet (q. v.) in 1674 by a French surgeon 
 MoreH The ancient surgeons endeavoured to save 
 a covering of skin for "the stump, by having the 
 skin drawn upwards by an assistant, previously to 
 using the knife. In 1679, Lowdham of Exeter 
 suggested cutting semicircular flaps on one or both 
 sides of a limb, so as to preserve a fleshy cushion 
 to cover the end of the bone. Both these methods 
 are now in use, and are known as the 'circular' 
 and the ' Hap ' operations : the latter is most fre- 
 quently used in this country. 
 
 A 'flap' amputation i3 performed thus: The 
 patient being placed in the most convenient position, 
 an assistant compresses the main artery of the limb
 
 AMRITISIR— AMSTERDAM. 
 
 with his thumb, or .1 tourniquet is adjusted over it. 
 Another assistant supports the limb. The m 
 with one hand lifts the tissues from the bone, 
 and transfixing them with a long narrow knife, 
 cuts rapidly downwards and towards the sur- 
 face of the skin, forming a flap ; he then repeats this 
 on the other side of the limb. An assistant now 
 draws up these flaps, and the knife is carried round 
 the bone, dividing any flesh still adhering to it. 
 The surgeon now sawB the bone. He then, with a 
 small forceps, seizes the end of the main artery, and 
 drawing it slightly from the tissues, an assistant ties 
 it with a thread All the Teasels being secured, the 
 flaps are stitched together with a needle and thread, 
 and a piece of wet lint is laid over the wound. An 
 expert surgeon can remove a limb thus in from 30 
 to 00 seconds. 
 
 AMRITSI'R, a city of the Punjab, in X. lat 31° 
 40', and E. long. 74° 45', containing 1 l.j.OHO inhabit- 
 ants. It is said to be larger than Lahore, the seat of 
 government. It is, in fact, the religious metropolis, 
 a distinction which, along with its name, it owesjto 
 its 'pool of immortality,' on an islet of which stands 
 the chief temple of the Sikh faith. A. is a favourite 
 haunt of pilgrims, to protect or to overawe whom 
 Runjeet Singh built a formidable citadel, which the 
 British have strengthened ; and it was the place 
 where, perhaps to bind the slippery Sikhs more 
 firmly, was signed the treaty of 1S46, for ceding to 
 the British the territory between the Beas and the 
 Sutlej. A. is said to be the richest and most pros- 
 perous city in Northern India, being connected with 
 the capital, distant 3G miles to the west, by a canal, 
 possessing considerable manufactures of cotton, silks, 
 shawls, &c., and carrying on considerable trade at 
 once with Hindustan to the south, ami with Central 
 Asia to the north. 
 
 AMSLER, S.VMrr.i,, professor of the art of engrav- 
 ing on copper, in the Academy of Arts. Munich, 
 was born December 17, 1701, at Scliinznach. in 
 Switzerland, received his first lessons from Lips 
 of Zurich, and afterwards studied under Hess, in 
 Munich. His first great work was an engraving 
 from a Magdalen by Carlo Dolce. In 1810, he 
 went to Rome, where, in several engravings of 
 
 statues by Thorwaldsen, lie sue -• 1. 1 well in uniting 
 
 the characteristics of the originals with the simple 
 style of Marcus Antonio. Aided by Barth and 
 Hildburghausen, he engraved a title-page for the 
 Lay of (he Nibelungen, from a design by Cornelius. 
 During his second sojourn in Rome (1S20 — 1824), he 
 began his great work, an engraving of ' Alexander's 
 Triumphal Procession,' by Thorwaldsen. At Munich, 
 in 1831, he finished his large plate of the ' Burial of 
 Christ,' by Raphael, which, with his engraving of 
 a statue of Christ, by Dannecker, displayed the 
 highest qualities of imitative art. These works 
 were followed by a ' Holy Family,' from Raphael, 
 and the ' Madonna di Casa Tempi.' His last great 
 work was an engraving from Overbeck's ' Triumph 
 of Religion in the Arts.' A. died May IS, 1849. 
 His style is marked by a clear and noble treatment 
 of form, rather than by strong contrast of tones. 
 Few engravers have equalled A. in his deep know- 
 ledge and faithful representation of the works of 
 Raphael. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, or AMSTELDAM (the dam or 
 dike of the Arnstcl), the chief city of the Netherlands, 
 and capital of the province of North Holland, is 
 situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Ij 
 or Y (pronounced Eye), an arm of the Zuiderzee, 
 and is divided by the two arms of the former, and 
 numerous canals, into 95 small islands, connected by 
 290 bridges. Almost the whole of the city, which 
 extends in the shape of a crescent, is founded on 
 
 piles. At the beginning of the 13th c, it was merely 
 a fishing-village, with a small castle, the residence of 
 
 the Lords Oi Amstel. In 1296, on account of the 
 murder of Count FlorUof Holland, the rising town 
 was demolished, and its inhabitants were compelled 
 to leave it. Afterwards, with Arnstelland (the dis- 
 trict on the banks of the Amstel), it was taken under 
 the protection of the Counts of Holland, and under 
 them enjoyed several privileges which contributed to 
 
 its subsequent prosperity. In 1482, it was walled 
 and fortified. It soon rose to be the first commercial 
 place in the united states of the Netherlands ; m 
 1585 was considerably enlarged by the building of 
 the new town on the west; and in 1022 had 100,000 
 inhabitants. This pr osperity excited the envy of its 
 neighbours. The English, under Leicester, in 1587, 
 and William 11., Prince of Orange, in 1050, endea- 
 voured to gain possession of the flourishing city ; but 
 their designs were frustrated by the good manage- 
 ment of the burgomasters of A. In the 17th c, the 
 war with England so far reduced the commerce of 
 A., that in the year 1053, about 4000 houses were 
 uninhabited. Prosperity was restored during the 
 next century, and, though commerce was I tin 
 injured by the disputes with England in 1781 and 
 1782, it once more revived. The union of Holland 
 with France in 1S10 entirely destroyed the foreign 
 trade of A., while the excise and other new regula- 
 tions impoverished its inland resources ; but the 
 old firms proved strong enough to live through the 
 time of difficulty, and in 1S15 commerce again 
 began to expand. 
 
 The city has a fine aspect, when seen from tho 
 harbour, or from the high bridge over the Amstel. 
 Numerous church towers and spires rise on every 
 side, to relieve the flatness of the prospect. The old 
 ramparts have been pulled down, and wind-mills for 
 grinding corn, and other purposes, have been erected 
 on the 28 bastions. Rich grassy meadows surround 
 the city. On the west side are a great number of 
 saw-mills. The three principal streets in A., each 
 of which is t%vo miles long, are the Heerengraacht, 
 Keizergi-aacht, and I'rinzensgraacht. Tiny are not 
 surpassed by any in Europe for length, breadth, 
 or general elegance. Along the middle of each, as 
 of the other streets in A., flow canals, the banks of 
 which are lined with rows of trees. The houses are 
 built principally of brick, and some have their gables 
 towards the streets, which gives them a very pictur- 
 esque appearance. In old times, A. was strongly 
 fortified; but now its only defence consists in the 
 sluices, which can flood in a few hours the surround- 
 ing land. A hard frost, however, like that of 1 794 — 5, 
 when Pichegru entered the city, would render even 
 this means of defence useless. 
 
 The population was numbered at 1S0.O00 in 1S20 ; 
 but in 1857 it amounted to 260,0011, the majority 
 of wdiom are Dutch Calvinism. Of the remainder, 
 the most numerous body are the Roman Catholics, 
 next the Lutherans, and next the Jews. The chief 
 industrial establishments are numerous dock-yards, 
 manufactories of sails, ropes, tobacco, cloth, plush, 
 silks, gold and silver plate and jewellery, colours and 
 chemical preparations, breweries, distilleries, with 
 export houses for corn and colonial produce. Among 
 the public buildings, the Stadhuis, formerly use, 1 as 
 the palace of King Louis Bonaparte, and still re- 
 tained by the present reigning family, is a noble 
 and imposing structure, raised upon 13,059 piles, and 
 extending 202 feet in length, by 206 feet in breadth, 
 surmounted by a roimd tower, rising 327 feet from 
 the base. It is chiefly remarkable for the great hall, 
 111 feet long, 52 feet wide, and 90 feet high, lined 
 with white Italian marble— an apartment of great 
 splendour. 
 
 The Nkuxoe Kcrk (New Church), founded in 1408,
 
 AMSTERDAM— AMYGDALOID. 
 
 is the finest ecclesiastical structure in the city, and, 
 as the Dutch think, in Europe. Its chancel is espe- 
 cially admired. It contains the tombs of Admiral 
 de Kuytcr, who sailed up the Med way and burned 
 the English fleet at Chatham ; of the famous Dutch 
 poet Vondel, &c, and of various other notable per- 
 sons. The Old Church (Glide Ki-rk), b'-Ionging to 
 the 14th c, contains several monuments of naval 
 heroes. Literature, science, and recreation are not 
 forgotten in the pressure of business ; for A. has its 
 academy of arts and sciences, an excellent museum 
 and library, several harmonic societies, a botanical 
 and also a zoological garden, and several theatres. 
 The hospital for aged people, the poor-house, house 
 of correction, and orphan asylum, a navigation 
 school, and many benevolent societies, are well sup- 
 ported, and said to be managed on good principles. 
 The moist atmosphere and mephitiu exhalations 
 from the canals, are unfavourable to the health of 
 the city, especially in summer. The New Canal 
 (Xi'iiwe Dii'p), or Grand Ship-canal of North Hol- 
 land, 21 feet deep and 125 feet in breadth, connect- 
 ing the Buiksloot with the North Sea at the Helder, 
 a distanco of 51 miles, so that the perilous navi- 
 gation of the Zuiderzee is avoided, has greatly 
 increased the facility of commerce, as even a ship of 
 the line can pass through its sluices ; and powerful 
 steam-tugs are employed to tow merchant-vessels 
 with their full cargoes out to sea. It is the broadest 
 canal in the world. Its lock-gates exceed in dimen- 
 sions the largest in the docks of Liverpool, and are 
 founded upon piles driven through the mud into 
 sand. Amsterdam is now connected by railway with 
 Rotterdam and the Hague, as well as with Prussia. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, a barren islet in lat. 38" 53 1 3., 
 and long. 77° 37' E., the home of sea-birds, shell-fish, 
 and seals. It is worthy, however, of notice at once 
 for its structure and its situation. Manifestly of 
 volcanic origin, it still possesses a burning soil and 
 hot springs; and along with its single neighbour, 
 St Paul, CO miles to the north-east, it is about mid- 
 way in the direct lino between the Cape of Good 
 Eoipe and Van Diemen's Land, being also at nearly 
 the same distance from Cape Comorin. 
 
 A'MULET, any object worn as a charm. It is 
 often a stone, or piece of metal, with an inscription 
 or some figures engraved on it, and is generally 
 suspended from the neck, and worn as a preserv- 
 ative against sickness, witchcraft, &c. Its origin, 
 like its name, seems to be oriental. The ancient 
 Egyptians had their amidets, sometimes forming 
 necklaces. Among the Greeks, such a protective 
 
 Egyptian Amulet 
 
 charm was styled phyladerion ; among the Romans, 
 amubtum. This word is probably derived from 
 the Arabic hamuli t ('what is suspended'). The 
 phylacteries of the Jews (see Matthew, xxiii. 5), slips 
 of parchment on which passages of the Law wen 
 written, were evidently worn as badges of piety by 
 the Pharisees ; but were also regarded as wholesome 
 preservatives from evil spirits, and from all manner 
 of harm. From the heathen, the use of amulets 
 passed into the Christian Church, the inscription 
 on them being icltthus (the Greek word for a fish). 
 because it contained the initials of the Greek words 
 
 for Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. Bee 
 Abbreviations. Among the Gnostic sects, Abraxas 
 stones (q. v.) were much used. Amulets soon 
 became so common among Christians that, in the 
 4th c, the clergy were interdicted from making 
 and selling them on pain of deprivation of holy 
 orders ; and in 721, the wearing of amulets was 
 sol nmly condemned by the Church. Among the 
 Turks and many other nations of Central 
 every person considers it necessary to wear a pre- 
 servative charm. With the spread of Arabian 
 astronomy, the astrological A. or talisman (q. v.) of 
 the Arabs found its way to Europe. Kopp, a 
 German author, has written a work, Pal 
 Critica, on amulets and their inscriptions. Among 
 amulets in repute in the middle ages were the coins 
 attributed to St Helena, the mother of Constantine. 
 These and other coins marked with a cross were 
 thought specially efficacious against epilepsy, and 
 are generally found perforated, for the purpose of 
 being worn suspended from the neck. — The belief in 
 the virtue of amulets is not yet extinct among the 
 uneducated. 
 
 AMY'CL^E, an old Laconian town, was situated 
 on the eastern bank of the Eurotas, 20 stadia south- 
 east of Sparta, in a richly wooded and fertile region. 
 It was a famous city in the heroic age, the abode of 
 Tyndarus and his spouse Leda, who bore to Jupiter 
 the twins, Castor and Pollux (called A myda i 1 • 
 the Amyckean brothers), and also Helena. Long after 
 the Dorians had subjugated and peopled the rest of 
 the Peloponnesus, A. continued to be a free Achaean 
 town. It was conquered by the Spartans only before 
 the first Messenian War, and in consequence of a 
 curious and absurd law. The inhabitants were so 
 often agitated by false rumours of the approach of 
 the Spartans, that, growing tired of living in a state 
 of continual alarm, they decreed that no one should 
 henceforth mention or even take notice of these 
 disagreeable fictions. Unfortunately, the Spartans 
 did come at length, and according to the Greek 
 saying, ' A. perished through silence.' Hence the 
 proverb, Amyclis ipsis tacitumior (More silent 
 than A. itself). After its conquest, A. became 
 a village, noted only for its annual festival of the 
 Hyacinthia, and its temple of Apollo, with the 
 colossal statue of the god himself. — A., an ancient 
 city on the coast of Campania, Italy, said to have 
 been built by a colony from the Greek A. It had 
 ceased to exist in the time of Pliny. 
 
 AMYGDA'LE/E, or DRri'ACE.E, according 
 to some botanists, a natural order of dicotyledonous 
 plants, but more generally regarded as a sub-order 
 of Rosace.e. The species are all trees or shrubs. 
 They have the tube of the calyx lined with a disk, 
 the pistil a solitary simple carpel with a terminal 
 style, the fruit a drupe. For other l>otanical charac- 
 ters, see Rosace.e. The bark yields gum, and 
 hydrocyanic acid is present in very notable quantity 
 in different parts, as the leaves, kernels, &c. The A. 
 are chiefly Datives of the cold and temperate regions 
 of the northern hemisphere. Some of them \ ii Id 
 valuable fruits; and various products of the order 
 are used in medicine. See Ai mom.. Pkach, Xeita- 
 I'lim, CHERRY, and Cim-.r.Y I.ur.Ki. This 
 order or sub-order contains about 110 known species, 
 
 AMY'GDALOID (from amj/gdahu, an almond), 
 a rock, consisting of a basis of some kind of trap 
 rack, very frequently of greenstone, forming numer- 
 ous roundish or oval cells, which are filled with 
 nodules, often of calcareous spar or of zeolitic minerals. 
 The cells are not of huge size, but even those which 
 are almost adjacent differ much in this respect. The 
 nodules are evidently the result of a sublimation 
 and imperfect crystallisation, under the action of the
 
 AMYLACEOUS— ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 heat which formed the cells. Empty cells often 
 occur amongst those which are filled with minerals. 
 The name A. is sometimes extended to rocks of the 
 same character, although the basis be not of trap. 
 
 AMYLACEOUS (from amylum, starch), a term 
 used in Chemistry and Botany, and equivalent to 
 starchy. — A. food is food consisting at least in great 
 part of some kind of starch, as arrow-root, sago, &c. — 
 A compound radical, called amyle, is formed by the 
 decomposition of starch in a peculiar fermentation — 
 the amylic fermentation — but to it the term A. has 
 no reference. 
 
 AMYLIC ALCOHOL. See FuHH, Oil. 
 
 AMYOT, or AMIOT, Jacqcts, a French writer, 
 well known by his excellent translations of the 
 Greek classics, was born in 1513, and died in 1593. 
 Kacine highly esteemed the translations by A., of 
 which the version of Plutarch is one of the best, and 
 has passed through several editions. — Amiot, Joseph, 
 a celebrated Jesuit and oriental scholar, was born at 
 Toulon in 1718, and lived as a missionary in China 
 from 1750 to the time of his death, in 1701. His 
 knowledge of the Chinese and Tatar languages 
 enabled nim to collect many valuable notices of 
 antiquities, history, language, and arts, in China. 
 Many of his writings may be found in the Mtmoirtt 
 concernants rilisloire, les Sciences et leg Arts da 
 Chinois (15 vols. Paris, 1770—1701). His Diclion- 
 naire Tatar - Mantchou - Franrais was edited by 
 Langles in 1789. 
 
 A UYRIDA'CE^E, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 donous or exogenous plants, consisting of trees and 
 shrubs, natives of tropical countries, remarkable for 
 the abundance of their fragrant balsamic or resinous 
 juice. They have compound leaves, occasionally 
 with stipules and pellucid dots. The flowers are in 
 racemes or panicles ; the calyx persistent, with 2—5 
 divisions; the petals are 3 — 5; aestivation valvate 
 or imbricated. The stamens are twice or four times 
 as many as the petals. The ovary is superior, sessile, 
 1 — 5-celled, inserted in a large disk ; the style soli- 
 tary and compound, or wanting ; the stigmas as 
 many as the cells of the ovary ; the ovules in pairs, 
 anatropal. The fruit is hard and (by, 1 — 5 celled, 
 its outer rind often splitting into valves. The seeds 
 are exalbuminous. About forty or fifty species are 
 referred to the order ; but many of them are still 
 very imperfectly known. Some species afford valu- 
 able timber ; but the principal products of the order 
 are fragrant resins and balsams, as Mvriui (q.v.), 
 and different kinds of Frankincense (q.v.), Oi.ii: I B I u 
 (q.v.), Elemi (q.v.), Bdellium (q.v.), Tacamaiiac 
 (q. v.), Balsam of Gileab (q. v.), &c. Among the 
 more important genera of the order may be named 
 Amyris, Balsamodendron, Bosivcllia, and Idea. — 
 Canarium commune, a native of Java, which yields 
 a gum similar in its properties to the 1! u \ u 
 of Copaiva (q. v.), produces also triangular nuts, 
 which are eaten both raw and dressed, and from 
 which an oil is extracted for the table and for burn- 
 ing. Balanites Egyptiaca is cultivated in Egypt for 
 its fruit, a drupe, which is eaten, and from the seeds 
 of which a fat od is expressed, called Zaclmn. 
 
 ANA, a termination added to the names of remark- 
 able men, to designate collections of their sayings, 
 anecdotes, &c. ; as in the works entitled Haronin,,,', 
 Johnsoniana. Such titles were first used in France, 
 where they became common after the publication of 
 Scaligerana by the brothers Dupuy (Hague, 1066). 
 I n English literature, there are many works of this 
 kind, America, also, has its Washingtoniana. A 
 tolerably complete catalogue of work3 with such 
 titles may be found in Namur's Bibliographic des 
 Ouvrages publics sous le Nom d'Ana (Brussels, 
 1839). 
 218 
 
 ANABAPTISTS, a term applied generally to 
 those Christians who reject infant baptism, and 
 administer the rite only to adults ; so that when a 
 new member joins them, he or she is baptised a 
 second time, the first being considered no baptism. 
 The name (Gr. to baptise again) is thus owing to an 
 accidental circumstance, and is disclaimed by the 
 more recent opponents of infant baptism, both on 
 the continent and in Great Britain. 
 
 The origin of the sect cannot be distinctly traced ; 
 but it is manifestly connected with the controversy 
 about infant baptism carried on in the early chureli. 
 Opposition to this doctrine was kept alive in the 
 various so-called heretical sects that went by 
 the general name of Cathari (i.e., purists), such as 
 the W'aldenses, Albigcnses, &c. Shortly after the 
 beginning of the Preformation, the opposition to 
 infant baptism appeared anew, especially among a 
 set of fanatical enthusiasts called the Prophets of 
 Zwickau, in Saxony, at whose head were Thomas 
 Miinzer (q.v.) (1520) and others. Miinzer went to 
 Waldshut, on the borders of Switzerland, which soon 
 became a chief seat of anabaptism, and a centre 
 whence visionaries and fanatics sjiread over Switzer- 
 land. They pretended to new revelations, dreamed 
 of the establishment of the kingdom of heaven on 
 earth, and summoned princes to join them, on pain 
 of losing their temporal power. They rejected infant 
 baptism, and taught that those who joined them must 
 be baptised anew with the baptism of the Spirit ; tiny 
 also proclaimed the community of goods, and the 
 equality of all Christians. These doctrines naturally 
 fell in with and supported the 'Peasant War' (q. v.) 
 that had about that time (1525) broken out from 
 real causes of oppression. The sect spread rapidly 
 through Westphalia, Holstein, and the Netherlands, 
 in spite of the severest persecutions. The battle of 
 Krankenhauscn (see Munzer) crushed their progress 
 in Saxony and Franconia. Still, scattered adherents 
 of the doctrines continued, and were again brought 
 together in various places by travelling preachers. 
 In this capacity, one Melchior Hoffmann, a furrier of 
 Swabia, distinguished himself, who appeared as a 
 visionary preacher in Kiel in 1527, and in Emden in 
 1528. In the last town he installed a baker, John 
 Mattliiesen, of Haarlem, as bishop, and then went to 
 Strasburg, where he died in prison. Matthiesen 
 began to send out apostles of the new doctrine. Two 
 of these went to Miinster, where they found fanatical 
 coadjutors in the Protestant minister Kothmann, 
 and the burghers Knipperdolling and Krechting, 
 and were shortly joined by the tailor Bockhold of 
 Leyden, and Gerrit Kippenbrock of Amsterdam, a 
 bookbinder, and at last by Matthiesen himself. 
 With their adherents, they soon made themselves 
 masters of the city ; Matthiesen set up as a prophet, 
 and when he lost his life in a sally against the Bishop 
 of Miinster, who was besieging the town, Bockhold 
 ami Knipperdolling took his place. The churches 
 were now destroyed, and twelve judges were ap- 
 pointed over the tribes, as among the Israelites ; 
 and Bockhold (1534) had himself crowned king of 
 the ' New Sion,' under the name of John of Leyden. 
 The anabaptist madness in Miinster now went 
 beyond all bounds. The city became the scene of 
 the wildest licentiousness ; until several Protestant 
 princes, uniting with the bishop, took the city, and 
 by executing the leaders, put an end to the new 
 kingdom (1535). 
 
 But the principles disseminated by the A. were not 
 so easily crushed. As early as 1533 the adherents of 
 the sect had been driven from Emden, and taken 
 refuge in the Netherlands ; and in Amsterdam the 
 doctrine took root and spread. Bockhold also had 
 sent out apostles, some of whom had given up the 
 wild fanaticism of their master; they let alone the
 
 ANABASID/E— ANABLEPS. 
 
 community of goods and women, and taught the 
 other doctrines of the A., and the establishment of a 
 new kingdom of pure Christians. They grounded 
 their doctrines chiefly on the Apocalypse. One of 
 the most distinguished of this class was David Joris, 
 a glass-painter of Delft (1501 — 1556). Joris united 
 liberalism with anabaptism, devoted himself to 
 mystic theology, and sought to effect a union of 
 
 Earties. He acquired many adherents, who studied 
 is Book of Miracles ( Wunderbuch), which appeared 
 at Deventer in 1542, and looked upon him as a sort 
 of new Messiah. Being persecuted, he withdrew 
 from his party, lived inoffensively at Basle, under the 
 name of John of Bruges, and died there in the com- 
 munion of the reformed church. It was only in 
 1559 that his heretical doctrines came to light, when 
 the council of Basle had the bones of Joris dug up, 
 and burned under the gallows. 
 
 The rude and fanatical period of the history of 
 anabaptism closes with the scandal of Miinster. A 
 new era begins with Menno Simons. (See Menno.) 
 Surrounded by dangers, Menno succeeded, by 
 prudent zeal, in collecting the scattered adherents 
 of the sect, and in founding congregations in the 
 Netherlands, and in various parts of Germany. 
 He called the members of the community ' God's 
 Congregation, poor, unarmed Christians, brothers ; ' 
 later, they took the name of Mennonites, and at 
 present they call themselves, in Germany, Tauf- 
 gesinnte ; in Holland, Doopsgezinden — corresponding 
 very nearly to the English designation Baptists. 
 This, besides being a more appropriate designation, 
 avoids offensive association with the early Anabaptists. 
 Menno expounded his principles in his Fundament- 
 buche von dem rechten Christliehen Glaiibm, l. r i">6 
 (Elements of the True Christian Faith). Thi3 book is 
 still an authority among the body, who lay particular 
 stress on receiving the doctrines of the Scripture with 
 simple faith, and acting strictly up to them, and set 
 no value on learning and the scientific elaboration of 
 doctrines. They reject the taking of oaths, war, 
 every kind of revenge, divorce (except for adultery), 
 infant baptism, and the undertaking of the office of 
 magistrate ; magistracy, they hold to be an institu- 
 tion necessary for the present, but foreign to the 
 kingdom of Christ ; the church is the community of 
 the saints, which must be kept pure by strict 
 discipline. With regard to grace, they profess 
 universalism, or hold it to be designed for all, and 
 their views of the Lord's Supper fall in with those of 
 Zwingli; in its celebration, the rite of feet- washing 
 is retained. In Germany, Switzerland, and Alsace, 
 their form of worship differs little from the Lutheran. 
 Their bishops, elders, and teachers serve gratis. 
 Children receive their name at birth, baptism is 
 performed in the place of worship, and adidts that 
 join the sect are rebaptiscd. 
 
 But along with these general principles, there have 
 been endless diversities and splits in the sect, occa- 
 sioned by differences as to strictness of discipline. 
 This cause divided the body, as early as 1554, into 
 the Mild and the Strict Mennonites. The first 
 are known by the title of Waterliinders, from a 
 place in Holland ; the second split again into a 
 multitude of subdivisions, according to minute shades 
 of strictuess, and their several designations, derived 
 from the names of leaders, places, and even peculi- 
 arities of dress (John-Jacob Christians, Buttoners, 
 Hook-and-eyc-ers, &c), bewilder the student of eccle- 
 siastical history. The purity of their lives, however, 
 commanded cwTywhere respect, and their industry 
 made them prosperous ; so that they gradually 
 secured formal toleration in many places. 
 
 Almost the only split among the early continental 
 Baptists on doctrinal grounds was that winch took 
 place in Amsterdam in lGlil. Armimanism had not 
 
 been without its influence, especially among the 
 Waterliinders, originally more liberal in their views. 
 A leading congregation accordingly divided into two 
 parties, one (Galenists, from Galcnus, their leader) 
 advocating freer views in doctrine and discipline ; the 
 other (Apostoolists, from Samuel Apostool) adhering 
 to absolute predestination and the discipline of 
 Menno. The liberal party rejected creeds as of 
 human invention, adopted much of the philosophy 
 and theology of England, and exercised no little 
 influence on the intellectual ' progress of Holland. 
 These two parties gradually absorbed the other 
 sections of the Baptists in the Netherlands ; and 
 about the beginning of the nineteenth century, a 
 union took place by which all the congregations now 
 belong to one body. In Holland, there arc about 
 120 Baptist congregations. 
 
 In Germany, the Baptists made some attempts 
 in more recent times to extend their church, but 
 without any great success. In 1852 there were 
 in Germany 52 congregations, numbering about 3000 
 members, more than half of whom belong to Prussia. 
 In that country, various concessions had been made 
 to them early in this century, such as exemption 
 from certain oaths and from military service. They 
 are tolerated in Bavaria, Baden, Wiirtemberg, Meck- 
 lenburg, Russia, France, and Denmark ; but were 
 expelled from Sweden. Wherever they are settled, 
 they are respected as quiet, industrious subjects ; 
 but several German governments have lately imposed 
 restrictions on their exercise of public worship. The 
 reason assigned was the tendency to visionary 
 enthusiasm that had again shewed itself in some 
 congregations. 
 
 As the representatives of the sect in Great Britain 
 and North America have little or no historical con- 
 nection with the earlier A. of the continent, they 
 fall more properly to be noticed under Baptists. 
 
 ANABA'SID^E, or LABYRINTHIBRANCH- 
 ID;E, a family of Acanthopterygious Fishes, charac- 
 terised by a remarkable structure of the upper 
 membranes of the pharynx, which are divided into 
 small irregular leaves, containing between them 
 cellular reservoirs. These retain water sufficient to 
 keep the gills moist for a considerable time, and so 
 enable the fish to subsist out of water, and to travel 
 some distance on dry ground ; some of the species, 
 as the Climbing Perch (q. v.) of India (Anabas 
 scandens), climbing steep banks, or even trees, by 
 means of the spines of the fins, tail, and gill-covers. 
 Opkiceplialus marginalus is often seen travelling 
 among the grass in the beginning of the rainy season. 
 The fishes of this family appear to leave the water 
 for various reasons ; but very commonly, it would 
 appear, upon account of the drying up of pools in 
 periodical droughts, their peculiar organisation 
 enabling them to go in search of others. They arc 
 all fresh-water fishes, natives of the south-east of 
 Asia, continent and islands, and of South Africa. 
 The species are numerous, and are arranged under 
 eleven genera. Some of them are much esteemed for 
 their delicacy as food. 
 
 ANABASIS (Greek), lit. rally, an ascent ■» a 
 march out of a lower into a higher country— the 
 name of two historical works : 1. The A. of i 
 written by Xenophon, which gives a narrative of the 
 unfortunate expedition of the Soungi r Cyrus against 
 his brother, the Persian king Artaxerxee, and of the 
 retreat of his 10,000 Greek allies under the com- 
 mand of Xenophon ; 2. The A. of Alexander, 
 written by Arrian, and giving an account of the 
 campaigns of Alexander the Great. 
 
 A'NABLEPS (from the Gr. anablcps,to look up), 
 a genus of fishes of the order Malacopteryyii Abdomi- 
 nals, family Cyprinidai of Cuvier — of the family
 
 ANACARDIACE.E— ANACHRONISM. 
 
 Cyprinodontid i (q.v.J of Agassiz — characterised by 
 a structure of the eyes to which there is nothing 
 similar in any other vertebrated animals. This 
 ta in a division of the cornea and iris into two 
 ■hat unequal elliptical parts, by transverse 
 bands formed of the conjunctiva (see Eye), so that 
 the animal appears to have four eyes, and then are 
 really two pupils on each side, the other parti of tin- 
 eye being single. This peculiarity of structure is 
 supposed to be connected with a habit which these 
 are said to have of swimming with the eyes 
 partly out of the water. They are elongated, scaly 
 ashes, with llattisli rounded back, and depressed 
 head. The young are brought forth alive, and in a 
 state of considerable advancement. The best known 
 species, A. telropthalmus, inhabits the rivers of 
 Guiana and Surinam. 
 
 AXACARDIA'CE/E (TnUEBINTACM of some 
 botanists, and part of Tekebintace^e of others), a 
 natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous 
 plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, which abound 
 in a resinous, sometimes acrid and poisonous juice. 
 The leaves are alternate and without dots ; the 
 flowers inconspicuous, usually unisexual. The calyx 
 is generally small and persistent, and has generally 
 five divisions ; the jietals are perigynous, equal in 
 number to the segments of the calyx, imbricated in 
 aestivation, occasionally wanting. The stamens are 
 equal in number to the petals, and alternate with 
 them, or twice as many, or more ; distinct when 
 there is a fleshy disk, cohering at the base when the 
 disk is wanting. The ovary is usually single, free or 
 adhering to the calyx, 1 -celled; the styles 1, 3, or 
 4, occasionally wanting ; the ovule solitary, attached 
 to the bottom of the cell by a cord. The fruit is 
 usually a drupe, the seed exalbuminous. The order 
 contains about 95 known species, chiefly but not 
 exclusively tropical, amongst which are a consider- 
 able number valuable for the resinous juices and 
 varnishes which they yield, as the varnish of Sylhet, 
 varnish of Martaban, Japan lacker, 4c, and others, 
 which produce wholesome and pleasant fruits. See 
 Cashew Not, 1'istacia, Mastic, Tubpkntihe Tree, 
 Masco, Hog Plum. 
 
 AN'ACA'RDIUM. See Cashew Nit. 
 
 ANA'CHARIS, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order 1 1 ' ydrocharidea (q. v.), of which a species, A. 
 aUinastrum (jElodea Canadensis of some botanists), 
 has recently become 
 naturalised in Britain, 
 suddenly appearing in 
 so great abundance as 
 to impede the naviga- 
 tion of some rivers and 
 canals. It is a native 
 of North America, 
 growing in ponds and 
 slow streams ; and is 
 a dark-green, much- 
 branched perennial, 
 entirely floating under 
 water, its flowers only 
 appearing above water 
 for a very short time 
 at the period of fertilis- 
 ation, as in others of 
 the order to which it 
 belongs. It has numer- 
 ous leaves, which are 
 either opposite, or in 
 whorls of three or four, 
 without foot - stalks, 
 3 — 4 lines long. The 
 sessile in the upper axils, 
 small 2-lobcd spathe ; 
 
 Anacharis Alsinastrum, 
 
 linear-oblong, transparent, 
 female flowers are 
 and are enclosed 
 220 
 
 in a 
 
 the slender tube of the perianth is often two 
 or three inches long, so as to attain the surface 
 of the water, where it terminates in three or six 
 small spreading segments. The male flowers are 
 sel do m observed. The plant was first found in 
 Britain in 1842, by the late Dr Johnston of Berwick, 
 in the lake of Dunse Castle ; and again in 1847 by 
 Miss Kirby, in the reservoirs of a canal in Leicester- 
 shire. It is now very abundant and troublesome in 
 the Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. Its rapidity of 
 "row th is extraordinary. Immense masses disfigure 
 the shallows of the Trent, and cover the beds of the 
 deeps. It strikes its shoots under the mud in a 
 lateral direction for six inches or a foot, and then 
 rises and spreads. The stems are very brittle, and 
 every fragment is capable of growing, so that the 
 means usually adopted to get quit of it serve rather 
 for its propagation. It appears, however, that water- 
 fowl are very fond of it ; and by them, probably, its 
 seeds may be conveyed from one river to another. It 
 has been found that swans may be fed upon it with 
 advantage, and its excessive growth Kept down 
 more effectually in this way than in any other. It 
 is supposed to be a great impediment to the progress 
 of salmon ascending the rivers in which it occurs ; 
 but for Some kinds of fish, it probably affords both 
 food and shelter. The manner of its introduction 
 into Britain is unknown, although it has been con- 
 jectured that it may have escaped from some garden- 
 pond — a conjecture the more doubtful, from tho 
 distance between the localities in which it was first 
 found; but its rapid increase is of great scientific 
 interest, in connection with the important subject 
 of the distribution of species. As being calcidated 
 to block up water-courses, the plant involves some 
 serious economic considerations. 
 
 ^ AXACHA'RSIS, a Scythian and brother of King 
 Saulios, visited Athens in the time of Solon, with 
 whom he lived on terms of intimacy, but whose 
 abilities for framing a constitution he does not seem 
 to have estimated highly. Incited by a love of 
 learning, he subsequently travelled through several 
 countries. On account of his clearness of under- 
 standing, he was numbered among the seven wise 
 men ; and many sagacious proverbs and sayings 
 were ascribed to him. No other ' barbarian ' ever 
 received the Athenian franchise, The letters which 
 bear his name were written long after his time. It 
 is said that, after his return to his native land, he 
 was put to death by order of the king, who feared 
 the introduction of the mysteries belonging to the 
 Greek religion, in which it was supposed that A. 
 had been initiated. 
 
 Under the title, Voyage du Jeune Anacharxis en 
 Oria (Travels of the young Anacharsis in Greece), 
 Jean Jacques Barthelemy, a well-known French 
 author (q. v.), wrote a description of Greek life and 
 manners, displaying learning and good taste, but 
 disfigured by many anachronisms. A. is made to 
 visit Athens only a few years before the birth of 
 Alexander the Great, and the features of several 
 distinct periods in Grecian history are confusedly 
 regarded as having been contemporaneous. The 
 book, therefore, will not bear a critical examination ; 
 but it has contributed its share towards an improved 
 knowledge of ancient life, and has given rise to 
 several similar works, such as the Gallus and 
 Charides of Becker. The A. of Barthelemy has 
 been translated into English, and is to be found in 
 most old libraries; it is still a deservedly esteemed 
 work, which may be read with advantage by the 
 young. 
 
 ANA'CHRONISM, an error in chronology. 
 Sometimes an A. is purposely made for the sake of 
 effect, or to bring certain events within convenient
 
 ANACREON-AN.E.STHESIA. 
 
 compass for dramatic purposes. Shakspeare, in his 
 Julius Ccesar, makes the ' clock ' strike three ; and 
 Schiller, in his Piccolomini, speaks of a 'lightning- 
 conductor' as existing about 150 years before the 
 date of its invention. These discrepancies, however, 
 do not seriously injure the general truth of a poetical 
 work. The A. is more offensive when, in a work 
 which pedantically adheres to the costumes and other 
 external features of old times, we find a modern 
 style of thought and language, as in the old French 
 dramas of Corneille and Racine. In popular epic 
 poetry, A. is a common feature. Achilles is always 
 young ; Helena, always beautiful. In their versions 
 of old classic traditions, the writers of the middle 
 ages converted Alexander, ^Eneas, and other ancient 
 heroes, into good Christian knights of the 12th c. 
 In the Nibehmgen-lied, Attila and Theodoric are 
 good friends and allies, though the latter began to 
 same 40 years after the former. At the end of 
 the poem, the heroine, who must have been nearly 
 sixty years old, and had passed through great 
 affliction and sorrow, is still 'the beautiful Queen 
 Kriemhild.' — Many ludicrous examples of A. may 
 be found in old paintings — e.g., Abraham, Isaac, 
 and Jacob in modern costumes. 
 
 .ANA'CREON, one of the most esteemed lyric 
 of Greece, was born at Teos, a seaport of 
 Ionia, spent part of his youth in Abdera, to which 
 place most of his fellow-townsmen emigrated when 
 the city was taken by the Persians in 540 B.C., and 
 rose- to fame as a poet about 530 B.C. He was patron- 
 ised by Polycrates, the ruler of Samo3, who invited 
 him to his court; and there he sang, in light and 
 flowing strains, the praise of wine and beauty. After 
 the death of Polycrates, he went to Athens (521 B. C), 
 and was received with distinguished honour by Hip- 
 parchus. On the fall of Hipparchus, he left Athens, 
 and probably returned to Teos, from which, during 
 the insurrection of Ionia against Darius, he fled to 
 Abdera, where he died, at the age of 85. Accord- 
 ing to tradition, he was choked by a dried grape. 
 Great honours were paid to him after his death ; 
 Teos put his likeness upon its coins, and a statue 
 was raised to him on the Acropolis of Athens, which 
 represented him in a state of vinous hilarity. 
 
 Only a few of his poems have been preserved. Of 
 five Books which once existed, only 68 lyrics now 
 exist which bear his name ; but of these, compara- 
 tively few are to be confidently regarded as 
 genuine. They exhibit great simplicity and delicacy 
 of expression, fertility of invention, and variety of 
 illustration. Moore, a poet of congenial spirit, trans- 
 lated the Odes of A. into English verse. 
 
 ANACY'CLUS. Sec Pellitory of Spaix. 
 
 ANADYO'MENE ('emerging'), one of the names 
 of Venus ; a painting by Apelles, representing Venus 
 rising from the sea, and wringing her flowing wet 
 hair. Fhryne or Pancaste was supposed to have 
 supplied the model for this master-piece of Apelles. 
 The inhabitants of the island of Cos bought the 
 picture, and placed it in the temple of ^Esculapius. 
 Augustas afterwards bought it for 100 talents of 
 remitted taxes, and placed it in the temple of Venus 
 Genctrix. It is frequently described iu the Greek 
 anthology. 
 
 AN.E'MIA (from a, privative, and aima, blood) is 
 the condition generally termed poverty of blood, and 
 consists essentially of a diminution in the fibrine, 
 and especially in the proportion of red corpuscles of 
 the blood (see Blood), which in some cases of A. 
 may be so low as 27 in 1000 parts. Persons in an 
 anxmic condition have pale waxy complexions, pallid 
 lips and tongues, and if blood be drawn from them, 
 it forms a clot which is less red, and also smaller in 
 
 proportion to the serum, than blood from a healthy 
 person. 
 
 They suffer from palpitations, fainting, and head- 
 aches, sin.ing in the ears, and disturbed vision; 
 and the symptoms may simulate organic disease 
 within the head or of the heart. This A. condition 
 may be induced by repeated losses of blood, or by 
 defective nutrition, or by some cause, as in chlorosis, 
 when the balance is disturbed between the loss and 
 reproduction of the red corpuscles. 
 
 The curative treatment of A. consists in allowing 
 the patient fresh air, good nourishment, and those 
 materials which promote the formation of the defi- 
 cient elements of the vital fluid. Of these, the prin- 
 cipal is iron, of which there are several preparations. 
 This remedy has, in some instances of chlorosis, 
 doubled the proportion of red blood corpuscles in a 
 very short time. 
 
 ANjESTHE'SIA (a, privative, and niaOtfsill. sensa- 
 tion) is a term used to express a loss of sensibility 
 to external impressions, which may involve a part or 
 the whole surface of the body. In some diseased con- 
 ditions of the nervous centres, a part of the body may 
 become totally insensible to pain, while in another 
 part, sensation may be unnaturally acute, or be in 
 a state of hyperesthesia. When a nerve is divided, 
 the parts which it supplies lose their sensation ; and 
 in some diseases, as the elephantiasis graxorum, a 
 loss of sensation in patches of the skin is an early 
 and characteristic symptom. This insensibility to 
 external impressions may be either periplural — that 
 is, on the surface of the body — or central, that is, 
 from a cause acting primarily upon the brain or 
 spinal cord ; and some means of temporarily inducing 
 either of these has always been earnestly sought by 
 surgical practitioners. 
 
 In ancient writers, we read of insensibility or 
 indifference to pain being obtained by means of 
 the Indian hemp (Canabus Tndica), either inhaled 
 fir taken into the stomach. The Chinese, more than 
 1500 years ago, used a preparation of hemp, or 
 ma-yo, to annul the pain attendant upon cauterisa- 
 tion and surgical operations. Probably, they used 
 the hemp by inhalation. The Greeks and Romans 
 used mandragora for a similar purpose (poiein 
 anaisOtisian) ; and as late as the 13th c, the vapour 
 from a sponge filled with mandragora, opium, and 
 other sedatives was used. The mandragora, however, 
 occasionally induced convulsions, with other alarming 
 symptoms ; and though Bulleyn, an English author 
 (1579), mentions the possibility of putting patienta 
 who were to be cut for the stone into ' a trance or a 
 deepe terrible dreame ' by its use, it gradually 
 became obsolete and banished from the pharma- 
 copoeia ; and although it is probable that surgeons 
 occasionally endeavoured to procure A. for their 
 patients, there was no one means of doing so in 
 general use. John Baptista Porta, of Naples, in his 
 work on Natural Magic (1597), speaks of a quint- 
 essence extracted from medicines by somniferous 
 menstrua, the nature of which he does not mention. 
 This was kept in leaden vessels, perfectly closed, 
 lest the aura should escape, for the medicine would 
 vanish away. ' When it is used, the cover being 
 removed, it is applied to the nostrils of the sleeper, 
 who draws in the most subtile power of the vapour 
 by smelling, and so blocks up the fortress of the 
 senses, that he is plunged into the most profound 
 sleep, and cannot oe roused without the greatest 
 effort. .... These things arc plain to the skilfid 
 physician, but unintelligible to the wicked.' Dr 
 ■Snow BOggestB that the evanescent substance was 
 sulphuric ether, which had been described more than 
 fifty years before. In 17S4, Dr Moore, of London, 
 used compression on the nerves of a Limb requiring 
 amputation, but this method was in itself productive 
 
 221
 
 ANAGALLIS— ANAHUAC. 
 
 of much pain. In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experi- 
 menting with the nitrous oxido or laughing-gas, 
 ii jested its usefulness as an anaesthetic; and 
 m 1.S2S, Hi- Hirkman suggested carbonic add 
 gas. As early as 1795, Dr Pearson had used the 
 vapour of sulphuric ether for the relief of spasmodic 
 •flections of the respiration. The fact that sulphuric 
 ether could produce insensibility was shewn by the 
 American physicians, Godwin (1822), Mitchell (1832), 
 Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834) ; but it 
 was first used to prevent the pain of an operation 
 in 1846, by Dr Morton, a dentist of Boston. The 
 news of his success reached England on 17th 
 December 1846 ; on the 19th, Mr Robinson, a dentist, 
 and Mr Liston, the eminent surgeon, operated on 
 patients rendered insensible by the inhalation of 
 the sulphuric ether. This material was extensively 
 used for a year, when Dr J. Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, 
 discovered the anaesthetic powers of Chloroform (see 
 Chloroform), and introduced the use of it into his 
 own department, midwifery. Since that time, 
 chloroform has been the anaesthetic in general use. 
 
 Nothing could be more desirable than the power 
 of producing local A. ; but as yet no efficient and 
 satisfactory agent has been discovered. Dr Arnott 
 has indeed shewn that the application of a freezing 
 mixture of ice and salt can render a part insensible 
 to the surgeon's knife; and for dentistry, Mr 
 Morrison, of Edinburgh, has lately introduced an 
 apparatus by which a current of air, at a very low 
 temperature, can be applied to the gum. But the 
 pain of the application is often found little less 
 than that which it is intended to prevent. From 
 various causes, and especially the well-merited 
 confidence of the public in its safety, when skilfully 
 employed, chloroform continues to occupy its high 
 place as one of the greatest blessings granted to 
 man. It is proper, however, to say that it requires 
 to be used under certain precautions, and that in 
 unskilful hands its application may bo fatal. It 
 should be administered only by expert practitioners. 
 
 See On Chloroform and other A nasthetics, by John 
 Snow, Lond. 1858 ; The Obstetric Memoirs and Con- 
 tributions of Jame3 Y. Simpson, Edin. 1855 ; also an 
 article on Anaesthesia in the Westminsl' 
 Jan. 1859. 
 
 ANAGALLIS. See Pimpernel. 
 
 A'NAGRAM (fromtheGreek ana, backwards, and 
 gramma, writing), the transposition of the letters of 
 a word, phrase, or short sentence, so as to form a 
 new word or sentence. It originally signified a 
 simple reversal of the order of letters, but nas long 
 borne the sense in which it is now used. The 
 Cabalists attached great importance to anagrams, 
 believing in some relation of them to the character 
 or destiny of the persons from whose names they 
 were formed. Plato entertained a similar notion, 
 and the later Platonists rivalled the Cabalists in 
 ascribing to them mysterious virtues. Although 
 now classed among follies, or at best among ingeni- 
 ous trifles, anagrams formerly employed the most 
 serious minds, and some of the puritanical writers 
 commended the use of them. Cotton Mather, in 
 his elegy on the death of John Wilson, the first 
 pastor of Boston, in New England, mentions 
 
 His care to guide bis flock and feed his lambs 
 
 By words, works, prayers, psalms, alms, and anagrams. 
 
 The best anagrams are such as have, in the new 
 order of letters, some signification appropriate to 
 that from which they are formed. It was a great 
 triumph of the mediaeval anagrammatist to find in 
 Pilate's question, ' Quid est Veritas ? ' (What is truth ?) 
 its own answer: ' Est vir qui adest' (It is the man 
 who is here). Anagrams, in the days of their popu- 
 larity, were much employed, both for complimentary 
 
 and for satirical purposes ; and a little straining was 
 often employed in the omission, addition, or altera- 
 tion of letters, although, of course, the merit of an 
 A. depended much upon its accuracy. 
 
 I. D'Israeli {Curiosities of Literature, vol. iii.) has 
 a chapter on anagrams, which, as an exercise of 
 ingenuity, he ranks far above acrostics. Among a 
 great many considered by him worthy of record, are 
 the following : The mistress of Charles IX. of France 
 was named Marie Touchet; this becamo le charme 
 tout (I charm every one), ' which is historically just.' 
 The flatterers of James I. of England proved his 
 right to the British monarchy, as the descendant 
 of the mythical King Arthur, from his name Charles 
 James Stuart, which becomes Claims Arthur's Seal. 
 An author, in dedicating a book to the same 
 monarch, finds that in James Stuart he has a just 
 master. ' But, perhaps, the happiest of anagrams 
 was produced on a singular person and occasion. 
 Lady Eleanor Davies, the wife of the celebrated 
 Sir John Davies, the poet, was a very extraordinary 
 character. She was the Cassandra of her age, and 
 several of her predictions warranted her to conceive 
 she was a prophetess. As her prophecies in the 
 troubled times of Charles I. were usually against the 
 government, she was at length brought by them 
 into the Court of High Commission. The prophetess 
 was not a little mad, and fancied the spirit of 
 Daniel was in her, from an A. she had formed of 
 her name, 
 
 Eleanor Daviks. 
 lineal, Daniel! 
 
 The A. had too much by an I, and too little by 
 an «; yet Daniel and reveal were in it, and that 
 was sufficient to satisfy her inspirations. The court 
 attempted to dispossess the spirit from the lady, 
 while the bishops were in vain reasoning the point 
 with her out of the Scriptures, to no purpose, she 
 poising text against text : one of the deans of the 
 arches, says Heylin, shot her through and through 
 with an arrow borrowed from her own quiver ; he 
 took a pen, and at last hit upon this excellent A. : 
 
 Dame Eleanor Davies. 
 Acvcr so mad a Ladie ! 
 
 The happy fancy put the solemn court into laughter, 
 and Cassandra into the utmost dejection of spirit. 
 Foiled by her own weapons, her spirit suddenly 
 forsook her ; and either she never afterwards 
 ventured on prophesying, or the A. perpetually 
 reminded her hearers of her state — and we hear no 
 more of this prophetess.' 
 
 On a visit to King's Newton Hall, in Derbyshire, 
 Charles II. is said to have left written on one of 
 the windows, Cras ero lux (To-morrow I shall be 
 light), which is the A. of Carolus Hex. 
 
 ANAHUA'C, a Mexican term, said to signify 
 ' near the water.' Its application is vague in the 
 extreme. It is either a plateau or a ridge. As a 
 ridge, again it oscillates between the continuation 
 of the Kocky Mountains, below lat. 40° N., and 
 that branch of the chain which runs nearly parallel 
 to the upper course of the Bio Bravo del Norte ; 
 and as a plateau, it designates either the whole of 
 the table-land of Mexico or certain portions thereof, 
 more or less extensive, with the capital as a common 
 centre. Practically, if one acceptation is more 
 generally admitted than another, A. may be re- 
 garded as the largest of those plateaus — a defini- 
 tion which, with reference to the number of lakes, 
 seems more peculiarly to suit the etymology of 
 the word. See further, Cordilleras op Central 
 America — a description which, for want of a briefer 
 and better one, may be made to embrace all that 
 less regular section of the backbone of America 
 which lies between the simple formations of the
 
 AN AKIM— ANALOGY. 
 
 Andes to the south and the Rocky Mountains to 
 the north. 
 
 A'NAKIM, a gigantic race of people, whose 
 stronghold was Kirjath-arba, in the south of Pales- 
 tine. In the opinion of some biblical critics, they 
 were not Canaanites, as they are not included 
 in the list of devoted nations ; others, again, con- 
 clude from the fact that invariably mention is made 
 only of three individuals or families, that the name 
 is appellative rather than gentile, and that the A 
 were merely particular tribes of the wide-spread and 
 powerful Amorites, distinguished for their unusual 
 stature. Be that as it may, the Israelites considered 
 them too dangerous for neighbours, and consequently 
 subjected them to the same stern treatment as the 
 rest. It was the A. whose appearance so terrified the 
 Hebrew spies who entered the Land of Promise 
 from Kadesh-barnea. Those who escaped the sword 
 of Joshua fled to the country of the Philistines; 
 and it has been conjectured that Goliath and the 
 other Philistine giants were their descendants ; a 
 supposition probable enough, when we reflect that 
 the particular places in which the fugitive A. took 
 refuge were Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. The word 
 Anak means a necklace or neck-chain ; and some 
 have supposed that these giants received that name 
 from the circumstance of their wearing such orna- 
 ments proudly round their necks ; others translate 
 the word A by ' long-necked men,' or men with 
 long-stretched necks, i. e., men of great height. The 
 A, nowever, in all probability, immediately derived 
 their name from Anak, the son of Arba. 
 
 ANAKOLU'THOX is a term employed both in 
 Grammar and Rhetoric, to denote the absence of 
 strict logical sequence in the grammatical construc- 
 tion. Good writers sometimes sacrifice this logical 
 sequence to emphasis, clearness, or graceful arrange- 
 ment. In colloquial speech, nothing is more com- 
 mon than examples of A. 
 
 ANAL GLANDS. Under this name may be 
 described a large and diversified group of glands, 
 found in many animals, and generally characterised 
 by the disagreeable odour of their secretion. Those 
 to which the name most strictly belongs are of fre- 
 quent occurrence among carnivora and rodents; they 
 consist of follicles which pour their secretion into 
 sacs with muscular walls and narrow orifices, placed 
 one on each side of the anus. According to the 
 most recent investigations, it appears that these 
 sacs are to be considered as prolongations inwards of 
 the common integument, and that two sorts of 
 glands open into them ; one of a lobulated struc- 
 ture, having a fatty secretion, and representing the 
 sebaceous glands of the skin greatly hypertrophied ; 
 the other crowded more at the bottom of the sac, 
 tulmlar, and elaborating the specific secretion. In 
 the hyasna, there is a single sac, which opens by a 
 transverse fissure above the vent There is a gra- 
 dual passage from true A G. to others of a somewhat 
 different character. Thus, there are glands called 
 inguinal in the hare and rabbit — little bare places 
 pouring out an unctuous secretion, which are held to 
 be equivalent to A. G., only not enclosed in sacs. 
 The civet cat has an anal sac on each side of the 
 vent ; and also two other sacs opening by a common 
 outlet in front of the vent ; and from the 
 latter is derived the substance known as civet, 
 which the negroes seek for on the trees where 
 it has been left by the civet cats. The civet 
 gland furnishes a natural link between the A 
 G. and those more closely connected with the 
 genital apertures, called preputial. The most remark- 
 able are those of the beaver, large sacs found both 
 in the male and female, and which furnish the 
 
 castoreum of commerce. The beaver has true A. 
 G. besides. The sac which contains the musk of 
 the musk-deer lies in the middle line beneath the 
 skin of the abdomen, and opens at the prepuce. 
 The secretion peculiar to badgers, polecats, and 
 skunks, and which they use as an instrument of 
 defence, shielding themselves from their adversaries 
 by an overpowering and intolerable odour, cornea 
 from a pouch situated beneath the tail. In some 
 animals, we meet with secretions similar to some of 
 the above, poured out on other parts of the body. 
 Thus, in the bat there are glands on the face opening 
 above the mouth, which prepare a fetid oily secre- 
 tion ; the so-called lachrymal follicles of ruminants, 
 and the cutaneous glands of the tail of the deer 
 secrete a dark unctuous humour ; and the temporal 
 gland between the eye and the ear of the elephant 
 pours out an oily substance at rutting-time. The 
 peccary has an odoriferous gland on its back ; and 
 the crocodile has a musk-sac under the lower 
 jaw. Anal sacs opening immediately behind the 
 vent are also found in the crocodile and in many 
 serpents. 
 
 ANALOGUE, a term in Comparative Anatomy. 
 Organs are analogous to one another, or are analogues, 
 when they perform the same function, though they 
 may be altogether different in structure ; as the 
 wings of a bird, and the so-called wings of the flying 
 lizard. Organs, again, are homologous, or homologues, 
 when they are corresponding parts in the skeleton, 
 however different their form and function. Thus, the 
 arms of a man, the pectoral fins of a fish, and the 
 "wings of a bird, are homologues of one another. See 
 Homology. 
 
 ANA'LOGY, a term originally Greek, and which 
 signifies an agreement or correspondence in certain 
 respects between things in other respects differ- 
 ent Euclid employed it to signify proportion, 
 or the equality of ratios, and it has retained 
 tlus sense in mathematics ; but it is a term 
 little used in the exact sciences, and of very fre- 
 quent use in every other department of knowledge 
 and of human affairs. In Grammar, we speak of the 
 A of language, i. e., the correspondence of a word 
 or phrase with the genius of the language, as learned 
 from the manner in which its words and phrases are 
 ordinarily formed. A., in fact, supposes a rule 
 inferred from observation of instances, and upon the 
 application of which, in other instances not pre- 
 cisely, but in some respects, similar, we venture, with 
 more or less confidence, according to the degree of 
 ascertained similarity, and according to the extent 
 of observation from which our knowledge of the 
 ride has been derived. The opposite to A. is 
 Anomaly (Gr. irregularity) ; and this term is used 
 not only in Grammar, but with reference to objects 
 of Natural History which in any respect are excep- 
 tions to the ordinary rule of their class or kind 
 In the progress of science, analogies have been dis- 
 covered pervading all nature, and upon which con- 
 clusions are often based with great confidence and 
 safety. Reasoning from A indeed warrants only 
 probable conclusions ; but the probability may 
 become of a very high degree, and in the affairs of 
 life we must often act upon conclusions thus attained. 
 Reasoning from A., however, requires much caution 
 in the reasoncr. Yet even when its conclusions are 
 very uncertain, they often serve to guide inquiry 
 and lead to discovery. Many of the most brilliant 
 discoveries recently made in Natural Science were 
 the result of investigations thus directed. Where 
 the proper evidence of truth is of another kind, 
 arguments from A. are often of great use for the 
 removal of objections. It is thus that they are 
 employed by Bishop Butler in his A. of H-ligion, 
 
 223
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and 
 of Nature. In Law, reasoning from A. must 
 often, to a certain extent, lie admitted in t )i. • appli- 
 cation of statutes to particular cases. Upon similar 
 reasoning the practice of medicine very much 
 depends. To discover the meaning of any composi- 
 tion, it is also often necessary; the sense of the 
 author in a passage somewhat obscure being in some 
 measure determined according to passages in which 
 he has expressed himself more clearly. The appli- 
 cation of this rule to the interpretation of Scripture 
 is a point "f difference between Protestants and 
 Roman Catholics, the latter insisting upon tin- 
 interpretation of difficult passages by ecclesiastical 
 tradition and authority. The extension of it to the 
 whole Scriptures, however, depends upon the admis- 
 sion of their inspiration ; but this, when fully 
 admitted, warrants a more confident use of analogi- 
 cal reasoning than in the case of the works, or c Yen 
 of a single work, of an uninspired author. Protest- 
 ant theologians have very generally employed, with 
 reference to this rule of interpretation, the phrase 
 'A. of Faith,' deriving it from Rom. xii. ; but the 
 in. aning of the expression in that verse is disputed. 
 However, the reality of an A. of faith, and the right 
 of reasoning from it, are not affected by any criticism 
 on that verse. 
 
 ANA'LYSIS (Or.), the resolution of a whole into 
 its component parts. In mental philosophy, this 
 term is applied to the logical treatment of an idea so 
 as to resolve it into other ideas which combine to 
 form it. A judgment or proposition may thus also 
 be analysed. The opposite of A. is Synthesis [q. v.) ; 
 and the opposition of these terms is common in 
 other branches of science as well as in mental philos- 
 ophy. We speak of an analytic method in science, 
 and of a synthetic method : and both are necessary, 
 the one coming to the assistance of the other to 
 secure against error, and promote the ascertainment 
 of truth. The analytic method proceeds from the 
 examination of facts to the determination of prin- 
 ciples ; whilst the synthetic method proceeds to the 
 determination of consequences from principles 
 known or assumed. The test of perfection in a 
 theory is the harmony of the results obtained by the 
 methods of A. and synthesis. 
 
 Mathematical A., in the modern sense of the term, 
 is the method of treating all quantities as unknown 
 numbers, and representing them for this purpose by 
 symbols, such as letters, the relations subsisting 
 among them being thus stated and subjected to 
 further investigation. It is therefore the same thing 
 with Algebra, in the widest sense of that term, 
 although the term algebra is more strictly limited to 
 what relates to equations, and thus denotes only the 
 first part of A. The second part of it, or A. more 
 strictly so called, is divided into the A. of Finite 
 Quantities, and the A. of Infinite Quantities. To the 
 former, also called the Theory of Functions, belong 
 the subjects of Series, Logarithms, Curves, Ac. The 
 A. of Infinites comprehends the Differential Calculus, 
 the Integral Calculus, and the Calculus of Variations. 
 To the diligent prosecution of mathematical A. by 
 minds of the greatest acuteness, is to be ascribed the 
 great progress both of pure and applied mathematics 
 within the last two centuries. 
 
 The A. of the ancient mathematicians was a thing 
 entirely different from this, and consisted simply in 
 the application of the analytic method as opposed to 
 tie- synthetic, to the solution of geometrical questions. 
 That which was to be proved being in the first 
 place assumed, an inquiry was instituted into those 
 things upon which it depended, and thus the investi- 
 gation proceeded, as it were, back, until something 
 was reached which was already ascertained, and 
 from which the new proposition might be seen by 
 
 necessary consequence to flow. A reversal of the 
 steps of the inquiry now gave the synthetical proof 
 of the proposition. The modern mathematical A. 
 affords a much more easy and rapid means of solving 
 geometrical questions; but the ancient A. also 
 afforded opportunity for the exercise of much acute- 
 ness, and was the chief instrument of the advance- 
 ment of mathematical science until comparatively 
 recent times. The invention of it is ascribed to 
 Plato ; but of the works of the ancients on geometri- 
 cal A. none are extant, except some portions of those 
 of Euclid, Apollonius of Perga, and Archimedes. 
 
 ANALYSIS, in Chemistry, is the term applied 
 to that department of experimental science which 
 has for its object the chemical disunion or separation 
 of the constituents of a compound substance : thus, 
 the resolution of water into its components hydro- 
 gen and oxygen; of common salt into chlorine and 
 sodium; of marble into lime and carbonic acid; of 
 rust into iron and oxygen; of sugar into carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen ; and of chloroform into 
 carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine — are all examples 
 of chemical A. This department of chemistry, 
 therefore, takes cognizance of the breaking down 
 of the more complex or compound substances into 
 their more simple and elementary constituents, and 
 is antagonistic to chemical synthesis, which treats 
 of the union of the more simple or elementary bodies 
 to produce the more complex or compound. Chemi- 
 cal A. is of two kinds: Qualitative A., which deter- 
 mines the quality or nature of the ingredients of 
 a compound, without regard to the quantity of each 
 which may be present; and i/ua>itilative A., which 
 calls in the aid of the balance or measure, and 
 estimates the exact proportion, by weight or volume, 
 in which the several constituents are united. Thus, 
 qualitative A. informs us what water, marble, com- 
 mon salt, &c, are composed of ; but it remains for 
 quantitative A. to tell us that water consists of 1 
 part of hydrogen by weight united with 8 parts of 
 oxygen; that marble is composed of 28 parts of 
 lime, and 22 of carbonic acid ; common salt, of 354 
 parts of chlorine, and 23 of sodium ; turpentine, of 
 30 carbon, and 4 hydrogen ; chloroform, of 12 
 carbon, 1 hydrogen, and 1061 chlorine. 
 
 The divisions of inorganic (mineral) chemistry and 
 organic (vegetable and animal) chemistry have led 
 to a corresponding classification of chemical A. 
 into inorganic A., comprehending the processes fol- 
 lowed and the results obtained in the investigation 
 of the atmosphere, water, soils, and rocks ; and 
 organic A., treating of the modes of isolation, and 
 the nature, of the ingredients found in or derived 
 from organised structures — viz., plants and animals. 
 Both departments afford examples of what are called 
 proximate and ultimate A. Proximate A. is the reso- 
 lution of a compound substance into components 
 which are themselves compound : thus, in inorganic 
 chemistry, marble is resolved into lime (calcium 
 united with oxygen) and carbonic acid (carbon with 
 oxygen) ; whilst ultimate A. comprehends the 
 disunion of a compound into its elements or the 
 simplest forms of matter: thus, lime into calcium 
 and oxygen ; carbonic acid into carbon and oxygen ; 
 water into hydrogen and oxygen. Organic chem- 
 istry affords still better examples of each class : 
 thus, ordinary wheat-flour, when subjected to proxi- 
 mate A., yields, as its proximate components, gluten 
 (vegetable fibrin), albumen, starch, sugar, gum, oil, 
 and saline matter; but each of these proximate 
 ingredients is in itself compound, and when they 
 undergo ultimate A., the gluten and albumen 
 yield, as their ultimate elements or constituents, 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and 
 phosphorus ; and the starch, sugar, gum, and oil are 
 found built up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
 
 A NAM— AX A ST 
 
 8 rveral other! inns are in use in chemical treatises : 
 thus, Oat A. i I applii ■ I t' < the processes employed in 
 of the various gases, and is every 
 day becoming of more and more importance and 
 A. includes the smelting of 
 metallic ores, ti .' gold, silvi 
 
 and. in general, i ig that pertains to the 
 
 ultimate A. of metallic • ■< and compound 
 tural A. is p jtricl id i p the examination of manures, 
 1 soils ; Medical or /'/ 
 
 and i ither animal 
 
 fluids and juic - and I a .tion of mi - 
 
 ; whilst ' I A. is the 
 
 used where great accuracy or nicety of detail is 
 
 [tared in an A., but where the commercially 
 
 are determined, as the 
 
 I >hates, 
 
 amiiM: Ikaline salts in a sample of guano; 
 
 ital amount of saline matter in a certain water; 
 
 the iron in an iron.-iti.in-, the lime in a limestone, &c. 
 
 A -. sr.v'i n u. ( 'iir.Mi-n:v is that department of 
 
 chemistry which tikes cognizance of analyses. The 
 
 analyl >me peculiar apparatus, 
 
 together with rea ly solutions, by the 
 
 addition or reaction of which the nature and amount 
 
 of the ingredients of a compound are determined. 
 
 AXA'.M, a feudatory dependency of China, in the 
 
 portion of Further India, comprising, from the 
 
 Celestial Empire southwards, Tonquin, Cochin China, 
 
 and part of Cambodia. It lies between lat. 90° 
 
 and 23 X.. and t> tween long. 102° and 109° E. It3 
 
 about 98,000 square miles — considerably more 
 
 than that of Great Britain ; while its population 
 
 mated at 5,000,000, all Buddhists, es 
 what is singular enough, about 400,000 Christians. 
 The inhabitant-', howe v er, are not noted for the 
 earnestness of their religious feelings. Their sense 
 of the supernatural manifests itself principally in 
 nee for the dead, whose obsequi 
 I with great splendour. The Anamese lan- 
 guage resembles the Chinese. It is monosyllabic 
 rah, and contains no literature. Whatever of 
 found in A. is borrowed from their 'Celestial' 
 kinsmen in the north. They have a maritime taste, 
 eel in ship-building. The king himself seems 
 p them busy in this way, for, besides having 
 800 war-craft, he monopolises, by means of 1 
 
 Is, the fore of his dominions. The 
 
 climate is said t^ ! ous, and the soil to be 
 
 productive— features which, combined as tie 
 with some of the best harbours in the world, reconi- 
 A. alike for commerce and for colonisation. 
 France appears to appreciate, for it 
 is at this moment making its third attempt to j 
 an ascendency in the country, the first havii 
 made as far back as the days of Louis XVI. 
 
 AN'AMIllTA. See COCCDLDS) I 
 AXA'XAS. E :-le. 
 
 A X All 1 ilV (from the Cr. a, privative, and arch?, 
 government), the state of society without any 
 regular government) when a country is torn by the 
 
 I 00 law or authority r 
 Complete A. is n iceesarily rare and of short dura- 
 i . but conditions approaching to it oft- n 
 after revolutions and abuses in government ; 
 
 and in sueh cas is it is apt to become, as in thi 
 American , a chronic nr permanent evil, 
 
 attend I tint national d 
 
 AXARUHICHAS. See Woi.f nsit. 
 
 A'NAS, a Liimsean genus of bird ' 1 in the 
 
 order / ' I '■'. ited bird 
 
 of Cuvier, and divided by n » at ornithologists into 
 a number of genera; one of whi eg the 
 
 name A., contains the true Ducks, and others c 
 14 
 
 the Sin Scoters [Oid 
 
 Garrets I , ,■,, shards 
 
 Hers (AV Shiekttakes 
 
 ('/'././ 1 
 
 vt) and Flamingo 
 the family.' ,ts. Cuvier 
 
 places them in a family called by ! 
 and d 1 by a thick bill, horny only at 
 
 the nail-like extremity, and i iwith 
 
 asoft skin, thi or with 
 
 small teeth parte 
 
 id from the mud , often 
 
 taken into the bill along with it. The lamin 
 
 i bill, are the chief cha 
 of the old genus A. 8 ducks, sub- 
 
 sist in great part on small insects; otic 
 and swans, almost exclusively on food, 
 
 are very numerei d over all 
 
 parts of the world, some of them very abundant 
 in the polai are important for their 
 
 feathers or down, others for their flesh and lor 
 their c i domesticated, and are 
 
 commonly kept for economic uses. .See Du< k, 
 Goose, Swan, Eider, Babnacub, Teal, &c. 
 
 AXASTA'Sirs I., Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 
 born in the Becond half of the 7th c He 
 
 favoured the party of iconoclasts, or image-breakers. 
 
 He owed his eli ration to t 1 i Leon, who 
 
 exacted from him a pledge that he would assist in 
 
 traction of the images. A. kept his word; 
 
 but having made himself obnoxious to the new 
 
 emperor, Constantino Copronymus, the latter (743) 
 
 him, put out his eyes, and marched him 
 
 I the hippodrome (race-course) mounted on an 
 
 i his head to the taiL He died in 753. 
 
 AXASTASH'S. Saint, surnamed i 
 
 born in 954, and 
 
 dud in 1044 A Frenchman by birth, he finally 
 
 r various changes, at the court of 
 
 n, Duke of Hungary, where he became very 
 
 influential, and was intrusted with the ccclesie 
 
 itdon of tie- land. All his energies v. i 
 
 airing the triumph of the Christian faith. 
 AXASTASH'S I. v ■ I pope, or rather 
 
 bishop of Rome, in 39S icceeded Siricius, 
 
 r after the death of Ambrose. Under his 
 pontificate, flourished Chrysostom, Augustine, and 
 Jerome. The most conspicuous act of his life 
 was the reconciliation of the church of Antioch 
 with that of Borne, after a schism of 17 years. 
 Among the attributed t-> A., two are 
 
 obviously apocrypha] ; the one addn sa d to Nere- 
 nianus; the other, to the German bishops. The 
 lath i- comm faithful to remam stand- 
 
 ing while thi I read in the churches, that 
 
 neophytes should only on the 
 
 recommendation of live bishops, and that the Mani- 
 chieans, who had b I Eroi i !'■ me, should 
 
 admitted into Germany. But the first of 
 these epistles is posterior to the death of A., and the 
 second, anterior to his accession to the pontificate. 
 
 A. was vehemently op] 1 to the di 
 
 l, one of whose work * (Peri Arch in, Le., ' 
 
 .i aed as heretical. 
 
 For this, he i - who calls him a 
 
 man of a holy life, and of an 
 
 apostol: ' coun- 
 
 ■ ■ b ild, atCartb I tinonle,] 
 
 and Toll lo. He died D ■. 1!. 401 A.D. 1 
 
 I 
 II. (4!Hi 498), A\en.ii, 01 (911—913), 
 ANA-TA-irs IV. (1153- I 
 
 ANASTASIUS [., em] ror of the East, was 
 
 born in 430 a. v., at Dyrrachium, in Epirus, of an
 
 ANASTATIC PRINTING ANATOLIA. 
 
 family. The early portion of his life is 
 . i bo history. On the death of Z 
 prod i nap tat by the senate, and drowned on 
 
 1 491, at the age of 60. He or 
 
 elevation to Ari •■•• of Zeno, whom he 
 
 married. No monarch was ever more notable for 
 
 icsies. One of his generals, Vitalian, taking 
 
 advantage of this unpopular feature of his character, 
 
 l Thrace, Scythia. and Mo 
 
 to promi- the ortho- 
 
 dox bishops whom he hail banish. ■.: 
 himself the title of Governor of Thi 
 
 ■.1 some good natural at 1 per 
 
 aed certain praiseworthy actions. Be 
 ne] and degrading spectaolee wher 
 
 ; . abolished the sale of offio b, the 
 
 ondoi lestio animals, whi. b 
 days ii 'ii, built a wall on side of 
 
 i pie to defend it from I ions of 
 
 the barbarians, constructed aqueducts in the i 
 Hi. rapolis, made a harbour at CsBsarea, and r 
 the 'pharos' or light-house at Alexandria. 1 1 
 8th July 51S.— Anastasus II., emperor of the 
 .in about the middle of the 7th c, and 
 , 719 A.B. His great aim was to n 
 peace to the church, but his measures led to his 
 deposition. 
 ANASTATIC PRINTING. 
 ANASTATICA. See ROSE OF •! I RICH». 
 
 ANASTOMOSIS (Gr. the making of a i 
 or opening), an anatomical term used to i 
 the union of the vessels which carry blood or 
 fluids, and also, for convi nience' Bake, the junction 
 of nerves. The veins and 
 to form large single trunks, as they approach 
 ultimate destinations. The arteries break up into 
 small branches, for the supply of the tissues, and 
 mall vessel, again, communicates with others 
 given off above and below. 
 / joint there is very free A., so that 
 
 ( afety of the limb beyond may not 
 
 vs. be entirely dependent on the 
 art rial trunk past ing into it, e 
 
 fc is to all tl .■ ' tractive influences 
 ' of the different motions of the limb. 
 After the main artery has been perma- 
 )\ nently obstructed, the anastomosil 
 
 sels enlarge, so as to compi nsate for the 
 ut after a time, only those whose 
 course most resembles the parent trunk 
 continue enlarged, and the others gradu- 
 ally regain their ordinary dimensions. 
 An idea of the profusion oi I 
 IfS 1 - mosing system may be formed from the 
 * fact, that if the mnominata art 
 
 great vessel destined for the supply of 
 
 the right upper half of the body, I 
 
 and those on the left side injected with 
 
 size and vermilion, the injection will 
 
 flow freely into the arteries of tb 
 
 arm, through branches as minute as they 
 
 arc numerous. 
 
 (Gr., '■ or hung up or 
 
 anastomos- 
 ing. 
 
 ANA'TIIE.UA 
 
 apart — i. c., as con ■ ly sig- 
 
 nifying some offering or gift to Deity, generally sus- 
 pended in the temple. Thus, we read in Luke 
 xxL 5, that the temple was adorned 'with goodly 
 stones and gifts' {anathemas}). It also Bigmfies a 
 sacrifice to God; and, as the animals devoted to 
 be sacrificed could not be redeemi .1 from death, the 
 was ultimately used in its strongest sense, 
 implying eternal perdition, as in Horn. IX 3; Gal. 
 i id 9; and other places. In the Catholic Church, 
 from the 9th c, a distinction has been made between 
 excommunication and anathematising; the latter 
 3S6 
 
 I lie extrcmo form of denunciation against 
 
 iders. The synod oi I .; . i i. m n:.o, 
 
 nod that all tran jree on who refused to 
 
 submit to di oipline, such as penance, should bo 
 
 not merely excommunicated, but anathematised, 
 
 and deprived of every kind of Christian hop., and 
 
 inn. Such a sentence coidd not be pro- 
 
 I without the concurrence of the provincial 
 
 with their metropolitan. See ExOOMMl -i- 
 
 ANATO'LTA (dr. Anatolc, tb .. from 
 
 intinople) is the modern nam hlinor; 
 
 Turkish, Anadoli. It may be cm 
 
 il.-i ; the bouiidarj line on the 
 
 east between it and Armenia and Mesopotam 
 natural, cannot be well defined. Thi 
 
 of the peninsula exceeds 20(1,(1110 eqv ■ i ' 
 It constitutes the western prolongation of the 
 lile-land of Armenia, with its border moun- 
 inges. The interior consists of a great pi 
 or, rather series of plateaus, rising in gradation from 
 •J 100 to 5000 feet, with bare steppes, salt plains, 
 marshes, and lakes; the structure is volcanic, and 
 there are several conical mountains, one of which, 
 b (ArgffiUS), with two craters, rises 10,000 
 i .hove the plain of Kaisarijeli, which ha 
 
 i of 1 i 2000 and 3000 feet. The 
 
 plateau is bordered on the north by a long train of 
 
 parallel mountains, varying from 4000 to linoo IV t 
 
 1 1 t up into groups by cross valleys. These 
 
 bains sink abruptly down on the north 
 
 a narrow strip of coast; their slopes towards the 
 
 ! '• and bare of wood. Similar is the 
 
 :.!■ oi the border ranges on the south, the 
 
 it, Taurus, only that they are more continuous 
 
 and hi , to the north of the Bay of Skan- 
 
 .1' run or [SSUS, 10 — 12,000 feet, and further to the 
 
 s— 9000 feet. The west bord rsected 
 
 by num. rous valleys, opening upon the Archi] 
 
 ii the highlands of the ancient ('aria, Lydia, 
 and Mysia, to the northern part of which M 
 
 i Olympus belong. Between the highli i 
 
 i lie the fertile coast-lands oi tl 
 vers of A. are not considerable; the lai 
 hi] Irmak (Iris), the Kisil lrin.ik ( I 
 and the Sakkarial rius), flowing in 
 
 Black Sea; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and Minder 
 (Meander) into the iEgean. 
 
 The dirnaie wears on the whole a south-Kin 
 character; but a distinction must be made of four 
 The central plateau, nearly destitute of 
 (TOO 1 and water, has a not climate in summer, and 
 a cold in winter; the south coast has mild win 
 
 orching summers; while on the coast of the 
 ■n I here is the mildest of climates and a d 
 Scent vegetation. On the north side, the climate is 
 not so mild, nor the productions of so tropical a kind 
 as on the west; yet the vegetation is most luxuriant, 
 and a D i trtful or richer tract than the coast 
 from the Sea of Marmora to Trebizond, is hardly to 
 be found. The whole peninsula, however, is liable to 
 earthquakes. 
 
 I i point of natural history, A. forms the transi- 
 tion from the continental character of the I 
 
 iritime character of the West. The forest- 
 trees and cultivated plants of Europe are seen 
 d with the forms peculiar to the East. 'The 
 I plateau, which is barren, except where thi re 
 i means of irrigation, has the character of an 
 ■ steppe, more adapted f or the flocks and herds 
 of nomadic tribes than for agriculture ; while the 
 coasts, rich in all European products, fine fruits, 
 olives, wine, and silk, have quite the character of the 
 south of Europe, which on the wanner and drier 
 south coast shades into that of Africa. 
 The inhabitants consist of the most various races.
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 Iha dominant race are the Osmanli Turks, who 
 number about 1,200,000, and arc spread over the 
 
 country; next to these come the Turkoi 
 
 nig to the same stock, ami speaking a i 
 of the im These are found chiefly on 
 
 the table-land, leading a nomadic life: 
 !;>.<■ liordes of nomadic Kurds. Among the moun- 
 tains east of Trebizond are the robber tribes of the 
 ! The population of the towns, in addition 
 
 to Turks, consists, in the west, chiefly of Greeks 
 and Jews ; and in the east, of Armenians ; the non- 
 Turkish population, along with Europeans in the 
 maritime marts, have the whole commerce of the 
 country in their hands. The whole populal i 
 the peninsula is supposed not to exceed 5,000,000 ; 
 
 1 of lS44madc it 10,700,000, ii 
 
 ing Armenia; but this is thought to be much over- 
 I. The political and social arrangements 
 
 itch as in the rest of Turkey (q. v.). One 
 peculiarity is the old Turkish system of vassal- 
 dynasties, the Dere-hegs (valley chi .':-;), who, like 
 the feudal lords of the middle ages in Europe, are 
 heri ditary riders and military commanders of their 
 district, under the suzerainty of the sultan. This 
 institution is in greatest force in the north-east of 
 
 ninsula. The power of these feudal chiefs, 
 however, was broken by Sultan Mahmml. 
 The whole country is divided at present int 
 
 l or governments, under governors-] 
 ■, again, into several a 
 provinces, under lieutenant-governors. The eyalets 
 are : 1. Khudavendkiar, in the north-west, including 
 ancient Mysia, the west part of Bitbynia, and part 
 of Phrygia; chief town Brussa: '_'. Kastamuni, 
 occupying the middle of the north coast, including 
 ancient l'aphlagonia, the east of Bithynia, and part 
 of l'outus ; chief town, Kastamuni : 3. Tarabosan or 
 Trabezun (Trebizond), the ancient Pontua and Col- 
 chis; capital, Trebizond: 4. Aidin, in the south- 
 
 the ancient Lydia, ('aria, and Phrygia; capital, 
 
 or Smyrna: 5. Karaman (Karainania), cast- 
 ward from Aidin, the ancient Lycia, Pamphylia, 
 I i, Lycaonia, and part of Cilicia ; chiel I 
 
 Kc.niih (iconium): 6. Adana, comprehendii] 
 rest of CUicia, Kataonia, and part of I 
 chief town, Adana : 7. Bosok, the central part of 
 
 ii insula, ancient (Jappadocia and Galatia, chief 
 
 town, Bngori or Angora : 8. Sivas, east from Bosok, 
 
 embracing parts of Pontus and Little Armenia; 
 
 chief town, Sivas. 
 
 ANATOMY (Gr.,a cutting up oi t is the 
 
 ■ of the form and structure of organic b 
 and is practically acquired by separation of the parts 
 of a body, so as to shew their distinct fori. 
 and their relations with each other, it 
 understood as applied to the human body, while the 
 A. of animals is styled ZOOTOMY, and that of plants, 
 The investigation and comparison of 
 I'uetures of the different kinds of organic 
 bodies is styled Comparative A. Theoretical A. i 
 divided into General and Si\ 
 
 GENERAL A description of the elementary 
 
 I ' I the systems and organs 
 
 arc composed, as preliminary to an examii 
 of them in their combined state in the V 
 
 1 ' GS then laws of formation 
 
 and combination, and the changes which they 
 undergo in various stages <>f life. This branch of 
 Btudy may also be styled Structural or An 
 A., and has b en first developed in recent limes, 
 lly by Bichat (1S01) and Borden, who 
 
 been followed by J. Midler, Goodsir, Mayer, 
 E II. \\ i lier, Schwann, Valentin, and many others. 
 In our day, microscopic investigation has been suc- 
 
 cessiully applied to the study of elementary texture.-. 
 See Histology, 
 
 Special A. (styled Descriptive by the French 
 writers) treats of the several parts and organs of 
 the body in respect to their form, structure, and 
 systematic connection or relation with each other. 
 The arrangement of the several parts and organs 
 in an order d , m their similarity in struc- 
 
 ture or use, constitutes Systematic A. According 
 to this mode of study, which is es«ential as an 
 introduction to physiology, A. has been divided, 
 though not with scientific precision, into six branches 
 of study. 1. Osteology, which treats of the banes, 
 including the cartdages of the joints (ckondrolu_<\ ). 
 i'. Syndesmology, which describes the ligaments, 
 or bands, that unite the bones of various joints. 
 The bones, with their cart I ligaments, 
 
 form a framework, which supports the external 
 soft parts, and within which the vital 
 
 pended and protected from injury; 
 are also arranged in a mechanical system as instru- 
 ments of motion. — 3. Ii i 
 in' the muscles, which, by their contractile- | 
 serve to impart motion to the bones and |i 
 while, like the bones, they contribute to form the 
 I of the body, and to protect the internal 
 organs. Their structure also serves to produce 
 the external shape and symmetry. — 4. Ang 
 
 bes the vessels or ducts, with their complex 
 in t-wi irk and ramifications, spreading over most parts 
 of the body, and divided into two great systems : («), 
 tin 1 blood-vessels with the heart, a fleshy organ pro- 
 pelling the blood through the pulsating vessels or 
 arteries, from which it returns to the heart, after 
 circulation through the vein3 ; (o), the lymphatics, by 
 which a certain fluid (lymph) is brought into union 
 with the blood in the organs styled lymphatic 
 elands, ami is afterwards passed into the veins. — 
 5. Neurology, or the doctrine of the nerves, describes 
 the nervous system, as divided into, first, the two 
 1 masses of the brain and the spinal column ; 
 the ramifications of nerves running from the 
 brain and spinal column to almost all points of the 
 surface; and lastly, the order of nerves ha\ 
 peculiar structure, and styled the ganglionic I 
 of nerves. — ii. Splanchnology i 
 or organs funned by combination of t 
 
 i of veins, nerves, lymphatics, &c, and mostly 
 situated in the cavities of the body. These are 
 divided into live groups, viz. : (o), the organs of sen- 
 sation — sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch; (6), 
 of voice and respiration — nostrils, mouth, larynx, 
 trachea, ami lungs, with the thyroid gland, the 
 thymus gland, and the diaphragm; (c), digestive 
 the mouth, with its salivary gland 
 gullet, the stomach, the intestines, with the 
 liver, spleen, and pancreas^ {d), the urinary organs — 
 r, and urethra; (c), . I 
 
 i , of both & 
 Special A. may be treated in another mode; 
 by an arrangement made in accordance with 
 natural divisions, or by imaginary hues divid- 
 '■ ■ body into several regions— as the head, 
 :ink, and the extremiti I, the trunk 
 
 1 abdomen; 
 
 and in each of the main regions, several subdi- 
 
 j i i in nle. This system of arrangement 
 
 may be styled Topographical a., and is also 
 
 known BS Si ROICAL A., on account of its importance 
 
 as the basis of operative surgery. It was the eldest 
 of the Monroes of Edinburgh University who Gist 
 gave this branch of the study its due pTOmini 
 
 'I ii several parts and organs of the animal body 
 will be found described under their proper heads. 
 
 History of A. — It is difficult to determine the 
 
 i which this science began to be cultivated, 
 
 but it is probable that from the earliest times some 
 
 persons took advantage of favourable circumstances 
 
 W
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 to acquaint U with it. The Druids, who 
 
 : once the priests, judges, and physii u ol 
 the people, demanded from tho who i 
 their advice human victims as sacrifices, and were 
 themselves the executioners ; and it is not ui 
 that they availed them 
 
 of acquiring anatomical knowled prob- 
 
 able, says Galen, that dSsculapius, who excelled 
 in the treatment of wouqds, dissected 
 for the instruction of his pupils. His d 
 ants, the Asclepiades, cultivated A., or rather 
 
 zootomy, and founded the three I • ools of 
 
 Cos, Rhodes, and Guides. The rabbins tell i 
 although among the Jews the touching of a dead 
 body involved ceremonial uncleanness, they ili.l 
 not entirely neglect A., which they studied from 
 the carefully preserved bones ol their an 
 and the necessary manipulations of 
 They counted -is bones, and 365 veins or ligaments, 
 which division, according to the rabbin 
 tion to the 248 precepts of the Mosaic Law that 
 md, and the 365 thatforbid. 
 
 Honer . chibita a certain amount of anal" 
 knov. lei lunds in the I ! 
 
 Pythagoras first reasoned physiologically from 
 observations made by him when in Egypt, where 
 he witnessed tie 1 sacrifices, and al yptian 
 
 methods of embalming. Alcmeon of Crot . 
 disciple of Pythagoras, first d • I animals with 
 the view of obtaining comparative knowl 
 human A. Democritus, who frequented the sepul- 
 chres, probably with anatomical views, pra 
 zootomy, and was en a ed di ecting animals 
 visited by Hippocrates. Hipp" : •'' 1 1, descended 
 in the eighteenth degree from dSsculaphis, and born at 
 Cos in 35 a.m., was tho first author who treats A. as 
 a science. He caused a skeleton of brass to b 
 which he consecrated to tie- IMphiiin Apollo, with 
 the view of transmitting to posterity pi-" ifs of the 
 progress he had made, and of si i mulai .in;; others to the 
 study of A. Ari i lived 3S1 [i.e.'., do ; mil 
 
 appear to have dissected men; and he states that 
 the parts of man are unknown to them, or that they 
 is nothing certain on the subject beyond what 
 they can draw from the probable resemblance of the 
 corresponding parts of other animal . He firstgave 
 the name aorta to the '.Teat artery. 
 
 Diodes (380 i;.r.) was the first who treated of the 
 proper manner of conducting anatomical examina- 
 tions for purposes of dem m. But no real pro- 
 gress in A. was made, owing to the n earchea b i 
 confined to animals, till the time ol Erasistratus, 
 who was born at Ceos about 300 B.C., and who was 
 the first to dissect human bodies. II" obtained from 
 Seleucus Nicanorand Antiochus Sob r (he bodies of 
 criminals, and is said to have- dissected some con- 
 demned to death while they were still alive. His 
 writings are lost, but fragments are preserved in the 
 writings of Galen. He made many discoveries, among 
 others, of the lacteal vessels. Herophilus, who lived 
 about the same time, was horn at Cartha 
 carried on his anatomical pursuit I principally at 
 Alexandria, lie also is said to have dissected 
 living subjects. Parthenius, who lived 200 
 
 B.C.. published a hunk, entitled On !■'< i 
 
 the J I "nut n Body. In the 1st c. of the Christian era, 
 the dissection of human subjects was forh 
 under heavy penalties. Rufus the Ephesian, who 
 lived 112 A. P., under the empire of Trajan, taught 
 
 A. in a more exact manner than had 1 n hit 
 
 done, and devised a more exact anatomical nomi 
 ture. He made use of animals in his demonstrations, 
 and mentions that 'of old they used for that purpose 
 human bodies.' 
 
 Galen (131 a.t>.) dissected apes, as being most 
 like human subjects, though he occasionally obtained 
 228 
 
 bodies of chi] din the field , or of persons 
 
 found murdered, which, however, he was obllj i I to 
 a There was at this time no regularly 
 
 1 keleton, as i here « n i a law at Rome 
 forbidding the u ol dead bodii . Galen's writ- 
 hew a knowledge of human A. Soranus had 
 ive knowledge of A., derived from human 
 subjects. Moschion had Borne anatomical illustra- 
 tions engraved. Oribasius compiled more than 70 
 volumes, the 24th and 25th boing on A., principally 
 fmm Galen. 
 
 Nemi H , B bop of Nemesus, a town in Phoenicia, 
 
 cultivated A. at the end of the 4th p., in which also 
 
 Meletius li\ ed, v. ho « rote a compli te treatise On Hie 
 
 ifaturi and Structun of Man, Theophilus, a monk, 
 
 i d in th ■ 7th c. a good abridgment of the A. 
 
 in. 
 
 A. made ; uong the U-aba, which 
 
 is accounted for By their religion prohibitin 
 tact with dead bodies. When the great Arabian 
 
 physician, Rhazes, was about I i be operated or 
 
 cataract, he discovered that tie 1 surgeon was ignorant 
 of the structures of the eye, and ri fu d to Bubmit 
 to the operation. Avid una (980 a. n.), born in the 
 
 province of Khorasan, was a I o beologist, and 
 
 described some structure a luded to by Galen. 
 
 A. was now a iglected for a long period, tdl 
 Frederick II., king of Sicily (1194—1250), made a 
 law forbidding any one to practise surgery without 
 
 hiving first acquired some knowled t A. He 
 
 founded a chair at the solicitation of Martianus, 
 his chief physician, where tic science was demon- 
 strated for live years; students from all parts 
 crowded to it, and some time alter, a similar school 
 was established at Bologna these twowerelar ly 
 att -tided, but no very material progress was made 
 in A. 
 
 The university of Montpellier was founded by 
 
 Pope Nicholas I V. in 1284, and the chair of A. was 
 
 idled by Bernard Gordon with crest distinction t<>r 
 
 lars. He published a huge work, called Lilium 
 
 Medicinal. 
 
 Mundinus, horn at Milan, 1315, professed \. 
 there, and is i id the real restorer of A. in 
 
 Italy. He publicly demonstral id it, and published 
 
 .-> work which was the text-1 1. in tin- academj ol 
 
 Padua two hundred years after its publication. 
 Then came tiny de Chauliac, who first correctly 
 b d the humerus. Malleus of Grado pub- 
 l J i d several anatomical works about 14S0. Gabriel 
 de Zerbus, in 1495, published a confused and im- 
 perfect work on A. at Verona. The science continued 
 
 to be studied by surg is such as Vico (1516), 
 
 Achillinus, and Berenger (Carpi), (1518), who boasted 
 of having dissected at Bologna more than a hundred 
 subjects. Reports were raised that In- dissected living 
 Spaniards, and he lied or wa I exiled to I'Yrrara. 
 
 Andre" Lacuna (lf)35), Charles L'ticnne, Gonthier 
 
 (1536), Massa, Driander (1537), Sylvius (1539), 
 
 Levasseur, and Gesner, were celebrated for A. ; but 
 
 i pei tally Andrew Vesalius, born 1514, who published 
 
 it work on A. before b" was 28 years of age. 
 
 He had the misfortune to open the body of a v< a 
 
 Spanish nobleman whose heart was found still 
 . and was obliged to make an expiatory 
 mage to Jerusalem. In 1564, the Venetian 
 si mate recalled him to succeed, at Padua, the famous 
 Fallopius, who had just died; on his return, he wa I 
 shipwrecked on the island of Zante, where he was 
 starved to death 
 
 William Herman of Salisbury wrote, in 1530, 
 Analomia Corpora Humani(A. of Human Body); 
 thou came Ingrassias, and i there of less note. 
 
 Thomas Gemini of London, in 1545, engraved upon 
 copper the anatomical figures of Vesalius, which had 
 appeared in Germany ujion wood. Gemini sujiprcssed
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 the name of Vi alius, thou h using hie figures and 
 descriptions. Thomas Vioary, in 1548, is said to be 
 the first who wrote in English on A.; be publi bed 
 Tlf AutjlixhmmCH Tr<ttstir<\ nr tin: True A.OJ 
 Body. John Ligaeus, in 1555, published an anatomi- 
 cal treatise in Latin hexameters. Franco (155C), 
 Valvenla, ( lolumbus, and others, wrote works of grea 
 
 merit r>n A. Jn 1561, Gabriel Fallopius pi 
 
 it with great distinction at Padua, and made many 
 original ui ova 
 
 in the 17th c, progress was rapid: Hervi 
 
 1G1!>, discovered the circulati t the blood, and 
 
 tin; microscope was < in] il' ■>■ <l to di fcect the structure 
 of minute vi els. uelli, in 1622, discovered and 
 demonstrated the existence of the lymph-vi 
 ami his conclusions »viv supported by the im 
 tions of Pecquet, Bartholin, and Olaus Rudbeck. 
 The glandular organs svere investigated l.y Wharton, 
 ■while Malpighi, Swammerdam, ami (in the following 
 c) the Qlnstrions Buysch, by the use of injections 
 and the aid of the microscope, gave anew impulse to 
 chin the minute structures. Eminent names 
 in the history of A. are numerous in the ISth c. 
 In [taJy, whicn still retained its former pre-eminence, 
 we find Paccbioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, Santorini, 
 Mascagni, and Cotunni; in France, Wii 
 D" Lubenton, Lieutaud, Vicjj d'Azyr, and Ijichfit, 
 tlie founder of General A. ; in Germany, the accom- 
 plished Haller ami Mrck^l prepared the wa 
 greater achievements in the 19th e. ; in Great 
 Britain, Cowper, Cheselden, Hunter, Cruikshank, 
 Monro, and Charles Bell contributed to the pro- 
 gress of the science; while Holland was worthily 
 i. ;u. ented by Boerhaave, Albinus, Camper, Sandi- 
 feil, and Bonn. On the boundaries of the two 
 centuries, we find the names of Summering, Loder, 
 Blumenbach, Hildebrand, Real, Tiedemann, and 
 s -i l. -i- ; nearly all connected with practical medicine, 
 which was benefited by their studies in A. 
 
 The necessity of a union of theory and practice 
 has led to that zealous study of PATHOLOGICAL A. 
 
 (the dissection and study of structures as modified by 
 i i) which has recently prevailed. The origin 
 of this branch of A. may be traced back to ancient 
 times in Egypt, where post-mortem examinations 
 were sometimes made to discover the seat of disease 
 and cause of death. In the medical writings of the 
 Greeks, some anatomical -pathological observations 
 are found. I lurin I the : inr.il revival of 
 the 16th c. many notices of pathological A. occur. 
 In 1507, Benevieni of Florence wrote the first book 
 on this branch of science; and Bonet, in 1679, 
 published his compilation of numerous observationa 
 Still, these were oalj Eraj mentary indications of a 
 p i ible science, and the facts stated were often very 
 erroneously interpreted. Morgagni (17b7), who 
 most be regarded as the true founder of Pathol 
 A., was worthily followed by Lieutaud, Sandifort, 
 Hunter, Baillie, and others. Meckel the Sounger, 
 in Germany, in his study of malformations, &c, paid 
 little or oo attention to practical applications of 
 the science. The recent change of direction given 
 to the study of Pathological A., which is now 
 properly regarded as a means towan 
 improvement -i in medicine, must be ascribed to 
 
 U.ch.'it. and l!i" pupil; el |',r i, among whom 
 
 may be mentioned tine names of Laennec, Cruvi 
 Louis. Amlral, Lobstein, I, bert, Virchow, Bennett, 
 &c. In London and other large towns there are 
 ii ; devoted spi dally to the investigation of 
 pathology. 
 
 Comparative a. has always preceded anthro- 
 potomy, or dissection of the human subject, but was 
 first treated systematically as a distinct science by 
 Cuvier ami his pupil Meckel the younger. The 
 system proposed by the latter was, unfortunately. 
 
 never compl ted. Blum I inn, Home, 
 
 Blainvflle, Geoffrey St Hilaire, Cams, Oken, G 
 the German poet, ; n, John Goodsir, and 
 
 Huxley, mu at contributors to 
 
 this branch oi ience; while, in late years, zootomy 
 and comparative A. have been studied, with an 
 esp (rial reference to] .'. by Midler, Wagner, 
 
 L Bowman, Toad n Thomson. 
 
 A. mi; A i a Bra is si udii A « itb n ference to the 
 
 produced by internal structure on the 
 
 i form, ; mi lb libes the organs, especially 
 
 the mu cles and tendons, not only in a state of 
 
 rest, bin al ' i modified by passion, action, and 
 
 Consequently, observation of the nude 
 
 living form is required in this branch of study, 
 
 which I ■■' : bi a treated of b ; , E I and I 
 
 (lti'Jl); and in modern times, by Lavater (1790), 
 
 p (1792), Char! Bel I (1812), 
 
 Ms i m (1816), Koeck (1822), Gardy (1831),] 
 (1838), Salomon and Aulieh (1S41), Berger (1S42), 
 I and Gunther (1850), &c 
 
 PRACTICAL A. includes Dissection (q. v.) and the 
 making of Preparations. I'r > consists in 
 
 dividing i tarts or organs, bo that their respective forms 
 and positions may be clearly shewn. ( Irgans or parts 
 thus treated are styled Anatomical Prg 
 bones, muscles, vessels, nerves, &e. For example, 
 a bone-preparation is made by clearing away all 
 muscular and other adhesions; the whole stru 
 of the bones, thus prepared and bleached, when 
 connected by wires in its natural order, forms an 
 artificial sh ■'. 
 
 Fur preparations of parts containing vessels with 
 minute ramifications, injections are employed. Some 
 coloured fluid which has the property of gradually 
 becoming solid, is gently injected into the arteries 
 or other vessels by means of a syringe. Formerly, 
 materials which required a certain degree of warmth 
 to preserve their fluidity were used; but as thi 
 were attended with inconvenience, a great improvi - 
 meut was made by Shaw and Weber, who intro- 
 duced the use of liusecil-oil and turpentine, which, 
 when mixed with certain metallic compounds in 
 due proportions, form a fluid which, after a time, 
 becomes solid in ordinary temperatures. Quick- 
 silver and coloured lime-water arc also used for 
 injection of the finer ves els. Preparations arc cither 
 dried and varnislu .1 or preserved in 
 
 A series of such specimen - d in proper 
 
 order, forms an Anatomical Museum. 1 
 collections made by Buysch, Pan, Loder, Walter, 
 
 ad William Hunter, Meckel, Sb'mmerin 
 Dupuytren, arc all now public property. 
 is also a splendid collection in the university of 
 Edinburgh, collected and prepared for the most part 
 by John Goodsir. The Coll o 3i tins of 
 Edinbui b a] o possesses a very valuable museum 
 i I pathological preparations. As it is impossible to 
 
 ., i ve thus all parts in their integrity for any 
 great length of time, artificial copies in wood, 
 
 and wax have been made with great exactitude, 
 illy in Florence ; and recently AnzOU in Paris 
 has employed papier-mdehe for the same purpose. 
 Put, apart from dissections and preparations of 
 the natural organs, the most ' ad available 
 
 u e in the study of A. is found in anato 
 engravings and plates on wood and cupper. This 
 was know a in ancient times. Aj 
 i in his works on A. some anatomical drawings, 
 
 which have been lost In the ltith c, the greatest 
 artists— Leonardo da Vinci. Michael Aiuclo.Pnphacl, 
 Titian, and DUrer gave their aid in desi g nin g 
 ; but few of their works, in this 
 department of art, have bun preserved. Lately, 
 lithograph] he beenei loj ed Among the numer- 
 ous illustrations of A. which we now possess, the
 
 ANATOMY— ANAXAGOI5AS. 
 
 oM works by Vasal (1543),Eustachius (1714V 
 (1685), Albin (1747), Haller (174:: 1766), i ...1 Vicq 
 d'Azyr (1786 1790), may be mentioned Ihe 
 
 t century baa supplied works of lirst-rate 
 
 C Idani (Venice, 1801 — 1S14), Mas- 
 
 1826), 
 
 and Jacob (Paris, 1832), and Arnold 
 
 (Zurich, 1S38). For general use, we may 
 
 m. Leder (Weimar, 1803), Cloquet 
 1826), Osterreicher (Munich, 1827 1830), 
 1830), Bock (Leipaic, 1840), 
 
 ic, 1S4S) : in Surgical A., the works by 
 Kosenmuller (Weimar, L805), Pirogoff (Dorp, 
 and Gunther (Ha ') : in Pathological A., 
 
 Jl cki I (Leipaic, 1S17 I , ( i i Paris, 
 
 1828 1841), Froa i : Ubers (Bonn, 
 
 1832), < i0),and Vo 
 
 1843): in i \., i !arus (L it ic, ' 326) and 
 
 Wa mer (Leipaic, 1841). Amon 
 may bo mentioned those by Lo 
 Richard Quain, in Special A.; by Morton and 
 Maclise, in Surgical A. ; and by Baillie and Bright 
 in 1'atl 
 
 ANATOMY (in Law). While the study and 
 practice of A., or the art of dissecting the human 
 body, wire necessary to the pursuit of surgical 
 knowledge, there were, until the year 1832, no 
 suffice i ana in Britain of procuring dead 
 
 bodies for anatomical purposes ; and the conse- 
 quence was, the evasion, an ies even the 
 open violation of the law by persons inf 
 in supplying the surreal i 
 for dissection. The high prices, inde id 
 these subjects, may almost 1 le said to have cr 
 a lucrative and tempting trade, which led to the 
 most atrocious crimes ; and murders, with no other 
 object than the possession of the victim's body for 
 nrgeon's knife, were frequently committed. The 
 notorious case of Burke, tri.'d ana 
 the High Court of Justiciary in Edinl h, in 
 is a horrible illustration of the sfc te oi the law at 
 that time, and of the position in which it 
 surgical practitioners. It was believed that Burke 
 and his associate Hare had been the murderers of 
 sixteen persons, whose bodies they sold to the 
 anatomists. It was their practice to inveigle poor 
 
 . generally I into their houses, make 
 
 them drunk, and then smother them. Burke, 
 inform I : by Hare, was condemned for 
 
 thus disposing of an old woman, and suffered the 
 last penalty of the lav thing a new verb, 
 
 rice, to the English <ly this 
 
 state of things, an act of parliam tit was passed 
 on the 1st of August 1832, 2d and 3d William 
 I \ . e. 75, the preamble of which, sufficiently 
 
 ... 
 a knowledge of the c nature of sundry 
 
 diseases which affect the body, and of the best 
 methods of treating and curing Mich diseases, and of 
 healing and repairing divers wounds and injuries to 
 which the human frame is liable, cannot be Si 
 without the aid of anatomical examination : and 
 whereas the legal supply of human bodies for such 
 anatomical examination is insufficient fully I 
 vide the means of such knowledge : and whi 
 in order further to supply human bod 
 purposes, divers great an 
 committed, and. lately, murder, for the 
 of selling for such purposes the bodies of the | 
 so murdered: and whereas, therefore, it is highly 
 expedient to give protection, under certain r 
 tions, to the study and practice of A., and I 
 vent, as far as may be, such great and 
 crimes and murder as aforesaid' — It is thi 
 enacted, that the Secretary of State for the Home 
 Department in Great Britain, and the Chief Secretary 
 230 
 
 in Ireland, may grant a licence to practise A. to any 
 fellow or in' mber of any college of physicians or 
 
 surgeons, or t" any graduate or licentiate in medicine, 
 
 1 to practise medi- 
 cine in any part of 1 I a, or to any 
 professor or i L, medicine, oi . m- to 
 any student attending any school of A., on the appli- 
 cation of such party for such purpose, ci i 
 by two justices of the peace i the county, 
 
 borough, or place h party r 
 
 Dg that, to their knowledge or belief, 
 
 parly so applying is about to the practice 
 
 of A. The act provid ! for the appointment of 
 
 tors of schools of A., and directs them to make 
 a quarterly return to the Secretary of State, or the 
 ( fhii f Secretary, as the < be, of 
 
 removed for anatomical exam 
 in the inspector's district where A. is can 
 
 r as is known at the 
 
 then son whose body 
 
 was so removed. Ihe inspectors are further required 
 to visit and inspect places within thi r 
 districts wh re Lispr, .1 for the perform- 
 
 ance of all these i -tors are each to 
 
 n annual salary not c £100, with a 
 
 further reasonable sum for their official exp 
 By section 7, it is i t it shall be law 
 
 any executor or other party having lawful pos i 
 
 of the body of any deceased person, and not being an 
 undertaker or other party intrusted with the body, 
 for the purpose only of interment, to permit the 
 body of si Li i to I ■ 
 
 nation, unless, to the knowledge of such exe- 
 cutor or other party, such person shall hai 
 his desire, either in writing, at any time during his 
 
 life, or veil 'ally, in the presence of two or i 
 
 nesses, during the illness whereof he died, that his 
 body, after d A not undergo such exa 
 
 tion ; or unless the surviving husband or wife, or 
 any known relative of the deceased person, shall 
 the body to be interred without Buch e un- 
 ion 8, it is declared that the 
 wishes of persons who had expressed a desir 
 their bodies should be subjected to anatomical exam- 
 ination shall be respected, unless the decea n 1 person's 
 surviving husband or wife, or nearest known relative, 
 or any one or more of such person's nearest I 
 relativi of kin in the same degree, shall 
 
 re the body to be interred without such i 
 
 i. Bodies are not to be removed for examina- 
 tion until forty-eight hours after death, and without 
 a certificate by the medical attendant, stating, accord- 
 
 t he best of his knowledge or belief, the manner 
 or cause of death. The act contains a number of 
 provisions intend 1 to secure its sufficient adminis- 
 tration; but, by section 15, it is provided that it 
 shall not extend to or prohibit any post-mortem 
 examination of any human body required or dii 
 to be made by any competent legal authority; and 
 it repeals an enactment in a previous statute, 
 George IV. c. 31, which directed the bodies of 
 icution t" be dissected. 
 Tliis act of parliament is understood to ha-. 
 the evil it was designed to obviate ; and under it the 
 supply of bodies of persons dying friendless, in poor- 
 re, is stated t" hai e 
 proved sufficient for the wants of the profession. 
 
 AN" AXA't.' ( ) 1 ; AS, one of the most eminent philos- 
 ophers of the Ionic school, was born at Clazoi 
 in Ionia, 500 B. C. He belonged to a wealthy 
 and distinguished family, which circumstance may 
 1 him to devote himself exclusively to 
 intellectual pursuit -. Yet he does not seem to have 
 entered into the possession of bis property, but left 
 it to his relations. When only twenty years ol 
 he went to Athens, where, in the course of time, be
 
 A X AXIM AXDEB— AXC ELOT. 
 
 acquired a high reputation, and had several illus- 
 trious pupils, among whom were Pericles, Euripides, 
 Socrates, and Archelaus. But at last, being accused 
 of impiety towards the gods, he was condemned to 
 death. His sentence, however, was commuted into 
 banishment for life, through the eloquence of Pericles. 
 He withdrew to Lanipsacus on the Hellespont, 
 where he died in the T.'Jd year of his age. The 
 old man was accustomed to say proudly, in his 
 exile: ' It is not I who have lost the Athenians, but 
 the Athenians who ha When o 
 
 death-bed, the magistrates of the town asked what 
 funeral honours he desired; ' I boys a holi- 
 
 day,' was the quaint reply of the sage; and for 
 ral centuries the day of his death was commemorated 
 in all the schools of Lampsacus. 
 
 It is not easy to ascertain what were the opinions 
 of A. in philosophy. Fragments merely of bis works 
 have been preserved, and even these are sometimes 
 contradictory. Of one thing we are certain, that he 
 had a deeper knowledge of physical laws than any of 
 his predecessors or contemporaries. The absurdities 
 of opinion which are attributed to him are no proof 
 of the contrary, for, in his time, any attempt to 
 explain even a moderate number of the phenomena 
 of nature was sure to be attended with what i 
 body now sees to be extravagant fictions. Ik- 
 believed the heavens to be a solid vault; the stars 
 to be stones thrown up from the earth by some 
 violent convulsion, and set on fire by the ether 
 which ever burns in the upper regions of the 
 universe; the milky-way to be the shadow of the 
 earth; that the soul had an aerial body; that the 
 sun was a burning mas3 of stone, larger than the 
 Peloponnesus. But he also arrived at some tolerably 
 accurate conclusions regarding the cause of the 
 moon's light, of the rainbow, of wind, and of sound. 
 His great contribution to ancient philosophy, how- 
 was his doctrine as to the origin of all things. 
 Id that all matter existed originally i 
 condition of atoms; that these atoms, infinitely 
 ins, and infinitely divisible, had existed from 
 all eternity, and that order was first produced out of 
 this infinite chaos of minutia; through the iniluence 
 and operation of an eternal intelligence (Gr. . 
 He also maintained that all bodies were simply 
 ations of these atoms, and that a bar of gold, 
 or iron, or copper, was composed of inconceivably 
 minute particles of the same material; but he did 
 not allow that objects had taken their shape through 
 nt or blind fate, but through the agency 
 of this 'shaping spirit' or Xous, which he described 
 as inlinite, self-potent, and unmixed with anything 
 " Xous,' he again says, ' is the most pure and 
 subtle of all things, and has all knowledge about 
 all things, and infinite power.' A.'s theory is thus 
 only one step from pure theism. He makes the 
 work of the Eternal commence with providence, not 
 with creation. 
 
 The fragments of A. have been collected by 
 
 ach (Leipsic, 1827), and by Schorn (Bonn, 
 
 1829). 
 
 AXAXIMA'XDER, a Greek mathematician and 
 
 pher, the son of Praxiades, and the disoiple 
 
 and friend of Thales, was born at Miletus Gin 
 
 B.C., and died in 540. His principal study was 
 
 mathematics. He is said to have discovered tile 
 
 obliquity of the ecliptic, and certainly taught it. He 
 
 appears to have applied the gnomon, or style set on 
 
 a horizontal plai -mine the solstio 
 
 invention of geographical maps is 
 Bribed to him. As a phili specu- 
 
 lated on the origin (arche) of the phenomenal 
 world, and this principle he held to be the infinite 
 or indeterminate (to apt iron). This indeterminate 
 principle of A. is generally supposed to have been 
 
 much the same with the chaos of other philosophers. 
 From it he conceived all opposites, such as hot and 
 cold, dry and moist, to proceed through a perpetual 
 motion, and to return i I the manner 
 
 in which he imagined these opposites to be formed, 
 and of his hypothesis concerning the formation of 
 the heavenly bodies from them, we have no accurate 
 information. It would seem, however, that he did not 
 in the generation of anything in the proper 
 ' the word, but supposed that the infinite atoms 
 eir units of which the arche, or primary mat: 
 composed, merely change their relative positions in 
 obedience to a men ng in it. 
 
 of his particular 0] . that the sun is in the 
 
 highest region of the heavens, is in circumference 
 twenty-eight times greater than the earth, and 
 resembles a cylinder from which flow continual 
 streams of fire ; that eclipses are caused by the 
 stopping of the openings from which the fire flows ; 
 that the moon is also a cylindi r, nineteen times 
 greater than the earth ; and that the moon's phases 
 are caused by obliquity of position, and eclipses by 
 complete turning round. He taught that the earth 
 is of the form ot a cylinder, and that it floats in the 
 midst of the universe, that it was formed by the 
 drying up of moisture by the sun, and that animals 
 are produced from moisture. 
 
 AXAXI'MEXES, a Creek philosopher, born at 
 MUetus, flourished about 55G B.c. He 1 
 be the first cause of all things, or the primary form 
 of matter, from which all things are formed by 
 compression. 
 
 A'NBURY, a disease to which turnips are liable, 
 and which often proves of serious importance to 
 farmers, destroying the crop of entire fields. It is 
 sometimes called Club-root, because of the knobs or 
 tubercular excrescences which form upon the root 
 The root, instead of swelling into one turnip of good 
 size, generally becomes divided into a nuni 
 parts, each in some small degree swelling separately 
 by itself ; whence the popular name, Fingers and 
 Toes. The growth of the plant is arrested ; the root 
 becomes woody ; the excrescences rot, and emit most 
 offensive effluvia, which, however, appear peculiarly 
 attractive to insects of various kinds; and, accord- 
 ingly, eggs and maggots in abundance are soon to be 
 f ounel in them. It has been very generally supposed 
 that these insects, or some of them, are the cause of 
 the disease ; but the truth seems rather to be that 
 they are attracted by the diseased state of the plant 
 A. has been erroneously confounded with the • 
 cences, each containing a small grub, which are fre- 
 quent on the roots of turnips, as on those of cab ' 
 and many other cruciferous plants, alt' 
 also somefimes effect the destruction of the plant. 
 The true nature and cause of the disease are not yet 
 well known. Much attention has been devoted to 
 the subject ; and premiums have been offered in con- 
 nection with it by the Highland and Agricultural 
 Society of Scotland ; but hitherto, without eliciting 
 any certain or satisfactory information. It appears 
 probable that the disease is in some measure owing 
 to peculiarities of soil, or of manure, and to the too 
 frequent repetition of turnip-crops upon the same 
 Geld, A much greater frequency of repetition, how- 
 ever, can be safely practised in some districts, or in 
 some fields, than in others. The liberal application 
 of lime has been found advantageous as a preventive 
 of A. ; but even this often succeeds but imperf 
 and the increasing prevalence of this disease in 
 certain districts seems not unlikely to necessitate a 
 considerable modification in the system of husbanelry, 
 in which the turuip-crop has long occupied so 
 important a place, Bee Tikmp. 
 
 ANCELOT, Jacques . Aisi»>-E - Polycarpe- 
 
 »1
 
 ANCELOT— AXUim:. 
 
 i' j 9, 1794, al 
 
 Havre, where his father waB clerk i iberoi 
 
 I The latter being a well-infpnned | 
 
 man, delighting in vi ea taught h 
 
 sa from the French poets. A. was from the 
 
 otended for tion w ith the 
 
 administration of the navy; and was i mployed, until 
 the revolution of July, in tb 
 Hi-i reputation was first i in 1819 by 
 
 his tragedy of Louis IX., which i fifty 
 
 nights in succession, and procured him a p ision o 
 2(100 francs from the king. His neil 
 
 km (1823), was not BoweD received. 
 In 1 82 ', app an .Mrs i work which 
 
 bited the great skill of the author in adopting a 
 
 r-piece of Schiller to the French Btage. In 
 1825, he gave to the world an i I in six 
 
 cant. is. Marie de Brabant; and in 1827, a cl 
 and graceful work, partly prose and partly vei 
 entitled f?ta H - < I ovel in 
 
 four volumes, The Jl ' 
 
 drama, was published iii 1828; and Elizabeth of 
 England in 1829. Both of these works were highly 
 successful, though neither met with the brilliant 
 i. cep1 ion of Louis IX. in 1834 appeared /. 
 prunts aux Salons di Paris. The revolution of July 
 deprived him of his pension, and also of his situation 
 as librarian of Meudon ; and for the next ten years, 
 he was compelled to support himself and family by 
 the concoction of numberless vaudevilles, dramas, 
 . anecdotes, &c, sometimes of very ques- 
 tionable morality. In 1841, the French A 
 chose him as the successor of Bonald, Shortly after 
 
 collection of satires as remarkable for freshness 
 of epigram as for grace of style ami richi 
 versification. In lsis, he published La Bu 
 Q campohc 
 
 A.'.s i lej oT [tore, Louis IX., is a work of geniti i ; 
 the versification is correct, elegant, and harmonious ; 
 the manners ami characters of the p riod a e deline- 
 ated with great fidelity end brilliancy; the plot is 
 skilfully constructed; and some of the Bceni i are 
 contrived with singular felicity. 
 
 A'NCHOR, an implement for retaining a ship in 
 a particular spot, by temporarily i 
 bed of a sea or river. Many fi ■■■■■■ is of A. wore 
 made by the ancients ; some were merely 
 
 stones; others, crooked pieces of v I, wei ttted to 
 
 make them sink in water. The 
 are supposed to have been used by the G 
 As originally made, the A. had only cue- B 
 arm for penetrating the ground, but a second was 
 afterwards added; it had no stock (presently to 
 be described), and was, on that account, ill 
 for insuring a firm gripe into the ground when lowered. 
 The Creek vessels had several anchors, one of which, 
 called the • sacred A.,' was never let go until the ship 
 was in dire distress; something equivalent to this 
 was long retained in the English navy, but the 
 designation is now dying out. Of whatever form 
 and material the ancient anchors were mad", they 
 were lowered from the skills' sides by ropes — chain- 
 cables being a modern invention. 
 
 The maritime nations of Europe, and the United 
 States of America, employ anchors bearing 
 deal of general resemblance one to another. A large- 
 sized modern A., regarded irrespectively of improve- 
 ments recently introduced, comprises the following 
 parts: The vertical or supporting beam of the A. 
 is the shank, 11; at the upper end of it is the r 
 and just below the ring is a transverse piece - I 
 the Slock, ss; the other extremity is the crown, c, 
 from which branch out two ar?ii.s or blades, g, in 
 directions nearly at right angles to that of the 
 stock ; each arm spreads out into a broad palm or 
 
 Anchor. 
 
 fluke, h, the sharp extremity of which is the ! 
 
 beat special relation to the 
 holding of the A. in the 
 ground, v. a the \. 1 1 let 
 ■ a the ship's side, the 
 
 crown first strikes the gr I ; 
 
 it tin n falls over in such a 
 one end of the 
 
 round; 
 
 : | 
 
 of t be tup ana th i cable 
 one or other of the flol 
 matters act which) to di 
 callyinto the ground, and main- 
 tain a firm hold, (in the firm- 
 thi ads the 
 
 anchoring of the ship; and 
 
 a of all the different parts of the A., as well 
 curve of the arms and flukes, are calculated 
 
 with direct reference to this c lit i 
 
 The number and weights of and a is British 
 
 ,..!; ■ (early as follow : .Men-of-war have 
 
 four anchors- the 'be l bower,' the 'small bower, 1 the 
 
 ■ i beet,' and the ' spare.' For particular and Bpecial 
 
 i, th.re are also the 'stream' and the ' kedge.' 
 
 Smaller vessels have fewer and smaller anchors; and 
 the 'Stream'- A. of a large ship may conveniently 
 
 serve as the 'bower' for a smaller. There was at 
 one time a rough rule in the navy, that the chid 
 A. should weigh as many hundred weight as the ship 
 l guns ; thus, an 80 ev, t. A. for an 80 gun ship. 
 In the commercial marine there was also a kind of 
 rough formula that the chief A. should weigh one- 
 twentieth part a.s many hundred w. ight as the ship 
 measured in tonnage; thus, 300-ton ship woidd 
 i A. of lo . lit of an A. 10 f.et 
 
 long used to be laid down at 11*4 cwfc, and that of 
 an A. 11 feet lour, at 30 cwt. It must be borne in 
 mind, however, that these numbers and ratios are 
 no longer strictly reliable, seeing that new forms 
 of A., the use of chain-cables, the introduction of 
 steam-navigation, and the building of Bhips of great 
 magnitude, have rendered many old formulas map- 
 le at the present day. 
 Many important improvements in the shape and 
 construction of anchors have I icon introduced within 
 
 Lieutenant Rodgers, to ini 
 the strength, without increasing the weight, took out 
 pat at lor hollo anchors; these arc not 
 
 Strictly hollow, however, for there is a wooden core, 
 which is bound to the iron of the shank by iron 
 hoops. Mr Poring introduced iron shanks made of 
 of Bat bars, instead of solid iron. The same 
 l the strength of the arms, by 
 making them in great pari a curved continuation of 
 of iron which form the shank. 
 The most effective novelty, however, is that intro- 
 duced under Mr Porter' ibout twenty years 
 ago, seeing that it is the basis which supports all 
 
 Porter's Anchor at 'Work. 
 
 the subsequent improvements of any note. The 
 arms are pivoted to the stock, instead of '■ 
 rigidly lixed ; and there is a projecting piece, called
 
 ANCHORAGE— ANCHORITES. 
 
 the toggle, on the convex part of each arm. Thes- two 
 additions or; have a remarkable effect on 
 
 the : tion of the A. The advantages of this A. ov< r 
 those of ordinary make are very considerable. There 
 is less chance of 'fouling,' l>y the cable passing over 
 the exposed fluke of the A., when the ve 
 swinging in a tide-way; there is less danger of 
 injury from the upper peak; the lower peak bites 
 quickly into the most stubborn ground; the A. 
 cannot lod • on : I ick-end; it is stronger in the 
 arm than ordinary anchors; and it is wry con- 
 towed or oil 
 Anion,' th mod of Porter's anchor, since 
 
 introduced, are those of Ti an and HonibalL 
 
 lan's, to which most attention is at p 
 directed, has the following advanta Che arm has 
 
 nt length and curve to di p a and set the 
 palm at such an angle as to insure its biting or 
 penetrating the hardest bott an; the area an 
 face of the palm are greatly increased, offering a pro- 
 portionate resistance in soft ground ; t! 
 projection at the back of the arms is rendered more 
 ve by its form and position ; and the mode in 
 which the upper arm rests on the shank in 
 both the fch and the penetrating power. This 
 
 been the subject of a long contention between 
 
 Trotman's Anchor at Work. 
 
 Mr Trotman and the Admiralty. In 1S.j2. in com- 
 pliance with a requisition from numerous ship-owners 
 and underwriters, the Admiralty appointed a com- 
 mittee, consisting of eleven experienced and impar- 
 tial persons, to make trial of a large numl 
 anchors, with a view of d the relative 
 
 of various forms and modes of construction. 
 The anchors were to be similar in weight, and wi re 
 to be tested in a great variety of ways — ou shore, and 
 at sea, and in reference to the holding, st 
 sweeping, tripping, fouling, &c There were several 
 itors, all of whom were 1 to the same 
 
 ions. Every one of the recently invented 
 in hors tried was found to be better than the ordi- 
 
 Vlinir.dty A. ; and the one which appeared to 
 itest number of good qualities was 
 Trotman's. The patentee naturally expected to 
 derive some commercial advantage from the favour- 
 able report of the committee ; but from 1852 tn 1859, 
 the sui Boards of Admiralty have refused to 
 
 admit Trotman's A. into the royal navy, except in 
 a few isolated instances. The grounds for this 
 refusal have never yet been satisfactorily made 
 known. 
 
 The weights of anchors bear, or ought to bear, 
 some definite relation to the tonnage of a ship. 
 Lloyd's ' kimmittee has agreed upon certain ratios to 
 
 ad, in refere to the large or 'best I 
 
 anchors and their chain-cabl Mr Trotman 
 
 prepared a table, shewing the diminished 
 weight of Ins anchors, to render equivalent e r- 
 vi e. The anchors are here supposed to have iron 
 stocks : 
 
 Ship's 
 
 Ordinaiy 
 
 Trotman's 
 
 
 3 
 
 Anchors. 
 
 Anchor*. 
 
 1 .. cabin 
 
 
 7 cwt. 
 
 5 cwt. 
 
 0| inch. 
 
 ■- ' 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 1 . 
 
 400 
 
 22 
 
 17 ■ 
 
 n • 
 
 : i i 
 
 :;l 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 41 . 
 
 31 . 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 o| 
 
 2 i. 
 
 2000 
 
 51 » 
 
 40 , 
 
 2i . 
 
 The manufacture of anchors furnished, until recent 
 years, the most formidable exemplification of smith's 
 work anywhere presented, on account of the 
 dimensions and weight of the pieces of iron which 
 had to be welded into one ma I smiths 
 
 hammers known 
 to our artisans ; and the services of a large number 
 ■ded to weld the metal while in the heated 
 and yielding state. At the present I ver, the 
 
 operations are wonderfully aided I myth's 
 
 steam-hammer, which comes down upon the A. 
 with a force greater than that of any available num- 
 ber of sledge-hammers wielded by mi n. At some of 
 the government dockyards, anchor-making i 
 
 On a great scale; but the larger portion of 
 the supply for the navy is obtained by contract by 
 private firms. 
 
 A'NCHORAGE is a due or toll levied on the 
 owner or captain of a ship for pi to cast 
 
 anchor at special anchoring-grounds. In 
 instances, it is payable to the state; but sometimes 
 i in corporate bodies or in indivi- 
 duals. The tariff varies greatly, depending on the 
 size of the ship, or on the value of the cargo, accord- 
 ■ circumstances. In most cases, where a vessel 
 is driven into port by stress of weather, and does not 
 discharge cargo there, it is exempt from this toll 
 Shore-dues differ from A. chiefly in the fact, that 
 a vessel pays duty on entering a certain port or 
 harbour, whether she anchors or not; and, by a 
 singular anomaly, these duties are in certain in- 
 : vested in the corporation of an inland 
 town, many miles distant from th • port in question. 
 A. is a term also sometimes applied to the whole 
 suite of anchoi a belonging to a snip : and still more 
 frequently it has the same sense as anchor-. 
 (q. v.). 
 
 ANCHOR-GROUND is a part of the bed of the 
 sea, or of a river, suitable for anchoring. It must 
 . too deep, or the cab] too perpen- 
 
 dicularly, and will be likely to drag the anchor-out 
 of the ground. It must not be too shallow, or the 
 Ship's bottom will be exposed to the hazard of 
 striking at low-water, or when tin ■ Bl D is rough. It 
 must not be too rocky, or the anchor will be liable 
 i ik its flukes by hooking into jagged rocks, 
 and the cable to be severed by rubb I rocky 
 
 edges. Thus, a combination of favourable eireum- 
 u-y for the selection of a good 
 auchoring-ground. 
 
 ANCHORITES, or ANCHORETS (Gr. anacho- 
 
 ; xally, i is who withdraw from so 
 
 the hermits who began to appear in the Christian 
 Church in the :i.l c, living in solitude, and not, like 
 the monks or cenobites, in communities. 1 >>ii 
 lirst two centuries, Christians generally thou 
 
 h to withdraw from the world by refusing to 
 participate in heathen festivals and amuses 
 but extreme vi< v. .ulually prevalent, and 
 
 were connected « itb a belief in the merit of celibacy, 
 of abstinence Erom particular kinds of food, of Belt- 
 ed tortures, &c The persecutions to which 
 Christians v.. >mo into the soli- 
 
 tude of deserts ; aft rwards, the glory of a life spent 
 in loneliness and austerity became a substit :
 
 AKCHOVY-ANCONA. 
 
 that of the martyr's death. The general corruption 
 of society also caused many earnest and well 
 
 ing persona to flee from it; the Ascetics (q, v.) first 
 get the example of retiring from cities to rural dis- 
 tricts and villages ; the A. went farther, and 
 
 hdraw themselves alto m mankind ; 
 
 and if the reputation of sanctity which was con- 
 I with a life of solitude con 
 
 e, there can be no doubt that many 
 chose it in the hope of thereby attaining b 
 sanctity. Many ol the A. voluntarily 
 themselves to the vicissitudes of the weather, with- 
 out proper habitation or clothing, restricted them- 
 
 and scanty fare, wore chains and 
 iron rings, and even throughout many years main- 
 tained painful postures, such as standing on I 
 of a pillar (sec Stylttbs), thll 
 
 btenment might have 
 
 Ood of mankind. Paul |q. v.) the 
 Hermit, and Antony (q. v.), were among I 
 most celebrated A. The A. were not able always to 
 preserve their solitude unbroken, I of their 
 
 sanctity drew many to visit them ; their advice was 
 often sought; and the number of their visitors was 
 much increased by the belief that diseases, \ 
 larly mental diseases, were cured by their Messing. 
 Sometimes, also, they returned for a short tune to 
 the midst of their fellow-men to di livi warnipi . 
 instructions, or encouragements, and were rei 
 as if they had been inspired prophet < Is from 
 
 heaven. The number of A., however, gradually 
 diminished, and the religious life of convents was 
 red to that of the 'hermitage. The Western 
 Church, indeed, at no time abounded in A. like the 
 
 i us the reason may in part bo found 
 
 in the different I climate which manner 
 
 of life impossible in most parts of Europe that could 
 be pursued for many years in Egypt or Syria. 
 
 ANCHCVY {Engraidia Enchra a small 
 
 fish, about a span long, much ; for its rich 
 
 and peculiar flavour. It is not much longer than the 
 middle finger, thicker in proportion than the hi 
 to which it has a general resemblance j the h 
 
 sharp-pointed, and the under jaw much shorter than 
 the upper; the scales large, silvery, and 
 removed, the tail deeply forked. It is occasion- 
 ally found on the British coasts, and is sod to be 
 not at all uncommon on the coast of Co vail in 
 the [atter part of summer and b i autumn. 
 
 It would seem to have been formerly more abund- 
 ant than it now is in the British seas, as several 
 acts of parliament, of the reign of William and 
 . regulated the A. fisheries. It occurs on the 
 
 Anchovy. 
 
 coasts of the Baltic and of Greenland, and abounds 
 in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic I 
 of Spain, Portugal, and France, where extensive 
 and very productive fisheries are carried on, par- 
 ticularly in the months of May, June, and July, 
 when the shoals of anchovies leave the 
 and approach the shores for the purpose of spawn- 
 ing. They are fished during the night, and are 
 attracted to the boats by toes. They are 
 in small ban-els, and are much used for sauces, &c. 
 The I tomans made from them a highly valued sauce 
 called garum.— Sardines (q. v.) are often sold as 
 Mi 
 
 anchovies. — The | belongs to the 
 
 i (q, v.) or Ii ':'. and v. 
 
 merly included in Olupea, from which it is i 
 
 by the more deeply cleft mouth, the wider 
 "gill openings, and more numerous gill rays. All the 
 in all, and most of them tropical. /.'. 
 i abounds in the Strait of Malacca and at 
 the mouths of the Ganges, and is used for making a 
 a at called Hid Fieh in India. 
 
 ANCHOVY PEAK [Orioa couliflora), e I 
 only known species of a genus somewhat doubtfully 
 referred by Bindley to his order Ban 
 
 (more generally regarded as a suborder of Mi,. 
 q. v.). It grows in boggy places in the mount 
 
 i and "i He,- West Indian islands, 
 attains a height of fifty feet, and has great oblou ; 
 
 i wo or three Ei et in len| th. 5The B 
 .re numerous, on short peduncles, large and whitish, 
 the corolla consisting of four petals, and the calyx 
 •lrcleft. The fruit is an ovate drupe, crowned with 
 it calyx, the stone marked with 
 is fruit is pickled and eaten like tile 
 i hich it much resembles in 
 
 taste. 
 ANCHUSA. See Alkaxet. 
 ANCHYLOSIS. See Ankylosis. 
 
 ANCILLON, a French family who, after the 
 revocation of the Edict of l from 
 
 Metz into Prussia.— David A. studied I 
 
 ,a, was afterwards pastor of the 1 
 
 ned colony at Hanau, and died in Berlin in 
 
 1692. — CHABLBS, son of the former, was born at 
 
 Met/,, July 28, 1659, and died in Berlin, Ji 
 
 17ir>. He is known by his writings : Vlrrivocabiliti 
 
 . lea (1688), and Hiatoire de VEta- 
 
 ■.'■ . dans lea Etata de 
 
 ,,'.,, m-ij (1690). — Louis Frederick, grandson 
 
 of Charles A., was horn in Berlin 1740, and died there 
 or of the French congregation in 1S14. His 
 
 son Frederick, who rose to be a < of state 
 
 in Prussia, was l.orn in Berlin, April 30, 1707- In 
 1702, he was appointed Professor of History in 
 the Military Academy of Berlin, and aft I 
 Royal Historiographer, a post to which he had 
 
 recommended himself by his work. Tablet < 
 //. mlutiona du 8y 1 '* VEurope i 
 
 le 15""> Su d (4 vols. Bi rim, 1803—1805). In 1814, 
 he took an admini tratdve post under Hardenberg, 
 and, in IMS, held a very prominent position under 
 Count von Bernstorff. In 1830, when the July revo- 
 1, he 1 ted the measures 
 of King Frederick William III. for the preservation 
 of peace in Europe. While, like the politicians of 
 Austria, he argued that 'all should be done for the 
 
 . but nothing by the people;' he also contended 
 
 forthenecei .. ol | ,'ressive reforms in legislation, 
 
 in order to prevent all violent collisions between 
 government and popular opinion. His private life was 
 simple and unostentatious. Though thrice married, 
 
 Et no children. A. died April 19, 1837. 
 His various writings on politics, philosophy, and 
 literature, are chiefly devoted to an exposition of the 
 principles by which he was guided as a statesman. 
 
 ANCO'NA, the capital of a delegation of the 
 same name in the States of the Church, lat. 43° 3S' 
 N., and long. 13° 35' E. It is situated on a 
 promontory of the Adriatic coast, and ri 
 the form of an amphitheatre, presents a picturesque 
 appearance from the sea. It is the scat of a 
 
 i, and contains about 29,000 inhabitants, of 
 whom about 5000 are Jews. The harbour, once 
 famous, seems likely to be filled up with much The 
 commerce is much less considerable than it once 
 was, though, in that respect, it is still the most
 
 ANCRE— ANDALUSIA. 
 
 important place in tho States of the Church. Corn, and 
 
 woollen and silk good3, oils, cordage, bacon, fruits, 
 
 &c, are the chief exports. A mole of 2000 feet in 
 
 . built by the Emperor Trajan, and a triumphal 
 
 the same empi ror, are the most notable monu- 
 iii of antiquity. There are some fine public 
 
 buildings. One of the most venerable of these is the 
 
 dral of St Cyriac, built in the 10th e., an 
 scssing the oldest cupula in Italy. Bic 
 are in general mean, and Is narrow. A. is 
 
 supposed to have been founded by Syracusans who 
 had Bed from the tyranny of Dionysius the Elder, 
 it wa rebuilt by Ni 
 
 .-uii! i ; tin destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th c. 
 II, ill. rwards became a republic ; but in 1">;J2, Pope 
 Clement VII. annexed it to tin: States of the 
 !i. In 179S, it was taken by tin: French ; but 
 in 1799, General Meunier was obliged to surrender 
 it to the Russians and Austrians, after a long and 
 gallant defence. Since 1815, tho citadel h 
 tin- only fortification. Winn the Austrian troops in 
 1S31 occupied the Roman frontiers, whose inhabit- 
 
 Ci then in a state of insurrection, the French 
 ministry determined to neutralise the influence of 
 Austria. A French squadron appeared before the 
 1 up, and landed 1500 men, who to..!. 
 
 town on the 22d I I without any 
 
 nee, the citadel capitulating on the 25th. It 
 remained in their bands till ISo'S, when both French 
 and Austrians retired from the Papal States. In 
 1S49, a revolutionary garrison in A. capitulated after 
 enduring a siege by the Austrians of twenty-five 
 days. 
 
 ANCRE, Concino Concini, Baron be Lksigny, 
 
 : u. d', a Florentine by birth, who came to the 
 
 French court in the year 1G00, with Maria de' Medici, 
 
 the wife of Henry* IV., and along with his wife, 
 
 oraGaligai, ex raised an unhappy influence in 
 
 promoting the disagreement between the king and 
 
 . \V!m m, after lb nry"s death, the queen became 
 
 i ni, Concini, as her favourite, obtained possession 
 
 reins of government; and in 1613, was made 
 
 a marshal and prime minister. He pur 
 
 irquisate of Ancre in Picardy, and to 
 
 title from it. He became an object of detestation 
 
 equally to the nobility and the people. A con- 
 
 : was formed against him, to which the young 
 
 I . lOuis XIII. was himself privy — Luynes | 
 
 iig's worthless favourite, being one of the 
 
 -and he was assassinated in the Louvre 
 
 in open day, on the 24th of April 1017. His body 
 
 was privately buried, but was soon disiiii. rred by 
 
 ipulace, dragged throu and burned 
 
 fcatue of Henry TV. His wife was soon 
 
 afterwards accused of witchcraft, which she 
 
 repudiated, saying that the only sorcery she 
 had employed to influence the queen was ' the 
 of a strung mind over a weak one.' The sneer, how- 
 ■ .. r, did not save her. she was executed, and her 
 sin, deprived of rank and property, was driven from 
 
 ANOTJS MA'RCIIJS, son of Pompil 
 of King Numa 1'ompilius, was the fourth 1. 
 
 Full.. wing tin- example of hi 
 Numa, he endeavoured torestorefhe almost forgi 
 
 ids and the cultivation of the; 
 peace amon ma But, despite his mclina- 
 
 . he -'. .... t il wars with 
 the in ignbouring Latin tribes, whom he subdued 
 ami reduced to order. These Latins, Niebuhr con- 
 siders to have formed the or rtstthe 
 us, li • fortified the Janioulum, connected it 
 with Home by a wooden bridge, and gai 
 sion of both banks of the Tiber, as far as its mouth, 
 where he founded Oatia as the port of Koine ; he 
 
 i it was called 'the Ditch of the Quirite3' — a 
 a space between the Cselian Hill 
 ami Mount Palatine; ami built the first Roman 
 prison of whii :. a proof that civilisation had 
 
 really coram. . much as offences then for- 
 
 mally e ded as private and personal 
 
 matters, and wen as crimes against the 
 
 community. He died in 014 B.O., after reigning 
 twenty-four years. 
 
 ANCYRA. See 
 
 A'NDA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Eupltorbioccce, the only known species of which, 
 A. BraMlien, it, is a Brazilian tree, with large 3 
 flowers, and an angular fruit about the size of an 
 ; two round - like- small 
 
 chestnuts. Thei led 1 ar ci 11 d in Brazil Purg 
 
 ■ is, are much used medicinally in that country, 
 and are more purgative than those of the castor-oil 
 plant. This quality seems to depend upon a valuable 
 fixed oil, of which twenty drops are a moderate 
 It i3 obtained by pressure. The bark of tin 
 roasted in the lire, is accounted in Brazil a certain 
 remedy for diarrhoea, brought on by cold. The 
 fresh bark, thrown into ponds, is said to stnpify 
 
 ANDALU'SIA or AXDALUGTA, a 
 fertile province or kingdom in the smith of Spain, 
 lying between 36° 2' and 3S° .'SO' N. lat„ and . 
 and 7° 20' W. long. Having been overrun by 
 the Vandals, it is supposed By some that they 
 gave it the name of Vandalucia or Andalucia ; 
 but the real origin of the name is probably 
 the Land of the West. It is tin; 
 
 A of the Bible, and was called Tartessus in 
 ancient geography. The Romans named it B 
 from the onver Bstis (the modern Guadalquivir). 
 The Moors founded here a splendid monarchy, 
 which quickly attained a high degree of civilisi 
 Learning, art, and chivalry flourished in ha 
 within commerce. The four great Moorish 
 
 capitals rille, Cordova, Jaen, an 
 
 During the darkness of the middle ages, Cordova 
 was 'the Athens of tho west, the seat of arts and 
 sciences;' and later still, under the Spa nia rds, 
 when ' the sun of B I in Italy, paintin 
 
 arose in a new form in the Velasquez, Murillo, and 
 Cano school of Seville, the finest in the peninsula.' 
 On the north, A. is divided from Estremadui 
 New Castile by the mountain-chains of A 
 Cordova, and Moreno, On the east it is bourn 
 Murcia, and on the wi t by I 
 Atlantic. The south coi I 1 aid from Gibraltar 
 is mountainous; the west, where the Guadalquivir 
 Hows into the Atlantic, is level. A. was esi 
 the richest district of Hesperia, and its former 
 wealth of produce ha3 been indicated by such 
 
 the ' wine- 
 and the 'gold-purse' of Spain. But, in 
 
 bed oidy 
 by com] : mall portions of the hilly country 
 
 on both sides of I dalquivir, where. 
 
 with c he soil is luxuriantly 
 
 productive. II re wheat and maize ripen in 
 and yield abundantly. Olives and oranges attain 
 their' greatest height, and vegetation generally 
 
 s a tropical character. Cotton, sugar-cane, 
 tigs, and batatas flourish in the open air, 
 and the cactus and aloe form impenetrable b 
 I abound. The botany and mini 
 of A. are very rich. The ranges of the Sierra N 
 
 i principally of primary and secondary 
 formations. In the west, towards Xciiil, cultivation is 
 more sparing, as there is a natural deficiency of 
 
 .n.l the artificial means of irrigation formerly 
 employed have fallen into disuse. Nearer to the 
 
 1 J 234
 
 ANDAMAN'S- ANDERSON. 
 
 coast lie land still more barren ; and the 
 
 1 . steading between the m mths of the 
 
 Iquivir and the Tinto, ia covered with moving 
 i in the whole, A. is still one erf to 
 ricta of Spain, owing to its del 
 
 and the abundance of water sup- 
 plied liy its snowy mountains. Its br d o 
 
 d, and tl>> • moles are superior 
 to those of other countries. T! 
 mountains Bupply the wild cattle exhibited in the 
 bull-fights of Madrid. The natural riches of the 
 
 t have at various times invil 
 invaders, such as the Phoenicians and the Moors, 
 are regarded as among the most 
 lively, imaginative, and active p ople ol : 
 But they are also consid red by the rest of their 
 countrymen to be the Gascons the bra 
 
 ra of Spain. Apparently they have never at 
 
 any time been warlike, since even l.ivy calls them 
 
 . They are, like all braggarts, extremely 
 
 credulous, and ar ■. b ole fur their 
 
 intense superstition. The warship of the 
 
 * i an extent that the very country is 
 
 . id of 
 the Most Holy Virgin. 1 Th 
 Spanish mixed with Arabic. The chief town i of A. 
 are named after the four ancient provinces into 
 which it was divided— Seville, • lordova, Jaen, Cadiz, 
 (q. v.). Area 27,217 miles. Pop. 2,800,000. 
 
 A'NDAMANS, a group of thickly wooded islands 
 towards the east aide of th • Bay of Den 
 nd 14° of N. lat, and about 93 
 The population is both barbarous and scanty, and 
 bears lance what ver either in physical 
 
 features or language to the ueighl k luring Asia! i 
 In 1793 the Great Andaman received a Bi 
 
 . which was withdrawn, however, in 170G. Since 
 
 1857, the A. have been ' ' ment 
 
 for sepoy mutineers, though the design has not, at 
 
 I, ton an ' scale, be a carrii d into effect. It 
 
 is only physically, in short, that the A. deserve 
 
 j mention, not so much from their presenting 
 
 i any remarkabl a i from their 
 
 i .i portion of tie- long arch, mostly volcanic, of 
 
 i .. which, \l rtb Timor at its 
 
 I'hilip- 
 t , and Formosa, on the one side; and o 
 other side the Sunda Dies, Java, Sumatra, the 
 nd the A.— the outline only requiring 
 • , i,. i i I up in in Jnation, in order to produce a 
 peninsula harmonising more or less with the other 
 
 ra projections of the world, Hindostan, 
 and s mill America. 
 
 ANDANTE (Italian), in M 
 : what slow and He and 
 
 soothing style. This term is often modified, both as 
 to time and style, by the addition of other word i— 
 as A. ■ but pathetically ; A. ca 
 
 slow, but in a singing style ; A. eon mo!o, slow, but 
 with emotion; A. Ol -low but gracefully: A. 
 
 slow, with majesty; -*'• '"'■' troppo, slow, 
 but not too much so ; A. pastorale, slow, and with 
 pastoral simplicity. 
 
 A'NDKKXACIf, a little town belonging to the 
 OZ on the Rhine, in lat. 50 
 long. 7 J 'Jo' E., was once a 
 Antunnacum, then a residence of the Mem. 
 kings, and afterwards became one of the most 
 flourishing places on the Rhine. The great tower 
 on the north side, the fine old church — with one 
 tower built in the Carlovingian times— and the old 
 gates and walls, give quite a medieval aspect 
 town. It now contains about 3500 people, supported 
 by trade in leather, wine, and corn, and is esp -eially 
 celebrated for its millstones, exported to distant 
 | 2o6 
 
 parts of the world, and for its blffttxxn or tot 
 indurated volcanic mud. which, when pulverised and 
 makes a mortar ox cement for 
 constructions undi r wat r. 
 
 ANDEBSEN, 11 ura » '"':■ 
 gift d po ts that 1 1 
 
 was born April 2, 1805, at Od • unen. His 
 
 father was a poor shoemaker, who used, however, to 
 console himself by 
 and wealth of his family. ' 
 he was for a short time employed in a manufactory. 
 
 The widow of Bunkeflod, a poet of e e repul 
 
 charitably adopted him. IK early displayed a I 
 for poetry, and was known in his native place as 
 I.' Hoping to obtain 
 theatre, he went to Copenhagen, but 
 was rej, ; ili an. He was next 
 
 encoura * for success as a singer ; but had 
 
 hardly commenced his musical studies when his 
 
 led. He found generous friends, ho,. 
 to fa Ip him in his distress; and application h 
 of thi in to tl i kin .. he was pi 
 at an advanced school at the public expense, and so 
 his academic education in ls:X Some of Ins 
 . particularly oue entitled The Dying ■ 
 had ah I favourably received, and he now 
 
 ; ir known by the publication of his 
 Walk to Amai, a literary satire in the form of a 
 humorous narrative. In 1830, he publi ihed the first 
 
 d volume of his Poems, and in 1831 a set 
 
 uud r the title of .His 
 
 I 
 
 the fruit of a tour in the north of 
 
 Germany. A pension from the king now enabled 
 
 him to' vis. i ' .. France, Switzerland, and 
 
 land he completed his Agm 
 On M. man : and one of his best works. V 
 visalori . a bi ries of seem s di picted in a glowing 
 and full of poetic interest, was the fruit of bi 
 to Italy. Soon afterward i,he produced 0. T. (IS.'iJ), 
 a novel containing vivid pictures of northern sc 
 a id in inner--., which was followed (1837) by an 
 entitled Only '• FiddU •■ in '• T" 
 
 1840, he produced a romantic drama, entitled The 
 . as well re lived ; but another 
 drama, /o'/e less successful. In the 
 
 year ap Picturt !, a 
 
 imaginative sketches. Exhausted 
 by his labours, he sought r. creation in the ■ 
 1840 in a somewhat lengthened tour in Italy and 
 it, of which he gave an account i 
 r (1S4'2). After his return, appeared 
 Flower of Fortune, a dramatised fable, and 
 series of tales, some of which had 
 appeared, and by which the popularity of A 
 
 in( , many. His 
 works b i translated, not only into German, 
 
 but into English and other languages, although the 
 
 . i, yle, more than of many ai 
 are unavoidably lost in translation. His Dying 
 i ■ | beer translated into the Lingua 
 Greenland. Besides the works above mentioned, 
 he is the author of Ahasuerus, a mythical drama, 
 and of The Two Baronesses, a tale illustrative of 
 Danish society. 
 
 ANDERSON, James, LL.D., a writer on politi- 
 cal economy and agriculture, was b irn in l~:;:i at tho 
 village of lienniston, near Edinburgh. He lo 
 his parents when very young, so that the m 
 in- nt of a large farm, which had been in the p 
 sion of the family for a long time, devolved upon 
 himself. Recognising the practical importance of a 
 knowledge of chemistry to a farmer, he attended the 
 chemistry class in the university of Edinburgh, and 
 brought the results of his study to bear on his
 
 ANDERSON— ANDES. 
 
 profession. He invented, at an early period of life, 
 the small two-horse plough without win els, commonly 
 I the Scotch plough, wh i Qy admitted 
 
 to have been one of the most useful improvements 
 of agricultural im] iced. When 
 
 only 24 years of age, he went to Aberdeenshire, 
 where he rented a large moorland Ea 
 
 Here he remained for a considerable time, 
 devoting bis le -ure hours to writing upon agricul- 
 ture. His Bret attempt was a series of essays upon 
 planting, which, under the signature of . 
 
 le. In 
 1780, the university of Aberdeen bestowed on him 
 the degree of Doctor of Laws. In 17S4, on accoimt 
 of his pamphlet, entil of the 
 
 National /'■ • nment 
 
 to make a survey of the western coast of Scotland, 
 with special reference to that object. He next 
 publication of a periodical 
 called The IS' ■'. v. hicfa was continued for three years ; 
 in 17^7 he went to London, where he pursued his 
 literary avocations with such intense assiduity, that 
 his health gradually gave way. He died on the 
 loth of October 1 
 
 A. will deserve a place in any record which 
 details the remarkable advances made by Scotland 
 iculture and other sources of wealth in the 
 latter half of the ISth c. And even in the history of 
 ideas he will deserve a prominent notice, as his Bee 
 ; iie type of many periodical miscellanies of a 
 cheap nature, mingling instruction with entertain- 
 ment, which have since been published. It is also to 
 be observed that, in his essay called A Compa, 
 
 of Tithe in 
 ih /'/' cf Corn (contained in one of his latest 
 publications, The Recreations of Agri 
 anticipated some important principles subsequently 
 advocated by Malthas, Ricardo, and West, particu- 
 larly the famous theory of rent. 
 ANDEESON, John. F.RJS., Professor of Natural 
 ■ ophy in the university I 
 of the eminently useful institution bearing his name, 
 was born in the parish of Roseneath, Dumbarton- 
 shire, in 17-0. Having lost his father, 
 
 man, when very young, the care of his 
 
 red upon an aunt who resided at Stirling. 
 From Stirling, he went to Glasgow Unii 
 
 I in literature as well as 
 in science, for in his 30th year he was appointed 
 Professor of Oriental Languages. Four years later 
 (1700). he was transferred to the chair of > 
 
 iphy — an event which, considering his decided 
 i for the exact sciences, must have been 
 not less agreeable to him than fortimate for the 
 world. He entered upon Ins new duties with extra- 
 ordinary ardour. Besides the work of the class, he 
 was indefatigable in studying the application of 
 science to mechanical practice ; visitmg, for this 
 purpose, the workshops of artisans in the town, and 
 Dg, in return for the theories and principles 
 w hich he had to communicate, a full equivalent of 
 
 mental knowledge. Even this, howei 
 not satisfy him. Inspir •! by a rational philanl 
 he instituted, in addition to his usual class, which 
 was strictly mathematical, one fur the m 
 
 r persons whose pursuits did not 
 enable them to conform to the prescribed routine of 
 ileal study, lie- continued to teach th 
 
 1 it -with reference to the 
 _ iwn, worn by the I 
 students in Glasgow — twice every week, during 
 the session, to the end of his life. In 1780 appeared 
 his valuable work, entitled Institutes of Physics, which 
 went through five editions in ten years. Shortly 
 before the trench revolution, he invented a species 
 of gun, the recoil of which wa3 stopped by the 
 
 condensation of common air, within the body of the 
 •; but having in 1 to attract 
 
 1 of the- British at to it, he 
 
 proceeded to Paris in 1791, and, beis 
 great friend of In to the 
 
 National Convention. It was hong up in their hall, 
 with the following inscription over it: 'The 
 
 v.' Afl rwards, when the allied 
 monarchical forces hail drawn a military cordon 
 around the frontiers of Prance, to prevent the intro- 
 duction of French newspapers into Germany, A. 
 mgeniously suggested the 1 which was 
 
 J . and proved quite successful, of making 
 small balloons of paper, to which newspaper! 
 manifestoes might be tie-' I. and letting them oil, when 
 il was favonrabl G rmany. A. died 
 
 13th January 1790. By Ins v. ill, dated 7th May 
 170">, le- directed that the whole of b 
 every kind, should he devoted to the establishment 
 of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be 
 denominated And v, for the use of 
 
 the unacademical els 
 
 Anpebsoh's, or, more commonly, tl ostam 
 
 T'nivehsity, was originally intended t 1 
 four colleges — for arts, medicine, law, and thi 
 — besides an initiatory school. Ii ee was to 
 
 have nine professors, the senior professor ljcin_' tin- 
 president or dean. The funds, however, were totally 
 inadequate to such a plan, and the institution was 
 therefore opened with only a single course • 
 tures on natural philosophy and 1 by Dr 
 
 Thomas Garnett. This course was attended by 
 nearly a thousand persons of both sexes. In 1798, 
 a professor of mathematics graphy was 
 
 appointed. The splendid apparatus and library of 
 the founder, which were valued at £3000, added 
 greatly to the advantages of the infant institution, 
 hi 1799, I'r l'.irbeek, the successor of Dr Garnett, 
 commenced the system of giving a familiar • 
 tion of mechanics and genera] science. Hi> 
 
 attended by 500 artisans, vie. received their 
 
 instruction gratis. This was t! rigin of mechanics' 
 
 institutes. Tli • Andersonian Institution 
 by tin- will of the founder, under tin- inspection and 
 control of tie- lord provost, and many other honour- 
 able persons, as ordinary visitors, and under the 
 more : aperintendence of 81 tru^tei s. who 
 
 are elected by ballot, and remain in office for life. It 
 ■■dually enla here of instruction, and 
 
 : t. it nearer to the design of the founder. In 
 . lie number of prof essors amounted to 15. It 
 possesses a high reputation at the present day, as a 
 school of medicine in particular. 
 
 A'NDES, the great mountain-chain of - 
 America, extending in a direction nearly parallel 
 with the Pacific, along almost the whole lent 
 
 t incut. The chain falls short of the Isthmus 
 of Darien, between which and the Atrato— a river 
 falling into the Caribbean Sea it gradually subsides 
 into a merely undulating country. .also, 
 
 to fall still further short of the Strait of Magellan, so 
 far as the mainland is concerni d. But, on geological 
 lirst along the islands 
 . and next along 
 that form t: ■• Thus may 
 
 the chain be fcch from the neighbourhood 
 
 of the mouth of the Atr.it". ly to Cape 
 
 Horn, but even to the rocks of Diego Ramirez, 
 In- about 1 miles to the south-west of 
 that promontory. The extreme length, therefore, 
 is from lat. 8° 15' X to lat. 56" 30' S.— compris- 
 ing, of eon- :■. without any allowa: 
 windings or del ations, about -I.'iihi English miles. 
 But to mark the seal.- on which nature has 
 moulded the new world, the A. may be regarded as 
 merely a part of the sufficiently continuous chain
 
 ANDES. 
 
 of about 0000 miles which loses itself near the 
 mouth of the Mackenzie, towards the shores of 
 the Arctic < Icean. In this respect, the old continent 
 can bring nothing into comparison. 
 
 Position.— Th« A., b aerally in a 
 
 direction nearly parallel with I 
 closely on that ocean. From the rocl 
 
 Diego Ramirez to about lat. 40° S., the 
 mountains, whether they are found on ialai 
 ou the mainland, are almost literally wash 
 the surf; while northward from that parallel, 
 
 Is out, between the chain itself and the 
 a belt of laud n<>t exceeding, in average i 
 
 70 or 80 miles. Within the I 
 
 tiou is narrowest, while above and below it is, 
 
 in general, Bomewhat more extensive. Che position 
 A. with respect to the Atlantic Ocean pi 
 
 a striking contrast. To illustrate this, a p 
 
 is subjoined from Herndon, th cplorer of the 
 
 Amazon on behalf of the I 1 I rossing 
 
 from Lima to the head- waters of the Amazon, 
 by the Pass of Antarangra, he writes thus : • Yana- 
 
 onthewestej the A., at the he 
 
 'J:;.J7 feet above the sea dy 28 mil' 
 
 the oceau that washes the base of the slope on which 
 it is situated ; while Fort San Ramon, at nearly the 
 ' onot be much 
 
 ban 4(100 miles from its ocean by 1 
 of the river, and in the river's direct C 
 
 -"'in miles.' Further, to 
 
 lively to the west and east of the dividing 
 the former has mated at 180,000 
 
 miles, and the latter at twenty times as 
 urn b. 
 
 II 11 : of the A. 
 
 has b a already ant . I > a considerable 
 
 extent, under the heads of the AMAZON and 
 
 ica. It only remains to observe that from 
 end of the continent to the other, the true 
 and only water-shed, where, 
 
 is the lie. Not only is 
 
 the water-shed in question obviously far closer to 
 the west than to the east, but. beyond this, it is, 
 apparently without a single exception, pushed as far 
 westward as possible ; it thus affords the 
 
 conspicuous and ample of an 
 
 t universal law in the bj Iro raphy of the 
 earth. Throughout both continents, almost every 
 
 r-shed] 
 the east than towan st, or, in other 
 
 .ms in the former direc- 
 
 bhan in the latter. To cite a few ins! 
 compare, in North America. luri with the 
 
 Columbia; in Europe, tl leNeva; in 
 
 the Hoang-ho of China with the Oxus of the 
 Sea of Aral ; and even in A e, as also in 
 
 Arabia, hydrographies! trace; have been I 
 overlaid by deserts of sand, the plat 
 Sahara and the chain of the Atlas gradually incline, 
 both of them, towards the east, But, 1 
 shi 1 be invariably found as far as possible to the 
 westward, it necessarily follows, that, wherever 
 
 are two ranges, the more easterly range cannot 
 also be a continuous water-shed — unless, indeed, it 
 may be regarded as such with respect to the land- 
 I 1 basin of the connected lakes, Titieaea and 
 
 fjroz, already mentioned under the head of America. 
 With this exception, all the gatherings betwi 
 two ranges, whether the intermediate sp 
 plateau or sierra, have found or formed channels of 
 e ipe — narrow, deep, and dark as they often are — 
 only to that sea which is thirty or forty times more 
 distant than the one at their back. 
 
 Breadth and Area. — The area, on an estimate, 
 necessarily rough and vague, has been computed to 
 be triple that of the belt of comparatively level land 
 338 
 
 that borders on the Pacific. In other words, the 
 average breadth of the chain is reck thrice 
 
 that of the belt in question. In a rough way, the 
 1 may be estimated I 
 
 1 west slope < mmences, to 
 iff, or cataracts, on the ea 
 streams. But it is more correct to measure it 
 from the foot of the mountains, properly so called, 
 on the one side to that on the other. The pi 
 
 the country, which, on such a subject, ought 
 
 1 to support the latter 
 of computation. In Lima at hood, 
 
 Herndon crossed the A., that officer 
 of 'coast' and 'sierra. m each 
 
 other even | be dividing ridge. 
 
 The entire distance of the Pass 01' Aiitaran 
 
 ' the actual road, was S7 miles the lirst 
 ■■■■'. and the remaining -"7 <■ 
 Nor d" action seem to have 1 
 
 trary one. From Callao to 1 a line of 44 
 
 miles — the rise above tin' 1 level, tolerably on 
 
 bole way, amounted to 4452 feet, or rather 
 more than 101 feet to the mile ; but the next IS miles, 
 of which about a half still belonged to what 
 
 1 an increase of 2850 
 
 probably of 200 feet for that part of the 
 
 tell under the definition of sierra. To give instances 
 
 of extreme breadths of the A. — an average breadth 
 
 unattainable — the least breadth, and that in 
 
 uia, is believed to be 00 or 70 miles ; the 
 
 greatest breadth, again, pretty nearly on the parallel 
 
 of Lake Titieaea, and right through the grand 
 
 plateau of Bolivia, is said to be 400 miles ; and 
 
 re an intermedial 1 . the breadth from 
 
 Mendoza, in the basin of La Plata, to Santiago, in 
 
 given at 140 miles — the former city being 
 
 1 he Atlantic, and the latter 2014 
 
 In or. to have a definite idea of the bt 
 
 of the A., the chain must b'- viewed from one end to 
 the other. In doing this, there will be adopti 
 
 ordinary nomenclature, referring each division of 
 the A. to the particular country through which it 
 may pi 
 
 Patag dee. — Including the A. of the 
 
 Fuesian Archipel part of the chain, ex- 
 
 from lat. 56 S. to lat. 42° S., a distance of 
 
 ban 0G0 miles, is the narrowest of all, or is, 
 at all events, too irregular to have its breadth 
 accurately estimated, lie Patagonian shore, strictly 
 so called, is breasted, very much like the north- 
 west coast between Fuca's Strait and Mount St 
 EUas, by a number of islands. On; 
 mentioned, the true A. are to be found, or r, 
 ■ the true A. ensist— the continent 
 
 Dg no footing to the chain till fully 300 miles 
 to th" northward of Cape Horn. Even after the 
 chain ha inland, it by no means 
 
 can be said to abandon the islands; so that hie, 
 as further to the north, the chain may be regarded 
 as made up of parallel ranges — the main dim 
 being that the intervening valleys, which, to the 
 north, are basins of fresh-water rivers, here present 
 salt-water channels. 
 
 // Andes, stretching from lat. 42 S. to lat. 
 24 S., a distance of nearly 1250 miles. Throe 
 nearly the whole of thi3 line, the A. consist of only 
 one range, for the parallel ridges, which run along 
 
 u the great water-shed and the Pacilic, 
 cannot claim to be any exception to this remark, 
 inasmuch as their highest points do not exceed an 
 elevation of 2500 feet above the level of the sea. 
 This part of the chain, however, presents several 
 1 ranges, if it does not present any parallel 
 ones of importance. These spurs are to be seen on 
 both sides, though of very duTcrent magnitudes. To
 
 ANDES. 
 
 the wist, they arc akin to the comparatively insig- 
 nificant parallel ranges just noticed, being, if A. at 
 all, merely A. in miniature. But to the cast, the 
 ■pars deserve more consideration. They are two in 
 r, the one branching off l>etween the 33d and 
 :;] t parallels, and the other b tween the 2Sth and 
 24th. The former, called the Sierra de Cordova, 
 advances like a promontory into the plains of Kio 
 de La Plata, or Pampas, as they are more 
 ally da far as the 65th m. i 
 
 ami the latter, called the Salta, runs 
 
 nearly as far to the cast, and in a direction nearly 
 
 Peruvian And t. — This part of the chain, stretch- 
 ing from lat. 24 8. to lat. B. — a distance about 
 the same as in the last paragraph — is perhaps the 
 broadest of all the divisions of the A. it certainly 
 COntai] st of the plateaus, the plateau of 
 
 Bolivia, Between the 2Uth and 10th parallels, not 
 far from the city of Potosi, the chain separates into 
 two ranges, known as the East and West Cordilleras 
 of Bolivia; and it i3 the reunion of these l 
 
 I and 14th parallels, that encloses 
 the land-locked plateau of Titicaca, containing, as is 
 said, 30,000 square miles, or an area equal to that of 
 [reland Immediately above this table-land, the 
 united ranges in question constitute the mountain- 
 group of Cuzco, which, in point of superficial extent, 
 is stated to be thrice as large as all Switzerland. 
 About a degree further north, the chain 
 separates as before, reuniting also, as before. I > 
 the 11th and 10th parallels, so as to embrace the 
 cities of Guanta and Guancaveliea. Hardly have 
 the two ranges reunited, when they mass them- 
 selves into the table-land of Pasco, not quite 
 half the size of that of Titicaca. Further to 
 the north, the chain divides, not into two, but 
 into three ranges, which unite again, on the 
 frontiers of Ecuador, in the group of Loxa, about 
 kit. 5° & 
 
 A nda of Ecuador. — Immediately beyond the group 
 Of Loi i 4 and :: of • chain 
 
 divides into two rang' ' again anil 
 
 2 27', form the valley of Cuenca; and immediately 
 beyond this is the group of Assuay, with its table- 
 land. Then another plateau of no great extent, 
 and a short stretch of the undivided chain, lead 
 to the vast table-land of Quito, which is said 
 to be subdivided by low hills into five smaller 
 plateaus, two to the east, and three to the west. 
 Towards the north, the table-land of Quito is suc- 
 ceeded by the group of Los Pastos, forming the 
 extreme portion of the A. of Ecuador. 
 
 Andes qf X "• Oranada. — Beyond the city of 
 Almaguer, the chain breaks off into two ranges, 
 which never again join each other. The range on 
 the west side remains undivided, till it disappears 
 the month of the Atrato, a little to the east of 
 the Isthmus of Darien. But the range on the east, 
 
 into th ■ .roup of Paramo . ' 
 Papas, to two branches, which, as dis- 
 
 'i I'd from the range aforesaid on the west, are 
 styled the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of New 
 Granada. These two contain between them the 
 upper waters of the Magdalena, the eastern separat- 
 ing them from the basin of the Orinoco, and the 
 central dividing them from that of the < 
 
 n them also they contain several considerable 
 I mds, the principal one being that of Santa 
 l'c de Bogota. 
 
 ifU. — Under this head must be treated separ- 
 ately the plateaux, the most prominent mounlaiti.% 
 and the pa U M t he altitudes of the lines of pe: 
 snow falling more naturally under the hi 
 Climate, lb iv. as in the case of ! reodth, the chain 
 will be followed from south to north. 
 
 HEIGHT OP PLATEAUS. 
 
 Table-land of Titicaca, 
 Croup of Cuzco, 
 Table-land of Pasco, . 
 
 ■ « Assuay, 
 
 ■ .. Quito, . 
 , Bogota, 
 
 Pwt 
 
 12,700 
 11,000 
 
 8,968 
 
 The average height of these six colossal masses 
 the sea-level is thus 11,000 feet, or consider- 
 ably more than 2 English miles. 
 
 HEIGHT OF JIOU 
 
 Fueyian Andes — 
 
 Cape Horn, . 
 
 Sarmiento, 
 
 Andes — 
 
 Yantelcs, 
 
 Corcobado, 
 
 Minchinadom, 
 Chilian Andes — 
 
 Antuco, 
 
 Aconcagua, . 
 
 Deecab . do, 
 
 Nevado de Chorolque, . 
 ■a Andes — 
 
 ■ de Potosi, 
 Gnaltieri, 
 Nevado de Chuquibamba, 
 
 „ Illimani, 
 
 ■ Sorata, 
 Aualache, 
 
 Peruvian Andes — 
 
 Arequipa, . 
 Andes of Ecuador — 
 "mborazo, . 
 
 Cotopaxi, . 
 
 Antisana, 
 
 Pichincha, . 
 
 Cayambe, 
 Andes of New Granada — 
 
 Pic de Tolima, . 
 
 P«t. 
 3,000 
 
 6,800 
 
 7,510 
 
 8,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 12,102 
 16,546 
 
 16,040 
 22,000 
 21,000 
 21,150 
 21,290 
 18,500 
 
 20,320 
 
 21,420 
 18,887 
 19,137 
 1 5,922 
 19,648 
 
 1S.314 
 
 This last-named mountain is said to be the only one 
 in New Granada that rises above the limit of i*r- 
 petoal snow. All the others appear to fall short of 
 that line. 
 
 HEIGHT OF i 
 
 Chilian Andes — 
 La Cumbre, 
 Portillo, 
 
 Bolivian Andes — 
 Potosi, 
 Las Gualillas, 
 
 tn Andes— 
 Alto de Jacaibamba, . 
 Lachagual, 
 Antarangra, 
 
 iff Ecuador — 
 nay, 
 Andes of New Granada- 
 Quindiu, . 
 
 FcaJ. 
 
 12,454 
 
 14,305 
 
 14,320 
 
 15,135 
 15,480 
 16,199 
 
 
 11.:.. I 
 
 These passes will bear a comparison with the 
 loftiest pinnacles in Europe. The last and I 
 
 a the highest summit of the Pyrenees ly 
 I ; while the last but two, that of Antarangra, 
 1 lerndon traversed, soars 3S9 feet above Mont 
 Blanc, the Eliminating peak of the Alps. 
 
 The i variety 
 
 of surfaei b and levels. They appear to skirt, as often 
 
 I as practicable, the mountain-torrents ; and, when
 
 ANDES. 
 
 that is invj timoa surmount them 
 
 by bridges, and avoid them by 
 
 of n path cut along the shoulder of the overhanging 
 
 with respect to the mountain-torrents, Herndon, 
 after leaving Am hind him, was enabled 
 
 t<> avail him i inrce. ' a 
 
 the traveller,' says he, 'isc lemed, there are not, 
 
 on the route we have travelled, two ranges of the 
 A. — that is, he has not to ascend and d 
 
 and then ascend and doso nd another, 
 me that he crosses at Antar 
 is downward, till he 
 however, there are two ranges. He 
 the first or western range have broken their way 
 
 b t 1 "' b id, makin ; d© p goi i , at the 
 
 bottom of which the road ■ nerallyrus 
 
 the i' tnge thousands i 
 
 above the traveller's head.' 
 
 In addition to the essential | ich a 
 
 course, Herndon encountered, on one occasion, an 
 incidental danger, which he thus describes — the 
 scene being a narrow path on- i 
 of an almost precipitous hill: 'Mr Gibbon was 
 riding ahead. Just as he was about to turn a 
 sharp bend, the head of a bull peered round it on 
 the ill scent. When the bull came in full view, he 
 
 d ; anil we could see th other cattle 
 
 clustering over his quarters, and hear tl 
 the cattle-drivers, far behind, urging on their herd. 
 1 happened to be abreast of a slight natural excava- 
 tion; and dismounting, 1 ]>ut my shoulder a 
 my mule's flank, and pressed her into this friendly 
 retreat; but I saw no escape for Gibbon. The bull, 
 with lowered crest and sava i lool ulyon, 
 
 and actually got his head b fcwi □ the perpendicular 
 wall and the neck of Gibbon's mule. But his saga- 
 cious beast, pressing her haunches hard against the 
 rock, gathered her feet close under her, and turned 
 as on a pivot. This placed the bull on the outside ; 
 and he rushed by at the gallop, followed in single 
 file by the rest of the herd.' 
 
 In the bridging of the mountain-torrents, a good 
 deal of niil yed. Som 
 
 chains are suspended from side to side; and some- 
 
 a rough flooring is laid between projecting 
 beams from either bank, which have pre 1 
 lixed as solidly as possible. Nature also has done 
 something in this respect to help man, having thrown 
 two bridges of her own over a fearful chasm at 
 Icononzo. The torrent, which they span, falls down 
 a beautiful cataract into a murky crevice— the noisy 
 
 haunt of nocturnal birds. At a height of ■! I 
 
 above th'- foaming waters, the two bridges hang in 
 mid-air, both of them, apparently, though in differ- 
 ent ways, the work of an earthquake. The upper 
 on ■ is merely a fragment of the original san 
 
 must have resisted the shock that formed the 
 rent ; while the lower, probably the most 8 
 arch in the world, consists of time detached rocks, 
 : justed as to support each other. 
 The loftiest pinnacles of the A., when \ ; 
 
 from the table-lands, and, still more, when seen 
 from the crests of the passes, lose, to tie 
 the beholder, much of their real altitude. Under 
 such circumstances, not a single mountain p: 
 lii" actual dimensions of Mont Blanc, as over- 
 hanging the Vale of Chamouni. It is only from 
 a distance — best of all, perhaps, from a good 
 offing in the Pacific— that the A. appear in all 
 
 gigantic proportions. Standing thus on their 
 
 d, the ino-t rugged and colossal in nature. 
 they almost realise to the spectator the 1 
 Pyrenees pded on the highest Alps : while, to 
 enhance the grandeur of the scene, the i 
 action, which has heaved the chain into existence, 
 240 
 
 is hen- and there adding to it3 stature a pillar of 
 
 and flame. 
 'I/,, geology of th- A. is a little 
 
 known. It a half a century since Hum- 
 
 boldt travelled 1 i i ,i and to 
 
 him we are evt n now chiefly indebted for our 
 knowledge ; them. At that time, geology 
 
 was in its infancy — its language had not, bi ii 
 ification, at least as it now cxi>ts. 
 unknown, and its facts i d w ith absurd 
 
 and now li I could, in fact, 
 
 scarcely ence. It is fortunate that as 
 
 materials constituting I 
 the A. range — th" ign which nn its 
 
 back-bone, and the metamorphic rocks which 
 at bulk — our kno, i almost as i 
 
 1 explicit GO yi iw, and 
 
 ; ■ . i .i ; ct to them. Humboldt's observa- 
 
 asj ioa as ade em ;,. -i rday. Not so 
 
 as regards the more recent sedimentary formations, 
 i alue of fossils was not then known, and the 
 ■. ideas prevailed as to the i 
 of the stratified rocks. Hence descriptions 
 w ritten at that time are almost valueless to m 
 
 ittered note i may be gleaned from 
 tlie small number of intelligent travellers who have 
 ly visited these mountains; and to them we 
 are obliged for any of the facts we are able to give 
 ng the deposits referred to. 
 elevation of the A. took place at an epoch 
 to lii' i e-niation of til-' Rocky -Mountains 
 of North America, which are geographically a con- 
 tinuation of them. They are composed, to a very 
 large extent, of stratified metamorphic rocks. It 
 is remarkable that grani in them not as an 
 
 unstratitied plutomc ruck, but only inter. 
 with the other members of the stratified azoic scries. 
 The true igneous i eitln r to the trappean 
 
 or volcanic divisions. The grand ridge is everywhere 
 covered with one or other of the varieties of trap 
 (greenstone, clinkstone, basalt, or porphyry). 
 are often broken into columns, and appear at ad - 
 tance like ruined castles, producing a very stnkn g 
 
 ling through the trap-rocks, there are a num- 
 ber of covering their suurrnits with moic 
 recent igneous rocks. Among tin' mountains spc- 
 citieil above as to altitude, xanteles, Corcobado, 
 Mmchinadom, Antuco, < rualtii I :, Arequipa, Cotopaxi, 
 Antesana, and I'lehiucha belong to this class. Fifty- 
 one volcanoes have been d ed as ei 
 throughout th" whole range. The mountains of 
 for are so extensively and continuously of 
 • origin, that they have been regarded as 
 different safety-valves of one and i burning 
 vault. It is generally maintained that there is a rela- 
 tion between the height of a volcano ami its activity 
 and the frequency of its eruptions. Thus, Stromboli 
 (2957 feet) has continued in a state of activity since 
 the earliest ages, serving the purpose of a light-house 
 to the navigators of the Tyrrhenian Sea ; while 
 a (18,887 feet) and Tunguragua (li;.. r i79 feet) 
 
 have been aetiv lly onee in a hundred years. 
 
 Many of these 51 volcanoes have consequently not 
 yet been observed 1 >y Europeans in an active state, 
 in the Quito district there are 111 active, and 7 of 
 doubtful activity ; in Peru and Bolivia, the nil 
 are 9 ami .'! ; in Chili, 17 and 5 : making in all .'i0 
 active, ami 15 about which there is some uncer- 
 tainty as to their activity. Another characteristic 
 of these volcanoes, resulting from t ! ic alti- 
 
 tude, is that few of them emit streams of lava. 
 Thus Antisana is probably the only one in the Quito 
 ran,"' that has ejected lava. The force, however, 
 which is repressed apparently by the immense super- 
 incumbent mass which fills the crater, is exhibited
 
 ANDES. 
 
 in a terrific manner when an eruption does take 
 place. Cotopaxi, for instance, the most regular anrl 
 beautiful outlet of this the <_Tnn<l<Ht of n 
 laboratories, has been known to shoot its fiery tor- 
 3000 E I al ■■ its snow-bound crater, while 
 its voice is said to have been heard at a distance 
 of 550 miles. On one occasion a piece of rock, 
 measuring 300 cubic feet, was thrown from its 
 crater to a distance of more than eight miles. 
 
 Earthquakes are intimately connected with these 
 volcanic phenomena. No portion of the globe is sub- 
 ject to such freqn kes as 
 the countries embosomed within the range of the 
 A. and those lyi I the Pacific. 
 The cites and towns of Bogota, Quito, Riobamba, 
 Callao, Copiapo, Valparaiso, and Concepcion, have 
 all at different times been more 0) stated 
 by their agency. Duri 
 
 earthquake buried many of the inhabitants of Quito 
 under the ruins of its churches and public ed 
 
 [y a single building of any size escaped un- 
 it is to the same subterranean agency that 
 upheaved and still convulses the A. that we are 
 to ascribe those fearful ravines which are almost 
 peculiar to the chain. An apt instance has already 
 been cited in the case of the deep and dismnl crevice 
 I which has been spanned by the natural bri I 
 Icononzo. A still 1 letter specimen is the valley 01 
 ita, which, with a width at top of only 
 2600 feet, is 1875 in perpendicular height. This 
 
 den might overlap the loftiest hill in Scotland, with 
 St Peter's at Rome on its summit. 
 
 The flanks of the mountains are clothed with 
 crystalline strati : i ting of innumer- 
 
 able varieties of granites, gneiss, schists, horn- 
 blende, chloritic slates, porphyries, &c. These 
 have been greatly disrupted by the underlying 
 us rocks, and now occupy a vertical or nearly 
 vertical position. Tiny often run up into bold and 
 ks on the summits. They alternate with 
 eacn ol i>ut without 
 
 any appar o ler in the succession, except that 
 the varieties of schist depend on the crystalline 
 patent rock below; otherwise, no regidar sequence 
 can be observed; for miles, only granite ami 
 are found, then schist, qua] . 4c., inter- 
 
 The variety and quantity of the mineral 
 wealth of these rocks is remarkable; with the 
 lion of lead, most of the metals are obtained 
 in large quantities— see below. The topaz, ame- 
 thyst, and other gems are abundant. 
 
 Lying unconformable with these almost vertical 
 
 i irphic meks, there occur in the valleys and 
 
 table-lands, and creepii ase of the moun- 
 
 reqnire 
 
 further examination before they ca i ' clearly 
 
 ood. A. 1 .i nte of the nature of 
 
 I < will in- arrived at I ling one 
 
 occur. Tal 
 
 a on which Bogota is built, which 
 
 above the sea. He deposits filling up this plain 
 
 have 1' ient to the present con- 
 
 not i rily at 
 
 the present altitude: the whole i • ■ have 
 
 Imost horizontal rocks, 
 from t 
 
 B 
 
 to the i basin consists of many 
 
 s, limestones, shale, coal, gypsum, 
 and salt. The salt occurs in large quantities, one 
 bed being no 1 i than I'm feet in thickness, and 
 the coal in sufficii nt al - be wrought All 
 
 rocks have been more or less affe ' 
 proximity to the underlying metamo 
 The molecular action going on below lias in many- 
 
 places been continued in them, and has induced a 
 
 :■ at right angles to their planes of stra- 
 
 ! t patches — some of 
 
 extent, as the plateau of the Titicaca — cannot yet 
 
 be referred to any particular geologic epoch. I ' 
 
 m found near Huanco, in Peru, at tie : 
 of 17,0i»l feet; i ••roiis limestones and sand- 
 
 have been noticed in Peru at Micuipampa 
 and Huaueavelica. 
 
 Metah. — The aboriginal term A. is said to have 
 been derived from the Peruvian catfa, which signifies 
 metal in general, or rather, perhaps, cop 
 ticular. Within the limits of the empire of the 
 Incas. mining-tools, evidently not European, have 
 been dug up in various places ; and in one district 
 the ancient Peruvians have left behind them traces 
 of their mining operations at a height of 17,(KK) feet. 
 iver, the term, whatever may- have bees its 
 meaning, appears to have been, at all events, of 
 Peruvian origin, for it does not seem to have been 
 1 to the great chain of mountains by the 
 aborigines of New Granada. 
 
 Tl A. are understood to yield every metal 
 used in the arts but lead, and, according to one 
 recent statement, they yield had also. 
 
 ' is found in Chili, Peru, and New Granada. 
 
 In Chili, however, it is so little productive, that 
 
 proverbially a gold-mine is inferior to a silver one, 
 
 and that, again, to a copper one. In Pern, 
 
 most abundant between the 0th and 7th parallels; 
 
 i further south, to the east of Lima, the 
 
 of Carabayo have l>een recently wrought to 
 
 "Teat advantage; and further south still, to the east 
 
 of Titicaca, very rich washings are situated on the 
 
 river Tipuani. In New Granada, gold-mines are 
 
 illy so inaccessible as not to bear the expense 
 
 of working them. The washings, again, thou 
 
 haps remotely the product of the A., are Confined 
 
 chiefly to the alluvial soils that lie between the 
 
 chain and cither sea. 
 
 Silver also is found in Chili, Peru, and New 
 Granada. In Chili, the most valuable, almost the 
 only very valuable, mines are wrought on th 
 face of the A., not far from the city of Mendoza, 
 already mentioned in conni ction with the breadth of 
 I i Peru, i 1 e J lost productive mines are 
 those of Pasco and PotosL In those of Pasco, which 
 now been open for more than two and a 
 quarter centuries without even approaching to 
 exhaustion, the ore is a mixture of silver and oxide 
 of iron. In the mines, again, of Pi - very 
 
 has become a proverb, there are said to be no 
 than 5000 exi , while, to all appear- 
 
 upper crust of the inexhaustible 
 its has been penetrated. In ' I ada.it 
 is with silver as it has been shewn to b< with 
 the mines of the former metal, as well as of the 
 ssible as not to bear the 
 le of working them. 
 M,, ■ is found in <,b:;ro. near the 
 
 . which lies to the north-v. 
 I taking its nan ' from this metal ; 
 
 and it is found likewise in Pern, not far from 
 Gnancavelica, a town sit heady stat 
 
 irth of th" group of Cuzco. The mercury 
 hiefly in combination with sulphur, forming 
 what is called cinnabar. 
 
 appears to exist only in New Granada; 
 
 but like the gold-washingfl of that country, it is 
 
 found rather in the alluvial soils, that have been 
 
 u from the chain, than in the chain 
 
 itself. 
 
 'y iii Chili, but also in Peru. 
 In the latter country, it is of little account in com- 
 parison with silver; but, in the former, it may be 
 styled the staple metal, or even the staple production.
 
 ANDIRA— ANDIRON. 
 
 The most valuable mines are in tho northern and 
 southern provinces ; in Coquimboand Co] 
 and in the 11 I of Araocania below. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of the A. is, at every point, 
 affected by three different c rasiderations ; 
 with respect to the length of the chain, p ■ rition with 
 I ot to its breadth, position with n ip ct to its 
 
 In connection with tl of the chain, the 
 
 :ons of climate, I peculiar than its 
 
 variations under either of t£ pecta, are not 
 
 merely a counterpart of similar changes in other 
 
 parts of the globe. In the new world generally, 
 
 . and falls more rapidly in p 
 ti<ni to latitude than in the old ; and, again, as 
 within the new world itself, more rapidly in the 
 south than in the north. In connection, thi 
 with the length of the A., the variations of i 
 may be re test possible — the 
 
 tropical heat of the equs 
 
 gradually into something like polar cold, even within 
 a latitude not greater than that of Edinbur h. This 
 may be best illustrated with reference to the limits of 
 perpetual snow. Within the Strait oi 
 in about the latitude of Wale;, the limit in question 
 is only 10 feet, nearly th hi ight of 
 
 the summit i. In lat. 33" 8., about the 
 
 centre of Chili, the snowline, according I i Hu 
 is estimated at 12,780 feet; while, on a nearly 
 corresponding parallel, the Himalayas present on 
 their northern slope a snow-line of 10,02) f t. In 
 the tropical regions of the A., the snow-line seems 
 to range from 16,000 feet to 18,000. Tins result, 
 excepting that it does not greatly surpass the height 
 of the snow-line as a! can 
 
 scarcely be compared with anything in the old 
 world, whose tropical regions do not present any 
 chain of the requisite altitude for the purpose. The 
 same cause which regularly lowers the snow : 
 proceeding from north to south, has led, in Pata- 
 gonia and Tierra del Fuego, to the formation of 
 glaciers — a feature of the Alps which is altogether 
 unknown in the central and northern divisions of 
 the A. Glaciers, as the growth of an ieiele i 
 familiar to every one, require alternations of heat 
 and cold, or rather of thaw and frost. Now, these 
 essential conditions do not exist in the lower lati- 
 tudes of the A., where, generally speaking, 
 stage or terrace, as already noticed under th 
 of Am monotonous tem- 
 
 perature. But they do . i ] a and Tierra 
 
 del Fuego; and accordingly, re abound on 
 
 the shores of the deep indentations of the coast. 
 
 In connection, next, with the breadth of the chain, 
 the variations of climate, if not peculiar to the 
 A, have no perfect parallel elsewhere. At every 
 point, • .ireme south, 
 
 the chain is almost as much of a water-shed to 
 the clouds as it is to the rivers. Rarelied as the air 
 is at the elevation of the A, no vapour, generally 
 speaking, can cross them — even the existence of 
 snow at the height of several miles being a phenome- 
 non which, < u hardly to be expected. This 
 fact is rendered more important by the or 
 directions of the currents of air. The prevailing 
 winds blow against the A, not all 
 
 om the east between the e 
 and 3')°, and from the west in latitudes towards 
 the south. Thus, generally speaking, every section 
 of the chain has permanently a windward 
 a leeward side — the former ; ; nearly all 
 
 the m id the latter being condemned to 
 
 comparative drought. Peru, Chili, and Pat 
 one and all, confirm t ivations in i 
 
 On the west, Peru, unless in the immediate vicinity 
 of the mountain-streams, is little better than a 
 
 242 
 
 desert ; while, on the east, the Montana, as it 
 is called, is remarkable for its fertility. X 
 west, on the contrary, Patagonia ha3 its glaciers 
 to shew as t i its rains from that quarter ; 
 
 :, its live terraces, extending 7<'<> 
 miles to the Atlantic, are almost unifi 
 and sterile. Patagonia and Peru, 
 
 has something in common •■■ nbling 
 
 the former in its southern half, and the la'.t. r in its 
 in. To take the Pacific side alone: in the 
 ra parts, showers are only occasional, some- 
 at an interval of three years — the deficiency 
 partly supplied by frequent dews; while, 
 south of lat. 34°, the rains are sufficiently 
 copious to form considerable i 
 
 In connee', of the chain, 
 
 the variations of climate stand alone in the 
 
 zh at a great interval, only 
 by the corn in ( I oierica. 
 
 The A a familiar air I . it is 
 
 true, their grada; ii mate. But, sit 
 
 in round numbers, on about the 45th parallel, they 
 :it only half of the latitude! between the 
 equator and the pole ; while the A. of Quito, before 
 reaching this level, must have seen melting into 
 each other the teni ! 
 
 linor, and Italy. Taking the snowline of the 
 A. of Quito t of the Alps at 
 
 8000, the lower and hotter 10,000 feet of the former 
 have no counterpart at all on the latter. Now, 
 llrndon found Tarma to lie within this 1 
 precisely at an elevation of 'JT.'SS feet ; and hi 
 saw apples, ries, almonds, grapes, and 
 
 maize — a state of things not far behind that at 
 the foot of the Al: ice remaining 
 
 one general observation must close this article, [n 
 an open locality, the naked eye may embrace half a 
 zone, for, to quote a traveller's words, it may look 
 upwards to the barley-field and the potato-patch, 
 and downwards to the sugar-cane and the pine -apple. 
 Perhaps the most striking instance of this more 
 than telescopic vision is connected with the magnifi- 
 cent fall of Tequendama, the single outlet of tho 
 waters of the table-land of Bogota. This fall, 600 
 f - t high, leaps down from the temperate zone to the 
 torrid, from rich crops of wheat to a few scattered 
 palms. 
 
 ANDI'RA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 nlionacaz, bavin 
 
 almost orbicular, one-e eeded pod. — A. 
 
 (formerly known yainermu) ( 
 
 in low savai i the West Indies, and is there 
 
 called Cabbage Tree or ' Tree. It is 
 
 a tree of considerable height, having pinnate leaves, 
 
 I panicles of 
 i lilac flowers. Its bark, called Co " ■ Bark 
 or Worm Bark, is a powerful anthelmintic; and 
 . h it has recently been 1 from the 
 
 eopecias of Britain, still finds a place in those 
 r countries, along i Bark, the 
 
 bark of A. relusa (formerly (/■ 
 :• native of Surinam. Similar prop ide in 
 
 the bark of the allied 
 
 Geoffroya. Cabbage Bark contains an alkaloid called 
 ■ 
 
 A'NDIRON, or IIANDIRON,is a term frequently 
 to be met with in inventories of the furniture of old 
 houses; and in some parts of the country is still 
 ir what is more generally known as a fire-dog. 
 Andirons wi - burning wood on an 
 
 hearth, and consisted of a horizontal bar raised on 
 short supports, with an upright standard at one 
 used, one standing at each side of 
 the hearth, and the logs of wood rested across tho 
 horizontal bara. The upright portions of the A.
 
 ANDORRA— ANDRAL. 
 
 were of various forms, some of them, in later times, 
 i ■ • .1 human figure. More generally, the 
 
 design was architectural, much ornamented with 
 
 Andiron. 
 
 arabesques, and not anfreqtj b the mono- 
 
 grams of their possessors. The ornamental parts of 
 the A. were sometimes silver, but more frequently 
 copper. 
 
 ANDO'RRA, a valley in the Eastern Pyrenees, 
 I n the French department of Ariege and 
 
 Catalonia, in Spain. It is enclosed by moun- 
 tains, through which its river, the Ealira, I 
 to join the Scgre at Urgel ; and its inaccessi- 
 bility naturally fits it for being the seat of the 
 interesting little republic which here holds a kind 
 of semi-independent position between France and 
 Spain. The whole territory contains only 19S square 
 miles, with 17,800 inhabitants, and is divided into 
 six parishes. The capital is Andorra, on the Balira, 
 with a popidation of 2000. Dense forests supply 
 abundance of timber; there is much excellent 
 | re; vines and fruit- trees flourish on the lower 
 
 grounds, and the mountains contain rich iron-mines; 
 but agriculture is so neglected, and the quantity of 
 arable land so small, that the inhabitants partly 
 depend for corn upon importation from France. 
 A. was declared a free state by Charlemagne, in 
 reward for services rendered to him by its inha- 
 bitants, when he was marching against the Moon, 
 He retained certain rights which Louis le Dchonnaire 
 Bids transferred to the Bishop of Urgel, in 
 819 A. I)., and which the Bishop of Urgel still 
 exercises. The republic is governed by a sovereign 
 council of twenty-four members, chosen by the 
 people, and the council elects one of its members 
 to be syndic for life, who exercises the chief 
 
 i'.e power. There are two ju 
 viguiera, of when the first is appointed by France, 
 which exercises a kind of protectorate, and lie second 
 by the Bishop of Urgel. The first viguier is a 
 
 bman, and the second a native of A. 
 each viguier is an inferior judge called a bailie : but 
 I from his judgment to the viguier, 
 and finally to the Court of Cassation at Paris, or to 
 iscopal College at Urgel. In criminal 
 1 from the court of the r 
 itself, in which the first - s. The 
 
 te is derived from lands, and 
 aconaiderable taxes. A sum of %0 francs is 
 paid annually to France, in return for which is 
 granted the privil fcion of corn. 
 
 An annual payment of 450 livrea is made to the 
 Bishop of Urgel. The manner of life of the Andorrans 
 is very simple. There are schools, but educat io 
 a low state. There is a military or 
 
 tion. In recent ware, the Andorrans have warmly 
 Supported France. 
 
 A'NDOvJSR, a market-town of Hampshire, lies 
 in the north-west part of the county, lat. 51" 12' >>'. 
 long. 1° 2S' W. The origin of the town dates from 
 a remote antiquity, as might indeed be suspected 
 
 from its name, which is a modification of the Saxon 
 i.e., ferry over the river Ande. It 
 is said that the corporation of A. is as old as the 
 time of King John. The inhabitants, amount 
 6200, are eh* fly supported by their malt-trade, their 
 agriculture, and their traffic in (amber with Ports- 
 mouth. At Weyhill, a few mUes to the west of the 
 town, a fair is held, formerly one of the most cele- 
 brated and important in England. It lasts for six 
 days. The church of A is a new erection, in 
 the early English style of architecture, and cost 
 i'30,000, the whole of which was defrayed by the 
 late rector, the Rev. W. S. Goddard. Various relics 
 of antiquity have been discovered in the vicinity of 
 Andover. (Pop. 1S71— 5500.) 
 
 A'N DOVER, a township in Ma88ai ■': as tts, about 
 21 miles to the north of Boston, reaching on the 
 north to the Merrhnac. It is inter 
 
 ■, while the water-power of its streams is 
 loyed in the manufacturing of 
 I, linen, an Fl nship was 
 
 incorporated in 1646, just 26 years after the first 
 landing of the Pilgrim Fathers. Its population, by 
 the census of is 6945. A. is famous, even 
 
 in Massachusetts, for its educational institutions. 
 It has two of a superior description — the Theo- 
 logical Seminary of the Congregationalists, and the 
 ! Academy, instituted within live or six years 
 after the close of the war of independence, tl. 
 the efforts of two brothers from whom it derh 
 name. Both these establishments are liberally con- 
 stituted and well attended ; and the latter in parti- 
 cidar, with its revenue of .£12,000 sterling, would be 
 reckoned very wealthy in any part even of the old 
 world. — Besides this A., there are eleven other places 
 of the same name in the United St 
 
 ANDRAL, Gabriel, a celebrat d French physi- 
 cian, member of the Institute and of the Academy 
 of Medicine, was born in Paris on the 6th of 
 November 1797. In 1S23 he Bstal repu- 
 
 by the publication of the first part of lus 
 it M£dicale; in 182S, partly through the 
 ice of M. Boyer-Collard, whose daughter he 
 had married, he was appointed Professor o 
 and in 1830 was advanced to the chair of internal 
 Pathology, a branch of medical science which had 
 always possessed great attractions for him. A., in 
 fact, commenced his investigations with pathological 
 anatomy. He presented to the Academy, at a com- 
 paratively early period of his cai 
 
 e du Tube 'a the 
 
 Pathological Anatomy of the Alimentary Canal), 
 which was greatly admired. Besides, he published, 
 in 1S29, a PrtcU I of the same science, 
 
 which met with striking success ; and his Cliniipte 
 
 '< treats princip <'■' 
 of the abdomen, and of the brain. In 1839, A. 
 was almost unanimous! by his colli I 
 
 to succeed Broussais in the chair y and 
 
 l therapeutics, the highest in I 
 
 Here he has shewn the vast range of his i 
 
 l.nowl dgc ; but in oeeu much with 
 
 the dead body, it is 
 
 he has not paid sufficient attention 
 
 to the fore the organs 
 
 o to • ihibit traces of alteration. Though 
 
 in his general practice, he has 
 
 time to write severe.! other works besides 
 
 ntioned. In ls:;."> appeared his 
 
 I 
 and considerably enlarged Laen 
 
 i '-. ur : in 1836 l s ->7. 
 37, his report 
 to the Academy Star (a Truilemeiit de la I 
 Typholdepar leg Vuryatife; in 1S43 he presented to 
 
 Ml
 
 ANDRE- ANMiK.l'.. 
 
 i I 
 A'NDRB, .Inns, an unfortunate soldier wh 
 his death under oircnm tani , n his 
 
 name a pi i b I i ,:. I 
 
 1751 of G-enevese parents. At the age of twen 
 entered tin- army, ami soon after joined the British 
 d America, whi re, in a tew years, thron 
 
 lav.iur of Sir Henry Clinton, he i 
 
 tant post of adjutant-general, v ii 
 
 of major. 
 Sir B iry Clinton b on in treat •■ i 
 
 American gi m i -! \ Id, > ho 1 the 
 
 ol \'. ■ Point, for thi .. yal to the 
 British uf thi with its ma eluding 
 
 the whole stock of powder of the Ami rican 
 confidi '1 i'i' cond ,.u his 
 
 part tu Major A. 'I i 
 
 conducted by Arnold ami A. under assumed names, 
 and as if it related t<> commerci ' i i.l the 
 
 treachery was so well concealed, that the Americans 
 had no suspicion whatever of Arnol ,. At 
 
 last it remained only to Bettle the tun.- and m 
 carrying tin- scheme into execution ; ami these it was 
 determined should be settled in a personal in, 
 between Arnold anil A., i 
 required such an interview, or, more probably, 
 because Clinton hail some misgivings as t i the 
 identity of h i indent various proj I 
 
 1 about the interviev having failed, A., at last, 
 on the 20th September I7so, pi iceeded in a I 
 sloop of war— tin- Pultun up tin' Hudson 
 
 American lines. Tin- original <! 
 I • 1 1 met under covei f a 1 
 tence of effecting Borne arrangement as to I 
 
 trated property of a Colonel Rol l, a I 
 
 gentleman who accompanied A., ami whose 
 was at the tun,' Arnold's head-quarters; but this 
 design had to be abandoned, ami Arnold was i 
 to contrive a On the night of the 
 
 21st September In- prevailed on a .Mr Smith, who 
 lived « [thin the American bines, ( i go to the I 
 with a packet for Colonel Ri Smith went, 
 
 ami returned with A., who pa 
 name of \ 1 1 . f ■ rson. \rn Id mi I 1 m on the .shore, 
 where they conferred some time, a 
 went within the bines to Smith's house, and there 
 spent the rest of the nigh 
 
 arranging the details of their plan : herons 
 
 it of West Point The attack wa G . i Eoi 
 the day when the return of G I 
 
 cpected; and there is reason for thinking that 
 part of Arnold's sob me wa . to betray 
 
 Washington also into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 Early on the morning of the 22d September, a gun 
 was brought to bear on the I obliged her 
 
 to fall down the river so far that A. coSd i it 
 prevail on the boatmen to take him to her, ami so 
 was forced to make his way by land to the E 
 lines in a disguise furnished by Smith, and pro 
 with a pass from the general A. actual! 
 
 within sight of tb English 
 was stopped and taken prisoner by three An 
 militia-men, to whom, mistaking them for Bi 
 Ivertently revealed the tact that he i 
 British offici r. His cap ; him, 
 
 having discoi ered d in his 1 1 
 
 plans of West Point and other papers conn 
 w itl> thi .which he was 1 
 
 ''•' aold i i < Hint cai ried y to a 
 
 1 !. who, not suspecting anything, 
 
 was for im ..n to Ai no],;. Here a cl 
 
 of escape opene I for him, but only for a m 
 ly sent, with the papers ton 
 his person, to General V Jamieson, mean- 
 
 time, having sent word to Arnold of the c 
 
 214 ' 
 
 of A., Arnold tU ,1 to i I . and so saved his 
 
 A., as a spy taken in the aet, was liable, according 
 
 of war, to be once. But 
 
 the rank of lie pa .,! the eircuin- 
 
 ' ' i l lived i 'i lie case 
 
 I loard of general officers, to rep 
 
 with their opinion of the light in which the pi m i 
 
 ought to be 'i I, and I he pnni hment Hint 
 
 to 1 'lie' Board found that ho 
 
 Oil ia to b ' , n, my, 
 
 and punished with di luoua effort 
 
 dor to re him n, 
 
 presented to Wa M no:, 
 
 irded as a I 1. He i nt ired the 
 
 ■ I ondi r a fla of trui ; 2. That all 
 
 at i within the 1 by the 
 
 ea, On A.'s own authority, 
 
 ontrary to the tact; and to the Americans it 
 
 rightly appeared that the | it of tin- off ace ' 
 
 omunication with the has,, traitor Arnold. 
 All the efforts of Clinton failed to move the 
 American commander. A. \ I [iced I ■ death. 
 
 <hi one condition only vonld Washington 
 I '■> itish should surrender 6 
 But thi dd not think of doing ; the sense of 
 
 1 ur win. h, yield rit of war, offered 
 
 n with Arnold for the 1.1 1 
 
 and liberties of liis compatriots, made it impossible 
 r up tie- i unaway traitor to the death that 
 sdier who only went too far 
 in his zeal for lus country. 
 A. suffered death by hanging at Tappan, in the 
 Of New York, on the L'd 'Octoher 1"S(), in his 
 IT. His death n , ' ■ I i'.. ' 
 
 sympathy. The whole British army went 
 
 " him ; a. monumi at was en ited to b 
 men j in Westmin ter Mibi y, and in is^l his 
 were disinterred at Tappan, and conveyed 
 to a ■ 76 near his monm 
 
 b has been written on the subject of A.'s 
 
 execution. It ha i ofb a b L and 
 
 recently by Lord Mahon, in 1 '/ ,■■' / 
 
 (vol. vii.), that Ii : unjust. But a 
 
 narrative of the circui , they 
 
 are to be gathered from Lord Mahon's own | 
 shews tliat the American general had no 
 native. [ndeed, the circumstani to shew that 
 
 A. was not a spy, in the ordinary BI use, all go to 
 prove that he was a spy of the worst sort. 'I I I 
 
 of Arnold would have been 
 
 Ann rican can a ; and it is 
 
 went or lly within 
 
 the \nieriean lines, ami was captured returning in 
 
 with the information that was to i 
 that success, is to be held in a better case than the 
 common soldier who steals his way 
 
 the i tent of his preparations 
 and forces. 
 A wa me and amiable man, of consider- 
 
 ints; he was a good artist, and 
 . when in En land, to have been known to 
 certain literary circles of his tini". These circum- 
 stances naturally hi I the feeling with which \ 
 his fad ■ .1,1. 
 
 ; of the Society for tho I 
 Diffusion d Knowledge, voL ii. ; also, in vol. 
 
 vi of tl fiheS ■ ic ' ■■ ■ ■/ 1 1 
 
 S 
 ! of it 'in Lord Mahm's History qf\ 
 Charles J. Biddlc— an essay containing 
 a full narrative of the case, with a discussion of all ' 
 ona of law and duty raised in connection I 
 with it. 
 
 AXDREJE. .Tun. Vaixnt., a very original thinker 
 and writer, born at Herrenberg, near Tubingen, on I
 
 ANDREOSSY— ST ANDREW. 
 
 the ITIH of August 15S0. II" fcudied at Tubingen, 
 ■pent some time in travelling in the south of 
 uued ecclesiastical preferments in the 
 ' Lurch of hi i country, and dii d 
 
 on . I line 27, 1654, at Stuttgart, w here hewas cl 
 to the court. Eminently practical in his men! 
 p on, he was grieved to see the principles of 
 Christianity made thei ubji t of mere empty di 
 tions, and all science and philosophy in like m 
 perverted by a frivol asticism. To the 
 
 cm Tee tie tlii ; ].]•. vailing lendi my of Lis age, & I 
 
 of his whole life were directed. Hiswr 
 are i markable for the wit and humour, as well as 
 for the learning, acutoncKS, and moral power which 
 they display. He has been long regarded as the 
 founder, or at least the restorer of the order of the 
 Rosicrucians (q. v.); and this opinion is pis 
 supported by reference to three publications — the 
 it Chriftiani Rotenkreuz (1616), the 
 Fama Fraternit ■ is I'. C, i. e., rosea; cruci* (1014), 
 and the Confamo FraternitatAt 1'. 0. (1015), of the 
 iii I i ; wl ion he acknowledged I in If the author, 
 and the other two have so much resemblance to it as 
 ; i be evidently from the same pen. But, however 
 
 works were misunderstood !>y his contempo- 
 raries, and particularly by those who were inclined to 
 in in religion, his intention in them was cer- 
 ■ mate or promote secret societies of 
 mystics and enthusiasts, lnit to ridicule the follies of 
 the age. lie attacked Rosicrucianism itself in some 
 of his later writings with great severity. Among 
 tli" best of his works are his Mt.ni)>)m$ s. Siilyri- 
 corwm Dialogorwm Ceniuria (1017). His Myth 
 Christiana (1019) is another of the best known. He 
 wrote an allegoric poem called Dii Chri '■"> , :i (of 
 which an edition was published, Stuttg. i 
 an autobiography (Winterthur, 17'Jtl). Herder has 
 done much to extend a knowledge of A.'s works in 
 the present age. 
 
 ANDREOSSY, Antoim: Francois, Count, was 
 born on March 6, 1761, at Castelnaudary, inLangue- 
 
 doe, ami u.-i [son of Francois A., who, 
 
 along withRiquct, constructed the canal of Lai 
 doc m the 17th c. He entered the army as a ii- un- 
 tenant of artillery in 1781, joined the lb vohiti 
 rose rapidlyin military rank, served under Bom 
 in Italy and Egypt, accompanied him on hi retui 
 from Egypt to France, and took part in the ri 
 tion of the ISth Brumaire. Jle was ambassador at 
 
 n during the peace of Amiens, and afterwards 
 at Vienna, was governor of Vienna when it was in 
 the hands of the French after the battle of Wagram, 
 ami was for some time ambassador at Constant!- 
 nople, from which he was recalled by Louis XVI IT. 
 on the Restoration. He was raised to the p 
 by Napoleon after Ids return from Elba. After the 
 
 of Waterloo, he advocated the recall of the 
 Bourbons; but as deputy from the department of 
 
 Aube, li nerally took part with the oppo 
 
 B i 1 at Montauban on September 10, ls^S. He 
 was a man of eminent scientific attainments, 
 
 bed himself as a member of the Institute 
 founded at Cairo. One of lus lirst works was the 
 
 ■ Generate du Canal du Midi (bar. 1800; 
 ii \s i dition, 2 vols., 1805), in which he asserted the 
 right of his great-grandfather to honours long 
 enjoyed by Riquet. Among the most valuable ol 
 his works are his Mimoire hut Vlrruption du Pont- 
 En < in dant . Ins Mhnoxrt . 
 
 i . i 
 
 i \hort dt Thra 
 
 1812 1814 a! pendant F Annie 1826 
 (Par. 1828), a work of importance in physical 
 goo raphy. 
 
 ANDREW, the first disciple of Christ, and 
 
 tie, wis, like his brother Peter, a 
 fisherman. Previous to 1 i nrist as 
 
 the Mi 
 
 1 ii the Ba] John L 40, 41.) 
 
 -I A., as an apostle, after the death of 
 Christ, is unknown. Tradition tells us that, 
 
 ig the gospel in Scythia, Northern Greece, 
 
 and ESpirus, he Buffered martyrdom on the cross at 
 
 in Achaia, (;•_' or 70 a. d. A cross formed 
 
 ns obliquely placed is styled st A.'s Cross. 
 
 In the early times of the < Ihurch, a spurious supple- 
 
 fco the Ai ts of the Ap 
 
 in sects under the title Acta Andrea:. 
 The anniversary of Si A. falls on Novi D 
 A. is the patron saint of Sent land; he is also held in 
 \eneration in Russia, as the apostle who, 
 ace rding to tradition, first | gospel in 
 
 that country. In both countries there is an order of 
 hood named in his honour. 
 
 ST ANDREW, or THE THISTLE, a Scottish 
 ordi i- of knighthood, named after the patron 
 of Scotland. Nisbet, with pardonable partiality, 
 
 it to all other orders, purely military, '< 
 for the antiquity of it, which gives it a phv 
 
 I ney over all other orders now in being. 
 (Heraldry, Part iv. c. xi., p. 107.) He then 
 cecds, after Iii hop I. ley, to recount the story of 
 the St A.'s Cross having appeared in heaven to 
 Achaius, king of Scots, and Hungus, king of the 
 Picts, as a sign of the victory which they should 
 gain the following day over Athelstane, king of 
 
 id; and their subsequent vow, when the pro- 
 
 was fulfilled, to bear it on their ensigns and 
 
 banners. The recognised date of the order is, how- 
 
 lier than the reign of James V. Having 
 
 falbn into disrepute after the Reformation, it was 
 
 1 by James II. of Great Britain in 1687, and 
 re-established by Queen Anne December 31, 1703. 
 The star of the Order of the Thistle is worn on 
 
 Star of the Order of the Thi le. 
 
 the left side. It consists of a St A.'s Cross of silver 
 embroidery, with rays emanatu 
 the points of the cross, in the centre of which is a 
 thistle of gold and gr< en upon a field of green, sur- 
 rounded by a circl . bearing the motto of 
 der m golden . : 
 The badg i i worn pendent to the i 
 or to a dark-green ribbon over the 1 
 and tied under the arm. It consists of a figure of 
 
 st A. with the er 1 and chased on rays 
 
 ild ; the i i and feel resting upon the ground 
 of enamelled g) n. The collar is of thistles, inter- 
 mingled with rue. By a statute passed in 
 May 1S'J7, the of the »i\ 
 and sixteen knights. The Liters 1C.T. are 
 after the nam I of kni hta of the order. The 
 motto is 'Nemo me impune laoessit.' Nisbet, differ- 
 ■. ['refers 'laces 
 ig more of daring and gallantry.' 
 
 245
 
 ST ANDREW— ANDRIEUX. 
 
 ST ANDREW, The RrjBBUX ObdXR OF, is tho 
 highest in the empire, and was founded I 
 ( in 1698. It is confined t" members of the 
 
 il family, princes, generals-in-ohief, and others 
 rank. The badge of the order shews on the 
 i hiss enamelled in bin ■, bearing a 
 of the saint surmounted l>y a < ■ 
 
 I of the cross the letters S. A. 1*. R. [6 
 
 us Susaia). On the reverse is a 
 spread eagle, with the legend (in Russian) For i 
 and loyalty, and the name of the saint. Xhi 
 consists of St Andrew's Crosses alternating with 
 imperial crowns. 
 
 ANDREWS, Lancelot, an emini 
 prelate, was born in London in 151 
 successively at the Coopers' Free School, Ra: 
 
 bant Taylors' School, ami Pembroke Hall, 
 i , of which college, after 1 
 tinguished himself by his industry B I 
 he was in 1676 elected a fellow. On t 
 he accompanied the Earl of Huntingdon to the north 
 of England. His talents attracted the notice of 
 Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's secretary of 
 who appointed him successively to the parsonage of 
 Alton, and the vicarage of St I 
 In 1589 he was appointed a prebendary and canon 
 residentiary of St Paul's, a prebendary of the colle- 
 
 g'ate church of Southwell, and Master of Pembroke 
 all. The queen next testified 1 i for his 
 
 gifts and piety by appointing him one of her 
 chaplains in ordinary, and a prebendary and dean of 
 Westminster. He rose still higher in favour with 
 King James, who was well qualified to appreciate 
 bis extensive learning and pecidiar style of oratory. 
 He attended the Hampton Court conferee 
 one of the ecclesiastical commissioners, and 
 part in the translation of the Bible. The , 
 on which he was engaged was the first twelve 
 books of the Old Testament. In 1605 be was con- 
 secrated Bishop of Chichester. In ItiO'J b 
 translated to the see of Ely, and appoint do 
 bis majesty's privy-councillors, both for England 
 and Seotland. To the latter country he 
 the king in 1617, as one of the royal instruments for 
 persuading the Scotch of the superiority of episcopacy 
 over presbytery. In the following -trans- 
 
 lal. 1 to \\ meliester, when: he died on the , I : 
 
 1625. Bishop A. was, with the exception ol 
 the most learned English theolo ianofh it me. Asa 
 
 ded by bis contempor. 
 unrivalled ; but the excellent qualities of bis dis- 
 courses are apt to sutler much depreeiai 
 
 i ii judgment from the extremely artificial and 
 frigid character of the style. His principal works 
 his life were two treatises in reply 
 to Cardinal Pcllarmin, in defence of the r 
 princes over ecclesiastical assemblies. His 
 works consist of sermons, lectures, and manuals of 
 devotion. Bishop A. was the most eminent of that 
 m the 17th c. of which the 19th lias 
 
 a faint revival under the name of Pu 
 1 i binctive peculiarities were high views ol 
 siastical authority, and of the efficacy of sacraments, 
 ceremonies, and apostobc succession, and e 
 opposition to Puritanism. In bis private hie, A. 
 
 ingularly pious, meek, and charitable. 
 
 ANDREWS, Sr, an ancient city of Scotland, 
 is situated on the bay of the same name, in 1'iie- 
 shire, about 10 miles from Cupar, and 44 miles from 
 Edinburgh. Tradition dates the origin of this ■ 
 far back as the 9th c, when St Rcgulus or I 
 said to have taken refuge in this place, then called 
 Mucros, and afterward Kilrymout, bringing -with 
 him some of the bones of St Andrew, which, being en- 
 shrined here, continued to be an object of pilgrimage 
 HA 
 
 for several centuries. A ea\e on the sea-shore 
 
 still bears the name of St Kulc. He w nuld rem to 
 
 have founded a CuMm mom fcery, od which tho 
 
 h King Constantino, having resigned bis 
 
 ot about the year 9 '"• Probably 
 
 al in I the same time, it 1 ami of a prelate, 
 
 •bishop of the ' 001 'lined to enjoy a 
 
 i -e among the other bishops, until, 
 
 in 1471, the see was erected i i rchbishopric, 
 
 when he bi D pi imat ■. In tie nijl of Ah 
 
 I., a priory of ■ was founded at St A., 
 
 which afterwards became one of the chief ecclesias- 
 
 bablishments in Scotland. The last prior was 
 
 i : i; eni Moray. In 1 1 10 St A. was on at' 1 a 
 
 >.. with consent of King David I. 
 
 ■hedral, COD I 1162, and consecrated 
 
 in 1318, was sacrificed in 1559 to the frenzied teal 
 
 mob, an outrage which it is customary to 
 
 attribute to the preaching of Knox. The i 
 
 gable, part of the western, and part of the south side 
 
 11 ml of the transept, are all that remain of this 
 
 It was the second cathedral of St A., the 
 
 first being what is now called St Rule's Church, but 
 was long known as 'the old cathedral 1 Of this 
 interest o I edifice, built between 1127 and 
 
 1144, the roofless chancel, and a square tower 108 
 feet high, are still preserved They arc in the 
 style. 
 The umv. ■ A., the oldest in Scotland, 
 
 was founded by Bishop Wardlaw in 1410. It con- 
 sists of the United College of St Salvator, founded 
 
 hop Kennedy in 1456, and St Leonard, 
 
 1 in 1512; and St Mary's College, founded 
 by Beaton in 1537. The education in the latter is 
 
 \ i ly theological. The number of chairs in 
 the colleges which constitute the university is 14, 
 and the attendance of late years has been rather 
 
 in 200. Tin- castle, onco a very ext 
 and strong building, is now in ruins. It was for 
 some time the residence of I Beaton, Who 
 
 i I r. !;;. La the ecclesi -I 
 ipolis of Scotland, an ancient Beat of lei 
 and the centre of a COnsid 
 
 ■ ol the I; i and 
 
 ■ that period, it ha ! greatly 
 
 i import ince -, 1 al ii i i ki ellent educational 
 
 .■ i i . i place 
 
 still make it an ice for a hi] bly 
 
 population. Its chief interest i I 
 
 connected with the past. Here, in the centre of the 
 
 papal jurisdiction in Scotland, the Reformation first 
 
 its appearance; Scotland's proto-martyr, 
 Patrick Hamilton, Buffered here in 1527, and < 
 Wiflhart in 1546, and here John Knox first opened 
 his lips as a preacher of the Reformed faith. The 
 trade of St A. is inconsiderable. The harbour is 
 difficult of access, and particularly exposed to tho 
 cast wind. A f' 008 and fishing-boats con- 
 
 stitute all the shipping of the port. St A. is much 
 
 lis d as a bathing-place, and the game i 
 is more practised than anywhere else in So< 
 on the Links or downs which stretch along the 
 shore to the north of the town for about two miles. 
 Besides its university, St A. affords singular a 
 
 for cheap and excellent education in the 
 Madras College, established by the well-known Dr 
 Andrew Bell, which attracts a very large number of 
 pupils, the annual average being about 900. _ The 
 grammar school and commercial school are incor- 
 porated with it. St A. is a royal and parliamentary 
 . and unites with several smaller burghs in 
 returning a member to parbament. The corporation 
 includes a provost, dean of guild, and four bailies. 
 Pop. in 1S51— parish, 6740; parliamentary 1 
 5107. (1871, parliamentary burgh, 6316.) 
 
 ANDRIEUX, Francois Guillaume Jean
 
 ANDROGYNOUS— ANDRONICUS. 
 
 Stanislaus, a French writer of comedies, was born 
 -it Melon, .May 0, 1769. In 1708, he was • 
 deputy of the Seine department, and 6 
 ' If by his speeches on several points of public 
 
 St. In 1 8D0 he was made Secretary, a I 
 
 afterwards, President of the Tribunal. From this 
 post he was removed by Bonaparte in 1802, and 
 afterwards devoted himself to literature. During 
 '' political career he had written a comedy, Lea 
 E'uurdis, 1787. From 1803 to 1815 he held a pro- 
 ship in the Polytechnic School, and in 1814 
 was appointed professor in the College de I 
 Louis XVII i. gave him a place in the 
 1816, of which lie was made perpetual secretary in 
 1829. In this position he took an active part in 
 tli'' preparation of the Dlclionnairc de V Ar 
 ilis most popular dramas were Moliire avec ses 
 Amis, /■'■ vteux Fat, and the tragedy of 1 
 A collection of his esthetic lectures was published 
 the title La Ph des BMes Lettres 
 
 (I'aris, 1828). He died May 10, 1S33. 
 
 ANDROGYNOUS (i. e., male-female ; from two 
 words), a term sometimes employed in botany 
 to designate an inflorescence which con. 
 distinct male and female flowers; and more fre- 
 ly in zoology in reference to animals which 
 possess a distinct male and female generative system 
 in the same individual. This is the case with very 
 many of the lower hinds of animals, but is not 
 inconsistent with a necessity for the co-operation of 
 two individuals iu the propagation of the species. 
 Bee Ilr.r.MAi'iiiLouiTi:, Physiology and PEruouuc- 
 •noN. 
 
 AXDRO'MACIIE, the wife of Hector, was the 
 daughter of King EStion of Thebes,, in Cilicia, and 
 is one of the finest female characters in Homer's 
 During her childhood, Achilles slew her 
 father and her seven brothers. Her love of Hector 
 is pathetically depicted in her address to the hero on 
 his going to battle, and her lamentation over his 
 death [Iliad, and 21). After the fall of Troy, 
 she was given into the hands of Pyrrhus (son of 
 Achilles), who took her away to Bogus, but after- 
 wards surrendered her to Helenus (Hector's brother), 
 by whom she had a son named Cestrinus. A. is the 
 heroine of one of the tragedies of Euripides. 
 
 ANDRO'MEDA, d d hte* of the Ethiopian king 
 ius, by Cassiopeia, was, like her mother, 
 remarkably beautiful. When Cassiopeia, with 
 motherly pride, boasted that her daughter was more 
 beautifid thau the Nereids, 
 offended deities prayed 
 Neptune to revenge the 
 i lit. Accordingly, the ter- 
 of King Cephcus was 
 ! by a flood ; and 
 a terrible sea-monster ap- 
 peared, whose wrath, the 
 of Amnion declared, 
 could only be appeased by 
 the sacrifice of A. As A. 
 was fastened to a rock, 
 and hft as a prey to the 
 monster, Perseus, returning 
 from his victorious battle 
 with Medusa, saw the 
 tifid victim, and determined 
 to rescue and win her. 
 1 ravin;: slain the sea-monster, 
 i A. as lus reward. 
 Minerva gave A. a place 
 among the constellations. 
 
 AXDRO'MEDA, a genus 
 Andromeda polifolia. of plants of the natural 
 
 order Erieaeea (q. v.), distinguished by a S-valved 
 ale, which split; up through the back 
 
 of the cells ; anthers with two awns, and a globose 
 corolla with the orifice contracted. The sjiecies, 
 which are pretty numerous, have very much the 
 I appearance of heaths. Most of them are 
 small shrubs, but some attain a considerable size. 
 The only British species is A. occasionally 
 
 found in] t parts of the country, 
 
 and common throughout the north of Europe and 
 of North America, a small evergreen shrub with 
 beautiful rose-coloured drooping flowers. It has 
 acrid narcotic properties, and sheep are sometimes 
 lulled by eating it. 'II 
 
 Ilk- manner poison gosta in Nepaul ; and similar 
 effects are ascribed to A. Mariana and other m 
 in the United States. — A. fasiigiata was observed 
 by Dr Hooker abounding at great elevations in the 
 Himalaya; a humble shrub, resembling the heather 
 of Scotland. The leaves are used as a substitute 
 for tea. See SosRSL-XBXK 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS, the name of three Byzantine 
 emperors. — A. I., the son of Isaac Comnenus, was 
 one of the most conspicuous characters of his age, 
 which produced no man more brave, more pro!' 
 or more perfidious. His life was full of extraordinary 
 vicissitudes. During part of his youth, he was a 
 prisoner of the Turks in Asia Minor. He afterwards 
 spent some time at the court of his cousin, the 
 Emperor Manuel, and a niece of the emperor became 
 his mistress. He was appointed to a military 
 command in Cilicia; but although his courage, his 
 noble appearance, and his gracious manners made 
 him the favourite of the army, his imprudence and 
 waste of time in dissolute pleasures involved him in 
 aged in a treasonable correspond- 
 ence with the king of Hungary and the German 
 emperor, he was thrown into prison by Manu ' 
 remained t! tweh i years; but at last 
 
 succeeded in making his escape, and, although not 
 without further extraordinary adventures, reached 
 Kiew, the residence of the Grand Duke Jaroslav. 
 He regained the favour of his cousin by persuading 
 the Russian prince to join him in the invasion of 
 Hungary, and by his gallantry in that war; but 
 incurred his displeasure again by refusing to take 
 the oath of allegiance to the Prince of Hungary, the 
 intended husband of Manuel's daughter, as pre- 
 sumptive heir to the empire. He was sent in 
 honour. hment to Cilicia, where he found 
 
 a new mistress in a sister of the empress. The 
 resentment of the emperor breaking out against him, 
 he sought refuge in a pilgrimage to JerusaJ in. His 
 ions of zeal made his former conduct to be 
 and he was invested with the lordship 
 of Berytus; but '. y became, if po 
 
 more scandalous than ever in the seduction of Theo- 
 dora, the widow of Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 
 who lived with him for years as his mistress. The 
 emperor's anger made Palestine unsafe for him, and 
 he fled with Theodora to Damascus, and finally 
 I among the Turks in Asia Minor, with a band 
 of outlaws, making frequent inroads into the Roman 
 province of Trebizond, from which he carried away 
 Theodora and her children were 
 at last taken and sent to Constantinople, and thither 
 he followed, imploring, with a chain about his neck, 
 and iu a form of abject submission, the forgh 
 of the emperor, which he obtained, but was sent to 
 in Pontus. After the death of Manuel, 
 popular indignation was excited against the empress, 
 who acted as regent for her son. Alexius II., and A. 
 was recalled in ll 1 ^'- to deliver the empire from her 
 tyranny. He was appointed guardian of the young 
 
 IS in the empire. 
 He caused the empress-mother to be strangled, and 
 
 217
 
 AXDRONICUS-ANEMOMETER. 
 
 afterwards ' i dow he 
 
 : . B 
 
 one, and restored prosperity to 
 
 ,; but tyranny and murder were its 
 characi ■ istii • in the capital. II. s.; da bounds to 
 i itification of his reven II who 
 
 [i .1 him, .'111.1 big ji le rivals 
 
 rually sanguinary. At last) a destined victim, 
 I .i , i ae of his relatives, having 
 ; i Imivli of St Sophia f"r sanctuary, a i 
 gathered, and a addi a insurrection placed Isaac on 
 the throne, whilst A., now 73 years i 
 put t ■ by the infuriated poi •' 
 
 horrible mutilations and tortu iber 12, 
 
 1185. Hi' was the last of the Comneni that sat on 
 
 'rone of Constantinople; but the bug 
 1 (uki a and Empi cors of Trebii >nd n re d 
 
 of his sua Manuel. — A. EL, tli 
 
 ded the throne in 12S3; but after 
 and inglorious reign, was driven from it in 13 
 his grandson, A. 111., who, after a reign equally 
 inglorious, died in 1341. During these i 
 vince after province was conquered by the Tin 
 
 ANDRONTCUS— surnamcd Cybrj 
 his birthplace, Cyrrhos in Syria— is said to have 
 erected the octagonal tower call I the Tower of the 
 Winds at Athens, a building of the 3d '>r 2d c. b.c. 
 It probably received its name from figi 
 
 I the eight principal winds, and from a 1 
 Triton which surmounted it, and shewed the direc- 
 tion of the wind— the lirst known weather-cock. 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS of Rhodes, a Pi philoi 
 
 sopher, lived at Rome in Cicero's time, and employed 
 If in criticising and explaining the works of 
 Aristotle, a great number of which he was pi 
 ans of preserving to us. None of the v, 
 of A. I, . xtant; for the works 
 
 him are probably the productions of Andronicut 
 Cullislos, a learned Creek of the 15th c, who taught 
 the Greek language in Italy and Pr 
 ANDROPO'GON. SeeliBMON-O] 
 ANEGA'DA, the most northerly of the Lesser 
 Antilles, its hit. being about 19' N., and its long. 
 between 64° and G 3° W. It contains about 13 
 
 miles, with a scanty population 
 of little more I a : 
 
 I. It is of 
 coral fori like most 
 
 islands of the kind, low and 
 bi I 1 y re fs. One reef ill par- 
 ticular, which runs out 10 miles 
 to the south-east, is marked, even 
 on ordinary maps, as the scene of 
 numerous shipwrecks. 
 
 ANEMO'METER(Gr.a 
 the wind, ami metron, a mi 
 
 Fr. ant . Ger. Wind- 
 
 mower), an instrument for mea- 
 suring the strength and . 
 of the wind. Among tin 
 instruments which have been 
 design d for this purpose, that 
 invented by Dr kind ( 1 7 7 -~> A. D.) 
 is still considered to be one of the 
 most convenient and accurate. 
 The accompanying figure gives a representation of it. 
 AH ami i Dare two upright glass tubes about 9 inches 
 ind -,',, of an inch wide, connected below by a 
 much narrower tube. E, varying from -,',-, ' 
 an inch in width. The tube AB is bent at right 
 so as to receive the wind blowing into it 
 itally. A scale, graduated in inches and parts 
 of an inch, is placed between the tubes, and the 
 whole instrument is made to turn round the 
 
 , L, which can be screwed into a block of 
 
 E 
 Dr Lind's A. 
 
 wood by a screw at the bottom. When the in tru- 
 ment is used, water is poured into the tubes until 
 the level in both stands at the middle ■ 
 When ad i upon either column 
 
 of liquid, the 1 rel of both is accurately the 
 but when the mouth of the tube AB is turned 
 towards the wind, the column in AB is pp ed 
 downwards, and that | roportionably, 
 
 I the t wo columns 
 ilumn of water which the force i 
 wind sustains. Now. as we know that the pre 
 
 atmosphere at the earth's surface supports a 
 
 1 ; v. ith a 
 
 force of about 2060 lbs. on the square foot, this instru- 
 
 ives us immediately the data from which n 
 
 I the pre ore or force of the v. ind. Thus, 
 
 the wind to blow with a force sufficient to- 
 
 raise the our column one inch above the other, we 
 
 I or about &Vo* lbs, of pressure 
 
 on the square foot as the force of the wind. 
 
 The following table gives approximately the 
 tion of the he water in the A. to the 
 
 and velocity of the wind in winds of different 
 
 characters. ( odynamics.) 
 
 Height of 
 Water. 
 
 Frcsstire per 
 Squiio 
 
 per lluur. 
 
 Wind, . • , \ in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 Fresh Breeze, . ! ■ 
 
 ',;,- .i 
 
 i<;; 
 
 . in 1, 1 ., 
 
 r » - - 
 
 
 Tempest, . . 4 „ 
 
 
 03 
 
 Of other .;■ t. in use consist of 
 
 small metal ■ 1 to a horizontal axis, and 
 
 like a wind-mill. The revolutions 
 
 .inch in the same way as is seen 
 
 in the ordinary m met and from this record, 
 
 within I me, the velocity of the wind is 
 
 aed. [n mi teorological observatories, or 
 
 where a coin].', le n .. tern £ ptof the direction and 
 
 strength of the wind, anemometers of a much more 
 
 ! nature are employed. I If these, perhaps 
 
 b complete is that invented by Mr Osier. 
 
 In his instrumi nt, the force of the wind is ascer- 
 
 it way from any of the I < 
 we have referred. A brass plate one foot square is 
 L as of springs, and being attached 
 
 of the instrument, is maintained at right 
 to the .hie. t; m of the wind. This plate, l.y 
 action of the wind, is beaten lade upon the 
 springs, and in so doing, causes a pencil to move 
 rds and forwards on a sheet of paper placed 
 below it. This sheet of paper is made to pass under 
 tion at right angles to its oscilla- 
 ins of clock-work, moves at a uni- 
 form rate, so that the force of the wind at any par- 
 ticular time of the day is recorded with perfect 
 accuracy. A pencil in connection with the vane, 
 
 I AH J i 4- S 6 7 , 8 9 (0 II 12 
 
 Register-sheet of an Osier's Anemometer. 
 
 and moving in the same transverse line as the 
 
 former, records the changes in the direction of the
 
 ANEMONE. 
 
 wind; and a third pencil, guided by .1 rain-gauge, 
 the quantity of rain tliat has fallen. Ine 
 
 preceding sketch, taken from the first half of a daily 
 register-sheet, gives an idea of the kind of record 
 made by an Osier's A. The space between two 
 upright lines indicates an hour; that between two 
 horizontal lines, in the rain-register .J,, of an inch of 
 rain, in the direction of the wind two cardinal 
 points, ami in the force of the wind 1 lb. of pressure 
 on the square foot. 
 
 Thus, on the day in which these lines were traced, 
 there was in the rain-register, brought over from the 
 i- account, between '1(1 and 15 of an inch ; and 
 during tie- twelve hour3, tlio pencil had only risen 
 one space, indicating a fall of - 05, or £g of an inch, 
 almost entirely between the hours of 3 and 4 in the 
 morning, and immediately before 12 in the day. If 
 tin' day had been very rainy, and the pencil had 
 risen to the top of the register, it would have fallen 
 immediately to the bottom of it, and begun a new- 
 account ; and it might have done so several times iu 
 the course of the twelve hours. This would have 
 been effected by the mechanism connected with the 
 rain-gauge, which enables the gauge to empty itself 
 each time that the pencil reaches the top of the rain- 
 ter. As regards the direction of the wind, it 
 was, during the first six hours, south, veering slightly 
 towards the east ; and for the last six hours, it was 
 tainting decidedly towards the west, being between 
 10 and 1 1 nearly west. From the line marking the 
 force of the wind, it will be seen that the day was 
 stormy. Between 1 and 2, and at 11, the wind was 
 blowing a very high gale, producing a pressure of 
 upwards of 12 pounds on the square foot ; and 
 between the In mis of -land 5, there was a decided 
 lull, the wind being brisk, but not stormy (2 — 3 lbs.). 
 
 ANE'MONE, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Bamu. ■■■' a ■■■■, having an involucre of three 
 divided leaves, more or less remote from the (lower, 
 a petaloid calyx, scarcely distinguishable from the 
 corolla, and soft woolly achenia (see AUHJUUUH), 
 which in some species have tails. The name is origin- 
 ally Greek, and is said to be derived from the word for 
 id, 1 ecause many of the species love very exposed 
 
 situations. The | ies are numerous, and generally 
 
 beautiful Most of them flower early iu spring. 
 Tiny are natives of temperate and cold climates, 
 chiefly of the northern hemisphere. One species, A. 
 ■, the Wo 1 d A., is a common native of all 
 parts of Britain, and its wdiite flowers, externally 
 tinged with purple, are an ornament of many a wood- 
 Jand scene and mountain pasture in April and May. 
 Another species, A. Pulsatilla, the Basque Flower, 
 adorns chalky pastures iu some parts of England at 
 the same season. Its flowers are purple and exter- 
 nally silky. The Garden A. is a favourite florist's 
 flower; the varieties are very numerous, and whole 
 works have be< n published on them and their culti- 
 vation, wdiich is most extensively carried on in 
 1, and has prevailed from a very early period. 
 It is generally supposed that all these varieties have 
 1 . A. coronaria, and A. 
 
 •'■'. Both are natives of the 
 Levant; the latter is found also in Italy and the 
 smith of France. By cultivation, the size of the 
 flower is d, if form and colours are m 
 
 and many of the stamens are often changed into 
 small petals, forming a sort of heart of the llower. 
 The cultivation of the A. requires great attention. 
 It prefers a light soil. The root, which cons 
 clustered tubers, is taken up after flowering. The 
 plant is propagated by parting the roots, or by 
 In the latter way, new varieties are obtained. Seed- 
 ling plants do not flower till the second or third 
 year. — Besides the species which havo been named, 
 
 others occasionally appear as ornaments of our 
 flower-gardens. A. Apennina and A. pratensis 
 have beautiful blue flowers. They are both natives 
 
 Anemone coronaria. 
 
 of the south of Europe. A. ■/■'/"mica, a most beauti- 
 ful species, has recently been introduced from Japan. 
 — The species of this genus are characterised by the 
 acridity prevalent in the natural order to which they 
 lelo ; and the rhizomes of A. nemoroea, and 
 have been recommend' 1 in ol sianate rheu- 
 matism and in taenia. — The genus Htpatica was 
 formerly included in A. Jf. triloba {A. /wpalica), 
 with three-lobed I ra wild in most parts of 
 
 Germany, and throughout the north of Europe, but 
 is not a native of Britain. It is also found in North 
 America. Varieties of different colours, and both 
 le and double, are among the finest ornaments 
 of our flower-borders in early spring. The plants 
 
 y apt to suffer from being removed .or having 
 the earth much loosened about them, and must be 
 permitted to remain as much as possible untouched. 
 ANEMONE, Ska. a popular name of the species 
 of Actinia (q. v.) and some other AeHniadce. It 
 seems to have been first applied to them about a 
 century ago by Ellis, one of the most cell 
 investigators of the department of natural hist 
 which they belong, who remarks that 'their tent- 
 acles, being dispo ircles, and I 
 with a variety of bright lively colours, very nearly 
 
 at the beautiful | 'ine of our most 
 
 elegantly fringed and radiated flowers, such as the 
 
 &*rm 
 
 m* 
 
 1 Mesembiyanthemum. 
 
 carnation, marigold, and anemi ine.' It is only, bow- 
 ever wh.n in th.ir proper element and undisturbed, 
 that the sea-anemones expand their b ..taenia and 
 exhibitf Ity. Winn left dry by the needing 
 
 I into a jelly-uke mass usually 
 hemispherical or conical, with a puckered hole in
 
 ATv-EMONE. 
 
 p. The most common of all the British 
 
 of sea-A. is the Actinia M , which 
 
 1 its specific name from another floral 
 
 association. It attach' - and stones 
 
 from low-water almost to high-water mark, and 
 
 left by the tide, appears as a 
 liver-coloured or n 1 — 14 
 
 inch in diamet* r. whi found 
 
 t" l>e very smooth and slippery, 1 "iy linn 
 
 tency. The tentacula, when fully exl 
 length 
 and are nearly of the same colour. An azu 
 
 , < ac roles the base; and on tli" base are 
 alii wards the cenl 
 
 which are formed by radiating vertical plat s in the 
 
 substance of the animal, analogous (although 
 
 not calcareous) to the calcareous partitions in the 
 
 . Irepores. Around th 
 the mouth, there is a circle of azure tubercles, like 
 ise beads of the beauty. These arc 
 
 only to be seen when the mouth is pretty fully 
 expanded. They arc about twenty-live in number 
 in full-grown specimens. Their use is not known, 
 
 h they have been conjecture.! to be eyes. — A 
 smaller species, Actinia (or Sa;/artia) I 
 olive-green, with snow-white stripes and numerous 
 tentacula, is pretty common on the British shores, 
 inhabiting holes in the rocks, o deserted 
 
 holes of the Photos, above which its oval disc and 
 
 ida scarcely rise, and into which it quickly 
 
 [raws, upon being 1. A number of 
 
 species inhabit holes as this does. — Actinia (or 
 Bunodes) coriacea, which attains a diameter of two 
 inches, attaches itself to sand-covered rocks, and is 
 
 much buried in the sand. It is covered with 
 
 perforated warts, which have the power of 
 
 .uating to 1 
 hell, &c. ; so that, when the tide is out, the 
 animal is readily | over by the inexperienced 
 
 9 a mere inequality in the surface of the sand, 
 unless some accidental pressure cause it to squirt 
 out water through its tentacula ; . circum- 
 
 stances, many of the species are very apt to do, 
 sometimes to the annoyance of those who 
 tiously meddle with them.- . ' 
 
 I is one of the largest and most beautiful British 
 
 m&r 
 
 Actinia crassicornis. 
 
 sea-anemones, being about four inches in height, and 
 fully more when expanded between the t 
 the opposite tentacula. It exhibits great diversity 
 of the most beautiful colours. Ked is usually 
 250 
 
 predominant ; the surface of many is variegated with 
 
 i r with orange-green and yellow. It occurs 
 almost totally wh colour, sulphur yellow, 
 
 and br with pale warts like ornamented 
 
 beads. lour and form are still more 
 
 abundantly lavished on Dianlhus, a still 
 
 Actinia Diantlms. 
 
 species, with very numerous tentacula, which 
 inhabits deep water. — Anthea Cereus is, on some 
 parts of the coast, one of the most abundant sea- 
 anemones. Its tentacula arc from 120 to '200 in 
 number, arc longer than in the Actiniae 
 and are incapable, it is said, of bain '. as in 
 
 i constantly expanded, 
 and an ■ mpletely at i 
 
 ' Sfesembrya 
 
 ly kept in the aquarium. It not 
 
 place, and its locomotion is 
 
 rvation. It will I 
 
 for a considerable time without supplies of food, but 
 
 accepts morsels of beef or mutton, lish, or 
 
 if animal food. The tentacula with 
 
 Sered food first comes in contact attach 
 
 themselves to it ; those next to them are in motion, 
 
 as if to support them, if necessary, and a sort of 
 
 sympathy seem3 to extend even to the most remote ; 
 
 but except in the case of struggling prey, or of a 
 
 very large morsel, only a small number of the whole 
 
 • usually employed in conveying the 
 
 food into the mouth, or, more properly, into the 
 
 do not seem to part from it till 
 
 have fairly lodged it there. 
 
 Sea -anemones arc extremely voracious, and 
 
 almost rver has his own anecdotes to 
 
 illustrate it Dr Johnston relates one which at the 
 
 same time remarkably illustrates their power of 
 
 reproducing organs of their own body. ' I had onco 
 
 brought to me a specimen of Act. crassicornis, that 
 
 1 ieen originally two inches in diameter, 
 
 and that had somehow contrived to swallow a valve 
 
 of PecU n maxirmu of the size of an ordinary saucer. 
 
 The si: -. ithin the stomach, wa3 so placed 
 
 as to divide it completely into two halves, so that 
 
 the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin 
 
 and flattened like a pancake. All communication 
 
 inferior portion of the stomach and the 
 
 niouth was of course prevented ; yet, instead of 
 
 - an atrophy, the animal had 
 
 availed itself of what undoubtedly had been a very 
 
 untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments and
 
 an-exd— axeupjsm. 
 
 its chances of double fare. A new mouth, furnished 
 with two rows of numerous tentacula, was ■ 
 up on what had been the base, and led to the under- 
 stomach : the individual had indeed become a sort 
 
 imese twin, but with gr e ater intimacy and 
 extent in its unions. (British Zoophytes, i. 235.) 
 
 As inmates of the aquarium, sea-anemones are 
 apt to prey upon their fellow-prisoners. ' - 
 contact of the tentacula,' says Sir J. <•■ DalyelL 'is 
 the prelude of destruction. Some animals, as if 
 conscious of their inevitable fate, seem paralysed by 
 tiie touch, and yield without a e others, 
 
 whose size anil strength should insure indemnity, are 
 held in the relentless grasp ; the tentacula crowding 
 n>und, until the victim is speedily 
 swallowed alive.' There appears to be in other 
 marine animals an instinctive horror of the tenta- 
 cula of the sea-A. The hermit-crab will instan- 
 taneously flee out of its shell, if the shell is caught 
 by them. It is now believed that, like the Acalephce 
 (q. v.) and the Hydras (q. v.), the sea-anemones 
 possess a power of benumbing their prey. Sea- 
 worms (Nereides) have been observed first to writhe, 
 and then to become paralysed. Little elliptical 
 capsules are in some species scattered over the 
 whole surface of the body ; in others, confined 
 to the tentacula, or even to their tips. These are 
 furnished with spicula or minute spears, by which it 
 is probable that not only are wounds inflicted, but 
 
 i is also conveyed into them. The sensations 
 produced by the touch of the tentacula appear to be 
 
 afferent in the case of different persons, from 
 a mere 'rasping feeling' on the withdrawal of the 
 hand, to a slight tingling, and even to a stinging as 
 by a nettle. The Aiithea Cereus possesses the sting- 
 
 wer in a much greater degree than the ordin- 
 ary Actinia. Probably the skin of the human hand 
 is in general too thick or hard to be pierced by their 
 fine spicula. Dr A. Waller of Birmingham has recently 
 found, that, on submitting the tip of his tongue to 
 tit pain and stinging, as by a 
 nettle, were the constant result. He has also found 
 that a thin India-rubber membrane grasped by the 
 tentacula retains the microscopic 'poison-darts' 
 sticking on its surface. Some of these are only two 
 or three times the length of the capsule which con- 
 tains them, or at most 100th part of an inch ; but 
 others are much longer, and when within the capsule, 
 are coiled up after the manner of a watch-spring. 
 The capsules are therefore called fdifrous or tliread 
 capsules. This thread is highly elastic, and the 
 expulsion of it, as of the shorter spicula, is effected, 
 Mr Gosse tells us, by organs having this for then- 
 special office. 
 
 AN-EXD, a maritime term relating to the posi- 
 tion of any mast or boom when perpendicular to 
 the plane of the deck or other level from which 
 it springs. When a top-mast is in its proper place 
 at the head of the lower mast, it is said to be 
 ' an-end.' 
 
 A'NEUOID (formed in an anomalous way from 
 , |»riv., and nSroBn wet), the name given to abaro- 
 meter invented by M. Vuli of Paris, in which the 
 re of the air is measured without the use 
 of liquid, as in ordinary instruments. The face of the 
 A. barometer, represented in tig. 1, has a diameter 
 of about 5 inches, and the case behind, which con- 
 tains the mechanism, a general idea of which is 
 given in tii;. 2, is about 2 inches deep. The pressure 
 of the atmosphere acts upon a circular metal box, 
 AA, about 3 inches in diameter, and j of an inch 
 deep, which has been nearly exhausted of air, and 
 then soldered air-tight The sides are corrugated 
 in concentric rings, so as to increase their el 
 and one of tkeui is fixed to the back of the brass 
 
 case which contains the whole. The amount of 
 exhaustion is such that if the sides of the box were 
 
 allowed to take their natural position, they would 
 be pressed in upon each other, and to prevent this 
 they are kept distended, to a certain extent, by 
 a strong spring, S, fixed to the case, which acts upon 
 the head of the stalk, B, attached to the side 
 next the face. When the pressure of the air 
 increases, there being little or no air inside the box 
 to resist it, the corrugated sides are forced inwards, 
 and when it diminishes again, their elasticity r 
 them to their former place ; and thus the little 
 box becomes a spring extremely sensitive to the 
 varying pressure of the. external atmosphere. Sup- 
 posing the two sides pressed inwards, the end of 
 the spring, E, will be drawn towards the back of 
 the case, and carry with it the rod, EG, which is 
 firmly lixed into it. EG, by the link GH, acts on 
 the bent lever, HKL, which has its axis at K, so 
 that, while the arm, Kid, is pushed to the right, 
 LIv is moved downwards. By this motion, a watch- 
 chain, O, attached at L, is drawn off the little drum, 
 M, and the index-hand, PP, which is fixed to it, 
 would move from the position represented in fig. 1 
 to one towards the ri_rht. When the contrary 
 motion takes place, a hair-spring moves the drum 
 and the hand in the opposite way. By this mechan- 
 ism, a very small motion of the corrugated sides 
 produces a large deviation of the index-hand, 
 an inch causing it to turn through 3 inches. The A. 
 barometer is graduated to represent the inches of 
 the mercurial barometer, with which, win n carefully 
 adjusted, it almost accurately corresponds. Both 
 from' its small size and construction, it is extremely 
 portable, and it can in consequence give indications 
 in circumstances where the ordinary barometer is of 
 no service. The ' Metallic Barometer ' of M. Bourdon 
 is a modification of the A. principle. -See Manual 
 of Barometers, by J. H. Belville. 
 
 A'XEURISM (Gr. aneurysmal a dilatation) is a 
 pulsating tumour consisting of a sac or pouch into 
 which blood flows through an opening in an artery. 
 The sac of an arterial A. may be formed in the first 
 instance by one or more of the tunics of the vessel, 
 generally the outer one, the two inner having given 
 'way. This is caDi d a tnu A., in contradistinction 
 to the false, in which the sac is formed of cellular 
 tissue condensed by the blood flowing into it after 
 a wound has been inflicted on the alter] 
 without Should the sac give way, and the blood 
 among t! 'Jie A. is said to be 
 
 ■ A. is when the sac communicates 
 both with an artery and a vein ; Aneurismal Varix, 
 when these vessels communicate without any sao 
 intervening ; both of these are generally the results
 
 ANGEL— ANGELS. 
 
 „f Ui rformed by Don 
 
 I Fata] by til. ir 1 
 
 it part, or by bm 
 .1 todi oi blood. Tiny an oared by the 
 
 ', within the sac, of lilirin from tli 
 — a result the siu-gcon can promote by < ! 
 ing the artery above the A. by compression or by 
 pplyine the latter close to the sac, if the 
 ' variety, but at a distance, if it is 
 lie. Internal aneurisms are tn ated 
 bythosi remedies which moderate the heart's action, 
 as digitalis, &c. 
 
 A NGEL, an ancient English gold coin, varying 
 in valu a I Sd. to 10s, It 
 
 • ~,u-- 
 
 Angel of Edward IV. 
 
 the figure of the archangel Michael piercing the 
 i upon its obverse. Angels continued to be 
 1 down to the time of the Commonwealth. 
 ANGEL-FISH (Squati'na A'ngeliu), a fish com- 
 mon on the southern coasts of Britain, aud remark- 
 able for its extreme ugliness. On some parts of the 
 coast, it is called moulcjUh. It is very nearly allied 
 to the sharks, anil wad included by Linna-us in the 
 genus Squalui. See Shark. It is wry vol 
 
 ; chietly upon fishes. It attains a length of 
 
 Angel Fish. 
 
 seven or eight feet; and the body is broad and 
 Battened horizontally. The head is nearly round, 
 and broader than the body, from which it is separated 
 by a very distinct neck; the mouth is extremely 
 and at the extremity of the snout ; the eyes are 
 on the upper part of the head, and are very small ; 
 behind the eyes are large spout-holes ; the skin is 
 i .ugh, and covered with tubercles. The upper 
 parts are of a gray colour ; the under parts, dirty 
 white. The female is said to produce seven or eight 
 young in spring and autumn. 
 
 ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order I (q. v.), by some botanists divided 
 
 into two: A., and Ardiangelica. The species are 
 mostly herbaceous and perennial, natives of tli 
 perate and colder regionsof the northern hem: 
 They have bipinnate or tripinnate leaves. Wm> A. 
 ) is a common plant in moi 
 of brooks, and in woods in Britain and 
 throughout many parts of Euro]" k The 
 
 root is perennial, short, ringed, ami brani hed; it is 
 wliite within, and contains a yellow milky juice. 
 The stem is hollow, li — 5 feet hi^h, often 6 
 
 with red : the umbel is convex. Gabdbh A. [A. 
 
 a biennial 
 plant,! d when not allowed to ripen 
 
 ,-lica. 
 
 its set' 1 h flowers in almost spherical 
 
 umbels. The as high as a man. The fruit 
 
 straw-coloured. The root is Ion 
 fusiform, an 
 
 irregular rugose i I and 
 
 ie root, is aromatic and bitter, contain- 
 ing much p in and ' oil. The root is 
 1 into the pharmacopoeia as an aromatic 
 stimulant an 11 dis used in nervous aiL 
 and in indigestion and flatulence. It is very little 
 i in. The root of .1. . . ' trit is some- 
 times substituted for it, but is much weaker. — The 
 Garden A. was at one time much cultivated for 
 the blanched stalks, which were used as c 1 ry now 
 is; but its cultivation for this purpose has long been 
 almost entirely discontinued. The tender stalks and 
 midribs of the leaves, candied, are still, he 
 a well-known article of confectionary, and ao 
 agreeable stomachic ; the roots and seeds are 
 employed in the preparation of gin and of ' bitters.' 
 The plant is a vi ry doubtful native of Britain, but is 
 common in many parts of Europe, and even in 
 Lapland and Iceland. The Laplanders not only 
 use it as food, but regard the stalks roasted in hot 
 ashes as an efficacious remedy in pectoral disorders, 
 — The powdered seeds of the Wud A. are used 1 y 
 the country people in some parts of Europe to kill 
 lice. Several species of A. are natives of North 
 America. 
 
 ANGELICA TREE. See Aralia. 
 
 A'NGELO, MICHAEL. See Michael Angelo. 
 
 ANGELS (Gr. messengers), in Jewish and 
 Christian theology, a class of superior spirits, repre- 
 a3 the immediate instruments of Divine 
 Providence. As Scripture contains no complete and 
 systematic account of angels, the belief of the 
 Church respecting them, except in afewpoini 
 
 been exactly defined. Ithasalway I 
 
 that A. and human souls, notwithstanding thi
 
 ANGER— ANGEB& 
 
 . of the latter, are distinct ; only Di 
 
 (q. v.) and a few modern speculators 
 have maintained the contrary. Dionysius, in his 
 divides A. into nine ordcre. 
 Whether there arc- not spirit rth | . no 
 
 and A., ha3 been a disputed point, As to the 
 nunil>er of A, and tlieir names, the Church in the 
 middl itedly checked the tendency to go 
 
 beyond the usually received accounts; a i 
 council, in 745 a. k, mentions with reprobation the 
 use of the unwonted names of Uriel, Baguel, - 
 &c. The 11 have all along been in most 
 
 common use are Mich '. and Hap! 
 
 The creation of the A. v.. placed, by the l'laton- 
 ising Church-fathers, before that of the material 
 
 I ; others assigned it to some one of tl 
 days. Equally various were the opinions as 
 nature of the A. The second synod of Nice (787) 
 d them a subtle, ethereal, or firelike body ; 
 the scholastics, on the other hand, and the Lateran 
 Council of 1215, maintained their immateriality ; 
 while others, owing to the appearing of A., mentioned 
 in Scripture, attributed to them the power of 
 assuming momentarily the corporeal form. The 
 poet Nonnus (lived in Egypt in the 5th c.) is the 
 lirst to speak of angels' wu 
 
 The belief in <;■■ was common both to 
 
 DS and I W8, and had been reduced to system 
 by J'liilo; and the doctrine was adopted in the 
 ian Church, and defended by Origen and others, 
 founding on Matthew xviii. 10, and Acts xii. 15. 
 It has been cherished by many in all ages and of 
 all parties, but has never been decided on by the 
 Church. Some of the fathers also spoke of good and 
 bad guardian-angels, the former of whom were 
 always ready to prompt to good actions, and to 
 avert evil, while the latter were equally quick in 
 bringing about mischief, wickedness, and calamity. 
 From the belief in the guardianship of A., and 
 their participation in the government of the world, 
 arose naturally the i ; ee of invoking 
 
 and worshipping them. Many Christian teachers 
 condemned it, appealing to Colos. ii. IS; and the 
 Council of Laodicea, 300, called it disguised idolatry. 
 But after the Council of Xice had conceded that 
 though A. were not to receive divine worship, they 
 receive a reverential obeisance, the practice 
 
 "ned became more and more rooted, and 
 continues in the G reek and Roman Catholic Churches 
 to this day. 
 
 A'KGEB is displeasure or vexation accompanied 
 by a passionate di k out in acts or words 
 
 of violence against the cause of the displeasure ; 
 which must, of course, be a sentient being capable 
 of feeling the infliction. Like most other emotions, 
 it is accompanied by effects on the body, and in this 
 
 I In y are of a very marked kind. The arterial 
 blood-vessels are highly excited; the pulse, during 
 the paroxysm, is strong and hard, the face becomes 
 red and swollen, the brow wrinkled, the eyi 
 trade, the whole body is put into commotion. The 
 secretion of bile i . and it seems to assume 
 
 a morbid con istency. In cases of violent pa 
 
 illy in nervo tement 
 
 of the organs soon passes tip the other extri 
 
 ; tot take place till 
 the A. has subsided, when there follows a period 
 of general relaxation. The original tendency 
 
 much in individuals according to temperament ; 
 but frequent giving way to it begets a habit, and 
 the natural tendency. 
 a the nature of A., it is easy to see that it 
 must be— often at least— prejudicial to health. It 
 frequently gi r, inflammation of 
 
 the liver, heart, or brain, or mix These 
 
 effects follow immediately a tit of the passion ; other 
 
 evil effects come on, after a time, as the consequence 
 of repeated paroxysms — such as paralysis, jaundice, 
 consumption, ami nervous fever. The milk of a 
 mother or nurse in a fit of passion will cause con- 
 vulsions in the child that sucks; it has been known 
 even to Occasion instant death, like a strong pi 
 
 The controlling of A. is a part of moral discipline. 
 In a rudimentary state of society, its active exercise 
 would seem to be a necessity; by imj>osing some 
 restraint on the selfish aggressions "of one individual 
 upon another, it I he beginnings of social 
 
 co-operation and intercom-? This is its 
 
 use, or, as it is sometimes called, its final cause. But 
 the more social intercourse comes to be r 
 customs and laws, the less need is there f 
 vindict- :on of A. It seems an error, 
 
 however, to suppose that the emotion ever will be- 
 ar that it ought to be — extirpated. Laws then 
 lose their efficacy when they have not this; : 
 for a background ; and it remains a3 a last resource 
 for man, when society, as it does every now and 
 then, resolves itself into its elements. Even in the 
 most artificial and refined states of society, those 
 minor moralities on which half the happiness of 
 social intercourse depends, are imposed upon the 
 selfish, in great measure, by that latent fund of A. 
 man is known to carry about with 
 him 
 
 ANGERMANNLAND (Swedish, .Engermland, 
 pronounced Ongermland), a province of Xordland, one 
 of the four great divisions of Sweden, extends along 
 the Gulf of Bothnia, and is watered by the river 
 Angermann. Next to Dalecarlia, perhaps, it exhibits 
 the richest variety of wild and beautiful landscape 
 — wood, mount, stream, and ng with the 
 
 banks of the Khine, the Danube, or the far-famed 
 scenery of Switzerland. In addition, it is one of 
 the best cultivated provinces in Sweden, producing 
 barley, rye, and peas, and abounding in excellent 
 pasturage. The river Angermann, in its lower course, 
 becomes navigable for the largest ships, and broadens 
 out into a lake shortly before discharging itself into 
 the Gulf of Bothnia. The inhabitants are reckoned 
 among the solidest of t! nd are favourably 
 
 known for their sobriety and industrious habits, on 
 account of which, prosperity is general The chief 
 town of the province is Hcrncesand, with a popula- 
 tion of rather more than 2000, standing on the small 
 island of Herno, and having steam-communication 
 weekly with Stockholm. It is the see of a bishop, 
 has a cathedral-school and literary and printing 
 establishment with Lappish type, public laths, and 
 building docks. It exports linen fabrics, and the 
 Baltic products generally. 
 
 ANGERS, the ancient Jtdiomagus or Andegavum, 
 formerly the capital of the Duchy of Anjou, and 
 
 now of the French department of Maine-et-Loire, 
 is situated on both sides of the navigahl 
 Maycnne. not far from its junction with the Loire, 
 lat. 47' W X., long. 0° 33" W. A. is the see of a 
 . and was the seat of a university founded in 
 1240; instead of which it has now an academy of 
 lass. Lord Chatham and the Duke of 
 Wellington received a portion of their education at 
 the military college which was oni I which 
 
 is now removed to Saumur. It has also given birth 
 to two Bernier, the traveller, 
 
 and David, the sculptor. It has also a theo' 
 seminary, an institution fir the deaf and I 
 
 picture-gallery, and a 
 public library eon; nnaij 25,000 volumes. The nuns 
 of theancii. "■ 81 Louis, about 
 
 the middle of the 13th a, are situated on 
 rock above the ri\ r. Xh i cathedral of St Martin 
 is a fine building of the Oth c, in the Roman 1 
 
 2SJ
 
 ANGINA PECTORIS— ANGLER. 
 
 stylo. ■ • " ' ■■■ weav- 
 
 j n g > &. 5 on to a considerable extent, ami 
 
 brandy, Sax, bemp, bon 
 The 11 
 Top. 41,100. 
 ANGI'NA PECTORIS, or HEART-STROKE, 
 ; i I by inb l) I pain and sense i 
 striction, which occur in | aningatthe 
 
 bone, or deep in the chest) and exl 
 towards the left shoulder. The fits recur, a 
 patient either 'lies in one of them, or from efi 
 of fluid within the 
 
 A. 1'. rarely occurs before the fiftieth year, and is 
 caused by some defect in the vascular or nervous 
 supply of the heart itself ; but the ' of the 
 
 d • has not yet been ascertained, and, indeed, 
 probably varies with the individual The 
 are induced by any excess in diet, by i 
 walking uphill or against a I wind, or by 
 
 I emotions. As, during the paroxysm, but 
 little can be done, ' whoever is subject to fits of the 
 heart-stroke, should studiously shun all occasions of 
 
 I his feelings roused or hi 
 interested. If he is prone to anger, he must 
 endeavour to restrain his passion, or must withdraw 
 from scenes likely to awaken it. I 
 contradiction, disappointment, or insult, he had 
 better avoid all disputes in v. I .' meet 
 
 either one or the other. He must hail a sober, 
 quiet, and temperate life, in which neither the 
 emotions of the soul arc to disturb the fundi 
 the body, nor corporeal affections are allowed to 
 disturb the serenity of the mind.' —Craigic. 
 
 ANGIOSPE'RMOTJS (from the Greek angeiou, 
 a vessel, and tperma, seed), a term in Botany, applied 
 to phanerogamous plants which have their seeds 
 enclosed in a pericarp. This is the ca~ with the 
 greater part of phanerogamous plants. Those'' 
 have the seeds naked, as the Coni/era: (q. v.), are 
 called Gi/mnosi>ermous. In the Linn.xan system, 
 one of the two orders of the class J 1 
 called Angi 
 
 ANGLE (from Lat. anguhu, a corner) mi 
 Geometry, the opening or inclination of two lines 
 that cut or meet one 
 another. If the lines are 
 straight, the A. is I 
 linear. The magnitude 
 of an A. , not 
 
 upon the length of the 
 
 lines or legs, but upop 
 Angle. (he A 
 
 ing. If the legs are suppose I 
 
 les, ana then gradually opened till thej 
 into one stiM they form a series of gradually 
 
 increasing angles ; whenhalf-way I hut and 
 
 r. they contain a right A. Any A. Li 
 a right A. is called acute, and one greater, is 
 • are measured by degrees, of v. 
 
 ri"ht A. contains 90. The A. made by two i 
 lines (curvilinear) is the same as the A. made by 
 jto the two curves at the point of inter- 
 section. Angles mode by planes with one a 
 
 need to reetilim When 
 
 three or more planes meet at the it, the 
 
 angular space included between them is ca 
 
 The Facial Angle, on which Camper founded a 
 scheme for i et and 
 
 sagacity bestowed by nature on the several members 
 of the animal kingdom, was measured by him in the 
 following way: On ht line was drawn from 
 
 the ear to the base of the nose, and another from the 
 prominent centre of the forehead to the most advan- 
 cing part of the upper jawbone, the head being 
 
 254 
 
 • In the angle produi 
 
 ■ may be said to 
 n between the skulls 
 , luit also 
 which are found to i different u 
 
 led, that nature h 
 
 I of the animal I 
 
 Erom the in 
 
 m0 st In "ich arc found in the human 
 
 species. Thus it will be found that th 
 
 ind that it :. 
 becomes of greater extent in proportion as the an 
 
 are. Thus 
 in which the 
 of forty-two degree i ; in an 
 animal of the same family, which is one of 
 
 Killing most closely to the human figure, 
 
 iai angle contains exactly liH ■ N( it 
 
 to this is the head of the African I ch, as 
 
 that of the Kalmue, foi 
 Beventy degrees, while the angle discovered in the 
 heads i is contains ei ■ I reset On this 
 
 ten 4 < in I ! ' i Ea i "I an -!<•, the 
 superior beauty of the Eur i ads; while 
 
 high character of sublime beauty which is so 
 striking in some works of ancient statuary — as in 
 the head of the Apollo and in the .Medusa— is guru 
 by an angle which amounts to one hundred degrees.' 
 
 ANGI, I'., Dead. In fortific ttion, where as 
 of the wall is so formed that a small plot of ground 
 in front of it can neither be seen nor defended from 
 the parapet, it is call ,1 a 'dead angle.' See Bastion, 
 Curtain, Foi ion. 
 
 A'NGLER [Lop?, a fish i 
 
 common on the British shores, and som 
 
 I frog, sometimes, from its ugliness and 
 voracity, the It usually attains the size 
 
 at three feet in length, sometimes live feet. 
 The head is enormously large, depressed, and spinous ; 
 the mouth is of similar proportions (when< 
 Scottish name Wide Gab), and furnished with many 
 
 sharp curved teeth. The lower jaw is considerably 
 than the upper. The hoily is narrow in 
 comparison with the great breadth of the head, and 
 tapers rapidly to the tail. The whole fish is covered 
 with a loose skin, almost without scales. There are 
 two dorsal fins, which are spinous, and three anterior 
 rays, regarded as belonging to the tirst dorsal, are 
 free and articulated to the head, which are with 
 probability supposed to serve the animal as 
 delicate organs of touch. The nostril tube is clon- 
 
 ii to a membraneous stalk, capable of spri 
 out like a cup at the upper end, and of being i 
 
 tion by a very numerous set 
 the bottom of the cup being divided into proj 
 
 . on which the olfactory nerve is finally 
 
 ited. There are also numerous worm-like 
 
 appendages about the mouth, ami by means of 
 
 end still more of the filaments which rise from 
 
 the upper part of the head, the creature is supposed 
 
 to attract small fishes, upon which it seizes. The
 
 ANGLES— ANGLING. 
 
 wonderful stories told upon this point seem to 
 require authentication, yet they are in thems '. 
 no means incredible, and have been current concern- 
 ing this iish and its congeners, since before the days 
 of Aristotle, who mentions them, and says that this 
 fish is called ajislter because of the means by which 
 it procures its food. Yarovll justly remarks of the 
 Stratagem ascribed to the Lophiiu, that it is not 
 more wonderful than that of spiders, which spin and 
 repair their webs to catch insects, upon which they 
 subsist. — The genus Lophius belongs to a family 
 of Acanthopterygious Fishes, called Lophiadce or 
 Lopliioids, and by C'uvier, Pectorales Pcdv.ncu.lali, 
 remarkable for the elongation of the carpal bones, 
 so as to form a sort of wrist, to the extremity of 
 which the pectoral tin is articulated ; so that, by- 
 means of it, these fishes are able to leap suddenly up 
 in the water to seize prey which they observe above 
 them ; and some of them can hop about upon sea- 
 weeds or mud from which the water has retired. 
 They do not suffer so quickly as most other fishes 
 from being out of the water, their gill-opening being 
 very small, and an A. has been often known to 
 devour flounders or other fish which have been 
 caught along with it. The bones are much softer 
 thau those of Acanthopterygious Fishes in general 
 
 A'XGLKS [Angli), a German tribe of the race of 
 the Suevi, who seem originally to have occupied the 
 country lying on the east of "the Elbe, between the 
 mouths of the Saale and the Ohrr, and moving 
 northwards, to have settled in Schleswig, between 
 the Jutes and the Saxons. Along with the latter 
 the A. passed over in great numbers to Britain, 
 during th ■ 5th c, and ultimately established there 
 I do-Saxon (q. v.) kingdoms of the Heptarchy. 
 I ': ■ mi them England derives its name (Lat. . I 
 Anglo-Saxon, Engla-land). After these migrations 
 from Schleswig, the Danes from the north entered 
 the deserted <listricts, and mingled with I 
 who remained there. The German language and 
 manni re were afterwards introduced by immigrant 
 nobles from Holstein, and prevailed amo" . 
 higher classes; but to the time of Christian VI.. I he 
 Danish was stUl generally spoken by the common 
 people. During the present century, the German has 
 more oomph I 1 the ascendency. The Anglo- 
 
 Danes are of a more passive disposition than the 
 
 aders and the people of the Dithmars ' 
 religious sentiment is very strongly manifested 
 
 • them. The district called 
 from the Schlei on the south, to the Flensbui 
 on the north, contains about 330 square mil 
 a population of about The name has no 
 
 political or administrative signification. 
 
 A'XGLESEA, Hbnby Wit mam Tacit, Earl 
 e and Marquis of A., born M 
 170\ was edncaf ird, and, as Lord 
 
 1 the army at I og of the French 
 
 n 1703 to" 1704 he comie 
 
 a volunteer corps in i and Bubseq 
 
 acquired a high reputation as a cavalry officer 
 
 ular War, i during the retreat 
 
 I 
 
 he commanded the British cavalry, fa 
 On his ' md, he received a \ 
 
 thanks from parliament, and was made Man 
 A. Afi : a part in the administration 
 
 under Canning, and in l.i-S was d lord- 
 
 lieutenant of Inland, at a period when that country 
 
 ■eatly agital mestion of its rel 
 
 privileges. He at first op 
 
 of the Catholics; but ultimately I uvinccd 
 
 that it was essential to the peace of the country, in 
 
 [uence of which he was recalled from Ireland 
 
 by Wellington in 1829. He was again appointed to 
 
 the same office under Lord Grey's administration 
 in 1831 ; but the perverse policy of the Tories had 
 involved matters in such perplexity that even the 
 v ness and integrity of his character could not 
 allay the irritation. O'C'onnell had now commenced 
 his ruinous career of agitation, and the marquis was 
 compelled to resort to severe coercive measures, 
 the popularity he had previously 
 acquired. His rule in Ireland was not characterised 
 by any superior statesmanship ; but it ought to be 
 remembered, to his honour, that he founded the Irish 
 Board of Ed u cati o n, which has been of immense 
 service to that nation. In 1833, he was succeeded 
 by the Marquis of Normanby ; but did not 
 take any prominent part in public proceedings till 
 184G, when he accepted the oliiee of Master-general 
 of the Ordnance in Lord John Russell's ministry. 
 In the same year he was raised to the dignity of 
 field-marshal He died on the 29th April 1 
 
 ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA (Sax Ane 
 i. e. ' the Englishmen's island '), an island and county 
 of Wales, on the north-west coast of that principality, 
 being separated from the mainland by the 
 Strait. Its form is that of an irregular triangle, the 
 base facing the mainland. Its length is about 20 
 miles; breadth, about 17; coast-line, about 80 ; area, 
 173,440 acres. The climate is mild, but foggy, espe- 
 cially in autumn ; the sod, generally a still' loam, 
 varying with sandy and peaty earth; the . 
 
 of the island, fiat and uninteresting, there 
 very little wood. The prevailing rock is 
 mica schist ; limestone ranges traverse the county ; 
 granite, marble, coal, serpentine, soapstone, are also 
 found. The island is rich in minerals ; the Parj-3 
 and Mona copper-mines, near Amlwch, opened in 
 till give employment to about 1000 workmen. 
 ! ! ore, containing much silver, has also been 
 found. Agriculture in A is as yet somewhat 
 backward. The chief crop3 are i y, and 
 
 potatoes. Cattle are extensively reared. The manu- 
 factures of the island are inconsiderable. The 
 communication with the mainland is by means of the 
 Monai Suspension Bridge, and the great Britannia 
 Tubular Bridge, over which the Chester and Holy- 
 head Railway passes. See Tuboxab Bbidges. A. 
 was known to the Romans under the name of Jfoiia. 
 It was one of the chief stats of the Draidical | 
 which in Gl a.d. was all but destroyed by tin- 
 Roman general Suetonius Paulinus. Th 
 again subdued by Agricola 76 a.d. Egbert con- 
 it in the 9th c. ; hut the native princes 
 aids recovered their dominion, establishing 
 oent at AberfEraw. It was finally 
 subdued ird I. The ancient remains con- 
 
 sist chiefly of cromlechs, two of which, side by 
 are in the park of Has Newydd, the 
 Marquis of A. At Holyhead, are the remains of a 
 Roman camp. 
 
 The climate of A. is milder than that of the 
 mainland of Wales ; but in the autumn the air is 
 frequently filled with noxious mists. The county is 
 I into three distre h sub- 
 
 divided into two ■ The market-towns aro 
 
 Amlwch (a flourishing little seaport, of 3109 inhabi- 
 tants). I (q.v.), Holyhead (q. v.), Lla 
 . 1362), and Liknerch-y-medd. The 
 
 towns unite in returning one member to the 
 1 parliament; the county returns an 
 Sraw (pop. 
 and Newborougb. The pop. of the county in 
 was 67,327 ; the num 7. with 
 
 : of Sunday Bchools, 115, with 11,662 
 pupils; of places of worship, chiefly 
 
 to the Church of England and to the Caivinistio 
 Methodists. 
 A'NGLING is the art of alluring and capturing 
 
 la
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 ins of a rod, line, and 1 1. the hook 
 
 being furnished with a lure, which is eithi . 
 i annals naturally prey, 
 
 it anti- 
 Erom mention being made of it by 
 , i ah : ' The fishers also shall i 
 and all they that cast angle into the brooks, 1 chap. 
 xix. v. 8. The pi i continued thron 
 
 and in almost all ■ 
 Jit 1496, Wynken de Worde 'emprcnted at 
 ■ i 
 by Dame Juliana Ben 
 
 re to the world 1 I 
 work afterwards enriched with additions by his 
 friend Charli l and till this day esl 
 
 lmtli for correctness of details, and the Bingularly 
 . humour of its apologues, poetical | 
 
 disqiiii: 
 
 We rea rve for future articles the habits and beat 
 methods of capturing the principal species of fish thai 
 haunt i lochs of Great Britain, and 
 
 here confine ourselves to a short notice of a. appar- 
 atus, aiul some general directions, &c, for the 
 guidance of tyros, proceeding at once to describe, 
 
 iisn-TAriciE. — The angler's equipment con- 
 sists of rod and reel, lines, hooks, , flies, tackle- 
 
 old be as b ' 
 Bible iii their construction, many accessories added 
 by the fishing-tackle maker being more orn.. 
 and cumbrous than re ally useful 
 
 The rod must lie long or short, stiff or supple, 
 to suit the habits of different spec: thus, a 
 
 long rod ateen feet, i 
 
 for salmon ; while 
 a ro.l of ten to fourteen feetj light, elastii 
 tapering, is sufficient for trout 'J")i<- rod for trout 
 and similar kinds of fishing should 
 to be wieldi feral hours together by 
 
 one hand. Spliced ro d than 
 
 those with joints, and do not so readily 
 i n.n and other kinds oi 
 
 a large rod of several pie© 
 iry. 
 
 '1 he n ' or pirn — an apparatus fixed near t ; 
 torn of the rod, and upon which the hue is w - 
 ■ Lould be simple in its mechanism, and made so a3 
 to wind or unwind freely and quickly. 
 
 i should be long, smooth, and Bi v' le, and of 
 ■ rial not easily injured by wet, The | 
 the line which is wound upon the I passes 
 
 along the rod, is called the r el-line; that which is 
 attached to it, is called the ■ 
 line should be made of triple gut, t. 
 between it and the gut to which the hooks are 
 id, there should he several thread 
 gut, Reel-lin i vary from twenty to one 
 ed and twenty yards in length, according 
 to tli dimensions of the water to bo fished, 
 and the habits of the species to b 
 Lines arc made of various mat -rials, BUI 
 hair and oiled silk. If, in purchasing, the 
 be at a loss to decide between a heavy or a hjit 
 line, In- should incline rather to 
 
 of its casting superiority, and the advantage gained in 
 windy weatlnr. i 
 
 of horsehair, lighter and finer than the reel-li 
 at the end of tins is attached the gul-line -tin 
 of all. Sometimes, however, the horsehair c 
 line is dispensed with. The casting and gut lines 
 should taper in thickness from the reel-line to tie- 
 end hook on the gut-line ; all knots should be small, 
 but secure, the only breaks discernible by a general 
 glance throughout the entire length of casting aud 
 gut lines, 1- .ks. 
 
 -/.' ran in size from several inches down to a 
 
 250 
 
 quarter of an inch in length. Tlu-ir chief places of 
 manufacture are Kendal and Redditch. 
 
 in - put upon a hook to 
 a lure to tie I n hen used, the - I 
 
 hook is dropped into, and allowed to sink in the 
 
 water, inst.ad of being kept 1 1 face, as is 
 
 e with fly. The materials, living or dead, 
 
 r bait are very numerous, tit I kinds 
 
 Idis-worms, pastes, maggots, min- 
 
 insects, and salmon-roe. The methods of 
 
 : iiiily various, and in many cases 
 
 as they are to hear 
 lance to the actual livi 
 important lures used by the angler. The 
 materials for dressing fii 
 
 or other feathers, to form wings; the fur of a hare's 
 
 ear, mouse, water-rat, or Borne other animal, to form 
 
 the body; and waxed silk thread to tie the whole, 
 
 in an artful, neat manni r. to the shank of the hook. 
 
 The following is a list of trout-flies and spiders, 
 
 with a supply of which the angler may pursue his 
 
 art' in almost any river or stream in 
 
 Britain throughout the entire season; and it 
 
 is almost needli ss to add, that the wood-cut below, 
 though copied from two favourite Hies and a Bpider, 
 is intended as a guide to tixe rather than to pattern. 
 Spiders arc dressed, as they naturally exist, without 
 
 i. — Xo. 1. Wings formed of feathers from the 
 wing of the chaffinch, with a black hackle, tied with 
 
 2. Wings I of woodcock or partridge 
 
 , tied v. ith yellow silk. 
 .'!. V. feathers of the corn 
 
 bunting, with a red hackle wound round close to 
 [e-coloured 
 •I. Wings formi d Erom the speckled f nther of the 
 teal, with a black hackle wound round close to the 
 tied with brown silk. The same wing with 
 a red I 1 with yellow auk, also m 
 
 killing fly. 
 
 5, Wings from the feathers of tl : body 
 and hackle same as No. -. 
 
 6. Wings from woodcock or corn bunting wing; 
 1 
 
 lers. — 1. From the small feather of the dot- 
 i re! wing, tied with 
 yellow silk thr -ad. 
 
 '_'. From the small 
 ning feather 
 
 le of the 
 shoulder of the star- 
 I with 
 ; 
 
 3. From the neck- 
 feathers of the hill- 
 partridge, ti- d with 
 yellow silk thread. 
 
 4. From the black hen-hackle, tied with small 
 
 -ilk thread. 
 
 5. From the blue hen-hackle, tied with yellow 
 silk thread, 
 
 6. Erom a small red cock-hackle, or the small 
 
 1 hail's win-,', tied with yellow 
 Of t flies, the best two we know of are 
 
 formed from the following materials: 
 
 ' No. 1. Tail —crest-feather from golden pheasant ; 
 Id tins.l and orange silk, with two turn^ of 
 herlj bmly composed of claret-colour, ' I 
 and mohair mixed, with a little pigs' wool at 
 the head, of a light-bin wound with silver 
 
 tinsel and dark-red hackle, with blue jay's t 
 for shoulders; wings — from the teal-duck or wid- 
 geon, distinctly marked or barred ; head — of black 
 ostrich herL 
 
 
 Spider.
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 ' No. 2. Tail — crest feather from golden pheasant ; 
 body composed of pigs' wool and mohair mixed, of a 
 dark-cinnamon shade ; wound with silver twist and 
 
 Salmon Flies. 
 
 dark-red hackle; shoulders composed of breast- 
 feather of the arena pheasant ; wings composed of 
 golden pheasant tippet or neck feathers, distinctly 
 marked teal, four fibres of blue and red macaw 
 tad-feathers, with pairs of wings from the brown 
 and black barred feathers of the peacock win;; 
 surmounting the whole ; a blue feather from the 
 kingfisher or blue chatterer on each side of the 
 wings; feelers — from blue and bull' macaw tail- 
 feathers ; head — black ostrich herl.' 
 
 Larger and more gaudily dressed hooks are neces- 
 sary for some of the bigger rivers of Great Britain, 
 such as the Shannon in Ireland, and the Tay in 
 Scotland ; but the two here described are the most 
 lulling varieties for general use that we know of, 
 and have been found more or less serviceable in 
 every salmon river of any importance. No. 1 may 
 sried by different shades of wing, to suit 
 various colours and sizes of water. Both are stock- 
 flies with every tackle-maker. 
 
 The angkr's equipment is completed by the addi- 
 tion of a basket or bag for holding his fish, and a 
 < ' ook ; also a flat, round tin box for holding his 
 fly-casts. In fishing for perch, gudgeons, bream, &c, 
 a small float is often used. Floats are made of cork, 
 quill, reed, and other light materials ; and a choice, 
 according to circumstanci -. may be added to the 
 tackle-book. Books adapted for the angler's pur- 
 pose can be had of any tackle-maker. 
 
 The angler's dress should be a plain, dull-coloured 
 suit ; his shoes strong ; and if he prefers wading, his 
 boots i should be waterproof. 
 
 The jfojr ami landing-net are each useful for 
 securing large iish when stranded in very shallow- 
 water, or when fishing from a boat ; and the drag- 
 luyok, which is an instrument with three bent 
 prongs or hooks, with a long strong line attached, 
 uently usefid for casting into rivere or lochs 
 to clear away any object at the bottom on which 
 tlie hook has fouled. 
 
 Pbactics of Aj/HUSK&i—BaU-JuMng—Aa a rule, 
 bait-fishing is practised more on sluggish, 
 rivers than on swift running streams, though it 
 answers as well, and, under certain circumstances, 
 even better in the latter than in the former. The 
 fish usually Bought i"r in the slow-running, deep 
 rivers south of t£ i, dace, 
 
 bream, chub, barbel, tench, carp, p rah, pike, trout, 
 fee. All are sometimes taken with fly ; but worms, 
 gentles. rally used. 
 
 The first thins the bait-fisher has to barn, is the 
 art of baiting his hooks. Taking the hook in his 
 17 
 
 right hand, and the bait between his fingers in the 
 : :• let him enter the hook at the head of the worm, 
 and carry it through the animal to near the tail, cover- 
 ing the entire hook and its tying. The worm should 
 be broken or mangled as little as possible ; and the 
 more lifelike it appears, the greater the probability 
 of its proving an effectual hire. There must not, 
 however, be too much spare worm left dandling 
 from the hook, otherwise tie- iish will keep nibbling 
 it away without biting at the bait bodily, and I 
 it into its mouth -the thing which the angler d 
 
 In throwing the line with bait, take care not to 
 splash OlS water, but throw forward and upward, 
 so as to let tie- bait fall gi ntly on the surface, and 
 sink slowly in the water to the required depth. The 
 motion of the line down the stream must then bo 
 carefully followed and watched. 
 
 Occasionally, the angler will /"..'a nibble, hut he 
 must not be in a hurry to strike— that is, to fix the 
 hook in the fish's moutk Perhaps it is no more 
 than a nibble, and it is well to allow the fish timo 
 to bolt the hook. If drawn too quickly, you may 
 actually pull away the hook after it is naff-gulped. 
 Experience and dexterity are required in this ticklish 
 part of the craft. 
 
 In May. the creeper, or stone-fly, in its embryo 
 state, is a deadly bait; and in June, when it assumes 
 the winged state, it is the most killing bait that can 
 be used. The creepers are found under large stones 
 in the water, the flies under large stones in the dry 
 dge of the water. On Tweedside 
 this By is 6 q lently but erroneously called 
 the May-fly, and is productive of large takes of 
 trout when other lures are comparatively use- 
 less. Minnows and parr-tail are two important 
 baits ; tackle is made on purpose for these, and 
 consists of several hooks tied within an inch or so 
 of each other. These are inserted in the minnow, so 
 as to give a curving form to the bait, for the purpose 
 of making it tpin in the water ; swivels are attached 
 to the tackle further up, to prevent the line from 
 twisting with the spinning of the minnow. Stoddart 
 says : ' Fish in rapid streams, also in deep dis- 
 coloured pools, and during a smart curl. Manage 
 the minnow as you would your By, throwing it 
 down and across as far as you are able; bring it 
 towards you about six inches below the surface, 
 spinning rapidly by the aid of several swivels. 
 When a fish rises, give him time before you strike; 
 let him turn and gorge the bait, then strike sharply, 
 and he is yours. This mode of fishing requires 
 more dexterity and practice than ordinary bait- 
 fishing, and will be best learned by carefully 
 watching the motions of an experienced hand. 
 
 :. — This is the true A., all other 
 kinds being tame in comparison. Trout and 
 salmon are the fly-fisher's chief objects of de- 
 sire ; and here we will quote some remarks of 
 .Mr Stoddart's upon the method of capturing the 
 former of these fish with the lure in qu 
 ' Your rod and tackle being ready, the wind in 
 your favour down the river, draw out with your 
 left hand a few yards of line from vour reel, dip 
 the top of your rod in the water, and with a rapid 
 jerk you will lengthen as you wish that part you 
 intend for throwing. A thirteen-foot wand will 
 cast from six to seven fathoms of line. With a 
 large double-hand may manage a much 
 
 greater length. Always, if you can, angle from a 
 distance. Trout see you when you least imagine, 
 and skulk oil' without your notice. 
 
 'All jerks, in casting, are apt to whip off your 
 hooks or crack your gut A tly-tisher may use two, 
 three, or four flies on his casts, according to plea- 
 sure. When :li small hooks, we adopt the 
 medium number. Large ones ought to be 
 
 in
 
 ANGLING— ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 with in pairs, and well separated. In throwing the 
 the lowermoet or trail-lly should be made to 
 ■light foremost; it3 fall ought to be almost imper- 
 ceptible; it should oame down on the water like a 
 gossamer followed Ly the droppers. The m 
 a fly touches the surface, it ia ten timee more apt to ' 
 raise a fish than during the act of drawing it along. 
 At no time are we stanch advocatea for the 
 of leading our hooks either against or a 0) 
 stream; our method is rather to shake them I •■■ BZ 
 it for a moment, and then repeat the throw. A 
 trout will discover your fly at the distance of I 
 several yards, if feeding, and will dart at it like 
 lightning. 
 
 'Trout will sometimes take in the most on] 
 weathers, so that the angler should not despair at 
 any time. Hunger causes them to i> 
 once in the twenty-four hours, and generally much 
 oftener. If the wmd blows down the river, com- 
 mence at the pool-head, and fish every inch of good 
 water; you may pass over the very rough and very 
 shallow parts, also those which are absolutely dead 
 calm and clear, unless you sec tish rising in them, 
 when, should your tackle be light, there is no harm in 
 taking a throw or two. Dead water, however, when 
 rippled or discoloured, may be angled in with great 
 success.' 
 
 The following remarks and hints apply chi 
 trout-fishing in streams, and may be found of service 
 to those who follow that delightful recreation. As 
 a rule, fish tip, especially when the water is clear, 
 and the wind not directly down-stream : the advan- 
 tages are, that the fish do not so readily detect the 
 presence of the angler — their heads being d 
 up the water; they are more casdy hooked; and 
 when a large trout is hooked, he may be landed 
 down-stream, thus saving the water above for fur- 
 ther operations. The practice of ungling up-stream is 
 somewhat difficult at first, but a little practice works 
 wonders, and is sure to bring its reward ultimately. 
 Gut should be round, clear, strong, and _/?««; the 
 liner- it is, consistent with strength, the better, as it, 
 scares fewer fish than coarser material Trout-flies 
 for ordinary use in rivers such as Tweed, &c, should 
 be dressed rather sparely, and should be small ; 
 some half-dozen varieties, such as those already 
 enumerated, will be found amply sufficient; and 
 wire we asked to choose three kinds as being more 
 valuable than any others, our choice would incline 
 to a red hackle, a black hackle, and a woodcock- 
 wing dressed with hare-ear body. For turbid Or 
 dark water, however, the size may be increased, and 
 the dressing; be made rather gaudier by the add 
 of tinsel. Practise casting till you can throw your 
 flies like gossamer on the water, and, above all, 
 avoid splashing. The use of a short line will give 
 you great advantage over your tackle. 
 hook themselves in nine out of ten cases, so that 
 striking is unnecessary ; striking is performed 1 v a 
 motion of the wrist, not of the arm, and is only to 
 be learned by practice ; it then comes quite naturally 
 to the angler. Cast frequently ; you get over more 
 ground, and vastly increase your chances of success. 
 Trout generally seize the fly the instant it lights on 
 the water, or the instant after; hence, it is necessary 
 that the angler be on the qui vive in time. Cast 
 above where fistf are likely to lie, and remember 
 that the greater part of your success lies in the 
 art of keeping out of titeir sight. Dull-coloured 
 clothes materially assist in achieving this important 
 desideratum. 
 
 When fishing with a friend, always come to a 
 distinct agreement, before starting, relative to the 
 division of the water, especially if the stream be small. 
 
 The true angler returns all smoults, parr, and j 
 small trout to their native element — his maxim | 
 253 
 
 being quality, not quantity. He also keeps his rod 
 well varnished, dries his line and tackle after using, 
 and looks into his tackle-book at least once 
 three mouths during the non-A. 
 
 -in the ravages of the moth. The 
 be guided in his selection of a 
 rod and tackle by sonic experiei ad; and 
 
 upon arriving at strange angling quarters, he should 
 place himself in the hands of a resident fisherman, 
 who will guide him to the best easts of the river, 
 A day Bpent in watching the 
 proceedings of an expert angler, is a day 
 and a few hours' lessons in lly-busking, knot-tying, 
 &C, work wanders. And, lastly, let the angler 
 practise courtesy towards all his brethren of the rod, 
 and be ever willing to lend a killing-fly to a needy 
 friend. 
 
 The principal works on A. are Izaak Walton, 
 StoddarVs Angler's Companion, the article A. in 
 the Encyclopxdia Britannica, Davy's Salmi 
 the angling section of Colquhoun's Moor and the 
 Loch, and Stewart's Practical Angler. The last 
 is perhaps the best work ever written upon trout- 
 fishing as applied to clear water. The angler will 
 also find many useful hints in the number on A. in 
 Chambers'* J nformation for the People. 
 
 ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH, or AM: LI- 
 CAN CHURCH, a term frequently employed to 
 designate collectively those churches which embrace 
 the principles of the English Reformation. The fol- 
 lowing are, in brief, the views generally entertained 
 of those principles by the members of the Choi 
 in question : By referring the Anglo-catholic Church 
 to the English Reformation, it is not meant that 
 her origin dates from that event, but that her 
 tenets, as she now exists, are those which the 
 Reformation cleared of what she holds to be corrup- 
 tions. For, as the word 'church' itself su 
 — being derived, like 'kirk' in Scotland, from the 
 Greek adjective kuriob', which means ' tlie Lord's' 
 (La, house) — the origin of the Anglican Church is 
 to be traced not to a Roman but to an Eastern 
 source. She claims the name of Catholic — which 
 also is from the Give!. , universal — be- 
 
 cause she is united, in origin, in doctrine, and 
 in form of government, with the Universal Church 
 as it has existed, with various differences of rites 
 and ceremonies, in all countries and in all 
 Eusebius even asserts that some of the apostles passed 
 over into Britain. Tertullian, who lived in the 2d ft, 
 speaks of places in Britain which, though inacces- 
 sible to the Romans, were subject to Christ : ' Britan- 
 noram inaccessa Romanis loca. Christo vero subd.ta.' 
 At the Council of Aries, 314 A.D., there were 
 three British bishops present; and St Alban suffered 
 martyrdom, under Diocletian, about the close of the 
 3d e., or nearly three centuries before the landing 
 of St Augustine (q. v.) and his missionaries, 596 a.d. 
 Christianity, however, was driven by the heathen 
 Saxons into the mountainous districts of Wales ; and 
 though Augustine, on his arrival, found no less than 
 Beven bishops and one archbishop in those parts, and 
 though Bertha, queen of Ethelbert,was a Christian, 
 yet the whole Saxon part of the country was in a 
 state of heathenism. The British Church dil 
 from the Roman and other Western Churches, as to 
 the form of administering baptism, and the time of 
 keeping the festival of Easter (sec Easti:i:), follow- 
 ing the customs of the Greek or Eastern Church ; and 
 it was not untd the close of the 7th ft, under 
 Theodore, that the two churches became united. In 
 the meantime, the conversion of Britain wi 
 much due to the labours of St Aidan. the Scottish 
 Bishop of Lindisfern in the north, and of St < Had, 
 the Saxon saint, as to the missionaries of the Roman 
 Church in the south. See Axglo-Saxosa,
 
 ANGLOMANIA- ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 Nor is this glance at the history of the Anglican 
 Cliurch, in the earlier period of her existence, unim- 
 portant, when we come to consider what and whence 
 are her present form and tenets. From the begin- 
 ning of the 8th to the middle of the lGth c, she 
 me gradually, ami at last completely, assimilated 
 in doctrine and practice to the Church of Rome, as 
 well as subject to her domination ; and the fact of 
 her having at length freed herself from both, is in no 
 small degree due to her having existed, in 
 times, in a state of freedom and purity. It required, 
 a3 we have seen, a struggle of nearly a century to 
 make the British Church conform to the Roman in 
 the matters of baptism and Easter; and it was the 
 same spirit which offered a strenuous, and for some 
 time an effectual, resistance to the peculiar doctrines 
 of the Church of Rome and the claims of papal do- 
 minion. There were always found individuals, some 
 of great eminence, to protest against the former, whilst 
 large sections of the church never ceased to protest 
 t the latter. For a hundred and fifty years 
 
 Erevious to the Reformation, the doctrines of \Vick- 
 ffe were leavening the body of the Anglican Church. 
 The overthrow of the papal supremacy was indeed 
 effected by Henry VIII. ; but that monarch rather 
 hindered than favoured the reformation of docU 
 appeKed from the rapid progress which it made when 
 Edward VI. came to the throne. The bloody reign 
 of Mary interposed a check to further progress ; and 
 it was not till the accession of Queen Elizabeth that 
 the principles of the Reformation finally triumphed, 
 and the Anglo-catholic Church assumed the form in 
 wluch she has since continued to exist. During the 
 period of more than 800 years preceding the Refor- 
 mation, she became gradually, and at length com- 
 pletely, merged in the Roman Catholic ; at the 
 Reformation, she may be said to have emerged ; 
 when Rome, at the Council of Trent, anathematised 
 all who would not receive her articles, the separation 
 became final, and the positions of the two churches 
 with respect to each other irreconcilably hostile. 
 
 The doctrines of the Anglican Church are to be 
 found in the Book of Common Prayer (q. v.), which 
 is based upon the second prayer-book of Edward 
 VI., and was settled in its present form 1662 A.D. 
 lb r tenets are more legally defined in the Thirty- 
 nine Articles, which were settled 1562 A. D. (see 
 Articles, Thirty-mne). As distinguished from 
 Rome, she rejects tradition as a rule of faith, 
 though admitting it as to rites and ceremonies, and 
 all her teaching upon the books of the Old and 
 New Testaments, rejecting from them as apocry- 
 phal certain which Rome receives as canonical. She 
 recognises only two sacraments, Baptism and the 
 Lord's Supper, whereas Rome allows five others — 
 namely. I no ition. Orders, Penance, Matrimony, 
 and Extreme Unction; she denies the doctrines of 
 transubstantiation and the propitiatory sacrifice of 
 the mass ; she forbids what Rome practises — the 
 adoration of the Virgin, saints, and angels, and the 
 ace of relics and images; she also denies the 
 Roman doctrines of purgatory and the spiritual 
 supremacy of the pope. It is not, however, to be 
 forgotten that a great part of her liturgy is derived 
 from the missals of tin; Roman Church. As distin- 
 guished from the Presbyterian Churches — e.g., that of 
 Scotland — she is Episcopal, and holds the unbroken 
 succession of her orders from the apostles, as one of 
 her most esteemed privileges; whereas the Presby- 
 terians, especially in Scotland, reject prelacy as a 
 remnant of popery. These do not, however, differ 
 from her materially in essential matters of faith, but 
 f as to the sacraments, the form of administer- 
 m, and the grace conveyed in them; as to 
 i uce of seasons, such as Christmas, Lent, 
 
 Easter; and as to the forms of public worship, the 
 
 terians using no set forms. Her differences 
 with the Greek Catholics are less wide than with 
 the Roman, and will be best seen by referring to the 
 article Greek (hi bch, From the Lutherans she 
 differs on the doctrine of consubstantiation in the 
 sacrament of the Lord's Supper. From the Calvinists 
 she differs radically as to the extent of the efficacy 
 of Christ's death, they believing only in ' particular,' 
 she in ' universal,' redemption (meaning, of course, 
 not that all men will actually be saved, but that 
 Christ died for all) ; nevertheless, some of her 
 articles, as the 17th, are decidedly Calvinistic. The 
 numerous sects of Wesleyans, Baptists, and Inde- 
 pendents do not differ from her on what they tin m- 
 selves consider essential articles of faith, but chiefly 
 as to the necessity of orders, the grace conveyed in 
 the sacraments, and the forms of public worship and 
 of church government. But since their separation 
 from )i varieties of doctrine and worship 
 
 have spread among them. Unfortunately, there 
 remains no Gallo-catholic Church with which to 
 compare her. 
 
 The Anglo-catholic Church embraces in her com- 
 munion the United Church of England and Ireland, 
 the Episcopal Church in Scotland, all the colonial 
 Episcopal Churches, and the American Episcopal 
 Church. All but the latter use the English Book 
 of Common Prayer; in America this nas been 
 slightly altered. The American Church is one of 
 the most flourishing offshoots of the Anglican. It 
 was planted in Virginia, 1607 A.D., but, for nearly 
 two centuries, the mother church in England with- 
 held from her offspring the necessary boon of an 
 episcopacy of her own. It was not till the close of 
 the 18th c. that the first three American bishops 
 were ordained (one by the Scottish bishops in 1784, 
 and two by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the 
 Bishops of Bath and Peterborough in 1787) ; but 
 now this branch of Anglo-catholicism has spread over 
 the greater part of the United States. 
 
 ANGLOMANIA designates, among the French 
 and Germans, a weak imitation of English manners, 
 customs, &c., or an indiscriminate admiration of 
 English institutions. In German literature, an A. 
 was especially prevalent in the 18th c, when trans- 
 lations of English books became numerous, and were 
 read with great admiration. The Germans have 
 ascribed the sentimental and affected style of some 
 parts of their literature to the influence of the Eng- 
 lish literature of last century. But the A. was harm- 
 less in comparison with the Gallomania, or imitation 
 of French literature and customs, which prevailed 
 in the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, and was 
 developed in the writings of Wieland. A remark- 
 able A. prevailed in France for some time before 
 the commencement of the Revolution. It arose out 
 of political considerations and admiration of English 
 free institutions, but extended to trifles even of 
 fashions and manners, and often became very 
 ridiculous. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITE- 
 RATURE. The term Anglo-Saxon is of modern 
 
 "iir forefathers having called themselves and 
 their language English or ^English. The Anglo- 
 Saxon language belongs to the Low-German family 
 of the Germanic languages, and is most nearly 
 related to the Old Saxon, the Old Dutch (or lan- 
 guage of the Netherlands), and the Old Frisian. 
 There were two principal dialects — one spoken in 
 the north of England, which was chiefly peopled 
 by the Angles ; and the other in the south of 
 England, which was chii ily peopled by the Saxons. 
 After 'W i-ed the supremacy over the other 
 
 states of the Heptarchy in the 8th c, the I 
 Saxon dialect became prevalent as the language of 
 
 IN
 
 \\|>X LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE-ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 md of literature. From the Otli e., laws 
 an 1 I "i to be committal to writin 
 
 Great set the example of ban 
 i works into Anglo-Saxon. After the Sot 
 man Co -i langoaj 
 
 place to the Normaa-Fi language 
 
 court, of courts of justice, of school tly also 
 
 of the church ; but Saxon continued to be the Ian- 
 nion people, and became tl 
 
 English language, which was gradually formed 
 
 during the 12th, 13m, an. I 14th The 
 
 Anglo-Saxon of the period from I0711 t ■ 1250 has 
 been designated by English philologists the 
 
 1 i from 1250 
 to 1350, and the Middle English from 1350 to 1550. 
 Since the Reformation, the 
 made the subject of study by a few ; . ! 
 
 an (•'! vols., 
 ITii.'! —1705) must be in. nti .1 as one import- 
 ant work on the subject which the last c 
 produced. In recent times, the know! 
 the language and literature of th - ons has 
 
 been ere iQy ach an. d by 1 rs of Thorpe, 
 
 Kemble, I -■■ tl i.-.-n. Pric i, Gui 1 ic Madden, 
 
 the 1 lonyb 
 
 Grimm and Leo in Germany. But even now it can 
 scarcely bn said to have received the amount of at- 
 tention which may well be reckon.. 1 due to it, 
 
 hat it furnishes the basis, and, in 
 point of wo Lutes by far the greater pro- 
 
 portion, of the English which we .speak. The l> I 
 iionaries are those of Lye, 
 : (2 vols, fol., Lon.l. 177—), and Bo 
 (Lond. 1839); the grammar has be n exhibited by 
 isk Sproglaere (Stockh. IS] 7; 
 h translation by Thorpe, Copenh. 183(1 
 more perfectly by J. Grimm in his Deutsche <■ 
 malik (4 vols., Gott. 1819—1837). 
 
 Like Latin. Creek, and mod D German, the 
 An ;lo nage was inflect es of its 
 
 itions, numbers, and persons 
 of its verbs, being marked bj - 1 hiefly in the 
 
 linal syllable. These characteristics gradually disap- 
 peared as Anglo-Saxon | 
 
 which they arc almost unknown. The nature of this 
 process will l.e an 
 
 from r ' k's excellent Outlines of th* 
 
 History of the English Language: 'It ha been 
 pointed <iut by Mr Guest, that the chare.. 
 distinction of OM, or Early English, as compared 
 with Saxon, or Semi-Saxon, is the employment of the 
 one termination t in the declension of nouns and the 
 conjugation of verbs, to represent indiscrimi 
 the three Anglo-Saxon vowel-endings, <r, e, and u. In 
 
 this way the Sax , i amein 
 
 Early RngliaTi, name, end.-, WOOde, or v. ood-de. Now 
 the distinction of Middle Rncrliah, as compared with 
 Early English, may be defined as being the tendency 
 to drop this final t as a distinct syllable, and along 
 with that simplification, to throw off alsowhatevi r 
 else remained of the original inflectional system of 
 the language.'— P. 91, ed. 1855. 
 
 Of the remains of Anglo-Saxon literature which 
 the ravages of the Danes and Normans have left us, 
 the greater part are still imprinted. Very many of 
 them arc poetical. The verse is alliterative. 
 the Norse and oldest German poetry; and only in 
 some of the most recent Anglo-Saxon poem 1 
 rind a beginning of rhyme. The epic or narrative 
 poems are remarkable for superabundance of often 
 recurring epithets, bold metaphors, and a certain pomp 
 and magnificence of style. Of the genuine heroic 
 poetry, however, there are few remains, the prin- 
 cipal one being the poem of Beowulf 1$. v.), a w..rk 
 Which must have been composed before the Anglo- 
 Saxons quitted their original scats on the continent. 
 HO 
 
 The introducl of Christianity gave a religions 
 
 character to Anglo-Saxon po ad manynarra- 
 
 . 111s are extant on r. ligious subjects, BOme of 
 which may be seen in the Codex Oxontensis,a 1 
 
 edited fayTbj rpe (Lond. 1842). The Sung of 
 1. which i : ■ rved in Ufn d'a bran la- 
 
 ti..n of Bede, has 1 q edited both by Juniu 
 
 ' 1 J paraphrase of parts of the 
 
 lb.lv Scriptun a to the same author, has 
 
 i ed ira both in Thorpe ( Lond. 183! 1 
 
 rwek (vol 1, EHberfeld, 1847). Ctedi who 
 
 ployed by the monks of Whitby, at 61 
 
 would seem, in tending their cattle, is conjectured to 
 
 have di.d about USD, so that both of the works in 
 
 must belong to the 7th c. Two poems from 
 
 the ■ Us which Dr I'.liun discovered at vercelli in 
 
 1832, have been edited by Jacob Grimm (Ci el, 
 
 1840), under the title.. f .!/<.// 1 
 
 calendar of the saints by Fox (Loud. ls.'Ki); and a 
 
 version of the Psalms by Thorpe (bond. 1835). The 
 
 semi-Saxon paraphrase by Laymon of the Ilmi of 
 
 , or old Frein h Soman < leBrut, a work of about 
 
 the year 1200, which hi 1 been edited by Madden 
 
 1847), shews the language in its transition to 
 
 a, as do also the Protieros of King Alfred in 
 
 (voL 1, Lond. 1843). Among 
 
 the most important prose works in the Anglo-Sax. .11 
 
 language must be mentioned the laws, civil and 
 
 1 I, from the time of Ethelbert of Kent 
 
 to that of Canute, of which the Lest edition is in 
 
 Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of England 
 
 1840). Of historical works may be mem 
 
 Alfred's translations of ( Irosius and Bede ; and the 
 
 !e, carried on by different hands 
 
 1 1154, of which the best edition, down at least to 
 
 nquest, is Price's, in the Man amenta Historica 
 
 . ISIS, an earlier one being that of Ingram 
 
 (bond. 1823), of which latter there is a translation by 
 
 Miss Gurney (Norwich, 1819). It is in the province 
 
 of theology that Anglo-Saxon literature is most rich, 
 
 al nding particularly in legends and homilies. A 
 
 of homilies made by Bi hop- Elfric has been 
 
 published by the Elfric Society (2 vol .. Lond. Is 17), 
 a society instituted in 1843 for the promotion of the 
 knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language and times. 
 -Elfric did much to enrich Anglo-Saxon literature 
 bran Lations, and began a translation of the 
 Bible. He translated the first seven books, the book 
 of Job, and the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, 
 and also a fragment of a poem on the history of 
 Judith, of great celebrity (O.xf. Ki0S). The 
 Durham Euol; or St ( nthl.. it's book, a very famous 
 ript, now in the British Museum, contains 
 ■ linear gloss of the Gospels in the Kast- 
 lect, the text being probably of the 
 iii loss of the lOth c. Alfred translated 
 the work of Boethius, De Consolatione Philo, 
 The opinions of the Anglo-Saxons on astronomy, 
 natural philosophy, and medicine, are exhibited 
 from their works by Wright in his Treatises on 
 during One Middle Ages (Lond. 
 1S41). Much additional information on this sub- 
 ject will be found in an accessible form in Professor 
 Craik's Outlines of the History of the English 
 Lnngiwgi', already referred to; and in l>r Pauli's 
 Alfred, of which two translations have been pub- 
 lished, the one by Wright (Bentley, 1852), whereof 
 a second edition appeared in the following year; 
 and another by Thorpe (Bolm, lSao"). See ENGLISH 
 1 1 \cv.. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, the collective name given 
 by historians to the various Teutonic or German 
 tribes which settled in England, chiellyin the 5th c, 
 and founded the kingdoms of the Heptarchy. They 
 consisted for the most part of Angles, Saxons, and 
 Jutes. The generally received opinion is, that the
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 first of those invaders made their appearance in 
 Britain in 449, hai * orHengt8t,andHorsa 
 
 or Hois, as their leader. But under die more 
 
 ing scrutiny of later writers, these famous leaden 
 1 I into mythical heroes of romance, 
 
 common to most of the Germanic nations ; and though 
 
 ict of a great Germanic invasion in I 
 the 5th c. is not doubted, it is believed that this was 
 by no means the earliest period at which Germanic 
 settlements were effected in England. Long pi 
 to this period, a portion of the coast, extendi;! 
 Portsmouth to Wells in Norfolk, was known 
 
 Saxonicum; but whether in reference to 
 Saxons by whom it was settled, or to roving adven- 
 turers of that race by whom it was ravaged, is still 
 a subject of dispute. The form ■' view is advanced, 
 on apparently satisfactory grounds, by Kemble 
 (8catom in England, vol. i. p. 14). But, however 
 point may stand, the probable truth is, that 
 Britain, which for centuries had been ravaged and 
 partially colonised by Germanic tribes, was finally 
 p duced under their ride, on the departure of the 
 Romans. Of the three tribes mentioned above, the 
 Jutes are 1 lelieved to have been the first comers. Their 
 
 d settlements were in what is now the I 
 of Schleswig; and the portions of England of whieh 
 1' y possessed themselves wen' Kent, the Isle of 
 Wight) and the opposite coast of Hampshire. The 
 Saxons, who wi re the next invaders, settled chiefly 
 in the southern and central parts of England — in 
 Sussex, Essex, Middlesex, the south of Hertford, 
 .Surrey, the part of Hampshire not possessed by the 
 Jutes, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and 
 the portion of I 'ornwall which did not remain in the 
 I sion of its former Celtic inhabitants. The 
 
 Saxons who invaded England probably belonged 
 chiefly to the portion of that great nation, or con- 
 federacy of nations, whose territories lay on the shores 
 of the Baltic— occupying what are now the Duchy 
 of Holstein, the north of Hanover, and the west of 
 Mecklenburg. The third tribe, whose name and 
 nationality afterwards prevailed over the others — 
 the li I did not arrive till a somewhat later 
 period. From 527 to 547. they made a succession of 
 
 its on the coasts of Suffolk and Norfolk, and 
 latterly, on the country to the ni h i the Humber, 
 and tiie Bouthem part of Scotland between the 
 Tweed and the Forth. Eventually, the 
 obtained p i session of the whole of England, i 
 the portions already mentioned; that is to say, of 
 all the part to the north of the Avon, on the one 
 side, and the Thames on the other — Essex, Midi 
 and part of Hertford excepted. The union of differ- 
 ent bands of these conquerors amongst themselves. 
 with their countrymen who had preo ded them, and 
 with the Celtic population which, though conqi 
 
 is no reason to suppose was external 
 gave rise to the so-called Heptarchy— the kingdoms 
 of Northtimhria (originally Bemicia and i 
 Kent, Sussex, We sex, Essex, East 
 Mercia. The Heptarchy (q. v.) becomes ; 
 if the provinces of Berniciaand I' ated as 
 
 separate kingdoms ; but in place o 
 very doubtful if we ought not to diminish the 
 
 I ber of these divisions, it being very quest 
 
 if so many as seven states ever pos d, at one 
 L nients. But 
 
 ropriety of either term b n more 
 
 doubtful if it be u . as it general] 
 
 mvey the idea of all these » 
 
 bound together in a species of on 
 deracy, and The 
 
 Bretwalda is seel to have been a species of war-king, 
 v and elective chief of all the S 
 
 i office it waa to lead them forth in their wars 
 against their common enemies, especially tl 
 
 of Wall i: ! . B a '•■' '• is thrown serious 
 
 doubts on the existence of the office, and has shewn 
 that the evidence which is adduced in its favour, if 
 not based entirely on 'a piece of vicious phih 
 (\ol. ii. ]>. 12), is at anyrate very slight. I. 
 r, than whom t' 
 
 ■!o-Saxon history, follows pretty nearly the- 
 opinions to which Rapin and Sharon Turner had 
 ' - who],., there seems reason 
 
 vo that the Bretwaldaahip never was a 
 permanent and acknowledged . but a mere 
 
 accidental and temporary preponderance of one 
 state over the others, and a consequent pre-eminence, 
 for the time being, enjoyed by its sovereign. 
 
 The various independent states into which lii J and 
 had till then been divided, were united by I 
 king of W'esscx, in 827, into the one kingdom of 
 England (the land of the The royal family 
 
 lex, which was thus raised to what, for the 
 first time, probably, is entitled to be called the 
 kingly dignity, never again lost its supri I 
 ■ ■<■ pt, indeed, during the Danish period (11117 to 
 1042), till the Norman Conquest ; and to it Alfred 
 the Great (q. v.) belonged. 
 
 The English constitution, the origin of which is 
 sometimes ascribed to Alfred, was not framed by 
 him, though he restored it and improved it after 
 the deliverance of the country from the Danes in 
 K 1 12. It was essentially the same as that of other 
 Germanic nations, and its germs are to be traced in 
 the account which Tacitus has given of their ■ 
 cal institutions; but was more perfectly developed, 
 
 l sontinued to flourish in greater purity i 
 the Anglo-Saxons, than in those countries 
 were more immediately subject to influences pro- 
 ceeding from Bome. At the head of the govern- 
 ment was the king (cffliing, CWig, the same word 
 as the German KOnig). The king] I'ice, among 
 the Germanic nations in early times, had reference 
 solely to the tribes or peoples governed, and Devei 
 to the land winch they occupied. During this 
 period, it was naturally elective ; but after the 
 idea of great territorial possessions came to be 
 
 Erom it, it b ame hi reditai \ . I 
 a form of election, or colour of ascertainin 
 national will, was still retained. The life ol the 
 like that of every other man, was assi l at a 
 price (weregild, q. v.), which was that of an 
 I of royal blood, with a 
 added as the price of his royalty. The first of these 
 Boms went to his family, the second, to 
 
 ig and Ins dependants possessed other B] 
 
 id protct • that ' the 
 
 our of his maiden serf involved a fine of fifty 
 
 shillinga; while the eorle's female cup-bearer waa 
 
 ;!y to the amount of twelve, and the 
 
 ii of six shillings' (Keml The 
 
 the power of calling b 
 
 v.), and of layiB i b 
 
 lit be had not the 
 power i ing the assembly when he had 
 
 enough of its advice, bo i '■ from the 
 
 I i , > have been 
 
 in parliament, Neither was the convocation ol the 
 
 e at the option of t] a, for 
 
 powi r was 
 
 of consulting the 
 
 'both of the clergy and laity of 
 
 tl i Dgdom, and I 
 
 iblies, he had no 
 function ; nor. it woidd 
 could he im] ■ ■' " ;1 "- with- 
 
 out tin ircoB "" relations 
 
 v of firth, called 
 ethcline (the same word with the 
 
 German .!</•', noble). Out of the great officers of
 
 AN COLA— ANGON. 
 
 ate, or immediate sen-ants of the king, was 
 gradually formed a hereditary aristocracy, closely 
 corresponding to that which subsequently existed in 
 
 l in rank to 
 tli" fc™p was the ealdormnn or <luke [her 
 ' But inasmuch as the ducal functions, in the 
 
 polity, were by no means 00 
 in the field, the peculiar title of heretoga is very 
 rarely met with, being for the most part replaced 
 by ealdonnan or aldorman, i civil as 
 
 . i military pre-erninenoe' (Kembl 
 . derived from an 
 ingage, though, in practice, no such I ttached 
 
 to it, more than to senior, which is the original form 
 of the word seigneur. It was to the £ 
 officials that subsequently tl ' 
 or earl came to be applied, The powers of these 
 officer i in the different kin 
 
 whilst they remained separated; but we shall form, 
 on the whole, a pretty accurate conception of the 
 position of the ealdonnan, if we regard him as the 
 
 fovernor of the yd or shire, the edrgertfa or sherifl 
 eing his deputy. Much . of opinion 
 
 exists as to the rank and position, social ami poli- 
 tical, of the thane; and all that can be said with 
 !. noe is, that, in Anglo-Saxon times, it was 
 not convertible with ealdonnan, or equivalent to 
 baron, as it came to be after the Conquest. The 
 office seems to have implied si 
 tenure, similar to that by which of the 
 
 held of the lord in feudal times; and 
 thus, whilst the kind's thanes were frequently 
 men, these, in their turn, had thanes of a 
 lower rank, who appear to have been very numerous. 
 This view is strengthened by the <1 rivation of the 
 term from Amman or tlieuian, to serve, which is 
 the same word as the modern German diem 
 from the fact of its being frequently translated 
 i .-'tin charters in Anglo-Saxon times. 
 The whole clas3 of ordinary freemen or commoners, 
 in Anglo-S . were call 
 
 preserved in the German Krrl, and in the Scotch 
 carle), and were generally associated under the 
 protection of some person of rank and influence, who 
 was called the hlaford (whence lord). This, how- 
 lf no recognised title, ami up to a 
 
 other distinction than that of ceorl and eorle. The 
 Britons, who retained some degree of freedom, con- 
 stituted a lower class, called wealhas. Tie- i 
 of slaves ((Aeoto) was not very great, nor i! i 
 character of the servitude imposed on them 
 comparativelv speaking, to have been oppi 
 
 ent rights and "pr^-ileges belonged to the 
 I nt ranks of the Saxon peopl 
 
 : ! , a differeni ,or pecuniary 
 
 estimation, was fixed for each rank, as the penalty 
 for homicide. The great districts or shir. 
 subdivided into tithin r), each containing 
 
 ten free heads of families, who were held mutually 
 responsible for each other. Ten titbinga formed a 
 hich had a court subordinate to the court 
 of the shire. In important matters, the ealdonnan 
 of the shire could not decide without the concurrence 
 of an assembly [Scirgem6te, Assembly of the Shir") 
 of thanes of the shire and r 
 ships, which met half yearly, am 
 
 die (Assembly of ti 
 MicJteltjemfile (Assembly of the Great) for the 
 whole kingdom. 
 
 Christianity was introduced among the 
 Saxons in the end of the 6th, or beginning of the 
 7th c. by St Augustine, a missionary sent by Pope 
 Gregory" I., called the Great. Augustine became the 
 first Archbishop of Canterbury; and before the close 
 of the 7th c, the whole of Saxon or German England 
 
 262 
 
 was a Christian country under one metropolitan, 
 rt, king of irst Anglo-8axon 
 
 11 i hristian iloctrine. 
 Bringing with tli ■ ! tiana and feelis 
 
 the empire, the whole influence of the clergy was 
 thrown into the scale of monarchy, I 
 tended to its consolidation. A Christian church, 
 
 md and the nortii 
 of England; and the influence of the < 
 (q, v.) long preva its of the 
 
 Anglo-Saxon prelates to establish uniform 
 worship and complete conformity to Home. Nor 
 
 i iie Anglo-Saxon clergy themselves in 
 very submissive to the authority of the pop 
 did not succeed ! ■ Rrtgland I ■ 
 
 subjection till after a long struggle. St Du 
 
 1 for them their fu . in the LOtfa 
 
 c. During the time of its comparative mi 
 the Anglo-Saxon Church was distinguished for the 
 learning and laboriousness of its clergy. Bede (q. v.) 
 is the most eminent author whom it pn •■ 
 :i his time and that of Alfred, a verj 
 racy had taken place both in the learnu I 
 
 efficiency of the clergy, which that aoth I 
 
 enlightened sovereign laboured to restore, not with- 
 out success. His own remarks on the subject, 
 contained in the introduction to his translation of 
 v. ill be found in Dr 
 I'auH'.s excellent Life and Time qf Alfred thi I 
 to which the reader is referred for much interesting 
 information' \nglo-Saxon times. SI 
 
 face (q. v.) and many other Anglo-Saxon and 
 
 I Lboured with success in the propa- 
 gation of Christianity in Germany. 
 
 AXGO'LA. a name often applied to the whole of 
 the West African coast from Cape Lopez de Gonsalvo 
 in lat. 0° 44' S., to San Felipe de Benguela, in 12° 
 1 Y S. j but, in a more restricted sense, the name of a 
 kingdom in Lower < ruinea dependent upon Portugal, 
 
 lending from the river Coanza on the 
 in lat. 9° -it' S., to the Danda on the north, in 
 S. The natives generally call it Donga. 'Hie 
 r is very imperfectly known, and the 1 
 n-ertain; but along with Benguela. 
 presidencies, A. is supposed to contain about 
 500,000 inhabitants. The country being well 
 '. is covered with a most luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion. The 1 moderated by the sea-l> 
 the orange and other fruits of the warmer tem- 
 perate ■ produced, as well as those 
 which are strictly tropical There is a great abund- 
 ance and variety of wUd animals, and the mouths 
 of the rivers swarm with sharks and crocodiles. 
 The principal rivers are the Coanza and Danda. 
 Much of the country is mountainous. The moun- 
 tains are covered with forests, and are rich in 
 . particularly copper, iron, and silver, which, 
 with wax and ivory, are the principal legitimate 
 exports, although the great trade, almost to the 
 • day, has been in slaves. Feticbism is the 
 prevailing superstition, and circumcision is general 
 
 the natives. A. might easily be ran 
 V ry productive both of sugar and cotton, but the 
 r in which it has been governed by the 
 has not tended to d. \ 
 ■ red it in 1486, and have had - 
 in it since 148S; but the number of r< 
 Portuguese is very small, and they are almost entirely 
 il to a few spots— forts and comie ' 
 
 establishments c iHi d/ iraa or fairs. The capital is 
 Loando, or San Paulo de Loando (q. v.). 
 
 ANGON". a barbed spear Used by many early 
 
 nations. The Franks, in the 7th c, empl I 
 
 1 loth for thrusting and hurling The staves 
 
 were armed with iron, so as to leave but little of
 
 ANGOR A- ANGOSTURA B A 1 1 K. 
 
 the wood uncovered ; the head had two barbs. 
 When hurled or thrust at an opponent, the head of 
 me fixed in the flesh by means of the 
 barbs. This form of spear was much adopted by 
 - ixon and other Teutonic nations. 
 ANGO'RA, the Ancyra of the ancients, a city 
 in the eastern part of the Turkish eyalet of Bozce, 
 in the mountainous interior of A<;a Minor, and 
 distant from Constantinople about 2211 mile? 
 It is said to have been built by Midas, the son 
 of the Phrygian Gordiua; was a flourishing city 
 under the Persians; became the capital of the Gallic 
 Tectosages, who settled in Asia Minor about 277 
 B.C. ; was a principal seat of eastern trade under the 
 Romans; and was made the capital of the ! 
 I ace of Galatia Prima, It was the seat of one 
 of the early churches of Galatia, and the scene of 
 two Christian councils held respectively 
 and 368. A decisive battle between the Turks 
 and Tatars was fought near A. in 1402, in which 
 Timur defeated ana took prisoner the sultan 
 Raiazet I. A temple of white marble was erected 
 by the citizens of Ancyra to the Emperor Augustus, 
 •who had greatly beautified the city, and his deeds 
 were recorded in inscriptions upon a number of 
 tablets and the columns of an altar. These in- 
 ions, the Monumenlum Ancyranum, discovered 
 by Busberg in 1553, are important for the elucida- 
 tion of ancient history. They were first printed in 
 Schott's edition of Aurelius Victor (Antw 
 and have recently been edited with notes by Franz 
 and Zumpt (BerL 1845). The present A. is said to 
 contain not more than 20,000 inhabitants, of whom 
 one-third are Armenians. It is famous for its breed 
 
 Angora Goats. 
 
 of goats, with beautiful silky hair, eight inches 
 Of this goat-hair, a kind of yarn is mad". 
 known -7j yarn or camel yarn, and of 
 
 which also a manufacture of camlets is extensively 
 1 on in A. itself. The name camel yarn has 
 led to mistakes ; it lias no reference to the camel, 
 but is derived from the Arabic word d 
 Of the skin of the A. goat, the fix I 
 
 ither is made. Many of the animals 
 in this region are characterised by the length and 
 softness of their hair, especially the dogs, rabbits, 
 cats, &c. This peculiarity seems to depend upon 
 the climate, and soon i in Europe. 
 
 AXGOSTU'RA 
 lat. S° 8' K., and long. 63 55" W., on th 
 of the Orinoco, about 340 miles from its mouths. 
 It tikes its name, which signifies a strait, from 
 its being built at a point where, on both 
 the river is narrowed by riK-ks to a width of 3184 
 liter having measured three mile3 across at 
 the distance from the sea. The site of A. 
 is only 191 feet above the sea-level — an elevation 
 which, on the intermediate distance as above, 
 
 yields an average of less than ten inches to the 
 mile. In fact, the bottom of the river in front of 
 the town is lower than the surface of the sea, for, 
 even in the lowest state of the water, it is said to 
 be 200 feet deep, with a margin for floods to the 
 amount of fifty or sixty feet more. Under these 
 circumstances, the bed of the stream must be about 
 
 t under the level of the I ity, or about 6 
 under the level o : the sea. When the river does 
 rise to its highest, there are at least portions of the 
 city inundated ; and instances are believed to have 
 occurred in which careless people were devoured by 
 tors in the very streets. Chiefly, as is sup- 
 posed, through the free access of the trade-winds 
 over the flat surface of the country, A. enjoys, in 
 proportion to its latitude, a singularly temperate 
 climate. Even in the hottest season of the year, 
 the thermometer is said seldom to shew more than 
 86 i • ; wlnle, between the beginning of November 
 and the end of April, it ranges from 77' by day 
 by night 
 The situation of A. is liigldy favourable, in a 
 commercial view. The basin of the Orinoco, which 
 lies nearly all above the town, and is estimated to 
 contain 250,000 square miles, or more than twice the 
 area of the British Isles, is particularly rich towards 
 the north. On that side it reaches very nearly 
 to the coast-line, so as to comprise some of the best 
 parts of Venezuela. Towards the south, again, it 
 consists, in a great measure, of boundless plains, 
 1 by countless herds of cattle. Over the 
 whole of this vast basin, and that almost equally in 
 both directions, the main stream and its afiluent3 
 are, with handy any interruptions, navigable to 
 near the foot of the mountains. Owing to the 
 impetuosity of the currents and the obstruction of 
 shoals, sailing-vessels are said to take fifteen days to 
 sail up to A. ; but with steam-navigation these 
 impediments would in great measure disappear. 
 
 With such advantages of position, A. was a 
 
 flourishing mart before the commencement of the 
 
 independence ; but the civil broils materially 
 
 . ith its prosperity. As far back as 1807, 
 
 A. had 8500 inhabitants ; ere twenty year; elapsed, 
 
 ulation had been reduced to little more than 
 
 a third part of the number. According to later 
 
 information, however, it was rapidly approaching 
 
 its former amount. 
 
 ANGOSTURA BARK, or AN 
 BABE, the aromatic bitter bark of certain trees of 
 the natural order BiMaceee, and tribe Cutpariea, 
 natives of the tropical parts of South America. It 
 derives its name from the town of Angostura, 
 where it is a considerable article of commerce. 
 It was first brought to England in 17SS. It is 
 used in medicine as a remedy for weakness of 
 hi, dianhi ry, and fevers. It is 
 
 and stimulant The most important of tho 
 trees j t is the Galipca officinalis, which 
 
 gro^-s ; of Columbia and near 
 
 the Orinoco. It is a tree of 12—20 feet high, and 
 3—5 feet in diam ifohate 
 
 . with oblong leaflets about ten inches long, 
 which, odour of tobacco, and 
 
 t an inch long, in racemes, white, hairy, 
 and fragrant, The bark contains a chemical nib- 
 yet sufficiently i xamini 
 
 efficacy is ascribed. It is supposed that a variety of 
 A. B. is ] ' (called by 
 
 some J; \iata), a maj< stie tree of 00 — 
 
 in height with fragrant trifoliate leaves more 
 than two feet loi believed to be one of 
 
 the most valuabl but its use is at 
 
 I very limited, and has, indeed, in some 
 countries of "Europe, been prohibited, in consequence
 
 ANGOULEME AMI U.T. 
 
 at adulteration with the p i 
 
 .1. /.'. It differs from the true A. B. 
 m having no smell, in Ha much o 
 
 . in its inner surface being incapable ol 
 into small laminte, and in 
 
 1 upon it bj acids and othi i 
 olarlv in its nuicr crust bem d dark- 
 
 . or blackish, by nitric acid, whilst thai 
 trn A. B. is rendered slightly orange . 
 
 AXGOULKME, the 
 
 ate in Prance, and formerly of tb 
 
 unois. It is situated on tine I 
 
 narrow and crooked streets, s nb i ol paper-mills, 
 
 manufactures of woollen stuffs, linen, and earthen- 
 ware, 4a, and a population of about 20,300. It 
 possesses a royal college, a museum of natural 
 history, and seven] other useful institutions. In 
 the centre of the town stands the remnant < >f the 
 ancient castle of A., in which was born tb 
 Marguerite of Navarre, the authoress of the Hep- 
 tameron, and other works. The railway from Pari 
 to Bordeaux pnsses through it. Much saffron 
 
 and wine are produced in the neighbourb 1. The 
 
 province of Anjroumois was in early times a county; 
 but the heir of it, in the beginning of the I 1th c., 
 
 an adherent of the fin L b, Philip the Fair 
 
 took possession of it, and it became an ap 
 
 younger branches of the royal family. It was made 
 a duchy by Frani is L, and was sometimes bestowed 
 upon natural .sons of the French ki 
 Valois, Duke of A., a natural Bon of Charles IX., 
 i distinguished general in the reigns of Henrv 
 IV. and Louis XIII. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Lo ' ,r. in: li mv, 
 
 Dw o'j the . Idi I on ol I barles X. of Fran.-, ana 
 Dauphin during his father's reign, was born at 
 
 illes on Gth August 177o. He retired from 
 France alone with his father at the commencement 
 of the Revolution, and spent some time in military 
 studies at Turin. In August 1792 he entered Ger- 
 many at the head of a body of French emigrants; 
 but the ill success of th> ii own unfit- 
 
 ness for military command, led to his seeking tran- 
 quillity along with his fai !i. Till 1814 
 be continued an exile from Frame, wandering from 
 one place to another on the continent, and latterly 
 
 at with the other members ol bis family iii 
 England. On the entrance of the allies into I 
 he appeared at the British head-quarters at St -lean de 
 Luz, and thence issued a proclamation bo the French 
 
 army, lie entered Bord, an i 
 
 British on 12th March, and made liberal promises in 
 the name of bis uncle, Louis XVI II., among which 
 was that of complet religiou liberty. Bewa 
 in the south when Napoleon returned from Elba. 
 He was appointed lieutenant-general of the king- 
 dom, and hastened with such force3 a 
 
 collect to oppose the emperor; but although he 
 
 obtained some advantages at Iii b, he 
 
 d by his troops, was for some days di I unci ., 
 r, and at last sent away in a Swedish mer- 
 chant-vessel to Barcelona. After the se id i 
 
 tion, be was sent by Louis XVI II. to tl 
 provinci itoi press the political ani move- 
 
 , and in 1823 lie led the Fn nch army 
 mto Spain, to ].ut an end to the constitution. A 
 man of phlegmatic disposition a i.l mi as ab 
 
 d all political matters, a tool of the ultra- 
 d the priests. When the revolution took 
 I in July 183U, he signed, along with his father, 
 
 an abdication in favour of his nephew, th D 
 
 ; and when the Chambers declared tie 
 family of Charles X. to have forfeited the thron . b 
 -til 
 
 ■ I • Solyr 1. to i', 
 
 and to G 3d June 1844. 
 
 ANGOULEME, M Chahlottb, 
 
 bter of Louis XVI.. was boi d 
 al Vei on < I i D ember 1778, and i 
 
 displayed m u i of intelli 
 
 . with the most ten.'., r .- 
 
 of i i d through 
 
 ii. and endured o Ion 
 
 as sonment, be b I on 25th Di a as 
 bet IT'. 1 "', foi French 
 
 1 ' 111 ler lire 
 
 in 1799, v. tth her cousin, the Due d' V 
 
 whose subsequent fortun b bared. Shi 
 vived him seven years, and died on 19th Oi 
 1851. 
 
 ANGRA, the capital of the Azores, a seaport at 
 the head oi" a deep lav on the south coast of the 
 island of Terceira, lat. 38° :ss N., long. 27° IT \\ . 
 I. is station for ships between Portugal and Brazil 
 
 and the Last Indies; but the harl.our is very nneii 
 
 i rpoi ed. It is the seat of tin r igovei aor 
 
 genera] of the Azores and of the bishop; is well built, 
 hut dirty; strongly fortified, and pie:, i 1 bj a cita- 
 del at the foot of tie- Monte de Brazil; contains a 
 military college aiel a; I, vera] i tt1 Sc and 
 
 literary societies, a cathedral andnui arches ; 
 
 and from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants. There is a 
 considerable i sport of wine, cheese, hoi 
 This city furnished an asylum for the Von 
 
 in 1S30 till the taking of ( Iporto, in 1S33, 
 by Don Pedro. 
 
 ANGUILLA. See Ebn. 
 
 AXcril.LA, or LITTLE SNAKE, one of the 
 West India islands, so called, per] ips, from its 
 long and narrow figure. Xext to Anegada, it is 
 the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles. Km; 
 almost due east of the eastern extremity of Porto 
 Rico, in lat, 18i" X., and in long. C.;°— «4° W. It 
 i to England, having an area oi 35 square 
 miles, and a population of about 3000. It is low 
 and wooded; hut its cleared spot- produce , 
 tobaci o M . h arbour, such as it is, is I" t 
 with reefs ; hut there is said to be g 1 and 
 
 ground in the channel between A. and the I ie of 
 
 St Martin to the south. 
 
 ANGUIS. Sec BlJXD-WORH. 
 
 A'XIIALT, one of the oldest principalities of 
 Germany, situated on the Elbe, the Mulde, and 
 the Saale, and consisting at present of three 
 duchies— A. -Dessau, A-Bernburg, and A-Kiithen, 
 winch, together, contain about 1034 Bquare miles, 
 and lo(>,7tli) inhabitants. It is almost entirely 
 surrounded by the Prussian territories, which 
 intermix with it, and divide it into pot 
 De an. ;: rbst, Bernburg, and ECBthen an 
 principal town--.. The country is mostly level and 
 fertile, producing wheat, tlax, rape-seed, hops, and 
 tobacco. Wine is produced on the Saale. Agri- 
 culture is the chief employment of the people, 
 who are generally Protestants. Part of the duchy 
 of A-Bernburg approaching (the Hans Mountains 
 
 ) some mineral wealth in iron and 
 mines. A. began to be an independent princi- 
 pality in the first half of the 13th c. It ha I 
 
 dly, in the course of its history, divided 
 amongst branches of the reigning family. Che 
 present division dates from I of the 
 
 17th c. It was divided originally into four parts, 
 but the line of A.-Zerbst has become extinct. 
 The three duchies are independent of each other; 
 but a family compact connects the reigning lines, 
 and in many things they have been accustomed to 
 act together. Some of the princes of A. have been
 
 ANHYDRITE— ANIMAL AND ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 int in the political, military, and ecclesiastical 
 history of i lermany. 
 
 A'Nll 5TDRITE, a mineral, coi anhy- 
 
 drous sulphate of lime, with some Blight addition of 
 gea-solt, appeal in m \ era] rai LI Irannlar; 
 
 found in concretions with a foliated struct i 
 ius; easily broken with a fracture in d 
 parallel fibr : i . lucent : ■!. S] 
 
 or Culm Spar: 6. Compact, of various shades, white, 
 blue, gray, red. V is converted into gypsum by 
 combination with a certain proportion of water, and, 
 where it is found in large masses, as on the south 
 <>i the liar/. Mountains near Osterode, the surface 
 I \ of gypsum. For building, A. lias no great 
 
 value, mi at ant of its tendency to this change; 
 
 hut some of it3 varieties, especially tin- Siliciferous 
 or Vulpenite, found at Vulpino, in Dpper Italy, are 
 
 used for sculptures, and take a line polish. Winn 
 
 burned and reduced to powder, it is used as a 
 manure, resembling gypsum in its effects. 
 
 ANHY'DROUS is tin- term applied to a chemical 
 substance free from water. Thus, ordinary lime-ahel] 
 
 as it comes from the kiln is simply lime (CaO) 
 without any water, and is called anhydrous lime; 
 but when water is thrown upon tin- lime-shell, the 
 liquid disappears by combination with the lime, 
 which very much increases in volume and becomes 
 d lime (i'ii Kiln). Again, ordinary stucco, 
 before being used by the modeller, contains only 
 lime and sulphuric acid (CaOSO,), with no water, 
 and is therefore anhydrous; but when water is 
 added, and the stucco sets into its mould, it com- 
 bines with two equivalents of water, and becomes 
 hydrated stucco (2H(),CaOS0 3 ). Examples of A. 
 substances are also found amongst liquids; thus, 
 alcohol free from water is called A. Alcohol ; and 
 in like manner we speak of A. Acetic Acid, A. 
 Nitric Acid, &c. 
 
 ANIMA, Con, in Music ; with animation, in a 
 spirited manner. 
 
 A'NIMA MUNDI literally signifies ' the soul of 
 the world.' The doctrine contained in this phrase 
 was a favourite one with the early philosophi ■ 
 who conceived that there r ided is nature a force 
 rial, yet not intelligential, which was the 
 source of all physical and sentient life. Plato b Id 
 it impossible for pure spirit the atmospb re in 
 which al il and archetypal ideas could exist 
 
 - lo hear any relation whatever to matter, and lie 
 therefore supposed the latter to be operated upon 
 by an inferior agency, the A.M. Intli 
 
 the Stoics, the .1. M. was conceived to be the sole 
 vital fore- in the universe; it usurped the offi 
 pure spirit, and the doctrine became indistinguish- 
 able from Pantheism (q. v.). The notion does not 
 .- m to have h a entertained by th [men, but 
 
 pp ax i in tlie writing i ol Co 
 i us, and Van Selmont, and, in a mi 
 form, was held by More, Cudworth, and others. 
 
 ANIMAL AMD ANIMAL KINGDOM. Ac- 
 cording to a very old classification, all bodies are 
 d into tie oms I he mini ral, the 
 
 id the animal. \ 
 
 I together as organic, in opp 
 to mineral-, which are tlini ral bodie i 
 
 as oi in 't ter w ithout internal < 
 
 inon ising by additions from without, having, with 
 
 I i excepti I ■ a i arm or 
 
 size, homogeneous throughout, and wit) 
 of one pari to another. Animal ats, on 
 
 the contrary, i ost a- individual being , 
 of varum . or an Their existence has a h> ginning 
 ami an end, and at their death they are rep;.' 
 other similar beings developed out of them. 
 The distini I in and plants I 
 
 us at once in thi ; but among the 
 
 lower orgai which ha'. 
 
 at tine cl ' ! among 
 
 plants. The marl. 
 
 ions, have as yet been found to exist in all 
 animals, are spontaneous motion, • ace of a 
 
 itus (it may be only a mouth 
 means "of n 
 
 The prevalent f uitrog a o i cl 
 
 is another general cha> . while 
 
 carbon prevails in plan I 
 
 not all, the faculty of foco-motion (<[. '. 
 
 is wanting in some, as i 'phis 
 
 locomotion is generally effected by appropriate 
 
 . which are very different in the different 
 classes of animals, as legs, wings, tins, suckers, cilia, 
 &c., sometimes' merely by muscular dilatations and 
 contractions. In the higher animals, it is connected 
 with a special system of bones and muscles, which 
 becomes less and less prominent as we descend in 
 the scale, and at last disappears. 
 
 Nutrition is effected by swallowing ami digi 
 organic matter by nnans of a mouth, stomach, anil 
 intestinal canal. A part of the food — the 
 namely, which results from d taken up 
 
 by a system of vessels into the body of the animal, 
 and thrown into the blood, into which, under tin- 
 action of the air in the lungs or gills, it is converted ; 
 the other part is excreted by a second orifice, 
 in some of tin- lowest forms where the month forms 
 tin/ exit. For keeping up a circulation of the blood, 
 which must be brought to all parts of the body for 
 the purpose of nourishment, there is provided a sys- 
 tem of blood-vessels and. in tie higher classes, a 
 heart. .See Hf.aut. Nutrition may, to some i 
 take place also by absorption from the external sur- 
 face ; but this is not considerable except, perhaps, 
 among the lowest classes of animals. The sul I 
 that serve for the nutrition of an animal are . itle r 
 vegetable or animal, and the mouth and other organs 
 I pted accordingly. The number of omnivorous 
 animals is small, ami anion.; these, man has the 
 st latitude of choi i , 
 Propagation or reproduction takes place in a 
 great variety of ways: among the lowest forms, 
 by division, gemmation or budding, and 
 germs; among the more perfect, by generation 
 between two individuals of different sex. Of the 
 two sexes, the mail nguished by 
 
 superior size and aore brilliant colouring, 
 
 larger appendaj e . and often sb . Be- 
 
 sl : male and tale, there are among some ani- 
 mals (bees and ants) neuteJ In some of the 
 lower kinds, tli- individuals are hermapl 
 Se,. Rbprodi cnox. 
 
 All animals develop gradually, and most of them 
 go tlu'ough one or more changes of form or meta- 
 morphoses. This 1 among insects 
 which go through the four stag larva, 
 pupa, and perfect insect. 'I I ptilea 
 with ni'l- 1 
 
 less striking. In tin' higher animals, t' 
 tions through a E ms take place in the 
 
 ovum, or 1 . birth. In - the embryo 
 
 turity after the exclusion of the ovum 
 (bails ami amphibia) : in othi I 'ha), within 
 
 the body of the mother: animal I hind 
 
 are called vil i o 
 
 the mother- 
 animal produces b 
 
 ■ i ' h reproduce the original animal. 
 
 A somewhat similar peculiai . cd in some 
 
 insects, as Aphidi s. See Aphis. 
 
 life of an • . ndent on many oondi- 
 
 nk warmth, atmospheric .air, 
 
 and moisture, along with sufficient nourishment.
 
 ANIMAL AND ANIMAL KINGDOM— ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Light al i i- essential t.> many, though moat of the 
 Colourless animals of the lov. can dispell 
 
 with it. With regard to outward pre are, the 
 is is seen in the condor Boai 
 . 20,0 ■ and the whal 
 
 oi i it below the surface of the si i. I'm 
 
 individual animals are I to much na 
 
 ; often to one circumscribed range of climate, 
 one species of food, one medium. To go beyond 
 
 limits, though it does not always oc 
 death, yet gives rise to various degrees of degeneracy, 
 from which oven man with all his powers of adapta- 
 tion is net exempt. 
 
 Most animals give more or less strong indications 
 of mind : in those high in the scale, this mental life 
 
 rises to intellect capable of cultivation, while, in tin 
 lower classes, it appears as in inedtoafew 
 
 operations. For communicating with the onto 
 
 vertebrated animals are provided with a nervous 
 system in connection with a centra] brain 
 nervous system ; the ganglionic nervous system of 
 the lower animals seems to serve this purpose less 
 and less as we descend in the scale. The impres- 
 sions from without are received immediately by the 
 which become more numerous and 
 
 complex the higher the animal stands in the scale ; 
 among the highest, five senses are usually 
 
 ied, which are variously developed in different 
 i — in none so harmoniously as in man. 
 Nocturnal sleep, being the means of gathering 
 ;li for the activity of the waking hours, stands 
 in intimate relation to that activity, and tie 
 is wanting in bi nigs low in the scale. Winter sleep, 
 or hybernation (q.. v.), serves many animals instead of 
 migration, to enable them to outlive the cold and 
 hunger of winter. An..' be summer sleep of 
 
 serpents and crocodiles, which lie buried in the dry 
 mud during the summer droughts of the tropics. 
 
 Of the other vital manifestations of animals may 
 be mentioned, the faculty of giving light (glowworm, 
 medusa 1 ), and that of developing ei< tncity, both 
 possessed only by a few ; also voice, 1 lelonging almost 
 exclusively to vertebrate animals, and o tni m chiefly 
 to the warm-blooded. 
 
 A very remarkable peculiarity occurs in some of 
 the lowest kinds of animals, in what may be termed 
 .a composite life ; individuals which separately mani- 
 fest many of the powers of life, being united in part 
 of their frame, many of them together into one living 
 mass. Of this, examples are numerous among the 
 Zoophytes (q. v.), some of which have already been 
 noticed in the article Auvumi It 
 
 Apart from the transforming and modifying influ- 
 ence of man, the animals ami plants of a district — 
 its fauna and flora — give it life and character. To 
 man himself, animals stand in a variety of relations 
 of the highest importance. Some are directly useful 
 to him for labour, food, the chase, &c. ; others hurt- 
 ful, as destroyers of vegetation, as beasts of prey, as 
 vermin, or by their poisons. — The number of known 
 species of animals amounts at present to about 
 130,000. To describe and cla ifythi i on scientific 
 principles, is the object of Zoology (q. v.). 
 
 ANIMAL CHE'MISTRY. The object of re- 
 searches into the chemical nature of animal 
 stances is twofold: Fir. . t > classifying proximate 
 or immediate component ingredients of the animal 
 
 study their properties, their mutual re] 
 and metamorphoses, and the ultimate elements of 
 which they are composed; second, to investigate the 
 aat go on during the elaboration and 
 assimilation of new materials, and the wearing out 
 and excretion of old — processes that, taken together, 
 constitute nutrition, or the vegetative side of animal 
 life. Without a pretty complete knowledge of the 
 first part, no successful researches can be made in 
 266 
 
 the second ; and it is chiefly owing to the great pro- 
 
 ■ u made within the hurt thirty years 
 in the knowledge of the chemical propertii 
 animal compounds containing nitro en, that we owe 
 the recent advance in our know Ledge of the eh I 
 
 I bat advance is not the Ie i decided 
 that we are still far from a complete understanding 
 
 of them. Tlie . . i il laws of cliene try ere now 
 
 I into the province of organic nature much 
 
 further than formerly, and the abrupt partition 
 
 en the two is removed. It is still ml ..I, J .1 
 
 that these laws operate differently within the sphere 
 
 of organic life 1 , from what they do without; but 
 
 contented n . that owing 
 
 to the vital force this could not I e, the 
 
 now to trace the why and wherefore of this 
 modified action as far as possible. 
 
 In the animal body, two classes of substances may 
 be distinguished : these that properly compo 
 body, ami those that are • the waj either into it 
 or out of it. The former, or actual components of 
 the body, are, again, of two kinds: 1. Substances 
 that compos the actual tissues of the organs, and in 
 
 which the vital fin prop ilv to inhere ; 
 
 the substances, namely, of muscle, of nerve, of brain, 
 of membranes, sinews, and the organic part of the 
 bones. All these agreo in consisting chiefly of 
 carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with usu- 
 ally minute proportions of sulphur and phosphorus. 
 But in respect of their mode of composition, they 
 fall into two classes — those that yield gelatin 
 boiling, and those that do not. To the former belong 
 the substance of the cartilages, bones, sinews, and 
 skin ; to the latter, the fibrin of the muscles and of 
 the blood corpuscles, the albumen of the nerves 
 and blood, the caseine of milk, &e. These last are 
 the so-called compounds of proteine (q. v.). In 
 the living tissues, all thi i rs are combined 
 with about ! . of water. 2. Besides the 
 
 above, which are the real aninialiscd or vital 
 substances, the animal body contains substances 
 which are merely deposited in tin; cells and inter- 
 stices of the former for imparting colour, solidity, 
 elasticity, &c. Of this kind are fat, the earthy 
 mutter of the bones, pigment, &c. Whether the 
 minute quantities of common salt and of phosphates 
 that arc found in all parts of animals essentially 
 In lone to tic- constitution of the substance tie 
 associated with, is not yet made out, but it is 
 extremely probable tiny do; at all cents, tiny play 
 a very important part. 
 
 The substances that are on their way into and 
 out of the body, form on the one hand the contents 
 of the digestive organs, and on the other those of 
 the organs of excretion. The vascular system forms 
 the meansof communication between both and the 
 ice of the body, and the blood is the carrier 
 of all that enters that substance or leaves it. In 
 the digestive organs, accordingly, we find, along with 
 the unaltered materials of the food, the various 
 products of their digestion, and at last the useless 
 refuse, not absorbable by the vascular system, and 
 tin- various Quids — some acid, some alkaline — added 
 
 lei 1 1 to effect itfi digestion, such as the saliva, 
 
 ■ juice, and bile. 
 
 The matters prepared in the digestive organs for 
 being taken up into the blood, either enter the 
 venous system directly, or get there by first going 
 ! i the lymphatic system. This last contain a 
 Quid which is chemically very like the blood, but 
 colourless— the chyle, namely. This fluid and the 
 blood contain the so-called proteine compounds 
 derived from the food, partly in solution, and partly 
 solid in the blood corpuscles. Arterial blood 
 contains, besides, all those salts and other substances 
 that must be supplied for the nourishment of the
 
 ANIMAL FLOWER— ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 
 
 LS organs. The venous system, again, wlii-li 
 
 brinj i back the blood from the different parte to Hi' 
 
 I organs, is laden with all the matters that are 
 
 no longer of use, and mo t therefore be carried to 
 
 l'i chii excretory organs — the; skin, liver, and 
 
 kidneys, The dark colour of venous blood ind 
 that its components have undergone a change. But 
 all blood that is on its way both to and from the 
 
 partB of the body, before it can impart i" 
 Hunt, must pass through the lungs, an 01 
 which it is brought into extensive contact with 
 
 atmospheric air, and undergoes a pr. ; of <■-•■. i>l:i- 
 
 ti producing the following palpable results: The 
 
 disappearanc f a portion of the inhaled o 
 
 the substitution of water and carbonic arid in 
 it i ['lace ; the transformation of the dark venous 
 blood and of the chyle into red arterial blood; 
 lastly, the development of heat. Breathing, then, 
 Contributes to nutrition by making the blood lit fur 
 purpose; it is an excretory process, inasmuch 
 as it burns out useless matters and separates them 
 in the form of gases; and at the same lame it 
 produoes heat, without which life could not go on. 
 
 Sweat, urine, bile, and emanations from the skin 
 and lungs, contain only products of the dec" 
 In n of effete animal substances; many of these 
 products are highly interesting in a chemical point 
 of view, especially una, uric acid, arid bile. It is 
 clear, then, that comparative investigation of the 
 blood in its different states, of the excretions and 
 "lis, can alone give any knowledge of the 
 condition of the vegetative side of the organism; 
 and, accordingly, this kind of investigation has 
 in recent times become of the highest unpen 
 for pathology and diagnosis. See Liebig's famous 
 work on A. C, translated by Gregory, and the 
 i ■\eellent I.<hrl>nch der Pht/.nolotjischen Ciumie (3d 
 ed., Leip. 1854), by Lebmaun. 
 
 ANIMAL FLOWER. Si - I, and Ane- 
 
 (Sea). 
 
 ANIMAL HEAT is the warmth generated in 
 
 animal bodies by certain of the changes constantly 
 taking place within them. A certain amount of 
 heat is necessary to the proper performance of the 
 vital functions, and any material increase or de 
 of it from the healthy Btandard, endangers animal 
 life. The temperature thus necessary for the life of 
 the animal is maintained by the action of that life 
 
 The air and other objects surrounding the 
 animal body being in almost all eases colder than it, 
 are constantly stealing part of its warmth; but 
 within the system there ai proce les incessantly 
 going cm which produce Eri b heat. When the h< at 
 thus i inerated is not di ipal 1 East enough, so that 
 the body tends to become wanner than tie- due 
 degree, the accumulation Snds vent in perspiration, 
 tli ■ evaporation of which carries off the exce is. The 
 power of producing heat, is in relation to the ■ ' 
 in which the : oal is accustomed t" live. It is 
 ,.. iker ei warm climates than in cold, and conse- 
 quently when an animal is removed from a warm to 
 a cold climate, it frequently pines and dies. In 
 most fish and reptiles, commonly termed 
 
 ded animals.' r ■ temperature differs but little 
 
 thai of t' 1 BT air in which they live; 
 
 ti i is the ca-.e with hyb animals 
 
 the latter pari of tine- torpid i oncution, and 
 
 With the larva ami |ili|).i of Tie W ere 
 
 exceptions, however; the thunny, shark, and 
 
 tain witln i 
 mperature several degrees higher thnn 
 
 tie- water tiny live in. 
 
 Man has Hie power, to a greater de thai i 
 warm blooded annuals, of adapting himself to changes 
 of surrounding temperature, especially in temperate 
 
 hut changeable climates such as that of C.reat 
 i. Jin average standard of heat is from 
 98° to 100°, varying with circumstances. I 
 after exercise or a hearty meal, and at noonday 
 than at midnight. It also varus in diseased 
 ditions of tin- body, rising to I 
 falling as low as 77' in cholera. But if the body be 
 in a healthy condition, the standard of fa 
 maintained, even when th to such 
 
 intense heat as are men attending furnaces; on 
 for a short time be exposed to 350° of h'-at without 
 
 materially ra i th nature of Ins own body, 
 
 although he will lose weigh 
 
 necessary for the evaporation. Chabert, who 
 exhibited under the sobriquet of 'the Fire-king,' 
 con] I . ..' r a furnace heated to 500° or ' 
 we know from experiment tha lien of the 
 
 temperature of his body even a few decrees, would 
 have endangered, and perhaps destroyed bis life. 
 
 Throughout the animal kingdom, the pov 
 generating heat bears a close relation to the a 
 or sluggishness of the animal. Thus, birds, which are 
 
 llftlly in action, have the highest temperature 
 (100°— 112°); and the swallow and quick-fli 
 birds, higher than the fowls which keep to I 
 and among insects, the hive-bees and butterllies — so 
 perpetually on the wing — than (ho wl, as 
 
 some of the beetles. The higher the standard of 
 A. H., the less able is the animal to bear a redn 
 of its temperature ; if that of a bird or inane- 
 reduced .'in\ the \ital changes become slower, 
 languid, ami death ensues. Fish, on the other hand, 
 i'i be enclosed in ice, and yet survive. 
 
 This heat is also necessary to development ; . i 
 require warmth during incubation : the ovidui 
 
 r or th" serpent is of a higher tempe r at ur e 
 than the rest of the body. 
 
 As before mentioned, the source of A. II. is In the 
 vital processes going on within the body; but as 
 to the exact mode in which it is engendered, opi 
 are very much divided. It is usually held t" 
 from chemical action; from th" species of combus- 
 tion that takes place in the union of the oxygen 
 of the atmosphere with the carbon and byd 
 the body. That heat must result. Erom 
 there is no doubt, nor is it less certain that t 
 
 portions of carbonic acid and of heat evolved at the 
 same time are in close relation. The sou 
 carbon thus burned is still doubtful, tie" 
 must be partly derived from the tissn 
 
 ions of the food. But the amount 
 of carbonic acid evolved I", 
 
 count for the a' 
 of heat evolved; therefore, though th" combustion 
 of carbon may be the ■ ■ of A. II.. 
 
 are probably others, as the hydrogen uniting with 
 the oxygen of the atmosphere, and tin' chang 
 the sulphur and phosphorus of the food illt" 
 acids. See Ki -rii: vnoN and DlOl - 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM orME'Sl 
 a supposed influence or emanation 1 which 
 
 onean act upon another, producing wonderful 
 upon Lis body, and controlling his actions 
 and thoughts. It v. as fancied t" have seine ai 
 to the magnetism >>! the loadstone, and hen 
 
 The term has been used to ihera 
 
 multitude of manifestations deemed of a wonderful 
 kind, and which have given rise t<> an amoi 
 
 ..ii and en 
 other subject, Hectro-biology, Odyl 
 
 pping, Table-talking, Spirit" 
 have 1' as only modifications of the 
 
 phenomena. The art of inducing the magnetic state, 
 in practised by its discoverer, Steamer, involved the 
 or magnetic tub. iron 
 rods, &c. ; but the more common means have D
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 
 
 made by the hands of the t from 
 
 ad of the ' to iwnward, or 
 
 making hi d or, tie 
 
 ,'lv feels a or aping i baling 
 
 over tii- surface, ;ind shortly falls into the m 
 
 mbling Bomnam- 
 
 , i on in ten is found capable 
 
 of being thus affected, to a greater or 
 
 While in tl. us o the body are 
 
 liable to be much affected ; the pulsations of the heai : 
 
 and the respiration are quickened or retarded, and 
 
 ■ is altered, and that chiefly at the will of 
 
 tK operator; at his direction, the limbs are made 
 
 or become endowed with unnatural strength ; 
 
 one liquid tastes as any other, and is hot or cold, 
 
 sweet i as the subject u told; in short, every 
 
 thought, si us in. hi, and movement of the subject 
 
 be! it of the mi m 
 to the mesmeric theory, the nervous energy of the 
 operator has overpowered that of the subject, as a 
 powerful magnet does a weak one, and the two 
 are in rapport, as it is termed. In some cases, the 
 
 irie trance assumes the form of clairxh 
 See Somnambulism. 
 
 It has been clearly established, however, that the 
 notion of a force of any kind whatever proceeding 
 in such cases from a person or fro letising 
 
 apparatus, is a delusion. The effects, whatevi 
 
 heir cause somewhere else. Where 
 to 1"' looked for v. i 1. though not fol- 
 
 lowed up, as early as 17S3, in the report of the com- 
 oners, one of whom was Franklin, appoint d by 
 the king of France to examine the p 
 Mesmer. They report that 'on blindfolding those 
 
 1 to be most susceptible t" the iii ' 
 (of this agent), all its ordinary effects were produced 
 when nothing was done to them but when they 
 ned they were n while none of its 
 
 i were produced when tl ally magne- 
 
 tised, but imagined nothing was done; thai 
 
 magnetised tree (on i of Mesmer's 
 modes of operating), nothing happened if the - 
 of the experiment thought they were at a di 
 from the tree, while they were immedi it ly thrown 
 into convulsions if they believed they were near the 
 [though really at a dial t; and that, 
 
 quentiy, tiu d were pro- 
 
 ! pun ly by tiu imagina 
 But this part of the science of human rial 
 ilex action of the mental upon the phj I 
 had not then been sufficiently studied, and is not 
 now widely enough known to render the con I 
 of th" reporters a satisfactory explanation of the 
 phenomena; and the fallacies of n though 
 
 d to many similar exposun 
 
 Falkoner of Bath, e. g., annihilated the Patent 
 Metallic Tractors of I'crkin, by making wood 
 exactly like them, which produced exactly the same 
 effects), have constantly revived in some ah 
 other. One chief cause of the inveteracy 
 delusion is, that the opponents of mesmeri 
 not distinguish between denying the theory 
 
 . and the fai 
 to explain ; and have been too ready i i 
 whole to delusion and fraud. It thus happen 
 the most sceptical often become all of a sudd 
 most credulous. Finding that things do actually 
 rhich they cannot explain, and had been 
 omed tn denounce as impost ush to 
 
 ther extreme, and embrace not only the facts 
 but the theory, audcall this, too, 1 lelieving the i i 
 of their senses. Now, the reality of the greater part 
 of the • -."lis appealed to by the mi 
 
 must be admitted, though we deny his explan 
 even where their reality mus 
 ii it follow that the mesmerist is not sincere 
 288 
 
 in believing them-, there is only greater room than 
 in any other case for susp aived 
 
 e direction 
 ■ of appearances of this class was Mr 
 Braid, a Burgeon in M Hypnotism), 
 
 who di - ambiance of 
 
 power exerted by one individual o\ er, or by 
 
 metallic ■ « hole to 
 
 mi of the ted on by tuggetUon, a 
 
 principle long known to psyi though never 
 
 made o prominent as it ought to be, The subject 
 been ably handled in a paper in the 
 is for September 1853 [said to be by 
 Dr Carpenter). The reviewer times t! 
 ni tins princi b. I ordinary ad 
 
 which mi one thinks wonderful, up to (he 
 miraculous of the so-called ' spiritual ' manifesta- 
 tions. 
 
 Ideas become associated in our minils by habit 
 or otherwise, and one being awakened brings on 
 . thus forming a tram of thought ; tin 
 
 in. But impressions from without 
 ul modify these trains, constituting 
 in. While awake and ill a DO 
 condition, the will interferes with and di 
 trains of thought, selecting some ideas to be dwelt 
 upon, and comparing them with others and with 
 present impressions. A comparative inactivity of 
 this selecting and comparing faculty, leaving the 
 How of ideas to its spontaneous activity, produces 
 the state of mind called m. In 
 
 dreaming and somnambulism, the will and judgment 
 '. oendi '1 ; and under its u 
 iinns the mind becomes a mere autom 
 while external suggestions, if they act at all, act as 
 Upon a machine. Th. se are v, . U-knoWn facts of the 
 i constitution, and independent of mesmerism, 
 though their bearing upon it is obvious. 
 
 Another fact of like bearing is, the effect oi 
 centrated attention on any object of thought in 
 
 in! 'i j ing the impr red [his may 
 
 1 so far. in morbid states of the nervous 
 system, that an idea or revr 
 vividness of ' ami overpowers 
 
 : uses. Ideas thus benllle 
 
 dominant, overriding the im] of the outer 
 
 world, and carryi I oui into action 
 
 independently of the will, and even without tin con- 
 ess of the individual. These dominant ideas 
 play a greater part in human actions and bi 
 than most are aware of. 'Expectant attention' 
 iwerfuuy on the bodily organs, and often 
 the individual see and hear what he el I 
 to see and hear, and, without his consciou 
 
 his muscles to bring it about. These, too, are 
 recognised facts in the sciences of physiology and 
 psychoid Carpenter's Huma i v and 
 
 Dr Holl Cha ■ Mi ntal P 
 
 'ili i] in pies enable us to bi b T and 
 
 explain a who ' 
 
 m, the inspiration of tie I Ii 
 , religion i tasies, I tie phj ical excite- 
 iiiiliiit mi 'revivals ' and 'camp-meetings,' 
 belief in witchcraft, possession, and mania, individual 
 ami epidemic. And it is now held that the mam- 
 ma of mesne &&, belong 
 to the same class, and are to be accounted for in the 
 n ay. 
 
 state is produced by a steady gaze 
 at some fixed object. There is no peculiar virtue in 
 s of the mesmerist or iii a metallic disc, for 
 on the wall will produce the effect. The thing 
 requisite is a monotonous and sustained concentra- 
 tion of the subject's will, producing weariness and 
 vacancy of mind ; and this resembles the condition
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM -ANTMALCUIJS. 
 
 that induces reverie and sleep, and leaves thi 
 
 open to any suggestion, and at the command of any 
 
 idea th.it maj to possess hint. But that he 
 
 rned by kit . and not by tb> 
 
 the mesmeriser, is clear. No with of On: mesmeriser, 
 
 ■ ' ",.,./ Other ! ' • 
 
 ■nee or 
 
 vise; while an idea suggested by putti 
 
 body in ore, or cyan accidental 1 
 
 has the sam rad. If he seems 
 
 more subject to the will of the mesmeriser than of 
 
 he was previously impressed 
 
 with that idea, and is therefore more awake to his 
 
 lions. It is thus that the operator is enabled 
 
 ke him 
 t think, and act, and 
 
 memory, the power over his limbs, or even his 
 own identity, as tl tor dictates. We mu-t 
 
 with thus i 
 
 r.'ing to the read.r to apply it in 
 detail. 
 
 The manifestations connected with table-turning, 
 such of them as are genuine, are explained 
 
 .'. A Dumb r of indi- 
 viduals sit round a table with their hands resting upon 
 it, having the idea in their minds that it will or may 
 move, the m of the expected movement being 
 
 greed upon. -_ly, if none of the] 
 
 ry sceptical, it generally < after a time, 
 
 daring, and in perfect goo 
 not press. And yet il 1 by a con- 
 
 trivance of I [ways is pressure, 
 
 or consciousness of the 
 performers; and this ; .t is to be looked 
 
 for from the involuntary a dominant idea. 
 
 zplanation docs not suffice for many of the 
 wondi rs 1. But 
 
 all such are to be received with suspicion, and 
 without ace i. latere of bad faith. Th 
 
 disposition to look for something out of the usual 
 course of nature makes them incapable, for the time, 
 mine what actually happens from what 
 
 atiou3 
 Hating bo<' 
 as a ring, su m the finger, are all to be 
 
 accounted for in a similar way: they result from 
 unintentional muscular movement 
 
 In spirit-rapping, a ' medium ' puts, somehow, the 
 
 questioner into communication with any d ; 
 
 spirit he may wish to consult, and the answer is 
 
 by raps, suj ■ to be mad.' by the spirit. 
 
 questioner runs a pencil over the letters of the 
 
 b t, and the raps are given as the pencil comes 
 
 successive letters forming the words of the 
 
 r. Many of the 'media' in this species of 
 
 'spiritual' manifestation have been proved to be 
 
 impostors, though it is not necessary to suppose that 
 
 they are so in all cases ; th ly may 
 
 as witches did of old. ] 
 
 doubt, however, that the wonderful revelations they 
 
 made of things known only to the 
 
 questioi from involuntary indications made 
 
 by the latter— by his pausing, without knowing it. 
 
 r. A variation on 
 
 communicating with the world of spirits, 
 
 i in putting the questions to a table, which is 
 
 manipulated, taming, and gives its answers 
 
 by rapping with one of its feet, or by rocking, as 
 
 may 1" i The the i 
 
 ideal of the p rformers in th j apparent in 
 
 their own narratives. Would it not otherwise be 
 
 strange that spirits should reveal heaven to Robert 
 
 own social theory, while a 
 
 P man finds the world of spirit 
 
 by a horror of (Rev. E. Gillson, 
 
 Table-talking), and to pious Scotch Pres by terians 
 
 every revelation regarding it is completely in accord- 
 ance with i 
 
 .Such arc the views of U in regard to 
 
 itter, may be denominated the 'rationalist' 
 
 party. But there is a large class of intelligent 
 
 who hold the explanations ab. 
 be insufficient. After making every sHowani 
 deception, whether intentional or unintentional, 
 ml many undoubted facta p maining which 
 are quite beyond th ,. dominant 
 
 ideas, or any other of the usually received theories, 
 physical or psychological PI of the cha- 
 
 racter in question are, therefore, -till the subject of 
 earnest investigation on the part of many both in 
 Great Britain and America. 
 
 ANIMA'LCUIiE.atermetymologicallyappl 
 
 to any very small animal, and limited in actual use 
 
 which are microscopical. Animi 
 in prodigious numbers, and of man kinds, 
 
 their size being such that multitudes of the] 
 ior all the movements of an acth 
 
 drop of water; and they alwund 
 almost wherever there is moisture, at least whi 
 organic matter is present The il 
 of Ehrenberg is only l-2000th part of a hi 
 l-24J000th part of an inch in diameter, 
 any drop of water from the stagnant pools a 
 us,' says Professor Rymer Jones, 'from our I 
 from our lakes, or from the vast ocean itself, and 
 
 
 Various forms of Anim..' 
 
 place it under the microscope ; you will find ;' 
 countless living beings moving in all directions with 
 • rable swiftness, apparently gifb d with 
 
 :ily elude each other in the active 
 
 dance they keep up Increase the power of 
 
 your glasses, and you will soon perceive, inhabiting 
 lis, compared to which 
 the former were elephantine in their dimi 
 equally vivacious and equally gifted. Exhaust the 
 art of (J ,0 your eyes to the utmost, 
 
 until the aching Bense refuses to perceive the little 
 quivering movement that ind 
 
 ad you will find that you have not exh 
 Nature in the descending scale.' Anim;-. 
 to different > I •'• and 
 
 the term A. is either applied to them all with refer- 
 ence to their mere size, or it is restricted to those 
 which received from Midler, with whom the 
 
 idy and classilieatii.n of tie m may be said to 
 have begun, the i, '. and 
 
 which are by Cuvier made the fifth and last 
 
 : his fourth great divi- 
 the aniniai kingdom, V.'" 
 90RIA. The ii-iin- in.'logically 
 
 considered, is not more appropriate than .' 
 perhaps not quite so much so, .as only a small pro- 
 portion of the animals of this class are actually 
 found in infusions, but it continues to be generally 
 employed by soologiste. Attempts have been made 
 fy them according to their structure, and to 
 assign them their proper places accordingly in the
 
 ANIMALCULE— ANIMALS. 
 
 general arrangement of the .inim.il kingdom ; and 
 
 ut of them have bean fon 
 under the name Rotiftra (q. v.), regarded as pro- 
 bably belonging to the Articulated division ; another 
 part, formeil into a class called Potygastriea (q. v.), 
 consisting of the been in like 
 
 manner somewhat doubtfully referred to the Radi- 
 ated division. Agassis onhi 
 class Infunuria as 'an unnatural combis 
 most heterogeneous beings.' He regards many as 
 locomotive Alyce; and of those which arc true 
 animals, he expresses the opinion that 111:1 
 
 lis states of other animals, 
 still remain, however, many kinds which are perfect 
 animals. 
 
 Among the most remarkable dis- modern 
 
 1st lie reckoned that of/ 
 in such abundance as to form the principal part of 
 extensive strata. Tliis discovery was mad'- by 
 Ehrenberg, who found the /' r (Polishing- 
 
 slate or Tripoli) of Bilin to be almost entirely 
 composed of the silicious shields of a minute fossil 
 A., the length of one of which is about ^th of a 
 
 Fossil Remains of Animalcules which form Tripoli. 
 
 line, so that about 23 millions of animalcules must 
 one to form a cubic lis 11,000 millions 
 
 to form a cubic inch of the rock. Ehrenberg suc- 
 1 in detecting the formation of similar strata 
 in deposits of mud at the l>ottom of lakes and 
 marshes, the mad swarming with living animalcules, 
 My in their turn to be fossihsed. Tin 
 or Mountain Meal of Sweden and other parts 
 of Europe, which is sometimes used as an article of 
 food, is entirely composed of the remains of ani- 
 malcules ; not merely, however, of their E i 
 shields, for it contains a considerable pen 
 of dry animal matter. Some animalcules prefer 
 3 impregnated with iron, and their death 
 gives rise to an ochreous substance, in which iron is 
 a principal ingredient. 
 
 ANIMALS, Ckdbdr to. England has the 
 honour of first making this a distinct subject of 
 attention by the formation of societies for its 
 prevention, and by legislative enactments making it 
 punishable. The movement has now extended into 
 France and Germany. 
 
 Benevolence to A. is a result and a proof of 
 ling civilisation. It is the carrying out to its 
 just limits the principle of sympathy, which first 
 appears when the savage ceases to think exclusively 
 of lumself and learns to identify his tribe with him- 
 self. It is this principle of sympathy, only carried 
 further, that, under Christianity, unites all th< 
 and races of men in one family. And it only requires 
 ition of the faculty at sympathy generally, 
 and the direction of the attention to what the lower 
 animals have in common with man — sensibility, 
 namely, to pain — to make any one feel, thai 
 
 to inflict that pain, is to sin against bis own 
 
 . and therefore a dim - I ought to be a 
 
 1 object of attention in the training of children. 
 
 Besides the cruelty to beasts of burden and domestic 
 
 animals arising from cupidity, many, especially 
 
 children, torture creatures from thoughtlcs.-ncss 
 
 tiorance. This, therefore, is one of the many 
 instruction of the head may bo 
 made to mend the heart. It deserves to be re- 
 marked, Qlal extinction of life does not 
 con titate cruelty. Tl: en more 
 cruelty in prolonging the life of an animal than in 
 taking it away. It is the infliction of needless pain 
 or restraint that is the essence of cruelty to si 
 
 Animals. ( 1:1 iiiv in (in Law). This is an 
 against the criminal law, and has frequently of 
 formed the subject of legislation, the last 
 act of parliament, the 1°. and 13 Vict. c. '.'- [] 
 in 1849), being that which at present regnlat 
 law of England on the subject. By this statute it 
 i, that if any person shall cruelly beat, 
 ill-treat, over-drive, abase, or torture any horse, 
 mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, 
 mule, ass, sbcep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, goat, dog, 
 cat, or any other domestic animal, he shall I 
 a sum not i'5 for every such oi 
 
 rable before a justice of the peace in a 
 mary way ; and if by any such misconduct he shall 
 injure the animal, or any person or property, a 
 further sum not exceeding £10 to the owner or 
 person injured. The act also inflicts penalties in 
 the case of conveying any such animal in such a 
 manner or position as to subject it to unnecessary 
 pain or Buffering ; and also in the case of bull- 
 baiting, cock-fighting, and the like, and makes a 
 variety of humane- provisions for the regulation of 
 the business of slaughtering horses and other cattle 
 not intended for butcher's meat. 
 
 Formerly, in Scotland, this offence was punishable 
 at common law — that is, according to the Scotch 
 legal principle, common law as distinguished from 
 statute law — and so late as the year 1826, a man 
 was convicted there of affixing a stob, or prickle 
 armed with iron nails, to the tail of a pony, by 
 which the animal was wounded in the hind 
 and punished with two mouths' imprisonment. 
 But the Scotch law at that time did not view such 
 conduct so much as an act of cruelty to the animal 
 injured, as of 'malicious mischief,' as it was called, 
 and, in fact, regarded such treatment of animals as 
 simply an offence against property. An act of par- 
 liament, however, passed in the year 1850, puts the 
 law on this subject in Scotland on the same f 
 as it is in England. The act referred to contains 
 provisions similar to those enacted by the 12 and 13 
 Vict, for England ; and in both acts it is declared 
 that the word • animal' shall be taken to mean 'any 
 horse, mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, 
 mule, ass, sheep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, goat, dog, cat, 
 or any other domestic animal.' 
 
 ANIMALS, W0B8BIP or. The practice of 
 worshipping animals, as well as certain plants and 
 prevailed among many of the nations of anti- 
 quity, and is still common among barbarous tribes. 
 That animals should be held sacred and receive 
 worship, need excite no surprise when we bear in 
 mind the origin of polytheistic worship generally. 
 They are manifestations of power; mysterion 
 
 actuated by impulses differing from those 
 of man ; and often, by their greater acuteness of 
 sense and more unerring instincts, seeming to 
 possess supernatural knowledge. Besides this 
 general ground, various animals have been asso- 
 ciated with the gods as emblems and in other ways. 
 But a more important source of the superstitions 
 regard bestowed on animals, is the bebef that gods, 
 and spirits in general, often take the form of ani- 
 mals, either temporarily or as a permanent . 
 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls is not 
 confined to India. Kindred notions, though not 
 perhaps reduced to system and formally enun 
 arc ail but universal ; they seem as indigenous in
 
 I 
 
 AXTME— AXKARSTROM. 
 
 the heart of Africa as on the banks of the < 
 It was as a manifestation of the soul of < I 
 originally, like all the other Egyptian deities, a 
 sun-god — that the sacred bull Apis was worshipped 
 in ancient Egypt. When the Spaniards first visited 
 the coasts of South America, they found a ludicrous 
 kind of animal-worship pr ac tis ed by the natives on 
 the coast of Cumana (Venezuela). 'They held the 
 toad to be, as they said, " the lord of the waters," 
 and therefore they were very compassionate with it, 
 and dreaded by any accident to kill a toad ; though, 
 as has been found the case with other idolaters, they 
 were ready, in tunes of difficulty, to compel a favour- 
 able hearing from their pretended deities, for they 
 were known to keep these toads with care under an 
 earthen vessel, and to whip them with little switches 
 when there was a scarcity of provisions and a want 
 of rain. Another superstition worthy of note was, 
 that when they hunted down any game, before 
 t it, they were wont to open its mouth and 
 introduce some drops of maize-wine, in order that 
 its soul, which they judged to be the same as that 
 of men, might give notice to the rest of its species 
 of the good entertainment which it had met with, 
 and thus lead them to think that if they came too, 
 they would participate in this kindly treatment.' — 
 Helps. 
 
 A'XIME, a resin exuding from the trunk of the 
 Hymencea Courbaril, a large tree of the natural order 
 Legwminosce, sub-order C<esalpinece, a native of New 
 Spain and Brazil. It somewhat resembles copal, 
 but is more easily soluble in alcohol. — The name 
 A., or Gum A, is, however, also given in Britain to 
 a resin called in India copal, the produce of I 
 Jndica, a tree of the natural order Dipteracea; 
 whilst the copal of Madagascar is produced by 
 Hipnencea verrucosa, and that of Brazil in great 
 part by several species of Hymencea, a tree of which 
 genus is also regarded as the probable source of the 
 copal of Mexico. 
 
 AXIOXS. See Anode. 
 
 A'XISE (PimpineUa Anixum), an annual plant 
 of the natural order Umbellijerce. The 
 I'ua/nnella has compound umbels, usually without 
 involucres. Two species are natives of Britain ; 
 they are commonly known by the name of Burnet 
 Saxifrage, and have no properties of import- 
 ance. A. is a native of Egypt. It is an annual 
 plant ; the stem is 1 J to 2 feet high, dividing into 
 several slender branches ; the lower leaves roundish- 
 heart-shaped, divided into three lobes, and deeply 
 cut ; those of the stem pinnate, with wedge- 
 shaped leaflets. The umbels are large and loose, 
 with yellowish-white flowers. It is much culti- 
 vated in Egypt, Syria, Malta, and Spain, and 
 i v. ii in Germany, especially in the district around 
 Erfurt, where a large quantity of the seed is 
 annually produced. Attempts were made, more 
 than "200 years ago, to cultivate it in England ; but 
 the summers are seldom warm enough to bring it to 
 perfection. It is occasionally sown in gardens for 
 a garnish or for seasoning. A.-seed (aniseed) is 
 
 as a condiment and in the preparation of 
 liqueurs ; also in medicine as a stimulant stomachic, 
 
 ieve 11 '.tulence, &c, particularly in infants; 
 and it has been used in pulmonary affections. It 
 has an aromatic, agreeable smell, and a warm. 
 
 -h taste. It contains a volatile oil, called 
 Oil of A., which is nearly colourless, has the 
 odour and taste of the seed, and is emplo] 
 similar purposes. One hundred -weight of seed 
 about two pounds of oil, which is obtained 
 by distillation ; but at Erfurt the oil is made from 
 the stems and leaves, the whole plant being aroma- 
 
 tic, A.-walar — water flavoured with the oil, and 
 d — is much used in Italy as a cooling drink. 
 
 r Ciiixe.se AkBM, is the fruit 
 of Itlicium anisatum, a small tree of the natural 
 ard r Nifjnoliacea. See Iujcium. It rccei-. 
 name from the star-like form of the fruit, which 
 consists of a number (6 — 12) of hard, woody, one- 
 seeded carpels. The tree has evergreen leaves, some- 
 what like those of the common laurel. The whole 
 plant is carminative, and is used by the Chinese as a 
 stomachic and as a spice in their cookery. The 
 qualities of the fruit so much resemble those of the 
 common anise, that it may be used insti ad of it, 
 and by distillation it yields an oil which is very 
 generally substituted for oil of anise, and is imported 
 into Europe in considerable quantity, to be used 
 instead of it. Star aniseed is also imported, chil tly 
 from China and Singapore. 
 
 A'XJOTJ, a former province in the north-west of 
 France, of aliout 30S0 square miles in extent, now 
 forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and small 
 parts of the departments of Indre-et- Loire. Mayenne, 
 and Sartbe. Its capital was Angers. The ancient 
 inhabitants of A. were the Andegavi, who long and 
 resolutely resisted the Koman arms. — The male line 
 of the Counts of A., who took their name from it, 
 having become extinct in 1060, their title and pos- 
 red by the female line to the powerful 
 House of Gatinais ; and from one of this family, 
 Godfrey, Count of A., sprung the Plantagenets. He 
 conquered the greater part of Xormandy ; assumed 
 the title of duke; and in 1127 married Matilda, 
 the daughter of Henry I. of England, and widow of 
 the Emperor Henry V. Through her, his son 
 inherited the English throne, which he ascended in 
 1164 as Henry II. A. now became one of the pos- 
 sessions of the kings of England; but in 12 
 French acquired it by fortune of war ; and it was 
 ed as a fief upon Philip, the son of Louis 
 VIII., and afterwards upon his brother Charles, who 
 became the founder of that House of A. which gave 
 kings to Naples, Sicily, and Hungary. Charles II. 
 of Naples gave A. to his daughter Margaret on her 
 marriage with Charles of Valois, the son of Philip 
 [V. Her son ascended the throne of France as 
 Philip VI. in 132S. King John, in 13C0, made A. a 
 duchy, and gave it to his son Louis, and he succeeding 
 to the crown of Naples, it remained a possession of 
 the kings of Naples till the overthrow of that 
 dynasty, when Bene II., the last of his family, 
 was deprived of it by Louis XI., who permanently 
 annexed it to the French crown in 14M. 
 that time, it has merely given an honorary title to 
 princes of the royal family. The last who bore it 
 was the grandson of Louis XIV., who became 
 Philip V. of Spain. 
 
 AXKARSTKoM, John Jacob, the assassin of 
 Gustavus 111., king of Sweden, born in 1761, the son 
 of a lieutenant-colonel. He came very early to court, 
 in the capacity of a page, and next entered the army ; 
 but having obtained the rank of captain, left it in 
 17S3; married and settled m the count 
 a man of violent feelings and rough manners, and 
 much opposed to the measures taken by 
 curtailing the power of the senate and of the a 
 Implicated in certain intrigues in the island of 
 Gothland, he was accused of treason, but released for 
 want of positive evidence. His hatred to thi 
 was increased by the harsh usage he met with in the 
 course of his trial tn 1790, he went to : 
 and, t' I aeral Peeh] I Hern 
 
 aid tabbing, and ether-, planned the assassination 
 of the kin.-- A. bi g i that the execution of the 
 aim ; but Horn and Bibbing 
 disputing the point, they drew lots, and the lot fell
 
 ANKOBAR— ANXA ''oMXENA. 
 
 upon A. In 1792, the Icing convoked the Diet at 
 
 . and the conspirators hoped upon that o 
 to ci ry out tliLir purpose; but being thwarted in 
 
 hey had to wait till the L5th ol March, when 
 . i attend a bal 
 A. shut .it and mortally wounded him. □ 
 
 I. and at once coi I ! 
 
 , stoutly denying, however, that he had any 
 accomplices. On the 29th of April, he v, 
 damned to death, publicly flogged for three 
 sive days, and then beheaded. Be went to the 
 scaffold with perfect composure, rejoicing to 
 moment in the success of his i 
 
 AN Kd'UAi:, Hi-- capital of the kingdom of 
 in Abyssinia, is built 8198 feet above tl 
 cm the ascent of the table-land, in lat. 9° 34' .Y. 
 long. 30' 'So' 10. The higher portion of the town is 
 fortified in a very, primitive way. by means of a 
 palisade constructed of stakes, with 
 branch - of b les. The royal palace, unlike the 
 
 of the buildings, which are chiefly of v I. 
 
 is built of stone and mortar, althonj b the roof 
 is thatched. The vegetation around the place is 
 extremely rich, and the air is both cool and pure, so 
 that A. is a very agreeable residence, • I is cox 
 quently favoured with the presen - - 
 
 during a i » >i-ti< >n of the year. Pop. 10,009. 
 
 ANKYLOSIS (Gr. - iullisis, bending or crook- 
 ing; t- :/"'-, stitl- joint), is a term used in surgery to 
 imply a stiffness in any joint. It is usually the result 
 of disease, which, having destroyed the articular 
 cartilages, leaves two liony surfaces opposed to - - 
 other. Tin- reparative powers of nature cause a 
 union to take place by means of granulations bi 
 them. This bond of union may Income osseous, so 
 as to render the joint perfectly rigid, or it may con- 
 tinue membranous, allowing of a certain amount of 
 
 a. Some joints, especially the elbow, at 
 apt to become ankvlosed : and in the knee or hip- 
 joints, this osseous A. is reckoned the most favourable 
 termination to disease, as the limb c in thi D afford 
 a rigid support for the trunk. Joints, still' tlinntuh 
 a membra - ius \.. may be forcibly bent, and the 
 bond of union ruptured, so as to restore mobility, or 
 
 allow of their being placed in a < venienl , 
 
 \. nf the joints between the ribs and the vertebra 1 
 is common in advanced age: and there are some 
 cases on record of univ of all the joinl 
 
 case occurred in 1710 of a child only twenty-three 
 months old with all its joints thus stiffened ; and 
 there arc in various museums specimens of adult 
 bodies in this condition. 
 
 ANN, or AXXAT, in Scotch law, signifies the 
 half year's stipend payable for the vacant half year 
 after the death of a clergyman, to which his family 
 or nearest of kin have right, under an act of the 
 Scottish parliament passi d m tie- year UlT'J. It is a 
 right that dies not belong to the clergyman himself, 
 but to his next of kin absolutely, and therefore can 
 neither be assigned or disposed of by him nor 
 attached for his debts. Compare Annai S3. 
 
 ANNA, St, according to tradition, was the 
 daughter of Mathan, priest of Bethlehem, and the 
 wife of St Joachim. After twenty-one yi ars of bar- 
 renness, she is said to have given birth to the Virgin 
 Mary, the mother of the Saviour. Nothing positive 
 is known regarding her life; her name does not 
 occur in the Scriptures, nor even in the writings of 
 the Fathers during the first three centuries. The 
 lirst who mentions her is St Epiphanius, in the 4th 
 e. ; but towards the 8th, she was all but universally 
 invoked. Her body was believed to have been 
 transferred from Palestine to Constantinople in 711) 
 A. I>. ; and her head to Chartres, by Louis de Blois, 
 about 1210 a.d. The inhabitants of Duren (Duchy 
 272 
 
 of Juliers, Germany] also pretend to have a head of 
 St A. ; and a third is believed to be m possession of 
 the church at CJrsitz, in the diocese of WUrzburg, 
 li numerals other churches claim to be 
 equally favoured. The Roman Catholic Church leu 
 ,al in her honour on tie- 26th of .Inly; the 
 
 Greek, on tie- 9th of December. In Austria, Bavaria, 
 
 ■: r Catholic countries, this festival is - 
 
 great importance, In honour of St. A., a fraternity, 
 .-ailed the Fraternity of st A., was instituted in the 
 13th e. After the Reformation, it. was organised 
 anew by the Jesuits; and in modern tine-, has 
 .me vitality in Bavaria and Catholic 
 Switzerlan L 
 
 ANXA CAKLOVXA. regent of Russia during 
 the minority oi her son Ivan, was tie- daughl 
 
 I ,i .polil, Duke of Mecklcnbui , and of 
 Catharine, sister of the Russian empress, Anna 
 [vanovna (q. v.). In 1739, she married Anthony 
 line, Duke of Brunswick-WolfenbUtteL Her son, 
 
 Ivan, born August 20, 1740, was nominated by the 
 , Anna Ivanovna as her successor. This 
 was done at the instigation of Biron (']■ v.), tin- 
 's favourite, whose object was to secure the 
 i If; and the empress, on her death- 
 bed, actually appointed him regent, but he continued 
 in power only for a short time. She died on October 
 28, 17 I", and' his overthrow took place on the 18th of 
 
 November in tie- same year. A. c. now proclaimed 
 G) id duche i and Regent of Russia; but 
 she shewed no capacity for managing the affairs of a 
 great country, spent her time m indolent enjoy- 
 ments, and resigned herself very much to the 
 ance of one of the ladies of her court, Julia von 
 Mengden. A conspiracy was formed by a party 
 
 is of raising t-i the throne Elizabeth, daughter 
 --I Peter the Great and of Catharine, and tl 
 
 ilished on December 0, 1741. Th- infant 
 Ivan was si nt to the castle of ScUIussclburg, where 
 he was - I awards murdered; Anna and her hus- 
 band were condemned to imprisonment for life, and 
 conveyed to Cholmogory, a town upon an island in 
 the Dwina, Dear the White Sea. Sere she bore two 
 children, and died in childbed in 174S. Eer hus- 
 band remained a prisoner for thirty-nine years, and 
 
 died ill 1780. 
 
 ANNA COMNE'NA, a learned Byzantine prin- 
 cess, author of one of the most valuable works 
 to be found ill the collection of the Byzantine 
 historians, was the daughter of the Kmperor Alexius I. 
 (Coinnenus), ami was born on December 1, ins.','. 
 sin received the best education that Constanti- 
 nople could give, and early displayed a fondness for 
 literary purBuitB ; but was also habituated from her 
 childhood to the intrigues of the court; and during 
 the last illness of her father, she entered into a 
 scheme, which her mother, the Empress Irene, also 
 favoured, to induce him to disinherit his eldest sur- 
 viving son, John, and to bestow the diadem on her. 
 i j in this, she framed a conspiracy against the 
 
 life of her brother (HIS); and when her husband, 
 Xn- i-horus Bryennius, a Byzantine nobleman, either 
 from timidity or virtuous principle, refused to join in 
 ps a mately lamented that she had not been 
 born i man, and upbraided him as having the soul 
 of a woman. Her brother spared hex life, but 
 
 E mushed her by confiscation of her property, which, 
 r, he soon after generously restored. Dis- 
 appointed and ashamed, she withdrew from the 
 court, and sought enjoyment in literature. On the 
 i h.r husband (1137), she retired into a con- 
 vent, where she died in 1148. Her life of her 
 father, entitled Anna Comnena AUxiadot libri 10, 
 is full of professions of careful inquiry and a supreme 
 regard for truth, but ' the perpetual strain of pane-
 
 ANNA IVANOVNA— ANNATI S. 
 
 gyric and apology awakens onr jealousy.' The style 
 is characterised by an elaborate affectation of 
 rhetoric. The best edition is that of Schopen (2 
 vols. Svo, Bonn, 1839). 
 
 ANNA IVANO'VNA, Empress of Russia, was 
 born on the 8th February 1693, and was the second 
 daughter of Ivan, the elder brother of Beter the 
 Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke of 
 Courland, the last of his race, who died in the 
 following year; and she obtained the duchy of 
 Courland for urite, Biron, a Courland' r of 
 
 low birth. The throne of Russia was offered to 
 her by the Supreme Council on the death of Peter 
 II. in 1730, on conditions which greatly limited 
 the power of the monarchy, but which she soon 
 broke. Her elevation to it was very much owing 
 to the intrigues of the Chancellor Ostermann, 
 who had had the charge of her education, but who 
 disappointed in finding her not grateful and 
 tractable, as he expected. For three years, how- 
 ever, her rule was mild, humane, and equitable. 
 The army was reformed, greater liberty was allowed 
 to the landed gentry, government debts were paid 
 up, and the poll-tax for the serfs lessened ; but her 
 paramour, Biron, having determined to govern the 
 i as well as the empress, a sudden and deplor- 
 able change ensued. This man, a blood-thirsty and 
 avaricious wretch, established something like a 
 reign of terror through the land, lie is said to have 
 banished not less than 20,000 persons to Siberia; 
 numbers were knouted, had their tongues cut out, or 
 were broken alive on the wheel. Eleven thousand 
 perished in tins way. Prince Basil Dolgoruki, and 
 others of his family, Buffered the ignominy of the 
 scaffold. At length the health of the queen gave 
 way. She died on October 28, 1740, and left the 
 throne to her grand nephew, Ivan, with Biron as 
 regent. See El SSIA and Biron. 
 
 ANNALS. These were at lirst books which 
 ned a record, in chronological order, of the 
 principal events occurring in one or more years. The 
 name is derived from the oldest historical docu- 
 ments of the Romans, the Annates Pontificum, or 
 Annul/:* irasimi, the duty of drawing up which 
 devolved upon the Pontifex Maximum; but these 
 were all destroyed by tin- < Sauls at the sack of Rome, 
 some hundreds of years before the time of Christ 
 After the second Punic War, A. similar to the 
 former ones were composed, not, however, by the 
 priests, but by educated members of the Roman 
 laity, such as 1'abius l'ietor, Calpumius Piso, &c. 
 At a still later period, the term was applied to any 
 historical work that followed the eider of time in 
 its narrations, separating them off into single years 
 — as, for instance, the Annals of TacitU3. 
 
 ANNAMABOK', a small seaport town, protected 
 by a strong British fort, on the Gold Coast of Africa, 
 in lat. 5° 5' N., long. 1" 5' W., 10 miles east of Cape 
 Coast Castle. In 1807, the inhabitants took part 
 
 with the Fantees against the Ashantecs, in conse- 
 quence of which the town was attacked by an 
 overwhelming force of the latter, and most of the 
 inhabitants W' re slain. There is little trade in any- 
 thin,' lint gold. The present population is between 
 4000 and J000. 
 
 ANNAN, a seaport, and royal and parliamentary 
 burgh, in the county of Dumfra s, an the river of the 
 same name, near its entrance into the Solway Firth. 
 It is neat and well built, and has some cotton 
 and leather manufactures, and a small coasting- 
 trade. The river, which affords excellent salmon- 
 lishing, is spanned by a bridge of three 
 is navigable to within half a mile of the town for 
 vessels of 300 tons. There is regular communica- 
 tion by steamers with Liverpool and Whitehaven, 
 IS 
 
 and the Clasgow, Dumfries, and Carlisle Railway 
 connects the town with Edinburgh, (Slasgow, and 
 Carlisle. The burgh unites with Dumfries, Ac., in 
 returning one member to parliament Pop. in 1851, 
 4658. A. was the birthplace of the blind pe>et Dr 
 Blacklock, and the great preacher Edward Irving. 
 
 ANNANDALE. See Di rBB. 
 
 ANNA'POLIS, a seaport of Nova Scotia, in 
 
 lat. 44° 40' N., and long. 65° :;7 \V. It stands on a 
 
 of the same name that runs into the Bay of 
 
 Fundy. Its harbour is ezcelli b somewhat 
 
 It of access. A. is thi old I I 
 ment to the north of the Gulf of Mexico, 1 
 been established, in 1604, by the French as the 
 capital of their province of Acadia, under the name 
 of Port Koyal. Acadia having been conquered by 
 the English in 171<l, and ceded by the French in 
 17lo, Port Royal changed it s name in honour of 
 Queen Anne, continuing to be the seat of govern- 
 ment, till, in 17oO, it was superseded by the newly 
 founded city of Halifax on the outside coast of the 
 peninsula — the new capital, with its better position 
 and superior haven, having diverted most of the 
 trade of the place. Since then. A. has rathi r di cayed 
 than otherwise ; and it would have done so more 
 I ly, had not its river been navigable for boats 
 during nearly the whole of its com e oi 70 miles. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, a seaport of Maryland, U.S., in 
 lat. 38° 5S. N., and long. 76° 20 U .. standing on the 
 right bank of the Severn, about two miles from its 
 entrance into I Bay. By the census of 
 
 [850, after A. had been the seat of government for 
 151 years, it contained only 3011 inhabitants, while, 
 by the same census, Baltimore, the comn 
 capital, only 121 years old in all, nu .'.1,054. 
 
 A. contains a naval academy, established and sup- 
 ported by the United States. It has Irk. v. 
 college, which, though erected by the Roman 
 Catholics immediately after the Wa 1 ' ! i.lence, 
 
 is at present directed and maintained by Proti 
 
 ANN ARBOR, a city of Michigan, next in rank 
 and importance to Detroit, the commercial capital 
 of the state. In 1850, its population was 4868. A. 
 A. stands on the river Huron, by means of which 
 it communicates with Lake Erie; and it is about 
 40 miles to the west of Detroit, on the Michigan 
 Central Railway, which, beyond this pis 
 connected by another line with Chicago, in Illinois. 
 Besides these advantages, A. A. is the et ctre of a 
 fertile district of country, whit- its river sup] 
 abundance of water-power. It has already a liber- 
 ally endowed university, with more than 
 Btudents; and it also contains manufactories of 
 wool, iron, and Hour. 
 
 A'NNATKS. or FIRST-FRUITS, in I 
 astical law of En lie value of 
 
 spiritual living for a whole year (hence the name 
 from the Latin word annus, a year), which the 
 Pope, claiming the disposition of every spiritual 
 le within Christendom, reserved out oi every 
 living. 'This impost was at first only levied from 
 persons appointed to b but it was after- 
 
 wards extended to the inferior clergy. 'I 
 
 \. was call ording to a rate made 
 
 under the direction of Pi I v. i •_•;..: a. d.), 
 
 but which was afterwards increased by Pope 
 Nicholas III. (1292 4.D.). The valuation of Pope 
 las is still preserved in the Exchequer. This 
 papal exacti on « bed by the act 25 
 
 Henry \ 111. C. 20, and by an BCl p ': in the 
 
 following year of tie - 1 26 Henry Vlll. 
 
 3 . the right to A. or First 1 - annexed to 
 
 the ere various statutes subsequently 
 
 ; on this subject have all been consolidated by 
 an act (the 1 Vict. c. 20), regulating the collection
 
 ANNATTO— ANNEALING. 
 
 of the moneys so levied. See First Fruits, Queen 
 Anne's BoTOTY. 
 
 ANNATTO. See Arnotto. 
 
 AXNE OF AUSTRIA, daughter of Philip II. of 
 Spain, was born in 1602, and in 1G15 became the 
 wife of Louis XIII. of France. The marriage was 
 so far from being a happy one, that the ro\ 
 lived for 23 years in a state of virtual separation— a 
 result due chiefly to the influence of Cardinal 
 elieu, whose fixed determination t<i bumble the 
 House of Austria, led him to spare DO mi N 
 alienating the affection of Louis from his on 
 representing her as ever involved in the mo I 
 mus conspiracies against his authority. The 
 naturally grave and phlegmatic disposition of the 
 queen was not calculated to counteract the hostile 
 influence of the great minister. On the death of 
 the king in 1643, A. became queen-regent, and 
 evinced ner discernment by choosing as her minister 
 Cardinal Mazarin, by whoso able management the 
 young lung (Louis XIV.) came, on attaining his 
 majority, into possession of athronc firmlyestal 
 on the ruins of contending parties. The character of 
 A. had much influence in moulding that of her son. 
 She displayed the same cold and haughty tempi r, 
 combined with the power to charm by a com! 
 ing grace, the same love of pomp and power, and 
 the same skill in the choice of able instruments, thus 
 compensating for the want of genuine personal great- 
 ness. She died in 1666. Two curious personal peculi- 
 arities of this queen are mentioned by biographers — 
 her antipathy to roses, so strong that while passion- 
 ately fond of flowers and perfumes, she could not 
 endure even the picture of a rose ; and the extra- 
 ordinary delicacy of her skin, which made Mazarin 
 remark, that ' if her majesty were condemned to the 
 interna I her hell would bo to sleep in brown 
 
 hollands.' 
 
 ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and 
 the last British sovereign of the House of Stuart, 
 was born at Twickenham, near London, on 6th 
 February 1664. She was the second daughter of 
 James II. of England, and VII. of Scotland (who at 
 i rlh was Duke of York), by his lirst 
 wife, Anne Hyde, the daughter of the famous 
 ' adon. When she was about seven years of 
 
 age, her mother died; and her father soon after 
 professed himself a member of the Church of Home ; 
 but he permitted his daughters to be educated in 
 the principles of the Church of England, to which 
 A. always retained an ardent if not a very enlight-. 
 ened attachment — seldom manifesting, in the whole 
 course of her life, so much resolution and ind 
 ence of mind, as in her resistance to the attempts of 
 her father, after his accession to the throne, to 
 induce her to join the Church of Rome, accom | 
 as these were, with the offer that she should be 
 preferred in the succession to her sister Mary. To 
 advance his own popularity, her father gave her 
 in marriage, in 1GS4, to Prince George of Denmark, 
 brother of Christian V., an indolent and good-natured 
 man, who concerned himself little about public 
 affairs, and was endowed with no capacity for taking 
 part in them. A's own weakness of character and 
 that of her husband gave opportunity to Lady 
 Churchill, afterwards Duchess of Marlborough, her 
 early playfellow, to acquire an influence over her, 
 which, during many years, was almost supreme and 
 absolute. During the reign of her father, A. lived in 
 retirement, taking no part in politics. On the 
 landing of the Prince of Orange, she seems at 
 have hesitated, and even to have been inclined to 
 adhere to the cause of her father, wdioso favourite 
 daughter she was ; but Lord Churchill had made up 
 his mind to an opposite course, and his wife induced 
 
 the princess to adopt it. She consented to the act 
 by which the throne was secured to the Prince of 
 Orange in the event of his surviving her 
 Mary ; but quarrelled with her sister about qui 
 of etiquette, and was afterwards drawn into im I 
 
 in which the Churchills were engaged, for the 
 
 ition of her father, or to secure the suooi 
 of the throne to his son. She even I into a 
 
 Bearet correspondence with her father. She was 
 herself childless when, on the death of William 
 III., on 8th March 1702, she succeeded to the 
 tin-one. She bore, indeed, seventeen chddren; but 
 only one, the Duke of Gloucester, survived in 
 and he died in 1700, at the age of 11. The influence 
 of Marlborough and his wife was most powerfully 
 felt in all public affairs during the greater part of 
 
 ign. The strife of parties was extremely 
 violent, and political complications were increased 
 by the queen's anxiety to secure the succession for 
 her brother. In so far as she had any political 
 principles, they were opposed to that constitutional 
 liberty of which her own occupancy of the throne 
 was a sort of symbol, and favourable to absolute 
 government and the assertion of royal prerogative 
 according to the traditions of her family, i 
 principles and her family attachment, tended to 
 alienate her from the Marlboroughs, whose policy, 
 from the time of her accession, had become adverse to 
 Jacobitism, and who now, along with Godolphin, 
 were at the head of the Whig party. The duchess 
 also offended the queen by presuming too boldly and 
 haughtily upon the power which she had so long 
 possessed. A. found a new favourite in Mrs Masham, 
 a relation of the duchess, whom she .herself had 
 introduced into the royal household. To Mrs 
 Masham's influence the change of government in 
 1710 was in a great measure owing, when the 
 V. ! , were cast out, aud tho Tories came into 
 office, Harley (afterwards Earl of Oxford) and 
 St John (Lord Bolingbroke) becoming the lea 
 of the ministry. But, although concurring more or 
 less in the queen's design to secure the succession 
 of the throne to her brother, the new ministei 
 quarrels among themselves which prevented its 
 successful prosecution, and it oozed out sufficiently 
 to alarm the nation, and to alienate many of their 
 political supporters. A dispute between Oxford and 
 Mrs Masham, carried on for hours in the queen's 
 presence, and which terminated in hi r demanding 
 his instant resignation, seems to have brought on 
 the attack of apoplexy of which she died, 1st 
 August 1714. The Elector of Hanover succeeded 
 her as George I. — The public events of her reign 
 belong to the history of Britain ; but the union of 
 
 nd and Scotland, in 17o7. may be mentioned 
 in its personal relation to herself, as she was the 
 last sovereign who reigned over these as separate 
 kingdoms, and the first sovereign styled of Great 
 Britain. — Queen A. was of middle size, and comely, 
 
 i not beautiful. She was virtuous, conscien- 
 tious, and affectionate, more worthy of esteem as a 
 woman than of admiration as a queen. Her r i i is 
 often mentioned as a period rendered illustrious by 
 some of the greatest names, both in literatui 
 science, which her country has ever produced ; 
 but literature and science owed little to her active 
 encouragement. 
 
 ANNEALING is the process of tempering 
 resorted to in the manufacture of glass and the 
 preparation of several of the metals, whereby these 
 substances acquire a hardness combined with 
 tenacity which renders them much stronger, and 
 consequently more durable. In the making of 
 glass vessels by the glass-blower, they are of course 
 quickly reduced in temperature whdst the fused 
 glass is being modelled into the desired shape.
 
 ANNELIDA— ANNUAL. 
 
 The atoms of the glas3 thus rapidly compelled 
 to assume a position, do not seem to be properly 
 and firmly arranged together, and the vessel is 
 very liable to be broken, cither by a slight but 
 Bmart blow, or a sudden increase or decrease in 
 temperature. This brittleness is very observable 
 in the lacrynuz vitreat, or glass tears, known as 
 Prince Rupert's Drops, obtained by allowing molten 
 glass to fall into water, when the glass forms pear- 
 shaped drops, which are so brittle, that if they be 
 scratched with a file or the end be broken off, the 
 whole bursts asunder and falls down into a fine 
 powder of glass. The same brittleness is exhibited 
 in Bologna jars, or phials, which are small and very 
 thick in the glass; and yet, if a minute angular 
 fragment of any hard substance be dropped into the 
 jar, the latter llies to pieces. 
 
 In the A of glass vessels, they are arranged in 
 iron trays, and placed in a long oven, where they 
 are gradually raised in temperature to near their 
 fusing-pomt, by the trays being drawn along to the 
 hottest part of the oven ; and thereafter, the trays, 
 with their contents, are very slowly drawn into a 
 cooler and cooler part, till they become cold. The 
 A. operation generally take3 twelve hours for small 
 articles such as wine-glasses ; but days, and even 
 a week or two, are required to anneal completely 
 large vessels. Many articles of glass, such as tubes for 
 steam-gauges, lamp-glasse3, &c.,are annealed by being 
 immersed in cold water, which is very gradually 
 raised to its boiling-point, and thereafter cooled. 
 
 The metals are often subjected to the process of 
 A. When medals are repeatedly struck by the 
 die-stamper, the gold or other metal, by the concus- 
 sion, becomes brittle, and requires to be now and 
 again heated and annealed. In wire-drawing, also, 
 the metal becomes so hard and brittle, that it 
 requires A. to prevent its breaking into short 
 lengths. Boiler-plates, which have been drawn nut 
 by rolling, require to be annealed before they are 
 riveted together. The brasier, in hammering out 
 copper and brass vessels, must stop now and again, 
 and anneal the metal. Articles of tin, lead, and 
 zinc can be annealed in boiling water. The temper- 
 i steel is just a process of A. The steel is placed 
 
 in an oil-bath, or surrounded by a metallic •mixture 
 which has a low fusing-point ; and according to the 
 rature to which it is subjected, a steel with 
 various degrees of softness and strength is obtained. 
 Parke's table of metallic mixtures capable of being 
 i the tempering or A. of instruments made 
 . from steel, is as follow? : 
 
 Allot. 
 
 
 t 
 Lead. 
 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 T 
 point ' F 
 
 Lancets, 
 
 7 parts 
 
 4 
 
 parts 
 
 420° 
 
 Razors, 
 
 8 
 
 „ 
 
 4 
 
 ., 
 
 442 
 
 Penknives, 
 
 8* 
 
 „ 
 
 4 
 
 „ 
 
 450 
 
 , Urge, 
 
 10 
 
 ,, 
 
 4 
 
 , 
 
 470 
 
 Scissors, shears, 
 
 14 
 
 „ 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 490 
 
 . plane irons, 
 
 19 
 
 „ 
 
 4 
 
 ■ 
 
 590 
 
 Table-knives, 
 
 30 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 „ 
 
 630 
 
 Watch-springs, swords 
 
 48 
 
 „ 
 
 4 
 
 „ 
 
 650 
 
 springs, augers, 
 
 100 
 
 ■ 
 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 558 
 
 The theory of A. is very imperfectly understood. 
 A certain re-arrangement of the atoms of the glass 
 or metal no doubt takes place, and an absorption of 
 heat occurs. It U possible that as the crystalline 
 structure is indicative of brittleness, and the fibrous 
 texture characteristic of strength, that the ] 
 of glass or metal from a brittle to a non-brittle 
 material may be due to the development of a fibrous 
 structure, where a crystalline one wa3 originally 
 present 
 
 ANNELIDA, or ANNELIDES (from Lat annu- 
 lus, a ring), a small class of Articulated Animals, 
 mostly included by Linnajus in his class Vermes. They 
 have a more or less elongated body, which is always 
 composed of numerous rings. The first of these 
 rings assumes, in most of them, the characters of a 
 head, but in some there is no proi>cr head. They 
 have no articulated limbs, but most of them are 
 
 Erovided with bristles and hairs, often in numerous 
 undies, which are of use to them in locomotion; 
 some, which want these, are furnished with suckers 
 at the extremities, and employ them for this purpose ; 
 some remain fixed in one place. Their bodies arc 
 always soft, and without external or internal skele- 
 ton ; but some of them form for themselves a calcare- 
 ous covering by exudation, others form coverings 
 partly by exudation and partly I i.ition. 
 
 Their blood is generally red, but not from red 
 corpuscles, as in the vertebrate animals; sometimes 
 it is greenish or yellowish. Their nervous system is 
 simple. Many of them have eyes, and many have 
 tentacula. Most of them live in water, and of these 
 the greater part inhabit the sea. Those which live in 
 water breathe by gills, which are variously formed and 
 placed ; some which are terrestrial, as earthworms, 
 have, instead of gills, numerous amnll respiratory 
 sacs. They are all hermaphrodite; most of them, 
 however, requiring mutual fecundation, and most of 
 them are oviparous. They feed in general upon 
 other animals, and some of them live by sucking 
 blood. They are now divided into four orders : 1. 
 Dorsibranchiata, having gill-tufts disposed regularly 
 along the body, and composed of animals of com- 
 
 Sandwonn (Artnicola piscalorum). 
 
 paratdvely active habits; C. Tubicola, having gill- 
 tufts near the head, and provided with shelly or 
 other coverings ; 3. Terrieolo?, destitute of all 
 external app xcept minute bristles, and 
 
 breathing by respiratory sacs ; 4. Bwtoria, destitute 
 even of bristles, and provided with suckers at the 
 extremities. Of the first order, the Sea-worni 
 centipedes, and Sea-mouse, are examples ; of the 
 second, the Serpula, so often an object of interest in 
 nrium ; of the third, the Earthworm ; and of 
 the fourth, the Leech. 
 
 ANNUAL, in B nn employed to denote 
 
 that the duration of the life of a plant is limited to 
 year ; within which the germination of the 
 B led, all the functions of vegetation, the ripening of 
 new seed, and the death of the plant, are included. 
 The whole duration of life in the plants thus desig- 
 nated is indeed generally much less than a year, 
 and in temp >ld climates, falls within the 
 
 " riod of the summer months. The}-, as well as 
 
 nerally called biennial, produce flowers 
 
 and fruit only once. Some species are generally A., 
 
 hers generally biennial; but whether an indivi- 
 
 : nt a A. 01 biennial, often depends upon the 
 accidental circumstance of the season at which the 
 ad may therefore be artificially 
 d etermin ed by the time of sowing. Peculiar circum- 
 stances also sometimes convert A. into biennial, or 
 
 perennial plants; and those which are mere 
 annuals in one climate, are perennial, or even shrubby, 
 in another, of which the Castor-oil plant affords a 
 notable example. Most kinds of corn are the pro- 
 duce of A. grasses ; some of which, however, as 
 wheat, in certain circumstances, prove of longi r 
 duration. The annuals cultivated in our t' 
 gardens are very numerous ; and many 6pccies, both
 
 ANNUALS— ANNUAL REGISTER. 
 
 native and foreign, are among our most beautiful 
 Bowers. 
 
 A'N N U ALS, the name given to a class of p! 
 and graceful publications, which for some years 
 enjoyed an extraordinary amount of public favour, 
 I d tor Christmas, New-year, and Birthday 
 nis, iii imitation of the Qift-booka so | 
 » the Germans. They were illustral 
 tely engraved prints, from paintings by artists 
 of the highest talent, and con I poetry 
 
 by most of the best writers of the day. 'I' 
 of them, the Forget-me-not, edited by Fn 
 Shobcrl, was begun in London in 1822. Th 
 and even the tit) pted from I 
 
 the Messrs Ackermann, the London pub! hers. The 
 following year, two others made t] 
 FViendship'i ublished by Smith and Elder, 
 
 which had for successive editors, Mr T. K. B 
 Mr Pot e, Mr Thomas Pringle, Mr W. II. Ain 
 and Mr Leitch Ritchie ; and the ' itaining 
 
 a series of elegant poems on the Month; by the B rv, 
 DrCroly. All tliree, in addition to their liter. 
 pictorial contents, had at first the blank papi t for 
 memoranda, cash accounl ■. &c, which were custom- 
 ary in the Gift Pocket-books of previous times. Tli 
 Literary Souva (r, commenced in ] sj i by Mr .Marie 
 A. Watts, was the lirst to discard these, and to 
 exhibit avast improvement on this class of embel- 
 lished works. I i bli hers 
 vied with each other in their efforts to render their 
 respec: ling year, more and more 
 attractive. The Literary Souvenir was followed by 
 the Amulet, started by Mr S. < '. Ball, and edited by 
 his wife; the II. !; , ■/., a provincial annual; 
 and th ■ /. ' . the latter i din 1 v_!7 by 
 
 Mr Charles Heath, an eminent engraver, I p to 
 
 this time, the price of all the A. w.i ; L2& i ach : the 
 .'■-, however, was published at a guinea. Its 
 first editor was Mr YV. II. Ainsworth. The following 
 year, the editorship was offered to .Sir Walter Scott, 
 with a salary of £800, and payment besides for his 
 contributions to its pages, but was declined by him. 
 It was then placed under the charge of Mr F. M. 
 Ueyuolds, who - untinucd to I it formally 
 
 years. The Keepsake always maintained a high 
 aristocratic character, the contributors preferred 
 being those wdio coidd boast a title. In 1S40, it 
 came out under the editorship of Lady Emmeline 
 Stuart Wortley. It was afterwards edited by the 
 Countess of Blessington. So popular did toe A. 
 become, that in ls'j:i no fewer than seventeen were 
 published. In 1S40, the number had dwindled to 
 nine. The Booh eg one of the b 
 
 the series, was begun in 1 is.;:: by Mr Charl. Hi :ih. 
 The first volume was written by Miss Landon 
 (I.. E. L.), the engravings being principally after 
 drawings by Frank Stone. The volume for 1834 
 was placed under the editorship of the Countess of 
 Blessing: in. who conducted it to the close of her 
 life. Mr Heath had also the Picturesque A 
 and the Children of tlf Nobility — the latter com- 
 menced in 1838. The Jar. nil, Album, an annual for 
 children, was published by the Messrs Acker] 
 Scientific A. also made their appearance, and the 
 musical world had its Musical Bijou. I 
 Hood started the Comic Annual ; and among 
 popular publications of the class were I 
 Draitnng-room Scrap-book, edited at lirst by Miss 
 in, afterwards by Mis Hewitt, and latt 
 B inourable Mrs Norton; and 
 Scrap-book, edited by Mrs Ellis; the Orii ntdlAi 
 •■ Historical Annual, and the (lift and 
 American productions. At lirst, the A. were all 
 bound up in tinted paper, and enclosed in a i 
 but competition produced a great improvement 
 in their external appearance, as well as in their 
 
 attractions. Paper gave place to silk ; then 
 
 followed morocco bindings, and afterwards velvet. 
 
 ; urns of money expended on the everal 
 
 departments were enormous. Mr Heath's outlay 
 
 for the literary portion alone of the second volume 
 of the l\' i less than 
 
 i If this sum, Sir Wall ' ived 
 
 iiitmg in it his juvenile drama 
 of the Bousi of Asp fa Mirror, 
 
 and two other little tales. To main 
 the illustrations formed almost their sole em- 
 ployment. Sums varying from 20 to 150 guineas 
 : to artists for the loan of pictures for 
 engravings, of the size of I inches by ."; and engrai 
 
 '1 150 guinea i tor the prodi 
 of one plate. For se\ I 
 
 per annum was expended on t ion of 
 
 the A., and 150,000 copies of them were 
 sold. The .■■'■in' -ii"' alone was at 
 
 me 20,000 copies. In their most flourishing 
 
 . a calculation of their expenses and prnlit.i 
 
 i ule, which may be here quoted For 150,0 
 volumes, including the guini which there 
 
 always two or three, the public paid 
 £90,000, thus distributed; & ■ ■ and • 
 '6000; painters. £3 ; I D 12,000; cop- 
 
 perplate printer.-, £4000; pi 10 
 
 makers, £5500; binders, £9000; silk manufacturers 
 a. el Lather-sellers, £4000; advertising, Ice, £2000; 
 incidental expenses, £1000; publishers' profits, 
 £10,000; retail booksellers' profits, £30,000 Total, 
 £90,000. 
 
 Alter 1S40, the demand for tb ! \. began to 
 decline. At the best, there had been a sickly senti- 
 mentalism in the bulk of their articles ; and at all 
 events, this class of works had been mainly addn I 
 to the refined and affluent. Letter tastes in litera- 
 ture now began to prevail, and there was a i 
 that A. had had their day. Deserted by public 
 favour, the character both of their engravings and 
 their literary contents became greatly deteriorated, 
 and they cased to have any attraction, eitli 
 literary productions or works of art. Publish' 
 longer found them safe speculations, and gradually 
 discontinued them. They dropped out, one by one, 
 like spcn,t stars, from the literary it. The 
 
 >■ had been discontinued in 1S34, 
 after the publication of ten volumes. The I' 
 me-not, the first in the field, saw its 22d year. The 
 Book of Biauli) and the Keepsake were the last of 
 ■e. The latter, on the death of the Countess 
 ington, was placed under the editorship of 
 her niece, Miss Power. The Keepsake of lS.jli, the 
 
 , tags in which were under the superinteni 
 of Mr F. Heath, was the only relic of the past; and 
 in that year it ceased to exist. 
 
 ANNUAL REGISTER. The first volume of 
 the useful work which bears this name appeared in 
 1759. Various publications of a similar character 
 had previously existed, such as Beyer's /'■■ 
 
 of Europe, which was published in monthly 
 
 numbers and yearly volumes from 1711 to 1739; 
 
 and the Historical Register, a quarterly publication, 
 
 in 1710, and concluded in 1738. The A. /■*. 
 
 & from these in being published once a year, 
 in containing a more full and able historical narra- 
 tive, and in the addition of a literary and miscel- 
 laneous department, including notices of n «• boohs. 
 The undertaking was projected by Robert I 1 
 the bookseller, assisted by Edmund Burke, who 
 some years wrote the historical narrativi I 
 
 il to some extent in the preparation of the 
 Register during most of the subsequent part of bis 
 life. Indexes to the work have been published at 
 various periods, and the publication still go 
 regularly. A rival work, entitled Tlie New A. /.'.,
 
 ANNUITY. 
 
 was started in 1781 by Dr Kippis. It was edited 
 after his death by Dr Slorgan, and came to a close 
 in 1S25. The Edinburgh A. l:. was commenced 
 in 1808, and terminated in 1827. The histo- 
 rical narrative was for some years written by sir 
 Walter Scott, and afterwards, for a considerable 
 time, by Southey. A similar work was commenced 
 at Paris in 1818 under the title at Atmuam Hi 
 
 and continued till 1849. The earlier volumes 
 
 compiled with much:, care and ability, but 
 latterly the work fell off very greatly. Its pi 
 now supplied by the At des 1>< ux Mt 
 
 publication connected with the well-known review 
 of that name, and compiled with high ability. The 
 American A. J!, is published at New York. 
 
 ANNUITY, from the Latin annus, a year, is a 
 sum of money paid annually. The term, in its full 
 meaning, expresses an obligation on one party to pay, 
 and a right in another to receive the amount. The 
 
 nt kinds of annuities that niay exist are as 
 the conditions and fancies of those con- 
 cerned in them ; and it is impossible to define them 
 all. An A. may be for the life of any person, how- 
 ever long that may be, becoming extinguished only 
 by his death. It may be perpetual, so that as each 
 enjoyer of it dies, his heirs may succeed to it. It 
 may be on the life of the survivor of any number of 
 persons — for instance, a father may leave to his five 
 daughters an A. of £500 a year from his estate, to be 
 ed by the latest survivor, so that while the five 
 are alive, they have £100 each ; after the first 
 among them, the lapsed share is distributed among 
 the survivors, giving them £ 125 each ; and so on, the 
 last survivor enjoying the whole £500. On the other 
 hand, each might have a separate A. terminating at 
 her death ; and again, instead of either of these 
 simple arrangements, there might be, and often is, a 
 more complex adjustment, giving the survivors on 
 each death a certain proportion only of the deceased's 
 A. An A. may begin immediately, and stop on a 
 contingency, such as the death of a person to whom 
 the annuitant is heir. It may be 'deferred,' so as 
 to begin to be payable only after the lapse of so 
 many years; and then it may either be payable 
 absolutely in perpetuity, or for a given number of 
 years, or it may be payable to an annuitant oidy 
 for the remaining years of his life, if he survive 
 tie- contingency. 
 
 It will thus be seen that there is infinite variety 
 in the nature of annuities, and consequently, in the 
 calculations regarding them. The fixed elements of 
 Buch calculations, independently of this variety, are 
 iii themselves double, being vital statistics, and the 
 pmlit or interest of money. As to the former, they 
 can only apply, of course, to the adjustment of annui- 
 ties "ii a Large scale. If a person should sell a 
 A.— that is to say, engage for a sum 4 iwn 
 to pay a certain person an A. for life — no study of 
 vital statistics could make his bargain other than a 
 chance ; and though he went on the most approved 
 
 . it might occur either that the annuitant dies 
 immediately, having the whole purchase- money as 
 bis profit, or that the annuitant lives to extreme 
 old age, and renders him a great loser by tl 
 gain. But on a large, and especially on a n 
 scale, (lie rale of mortality and the value of life 
 may be so nicely rendered in statistics, that a 
 market may be opened for the purchase and sole 
 of annuities at their exact value— that is to say. : i 
 such a rate that the sum paid hi from time to time 
 
 rsons purchasing annuities, shall just 
 to pay each annuitant's annual i 
 
 tics, however, can only be obtain > A 
 very accurate and long-continued registral 
 births, deaths, and marriages I ,n:i; audit 
 
 is known that the government having adjusted the 
 
 price of annuities by the celebrated Northampton 
 [q. v.) '1'alilej, mule irgain with their 
 
 annuitants as a body, and, without being conscious 
 of it until afterwards, sacrificed a considerable 
 amount of public money. 
 
 The second element, besi . in the 
 
 calculation of annuities, is the profit or 
 money. If this did not require t<> be conaii 
 
 an A. of '- ! a year for ten yean would just cost £10. 
 But while paying the A., the person who has engaged 
 for it is drawing the interest oi the mom y. If I 
 an A. of £1 a year for ten years for £10, he 
 be drawing the interest of £10 for the first year, £'J 
 for the second, and so on ; and the annuitant's 
 bargain would be to a like extent disadvantageous. 
 As the interest of money may be various, .-> may 
 lement of the calculation of an A.; and to 
 calculate it with reference to future indefinite varia- 
 tions, is of course impossible. It will be a 
 once that when the variety of kinds of A. have 
 adjusted to different rates of profit, an immense 
 field is opened for calculation. Jt is. in fact. 
 vince of algebraic science in which several men have 
 achieved reputations. 
 
 The interest, as it is termed, of the national debt 
 is virtually a multitude of perpetual annuities. In 
 a country where there is so much superabundant 
 wealth, there is so vast an amount of capital for 
 which people only want interest, that although the 
 lenders of the money are not repaid by the govern- 
 ment, yet when any one has invested m the funds, 
 if i he wants his money back, he is sure to find a 
 person to take his place at something near to the 
 price paid by him. This woidd not lie the case wi re 
 the quantity of these annuities in the market dis- 
 proportioned to the number desiring to invest in 
 them, and hence it is that when there is depn 
 of trade, and money wanted to me is. the 
 
 funds fall. The government have the largest held 
 of operation, and therefore it is natural to infer that 
 then- annuities are more closely adjusted to their 
 actual value than those of insurance companii 
 other parties dealing in annuities can be. It may 
 be mentioned, however, that, for the encouragement 
 of the working classes to save and provide for old 
 age and contingencies, government, through the 
 savings' banks, grants small annuities on terms 
 advantageous to the purchasers — that is, at less 
 than then- market value (see SAVINGS' B » 
 
 Many complicated sets of tables have been pre- 
 pared to facilitate the calculation of annuities. The 
 latest known to us are the Commu 
 
 ■ 
 on On- Carlisle Mortality «' ::. 34, -!. 5 
 
 by David Chisholm, 2 vols., royal 8vo,_1858. 
 The calculations are brought out in decimals. 
 Taking the simp] tables namely, those 
 
 containing the value of an A. of tl. payable at the 
 end of the first year, and thereafter annually during 
 life — we find the following results, commut 
 decimals into fractional money throuj u -V 
 holm's decimal tables : 
 
 Value or Amnnrr of £1. 
 
 \ ■. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 J. 
 
 5 
 
 16 11 
 
 '.". 
 
 10 
 
 Hi 13 
 
 •!' 
 
 15 
 
 16 4 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 15 16 
 
 
 'Jo 
 
 15 G 
 
 1 
 
 3 ' 
 
 n it 
 
 5 
 
 ;: . 
 
 14 2 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 13 7 
 
 
 
 £ .i. d. 
 
 45 
 
 12 12 11' 
 
 
 11 11 
 
 55 
 
 11) 7 11'. 
 
 60 
 
 8 1 
 
 05 
 
 7 17 i 
 
 70 
 
 ti C» 8 1 
 
 75 
 
 4 19 '.'' 
 
 su 
 
 4 2 1'. 
 
 In political • :onomy, annuities come within the 
 I rather to consumption
 
 ANNUITY— ANNUNGTADA. 
 
 than to accumulation or reproduction. As the 
 means of attaining a legitimate object, the estab- 
 lishment of an A. may be an ndvantago to the 
 community in benefiting some individual m 
 of it For instance, a man is naturally extrava- 
 gant — ho would spend his heritage immediately, 
 
 i ime to want, if it were paid tu him in i 
 It is therefore vested in an A. ; the man is kept in 
 comfort, and society is not burdened with a needy 
 member. Women are apt to mismanage by false 
 investments or otherwise any capital sums left 
 at their disposal, and therefore it is often advan- 
 tageous to give them an equivalent in an A. In 
 serving, however, these its legitimate obji 
 will be seen that the money so spent is not in 
 its character reproductive. People do save i 
 out of annuities, but, as a general rule, the object 
 and effect of annuities are in the direction of con- 
 sumption, as contrasted with accumulation. This 
 is often overlooked in settlements, especially by 
 men who have themselves been accumulators. The 
 consumptive effect of an A. will depend much on its 
 coming out of fixed or fluctuating property. Take, 
 as an instance of the former, a landed estate. If 
 the clear rent be paid on annuities, the estate ■will 
 not be improved, and it will be stagnant in the pro- 
 portion so paid. If, out of a thousand a year, nine 
 hundred be thus paid, the owner, out of his remainder 
 of a hundred, is not likely to accumulate sufficient 
 capital to improve the estate and double its value. 
 But fluctuating property may not only be rendered 
 stagnant, but may be destroyed by the burden of 
 injudicious annuities. This is frequently exemplified 
 in disposing of the profits of a business. Different 
 members of a family are portioned off upon it, as if 
 it were a fixed permanent estate ; and consequently, 
 there is not a sufficient balance left to induce any 
 one to give his time and energies to the management 
 of the business. 
 
 ANNU'ITY, in the law of England, is the right 
 to the yearly payment of a certain sum of money, 
 which is charged upon the person or personal estate 
 of the individual bound to pay it. If it is charged 
 upon real estate, the burden is called a rent, or 
 rent-charge, and not an A. An A. may be created 
 for a term of years, or for the life or lives of any 
 persons named, or in perpetuity; and in the last 
 case the A. is reckoned among incorporeal here- 
 ditaments ; because, although the security is personal 
 only, yet the A. may descend in the same manner as 
 real estate.' By the 53 Geo. III. c. 141, repealing 
 the 17 Geo. III. c. 26, and itself amended by 
 3 Geo. IV. c. 92, and 7 Geo. IV. c. 75, it is directed, 
 that upon the sale of A. or rent-charge, a memorial 
 of the date and nature of the security, the names of 
 the parties and witnesses, the consideration money, 
 and the manner in which it was paid, and the 
 amount of such A. or rent-charge, shall, within thirty 
 days after its execution, be enrolled in the Court of 
 Chancery, otherwise the security shall be null and 
 void. It is therefore the duty of the grantee of such 
 A. to enrol a memorial of it, or a statement of its 
 particulars, in order to make it available as a security 
 over the property charged. The above statutes do 
 not extend to Scotland or Ireland, nor to any A. or 
 rent-charge given by will, or by marriage settlement, 
 or for the advancement of a child, nor to any A. or 
 rent-charge secured upon freehold, copyhold, or 
 customary lands in Great Britain or Ireland, or in 
 Her Majesty's possessions beyond the seas, or by 
 actual transfer of stock in the public funds, nor to 
 any voluntary A. or rent-charge granted without 
 regard to pecuniary consideration or money's worth, 
 nor to any A. or rent-charge granted by any body 
 corporate or under any authority or trust created by 
 act of parliament. By sec. 8 of the 53 Geo. J II. c. 141, 
 
 278 
 
 it is declared a misdemeanour, punishable by fine 
 and imprisonment, or other corporal punishment, to 
 procure or solicit any person under twenty-one to 
 grant an A. or rent-charge, or to advance or pn 
 to bo advanced money to him, on consideration of 
 his granting an A. or rent-charge after he is of age. 
 in a recent case in the Irish Court of Chancery, it 
 WU unsuccessfully attempted to extend the act to 
 Ireland, by endeavouring to shew that although the 
 lands on which the A. was charged were Irish, the 
 contract itself for the A. was English. The Lord 
 Chancellor (Napier), in giving judgment, obs' 
 'Hie imperial legislature might have cut the matter 
 short if it had enacted one and the same law for 
 Inland as for England, which would then have 
 governed this transaction in all its parts ; but the 
 act of the English Parliament before the Union, or 
 
 of the Imperial Parliament, in terms confined 
 
 land, could not be extended to Ireland by 
 
 I construction, so as to make either, or any 
 
 part of either, a law of this land, and thereby to 
 
 control the disposition of Irish landed estate.' 
 
 In Scotch law, an A., as such, may be charged on 
 real estate as well as on personalty. In that sy 1 1 m, 
 it has been simply defined to be a right to a yearly 
 payment in money ; and it may be created either by 
 the payment of the sum of money in the form of a 
 purchase, or it may be secured over land, in which 
 case the creditor, in the event of default of his A., 
 may attach the land charged, claiming in his i 
 for recovery a capital sum out of the land, sufficient 
 to produce an animal interest equal to the A., 
 which annual interest is paid until the expiration 
 of the A., when the capital sum is restored to tho 
 debtor. The instrument by which, in Scotland, tho 
 A. is constituted in either of the above forms, is 
 called a Bond of A.; and before the repeal ol 
 usury laws (bya recent statute, 17 and 18 vict c. Oil), 
 this form of deed was frequently resorted to as a 
 means of securing loans where a high rate of interest 
 was charged; and the same practice prevailed in 
 England. But the last-mentioned act renders all 
 such expedients now unnecessary. 
 
 ANNUITY-TAX, a local impost for the p:i\ 
 of the salaries of the Established clergy of the city 
 of Edinburgh. It was first established on a limited 
 scale by an act of the year 1661 ; and was ex I 
 in its sphere of operation by an act of the legislature 
 as lately as 1809. It amount d at one time to 6 i" r 
 cent, ou the rents of houses and shops within 
 royalty. It was a peculiarity of this tax that the 
 members of 'the College of Justice,' including the 
 
 lawyer class generally, enjoyed an exemption from 
 it as a relic of an ancient privilege by winch they 
 were induced to reside and hold the courts of law in 
 Edinburgh. The tax was reduced in ISliO; and, 
 under an act passed in 1S70, it was redeemed by 
 payment of £56,500 by the Corporation to the 
 Edinburgh Ecclesiastical Commissioners. 
 
 A'NNULET fLat intimitis, correctly anulus, a 
 ring), a term in Architecture for a small fillet or 
 bind which frequently surrounds a column, &c. 
 The A. is several times repeated in the moulding 
 which surmounts the shaft of a Doric pillar, and is 
 placed immediately under the ovolo of the capital. — 
 A., a ring, a charge in heraldry of frequent occur- 
 rence. 
 
 ANNUXCIA'DA. 1. The religious Order of 
 the Heavenly Annunciation, or of the Nuns of the 
 Annunciation of Mary, was instituted by Victoria 
 Fornare at Genoa in 1682, after the rule of St 
 Augustine. All the convents of the order in 
 France, Germany, and the Netherlands have dis- 
 appeared since the French Revolution. Some still 
 exist in Italy. 2. Another Order of the Annun-
 
 ANNUS DELIBERANDI— ANOMALISTIC YEAR. 
 
 ciation, or of Nuns of Mary's Announcement or 
 the Ten Virtues, wa3 endowed l>y John of Valoi3 
 at Bourses in 1501, after its separation from Louis 
 XII. In 1514, it was placed uuder the authority 
 of the Franciscans. This order, which extended 
 to lifty convents for the reception of poor gentle- 
 women, was broken up at the Revolution. 3. The 
 Order of Knights of the Annunciation in Savoy- 
 
 Star of the Order of the Annunciation. 
 
 {Online Suprema delV Annunciala), known origi- 
 nally as the Order of the Neck-chain or Collar, was 
 instituted in 13G0 by Amadeus VI., Duke of Savoy. 
 It received statutes from Amadeus VIII. in 1409 ; 
 was renewed in 1518 under the name of the Holy 
 Annunciation ; and in 1720 was raised by Victor 
 Amadeus to be the first order of the kingdom of 
 Savoy. The king is always grandmaster. The 
 knights who, since 1720, are not limited in number, 
 must be of high rank, and already admitted to the 
 orders of St Mauritius and St Lazarus. They com- 
 pose only one class. The decoration is a gold 
 
 Decoration of the Order of the Annunciation. 
 
 medal, on which is represented tho Annunciation, 
 surrounded by love-knots. It is usually worn 
 suspended by a simple gold chain ; but the proper 
 collar or chain of the order is composed alternately 
 of love-knots and roses. On the roses are en- 
 graved the letters F. K r.. T., which some 
 interpret Fortitudo ejus Rhodvm tenuit, in al 
 
 defence of Rhodes by Amadeus I., and which 
 others hold to signify, Frappes, entires, . 
 ton.?. Since 1GS0, the knights wear on the left 
 breast a star embroidered in gold. The four supremo 
 
 ! of the order — the chancellor (always a 
 bishop or archbishop), tho secretary (usually the 
 Minister oJ (fairs), the almoner (usually 
 
 the king's first almoner), and the treasurer 
 the decoration round the neck, sasp 
 sky-blue ribbon, accompanied by a star on t 
 breast. For details of costumes, &c, see B 
 Book of Orders of Knighthood, p. 250, i 
 
 ANNUS DELIBERANDI, in Scotch lam 
 meant to signify the period of a year allowed to an 
 heir to deliberate whethi r he would accept the 
 inheritance with the burden of his predecessor's 
 debts. The oanoed on the death of the 
 
 ancestor, unless in the case of a posthumous heir, 
 
 when the year ran from the birth of the heir 
 himself. But by a recent act of parliament — tho 
 21 and 22 Vict. c. 7G, sec. 27— it is provided 
 that all proceedings 'against an apparent li 
 account of his ancestor's debt or obligation, for tho 
 purpose of attaching the ancestor's heritable estate, 
 and actions of adjudication against such heir on 
 account of his own debt or obhgation, for the pur- 
 pose of attaching such estate, may bo insisted on 
 at any time after the lapse of six monUia from 
 the date of his becoming apparent heir, any law or 
 practice to the contrary notwithstanding.' 
 
 ANOBIUM. See Borer and Death-watch. 
 
 A'NODE [Gr. ana, upward, and {h)odos, a way], a 
 term introduced into the science of electro-chemical 
 decomposition (electrolysis) by Dr Faraday to 
 late the positive pole, or that surface by which 
 the galvanic current enters the body undergoing 
 decomposition (electrolyte). The negative pole, or 
 that surface by which the current leaves the electro- 
 lyte, is called in the same nomenclature the caOiode 
 [kata, downward, and (h)odos]. Electrode is the 
 general term applied to either of these. The ele- 
 ments of electrolytes are called ions {ion, going). 
 Such as go to the A. receive the name of anions, 
 and those passing to the cathode, cations. Thus, 
 in the decomposition of water by the passage into 
 it of a galvanic current through two platinum 
 plates, the water is the electrolyte ; the platinum 
 plate connected with the copper end of the battery 
 is the A. ; and the one connected with the zinc 
 end, the cathode. The oxygen and hydrogen which 
 are disengaged are the ions; the oxygen separating 
 at the A. is the anion ; and the hydrogen at the 
 cathode, the cation. Anions and cations are more 
 generally known under the name of electro-negative 
 and electro-positive substances ; but as these terms 
 are considered by Dr Faraday to imply certain 
 supposed attractions for the positive or negative 
 
 Sole, the other terms have been employed by him to 
 escribe simply the part the substances play in 
 electrical decomposition. 
 
 A'NODYNE (Gr. a, privative, and odyne, pain), a 
 medicine given to assuage pain. Properly, the term 
 is applied to medicines, such as opium, which act ou 
 the nervous system, so as to decrease sensibility and 
 induce sleep. 
 
 ANOINTING. See Chrism, Cof.o.vatiox, 
 Extreme Unction. 
 
 ANOMALISTIC YEAR is the interval that 
 elapses between two successive passages of the earth 
 through its perihelion, or point of nearest approach 
 to the sun. If the earth's orbit had a iixed 
 position in space, this period would correspond with 
 that of a sidereal revolution, or the time the earth 
 takes after leaving any point of the heavens to 
 return to it again; but the disturbing influence of 
 
 Elliptical Orbit 
 
 the other planets causes the perihelion to advance 
 slowly ( 1 1 " -8 annually) in the direction of the earth's 
 motion ; so that the A. Y. is longer (4 minutes 39
 
 ANOMALY— ANOPLURA. 
 
 ' i than the sidereal. This will be better 
 understood from the accompanying diagram, in 
 which senta the elliptical orbtt of the 
 
 earth; S, the sun; A, the perihelion; and AP, the 
 longer axis. When tile earth, after leaving A. oomi S 
 back to it again, after having completed a 
 revolution, it finds the lonj and with it 
 
 the whole ellipse, advanced to AT., and it has still 
 to describe an arc of 1 1 " • 8 be- second 
 
 perihelion A'. The length of the A. ST, i 365 days, 
 hour.:, 13 minutes, 49 seconds. It receives its 
 name From the anomaly (q, v.). 
 AXO'MALY (Gr. anomaXia, im gularity), the 
 n i ■ ■ : i lured at the sonbetwei a a planet in any 
 point of its orbit and the last perihelion. In the 
 ii the precedii il P 1"- a planet) 
 
 ABB' its orbit, S the sun, and A the perihelion, the 
 angle Asp i< the anomaly. It is bo called b 
 it was in it that the first irregularities of planetary 
 motion were discovered. The anomaly was formerly 
 measured from the aphelion, the opposite point ol 
 the ellipse; but from the fact that the aphelia of 
 most of the comets lie beyond the range ol o 
 tion, the perihelion is now taken as the point of 
 departure for all planetary bodii . 
 
 ANONA. See Cl'STARD-Arri-E. 
 
 AXOXA'CE.E, a natural order of Did .tyledonous 
 
 or Exoge is plants, of which the type is the genus 
 
 Anona. They are trees or shrubs, with alternate, 
 simple, generally entire leaves, destitute of stipules; 
 flowers usually green or brown, axillary, solitary, OT 
 two or three together ; the calyx of 3—4 persistent 
 sepals ; the corolla of 6 hypogynous leathery petals, 
 in two rows. The stamens are generally numerous ; 
 the filaments short; the anthers adherent, turned 
 outwards, and with a large 4-i inedive. See 
 
 Stamen. The carp lally numerous, separate 
 
 or cohering ; the styles short ; the stigmas simple ; 
 the ovules inverted. The fruit consists of distinct 
 or united carpels, sometimes succulent; the seeds 
 attached to the suture; their external covering 
 brittle ; the embryo minute, in the base of the hard 
 albumen. — There are about 300 known species, 
 mostly natives of tropical countries. They are 
 generally aromatic and fragrant in all thej 
 and some species are employed medicinally ; Q 
 fruit of Xylopia aromatica is commonly u 
 pepper by the African negroes, and was formerly 
 imported into Europe as Ethiopian" IT.pper or 
 i i . Bit Pepper. The flowers of some spe. 
 .'i i tquisite fragrance; others yield delicious fruits. 
 See Custard-Apple and Chertmoter. 
 
 AXO'NYMOUS (Gr. nameless), a term s 
 to a book the author of which does not give bis 
 name ; when an assumed name is given, the term 
 I'll DON! MOUS is used. Works of this class consti- 
 tute one of the great difficulties of bibliography. 
 Ii literature possesses an excellent THdionnaire 
 <l : i hr i i is AnonymesftPaeu (2d< d., 4 vols. 
 
 Par. 1822 lsi'o) by Barbier, embracing the titles of 
 about 24,000 works, with the names of those who 
 are known or assumed to be the authors. A [ .mil.ir 
 work for English literature is understood to be in 
 (tion by Mr Halkctt, Keeper of the Advocates' 
 Library, Edinburgh. 
 
 In Great Britain, political articles are alv./i 
 as is also most of the periodical criticism ; but on the 
 other side of the Channel, this practice, especially 
 ■ the present rSgime, is far from being common. 
 It is generally admitted, that anonymity secures the 
 independence of the critic, and enables him to write 
 r freedom, vigour, and power; but it is 
 not less true that he frequently abuses his advantage, 
 ratifies, under the veil of the A., tli 
 is of his nature. Perhaps the most intolerable 
 280 
 
 abuse of anonymity is the anonymous letter, The 
 tnd ich tins cowardly 
 
 1 of assailing people has occasioned, must 
 excite against it the indignation and abhorrence of 
 all honourable-minded men. 
 
 AX'UPI.oTllERIUM (from the Greek a, priv- 
 ative ; [h)oplon, armour ; and therion, a beast), a 
 .runs ol • ctinct Pachydermatous quadruped 
 PaoHYTjirmata), established by ( 'uvier from bones 
 occurring in great abundance in the gyp nun 
 of the I pper Eocene (q.v.) formation, near Paris. 
 They are found also in the same formation in the 
 Isle of Wight and elsewhere. The teeth differ from 
 
 those of all other Pachydermata, extinct or i 
 
 I are six incisors, two canines, eight pme- 
 
 , and six molars in each jaw— the dental 
 formula thus agreeing with that of the fossil 
 
 herium (q.v.); but the teeth are arrangi 1 in 
 a continuous series without intervening vacancies — 
 a circumstance very remarkable, as it does not 
 occur in any existing quadruped, but now a] 
 in man alone. The molars of the upper jaw are 
 quadrangular, those of the lower marked with a 
 double or triple crescent of enamel, which forms 
 prominent ridges. In some i i i . the 
 resemble those of the Ruminantia (q.v.), or rumin- 
 ating quadrupeds, between which and the I 
 dermata the A. has been thought to form a conni i 
 ing link ; but in some of the species originally 
 
 Anoplotherium. 
 
 included in this genus, ami which are now sometimes; 
 ranked along with it under the name .1 noplothi roid , 
 the teeth exhibit peculiarities which have led to the 
 supposition that their food may not have been 
 exclusively vegetable. The snout is not much 
 elongated, and it is evident that there was no pro- 
 1 The feet are terminated by two toes, as in 
 
 the Kuminantia; but they have always separate 
 metacarpal and metatarsal bones, not a 
 ci a:, a bone. A considerable number of species of 
 A. and of Anoplotheroids have been determined, 
 differing in size from that of a small ass to that 
 of a hare, or even of a guinea-pig; so that the 
 smallest species must have been smaller than any 
 hoofed quadruped now existing, or any known to 
 have ever existed They differ also considerably in 
 general appearance, some having had comparatively 
 long limbs and a light and graceful form, whilst 
 some were firmly built and heavy. Their habits may 
 be supposed to have differed accordingly. The tine 
 Anoplotheria were probably very similar in habits 
 to tapirs. The powerful and flattened tails of some 
 species are supposed to indicate a peculiar adaptation 
 for aquatic life. Some of the Anoplotheroids have 
 smaller supplemental toes, besides the two hoofs. 
 They form I he genera Dkhodon, Dichobunt, XipJto- 
 don, and Microtherium. 
 
 AXOPLU'ItA, the name given by Leach to an 
 order of insects called Parasita (q.v.) by Lai 
 Cuvier, &c— part of the Aptera of Lie 
 of winch the type is the genus Pediculus or Louse 
 (q.v.).
 
 ANQUETIL-DUPERRON— ANSON'. 
 
 ANQUETIL-DUPERRON, Anninii Hya- 
 UlNTHK, as oriental scholar, was born at Paris, 
 December 7, 17.il. lie commenced tin: .study of 
 theology in his native city, and afterwards prose- 
 cuted it at Anxerre and Amersfort. But his love 
 of oriental languages drew liim back to Paris, where 
 he was assi ited by the Abbe Sallier, Overseer of the 
 Manuscripts in the Royal Library. As he now 
 pa led a tolerable knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, 
 and Persian, he enlisted as a private soldier for 
 India in 17o4, to gratify his passion for learning ; but 
 Malesherbes and the Abbs' BartheTemy rescued him 
 from this degradation, and enabled him, through the 
 royal munificence, to proceed independently. After 
 his arrival in India, he traversed a great part 
 of the peninsula, but finally filed his residence at 
 Surat, where there was a colony of Parsees, or 
 fire-worshippers, with whoso priests he soon be- 
 came so intimate, that they not only instructed 
 him in the doctrines of Zoroaster, but also gave 
 him some of their sage's books, written in Zend, 
 in I'ehlvi. and in Sanscrit. In 1702, he returned 
 to Europe, having collected one hundred manu- 
 scripts, along with other curiosities. The Abbe 
 I'.artlielemy now obtained for him a situation in the 
 Bibliotheque Royale, and in 170,'i lie was elected 
 a member of the Academic des Belles- Lettrcs. 
 In 1771, he published his Zend-avesta, in 3 vols., 
 which contained the results of his researches. It 
 consists of a literal translation of the Vendidad, as 
 well as other sacred I Us of the Parsees, pre- 
 ceded by a narrative of his travels. This work 
 created a great sensation wdien it first appeared. 
 Until then, our only knowledge of the doctrines of the 
 ancient Persians had been obtained from Greek and 
 Roman sources, hostile Mohammedans, and eastern 
 nations of a later origin. But A. now presented to 
 the investigation oi Europeans the original records 
 of these doctrines, or, at least, records of incontest- 
 able authority. Unfortunately, his zeal far surpassed 
 liis patience and sagacity. Pie had not a sufficient 
 mastery over the languages from which he translated. 
 His translations are, consequently, anything lint 
 accurate. Since A. wrote, great advances have 
 been made in oriental scholarship, and his labours 
 are now in a great measure superseded. Among his 
 other works we may mention his Legislation 
 <>ri< nt:il'\ 177S; lli'-li'fi-ht ,■ Ji;<t,,ri'i ins et Oiogra- 
 iphiqui I .nr VInde, 1786; La Dignitt du Commerce 
 ,t ilr I'i fat iln < 'ommerfant, 1789; VInde en Rapport 
 avec V Europe, 1790; OupneHhai (a selection from 
 the theological portion of the Vedas), 1804. He 
 
 died at Paris 17th January I 
 
 AN'SE, a name sometimes given to the handles of 
 a e i i i ii. ,ii. These handles, especially in some foreign 
 cannon, are cast in the forms of dolphins or 
 serpents. 
 
 ANSELM of Canterbury, a scholastic philosopher, 
 
 was born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033. He led at 
 
 ipated life; and, like Abelard, wandered 
 
 through Prance, after the fashion of the scholars 
 of these days, disputing wherever he could find an 
 adversary. Attracted by the reputation of Lanfranc, 
 he went, in 11100. to study at the monastery of Bee, 
 in Normandy. Three years alter, he became prior, 
 and in 107*. abb, it ,,f this monastery, the mo 
 famous school of the 11th e. I.aniiauo, who in 
 the meantime bad ■ "n to England, and become 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1089; and the 
 diocese remained four veal's without a successor, till, 
 in 1093, A. was appointed, lie was distinguished 
 both as a churchman and a philosopher. His 
 
 i reus embroilments with William Etufus and 
 
 Henry I., and the unbending spirit which he dis- 
 played in these, even when subjected to banishment, 
 
 indicate the vigour and resoluteness of his character, 
 as much as his writings exhibit the depth and 
 aeuteness of bis intellect In 1720, (lenient XI. 
 
 ly placed him in the list of churchauthoi 
 \. was a second Augustine, superior to all his con- 
 i dialectical skill, and 
 equal to tin- mo i eminent in rirtue and 
 Embracing, without que I on, the doctrini i et the 
 church, mostly as stated by Augustine, and holding 
 that belief most precede knowledge, and must be 
 implicit and undoubting; he yet nit tie- m ceasity of 
 
 0U8 philo ophy, urged the duty ... 
 from belief to knowledge, and sought to reduce the 
 truths of religion into the form of a connected scries 
 
 1 P I s. It was for this purpose he wrote 
 
 \i inn iri /.'•■ mjdum Medilaruh ■' I: 
 
 l'nhi. in his Proslogium, otherwise entitled Fidei 
 qucerem Intellectual (Faith 8 intellect), he 
 
 strove to demonstrate the existence of God from the 
 conception of a perfect being. This ontological 
 proof, however, has never been held satisfactory. 
 His writings, Our Dew Homo, and De Cot. 
 Praysciiiiti'i et Pradestinationis, made an epoch in 
 christian philosophy. A. may just! koned 
 
 the earliest of the schoolmen, although Alexander 
 of Hales (q. v.) was the first who - 
 
 . itemati ed in the scholastic manner the doi 
 of the Catholic Church. He died 21st April 1109, 
 and was buried at Canterbury Dear bis predecessor, 
 Lanfranc The day of bis death is observed in the 
 Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 ANSER. See Anas and Goose. 
 
 A'NSGAR, or ANSC1I A'RIUS, styled the Apostle 
 of the North, on account of his labours to introduce 
 Christianity into Denmark, Sweden, and Northern 
 Germany, was horn in Picardy about the year 801 
 a.d. Under the patronage of Louis le Deoonnaire, 
 he went, with his colleague Audibert, to preach the 
 doctrines of Christianity among the heathen Northmen 
 of Schleswig, where he suffered many persecutions; 
 but had nevertheless such success that, in 832, the 
 pope established an archbishopric in Hamburg, and A. 
 was appointed the first archbishop. Hci 
 through many difficulties, bavin,- to save his life by 
 flight in 845, when the -Northmen and Danes under 
 I'.ne I. plundered Hamburg. lie afterwards made 
 several missionary tours in Denmark and Sw 
 and died February 3, 804. at Bremen, where a church 
 was named after him. The Roman Catholic Church 
 has canonised him. 
 
 AN'sox, George, Lord, Asitm&L, born i 
 April 1G97, at Shugborough, in Staffordshire. From 
 an early period he manifested a predilection for a 
 sea-life. In 1710 he served as second lieut 
 under Norris; next under Byng in 1718, again 
 Spaniards; and was made a captain in 1723. In 1739, 
 when war with Spain broke out. he was recalled 
 from the Carolina station, on which he had 
 
 placed since 1724, and r lived the command i 
 
 fleet iii the South Sea. with instructions to inflict 
 whatever injury he could en the Spani 
 and colonies, and sailed from England in September 
 1740. The pn parations for this ■ '• in ■ a 
 
 made in the most slovenly manner. Both 
 and stores were bad, and the sailers were old 
 Chelsea pensioners ; yet A., in spite of these disad- 
 vantages, achieved a brilliant reputation by the 
 . and humanity he dis- 
 played. \iiei- hi i litfl Is had 
 cattered by s storm, in doubling Cape Horn, 
 he landed at Juan Fernandez, where he was soon 
 jeined by three of his ships, which arrived in a 
 
 died condition. Willi ed On ties 
 
 island, he exhibited his native tenderness of charac- 
 ter by the assiduity with which he cared for the 
 
 281
 
 ANT. 
 
 siik, and tlie pains he took to increase their com- 
 CTnder these dis&dvanl . he made several 
 prizes of Span ; > i I esp iallj 
 
 I himself by his oaptoze of th 
 fro I, ^capulco, « nh :i oargo worth 
 
 r hold adventures, lie returneil I 
 
 land; and, sailing undetected through the I 
 
 ; i. ii lay in the < lhannel, arrivi d at Spithead, 
 June l.">, 1711, having circumnavigated the globe 
 after a cruise of Have years ana nine months. 
 Hi; perilous voyage had great importance in 
 extruding the knowledge of navigation and 
 graphy. As a reward for his services, A. was 
 
 Bear-admiral of the Bine (1744) ; and in 17 47, 
 e fter he had gained a victory over the French admiral, 
 Jonquiere, at Cape Finisterre, was mad I 
 Soberton; and four years later, First Lord of the 
 Admiralty, in which capacity he distinguished him- 
 self not less than at sea. In 1701 he was made 
 Admiral of the Fleet He died June 6, 1762. 
 works have bean so popular as Lord A.'s I 
 
 ! the World. It has numerous readers in < 
 
 It was written by Mr B. Robins, 
 from Lord A.'s own materials, and was carefully 
 J by the latter. 
 ANT [FormCca), a Linnaean genua of ITymcnop- 
 terous insects, now divided into several genera, 
 i form a family called Formiciihr. The English 
 name is contracted from Emmet, still also occasion- 
 ally used. Another old English name, not now in 
 
 at use, is Pismire. The species are numerous, 
 
 and are generally distributed over temperate and 
 
 tropical regions. Their habits and instincts are 
 
 interesting, and have attracted attention 
 
 from remote ages. 
 
 Ants are small insects, but of extraordinary mus- 
 cular strength. They carry loads of ten or twelve 
 times their own weight, and display great activity. 
 They have a triangular head; the antenna? are geni- 
 culate; the jaws strong; the ligula or lower lip 
 small, rounded, vaulted or spoon-like ; the thorax 
 compri led at the sides; the abdomen nearly oval, 
 
 idicle which joins it to the thorax forming in 
 some kinds a single, and in some, a double scale or 
 knot. They live in societies, often very large, which 
 consist, as in bees, of males, females, and neuters. 
 The neuters are females with imperfect ovaries, 
 transformed at an early stage of their existence, and 
 are distinguished into two classes, workers and 
 wldiers, the former constituting the greater portion 
 
 Ants. 
 
 1. Female; 2. Male; 3. Neuter (Worker). 
 
 of each society, the latter somewhat differing from 
 them in larger size, and larger and more powerful 
 head. The ordinary work of the society is performed 
 by the workers: the principal part in warfare, 
 I or off in si ve, is taken by the soldiers. The 
 male's and females constitute but a small portion of 
 each community. They have delicate glistening 
 wings; but the neuters have no wings, and the 
 thorax is smaller and more compressed. The males 
 are smaller than the females, and the workers are 
 rather smaller than the males. The fema! 
 neuters of some kinds (genera Ponera, My, 
 Attn, and Cryptocerus) are armed with stings ; other 
 282 
 
 kinds (Formiea and Polyergus) have no sting, but 
 have the powi c of i jeoting a peculiar volatile ai id, 
 I oi DO Ai in («|.v.), from a small sac in the abdo- 
 m , n ; by this means effectually repelling many adver- 
 to which the pungent fumes are intoh 
 nimala are soon killed by the vapour of an 
 
 an! hill; and ■ a. known to retire yelling 
 
 !. upon hi i eyes, either of the vapour, 
 or of a i of the fluid itself. It is said, that 
 
 when those ants that are unprovided with a sting 
 their mandibles to inflict a bif . 
 
 curve round their abdomen, so as to be ready iiuine- 
 diat ly to squirt this acid into the wound. 
 
 'Ill" winged ants mostly appear in autumn, and 
 - ■ unmencement of tin cold weather; 
 ■ reiving to found new colonies and perp 
 the race. The neuters pass the winter in I 
 numbers in a torpid state, and resume their activity 
 on the return of spring. The nests of ants, 
 midsummer, are usually found to contain v. I 
 
 males and females mixed with the wingless neuters, 
 which, however, restrain them, and particularly the 
 females, from making their escape into the air, until 
 the pairing season, when they ascend into it in 
 immense swarms, those from many ant lulls some- 
 times uniting tlnir myriads, rising with incredible 
 velocity in distinct columns, and soaring to a 
 height ' Each column looks like a kind of slender 
 net-work, and has a tremulous undulating motion. 
 The noise emitted by myriads and myriads of these 
 creatures does not ezce 4 the hum of a single wasp. 
 The slightest zephyr disperses them.' They occa- 
 sionally, however, make tluir appearance in such 
 prodigious numbers, that the air is obscured by 
 them. — The pairing of ants is supposed to take place 
 in the air. Some of the females which escape 
 
 destruction by their enemies, or by tl 
 
 found new colonies, in which at first they perform 
 the work usually assigned to neuters. Some, how- 
 ever, are seized by the neuters of ant-hills near 
 which they fall, and there is even reason to think 
 that these go out to search for them; they are 
 stripped of i igs, and forcibly conducted to 
 
 the habitation, the number of whose inhabitants is 
 to be increased by their multitudinous progeny. 
 They are fed and treated with apparent respect, like 
 the queen -bee among bees; but a society of 
 ants, unlike one of bees, often contains numerous 
 females, each thus treated and equally employed in 
 the important work of laying eggs. Unlike the 
 queen-bees, also, they are invariably denuded of 
 their wings; nor is this always done by the neuters, 
 to prevent their escape, but the female ant, after 
 fecundation, has been seen to denude herself of her 
 own wings, as now superfluous appendages. 
 
 The eggs of ants are so small as to be scarcely 
 visible to the naked eye. The mother drops them at 
 random in her progress through the nest ; but the 
 work is, of whom some are always in attendance 
 mi her, immediately seize them, moisten them with 
 their tongue, and iay them in heaps in particular 
 apartments of the nest. They continue to watch 
 them, and to remove them from one quarter of the 
 bo another, apparently in order that they may 
 always enjoy a suitable temperature, and perhaps in 
 order to avoid any excess of moisture. In a few 
 days, the young larva are produced; and these 
 require the unremitting care of the workers, v. h b 
 feed them, disgorging into their mouths, for this 
 purpose, a viscid Bubstance, supposed to be the 
 ordinary food of the species, prepared for their use 
 by a sort of half digestion. They are ah., extremely 
 careful to keep the young brooil clean, by constant 
 application of their tongue and mandibles; and a 
 great amount of labour is dady expended upon them, 
 in conveying them from the inner apartments of the
 
 ANT. 
 
 nest towards the surface after sunrise, when the 
 weather is fine, and back again before sunset, or 
 when the weather becomes cold, or there is a pros- 
 pect of rain. The same care is extended to the 
 pupa?. The larva and pupa an the white objects 
 which the workers are seen hastily seizin 
 carrying off to places of safely, when au ant 
 is broken open; and tin- resemblance of which, 
 particularly of tin pupae, to grains of barley, is 
 supposed to have contributed to the general belief, 
 that ants amass stores of corn for winter food. The 
 larva; have no organs of locomotion. The pup 
 enveloped in delicate silken cocoons, and unlike 
 those of other insects, require assistance to extricate 
 themselves from them when they have attained 
 their perfect state. This assistance also is afforded 
 by the workers. 
 
 The whole supplies of food for the inmates of the 
 ire brought to it by the workers, The food of 
 some kinds is exclusively or chietly animal, that of 
 others, vegetable. The provisions carried to their 
 nests by the ants of Britain and other temperate 
 countries, are now believed not at all to be in! 
 for winter, when the creatures are entirely torpid, 
 but only for present use ; and it appears to be 
 certain that no kind of grain forms any part of their 
 food. But Colonel Sykea has discovered at Poonah 
 a species of ants (Ada provident), which not only 
 store up provisions, but of which the stores consist 
 of the seeds of a species of millet. To 1 
 of this kind the allusions in the book of Proverbs 
 seem to be made. Virgfl also speaks of the ant 
 providing against the poverty of old age — 
 
 Inopi nictuens formica sencctic. 
 
 [Georg. I. 186) 
 
 The ant has long been a sort of proverbial type, not 
 only of industry, but of provident care for the 
 future. Some ants, however, collect and carry to 
 their nests substances which are not intended for 
 food, but for the construction of the nest, and 
 particularly for closing its apertures in cold or wet 
 weather. In this way they gather together small 
 heaps of chips of wood, bits of straw, small pebbles, &c. 
 The vegetable substance which ants seem chiefly 
 to use as food is sugar ; and to this, wherever it is 
 to be found, they seem to be guided by a very acute 
 sense of smell. Honey-dew, the saccharine excre- 
 tion of the Aphides (see Aphis), is a favourite 
 food of many species ; and with tins are connected 
 some of their most extraordinary instincts ; for not 
 
 I they climb the plants on which the aphides 
 abound, that they may obtain this food, but they 
 have been seen to wait beside them for new drops, 
 and even to touch them with their antenna?, in 
 order to cause the drops to How, patting the abdo- 
 men of the aphis on each side alternately and 
 rapidly; the ant, after the drop has been obtained, 
 
 ; on to another aphis. The whole process has 
 been likened to the milking of cattle. Even more 
 wonderful things are asserted on this subject, as that 
 particular ants seem to regard particular aphides as 
 their own property, and are ready to light in defence 
 of their right to them — that, to secure them for 
 themselves, they convey them from one place to 
 
 r— and that the Aphis radicum, 
 
 -. its nutriment from the roots of grass end 
 
 other plants, is actually kept in large numbers in the 
 
 of the Yellow Ant (Fan morderthat 
 
 ysat hand a ppjy of food, 
 
 these aphides and their eggs shai licitude 
 
 of the ants equally with their own 
 
 Things so wonderful are ascertained beyond dispute 
 
 hi i ;ard to the instincts of ants, that even such 
 
 is these must not be hastily rejected as 
 incredible, and certainly they express the beliefs of 
 careful and scicutilie observer. 
 
 Ants which feed upon animal food render important 
 service in clearing away every vestige of the flesh 
 of dead animals, and so preventing corruption J and 
 very bet nail animals hav 
 
 obtained by burying the animal for a short time in 
 an ant-hill. But ants also attack living animals: 
 insects of comparatively large size fall a prey to 
 and in tropical 1 1 ., and 
 
 : in II quadrupeds arc sometimes devoured bj 
 vast swarms, which strip the bones of the animal 
 lyolean with wonderful rapidity. Domestic 
 animals, at I- ick, are not safe from them, 
 
 and man himself regards them with dread. Aleut 
 ninety \ prodigious numbers of a particular 
 
 kind of ant (/'. sat rad in the island 
 
 of Grenada. This species makes its nest under 
 the roots of plants, and the sugar-canes were so 
 weakened and injured in consequ- ace, that the 
 plantations became nearly unproductive. ' They 
 descended from the hills like torrents, and 
 plantations, ai well as every path and road for 
 miles, wei filled with them. Rats, mice, and 
 reptiles of every kind became an easy pn 
 them; and even the birds, which they an 
 whenever they lighted on the ground in search of 
 food, were so harassed, as to be at length unable 
 ' t them. Streams of water opposed only a 
 temporary obstacle to their progress; the foremost 
 rushing blindly on certain death, and fresh armies 
 instantly following, till a bank was formed of the 
 carcasses of those which were drowned, sufficient to 
 dam up the waters, and allow the main body to pass 
 over in safety below. Even fire was tried without 
 effect. When it was lighted to arrest their route, 
 they rushed into the blaze in such myriads 
 extinguish it.' A reward of £20,000 was offered in 
 vain for an effectual means of destroying them ; 
 but in 17S0 a hurricane which tore up the canes, 
 and exposed their habitations to a deluge of rain, 
 freed the island from thi3 plague. 
 
 The habitations of ants are very corioush 
 
 structed, displaying great ingenuity, although with 
 
 great diversity in the different species. The great r 
 
 number of species form their habitations in the 
 
 round. These rise above the surface in the form 
 
 ..- Ants (/'. Flam) and Xcst 
 
 of a dome; hence the name ant-hills commonly 
 given them. The largest ant -hills formed by any 
 British species are those of the large red or horse 
 ants {Formica rufa), which are sometimes a 
 as a small haycock ; but travellers in South 
 
 ca describe ant-hills of 16 or *-'" feet in height. 
 . outwardly of rude appear- 
 ance — a confused leap of such portable materials as 
 
 . ithin reach : bit within, it contains nun 
 small apartment , of different sizes, arranged in 
 separate stories, .sen: de< p in the earth, some above 
 its surface, and communicating with each other by
 
 ANT- ANTALC IDAS. 
 
 means oi galleries. Oseiflmade of the earth 
 Vlt ,\ from below to mix •with other materials in the 
 , of the upper pari i 
 
 called Mason Ants, con- 
 struct habital b » still more elaborate masonry, 
 
 r -f-y<~ 
 
 Section of Bank, shewing Nests of the Mason Ant. 
 
 making use, for this purpose, of soft clay, which 
 they Bpread and mould by means of their man- 
 dibles and feet, appearing all the while to i xamine 
 their work by their antennae. The partition-walla 
 of the galleries and apartments of the /' 
 brunnea are about half a line thick, and about half 
 an inch high ; the roofs are somewhat arched, and 
 pillars are frequent in this marvellous archil 
 M. 1 lull, r saw a working-ant of another species 
 [F.fusca), without assistance, make and cover in a 
 gallery which was two or three inches long, and of 
 which the interior was rendered perfectly concave. 
 There are other species, sometimes called Carpenter 
 
 Nest of Carpenter Ant. 
 
 Ants, which make their habitations in the trunks 
 
 of old trees, gnawing the wood into apartments and 
 
 galleries, with floors and partitions as thin as card. 
 
 ,;t jlnni foniH its partition-walls of a sort of 
 
 papier-indcM of saw-dust, earth, and spider's web. 
 
 /'. smaragdina, an East Indian species, fonns its 
 
 nest of a thin silk-like tissue. /'. bupinosa, in 
 
 ' me, makes a felt of the down which envelops 
 
 the seeds of the Bombax Criba. An East Indian 
 
 > Kirbii, forms a globular nest of 
 
 a congeries of tile-like laminae of cow-dun:, the 
 
 or exhibiting an assemblage of apartments 
 
 .in 1 alleriea Some Australian ants form their 
 
 of the leaves of trees glued toj 
 
 Ut into the proper position by the 
 united strength of multitudes. 
 
 Of the ants which form their nests in the ground, 
 some, instead o£ constructing ant-hills, seek the 
 384 
 
 iion of stones, roots of trees, &c. This is 
 
 .. i !i ..i the Bril i b 1 1 . am 
 
 with the sugar ant of the West Indies, already 
 mentioned. 
 
 Many interesting anecdotes are on record illustra- 
 tive of the in tin I Of ants, and of the SB 
 
 which they Beem to possess. They appear also 
 to have some power of communicating with 
 
 m which it has been supposed that the 
 antennas are chiefly employed. Some Buch power 
 
 -I to be ' ary, if we could 
 
 venture to reason from analogy upon such a subji • t, 
 
 uot only to their architectural and other ordinary 
 
 operations, in which many must take part, syste- 
 
 ■ilv and conjointly, but also in their pred 
 
 and warlike excursions; fur these also some of 1 1 1 - 
 
 have. If. during the predatory excursions of 
 
 the AH" cephalotn (a South American species), an 
 intervening space occurs which they cannot cross, 
 some of the creatures link themselves together — as 
 monkeys, in like eii i have been] nown to 
 
 do — forming a bridge over which the main body 
 passes. Ants are, in general, both courageous and 
 i ions. Many battles take place among them, 
 
 both between individuals and large parties ; and 
 
 after a battle, combatants may be found locked in 
 each other's arms, as having died together in the 
 struggle. More extraordinary than anything i 
 kind, however, is the fact, sufficiently ascertained, 
 that boi of ants go on regular tors 
 
 carry nil' the larvae and pupae of certain other species, 
 which they carry to their own habitations to re al- 
 and employ them as slaves in the work which might 
 1 as properly belonging to workers of 
 own race— a fact to which no other at all 
 analogous has yet presented itself in natural history. 
 The species known thus to make and keep slaves are 
 rgut mfescens and Formica aanguinea, both 
 sometimes called Amazon Ants. It has been noted 
 as a curious circumstance that the kidnappers are 
 red or pale coloured ants, and the slaves jet black. 
 'I he kidnapping excursions take place only at a 
 particular period of the year, when the nests o thi 
 black ants contain the neuter brood. The army of 
 red ants (P. mfescens) marches forth, the vanguard, 
 which consists of eight or ten only, continually 
 changing; and on their arriving at: the nest of the 
 
 . which ends 
 
 I of the negroes; and thereu] the red 
 
 th their powerful mandible-, tear open the 
 now undi fended ant-hill, enter it, and emerge, 
 carrying the pupae in their mouths, with which they 
 return m perfect order to their own nest. The 
 pupa3 are there treated with great care, and spend 
 their lives among the red ants, excavating passages, 
 collecting food, carrying larvae, &e., as if this had 
 been their original destination. The amazon ants 
 are not natives of Britain, although plentiful in some 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 Formic acid has been > mployed as a stimulant in 
 gout and paralysis, and is so exhibited in 
 
 continental practice by means of ant-baths, which 
 are prepared by boiling crushed ants, or whole 
 anthills, and immersing the diseased limb in the 
 
 Termites (q. v.), or White Ants, are very different 
 from the true ants, and belong to the order 
 
 ANT^E. See Pilaster. 
 
 ANTA'LCIDAS, a Spartan politician, who made 
 himself conspicuous in a very perilous crisis oi the 
 history of his nation by the skilful character of his 
 policy. Sometime after the 1'eloponncsian War, it 
 seemed as if Athens were destined to regain the 
 supremacy she had lost. The Greek states rallied
 
 AtfTANANAETVA— ANTARCTIC OCEAN*. 
 
 romul her; while Conon, an ahlo and vigilant 
 Athenian admiral, and his ally, Pharnabazi 
 Persian, were everywhere victorious in their naval 
 encounters with the Spartan fleet. It b 
 necessary, therefore, that communications should be 
 entered into with the Persian kins, from whom the 
 confederate Greeks drew their chief resources. A 
 was chosen ambassador to Tiribazus, satrap of 
 Western Asia. On hearing this, the ttheniar 
 alarmed, and sent Conon to frustrate the si 
 of the formi t ; hut Tiribazus took A's part, and the 
 
 result was, that Conon was thrown into prison, and 
 
 A. secretly received money to enable Sparta to 
 
 continue tile war. At first, Artaxerxes, the Pi 
 monarch, was dissatisfied with the conduct of his 
 satrap, recalled him, and ]iut Struthas, a friend of 
 Athi lis, in his place; but through a complication of 
 circumstances, which it is unnecessary to mention, 
 A. was subsequently completely successful in 
 
 securing the goodwill of Artaxerxes. lie was 
 now appointed admiral of the Spartan fleet, and 
 d by Tiribazus, Ariobarzani , I e., swept the 
 seas until Athens became desirous of peace. For 
 various reasons, SO was ArgOS and Sparta hi 
 Tiribazus therefore assembled deputies from the 
 Greek states, and, in the name of his master 
 Artaxerxes, read the i'ane. us declaration or treaty 
 of peace, to which all the mcmlirrs present agreed, 
 and which is known in history under the name 
 of 'the Peace of Antalcidas,' as being the result 
 of the tatter's able diplomacy. Its three great 
 points were as follow: 1. That all the Gi 
 towns on the mainland of Asia Minor, t 
 with the islands Clazomene and Cyprus, should 
 remain under the protection of the Persian kins. 
 '2. That all other Greek towns, large and small, 
 should be independent ; but that the islands 
 of l.emnos, Imhros, and Scyros should belong to 
 as. .'!. That war should be declared against 
 whatever slate refused to accept these points. After 
 this peace, the history of A. becomes doubtful and 
 obscure. He seems to have lust favour with the 
 Persians, and Plutarch even leads us to suppose 
 that, sickened by misfortune and the loss of reputa- 
 tion, he voluntarily starved hiins. It' to death; hut 
 this story is not credited by scholars, both on accounl 
 of its intrinsic improbability and its apparent 
 disagreement with the statements of other writers. 
 
 ANTANAN ARIVA', or TAXAXAKIV.V, the 
 1 city of Madagascar, and seat of the govern- 
 ment. It is situated on a hill, in the midst of a 
 mountainous region, at an elevation of 70(H) feet 
 above the level of the sea. The approach to it from 
 Tamatave, the chief seaport, is extremely I 
 and dillicult, owing to the want of mads. The roj 1 
 palace occupies the summit of the hill ; adjoining are 
 the dwellings of the chief officers of government ; 
 and below these, covering the slope of the hill, are 
 the houses of the other inhabitants! constructed 
 almost entirely of wood. The uniform shape of the 
 , which are just plain huts covered with 
 brown thatch, gives a sombre appearance to the 
 place, \ I i "parently a species of i 
 
 ible here and there in the hii hi r part of the 
 
 city. The people exhibit a considerable aptitude 
 
 civilised usages; and through the agency of 
 
 mary enterprii ■. which has been unfortunately 
 
 ■ d for a tune by the arbitrary edicts of the 
 
 reigning queen, society is considerably ad\ 
 
 beyond the savage state. These few particulars are 
 
 gathered from the work of the Rev. William Ellis 
 
 (Three Visits to Madagascar, lSoo" — i — 5. London, 
 
 185S). 
 
 A'NTAR or ANTA'RA, a celebrated Aral, chief 
 of the sixth century, one of the seven poets of 
 
 Arabia, whose prize-poems, embroidered in golden 
 characters on round, wen- hung up on the 
 
 gate of the Caaba [ 1 ee called MoaVU 
 
 L e., the .-i. pel the '.-it has 
 
 descended to our clay, he pants hi* warlike deeds, 
 and his love for Al.ia. Ujb courage and hi 
 during a forty years' warfare between two Aral. 
 and his constancy in love, wi re I 
 
 i ii mory of his countrymen, and appear to have 
 the groundwork of the volununov 
 called Aniar, commonly i ci bed to Asm:.. 
 reduced to writing as early as the daj 9 of the ' 
 Haroun Alrasliid, in the 8th c. Th i work. 
 has come down to us in a later and much cot 
 form, gives an atn ind faithful picti 
 
 Bedouin hie, and is rich in rest, although 
 
 too monotone i fy the taste of the European 
 reader. In the L. 
 
 favourite th e mes of the professional 
 who haunt r mses. A poetical translation 
 
 of it into English was made hy 'ferric Hamilton in 
 1820. 
 
 ANTARCTIC OCEAN', the aea round the south 
 pole, as the Arctic Ocean 1 1 the sea round the north 
 pole. It is otherwise called tie- Soutl 
 comprising all the sea to the south of the Atlantic, 
 the Indian, and the Paci ic Oceans. In this view, 
 the A. Ocean's northern limit may lie conveni- 
 ently divided into three straight uni 9 ■ th 
 i Cape Horn in South America and 
 Agulhas in Africa; tie- Capi' A_nd- 
 
 d the southern extremity of the Auckland 
 Islands as an e of New Zealand; and the 
 
 third, between the southern extremity of the Auck- 
 land Islands and Capo Horn. This appears to form 
 the true boundary of the polar n gionB of the south- 
 ern hemisphere. The most northerly isles which 
 it encloses are Now Georgia, at the mouth of the 
 Atlantic, and Kerguelen's Land, at the mouth of 
 the Indian Ocean. The latter tills its own story 
 in its other title of 'The Island of Desolation;' 
 and the former present' d to I : .. even in the 
 middle of summer, perpendicular cl iffs of ice, and 
 valleys covered with everlasting snow. 
 
 It is usual, indeed, to d Antarctic Ocean 
 
 and the eon ocean to the north, a 
 
 contained each within its own pol . Cut. with 
 
 re aid to both oceans alik , this definition a] 'pears to 
 
 tmissible. It is only at two points- tl 
 of the Pacific, and the head of tie- Atlantic that 
 the Arctic Sea can possibly reach the \ 
 at all; while, in point of fa t. ii overlaps it at 
 Behring's Strait hy nearly a degree, and falls 
 several degrees short of it 1 
 
 half of Norway and the south-east shore of Green- 
 land. The A. it. again, is nowhere practically 
 limited hy the definition in question : not a single 
 h. i a, . to i 1 ■ the expression long before 
 l res at lat. UG' 3CC S.; nor yel is a single 
 
 authority consist mt in the use of the arbitrary 
 nomenclature. 
 
 Th" A. (i. Ins li -a explored, more or less 
 factorily, by various navigatoi . With 
 
 a few except Ions, however. I'll le "lit: 
 
 known, the difficulties and dangi rs of its na\ i 
 rendering thorough and continuous investigation 
 
 ible. The names that will 
 in their propi r place i are N I 
 
 I. and. Sandwich Land, New South Shetlands, New 
 
 . I ii leiiiy's Land. Graham's Land, Balleny, 
 Sahrina, and Victoria Land. 
 
 Taken as a whole, tl bear a very small 
 
 {iroportion to the extent i i which eml i 
 
 ialf the latitudes and all the longitudes of the 
 southern hemisphi re, exceed 
 
 the north, as a glance at the map will shew, l.y
 
 ANT-BEAR-ANTELOPE. 
 
 half of Asia and North America, anil the 
 of Europe. Such of theso lands as ar 
 ible at all tames, have been more or let I 
 ble in connection with the whale an 
 lies. 
 'I 'In' features of the A. O. itself may be I 
 stated to he constant fogs, baffling currents, innum- 
 od magnificent manifestations of 
 the Aurora Australia. On the coast of Victoria 
 Land, beyond the parallel of 7(1 , two mountains 
 b i ii observed to be of a height alto 
 
 unequalled in such a latitude — Mt. Terror, of 10,000 
 feet, and Mt. Erebus, of 12,400. The latter is a 
 volcano, being, it is apprehended, the only 
 
 menon of the kind in either of the frigid 
 
 Of the two circumpolar oc lUtherly one 
 
 has excited much less interest than the northerly. 
 The open passages round the two capes respectively 
 into the Indian Ocean and the Pacific, bavi 
 the very beginning, rendered unnecessary any such 
 voyages as those which, for nearly three centuries, 
 have developed so much patience and fortitude in 
 the heroic explorers of the Arctic shores. 
 
 ANT-BEAR. See AMT-BA.TKB. 
 
 ANT-CATCHER and ANT-THRUSH, namc3 
 given to birds of tropical and sub-tropical countries. 
 which feed chiefly upon ants. They are closely 
 allied to the Thrushes (see Tiiiusii), and are included 
 with them in the family Turdida or Mcrulidm of 
 recent ornithologists. They are distinguished by a 
 straight sub-cylindrical strong bill, hooked at the 
 tip, slender legs, and very short tails. They form 
 the genus MyotMra of Uliger, now subdivided into 
 several genera, one of which, /' ins the 
 
 I otBuffon — birds of brilliant plus 
 of the south-eastern parts of Asia and the Malayan 
 Archipelago. The true ant-catchers are mostly 
 American, arc of comparatively sober plumage, live 
 among the huge ant-hills, seldom fly, and are re- 
 markable for their sonorous voices, the no 
 i in some species is extraordinary. The] 
 species, known as the K> | ■ 
 (Orallaria /,'■ e), is about the size of a quail, its 
 legs are remarkably long. 
 
 ANT-EATER [Myrmea/phaga), a gen 1 1 o 
 American quadrupeds belonging to the natural order 
 Edentata. The species are few. They are perfectly 
 toothless, their food being insects, and particularly 
 ants, which they procure in great numbers by 
 thrusting among them a very long cylindrical tongue, 
 covered with a viscid saliva, and then retracting it 
 into the mouth. The head is remarkably eloi 
 with a slender muzzle, and a small mouth. The 
 tongue is doubled up in the mouth when not in use 
 for catching prey. The ears and eyes are very 
 small. The toes differ in number in the different 
 
 Great Ant-cater (.1/. jubata). 
 
 species, but are united as far as the base of the 
 claws, which are very large and strong, adapt -d to 
 ' up the habitations of ants. The Great A.-E 
 (.1/. jubala), a native of the warm parts of South 
 America, and called in Demerara the A.-bear, is 
 ■M 
 
 I ', feet in length from the snout to the i 
 
 which is more than 2 feet long, and is 
 covered with very long hair. The body is also 
 covered with long hair, particularly along the neck 
 and bai are four claws on each of the fore- 
 
 id live on tie- hind ones. Tho A.-E. B] 
 ol its time i'i sleep, 1 1 1- ■ long snout coin 
 in the fur of tho breast, tin- hind and fore claws 
 her, and the bushy tail thrown over all, 
 as if for a shade from the sun. It is very m 
 in its habits, and is regarded as a very stupid animal. 
 It has ■ th in its foi I 
 
 like th" hear, so as to amah an enemy 
 t'i death. The female produces oneiyoung one at a 
 birth, and carries it about for some time on her 
 — Another species, the Tamandua (.1/. Tamand 
 having the same number of claws, has a less elon- 
 gated snout, comparatively short hair, and > 
 
 tail, is scarcely so largo as a cat, and climbs 
 <|ii I of ii in act food.— The Little or Two- 
 toed A.-E. [M. didactyla) differs from these sp tries 
 not only in the number of its toes, but in other 
 anatomical characters. — Closely allied to this genus 
 instruct id habits is the genus jlfonw, contain- 
 
 ing the PanooltnB of Africa and India; but instead 
 , the body is covered with strong horny 
 S Pangolin'. — The name A.-E. is given 
 at the Cape of Good Hope to the Orycleropus 
 the Aard-vark or Earth-hog of tho Dutch 
 colonists, a quadruped of about the same size with 
 it A.-E. of America, belonging to the same 
 natural order, and resembling it also in its elongated 
 muzzle and extensile tongue, which it employs in 
 the same way, hut provided with grinding teeth and 
 flat claws adapted for burrowing. It burrows with 
 extraordinary facility, and it is in this way that it 
 
 bo secure its safety when assailed. It In 
 short hair, and little of it. The cars are moderately 
 long. Ii Is S nocturnal animal, and very timid. — 
 The Echidna of New Holland are sometimes called 
 : iters, from their food and their 
 similarity to the true ant-eaters in their sharp muzzlo 
 I ' ■ tongue ; but they differ much in somo 
 parts of their structure. See l'.< am 
 
 ANTECE'DENT, a term in Logic, Grammar, 
 
 and Mathematics. Thus we call a proposition in 
 
 from which i deduced, or a general 
 
 principle which sen port of 
 
 . the A. In (irammar, 
 
 rd which precedes the relativi 
 
 mple, 'The man who dies for bis country 
 
 should be held in honour.' I i " is the A. 
 
 Tn Mathematics, we speak of the A. of a ratio — 
 
 i. e., 1' i two terms which compose the 
 
 ratio. Thus, in the ratio of 4 to 3, 4 is the A. Tho 
 
 word is also used in the plural in a peculiar sense. 
 
 ' We know very little of his antecedents' — i.c., of his 
 
 previous character or conduct. 
 
 ANTEDILU'VIAN is the word n ed fa) denote 
 
 ,.r existed before the Flood. The A. ages 
 
 are those which elapsed before the Flood, and, In 
 
 ilo cal I i uage, the A. religion means tho 
 
 i of the patriarchs from Adam to Noah. In 
 
 y, the 'A. period' has no reference to the 
 
 i ii in led in the Mosaic narrative, but only 
 
 to tie' final transformation of the earth by means 
 
 of water. 
 
 A.Vl'ELOPE | a genua of Mammalia, 
 
 belonging to the order of Ruminants (q. v.), and to 
 the hollow-horned section of that order — in which 
 the horns consist of an elastic sheath surrounding a 
 bony process of the skull, and are permanent, not 
 annually renewed. The antelopes have the bony 
 nucleus of the horns solid, not occupied, as in those 
 of goats, sheep, and oxen, to a considerable extent,
 
 ANTELOPE. 
 
 with cells communicating with the frontal sinuses. 
 They are also distinguished from the allied genus of 
 goats by having the chin beardless, and from them 
 and sheep by the horns not being longitudinally 
 angled or rid I. The horns of antelopes are, how- 
 ever, very m a< rally ammlated, or surrounded with 
 thickened rings. The body is «1«nd«w and deer-like, 
 the feet small and elegant, the tail short and tufted, 
 the hair generally short, and the colour often lively. 
 .Some species, however, have comparatively long 
 hair ; and a few which inhabit cold mountainous 
 regions are clothed with wool intermixed with longer 
 and coarser hair, particularly the Chamois (q. v.) of 
 the Alps, Caucasus, &c. ; the Hocky .Mountain Goat 
 (q. v.) of North America ; and the Ciilkc (q. v.) of 
 the Himalayas. Many species have infra-orbital 
 sinuses or tear-pits fa. v.) like deer. The females 
 of many species, as of deer, are destitute of horns ; 
 and if they alone came under observation, it would 
 
 fficult to nay to which genus they belonged. 
 The size is very various ; I the Guevei or Pigmy A. of 
 Africa (A. pygmtBa) is only 8 to 9 inches high at the 
 shoidders, whilst the largest species measure 5 or 6 
 feet. Almost all the species of antelopes are peace- 
 
 timid animals, and are distinguished by their 
 agility and fleetness. Most of them are gregarious. 
 Some inhabit plains ; others are found only in the 
 most inaccessible mountainous regions ; whilst others 
 dwell in jungles and deep forests. North America 
 possesses two or three species, which depart consider- 
 ably, as does also the chamois of Europe, from the 
 typical character of the genus. Europe produces 
 only the Chamois and the Saiga {A. Saiga), the Colus 
 of Strabo, which inhabits the southern plains of 
 Poland and Russia. Asia has a greater number of 
 species ; but they are most numerous in Africa, and 
 particularly in South Africa. The known species 
 amount to more than eighty, which are arranged in 
 sections or groups according to the peculiarities of 
 the horns and other characters, but a satisfactory 
 classification of them is difficult. Some naturalists 
 make a family of Antilopea, and subdivide it into 
 genera, but they are not separated by sufficiently 
 
 d characters. The flesh of. all antelopes is used 
 
 id; hence they are much objects of the chase. 
 
 furnish also great part of the subsistence of 
 
 I ; of prey in Africa, where some of the species 
 exist in such numbers that, particularly when severe 
 
 lit occiu's in the regions which they ordi- 
 narily inhabit, dens • and multitudinous herds occa- 
 sionally appear in the interior of Cape Colony, to 
 the terrible devastation of tile crops. Even the 
 saigas of the Tatarian plains congregate in herds of 
 many thousands in the end of autumn. 
 
 The name A. is sometimes more particularly 
 I to s i ides also known as the ( lomi 
 Indian A., and as the Sasin. It is a native of India 
 and the eastern parts of Asia, and is a beautiful 
 animal, about 2J feet high at the shoulder, with 
 divei horns, bent in a spiral of two or 
 
 i turns, The hair is uniformly short, i 
 that, as in many other species of A., there are 
 small tufts of bristles on the knees. It inhabits 
 Open plains, and the herds exercise great watchful- 
 ii . Ii ■; fleetness is such that greyhounds chase it 
 in vain ; and it can easily bound over an i 
 
 I I feet in height, or over a distance of 10 or 12 
 
 The flesh is held in small esteem, and the animal is 
 than many of its COD ra an object of the 
 
 chase. — The Saiga is a much less graceful animal ; 
 its horns are snort, and, as in many of this 
 d first outwards and then inwards, so t' 
 whole outline formed by them resembles that of a 
 lyre. They are used by the Russians and Chinese 
 for the manufacture of many articles of do 
 economy ; and it is chietly for their sake and that 
 
 of the skin that the saiga is hunted, the flesh having 
 a disagreeable taste, which is ascribed to the saline 
 and aromatic plants of the steppes. — TheDzeren {A. 
 gullurosa), sometimes called le A., and 
 
 known among the Chinese by a name which 
 fie3 the Yellow Goat, is an inhabitant of thi 
 deserts of Central Asia, the flesh of which is highly 
 esteemed, and which is then f object of 
 
 tho chaso in these regions. It derives its specific 
 name from a large movable goitre-liko protuberance 
 on the throat of the old males, produced by a dUata- 
 tion of the larynx.— The Addax, or Nubian A. (A. 
 Adilax), which was known to the ancients, and is 
 
 Addax [A. Addax). 
 
 mentioned by Pliny, has horns very similar to those 
 of the Indian A., but is a larger animal, less 
 ful, with a slight mane on the neck, a tuft ot long 
 hair on the forehead, and large broad hoofs, ail 
 for treading on line and loose sands. It inhabits tho 
 deserts of Central Africa, and, contrary to the usual 
 habits of tho genus, is said not to be gregarious, 
 but to live in pairs. The 
 Chikara and some other 
 Indian species are dis- 
 tinguished by two additional 
 rudimentary horns in front 
 of the ordinary horns, and 
 immediately over the orbits. 
 The chikara inhabits thick 
 forests and jungles. Like 
 the addax, it lives in pairs ; 
 as do also the Stein-boo 
 (q. v.) of South Africa, an 
 
 nely graceful species; 
 and the Kleene-boc of the 
 same country (A. pcrpu- 
 .«/«n), a beautiful and active Head of Antilopc Chikara. 
 little creature, with very 
 
 small horns. The kleene-boc is of a mild and gentle 
 disposition, and extremely capable of domestii 
 The Gazelle (q. v.) of North Africa [A. Dorcas), one 
 of the species known to the ancients, is very fre- 
 quently domesticated ; and from its gracefulness of 
 form, its gentleness of manners, and its bright black 
 eyes, has afforded to the Arabian poets one of 
 most favourite objects of comparison. The - 
 African SPRINO-BOO (q. v.) is another very beautiful 
 species, and is frequently domesticated by the 
 colonists at the C d Hope. Among tho 
 
 numi COUS species which that country produces may 
 be mentioned also the Blauw-boc [A. leucnphams) ; 
 t-boo (.1. arundina i u») ; and the Caffrarian 
 ( tjcrx (q. v.), [A. Oryx), which somewhat 
 but is quite d m. the Oryx of tl 
 
 (A. Leueoryx at A, 
 a nati\ ! both sides of tl. 
 
 — till more worthy of notice among the South 
 African tt in some measure departing from 
 
 tho strict A. type, is the Eland fa. v.). the largest 
 of all the antelopes— an animal which may yet pro- 
 
 M
 
 antf.nx.e -anthology. 
 
 bably be found very valuable in domi tication. The 
 
 (q, v.) la anol hei ble i peci .. allied to I be 
 
 eland. The NtitOhau (q. v.) of India, and the I ■ • 
 (q, v.) of South Africa, are also among the I 
 □pes, but depart still further from the 
 particularly the latter, bo that a separate genus 
 | ) has been constituted for it. having 
 
 better claims to be recognised than the other 
 
 into which it has been pr 1 that the antelopes 
 
 should be divided. Less different from the ordinary 
 
 type, but still with a marked approach to a bovine 
 
 the l'.ri.M.i i (q. v.) of the ancients, 
 
 a native of the north of Africa, the Arabic name of 
 
 which signifies wild ox, and the Raima (q. v.) or 
 
 beest of the Cape of Good Hope, which is 
 
 5 allied to it. The Pbono-HORH (q. v.) and the 
 
 Rocks Mountain Coat (q. v.) are the best known 
 
 i American species ; and both are found only 
 
 in the western parts of the continent. It has bi a 
 
 I posed to introduce the latter, as a wool-bearing 
 
 I. into the Highlands of Scotland. 
 
 ANTENNAE, in Zoology, jointed filaments with 
 
 which the heads of Insect ,< idMyriapoda 
 
 are furnished, and which are evidently very delicate 
 
 organs of touch. They are therefore sometime 
 
 feelers. The name A. is derived from ante, before. 
 
 The A. are placed on the anterior or superior part of 
 
 1 ; the animals appear to feel their way with 
 
 ..ad to them is ascribed the bee's powerot work- 
 
 1 the 'dark. Some suppose that they are also 
 
 of hearing, and by means of them it would 
 
 appear that many insects, as bees and ante, have 
 
 the ['ower of communicating with one another. They 
 
 ; great flexibility, but differ very much in the 
 
 number of joints which they contain (amounting 
 
 BO a times even to 100), in the n I I [th and 
 
 thickness of their joints, and also in their form, 
 
 l liliform or thread-like, clavate or club 
 
 red, &c., in endless variety. 
 
 ANTEQUE'HA (the . ,,f the Komans), 
 
 an important town in the province of Andalucia, 
 
 Spain, is situated in a fertile plain, -to miles west of 
 
 G ! i. l'o| i. 17.000. The inhabitants are e 
 
 chiefly in agricultural operations, but also manu- 
 facture baize, silk, cotton, and paper. They are 
 i 1 for their love of bright colours in dress. 
 Although A. is clean and well built, it is rarely 
 vi ted l>v travellers, on account of its lying consider- 
 ably off the high road. As late as 1514, the place pos- 
 sessed, in almost perfect condition, an ancient palace 
 and theatre; but about that time the stones were 
 plundered to build a convent, and only a few were 
 spared, which are now imbedded in the walls of the 
 town. A., like all the other cities of South Spain, 
 was for a while in the hands of the Moors ; but in 
 1410 it was retaken by the Regent Fernando, 
 who is hence called El Infante it,- A. When the 
 French took the place, during the Peninsular War, 
 they converted a curious old mosque — a relic: of 
 Moorish sway — into a storehouse, and on their 
 departure carried olf with them the magnificent 
 -Moorish armoury. 
 
 AN'THE'LIA (Gr. anli, opposite, and helios, thi 
 sun ; Ger. Gegensonnen) are luminous rings, I lb 
 an observer on a cloud or fog which lies opposite 
 to the sun. They occur chielly in alpine I 
 and in the polar seas, and are only seen when Bun- 
 .iii.l cloud, or fog, occur at the same' time. 
 They appear in the following way : When, from an 
 elevated position— as the mast of a ship, or the ridge 
 of a hill— the shadow of an observer is projected by 
 the sun on a cloud or fog, he sees the head encircled 
 by a glory or luminous ring, diminishing in bright- 
 ness as it leaves the head as a centre. When the 
 sun shines brightly, and the fog is dense, as many as 
 888 
 
 four concentric rings of this nature are seen by the 
 
 I- round Hi iw i i his bead, having their 
 
 < in cent iv in the [ii lint where a line Erom i be 
 
 Sllll through the eye of the observer meets the fog. 
 
 \\ hen the phi i assumes this form, the 
 
 are more or less coloured — the colours of the two 
 inner ril em rally brilliant, those of the third 
 
 more faint, while those of the fourth are scarcely 
 [i iv ] i ible. This last has an angular radius of about 
 ■lo , and is very seldom * en. It bears frequently the 
 name of the Circle of Ulloa or the White Rainbow. 
 A phenomenon substantially similar to the A. occurs 
 when, the sun being near the horizon, the observer 
 
 ■ aureola surrounding the shadow of hi 
 east upon grass or emu I with dew. The 
 
 occurrence of A. is generally attributed to the 
 diffraction (q. v.) of light. 
 ANTHEM (Cr. anti, in return, phone, voice; a 
 ling in alternate pari 
 i . 1 1 1 ■■ . i r I ■ ■ ■ i introduced into the service of the 
 l tish Church after the Reformation, and appointed 
 to be sung daily, at morning and evening service, after 
 the third collect. The words of the A. are taken 
 from the Psalms, or other suitable parte of the 
 Scriptures, and the music is either for solo, soli, or 
 choru . or a mixture of all three. As a specimen of 
 English music, it can only be heard to perfection in 
 Iral service. In its origin, musical construc- 
 tion, and use. it is similar to the motet of tho 
 Romish Church, which name has been retained by 
 
 the Lutheran Church. See Motet; also AsTiriiosv. 
 
 ANTHEMIS. See Chamomile. 
 
 ANTHER. SeeST.\ 
 
 ANTHEBIDIUM, the name given by some 
 
 botanists to an organ in • is plants which 
 
 they suppose to be analogous in its functions to the 
 stamen or male organ of fructification in phanero- 
 gamous plants. Antheridia are variously situated 
 on the surface of plants or within their I 
 
 Sometimes they are s pie cells; sometimes they are 
 
 composed of a number of cells, containing a mucila- 
 ginous fluid, and peculiar small I lied Phyiozoa 
 
 (i|. v.), which at a certain period exhibit active move- 
 like those of animalcules. The antheridia 
 finally discharge Heir contents through an opening; 
 and it is supposed by some that then, conl id with 
 
 another class of . to which the name 1'istil- 
 
 I.IIHI'M (<|. v.) has been given, is essential to the pro- 
 duction of spores, tin seeds of cryptogamons plants. 
 lint these lie i be n yarded as at best only 
 
 provisional, and these views as far from being 
 sufficiently established. 
 
 ANTHO'LOGY(Cr. fiower-colle ition) is the title 
 usually given to a book consisting of an unconnected 
 series of choice thoughts, whethi c in prose or \ 
 but generally in the latter. Of the collections of 
 
 this hind made in ancient times, which c I 
 
 mostly of epigrammatic i ms, the best known are tho 
 
 Qrt giet. — The first Creek A. was com- 
 
 piled by Melea r of Gadara, in Syria, about GO 
 B.O. le sides this, there were three or four others 
 
 I" I ling to periods considerably subsequent to the 
 
 birth of Christ; but all these earlier anthologi 
 lost. What we now possess are two later collec- 
 tions, one by Constantino Ccphalas in the 10th c, 
 who borrowed largely from one of the earlier antho- 
 . and another by Maximus Planudes, a monk 
 of Constantinople in the 14th c., who, by his 
 less selection from the A. of Ccphalas, rather spoiled 
 than increased the already existing store. The A. of 
 Planudes was first issued in print at Florence in 1494 
 by a learned Greek, John Lascaris. and for a long 
 time was the oidy one known. It went tlirough 
 successive editions, and received various improve- 
 ments. The latest edition (with the Latin version of
 
 ANTHOLOGY. 
 
 doting, a master-piece of latinity and rapid i 
 tion) was commenced by Bosch in 1 T i * ."» . ami finished 
 inep in 1822. Meanwhile, ' tmasius 
 
 bad di covered in the Heidelberg library (1606) tli > - 
 
 only extant manuscript of the older and richer A. 
 of Constantino Ccphalas, which he compared witli 
 that of Planudea, copying out the poems not found 
 in the latter. Duriug the Thirty Years' War, the 
 manuscript was carried to Rome ; hut in 
 1797, after the \ a s of Tolentdno, the French con- 
 trived to secure possession of it, and brought it to 
 In 1816 it was returned to Heidelberg. 
 After the important discovery of Salmasii; 
 work was often mentioned by the name of the 
 Palatinate ' , or the Vaticano-Palatinate. 
 
 Portions of it were published by Jensius, Leich, 
 l I Elotz. 'I'll ■ entire coll mented 
 
 i ili- older poet.-. 
 
 on monuments and in other work . 
 by Brunch at s i 177i', under the title 
 
 i 
 from the Old < I, and later by Jacob, 
 
 under the title of 
 i 
 
 or Fugitive Pieces of the I i, from the 
 
 of Brunch), 1704 — 1S14, at J. 
 then, it has been published variously, in whole 
 or part. It is impossible not to a gems. 
 
 Nowhere is there to be found a i 
 poetic life, greater delicacy of sentiment, a more 
 joyous serenity, a greater abundance of wise, true, 
 humane thoughts, than sparkle in the pages of the 
 ( ; i k A To the poet, it presents the most graceful 
 images and the most exquisite conceptions ; to the 
 ipher, maxims adorned with all the graces of 
 style ; to the historian, monumental inscriptions ; to 
 the philologist, the most varied forms of an imperish- 
 able language ; to all, a charming revelation of anti- 
 cputy. 
 
 Latin Anthologies. — In 1 573 published at 
 
 Leyden, in imitation of the Greek A., a Latin A., 
 under the tit! I ta VeterumJ' Gather- 
 
 ii om the Old Poets), and Pitthuus one at 
 i 1590. A Section was issued at 
 
 cdam (1759 and 177-'o by I' 1 h r Bunnann the 
 t, under the title Anthologia Velerum 
 orum / !'■ malum (A. of Old Latin 
 
 ! nil and Poems), a more correct and 
 
 arranged edition of which was published by Meyer 
 m is:;.-,. 
 
 Asiatic literature is extremely rich in antli' ' 
 which consist sometimes of extracts from tfa 
 poets, arranged according to the subject, and some- 
 times of 'beauties' of their best poets, with bio- 
 grapliical notices, which are either placed in chrono- 
 1 order, or according to the countries in which 
 i lived. 
 
 1. Arabic Anthologies. — Abu-Tcmam published 
 om the old Arabic songs previous to the 
 ' of Mohammed, arranged them in ten books, 
 and named the entire colli ction after the first 
 
 consisted of war-songs. //..,..' ..,. .\notln-r 
 famous A. is the Dim, i of the Hudh 
 tribe), an edition of which was published by Kose- 
 i. Abu'l-Faraj of Ispahan (died 96 
 her in his 5 ik of Songs), 
 
 all the ancient Arabic songs down to fl 
 
 1 I 
 
 in 1840. Abu'l-Faraj a d the work with a 
 
 minute commentary, which makes it oik- of the 
 
 interesting of the old ' raturc. But 
 
 the richest and most complete A. of the later Arabic 
 
 > (the l'earl of the World), 
 
 debi, in which the writers are am: 
 
 ing to the provinces in which they lived. It has 
 
 iitcd and enlarged since the period of 
 
 the original compiler. '.ese and similar 
 
 national ant' as have been made in 
 
 almost every pro\ . the Arabic culture and 
 
 sjieech prevailed. Such, for example, are the 
 numerous Arabico-SpanLsh onc3, though these are 
 but little known. 
 
 2. P -. — In the Persian literature, 
 the best known works of this soit ■rat al 
 
 ■ (Lives of the Poets), by Daulet Shah (died 
 1495), tl of which are to be f- 
 
 entire in Hammer's work on Persian 
 (Vienna, 1818), and Alt 
 by Haje-Lutf-Ali-Beg, who lived about IT" 1 ). 
 works give biographical notices of the Persian poets : 
 the first, in chronological order ; the second, in 
 phical order, with specimens from their 
 An A. of the best Persian poetry, arranged 
 accordin ibjects, is given in the . 
 
 Shuara (a Collet tion of I 
 
 3. Ta I'octs who have 
 written in the Tatar— i. e., the Last Turkish or 
 
 i tai dialect — a collection com] 
 
 441 Olograph pecimens of th 
 
 mpany), by Mir- 
 Alischir (died 1500), and 
 /'■■ . by Sadiki, extending down to the 17th c. 
 
 4. Turkish Air' i lie number of antholo- 
 
 the West Turkish, or, as it is generally called, 
 the Turkish language, is very numerous. The most 
 are — Hesh Eight 1 
 
 .i of Adrianople (died 1548); Taskarat a 
 ara (Lives of the Poets), by Latin (died 1582), 
 and. under the same title, a similar work of Ashik 
 Tshelebi (died 1571) ; and the great collection, Sub- 
 dat al-axhaar (the Blossoms of Poetry), by K 
 (died 1021). The substance of these anthologies 
 is to be found in Hammer's History of West T\ 
 y (Pesth, 1830). 
 
 5. Indian .', its. — The literature of the 
 Mohammedan population of Hindustan, which is a 
 mere copy of Persian literature, ha3 also several 
 anthologies. The most important, are — Chdzari lira- 
 
 y Ali Ibrahim, containing biographical notices 
 of 300 Hindustani poets, with specimens of their 
 writings; the collection Beni- 
 
 sure), 
 by Maim Lai (Calcutta, lS.'iO); and 
 
 by Kerjn-ed-din (Calcutta, 1845). The 
 substance of these works is to be found in Carcin 
 
 'ui et 
 lam (Paris, 1839— 1S47), which, under the 
 
 idustani by Kerim-cd-din (Delhi, 1S4S). In 
 ■ ■ Hindi, we have a rich collection of songs, 
 by Krishna: 
 0. ,s Sanscrit literature 
 
 is not so rich in anthologies as the other oriental 
 1 f we do not consider the Vedic hymns, 
 and th- collection ; of jiocms which beat I 
 title Sataia (a Century), anthologies] in 
 
 i is only one work of this kind known— 
 
 ra, towards the 
 
 ether 
 
 lyric, and dramatic poets of India, arranged under 
 
 . —From the earliest ages, the 
 I tin- custom of sending, along with the 
 yearly tribute to the en. 
 had acq Co lei ted from a 
 
 great numb 'ill of tli .ntiful. 
 
 of Songs), one of i ksof the* 
 
 A I. - 1 .ii VI 
 
 I, . | - i - 
 
 | German one, by Kiickcrt, at Altoua, lSoJ. 1
 
 ANTnON— ANTHROPOPnACT. 
 
 this, tliere 13 Tchao-ming-iot n collection of 
 
 the finest poems of the lame of the Liang dynasty 
 
 (502— 5.iG a. l\), ami : ; of the 
 
 time of the Thang dynasty (018—914 a. k). 
 
 ANTHON, Cham.es, LL.D., a well-known editor 
 of classics, was born in the city of New York 
 in 1707. At the age of 14, he entered Columbia 
 Col] -, where he pursued his studies with 
 and success for four years. I en orij sally 
 
 intended for the law, he now passed through a pre- 
 liminary practical instruction in his brother's 
 and in 1819 was admitted to the liar of the supreme 
 court of the state of New York. His time, however, 
 was chiefly devoted to classical literature, for 
 he soon began to acquire a high reputation; and in 
 1820, when only 23 years of age, he was appointed 
 adjunct-professor of Languages in Columbi I 
 which ollice he held for fifteen years. He now com- 
 menced that series of classical publications which 
 has done so much to make available for popular 
 purposes the erudite researches of European sri >lai 
 Jlis lirst work was a new edition <>f Lem 
 Classical Dictionary, which was almost immediately 
 re-issued in England. In 1830 appeared his larger 
 edition of Horace, quite a novelty in its way. on 
 account of the superabunda 1 1 notes which 
 
 accompanied the text. In 1S33, he issued a smaller 
 edition, for the use of schools and colleges. Virgil, 
 Gesar, and other ancient writers have been illus- 
 1 in the same attractive manner. A.'s editions 
 of the classics have acquired an extensive popularity; 
 but scholars are disposed to regard them with a 
 kind of learned aversion, both because of the temp- 
 tations they present to the school-boy to overlook 
 liculties of a knotty passage, and of the super- 
 fluous and often unimportant matter which is digni- 
 fied with the title of 'commentary' or 'notes.' It 
 cannot be doubted, however, that these works have 
 given a healthy stimulus to the rudimentary study 
 of the ancient authors. In 1831, A. reeeiv d the 
 degree of LL.D. from his Alma Mater. In 1S35, he 
 succeeded Professor Moore in the chair of Ian 
 A. has likewise published large works on . 
 geography, Greek and Roman antiquities, mythology, 
 literature, &c. — in all, about 50 volumes. 
 
 ANTHONY, ST. See ASTOHY, St. 
 
 ANTHOXANTHIUM. See Veknal Grass. 
 
 A'NTHRACITE (Gr. antfirax, a coal), a mineral 
 substance of the nature of coal, but consisting of 
 carbon with a inininiuni amount of hydrogen. It is 
 of a black colour, conchoidal fracture, and imper- 
 fectly metallic lustre (hence called glance-coal). It 
 burns slowly, and without flame, and hence is some- 
 times called blind-coal. Its vegetable origin cannot 
 be doubted. Where strata of common coal have been 
 broken through by trap dikes, the coal next the trap 
 is found to bo A, with a gradual transition into the 
 ordinary state ; hence geologists look upon A. as 
 natural coke (q. v.), formed by heat or other process 
 from ordinary coal. A. is used as fuel like coke. It 
 is applied in many places to the burning'of lime and 
 bricks, the reduction of iron, &c. It occurs exten- 
 sively in Ireland, and in some of the coal-fields of 
 England, Scotland, and the continent of Europe; 
 but on the largest scale in the United States. 
 
 ANTHROPO'LATRY (Or.), a term signifying, 
 according to its derivation, the worship of man, and 
 always employed in reproach. Thus, the early 
 Christians accused the heathens of A., because, in 
 their mythology, men were represented as exalted 
 among the gods, although an apotheosis (q. v.) was 
 in these cases alleged by their worshippers ; and the 
 heathens retorted the charge because of the worship 
 of Christ ; the reply to which was the assertion of 
 his divinity. But the term is chiefly known in 
 
 ecclesiastical history in connection with the employ- 
 of it by the Apollinariana (q. v.) against tho 
 orthodox Christians of the 4th and 5th centuries, 
 with reference to the doctrine of the 1 
 human nature of Christ 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY (from the Cr. anthropos, 
 man), a term sigm to its derivation, 
 
 that branch of scicuco which has man forii subject. 
 In its proper sense, it is very comprehensive, and of 
 
 includes Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology, 
 Ethnology, and even History in the largest sense of 
 
 ni, with much of Tic cs, &c. 
 
 It is not in common u •. and v. hi n it is used, is often 
 limited to the subject of the relations between mind 
 and matter, or soul and body, in man. 
 
 ANTHROPOMO'RPHISM (from the Cr. an- 
 man, and morphS, a form), the application, in a 
 figurative way, to Cod, of terms which properly relate 
 to human beings. Thus, in the Holy Scnpturi 
 read of the eye, the car, the arm, the hand of God ; 
 and of bis remembering, forgetting, &c. Ihis \. 
 appears to arise of necessity from our incapacity of 
 forming conceptions of things spiritual, or finding any 
 terms in which to express them, except by aim 
 derived from things cognizable by our senses, so that 
 even the language of adoration is borrowed from the 
 familiar things of this world. It must be evident, 
 however, that A. employed in an unguarded manner, 
 or too grossly understood, might lead to most i 1 
 error; and a tendency has manifested itself at various 
 times in the history of the Christian Church, to ascribe 
 to the Divine Being a form and parts like those of 
 men. Thus, the Audaeana (q. v.) or Audi 
 Syrian monastic sect which sprang up in the 4th e., 
 accused, and, it would seem, justly, of holding 
 that God was possessed of a human shape, and that, 
 when the Bible said that 'God created man in his 
 own image.' the words are to be understood of tins 
 shape literally. The same error was at a later period 
 ascribed to the Waldenses, but there is no evil ace 
 of the justice of the accusation. A tendency to 
 may indeed be regarded as always 1 ting, and so 
 requiring to be guarded against in the mind of every 
 man ; but the instances have been rare and isolated, 
 although they have from time to time occurred, in 
 which anthropomorphite views have been fully 
 adopted and openly expressed among Christians. 
 The error of the anthropomorphitea has, however, 
 found countenance from the speculations of philoso- 
 phers. Hobbes, Forster, and Priestley ascribed to 
 the Divine Being a sort of subtile body. Fichte, on 
 the other hand, rejected the very doctrine of the 
 personality of the Divine Being as anthropomorphic, 
 and represented God as the moral order of the 
 universe ; and Sehelling, Hegel, I'cuerbach, and 
 Schleiermacher substituted for the objective person- 
 abty of God a subjective consciousness of God in 
 the human soul. — The term Anthropopa&ism is 
 sometimes employed to denote the ascription to God 
 of human affections and passions, although A, in it3 
 most general sense, includes this. The language 
 of Scripture, in the many instances of this kind, 
 must be interpreted according to the same general 
 principles which are appUcable in those of A. strictly 
 so called, with the same discrimination of the 
 figurative from the literal, and the same constant 
 recognition of the absolute spirituality and onchange- 
 ablcncss of God ; yet so that important truths 
 conveyed by means of such language, and which it 
 is probable could only be conveyed to us by such 
 language, in accordance with our mental constitu- 
 tion, may not be rejected or obscured. And here, it 
 must be confessed, there is greater difficulty than 
 with regard to A. strictly so called. 
 
 ANTHROPOPHAGI. See Caxmbais.
 
 ANTHUS— ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. 
 
 ANTHUS and ANTIIID7E. See Piprr. 
 ANTHYLLIS. See KfDKET Vi 
 AXTIARIS anil AXTJAR. See Upas. 
 AXTI'BES (anciently Atilipolix), a fortified sea- 
 
 f,i the department of the Var, in the B.E of 
 rovence, France, lat. 43° 34' N., long. 7° 8' K. 
 6200. It lies on the east side of a small neck of land 
 oalled La-Garoupe, not far from tho frontier of 
 i, in a very fertile district, producing wine 
 and fruits. The harbour is only serviceable, how- 
 ever, for small craft It is a military station of the 
 third rank, t naval school, and has con- 
 
 siderable trade in olives, dried fruits, salt-iish, oil, 
 
 l be i bovies prepared at A. are held in 
 
 estimation. The environs of the town are beautifully 
 lens, vineyards, and orchards. 
 old place, having been founded by 
 
 j of G ks from Massilia (.Marseille), of 
 
 it was a dependency. In the tin- i 
 Augustus it was elevated to the rank of an 1 1 
 city, and must have attained a b b 'I 
 
 are to judge from the ruins that 
 .still exist. After the wreck of the old Roman 
 empire, A. suffered the fate of all classic cii 
 that region, becoming subject to successive tril 
 barbarians frum the north. In tho 9th c, it was 
 by the Saracens; in the 16th c, it was 
 fortified by Francis I. and Henry IV.; during the 
 Austrian War of Succession, it sustained a si 
 three months (1710) ; and in recent times, • 
 some notoriety from having closed its gates against 
 Napoleon, on Iris return from Elba. 
 
 A XTICHLORE is the name given to commer- 
 cial sulphite of soda by paper-makers. When the 
 tags are reduced to a pulp, they are bleached by 
 chloride of lime (bleaching-powder), which thoroughly 
 soaks the pulp, and is very difficult to wash out. 
 The traces of chlorine thus left in the pulp pass 
 into the manufactured paper, and tend to bleach 
 thewri '» ink which maybe traced thereon. To 
 free the pulp from the residue of the chlorine, some 
 sulphite of soda is employed, and hence the name 
 A., which bterally signifies ' against (anti) chlorine.' 
 A'NTICHRIST (from Gr. anti, against, and 
 •, Christ). The general notion of A., 
 as a jiower opposing itself to the reign of the 
 ah, may be traced back beyond the Christian 
 era. Its origin is perhaps to be found in the pro- 
 phecy of Ezekiel concerning the doom of Gog and 
 E, In accordance with the old saying, ' When 
 is sorest, help is nearest,' the Jews conceived 
 that, immediately previous to the Messiah's reign, 
 national adversity must be experienced in an extreme 
 . and that an agent of Satan woidd appear. 
 who must be overcome before prosperity could 
 be restored. This was A. The idea is adopted 
 in the New Testament, although the term A. occurs 
 in mi plaee of Scripture, except in the First and 
 Second Epistles of John. From such 
 as the prophecies of the Saviour, Matt xm 
 Mark xiii., it has been inferred by some that prob- 
 ably the great truth which this conception was 
 intended to shadow forth was similar to that illus- 
 trated in the life of 'the Man of Sorrows' — that only 
 : h tribulation and strife could the I i i 
 be establish d, that Christ's k 
 like Christ himself, could bo made perfect only 
 
 And with tlus tin I 
 John in his epistles, and of Paul ill pa 
 seem to embody the same idea, is supposed to accord. 
 Nor is it regarded as a fatal objection to this opinion, 
 that in the Apocalypse the Antichristian power or 
 
 ited with the great heathen capital 
 
 Rome, symbolically designated Babylon. 
 
 But this opinion neither ha3 been nor is generally 
 
 prevalent. The idea of A. early became asso* 
 with that of the Millennium (ii. v.), retaining a form 
 very similar to that which it had among the Jews 
 the advent of the Messiah ; and popular 
 opinion has always sought to lind for it some actual 
 and definite embodiment, In the cth c, a popular 
 id prevailed, founded on the passage in the 
 Apocalypse, ami 8, that Nero ws 1, and 
 
 would return in the ch a> b ee the loth 
 
 c, the prevail nt opinion testants has been 
 
 that A. is the Roman Catholic Church; an idea 
 entertained even at an earlier pi riod, as 
 by Ludwig of Bavaria, regarding Pope John XXII., 
 
 by Occam, Wicklil 'ham, and 
 
 the Bohemian reformer Janow, and which seems 
 
 vailed to a considerable extent an 
 the Hussites and other opponents of Kome. This 
 opinion has of course luously opposed 
 
 nan Catholic writers, as by Bossu 
 his comments on the Apocalypse, ably advocat 
 opinion that Pagan Rom 
 
 Roman Catholics, however, are much divided upon 
 iliject, many of them maintaining that A. is 
 yet to come and 'to raise the last n,' as 
 
 'no one has yet appeared to i can apply 
 
 the character which the infallible Word < 
 declares shall be that of the real A.' — Keenan's 
 I m of the Christian R'iigion. 
 
 The opinion prevalent among Protestants depends 
 upon the identification of A. with the in 
 Babylon of the Apocalypse, and with other symbolic 
 representations in that book, of a power opposed to 
 the cause of Christ, and also with the ' Wicked' one, 
 the 'Man of Sin,' and 'Son of Perdition,' in 2d 
 These, ii. Thus it is maintained that a definite 
 embodiment of the idea of A. is to be sought in 
 history, and that this is to be found in the Church 
 of Rome or in the Papal power. And Protestants 
 refer to the gradual growth i ! 
 errors winch they regard as culminating in the 
 Church of Rome, as accordant with the declaration 
 of Paul in 2d Thess. ii., that 'tie- I 
 iniquity doth already work,' and with that of John, 
 i now are there many antichrists.' 
 There have been, however, among Protestants 
 
 eminent opponents of this opinion, ai ig 
 
 may be named Grotius. His own opinion was 
 
 1 gala, the Roman emperor, \ 
 In the Greek Church, the term A. has been under- 
 stood as especially applicable to Mohammed, or to 
 the dominion of the Turks aud Saracens. Almost 
 every great or striking event — the arrival of tho 
 Mllll; the beginning of the Crusades; the 
 'black death' and other plagues in the 14th c. ; tho 
 career of Napoleon in 1805; and i htical 
 
 movements of ISIS and 184! d new 
 
 interpretations "t . 8 of Scripture regarding 
 
 A. See Revelation, Book of. 
 ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, thename adopted 
 
 by an association which concentre! A tl tl'orts of 
 
 the free-trade party in Brita; led tin m to 
 
 carry the repeal of tho corn-laws, and establish in 
 practice the principle cd i thus 
 
 accomplished will havo to be i other 
 
 Hue state- 
 Blent is limited to a brief account of the 1 
 itself, and i; of workinj . 
 
 obtain the repeal of the corn-1 lis I 
 
 before the embodiment of I I -—one 
 
 dly was founded in London in 1834. In 1S38, 
 Mr Cobden and othi rs pportanitap of the 
 
 periodical a of the Mai • bamber 
 
 of Commerce for exposing the deleterious intluence 
 of the restrictive comn J on the manufac- 
 
 and trade of the country. The Erii 
 free-trade, at the sanio time, occasionally met in
 
 ANHGOSTI— AXTIGONUS GONATA& 
 
 : ami promulgate their i 
 but it was in the be jinning of 1839 coat the 
 of the party was first drawn to a Co 
 appointment of delegates from the manufactur- 
 
 ing districts to proceed to London, and 
 
 plea on the legislature. Mr Charles 
 
 Villiers, now (1! ut of thi 
 
 leaders! ca ise in 
 
 the !i of Commons, of which Mr O 
 
 ly, was not 
 On the I'.'th ol February, Mr 
 Pilhers moved that the House resolve itself into a 
 committee of inquiry on the corn 1 
 the 12th of March, he moved that certain manufac- 
 turers be heard by council at the bar ol 
 against the corn-laws, as injurious to their private 
 interest, The former motion ed by 342 to 
 
 195; the latter, by 361 to 172, Immediately ■ 
 return of the delegates from their i 
 effort, the I. ■•■ ae was formed. Its constitutio 
 from I 
 
 in Manchi I he for- 
 
 mation of a permanent union, to be called "The 
 Anti-corn-law League," com] all the towns 
 
 and district i ] 1 in the d 
 
 many others as might be in.I m auti-corn- 
 
 I i he League. 
 
 ■ i '■ ' from the different local; ; ons to 
 
 nr etfor Dusin from | rincipal 
 
 towns repre- 
 
 • With the vii w to secure unity of action, the 
 central office of the League shall be established in 
 Manchester, to which body shall be into 
 
 other duties, those oi and recom- 
 
 competent lecturers, tl ig the 
 
 ■ pi ration of the public press, and the establishing 
 
 and conducting of a stampi 
 
 pose of keening a constant corresp ith the 
 
 local associations.' 
 
 It was resolved that, in addition to the funds 
 which local associ ir own 
 
 t purposes, £5000 should be pul at tit 
 sal of the central body, and that every person, or 
 collection of persons, contributing £50, should have 
 one vote in its deliberations. The League collected 
 distributed large sums of money. Just before 
 its principles became triumphant in" the free-trade 
 legislation of 1S46, it demanded a quarter of a 
 million, which woidd have been supplied had it been 
 ary. 
 
 It is of the greatest moment that the cause of the 
 success of the League should not be misundc I I : 
 it triumphed not by possessing money, but by 
 ing a scientific truth. It was a great organisation 
 for educating thecountry in politii The 
 
 leading principles of this science were so little known 
 when the! i, and had b dually 
 
 prornn! ire its end, that a majority ofth 
 
 liament who, in 1S41, had 1. I ior the sup- 
 
 port of protection, were converted to free-trade, the 
 conversion including the prime-minister, Sir Robert 
 Peel The key-note to the literature of the League 
 was struck by the beautiful logical exposition of 
 free-trade in General Thomp of the 
 
 which, with other tracts, was profusely 
 dispersed over the country, while a large stalf of 
 lecturers aided in the task of education. Thinking 
 to serve their cause in the same manner, the Protec- 
 tionist party, at a meeting held in the Duke of 
 Somerset's house, ou 17th February Is!!. 
 ' The Agricultural Protection Society of G 
 Britain.' Thi3 body had inexhaustible wealth at 
 command, but in reality its exertions only helped to 
 f urthcr the cause of free-trade, by promoting i 1 
 sion. and prompting people to work out the question 
 for themselves. 
 
 ANTICO'STI. an island in the Gulf of SI l.aw- 
 with.i light-house at its south 
 
 i in I. it. 49' 24' X., and long. S3 39 1 W. ttis 
 
 ited to contain 2000 square miles. Neither to 
 
 , ler nor to the mariner is A. of any value. It 
 
 is destitute of harbours, the north shore I 
 
 . and the south low and bee 
 
 Id increase the danger, the neighbouring 
 
 1 to be cap i 
 
 i : surface is an alternate 
 rocks and swamps. The only inhabitants are the 
 Jit bouse. 
 A., however, IS of use, or promises SOi 
 in connection with the transmission of subn 
 
 ipbs across and along the Cult of St Law- 
 It has also been proposed to construct here 
 a harbour of refuge by means of convict labour. 
 
 ANTIDOTE (Gr. given against), a counter- 
 poison. See Poison - . 
 
 ANTI'GONB, a character of the heroic a 
 , daughter of (Edipus by his own m 
 
 fcer to Eteocles, Polynices, and 
 
 She accompanied her father in his 
 
 into < lolonus in Attica, and after his death, red; I 
 
 to Theb. -. Et locles, the king, had banished Ins 
 
 brother Polynices, who, coming back with an army, 
 
 '. '■ ' combat Both fell, and Creon, 
 
 ler their death bad become tyrant of I 
 an edict forbidding their interment. A. alone 
 dared to disobey. She buried Polynices, and i 
 consequence seized by the monster, who shut her 
 in r in the same tomb with her brother, or in 
 terraneous cave, where she perished. This 
 1 I in, son of Creon, who 
 betrothed to A., into a U d apair that he destro fed 
 himself. A., as the ideal of feminine duty and lilial 
 devotion, has been immortalised by Sophocles in his 
 dramas of (Ediput at Colonus and Antigone. — A., 
 daughter of Kurytion, and wife of Peleus, who 
 1 herself upon hearing a false report of her 
 e to Sterope, daughter of Acs I US. 
 — A., daughter of Laomedon, and sister of Priam, 
 who, having offended Juno by comparing her own 
 beauty to that of the goddess, had her hair turned 
 into snakes, which so tormented her, that the gods, 
 in compassion, changed her into a stork. 
 
 AXTIGONUS. Of the numerous persons who 
 bore this name, the most celebrated was the sou of 
 Philip of Elymiotis, and one of the generals of 
 Alexander the < treat. In the division of the empire 
 which followed the death of his master, A. receivi d 
 the provinces of Phrygia-Major, Lyeia, and I'am- 
 phylia. Being accused of disobedience by Pcrdiccas, 
 who wished to gain possession of all the territories left 
 by Alexander, A. entered into alliance with ('rati i us, 
 Antipater, and Ptolenueus, and declared war against 
 Pcrdiccas in .'121 B.C. In the same year, Pcrdiccas 
 was assassinated by bis own soldiers ; but A. carried 
 on the war against Eumenes, to whom Perd 
 bad given rule over Paphlagonia and Cappadoria, 
 Eumenes, and afterwards Seieucus, who reigned in 
 Syria, were deposed by A., whose ambition and 
 cupidity now knew no bound-. Se seized the 
 treasures of Alexander kept at Ecbatana and Sua, 
 which he refused to share with his allies, Ptolemx-us, 
 i m of Antipater), and Lysimachus. All 
 the other generals now allied themselves against 
 him, ;nd a long series of contests took place in 
 Syria, l'hcenicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, which 
 ended with the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia (301 B.C.), 
 when A. was slain, in his eighty-first year. 
 
 AXTI'GOXUS GONA'TAS was the son of 
 Demetrius Poborcetes, king of Macedonia, and 
 grandson of the great Antigonus. On his father's 
 death, B.C. 2S3, various claimants for the throne
 
 ANTIGUA— ANTILLES. 
 
 appeared, and much confusion ensued, the result of 
 v, hi' h was that the royal power fell into the hands 
 ili-mams ( 'eraunus, who, however, soon aftei 
 perished in a Ijattlc with the Gauls, when A. G. at 
 length became niler of the country (277 B.O.), and 
 governed precariously in that age of intrigue, dis- 
 simulation, and violence, for 33 yean. Ho was twice 
 expelled from his dominions by a hostile force 
 from Epirus, but found refuge and assistance in the 
 Peloponnesus. The close of his career was com- 
 paratively peaceful. He died in 243 B.C. 
 
 AXTI'GI'A. a West India island, the most 
 important of the Leeward Caribbees (sue An : 
 and tin- residence of the govcrnor-in-clik-f of the 
 British portion of the group. It lies in \\ . 
 between 61" 44' and 61° 68'; and in N. lat, between 
 17 2 and 17' 13'. Its area is at 110 
 
 square miles — equal to 70,400 acres, of which 
 60,000 are under cultivation. In 1851, the popula- 
 tion of A. was 37,130, yielding to a square mile 
 an average of about :>3S inhabitants. It was first 
 settled in 10o_', having till then remained, in fact, 
 uninhabited on account of the great scarcity of 
 i water. It has twice suffered severely from 
 earthquakes— in 1689 and 1S43; while of hurricanes 
 also, the other heavy scourge of the group, A. has 
 had its full share. Numerous islets, rocks, and shoals 
 border the shore, so that, generally speaking, : 
 is difficult and dangerous. But St John's, the chief 
 town, stands at the head of a safe and capacious 
 bay, which unfortunately, however, does not admit 
 large vessels. English Harbour is, on the whole, a 
 more commodious port, and has been selected as the 
 station of the Royal Mail Steam-packets. It is said 
 to be capable of receiving the largest ships in the 
 British navy. 
 
 A. is chiefly of tertiary formation. The south and 
 west shew grauwacke, porphyry, trap, breccia, amyg- 
 daloid, and basaltic greenstone; the north ami i 
 exhibit calcareous marl and coarse sandstone, inter- 
 I with blocks of limestone; while the int> nor 
 [■resents argillaceous strata and irregular beds of 
 coarse flint. 
 
 B ides provisions, generally almost sufficient for 
 its own consumption, A. produces large quantities of 
 BUgar, molasses, and rum. In this respect, the 
 emancipation of the slaves appears to have been 
 rather beneficial than otherwise, as the following 
 table indicates : 
 
 Commerce. 
 Imports (value), 
 Exports, » 
 Sugar crop (hogsheads), 
 
 "S (puncheons), 
 Inward shipping (tons), 
 
 1851. 
 
 15 £198,425 
 
 206,464 219535 
 
 12,189 14,739 
 
 7.177 8,701 
 
 22,790 34,439 
 
 In connection generally with the emancipai 
 I laves, of whom immediately previous to the 
 abolition of slavery, A. had about 30,000, it 
 to have occupied a prominently creditable position. 
 Immediately after the passing of the unj 
 statute on the subject, the local legislature. - 
 in ; the intermediate and probationary state of 
 atioeahip, proclaimed unqualified freedom for 
 1st August 1S34 — a bold measure, which proved to 
 judicious as it was humane. 
 
 ANTI'LLES, a term used to designate gen 
 Che whole of the West India Islands, except the 
 Bahamas. Generally speaking, they stretch east- 
 Erom the Gulf of .Mexico to about the meri- 
 dian of the Gulf of Paria ; then southward i 
 Gulf of Paria itself ; and 1 
 
 Gulf of Maracaybo. Primarily, however, they are 
 regarded not as threo sections, but as two — the 
 Greater A., to the north and west; and the I 
 
 to the east and the south. This distinction, which 
 obviously involves considerations of position as 
 of magnitude, will be found to indicate also 
 a diffei anic structure. 
 
 The Greater A., reckoning from the west, are : 
 Cuba (Spanish), Jamaica (British), Hayti (ind 
 dent), and Porto Rico (Spanish). nd, in 
 
 W. long, from 84° 58" to 65* 40', and in X. lat. from 
 23° 9" to 17° 40' — the higher of these two parallels 
 nly 21' or about 25 miles within the 'I 
 
 • in the lowest estimate, the area is said 
 to amount to 70,000 square miles. The Greater 
 to be of primitive formation, presenting 
 lofty granitic mountains. In Jamaica, hov, 
 e many hills of calcareous origin. 
 
 The Lesser A. may be divided into two chains — 
 the eastern, trending round from the eastward of 
 Porto Rico to the Gulf of Paria ; and the southern, 
 stretching away in a direction nearly parallel with 
 that of the Greater A,, along the cos tol Vei 
 as far as the Gulf of Mai With reference 
 
 to the ]'i. vailing trade-wind, these two chains are 
 respecti'.' ly de .gnatcd the Windward and the 
 Leeward Islands. 
 
 The Windward Islands, reckoning from the north, 
 come in pretty nearly the following order : Virgin 
 Islands (Danish and British), Anegada (Br 
 Anguilla (British), St Martin I French and Dutch), 
 St Croix (Danish), Saba (Dutch), St Bartholomew 
 h), St Eustatius (Dutch), Barbuda (British), 
 St Christopher's (British), Nevis (British), Antigua 
 (British), Montserrat (British), Deseada (French), 
 Guadaloupe (French), Marie Galante (French), Domi- 
 nica (Pritish). Martinique (French), St Lucia (British), 
 Barbadoes (British), St Vincent (British), Grena- 
 dines (British), Grenada (British), Tobago (British), 
 Trinidad (British). They extend in W. long, from 
 6.V 30', at the west extremity of the Virgin Isles, to 
 59 '-ii. at the east extremity of Barbadoes; and in 
 N. lat. from 18 ; 4S', at the north extremity of Anegada, 
 to In 31', at the south extremity of Tril 
 
 rhaps scarcely equals 5000 square 
 miles, being not materially larger than that of 
 J i alone. — The Windward Islands are other- 
 
 .1 ii died the Caribbees, from the now extinct race 
 of the ( laribs (q. v.) ; and hence the sea, which they 
 cut off from the open Atlantic, has taken the name 
 of l 'aribbcan. 
 
 The Leeward I ' ' east, 
 
 may be given as follow : '; ■ mzuelan), 
 
 rita (Venezuelan). Ti Venezuelan), 
 
 I'.laiiqnilla (Venezuelan), Buen Aviv (Dutch), Curacoa 
 
 I, Aruba (Dutch). They extend in W 
 from 63 1 2', at the east end of the Testigos, to 70 II' 
 at the west end of Aruba; and in N. lat. from 11, at 
 the south of Margarita, to 12 J , at the north of 
 Curacoa. Their entire area cannot ex 
 
 The Lesser A., as a whole, appear to be d 
 of eoral formation, or origin. Many of 
 
 them contain extinct craters ; and. though not 
 tute of harbours, their coasts are n ndi red in a great 
 
 are inaccessible by reason of n 
 The A. | i c rally— but perhaps I I r more 
 so than the Greater— are subject tohurrican 
 earthquakes. Their principal 
 rum, cotton, c I e individual islands wM 
 
 be found noticed more in detail in their r, spective 
 
 The name A. is generally supposed to hav 
 given by mistake) Indian Islands. Before 
 
 v of America by Columbus, a tradition 
 far to the west of the Azores there 
 lay a laud called Antilla, whose position was 
 vaguely indical I in the maps of the early i 
 graphers. Only eight mouths after Columbus's
 
 AXTILOPE— ANTIXOMTAXISM. 
 
 return, we Martyr writing that the 
 
 i navigator had touchi I 
 be tlic Antill.i- ; and it ia carl tin thi 
 and Hayti win- known as such before a 
 in the Caribbean chain was discovered 
 
 AXTILOPE. See A 
 
 ATJTIMONY (in Lat. Stibium; hence the 
 chemieal symbol 8b) is a brittle metal of a flaky, 
 crystalline texture, and a bluish-white colour. It 'is 
 readily reduced to powder 1 V ordinary pulverisation ; 
 
 heated to 840° V., it fuses, 'and th i 
 being allowed to cool, it solidifies in rhombohedral 
 crystals, which are isomorphous with those of 
 arsenic. Heated in a retort, where tie- 0x3 
 the air is excluded, ae in an atmosphere of hyd 
 
 A. volatilises as the vapour 01" the pure metal When 
 raised in temperature in contact with the air, it 
 burns with a white light— combining with the 
 11 of the atmosphere, and farming copious 
 white fumes of the teroxide of A., or ' flowers of A.' 
 The metal is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, 
 but may be used, in conjunction with bismuth, in 
 the construction of thermo-electric piles. Ex 
 to the air at ordinary ten:; \. does not 
 
 I ish or rust ; and this property, combined with 
 tie' hardness of the metal a 1 I of it< eomp 
 renders A. of essential service in the useful arts, in the 
 construction of alloys, such as Britannia metal, type 
 1 and plat'' pewter. It is likewise employed 
 in the preparation of the large concave mirroi 
 i ronomical ol is; and in the easting of 
 
 1 m harder and whiter, and to give 
 
 them a clearer and strongi c sound. 
 
 'The principal natural sources of A. arc—;/ 
 
 V. of commerce, which is the impure tcrsul- 
 of A. (SbS,); and 1 . A., in which it 
 " with silver, 
 
 . The exti \. from 
 
 its ores is mainly carried on at Iiiiz, in Germany, 
 where the sulphide of A. is found extensiv< ly, and in 
 Great Britain, which receives its supply of ore from 
 Singapore and Borneo, commonly as ballast The 
 process consists in he. I 1 ude ore, covered 
 
 with charcoal, on the bed of a furnace, when the 
 sulphide of A. fuses, leaving unmelted the earthy 
 impurities; and thereafter the liquid is drawn off 
 into iron moulds, when- it sr.Ii.lities into cakes or 
 loaves. The latter are powder, 
 
 iilaeed on the be -I of a reverberatory furnai 
 teated with access of ordinary air containing oxygi n. 
 when the sulphur . ohurous 
 
 acid (SO.), leaving behind the A. I roxide 
 
 |. The roasted mass is now mixed with one- 
 sixth of its weight of powdered charcoal 
 moistened with a solution of carbonate of soda, and 
 raised to bright redness in crucibles, when the 
 metal A. trickles to the bottom, and the impurities 
 are left above in the spent flux or scoria, winch is 
 known in the arts by the name of crocus of A. 
 
 The compounds 01 A. arc numerous: with oxygen 
 it forms (1) i I of A., or while A. ore < 
 
 'liters into the composition of tai I 
 (2) anlimonioua acid (SbO ( ), which forms one of the 
 
 uents of Dr James's powders; (3) 1 
 
 5bO ( ), a very insoluble compound, obtained by 
 
 upon the metal with concentrated nitric 
 With sulphur, A. forms the tersul 
 
 ired to as a natural ore of the metal, 
 and which when roasted at a temperature sufficient 
 to fuse it, passes into the mixed teroxide and ter- 
 sidphide of A. known commercially as the gl 
 A. A native oxysnlphide, of a pretty red colour, is 
 called red 1 the ordinary sulphide of 
 
 A. is boiled with potash, or the carbonate of potash, 
 i 'Ives; and thereafter, on boiling, dip 
 
 h-brown substance, known 1 
 
 The liquid from which the dej. lien, if 
 
 i with hydrochloric acid, throws down an 
 ipitate of ■: .! A. 
 
 iso a chloride of prepared by 
 
 ig sulphide of A. and hydro tad to- 
 
 ll has the common name of butter 
 \. b is j aerally obtained as an oily liquid, of 
 
 the consistence of melted butter, and of a 
 yellow colour. Mixed with olive od, it is used by 
 gunmakers as o< , to impart a yellow 
 
 The surface of the metal is 
 ards polished by a burnisher, or coatcil 
 a varni 
 
 The various compounds of A. are used as medi- 
 cinal agents, both in human and veterinary practice, 
 .iy the tartar enu ie, a compound of teroxide 
 of A., potash, and tartaric acid (SbO,,Ki l,T). 
 
 ANTIXo'MIAXISM. (Gr. nnti, against, and 
 nomos, law), the doctrine or 1 I Christians 
 
 ed from obligation to beep the law of God. 
 It is generally n i rded by tin- advocates of the 
 doctrine of justification by faith, as a moi 
 abuse and perversion of ne, upon which it 
 
 usually professes to be based. From several pa 
 of the New Testament, as Horn, vi, and 'J Pet ii. 
 IS, 10, it would seem that a tendency to A. had 
 manifested itself even in the a] > ; and 
 
 many of the Gnostic sects ware really antinon 
 
 ly also some of the heretical sects of the 
 middle ages ; but the term was first used at the 
 time of the Reformation, when it was applied by 
 Luther to the opinions advocated by John Agricola. 
 Agricola bad adopted the principles of the Refor- 
 mation; but in \~r21 he found fault villi Melancthon 
 for recommending the use of the law, and particu- 
 larly of the ten commandments, in order to pi 
 conviction and repentance, which he deemed incon- 
 sistent with the gospel Ten years after, he main- 
 tained in a disputation at Wittenberg, that as men 
 are justified simply by the gospel, the law is in no 
 way necessary for justification or for sanctifii 
 
 \ntinomian Controversy ' of this time, in which 
 Luther took a very active part, terminated in 
 in a retractation by Agricola; but views more 
 extreme than bis were aft Ivocated by 
 
 some of the English sectaries of the period of the 
 Commonwealth ; and, without being formally pro- 
 by a distinct sect, A. has been from time to 
 time reproduced with various modifications. It 
 ought, however, to be borne in mind, that tin 
 A. has no reference to t ', but only to tho 
 
 I so that men who practical 1, 
 ' and violate the known law of God, are not 
 re antinomians ; and it is certain enough 
 that men n ally holding opinions more or 1 
 antinomiart, have in many cases been men of moral 
 life. It is also to be observed that the term A. has 
 I to opinions dill', 'ring very much from 
 each other. In its most extreme sense, it denotes 
 
 lection of the moral law as no longer bin 
 upon Christians ; and a power or privilege is a' 
 for the saints to do what they please without pre- 
 judice to their sanctity; it being maintained that to 
 them nothing is sinful; and this is rep 
 
 fection of Christian liberty. But besides this 
 extreme A., than which nothing can be more repug- 
 nant to Christianity, there is also sometimes 1 
 natcd by tins term the opinion of those who refuse 
 1: or to see in the Bible any positive laws 
 binding upon Christians, and regard them as left to 
 ■ ii gospel principles and the constraint 
 of Christian love ; an opinion which, whatever may 
 be thought of its tendency, is certainly not to be 
 deemed of the same character with the other. 
 Probably, the A. that docs not arise out of a dislike
 
 AXTLNOUS— ANTIOCHCS. 
 
 of morality, usually originates in mistaken notions 
 of Christian liberty, or in confusion of views as to 
 the relation between tlie moral law and the Jewish 
 law of ceremonial ordinances. 
 
 ANTrN6TJS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis, 
 in Bithynia. He was page to 1 I -drian, 
 
 and the object of bis extravagant affection, accom- 
 panying him in all his travels, but was i 
 drowned accidentally in the river Nile, or as some 
 suppose, committed suicide, from a loathing of the 
 life he led, in 122 A.D. His memory and the grief 
 of the emperor were perpetuated by many statues 
 and bass-reliefs, of which several are very beautiful, 
 especially two now in Rome— one found in the 
 baths, and the other iu the villa of Hadrian. 'In 
 all figures of A.,' says Winckelmaun, 'the face 
 has a rather melancholy expression ; the eyes are 
 itlines ; the prolile is gently sloped 
 downwards ; and the mouth and chin are especially 
 nl.' The city of Besa, in the Thebais, near 
 t<. which A. was elrowned, was also rebuilt by 
 Hadrian, and the name of Antinobpolis conferred 
 upon it, in memory of his favourite. A. was 
 further enrolled amongst the gods, and temples 
 erected to him in Egypt and Greece. 
 
 A'NTIOCH, the ancient capital of the Greek 
 kings of Syria, was the most magnificent of the 
 sixteen cities of that name built by S< Icucih Xicator. 
 Its situation was admirably chosen. The river 
 Orontes, issuing from the mountains of Lebanon, 
 flows north as far as the 36th parallel of latitude, 
 and then south-west into the Levant. On the 
 left bank of the river, after it has taken this last 
 direction, and at a distance of twenty miles from 
 the sea, lay the famous city, in the midst of a fertile 
 and beautiful plain, ten miles long by five broad. 
 By its harbour, Seleuceia, it had communication 
 with all the maritime cities of the West, while it 
 became, on the other hand, an emporium for the 
 merchandise of the East; for behind it lay the 
 vast Syrian desert, across which travelled the 
 caravans from Mesopotamia and Arabia. On the 
 north, the plain of A. is boimded by the mountain- 
 chain of Ainanus, connected with the south-eastern 
 extremity of Mount Taurus; and on the south, which 
 is more rocky, by the broken declivities of Mount 
 Casius, from which the ancient town was distant 
 less than two miles. In early times, a part of the 
 city stood upon an island, which has now i 
 
 1. The rest was built partly on the plain, and 
 partly on the rugged ascent towards Mount I 
 The slopes above the city were covered with vine- 
 . while the banks of the river displayed, an 
 they do even at the present day, a gorgeous pro- 
 fusion of eastern fruit-trees. The ancients called 
 it* A. the Beautiful,' 'the Crown of the East,' &c. 
 It was a favourite residence of the Seleucid princes 
 and of the wealthy Romans, and was famed through- 
 out the whole world for the abundance of its con- 
 veniences and the splendour of its luxury. It received 
 from Strabo the name of Tetrapolis, on account 
 of time new sites having been successively built 
 upon, and each surrounded with a wall. Its public 
 nificent. The principal were — the 
 Palace ; the Senate-house ; the Temple of .1 1 
 burnished with gold ; the Theatre, Amphitheatre, 
 and Ciesariiun, besides an aqueduct, a pnbh 
 menade, and innumerable baths. At the beginning 
 of the Roman empire, it was as large as Paris, and 
 for many generations after, continued to receive 
 numerous embelhshnients from the emperors. Nor 
 did its glory fade immediately after the founding of 
 Constantinople, for though it then ceased to be the 
 first city of the East, it rose into new dignity as 
 a Christian city. Ten councils were held in it 
 
 Churches sprang up exhibiting a new style of 
 
 ture, which soon became prevalent ; and 
 
 uistantinc himself spent a considerable time 
 
 here, adorning it, and strengthening its harbour, 
 
 ia. The Antiochenes themselves, hov. 
 brought about the ruin of their beautiful city. They 
 were famous, above all other people in ancient times, 
 for their biting and scurrilous wit, and for then? 
 . ing nicknames ; and when the 
 Persians, under Chosroes, invaded Syria in 538 A. D., 
 the Antiochenes could not refrain from jesting at 
 them. The Persians took ample revenge by the total 
 destruction of the city, which, however, was rebuilt by 
 Justinian. The next important event in its b 
 was its conquest by the B ithe 7th c. In the 
 
 dtli c. it was recovered by the Greeks under 
 phorus Phocas, but in 10S4 it again fell into the hands 
 of the Mohammedans. The Crusaders besieged and 
 took it on the 3d of June 1098. At the close of the 
 13th c, the sultan of Es\ -pt seized it : since then, 
 it has undergone a variety of vicissitudes, and at 
 present forms a portion of Syria, in the eyalet of 
 Aleppo. Its modern name is Antakieh. It exhibits 
 almost no traces of its former grandeur, except the 
 ruins of the walls built by Justinian, and of the for- 
 tress erected by the Crusaders. The houses are 
 generally of stone, and roofed with red tiles ; the 
 streets are narrow ; the manufactures few and 
 imimportant, and the population not more than 
 
 AXTTOCHUS, a common Greek name, was 
 borne by thirteen kings of Syria, four kings of 
 Commagenc (a small country between the Euphrates 
 and Mount Taurus) , and many other persons of note (see 
 Smith's Dictionari d Roman Siogr 
 
 r, the first of the Syrian dynasty, or - 
 cicke, as they were called from their founder, was 
 the son of Selencna, the general and one of the 
 successors of Alexander. A. was the fruit of 
 one of those marriages which Alexander cele- 
 brated at Susa between his generals and the prin- 
 cesses of Persia. His mother's name was Apama. 
 From this fact we gather that A. was probably 
 born in 32-1 B.C. For the earlier career of A, see 
 Seleucus. On the murder of his father in 2S0 c. c, 
 A succeeded him in his dominions, but he after- 
 wards permitted Antigonus Gonatas to retain 
 possession of Macedonia on his marrying Phila, a 
 daughter of Seleucus. A. was much occupied in 
 wars with the Gauls, who invaded Asia Minor, 
 and, on one occasion, is said to have gained a victory 
 over them by the help of his elephants, from which 
 circumstance he derived the name of Soter (Saviour). 
 as subsequently killed in a battle with the 
 Gauls (201 B.C.), and was sue- led by his son 
 A. II. This A. is mentioned in the Book of 
 Daniel (xi. G) as the king of the north— the king 
 of the south being Ptolemy, whose dau 
 Berenice. A. bad been compelled to marry. On 
 th of Ptolemy, A. recalled his former wife, 
 Laodice; but she, in r the insult which 
 
 i received, caused A to be mur. 
 with Berenice end fa x son. A lost the provinces 
 of Parthia and Bactria. 
 
 But the most distinguished of the Seleu 
 III., surnamed the Great, who was tl I OCUS 
 
 C.-dlinu i 
 
 ra with Ptolemy, Phuopator A. was gei 
 successful; and though he was defeated in a 
 battle fought near Gaza, be afterwards, by his \ 
 over the Egyptian general, S lined entire 
 
 Eossession of 1 '. ' ode-Syria. In this war 
 
 ted by the Jews, to whom he granted 
 many privileges. Fearing the power of the Romans, 
 A. at length concluded a peace wit!: I I rothed 
 
 his daughter Cleopatra to the young king Ptolemy,
 
 AXTIF.EDOBAPTIST— ANTIPATITY. 
 
 re her Coale-Syria and Palestine aa a dowry. 
 The formidable enemy win b 1 ped t" 
 
 i d him ■■'■ oi his 
 
 Having conquered Philip oi Ma© 
 Romans no longer dreaded a war ( 
 accordingly sint him an embassy, demandin 
 aorrender of the Thracian < of the 
 
 places which he had conquered from PI 
 whose guardian the Romans had I fn 191 
 
 B.O., he was entirely defeated by the consul Acilius 
 Qlabrio at Thermopylae, < Lto return to 
 
 Asia. Having a second time tried the 
 war, he was defeated by Scipio, who had i 
 over into Asia, and wry severe 1- rms were imposed 
 onhiin. He found so mu In money 
 
 to pay the tribute the Eomahs demanded, that he 
 w i , led to plunder a temple in Elymo 
 people rose against him, and killed him (187 B.C.). 
 The fat ' of A. was foretold in the Book of Daniel 
 (xL 18, 10). 
 
 A. i\"., (17.1 —164 B.a)surnami d Epiphanes, ' 
 tyranny and sacrilege, excited the Ji wa to a uuee 
 
 rection under their leaders Mattathias, Judas 
 Maccabaus, and the other members of thai 
 family. The monstrous life of A. is recorded in the 
 
 i a. The last of tl 
 
 V XIII.. snrnamed Asiatieus, wa 1 of his 
 
 kingdom by Pompey, who reduced .Syria to a Roman 
 province (05 B. c). 
 
 ANTIP-EPORATTIST. .-. term exactly desig- 
 nating on.- who objects to child-baptism. As such 
 a one, however, is generally known in tliis ci 
 under the name Baptist, see 1 1 \ I ; . . 
 
 A X TI'PAROS (anciently called Olearos or Oliaros), 
 one of the I I ads, celebrated 
 
 :ilic cave, is separated from Paros I 
 narrow strait. It contains about 400 inhabi- 
 tants, and forms a part of th" eparchy of Naxos. 
 A.i 7 miles in lei !| ; it is 
 
 scantily supplied with in the 
 
 north and west are to] Corn and 
 
 wine an- cultivated, but not to any great i 
 The principal occupation of the inhabitants is 
 fishing. From Kastron, the only village in the 
 island, the '1; tance to the i 
 about an hour and a halt's ride. Tin 
 cave is not alluded to by any Greek or Roman 
 writer whose works are extant, but must ha\ 
 
 1 by the curiosily-hunters o 
 in 1806, Colonel Leake deciphered a Hellenic i 
 tion which contained the names of those who had 
 descended into it in ancient times. It is situated in 
 the side of a mountain on the 8. coast i 
 which is described as a mass of white marble. The 
 top or entrance of the cave has a striking appear- 
 ance; but the sloping descent is rather dan 
 on account of the cord by which the tr 
 being extri mely slippery from constant hui 
 The bottom once reached, and the grotto en 
 there is presented to the eye as dazzling a specimeu 
 of stalactitic formation as can well be conceived— 
 the roof, lloor, and walls of the various ch 
 all glittering with the most gorgeous incrustation, 
 though it is said that the smoke of the torches and 
 the constant lingering of visitors, are sully.) 
 primitive purity of the massive columns. It is 
 l«li ived that there are other caves of equal splendour 
 in the vicinity which have not yet been discovered. 
 The height of the known cavern is 80 feet; its 
 length and breadth more than 300; but it seems 
 the eye can only take in at once a length of 150 
 feet, ami a breadth of 100. The grotto was first 
 made known to the modern world in 1073, by the 
 t!u u French ambassador to the Porte, M. de Nointel 
 
 ANTI'PATER. Of the many persons who bore 
 236 
 
 this name in antiquity, the most celebrated v. 
 
 ,., rala and confidential friends of King 
 Philip o ". When Alexander led his troops 
 
 into \ along with Tarn 
 
 had endeavoured to dissuade him from the expedi- 
 tion—as governor of Macedonia. A. dischi 
 , ability, Bupj 
 
 ..i Thrace and Sparta ; but 
 Olympias, the mother of Alexander, who entertained 
 a di like in A., prevailed on her .son to appoint 
 
 i ■ Macedonia, Alex 
 prompted also, it L by 1 own 
 
 of A., con '. but dud before the change was 
 
 carried I ; and A. was left to share with 
 
 the government i 
 in Europe. The government oi ' wa i 
 
 dto hu i ; and i n after, he was called upon 
 
 , it an alliance of the I 
 With the assistance of Cratems— on whom 
 he afterwards In -towed his daughter Phila in 
 marriage— and to a certain extent, of I 
 
 .! ,., ,. o bag the alt- ■ to a ij 
 Democracy at Athens was abolished, a gai 
 admitted 'into Munyehia, and the leaders 
 popular party put to death. W hi > D 
 was summoned to the presence of A., he took poi on, 
 which for some 1 ... 
 
 l and died in the templeof Poseidon (322 B.C.). 
 This war was followed by another with Perdiccas, 
 v. ho was also his son-in-law, in which A. was again 
 successful. A lurder of Perdiccas in 321 B.C., 
 
 A. was appointed to the supreme regency of the 
 kingdom, and the guardianship of Alexanders 
 children. He died at an advanced age, in B.G 318 
 or 319, leaving the regency to Polj , ! hon,to the 
 exclusion of his own son Cassander. 
 
 Tl hi amewere: I. A., second son of 
 
 Cassander, king of Macedonia, who lived in the 3d. c. 
 II. A., the father of Herod the Gn at He 
 . ,' , . of Pompey and Julius I 
 
 . Romans, and about the yi ar 
 ■17 b.c. I procurator of Judea. He 
 
 was poisoned in 43 B.C. 1".' whose life he had 
 
 . -lil. A., grandson of th 
 son of Herod it by bis fir I wife D 
 
 prince, who was perpetually conspiring 
 
 , ! . life of his brothers, until hi b I and 
 
 Quintilius \ arn . 
 
 the Bob i of Syria. He was executed 
 
 in prison five days before B ' and in the 
 
 same year with the massacre of the innocents at 
 
 A. was lil: aame of various eminent men 
 
 in ancient times — physicians, philosophers, historians, 
 mathematician ;. and grammarians. 
 
 ANTI'PATHY is the term applied to a class 
 of cases in which individuals are disagreeably 
 I by, or violently dislike, things innocuous 
 eable to the majority of mankind, These 
 peculiarities are no doubt sometimes acquired in 
 early life by injudiciously terrifying children with 
 some object, the mental impression becoming perman- 
 ent A large class of persons have an A. to animal 
 food, and from childhood refuse to taste it. In 
 others, again, the aversion is limited to one kind of 
 meat, as veal or pork; others are averse to eggs or 
 milk. Nor is this feeling a conscious caprice, which 
 an exertion of the will might remove ; for it is 
 generally found that contact with the object of the 
 A. is resented by the bodily economy, and symptoms 
 of poisoning are rapidly produced. .Some are atl'eet.-d 
 with these symptoms who have no mental aversion 
 to the article. We read of a countess who had 
 a liking for beef-udder, but directly it touch..! her 
 lips tht'y became swollen. There is also the case of 
 a boy, who, ' if at any time he ate of au egg, his lips
 
 AXTIPJlLOGISTIC-AXTTrODES. 
 
 would swell, in liia face would rise purple and 
 
 and be would froth at the mouth.' Some 
 medicines affect particular persons dangerously, even 
 
 when given in very minute doses: a sid ■ I ■ loo "i 
 
 mercury lias been known to induce a pr 
 
 tion, with destruction of the jaw-bones. On others, 
 
 medicines hare a peculiar effect — aatrir 
 
 purge. Every summer, in Great Britain, persons may 
 
 be seen with the most distressing irritation of the 
 
 nasal and palpebral mucous membranes, produced 
 
 by Hi" exhalations arising from the fields during the 
 
 inflore ce crop. In others, an asthmatic 
 
 condition is induced by the s; -ne-. 'I'll' 
 
 some places has a similar inflni ace on individuals : 
 one gentleman was always attacked with asthma if 
 
 he slept in the town of Kilkenny, and another 
 
 rarely escaped a lit of that complaint, if h 
 anywhere else. 
 
 The most remarkable antipathies are those affect- 
 ing the special senses. Nearly all persons h re a 
 loathing at reptiles, but some few faint on seeing a 
 toad or lizard, others on seeing insects. ' The Duke 
 d Epernon swooned at sight of a leveret — a hare did 
 not produce the same effect. Tycko Brake i 
 at sight of a fox, Henry III. of France at tkat of a 
 cat. and Marshal d' Albert at a pig.' — Hillingen. 
 
 //■ wring a wet linger drawn on glass, the grinding 
 of knives, or a creaking wheel, is sufficient to pro- 
 duce fainting in some. Siii'ltimj musk or ambergris 
 throws some into convulsions; and we have seen 
 how articles of food affect others — often, no doubt, 
 owing to perverted taste. The touch of anything 
 unusually smooth has the same effect sometimes. 
 Zimmerman records the case of a lady who was thus 
 affected by the feeling of silk, satin, or the velvety 
 skin of a peach. — This subject will be further con- 
 sidered under Idiosyncrasies. . 
 
 AXTIPHLOGI'STIC (Gr. miti, against, and 
 phlerjo, 1 burn), a term applied to remedies, and also 
 to regimen, that are opposed to inflammation; such 
 as blood-letting, purgatives, low diet, &c. 
 
 A'NTIPHON, the earliest of the ten Attic orators 
 in the Alexandrine canon, was the son of Sopbilus 
 the Sophist, and born at Bhamnus in Attica 480 B.C. 
 In his youth, the reputation of Gorgias, the most 
 showy and insincere of all the Greek rhetoricians, 
 Was at its height. A. soon became convinced of 
 the worthlessness of that oratory which the fashion 
 of the time so highly valued, and resolved to 
 introduce a new and better kind. He laboured 
 to make liis argument i el ar, solid, and convincinj . 
 so that it might be impossible lor the judges v. In. 
 listened to the sp •'•■ he wrote to refuse their 
 
 ; to his propositions. His success was unmis- 
 takable. Although he never mule a public appear- 
 ance as a pleader in the courts of justice, but 
 
 Dted himself with writing speeches for others 
 to deliver, he acquired great influence, which he did 
 not fail to exert Ear tie furtherance of his political 
 principles. To him must be attributed tit- over- 
 i of tli'- Athenian democracy (411 B.C.), and the 
 establishment of the oligarch unentof the 
 Four Hundred; for although Pisander figured pro- 
 minently before the ] pie in tin, revolution, the 
 
 whole affair, according t" Thucydides — one of A.'s 
 pupils in oratory, and a man admirably fi( 
 judge of such a point was secretly planned by 
 
 him. The ol I government did not pro per. 
 
 Dissensions quickly broke out among the 
 
 Hundred, and six months after, Alcibiades, the 
 
 brilliant dema ailed. A. was bt 
 
 to trial for- treason,' in having attempted I 
 
 peace with Sparta, lb' is Baid to have made a noble 
 
 f himself. Thucydides affirms that an 
 
 abler was never made by any man in a similar 
 
 position. It was 1- B 
 
 condemned to death; his property wasconfi cated, 
 round, his remains forbidden 
 interment in Attica, and his children fur ever 
 declared incapable "i enjoying civic privileges. Of 
 tie lid orations of A. which the ancients possessed, 
 only 15 have come down to us. Three ol tie 
 
 atly admired for tie ir 
 clearness, purity, and vigour of expression; the 
 
 remaining 12 appear t" 01 
 
 ool-rhetoric for his pupils. They 
 are not held in equal estimation with the others. 
 
 ANTI'PIIONY, a name given by the ancient 
 Greeks t<> a pecies of musical accompaniment in the 
 octave, by instruments or voices, in opposition to 
 that executed in unison, which they called / 
 phony. A. is also the name of a specie 
 song, sung by two parties, each n iponding 
 othi r ; a practice which was cultivati d in the early 
 ages oi" tin- lb brews, Greeks, and Romans. Many of 
 tie Psalms of David shew that antiphonal singhi 
 then in use. Its introduction into the Greek Church 
 is ascribed to Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, in the 
 2d c. ; and Ambrosius, Bishop of Milan, 
 have introduced it into the Western Church, in the 
 4th c. The dividing of the antiphonies into verses, 
 with rules regarding tin- same, is attributed to Pope 
 Ccelestin in 432. Pope Gregory I., in 590, pre- 
 pared the first regular Antiplniimrinni (see /; 
 Rationale Divinorum Offiaorum, Mainz. 1459). It 
 i ly a custom, which became especially common 
 after the 13th c, to date deeds with the beginning 
 words of the A. (Introitus), which in these tunes 
 served for the day of the month and of the week. 
 The Reformed Christian Churches of Germany and 
 England have still retained a certain degree of 
 antiphonal singing. The chanting of the Psalms in 
 the English cathedral service is an imitation of the 
 ancient antiphony. 
 
 ANTI'PODES, a word of Greek origin, signifying, 
 literally, those who have their feet ■ 
 other. As applied to geography, the term means 1 1 1 • - 
 inhabitants of any two opposite points of the 
 
 or, in other words, the dwellers at ti 
 extremities of any diameter of the earth. From 
 this primary relation, there necessarily arise many 
 secondary relations. A. must be on one and the 
 
 meridional circle, separated from each 
 by half the eireuiiifercuce. Being on one and the 
 same meridional circle, they must differ in long. 
 
 exactly 180 , with the • ■■ them- 
 
 as having no longitude at all ; and being sepa- 
 rated from each other by half the circumference, they 
 must be equi-distant from the equator in op] 
 
 us. Take Edinburgh, as an example, in 
 kit. 55 57' X., and hue.'. '.',' II' W. : its A. must be 
 in lat. 55° ">7 S., and in lon_e 183 11' W., or rather 
 in 170 4!)' E. — which is merely an undistinguishable 
 spot in the Antarctic or Southern 0i in. I 
 
 u. in lat. 51 30" X.. and 
 long. 0° 5' W. lis A. must be in lat. 51 ' 30 *.. 
 and in long. 180° 5' YV., or rather 1 T it 65 
 coinciding pretty nearly with a small island to 
 the south-east of New Zealand. This small island. 
 
 in honour rather of I Ion than of its, i 
 
 appropriated the term A. as its own peculiar 
 
 name. 
 
 Between A. in general thi i 
 other secondary relations. With reference to the 
 
 earth's daily rotation, the noon ol tl le side must 
 
 be the midnight of the other ; w hde, with regard to 
 its annual revolution, tie' summer and the autumn of 
 - aide musl be the winter and the spri 
 
 i.r. With r. t" the I 
 
 contrast, some explanation may be requited. This, 
 
 297
 
 ANTIPOPE— ANTIQUE. 
 
 for instance, being Wednesday in London, vu last 
 midnight in that city the noon of Tuesday or of 
 
 Wednesday at A. Islam! ? Tin' answer is, 1li.il. 
 according to circumstances, it may be held to be 
 eitb i the one or the other. In going eastward thai 
 is, in meeting the sun — one, from day to day. an! oi- 
 pates every noon and every midnight in tfa 
 i of 4' of time to 1° of long., or of 12 hi 
 time to ISO" of long. ; so that, on reaching A. I 
 fniiii London by the Cape of Good Hope, the middle 
 of Tuesday night, by Greenwich reckoning, is 
 actually regarded on the spot as the noon of 
 Wednesday. In going westward, again the 
 leading, aa it were; the sun — one, from day t" day, 
 postpones every noon and every midnight in the 
 same proportion as above ; so that, on reaching 
 A. I hind from London by Cape Horn, the middle 
 of Tuesday night, by Greenwich reckoning, is 
 actually regarded on the spot as the noon of Tu 
 In fact, navigators in opposite directions, m 
 at any intermediate point whatever of the earth's cir- 
 cumference, always differ in tlnir computation of 
 time by a whole day, or 24 hours, [i two cases, this 
 has been permanently exemplified : the Spaniards at 
 the Philippines, who have come from the east, are 
 a day behind the Portuguese in Macao, who have 
 come from the west; while, on the north-west 
 coast of America, the Russians from the west are a 
 daj' in advance of the British from the c 
 
 A'NTIPOPE was a pontiff elected by the will 
 of a sovereign, or the intrigues of a faction, in oppo- 
 sition to one canonically chosen. The emperors of 
 Germany were the first to set up po ir own 
 
 nomination against those whom the Romans had 
 elected -without consulting them. Otho the Great 
 displaced successively two bishops of Rome; and 
 wlun Sylvester III. had expelled from the capital 
 of Christendom Benedict IX., whose profligacy had 
 compromised in the eyes of all men the honour oi 
 the sovereign pontificate, Conrad IT., king of tier- 
 many, brought back this worthless pastor, who 
 hastened to sell his dignity to Gregory VI. There 
 were now, consequently, three popes, and their num- 
 ber was increased to four by the election of Clement 
 II. in 1046. Shortly after, Alexander II. found a 
 rival in Honorius II.; and in 1080 the same unseemly 
 spectacle was witnessed, when Henry IV. emperor 
 of Germany, elevated to the papal chair Guibert of 
 Ravenna, imder the title of Clement III., in oppo- 
 sition to his implacable adversary, Gregory VII. 
 But after the death of Gregory, Clement was him- 
 self opposed successively by Victor III. and Urban 
 II., and at last died at a distance from I 
 having just beheld the exaltation of Pascal II. as 
 tin- successor of Urban. During the 12th ... 
 antipopes flourished, such as Gregory VIII. and 
 Honorius III. On tho death of the latter, France 
 began to intermeddle in these disgraceful strifes, and 
 upheld the cause of Innocent II. against Anaclet; 
 while the kings of Sicily, on the other hand, fre- 
 quently set up a pontilf of their own against the 
 choice of the emperors. The 13th and 14th centuries 
 swarm with antipopes; but what specially deserves 
 notice is 'the great schism of the W< rt,' produced by 
 these shameless rivalries in 137S — a schism which 
 divided the Church for fifty years. It broke out 
 after the death of Gregory XL, at the elect I i 
 I rban VI., whom the voice of the Roman people, 
 demanding an Italian pope, and not one who should 
 fix his pontificate, like several of his predecessors, at 
 from Rome, had elevated to tin: papa] 
 The French cardinals objected, withdrew 
 to Provence, and elected a new pope, under the 
 name of Clement VII., who was recognised by 
 France, Spain, Savoy, and Scotland; whilst Italy, 
 Germany, England, and the whole north of Europe, 
 H6 
 
 supported Urban VI. These two popes excommuni- 
 cated each other ; nor did they even fear to eonipro- 
 t.i their sacred character by the most cruel out- 
 
 i and i li'- mo t odious in ults. Tho si 
 
 ucd alter their death, when three popes made 
 tlnir appearance 'in the field,' all of whom 
 
 i by tho Council of Constance in 111."', and 
 
 (animal Colonna elected in their room, under the 
 
 OJ Mart in V. The last antipopc was Clement 
 
 VIII. With him the schism ceased; but the e\ il 
 
 ne, and nothing could remedy it. The dogma 
 of papal infallibility had received a mortal wound 'in 
 the house of its friends,' and tho scepticism induced 
 ou this point rapidly extended to others. See Poi'E. 
 
 A'NTIQU ARIES, Society ot. Under this 
 name, associations of learned men, established for 
 
 i [elusive purpose of cultivating the study of 
 ant iquii a s, exist in the principal countries of Europe 
 and in America; — at London, Edinburgh, Paris, Rome, 
 \ i in a. • lopenhagen, &c. The London Society of A. 
 1 its charter in 1751, but had commenced its 
 nni tings as early as 1707 ; minutes began to be kept 
 in 1718. Long previous to this, in 1572, an Antiquarian 
 Society was established by Archbishop Parker and 
 Sir Robert Cotton. It was dissolved about the 
 year 1G04 by King James, whose weak and narrow 
 mind regarded the inquiries of the A. with suspicion. 
 The present 'Society of A. of London' consists of a 
 in ident, a Council of 21, and several hundred 
 Fellows. Tt has published a large number of curious 
 and valuable works, among the most interesting of 
 which is a series of Anglo-Saxon and early English 
 literary remains. The Scottish Society of A. was 
 founded in 17S0. It has published four volumes of 
 ctions, and collected a valuable museum, 
 which is now* become national property, and is 
 arranged for permanent exhibition at the expense 
 of the government. The Sociiti dt» Antiquairea 
 </ /■',■.>.■■■ took that name in 1S14, having been 
 founded in 1S05 as the Acadtmie OeUique. Willi 
 the change of name, the sphere of the Soci 
 labours was greatly enlarged. It has published 
 many important works. A similar institution is the 
 SociitiS des AnHauaires de Normcmdie, founded at 
 Caen in 1824. The Copenhagen Society of A. is a 
 body of high reputation. See AltClLEOLOGY. 
 
 ANTI'QUE. As the term ancients is commonly 
 applied to the Greeks and Romans, the word A. 1 1 
 u led with reference to their works of art, i pe- 
 cially their incomparable sculptures. The A. Style 
 in works of art is distinguished by critics from the 
 Romantic or Medieval, and also from the Modern. 
 The sculpture of the Greeks is characterised by 
 freshness, originality, and ideality; and the phasi 3 
 it underwent have their parallels in the development 
 of the literature and general culture of that people. 
 In the earliest times, the statues had a rigid, formal 
 character, and looked more like the idols of bar- 
 barous nations than deities in human form ; then 
 came stern, Titan-like forms, corresponding with tho 
 Prometheus of vEschylus; next, the sculptures of 
 Phidias, Polycletes, and Polygnotus — like the char- 
 acters in the dramas of Sophocles — present to us 
 humanity in its purest and noblest ideal forms. 
 Ill ii, as Euripides in poetry left the old domain of 
 destiny, and derived motives and action from ordi- 
 nary human passions, so statuary descended from 
 the ideal to a closer resemblance to the forms of 
 actual life ; as we see in the works of Praxiteles and 
 I.ysippus. Afterwards, when Aristophanes intro- 
 duced comedy, forms of everyday-life began to 
 appear in sculpture ; and thus a gradual transition 
 was made from the art of the Greeks, which was 
 ideal, in the true sense of the word, to that of the 
 Romans, which was real, monumental, and portrait-
 
 ANTIQUITIES— ANTISTTTENES. 
 
 like. The Romans were the realists of the ancient 
 world; their indigenous philosophy was of a popular 
 kind ; their poetry, so far as it was national, was 
 satire; and their works of art may be regarded as 
 ments and portraitures of teal life, quite suit- 
 able for a nation of soldiers, lawyers, aid 
 but vastly inferior to the ideal beauty displayed in 
 the best period oi I hre ian ark 
 
 ANTIQUITIES. See AbcHjEOLOcy. 
 
 ANTIRRHINUM. See S.n-apdisacox. 
 
 ANTISCORBUTICS. See Scurvy. 
 
 ANTISETTICS are substances which arrest 
 the putrefactive changes that dead vegetable and 
 animal matter is liable to undergo when exposed to 
 air, warmth, and moisture. A. are therefore anti- 
 putrcscents ; and the term il tea the office 
 
 which I is of the class fulfil [and, against, 
 
 and sgpHkos, putrefactive). The theory of the 
 of all A. is, that one or two of the three indispens- 
 
 abl nditions of putrefaction — viz., 1; a moderate 
 
 warmth, 2, access to air, and 3, moisture — are an 
 
 or neutralised. Thus, in the preservation of fish in 
 
 or during transport by railway, they are 
 packed in barrels with ice, which keeps down the 
 rature ; ami though air and moisture gain 
 admittance, yet the putrefactive processes cannot 
 proceed. The sat itive power of cold is 
 
 observed naturally in the discovery of remains of 
 elephants and other animals imbedded in the ice of 
 the polar regions, and which doubtless have been 
 locked up there for ages. In a less degree, the influ- 
 ence of cold as an antiseptic is observed in the longer 
 time that meat, eggs, and other animal matter 
 fresh in winter than in summer. 
 
 Again, warmth and moisture may be present, but 
 if the air be excluded, putrefaction d go on. 
 
 The ordinary mode of preparing preserved meali 
 affords the best illustration of this point. The sub- 
 stance to be preserved is placed in a tin dish covered 
 over, and leaving a very small opening. When the 
 can with its contents is heated, the air which fills 
 up the pores of the solids, and is dissolved in the 
 liquids, is driven oil', and escaping by the aperture in 
 the cover of the dish, haves the contents devoid of 
 air. If the opening be now closed with solder, the 
 air is kept from returning ; and whatever climate 
 fli can of preserved meat be sent to, yet so 1 
 the tin casing remains good, and refuses to admit 
 the air, so long will the contents continue wholesome 
 and palatable. The common plan of preserving 
 I y rubbing ovi t the shell with tallow or oil, is 
 founded on the prim iple of tilling UP the pores of 
 the shell, so as to deny the admi on of the air. 
 Moisture is likewise necessary for the process of 
 putrefaction. Thus, if the contents of an i 
 thrown out on a plate, and thoroi dm an 
 
 oven, the whole becomes of a hard, horny consist- 
 ence, and may be kept in this stal s with- 
 out exhibiting the slightest symptom of passing into 
 a putrescent or rotten condition. In the one v.. y 
 
 may be kept quite fresh by depriving it of 
 moisture. d up in this manner require 
 
 only to be soaked in oold water, end then 
 when they will present thi mseh in a condition 
 hardly differing in flavour am ' d an ordinary 
 
 i 
 
 The more important chemical A. are — Alcohol, 
 
 Wood spirit, ercasote, pitch-oil, col. '.tannic 
 
 acid, sulphurous acid, common salt, nitre, alum, 
 
 chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), 
 
 ive sublimate, ai 
 The manner in which these A. act is very differ- 
 ent. 1. Sulphurous a I i v combining with 
 the oxygen, and thereby deoxidising the substance. 
 
 . combining with the water 
 of the substance to be 
 
 tannic acid, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of 
 ibli mate, and arsenic, are useful 
 in forming compounds with the organic matter, 
 which are not so liable to become putrescent as the 
 uncombined organic sub L Alcohol, wood- 
 
 spirit, common salt and nitre, act in a double way, 
 by combining with the watt r of the putn Bcible sub- 
 stance, and by combining with the substance itself, 
 so as to form a more durable compo 
 
 Some of the more important uses to which the 
 1 A. arc applied are— 1. In the preservation 
 of anai I here alcohol, and less 
 
 often, chloride of zinc, are the agents ; 2. Iu the 
 curing of herring and other fish, where common salt 
 is generally usecl; 3. In alted 
 
 meat and tongues, where common salt and nitre 
 1 ; and 4. In the manufacture of 
 size for writing-pap I maker uses 
 
 sulphite of soda or antiehlore (containing sulphurous 
 acid) to arrest the decomposition of the scraps of 
 hides used in the iuanuf: i ■. In the p. 1 
 
 vation of timber, A. are also taken advantage of. 
 The wood is placed in a steam-box, and the air con- 
 tained in its pores being replaced by steam, the 
 whole casing is closed tight, and allowed to cool, 
 when the steam condenses, and leaves a vacuum in 
 and around the block of wood. On the introduction 
 thereafter of one of the A., it finds its way into the 
 innermost pores of the timber. Wood thus pre- 
 pared is not nearly so liable to decay as it ordi- 
 narily is; and the A seem to act here not only 
 directly in withdrawing water, and forming durable 
 compounds, but in offering a poisonous dose to 
 minute plants and animals which tend to house 
 themselves in the wood. The use of sulphate of 
 copper for this purpose was suggested by Bonchar- 
 dat ; of corrosive sublimate, by Kyan (hem 
 process was called Kyanieing) ; and of chloride of 
 zinc, by Sir W. Burnett (hence the term B 
 Using). 
 
 A XTI'STHENES, founder of the Cynic school of 
 
 philosophy, was the son of A., an Athenian. The 
 
 date of his birth is not known, but he fought in his 
 
 youth at Tanagra (4°.G B.CL), and he survived the 
 
 battle of Leuctra (371 I), c), and died at Athens 
 
 at the age of 70. After listening to 1 king of 
 
 Socrates, he gave up the profession of rhetoric, 
 
 which he had followed at first as a disciple of 
 
 -, in order to apply himself wholly I 
 
 of moral philosophy. He was present at the 
 
 i of Socrates, and o utors. 
 
 A. held tlit inly consists in voluntary 
 
 nee from pleasure, and in a srb m contempt 
 
 of riches, honours, and even learning. Opinions 
 
 of still greater extravaganc bed to A, 
 
 but it is probable that they ware rather extreme 
 views, which he put into the mouths of the inter- 
 locutors in bis dialogues, than expressions of those 
 which he himself entertained, liven in his con- 
 d inn of pleasure, I d Buch as springs 
 
 from the soul, or i found d on true friendship. In 
 consistency with his teaching, A. appeared as a 
 ..clad in ragged garments an eccentricity 
 
 Socrates is said to )e . tying, 
 
 ■I ee your w s through the hols in your i 
 The singularity affected by A. gained many imita- 
 tors, ana anion,- th ml ; i live 
 in a tub, and himself in Cynic 
 \iter the death of Socrates, A. taught 
 moral and practii phy in the Athenian 
 gymnasium CvnosargOB, from which, it is said, his 
 derived its title. 1 1 them a 
 polemical work against Plato— have mosth p risked. 
 Such li as remain have been collected by 
 
 399
 
 ANTITHESIS-ANTOMMXl:' III. 
 
 Imann (A., JPragmenta, Turici, 1842). Bitter 
 A. with the 'imperfect Soci 
 ANTITHESIS [tiltemi, to place, aiiti, against), a 
 figure of speech in which words are placi d h 
 
 ition to each other, to produce a strong con- 
 trast. Thus Leasing in criticism on a book, 
 
 'It contains many good things, and many new ; but 
 
 ood are not new, and the new are nd I 
 
 A., when naturally and moderately employed, 
 liveliness to style ; but, like all urea of 
 
 speech, liecc mies wearisome when too often repeated. 
 
 ANTITRINITA'BIAN, one whod nies the doc 
 trine of the Trinity. An A. differs from a Uni- 
 tarian only in this respect) that his objection I 
 doctrine mi is made on philosophical, 
 
 while that of the latter is made on theol 
 grounds'. A Unitarian is ono who accepts the 
 Bible as inspired, hut docs not find in it the doc- 
 trine of the Trinity; an A. is, or may be, a philo- 
 sophical theist, who denies the inspiration of Scrip- 
 ture. Mohammed, from the stand-point of a new 
 and hostile religion, also denied this great Chi 
 dogma. He announced himself, with fierce emphasis, 
 an A.; and his followers to the present day are 
 characterised by the intensity of their monotheism. 
 See Unitarian and Socinian. 
 
 A'XTITYPE, a Creek word. lit. rally sign 
 a type or figure which corresponds to some other 
 type or figure. In its theological sense, it denotes, 
 not a type, but the person in whom any prophetic 
 type is fulfilled ; thus, Christ is called the A. of the 
 paschal lamb. See T\ i-j:. 
 
 A'NTIUM, one of tho most ancient cities of 
 Latiiun, stood mi the coast 34 miles S.S.E. from 
 Rome. Being favourably situated for commi roe and 
 piracy, it became, under the Volscians, into « 
 
 hands it had fallen, one of the most powerful en 
 of rising Koine, until finally subdued (338 B.C.). 
 It became a favourite resort of the wealthy Romans, 
 and some of the most famous remains of ancient art 
 have been discovered among the ruins of their \ illas 
 and palaces ; such as the Apollo ISelvedeiv, and the 
 Borghese Gladiator. It was the birthplace of the 
 Emperors Caligula and Nero; and the latter con- 
 structed a splendid port by means of two moles 
 enclosing a basin two miles in circumference. 
 Remains of the moles still exist, although the basiu 
 is mostly filled up with sand. 
 
 Antium was completely destroyed by the Saracens 
 during the middle ages ; and it was only in the 17th 
 C, when the port was very partially restored, that 
 the modern village of Porto d'Anzo arose, the 
 population of which docs not exceed 500. Near the 
 village Nettuno, in the neighbourhood, the ruins of a 
 temple of Neptune are discernible under the sea. 
 
 ANT-LION, the larva of an insect [MyrmeUon 
 formkarium) of the order Neuroptera, remarkable 
 for its habits, which have been carefully observed 
 by some of tin- ablest natural, is of Europe. It 
 inhabits sandy districts, is not known in Britain, and 
 is more common in the south of Europe than in the 
 north. The perfect insect is about an inch long, and 
 has a considerable general resemblance to a dragon- 
 fly. The larva is rather more than half an inch 
 long ; it has a very large abdomen, and a small head, 
 which, however, is furnished with two very In 
 incurved mandibles. It has six legs, but is incapable 
 of rapid locomotion, and gem rally moves backwards. 
 It feeds upon the juices of insects, particularly of 
 ants, in order to obtain which it excavates with the 
 greatest ingenuity a funnel-shaped hole in sandy 
 ground, and lies in wait at the bottom, all but 
 its mandibles buried in the sand. Insects which 
 approach too near to the edge of the hole, then 
 become its prey, by the loose sand giving way, so 
 
 that they fall down p slope. If tiny do not 
 
 fall quite to the bottom, but begin to scramble up 
 
 again, the A. throws sand upon them by jerking its 
 
 Ant-lion : 
 a, larva; b, perfect insect 
 
 head, and so brings them back. U employs its 
 head in the lame way to eject their bodies from its 
 
 pit, after their juices have been sucked, and casts 
 them to a considerable distance; and by the i ans 
 throws away the sand in excavating its hole, 
 first ploughing it up with its body. and then placing it 
 upon its head by means of one of its fore-legs. It 
 always begins by working roimd the circular circum- 
 ference of its future hole, and gradually narrows and 
 dei pens it ; turning quite round after each time that 
 it works round the hole, so as to employ next time 
 the fore-leg of the other side. When it meets with a 
 stone which it cannot remove, it deserts the excava- 
 te and begins another. The pit, when completed, 
 
 is usually about thirty inches in diameter by twenty 
 in depth. 
 
 ANTOMMARCHI, Fbancj co, a well-known 
 physician and native of I lorsica, was born in the cc i 
 half of the 18th c. lb owes his celebrity almost 
 entirely to his intimacy with Napoleon Bonaparte 
 during the exile of the latter in St Helena. In 1818, 
 he was induced to leave Florence, \i lure he held the 
 al dissector in the Hospital of 
 Santa Maria Nuova of Florence, and to become 
 e physician to the banished emperor. There 
 
 was at first little cordiality between the two; but 
 subsequently Bonaparte conceived a high regard for 
 his countryman, and at his death left him 100,000 
 franca. In 1821, A. returned to Europe, and in 1S20 
 published at Paris l.<< Derniere Moments de 
 work which has been very extensively 
 read. II now became involved in a dispute with 
 bhe heirs of M iscagoi — his old anatomical professor 
 — regarding certain anatomical plates which he 
 announced as on the eve of publication. The heirs 
 affirmed that A.'s lithographed drawings ware mere 
 rom the plates of Mascagni, and the contro- 
 versy went on briskly for some time, till Paris 
 grow tired of it, when it gradually died away 
 and was forgotten. On the breaking out of the 
 Polish revolution, A. departed for Warsaw, where he 
 received the appointment of general inspector of 
 military hospitals. He soon returned to Paris, where 
 he published a cast of Napoleon's head, which he 
 affirmed to have- taken when the emperor was on 
 his diatli-ln d. This declaration again involved him 
 in a hot dispute with the phrenologists, who were 
 not satisfied with the conformation of the cranium, 
 and therefore cast suspicions — some of them appar- 
 ently not altogether ill founded — on the veracity of 
 A's. statements. Harassed by the attacks of his 
 adversaries, and sick of further controversy, A., 
 about 1830, resolved to emigrate to America. He 
 dud at San Antonio, in Cuba, on the 3d of April 
 1838.
 
 ANTON UIJtICH— ANTON] N I ]S. 
 
 « 
 
 ANTON' VLTUCH, second BOD of Duke Fcrdi- 
 rmnd Albert of Braunschweig-Wolfenbttttel (till 
 1735, l i inschweig-Bi tie by which the 
 
 uiniv . Down in Ru ia), was bom in 1711. 
 
 When tie Russian Empn ras looking out foT 
 
 an alliance for b x wee i, \jona I larlov, d 
 
 klenburg-8chwerin,the influence of Austria led 
 bei to choose A.TJ. I 
 
 in 17:i.'i, was appointed r regi- 
 
 and placed in the i 
 pension. The marriage was, however, long delayed. 
 The princess shewed i te for the 
 
 insignificant character of the bridegr n 
 
 only married him I 
 
 with the sen of Biron. The birth of the Prince 
 
 Ivan took place in 1740, a year after the I 
 
 About the Bametime, thi i falling dangerously 
 
 sick, appointed the infant prince her successor, ami 
 
 Biron regent An x her death, A. U. 
 
 1 ible attempts to reverse this apt which 
 
 only led to the punishment of tl d to 
 
 ! , ated tli> in, and to his own military 
 
 degradation. Biron's conduct towards the parents 
 
 of the infant prince bee ing unbearably insolent, 
 
 Amu appealed in despair to General Miinnich, 
 who put a sudden end to Biron's sway, 
 
 1 the grand-duchess and her husband regents. 
 
 a few months, Anna ungratefully overthrew 
 Mnnnich. After his fall, as little unity pn 
 between the ministers at the helm as between her- 
 self and her husband, and the government was 
 looked upon as both a foreign and a i bleone. 
 
 I'll, n came the revolution of the 5th December 1741, 
 wliich in one night raised Elizabeth (q. v.) t" the 
 16. A. U. and his consort were exiled, and lived 
 long at ( Sholmogory, in the governmentof Archangi 1. 
 Three children were born to 1 ! > ni in exile. Anna 
 died in 1740. Catharine II. offered A. t". his free- 
 dom, but he declined it. I 'ltimately, he grew Mind. 
 The exact year of his death is uncertain, but it is 
 supposed to have taken jilacc about 1780. Catharine 
 often d to his children an asylum in Jutland, where 
 they all died in comfortable circumstances. 
 
 AN'TONE'LLI, a Roman cardinal and secretary 
 of state, descended from a family of bad reputation, 
 of which several members had been notorious as 
 rubbers or banditti. A. was made a cardinal shortly 
 before the succession of Pope Pius IX., by whom 
 he was appointed Pud ry of State for the 
 
 Interior, and also Minister of [finance. In these 
 offic i, he gained the confidence of the pope 
 though removed from office by the influence of the 
 l 1 ' ! party, who would not tolerate a priestly 
 policy, he continued to be his constant adviser in 
 troubles which followed th tion of 
 
 After the flight of the pope to 6a n, he was 
 ited his Chief Secretary, and has since held 
 elm at St Peter's. A. is said to lie 1 I 
 in his admiration of despotism than several of his 
 colleagues, but is accused of fierce rapacity. It 
 is alleged that, conscious of the perils which environ 
 the papal chair, and of its inability long to withstand 
 the opposition of the intellect, morality, and enthu- 
 siasm of the as well as the c 
 
 tly hoarding up immense sums, and 
 lavishing lucrative olficcs ou his relations. 
 
 ANTOXE'LLO (of Messina), a painter who holds 
 a prominent position in the Malum art, 
 
 born probably about 1 1 1 1. in Sicily. In his day, 
 the paintings of Johann van Eyck (of Els 
 enjoyed a wide c lebrity, and several specimens 
 were brought to Naples, where A. saw one of them. 
 Admirine; the new style of oil-painting, he travelled 
 into Flanders, and learned the secrets of the art from 
 Van Eyck. Afterwards, he settled in Venice, and 
 
 was the first Italian who painted in oil-colours, in 
 which 1' ruction to many artists. He died 
 
 probably m 1493. His works are now rather scarce. 
 One, in the Musi um at Berlin, bears the date 144.;. 
 
 ANTONI'N't S, Mabcus A' nuns the son of 
 Annius Verus and Domitda CalvQla, was born at 
 Kome on the 20th of April 12] A.o. Ills original 
 
 > ith of 
 
 his fathi i, h grandfather, who 
 
 no pains to render him at in every 
 
 art and science. His fine qualities early attracted 
 the notice of the Emperor Badrian, who used to 
 him, not Vi rut, but V- > 
 
 I onours on him, even while a child. When 
 
 along 
 with Lucius i '. i lonunod I 
 
 or of Hadrian ; and 
 Pins, wa ! : ' In ir 140 a. d. 
 
 he was made consul; and from this period to the 
 death of Pius, in 101 a.h., he continued t" discharge 
 the duties of his various offices with the gi 
 promptitude and fidelity. The relation which sub- 
 sisted I .in and the emperor was of the 
 warmest and most familiar kind. < In his accession 
 to the throne, he strikingly illustrated the magna- 
 nimity of his character, by voluntarily sharing the 
 government (winch Pius had left in his List moments, 
 and the senate offered to him alone) with young 
 Commodus, who henceforth bore the nam 
 Lucius Amelias Verus, and to win mi he gave 
 his daughter Lucilla in marriage. Towards the 
 close of 161 A. l>., the Parthian War 
 and Lucius, a young man of vigorous bodily habit-, 
 nt to the frontiers of the empire, to rep 1 
 the incursions of the barbarians; but intoxicated 
 th ■ enervating pleasures of the East, he obstinately 
 refused to go beyond Antioch, and intrusted the 
 command of the army to his lieutenant L'assius, 
 who gained several brilliant victories. Lucius re- 
 turned to Rome (166 A. D.), and enjoyed a triumph 
 to which he had no real claim; for all the great 
 achievements of the war were accomplished by his 
 officers, while he was revelling in the most extrava- 
 gant licentiousness. In the meantime, Marcus 
 Aurelius had distinguished himself by th 
 and energy with which he administered affairs at 
 home. A formidable insurrection had long 
 preparing in the German provinces; the Britons 
 were on the point of revolt, and the Cattd waiting 
 for an opportunity to devastate the Rheni sh pro- 
 \\ ithin Rome its If ra jed a p - 
 ' | i i • been brought home b 
 of Luein ; Eri lii fid inundations and i 
 bad laid lax of the city in ruin-- ■ 
 
 : tnaries in which were kept the supplies of corn, 
 and thus created almost universal distress, which 
 stimulated to an incalculable degree the terror which 
 the citizens entertained of thi ir savage enemies. To 
 allay the popular perturbation, Marcus 
 go forth to the war himself. Becatombs were offered 
 to the.. ids, and the Roman legions set out 
 
 for the north. Marcus and Lucius were, for the 
 time, completely successful. The pride of the Mar- 
 comanni. and the other rebellious tribes inh. 
 the country between Dlyria and the sources of the 
 Danube, was humbled, and they were compelled to 
 sue for p D 168 LD.J in the year after which 
 
 Lucius ,h, 1. The contest was renewed in 170 a. r, 
 and may be said to have continued with little 
 intermission during the whole life of the en 
 Although fend ■ th from natural 
 
 siti..n and philosophic culture, he displayed the 
 OUT in suppressing the revolts of the bar- 
 barians; but in order to accomplish this, he had to 
 enrol amongst Ins soldiery vast numbers of gladiators 
 and slaves, lor his army had been thinned by tho 
 
 Sill
 
 ANTONINUS 
 
 is were Pan- 
 
 , outofwhi i the Marcomanni, wl i 
 
 eequently all luit annihilated in crossing the 
 • : The same fate befell the .lazy 
 most famous as well as the most extraord i 
 hi rii tori is, was the miraculous one gained over the 
 (174 \. i'.). and which gave rise to i 
 
 H : ) get Christian historians and i 
 
 Dion i account is, that the Romans were 
 
 perishing o£ thirst in the heat of summer, when 
 suddenly the cloudless Bkydarkei mndant 
 
 showers fell, of which the soldiers v 
 advantage when the barbarians attacked, and would 
 cut them to pieces, if a storm of hail and lire 
 had nut descended on the farmer. That some ■ 
 ordinary phenomenon occurred is evident, for there 
 is a letter of Aurelius still extant in which 1 
 memorates the event; and the was a man 
 
 incapable of uttering a falsehood, not to m a 
 that there was an entire army living to disprove the 
 statement, if untrue. The effect of this remarkable 
 : was instantaneously and widely felt. The 
 Germanic tribes hurried from all quarters to make 
 their submission, and obtain clemency; but thi 
 
 have resulted from it 
 nullified by a new outbreak in the East, occa- 
 sioned through the infamous treachery of h 
 wife, which demanded his presence; and though 
 Buffering from failing health, he was obliged to leave 
 Pannoma. Before his departure, however, he I 
 that the ambitious governor, Avidius (,'assius, who 
 1 against him, and seized the whole of 
 Minor, bad perished by assassination. The 
 Let of Marcus Aurelius on hearing of his enemy's 
 I was worthy of the sub I s of his cha- 
 
 racter, lie lamented that the Fates had I 
 him his fondest wish — to have freely pardoned the 
 man who had so basely happi- 
 
 ness. Like Caesar in similar circui but in 
 
 a more purely humane spirit, he received the head 
 1 adversary with quite opiposite feel- 
 i to what li aticipated, rejecting the 
 
 bloody gift with all the loathing of a ben. . 
 
 are, and even shrinking from the presence of the 
 murderers. On his arrival in the I chibited 
 
 the same illustrious magnanimity, lie burned the 
 papers of Cassius, without reading them, BO that he 
 not be at liberty to suspect any as traitors; 
 treated the provinces which had rebelled with 
 i reme gentleness; disarmed the enmity, and 
 lied the fears of the nobles who had openly 
 favoured his insurgent lieutenant. While pursuing 
 hi; work of restoring tranquillity, Faustina died in 
 an obscure village at the foot of Mount Taurus; and 
 her husband (and this was perhaps the single frailty 
 of his character), though undoubtedly conscious of her 
 g] mug profligacy and infidelity, paid the most lavish 
 honours to her memory. 
 
 On his way home, he visited Lower Egypt and 
 Greece, displaying everywhere the noblest solicitude 
 for the welfare of his vast empire, and drawing 
 forth from his subjects, who were astonished at his 
 goodness, sentiments of the profonndest admiration 
 and regard. At Athens, which this imperial pa in 
 philosopher must have venerated as a pious Ji 
 the city of Jerusalem, he shewed a catholicity of intel- 
 lect worthy of his great heart, by founding chairs of 
 philosophy for each of the four chief sects— Platonic, 
 Stoic, Peripatetic, and Epicurean. No man ever 
 laboured more earnestly to make that heathen faith 
 which he loved so well, and that heathen philosophy 
 which he believed in so truly, a vital and dominant 
 reality. Towards the close of the year 17G A. D., he 
 reached Italy, and celebrated his merciful and 
 li triumph on the 23d of December. In the suc- 
 ceeding autumn, he departed for Germany, where 
 101 
 
 disturbances had broken out among the rest- 
 less and volatile barbarians, i 
 fill in Beveral sanguinary [its; but 1 
 ginally battered by pa 
 
 and : 
 
 either i or at 8irmium,onthel7thof March 
 
 of twenty years. 
 .Marcus Aurelius A. was the (lower of the stoical 
 philosophy. It seems almost inexplicable that so 
 harsh and crabbed a system should have 
 
 re and gentle an of humanity 
 
 Is of heathen — we had almost 
 Christian history, can shew. as a modern 
 
 philosophic I sts, it was be 
 
 stoicism was the most ! and "f the 
 
 philosophic theories, and the one which most 
 
 ■I itself to the rapidly 
 licentiousness of the time, that the .haste heart of 
 the youth was drawn towards it. At twelve 
 
 avowed himself a follower of Zeno, 
 Epictetus, &c Stoics were bis teachers — Diognotus, 
 
 A.poU ' . &] I Junius Ro ticiis; and he himself is 
 
 to be consul the most thoughtful teachers 
 
 ■ '. Oraton 
 
 Attuu . I i < i. lius Fronto. His love of learning 
 
 was insatiable, liven after he had attained to the 
 
 ' dignity of the state, he did not disdain to 
 
 school of Sextus of C'lnvronca. Men 
 
 of letters were his most intimate friends, and 
 
 I the highest honours both when alive 
 
 and dead. His range of 
 
 ing moral-, i athematics, juris- 
 
 prudence, music, poetry, and painting. Nor must 
 we forget that these ware cultivated not merely in 
 the Sprini lime of his life, when enthusiasm was 
 nee had not saddened his thoughts, 
 and when study was his only labour, but durin 
 tumults of perpetual war, and the distraction nei i s- 
 Barily arising from the ment of so vast an 
 
 The man who loved peace with his whole 
 ied without beholding it, and yet the cvcrlast- 
 
 of w ir i" i er tempt d I m to sink into 
 a mere warrior. II" maintained uncorrupted l" the 
 end of his noble life his philosophic and philan- 
 
 ■ aspirations. After his decease, which was 
 Eelt to I" 1 a national calamity, every Roman citizen, 
 and many others in distant portions of the empire, 
 procured an image or statue of him, which more than 
 a hund after was still found among their 
 
 me almost an object of 
 
 p, and was believed to appear in dreams, like 
 quent ( Ihristian ages. 
 I here is one feature in his character, however, 
 which it would be dishonest to pass over — his 
 hostility, namely, to Christianity, lb- was a perse- 
 cutor of the new religion, and, it is clearly demon- 
 strated, was cognizant, to a certain extent at least, 
 of the atrocities perpetrated upon its followers. 
 Numerous explanations have been offered of his 
 conduct in this matter. The most popular one is, 
 that he for once allowed himself to Be led away 
 by evil counsellors; but a dee per reason is to bo 
 found in that very earnestness with which he clung 
 tu th" old heathen faith of his ancestors. He 
 believed it to be true, and to be the parent of 
 tin !■ philosophies which had sprung up out of the 
 same soil : he saw that a new religion, the character 
 of which had been assiduously, though perhaps 
 unconsciously, misrepresented to him, both as an 
 unmoral superstition, and a mysterious political 
 conspiracy, was secretly spreading throughout tho 
 empire, and that it would hold no commerce with 
 the older religion, but condemned it, generally in 
 the strongest terms. It was, therefore, compara- 
 tively easy, even for so humane a ruler, to imagine 
 it bis duty to extirpate this unnaturally hostile
 
 ANTONINUS riUS-ANTONTNTJS. 
 
 sect. Mr John Stuart Mill finds in this tragical 
 error of the great emperor a most striking warning 
 against the dang er of interfering with the liberty 
 
 hi thou lit. What In: nays is so completely in har- 
 mony with the above conception of the motives of 
 Marcus Aurelius, and is in itself so eloquent, I 
 apology is required in quoting the passage: 'If ever 
 any one possessed of power had grounds for thinking 
 himself tho best ami most enlightened among Ins 
 contemporaries, it was the Emperor Marcus Anrelina, 
 Absolute monarch of (In- whole civilised world, he 
 preserved through life not only the most unblemished 
 justice, but what was less to be expected from his 
 stoical breeding, the tenderest heart. The few fail- 
 .. Iiieli are attributed to him were all on the side 
 of indulgence; while his writings, the highest ethical 
 product of the ancient mind, diner scarcely percepti- 
 bly, if they differ at all, from the most characteristic 
 teachings of Christ This man, a better Christian, 
 in all but the dogmatic sense of the word, than 
 almost any of the ostensibly Christian sow 
 who have since reigned, persecuted Christianity. 
 Placed at the summit of all the previous attainments 
 of humanity, with an open, unfettered intellect, and a 
 character which led him, of himself, to embody in his 
 moral writings the ( 'hristian ideal, he yet failed to see 
 that Christianity was to be a good and not an evil to 
 the world, with his duties to which he was so deeply 
 penetrated. Existing society ho knew to be in a 
 deplorable state. But such as it was, he saw, or 
 thought he saw, that it was held together, and pre- 
 vented from being worse, by belief and reverence of 
 tho received divinities. As a ruler of mankind, he 
 deemed it his duty not to suffer society to fall in 
 pieces, and saw not how, if its existing ties were 
 removed, any others could be formed which could 
 again knit it together. The new religion aimed 
 openly at dissolving these ties: unless, therefore, it 
 ; duty to adopt that religion, it seemed to be 
 hia duty to put it down. Inasmuch, then, as the 
 theology of Christianity did not appear to him true, 
 or of Divine origin ; inasmuch as this strange history 
 of a crucified Sod wan not credible to him, and a 
 system which purported to rest entirely upon a 
 foundation to him so wholly unbelievable, could not 
 be foreseen by him to be that renovating a) 
 which, alter all abatements, it has in fact proved to be ; 
 the gentlest and most amiable of philosophers and 
 riders, under a solemn sense of duty, authorised the 
 persecution of Christianity. To my mind, this is one 
 of the must tragical facts in all history. It is a bitter 
 thought, how different a thing the Christianity of 
 the world might have been, if the Christian faith 
 had been adopted as the religion of the empire, under 
 the auspices of Marcus Aurelius, instead of tho ■ oi 
 Constantino. But it would be equally unjust to him, 
 and false tn (ruth, to deny, that no one plea which 
 
 can be urged for punishing Anti-christian teaching, 
 
 was wanting to Marcus Aurelius for punishing, as he 
 
 did, the propagation of Christianity. No Christian 
 
 iimre firmly believes that atheism is false, and t aid a 
 to the dissolution of society, than Marcus Aurelius 
 
 things of Christianity ; he v. 
 all men then living, might have been thought the 
 Host capable of appreciating it. Unless any one 
 
 who approves of punishment tor tfa i promulgat 
 
 opinions, Hatters himself that he is a wiser and 
 
 better man than Marcus Aurelius— 1 v deeply 
 
 versed in the wisdom of his time— more elevated in 
 Ins intellect above it — more earnest in his search for 
 truth, or more single-ruinded in his devotion to it 
 when found let him abstain from that assumption of 
 the joint infallibility of himself and the multitude, 
 which the great A. made with so unfortunate a result.' 
 ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Tin Ll nines I'n.vrs. 
 a Roman emperor (138 — 1G1 A.D.), was born in the 
 
 reign of iJoniitian (80 A.D.). The family of A. was 
 
 dly from Nemautus, now Nlmea, in Gaul A. 
 inherited great wealth, and early gave proof of 
 excellent qualities. In 120 lie was m 
 afterwards was sent by Hadrian as proconsul into 
 Asia, where the wisdom and gentleness of his rule won 
 
 i a higher reputation than had been enjoyed by 
 any of his predecessors. By his wife Faustina he had 
 four children, of whom three - og a daugh- 
 
 b r. Faustina, afterwards wife of Marcus Aurelius. 
 In 138 he was adopted by the Emperor Hadrian, in 
 consequence of merit alone, and came to the throne 
 
 amc year. The reign of A. was proverbially 
 peaceful and happy. In his priva r, he 
 
 mple, temperate, and benevolent; while in 
 public affairs he acted as the father of 
 Tho persecution of Christians, which was con- 
 tinued during his reign, was partly stayed by his 
 mild measures. He was little i , war, 
 
 excepting in Britain, where b 
 " Rome, and built a wall between the 
 the Clyde, as a defence against. invasions by the 
 
 iry inhabitants of the north ; but 1 
 quently employed in arbitration and general counsel 
 on the affairs of foreign states. 'Happy the nation 
 which has no history.' The reign of A. illustrates 
 this saying, for by tho justice, wisdom, kindliness, 
 and courtesy of the emperor, his vast empire was 
 preserved from the crimes, conspiracies, insurrec- 
 tions, and bloodshed, the recording of which foi 
 the largest part of the historian's work in the dark 
 centuries of the Roman empire. It is said that only 
 one senator wa3 impeached during A.'s lifetime. 
 
 Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, 
 
 commemorative of bis Victories in Britain, from one In the 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 Literature received great encouragement; the laws 
 were improved; commerce extended; the means of 
 communication were facilitated by the repair of 
 roads, bridges, to.; new sanitary 
 introduced; and a 1 for architecture fost 1 
 
 in the citizens. The epithet 1'its was conferred 
 on him on account of his conduct in defending the 
 memory of his predecessor Hadrian against certain 
 dishonouring measures brought forward by the 
 
 . A. died in ltil a.m. Xhecolumn rai 
 his memory by his adopted son and successor, Mar- 
 cus Aurelius Antoninus (q. v.). was discovered in 17":>, 
 and now exists only in fragments. The so . I 
 
 Hilar of Antoninus, now in the ■ kmna 
 
 at Rome, is that raised by the senate in I 
 of Marcus Aurelius, after his victory over the 
 Mareomanni. 
 
 ANTONPNUS, iTisr.uAnv of {Anlomni 
 arium), a valuable geographical work, containing 
 mes of all the places and stations on the 
 principal and cross reals of the Roman empire. 
 With tl from each other in Roman 
 
 miles. It lias been usually attributed to the l.i 
 M. Aurelius Antoninus, whence its name. The 
 testimony, however, of the Q ipher .Ethi- 
 
 cus, author of tho Cotmographia, assures us that 
 
 MM
 
 A NTONTNUS— ANTON IFS. 
 
 orvey of the Roman empire was com- 
 
 I ■'. 1 B.i ., iu the consulship of Juliu I I 
 
 and Mi Antonius, and completed in the ■ ■ 
 \n rustuB, when the results of the survey ri 
 the sanction of tin- state. These results, it is 
 with some probability inferred, are embodii A in this 
 wry, which, it is further suppo I. received 
 additions and amendments in the time of the 
 Antonines. Subsequent imp were made 
 
 down to the reign of Diocletian. The best editions 
 are those o! Wcsseling (Amst. 4to, 1 735), and 1'arthcy 
 (Curl., 1S4S). 
 
 ANTOSn'STCrS, W.w oj [A ilonini I 
 
 ir erected between tii i Forth and 
 
 Civile by the Romans, in t' 
 
 to restrain the encroachments of tin' native 
 tribes. A fragment of a Roman pillar, which was 
 at one time iu the university of Edinburgh 
 
 .'■cution to 14H a. d. The 
 tendenoe of the work is generally attributed to the 
 imperial legate Lollius Urbicus, Its len th was 
 about 27 English miles— the ea tern b 
 being, according to t'.vo dil 
 i i i ii. or at ICinni'l, on the Forth; th 
 at Old Kirkpatrick, or at Dung] ' I on the 
 Clyde. The work consisted of a ditch about '-'it 
 i ad 40 wide, a rampart of earth and stone 
 about 20 feet high and '24 feet thick at the bat •. 
 and on the inner or south side of the rampart a 
 
 I military road. It was protected by a 
 of nineteen forts, with watch-towers between. The 
 line of the wall may still be traced to a consider- 
 
 rtent. The most perfect fragments are at Elf 
 Hill, on the moor of Bonnieside, about a mile and a 
 half from C'astleeary ; within the park of Callander 
 
 . near Falkirk ; and on the slopes at I m 
 not far from the railway station tit I'olmout. It is 
 i '.. wis Dike — a name 
 
 i more than one ancient ditch and rampart in 
 England. The best accounts of the Wall of Ant' mine 
 are in Hoy's Mi'i'm-ii .1 «<e/i/i7/e< of On Rom 
 North Britain (Load., lTO.'i), and in Stuart's Cale- 
 donia Romano. (2d. ed., Edin., 1S52). 
 
 ANTO'NIUS, Mabci i (Mask Antony), the 
 
 i:i triumvir, born in S3 B.C.. ad 
 one of the oldest patrician families, was t] 
 of the l'r.etor M. Antonius C'rcticus, and, on the 
 side of his mother Julia, was related to .Inlius 
 i ir. His youth was wasted in dissipation, 
 and finding himself pressed by numerous impatient 
 
 mis, he escaped to Greece in 5S n. c. where, 
 lor a short time, he listened to the teaching of 
 Athenian philosophers and orators. His studies 
 here were soon interrupted by the Proconsul 
 Gabinius, who appointed him as lea ler of his cavalry. 
 In the campaign against Aristobulus in Pal 
 and in Egypt, A, distinguished himself by his i 
 ami activity, and ingratiated himself with the 
 Boldiers. After assisting Ctesar in Gaul, he went 
 to Home in 50 B. c, to advance the interests of the 
 former, who stood in great danger from the hostility 
 of the oligarchical party, and was appointed an augur, 
 and chosen one of the tribunes of the people. Ju 
 the following year, on account of his adherence to 
 the party of < isesar, he was expelled from the curia, 
 and lied to Cajsar, who made use of this event as 
 a pretext for his war against Pompey. At the 
 outbreak of this war, A. received the appointment 
 of commander-in-chief in Italy. In the battle of 
 Pharsalia, he commanded the left wing of 
 army. In 47, he was made Master of th- II 
 1 r, who left him to govern Italy during his 
 absence in Africa. Antony, as usual, disgi 
 himself; got perpetually drunk; divorced his wife, 
 and married an actress, with whom he paraded 
 
 31)1 
 
 rely through the chief towns of the penin- 
 sula. In 44 B.C., he married Fulvia, the widow 
 of Clodius ; was made consul, and vainly endea- 
 voured to prevail on the Romans to iveoeui e 
 I as emp iror. Alter the avsa filiation nt i 
 
 he play i L the part so well described by Shaks] 
 
 and by his funeral orati and the well-timed 
 
 di play of • '.ear's hi t on the 
 
 as of the people, that the conspirators were 
 lied to escape from Home, leaving the success- 
 ful orator for a while in possession of almost absolute 
 p.Wer. Next, We thid A. oecllpied in disputes and 
 .. th Octf ttl ' is heir), be- 
 '.I Htm. i. and then denounced by < 'icero as an 
 ie. In 43 B.C., his troops were 
 d L at the battle of Mutina, when he i 
 
 beyond the Alps j visited the camp of Lepidn 
 commanded in Gaul; and gained the favour of the 
 army, of which he took the command. Plancus and 
 l'ollio joined him with their troops ; and A., who so 
 
 iv had escaped as a helpless fugitive from 
 
 Italy, returned to Home at the head of seventeen 
 
 and 10,000 cavalry. Octavianua, who had 
 
 .1 i ttain republican prini ipl . qow 
 
 — ink, and held a consultation with A. 
 and Lepidus on the island of Reno (or Lavino), near 
 Bolo ua. when it was determined that these trium- 
 
 V.uld share the whole Roman world among 
 themselves. To secure their spoil, they returned to 
 Rome, and began then- course of murder and rol 
 
 bout Italy. Among their first victims fell 
 Cicero, the orator whose eloquence they dreaded. 
 According to Appian, not lesa than 360 senators and 
 2000 knights fell under the power of the triumviri. 
 After making Italy safe for themselves, and raising 
 an enormous sum of money to cany on their war 
 abroad, A. and Octavianua led their troops into 
 Macedonia against Brutus and Cassius, and defeated 
 the republican forces. A. next paid a visit to 
 Athens, and then vent into Asia, to arrange his 
 dispute with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, whose 
 conduct had offended the triumviri. The queen 
 herself appeared to answer his challenge, and capti- 
 vated A. by her beauty and address. The general 
 
 had overcome Brutus and I is now 
 
 made a prisoner, though not of war. He followed 
 
 I j pt, and lived w ith her in id] 
 and luxury, until he was aroused by tidings of the 
 quarrel which had tale n place in Italy between his 
 own relatives and Octavianua. This dispute gave 
 rise to a short war, which came to an end before A. 
 arrived in Italy. A new division of the Roman world 
 now took place between the triumviri, and was soon 
 quietly arranged at Bruudusium. A. took the East, 
 and Octavianua took the West ; while the ambition 
 of the feeble Lepidus wi ed by his having 
 
 the whole of Africa for his portion. Even this 
 of dominion was taken from him in :i0 B.C. 
 \i inwhile A. had confirmed bis friendship with 
 
 anus by a marriage with Octavia, his 
 sister. He now returned to Cleopatra, resumed 
 his former voluptuous mode of life, squandered 
 l,h of Koine in gifts to his royal mis- 
 tress, and became guilty of gross acts of injustice. 
 i urns made in i ol these facta to excite the 
 indignation of the Roman people against A., and 
 a war between the rivals became unavoidable. 
 A., in his idleness, tried to postpone the trial of 
 
 ih which he saw inevitably approaching, and 
 tilled the island of Samoa (where his troops were 
 quartered) with musicians, jugglers, and buffoons. 
 Meanwhile, at Koine, he was deposed from the 
 triumvirate, and war was proclaimed against 
 ( leopatra. Each party collected its forces, and in 
 the naval engagement which took place (31 B.C.), near 
 Actium (q.v.), A. was defeated, liis subsequent hope
 
 AXTOXIUS— ANTRIM. 
 
 of finding troops still faithful to him in Libya was 
 I. He returned to Egypt, where, with 
 itra, he once more forgot political can's ami 
 ■ us, until his amuse Hunts were suddenly 
 interrupted by the arrival of Octaviauus at Alex- 
 andria. A. now roused himself, made a charge with 
 his cavalry, and repelled the enemy; but the 
 advantage was ouly momentary. Deserted by the 
 Egyptian fleet, as by his own army, and suspecting 
 that even Cleopatra had conspired Dim, he 
 
 went to her palace, from which the queen had 
 escaped. Deceived by a age informing him 
 
 of the death of Cleopatra, A. committed suicide by 
 falling upon his sword, in the year 30 B.C. 
 
 AXTO'NIUS or A'XTOXY OF PADUA, Saint, 
 
 n-n at Lis! t 15, 1195, and, on the 
 
 ^s aide, was related to Godfrey of Bouillon. He 
 
 t a monk of the Augustine order, and in 1221 
 
 became one of the most active propagators of the 
 
 of Franciscans. On his missionary VOJ 
 
 ig cast on the coast of Italy, he pri achi -1 
 
 access at Montpelier, Toidouse, Bologna, 
 
 id, June 13, 1231. The legends 
 
 of A. of P. are full of absurd fables. Among others, 
 
 told that his eloquence as a preacher 
 great that even the fish in the sea were di ■■ ply affected 
 by it ! His anniversary falls on June 13. His monu- 
 a fine work of statuary, is in the church which 
 bears his name at Padua. 
 
 ANTOXY. Saint, surname.! The Great, and also 
 Antony o> THEBES, the father of monachisni, was 
 born about the year 251 a.d., at Koma, near 
 Heraklea, in Upper Egypt His parents wen- both 
 wealthy and pious, and Bestowed on him a n I 
 education. Having, in obedience to what he believed 
 to be a divine injunction, sold his possessions, and 
 proceeds among the poor, he with- 
 drew into the wilderness, where he disc 
 
 If in all those austerities which have hallowed 
 his memory in the Catholic Church, and farmed the 
 
 1 of the monastic life. When 30 years of age, 
 however, di irons of obtaining a di i pose than 
 
 his situation alibi ' I, he] aetrated further into the 
 desert, and took up his abode in an old ruin on the 
 top of a hill, where he spent twenty years in the most 
 ous seclusion; but, in 3ll5, he was persuaded to 
 
 t his retreat by the prayers of numerous anchor- 
 
 v.lio wished to live under his direction. He 
 now founded the monastery of Faioum, which at 
 first was only a group of separate and scattered cells 
 near Memphis and Arsiuoc: but which, nevertheless, 
 may be considered {he origin of cenobite life. The 
 persecution of the < as by Maximian in 311 
 
 A.i'., induced St A. to leave his cell, and proceed to 
 Alexandria, in the hope of obtaining the crown of 
 martyrdom ; but having failed in this, he returned to 
 his solitude in the course of a year, which, however, 
 he Boon left, and plunged yet deeper into the desert. 
 At length he found a lodgment on a hill, al 
 day's journey from tb I' I v . i ; but his d 
 
 i ring his retreat, so pressed him with 
 inate importunities, that he ventured to 
 accompany them back. After many pious i 
 
 he oi ore left them, and s i became the 
 
 of thi Nile. In 
 355, the venerable hermit, then lot years of age, 
 made a journey to Alexandria to dispute with the 
 Arians. He had interviews with Athanasina and 
 other distingui -'■ I; but feeling lii3 end 
 
 approaching, he retired to his desert home, where he 
 died, 356 a.d. 
 
 Athanasiua states, in his Life of St A., that the 
 saint wore a . rse shirt of hair, and 
 
 washed Ins body, which is more credible than the 
 stories he relates of his encounters with the devU, or 
 20 
 
 his miracles. His whole conduct indicates the predo- 
 minance of a glowing and yet gloomy fancy, which is 
 per condition of religious asceticism. Although 
 the father of monachism, St A. is not the ant; 
 any monastic ' rules ; ' those which the monks of the 
 eastern schismatic sects attribute to him are the 
 production of St Basil. He is perhaps the most 
 popular saint in the Catholic Church, Accounts of 
 
 and miracles are given in the Acta 
 (/rum of the Bollandists, under the date of the 17th 
 January, on which day his festival was kept. 
 
 Bl Anthony's Fire.— The Rev. Alban Butler, in 
 his Liu ) q) ili, Saints, gives the follow ins account of 
 the origin of this name : ' In 1089, a pestilential ery- 
 sipelatous distemper, called the sacred fire, sw> 
 great numbers in most provinces of France; public 
 prayers and processions were ord red . t this 
 
 At length, it pi seed I rant many 
 
 miraculous cures of this dreadful d i those 
 
 who implored His mercy through thi ion of 
 
 St A., especially before bis reli 
 
 Motte St. Didier, mar Yienne, in Dauphinel in which 
 they were deposited was resort., i to by 
 numbers of pilgrims, and his patronage wa lim 
 over the whole kingdom against this disease.' The 
 ' order of Canons Regular of St Anthony,' a religious 
 fraternity, founded about 1090, for the relief of 
 persons afflicted with the fire of St A., survived in 
 France till 1790. 
 
 St Anthony's Well, a small fountain near the 
 ruined chapel of St A., on the northern slope of 
 Arthur's Seat (q. v.), near Edinburgh. This inter- 
 esting fountain, which consists only of a stone basin, 
 into which water trickles from under an incumbent 
 rock, is celebrated in the Scottish song — 
 ' O, waly, ua!y.' 
 
 AXTRAI'GUES, Emant i -l.'i Henri De- 
 i.aunav. Count of, a great politician, but very 
 [■ous character, was born at Vivarais, in the 
 department Ardeche, in 1765, and was ed 
 under tin' Abbe' Maury. His superior talents were 
 first displayed in his Memoire sut-les El'- 
 laws Droits <> la '■; leg convex, 
 
 This bonk, full of daring assertions of liberty, was 
 one of the first sparks of the lire which afterwards 
 rose to such height in the French Revolution. In 
 ITS'- 1 , wh.n A. was chosen as a deputy, he not only 
 defended the privileges of the hereditary aristocracy, 
 but also ranked himself with those who opposed the 
 union of the three estates; while in the discussions 
 on the constitution, he maintained that the royal 
 veto was an indispensable part of good government. 
 After leaving the Assembly in 1790, hewasem] 
 in diplomacy - and Vienna, where he 
 
 defended the cause of the Bourbons. In 1803 he 
 was employed under Alexander i in an 
 
 v to Dresden, where' he wrol 
 a brochure, entitled .1 Fragment of i 
 
 afterwards came to Englai i. d a |uired great 
 influence with Canning. Despite his attachm 
 thi interest of the Bourl dd never win the 
 
 confidi nceof Louis XY1II. In 1812 he was mun 
 
 with his wife, at his residence qi ir London, by an 
 Italian servant; who, immediately after the act, 
 committed suicide. 
 
 ANTRIM, a maritime county in the north-east of 
 Ireland, in the province of Ulster; bounded, X.. by 
 ; W., by the north part of the river 
 Bann, dividing it from Londonderry, an ; 
 
 ; S., b I river, separating it from the 
 
 ; S.E., by B Igh; and E. 
 
 by the Irish Channel. It stands third among the 
 
 Irish counties in population, but in extent only 
 
 ninth, i St length is 50 miles; its greatest
 
 ANTWEEP— ANVILLE. 
 
 breadth, 20 ; its extent of sea-coast. 00 mil's. A rea, 
 1164 square miles. About two-thirda of this is 
 arable; a fourth, barren; ami a seventy-fourth 
 in woods. Pop. in L851, 362,264. Off the aorth 
 
 coast lie Rathlin Isle and the Skerries; ami off 
 it coast, the Maiden Rooks. The east coast 
 is hilly; and from Lame to Pair Head, parallel 
 mountain-ranges of no great height, ami 
 thud of the county, stretch south-west a consider- 
 able way into the interior, forming a scries of valleys, 
 Opening seaward, called the Gleqs of A. The 
 interior of the country slopes towards Lough Neagh. 
 The highest eminences are — Trostan, 181(1 [set : and 
 Sliereance, ITS- feet. The principal streams are — 
 hi, running north from Lough Neagh into the 
 Atlantic; the Main, winning parallel to 
 but in the reverse direction, into Lough Neagh ; .Mid 
 the Bush, (lowing north into the Atlantic. I 
 and numerous peat-bogs occur in the comity. SiJE- 
 sevenths of the surface of A. consists of ba 
 trap, often alternating with beds of red ochre, and 
 overlying strata of hardened chalk, green-sand, new 
 red UtO i"i', and mica-slate. The I 
 especially the ed and Lough 
 
 i, of the trap-field, present basaltic columns of 
 varied ami impressive outlines. Tic green '"1 ami 
 new red sandstone crop out along the east and 
 south-east borders of A., and a patch of millstone 
 grit occurs in the north-east corner. Between Bally- 
 
 and the mouth of the Bairn, Urn 
 assumes very picturesque forms ; and the I 
 Causeway, on the north coast, near the mouth of the 
 Bush, is one of the most perfect examples of colum- 
 nar basalt in the world. Fine salt-mines occur at 
 Duncrue and Carrickfergus ; and a small coal-field 
 near Ballycastle. The sod of A. is mostly light, and 
 the chief crop is oats. In 1S5S, 249,086 
 under crop, two-fifths being in oa1 . one I lurth in 
 potatoes, and one-fifteenth in wheat. The land is 
 very much subdivided; and the rearing of flax, and 
 the various branches of the linen, cotton, and coarse 
 woollen manufacture, employ a great portion of the 
 people, who unite mechanical and agricultural 
 itions with the best results. In 1851, A. had 
 3.39 National Schools, attended by 15,746 boys, and 
 13,017 girls. The principal towns are — Belfast, 
 Lisburn, Eallymcna, Carrickfergus, Larne, and 
 Antrim. A. county returns two members to parlia- 
 ment ; Belfast burgh, two ; and Carrickfergus and 
 Lisburn bur b one. The inhabitants are 
 
 mostly Presbyterians, the county having been 
 sively colonised from England and Scotland betwei n 
 of Queen Elizabeth and William 111. 
 The original possessors were the O'Neills, who, in 
 linst the Knglis!' it, and 
 
 be whole country, except Carrickfergus and 
 part of the Glens — held by the Bissets of I 
 It was reduced to allegiance during the reign of 
 Elizabeth, v O'Neill termi- 
 
 nated the dominion of his race. (1871 
 
 A'NTWEltl' (in French, ANVEKS), f 
 the chief city of a province in the I 
 was formed, in 1S14, by a union of the old mar- 
 gravate of A. with the province of M 
 capital of the province which beai 
 and the chief commercial city of Belgium, i 
 on the river Scheldt, and contains 90,000 inhabitants. 
 Its chief public institutions are 
 Sciene ay of Painting and Sculp ire, for- 
 
 merly known as the Academy of St Mark, a t 
 
 Surgical School, Naval Arsenal. Museum, and 
 Zoological Gardens. The cathedral, one i 
 
 t Gothic structures in Europe, is 500 feet in 
 
 ' by 210 in breadth, with a roof supported by 
 
 12") pillars, and a very lofty spire. The interior is 
 
 enriched by the two greatest of all the pictures of 
 
 90S 
 
 the Eleva! of, and the Descent from the 
 Cross. The Church of St James coo | he monu- 
 
 ment of tic Rubens family. The trade and manufac- 
 tures of A. aro considerable. The latter 00 
 chiefly of Bugar, white-lead, cotton goods, point 
 
 Is, gold and silver lace, &0, It is 
 
 stall celebrated tor its sewing-silk, black silk stuffs, 
 
 and printers' ink, as it was in forim r t 
 
 ami satins. The three annual 
 formerly held at A., have lost all comic 
 importance, and are now represented by two popular 
 I;, (i860— pop. 126,663 | 
 A. is mentioned as early as the Sth c. ; in the 
 [2th ami 13th it gave signs of considerable pro 
 
 perity, and, in l.Viii. in cd more than 2110,(1110 
 
 nits. The union of Belgium with Holland 
 in 1815 was very favourable to the commerce 
 and general prosperity of A. By the revolution of 
 
 Is.'iO. it was linked to the d.l ni\ of Bel 
 \\ hen the revolutionary party gain d pot le i ion, tin 
 
 treated to the citadel, 
 
 and, exasperated by the breach of truce. 
 
 Which destroyed the arsenal and 
 
 about thirty bouses. In 1832, a French army of 
 50,000 men, under Marshal Gerard, appeared before 
 A., to demand the surrender of the citadel, which 
 I Chasse refused. After considerable injury, 
 and the loss of several lives among the 
 
 d Chasse capitulated, Dec 23,1832. On the 
 30th of the same month, the Flemish fortification, 
 and the forts Burght, Zwindrecht, and AustroweeL, 
 were surrendered to the Belgian troops, and the 
 Hutch troops were taken to France, as hostages for 
 the surrender of the forts Lillo and Liefkenshoek, 
 cording to BO article in the negotiation of Nov. 15, 
 
 ls:{], which stipulated that the live citadels held hy 
 the i in eh tro ; i in Bel una ! ould be surrendered. 
 From tin '■ advi rsitiee A has never fully reco 
 under the Belgian gi [tsonceconsi lerabli 
 
 commerce with the colonies of 11 'II ad h i dually 
 " '" [ ' i .1 ". '.in i. id am and Kolterdam. 
 
 ANU'IUK, an Egyptian deity, styled Anepu on 
 as, accord- 
 ing to mythology, the son of Osiris 
 and Ni phthys. By the ( : 
 
 '-, byled Hi rmes or ' I 
 comb ning the Egyptian with 
 the Grecian name. He is represented 
 on monuments as having the I 
 
 to those of a dog. Bom 
 
 ■ double crown. A white 
 and yellow cock ' 
 him. Bis office, like that of Hermes 
 Psychop mong the < : 
 
 was to accompany the ghosts of the 
 I lades (Am 
 to a ist Horus in v 
 
 ins, under the inspection of 
 As, in the time of the Bom yptian 
 
 worship had spread beyond Egypt itself, the two 
 of A. and Hermes v. re bleu 
 
 1 of the former was found united to 
 the insignia of the latter. 
 
 ANVILLE, Jean Baptists Borr.crriGNON d\ a 
 riplcr, born at Paris in 1097, 
 
 i L782. He devoted his whole life to geo- 
 graphical Such was his natural taste for 
 
 map-drawing, that his first study of the ancient 
 authors induced him to publish, at the age of I 
 a map of Greece. His rare qualit. im the 
 
 hip of the Ahhe de Songuerue, from whom he 
 received those instructions which were the source 
 of that profound and extensive knowledge he 
 
 '
 
 ANWARI— AORTA. 
 
 subsequently acquired. He read the Greek and Latin 
 historians and philosophers, as well as poets, spe- 
 cially noting the names and positions of cities and 
 nations. He advanced the science of geography, 
 not only by the vast number of maps which he exe- 
 cuted, but also by the treatises, full of erudition and 
 of historic and critical details, in which he discussed 
 numerous interesting questions. The works of A. 
 announced by M. de Maine many years ago, were to 
 have been contained in six volumes, exclusive of the 
 volumes of maps. The principal portion was pub- 
 lish, ,1 in 1834 by Levrault. But the death of M. de 
 Maine in 1832 stopped the quarto edition near the 
 end of the twelfth volume, to which the map of Africa 
 was however wanting, although the text had been 
 added, with notes digested from the most recent 
 investigations in that country. A. has left 211 maps 
 and plans, and 7S memoirs, the most of which are 
 
 d in tin- Hecaeil des Memoires de V Acad 
 des IntcripHolU el Belles-lettres. His best map is that 
 of Ancient Egypt. His Orl/is Veterihus Notus, and 
 Orlns Romanus, are also invaluable. The same 
 remark applies to his maps of Gaul, Italy, and 
 Greece, both ancient and medieval. His maps of 
 modern countries contain all the knowledge attained 
 in his time. His valuable collection of maps was 
 purchased in 1779 by the French government for 
 the Royal Library. 
 
 ANWARI, a celebrated Persian poet, who 
 flourished during the 12th c, was born in the pro- 
 vince of Khorassau, and educated at the college of 
 Mansur, at Tus. He emerged from obscurity in the 
 course of a night. The story goes that the Seljukido 
 sultan, Sanjar, happened on one occasion to visit 
 Tus, when the imagination of the youthful poet was 
 so excited by the presence of the monarch and hie 
 glittering retinue, that he resolved to write a poem 
 in his praise. By next morning, it was finished, and 
 presented to Sanjar, who instantly placed the fortu- 
 nate youth among his courtiers. A. now began to 
 devote himself to astrology, which was his rum ; for 
 having predicted that in 11S5 or 1186 A.D. a hurricane 
 Would burst over all Asia, overthrow the most solid 
 edifices, and shake the very mountains, and nothing 
 of the sort really occurring, but, on the contrary, an 
 entire year of remarkably tranquil weather, he fell 
 into disgrace, and had to retire to Balkh, where he 
 died in 1 200— 1201 A.D. 
 
 His poems consist chiefly of lengthy panegyrics, 
 and shorter lyrical effusions. The latter [ghazela] 
 are characterised by simplicity, case, and natural- 
 ness ; but the hosidus, or long poems, are disfigured, 
 like many other eastern poems, by glittering 
 ry and historical conceits. His Elegy on Uie 
 '.'// qf Sanjar tub r In/ tin '■'/ 
 
 has been translated into English by Captain Kirk- 
 patrick in the 1st volume of Asiatic Miscellanies 
 (Calcutta, 17S5). 
 
 A'ORIST, a form of the Greek verb by which 
 an action is expressed as taking place in an inl 
 (Gr. aoristos) tune. The Greek language is esp 
 
 in the past tenses of verbs, having, in addition 
 
 In tin- t ii es em n to other languages — namely, 
 
 the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect — the A., which 
 is peculiarly adapted to the narrative style of 
 writing. Tho distinction of first and second A. is 
 purely formal. 
 
 AO'RTA is the great arterial trunk which, rising 
 from the left ventricle of the b its branches 
 
 ramifying through the whole body. The A. in man 
 is subdivided by anatomists into the Arch, the 
 ., and the Abdominal A. The arch is a 
 loop with the convexity directed upwards, forwards, 
 - the right side, reaching at its highest part to 
 a level with the second piece of the breast-bone, and 
 
 then descending to the left side of the third dorsal 
 vertebra. Five arteries arise from the arch — viz., 
 two coronaries, for the supply of the muscular tissue 
 of the heart itself; the innominata; and the left 
 carotid and left subclavian arteries. At the com- 
 mencement of the arch are three small swellings or 
 
 Aorta : 
 a, ascending arch of aorta; *s, coronary arteries ; 6', innomi- 
 nata artery; o, right subclavian; c, ri:!it carotid; <t, left 
 carotid ; e, left subclavian ; /, thoracic aorta ; gg t diaphragm ; 
 hh, phrenic arteries ; i, cooliac axis ; ft, coronary or gastric; 
 /, splenic; m, hepatic; n, superior mesenteric; oo, renal 
 arteries ; ;>, inferior mesenteric ; t>', spermatic ; q, couuuoa 
 iliac ; r, middle sacral. 
 
 pouches, the aortic sinuses, below wliich are the thrco 
 semilunar valves or folds of the lining membrane, 
 which prevent regurgitation of the blood back into 
 the heart. The moracic A. extends from the third 
 dorsal vertebra to the diaphragm, gradually getting 
 into the middle line of the spine. The thoracic A. 
 gives off the bronchial arteries (two or three) to 
 supply the tissue of the lungs; and some small 
 branches (tliree or four) to the oesophagus, and inter- 
 costal arteries, to supply the walls of the chest (ten 
 on left, and nine on right side). The al 
 
 from the diaphragm to the fourth lumbar 
 vertebra, opposite the lower margin of which it 
 divides into the two common iliac trunks. The 
 abdominal A. gives off the two phrenic arteries to the 
 diaphragm ; the coeliac axis, which divides into three 
 
 branches for the stomach, liver, and e 
 the sup iteric for the small, and part of the 
 
 large intestine ; the renah (two) ; rcnals 
 
 (two), one for each kidney ; the spermatic ; the 
 inferior mesenteric, for the part of the lar 
 not supplied by the superior mesenteric; and four 
 or five lumbar arteries, which supply the lower part 
 of the abdominal walls (the loins). 
 
 Where the A. bifurcates, a small artery, the sacra- 
 B, and passes along in 
 the mid D fish and in animals with large 
 
 tails,! is a continuation of the A. 
 
 The above is th i usual arrangement; but oo 
 ally it varies, especially in the number of arteries 
 springing from the arch. The structure of the A. 
 i uiuhr Akteby ; and the comparative 
 anatomy under Heart and Cuu-tlatios. 
 
 307
 
 AOSTA— APATITE. 
 
 Daring festal life tween 
 
 the arch of Qu A. and the pulmonary artery called 
 tlio <»' "I which ! 
 
 obliterated after birth. It has bi 
 tin.- velocity of the blood in the 
 tUr arch is 2 rhi 
 
 ■ the A. of a hor 
 be ! I an 1 in man's, 4 pounds (i oun 
 
 \. are very Bubji ot to fatty 
 
 atheroma (q. v.), and in advanced 
 life, to degeneration or deposit of earthy 
 
 particles, which di r elasticity. Thiai 
 
 ry liable to Ai ij. v.), which, 
 
 as may be expected, is generally situated at the 
 curves oi (he .\ . 
 
 from this disease in the .arch or I . suffer 
 
 from palpitation vitliin the chest, difficulty of 
 
 lung, occurring in paroxysms and durin . 
 and shoots of pain through the chi aneur- 
 
 klfy presses forward, and 
 may completely di >tr . 
 pulsating tiunour, covered only by the akin, 
 may press up into the neck. If low in the chest. the 
 aneurism may compress the thoracic duet, and 
 emaciation. In the abdomeu, the symptoms are 
 pulsation and pain ; but in both situations ani 
 may exist for a length of time with i Li at 
 attention. 
 
 In some cases, the A. has been found obli- 
 terated, shewing that the lower extremities can be 
 .•applied with blood by the anastomosing brai 
 Sir Astley Cooper and other Burgeons have ti 
 A. for aneurism, but without success. 
 
 AOSTA, a northern province in the kingdom of 
 Sardinia, sorronn of the 
 
 Alps, and watered by the river Dora-baltea. I; 
 contains an area of 1233 square miles. The dense 
 pine-woods on the hills, the alpine on the 
 
 slopes, the plantations of vines, almonds, olfr 
 and mulberry trees in the valleys, and the ores of 
 
 1 iron in the bosom i 
 tains, supply occupation and means of sul 
 a population of about 81,000 ; i til the Ian 1 generally 
 is not adapted to the growth of corn, though maize, 
 I 
 valleys. The disease sty] 1 Cn tini in (q.v.) 
 prevails to a lamentable ins are 
 
 altogether free from Goitre (q. v.). ' 
 of the poorer class emigrate dure into the 
 
 richer countries in their vicinity, and earn a liveli- 
 hood as chimney-sweepers, i liths. — 
 \. the principal towu, 40 miles X.X.W. i.f Turin, 
 contains 7500 inhabitants, and has a large trade in 
 cheese, hemp, leather, ftc It was in ancient times 
 the chief residence of the Salassi, a brave race of 
 mountaineers, with whom A | in I 
 had to contend on his way into Gaid. They were 
 finally destroyed by Terentiua Varro in the time 
 of Augustus. Monuments of the Roman times— a 
 Well-preserved arch, two gateways, the ruins of 
 .an amphitheatre, and a bridge — still remain. The 
 celebrated baths and mines of St Didier are in the 
 neighbourhood. St Bernard, the founder of the 
 famous hospice which bears his name, was Arch- 
 deacon of A. ; and Ansehn, Archbishop of ( 
 1 >ury, was born here. 
 
 APA'FI, Michael I., Prince of Transylvania, was 
 born in 1G32, of an old but decayed family. He 
 accompanied Prince George II. in an expedition 
 ist the Poles in lOoG, but was taken prisoner at 
 the irruption of the Tatar hordes under their khan, 
 iimed Girai. After his release, he went and 
 lived for a short time at his paternal estate ; but in 
 1661 he was chosen Prince of Transylvania, at the 
 instigation or desire of Ali Pasha, generalissimo of 
 
 the Turkish forces under Sultan Mahmond I V. 
 
 Daring the pi laded with Austria, he n 
 
 and protection ol the Porte, and 
 
 acquired the to«ns of Olausenburg and Zath- 
 
 mar. lb- remained faithful t . tin Ottoman power 
 till th o \ H una in 1683. Fortune then 
 
 changed. The imperial troops penetrated into the 
 
 i on tie- 12th oi V i I It'sT. A. made 
 a treaty with the emperor at llarkany, by which 
 
 Transylvania was declared to be Creed 'fox ever' 
 
 from Turkish suzerainty, and placed ondi i German 
 
 protection. At Pi i the 1st of July 1688, 
 
 LTansyrvanian deputies assembled at the 
 
 national Diet, took the oath of baity to the Eaps- 
 as legitimate monarchs of Hungary. 
 
 ith of his wife, Anna Bornemitza, in 1CSS, 
 A. had been sorely afflicted both in body and mind, 
 and died (April 15, 1690) on the eve oi a fierce retri- 
 butive war, commenced by his old allies the Turks, 
 who co: Ives '!! used by his desertion 
 
 of them. His son, Michael II.. bui eded to the 
 
 H I ils. The Turks, under the vizier 
 
 Cuprigli, overthrew the imperial army, and took 
 
 places, such as Nissa, Widdin, Semendria, 
 
 let, ftc,; but the intestine troubles 
 
 lan empire hindered them, or rather Count 
 
 Tekcli, the adventurer whom they were helping, 
 
 from retaining these towns. The imperial troops 
 
 subsequently regained everything ; and at length the 
 
 young Transylvanian prince was inveigled to Vienna, 
 
 and cajoled into giving up his dominions to Austria 
 
 in lieu of a pension of 12,000 or 15,000 florins. He 
 
 died in 1713. 
 
 A I' \XAGE is not an English legal term, but is 
 
 1 iu the French law, in which 
 
 system it signifies • nient or conveyance by 
 
 lands and feudal rights to the princes 
 
 of the royal family, that they may be 
 
 ording to their rank. (See 
 a long article on this subject in Km.' 
 Diction". : i, which refers to Eottcck and Welcker, 
 
 : i. by P. A. 1'lizer. See '■ . 
 
 Merlin" under this 
 
 1 tnetimes found in 
 
 - law-books, the Scotch lawyers having most 
 
 il from Prance, whose system of 
 
 laws was so largely imported into Scotland — the Court 
 
 Id after the plan 
 of the Parliament of Paris. Mr Erskine, in his 
 
 of tlie Law of Scotland, book i., tit. 4, sec. S, 
 says : ' The A., or patrimony of the Prince of Scot- 
 land, 1; 1 erected into a regality jurisdic- 
 Jled the principality. It is personal to the 
 I son, upon whose death or succession it 
 returns to the crown. The prince has, or may have, 
 his own chancery, from which his writs issue, and 
 may have his own chamberlain and other officers, 
 and managing his revenue ;' and the 
 
 pies of the . 
 calls this principality the prince's 'pern 
 I personal provision.' In England, the duchy 
 ii wall may be said to lie an A. of the Prince 
 of Wales, in whose person, also, since the junction 
 ■ •f the two kingdoms under the same crown, now 
 i of the l'riuce of Scotland. His 
 
 royal highness, in fact, when he goes north, ought 
 called, not Prince of Wales, but Prince 
 of Scotland. 
 
 In common parlance in England, the word A. is 
 loosely used to denote any extra-territorial jurisdic- 
 tion or sovereignty by governments or states ; and 
 even any dignity or right enjoyed by persons of 
 rank. 
 
 A'PATITE is the scientific and commercial name 
 applied to a mineral mainly consisting of phosphate
 
 APE— APELIXS. 
 
 of lime (bone-earth), and which is in the course of being 
 introduced into the agricultural market as a valu- 
 1 in the preparation of artificial manures. 
 A. is found in many rock masses, but is especially 
 disseminated in the igneous and older crystalline 
 such as granite, basalt, and greenstone. The clay and 
 soil formed naturally by the disintegration of these 
 rocks, contain, of necessity, the A. in a tine m 
 
 !>, and thus are enabled to supply 
 growing thereon with one of the most important 
 
 I of the mineral diet of the members of the 
 
 ible kingdom. The most extensive natural 
 sources of A. are in Norway, where it is found 
 in reins or fissures in the Syenitic rocks, and 
 from which it is now mined on a large scale, by a 
 British company, and transported to England ; and 
 in the island of Sombrero, where the A. appears to 
 
 se the greater part of the island. Sombrero is 
 only one and a half miles long, by an average breadth, 
 of three quarters of a mile, and is situated an 
 
 "est India Islands, about GO miles from St 
 Thomas, and in lab Is- :i.7 \„ and long. 63° 28 \V. 
 4o.i ii ii i tons of A. have already been abstracted from 
 the island, and used, after being ground to powder, in 
 the United States as a manure. Very large quanti- 
 ties are introduced into this country under the 
 name of Sombrero Guano, and are extensively em- 
 ployed by the manufacturers of artificial manures, in 
 place of ordinary bone-ash. The general treatment to 
 which it is subjected is to reduce it to powder, and 
 act upon the pulverised matter with sulphuric 
 which renders the phosphoric acid in the A. soluble 
 in water, and thereby facilitates its introduction 
 into the plant. In the greater number of cases 
 where the A. or Sombrero Guano is treated in 
 this way, it is mixed with other manures, such as 
 Peruvian Guano, blood, or true bones, and thus a 
 complex substance is manufactured, which is much 
 more acceptable to the plant than the simple A. 
 or mineral phosjiliale itself. The A. from Norway, 
 known in commerce as _'■ .1., is also made 
 
 up in a similar manner. 
 
 The great importance of mineral phosphate, in an 
 agricultural point of view, arises from the fact that 
 no mineral substance possesses more influenc 
 the growth of the edible plants, such as wheat, 
 -., than phosphoric acid does ; 
 any cheap source of that substance, therefore, is a 
 
 When the Norwegian A. was disco 
 in quantity, it was welcomed by the agricultural 
 pul .lie, and immediately influenced the price of all 
 manures. The discovery, however, of the deposits of 
 A. in Sombrero is of even greater importance, from 
 the extent to which the substance is found on the 
 island. Not only do s the A. constitute large bo 
 
 ,ig from one to twenty tons, and thickly 
 '. but beneath a few feet of 
 
 -rock, a phosphatie and calcareous tufa is 
 found, which here and there has large n 
 dikes of A. passing through it. Again, occasionally 
 
 odor-stratum of phosphatie mineral I 
 through, and is observed overlapping or coi 
 
 1 surface of the island to the extent of 
 
 I thousands of square feet at a single place. 
 
 of A. so extraordinary and abundant. 
 
 cannot fail to inlhience materially the 
 
 plants, and this duty it is quickly acc< 
 
 under various names. The island of Sombrero 
 
 much phosphatie or bony matter as 
 
 nt in many millions of oxen, ami repre- 
 
 . s much manure as would be obtained by the 
 employment of the bones of these cattle ; in another 
 point of view it may be i 
 to the discovery of an area of land extensive enough 
 
 n fodder 6 - 'i and maintenance of 
 
 • d iin y millions of oxen. 
 
 The different varieties of A. contain a little car- 
 ' bonate of lime, filiate of lime, muriate of lime, &c. 
 One of these varieties is known as 1 
 anotlp ■ 
 
 occurs both massive and in cr -h are gene- 
 
 rally small, and are often six-sided prisms, or six- 
 tables — and is found in some of the tin mines 
 ' in Cornwall. - fcc, and in 
 
 1 gneiss in different parts both and America, 
 
 sometimes forming beds associated with 1 
 >ne, as in Estremadura in Spain. It i- 
 of various colours, more or less green, blue or red, 
 '. sometimes white, and often gray. The proposal to 
 employ it as a manure first excited much interest in 
 1895, and began to be enterprisingly carried into 
 
 with happy results— rocks once <!• 
 barren being thus rendered very conducive to the 
 fertility of soils. Some of the tupe ■ *, 4c, 
 
 I most eagerly pressed on the attention of agricul- 
 turists, bear about the same relation to A. that 
 Ota does to lentil flour. 
 
 APE, a name commonly given to the tailless 
 monkeys. (See Bap.p.ap.y Ape, Chimpanzee, <: 
 
 i. a. Obako-Oxaho, &c.) It was originally 
 I commensurate in signification with monkey, and 
 I the terms were indiscriminately used. The origiu 
 of the word is uncertain. See Monkey. 
 
 Tin- worship of apes or monkeys has been common 
 I among pagan nations from a period of remote anti- 
 . and still prevails very ext nsively, being prac- 
 tised in Japan, in India, and by some of the African 
 tribes. The source of it is perhaps to be found 
 partly in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, 
 and partly in the qualities which apes have been sup- 
 ! posed to possess in a conspicuous degree, and of 
 1 which they have been made symbolic. An A.'s 
 1 tooth, kept in a temple in Ceylon, was re_ 
 with extraordinary veneration, and immense wealth 
 was accumulated through the continual offerings of 
 the worshippers ; but the temple was plundered, and 
 the tooth carried away by the Portuguese in 1551. 
 A-PEAK, or A-PEEK, a maritime term signifying 
 j the position of an anchor when the cable ha i 
 
 drawn so tight as to bring the ship directly over it ; 
 the sailors then say that ' the anchor is apeak.' 
 
 APE'LLES, the most celebrated painter in ancient 
 times, was the son of Pythias, probably, in 
 
 accordance with the statement of Suidas, l>om at 
 Colophon, on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor ; though 
 Pliny and Ovid call him a Coan, and Stral 
 Lncian an Ephesian. This, however, may simply 
 refer to the fact that he was made a burgess of that 
 town. He flourished in the latter part of tho 
 4th c. B.C., received his first in-tmction in art in 
 the Ionian school of Ephesus, then studied under 
 Pamphilus of Amphipolis, and latterly 
 under M nd thus he united thi 
 
 ing of the Ionian with the accurate drawing of 
 ■yonic school. During the time of Philip, 
 A. visit' 1 Mac Ion, where he became the intimate 
 friend of Alexander the Great. It was probably at 
 the Macedonian court that the best days of A. were 
 spent. Pliny relates that on one occasion when 
 Alexander visited A. in his studio, the king 
 exhibited such ignorance of art. that A. rvcomni< 
 him to be silent, as the boys who were grinding the 
 colours were laughing at him. Hut the sami 
 is told of Zeuxis and Megabyzus. He 
 wards visited I where he was familiar with 
 
 Protog I Al xandria, and Ephesus, The 
 
 period of his death i- not known; butashepri 
 his art before the death of Thilip. and as his visit to 
 Alexandria was after the assumption of the regal 
 Ptolemy, he probably nourished bet 
 308 B.C. The most celebrated paint:
 
 APKU.KS- Al'KNMNKS. 
 
 A were his Anadyomene, or Venus Rising from the 
 8m, witl a shower of silver drops falling rcmnd hex 
 like a \ il "f gauze, the Graces, and similar sul>- 
 
 I but he cultivated the her m well as the 
 
 ii ideal portrait of Ah 
 wielding a thunderbolt was highly esteemed, and 
 
 rved in the temple of Diana si I ■ With 
 
 reference to this painting, Alezanderaaid : ' Thi 
 only two Alexanders — the invincible ami of Philip, 
 ami the inimitable Alexander of A.' A. is said to 
 have left an incomplete painting of Venus, to which 
 no other painter would presume to give the finishing. 
 touches. The disposition of A. was ramarkabl 
 from envy, and he willingly acknowledged the merits 
 of his contemporaries. Amphion, he said, excelled 
 him in grouping, and Asclepiodorua in perspective, 
 but grace was his alone. On comi: 
 finding that the works of Protogenes were not 
 appreciated by his countrymen, he at one offered 
 him fifty talents for a picture, and Bpread thi 
 that he intended to sell it again as his own. The 
 industry with which he praCt! ed drawing was so 
 great as to give rise to the proverb, Nvila diet sine 
 liihi'i. .Many other anecdotes are related of A. 
 When his pictures were exposed to public view, he 
 used to place himself behind a picture, to listen to 
 the criticisms of the common people. A cobbler 
 having detected a fault in the shoe of one of his 
 figures, it is said that A. instantly rectified it ; but 
 ■when the cobbler, on the following day, extended his 
 criticism to the legs, the painter rushed from his 
 hiding-place, and told the cobbler to stick to the 
 shoes; or, in the Latin version, which has become 
 proverbial, ' No sutor supra crepidam.' 
 
 A'PENNINES (Ital Appenni'm'; anciently, I.at. 
 Mons Apenitinus), a mountain-chain 
 uninterruptedly throughout the whole length of the 
 Italian peninsula. It lies between 37° and 44" 30' N. 
 lat., and 7° 40' and 18° 20' E. long., and belongs 
 to the system of the Alps, from which it. bra 
 off at the Col de Tenda, near the sources of the 
 Tanaro. From this point, the chain, under the 
 name of the Ligurian A., girdles the Gulf of I 
 in the immediate vicinity of the sea. and then inns 
 inland to a considerable extent, forming the 
 shed between the Adriatic and the Mediten 
 
 but gradually approaching the east coast, till, in the 
 
 highlands of theAbruzzi.it isclose upon it; alter which 
 it takes a south-western direction throu 
 dips under the sea at the Strait of Messina, and 
 reappears on the northern coast of Sicily. I' 
 
 hers divide the A. as follows: 1. Thi North 
 A., from the Col de Tenda in the Maritime Alps to 
 the pass of Borgo San Sepolcro, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Arezzo, on the eastern border of Tu 
 
 2. The Central A., from Arezzo to the valley of the 
 
 Pescara, which tlows between the two Al.ruzzi. 
 
 3. The Smith A., from the valley of the Pescara to 
 Cape Spartivento. 4. The Insular A., or the 8 
 
 The leading feature of the A., whi 
 they approach the coast, is their extraordinarily 
 steep declivities; while in Middle Italy and 
 adjoining portions of Upper and Lower [tali I 
 terraced plateaus, lower ranges, and finally, ex i 
 coast-plains, mark their gradual descent on the Wi I . 
 The general name for these lower ranges is Sttb- 
 Apennine; but they have a variety of particular 
 itious, such as, the Mountains of Carrara 
 and Seravezza, Pratomagno and Monte Amiata, 
 in Tuscany; the Sabine, Alban, and Volscian moun- 
 tains, in the Papal States; Monte Gargano . 
 south-east coast, north of Manfrcdonia, &c. The 
 ma i n chain of the A does not send off spurs into 
 the Apulian peninsula, or heel of Italy, which, for 
 the most part, is rather level, or only interspersed 
 with detached groups of hills. 
 310 
 
 The direction of the great chain of the A. IB 
 i.n Able to the formation, on the west side, of 
 
 ich a tho oi the Arno, 
 thi fiber, 1 no, and the Voltumo ; while, 
 
 on the east side, we iiud nothing but small Btri una, 
 
 in most cases, destitute of affluents, hurrying down 
 i through wild precipitous valleys. In 
 
 Northern Italy, the L igurian A, a! 
 
 the Gulf of Genoa, can only develop on the south 
 puny streams, while the north sends down, then 'i 
 tins of Pii dmont, large tributaries to the Po. 
 
 The average heighl of the entire chain of the A. is 
 about 4000 feet, which, however, in the north, 
 down to little more than 3500 feet ; and in the 
 mountains of the Abru/.zi, rises to 7000 feet, 
 in Monte I 'orno, the highest peak of the range 
 known under the name of Gran Sasso d' Italia, 
 tlev reach an elevation of 10,200 feet, and in Monte 
 . of 7s.",ll feet. The North A. attain, in Monte 
 Cimone, situated ill the south of Mndena, :i height 
 of 6973 feet J the South A., in Monte Amara, a 
 of 9000 feet; the Insular A., if we exclude 
 the isolated peak of /Etna— -in Pizzo di Case, a 
 height of G500 feet. 
 
 The A. are crossed by thirteen principal passes : 
 are, proceeding from N. to S. — 1. The Pass 
 of Savona ; 2, of Bocchetta ; 3, of Cisa ; 4, of Monte 
 Cimone ; 5, of Porretta ; 6, of Pietramala ; 7, of 
 Borgo San Sepolcro; 8, of I'urlo ; 9, of Serravalle ; 
 Aquila; 11, of Isernia; 12, of Arcano and 
 Troja ; 13, of Potenza. The prevalent stone is a 
 species of compact limestone, of a whitish gray colour, 
 belonging to tho Jura formation. Resting on the 
 limestone is found a mure recent formation of sand- 
 stone and marl, which is especially abundant in the 
 middle region of the Sub- A., contains an extraordi- 
 nary number of petrifactions, and must be reckoned 
 as belonging to the upper division of the Parisian 
 limestone, i ins, however, frequently 
 
 crop out. Thus, for instance, on the water-shed of 
 the North and Central A. tl ind transition 
 
 clay-slate, granwache. slate, &c. The A., G 
 ally tin and N< apolitan, are di tin " In '1 
 
 fr all other mountain chains by the rich variety 
 
 contain. In some p 
 a inexhaustible. Volcanic rocks 
 ; in the middle and southern e 
 
 where the agency of fire has caused very wonderful 
 formatii tor instance, the crater-lakes of 
 
 Albano, Nemi Solfatara. 
 
 i hi | cipal chain exhibits, for the most part, a 
 n appearance; it looks like avast 
 wall, with very fewprojecting peaks to break the dull 
 monotony of the scene, and therefore seldom furnishes 
 on which the eye of the spectator 
 can rest with pleasure. Naki covered with 
 
 thick dibris, the declivities seem as if scorched by 
 the southern sun. Only in the Abruzzi, in the 
 . and above all, ill the marble mountains of 
 Carrara and Seravezza, do the bold and magnificent 
 forms of the Alp - ' Where the A. — in 
 
 I so poorly supplied with streams exhibit a 
 trace of Alpine abundance of water, there is no lack 
 of rich pastures and dense forests, but usually only 
 thin grass and wild scrubby bushes cover the stony 
 slopes. The greater number of the roaring forest 
 brooks, in the deep rocky ravines, display, during 
 summer, only a dry bed. Where the mountains dip 
 down to the sea, as at tho Riviera of < fenoa and the 
 Gulf of Naples, a rich, peculiarly southern vegetation 
 clothes the declivities. Gigantic agaves, Indian 
 
 orange-groves, 
 hint in these northern lands of the splendours of 
 the tropics. Up to 3000 feet of elevation, cornfields, 
 fruit-h. touts, and deciduous oaks are 
 
 found. Beyond this, all vegetation often ceases
 
 APENRADE— APHIS. 
 
 on the steep an<l stony sides of the mountains ; but 
 at other times the beech or the (ir appears in dense 
 forests. There is no region of perpetual snow • 
 but the summits of the Al.ni/zi and the lofty peaks 
 of Lunigiana, are often covered with snow from 
 October far into May, and semi their icy breath 
 so Suddenly down into the milil valleys, that the 
 temperature in a few hours sinks 12° — 18° F., ami 
 a warm spring afternoon is succeeded by a bitter 
 December evening. 
 
 APENRADE, a town in Northern Soh] 
 situated at the bottom of a gulf in the Little Belt, 
 has an excellent harbour, ami a considerable amount 
 of shipping. Long. 9° 25' 12" E. ; lat. 55° 2' -Hi" N. 
 Pop. 4100. The environs of the town are beautiful. 
 The first historical mention made of A. relates to its 
 destruction by the Slaves in 1148; and, indeed, its 
 position has always laid it open to the casualties of 
 
 i m in war, whether on a large or small scale, as 
 has been especially seen since 1S48. Near the town 
 stands the eastte of Brundluml, built by Queen 
 Margaret in 1411, in which the bailiff of the place 
 resides. 
 
 APE'TALOUS, a term in Botany, applied to 
 flowers or to flowering plants, and signifying that 
 they are destitute of petals or corolla (q. v.). When 
 both the calyx and corolla are wanting, the flower is 
 said to be achlamydeous (from the Greek chlamys, a 
 covering), or naked. The absence of the whorl of 
 petals sometimes occurs in an exceptional manner 
 in orders or genera ordinarily characterised by its 
 presence. In some plants, as in certain species of 
 the order OaryopkyUacece, petals are sometimes 
 present, sometimes absent, a tendency apparently 
 existing to the suppression of this whorl. 
 
 APHE'LION, that point in the elliptical orbit of 
 a planet which is most remote from the sun. The 
 Opposite point, or that nearest to the sun, is styled 
 the PERIHELION. At the former point, the swiftness 
 of the planet's motion is least, and begins to 
 increase ; at the latter, it is greatest, and 
 to decrease. This irregularity of motion is must 
 remarkable in comets whose orbits deviate most 
 from the circle. The motion of the comet of 10S0, 
 at its perihelion, was calculated as 137,000 times 
 more rapid than its motion ill A. See Arsim 3. 
 
 APHIS, a genus of insects belonging to the order 
 Hemiptera, sub-order Homoptera — the type of a 
 family called Aphidii. They are small insects, 
 
 Apple Aphis (Mr Mali) -. 
 
 a, wingless insect, magnified ; 6, winglna inject in excrescence 
 
 of the tree, magnilicd. 
 
 living by Bucking the juices of plants, upon which 
 -, be seen congi i ed in immense numbers, 
 
 Often doing serious injury, causing the distortion of 
 and even the blight and decay of the plant. 
 
 The woolly Aphis, or American Blight (.1. lot 
 Briosoma Mu'i Ol Leach), is sometimes very injurious 
 
 to apple-trees, and when once it has found its way 
 into a garden or orcliard, is very difficult of nmovaL 
 It is a minute insect, 'covered with a long cotton- 
 like wool, transpiring from the pores of its body' 
 
 Apple Aphis : 
 c, a branch with excrescences, reduced. 
 
 ' a cottony excretion ' — in which it differs from the 
 ordinary aphides, and takes its place in the chinks 
 and rugosities of the bark, multiplying rapidly, 
 extracting the sap, causing diseased excrescences, 
 and, ultimately, the destruction of the tree. It was 
 first observed in England in 1787 ; but it is uncer- 
 tain if it was, as has been supjm ntally 
 imported from America. The Hop-fly (.1. /// 
 and the A. of the turnip and cabbage (.1. Brassicce), 
 have sometimes caused the destruction of entire 
 crops. The price of hops varies from one year to 
 another, very much according to the numbers in 
 which 'the flu 1 has appeared. The potato A. {A. 
 vaslator) has been represented as the cause of the 
 
 Potato Aphis (Aphis vaslator) : 
 
 maglnlicd titty in: 
 
 potato disease ; but this opinion lias few supporters. 
 'I'll'- aphides of the rose (.1. Rosas] and of the bean 
 (.1. Fitbas) are among the most familiarly known. 
 Every one must have observed the leaves oi 
 and shrubs deformed by red convexities. In the 
 hollows of the under side of lb have 
 
 their habitation, and there they find then- food ; the 
 exhausted leal at last curls up. Most of the - 
 are green; the A. of the bean is black. They are 
 generally called Plant-lice. They have a proboscis 
 |, by which they pierce and suck plants; 
 and at the extremity of the abdomen, two horn-like 
 processes, from which exude frequent small di 
 
 u i ii linn fluid called Honey-dew, a favourite food 
 
 and ants. It has been - i o even to fall in a 
 
 kind of shower from trees much covered with aphides. 
 
 Mention has been made in the article A.vr, of 
 
 the means which ants take to obtain this food. 
 
 Th,- 1, oi 'ei long, and they move slowly 
 
 and awkwardly by tie ..iter muii 
 
 them never have wings; it is in the autumn that 
 
 , winged in rally appear. From the 
 
 result eggs, w hi- female 
 
 aphides in tin- following spring, and SUO 
 
 tions of wingless aphides are produced in a
 
 APHORISM— APIS. 
 
 viviparous manner without impregnation thro 
 the Hammer, the rapidity at multiplication 
 
 Xhajr increase, however, is restrained 
 iv by birds, but by insects wbioh feed on 
 them. A family of coleoiit :-. to which 
 
 the g< mus Cocanella or Lady-bird (q.v.) i 
 acconnt the nam.' of A 
 fhagi, or aphis-eaten. There are also i 
 minute hymenopterous inaeeta, which destroy thi m 
 ingi bnum dej 
 
 the larva feeda upon the living A., oul of wl 
 at last eats its way, leaving a men i I dun. 
 
 A'PIIORls.M. a 1 1 1 ■ i v i 1 1 1 , or any ahort and 
 cant saying; such as, 'Custom is a aecond nature.' 
 A who or work is sometimes written in 
 
 the form of a aeries of aphorisms, arranged in doe 
 order, and leaving their connection to be traced by 
 the reader's reflection. In certain circumstances 
 this aphoristic style has an impressive effect; but 
 long continued, it becomes wearisome. 
 
 APHRODITE, the Greek nam.' of Venus, 
 
 according to various traditions, is derived from 
 
 (foam), in allusion to the <>ld poetical myth 
 
 which represi nted fch goddess as springing fr the 
 
 foam of the sea. See Vim a and An i i i ~. Apkro- 
 festivals celebrated in honour of A., in 
 numerous cities of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. 
 At Paphos, in this island, was her most ancient 
 temple. Woodless sacrifices alone were imagined to 
 pi' i b A., such as flowers, inci Mysteries oi 
 
 an impure kind formed part of the ceremonial of the 
 aphrodiaia, Aphrodiaia were on doubt held in the 
 other places where A. was worshipped, such as 
 i Tie bes, Ellis, &c, though they are 
 
 not mentioned. At Corinth and Athena, the aphro- 
 diaia N\> re celebrated principally by prostitutes. 
 
 APIA'CE^E. See Usibellifi;i; E, 
 
 APIACERE. See Ad Libitum. 
 
 APIARY. See Bee. 
 
 API'CIUS, a Roman epicurean — in the low and 
 common sense of the word —lived in the times of 
 Augustus and Tiberius, and was celebrated for his 
 luxurious table and his acquirements in the Bcience 
 of cookery. When, in pursuit of his favourite study, 
 he had consumed I part of his fortune, and 
 
 had only some £80,000 left, he poisoned himself, in 
 order to avoid the misery of plain diet. Two other 
 gourmands — one in the time of Pompey, the other in 
 the reign of Trajan — arc mentioned under the name 
 A. The Roman cookery-book, C'"W Apicii dt 
 Obsoniis et i ' / (libri 
 
 decern), ascribed to A., obviously belongs to a 
 much later time, inasmuch as it abounds in inac- 
 curacies and solecisms. The unknown author has 
 thought proper to recommend hiswork to gourmands 
 by affixing to it the celebrated name of A. 
 
 A'PION, a Greek grammarian, was born at Os 
 a town in Libya, but educated in Alexandria, which 
 I cted to consider his birthplace, from a desire 
 
 of being thought a pure Greek. He studied under 
 Apollonins, the son of Archibius, from whom he 
 acquired an admiration of Homer, and afterwards 
 went to Bome, where he succeeded Theon as 
 teacher of rhetoric. He seems to have bi 
 remarkable for his loquacious vanity as for his 
 knowledge. He declared that himself, and every 
 one whom he mentioned, would be held in immortal 
 ' iy, that he was equal to the lirst philosophers 
 
 I and that Alexandria should be proud of 
 
 him. On account of his incessant bragging, Tiberius 
 used to call him ' 'ymbalum Mumli(the cymbal of the 
 universe). 
 
 With the exception of one or two fragments, the 
 whole of A.'s numerous writings are lost. He 
 312 
 
 composed a work on the text of Homer, partly in the 
 form ei i dictionary, which was frequently referred 
 
 to by subsequent authors; a work on Qgypt, which 
 
 contained tie story of A nd !/<<• 
 
 preserved byAulus Gellius; a work against 
 tin- Jews; one in praise of Alexander the G 
 another on the great epicurean Apicius; histories of 
 various countries, 
 
 A Tins TUJJKRO'SA, formerly included in the 
 genus Glycine, and called '<'. A b Longing 
 
 to the natural order /.-;/«;/«/ irder Papilt- 
 
 .having tuberous root-, a twining stein 
 
 re. I Bowi rs, leathery, 2- valvular legumes, and pinnate 
 leaves, with seven pair of smooth ovato- lanceolate 
 ballets. This plant, which is a native of Virginia, 
 
 a century been cultivated in botanic gardens 
 in Europe, and has recently been brought into par- 
 
 notiec on the continent, in a great me: ■ 
 
 tli _h the French traveller Lamare-Picquot, who, 
 
 Ins travels in North America, convinced 
 himself of the value of the tubers as an article of 
 food, for which they arc there used to some extent. 
 
 Various attempts have since been made to cultivate 
 it like the potato; but its cultivation is found diffi- 
 cult, upon account of the length and weakness of tlie 
 twining shoots and the length of the roots. The 
 tubers cooked in steam are free from all acridity and 
 bitterness, and very much resemble potatoes dressed 
 in the same way. They contain more nitrogen than 
 potatoes (4f) per cent.), archy farina 
 
 cording to an analysis by Payen). 
 A'PIS, the bull worshipped by the ancient I p. 
 tians, who regarded it as a symbol of Osiris, the "i 
 of the Nile, the husband of I sis. and tin 1 great dii inity 
 
 of Egypt A sacred court or yard was set apart 
 for the residence of A. in the temple of l'tah at 
 Memphis, where a numerous retinue of priests waited 
 upon him, and sacrifices of red oxen «eii- offered to 
 him. His movement , choice of places, and ci 
 of appetite, were religiously regarded as oracles. It 
 
 'C7;'", 
 
 Apis. — Golden Calf. 
 
 was an understood law that A. must not live longer 
 than twenty-five years. When he attained thi 
 he was secretly put to death, and buried by the 
 priests in a sacred well, the popular belief being 
 that he cast himself into the water. If, however. 
 he died a natural death, bis body was solemnly 
 d in the Temple of Serapis at Memphis, and 
 bacchanalian festivals were held to celebrate the 
 inauguration of a new bull as A. As soon as a 
 suitable animal was found having the required 
 marks — black colour with a white square on the 
 brow; tin; figure of an eagle on the back, and a 
 knot in the shape of a cantharus under the tongue —
 
 APIS-APOCRYPHA. 
 
 he was led in triumphal procession to Nilopolis at 
 the time of the new moon, where he remained forty 
 days, waited upon by nude women, and was after- 
 wards conveyed in a splendid vessel to Memphis. 
 i iophany, or day of diacovi ry, and bis birth- 
 day, were celebrated as high festivals of seven days' 
 duration during the rise of the Nile. The woi inip 
 of the golden calf by the: Israelites in the wilder- 
 ness, and also the employment of golden calves as 
 Symbols of the Deity liy Jeroboam, have lieeii very 
 gen i ally referred to the Egyptian worship of A. 
 
 ATis, APlDiE. See Bee. 
 
 A'PIUM. See Celei-.v. 
 
 APOCALYPSE. See Revei.atiom oi St Johh. 
 
 APOCALY'PTIC NUMBER is 'the mystical 
 number' GOG, spoken of in the book of Revi 
 (xiii. IS). As early as the 2d c, the Church had 
 found that the name, Antichrist, was indicated by 
 the Greek characters expressive of this number; 
 while others believed it to express a date. The 
 most probable interpretation is that which was 
 current in the days of Irenseus, and which found 
 the Dumber in the word Lateinos (Latinus). The 
 Roman nation — the mightiest pagan power on earth 
 — was the most terrible symbol of Antichrist, and 
 the number 666 appears in the Greek characters 
 which spell the name. Protestant controversialists 
 very generally support their views by this interpre- 
 tation, applying the prophecy to papal Koine. 
 
 APOCARPOUS FRUITS, in Botany, are those 
 fruits which are the produce of a single flower, and 
 are formed of only one carpel, or of a number of 
 carpels remaining free and separate from each other. 
 The term is derived from the Greek 'ipo, implying 
 separation, and carpos, fruit. 
 
 A POCO A POCO (Ital.), in Music, by degrees; 
 by little and little. 
 
 APOCRE'NIC ACID is one of the products of 
 the natural decay of wood and other plant textures, 
 and is found wherever lignine or woody fibre is 
 decomposing in soils, &c. As A. A. is soluble in 
 water, it follows that rain-water falling on and 
 percolating through soils containing this substance, 
 becomes impregnated with it; and hence, in many 
 natural waters, A. A. is a recognised constituent. 
 A. A. performs an important function in the growth 
 of plants, as there is every reason to believe that it 
 forms one of the stages through which matter travels 
 from dead plants again into the living vegetable 
 tissue. 
 
 APO'CRYPHA, or APOCRYPITAL WRIT I X( B. 
 The word originally meant secret or concealed, and 
 was rendered current by the Jews of Alexandria. 
 In the earliest churches, it was applied with very 
 different significations to a variety of writings. 
 Sometimes it was given to those whose authorship 
 and original form were unknown ; sometimes to 
 writings containing a hidden meaning; or at other 
 times to BUCh as were objectionable ; sometimes to 
 those whose public use was not thought advisable. 
 In this last signification, it has been customary, since 
 
 the time of Jerome, to apply the term to a number 
 
 of writings which the Septua-int had circulated 
 amongst the Christians, and which 
 
 considered as an appendage to the Old Testament, 
 and sometimes aa a portion of it. The same name his 
 
 been retained for them in Luther's i of the 
 
 Bible, w here they are given as additions merely to the 
 Old Testament. 
 
 The christian Church has fluctuated in its 
 acknowledgment and use of these writings. The 
 Greek Church, at the counoil of Laodicea (360 
 
 A. D.), pronounced decidedly against them, excluding 
 them Iroui the canon ; tile Latin Church, on the 
 
 contrary, has always assigned them, at least since 
 the come I oi Carthagi (397 *■ i>.), a high place as 
 worthy of reverence and i tteem, d olaring 
 
 them to be of equ I . with the other scrip- 
 
 tures; which by the council of 1 
 
 although they hi d b a in general use as part of the 
 Sacred Scriptures long before. At- nation, 
 
 thePrnt ei, My i j . t I them ; but in some 
 
 of the Protestant churches thi y Boon b _-an again to 
 be read in public worship, although in some of them 
 passages occur which decidedly favour Roman 
 Catholic doctrines. The Church of England, in her 
 
 Articles, enumerates the 1 ks of the A. as books 
 
 which ' the church doth > ample of life and 
 
 instruction of manners, but yet doth it not apply 
 them to establish any doctrine.' Some portions of 
 them are, therefore, included in the lessons of the 
 church. By the other Pint, stant churches in Britain, 
 as well as in America, they are completely rejected 
 from public worship. 
 
 The controversy regarding the A., after slumber- 
 ing for a long period, has been renewed in recent 
 tines bnth in Britain and in Germany. It arose in 
 Britain very suddenly, about thirty years ago, in 
 consequence of a discovery made by some of the 
 most zealous supporters of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, that the funds of that society wi 
 part expended in the circulation of the A on the 
 continent of Europe. This was defended on grounds 
 of expediency, because the people of many parts of 
 Europe had always been accustomed to see the A. in 
 their Bibles, but was on the other hand denounced 
 as contrary to the constitution of the society and 
 to principle. livery question relative to the A. 
 was opened up. Many members seceded from the 
 Britisli ami Foreign Bible Society, and new Bible 
 societies were formed. In this controversy, Mr 
 Robert Haldane and Dr Andrew Thomson of Edin- 
 burgh, took a very prominent part as antagonists of 
 the A. and of its circidation. 
 
 Impartially considered, these apocryphal writings, 
 or at least a part of them, are not of very gn at 
 importance. They have chiefly a historical value, 
 throwing some light on the religious condition 
 of the Jews, from the time when the Old Testa- 
 ment ceases to be our guide, to the Christian 
 era. They are distinguished into: 1st, Those which 
 originated in Palestine, as «7i 
 valuable for its generally pure morality, written in 
 Hebrew about 180 n. c, and translated into Creek 
 about 130 B.o. ; the First Boob oj Maccabees, written 
 about 1 35 n. C., which is of great historical value ; and 
 
 the valueless 1 k of Judtih: 2d, These whii h 
 
 Egypto-AIexandrine origin, as the Bookof II 
 the Second oj tifaccaba -. and the addition to /" 
 and 3d, those which bear traces of Chaldaic or 
 Persian influence, as Eera, Tobias, Baruch, and tho 
 addition to Daniel The Book of Wisdom is the 
 crown of. the whole. In old editions of the Bible 
 the A. is sometimes seen I ic bound ib I ween 
 the Old and New Testament. Prom the authorised 
 editions in common use it is regularly excluded ; and, 
 except as a curiosity, it is little known to the 
 generality of readers. 
 
 What is called the A. of the New Testament con- 
 sists parti] of h tories, and partly of fragments of 
 tradition, or of 4 eh inal I iching, b Ion ing to the 
 first three cestui ii have never da 
 
 place in the cano i, nor be i advanced by anj 
 
 that distinction even in tine earliest times. They are 
 of value chiefly to the historical critic. The most 
 important among them are the peeuoVgpspels ; 
 
 of these, a collection was marie by Fabricius (Ham- 
 burg, 1719). A new edition of the Codec Apoary- 
 pftus X. T., was commenced at Leipsic, ISo-. by 
 Thilo. 
 
 SIS
 
 APOCY.Wi I i; -APOLLO. 
 
 APOCYNA'CK.i:, or APOCY'NK.E. a natural 
 order of Dicotyledonous plants, ■ 
 .. il!i milky )fl 
 
 The calyx is usual] 
 tit , i"! istent; the corolla hypogynous, i 
 lows, oftcu with scales in its thro al 
 
 >1 in bud. Tiler.: are five . which 
 
 are inserted on the corolla; the anthers 
 (irmly to the stigma, to which the pollen is iiiiinc- 
 i the anthers are 2-celled, and 
 
 adinally; the pollen is granular. The i 
 are two, each 1 ■celled, or one, which i '-' 
 ovules usually numerous; styles 1 or 2; the 
 is contracted in the middle, and peculiarly charac- 
 teristic of the order. The fruit is a follicle or cap- 
 sule, or drupe or berry, double or single. The seeds 
 have a fleshy or cartilaginous albumen, or (rarely) are 
 ex-albuminous. — There are about 56G known species, 
 chiefly natives of tropical countries. The l'i u- 
 winkle (q. v.) is its only representative in the flora 
 of Britain, a wanderer, as it were, from tie- tropics, 
 yet hardy enough for the climate with which it 
 contend ; the Oi.KANUF.r. (q. v.) and a few others are 
 in the south of Europe. Many species are 
 poisonous; amongst which is the noted Tam.iiix 
 (q.v.) orXANOBKBNAof Madagascar. Some are used 
 in medicine, in India and other countries. A num- 
 ber of species yield Caoitcuouc (q.v.). The milk 
 of others is bland and wholesome, as the Hya Hya 
 or Cow-xiiF.F. (q.v.) of Demerara. Some are used in 
 
 : ; Wrigma ttnetoria yields indigo of good 
 quality. — A number yield eatable fruits. I 
 beta edulis •. I Carandas in India; Carina 
 
 m Arabia, and certain species of Carpo 
 called Pisiiajiin in Sierra Leone, and Hancornia. — 
 
 man cannabmum, Canadian hemp, a herbaceous 
 plant about 4 — 5 feet in height, with unbranched 
 stem, oblong leaves, and lateral cymes of v. 
 bell-sh fihre, which 
 
 the Indians of North America employ for making 
 twine, i _r-nets, &c. 
 
 APODAL FISHES are fishes destitute i 
 tml tins, in Apoda are an 
 
 order of Fishes, in rwise nearly 
 
 I but in the systems of 
 < timer and other recent naturalists, a less ini] 
 place i ted to this distinctive character. — Eels 
 
 are an example of A. fishes. 
 
 APODI'CTIC, a logical term signifying a judg- 
 
 01 conclusion which is necessarily true: or. m 
 
 other words, a judgment of which the opposite is 
 
 impossible. No A. judgment can be founded on 
 
 nee, because experience does not supply the 
 
 idea of an absolute nee. 
 
 A'POGEE (Or. apo, from, and ge, the earth), pro- 
 perly speaking, the greatest distance of the ear; 
 any of tin- heavenly bodies. Its application, In 
 
 : r icted to the sun and moon, t \. corre- 
 
 sponding to the earth's aphelion, and the 
 being the point of its orbit most remote from the 
 earth. A. is opposed to perigee. 
 
 APOLLINA'RIS, the Younger, Bishop of Lao- 
 dicea in Syria (oo2), and one of the warmest oppo- 
 nents of Ariani n. Both as a man and a scholar. 
 he was held in the greatest reverence ; and his writ- 
 ings were ■ read in his own day. His 
 father, A. the Elder, who was presbyter of Laodicea, 
 was born at Alexandria, and taught grammar, first at 
 Berytus, and afterwards at Laodicea. AYhen Julian 
 prohibited the Christians from teaching the cl 
 the father and son endeavoured to supply the loss 
 by converting the Scriptures into a body of ] 
 rhetoric, and philosophy. The Old Testament was 
 ted as the subject for poetical compositions 
 after the manner of Homer, Pindar, and the 
 
 liana; whilst the New Testament formed 
 
 roundwork o in imitation of Plata 
 
 It is not ascertained what share the father had in 
 
 work, but as he had a reputation for poetry, 
 
 hably put the old Testament into I 
 
 But it was Boil lly as a - n, and 
 
 a set. tint A. is celebrated. He 
 maintained the doctrine that the io^oa, or dh ine 
 in t "lii place of the rational human soul 
 
 or mind, and that I ritual- 
 
 ised and glorified form of humanity. I 
 was condemned by Beveia] synods, especially by the 
 Council of Constantinople (381), on the ground that 
 it denied the true human nature of Christ. The 
 heresy styled Apollinarianism spread itself rapidly 
 in Syria and tin- neighbouring countries, and, after 
 the death of A., divided itself into two sects — the 
 Vitalism, named after Yitalis, Bishop of Antioch ; 
 and the Pole-means, who added to the doctrine of A. 
 the assertion that the divine and human natures 
 u.re so blended as one substance in Christ that his 
 body was a proper object of adoration. On this 
 account, they were accused of sareolatria (worship 
 of the Besjh) and anthropolatria. (worship of man), 
 and also were styled synoiisiaitoi (*w, together, and 
 Etbetance), because they confused together the 
 two distinct substances. The whole CO which 
 
 occupied a great part of the oth c, is an m 
 of human reason wandering out of its proper sphere. 
 A. must not be confounded with Claudius A., Bishop 
 of llierapolis, in Phrygia (170 a. D.), and who wrote 
 an Apology for the Christian faith, and several other 
 works, all of which are lost. 
 
 APO'LLO (Gr. Apoi.lon). A. may be regarded 
 as the characteristic divinity of the Greeks, inas- 
 much as he was the in life in 
 its most beautiful and natural forms, and the ideal 
 entative of the Grecian nation. His mild 
 worship, with its many festivals, accompanied as 
 they were by a cessation from all hostilities; his 
 
 various sacn d placi i, with their m 
 
 and the general idea of his character, had a wide, 
 
 ul, and beneficent influence on social ami poli- 
 tical life throughout the states of Greece. )' 
 and Hesiod mention that he was the son of Zeus 
 and Leto, but neither slates whi ! born. 
 
 The Ephesians believed that both he and Diana, his 
 born in a grove near their city. The 
 rtia, ami the inhabitants 01 . 
 in Attica, also claimed the honour of his birth ; while 
 the Egyptians Beemed to think he properly bi I 
 
 m ; but the most popular legend was that 
 which made him a native of Delos, one of the 
 Cy. lades, where his mother Leto, followed by the 
 jealous WTath of Juno over land and sea, at length 
 found rest and shelter, and was delivered of bun, 
 inch r the shadow of an olive-tree, at the foot of 
 Mount Cynthus. To spite the Queen of It 
 who was far from being a favourite with the other 
 goddesses, tlnse ] ; ;., tender their services 
 
 to the weak and wearied Leto. The young A. was 
 much made of. Themis fed him with nectar and 
 ambrosia, the food of the gods, which seems to have 
 suddenly excited the conceit of the infant deity, 
 ach as he surprised his nurse by st 
 
 iding a lyre, and announcing his intention 
 of henceforth revealing to mortals the will of Jove. 
 The island, proud of having been the birthplace of 
 A., adorned itself with a robe of golden flowers. 
 
 In ancient hterature A. is described as possessed 
 of many and various powers, all of which, however, 
 are seen on closer inspection to be intimately related 
 to l He is spoken of: 1. 'lhe god of 
 
 retributive justice, who, armed with bow and arrows, 
 
 down his glittering shafts upon insolent 
 
 i^s. In this character he appeal's in the
 
 APOLLO BELVEDERE— APOLLOXTTJS. 
 
 opening of the Iliad. 2. As the instructor of bards, 
 and the god of song or minstrelsy, playing upon the 
 phorminx or seven-stringed 
 lyre, and singing for the diver- 
 deities when 
 engaged in feasting. ". At 
 the god of prophetic inspira- 
 tion, especially in his oracle at 
 Delphi 4. As the guardian 
 deity of herds and flocks. 
 5. As the god of medicine, 
 who affords help, and wards 
 off evil. In this sense he is 
 represented as the father of 
 ius (^Esculapius),the god 
 of the healing art. 6. As a 
 founder of cities. According 
 to Homer, he assisted Neptune 
 in building the walls of Troy. 
 Cyrene, ><axos in Sicily, and 
 Other cities, venerated A. as 
 their founder. By the later 
 A. was identified with Helios, the sun-god, 
 
 am '1 the ruins of the ancient Antium, now Capo 
 d'Anzo, and purchased by Pope Julius II., who 
 
 Apollo. 
 
 writers v 
 
 though Homer describes the latter as a distinct 
 Several critics, however, have regarded Helios, or the 
 sun-god, as the true original A. — an opinion which 
 maybe supported by many probabilities. The suppo- 
 sition that A. was identical with the Egyptian deity 
 Horns was rejected by the learned O. Miiller, 
 who generally opposed all attempts to deduce 
 Grecian from Egyptian mythology. According to 
 Midler's theory, A. was a purely Doric deity, whose 
 first residence was in Tempe, and who afterwards 
 removed to Delphi, whence the fame of his oracle was 
 spread abroad, ami made him to be recognised as the 
 national divinity of Greece. The introduction of his 
 worship into Attica appears to have been contempo- 
 raneous with the immigration of the Ionians, and 
 that worship would seem to have spread over the 
 Peloponnesus, immediately after it was conquered by 
 the Dorians. Much controversy has taken place, 
 both with reference to the idea which lies at 
 the root of the whole myth of the A. worship, 
 and also as to whether this myth had its origin 
 in the north of Greece or in Egypt. Even on 
 the supposition that the original conception was 
 derived from the latter source, it was to Greek art 
 and philosophy that it owed its development into the 
 ideal of humanity. The most celebrated i 
 
 at Delphi, Aba; in Phocis, Ismenion in Thebes, 
 Delos, Claros, near Colophon, and Patara in Lycia. 
 Among the Romans, the worship of A. was prac- 
 
 i early as 430 E- ft, and prevailed especially 
 under the emperors. But there can be no doubt that 
 the Romans derived their conceptions of A. entirely 
 from the Greeks. It was in honour of A. and his 
 
 I liana that the ludi saculares were cele- 
 brated every hundred years. The attributes of A. 
 are the bow and quiver, the cithara and plectrum, 
 the snake, shepherd's crook, tripod, laurel, raven, 
 &c. : less frequently, the grasshopper, cock, hawk, 
 wolf, and olive-tree. In sculpture, he is generally 
 
 ttted with a face beautifully oval, high fore- 
 head, (lowing hair, and slender figure. 
 
 APOLLO BELVEDERE, a celebrated statue of 
 antiquity, which has generally been regarded as 
 embodying the highest ideal of manly beauty. It 
 is gen the 'lord of the 
 
 unerring bow' in the moment of his victor] 
 the Python, but numerous Oi DS have 
 
 suggested. The figure (upwards of 7 feet in 
 height) is naked, but a cloak fastened round the 
 neck hangs gracefully over the extended left arm ; 
 the i of the face is one of calm and 
 
 godlike triumph, mixed with 'beantifol disdain.' 
 This great work of art was discovered in 1503, 
 
 Apollo Belvedere. 
 
 placed it in the Belvedere of the Vatican, whence the 
 name it bears. The date of its execution is with 
 probability referred to the reign of Xero, but the 
 name of the artist is a matter of mere conjecture. 
 The left hand and the right fore-arm, wanting in 
 the statue as discovered, were restored by G. A da 
 Montorsoli, a pupil of Michael Angelo. 
 
 APOLLODO'RUS, an Athenian painter, who 
 flourished about 408 B.C., and was the predecessor 
 of Zeuxis. He introduced improved colouring and 
 distribution of light and shade. — A., a celebrated 
 architect in the time of the Emperor Trajan, 
 by whom he was employed to construct a bridge 
 over the Danube in Lower Hungary. His severe 
 censure, boldly pronounced on a design for a temple 
 of Venus, which the Emperor Hadrian had sent 
 to him, caused A. to be sentenced to death in 
 129 a.i>. — A., a Greek grammarian, lived about 140 
 B. C, studied philosophy in Athens, and grammar 
 under Aristarchus ; wrote a work on mythology, 
 giving an arrangement of old myths from the i 
 times to the historical period ; also a gcogra 
 chronicle in iambic verse, and several grammati- 
 cal works. The mythology, which begins with the 
 origin of the gods, probably went down as far as the 
 Trojan cycle, but a portion of it has perished. It 
 has been reckoned by some only an extract from a 
 larger work by A., though this is a mere hypothesis, 
 based on the fact that the legends are given with 
 extreme simplicity and brevity. The work is one 
 of great value to classical scholars. An edit 
 the Bibliotlif.ca of A., in 4 vols., died at 
 
 Gottingen, 1782 1783, by C. H. G. Heyne. 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, the name of several celebrated 
 Greek grammarians and rhetorician-. A., sun 
 
 LOS (or ill-tempered), of Alexandria, lived in 
 I c. Some of his grammatical works were 
 edited by Bekker. A. was the first who reduced 
 grammar to a system. Ilis reputation was so 
 that Priscian calls him ■ 
 
 prince of grammarians). — A., son of Archebulus, 
 also of Alexandria, lived in the time of Augustus. 
 and was the author of a lexicon of Homeric 
 words, — A., surnamed Molon, was a teacher of 
 rhetoric at Rhodes, and al res at 
 
 . where he was high! < lcero 
 
 and Cesar. — A. of Pbroa, 240 n.c, i-s 
 with Euclid, Ar. id Diophantss, as one 
 
 of the founders of the mathematical sciences. 
 His work on come sections has been pra 
 
 Ul
 
 APni.i.oNirs Arnr.ncY. 
 
 partly in the original Greek, partly iii an 
 i A. i'f Rhodb (or of Alexandria, say 
 
 |, born 285 n. ••., wrote many 
 imar, and an epic poem, i 
 the .1 i i I rather by le i r m i n ^ and 
 
 iy than bj . ahu, though 
 
 aome truly artist i pa ' ihiting 
 
 i iwtn of Medea's love. I itly admired 
 
 Romans, was translated into Latin by Publius 
 
 Xerentiua Varro, and « 1. not only in a 
 
 oner by \ an by 
 
 I i i by the 
 
 I i Brnnok and Wellauer (Lerpeie, 
 
 1813 1828). 
 
 APOIiLO'NITJS, opTyaha, in Cappadocia, who 
 lived in the time oi Christ, waaazealou 
 s ni Pythagoras. II 
 lerable number "i disciples, travelled thi 
 a great part of Asia Minor, and endeavoured I 
 
 ed with 
 the doctrine of the Brahmins. On this journey he 
 stayed for a time in Babylon, was introduced to the 
 Magi, and at last reached the King 
 
 Phra it . in India, who recommended bun to 
 Jarchas, th I Brahmin. When A. returned 
 
 from thi- ; ; 18 a wis.- man was 
 
 greatly increased ; the people regarded him as a 
 worker of miracles and a divine being, and pi 
 
 D liim at their emits. lie 
 himself seems to laimed insight into futurity, 
 
 rather than the power of working miraoles. I i 
 Borne be was expelled on a charge of having 
 a young woman from the dead. After extensive 
 travels in Spain, Italy, Gn ece, and Ethiopia, he was 
 
 1 of having taken part in an insun 
 against Hi 'in ired before the tribunal, 
 
 and was acquitted. intimately, he app 
 
 open '1 a Pytbx 
 school, and continued his teaching until he died, 
 
 ne iily ' n ■ hundred years old. ' I > was 
 
 nnii a '"Hit a hundri I j after his death by 
 l'hilostratiis (ij. v.). It 
 
 i which an outlii f historical 
 
 facts and the i c of the man are suffi- 
 
 ciently discerniMe. Bierocles, a heathen stat 
 and opponent of Christianity, wrote, in the 3d C, a 
 work on the life and - \. with a view 
 
 to prove their superiority to the doctri if Christ, 
 
 In mod' in times, the English freethinkers Blount 
 and Lord Herbert, and Voltaire in France, have 
 renewed the attempt. 
 
 APOLLO'NITJS, of Tybe, the hero of i I 
 
 romance, which enjoyed great popularity in the 
 
 middle- ages, and was i into almost all the 
 
 of Wi tern Euro]"'. In it are related the 
 
 romantic adventures which befell A., a Syrian 
 previous to his m th the daughter of King 
 
 Alcistrates, of Cyrene. To these are added the 
 wife, who was parted from him by 
 appan nl death, as well as those of his daughter, 
 Tarsia, who was carried off 1 iy pirates, and sold in 
 Mitylene. The poem closes with the reunion of the 
 whole family. The original Greek work no longer 
 
 ; I nit there are three very early Latin vi 
 of which one was published by Welsi r 
 150.")) ; another is to be found m the <;• ita Roman- 
 
 ; and the third in the Pantlwon of Gottfried of 
 Viterbo. Prom this Latin source ha\ 
 the Spanish version of the 18th c., printed in 
 / > 
 
 Pi ris, 1842), Beveral French versions, in prose 
 and ver.se, as well as several Italian. As early as 
 the 11th e. there was an Anglo-Saxon adaptation of 
 the work, and subsequently various English ones 
 appeared. Shakspeare has treated the subject in his 
 
 drama of Pericles; he substantially follow I lower, 
 
 - his narrative on 
 ' ottfi I Ol Viterlio. Three popu- 
 
 i I neh version 
 
 of this i red in London in 1510, 1676, 
 
 and 1607; while the Dutch, in 1498, derived 
 
 from th I The romance was rendered into 
 
 ibably from the Otsta Romanorum, by a 
 
 B ler Neuenstadt' (i.e., \ i 
 
 al.oiit the year 1300, in the form of a long, at 
 
 yet, onpuhl Later, we bai 
 
 A ' . ■ ■ I translated from I lottfried oi 
 
 Viterbo, and lirst published at Augsburg in 1470. 
 k, in his .son;.' i of Shalctpeare, nam 
 
 :y as it is given in the Oesta Romanorurn. A 
 modern Gl eh i emslation Ol t] Ls D DO 
 
 undertaken in 1800 by Qabrii 1 Con inn ,of Ci 
 and several times reprinted al must not be 
 
 ded with the lost Greek original. 
 
 A'POLOGUE, a fable, parable, or short story, 
 intend int vehicle of same moral 
 
 !»■. One of the oldest and I 
 
 parables is that by Jotham, as given in the Book of 
 7 I.. Another celebrated A. is that of 
 
 the ' Limbs and the Body,' related by the patrician 
 Menenius Agrippa. .Esop's fables have enjoyed a 
 world-wide reputation. Luther held such an opinion 
 of the value oi the A. as a vehicle of moral truth, 
 that he edited a n p, for which he wrote a 
 
 characteristic preface. He says: 'In doing this, I 
 .have especially cared for young people, that they 
 
 may receive instruction in a style suitable to their 
 age, which is naturally fond of all kinds of fiction ; 
 and 1 have wished to gratify this natural taste with- 
 out indulging anything that is bad.' 
 
 APO'LOGY. The term is now commonly under- 
 stood as synonymous with an excuse for breach of 
 'lit, &c., but was originally used as the 
 title of any work written in defence of . . 
 doctrines, as in the A. of Socrala, ascribed to 
 Plato and Xenophon; the A. for the Christians, 
 by Tertullian. and in many other defences of the 
 uis. written by Justin .Martyr. Athenagoras, 
 I a, Theophilus, Oris I us, Minucius Felix, 
 
 Arnobius, Lactantius, Augustine, Orosius, and others. 
 The attacks parried or retorted in these apoloj 
 works are such as charges of atheism, want of 
 phical know! anti-social tenets, &c. 
 
 Both the charges and the refutations brought (or- 
 rve to give us an insight into the character 1 
 of the times when these works were written. Thus, 
 in the A. by Tertullian, it is curious to find a formal 
 argument employed to refute the assertion that the 
 spread of Christianity was the cause of 'earth. (Hakes' 
 and other natural phenomena which had occurred in 
 some parti of the Roman empire. After the fourth 
 century, when the church was made dominant under 
 the Human emperors, apologetical writings were less 
 called for; but Bartholus Edeasenus and Saymundus 
 Martinus wrote against the Jews and the Moham- 
 ln the I 5th c, when the revival of leal ill 
 tianity in apparent opposition to the 
 iy, Marsilius r'icinus wrote in 
 of revel tion ; and some time after the 
 Reformation, the Spread of froi-thinking and scepti- 
 i England v . i by a variety of apolo- 
 
 works, chiefly maintaining the points that 
 Christianity is a divine revelation, Christ a divine 
 messenger, and his church a divine institution. 
 The defence of Christianity on grounds of i 
 came now to be treated as a distinct branch of 
 1 y. under t ; I aologet CS. Among 
 
 the numerous apologetic works by Protestants, may 
 
 be mentioned those by Grotius (De Veritalt, fcc), 
 Butler (Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed),
 
 APONEUROSIS— APOSTLE. 
 
 Lardner {CredibUitu cf the Oospd J/i*'<jry), Leland, 
 Addison, Soame Jenyns (/• tjf the 
 
 Christian Religion), Hugh Farmer, Bishop Watson 
 {A. fur Christianity), Pal' y (Evidi ncu \<j) I 
 and J/orce Paulina:), &c. Among Roman Catholic 
 apologetic writers, the most eminent are Pascal, 
 Houteville, Guente, Bergier, Mayr, and Chateau- 
 briand. 
 
 Recently, in Germany, a great number of apolo- 
 getic works by Xeander, Tholuck, and others have 
 appeared, in reply to the Life of Jesus by David 
 Enedrich 8traoss. 
 
 APONEUROSIS is an anatomical term for an 
 expansion of strong fibrous tissue, of which there are 
 many examples in the human body. Forthe Bake of 
 convenience, it is generally confined to expansions 
 1 1 in the tendons of muscles, as the lumbar A. If a 
 tendon is very broad and expanded, as that - 
 external oblique muscle of the abdomen, it is said 
 to be aponeurotic. Some muscles, as those on the 
 shoulder-blade, are partially covered with a ten- 
 dinous expansion, to which some of their fibres 
 are attached ; this is termed the aponeurotic i 
 of the muscle ; it gives the muscle a more extensive 
 in nt. without adding materially to weight. 
 Aponeuroses stretch in some localities as protec- 
 tions over large arteries ; thus, in bleeding from 
 the vein nearest the inside of the bend of the elbow, 
 the only structure between it, the lancet, and the 
 brachial artery, is an aponeurotic expansion from the 
 biceps tendon into the muscles of the fore-arm. See 
 Fascia. 
 
 APOPHTHEGM (Gr., an utterance), a term used 
 to di signate any truth or maxim sententiously 
 expressed. The oracles of the heathen gods often 
 took this form, as also the proverbs, memorable 
 sayings, &c, of the sages of antiquity. In modern 
 times, Lord Bacon has made a charming collection 
 of apophthegms. 
 
 A'POPLEXY is a term applied to an engorge- 
 ment of blood, with or without extravasation, in or 
 apon any organ, as the brain (cerebral A.), tin- spinal 
 cord or iun_'s (pulmonary A.). As popularly used, the 
 term denotes vaguely a condition arising from some 
 disturbance within the head. A. occurs infix, which 
 may be sudden or come on by degrees. They are char- 
 
 A by loss of sense and motion, speech! 
 and heavy sleep, with stertorous respiration ami a 
 slow pulse. The fit may last from a few hours to 
 two or three days, and passes oil', leaving generally 
 more or less paralysis, and recurs at intervals of 
 months or years. The age at which A. occurs most 
 commonly is from fifty to seventy, and is compara- 
 tively rare before and after these ages. Cerebral A. 
 may arise from mere congestion of the blood-vessels 
 of the brain, caused by impeded return of the \ 
 blood, as from the military stock pressing on the 
 
 r veins, 1 ; the head long in 01 
 
 or turning it quickly. Stout persons, with short 
 necks, are more liable to this form of A. ; though 
 lean persons are also frequently its victims. But 
 
 iii addition t i congestion, there may be an escape 
 watery portion of the blood from the con- 
 gested vessels, and this collecting, produces serous 
 A. ; or, owing to , i ! condition of the arterial 
 
 walls, the vessels may burst, and A. from cerebral 
 hemorrhage be the result; the latter is the most 
 common, and is usually preceded by some softening 
 of the brain substance itself. If this bleeding be 
 to any great extent, death results ; if only a small 
 quantity escapes, it coagulates, and forms a clot, 
 which is absorbed in time. 
 
 heart and lungs, and pregnant females, are liable to 
 apoplectic fits. The attack is generally preceded 
 by vertigo, headache, partial or temporary loss of 
 
 memory, and occasionally double vision. Win n 
 these warnings occur, medical advice should be 
 Bought to correct the digestive functions ; and by 
 relieving the i brain, ward off i 
 
 When the latter occurs, the patient's head should be 
 cold applied, and m some cases blood should 
 b.- withdrawn from the tcmi>oral artery or external 
 jugular vein. As soon as possible, purgative inedi- 
 hould be administered. Foi of A., 
 
 see Paralysis. Tumours within the skull produce 
 symptoms of A. 
 
 APO'STATE literally designates any one who 
 on, whatever may be his mc 
 . custom, the word is always used in an inju- 
 rious sense, as equivalent to renegade, or one who, in 
 1. is actuated by unworthy motives. 
 In early Christian thru 1 was applied to 
 
 those who abandoned their faith in order to 
 from persecution; but it was also applied to such 
 as rejected Christianity on speculative grounds (the 
 Emperor Julian, for instance). .",th c, 
 
 when heathenism was declining, many who had no 
 sincere belief in ( Christianity, yet made pi 
 it, and wire bapt wi re styled apos- 
 
 tates. The apostates in tun 
 
 styled variously Sacrificati. Thnrilieati, ftc., accord- 
 ing to the modes in which they publicly made 
 known their return to heathenism, by offering sacri- 
 fices or incense to the gods of Home. The "Roman 
 Catholic Church at one period imposed 
 penalties on . as of course 
 
 excommunicated; but some) bis property 
 
 was confiscated, and he himself banished, or even 
 put to death. It has often been of great moment to 
 the fortunes of a nation that a prince has apostatised. 
 The most renowned instance m D 
 that of Henry IV. of France. In 1833 
 published, at Erlangen, A Oali variant 
 
 -■ who in the 16th, \~th, am 
 
 Protestant to tin: Roman C< 
 m Apostasy is now employed com- 
 monly, and often abusively, as a reproach lor great 
 or sudden changes in political opinions. 
 
 APO'STLE (Gr. apostolus, sent forth, sent on a 
 mission), any messenger whatever, bul 
 used to denote the twelve disciples whom Jesus sent 
 forth to preach the gospel Their names were 
 Simon Peter, Andrew, John (the son of Zebedee), 
 .lames (his brother), Philip, Bartholomew (called also 
 Nathaniel), Thomas, Matthew (sumamed 
 James (the son of Alpha ius), '11, ad m, and 
 
 Judas Iscariot. Subsequently, .Matthias was chosen 
 in the room of Judas ; and at a still later i 
 the number of the apostles was further increased 
 by the calling of Paul to the apostli ship. 'I be term 
 is sometimes used in the New Testament in its more 
 general signification. Barnabas i an A. 
 
 (Acts xiv.). It is a point of controversy M tween the 
 supporters and opp inentsi whether or 
 
 not the term A., as indicating an office, is appl 
 
 pt the original twelve, Matthias, and Pan] ; 
 _ maintained, on the one hand, that the office 
 is pi rpetuated in bishops; on the other, that it was 
 temporary and belonged exclusively to those who 
 were witnesses of the resurrection of Christ, and 
 were employed by him to found the Christian Church. 
 Theap issioned by their ' 
 
 to go forth on their work of evangelisation. 
 during the thud year of his public ministry, tin this 
 on, their labours wen to the 
 
 .lews, properly so called. Not even the Samaritans, 
 though natives of Palestine, w< re to be the obj 
 theirnl y were earneatl] I 
 
 out the lost sheep of the house of Israel. The second 
 tune was shortly before the Lord's ascension, when
 
 APOSTLES' CREED— APOSTOLIC MAJESTY. 
 
 their ; mr was indefinitely extended. 'Go, 
 
 il nations, baptising (hem in Hie name of 
 ther, ami of the Son, and of the Holy < 
 On the day of Pentecost, the 
 
 ulous gifts fitting them En their arduoos 
 
 work. And alter evangelising for some years in 
 
 Palestine, they all departed, with the atom 
 st James, into various quarters ol the globe ; but 
 i of thrir ministry seems to Gave princi- 
 pally comprised the civilised provinc 
 of the i astern ]iart of the Roman empire— viz., 
 Syria, Asia Minor, and Greeoe; though probably 
 
 i and after him Paul, visit, id Rome. 
 is no historical foundation for the tradition that 
 divided the then known world 
 into twelve parte, each taking one of >'> 
 
 figment was very 
 likely originated by two circumstances : 1. That the 
 disciples were commanded to go into all the world 
 and preach, the gospel; and 2. That the disciples in 
 point of fact had little personal intercourse with 
 other. Their zeal for thi Son of 
 
 Christianity left them no time to gratify their 
 inclinations. As a consequence, we hav 
 imperfect accounts of their lives or manner of death. 
 ral apostles are usually represented in 
 medieval pictures with special badges or attributes : 
 St Peter, with the keys; St Paul, with a sword; 
 St Andrew, with a cross ; St James the Less, with 
 a fuller's pole ; St John, with a cup and a H 
 
 out of it; St Bartholomew, with a 
 knife ; St Philip, with a long staff, whose upper end 
 is formed into a cross; St Thomas, with a lance; 
 St Matthew, with a hatchet; St Matthias, with a 
 battle-axe ; St James the Greater, with a pilgrim's 
 staff and a gourd-bottle ; St Simon, with a saw ; 
 and St Jude, with a club. 
 
 APO'STLES' CREED. See Ckeed. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC, or APOSTOXICAL, the general 
 term applied to everything derived din 
 
 of the apostles. Either case 
 constitutes apostolicity. The Roman Catholic* 
 
 declares itself the A. Church ; the papal chair the 
 A. chair, on the ground of an unbroken series 
 of Roman bishops, from the chief apostle, Peter. 
 The Church of England, in virtu.- of regular episcopal 
 ordination from the pre-reformation church, claims 
 to be A.; so likewi ■ do the Protestant Ep 
 churches in Scotland and the I'n 
 Apostolic Tradition (see Tradition) claims to have 
 been handed down from the apostles. In the same 
 special sense, the name of A. Council belongs to 
 that conclave of the apostles at Jem Jem (Acts, 
 xv.), about the year 51 or 52 A.D., occ 
 
 isputes raised at Antioch by Jud 
 
 as to the admission of uncireumei 
 into the church. Certain congregations or chu 
 also, which were the special scenes of the labours of 
 
 nostles, bore for centuries the title of A. 
 Churches, more especially those of Jerusalem, 
 
 OS, Corinth, and Rome. But with th 
 
 piritual power of the Romish hierarchy, 
 the name A. came to be more and more ezd 
 applied to Rome, and is retained by her, d 
 the energetic protests of the Protestant Chi 
 
 the term Apostolic See, i.e., the see of 
 postol .' ! ing, the bl n ol 
 as the successor of St Peter ; Apostolic Vicar, the 
 cardinal who represents the pope in extraordinary 
 
 is; Apostolic Chamber, a council into 
 with the care of the revenues of the see 
 Apostolic Months — January, March, May, July, 
 liber, November — the months in which the 
 pope, according to the Vienna Concordat of 1 4- IS, 
 took possession of the vacant benefices in German y, 
 
 318 
 
 &c. A papal brief or letter is sty Id A. in the 
 same WW 
 
 APOsTO'LIC KltKTIIUKW or APOSTOLICI, 
 on in Italy, towards the end of the I ::! U 
 c., to one of those sects which, animated by tho 
 spirit of SO Arnold of Brescia, felt constrained to 
 oppose the worldly tendencies of tho church. Its 
 founder was Gerhard Segarelli, a weaver in Parma. 
 
 1, from some cause or Other, by the Fran 
 order, Ins long-con istio medita- 
 
 L him to the profound conviction that it was 
 above all thin iry to return to the B 
 
 forms of apostolic life. Accordingly, he went 
 (1260) in the garb of the apostles, as a preacher of 
 and by bis practical discourses gathered 
 many adherents into a kind of free society, b 
 by no oaths. A1 first he managed to avoid any direct 
 in with the dogmas of the church; but after 
 twenty years of undisturbed activity an 
 influence, Segarelli was arrested by the Bishop of 
 Parma ; and in l'-'SG, upon the occasion of his release, 
 Pope Honorius [V. renewed a decree of Pope On 
 
 X. against all religious communities not du 
 
 i 1 by the papal chair. In 1290, Nicholas 
 
 IV. setting himself expressly to oppose the A. B., 
 
 they, on their side, began avowedly to denounce 
 
 and its corrupt and worldly church, as 
 
 the Babylon of the Apocalypse. In 1300, many, 
 
 both men and women, and among them Segarelli, as 
 having, after abjuration, relapsed into heresy, 
 
 1 at the stake. But his cause survived him. 
 
 Dolcino, a more energetic and cultivated man, 
 
 up as a priest, who had previously taken an 
 
 active part in the Tyrol against the corruptions of 
 
 the church, now hi laded the orphan sect in Italy. Ho 
 
 the duty of a complete renunciation of all 
 worldly ties, of property and settled abode, &c. 
 Having retreated into Dalmatia, he announced from 
 thence the dawning of a new era, and in 1304, 
 
 i red in Upper Italy, with thousands of 
 adherents, as the enemy of the papacy — at that 
 time humbled and impoverished by France. In 
 1305, a him. He 
 
 fortified the mountain Zebello, iu the diocese of 
 Vercelli, but was, after a gallant defence, coin 
 by famine to submit. After horrible tortures, which 
 
 re with the utmost fortitude, he was bu 
 In Lombardy and the south of France, remnants 
 of the A. B. lingered on till 13G8. See Krone, Fra 
 iier. (Leipsic, 1844.) 
 
 APOSTO'LIC CATHOLIC CHURCH. See 
 
 iRVmOITES. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC FATHERS, the name given to 
 
 the immediate disciples and fellow-labourers of tho 
 
 apostles, and, iu a more restricted sense, to 
 
 among them who have left wril ad them. The 
 
 A. F., specially so called, are Barnabas, Clement of 
 
 Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, and Polycarp of Smyrna. 
 
 It is uncertain whether Papias of BUerapolis, and tho 
 
 author of tin himself out as the 
 
 is spoken of in Rom. xvi. 14, were really 
 
 disciples of the apostles. The writings of the A. F., 
 
 as to their form and subject, may be looked upon as 
 
 a continuation of the apostolic epistles, though far 
 
 inferior to them in spirit. Their main purpose is 
 
 "Tt to faith and holiness before Christ's 
 
 i. The writings of the A. F. have been 
 
 ■ I ie reach of EirJi b readers by 
 
 the translations of Archbishop wake and Mr 
 
 Chevallier. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC MAJESTY, a title hell 1. 
 kings of Hungary, was conferred by Pope Sylvester 
 II., in 1000 A.D., upon Duke Stephen of Hn 
 1 not only much encouraged the pr 
 of Christianity iu Hungary, but actually preached
 
 APOSTOLIC CANONS— APOTHECARIES. 
 
 himself, in imitation of the apostles. In 175S, the 
 title was renewed by Pope Clement XIII., in favour 
 of Maria Theresa as Queen of Hungary, and con- 
 tinues to be used by the emperor of Austria as king 
 of Hungary. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC CANONS A-VD CONSTITU- 
 TIONS, both ascribed by tradition to ('! 
 Eomanus, are notes of ecclesiastical customs held to 
 be apostolical, written in the form of apostolic 
 precepts. The Constituiiones Apostolic^, consisting 
 of eight books, were probably composed in Syria, 
 and contain, in the first six books, a comprehensive 
 rule for the whole of Christian life. These were 
 probably written about the end of the 3d c. ; while 
 the seventh book, which is essentially an abridg- 
 ment of them, may has i to the beginning 
 of the 4th c. The eighth book was put together in 
 the middle of the 4th c., for the use of the priests, 
 and only relates to the sacred offices. Interpolations, 
 however, were afterwai d. The Canonea 
 Apostolici, which were also recognised by the church, 
 were composed at a later period. The first fifty, 
 compiled in the middle of the 5th <■., and translated 
 from Greek into Latin by Dionysius the Younger, 
 knowlcdgcd by the Latin Church alone. The 
 Greek Church, on the other hand, accepted the 
 thirty-five canons put forth in the beginning of the 
 6th c. ; and this became a point of discord between 
 the churches. Both collections were probably looked 
 upon at first as apostolic traditions merely. Later, it 
 came to be believed that they were written down by 
 the apostle3 themselves, it being thought probable 
 that they should have expressed themselves posi- 
 tively about the constitution as well as the dogmas 
 of the church. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC PARTY, the name given to a party 
 who acted a conspicuous part in the modern history 
 of Spain. They were composed of fanatical Catholics, 
 who were also absolutists so far as the king con- 
 sented to be their instrument. They formed them- 
 (soon after the revolution of 1819) into an 
 A. P., whose leaders were fugitive priests, and whose 
 troops were smugglers and robbers. After taking 
 an active part in all the sub tations, they 
 
 finally merged (1S30) in the Carlist party. 
 
 APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION* is a phrase 
 used to denote one or both of tieo things — the deriva- 
 tion of holy orders by an unbroken chain of trans- 
 mission from the apostles, and the succession of a 
 ministry so ordained to the powers and privileges of 
 the apostles. The former is necessarily a matter of 
 fact, to be ascertained by history ; the latter is rather 
 a matter of opinion — the Roman ami Prol 
 Churches, and again individuals and parties in either, 
 Erom each other in their views. See 
 
 Bishop and Obdom noN. 
 
 APOSTROPHE (Gr. apodroplii, a turning away, 
 
 or breaking off) is a rhetorical figure by whicha 
 
 the course of his speech, and 
 
 . t 1 sser emotional emphasis, 
 
 seat) the dead, or inanimate 
 
 C to mvoU 
 
 them. When the figure is well 
 managed, it has a tlirilling effect, both in oratory 
 and poetry; but « vagantly introduced, it 
 
 beconi Examplcsof it abound in the 
 
 writin | poets and states- 
 
 men both of ancient and modern times. — A. in gram- 
 mar, is the omission of a letter or letters in a word, 
 the omission being marked by a comma; as 'tis for it 
 is; the comma so employed is also called an .1. 
 APOTHECARIES, in general acceptation, are 
 I persons who keep shops or laboratories for 
 the vending and compounding of medicines, and for 
 the making up of medical prescriptions; but in 
 
 England, they maybe not incorrectly described as an 
 inferior branch of the medical profession. They are 
 legally entitled to attend sick persons, and prescribe 
 for them, as well as to make up and dispense 
 medicines. It is not, however, usual for them to 
 prescribe medicines to be prepared and supplied by 
 others ; and it may be doubted whether they can 
 do so in London without incurring the penalties 
 of the 14 and 15 Henry VIII. c. 5, by winch the 
 privileges of the London physicians are confirmed 
 and extended — their ordinary practice, in adilition 
 to preparing medicines from a physician's prescrip- 
 tion, being to advise the patient, to prescribe, and 
 make up the required medicine in their own lal (ora- 
 tory. But although an apothecary may attend sick 
 persons, and prescribe for them, he cannot charge 
 both for his attendances and his medicines, but 
 must make his election between the two. It was so 
 ruled by the late Chief-justice Best, in an action 
 by an apothecary, who sought to recover on 
 grounds (see Wilcock on the Medical Profmmon, 
 and the law-cases there collected). Altl. 
 therefore, the apothecary is inferior in professional 
 rank and authority to the physician and surgeon, he 
 is of a higher grade than the chemist and druggist, 
 who merely vends drugs and medicinal compounds, 
 but whose qualification, beyond the payment of a 
 small annual tax by way of licence, does not neces- 
 sarily offer any test or guarantee of skill. Practically, 
 ■."'. r, although it may be matter of surprise and 
 regret that the legislature has not interposed, by 
 any stringent enactment, for the protection of the 
 public against the unskilful and empirical dr 
 tittle or no injury perhaps results from such a state 
 of the law, for the rules of the 'Pharmaceutical 
 Society of Great Britain,' incorporated in U 
 rival charter, and the powers of which have been 
 considerably enlarged by a recent statute, 15 and 16 
 Vict, c. 56, passed on the 30th June 1852, operate 
 as a restraint on ignorance and want of skill. By a 
 still more recent act called ' The Medical Act ' 
 (21 and '2'2 Vict. c. 90, s. 54), provision is made far the 
 preparation of what the act calls 'the British 
 Pharmacopoeia,' an enactment which would be of 
 value in the case of pharmaceutical malpractices, 
 were it not that the next section of the same act 
 expressly exempts from its operation, among others, 
 the ' lawful trade or business of chemists or 
 druggists,' an inconsistency of which perhaps poor 
 persons, who cannot afford to consult a r 
 practitioner, have the chief right to complain. 
 See Chkmist and Dr.rr.niST. 
 
 The business, or profession, as it maybe called, 
 of an apothecary in England, although neither 
 regulated, nor, indeed, fully recognised, till modern 
 times, has been made the subject of several ancient 
 statutes, and is traceable to a rem I in the 
 
 history of the healing art 1. Richard 
 
 el, who died Bishop of London, was stated 
 to have been apothecary to Henry II. ; and it is 
 an accredited tradition," that in 1 dward 
 
 III. re a pen i of nee a day to t'oursus de 
 
 ml. an apothecary in Lornl 
 of, and attending bis n -.:■ ;. during his 
 in Scotland. It is," however, improbable tli.it A. were 
 then common, indeed it may be i aether 
 
 at that time I 1 as a publicly known body 
 
 at all, for, in 1511, there was passed an act of parlia- 
 ment, the 3 Henry V11I. c. 11, for regulating the 
 
 but making no mention 
 
 th" par!. very 
 
 curious act, the ."1 and 35 Henry VI 11. c. 8 
 
 ■ with the then 
 ignorance and cupidity e n surgeons; and ( 
 
 as a remed}', it provides for the toleration and 
 
 310
 
 APOT}iiv\i:ii:s. 
 
 ti.m of tin' irregular practitioners, who after- 
 d body, acquired the distinctive name 
 of A. e though it lie in ii 
 
 inn perhaps be n yarded as the real fonndal 
 
 of the modern apothecary. It certainly 
 shews on its face sufficii recognition 
 
 of the : i benefit whom it was paw a, tor it 
 
 the surgeons of London wen not 
 only unskilful anil grasping, but that tiny 'have 
 sued, troubled, ami vexed divert I "ns, as 
 
 well men as women, whom I endued with 
 
 tin- knowledge of the nature, kind, ami operation of 
 certain herbs, runts, and waters, ami the using and 
 ministering of them to such as had been pained with 
 
 customable diseases, as worn m'a breasts 1" in 
 a pin and the web in the eye, uncomes of hands, 
 burnings, scaldings, sore months, tin stone, stran- 
 gury, saucelim, and morphew, and such other like 
 
 . iid yet the stud persons have not 
 anything for their pains or cunning, but have 
 the same to poor 
 nd God's sake, and of pity and ch 
 lite act, therefore, pro lain, 'That at all 
 
 forth it shall be lawful to 
 person being the king's subject, having knowledge 
 
 rperience of the natui 
 
 -, or of the operation of , by specula- 
 
 or practice, within any pari of tin- realm of 
 England, or within any other the king's dom 
 to practise, use, and minister in and to any outward 
 
 [income, wound, apostemation, outward swell- 
 ing or disease, anj herb or herbs, ointments, baths, 
 puttees, and emplaisters, according to their cunning, 
 experience, and knowledge in any of the diseases, 
 sores, and maladies beforesaid, and all other like 
 to the same, or drinks for the stone, strangury, or 
 
 . without suit, vexation, trouble, penalty, or 
 
 loss of their goods, tin I tute in tin foresaid 
 
 third year of the king's most gracious reign, or any 
 
 other act, ordinance, or statute to tlie contrary 
 
 Qotwithstand 
 
 Anciently, the A. were not distil 
 
 being, in like manner, ondistin- 
 gniahable from the barbers) ; indeed, it rather appears 
 that A. am I re synonymous terms : and it 
 
 was not till 1617, in the 13th year o) James I., that 
 
 I bod formed into two distinct c 
 
 tions by a charter from the king, which, reciting a 
 previous grant to the grocers in 1 GOG. 1 >y which 1 1 1 e t wi i 
 
 j were expn s&ry ni it L d -lares that I 
 shall, thenceforward, be separate from, and con- 
 stitute a company distinct from the grocers. The 
 privileges conferred by this charter upon the A. 
 ■were afterwards considerably enlarged by an act of 
 parliament, 55 G III. c. 194, to which we shall 
 
 :tly refer. Bnt even after the charter of 
 James, the London A. appear to have been regarded 
 merely as a trading company, occasionally pp 
 ing the medicines which they sold, thus tresp 
 as it was thought, on the produce of the phj 
 until their right to do so was supported by a 
 
 lent of the lbmse of Lords, in the case of the 
 • of Physicians against Hose, reversing a 
 previous decision of the Court of Ke 
 I who was an apothecary and freeman of 
 
 London, had attended one Scale, a butcher, and 
 made up and administered what was not denied to 
 be i roper medicine to him. This, it was contended, 
 
 half of the physicians, was an infringement of 
 their exclusive privileges, and the King's Bench 
 being of the same opinion, unanimously gave judg- 
 ment for the plaintiffs ; bnt the judgment was 
 reversed by the House of Lords. So generally 
 
 lished had this branch of the medical profi - 
 eion become, that, in 1S15, the act of parli 
 55 Geo. 1IL c. 194, to which we have already 
 
 320 
 
 1 In provide for the sufficiency of 
 
 Lucation; thus, tor the first time, as it may 
 
 lie said, placing the A., as a body, on the footing 
 
 of a libera] profession. This statute, which torn- 
 
 the pc it ion, pi nd re- 
 
 iiti.s of the A., after reciting (and for the 
 
 most part confirming) the charter of James L, by 
 
 which the A. of London had been distinctively 
 
 any. proceeds to enact that 
 
 no a rson shall praci ■ as an apothecary, or act as 
 
 tint to an apothecary, in any part of En 
 or Wales, unless he shall have been examined by a 
 court of examiners (to be chosen by the master and 
 wardens of the said company, in such manner as the 
 act directs), and ha vi i eedl a certificate 
 
 of his being duly qualified to practise as such. And 
 with respect to what constitutes such practice 
 
 cary, it has been judicially determined that 
 anuria of law will look to - ction ."> of the act, which 
 defines certain of the 'lutes and liabilities of the 
 
 but which ill noway deprives A. of any of 
 
 their previously acquired privileges. The certifi- 
 cate — for win i be paid for the benefit 
 
 oi the company's funds— is not to be granted to 
 
 any person below the age of twenty-one, or who 
 
 ; served an apprenticeship "f five years 
 
 to an apothi 1 can produce testimonials 
 
 of sufficient medical education and good moral 
 : ; and any person practising without such 
 disabled from recovering his ch 
 and for every such offence is, moreover, liable to 
 a penalty of £20, which can be recovered in the 
 county court. It is also provided that — inasmuch as 
 be duty of every apothecary to prepare, with 
 exactness, such medicines that may be dh 
 for the sick by any physician lawfully licensed 
 
 'or sell, or 
 
 Sully compounding or selling any medicines as 
 irected by any pi ' by any 
 
 l .vfully Licensed, with his initials, shall 
 incur such penalties and forfeitures as therein Bet 
 forth. And further, that the master, wardens, and 
 society of A. for the tin- persons by 
 
 them appointed, and being not fewer than two, and 
 Iy qualified, may at all reasonable times in the 
 ops of any A. throughout 
 d and Walt s, ami search and i xamine v. 
 lieines and drugs be wholesome, and meet for 
 
 ts of the realm ; and destroy 
 such as they find to be < and report to the 
 
 and wardens of the society the n 
 offenders, who are made liable to a tine of £5 for 
 the first, £10 for the second, and £20 for the third 
 offence. Tin- act contains, however, a proviso that 
 therein shall affect the business of a chemist 
 and druggist in the buying, preparing, compound- 
 ing, dispensing, and vending drugs, medicine 
 medicinable compounds, wholesale and retail; nor 
 re with the rights of the universities of 
 Cambridge or Oxford, the College of Physicians or of 
 Surgeons, or the Si " ii t y of Apothecaries, respectively, 
 except a- altered by that act. 
 
 This act, which was passed on the 12th July 
 1815, provides for the exemption from its operation 
 of such A. as may have been in practice on or 
 before the first day of August of that year; a class, 
 however, of whom it may reasonably be conjectured 
 re few now surviving. Still, it may without 
 impropriety lie asserted, that there are two classes of 
 A. in I rst, the licentiates of the Apothe- 
 
 caries' Co.. or. in other words, those qualified according 
 to the provisions of the 55 Geo. III. ; and second, a 
 temporary class, namely-, such A. as were in practice 
 on the 1st day of August 1S15. 
 
 The A. in Ireland are an exclusive corporation, 
 whose privileges are expressly saved by the recent
 
 APOTIIECIA— APPALACHIANS. 
 
 medical act (the 21 and 22 Viet, c. 00). Although 
 occupying a position corresponding in many respects 
 to that of tin- same body in England, the Irish A. 
 do not appear to have established their rights as 
 mi dical practitioners to the extent to which the 
 
 ii A. have succeeded in carrying their preten- 
 . the privileges of the Irish A., under their 
 charter, being limited to the vending, preparing, and 
 administering drugs and medicines according to a 
 physician's prescription, although they probably 
 would incur no penalty by giving advice to patients 
 in their own shops. 
 
 The existing law relating to A. in Inland is con- 
 tain* -d in an act of the I nab. parliament, the 31 Geo. III. 
 c. 34, passed in 1 71*1, and entitnled 'An Act far the 
 moreeffectuallyPreserviiigtli Health of his M 
 
 . }' Hall in the < 'ity 
 of Dublin, and reg Profession of an Apothe- 
 
 cary throughout the Kingdom of Ireland.' The 
 preamble turning the tables on the English act, the 
 34 and 35 Henry III., which reflects so severely on the 
 London surgeons— recites that 'whereas not only 
 many : inconveniences have arisen from the 
 
 want of a hall amply supplied with medicines 
 of the pur.st quality, prepared under the inspection 
 of persons well skilled in the art and mystery of 
 such preparations, but also frequent frauds and 
 abuses have been imposed and practised on many of 
 his majesty's subjects within the city of Dublin, and 
 the liberties thereof, and in other parts of the king- 
 dom of Ireland, by the ignorance and unskilfulness 
 of divers persons pretending to the art and mystery 
 of an apothecary, to the injury of the fair trader, 
 
 - appointment of the physician, and the immi- 
 nent hazard of the lives of his majesty's faithful 
 and loyal subjects throughout the realm.' The 
 act proceeds to incorporate the A. as a com- 
 pany, and to erect their hall; the officers of the 
 
 atdon being a governor, deputy-governor, and 
 
 thirteen directors, elected from among the members, 
 
 or any five or more of them, of whom the governor or 
 
 ivernor should be one, shall be called a 
 
 of directors, for inspecting and directing all 
 
 ;d and compound preparations and i 
 ments. rJy section IS, no person, after the 24th 
 June L791, shall be taken as an apprentice, foreman, 
 or shopman to any apothecary in Ireland, untU after 
 examination by the company; and by t! 
 
 i it is enacted that from and after the same 
 date, ' no person shall open shop or act in the art or 
 
 ry of an apothecary, within the kingdom of 
 Ireland, until such person shall have been examined 
 
 iiis qualification and knowledge of the business, 
 by such persons and in such manner as hereinbefore 
 mentioned and required for the examination of 
 ins applying 'to become apprentices or shop- 
 keepers;' a provision that appears to give the 
 Apothecaries' Hall in Ireland a complete monopoly 
 in the vending and compounding of medicines. 
 In Scotland, there is no class of practitioners cor- 
 RnglMi A. The word apothecary 
 a ar, indi ed, to be a gem ric b mi in the 
 medical nomenclature of that country ; the chemists 
 and druggists, who are in general au extremely well 
 educati pectable class, do all the bi 
 
 connected with the making up of prescriptions, 
 vend;" paring medicines ; but they* are not 
 
 : Utiouers as in England, although many 
 vi them are surgeons. 
 
 APOTHE'CIA. Sec Lichens. 
 
 APOTHE'OSIS, deification, or the raising of a 
 mortal to the rank of a god (Gr. theot). Erom the 
 polytheistic point of view there is nothing monstrous 
 in this idea ; on the contrary, it is quite natural, 
 
 and a necessary part of the system. Among heathens 
 -.'1 
 
 generally, and especially among the Romans, every 
 departed spirit became a deity (see Maxes) ; ' and as 
 it was common for children to worship (privately) 
 the manes of their father-, so was it natural for 
 divine honours to be publl ' / paid to a deceased 
 emperor, who was regarded as the parent of his 
 country.' (8ee Smith , /. alt j 
 
 .) At tie ' it was 
 
 called, of a Roman emperor, the body was burnt on 
 a funeral pile, and as the fire ascended, an eagle was 
 let loose to mount into the sky, carrying, as was 
 believed, the soul of the emperor from earth to 
 Many medals are found with the word 
 conxecratio surrounding an altar, with tire on it, and 
 an eagle rising into the air. 
 
 APPALACHIANS, the general appellation of the 
 
 great mountain-system— called also the Alleghanies 
 — which stretches from the interior ,,f Maine to tile 
 borders of Alabama, its distance from the sea 
 
 gradually ranging between al I 100 miles in the 
 
 north, and about 300 in r > iking 
 
 generally, this chain may be regardi d as the parent 
 of the Atlantic rivers of the ites on the 
 
 on the other of the southern tributaries 
 of the St Lawrence, and of the eastern feeders of 
 the Mississippi: it is not, however, the actual 
 
 lied during its entire length, for it is crossed 
 by the Connecticut, the Hudson, and the Delaware, 
 just as the Himalayas are pierced by the Ganges, 
 and the Andes by the Amazon. The chain, in 
 fact, consists of several ranges generally parallel to 
 each other, which, along with the intermediate 
 valleys that occupy two-thirds of the breadth, form 
 a belt 100 miles wide— its multiform chai 
 
 ■. developing itself only to the west and south 
 of the Hudson. To take the chief ridges by name, 
 and to begin from the north : the White Hills of 
 Ni -. Hampshire present the loftiest elevations, 
 Moosehillock and Washington being respectively 
 I 6634 feet above the sea. Next in order, 
 the Green Mountains, which, t . lmost 
 
 cover Vermont, attain, in Killington Peak, a height 
 of 31124 feet; then come tlie B on the east 
 
 of the Hudson, so striking an object to the voyagers 
 on its waters ; beyond that river, 
 
 again, we find the Catskill Mountains, which, though 
 of inconsiderable length, contain two eminences — 
 Round Top and High Peak — respectivi ly of 3804 and 
 371S feet; while, on a terrace of another member of 
 the group, Mountain House, a favourite refuge from 
 
 its of summer, is ]>erched 2500 feet above 
 the level of the' Hudson. Proceeding onward 
 Kittatinnies extend from the north of New ' 
 as far as Virginia; while nearer to the sea, the Blue 
 lung from .-' me parallel down 
 
 to North Carolina, or rather below it, is crowned, 
 within the limits of Virginia, by the Peaks of I 
 at an altitude somewhat greater than that of any 
 point between themsc h i i and New Hampshire. 
 . there lie. more to the westward, the All - 
 proper in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and 
 I nilieiland Mountains on the cast border of 
 Kentucky and Tennessee. 
 
 ill these elc\ one at all approaches 
 
 the limit of perpetual snow. Y, t France, while 
 
 ling with England in North America, reg 
 
 as a wall that w v to exclude her 
 
 rival from tb 151 Lawrence and the 
 
 .. however, has 
 virtually levelled the supposed barrier from end to 
 end. Through Maine. New Hampshire, and Vermont 
 runs a railway from Portland to Canada ; by canal or 
 by railway, or even by both abreast, New York has 
 
 i tie waters of the St Lawrence on at least 
 four principal points between Montreal in tl. 
 and Buffalo in the west ; Pennsylvania has carried to
 
 I.ACHIANS. 
 
 Pittsburg a railway of 248 miles from Hani 
 
 nnd a canal of 312 miles from Columbia ; while, 
 
 TOth f ■ ception of little Delaware 
 
 ooaet have 
 
 d .'i the A. 
 
 Hinds in cii.il and iron, 
 
 gifts of nature to industrious man, which in .ill 
 
 .ve done so much for civilisation, and which, 
 
 in our own age, have, with tho aid of steam, more 
 
 1 that they had done before: and 
 
 it is a curious instance of the adaptation of the 
 
 two worlds to each other, that, while the Spaniard 
 
 .11 the south, the gigantic counterparts of 
 the central plateau of his own romantic hind, the 
 Englishman, in the north, stumbled, as it v. 
 those same elements of almost creative energy which, 
 within two centuries, were to be so instrumental in 
 placing the daughter next to the mother amon 
 nations of the earth. As an evidence of the actual 
 value of the coal and iron of the A., Pennsylvania— 
 when, hitherto, they have been chiefly found — has 
 recently made more rapid strides than any other state 
 of the Union, having, between the census of 1840 and 
 that of 1850, outstripped in growth of population the 
 
 >usly more progressive states of Ohio and New 
 York. Nor are iron and coal the only valuable 
 products of the A. To say nothing of the vail 
 many of them as fertile as they are lovely — which 
 separate the parallel ranges from each other, tie 
 mountains themselves yield limestone, marble, slate, 
 building-stone, copper, zinc, chrom a, 
 
 Geology. — During the Azoic and Palaeozoic periods 
 of the earth's geological history, the district now 
 occupied by the A. was a level plain. These moun- 
 tains date their origin from a period subsequent to 
 the Carboniferous epoch. The Coal measures are the 
 newest upturned bc(U associated with the Appala- 
 chian range ; and as the stratified rocks, with few ex- 
 ceptions, are laid down horizontally, these strata must 
 owe their inclined position to the dislocating agency 
 which elevated the mountains; they, consequently, 
 supply a date anterior to its activity. At the base 
 of the A., on their eastern side, there are a series of 
 red sandstone beds, unconformable to the upturned 
 strata, and occupying the valleys in their original 
 horizontal ity, thus evidently unaffected by tli 
 rupting agency which must have been active prior 
 to their deposition. These beds have been P 
 by geologists to different ages. That they are Old 
 Red Sandstone, as conjectured by Maelure and others, 
 is now universally denied. Hitchcock's supposition 
 that they were Permian, is also considered as refer- 
 ring them to too remote a geological age. W. 1 '•■ 
 Rogers considered them first as members of the 
 Triassic period ; but has since, from evidence 
 adduced from the contained organic remains, shewn 
 reason for relating them to the beginning of the 
 Jurassic period. We thus obtain two grand lit 
 dates — the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods — 
 within which tho A. must have been formed. There 
 are grounds for being even more specific, and 
 referring the period of the dislocating agency to that 
 immediately subsequent to the Carboniferous, repre- 
 
 I in the stratified rocks of other districts by 
 the Permian series; for the older upturned rocks 
 had not only been ruptured and plicated, but also 
 denuded into the various shapes they now present, 
 before the horizontal rocks were deposited. 
 
 The late Professor II. t>. Sogers, after years of 
 persevering and devoted study, enunciated a theory 
 of mountain formation based on his examination of 
 the A., which not only explains their structure, but 
 admits of a more or less complete application to 
 the mountain systems of tho world. The many 
 proposed theories of mountain elevation are based 
 upon assumptions which, unfortunately, are not true ; 
 
 but that is an unimportant matter to the majority 
 of OUT ■ and one, BBVI 
 
 by the inventors i who allow them- 
 
 l captive 1 
 
 notions on fit 
 Thus, to suppose that mouni levated 
 
 like in ti of i I matter, is to give 
 
 to a fluid functions iie 
 
 properties. Soal o the supposition that the igneous 
 
 .. . led as solid wi ■ as, separating and 
 
 lifting the crust, is opposed to the fact, that no 
 
 b . but generally the closest adhesion, 
 
 t the line of contact of the igneous and strati- 
 Equally fatal objections can !»• adduced 
 
 the other theories. Professor Rogers observ- 
 ing that the A. were formed of a series of enormous 
 
 and comparing this appearance with other 
 
 d districts, especially in Belgium and Britain, 
 enunciated a theory of their structure, of which the 
 following is a condensed view. 
 
 irbed strata have a wave-like arrangement, 
 
 p being in curved, and never in straight planes; 
 
 and in extensive areas the varying angles of dip exhibit 
 
 - t more wide regular curves. These undulations 
 
 are in the form of long parallel waves, their paral- 
 
 1 icing in the line of the general trend of the 
 part of the mountain system to which they 1 
 When different grades of magnitude, as n 
 length, height, and amplitude, occur, the w. 
 
 :me grade are parallel while the dil 
 grades are not necessarily so. The waves assume 
 three different forms, which are characterised as— 
 
 Appalachian Range. 
 
 Symmetrical flexures (a), equally steep on the two 
 slopes; normal flexures (//), having an excess of 
 incurvation on the one side compared with the 
 other; and folded flexures (c), or those with a 
 doubling under of their more incurved slopes, and 
 among which the steepest slopes are generally directed 
 to the same quarters. These three forms, representing 
 different gradations in the flexure, are regular in 
 their succession in disturbed regions, the order being 
 the same as in the diagram — that is, when we start 
 from the most disturbed side, wo go from the folded 
 waves to the normal ones, and from these to the 
 symmetrical ; and in the same order, the waves, as 
 they recede from the folded side, become progressively 
 wider apart and flatter. Resting on these facts, 
 Professor Rogers advanced his view of the s truct u re 
 •i a in the following words : 'The 
 wave-like structure of undulated belts of the earth's 
 crust, is attributed to an actual pulsation in the fluid 
 matter beneath the crust, propagated in the manner 
 of great waves of translation from enormous ruptures 
 occasioned by the tension of elastic matter. The 
 forms of the waves, the close plication of the strata, 
 and the permanent tracing of the flexures, are 
 ascribed to the combination of an undulating and a 
 tangential movement, accompanied by an injection 
 of igneous veins and dikes into the rents occasioned 
 by the bendings. This oscillation of the cnist, pro- 
 ducing an actual floating forward of the rocky part, 
 has been, it is conceived, of the nature of that pul- 
 sation which attends all great earthquakes at tho 
 ' day.' 
 This theory having originated as an explanation 
 of the phenomena of the A., is easy of application to 
 these mountains. They are composed of a series of
 
 APPAL ACHICOLA- APPARITIONS. 
 
 parallel waves, having a general direction similar to 
 the coast-line of the Atlantic Ocean. The line of 
 maximum disturbance is on their eastern limits ; 
 consequently, the folded flexures, with the inversion 
 of their steep sides, are chiefly confined to the great 
 Appalachian valley, and the Atlantic slopes south of it. 
 The flexures of this type impart a prevailing south- 
 east dip to the whole outcrop; their number, and 
 the excessive difficulty of detecting and continuously 
 tracing them, frustrates every attempt at mapping 
 them individually. The flexures of the second type, 
 which curve more rapidly on the one side than on 
 the other, prevail wherever the forces that disturbed 
 the crust were neither excessively intense nor very 
 It is the characteristic form everywhere 
 between the great Appalachian valley and the 
 Alleghany Mountains. It distinguishes not only 
 larger waves which separate the coal — con- 
 taining strata cast of the Susquehanna into special 
 basins — but the minor undulations which throw the 
 coal measures of these basins into groups of lesser 
 saddles and troughs. Undulations of the first or 
 symmetrical type occur beyond the Alleghany 
 Mountains, where two groups of them may be 
 ttished: the one subdividing the bituminous 
 coal-field, with its five very broad waves, into six 
 successive basins ; the other, composed of four 
 equidistant and very straight undulations, traversing 
 parts of Cambria, Indiana, Somerset, and Fayette 
 counties. 
 
 The strata thus elevated, and forming the A., | 
 belong entirely to the oldest or Pakeozoic division of 
 the fossiliferous rocks. Metamorphic rocks, consist- 
 ins of felspathic, hornblendic, and micaceous gneiss, i 
 and mica-slate, exist on the eastern base of these j 
 mountains, but have not been noticed as forming ! 
 part of the plicated strata of the A. Extensive for- 
 mations of talcose and micaceous slates, indurated 
 clay-slates, and chloritic and stcatitic slates, exist 
 in the more disturbed districts. These are highly 
 metamorphosed members of the older fossiliferous, 
 and must not be confounded with, though they so 
 much resemble, the azoic metamorphic rocks. 
 
 The Palaeozoic rock3 constitute a vast succession 
 of fossiliferous strata, commencing with the lowest 
 deposits resting on the Metamorphic rocks, and ter- 
 minating with the highest of the Coal strata. Their 
 ate thickness, as measured in Pennsylvania, 
 amounts to 35,000 feet. While exhibiting a remark- 
 able variety of mineral character, they may be classed 
 under the three great divisions of sedimentary rocks — 
 viz., sandstones, slates, and limestones. Intercalated 
 with them, as subordinate layers, there occur deposits 
 of coal, chert, and iron ore. They are all more or 
 less fossiliferous. 
 
 Coal Measures. — The character of the rocks of the 
 Appalachian district of North America indicates that 
 during the Carboniferous epoch an immense continent 
 1 on the present site of the Atlantic, which 
 supplied materials for the sandstone and slate. It 
 seems to have had an extensive shallow marshy 
 shore, of such a character as to be able to support 
 the vegetation, which has become, in the com 
 ages, converted into coal. The coal-fields to the far 
 west of the A., in Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and 
 ni, have been connected with the Appalachian 
 coal formation, which includes all the detached 
 basins, both anthracitic and semi-bituminous, of the 
 mountain chain of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and 
 Virginia, and also the vast bituminous trough lying 
 to the north-west in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. 
 
 On the eastern slope of the A., the coal, from its 
 proximity to the region of greatest disturbance, has 
 lost nearly all its volatile constituents, and ia con- 
 verted into hard shining anthracite (q. v.). In the 
 
 I troughs to the westward of the great Appalachian 
 valley, where the forces that disturbed the crust were 
 not so intense, the coal has not parted with such a 
 large proportion of volatile matter, but still is so 
 much altered as to be characterised as semi-anthra- 
 cite. Both the anthracite and semi-anthracite are 
 extensively mined for economical purposes, but their 
 extent as well as their value is of little importance 
 compared with the enormous Appalachian bituminous 
 coal-field. From Northern Pennsylvania to middle 
 Alabama, its length is about 875 miles, and its greatest 
 breadth between Southern Pennsylvania and N orthern 
 Ohio is about 180 miles; it covers an area of 
 56,000 square miles, and is almost the largest expanse 
 of coal measures in the world A single coal-seam 
 in this field has been traced over an extent of country 
 •J-2"> miles long by 100 broad, shewing a superficial 
 area of 14,000 square miles. The actual .1 
 workable seams in the deepest part of this basin is 
 estimated at 40 feet ; but when the amount of denu- 
 dation of the upper measures over large districts is 
 taken into account, the average depth of the entire 
 field cannot be more than 25 feet Taking this as 
 the thickness, the amount of coal in this great coal- 
 field would be 1,387,500,000,000 tons. When this is 
 compared with the estimated quantity of coal in the 
 British coal-fields, viz., 190,000,000,000 tons, some 
 conception may be formed of the enormous ■ 
 of coal existing in this district of North America. 
 
 JfrfoZ*.— Extensive beds of magnetic, hematitic, 
 and fossiliferous iron ores occur in many of the for- 
 mations of the A., from the lov. iorphic 
 gneiss to the highest coal-measures. Iron ore is 
 extensively wrought in Pennsylvania and Ohio, 
 large quantities of the anthracite being used in the 
 smelting furnaces. Veins of lead occur in the 
 Metamorphic rocks, rarely stretching up into the 
 red slate. In the Palaeozoic beds, veins of • 
 and nickel occur in sufficient quantity to be wrought 
 
 APPALACHICO'LA, a river of the United 
 
 States, rising in Georgia, and flowing tl 
 Florida into the Gulf of Mexico, or rather into a 
 bay that bears its own name. Beckoning from its 
 remotest sources, the head waters of the Chata- 
 hooche, the A. is about 400 miles long, being navig- 
 able for boats throughout nearly its entire course. 
 It is, however, only at the junction of the Chata- 
 hooche with the Flint that the name of A. is applied 
 to the stream ; and up to this point, a stretch of 
 about 70 miles, there is a sufficient depth of water 
 for steam-navigation ; wliile the tides also ascend 
 for about two-thirds of the distance. — A. is also a 
 seaport at the mouth of the stream above mentioned. 
 Here is shipped the produce of the river-basin, 
 consisting chiefly of large quantities of cotton. 
 
 APPA'KENT. This term is used to express a 
 number of important distinctions, especially in 
 astronomy. The A. magnitude of a heavenly body is 
 the angle formed by two lines drawn from the ends 
 of its diameter to the spectator's eye ; this obviously 
 depends upon the distance of the body, as well as 
 upon its real magnitude. A planet seen from the 
 surface of the earth seems lower than if seen from 
 the centre of the earth — the former is its A. altitude, 
 the latter its real. A. noon is when the sun is on 
 the meridian ; true or mean noon is the time when 
 the Bun would be on the meridian if his motion in 
 the heavens were uniform and parallel to the equator. 
 See Equation of Time. The daily and annual 
 motions of the sun in the heavens are both A. 
 motions, caused by two real motions of the earth. 
 
 APPARITIONS. The belief that the spirits of 
 the departed are occasionally presented to the sight 
 of the living, has existed in all ages and countries, 
 and usually declines only when a people have
 
 APPARITIOXS_.\l'l'i:\L. 
 
 advanced considerably in the knowledge of physical 
 
 conditions and laws. Not that A. then < 
 
 be n ported - fur this is far 
 
 but that the mure intelligent part <>f the community 
 
 are then usually able to explain away the alleged 
 
 occurrence in some way satisfactory to them 
 
 not involving the admission of a possible projection 
 
 of a spirit upon the living sense. 
 
 Nothing is more certain than that there are con- 
 ditions of the body whi o appearanc 
 as occur to us in uneasy dreams, become sensible to 
 the waking vision. One of these conditions is that 
 of the patient under the disease of delirium tn 
 who not only hears ideal enemies plotting against 
 his life in adjacent rooms or behind 
 thinks ho sees them preparing to do him mi 
 
 and has 1 n known to jump overboard of a 
 
 into the sea, in order to i scape tli" 
 danger. In such excitements it is, tho 
 
 different causes, that an intending murderer 
 thinks he hears the prince of fall " opting 
 
 him on to cr '< ore him r of the 
 
 mind' wherewith to end the 1 i I victim. There 
 are also instances of spectral illusions traceable to a 
 simply disordered state of the dig . M. 
 
 JCicolai, an eminent bookseller in Berlin, fi II, in the 
 early part of the year 1791, in1 ion of 
 
 spirits, and in that condition neglected 8 Ci 
 
 ig which he had been ae ustomed 
 to observe. The consequence was bis becoming 
 liable for some d as of phan- 
 
 tasmata or spectra] figures, which moved and acted 
 
 him, nay, even spoke to, ai 
 He was fortunately able, not merely to coolly oba rve 
 the phenomena, but to describe them in an 
 paper which he presented to the Philo 
 Society of Berlin. This case may be Baid to have 
 I the basis of a theory of A., advanced by Dr 
 1'. trier, Dr Hibbert, and others, amounting 
 to this, that they are all to be accounted f"i' by 
 peculiar conditions of the organism of the individual 
 sensible of them. 
 
 There is certainly a large class of cases which 
 fall readily under this explanatio i ; but, if we are to 
 accept the whole that have been, on more or less 
 good authority, reported, it must be admitto 
 a theory of a more comprehensive nature is still 
 required iu order to satisfy the didy cautious 
 inquirer. 
 
 I.i t us take, for instance, an apparition story which 
 Dr Hibbert owns to be one of the best authenticated 
 on record. It was thus written down in 1662 by 
 the Bishop of Gloucester, from tie' recital "i tie 
 young lady's father: 'Sir Charles Lee, by his first 
 lady, had only one daughter, of which Bhe i 
 childbirth; and when she was dead, her sister, tin 
 Lady Everard, desired to have the education of tin 
 child; and she was by her very well, educated, till 
 she was marriageable, and a match was eon 
 for her with Sir William Perkins, but ws 
 prevented in an extraordinary manner. Upon a 
 Thursday night, she thinking she saw a light m her 
 chamber after she was in bed, knocked for her maid, 
 who presently came to her, and she asked why she 
 left a candle burning 'in her chamber. Tli 
 said slu' hit none, and there was none but what she 
 had brought with her at that time. Then she said 
 it was the lire ; but that, her maid told her, was quite 
 out ; and she said she believed it was only a dream : 
 : iid it might lie so. and composed 
 herself again to sleep. But about two of the clock 
 sin- was awakened again, and saw the apparition of 
 a little woman between her curtain and her pillow, 
 who told her she was her mother, that she was 
 happy, and that by twelve of the clock that day Bhe 
 shoidd be with her. Whereupon she kuocke 
 :.l 
 
 for her maid, called for her clothes, and whl 
 
 I. went into her closet, and came not out 
 
 again till nine, aud then brought out with her a 
 1. to her father: brought it to her aunt, 
 
 tie- Lady Everard, told her what had happened, and 
 
 ! that as soon as she was dead, it might be 
 sent to him. The lady thought she was suddenly 
 fallen mad, and thereupon sent suddenly away to 
 Chelmsford for a phj ician and butj eon, who both 
 
 : , ; l .lit the pi' 1 . an i old • 
 no indication of what the lady imagined, or of any 
 
 sition of her body; notwithstanding the lady 
 
 let blood, which was done 
 
 accordingly. And when the young woman had 
 
 patiently let them do what they would with hi r, 
 
 Jed that the chaplain might be called to read 
 
 prayers; and when prayers were ended, she took her 
 
 guitar and psalm-book, and sat down upon a chair 
 
 i played and sung so melodiously 
 
 and admirably, that her mu ic-maater, who was then 
 
 dmired at it. And near the stroke of twelve, 
 
 and sate herself down in a gnat chair with 
 
 arms, and presently fetching a sta ;1 iiing or 
 
 two, immediately expired, and was olycold, 
 
 much wondered at by the physician and 
 
 surgeon. She died at Waltham in Essex, three 
 
 miles from Chelmsford, and the letter was sent to 
 
 Sir Charles at his house in Warwickshire, but he 
 
 i afflicted with the death of his daughter, that 
 
 he came not till she was buried; but when he came, 
 
 he caused her to be taken up, and to be buried with 
 
 other at Edmonton, as she desired iu her 
 
 Letter.' 
 
 Dr Hibbert, in treating of this case, concludes that 
 the young lady was consumptive and about to die, 
 and ill this diseased frame of body became the I 
 of an illusion; but these are assumptions directly 
 contrary to what the record bears, and there is, after 
 
 i IL the : in til r circumstance to be accounted for, 
 
 that the young lady's death occurred exactly at the 
 
 i pred -I'd. To a similar purport is the ca oi 
 
 the wife of Dr Donne, related By Izaak Walton. 
 
 Donne left his v, ifo pr. ji.iut. in London, ami Wi at 
 
 - i Hubert Drury to Paris. Two days after 
 
 arriving there, he stated to Drury that he had had a 
 
 . wife walking through Ins room, with 
 
 her hair hanging over her shoulders, and a deail child 
 
 in her arms. So impressed were they by the incident 
 
 that thry immediately sent a mi i nj er to Loudon 
 
 to inquire regarding Mrs Donne's health. The 
 
 intelligi ace brought by the man was, that she had 
 
 brought to l«-d of a dead child at the hour her 
 
 husband thought he had seen her in Paris. In this 
 
 case, too, if the requisite disordered state of Dr 
 
 i were granted, the coincidence of the distant 
 
 event in its i articulars, and in point of time, would 
 
 remain unaccounted for by Dr Hibbert's theory. 
 
 That there is an abundance of such cases reported, 
 will not be disputed, in what direction speculation 
 regarding them is to move, if the insufficiency of Dr 
 Hibbert's theory be acknowledged, will probably 
 I on the general tendency of the movements 
 of science. If psychological study were more in 
 repute, and the phenomena of dreaming in particular 
 wen diligently examined, there might be a hope of 
 a satisfactory theory of what are called A . ere the 
 world was many years older. 
 
 APPEA'L, in the civil procedure of courts of 
 justice, signifies the removal of a suit from one court 
 or judge to another and higher court or judge, in 
 order that the latter may examine the validity of 
 the former's judgment, either affirming or reversing, 
 altering or varying the judgment. A., however, 
 is not a technical term in the procedure of the 
 ish and Irish common law courts. For many 
 years past, a reuonstitution of the English courts of
 
 APPEAL. 
 
 law ami equity lias been impending, Imt wo may 
 notice the present divisions hitherto oh erved in 
 this matter of appeal, for whatever the changes may 
 be, they will 1"- chiefly nominal, and the subject 
 ran be traced under the new nun 
 
 1. In the Courts of Equity (or of Chancery), where 
 fjhere is an A. from the judgment of the Ma ter 
 of the Bolls, and from the Vice-chancellors to the 
 Lord Chancellor himself, sitting alone, or concur- 
 rently with him, to the Lords Justices of A. in 
 Chancery, or, if necessary, to the full court, consist- 
 ing of the Lord Chancellor and of the two Lords 
 Ju cea sitting together, and presided over by the 
 former. The jud ment may also, if enrolled, be 
 appealed direct to the House of Lords, without 
 
 brou ii t be intermediate court. 
 
 2. In the Courts of Bankruptcy, the judgments 
 of which may be appealed from now directly to the 
 Court of A. in Chancery, and thereafter to the 
 House of Lords, under certain restrictions. 
 
 3. Tii the Court of Probate, there is an A. to 
 the House of Lords, with leave of the court. In 
 the procedure of this tribunal there is also an A. 
 from the county court, where such court has juris- 
 dirtion, to the Court of Probate itself, whose 
 j . nt is final. 
 
 4. In the Court of Divorce and Matrimonial 
 Causes, the decision of the Judge Ordinary, sitting 
 alone, may be appealed to the fidl court, whose 
 judgment is final. But in the case of a decree 
 dissolving a marriage, there may be an A. to the 
 House of Lords. 
 
 5. In the Admiralty Courts there is an A. to the 
 Privy-council ; but when the Admiralty jurisdiction 
 
 i in that of the Court of Probate, under section 
 
 10 of the 2(1 and 21 Vict. c. 77, the course of A. will 
 probably follow that prescribed for the latter tribu- 
 nal, and the Lords will deprive the l'rivy-council of 
 this appellate jurisdiction. 
 
 (i. There is also an A. to the l'rivy-council from 
 the following courts and matters : from the courts 
 of India and from the colonial courts generally; and 
 such A. includes the sentences, not only of courts 
 of primary jurisdiction, but also of Courts of A. in 
 tlm colonies ; * from the Lord Chancellor in matters 
 of lunacy or idiocy ; in applications to prolong the 
 term of patents for new inventions; and in making 
 orders in certain cases relative to copyright, pur- 
 suant to the provisions of the copyright acts. 
 
 Practically, however, as we are told by Mr .Stephen 
 in his Commentaries, all judicial authority of the 
 Privy-council is now exercised by a c 
 privy-councillors, called the Judicial Committee of 
 the Privy-council ; who hear the allegations and 
 proofs, and make their report to Her Majesty in 
 I. by whom the judgment is finally given. 
 
 In the practice of the common law courts of 
 ml — that is, the Court of Queen's Bench, the 
 Court of Common Pleas, and the Court of Exchequer, 
 or, is is put by Lord Coke, any court whose pro- 
 ceedings are regulated by the common law — the 
 ure by way of A. is. as we stated at the 
 i' ining of this article, technically not so called, 
 but is also called error, the party complaining 
 
 * As to colonial causes, we arc informed by Blackstonc that 
 the Jurisdiction of the l'rivy-council is * both original and 
 nppellate. Whenever a question arises between two provinces 
 out of tlio realm, as concerning the extent of their charters 
 nml the like, the king in his council exercises original jurisdic- 
 tion therein, upon the principles of feudal sovereignty. And u 
 hie wise, when any person claims an island or a province, in 
 the nature of a feudal principality, by grant from the Ling 
 or his ancestors, the determination of that right belongs to the 
 king (or queen) in council, as was the case of the 
 Derby, with regard to the Isle of Man, in the reign of Queen 
 i etb, and the Karl of Cardigan and others, as representa- 
 tives of the lJuUo of Montague, with relation to the Island of St 
 Vincent, in 17114.' 
 
 of the judgment being called the plaintiff in error, 
 instead of appellant, and his opponent, the defendant 
 in error, instead of respondent Formerly, the pro- 
 ceedings commenced by suing out a writ of error 
 first to a court of intermediate A., called the Court 
 of Exchequer Chamber, and afterwards by a further 
 writ of error to the House of Lords. Put by the 
 common-law procedure act of 1S52 (15 and 16 Vict. 
 c. 7G, 8. 148), writs of error are abolished, and the 
 mode of review regulated by legal forms which need 
 ad i>e hen- explained, 
 
 Error also lis to the Queen's Bench in criminal 
 Cases, when, after judgment, it is considered that tie- 
 indictment is bad in substance, or that the judgment 
 is erroneous, or in respect of any other substantial 
 
 defect . o i the i E the record. A court 
 
 called tii" Court for Crown Cases i:. lerved, • 
 
 ing of five judges, disposes ol ease i where tie 
 
 or court had some doubt at tie- tied as i 
 
 law. And there is also practically an appeal to a 
 
 superior court from all magistral 
 
 points of law. 
 
 As to redress by way of A. and error against the 
 judgments in the courts of Inland, the procedure is 
 so similar to that employed with respect to the 
 English courts, that we need not here outer into 
 particulars ou the subject. We may simply remark, 
 generally, that the Irish Chancellor, sitting 
 does not appear to exercise any appellate control 
 over courts inferior to his own, such as that possessed 
 by the Chancellor in England ; for, according to the 
 Irish practice, the A., for instance, from the Master 
 of the Bolls, and in the case of proceedings in 
 bankruptcy, is not to the Chancellor himself alone, 
 but to the Court of A. in Chancery, in which tin' 
 Chancellor and a Lord Justice of A. are the appointed 
 judges; and which Court of A. like wsthe 
 
 Chancellor's own individual judgments. The judg- 
 ments of this Court of A. itself, however, may after- 
 wards l>e reviewed on A. by the House of Lord 
 In criminal procedure, the same act (11 and 12 Vict. 
 c. 7S) applies to Ireland as well as to England. 
 
 In the procedure of the Scotch courts, there are 
 
 Mill us appeals in the practice of the sheriff or 
 county courts, and in the proceedings in bankruptcy ; 
 and the House of Lords reviews the judgments of 
 the Court of Session, the supreme civil court of the 
 country, and which tribunal, indeed, it may be 
 Said, Supplies the House with a large portion of its 
 judicial business. This circumstan ! [Uently 
 
 been remarked on as proving a litigious dispo 
 on the part of the Scotch ; but perhaps I 
 number of Seoteh appeals over English and Irish 
 may be more fairly said to be occasioned by a 
 natural feeling on the part ol 
 
 in Scotland, that there is a better chance of a nice 
 and critical examination of the judgments appealed 
 
 against by such judges as pi m tile House of 
 
 l.o A . who are all law vers of the greatest l earning and 
 eminence, and whose legal and judicial minds have 
 been formed wider a different and larger sy-; 
 jurisprudence and procedure than prevails in 
 land, than there would be to a tribunal com 
 entirely, or for the most part, of Scotch lav. 
 Indeed, it maybe said.th.it although the judicial 
 staff of the House of Lords are chiefly English law- 
 yers, tho system of A. to their lordships from the 
 Scotch courts works extremely well, and gives entire 
 satisfaction to the Scotch people. Some of tb 
 valuable elucidations of the peculiar princip! 
 Scotch law are to be found in the judgments in 
 Scotch appeals by the chancellors and other law 
 lords who. since the union with Scotland, have 
 administered the jurisdiction of the House in the 
 last resort, but who were never in a Scotch court, 
 and, until called upou to discharge such responsible 
 
 32S
 
 APrF.XZELL-ArPIANUS. 
 
 functions, had probably never opened a Scotch 
 law-bonk. 
 
 There is no A. to the House of Lords from Scotland 
 in criminal cases, nor does the above-mentioned act— 1 1 
 and IS Vict c. 7S, creating a court of criminal A. for 
 ad and Ireland — extend to Scotland. But the 
 i lourt of Justiciary thi re, which is the supreme 
 criminal tribunal, and is composed of seven 
 of the Court of Session, presided over by the Lard 
 Justice General, or Lord President, as lie is 
 wise called, reviews the procedure of all the criminal 
 courts of the country (excepting where such jurisdic- 
 tion is expressly excluded by statute) ; and it is 
 believed that no inconvenience is experienced in 
 consequence of there being no other or further A. 
 from the sentences of these courts. 
 
 APPENZELL (from AWxUia Oetto), a canton 
 in the north-east <>f Switzerland. Area, 1S2 square 
 miles. Pop. (ls;oi i;i >.<;:;:>. It is divided into two 
 districts — Inuerrhoden and Ausserrhoden, the for- 
 mer of which is peopled by Protestants, the latter by 
 Koman Catholics, and noted for its dense population. 
 The surface is mountainous, especially in the south, 
 where Mont Sen tis attains an elevation of S232 feet. 
 The chief river is the Bittern, which flows through 
 the centre of the canton. A. holds the 13th place in 
 the Swiss confederacy, and furnishes 972 soldiers to 
 the national army. The inhabitants arc chiefly 
 employed in agriculture, cattle-keeping, cotton 
 manufacture -. and i m broidery. They are fond of 
 1 1 g, music, and athletic exercises, and have the 
 reputatii i being first-rate marksmen. 
 
 Appenzell, the capital of the canton of the same 
 name, is situated on the left bank of the Sittern, in 
 lat 47° 29" N., and long. 9° 24' E. Pop. 3686. The 
 town is ill built, and has only a small trade in 
 linens. The other towns are xrogen (with a pop. 
 of 2912, and manufactures of linen and muslin), 
 Herisan, &c. 
 
 APPERLEY, Charles James, the 'Nimrod' of 
 the Qui ■ to, is a writer who deserves men- 
 
 tion, if not from the intrinsic importance of the 
 subjects on which he exercised his pen, at least from 
 the perfection he attained in the department to 
 which he confined himself. He was the son of a 
 Welsh country gentleman, and was born in Denbigh- 
 shire in 1777. His education at Rugby stimulated 
 his love of field-sports more than his love of the 
 classics. At the age of 24. he married, and want to 
 reside at Hilton Hall, in Warwickshire, whei 
 devoted his energies as exclusively to the cha 
 as the great Nimrod himself could have done. He 
 hunted everywhere in Great Britain. In 1821, he 
 began to contribute to the Sporting Magazine. His 
 clever, gossiping articles were so much relished, 
 that in two years that periodical doubled its circu- 
 lation. The proprietor, Mr Pittman, was of course 
 highly gratified. He remunerated Mr A. hand- 
 somely, kept a stud of hunters for him, and paid 
 the expenses of his sporting tours ; but ' Nimrod ' 
 seems to have been of rather expensive habits, and 
 to have occasionally required an advance of money 
 from his employer. When Mr Pittman died, his 
 relatives entered into a lawsuit with the 'mighty 
 hunter,' for the recovery of tliis money. Nimrod, 
 however, prudently transferred himself to France, 
 where he chiefly resided during the rest of his life. 
 He died on the 19th of May 1843. His best writ- 
 ings are The C/iase, tlte Turf, and Oie Jload, which 
 appeared in the Quarterly Review (1827). 
 
 APPERT, Ben.iamin Nicolas Marie, a French 
 philanthropist, was bom in Paris, September 10, 
 1797. He began his course in 1S1G by introducing 
 into several schools a system of mutual instruction, 
 and, in 1820, founded and conducted gratuitously a 
 MM 
 
 school for the prisoners at Montaigu. Being SUB- 
 i of having aided the escape of tw< 
 
 U nonfilled in the prison of La Force, 
 
 he made good use of his opportunities of 
 
 becoming acquainted with the moral and physical 
 
 circumstances of prisoners. After his liberation, he 
 
 prosecuted his benevolent plans with renewed zeal, 
 
 and undertook a journey through the whole of 
 
 France, in 1825, to inspect schools, prisons, hospitals, 
 
 Jto, The results were given in his Journal After 
 
 the July revolution, he was employed by Louis 
 
 Philippe to superintend the measures taken for the 
 
 relief of the indigent classes. In his travels, he 
 
 visited Belgium, Prussia, Austria, Saxony, and 
 
 Bavaria, and gave the results of his observations on 
 
 tnagement of schools, hospitals, prisons, &c, 
 
 in several works. He also wrote a work entitled 
 
 : , la i 'our dv Boi Louit 1 and, in 
 
 his Conferences contre le Systime & rongly 
 
 d the system of solitary confinement. Though 
 
 one-sided in some of his views, A. is a sincere, 
 
 warm-hearted, and practical philanthropist. 
 
 APPERT, FRANCOIS, a French technologist, the 
 inventor of a method of preserving meat, vegct 
 and other articles of food without the use of salt 
 or other chemical application. This method is fully 
 described in his work L'Art de Conserver tovl>* let 
 Anvmaletet Vegetates (4th edition, Paris, 
 1S31). Si e ANHSKPTIC. 
 
 A'PPETITE. See Hunger and Thirst. 
 
 APPIA'NI, Andrea, styled in his day 'the 
 Painter of the Graces,' was born at Milan, May 2.'(, 
 1754. His poverty compelled him to gain a sul 
 ence by decorative painting ; but in the course of his 
 travels, he studied the works of great masters, and 
 formed for himself an original style, almost rivalling 
 that of Correggio. At Rome, he devoted his attenl ion 
 to the frescoes of Raphael, and made such progress, 
 that he soon excelled all living artists in ti 
 painting. The best evidences of his genius are 
 found in the cupola of the church of Sta. Maria di 
 ?, ' I o at Milan; and ill the frescoes with which 
 he decorated the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand 
 in 1795. Napoleon I. appointed him court-painter. 
 In return, he executed portraits of the French 
 emperor and several of his generals. His most 
 beautiful frescoes are the paintings on the ceilings of 
 the palace of Milan, which consist of allegorical 
 illustrations of Napoleon's career; and Apollo with 
 thi Muses in the Villa Bonaparte. Almost all the 
 palaces in Italy contain frescoes by A. His fini t 
 oil-painting is Rinaldo in the garden of Armida. 
 The fall of his patron, Napoleon 1., left A. in 
 indigent circumstances. He died November 8, 1S17. 
 
 APPIA'NUS, a native of Alexandria, who 
 flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and 
 Antoninus Pius. He was author of a Roman history, 
 in twenty-four books, of which only eleven are extant. 
 It was not remarkable for anything except the plan 
 on which it was written. Instead of proceeding to 
 exhibit chronologically the growth of the empire, 
 from its rude beginning on the Palatine Hill, to the 
 period when its power held the whole world in awe, 
 which is at once the popular and the philoi 
 method, he divided his work into ethnographic 
 sections, recording separately the history of each 
 nation up to the time of its conquest by the Romans. 
 First in order were the books devoted to the old 
 Italian tribes, and afterwards followed the history of 
 Sicily, Spain, Hannibal's wars, Libya, Carthage, and 
 Numidia, Macedonia. Greece Proper and its colonies, 
 Syria, Parthia, the Mithridatic war, the civil wars, 
 and the imperial wars in Illyria and Arabia. As a 
 historian, A. is a mere compder, and not very accu- 
 rate in his compilation. His geographical knowledge,
 
 APPIAN WAY— APPLE. 
 
 in particular, is singularly deficient, considering, 
 the age in which he lived. One specimen of his 
 blunders will suffice : in his section on Spain, lie 
 states that it takes only half a day to sail from .Spain 
 to Britain. 
 
 The best edition of A. is that of Schweighaiiser, 
 Leipsic, 1785, in 3 vols. 
 
 A'PPIAX WAY (Lat. Via Appia), well named 
 by an ancient writer Regina Viarum (the queen of 
 roads), was formed, in part at least, by Appius 
 Claudius Caucus, while he was censor (313 B.C.). 
 It is the oldest and most celebrated of all the 
 Roman roads. It led from the Porta Capena at Rome 
 in a southerly direction to Capua, passing i' 
 Three Taverns, Appii Forum, Terracina, &c. Sub- 
 sequently, it was carried on to Beneventum, Taren- 
 tum, and thence to Brundusinm. It had an admir- 
 ibstructure or foundation, from which all the 
 loose sod had been carefully removed. Above this 
 were various strata cemented with lime; and, lastly, 
 came the pavement, consisting of large hard hexa- 
 gonal blocks of stone, composed principally of 
 basaltic lava, and jointed together with great nicety, 
 so as to appear one smooth mass. The remains of it 
 are still visible, especially at Terracina. The cost 
 must have been enormous, for the natural obstruc- 
 tions are great. Bocks had to be cut through, 
 valleys filled up, ravines bridged, and swamps 
 embanked. 
 
 A'PPIUS CLAU'DItXS CEASSUS, a Roman 
 decemvir (451—449 b. a). While the other decemviri 
 were engaged in repelling an incursion made by the 
 Si i bines, A. C. and his colleague Oppius remained 
 in 1 tome, with two legions to maintain their authority. 
 Meanwhile, A. C. had been smitten by the beauty 
 of Virginia, daughter of a respected plebeian named 
 Lucius Virginias, who was abroad with the army. 
 By force and stratagem, representing that she was 
 the born slave of Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, 
 A. C. gained possession of the maid. His design was 
 penetrated by Icilius, who was betrothed to Virginia, 
 and who, aided by Numitorius, her uncle, threatened 
 ,o an insurrection against the decemviri. 
 Virginias, hurriedly recalled from the army by his 
 friends, appeared and claimed his daughter; but, 
 after another mock-trial, she was again adjudged to 
 be the property of Marcus Claudius. To save his 
 daughter from dishonour, the unhappy father seized 
 a knife and slew her. The popular indignation 
 excited by the case was headed by the senators 
 Valerius and Horatius, who hated the decemvirate. 
 The army returned to Koine with Virginius, who 
 had carried the news to them, and the decemviri 
 were deposed. A. 0. died in prison by his own 
 hand (as Livy states), or was strangled by order of 
 tlie tribunes ; his colleague, Oppius, committed 
 suicide ; and Marcus Claudius was banished. The 
 Claudia Gens (see Gexs) was one of the most 
 numerous and important of the patrician tribes or 
 clans of Rome ; and besides the sons and grandsons 
 of the decemvir, , there were numerous persons of 
 distinction who bore the name of Appius. 
 
 A' PPLB [Pyrin main,'!. For the generic character, 
 see Pvnus). This well-known fruit has been very 
 lltiva ed, and by that means it has been very 
 improved. It was extensively colt 
 by the Romans, by whom, probably, it was intro- 
 duced into Britain. The wild A., or Ci:AH-tree. 
 a native of Britain, and very generally found in 
 rate climates of the northern hemisphere, is a 
 rather small and often somewhat stunted-looking tree, 
 with austere, uneatable fruit, yet it is the parent of 
 all. or almost all the varieties of apple so mu< 1 1 
 for the dessert The A. -tree, even in a cultivated 
 state, is seldom more than 30—40 feet high. It has 
 
 a large round head ; the leaves are broadly ovate, 
 much longer than the- petioles, woolly beneath, 
 acute, crenate, and provided with glands ; its flowers 
 are always produced, 3— C together, in sessile umbels, 
 and are large, white, rose-coloured externally, and 
 fragrant. The fruit is roundish, or narrowest towards 
 the apex, with a depression at each end, generally 
 green, bat also frequently yellow, light red, dark 
 red, streaked, sometimes even almost black, with 
 the rind sometimes downy, sometimes glabrous, 
 sometimes thickish, and sometimes very thin and 
 transparent, varying in size from that of a walnut to 
 that of a small child's head — the taste more or less 
 aromatic, sweet, or subacid. It is produced on spurs, 
 which spring from branchlets of two or more years 
 l r >wt h, and continue to bear for a series of years. The 
 fruit of the A. is, with regard to its structure, styled 
 by botanists 3,pome (q. v.). The eatable part is what is 
 botanically termed the mesocarp (see I'ki ii), which, 
 in its first development, enlarges with the calyx, the 
 summit of the fruit being crowned at last by the 
 dried 5-partcd limb of the calyx ; the i udocarp being, 
 when ripe, cartilaginous, and containing in its cells 
 hick do not correspond with them in size, but 
 are so free as often to rattle when it is shaken. 
 
 The A. is now one of the most widely diffused of 
 fruit-trees, and in the estimation of many, is the 
 most valuable of alL It succeeds best in the colder 
 parts of the temperate zone. It is, however, to be 
 met with on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, in 
 Arabia, Persia, the West Indies, &c., but there it^ 
 fruit is as small and worthless as in high northern 
 latitudes. The varieties in cultivation are extremely 
 numerous. They have been classified with great care 
 by recent German writers, by whom the classifica- 
 tion and description of apples, pears, and similar fruits, 
 has been treated as a sort of science, and dignified 
 by the name of Pomology. Metzger, in his descrip- 
 tion of the pomaceous fruits of Southern Germany, 
 describes 89 different kinds of A., all of which are 
 constant, besides sub-varieties. New varieties are 
 continually produced ; and as they are chielly 
 preserved and propagated by grafting — although 
 
 Apple-blossom. 
 
 some of them also grow by layers and cuttings— the 
 
 iually die out. The costanl, from which 
 
 red the n ostard- 
 
 mongers, is no longer known. Many varieties are 
 
 it id by the 
 (Wliins, and I Sams kinds, not ap] 
 
 for the dessert, are in 1 
 and others still more acid or austere ■ 
 manufacture 
 The A. is grown in Britain either as a standard,
 
 APrLE OF SODOM— APPOINTMENT. 
 
 an espalier, or a wall-tree, and id variously I 
 It i> i ifted on A. or arab-stocks, but 
 
 tiawthorn-stoi ks, and is in this way 
 I into hed ! . dwarf 
 
 I . called the /' 
 
 :. (in which to graft in order to produce dwarf- 
 , and trees thus dwarfed are often very i 
 tive when little larger than currant or go. 
 bushes. Some of the varieties of ■ 
 than others, and are therefore to 1 
 cold or exposed situations. Some of the finest kinds 
 succeed well only when the soil and climate are 
 good. Si.nn 1 kinds are much earlier than others, 
 both in flowering and ripening. 
 
 Thew I of the v bard, durable, and fine- 
 grained. The crab is often planted both as an orna- 
 mental tree and for the sake of its w I. The bark 
 
 ■is a yellow dye. As a fruit-tree, the A. 
 requires a fertile S"il and sheltered situation. The 
 various uses of the fruit — for the dessert, for b 
 preserving, making jelly, Ac., as well as for making 
 
 the fermented liquor called eider -are sufficiently 
 
 well known. Vinegar is also made from it ; and 
 sometimes a kind of spirit, especially in Switzerland 
 -w.abia. It contains ' : ; ■'. which is 
 
 extracted for medicinal purposes.— The fermented 
 juice of the ('rah A. is called Verjuice. It i- used 
 m cookery, and sometimes medicinally ; also for th 
 purifying of wax Apples are an important article 
 immense, Great quantities are imported into 
 Britain, chiefly from France, Canada, and the 
 northern parts of the United States. Tic A 
 better than most kinds of fruit. 
 
 B or Biffins are apples slowly dried in 
 
 ;' uveas, and occasionally pressed till they 
 become soft and flat. They are prepared in great 
 in Norfolk. 
 
 The Siberian Cit.vn is perhaps the parent, by 
 hybridisation or otherwise, of some of thi 
 A. now in cultivation. Two species partake this 
 nation, both natives i ria, and frequent 
 
 in gardens in Britain, Pyru of Linnasus, 
 
 anl Pyrua of Willdenow, which, however, 
 
 scarcely differ, except that in the former the sepals 
 i of the calyx) are di a the latter 
 
 they are persistent — a circumstance of very dot 
 importance as a specific distinction. The fruit is 
 sub-globose, yellowish, and rather austere, but is good 
 for baking and for preserves. 
 
 The Americas Crab or Sweet-scented Crab 
 (P. coronaria) is a native of North A pecially 
 
 of the southern part of the Alleghanies. it is a 
 small tree with hie, id leavi and white flowers, 
 becoming purple before they drop off, and 
 have a powerful am 'I. rei imbling that of I 
 The fruit is flatly orbicular, of a deep green colour, 
 and sweet scented. It is vi d I made 
 
 into eider, and also into preserves. /'. on i- ' folia, a 
 native of Carolina, much resembles this, but lias 
 much narrower laves and smaller fruit. 
 
 The Chinese Crab (P. «p i small tree, 
 
 a native of China. It is very ornamental when iii 
 Hewer; the flowers being in si - -silc, maoy-th >\\ vr. d 
 1 of a bright rose-colour. The fruit is 
 irregularly round, about the size of a cherry, yellow, 
 and lit to be eaten, like the medlar, only when in a 
 state of incipient decay. 
 
 A'PPLE OF SODOM. See SOLANUM. 
 
 A PPLEBEEEY. See Billabmera. 
 
 a PPLEBY, the county town of Westmoreland, 
 
 lies in lat r,i: .':.V N., long. - J J 2ff V7. It is in the 
 north of the county, on the river Eden, which flows 
 past I Solway Firth. A. has two 
 
 parishes, one on each side of the river, which is here 
 
 d by an old stone bridge of two arches. There 
 
 - 
 
 i in 1 ■ i i, the keep of which, called 
 
 , Tower, is still i ' nditioil. The 
 
 Lent and summer held at A. I • ■ 
 
 .i] the Reform Bill, it returned two mi mbers 
 to parliament. It was then disfranchised, though it 
 still po I'd corporation. Pop. 1989. 
 
 \ TI'U'.ToN.atown of Wisconsin, in the United 
 , j ,,i' notice chiefly fron 
 
 :ite of the FOX EiVI :. 
 
 i Grande Chute, from winch the town some- 
 
 i'". . i -i.i inn water-] - 
 
 and at the same t renders the 
 
 stream navigable for steam-bo whole 
 
 mi v huh. v. ith th ! .-ml oi a canal 
 between the Fox on the north, and the 
 to the south, is carried all the way from I 
 Michigan to tin- Missi sippL 
 
 M'l'OClAI'I'TlA, an Italian musical term, 
 il . gating a form of embellishment by insertion of 
 notes of passage in a melody. The A. notes are 
 printed in a smaller character than the lea.hn 
 of the melody, and should always lie given with 
 considerable expression. When they are i b 
 is. d by a performer or singer, tiny nave as an 
 
 indication oi g 1 or of had taste, 'lie- tune ,,f ;m a. 
 
 is taken from the essential note to which it belongs, 
 as in the following example : 
 ttten. 
 
 S» 
 
 Daycd. 
 
 A P ; '» * 
 
 #§©! 
 
 W 
 
 For Appocia'to, see Portamento. 
 APPOINTMENT. In the law. if England, there 
 intently reserved in common law conveyi 
 I on a consideration, and in family settle- 
 ments, certain powers, as they arc called, such as 
 of jointuring, selling, charging land with the 
 
 payment of l \ -. and the sub; ipieut exercise of 
 
 th. power is culled an A. This A. — which may he 
 
 in ile either by deed or l.y will — is not considered as 
 
 an independent conveyance, but is merely ancillary 
 
 to the deed or instrument in which the power of A. 
 
 rvc.l, and from which the party in whose 
 
 favour the A. is made for most purposes derives Ilia 
 
 title. The Courts of Equity i against a 
 
 defective A., or defective execution of a power, \* here 
 
 lied a ' meritorious consideration ' 
 
 in the person applying for such relief. As to 
 
 amounts to such meritorious consideration, Lord 
 
 . hi his work on Powers, lays down that 
 
 Equity will relieve the following parties: 1. A 
 
 purchaser, including in such term a mortgagee and 
 
 lessee; 'J. A creditor; ,'i. A wife; 4. A legitimate 
 
 child ; and 5. A charity. Put in the ease of a 
 
 defective A. l.y a wife in favour of her husband, 
 
 is no relief in Equity; n..r is the Equity 
 
 extended to a natural child; nor to a grandchild; 
 
 nor to a father or mother, or brother or i 
 
 of the whole blood, much less of the half-blood ; nor 
 
 to a nephew or cousin. Against the legal conse- 
 
 of an \.. tin Courts of Equity give no aid. 
 
 In the Scotch law, the expressions re* 
 
 and faculty to burden correspond to the English 
 
 ' power of A. ;' and the deed or instrument 
 
 subsequently executed in virtue of the r. 
 
 power, is simply described according t" the nature 
 
 and ipiality of the conveyance so made ; but the 
 
 term A, is not a technical word in Scotland.
 
 APPOINTMENTS— APrBEHTCXI). 
 
 APPOINTMENTS. The 'A.' of a ship are, 
 collectively, all her various articli a of equipment and 
 
 furniture. In like manner, the 'A.' of a soldier, 
 especially a trn p rise many miscellaneous 
 
 necessaries which can come collectively under no 
 other name, but which, in part, will be found noticed 
 under later headings. See Equifmbht, Kit, Knap- 
 sack. 
 
 APPORTIONMENT is a 1 J tens d 
 
 from the .'i and 4 Will. IV. c. 22, called the 
 
 Apportionment Act, which has given rise to much 
 
 ion in England and Scotland, and the prin- 
 
 of which may be stated to be thie -that in the 
 event of the termination of a life-interest by death, 
 or of a more limited interest at a fixed period, the 
 current rent or income shall be apportioned or paid 
 over in such a way as to give the personal repre- 
 sentatives of the party, or the party himself, as the 
 case may be, a sum corresponding to the period that 
 i between the last date of payment 
 and the death or other determination of the interest 
 te. But the act has no application to annual 
 Bums payable by any policy of assurance, nor to any 
 case in which a stipulation has been made that no 
 A. shall take place. 
 
 This act was not on to apply to Scot- 
 
 laud till the year 18-14, when it was decided by 
 the Court of Session that it did so apply, and the 
 judgment was afterwards affirmed by the House of 
 Lords. But, in consequence of the act being ex- 
 pressed exclusively in the technical phraseology of 
 the law of England, it has given much trouble and 
 diflieidty to the Scotch court3 and Scotch lawyers, 
 whose system of conveyancing, and of real property 
 
 i ral, is alb>_ erent from the English. 
 
 In the case referred to in the Court of Session, Lord 
 Jeffrey, who was one of the judges, stated that 
 he was Lord Advocate at the time the act was 
 
 I, but he had no knowledge of its passing. 
 See an able article on this subject in the Journal of 
 Juruprudt ■'■'• (Scotch) for 1857, voL i. p. 2:>. 
 
 In English law, A. also takes place where the 
 tenant, under a lease, has been deprived of part 
 of the land out of which the rent issues, by a person 
 
 : a better title than that of the lessor, or 
 proprietor, or where part of the rent has been 
 surrendered by the tenant to the lessor, or where 
 -posed of the reversion as to part. 
 But where the tenant has been wrongfully deprived 
 by the act of the landlord himself, even of a part of 
 the premises, there can be no A., but the whole rent 
 will be suspended so long as such a state of things 
 continues. 
 
 A. also obtains in the case of a conveyance of 
 land t-i which the common of pasture is an appurte- 
 nance, the party getting the land being entitled to 
 a proportionate use of the common. 
 
 APPOSITION, a term in Grammar signifying the 
 
 annexing of one substantive to another, in tie 
 case or relation, in order to explain or limit the first ; 
 as, M m; Thomas the l: 
 
 Whole sentences or clauses admit of A.: thus, 
 ' Napoli on sought the way to India through Russia, 
 a stroke of genius.' Sometimes a connecting word 
 i used where logical propriety would require A.; 
 as, the • r the city London. 
 
 APPRAISERS am. APPB tf'SEMENT. An 
 appraisi t is a person employed to value property, 
 but he must be Licensed for the office. Formerly, 
 
 und.r the 55 Geo. III. c. 1S4. this annual license- 
 cost only lth-'. ; but by the S and 9 Vict c. "G, s. 1, 
 on the preamble that it is expedient to increase this 
 
 duty, the provision of the .V, QeO, 111. is ; 
 
 and a duty of A'2 substituted for the 10*. Such a 
 
 license must now be taken out yearly by every 
 
 person, except a licensed auctioneer, who shall 
 exercise the occupation of an appraiser, or who, for 
 in, fee, or reward, shall make any appraise- 
 ment or valuation chargeable by law with any 
 stamp-duty (see I 2d ed, 
 
 p. 65). 
 
 _ By an old English statute, passed in I 
 Edward 1., appraisers are enjoined to put a i 
 able price upon goods; and if they a ppraise them too 
 high, they are obliged to take them at their own 
 valuation, and to be answerable accordingly to the 
 creditor for his debt. 
 
 Appraisement, generally, is the act of valuation 
 made by the appraiser; but in legal application 
 land, this term is used to signify a valuation 
 of goods taken under a distress for i 
 appraisers, who are sworn by the sheritl', under- 
 sheriff, or constable, to value the goods truly, accord- 
 ing to the best of their skill ; and after such 
 appraisement, the goods may be sold at tin 
 price that can be procured. 
 
 The duties chargeable on appraisements are as 
 follow: Where the amount of such appraisement or 
 valuation shall not exceed £50, the duty to 1 * 2 ■. 6d ; 
 and where it shall exceed 
 
 £50, and not exceed £100, £0 5 
 100, .. » 200, n in o 
 
 200, . , 500, 15 it 
 
 500, 1 o ii 
 
 The exemptions from such duties arc appraisements 
 or valuations made in pursuance of the order of any 
 Court of Admiralty or Vice-admiral ty. or of any Court 
 of Appeal from any sentence, adjudication, or judg- 
 ment of any Court of Admiralty or Via 
 and appraisements or valuations of any pro 
 made for the purpose of ascertaining the 1 
 duty payable in respect thereof. 
 
 The corresponding proceeding in Scotland is known 
 under the term appreciation, which has I 
 as the valuing of poinded or distrait And 
 
 by the old Scotch law, these goods were valned twice 
 by different valuators — once in the house or on the 
 ground where the poinding took pi I cond 
 
 time at the market-cross of the local jurisdiction or 
 chief county town. But by the 54 Geo. 111. C. 137, 
 s. 4, one valuation iu the place where the goods are, 
 is declared in every case to be sufficient. 
 
 APPREHE'ND. To A., in criminal 
 to arrest or seize, in virtue of a warrant or 
 
 legal authority, an offender taken in the act, or who 
 is suspected. Arrest or apprehension by i 
 without warrant may be I by the foil' 
 
 persons: 1. By a justice of the peace, who 
 himself A., OX cause to be apprehended, by word 
 oidy, any person committing a felony or breai 
 the peace in his pi ; -'• The shi I 
 
 coroner; 4. The constable ; 5. By the Larcenj 
 (24 and 25 Viet, c 90), and by the 24 and 25 
 c. 97, called the Malicious Injuries Act, a \ 
 committing any offence under tl pt that 
 
 of angling iu the daytime, may imm 
 apprehended without written warrant. Watchmen 
 — either those appointed by the .statute of Win- 
 chester (13 Edw. I watch and 
 on all towns from sunsetting 
 
 were mere assistants to the it, in 
 
 virtue of then- office, arrest all offenders, and par- 
 ticularly night-walkers, and commit them 
 till the morning; but not so oow. 
 
 Any private person, and, a fortiori, & p 
 that is pre-, nt when any t mmitted, is 
 
 bound by the law to arrest the felon, on pain of fine 
 and imprisonment, if he is negligently permit; 
 escape ; and by 24 and 23 \ ict c 95, tie 
 apprehend any person found committing any a
 
 ATTOEITKKD. 
 
 i the provisions o ■ ■ , or any indict - 
 
 offence by night; that is, between nine in the 
 
 evening and six mi the morning of the next day. 
 They may also, in the i i munittinga 
 
 i justify breaking open d I 
 
 in pursuit oi him. [7] probable Buapioion, how 
 
 . being a private person, may arrest the 
 t other p-raon so suspected. And there is 
 tin- distinction Detween the oase 
 
 that of a private person — that the former is 
 protected, though it should turn out that i>" such 
 
 i as supp Ihasl a in fast committed by any 
 
 providing he had reasonable ground for Bus- 
 tle party arrested ; but the latter acts more 
 at his peril, and is not protected unless he can prove 
 an actual commission i 
 
 well as a reasonable ground for arresting the par- 
 ticular person. It is also to be observed that a 
 private person cannot, on mere suspicion, justify 
 in- akin- open doors, which a constable, though net- 
 ing without a warrant, do. Within 
 
 the metropolitan police district, a constable may take 
 host warrant, all persons whom he 
 may find, between sunset and the hoar of eight in 
 
 lorning, loitering or lying about, and unable to 
 give a Batiafaoti iry account of themselves ; or persons 
 charged with aggravated assaults; or pet cms i 
 
 rainst the metropolitan police acts, 
 address cannot be ascertained. .See 2 and 3 Vict. c. 
 47, ss. 36, 64, 65. 
 
 The Scotch law, with n rd (he apprehension 
 of criminals, is substantially the same as the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 By the si ed in 45 Geo. III. c. 92, and 
 
 the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 42, facilities are afforded for 
 the apprehension of criminals in England, Ireland, or 
 Scotland, under warrants issuing from the respective 
 authorities of the three countries, no further for- 
 mality being necessary in the case of English and 
 Irish warrants to be executed in Scotland, and vice 
 versd, than that they should be endorsed by a judge 
 of the territory where they arc to be enforced. And 
 by the (i and 7 Vict. c. 34, provisions are made for 
 tie' apprehension, in the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, of persons committing treason 
 and felony in Her Majesty's dominions out of the 
 United Kingdom, and vice versd, for the apprehen- 
 sion in such dominions of persons offend 
 1 iid. Ireland, or Scotland. By section 3, offenders 
 iii\ be committed to gaol until they can be sent 
 back to the place where the offence was committed ; 
 and information of the committal, in writing, under 
 nd of the committing magistrate, accompanied 
 by a copy of the warrant i ed to be given, in 
 
 Great Britain, to one of Her Maji iy's principal 
 secretaries of state, and in Ireland, to the chief secre- 
 tary of the lord-lieutenant ; and in any other part of 
 Her Majesty's dominions, to the governor or acting 
 
 nor. By section 10, the important enactment 
 
 ide, that it shall not be lawful to endorse any 
 warrant for the apprehension of an offender under 
 the act, unless it shall appear upon the face of such 
 warrant itself, that the offence is such, that if com- 
 mitted within that part of Her Majesty's dominions 
 where the warrant is endorsed, it would have 
 
 mtedin law to treason, or some felony such as 
 9 of the peace in general or quarter 
 
 ns iii England have not authority to try, under 
 its — by which the jurisdiction of 
 
 '1 and quarter sessions is defined— -or unless 
 tons taken appear sufficient to warrant 
 committal for trial. The effect of this enactment is, 
 that the offences for which criminals may be appre- 
 I. under the G and 7 Vict. c. 34, are as follow : 
 Any treason, murder, or capital felony ; or any 
 felony which, when committed by a person not 
 
 previously convicted of felony, is punishable by 
 i tation for life, or for any of the follow ing 
 sea: 
 I. Misprision of treason. 2. Offences against tho 
 ' i'i title, prerogative, person, or government, or 
 
 either house of parliament. 3. Offences sub- 
 ject to the penalties of pnemunirc. 4. Blasphemy, 
 
 and offences again i i le ion. •">. Administering or 
 taking unlawful oaths, ti. Perjury and subornation 
 of perjury. 7- Making or suborning any other per- 
 Bon to make a false oath, affirmation, or declaration, 
 
 punish i [jury or as a misdemeanour. 8. 
 
 9. Unlawfully and maliciously setting 
 lire to crops of corn, grain, or pulse, or to any part 
 of a wood, coppice, or plantation of trees, or to any 
 heath, gone, furze, or fern. lit. Bigamy, and off 
 
 the laws relating to marriage. 11. Abduc- 
 tion of women and girls. 12. Endeavouring to con- 
 ceal the birth of a child. 13. Offences against any 
 provision of the laws relating to bankrupts and 
 
 insolvents. 1' i' p" ■ *>", | 1iug, or pubh 
 
 blasphemous, seditious, or defamatory libels. 16. 
 Bribery. 16. Unlawful combinations and couspira- 
 
 ezcept conspiracies or combinations to commit 
 any offence which justices or recorder respectively 
 have or has jurisdiction to try when committed by 
 i -on. 17. Stealing, or fraudulently taking, or 
 injuring or d records or documents belong- 
 
 ing to any court of law or equity, or relating to 
 proceeding therein. 18. Stealing or fraudulently 
 destroying or concealing wills or testamentary 
 papers, or any document or written instrument 
 being or containing evidence of the title to any 
 t ate, or any interest in lands, tenements, or 
 
 litaments, 
 In 1S43, and next, in 1S70, a statute of 33 and 34 
 Vict. c. 52, was passed, by which provisions are made 
 for carrying into effect a convention entered into 
 between the British and foreign governments 1 1 - 
 minable at pleasure), for the apprehension of offen- 
 ders in the two countries respectively in cases of 
 murdi r,forgery, robbery, rape, larceny, embetzl 
 obtaining money by false pretences, burglar)/, ail 
 bankruptcy Crimea : frauds hij Imub m, factors, trus- 
 tees, directors; abduction, child-stealing, ar 
 sinking and destroying vessels at sea, &c. This act 
 gets rid of the former practice of passing a sepa- 
 rate act to regulate the extradition of criminals 
 between Great Britain and each country, as nearly 
 all civilised countries have now entered into this 
 kind of confederacy. There is an exception made 
 in favour of fugitive criminals whose surrender is 
 demanded on the ground of offences of a political 
 character; and the condition of surrender always 
 is, that, when taken back to his own country, he 
 shall not be tried for political offences. 
 
 The law encourages the apprehension of offenders 
 by parties who simply act from a feeling of duty to 
 assist justice. By the 7 Geo. IV. c. 64, s. 23 
 (amended and extended by the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 
 55), it is provided that when any person shall 
 appear to any court of oyer and terminer, gaol 
 ry, superior criminal court of a county pala- 
 tine, or any court3 of sessions of the peace, to have 
 been active in or towards the apprehension of any 
 person charged with the various crimes contemplated 
 by these statutes, every such court Is authorised to 
 order the sheriff of the county to pay to the person 
 or persons who shall appear to the court to have 
 
 i active in or towards fee apprehension of any 
 person charged with any of the said offences, such 
 sum of money as to the court shall seem reason- 
 able and sufficient to compensate such person or 
 persons for his, her, or their expenses, exertions, and 
 loss of time, in or towards such apprehension ; but 
 this power is to be exercised subject to such
 
 APPREHEND— APPRENTICE. 
 
 regulations, as to the rate of allowance, as shall be made 
 from time to time by a principal secretary of state. 
 Provision is also mailc by the- above static 
 usation to the families of those who lot 
 lives in attempting to A. persons charged with 
 criminal offences ; but by the latter of these (14 and 
 IS Vict. c. 55, s. 7), this is not to interfere with the 
 power of the criminal court to order payment to 
 any person who .shall have shewn extraordinary 
 courage, diligence, or exertion, in the apprehension. 
 
 It only remains to be added, that any wilful 
 obstruction of a lawful arrest or apprehe nsion is 
 esteemed an offence of a very aggravated nature. 
 The modern enactments on this subject will be 
 found in tli passed in 18G1 to amend the 
 
 law of England and Ireland as to offences against 
 the person, 24 and 2."> Vict. c. 100, by which 
 statute it is provided that whi re any person shall 
 be convicted of any assault upon any peace-officer, 
 or revenue-oliiccr, in the due execution of his duty, 
 or upon any person acting in aid of such officer, 
 or of any assault upon any person, with intent 
 to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension or 
 detainer of the person so assaulting, or of any other 
 in, for any offence for which he or they may 
 be liable by law to be apprehended or detained; 
 Buch assault shall be a misdemeanour, punishable 
 with line, or by imprisonment, with or without hard 
 labour, for any term not exceeding two years. By 
 the before-mentioned statute it is enacted that who- 
 soever snail unlawfully and maliciously shoot at any 
 person, or shall, by drawing a trigger, or in any 
 other manner, attempt to discharge any kind of 
 loaded arms at any person, or shall stab, cut, or 
 wound any person ; with intent, in any of such cases, 
 to resist or prevent the law-ful apprehension or 
 detainer of any person ; shall be guilty of felony, and 
 be punishable with penal servitude for life, or not 
 less than three years, or with imprisonment, with 
 or without hard labour and solitary confinement, 
 for not more than two years. And by the 14 and 
 15 Vict. c. 19, s. 12, passed for the prevention of 
 offences at night, any one assaulting a person 
 entitled to A. or detain him, shall be guilty of a 
 misdemeanour, and on conviction, imprisoned, with 
 or without hard labour, for any term not exceeding 
 three years. 
 
 The same subject is treated in Scotch law- 
 books under the head of Deforcement, which Sir 
 Archibald Alison, in his work on the Criminal Law 
 of Scotland (vol. i. p. 491), says, 'consists in the 
 nice to the officers of justice in the execution 
 of their duty.' It is essential to such deforcement 
 that it should be such as to defeat the warrant or 
 other process which authorises the apprehension. 
 Mere unsuccessful attempts with this view are 
 d under the name of resisting and dbth 
 ticen "f the fats in the execution of their duty. 
 LBE LS r ok ArruF.ni. 
 
 APPRENTICE is a person described in law- 
 books as a species of servant, and called A. from 
 French verb apprendrt, to learn, because he is 
 bound by indenture to serve a master for a certain 
 t> i in, receiving in return for his BO b action 
 
 in, or learning his master's profession, art, or I 
 the master, upon the other hand, contracting to 
 instruct the A., and according to the nature of the 
 Blent, to provide food and clothing for the A., 
 and to pay him small wages. Sometimes a premium 
 is paid by the A., or on his behalf, to the master. 
 By a provision of the 5 Eliz. c. 4, which remained in 
 force until a recent pi riod, itwas in general r 
 that every person exercising a trade in England 
 should have previously served as A. to it [or 
 years ; but by 54 Geo. III. c. 90. that provision 
 was abolished, with a saving of the customs and 
 
 by-laws in London and other corporations ; and the 
 term of apprenticeship is now determined by the 
 mutual convenience of the contracting partus. By 
 the municipal act, 5 and Will. IV. c. 7G, 8. 14 
 (which does not, however, extend to London), all 
 such customs and by-laws as had the- effect of pro- 
 hibiting trades and occupations to persons who had 
 not served as aj>prentices, were also done away. 
 Apprentices, in general, are bound out by their 
 friends, though with their own consent, tettnSi d by 
 their executing the indentures, without whi' 
 transaction is not binding. To the same effect it is 
 the rule of the Scotch law that although a pupil — 
 that is, a boy under 14, or a girl under 12 years of 
 age — may be a party to an indenture a an A., yet lie 
 must have the concurrence of a parent or guardian, 
 who alone can be liable to the master for the 
 A.'s non-performance of the engagement. An A., on 
 the other hand, who has passed the years of pupil- 
 arity, may effectually enter into an indenture by 
 which he will be personally bound. It has been 
 decided in England that the express assent of an 
 infant A. to the indentures is essential to the con- 
 tract ; and therefore indentures of apprenticeship 
 which had been executed by a father and master, 
 but not by the A. himself, were held invalid. But 
 an infant may bind himself A., because it is for his 
 benefit ; for the same reason, however, he cannot. 
 himself dissolve the contract. When an A. is bound 
 to two partners, on the death of one of them he 
 becomes the A. of the other. 
 
 There is a class who are bound out by the 
 guardians of the poor, and are called parish appren- 
 tices, whose binding takes place under dit 
 circumstances. For the children of poor persons 
 might formerly, even without becoming parties to 
 the indentures, be apprenticed out by the overseers 
 with the consent of two justices (and may now by 
 the guardians, without such consent), till twenty-one 
 years of age, to such persons as are thought til 
 and these persons were formerly also compel!' 
 take them. But by 7 and S Vict. c. 101, s. 13, the 
 reception of any poor child as an A. is no longer 
 compulsory. A variety of statutes regulate the 
 manner in wliich parish apprentices are to be bound, 
 assigned, registered, and maintained ; a subject which 
 is besides now placed under the paramount c 
 the Poor-law Board, who have power to into 
 new rules, from time to time, as they may think lit ; 
 and provisions arc made by wliich the justices of the 
 peace are empowered to settle disputes between such 
 apprentices and their masters, and to di 
 former from their indentures, upon reasonable cause 
 shewn. Similar powers belong also to the ju 
 in the case of apprentices ii phen'a 
 
 Comw L ii. p. 210, fourth edition.) It has 
 
 been decided in England that a corporation cannot 
 make a by-law limiting the number of appit 
 which each member shall tak Buch a regu- 
 
 lation is deemed contrary to the laws of the land. 
 
 A mere agreement does not constitute an appran- 
 p ; there must be regular indentures formally 
 executed. By statute S Ann '.indentures 
 
 of apprenticeship in which the full sum or sums of 
 money receiv paid, secured, or contracted 
 
 for, are not truly inserted, arc void. But the act 
 does not apply to cases where the sum is inserted in 
 the indentures, though it is a less sum than that 
 which was originally agreed for, and the reduction 
 made to diminish the amount o*" the stamp-duty. 
 
 In the performance of the contract, a reasonable 
 and equitable view is taken of the relative | 
 of the parties. The master is not bound to the 
 literal and uniform instruction of the A. by ! 
 
 {lersonally, but under his own superintendence, and 
 ;.y bis own directions, he may avail himself of tho 
 
 ■U
 
 APPRISING— APPROPRIATION CLAUSES. 
 
 rnce of journi j men, or other persons son 
 ce of business, and even of other apprentices 
 the object of the agreement being (hat the A. 
 shall have the fall I 
 
 in practising his art, craft, or bade. 'I 
 r hand, although in the position 
 servant to much- extent, is not bound 
 such, bnt may rather be said to be placed under the 
 parental control of the master; and although the 
 master may correct the A.'s faults and d 
 by moJ. rat.- chastisement, he must not be vindictive 
 or cruel ; nor can he ill A. To tl. 
 
 under an unrepealed anacti 
 
 I complain to the 81 ions, who 
 decide whether the A. has merited h 
 
 ; tli- A., howi vi r. li..\ in ; a coi re ponding 
 privilege in the case of bis complainl aj am I hie 
 r. But, by the Scotch law, a i 
 b apj ... ■, e in i bi i le of his pi 
 'incorrigible.' By the en itom of the i ity of London, 
 nan may turn away his apprentice for g i 
 It was decided by the 1 I on an 
 
 appeal from Scotland in ls>."7, and reversing the 
 decision of the Court of Si nion, that a 
 
 indentures bound him 'not to absent himself 
 from his master's business, holiday or week-day, 
 late hours or early, without leave 6j t asked and 
 obtained,' could not be lawfully required to attend 
 his master's shop on Sunday mornings for the pur- 
 pose of shaving customers, bi ch em] 
 
 was a violation of the old Scotch statutes still in 
 
 operation, and which were enacted for enf 
 the observance of the Sunday, particular]] 
 
 fl in 155!t, by which it is provided 'that na 
 i.andy lauboring or wirking be used on the Sonday.' 
 The Lord Chancellor (Lord Cottenham) observed in 
 his judgment that the English law on this . 
 was very similar, referring in particular to 
 1 harl ; II. e. 7. by which it is enacted 'that no 
 tradesman, artificer, workman, labourer, or other 
 i whatsoever shall do or I \ n a ■ any worldly 
 labour, business, or work, of then- ordinary callings, 
 
 upon the Lord's Day, or any part thereof, v 
 
 necessity and charity only excepted.' 
 
 An A's indenture is determinable by 
 of all i to it ; and a] o by the di ath of the 
 
 i I ntor of the- latter may bind 
 
 i \. to another master for the remainder of his 
 term; and lie must also discharge any covi i 
 i. lent for the A.'s maintenance. BO 
 
 By the custom of Loudon, if the master ... 
 ■ ' L die, (he service must be continued with the 
 widow, if she continue to carry on the trad [n 
 other cases, it is incumbent on the executor I 
 the A. to another master of the same The 
 
 bankruptcy of the master operates as a d 
 the indenture of the A., who, if he bis paid an A. 
 Ei - to the bankrupt, is entitled to be paid by the 
 court a reasonable sum out of the I 
 
 By the .Mutiny Act, apprentices enlisting in the 
 army, and concealing their apprenticeship when 
 j lit before a magistrate to be attested, may be 
 
 d for obtaining money und. 'ences; 
 
 and if, after the expiration of their apprentii 
 they do not surrender to a recruiting officer, they 
 led as deserters. 
 lhere is some curious historical matter on this 
 subject, relating for the most part to a state of the 
 law now obsolete or repealed, for which i I . 
 ieai Dictionary, under this hi 
 
 APPRISING Is the old technical term in the 
 1 law, ami now obsolete, for the process of 
 adjudication. See Adjudication. 
 
 APPROA'CHES, in military language, are the 
 sunken trenches or excavated roads which are con- 
 
 332 
 
 stnicted by besiegers. The siege camp being usually 
 
 at a considerable distance from the fortress or city 
 
 attacked, the soldiers would be expo ed to immini at 
 
 dan sr while hastening aero is bell of open country 
 
 to enter an] breaches made by the large si e j an . 
 
 were it no! 1 1 iled roads an Srat i 
 
 along which they may approach. In Borne ca 
 
 A. are not actual trenches, but merely path I shielded 
 
 by a piled-up wall of sand-baj 
 
 woolpacks, or cotton-bales. The most trem 
 
 i .milniiati i A. ever known in the history of 
 
 military enterpri e, was at the siege of Seba bopol in 
 
 I i ii.. I. . than 
 
 70 miles of sunken trench, and the employmenl 
 of 60,000 fascines, 80,000 gabions, and 1,000,000 
 sand-bags, to protect the men working in the 
 trenches and at batteries, See Sap, Sn. ■ 
 
 A'PPEOBATE and REPROBATE. Tl, 
 
 rpression in the law of Scotland, which 
 ..i th.. b rules of jui tii e w bich o tend 
 
 Ivi 3 by their reasonable logic, and which are 
 
 to be found in all enlighten..! Bystems of juris- 
 prudence. It simply mi a us. that no one can bo 
 permitted to A. and R— that is, to acci pt and 
 reji . i the same deed or instrument. Thus, it a will 
 '■in. hi. purporting to dispose of real and per- 
 "'il property, all of which it directs lii be con- 
 verted into 'money, and in that form either to be 
 
 equally divided or apportioned among the testators' 
 
 children, com i dug of a sou or sons, and daughters, 
 should, owing to some Haw or material defect, be 
 invalid for the conveyance of the real estate, which, 
 accordingly, by the operation of the law of d. 
 becomi i theexclu ive property "'' lUr eldest son as 
 his father's heir- the law does not permit the latter 
 to enjoy such i itate, and at tin- same time i ■ 
 benefit under the will in other respects, for this 
 would be simultaneously to accept and reject the 
 same instrument: he must elect between tl. 
 
 .r.-.i, and either avail himself entirely of Ins 
 
 at law, as heir, or claim his share ol the 
 whole estate according to the testatoi 
 intention — he cannot do both. Other illustrations 
 might 1 ■ i hewing distinctions t dee per- 
 
 haps for popular information. The analogous doc- 
 
 ■ the law of England is called I (q. v.). 
 
 in ii dei ded bytho House of Lords in 1819, 
 
 the Lord I hancellor ii3don ti-.ated the rule in tin- 
 Scotch and English legal Bystems as id. n ■ I. 
 observing that it was equally settled in Scotland as 
 i le laud that no person can accept and reject the 
 same instrument ; and he puts the case of a ti stator 
 giving his estate to A, but also giving the estate to 
 which \ would otherwise have been entitled, to B; 
 in that case his lordship stated that courts of equity 
 hold it to be against conscience that A should take 
 the estate bequeathed to him, and at the same time 
 
 to effectuate the implied condition contained 
 in the will of the testator. The court will not 
 permit hiin to take that which cannot be his but 
 by virtue of the disposition of the will, and at the 
 same time to keep what, by the same will, is ;r. . n, 
 or intended to be given, to another person. It is 
 contrary to the established principles of equity that 
 
 idd enjoy the benefit while he rejects the 
 condition of the gift. 
 
 It is chiefly in the case of wills and other t. :,i- 
 mentary dispositions that this legal doctrine mo t 
 
 illy arises in practice, although there can be 
 tion that both in the English and Scotch 
 OS of law it extends to all other writings, deeds, 
 and instruments. 
 
 APPROPRIATION CLAUSES, Tin. Thi 
 was the name by which, while the discussion con- 
 tinued, reference was usually made to an important
 
 APPROPRIATION CLAUSES. 
 
 question which occupied a large share of the atten- 
 tion of the legislature and of the public beta 
 years 1833 and 1838. The expectation that the 
 state of Ireland would improve after the pa 
 the Catholic Emancipation and Reform Acts Lad 
 turned out t" be fallacious. Among other grave 
 can lesof complaint left untouched by these measures, 
 was the collection of tithee by the Established 
 Church, and from that can •■ proceeded very many of 
 the evils with which Ireland was then afflicted. To 
 such an extent was the antipathy to tithes carried, 
 that a clergyman who ventured to exact payment 
 by li il mi i ares in the exclusively Catholic coun- 
 did so at the risk of his life. Several clergy- 
 men had actually been assassinated, and Others 
 
 were so unpopular, that the utility of the Crish 
 Church in three-fourths of Ireland was 
 
 yed. This was a state of matters which could 
 not bo permitted to last. Coercive measures had 
 been tried, and had failed to produce any amelio- 
 ration, The remedies which then suggested them- 
 selves were three : First, the commutation of tithes 
 into a rent-charge upon land; second, the reduction 
 i.i tin- number of sinecures in the Irish Protestant 
 Church; and third, the appropriation of the surplus 
 revenues of that church to the advancement of the 
 il education of the people. 
 The first of these measures the liberal cabinet of 
 1833 attempted, but — from leaving the commutation 
 tn take place at the option of the landlord — carried 
 into effect in a manner so unsatisfactory, that no 
 
 l 1 whatever resulted. The second was carried 
 
 out with more success. The Irish Church Tempo- 
 ralities Act struck off two archbishoprics, ten 
 bishoprics, and various sinecures, and applied the 
 revenues thus acquired chiefly to supply the place 
 of an impost called 'vestry cess' (analogous to 
 church-rates), which was abolished. This act. how- 
 BVi , .till left the church with an income greatly dis- 
 
 proportioned to the number of her adherents. The 
 
 cabinet was divided in regard to the third measure, 
 a majority being in favour of the princii>lc of appro- 
 priation, and a minority, consisting of the Irish 
 Secretary, Mr Stanley (now Earl of Derby), Sir 
 
 .lame.; Graham, Lord Ripon, and another, being 
 opposed to it. The minority had influence enough 
 to prevent government from espousing the prin- 
 ciple, and even to procure the abandonment of the 
 147th clause of the Church Temporalities Bill, 
 becau te the oppoi ition asserted, though incorrectly, 
 that it virtually embodied the principle. This was 
 the first of the Appropriation Clauses. 
 
 Iu the followin vi ir, ItS.'Jl, it had become fully 
 
 apparent that the tithe act of 1833 had failed, and 
 lie uf Ireland rendered it more imperative than 
 evi t to settle the tithe question. Mr Ward, through- 
 out a steady supporter of the principle of appropri- 
 ation, moved in the House of ('. minions, on 27th 
 May 1834, 'that it was right that the state should 
 regulate the distribution of church property m such 
 a manner as parliament might determine,' This 
 raised the whole question of appropriation, and 
 that greatly to the annoyance of ministers. The 
 
 split iii tin eel. met Mas well known not to have 
 been healed, and while Mr Ward was speaking, 
 news reached Lord Althorp that the minority bad 
 . i ned. This stopped the debate for the night. 
 The ministers left in office found then 
 relieved of a portion of their difficulties, but as 
 they were aware that the King wa itronglj opposed 
 to the appropriation principle, and that there was no 
 prospect of the House of Lords assenting to it. they 
 
 » are most anxious to find some i ito 6 
 
 mitting themselves in the matter. A commission 
 was accordingly appointed to collect information; 
 and on June 2, Lord Althorp met the Commons, 
 
 impressed on them how useless it was to discuss a 
 
 i principle, and on Mr Ward's it I 
 to withdraw Bis motion, moved and carried the 
 previous question by a large majority. 
 
 The short-lived ministry of 1835, under Sir Robert 
 Peel, was in office when the appropriation question 
 next came before parliament. The Liberals n 
 opposition; and Lord John Eta ell, v. In. had suc- 
 ceeded to the Whig leadei nip in thi < lommons, on 
 Lord Althorp's removal to the House of Lords, was 
 now- prepared to commit bis party to tie appropri- 
 ation principle. Winn Sir Robert Peel brought 
 forward a tithe commutation bill to -it the 
 
 bungled measure of 1833, Lord John bus-, -II pro- 
 posed two resolutions, which to one of the 
 longest and most important ofthi ntu 
 which have taken place on the qui Hon. < to the one 
 side, the chief speakers were- Ward, Lord Hbwick, 
 Shell, and ( I't lonnell; and on the other, I'. 
 Sir James Graham, and Gladstone. Much of tie- 
 interest which attended the discussion was caused 
 by its involving the whole questioi I.e. b estab- 
 lishments, and by a fear, on the part of the E 
 Conservatives, that the doctrines of utility ' 
 expediency, so freely referred to in connection with 
 the Church of Ireland, might one day be turned 
 against the Church of England. On 2d April 1835, 
 the House of Commons pronounced, by a majority 
 of 33, ' that any surplus which might remain, after 
 fully providing for the spiritual instruction of the 
 members of the Establ lied I hurch of Ireland, 
 ought to be applied to the moral and religious edu- 
 cation of all classes, without distinction of religious 
 persuasion;' and a few days afterwards, a I 
 quent resolution was passed, ' That no settlement of 
 the tithe question woidd be satisfactory unless it 
 embodied the preceding principle.' In consequence 
 of these resolutions, the Conservatives resigned, and 
 the Liberals returned to power. 
 
 There was now in office a ministry pledged to the 
 appropriation principle. In 1836, ministers bi 
 forward a tithe commutation bill, containing clauses 
 carrying out the principle fully and explicitly. i ' 
 
 bill passed the Commons, but the A. C. were struck 
 out by the Lords. The lull was thereupon aban- 
 doned. In 1S37, a government tithe commul 
 bill again passed tin- Commons with A. C, and 
 again these clauses were struck out by the Lords. 
 tin the motion of the ministers, the Com 
 rejected the amended bill. After :' 
 
 i of 1837, the Melbourne ministry found them- 
 selves with a very narrow majority in the Com- 
 mons. The liberal members had made the 
 priation question a prominent topio at tb i 
 
 but it was too apparent thai En land i 
 
 land were becoming weary of tne interminable 
 
 discussions upon Irish affairs. In the 
 
 the state of Ireland was little bi I with an 
 
 ng party in the i ; 
 them, there was no prospect of the Lords givir 
 upon the appropriation question. Si 
 sary that something should be den... and the choice 
 of the ministry lay between carrying a commutation 
 bill without A. i'.. and rest oi tion. The former 
 n. The tn 1 intro- 
 
 duced, and ministers solaced themselves for their 
 di sertion of principle by the reflei tion, that after all 
 them might be i . urplus to appropriate, and that 
 it would therefore be us< less to prolong a col 
 with the Upper House on a matter of no prac- 
 tical impoit conduct emboldened the 
 opposition, and Sir Thomas Acland, on 14th May 
 1838, moved the recall of the celebrated reaoli 
 of 1835. The di u-i.ii which followed was most 
 
 ..f the ministers, but 
 
 ,e.l, L\ a majority of 10, from the humilia- 
 
 S33
 
 APPROVER— AI'ITI. 
 
 tion of having the resolutions recalled. A last 
 Of tl ' ii. i|il.- was i 
 
 1888, by Mr Ward, who then moved tl 
 
 i '. into the government tithe Mil. B 
 
 I more 
 strangely still, by the Irish member*. O'C 
 
 ; i had spoken of the one n 
 'appropriation,' -which waa to brinj | 
 
 red now that nothing would satisfy the tri '< 
 except the total abolition of tithes. II is 
 
 ted and opposed, .Mr Ward's motion was lost 
 by a large majority. The government tithe mi 
 
 I tithes were commuted 
 into a rent-charge of three-fourths of their amount. 
 
 iiter that, they wen- i oil i .1 v.iii p 
 
 . and the appropriation qui tion, once the 
 tonic of discussion over the whole country, fell into 
 oblivion, until the diaendowment of the Ep 
 Church in Ireland, in I- 1 
 
 APPRO YKK, or PROVES, in the law of Bug- 
 land, is a person who had been an accomplice in the 
 perpetration of a crime, but who is admitted to 
 give evidence against the prisoner. It had not so 
 simple and intelligible a manning j„ (]„. ancient 
 practice of the criminal law, in which approvement 
 was a kind of confession of a complicated nature. 
 Where a person in a prosecution for treason or 
 felony confessed the fact before pleading to the 
 indictment, and, at the same time, accused others, 
 his accomplices, of the same crime, in order to obtain 
 hi i pardon, lie was called an A. or /'. Hut, as tin 
 condition of the pardon he thus expected was the 
 conviction of the accomplice he accused, if that 
 failed, the A. received judgment of death upon his 
 own confession. If, on the other hand, the a. ' 
 
 accomplice was found guilty, the A. was entitled 
 to his pardon ex debito justitkv. But ' this course of 
 admitting approvements,' says Blackstone, writing 
 about a century ago, 'hath Ion" been disused ; for 
 the truth was, as Sir Matthew Hale observes, that 
 more mischief arose to good men by theso kinds of 
 approvements, upon false and malicious accusations 
 of desperate villains, than benefit to the public by 
 the discovery and conviction of real offenders ; and, 
 therefore, in the times when such appeals were most 
 frequently admitted, great strictness and nicety 
 were held therein ; though, since their discontinu- 
 ance, the doctrine of approvements is become a 
 matter of more curiosity than use.' 
 
 The modern practice is to admit accomplices to 
 give evidence for the prosecution, or, as it is said, 
 to become Queen's evidence, upon an implied promise 
 of pardon, on condition of their making a full and 
 fair confession of the whole truth. The admission, 
 however, of an accomplice to give evidence aj 
 his fellows, requires the previous sanction of the 
 judges of jail delivery, and a motion is usually 
 made at the trial to the judge for leave to admit the 
 accomplice for that purpose. The testimony of an 
 accomplice is in all cases, however, regarded with 
 
 u-piciou; and unless his statement is corrobo- 
 
 in some material part by unimpeachable evi- 
 dence, the jury are usually advised by the judge to 
 acquit the prisoner; and if the accomplice, after 
 having confessed the crime, and being admitted as 
 Queen's evidence, does not satisfy the condition on 
 which he was so received by failing to give full 
 information without equivocation, reservation, or 
 fraud, he then forfeits all claim to protection, and 
 may be tried, convicted, and punished on his own 
 
 -ion. Accordingly, upon a trial at York, 
 towards the commencement of the present century, 
 before the late Mr Justice Buller, the accomplice 
 
 1 in his evidence all that he had before con- 
 
 1 I, upon which the prisoner waa acquitted. But 
 
 m = e orjLTed au indictment to be preferred 
 
 t the accomplice for the samo crime, and on 
 lus pn sion, and other circumstances, he 
 
 onvicted and executed. 
 The term in the law of Scotland analogous to that 
 of A. is nodus cri:: I the principles on which 
 
 such socius is admitted, and on which his evidence 
 to the jury, are the same as ii i But 
 
 the criminal 3cotland go further in pi 
 
 iir,' and assuring safety to the approver than the 
 b practice does. Sir Archibald Alison, m his 
 " of Vie Criminal Law of Scotland, voL ii., 
 p. 453, says : ' It has long been an 
 principle in our law, that by the very act of . 
 the sarins, and patting him in the box, the 
 cutor debars himself from all title to molest him for 
 the future with relation to the matter libelled. Thi 
 is always explained to the witness by the pre 
 jud • as soon as he appears in court, and conse- 
 quently he gives his testimony under a feelil of 
 absolute security as to the effect which it may have 
 upon himself. If, therefore, on any future occasion 
 the witness should be subjected to a prosecution on 
 account of any of the matters contained in the libel 
 on which he was examined, the proceedings would 
 be at one c . quashed by the supremo court. This 
 privilege is absolute, and altogether independ 
 the prevarication or unwillingness with which the 
 may give his testimony. Justice, indeed, 
 may often be defeated by a witness retracting In 
 
 previous disclosures, or refusing to make any , Fes- 
 
 sion after he is put into the box ; but it would be 
 much more put in hazard if the witness was sensible' 
 that bis future safety depended upon the oxt 
 which he spoke out against his associate at the bar. 
 The only remedy, therefore, in such a case, is com- 
 mittal of the witness for contempt or prevaric 
 or indicting him for perjury, if there are sufficient 
 grounds for any of these proceedings. In this 
 i the security of the socius, and the safeguard 
 against the contamination of the sources i 
 is much stronger in this country than in En 
 where it is held that the circumstance of having 
 been adduced by the crown is not a bar to trial, but- 
 only the foundation for a recommendation to the 
 crown for mercy, and is entirely dependent on the 
 witnesses making a full and fair disclosure.' And 
 Sir Archibald mentions a case where a soldier, who 
 was adduced as an A. or socius, and who was under 
 confinement as a military delinquent for the same 
 offence, was nevertheless allowed to give evident-.- ; 
 and upon its being suggested as an objection to the 
 'a being admitted as a witness, that he would 
 stdl be open to be tried by a court-martial, the 
 court declared that they had the power to protect 
 him from such an ordeal, and that they would not 
 fail to interfere on bis behalf, if he were in any way 
 endangered in consequence of his evidence. 
 
 It was chiefly on the evidence of an accomplice 
 named William Hare, that Burke the notorious 
 criminal was convicted before the High Court of 
 Justiciary in 1S28. See this case noticed previously 
 in Anatomy. 
 
 APPROXIMATION', a term commonly used in 
 mathematical science to designate such calculations 
 as are not rigorously correct, but approach the truth 
 near enough for a given purpose. Thus in logarith- 
 mic and trigonometrical tables nearly all the 
 numbers are mere approximations to the truth. The 
 calculations of astronomy generally are of this 
 nature. Even in pure mathematics there are parts 
 in which approaches to the truth, by means of 
 interminable series, are all we are able to gain. The 
 solution of equations beyond the fourth degree can 
 be got only by approximation. 
 
 APPUI (French), a stay or support. In military
 
 APPTJLEIUS— APRICOT. 
 
 , the points oVA. are such parts of the field of 
 
 is an; suited to j SH] port or shelter. As 
 
 i f an army (like the extreme sides of a 
 
 ! points of resistance to 
 
 attack, they especially require support or protection, 
 
 lien it is possible, in localities which 
 
 serve to obstruct the attacking forces. Lakes, 
 
 morasses, woods, streams, and steep declivities may 
 
 thus serve -1. 
 
 APPULEl'US, or, less properly, APULEIUS, a 
 satirical writer of the 2d c, »;i i born at Madanra, in 
 Africa, where his father was a magistrate, and a man 
 of large fortune. A. first studied at Carthage, which 
 at that time enjoyed a high reputation as a school 
 of literature. A iterwards he went to Athens, where 
 he entered keenly upon the study of phflo 
 displaying a special predilection for the Platonic 
 school. The fortune bequeathed to him at his 
 's death enabled A. to travel extensively. 
 He visited Italy, Asia, &c, and was initiated into 
 numerous religious mysteries. The knowledge which 
 he thus acquired of the priestly fraternities, he made 
 abundant \ise of afterwards in his Golden Asa. His 
 first appearance in literature arose from a law- 
 suit. Having married a middle-aged lady, named 
 1'udentdla, very wealthy, but not particularly hand- 
 some, he drew down upon his head the malice of her 
 relations, who desired to inherit her riches, and who 
 accused the youth of having employed magic to gain 
 her affections. His defence {Apologia, still extant), 
 spoken before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa, 
 was an eloquent and successful vindication of his 
 conduct. After this event, his life appears to have been 
 devoted zealously to literature and public oratory, in 
 both of which he attained great eminence. He was 
 so extremely popular, that the senate of Carthage, 
 and other states, erected statues in his honour. 
 
 The Golden Ass, the work by which his reputation 
 has survived, is a romance or novel, whose principal 
 personage is one Lucian, supposed by some, though 
 on insufficient evidence, to be the author himself. 
 It is generally understood to have been intended as 
 a satire on the vices of the age, especially those of 
 the priesthood, and of quacks or jugglers affecting 
 supernatural powers, though Bishop W arburton, and 
 other critics, fancy they can detect in it an indirect 
 apology for paganism. Its merits are both great and 
 conspicuous, as are also its faults. Wit, humour, satire, 
 fancy, learning, and even poetic eloquence abound, 
 but the style is disfigured by excessive archaisms, and 
 I is a frequent affectation in the metaphors, &c. 
 which proves A. to have been somewhat artificial in 
 his rhetoric. The most exquisite thing in the whole 
 work is the episode of Cupid and Psyche (imitated 
 by La Fontaine). It is supposed to bo an alle- 
 gory of the progress of the soul to perfection. 
 Besides the Apologia and Golden Ass, we have 
 from the pen of A. an Anthology in four books, 
 a work on the Dsenion of Socrates, one on the 
 doctrines of Plato, one on The Universe, &c. A 
 1. rablo number of his works also are lost. 
 The most recent and careful edition of the who].; 
 of A. is that published at Leipsic in 1S42, by 
 <;. I'. Bildebrand. The Gulden Asz was translated 
 into English by T Taylor (1822), and again by 
 Sir G. Head (lS.il). An English version of the 
 works of A. was published in London, 1853. 
 
 APRA'XIN, Tuedor M.VTVAVi.vini. a distin- 
 1 Russian admiral, was born in 1071. When 
 hardly twelve years of age. he ent red the service of 
 the Great, who conceived a gnat attachment 
 for him, which lasted durin lo life of the 
 
 monarch. In 1000, he took part in the first 
 manoeuvres of the Russian fleet at Taganrog 
 on the sea of Azof. After the year 1700, he became 
 
 the most powerful and influential person at the 
 court of the czar, who made him chief-admiral 
 of the Russian navy, of which, in fact, A. may be 
 considered the creator. While Peter was G 
 the Swedes in the north, A. was building war-vessels, 
 fortresses, and wharfs i i 
 
 appointed president of the Admiralty ; in 1708, he 
 defeated the Swedish general, Lubecker, in Inger- 
 mannland, and saved the newiy-l.tnlt city of 
 Petersburg from destruction ; in 1710, he captured 
 tho important town of Viborg, in I inland ; ami 
 in 1711, commanded in tin; Black Sea during the 
 Turkish war. The following year he returned to 
 the north; and in 1713, with a fleet of 200 vessels, 
 he saUed along the coast of Finland, took Hehring- 
 fors and Borgo, and defeated the Swedish 
 The result of his great successes was, that at the 
 peace of Nystadt, in 1721, Russia obtained some 
 most valuable advantages, being confirmed in her 
 possession of Finland, just conquered, and of 
 Esthonia. In spite of his brilhaut reputation, how- 
 ever, he twice suffered an apparent eclipse of 
 imperial favour. In 1714 — 15 he was charged with 
 embezzlement, tried, and condemned to pay a line ; 
 and a few years later, was denounced by l'eter him- 
 self as ' an oppressor of the people,' and again con- 
 demned to pay a line ; but his services were too use- 
 fid to be dispensed with, ami in both instances the 
 czar neutralised the effect of the condemnation, by 
 conferring upon him additional riches and dignities. 
 In 1722, ne accompanied Peter in his Persian war, 
 and was present at the siege of Derbend. His last 
 naval expedition was in 1720, when he repaired with 
 the Russian fleet to Revel, to defend that place 
 against an expected attack by the Engli -h. He died 
 at Moscow, 10th Xovember 172S, in the ~i~V> 
 of his age. 
 
 A'PRICOT (Prunus Armeniaca), a species of tho 
 same genus with the Plum (q. v.), is a na: 
 Armenia, and of the countries eastward to China 
 and .Japan; a middle-sized tree of 15—20, or even 
 30 feet high, with ovate, acuminate, and cordate, 
 smooth, doubly-toothed leaves on long stalks ; soli- 
 tary, sessUe, white flowers which appear before the 
 leaves, and fruit resembling the peach, roundish, 
 downy, yellow, and ruddy on the side next the sun, 
 with yellow flesh. The A. was brought into Europe 
 in the time of Alexander the Great, and mi 
 days of the Romans has been diffused over all its 
 western countries. It has been cultivated in 
 land since the middle of the 10th c. It is only in 
 the south of England that it is ever train 1 1 
 standard, nor is it grown in the more northern parts, 
 even as an espaher, but almost always as a wall-tree. 
 More than twenty kind3 are distinguished, amongst 
 which some excel very much in size, fine colour, 
 sweetness, and abundance of juice. The iloorpark 
 is generally esteemed the finest variety, and the 
 Breda os best suited for standards in the south of 
 England, and in Scotland even for the wall, i 
 in the most favourable situations. — The A. is generally 
 budded on plum or wild cherry stocks. The fruit 
 keeps only tor a very short time, and is eithi t 
 fresh, or made into a preserve or jelly. Apricots 
 split up, having the stone taken out, and dried, 
 are l.rought from Italy as an article of commerce, in 
 particular from Trieste, Genoa, and Leghorn : in tho 
 south of France, also, they are an article of export in 
 rved and candii 1 state. Dried apricots from 
 Bokhara are sold in the towns of Russia, the kern, Is 
 of which are perfectly sweet, like those of tin 
 almond. The kernels are sweet in some kinds, 
 and bitter in others— the bitterness being probably 
 more natural, and the sweetness, as in the almond, 
 the result of cultivation. Generally speaking, 
 they may be used for the same purposes as
 
 APRIL- AP8E. 
 
 almonds, Prom the bitter kernels, which • 
 Prussia acid, the Etai de distilled in 
 
 i yield a black p 
 
 similar to Indian ink. 'I'ln- wood oi tier tree is good 
 only for the | I the turner. 
 
 1 he Bw \ icon A. i I very 
 
 much (in- c tnon A. The fruit is 
 
 us. It is found in Dauphins and Piedmont 
 At Briancon, an nil, called S 
 expi '•!-. 
 
 L (P also very like tin 
 
 common A., but small' r in all its parts. The fruit 
 is small. It is a native of Siberia, especially of the 
 southern slopes of tin- mountains of Dahuria. 
 
 i .'in . A.. I!, -it I. Mni ,.i plum, much 
 ed in sim,. ; .1 1 which, pro- 
 
 igar, dried, < I in shallow I 
 
 foi in i a con udi rable article of tra 
 
 A'PRIL. The Romans gave this month the name 
 of A/tritis, from iifn rire, to open, because ii was the 
 
 when the buds I a to open; by the 
 Saxons it was called or J h; and 
 
 by the Dutch Grass-month. The custom 
 one upon o bo itless errand on the 
 month, is perhaps a t< ■ 
 and thither of the Saviour in mi Annas to Caiaphas, 
 
 and i i Pilate to Ei rod, because during the middle 
 
 n ' I made the .subject 
 
 Ii play (a. v.) at Master, which occurs in 
 
 oi \. It i po ible, however, that ii 
 
 I Borne old hi athi a fe tivaL The 
 
 ii. whatever be its origin, of playing off little 
 
 y, whereby ridicule may be fixed 
 
 ' i rded individuals, appears to be universal 
 
 Europe. In Fran! e, thus in ed 
 
 ' (an A. ii hi. In 
 
 i i land, such a person i. called an A. fool; in 
 
 k. Gowk is Hi" Scotch for the 
 
 i signifies a foolish person. The 
 
 it in Britain is to send one u] o 
 
 i for : omething grossly nonsenf ii al as for 
 History of Adam's Grand- 
 father; or i ppointments which are not to 
 
 that Ins latcllct IS 
 
 ed, or that there is a spot of mud up 
 
 When he falls into the snare, the I 
 
 1 with a shout of laughter. It is 
 i I i Hindus prai r - preei i lj similar 
 tricks on i of March, when they hold what is 
 
 called the Huh !•'■ 
 
 A-PRIO'RI reasoning or demonstration is that 
 
 w In- h re 1 1 mi ■ - I or id i ml is inde- 
 
 i i " nee. Eteasoning Er 
 
 is called i , lasoning. A predilection for 
 
 one or tin' other . > ning forms 
 
 it important distinctions anion" 
 
 ophy. Plato may l 
 
 ! i i.eUe and Bacon of the 
 
 A-I\ speculation is more in accordance 
 
 with the genius of the Germans than with that of 
 
 ! A-P. philo ophy claims for 
 
 ons the ch ■ ary truth i, 
 
 and denies thai there can I riori proof of 
 
 anything, that kind of reasoning furnishing only a 
 
 confirmation or verification. te : el I 
 
 mi that the general notions or principles on 
 
 A-P. reasoning rests, an thi 
 
 of experience, and that, therefore, all truth 
 
 Posteriori grounds. 
 
 'RON, This word is t both in mili- 
 
 and in shipping affairs. The A. of a cannon is 
 
 a piece of sheet-lead which covers the touch-hole, 
 
 tied by two pieces of white rope, in ship-budding, 
 
 of curved timber lixed behind the 
 part of the stem, and just above the fore- 
 
 ■ ml of the keel ; its chief use is to fortify the 
 item, and connect it inure firmly with t!i>' keel 
 The name of A. is also given to the plank B 
 
 I at the entrance of a dock, a little higher than 
 to form an abutm t, which the 
 
 may shut. 
 
 Al'si: il.it. apsis), a semicircular recess usually 
 
 1 at tl cud of the choir or chancel ,,f a 
 
 romanesque, or what is commonly called in On land 
 
 an Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Norman church. The 
 
 i' . i nliar termination to the choir is so 
 
 and at . been bo clearly established by 
 
 Herman writers, that we shall endear to 
 
 in a very few v.. mis. it. is well known that 
 the heathen structure from which the early Chris- 
 borrowed the form of their churches, ws not 
 i ii the Basilica or public hall which 
 served at once [for a market-place and a court of 
 The Basilica, for the most part, H 
 1 ..gram, at one of the shorter sides of which, 
 opposite to tin- cut ranee, there was a raised platform 
 .! tnieil for the accommodation of the persons 
 'i Iged in. and connected w it h. the ,]i tnl.ution of 
 
 Be. This portion of the building was the proto- 
 type of the rounded choir, to v. Inch the name of A. 
 
 ih at Schwartz, Rhcindorf. 
 
 was given, and which is still to be Been in so many 
 of the Rhenish churches. For the praetor's chair, 
 which was placed in the centre of this semicircular 
 space, the altar was substituted ; and the steps 
 which led to the seat from which he dispel) ed 
 I ii See, were destined henceforth to lead to the spot 
 whereth' Fountain of all just ice should he worshipped. 
 Many A.'s are to be met with in English churches, 
 an enumeration of which will be found in Mr 
 Parker's excellent Glossary of Architecture. But 
 
 1 1 in ture is not only much more frequent, but 
 • tied to be used to a much later period on the 
 
 nt, we shall describe it as it may still be 
 s.in in almost every little village along the banks of 
 the Rhine. The lower part of the A. is there 
 ii a ally pierced by two or three round arched win- 
 dows, often of irregular size and height, over which 
 there is invariably an external gallery supported by 
 pillars in the form of which the rude idea of a 
 Roman pillar is at once apparent : and the whole 
 is joined to the end of the nave, which rises consider- 
 ably above it, by a mof in the form of the segment 
 of a cone. Where the churches are larger, there is a
 
 APSIDES— APULIA. 
 
 complete row of windows of the same rounded 
 
 form, divided by pillars similar to those by whioli 
 
 the gallery is supported, and under them frequently 
 
 ponding construction, whilst 
 
 one or two small and irregular holes of the same 
 
 .i scanty light to the crypt ben e at h . 
 
 Many of the smaller churches have DO aisles; and 
 
 tli ■ semicircular A. forms the termination of, or 
 
 contains the < hancel. The more complete 
 
 however, such as the minster 
 
 at Bonn, afford— with the exception ol the 
 
 septa and the towers, which are later additions— 
 
 about the n amples to be found on 
 
 this side tin' Alps of the form of the Etonian basilica, 
 
 01 nasi s. Seven & 
 
 ol the A. :u • to be seen in the earlier ecclesiastical 
 
 1*?=^- 
 
 Church of Dalmeny. 
 
 tures of Scotland ; as instances, we may men- 
 churches of Dalmeny and Kirkliston in 
 Linlithgowshire, and of Leuchars in I 
 
 A'PSIDES (Gr. apsis, inection), the two 
 
 extreme points in the orbit of a planet— one at the 
 -t. the other at the least distance from the 
 nil. The term A. is also applied in the same 
 manner to the two points in the orbit of a satellite 
 nearest to, the othi r farthest from, its primary; 
 % in the case of the moon, to the 
 . A ri lit line connecting these 
 extreme points, is called the line of A. In all the 
 . this line has no fixed position in 
 . iiit makes a forward motion in the plane of 
 tlie orb . i ccepl in the ca i of tb i plan 
 where iding. This fact in the 
 
 mbit of the earth gives rise to the anomahst 
 (q. v.). This advancin J motion of the line ol A. 
 markable in tin- orbit of the moon, 
 it amounts to 40' 4V 32""2 annually, an 
 revolution thus taking place in rather less 
 ■I- j i'. ii . 
 AP.SLEY, a river of Australia, in the north 
 on "I New South Wales. It Hows into the 
 . ien Pacific about (0 miles to the north-east of Port 
 : ome at its mouth the 
 
 i ■ .'i' tin' Kf'Leay. A. is also a strait bi 
 a 1 Bathursi I lands, on the north 
 tralia. 11-; length is -is rrdli -, with a width 
 a _- from U to 1 ; and tie' di pth of its channel 
 is from 
 A'PTEROl S INSECTS ar without 
 
 In the I. 
 
 order of insects] but more important distinctive 
 characters being found to belong to the insects 
 included in it. it is no longer retained as an order or 
 
 principal division in the most improved entomological 
 systems. 
 
 A'PTEKV. he Gr. a, priv., and pi 
 
 wing), a genus of birds allied to the ostrich and 
 
 emu. and perhaps more nearly to the extinct dodo. 
 It has a very I ader bill, of wl. 
 
 Apteryx An. trans. 
 
 makes a remarkable use in supporting itself when it 
 rests. It has three anterior toes. teriox 
 
 one which is scarcely developed. The I 
 moderate length, the wings merely rudimentary. 
 The feathers have no accessory plume. 'J I 
 
 i is more complete than in any other known 
 bird. Only one species is known (.!. 
 about the size of . native of New Zealand. 
 
 It is a nocturnal bird, and preys on snails, insects, 
 &c. It is much prized for its feathers. The n 
 call it kivl-kivi, from its cry. 
 
 A'PTHiE are small vesicles formed of the super- 
 ficial layer of a mucous membrane, elevated by 
 fluid secreted by the latter. They are usually 
 whitish in colour, and the fluid may be serous or 
 puriform. At the end of a few hours or da\ 
 apthoos vesicle bursts at its summit, a 
 up, exposing an inflamed and painfid patch of tho 
 mucous membrane. The most common site of A. is 
 nous membrane of the lips and mouth, but 
 ■asionally appear wherever mucous membrane 
 approaches the skin. 
 
 Infants are liable to an apthous eruption t 
 [. v.). A. in adults are generally tin.- 1 
 
 s, or a symptom 
 of disturbance of the digi stive system. In some 
 cases of pulmonary consumption, they form a 
 painful addition to the patient's sufferings. in 
 ordinary- , ' A,, a preparation of borax, or some 
 astringent wash, generally eff< 
 
 APTJ'LIA, ancient 1. 
 
 after Capyx, son of ]' now includes the 
 
 south-eastern part <•! Italy in far as the promontory 
 of Leuea, and also the extreme peninsula ofCa] 
 Here, in ancient times, livid three distinct pen; 
 th" A!- i r Salentini, 
 
 Dauni or Apulians. Ai • old Latin tradi- 
 
 i .' of the Apulians. when bai 
 from lllyria, settled in these parts of Italy. I 
 traditions say that Diomedes, the .Etolian, with 
 several other heroes returning from the Trojan war, 
 ■ Italy, and, in his war with the Messapians, 
 1 by I 'annus, but was afterv 
 depj Lved of I ; put to d .it h. Roman 
 
 poetry b - : but in In 
 
 ition is in king of A., though 
 
 we find the nanus of its principal cities — Arpi, 
 
 id runic war was 
 
 for soni i ied on in A. In the present day, 
 
 \. i ivi styled Puqlia) is merely the name of a 
 
 im political meaning. 
 
 The whole territory, including the Neaj 
 
 . Capitanata, Terra di Han. Terra d'Otranto, 
 but a shadow of its former self, in the time 
 of tli" Greek colonies, under Roman dominii 
 even under the Normans, who took possession of it 
 in lU-lo A. I', 'lie- l nun arc depopulated, ind
 
 APURE— AQUARIUM. 
 
 appeared, and commerce, once so flourishing, 
 away. Agriculture is in a wry low 
 ml the few roads arc infested by banditti. 
 'i!i people are generally ignorant and super 
 but di for tin ir hospitality to travi 
 
 A PU'KB, a river of New Granada an 
 which rises in the East Andes, near hit. 7 N., and 
 72 W. After receiving the Poi and the 
 
 ii from the north, it joins the Orinoco, in 
 Id. 7 -in' X., and long. 66' -1.7 \V. It wal 
 Nutrias and San I 
 .\!'l RIMAO, a river of Pern, which, after a 
 of ."''in miles, assumes the name, fil 
 Tambo, and then of Ucayali, which again, after a 
 course of 500 miles more, joins tl ,aia to 
 
 form * . The A proper rises to the north- 
 
 west of the great table-land of LikoTitii aca, receiving 
 from it. however, no portion of its waters. Among 
 the tributaries of the Amazon, it is one of the most 
 southerly; while among them, it approaches perhaps 
 to the Paeilie. The A., from its source 
 in hit. 10 J S., drains the eastern face of the Andes 
 
 ■ at 6", till it changes i. i name, as above. 
 in 10" 4ff 8., meanwhile ree. I 
 
 able affluents, more asp Villcamayo 
 
 the opposite quarter. The A audi partake 
 
 nature rather of mountain torrents t' 
 navigable rivers; and even for travelling by 
 their rocky and rugged banks are always dillicult, 
 and often impracticable. Thi ry in climate 
 
 and productiveness according to their elevation. The 
 upper ones yield wheat and barley, and most of the 
 fruits of Bon ipe ; while the lower, or at least the 
 lowest ones, abound in sugar and cotton, plantains 
 and pine-apples. The basin of the A., as a whole, is 
 said to be the linest part of Pern, and to contain the 
 largest proportion of native population — the best 
 specimens apparently of the aboriginal civilisation. 
 
 A'QUA FORTIS, literally, strong water, -was the 
 
 nitric acid, 
 and is still the commercial name of that 
 
 A'QUA MARINE, a name sometimes popularly 
 given to the Beryl (q. v.). Some green and blue 
 varieties of topaz have also been styled A. 
 
 A'QUA REGI'NjE, hterally, queen's water, is a 
 mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid (oU of vitriol) 
 and nitric acid, or of sulphuric acid and nitre. Either 
 mixture evolves much fumes, and may be used as a 
 disinfectant, as similar mixtures are sold under the 
 name of everlasting disinfectants. 
 
 A'QUA REGIS, or KEGIA, literally, royal water, 
 is the common name applied to a mixture of 1 
 part of nitric acid, and •_', 3, or 4 parts of hydro- 
 chloric acid. The general proportion is 1 to 2. The 
 term aqua regia (royal water) was given to the 
 mixture from the power it possesses of dissolving 
 gold, which is the king of Ute metals. 
 
 AQUA'RIUM, a tank or vessel containing either 
 salt or fresh water, and in which either marine or 
 fresh-water plants and animals are kept in a living 
 state. The name was formerly sometimes given to a 
 tank or cistern placed in a hot-house, and intended 
 fur the cultivation of aquatic plants. The A., as 
 now in use — originally called Vimrinm or .!■. 
 /. and intended chiefly for animals, 1 
 aely common about twenty years ago. 
 Iv.l to 1860, there was a mania for tin 
 toys: they became not only an aid to study, but a 
 Bourcc hi rational amusement, depending in pi 
 npon the relations discovered by science bi 
 animal and vegetable life, and particularly upon 
 the coi by plants, under the action of light, 
 
 of the carbonic acid gas given forth by animals, and 
 the consequent restoration to the air or water in 
 333 
 
 which they live ol the oxygen necessary for the 
 
 oanoe of animal life, The A 
 contain both plants and animals, and in something 
 like a proper proportion. Zoophytes, Anni lides, Mot- 
 lusca,! may thus, with due care, 
 
 it in health, ami their habits observed. The 
 
 water must be frequently aerattd, which can be 
 
 i by taking up portions of it and pouring 
 
 them m again from a small height The fresh- water 
 
 \. i Frequently provided with a fountain, whioh 
 
 continual change of water ; bul even 
 
 this is the ease, the pi bn of plants 
 
 I animals is advantageous to the health of both. 
 
 When sra-wati t i 
 
 Marine A., a substitute may be made by mixing with 
 rather less than I quarts of spring water .'!.' 
 of common table-salt. \ ouno 
 
 .Simple form of an 
 
 grains troy of chloride of magnesium, and 40 grains 
 troy of chloride ol : With can-, tie 
 
 may be kept g 1 for a long time. No dead animal 
 
 or decaying plant must b d to remain in it 
 
 Salt water, artificially prepared, is not lit for the 
 reception of animals at once ; but a few plant 
 first be placed in it, for which purpose some o 
 green alga), Bpecies of L'lva and Conferva, are most 
 suitable. The presence of a number of molluscous 
 auimals, such as the common periwinkle, is d 
 sary for the consumption of the continually gn 
 
 , and "f the multitudinous B] 
 
 (seeds), particularly of conferva), which would other- 
 wise soon lill the water, rendering it greenish or 
 brownish, and untrauspareiit, and which may b 
 ling to vegetate ■". erj where on the pebhl 
 on the glass of the tank. In a fresh-water A., 
 molluscous animals of similar habits, such p 
 ni Lyrnnaa or Planorbis, are equally indispensable. 
 For large ! aquaria, tanks of plate-glass are com- 
 monly used ; smaller ones are made of bottle 
 or of crystal. 
 
 Of course, the plants and animals with whii 
 A. is stocked are various, according to tast' 
 opportunities, or the desire to make particular kinds 
 the subjects of careful and continued observation. 
 Blennies, gobies, and gray mullets are p< ■ 
 kinds of fish most commonly seen in man 
 gold-fishes, sticklebacks, and minnows are fi< 
 i in fresh-water ones. These have the ai 
 tage of being more easily kept in good health than 
 many other kinds, and a further recommendation is 
 found in their small size, and in the line Colours of 
 the gold-fish. The nests of sticklebacks are a sub- 
 ject of unfailing interest. Crabs of various spe 
 and actinia 1 , or sea-anemones, are very generally 
 among the larger inmates of the A. SernuUe con- 
 tribute much both to its interest and beauty,
 
 AQUARIUS-AQUATIC. 
 
 as they spread out their delicate and linely tinted 
 
 branchiae from the month of their shelly tube, and 
 
 withdraw within it, quick as thought, upon the 
 
 best disturbance. Balani, or acorn-shells, are 
 
 beautiful objects when they are seen opening 
 
 jummit-i alves, and rapidly stretching out and 
 
 retracting their little net3. Even periwinkles and 
 
 . particularly when they are 
 
 tied by the aid of a maguifying-glass, as they 
 
 upon the spores of the conferva.- which have 
 
 be on the glass of the A., 
 
 1 . along, with continual opening and 
 
 shutting at pasture, when 
 
 ; motions of th< ir mouths may be 
 
 red, and the singular beauty and brilliancy of 
 
 command admiration. The 
 
 if a good magnifying lens adds greatly to the 
 
 hytes of exquisite forms 
 
 lours may be watched in the actual processes 
 
 of life. The feeding of tishes, crabs, sea-anemones, 
 
 &.C., is a source of amusement, and it is interesting 
 
 AQUATIC plants and animals are those that 
 live either wbdly or partly in water. The term is 
 very vaguely used, those plants being often called 
 A. which grow in ponds, ditches, &c, although not 
 only their inflorescence, but great part of their 
 foliage, is above the surface 01 the water, as well 
 as those which more completely belong to that 
 element ; and a similar latitude of meaning prevails 
 with, regard to animals. Few phanerogamous (or 
 
 Aquarium, -ting. 
 
 even to note how the inmates of the A. occasionally 
 feed "ii their fellow-prisoners. 
 
 I idea of the A. seems to have originated from 
 Mr Want's invention of the catet which bear his 
 name (see Waiiih \'. Ca Bs), and in which delicate 
 mts grow so well even in towns ; 
 but the late Sir John Graham Dalzell began to keep 
 living marine animals in his house in Edinburgh so 
 early as 1790, and continued to do so till the year 1850. 
 Mr Warrington appears to have been the lirst to 
 Kpenments on it ility, and the name 
 
 of Mr Gosse is intimately associated with its early 
 development and introduction to popularity as a 
 lavthing. A Mr Price also conducted 
 ime vi ry successful experiments as to the Valance 
 life iii aquaria. The 
 aquaria in the world are those at Brighton and Ham- 
 burg, and there is also one of large diinensions at the 
 Crystal Palace, Sydenham. In these the habits of 
 the greater fishes may be studied with advani 
 
 AQUARIUS, the II' ', the eleventh sign 
 
 of the zodiac, through which the sun moves in 
 
 months of January and February. It is also 
 the name of a zodiacal constellation, whose position 
 in the heavens may be found by producing a line in 
 a southerly direction through the stars in the head 
 of Andromeda and the wing of Pegasus. 
 
 Aquatic plant. 
 
 flowering) plants exist entirely under water, 
 although there are a few, like the common /. 
 marina, or Grass-wrack, which do so, and produce 
 even their flowers in that condition ; others, of 
 which the greater part of the plant is usually under 
 water, produce their flowers upon, or considerably 
 above, its surface, as those of the genera I'alisneria, 
 Anacharia (q. v.), &c. The leaves, as well as the 
 flowers, of many float upon the water, of which 
 the water-lilies furnish well-known and beautiful 
 examples ; whilst in Ranunculus arjuatUis, that 
 exquisite ornament of our river margins, we have an 
 instance of a kind not unfrequeirt, 01 great dh 
 between the lower leaves which remain submersed, 
 and the upper leaves which float. Of cryptogamous 
 plants, one great order, Alg;e, is exclusively A., and 
 these seem adapted to perform under water all the 
 functions of their life. A. plants are, in general, 
 of less compact structure than is usual in other 
 plants, and are thus lighter and better adapted for 
 rising in their growth towards the surface of the 
 water ; in order to which also some of the alga', as 
 may be seen in more than one of the most common 
 sea-weeds of our coasts, are provided with air- 
 bladders of considerable magnitude. All this is the 
 more necessary, as plants completely A. have gene- 
 rally little firmness of stem, and if their weight 
 made them fall to the bottom, would lie in a mass, 
 as they do when withdrawn from the water, in 
 which, however, they gracefully float, their flexi- 
 bility of stem enabling them to adapt then 
 to waves or which would destroy them if 
 
 they were more i. c all things 
 
 in nature harmonised. 
 
 Many animals, to a considerable extent A. in 
 their habits, must not only breathe air, but are 
 adapted for Bpending great part of their existence 
 on dry land. Such, are chiefly those that seek 
 food in the water. The peculiarities of 
 .structure by which they are fitted for wading, for 
 swimming, for diving, and for remaining under 
 a longer time than other animals can, are very 
 interesting and admirable. Even the fur of the 
 beaver, the otter, the water-rat. and other animals of 
 this description, is not liable to be drenched like 
 that of other quadrupeds ; and the plumage of water- 
 fowls exhibits a similar peculiarity. The feet of 
 many are webbed, BO as to enal i swim 
 
 with great facility ; and to this the general form, as 
 in water-fowls, likewise exhibits a beautiful adapta- 
 tion. The webbed feet in some, of which the habits 
 are most thoroughly A, as seals, assume the character
 
 .\or.\TiNT\ AQUEDUCT. 
 
 of a sort of paddle, admirably fitted fur use in the 
 , but by meant of which tli move 
 
 v i ail kwanlly on land. The Eoi m i of whal 
 
 i . : kably adapted for pi 
 w.it' p; i tead of the limbs by which other 
 
 rate animal 9 are enabled I i ■ ■ m the 
 
 or to fly in the air, their aol locomo- 
 
 tion is the tail, or rather tl part of the 
 
 ted body it» If, with tho tail as toe 1 1 
 eat oar, which all I of the 
 
 concur to move. Remarkable provi 
 made in A. animals of the higher vert- I 
 for the maintenance of the requisite animal heat, by 
 imcter of the furor plumage ; a purpose which 
 blubber of whales ale i mosl , 
 In the coldi r-blooded animals, where no such provi- 
 sion is requisite, the structure of thi 
 
 lated to the diminished necessity n "•> enation 
 
 of the blood; and although reptili 
 state must breathe air, most of thi m c in remain long 
 under water « ithout in< and tho 
 
 many o tals provided with brani liii oi 
 
 bi bo in 1 ' itself, derfc ig new 
 
 n, which in i itively little, 
 
 from the small particles of air with which it is 
 mingled. They cannot Bubsist in water wh 
 
 deprived of air by boiling. 
 carry down with them into the water 
 
 id in hairs with which their bodies are 
 abundantly furnishetL 
 
 AQTTATFNTA, a mode of etching on copper, by 
 
 which imitations of drawings in Indian ink, 
 and sepia arc produced. On a plate of copper a 
 ground is prepared of black resin, on which the 
 design is tn inipula- 
 
 with varnish and dilute acid is tl 
 
 I li, until the desired result is attained. The 
 ■s of A. has fallen into comparative disuse. 
 
 A'QTJA TOFA'NA, a poisonous liquid which 
 was much talked of in the smith of Italy about 
 the end of the 17th c. Its invention is still a 
 matter of dubiety, but is ascribed to a Sicilian 
 woman named Tofana, who lived first at Pi 
 butwas oblia d, from the attention ol the author- 
 ities having been attracted to her pro 
 take refuge in Naples, she sold the preparation 
 in small phials, inscribed ' Manna o 'las of 
 
 Bari, 1 there being a current superstition that from the 
 tomb of that saint there Bowed an oil of miraculous 
 • fficacy in many diseases. The poison was especially 
 Bought after by young wives that wished to 
 of their husbands. The number of husbands dying 
 suddenly in Kome about the year 1659, raised 
 suspicion, and a society of young married women 
 was discovered, presided over by an old woman 
 named Spara, who had learned the art of poisoning 
 from Tofana. Spara and four other members of the 
 society were publicly executed. Tofana continued 
 t ■ live to a great age in a cloister, in which she had 
 l tken refuge, but was at last (1709) dragged I 
 and put to the torture, when she confessed having 
 
 been instrumental to GUI) deaths. According t le 
 
 account she was strangled; but others affirm that 
 she w.-us still living in prison in lT.'Jo. 
 
 The A. T. is usually described as a clear, colourless, 
 tasteless, and inodorous Quid ; five or six drop, wi re 
 sufficient to produce death, which resulted slowly 
 and without pain, inflammation, or fever; under a 
 constant thirst, a weariness of life, and an a 
 to food, the strength of the person gradually wasted 
 away. It is even stated that the poison could be 
 made to produce its effects in a determined line. 
 long or short, according to the wish of the adminis- 
 trator — a notion generally prevalent in tho 
 respecting secret poisoning. The most wonderful 
 
 310 
 
 arc told of the mode of preparing fcbispo m; 
 
 i implo, 1!," spittle of a person driven nearly 
 
 mad bj I tickling was hi Id to I" 1 an i i 
 
 tied i ' lient Later investigations into the real 
 , i the A. T. lead to the belief that it was 
 principally mio. 
 
 A'Ql' V VI T.K (Lat., water of life) is a 
 
 1 to ardi n1 I hi 
 
 bra f or cu tilled spirit 
 much i! medicine, ■> red a euro 
 
 for all disorders, and even got the credit of pro- 
 and as Latin was the ton ue employed 
 in the i e of know li dj ■ in tl 
 
 i torer i health and of life was 
 
 naturally christened A. V. 
 
 A QTJEDU< IT (Lat an artificial 
 
 by which water is COnveyi i along 
 ind plain. Winn an A. is carried across a 
 
 valley, it is usually raised on arches, and . 
 ■ ' rated ground or hills intervene, a pas a < , 
 or, ii necessary, a tunnel bored for it. Aquedui bs 
 were aol unknown to the Greeks ; but there are no 
 remains of those which tin j cot icted, and the 
 brief notices of them by! B IS, and 
 
 others, do not enable us to form any distini , notion 
 i i thi ir character. Tl; ol the Etonians 
 
 imongst the most magnificent of their v. 
 and the noble supply of water which modern Kome 
 derives from the three now in use, of which two 
 are ancient, gives the stranger a very vivid concep- 
 tion of the vast scale on which the ancient city must 
 have be n provided with one of the most important 
 appliances of civilisation and rctiii a nine 
 
 were employed to pour water into its baths and 
 fountains, 
 
 The following are the names of the Roman 
 ducts, chronologically arranged : 
 
 1. The .1 / ta Appia, begun by and named after 
 
 Claudius about 313 B. ft It ran a 
 course of between (j and 7 mil being in 
 
 the neighbourh lol Pali b aa. With the exception 
 
 of a small portion near the Porta Capena, it was 
 subterranean. No remains of it ei 
 
 2. .1 • 1 . constructed about 27.'i B.c. by 
 M. ii,, ji itus. It also was chiefly under- 
 ground, Remains may be traced both at Tivoli 
 and near the Porta Maggiore, Prom the point at 
 which it quitted the river Anio, about L'l) mdes 
 above Tivoli, to Kome, is about 43 n 
 
 3. Aqua Maraa, named after the praetor Quintus 
 
 .. 145 b. c., had its roe bi tween 
 Tivoli and Subiaco, and was i atly about 60 
 
 miles long. The noble arches which stretch across 
 the Campagna for some ij miles on the road to 
 i'rascati, are the portion of this A. which was above 
 ground. 
 
 4. Aqua Tepula (126 B.G) had its source near 
 
 '"in, and its channel was carried over the 
 lies of the last-mentioned A. 
 
 5. Aqua Julia, I constructed by Agrippa, and 
 named after Augustus 'Jl B. 0. Like the Tepulan, it 
 was carried along the Marcian 'Arches, and its source 
 was also near Tusculuin. Remains of the three 
 last-mentioned aqueducts still exist. 
 
 6. Aqua Virgo, also constructed by Agrippa, and 
 said to have been named in consequence of the 
 spring which supplied it having In en pointed out by 
 a girl to some oi Agrippa's soldiers when in 
 
 of water. The Aqua vergine, as it is now called, 
 is still entire, having been restored by the Popes 
 Nicholas \". and Tins IV. 15C8. The source of the 
 Aqua Virgo is near the Anio, in the neighbourhood 
 ■ e Salona, on the Via Collatina, and about 14 
 miles from Home The original object of this A. 
 was to supply the baths of Agrippa ; its water now
 
 AQUEDUCT. 
 
 flows in the Fontana Trevi, that of the Piazza 
 Navona, the Piazza Farneso, ami the Barcaccia of 
 the Piazza di Bpagna. The water of the Aqua Virgo 
 is the best in Roma 
 
 7. Aqua Alriebina, constructed by Augustus, and 
 afterwards restored by Trajan, and latterly l>y the 
 pop Ibis A," now called the Aqua Paula, is 
 1 dii the; right bank of the Tiber, and sup- 
 plies the fountains ill front of Si and the 
 Fontana Paolaon the Montorio. Its original object 
 was to supply the Naumackia of Augustas, which 
 : heet of water for the representation of sea- 
 
 fi 
 
 S. Aqua Claudia, commenced by Caligula and 
 completed by Claudius, 51 A.D. A line of magnifi- 
 eenl arches which formerly belonged to this 
 stretches across the Campagna, and forms one of the 
 grandest of Roman ruins. It was used as a quarry 
 By Seztus V. for the constmetion of the 
 
 which now supplies the Fountain of Termini, 
 and various others in different parts of the city. 
 
 0. Anio Noma, which was the most copious of all 
 the Roman fountains, though inferior to the Mania 
 in th" solidity of its structure ; it was also the 
 ! m the aqueducts, pursuing a course of no 
 l i than (i- miles. By the two last-ment 
 aqueducts, the former supply of water was doubli <1. 
 In addition to the aqueducts already mentioned, 
 there was the Aqua Trajana, which may, however, 
 
 Section. 
 
 Aqua Alexin Irina. 
 
 be regarded as a branch of the Anio Novus, and 
 several others of later construction, such as the 
 Antoniana, Alezandrina, and Jovia, none of which 
 were to lie compared with the older ones in extent 
 and magnificence. 
 
 Nor was it for the uses of the capital alone that 
 
 aqueducts were constructed. The A. of Trajan, at 
 
 ' Vecchia, which conveys the water a distance 
 
 in 23 miles, and that in the vicinity of Mar/ana, 
 
 near Verona, with others that mielit be mentioned. 
 
 still attest the existence of aqueducts in the smaller 
 
 towns of Italy in Roman times, Even during the 
 
 ig period which succeeded, the habit of 
 
 their construction was not abandoned, that of 
 
 i Ii iviug been built by the Lombard Duke 
 
 Tncodolapius in C04. The extraordinary A. by 
 
 in at Siena is supplied, is said to 
 
 have occupied two centuries in building; and the 
 
 mod ' ii A. el I. horn, which is not unworthy of the 
 
 Roman models after which it was designed, is 
 
 surpassed in magnilicence by that of Pisa, with its 
 
 uid arches. In the more distant provinces 
 
 which fell under the Roman power, aqueducts 
 
 were likewise constructed— at Nicomedia, E] 
 
 Smyrna. Alexandria, Syracuse, and in many of tin- 
 towns in Gaul and in Spain. At Merida there are the 
 remains of two aqueducts, of one of which there are 
 thirty-seven piers still standing, with three tiers of 
 arches. But the most magniliceut structure of this 
 
 class in Spain, in the A. of Segovia, in Old Castile, 
 for which Spanish writers claim an antiquity beyond 
 that of the Roman dominion ; but which, there is 
 , belongs to the time of Trajan. 
 At Evora, in Portugal, there is likewise an A. in 
 good preservation, with a caMdlum or reservoir at 
 its termination in the city, consisting of two ;' 
 the lower one bi d with pillars. But of 
 
 all the provincial aqueducts, that at Nismes, in 
 Provence, is at once the i liable and tl. 
 
 The following description of it, which 
 wc transcribe from Mr Murray's excellent Hand-book 
 for France, will convey I vivid 
 
 ;ion not only of this A. in particular, but of 
 the v.iy interest Inch it 
 
 j. 'It consists of three rows of arches, 
 i i one • the other, each smaller 
 
 the one below it; the lowest of six arches, the 
 tier of eleven, and the uppermost of 
 
 live ; the whole in a simple if not a stern 
 style of architecture, destitute of ornament. It 
 is by its magnitude, and the skilful fitting of its 
 enormous blocks, that it makes an impression on tho 
 mind. It is the more striking from the utter solitude 
 Ul which it stands— a rocky valley, partly CO 
 with brushwood and greensward, with scarce a 
 human habitation in eight) only a few goats brows- 
 ing. After the lapse of 10 c, this colossal monu- 
 ment still spans the valley, joining hill to hill, in a 
 nearly perfect state, only the upper part, at the 
 northern extremity, being broken away. The highest 
 range of arches carries a small canal, about 41 feet 
 high and 4 feet wide, just large enough for a man to 
 creep through, still retaining a thick lining of Roman 
 cement. It is covered with stone slabs, along which 
 it is possible to walk from one end to the other, and 
 to overlook the valley of the Cardon. The height 
 of the Pont du Gard is 1SS feet, and the 1 D 
 the highest arcade S73 feet. Its use was to o 
 to the town of Nismes the water of two springs, 
 '25 miles distant. . . . The conveyance of tins 
 small stream was the sole object and use of this 
 gigantic structure, an end which would no 
 attained by a few iron water-pipes. 1 Neither tin- 
 date nor the builder of the Pont du Gard is known 
 with certainty, but it is ascribed to Agrippa, tho 
 nephew of Augustus; a conjecture which is rendered I 
 probable by the fact of his havi i I the 
 
 Appian, Marian, and Anieiiian, and constructed 
 the Julian A. at Rome. The importance which the 
 Romans attached to their aqui ducts may be gathered 
 from the fact, that special officers, invested wn 
 siderable authority, and, like all the higher ul 
 attended by I I public slaves, \w reappointed 
 
 for their superb I Under 1 
 
 these 'guardians of the waters,' we are told that, in 
 the tin- - and Trajan, about 7H'I arch 
 
 and others were employed in attending to the A. 
 These officials were divided into i J, and 
 
 cording as their duties 
 d to the care of the course of the A., the 
 Castella or n -• rvoirs at its termini, tho pavi ment of 
 the channel, the cement with which it was ci ■ 
 and the like. 
 
 The construction of aqueducts in recent times 
 is comparatively rare. a. rally 
 
 conveyed in pipi i; but two instances are worthy 
 of notice- j A., and the Cretan at New 
 
 York. The former, completed in 1788, is about 
 th; near the city, it is carried over 
 th of 2400 feet, by a number 
 of bold arches, the lar_-- -i of which has a height of 
 250 feet, and a s\ us ol 115. The Croton A, which 
 conveys the waters of the Croton river for a distance 
 of 38 miles to the city of New York, is one of the 
 greatest undertakings of modem times. It was
 
 AQUEOUS HUMOUR— AQUILA. 
 
 commenced in 1837, and finished in 1842, and is 
 
 ded to discharge upwards of 60,000.000 
 
 gallons in '24 hours. As the magnificence of 
 
 aqueducts depends upon the height and number of 
 
 : ■ carry them MTOBB \;dh ys, it may 
 
 of that under consideration 
 it is statod that Haarlem River is crossed bj 
 
 seven of which are of GO I 
 of 80 feet, I t from 
 
 the foundation to the top of il i work. 
 
 A'QUEOUS HUMOUR is the fluid which 
 occupies the -pace in the eyi en the back 
 
 of the cornea and the front of the lens, which, in 
 i : il life, is divided into an I 
 
 chamber by the membra papillaris (q. v.), and in 
 adult life, by the iris. It consists of water, with, 
 
 at 'ding to Berzelius, about a fiftieth of it~ 
 
 made up of chloride of sodium and extractive matters 
 held iii solution. 
 
 Anatomists are not agreed as to the spring of this 
 watery secretion, and are inclined to douht the 
 ace of a special secretins membrane, which 
 used to be taken for granted. Uowi rer, a ' 
 delicate epithelial cells, which exists at the back of 
 (q. v.), is probably concerned in its 
 formation. It is rapidly re-secreted if allowed to 
 escape by any wound in the cornea, and i 
 is formed in such quantity as to cause i 
 of the eye [hydrophOialmia). 
 
 A'QUEOUS ROCKS. In Geology, every layer 
 which forms a portion of the solid crust of the earth 
 is called a rock, it matters not whether its particles 
 are incoherent, like sod or sand, or com 
 
 her, like limestone and sandstone — to all alike, 
 irrespective of popular usage, the geologist I 
 the term roch. In this wide sense, the rocks of the 
 earth's crust are cither igneous (q. v.) or sedimentary. 
 These sedimentary rocks have an aqu 
 with the exception of a very limited number, like 
 drift-sand, which are brought into their present 
 position by the action of the wind. I HI 
 
 IS rocks, whose particles have assumed their 
 i it form in the position they occupy, the mate- 
 
 rials of the A. II. have evidently bt I from 
 
 a distance. They owe their origin to some older 
 rock, whose decomposition or destruction has afforded 
 the materials. The parent rock can often be 
 identified. Its distance is indicated by the condition 
 of the materials, whether they arc rounded and 
 water-worn, or angular and sic 
 
 The agents now at work, and which hav. 
 active in past geological ages, rubbing down and 
 transporting the materials from which these rocks 
 are formed, arc the following : 1 . The sea, dest i 
 the rocks and cliffs, and beaches which form its 
 boundary, and carrying off the eroded D 
 form new rocks below the level of the sea. 
 'J. Rivers, including the action of their sm 
 tributary rills, and even of the drops of rain, for 
 abrade and carry off the almost imperceptible 
 particles from the surface w here they fall ; and when 
 united, they form the rill with its susp 
 m nt. and these again unite to form the river, which 
 in its course not only retains what it has got, but 
 Op mere from its own bed, and carries all to 
 the sea or lake, to deposit it tie re as a new stratmn. 
 1 1 i difficult to estimate the influence of this a 
 £ I ttarlea Lyell calculates that the Nile annually 
 Mediterranean :.',7 ll -,7o8,400 cubic 
 olid matter. 3. Glaa rgt. These 
 
 enormous moving masses of ice are not only loaded 
 with rock-fragments, which are deposited as the 
 ice melts, but are ever abrading the rocks over v hich 
 they pass, and thus supply materials to form new 
 layers. 4. Several stratified rocks have an evidently 
 Ms 
 
 organic origin, such as chalk, and some lime- 
 stones chiefly composed of animal remains, an 
 
 table carbon; but even these have 
 been influenced in their formation by water so much 
 as to justify us in classifying them with A. K. 
 .",. 'lie same remark applies to rocks which have 
 . redpitated from a fluid with which tin- mate- 
 rials eari mica] combination, as 1 1 
 
 tli beds of salt, gypsum, and calcareous tufa. 
 As the result of these various actions, we have a 
 
 of rocks which, from their composition, may 
 as Arenaceous, Argillaceous, Galea i 
 I i bou , S 'lute, and Silicious, We must, refer 
 
 to these terms for the descriptions of I 
 
 included under them. 
 The arrangement of the A. 1!. dep I tic ir 
 
 diffcreii - of more importance in modern 
 
 geology than that depending on their internal con- 
 stitution. When a section of the earth's crust is 
 examined, it is found to be composed of a series of 
 layers which have lien produced in sue, 
 
 nng this with sections in other districts, it is 
 ' re is a regularity in the ; 
 parts ; for beds of the same structure are found in 
 
 ut localities, and these occupy the sam 
 tive position to the adjacent beds. A numb 
 observations have shewn that the crust of the earth 
 is composed of a regular series of earthy deposits 
 formed one after another, during successive periods 
 of time. This general induction forms the basis of 
 the following classification. For the description of 
 the included strata we must again refer to the names 
 of the different divisions : 
 
 I. Tektiary or Kai.nozok- Epoch— 1. Superfi- 
 cial Deposits or Recent Period; 2. Pleistocene 
 Period ; 3. Pliocene or Upper Tertiary Period ; 4. 
 Miocene or Middle Tertiary Period; 5. Eocene or 
 Lower Tertiary 1'' 
 
 II. Secondary or Mesozoic Epoch — C. < 
 
 e on Period; 7. Oolitic Period; 8. Triassic Period. 
 
 III. l'la'ju.v ob I'm. i azoic Epoch — 9. Permian 
 
 Period; Hi. Car) iferous Period: 11. Devonian or 
 
 Old led Sandstone Period; 12. Silurian Period; 13. 
 Cambrian Period. 
 
 AQUIFOLIA'CE/E, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 0U8 plants, of which the common 
 holly (q.v.) is the best known example, and the only 
 species that is a native of Europe. The order, how- 
 ever, contains more than one hundred specii 
 greater part of which are natives of America, and 
 many of them belong to the tropical and subtxopii i 
 parts of it. The species are all evergreen tan 
 shrubs, with simple, leathery leaves, and without 
 stipules. The flowers are small and axillary, with 
 4 — 6 sepals, and a 4— G-parted corolla, into which the 
 stamens arc inserted, alternating with its segie 
 The ovary is fleshy and superior, with two or more 
 cells, a solitary anatropal pendulous ovule in each 
 cell, the cells generally becoming bony as distinct 
 stones in the fruit, which is fleshy. The order is 
 allied to Jlliamnacea;, Cdastracea, and Bbtnacece. 
 The most interesting species belong to the genus 
 Ilex, or Holly (q. v.). 
 
 AQUILA Se 
 
 A'QUILA, the capital of the Italian pro- 
 vince called Abruzzo Ultra, situated on the 
 r the loftiest of the Apennines, with a 
 population of 10.0011, ranks as a fortified be. 
 the fourth class, though it3 citadel is its only strong 
 point. A. was built by the emperor Frederic II. 
 from the nuns of the ancient Amiternum, a town of 
 . and the birthplace of Sallust the 
 historian. In 1703 it was almost destroyed by an 
 earthquake, in which 2000 persons perished. A 
 is a bishop's see, has civil and criminal courts, and
 
 AQUILA— AQUINAS. 
 
 a Lyceum, ami is considered one of the best built 
 towns in the kingdom. In 1841, much political 
 disturbance took place here, and several of the 
 inhabitants were imprisoned and executed in conse- 
 quence. Altogether, public feeling in this town and 
 province is far more liberal than in most other parts 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 A'QUILA, Posticus, a celebrated translator of 
 the Old Testament into Greek, born at Sinope. He 
 nourished about the year 130 A. I)., is said to have 
 
 I ii a relation of the Emperor Hadrian, and to 
 
 have been lirst a Pagan, then a Christian, and 
 finally a Jew; submitting in his last conversion to 
 '. be peculiar religious ceremony of circumcision. His 
 dm lation of the Old Testament— which appears to 
 have been undertaken for the benelit of his Hellen- 
 ised countrymen — was so literal, that the Jews pre- 
 ferred it to the .Septuagint, as did also the Judni ill 
 sect of Christians, called Ehionites. Only a portion 
 of the work remains, which has been edited by 
 Montfaucon and others. 
 
 AQUILARIA'CEiE, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 donona or exogenous plants, containing only about 
 ten known species, all of which are trees with 
 smooth branches and tough bark, natives of the 
 I parts of Asia. The leaves are entire ; the 
 perianth leathery, turbinate, or tubular, ii limb 
 divided into four or live segments; the stamens 
 usually ten; the filaments inserted into tin- orifice 
 of tlie perianth ; the ovary two-celled, with two 
 mules; the stigma large ; the fruit a 2-valved cap- 
 sule, or a drupe The order is chiefly interesting as 
 producing the fragrant wood called Aloes Wool 
 [q. v.). 
 
 AQUILEGIA. See Coi.umbi.ne. 
 
 AQUILE'JAor AGLAR (earlier.Velia or Aqufla), 
 is a town in Venetia, Italy, at the head of the 
 Adriatic, 22 miles W.N.W. of Trieste. Top. 1480. 
 It is now sunk in utter insignificance, possessing no 
 trade or public buildings of any note, except its 
 cathedral; but in the tune of the Roman emperors, 
 it was one of the most important places north of the 
 metropolis. Its commerce was flourishing, for though 
 .S miles distant from the sea, vessels could n ach ' 
 by canals connecting it with the rivers in its vicinity. 
 It was both the central point of the transit-trade 
 between the north and south of Europe, and 1 ln- 
 key of Italy against the barbarians. Founded by 
 a Roman colony in 181 B. 0., it became a favourite 
 residence of Augustus; and in 16S A.I), was so 
 strongly fortified by Marcus Aurelius, as to be con- 
 : idered the first bulwark of the empire on the north. 
 It was called Soma Secunda, the Second Koine. 
 Here the Emperor Maximin perished; and in the 
 vicinity Constantius lost his life in a battle against 
 
 I ln-r Constans. When the town was dee 
 by Attila in 452, it had 10,000 inhabitants. It never 
 
 recovered, although it received some ecclesiastical 
 
 honours, but has continued slowly dwindling down 
 through all the centuries into deeper obscurity and 
 w ii tchedness. Councils were held at A. in 381,558, 
 698, and 11S1 A.D. 
 
 AQUI'tfAS, Thomas, or THOMAS of AQUINO, 
 oin- of the most influential of the scholastic theolo- 
 v. a -■. of tin' family of the Counts of Aquino, in 
 the kingdom of Naples, and was born in the Castle 
 of Km ica Secca in 1224. He received the rudiments 
 of his education from the Benedictine monks of 
 
 Monte-Casino, and completed his studies at the 
 
 university of Naples. A strong inclination to philo- 
 sophical speculation determined the young nobleman, 
 against the will of his family, to enter (1243) the 
 order of Dominicans. In order to frustrate the 
 attempts of his friends to remove him from the con- 
 vent, lie was sent away from Naples, with the view 
 
 of going to Erance ; but his brothers took him by force 
 fn. in Ins conductors, and earned him to the paternal 
 1 1 re he was guarded as a prisoner for two 
 years, when, by the help of the Dominicans, he 
 contrived to escape, and went through France to the 
 Dominican convent at Cologne, in order to enjoy the 
 instructions of the famous Albertus Magnus (q. v.). 
 According to another account, he owed his release 
 from confinement to tin interfi n nee of the em] 
 and the pope. At Cologne he pursued his studies 
 in such silence, that his companions gave him the name 
 of the ' Dumb Ox.' But Albert, his master, i- reporb 1 
 to have predicted, ' that this ox would one day fill the 
 world with his bellowing.' Thoroughly imbued with 
 the scholastic, dialectic, and Aristotelian philosophy, 
 he came forward, after a few years, as a | 
 teacher in Paris. His masterly application of Qua 
 philosophy to the systcmatising of theology, soon pro- 
 cured hiin a distinguished reputation. It w. 
 however, till 1257, that A. obtained the degree 
 of doctor, as the university of the Sorbonin 
 hostile to the mendicant monks. He vindicated 
 his order in his work, Conhu Jmi'iii/tianUs Dei 
 ! et ReUgionem; and, in a disputation in 
 presence of the pope, procured the condemnation of 
 the books of his adversaries. lb- continu 
 lecture with great applause in Paris, till Urban IV., 
 in 1261, called him to Italy to teach philoso, 
 Uonie, Bologna, and Pisa. Finally, fa I 
 reside in the convent at Naples, where he di 
 the offer of the dignity of archbishop, in order to 
 devote himself entirely to study and lee! 
 Being summoned by Gregory X. to attend the 
 ( leneral < 'i luncil at Lyon, he was surprise)] by death on 
 the way, 1274, at Fussanuova, in Naples. According 
 to a report, he was poisoned at the instigai 
 Charles I. of Sicily, who dreaded the evidence that 
 A. would give of him at I 
 
 Even during his life A. enjoyed the i 
 consideration in the church. His von 
 decisive weight with it ; and his scholars called him 
 ■Universal,' the 'Angelic Doctor,' and the 
 ' Second Augustine.' A general chapter of Domini- 
 cans in 1'aris made it obligatory on the members of 
 the order, under pain of punishment, to defend his 
 doctrines. It was chiefly the narratives of mil 
 said to have been wrought by A. that indued 
 
 John XXII., in 1323, to give him a place among the 
 saints. His remains were deposited in the convent 
 of his order at Toulouse. Like most of the other scho- 
 lastic theologians, he had no knowledge of Gr< 
 Hebrew, and was almost equally ignorant of history; 
 but his writings display a great ezpendij 
 ice and dialectic art, set off with the il 
 ible eloquence of zeal. His chief works i 
 ntory on the Four Books oj I 
 , 7. Il'i.-e>'«mma77. putattB 
 
 el Qvodlii" tales, and Opuscule. 77 eologiea. II 
 a new and scientific foundation to the docti 
 
 the church's treasury of works of supererogation. 
 to that of withholding the cup from the laity 
 
 in the communion, and to i iation. 
 
 Me al o treated i hristian morals according to an 
 
 arrangement of his own. and 
 
 oat procured him the I ' flather of 
 
 Moral l'hilosopbv.' The definiteness, cleami 
 completene a of his method of handling the tin 
 
 of the church, gave his works a superiority over tie 
 
 text-book i of the > urlier 
 
 v . iii s 8ur, - the first attempt 
 
 at a complete theological system. Accordingly, 
 Pius V., to whom we owe the publication of the 
 complctest collection of A. 's works (IS vols.. Rome, 
 1670 ; a newer but less tru 
 
 16.'i0--41). ranks him with the greatest 
 I teachers of the church. In his philosophical w I 
 
 313
 
 AQUITANIA— AP.Al'.IA. 
 
 the ablest of which i-< ( 
 
 ., he throws new light on 
 
 ■ instance of A. 
 .•i Dominican, ami boasted of by his ord 
 their 
 
 i □ t him. In the 
 
 14th c, Duns Scotus (q. v), a I 
 forward as the declared opponent of the do 
 hi A., and founded the philosophicc 
 I i whom the 
 Btood opposed. The Thomists 
 in philosophy to Nominalism (q. v.). although they 
 held tin- abstract form to be the essence of ; 
 they followed the doctrines of as to 
 
 and disputed the immaculal tion ol 
 
 tli>- \ irgin. The Scotiste, again, inclined to Et 
 (q. v.), and to the views of the Semipelagiana, and 
 upheld the immaculate conception. 
 
 AQUITA'ITIA, the Latin nam. 1 of a part of 
 Gaul, originally including the country i 
 Pyrenees and the Garonne, peo 
 trib '. i he divided < ■nil in 
 
 provinces, added to A. the country lying bi 
 
 rivers Garonne and Loire. Afterwards, A. 
 
 pass '1 into the hands — first, of tli iths, ami 
 
 then of the Franks; and during the Merovingian 
 
 an independent duchy. Though 
 
 subjugated by Charlemagne, the duchy again claimed 
 
 endence under the weak monan 
 Carlovingian dynasty. In 1137, it was unil 
 the crown of France by the marriage of Louis VII. 
 with Eleanor, heiress of A. In 1152, A. became 
 an English possession through the marrii 
 Henry II. with Eleanor, whom Louis had dft 
 and a long series of disputes tuck place I 
 England and France i aich was at 
 
 i ultimately united to the crown of France 
 I ._. i lharles VII. in 1451. 
 
 ARABESQUE (Fr.), means merely afi r Ou 
 A -inner ; and, so fa 
 
 1, might therefore be general in its application. 
 In practice, however, it is used to characl 
 liar kind of fantastic decoration commonly em] 
 in conjunction with archit 1 which the 
 
 Spanish Mm, us are snppi 
 have introduced ini 
 Europe. But the species of en- 
 richment to which this term is 
 now applied, w isdvely 
 
 employed botjh by the Krceks 
 and Komans, the latter. in par- 
 ticular being masters of the 
 The Egyptians, from whom the 
 Moors probably derived their ori- 
 ginal notions of this and other 
 forms of art, also employed it 
 in enriching their mouui. 
 decorations. But the A. of tin- 
 Moors differed from that of the 
 Egypl 
 
 figures of animals, the repi 
 ataOD of which was forbidd 
 
 Mohammedan religion, and 
 confining itself entirely to the 
 foliage, Bowers, fruit, and tendrils 
 of plants and trees, curiously and 
 elaborately intertwined. This 
 limitation of the field of A. was 
 again departed from when the 
 decorations wire di- 
 
 walls of the baths of Titus, 
 Leo X. ; and more recently those 
 
 Arahes ute PaneL 
 
 From the Mosque 
 at Coruovx 
 
 in the time of _ 
 
 in the housc3 at Hcreulaneum and Pompeii came 
 to form the models of imitation, and the modern A. 
 consists usually of combinations of plants, birds, and 
 
 Hi 
 
 :i kinds, including the human I 
 and eml tural variety, but 
 
 w i thi nit, i ad the bouni 
 
 nature. Thi n it adm I 
 
 thi li ding peculiarity of A. ; 
 
 it is found in Bonn every 
 
 attempted to give a visible rcpre- 
 
 ,ii of their fancies, it is spoken of by P. 
 
 ii form of fancy.' 
 
 The an .,ii, which Raphael adorned the 
 
 Vatican, and which he is said 
 
 imitated from those which he had been 
 
 instrumental in di 
 
 the most famous and the most 
 
 beautiful which tl Id has produced. 
 
 lies are usually painted, though the term 
 
 , applied to sculptural representations of 
 
 similar subjects in low relief. 
 
 AKA'i'.IA — Called by the inhabitants. Jczirat-al.- 
 (the peninsula of .\.); by the Turks and 
 : , 'm — is the great south- v, , 
 
 ,1 12 10'— 31° 
 Y lat, and 32 30 - 60 E. lo 
 
 .. to S. is abo it IS i adth, 
 
 about 8 '■ 1,230,000 and its 
 
 population is roughly estimated at I. 1,000. It is 
 
 , 1 on the X. by Asiatic Turkey; on I 
 by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; on the 
 s". by the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean; 
 and on the W.. by tl It is com 
 
 with Africa on the N. W. by the Isthmus ol 
 Through the centre of the land, between Mecca and 
 Medina, runs the tropic of Cancer. The name A. 
 has been derived by some from Araba (which means 
 
 of T hama ; 
 by others, from Eber, a word signifyin 
 
 ierer'), as the primitive Aim I is were such. This 
 would connect it with the word Hebrew, which has 
 
 ■ derive 
 
 i the Hebrew verb Arab, to go down — that is, 
 •inn in which the Bun appeared to Bet to the 
 o dwellers on the Euphrates, There is also 
 , .Vr.'ibah. which means 'a barren 
 and which is occasionally employed in Scrip- 
 ture to denote the border-land between Syria and 
 Arabia. Ptolemy is supposed to be the autl 
 the faimms threefold division into Ara 
 
 . and Arabia /'• •■ rta — the lirst of which 
 included the whole of the N. W. portion; the second, 
 . rt and south-west coasts ; and the third, the 
 whole of the dimly known interior. This division, 
 however, is not recognised by tin- natives them 
 neither is it very accurate as at present understood, 
 for Petraa was not int n rocky or stony. 
 
 Ptolemy formed the adjective from the nouri 
 city of Petra (the capital of the kingdom o 
 Nabathteans), whose proper name was Thamud — 
 that is, the rock with a single stream. The word 
 ■ arose from an incom ct tra on ol 
 
 i. which does not signify 'happy,' but the land 
 lying to the right of Mecca — as Al-Slian (Syria) 
 the land lying 1 I of the same. The 
 
 divisions of the Arab gcogra] 
 i , r-< ■'- Tour Sine ■ (Desert ol Mount 
 2. The Hedjaz (Land of Pilgrimage); 3. T\ 
 and Yemen, along the Bed Sea; 4. / ', the 
 
 along the southern coast; 5. Oman, the king- 
 dom of Muscat; 0. Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf; 
 7. Nedjed, the (intra! Highlands of Arabia. 
 
 Our knowledge of the interior of A. is still very 
 imperfect in detail, but its general characteri.-t 
 
 dly African. The p .rtion of it lies in 
 
 that great desert zone which stretches from the 
 
 of the Atlantic to those of the Northern 
 
 Pacific. The interior, so far as it has yet been 
 
 explored by Europeans, seems to be a great plateau,
 
 AEABIA. 
 
 in some places reaching a height of SOOO feet The 
 western Border crest of tliis plateau maybe regarded 
 as part of a mountain-chain, beginning in the 
 
 1 on, and stretcliing smith to the Straits of 
 
 Bab-el-Mandeb. From Bab-el- Mandeb another chain 
 runs north-east, paralli 1 1<> the coast to Oman. From 
 the mountain-range on the west, the plateau slopes 
 to the north-east, and farms, in general, a vast tract 
 of shifting sands, intersp rsi d here and there about 
 the centre with various ranges of hills, which, like 
 tli- nop "i th>' peninsula, are generally barren and 
 uninl 
 
 A- has, on the whole, an African climate. T : 
 surrounded on three sides by the sea, its chains of 
 eclude in a great measure the modifying 
 ace of currents of air from the ocean. In 
 1 parts of A. hardly a refreshing shower falls 
 in the course of the year, and vegetation is 
 almost unknown: 'in other sultry districts, the 
 date-palm is almost the only proof of vegetable 
 life. Over large sterile tracts hangs a sky of almost 
 I serenity. The short rainy season which 
 occurs on the west coast, during our summer months, 
 fills ]i< riodically the wadis (hollow places) with 
 lit frosts mark the winters in the 
 and north-east. During the hot season, the 
 i (q. v.) blows, but only in the northern part of 
 the land. The terraced districts are more favourable 
 to culture, and produce wheat, barley, millet, palms, 
 tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, tamarinds, excellent 
 coffee, and many aromatic and spice-plants, as 
 balsam, aloe, myrrh, frankincense, &c. A. is desti- 
 tute of forests, but has vast stretches of desert 
 fragrant with aromatic herbs, and furnishing admir- 
 able pasturage for the splendid breed of hor 
 Coffee, one of the most important exports, is an 
 indigenous product both of A. and Africa. 
 
 In the animal kingdom, an African character 
 prevails generally. Sheep, goats, and oxen satisfy 
 the immediate domestic and personal necessities of 
 •habitants, to whom the camel and horse are 
 trusty companions in their far wand I 
 
 and ostriches frequent the oases of the d 
 
 the lion, panther, hyena, and jackal hunt 
 their prey. .Monkeys, pheasants, and doves are 
 found in the fertile districts, where flights of 1 
 often make sad devastation. Fish and turtle 
 abound on the coast. The noble breed of Arabian 
 horses lias been cultivated for several thoi 
 years; but the most characteristic of all animals in 
 the camel, which has been both 
 lly and justly styled 'the ship of the d 
 ft may be [ L as an Arabian animal, for it 
 
 to be proved that it is not a native of Africa, 
 but has migrated from the peninsula with its master, 
 not found among the figures of animals 
 ancient Egyptian paintings on walls, 
 
 ■<r to have 1 n known to the t 'artha- 
 
 is. The breed of Oman is celebrated for its 
 
 i . and swiftness. Among the minerals of A. 
 
 mentioned ton, cop] . lead, coal, basalt, 
 
 and asphaltum, and the precious stones, emerald, 
 
 cornelian, agate, and onyx. Pearls are found in the 
 Persian Gull. 
 
 lint the most interesting features of the peninsula 
 are found in its ancient and peculiar population. 
 'J he Arab is of medium stature, muscular 
 and brown complexion. Earnestness and lofty pride 
 look out of his glowing eyes; by nature he is 
 quick, sharp-witted, lively, and passionately fond of 
 
 Courage, temperance, hospitality, and 
 faith, are his leading virtues; but these ar< 
 
 1 by a spirit of sanguinary revenge and 
 rapacity. His wife ke ise and edn 
 
 the children. The Arab cannot conceive a higher 
 felicity than tho birth of a camel or a foal, 
 
 or that bis verses should bo honoured with the 
 applause of his b 
 
 Arabian life is eithi • t settled. The 
 
 wandering tribes, or Bedouins, are well known to 
 entertain very loose notions of the rights of property. 
 The located tribes, styled Had. i and Fellahs, are 
 despised by the Bedouin, who scorns to be tied down 
 to the soil, even where su< h might make 
 
 him wealthy. As Bitter in his Comparative 
 
 ■ i]. by observi -—Arabia 'is the anti-industrial 
 central point in the world 
 
 branching out to the ei lustry 
 
 making progress, while here centuries pass away 
 without any improvement save what has & n intro- 
 
 ■'. almost compulsorily, by foreigners. The 
 trade carried on by exports of coffee, dat 
 
 . and drugs, though .-till considerable, is 
 
 y a shadow of the old commerce which i 
 before the circumnavigation of Africa, or when Aden 
 was in its prime and the Ked Sea was 
 commercial route. A. has few manufactun 
 carries on a transit-trade in foreign fal 
 
 tins these to some extent for its own i 
 sities. Few nations have approached so ni 
 the Arabs to the condition of sta ! 11 in a 
 
 moral and social point of view. I ■ how 
 
 bttle progress has been made, it is remarkahl 
 a greater degeneracy has not 1 ven in 
 
 the desert the children are taught to read, write, 
 and calculate; and in the towns, education to a 
 certain degree is general Thedivii i people 
 
 into so many tribes is a barrier to everything like a 
 great national improvement; ii word 
 
 national can hardly be properly applied I 
 Arabs. It would require a series of extraordinary 
 events to develop afresh that terrible unity which 
 Mohammed gave A. for a time. 1 rnment 
 
 is patriarchal, and the chief men of the \ 
 
 have the title of Emir, Shi ik, or lmaum. 
 
 ■ function appears limil i to 1 td og the 
 in the time of war, to levying tribul I 
 
 to the administration of justice. A spirit of liberty 
 in the people moderates the authority of their i 
 tains; but instances of extreme despotism have not 
 been (infrequent both in early and modern tim 
 To number all the distinct states of A. would be 
 
 :ble in the present state of our ki 
 but the seven great divisions are those whii 
 
 numerated. Of these the most important at 
 
 I is Nedjed, a state which, while under 
 Wahabite fanaticism it rose rapidly into leading 
 power, and Beemedfor a time to wane, vet in LSG3, 
 
 1. by the reductio I it, and 
 
 the adhesion of Oman, its own pre-emini nee. 'i 
 two very important commercial ; 
 
 Mocha and Loheia, situated on th asl of the Red 
 
 Sea ; Oman has of late mad. 
 
 in ci\ ilisation. It form- I 
 
 tion to 1 lack of manufacturing activity 
 
 exhibited by the Arabians, having man 
 
 silk and cotton turban . invas, arms, 
 
 powder, fee. The [maum ol Muscat formerly 
 
 1 authority over the whole of Oman, the 
 islands in tie I I nlf, a portion of the Pi 
 
 and a vast extent of territory on th 
 of Africa, including some valuable islands. Rostak 
 is another large town inland from Muscat. Th 
 
 r division of Hedjaz contains the holy cities of 
 Mecca and Medina, with their seaports, Jiddah and 
 bo (<(. v.). 
 The History of Arabia, before the time of 
 Mohammed, is' involved in mystery, and has little 
 interest, on account of its want of connection with 
 the world's The aborigines of A. 
 
 , robabry Cushrtes, most of whom, on account 
 of the hostile "immigration of mitic races, 
 
 us
 
 ARABIA- ARABIAN Ai:< IIITECTTJRE. 
 
 descended from Joktan, grandson of Shorn, passed 
 in-, r into Abyssinia, A few, however, r 1 
 who inhabited ti m ntlj , 
 
 , descended from Aon 
 in the land. The oldest Arabian tribes are 
 now extinct) and only a traditional memory even of 
 their names exists; but the Semitic chiefs, Joktan 
 or Kalitan, and Ishmael, are generally C 
 b ■ tie' fathers of the present inhabitants. T 
 ccndanta of the former are the pore Arabs ; those of 
 the latter are held to 1 uy Ai The 
 
 princes of A. b,i mi"; wholly to the tirst. A 
 grandson of Joktan, Himzar or llomeir. in 
 
 the Himyaridcs or Homerito — 
 ruled in Vine n for upwards of 2000 
 This was a prosperous time. The Arabs of 3 
 and partly those of the desert, dwelt in I 
 cultivated the soil; carried on commerce with the 
 ,, Syria, and Abyssinia, in the last 
 of which countries they planted numerous colonies. 
 The rest of the people, however, lived nomadically, 
 as now. Bravely, for thousands of yean, they main- 
 tained their freedom, their faith, and their pi 
 customs against the assaults of the great military 
 enijiir p the 1 !ahylonian and Assyrian, 
 
 nor tie I 
 
 the Arabs to a state of subjugation. Alexander 
 had detenni ins power a| abut A., when 
 
 death interrupted his plans. Three centuries after 
 Alexander's death, the Romans had extended their 
 empire to the borders of A., and Trajan, in 1U7 A.D., 
 rated far into the interior; but though the 
 northern chieftains were brought into a formal sub- 
 jection to tin \. was not mad ■ a Roman pro- 
 vince. The old Himyaridcs in Yemen stoutly main- 
 tained their independence, and an expedition against 
 
 i .11 the time of Augustus completely failed. With 
 
 the decay of the Roman empire, strife and lawless- 
 ness increased. The Arab races continued in a 
 scattered, disorganised condition, and many hundreds 
 of years passed away in intes' daring which 
 
 tli" central highland region was t 
 feuds of the Arab elans SO copiously sung by the 
 native poets. Christianity found an early entrance 
 into A. The Jews, in considerable numbers, migrated 
 into A. after the destruction of Jerusalem, and 
 made many proselytes, especially in ^i ■ 
 diversity of creeds in the peninsula was favourable 
 introduction of the doctrine of Mohammed, 
 forms the grand epoch in Arabian history, 
 and brings it into close connection with the gi 
 history of civilisation. Xow, for the tirst time, the 
 of A. became united, and powerful enough 
 to erect new empires in the three quarters of 
 the world The dominion of the Arabs, from the 
 ,1 to the fall of the Califat of 
 1 m 1258, or even to the expulsion of the 
 from Spain in 1402, is an important period 
 in the history of civilisation. (See the articles 
 Mooes, Califs.) But the movements which had 
 reat effects on the destinies of other nations, 
 d but little change in the interior of A. ; 
 and, after the brilliant career of conquest was 
 !. the peninsula was left in an exhausted con- 
 i the subjugation of Yemen 
 by the Turks in the sixteenth century; their expul- 
 ateenth century; the dominion of 
 the Portuguese over Muscat, 1508—1050; the con- 
 i irnan and the temporary victories gained 
 by the Persians at the close of the sixteenth century; 
 ainl. lastly, the appearance of the Wahabis (q.v.) 
 (1770), whose moral influence is still felt. The latter 
 an important part in the political affairs of A., but 
 their progress was interrupted by Mehemet Ali, the 
 ypt, who subjugated the coast-country of 
 Hedjaz, with some parts of the coast of Yemen, and 
 
 ive ad van', h the 
 
 victory 01 Ibrahim Pasha. The subsequent • 
 of the year 1840, in Syria, compelled I ■ . how- 
 
 to ] 
 ond the I; 
 
 II IBIS, ill 8i 
 
 ARATBLAN ARCHITECTURE. So insepar- 
 
 tion between architecture and 
 ' it may be Btated as a general ml" 
 
 that no a new religion i 1 than 
 
 it finds expression in new architectural forms. 
 Of this we have an interesting instance in the 
 simultaneous rise of Mohammedanism, and of 1 I 
 style of architecture comrnonly called Arabian or 
 
 of Mohami Ian 
 
 appropriately be given, seeing that 
 vv.Iiito followed the religion 01 
 i id that the Arabians pi 
 
 architecture peculiar to themselves. It is further 
 remarkable that the style of which we 
 to have arisen, as it were, undesignedly, or, at all 
 events, without any conscious effort on the part of 
 the p ople bom it (irst appeared. The 
 
 Prophet contemplated nothiii 
 liar in their ecclesiastical structures ; and at tirst 
 their n bxri] I hristian arc] 
 
 from t As a natural conseqi 
 
 they resembled Bj dified in the 
 
 Uiiki^ 
 
 Moorish Gateway. 
 
 countries of which the Moors successively possessed 
 themselves by the features of the existing chm 
 Gradually the new and fanciful ornament 
 known as Arab Hjue (q, v.) was added to the I 
 nised features of Creek and Roman edifices. The 
 exclusion of animal figures, which their abhoi 
 of the very appearance of idolatry necessitated,
 
 ARABTAX GULF— ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 confim J the Mol 'i am dan artifita to tlio imitation of 
 • ions, varied by geometrical patterns 
 and inscriptions, of which the letters 
 into forms which suited them for architectural uses. 
 But the most original feature in their edifices, and 
 that by -which they have continued to be marked 
 from all others, is the horse-shoe arch. The example 
 
 • illustration presents a form which, not- 
 
 : aiding its extreme beaut} - , lias sta 
 
 i scarcely ever been imitated in the I 
 
 church. 'Hie pointed arch, on the other hand, and 
 
 i : ; • various forms of the trefoil and quatrcfoil 
 
 arches, though there can be little doubt that we are 
 
 ted for them to the rich invention of the 
 Moorish architects, have become so entirely Christian 
 as to lie no longer associated in our minds with the 
 religion of the prophet. It is said that the pointed 
 
 is to be found in Mohammedan buildings so 
 early as 780 A. D. (Parker's Glossary ofArc/ii' 
 whereas the earliest examples of its use in Chris- 
 tian architecture belong to the 12th c. -Moorish 
 architecture probably reached its highest point of 
 
 ipment in the Alhambra, with the characteris- 
 tics of which the English public have been made 
 familiar by means of the court which bears its 
 
 in the palace at Sydenham. 
 ARABIAN CULF. See Red Sea. 
 ABABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERA- 
 TURE. Regarding the oldest literary culture of 
 the Arabians, we possess but slight information. 
 That their poetry at least must have had a very early 
 
 ipment, may be inferred from the natural 
 disposition of the inhabitants, who were character- 
 
 r their high spirit, courage, love of adventure, 
 and delight in the glory of war. As far back as 
 Solomon's time, the queen of Sheba (probably 
 / '• ' as) was noted for her sententious sayings. 
 The nomadic tribes, living under the patriarchal rule 
 of their sheiks, possessed everything that was favour- 
 
 i the growth of a simple and natural poetry. 
 They had quick and vivid feelings, and a rich, 
 
 flowing fancy, which, operating upon the perils, the 
 ardships, and strange confederate life they led in 
 those barren sand-deserts, and amongst naked rocks, 
 coidd hardly fail to call forth a wild and vigorous 
 minstrelsy. Before the time of Mohammed, the 
 Arabians had celebrated poets who sang the feuds of 
 and the praises of heroes and fair women. 
 1 luring the great fairs at Mecca and Okadh, poetic 
 contests were held before the people as at the 
 Grecian games; and the poems to which the prize 
 was awarded, were re-written in golden char- 
 acters, and suspended in the Kaaba at Mecca, 
 nerable national temple which the Moham- 
 medans affirm to' have been built by Abraham, or 
 IshmaeL They are termed the MoallahU — i.e., 
 ^iispended' — from the honour conferred on 
 MiarkaMe for their pathos, soaring 
 conceptions, richness of imagery and phraseology, 
 fre and unconstrained spirit, and the glow of their 
 love and hate. Among the famous poets of this 
 early period are Nabegna, Asha, Shanfara — whose 
 works were translated and published by De Saey 
 in his ChreslomaUttt Aral*— and, lastly, Kaab-ben- 
 Zohair, who lived to celebrate the praises of the 
 prophet Mohamm 
 
 But the most brilliant period of Arabic culture is 
 that which Mohammed himself inaugurated in the 
 Koran. His new doctrines of faith and life, collected 
 under this title by the tirst calif, Abubekr, were 
 I and published by Othman, the third calif. 
 Tli" naturally adventurous spirit of found 
 
 a suitable excitement in the half-religious, half-mili- 
 tary system of Mohammed, and, after his death, 
 tin ir fanaticism prepared them for their subsequent 
 career. Like an overwhelming torrent, they passed 
 
 over the neighbouring states, and in the short space 
 lis from the death of their prophet, had 
 1 their dominion from Egypt to India, and 
 from Lisbon to .Samarcand. liuring this time 
 nothing can be said of their culture and I 
 A fanatical desire of conquest prevailed. Gradually, 
 however, by their intercourse with civilised nations, 
 the Arabian conquerors were themselves subj. 
 the humanising influence of letters, and, after 749 
 A.D., or during the reign of the Abassides, literature, 
 arts, and sciences appeared, and were generously 
 fostered under the splendid sway, first of Almansor 
 (7S4— 775), and afterwards of the celebrated Harun- 
 al-Raschid (786—808). Learned men were now 
 invited from many countries, and remunerated for 
 1 'houre with princcly'munilicence ; the works 
 of the best Greek, Syriac, and old Persian writers 
 were translated into Arabic, and spread abroad in 
 numerous copies. The C i nun, who r 
 
 from 813 to 833, olfered to the Greek emperor five 
 tons of gold and a perpetual treaty of peace, on 
 condition that the philosopher Leo should be 
 allowed for a time to give instruction to the former. 
 There are few instances of such a price offered 
 for lessons in philosophy. Under the sway of the 
 same Al-Mamun, excellent schools were founded 
 lad, Basra, Bokhara, and Kufa; while 
 a were collected at Alexandri 
 and Cairo. In Spain, the high school of Cordova 
 rivalled the literary fame of Bagdad, and, generally, 
 in the 10th c, the Arabs appeared everywhere 
 as the preservers and distributers of know I 
 Pupils from France, and other European cou: 
 then began to repair to Spain in great num- 
 bers, to study mathematics and medicine under 
 the Arabs. There were fourteen academies, with 
 many preparatory and upper schools in Spain, and 
 live very considerable public libraries ; that of the 
 i .' I laid m containing, as is said, more than 
 600,000 volumes. This state of culture, when com- 
 pared with that prevalent before Mohammed. 
 a rapidity of progress in knowledge almost as 
 remarkable as the career of Arabian conqi 
 
 In geography, history, philosophy, medicine, 
 physics, and mathematics, the Arabians rendered 
 important services to science; and the Arabic 
 words still employed in science — such as algebra, 
 alcohol, azimuth, zenith, nadir, with many nanus 
 of stars, &c. — remain as indications of their influence 
 on the early intellectual culture of Europe. Put 
 geography owes most to them during the middle 
 ages. In Africa and Asia, the boundaries of 
 ipfucal science were extended, and the old 
 Aral) treatises on geography and work- 
 in several countries by Abidfeda, Edrisi. 1 
 Africanus, Ibn Batuta, Ron Foslan, Ibn Jobair, 
 Albiruni the astronomer, and others, are still 
 interesting and vain 
 
 History was also studiously i Tin- 
 
 oldest Arabic historian of whom we know is 
 Mohammed-al-Kelbi (died in S10). About the 
 same period, however, flourished several other 
 historians. After the dawn of the K>th C, 1 
 became a favourite study of the Arabs. The tirst 
 who attempted a universal survey of the subject 
 were Masudi, Tabari, Hamza of Ispahan, and 
 Kutvchius the Christian patriarch of Alexandria. 
 Masudi's work is • m W of Gold and 
 
 were followed by Abulfaraj 
 and George Elmakin (both Christians), Abulfeda, 
 and others. Nuvairi w I 
 
 Oie Government of the Arab*. Various sections of 
 Arabic histories rlating to the Crusades have been 
 transla- ranch. On the dominion of the 
 
 Arabs in Spain, several works were written by 
 Abul-Kasem of Cordova (died in 1130), Temiui, 
 
 347
 
 ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 \ti nded Doticei we may rater the 
 student of Arabic Literature to the I 
 
 and others ; but i specially 
 Encyl ' 
 
 - by Von Bammer (2 vols. Leip. 1804). 
 
 inately 
 connected, and both founded on the Koran ; I 
 
 imple and uniform as is generally 
 began to pn v.ul during 
 the Ommaiade dynasty, and the Aristol 
 ophy to be studied by 1 ' quence, 
 
 the va i ins of the Koran wi re soon vari- 
 
 ously interpreted, and a li" - dually 
 
 four only are regarded as orthodox, 
 ' not loss than 
 
 bated in 1 
 tani (edited by ( London, 1842). 'I I 
 
 ; who do li.- 
 
 tradition, but Bubord I ; the 
 
 Shafites, who entirely r on and 
 
 ophy in their treatment o ; thi 
 
 Camb 
 tdon on points where there is no tradition. The 
 
 collecti 1 traditions known as t 1 vcs an 
 
 - and doing i of Moh unmed, 
 and, though pedantic in its details, is in sub 
 more valuable than the Koran. The interpretation 
 of the K.ir.ui cor tdtufc the principal part of 
 education in 1 
 
 Samakhshs 
 Baidhawi The conquest of Algiers has rendered thi 
 
 on, by which an abundance of 
 aramatic and balsamic juices is yielded to man from 
 varion j abstances. The 
 
 attenl lave been dii 
 
 to the natural products of their native soil, and those 
 brough of commerce from t : 
 
 of Malabar, Coyl and Eastern Africa. 
 
 Hence the wish to distinguish carefully from 
 
 one another these precious articles of conn 
 which 
 
 >■ ■ TheBcn Bdicine, when con 
 
 with reference to it-" scientific development, is ■ 
 tially a creation of the Arabs, to whom the i 
 and, at the same time, one of the richest bout 
 knowledge - thai i Lnd . ■ . ma- had bei a 
 
 early opened. Chemical pharmacy (see Axchxot) 
 was created by the Aral., whilst to tare also 
 
 due the Brat off ions arding the 
 
 preparation and admixture of different rami dial 
 pes of the present day. 
 
 were subsequently diffused over the Bouth of 
 Europe by the School ol Salerno' (Humboll 
 vol. ii. p. 581, Holm's translation). Pharmacy and 
 
 '.urally led to botany and eh 
 try. For three centuries— from the 8th to the 11th 
 — a rich scientific culture prevailed. Schoc 
 
 iphy and medicine sprung up at 3 
 
 ban, Firuzabad, Bokhara, Kufa. B 
 Alexandria, Cordova, Sec. In all departments of 
 medical made, except 
 
 in anatomy. The reason of this exception lies in 
 
 study of Arabic or Mohammedan law indispensable the fact, that the Koran forbids i ion of 
 
 French. The result is, that several most 
 important works on that Bubject have appeared of 
 iris press, such as Prids ./■ Juris- 
 prud I; M 
 
 KhalU-Ibn-Ishah (translated by Perron, Paris, 1848), 
 and Legislation ifui dmtm Sui 
 1848). 
 Arabian philosophy, which 
 hold the s 'in. n lotion to the Koran as the Si 
 middle ages did to the < In i tian 
 tuxes- that is. it was regarded a rant of 
 
 faith. I study of the Arabs was the 
 
 writings of Aristotle, who became known in 
 and subsequently in all Western Europe, through 
 
 though the 
 a only knew the Greek philos- 
 opher in ti.' made during the tun i 
 ' ■ vial attention was paid to 
 and mi taphysii >. The most distinguished of their 
 philosophical writ lasra, who 
 bed about the beginning of the 9th c. ; Alfa- 
 rabi, who wrote a work Principles in 954 ; 
 Avicenna (died 1036), who combined the study ol 
 m1 metaphysics with that of medicine, and 
 " progress in chi ology, 
 and medical botany; Ibn-Yahya, who acquired a high 
 reputation as an original thinker; Akzhazali (died 
 1111), who wrote a book entitled /' . 
 all Idolatrous Ph ms ; Abubekr-ibn- 
 Tofail (died lliui), who taught in his philosoj 
 novel Hai-ebn-Yol i;d by Pococke, Oxford, 
 1671 i thedi velopment of men from animals; and his 
 pupil, Averrhoes, greatly esteemed as an expo 
 Aristotle. For an account of these men and their 
 systems, see Snr les Ecoles Philosophiques dies, h i 
 . 4c., 1 y Sclunulders (Paris, lt>42), and Hitter's 
 
 Uberunsere Kcnntniss der Arab. Philosophy (Giitt. 
 1844). 
 
 Many of these illustrious Arabian philo 
 
 ins. The great ekill which the Arabs 
 
 acquired in their knowledge of the uses and prop 
 
 Of medicinal herbs, is traced by Humboldt to their 
 
 ■local position. The southern part of Arabia 
 
 ' is characterised by the highly developed vital force 
 
 bodies. The most famous writers on medicine are 
 Aharon, Alkendi, Avicenna (q. v.), who wrote the 
 . for a long time the only hand- 
 abject; Alid.cn- Abbas, [shak-ben- 
 Solciman, Abnlkasem, Averrhoes (q. v.), who wrote 
 a complete syst an of medicine ; Ali-bi n 
 In mathematics, the Arab 
 
 introduction of the i Is and mod ol 
 
 m now in use, of the 
 chord i nietry), and of a more extended 
 
 .bra. Astronomy was zealously 
 lis and ol ral 
 i I dova. Alzahan wrote upon o] 
 translated the Elements of Euclid; 
 •ben-Afla fvu mmentary on thi 
 
 . The Almagest or System of 
 
 Astronomy by Ptolemy, was translate -I into Arabic 
 
 i and Sergii as early as 812. In the 10th 
 
 c Albaten observed the advance of the fine of the 
 
 orbit ; Moll iiuiii. d-ln ii J 
 
 obliquity of the ecliptic; Alp. , 
 
 w rote a thi "iy of the planets; and A bid- 1 1 a an-Ali, 
 
 onomical in 
 
 s these advances in the solid branches of 
 the genius of the Arabs continually 
 flowered into Numerous poets sprung up in 
 
 all lands where the children of the desert had i I 
 
 table faith. Their verse, however, was 
 not like the rude, simple minstrelsy of a purely 
 patriarchal people ; it gradually allied itself to the 
 prevailing culture, and took,' especially in the 
 epoch of Arabian civilisation, a highly artistic form, 
 bbi, Al.id-Ala, and others acquired a ■ reat 
 reputation for their delicate Idylls; Busiri, for his 
 eulogy of Mohammed; Hamadani, as the fir I to 
 introduce novels in verse (of which he wrote WO 
 under the title of MaMmul), a style of literature 
 which was brought to perfection by liariri ; Azzeddin, 
 for his ingenious allegorical poem, 'The Pirds and 
 the Flowi • .' Besides these, a singularly wild and 
 fantastic prose literature made its appearance, in 
 which the craving for the wonderful and gorgeous, so 
 characteristic of the restless, adventure-loving Arabs, 
 was richly gratified. Romances and legendary tales
 
 ARABIAN LANGUAGE— ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 ded. The most famous of theso arc : Tim 
 ito(q.v.), Th. 
 
 Antar, The ExpUrit*oftheCham\ i , :md'/7e I. 
 
 m' tli". Hero. In fact, with the exception of the 
 drama, there was no sort of poetry which the Arabs 
 did not attempt. The effect of this universality 
 and richness in Arabic literature was, that it exercised 
 a powerful influence on modern European i 
 The tales of fays, charms, sorceries, and the whole 
 sua machinery of enchantment passed into the 
 of the West. During the middle agc3 of 
 European history, several of the most popular and 
 1 Looks were of Arabic origin ; such 
 . and 77 
 ; , though the Arabians themselves borrowed 
 largely from the Persian stories and I ' 
 
 All tliis culture of the early ages of Moham- 
 medanism presents a strong contrast to the 
 
 .. hieli now prevails among the Arabs. The 
 brutal fanaticism of the Turks m; 
 promise; of the East; sunk in stupid indo 
 o oplea await in apathetic resignation 
 ranee anil return to higher of life. 
 
 Literature furnishes now nothing worthy of notice. 
 Learning spends itself principally in comma 
 
 liolia, in scholastic discussions on the subject- 
 matter of dogmatics and jurisprudence, and in 
 tedious grammatical disquisitions concerning the old 
 Arabir lerally acute and subtle, but always 
 
 Unprofitable and unenhvenmg. The swift and mobile 
 genius of the East has departed, and pedantic dnl- 
 
 i s usurped its place. There are ' Drya 
 even in the desert. A few modern writers have 
 attempted, with more or less success, to imitate 
 European forms of thought and sentiment I 
 may lie mentioned Michael Sabbagh of Syria (/.•' 
 i Arabic and French, Paris, 
 
 Sheik, Kefaa of Cairo ( T 
 Paris, 1827 : Maimers and ' 
 
 , i 'aim. 1834 ; YV . ' iairo, 1825) ; 
 
 and Nasif-Effcndi, of Beirut, who wrote the critical 
 
 . ations in De Sacy's edition of Hariri (/.' 
 > . l . 1S4S). 
 
 Amine also possesses a Christian and J 
 literature, which, however, is chiefly ecclesiastical. 
 Its principal ornaments are Eutycliius, Elmakin, 
 and Abuuaraj. Translations of the I'll 
 lie nt were made not from the Hebrew, but from 
 tie- Septuagint, or from Latin versions. In the 
 1 middle ages, the Spanish Jews employed Arabic for 
 their learned compositions ; and several of the most 
 important works of Moses Maimonides, &c, were 
 
 lly written in that tongue. 
 The Arabic language, it has been remarked, is at 
 ■7i and noor. Itisnecessarily destitute of 
 innumerable words describing those ideas and ol 
 which only civilisation can develop or produce; but, 
 on the other hand, the rich and nimble fancy I 
 Arabians has multiplied, to an almost incredible 
 extent, the synonyms of their desert-tongue, bo that 
 in some cases several hundreds of expressions are 
 found for the same thing. The Arabic 6 
 go-called Semitic family of Imignngmi, among which 
 it is di I for its antiquity and soft Bi 
 
 i . iled into two a northern 
 
 ittthern. The former, through the 
 mentality of the Koran, became the predominant 
 language of literature and commer lout the 
 
 who!.- extent of the Arabian dominions ; the latter, 
 called the Himyarite, although in all probability 
 the source of the Ethiopic lai i writing, is 
 
 known as yet only by a few inscriptions, fee. The 
 rammarian is Abul-Aswad-al-Duli, 
 who flourished under the fourth calif, Ali. The 
 first who reduced the prosody and metre of the 
 
 Arabian poets to a system, was Khalil-hen-Alimcd- 
 al-Ferahidi of Basra. Al-Jauliari, who died in 1009 
 A, ii., drew up a dictionary of the pure Arabic s]>ecch, 
 which he entitl- I AlrSihah (' Purrty'), and which is 
 held in high estimation to this day. Mohamincd-bcn- 
 Yakub-al-Firuzabadi, who di L in 1111. was the 
 author of an Arabic Th 
 
 Ocean '), which is 1 ' in the 
 
 language, and ha bed into 
 
 i and Turkish. Jonl 
 alphabetical order, the meaning of t 
 
 used in Arabic art a ll.s work 
 
 iblishcd by ETugel (Leip. IS! ■ title 
 
 i 
 
 of Arabic 'saws,' apophthegms, 4c, which was 
 
 published by Frcytag, Bonn, 1838. rhrough the 
 
 conquests of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain, tlnir 
 
 ^e became known in Europe ; but notwith- 
 
 ng the numerous traces of its inllu. >. 
 
 tongues, it : i after 
 
 the expulsion of th ■ Moors from Spain. The 
 
 ■ earnestly took up the 
 
 the Dutch, in the 17th e. ; after them, 
 
 . French, and Rngli«h. h , 
 
 ginning t" 
 
 a learn a. The modem Arabic 
 
 of the inhabitants is substantially the same a 
 of the Koran, buttle dually 
 
 introduced changes in the grammatical forms of the 
 language, similar to those which have occurred in 
 other languages. The purest Arabic is said to be 
 spoken in Yemen, or With the 
 
 exception of the Roman characters, the Arabic have 
 been more widely diffused than those of any other 
 tongue on the face of the earth. (oiler's 
 
 Urography, I 
 Arabic Writing. — Like all Semitic writing, this 
 proceeds from right to left. It is borrowed from 
 the old Syriac, and was probably introduced into 
 Arabia by Christian missionaries about the t. 
 
 In its oldest form it is called Kulic, 
 
 El na the town of Kufa, on the Euphrates, where the 
 
 ription of the Koran was busily carried on. 
 
 Its characters are rude and coarse, and it has particular 
 
 ils for only sixteen of the twenty-eight Arabic 
 
 I consonants. This writing, nevi i mtinued 
 
 and for coins aud 
 inscriptions even later; but in the loth c. it was 
 displaced for common purposes by a current hand- 
 writing, the tfeeJchi, inb luced by Ebn Mukia. 
 the character still in use. In it. the conson- 
 ants which resemble each other are distinguished by 
 and the vowels by strokes over aud under the 
 fine. 
 
 ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS, 
 
 tiou of Oriental tales, first made known to 
 \ntonvGalland, a French orientalist, under 
 
 : 
 
 at Fans, in 12 volumes 12mo, from 17114 till 1 7 i 7 
 
 d by many as the production of the 
 mslator himself, rather than the 
 • as Galland 
 had stated in his dedication. Oriental 
 
 their authen- 
 il.umg 
 only an obscure place in the literature of the 
 | them from 
 
 i ;' eloquence or taste - bavins 
 
 . moral, or philosophical kind 
 
 ... while the manners and Customs delineated 
 
 a were different from all received id 
 
 thus.- of the Mi dem nations— their success totik 
 the critics by surprise. The work became highly 
 esteemed by the public; it filled Europe with its, 
 fame : it had abundance of rcaelcrs, and no lack of 
 
 Ml
 
 ARABIAN NUMERALS-ARABIAN SKA. 
 
 I w books have boon translated into bo 
 • different I and given di 
 
 1 .i number It may be said that, 
 
 , tales, there haa sprang up a new 
 
 h oi literature, for their mfhtsnoe on thi 
 ature of the present ilay is easily discernible. Here 
 are found, depicted with much simpln al 
 
 , the scenes of the town-life of the M 
 prowess of the Arab knight, his passion for 
 adventure, his dexterity, his love and his r 
 the craft of his wires, the h; 
 and the corruptibility of his judges, are all dramatic- 
 ally delineated — far more vivid'.. tod, in 
 fact, than is possible in a book of travels; while 
 
 I palaces, charming women, lovely gardi 
 exquisite repasts captivate the senses of the i 
 
 and transport him to the land of w ler an ! 
 
 ment. Besides entertaining the mind with the 
 loscopic wonders of a teeming and luxurious 
 fancy, which is their most obvious I 
 
 sure of instruction upon life in general, and 
 id life in particular. And this i- and 
 notwithstanding the fact, that the aspects of society 
 they depict are tar from standing high in the social 
 either as to civilisation or morality. In them no 
 story is to be found that will rank in morality with the 
 story of Joseph and his brethren, simply because the 
 
 m faith will not admit of that, any nv> 
 the decline of Arab civilisation at the time tl 
 must have been originally promnlgati 
 the tirst translator, having a conviction of a demoral- 
 tendency of this kind, avoided giving 
 ionable parts of some of the stories. The 
 thread of the narrative in these entertainments is 
 generally simple and clear, often leading into the 
 departments of fable, and occasionally into the 
 as of the supernatural and the domains of 
 popular superstition. The tales, even when long, are 
 not tiresome; for they consist of shorter stories 
 branching oil from the main one, i encased 
 
 within it, the smaller within the largi r, and | 
 
 ...thin that, Uke the little boxes used by 
 conjurors. 
 
 For many years all doubt as to the an'' 
 the Thousand and One Nights has be i 
 I MS. copies have been found 
 dttions of the Arabia text have been published. 
 A more thorough acquaintance with medieval and 
 modern Arab life has proven the genuineness of the 
 . and the truthfulness of their general repre- 
 sentation of the mind of the Moslem. In 
 
 are evident signs of a declension from a 
 I and superior civilisation ; the marvelh 
 supernatural is predominant; despotism in all its 
 forms is manifest ; and a prevalent falsity and 
 insincerity of character visible, not only in the 
 narrative, but in the tone of common conversation, 
 replete as it is with oaths and asseverations. 
 
 The origin of the work— where and by whom 
 written — is still involved in mystery. Ace ird 
 some, the tales are susceptible of a 
 The most beautiful, and in fancy the ri 
 to hive come from India, the cradle of story and 
 ; the tender and often sentimental lov 
 of Persian origin; while the masterly pictures 
 of life, and the witty anecdotes, claim to I 
 product of Arabia. Throughout, how' 
 
 is conformable to the character and customs 
 of the town population of Arabia, and to the Moham- 
 medan faith. The Baron do Sacy, in ]S2y, thus 
 statv 1 his opinion on these points. Speaking 
 work he says : ' It appears to me that it was origin- 
 ally written in Syria, and in the vulgar dialect ; that 
 it was never completed by its author ; that, subse- 
 quently, imitators endeavoured to perfect the work. 
 either by the insertion of novels already known, but 
 HO 
 
 which formed no part of the original collection, or 
 
 i in or h i 
 whence ari variatio i vable 
 
 t. Mss. of the coll 
 re added i nti 
 
 i 
 ■ 
 th much appearance of probability, in 
 
 , ■ when the work WS 
 
 ' it is not very i Id, as .t 
 but still that, when "it was brought out. thi 
 
 '. since no mention 
 of either is made in the work.' 
 
 i edition was speedily tran 
 lai i of Ear on following 
 
 t rapidity, some of them with 
 ■ ■. and others with modifications, l.at- 
 ! ' - a superior English ed 
 
 • carefully revised, and occasionally corrected from 
 At length a new Engli h bran 
 lie Arabic, with copious notes and I 
 artistic embellishments, appeared in 1839. It was 
 o \: of Edward V. : m I I Ionian 
 
 whose long residence in Egypt enabled hi 
 acquire so thorough a knowledge of the Ian. 
 manners, and customs of the I 
 furnished not only a superior 
 of notes embodying a portraiture ol i abian 
 
 life at once faithful and vivid. 
 
 The popidarity of this i book has 
 
 i i to hundreds of imitations. Among the I 
 ire— Lea Milled Un Jo 
 
 , nd the OoiUl I d'nu 1 
 pi rhapsthebestof the English imitations is the 
 of the Genii, by Sir Charles Morell; while th 
 of the German appears to be one got up fron 
 I'erso-Arabic, the Faraj bid tl Sfl dda (Jog 
 Sorrow), a popular work, and 
 
 ARABIAN NUMERALS or CIPHERS— the 
 
 characters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 6, 6, 7, 8, !». Properly, they 
 should be styled Hindu or Indian Numerals, I 
 Arabs borrowed tie 1 1 I 
 
 of notation, Lus. According to 
 
 account, Herbert (afterwards Sylve fcer ' L) li 
 the use of them from the Moors in Spain i i the 10th 
 c ; others think it mon irdo of 
 
 ' i OEBRA.) lirst introduced them from the 
 Bast into Italy about 1202. Yet the use of 
 was long in making its way. and was not • 
 before the invention of printing. Accounts con- 
 ■ kept in Roman numerals up to the 
 10th c. See NuMERAlS and hojt. 
 
 ARABIAN SEA, ancient'-. 
 the Hcd tSea, that bay of the Indian Ocean which 
 i India on the east and Arabia on the 
 west. Its northern boundary is Beloochistan ; 
 while its natural and convenient limit on the south 
 is a line drawn from Cape Comorin in Hindustan 
 Guardafui in Africa, and tl 
 
 to the Strait of Bab-el-M; 
 long, it ext 32" at Cape Bab-el- 
 
 .Man.l'Ii. i i 77 30 at( ipe Comorin; ami in N. lat. 
 from 8° 5' at Cape Comorin, to about 20 at the 
 south-west point of Beloochistan. Including its 
 two great arms, the Red Sea proper and the I' 
 
 Gulf, it far both north and wi 
 
 former itis, since the opening of the Suez Canal in 
 ,. ith the Mediterranean Sea. In 
 t aspect the A. S. long occupied a most pro- 
 minent place in the commerce of the world— a place 
 which, after having lost it for more than 300 
 
 h the doubling ol of Good Hope in 
 
 ely in a great measure regained, 
 ightheenterpnseof] i iitalists,the] 
 
 tian government, and the perseverance of M. Le
 
 ARABINE— ARACHIS. 
 
 In the history of navigation, also, the A. S. proper 
 is specially entitled to notice. It wa3 alone its 
 northern shores that Ncarchus, the admiral of 
 Alexander of Maccdon, conducted the first well 
 authenticated voyage, on a large scale, of exploration 
 and discovery; and across it the trade-winds, blow- 
 in.' alternately from north-east and south-west, were 
 wout to waft the Greeks of Egypt, without either 
 chart or compa s, about the commencement of the 
 in era. w\u., in Buff.] 
 
 A BABINE is the essential principle of gum- 
 arabic (q, v.), and is obtained pure by adding 
 alcohol to a solution of gum-arabic in water, when 
 the A. is precipitated in white flocculi. 
 
 AKACAX, or AERACAN, a city of British 
 
 Burmah, and, till lately, the capital of the province of 
 the same name. It is situat ea 50 miles from 
 
 the sea, in Iat 20" 42' N., and long. 93° 24' E. Lying 
 in a swampy valley which, on almost every side, is 
 
 led by hills, A. is subject to febrile disease in 
 •11 its forms. Previous to the lirst Burmese war — 
 
 •asion which brought it under British dominion 
 — it is said to have contained 1S.00O houses ; while 
 in 1S35, after an interval of less than ten years, its 
 
 i resented as having been onl . 
 or 10,000 — the decrease being, in a considerable 
 degree, the consequence of its having ceased to be 
 
 at of government. A. is now, in fact, interest- 
 ing only from its old associations. The moststriking 
 
 rial of antiquity is its dilapidated fort, consist- 
 ing of three concentric walls such as only a powerful 
 
 could have constructed. Beyond the limits, too, 
 of this citadel, the town, as a whole, appears to have 
 irrounded by a circumvallation of miles in 
 length, composed partly of steep and ragged emi- 
 nences and partly of artificial works. These defences, 
 which are believed to be several centuries old, the 
 British carried by assault on 1st April 1S25. 
 
 A'RACAX. rir AKKAi'AX. the most n 
 
 a of British Burmah, is bounded on the N. 
 by Chittagong, on the E. by Ava, on the S. bj 
 tli \V. by the Bay of Bengal It e 
 in X. Iat. from lo" to 2r~33', and in E. long 
 92 Iff to 94° 50'. Its extreme length is 290 miles ; 
 and its breadth, from 90 mUes at the N., gradually 
 diminishes towards the 8., so as to yield an average 
 of little more than 45. The area is 14,124 sq. miles. 
 A range of mountains, nearly parallel with the line 
 of coast, the highest point 7000 feet above the sea- 
 bvel, separates A. from Pegu and Upper Burmah. 
 The soil of the northern portion of A. is alluvial ; but 
 the country is hilly, difficult of access, and covered 
 with forest. The province is divided into three dis- 
 tricts — Akyab or Arracan proper, Sandoway, and 
 Kamree. The British conquest of the province has 
 been highly beneficial in everyway. In 1S25 — 1826, 
 the population was only about 10(1,111)0 ; in 1831, it was 
 173,000, shewing an increase of 73 per a nt. in 5 or 
 
 I ; i ! i 1 839, it had increased b I 2 L8, ; before 
 
 1854, it was upwards of 321,000 ; and in the returns 
 12, it is state.l to lie 374,126, or 2G months to 
 the square mile. With these results the face of the 
 country and the state of trade fully correspond. 
 Etice and salt constitute the chief articles of e 
 the others are tobacco, Bugar, wood, oil. 
 buffalo hides and horns, elephants' teeth, dried 
 ii b, and edible birds'-nests. The impor 
 British woollens, muslins, cutlery, and i 
 
 There havo been various indications of a volcanic 
 
 nature in A. In the islands of Bamree and Cheduba 
 
 exist springs of muddy water which emit 
 
 bubbles of gas. Two sew r • earthquakes have taken 
 
 Ely in 1703 and 1833 — the latter 
 1 thrown up, in several places, muddy water of 
 a sulphurous smell, and also, on one particular spot, 
 
 vapour and flame to the height of several hundred 
 feet. Of the mineral resources very little is known. 
 Iron-ore has been found, but not in such quantity 
 and quality as to come into profitable conq 
 with British iron. Coal also exists, which is under- 
 stood to be good, but, from whatever cause, it has 
 not been extensively worked. There are no la 
 the province, nor are there any rivers of much im- 
 portance, though the Aeng, which appears to 1 
 most available among them, is said to be na\ 
 during spring-tides to 45 miles from its mouth. 
 
 ARAOA'RI.or ABICABJ [PterogUmus), a 
 of birds closely allied to the Toucans (see Toi 
 and differing from them chiefly in the somewhat 
 ;• hill, which is not so thick as the head. 
 They are generally also of smaller size, and the 
 prevailing colour of their plumage is green, often 
 varied with brilliant red and yellow. Like the 
 toucans, they are natives of the warm parts of 
 South America. 
 
 ARA'i I'.i:. See A] \ 
 
 ABACHIS, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Legum tivesof 
 
 the warm parts of America, of which, until recently, 
 the only known species was the A. , some- 
 
 times called the undergro un d kidie 1 more 
 
 frequently the ground-nut. It also r 
 names of earth-nut, American earth-nut, and man- 
 dubi. It is an annual plant, with hairy pinnate 
 
 leaves, which have four era are 
 
 . the standard veined with red. After flower- 
 
 le flower-st Iks < 
 
 "lb, into which the pods penetrate, rip 
 
 round. The pods have a lining of a E 
 
 in two, three, or four 
 
 which are about the size of a hazel-nut. of a 
 with a little of the tlavour wh 
 to most kinds of pulse. This plant is now cull 
 in all the warm regions of the 1 
 
 ness is such that its cultivation is likely to extend, 
 It WM introduced from Pen into Spain, and thence 
 
 Vance. It succeeds in favourable situ. 
 
 i the middle of Prance, where it is sown after 
 
 all danger of frost is thought to be over, and yields 
 
 hty to one hundred fold. Its cultivation is 
 
 ° S41
 
 AR ACHNIDA— AR AC 0. 
 
 a the western parte of Africa, ami even 
 
 in tii" interior, that doubts have been therefore 
 
 1 uf its Ami hi, of which, how- 
 
 i ' . ■ seem to be quite 
 
 i. rhe 1 1 are - mi times < i nr, but 
 
 more generally boiled or roasted. In New Spain, 
 
 and in some parts of Africa, they form one 
 
 : tides of food; lmt the importance of the 
 
 plant is chiefly owing to the fixed oil contained in 
 
 L for the purp as olive 
 
 or almond oil, and i I to 
 
 for lamps or for the table. This oil is also much 
 
 in Spain in the man in and 
 
 lui of til.- seeds yi 
 
 galli E oil, when expres i id cold ; n beat i i 
 
 th" quantitj i greater, but the quality inferio 
 
 The 
 
 delights in a light and andy, but at the 
 
 same time fertile, soil, Th up as 
 
 The I'., it hi i qualities 
 [uorice, for which it is some- 
 age is good food for i 
 Several new species of this ius have b 
 1 in Brazil. 
 
 AKV(IiXII>A, or AKACHNTDES (from the fir. 
 
 i spider), ad ; iculated animal , 
 
 commo intermediate betwei n insects 
 
 ami cro They were included by Liniueus 
 
 I in the order I 
 
 i have the head and thi rax 
 into one piece, but they differ from them and 
 from inserts in having 
 id in 
 
 id of 
 
 which many of them 
 
 are provided with a 
 
 of antenna] claws 
 
 ra. These 
 
 i as con- 
 
 l v. i ii .i complex 
 
 mouth, disappear,how- 
 
 of the 
 
 i which 
 
 have merely a sort of 
 oscis for suction. 
 Some of them breathe 
 l>v means of pulmonary cavil its ; others by trachea?, 
 
 ■ I upon this difference is foi 
 the primary division of the class into two orders 
 /'"' i trio. Spiders and scor- 
 
 pions belon ; to the first of these orders, and 
 
 &c. [Acari] to the second. Some of the A. 
 inhabit water, lmt their mode of respiration is 
 ■ i. -trial animals ; and they seem to carry 
 air with them by means of the hair which COVi ' 
 
 bodies. The sexes arc distinct. Tiny are 
 oviparous. They have two or more eyes, very 
 ii ly i at; and the relative position of these 
 marks for distinction of genera. 
 I i Jly eight legs, but some have only six. 
 
 With the exception of the acari, they are solitary 
 in their mode of life, and nmst of them prej 
 la, of which, however, in general, the; 
 Buck the Mood. Some of the lower kinds are 
 parasil icts, and n few live o 
 
 .".i I vi etable sub tana s. (See Ai rus, 
 > in, Spider, and Tick.) 
 
 1 B vciixoin MEMBRANE, one of the three 
 coverings of the brain and spinal cord, is a thin, 
 
 ' hi : !.r in e, which, l>y its p 
 
 layer, adheres inseparably to the dura-mater on its 
 outer sid", and more loosely to the pia-mater which 
 is between it and the brain substance. Between the 
 pia-inat-r and the A. M. in some situations there 
 352 
 
 ' 
 
 are considerable intervals (suli-arachnoid spaces); 
 
 they are filled with a fluid named oerebro-spinal, the 
 " of which is neo iry to the proper action 
 
 nervous centres. See CkbEBRO-SpIK w. l'Yum 
 — I'ia-M I i 
 
 \i:.\l>. a town in the district of A. in Upper 
 
 rv. It is situated on the i of the 
 
 Marosh, an affluent of t 1 Th and is also styled 
 Old A., to i i it from New A., which is 
 
 I on tl ppo ito aide ol the river. A. has a 
 
 population (1869) of 32,725, including many Jev 
 
 arc very wealthy It earrn- on a large trade in corn, 
 
 i, ,', e.. and was at one I 
 
 et in Hungary, and is even t only 
 infi rior to P I Debreczin. I luring the ITtii 
 
 e., it was often captured, and at lost dest] 
 
 Turks, its new fortifications, erect I in 
 1763, made A. an important position in the revolu- 
 tionary war of ISltl. when it was occupied for a 
 
 rable time by the Austrian general Berger,who 
 capitulated here in July 1849. From this place 
 
 b issued his proclamation oi August 11 I 
 in which he expressed in a I terms his 
 
 of the Hungarian cause for the present. 
 
 raphe of Vilagos, on the 17th 
 . i lered to the Russians through 
 
 of G 
 
 New A., a town in the Banal of Ti tains 
 
 4600 inhabitants, including many Germans, 
 who are the principal persons in the place. The 
 
 district Or province of A. has an ana of 1700 
 
 quare miles, and contains 304,713 inhabitants. The 
 eastern district is occupied by a branch-ch 
 the Carpathian mountains, which < tain marble 
 
 quarries, and mine i eopp r andiron; the v 
 level, and produces wheat, maize, and several varic- 
 of wine, as well as abundance of fruits The 
 inhabitants an i ' Wallachians. 
 
 AR 'i:t>M!'.Ti:i:. See Arkosd 
 
 A'KAKAT, Moi'NT, or Jebd-er-rahiM ('Moun- 
 tain of Mercy'), is a granite bill about 15 mil I 
 
 S.E. of Mecca, which is believed by the Moham- 
 medans to be tin- .'-put where Adam, conducted by 
 I Gabriel, met again his wife Lie, after ;i 
 punitivi ation of 200 years, on account of their 
 
 disobedience in Paradise. It is not above 20 
 high, lmt its circuit is a mile and a half. Its 
 
 lie time of Mohammed 
 from it icene of a yearly procession of the 
 
 faithful who m it Mecca. Burckhardt, who 
 nessed the procession of ISM, states that not 
 than 70,000 people were present, and that ai li 
 forty different languages were spoken. The principal 
 
 part of the religiou ■ n j of this pilgrima; a 
 
 sermon, the hearing of which entitles all to the name 
 and privileges of a Hadji 
 A'RAGO, DomNiQUB, a celebrated Fn och 
 
 imr and natural philosopher, was born 
 
 February 26, 1780, at Estagel near Perpignan, in 
 
 the department of the Eastern Pyrenees. At the 
 
 early a f s venteen, he entered the Polytechnic 
 
 School at Paris, where the spirit, promptitude, and 
 vivid intelligence he exhibited in his answers to the 
 questions of !.■ endre, excited the admiration of 
 every one. In 1804, he became secretary to the 
 Observatory at Paris. Two years afterwards, he 
 was engaged, with Riot and others, by the French 
 government, to carry out the measurement of an arc 
 of the meridian, which had been commenced by 
 
 Delamhre and Mechain. A. and Biot had to i 
 it from Rarcelona to the Balearic Isles. The two 
 savems established themselves on the summit of 
 Mount Galatza, one of the highest of the Catalonian 
 branch of the Eastern Pyrenees. Here they lived 
 for many months, communicating by signals with
 
 ARAGO— ARAGON. 
 
 their Spanish collaborateurs, across the Mediterranean 
 in the little isle of lvica, though many a night the 
 furious tempests destroyed their hot along with the 
 weeks. Vi-itors they had none, except two 
 Carthusian monks, who were wont to come up and 
 spend a portion of the evening in con verse with them. 
 Before A. had completed his calculations, Biot had 
 returned to i I war had broken out betwixt 
 
 the two nations. A. was now held to be a spy; his 
 
 rupted ; and with great difficulty he 
 
 succeeded in making his e [ajctrpa, where 
 
 olnntarily imprisoned hitnuaW in the i 
 
 of Belver, d >. At last he obtained his 
 
 on condition of ] '■'■'■ ■ whieh 
 
 he did ; but was captured, on his return to France, 
 
 by a Spanish cruiser, and sent to the hulks at 
 
 ;. Be was, however, liberated after a time, 
 
 and sailed once more for France ; but almost as he 
 
 port of Marseille, a tempest arose 
 
 which drove tie vessel across the Mediterranean all 
 
 the way to Algiers. The former dey, to whose 
 
 demands he had owed his liberation from the hulks, 
 
 was dead; his successor, a ferocious tyrant, placed 
 
 i Ins list of -lives, and intended to employ him 
 
 as interpreter. -After some time, he was released at 
 
 of the French consul, and, narrowly 
 
 escaping ax ere by an English frigate, 
 
 finally found his way to Marseille in July 1S09. As 
 
 a reward for his suffering in the cause of science, the 
 
 Academy of Sciences suspended its standing rules in 
 
 bis favour ; and though only twenty-three years of 
 
 age, lie was elected member in the plat f Lalande, 
 
 who had just died, and was appointed Professor of 
 Analytical Mathematics in the Polytechnic School. 
 Afterwards, his attention was devoted more to 
 astronomy, magnetism, galvanism, and the polarisa- 
 tion of light. In 1811, he read a paper to the 
 my, which maybe considered the foundation 
 of 'chromatic polarisation.' In 1S12, he commenced 
 his extraordinary course of lectures on astronomy, 
 & .. which fascinated all Paris — the savans, by their 
 scientific rigour and solidity; the many, by their 
 brilliancy of style. In 1S16, along with Gay 
 
 ■■■, A established the Annates de CI 
 el de Physique, and confirmed the truth of the 
 undulatory theory of light. In the same year he 
 visited England for the first time, and made the 
 acquaintance of various persons distinguished in 
 science, especially Dr Thomas Yoimg. In ISIS 
 appeared nis Reciteil d'V 
 
 ■ -, i ' physiques. In 1820, he turned his 
 and inventive genius into a new channel, and 
 made several important discoveries in electro- 
 1 tied had shewn that a ma 
 ted by a voltaic current pa 
 along a wire. A. pursued the investigation, and 
 found that not onlj n needle, but even non- 
 
 tic substances, buco as rods of iron or 
 .' ■ subject to deflection also, exhibiting, during 
 rent, a positive ma 
 power, whieh, however, ceased with the cessation of 
 Smne time after, he demonstrated that 
 a bar of copper, and other oon magnetic do 
 when moved circularly, exert a no! 
 on the magnetic needle. For this discovery' of the 
 d velopment of d by rotation, he obtained, 
 
 in L825, the Copley Medal of the Roj 
 London; and in 1834, when he again visited Great 
 Britain, especial honours were paid to him by the 
 frauds of sen ne- in Edinburgh and Glasgow. Four 
 previous to this Becond visit to Great Britain, 
 red the honour he most coveted — that of 
 made Perpetual Secretary of tin- Academy. 
 It was while holding this office that he wi 
 famous ilogr.i of deceased members, the beauty of 
 which has given him so high a place among I 
 28 
 
 prose-writers. As a politician, also, his career was 
 remarkable. He was a keen republican, and took 
 a prominent part in the July revolution I 
 In the following year he was elected by Per] 
 as member of the- Chamber of Deputies, where ho 
 occupied a position on the extra In the 
 
 February revolution of lsts, he was chosen a niern- 
 
 iiincnt. and ap| 
 minister of war and marine. In this 
 
 1 lalist party, 
 
 regarding the constitution of tl States as the 
 
 1 ocracy. His popularity in his own 
 
 pzovinci means of | the discon- 
 
 population of the from 
 
 proceeding to lawless and violent measures. On 
 
 the ijiiestion of the presidency, A. opp< 1 Louis 
 
 Napoleon, declared bin- !; against the jiolicy of the 
 new ministry, and refused to take the oath of 
 allegiance alter the a of ls.V2. The 
 
 or, in a letter, paid a high enloghrm on his 
 talents and virtues, ami made I exception in 
 
 his case. A. did October 3, 1853. In his general 
 character A. was sociable, energetic, and fond of 
 fame. lb- was the intimate friend of Alexander 
 von Humboldt. 
 
 AitAGO, Jacques Ettetse Victor, brother of the 
 great B I born in 1790. In KS17 he accom- 
 
 panied the expedition, under Freycinet, in a , 
 round the world. Afterwards, we find him en 
 first at Bourdeaux, and then at Toulouse, in I 
 
 branches of light literature, industriously writing, in 
 company with other scribes, a multitude of vaude- 
 villes, besides publishing several poems and romances. 
 In the year lS3o, he undertook the management of 
 the theatre at Rouen; but having become afflicted 
 with blindness, he was compelled to resign this post 
 in 1S37. To his early voyage round the world, we 
 owe two very pleasant books of travel: 
 auiour iln Monde (Paris, 1838); 8m 
 
 , Voyage <■ (Paris, 1S38). 
 
 In 1849, though deprived of sight, he formed a com- 
 pany of speculators; placed himsi U a1 the hi id of it, 
 and departed for California, to search for gold on a 
 i companions i I him, 
 
 deserted and disappointed, at Valparaiso. On his 
 return, he published his painful experiences, under 
 the title. Voyage d ' en Calif m 
 
 !■ i Regions auriflres (Paris, 1851). He died, January 
 1, 1S55. — A., Etiknxe, another brother of the astro- 
 nomer, was bom 1802, and is well known in France 
 as a popular,/ , and other joiu - - 
 
 nals. He held an appointment under the prov 
 government, as dil 
 
 in which he displayed great vigour, promptitude, and 
 sense, and achieved sei 1 reforms; was 
 
 elected m 'of the National Assembly; was com- 
 
 promised by the insurrection m June, and sent 
 
 i for life, [n 1859 he returned to France; and 
 
 i war wa i mayor 
 
 i in Nov. 1ST", when 
 
 appointed Commis the Paris mint. 
 
 A. .Ii ln, another of the brothers A., bom I7s:>, 
 died 1836, was the republican army in 
 
 Mexico, and wrote, in Spanish, a h Mexico 
 
 A RAGON, a province in the north-east of - 
 situated between 40° -' and 42 54' N. lat.. and 
 loii','. •!' Ill' W., and 0° U I ngth from 
 
 north to south. 190 D Area, 
 
 14.7H» square miles. Pop. (1867) 925,773. It is 
 bound.. 1, \. by the 1 iratmg it from 
 
 France; W.. by Navarre, and Old and V 
 S,, by Valencia, and part of New Castile; and 
 I',., by Catalonia, and part of Valencia. The river 
 
 n.ls from the northern h 
 of Old Castile, llows through the middle of A. 
 
 s;3
 
 ARAGUAY— ARAT.TA. 
 
 in a south-easterly direction, receiving numerous 
 tributaries both from the lofty regions of the Pyre- 
 i , and from the Sierras in the south ; of the 
 
 ■ , the principal are — the Noguera, which forms 
 the boundary-line between Aragon and Catalonia, 
 i ra. and the Oallega; of the latt 
 
 eipal are — the Guadalope, the San Martin, and the 
 Sal. m. The province is naturally divided into the 
 
 ormtry, alongthe Ebro, and the northern moun- 
 tainous district of Upper Aragon. Tho central plain 
 is sterile, poorly supiilied with water, and iut- r- 
 sected by deep ravines [baraneoa). Agriculture is 
 confined to the raising of maize, vines, and 
 olives; but on the sides of the Ebro, where water 
 abounds, rice and other grains are abundantly pro- 
 duced ; and in the valleys of Upper A., which arc at 
 once the most beautiful and fertile of all the Pyre- 
 n in . find a splendid vegetation, and a 
 
 soil that enables the inhabitants, in spite of tho 
 wretchedness of their agriculture, to grow consider- 
 able quantities of wheat, rye, maize, barley, &c. Tho 
 climate of the province is various; comparatively 
 cool in the mountain-districts, but often very sultry 
 on the plains. Spurs of the Pyrenees strike down 
 into the province a long way. It is between theso 
 that the rich valleys lie, some of them 
 upwards of 20 miles long. The slopes of the hills 
 
 ithed with forests of oak, beech, and pine, and 
 the felled timber is floated down the rivers into the 
 Ebro, and thence down to Tortosa at its mouth. The 
 minerals of the province are copper, lead, iron, salt, 
 alum, saltpetre, coal, and amber. The manui.i 
 
 A., pi opled by a brave, active, 
 enduring, but obstinate race, has fri en the 
 
 arena of sanguinary warfare. It early became a 
 Iloman province; and, on tho fall of the Empire, 
 passed into the hands of the West-Goths, but was 
 conquered by the Moors in tho beginningof the Sth c. 
 Tli- rulers of A., after it had been recovered from 
 the Moors, and united with Catalonia (1137), became 
 | fid ; obtained possession of the Balearic Isles in 
 
 1213, of Sicily in 1282, of Sardinia in 1326, and of 
 
 - in 1440. By the marriage of Ferdinand witli 
 Isabella, heiress of Castdc, in 14G9, the two states of 
 A and I re united, and formed the foundation 
 
 of tho threat Spanish monarchy. After Ferdinand's 
 death in 1510, the union of the states was made per- 
 it. In the war with the French, 1808 — 9, Sara- 
 
 the capital of A., was remarkable for its heroic 
 
 '• under Palafox; and in recentjl Spanish 
 wars, the people of A. have displayed the same 
 i "in -age which marked their conduct on that memor- 
 able occasion. Upper A. was on the side of the 
 queen ; but lower A. generally adhered to the party 
 of Don Carlos. The province is now divided into 
 three departments— Saragossa, Teruel, and Huesca. 
 The chief towns are Saragossa, Calatayud, Huesca, 
 and Teruel. See SakaqoSSA, &c. 
 
 ARAGUAY', a large river of Brazil, rising in 
 S. lat 18 1 10 1 and W. long. 51° 30'. Like most of the 
 considerable rivers of the country, it flows towards 
 the N. After a course of about 1000 miles to San 
 Joao, it there joins the Tocantins, which again, after 
 a northerly course of 300 miles more, mingles its 
 estuary with that of the Amazon round the Isle 
 of Marajo. Like most of the rivers in this part 
 of BrazU, the A. is of difficult navigation, being 
 frequently interrupted by rapids. 
 
 ARAL, Lake, next to the Caspian Sea, from 
 which it is separated by the plateau of Ust-Urt, is 
 the largest lake in the steppes of Asia. It lies 
 in Independent Tatary, between 43" 42' and 46' 
 44' NT. lat., and 58° 18' and 01° 46' E. long. It is 
 fed by the river Sir (the ancient Jaxartes) on the 
 N.E. side, and the Amu (or ancient Oxus) on the 
 334 
 
 SI!. It is shallow, and has no outlet. Its level is 
 
 1 17 feet above that of the ' laspian, and 33 feet above 
 that of the Black Sea. Like other lakes which are 
 drained only by evaporation, it is brackish. Owing 
 to the shallowness of he waters, navigation is diffi- 
 cult ; but EtasBian steamers have been lannehi d upon 
 it. and took part u oat Khiva in 
 
 -':■. i he history of the Sea of Aral is very 
 remarkable, sir Henry Rawlinson and ( 
 Vide have recently coll' uade to it in 
 
 Creek. Latin. Arabic, and Persian writers, and have 
 
 -lied the fact that the area it now occupies 
 
 D dry land twice within historical times — tho 
 Jaxartes and the Oxus then running south of the 
 Seaof Aral to the Caspian. This was, the case during 
 
 co-Roman period, and again during the I3tn 
 and 14tU centuries after Christ. Su- Henry Raw- 
 linson, in his address to the Royal Geographical 
 . in 1872, stated that the restoration of the 
 Oxus to its old bed was then under the serious con- 
 sideration of tho Puissian government.— See /',,,. 
 }8 of Royal Geographical Society, vol. xi. 
 No. 3, and vol. xvi. No. 4. 
 
 ARA'LIA, a genus of plants, the type of the 
 natural order Araliacece. This order is dicotyle- 
 donous or exogenous, and consists of trees, shrubs, 
 and herbaceous plants, resembling the 1 
 (<]. v.) both in their general habit and in their 
 botanical characters, but differing essentially in tho 
 fruit, which is not didymous or formed of two 
 
 le carpels as in the Umbettiferee. The fruit 
 of the Araliacea? consists of several one-seeded cells, 
 and is often succulent. The order contains about 
 160 known species, natives of tropical, temperate, 
 and cold climates, generally possessing stimulant 
 and aromatic properties. Poisonous qualities are not 
 developed as in the Umhdlifera. The herbs 
 many species affords good food for cattle, and some 
 are used for human food. The genus Araua con- 
 tains a considerable number of species — trees, shrubs, 
 and herbaceous plants. It has a succulent fruit, 
 with 5 or 10 cells, crowned with the styles. A. 
 i native of the United States of America, 
 a species of humble growth, having a solitary radical 
 leaf with a trilid stalk and ovate serrated segments, 
 the scape is shorter than the leaf. The root is said 
 to be equal in value to sarsaparilla as an alterative 
 and tonic. A. racemosa, A. spinosn, and A. hispida, 
 also natives of North America, produce an aromatic 
 gum resin. A. spinosa is a stimulant diaphoretic 
 f he berries, infused in wine or spirits, are employed 
 in America as a cure for rheumatism. It is some- 
 times called Toothache-trcc : it also bears the namo 
 of Angelica-tree. It is a native of moist woods in 
 Virginia and Carolina, growing to a height of 10 or 
 12 fa t. with a single stem, spreading head, doubly 
 and trebly pinnate leaves and ovate leaflets, and is 
 very ornamental in a lawn. A. polaris, found in tho 
 southern island of New Zealand, and in the greatest 
 abundance and luxuriance in Lord Auckland's 
 I -lands, is described by Dr Hooker as a 'very mag- 
 nificent plant,' a herbaceous perennial, 4 — 5 feet high, 
 with large orbicular masses of green foliage and waxy 
 flowers, presenting a very striking appearance. A. 
 
 . now called Dimorphanthus edulis,is em; 
 in China as a sudorific. Its shoots are very delicate 
 and pleasant when boiled; and the roots, which 
 have an agreeable aromatic flavour, are used by the 
 Japanese as carrots or parsnips are in Europe. 
 Aralias abound in the warm valleys of the Himalaya. 
 dives collect the leaves of many as fodder "for 
 cattle, for which purpose they are of great value in a 
 country where grass for pasture is scarce ; but the 
 o of this food gives a peculiar taste to the butter. 
 Chinese rice paper has been ascertained to be cut from 
 cylinders of the pith of an A. Ginseng (q. v.), the
 
 A B AM— ARANJTJEZ. 
 
 root of a species of Panax, is one of the most 
 important products of the order Araliacea. The 
 
 vnt roots of Gm ra, or Panke, are 
 
 i tanning, hut its fleshy leaf-stalks are eaten 
 like those of rhubarb. It has been seen on the 
 sandstone cliffs of Chiloe with leaves nearly eight 
 feet in diameter, each plant with four or fire • 
 enormous leaves. It has been introduced into Britain, 
 and is found to succeed well in the climate of Edin- 
 burgh, The only representatives of this order in the 
 British flora are the Ivy (q. v.), and a small plant 
 called the Tuberous Moschatel (Adoxa moscJiatel- 
 Una). 
 
 A'llAM. El'cfne, was born in 1704 at Ramsgill, 
 in Yorkshire, His father was a gardener, and could 
 afford to keep A. at school only for a short time; 
 but even while assisting his father, he contrived 
 to gratify his passion for learning. At an early 
 ! of his life he married, and became a 
 
 inaster, first in Netherdale, and afterwards 
 at Knaresborongh, where he continued to reside 
 till 1745. In the town of Knaresborougli lived 
 one Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, and an intimate 
 acquaintance of A.'s. On one occasion Clarke 
 happened to purchase a quantity of valuable goods, 
 which he easily obtained on credit ; but to the 
 surprise of everybody, he soon after disappeared, and 
 no trace of him could be discovered. Suspicion 
 lighted upon A., not as Clarke's murderer, but as his 
 confederate in swindling the public. His garden 
 was searched, and in it was found a portion of the 
 goods which Clarke had purchased. A. was arrested 
 and tried, but acquitted for want of evidence. He 
 now left his wife at Knaresborongh, and went to 
 London, and other parts of England, in his capacity 
 of schoolmaster ; and in spite of his nomadic mode 
 of life, contrived to acquire a knowledge of botany, 
 heraldry, Chaldee, Arabic, Welsh, and Irish, and 
 planning a great etymological work, to he 
 entitled ' A Comparative Lexicon of the English, 
 Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic languages,' when 
 
 i suddenly dragged away from his ushership 
 of Lynn Academy, in Norfolk, and committed to 
 in a charge of murder. 
 The circumstances of the remaining portion of the 
 Btory are pretty well known. In 1759, a skeleton 
 was dug up near Knaresborougli, which the inhabit- 
 ants suspected to be that of Clarke, for they had 
 now come to the conclusion that the unfortunate 
 man had met with foul-play, especially as A.'s wife 
 had, on several occasions, made strange statements 
 to th'- effect that her husband and a man named 
 
 man, knew more of Clarke's disappearance 
 than they chose to admit. Houseman was now con- 
 fronted with a bone of the skeleton which had been 
 
 Bred. He very emphatically denied that it 
 
 'arke's. People naturally wondered how he 
 
 re, the hones of skeletons being, to 
 
 the uneducated eye, so similar in appearance. They 
 
 convinced that if the skeleton was not 
 
 Clarke's, Houseman must know whore the latter 
 
 was, At last he confessed that he had been a spec- 
 
 of the murder of Clarke by A. and one Terry. 
 II" nuiiicd the place where the body had been 
 
 L It was searched, the buried skeleton was 
 dug up, and A. was tried at York, for the murder of 
 Clarke, on the 3d August 1759. What I 
 extraordinary an Idat to this trial, is the fact that 
 A. conducted h i own defence. He attacked, with 
 great acumen, plausibility, and curious erudition, 
 the doctrine of circumstantial evidence ; but to no 
 effect, for a verdict of guilty was retained, and he 
 
 mdemned to be executed Bares days after- 
 wards. In the interval, he confessed his guilt to 
 the clergymen who attended him. While in the 
 condemned cell, he wrote a defence of suicide ; but 
 
 failed in a practical illustration of the doctrine, 
 which he forthwith attempted. 
 
 AUASLK'A 'from the Hebrew word Aram, signi- 
 fying the highland in opp ositi on to the lowland of 
 Canaan) includes the whole of the country situated 
 to the north-cast of Palestine. Its boundaries, 
 though not rigorously defined, were as follow 
 l.y .Mount Taurus; EC, by the Tigri \rabia; 
 
 and W., by Arabia, Phoenicia, and Lebanon. It 
 embraced the countries known to the Greeks by the 
 various names of Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia. 
 The Aramaic lanrfuage, a branch of the Semitic, was 
 common to the whole country, and was divided into 
 two principal dialects — the west Aramaic or Syriac, 
 and the east Aramaic, or, as it is improperly termed, 
 the Chaldee. The former was that spoken almost 
 universally in Palestine in the time of Christ 
 since the Babylonian captivity, the pure Hebrew, in 
 which the whole of the Old Testament, with the 
 exception of a few chapters in Daniel and Ezra, had 
 been written, had gradually given place to the Ara- 
 maic. The Aramaic version of the Bible was that 
 used in Christ's time, who quotes from it, and not 
 from the original Hebrew ; as, for instance, the 
 beginning of the 22d Psalm, which he repeats on the 
 Cross. The Talmud, especially the Babylonian, 
 has a large admixture of Aramaic elements. The 
 Aramaic dialect is, in general, the harshest, poorest, 
 and least elaborate of all the Semitic languages, and 
 has now almost entirely died out, and given place 
 to the Arabic and Persian. Indeed, it is only found 
 living among some tribes in remote districts of the 
 mountains of Kurdistan, and in two or three villages 
 in Syria ; yet it is considered highly probable that it 
 is the root of the whole cluster of Semitic tongues. 
 
 ARA'XDA, Pedro Pablo Abakca be Bolea, 
 Count op, born in 171S of a distinguished Arago- 
 nese family, at first embraced a military career ; 
 but having evinced a remarkable spirit of observa- 
 tion, he was appointed by Charles III. ambassador 
 to the court of Augustus 111., kins of Poland; which 
 post he tilled for seven years. Alter his return, he 
 was appointed captain-general of Valencia, and in 
 17GG recalled to Madrid on account of its disturbed 
 state, and the presidency of the Council of t 
 was bestowed on him. A. not only soon restored 
 order in the capital, but limited the power of the 
 Inquisition, procured the expulsion of the Jesuits 
 from Spain, and carried the salutary terror of 
 government into the recesses of the Sierra Morena, 
 then infested by hordes of ferocious banditti. Like 
 many other reformers, he was not able fully to 
 carry out his liberal intentions. In 177'!. 1 
 removed from his high position through the influ- 
 ence of the clergy, the Dominican monks especially, 
 and sent as ambassador to France. Grimaldi suc- 
 ceeded him in his office, and after him Count 
 Florida Blanca; but when the latter lost his 
 office in consequence of court intrigui s, A. returned 
 to his position; soon, however, to lose it again 
 acy of Godoy, Duke of Alcudia, 
 the queen's favourite. He, I '-> remained 
 
 nt of the Council of State, which he had 
 organised; but upon his expressing his views i 
 ing the war with France, he was banished to his 
 native province of Aragon, where he died in 1 ] 
 
 ar.vnk \ ahd ai: vm: id.i:. Bee Sptdkr. 
 
 ARAXJCEZ (a corruption of the Latin .Ira- 
 altar of Jupiter), a town in the provil 
 
 D. It is situated on the left bank of the 
 lagus, 28 miles south south-east from Madrid, in a 
 
 beautifully H 1 1 valley, and is now connected with 
 
 the Spanish metropolis by a railway. The town is 
 built m the Dutch style, has broad and regular 
 streets intersecting each other at right angles, and a 
 
 MS
 
 ARANY— ARA& 
 
 population of 3800. It is famed for its palaces and 
 
 i-. The former was long a favourite i 
 spring of the royal family, during which period A. 
 
 20,000 inhabitants ; 
 
 the latter were laid out by Philip II., who built a 
 
 palace also, for there v la here 
 
 during his father's time, hut a lire destroyed a 
 
 n of it, and mere 
 
 Philip V., who reconstructed the edifice in I 
 style. The present chateau was completed by 
 Charles IV. On account of is, the 
 
 natives call A. 'the metropolis of Flora,' 
 gardens are intersp t ed with numero 
 nouses, the most celebrated of which is the Casa 
 dd Labrador, ot I I ij Imt their most 
 
 splendid ornament are the great elm-trees brought 
 from England by Philip II., which thrive m 
 cently. They radiate out from a central plot in 
 twelve distinct rows. A. is known historically for 
 the treaty of alliance concluded here between 
 France and Spain on the l.'ili ..i April 1 77*2, and as 
 the scene of the abdication of Charles IV. on the 
 ISth of .March 1S08. 
 
 ARANY, J.\\os, next to PetiSfi the most distin- 
 guished of modern Hungarian poets, was born at 
 Nagy-Szalonta in 1819. His father was a poor 
 tit, who spared no pains to get him into 
 
 the church. In 1832, he eat. red the colli fti 
 Debrcczin, where lie d iguished himself by his 
 diligence; but unable to love of adven- 
 ture, he joined, iii 1836, a company of strolling- 
 players, with whom he travelled about for 
 months, till driven by necessity and an upbraiding 
 conscience, he hurrii a home to do what he could for 
 the support of a now blind and aged parent, I oi 
 some time he was engaged as a Latin tutor; but in 
 1840 he was appointed notary at Szalonta. He now 
 married, and devoted his whole time to his prof' 
 Winn the Kisfaludy Society of Pesth offered a prize 
 forthe best humorous poem, A. sent in. anonymou ly. 
 his A: i ';•■■■--■ a Mhuluiihiii (The Lost Constitution of 
 the Past). He was successful. Thus emboldened, 
 he ventured, in IS47. to forward to the same society 
 the first part of a Trilogy, Toldi. Struck by the 
 beauty of this purely national effort, tile members 
 published it at their own expense, and again rev. 
 the author. A. soon became a popular favourite. His 
 reputation penetrated even into tie- lowest ranks 
 of the community. In ISIS appeared his Mur&ny 
 Ostroma (Conquest of Mur&ny), which, however, 
 received less attention owing to the political excite- 
 ment of the tune. The j t himself took a Blight 
 
 part in the revolution, but after the dismal termi- 
 nation of the war, he was allowed to return to 
 his country. Since then he has published a nar- 
 rative poem, Katalin (■Catherine'). Pesth, 1850. 
 Besides which numerous stray pieces ba- 
 in the magazines. Some of his works have I.. . a 
 translated into Herman. 
 
 ARAI'AI'MA. a genus of fresh-water fishes, the 
 largest known fresh- wat r fishes in the world. Tie \ 
 nid in the rivers of South America, and are 
 sometimes taken in the Rio Negro 1.", i 
 b ngth, and of the weight of 4 CWt Thi 
 taken with the harpoon, and are highly esteem 
 
 1 1- both Eresh and salted. Iii . b 
 
 have begun to form an article of col 
 
 a in large quantities to Para. The genus A. 
 belongs to the family of Clupesocida, a family of 
 : I ipt ions fishes, allied to the C 
 herring family, and is remarkable for the mosaic 
 work of strong, bony, compound scales with which 
 the body is covered. About six species are known. 
 _ A'RARAT (Airarat, in the old Armenian dialect ; 
 La, the plains of the Aryans), the ancient name of 
 356 
 
 an through which Hows the river 
 Aras or Arax.s. It occupies the centre of the 
 • a of Armenia, belonging partly to 
 Turki i | io i; u ,,,. Notwitli 
 
 p i i in Cfern is mi. l, where it i .'iii 
 ark rested 'on tl a rat,' it has 
 
 becomo common to give the name A., not to the 
 
 entire range, Imt to the i Jli ,i by the 
 
 Armenians .Ma-sis Leusar — i. e., 'mountain of the 
 
 ark' (known among the Turks as Aghri 
 
 p mountain ; ' and amon the Pel 
 Nfih, 'Noah'i mountain'). It. rises in two volcanic 
 known as the Greater and the Lesser Ararat ; 
 the former, which attains the height of 17,215 
 above the lev! of! t with perpetual 
 
 snow. It is the highest, elevation of Western 
 
 and since the war of 1 SL'7 it forms the point 
 
 Ru oi. Turkish, and Persian ten, 
 In 1840 the form of the mountain n i 
 partially changed by a frightful and di tractive 
 
 Pn I ion to this period, at the I, 
 
 lUntain, and at a point where a stream runs 
 
 wild o e, thi I ""I the village of Argnrior 
 Aguri. It v. led by gat lens and orchards, 
 
 and inhabited by upwards of 1000 inhabitants. In 
 the ravine, 2300 feet above the village, stood the 
 Armenian convent of St .lames; and 1000 feet high r 
 still, a chapel dedicated to St James. The beaut 
 mild air of the district made Anguri a favi 
 summer resort of the richer inhabitants of I: 
 It was to undergo a great change, however. On the 
 20th of dune IS lc>, dreadful shocks of earthquake 
 were felt. Great masses oi the mountain were thrown 
 into the plain, the ravine was closed, the convent 
 and chapel disappeared, ami the villi o. and the 
 gardens which surrounded it. were buried under 
 
 earth, and ice, and with the inhabitants 
 utterly destroyed. Touraefort made a partial ascent 
 of the mountain in 1700; since then, ascents have 
 1« i n made in 1829 by I' Parrot of Dorpat 
 
 and his companions; in 1S50 by Colon,! Cle 
 and a large party llf Russians engaged in the Ti i 
 Caucasian triangul.tt ion ; in 1856 by Major I, 
 Stuart; and in 1870 by Dr G. Radde and Dr G. 
 These naturalists, the former of whom is 
 
 r ol the museum at Tiflis, have carefully 
 explored the mountain and district in which it is 
 situated. See their " Reisen inArmenschen Hochland' 
 [Pelermann't M for 1871, Nos. lit and 
 
 12) ; also a letter from Dr Radde in the 
 volume. 
 
 A'RAS, the ancient Praxes, a river of Armenia, 
 
 formed by the junction of the Bingol-Su and the 
 Kaleh-Su, and uniting its waters with those , 
 Eur (ancient Cyru | alter a course of about 500 
 The main stream is the Bingol-Su, which 
 
 in the Ihiigol-Tagh, in lat. -11' .'III' X.. and 
 
 U" In' E.; and flowing N.N.E., i.s joined 
 a little below il.isan-kaleh by the Kaleh-Su, 
 after which -the combined str am is called i 
 It then Hows eastward, forming for some time the 
 
 mi boundary of t!i pro* i li of Kara, till it is 
 '■'ed bj tli' Arpa, which Hows into it from the 
 north. After this, it divides Russian and Turkish 
 Armenia; at some distance to the south of Erivan it 
 turns to the south-east, along the base of Ann. it ; 
 soon after which it receives the waters of the '/.■ 
 a river descending southward past Erivan. Near 
 Djulfa it runs eastward for about fill miles; after 
 which it runs to the north-east for upwards of 125 
 
 . ill it is joined by the large river Kur, descend- 
 ill the Caucasus through Georgia. Their 
 united waters, after a short eastward course, turn 
 .suddenly to the south, and fall by three mouths 
 into the Gulf of Kizilgatch, in the Caspian, in lat. 
 3U° 20' N.
 
 ARATUS-ARAUCAPJA. 
 
 ARA'TUS, op Sicyon, a distinguished I 
 statesman, was born about 271 u.c. Hi3 youth 
 I none the party strifes of his native town, 
 in which his lather, CHnias, met his death ; and 
 ha him aU was only Bared l>y the efforts of his 
 aunt, who had him secretly conveyed to 
 whence he returned, in his twentieth year, and 
 i bed Sicyon from its tyrant. Nicotics, 251 
 B.C. Sirpported by Ptolema:us Philadelphia, A. 
 restored the republican form of ut to 
 
 Sicyon, and united it with the Achaiun 1. 
 of which he was appointed general, 245 B.O. 
 Daring his honourable but checkered career, this 
 
 was conferred on him seventeen times. II 
 great object was to unite the Greek stat' 
 
 -ut of them :m independent nation; but this 
 
 LWarted by their mutual jealousies. A. was a 
 brave general, a skilful tactician, and a disint* 
 
 He died by poison administered to him 
 
 iimand of Philip 111. of Macedou. 
 Alt ATI'S, of Sou (or Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia), 
 v be about 270 n. a, a Greek didactic poem, entitli a 
 Phcenomena, founded on the astronomical system of 
 
 os of Cnidos, and appended to it another 
 poem, Diait.iiicift, giving rules far prognostication of 
 the weather. A pure style and correct versification 
 mark both poems, which were translated into Latin 
 by Cicero, Ceesar Germanicus, and Kufus Festus 
 Avienus. A. was a native of the same province as 
 St Paul, who quotes from him in his speech on Mars' 
 Hill : ' For as certain of your own poets have said, 
 We also are his offspring.' The best edition is that 
 by Buhle, 2 vols. Leipsic, 1793—1801. 
 
 ARAUCA'NIA, that portion of Chili which lies 
 between the Biobio on the N. and the Valdivia on 
 the S. But, though thus embosomed as it were 
 within Chili, it forms an aboriginal state, which is 
 virtually independent of that republic. A. extends 
 in S. lat. from 36 44' to 39° 50', and in W. long, from 
 70° to 74'' 30' — its length being about 1811 miles, and 
 I ireadth from the shore of the Pacific to the 
 of Hi" Andes being 150. This country, com- 
 5,000 square miles, is divided 
 from north to south into four parallel regions, vary- 
 ing from each other, with toll darity, in sod 
 and climate. These are the coast region, the plain 
 i. the region of the Lower And 
 ol thi II jlier Andes. The productions of A. 
 are amihvr to those of Chili. The population cannot 
 be accurately estimated on account of the independ- 
 ence of the nation; but from their successful resist- 
 ance to the Spaniards, it must be presumed to be 
 comparatively dense. 
 
 A. has the proud distinction of being the only 
 portion of the New World that has never received the 
 5 ■ ike. From the days of Pizarro and 
 inwards, it has uniformly vindicated its 
 freedom — its wars of independence having lasted, 
 with intervals of precarious truce, from 1537 to 
 177'!- 1568, the Araucanians, tal 
 
 from tie ir enemy, brought into the field some 
 si ina! lr,,ns of cavalry; and in the war between Chili 
 and Spain, some Araucanian youths of the first rank 
 served as officers iu the republican armies. 
 
 ARATTCA'RIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 
 order C (q,. v.) or Pines, consisting of lofty 
 
 trees, natives of the southern hemisphere, and 
 
 pushed by having the male and female Sowers 
 
 be plants, the pollen of the male Bowers 
 
 !i,.l in 10— 20 cases pendent from the apex of 
 
 each seal, the female flowers two under each scale; 
 
 having one ovule, Th are all ever- 
 
 ■. the leaves broader than in pines and firs, 
 
 which, however, {he trees resemble in their 
 
 manner of growth. A. imbricata, sometimes called 
 
 the Chili Pixe, a native of the Andes of Chili, 
 
 forming forests on their v.. t. in declivities, attains 
 a height of 150 feet, the trunk quite straight and free 
 
 Araucaria imbricata : 
 End of a branch, much reduced, shewing the mode of ramifica- 
 tion, and the manner in which the leaves are imbricated. 
 
 from knots. The bark of the young trees is studded 
 with leaves from the base upwards, even until 12 
 or 15 years of age. The branches are in whorls of 
 G, 7, or 8. Young trees have branches almost from 
 the ground; old trees have tall naked stems, with a 
 crown of branches. The female strobde (cone) is 
 
 li ovate, S — 10 inches in diameter, the 
 terminated by a long awl-shaped point, tie 
 wedge-shaped, and more than an inch in length. The 
 
 - 
 
 Araucaria imbricata : 
 Sketched in the Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. 
 
 outer and inner bark of foil-grown trees are each 
 
 4— C inches in thi bark of a onrk- 
 
 ; the mn.r. fungous and porous. From 
 
 ind inner hark, and indeed from all parts 
 
 re, in Hows readily and in L'reat abund- 
 
 The leaves are I • about 1} meli m 
 
 length, and ± inch in breadth near the bass, sharp-
 
 ARAUJO— ARBALEsTTXA. 
 
 pouted. The timber is heavy, solid, hud, fibrous, 
 yellowish white, and luTuituiillyviin.il. It is very 
 or Boasts of slops. Tlie rosin, which u 
 white, has a smell like frankincense, and a not 
 unpli It is applied as a plasfa r to con- 
 
 tusions. The a ed is pleasant t.> the ta to, not onlike 
 the chestnut, and is a most important article 
 t.i the Indians. It is eaten raw. boiled, or roasted. 
 A spirituous liquor is also distilled from it. A single 
 strobile sometimes contains between 200 and 300 
 Is, and one bee may be seen 1 . ..-■ . I. I with 20 or .'ill 
 of these great strobiles. This Arancaria was intro- 
 duced into Britain in the end of last century, and is 
 now pretty frequently planted, it promises to add 
 a new feature to British landscapes, as other trees of 
 the same order, particularly tin I pruee, 
 
 have done before, and will probablyprove important 
 in an economical point of view. It is the only 
 species which seems suited to the climate of Britain. 
 A. Brasiliana, the Brazil Pine, has loosely imbri- 
 cated lanceolate leaves, and a looser and more 
 spreading habit than A. imbricate The seeds or 
 nuts are sold as an article of food in Bio Janeiro. 
 The resin which exudes from the tree is mix. I 
 wax to make candles. A. excdta, now called 
 Eutassa exc ltd (and 1 ly ?• am . ' i lie Xorfolk 
 
 Island Pink, a native of Norfolk Island. New Cale- 
 donia, &c, attains a height of 1G0— 220 feet, free 
 from branches to 80 — 100 feet, and with a trunk 
 sometimes 11 feet in diameter. The wood is white, 
 tongh, close-grained, and so heavy as almost to sink 
 in water. The leaves of the young trees are linear 
 and spreading; those of the adult are ovate, and 
 closely imbricated. The strobiles are ovate, 4 — 5 
 inches in length. A. Ounninghamii, m... 
 ranked in the new genus Eutassa or Alimgia, the 
 MoBSTON Bay Pink, a native of the shores of 
 Moreton Bay and banks of the Brisbane River in 
 New South Wales, very much resembles the last. 
 It attains a height of GO — 130 feet, and a dial 
 of 4 — 8 feet. The leaves of the adult trees are 
 lanceolate and imbricated. The w<>..d is yellowish, 
 and is used for boat-building, house-carpentry, and 
 the common kinds of furniture. The large seeds of 
 A. BidwilUi are used for food by the natives at 
 Moreton Bay. 
 
 Certain fossil Cotlifira found in carbonifeTOUi 
 stone have received the nam i Ua. Living- 
 
 stone found a forest of large silicilicd trees m 
 
 Zambesi, which Mr Qi mis t 
 
 specimens, ascertained to 1 d coniferous 
 
 wood of the Araucanan type.' Fossil trees of the 
 same type occur in the carboniferous strata of 
 Britain. A trunk, for instance, -17 feet long, was 
 found in Craigleith Quarry, near Edinburgh, in 1830. 
 
 ARAUJO, B'A/Evi i". A'.n. Mo. afterwards 
 Count da Barca, was born at S.i. in the D 
 hood of r..nte de Lima, in Portugal, on the I4tb 
 
 ly 1754. At the age of 11,' be was 
 Oporto to study under his uncle, who held a high 
 military command there. In 17^7 be wasappo 
 Portuguese ambassador to the Hague. Before 
 entering on his duties, he visit. .1 England, where he 
 omitted no opportunity of obtaining a know 
 of English manufactures, commerce, politic 
 He next proceeded to Paris, where he similarly 
 
 employed fa - i after bis arrival at the 
 
 Hague, be found himself entangled in political diffi- 
 culties. The French Revolution bad broken out, 
 but the part which he played in the compl 
 of political affairs which ensued falls to be treated 
 more properly under the History of Portugal (q. v.). 
 
 At length he threw up his ambassadorship, and 
 travelled through Germany, enlarging the sph 
 his studies. He paid especial attention to minera- 
 logy and chemistry, and was fortunate enough to 
 358 
 
 become acquainted with I W'i.lan.l, Schiller, 
 
 Herder, ftc After the Peace of Amiens., A. was 
 sent as ambae odor t.. st Petersburg; in 1803 he 
 
 d to Lisbon, to assume the ..flicc of 
 By of State; and in 1S0G he obtained tho 
 nty in the kingdom. His 
 efforts to introduce ious agencies of civilis- 
 
 ation, while he occupied this situation, were 
 unremitting. Glass, paper, wool, and cotton manu- 
 factures, received liberal enCi it. But the 
 sudden approach of the French army put an i I 
 to all his improvements. The royal family, which 
 arte had formally dethroned in his victorious 
 proclamation, emigrated to Brazil. A. embarked 
 also, taking along with him a complete printing 
 apparatus, his miucralogical collei ; 
 Werner, and all necessary chemical instruments. 
 During the first years of his residence in the \. w 
 World, lie devoted himself assiduously to scientilic 
 and literary pursuits ; founded a school of medicine 
 and chemistry, introduced the cultivation of tea, an 
 improved machine for sawing wood, and a sugar- 
 alembic, and established a porcelain manufactory. 
 He had also a magnificent garden, the plants of 
 were scientifically arranged. He died on the 
 21st June 1817. 
 
 ARATJ'RFj, a town of Venezuela, South America. 
 It is situated in lat. 9° 17' X., long. 60° 28' W., GO 
 mill a E.X.E. of Trujillo, in a region noted for its 
 fi rtility in the production of cotton, coffee, cattle, 
 &c. The town itself is rather handsome, and con- 
 tains 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 ARBALEST, ARCU'BALEST, or CROSS- 
 B( )\V, was a weapon much in use during the feudal 
 times. Its recognised position among military amis 
 maybe dated fr.un about the period of Richard I. 
 The smaller kinds of A. were bent by pressing the 
 
 Arbalest. 
 
 hand on a small steel lever called the 'goat's foot ;' 
 but the larger kinds were bent by placing the foot 
 in a loop or stirrup at the end of the central shaft, 
 and drawing the cord upwards with the hand. At 
 bow was made very strong, often 
 of steel ; in this form it required a mechanical con- 
 trivance, called a 'moulihev to bind it. Some 
 ordinary arrows wire used with the A, bin 
 
 . arrows of a shorter and stouter kind, called 
 'carrials'or 'quarrels,' were employed; the 
 a four-sided pyramidal form of head. Occasionally 
 
 n balls were shot from the I 
 Arbalests. The art r cross-bowmen, c 
 
 a quiver with fifty arrows as an armament in 
 of the battles of the 13th c. They were an essen- 
 tial component of armies of that period, taking up 
 their position in the van of the battle-array; some 
 were mounted, some on foot, and they occasionally 
 wore armour. The supply of arrows or quarrels 
 was carried after them to the battle-field in carts. 
 'I he A. continued to be a favourite weapon in Eng- 
 land throughout the 13th c. ; but in the 14th, it 
 gave way to the long -bow, which was found to be a 
 more convenient weapon in battle. The Ion 
 is described under Bow am. Alkow ; and the 
 ral military system to which it belonged, under 
 
 Archers and Archery. 
 ARBALESTI'XA, in the military system of the
 
 AP.BELA— ARBITRATION. 
 
 middle age*, was a small window or wicket through 
 which the cross-bowmen shot their quarrels or 
 arrows at an enemy besieging a fortified ] 
 
 ARBE'LA, now Kil.il or Arl.il, a small town of 
 Assyria, east from Mm nl. famous as having given 
 name to the battle in which Alexander finally 
 defeated Darius, 331 B. c. The battle was really 
 imela (the ' camel's house '), to the 
 north-west of A. 
 
 ARBITRATION i3 the adjudication by private 
 persons appointed to decide a matter, or matters in 
 controversy, on a reference made to them for that 
 purpose, either by agreement of the disputants or by 
 the order, or on the suggestion, of a court of law. 
 The proceeding generally is called a submission to 
 arbitration, or reference; the parties appointed to 
 decide are termed arbitrators, or referees; and their 
 adjudication is called an award. This mode of set- 
 tling disputes is not only frequently resorted to by 
 ut3 themselves, who are anxious to avoid the 
 delay and expense of proceedings in the public 
 tribunals, but the .Statute-Book bears witness to the 
 oral of it by the Legislature at various times. 
 An old act, the 9 and lb Will. III. c. 15, testifies 
 
 of A. in strong terms, declaring that ' it 
 hath been found by experience that references made 
 1 >y rule of court have contributed much to the ease 
 of the subject in the determining of controversies, 
 i ise the parties become thereby obliged to sub- 
 mit to the award of the arbitrators, and it proceeds 
 to authorise and encourage merchants, traders, and 
 others to put an end to their controversies and quar- 
 rels by means of A.; and a modern act, passed in 
 1S33, the 3 and 4 WO]. IV. c. 42, S3. 39, 40, and 41, 
 contains still more anxious provisions for rendering 
 - nces to A. effectual. Since that act was passed, 
 the practice and feeling in favour of A. has increased, 
 so much so that there are recent statutes which con- 
 tain provisions rendering A, or private reference in 
 certain cases, compulsory. The Railway Acts of 
 1845, the Public Health Act of 1S4S, and the 
 Common Law Procedure Act of 1S54, are modern 
 examples of this legislative peculiarity. 
 
 The matters that may be determined by an arbi- 
 trator are all personal disputes and differences which 
 might otherwise be made the subject of controversy 
 in the courts of civil jurisdiction. Thus breaches of 
 contracts generally, breaches of promises of niar- 
 
 iss, assaults, charges of slander, differ- 
 i respecting partnership transactions or the pur- 
 
 • price of property, and questions relating to 
 
 tolls or the right to tithes, may all be referred to 
 A. Qu otions relating to real property may also be 
 referred, such as those relating to the partition of 
 lands of joint tenants or tenants in common, to set- 
 tlements of disputed boundaries — to differences be- 
 i landlord and tenant respecting waste — and to 
 the title to land. Pure questions of law may also 
 j rred to the decision of an arbitrator. An 
 arbitrator may have, therefore, to determine the 
 h tbility of a party on a promissory-note or bill of 
 exchange, or to construe an act of parliament, or to 
 give a judicial opinion on the effect of a will or 
 deed. Actions at Uw, and suits in equity, may 
 y A. ; and this kind of reference 
 may be made at any stage of the proceedings, some- 
 times even after verdict, and probably by analogy, 
 after decree in equity. Questions relating to the 
 future use and enjoyment of property, and future 
 or anticipated differences between parties, may 
 likewise Be referred. 
 
 A matter, h o w e ve r clearly illegal, cannot be made 
 the subject of a valid reference. But where trans- 
 actions between parties have been brought toa close 
 by a geueral award, apparently good, the courts 
 
 have refused to re-open them on a suggestion that 
 some illegal item has been admitted in account. 
 
 There are certain matters which are specially 
 referred to A. by statute. Besides those we have 
 already alluded to, the following matters are all 
 referrible to A. : Questions relating to the expenses 
 of prisoners, under the 5 Geo. IV. c. 85; to the 
 regulation of municipal corjxjrations in England 
 and Wales, under the 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76; 
 to the laws concerning prisons, under the 5 and 
 6 Vict c. 98; to disputes between masters and 
 workmen, under the 5 Geo. IV. c. 96, amended by 
 the 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 07; to the laws 
 relating to Barings' banks, under the 9 Geo. TV. 
 i. 92, and 7 and 8 Vict. c. S3; to the land rights and 
 other possessions of certain ecclesiastical and col- 
 legiate corporations, under the 2 and 3 WilL IV. c 
 80; to the management and improvement of epis- 
 copal and capitular estates in England, under the 
 17 and IS Vict. c. 116; to the conveyance of mails 
 by railways, under the 1 and 2 Vict. c. 98 ; to insol- 
 vents and to insolvency, bankruptcy, and execution, 
 under the 1 and 2 Vict. c. Ho, 7 and S Vict. c. 96, 
 1 13 Vict. c. 106; to the constitution of com- 
 panies incorporated for carrying on public i 
 takings, under the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 16 ; to the taking 
 of lands for undertakings of a public nature, under 
 8 and 9 Vict. c. 18; to the metropolitan sewers, 
 under the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 112 (continued and 
 amended by 12 and 13 Vict. c. 93, the 14 and 15 
 Viet. c. 76, the 15 and 16 Vict. c. 64, the 16 and 17 
 Vict. c. 125, the 17 and IS Vict. c. Ill) ; to friendly 
 societies, under the 17 and IS Vict. c. 50, and the 18 
 and 19 Vict. c. 93. 
 
 Under these acts of parliament, the class of cases 
 which may, or which must, be referred to A., have 
 been greatly enlarged. The railway acts, in par- 
 ticular, have largely contributed to this kind of 
 amicable determination, although the parties in such 
 cases cannot be said to have much discretion in the 
 matter. Under the provisions, again, of the Common 
 Law Procedure Act, 1S54 (17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, 
 ss. 3 and 0), parties may be compelled by the court, 
 ox judge who tries the case, to refer matters of mere 
 account in an action which cannot be conveniently 
 tried in the ordinary way. 
 
 Among the questions that cannot be referred to 
 A, are matters arising out of the administration of 
 the criminal law in the case of felonies and relating 
 to agreements or transactions against public policy. 
 Felonies and offences of a public nature cannot be 
 referred, became the public safety and good require 
 them to be punished, and for this purpose they 
 can only 1m properly tried in one of the ordinary 
 of the country. 
 With respect to matters which cannot be referred 
 on account of their being against public policy, the 
 rule is so obviously just as not to need illustration. 
 
 But there are certain misdemeanours which may 
 be either settl. .1 by agreement or by means 
 A, on a principle i ten! application 
 
 by Chief-justice Gibbs— that where there is a 
 remedy, by action as well as by indictment, a 
 reference of the matter in controversy is good. And 
 in these coses of misdemeanour, a compromise or 
 settlement under a reference may be made, 
 
 nviction. but with the sanction of the court. 
 As to the parties who may make a reference fa I A.. 
 it may be St :l lly, that every one capable 
 
 of making a disposition of his property or release of 
 Ins rights may make a submission to an award, and 
 in tins category may be placed a married woman, 
 who has a separate estate settled to her separa 
 and there are even cases where a reference I 
 a husband and wife has been held valid ; and of 
 course a husband may submit to A. differences 
 
 m
 
 ABBTTB.ATIO.V. 
 
 regp cting lii -4 wife's] Inch has not 
 
 urate IISC. 
 
 1: bhi powers of infants or persons under 
 
 ■ abmit tn A., there are numerous decisions in 
 
 courts i>t' law and equity: bnt go upon 
 
 refinements and nice > ! I nib d for the 
 
 rional lawyer than for the ordinary reader, 
 
 and we therefore do not think it 1 
 
 any explanation of them in popular article such as 
 
 tins professes to be. 
 
 Parti 1 i ' orporations may make n ferencesto 
 
 A. mi the principles already 1 wording 
 
 relation iu which they stand to the matter in 
 dispute. 
 
 Tims • who cannot submit to A. are persons in the 
 following position: Persons who cannot conl 
 
 1 women without any estate settled to their 
 separate use; and along with them, as laid down in 
 old ante-reformation 1 ks, person in reli- 
 
 gion, and persons under durei The] 
 to the incapacity of married women to refer to V 
 when' tin/ husband, by exile, banishment, or other 
 , is; held to be civilly dead, and when he is an 
 alien enemy. To these exceptions it may be added, 
 that in suits respecting the property of chari' 
 Court 01 Chancery will not permit a refi 
 howevi r advisable such a course may seem, unless 
 the attorney-general gives his con 
 It has generally been the opinion of thi 1 
 
 I -ion, and held to be the doctrine of the 
 courts, that a reference by the consent of conn 1 I in 
 a cause is binding on his client; and, Lord chancellor 
 Klilon 1 1, that it was for the counsel to 
 consider whether he was authori d to refer, and if 
 so, he (the chancellor) would act ent so 
 given ; and the right and privilege of counsel to 
 mil.' .! reference has beenverj strongly laid down 
 in the Scotch courts. But a \. ry reci at ease in the 
 Court of Common Picas (Swinfen v. Swinfen), where 
 a compromise by counsel was successfully 1 I 
 by the client, has very much unsettled the English 
 law on this subject; and now the feeling of tin Bar 
 
 II I 1 land is, that it is unwise to refer or compromise 
 a litigation on the independent authority of counsel 
 
 Submissions to reference may also be made by 
 executors and administrators, by trustees, by the 
 committee of a lunatic, and by the officer of a public 
 company, who is authorised by a statute to sue and 
 be sued in the name of the company. And there 
 are persons especially empowered to refer by the 
 statutes wdiich we have already enumerated. 
 
 Disputes may lie referred to A. in any m 
 that expresses the agreement or understanding of 
 the parties to be bound by the decision of the 
 arbitrator; and for this purpose no formal subi 
 either verbal or written, is necessary; but the 
 arrangement must be such as manifestly to shew an 
 intention to have the difference concluded by a 
 
 ■ adjudication in the nature of an 
 But where the submission is in writing, it must lie 
 i 1 due form. A testator, however, cannot 
 exclude his will from litigation by a proviso, that all 
 differences respecting it shall lie referred to A., 
 although it is thought that the parties benefited by 
 the will might themselves so refer, I 
 .speaking, it is advantageous to make the A. 1 
 a form as that the award may be made a rule of 
 court— that is, may be adopted by a court of law as 
 its judgment on the matter submitted, a pro. 
 that affords an obvious facility in enforcing the 
 award ; and for this purpose it is necessary to make 
 the procedure conformable to the directions of the 
 statutes 9 and 10 Will. III., and :? and 4 Will. IV.. 
 alr.-ady referred to. Where the submission is e 
 verbal or constituted by a private bond or dei 
 liable to be capriciously revoked, and proceedings 
 
 on the award, in sueh a ease, can only he taken in 
 ili.' ( '..nit of < lhani 
 
 'I'lie arbitrator ought 1.. 1..- a person who stands 
 perfectly indifferei d the disputants; but 
 
 ore no otl I ions for the 
 
 office. And the choice by parties of the i 
 h ho tie II decide between them, is per- 
 
 fectly free. Some legal writers have even gone so 
 
 far as to maintain, tint nut only infants and in 1 
 
 women, bnt even idiot, ami lunatics, can lie arbitra- 
 ii nt that everj \- i liberty 
 
 i he likes best 
 and he cannot afterwards object to the defici 
 of those wdiom he has I lit this, 
 
 it is clear, i and ili.- policy of the 
 
 law wi "ly be int' ' I linst BUch 
 
 extreme cases. It is better I rule to I.', 
 
 that on the condition that the party selected is of 
 ordinary intelligence, the choice of an arbitrator is 
 absolutely unfettered. The only exception to il is 
 rule is the case of a party who, by office or position, 
 is the person pointed out for the duty under a 
 ce in .1.' by Btatute. In matters "f compli- 
 oati'ilaeei.iints, in. reant ili men are generally pr El d. 
 [n other casi . it is usual to appoint barristers who, 
 I i to judicial investigations, are able 
 
 to estimate the evidence properly, to confine the 
 examination strictly to the points in question, ami, 
 in making the award, to avoid those informality i 
 
 of which it might afterwards be ■ I 
 Both time and expense are thus saved by fixing on 
 a professional arbitrator. It has, indeed, been 
 remarked, that an arbitrator should . adeavour 
 to arrive at bis conclusions upon the same rules and 
 principles which would have actuated the court for 
 which he is substituted — a ride of conduct that 
 ly points to the expediency of a lawyer being 
 
 the r.l But an arbitrator is not bound by the 
 
 mere rules of practice which prevail in the ordinary 
 courts of justice, and he has been held justified in 
 allowing interest on both sides of an unliquidated 
 account, alt ho b i b a determination was again t. 
 tctice of the Court of Chancery, where the 
 suit, which had been refi I I I been commenced. 
 
 The proceed I leanai trator; ulated 
 
 according to the peculiar circ dci ol the 
 
 submitted, but generally it is advisable to conduct 
 them according to the forms observed in courts 
 of law. and they usually are so conducted. Each of 
 the parties furnishes the arbitrator with a state- 
 ment of his case, which is done by giving him 
 a copy of the briefs on each side; and on the day 
 appointed he pro© eds to hear them (either in | 
 or by their counsel or attorneys), .and to recen 
 evidence on each . ai arlj in the same manner as 
 at an ordinary trial Having so heard the 
 the arbitrator proceeds to make his award, 
 which need not mi . . lor a verbal 
 
 award is perfectly valid ; but in practice it is usual 
 for the arbitrator to make his award on paper 
 stamped with the proper award stamp, and this he 
 delivers to the successful party. The unsuccc ful 
 party gets a copy of the award on unstamped paper. 
 This award in its . Efei I opi rates as a final and con- 
 i cting all the matter submitted, 
 
 and it binds the rights of the parties for all time. 
 
 An award may be set aside on the ground of 
 corruption and fraud in the arbitrator, and for any 
 material irregularity or illegality appearing on the 
 face of the proceedings. But the tendency of the 
 courts is to favour arbitrations and maintain a 
 unless such serious grounds as we have lit erred to 
 substantiated. 
 
 Wlnre there are two arbitrators, the sul.ii; . 
 
 often provides that in the case of their differing 
 in opinion the matter referred shall be decided by a
 
 ARBOGA— ARBORICULTURE. 
 
 third person, called an umpire, who is generally 
 
 appointed under a power t<> tli.it effect, by the arbi- 
 trators themselves. But they cannot make such an 
 appointment unless specially authorised so to do by 
 the terms of the submission. This umpire rehears 
 :!; ei ie, and for this purpose is invested with the 
 
 i powers as those possessed by the arbitrators, 
 
 and bound by the same rules. 
 
 In Scotland an A. takes place in virtue of a 
 written submission executed by the parties i" favour 
 of the chosen referee, who there is called an arbiter, 
 instead of arbitrator, as in England ; and his award 
 is called a decree-arbitral. This submission is in the 
 form of a regular deed, and is said to be general or 
 special, according to the nature of the matters sub- 
 mittal by it, the submission specifying all the parti- 
 culars of the reference, anil the name of the referee 
 
 — the arbiter's powers and duties, which, in thi h 
 
 nary case, are of the most comprehensive character 
 
 tiie specification of the time within which the 
 award or decree-arbitral is to be made — a clause 
 obliging the parties to perform the award under a 
 specified penalty; and other anxious provisions, 
 which are all carefully specified in the submission. 
 The case then proceeds before the arbiter, generally 
 according to the forms observed in the ordinary 
 Scotch courts; and the arbiter makes his award in a 
 very solemn manner, the decree-arbitral comm DCing 
 with a recital of the submission and of all the pro- 
 cedure—and after stating that the arbiter has ripely 
 considered the whole matter, and has 'Coil ami a 
 good conscience before his eyes,' it gives the arbiter's 
 jiii meat, and among other things ordains the sub- 
 mission and decree to be recorded according to the 
 clause of registration in the former, ami the extract 
 from the registry so made forms a judgment which 
 may be put in execution by cither party against the 
 other. The decree-arbitral, like the submission 
 itself, must be executed and attested in the form of 
 a regular deed. Where there arc two arbiters, the 
 submission usually provides, that in the event of 
 their differing in opinion, they shall name an umpire 
 or ovcrsman, as he is called in Scotland, whose 
 judgment is final. 
 
 In conclusion, and as a remark on A. generally, it 
 only remains to be stated, that of course, from the 
 nature of the case, there can be no appeal on the 
 merits of the dispute submitted to any public 
 tribunal whatever. 
 
 ARBO'GA, an ancient city in Sweden, in the 
 provin e of Westmannland, on a small river of the 
 same name, by which, with the aid of a canal, the 
 laki llialm.ir and Malar arc united. A. used to be 
 an important commercial town, but it has now sunk 
 into insignificance, and only possesses an hi I 
 interest from the antiquities in its neighbourhood. 
 Of all its church, i I . and chapi Is there only 
 
 now remain the town and parish church 
 former with an altar-piece of Rembrandt's. Several 
 kings of the family of Vasa have resided here. 
 Church assemblies were held here in 13%, 1412, 
 1117, 1423, and 1174; diets in 14:!."., 144(1, 1171. 
 1529, and 1561, in which last year also certain 
 articles, known as the Arboga Article', v, . re passed 
 by which Eric XIV. was enabled to limit the power 
 oi the collies; and in 1625, Gustavus Adolphus 
 issued an edict here, commanding that the copper 
 coin of the realm shoidd contain its full worth of 
 copper. 
 
 AEBORE'SOENT (from Tat. oroor, a to 
 
 term applied to plants to signify that they possess 
 
 either altogether, or in some measure, the ch 
 
 of trees. Kven the dwarf willows and birch, s, on 
 
 onfines of polar or alpine perpetual snow, arc 
 described as the A. vegetation of these regions. 
 
 AEBOKIOTJ i.ti'im; (from Lai arbor, a tree), 
 a 1. - in i < oifj in . tin trultrt at on of I 
 
 but in i i idly restricted to tic- planting 
 
 and management oi timber trees, or i mployed as 
 
 i Ei In ue ,ii |. a t of the cultivation of fruit trees, 
 which is a branch of horticulture or gardening. 
 
 The ancients practised A. it, but 
 
 chiefly with the \ tew of beautifying their villas, i 
 
 public walks in the It is 
 
 only [or similar purposi -', and on a very limited 
 -e.il,., that A. is yet anywhere practised in Am 
 44ie planting of timber tiers i..r economical pur- 
 or with a view to profit,! ary whilst 
 
 nil null forests ai . 
 
 i 4 even in Britain to an od than the 
 
 beginning of the 16th ''., nor did n I.. ...me at all 
 general till a much later date. The earl] i 
 laws of England, as of other feudal count™ s, had 
 reference chiefly to eon' Eor 1 of which it 
 
 was, and in order to the enjoymei 
 that large tracts w re di populated and 
 mto/oraU by the first Norman kin i. Plant 
 for timber and fuel were, however, cerl i olj < 
 England in the 16th c. ; and the importance of tho 
 i ni, eei. we in ..I on public atfc hi ton b av 
 of that period. In the 17th c., the greatly inct 
 .hin mil for oak, for the building both of snips and of 
 houses, gave a new impulse to A., which attract, d 
 more than ever before the attention both of il 
 win n ion t and of the LTcat landowners; the publication 
 of Evelyn's Sylva also did more than any previous 
 
 work to promote a taste for it It was in this century 
 that nurseries for forest trees wi re first established. 
 
 It was not until the beginning of the l.sthc. that the 
 first extensive plantations were made in Scotland, nor 
 until towards the end of that century that A. bi 
 general in that country or in Ireland. How much 
 the very landscape has been changed by it 
 great a difference has been made by the i 
 of bleak hills and barren wastes into woods — how 
 much the scene has been changed by the new forms 
 of foreign trees, some of which are now in many 
 districts more abundant than those which are indi- 
 genous, it is not easy to imagine; and how much 
 these changes have promoted and are in 
 improvements in agriculture and increased produc- 
 tiveness of fields, is equally difficult to estimate. 
 
 The A. of France, Germany, and other parts of 
 Europe, to this day, consists in a I ire of 
 
 the management of natural forests ; and in th 
 eastern parts of the continent this is almost exclu- 
 sively the case. Without a careful management of 
 tin- natural forests, many districts of France and 
 Germany would soon be destitute of fuel ; bj i 
 of it an increased supply of valuable timber is also 
 obtained ; and extensive domains belonging to the 
 state, or to private proprietors, are rendered much 
 more productive. It is iii Germany that the 
 i a e ineiit of the forests has received the greatest 
 attention, and has been mo .'■ and 
 
 scientifically conducted. 
 
 The forest trees of Britain, and of temperate 
 climates generally}, are conveniently divided into 
 two classes — the on i on ■ "iiiferous t 
 
 pines and firs {NaddhoU, Le.,tne'needlewood'of the 
 Gel in ins), tho other including all other kinds i ! 
 
 ... the 'leaf-wood' of the Germans); the latter 
 being sometimes subdivided into 
 of which the most important in Britain are oak, ash, 
 dm, beech, birch, hornbeam, sycamore, walnut, and 
 chestnut ; and sqfl '" led tr -. a- willow, poplar. 
 
 lime, alder, ami horse chestnut Of these ana 
 
 . and of the soils and 
 situations to which they are adapted, notice is taken 
 in sep irate articles. 
 
 Plantations are generally formed in Britain by 
 
 Ml
 
 ARBORICULTURE. 
 
 menu of trees raised from seed in .1 nursery ; but 
 by sowing the seed cm 1I1-' ground 
 intended tor the plantation ; in which oa 
 circumstances permit, a crop of grain is often sown 
 along with the seeds of the trees, as these do not in 
 a] vegetate very soon ; and tho young plants 
 derive Emm the absence of clmkin 
 
 when the grain-crop is reaped, and from the protec- 
 tion afforded by the stubble. It lias h 
 by some, but there is no sufficient evidence in sup- 
 port of the opinion, that more healthy and vigorous 
 
 .ire obtained by sowing on the spot than 
 by planting those which have fa 1 in a 
 
 nursery'. H o w eve r, only very young trees can be 
 planted with advantage, those which have attained 
 
 iter size requiring a degree of attention far 
 beyond what is possible in plantations even of very 
 moderate extent. The time of planting is from 
 November to February. The most app r o ved mode 
 of planting is in small pits, in which the roots are 
 
 1 d in a natural manner, and which are then 
 
 illy tilled np with earth; but it is often 
 thought sufficient when the tree to be planted is very 
 young, to make a slit for it with the spade, or two 
 slits, one at right angles to the other in the form of 
 the letter T. Other methods are also adopted, par- 
 ticularly for rocky situations, in which the spade 
 cannot be used. Economy is often a consid 
 of great importance in determining the mode of 
 planting. 
 
 The formation of plantations by the sowing of 
 seed has been more generally practised on the con- 
 tinent than in Britain. In this way the vacancies 
 in the natural forests of France and Germany are 
 Idled up. In this way also great sandy tracts have 
 been covered with wood on the coasts of Bomerauia 
 and of France. This has particularly been accom- 
 plished on a scale of extraordinary magnitude in the 
 downs of drifting sand, between the rivers Adour 
 and Gironde. The operations thi > . by 
 
 M. Brcmontier in 1789, and deserve to lie mentioned 
 as perhaps the most important operations in -V that 
 
 ei • been performed in the world. Vast 
 forests of pinaster now occupy what was originally 
 louse sand destitute of vegetation. 
 
 Too little attention has hitherto been generally 
 paid to the adaptation of the kinds of trees that are 
 planted to the soil and climate; and to this cause 
 many failures in A. are to be ascribed. Some tiv. a 
 grow well even in exposed situations, and arc tit to 
 be employed in these 1 , either to form entire planta- 
 tions, or to occupy the outer part, and so to 
 other trees, which in general are not planted until 
 the outer zone or belt of the most hardy kinds is 
 ■■.hat advanced; some succeed only in rich 
 soils ; some arc incapable of enduring the sea-breeze; 
 others, as the sycamore, the elder, and the pinaster, 
 are comparatively unaffected by it. Some trees 
 Buffer from an amount of moisture from which 
 alders or willows would rather derive advantage; 
 but, in general, the thorough drainage of the land 
 intended for a plantation is one of the circumstances 
 most important to its success. 
 
 To the necessity of this thorough drainage we 
 must look as compensating, or more than compensat- 
 ing, the influence which woods exercise in condens- 
 ing the moisture of the atmosphere, and in render- 
 ing a climate cold and damp ; marshy soils being 
 in this respect still worse. The shelter afforded by 
 plantations judiciously disposed, whether in belts 
 or otherwise, is also of great importance in render- 
 ing them suitable for that improved agriculture in 
 which thorough drainage is of the first necessity, 
 and which is always productive of amelioration of 
 climate. The influence of plantations is therefore, 
 upon the whole, beneficial, although vast masses of 
 
 are injurious to climate; and it must be 
 admitted that in some localities the planting of trees 
 1 ried to excess, so that fields often Buffer, 
 particularly in autumn, from want of free circula- 
 tion of air, and the landscape is often resin, ted to 
 very narrow limits. The remedy in Buch cases is 
 obvious; and it not unfrequently happens that 
 within a short distance new plantations might be 
 formed with every prospect of benefit. 
 
 Much has been written about the pruning of 
 forest trees, with a view especially to the produc- 
 tion of taller and straighter stems ; and considerable 
 difference of opinion exists as to the extent to which 
 pruning should be practised. It is, h o w e v e r, very 
 .iiv delayed till the branches to be removed 
 have attained too great a size, and is then very 
 rudely performed, to the spoding of the timber 
 rather than to the improvement of it. The prac- 
 tice of leaving mags, instead of cutting branches 
 clean off, has particularly bad effects. Bines and 
 tirs, from their manner of growth, need pruning 
 less than trees of other kinds. When trees have 
 been planted, not merely for profit but for ornament, 
 this ought to be remembered in pruning, which, 
 however, is too often intrusted to persons utterly 
 devoid of taste; and trees which, as they naturally 
 grew, were very beautifid, are so treated with axe 
 and saw that they become deformities instead of 
 adorning the scene. 
 
 In forming plantations, different kinds of trees aro 
 very generally mixed, although masses of one parti- 
 cular kind arc also frequently planted. It is usual, 
 however, to plant along with those which are 
 destined most permanently to occupy the ground, 
 trees of other kinds as nurses, to be gradually 
 removed as the plantation advances in growth. For 
 this purpose, spruce and larch are more generally 
 employed than any other tree ; althouj.li Scotch bl- 
 and birch are also deemed suitable for certain situa- 
 tions. The removal of some of these nurses affords 
 the first returns of profit from the plantation, which 
 1 1 afterwards thinned from time to tune. Plantations 
 far mot Lly suffer from being thinned too 
 
 little, than from being thinned too much. To the want 
 of proper thinning is to be in part ascribed the failure 
 of many of those narrow belts ol 'plan ' 1 mg which are too 
 
 coi 11 111 Scotland, and which leaving been intended 
 
 for shelter, very imperfectly serve their purpose, and 
 ; ei in to have suffered from the hardest usage them- 
 s' Ives. The thinning of a plantation which has been 
 allowed to grow too thick, must, however, be very 
 gradually performed, that it may be beneficial, and 
 not injurious. After a sudden thinning, a planta- 
 tion sometimes ceases to thrive, and many trees arc 
 often laid prostrate by the next storm; for tii 
 accommodate themselves both in their roots and 
 branches to the situations in which they glow. 
 
 A considerable number of years must elapse before 
 any pecuniary return is derived from a plantation, 
 yet this mode of employing soils is often found to be 
 the most remunerative of which they are capable, 
 even without reference to the improvement of adja- 
 cent lands to which shelter is afforded ; and the 
 increased demand for timber in Britain, tot sleepers 
 of railways and other purposes, tends to the still 
 further encouragement of A. 
 
 The resinous products of pine-woods are not con- 
 sidered as a source of profit in Britain ; but the tar, 
 turpentine, and resin obtained from them in some 
 parts of Europe, form articles of commerce. The 
 great pinaster plantations already mentioned, on the 
 sands between the Adour and Gironde. now yield 
 products of this kind in large quantity. The employ- 
 ment of trees for ornamental purposes belongs not so 
 much to A. as to Landscape Gardening (q. v.). The 
 transplanting (q. v.) of large trees is only practised for
 
 ARBOR VIT/E— ARBTJTIINOT. 
 
 ornamental purposes. Hedgerow trees arc planted 
 chiefly for ornament, although sometimes they may 
 afford useful shelter ; but where this is not the case, 
 can Beldam be reckoned profitable, as they are 
 injurious to crops. Copse or coppice-wood differs so 
 much, hoth in its uses and in the mode of its man- 
 agement, from other plantations, that it must be 
 briefly noticed in a separate article, 
 
 ARBOR VVTAi ( Thuja), a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Coniferce, allied to the cypress, and 
 consisting of evergreen trees and shrubs with com- 
 pressed or flattened branchleti small, scale-like, 
 imbricated leaves — and monoecious flowers, which 
 have 4-celled anthers, and the scales of the strobiles 
 (or cones) with two upright ovules. — The common 
 
 Arbor Vita; {Thuja occidental is). 
 
 A. V. (T. occidenlaUs) is a native of North Ame- 
 rica, especially between lat. 46° and lat. 49°, but has 
 long been well known in Europe. It is a tree of 
 40^-50 feet high; its branches are horizontally 
 expanded, and the strobiles (cones) small and obo- 
 vate. The young leafy twigs have a balsamic smell, 
 and both they and the wood were formerly in great 
 repute as a medicine; the oil obtained by distilla- 
 tion from the twigs, which has a pungent and 
 camphor-like taste, has been ivo. -ntly recommended 
 as a vermifuge. Hie wood of the stem is reddish. 
 soft, and very light, but compact, tough, and durable, 
 bi aring exposure to the weather remarkably welL 
 The tree is very common in Britain, but planted 
 chiefly as an ornamental tree, and seldom attaining 
 
 it a size as in its native country. It delights 
 ii 1. moist situations. — The ChtNKSB A. V. ( T. 
 
 iKs), a native of China and Japan, which is 
 immediately distinguishable from the former Bpecies 
 by its upright branches and larger, almost globose 
 and rough strobiles, is also in Britain, and upon Che 
 continent of Europe, a common ornament of pleasure- 
 grounds J but it does not attain so great a size a, the 
 
 preceding, and is more sensible of the cold of severe 
 winters. The balsamic smell is very agn 
 
 The tree yields a resin, having a pleasant odour, to 
 which high medicinal virtues were formerly aserihed : 
 hence the remarkable name ; ! •• in, sig- 
 
 nifyingTreeof Life), given to this 9pecieB > andeztend< d 
 fa) the genus. Other species are known, but they are 
 less important than these. In its native country, this 
 species also attains the size of a considerable tree. 
 There are Beveral other species of Thuja, some of 
 which seem well suited to the open air in the climate 
 
 of Britain, and others require the protection of green- 
 houses. Amongst the former are T. plitata, from 
 Nootka Sound; and T. dolabrata, a nati 
 Japan, a tree of gnat height and thickness, and 
 which will not improbably prove the most important 
 of the whole genus. — A tree, common in North 
 America, and there known by the name of White 
 Cedar, is sometimes included in the genus Thuja, 
 under the name of T. spharoidea, but is more gene- 
 rally ranked in the genus Cuprums as C. thyoides. 
 See Cypress. The timljcr is highly esteemed, and 
 an infusion of the scrapings is sometimes used as a 
 stomachic. — Closely allied to the genus Thuja is 
 Oallitris. Bee nvnuarach. 
 
 ARBROA'TII, ABERBRO'THWICK, or 
 
 ABERBRO'THOCK, a seaport town in the east of 
 Forfarshire, situated at the month of a stream 
 called the Brothock. Here King William the 
 Lion founded a Tyronensian abbey in honour of 
 Thomas-a-Becket in 1178. The king was inl 
 in it in 1214. In the abbey, Bruce and the Scot- 
 tish nobles met in 1320, to resist the claims of 
 Edward II. to Scotland. Cardinal Beaton was the 
 last of its abbots. Next to Holyrood, the abbey was 
 the most richly endowed monastery in Scotland. It 
 was destroyed by the Reformers in 1560. Its ruins 
 — which are cruciform, 270 by 100 feet — are 
 picturesque, presenting lofty towers, columns, Gothic 
 windows, and a line circular east window, 'the 
 Round O of A.' The chief industries of A. are flax- 
 spinning, jute-spinning, and the manufacture- of 
 sail-cloth. The new harbour, begun in 1841, admits 
 vessels of 400 tons at spring-tides; it is protected 
 by a breakwater. In 1872 the number of vessels 
 belonging to the port was 68 ; tonnage, 10,021. The 
 chief exports are grain, potatoes, tish, pork, and 
 pavement, chiefly from Lower Devonian quarries 8 
 or 10 miles inland. A. is a royal burgh, and in eon- 
 junction with Montrose, Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie 
 burghs, returns one member to parliament. Popu- 
 lation in 1871 of parliamentary burgh, 19,973. A. 
 is supposed to be the Fairport of The Antiquary, 
 and the Redhead Crags and Coves form some 
 of the scenes in that novel. The famous Bill- 
 rock Light-house stands in the sea, 12 mUes south- 
 east of Arbroath. 
 
 ARBU'THNOT, Jonx, a distinguished writer 
 and physician, the contemporary and friend oi 
 and Swift, was the son of a Scottish episcopal 
 clergyman, and born at Arbuthnot, in Kinear- 
 dineshire, shortly after the Restoration. He Btudied 
 medicine at Aberdeen, where he took his d 
 A.'s father was obliged to resign his charge at the 
 revolution. His sous' prospects being thus hi 
 in th.ir own country, they were under the 
 sity of going abroad to seek their fortune. John 
 removed soon after to London, and there sup- 
 ported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1607 
 he published an examination of Dr Woodward's 
 account of the Deluge, win. ii brought him into 
 notice as a person of no common ability. Accident 
 called him into attendance on l'nnce George of 
 
 Denmark, who thenceforth patronised him. In 
 
 1700 he was appointed physician to the queen, anil 
 in 171H was eleeted a member of the Royal ' 
 of Physicians. On the death of Qni D Anne, in 171 I. 
 be lost his situation, ami his circumstances were 
 never BO prosperous afterwards. In 1717, A., along 
 
 with Pope, gave assistance to Gay in a 
 entitled Vhr» Bo r» after Marriaq . which, how- 
 ever, in spite of having the aid of a trio of wits, 
 proved a complete failure. In 1723 he was I 
 second censor of the Royal College of Physicians ; 
 in 1727 he was made an Elect, and had the honour to 
 pronounce theHarvoian oration for the year. He died
 
 ARBUTUS-ARCADIA. 
 
 at Rampstead, in 1735. A. was one of the leaders in 
 i i of \i its which adorn d I Queen 
 
 Anne, and « i till more noblj di tinj ai hi d bj I lie 
 rectitude of ins morals and the goodness of his heart 
 
 He assisted Swift and Pope in the • position of 
 
 thai brilliant satire, the Memoir* qf M 
 portions of il 
 refer to Bcience and philosophy; and he was un- 
 dly the author of the a lebrated polil 
 the j which has bo often 
 
 been Imitated. Besides a vera! medii vs, he 
 
 published Tables iff Q nan, and 
 
 Measures, Weights, a >< i (London, 1705 1708), 
 a work which was long the best authority on the 
 :. There is also a philosophical po mo bis 
 composition in Dodsley's Miscellanies, entitli d 
 I 
 
 A'KUUTUS, a minis of plants of the Datura! 
 order I'.i to i c mtauiing a nu- 
 ll- and shrubs, the gn iter part of which are 
 American. The frail is fleshy, 6-celled, many-seeded, 
 usually dotted with little projections, wh o s that of 
 some species lias a sort of resemblance to straw- 
 berries; the corolla is urn-shaped. — A. D'nedo, the 
 
 Arbutus Uncilo. 
 
 Stb w\t.i:ui:y Tree, is a native of the south of 
 Europe, found also in Asia and America, and in one 
 loi -lny in tin- British Isles, the Lakes of rlillarney, 
 w new its fine foliage adds much 1" the charm of the 
 scenery. Tt requires protection in winter in the 
 climat - of Paris. In Britain, it is ofl in planted as 
 an ornamental evergreen. It grows to the In 
 20 30 feet, but is rather a great bush than a 
 Tim bark is rugged ; the leaves oblongo lane "l ite, 
 smooth and shining, bluntly serrated; the Bowers 
 n i Iding, large, greenish white; the fruit globose, of 
 a scarlet colour, with a vapid Bweetish last,., it is. 
 however, sometimes eaten. Of late, excellent alcohol 
 has been made from it in Italy. A wine is made 
 from it in Corsica, which, however, is narcotic', if 
 
 hi considerable quantity, as the fruit itself is, 
 if eaten too freely. The bark and leaves are astrin- 
 gent. — A. Andrachne is also sometimes cultivated as 
 an ornamental plant in Britain, but is a 
 
 frosts. Its fruit, and that of A. 
 are eaten in Greece and the east But all the species 
 seem to possess narcotic qualities in greater oi 
 dej i •; the fruit of A. fwrens, a small shrub, a 
 native of Chili, so much as to cause delirium. — A. 
 
 a, which abounds at Cape Horn ami mi Stat in 
 Island, is an elegant and most pleasing evergreen, 
 very much resembling the myrtle. It grows to the 
 height of .': or -1 feet, and produces small white 
 I . i"!l .Aid by a profusion of red .shining 
 
 berries, which ornament the bush during winter. 
 
 Their flavour is insipid, but somewhat astringent. 
 
 us, they have been made by 
 
 into tolerable tarts. — A. Uvu ursi, now 
 
 generally i died Arclottaphylos Uva urei, the Etxn 
 
 i: \i:ri in. is a small trailing evergreen shrub, 
 common in the Highlands of Scotland and in the 
 
 Hebrides, and indeed in the northern parts of 
 Europe, Sibi i North America. It '.rows in 
 
 dry, heathy, ami rocky places. The flowers are in 
 small crowded terminal racemes, of a beautiful rose 
 
 1 The berries are austere and mealy; they 
 
 are said to form a principal part of the foo I of 1 
 in northern regions. Grouse also feed on them. 
 The diied leave are used as on astringent and tonic 
 mi d ' me, and as such have a place in the pharma- 
 copoeias, being principally employed in chronic 
 
 affections of the bladder; but tl Vaccinium 
 
 I'M.* I' 1 " i are often fraudulently substituted for 
 them.- The B] li b I'.i uiberry [A. or Arctostaphytos 
 alpina) is also a native of the northern parts of the 
 globe, a small trailing shrub, with black berrii i 
 about the size of a sloe, relished l>y some, but 
 
 h- ■'. ii a peculiar taste, which to others is diss 
 able. The plant is found on many of the Highland 
 mountains of Scotland. 
 
 AKC (Lat. arcus, a how) is any part of a curved 
 line. The straight line joining the ends of an A. is 
 its chord, which is always less than the A. itself. 
 Arc, of circle:; are similar when they subtend equal 
 angles at the centres of their respective circles ; and 
 if similar arcs belong to equal circles, the arcs them- 
 selves are equal. The length of an A. is readily found 
 if the angle which it subtends at the centre of the 
 circle is known, and also the length of the whole 
 
 circumference. Let the whole circumference be 100, 
 
 and the angle of an \. 50 . the length of the A. is 
 300 1 : 50 3 : : 100 : "^Jl 50 = 14 nearly. 
 
 ARC. 
 
 360 
 
 Sec Juan oi 
 
 AKC A. or A UK -SI I ELL, a genus of bivalve shells, 
 and lamello-branchiate mollusca, the type of a family 
 called Arcades, or Arcaceoe, In the true ark-shells, 
 the hin tit, and occupies what at fir 
 
 tic whole length of the shell, but is in reality its 
 whole breadth, the breadth being greater tit 
 '■ . ih. One species is found on the British sho 
 the species are larger and more numerous in the 
 i warmer chmates, and some of them arc 
 frequently to be seen among the shells employed I ir 
 the ornament of drawing-rooms, &c. Fossil J. 
 are, however, more numerous than recent species, 
 and arc found in various rock systems. 
 
 ARCADE (Fr.), a row of arches, supported by 
 columns, cither having an open space of greater or less 
 width behind them, or in contact with masonry. Tbo 
 A. in ( lothic corresponds to the colonnade in classical 
 architecture, the difference between them being that, 
 
 eas the pillars in the colonnade support si ■ 
 architraves, those in the A. support arches. The 
 term A. is .sometimes applied to the row of piers, or 
 columns and arches, l.y which the aisles arc divided 
 from the nave of a church, or by which cloisters, 
 or what are erroneously called piazzas in Britain, 
 are enclosed; but it is more generally confined to 
 those series of smaller arches which are employ d 
 simply for purposes of ornamentation. Arcade of 
 the latter kind are often found surrounding the 
 ' 1 1 1 1 1 . ■ towers of English churches. Of this we have 
 early examples in the church of Middleton Stoney, 
 Oxfordshire, and in the still older ones of Tewkesbury, 
 and Christ Church in Oxford. The term is also 
 applied, improperly, to a glass-covered street or 
 lane, w ith a row of shops or stalls on each side. 
 
 ARCADIA, the middle and highest part of Pelo- 
 ponnesus, was bounded on the a. by Achaia, on
 
 ARCADITTS— ATMir. 
 
 the E. by Argolis, on the S. by Messenia and 
 ; i, and on the W. by Elis. According to 
 
 Pausanias, it derived if i name Erom Areas, the son 
 i La da, A. was the I 
 
 country in the Pelo] U us. It had an ana of 
 
 1700 square miles, and was girt round by a circle 
 of mountains, which cut off to a large extent its 
 communication with the rest of the peninsula. 
 Mountains also intersected it in different directions. 
 The western part of what was anciently A., is wild, 
 
 bleak, and rugged, and was at one time covered 
 with huge forests; the eastern is more fertile, the 
 
 i ii I aim not I i In 1 1, and the vales more luxuriant. 
 
 lu ties.- eastern valleys lay all the principal cities 
 of A. The loftiest peak in A.— the loftiest also in 
 the Peloponnesu I (.'yUcne, in the north- 
 
 ea 1 (778 feet). The chief river was anciently the 
 
 iua (i|. v.). Originally A. was named Pelasgia, 
 
 after its first inhabitants, the Pelasgi. Subsequently, 
 
 is divided into several small states, which 
 
 I i i onfederation. Of these united states, the 
 chief were Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenos, Pheneus, 
 Psophis, and Megalopolis. The inhabitants, engaged 
 in tending cattle and in hunting among 
 the wild highlands, remained long in a state of 
 barbarism. After civilisation had advanced, and 
 the Arcadians had become known by their love 
 of music and dancing, they still retained some mili- 
 tary spirit, and were sometimes engaged as mer- 
 
 ,- soldiers. But generally their character 
 accorded with their simple, rural mode of life; 
 though it seems certain that human sacriliees were 
 offered as late as the period of the Macedonian 
 sway. The Arcadians were not remarkable for 
 their intelligence. In fact, an 'Arcadian youth' 
 was a synonym for a blockhead. Pan and Diana 
 were their favourite deities. Ancient and modern 
 i (the latter especially in the time when 
 
 ials' were popular) have described A. as 
 the land of peace, innocence, and patriarchal 
 manners. 
 
 AllCA'DITTS, first emperor of the East (395— 40S 
 A. I).), was born in Spain. 383 A. D., and was the son 
 of the Emperor Theodoaius, after whose death the 
 Roman empire was divided into East and West, 
 A. lived in oriental state and splendour, and his 
 dominion extended from the Adriatic Sea to the 
 river Tigris, and from Scythiato Ethiopia; but the 
 real rulers over this vast empire were, first, th 
 Kulinus, and afterwards the eunuch Eutropius, who 
 openly assumed the reins of government and the 
 command of the army, while A. reposed in luxurious 
 indifference. In 399, the eunuch Eutropius was 
 ■ 1 by another usurper, Gainas, who, in his 
 turn, soon fell a victim to his own ambition. After- 
 wards, Budoxia. the wife of the emperor, assumed 
 the supremacy, tine really great man adorned tins 
 period, the virtuous and eloquent Chrysostom, who 
 was persecuted by Budoxia, and through her 
 
 influei exiled in -In I, on account of his firm 
 
 opposition to Arianism, which the empress b 
 favoured. Dunn I A., his territories 
 
 sail red by barbarian incursions, earthquakes, 
 and famine, but nothing could disturb the indif- 
 ference of the monarch. He died, unlamented, 
 40S A. D. 
 
 ARCESILA'US, a Greek philosopher, founder 
 of the New Academy, was born at Pitane in .1: >!u, 
 Asia Mi ■, 316 B.o. Be studied philosophy, first 
 
 under Thcophrastus the Peripatetic, and afterwards 
 
 under Crantor. After the death of Grantor, A. 
 became the chief master of the Academic party, or 
 those who held to the doctrines of Plato; but he intro- 
 duced so many changes that its philosophic character 
 
 was completely changed. His great rivals Were the 
 
 Stoics, whose opinions he attacked, but be does not 
 
 to have attained any certainty in his own 
 
 convictions. !(.■ had studied under too many mas- 
 
 id discussed too many different sy 
 the truth of any. lie denied the Stoical doc- 
 trine of a 'convincing conception,' which he affirmed 
 to be, from its very nature, unintelligible and contra- 
 dictory. He al o denied tin of any suffi- 
 cient criterion of truth, and recommend. I 
 nence from all dogmatic judgments. In practice he 
 maintained that we must act on ground 
 bility. It is not easy to determine satisfactorily 
 what his moral character was. A v. it, a poet, and a 
 man of frank and generous disposition, v i 
 to have captivated nis disciples even more than his 
 philosophy, he has yet been accused by Ins enemii a 
 of the grossest profligacy; and whatever extrava- 
 gance there may be in such an extreme charge, it is 
 tolerably certain that he died of a debauch in Ins 
 Toth year (l'II B. c.). Nevertheless, his adversary 
 Cleanthes, the Stoic, passed tl ulogium on 
 him : ' The morality which A. abolishes in his words, 
 lie re-establishes in bis actions.' 
 
 AKCH, an arrangement of bricks, Btones, or 
 other materials over an open space, by which they 
 are made not oidy to support each other by mutual 
 pressure, but to sustain an. at weight. 
 
 We have the excellent authority of Sir < r. Wilkinson 
 for stating that the A. was known to, and used by, 
 the ancient Egyptians ; and that the Assyrians wire 
 acquainted with its principles is placed beyond 
 doubt by the arched gateways so frequently repre- 
 sented in their bass-reliefs. The A. is generally sup- 
 posed to have been unknown to the ( ireeks —a sup- 
 position which becomes very improbable if we hold 
 it to be proved that it was used by nations with 
 whose works they must have been familiar. But 
 that the (Ireeks did not employ it generally in their 
 architectural structures, is certain ; and as it is D 
 certain that the ltomans did, it is to the latter people 
 that the nations of modern Europe are indebted for 
 their acquaintance with its great utility. The intro- 
 duction of the A. by the ltomans gradual!;, i 
 a complete revolution in the architectural forms 
 which they borrowed from the (ireeks. The | 
 minance of horizontal lines gave way by di 
 till, as the Romanesque passed into the ( iothic style, 
 il v. a i superseded by the segments of a ci 
 generally more or less in a perpendicular direction. 
 In its earliest application by the Romans, the A. did 
 not spring from the entablature of the columns, but 
 
 Morally placed behind them, and rest- d upon 
 separate imposts. Subsequently, this arrangement 
 was departed from, and the V t umed the pc 
 which it has since retained 
 sometimes having an entablature interposed, and 
 
 mes rising directly Erom the cap 
 column or pier, as in the Romanesque. I 
 
 very briefly the different forms of the A., it 
 
 natural to refer to a very simple stn 
 frequently met with in those early edifices in our 
 
 own country which we are in the habit of 
 
 as Saxon. It consists Of two stones, their 
 lower end g on rude piers, their tops lean- 
 
 : otler, and thus formin 
 sides of a triangle, which is capable of support- 
 uperincumbent weight. The me- 
 chanical principles on which the A. depends, though 
 here verj imperfectly employed, scan sufficiently 
 
 called into play to suggest their more extensive 
 
 application; and it is i Me that out of 
 
 this rude c \ . in its later and 
 
 mora elaboi ' forms, might have developed itself 
 amongst ourselves without hints from 
 
 sources. 
 
 Of the A. itself, the following variations of form 
 
 MS
 
 ATtCH. 
 
 may l>e enumerated: The semicircle (1), the se£- 
 
 2), the ellipse (."), which wore the only forma 
 
 employed by the ancients, ami which ilone were 
 
 known in medieval architecture up to the time at 
 
 3. Ellipse. 
 
 4. Stilted A. 5. Horseshoe A. 
 
 which the pointed A. was introduced. Of these, the 
 still il A. (4), and the horseshoe \. (5), are i li- 
 gations, in both of which the centre or point from 
 which the A. is described is above the line of the 
 impost, but in the former of which the mouldings 
 are continued downwards vertically: whilst in the 
 Utter tliey are slightly inclined inwards, or the curve 
 
 longed till it meets the impost. The ! 
 shoe A. belongs peculiarly to Arabian architecture 
 (<[. v.), not only from its haying originated simulta- 
 neously with the faith of the Prophet, but from its 
 continuing to be used exclusively by his followers. 
 Next) in point of time, though far surpassing all the 
 others in beauty and variety, is the pointed A., the 
 origin of which is still a subject of antiquarian 
 controversy. The greater or less acuteness o 
 pointed A. depends on the position of the two centre 
 points from which its curved sides are described 
 Its various proportions will be better understood 
 from the accompanying diagrams (6, 7, 8,9) than 
 from any verbal description. 
 
 6. Equilateral A. 
 
 8. Drop A. 
 
 7. Lm. 
 
 X^N 
 
 9. Segmental A. 
 
 Of the foil arches (10, 11, 12, 13, 14), or arches 
 in which the forms of a leaf are imitated, the first 
 
 met with in Arabian and Romanesque build- 
 ings. At a later period of Gothic architecture, with 
 
 13. Cinquefoil A. 
 
 14. Pol; 
 
 the decorated style, the ogee A. (15) was introduced, 
 and the Tudor or four-cornered A. (Hi) appeared 
 
 about t! nt of the perpendicular style. 
 
 15. Ogee A 
 
 16. Tudor A. 
 
 When first introduced, the proportions of this A. 
 were bold and effective; but it was gradually 
 depressed till the principle of the A. was lost, and 
 its very form was again merged lirst in two and 
 then in one flat stone or lintel over an opening. 
 With the last form of the Tudor A. we thus reach 
 almost the point of departure in the construction of 
 the A., and complete our enumeration of its forms. 
 
 The Bid of an A. are termed haunches arflanl >, 
 and its highest part is called the crown. The v 
 shaped stones, bricks, or 
 other materials of which an 
 A. is constructed, are called 
 voussoirs (a, a, a) ; the 
 uppermost one of all (h) is 
 called the keystone; the 
 
 lowest, which iS [J iCI 
 
 immediately over the im- 
 post, the springer, or spring- 
 ing-stone ; the under or 
 lower side of tho voussoirs, 
 the inlrados ; the upper 
 side, the cxtrados or hack. 
 For the investigation of 
 the mechanical principle of 
 the arch, and of the con- 
 ditions of stability, see 
 Moseley's Mechanical Principles of Engineering and 
 Archit ecture. See also Biudge, Impost, 1'ieu, 
 Bottbess. 
 
 ARCH, Tiiiimhial, was a structure erected 
 by the ltomans across roads, or at the entrance of 
 
 10, 11, 12. Trefoil Arches. 
 
 Triumphal Arch of Constantine at Borne, 
 three are examples of the trefoil, the fourth of the 
 cinquefoil, and the fifth of the polyfoil, the latter cities, in honour of victorious generals. The original 
 8M
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY— ARCHANGEL. 
 
 triiimfih.il arch was the Porta Triumphalis, one of 
 the gates of Rome through which the triumphal pro- 
 ■ i entered the city. Among the earliest detacned 
 arches built at Rome was that built by Scipio 
 Africanus (190 B.C.) on the Capitoline Hill. Under 
 tlie emperors, these structures became numerous and 
 magnificent, and were decorated with bass-reliefs and 
 inscriptions. Three of what were properly triumphal 
 arches still remain in Rome, those, namely, of Titus, 
 Septimius Severus, and Constantine. Numerous 
 similar monuments exist also in other parts of the 
 old Roman empire, as at Rimini, Susa, Verona, 
 Ancona, Orange (in France), Capura (in Spain). 
 
 ARCH^EO'LOGY (Gr. archaios, ancient, and 
 logos, a discourse) is the name now very generally 
 riven to the study which was formerly known as 
 that of ' antiquities.' The term is well enough 
 understood, although its meaning is not at all 
 definitely fixed. In its widest sense, it includes 
 the knowledge of the origin, language, religion, 
 laws, institutions, literature, science, arts, manners, 
 customs— even-thing, in a word, that can be learned 
 of the ancient life and being of a people. When so 
 n led, it comprehends more or less of several branches 
 ol knowledge which are recognised as distinct or 
 odent pursuits, such, for example, as eth- 
 nology, philology, history, chronology, biography, 
 mythology, numismatics. In its narrower but p r- 
 haps more popular signification, A. is understood to 
 mean the discovery, preservation, collection, arrange- 
 ment, authentication, publication, description, inter- 
 pretation, or elucidation of the materials from which 
 a knowledge of the ancient condition of a country 
 is to be attained. These materials will be found 
 to divide themselves into three great classes : 
 (1.) written, (2.) monumental, and (3.) traditional. 
 
 1. What may be called written A., may be again sub- 
 divided into palaeography (q. v.), or diplomatics (q. v.) 
 — that is, the science of ancient writings ; and blbli- 
 
 y (q.v.), or the knowledge of printed books. 
 
 2. Monumental A. admits of almost endless sub- 
 divisions, according to the character of the remains 
 to be studied, which may be works of art, such as 
 buildings, sculptures, paintings, engravings, inscrip- 
 tions, coins, medals, seals, armorial-bearings, tapestry, 
 furniture, plate, jewels, enamels, glass, porcelain, 
 pottery ; works of engineering, such as roads, canals, 
 mines, piers, camps, forts, walls ; works of unskilled 
 labour, such as pdlars of unhewn stone, caves, dikes, 
 ditches, mounds of earth or stone ; articles of dress, 
 armour, or personal ornament ; tools, weapons, 
 implements, utensils, machines ; appliances for loco- 
 motion, such as canoes, boats, ships, carriages ; 
 modes of sepulture, such as mummies, sarcophagi, 
 urns, catacombs, graves ; vestiges of man and 
 animals, such as skulls, bones, skins. 3. Tradi- 
 tional A. includes as well the unwritten Ian 
 
 and oral literature of a people, their dialects, le 
 tales, proverbs, rhymes, songs, and ballads, as those 
 
 . customs, ceremonies, rites, and superstitions 
 now beginning to be known by the name of ' folk- 
 bin ■.' and formerly called 'popular antiquities.' 
 
 The study of A. in modern Europe may be held 
 to date from the revival of letters. It w 
 almost exclusively confined to the antiquities of 
 
 reeks and Romans. About the middle of the 
 16th c, Medieval A., or the antiquities of the Dark 
 and Middle Ages, began to be cultivated. Egyptian 
 A., or ' I yptology,' as it i3 sometimes called, made 
 comparatively little progress until the discovery of 
 the Roaetta Stone, containing a hilJTignal and tri- 
 literal inscription, which enabled Young in 1819, and 
 Champollion in 1821, to find a key to the hiero- 
 
 flyphics. The more recent discoveries of 
 ayard, Rawlinson, and others, have already 
 advanced Assyrian A. to a point beyond all expecta- 
 
 tion. Indian A. has been successfully prosecuted, 
 especially during the last forty years, chiefly by 
 officers of the East India Company. Something also 
 has been done by them and others for Chinese A. 
 Men of letters in the United ; States have devoted their 
 time to the rude and scanty remains of the aboriginal 
 inhabitants of North America. The A. of Central 
 and South America, as it attracted attention much 
 earlier, so its more stately and instructive monu- 
 ments have much better rewarded such inv 
 tions as those of Lord Kingsborough, Messrs Stephens 
 and Catterwood, and others. 
 
 The study of A. has been largely promoted by 
 the publication, at the expense of the state, in 
 various countries, of the national chronicles, char- 
 ters, and records ; by societies and clubs contri- 
 buting to the same end, or printing essays on 
 questions of A. ; and by the establishment by 
 the state, by associations, or by individuals, of 
 museums for the collection and classification of 
 antiquities. In England, a society for promoting 
 the study of antiquity was founded so early as the 
 year 1572. The irrational jealousy of the govern- 
 ment dissolved it in 1604. It was revived in 17i'7. 
 enlarged in 1717. and incorporated by royal charter 
 in 1751, under the name of the 'Society of Anti- 
 quaries of London.' An attempt to institute a simi- 
 lar society in Scotland was made about 1700 by ' some 
 honourable and knowing gentlemen,' who re 
 to continue their conferences till a complete historical 
 account be made of the nation. But it was not 
 until 17S0 that the Society of Antiquaries of 
 land was incorporated by royal charter. The 
 Royal Irish Academy for promoting 'the study of 
 science, polite literature, and antiquities,' was char- 
 tered in 17S6. The Society of Antiquaries of 
 land, and the Royal Irish Academy, have good 
 museums of national antiquities. The British 
 Museum in London (established in 1753), besides a 
 great collection of early manuscripts and printed 
 books, has galleries of Assyrian. Egyptian, Etrus- 
 can, Greek, Roman, British, and Medieval antiqui- 
 ties. One of the most remarkable collections of 
 antiquities on the continent, is that of the Royal 
 Society of Antiquaries of the North, at Copenhagen, 
 arranged so as to illustrate a favourite theory of 
 the Scandinavian archaeologists — that the primitive 
 antiquities of a country may be assigned to 
 successive ages or periods of stone, bronze, and iron, 
 with as much certainty and precision as the com- 
 parative antiquity of geological strata, or periods of 
 the world's creation, may be determined by the 
 fossils which they are found to contain. The 
 museums of the Louvre and the Hotel de Clunv, in 
 Paris, contain fine collections of Assyrian, Egyptian, 
 Greek, and Roman antiquities, and an unrivalled 
 collection of Medieval antiquities. The Royal 
 Museum at Naples has gathered together the statins, 
 paintings, vases, household utensils, and other 
 objects recovered during the last hundred 
 from the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii, i 
 long buried cities may be regarded as being in 
 themselves museums of Roman A. 
 
 ARCHANGEL, the chief city in the Russian 
 department of Archangel, is situated in lat 6±' 32" 
 N., and long. -in= 35" E., about 40 miles above tho 
 junction of the river Dwina with the White Sea; 
 is the seat of an archbishop, and contains 19.936 
 inhabitants. Its name is taken from the monastery 
 of St Michael. A. commercial city for the 
 
 north of Russia and Siberia, and is visited by nume- 
 rous vessels — especially British — from July to Sep- 
 r, the port being clear of ice only during that 
 period. The houses are built chiefly of wood ; and 
 their general appearance is far from handsome. The 
 finest edifices are the bazaar or mart, and the 
 
 m
 
 AECHANGEL— AECHBISHOP. 
 
 marine hospital. A. has an ' college 
 
 with !i professors, sohc ag and navi- 
 
 gation, so. 'I'll 1 ' chief articles of trail 
 train-oil, skins, furs, timber, wax, iron, tallow, 
 ii, which is tin 
 1 1 of the empire and was f..r a long period the 
 only one, was founded in l.'.si, its merchants 
 a oast, as China, and have all th 
 
 '. During summi r, A. b a conti- 
 nual market. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (from ft I prefix oreW- 
 
 --, denoting chief, and 
 term which occurs in the S I anient; and 
 which, according to some, is there t title of our 
 
 irs an 
 ior in ]i"'. otli. r 
 
 We read, in the I Jude, of ' ■ 
 
 ft V, and in Ucv. xii. 7, of ' ml his 
 
 .' In 1 Thess. iv. 16, we are told that the 
 
 • ii- Lord at the last day shall ho 'with 
 
 V. and with th- trump o 
 
 l hi tip' Holy Scriptures of arc/i- 
 
 Itho fte plural is popularly as much u ed 
 
 as tin- singular. The notion of an angelic hierarchy 
 
 ' i the highest 
 
 mil to Michael; ami the same 
 
 notion instian 
 
 church i b pa ol Scripture which 
 
 i to indicate different degrees and classes 
 lie hosts, but no clear te\ 
 has been made upon this sub 
 
 ARCHANGEL, New. £ 
 ARCHBI'SHOP (Cr. arehr, and epitcopos, ov r- 
 is tin' title given to a metropolitan bi hop 
 who superintends the conduct of the 
 bishops m his province, and >pal 
 
 authority in his own diocese. Th" title arc , in the 
 3 1 and 4ft i the piw in 
 
 l held once or twice a year in the chief town of 
 
 the pro i I idency of I 
 
 Another cause of th 
 
 im of planting new I 
 I d, a slight supremacy being still 
 
 retained by the original over the newly-appointed 
 chief i Oi atal Church, the arch- 
 
 ed ' metropolitans,' from the 
 tstance first mentioned. En the African I Ihurch, 
 I band, the term used was 'primus.' The 
 ics of the i arly Church •.■ 
 Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, Alexandria, Constanti- 
 
 nmedthe name of I'"; is an 
 
 official letter by Justinian, addressed to 'J 
 A. of Rome and Patriarch;' and several i 
 
 add d to 'Epiph iniu . A. of 
 ad Patriarch.' The synod of 
 Antioch, in 341, assigned to the A the 
 ence over all the bishopries, and a pi 
 
 over .ill tie 1 bishops of th.- church, who, on 
 
 
 
 i led b Byd 
 
 of this ority of rank, privileges which a1 
 
 a sum il th' character of positive jurisdiction in 
 d matters. Many of these rights 
 
 i [. . raids th.- end of the 4th 
 
 tin- 5th centuries, and .still more to the 
 
 in- 9th. The archbishops still retained 
 
 ction, in the first instance, over their suffragans 
 
 not criminal, anil over those 
 
 who v t to them they acted as a court 
 
 possessed also the right of calling 
 
 to ad presiding in, the provincial synods; 
 
 iperintendence ami power of visitation ovei 
 
 the bishops of the metropolitan see; the power of 
 
 enforcing the laws of the church ; the dispensation 
 
 of indn and the like. The archbishops 
 
 further enjoyed the honour of having the cro i 
 i .ii rii d before them in their owi pate, even 
 
 in pp ence of the pope him—if, ami oi wearing the 
 in England, there are two archbishops, 
 of w horn the one has I ry, the 
 
 cap tal of the ancient kingdom of Cent ; the other at 
 York, the capita] of Nbrftumbria. But thou 
 ruling over a province in place "i ,. n le dio 
 both have enjoyed tin- rank of metropolitan 
 the first, the a. of Canterbury has all alone enj I, 
 not merely pie. .I. nee as tic tstine 
 
 ami the senior a., but pre-eminent 
 
 ami universal authority over the whole kingdom. 
 This pi marked in 1 be titles « hich 
 
 they respectively assume the A. of ( lanterbury being 
 
 i he Primate of all England [m 
 etprimtu tolius Anglim), whilst the A. of York is 
 simply called Primate 
 
 ilia). It ii also indicated by the | 
 which they occupy in pro th oi Canter- 
 
 bury, who has precedence of all the nobility, not. 
 only preceding the A. of York, but th. 
 Chancellor being interposed between them. Previ- 
 ous to the e, in archbishopric in Ireland, 
 the authority of th.- A, of Canterbury exi 
 to that island. The amount of control which 
 to ail A. over tin bishops of In I proT 
 ery accurately defined; but if any bishop 
 
 introdui i into his dim I 
 
 guilty of immorality, the A. may Call him to 
 
 it, and even deprive him. In 1822, the A. of 
 
 b, who is primate of all Ireland, deposed the 
 
 ' of Clogher on the latter ground. To the 
 
 A. of Canterbury belongs the 1 ur of placing 
 
 He' th'. 1 , n on the sovereign's head at his coronation ; 
 
 ami the A. of York claims the like privilege in the 
 
 case of the Queen-consort, whose perpetual chaplain 
 
 In- i.. Th. province of the A. of York consists 
 
 northern count;. ami 
 
 Nottinghamshire. The rest of England ami Wales 
 
 form the province of the A. of Canterbury. The 
 
 . of the two are!: 
 
 ta in which they exercise ordinary episcopal 
 
 !-• were rei 1. lied by 6 and 7 Will IV. c. 77. 
 
 The diocese of Canterbury comprises Kent, except 
 the eiu and deanery of Rochester, and some ps 
 transferred by this act; a number of parishes in 
 i : II districts in other 
 
 dioceses, particularly London. The diocese of the 
 A. of York the' county of York, ■ 
 
 that portion of it now included in the dioceses of 
 Ripon and Manchester; the whole county of Notting- 
 
 I riets. 
 In I. id b re are two Protestant and four 
 Roman ' bishops. (If the former, the 
 
 A. of ' primate of all Ireland; th" A. of 
 
 Dublin being Primate of Ireland. They formerly 
 sat alternately in the House of Lords; the time 
 bishops who. along with them, represented the 
 Church of Ireland, being chosen by rotation. The 
 i of an A. does not differ from that 
 
 ip) ; but when he d with 
 
 his otlice, he is said to be 'enthroned,' whereas a 
 bishop is ' consecrated.' He also writes himself, 'by 
 Divine Providence;' a bishop being, 'by Divine 
 on;' and has the title of ' Grace,' and ' Most 
 Reverend Father in God,' whilst a bishop is 
 • Lord,' and • flight Reverend Father in God.' The 
 A. ii entitled at to all ecclesiastical I 
 
 in the disposal of diocesan bishops, if not filled up 
 within six months; and every bishop, whether 
 created or translated, was formerly bound to make 
 a legal conveyance to the A. of the next avoidance 
 such dignity or benefice belonging to his see 
 as the A. shall choose.
 
 ARCHDEACON— ARCHEGOSAURCS. 
 
 ARCHDEA'CON (Gr. arch-, and diaconon, 
 servant). An ecclesiastical dignitary whose juris- 
 diction is immediately subordinate to that of the 
 bishop. 'I 'ally was simply the chief of 
 
 the deacons, who were the attendants and assistants 
 of tin? bishop in church affairs. His dute 
 sisted in attending the bishop at the altar and at 
 ordinations, assisting him in managing the revenues 
 of the church, and directing the deacons in their 
 duties. From being th assistants, archdea- 
 
 i the 5th c. began to share the bishop's powi re, 
 and step by step attained to the authority which 
 they now enjoy, which from the 9th c. became in 
 many respects distinct from that of the bishop. 
 
 1 synods protested against the inn"' 
 but it was continued in the 11th and 12th cen- 
 i the archdeacons were recognised as the 
 
 influential of prelates. In the 13th <■ . 
 
 i were limited by the establishment of i 
 lurta. Their dignity and influence is now very 
 much reduced in the Catholic Church. I 
 
 ily sixty archdeaconries in England, but 
 
 number ha 
 the passing of the act for carrying into effect the 
 
 lera (0 and 7 
 Will. IV. c. 77); and it is probable that under the 
 
 'ins of that act they may be still further 
 • 1. No person can be appointed an A. till 
 :i six years complete in pi 
 (.■J and 4 Vict c. 113, s. 21). The duty of parochial 
 visitation has long been regarded as belonging 
 dly to the archidiaconal office, and it was 
 by its exercise mainly that the archdeacons attained 
 to the dignity of ordinary instead of del' 
 jurisdiction. Even in performing this function, 
 however, and in holding general synods or visita- 
 tions, ordering repairs of churches, sad the like, 
 the A. is properly to be regarded as being what 
 the canon law called him. ' the bishop's eye.' 
 The judge of the A.'s court, when he does not pre- 
 side, is called ' the official.' There is an appeal to the 
 
 Court of the Bishop, or in the case of an A. of an 
 archbishopric, to the Court of Arches. Bee R 
 Dean, Pbib , t g to 
 
 ■ li and Clergy. Edinburgh, 1857. 
 
 ARCHDT'KH. A. and Archduchess are titles 
 
 now taken by all the sons and daughters of the 
 
 l ria, and by I "lants 
 
 through the iiia!> radu- 
 
 un: d by the dukes of Austria, ai 
 
 £i!ie other i :upire. 
 
 ink.; Rudolph IV. of Austria, in 1359, called 1 
 Palatums Archidux, but he was not so styled by the 
 emperor. His brothers, Albert and lid not 
 
 assume the title after his u h they had 
 
 occasionally done so in his Tie- third 
 
 ■Id, howevi ' . ! 
 it. Still he: was addre imply 
 
 as duke. At last the title was formal 1. 
 
 or Frederick 1 1 1, in 
 . as duke, was the pient of the 
 
 imperial gift. Still tie not uniform, for 
 
 he aft' peaks of himself as duke. 
 
 ;e was extended to the Tyroban branch of the 
 i the person of Sigismund. The 
 value of the dignity' thus assumed was a cs 
 contention with Bavaria in 15 
 
 it to duke it held the 6::: i that 
 
 archbishop does to bishop. The dukes of Austria 
 claimed to have always had precedence over the 
 other ducal houses, and regarded tie- t.tle as a mere 
 indication of what had been universally acknow- 
 Bavaria, on the other hand, relied on the 
 greater antiquity of its dukedom. The contest was 
 decided by the Emperor Rudolph II. in favour of 
 Austria, the precedence of which has not since been 
 called in question. Other dukedoms claimed the 
 privilege of being so called, but it was invariably 
 denied by the emperor. 
 
 ARCHEflosAU'RUS, a remarkable fossil sau- 
 rian reptile, so named by Goldfuss {ardcigos, leader ; 
 
 Archegosaurus : 
 a, section of a looth ; 6, scales. 
 
 anil Mturos, lizard), as constituting the real begin- 
 niucr of reptilian life, which had previously been 
 • as not extending below the Permian 
 I of rocks. 
 From the it will be seen that the head 
 
 of th" A. is protected by a firm dermal sk 
 composed of numerous plates, while the internal 
 primary carl mstohavei ontinui .1 una 
 
 .ell is Battened and triangular, with p 
 -, the from somewhat In. 
 
 'I he : mple cones, having a labyrinthio 
 
 nilar t'l that of the recent . 
 Th. vertebral column remains in an embryonic 
 condition ; the ai peripheral 
 
 the vertebra are ossified; but the dux 
 which is persistent, is unprotected below. The 
 ribs are slmrt and almost straight, round and 
 in the middle, expanded and flattened at tl. 
 The two pairs of limbs are nearly equal in size, and 
 in structure very much resemble those of the Proteus. 
 .1 
 
 They have each four long. Blend which 
 
 obviously supported a longisn, narrow-pointed i 
 adapted for Bwimming. Externally, the boa; 
 
 protected by a covering of oblong quadra 
 which have been preserved insoni' 
 Four species ha\ ribed. 
 
 .• of the A. w shortly 
 
 d-measures, had 
 a those of a fish under the name of 
 
 i I' h:;. 1 
 
 Meyer first descril ■ <l it und r the name of .! 
 
 pecimen was found in the coal- 
 measures of Mu . in Rhenish Bavaria, 
 and was BUpp » 1 by Mi yi r to I 
 salamanders, and without considerable 
 
 .'. tish, 
 as well a lizard, or of a l.atrachian.' In 
 
 I 
 . in large c des of 
 
 clay-ironstone, from the coal-field oi -
 
 ARCHELAUS— UirliniS AND AKCHKKY. 
 
 . . aerie name oi A. II 
 
 [ to be e ■ ii the 
 
 Owen lias subsequently described this 
 
 it a remarkable connecting link 
 , the !■ i'tilo and the Bah, and on 
 .,: It is related to the salamandroid 
 I by the conformity of pattern in the pi 
 
 1 cranial skeleton, and by th 
 
 ,i on, while it is 
 
 I . the reptiles by the p 
 i, and the branchial arches, and by the 
 of the occipital condyle, or condyles, as in 
 ., and by the presence of labyrinthic 
 hodon, which, hoi 
 ally it to the ganoid Lepidosteus. There is thus in 
 a bl ther of the chai 
 
 and fish in one animal It occupies a position 
 . a, and equally related to, U adroid- 
 
 i fishes on the one hand, and the labyi 
 dont n ptili i o i the other, while the 
 
 the Lepidosiren to the pereni 
 batrai 
 A llCHELA'TJS, one of the Her i, when 
 
 a by his brothers from his native land, lied to 
 Ion, where he became the founder of a powerful 
 . of which Alexander the Qreal was said to 
 descendant— Archelaos, natural Bon of the 
 Macedonian king, Perdiccas II., came to the throne 
 be had murdered the rightful heir) in 413 B.c. 
 , was far better than its commenc 
 as he introduced several salutary measures, ai 
 
 patron of art and literature, 
 frequented ln3 court; ami the palace 
 of the monarch was splendidly adorned by the 
 
 paintings of the latter. It is said that Socrates 
 
 I an invitation to proceed thither, having no 
 
 t for the character of A., which was 
 
 i odious vices. He is ' to have 
 
 by Craterus, one of bis favourites; 
 
 but the story of his death is told dil —A, a 
 
 ; ral under Mithridates the Great, wai sent into 
 
 Greece with a large flee! i armj oi 120,000 
 
 men to oppose the Romans in ST B.C. Sulla was 
 
 ft ait against him, and besieged him in I 
 
 ,1 to Bceotia, and I 
 
 took place at I 
 
 iry declared for the Romans. A. now 
 
 ited to Chalcis, where ho waited until 
 ridates had despatched another army of 
 
 i ' i. The second fight to 
 
 Orchomenos, in Bceotia, and, after two i 
 the whole host led by A was totally routed by 
 Sulla. A., after hiding for three days in a D 
 I to Chalcis. After a treaty of peace ha. 
 i :. : Sulla and Mithridates, A. fell 
 
 under the displeasure of his monarch, being unjustly 
 ,1 of treason, and, fearing for his lite, as also 
 in disgusted at the return he had received 
 for his many services, he went over to the Roman 
 at the outbreak of the second war, in 81 B.C. 
 After this time, he appeals no more in history.— A., 
 son of the former, married Berenice, daughter oi 
 King Ptolerrueus Auletcs (50 B.C.), sad ruli 1 over 
 Egypt for the short space of six months during the 
 I iment of Ptolenueus. The usurper lost his life 
 
 ust Aldus Gabinius, proconsul of 
 Syria, His grandson, also named A., obtained from 
 Marcus Antonius the province of Cappadocia, and 
 retained it .luring the reign of Augustus. Tiberius 
 accused him of political innovations, and condemned 
 him to death ; but, as he was old and fatuous, his life 
 died soon after his trial, at Rome, 
 in 17 A. n. -A., son of Herod, the tyrant of Judca, 
 succeeded his father in 1 a. D., and maintained 
 -ition against an insurrection raised by the 
 
 r 
 
 Pharisees. His heirship to the throne I disputed 
 
 brother Antipas, A. w< at bo Rom 
 
 i iiirmed by Augustus, who made him 
 
 U of .ludaa, Samaria, and Idumcea. After 
 
 a reign of nine years, he was deposed bj 
 
 on ace. cruel tyranny, and banished to 
 
 Vienna, in (laid, where he died. His ten 
 
 Id. d to the Raman province of Syria. 
 
 AROHENHOLZ, JoHAUB Wii.nr.i.M, BASOH 
 Qerman i born p. 8, Yi 16, died Feb. 
 
 i •. After sen ioe in the army, he 
 
 +« at the close of the Seven Years' War, and 
 ed Beveral years in travel, visiting almost all the 
 pal cities of Europe, and supporting himself by 
 authorship, and, as itwt reported, al 
 
 gambling. He wrote a History m tnt Seven )■ ' 
 2 vols., Berlin, 1793), which, when com] 
 e generally dry style of his German contem- 
 prsise on account of its nam 
 tive interest He also wrote England and Italy 
 non, Leip. 17S7), Annals <>/ British H 
 1798), and biographies of Qui i a 
 of England, and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden. 
 
 A'RCHER FISH, a name given to cei 
 small East Indian fishes of the Acanthopterygious 
 family of Bquamipennes or Chatodontiacs, \ 
 
 the faculty of projecting drops of water with 
 a at insects, and thereby causing them to fall 
 
 ..■ water, whi re they are instantl; 
 prey. Toxoles jaculator, one of thi 
 Bah about six orseven inches in length, a nativi ol 
 Javai ad other parts of the [ndian Archi] 
 is that to which the name A. F. 
 strictly appropriated. It can project a drop of water 
 to the height of four or five feet It is the 
 nt species of its genus, but the] 
 . also a Javani 
 possesses the same power, and the Chini 
 keep it in jars for their an. it to 
 
 ■ its art by pi asecl within its ra 
 
 ATRCHERS ahd A'RCHERY. Archers are 
 
 weapons arc the bow and arrow, 
 the ancients specially eminent in this 
 of warfare, we may particularise the Thra- 
 thians, and Humid 
 ■ Arabians, Germans, and 
 tor Frederick II. employed Sara, 
 archers with great effect in his Lombard camp 
 and to them is ascribed the victory at Cort. ■■ 
 in 1'2;I7. The archers belonged to the light troops, 
 and their province was to open the battle. The 
 ror Leo especially lauded the dexterity of the 
 Arabian archers. In later ages, the bow came 
 to be employed in England, where the archers wore 
 li l.t armour, a short sword, and a quiver With 
 
 : or more arrows. At first, thi 
 fought in small groups; in later years, in large 
 ■. At the battle of Cressy, they formed in divi- 
 sions of 40(10 men, 200 in lino and 41)0 deep. '1 le- 
 archcrs decided the fate of the day in several I . . i 
 
 iCressy and Poitiers (1350), Agincourt (1415), 
 at (1423), Verneuil (1424), and Rovemay 
 (1429), 'Hi- French archers never equalled the 
 h, in spite of the pains Charles VI. and 
 VII. took with them. The latter organised 
 in 1448 the /'. wie-esre&ers, to which corps evei 
 parish had to contribute one man ; but this mi 
 was attended with so little success that th 
 
 oduced to take Scottish archers into Ins pay, to 
 
 make any head against the English. The French 
 
 i wore a coat of buffalo-hide lined with strong 
 
 linen, and were accompanied by shield-bearers. In 
 
 this manner 21 bowmen with their shield-bearers 
 
 fought under the Count de Foix at the siege of 
 Bayonne in 1451. The archers universally belonged
 
 ARCHERS AND ARCHERY. 
 
 to the Clite of the troops, and received higher pay 
 thau the rest. At one period, the arbalest or cross- 
 bow was more in favour than the long-bow. 
 Abbalbbt. Long after the discovery of gunpowder, 
 we find the bow and arrow still used; as, for ex- 
 ample, at the siege of Capua in 1600 ; and the siege 
 of Peineburg in 1502. .Nay, even in 1572, Queen 
 Elizabeth promised to place at the disposal of 
 Charles IX. 0000 men, of whom the half were 
 archers. The English archers are the subject of 
 frequent mention by our old writers. Chaucer, in 
 his Canterbury T eaks of the archer 
 
 'Claddc in cote and hodc of prone, 
 A sheafe of peacock irwea brifthts ami kene, 
 Under lii i bell he bare fill thriftilic. 
 
 I his take! yewmanlie. 
 His bi wee drooped not with fatheree lowe, 
 And in his hand he bare a mighty bowe.' 
 
 In a Treatise on Martial Discipline, by Ralph Smithe, 
 written in the time of Queen Elizabeth, we have a 
 picture of the English archer two centuries after 
 Chaucer's time: 'Captens and officers should lie 
 skilful of that most noble weapon the long-bow ; and 
 to see that their soldiers, according to their draught 
 ami strength, have good bowes, well nocked, well 
 strynged, everie Btrynge whippe in their nocke, and 
 in tlie middes rubbed with wax braser, and shut- 
 spare strynges trymed as aforesaid ; 
 man one she! ws, with a case of le 
 
 defensible against the rayne, and in the same four- 
 and-twi .hereof eight of them should 
 
 be lighter than tlir- residue, to gall or astoyne the 
 
 enemye with the hailshot of light arrowes before they 
 shaU come within the danger of their harquebus 
 shot. Let every man have a brigandine or a little 
 coat of plate, a skull or hufkyn, a maulo of leade 
 of live foote in lengthe, and a pike, and the same 
 ing by his girdle with a hook and a dagger.' 
 
 Among the Asiatic Turks, the Persians, the Tatars, 
 and other nations of the east, as well as the Ameri- 
 can Indians, the DOW and arrow are still u das wea- 
 pons of war. In Europe, they are nearly abandoned 
 for military purposes. The chief differences bi. .' 
 the two kinds of weapon employed by the archers 
 of the middle ages are noticed under Arbalest ; 
 Bow A>D A ' 
 
 Although archers are still included among the 
 fighting-men of barbarous and semi-barbarous 
 nations ; in England, archery is now nothing more 
 than a i by archery clubs or 
 
 societies. In this sense, however, archery is expe- 
 riencing a revival, b.ing healthful as an out-door 
 
 , even if no further useful. Durie 
 reign of Charles II., archery was much pat 
 by the court, Tothill Fields being the chief scene 
 of exercise. After his reign, archery fell into 
 desuetude for about a century. In 1770, 
 Astnn revived archery in the neighbourhood of 
 I Ion; ami very shortly Hi' re were e iveral toxo- 
 
 0T archer] formed. The system 
 
 survived till IT".:. xiodofinac 
 
 supervened, lasting till 1844. In this last-named 
 year, archery was revived in Yorkshire, and has 
 since gone on extending every year. A recom- 
 mendation to the sport is that ladies can take 
 part in it — one of the f r pastimes 
 
 of which this can be said. In the modern 
 cise of archery, there are several varieties of 
 contest i tie' antagonistic parties ; but 
 
 the usual variety is t: ng. In arcl 
 
 matches, a number of | nerally awarded, 
 
 the principal being for the greatest number of 
 into any part of the target, and for 
 the nearest approach to the exact centre. The 
 target has a gold spot in the centre, a red ring 
 around this, then a white ring, then a black, and 
 
 ■ of all a white ring bordered with green. The 
 merit of the shooting consists in a near approach 
 to the exact centre or 'gold' Two I 
 generally used in a match, on op] of the 
 
 field, each by on i party. The apparatus n 
 used at these archery meetings is represented i 
 
 Archery Apparatus. 
 
 1 cut. 1 is the bow, varying in •. 
 according to the strength of the person who 
 use it; 2 is the arrow; 3 is the quiver, at 
 for holding arrows not immediately in use ; 4 and 5 
 are the pouch and belt for holding the arrows 
 actually in use. The tassel of the belt serves to clean 
 the arrows when dusty. G is the brace, 1 
 round the left arm, to protect it from being hurt 
 by the string when shooting ; 7 is the sh< 
 glove, formed to protect the three fingers ui 
 drawing the string. Besides these articles and the 
 . archers are somotimes provided with a large 
 • ailed an 'ascham,' fitted up with tie 
 sary drawers and compartments for the reception 
 of the bow, arrows, string, and other nee 
 accoutrements. 
 
 In archery competition, the total number and 
 value of each person's hits are registered on a 
 scoring-card. The shots are usually punctured on a 
 card with a pin, as being preferable to pencil or ink 
 
 ; and the li ining the val 
 
 the hits, which is increased in pi - they 
 
 reach the centre, will be seen by the foil 
 example : 
 
 1 OF TUE ScoIUXG-C.vr.D. 
 
 Namci. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 
 Black. 
 
 
 Tout 
 
 Value. 
 
 A 
 
 I! 
 
 
 
 
 
 Id 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 - 
 
 11 
 
 
 "I •••■ 
 
 49 
 
 It appears by the card that A 
 
 four in the red, six in the i m the 
 
 . and thirteen in the i . making a 
 
 total of thirty-five. 'i' ; 
 
 by multiplying the hits in the gold by i 
 in the red, by three; in the inner white, by t .. 
 adding a fourth to those in the '. 
 without alteration the Dumber in the outer white. 
 By this process it will appear that A's nui 
 according to the value of each circle, amount to 68, 
 and B's to 48— hence A is the win S '. Hut 
 
 dit have 1 in I'.'s. and still 
 
 n the winner, pro shots 
 
 had lain more towards the gold than B's. 
 
 571
 
 ABCIIIL-AllclIII.orlirs. 
 
 As an instance of the skill which long Hid • 
 practice mayinsui ice A. Ford, who has 
 
 written an excellent work on Archery, on one 
 ion, out of 144 shots, made 143 hits — 765 score ; 
 on another. 1 il shots, b>7 hits — 809 score; and on 
 anotb , 75hite 555 score, 
 
 A 'lit IIIL, or O'BCHIL, is a colouring substance 
 obtained from various species of lichens. The A. 
 is not origmally present in the lichens, lmt is 
 developed during a process of putrefaction ami 
 fermentation. The lichens, collected from rocks 
 near the sea, are cleaned, ground into a powder with 
 water, placed in tanks, and ammomacal liquids 
 such as purified gas liquor or stale urine— added ; 
 when, by the combined influence of the ammonia, 
 air, water, and the constituent-; of the lid 
 violet-coloured matter is generated, which appears 
 for a time to dissolve in the water, but finally falls 
 to the bottom of the vat in the condition of a 
 moist powder or paste. The latter is then 
 with : i i ill; or >: ; 
 
 it consistence. The lichens which yield the best 
 A. in largest quantity, are RocceUa / 
 fuciformis. The former is called the Archil plant, 
 and is obtained in large amount from the Canaries 
 and Cape de Veld Islands, an.l the Levant. Another 
 lichen, Leeanora iartarea, collected from rocks in 
 ly imported into Britain. It is 
 sometimes called cudbear (q. v.), or cudbear lichen, 
 and sometimes white Swedish moss. A. is soluble 
 in water and in alcohol, to cither of which it 
 imparts a violet colour, with a good deal of a 
 >n hue. It is much employed in the dyeing 
 of auks, where a beautiful lilac colour is required; 
 but though a brilliant rich hue is imparted to 
 the silken fabric, the colour is not a permanent 
 t upon by the rays of the 
 sun. Hence the A. is seldom used by itself, and 
 loth is lirst dyed lilac by another colouring 
 matter, and is then passed. through an A. dye, which 
 imparts a brilliant lilac hue to the cloth. A. is 
 seldom employed to dye cotton cloth, but it is 
 often i. along with indigo, in the dyeing of 
 
 woollen cloth; and besides enabling the indigo 
 colour to go much further, it imparts its p 
 rich tint to the blue or black cloth or yarn im- 
 mersed in it ; the colour, however, so obtained is 
 not so permanent as where the A. is left out. 
 Cudbear (q. v.) and Litmus (q. v.) an' analogous 
 to A., and are obtained from the same lichens. 
 
 The lichen distinguished by the name of the 
 A. plant or lichen, RocceUa tincta m very 
 
 sparingly on the southern coasts of England, but 
 abundantly on the shores of the Mediterranean and 
 of the neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, where it 
 often covers rocks near the sea, so as to form what 
 has been likened to a sort of turf upon them. The 
 Spanish name is Orciglia, from which the I 
 Orseilte, the English A. or Orchil, and even the 
 botanical name RocceUa, are derived. It is of a 
 substance between cartilaginous and leathery, round- 
 ish, pretty erect, branching in a dichotomous manner, 
 of a grayish brown colour, with powdery warts 
 (soredia); the apothecia (q. v.) orbicidar, flat, horny, 
 almost black, with a scarcely prominent bordi i. 
 That from the Canary Isles is generally regari 
 the best. It seldom exceeds the thickness of a pin, 
 and about an inch and a half in length. A 
 branched and more slender, prostrate, or pendulous 
 variety (RocceUa hypomecha of Bory de St Vincent) 
 is common at the Cape of Good Hope and in the island 
 of Mauritius, and appears in commerce along with 
 the other, but is of very inferior quality. A variety 
 remarkable for its large size, or perhaps a distinct 
 - {S, Jlaccida), is brought from Lima and 
 other parts of the west coast of South America ; 
 
 21-1 
 
 it is sometimes as thick as a goose-quill. I 
 G or 8 ad is of excellent quality. 
 
 All these, and BocceUa ■ generally 
 
 receive in commerce, and from A.-makers, the 
 name of Ore 1, the different kinds 
 
 rdingto the countries from which 
 
 • imported 'lhey are also popularly called 
 
 Dyer's Moss. S.J perhaps mare 
 
 A. 01 Or. in Ha Weed of minim ) 
 
 ■. It differs from J.'. Atnctoria chiefly in being 
 
 not rounded, but flat, and in having tl 
 very distinctly bordered. It grow. situa- 
 
 tions, and is also a native of Britain, but abundant 
 only in wanner climates, as on the coasts of Africa. 
 Madagascar, &c. That ola is reckoned of 
 
 '. quality. 
 
 lichens from which A. is manufac- 
 tured is the PareJU dHAuvergnt or OneMe de terre 
 (Ground A.) of the French, Variolaria orcina or 
 ■. which is gathered for this purpose in 
 mountainous districts of the south ol I n nee and 
 other parts of the south of Europe, and is also an 
 article of export (with othei I | from 
 
 to Holland. But the greater facility with 
 which A. of the finest quality can be procured from 
 
 cics of RocceUa, and the increa ong ahum 
 of the supply from different quarters, particularly 
 from Angola, tend to diminish the demand for other 
 lichens. 
 
 AKCHI'LOCHUS of Pasos, in I.ydia, flourished 
 about 714 — (i7i> B.C., and is regarded as the lirst of 
 the i Ireek lyre- poets, although the origin of the 
 is claimed for Callinus, a writer who 
 have slightly preceded that of A. Glimpses of his 
 life, especially of the calamities « bich befell him 
 frequently given in his writings. His father's 
 was Teh • mother wasa slave called i 
 
 At an early age, becoming entangled in political con- 
 i i ■. he abandonedbis native town, and led a colony 
 of the citizens to Thasos, While here, as ho informs 
 us in some extant verses, he lost his shield in a battle 
 
 against the Thrarians, gh cowi 
 
 Subsequently banished from Sparta, to 
 
 which he had gone, some say because he had vindi- 
 cated his conduct in running away from th ■ fight, 
 
 if the licentiousness of his \ 
 He is said to have gained the laurel-wreath at the 
 Olympic Games by an ode in honour of 
 but this is doubtful. Having returned to Paros, he 
 took part in the war which broke out betwixt it and 
 Naxos. in the course of which he lost his life, 
 in battle or by assassination. The Delphian oracle 
 pronounced a curse upon his slayer. Vai 
 novelty, and satirical bitterness characterised his 
 lyric poems; so much so, that ' Archilocliian bitt r- 
 ness,' and 'Parian verse,' became bywords in 
 ancient times. He scourged his enemies in the 
 most merciless fashion, and always displayed the 
 most malicious skill in selecting for his sarcasm the 
 points on which they were most sensitive. It is 
 said that Lycambes, who had promised his dan 
 
 le in marriage to A., having failed to fulfil the 
 promise, was so severely satirised by the poet, that, 
 to escape ridicule, both father and daughter h 
 themselves. Among the ancients, A. was ranked with 
 Homer. They dedicated the statues of both on the 
 sane- clay, and placed the head of A. beside that of 
 Homer on the same bust. It is therefore supposed, 
 and with high probability, that there must have 
 been far more in A. than mere vehemence of 
 Even l'lato, who was not likely to err on the side of 
 admiration in such a case, calls him ' the very 
 wise;' and Gorgias, the rhetorician, is reported to 
 have said, when Plato sent forth his dialogues 
 against the Sophists, ' Athens has given birth to a 
 new A.' There must have been strong sense,
 
 ARCHIMANDRITE— ARCHIMEDES. 
 
 and a keen perception of truth in the man, to 
 have won so universal and permanent a reputation. 
 Still the line of Horace — who was a vigorous imi- 
 tator of him in many respects — proves that 'rage' 
 was considered ' the special faculty ' of A. 
 
 • Arcliilochum proprio rabii'S annarit tntnlo.' 
 
 Art Poitica, line 79. 
 
 1 Rage halh armed Archilochus with his own iambus.' 
 
 The word famous was in use before the time of A., 
 and was employed to denote a species of rude rail- 
 lery, such as flashed out spontaneously under the 
 inspiring excitement of the Bacchic and other festi- 
 vals. A. was. however, the first to reduce these 
 irregular and capricious effusions to fixed rales. See 
 ! i 9. The semi-pentameter, of which he made 
 abundant use, was called after him ArchUocldan 
 < 
 
 The fragments extant of bis poetry have been 
 edited by Bergk in his 1' i (Jraxarum 
 
 (Lripsic, 1S13). 
 
 ARCHIMANDRITE chief, and 
 
 mandra, a fold or a convent), the title of the b 
 order of superiors of convents in the Greek Church 
 (see Abbot). The Russian bishops are chosen from 
 among the archimandrit s. 
 
 ARCHIME'DES, the most celebrated of ancient 
 mathematicians, was born at Syracuse about 287 
 B.C. He is said to have been a kinsman of King Hiero, 
 thoiiL'h he does not seem to have held any public 
 office, but devoted himself entirely to science. In 
 regard to mathematics, we cannot estimate fully the 
 merits of A. without a more exact knowledge of the 
 state of the science as he found it ; we know, how- 
 ever, that he enriched it with discoveries of the 
 highest importance, on which modern mathemati- 
 cians have founded their methods of measuring 
 curved surfaces and solids. Euclid only considers a 
 few curved figures in relation to one another, but 
 without comparing them with rectilineal surfaces 
 and solids. The theorems necessary to this transi- 
 tion are laid down by A. in his treatises ' on the 
 Sphere and Cylinder,' 'on Spheroids and Conoids,' and 
 ' on the Measurement of the Circle.' His demonstra- 
 t' 'ii that the area of a segment of a parabola is two- 
 thirds of the enclosing parallelogram, is the first 
 real example of the quadrature (q. v.) of a curvilinear 
 space. In his treatise on spirals, he rises to yet 
 higher investigations, which, however, are not very 
 easily understood even by masters of the subject. 
 
 A. is the only one of the ancients that contributed 
 anything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics 
 and on hydrostatics. He first established the 
 truth, that a body plunged in a fluid loses as 
 much of its weight as is equal to the weight of 
 ual volume of the fluid. (See the following 
 article.) It was by this law that he determined 
 much alloy the goldsmith, whom Hiero had 
 d to make a crown of pure gold, hail 
 fraudulently mixed with the metal. The solution of 
 ohlem suggested itself to him as lie was enter- 
 ing the bath, and he is report e d to have been so over- 
 09 to hasten home without waiting to dress, 
 exclaiming: 'I have found it! I have found it!' 
 i -m seems to 
 
 have]: -nee in the days of A. ; 
 
 . that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point, 
 he could 1: 
 
 with rdinary effects of his newly 
 
 invented machines inspired him. Among the 
 numerous inventions ascribed to A., is that of the 
 endless screw, and th 
 
 n which the water is made in 
 
 a manner to ascend by its own gravity. During the 
 
 by the Romans, he exerted all bis 
 
 Ltry in the defence of the city. Polybius, Livy, 
 
 and Plutarch speak with astonishment of the 
 machines with which he opposed the attacks of the 
 enemy. But while giving detailed accounts of his 
 other contri-. . say nothing of his having 
 
 set fire to the ships by means of mirrors, a story 
 which is not very probable in itself, and rests on 
 later narratives. When the Romans took the 
 city by surprise (212 B.C.), A., according to the 
 tradition, was sitting in the public squar 
 in thought, with all sorts of geomi trieal 1 
 before him drawn in the sand. As a Roman : 
 rushed upon him, he called out to him not to 
 spoil the circle ! But the rude warrior cut him • 
 According to his own direction, a cylinder enclosing 
 a sphere was engraved upon his tombstone, in com- 
 memoration of his discovery of the relate 
 these solids — a discovery on which he set particular 
 value. When • icero was in Sicily as questor, he dis- 
 c-oven d the tomlj hid among briers. His collected 
 extant works were edited by Torelli (Oxf. I 
 There is a French translation with not' a by V. 
 1 (Paris, 1808, 2 vols.), and one in German by 
 Xizze (Strals. 1S24). The Ai 
 
 into English by <!. Anderson (Lond. 17S4). 'In 
 object of the treatise is to prove that it is pa 
 
 zn a number greater than that of the grains 
 of sand that would till the sphere of the fixed 
 the diameter of which A. assumes at a certain num- 
 ber of stadia. The difficulty lay in expressing such 
 a vast number by means of the clumsy notation of 
 Greek arithmetic, and the device by which the 
 difficulty is eluded is considered as affording a 
 striking instance of A.'s genius. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, the Pi:im ii-i.k of, is one of the 
 most important in the science of Hydrostatics, and 
 is so called because the discovery of it is generally 
 ascribed to the Syracusan philosopher. It may be 
 thus stated : A body when immersed in a flui< 1 
 exactly as much of its weight as is equal to the v. 
 of the fluid it displaces; or: A fluid sustains as much 
 of the weight of a body immersed in it as is equal to 
 the weight of the fluid displaced by it. It is proved 
 experimentally in the following way. A delicate 
 balance is so arranged that two brass cylindi 
 and B, may be susjiended from one of the scale-pans, 
 
 the one under the other. The lower cylinder, B, is 
 solid, or closed all round, and tits accurately n 
 upper cylinder, A. which is hollow. When the two 
 
 d upon the othi r i equilibrium 
 
 ined. The eyliu 
 
 of the water exerted upon i:. the equilibrium ia 
 ed; but it may be compli 
 
 tilling' the hollow cylinder, A. with Mater. The 
 amount of wei :lit winch B has lost by King | 
 in the water, is thus found to be exactly the same as 
 the weight of a quantity of water equal to its own 
 bulk, or win me thing, to the quantity of
 
 AIM II1MF.DES' SCREW— ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 water 6 by it. Wh lighter than 
 
 water are wholly immersed in it, they disph 
 amount of water of gr tit than their own, 
 
 if left free to adjust themselves, thej 
 on the surface, only as much of their bulk being 
 i a quantil 
 ; :. ■ Bam • as thi Ives. 
 I ier than \. 
 into it, their own bulk, bodies lighter than 
 displace, when allowed to Bo 
 own weight of the fluid. Bod weight 
 
 as wat ei (nine 
 
 it mi , e water 
 
 I 
 
 ■ I the 
 in Diver is intended to illustrate 11ns. 
 AJtb < nciple of Archimedes is gen 
 
 established with reference to water, its appl 
 extends equally to bodies immersed in air or any 
 other Uuid. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES' SCREW (called also the 
 pump), a machine fur r . said to have been 
 
 invented by Archimedi 
 for draining and irrigal ind. Fig. 1 
 
 sents it in its simplest form. This consists of a 
 
 ; ■ . i. 
 
 flexible tube hent spirally round a solid cylind 
 ends of which are furnished with pivots, so as to 
 admit of the whole turning round its axis. The 
 : in an inclined position, so that the 
 lower mouth of the tube may dip below the surface 
 of the water to be raised. In the position 
 sented in the figure, the lowest bend (a) of the tube 
 will be tilled with water, and if now the ha 
 made to turn in the direction of the hands of a 
 B, the mouth of the spiral tube will be 
 
 the surface; and the water enclosed in the 
 j no means of escape, will flow within it 
 until, after one revolution, it will occupy the second 
 b. The first bend (a) has meanwhile received 
 . which, alter a SO lotion, 
 
 flows up into the second bend (?*), and takes the 
 place of the first charge, which has now nun 
 to the third bend, c. When, therefore, as many revo- 
 lutions of the cylinder have been made as th 
 in the spiral tube, each of the lower ben 
 be tilled with water; and in the course of :" 
 revolution, there being no higher bend for the water 
 ■ to occupy, it will How out of the 
 by its upper mouth. At each succeed 
 tion, th ml will be i ' highest 
 
 discharged. It will be seen from the figure that 
 there is room to dispose a second tube s: 
 side with the first, round the cylinder, in which 
 case the screw would I ■ luble-threaded. In 
 
 the ordinary construction of these machin 
 I f is hollowed out into a double or 
 
 and enclosed in a water-tight case, 
 which turns round with it, the space between the 
 
 3?4 
 
 supplying the place of such tubes as at 
 in Pig. 1. Fig. - represents a double-threaded A. .S. 
 
 description, with the i loved m front. 
 
 It is sometimes found convenient to tix the exterior 
 
 envelope, and to <?rew work within it, 
 
 the outer edge of the lati 
 
 to the former without actual contact. This CD 
 
 i of the A. S. receives the name of water-screw, 
 and frequently of Dutch screw, from its I 
 
 used in Holland for draining low grounds. 
 
 A RCHIPE'LAGO, a term (of doubtful etymology) 
 
 applied originally to that gulf of the Mediten 
 
 which separates Greece from Asia ; but now ext ! 
 
 to any sea, like it, thickly interspersed with islands, 
 
 or rather to the group of islands themselves. The 
 
 islands in the Greek Archipelago or .Egean Sea 
 
 consist of tv. i i - died Cyclades and Sporades; 
 
 ir being massed after the manner 
 
 of a circle, the second from their I I red in 
 
 something of a line. The former lie to the east of 
 
 Southern Greece, while the latter skirt the west 
 
 a Minor. 
 
 Of the Cyclades the principal islands are : Lyra, 
 
 Kytlmos, Thera, Tenos, Andros, Naxos, Melos, and 
 
 more of inferior size. They all belong to 
 
 . and will more conveniently be considered in 
 
 ion with it. The chief islands of the Sporades 
 
 are: Scarpanto, Rhodes, Cos, Pc i ma, Samos, 
 
 letelin, Lemnos, Imbroa, Samothraki, Thasos, 
 
 and many more of inferior size. They will fall to be 
 
 considered under the head of Turkey, to which they 
 
 Btill belong. Of both groups, the mm isider- 
 
 able islands will be noticed, under the alphabetical 
 incut, in their respective places. 
 The other Archipelagoes, loosely so called, will 
 receive separate notice each in its proper place. 
 .V remarkable circumstance may be mentioned in 
 oes. The islands of the 
 globe rarely stand alone. With very few exceptions, 
 they may all be classified into clusters. In most 
 clusters, again, there is generally more or less of simi- 
 litude between the different members of each— simili- 
 tude sometiie id, and sometimes of another. 
 Perhaps the similitude that is most obvious even on 
 the face of an ordinary map, is that, really like the 
 links of a chain, the members of a cluster have their 
 . as distinguished from their breadths, in one 
 and the same direction. In the West Indies, for 
 instance, look at the Bahamas, and look also at the 
 Antille . Lesser. In the East Indies, 
 the same thing is seen in carrying the cyo 
 from the north end of the Philippines to the north 
 end of Sumatra, or even of the Amlamans. Lastly, 
 on the opposite coasts of the Upper Pacific, observe 
 lerican side upwards from the south end of 
 over's Island to Mount St Elias, and the 
 Asiatic side downwards from the upper extremity 
 of Kamtchatka — which is all but an island— through 
 the Kuriles, to the lower extremity of Japan.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL PAINTING— ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL PAINTING has for its 
 
 eta the exteriors or interiors of remarkable 
 
 buildings ; churches, castles, streets in cities, &c. 
 
 It is mentioned by Vitruvius, but is comparatively 
 
 a modern art. BenozzoOozznli, (ihirlandajo, and the 
 
 in school, cultivated this department of art in 
 
 the middle ages; and Pinturicchio, by order of Pope 
 
 hue., h ut Vl'll., painted a series of views of cities in 
 
 the style of the Finnish school, which, under the 
 
 brothers Van Eyck, had distinguished itself by 
 
 I treatment of architectural backgrounds, &c 
 
 For a long time, A. I', v. 1 only as accessory j 
 
 r styles of art ; but, at the close of the 10th 
 c, P. Neefs, in his views of the interiors of Gothic 
 churches, gave to this branch of the tine arts an 
 mlent form; and Steenwyck the younger, in 
 the following century, extended its application in 
 his views "i Hi ■ interiors of prisons, of which his 
 picture of 'Peter Liberated from Prison' is an 
 example. The art was still further extended and 
 cultivated bj 7axs der Heijden, Blick, Van Deelcn, 
 E. de Ville, Johann Ghcring.and others who painted 
 views of church interiors in the Italian style, palaces, 
 and chambers. The interior view of the Church 
 of Amsterdam, painted by Ruisdael, deserves especial 
 notice. In the 18th c, the Venetian I '.in.il .■ ami his 
 v Bellotto (generally known by the name of 
 Oanaletto), painted ninny views of cities, but especi- 
 ally of the canals and buildings of Venice. Collec- 
 tions of their numerous works are found at Dresden, 
 Woburn Abbey, &c. 
 
 In recent times, A. P. has been very successfully 
 cultivated in Germany, France, England, Holland, 
 and Belgium. Sohinkel is celebrated for his fine 
 nsion of classical taste with richness of decorative 
 invention. His two most striking works are St 
 l'eter's, and the Duomo at Milan; Paid Gropius 
 has shewn great talent in his Cathedral at Rheims, 
 built iu honour of Joan of Arc. His dioramas are 
 well known ; and Domenico Quaglio, who died in 
 1837, throughout his innumerable compositions, has 
 exhibited an exquisite appreciation of perspective, 
 and of the poetical arrangement of details. Among 
 modern A. painters may be mentioned — in England, 
 Prout (views of Italy, Germany, &c), Roberts (whose 
 
 f cuius has sought for its materials in Spain and the 
 last, and who paints the architecture of foreign 
 lands with rare truthfulness and lively vigour), 
 . GoodalL, Williams, and the water-colour 
 painters Haghe, Chase, Howse, and others ; in 
 France— Granet (died 1849), the most celebrated 
 art painter of the new French school ; and the 
 water-colour painters Ouvrie, Garnery, Rochebrune, 
 and Villeret; in Italy — Migliara and Nehrlich (a 
 <: mini, who has been styled 'the modern Cana- 
 letto'); in Germany — Von Bayer, Hasenpnog of 
 
 l.iilt (wlio paints beautifully old do 
 J] i ad i' winter-effects), Ainmuller, Vermi 
 l'uhan of DUsseldorf (who displays great skill in 
 mtation of old streets and time-worn 
 churches), Conrad, Gartner, Grab, Helfft, Di 
 
 i II. 'Hand and Belgium — Waldorp, Carsen, 
 
 >rn, Von Haanen, Ten Kate, Springer, and 
 
 let. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE (Lat. ar&itedum, from the 
 
 Gr. ifin, the chief fabricator, the architect), the 
 
 art of buililn: meting. In thiscountry, A. is 
 
 usually divided into Civil, Military, and Naval. In 
 
 the pn sent article we shall confine ourselves to the 
 
 first, the two former 
 
 head o FoRTmcATioi > under 
 
 that of Sine BJ M Dl : - Civil A., when taken in 
 the widest sense, may lie regarded either fr 
 artistical, a scientific, or a utilitarian point of view. 
 In the first case, as a m eternal form 
 
 and sensible expression to mental conceptions or 
 
 ideas, it is a branch of aesthetics, or of the fine arts 
 properly so called (see Aet), and takes rank with 
 sculpture and painting ; in the second case, it con- 
 sists in a knowledge of certain laws of physical 
 nature, and a consequent power of calling them into 
 play, or counteracting Heir operation, and is conse- 
 quently a branch of that wider department of science 
 to which the name of Meclianio (q. v.) is given ; 
 whereas in the last it becomes a practical art, which 
 has for its object the application of the principles, 
 both artistic and scientific, which A. embraces, to 
 the elevation of national and individual character, 
 and the increase of the physical comfort and well- 
 being of mankind. But though it admits of being 
 thus analysed or separated in thought, it must not 
 be imagined that A. can exhibit in practice any one 
 of these principles to the exclusion of the others. 
 The abstract conception of all-pervading deity, as 
 embodied in ti I k temple — the religious aspira- 
 tion after a personal god, as shadowed forth in the 
 Gothic cathedral — can be realised only in accord- 
 ance with the principles of mechanics, and the most 
 rigorous adaptation of means to ends ; whereas, in 
 an opp n, the kraal of the Hottentot, the 
 
 hut of the Indian in the American wilderness, or 
 even the vulgar chimney-stalk in the dingy manu- 
 facturing suburb, if properly constructed for their 
 respective pur] II be found to have obeyed 
 
 such .-csthctical principles as they may have come in 
 contact with. Nature is not self-contradictory ; and 
 art and science, beauty and utility, when rightly 
 understood, are never in conflict. A celebi 
 German writer and thinker (F. Schlegel) has described 
 A. as ' frozen music ;' and the comparison is in 
 accordance with the remarks which we have made ; 
 for music, though apparently the freest and most 
 lawdess, is in reality the most rigorously scientific of 
 the arts. But though a strict adherence to all the 
 principles of A. bo indispensable to every genuine 
 architectural structure, whatever be its object, it 
 by no means follows that equal prominence must 
 be given to each of these principles on every 
 
 in. If a building has for its primary object 
 the expression and commemoration of such feel- 
 ings as grief, gratitude, devotion, or the like, this 
 object manifestly will be best attained by subordi- 
 nating tb« scientific and utilitarian to the .-esthetic 
 principles of A.; and the reverse will be the case 
 where mere convenience, and also, though in a 
 degree, where convenience, in combination with 
 beauty or magnificence, is sought. It is in a great 
 measure by the prominence which they havi 
 to ono or other of these principles, that different 
 nations have displayed their dii of character 
 
 in their A. The speculative and poetical chat 
 of the Greeks was exhibited in their temples, whilst 
 their preference of the state to the individual ap- 
 peared in the fact that these structures were di 
 for the worship of the protecting divinity of th 
 by the citizen, not for the worship of a personal 
 god by the individual man. enans, 
 
 again, terrestrial power and mater. ; I 
 I were the exclusively national aspirations, and 
 quently their A. had their own honour and 
 primarily in view. Thel amphitheatres, and 
 
 triumphal archesof the B re their own : but 
 
 mplea which they raisi d in honour of the 
 
 little else than imperfect copies fro: 
 Greek, with scarcely any i gnable national ch.v 
 
 iticB. Then, when we come t> medieval 
 
 < times, though, on the revival of spiritual tendencies, 
 
 in become prominent, they 
 
 exhibit themselves under totally different forms; 
 
 and the distinctions hi ;\ hen and Christian 
 
 I thought could scarcely i stinctly stated in 
 
 than they are exhibited to the eye in the 
 
 1 37J
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 difference between a Greek temple and a Q 
 cathedral. Even the relation whi I tween 
 
 i hie A. and A 
 
 A., q, v.] ; rikin :ly r. d the fad that Mo- 
 
 li.iiiiii) as but a sort o I Christianity. 
 
 in appeared in full purity and 
 
 only in modern times; and then only do we 
 
 e utilitarian principles of A. finally prevailing 
 over the esthetic. But apart from the mental cha- 
 racteristics and I of a people, there are 
 many other circumstances which modify their 
 A. Of these, one of the most important is climate. 
 Arran r the permanent and comma 
 
 : the family within door,-! could not 1"' 
 
 ■ ed to attain much perfection amongst a race 
 like the Gn ' pent in the opi a 
 
 air ; and the climate of Holland, as well as the 
 genius of the people an r occu- 
 
 much to do with the fact that the 
 Dutch have rarely risen above a to Fol- 
 
 lowing thus the peculiarities of national chara 
 circum i Is obvious that the more widely these 
 
 differ in any two nations, the more dissimilar will 
 he the styles of A. which they produce respectively. 
 Moreover, it is apparent that the higher the stage of 
 national development, the more marked will 
 character which the A. of a people will assume. -\. 
 thus bears a strict analogy to language. Both are 
 an expression of thought, and in the one and in the 
 other, the richness, variety, and precision of the 
 expression wdl be in proportion to the quantity and 
 quality of the thought to 1. Lastly, in 
 
 the fact that all ■_ of the 
 
 ruling national ideas and forms of thought of some 
 pie, we perceive the reas >n why a 
 I of several styles should be 
 charai terlessi ; and why this 
 
 be more and more the case, the more cl 
 the styles compounded, and the greater the equality 
 
 mongst them. The Doric pillar in 
 and still more, perhaps, the Roman adaptation of it, 
 is the simplest and most rudimentary of all pillars; 
 and what we are in the habit of calling Saxon. 
 simplest and most rudim yles of 
 
 GotJiic A.; and hence tin- introduction ol 
 T . hi pillars considerably modified into ii 
 or Romanic church, does not awaken feelings of 
 very decided repugnance, whereas an attempt to 
 
 neequallj thebeautieB of the Parthenon 
 1 ' ithedral in the same building would be 
 
 dtably revolting. The limits of the pi 
 article preclude us from presenting to the reader a 
 nit of the origin and development 
 of the different styhs of A.. These will beta 
 under separate heads (s.-e Egyptian A., Into 
 i k A., Gothic A., Arabian A. ; Bee also 
 I'm. vi:, Abchttrave, &c.) ; and all that can be here 
 attempted is to trace the earlier through 
 
 which A. passed in the historical nations, before it 
 reached the point at which it affoT ans of 
 
 the feelings or supplying the wants of 
 mankind. 
 
 1. The earliest sta^e of monumental A. in 
 part of the world seems to have been that in which 
 it supplied to the tion the mei 
 
 : a mark on the face of tin' earth, of a nature 
 so ineffaceable as that it shoidd continue to be 
 
 to future generations. Xo attempt v 
 made to tell a tal of the monu- 
 
 ment, or by any figure or inscription engraven on 
 it. Apart from the tradition intended to accompany 
 it, it was speechless — confessedly unintcl 
 But it is easy to see how powerful would be the 
 effect of such an erection in pre! I tradi- 
 
 tion from oblivion, and fixing it down to the parti- 
 cular locality ; for so long as a conspicuous object 
 
 376 
 
 , which obviously wast! '. of human 
 
 hands, 1 1 1 - - cause of its . 1 be i abject 
 
 of curiosity, which could be gratified only by in- 
 
 which must lead to a reci i rents 
 
 ■ be commemorated. It was with this 
 
 view that Joshua (xxiv. 26) took a I Bet it 
 
 up under an oak that was by the sanctuary of the 
 
 ■ And said unto all ti Behold, this; 
 
 hall be a i i us -, for it hath 
 
 all the words of the Lord.' To this primary class of 
 
 monuments belong those tumuli or barrows, and 
 
 conical heaps ol lied cairns, earns, or 
 
 . which, when tiny occur in B 
 
 i i of our 
 
 . but which 
 
 I by every race at a certain 
 of their progress. The barrow, it is true, is 
 not wholly destitute of architectural an 
 Occasionally it allery 
 
 leading to a ' • 
 
 in which the 1 L of rude urns, 
 
 drinking-cups. and other SJ noes of 
 
 Roman or Brito-Roman manufacture, 
 
 trows are always, however, of the rudest 
 and most inartificial construction, and in consider- 
 in, we are only, as it . 
 
 2. The earliest da s of erections to which this 
 
 title can with any propriety be given, are those 
 
 are commonly spoken of as Druidical temples. 
 
 I generally of separate stones, often of 
 
 enormous size, raised on their ends, sometimes in a 
 
 circle, and at other times so as to enclose 
 
 which in some eases is roofed in by horizon- 
 tal slabs. These roo D illy of 
 such prodigious wei rise to many con- 
 arding the mechanical means by which, 
 d knowledj 
 they wi I »i the positions in which \ 
 
 them. ' 1, to us, holly 
 
 unintelligible remains hi an! ien of great 
 
 me an air of loomy n i 
 
 the most eon - 
 to be found is that of : (q, v.), in 
 
 bury Plain in Will lure. Wherever a Celtic 
 latinii existed, these monuments are to be i 
 Druidici are more common in France 
 
 I laud : and in I lit be 
 
 . s and 
 variety in Brittany (q. v.), though none < 
 approach the m , ,-, i,, gom 
 
 the workmanship of Stonehei I monu- 
 
 ments of Brittany are of different classes, and 
 received different names — that which is most archi- 
 
 ing the dolmen, or cror 
 as it is called in : The cromlech consists 
 
 general i ■ s of perpendicular 
 
 arranged so as to tit pretty closely to each other, 
 and covered with horizt 
 
 ihamber, which is all o 
 
 Igh it upright. But the 
 largest and most perfect specimen o 
 to be : not in Brittany, but in the raj 
 
 Saumur on the Loire. It m u 
 
 80 feet i" length. To the same early stage in the 
 
 science, though probably to a much earlii r period in 
 
 I the clopean walls 
 
 and fortifications which at Tiryns and ntycenai in 
 
 ' . 9 ; the 
 en walls at Fiesole; and the similar 
 hich are found both in Central and South 
 
 ::. I iie next stage in advance of that primeval and 
 
 ,oric one of which the traces arc thus so 
 
 1. is that at which the science seems to 
 
 have culminated in all but the classical nations of
 
 ARCHITRAVE-ARGT.SNUR-AtJBE. 
 
 antiquity, and those races which have had the benefit 
 of their genius and invention. \Vc have here an 
 accurate measurement of parts, and a corresponding 
 division of Che building. The pillar also mal. 
 appearance, though it 18 by no means used with the 
 it exhibit the same variety 
 of form to which it attained in Greek A. Hie stage 
 of which we here speak was attained by the inhabi- 
 tants of Central and Southern America bef 
 discovery by Europeans ; and in Mexico, even by the 
 Toltccans, an earlier race, which had 
 before the Mexicans of the days of Cortes. Peru- 
 vian A. exhibits neither columns nor arches ; but the 
 remains of the palace at Mitla possessed a portico 
 with plain cylindrical columns ; and the wall 
 
 I with rude sculpture. In the do 
 building at Palenque, a I ina rtifi cial trian- 
 
 gular arch, formed by courses of stones proj 
 over each other, was found. It is very instructive 
 as shew ing the natural, and, so to speak, in ' 
 character of certain architectural forms at certain 
 I I of national development, to find that the 
 pyramid, which is little more than a regularly con- 
 i n, is met with even more frequently 
 in Mexico than in Egypt; and whether or not we 
 ! it as the primary form of the pagoda of India, 
 it certainly formed the basis both of Mexican and 
 Egyptian A. The discussions which have 
 carried on with so much keenness as to the priority 
 of date of Indian and Egyptian A., lose much of 
 their importance when we find a race, acting in all 
 bility independently of both, starting from the 
 same primary form as the one, and in the discovery 
 of the pillar and the arch, making two of the 
 important of the further steps in advance to which 
 they respectively lay claim. Keeping these facts in 
 view, it would seem, moreover, that something more 
 is required to prove an historical connection bctu een 
 Doric and Kgyptian A. than the circumstance thai 
 the columns winch, they respectively employ possess a 
 base, a shaft, and a capital, or that both are used to 
 support an entablature. Even the long unbroken hori- 
 zontal lines which seem to indicate an affinity 1 1 
 the architectural styles of Egypt and of Greece, and 
 di rtinguish them both BO sharply from the 
 ' ui A. of medieval Europe, may be the result 
 
 rather of a similarity of circumstances than an iden- 
 tity of origin. Though th< se styles agree in having 
 columns, and though the columns support horizontal 
 entablatures in each, they disagree in the forms of 
 lumns, in the character of the entablature, and 
 indeed, in almost every other particular. 
 Greek pillars taper towards the top, and the 
 are vertical, in Egyptian buildings the very r 
 
 case, the pillars being vertical, and the 
 walls sloped. When the effect of a wl 
 building, surrounded by a colonnade, and of an 
 Kgyptian building is considered, a certain similarity 
 appeal in each case being wider tl 
 
 upper part ; but the result is produced in tl 
 
 ping tic pillars, and in the other, by 
 sloping the walls, the externa] edges of which form 
 a slightly ace irith 1 I 
 
 .i; distinction, however, between the A. of 
 
 I \< , i i Gri e i ists in the stages which, they 
 
 nely reached. The A. of Egypt n 
 throu lieut a. eh <. and 
 
 never attained to the lightness, freedom, or >, 
 
 III' tint e ' ( I : | . ee. | [1 tllC 01 C - I I ll ■ '! ■ 
 
 forms continued ti to dominate and subdue 
 
 i i of eii ; in the la! 1 implied 
 
 on, and owned no laws but its own. 
 
 It is in this circumstance that the distinction con- 
 
 b twei n the stage of A. of which Egyptian may 
 
 be considered the type, and of which Assyrian, 
 
 Babylonian, and Persian A. are also examples, and 
 
 that ultimate stage which was reached by the Greeks 
 in one direction, and by the vai oic nations 
 
 in another. Sec- Aiiaiiian A., Byzamim: A., and 
 I Inline A. 
 
 AIM IlITKAYE (Gr. arch!-, chief; Lat. 
 beam), the lowi St part of the entablature (q. v.), or 
 that which rests immediately ujion the columns. 
 
 A KCHIVKS. SeeBscoi 
 
 A'RCII 1 Vi >r.T, the ornamental band or moulding 
 which runs round the lower part of the voussoirs of 
 an arch. 
 
 A'RCHON, the highest magistrate in Athens. 
 I eminent was originally monarchical ; but on 
 
 the death of Codrus (q. v.), the Ate 
 to the traditionary ace Ived that i 
 
 should succeed him with the title of kin/ [basilou), 
 
 and therefore appj b the 
 
 title A. (ruler). The office was at first for hi 
 1 to the fund', of Melon ; but ill 752 B 
 time of i, lliee was i united to t 'ii years ; and in 71 '. 
 the excra Lve claims of Medon's familj to 1 
 of A. were al to all 
 
 persons of noble birth ; 
 
 without distinction of rank (477 B.O.). In 68 
 office had been made annual, and the muni 
 archons had been extended to nine. The year was 
 named from the first A. ; to the Sd 
 Basileus, belonged the care of religious affairs ; the 
 third v. or commander-iii 
 
 the remaining six. having to conduct all criminal 
 trials, were styled Tie . or lawgr 
 
 Among the Jews, during the time of their subjection 
 to the Romans, the title of A. had various meanings ; 
 but wa3 generally given to the members of the 
 Sanhedrim or supreme council. — In the n.\ 
 jargon of the Gnostics, the term A. was frequently 
 employed, and hence one of their sects, especially 
 dto -Tudaism, received the name Ala lie 
 
 Sec Gnostics. 
 
 ARCI1VTAS of Tarentnm, one of tin 
 illustrious men of antiquity, flom ' tin- 
 
 year -tin I B.C. His father's name was Mncsagoras. 
 A. is said to orary of Plal 
 
 ou one occasion to have saved the life of the latter 
 when the tyrant Dion;. I to put him to 
 
 death. His public career was glorious. He was 
 seven times elected genera] of his city, though it 
 istomary for the office to be held only for one 
 year; and in every campaign which li • nun- 
 he was victorious. His civil administration was 
 equally fortunate. Affairs of the highest moment 
 were repeatedly intrusted to him; and yet, I 
 deeply skilled 'in philosophy and poll- 
 
 , a childlike simplicity of charai h r. 
 was drowned on the . s \.'< virtues 
 
 as conspicuous as his t dent-. He paid the 
 most humane attention t • t ! 
 of his slaves, and although one of t ; 
 
 is he did not disdain to rattle 
 
 for the amusemenl lilri n. II 
 
 problem of the doubling of the cul I 
 
 reputation of a i. Burner- 
 
 , ,,i contrii I most wonderful of 
 
 which was the Bying icon. A Pythagorean in 
 
 I to have , i 
 
 on Plato, and some affirm 
 I 
 was indebted to him for tie 
 Only b 
 
 relate to metaphysics, ethics, logic, and physics. . 
 
 ARflS-SI R-AT7BE, a small town in the 
 
 i department of Aube. situated ill lat. 
 
 N.. long, -1 B 1 E., contains 'J7S4 inhabitants, and 
 
 i- remarkabl mt of the battle fought here, 
 
 20, 21, 1S14, between Napoleon and the
 
 ARCOLA-ARCTIC HIGHLANDS. 
 
 allied forci i under Trince Senti [. The 
 
 battle, b inn n | w ith seven] dan on the 
 
 tiding in a general en on the 
 
 ■ I ;v, whi t retreated over the 
 
 waa not in itself very important Bui 
 
 on now formed the plan of operating in the 
 
 ! of the Allies, and left the road to 
 
 ing that they would not venture to pi 
 without atl mpl in fir it to se ; ; ir 1 
 
 marched, nevertheless, on the capital, an 
 decided the campaign. 
 
 AKCOI.A, or A'RCOLE, a village on the left 
 in northern Italy, 16 - 
 K.S.IO. of Vi 
 
 Bonaparte over the Austrian*, lTf-li November 1796. 
 The Austri [oreau 
 
 from the Rhine, hid begun to 
 1 ' ■ ' ! '■• appeared at the he id ■ 
 
 I men, with the main body of which he advanced 
 liero,andthn at m d V< rona. Bonapart . 
 ni ing the dan;;, r, I I ourse of 
 
 1 that river I and was thus 
 
 in a position to threaten the left Hank of Ah 
 army, which was posted at A. \ . leads 
 
 from llonco across the morasses to A., before reach- 
 ing which, the road cro 
 Alpon by a 
 
 fended by the Austrian owsky, with 
 
 fourteen battalions of infantry, and tv. 
 of cavalry. On the 1-JtH ol 
 
 attacked the bridge with two battalions of ■ 
 diers, Imt I 1 in flank to the Austrian 
 
 fire, waa ohlij d to withdraw. Bonaparte now 
 
 the stan I I . and rushed on the 
 
 followed by the grenadiers; but again the 
 
 the Austrians, who were in mi 
 
 than tii" French, made it necessary to draw 
 
 back. Tin' struggle was renewed on the 16th, with 
 
 a similar result ; and it was only on the ITtli that 
 
 the French succeed i fcting possession of A., 
 
 not, however, by farcin . i, but by sending 
 
 a column across the Al] , lower down. . 
 
 ir of the Austrians. On this Alvinzy was 
 1 to r.treat to Vicenza. It fan 
 with the other column of the An 
 Davidovich. In this series of batt] 
 lost 18,000 a D I Hied, and 6000 prisoners. The 
 French loss was 15,000. 
 
 ARCON, i Cl u hi: D', a distinguished French 
 
 ler, born at Pontarlier, 1733, was originally 
 
 ided far the church, but on manifesting a decided 
 
 me for the study of Yauban, his lather, an 
 :it jurisconsult, consented to his choice of a 
 iy profession. In 1764, he entered the Mili- 
 -vhool at MCzieres, and, in the followin 
 ■ an engineer. During the E 
 War, he acquired considerable reputation, esj 
 
 nee of Cassel. His fertility of invention 
 ising, and of the greatest benefit I 
 i of tli" service with which he was con le 
 In all -which, in spite of a very faulty 
 
 can lie read with plea are' indica- 
 
 tions of a lively, rich, and vi [ 
 even bold enough to question th certain 
 
 propositions of the Great Frederick. But 
 nous scheme was that by which h" hoped 
 luce Gibraltar, then in the hands of the I. 
 and defended by Governor Elliot He con 
 
 . incombustible, and not 1. 
 sink, which, however, were not successful, i 
 this is mainly to be attributed to of his 
 
 efforts being indifferently supported When the 
 French, under Dumouriez, overran Holland, A. took 
 several strongly-fortified places, amongst others, 
 Breda. After this, he retired from public life, and 
 
 1 himself to the literature of his profession. 
 
 His He. i important work is. Con Mtii- 
 
 i tur It i For | Paris, 1795), 
 
 In IT'.'!!, Bonaparte called him to the senate, but ho 
 
 died the year 
 
 AROOB DE LA FRONTE'RA, a town on (he 
 T lit bank of the Guadalete, in Andalusia, Spam. 
 
 Its principal manufacture is that of tan 1 hitler, 
 
 which was the first established in Andalusia; thread 
 and ropes are also manufactured. Pop, 11,270. A. 
 
 !'. lias a wild and romantic situation, which 
 nises well with the pictiir. sipic garb of the 
 inhabitants, who still wear tic old national CO I 
 
 i died Aroos, from being built in the form of 
 
 a 'bow;' and after Alfonso-el-Sabio had rescued it 
 
 from tic Moors, it received the addition I 
 
 frontier position, being in the 
 vicinity of the Moorish kingdom of Gran da. \' t 
 
 by nature, it was furthermore embattled 
 ad towers, part of which still p 
 and afford a magnificent view of the Honda moun- 
 tains. The ri.h plains that lie below the rocky town 
 are famed in the Spanish ballads for their li i i 
 war-steeds, 'Arcosbarh .' 
 
 ARCOT, a city of Ilin, lustan, in the presidency 
 of Madras, the capital of the division of the Same 
 name. It is situate. 1 on the right bank of U i Palar, 
 
 a river which, rising in Mysore, is, in the rainy 
 
 in, about, half a mile wide before the town. It 
 stands in N. lit. 12' 51', and in E. loni 79 24', and 
 is distant from Madias 05 miles. Besides t! 
 tary cantonment, which can accommodate three 
 
 nts of cavalry, A. contains some n 
 in a tolerable state of l pair, and the ruins of the 
 Nawaab'e palace. The town and district of A. 
 arc stated to contain 10,042 houses, and 63,474 
 inhabit 
 
 A. is chiefly noticeable for its history. It w 
 spot where (live first firmly established his military 
 reputation. With a force of 300 Sepoy. 200 Euro 
 
 peans, and three field pieces, he marched against A., 
 
 which was garrisoned by 1100 men ; and after having 
 taken it, he Btood a siege of fifty days against thou- 
 
 of assailants, amid hardships and privations of 
 every description. 
 Abcot, a division of the presidency of M dras. It 
 is of two parts, the northern and the I outhern, 
 of which the respective areas are 6790 square miles, 
 and 7600, and the respective populations, accordin 
 to the , ,ii ns of IsTI. 2,007,667 and 1,762,525. 
 
 As most of the rivers are destitute of water in the 
 dry season, there are thousands of tanks in A. 
 , are of an enormous size: that of 
 pak, in particular, measures eight mi] 
 three. These tanks arc indispensable, as well for 
 irrigation as for domestic use. The hot and parching 
 winds from the west, sweeping down the valleys of 
 the I', tern Chaats, are often" fatal to birds on the 
 wing, : nd also to human beings when exposed for any 
 length of time. Glass cracks and llic3 in pieces; 
 anciwoo . splits, and shivers; and from the 
 
 mutual friction of the sapless trees, spontaneous 
 istion sometimes takes place in the jungles. 
 A'RCTIO means, properly, lyiu ! near the con- 
 ! r. arctos), and hence, northern. 
 ' ratio Circle is a circle drawn round the north 
 pole, at a distance from it equal to the obliquity 
 of the ecliptic, or 'J.'U'. The corresponding circle 
 the south pole is the Antarctic Circle. Within 
 each of these circles there is a period of th 
 when the sun does not set, and another when 
 never seen, this period being longer the nearer to the 
 pole. 
 
 ARCTIC HIGHLANDS, a name sometimes 
 applied, though not very appropriately, to that portion 
 
 ng
 
 ARCTIC OCEAN. 
 
 of the American continent which lies between Hud- 
 i mouth of the Mackenzie, It has 
 
 I lie scene of all, or nearly all, the I 
 
 on with the exploration of a North- 
 I 'assage, from Hearne's discovery of the Copper- 
 down to the recent voyage of Anderson — the 
 ! lomincnfc among the intermediate labourers 
 having been Franklin, Richardson, Back, Dease, 
 i, and Bae. 
 ARCTIC OCEAX, that part of the universal 
 Bea which surrounds the north pole. Its single 
 boundary, that towards tli" south, naturally divides 
 itself into four sections — the northern shop ; respec- 
 tively of the two continents, and the northern limits 
 respectively of the two I inental oceal 
 
 The A. 0. meets the Pacific at Behring - 
 in about 66' of N. lat., so that here the A. 0. 
 in the Arctic Circle by about oil'. On 
 the side of the Atlantic, again, the common 1 
 
 to lie equally independent "i arbitrary 
 definition, for Scoresby Sound almost as definitely 
 terminates the south-east coast of Greenland as 
 North Cape terminates the north-west coast of 
 Europe ; so that, as both extremes are intersected 
 by about the same parallel of 71°, the A. O. here 
 falls short of tli" Arctic Circle by about 4J°. 
 
 In the Old World, the A. 0., if we include its 
 
 stretches south of the Arctic Circle, in the 
 
 White Sea, fully 2°; while at Cape Severo, the most 
 
 northerly point of Asia, in lat. 7S° 25' X., it falls 
 
 short of the same by 11° 55'. Lastly, within the 
 
 of the New World, the A. 0., in its strict 
 
 acceptation, is everywhere forced back within the 
 
 I irdi . about 5' at Point Harrow, about 7A° 
 
 on Barrow's Strait, aud about 3° at the Strait of the 
 
 Fury and Hecla. 
 
 The waters of the A. 0., however, may conve- 
 niently be extended beyond these their strict limits. 
 So far as the mere aspect of the map is concerned, 
 s Strait, Ratlin's Ray, and Hudson's Bay 
 may be regarded as gulfs rather of the Atlantic 
 than of the A. 0. Rut if essential characteristics 
 ■nuitted to outweigh mere position, they must 
 be assigned rather to the A. 0. than to the Atlantic. 
 . being all fed by currents from the A. 0., 
 they are all hyperborean in temperature. Even the 
 most southerly of the three illustrates this. While 
 is Straits present, in general, more ice than 
 : Strait or Baffin's Bay, Hudson's Bay itself 
 has been the scene of perhaps the two most abor- 
 tive, if not most disastrous, of all modern ati 
 at northern discovery. On opposite sides of South- 
 ampton Island, Lyons and Back were arrested by 
 impenetrable packs, the one near the Lav of I 
 
 . and the other off Cape Comfort— the latter 
 point being 1J°, and the former being twice as 
 much, south of the Arctic Circle. Reckoning, 
 
 Id the bottom of James's Bay, 
 arm of Hudson's, the arctic teas, thus appended to 
 i \. (J. Proper, reach as far south as the parallel 
 idon. 
 Little as is yet known, at least accurately, of the 
 A. II.. ii ■ discovery and exploration have developed 
 sked more i perhaps 
 
 iration and discovery of all the i 
 
 Columbus. Without 
 anticipating anything to be said on this subject 
 under tlie separate heads of North-East I'. 
 North-We I and Polar Voyages, it may not 
 
 be out of place here to state summarily the 
 rativelv easy labours of the Russians while i 
 as it were, from I 'ic rivers to survey their 
 
 domestic shores. About a century and a qi 
 
 imultaneoualy sent forth live 
 expeditions to complete, if possible, the North-East 
 Passage. From the White Sea to the Obi. four 
 
 seasons were consumed ; from tin- Obi to the Y< 
 
 four sea-ems; from the 5 tli-- Lena, season 
 
 after season was bth nt in both directions without 
 success ; from the Lena to the Kolyma, six seasons 
 were occupied; fn.ni the Kolyma to the Pacific 
 every effort was fruitless, though the Cossack Desh- 
 neffwas known to have accomplished this part of 
 the enterprise about a century before. 
 
 Arctic navigation, in fact, h beset by almost 
 every imaginable difficulty and danger. In addition 
 to the peculiar pi rils of ice in all possible states, 
 the adventurer, often Minded by fogs aud snows, 
 has to face, generally without guide or sea 
 the storms, tides, and currents of comparatively 
 unknown waters. If Buch !"■ bis time months 
 of summer, what must be his nine months of 
 winter! Take a general illustration from tl. 
 
 nil] experience of the most successful of all the- 
 arctic navigators. On the parallel of 7.'i , and under 
 are of 15° degrees below zero of Fab., 
 Captain M'Clure spent the night of 30th Oct 
 1851 mi the ice, amid prowlir 1 that with- 
 
 out food or ammunition — his only guide I 
 pocket-compass, which, however, the darl 
 
 ned by mist and drift, rendered useless. The 
 gallant officer whiled away the time by si 
 three hours on ' a famous bed of soft dry snow,' and 
 by wanderii by the crow's Hi ht, over a 
 
 surface so rugged as to > It was 
 
 at the i pedestrian < 
 
 on very short allowance of food and water, that the 
 adventure took place ; and it had been immediately 
 occasioned by a generous desire of reaching the 
 winter-quarters by a nearer cut, so as to ha 
 warm meal ready for his men ou their arrival.' 
 
 Notwithstanding the labours and researches of 
 two centuries and a half, very bttle of tin 
 ocean lias been even seen by man. To the north of 
 the Slid parallel, in fact, the A. I >., so far as authentic 
 lence . is ■'. mere blank to geographers, for 
 Parry, in 1827, barely reached In;. 82 -i.V : and 
 Kane, in 1S54, touched only 81° 22', sighting, at the 
 a lofty mountain, which he estimated to 
 lie in -vj J :;<)'. Between i' me points, how- 
 
 ever, the difference of long, was precisely S5° — Kane 
 having been in 65° 35' W., and Parry "in 19° 2S E. 
 Along the remaining 275° of lung., more than three 
 nts of the circumference, the northern limit 
 
 'graphical knowledge falls short, i 
 y point, of the parallel of 83°. Perhaps the 
 actual average of such northern limit, even on the 
 full tale of 300° of long., may not exceed lat. 75 . • 
 as to leave absolutely unknown a circle of ." 
 lat., or nearly 2100 miles in diameter— an area 
 little inferior to that of Europe. This untrodden 
 world, however, is not to be regarded as a continuous 
 Parry, at his furthest point, found 
 not an unbroken field, but separate floes, with 
 more or less of open water between them — the mild- 
 ncs3 of ag indicated by I 
 
 . at his furthest point - 
 
 iae his 
 own words, ■ of fifty-four 
 
 hours in duration, brought a heavy swell from that 
 any drift or other ice. 1 
 Tins is quit ■ in act already 
 
 is and Lay are 
 I with pack than the waters i 
 inty with i 
 i itral portion of the A. 0. i- this, that 
 is from it a current, more or ll 9S steady. 
 so in 1 '. Parry, during nearly the whole 
 of hi ' of l v -'7. found tint 
 
 his place by reckoning was considerably al 
 his place by observation, or, in other words, that
 
 ARCTIl M- AKl'FXNFS. 
 
 his northward progress on ti nutr.ilis.il 
 
 or leaa by the southward of the 
 
 g .Mi lure ■ i from 
 
 t! in ri ni. « nether advancing through open 
 
 or drifting along at the mercy of the pack. While 
 i turn with tin- m 
 , of the North-Wi Ml lintock 
 
 has shewn that the discovery must have been anti- 
 
 i by Sir John Franklin. Succeeding • 
 tions, of which n great Dumber have been equ 
 land, Germany, Ft 
 and D mark, have been mainly dii 
 North Pole. They have n ml 
 contradictory accounts regarding the supposed open 
 polar Bea j 1 I chat! Ireen- 
 
 island, or rather pel b 
 over! kid and bound to 51 ther bj ■ 
 
 Of tl atherly porl ioc of thi \. 1 >.. the 
 
 only Bection that is tolerably well known to 
 tance from the continent is that which washes the 
 north-east of America. It contains, under the 
 tiv name of Polar Archipelago, these islands, or 
 lands: Banks Land, Prince Albert Land, 
 wollaston Land, Victoris Land, Prince Patrick 
 [aland, Prini R I Islands, Melville Island, 
 Cornwallis Island, North Devon, Grinnell Land, 
 North Lincoln, and various others. Off thi 
 
 World, again, are Spitzbergen, Nova 
 Zenibla, New Siberia, Wrangel Land, 4c. The 
 latest discovery, made by Theodore von Hi 
 in the Bummer ol 1870, is that of King Charles 
 Land, which is described as an extensive tract with 
 numerous sharp p ks, lying to the 
 
 Spitzbergen, and stretching as far as thi 
 reach between 79 and 78 X. lit. The chi 
 are Lancaster Sound, Barrow's Strait. Smith's 
 Sound, Regent's Inlet, Strait of the Fury and 
 I! i, Wellington Channel, Banks Strait, Prince 
 ol Wales Strait, Sfcc The oh all of them 
 
 on the mainland, are the Obi, the b 1 nesei, and the 
 Lena, of the first class; the Mackenzie, the STana, 
 the Cndigirka, and the Kolyma, of the second; and 
 many others of the third. 
 
 1 b principal production of the A. 0. has been 
 the whale. The whale-fisheries on the v. 
 Spitzbergen, and on both sides of Greenland, • 
 i>< 1 i tn be mentioned, But it may not be generally 
 known, that, according to official returns ai quoted 
 by Admiral Bee : 1 had, in two 
 
 . drawn more than 8,000,000 of dollars, or 
 upwards of £1,600,000 sterling, from the whale- 
 fishi ry of Behring Sb 
 
 i'ii the side of Bast Siberia, however; tl" 1 A O. 
 produces a more remarkable article of traffic. Here 
 are found, in the greatest abundance, the b 
 the mammoth. Spring after spring, the alluvial 
 banks of the lakes and rivers, crumbling under the 
 thaw, give up, as it were, their dead ; while the 
 islands lying off the Yana, and even the 
 the sea itself, literally teem with I terious 
 
 memorials of antiquity. 
 
 rican half of the A. O., if it cannot 
 of fossil ivory, presents something still more difficult 
 perhaps to be explained. In lat. 7 lat-76 = 
 
 15' respectively, Captain M'Clure and Lieutenant 
 Mecham di 
 
 .of considerable size. Writing of 
 Island. .M'Clure has th.e following]'. 
 ' From the summit of these hills, which 
 high, to their base, abundance of wood is to be 
 found, and in many places layers •■ \ isiblc, 
 
 protruding 12 or 14 i rm that 
 
 1 i people mayjump on them without their break- 
 ing : the largest trunk yet found measured 1 foot 
 7 inches in diameter' — equivalent in girth to about 
 5 feet. Again, ' I entered a ravine some mile3 inland, 
 sso 
 
 and found the north side of it, for a depth of 40 feet, 
 composed of one mai 1 oi wood. Some 01 it was petri- 
 fied, the remaindi r very rotl d, and 
 
 ning.' Writing of Prince Patrick Island, 
 
 buried in the east bank of to 
 ing about 8 feet, a tree During 
 
 1 moon ] found sev< 1 of a similar 
 
 kind : circumference of first and Becond tree 
 
 From the per- 
 
 1 irk, and the dist. 
 from 1 1 can be but little doubt thai 
 
 llv in this country. I sawed one 
 red 1 'ry do le grained, and 
 so imiii . y that we could carry but little 
 
 of it away.' 
 
 ARCTIUM. See BrjBDOCK. 
 ATtCTOMYS. See Mabhot. 
 AR1>. or A 1 1 ; I '. a Celtic root, mcaniii' r 'height' 
 bigh), which appears in many 
 call 'A in Ireland and Scot- 
 
 A'RDEA SeeHKBON. 
 
 AllDF.CHE, a department in the south of France, 
 takes its name from the river A, which rises in 
 ' 1 vennes, flows toward the south-east through 
 a romantic valley, and falls into the Shone mar 
 Pont-St-Esprit. The department of A. lies between 
 I and Drome, with Loire on the north and 
 
 Card on the south, and includes the most northern 
 part of ancient Languedoc Its greatest length 
 from north to south is 74 miles; its gi< 
 breadth, 44. The area of the di | 2133 
 
 square miles; the population in 1872, 380,277. 
 A. is almost wholly mountainous. In the north- 
 west of the department, the Cevennes cub 
 in the volcanic Mont-Mezene, 5972 feet in height. 
 The variety of the numerous extinct volcanic 
 peaks, deep craters, rug dvall . . mo ol tufa, 
 grottos, rock-labyrinths, ranges of basaltic columns, 
 gigantic dams, &c, give a most extraordinarily 
 picturesque appearance to the scenery. The upland, 
 which has winter for six or eight months, is d> 
 to pasturage; but the terraces aud valleys near the 
 Rhone enjoy a warm climate, and produce good wine 
 (white and red), olives, tigs, almonds, chestnuts, &c 
 There are manufactures of silk, paper, leather, iron, 
 &c. ; and good roads, with water-carriage, facilitate 
 ree. Lead. iron. n inganese, ftc, are 
 
 wrought. The chief towns are Privas, Aubenas, 
 Bourg, St Andeol. 
 
 AKDEE' (Ath-air-dee 'Foul on the Dee'), a 
 town in the west of Louth County, Ireland, - 
 river Dee, twelve miles inland. It contains two 
 ; castles— one built about the year 1200, and 
 now used as the town-house ; the other, a square 
 building, and now used as a prison. The chief 
 in corn and other agricultural products. 
 Pop. (1871) 2572. 
 
 ARDE'NNES, the western division of the slate- 
 plateau of the Lower Rhine. It extends over portions 
 of Belgium, France, and Rhenish Prussia, and con- 
 sists of .! broken mass of hills, for the most part of 
 t 1 levation, « hii I -wards 
 
 the plains of Flanders, [n early til me was 
 
 given to the whole of the region I 
 
 I 1 imbre, a length of about 160 
 1 the hills is less than 2000 
 but in 1 font St Hubert attains an elevation 
 
 of 2300 feet. Large tracts of this region consist not 
 of hills, but of gently undulating plateaus, which 
 are densely covered with oak and beech forests, 
 while other portions are marshy, heathy, and 1 
 The districts through which the Mouse and other
 
 ARDENNES— AREIOP AC PS. 
 
 rivers flow, present some extraordinary appear- 
 ances. The channel of the river is sometimes bound 
 in by rugged and precipitous cliffs more than 600 
 feet high. The principal rocks of the A. are clay- 
 slate, grauwacke, quartz, &e., interspersed with 
 extensive strata of primitive limestone. Coal and 
 iron mine3 are wrought in the north-west ; lead, 
 antimony, and manganese are also found. There is 
 little cultivation of grain, but multitudes of cattle 
 anil sheep are i 
 
 ARDENNES, a frontier department in the north- 
 east of France, bordering upon the provinces of 
 Namur and Luxembourg m Belgium. It formed a 
 part of the old province of rihrnnpagin* I 
 
 ulth, from east to 
 !<s; pop. 320,217. 
 The north-east of A. belongs to the basin of the 
 ; the south-west is watered by the Aisne; 
 both of tli. Be rivers are enriched with affluents, and 
 united by tie' ' 'anal of A. About one-eighth of the 
 whole surface is billy, and is covered with forests 
 and wide tracts of pasturage. In the north extre- 
 mity of the department, near Civet, marl 
 obtained ; but the prevailing rock is limestone, 
 I with lead and iron. South of this, and 
 bing across the department from east t 
 ■at layers of slate, with here and there flint, 
 quartz, &e. In the south-east, muschelkalk abounds, 
 which is rich in iron-ore ; and in the south-west, the 
 sod is composed of arid chalk, a naked, treeless, 
 ted plain. Only the valleys are fertile, and pro- 
 corn. The vine is nowhere cultivated, 
 at Mezieres, in the south-west. Besides slate, marble, 
 and iron, porcelain-clay and sand for making glass 
 are obtained. Excellent work-horses and valuable 
 sheep are reared. There are manufactures of earthen- 
 ware, glass, marble, woollen cloths, metallic wares, 
 &c. The principal towns are Mezieres, I 
 Rocroy, Sedan, and Von 
 
 ARDNAMU'RCHAN POINT, tie X.W. pro- 
 montory of Argyleshire, and the extreme western 
 point of the mainland of Britain. A light-house was 
 erected here in 1849, which is visible at a distance of 
 20 miles. For 10 miles around, the country consists 
 of trap, "!i sandstone often hardened, and 
 
 blue slut- -. Tie- trap veins form many striking 
 reticulations in the strata. South of the point are 
 found numerous oolitic and lias fossils. 
 
 A'RDOCH, a small village in Scotland, county of 
 
 Perth, Smiles south-south-west of Crieff) celebrated 
 
 i or a Unman canrp, the most win Britain. 
 
 The camp is '2\ miles nortl i of1 mini: Station 
 
 of the Scottish Central Railway, in the gTOUJ 
 
 A. House. The intren ! • ictangle 
 
 iy430 feet, the four sides facing the cardinal 
 
 The north and east protected by 
 
 itches and six ramparts, these works being 070 
 
 >ad on the north side, and 180 feet on the east. 
 
 data on the south-east^ and ; : 
 
 Eendicular banks of Knaig Wal 50 feet 
 
 protect the camp on the west. The pr.etorium, 
 oeral's quarter, now called Chapel Hill, rises 
 the level of the camp, but is not exactly 
 in the centre, and is nearly a square of 60 feet each 
 side. Three of the four ' in lloman carnps 
 
 arc still seen. A subterranean passage is said to 
 have former] I from the prsetorium under 
 
 d of the K11 u 5. tliis station, 
 
 on the way to Crieff; may be traced three temporary 
 mps of different - Portio of the 
 
 ramparts of these camps still exist. A mile west of 
 V. imi eairn of stones ! d, 182 
 
 ing, 4o feet broad at the base, and 30 feet in 
 sloping height. A human skeleton, 7 feet long in a 
 stone coffin, was found in it. 
 
 ARDRO S.sAN", a small seaport town and sum- 
 mer bathing-place in A \i ts rise 
 to the public spirit of the Eglintoun family. Its 
 harliour, wbii h 1 1 shi I n island off the 
 coast, is one of the safest and most accessible on the 
 west coast of Scotland, and ha 
 
 at vast expense, by the Earls of Eglintoun. There 
 is a large export of coal from this place, and ship- 
 building is carried on to :Ue extent. On a 
 hill above the town stand the ruins of A. I 
 to have been surprised by Wallace when held by 
 the forces of Edward I. Wallace destroyed the 
 garrison, and threw the .a dungeon 
 called ' Wallace's Larder.' Pop. in 1 >T 1 
 
 ABE, the unit of the French land-measure, is a 
 square, the side of which is 10 metres .'or 32*809 feet) 
 long (see Metre), and which, therefore, contains 
 100 square metres = K 176 The 
 
 n-xt denomination in 1 hng scale is the 
 
 decare, containing 10 ares ; but the denomination 
 commonly used in describing a quantity of land is 
 1 100 — -'47 Knglish statute or 
 
 imperial acres. 
 
 AREA (Lat.) is a term in mathematics meaning 
 . The calculation of areas, or men- 
 suration of surfaces, is one of the ultimate objects of 
 geometry. The measuring unit is a square inch, a 
 square foot, &c, according to the unit of length. As 
 a figure is thus m by rinding an equivalent 
 
 for its surface in squares, the process is sometimes 
 called the i/nadrature of the lignre. 
 
 ARE'CA, a E Palms, containing several 
 
 , having pinnate leaves and double spathes. 
 The fruit is a fibrous one-seeded drupe, a nut with an 
 outer lil irons husk. A. Catechu, the Pm&xa ' 
 or Betel-nut Palm, is a native of the East Indies, 
 whose nut yields a sort of catechu. See Ca [ 
 This Areca-nut, or Betel-nut, is very much used in 
 all parts of ( • chewing of it with quick- 
 
 lime and the leaf of the betel-pepper being one of the 
 most prevalent habits of the ]>eople. See Betel. 
 The nut is about the size of a hen's egg ; the 
 fibrous busk about half an inch thick. It is austere 
 and astringent. It is doubtful if it possesses a 
 narcotic powi r, or if this is to be ascribed entirely 
 to the leaf which is used along with it. Areca- 
 nuts form a considerable article of trade in the 
 East. The timl • r of the palm which produces them, 
 and its leaf-stalks and spathes, are als.. US I I . T 
 domestic purposes. The tree is often 40 
 high, and in geni ral less than a foot in dia 
 The leaves are few, but very large, their 1 
 more than a yard I iating 
 
 lozenge is prepared from the . the 
 
 Cabbage Palm ..i" the W. : Indi i, is a very tall 
 ,100 - . whose huge terminal leaf-bud is 
 
 and nutritious, and i- for the 
 
 - ut when it is cut off, the tree is 
 ,1. The stem ■ notwithstanding 
 
 arkably slender. The nuts 
 arc produced in great numbers ; they are about the 
 size of a filbert, and have a sweet kernel.— A. 
 . the New Zealand Palm, is remarkable as 
 extending southward beyond 1 ihical limits 
 
 of any :t3 hit 38° 
 
 22 8. H a small palm, only from 6 to 10 
 high, with haves 4 6 f niflor- 
 
 L .1. '.a native 1 
 
 is so called becau le clothing is made from its Bl 
 
 AREIO'PAGTJS (Gr. for 'Mars' I lill'b amount 
 lying to the Acropolis, at A- 
 
 and celebrated as the spot where the most ven 
 court of justice in anciei ngs. It 
 
 is not easy to deternu. rily why the hill 
 
 obtained its name ; most probably it was on account
 
 ARENA— AREOMETER. 
 
 of sacrifices having been offered there at an early 
 
 period to the * 1 ■ >«l of War; but all its I 
 importance is derived from the Areiopagitic Council, 
 the origin of which reaches far back into antiquity, 
 and is ascribed by some to the semi mytho] 
 I ips. Orestes, according to tradition, 
 
 this Court, and it is certain that it must have 
 existed Ion > before the Bret Mesaenian WariT 40 B.O.), 
 for the as, in offering to submit to it 
 
 sions certain points of dispute, sneak of it, even then, 
 as 'old.' Solon, however, made many clian 
 its constitution, enlarging its sphere of juriso 
 to such an extent that n • be any Ion 
 
 mere criminal court, and acquired henceforth social 
 and political powers in addition to the former. 
 Before Solon's time. H was strictly oligarchical It 
 now became a tert turn quid h^ tocracyand 
 
 democracy, the new qualification for office intro- 
 duced by Solon being property instead of birth It 
 thus naturally allied itself with aristocracy, so that 
 n perfectly understand why it should have 
 been conaiden d a check upon the impetuous d 
 i bough it would, perhaps, !"■ fairer to 
 i check upon both extremes. It is not known 
 how many members were included in its council. 
 Th" nine archons — if they had recommended them- 
 selves by a faithful discharge of thi ir dutii ! -were 
 elected life-members of it, Solon made the council 
 * overseers of everything,' and we find instances of 
 tie ir manifold authority in the subsequent hi 
 of Greece. They granted mon y,a1 the time of the 
 Persian invasion, from a reserve treasury of their 
 own, the ordinary public i empty. 
 
 After the battle ol I uteroneia, they executed all who 
 had deserted their country. I" social matte) . 
 . i 1 1; i ar to have been curiously minute. They 
 officers whom they sent or accompanied into 
 private houses, ou occasion of a festivity, to see that 
 the rooms were not overcrowded; they called to 
 account persons who lived in Bucn riotous extra- 
 vagance that tie ' might be considered 
 
 1 inutility, ai ! ' irks of 
 
 honour on those of an opposite character. Their 
 
 extendi d itself to 
 in also. Innovations in tl. of the 
 
 1 ict of the sacred cei 
 any form, brought the offenders under the t 
 and punishment of the A. It is likewi 
 that they possessed and exerci id great authority 
 in the education of the youn his 
 
 ment, and that regarding some charitable functions 
 attributed to them, are of dubious v; 
 
 I ' 1 1 1 il the time of Pericle3, the brilliant and power- 
 ful ruler of the democracy, the A. contini 
 maintain its ancient dignity. He soon discoi 
 however, that it would prove an insurmountable 
 obstacle to the realisation of his designs if not shorn 
 of its privileges. After much and vigorous opposi- 
 tion, he succeeded in carrying a decree (458 B. C), by 
 which, as Aristotle says, the A. was 'mutilated,' 
 anl democratic tribunals acquired supreme autho- 
 rity. It is, however, far from being clear what were 
 changes which Pericles effected, whether 
 he abridged its powers as a criminal, or as a social 
 and political court. From the high estimation in 
 which it was held for centuries after, in the I 
 these capacities, we are inclined to think that it was 
 its social and political supremacy that was destn >yed. 
 bly the A. was made responsible tothedemus, 
 or body of citizens. It lingered in life for a very 
 We hear of it as late as 380 A. n., and 
 it would seem, from the case of St Paul, that it 
 possessed in his day a certain authority in p 
 matters. 
 
 ARENA, a part of an amphitheatre (so called 
 because it was usually strewed with sand, though 
 882 
 
 when a tit of extravagance seized the Roman i 
 dl I cinnabar ini tead), v. in 
 
 combats of and wild beasts tool 
 
 It had four main ei ided by 
 
 a wall about 1"> feet Inch, so that the Bpeci if ii 
 
 ly s sic. The name w i d by 
 
 to any building for exhibitions ol I 
 
 animal i hip, fee. On the continent, the 
 
 name I < n to the large summer th 
 
 for dramatic performances in tl 
 
 applied also, in a general sense, to any scene of 
 contest or display of power. 
 
 ARENACEOUS ROCKS. All rocks com 
 entirely, or to a large extent, of grains of sib 
 included under this title. Beds of loose sand occur 
 extensively in the more recent deposits. The ■ 
 either of quartz or flint, are generally watl • 
 and rounded. In older deposits, the grains ol 
 are bound together by- sUieious, calcareous, ai 
 ceous, or ferruginous cements. It is seldom tl 
 rock is composed of quartzy materials alone ; grains 
 or particles of other mineral Bubstances are En 
 qucutly mingled with the grains of quartz. Silvery 
 d ' a absent; and they often 
 
 occur in layers parallel to the planes of stratifica- 
 tion, causing the lock to split into thin 
 exposing a glittering surface. These are called 
 
 When grains of IV 
 occur, it is a./ ,: ' quan- 
 
 tities oi ns matter, either as cement or as 
 
 distinct grains, occur ; and these are called cal< 
 sandstones. nee of lime can always bo 
 
 i .1 by the > Effervescence which takes plai e on 
 the application of muriatic or other acid. When 
 
 me is coarse-grained, it is usually < 
 grit. If the grains are Targe enough to 
 pebbles, it becomes conglomerate <■ 
 if the fragments are sharp and angular, it is called 
 
 ARENA'KTA or SANDW< IRT, a genua of | 
 
 of the natural w iphyUeee, differing from 
 
 Stellaria (Stitchv i i ncllv in 1 
 
 petals. The species are numerous, annual and peren- 
 nial herbaceous plants of humble growth, 
 
 iiat shrubby, natives of the temperate and 
 parts of the world. Some of them are arctic 
 and alpine plants. Many of them are ch 
 in sandy soils. The flowers arc- generally small and 
 inconspicuous, but if closely examined, arc bi i 
 possess no little beauty. A number of species are 
 natives of Britain. 
 
 A'RErTDAJTj, a town on the south-east coast of 
 Norway, situated near the mouth of the Nid-elf in 
 the bay of Christiania, with a population of 2200. 
 It is built partly on poles, partly on rock, and this 
 circumstance, as well as its situation, gives it a very 
 romantic aspect The bay, which is protected by 
 the island of Trombe, forms an excellent harbour, 
 vours the commerce of the town, which is 
 considerable, in proportion to its size. A. is inter- 
 sected by canals; its exports arc iron from the. 
 neighbouring mines, and wooden articles. Ship- 
 building is also canned on ; and ou a smaller 
 scale, distilleries and tobacco-factories. King Louis 
 Philippe, after the French Revolution, wh i wander- 
 
 rth as Duke of Orleans, made som 
 here. 
 
 ATIF/Ni ; or A B ENGA See Gomcto Palm. 
 
 ARENI'COLA See Axxelida and Saxdworm. 
 
 AREOMETER [araiot, thin, and metreO, I mea- 
 sure; Fr. m "'/ Ger..4riSi 
 I, called also Hydrometer, an instr 
 which is allowed to float freely in liquids, to deter- 
 mine tin ir sp icific gravity or that of solid belies. 
 By specific gravity (q. v.) is meant the ratio that the
 
 AREOMETER. 
 
 weight of any volume of a substance bears to the 
 weight of the same volume of water. Thus, a cubic 
 foot of alcohol weighs 703 ounces, while the samo 
 quantity of water weighs 1000 ounces ; the specific 
 gravity of alcohol is set down, therefore, as -rVo o" °r 
 ■793. A cubic foot of sulphuric acid weighs 1841 
 ounces, and has, consequently, a specific gravity of 
 1*841. These relations are not confined to the par- 
 ticular volume, one cubic foot, of these bodies, but 
 hold for any equal volumes of them. Equal volumes 
 
 of alcohol, water, and sulphuric acid, have alv, 
 each other the ratio respectively of 793, LOW, and 
 1841 ; and this is only an instance of the g 
 principle, that equal volumes of different substances 
 have weights bearing to each other the direct ratio 
 of the specific gravities of these substances. This 
 is tie' principle on which areometers with weigh! . 
 or weight-areometers, are constructed. If, how- 
 ever, equal weights of any two of these liquids 
 were taken, it would be found that *70.'i of a cubic 
 foot of water would weigh as much as 1*000 enlao 
 foot of alcohol ; 1*000 cubic foot of sulphuric acid as 
 much as 1*841 cubic feet of water; or *70.'i of a 
 cubic foot of sulphuric acid as much as 1*S41 cubic 
 of alcohol: more generally thus — when equ I 
 weights of two different fluids are taken, the 
 volumes of each are inversely as their specific 
 gravities. On this latter principle depends the use 
 of areometers with scales, or scale-areometers. The 
 BOale-A. is much more commonly employed than the 
 weight. V, and is, in consequence, a much more 
 important instrument. Of the various forms of 
 scale - areometers, that contrived by Gay-Lussac 
 deserves particular notice, from the simplicity of 
 the mode of graduation ; and an account of it will 
 give the best idea of the general nature of such 
 instruments. Fig. 1 gives a representation of it. It 
 
 Fic.2 
 
 Areometer... 
 
 consists of a uniform glass tube, AB, blown into two 
 bulbs, and D, at the bottom. The lower bulb, 
 D, is loaded with mercury, so that when the instru- 
 ment floats in any liquid, the stem, AB, is main- 
 tained in a vertical position. We shall suppose that 
 the quantity of mercury is so adjusted that when 
 placed in water, the A. sinks to the paint W, which 
 may, in consequence, be called the water-point. 
 According to the principle of Archimedes, the weight 
 of the volume of water displaced by the instrument 
 up to this poinf is equal to thi if the instru- 
 
 ment. Let us suppose, for the sake of simplicity, 
 
 that the water so displaced is a cubic inch, the 
 weight of the A. will be that of a cubic inch of 
 water, or 250 grains (more correctly 252*3 grains at 
 (jii° F.). If the a. be now placed in a fluid heavier 
 than water, such as a mixture of sulphuric acid 
 and water, having a specific gravity '; or 1 i'i, it is 
 manifest that if it is sunk again to the water-point, 
 the displaced fluid would weigh ' x of 250 = 312J 
 grains, or 62J grains more than the weight of 
 
 irument. As much, therefore, of the 
 of the A. must rise above the liquid as will 
 reduce the weight of the di placed liquid to 
 250 grains, or reduce the volume to J of what 
 it was before. If the stem in this case rises to 
 B, the volume displaced by the part WB 1 
 the volume displaced by the instrument at the 
 water-point If we consider tl divided into 
 
 100 parts, and mark 100 at \Y. B must be a 
 80, as the A. displaces up to that point I of 100 j 
 and if the intervening space on the stem be divided 
 into 20 equal parts, each of them will corn 
 with -ij, of the water-volume — viz., *0l of a cubic 
 inch, or with y-J^ of the weight of the instrument — 
 viz., 2*5 grains. If the same scale be carried above 
 the point YV, and the divisions marked as asc 
 from 100, the A. will be serviceable likewise for 
 fluids less dense than water, and wdl mark the 
 volumes which it displaces in each of them. The 
 A. thus graduated gives immediately the volumes 
 which it displaces in different liquids ; and from 
 these, seeing that it displaces in every ease a v. 
 of liquid equal to its own, the speci! 
 may be calculated according to the principli 
 stated— viz., that equal weights of two difi 
 fluids have volumes inversely as their specific 
 gravities. If, in a mixture of sulphuric acid and 
 water, the A. stands at 90, according to tie 
 principle, 90 volumes of the mixture wi h much 
 as 100 of water; therefore, its specific gravity 
 or 1'. If, again, in a mixture of spirits and water, 
 it should stand at 110, 110 volumes of the mixture 
 weigh as much as 100 of water, so that its :-\ 
 
 gravity is 
 
 I n 
 
 1 ' 
 
 In all cases, then, !' 
 
 to be divided by the number read on the A . i 1 
 : icific gravity of the liquid in which 
 
 it floats. 
 
 The delicacy of the A. depends on the distance of the 
 divisions on the scale, or on the thinness of the stem 
 compared with the bulbs. An instrument pos- 
 this advantage cannot be male 1 i 
 liquids heavier and lighter than water, for tl 
 would be of an inconvenient 1 ngth ; ami it is usual 
 to construct two areometers one marked with 
 the water-point at the top, and the -. ale descending 
 to 50, for fluids heavier than water; and the - 
 with the water-point at the bottom, and tie 
 ascending to 150, for fluids lighter than water. The 
 scale is generally marked on a slip of paper, which 
 is fixed inside the stem. Qay-Lussaos A. 
 known under the name of ' volumometcr.' All 1 
 it cannot be surpassed cither for accuracy or smi- 
 
 . it, is much less used than other instrui 
 of a similar nature furnished with arbitrary s 
 requiring the aid of tables to interpret C 
 The best known of tie \., used in 
 
 England; and Beaume's A. lopted 
 
 On the continent. The A. with an equally divided 
 scale is a very ancient instrument; it was known 
 among the Greeks under the name of ' luryllion.' 
 i'ii some areometers the divisions are not at 
 distances, but are so drawn as togi\ , ithout 
 
 or calculation, the specific gravity of the fluid 
 
 in which tiny are placed. Although \ery desirable, 
 in practice they do not possess the accuracy of the A. 
 
 in
 
 AIM".'! IPA-APKT.F.rs. 
 
 p divided liiation 
 
 i is attended with considerable difBculty. 
 
 ■ hi be made to determine 
 
 i th perfect accuracy , and Bucb instrumi ate 
 a! where a reai roxii 
 
 i 
 employed chiefly to ascertain the a .n.. ol 
 
 : hi dquora and solutions which occur in the 
 ad manufactures, and very frequ. ntly tin y 
 t iduated witl ! 
 
 v. in.', null;, brin i, &c. The Alcohol i 
 or Hydrometer of Sikes is an instrument .it" this 
 latter description, ami is in genera] 
 
 ting tlif strength of spirits. It is 
 
 uted in fig. -'. BC is a hollow bi isa ball, 
 
 inted by a flat stem AB, ami loaded below 
 
 by a short conical stem CD, terminated by the 
 
 1 bull) D. It is accompanied I". 
 weights, by which the of tic instrument 
 
 may lie increased, ami th "t the scale 
 
 i | i . , ■ ' i r than 
 
 , in the 
 
 ; it is furnished with a slit, so as to allow of 
 
 it being slipped on to the narrowe i part, I '. of the 
 
 10 .■ I into 1 1 
 
 1 parts, and I and *'"' 
 
 iment is so adjusted that its indications give 
 of water that must be added to or taken 
 100 volumes of the mixture under examination 
 ace it to pn i i ohol), whi 
 
 mixture of nearly equal parts of water ami : 
 Thus, if the A. indicates 11 over-proof, 11 i 
 of water must be added in order to bring the liquid 
 down to proof -strength ; and 100 
 
 ili would be reckoned as 111; 100 
 
 11 under-proof, would in I i way be charged 
 as 89. very carefulh con d tables 
 
 tent, in which th 
 and p mix! i . a1 
 different temperatures, are marked, com i i 
 
 ol the A. Since the B] -.. it\ of 
 
 ohol is known, it might be thought, th 
 a mixture of it with water were known, the n 
 
 of each would also be known. Such, 
 .. r, is not the case, for alcohol and water 
 po a chemical affinity for each other, which 
 
 causes the combined volumes of the two torn 
 less than the two volumes separately. Thus, 50 
 volumes of alcohol mi red n tth 60 volumes of water 
 does not make 100 volumes of the mixture, but only 
 96, ami thereby the specific gravity of the mixture 
 is higher than it would have been if no contraction 
 had taken place. As the law of this contraction 
 i very complicated, the relative proportdi 
 the two in a combination of given specific gravity, 
 
 ■ tiinated from tables founded upon 
 rimental data. 
 
 The peculiar feature of areometers with weights 
 is, that instead of a scale, tie v have on] 
 
 m, to which the A. is in all cases sunk. 
 One of the best-known instruments of this kind is 
 ol Nicholson. It consists of a brass tube, 
 i.i in 3), about 1 inch in diameter, closed 
 and below by conical ends, to the which 
 
 a wire is fixed, carrying on the top of it a 
 
 containing the weights ; and to the lower, 
 
 ok is attached, from which hangs the cup D. 
 
 The lower part of the cup, D, is also provided with 
 
 a hook, and the whole instrument is kept vertical, 
 
 partly by the weight of the cup, and parti] I 
 
 t of the ball, E, suspended from it. On the 
 
 a notch, W, is made, to serve as the mark or 
 
 fixed point to which the A. is sunk. The specific 
 
 liquids are determined by Nicholson's A. 
 
 following way : The weight of the A. itself is 
 
 first ascertained — let it be in a given case 2000 grains 
 
 S84 
 
 ii is then put into water al the temperature 60" F., 
 
 i i ■ put in, till it is Mink 
 
 t,, \Y. it i; now removed to the liquid under 
 
 i ; and if the weigh! reqi I to sink 
 
 ii ut now to th adard point be 
 
 ... ravity of 
 
 ,, .I to I ' ,;" ■ In both Quids, 
 
 the Bame volume I Ljsplaced, and that 
 
 is in each i I to : he A. ; but 
 
 V i lie ind . ■ was 
 
 2000 + 100, and in the formi r, 20 
 
 re n suit. Nich li m us .1 for 
 
 finding the I 'vity of fluids ; its u 
 
 .ut ••, ly restricted to ascertaining that of 
 small solid substances, as gems and small pii 
 minerals. The following example will shew how 
 
 . , : If in tie- cup Of the A. ■■'' 
 
 ,1. when placed in water, the gem be put, 
 
 ami only 440 grains be then n bring the 
 
 instrument to V\ ,60 grain tnai . : < 
 of the ' n 500 ins v.. re Deeded v. i 
 
 it. to do the thin I he ai 
 
 the lower cup, D, and if 460 grains are now d 
 to sink to the standard-point, t 1 "' gem ha thus lost 
 •20 grains of its Wi ight by being immersed in the 
 ling to the principle of Archimedi a 
 (q. v.), these go grains are al o the weight of a 
 equal to that of the gem; so the 
 specific gravity of the . or 3. By revers- 
 
 eup l>, which is furnished with perforations, 
 to allow ir to the air, and attaching the 
 
 .. K, to the i it, the Bp cifii 
 
 .ii.i-i lighter than wati . 
 
 mine. I by this instrument. The other fonns of 
 
 i of Fahrenheit, Tralles, 
 
 .uul l ' 1 1 : i li . For the more accurate determination 
 
 of the specific gravities of liquids and solids, see 
 
 IVITV. 
 
 AEEQTJI'PA, a term primarily applied to a 
 
 tain in the west Cordillera of the Peruvian 
 Andes, and secondarily to a city at its foot, being 
 from tins, again, extended to a district, a pro 
 a department, and a diocese. 1. The city, which is 
 in lat. 16° IS' S., and m lone 7(1 Is \V.. is th, 
 
 in Peru, being inferior only to Lima and 
 Cuzco, and is said to contain :S(I IJ tan ts. 
 
 It carries on a considerable trade both with the 
 interior and by sea. Its port is [slay, on.- of the 
 larger harbours of the republic. 2. The department 
 is bounded X. by Lima ; L\ by Ayacucho, Cnzco, and 
 Punn ; S. by Moquega, which, along with it, forms 
 the diocese; and \\ . by the Pacific. It contains 
 '200,11(10 inhabitants, and is subdivided int.. i I 
 provinces. Like nearly the whole of the maritime 
 region of Peru, it is generally arid and sterile. 
 3. The mountain is volcauic, of the form of a trun- 
 cated cone, and of the height of 2(>.:>20 feet. Its 
 neighbourhood is f 
 AIILS. See Ad 
 
 ARETiE'US, a famous physician of Cappadocia, 
 
 who nourished in the latter half of the 1st, and in 
 
 the beginning of the 2d century after Christ, lb- is 
 
 ..I to rank next to Hippocrates in the skill 
 
 with which he treated diseases; but ho did not, in 
 
 every iustance, follow the practice of the ' Father of 
 
 Medicine.' lie was less attentive to 'the natural 
 
 i' of the system, which he frequently count r- 
 
 if he thought it desirable ; administered active 
 
 i ly, employed narcotics, an 
 
 not object 1 ' lb v, . in fact. IV. 
 
 his total want of professional bigotry ; and I 
 
 not committing himself to any particular I oi 
 
 opinions, in his accuracy in the detail of symptoms 
 
 and the diagnosis of disease, he is superior to most of 
 
 the ancient physicians. His great work, written in
 
 A I :eth us a— arg all 
 
 singularly elegant and concise Ionic Greek, is divided 
 into two parte. The first four books treat of the 
 causes and symptoms of acute and chronic dis- 
 eases ; the second, the cure of the same. They are 
 almost in a state of complete preservation, and have 
 been translated into various European lan_ 
 
 I lining been frequently edited in the 
 original. The finest edition is the Oxford one of 
 1723, by .T. Wigan; a German translation a] 
 at Vienna (17§0— 1802), and an English by T. F. 
 Reynolds, Lend. 1837. 
 
 ARETHU'SA. See Aun 
 
 ARETI'XIAX SYLLABLES are the syllables 
 ut, i . ■ . fa, .-.', I", used by Guido d'Arezzo for his 
 system of hcxachords. 
 
 ARETI'NO, Potato, an Italian author of the 
 ICth c, was the natural son of a gentleman named 
 I.uigi Bacci, and was bora at Arezzo, in Tuscany, on 
 ;li of March 1492. Banished from his native 
 town, he went to Perugia, where he wrought as a 
 index, and gathered up a few scraps of learn- 
 ing until, seiz dwith a desire ol becoming famous, 
 ; occupation, and wand i 
 
 j i of various noblemen. At I 
 
 L himself by his wit, impudence, and 
 the ] apal patronage, 
 which, however, he . lost by writing 
 
 licentious sonnets. A. now went to the Mi 
 court, where John de' Medici grew bo fond of him 
 that he shared his bed with the adventurer, and even 
 
 i an opportunity <>f ingratiating 1 
 with Francis I. at .Milan in 1524 A few years later, 
 he settled at Venice, where be also acquired power- 
 ful friends. The Bi hop of Vii mza not only soothed 
 the irritation of thi V, but also recom- 
 
 mended him to the Emperor ( bar] »V. The latter, 
 bivalrous rival, Francis, and other 
 great | asioned the fortunate wit, l>esides 
 
 enriching him with splendid presents. He bkewise 
 obtained considerable sums for his literary efforts. 
 
 Nature had undoubtedly gifted A. with some fine 
 
 qualities, but these wire vitiated by Ins love of 
 
 tal gratifications. His death in 1556 accorded 
 
 the character of bis life. It is said that while 
 
 ins heartily at some trilling adventure of one 
 
 of his abandoned sisters, he fell from a stool, and 
 
 was killed on the spot. His poetical works include 
 
 live comedies and a tragedy. The former are full 
 
 of wit and genuine comic humour; the latter is not 
 
 without merit. II So " /. have been 
 
 translated into French under the title of A< 
 
 des Dames. Besides these, he wrote a number of 
 
 other pieces, some of which have not been published. 
 
 nred for him the name of 'the 
 
 e of Princes;' but it seems clear that be was 
 
 equally well fitted to be their sycophant. Although 
 
 the v. ry impersonation of licentiousness, he had 
 
 the impudence to publish some books 
 
 of a devotional kind, with the view of obtaining the 
 
 favour of the pope. 
 
 ARETI'XO, SriNELl.0, an early Italian painter of 
 . was born at Arezzo in 1316, "r. accord- 
 ing to others, in 1328. Se studied po del 
 
 i atino; but before he had attained his majority, 
 he had surpassed his master in the vigour and liveli- 
 ness both of his conceptions and colouring. His 
 reputation attained its full bloom after he went to 
 Florence, where he painted in fresco, in the chapel 
 of St Maria Ms J .dents in the life 
 
 of the Virgin and of St Antonio Abate. The 
 monastery of San Miniate, near Florence, contains 
 to the present day a few of h:s frescoes. He also 
 adorned the monasteries of San Bernardo at \ 
 and Monte Oliveto near Florence. Vat 
 that the finest works of A. were those winch he 
 25 
 
 executed for the Campo Santo at Pisa, illustrating 
 the life of San Ranieri. Of these, however, we have 
 only prints, and cannot therefore judge satisfac- 
 torily. His principal works, still remaining, are 
 those frcm the life of Pope Alexander 111. in the 
 town-hall of Siena. He died in 1408. 
 
 Throughout all Italy, A. " 
 his invention, the grace and simplicity with which 
 1 his figures, and the finish of liis style. 
 His Madonnas possessed a remarkable sweetness of 
 expression ; and his colouring was in most cases bold 
 and beautiful Vasari prefers him to Giotto. 
 
 ARE'ZZO (Ap.tTiLM), the chief city of the 
 Tuscan province of A.. in a fertile valley 
 
 near the confluence of the Chiana with the 
 lat. 43" 27' N., long. 11° 52 E. It is 3S miles E.S.K. 
 from Florence. A. is ]>erhap3 the oldest town in 
 Tuscany, and formed one of the t . of the 
 
 it Etruscans. 1 istated by SyDa 
 
 during the Social War ; and, like Ita'lian 
 
 cities, was sacked by the < loths when they bur 
 the peninsula. During the contest of I 
 
 i Ghibellines, in a later age, it l>ccame su 
 to Florence, whose troops defeated those ■ 
 at the battle of Camalaino, in which the poet 
 Dante took part. Arezzo contains 10,000 inhabit- 
 ants; but its extensive walls and numerous el 
 
 i 1 of its more nourishing period, when 
 it had 30,000. The P as ■ . the Piece, 
 
 an old church founded on the site of a heathen 
 temple, and the i almost all 
 
 the other churches, has an uulin de, are 
 
 its principal public buildings. '1 ral has 
 
 a splendid high altar in marble by Giovanni 
 Pisano ; and the several churches contain fine 
 
 <>f the old Tuscan school of painting. These 
 ecclesiastical decorations are contra-fed with the 
 general aspect of the city, which has dark and dirty 
 streets. Its industry is at present at a very low 
 ebb, there being few or no manufactures, and its 
 are not generally favi Italy ; but 
 
 perhaps no city of its size ever produced a greater 
 number of eel 
 
 tioned — Maecenas, the famous patron of letters in the 
 time of the Emperor Augustus; Petrarch; Pietro 
 Aretino ; Guido de A., inventor of the gamut; 
 Leonardo de A., the historian ; Ces : the 
 
 botanist ; Redi. the physician ; Pope Julius III.; the 
 notorious Marshal d'Ancre ; and Vasari, author of 
 TAves of the Painters. Michael Angelo was also 
 born in the vicinity of A. The province of A 
 tains 1268 square miles, with a population of 21! J. 
 The soil is fertile in corn, wine, and oil. 
 
 ATRGAL A. See Adjutant. 
 
 AKCAI.I (Ovit At ild sheep of 
 
 Siberia and Central Asia. It is found from Kam- 
 tchatka to the Himalaya Mountains, where, however, 
 it is only seen in the more elevated regions. ' We 
 
 Heal of the Arglli Sheep. 
 
 came suddenly,' says T>r Hooker in his Himalayan 
 Journal, 'upon a » k of ggantic wild sheep, feed- 
 in E on scanty tufts of dl ami grass ; there 
 9 enty-five of tin se enormous animals, of whose 
 dimensions the term sheep gives no idea; they are 
 
 W
 
 ARGAN— ARGEH8. 
 
 1 have 
 
 immen 'X is said ; 
 
 up hit their hollows when d 
 
 bleacl. batten mountains of Tibet. 1 The 
 
 horns i le are nearly 4 feet long, and 14 
 
 inches in circumference at the base, where they are 
 Jar. The general colour is fulvous gray, 
 ;h, with a whitish disk aronnd t' 
 The wool is concealed l>y hair. The name A. is 
 . and was adopted by I 
 
 iee is alao found on the B 
 Mountains. The Rod 
 horn, is sometimes called the American A. 
 
 AKGAN [Argania 
 
 I |, a low spiny 
 
 i a native of the southern 
 
 of the kingdom of Marocoo, bearing an ovate 
 drape about the size of a plum, dotted with white, 
 and full of a white milky juice. The Moors extract 
 an oil from the fruit, which they use with their food. 
 
 ARGAND, A ian and chemist, was 
 
 burn at Geneva about the middle of the i 
 He was the inventor of the well-kno 
 
 The chief dillieultics that at: use of lamps 
 
 as a source of light ■ , in procuru 
 
 complete combustion of the oil, so as to keep the 
 
 from smoking; and second, in pp 
 levi I of the oil in the reservoir from sinking as the 
 Combustion goes on. The round cotton-wick, used 
 in the old simple form of lamp, was always attended 
 with smoke and smell. The oils and fits are i 
 ingly rich in carbon, contai. BO per cent. 
 
 t element, and only 10 to 12 of hyd 
 The round thick column, then, of oil-vapour 
 from the wick of aa old-fashioned lamp, presented 
 
 le extent of surface to the air ; the ov 
 all the air that could get access was chic!! 
 up in burning the hyd. 
 and a large proportion of the 
 carbon I in the burnt 
 
 . air as smoke. A.'s improvement 
 was that he I wick in 
 
 the form of a ring. The flame 
 a hollow cylinder 
 j with a current of air ascending 
 1 through the insid 
 
 g surface was don 
 would appear, however, that the 
 lamp did not satisfy the expectations of A., till his 
 younger brother accidental! \ 1 the effect 
 
 of a glass cylinder, as a chimney over the flame, 
 by which the Same was steadied, a draught created, 
 and the greatest possible amount ol Med. 
 
 A. was soon involved in a dispute with one Lango 
 of Paris regarding the originality of his inv- 
 He went thither to vindicate his claim, but rather 
 than risk the chances of a lawsuit, he consented to 
 the honour, and a patent was obtained by 
 which LangS and A. alone were authorised to make 
 and s lamps in France for 15 years. The 
 
 French Revolution, however, destroyed their privi- 
 lege, r. 1 to England After some time, 
 he returned to his native country, a victim to 
 melancholy and fantastic humours, and died on the 
 21th I 13. 
 
 ARGATJ'M, a village in the territory of the 
 L It is in lat. 21* 2' N., and in long. 77 
 on the route, between Ellichpore anl Aurungabad. 
 I ogle claim to notice is that, on 28th November 
 1 - 3, about two months after the battle of Assaye, 
 Major-general Wellesley here gained another victory 
 over the Mahrattas. To commemorate this . 
 a medal was struck in 1S51, about a year before 
 the death of the illustrious conqueror. 
 
 Argand Burner. 
 
 . or A'BGHEL (Solauutmma .!., or 
 
 -I.), a plant of the natural a 
 piadacerr, a native of Arabia and of the north of 
 Africa.' only because of the fre- 
 
 quent use of for tin- adulteration of senna. 
 
 They are lanceolate aud leathery, and may readily 
 be distinguished from genuine senna leaves by their 
 texture, their being downy, their greater heaviness, 
 the comparati ■ the symmetry 
 
 of their sides, the sides of the true senna ' 
 being unequal. They are acrid, and cause si' 
 and grilling, but a difference of opinion subsists as to 
 their possessing purgative properties. 
 
 ARGELANDER, Fbxkdbich Wilhelm Ai 
 
 one of the in" t eminent astronomers of on. 
 was born, March 22, 1799, at Memel. He studied 
 at K '.ere the science of finance tirst 
 
 attracted him ; but he was subsequently drawn away 
 to that of astronomy by the lectures of Bessel, by 
 i • was i : make calculations and 
 
 itions. In 1820, he was appointed assistant to 
 in the Konigsberg Observatory, and i 
 >mer at the • 
 of Abo, in Finland. Here he commenced a t . 
 observations on the fixed stars which have a per- 
 ceptible 'proper motion.' His studio were unl 
 uately intarri a fire which destroyed 
 
 observatory ; but after a tune, he resum 
 a new observatory at I. bed a 
 
 ue of not less tli shaving ' 
 
 motions.' This contained the results ol 
 vations at Abo, and received from the Academy 
 of St Petersburg the great Demidov prize. After 
 
 ng to the university of Bonn in 1S37, A. pub- 
 lished 1 Nova (Berlin, 1843), con- 
 taining celestial charts of the fixe-d stars seen in our 
 hemisphere with the naked eye ; also (in 1S4C) his 
 ins, containing the results of 
 an examination of the northern heavens from 
 
 lination, and giving the positions of 2! 
 stars. For a con umber of years, A. has 
 
 been engaged in a so: rvations on the 
 
 ing work is expected to be the result of these recent 
 studies. 
 
 ARGE'MONB, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order/' nguished by4-— 6petala,4 — 7 
 
 radiating cob i as, and an i ipsule, 
 
 opening by valves at the point. A. Mexicana, some- 
 times called Mexican l'oppy, is an annual herbaceous 
 plant with large yellow Bowers, and se?sil". waved 
 and sinuated, spiny leaves, variegated with white. It 
 is anal I icoandof the southern parts of the 
 
 United States, and is now also common in many 
 tropical and sub-tropical countries, in which it lias 
 been naturalised. Its seeds are narcotic, 
 
 luetic, exhibiting in a strong degree those 
 qualities of the order of which the seeds of the ; 
 are devoid. They are used in the West Indies as a 
 substitute for ipecacuanha, also instead of opium ; 
 and the juice of the plant is employed as a remedy 
 for ophthalmia. — This plant is not unfrequcntly to 
 be seen in flower-borders in Britain ; but in the 
 northern parts, at least, the seed is generally sown in 
 a hot-bed. 
 
 ARGENS, Jean Baptxste de Botkr, Marquis d', 
 born at Aix, in Provence, June 24, 1704. He was 
 originally intended for a learned career ; but, from a 
 love of adventure, he entered the army at G 
 Fascinated by a certain actress, he elop I 
 
 n, but was captured, and brought ba 
 Provence. In spite of his glaring breach of disci- 
 pline, he had the good-fortune to be employed in 
 the French embassy to Constantinople, and on his 
 return, re-entered the army. Being disabled by
 
 ARGENSOLA— ARGENTINE BEPUBLIC. 
 
 accidents in military service, and disinherited by his. 
 
 r, he tried His fortune in authorship, and by 
 hii !.■ 
 
 , and La PhiloiopkU du E .ondon, 
 
 ]7.'i7), attracted tin: notice of Frederick II., then 
 I n-princo of Prussia, and became a favourite at 
 
 court of Prussia when EVederick came to the 
 throne. The kin 1 liiiu chamberlain, and 
 
 (or of the Art Academy at Berlin, with a 
 salary of GOUO livres. lie was a constant associate 
 of Frederick, who lik ly his frank and 
 
 vivacious character, but used to tease him on 
 account of las hypochondriacal fits. When almost a 
 narian, he renewed the adventures of his 
 youth by again falling a victim to the charms of an 
 actress, Mademoiselle Cochois, whom he married 
 without Frederick's permission. This and other 
 circumstances irritated the despotic monarch, who 
 deprived A. of his pension. The latter now returned 
 to Provence, and died at Toulon, January 11, 1771. 
 His numerous writings, but especially his J. 
 
 Esprit Hit/main, Leltr .,■■'. 
 those above mentioned, once enjoyed a considerable 
 reputation. 
 
 ARGENSOLA Letercio and Bai-.tolom*; 
 Lbonabdo it., two of the first among the Spanish 
 
 iioets in the 'golden age,' were born at Bar- 
 >astro, in Aragon ; the former in 15G5, the latter in 
 15GG. They Btudied at the university of Huesca. 
 Lupercio afterwards went to Madrid, while Barto- 
 lome entered the church. In character and for- 
 tune, however, they were closely united through- 
 out the whole of their career. Both were 
 patronised by Maria of Austria, who appointed 
 the one her chaplain, and the other her private 
 secretary. The latter was subsequently made 
 chamberlain to the Archduke Albert of Austria, 
 and Philip III. appointed him historiographer of 
 a. Bartolome was employed by the Count 
 de l.'inos to edit the iJonquUta de las Molucas 
 (Madrid, 1G09); ami when this nobleman was 
 as viceroy of Naples, both the brothers 
 A., who bad acquired fame as poets, attended his 
 court at Nap] Lup-rcio, who then filled the 
 
 office of Secretary of Si d I ' B 'olomS 
 
 returned to Spain with the viceroy in 1616, and 
 occupied the position formerly held by bis brother, 
 apher of the kin. i of . where 
 
 rk left unfinished by 
 ■■io — a continuation of Zurit i " >> Ara- 
 
 While engaged in this work, he died, February 
 26, 1631. The collected poems of the two brothers 
 1634, by the son of Lupercio, 
 and passed through se\ ons. These poems 
 
 ■ -■) consist of epistles, odes, sonnets, and as 
 and are singularly alike in character. They are 
 imitative of the style of the Latin poets (especially 
 Horace, for which reason the brothers have been 
 ! 'the Spanish II . I display more care 
 
 originality of invention or ri 
 of fancy. Bartolome A, as a pro 
 
 ■ the Spanish classics. The style of his 
 i of Zurita is a great advance on the 
 original, especially in oo 
 
 ARGKNSON, MJlBO Pin:r.E, COMXI D', ■ 
 h statesman, was born in 1606. 
 ding a number of inferior 
 11 M. de Bretetnl aa Secretary ol 
 
 to the war minister in 17!-. On tie- death of 
 
 Hal Fleury, in the whole 
 
 care of the war then ragin i upon him. 
 
 mud matters in I condi- 
 
 tion. The French troops, decimated by BWOld and 
 ■ in full r i the Bhiue ; tho 
 
 Austriaus already swarmed in Alsace and Lorraine, 
 
 and the very political existence of France was 
 imperilled ; but the vigorous efforts of A., and his sin- 
 gularly lucky choice of generals, completely changed 
 the fortunes of the war in the course of one year. 
 The theatre of strife was transferred to tho Low 
 Countries ; and after the victories of Fontenoy and 
 of Bergen-op-Zoom, and the 
 investment of Maestricht, peace wa3 secured by the 
 famous treaty of Aix-la-chapelle, . I 7 I . 
 
 A., however, did not remain inactive. He built 
 new fortresses and repaired old ones, established the 
 
 MUitaire in 1751, and, by various measures, 
 
 t to keep alive the military ardour and spirit 
 of the nation. He was ! i illustrious 
 
 patron of literature. Diderot and D'Alembert dedi- 
 
 to him their great Encyclopedic. He was the 
 friend of Voltaire, whose fellow-student he had 
 
 and furnished him with materials for his 
 de Lotos XI I '. On the breaking out of the war again 
 in 1756, his valuable sen-ices were neglected, and 
 next year he was deprived of his office, and ■ 
 to his estate of "Ormes, where he spent six dreary 
 years. It is supposed that this calamity befell him 
 through the machinations of Madame Pompadour, 
 his worst enemy. On her decease, he returned to 
 Paris, where he died in 1701. 
 
 A'RGENT, the French word for silver, is always 
 used in English heraldry to signify that metal. In 
 engraving shields, it is left white. 
 
 ARGE'NTEUS CODEX. See Ulftlas. 
 
 ARGENTINE [Argentina), a genus of small 
 fishes of the family Ualmonidce, of which one is 
 rarely found on the British shores, and two or three 
 are found in the Mediterranean. They are chiefly 
 remarkable for the resplendent silvery lustre of their 
 sides, and the abundance of nacre, the substance 
 used in making artificial pearls-, with which their 
 air-bladder is externally loaded. It consists of a 
 coat of silvery fibres. Upon account of it, 
 are sought after. They are commonly taken in 
 nets along with anchovies or sardines. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, the eon' 
 tion of the Bio de La Plata, or River of S 
 South America — the Latinised epithet an d the 
 Spanish term being merely copy and origu 
 one and the same misnomer. This confedera- 
 tion may be described, accurately enough for the 
 
 as extending in S. 1 
 •J'J 3 and -H , and in W. long, bi I I 
 In addition, however, to the thirteen confederated 
 provinces themselves, these limits comprise Buenos 
 Ayrcs. which, 6ince 185' 3, has formed an 
 
 entirely separate state. Including Bui 
 the wl tangle 
 
 of 19' of lat. by 13 of 1 
 to contain r. 
 so that. '.000 as th 
 
 i Buenos A m> for 
 
 the thirteen provinces about 900,000 square pules 
 — a sum-total which falls somewhat short of the 
 
 lly receive,! . 
 times the extent o les, contains only 
 
 i inhabitants, being not quite an inhabitant to 
 a square mile. This i i said to bo thus 
 
 distributed among the thirteen prov 
 
 
 < 
 
 To* 
 
 ( lordova, . 
 
 Cordova, 
 
 . 1 
 
 Catam;e 
 
 Catan 
 
 60, t 
 
 Carrie] 
 
 
 . - 
 
 lii.tr ■ Kios, . 
 
 Parana, . 
 
 . 
 
 Jujuy, ) 
 Salta, ( 
 
 . Salta, 
 
 30,000 
 
 • 6 
 
 Mendoza, 
 
 Mendoza, 
 
 70,000 
 
 Rioja, 
 
 Rioja, 
 
 . 30.000 
 3s7
 
 A i:f ! ENTINE REl'UBLIC— AIH ! ES. 
 
 Vrovince. Capital. 
 
 San .Tago del Estero, San .Tago, . 100,000 
 
 San Juan, 62,000 
 
 Santa Fe, . Santa IV, . 40,000 
 
 San Luis, . . San Luis, :;2,(>l>il 
 
 Tucaman, . Tucaman, . Gii.OOO 
 
 Each of these names will again claim notice in its 
 propel place. 
 
 The A. K., as a whole, is bonnded on the W. by 
 Chili, on the N. by Bolivia, on the K. by Pi ■ 
 Brazil, Uruguay or Banda Oriental, and Buenos 
 Ayres, and S. bj P . ■ ■■ ■ on ..it the 40th 
 parallel. Excepting the almost purely Indian 
 districts to the west of Buenos Aj i chiefly 
 
 in the basin of the Rio de La Plata, emb 
 much the larger half of the same. Mountains 
 abound in the north-west; and elevated ranges 
 arc found also in Entre Bios, which is s I 
 as its name implies, between the Parana and the 
 Uruguay. But, with these . nearly the 
 
 whole country presents boundless plains, 
 alternately with rich pasturage and gi ;antic tl 
 The climat rably 
 
 being tropical and tempi rater pectively to the north 
 and south of Corrientes (in 27 27' N. lat.). Agricid- 
 ture, however, of every description is very back ward — 
 li -■. perhaps, than -, (j ', 70 - of the surface 1. ing under 
 cultivation. Tie- rearing, in fact, of live stock is 
 the grand business of the country. Millions of 
 cattle wander at will across the plains, or are kept 
 on breeding-estates of vast extent ; and likewise 
 of mules and horses there are immense bands. 
 Besides the Rio de La Plata, which is rati) 
 estuary than a river, and its far-reaching afflu- 
 ents, t raphy of the A. EL compn es the 
 head- waters of sonic southern streams, whi 
 into the open Atlantic, such as tit G o Colorado, 
 the Bio Negro, &c. ; and along the west border, 
 under the shadow, as it were, of the And. s. 
 salt-lakes are common. In connection, doubtless, 
 with this feature in the hydrography, mines of 
 rock-salt exist, and salt here and there abundantly 
 encrusts the plains, both to the satisfaction and 
 benefit of the roaming lnnls. The names of the 
 country and its estuary, as indicating the presence 
 of silver, have been already characterised . 
 nomers ; and though mines of other minerals— such 
 as sulphur and alum— are found in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Andes, yet few, if any, of thi m are 
 wrought. 
 
 In 1515, .Tuan Piaz da Solis, while searching 
 for a passage into the < l Sea lyseen 
 
 by Balboa, entered the Bio de La Plata. Iii" 1526, 
 S ba tian Cabot, son of the discoverer ol 
 land, penetrated nearly to the confluence of the 
 Parana and the Paraguay, being arrested by the 
 i pids, which afterwards gave name to Con 
 In 1535, Buenos Ayres was founded, to command, 
 though indirectly, the most practicable channel of 
 the only outlet of the country, a city which, in 
 conjunction with its own colony of Monte Video, 
 on the opposite bank, has virtually monopolised 
 the history of a region equal in extent to Western 
 Europe. Gradually other cities v.. re planted, partly 
 by colonists from Spain, and partly by adventurers 
 from Pi in. gi qi rally giving each its own na 
 its own province; and the grand ..tapis of the 
 country— horses and cattle— had been largely intro- 
 due. .1 In-fore 1552. Down to 1775, the basin of the 
 Rio de La Plata was a d< p ndencyof the viceroyalty 
 of Lima. In that year, however, was erected the 
 viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, which, to the basin 
 in question, added Bolivia, under the name of 
 I pper Peru, thus embracing the head-waters of 
 tie- Ami, -.in. and also most of the plateau of 
 a. The year 1S0G ushered in a new order 
 
 of thincs. Spain, .as an ally of Prance, being 
 
 at war with England, both Buenos Ayres 
 
 and Monte Video were occupied by the English 
 
 a change which, brief as was its duration, virtu- 
 ally sowed the seeds of revolution. The col 
 
 had felt the inconvenience of belonging to a state 
 
 left them, in a great measure, to d I 
 
 Ives ; they had successfully tried their 
 
 th against a foe more powerful than their 
 
 own masters; and they had been encouraged not 
 li i bj thi , than by the doings, of their 
 
 invaders to assert their indi pi udenc . 
 influences were, in fact, instantaneously exemplified. 
 The triumphant militia, after deposing and t spelling 
 the legitimate viceroy for cowardice, elec 
 his stead the French officer who had led tin m to 
 victory. 'Jims had the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres 
 
 " peculiarly ripe for taking its share in the 
 outbreak, which Napoleon's dethronement of the 
 
 Henri , in the Spring of 1SHS, almost immeil I .■ 
 
 occasioned throughout Spanish America. Neither 
 the revolutionary struggles, nor the intestine broils 
 that have been almost without interruption, are 
 entitled to special notice in this article, inasmuch 
 ;.s tin y will more naturally fall under the heads of 
 such sections of the viceroyalty a r form 
 
 part of the A. 1;., Bolivia, Buenos Ayres, and 
 da Oriental. 
 Two general remarks, however, on the subject 
 may not be out of place. The struggles of inde- 
 
 .. ;•, at least within the purely Argentine 
 
 provinces of the viceroyalty, terminated in 1816 - 
 
 sooner than in any other division of Spanish 
 
 t. Again, the intestine broils, beyond the 
 
 example even of Spanish republics, have 1 , ., ,, 
 
 : .! by peculiar elements of dis d. The 
 
 tion. consisting chiefly of hunters and herds- 
 men of mixed race, is always as ready for raj line 
 and bloodshed as rent to law and order; 
 
 the boundless interior has a standing feud with 
 the narrow sea-board, which shuts it out from the 
 ocean ; the Banda Oriental has been a bone of 
 contention between the Brazilians and the Argen- 
 tines ; whil' England and France, with a view to 
 the freedom of commerce, have tin-own their -. I I 
 in favour of its separate and di a\ existi ace. 
 
 But beyond, perhaps, all these grounds of strife, have 
 li.in the mutual jealousies of Buenos Ayres and 
 Monte Video. While the latter enjoys easier access 
 to the Atlantic, tin former hi long commanded a 
 more practical : el to the vast country behind 
 
 and above. Recently, however, Buenos Ayres 
 to have lost something of its superiority through 
 the i plorations of the Americans. The following 
 is from tee pen of Lieutenant Pag'' of the 
 ' We have discovered also a new 
 channel between the island Martin Garcia and 
 the Banda Oriental of two feet more water than 
 the old channel contains. The importance attached 
 to tins discovery is not confined to the greater 
 depth of water in the new channel, but it 
 
 s a political character. Instead of Buenos 
 Amis possessing, as she now claims, exclusive 
 ictiou over the entrance of the rivers Parana 
 and Uruguay, she has, over the new channel, only 
 concurrent jurisdiction with the Banda Oriental. 
 [By the census of 1860, the pop. of the confedera- 
 tion, which, since 1S60, again includes Buenos 
 1,736,922.) 
 A'RGES, a genus of small fishes, of the family 
 doe, of extreme interest on account of their 
 being frequently thrown out in vest numbers 
 by some of the South American volcanoes, with 
 torrents of muddy water. Humboldt was the lirst 
 accurately to inquire into this wonderful fact, and 
 to describe one of these fishes, which he referred
 
 ARGIL— ARGOi.is. 
 
 to the genus Pimelodes, and called P. eydt pum, It 
 is now called A. cyclopum. He qu 
 
 i i d from the volcanoes in the neighbour- 
 hood of Quito is sometimea so great, that the stench 
 of their putrefaction is felt at a great distance, 
 and putrid levers are caused ljy it. Thi 
 expelled from craters or from lateral openin 
 an elevation of 10,000 or 17,000 feet above the sea. 
 It is supposed that they exist in lakes within 
 the cavernous recesses of the mountains, but D 
 is positively known on this subject. Their capacity 
 of enduring the high temperature of the water with 
 which they are ejected, has excited much interest. 
 Several species are known, to which the common 
 name of pre&adilla* is given in the country, and 
 which are placed by ichthyologists in the genus 
 A., and the closely allied genera Brontes and 
 .', \rol pus. 
 
 A'RGIL, clay or white clay, a term now little 
 used, but of which the derivative argillaceous is still 
 in frequent use as descriptive of soils, geological 
 
 is, &e., and in the name Arriillaceous Slate or 
 Ar</illti'- wis Schist, instead of which, however, the 
 name Clay-slate Oi-v.) is more generally employed 
 The term arr/illacrous is rather vague, and some- 
 times clayey, sometimes aluminous, would seem to be 
 its equivalent See ARGILLACEOUS Rooks. 
 
 ARGILE PLASTIQTJE, a series of beds at the 
 base of the Tertiary system in France, resting on a 
 con [lomerate or breccia of rolled and angular chalk- 
 flints. They consist of extensive deposits of sand. 
 with occasions] beds of plastic clays, used for pottery. 
 Marls occur, enclosing, in some places, the lluviatile 
 shells that are met with in the same position in the 
 in basin, and in others, large numbers of a 
 ■. of oyster. Beds of impure lignite also occur. — 
 The A. P. is the equivalent in the Paris basin of the 
 Woolwich and Reading series, or Lower Eocene of 
 the English geologists. See Eocene. 
 
 AROILLA'CEOUS ROCKS. All rocks com- 
 posed entirely or to some extent of clay are included 
 under this title. Pure clay is known as /.",',. or 
 porcelain clay. It is a hydrated silicate of alumina. 
 D composed feldspar, from which the silicates of 
 potash, soda, &c, have been washed out, supplies the 
 material which forms kaolin. Common day, how- 
 ever, contains many impurities; the chief are sand, 
 in variable proportions, and oxide of iron, which 
 gives its colour to the mass. Any matter that con- 
 tains sufficient alumina (more than 10 per cent.) to 
 enable it to retain its shape when moulded and 
 ■ 1. is called clay. Plastic clays occur abun- 
 dantly in the superficial deposits and in the Tertiary 
 strata. The older clays become more or less indu- 
 rated. When they are regularly laminated, and 
 split into thin layers in the direction of the lamiiuc, 
 they are called shale. In clay-slate, the clay has 
 become highly indurated and metamorphosed, sd as 
 to split into plates that are altogether independent 
 of the original lamination, and frequently cross it at 
 right angles, clay-slate forms extensive deposits in 
 the Azoic roeks. but it is not confined to these, for 
 the Palteozoic shales are often converted into clay- 
 slate, when, from their proximity to crystalline 
 or other cause, they have been subjected to 
 the action of heat. 
 
 A. I;, can generally be distinguished by the 
 liar 'argillaceous' odour which they give out when 
 bed upon. 
 
 A'RliOli is a cnule variety of cream of tartar 
 which forms a crust in the interior of wine-vats 
 and wine-bottles. Originally, it exists in the 
 
 of the grape, and is soluble therein; but during the 
 
 fermentation of the juice, and as it passes into 
 
 wine, much alcohol is developed, winch remaining 
 
 in the fermenting liquor, causes the precipitation 
 of the A. ; the latter being very i Daringly soluble in 
 an alcoholic lien A rhen they are 
 
 t, are not fully ripe, and m 
 
 thereafter develop d, a furl I ition of A. 
 
 taki place a i a cm I in the botui . and hence the 
 
 Og of the term crusted A. is generally 
 
 of a reddish tinge, obtained from t 
 grapes, but sometimes is of a grayish-white colour, 
 when it has been di p aited ■luring the fi [mentation 
 of the juice of colourless grapes. 
 A. is denominated in commerce crude tartar, and its 
 principal uses are in the preparation of cream of 
 tartar (q.v.) and tartaric acid (q.v.). The coi, 
 ents of A. are bitartrate of potash (cream of tartar), 
 (KO,HO,T), tartrate of lime, with colouring and 
 extractive matters. 
 
 A'RGOLA. See Adjutant. 
 
 A'RGOLIS, the north-cast peninsula of the Hon a 
 (Greece), lying between the Bays of Kauplia and 
 /Egina, forms a nome, or department, in the modi in 
 kingdom of Greece. The plain of Argos, famous in 
 ancient thin a for its breed of horses, is naturally 
 fertile, but is now made pestilential by morasses. It 
 is surrounded by an eastern continuation of the 
 range of mountains on the north of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, which also girds the riven and shattered- 
 looking coast. The highest summits attain an 
 elevation eon 5000 and 6000 feet The plain 
 
 of A. is the most extensive in the whole peninsula, 
 being 12 miles in length, and 5 in breadth. The 
 eastern part is higher and more rocky than the 
 western. Near when- the plain opens on the sea, 
 the ground is marshy. Tins was the Lernean 
 marsh of antiquity. The nome, or department, has 
 now Nauplia as its capital, and contains S9,340 
 inhabitants. 
 
 It was from the importance of the ancient king- 
 dom of A. that the Greeks were collectively often 
 styled Argivi by ancient writers. A. was colonised 
 in very early times. According to the old traditions, 
 Inachus, the Pelasgic chief, settled here in 1800, and 
 Danans in 1500 n.c, with colonists from Egypt 
 Here l'elops ruled, and was succeeded by Atrcus, 
 Agamemnon, &c. Here also Hercules was born, and 
 achieved his victories over the Lernean hydra and 
 the Nemean lion. 
 
 The ancient capital, Argos, was situated about 
 .1 miles from the sea, and was 
 city in Greece. It was supposed I i i built 
 
 by that Inachus of whom we have spoken, or I 
 grandson Argus; but as the who od in which 
 
 are said to have been accomplished 
 belongs to the nnhistorical age, we cannot possibly 
 determine the truth of such a statement. It is 
 certain, however, that at one period A. was the 
 head of a league composed of several I 'one si 
 cities i [, ii . 1'i . us, . Hermione, 
 
 . and EpidauruB. Latterly, Sparta robbed it 
 of its supremacy and influence. Th i population of 
 A., during its most prosperous condition in ancient 
 inclusive of the town-territory— -upwards 
 of 100,000. It was noted for the attention it paid 
 to the worship of the gods. Juno was the principal 
 divinity, but many 01 the other gods had temples 
 and statues also. 'Ties gave a stimulus to the line 
 arts, and we know that A. one of the 
 
 i unous of the ancient schools of statuary. 
 The natives were, moreover, renowned for tin b 
 
 of music. Herod lend them the finest 
 
 musicians in Greece. They do not however, seem 
 
 to have c I R w poets, and no 
 
 orators or pi ■ were born amongst them. 
 
 Hie in ■ . built on the sib- of the ancient, 
 
 is 7 miles from .Nauplia, and is a large and thriving
 
 ARGONAUT- A I : < : 
 
 town. It still exhibits some remains of antiquity, 
 
 ly wholly destroyed in 1S'25, 
 
 daring the Greek war of independence. < 
 
 and rice are grown. Pop. 8 
 
 A'RGON'AUT [Argonauia), a genus of cephal- 
 
 apodoiH molluaca, pretty generally known by the 
 
 name of J' and in consequence of 
 
 similarity in the form of the shell, often confounded 
 
 with tie- genua NautiXut (q.T.), hut in fact much 
 
 more nearly allied to the I ). The 
 
 shell is not I ' like that of the true nautilus 
 
 but has one spiral cavity, into which the animal can 
 
 [y withdraw itself. The animal has no run 
 attachment to the shell, and some naturalist- 
 fore suspected that it might ly, like the 
 Hermit Crab, the inhabitant of a shell originally 
 belonging to some other animal ; but tl 
 has been set at rest by I itions of Madame 
 r, proving the beautiful bat fragile shell to b i 
 the production of tin' A. H» If, v.-ever, 
 also been di uliar to the 
 female A., and does not answer the ordinary pur- 
 poses of the shells of mollusca, but rather that of an 
 
 riji. 
 
 'incubating and protective nest.' The eggs, which 
 are very numerous, are attached to nlam 
 stalks, and by these the whole compacted mas? is 
 united to the involuted spire of the shell, where 
 it is usually concealed by the body of the parent 
 The descriptions, until recently admitted into the 
 works of the most respectable naturalists, of 
 argonauts sading about in pretty little fleets upon 
 the surface of the water, employing six of their 
 tentacula as oars, and spreading out two, which 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 are broadly expanded for the purpose, as sails to 
 
 -. are now regarded as entirely 
 
 ins, and indeed are founded upon an entire 
 
 300 
 
 misapprehension of the position of the animal in its 
 
 shell, and of the use of the two expanded arras or 
 
 The membranes of these amis are 
 
 led at the pleasure of the animal, 60 as to 
 
 ■ 1« til" si" ■ 
 organs employed in its fabrication. Two i 
 of A. are common in the Mediterroni 
 
 nts one of them as it used to be commonly 
 
 nted with oars and sails. 
 it as it really exists, with the membranes of the 
 
 ber arms are 
 cut off. At a, in gs. 
 
 A'RGONAUTS, heroes of Gr 
 I from their ship 
 tradition, about a generation 
 
 undertook a lone voyage into unknown seas, under 
 the command of Jason. Homer alludes to the 
 Hesiod, Mimnermus, Pindar, the Pscudo-Oi | 
 and many o1 it, all in different ways, the 
 
 accounts in some instances being utterly irrecon- 
 cilable. The plainest and most complete narrative 
 is that of Apollodorus, which is as follows: Juson 
 was commissioned by his uncle, 1'elias — who ruled 
 to fetch from the country 
 
 les (Colchis) the gold n fleece of tie 
 which was suspended on an oak, and guard 
 
 ■agon. II" therefore caused Argus, the 
 son of 1'hrixus. to build a ship of lifty oars ; and in 
 pursuit of this adventure, gathered together the 
 choicest heroes from all parts of Greece, lifty in 
 number, with whom he sailed. Their first la; 
 place was Lemnos, where the A. stayed two 
 because the women, in consequence of t' 
 Aphrodite, had slain all the men, excepting 1 
 Next they sailed to the Do! . and were I 
 ably received by King Cizycus, who was afterwards 
 accidentally killed by Jason. After landing at 
 Mysia, wher Hercules and Poly] I 
 
 — who bad wandered too far inland in pursuit of 
 the lost Hylas — they came to the country of the 
 Bebryces, where King Amycus was killed by Pollux, 
 or Polydcuces, in a pugilistic tight. They next ! 
 
 along the coast of Thrace to Salmydessus, where 
 two of their number, Zetes and Calais, having 
 delivered the blind seer, Phineus, from c 
 
 1 monsters called Harpies, he in return gave 
 them good counsel respecting their future adven- 
 tures, and especially warned them against the 
 dangerous passage between the opening and closing 
 Symplegadea, from which they escaped with but 
 little injury to their vessel. The story goes that 
 Phineus advised the A. to let loose a dove when 
 they approached the dreaded rocks, and to judge 
 from its fortune what they themselves might expect. 
 The bird escaped with the loss of its tail. The A. 
 resolved to risk the passage, and after heroic efforts, 
 got safely through, their snip only losing some of the 
 ornaments of its stern. After visiting several i 
 lands, they arrived at the mouth of the river Phasis, 
 in Colchis. Here the king, ^Eetes, promised to give 
 up the golden fleece to Jason, on condition that the 
 latter should yoke to a plough the two fir 
 bulls with brazen hoofs, and should sow the dra 
 
 by Cadmus in Thebes. Jason, by the 
 <■:" the famous sorceress Medea, daughter of 
 . who had fallen passionately in love with the 
 bold navigator, fulfilled these conditions; and was 
 also assisted by Medea in still more won ' 
 exploits. He obtained from her, under promise of 
 marriage, a charm against fire and steel, and was 
 enabled to destroy all the warriors who sprung up 
 from the land sown with the dragon's teeth. While 
 this was taking place, .-Eetes had resolved to burn the 
 ship Arf/o, and put to death the crew; but ■ ' 
 informed of the scheme by Medea, anticipated it, 
 hastened into the grove, stupificd the dragon-sentinel
 
 ARGOSTOLI— ABGU3. 
 
 by an opiate-charm prepared by Medea, seized 
 the go! ' ce, and, embarking in the Argo 
 
 with his mistress and her brother Absyrtus, sailed 
 away from Colchis by night. vEetes followed, but 
 
 indered in his pursuit by an atrocity committed 
 by bis fierce daughter. It is said that she slew her 
 brother Absyrtus, anil cut him into several pjeci 
 which she threw overboard, one at a time. While 
 
 lOetes stayed to gather op the fragments of his 
 son, Jason escaped from the pursuit. The A. now 
 reached the mouth of the river Kridanus; but were 
 driven on the Absyrtian Islands by a storm sent 
 from Jove, who was angry on account of the murder 
 of Absyrtus. Meanwhile the mast of the Argo— 
 which had been cut from the sacred grove of Dodona 
 — delivered an oracle to the effect that Jove could 
 not be appeased unless they sailed towards Ausonia, 
 and v. ; through the expiatory agency of 
 
 Circe. This was accomplished ; and next, the A. 
 passed by the Sirens, from whose charms they were 
 
 I ■;,■ Orpheus, who sang to them, but 
 not hinder one of their number, Butes, from 
 ming off to the sea-maidens ; then through Scylla 
 and Charybdis, by the help of Thetis, and at length 
 landed on the island of Corcyra, where Alcinous 
 On leaving this place, they encountered a 
 storm at night, but were saved by Apollo, who, in 
 
 ) of lightniiiL', tevi aled to them the haven of 
 Anaphe, where they raised an altar to th'ir pre- 
 server. At Crete, their landing was opposed by the 
 giant Talus, who was slain! They subse- 
 
 quently touched at ween Euboea 
 
 and Loeris, arrived safely at Iolcus, after a four 
 months' voyage. Jason dedicated the good ship 
 Argo to Neptune, at the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 
 It is perhaps useless to speculate on the real char- 
 acter of the Argonautic expedition, even if it be more 
 than a mere myth. The accounts given by other 
 writers differ so widely, especially in the geographi- 
 cal parts, from those of Apollodorus, that it becomes 
 impossible to determine satisfactorily whether the 
 expedition sailed north, cast, or west The common 
 historical interpretation of the legend is that Jason 
 sailed on a voyage of discovery, which had for its 
 aim and stimulus the hope of new commercial rela- 
 tions; others would modify thi3 hypothesis, and 
 
 t that the enterprise was partly comn 
 partly piratical, and partly adventurous, and that 
 Jason's crew was in all probability composed of 
 young, restless, and ambitious spirits, who were 
 
 for anything that might turn up. 
 
 AEGO'STOLI, a seaport on the south-west of 
 1 Ionia, and capital of the island. Its lat. is 38 1 
 
 10 N., and long. 10° 59' E. Its pop. is 5000; and 
 its quay is a mile long. 
 
 ABGUELLES, Auooamf, a prominent Spanish 
 politician of the modern liberal school. On the 
 breaking out of the War of I 
 he went to Cadiz, where he agitated for tie ■ 
 i icy along with a free const i: 
 as tho best method of strengthening and consolidat- 
 ing the powers and resources of the nation. In 
 
 of his native 
 province to the Cortes, where he was appointed one 
 of the members of the committee to whom were 
 intrust iwine up of the plan of a new 
 
 constitution. His splendid talents .as a 
 
 a- soon won him the admiration of the I 
 party, who used to term him the Spanish Cicero. 
 But on the return of Ferdinand VII., A. fell a 
 victim to t : iaiy spirit which ensued, (hi 
 
 the 10th of May lsll. he was arrested and impris- 
 oned ; but at his trial he displayed such dexterity 
 that it was found impossible to convict him. Differ- 
 ent judges were nominated live successive tiffi 
 
 they could not agree in their decision. At last the 
 monarch himself passed sentence, which was, that 
 A. should be confined for ten years in the prison 
 at Ceuta. He was not, however, alone in his mis- 
 fortunes. Fourteen persons were condemned along 
 with him, amongst whom was his friend Juan 
 Alvarez Guerra, In I inement tie; 
 
 perienced such barbarous treatment, that in four 
 years three died, two became mad, and the rest 
 received grievous injuries. The revolution of 1820 
 
 1 tii' m I • i'i i ml A. became Mini 
 the Interior, but soon resigned, in consequence of the 
 king complaining of the weakness of the exe> 
 Although provoked beyond measure by the narrow 
 bigotry of the court, he did not rush into extremes, 
 but continued a constitutional liberal to the end of 
 hi3 life. In the Cortes held at Seville in 1S23, he 
 voted for the suspension of the royal power ; but 
 after the violation of tho constitution, he fl 
 
 1, where he remained till the amnesty of 
 1 B32. On his return to Spain, being nominated to the 
 Cortes, he was repeatedly made president and vicc- 
 
 nt of the Chamber of Deputies, and always 
 shewed himself a moderate but unwavering reformer. 
 In July 1S41, on the discussion of the 1 
 the sale of church property, he delivered himseu 
 strongly against all concordats with the pope. Next 
 to Espartero, he was the most popular man in tho 
 
 i with the enlightened party. During the 
 regency, he was appointed guardian to the ; 
 queen, Isabella, but died soon after, on the 23d of 
 March 1S44, at Madrid. In his old age, he still 
 exhibited the fiery eloquence that marked his youth. 
 
 A'RGUJIEXT (Lat. argumentwn), in ! 
 means properly the ground or premiss on which a 
 conclusion is rested ; popularly, it is 'applied to a 
 series of arguments, or to a controversy. Argument- 
 ation is reasoning put into regular shape, with a 
 view to convince or silence an objector. Logicians 
 have given distinctive names to various kinds of 
 nts. Thus, we have the Argumentum ad 
 m, which is no real proof, but only an appeal 
 to the known prepossessions or admissions of the 
 persons style, when a man 
 
 1 one method of fraud, he ma}', by an . 
 to his consistency, be driven to uphold another. 
 The A. ad veritatem, again, has no regard to any- 
 thing save objective truth. Next the A. 
 e consensu gentium, or an appeal to the common 
 belief of mankind, which, of course, may be n 
 prove or disprove anything. The A. a I •'■> rests 
 I he supposed safety or prudence of adopting a 
 certain conclusion. It is sometimes used by Boman 
 Catholics against Protestants in the following form : 
 Protestants teach that salvation is possible in any 
 church; this is denied by Catholics: therefore, it 
 is safer to belong to tho Catholic Church, a- 
 the Protestant admits that a man may be saved in 
 that church. Lastly, the Ar a l-aculo (or 
 use of the ci bjectionable, is concise 
 in its style, and has settled many controv. 
 
 ARGUME'XTCM AD HO'MINEM. See 
 Aboument. 
 
 A'EGUS, the son of Zeus and Niche, succeeded 
 Phoroneus in rnment of the Peloponnesus, 
 
 which took from him its name of Argos, as did also 
 rritory of A . surnamed Panoptes 
 
 had one hundn I -of which 
 
 were always awake. He wi a enormously j' 
 and on account of the wonderful exploits he 
 formed. Juno appointed him to watch over Io, trans- 
 formed into a cow. Mercury being commissioned by 
 Zeus to carry off the cow. slew A. by stoning him ; 
 
 . lirst charmed him I 
 playing on the tiutc, and then beheaded him, 
 
 3.1
 
 ABGU8— ARGYLE. 
 
 be eyea of A. to decorate the peacock's tail. — 
 A. the builder of the ship Aryo (sec ABOOHATJIS). 
 
 A'RGUS, a genus of gallinaceous birds, remark- 
 
 Qce of plumage. The only known 
 
 i . formerly called Pna 
 
 A., and still very generally the A. pheasant The 
 
 Bides of the head and of the nick arc destitute of 
 
 : i ; the tail consiai i of twelve feathi i . i 
 which the two middle ones in the male are very 
 much elongated; the secondary feathers of the 
 wings are much longer than the primary. The name 
 A. has allusion to the many beautiful eye-like 
 
 1 
 
 
 ••-■•-..-• 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 . 
 
 Arg i Pheasant (.1. •< 
 
 markings which adorn the plumage of the male, 
 and particularly the seco i. The 
 
 long e condarie i are said to impede the Bight of the 
 bird ; but its wings are much employed to aid it in 
 running. The female is of comparatively tame 
 plumage, not only wanting the eye-like markings, 
 but even the great length of the and of 
 
 ■ id He tail-feathi rs. The size of th i bird, when 
 divested of its plumage, is not much greater than 
 th of a common barn-door fowl, but the tail- 
 fi athers of the male are nearly four feet long. The 
 A. is a native of Sumatra and other ra I 
 of the p ninmila of Malacca, Siam, &c. It is said to 
 I ad i ven in the northern parts of China. It is 
 
 impatient of - :, an 1 hasi im been 
 
 brought alive to Europe. 
 
 ARGYLL, Ar.riiir.Ai.ii CAMPBELL, MarqctS OP, 
 an eminent political character of the 17th c, was 
 born in LVIS. and succeeded to the earldom of A. in 
 1638 Already he had given proofs of that strength 
 of religious principle which marked his 
 and ot a perilous union of attachment to the king 
 and of faith in the principle- hdcfa the king 
 
 made war. In the General Assembly at Glasgow, 
 in November llKJS, he openly took th • side of 
 the Covenanters, and thenceforth becam ■ reco 
 as tle-ir political head. In 1640, he commanded 
 a military expedition throuj h Bad 
 Mar, and Angus, for the purpose of enforcii 
 subjection to the Scotti h Parliament. On the 
 king's visit to Scotland, in lGtl, he found it con- 
 venient to shew peculiar favour to A., and created 
 him a marquis. On the breaking nut of hostilities, 
 
 ius for negotiate but was finally 
 
 Lied to take the field. In April 1644, he 
 
 1 the royalist forces under the Marquis 
 
 of Huntly, in Aberdeenshire. He was less suc- 
 
 i in withstanding the genius of Montrose, 
 
 on the 2d February 1645, almost annihilated 
 his army at Inverlochy. His estates had Buffet I a 
 
 ■' Ig year from the rav.'t of 
 
 the brilliant Cavalier, that a sum of public money 
 rated for Ins support. In August (1646), he 
 
 went to London, with London and Dunfermline, 
 to treat with the parliament for a mitigation of 
 the articles presented to the king. He was at 
 the same time the bearer of a Becret commission 
 
 fi' the lane; to treat with the Dul f Richmond 
 
 and the Marquis of Hertford, on the propriety of 
 a Scottish demonstration in favour of Charles. On 
 the defeat of the ' Engagement' plan, to which 
 he had been decidedly opposed, the government 
 of Scotland devolved on A. and i Presby- 
 
 terian, leaders. In the parliament of February 
 
 1649, Charles II. was proclaimed king, ami at 8 ie, 
 
 on the 1st of January 1651, A. put the crown 
 on his head. At this time, it was even said that 
 the complaisant monarch intended to marry one 
 of his As head of the Commitfc 
 
 Estates, A. took i igorous measures to oppose • Irom- 
 wcll's invasion of Scotland, and still adhered to the 
 king, alter the subjugation of the country. Aft r 
 the battle of Worcester, he retired to luvcrary, 
 where he held out for a year against Cromwell's 
 falling sick, he was taken prisoner by 
 General Dean, He refused submission to the Pro- 
 tector, in. took .hi engagement to live peaceably, 
 which he strictly kept. On the Restoration, he re- 
 paired to Whitehall, encouraged by a flattering letter 
 from the Icing to his son. Impeached with th- crime 
 of having submitted to the usurper (to whom lie had 
 
 I allegiance), he was milted to the T.,v.. ,-, 
 
 and on the loth February 1661, was brought before 
 
 itl b Parliai at on i!" 1 charj e of tret 
 
 i! defended himself with spirit, but in vain. On 
 
 the 27th May he was executed at Edinburgh— 
 
 throughout his v o on 
 
 the scaffold, the dignity of a true nobleman, and the 
 
 - a Christian. 
 II. on, Archibald, !>rH Earl of L,wa early 
 
 distinguished by personal . and 
 
 exhibited great bravery on the disastrous day of 
 Dunbar, where be commanded a regimen! on the 
 royal Bid ■. After Won estei med, like his 
 
 bo obnoxious to 
 i'i" |i irliamenl iry lead re, i hi > si ecially 
 excepted by < 'roii i wel | from the act of grace w 1654 
 After much liir.i fcted to 
 
 i nt, but continued to be clo ly wi 
 On the restoration of Charl II.. he w I '■ 
 
 into high favour (as a balance to the execution of his 
 father), and unfortunately for his own fame, pal 
 pated in seme of the iniquitous acts of the Scotti b 
 legislature. He had, however, numerous and 
 enemies; and, on the ground of an interci pti '1 li tter, 
 in which he had complained of neglect, he 
 and condemned to dl ath by I 
 for the imaginary crime of la •< maji 'as. The 
 influence of Clarendon restored him to liberty and 
 favour; even the king himself was prejudiced 
 in Ins favour; but a new opportunity was offered 
 to the malice of his enemies, by his explanation 
 in subscribing the in. framed by the 
 
 i Parliament in 1681. He was indicted for 
 i, and again condemned to death by a jury 
 of his peeis. 'i in- devotion of his wife enabled him 
 to escape from Edinburgh Castle, in -of a 
 
 pa e; and after remaining concealed ome I me in 
 Derbyshire and the vicinity of London, he fled to 
 Holland, banding in the north of .Scotland, in May 
 1685, with an armed force, to co-operate in tie- 
 revolt of Monmouth, he was, after a series of 
 fortunes, taken pi i one]-, hastily tried, condemned, 
 and beheaded, June 30, 1GS5.
 
 A 1 : 1 3 V LE— ARG YLEs I FI 1 : 1 :. 
 
 ARGYLFi, Johm C'ampbki.i,, Di'kk of, was born 
 in 1678, and took an important part in political and 
 military affairs in the reigns of Quean Anne and hex 
 successor. As royal commissioner in 1705, be had a 
 principal share in bringing about the Act of Union. 
 As a soldi'-r, he distinguished himself under Marl- 
 borough at Ramifies, Oudenarde, Lille, Client, and 
 Malplaquet. Previous to the change of ministry in 
 17l<>, A. had been a keen Whig. He now veered 
 with the wind of the court, and became a declaimer 
 against the Duke of Marlborough. As the reward 
 of his apostasy, he was appointed by the Tories 
 generalissimo of the British army in Spain ; but 
 
 considering himself to have been unhand- ami I. 
 treated by the ministry, he shortly after returned, 
 and finding bis influence greatly diminished, he again 
 became a Whig. His career up to the rebellion of 
 1715, was most tortuous and unprincipled, and 
 seriously detracts from bis meritorious services dur- 
 ing that critical period. He wa ;. however, completely 
 successful in quelling disturbances, and his services 
 were rewarded in 1718) among other dignities, with 
 an English peerage, and the title of Duke oi 
 Greenwich, j I in restless vanity and ambition, how- 
 ever, constantly prompted him to political intrigues. 
 In 1721 he again played into the hands of the Tories, 
 for the purpose of securing the entire patronage of 
 Scotland. In 1/37 he rose into immense popularity 
 in his own country, by his spirited defence before 
 parliament of the city of Edinburgh in regard to the 
 Tuitions mob. He died on the 3d September 1743. 
 He was a man of lax principles and sellisli 
 character, but possessed of considerable shrewdness 
 and talent, and noted for his kindness and courtesy 
 in private life. '1'he benevolence of Ins disposition 
 procured him the title of 'the Good l>uke of 
 Argylc' 
 
 ARGY'LE, Hike of. George John J> 
 Campbell, 8th Duke of A., w;is bom in 1823, and 
 succeeded his father in 1847. At the age of 19, his 
 Grace, then Marquis of Lorn, gave evidence of 
 
 n a] ability in a pamphlet entitled A Letter to the 
 
 J': ' re from <> Peer's Son, on the subject of the b1 
 which ended in the disruption of the .Scottish i f] 
 Seven years subsequently, ho gave proof of more 
 extensive study in the same field, by the publication 
 of his Essay on Presbytery, which contains an 
 elaborate historical vindication of the Presbyt 
 Bysi m a< an Pi On taking his seat in the 
 
 House of Peers, he ire proof of considerable 
 
 Oratorical ability, and both by the maturity of his 
 judj ne nt and the readiness of his powers, com- 
 manded Hi" respect of that dignified assembly. On 
 the formation of the coalition mini-try by Lord 
 
 Aberdeen, his Grace was considered of sufficient 
 importance to receive a place in the government, 
 
 and was invested with the otliee of Lord l'rivv 
 
 Seal, which he continued to hold in Lord Pal- 
 merston's administration. In November 1855, lie 
 relinquished his office, and accepted that of Post- 
 ma ter-generaL On the fall of Lord Palmerstom's 
 administration, be retired into opposition; but now 
 (1859), on that nobleman's return to the helm, he 
 i: tin accepted the office of Lord Privy SeaL Sis 
 i has distinguished himself not only in polities 
 
 but in science; to geology, in particular, he Ims 
 devot d much atl ration. En 1854 he was chosen 
 Lord Sector of the university of Glasgow, and in 
 1855 presided at the meeting o! the British A 
 tion m that city. 1'e is also Chancellor of the 
 university of St Andrews. In lslt he married 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Georgians Gower, eldest daughter 
 
 of the Duke of Sutherland, and niece of the Bar] of 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 ARGY'LESIURE [Earra OhaidheaX, West Gael 
 
 Country), an extensive maritime county in tie 
 
 of Scotland, including rramen , and a large 
 
 mainland tract, cut up into in:, alae by arms 
 
 of the * a. It is I odi d, N. bylnvi rni 
 
 and S. by the sea; L. by Perthshire, Dumbarton, 
 
 Loch Long, and Firth of ( I 
 
 is about 115 mill i,, about CO 
 
 miles; its extent of coast-line 
 
 bag to 663 miles, owing to the indentation o 
 
 - i by numerous loch running inland. Next to 
 
 [nverni ss, it is the larg 
 
 3210 square miles, of which Kiii.'S are occupied by 
 
 the numerous islands. No | 12 miles 
 
 from the sea or from I u ;i inland lochs. Theco 
 
 divided into thi .1 I 
 
 Argyle, Lorn, Appin, CowaL Morven, and Sunart 
 Th.- chief islands are Mull, Islay, Jirra, Tire. . 
 Lismore, and ( lolonsay. There are upwards of thirty 
 other islands of smaller size. The general aspect of 
 A. is wild and picturesque, I 
 lofty mountains, dee], inland bays, and i 
 
 pitous coasts. Some fertile vail 
 
 part is entirely mountainous, and presents some of 
 the grandest scenery in Scotland, as Gl ucoe. The 
 highest peaks are(Ord Trig. Survey) Bedan-ai 
 3760 feet ; Ben I Irnachan, 3668 ; Bn u hi I l 
 3341 — all in Lorn; Leu Jma (end of La h I 
 3319; Ben More (Mull), :il74; Ben Creach (Morven), 
 2790; North Pap of Jura, 2567. Thech 
 
 outh) — Loeh Moidart, Loch Sunart, Linnhe 
 Loeh, branching off into Loch lid and Loeh Leven, 
 Loch Fyne, and Loeh Long. There are no rn 
 any size. The streams arc short and rapid, the 
 prineip I : the Urchvy, running through < I 
 
 orchy into Loeh Awe, and tile Awe connecting that 
 lake with Loch Etive. The inland or fresh-water 
 loclm are Loch Awe and Loeh Lydoch. The rocks 
 of A. are mica-slate, which predominates on the 
 mainland; trap in Mull and Lorn; 1; in 
 
 [slay and Jura; granite around Loeh Etive and 
 iuKnapdale; patches of lias and oolite in i 
 the isles; and a little old red sandstone v. est of 
 Loch Fyne and in South Cantire. Lea. I 
 oi cur at Strontian (wh be 
 was discovered, and from which i 
 earth called Slrontia and the metal & n 
 are derived), at Tyndrum, and in [slay and Coll 
 A copper-mine exists in [slay. The Basdale and 
 Ballacnulish quarries supply the best roo 
 in Scotland. Coal o I a; fine 
 
 marble in Tiree, Ac ; excellent i 
 
 and limestone in most parts of the county. The 
 fertile parts of A. lie alo 
 
 tli" mountain streams. The soil is mostly a light, 
 sandy, and gravelly loam, al m 
 
 of rivers, anil gravelly, with a till bottom, on the hill- 
 sides. Sheep and i . 
 
 is of the farmer. More sheep are reared in A. 
 
 than in any otic Si itch • and nearly a 
 
 million acres are in permanent pasture. In num- 
 ber of cattle, A. yields only to the i 
 Aberdeen, Ayr, and Perth. In ls.">7. 8.13,535 b 
 of oats, and 109,657 tons of turnips, w< i 
 abounds in deer and game. I medfor 
 
 the abundance and quality of its hen 
 Awe abounds in salmon, and in trout unrivalled in 
 size. 
 
 In many parts of A. the peasantry are still wry 
 that steal 
 every portion of the coast \wth the com- 
 et Scotland. The manufad unim- 
 portant, the chief being whisky, in Campbelton 
 and [slay, and coar e woollen; for home use. The 
 chief towns and i [nverary, Campbelton, 
 ('ban. Dunoon, Appin, I and Tarbert. 
 The three former unite with Ayr and Irvine in
 
 ARIA— ARIES. 
 
 returning c r to parliam 
 
 returns another. Pop. in 1851, 89,298, repi 
 
 i [hibita 
 
 reaae of 11,676 since 1831, which has chiefly 
 1 from emigration. I 1 Is, 201, with 
 
 11.^17 pupi] : of wi ihip, 1 17 -IS of 
 
 I bnrch, and t ti- • n n 
 • 1 amongst \ [lie principal 
 
 proprietors are thi 
 
 Marquis of Breadalbane, a branch of the 
 1 i be antiquities of A. may 
 
 be mentioned tlio ruins of tons and ( iron 
 
 duns, or circular coast. In 
 
 C re formerly lived the famous M: 
 
 I of the 1 ted by 
 
 Jam is HI. (1871 pop. 75,635.) 
 ARIA (An:), in Music, a rhythmical son 
 I from recitatfr - rm was f< ■ 
 
 11 r for one or 
 
 it is now commonly applied to a 
 I in a cantata, oratorio, or i 
 and intended for one voice supported by instrui 
 Arietta, a short melody. Arioso, a passage in the 
 style of the A., often introduced into recitative. 
 A. I '.i i to, a comic song, &e. 
 
 ARIADNE, daughter of Minos, kin? of Crete, by 
 
 Pasiphac. When Theseus, v. . ngs of the 
 
 Athenians for the Minotaur, landed in Crete, A. 
 
 conceived a passion for the beautiful stranger, and 
 
 pave him a clew by means of which he threaded 
 
 the mazes of the labyrinth, and was enabled to 
 
 slay the monster. For this service, Theseus | ro- 
 
 1 to marry her, and she escaped with him, 
 
 but was slain by Diana on the island of Naxos. 
 
 — According to another tradition, A. was left 
 
 aeseus at Naxos, where she was found by 
 
 us returning from his triumph in India, who 
 
 was captivated by her beauty, and married her. At 
 
 her death, he gave her a place ama ids, and 
 
 a as a constellation in 
 
 ley. A., as left ! is, and a 
 
 married to Bacchus, has been a favourite subject 
 
 with ai 
 
 ARIA'LDTTS, a deacon of the church of Milan, 
 who flourished during the 11th c. He took a promi- 
 nent part in the ecclesiastical contentions of his 
 times. The Catholic Church in the north of Italy 
 was then very corrupt, a wide-spread licentious- 
 ness, originating from the unnatural institution of 
 priestly celibacy, prevailed. Oireat numbers of the 
 ,' kept concubines openly. Such as looked 
 lly in those days at this flagrant evil, were 
 disposed to consider the strict enforcement of 
 celibacy the only effectual cure. Chief among these 
 reformers stood A., whoso life was one continued 
 scene of violent controversy. Although succes- 
 sively sanctioned by Popes Stephen X., Nicholas 
 II., and Alexander II., he found little sympathy 
 
 among his brethren, and used to c plain that he 
 
 couW only get laymen to assist him in liis agitation. 
 Having at length succeeded in obtaining a papal 
 bull of excommunication against the Archbi 
 Milan, a fierce tumult ensued in the city, 
 
 ■ ants declared against A. and his coadjutors. 
 A. now fled to the country ; but his hiding-place 
 
 betrayed, he was conve; 
 isle in Lake Maggiore, where he was murdered by 
 the emissaries of the archbishop, and his remains 
 thrown into the lake, June 28, 1060. lie was after- 
 canonised by Pope Alexander II. 
 ARIA'NA. See Aryan l: 
 A'RIANS. See Autos. 
 
 A'RIAS MOXTA'NUS, Bf.n-edictcs, a Catholic 
 divine noted for his great linguistic attainmen 
 born, 1527, in the village of Frexenul de la Sierra, 
 
 391 
 
 situated amongst the mountains separating Kstivma- 
 
 dura from Andaluei.v. He studied tirst at .Neville, and 
 
 at Alcala de Benares, where he distin- 
 
 by the ardour he manifested in the 
 
 I ion of the orient ' Byriac, 
 
 and Chaldee. He next proceeded on a tour l 
 Italy, France, Germany, England, and the Nether- 
 lands, in the course of which be obtained a know- 
 
 led of various modern tongues. He was pri 
 at thee ' rated Council of Trent; but on his return 
 
 to his own country, he resolved to retire into scclu- 
 [ v. hole time to literatui 
 however, Philip II. persuaded him to 
 
 to Antwerp and superintend the publication of the 
 famous edition of the ',] toil in 
 
 that city at the suggestion of the printer, Christo- 
 
 ; initio. After four yi 
 was issued under the title B 
 
 , On ,'/-', philippi If. Regis 
 I Studio ad Saa 
 '.. Plantinus excudebat. It was rec I 
 with univer I e. The Jesuits, to whom A. 
 
 was sincerely aud strenuously opposed, alone 
 atb mpted to fasten the charge of heresy on tho 
 author, who made several journ I I » Rome to 
 clear himself of the accusation. Philip [I. rev 
 
 lh a pension of 2000 ducat I, I stow- 
 
 ing on him various oilier emoluments. He died at 
 Seville in 1598. His literary works are very nume- 
 rous. They relate principally to the Bible and to 
 Jewish antiquities ; but he also wrote a po> 
 Rhetoric, and a History of Nature. 
 
 Altl'CA, a seaport of Moquega, the most 
 southerly department of Peru, in lat. 18° 28' 8., and 
 I inj 70° 24' \V. Though it has merely a road 
 it affords safe anchorage to shipping, and is one 
 of the chief outlets of the trade of Bolivia, I D 
 connected with La Pas in that republic by a mule- 
 path which bads acnes the west Cordillera of the 
 Its exports mostly consist of copper, silver, 
 alpaca wool, and guano. A. is subject to intermittent 
 fevers, aud has frequently suffered from earthquakes. 
 It is, therefore, merely a village, though possi sd 
 of a custom-house, a i The had- 
 
 ing merchants do not reside at A., but at Tacna, 
 about 30 miles up the country, the chief city of 
 the department, with 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 ARICHAT, a seaport of Cape Breton Island, 
 in the province of Nova Scotia, in lat. 45 
 N., and long. Cl° 3' W. It is near the Gut of Canso, 
 which separates Nova Scotia Proper from Cape 
 Breton, being the most southerly of the tliree 
 channels of communication between the Gulf of 
 St Lawrence and the open Atlantic. It has about 
 17,500 inhabitants, and is largely engaged in fishing. 
 
 ARIEGE, or ABRIKGK, a river in the south of 
 France, rises in the department of the East Pyrenees, 
 flows through a beautiful vale, and falls into tho 
 Garonne near Toulouse. — Tne department of Asxtoa, 
 which lies along the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, 
 formed a part of the old county of Foix, the terri- 
 tory of Couserans, and the province of Langnedoc, 
 
 I tided N. and W. by Haute Garonne, E. by 
 Ande, S. by the republic of Andorra and the Pyrenees. 
 It contains some of the highest mountain-summits 
 in France, such as Fontarijente. 9164 feet; Se 
 9592 feet; Montcalm. 10,613 feet; Bstats, 10,611 
 feet; Montvalier, !)1'J0 feet. Tho depart 
 
 mild climate. Area, 1847 square 
 
 miles. Pop. 270,500. These are engaged chiefly in 
 
 agriculture, pasturage, iron mines, and the manufac- 
 
 • woollens, linen, pottery, too. The I 
 
 lissements are Foix, Pamiers, and St (J irons. 
 
 Chief towns — Foix, Pamiers, St Girons. 
 
 A'llIES, the Bam, one of the signs of the zodiac,
 
 AKIL— ARIOVISTUS. 
 
 Including the Brat 30 degrees of the ecliptic measured 
 from the vernal equinox, or that point where the 
 age of the sun across the equator takes 
 place. The vernal equinox, or, as it is also called, 
 t point of A., is constantly changing its posi- 
 tion among the fixed stars, in consequence of the 
 | ion of the equinoxes, moving westward at the 
 
 rate of .5(1 "-2 annually. It is from this circumstance 
 that the sign A. no longer corresponds with the 
 constellation A., which was the case about 2000 
 years ago, when the ecliptic was divided into 12 
 equal part? c is, each named after the group 
 
 of stars through which at sign 
 
 A. is in the constellation Pisces, about 30° west of 
 the ori I ; and although the sun at the 
 
 ill always be at the first po 
 A., yet nearly 21,000 years will elapse before that 
 point will again coincide with the I of the 
 
 constellation A. 
 
 A'RIL (arillua), a peculiar covering of the seed 
 in some plants, formed l>y an expansion of the 
 funiculus (the cord which attaches the ovule to the 
 
 ite), or of the placenta itself. This ex; 
 takes place after fertilisation, and sometimes u 
 the seed entirely, sometimes only partially. In the 
 nutmeg, the A. forms what is called mace. In the 
 spindle-tree (Euonymtis Europmts), it forms the 
 remarkable orange-coloured covering of the seed. 
 
 AKI'NOS, a river of Brazil, which after a north- 
 west course of 700 miles, enters the Tapajos, itself an 
 allliii'iit of the Amazon, in lat. 9° 30" S., and long. 
 5S" 2()' \V. 
 
 ARI'OX, a celebrated lute-player, a native of 
 Methymna, in Lesbos, about 700 B.C., was regarded 
 by the ancients as the inventor of the dithyraml lie 
 According to a tradition first given by 
 Herodotus, and afterwards decorated by the i 
 A. was sent by Periander, rider of Corinth, to Sicily 
 and Italy, and at Tarcntum won the prize in a poeti- 
 cal contest. As he returned laden with gifts in a 
 Corinthian ship, the avaricious mariners determined 
 to slay him and seize his wealth ; of this the poet- 
 musician was forewarned by Apollo in a dream, 
 lie asked for permission to try his skill in music ; 
 and after playing on his lute, threw himself 
 from the deck into the sea. Here several dolphins, 
 chinned by his music, had assembled round the 
 vessel. On the back of one of them the musician 
 rode safely to the promontory of Tamarus, where 
 he landed, and journeyed on to Corinth. The 
 sailors who, arriving afterwards, assured Periander 
 that A. was dead, were confronted with him, when 
 they confessed their guilt, and were crucified. The 
 lute and dolphin were raised among the constella- 
 tions ; and the story became a favourite theme with 
 A. W. SchlegeL. in one of his best poems, 
 gives tlus stoiy of A. 
 
 ARIO'STO, Ludovico, one of the greatest of 
 ; born at Reggio, September. 1 -' 
 
 I 'lest son of the military governor of that 
 
 city. He was bred to the law, but abandoned it 
 i i poetry. However, at an early period of life, he 
 was compelled to exert himself for the support of a 
 
 i '.-imily, left as a burden on him at the di 
 I ither. His imaginative povi 
 in early life. In 1503, after he had written two 
 
 lies, with several lyrical poems in Latin and 
 Italian, he was introduci I to th i court of tb 
 
 dinal Hippolytus d'Este, who employed him in many 
 
 negotiations. Here, in Ferrara, in the sps 
 
 ten years, he produced his great po 
 /'■.'■ which was published in that city, in one 
 volume 4to, in 1516, in forty cantos. AM 
 death of the c 1:1. the duke, his brother, 
 invited the poet to his service, and acted to 
 
 him with great kindness and lilwrality. In the 
 early part of 1521, a second edition of his poems 
 was published, the Orlando Furioso being Btdl in 
 forty cantos. Shortly after, he was commissioned by 
 the duke to suppress an insurrection which had 
 broken out in the wild mountain-district of Carfag- 
 nana ; a task which sceni3 more like a punish- 
 ment than a mark of honour. A., however, sue. 
 in this arduous undertaking ; and after remaining 
 three years governor of the quarter, he retain 
 Ferrara, where lie lived comfortably, nominally in 
 
 [■vice of his patron, but in reality enji 
 what he highly prized an abundant leisure foi 
 scenting his studies. It was at this time that he 
 composed his comedies, and gave the finishing touch 
 Orlando. At length, in the latter part of 
 1532, that poem made its appearance in a ; 
 edition, enlarged to its present dimensions of forty- 
 six cantos. He now became seriously ill of a painful 
 internal distemper, of w] a few moot 
 
 ng, he died on the Cth of June 1533, in his 
 fifty-ninth year, and was buri< d in the church of 
 San Benedetto, at Ferrara, where a magnificent 
 monument indicates the resting-place of his remains. 
 A. is described as a man of noble personal appear- 
 ance and amiable character. His I rioso 
 is a romantic, imaginative epic, marked by great 
 vivacity, playfulness of fancy, and ingenuity in the 
 linking together of the several episodes. It takes 
 its name and its theme from a chivalrous romantic 
 poem by Boiardo, the Orlando Innamoralo. That 
 poem treats of the wars between Charlemagne and 
 the Saracens, confounded as they were by tradition 
 with those of Charles Martel, wherein Orlando, or 
 Roland, stood forward as the champion of l.'i 
 dom. Orlando is the hero of Boiardo's piece, and 
 falls in love with Angelica, a clever and beautiful 
 oriental princess, sent by the Paynim to so 
 cord among the knights of I an armies. 
 The story of this lady being left unfinished in the 
 
 to Innamoralo is taken up by A., who 
 mikes Iirr fall in love herself with an obscure 
 juvcnilt squire, on which Orlando pets furious, 
 and long continues in a state of insanity. B 
 his great work, A. wrote comedies, satires, sonnets, 
 and a number of Latin poems, all more I 
 marked with the impress of his genius. In I 
 Giamperi, a librarian of Florence, announced that 
 
 1 discovered at Argenta, near Ferrara, an 
 autograph manuscript by A., containing a second 
 epic, Jiinaldo Ardtto, describing, like the Orlando, 
 the battles of Charlemagne and his paladins against 
 the Saracens. The manuscript had been mut 
 and contained in a complete form only the cantos 3, 
 4, 5, while 2 and G were imperfect ; and it was 
 
 I that the entire poem had consisted of twelve 
 k was published under the title 
 
 to Ardtto di L. Ariosio, Frammcnti Inediti 
 
 cati sul .V rinale (Flo; 
 
 1S4C). In genius and style, it has been found by 
 critics by no means to accord with the Orlando. 
 Of the Orlando there are three several trans- 
 lations into the I' : the first, by Sir 
 John Harrington, appeared in the year 1634; the 
 second, by John Boole, in \~<'. : and the third by 
 \V. Stewart Rose, in 1823 and following j 
 In the last only is there to 1 ■ fair 
 representation of the feeling and spirit of the 
 
 ARIOVrSTTJS (probably the Latinised form of 
 
 army-prince), a German chief, 
 
 ii and other German tribes, 
 
 mi, a Gallic people, to 
 
 assist them in a contest against the .Ldui. Having 
 
 for the Sequani, A. 
 pleased with their fine country (now Burgundy j, that
 
 AKisi'i: ai:istidi:s. 
 
 he ami hit ■ rmined to abide there. 
 
 ' foUowed him into GauL where 
 
 ■ llected an army of 120,000 men. The 
 
 Gallic people turned now for help towards the 
 
 ■ nr demanded an interview with A.. 
 
 who proudly replied, that "he did not Bee what 
 
 i had to do with Haul.' Afi 
 
 imC had been treated in the same scorn- 
 ful in i .1 i i ar advanced 
 and occupii I Vesontium (now Besancon), thi 
 city of the Sequani. A furious engagement took place 
 (58 1: i'.). in which Soman disciple, d over 
 I, which were utterly routed. A., 
 with only a few followi d over the Rhine 
 into his own country. His subsequent history is 
 unknown. 
 ARTSPE,the capital of Sonera, the extreme north- 
 di partmenl i ' onfederation. It 
 i1 Sierra Madre, the western range of 
 i R i ky Mountains, on the banks of the So 
 which is said tu lose itself in an inland lake. Its 
 population fa s 7600. 'J he 
 surrounding district abounds in the precious m 
 as also in cotton, wine, grain, and live-stock. 
 ABJ'STA AMD ABI'STATK See AwK. 
 AUISTAKTS (from a Greek word signifying the 
 , an ancient divinity whose worship in the ear- 
 liest times was widely diffused throughout Gr> 
 but whose myth is remarkably ol scure. A 
 ing to the common tradition, he was the son of 
 Apollo ICyi ie,the latl rthe grand-daughter of 
 Pen i I i Thcssaly. Sheis saidtohavi 
 liirth to A. on the coasts of Libya, in Africa, 
 whence the region is alleged to have derived its 
 name of Cyrenaica. Hermes placed the child under 
 the protection of the Hone, the fosterers of i 
 culture, and edu lation. According to another tra- 
 dition. A. was the son of the nymph Melissa, who 
 fed the infant with nectar and ambrosia, and after- 
 intrusted his education to Chiron. The 
 diver- I igend were probably caused by the 
 fusion into one of separate local divin 
 functions were similar, and whose histories were, in 
 ly commingled. After A. left 
 Libya, he w.-nt to '1 hi '- i B itia, v. h eel 
 taught by the Muses thi ding and prophecy, 
 1 AntonoS, the dan I 
 whom he had several children. After 
 the unfortuz si As son Actaeon (q. v.), he 
 went to < V"s. wli r<- he liln rated the inhabitants 
 from 1 1 drought by en < t- 
 ing an altar to Zeus Icmaus—i.6., the rain-maker. 
 He now returned to his native land; but shortly 
 at'ter, set out a second time on a voyage of I 
 cence. He visited the islands of the .Koan Sea, 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Magna Grtei every- 
 where traces of his divine b Dignity. A1 last he 
 to Thrace, where he was initiated in the 
 ries of Dionysus ; and alter a brief residence 
 in the vicinity of Mount Euemns, he disappeared 
 frnu the earth. 
 
 myth is one of an extremely pleasing character, 
 from the invariable beneficence which is attributed 
 to A. It is less disfigured by anthropopatbic errors 
 than most of the myths of Greek diviniti --. A. was 
 .ally worshipped as the protector of vine and 
 olive plant 1 ml herdsmen. He 
 
 ained men to keep bee-hives, and averted the 
 burnin the sim from the open fields. Later 
 
 myth , identified A. with the higher gods 
 
 Z . Apollo, 1 lionysus. 
 
 ARISTA'RCHUS, of Sasios, a celebrated an- 
 
 astronomer, of the Alexandrian school, who 
 flourished 2S1 — 264 B.C. All his writings have 
 perished, excepting a short essay on the sizes and 
 
 I Mm 
 
 68 of the sun and the moon. In this ho 
 od of estimating the relative dis- 
 of the sun and Qiemoon from the earth, by the 
 1 by the two bodii 
 at that moment when the moon is exactly half- 
 Mis. It will 1 e obvious from a glance at the 
 annexi I ' the thre ; I I hen form 
 
 li d triangle, of v. bich the 
 is at the ri ' 
 
 MES, then, being observed, it is - 
 
 i the ratio betwi en EM and ES. 
 This is quite correct in theory; but the 
 
 imj ibility of determining when the 
 
 is exactly half-illuminated, ren- 
 ders tho method useless in practice. 
 B ' i, in tie- days of A., there were 
 no instruments for measuring an 
 with anything like accuracy. A. i 
 mated the angle at E at S.'i , an 1 
 mined EM to be ' , ■ . ES; the 
 truth being that the angle at E (\r 
 only by a fraction of a minute from a 
 right angle, and that EM, the distance of the moon 
 from the earth, is about -, ,',,-, of ES, the distance of 
 - some accounts, A. laid, with 
 tie- Pythagorean school, that the earth moves round 
 the sim ; but this seems to be a mistake. Vitruvius 
 of A. as the inventor of a kind of concave 
 sun-dial. 
 
 AKISTA KCIIVS. o* s . a gram- 
 
 marian, who lived, about 150 B.C., in Alexandria) 
 where he- founded a school of grammar and criticism, 
 and educated tie- children of Ptolemy Philopator. 
 His life was chiefly devoted to the elucidation and 
 restoration of the text of the Greek poets, 
 cially of Homer. The form in whii h we now have 
 the Hone ric ]>oi ms pri v rved is in a great measure 
 owing to his judgment and industry. The strict- 
 ness of his critical principles has i ime a 
 general term for a severely just and judicious critic. 
 afflicted with an incurable dropsy, lie ended 
 his life by voluntary starvation at the age of 7'-'. 
 The fragments of his writings that have been pro- 
 s' rved are to lie found scattered through the Scholia 
 on Homer, first published by Villoison (Venice, 
 17SS). 
 
 ARI'STEAS, an entirely fabulous character, who 
 may be styled 'the Wandering .Tew' o 
 tradition in ancient Greece. First we find A. 
 teaching Homer; then, some ages afterwards, 
 lorn lit Proeonj . an island in the Sea of 
 Marmora. It is stated that having visited the 
 i pas, the gold-watching griffin, and the 
 li rboreans, he died on his return hone'; 
 but, soon afterwards, a traveller asserted that he 
 had been met and accosted by A. Consequently, 
 neighbours searched the house where the body of 
 A. was supposed to be lying, but it could not be 
 found. Seven years afterwards, he appeared as an 
 author, and wrote a poem entitled An I 
 
 three books, giving accounts of Northern and (an- 
 tral Asia, which were copied by Herodotus and 
 . After thus establishing himself as a poet, he 
 vanished again; and after 340 years of mystery, 
 red at Metapontum, in the south of Italy, 
 he advised the people to erect an altar to 
 Apollo, and an altar to ' the everlasting A.,' assur- 
 ing them that, when Apollo founded their city, he 
 (A.), in the form of a raven, had accompanied the 
 god, and had assisted in the ceremony. In the early 
 controversy of the Christian Church, heathens some- 
 quoted this tale of A. as a counterpart to the 
 miracles recorded in the New Testament. 
 
 ARISTI DES, surnamed 'The Jcst,' was the son 
 of Lysimaehus, and descended from one of the best
 
 ARISTIPFUS— ARISTOCRACY. 
 
 in lii sin Athens. He was one of the ten I 
 of the Atheni I the Persians at the battle of 
 
 Marathon (490 b. a). It had been arranged that each 
 leader (or etralegos) should hold the supreme com- 
 mand for one day; but A., who saw the folly of this 
 
 want ni unity, induced his companion! to give up 
 
 their claims, and make Miltiades command' 
 which proved the means of winning the battle. In 
 the following year, A. was chief archon, and in this 
 position, as in every other, secured the j 
 respect of the citizens. Some yean later, probably 
 because be had opposed the plans of Themi 
 that unscrupulous leader brought about the banish- 
 ment of A. It is said thai, whin an illiterate 
 citizen, who did not know him personally, requested 
 him to write his own name on the voting afti II. he 
 asked the man whether A. had injured him. 'No,' 
 said tli'- voter; 'but I am weary of hearing him 
 always styled "the Just.'" A. submitted to the 
 sentence with dignity, praying to the gods, as be 
 left the city, that the Athenians might not have 
 cause to repent of their decision. Only three yeai i 
 later, Xerxes, with an overwhelming force, had 
 invaded Greece. A., hearing that the Greek fleet 
 orrounded by that of the Persians, ha tened 
 fruni.Kgina to apprise Themistoclcs of tin d 
 offer his aid. After taking a prominent part in the 
 battle of Salamis, A. was ri stored to popular favour, 
 and Boon afterwards aided greatly in achieving the 
 victory at Plataea, in which he commanded the 
 Athenians, In -477 B.O. he introduced a change 
 of the constitution, by which all citizens, without 
 distinction of rank, were admitted to political offices 
 As shewing the confidence reposed in A., it is related 
 that Ihemistocles having announced that he had a 
 scheme very advantageous for Athens, but which he 
 could not disclose in a public assembly, A. was 
 deputed to consult with Themistocli s on the sul 
 The plan was to secure the naval supremacy of 
 Athens by burning all the vessels of the other Gn k 
 states, her allies, then lying in a neighbouring 
 harbour. A. reported to the people that nothing 
 could be mure advantageous than the plan of 
 Ihemistocles, but nothing could be more unjust ; and 
 the matter was immediately rejected by the people. 
 After a variety of other public services, A, died in 
 old age, and universally respected, 408 B.C., so poor 
 that it is said his funeral had to be provided for by 
 the public. He left a son and two daughters, for 
 whom provision was made by state bounty. 
 
 ARISTI'PPUS.thc founder of the Cyrenaic school 
 of philosophy among the Greeks, was the sun of 
 Ant. nli -, a wealthy gentleman of Cyrene, in Africa, 
 and was burn in that city about the year 424 B.C. 
 Having come over to Greece to attend the Olympic 
 games, he heard so much of Socrates, that he \\ ;i s 
 tilled with an eager desire to see the sage, and 
 hurried to Athens, where he became one of bis pupils. 
 He remained with Socrates up nearly to the last 
 moments of the great teacher, though he does not at 
 any period seem to hive followed his doctrines or 
 his practice. We know that subsequently he was 
 the object of strong dislike, both to Plato and to 
 in i tin- St 'lie. I [e passed a considerable 
 part of his life in Syracuse, at the court of Dionysius, 
 tlie hivni, where he acquired the reputation of a 
 
 {ihilosophie voluptuary. That his manners must 
 lave been at once extremely graceful and accom- 
 modating, is clear from the saying of li 
 Plato, who declared that ' A. was the only man he 
 knew who could wear with equal grace both tine 
 clothes ami rags.' Diogenes Laerthu rec 
 number of his dicta, some of which take tl 
 of boTtS-motS, and indicate :l sharp, cutting, lively, 
 and self-complacent nature. A. also lived at 
 Corinth, in intimacy with the famous courtesan 
 
 Lais, but towards the close of his life, be i 
 to have retired to Cyrene. His Arete, 
 
 seems to have been a person of superior abilities, 
 inasmuch as her father imparted his hading doctrines 
 to lnr, and she to her son, A. tii hence 
 
 '''«, 'taught by i i, by 
 
 wln.m they are BUppo ed to have 1 
 A., in all probability, publial i 1 
 life, lie prided b n tiding his 
 
 days in what he conceived ophical 
 
 manner, than in elaborating a philosophical I 
 for the benefit of the race. 
 
 The Cyrenaic school, all the teachers of which 
 were probably imbued with the spirit of A., and 
 nn nly carried out his doctrines to tin ir legitimate 
 
 I i la great contempt for speculative 
 
 philosophy, and for phy tea] and mathematical 
 knowledge. They confined their invi 
 
 morals, and formed an el 
 
 harmony with the gay, self-possessed, worldly, and 
 sceptical character of tlnir master. The chief 
 point ; of the Cyn m were: 1. That all 
 
 human sensations are either p] or painful, 
 
 aiel that pleasure and pain are the only eritei 
 good and bad. 2. That pleasure consists in a E 
 and pain in a violent motion of the soul. .';. 
 happiness is simply the result of a continuous 
 of pleasurable sensations. 4. That actions are in 
 themselves morally indifferent, and that men are 
 mil only with tlnir results. Wieland in 
 his historico-philosophical romance, An 
 einige xeinrr ZeUgenotten (A. and Some of his 
 I mporariea), presents us with a charming 
 picture of the life ami opinions of the great philo- 
 sophic sensualist, who stood out in Strong 
 against the gloom and austerity of Antistheni 
 the Cynical school. See Wendt's De 1 
 i 'yrt naicd {' IBtt 1 i 2). 
 
 ARISTOr.U'LUS, an Alexandrian Jew who 
 lived under Ptolems us Philometer about 17.' 
 and was considered by the earl. ! as the 
 
 founder of the Jewish philo ndria. 
 
 He was long considered the autho: . 
 Commentaries on the Books of Moses which went 
 under his name, bnt it is now admitted that the 
 work in question was the i i of a later 
 
 Only fragments of it remain It was 
 intended to shew that tie- old Greek writers 
 borrowed from the Hebrew Scriptures; 
 port this theory, num. runs quota 
 fessedly taken from Linns, Musceus, On b 
 which the Christian ap de abundanl 
 
 I , however, have long bin considered for- 
 
 geries, inasmuch as they do net exhibit a ti 
 the antique Creek spirit, 
 in the tone and style of the nld Testament 
 \ ei 'Lena r's treatise, /•>-. Ariab do Judtco (Leyden, 
 180G). 
 
 ARISTO'CRACY (Or. ari 
 1.. t . .-mil hratos, power) mean; etymologically the 
 
 power or government of the 
 
 worthy; and in the sense which it 01 \ 
 
 had reference not to a 30 lial cl 
 
 .... mm. nt in which the 
 the hands of a minority of the 
 
 ogether of' the slave | ■ which 
 
 gencrallv existed in antiquity. It is in this 
 al o that wo use it when we speak of the Italian 
 nt' the middle a., a as aristocracies. In order 
 to constitute an A., it was further necessary that the 
 minority which composed it sin mM consist of the 
 highest class, in point not of wealth alone, but of 
 birth and culture ; the government of a minority in 
 numbers simply, being known by the more odious 
 name of an oligarchy. Were the whole government 
 
 397
 
 ABISTOGEITON- AKI iTOLOCHIA, 
 
 of England intrusted to the House of Lord 
 
 I body were to become vastly mure 
 rous than it is, so long as it did not include half 
 whole adult males, and were not elective, but 
 1 '1 by .-in A., ai 
 aristocrats in the ant: 
 ; m. In ti.i m A. 
 
 bund in England, because the 
 which it signifies has always been unknown. 
 I ' ibility, thou a] great influ- 
 
 ence in the government of the country, l 
 
 ' - from above or the Commons from below; 
 
 and thus it is that, though more in;; 
 
 Bocial influence than in any other country, the I 
 
 . ■ r assumed the form of a ruling- 
 class. When used with reference to 1 
 society, the term A. has two significations— a nar- 
 rower and a wider one. Ac© the first, it is 
 nearly synonymous with nobility, hi 1 
 will be treated of under that head, and its i 
 subdivisions. According to the second, it is synony- 
 mous with gentry, and includes the whole body of the 
 people, titled and untitled, above a certain very indeli- 
 nite social line. Perhaps the nearest approximation 
 which we shall make to a definition of A. in this, 
 its proper English sense, will be by adopting that 
 which Aristotle has given not of • '. but 
 !, or good birth, ' Good birth,' he says, ' is 
 ancient (long inhi rited) wealth and virtue.' ( I 
 lib. iv. c 7.) The question as to the extent to 
 which either of these qualities is requisite to i 
 tute a claim to admission into the ranks of the A., 
 is one to which probably not two persons, i 
 
 i or without the pale, would return the same 
 answer; but that the absence of either would be a 
 ground of exclusion, is a point o:i re will 
 
 l No amount of mere 
 wealth will, in general, confer it either on a tradesman 
 or his immediate descendants (see (Jextleman) ; and 
 
 )y any deeds, however noble, will give it to 
 him who is not the possessor of inherited fortune. 
 Neither Burns the gauger, nor Shaw the life-guards- 
 man, has ever been regarded as an aristocrat, ; 
 
 y denies that the one was a poet, and the other 
 a hero. But when the claim to 1 ; as an 
 
 aristocrat has been inherited, it will 
 by the individual himself, however ad\ i 
 liis worldly circumstances, or however ignol 
 conduct; and it is not difficult to imag'u 
 tion of moral tone which woidd confer it even on a 
 ■ 
 
 ARISTOGEI'TOX. Sec Harmodics and Aris- 
 TOOErroN. 
 
 AKISTOLO'CHIA, a genus of plants of the 
 
 natural orcl Jiiacece or A This 
 
 . which is dicotyledonous or exogenous, consists 
 
 of herbaceous plants or shrubs, often climbing shrubs, 
 
 and contains upwards of 130 known species, i 
 
 a of warm climates, ami particularly abundant 
 
 in the tropical regions of South America. The 
 
 are alternate, simple, stall. ' with a 
 
 stipule ; the flowers axillary, solitary, hermaphro- 
 
 of a dull colour; the perianth at its 1 
 
 ; i the ovary, tabular, sometimes re 
 
 but generally very irregular; the stamens 6— 1_\ 
 
 nous (or inserted upon the ovary), distinct, or 
 
 adhering to the style; the ovary is generally six- 
 
 '. With numerous ovules ; the style simple, the 
 
 stigmas radiating, as numerous as the cells of the 
 
 ovary ; the fruit dry or succulent ; the seeds with a 
 
 i yo at the base of fleshy albumen. 
 
 — The genus A. is distinguished by a tubular 
 
 oblique perianth, generally inflated at the base, the 
 
 mouth dilated on one side, aud by stamens adherent 
 
 393 
 
 to the style, so that it is included in the Lin 
 
 ' ' fly shrubby, 
 
 and natives of tropical countries, some of them 
 climb: muiits of the loftiest trees. Si 
 
 I lurope ; on dy, the 
 
 common Bibthwort (A. < r), occurs up 
 
 continent as far north as about lat. ?>'.> , and is a 
 
 land It is a perennial 
 with erect, naked, m — heart-shaped dark- 
 
 -'.vers stall., d 
 
 growing to the i 
 
 from the axils of tin lie tube of the: perianth 
 
 about an inch long, and of a dirty yellow . 
 It grows chiefly in vineyards, I . . bout the 
 
 rs of fields, among rubbish, and in waste 
 places. It has a long branching root, with an un- 
 pleasant taste and me 11, which, with the roots of A. 
 rotunda and A . longa, two herbaceous species, natives 
 
 Aristolochia Clcmatitis. 
 
 of the south of Europe, was formerly much used in 
 mcdicin I as of great service in cases 
 
 of difficult parturition, whence th name. 
 
 roots possess powerful stimulating 
 and those of the southern Bpecies are still used as 
 emmen The root of A. Indira is used in 
 
 ■: by the Hindoos. — A. serpentaria, Yn;- 
 liiMAN SnakBROOT, is a native of most parts of the 
 United States, growing in woods. It has a fleznous 
 ing heart-shaped very 
 acute leaves. The (lowers are on stalks, wlii 
 from the root ; the oriiice of the p trian- 
 
 gular. The root has a pern; nous smell, 
 
 and a pungent, bitter taste. It I I een a 
 
 1 remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake. 
 It possesses stimulant and tonic . It 
 
 forms an article of export from the United States to 
 Etiropc.and bears a high price, being highly est 
 as a medicine in certain kinds of fever. — Its reputa- 
 tasa cure for serpent-bites is shared by i 
 . particularly A. < ' 'co (the 
 
 i of Colombia), natives of the war:.; r 
 of America. The juice has certainly the power of 
 stupifying, and even of killing serpents ; and it i3 
 : at a number of species are used by Egyptian 
 s, in order to their handling serpents with 
 1 South American species seem 
 also to possess medicinal properties analogous to 
 those of the Virginian snakeront. — A. Stplio, a I 
 ing shrub, of 15—20 feet in height, a native of the 
 southern parts of the Alleghany Mountains, is fre- 
 quently planted in the United States, in Britain, and 
 on the continent of Europe, to form shady bowers.
 
 AMSTOLOCIIIA— AEISTOI'JIAXIX 
 
 It has very large heart-shaped leaves (a foot in 
 
 breadth), of a beautiful green. The llowcrs hang 
 
 on long stalks ; the tube of the 
 
 Ecnanth is crooked in its upper part, inflated at the 
 : ad veined with reddish-brown veins, having a 
 sort of resemblance to the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, lor 
 
 Aristolochia serpcntaria : 
 a, a flower; I, a flower not open, shewing the parts of fructifi- 
 cation, c; d, the Btamens; 0, toe stigmas. 
 
 which reason the shrub is sometimes calledFipc-shrub, 
 
 ae, or Dutchman's Pipe. — Ihe tropicals] 
 are distinguished for their beauty and the peculiar 
 forms of their flowers. Some of them are much 
 i i "rnaments of our hot-houses. 
 
 To the natural order Aristoloc/iiacece belongs also 
 the genus Asaroi. 
 
 AKISTOT1IANP3, the only writer of the old 
 G comedy of whom we possess any entire works, 
 
 was the son of one Pbilippus, aud was born at Athens 
 about the year 444 B. c. We know very little of his 
 history. Plato, in his Symposium, relates that he 
 1 i.l of pleasure — a statement which it is easy to 
 credit when we consider the tendencies of bis profes- 
 sion in all ages. It seems equally clear, however, 
 from the vigorous and consistent expression of his 
 convictions in his various works, and from the fear- 
 less manner in which he assails the political 1 
 his day, that he was possessed of an honest and inde- 
 nt spirit. He appeared as a comic writer in 
 the fourth year of tile Pi loponni dan war (-1.7 
 The piece which he produced was entitle.! /' 
 
 I ianqueters), and received the second prize. 
 It ridiculed the follies of extravagance, and, like all 
 bis subsequent works, was pervaded by a oon 
 of modern life, and an admiration of the 
 an.l mannei i of the earlier generations. Next year, 
 he wmte i b tans, in v. Inch he Bat 
 
 Cleon, the so-called demagogue, bo sharply, that the 
 latter endeavoured to deprive him of the rights of 
 citizenship, by insinuating that he was not a ri a] 
 Athenian. This, in all prol ability, .save rise to the 
 various traditions of A. baying been bom in B 
 
 , &c. Fragments of these plays remain. En 
 425, his A lie first prize. H 
 
 was written to expose the madness of the 
 til. a Waging between Athens and Sparta, and 
 
 exhibits the fillings of the rty' in the 
 
 former city. It is still extant. In 424 api 
 .., the Ki .'.iV.s or Horsemen. It was tb 
 which the poet produced i:i his own name, and 
 evinces the singular boldness of the author. It 
 
 is levelled a I n, and presents us with a 
 
 striking picl ad insolent 
 
 charlatan, and of the fickle, cunning, credulous, 
 
 and rather stupid precariously 
 
 ■ ' ■ • : 
 
 no actor would undertake t 
 
 influential Cleon, A. himself 1; ! the 
 
 demagogue. Unfortunately for the characi 
 Cleon, as well as that of the Athenian democracy, 
 these caricatures and n A. have 
 
 been received as historical pictures. How far 
 they are from the truth, ha; I e shewn by 
 
 in his Hi r. In 
 
 4'_':;, A. produced the Cloud*, which, along with the 
 
 , are the two most famous of hia comi 
 
 They exhibit in overflowing richness that fancy, wit, 
 
 ur, satire, and shrewd insight which charac- 
 
 eatest of all Greek comic writers. The 
 
 , however, displays at tb I sane- time the 
 
 :vs and limitations of A.'s mind. I: 
 
 school, and to point out its pernicious tendencies. 
 So far well. But A., who was no philosopher, 
 
 ; his own incapacity to appreciate the 
 highest range of thought and character, by selecting 
 no less a person than Socrates as the most perfect 
 representative of a sophist. A., who was both 
 religiously and politically conservative, had appar- 
 ently no clearer conception of abstract truth than 
 is involved in reverence for the sanctities of the 
 past, the old gods, old traditions, old manners, and 
 old sentiments. He had an instinctive hatred of 
 innovations, and considered all equally pernicious. 
 As he had represented Cleon the reformer as a 
 vulgar innovator and demagogue, ruled by the lowest 
 considerations, he makes the innovating vi 
 Socrates also proceed from corrupt mot 
 perhaps with more craft. Alcibiades is caricatured 
 in this brilliant comedy as a wddly extravagant 
 youth, whose career of ruin is accelerated by the 
 insidious instructions of Socrates ; and a hint is 
 thrown out towards the end of I which 
 
 unfortunately proved to be the of a 
 
 ' coming event.' A. represents the fatl r 1 
 biades as about to burn the philosopher and his 
 whole p/irontis'crion (subtlety-shop) ; and there can 
 be little doubt that this dramatic vilification of the 
 purest of heathen moralists led to that persecution 
 which, twenty years later, culminated in his con- 
 demnation and death. In 422 appeared 1 
 still extant, in which the popular courts of : 
 are attacked ; aud three years later, in his I 
 ho returns to the subject of the Peloponneaian 
 war, which is ridiculed with great cleverness. In 
 •111 he produced two corned wrmu and 
 
 the Birds, both of which caricature, in 1 
 
 r, the Sicilian ei medi- 
 
 but which proved to utter a failure. The 
 
 '■its a 
 civil war of the sex . as the m no of 
 
 that 111 the l'eloponncsus. In his 1'lutus and 
 . which respectively appeared in 
 12, true to hi 1 mis ion 1 
 innovation, he I 
 
 1 institutions, and ventured to ridicule 
 Plato, in that, howevi ■, .1 which the philosopher 
 is weak, it— nan political tb I ipidee, 
 
 andled 
 
 A. w 1 medies, of w nich only 1 
 
 are extant. He is aeknowlc.i id far above 
 
 all his coat. *S of the 1 
 
 and n> in wealth of fancy and 
 
 language. - ; * ne 
 
 purest spirit | and Plato himself says that 
 
 the soul of A. was a temple for the Graces. The
 
 ABISTOTELIA— AKISTOTIJB 
 
 i.ty which he displays in {he mechanical 
 artific wonderful. Pro 
 
 bo croak choruses, pigs to grunt thro 
 and i i L ol 
 
 5 oli i with one i 
 17' I : re. It only remains to be added, what 
 might naturally be expected, thai ialities 
 
 in which A. indu I ad at times into ■ 
 
 ness ami indecency, and that even the gods whom 
 he undertook to defend are treated with levity, and 
 in the most ludicrous lights. 
 The comedies of A. have b i o edited l>v Brunck 
 (1781 1783), Dindorf (17W I 
 Theyhai I into German by Voaa 
 
 (Brunswick, 1821), and there are sevi ral translations 
 of single plays into English. 
 
 ABISTOTELIA. E 
 
 A TtlSTOTLE was born at the I colonial 
 
 on the west side of the Strymonic 
 ■ (now the (lull of Contessa, in Turkey in 
 
 Europe), in the year 384 B.C. II belon 1 to a 
 family in which the practice of phy ditary. 
 
 His fath r, Mikomachu tend and phj 
 
 of Amyntas 1L, king of Macedonia, father of Philip, 
 d ther of Alexander the Great, A. 1 I 
 
 both parents while he was quite young, and was 
 it op under the J a ol 
 
 ; then Bel 
 ■red that Is 
 
 etion of preparing 
 Iiim [or 1 bi i .ii .'v pro on, and that \\ b 
 knowledge and power of manipulation attached to 
 th" practice of physic at that time, would rank 
 among bis early acquisitions, In after-life, lie 
 occupied hims If largely in th d 
 and v'. I with all the facts thai had 1 
 
 derived from tin before him. It 
 
 seems probable, however, that he early abandoned 
 the intention of following physic as a profession, and 
 aspired to that cultivation of universal knowledge 
 own sake, in which he attained a distinction 
 without parallel in I .' of the human race. 
 
 Tn his 18th year (367 n.c.) he left Stageira for 
 Athens, th D the Greece and 
 
 of the civilised world. Plato, on whom he doul 
 had his eye as his chief in<;' then absent 
 
 at Syracuse in tint cxtraord 
 connecting him as political ai\ is r with the two sue- 
 i despots Dionysius the Elder, and 
 Dionysius the Younger— and with Dion. A .. 
 
 fore, pursued his studies by I ks, and by th help 
 
 of any other masters he could lind. dorin 
 three years of his stay. On the return of 1 i 
 
 his pupil, and soon made his master aware 
 of the remarkable penetration and reach of his 
 
 t. The expressions said to have I o u 
 
 Plato imply as much ; for we are told that he 
 of A. as the ' Intellect of the School.' Unfortun 
 there is a total absence of particulars or precise infor- 
 mation as to the early studies of the rising | 
 He remained at Athens twenty years, during 
 the only facts recorded, in addition I - b "lying 
 
 with Plato, are, that he set up a class of rhi 
 and that in so doing, he 1" came the rival of the 
 celebrated orator and rhetorical teacher, Isocrates, 
 whom he appears to have attacked with 
 
 It was in the schools of rhetoric that the 
 
 young men of Athens got the principal part of their 
 
 tion for public life. They learned the art of 
 
 ig before the Dikasteries, or courts of law, 
 
 and the public assembly, with efficiency and elegance ; 
 
 and in !■! ntally ae,pured the notions of law and 
 
 policy that regulated the management of 
 
 affairs at the time. We can easily suppose that A. 
 
 would look with contempt upon the shallowness — in 
 
 all that I thought or subject matter— of tho 
 
 I 1. mi ■hin .. ol v. he'll, doubtll 
 
 prevailing i rould he in the form o 
 
 rig artistic rather than p 
 erudite. One of the disciples of ] ending 
 
 i _; but A., wri 
 
 to a work (now | rerbs, 
 
 orded publication of the philosopher, 
 death of I was the oc 
 
 of L's departure from Athens. It was not i 
 ordinary or I ble that A. should hope to 
 
 i e i icf of his school, named 
 now know that no other man 
 • had an equal title to thai pre 
 Plato, however, left hi ippus as his 
 
 or. We may ■ disappoint] 
 
 thus arising to h.. I circumstance 
 
 that d 
 
 but tii lao other reasons that may be 
 
 ou1 of I is with tho 
 
 Ionian royal family at a time when the 
 ins and Philip had nto i 
 
 Whatever may be the explanation, he went in 
 his thirty-si \ rlyl wenty 
 
 :i Athens, to the Mysi trneus, 
 
 in Asia Minor, opposite to the island of ] 
 
 be lived with Hermeias, the chief of the 
 town, a man of singular and . who 
 
 mquered his dominion for himself from the 
 Persians, at that time masters of nearly all Asia 
 Minor. A. had taught him rhetoric at A 
 
 ime in return the attached friend and admirer 
 of his teacher. For three years the two lived 
 together in the stronghold of Atarneus; but by 
 
 : v and Eal e pros . tli" Rhodi in Mi ntor, 
 an officer in the ' i 
 
 "i the person of Hermeias, put him to death, and 
 
 ■ in i-t r of all the ] ' i. A. 
 
 Bed, and took refuge in Mitylen 
 chief city of the neighbouring island of Lesbos. Be 
 also took with him l'yt' I ir of Hen 
 
 and made her his wife, In a nob] ode, he has 
 commemorated the merits of his friend the 
 to him through the treachery of a Greek renegade, 
 wife, Pythias, died a few years afterwards 
 in Macedonia, leaving him a daugb.1 r of the 
 name. His son, Nlkomachus, to whom he del I 
 his chief work on ethics— called, ill consequence, the 
 ■ i Ethics— was born to hini at a later 
 p riod of his life by a concubine. 
 
 After two years' stay at Mitylene, he was i 
 (in the year 342 b. c, age 42) by Philip to 
 
 s son Al xander, then in his fourteenth 
 year. What course of study Alexander was made 
 
 through, we cannot state. II ■ i ajoyed the 
 
 ; ol A., for at least thr 1 ..intra ted 
 
 a strong attachment to his preceptor, which events 
 
 afterwards converted into bitter enmity. The two 
 
 finally when Alexander come 
 expedition into Asia (334 B.C.), and A. came from 
 Macedonia to Athens, having recommended to the 
 future conqueror, as a companion in his camp 
 
 bilosopher Callisthenes, whom h educated 
 along with Alexander. Now at the age of fifty, 
 he entered on the linal epoch of his life ; he opened 
 a school called the 'Lyceum,' from its proximity 
 to the temple of Apollo Lyceius. From his practice 
 of walking up and down in the garden during his 
 
 . in ■ the other name of his school and 
 s t, tit" Peripatetic. It would appear to have 
 his habit to give a morning lecture to select pupils 
 on the reore abstruse subjects, and one in the evening 
 of a more popular kind to a general audience. He 
 may now be supposed to have composed his principal 
 writings ; but, unfortunately, there is nothing known 
 of the dates of any of them. This crowning period
 
 AIUSTOTLE-AIUSTOXF.X r.S. 
 
 of his life lasted twelve yean. Afb r the death of 
 Alexander, the anti-Macedonian party at Athens ob- 
 
 ucy, and among other conseoi 
 an accusation was prepared again t A., 
 
 v. With the fate of Socrates before his 
 i, and in the beginning of 
 322 b. '., took refuge at Chalcis in Eubi 
 the autumn of the same year, he died, a 
 had lo ■ fflicted with indigestion, and ulti- 
 
 mately sank under thif 
 
 m that of 1" 
 many p aally in tii tal doctrine 
 
 t the Theoi . The Platonic ' ideas ' 
 
 or 'foi mceived as real ■ mpart- 
 
 ing all that is commo p urticnlar f i 
 
 realii : 
 
 mind. Thus. . 
 i heir mathematics I a from 
 
 or circl 
 eir sameness to the ideal man. 
 A. wa 
 
 ■ 
 
 intrast to I 
 
 J subjects: he was a mo 
 lector of facts, from whi 
 inductions with more or less accuracy. Plato, on 
 hi- hand, valu 1 facts mi rely in criticising the 
 that he was bent upon demolishing, a 
 as a means of establishing sound thi 
 
 The writings oi A. may I"- said . braced 
 
 tli- whole circle of the knowledge of his time, 
 of them are lost ; those that remain refer principally 
 to the following departments. 
 
 Astronomy, Mechanics, P] 
 of by him at some length ; but here his failure 
 was complete, if we look at his writings from 
 ■liit of view n as the 
 
 i upon doctrines 
 common among his contemporaries, accep 
 him as principles of reasonin 
 
 i sound conclusions. II 
 
 .... 
 of circular motion, of the impo 01 a vacuum, 
 
 1 more to confuse than to . 
 
 ripe for putting I 1 ;s on a 
 
 is ; for he V ' ortly followed by 
 
 a scries of men, who both i and reasoned 
 
 pecting them, and laid the foundation of 
 
 great subsequent progress — namely, I 
 
 Apollonius, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, and Hippar- 
 
 The thirteen books called Metaphysics contain 
 
 >und thought, but are obscure and de- 
 
 rranged ; indeed, neither the actual 
 
 arrangement of th nor the title which they 
 
 bject to 
 science 
 which he I 
 
 ophy. 1. i 
 
 — the ' (Innu's. 
 
 I 
 
 .; ion. •_'. Mathematics- that ol 
 and numerical ex ' nitidis, 
 
 ■ movement, 
 
 being considered and reasoned upon apart 
 from matter, but not capable of ig apart 
 
 from matter. 3. The First or II; 
 which studies the essences of ; sal, un- 
 
 able, and apart from all that change, move- 
 and differentiation which mat rial embodi- 
 
 The Metaphysics, or First Philosophv, does in fact 
 
 26 
 
 tli the extreme abstractions or' generalities of 
 nces. It is a collection, partly oi doubts and 
 difficulties, partly of att . n[>on these 
 
 last refinements of the human mind. It ini 
 many valuable comments on the philosophy of I 
 ami oth rs anterior to or contemporary with A. 
 Th.- gi n. r il t. mi i and subtle which this 
 
 . w.re hi 
 throughout all tin 
 
 li appears in a very different light in his great 
 work on Animals, lb- I ,k of 
 
 genuine observations, and also introduced a method 
 of classification which continues to this day 
 most approved groundwork of zoological classifica- 
 tion. In this work we see perhi e most 
 advanta mind, 
 rarely coupled in tl ■ itude 
 ervation, am ! Hence 
 shewn in his various wnl i ; ends upon 
 one or other of these qua 
 
 His Organon or Logic is his . 
 
 ling, and i and 
 
 nearly the v. ie or schol- 
 
 . 
 Mr Grotc obsen rt ii. 
 
 chap. Ixviii.) that 'what was begun 1. 
 and improved by I tied as a part of a 
 
 comprehensive system of formal loj 
 of A. ; a system which was not onh linary 
 
 in reference to the processes and control 
 of its time, but which also, having become ins' D 
 
 I into the minds of instructed men, has con- 
 tributed much to form what is correct in the habits 
 of modern thinking. Thou 
 
 rn authors j 
 cially by Mr John Stuart Mill in his adm 
 
 ; into a structure con 
 with the vast increase of know] tension 
 
 itive method bclongii day — 
 
 we must recoil' -t. that i : reen the best 
 
 ! that of A. is hardly so great as 
 that between A. and those who preceded him by a 
 centur; icles, Anaxa Pytha- 
 
 goreans ; and that . advance o: I 
 
 hitter commences with S 
 
 the Human Mind and Body. 
 Memory and 
 
 the first statement of the laws of Association of 
 
 treatises on Rhi re the 
 
 i 
 and still continue to be studii ime remark 
 
 is appl . 
 
 ■ie of his greatest works is his p 
 i made by him 
 ■ I States ; ii 
 ipily lost 1 Cere 
 inductii parent 
 
 in the v 
 
 however, a singul 
 having read the 1 1 Thucyi 
 
 ■ to H rodotns is on a | 'tural 
 
 of both ties.- writers are 
 
 y himself. 
 The ent distinctions of Matter and 
 
 Lality, Actuality 
 tiality. are due to \. 
 AKISTO XES I atom, a pupil . ■■:' 
 
 Opon music. 
 
 He was extnordi- 
 
 narily active and versatile in his literary studies, and 
 is said to have composed upwards of 450 tr 
 
 * i
 
 ARITHMETIC— ARIUS. 
 
 bistory, and philosophy. On the death 
 of An ' ppointed his 
 
 , and is said to have be morti- 
 
 Sed wl phrastns was preferred; but this 
 
 redited by many. He founded a 
 I of musicians, who wore Called after him, 
 AlistOZeneans, and whose distingn 
 istic was tliat they judged of the notes in tie- 
 diatonic scale exclusively by the car, win 
 Pythagoreans determined thi Be mathematically. 
 
 Except his I qf Harmony, in three 1 ks. 
 
 which we still possess, only a few fragments of 
 his writings survive in later authors. 
 
 ARITHMETIC is the sciene 
 numbers (Gr. ariihmos). It is Bomi times divided 
 into theoretical and practical ; the former investigat- 
 ing the properties of numbers and their combinations, 
 
 tter applying the principles so established, in 
 the form of rides, to actual calculations. Some 
 
 t the term A. to this art of reckc inin 
 the investigation of the principles t - 
 
 Among the ancient Greeks and B made 
 
 little progress, owing to their clumsy mod 
 notation. Few of their writings en the subject 
 have come down to us ; the most important are 
 those of Euclid (7 — 10 B. of tile . Archi- 
 
 medes, Diophantus, and Nicomachus. After the 
 introduction of the decimal system and tie- Arabic 
 or Hindu numerals (see Numerals), about the 11th 
 c, A. began to assume a new form ; but it was 
 not till the 16th c. that the Doable Rule of Three, 
 or Compound Proportion, was discovered, and 
 decimal fractions were introduced. The invention 
 of Logarithm I in the 17th c. is the last great step 
 in advance that the art has made. Passing over 
 the elementary operations of Addition, &c, the 
 
 chief heads, sueh as FRAf • I ' PKO- 
 
 roRTioN, Logarithms, &c., will be noticed in their 
 proper places. 
 
 ARITHMETICAL MEAN is that number that 
 lies equally distant between two others: thus, the 
 A. M. between 11 and 17 is 14, which is foimd by 
 taking half their sum. 
 
 ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION is a series 
 of numbers that increase or diminish by a common 
 nee, as 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22; or 12, 10$, 9, 7i, 
 6. To find the sum of such a series, multiply Hie 
 sum of the first and last terms by half the number 
 of terms. The series of natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 &c, form an A. P., of which the difference is 1. 
 
 ARITHMETICAL SIGNS are arbitrary marks 
 or symbols used to denote the operations to be per- 
 formed on numbers, or the relations existing between 
 them. H.x. gr., 7 + 5 indicates that 7 and 5 are to 
 be added together ; 7 — 5, that 5 is to 1 
 from 7 ; 7° that 7 is to be raised to the fifth / 
 7 + 5 = 15 — 3, that when 7 and 5 are 
 
 aer, the result is equal to the difference 1 » 
 15 and 3. The same signs are also used in A I 
 and an enumeration and explanation of them may 
 be found in almost any treatise on Arithmetic or 
 Algebra. 
 
 A'RITTS, the celebrated founder of Arianism, 
 •was a native of Libya, and is generally supposed to 
 been born shortly after the middle of the 
 3d c. About the year 306 A. P., Alexandria was 
 thrown into confusion by the violence of its religious 
 disputes, and in these A. was largely mixed up. At 
 first, he took part with Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis, 
 in Upper Egypt, a man who was strenuously 
 opposed to certain notions of discipline entertained 
 by l'eter, Bishop of Alexandria; but afterward 
 he became reconciled to the latter, who in 
 a deacon. The reconciliation, however, was brief. 
 A. once more took the part of Meletius, and was 
 403 
 
 irl bj Peter in < ooe; but the 
 
 latter dying soon after, Achillas, his sua 
 
 i '■ bo his office, and i i advanced him to 
 r, 313 A. D. Hi 
 tion re | In- should interpret tin- 8a lj 
 
 he possessed an abundance of as 
 
 dng, it is not wonderful that 
 
 his preaching should have In • popular, and his 
 
 peculiarities of opinion been vehemently eml i 
 
 ; t time, however, that A. was brought into 
 collision on a point of d> n't. - oe with bis ecclesiastical 
 superiors, was in 318 a.i>. Alexander, Bishop of 
 ttdria, and successor of Achillas, having in a 
 public assembly of clergy, while Bpeaking of the 
 Trinity, said that it contained one single i 
 or indivisible unity of substance, A. alleged that 
 conception was impossible to the human 
 mind, and accused Alexander of Sabellianism— L e., 
 
 of destroying the distinction of persons. The dis- 
 pute grew hot, and a conference which was held to 
 settle it only embittered the disputants. In main- 
 taining his ground. A. went beyond bis first state- 
 ment of the absolute di I of i> rson between 
 I. her and the Son; he maintained that the 
 Son was not co-equal or co-eternal with the Father, 
 but only the first and highest of all finite beings, 
 
 bing by an act of God's fr 
 that he ought not to be ranked with the Father. 
 A. was successful in securir .large 
 
 is both of the clergy and laity in Egypt, Syria, 
 and Asia Minor. In 321 a synod of bishops was 
 held at Alexandria. These deposed and excommuni- 
 cated A., and active measures were taken to let this 
 decision be known over all the Christian churches; 
 Alexander himself wrote numerous letters ( I -. 
 which are still extant), exhorting the bishops not to 
 Hbe'l -.' in eon i 
 
 the breach was widened 
 To escape pel t, A. ret where 
 
 he wrote a letter to his friend El 
 Bishop of Nicomcdeia, a city of Bithynia, and not far 
 from Constantinople. Gusebius, one of the 
 influential Christians of his time, wnrnih 
 
 im ; wrote in his behalf to Paulinus, Bishop of 
 
 and others; absolved him from the Alexan- 
 drian synod's excommunication; and in 323 con- 
 
 another synod in Bithynia, which pronounced 
 favourably on A. He even enlisted Constantino on 
 the side of the latter, to this extent at hast, that 
 the half-pagan emperor addressed admonitions to 
 both Alexander and A., assuring them that tie p 
 in dispute was a trifling one, and ought not I 
 voke a serious quarrel. While A. was resi-1 
 Nicomcdeia, he wrote a theological work in [ 
 and prose, called Thaleia, some fragments of which 
 remain, and indicate an earnest and philosophic 
 mind, but at the same time contain < i which 
 
 not but pain a believer in the divinity of 
 Christ. The Tludiia is said to have been sung 
 by the Arian neophytes, who thus kindl 
 passions of their adversaries, and inci 
 
 contest. The comedians, wl i > 
 j lagans, took advantage of the occasion to r 
 the Christian religion in the theatres. The officers 
 of the emperor in several cities wished to repress 
 this profane temerity, but the interference only 
 created greater confusion. 
 
 It now became impossible for the emperor to 
 remain neutral or indifferent, with safety to 
 self, or to the tranquillity 
 
 ll a, whom he had appointed 
 mediator betwixt Alexander and A, took part with 
 tie former, and reported unfavourably of A. The 
 result was, that Constantine, in order, as he thought, 
 
 i t a final settlement of the question, convoked 
 the memorable Council of Nica;a (Nice, q. v.), in
 
 Aiirus. 
 
 Bithynia, 325 a. d. Three hundred and eighteen ( 
 bishops from almost all riarts of the Christian 
 world, but especially from the east, were present, , 
 besides numbers of priests, deacons, and acolytes. 
 Uy expounded and defended his opinions. 
 He declared in the most unambiguous manner that 
 the Son of God was created out of nothing ; that 
 he had not always existed ; that he was not immut- 
 able or impeccable ; that it was through his free- 
 will he remained good and holy ; that if he had 
 chosen, he could as easily have sinned as not ; in a 
 word, that he was a inert' creature and work of the 
 Deity. He further affirmed that the Son of God 
 was not of the same substance with the Father ; that 
 he was not the ' Ward' or' Wisdom,' properly speak- 
 ing; and that the Scriptures only attribute 
 names to him as they do to other created intelli- 
 gences. These propositions ned to with 
 great calmness by the bishops, but the inferior 
 clergy, or at least a majority of them, manifested 
 the most violent opposition. The document con- 
 his confession of faith was torn to pieces 
 his face. however, of a more 
 I i] kind were also employed. Alexander was 
 ably seconded by the young dea m, Athanasius, the 
 equal of A. in eloquence, and in the power of his logic. 
 It was principally by the reasonings of Athan 
 that the Council was persuaded to define, in the 
 most precise manner, the doctrine of the Godhead — 
 vi/.. the absolute unity of the divine essence, and the 
 absolute equality of the three persons. All the 
 bishops subscribed it except two, Theonas of Mar- 
 mariea, and Secundus of Ptolemais, who had the 
 heroism (for it must be considered such) to follow 
 the banished A, into Illyricum. 
 
 An imperial edict was now issued commanding the 
 writings of A. to be burned, and threatening with 
 capital punishment all who should be convicted of 
 concealing them. This change iu the emperor's senti- 
 ments as to the importance of the doctrine at issue is 
 attributed by some writers to his recognising the will 
 of Heaven in the harmonious consent of so many 
 bishops. A more probable explanation is, that he 
 anticipated the utmost social confusion from the col- 
 li, i. hi of opinions, and resolved to crush that which 
 was at once the youngest and the weakest, hoping 
 thereby to remove the ground of disturbance. He 
 was mistaken, however. At Alexandria, the Arians 
 continued in a state of open insurrection, and began 
 to league themselves with other condemned sects, for 
 the purposes of mutual defence. The great influence 
 of Eusebius was also exerted on behalf of the exiled 
 heretic, as well as that of Constantia, the sister 
 of the emperor, who had herself embraced Arian 
 tenets, and in 32S, permission was granted him to 
 return from Illyricuin. Constantine was very gra- 
 cious, perhaps because he thought the chances of 
 peace being restored to the community were now 
 
 f eater, for it had been represented to him by 
 usebius that the doctrines of A. did not essentially 
 differ from those of the Nicene Council. In 330 A. D., 
 A. had an interview with the emperor, and succeeded 
 in convincing him that Eusehin 1 id only spoken the 
 truth. Iu the confession of faith which he pre- 
 sented, he declared his belief that the Son w« 
 of the Father 1 lefi ire all ages, and that as the ' \V. ad,' 
 
 I made all things both in heaven and earth. 
 The emperor was satisfied, and sent orders to 
 Athanasius, now Bishop of Alexandria, to rec 
 into the conummion of the church. Tlii a Athanasius 
 refused to do, and a series of tumults was tli 
 
 toe. Ha i bius was greatly irritated. H 
 a synod of bishops at Tyre, in 335 A.D., which pro- 
 ceeded to depose Athanasius. The emperor was even 
 prevailed on to remove the latter to Gaul, though he 
 alleged as his reason, that he wished to deliver him 
 
 from the machinations of his enemies. In the same 
 year, another synod met at Jerusalem, which revoked 
 the sentence of excommunication uttered against A. 
 and his friends. Still the majority of the Christians 
 of Alexandria citing to the doctrines of Athanasius, 
 and resolutely resisted every effort to establish the 
 pinions among them. Disappointed in his 
 expectation*, A., in .'i.'IO A.D., proceeded to Constan- 
 I resented the emperor with another 
 apparently orthodox confession of faith; whereupon 
 orders were issued to Alexander. Bishop of Constan- 
 tinople, to administer to Arius the holy communion 
 on the Sunday following. This was considered a 
 grand triumph by Eusebius and his friends, and 
 when the day arrived, they escorted A, as a guard 
 of honour, through the streets of the metropolis. 
 When about to enter the temple iu which it was 
 intended that he should be I v. ith solemn 
 
 pomp, he retired a moment to relieve nature, but 
 fainted, and died of a violent hemorrhage. His dis- 
 ciples declared that he had bi i a poisoned, while the 
 orthodox devoutly affirmed that Cod had answered 
 the prayers of Alexander. 
 
 A. was exceedingly handsome, but the harassing 
 cares of a life spent in a continual struggle with his 
 adversaries, is said to have given him a worn and 
 haggard look. His manners were graceful and 
 modest ; he was noted for even an ascetic abstinence, 
 and the purity of his moral character was never 
 challenged by a single enemy. A. is said to have 
 comj>osed songs for sailors, millers, and travellers, in 
 popular measures, for the purpose of spreading his 
 peculiar tenets ; but no traces of these survive. 
 
 After the death of A., his followers rallied round 
 Eusebius, now Bishop of Constantinople (338), from 
 whom they were styled Eusebians. The reconciliatory 
 middle party of Eusebius of Casarea (died 340 A.D.), 
 who wished to end the great controversy by abstain- 
 ing from all strict dogmatic assertions on the 
 matter, soon dwindled into m significance between 
 the two contending parties. Constans, who ruled 
 the West after the death of Constantine (337), and 
 Constantius, in the East, made an essay towards re- 
 conciliation; but it failed at the synod of Sard.n (347), 
 where the occidental bishops gathered themselves 
 round Athanasius in support of the Homooiman 
 doctrine (identity ox sameness o/suis(ance),whilein a 
 separate council at PhilippopoUs, the oriental bishops 
 1 the II:,,noiousian doctrine (implying merely 
 similar, wux). Slight as might appear the 
 
 verbal difference between the two parties, the bitter- 
 ness of the controversy was intense, and pervaded 
 almost all departments of public and private life. 
 Constantius having, by the death of Constans (350) 
 and conquest over Magncntius (353), gained domi- 
 nion over the west, the Arian cause, which he 
 favoured, triumphed at the synod of Arelate or Aries 
 (353) and at that of Milan" (3o5). These victories, 
 however, were more apparent than real. The Nicene 
 doctrine had still strong support on its side, and 
 was strictly maintained by the banished Athanasius 
 and his friends, while the Antiuicaeans, soon after 
 their triumph, wire divided into at least three 
 parties. The old Arians, also styled An.uueoi, or 
 Heterou rted, in the boldest 
 
 doctrine of 'distinct su: \rians 
 
 (a large map" Eastern Church) main; 
 
 the Homoiousian doctrine of similar substances. 
 A third party held the same doctrine with some 
 qualification. Morally, the victory was leaning to 
 tfie side of the Julian the Apostate 
 
 (361— 363), in his hatred of the Christian religion, 
 left all parties at liberty to contend as they p 
 with one another, so that they did not interiei 
 his plans. Jovianus and his followers in the west, 
 Valentinianus I.. Gratianus, and Valeutinianus U., 
 
 M
 
 ARKANSAS— ARK OF THE COVENANT. 
 
 led foil toleration to both parties. ArLinism, 
 at last, was virtually abolished in 1 empire, 
 
 under I in the east 
 
 tinianus II. in the i the German 
 
 ■ 
 
 the m converting the West u ■ Arian 
 
 Christianity as early b ered 1" 
 
 it until 1 1 i • - Bvnod of Toll ! 
 
 and the Longobards also adopted Arianism; but in 
 all these instances the Nicene doctrine ultimately 
 
 Lon jobards, who 
 retained the Arian creed uni incon- 
 
 tias 
 
 a time by the writhe ! 
 
 Clarke (li;7. r >— 1729), an 
 
 in 1752. More recently, a pai ■■trine, 
 
 ,. ■ i 
 
 the Wesleyan Methodist Socii ty by l>r Adam Clarke 
 ami a few followers ; but itwas Boon 6 ippn ■ ed by 
 nee. Ture Aril 
 ! ; gradually lnpsi .1 into 
 
 Unitarianism (q. v.). See Umi.u; 
 
 ARKANSAS, one of tin' largi of the 
 
 American Union, baki 
 
 A Through. mi ■ length, it occu ies the 
 
 right bank of the Mississippi, bei ited by 
 
 that stream, towards the cast, from Tens 
 
 and the th half of MisaissippL It-s boundaries 
 
 to the south, west) and north are purely arbitrary 
 and conventional, and are best learned from a map. 
 With a length of 240 miles Mela breadth of 224, 
 i A. is 52,198 square i i pretty 
 
 nearly the same as that of bjigland , 
 out of the equivalent 33,406,720 a 
 
 very little more than Jj of the 
 whole, or than ! of the lands liable to taxation as 
 
 L Of th 
 256,666 acres were in cotti n, 0,513 in 
 
 In 1858, the population was 331,213, while 
 
 it had been only 209,639 — the i i eight 
 
 being about 60 percent A. is a slave state; 
 
 entire population, the slaves appear to .. 
 rather less than a fourth part : ninally 
 
 French in ll it was 
 
 still virtually a wilder! :ion of 
 
 ma, it came by purcha 
 the United States, wlia 
 
 ctively that it became lirst a territoiy, and then 
 a state ion. The tow are small, for 
 
 Little Eoek, which is 1 it, with 
 
 3000 inhabitants, is twice as populous as any other 
 place in the 
 
 In climate and productions A. occupies, as i! 
 an intermediate position between the states of the 
 
 <nd those ot the south. A. is rich in mi 
 particularly in manganese, zinc, n. It 
 
 contains the principal varieties of coal — cannel, 
 anthracite, and I It likewise possesses 
 
 lead-ores, which are said to contain a large pri 
 of silver. The manufactures of t! 
 parativ 
 
 The internal improvements of A. are confined 
 
 : to plank-roads and i 
 
 t the Mississippi. Of a projected railway of 
 
 iles from Little Bock to Memphis in Ten 
 only 20 miles appear to have been actually com-. 
 
 L In fact, the state is comparatively inde- 
 pendent of works of this description, pi ni b 
 it is by so many navigable rivers — the A., the 
 White River, the St Francis, the Red River, the 
 Washita, &c. 
 4U1 
 
 On it Od ' I, the public debt of A, con- 
 
 oi banks, amounted to 
 3,138,972 dollars, nearly half of it i 
 
 ■ aed and unpaid.' Tb revenu Ei 
 
 i u-s was 945,884 dollars, 
 
 ■ result of .' i ■■! on pro- 
 perty of almost ever) 
 
 furniture, horses, m "f all 
 
 i watches, jeweller 
 The state legislature mi i two years. 
 
 To the Lower House of Congress, A., in the pi 
 tion of its population, sends 
 while, i other state, it has two sena'. 
 
 . 
 
 ARKA'NSAS RIVER, next to 
 
 i baffiucn 
 
 long rising in the I on the bordi rs 
 
 joining the ' Fathi r of Waters' in lat. 
 33 54' X., and lone. 01° Iff W. Flowing ■•■ 
 ally tin ■ iintry, it p I 111 few 
 
 obstacl ation. The principal difficulty is 
 
 riodical rise and 
 differeni bi ing not 
 
 Notwithstanding this, hovi 
 
 during nine 
 months of the year, to ad 800 miles 
 
 from its mouth. It divides the state which 
 its nam ly equal parts, varying in breadth 
 
 limits of the Ban 
 
 Its banks also, in its lew 
 contain a good deal of stone-i 
 
 A'RKLOW, a seaport town in the sou'! 
 corner of Wicklow county, in lat. 43° 4ff N., 
 and long. 4° 3s' W.. at the mouth of the river 
 
 eh is i : ; of nil 
 
 teen arches, [tcon isteof an upper well- 
 and a lower, inhabited by fishermen, 
 are employed in the herrin 
 i 
 Wicklow. Sand-banks un 
 ships of any 
 
 djacent coast. In 179S, a bloody encoi 
 
 i the royal troops and the 
 United Irishmen. Pop. in 1851,3306. 
 
 ARK OF THE COVENANT, AKK OF THE 
 
 TESTIMONY, or AKK OF JEHOVAH, one of 
 
 the most important parts of the furniture of the 
 
 ■le. which, by divine . I ; -lites 
 
 I in the wild id afterwards of 
 
 epic built by .Solomon at A 
 
 of it is to be found in Exodus xxv., in 
 
 the command given to Moses for its < strui 
 
 and also in Exodus xxxvii, from which it ap] 
 that itwas a chest of shittim-wood (verygi nerally 
 
 ed to be the h 1 of a i pecii oi aca ia, but 
 
 by som 1 as more probably that of the 
 
 wild-olive), overlaid with gold within and with ait, 
 
 two cubits and a half in length, one cubit and 
 
 in breadth and in height — that is, accor 
 
 common estimate of the length of the i 
 
 9 inches in length, and 2 feet 3 inches in bri 
 
 and height — the lid being formed entirely of pure 
 
 gold, with a crown or raised border of gold round 
 
 about. Within the ark ws 
 
 mony,' consisting of ' the two tables of the law,' i. e., 
 
 the sti 1 1 
 
 were in L Vh iden lid of the ars 
 
 the mercy seat or pro, 
 
 cherubim* (q. v.), made of the same ] Id with 
 
 it, and between them was the place of the i 
 
 or manifestation of the Divine presence. The ark 
 
 had also golden rings, through which passed staves 
 
 of shittim-wood, overlaid with gold, for carrying it 
 
 in the journeyings of the Israelites, con' 
 
 which very particular rules were laid down (see
 
 ARKONA— ARKWRIGHT. 
 
 Numbers, iv.). "Win! ' 1 ng cat rii & from a 
 
 aother, it was covi red Brat with a 'cot 
 of badgers' skins,' and above this with ' a 
 wholly of blue;' and in tli<- tabernacle and temple 
 it was put into the 'most holy place,' into which 
 the high-priest alo i enter upon the ' day of 
 
 atonement.' The ark I \. of the C, 
 
 il of the presence 
 
 1 as the God of Israel, and of his covenant 
 with bis people. The things of the Jewish d 
 sation in iij regarded as typical, and the 1 
 i lij i hi as essentially one with the Christian, the 
 ark is i i i type of Christ ; the 
 
 1 ncy and ira of the J iral law, 
 
 as indicated by i I to it within the 
 
 ark, wl I.I .1 with the blood of 
 
 typical was interposed between it and 
 
 men, who, having trai I exposed 
 
 to its curse; an ' y-seat, in like manner 
 
 ' d I-, itb the blood of sacrifice, was int. rposcd, 
 as it w e law and ' rod, who is repre- 
 
 in the I Hd Te tament as 'dwelling 1 
 the cherubims,' and thence shining forth as the 
 God of mercy, favourable to his worshippers. A 
 complete harmony is thvi le out 1 a these 
 
 ( lid Testament types and christian theology. — It is 
 worthy also of notiee, that sand arks or chests 
 have been connected with the worship of various 
 hi 'iii> -ix nations, and have 1 placed as the most 
 Bacred things in the innermost pari of the I ' 
 
 b only the p i pel mitted to enter. 
 
 The relation of these to the ark of the Jews has 
 bei d the subject of much learned inquiry, hut has 
 not yi i id satisfactory elucida- 
 
 The ark appears not to have been brought 
 hack from Babylon, and so never to have t» 
 these No tenure of it appears among 
 
 red vessels of the tci ntcd on the 
 
 Arch of Titus. 
 
 AIIKO'NA, the north-east promontory 
 island of Rtlgen, in the Baltic, almost the most 
 northern extremity of Germany. Its steep clill's 
 chalk and loam, with hori- 
 zontal veins of flint; there is a small deposit of pure 
 chalk towards the east. Myriads of sand-martins 
 build in the chits of these cliffs. Theviewfrom 
 summit extends to the coast of Jasmund on 
 lit. .in the left to the islands ..;' lli.l 
 and M.iiti. The name A. i nt. In the 
 
 of Saxo Qrammaticus we find it written 
 ma, but its derivation is quite uncertain. On 
 wall or fortified 
 sure in which stood the temple of the Wend 
 deity Swantewit King YVahb mar I. of Denmark, 
 inflict, took po o of the fortress 
 
 in i 168, burnt the idol and its t mple, and c 
 away its tp 
 house, 75 feet high, was built in ls-J7. 
 
 A'BKWBIGHT, Sm Richa] d.o lebrated for his 
 
 inventions in i I i 
 
 in Lancashire, Dec. 23, 1732. Of humble origin, the 
 yqungest of thirti id. bred to the trade 
 
 of a 1-' it : aof cultivation were 
 
 1760 i.usiness 
 
 as a barber in Bolton, and became a dealer in hair. 
 A ecret process for dyeing hair, said to have 
 
 increased considerably the 
 profits \ little is known regarding 
 
 the first movements of his mind in the 
 mechanical av ion B 
 
 a cotton-spinnin [pop or Uy led him to 
 
 take an ii used in that manu- 
 
 facture. That the development of his 
 in. enuity ws n it, ho\i b\ • r, dt I 1 1 ire imst 
 aumciently proved by the fact, that his first 
 
 was an attempt to discover I ual motion. 
 
 Having no i ■ 1 el il iii mechanics, he 
 
 . named Kay, to assist 
 him in the con traction of his apparatus. About 
 1707, he seems to have given himself wholly up to 
 inventions in cotto I illowmgyear 
 
 re he Bet up hi 
 machine, the 
 
 chiefly of two pail Brat pair mi 
 
 slowly i and passing the cotton to the other 
 
 pair, which revolved with such increased velocity as to 
 ■ : I thread tot! Idegreeof fini 
 
 No previously invi had i able 
 
 to produce cotto.. !• nt tenuity and 
 
 irp. An invention, indeed, 
 by Mr Charl of Birmingham, which was 
 
 I in 1738, but i eeded, di ■ 
 
 A. of the honour of having been the 1 
 
 that he owed anything to this previous attempt, 
 
 gestdon of the 
 from seeing a red-hot iron I ed by being 
 
 •Hers. At this time A 
 so poor that he need d to be th a suit of 
 
 clothes before he could appi ar to vote at an election 
 as a burgess of Preston. Soon after, he removed. to 
 Nottingham, to escape the popular i b had 
 
 j ilrn en M tor of the 
 
 >, out of La B fortu- 
 
 nately fell in with Mr Jedidiah Stnitt of I 
 
 ited improver of the stoi . who 
 
 conjunction 
 tner Mr Need. I" 1769 A. Bet up bis 
 first mill, driven ' ook out a pad nt 
 
 for his invention. Tn 1771 he set up a larger fac- 
 tory, with water-power, at Cromford, inD 
 
 liabilities of his mind were strik- 
 
 vinccd in th tnent of the great busi- 
 
 aow demanded hi 
 
 Without personal experience, and with no model to 
 
 aid ■ I. i" I" 1 introduced a system of management 
 
 BO admirable that it was .- universally 
 
 adopt I ■ ; ived. 
 
 In 177 irioua addi- 
 
 i ■ i , . The -i 
 
 attending these undertakings stimulated rivals to 
 
 his patent ; and to such an extent did 
 cotton-spi'.iu 
 
 in 1781, t" prosecute at o I Efferent manufac- 
 
 turers. The lirt action against Colonel Mordaunt, 
 backed by a strong combination of Lane 
 
 .s, wa i lost, Bolely on I 1 that 
 
 ion in his specification was not suffi- 
 ciently clear and distinct. The other action! 
 abandoned; and, in the 
 
 ining a stai ■ In 
 
 :i aen trial, iii 178S 
 diet 'I li.' « I 
 
 before the Court of Bang's B ach, a few 
 after, wh i the inventions 
 
 patented was for tl > call I ii 
 
 i In i Ii ' doubtful evidence of a person named 1 1 
 
 combined with tl:: ' of A.'s old assis- 
 tant Kay, the jury di ist him, and his 
 patent was annulled. This was but the formal out- 
 ' an opposition which had from the beginning 
 
 manu- 
 facturers at first ' 
 
 Ics yarn. When the yarn was made into 
 calicos n the 
 
 on that cloth, they strenuo d the 
 
 measure, but in vain. Popular animosity wae 
 
 I against th > '.our. but in 
 
 reality here ; and on on 
 
 • loved in tho 
 
 iwerful military and police force,
 
 AREES-AEM. 
 
 without a -word of interference from the I 
 i sense of A., ho 
 overall opposition; and at tin- I 
 atb, in 1792, the value of his p 
 ■ ted to about half a million sterling, In 17m'. 
 he was appointed high-sheriff of Derbyshire : 
 the occasion of presenting an address to tin 
 itulating him on his escape from the k< 
 the maniac Margaret Nicholson, hei he well- 
 
 merited honour of knighthood. A severe asthma 
 had pressed upon him from his youth ; and a 
 complication of disorders, the result of his busy 
 sedentary life, terminated his honourable career 
 at the comparatively early age of sixty. 
 
 ARLES (anciently, Arelate), one of 
 towns in France, situated on the left bank of the 
 principal branch of the Rhone, after it has divided 
 
 into a delta, in the department of Bouches du 
 i . Population of the municipality, 22,971 ; of 
 the town, 14,750. A. carries on a considerable 
 trade. It has manufactures of silk, hats, tobacco, 
 brandy, &c, and forms a market for tin* productions 
 of the surrounding country. It also possesses a 
 college, a naval school, a public library, and a superb 
 museum of antiquities in natural history. The 
 marshes which rendered the district so unhealthy for 
 a long time, have been considerably drained, ami a 
 canal has been formed which connects it with the 
 south coast. Railways also bring it into easy com- 
 munication with Marseille, Avignon, Nlmes, Mont- 
 pellicr, &c. Under the Romans, it was the seat of a 
 prefect ; afterwards, for some time, the residence of 
 the Gothic king, Eurich ; and, in 879. was the metro- 
 polis of the kingdom of Arelate (see BtJBOVHDY). In 
 the early Christian times, several important synods 
 were convened here (311, 354, 452, and 475 A.D.). 
 Among the antiquities of A. are a magnificent amphi- 
 theatre, which could contain between 20,000 and 
 30,000 spectators ; the ruins of a theatre, also of a 
 palace of Constantine the Great; an obelisk of 
 granite, dug up from the mud of the Rhone in 13S9; 
 a burial-place (the Elysian Fields) used by the 
 Romans ; and a medieval cathedral, in t 1 
 Roman style, with a splendid portal ai 
 
 ARM, the upper extremity of the 1 
 consists of two portions — the A., strictly so called, 
 and the forearm ; the former having one bone, the 
 humerus (1), which moves 
 freely by a globular head 
 upon the scapula, forming 
 the shoulder-joint; and 
 the latter having two 
 bones, the radius (3) and 
 ulna (2), which move on 
 the lower end of the 
 humerus, forming the 
 elbow-joint, and below, 
 with the carpus, forming 
 the wrist 
 
 The humerus is attached 
 by a loose capsular liga- 
 ment to the scapula, 
 allowing great freedom of 
 motion ; and were it not 
 for the muscles passing 
 into I and K, would be 
 frequently dislocated, but 
 i it is supported by these 
 muscles on all side 
 Bones of the Human Arm. oept underneath or oppo- 
 site the armpit, into 
 which the head of the bone is often driven. The 
 roundness of the shoulder is due to the head of the 
 humerus, so that any displacement is accompanied 
 by a flattening, which at once suggests the nature 
 
 of the accident. On the shoulder is a large trian- 
 gular mnscl fcoid, which lifts the A. from 
 the side. At the back is the triceps, which extends 
 the forearm; in front are two mils Bex or 
 bend it — the biceps, and the bracbj ; and 
 on each side below are n 
 
 forearm and hand ; while on each side More, the 
 great muscle of the back (latissimus dorsi) and that 
 of the chest (the pectoralis major) are inserted on 
 each side of a groove, wherein lies one of the ten- 
 dons of the biceps (q. v.). The motions of the ulna 
 
 don or bending effected by the biceps, and 
 extension or straightening by the brschiahs an 
 and the triceps, its projections D and A I 
 
 movements into corresponding 
 
 • ons on the humerus. The movemi 
 the band are principally doe to the red as, ! 
 
 of which rolls at C ami H upon the ulna at F and 
 I urning the palm downwards (pronation), 
 
 or restoring the palm upwards (supination), these 
 
 Human Arm : 
 
 abc, deltoid muscle ; rf, coraco brachials muscle ; r, r, triceps ; 
 r. i, extensors of wrist and long supinator of the hand ; /.m, 
 flexor of fingers and radial and ulnar Fides of the wrist, and 
 /, palm of the hand, or palmaris longus ; p, palmarls brevls; 
 q, palmar fascia ; o, biceps. 
 
 movements being effected by muscles, two for each 
 movement, which taking their fixed points from the 
 humerus and tdna, pull the radius round on the 
 latter. The elbow-joint is ginglymoid or hinge-like, 
 and therefore has lateral ligaments; but it is 
 
 extremely liable to dial ktions, often accomi 
 
 by fracture, especially in the voung. The accident 
 followed by severe inflammation, the joint 
 is very apt to stiffen, thereby seriously (gee Anky- 
 losis) deteriorating from the usefulness of the 
 limb ; it is, therefore, unadvisable to keep the 
 limb too long in any one position after such an 
 injury. This joint is also very liable to disease; 
 but as this is confined to the ends of the bones, the 
 small portions of the latter affected can be readily 
 cut out, and the arm be restored to usefulness and 
 mobility in a few weeks. 
 
 The upper extremity is supplied with blood by
 
 ABM— ARMADA. 
 
 the brachial artery, the continuation of the axillary 
 trunk. The veins collect into large superficial trunks, 
 which unite at the bend of the elbow, at which 
 situation one is frequently selected fur venesection, 
 and then pass on to the axillary, on the out 
 the cephalic vein, on the inner side by the basilic. 
 
 The nerves pas3 down as large cords by the side 
 of the artery, and divi ■ to their ultimate 
 
 distributions; the musculo-spiral soon passing 
 round at the back to appear on the outside, and 
 become the radial and posterior interosseous nerves ; 
 hind the internal condyle, N, 
 for which it has obtained the term ' funny bone,' 
 from the electric-like thrill which passes along the 
 arm when the nerve is struck or pressed. The 
 median, as its name inches, keeps a middle course 
 with the artery. 
 
 In wounds of the forearm, the bleeding is often 
 excessive, but may be at once controlled by pressure 
 on the brachial artery, on the inner side of the 
 biceps. 
 
 The arm affords excellent illustrations of some of 
 the principles of mechanics. The insertion of the 
 I so near, as will be seen, to the fulcra or 
 centres of motion, involves a loss of power in the 
 usual sense of the word ; there is, however, a corre- 
 sponding gain in velocity at the end of the lever; and 
 for most of the purposes to which the hand is put, 
 agility is of far greater moment than dead strength. 
 
 ABM. In maritime language, besides the obvious 
 application to weapons of warfare, this term is 
 applied to each extremity of a bibb, or bracket, 
 attached to the mast of a ship for supporting the 
 trestle-trees. The same name is also given to a part 
 of the anchor. See Anchor. — In military Ian 
 the infantry, the cavalry, the artillery, and the 
 rs are each called ' an A. ' of the service — 
 equivalent to branch or department. 
 
 ARMA'DA, a Spanish word signifying simply an 
 armed force, but applied specially to the great 
 Spanish fleet which invaded England in 1588. The 
 king of Spain, Philip II., had resolved to strike a 
 decisive blow at 1 1 uot interest, by conquer- 
 
 ing England, which Pope Sixtus V. had ma.! 
 to him. The ports of Spain, Portugal, and other 
 maritime dominions belonging to him, had long 
 resounded with the noise of liis preparations, and the 
 most eminent Catholic soldiers from all parts of 
 Europe flocked to take a share in the exped 
 The Marquis of Santa-Croce, a sea-officer of 
 ion and experience, w.as destined to con 
 the fleet, which consisted of a hundred and thirty 
 
 . of greater size than any that had been hitherto 
 seen in Europe. The Duke of Parma was to conduct 
 the land-forces, 20,000 of whom were on boai 
 ships of war, and ." ■ assembled in the 
 
 Net herlan ds , ready to be transported into England ; 
 so that, as no doubt was entertained of succ 
 fleet was ostentatiously styled the Invinc 
 Nothing could ex.eed the terror and consternation 
 which seized all ranks of people in England upon the 
 news of this terrible A. being under sail to invade 
 tie in. A squadron of not more than thirty ships of 
 the line, and those very small in comparison, was all 
 that Elizabeth had to oppose it by sea; and it was 
 considered impossible to make any effectual . 
 as by land, as the Spanish army was composed of 
 men well disciplined and long inured to danger. 
 But although the English fleet was much inferior in 
 number and size of shipping to that of the enemy, it 
 was much more manageable, while the dexterity and 
 
 " of the mariners v ly superior. 
 
 Lord Howard of Effingham, a man of great valour 
 
 ipacity, took upon him 
 the command of the navy ; Drake, Hawkins, and 
 
 her, the n. ...id seamen in Europe, 
 
 served under him ; while another squadron, consist- 
 ingof forty. i lish and Flemish, commanded 
 
 by Lord Seymour, lay off Dunkirk, in order to inter- 
 cept the Duke of l'arma. Such was the preparation 
 made by t ' . ; while all the Protestant 
 
 powers of Europe regarded this enterprise as the 
 critical event which was to decide for ever the fate 
 of their religion. In the meantime, while the Spanish 
 A. was preparing to sad, the admiral, Santa-Croce, 
 
 1 likewise the vice-admiral, Paliano ; and the 
 a nd of the expedition was given to the Duke 
 of Medina Sidonia, a person utterly inexperienced in 
 sea affairs ; these unexpected circumstances served, 
 in some measure, to frustrate the design. Some 
 other accidents also contributed to its failure. Upon 
 leaving the port of Lisbon, the A. next day met with 
 a violent tempest, which sank some of the smallest 
 of the ships, and obliged the rest to put back into 
 the harbour. After some time spent in refitt.i 
 Spaniards again put to sea, where they took a fisher- 
 man, who gave them intelligence that the English 
 fleet, hearing of the dispersion of the A. in a storm, 
 had returned to Plymouth, and that most of the 
 mariners were discharged. From this false intelli- 
 gence, the Spanish admiral, instead of going to the 
 coast of Flanders, to take in the troops stationed 
 there, resolved to sail directly to Plymouth, and 
 destroy the shipping laid up in the harbour. But 
 Effingham was very well prepared to receive him, 
 and had just got out of port, when he saw the 
 Spanish A. coming full sail towards him, disposed in 
 the form of a hall-moon, and stretching sewn miles 
 from the one extremity to the other. The English 
 admira 1 by Drake, Hawkins, and I'r 
 
 attacked the Spaniards at a distance, pouring in their 
 broadsides with admirable dexterity. They did not 
 choose to engage the enemy more closely, because 
 they v. inferior in number of ships and 
 
 guns, as well as in weight of metal ; DOT could they 
 pretend to board such lofty \ >ut manifest 
 
 disadvantage. In this action, however, two Spanish 
 galleons were disabled and taken. As the A. 
 advanced up the Channel, the English still followed 
 and infested its rear ; and as their ships continually 
 
 d front different ports, they soon found them- 
 
 m a capacity to attack the S] . more 
 
 nearly, and accordingly fell upon them while they 
 
 iking shelter in the port of Calais. To increase 
 their confusion, Howard selected eight of his smaller 
 vessels, which, after tilling them with combustible 
 materials, he sent one after another, as if th 
 been fire-sliips, into the midst of the enemy. The 
 Spaniards, taking them for what they seemed to bo, 
 
 at ly bore off in great disorder; while the 
 ting by their panic, captured or destroyed 
 about twelve ship3. The Du 1 Sidonia 
 
 being thus driven to the coast of Zealand, I 
 council of war, in which it was resolved, that, as 
 their ammunition began to fail, a t had 
 
 1 great damage, and as the l'arma 
 
 had refused to venture his army under their protec- 
 tion, they should return to Spain by sailing round 
 the Orkneys, as the winds were contrary to then- 
 passage directly back. y proceeded 
 northward, and were follow ,.:i-lish fleet 
 as far as Flamborough II they were 
 terribly shattered by a storm. - s of the 
 ships, having 5000 men on board, were afterwards 
 cast away on t!. and the coast of 
 Inland. Of the v.i ' A,. ii:t\ pa only 
 returned to Spain, and these in a wretched condi- 
 tion. The seamen, as well as the soldiers who 
 remained, wi rcome with hardships and 
 npirited by their discomtitur 
 u with accounts of the de.s;>eratc
 
 ARMADILLO— \i:.MACir. 
 
 nous violence 
 of that i rhioh they were Burroui 
 
 LRMADI'LLO of mammalia 
 
 of the ■ Le., toothli 
 
 truly toothless, Imt having feeble teeth d 
 
 apart from each other, and 
 one jaw lit into the interatii 
 of the other. The number of the teeth is differ* at in 
 different species. The muzzl. ted, and the 
 
 I ith and slender, with a glutinous 
 
 adapted to the capture of ants and other in 
 
 manner of the ant-i . I i i ig am 
 
 Ue, like theirs. The Bhort and 
 
 ng and burrowing, by 
 
 means of which they 
 
 B — burrowing in sand or soft earth with 
 such rapidity that it is almost impossible 
 
 out, and ind only be done 
 
 ing till they i d. that which peculi- 
 
 . a h i the A., and in which thi i 
 from all the other mam: pt the 
 
 i \yphorus (<|. v.), is the bony armour with which 
 
 the body is covered, and which consists of pal 
 plates not articulated, united on the head to form a 
 solid covering, and similarly to form solid bi 
 over the shoidders and the haunches ; and hi 
 
 
 Arm; 
 
 these, d 
 
 freedom of n bod 
 
 species protecting also the tail. Armadill 
 
 only on inset-, but on vegetable and i 
 
 of almost every kind, which by decomposition or 
 
 otherwise ha ; a sufficient softness. 
 
 of them prefer vegetable food, othi 
 
 ion. They are all natives of 1 < 
 
 temperate parts of South America, in the wood I 
 pampas of which they at 
 
 They are timid an ! ve, although, when they 
 
 are incautiously assailed, injury may be r 
 from their claws. Their flesh licacy, 
 
 ilarly that of the species which fei d 
 vegetable food. The largest species is fully three 
 ive of the tail ; the smallest, not 
 above ten inches. The species ai 
 the genus has Keen divided into a nun 
 
 . which some natural: nto genera, 
 
 naming the family Loricata (Le., To this 
 
 family belongs also the genus CM 
 
 American. Fossil remains of gigantic 
 armadillos have been found in the pleistocene strata 
 
 ith America, forming the genus Gbjplodon of 
 ' so named from the fluted teeth. 
 
 AllMADI'LLn is also the scientific name of a 
 a of the order Itopoda of I 
 This is one of the genera usually included und 
 popular name of Woodlouse, and one of which 
 aerally known by that of 
 Slater. The armadillos derive their name from the 
 
 408 
 
 scaly:' their body, in which an analo 
 
 found to thi mailed quadrupeds of South Ami 
 
 'Hey have, in a remarkable degree, the 
 
 nol bing but the 
 plates of the ' 
 the name of J 'ill .me of 
 
 i 
 at one . puted to 
 
 iw accounted ry. 
 
 A rrao- 
 dillo. 
 
 I en 
 
 damp places, under 
 stones, &c, in Britain. 
 
 ARMA'GH, a small inland county in 1 
 Ireland; bounded N. by Lough Neagh, E.by I 
 S. by Louth, W. by Si Us 
 
 .'._' miles, and breadth l'o. It is 
 i th i>> size ot the Irish counties; area, 
 square it four-fifths being ar 
 
 .'JOth part in woods. I e is hilly in the 
 
 south, and undulating in the centre, attaining in 
 Slieve Grullion, in the south-west, tlie height of 
 1S93 feet. The other chief heights are the X.wry 
 i . 1385 Eeetj the Axmagh-breague Hills, 
 1200; and Mullyash, 1034. Thi country bordering 
 upon Lo i is low and boggy, and the Louth 
 
 i i • the south end of A. The prin- 
 
 cipal i ilile in their lower parts, are the 
 
 1 pper Bann, So\i i outof Down north-west for ll 
 it eni i ; and the I 
 
 Ii, in iis lower part, separati • \. I 
 
 The rocks of A. are — ] i ian in 
 
 the south and middle of the county; the trap of 
 Antrim, with the underlying greensand, around 
 Portad me in the I 
 
 of the i ry the I lallan ; 
 
 granite in i ith-east; and 
 
 ry strata bordering Lou Chi Soil 
 
 is fertile except in the oities. Cn 
 
 i 179,598 acres— nearly half the county 
 
 i being oats, pol 
 
 v. heat, and ' le si ock in thai year was I, 
 
 . 72,176 cattle, 8043 sheep, 21,647 pigs. The 
 ■ ■ di I. popula- 
 L to e tops, hedgerows, 
 i thickly scattered farm 
 in ls.31, 196 of 6308 in ten 
 
 i county is mostly in the diocese of 
 ui ns three i i oi parliament 
 
 inty, and one for the city. 
 chief towns are A.. Lurgan, Portadown, and Xewry. 
 (1871— pop. lVl.eOO.) 
 
 Armagh, the capital of the county of A., in a car- 
 bonifero i north-west of the 
 
 county. It is situated round the base and on the 
 slopes nf a geni le eminenc -. b its oi iginal nam", 
 Ard-Magha,' the high field.' It is v. oi lime- 
 
 The only cdilicc of other material is the 
 IraL which is built of red sandstone, and is 
 rm— 184 by 119 feet — crov. i central 
 
 eminen led to occupy the site of that 
 
 5th c. It has recently 
 i repaired and bei at the cost 
 
 it Lord Primate, Lord Beres- 
 ford. 1 ■ i on I b in a th-east and 
 
 of A. .V new Gothic Roman Catholic cathe- 
 dral occupies the principal height to the north, and 
 matial palace that to the south. Thi 
 .' hospital for forty patients, maintain 
 the pp ie, and alu imn for four 
 
 A. is the seat of the Archil pi opal see 
 of the Primate and M n of all ii 
 
 «ho baa an ol 12,087 : i I 'op. of 
 
 the town in 1S51, 9300. (Ia71 — pop. ot c.ty, TSOO.i
 
 AEMAGNAC— ARMED SHIP. 
 
 The chief mi lis linen- weaving. A., from the 
 
 year 495 to the lit Ii c, was the metropolis of 1 
 
 at Eamania, 2 miles to tile 
 i . 1 as a school 
 
 of theology and literature — its college being the lirst 
 iu Europe. After the Reformation, it suf) 
 in th I Irish; and 
 
 i lined only i uses in 1705. 
 
 ARMAGH \c [Agar Arenumia to old name 
 of a district in the smith of iiich at one j 
 
 i o have i aded from the valleys of the 
 sees to the Garonne. It is now in 
 in the departmi I o BLautes 1';, I Gers. 
 
 The remarkably I rial land, producing grain and 
 of win'', and also favourable 
 ap into an ' >rd . 
 
 proprietors. The principal branch of trade is the 
 
 iun of the brandy known hi commerce as 
 
 , which rivals those of Cognac and 
 
 Saintonge. The pita! is Lectoure, on the 
 
 with 2879 inhabitants. To the south of 
 
 it lies An- town of the department of 
 
 ' Pop., 7942, The people are noted for their 
 
 simplicity, strength, and bravery ; hut, on the other 
 
 hand, they are extremely credulous and ignorant. 
 
 were highly valued in 
 
 war. The A. family, descended from the 
 
 old Merovignian king, Clovis, played an important 
 
 part in Flench history. 
 
 A'ltMAMEXT 1 name for the wei 
 
 of war employed in sea and land battles ; all the 
 , . : .ng called the A. of a ship or 
 an army. 
 ARMANSPERG, .Tes. I.rn\v.,Cou>-T of, formerly 
 nt of the government in Greece, was born in 
 Lot er Bavaria in 1787, and early < mbraced an admini- 
 strative and diplomatic career. On the accession of 
 King Louis to the throne, A., who had already occu- 
 pied sevral important posts, was summoned to 
 ih, where, rapidly ruing from one dignity to 
 another, he at he i minister of finance and 
 
 of foreign affairs. In both capacities he proved active 
 and successful ; but he drew upon himself the hatred 
 of the Camarilla by his : .position to 
 
 ' 'I as by his attempts to 
 
 identify himself with the decidedly liberal party. 
 
 tence was that, in 1831, he lost his 
 and in lb.- same year was appointed ambassador to 
 London, but preferred retiring to his family estate. 
 
 •.er, he could not resist the king's re] 
 request that he would undertake the formation of 
 ! . and accordingly, 
 
 I ho, A. landed at Nauplia 
 in January 1833. Bot four years be was at the head 
 of pub! I Greece derived many benefits 
 
 from his administration ; but the heat of 
 and court intrigues led to his di 
 and 1 Ore ee in March 1837. Since that 
 
 i livid in retirement upon b 
 I teggendorf. 
 
 AliMATO'LES, a body of Greek militia, lirst 
 1 under the reign of Sultan Selim 1. 
 the beginning of the 16th c. They were intended 
 
 tlie fertile plains from the rava 
 the A'.'- ,."/'',' (mountain robbers of Thessaly), who had 
 never been entirely conquered by the Turks. The 
 A. themselves wi re originally Ulephts, but r 
 their i.ation when th 
 
 torphosed them into a sort of military 
 police. Th 
 t" da a- care. The \\ hi 
 
 I into districts (cd 
 
 1 under the sup rvision of a chief of these 
 mihtia, who, however, had himself to receive ordeis 
 
 from a Turk ': it although 
 
 brigandage of 
 led them in the light 
 of brothers, inasmuch as they had a common origin 
 and faith ; both i 
 
 country; and the sentiment of pab rruled 
 
 every other a a. This sympathy at last 
 
 appear' 
 
 alarmed. . I desi I to the A. the 
 
 Mohammedan AI 1 . 
 
 of the Creeks, v.l. , r , did not 
 
 a btt! ■ to hasten the i which the 
 
 treaded. The moment it broke out, tl 
 
 tional 
 ' i 
 distinguished 
 
 A'RMATTTRE . armour; Ger. anker). 
 
 ni A. is applied ;•> tfa ■ pii ci 9 of soft iron that 
 are placed at the extremities or poles of magnets to 
 . e their magnetic power. When magnets are 
 '. to remain any length of time without 
 appendages, in consequence of the disturbing influ- 
 ence of terrestrial i derably 
 in strength ; but when they are provided with them 
 their magnetism is kept in a state of constant 
 activity, and thereby shielded from this distui b 
 
 son of this is found in two facts well known 
 in the science of magnetism — viz., that when a piece 
 of soft iron is brought into contact with the cx- 
 tremity of a magnet, it is itself induced to become 
 t the unlike' poll i of two diffi 
 dly attract each other. Referring 
 north pole, N, of the hoi 
 magnet, S HS, acting on the arma- 
 ture, «», induces it to become a 
 magnet, having its south p> 
 
 and its north pole, «, 
 at the ■ rtremity. 
 
 -. irtue of it i , 
 affinity, powerfully attracts tie 
 north pole, n, thus formed, and 
 
 its own inducing iutlti 
 to heighten tie' ma jnetic condi- 
 tion previously induced in the 
 armature by th - pole X. The 
 A., from the combined ai 
 of both poles of the hors' 
 magnet, is thus converted into a 
 powerful magnet, with its poles 
 lying in an i i to that of the primary 
 
 I-" 1 i, i ' original magnet is. in consequence, 
 brought into contact with • > mi making, 
 
 favourable to the maintenance of it 
 It is due to mutual attractions that a 
 
 much I lit can 1" I from the 
 
 A. thus phv v. hat th.' single pol 
 
 bain. Bar maj ai • 9 maj i e armed in 
 -. iy by laying them • 
 
 itn their unlike poles towards 
 ■nitics 
 by two pice ah as 
 
 a compass-needle, is free to take up I 
 required by the magnetism of the earth, the earth 
 itself plays the part of an armature. 
 
 ARMED SHIP, in the official language of the 
 Soya] Xa\y. occupii - a. sort of medium p 
 
 lip and a man-of-war. It is a 
 private vessel, hired occasionally by the Admiralty 
 for a special pu I commissioned for a 
 
 temporary period. The duty is usually that of 
 guarding some pa t. or attending on a 
 
 particular fleet, dining a time of war ; and while SO 
 employed, it is . I equipped like ouc of 
 
 the smaller ships-of-war in the Royal Navy. 
 
 400
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 ARMENIA, .1 high table-land on the southern 
 of the Caucasus, stretching down towards 
 - [t ha bad different bonndarii 
 
 various centuries of its history. It is 
 
 scat of one of the oldest civilised peoples in the 
 
 '. the Armenians, who 
 inic family of nations. Thi 
 contain nothing certain beyond the facts that, in 
 ancient times, they were governed by ind 
 < nt kings, but afterwards became tributary to the 
 That dim p riod which 
 . myth and history begins, in the 
 L, about tl 1 I 
 
 King Dikran, or '1 I of the Sa 
 
 d the independence of the kingdom. The last 
 king of this dynasty was slain in battle 
 Alexander the Great, who conquered the country. 
 After Alexander's death, A. passed thr 
 
 es of fortune under the . who 
 
 1018 over it. Of these, two — 
 Artaxias and Zariadres — made themseh 
 cut of their sovereign, Antiochus the Great, during 
 
 ime when he was 1 t with 
 
 Romans, 223—190 B.O. They divided the 
 province into two districts — Artaxias tak 
 Major (that part of the country lying E. 
 Euphrates), and Zariadres A. Minor (the part to 
 tie' W. of that river). The dynasty of Artaxias 
 did not reign long; for about the middle of the 
 2d c. E. c, we tind A. Major in the possession of 
 a branch of the Parthian Arsacidas, Of which the 
 
 powerful king was Tigranes the Great, who 
 added to the conquests made by his predecessors in 
 Lower Asia and the region of tie I I . Syria, 
 
 idocia, and A. Minor; defeated the Parthians, 
 and took from them Mesopotamia and other coun- 
 tries. He lost all these territories by his war with 
 the Komans, into which he was led by h;s father-in- 
 law Mithridates, king of Pontus. in 63 d.c. After 
 this, the assaults of the Komans from the west ever 
 growin >rous, and those of the 
 
 Parthians from 1' . tened the downfall of 
 
 A. Major. The successors of Tigranes became 
 tent) partly on the one nation and partly on 
 the other, while internally the nobles broke through 
 the restraints of a feeble monarchy, ami claimed 
 the privileges of petty kings. fJnder Trajan, 
 A. Major was for a short time a Roman province. 
 Its subsequent history exhibited an unbroken series 
 of tumults and wars, of violent successions to the 
 throne, despotic reigns, and rapid decay. In 232 
 A. n. the province was conquered by the Sa? 
 who held possession of it 28 years, until Tiridates 111., 
 the rightful heir, was restored I - ae by 
 
 Roman assist 
 
 It was about this fan became 
 
 the religion of A., which was thus the first nation to 
 embrace the new religion. TirM If had 
 
 been converted by St Gregory the Illuminator 
 as early as about 276 a. d. The old religion of 
 Armenia had for its basis the doctrines of Zoro- 
 aster, with a curious intermixture of Greek 1 
 
 , and of ideas peculiar to the country. It is 
 
 in that the Armenians worshipped as their 
 mightiest gods, Aramazt and Mihir (the Ormuzd and 
 Mithras of the old Persians); lint they had also a 
 
 1 Venus, whom they styled Anaitis. and 
 other deities, to whom the}' offered animal sacrifices. 
 This change of creed, however, mad- no in 
 ment in the political circumstances of the falling 
 state. The Byzantine Greeks on one side, and 
 the Persians on the other, regarded A. as their 
 prey; and in 428, Bahram V. of i'> ia made A. a 
 province of the empire of the Sassanides, and with 
 the deposition of Artasir the dynast 
 was brought to a close. The rule of the Sassanides 
 410 
 
 in A. was 1 ly by their sanguinary but 
 
 In 632, the unhappy country was subject 
 
 and Buffered terribly di ith the 
 
 Byzantine emperors. In 886 a.i>.. Aschod I.. > 
 
 old and powerful Armenian family. DSCi nded the 
 
 ounded 
 
 rd Armenian dynasty 
 Under them \. | lerons till tin- 11th c, 
 
 divisions and internal 
 
 nntrv ; till at length the ' 
 murdered tin 1 last monarch of the " I 
 
 of the kin' d "in. while the Tories and Kinds 
 made them- the rest — only one or 
 
 two of the native princes maintaining a perilous 
 independence. In 1242, the whole of A. Major was 
 conquered by the Mongols, and in 1472 br, 
 
 Afterwards the western part 
 fell into the hands of the Turkish sultan. 81 In. 1 1. 
 
 fate of A. Minor was hardly better. The 
 by founded by Zariadres prevailed to thi 
 of Tigranes the Great, of A. Major, who 
 
 conquered the country about 70 is. c. Afterwards 
 
 A. Minor was subjugated by the Romans, and made 
 
 a Raman province. On the d 
 
 into eastern and western, it became attached to the 
 
 former, and shared in all its changes of fortune 
 until near the close of the 11th c. At this time 
 A. Minor — which had long been a place of 1 
 for many who had Bed of the Turks 
 
 and Persians in the 1 1 province — was again 
 raised to independence by Rhapen (a 1 
 A. Maj '■ nt of the Ba ' it dae). His 
 
 successors extended their dominion . . ■ 1 .ia and 
 loeia, and took a prominent part in the 
 Crusades. This dynasty ruled prosperously until 
 1374, when A. Mia 1 by the Egyptian 
 
 sultan Schaban. Since that time A., with the 
 exception of the parts which Russia has won in the 
 present oentury from 1 which are b 
 
 governed, ha I subject to the d 
 
 the Turks and Persians. No bis, the 
 
 Armenians have steadily pn nationality, 
 
 both in its and moral lineaments ; 
 
 faith; and even — tb nigh only a relic of their ancient 
 culture — a higher civilisation than their eon 
 The political storms which devastated I 
 during the middle ages, and the persecutions of the 
 n many of the inhabitants from 
 their homes. This is the reason why we tind them 
 scattered over all Asia and Europe. En Hungary, 
 Transylvania, and Galicia they number 10,000. 
 They are very numerous in Ru a. but most of 
 all in Asia Minor, and in the neighbourhood of 
 Constantinople, where they number 200,000. 
 
 The greater part of A. is an elevated table-land. 
 Its area is estimated at 90,000 Bquare miles; pop. 
 1,000. It is watered by the rivers Kur, 
 Aim-, Joruk, Euphrates, and to a slight extent by 
 the Tigris. The lakes which lie within this moun- 
 tainous region are Van, Urumiyah, and Sevan. The 
 Armenian plateau, on the eastern side of which 
 the volcanic range of Ararat lifts itself, forms the 
 1 point of several mountain-chains, such as 
 Taurus and Antitauras, the mountains of Kurdistan, 
 and those which run north to the Black Sea. It 
 exhibits numerous traces of having been subject to 
 volcanic agency, and even yet — as was shewn by 
 the severe earthquake of the summer of 184(1. and 
 the recent (1S59) total destruction of Erzerum — 
 possesses an internal volcanic activity. The climate 
 in the higher regions is hot in summer and cold in 
 winter, but in the valleys it is more tern] 
 The country labours under a great scarcity of wood, 
 and in some parts is sterile, through a deficiency of
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH— ARMENIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 water ; in other parts the soil is extremely fertile, 
 producing rice, hemp, flax, tobacco, wine, cotton, and 
 many varieties of fruit. Cattle breeding and grazing 
 are more extensive than agricrdtur'-. 'i I 
 contain iron, it, and naphtha. The 
 
 number of the inhabitants of par* Armenian 
 is reckoned at n arly 1,000,000, bat tbi 
 admixture of Tu . Kurds, 4c. 
 
 Armenians b i finest variety 
 
 of the [ndo Their int ' 
 
 inarkable, as is shewn both by then- 
 literature, and tlicir singular dexterity in bll 
 Still, long centuries of ojipression have exerted a 
 withering influence on their Dative strength of 
 character, so that the mass of those who rein 
 home are sunk in superstition and ignorance. They 
 profess Chri rincipal towns in A. are 
 
 Erivan (q.V.) and Akhalzikh (both 1 
 Russia). Akhalzikh has a population of 12, 
 13,000, is fortified, and adorned by a mosque and 
 many Armenian churches. It possesses a coll. 
 library, and has trade in silk and 
 these there are in Turkish A., Erzeram, Van, 
 4c. (q. v.) 
 
 ARME'NIAN CHURCH. Christianity appears 
 to have been introduced into Armenia as early as 
 the 2d c, for, according to tradition, Dionysius, 
 Bishop of Corintli. ■. le to the Armenian 
 
 Christians, who were then under the authority of a 
 bishop named Meruzanea. It was first firmly estab- 
 bout the end of the 3d c. by the 
 apostolical exertions of Bis: (q. v.), who 
 
 converted Tiridates (see AhmKHXa). The Bible 
 was translated into the Armenian language in the 
 5th c. After this period great animation pn 
 in the A. C. Numbers flocked to the colleges at 
 Athens and Constantinople. In the ecclesiastical 
 controversy concerning the twofold nature of 
 Christ, the Armenian Christians held with the 
 
 physites (q. v.); refused to ackni 
 authority of the Council of Chalcedon ; an 
 stituted themselves a separate church, which took 
 the title of Gregorian from Gregory himself. For 
 a spirit of scientific inquiry, 
 especially in theology, manifested itself among 
 them to a far \ it than in the other 
 
 Eastern churches. Tin I divine is Nerse3 
 
 of Klah, be] c, whose works 
 
 have been repea; iied. The most recent 
 
 edition was issued in Venice, 1S33. The Gregorians 
 have continued to entertain a deeply roote.i 
 
 arch. It is true 
 tii" Roman Catholic popes have at various times 
 (1145, 1341, 1440), when the Armenians accepted 
 
 hammedans, 
 tried to persuade them to recognise the papal supre- 
 macy ; but, for tl it, only the nobles con- 
 liile the mass of the people clung 
 ins, as we see from the com- 
 plaint OI I accuses the 
 A. C. of 117 errors of doctrine. There is a sect 
 rtians in Italy, Poland, Galicia, 
 a, and Marseille. These recognise the 
 spiritual sovereignty of the p 
 
 I man Catholic Church, but have 
 
 their own form of church-government. On the 
 
 irruption of the Persians into Armenia, at the begin- 
 
 tlie 17th c, many of the inhabitants were 
 
 to become Mohammedans, but by far the 
 
 •X number remained true to their ancient 
 faith. The A. C. has never scrupled ( 
 
 under the protection of the Porte agah 
 aggressive demands of the I and recently 
 
 of Ru t the intrusions of Catholic and 
 
 Protestant missionaries. Its i s f rom 
 
 that usually styled orthodox, in attr 
 
 one nature ( I and holding that the Spirit 
 
 proct-e Father alone ; the latter doctrine, 
 
 r, being hi Id by it in common with the 
 'orthodox Greek Church,' all : ran,- to the 
 
 theology of the western churches, 
 the 'seven sacraments,' it entertains the peculiar 
 notions that at baptism one must 1* b;.i 
 three times, and as often dipped ; that confirma- 
 tion is to be conjoined with baptism ; that the 
 Lord's Supper m d with pure wine 
 
 avened bre Ij that the la: being 
 
 handed roie be dipped in the fomi'-r ; 
 
 and that extreme unction is to be adn 
 ecclesiastics alone, and that immediately after (and 
 not before) their death. It believes in I 
 of saints, but not in purgatory. It exceeds the 
 Greek Church in the number of its fasl 
 ' has fewer religious festivals. These; however, are 
 more enthusiastically kept. Divine service is held 
 in Turkey chiefly by night. Mass is celebrated 
 in the old Armenian language; preacb 
 carried on in the new. It3 sacerdotal const 
 differs little from the Greek. 'Jin- head of the 
 church, whose title is Catholikos. 
 miadzin, a monastery near Erivan, the capital of 
 Russian Armenia. To this place every Armenian 
 must make a pilgrimage once in his life. The monks 
 of this church follow the rule of St Basil. The War- 
 tabieds form a peculiar class of ecclesiastics ; they 
 live like monks, but are devoted exclusively to 
 learning. Secular priests must marry once, but 
 none are at liberty to take a second wife. 
 
 ARME'NIAN LITERATURE. Previous to 
 the introduction of Christianity by < !regory(3 
 the Armenians had adhered to the Assyrian or Medo- 
 Persian system of culture; but excepting a few 
 old songs or ballads, no remains of that early period 
 exist. After their conversion to Christianity, the 
 Greek language and its literature soon became 
 favourite objects of study, and in; ithors 
 
 were translated into Armenian. (See Weni 
 AuctorumGr&eorumversionibusAr' nods, 
 
 ,\ . I ■ 1S42.) The Armeniae as an 
 
 alphabet of its own, consisti intro- 
 
 duced by Mi sr .bin 406. The most flourishing period 
 of A. L. extends from the 4th to the 14th c. The 
 numerous Armenian theological writers and chroni- 
 clers of this era supply materials fora 1; 
 East during the n i which have nil 
 
 been too much neglected. These Armenian writers 
 
 fenerally copied the style of the ' k and 
 
 Jyzantine authors ; but in ac to facts and 
 
 they are superior to 
 oriental historians. In the 14th •■.. literature 
 todechni'.and few remarkable works were after 
 produced; but since the time of their disp 
 the Armenians have pr 
 
 ! literature ; and wli 
 — in Amsterdam, Lemborg, Leghorn, Venice, 
 kan, M pie, Smyrna, Ispahan, 
 
 Madras, or Calcutta — the printing-office is a] 
 a feature in their colonies. 
 
 Armenian settlement is that of ..riits 
 
 (q. v.), on the island of 
 The Bible translated into An ti Man (tl 
 
 .ant from the text of th at] by 
 
 Miesrob and his scholars (411 A.D. 
 highest model of classic style. ns of 
 
 several Greek air. t the sam. 
 
 have been partly preserved, and contain some wnt- 
 which the originals 1 
 ranicle of E i of P 
 
 Homil . Basd the 
 
 Great, and Fphraim Sj I i ral old geographi- 
 
 cal and historical works I 
 Among philosophical and theological writers may be
 
 AEMEEIA— ARMIES. 
 
 •itat'T 
 
 of Aristotle, Eanik, and Jo I The 
 
 i 
 
 Armenian Saints, 12vo1b. Ven. 1 v I is many 
 
 .■: ' ■ ' I i [n ■ ry and 
 
 i, \. I,, is poor. Somal, in bis work i 
 
 1829), of A. T,. 
 
 to the Ind 
 . but baa many p 
 It is 1 
 
 Armenian, I -<• of literature, is no longer 
 
 a livin 
 
 into four dialects, contains many Turkish woi 
 grammatical constructions. 
 
 AKME'RIA. See Thrift. 
 
 ARMFELT, Gustaj Maubttz, s 
 Swede, whose public hie was characterised by strik- 
 ol fortune, wa i the • 
 
 Baron Armfelt, and born at .Tuva, in th< vern- 
 
 of Alio, on the 1st of April 17">7. Having, 
 a i ler of the ro I ; . displayed 
 
 activity and zeal in opposing the machii 
 of the nobles, who were at that period 
 
 III., the latter appreciated He 
 of bis services, and appointed him to 
 in the Bervice of the Crown Prince. During the 
 war betB . eden and liussia ( 1 7SS tin), in 
 which he was commander of one of the three divi- 
 ih army, 1 
 I spirit, and advanced still higher in the 
 of the monarch. He defeated a Russian 
 force at Snmma. near FYedrikshamm ; and as mili- 
 tary representative of ' ad the honour of 
 '■■ 14th of August 
 1790. On the 16th of March 1792, Gustavuswas 
 ted. B .Mind, though mortal, did not 
 
 iployed the 
 
 . al that el death in 
 
 drawing up a codicil to bis v. ill. by which the 
 
 brother, Charles, 
 ia, during tl 
 
 1\'., A. b m, and 
 
 member of pointed to advise with 
 
 The Duke of Sudermania, however, 
 ' look the idea of a ch 
 upon b of action, and found means to 
 
 licit, the conditions of which he 
 ■ intended to ol . 
 
 scious that his influence was rap 
 He i rarely permitted to seethe youn 
 at last, after a secret interview with 
 
 1 as ambassador to Naples in July 1792. 
 i Ital ! i con ce with 
 
 a parties in Sv, ' 
 throw i: ag the S 
 
 l G Th • • ■ mdence 
 
 I. A- fled to F ; . and afterwards to 
 ■. He was condemned, durin 
 high treason, and stri; goods and 
 
 one of his . the beautiful I 
 
 Rudenskold, was rah] It.. brutal 
 
 ag publicly 'infamous,' 
 
 exposed on a scaffold for some houi I 
 
 in a house of correction for life. 
 horror of such an atrocity in language suffii 
 
 c period, he 
 to accept office undi 
 
 throne. In 1799, Gustavus IV. i 
 the crown at the age of i id A. was 
 
 1 to all his honours. In 1805, he was 
 appointed governor-general of Finland : and in 
 
 h army rai- 
 the invasion of Norway; but his plans w 
 completely frustrated, that he was compelled to 
 
 ! the invasion of Sweden by the bucci I 
 was in consequence i 
 
 I u the follow Hi" 1 
 
 lntion tool i. the Duke 
 
 i iii his place, and \. v. as 
 ut of the Mihtai I lint 
 
 shortly after, being implicated in 
 
 in.-, he wa flj to 
 
 I '. where he livid during tin- remainder of his 
 life in high honour. Tin- till' oi I ount was 
 conferred on hini, he was i .. 
 univei i. president of the Board of Finnish 
 
 Affairs, and member of the Russian senate. J [< 
 at T i on the 19th August 1814, 
 
 ARMIDA, one of the most prominent 
 ■ I Tai o's Ji rusah m D< Kw reck 
 
 . t the 
 holy city, Satan held a council to d 
 
 . bing the plans of thi CI 
 warriors, and A., a very beautiful sorceress, was 
 emploi ■' Kinaldo and I 
 
 Rinala - lacted by A. t" a n i 
 
 where, in her splendid palace, surrounded byd 
 ful gard.ns and pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot 
 his vows, and tl. to which hi 
 
 d his life. To liberate him from his voluptuous 
 bonda lengerB from the Christian army — 
 
 Carlo and Dbaldo — came to the island, bringing a 
 talisman so powerful that the witchery of I 
 
 .id. Rinaldc escaped, but was followed by 
 i, in battle, incited several wai 
 
 1 ' rushed into 
 
 •d d by Rinaldo, who then 
 
 .1 bis love to her, persuaded her to bi 
 
 a Christian, and vowed to be her faithful knight. 
 
 n made the subject of an 
 
 l.\ I rluck .". 
 
 ARMIES, armed forces under regular military 
 
 isation, employed for purposes of national 
 
 or defence. An army may comprise the 
 
 iployed by 1 : ■ only 
 
 a portion under a particular commander. Whi a an 
 
 armed force is under no constituted authority, and 
 
 i its organisation and discipline, it cannot 
 
 i thy of the name of an army, and 
 
 may be little better than a hord iditti. Of 
 
 this nature arc the / 
 
 FzLLTBOSTEBS) in which certain | of the 
 
 of the United States free 
 h long s of experience, the princip] 
 military organisation, and the 1 i which A. 
 
 . cially amenable, have gradually reachi 1 a 
 gree of perfection. The primitive wars among 
 barbarous people are always depem 
 
 the fin [the wilderness for 1 and 
 
 uccessful if an enemy can be atl I 
 
 unawares, despoiled, and carried into slavery. 
 a time, war advances to the position of an ai ; 
 is conducted by men who have received a c 
 training. An army becomes an instrument uoi 
 for varn enemies, bul Eor ing countries. 
 
 | : position of an army is not 
 
 reached ; for the defence of a country requires more 
 military skill, perhaps, and a better or 
 i an attack. 
 In the several historical articles in this /.' 
 
 i : io the chief natdoi of ! 
 
 modern times, the wars in which thi 
 d i . . fcly notj 
 
 tion; but it seems desirable, in the 
 
 a neans of rendering intelligible 
 
 certain minor details scattered through the work, 
 
 .•• a brief description of the chief points in 
 
 which the A. of different states or countries have 
 
 1 in constitution.
 
 ABIDES. 
 
 ARMIES, Ascjebt:— Egyptians. — The mi 
 traortlinary conqueror among the Egyptians, Scsos- 
 tris or Rhamscs, lived sixteen centuries before the 
 Christian era ; and although the evidence for his 
 of valour is very questionable, there is reason 
 ieve that the organisation of his A. can be 
 pretty accurately traced. His father, Amcnophis, 
 laid the foundation for the military glory i 
 When the latter was born, Amcnophis caused all the 
 male children who were born on the same day as his 
 son, to be set apart as a special body, to be reared tor 
 a military life ; they were taught everything that 
 could strengthen their bodies, increase their co 
 and develop their skill as combatants and leaders; 
 and were to consider themselves bound as the 
 chosen dep companions of. the young 
 
 Indue time Sesostxis became kin 
 and then he formed a sort of militia, distribute d as 
 military colonist', ■ : i 
 land t<. maintain himself and hi 
 this militia had been drilled to militar 
 Sesostris headed them as an army for military con- 
 quest in Asia, and placed the chosen band 
 
 ioned as officers over the different sections of 
 the army. 
 
 Persia [n the creat days of the 1' 
 
 ii- army consisted of cavalry, 
 ere distinguished for their bravery and impe- 
 of attack The infantry were little better 
 than an armed mob. The war-chariots, too, ; 
 calculated to strike terror when dashing into hostUe 
 ranks, were available only on level ground. As to 
 the numbers of men composing the great Persian 
 A., the statements are too wild to be trustworthy. 
 Allowing for :dl exaggeration, however, it is cer- 
 tain that the Persian A. were very large. When 
 Darius was oppi Bed to Alexander the Great, his army 
 t down at various numbers — from 750,000 to 
 1,000,000 men. The king was in tie- centre, sur- 
 ■1 by his courtiers and body-guard ; the Per- 
 sians and Susians were on the left ; the Syrians and 
 Assyrians on the right. The foot-soldiers, forming 
 the bulk of the army, and armed with 
 
 lis, were formed in deep squares or masses ; 
 the horsemen were in the intervals between the 
 squares, and on the right and left Hanks; and the 
 chariots and elephants in front. 
 
 introduced many 
 important changes in A, both in the i 
 and in the manoeuvres, livery man, in the earlier 
 of the country at least, was more or I 
 r, inured to a hard life, taught to bear arms, 
 and expected to light when called upon. The lead- 
 ■i in each state paid attention to organisation 
 and tactics in a way never I 
 
 . armies, but a sort of national militia, that 
 .Marathon, Tlatoa, and Mycale. So far as 
 ted the arrangement of A., the 1. 
 
 oflz (q. v.), a [articular 
 foot-soldiers, j i -. eon. 
 
 Jit ranks, one behind another; thi 
 and rear ranks I picked men, 
 
 and the intermediate ranks of 1 
 
 ten in each rank depended on the 
 ;\\ aUa I he commander. Thi 
 
 ars, short swords, and 
 
 A then ions. — The Athenians madi 
 
 ii the Lace, in the differ- 
 
 ent kinds of troops forming their A. They had 
 heavy infantry, constituting the mi n for the phalanx, 
 and armed \. . and shields ; 
 
 infantry, employed in skirmishes and in 
 ing the phalanx, and" armed with light javelins and 
 shields; a sort of irregular infantry, who, with 
 javelins, bows and arrows, and slings, harassed the 
 
 enemy in march, and performed other sen-ices 
 analogous in some degree to those of sharpshooters 
 
 dern army. It is recorded that Miltiad 
 Athenian hero at M the 'double- 
 
 quick march,' to increa.s ..turn of a phalanx 
 
 when rushing on the enemy. 
 
 ana. — Philip of Macedon, the father of 
 Alexander t I .city to see 
 
 that he could not van ji -i so long as 
 
 he adopted the same format: 
 
 set about He 
 
 have a standing an. L of a 
 
 militia ; to have at command a set of men whose 
 trade was lighting, instead of citizens who 
 traders and soldiers by turn. Asa further cl 
 
 it had 1 
 
 fa a phalanx . ixt i □ n 
 
 points 
 front- 
 rank, forming a bristling array of steel tcrri 1 
 encounter. Besides these heavy infantry, 
 were light troops marshalled into smaller bodi 
 more ai 
 kinds of cavalry— heavy, armed v. ith pik 
 
 led by cuirasses of iron-maU ; li 
 with lances; and irregidar. 
 
 ana. -This nation introduced the army-for- 
 mation of columns, much deeper than broad, or 
 having more men in file than in rank. A new 
 kind of tactics was introduced in accordance with 
 ii mation; the movement being intended to 
 pierce the enemy's line at some one- 
 throw them into confusion. 
 
 Itomans.- 1 warriors initiated changes 
 
 in army matters, which had a wide-spread influence 
 
 ( n the nations of the civilised world. About the 
 
 period 200 B.G, every Roman, fri m the age oi 
 
 4G, was liable to be called upon to serve as a soldier ; 
 
 men were preferred ; but all were avaU- 
 
 able up to the middle-time of life. Tlu-y went 
 
 vere drilling and discipline, to tit 
 
 like for marching, lighting, camping, working, 
 
 carrying, and oth. .ties, livery year the 
 
 Senate decreed the formation of army 
 
 corps, deputing this duty to the consul or p 
 
 sent up the names men. 
 
 and tribunes selected a cci; 
 
 See Lecio.v The Roman 
 
 had many excellent militar;, 
 great facility of movement ; 
 
 if battle uioimpaired ; a qui 
 when forced to J ; a readii 
 
 to varying circui. 
 
 ..sity in a; 
 fighting the enemy even while 
 infantry were armed with javi I 
 
 : the lighter troops wi 
 I javelins ; 
 sive armour comprised shield , 
 
 lives. 
 
 cient nations which had no dist 
 feature 
 
 A KM IKS, M: i ,i . m. 
 
 irked the dividin 
 
 I 
 
 ; he barium : 
 attacked en all sides thi oi c i migl 
 
 in which tin to 'k'- 
 
 r.). What all li.. i 
 :. all demanded to share m 
 uiore or less equal. Hence arose a division of the 
 
 413
 
 AKMIKS. 
 
 conquered territory ; lands were held from thi 
 
 i : ndent sovereignty. 
 
 \\ hi n Euro 
 
 out of the wrecks of tlu I 
 
 ments put on a p i. The king con] 
 
 maintain a standing army, for his barons or feudal 
 
 o? allowing him too 
 power. He could only strengthen himself by obtain- 
 ing their aid on certain terms, oar by allowing them 
 to weaken themselves in in1 ■■!-, to which 
 
 they had always much proneneas. Each baron had a 
 small army composed of his own militia ox retainers, 
 avail. i tie at short notice. The cont 
 
 these small armies, sometimes combined and some- 
 times isolated, make up the greater part of the wars 
 of the middle ages. Of military tactics or strategy, 
 there was very little ; the campaigns were desultory 
 and indecisive; and V were pained more 
 
 by individual valour than by any well-concerted 
 
 One great exception to tin's military feudalii 
 furnished by the Urtuada (<).▼.). Bo far as concerns 
 A., however, in their organisatio 
 these expeditions effect ttle. The military 
 
 forces which went to the Holy Land were little 
 than armed mobs, up] oaticism, but 
 
 not at all by science or discipline. Numbers and 
 individual bravery were left to do the work, com- 
 bination and forethought being disregarded. 
 
 A much greater motive-power for change, daring 
 the ml was the invention of gunpowder. 
 
 When men could fight at a greater distano 
 before, and on a system which brought mei " 
 to the aid of valour, everything connected with 
 the military art underwent a revolution. Histori- 
 cally, however, this great change was not very 
 apparent until after the period usually denominated 
 the middle ages. The art of making good cannon 
 and hand-guns grew up gradually, like other arts; 
 and A. long continued to depend principally on 
 the older weapons— spears, 6 ai rows, axes, 
 
 maces, swords, and dag 
 
 During the greater part of the 14th and 15th 
 centuries, the chief A. v> • re those maintained by the 
 Spaniards and the Moors on one European I 
 ground, by the English ami the French on another, 
 and by the several Italian republics on a third, in 
 those A., the cavalry ided as tie 
 
 arm. The knights and their horses alike were 
 frequently covered with plate or chain armour ; and 
 the offensive weapons were lances, swords, ds 
 an! battle-axes. A kind of light cavalry was some- 
 times formed of archers on smaller horses. As to 
 army-formation, I still little that could 
 
 deserve the name ; there was no particular order of 
 battle : how he could best dis- 
 
 ,h himself i ! valour; and to each was 
 
 usually attached a ng him as a second 
 
 during the contest. Sometimes it even happened 
 that the fate of a battle I to depend on a 
 
 combat between two knigl its. No attempt was made, 
 until towards the close of the 15th c., to embody a 
 system of tactics and manoeuvres for cavalry ; and 
 even that attempt was of the most primitiv 
 Nor was it far otherwise with the foot-soldiers ; 
 they were gradually becoming acquainted with the 
 use of firearms; but, midway as it were between 
 two systems, they observed neither completely ; and 
 the A. in which they served presented very little 
 definite organisation. 
 
 ARMIES, Modern. The formation of standing 
 A. may be said to have introduced the I 
 military system. When the remarkable exp 
 Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc) had enabled I 
 VII. to check the victorious progress of the Eng- 
 lish in France, he set about remodelling his army. 
 414 
 
 dual changes, and amid great difficulty, he 
 converted bis - [Mined 
 
 standing army. Daring the reign of hie son, Charles 
 
 vi 1 1, (lis'; 
 
 1 conducted a w ■ II- 
 
 dy (1 111 I), in sup] 
 pretensions which he had to the throne of N.u 
 
 The c] Le 1 Charles VH. was not simply 
 
 that of substituting a compact standing army i 
 medley of feudal troops and of In 
 aries; feudalism itself gave way under the inllu- 
 ence of this combined with other reform: n 
 
 is concerned the actual formation and 
 line of the standing A. above noticed, a 
 were from time to time introduced : pistols and 
 carbines were given to the cavalry; cuirasses were 
 worn by the heavy troopers; and 
 were introduced. During the Thirty Years' \\ ar 
 (1G18— 1G48), Gustavus Adolphus and WaUenstem 
 
 1 opposite modes of dealing with ma- 
 infantry : the former spread them out to a 
 width, and only six ranks in depth ; when 
 
 pth of 
 v to thirty ranks. Frederick the (went, in 
 the next century, introduced a most c 
 system of tactics and drilling ; insomuch that when 
 he could manoeuvre, he nearly always won his. 
 battles; but when the result d OS bold and 
 
 unexpected onslaughts, he was more frequently a 
 loser than a winner. The great military leader in 
 the early part of the present century, Napoleon 
 B ate, made a larger use than any previous 
 
 ■■I'll general of the method of man 
 
 ips with great celerity, beating the enemy in 
 detail before they could combine in one spot. 
 
 It is desirable to present, in the most condensed 
 form, a few statistics of the actual A. of En 
 leaving to future articles, under the names of the 
 ! countries, cities, and battle-fields, all details 
 concerning special A. and military encounters. We 
 shall select for this purpose the year 1S53, when the 
 A. of Europe had not yet been augmented 1 
 military operations in Russia (1854—1856), India 
 (1857— 1858), and I I), and brought up to an 
 
 al amount. 
 
 oe. — The 86 departments of France form an 
 equal number of nulitary districts, each p 
 under a general of brigade; and these are grouped 
 into 24 divisions, each under a general of an 
 with his staff and administrative machinery. 
 active troops comprise the following corps : 340 
 battalions of infantry (line, light, chasseurs, Zouaves, 
 Turcos, &c), averaging about 1100 men eai 
 into 105 regiments and 26 single or uncombincd bat- 
 talions, and making about 380,000 foot-soldiers in 
 all ; Gl regiments of cavalry (carbiniers, cuirassiers, 
 dragoons, lancers, hussars, chasseurs-a-cheval. spahis. 
 
 &c), averaging about 1400 men each, and 
 amounting in the aggregate to 86,000 troopers ; 17 
 regiments of artillery (foot, horse, fortress, and pon- 
 
 . and other allied corps raising the in 
 of men to about 60,000 ; 3 regiments and some 
 companies of engineers, with sappers and miners, 
 al iout S000 men ; 5 squadrons of military transport 
 
 men; and about 3000 men en 
 in various sanitary and artisan duties — making the 
 whole active army about 550,000 men. In t 
 peace, however, the battalions are never up to the 
 
 h indicated in this enumeration. There is an 
 
 i te number of troops for home-service, com- 
 
 gendarmerie, veterans, and national gas 
 Prussia. — The Prussian army maybe said to have 
 had its birth in the time of Frederick the Great ; it 
 at one time comprised 200,000 of the best troops in 
 Europe, At the present day, it bears a ratio to 
 the whole population scarcely equalled by that of
 
 ARMIES. 
 
 any other country in Europe ; but this is owing to 
 the peculiar constitution of the landwhr. fne 
 infantry comprises guards, line, first landwehr, and 
 second landwehr. The guards form 4 regiments of 
 aliuut 3000 men each, and an extra battalion of 
 rilles ; they consist of the finest and tallest men in 
 the army. The line comprises 32 regiments of 3000 
 men each ; three-fourths musketeers, and the others 
 
 ra armed with rifles ; together with 32 extra 
 
 ions of 1000 men each, -t landwehr, 
 
 or landwehr of the first levy, consists of men 
 
 who have already 
 served their time in the fine regiments, and who, 
 during time of peace, are only required to manoeuvre 
 for a few weeks with the line once in two yean. 
 They are about as numerous as the line ; each line 
 regiment having a landwehr regiment attached to it, 
 bearing the same number, and brigaded with it ; 
 and the same may be said of the guards and the 
 landwehr guards. The second landwehr, or land- 
 wehr of the second levy, consists of men between 
 32 and 39 years of age, who have already 
 their time in the line, and who are only to be 
 employed at home in case of war ; they number 
 somewhat over 80,000. If the exigencies of the 
 state required the arming of all these guards, line 
 regiments, and first and second landwehr at once, 
 
 i would have 375.000 infantry. The cavalry 
 comprises cuirassiers, hulans, hussars, and dragoons 
 on active service ; with corresponding regiments of 
 first and second landwehr. The total strength of 
 cavalry is 70,000. The artillery comprises 19,000 
 men, in 9 regiments ; there is no separate landwehr 
 of artillery ; but each regiment has landwehr officers 
 and men attached to it, to strengthen it in time of 
 need. The engineers, pioneers, pontoniers, and trans- 
 port corps, amount collectively to 35.000 men. If 
 all these military forces were armed at once, Prussia 
 would have an army of half a million of men : 
 an immense force for a country with 16,000,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The Austrian infantry compri- 77 
 regiments, besides 26 separate battalions. Every 
 line regiment has a number ; but it is more usually 
 known by the name of some prince or general, to 
 whom it is said to belong— 62 of the regunents are 
 lin., 4 chasseurs, and the rest border infantry. The 
 
 'inients are enormous, being each 0700 men, 
 in 6 battalions ; the border or military frontier 
 infantry (a peculiar kind of military colonists) is 
 in regiments of about half this strength. The 
 cavalry is in two divisions — German or heavy, 
 ami Hungarian or light. The heavy comprises 
 
 ments of cuiras-iers and S of dragoons; the 
 light comprises 12 of hulans and 12 of hussars. All 
 
 !'t regiments are named after princes and 
 generals. The heavy cavalry regiments number 
 about 1200 men each; the light about 1S00. The 
 artillery comprises 14 field, rochet) and coast 
 artillery regiments, averaging about 2400 men each ; 
 
 9 14.000 artillerymen employed in fortress 
 and laboratory service. The engineers comprise 
 ■ lions of sappers and pioneers, or about 1 1,000 
 men in all. Altogether, Austria could send 450,000 
 nun into the field, leaving 200,000 at home to 
 guard fortresses, depots, ic. Owing tot' 
 result of the late conflict with France and Sardinia, 
 Austria, it i d, is now (September 1859] 
 
 ■■ d in organising her army on a new footing. 
 I and Prussia, besides 
 
 own interests as independent nations, are mi 
 of the general Germanic Confederation, which consists 
 
 i -ly 40 distinct states and independent cities. 
 In time of war. all these are bound to assist each 
 other, whenever the diet or parliament sunm. 
 Frankfort for that purpose shall have agreed to such 
 
 a course by vote ; and in this case, even- state 
 sends a precise ratio or contingent as its contribu- 
 tion towards the federal army. By an agreement 
 made in 1842, the ratio is to be 1 per cent of the 
 whole population for an active army, and an extra 
 J per cent, for reserve. This amounts to al*>ut 
 
 men active, and 150,000 reserve, or 45 
 
 her. It has been often doubted among 
 ry men whether an army thus singularly 
 constituted would prove efficient in a severe war"; 
 the test of experience has yet to be , bear 
 
 on this matter. Host of the German states k. 
 small armies independent of the contingents which 
 they are bound to send to the federal army 
 required. 
 Jlusxia. — There is no army in Europe which 
 
 1 further from its nominal strength than that 
 ia ; the actual number of fighting-men being 
 
 far short of that which is entered on paper. The 
 active army comprises 108 very large infantry 
 ments, besides separate battalions ; 01 regiments 
 of cavalry ; 11 divisions of artillery; and num 
 miscellaneous troops. There are generally 5 bat- 
 talions, of 1000 men each, to an infantry regiment. 
 The cavalry regiments average about 1300 men 
 each. The total strength of the infantry is 5 . 
 men; of the cavalry, 80,000; of the arl 
 44,000 ; of the engineers, 12,000— or 676 
 This, it will be rememl ered, is the active army ; 
 besides which are the first and second resen • 
 garrison corps, the invalids, the gendarmerie, the 
 
 Ian, and the military colonists. The enormous 
 total exceeds 1,200,000 men, besides the uncertain 
 number in the 800 companies of invalids. It is 
 believed, however, by competent authorities, that 
 Russia could not easily bring into the field more 
 
 ' i i.OOO to 600,000 men at one time, so many 
 are the drawbacks from the above papa 
 
 Denmark. — The Danish army comprises 23 bat- 
 talions of guards, line infantry, light infantry, and 
 chasseurs ; 27 squadrons of dragoons and hi 
 2 regiments of artillery ; and a small cn_ 
 The whole amount to 23,000 men. But this is the 
 peace establishment ; there is a great power of 
 augmentation in wartime by calling out the reserves. 
 Denmark enters into the Germanic Confederation 
 to a small extent, in virtue of her possession of 
 Holstein and Lauenburg. 
 
 ' n anil Norway. — The Swedes are fond of 
 military display; they hate conscription, but will 
 cheerfully enlist. The army is kept small, for the 
 sake of economy ; but it could readily be increased. 
 It is classified into recruited troops, 8000 
 incorporated troops, 33,000 ; I 
 troops, 95.000; and the Gothland militia, 8000. 
 recruited troops form the chief part of the r 
 or standing arm}-. The Norwegians, although under 
 
 me ldng, maintain a separate army of about 
 
 ' men. 
 urn and Holland.— The Belgian army com- 
 prises 18 regiments of line, carbiniers, and chasseurs- 
 a-pied ; 7 regiments of coin 
 
 and chasseurs-a-chcval ; 4 regiments of artillery, 
 with a few extra companies and batteries ; 1 regi- 
 ment of engine is : and 1 of gendarmerie. The 
 
 whole amount to 62, which can be rai 
 
 100,000 by calling out 
 army comprises 9 regiments and a lev. 
 of grenadiers, chasseurs, and line infant] 
 ments of dragoons and cl -cheval; 5 
 
 ; and a few The 
 
 whole amount to 52JKH) men ; but there is I 
 power of augmentation by niihtia conscripts and 
 rest rve levies. 
 
 Sardinia.— This state has been forced into a 
 somewhat distinguished military position, partly by
 
 AKMILLARY SPHERE- ARMINIUS. 
 
 Meal relations, and partly by the warlike 
 of the prince c the House of 8avoy. Tie- 
 army comprises 20 regiments of line infantry; 1 • • 
 battalions of bersaglian or rifli men ; 10 ] 
 cavalry; ;s i artillery; and a fen thousand 
 
 and sanitary 
 The total is about 48,000; b 
 a power of raising this to 100,000 by call 
 
 Turkey. — The strange condition of the Ottoman 
 empire 
 
 the army, for it is hard to say v. hether i b 
 Principalities belong to Turkey or not ; while the 
 tributary Asiatic and African pasl Idom 1"' 
 
 I on for furnishin 
 
 I I 1 force 
 
 active and i has been 
 
 down at little less than half a million of men; 
 but these figures are worth very 1 
 
 A. of Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, 
 Papal Stat s, the small Italian i 
 
 not of sufficient exti nl to m i d s parate 
 here. It is true that Switzerland, by a law 
 enabling the federal Btatea to draw to aim 
 extent on the male population between 20 and 44 
 years of age, can raise a very formidable arm 
 army only exists in skeleton in time o 
 
 . Africa, ami America, with a few 
 not such as need be no 
 our information < them is too 
 
 relied on. The Bri tit ly is at the i 
 
 turn- in: ling i thorough n i ex the 
 
 in- mutiny of 1857 185 
 
 found noticed in a later portion of this work. 
 The United States army is singularly small for so 
 inhabitants having a 
 
 tutional jealousy of standing A. 
 army barely exceeds 1 
 prodigious militia i 
 
 parate and full r of 1 
 
 Britain is 
 Ad the various matters relating to the I u 
 
 and tactics of A., will be found succinctly i. 
 appropriate 
 ARMI'LLARY SPHERE [armilla, a ring), an 
 
 tion of 
 as, ami of tlm mot 
 the heavenly bodies, as seen by at 
 earth. It consists of a number of rings fixed to 
 so as t I the principal circli 
 
 aovahle round the polar axis 
 within a meridian and horizon, as in 1 < 
 d globe. It wa of such rin 
 
 I with sights that Hip I 
 
 other a ni liners in 
 
 rations, and we find even Tycho BranC mall 
 of his planetary observations with the help of such 
 
 runicut. The A. S. is, however, ii 
 as an aid to instruction in astronomy, and in this 
 t is generally supplanted by i I globe. 
 
 The object aimed at in the A. 8. will 1" 
 [•stood by reference to the eel 
 ! in the diagram. Supposing tie observer on 
 rth to be in the centre of the sphet 
 on which he stands shuts out from 1 
 lower half of the heavens, or the part lying bi low the 
 horizon 1111. The hemisphere above him may be 
 led as divided into two equal portions, an 
 m and a western, by the meridian MM. 
 through the pole 1', ami the zenith Z. of which 
 •tern half is shewn in the figure. Tie- 
 pole is Bupposedto be elevated above the b 
 and its elevation i 1 by the arc NP, or the 
 
 t above the north point; and the 
 appear to rotate round an axis PQ, of which 1' is one 
 416 
 
 extremity; the south pole, Q, the other extremity, 
 being below tie- horizon. The meridian MM 
 the horizon 1111, an- the only circles which - 
 tain a fixed position with regard to the observer. 
 
 of the other leading celestial circli thei traator or 
 equinoctial LL, extending from the 
 
 of the horizon, the tropics of Cancer and 
 Capricorn, n and < 
 
 \ \. although rotating withr laintain 
 
 p -ition with regard to the horizon : while 
 K K. is cons' 
 and position towards it. I n 
 
 > pole, cutting the equator at right angli 
 
 called circles of declination. The CU 
 
 through the vernal equinox op (see Ann s), is denomi- 
 nated the equinoctial colure;and thai passing th 
 
 'i be solstitial 
 colore. The circles just named, together with the 
 Antarctic Circle, corresponding 
 
 rings in the A. S. If S be a star, the following are the 
 iven to the arcs which determine its position 
 . ' lis : cp\~. Bight asci a 
 
 SV, Declination; SP, Polar distance; SZ, Zenith 
 e; XS, Altitude; (XN + ISO"). Azimuth, 
 d from the south pole westward. 
 ARMI'NIUS, Jacobus, the tout bmini- 
 
 anism, was born at Ondewater (Old Water) in 1560. 
 His real name in Dutch was James Barmensen ; but 
 in accordance with the prevailing custom ami 
 scholars in those days, he Latinised it. His father 
 was a cutler, and died when A. was a child. After 
 a preliminary education at I 
 (in 1575) a course of study at the newly foi 
 
 in- of Leyden, where he remained for six 
 and where he bi ems to have acquired a 
 reputation, for the Amsterdam lertook 
 
 t-i bear the expense of his further studies fi 
 - ' i iition that he would not p 
 out of their city unless permitted to do so. In 
 1582, he went to Geneva, and received the instruc- 
 
 i Beza, tin- most rigid of < lah 
 
 Here he made himself odious by the boldness with 
 which the logic of Peter Ramus, in 
 
 opposition to that of the Aristotelians of (i 
 and in consequence had to retire to Basle, v 
 his fame must have preceded him, for he was ol 
 
 faculty of Hivinity in that university the
 
 ARMINIUS. 
 
 ■ of doctor gratis, which, however, he did not 
 venture to accept, on account of liis youth. At 
 be studied under Gyrnfflua. He subsequently 
 (1586) travelled into Italy. On his return to 
 Amsterdam (1588), he was appointed minister. 
 Shortly after this, he was commissioned to 6 
 the doctrine of Beza, regarding predestination, 
 t the changes which the ministers of Delft had 
 on it. A. carefully examined both 
 sides of the question, but the result of his study was, 
 that he himself began to doubt, and at last came to 
 adopt the opinions he had been commissioned to 
 confute. Some time after tins change of view, he came, 
 in the course of his expositions, upon the Epistle to 
 the Romans, the most explicitly doctrinal in the Ni w 
 Testament, and the 8th and 9th chapters of which 
 have always been considered the strongholds of 
 aism. His treatment of this epistle excited 
 much dissatisfaction, and involved aim in sharp 
 tes with his orthodox hn thren. Still his views 
 as yet, either ambiguously or vaguely expressed, 
 i least, had not attained to that dear consistency 
 they subsequently acquired, for in 1604 he was made 
 SOT of theology in the university of Lcyden. 
 The 'greatest enemy of A. was Francis Gomar, 
 ie in the univi rsity of Lcyden. In the 
 r 1604, the latter attacked his doc- 
 trines, and from that hour to the end of his life, A. 
 I in a series of bitter disputes with 
 his opponents. The odium tlieologiaim was never 
 exhibited in more unmingled purity. Arminius 
 ■el, in substance, that God bestows forgiveness 
 and eternal life on all who repent of their sins and 
 believe in Christ; he wills that all men should 
 attain salvation, and only because he has from 
 eternity foreseen the belief or unbelief of individuals, 
 lias he from eternity determined the fate of each. 
 On the other hand, Gomar and bis party, appeal- 
 ing to the Belgic Confession and the II idelberg 
 Catechism, maintained, that God had, by an eternal 
 decree, predestinated what persons shall, as being 
 1 to salvation, he therefore awakened ' to 
 I mice and faith and by grace made to persevere 
 therein ; and what persons snail, as being rejected 
 bail), he left to sin, to unbelief, and to perdition. 
 , J i vkkami: oi Saints. 
 Wlni i erce disputes were continuing, A., 
 
 v. ho was not destitute either of friends or influence, 
 was created rector mwjnijkus of the university, but 
 Bed the honour on the Sth of February 1606, 
 office only for one year. All the 
 pulpits in Holland now fulminated against him. 
 th, in L608, A. himself applied to the states 
 of Holland to convoke a synod for the purpose of 
 settling the controversy; but, worn out with care 
 and disease, he died, on the 19th of October 1609, 
 it was held, leaving seven sous and two 
 daughters by his wife, Elizabeth ReaeL, daughter of 
 it ReaeL, a judge and senator of Amsterdam. 
 I can be no do%bt that A. himself was much 
 I \rniiiiian than his followers. He had DOi 
 
 matured his opinions sufficiently to elahorate a com- 
 Dti-Calvinistic doctrine, though it is 
 i that the conclusions at which his 
 : as stated in the famous ' Five 
 Articles'- are the logical and legitimate results of 
 h teaching. He always complained, hi 
 
 nted ; but this is invari- 
 ably the fate of . lists, and the penalty of 
 controversy. A. was an extremely good man, as 
 
 even his enemii a allow ; his abilities were al 
 
 order ; his thinking is clear, bold, and vigorous; 
 markably methodical, and his scholarship 
 table, if not profound. 
 After the death of A., his followers ; 
 strength, and boldly asserted their views, but still 
 » 
 
 remained in a minority. In 1010, they presented 
 to the assembled states of the province of Holland 
 a ' lo monstrance '—from which they 
 •II' monstrants' — which contained the following pro- 
 positions : 1. That God had indeed made an eternal 
 decree, but only on the conditional terms that all 
 who believe in Christ shall 1« saved, while all who 
 refuse to believe must perish; so that predestination 
 is only conditional. 2. That Christ died for all men, 
 but that none except believers arc really saved by 
 his death. The intention, in other words, is univer- 
 sal, but the efficacy may be restricted by unbelief. 
 3. That no man is of himself able to ex. i 
 saving faith, but must be born again of God in 
 Christ through the Holy Spirit 4. That without the 
 grace of God, man can neither think, v. ill, nor do any- 
 thing good; yet that grace does not act in men in an 
 irresistible way. 5. That believers are able, by the 
 aid of the Holy Spirit, vici a; but 
 
 that the question of the possibility of a fall from 
 grace must be determined by a further i lamination 
 of the Scriptures on this point. 
 
 Thi3 last jioint, left as an open question, was 
 decided by the Remonstrants in the affirmative 
 soon afterwarrls (1611). Whereupon the I 
 (Calvinists) put forth a strong 'Counter--. I 
 strance,' asserting plainly absolute pr> 
 and reprobation. After several fruii 
 the states of Holland, in January 1014, acting under 
 the advice of Oldenbarneveld, a 
 learned Hugo Grotius, issued an edict of full I 
 ation for both parties, prohibiting at the same time 
 the continuance of the controversy. The Counter- 
 remonstrant3 (or Calvinists) refused to submit t 
 edict, and the strife soon became so furious, that in 
 1617, or soon afterwards, the Arminians found it 
 necessary to guard themselves from personal violence 
 by appointing a safeguard of militia-men ( I! 
 gelders). The controversy now met strife 
 
 of party politics. The ambitious M 
 took advantage of the passions of the majoi 
 crush his oppouents of the republican party, 
 leaders were adherents of the Anninian docl 
 Several Arminians were put to death — among 
 the aged senator Oldenbarneveld, May 13, 1619 — 
 while Grotius and others were imprisoned. In 
 these circumstances, the Synod of Port wa 
 (1618 — 1019), attended by selected representatives 
 from the Netherlands, England, Scotland, the 
 Palatinate, Switzerland, Nassau, East Friesland, 
 and Bremen. From this convocation (January II, 
 1619), the thirteen Anninian pastors, with the 
 learned and eloquent Simon Episcopns at their head, 
 were excluded. The doctrines of the Counter-remon- 
 strants were embodied in ninety-three canons ; the 
 Uelgic Confession and the I 
 
 confirmed as authorities for the reformed 
 churches of the Netherlands ; and three hundred 
 Arminians (chiefly preachers) were expelled 
 In consequence of this decision, 1 
 
 shelter in ffiance, Bolst in, England , 
 &c. Afterwards, under ] Henry, the 
 
 Maurice (1630), they were 
 tol rated in B ! indin 1634 Episcopns i 
 
 his theological college in Am-t rdam. 
 
 ■ that time, the B Aa (or Armini a ns ) 
 
 in Ho ! md have ini lined mo ' : re towards 
 
 freedom of thougl & '»dc- 
 
 pendeni ivemment The rejection of 
 
 all creeds and confi ions; the free interpret 
 of the & . a preference of moral to doctrinal 
 
 teaching; Avian views respecting the Trinity; the 
 
 : ..,,n of the oi original sin and 
 
 ness, and the view mints 
 
 ma or ceremonies : all these 
 and other i 1 linl oi belief display the same tendency
 
 ARMISTICE-ARMOUR. 
 
 which is found in their church polity, 
 annual oonference on ecclesiastical affairs i 
 (insi'il .-I ministers and lay-deputies, and taki 
 in June, alternately at Amsterdam and Rotterdam. 
 The number of Remonstrants is DOW only about 
 6000, and is still d ta 18 8 they had 84 
 
 . gations with 40 preachers in Holland. 
 1829, only 20 congregations with 21 preachers. He 
 largest society of A is in Rotterdam, and numbers 
 only 600 members. 
 
 Although the Arminians are thus dwindling away 
 as a distinct body, their ten* I 
 ation have been adopted with neater or fees modi- 
 on by several other Christian denom n 
 Ur.iimmsrs. BAPTISTS) j as well as by multi- 
 tudes of the individual members of tlt"< ■ CO 
 whose formularies are Calvinistic (see i'm.vim-m . 
 They are also very prevalent in the Church of 
 Rome. 
 
 A'RMISTICE, a suspension of hostilities b 
 two armies, or two nations at war, by mutual 
 mcnt. It sometimes takes place when both are 
 exhausted, and at other times when an endeavour to 
 form a treaty of peace is being made. A particular 
 example will best illustrate the nature of an A. I >n 
 the -")th of February 1S56, the representatives of 
 England, France, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia. Turkey, 
 and Russia, met in congress at Paris, to consider the 
 terms of a treaty of peace which should terminate 
 the war at that time going on between five of the 
 above-named powers. The British nation was very 
 unwilling to suspend hostilities during the sitting of 
 the congress — partly on account of the numerous 
 failures of diplomacy in the preceding year, and 
 partly because Russia was suspected of only wishing 
 to gain time. It was agreed, however, at the first 
 sitting, in conformity with the laws of nations and 
 the usages of war, that an A. should be de 
 to be announced by telegraphic message to the com- 
 manders in the Crimea, and to hist until the 31st of 
 March. During that period of about one calendar 
 month, the hostile armies were to remain strictly at 
 peace, but the fleets of the allies were to continue 
 their blockade of Russian ports. The information 
 reached the generals late on the 28th of February. 
 On the morning of the 29th, a white Hag was hoisted 
 in the Russian camp outside Sebastopol; 
 Russian officers assembled around it; and a glitter- 
 ing cavalcade of British, French, and Sardinian officers 
 proceeded thither. The accredited officers compared 
 notes, found the terms of the A. clear, agreed on a 
 boundary-line between the hitherto hostile forces, 
 and formally gave pledges for a cessation of E 
 The courtesy of civilised nations at once succeeded 
 to the horrors of war; the Russian commander 
 gave a magnificent entertainment to the allied com- 
 manders, and was entertained in turn ; the soldiers 
 ' fraternised,' by little gifts of tobacco, and ludicrous 
 attempts at conversation, across a small stream which 
 formed part of the boundary-line ; and a few British 
 officers were permitted to make excursions into the 
 interior of the Crimea. The A. ended on March 31, 
 not by a renewal of hostilities, but by the signing 
 of a treaty of peace. 
 
 A'RMORER. The old meaning of this word 
 has nearly passed away with the system to which it 
 belonged. The armour-smiths, or makers of armour, 
 were among the most skilful workers in metal during 
 the feudal times ; but flieir trade afterwards fell 
 away. In the year 1690, the workmen-armorers of 
 London, in a petition to parliament, complain 
 their trade was well-nigh ruined. 
 
 Armorers, in a somewhat different sense of the 
 word, belong to the British army and navy at 
 the present time. There are armorers to every 
 
 418 
 
 ut, not to make armour, but to repair arms, 
 it one t" each troop of om 
 
 each company of infantry. The A. is paid one 
 penny per month for taking to pieces and cleaning 
 the lock of each Soldier's musket. There is ■ 
 regular tariff of prices for every minute detail of 
 repair in tie 
 
 carbines, and rifles, and in I id ramrods. 
 
 A school for training 'A. -sergeants' has re 
 tablishcd in London, to supply one 
 artificer to each battalion, who shall have a certain 
 degree of control over the ten or twelve company- 
 re in the battalion. 
 On shipboard, the A. is a warrant-officer, who 
 has charge of all the muskets, pistols, cut! 
 ng-pikes, &c., which ho is expected to 
 and in ready order. He i I i by a 
 
 subordinate called the ' V. mate;' and boti 
 skilled in the general routine of smith's work. 
 
 ARMO'RICA, the country of the Armorici, i. e., 
 ' the dwellers on t hi It. or, on or near ; and 
 
 a), the name by which the people oceii 
 > it of Gaul between the Seine and tie- Co 
 u own to Coesar. At a later period, the name 
 A. was confined to the country afterwards styled 
 Britannia Minor, or Bretagne (q. v.). 
 
 A'RMORY may mean a storehouse for arms ; 
 but the name is also often applied to a collection of 
 ancient armour and weapons — such as those in the 
 Tower of London, in Sir Samuel Meyrick's mansion 
 at Goodrich Court on the Wye, and in Warwick 
 
 A'RMOTJR is a general name for the appa 
 
 rsonal defence, as contradistinguished from 
 arms or weapons of offence. Little of it is worn by 
 soldiers at the pres rat day, seeing that hand-to- 
 hand conflicts, in which it is especially serviceable, 
 are rather exceptional in modern warfare. It was 
 before the invention of gunpowder that A. — often 
 called in England by the name of harness— was 
 especially used. 
 
 All the ancient nations who occupy a place in 
 history were accustomed to adopt one or other of 
 the defensive clothing or implements which collect- 
 come under the denomination of A. Leather- 
 A. was sonn! I ; but brass, iron, and other 
 
 metals were preferred. Some of the more luxurious 
 leaders had much silver and gold in their A. In the 
 Bible, shields, helmets, breastplates, and gn 
 are mentioned among the articles of A. borne or 
 worn by the Israelites and their opponents. The 
 classical writers — Homer, Xenophon, Herodotus, 
 Tacitus, Varro, &c— supply abundant evi- 
 dence of the use of A. among the nations concerning 
 whom they wrote. 
 
 It is believed that the early Britons bore little or 
 no other A. than shields. Tie Anglo-8aions were 
 more fully provided. At different times before the 
 Norman Conquest they appear to have had four- 
 cornered helmets; lorica} made of leather; scale- 
 A. ; leathern helmets ; wooden shields covered with 
 leather ; sheep-skin shields ; conical caps or helmets 
 of metal ; pectorals or neck-guards ; breast-guards 
 of undressed hide ; flat-ringed A. ; byrnes or 
 tunics of overlapping pieces of leather; close- 
 fitting cuirasses of leather, and sometimes of strong 
 linen ; leg-guards of twisted woollen cloth ; shields 
 of various sizes, from half a yard to a yard and 
 a half in length ; and casques having more or less 
 resemblance to the ancient helmets. When the 
 Danes were in Britain, they had at first no other 
 A. than leathern neck-pieces, which descended some 
 way over the shoulders and chest ; and greaves or 
 shin-pieces for the legs. In the time of Canute or 
 Knute, however, they adopted a kind of A which
 
 ARMS— ARMSTRONG. 
 
 Sir Samuel Meyrick supposes them to have borrowed 
 from the Norsemen or Norwegians. It comprised a 
 tunic, with a hood and long sleeves; p ant alo o ns 
 ■which covered feet as well as legs; and sugar-loaf 
 shaped helmets or skull-caps, with attached 
 which hid nearly the whole face except the eyes. 
 All these were probably made of leather ; but most 
 of the surfaces were strengthened by macles or 
 mascles, a perforated net-work of steel 
 
 With William the Conqueror came in the 1;' 
 A. which were at that time prevalent among the 
 knights and soldiers of the continent of Europe, and 
 which became afterwards more or less combined with 
 the A. previously known in England. William himself 
 occasionally wore a hauberk of riug-A This kind 
 of A. was much worn during his reign, the ring! 
 usually attached to a foundation of I 
 i dons variety of ring-A., called the haul K 
 had the tunic and breeches all in one piece. The 
 helmets were generally conical, with a nasal or nose 
 guard descending from the front. A distinct ring-A., 
 I lioat, was often worn on the legs. The 
 I was generally kite-shaped, unlike the oval 
 shields carried by the Anglo-Saxons. Gradual 
 changes in these various portions of A. were 
 made between the reigns of William Rums and 
 John. Under Henry III., we find stitched and 
 padded hauberks and chausses, called 'am 
 de pnurpointerie; suits of ring-A.; greaves or 
 shin -pieces of steel; poleyns or knee -guards; 
 vamlnaces or arm-guards ; jacks, jaques, or jackets, 
 made of leather, and worn over the ring-A. ; inter- 
 laced ring-A., of oriental invention, not requir- 
 ing to be stitched to any garment or foundation ; 
 helmets, visors, and skull-caps of various forms ; and 
 chanfrons, or A. for the head and face of horses. 
 During Edward III.'s reign, iron plate-A. was much 
 used by troopers, in the various forms of helmet, 
 breast-plate, gauntlet, and greaves. In the 14th c, 
 chain-mail fell into disuse, and was succeeded by 
 plate-A. ; this last-named kind became more and 
 more complicated, and reached its greatest pitch of 
 elaboration iu the reign of Richa rd III. During the 
 times of Henry VU. and VIII., the A. was some- 
 times fluted, often elaborately engraved, and even 
 damascened or inlaid with gold. Under Jame3 I., 
 the knightly ideas of the feudal times gave way, 
 and the use of A declined ; a knight armed cap-il- 
 pic was a rarity. Charles I. tried to revive its use, 
 
 .Suit of Armour, 
 presented by the Emperor Maximilian to Ilenry VIII. 
 
 but he had few followers ; and the days of Cromwell 
 may be regarded as the last in which A. was worn 
 to any com (tent by the regular soldiers. 
 
 Helmets and cuirasses are still worn by the three 
 i ats of Household Cavalry (Life-guards and 
 guards), but more for show than for service. 
 
 Tlie chief A. will be found 1 
 
 described and illustrated under the proper hea I 
 ARMS, or weapons of offence, may be di 
 into two great classes — those that act by n 
 of gunpowder, and those that do not. Of arms that 
 act otherwise than by explosion, the greater part 
 have been in me from the earliest times; they 
 include the bow and arrow, slin_', pike, spear, 
 lance, dart, javelin, dagger, axe, mace, spiked or 
 knotted club, scythe for chariots, dirk, bayonet, 
 sword, cutlass, &c, together with such artillery 
 as the ballista, catapulta, and battering-ram. Wea- 
 pons depending on the use of gunpowder arc of two 
 kinds — those that can be held in the hand, and those 
 that are too heavy to be portable. In the first class, 
 we find the names of the hand-cannon, hand-gun, 
 arquebus, haquebut, demi-haque, match!. 
 lock, firelock, currier, snaphauncc, caliver, esclo- 
 pette, petronel, dragon, hand-mortar, dag.tricker-lock, 
 carbine, fusil, fowlingpiece, blunderbuss, p 
 musket or musquet, musketoon, rifle, &c. In the 
 second class, more usually included under the name 
 of artillery, we find the springel, war- wolf, bombard, 
 cart -of -war, culverin, derm - culverin, serpentine, 
 falcon, sakcr, cannon, howitzer, petard, carro 
 mortar, rifled cannon, war-rockets, &c. The more 
 important of these are briefly noticed under the 
 proper head 
 
 The Adjutant-general of the British army watches 
 the state of the A. in all the regiments and at all 
 the stations, receives reports on their condition, 
 supplies all deficiencies, and insures readiness for 
 immediate service. Each regiment makes a report 
 to him on these subjects yearly. If the commanding 
 officer of a regiment ascertains that a new supply 
 of A. is needed for the men under him, or a supply 
 of anything in relation to the A, he notifies the 
 fact to the army agent for the regiment, who acts in 
 many ways as a sort of factor or middleman. See 
 Age>"T, Army. The agent applies to the War- 
 office. The Secretary of State for War, if satisfied 
 that the demand is proper, writes an order for the 
 supply ; this order is sent to the Adjutant-general, 
 who acts as the second in influence under the 
 Commander-in-chief ; and then the store-keepers or 
 ordnance officers receive orders to furnish the supply. 
 
 fS, ARMORIAL BEARINGS, or 
 SIGNS, are the names given to such devices as when 
 painted on a shield form a coat. These terms in 
 popular speech include all the accompaniments of a 
 shield — viz., the crest, helmet, and where such exist, 
 the supporters, &c See these terms. See also 
 III BAUDOT. 
 ARMS, Assumptive. See Heraldry. 
 ASMS, Bells of, are tents, mostly of a corneal 
 shape, for containing the small-arms for each com- 
 pany in a regiment of infantry. The tent is frequently 
 painted with the colour of the facings of the regi- 
 mental uniforms. 
 
 ARMS, I 
 Arms. 
 ASMS, Serjeant at. See Serjea>t-at-Arms. 
 ARMS, STAND ok. A stand of A. is the complete 
 set necessary for the equipment of one soldier, 
 whether horse or 
 
 A'RMSTRONG, .Ions-, physician an 
 born about 17(1!) at Castletown, a pastoral parish in 
 Roxburghshire, of which Ins father was minister. 
 He studied medicine at the university of Edinburgh, 
 where he took t! '•'■ I'-. February 4. IT.'!"-". 
 
 Soon after, he commenced practice in London, and 
 became known by the publication of a iveral (b 
 
 and medical essays. In 17.57 he published a 
 very objectionable poem, The Economy of Love, which 
 injured his reputation for a time. Hi3 principal
 
 ARMSTRONG. 
 
 work, The Art i / Pres rving Health, a didactic 
 poem in blank vane, extending through four books, 
 appeared in 1744. In 1746 he was appointi i 
 
 .Mil to the hospital fur sick and lame soldiers. In 
 
 1761 he published a volun i 8 
 
 17"'.'i, a poetical epistle on I in 1758, a 
 
 volume of prose essays of no great merit. In 1760 
 In- was appointed physician tut In- forces in < rermany. 
 In 17til appeared from his pen D rru On 
 
 peace in 17G.'i, he returned to London, ami 
 resinned practice. In 1771 lie made a continental 
 tour with l'u- 'li. the painter, an account of which he 
 published, with the title of .1 Short /' 
 some Parts of France (Mi i y Lancelot t 
 
 / ' Bis 1 1 i work was a volume of medical essays. 
 I [e contributed to Thomson's ' WJe .;/' i 
 four stanzas at the end of the first part, descriptive 
 of the diseases r. suiting from sloth. Died 7i 
 
 i' 177'.'. A. was the friend ol Thomson, Mallet, 
 Aaron Hill, Dr Young, Wilkes, and the principal 
 wits and literary men of the period. I 1 
 in'' been indolent, and splenetic man, 
 
 ' win. quite detested talk;' kind h.-arted withal, and 
 of frugal habits, having 1. ft £3000, Bared out of a 
 .small and precarious income. His fame rests entirely 
 on The Art of Preserving Health, his other works 
 being now only known by name. 
 
 A'RMSTRONG, John, an eminent physician and 
 medical writer, was horn 8th May 1784, at Ayres 
 
 ill, where his fat! 
 
 't of some;.. 1 He studied 
 
 medicine at the university of Edinburgh, and in 
 
 E M.D. lie commenced 
 
 ce at Bishop-Wearmouth, and in 1811 was 
 
 i physician to the infirmary at Sunderland. 
 
 In 1816 ho published a work on Typhus, which 
 
 greatly extended his , l His res 
 
 ins the < of febrile dis- 
 
 eases having made his name well known in the 
 metropolis, he was induced, in February ISIS, to 
 remove to London, where his practice became exten- 
 sive, and he was elected physician to the Fever 
 Hospital. In 1821, in concert with Mr Edward 
 Grainger, he established a medical school in Webb 
 Street, Borough, where he lectured on the practice 
 of physic. 11" also delivered a course of lectures 
 on Materia Medica. In 1S2G he joined Dr Boot 
 and Mr E. Bennett in establishing a new school of 
 medicine in Dean Street, Soho, but shortly after 
 relinquished his connection with it. He died of con- 
 sumption, 12th December 1829, aged 45. Excl 
 devoted to the duties of his profession, Dr A. was 
 very successful in the elucidation ..f medical science. 
 His works are numerous, and he contributed various 
 papers to the medical journals. lbs 1. 
 inserted in the Lancet m 1825, were published in a 
 separate form after his death, with the following 
 title, Lectures on (he Morbid Anatomy, Nairn 
 
 tit of Acuti mid Chronic J' , the late 
 
 John Armstrong, M.D. Edited by Joseph Six — one 
 of his pupils. (London, 1834, 8vo.) 
 
 A'RMSTRONG, Sm \Vii.n\MCro! ..r. uol 
 various mechanical inventions, and particularly that 
 of a gun of extraordinary power and precision, was 
 
 born in 1810 at Newcastle, where his father was an 
 eminent corn-merchant, and in 1851 tilled the office 
 of mayor. A. was educated at the school of Bishop- 
 Auckland ; but his peculiar mental powers were 
 chiefly cultivated by the opportunities which his 
 father's tastes gave him at home, of acquainting 
 himself with chemistry, electricity, and mechanics. 
 Though the natural bent of his mind was to some 
 profession in which these sciences would hav. 
 available, he readily yielded to his father's wishes, 
 and was articled to Mr Armourer Donkin, au 
 
 . minent solicitor in Newcastle, who, at the expirar 
 liis time, adopted him as a partner. A In h 
 i if duty enabled A. to give his excellent general 
 powers Of mind to business ; but he devoted much of 
 his leisure to his favourite pursuits, and his inventive 
 faculty was constantly active. About 1S3S, observing 
 one day a little stream descending along a height near 
 and driving but a single null, he thought 
 to how much more purpose it might be applied 
 hydraulically, and thus was led into a course of 
 experimenting, which resulted in bis producing a 
 much improved hydraulic engine, of which a descrip- 
 tion was given in the Mechanics' Magazine for 
 April 18, 1840. Following up this invention with a 
 view to practical applications, he gave to the world, 
 in Is-lo, a hydraulic crane, which has proved to be of 
 eminent utility in raising weights at harbours and in 
 warehouses. The discovery of electricity in steam by 
 a workman at a fixed engine on the Cramlington 
 Railway in 1840, had meanwhile led A. into a new 
 path, and in 1842 he brought to perfection an appa- 
 ratus for producing electricity from steam, which 
 was soon after introduced into the Polytechnic In- 
 stitution in London. The evolution of the electricity 
 depending in reality on the friction sustained by 
 the small quantity of water wdiich accompanies the 
 steam in its discharge, the great merit of A.'s in\> :i- 
 i - oi lie . i the form he gave the orilieu 
 
 through which the steam passed, A friend, writing 
 of A. at this time, remarked that he ought to hi re 
 an engineer, so great evidently were his talents 
 for mechanical Bci ai .-. 'Plain, simple, and unassum- 
 ing , no on ai first sight could form any idea of the 
 depth of thought and vast amount of scii 
 knowledge which he possesses, and which arc ac 
 panied by a straightforwardness and consistency 
 truly admirable.' A change of profession v. 
 such a es ie inevitable, and few were surprised 
 soon after being elected a member of the Royal 
 in IShi. A., in conjunction with some 
 . mmenced the Klswick Engine-works. 
 i liment is upon a large scale, hitherto 
 chiefly employed in producing hydraulic cri i . 
 L accumulators, and bridges, for use in Great 
 Britain, the continent, and India, but now embracing 
 also works for the production of ordnance for the 
 \ eminent. 
 
 In 1S54. while war was raging in the Crimea, the 
 War-office v. d by many inventors to make 
 
 trial of new forms of cannon and projectiles. Mr 
 Armstrong, one of the number, attracted the atten- 
 tion of the authorities, and was employed to make 
 explosive apparatus for blowing up the ships sunk 
 at Sebastopol. This led him soon afterwards to 
 consider improvements in ordnance, and he di \ i» i 
 a form of breech-loading cannon, combining many 
 peculiarities in structure and action. He received 
 encouragement to make a few field-pieces on his 
 new method, lie made lengthened experiments on 
 the strength of iron and steel, on the relative merits 
 of cast and wrought iron, on the best number of 
 grooves in rifling, on the best pitch or twist for these 
 grooves, on the most convenient modes of loading at 
 the breech of the gun, on the mechanism for I 
 ing the recoil, on the best form and structure of 
 shot and shells, and on the fuses best suited for 
 igniting the shells during their flight. 
 
 Most of the early experiments were made with 
 guns throwing 6-Ib. and 18-lb. shot and shells, and 
 subsequently 32-lb. shells, and this larger gun may 
 be taken as a type of the whole. It is built up 
 with small pieces of the very best wrought-iron, to 
 avoid flaws or faults, and to insure strength, light- 
 ness, and durability. It is made in 3-feet 1. r 
 Bars of wrought-iron, 2 inches wide, are hi 
 to whiteness, twisted spirally round a steel bar or
 
 ARMY— ARMY ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 core, ami welded; other liars are ' r these 
 
 in a similar way, but with an opposite turn of the 
 spiral; a third, and perhaps a fourth coating follow, 
 according to the thickness and strength needed. 
 Another heating to whiteness precedes a thorough 
 welding of all the layers of bars by a steam-hammer. 
 The ends of two of these 3-feet pieces are then nicely 
 trimmed and adjusted, placed in contact, and bound 
 the enormous pressure of a wrought-iron 
 ting shrunk on while at a white heat. By varying 
 the Dumber and length of these sections, a gun of 
 any length is made. The internal core is then 
 • I, and the bore of the gun is rifled by 
 
 i te machinery. The rifle-grooves are so small 
 and dose as to be upwards of ft in number ; their 
 pitch or twist is such as to make a complete circuit 
 in .1 gun Hi feet long. The breech of the gun is 
 wholly distinct, and constructed in a different way ; 
 it can be drawn backward by unscrewing, and has a 
 hole through its centre Cor introducing the shot or 
 
 ml the charge. At first, the inventor adopted 
 a steel interior for his gun ; but now he relics w holly 
 on the toughest wrought-iron. The projectile 
 employed with this gun may be solid shot, shell, 
 case-shot, or canister-shot ; but the shell is that to 
 which most interest is attached. It is about three 
 diameters in length ; and thus a 32-Ib. shot or shell 
 can be fired from a gun of much smaller caliber than 
 if it were spherical. The shell is built up of about 
 50 separate pieces of cast-iron, very accurately 
 
 and enveloped in an iron sheath. Outside of it 
 are two bands of lead, soft enough to be forced into 
 the rifled grooves of the gun, and thus to acquire 
 the rotatory movement 1 >y which the straightness of 
 Bight is so much insured. 
 
 The actual results obtained by a gun such as is 
 above described are almost incredible. An ordinary- 
 long 32 pounder weighs 57 cwt. ; Armstrong's 32 
 pounder weighs 26 cwt The former requires In lb.of 
 powder as a charge; for the latter 5 lb. will suffice. 
 The former will send a shot or shell 3000 yards ; 
 the range of the latter exceeds 9000 yards, or 5^ 
 One particular A. gun has been fired 3500 
 times without exhibiting any Haw or failing 
 ii vi r before even approached in gunnery. At 4000 
 distance, a target 9 feet square can be hit 
 in) times out of 100. At 1000 yards' distance, the 
 A. gun will hit < very time an object so small a3 to be 
 
 1 56 times out of 57 by an ordinary 32 pounder, 
 
 by the same gunner in the two cases. The 
 fuses attached to the shells are so exquisitely 
 adjusted that the shell can be made to burst either 
 
 ly on leaving the gun, or half way on its path, 
 or when it strikes an object ; in the last-named case, 
 
 a sack of ill afford the necessary 
 
 concussion; and yt, so close is the structure, that 
 an uneli'i.' -1 -hell has been fired completely tl 
 9 feet of solid oak without the pieces separating. 
 For naval u . thi mall diameter of. the gun will 
 allow anal] | and thus lest 
 
 i t lie seamen-gunners are exposed. The 
 
 gun-carriages, for ship or garrison use, have a sloping 
 slide oh which the gun runs w/< to lessen the recoil, 
 and down which it runs again by its own gravity 
 after tiring. The shells to be directed again-: 
 are so formed, and provided with fuses of such a 
 kind, as to explode exactly when striking the hull, 
 and when the r nt made will be most mischievous. 
 
 Although the wonderful effects of the A. 
 gun rel 32 pounder, the principal 
 
 experimental researches were made with one much 
 smaller, but not less WOrthj -on. It had 
 
 re oi onlj LI inchi and i nough to be 
 
 lifted about (without its i or three 
 
 men. [t had eight sph ' . makiiv; one turn 
 
 in 12 feet. When fired at a timber butt measuring 
 
 5, I ' IS is little gun 
 
 propelled shot v. bich 
 
 the av I on from the centre of the butt 
 
 being little more than 1 foot laterally; whereas an 
 ordinary brass 6 pounder, whii 
 parallel as to weight, 
 
 and nearly U one particular i 
 
 tion, tile Armstrong shot, bare] 2 
 took the am yards. '1 : 
 
 pounder gun introduced many improvements on this 
 little o pounder; and the 
 
 improvements in still 1 
 is up to 100] 
 When Mr »-nt much of his time 
 
 and thoughts during four years on this subject, the 
 government, supported by the strongly expressed 
 opinions of ai I rs of all raj d to 
 
 Becure tl rimentaforthe nation. 
 
 Mr Armstrong offered to the government, without 
 any stipulation, not only all his past invention 
 also all such as he might hereafter di 
 led to arrangements which the ministers in parlia- 
 'laracterised as liberal and patriotic on his 
 part; and the terms thus suggested by Mr Arm- 
 accepted. An office wa3 created for 
 him, that of I tteer of Rifled Ordnance, for 
 
 seven years provisionally ; and a certain amount of 
 salary was determined on. in consideration at once 
 of his past inventions and of his future sen-ices. 
 1 been i isedat New- 
 i-'lyne and Woolwich, which will render 
 possible the production of mi as per 
 
 annum, Sir YV. <:. Armstrong (the honotu 
 hood having I c red on 1 reni 
 
 1 out reasons why foreign govern- 
 ments must necessarily be, for a lone period, unable 
 to surmount the mechanical difficulties of the 
 manufacture of these guns. See Kiflkii ASMS. 
 
 ARMY. Referring to Ai 
 
 EVAL, and MOD] i;N) and to liiinisu Al:MV for, brief 
 historical notices of national military forces, and 
 leaving to other portions of this work all details 
 concerning the formation and tactics of such i 
 it may be well to mention here certain distim 
 in the application of the name A. lA.is 
 
 encamped or in cantonments, for the protection of 
 the different passes or roads which lead to the town 
 or other place to be protected. A Sieg A. is 
 ranged around or in front of a fortified place, to 
 capture it by a regular process of besieging. A 
 A., either independent of or auxiliary 
 to a siege A., is intended to prevent all ingress 
 and egress at the streets or gates of a be! 
 An A. oj 01 up an advanced 
 
 tion, and by celerity of movement kee] 
 watch on all the manoeuvres of the enemy. An 
 .1. of Reconnaissano has a i d duty at a 
 
 parti, alar time and place, to ascertain the strength 
 
 and position of the enemy's i s. A Flying A. 
 
 : body of horse and foot, moving 
 . to alarm the enemy, 
 and to i .sons. Any one of these may be 
 
 forced into an engagement in the field ; bui 
 are all more subsidiary to the Main A., 
 
 by which the gn in the licld are 
 
 usually conducted, 
 
 ARMY ADMINISTRATION. The whole of 
 netted with the raising, cl. 
 paying, maintaining, and controlling of the 1 
 army, are included in the term A. A. They ai 
 
 i military command and discipline. 
 
 supreme command of the 
 
 British army ; bul iry of state for War is 
 
 ler responsible repn lentative in all that concerns 
 
 administration— the Commander-in-chief being her 
 
 4.1
 
 ABUT AGENT— ARMY WORKS CORPS. 
 
 r li itive in matters relating to military organ- 
 
 isation anil discipline. The Secretary is the organ 
 through whom the wishes oi i rccon- 
 
 with the wishes aurl intentions of pari 
 Until the war with Russia in 1854, the administra- 
 t i departments were much scattered; their defec- 
 t organisation led in great part to the miseries 
 suffered by the British troops in the Crimea ; but 
 ii ..' they an all consolidated under th" Secretary of 
 State for War. See War Dei\\i:tmi:n r. 
 
 ABKY AGENT. S e Agxht, Aniv. 
 
 ARMY ESTIMATES. In thi [ every 
 
 year, the British government having formed a plan 
 concerning the extent and appliances of the mili- 
 tary force for that year, the War-office Bends 
 to the Treasury a series of accounts setting forth 
 tli' probable cost of en rythin i These 
 
 accounts are called the A. E. If they arc approved 
 by the Treasury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 adverts to these, along with other in his 
 
 annual ' financial statement,' made to the House 
 of Commons in its capacity as guardian of the 
 public purse. In preparing the A. E. the 
 tary of State for War to the heads of all 
 
 departments under him for detailed accounts 
 of their probable requirements. Another functionary 
 then incorporates and adjusts these into a whole ; 
 they are submitted to the Treasury ; and, if 
 ■ ved, are presented to the II - • A. E. 
 
 Should the Commons grant the money, the Account- 
 ant-general of the War-office makes the requisite 
 drafts or demands from time to time ; and the Trea- 
 sury authorises the Paymaster-general of the Forces 
 to honour these drafts. The money itself is in 
 the Bank of England ; this establishment receives 
 a certain annual sum from the government for 
 managing such financial matters. 
 
 The A- E. arc drawn up in conformity with a 
 model which differs little from year to year. There 
 are certain great headings, each comprising many 
 minor divisions : viz., Land Forces and Militia 
 (numbers, pay, allowances, and miscellaneous 
 charges) ; Civil Establishments (administration, 
 manufacturing establishments, civil departments) ; 
 Supplies (clothing, provisions, forage, warlike stores) ; 
 Works and Buildings (barracks, fortifications, &c.) ; 
 Educational Establishments (schools, chaplains, libra- 
 ries, &c.) ; Non-effective Services (half-pay, retiring 
 allowances, pensions, &c). These are not exactly 
 the technical names of the several headings ; but 
 they will be more intelligible to general readers. 
 The various items are more or less sifted by the 
 House of Commons ; and any one or more of them 
 can be refused altogether, or granted in diminished 
 amount. The A. E. for 185'J— 69, which may be 
 cited here as an illustrativo example, refer to the 
 period from April 1, 1859 to March 31, 18(5:). The 
 total number of British troops pr ivided for 
 estimates is 229,557 ; but as 100,902 are char 
 the East Indian treasury, as being required for 
 India service, the House of Commons was asked 
 only to provide for the remaining 122,655. The 
 horses are 24.0G9, of which 11,321 are for India ser- 
 vice. Without going into any details, we will simply 
 give the amounts under the six great headn. 
 
 Pay and allowances, .... £4,5 
 
 Civil and manufacturing departments, 1,171 .7 17 
 Clothing, provisions, forage, warlike 
 
 stores 2,121,692 
 
 Barracks, fortifications, buildings, . 1,33 701 
 
 Educational and religious charges, . 268,532 
 Reduced and retired pay, pensions, 
 
 rewards, 2,147,505 
 
 4:2 
 
 £11,568,060 
 
 ARMY LIST is the name of a pub] 
 by authority of the War-ofh'cc. ft 00 
 the names of all commissioned officers in the 
 British army, arranged according to the dates of 
 (heir commissions. Then come the officers of the 
 I India Company's service— or, now, that por- 
 tion of the Queen's army which belongs exclu- 
 sively to India. Next the names of all 
 who hold military honours or staff appointim id ■■. 
 The bulk of the work, however, is taken op . 
 enumeration of all the regiments in the Queen's 
 army, and all the officers in each regiment, arranged 
 according to the numerical rank of the re gim e nts. 
 To this are added lists of the officers of the Rifle 
 Brigade, Colonial Corps, Royal Artillery, Royal 
 Engineers, [loyal Marin b, Commissariat, and Irmy 
 Medical Department; and of officers retired on full- 
 pay and on half-pay. The A. L. for 1859 eon 
 the names of little less than 14,000 commit 
 officers. Another work of similar but non-official 
 character, Hart's A. L., by a more com 1 
 arrangement of type, gives all the information 
 contained in the official list, and much in addition. 
 
 ARMY SCHOOLS. The colleges, academies, 
 and schools relating to military matters in this 
 country may be grouped into two classes— those 
 intended to increase the military efficiency of the 
 officers and men ; and those which bear relation to 
 the ordinary school -tuition of soldiers of the ranks 
 and their children. The principal of those in the first 
 group are the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, 
 the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the 
 School of Instruction at Chatham, the Department 
 of Artillery Studies at Woolwich, the School of 
 Artillery at Shocbury, the School of Musketry at 
 Hythe, and the Royal Artillery Institution at WoqL- 
 wich. The chief among the second group are the 
 Royal Military Asylum (better known as the Duke 
 of York's School), the Regimental Schools, and the 
 Garrison Schools. Chelsea College ox Hospital is an 
 asylum for veterans, not a school of instruction. 
 Most of these educational establishments will be 
 found briefly described in this work, cither under 
 the names- of the places where they exist, or of the 
 arm of the service to which they belong. 
 
 ARMY WORKS CORPS. When the British 
 generals engaged in the Crimean war, in the later 
 months of 1854, knew that the siege-army would 
 1 d to winter outside Sebastopol, grave difficulties 
 were presented to their notice. The distance from 
 the landing-place at Balaklava to the front of the 
 
 imp was not less than eight miles; ami the 
 only road was a mud-track, almost impassable in 
 wet weather. How to get the heavy pins, the shot 
 and shell, the provisions, and the general stores, up to 
 the front, was a question not easy of solution. The 
 
 1 soldiers were too few even for the ordinary 
 military duties, and yet they were called upon for 
 
 s of an extra and arduous nature. When 
 
 icts became known in England, a suggestion 
 was made that an 'Army Works Corps' should be 
 formed, to consist of strong and etlicient railway 
 excavators, Cornish miners, and well-sinkers ; that 
 these should have with them all the tools and appli- 
 ances for making roads and digging wells; and that 
 
 should be accompanied by travelling \ 
 shops and skilled artisans, to effect that which might 
 more skill than physical labour. The imme- 
 diate necessities of Lord Raglan, in regard to bring- 
 ing up supplies, were met by the construction of a 
 railway from Balaklava to the heights outside 
 
 ■pol, by special contract with Messrs Peto 
 and Brassey; but the large amount of bodily 
 labour continually needed for various services, led 
 to the formation of the A. W. C. The raising and
 
 ARNAULD. 
 
 organisation of this force were intrusted to Sir Joseph 
 l'axton. As soon as lie had obtained 1000 efficient 
 men, he sent them out; and their value was so soon 
 felt by Lord Raglan, that other detachments gra- 
 dually followed, until the corps comprised 3800 men 
 in the later months of 1S55. The men wei i 
 well, and they worked well ; and as their engage- 
 mart related only to the special duties connected 
 with the siege-camp, the country was not saddled 
 v. itli any burden after the need for these : 
 had ceased. They did not require to be drilled for 
 their duties, like sappers; and they were ready for 
 work at once, as artisans or labourers. There were 
 some ca3es of disagreement between the men and 
 employers, after the whole of the British had 
 returned from the Crimea, in a matter of wai 
 but this was a question of detail, and did not affect 
 the usefulness of the corps. The experience gained 
 has been valuable, as shewing in what way, under 
 special circumstances, ordinary workmen and la- 
 bourers may be employed as assistants to a military 
 force. 
 
 ARNAULT), ANCliLiQUE, a daughter of Robert 
 Arnauld d'Andilly, was bom on the 2Sth November 
 1624. From her earliest years, she exhibited an 
 extraordinary force and resoluteness of character, 
 and excited much anxious speculation concerning 
 her future career among her relatives. When not 
 quite twenty years of age, she became a nun at 
 l J ort-Royal des Champs, where she had been edu- 
 cated by her aunt, Marie Jaqueline Angelinas 
 Arnauld, sister of the great Arnauld. Nine years 
 after, she was made subprioress ; and on removing 
 some years later to Port-Royal de Paris, she held 
 the same office. During the persecution of the Port- 
 J loyalists, A. A., by her piety and courage, sustained 
 the spirit of the sisterhood. The whole family, 
 male and female, were determined Jansenists. and 
 none more so than Mother Angelique de Saint- 
 Jean (her conventual name). She had much to 
 endure, but she met misfortunes with earnest intre- 
 pidity. A royal order was issued to break up the 
 nunnery. The police arrested the inmates, who 
 were dispersed in various convents throughout 
 France, and constant efforts were made by the 
 Jesuits to induce them to sign the ' Formulary of 
 Alexander VII.' A. A. was alone exempted from 
 listening to their arguments and solicitations, her 
 'obstinacy' being supposed invincible. At length, 
 by command of the Archbishop of Paris, the nuns 
 were restored to Port-Royal des Champs ; but for 
 6ome years they were subjected to a strict surveil- 
 lance by soldiers, who watched all their movements, 
 and allowed them no intercourse with persons out of 
 the convent. In 1009, however, was issued the edict 
 of Clement IX. for the peace of the church, which 
 was a kind of compromise on this vexed question of 
 Jansenism and Jesuitism. The nuns received back 
 the privileges of which they had been stripped, and 
 a n.tilutid their society anew. A. A. was again 
 1 prioress. In 1078, she was made abbess. 
 The next year, her protectress, tho Uuchesse de 
 Longueville, dud. and the persecution recommenced, 
 by the prohibition to receive any more novices. Still 
 AngSlique did not despair. She consoled the nuns, 
 ami exerted all her influence with persons in power, 
 but with little effect. At last she sank under a 
 complication of griefs, and expired on the '29th of 
 January 1081, having behind her as bright and 
 beautiful a memory as any of her country^ 
 She was learned without being pedantic, pious with- 
 out bigotry, and gentle to others in proportion as she 
 was severe to herself. A. A. wrote several works, 
 tile most valuable of which is Mtmoiret pour 
 d la I'e' dt la .'/'/■ Sfaru Ana I Id de 
 
 Madeleine, Ht'farmatrice de Port-Royal. 
 
 ARXAII.ij, Antoink, the greatest advocate of 
 his time in France, was barn at Paris in 1660t He 
 was descended from an ancient family of Auvergne, 
 which had distinguished itself both in ami and 
 military affairs. A. was not less remarkable for his 
 eloquence than for his probity. His zealous defence 
 of the university of Paris again-; 
 1:7.11 won for him a wide celebrity. It Wl 
 printed in 1717. He published another work 
 against the Society of Jesus, and several tractates of 
 an earnest political character. The Jesuits accused 
 him of being a Huguenot, but the accusation was 
 unfounded, for he had no personal predilection in 
 favour of Protestantism as a distinct religious sys- 
 tem. He had several children, who formed the 
 nucleus of the Jansenists and Port-Koyalists. He 
 died 29th December 1019. 
 
 ARNAULD, Antolne, known as 'the great A.,' 
 the twentieth and youngest son of the preceding, was 
 born at Paris, February 0, 1612. Although originally 
 intended for the bar, he could not conceal his dislike 
 of the legal profession, and was in consequence 
 dedicated by his mother to the service of the 
 church. Entering the Sorbonne, he became a pupil 
 of Lescot, the confessor of Cardinal Richelieu, and 
 afterwards Bishop of Chartres. Lescot initiated 
 him into the scholastic theology ; but his attention 
 having been drawn to the writings of Augustine, he 
 soon conceived an admiration for that profoundest 
 of the early Christian thinkers which he ever after 
 retained. It was Augustine, he himself admitted, 
 who first shewed him the great difference between 
 the two states — that of a nature whole and sound, 
 and that of a nature corrupted by sin. In 1641, 
 the Sorbonne wished to receive him into their 
 society, on account of his extraordinary piety and 
 talents, but Cardinal Richelieu opposed this. In 
 the following year he was ordained a priest, and in 
 1643 he published a work entitled De la Friquente 
 Communion, which was received in the most favour- 
 able manner by all except the Jesuits, who had taken 
 alarm at the virtues of A., and were already attempt- 
 ing to defame one whom they instinctively felt to ho 
 a reproach to their order. As a consequence of this 
 publication, he was now admitted 'of the Society' of 
 the Sorbonne. A. not only replied to the aspersions 
 of the Jesuits in his Avertissement, but also sent 
 forth a work which was the prelude to a long and 
 fierce contest with his adversaries, Thtologit Moral* 
 des Jvsuites (Moral Theology of the Jesuits). But 
 the hatred of the latter was not confined to literary 
 libels ; they advised the chancellor of the So: 
 to carry the dispute to Rome, ,whither A. would 
 be obliged to follow and defend himself. In this 
 scheme, however, they were defeated. 
 
 A. now buried himself in seclusion for twenty-one 
 years, during which period, however, his pi 
 almost continuously active. In 16-14 appeared his 
 Hon de VEijlise sur la I' [Opinion of 
 
 the Church on the Doctrine of Penitence). It 
 was a reply to the attacks which the J< -nits had 
 against his 1'iy/innt Communion. A. was 
 still entangled in the disputes which aroso out of 
 this treatise, when he became involved in another 
 controversy that coloured the whole of his - 
 quent career, and may be said to have won for him 
 his position in liistory. This was the great Jansenist 
 controversy. In 1(510 had appeared a posthumous 
 
 of Jausenms. Bishop of Ypn 
 tinw ; sen J '• Jlumame 
 
 ■,;,,.,■ ,t .7 It laid down with a 
 
 rigour equal to that of Calvin the doctrines of pre- 
 dion, the corruption of human nature, and 
 the depravity of the will. It was specially in! 
 as a counteractive against tho lax principl
 
 AKXAULD— ARNDT. 
 
 morality of the Jesuits, many of whom, and espe- 
 cially their great champion, U 
 extreme Pelagian views of the freedom of the 
 human will, which they had cunningly interwoven 
 their 'scarlet-coloured' web of ethics. The 
 work, in the meantime, was condemned bj 
 
 VIII.. on the 1st of August 1641. A., who 
 i led its vital importance in the 
 existing state of things, boldly ventured t<> 
 
 of the papal bull. He pub- 
 ral pamphlets, closing with a first and 
 second It is to the honour 
 
 of the religion of A., however, that it was not always 
 controversial Whenever a moment of a: 
 permitted him. he occupied it in writing such works 
 
 Era Correction, La 
 
 . La VerM "' la Religion, De la Foi, de 
 
 ranee, el de la C'hariti, and the Man uel d> 6T1 ' in ' 
 
 Augustine. He also varied these occupations by 
 
 I I iting into Latin his Frequt nt Com nm ion, and 
 
 by the composition of his A < I 
 
 . Dcscartis Mcdilationes, aud several 
 tractates. la addition to his literary labours, he 
 
 undertook the direct inn of the nuns of Port-Royal des 
 Champs, a convent of which his sister, Marie Jaqueline 
 
 AngC'lique Arnauld, was abbess. In this retreat he 
 was surrounded by many friends, thirsting like 
 himself for the quiet pleasures of study, some of 
 whom have left their mark in the world, such as 
 Pascal, Nicole, &c. Here they wrote in common 
 numerous excellent works. A. executed parts of the 
 rale Baitonnte, Elerni nls de ' 
 
 /•. In 1649 the Jansciiist con- 
 y broke out more fiercely than ever. The 
 Auguetinu&olHiB Bishop of Ypres was again attacked 
 and condi mned by the Sorbonne and the pope. A. 
 replied iu his Considerations. In 1G5;i appeared 
 what he conceived to be his best work, L'Apologie 
 pour let Saints Peres. For the next half-dozen years 
 he was engaged in constant and painful disputes ; yet, 
 in spite of the polemical character of his lrfe, the im- 
 pression of his piety and earnestness was deepened 
 in the mind of the nation ; and on reading some of 
 his compositions, even Alexander VII. is reported to 
 praised the author, and to have exhorted liim 
 for the future to despise the libels of his adversaries. 
 During the strife he published La Concorde des 
 and V Office du Saint-Sacrement. In 
 1655— 5G, for prudential reasons, he left his retreat 
 at Port-Royal ; about the same time he was expelled 
 from the Sorbonne and the faculty of theology. 
 
 Iu 1G56, the war with the Jesuits was renewed — 
 not, however, by A. in person. An unknown knight 
 with closed visor had ridden into the lists — the great 
 I I. Under the nom deplume of Louis de Mon- 
 
 talto, he discharged his scorpion wit against the Jesuits 
 for about a year and a half in the Provincial Letters. 
 A. furnished him with materials ; but, in 165S, he 
 took the field in proprid persona, by publishing his 
 Cinq Ecrits en faveur des Cures de Pan 
 Casuisles reldches. In 16G2 appeared La Xuuvclle 
 //■ risie (of the Jesuits) ; iu IGli'J the first volume of 
 his Morale Pratique (of the Jesuits), the last of which 
 was not published until the year of his death. 
 
 A., who was a sincere Catholic after his fashion, 
 next had a theological controversy, properly so called, 
 with the reformed minister Claude, the consequence 
 of which was his volume, Du Senversement de la 
 Morale de J. C. par la Doctrine des Calvinistes 
 touchanl la Justification (1072). Iu 1675 he returned 
 to the subject in his Impiiti de la Morale des Calvin- 
 istes. Some years previous to this, A. had enjoyed 
 the peace of Clement IX., which put a stop for the 
 time to the Jansenist controversy. He had been 
 uted to the papal nuncio and to the Grand 
 Monarque, both of whom flattered him highly; but 
 42* 
 
 the Jesuits, who could not breathe freely in his pre- 
 sence, used their utmost efforts to prejudice Louis 
 against him, and at last the king issued an ordi 
 
 !. L hid himself for some time, but finally 
 
 withdrew into Belgium. He felt his exile keenly, 
 
 though honoured by many k I influential 
 
 . and could not rest in one city, but wan- 
 to place, ever display*. 
 II of mind and the same polemical 
 y. It is strange that this man, who was 
 celebrated amongst his friends for equanimity 
 gentleness of heart, should have been so bitter in his 
 controversies, even with his friends, for li 
 against bis enemies only, but against Pascal. Domat, 
 his protector, Pope Innocent XL, and his old 
 friend, Pare Malebranche. So earnest was he for 
 the truth— which earnestness had no doubt he< a 
 greatly intensified ; .Hon ami controversy — 
 
 that he could never thoroughly realise the idea, that 
 there in lit be truth on the other side also, lie 
 died at Brussels, 8th August 1694 His v. 
 whi.h amount to upwards of 100 volumes, were 
 published at Paris, 1775-1783. 
 
 ARNAULD, Robert d'Axdiixy, the eldest son 
 of Antoine Arnauld, the advocate, and brother of 
 the great Arnauld, was born at Paris in 1588. He 
 was a person of considerable consequence at the 
 French court, where his influence was ever exerted 
 dally. Balzac spoke very highly of him. At 
 the' age of fifty-five, he quitted the hustle of the 
 world for the solitude of Port-Royal des Champs. 
 where he devoted himself to religious history ami 
 ;ihy. His chief works are translation.-. Iich 
 as those of the Confessions of St Augustine, and of 
 the History of the Jews, by Josephus. The latter 
 work is esteemed nmr eh nit than accurate, how- 
 ever. In 1G68, appeared Ins translation of the 
 Lives of the Holy Fathers of the Desert, and of 
 several' Saints; and in 1670, that of the works 
 of St Theresa. He was likewise the author of some 
 pieces of religious verse. He died 27th Si pti mber 
 1071. 
 
 ARND, a German Protestant cl ; om at 
 
 Ballenstadt, in the d knhalt, in 1555, 1 
 
 Lutheran pastor at Quedlinburg, Brunswick, and 
 elsewhere, and died at Cello, in Hanover, in 1621. 
 As a man he was remarkable for his piety and active 
 benevolence ; but he is chiefly known for a work 
 entitled True Christianity (Wahres Christenthum), 
 which was translated into most European langn 
 and is yet popular in Germany. Its object is ' edifi- 
 cation'— the promotion of practical religion ; and it 
 is v.i ill n with great warmth and unction, and in a 
 strain of piety bordering on mysticism. It has been 
 called the Protestant i Kempis, and its author the 
 Fenclon of the Protestant Church. Then- is an 
 English translation by W. Jaques (Lond. 1815, 
 2 vols.). 
 
 ARNDT, Euxst Moritz, professor in the univer- 
 sity of Bonn, and for the last half century one of 
 the leading political writers of Germany, was born 
 in the island of Riigen in 1769. He gave up the 
 clerical profession, for which he was at first intended, 
 and after travelling over great part of Europe, 
 became, in 1806, Professor of History in Greifswalde. 
 Here, among other writings, he published his 11 
 of Serfdom in Pomerama, for which he was for- 
 mally denounced and accused by several nobles. In 
 his Spirt* oft/ie Times (Altenb. 1S07), he attacked 
 Napoleon with such boldness, that, after the battle 
 of Jena, he had to take refuge in Stockholm. 
 Returning under a feigned name, he resumed his 
 functions at Greifswalde in 1S10 ; but war becoming 
 imminent, he resigned the following year, and 
 became an active co-operator with the minis ter, Yon,
 
 AENE— ARNICA. 
 
 Stein, and other patriots, in throwing off the foreign 
 yoke. His numerous fngj tings, full of 
 
 y and fire, contributed not a little to rouse and 
 sustain the spirit of Germany for the war of libera- 
 tion. His best poems belong to this period, and 
 several of them have itional son_ | \ 
 
 on, Leip. 1850.) His song, What is the 
 German' 8 Fatherland? is sung wherever German is 
 a. In 1818 lie was made professor of modern 
 y in the new university of Bonn, but became 
 involved in 1819 in the prosecutions for what were 
 t<,' and was suspended. 
 U acquitted on trial, he was made to retire, 
 bis salary. After twenty years' suspen- 
 se was restored in 18-11). His writings are 
 numerous: we may mention his Beschreibung und 
 i /, I nstln, &c. (Leip. 1S26); 
 
 tion of his n an und fur seine 
 
 I vols. Leip. 1845) ; and L'rinir 
 aus dem aussern Leljen (3d ed. Leip. 1842). He was 
 elected a member of the German national assembly 
 in 1848, but seceded from it along with the whole 
 i i (q. v.) party in 1849. He powerfully sup- 
 
 Eorted the party who advocated a constitutional 
 creditary monarchy, ami took a prominent part in 
 the appointment of the Archduke John as regent, 
 and in the fruitless deputation to Berlin to offer the 
 1 ia. After the dissolution 
 
 of the Frankfort Assembly, A. did not cease in his 
 fugitive writings to advocate I :' the German 
 
 1 party. (He died 29th January 1860.) 
 AENE, Thomas AmrsTiNE, Doctor in Music, 
 one of the best and d I of English com- 
 
 posers, was born in London, 1710, ancl received 
 nis early education at Eton. His father, who 
 was an upholsterer, intended to educate him for 
 Hi'- bar; but the love of music was too strong 
 to be restrained. Young A. became skilful as a 
 violin-player, forming his style chiefly on the 
 model of Corelli ; ami his zeal in the study of 
 music induced his sister (afterwards celebrated as 
 Mrs Gibber) to cultivate her excellent voice. He 
 for her a part in his first opera, Rosamond, 
 which was first performed with great success in 
 ]'■'•'.',. Next followed his comic operetta, Tom 
 '% or the Opera of Operas ; and afterwards his 
 Comxts (1738), which displayed greater cultivation of 
 style. He married a singer, I 'ia Young (1740); 
 and after a successful visit to Ireland, was engaged 
 as composer to Drury Lane Theatre, and wrote 
 vocal pieces for the Yauxhall concerts. The 
 national air, Rui '••, which was originally 
 
 in a popular perfi ■nuance, TheMasqueqfA Ifred, 
 was of his composition. He composed also two 
 oratorios, the opera Eliza, and another, Arlaxerxes, 
 in the Italian style ; but his genius was better 
 adapted to simple pastoral melody than to gnat 
 dramatic compositions. He died in London, 1778. 
 
 AIJNKE, or AI.'XA, the largest animal of the 
 ox kind yet known. It is a native of India, 
 
 Skull and Horns of Arncc. 
 
 and is found chiefly in the forests at the base 
 of the Himalayas and in the north-eastern pro- 
 vinces, never descends low plains. It 
 lly regarded by naturalists as a wild variety 
 of the buffalo; but Mr Vasey thinks 'our infor- 
 mation on the subject not j <tly precise 
 
 Amee. 
 
 (From an Indian picture ) 
 
 to determine this point.' It is named Ros Arnee, 
 as a distinct species, by some authors. A pair of 
 horns in the British Museum measure more than 
 six feet each along the outer curve. When the 
 head of an A. is placed with the muzzle on the 
 ground, it requires the outstretched arms of a man 
 to hold the points of the horns. From the manner 
 in which the A. is introduced in Indian painting-, 
 it would seem to have been sometimes tamed. 
 
 A BNHEIM, orAENHEM.thcRoman Arenacum, 
 capital of the province of Guelderland. in Holland, 
 with a population of 18,000, is situated on the 
 right bank of the Bhine, which is here crossed 
 by a bridge of boats; it has a considerable transit- 
 trade between Amsterdam and Germany. The 
 environs of this strongly fortified town are exceed- 
 ingly picturesque. Its most remarkable buili 
 are the ancient residence of the Dukes of I 
 derlaml, and the Reformed Dutch Church, which 
 contains their monuments. There are B 
 paper-mills in the neighbourhood. In 1813, \- 
 was taken by storm by the Prussians, under 
 General Bulow, and the way thus prepared for the 
 occupation of Holland. 
 
 A'RXHEM LAND, that part of North 
 tralia which lies between Anson Bay on the 
 and the Gulf of Carpentaria on the east, stretching 
 in E. long, from about 120° to about l.'!7 J ; in lat. 
 it extends indefinitely southwards from about 12 s. 
 It takes its name from the ship of the Dutch 
 navigators who discovered it in 1018. 
 
 A'RNK'V. a genus of plants to the 
 
 natural order Compositor, Bub-order I'unjmbijeree. 
 The flowers of the ray arc female and Iigulate, those 
 of the disk hermaphrodite and tubular. The red p- 
 tacle is naked ; the pappus hairy. The root, 
 . and flowers of the Mountain A. (.1. montana), 
 mes called Mountain Tobacco, are much 
 valued in medicine, and administered in various 
 forms as a stimulant in paralytic affections, typhoid 
 . and othi t i They are also applied 
 
 with much benefit to braises, to promote the real 
 tion of extra od. They contain a peculiar 
 
 volatile oil. a resin, an extractive matter, and an 
 alkaloid [Armcina). The root is perennial and 
 d, the stui > feet high, simple or 
 
 little branched, with few leaves, hearing on the sum- 
 mit a head of flowers of a dark golden yellow, often 
 
 424
 
 ARNIM— ARNOLD. 
 
 two inches in breadth. It flowers from June to 
 August, forms an ornament of mountain meadows 
 
 Arnica montana. 
 
 in Germany and Switzerland, and is found upon the 
 continent as far south as l'ortugal, and as far 
 north as Lapland, but is not a native of Britain. 
 
 A'RNIM, Elizabeth von, better known as Bettin a, 
 wife of Ludwig Aclxim von Arnim (q. v.), was born in 
 1785 at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. From her child- 
 hood excitable and eccentric, an early and profound 
 impression was mado upon her mind by the suicide 
 of her friend, the Canoness von Gunderode. The 
 next great event of her life was her devoted attach- 
 ment to, and intimacy with Goethe, at that time a 
 man of nearly sixty. Their correspondence, entitled 
 Goethe's Letters to a Child, was published in 1835, 
 and translated by Bettina into English. Her letters 
 are poetical, graceful, and fascinating, though often 
 careless and extravagant, and abound in graphic 
 sketches of men of the time. Goethe turned many 
 of these letters into verse. Bettina's later works 
 were semi-political in their character, aud like hex 
 earlier, full of fantastic beauty. She lived to a 
 good old age, dying in 1S59. 
 
 A'RNIM, Karl Otto Lcdwic vox, a well-known 
 writer of travels and other works, was born at 
 Berlin 1779. After studying at Halle and Gottingen, 
 li travelled at different times over the most of 
 Europe, and was employed on the embassies at 
 Stockholm and London. His Fl uridine Bemcrkungen 
 eines fliichitigen Reisenden (Passing Eemarks by a 
 Passing Traveller, 6 vols., Berk 1S37— 1850), is 
 recommended for its clear elegant style, as con- 
 trasted with the lumbering and involved writ 
 the 'Academic' school. A. also wrote in I 
 Napoleon's Conduct towards Prussia (Lond. 1S14), 
 and published German National Melodies, with 
 German and English text (Lond. 1816). He is the 
 author of a play and several poems. 
 
 ATtNIM, Ludwio Achxm vox, a fantastic but 
 original German writer of romances, was born in 
 
 426 
 
 Berlin, January 20, 1781. After devotin;; 
 i ,. , ■■ i . i ' 
 
 ii an imaginative author with 
 
 which, though based on 
 the principles of the new poetic school which had 
 then risen in Germany, indicated, neve rt h el ess , that 
 
 the author could strike out a way of his own. His 
 
 ough Germany afforded him an oppor- 
 tunity of catching the peculiarities of popular his in 
 
 its various provincial manifestations. Be was i 
 ally interested in the old popular poetry, and 
 np among his countrymen a wanner sympathy for it 
 by the publication, along with Clemens I 
 
 Boy's Wonderhorn (Heidelberg, 1800 j 
 In 1809 appeared the II I t ion of 
 
 novels; in 1810, the romance, entitled 77- /'. 
 
 / Repentance of the Countess Dolores; 
 in 1811, Halle ana Jerusalem, the Sports of a 
 .lures of a Pilgrim, in which 
 last his humour took a very saucy turn. In 1817, 
 he published the Crown . a work oharae- 
 
 terised by its originality, richness of fancy, and 
 vivid portraitures. The later years of his life were 
 spent partly in Berlin and partly at his estate Dear 
 Dahme, where he died, Jan. 21, 1831. 
 
 A'KNO, next to the Tiber the most considerable 
 river of Central Italy, rises on Mount Falterona, an 
 offset of the Apennines, at an elevation of 4444 feet 
 above the level of the sea, and 25 miles north of 
 Arezzo. It flows through the deep and fertile valley 
 of Casentino, in a south-east direction; enters the 
 richly cultivated plain of Arezzo, where it receives 
 ter of the Chiana ; then flows in a north-west 
 and north course through the upper valley of the 
 A. [Valdarno), one of the most delicious parts of 
 Tuscany; afterwards it receives the Sieve, its 1 
 tributary, and turns its course toward the west, 
 flowing past Florence, Empoli, and through the 
 town of Pisa. The whole length of its course is 
 about 140 miles. In old times, the embouchure of 
 the A. was at Pisa; now it is about four or live 
 miles distant, in lat. 43" 41' X., and long. 10° 1.". 10. 
 It is navigable for barges as far up as Florence, but 
 in the summer season even this frequently becomes 
 impossible. The Italian poets speak of ' the golden 
 A. ; ' but, in truth, its waters have mostly the 
 unpleasant colour of milk and coffee mixed together. 
 The A. is noted for the rapid aud destructive 
 character of its inundations. The most memorable 
 are those of September 1537, when the whole of 
 the Valdarno was laid under water, which rose to 
 the height of 8 feet in some parts of Florence ; and 
 of IT!", tie- latter being^ caused by the long con- 
 ce of the sirocco, wdiich completely melted the 
 snows on the Apennines. 
 
 ARNOLD, or ARNALD, or Brescia, was a 
 of that town, and was distinguished by 
 the success with which he contended against the 
 corruptions of the clergy in the early part of 
 the 12th c. He was educated in France under 
 Abelard, and adopted the monastic life. By his 
 preaching, the people of his native place wen 
 
 1 against their bishop, and the fermentation 
 and insurrectionary spirit spread ever a great 
 part of the country, when he was cited before the 
 second Lateran Council, and banished from Italy. 
 He retired to France, but experienced the bitter hos- 
 tility of St Bernard, who denounced him as a violent 
 enemy to the church. He thereupon took refuse in 
 Zurich, where he settled for several years. Mean- 
 while his doctrines exerted a powerful influence in 
 Rome, which ended in a general insurrection against 
 the government, whereupon A. repaired thither, and 
 endeavoured to lead and direct the movement. He 
 exhorted the'people to organise a government similar
 
 ARNOLD. 
 
 to the ancient Roman republic, with its consuls, 
 tribunes, and equestrian order. But they, provoked 
 by the treachery and opposition of the papal party, 
 and disunited among themselves, gave way to the 
 grossest excesses. The city, indeed, continued for 
 ten years in a state of agitation and disorder. Lucius 
 II. was killed by the populace in an insurrection in 
 ] I !", ,-ind Eugenius III., to escape a similar fate, fled 
 into France. These violent struggles were subdued 
 I le Hadrian I V., who, feeling the weakness of 
 his temporal authority, turned to the spiritual, and 
 resorted to the extreme measure of laying the city 
 cinder excommunication, when A., whose party be- 
 came discouraged, and EeD to pieces, took refuge v. ith 
 certain influential friends in Campania. On the 
 arrival of the emperor, Frederick I., for his corona- 
 tion, in 1155, A. was arrested, brought to Rome, 
 hanged, his body burned, and the ashe3 
 thrown into the Tiber. 
 
 A'RXOLD, Joimnv, a miller of Newmark, who 
 lived in the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, and 
 gave rise to a remarkable legal process. He com- 
 ld to the king that his landlord, by making 
 a pond, had taken away water from the mill ; that 
 he (A.) had therefore refused to pay rent for the mill, 
 of which he held a lease ; but had been condemned 
 In pay by the unanimous decisions of two legal 
 courts. The king took up the case, and regarding it 
 as an oppression of the poor, reversed the decisions 
 of the courts, dismissed his high-chancellor, impri- 
 soned several other officers of justice, and gave 
 orders that restitution should be made to the miller, 
 i fterwards, the king died, and under Frederick 
 William II. the case was more coolly investigated, 
 when the result was that the condemned chancellor 
 and other official persons were exonerated from all 
 blame in the matter, and the miller was recompensed 
 by the state for loss of time and money. 
 
 A'RNOLD, Matthew, a living English poet, the 
 
 eldest son of the late Dr Arnold of Rugby, was born 
 
 on the 24th December 1822, and educated at 
 
 Winchester and Rugby. In 1840 ho was elected 
 
 scholar of Balliol College, Oxford; in 1844 he 
 
 obtained the Newdegate prize for an English poem ; 
 
 in IS 15 he was elected a fellow of Oriel College ; and 
 
 in 1846 he became private secretary to Lord Lans- 
 
 downe, which office he held for several years. In 
 
 1851 he espoused Frances, daughter of Mr Justice 
 
 Wightm&n, and about the same time was appointed 
 
 one of Hex Maji -sty's Inspectors of British Schools. 
 
 Two yean ago, he was elected Convocation Professor 
 
 of Poetry at Oxford. Mr A. has been before the 
 
 world now as a poet for several years, and his success 
 
 lias been considerable. Although he has not achieved 
 
 popularity, his position in literature is established, 
 
 is his works become better known, admiration 
 
 in will increase. If he has failed to obtain the 
 
 ise of the noisy many, he is rewarded by the 
 
 f the judicious few. The strain of his 
 
 . calm and thoughtful ; his style is the reverse 
 
 of florid ; deep culture and a certain severity of 
 
 have subdued every tendency to a gay or a 
 
 passionate exuberance. As a poet, he has little 
 
 sympathy with the present ; his muse has hitherto 
 
 ited in the remoteness and repose of the 
 
 int world. In his eloquent and voluminous 
 
 s, he advocates the return of poetical art to 
 
 the antique forma. Mr A. practises his own creed. 
 
 tory of 3ohrab and Rustum is as old as 
 
 • r, a later production, and a3 yet 
 
 his most considerable and perhaps finest poem, is 
 
 a story of the ■; and the tra 
 
 blished last year, is an attempt to 
 naturalise in English literature the form of the 
 Greek drama — an attempt induced, says its author, 
 
 ' by a passion for the great masters, and an effort 
 to study them without fancifulness.' 
 
 A'RNOLD, Thomas, D.D., hcad-mast.r of Bogfcy 
 School, and the author of a J/iilory of Borne, was 
 born June 13, 1795, at West Cowes, in the Isle of 
 Wight. In 1803 he was sent to Warminster School, 
 in Wiltshire, but was removed in 1 v7 t . the public 
 school of Winchester, where he remained till 1811, 
 when he was elected a scholar of Corpus Christi 
 ml. In 1M5 he was elected fellow of 
 Oriel College, and he gained the chancellor's prize 
 for the two university essays, Latin and English, for 
 the years 1815 and 1817. As a bo3', we are told he 
 was shy ami retired; ae a youth, disputatious, and 
 somewhat bold and unsettled in his opinions; but 
 before he left Oriel, he had won the good opinion of 
 a college which at that time boasted of such names 
 as Copleston, Davison, Whately, Keble, Hawkins, 
 and Hampden. He took deacon's orders in 1818, 
 and the year after settled at Laleham, near Staines, 
 where he occupied himself in preparing pupils for 
 the university. In 1820 he married Mary, youngest 
 daughter of the Rev. John Penrose, rector of 
 borough, in Nottinghamshire, and sister of one of 
 his earliest school and college friends, Trevenen 
 Penrose. About ten years were spent in this quiet 
 and comparatively obscure life ; he was preparing 
 himself for the arduous post he afterwards occupied ; 
 he was maturing his opinions, and he had also 
 already commenced his great literary undertaking, the 
 History of Rome. It was a period which he himself 
 was accustomed to look back upon with some feel- 
 ing of regret. His letters at this epoch reveal to us 
 a fine ambitious spirit bending cheerfully to the task 
 of tuition, more useful than glorious ; they also prove 
 to us that those views of a religious and political 
 character which afterwards distinguished him, were 
 being matured in the privacy of Laleham. ' I have 
 long had in my mind,' he thus writes to a Mr 
 Blackstone, 'a work on Christian politics, or the 
 application of the Gospel to the state of man as a 
 citizen, in which the whole question of a religious 
 establishment, and the education proper for Chris- 
 tian members of a Christian commonwealth, would 
 naturally find a place. It would embrace also an 
 historical sketch of the pretended conversion of the 
 kingdoms of the world to the kingdom of Christ 
 in the 4th and 5th centuries, which I look upon as 
 one of the greatest tours oVadresse that Satan ever 
 played. .... 1 mean that by inducing kings and 
 nations to conform nominally to Christianity, and 
 thus to get into their hands the direction of Christian 
 society, he has in a great measure succeeded in 
 keeping out the peculiar principles of that ( 
 from any extended sphere of operation, and insuring 
 the ascendency of his own.' 1 1 
 somewhat sportive and familiar manner, the 
 principle which he afterwards contended for with so 
 much earnestness, that there should be a Christian 
 laity, a Christian legislature, a Christian g 
 ment ; by which he did not mean a system of laws 
 or government formed in the manner of the 
 Puritans, out of texts of Scripture, rashly applied, 
 but imbued with the spirit of Hie New Testament 
 and of the tee* ' hrist 
 
 It was at Laleham also that A first became 
 acquainted with Niebuhr's History ■/ Some. This 
 was an era in his life. It produced a revolution in 
 his historical views, and his own Hutonj of Rome 
 became modelled almost too faithfully on that of the 
 great German. 
 
 From Laleham he was called to undertake the 
 :s duties of the head-mastership of I 
 School. On these he cDtered August 1628 
 
 init us to dwell upon the d 
 of that system of public education which he perhaps
 
 AKKOTT-AKNOTTO. 
 
 carried to its perfection We ran only take notice 
 of the high ' moral and i bich ho pre- 
 
 served the boys. He had the tact to make 
 
 : both Loved and feared I 1 aided with 
 , ..| .' te public op I. 'In 
 
 at further prool i rbon was immediately 
 
 i say so, that is quit'- I I 
 . ir ward ;" ami there 
 up in i a general feeling that ii 
 
 [A. a] beal .' (in 
 
 one occasion, when he had I lied to semi 
 
 away -. he said: 'Itisnotnecessai 
 
 this should be a school of 300, or ino, or of 60 boys, 
 but ii ary that it should he a Bel 
 
 i | 
 But the school was very far from occupying the 
 of A. The History •■/ Bonn 
 on; he took part in all the great of the 
 
 political and theological In politics he was 
 a whig, without 1 red — aswe need hardly 
 
 say — by the ties of party. In the theol 
 discussions of the day. he was chiefly distill 
 I I iad views he hail adopted of the nature 
 
 of a Christian church. As already intimated, it 
 was his leading idea that a ChritHom , 
 a clu- '< ought to be synonymous expres- 
 
 sions. He would never tolerate that use of the 
 w..rd church which limited it to the clergy, or 
 implied in tfc ■ peculiar 
 
 ox any trai ■• The 
 
 priett was unknown to him in tl I in com- 
 
 munity, this placed him at once in antagonism 
 ti Church party; and even clergymen of 
 the Low Church complained that he did not set 
 
 sufficient vain i their sacred order. Bui all men, 
 
 of whatever party, admitted and admired the zeal 
 with which he taught that the full spi 
 tianity should permeate the whole of our civil or 
 d life. It he Beemed to lower the altiti 
 
 it was only ■ would raise the 
 
 1 of the laity, lie was convinced that 
 'the founders of our present constitution in church 
 and state did truly consider them to I 
 the Christian nation of England to be the chui 
 England ; the head of that nation to be, for that 
 vi tv i head of the church.' It may be 
 
 doubted whether this is rpiite historical 1 
 but it certainly presents a noble theory t i 
 imagination. 
 
 In domestic life, Dr A. was most happy ; here 
 he was distinguished by unfailing cheerfulness and 
 amiability. In 1832, he purchased Fox Eow, a 
 small estate between Bydal and Ambleside, and it 
 was in this charming retreat that I I in the 
 
 vacations, anion t the family circle, his own uiiin- 
 l-'ox How has become a classical 
 spot to every tourist. 
 
 For a brief time he held a place in the I 
 of the London University ; he resigned the seat on 
 finding that he could not introduce some ni' 
 which he had at heart. In the year 1842, he 
 red from Lord Melbourne the offer of the 
 Regius Professorship of Modern History at Oxford. 
 Tins appointment he accepted with peculiar gratifi- 
 cation. He delivered some introductory lectures, 
 which were heard with enthusiastic interest ; 
 and it was his intention, on his retirement from 
 Rugby, to enter with zeal upon the duties of his 
 professorship. But this and all other literary 
 enterprises were cut short by a sudden and most 
 painfid death. The last vacation was at hand, the 
 
 Fox How was to be taken in a fev. 
 when he was seized w-ith a fatal attack of spasm of 
 the heart. Few biographies end more abruptly or 
 more mournfully ; but the sufferer met his death 
 424 
 
 with perfect fortitude and the full hope of a Chris- 
 tian. He died June 12, 1842. Hispnncipal works 
 . , ions ; the History qj 
 
 ■ end ol tin- 
 second ' ' r; and an editv 
 
 His miscellaneous contributions to literature arc too 
 numerous to be mentioned. 
 
 A'KXOTT. Nui. M.I)., was born in 17ss at 
 Arbroath, but his family-home was] ■ rMon- 
 
 i I tcated at the Grammar 
 
 . ! i, atiy at Mai 
 
 College in the sam : id the advantage 
 
 of Btudying natural philosophy under Professor 
 Copland, one of the most successful expounders of 
 mecharj 1 ence then living. A. made choice of 
 medicine as a profession; and after goil U 
 
 dical course at i.h rdeen, he went to London 
 
 in ism;, wli lie 1 the pupil "1 Sir Eve ratal 
 
 ■ ni of SI G II" pital. After 
 
 Bpending some years in the naval service of tho 
 
 ny, he settled in 1811 as a mi 
 practit;<ei r in London, where he has lived ever 
 
 Idition to his < neral prac- 
 
 \. was appointed, in 1816, physician to the 
 
 and afterwards to the Spanish 
 
 In ls::i'). Dr A. was appointed a member 
 
 of the Senate of the I'nivcrsity of London, then 
 
 established by government, Be was afterwards 
 
 i a fellow of the Royal and then of 
 
 Iu 1837, he wa ! named a 
 
 Ehrtntordinary to the Queen. He has 
 
 ii practice. 
 
 In 1823 - 24, Dr A. was indu Ito deliver a course 
 
 nres on natural philosophy in its applications 
 
 ubstanoe of these lectures Eo 
 lis of his Elements of Physio, or No 
 
 General and Medical, published in 
 ls-27. Owing to the professional occupation of the 
 author, the second part of the second volume 
 ipleted; nevertheless, the work 
 enjoyed immense popularity, and live editions were 
 called for in six years. Since 1833, the work 
 bed, but a new and com- 
 : -tend to be in pro 
 Of numerous new applications of physical science to 
 1 practice, and to tl ' viation of human 
 Bufforin Dr A., maybe men- 
 
 tioned fine water bed (q, v.). But it is in connection 
 with improvements in the warming and ventilating 
 of houses that the name of DrA.i mostexten 
 In 1S38, he published a treatise on 11 
 ' ; el in lSoo, another, On (lie 
 
 kc. The 
 
 ■■' and ■ Arnott Venti' •■. with 
 
 characteristic ropy and disinterestedness, 
 
 Hr A. refrained from patenting, will be noticed 
 
 . i.s and VENTILATORS. 
 
 ARNO'TTO, ARNA'TTO, AXXO'TTA, AN- 
 N A'TTo, or Ki il.'COU, also known on the continent 
 of Europe by the name of OSLBUT, is a red colouring 
 matter, which is obtaiued in South America and the 
 West Indies from the reddish pulp surrounding the 
 seeds of the Arnotto-trec (Bixa orcllana) by wash- 
 ing, maceration, fermentation, and subsequent evapo- 
 ration. It appears in commerce in cakes or balls of 
 2—4 lbs. weight, wrapped up in leaves, externally 
 brown, internally of a pale blood-red or yellowish- 
 red colour, and which have a peculiar animal smell 
 and an astringent taste. Pure A. seldom appears in 
 the market. It is obtained by the mere rubbing off 
 and drying of the red pulpy pellicle which I 
 the seed ; but that which is thus obtained is very 
 pure, and occurs in small round or angular lozenges. 
 The In. bans rub this colouring matter into the skin 
 of their whole body, thus intending both to adorn
 
 AKNSBEBG— AKPAD. 
 
 themselves, and to obtain protection against the 
 
 I .es. Amongst us, A. is used in 
 
 medicine for colouring plasters, ointments, 4c. ; and 
 
 to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a 
 
 Arnotto : 
 
 a, end of a branch with leaves and flowers reduced; b, capsu'.e; 
 
 c, the seeds and pu^p. 
 
 rich colour to cheese. It is also used in dyeing, 
 althou not produce a durable colour. It 
 
 i to impart an orange tint to simple 
 yellows. It is an ingredient in some varnishes. It 
 producing a brown solution, 
 from which it is precipitated yellow by acids. It 
 imparts little colour to water, but dissolves m 
 alcohol; alum and sugar of lead throw down a 
 brick-red precipitate from the alcoholic solution. 
 In South America, A. is very extensively mixed 
 not only for the sake of the colour, 
 hut also for the improvement of the flavour. — The 
 genus Sicca belongs to the natural order Flacout.- 
 v. (q. v.), and is distinguished by complete 
 flowers with simple stigma, a hispid calyx of live 
 sepals, and a two- valved capsule. The A. shrub is a 
 native of tropical America, but has been introduced 
 into otliir warm countries. It grows to the height 
 of 7 — 8 feet, and has heart-shaped pointed leaves, 
 and large flowers of a peach-blossom colour, which 
 
 frow in loose clusters at the extremities of the 
 ranches. The capsules are oblong, and contain 
 30 — 40 seeds enveloped in red pulp (the A.). The 
 seeds are said to be cordial, astringent, and febri- 
 fugal The roots are used in broth. They have the 
 of A. in an inferior degree. 
 A'BNSBERG, one of the three departments of 
 i oi Wi stphalia (q. v.), having 
 
 I ion "i 
 5S0,0U<>. With the exception of the valley of the 
 Lippe, the whole di partment belongs to thi 
 
 of the Lower Rhine. Only in a few of the 
 valleys is there good arable soil ; on the other 
 hand, t! timber, more 
 
 than a third of the whole area consisting of forests. 
 But the principal resources of the district are its 
 shbterrani on riches, in coal, iron, had, silver, 4c. 
 Its abundant water-power has also led to the 
 establishment of numerous factories, mills. 4c 
 Aknsbeko, the chief town of the depart:* 
 situated on the Bhur, 44 miles south-east from 
 MUnster; pop. 4500. It haB several manufactures, 
 such as liin ii. broadcloth, potash, iVe. In the 
 orchard below the castle is still pointed out the 
 
 spot where the famous Femgerichte (q. v.) of A. was 
 held. 
 
 A'RNSTADT, thi chief town in the principality 
 of Schwarzb rhausen, is situated in a 
 
 picturesque conn banks of the Gera, 
 
 twelve miles south of Erfurt, and has a population of 
 5820. It is one of the oldest Thuringian c:' 
 existence being traceable as far back as 7^4 a.i>. 
 Formerly it was the chief emporium for the trade 
 in fmit and timber between the fertile lowlands 
 and the Thuringian forest region, but is now a 
 manufacturing town, employing a very considerable 
 
 lands in wea making, br 
 
 pottery, &c. A rich vein of rock-salt has been 
 recently discovered in the neighbourhood of the 
 town, and a new copper-min opened. 
 
 AROMA, a term ? •metimes employ 1 to desig- 
 nate- those substances the extremely min 
 of which are suppo i of smell so 
 
 as to produce particular odours, and frequently as 
 synonymous with odour. The particles iliri'used 
 through the atmosphere, and affecting the olfactory 
 nerves— if the theory of particles of matter so diffused 
 be correct — must indeed be extremely minute, as 
 rous substances such as musk, the smell of 
 which is felt at a consul rable distance, continue to 
 diffuse their odour, and according to this theory, 
 these particles, for years, without sensible diminution 
 See Smelling. The term A. is usually 
 employed only with reference to particular kinds of 
 odours, not easdy defined or distinguished in 
 Thus, we speak of the A. of roast-meat, and of 
 or aromatic smell of hyssop, mint, and other plants. 
 Aromatic smells are very characteristic of some 
 natural orders of plants, as Labiata (Mint, 4c.) and 
 Compositcc (Milfoil, &c). They have been very 
 generally eh. i depend upon essential oils, 
 
 but resins are often equally aromatic. 
 
 ABOMATIC YIMCCAU differs from ordinary 
 vinegar (which is acetic acid diluted with water) in 
 ling certain essential oils which impart an 
 fragrance. It is generally prepared by 
 aihling the oils of cloves, lavender, roc maiy, and 
 //!!/« (and sometimes camphor) to crystal- 
 by distilling the acetate of 
 ten retort an and treating 
 
 the liquid which passes over with the fragrant oils 
 mentioned above. A. V. is a very pleasant and 
 powerful perfume; it is very volatile, and when 
 snuffed up by the nostrils, is a powerful excitant, 
 and hence is serviceable in fainting, languor, head- 
 ache, and nervous debility. A. V. is generally 
 placed on a sponge in a smelling-bottle or in a rumi- 
 . it can also be pin \ liquid in phials; 
 
 and a drop or two allowed to evaporate into a 
 i 
 oit odour. The liquid must, however, be 
 isly dealt with, as it is a very corrosive 
 nice. 
 AEOXIA. See Cp.AT.re 
 
 AROO'STOOK, a river v. I in the north 
 
 of Maine, falls into 
 after a course of about 120 miles. 11 
 
 mection with t! 
 agitated qui stion of the north 
 Lritish America and tl 
 
 ARPAD, the national hero of 1- as the 
 
 son of Amos, the leader under whom the Magyars 
 lirst gained a footing in Hungary. He v,.is i 
 
 on his father's death in 889, and by a course 
 
 of incessant and mostly successful warfare with the 
 
 .nis, Wallachians, Moravian tended 
 
 them : of the Magyars on all sid< a. He 
 
 also made more than one successful incursion into
 
 ARPEGGIO— ARRACK. 
 
 Ji nit '.ni>. and returned laden with 1 
 
 II ■ died in 907, leaving his son in possession 
 of the supremo command. The A. ilyn I 
 
 it in the male lino with Andreas III. m 1301. 
 A. yet lives in the popular Bongs of the country, and 
 hifl history, even in the oldest chronicles, is mixed 
 b a deal of legendary matter. 
 ARPE'GGIO, in Music, a chord of which the 
 notes are given, not contemporaneously, but in 
 succession. From any one chord, several forms of A. 
 may be produced. Bass-chords thus treated form 
 an Albarti Bass, so named from Domenico Alberti 
 (1730 — 1740), a popular singer and player, who often 
 played the bass in this style. 
 
 All l'EXT was the old French land-measure, 
 mdine to our acre. The name is from the 
 ancient Gallic aripamu, which was identified by 
 Columella with the Roman actus, or half j >■■■ 
 Almost every parish had an A. of its own. The 
 comparative value of the three most in use will be 
 seen in the following table : 
 
 French Hectares. 
 Acre, English imperial or statute, 0' U 
 
 Arpent, of Paris (V35 
 
 n d'ordonnancc, . . 048400 
 n common, . . . 040000 
 
 ARPI'NO, the Arpinum of the ancients, a town 
 of the kingdom of Naples, the birthplace of Cicero 
 and Caius Marina, is situated in the province of 
 Terra di Lavoro, 05 miles north by east of Naples. 
 It stands on the lower ridge of a lofty hill, some 
 6 miles to the left of the river Garigliano, the 
 ancient Liris. The old town, in early Roman times, 
 was built on the top of a steep rock, forming part 
 of the territory of the Volscians. Many r 
 of the ancient structures are still to be seen, 
 especially a cyclopean wall, which runs along the 
 northern brow of- the hill occupied by the present 
 town, and extending to the ancient citadel. About 
 the year 188 B.C., the citizens received the freedom 
 of the city of Rome, with all its privileges, and 
 Arpinum, during the later years of the republic, 
 nourishing municipal town. 
 
 The population of A is 12,048. Manufactures of 
 ii cloth, parchment, paper, and leather ate 
 carried on. The town has a charming appearand: 
 from the highly picturesque character of the 
 surrounding woods and mountains. Iron, white 
 marble, variegated red marble, and marble of a 
 yellowish colour, are got in mines and quarries in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 A'RQUA, a village in the delegation of Padua, 
 Venice, 12 miles south-west of Padua, in the heart 
 of the Euganean Hills. Pop. 1200. Petrarch's 
 furniture is still preserved in the house in which he 
 di d here (July 18, 1374), and his monument of red 
 marble is to be seen in the churchyard. 
 
 ARQUEBUS, or HA'RQTJEBUS, was the first 
 form of hand-gun which could fairly be compared 
 with the modern musket. Those of earlier date 
 were fired by applying a match by hand to the 
 touch-hole ; but about the time of the battle of 
 Morat, in 1476, guns were used having a contriv- 
 ance suggested by the trigger of the a) 
 or cross-bow, by which the miming match could 
 be applied with more quickness and certainty. 
 Such a gun was the A Many of the yeomen of 
 the guard were armed with this weapon, on the 
 first formation of that corps in 1485. The A. 
 being fired from the chest, with the butt in a 
 right hue with the barrel, it was difficult to bring 
 the eye down low enough to take good aim; but 
 the Germans soon introduced an improvement by 
 giving a hooked form to the butt, which elevated 
 
 and the A. then obtained the d 
 
 the liaquelnU. Soldiers armed with 
 
 Arquebusicr. 
 
 of weapon were designated arquebusiers and haque- 
 
 the former were common in the El 
 army in the time of Richard III., the la\ 
 that of Henry VIII. 
 
 ARRACA'CHA (Arracaclia escuhnta), a plant of 
 the natural order UmbiUifera; a native of tho 
 elevated table-lands in the neighbourhood of Santa 
 Fe de Bogota and Caraccas, 
 and of regions of similar cli- 
 mate in other parts of tropical 
 America. It is much culti- 
 vated in its native country for 
 its roots, which are used as an 
 esculent. The root divides 
 into a number of parts, which 
 resemble cows' horns or large 
 carrots. When boiled, they 
 are firm and tender, with a 
 flavour not so strong as that 
 of a parsnip. The plant is very 
 like hemlock, and has a similar 
 . Humboldt, in- 
 deed, referred it to the genus 
 m (Hemlock), but it has 
 since been made the type of a 
 new genus. The flowers are 
 in compound umbels, and are of a dull purple colour. 
 The A. was at one time very strongly recommended 
 as a substitute for potatoes ; it was introduced into 
 Britain through the exertions of the Horticultural 
 Society, and its cultivation perseveringly attempted ; 
 but it has been found unsuitable to the climate 
 of Britain and of other parts of Europe, where it 
 has been tried, perishing on the approach of tho 
 frosts of winter without having perfected its roots. 
 The dry weather of summer is also unfavourable to 
 it. 'Die climate of the south of Ireland resembles 
 that of its native regions more than any other in the 
 British Islands. It seems to require a very regular 
 temperature and constant moisture. There arj 
 probably some parts of the British colonies in which 
 . would be found a very valuable plant. In 
 deep loose soils, it yields a great produce. It is 
 generally propagated, like skirret, by offshoots from 
 the crown of the root. By rasping the root and 
 g, a starch, similar to arrow-root, is obtained. 
 — There is another species of the same genus, 
 A. moseJmta, a native of the same regions, the root 
 of which is uneatable. 
 
 ARRA'CK, RACK, or RAKI, is an alcoholic 
 liquor or spirit, largely prepared, and extensively 
 
 Arracaclia.
 
 I 
 
 AJ1RAG0NITE— ARRAIGNMENT. 
 
 partaken of, in India and other parts of the East, 
 the Indian Archipelago, the Moluccas, 
 and the Philippines ; in Africa ; in Chili, South 
 America, and in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. 
 The term A. is often used in eastern countries to 
 designate any ardent spirit, but there are two prin- 
 cipal varieties — viz., that prepared from palm-trees, 
 and that procured from rice, which is also named 
 rice-spirit. Many species of palm-tree ye 
 juice which constitutes the raw material for the 
 manufacture of A Tins sap or juice may be drawn 
 from the tree by making an incision near the top, 
 when the sweet sap exudes, and is collected ; or by 
 taking the partially developed spathe of the palm- 
 tree (the part from which the flower and fruit are 
 produced), tying it tightly mar its attachment to the 
 
 and then cutting off the end of the spat). 
 collecting the sweet juice which flows away from the 
 !. In either case, a milky-looking substance 
 is obtained, which tastes, when fresh drawn, like the 
 milk of the cocoa-nut ; but which, when allowed to 
 stand for a short time, passes into a state of fermen- 
 tation ; the liquid becomes alcoholic and acid, and in 
 a few days an intoxicating liquor is left in the fer- 
 menting vessel, called palm wine or toddy, which on 
 distillation yields A The amount of milky sap and 
 A. thus yielded by a single palm-tree ranges from 2 
 or 3 pints to 100 pints in the 24 hours. A. is 
 likewise prepared from rice, which is first treated 
 with water, allowed to germinate or sprout to a 
 slight extent, then heated and dried, and.lastly placed 
 in vessels with water, where it ferments as in ordi- 
 nary beer-brewing (q. v.). Though A is little known 
 in Britain, it is so extensively employed in other 
 countries, that it appears probable that it is partaken 
 of by more human beings than those who taste the 
 produce of the vine (wine and brandy) or the barley 
 and whisky). In the desert Sahara of 
 Africa, the soil is enlivened here and there by fertile 
 oases, where clusters of date palm-trees stud the 
 earth ; and these not only supply food to the inhabi- 
 tants, but in the flowering season the A also, which 
 is greedily partaken of by the Arab Mohammedans, 
 and is to be found in every domicile. On tie 
 coast of Africa, the oil-palm is likewise resorted 
 to for its juice to make A. ; whilst in India, the date 
 and fan palms are principally placed under contri- 
 bution. In the islands of the Pacific Ocean, the 
 cocoa-nut palm is resorted to; and in Java, very 
 large quantities of ardent spirit, or A., are prepared 
 from rice. In Ceylon and Siam, the A. is manufac- 
 tured from the cocoa-nut palm and from rice. The 
 Chinese, who prepare and part ike of A. in consider- 
 able quantity, get the credit of manufacturing the 
 
 ' md of distilled A., known as the A. of liatavia. 
 tter owes its excellence to the manner ill which 
 the somewhat disagreeable flavour characteristic of 
 ordinary A. is a little more than neutralised by the ad- 
 dition of cinnamon and anise-seed, and subsequently 
 by very careful distillation. The inhabitants of Mada- 
 
 fascar attempt to overcome the unwelcome flavour 
 y the addition of the leaves of a species of tre- 
 nd the Asiatics generally add the bark of a 
 kind of thorny acacia, called Patlaij. Whilst the 
 C quantity of A. is consumed where it is 
 manufactured, a smaller amount is exported. I ley- 
 Ion despatches from its shores 700,000 gallons every 
 year, of which England receives about 30,000 gallons. 
 In Britain, A. is seldom used by itself, but is occa- 
 sionally employed to impart an agreeable flavour to 
 punch. An imitation A. is prepared by dissolving 
 benzoic acid in nun, in the proportion of 20 grains of 
 the former to 2 pounds of the (otter, 
 
 A'RRAGONITE, a mineral essentially consisting 
 ofcarlionate of lime, ami in chemical 
 
 composition with calcareous spar (q, v.), but differing 
 
 from it in the form of its crystals, of which the prim- 
 ary form is a rhombic prism with angles of 110' Hi' 
 and 63° 44', the secondary forms being generally 
 prismatic and pyramidal. The effects of heat on 
 them shews another difference, A. being reduced to 
 powder by a heat in which calcareous spar remains 
 unchanged. Such differences between minerals of 
 the same chemical composition appeared very impro- 
 bable, and when Stromeyer, in 1813, detected the 
 presence of a little carbonate of strontia in A., they 
 were immediately ascribed to this as their cause ; but 
 it has since been shewn not only that the quantity 
 of strontia is very small, variable, and therefore to- 
 be regarded as accidental, but also that the differ- 
 ences between the two minerals maybe account. I 
 lor by difference of temperature when crystallisation 
 was taking place. A appears to be the product of 
 a crystallisation taking place at a higher temperature 
 than that in which calcareous spar is produced ; 
 and accordingly it is frequent in volcanic districts 
 and in the neighbourhood of hot springs, as at Carls- 
 bad. It is frequently found in trap-rocks, as in Scot- 
 land. It derives its name from the province of 
 Aragon in Spain. It sometimes occurs stalactitic. 
 Its crystals are sometimes prisms shortened into 
 tables, sometimes they are lengthened into needles. 
 Twin crystals (machs) are very common. Satin Spar 
 is a variety of it, in which the crystals are of a tine 
 fibrous silky appearance, and combined together into 
 a compact mass. Flos Jerri (L e., flower of iron) is a 
 name given to a coralloidal variety which sometimes 
 occurs in iron mines. 
 
 A'RRAH, a town in the district of Shahabad and 
 the presidency of Pengal, in lat. 25 31' N., and long. 
 84 43' E. It is situated in a fertile country, and 
 us 2775 houses, with a population of at least 
 15,000. It is on the route between Dinapoor and 
 Ghazeepore, 25 miles W. of the former, and 75 E. of 
 the latter. During the mutiny of 1857, A became 
 in variety and intensity of interest second <i 
 Cawnpore, Delhi, and Lucknow, connected as it was 
 with a heroic defence, a heavy disaster, and a bril- 
 liant victory. The defence was that of an isolated 
 house, for eight days, against 3000 sepoys with 2 
 irrison consisting of less than 20 
 whites, all civilians, and 50 Sikhs, whose fidelity 
 perhaps was doubtful till proved by trial. Tl 
 aster was the nocturnal surprise in the jungle of a 
 detachment almost entirely European, sent to the 
 relief of the 1 dwelling — the loss having 
 
 290 out of 415. The victory was won by a 
 force of 172 men, 12 of them mounted volui 
 and 3 guns, over a host numbering nearly 201 i 1. 
 In fact, A., happily with the exception of the cold- 
 blooded massacre of women and children, presented, 
 in miniature, nearly all . • if the most farml- 
 
 and eventful insurrection on record. For a 
 detailed account of these events, see Chambers's 
 History of the Indian 1! 
 
 ARRAIGNMENT, in the practice of the crimi- 
 nal law in England, means calling a prisoner by his 
 name to the bar of the court to answer the matter 
 charged upon him in the indictment. And having 
 the presumption of innocence in his favour, it is the 
 law, and so laid down in tho most ancient books, 
 that, thou.'h cha an indictment of the 
 
 : nature, he is entitled to stand at the bar in 
 the form and in the garb of a free man. «. uli nit irons 
 or any manner of shackles or bonds, unless the 
 evident danger of his escape, or of viol ace at his 
 bands. When arraigned on the charge of treason 
 or felony, the m died anon by name to 
 
 hold aphis hand, by which he is held to confess his 
 identity with the person charged. This form, how- 
 ever, is not an essential part vi the proceedings at
 
 AKKAN. 
 
 the trial, and it is sufficient for the prisoner, when 
 arraigned, to confess his identity by verbal admis- 
 sion or otherwise. When thus July arraigned, the 
 indictmenl d actly read over to the accu 
 
 the I - 1 1 ^ 1 1 - ! i ind he then either i 
 
 fact— i units his guilt— or he pal I 
 
 apon bis trial by a plea of Ifoi ■ 
 
 one of the incidents of the A. was the prisoner 
 
 standii \ it was called— that is, refraining 
 
 from, or refusing, a direct answer to the indii I 
 
 in which case the court proceeded to inquire whether 
 
 the silence was of malice on the part of the pri 
 
 or was produced by the visitation of God, and to 
 
 deal with him accordingly. But by the 7 and $ 
 
 1 1 V. e. 28, s. '-'. it i ■ 
 
 oner shall stand mute of malice, it shall lie 
 for the court to order the proper officer to enter a 
 if 'Not guilty.' on which the trial shall proceed, 
 
 as if the plea had been actually pleaded by the 
 prisoner himself. Where (here i, rea on to doubt, 
 
 however, that the prisoner standing mute is 
 not, a jury consisting of any twelve persons who 
 happen to be present is forthwith ohai ed to 
 inquire whether he has intellect enough I 
 to understand the course of the proce ! D 
 
 they find the affirmative! the plea of ' Not gouty 1 is 
 entered, and the trial goes on ; hut ii the negative, 
 the insane person will be ordered by the court to be 
 kept in strict custody during I ,'s pleasure, 
 
 according to the o9 and 40 i Sea 111. i-. 94, s. 2. 
 
 By 19 and 20 Viet. c. 16, facilities are provided 
 for the trial of prisoners in the Central Criminal 
 Court, although the offence may have been com- 
 mitted out of the jurisdiction of that tribunal, and 
 it directs th A. to take place in the ordinary form. 
 
 In the Scotch criminal law, the • ' 'ailing 
 
 the Dirt corresponds to A. The p called 
 
 upon byname by the presiding judge to attend to 
 
 indictment against him, h i read aloud by 
 
 the clerk, and the prisoner is 
 
 I. does, as in England, by a pi i of '< 
 or of ' Not guilty ;' in I of which latter, the 
 
 trial proceed i the prisoner, either by himself or his 
 counsel, having always the last word before the 
 court and before the jury. In this respect, it is 
 otherwise in England. 
 
 According to Sir Matthew Hale, the terni A. 
 is derived from arrauoner, atl 
 to call to account or answer, which in ancient French 
 law would I ner, or, abbreviated, ■ 
 
 See Trial, Indictment, Information, Pri 
 tiox, Plea, Verdict, Not Proven. 
 
 A'UKAX, an island in the mouth of the Firth of 
 Clyde, Scotland, about 5 miles south-west of Bute, 
 
 13 west of Ayrshire, and 4 east of Cantire, from 
 which it is separated by Kilbrcnnan Sound. It is 
 of an oval form, about 20 mUes long and 12 broad ; 
 area, 165 square miles, about IV 10 res or a 
 seventh part being cultivated. Pop. 6000. The gene- 
 ral aspect of A. is mountainous and heathy, and in the 
 north, the jagged peaks are singularly grand. \ 
 the coast is a low belt of ground, with lofty cliffs on 
 the south and south-west shore, from which the 
 country rises abruptly. The highest point isGoatfell 
 (an English corruption for Goath-Bhcin, ' Wind 
 Mountain'), an obtuse pyramid, 28G5 fei t high, and 
 a prominent feature in the island. From its sides 
 slope the romantic glens of Rosa and Sannox, and 
 at its base to the south-east opens Brodick Bay, 
 at the head of which lay, until lately, Brodick 
 village. The lemses which composed it have now 
 been removed, and a new village has sprang up on 
 the opposite side of the bay, called Invercloy, v, here 
 there is a spacious hotel. To the south of this, 
 round a bluff headland, is Lamlash Bay, the chief 
 harbour of A., and the best on the Firth of Clyde, 
 
 sheltered by Holy Island, once the seat of a monas- 
 tery. A picturesque mass of columnar l> ilt, 900 
 
 or 11)00 feet high, succeeds. Further south lies 
 Whiting Bay, near which are two cascades llll) and 
 
 50 feel high respectively. At the south a I point 
 
 of A. is ttildonan I astle, opposite which is the 
 small isle of l'ladda, crowned by a light-house. 
 Largo caverns occur in the cliffs ol the south end 
 south-west coasts. In one of these, the 'King's 
 
 in the basaltic promontory of Druimo 
 Robert the Bruce hid himself for ometime. ED 
 Vale, opening into Druimodune Bay, is the most 
 fcrtde part of A. Loch limza, a hay in the north end 
 of A., runs a mile inland, and is a herring i 
 
 0U& Tie re is daily communication with A. 
 by means of steam-boats from the Clyde, the ports 
 touched at being Brodick and Lamlash. 
 
 The geology of A. is almost unique, and displays a 
 greater succession of strata than any oilier part 
 of the British Isles of equal extent. The south- 
 east half of A. consists of Devonian 
 extending from the east coast 4 or 5 mil 
 and running south-west from Brodick beyond the 
 
 I -, and of trap rocks and c 
 ifcrous strata, which oe Id! and western 
 
 portions. The aorth-wi t half consists of a central 
 ■ nucleus, in. ' I e Goatfell, border 1 on the 
 \. i st by a tract of mica and on the north, east, 
 
 and south by lower Silurian rocks, which, again, have 
 a ran of Devonian sandstone on the east and smith. 
 Lias and oolite lie on the mica-slat-, 
 only rivulets in A., and one of them tumble 
 
 !i. Some level parts in the 
 south half of A. are fertile. The chief crops are 
 oats and pot I ' , ' >. I I ■. ai d oats 
 
 : t 1. The greater part of A. belongs to the 
 Duke of Hamilton, v> hose Beat is 
 A. forms i art of the count] i I 
 
 tWO pOl ' I Mllties OCCUr, BUI 
 
 cairns, unhewn obelisks, monumental stones, end 
 Druidical cir ral stone coffins 
 
 in a cairn 200 feet in circumference. Loch I 
 , now in ruins, was formerly a residence i 
 Scottish kings. 
 
 A'URAN, Sor-rn Isles of. Those are three 
 small islands lying north- we.-t and south-east . 
 the entrance to Galway Bay, about 4 miles off the 
 west coast of Ireland, and 27 west of Galway city. 
 They form t of A., and give the title of 
 
 i the Gore family. Total ana, 1 1.2s; acres. 
 The principal or west island, Inishmore, is 7 miles 
 long and 2 broad ; Inishinain, or ' Middle Isle,' comes 
 next; and then Inishere to the south-cast. Pop. iu 
 1851, 3333, of which number 2312 inhabit 1 Inish- 
 The islands consist of the carboniferous lime- 
 stone of the bed of Galway Bay. I'n mi this 1 lay tie y 
 gradually rise to the height of 100 to 200 feet on the 
 west side, ending in cliffs facing the Atlantic. Most 
 of the land is cultivated, but in a very primitn 
 The chief crops are rye, oats, and , Most 
 
 of the inhabitants engage in fishing; and thee 
 or wicker-work skill is still to be seen h Like 
 
 on the west coast of Ireland, they ai 
 ject to families from parching rainless 
 in August, destroying the potato-crop. Anc 
 these islands formed an important ecclesiastical seat, 
 containing at one time 20 churches and monasl 
 Inishmore was the centre of these, still known as 
 Aran-na-naomh. or ' Arran of tie- Saints.' Many 
 pilgrims still visit the old shrines and relics scattered 
 b the islands. St Kenanach Church, built in 
 7 i c, still exists, all but its stone roof, a 
 as the stone oratories and little bee-hive stone huts 
 of the monks of the Gth and 7th centuries. The 
 military antiquities are not less remarkable, consist- 
 ing of nine circular cyclopean fortresses of unhewn
 
 ARRANGING— ARREST. 
 
 uncemented stones (portions of the walls still being 
 I high), supposed to have been built in the 1st 
 c. by the Fir-Bolg or BelgEe. The largest of these, 
 Dun-Aengus, on a cliff in Iniahmore, 220 feet high, is 
 one of the most magnificent barbaric monuments in 
 Europe. 
 
 AK HANGING, a term in Music which means 
 lapting of a piece of music so as to be performed 
 on an instrument or instruments different from those 
 for which it was originally composed, as when orches- j 
 tral or vocal compositions are set for the piano- 
 forte, or the reverse. An arrangement is often a j 
 in- re lifeless transposition of the original, the only 
 guiding principle being the mechanical possibility of 
 performance. Of this kind are most of the piano- 
 forte arrangements of i the orchestral works of Mo 
 
 ii. fee— partly from the arranger working 
 merely for hire, and partly from a mistaken reverence 
 for, and fear of altering, the original. It is different 
 when an arranger, who thoroughly comprehends the 
 spirit of the original, takes advantage of the peculiar 
 ion afforded by the new form of 
 station, to reproduce as ruuch as possible the 
 original effects. In this last respect, the arrange- 
 ments of Franz Liszt have excelled all others, 
 although in some cases he may have overstepped 
 the boundary of propriety. See Pot-Poirki and 
 Fantama. 
 
 ARRAS (the ancient Nemetacum), a fortified 
 town and capital of the department of Pas-de- I 
 ( lalais, as it was formerly of the province of Artois, ' 
 in France. It is situated on the banks of the 
 
 , partly on an eminence, and partly on a I 
 plain, and consists of four divisions — the city, upper | 
 town, lower town, and citadel. It is a principal 
 station on the French Northern Railway, distant 
 from Paris by this route 134 miles, and from Brus- 
 , i , 97. The pop. (1856), 21.9S4. The houses 
 are of hewn stone, and in the lower town they are 
 handsomely built and uniform ; the streets straight 
 and wide, set off with several tine squares, and many j 
 beautifid public buildings. Among the principal 
 edifices are the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the resi- j 
 dence of the prefect, the town-hall, the theatre, and , 
 the public library. 
 
 A . ranks as a fortified town of the third class, its 
 
 ations being the first that were constructed 
 by the celebrated Vauban, according to his own 
 system. It has been the seat of a bishop since 390 
 A. D., and two ecclesiastical couneds have been held 
 hen —une in 102."), the other in 1490. 
 The corn-market of A. is the most important in 
 larth of France. Its principal manufactures are 
 iron-ware, woollen and cotton goods, hosiery, lace, 
 pottery, and leather. Its trade, which is consider- 
 able, is in corn and llour, od, wine and brandy, with 
 the industrial products of the city. 
 
 It appears from the writings of Jerome that A. 
 
 marfcahln tor its woollen manufactures in his 
 time; and afterwards, during the middle ages, it was 
 I "-try; indeed, the name of the 
 town was transferred to this article of manufacture, 
 and arras was the name given in England to the 
 richly figured hangings that adorned the halls of the 
 kings and the ban 
 
 hi I 182, a. with Artois was ceded by the states of 
 the Netherlands to Louis XI. of France; but the 
 inhabitants having revolted, the king laid e 
 the town, stormed it. and slew or expelled tie n 
 whom he replaced by others brought from all parts 
 of his dominions, ordering the city to be thencefor- 
 ward called . to obliterate the very name 
 of A. Soon afterwards (1493) it was ceded to 
 Maximilian of Austria, and was possessed by the 
 Spanish branch of the House of Hapsburg till 104o, 
 
 28 
 
 when Louis XIII i .k it after a long siege. 
 
 By the treaty of the l'\ renei -. it was finally ceded to 
 France. A Buffered much in the time of the first 
 French revolution, especially in the year ]~'X',. 
 Robespierre, the Terrorist, was a native of the town. 
 
 ARRA'VER, a tit] n to certain military 
 
 officers in England in the early part of the 1.3th c. 
 There were two of them in each county, sometimes 
 called Commissaries ol i I rs. Their duties were 
 set forth in an ordinance of Henry V., from the 
 terms of which it appears that the arrayers were 
 army inspectors, or, rather, militia inspectors, and 
 in some sense precursors to the modern lords- 
 lieutenant of COUlli 
 
 ARREST is a legal term used both in criminal 
 and eivd process. Criminal A. has already been 
 sufficiently considered under the word APPRKHHHD 
 (q. v.); and in civil procedure it may be simply 
 defined to be the execution of a judicial or preroga- 
 tive order, by which the liberty of the person may 
 be restrained, and obedience to the law compelled 
 In the practice of the Court of Chancery, a defendant 
 may be arrested for his contempt in not putting in 
 his answer to a bill tiled against him ; and suitors 
 generally who disregard the rules of that tribunal are 
 liable to feel its power in this respect. But in its 
 ordinary legal acceptation, A. is used to signify the 
 enforcement of the judgment or order of a court of 
 law, in order to satisfy justice. In the execution of 
 such judgment, the party against whom it has been 
 given may be arrested by means of a writ of capias 
 ad satisfaciendum, as it is called, the purpose of 
 which is to imprison the body of the debtor till he 
 pays the debt or damages and costs. It is directed 
 to the sheriff, commanding him to take the body of 
 the debtor, and have him at Westminster immediately 
 after execution thereof, to make the plaintiff satis- 
 faction for his demand. This writ might, until 
 lately, issue for a judgment debt of any amount; 
 but by the 7 and S Vict c. 96, s. 57. it is provided 
 that it shall not issue in the case of a debt not 
 i ng £20, exclusive of costs; subject, however, 
 to this proviso, that where such debt should appear 
 to the judge trying the cause (being a judge of the 
 superior courts, or a barrister or attorney) to have 
 been incurred under false pretences, or with a frau- 
 dulent intent, or without a reasonable assurance of 
 being able to pay or discharge the same, it shall be 
 lawful for such judge to order the defendant to be 
 taken and detained in execution upon such judg- 
 ment, as if the act had not passed. And it ha- 
 since provided by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 127. and 10 and 
 11 Viet. c. 102, s. 2, that judgment debtors to 
 the extent above mentioned may be summoned 
 before the Insolvent Court in London, or the county 
 court for the district in the country (as the case may 
 require), and thereupon I to pay the debt 
 
 by instalments or otherwise; and further, that in 
 case of their non-compliance with such order, or of 
 its appearing to the court that they have been guilty 
 of fraud in contracting the debt, or of having con- 
 tracted it without reasonable prospect of being able 
 to pay the same, they may lie committed to prison for 
 forty days, and the imprisonment under such com- 
 mittal shall not operate in satisfaction or discharge 
 of the debt. 
 
 A defendant may also be arrested under a writ of 
 
 as follows — 
 where a plaintiff swears by affidavit that he has a 
 cause of actio a defendant to the amount 
 
 of £20 or upwards, or has sustained damage to that 
 amount, and that there is reason : ; that 
 
 ,i is about to quit the country, an order 
 is made by a judge—and such order maybe made at 
 anytime between the commencement of the action 
 
 433
 
 ARREST OF JUDGMENT— ARRESTMENT OF WAGES. 
 
 and final judgment -whan the writ in question issues, doe to the person making use of die arrestment bv 
 
 in- sheriff to arri I the defendant who 
 
 -. Until he has ■ iv 
 
 ' ol the pi ifFs demand The | 
 
 nee to tins writ i • 
 
 V ii i. o. lid. Formerly, a defendant might be 
 arrested on what is called - that is, 
 
 18 issuing at the cum during 
 
 the progress of a suit; but by the act just referred to, 
 
 ' lined. 
 Under such and .similar authority, A. may be made 
 of Hi There are - r, who 
 
 are exempted by privfli <e from A. thus, am- 
 
 idors and other diplomatic representatn 
 foreign court i; all mi i n Scotch 
 
 and Irish as well as Englii h ; nil memh 
 parliament; all persons oonnected with a cause 
 before ;i court of justice, and attending in the 
 course of it, such as v. attorneys, and bar- 
 
 risters— altl ard to the latter (ban 
 
 it may be more correctly stated that they are 
 entitled to the privilege only when attending the 
 
 or courts; and Mr Archibald, in his Practice 
 of the Common Law, refers to a case where a bar- 
 cged who was arrested on circuit. 
 The Queen may also, by her writ of protection, pri- 
 vilege i i in her service from A. dui 
 year and day, a prerogative, however, which is 
 seldom, and, at the present day, Bcaxoely ever 
 exercised, in regard to parliamentary exemption 
 from liability to civil process, however, the pi 
 does not preclude the process from issuing; it 
 only protects the person of the member fa 
 for by 10 Geo. III. c. 50, it is enacted that any 
 action or suit may at. any time be brought againsl 
 any member of either House, or against their servants, 
 or any other person entitled to privilege of | 
 ment; and that none such, nor any process or pro- 
 
 ■ thi I. upon, shall at any time lie imp. 
 
 : . or delay) d, by pretence of any such privilege, 
 
 except that the person of a member of the House of 
 
 Commons shall not thereby be subjected to any 
 
 iment. It is likewise providi d by 
 
 the Bankrupt Consolidation Act, 184!) (12 and 13 
 Vict. c. 100), that if a trader, being a member of par- 
 .'. who was .sued for a debt of Such amount as 
 shall be sufficient to support a petition in bank- 
 ,, shall not payor otherwise satisfy the debt 
 within one calendar month, ho shall be deemed to 
 have committed an act of bankruptcy, and may be 
 dealt with as a bankrupt, though not to the extent 
 of making him liable to A. 
 
 In the Scotch law, the word A. is not a technical 
 term for process against the person. But see 
 AnrtESTMENT, and Arrestment for founding 
 Jurisdiction. 
 
 ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in the practice of 
 . Ingliah common law courts, was an expedient 
 \ erdict on the part of an unsuccessful defendant, 
 who endeavoured to get the judgment arrested or 
 Id, on the ground that there was some error 
 b vitiated the proceedings ; and if this objection 
 succeeded, it was fatal, no amendment bi i ig allowi 1 
 after trial But as this rule was found to be pro- 
 ductive of gnat inconvenience, expense, and often 
 ce, it has been considerably modified by the 
 1 i Law Procedure Act of 1852 (the 15 and 16 
 
 Vict. c. 70). under which, omitted facta or 
 
 t may, by leave of the court, be suggested, by 
 which the error may be corrected. See JUDGMENT. 
 
 ARRESTMENT, in the Scotch law, is the legal 
 process or diligence, as it is called, by means of 
 
 Thus, if A ..'.I s 
 
 11111 '" B, bu1 I'. fated to <', arrestment 
 
 maj be a i d by in the band od L; the i ffi 
 which is to pi rent \ paying to B until CPa claim 
 i A, the party in who e I 
 
 laid, is calh 
 
 , is called the arrt 
 tn-'.s debtor, is called the comin.ni 
 
 Che . restment, however, has noi 
 effect of transferring the debt or 
 For that pun , a particular form of action, called 
 
 <:/. is neo 
 I as a complete' tram 
 i. This process may be sued out either by 
 
 authority of th. (' I ,,! s. «!,,„ ,, r l, v that of an 
 
 inferior iidg. Th procedure is now n ulal 
 Hi I and 2 Vict c. 114, as. from 16 to 22 inch 
 The corresponding English term is A 1 1 \. | 
 (q. v.). 
 
 ARRESTMENT FOR FOUNDING JURIS- 
 
 DIOTION. Tins is a form of proceeding in the 
 practice of the Scotch law, and it is of an extremely 
 important nature, for, by means of it, n . 
 ' beyond the jurisdicti I the court i of Bed ■ 
 
 ns to have any properly in that 
 
 . in 'v be tied in the Scotch tribunals. It is 
 
 1 ! ■ l ' ledy, and the mode of procedure is 
 
 thus: The summons (or declaration, as it would 
 
 be called in England), which is executed by li 
 
 a copy in the proper office in Edinburgh, contains 
 in express terms a warrant to arrest ad fitnda 
 
 ionemj and when served on the party 
 having possession of the foreigner's property, : 
 warrant has the effect of attaching it, so as to give 
 the court jurisdiction over the foreigner hi] 
 This manner of founding jurisdiction is said to have 
 
 been borrowed by the Scotch from the lawya ■ 
 
 the Netherlands, and it can be traced back' in the 
 practice of the Scotch courts for upwards of a 
 century. In a recent case, however, brought by 
 appeal to the House of Lords from Scotland, an 
 attempt was made to shew, that for this mode of 
 A. there was no sufficient authority in the law of 
 that country, and it was represented to the Souse 
 
 as a barbarous contrivance of comparative!] I 
 
 introduction. But their lordships had no hesitation 
 
 iu affirming the judgment of the Court of Session 
 in favour of their jurisdiction so obtained. See 
 Jurisdiction. 
 
 ARRESTMENT OF WAGES is supposed to 
 
 exercise a baneful influence on some of the working- 
 classes in Scotland, by putting them in the power of 
 and oppressive dealers, who, in the know- 
 ledge of the power they thus possess, are too ready to 
 give credit to working-people, ami thu 
 them in extravagance. It was the object of so 
 much complaint in Glasgow, that a government 
 inquiry was institute,! into its operation in 1853. 
 That inquiry developed a sad amount of extrava- 
 gance and folly, but did not afford a hope that any 
 mere alteration in the machinery of the law would 
 ninedy a deep-rooted social evil. Its most al.i 
 features were found in the female mat 
 population, the younger of whom especially, li 
 avidity for fine clothes, were the victims of a p "*.'. i ■- 
 fill organisation of dealers, on what is called the club- 
 ticket system, the peculiarity of which is, that the 
 price of the article purchased is paid in install 
 according to the payment of wages. It was part of 
 the system, v.h. never any defalcation occurred, to 
 arrest the wages, and thus legal expenses 
 
 winch a debtor, where the debt is of a personal I added to the cost of an article which, to' keep up the 
 n;,,n ihibited from making payment i tve organisation of the system, would be 
 
 delivery to his creditor until another debt or claim | originally sold at an excessive price. 
 
 -Ui
 
 AREHEXATHERT7M— ARROW-ROOT. 
 
 A'RRHENATHE'RUM, a genus of Grasses, 
 allied to Jlolcm (see Soft-orass) and Avena (see 
 
 Oat), and distinguished by 
 a lax panicle, 2-flowereu 
 pgpOceleta with two 
 
 the lower floret having 
 stamens only, and a lung 
 twisted awn above the 
 base ; the upper floret per- 
 feet, with a short straight 
 l>ristle below the point. — 
 'l be aame -V is from the 
 Greek arrhen, male, and 
 alii* r, an awn. A. aven- 
 n (Avena dalior of 
 Linna?us, also known as 
 Halm ■ nv ) is a com- 
 
 mon grass in Britain. It 
 is sometimes called Oat- 
 like Grass, from the re- 
 semblance to the coarser 
 kinds of oats in the general 
 appearance of the panicle. 
 In France, it is very much 
 cultivated for fodder, and 
 is often called French 
 Eye-grass. It has, how- 
 ever, no affinity to the true 
 Rye-grass (Lolium). It is 
 a tall perennial grass, 2 — 3 
 feet high, becomes luxu- 
 riant early in the season, 
 and continues long pro- 
 ductive. It is, however, a 
 , , ., rather coarse grass, and has 
 
 Arrhcnatberum: % somewhat 'bitter saline 
 
 a, panicle, reduced; b, root and t t it ■ t „ ,„.«„*. 
 
 lower part of culm, reduced ; UstL ' 1C lb "°* s0 acce P 1; - 
 c, a single spikclet, natural able to cattle as many 
 ™e« other grasses, and is there- 
 
 fore generally regarded by 
 British agriculturists as unworthy of cultivation on 
 the best soils; but it is found suitable for some 
 comparatively arid situations, and to form a coarse 
 herbage under trees in plantations. — A variety or 
 Eering from it in having a knotted 
 or bulbous base to the stem, i of a simple fibrous 
 
 root, is called by some 1 man. It is 
 
 also common in Britain, but is a very inferior 
 and owing tot] icter of its roots, difficult of 
 
 extirpation from lands in which it appears as a weed. 
 
 AHRIA'HTJS, Kiwirs, a native of Nicomedia, in 
 Bithynia, born about 100 A.D. He became a disciple 
 of Epictetus, tic stoic philosopher, and, under bis 
 
 instructions, a WBJ I of tlcit system. On 
 
 briiejie alio tiie earliest products of his 
 
 pen, the learni d men of Athi . ily 
 
 with them, and honoured him with the free-' i 
 
 their city. A. had chosen Xenophon as his mo 
 composition, and hence the Athenians called him 
 the young Xenophon. In 124 a.i>. he was intra- 
 due, ,i to the Emperoi Hadrian in Greece, who con- 
 ferred on him the freedom of the eternal city. He 
 was appointed prefect of ( 'appadocia in tic 
 186. Under Antoninus Pius, the successor of 
 Hadrian, he was promoted to the consulship. But 
 
 some four years afterwards, lie appears to have 
 
 retired from pub] 1 devoted himself to 
 
 lit' rature in his native place. As the pupd and 
 
 friend of Epictetus, he edited the Manual of Ethics 
 
 i by his master, and wrote the 
 
 Lectures of I n eight books, of which only 
 
 four have b i,ad in Schwedg- 
 
 /'icletece Mm vol ni. 
 
 1827). He wrote also '/'/• Oonvenations of 
 
 tut, a work which has been lost, except a few 
 uts. The most important work by A. is the 
 A naba i <y Ala md> r, or // 
 
 if Ali.niDih r the Great, which has come down to us 
 entire, all but a gap in the 12th chapti r of the 7th 
 book. This book is our chief authority on the 
 subject of which it treats, and is a work of great 
 In close connection with it, A. wrote his/nrfi'«n 
 ,/. giving an account i 
 Other writings by A., bis letter to I he' nan on 
 /he Coasts of tlie L'uxine Sea, and 
 another, A Voyage round the Coasts of Of, Bed 
 ue valuable with regard to ancient geography, 
 is still another work by our author — a Trea- 
 i the Chase (A | —in which, as well as 
 
 in the Anabasis, he has imitated Xenophon. 
 
 A. was one of the best writers of his day. His 
 works bear the marks of care, honesty, and correct- 
 ness ; and they were numerous, tho I have 
 not been handed down to our tune. All that we are 
 possessed of appear to have had translations into 
 Latin. There is a good French translation of the 
 Anabasis by Chaussard, with commentary, 3 vols. 
 (1S02), and also a good one of the Lectures of 
 '■ tus by Thurot (1838). The best critical edition of 
 A. is that by Midler (Paris, 1846). 
 
 ARRO'BA, a weight commonly used in Spain, 
 Portugal, Brazil, and in the principal Spanish and 
 Portuguese colonics. In the first of these countries, 
 it is equivalent to the English quarter of a cwt, or 
 2S lbs. ; it is nearly the same in Portugal, &c. In 
 Spain, the A. is also a measure for wine, brandy, 
 &c, and contains four of rair quarts. 
 
 ARRONDISSEMEXT (from the French arron- 
 dir, to make round), the subdivision of a French 
 Department (q. v.). 
 
 ARROW. See Bow AMD Arrow. 
 
 ARROWHEAD (fiaaitfaria). a genus of plants of 
 the natural order Alismaceoz, distinguished by uni- 
 sexual flowers, having three herbao 
 three coloured petals, numerous stamens, ami numer- 
 ous carpels, which arc compressed, one-seeded, and 
 on a globose receptacle. They are aquatic plants, 
 natives of very different climates, from the trop 
 the cold regions of the world. — The t 
 (S. «" is a beautiful aquatic, a native 
 
 of England, with arrow-shaped leaves which 
 
 arface of the water. It is on i 
 plants which lyed an undesi rved repj 
 
 as cures for hydrophobia. The conns (or - 
 dried and powdered, have sometimes been used for 
 food, but have an acrid unpleasant taste.— The 
 -i: A. (8. Siih iiiis) is a native of China, 
 
 and has long 1 cultivated in that country 
 
 and Japan for its eatable conns, which, in a 
 
 mewhat acrid, but abound in starch. It 
 has arrow-shaped acut • 1 av. 9, and a branched poly- 
 gonal Bcape [ess stem). I 
 and ponds. It is one of the plants sometimes culti- 
 vated in tanks in the hot-houses of Britain. 
 
 ARROW-HEADED CHARACTERS. 
 
 oRM. 
 ARROW-HEADS. See EU-AbBOW-HKAD8. 
 A'RROW-ROOT is a variety of starch extracted 
 from the roots of certain plants growing in tropical 
 
 «3i
 
 ARROW-ROOT. 
 
 countries. It. is a fine starchy farina, much i 
 as a delicacy, and as an easily digestible Ei 
 children and invalids. It is obtained from the 
 tuberous roots— or more correctly, the tool tocks 
 
 of different species of the h aus, Ma 
 I ing to the natural older Mara 
 
 characterised by solitary ovules, a llcshy style curved 
 downwards, branching stems, and white flowers. 
 The species chiefly yielding it is M. arundinacea, a 
 . of tropical America, cultivated in the West 
 India Islands, and growing about two 
 with ovato-lanceolate somewhat hairy lea' 
 of small flowers on 2-flowered stalks, and globular 
 fruit about the size of currants. The roots (or 
 rhizomes) contain a large proportion of farina. Ihey 
 
 .'Mi' ..It'll 1 !l. '!■■ 111. Ml • • 1 
 
 n r, jointed, and almost white, covered with pretty 
 
 large paper-like scales. Th curve so 
 
 that the points rise out of the earth, and form new 
 plants. They are dug up when a year old, washed, 
 carefully i led, and reduced to t milk] pulp. 
 
 Mills for this purpose have hern introduced; but in 
 Jamaica the roots are usually reduce 1 by beating in 
 deep wooden mortars ; in Bermuda, by mi ins of a 
 wheel-rasp. The pulp is then mixed with much 
 water, cleared of fibres, by means of a sieve of coarse 
 cloth or hair, and the starch is allowed to settle 
 to the bottom. The water dissolves, and so removes 
 the greater part of the albumen and salts, the starch 
 
 Arrow-root (M. arundinncca). 
 a, tubers; b, leaf and flowers ; c, stamen and style. 
 
 qui. Uly settling down as an insoluble powder. Suc- 
 cessive washings are employed for further purifica- 
 tion. The A. is finally dried in the sun or in 
 drying-houses, great care being taken, fay means of 
 gauze, to exclude dust and insects. The careful 
 peeling of the roots is of great importance, a the 
 skin contains a resinous matter, which imparts a 
 
 .!; i reeal.].' Il.i\ ..Mr In \ . w itli \\ 1 lit ll It is alh.Wed 
 
 to mix. Great care is taken to preserve the A. from 
 impurities; and the knives us.. I in peeling the roots, 
 and the shovels used in lifting the A., are made of 
 German silver. The West Indian A., most esteemed 
 in the market, is grown in Bermuda ; the next, and 
 almost equal to it, in Jamaica. The Bast Indian 
 A. is not in general so highly valued, perhaps 
 
 because substitutes for the genuine A. more fro- 
 ,|u. nth receive thai name. The Mai linacea 
 
 . . however, cultivated to nine . teiil both in 
 
 the East Indies and in Africa. M. Tndica, which 
 was supposed to be distinct from M. arundinacea, is 
 now regarded as s mere variety of it, with perfectly 
 smooth leaves. It is cultivate.! both in the Bast 
 .in.l in .1.1111. li.a. .'.. is obtained also from 
 M. AUouyia and M . nob&is in the West Indies, and 
 
 fr .1/. ramotwrima in the East. 
 
 The amount of fecula or starch present in the 
 roots of the Maranla varies according to age, and 
 
 runs from 8 per cent., in those of the young plant, 
 to 26 per cent, when full grown. The latt. r 
 
 :, d v, hi n iii" plant is in to 12 month I old ; 
 and I lie roots then present the following composition 
 in 1(10 parts: 
 
 Starch, fecula, or arrow-root, . . . 2C 
 
 Woody lihre, li 
 
 Albumen, 1J 
 
 Gummy extract, volatile oil, and salts, 1 
 
 Water, 654 
 
 A. is exported in tin cases, barrels, rfr boxes, 
 carefully closed up. It is a light, opaque, white 
 powder, which, when rubbed between the fli 
 produces a slight crackling noise, like that heard 
 when newly fallen snow is being made into a snow- 
 ball Through the microscope, the particles are 
 s vii tn be convex, more or less elliptical, sometimes 
 obscurely triangular, and not very different in ... 
 The dry farina is quite inodorous, but when dis- 
 solved in boiling water, it has a slight peculiar 
 sin. II. and swells up into a very perfect jolly. 
 
 Potato-starch, with which it is often adulterated; 
 may be distinguished by the greater size of its 
 particles, their coarser and more distinct rings, and 
 their more glistening appearance. Refined Bago floor 
 is us.d for adulteration, many of the particles of 
 
 which have a truncated extremity, and their surface 
 is irregular or tuberculate.l. A. is also sometimes 
 adulterated with rice-starch and with the common 
 starch of wheat-flour. 
 
 Not less than 400,000 lbs. of A. are annually 
 imported into the British Isles. As an article of 
 diet, it is often prepared for invalids and children 
 by merely dissolving it in boiling-water and flavour- 
 ing with sugar, lemon- juice, wine, &c. It is also often 
 prepared with milk, made into puddings, &c. Winn 
 most simply prepared, it forms a lighl meal, which, 
 however, is not very nutritious. See Ni nuiiox. 
 
 A farina somewhat similar to A., and partly 
 known by the distinct name of Toun-li-x-mnis, is 
 d from some species of the allied genus 
 Canna (q. v.). But East Indian A. is in part 
 obtained from the tubers of Curcuma angwiijolia. 
 Other species of Curcuma (see Tl BMZBIO), as ('. 
 ■ i. i '. leucorhiza, and C. rubescens, also yield 
 a similar farina ; the same tubers which, when young, 
 yield a beautiful and pure starch, yielding turmeric 
 when old. In Travancore, this starch is a principal 
 part of the food of the inhabitants. The young 
 tubers of the Galangal (q.v.), (Alpinia Galanga), 
 r plant of the same natural order [ScUamini a ). 
 are another source of this farina. — A farina some- 
 what resembling A., and often sold under that name, 
 is . .i>t. mi. .1 from different species of the natural 
 
 order ( 'i/ra./.i.'. ... as from the dwarf fleshy trunks 
 of Zinnia U //»/.., Z '. furfuraa a, and Z. pumUa in the 
 West Indies, and from the large seeds of Dion edule 
 in the lowlands of Mexico.— The starch of the 
 Cassava, Manihot or Manioc (see Manioc), is some- 
 times imported into Europe under the name of 
 Brazilian A. Potato-starch, carefully prepared, 
 is sometimes sold as English A. ; and the farina 
 obtained from the roots of the Arum maculalum
 
 ARROYO MOLIN'OS— ARSEXIC. 
 
 (see At.um). as Portland A. Otaheite A. is the starch 
 of Tanca (q. v.) pinnalijida. — All these, as well as 
 Oswego and Chicago corn-flour — the starch of 
 or Indian corn — are so nearly allied to true A. as not 
 fco be certainly distinguishable by chemical tests; 
 but the forma of the grannies differ, so that they can 
 be distinguished by the microscope. 
 
 ] name A. is commonly said to have had its 
 ii from the use of the fresli roots by the Smith 
 American Indians a.-s an application to wounds to 
 counteract th i BE cl of p u med arrowa; and the 
 id juice bas been recently recommended as 
 an antidote to poisons, and a cure for the stn 
 bites of venomous insects and reptiles. But it is not 
 improbable that the name is really another form of 
 Ara, th'- Indian name. 
 
 \ KltO'YO MOLI'XOS, a village in Estremadura, 
 Spain, noted as the scene of General Guard's com- 
 e by Lord Hill on the 28th October 
 Isll. General Girard had been sent out by Soult 
 on a plundi ring foray with 5000 mi n, when he was 
 il early in the morning by Lord Hill, who 
 ie off at Alcuescar ; the natives of 
 i had the good sense not to betray the presence 
 of their deliverers. With a couple of regiments, the 
 71st and !>2d, the English g< in ral dn bed through 
 the rain upon the enemy, who lied in all din 
 leaving behind everything, arms, packs, &c. 1300 
 prisoners were taken; the whole artillery, colours, 
 baggage, &c. French historians (Thiers, &c), how- 
 ever, maintain that the battle was 'undecided,' and 
 that their countrymen only retreated in good order, 
 under the pressure of much larger forces. 
 
 ARRU' ISLAXDS, a group lying about SO miles 
 to the south of the west part of New Guinea, extend- 
 ing in S. lat. from 5° 20/ to 6' 55', and in E. long. 
 from 134' 10' to 134° 45'. The largest of the cluster is 
 ill miles long and "20 broad. The inhabitants, 
 many of them said to be Christians, are a mixed 
 Malaya and Melanesians or oriental negroes. 
 British goods, to the annual value of £30,000, are 
 imported into Dobbo, a mart on the island of 
 Warud, mostly by Dutch and Chinese merchants — 
 tin returns being chiefly pearls, mother-of-pearl, and 
 trepang, which abound on a coral-reef to the east. 
 In position and formation, these islands appear to 
 be rather Australian than East Indian. 
 
 ARSA'CES, a name common to several Parthian 
 and Armenian kings. The accounts concerning 
 them which have been transmitted to us by the 
 ancient historians are exceedingly vague, confused, 
 and contradictory ; and modern criticism has found 
 itself unable to reconcile or simplify the conflicting 
 statements. The two most important members of 
 tin dynasty of the Scythian Arsacidaj were A. I. 
 and A. VI." 
 
 AnSAi i I. , I he founder of the Parthian monarchy, 
 flourished in the 3d c. B.C., under the reign of 
 \iili..ehus-Tlieiis. An atrocious insult offered to 
 his brother Tiridates by Pherecles or Agathocles, 
 Macedonian satrap of the country, is said tn have 
 tired his spirit, and driven him to rebel. The Mace- 
 donians were expelled, 266 r.i . A ntiochus, embroiled 
 in a war with Egypt, could not immediately find 
 
 time to attempt the recovery of this portion of 
 his dominions. Seleucus, the son of Am 
 made two unsuccessful expeditions against the insur- 
 chief, in the last of which he was taken 
 prisoner. A. I. now acquired regal power, built a 
 
 city called Kara, on the minuitain Zapaortenon, 
 
 developed the internal resources of his new king- 
 dom, and endeavoured to organise it; and, after the 
 conquest of several countries, died at a great age. 
 Such, at least, is the account given by rosidonius, 
 &c. ; but Arrian states that A. died after a reign of 
 
 two years, and that his broth) r Tiridates succeeded 
 him, under the name of A. II., and ruled for thirty- 
 seven years, whence we may conclude that many 
 of the acts attributed to tie- founder of the Parthian 
 kingdom were the work of Ins successor. 
 
 ,i is VI.. or MlTHBXDATEB L, flourished about 
 the middle of the 2d e. B, c. II 1 the 
 
 territories of the Partbians by the conquest of 
 Bactria ; and is even supposed to have penetrated 
 into India, and subdued the nations between the 
 Bydaspes and Indus. In the year 138 bli 
 
 ed and took irisoner ] or, king 
 
 of Syria, whom, however, 1 
 
 bestowing on him his daughter in marriage. He 
 was a just and merciful prince, and an enemy to 
 luxury. 
 
 A'RSEXAL is the name given to a great mili- 
 tary or naval repository, when- the munitions of war 
 are to some extent manufactured, but more particu- 
 larly stored until required for use. Every royal 
 id, every magazine, every armoury, is to 
 some extent an A.; and therefore the meanin_' of 
 the word is not quite definite. In France, thi 
 arsenals are at Cherbourg, Brest, and Toulon. In 
 England, although Deptford is a considerable 
 storehouse for naval clothing and provisions, and 
 Weedon and the Tower gnat repositories for mili- 
 tary stores, the only establishment vast • 
 to deserve the name of A. is at Woolwich, 
 is truly a remarkable and important place. In the 
 spring of 185!), when war was raging in Italy 
 between the French and Sardinians on one 
 and the Austrians on the other, and when an un- 
 easy feeling pervaded our own country, there were 
 for a short time more than 10,(1(10 men employed 
 in Woolwich A. There were at that time nearly 
 12.000 pieces of iron ordnance in store, of \ 
 7000 were of modern make and of heavy calibre. 
 This store was supplementary to that which is 
 always kept at the dockyards of Woolwich, 
 Chatham. Sheerness, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and 
 Pembroke. There were resources at the A. for 
 bringing forward, fitting, and issuing these r 
 guns at the rate of 200 per week, or double this 
 number on an emergency; and many hundreds were 
 within a brief period shipped thence, to strengthen 
 our forts in the Mediterranean, in the colonies, and 
 around the coasts. All the shot and shell used down 
 to the period of the Crimean war, were ordered of 
 private makers; but the charge was bo enormous 
 during the early months of that war. that the 
 government resolved to try the manufacti 
 Woolwich; this was done, with a very manifest 
 savin.' of expi use. It has been calculated that the 
 A., when at lull work, could produce large shot and 
 shell with six times the rapidity with which those 
 missiles were used by the British outside Sebastopol 
 during the eleven montl I hese ohsen 
 
 do not apply to rifles or muskets; none of these 
 weapons are made at Woolwich Then- have been 
 times, however, during the year 1859, when nearly a 
 rifle-bulIetB were in store at the A. 
 The Armstrong _uns (described under that head- 
 ing) are, at the period of printing this sheet, being 
 made at the A., 9, 12, and is poundi is, in sufficient 
 number to supply all our field-artillery batf 
 
 ins and ships' guns, of this construction, 
 I f or t nt m ition. It is i di udab i 
 
 that there are 15,000 great guns on board the 
 ships of the Queen's navy, besides a number vary- 
 ing from 15,000 to 20,000 at Wo. Iwich and in the 
 dockyards. 
 
 A'RSEXIC is the name applied in popular 
 language to a well-known substance, 
 
 Arsenious Acid (q. v.), but, strictly speaking, the
 
 ARSENICAL MINERALS— AR8ENI0US ACID. 
 
 Ilia body which in part 
 enters into the composition of the poison. Th 
 A. is rarely bond bee in nature, but in a stab- of com- 
 bination it 00CUTB largely (see Aio-i \ie \i, Mr-; 
 The metal is generally prepared from arsenions acid 
 (AsOj) by mixing it with ii lit of char- 
 
 coal, placing the mixture in a wall-COVei 
 and subjecting the whole to heat, when the metal 
 , and condenses in the 
 uppi r part or cover of the crucible. Metallic A. is 
 very brittle, can easily be reduced to powder by 
 hammering, or even pounding in a mortar; and 
 when a freshly cut surface is examined, il | 
 a brilliant dark steel-gray In fcre, which, hi 
 readily tarnishes on exposure to the air. The 
 as such, is not considered poisonous, hut when intro- 
 duced into the animal system, it is there faintly 
 
 Native Arsenic. 
 
 acted upon by the juices, and in part dissolved, at 
 the same time, exhibiting poisonous properties. 
 When heated in the open air, it burns with a peculiar 
 bluish flame, and emits a characteristic alliaceous 
 odour. The only use to which the metal A. is 
 applied in the arts is in the manufacture of lead a 
 of the various sizes, when its presence in small 
 ty in the lead renders the latti r much more 
 brittle than it ordinarily is. Of all the compounds 
 of A. the most important is the one already alluded 
 to— namely, Arsenious Acid which is an oxide of 
 A. With sulphur, A. forme two important com- 
 
 Eounds: Realgar (AsS ), a red. transparent, and 
 nttle substance, which is employed in the 
 Eacture of the signal-light called H 
 and Orpimeni (AsS 3 ) or King's Yettov, 6 
 
 at of a yellow colour. With hydrogen, A. forms 
 iuretted hydrogen (AsH,), a very poi 
 gas, and one which has been fatal to 
 chemists. 
 
 ARSENICAL MINERALS occur chiefly in 
 primitive rocks, and fit 
 
 metalliferous minerals. — Nai •'. although 
 
 nowhere very abundant, is not unfrequently found 
 in mines in Europe, Asia, and America, generally 
 with sulphur and metallic sulphurets. In 
 atTyndrumin Perth hire. It has 
 usually a fine granular character. It. is 1 
 if ever, quite pure, usually containing a little anti- 
 mony and iron, and not unfrequently a very little 
 silver or gold- -A very similar, and c mine- 
 
 ral, found in similar situations, is known as J 
 
 and consists of about two parts of mi tal- 
 enic, and one of metallic antimony. At 
 , or Ar Ivor, is another very rar 
 
 ral, consists of arsenic and iron, but con- 
 
 taining also about 13 per cent, of silver and a little 
 antimony. — Arsenic-f/lance, found at Harienb 
 Saxony, and containing about 3 per cent, of bismuth. 
 has the remarkable property of taking lire at the 
 438 
 
 flame of a candle, 1 Acid occurs native is 
 
 a few localities in Germany and France, and as a 
 
 miner;'.! A\ 
 
 which perhaps too closely resem! 
 designation oil its salts. — Ar*' Bother com- 
 
 nic and Oxygen ( V- 1 1 |, containing more 
 oxygen than arsenious acid, although it does not 
 itself occur native, is not unfrequant in the form of 
 compounds with copper and had [A of cop- 
 
 per and lead), which enter into the composition of a 
 r of minerals, none of them so abundant as to 
 
 be of any importana . \xa \ A. M. are also to be 
 
 ranked the compounds of arsenic with Bulphur, par- 
 ticularly Orpimeni (q. v.), Realgar (q. v.), and Dimor- 
 phine, a rarer mineral than the othi r two, and 
 fore less important. But the most important 
 A. M., because of their use as ores of arsenic, for the 
 preparation of white arsenic, or arsenious acid, are 
 ii which arsenic is combined with nickel and 
 cobalt. One of these is ! Pyrites, or Leuco- 
 
 . found in various mines of the continent of 
 Europe, and containing arsenic, iron, sulphur, uii !. I, 
 and cobalt, in somewhat various proportions— the 
 . . always the principal constituent. 
 It generally occurs massive.- Mi pidcel, which fre- 
 quently occurs in rhombic crystals, but often also 
 massive, differs from it in containing a considerable 
 quantity of silver, BO that it is used both as an ore of 
 arsenic and of silver. It is found in many of the 
 tin-mines of Cornwall, and is pretty frequent in 
 different parts of the world. — Nickdwt consists of 
 nickel and arsenic, and is used as an ore of nickel, 
 and also for the preparation of white arsenic. — Cobcd- 
 ihi< and SmdUine — the former consisting of cobalt, 
 sulphur, and arsenic; the latter, of cobalt and 
 e -are used for the preparation of blue colours 
 for porcelain and stoneware. Both are found in 
 Cornwall; they occur also in some of the mines of 
 the continent of Europe, and in other parts of the 
 world.- The presence of arsenic in a mineral may 
 commonly be detected by the alliaceous odour 
 which it emits before the blow-pipe. 
 
 ARSE'NIOUS ACID is the arsenical compound 
 most familiarly known. It is obtained principally 
 during the roasting of the arsenical nickel ores in 
 Germany in furnaces communicating with thus. 
 When the arsenic of the ore burns, it passes into the 
 condition of A. A. (AsO,), and rising as vapour into 
 the somewhat cool Hue, is there deposited as a 
 grayish powder, known by the names of 8m 
 
 . Flowers of Arsenic, Poison-flour, or 
 Rough A. A. In this condition, the A. A. is con- 
 taminated with some impurities, from which it may 
 be separated by introducing the gray powder into 
 an egg-shaped vessel, and applying heat at the lower 
 end, when the A. A. rises in vapour, and coin 
 in the cool end as a transparent glassy or \n 
 
 nee. Ordinary A. A. of the simps (which is 
 what is popularly known as arsenic) is a white 
 crystalline powder, which feels decidedly gritty, 
 like line sand, when placed between the teeth, 
 to. It is very heavy, 
 so much so as at once to be noticeable wl 
 paper or bottle containing it is lifted by the hand, 
 it is soluble in water to the extent of 1 part of 
 A. A. in about 100 parts of cold water, and 1 part 
 of A. A. in about 10 parts of boiling water. As 
 ordinarily sold in quantities under 10 lbs. in weight, 
 the A. A. is required by law to be coloured with 
 ■jL- of its weight of indigo, or /.,- of its weight of 
 soot; the object of the admixture being to 
 any liquid to which the A. A. might be added with 
 a murderous intent, of a black or bluish-black One, 
 and thus indicate the presence of something unusual. 
 In packages of 10 lbs. and upwards, A. A. is allowi d 
 to be sold in the pure white crystalline form without
 
 ARSENIOUS ACID. 
 
 color.-it.ion. When placed in a spoon, or other 
 vesael, and heated, the A. A. volatilises, and con- 
 denses in crystals on any cool vessel held above. 
 By this means, it can be distinguish',! from Ordinary 
 flour, which, whin li. -;it . 1 1, would char, and leave a 
 coal behind; ami from chalk, stucco, baking oda, 
 tooth-powder, and other white substances, 
 
 when heated, remain in the vessel as a non-vo! itile 
 white residue. Again, when A. A. is placed on a 
 red-hot cinder, and the escaping vapours cautiously 
 brought under the nostrils, the strong alliaceous 
 
 odour characteristic of arsenic is given off. The 
 mode in which A. A. comports itself, when thrown 
 upon water, is likewise peculiar. Instead of at onee 
 descending through the water like sand, the A. A., 
 notwithstand it dentita i. p. | r. 3*70), par- 
 
 tially floats en the surface, as win at-lhmr does ; and 
 that portion which sinks in the water, rolls itself 
 into little round pellets, which are wetted only on 
 the outside, and contain much dry A. A. within. 
 The solution of A. A. in water is recognised by three 
 tests : 
 
 1. Ilydrnsulphurie arid and hydrochloric acid 
 produce a yellow jireeipilnle. of sulphurct of . 
 (AsS ,), soluble in ammonia. 
 
 2. Ammonio-sulphatc of copper, an apple-green 
 precipitate of arsenite of copper (2CnO,As0 3 ). 
 
 3. Ammonio-nitrato of silver, a yellow ■/irn-i/n'iiite 
 of arsenite of silver (2AgO,As0 3 ). 
 
 In many cases, A. A. is used as a means of destroy- 
 ing animal life, hut, happily, the processes for tiie 
 detection of the poison in organic mixtures and in 
 the animal tissues are so unerring and trustworthy, 
 that it is hardly within the range of possibility 
 that an animal can be destroyed by the administra- 
 
 ti f A. A. without very decided evidence of the 
 
 existence of the poison being obtained on examina- 
 tion of the various parts of the animal structure ; 
 indeed, it may be safely said that there is no limit 
 to the detection of the poison, as even after the 
 animal structure has been so far decomposed that 
 little remains, yet still the poison, from its inde- 
 structibility, survives, and will indicate itself clearly, 
 on the application of the several test-. 
 
 For the isolation and recognition of A. A. in 
 organic mixtures, such as the controls M f a stomach, 
 three processes may be followed. The method 
 generally pursued, and that upon which greatest 
 
 depend'- i.: placed, i ; called Ken: ell's process, 
 
 from the name of its discoverer. The manner of its 
 application is to treat the organic mixture with 
 water sufficient to render it thin, then add fa 
 chloric acid to the extent of one-eighth of the 
 volun f the liquid; apply heat, and when the 
 
 whole has been raised & near the boiling-point, 
 introduce clean, newly burnished pieces of copper in 
 
 i ni of wire, gauze, or foil. H A. A. be present 
 
 in the mixture, a steel gray coating of metallic 
 
 arsenic will form on the surface of the copper. This 
 appan lit tarnishing of the copper may tab place 
 when no A. A. is in the nurture, and may 1"- pro- 
 duced by salts of mercury, antimony. ,\c. B V II . . 
 by sulphur compounds, and even occasionally by 
 Eatty matters. Po d h between the coal 
 
 formed by A. A. and I | 1 |, v n (hcr sub- 
 
 stances, the copper is taken oat of the mi 
 washed with water, to remove acid; immersed in 
 ether, to die olve off any adherent fatty m 
 
 dried between folds of blotting-paper; iutii 
 into the lower end of i • 1 1 J la test-tube, and there 
 Cautiously heated. The metallic arsenic I 
 driven off by the heat from tl o) the 
 
 copper, rises in vapour into the upper portions of 
 the test-tube ; there meets the oxygen of the air, 
 with which it combines, forming A. A. (AsO A, and 
 thereafter deposits itself ou the inner surface of 
 
 the cool part of the tube in little glistening crystals. 
 On allowing tie- tube to cool, adding water thereto, 
 and applying heat, the water diss- 
 of A. A., yielding a solution, to separate portions of 
 which the liquid tests mentioned above may be 
 successfully applied This process may hi. 
 be employed in the detection of A. A. in animal 
 I .-us in the liver, spleen, kidneys, &c., by first 
 
 dividing the animal matter into small pieces, and 
 M' tl after treating with wal 
 
 and copper. The precautions which require to be 
 exercised in trying this process arc that 
 hydrochloric acid and copper are themselv 
 from A. A. Hydrochloric acid has long been known 
 to be liable to contain at times a very sensible 
 proportion of the poison, and it is therefore n 
 sary, before using the acid in any experiment, to 
 make a preliminary trial with dilute hydrochloric 
 acid, into which, when heated, a piece of copper is 
 immersed ; and if no tarnishing occurs after a quar- 
 ter of an hour's trial, the acid may be A 
 from contamination with arsenical compounds. The 
 liability of copper to contain arsenic has only very 
 recently (August 1859) assumed importance in con- 
 ne lion with a trial for murder by slow poisoning 
 with arsenic, which took place in 15ritain. In this 
 case, a considerable amount of copper was dissolved 
 during the testing, and supplied the poison in 
 tity enough to produce a faint coating on a piece of 
 copper which was subsequently introduced into the 
 Liquid. The result was that A. A. was a1 
 declared to be present in the material under exami- 
 nation ; but further experiments demonstrated that 
 the copper itself had afforded the arsenic. To free 
 copper from any arsenic which it may contain 
 originally, it is only necessary to heat the copper 
 over a gas or spirit-lam]) flame, when the arsenic 
 volatilises, and leaves the copper uncontaminatcd 
 \ ith. 
 The other two processes for the detection of 
 A. A. in organic mixtures are — 1. That recom- 
 mended by Marsh, in which the material is treated 
 with dilute sulphuric acid and metallic zinc in 
 
 1. Marsh's process. 2. Berzclius's process. 
 
 a gas -generating apparatus, when the ai 
 combining with hydrogen, forms an 
 
 n (A-Il 1. from which, in the act of 
 : , the tic -i Jlic arsenic, and subsequently 
 A. A., can be i d; and 2. That known as 
 
 lerseliu ■ hich dry arsenical com 
 
 td heated in a con- 
 stricted tube, when tie metal arsenic is pro 
 which in its torn i into A. A. by heating 
 
 in a wide test-tube. The pTooossoa of Marsh ana 
 Bereehae are not so generally followed as that of 
 Remsch ; but in each and all it is absolutely 
 
 MS
 
 ARSTNOE— ARSON. 
 
 necessary, in order to avoid the possibility of mistake, 
 
 (ll that metallic arsenic be obtained from th nil 
 
 mixture; (2), that the metallic arsenic be converted 
 into A. A. : and (3), that this A. A., treated with 
 water, should yield a solution which will give the 
 three liquid tests mentioned previously. 
 
 A. A. forms compounds (salts) with alkalies and 
 other bases, which are called Araenites. Sonn of the ■ 
 are employed in commerce and medicine. A. A., 
 
 boiled with a solution of potash, or carl ate of 
 
 potash, forms an arsenite of potash, used in medicine, 
 and known as Fonda's Solution. The more largi ly 
 
 beep-dipping mixtures are com] 1 o v 
 
 A., Boda, sulphur, and soap, which, when used, 
 are dissolved in a large quantity of water, and thus 
 constitute essentially dilute solutions "f arsenite of 
 soda. A compound of A. A. and the oxide of 
 copper, called the arsenite of copper, or > 
 
 . is a pigment largely used by painters as a 
 pretty and cheap green paint. The same- substance 
 is extensively employed in the manufacture of com- 
 mon green paper-hangings for the walls of rooms; 
 and recent inquiries would lead to the belief that 
 rooms covered with paper coated with this green 
 arsenite of copper, are detrimental to the health of 
 human beings residing therein, from the readiness 
 with which minute particles of the poisonous pig. 
 ment are- detached from the walls by the slightest 
 friction, are diffused through the room, and ultimately 
 
 ito the animal system. Another green pigment 
 is named Scliweinfnrtk Green, and contains A. A., 
 oxide of copper, and acetic acid, and is a double 
 arsenite and acetate of copper. 
 
 Aksenic (Absenious Acid), Properties of, as a 
 Drug, - A. has long been used as a medicine. 
 When taken into the stomach, it is soon absorbed 
 into the blood, and circulates with that fluid, exhi- 
 biting great power over certain diseases, especially 
 skin diseases, as psoriasis, lepra, eczema (q. v.), &C. 
 It is also classed among the tonic minerals, and given 
 for nervous disorders, especially those that are 
 periodic. Of late it has been much recommended for 
 
 rheumatism; and Dr Jjegbie, of Edinburgh, i h rs 
 
 I li il among the remedies for chorea (St Vitus' ihuiee) 
 it holds the foremost place. In ague, also, and 
 remittent fever, as well as in other disorders origin- 
 ating from the same source, A. and quinine are our 
 chief remedies. They are considered to act as 
 
 lives of the blood. The usual method of 
 administering' A. is in small doses (from three to 
 live drops) of the liquor arsenicalis, largely diluted 
 with water, twice or thrice in the day. Arsenic is 
 
 imes given combined, with iodine and mercury 
 (I lonovan's solution). 
 
 When given in the doses above mentioned, for 
 eight or ten days, symptoms of poisoning bi an to 
 appear; the skin becomes hot, the pulse quick, the 
 eyelids hot and itchy; the tongue has a silvery 
 
 ap] ui.i -. the throat is dry and sore, the gums 
 
 n Ollen and tender; and if the treatment is persisted 
 in, salivation ensues, and then come- nausea, vomit- 
 ing, diarrhoea, nervous depression, and faintness 
 (Begbie). The quantity necessary to destroy life, of 
 course, varies. Dr Christison records the case of a 
 man who died in six days, after taking thirty grains 
 of the powdered white A. ; but a much small r dos 
 will prove fatal; a girl was killed with two grains 
 and a half of A. contained in two ounces of fly- 
 According to Dr Swaine Taylor, a niedieal 
 witness is justified in stating, that under circum- 
 stances favourable for its operation the fatal dose for 
 an adult is from two to three grains. Death from a 
 us dose of A. may occur in a few hours, or 
 after the lapse of days. A woman, aged 56, used a 
 solution of A. in water to cure the itch; she expe- 
 rienced severe suffering, and died after two years, 
 440 
 
 hii eg had symptoms of arsenical poisoning all that 
 
 .Hi:'. 
 
 A. has been used frequently as a slow poison, the 
 ymptoms being attributed to inflammation of the 
 from natural causes. Fortunately, in most 
 cases its detection is easy. Orlila found A. in 
 the soil of cemeteries, a fact which has created some 
 discussion among tozicologists. A. is used by anato- 
 mists as an antiseptic, but is dangerous, as it is apt 
 into cuts on the hands, ami under the Anger 
 nails, ami cause disagreeable symptoms, it is stafc d 
 that in some countries, especially in Styria, A. is 
 taken by the young female peasants to increa e 
 their personal attractions ; a state at which prob- 
 ably amounts to this, that experience of its tonic 
 and other qualities induces some individuals to 
 proscribe for themselves a medicine which ought 
 only to be administered by a skilful an I C, 
 hand. That A. can be taken habitually for any 
 I M Hi of time, woidd seem a physiological inipossi- 
 bility; and yet such statements are made on 
 what appears to lie unquestionable authority. See 
 Chambers's Journal, Vol. V. p. 90, and VI., p. 46; 
 also Johnston's Chemistry qf Common Life. 
 
 No effective chemical antidote for A. has yet been 
 discovered. In case of an overdose, or of intentional 
 poisoning, the following treatment is recommended : 
 Evacuate the stomach by the stomach-pump, using 
 lime-water; administer large draughts of tepid 
 and water, chalk and water, or lime-water; avoid 
 the use of alkalies, but administer charcoal and 
 liy.lrated sesquioxide of iron; bleed freely; take a 
 tepid bath, and use narcotics. If the fatal symptoms 
 be averted, let the patient for a long time subsist 
 wholly on farinaceous food, milk, and demulcents. 
 
 ARSI'NOE, the daughter of Ptolemy I., king of 
 1'gypt. and of Berenice, was born about 316 B.C., 
 and married in her sixteenth y u o. the aged l.ysim- 
 achus, king of Thrace, whoso eldest son, Agatho- 
 eles, had already wedded bys.uidra, the half sister 
 of A. Desirous of securing the throne for her 
 oxen children, A. prevailed on her husband to put 
 Agathocles to death ; the consequences of which 
 crime, however, were fatal to tlu-Thracian monarch; 
 for l.ysandra, having fled with her children to 
 Seleucus in Asia, managed to induce him to declare 
 war against her unnatural father-in-law. Lysimachus 
 was shun, and Seleucus seized the kingdom. A. now 
 Bought refuge iii Macedonia, which, however, was also 
 taken possession of by Seleucus; but on the assassi- 
 nation of the latter, after a few months, by Ptolemy 
 Ceraunus, the half-brother of A., she received a 
 hypocritical offer of marriage from Ptolemy, who 
 wanted to destroy her two sons, lest they should 
 prove formidable rivals to his ambition. She con- 
 sented to the union, and opened the gates of the 
 town in which she had taken refuge, but her children 
 wen- butchered before her eyes. She then tied to 
 Egypt (279 B.C.), where she married her own 
 brother, Ptolemy II. Philadelphns. These unna- 
 tural unions subsequently became common among 
 the Greek kings of Egypt. It does not appear that 
 A. had any children by her brother, though sin- was 
 regarded by him with the deepest affection, lie 
 named several cities, and also an entire district, by 
 her name. After her death, he ordered Dinochares, 
 tin architect, to build a temple to her memory, and 
 roof the edifice with loadstones, so that her iron 
 statin- might seem to float in the air. 
 
 A'KSIS and THE'SIS (Gr. raising up, and laying 
 down), a term in music applied to the rising and 
 falling of the hand in beating time. It is also 
 applied to the elevation and depression of the voice 
 in speaking. 
 
 A'RSON, or, as it is called in Scotland, u'ilfuljire-
 
 ARSON— ART. 
 
 raising, is. in the laws of all civilised countries, a 
 capital crime of the deepest atrocity ; for it involves 
 in its consequences not only destruction of property, 
 but also the destruction of, or at least an indifii n ai e 
 
 to, the life or lives of others, which can only he 
 imputed to (In' iibi! wicked and malignant spirit, 
 In the criminal law of England, it is a felony, ana has 
 been described as the malicious and wilful burning 
 of the house or building of another man. It is 
 essential to the offence that the house or building 
 burned should be that of another; for although it 
 is a misdemeanour to destroy one's own house by 
 lire, especially in a town, or where other buildings 
 i contiguous, which are thereby put in danger, 
 such an oil. nee does not amount to a felony, strictly 
 BO called. To constitute och felony, there must he 
 .in actual burning; for no intent, however clear, 
 would suffice at common law to support a charge of 
 A. This crime is the subject of two recent statutes 
 die I Vict. c. 89, and the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 02), the 
 provisions of which considerably modify and enlarge 
 the doctrines of the common law on the subject. 
 
 The first of these acts (amending two others, the 
 
 7 and 8 Geo. IV. e. 30, and the 9 Geo. IV. p. 56) 
 enacts that whoever shall unlawfully and maliciously 
 
 let lire to any dwelling-house, any person being 
 therein, shall be guilty of felony, and shall suffer 
 death. Also that whoever shall unlawfully and 
 maliciously set fire to any church or chapel; or to 
 any chapel for the religious worship 01 persons 
 dissenting from the United church of England and 
 Ireland; or to any house, stable, coach-house, out- 
 house, warehouse, otlicc, shop, mill, malthouse, 
 hop-oast, barn, or granary ; or to any erection used in 
 carrying on any trade or manufacture, or any branch 
 thereof, whether in possession of the offender or any 
 other person — with intent, in any of these cases, to 
 injure or defraud any person, shall be guilty of 
 felony; and he is liable to penal servitude for life, 
 or not less than fifteen years, or to imprisonment not 
 exceeding three years. Doubts having been con- 
 ceived upon this act, whether its provisions extended 
 to the setting lire to a hovel or shed not appendant 
 to any house, it was afterwards provided, by 7 and 8 
 Vict. c. 02, that whoever should unlawfully and 
 maliciously set fire to any hovel, shed, or fold; or to 
 any farm-building; or any building or erection used 
 in farming land— whether the same, or any of them 
 lively, shall then be in the possession of the 
 offender, or the possession of any other person — with 
 intent thereby to defraud any person, shall bo guilty 
 of felony, and he is liable to a like punishment. 
 Moreover, that whoever shall unlawfully and mali- 
 ciously set lire to any hay, straw, wood, or other 
 table produce, being in any farmhouse or farm-build- 
 ing ; or to any implement of husbandry, being in any 
 farmhouse or farm-building; with intent to set tire 
 to n'li farmhouse or farm-building, and to injure 
 or defraud any person, shall be liable to the same 
 punishment as for setting fire to the farmhouse or 
 i. ii in building itself; and every male so offending, 
 under eighteen, shall be also liable, at the discretion 
 
 of the court, in addition to any other sentence, to 
 
 be whipped. Again, unlawfully and maliciously, by 
 
 any overt act, to at tempi to set lire to any building, 
 stack, or steer, or vegetable produce, of such kind 
 and with such intent that if the oil. in .• were com- 
 plete, the offender would be guilty of felony, and 
 liable to penal m rvitude for Life (though such build- 
 i i i ek, steer, or vegetable produce be not actii ilk 
 set on fire), is deemed felony ; and is punishable with 
 penal servitude for fifteen years; or imprisonmenl 
 for two years, with the same addition in respect to 
 whipping, if the offender be a male under eighteen. 
 
 And lastly, if any person shall maliciously set 
 tire to any station or other building belonging to 
 
 any railway, dock, canal, or other navigation, he is 
 guilty of felony ; and he is liable to penal servitude 
 for life, or any term not less than three years; or to 
 be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for any 
 term not exceeding three years ; and if any person 
 maliciously set fire to any gi being 
 
 in any building, the setting fire to which is 
 felony by act of parliament, he is guilty of felony; 
 and he is liable to penal tor any term not 
 
 exceeding ten years, nor less than three years, or to 
 be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for any 
 term not exceeding three yi at 
 
 Servants in'lnl of negligently setting fire to 
 
 houses and buildings, shall, I.. I I Geo, III. c 78, s. 
 
 84, forfeit £100, to be di i ribub A i g the sui 
 
 by the churchward, o , ill ich prop .rtions osto such 
 churchwardens shall seem just ; and in cose of 
 defaidt, shall be committed to jail or the house of 
 correction for eighteen months, to be kept to hard 
 labour. 
 
 It has been laid down in Scotland, that if the fire 
 has been wilfully kindled, it matters not how cir- 
 cuitous may have been the mode of operation 
 selected, although the injury intended to have been 
 done was not the actual burning of the house, but 
 some inferior mischief. And it IS the law of both 
 countries, that if the proprietor of a house set fire to 
 it while in possession of a tenant holding under a 
 lease, the crime of A. is completed; and in Scotland, 
 the same has been ruled where the house was occu- 
 pied by a party having a life-interest in it. 
 
 By the 29 Geo. III. c. 4G, an act which applies to 
 Scotland as well as England, it is enacted, that if 
 any person shall maliciously and unlawfully set in- 
 to, or in any wise destroy, any ship or vessel, 
 whether the same be complete or in an unfinished 
 state, or shall maliciously and unlawfully set fire to, 
 cast away, or in anywise destroy any ship or v. ssel, 
 with intent thereby to prejudice any owner or part 
 owner of such ship or vessel, or of any goods On 
 board the same, or any person that hath under- 
 written, or shall uinl. rwrite any policy of insurance 
 upon such ship or vessel, or on the freight th 
 
 or upon any a Is on board the same; ever* 
 
 offender shall suffer death as a felon.* 
 
 Both in England and Scotland, it is a considi 
 aggravation of the offence where the burning is to 
 i insurers. 
 
 ART. The word A. is here meant as designating 
 what is more specifically termed Fine A., being 
 opposed to the useful arts, or the industrial 
 for supplying the common neci ssities of life, faint- 
 ing and Poetry arc line arts; Agriculture, 
 and .Medicine are useful arts. 
 
 The great end of A. is to give pleasure, bu 
 kind of pleasure is peculiar and circumscribed. 
 There are many of our enjoyments that no artist 
 would ever think of attemp .vide. The 
 
 gratifications of eating and drinking, of exercise and 
 
 repose, warmth and In. i, form a class in contrast 
 
 with the pleasures of music, sculpture, or the drama. 
 It is a matter of some in.. U to draw the line 
 l.etwei n tlies,- |».. regions of OUT pleasurable suscep- 
 tibility ; indeed, it is not char that a precise line 
 can be drawn. Certain peculiarities can be assigned 
 as disqualifying circumstances, such that any mode 
 of pleasure labouring under them is debarred from 
 entering into \. ; But after we have allowed for 
 these, there will remain a disputed border-laud, on 
 which no general criterion will hold. 
 
 The various indul ences called sensual are the 
 
 • It is curious, as pointed out by sir Archibald Alison In 
 his work on the Criminal Law of "Scotland (to!, i. p. 441), that 
 the mbaaqnant act, 7 and 8 Vlot c SO, which r mittl the pro- 
 visions of the above statute, is only applicable to England.
 
 ART. 
 
 examples of contrast to the pleasures of A. In 
 the firs! place, as cur frame is constituted, these 
 bodily functions, while incidentally ministering to 
 
 our pi i» the main snl 
 
 nee, and being in the first instance 
 guided fur that special i ad, tfa y do not 
 rank among our gratilications as such; in the 
 second place, they are connected with the production 
 
 I is repulsive and loathsome, which mai 
 purity as sources of pleasure; and in the thud 
 place, they are essentially confined in their influence 
 i i the single individual; for the Bociabilitj ol the 
 table is an element superadded. Now, a mode of 
 pleasure subject to one or more of I 
 tions may belong in an eminent degree to the list of 
 utilities, and eoustitute an end of industry, but does 
 nut rdiiic under the class we are new considering. 
 Wealth is disqualified by tie third com 
 
 ■ieh as, u hue in the shape of money, it is con- 
 
 finedto some le | tor. The same maybe 
 
 said of the pleasures of Power and Dignity. 
 Affection is too exclusive to come under tin- a 
 head. Anything so restricted in it.s sph 
 action as to constitute individual property, and 
 give occasion to envy and jealousy, is not a pi 
 aimed at by the producer of Fine A. ; for there do 
 exist objects that can give us deli; li primary 
 
 end, that have no disagreeable or revolting accom- 
 paniments, and whose enjoyment is not restrict d to 
 a single mind ; all which considerations obviously 
 the rank of such objects in the scale of our 
 enjoyments. The landscape, the glowing sunset, the 
 BOng of the lark, the flowers of the field and the 
 garden, yield unalloyed pleasure, and create no mono- 
 poly. The painter, sculptor, and musician aim at 
 corresponding effects. 
 
 The eye and the ear arc the chief avenues of 
 artistic delight ; the other senses are more or less in 
 the monopolist interest. Moreover, one imp 
 feature in the somewhat capricious attribute termed 
 
 ment, attaches more particularly to the objects 
 of these two senses; namely, the power of protracted 
 enjoyment without fatigue. A coarse, effect is one 
 that is intense and pungent, but too exhausting to be 
 kept up ; such is a noisy clash of loud instruments 
 in a musical performance, or a tale of overdone mar- 
 vels. To remove all the fatiguing accompi ail 
 and thereby tone down the exciting influence, while 
 aingas much as po le really pleasurable 
 part, is to refine upon the effect, and prod 
 higher work of art. Now, in the lensations oi 
 and smell generally, the stimulus is apt to be oi 
 short duration ; the pleasure is said to pall toon. 
 Yet there are degrees in the case; some of the 
 choicer odours can affect us for hours together with a 
 gentle and pleasing sensation. But it is the ear, and 
 perhaps still more the eye, that ran remain open to 
 ble stimulation for the greatef length o 
 and taking this fact along with the 
 sinning nature of their i 1 i 
 
 for the artist striving so earnestly towards th 
 
 in of those two senses. 
 The sensual elements can be brought into A. by 
 being i ed in th id< a, in place oi t» bag 
 
 enjoyed in the reality. A painter or poet may 
 d , : a feast to our minds, and impart a pi 
 that differs essentially from the del' of i 
 
 and drinking. The imagined repa i bing to 
 
 do « ii li our bodily necessities ; the i 
 
 ni-nts can be kept out of view ; an I anj 
 number of persons may share in the effect 
 the elements of wealth, power, dignity, and affection, 
 which in their actuality want the liberal character 
 of the true artistic delight; if we can only derive 
 
 ire from the spectacle of them in the hands of 
 the select number of their possessors, they become 
 US 
 
 i i I an enjoyment that can be shared by the general 
 i te the blue akj , or the towering p ik. 
 
 It is the fact that mankind tind a charm in QOntem- 
 
 ivealthy, the powerful, the elevated, the 
 illustrion . tin' beloved; and accordingly Buoh ele- 
 incuts are fnely adopted into ai n ■ oha 
 
 If all the sensual gratifications CO artis- 
 
 i io bj being contemplated in i tely thought 
 
 of. a^ in the above i 
 
 should have the means of distinctly circumscribing 
 
 t f the beaut and ox 
 
 re oil in j a difficult problem. It would be admissible 
 for the poet or painter to suggest any of those 
 
 i pleasures to the mind by descriptive t In -. 
 
 and he would t hereby elevate them into the | 
 
 of ait. But we find that every mod mai iti- 
 
 fication is not open to this ideal presentation. I 
 
 ird i itin and drinking, exception is taken 
 against the too free alln ion to those pleasures; 
 while the sensuality of love is hardly to be Bug- 
 •; I'.l through the most distant allusion. Wl 
 
 revel in tales of mere tender emotion of parental 
 
 ad "f [Hire affection - but those other ; i ; 
 are kept at the utmost distance; aid be 
 
 said to be revelling in sensuality, if we were : 
 to indulge in the imagination of those species of 
 delight There is no help, therefore, but to con ider 
 that there are conn ntional and arbitrary limitations 
 of the sphere of the artist, rendering it quite impos- 
 sible to draw any clear and universal boundary-line 
 between the beautiful and the agreeable generally. 
 
 Sublimity, I'.eanty, (Iraee, Harmony, .Melody, 
 Pathos, Ideality, Picturesqueness, Proportion, Ordi r, 
 Fitness, Keeping, and the Ludicrous— though they 
 do not all relate to the so-called lumili/nL an all 
 involved in the circle of pleasures now before as . 
 and it is quite obvious that no one fact can run 
 through this variety of designations. Then- mu i be 
 ■ multitude of agents operating to i tuce 
 
 these different illl] . i I : ' 1 1 ! I I' ' I I 1 1 ' 
 
 i lea only by attaching in common to the sssthetio 
 
 class of compositions. Doubtless, severs! of these 
 
 names may be employed to mean the same thing, 
 being, in fact, partially synonymous terms ; a I Beauty 
 
 ami Grace Proportion, Fitness, and Keeping; but 
 
 hardly any two I inns are synonymous throughout, 
 and tin tinct conceptions implied in Subli- 
 
 mity, Beauty, Picturesqueness, i < id the 
 
 Ludicrous. 
 
 Among the elementary sensations and emotions of 
 the human mind that are of a pleasurable kind, a 
 
 certain number may enter at once into the < iposi- 
 
 b are the pli id and 
 
 sight, the emotion of surprise, and plot-iutcrcst. 
 Others may enter by ideal presentation; as the 
 ; of the remaining senses, and the 
 fear, tend ascibility, power. 
 
 The feelings more specific to A. are the 
 by Harmony under its various '•'■ ai ■ i wi st 
 
 ly combined, we have the 
 I art; the painter has a similar aim in refer- 
 ence to colours and forms; end 80 through all the 
 Bine Vrts, this quality is found recurring as the 
 crowning work of the artistic hand. Nothing is so 
 
 itablj included within the circle of the te I bj I 
 i l or beautiful as finely struck harmonies, melo- 
 
 ' i :ords. What! rei else maj I e included 
 in a composition, it is the admission of these' that 
 
 charm, although it would be a 
 
 1 to < i c with other elements of interest 
 hi to art and to every-day life, Story is 
 
 1 ■ Romance and Poetry; sweetness in the 
 
 separate sounds is requisite for good Music; and 
 
 colour in itself imparts lesthetic pleasure apart from 
 
 nous union. 
 
 The agreeable effect designated by Fitness takes
 
 ART. 
 
 rank with the artistic pleasun ; we may call it the 
 tic of the useful. Winn a work is not only 
 done effectually, lmt done with th nee of 
 
 ease, or the total absence of restraint, difficulty, and 
 pain, we experience a i quite different from 
 
 Hi' Ltd Faction growing out of the end ati 
 Much of the pleasure of architectural support is 
 referrible to this source. 
 
 Among the susceptibilities touched by artistic 
 arrangements may be noticed the sense of Unity in 
 multitude, at d a great number of things 
 
 are brought under a comp ign,aswhen 
 
 a row m pillars is crowned bj a pediment. The use 
 of simple figures the rcle, square, &c. — 
 
 for end ; and arranging a host of individuals, has 
 
 the tendency to ma] ended whole 
 
 out of a numerous host of particulars. In all large 
 works abounding in detail, we crave for sun 
 
 'ain the total, 
 while surveying the parte. A building, an oratorio, 
 a poem, a history, a dissertation, a speech, should 
 i cernible principle of order throughout; 
 
 the discernment of which gives an artistic pi 
 
 even in works of pure utility. 
 
 The craving for Variety and Novelty is a powerful 
 • of the human mind, and makes itself i 
 ally apparent in the appreciation of works of A. 
 The greatest works cease to please after a time, and 
 temporary fashion may occasionally lord it over the 
 perennial in taste. 
 
 In looking at the Fine Arts individually, we may 
 divide them into two classes, by drawing a distinc- 
 tion of some importance as i question of 
 an artistic standard. The one class contains the 
 effvMve arte, or those which consist of mere out- 
 I of the inward spontaneity, regulated by the 
 ill e\ of the display on the sense of the beholder or 
 listener. Music is a good example. The spontan- 
 eous effusions of the human voice, and those 
 
 pr pted by the various emotions, are corrected 
 
 and tuned by the ear into melody and harmony, and 
 
 after this process has been often repeated, pleasing 
 airs and compositions are the result. It is tie 
 with the Dance, considered as a line art. In like 
 manner, dramatic gesture and display, and the 
 of elocution and line address, are the m ' 
 
 promptings rendered pleasing by being changed and 
 
 d tor that express end. The first movements 
 are mere random, but the delicate sensibility of the 
 beholder causes some to be suppressed, and others 
 b it out, until a really pleasing eiiiiiliin.il 
 
 i i .ill bed with the purely effusive, arc 
 the so-called arts, or those that involve 
 
 the representation of some of the appearances of the 
 outer world. Such are Painting, Sculpture, and 
 i In tin ■■■■•. the artist, while still aiming at 
 
 ets, is trammelled with a new coiiili 
 
 ly, a certain anion it oi fidi lity to his anal 
 
 In tli lis. The in. i 
 
 imitai le condition 
 
 of gratifying the ear; but a painter chooses his 
 
 Bubje I from nature, and although he must contrive 
 
 I the p if col ur, outline, and 
 
 ing, he i i so w ith a 
 
 object copied. The poet, in depicting the life of 
 fidelity to this i 
 
 ■ ■ ' ition is apt to 
 
 k. and mar the pi' Would 
 
 iso be derived from the poetry itself. It is 
 not so much that truth is a the irl 
 
 pleasure, as that falsehood is a stumbling-blo 
 
 the way; for even the imitative arts are only so in 
 part. There is no imitation in th" met) 
 
 cad. 11 ii a or . and yet thi se often constitute the 
 
 main charm. So a certain licence of fantastic 
 effusion is allowed to poets, subject to no rides but 
 
 ring of pleasure. The creation of imaginary 
 worlds, when ted to ; and the 
 
 criterion of fidelity to the actual is accordingly laid 
 aside for the time. The various arts of I 
 and Design are for the most part i bough 
 
 occasionally imitative. Architecture is not in any 
 way imitative ; the coincidence bei i Qotmo 
 roof and the intermingling foliage of a double row of 
 
 . ' . .'I'llt. 
 
 These ob are necessary in order to 
 
 qualify the current maxim, that Nature i 
 artist's standard, and Truth his el condi- 
 
 tions that, in their strictness, apply only to sc 
 
 the scientific man that would never d 
 from nature, and should care for truth above 
 other i' ^t's standard 
 
 his end is refined pleasure; he m 
 but it is to select what chimes in with 1 
 of arti i and pass b; Ee is not 
 
 bound to adhere to nature even in b 
 displays; his own tast 
 
 alters isle at his will. The student of 
 
 science, on the other band, must embrace every fact 
 with open arms. If a nauseous fungus or loath- 
 some rat meet the eye of a natural bound 
 to record it as faithfully and minutely as he would 
 dilate on the violet or the nig] When a 
 painter adopts the human figure as a basis for 
 stting forth harmonies of colour, beauties, and form, 
 and picturesqueness of grouping, he ought not to jar 
 our sense of consistency by a wide departure from 
 the usual proportions of humanity. Still, we do not 
 look for anatomical exactness ; we know that the 
 studies of an artist do not imply the know]' 
 a professor of anatomy; but we expect the main 
 features of the reality to be adhered to. In like 
 maiiinr, a poet is not great because he exhibits 
 human nature with literal fidelity; to do that 
 makes the reputation of a historian or mental 
 philosopher. The poet works by his i 
 cadences, his touching simili 3, Ins graceful narra- 
 tive, and his exaltation of reality into 
 of ideality; and if in all this he .'voids serious 
 mistakes and gross exaggerations, he succeeds in his 
 real vocation. 
 
 attempt to reconcile the artistic with the true 
 — art with nature— has given birth to a peculiar 
 school, in whose productions a restraint is put upon 
 the Bights of pure imagination, and which clan 
 merit of informing the mind as to tl of the 
 
 world, while the various emotions of 
 
 lei I i Fairyland, the Arabian 
 
 Nights, and the Roman .dry. we have the 
 
 list, with his pictures of urine nun and 
 
 i i. In pain nave natui 
 
 i ;i. and animals r with BCrup- 
 
 aess. The sculptor and i 
 exercise the that 
 
 shall hand down to future pees the p. 
 ments of the men and women of ; atiou; 
 
 inly of natui ' i element ill 
 
 artistic education ; and the a I 
 the exfi ig purpose. 
 
 It is probablj 
 
 ii lore strict h raditiona of truf 
 
 reality, that has caused the singular inv 
 
 Inition of 
 definition of art. 
 
 But while fidelity, in the imitative class of arts, 
 is to be looki d upon, 
 
 a stuini I ■ barm, 
 
 herein we derive from 
 it a sort i iy be call 
 
 I drawn 1 ling towards one who 
 
 has attended to the same objects .13 ourseh 
 who has seized and put into vivid prominence what 
 
 443
 
 ART. 
 
 we have felt, without ever having expressed. The 
 coincidence of mind with mind is always productive 
 of the agreeable effect of mutual sympathy, and, in 
 some circumstances, there is an additional effect of 
 pleasing surprise. Thus, when an artist not ■ 
 
 produces in bis picture those features of th 
 
 one, but includes all the minuter 
 • ! that escape the notice of the generality, we 
 sympathise with his attention, we admire his powers 
 nation, and become, :. bis pupils, in 
 
 extending our study and knowledge of nature and 
 life. We feel a pungent surprise at discovering, for the 
 time, what has been long before our eyes; and 
 .so tin- minute school of artists labour at this species 
 iu" effects. Moreover, we are brought forward as 
 of the execution of a distinct purpose; we 
 have to see whether he that is bent on imitation does 
 his work well or ill ; and if our verdict is favourable. 
 our admiration is excited accordingly. There i-. too, 
 a certain exciting effect in the reproduction of some 
 appearance in a foreign material, as when a plain 
 surface is made to yield the impression of solid 
 effect, and canvas or stone imitates living Inn 
 Finally, the sentiment of reality and truth, as 
 opposed to fiction or falsehood, appealing to our 
 practical urgencies, disposes us to assign a value to 
 every work in which truth is strongly aimed at, and 
 to derive an additional satisfaction when fidelity of 
 rendering is induced upon the charms peculiar to A. 
 Thus imitation — which, properly speaking, is a mere 
 accident attaching to Sculpture, Painting, and l 
 and has no place in Music or Architecture — may 
 become the centre of a small group of agreeable or 
 acceptable effects. These effects are the more prized, 
 that we have been surfeited with the purely a 
 
 We turn refreshed from the iniddlc-age 
 romance to the graphic novel of our own time. 
 
 Besides being a source of pleasure, art is frequently 
 spoken of as having an elevating ami refining influ- 
 ence on the mind and character ; for wliich reason 
 it is considered a proper object of public encourage- 
 ment in it. munities. This circumstance 
 is owing to the higher nature of artistic pleasure as 
 above described, th-' taste for which helps to rescue 
 mankind from the exclusive dominion of sensual and 
 i enjoyments. At the same time, we must 
 admit that the devotion to art may be H 
 
 i i; n the effect of withdrawing n 
 much from the urgency of practical life, rendering 
 
 a prey to political despotism, as v. 
 indifferent to moral principle. Instances are not 
 wanting to justify this remark. 
 
 See Dugald Stewart's Philosophi . Part 
 
 II., and Bain on the Emotions and tit'- Will, p. -17. 
 
 ART, HrsTORY of. The history of the 
 and development, growth and decline of beautiful 
 artistic forms, constitutes a portion of tin- history 
 of civilisation. As regards each particular p 
 the history of their efforts to conceive and express 
 absolute perfection, or what is commonly called ideal 
 beauty, in form and colour, is, with the single 
 tion of the history of their speculative opinio; 
 most reliable test of the stage of progress which they 
 have attained. Nor is it as an indication of their 
 command over physical nature, of the abnndai 
 their externa] resources, or even of their intellectual 
 activity alone, that the history of the art of a people 
 is thus important. It determines their moral, and 
 even, in a certain sense, their religious position, for 
 the inseparable connection between the beautiful 
 and the good is in no way more clearly manifested 
 than in the fact, that the first inroads of demoralisa- 
 tion and social disorder are invariably indicated 1 ly 
 a diminution in the strength and purity of artistic 
 forms. It has been usual to include under the term 
 history of art merely the history of the arts of form, 
 
 411 
 
 in. lading architecture, but exedading, of coarse, 
 
 poetry and music, though these latter, again, are 
 illy included when we speak of the tine arts. 
 See isx. 
 
 The classical nations of antiquity were not insen- 
 sible to the importance of ti u development 
 of that rich artistical life which they had originat d, 
 and we accordingly find the germs at artistic history 
 in Pliny, Qnintilian, Pausamas, and others. In the 
 middle ages, ever] trace of ■ geni ral historical treat- 
 ment o ■ . though casual remai 1 
 incidental notices on the subject of artists and the 
 arts arc abundant, particularly in such works 
 
 .... .|. v.), who is 
 
 commonly known as -the Librarian,' in consequence 
 of his having filled that office at the Vatican in the 
 9th e. But a history of art, in the sense which we 
 have here assigned to the term, made its appi 
 
 in tin' world for the first tune on the revival of 
 
 in the 15th and 16th centuries; when thi 
 tic treasures of the heathen world, which had 
 
 mankind as novelties, fell to be con 
 with that peculiar t\ pe which art had assumed 
 Christian influences during the middle ages, on the 
 one hand (see BrzAjnam Ami, and on the other 
 with that rich harvest of bean invention which 
 ripened during the long lives of Leonardo da Vinci 
 (q. v.) and Michael Angelo (q. v.), in the period of 
 which Raphael's (q. v.) short career may be regarded 
 as the noon-day. Whilst Vasarj (q. v.) traced the 
 great epochs of Italian art. from a biographical point 
 of view only it is true, in his celebrated work ; the 
 students of classical literature collected such expres- 
 sions of opinion on artistic subjects as the wi 
 
 ancients contained, and Palladio, Ligorio, 
 i. and others measured ancient buildings and 
 instituent members. In this way a vast 
 of information on artistic subjects was bri 
 together. But though the materials which might 
 rved for a history of art were thus supplied, 
 it was a long time afterwards before anything like- 
 proper historical treatment arose; and the know- 
 led of ancient art which had been gained, was 
 applied t > their respective purposes by artists o 
 one hand and philologists on the other. As regarded 
 modern art, the biographieal method of Vasari was 
 
 d to, and to this circumstance we are indebted 
 for the innumerable artistic anecdotes which have 
 been preservi d. The remarkable variations in style 
 which exhibited thems een the loth and 
 
 tnries, gave rise to a species of historical treat- 
 ment which had for its object the discovery of the com- 
 mon features by which the artists of the respective 
 periods were distinguished. But the history of style, 
 strictly speaking, begins with Winckelmann (q. v.), 
 who was the tirst to divide ancient art into epochs, 
 
 . trace its connection with the general h 
 of human progress. It was from this period that the 
 history of art came to be regarded as a branch of the 
 history of civilisation. Even where the biographical 
 method continued to be followed, it was henceforth 
 with this difference that the division into schools 
 took the place of mere chronological arrangement. 
 The strongly classical tendency which exhibited 
 itself towards the end of last century, and the 
 romantic reaction and consequent admiration for 
 the middle age which succeeded, though both must 
 be reg irded as one-sided influences, had an imques- 
 effect in calling attention to what was 
 really great in the artistic productions of these 
 
 lave periods ; and during the present century, 
 the history of art has gradually assumed a more im- 
 portant place as a department of general hist< iry. It 
 was only in very recent times, however, that a com- 
 plete artistic history appeared in Kugler's Handbook 
 of Vie HUlory of Art, which has been partially
 
 ART EXHIBITIONS— ART UNIONS. 
 
 translated into English, and edited by SirCharles East- 
 il work, which isvery excellent, tie 
 
 immense mass of material which the subject offered 
 has been arranged in periods, and treated in such a 
 manner as to present a sketch which is complete in 
 itsi.ll, whilst at the Same time its connection with 
 and dependence on general history, social, political, 
 and philosophical, are carefully indicated throughout. 
 Alongside of Kugler's history, that of Schnaase falls 
 to be mentioned — a work less directed towards 
 18 of narration than to a philosophical 
 and historical account of the origin of the \ 
 styles, and tl Hon with each other. Kin- 
 
 keTshi m art has unhappily ren 
 
 incomplete. Waagen'a works on art and artists in 
 ad, France, and the other countries by which 
 Germany is surrounded, are the best artistic hand- 
 ■ller. Those which have reference 
 .land have been translated. There are many 
 other historical works of importance on special 
 departments and separate schools of art, monographs 
 and the like, but, with the exception of Starling's 
 
 ■of tit- ArtitU of Spain, and I- 
 his Works, very few belong to our own literature. 
 
 Alt? EXHIBITIONS. Public displays of the 
 works of living artists, with the view of affording 
 gratification and instruction to the community on 
 the one hand, and on the other, of procuring pur- 
 chasers for the works exhibited, have taken place 
 in most of the principal towns of Europe, for more 
 than a century and a half. Though now for the 
 most part connected with Art Unions (q. v.), A. E. 
 are thus in reality much older institutions. Still, as 
 the offspring of a necessity which did not exist in 
 earlier times, they are essentially modern. So long 
 as artists were chiefly patronised either by the 
 church, by their respective governments, or by indi- 
 viduals of sovereign rank, their works were placed 
 either in churches, in public buildings, or in palaces, 
 and were thus continually exhibited to the public; 
 but when private patronage came to be their chief 
 support, and their works, if sold at all, were certain 
 to i buried in private houses, the necessity for 
 making arrangements by wliich they could be dis- 
 to the public either before they were disposed 
 of, or afterwards with the consent of their owners, 
 became apparent. We have mentioned under Art 
 Unions that, till aided by these latter institutions, 
 A. E. for the most part did not succeed in effecting 
 the objects which their promoters had in view. The 
 it collective art exhibition was probably that 
 of the members of the Academy of the Fine Arts 
 at Rome; anything of the kind which had pre- 
 being confined to the works of 
 a lenticular artist and his pupils, enriched per- 
 haps by a few contributions from his fri 
 
 thing of this earlier character probably 
 attached to these Roman exhibitions ; and the first 
 art exhibition, in the sense in which we now under- 
 stand it, seems to have been that of the French 
 my in 1673. From 1745, down to the period 
 of the Revolution, this exhibition, which from its 
 commencement had been confined to the woj 
 lie mbers of the took place biennially. 
 
 During the Revolution it was thrown open to foreign 
 artists, and in 1796 it was again made annual. An 
 exhibition was attempted in England in lTiin, but 
 it was not till lTii'.i that the regular exhibitions 
 of the Royal Academy commenced. They have 
 since gone on, not only without interruption, but 
 with a .. The number of works 
 
 exhibited in 17tl0 was only 130, the mini 
 exhibitors being 69; in that of 1S.V.I there were 
 works exhibited bj '.'Is artists. The annual revenue 
 which the Academy derives from the fee of one 
 shilling paid by each visitor has also been steadily 
 
 increasin,- : in 1855 it amounted to about £8000. 
 The exhibition of the Scottish Academy, which is 
 the second in importance in this country, has 
 since 1826, To turn, 178 
 works v. " ntributors ; the exhibition of 
 1859 consisted of 745 works, which were contributed 
 by291 artists. The annual revenue of the Scottish Aca- 
 demy derived from this source ex< Is i Jihmi. The 
 
 only other exhibition of the same class in the United 
 Kingdom is that of Dublin, which is support ed by 
 an annual grant from government — the exhibitions 
 of London ami Edinburgh being merely furnished 
 with rooms . overnment expense. Several 
 
 private societ ! i on, however, have exhibitions 
 
 KCt similar objects, and conducted on similar princi- 
 ples. Of! the British Institution, 
 the Society of British Arti-ts. the National Institu- 
 tion, the Society of Painters in Water-colours, and its 
 rival, the New Society of Painters in Water-colours. 
 There are also exhibitions in several of tli 
 vincial towns, such as Manchi ■•• r, Liverpool^ Glas- 
 gow, ike. On the continent, wherever an academy 
 of art exists, there is now an exhibition, which takes 
 place for the most part annually, but sometimes 
 biennially. In New York there is a permanent 
 exhibition of the works of DUsseldorf artists; and 
 from thence they are frequently carried for exhibi- 
 tion to the provincial towns of the Union. 
 
 The London Exhibition of 1851, commonly known 
 as the Oreai not only on a larger 
 
 scale, but introduced new features into these displays. 
 Though confined to industrial objects and works of 
 art. it gave an impulse to A. E. strictly so 
 called, which shewed itself almost simultaneously 
 in the great international artistic exhibition of 
 Brussels ; and even those exhibitions which have 
 been formed more closely on its model — those of 
 Dublin in 1853, and of New York in the same year 
 — have not excluded the tine arts in any of their 
 forms. See Exhibitions. 
 
 ART UNIONS. Tliese institutions, which have 
 for their object the promotion of a livelier interest 
 in, and more liberal patronage of, the fine arts on 
 the part of the general public, have gone far in 
 modi in times to supply the place of that encourage- 
 ment which, at an earlier period, they received from 
 princes and prelal 
 
 The origin of A. U, though claimed by the 
 Germans, seems really to belong to the French, 
 and to be traceable to the stirring days of the 
 first Napoleon. From France they passed over 
 into Belgium, where they at once took root, and 
 established themselves even in the less important 
 they were introduced into 
 ay. The Art Union of Malini a dates from 
 1812, which is eleven years anterior to that of 
 Munich. But it was in Germany that the importance 
 results which A. U. were capable of produ- 
 cing first became apparent, and it was from Germany 
 that they were earned i: 1. The Art Union 
 
 [KtmeCverein) oi Munich was established in 1823, and 
 became the model of most of those which afterwards 
 arose. The example of Munich was speedily followed 
 (at the suggestion, we believe, of no less distinguished 
 a personage than Alexander von Humboldt) by 
 Berlin, and shortly thereafter by Dresden, I 
 Breslau, Hallierstadt, *Vc. ; and m less than ten 
 tie re were few of the largi r towns of Germany in 
 which A. U. were not to be found. But the most 
 important of all the A. U. of Germany is that which 
 was established at DUsseldorf in 1829, for the Rhine 
 provinces and Westphalia, The DUsseldorf Asso- 
 ciation has aimed at higher objects than A. U. have 
 usually had in view, either in Germany or in England, 
 and has been instrumental in promoting the I 
 tiou of monumental works of art of the highest
 
 ART UNIONS. 
 
 I n the space of twenty yean Emm its insti- 
 (1849), it had expended on works of art what 
 in i lermany was i rued am of 
 
 ■ I Ier8,equivali i 
 
 ami had been the means of placing 24 altar-pi 
 
 veil paintings on a large scale in public 
 buildings, of which the frescoes in the council 
 chambera at Elberfeld and at Aiz-la-Chapelle may 
 at examples. The Associate 
 lilorf also publishes an art 
 
 M). Other associations nave imi- 
 
 i.t without success, the Association of Due- 
 
 seldorf in directing their attention to the promotion 
 
 of great works. The Bohemian Association at 
 
 i has been peculiarly meritorious in tins 
 
 ; and those of Berlin and of 
 
 commendation for the zeal with which 
 the first promoted the erection of Kiss's magnifi- 
 cent group of the Amazon on the Bteps of the 
 \ln enm at Berl n, and the second urged on the 
 completion of what already, in its nail I 
 
 condition, is the greatest architectural monument of 
 the cathi dral of I 'ologne. The 
 linn iit of permanent galleries of art in the 
 cities to which they respectively beloi 
 I I in Germany as one of the higher 
 A. U. ; and in this they have been recently followed 
 in this country, as, for example, in Edinburgh. In 
 Munich there is already a very noble collection of 
 modern works of art, which have been brought 
 together in this manner; and another of the same 
 description is in course of formation in Berlin. 
 
 lies also exist in Dresden. I 
 Breslau, .Stettin, &c. Groups of associations have 
 also been funned in Germany for the promotion and 
 encouragement of extensive works. The v. 
 group, or cycle, as it is called, includes Hanover, 
 lebur ■. Halle, ( lutlia, Brunswick, 
 and Cassel; the eastern, Danzig, Konigsburg, Stettin, 
 &c. This arrangement, by which the influence of 
 these associations on the highest class of art urn : 
 be vastly augmented, seems worthy of imitation in 
 this country. 
 
 Scotland, as is not unusual where the suggestion 
 comes from a continental somve. pive. ileii Engl 
 in the establishment of A. U. ; the first that was 
 formed in Britain being that of Edinburgh in L834. 
 The cause of its introduction was not so much the 
 hope of bettering the condition, as the necessity ef 
 I l ing the utter extinction of everything beyond 
 
 tive art. Portrait-painting continued to 
 furnish the means of living to those who practised 
 it with success; and those who represented familiar 
 occupations or popular customs, i 
 limited iment; but it was found that pre- 
 
 cisely as the artist rose in the scale of artistic endea- 
 vour, and tended in the direction of ideal art. the 
 sympathy and interest of his countrymen, and 
 sequently his own remuneration, declined. The 
 I Academy "f London, and the academies which 
 
 had been formed after tl del in Edinbur b 
 
 and in Dublin, notwithstanding the annual exhibi- 
 tions which they had institute 1. had entirely failed 
 to remove this cvd. Private purchasers Wi 
 to be found; and in Edinburgh it was calcn 
 
 i ver more than £300, and sometimes as Uttle 
 IS, were expended in the purchase of pictures 
 exhibited by the Academy, and even th 
 cant sums were usually paid for pictures of the very 
 cla Ekewhere, matters were even worse. 
 Mr Cash, a wit n ias examined before the select com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons on A. V. in 1845, 
 stated that previous to the establishment of the art 
 union in Dublin, 'in four years, during the exhibition 
 of the works of the Royal Hibernian Academy, 30*. 
 only were expended on the patronage of art.' 
 
 •Thirl} tell i i annually ?' asked the chai 
 'No, 1 replied the witness ; 'thirty shillu, 
 entire si I ■.' Tin- . o 
 
 el ili. Seotti nun was immediate; and to 
 
 its founders the public are is no small d 
 indebted for the I 9 which art has 
 
 in this country during the last twenty years. 'A 
 Qnua] fund,' says the .secretary, in bis state- 
 
 ibove ineni 
 i to the purchase of paintings and sculpture, 
 and to the disseminatio l i edily 
 
 I, which in tin- course of nine years amounted 
 
 1 i than £36 900. During the same p 
 
 771 paintings, 40 pieces of sculpt inc. and about 3 
 
 from engraved pi a distributed 
 
 Of 1 'I inn.' .Sillee | li : 
 
 muni funds of the Edinbur a A ... 
 
 Mi . e inued steadily to increase; and itspromoti i < 
 
 as the results of their disinten I i labours, have had 
 in atisfaction to see a school of art spring up around 
 them which is probably second to those of M 
 and DUsseldorf alone. Our limits preclude ns from 
 entering into I y of tl : hi r lies in 
 
 n which have been fo i the model 
 
 of the parent institution of Edinburgh ; but some 
 conception of the success which has attended them 
 tiered from the fact, that in l$5fl it was 
 calculated that they had expended not less than the 
 enormous sum of a million sterling on the 
 incut, of art. In addition to this direct expenditure, 
 what is a very remarkable, and was to most i 
 probably an unexpected result, was, that the patron- 
 private individuals, in place of diminishing, 
 
 greatly increased, both in Edinburgh and I Ion, 
 
 the ] in. Before concluding 
 
 etch ot the rise of these very remarkable insti- 
 , it is proper to mention the art union of New- 
 York, i I in 1838, which now support 
 galleries with works of art in that city, and the 
 members of which have had the wisdom to establish 
 an intimate relation and lively ol works 
 between their own institution and that of DUssel- 
 dorf. 
 
 As regards the constitution of A. tj., the follow- 
 ing arrangements may be stated to he common to 
 them all. Each member, in return Eor an annual 
 contribution (in Britain, usually a guinea), receives 
 
 i nt, which acts as his ticket 
 in the loth iv by which the vvorl i of art, pur- 
 with the sum thus contributed, are distri- 
 buted ' II;. , a fix I 
 proportion ol the contributions is retained and 
 
 devoted to the preparation of an ei ig, which is 
 
 1 to those who have drawn blanks in the 
 totti ry. The engraving is usually executed by a 
 local engraver, after a work of the local school 
 intended to be patronised. The association further 
 makes provi ion tor an exhibition, either permanent, 
 as at Munich, or annual, as in London and I'din- 
 
 i consisting mainly of the works of local 
 though most associations now admit those of 
 \ diversity of practice has existed as to 
 the mode of distributing the funds of the unions, 
 
 and much controversy has taken place l.etv n their 
 
 is. The tirst, common on the con- 
 tin, at, and adopted in Edinburgh, consists in putting 
 the wl collected for each year into the 
 
 hands of a committee of gentlemen, win i 
 for their supposed aesthetic acquirements and impar- 
 tiality, and requesting them to select the pictun 
 other works of art afterwards to be distributed to 1 be 
 subscribers by lot ; the second is the London plau of 
 distributing the money itself by lot, and then per- 
 mitting, or rather compelling, the prize-holders to 
 expend it on the pictures exhibited, the selection of 
 the pictures, however, being left to their own taste
 
 ARTA— ARTEMISIA. 
 
 and judgment. If the object of these institiii 
 to culti higher than that which 
 
 exists in the general community for the time being, 
 the advantages of the first over the Second of these 
 modes of distribution seem scarcely to admit of ques- 
 tion. The subject was eagerly canvs i Ih orethe 
 select committee to whose labours we b 
 referred, and their report was to the effect that the 
 constitution of the Ed ociation was pre- 
 
 ferable t" that of the London Union. The principle 
 ..I' Hi- A. U., under some modifications, but retaining 
 itribution of prizes by lot, has been extended 
 , '^ of art manufactures, but not 
 
 lull! .1., with the success which has attended it 
 when limited to the fine arts, strictly so called. See 
 
 EutLmmoNB. 
 
 A'RTA, the ancient Amfrraa'a, a town of Albania, 
 in hit. :;!!' 8' NT., and long. 20" 50' I ■:., seven miles 
 from the northern coast of the gulf to which it 
 gives name, and thirty-nine miles south from 
 Janina. It stands on the left bank of the river Arta, 
 tin! ancient AractMs, whence the modern name. It 
 is tie' see of a bishop, and is governed by a bey. It 
 I... ; i con ideral le trade, and some manufactures, 
 chiefly of cloths ami leather; thefloccata, or 'shaggy 
 . m ,' alluded to in Byron's earlier poems, is 
 , esteemed ; but the town has never recovered 
 in mi tlir disasters of 1828, when it was stormed by 
 the (link patriots under Marco Botzaris. Portions 
 of the old walls, which were of great strength, 
 and th,- foundations of the Acropolis, are the only 
 .if Hellenic times. Remains of the lower 
 ■ ist in a convent founded 845 a.d. by the 
 Empress Theodosia. 
 
 The ancient city of Ambracia, founded by a Corin- 
 thian colony about 63.5 B.C., was at one time a 
 flourishing independent state, with a considerable 
 1 1 1 1 limy. It was ruined in the struggle with the 
 Ainphiloehians. and subsequently became subject 
 til lulqi of Macedon. Pyrrhus made it the capital 
 of Epirus, after which it fell into the hands of the 
 . EH . ili .in i, and lastly of the Romans. 
 
 A'UTA, Gulf of, an arm of the Ionian Sea, 25 
 miles long and 10 wide, forming part of the 
 boundary In tween Turkey and Greece. Under its 
 ancient name of the Ambraciot Gulf (.S'/hh.i Arnbra- 
 cius), it separated Epirus and Acamania. At its 
 entrance on the south is the promontory of La 
 Punta, the ancient Actium (q. v.). 
 
 ARTABA'ZUS, the name of several distinguished 
 Persians in . of the Achsemenidae. When 
 Xerxes e Lva used against Greece, A. led the Par- 
 tisans and Ohorasmx At a later period be warned 
 Mardonius, but in vain, against engaging in battle 
 at Plata a ; ami on the first indications 01 dl 
 withdrew his own division, amounting to 40,01'" mi a, 
 from the field, and succeeded, though with great 
 
 difficulty, in forcing his waj through the wilds of 
 
 ily, Macedonia, tod Thrace to Byzantium, 
 
 where be oro d to ^suv Subsequently, he acted 
 
 rotiator between the Spartan Pausanias and 
 
 .Xerxes.- Another A. was general under the Persian 
 
 king, Artaxerxes Me , and revolted 
 
 \ii.a ■.. i es Ochus in 356B.O. For this offence he 
 appears to have been forgiven ; and subsequently 
 
 we find 1 accompanying King Darius after the 
 
 battle of Arbela. Alexander rewarded his fidelity 
 by appointing him satrap of Bactria, 
 
 AKTAN'I'lIi:. See Math o. 
 
 All TA.XI'.'RXES, the name of several P 
 
 A. I., Burnamed Longimanut, the second 
 son of Xerxes, escaped from the cons])iracy of 
 
 Artaban and others, and ascended the tin in 465 
 
 b.c. His long reign, extending to 425. was marked 
 by a decline of power. — A. II., surnamed Mnemon, 
 
 succeeded his fathi I 1 If., in 406 is. <: Alt. r 
 
 gaining the victory over hi« brother < 'yrus, he 
 
 involved in war with Sparta, which ■ 
 with the Antalcidean Treaty of Peace. He died in' 
 361. — A. III., surnamed Ochua, was the son and 
 
 .ii the true 
 style of oriental i 838 B.C, < me of 
 
 his most daring exploits took place in Egypt) 
 where he caused the divine bull Apia 1 
 slaughtered and cooked as ordii, . \. III. 
 
 was poif I in 338 by hi em h Bagoas. It is 
 
 said that his flesh was eaten by cats, and that hilts 
 Hilars were m kde of hi bon .. ...under 
 
 of the new Persian dynasty of the Rnwianidir (which 
 ml. il from A.D. 226 to 651) was nam 
 
 ARTEDI, Petf.i:, a celeb] was 
 
 born on the 22d of February 1705, at Aniunl, in the 
 province of inland, Sweden. I 
 
 first designed for the church, and en1 red the 
 mm i r: ity ni l ]. al ■'. intending to pursue thi 
 course of philosophy and theology ; but he soon 
 abandoned all thought of the ministry, and b 
 himself to medicine. In 1728, Linns as went to 
 Upsala, to study the same science, and a 
 intimacy sprung up between the young men. They 
 worked together, and to a certain extent, on the prin- 
 ciple of a division of labour. Physiology, chemistry, 
 and mineralogy they pursued in common; but 
 to t'u A. added ichthyology, and Linmeus orni- 
 thology and entomology. In 1734, A. saded for 
 England, and Linnsus went to Lapland, each having 
 made the other his heir and <t of all his 
 
 scientific documents. While in London, A. wrote 
 the preface to his Ichthyologia. Next year he 
 to Leyden in Holland, where 1 I us just 
 
 arrived from the north. Each shewed the other th. 
 results of his labours. A.'s useful career was 
 abruptly ended, on the 21st of September 1735, by 
 his falling into one of the canals mar Amsterdam. 
 
 A.'s only complete work is the PhUosophia IrhOnj- 
 ologica. The Synom/mologica is described as a work 
 of extraordinary labour, but somewhat coni 
 Linnaeus faithfully performed his duly as his 
 friend's executor. He arranged, corrected, and 
 completed his manuscripts, and published the whole, 
 together with a life of the author, in 17-'iS. V 
 ing toCuvicr, the great work of A. i amed, 
 
 which gave a truly scientific character to the study 
 Of fishes. The only error of any magnitude which 
 occurs in it is includim} th I 
 A. was also a distinguish I 
 
 i to indicate, as a specu I oharacterisi 
 presence or absence of involucre in the umbell 
 plants, wln.se species .are s.i difficult to disl 
 from each other, [nnni as I ; i 
 these, in memory of his friend, -I I 
 
 ARTEMI'SLA, queen of Caria (352 350 
 was the wife of Mausolus, and ted for 
 
 the magnificent mausoleum which she caused to 
 
 to her husband's mi 
 sot ii m. Another A., qui 
 accompanied Xerxes in his expedition ■ 
 i ire, ice, and 6 ' ttle oi 
 
 . ( i.sii b.o.) ; i-l nded bi t life, in ■ 
 
 of an mil'"' ami .it. bj Ii aping from a 
 
 rock. 
 
 ARTEMI'SIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Composite sub-order Corymib\ftra,ia which the 
 Jowei "' the i hermaphrodite, those of the 
 
 i one row, the braots forming a roundish 
 imbricated head, the receptacle naked or hairy, the 
 a.lii.iii.i ..'novate, and destitute of pappus. 
 
 heads of tlowers are numerous and small ; tlie leaves 
 
 generally much divided There are many S] 
 herbaceous plants and shrubs, natives chielly of the
 
 ARTEMISIA— ARTERY. 
 
 more temp - is of the eastern hemisphere. 
 
 They have generally an aromatic smell, i 01 li 
 
 a rreeable, and a warm, BOinetiniea rather acrid and 
 bitterish taste. -To this genu belon Vv'obmwood 
 [A. AbtintJiium), the Ap o theanci nt Greeks, 
 
 to whom its medicinal properties were well known. 
 It is .'i native of Britain, the continent of Europe, 
 and tli" northern parts of Asia, growing in 
 places, by waysides, iVc. It is a pen ninal. 'J 
 high; its leaves bipinnatifid and clothed with a 
 silky down, ami its small hemispherical drooping 
 heads <»i flowers are of a dingy yellow colour, and 
 are produced in axillary panicles. It is aromatic 
 ami bitter, containing a bitter principle and an 
 essential oil, both of great strength, upon account 
 of which it is used in medicine in various forms (oil, 
 extract, tincture, &c), as a stomachic and anthel- 
 mintic or vermifuge. It was formerly in much use 
 as a febrifuge. It is a plant very frequently to be 
 found in cottagers 1 gardens, occupying an important 
 place in their domestic pharmacopoeia. It is an 
 essential ingredient in a number of compound 
 medicines. Its roots, and those of .pecies 
 
 of this genus, have Keen recommended in < pill 
 
 Ska Wokmw > [A. iimriliinti, including a variety 
 
 which has been called A. Qattica), a native of salt- 
 marshes in Britain and other parts of Europe, 
 
 possesses similar , : , and is occasionally 
 
 used for the same purposes ; as also Roman Wm;«- 
 wool. [A. Pontica), & native of the middle and south 
 of Europe, but not of Britain Taetabiah Wokm- 
 wooi) (A. Sanlonica), a native of Tatary, Persia, and 
 
 other parts of the East; and Inhian WORMWOOD 
 [A. Iniica), a native of the Himalaya, abounding at 
 
 Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium). 
 
 elevations of 2000 — G000 feet. Indian wormwood 
 grows to tin- height of 12 feet. It is considered in 
 
 India a powerful deobstruent and antispae lie. 
 
 Tree Wormwood (.1. arborescent), a native of the 
 south of Europe and the Levant, is also larger and 
 more shrubby than the common wormwood, which, 
 in characters and qualities, it much resembles. — The 
 dried flower-buds of a number of species of A. are 
 sold under the names of WoSMBEKD and of Semen 
 Contra, Semen Cina?, Semcncine, &c, and have long 
 448 
 
 been in much repute as an anthelmintic. A. 
 Santowica, and A. Sieberi (or .1. Contra), a native of 
 
 I'alestine, are believed to yield much of the worm- 
 
 eed which is brought from the Levant, also 
 A. Judaica, a native of the East and of Barbary, 
 which is regarded as the principal source of the 
 Barbary wormseed. The Bower-buds of .1. glomer- 
 ata, A. Lerchicaui, and A. poMciJlora, natives of the 
 
 banks of the Vo]e a , ;l iv also said to form pari of the 
 wormseed of the shops ; and those of A. VMiana arc 
 collected in the northeast of Persia, and form the 
 Semen Cina Levanticum or Semen Cinct in grains. 
 The Bower-buds of .1. oteruleseens, a Mediterranean 
 
 plant, which is said to have been found on the sea- 
 coasi of England, form the anthelmintic called 
 Semen Si riphn or Barbotine. Those of .1. camphoraia, 
 another native of the south of Europe, are used in 
 the same way. Even those of A. Absinthium and 
 A. vulgaris are used under the name of worm ed. 
 The plants from which the bitter aromatic liquor 
 called tkctrait, Eau, or Crime d? absinthe is prepared, 
 arc small low'-growing species of A. (A. mutellina, 
 A. glacialis, A. rupestris, A. spicala, fee.), found on 
 the Alps, and known to the inhabitants of the Alps 
 by the name of Oenipi. 'This liqueur, generally 
 diluted with water, is sometimes used by persons so 
 
 devoted to the pleasures of the table that they 
 cannotwait for the natural return of appetite, and also 
 by those who really suffer IV weakness of diges- 
 tion. It is a useful and agreeable stomachic, and is 
 
 very popular in France.- Mugwort (A. vulgaris), a 
 
 common native of Britain and of the I tinent of 
 
 Europe, often found about ruins and in waste places, 
 
 grows to the height of 3—4 feet, with pinnatitid 
 leaves and somewhat racerucd small (lowers, which 
 have each five florets of the ray. It emits, when 
 rubbed, an agreeable smell, and has a bitter taste 
 In Germany, the young shoots and leaves are used 
 in cookery for seasoning. It is used also for the 
 same medicinal purposes as wormwood, but is 
 weaker. Its leaves, and those of some of the other 
 species, are used as fomentations for cleansing and 
 healing wounds. — SOUTHERNWOOD (A. Abrotanum) 
 is a shrubby plant with long straight stems, 3 — 4 
 feet high, the lower leaves bipinnate, upper leaves 
 
 pinnate, their si i ts hair-like. It is a native 
 
 of this south of Europe and middle parts of Asia, 
 and has long been a favourite plant in cottage- 
 gardens in Britain. It lias an aromatic and pleasant 
 odour. The leaves are used to drive away moths 
 from linen; and in some parts of the continent 
 of Europe, as an ingredient in the manufacture of 
 beer. The smell of this plant appears to be pecu- 
 liarly disagreeable to bees, which retreat from it; 
 and a little branch of southernwood is sour 
 efficaciously used when they arc swarming, to pro- 
 mote their ascent into the new hive placed over 
 them. — Tarragon (A. Dracuncvlus) is a perennial 
 plant, a native of Siberia, which has also long been 
 cultivated in gardens in Britain. It has a branching 
 Stem 1 1 '. feet high, with narrow leaves. It is 
 fragrant, and has an aromatic smell and taste. The 
 leaves and tinder tips are a favourite ingredient 
 in pickles. An infusion of the plant in vinegar 
 is used as a fish-sauce. — The leaves of A. Maaer- 
 anjiatana are regarded in India as a valuable sto- 
 machic, and are also used in anodyne fomentations. 
 — Moxa (q. v.) is prepared by the Chinese from the 
 leavi s of A. Moxa and other species, the whole 
 surface of wdiose leaves is covered with a thick down. 
 — A. acetica, a Persian species is said to have a strong 
 odour of vinegar. 
 
 A'RTERY (Lat. aer and terO), named from the old 
 idea that these tubes were air-carriers. Arteries are 
 the vessels through which the blood passes from the 
 left side of the heart to the tissues. The structure
 
 ai:ti:i;y— ARTESIAN WELLS. 
 
 of an arterial tube is very complex, and a section of 
 it may 1"- roii'_dily subdivided into three layers, called 
 the coats of the artery : an external, which is 
 
 ■ 
 
 V 
 
 Subdivisions of Arterial Wall 
 
 ""'• dj } interna!. 
 0. Fibrous, 
 
 V. Fenestrated, 
 
 6. Areola 
 
 ':} 
 
 3. Muscular, ) „;..,. 
 •i. Elaatio, ) m,ddle - 
 
 external. 
 
 and distensible; a middle, which is muscular, con- 
 tractile, and brittle ; an internal, also brittle, smooth, 
 and transparent, being lined with epithelium on the 
 gidewa bed by the blood. The tube is also en v 
 in cellular tissue, termed the sheath of the A. When 
 an A. is wounded by a sharp instrument, the effect 
 varies with the direction of the cut. Thus, if 
 idin.il, the edges may not separate, and the 
 wound may heal without much bleeding; if oblique 
 or transverse, the edges gape, and a nearly circular 
 orifice allows of a profuse hemorrhage. If the A. bo 
 completely divided, its walls do not collapse like 
 those of a win, but puss through certain changes 
 provided by nature to prevent fatal bleeding. 'I he 
 cut orifice contracts, and also retracts into its cellular 
 sheath; this checks the Bow of blood, a clot 
 of which shortly forms on the outer .side; then 
 
 another forma inside the vessel ; and together, they 
 
 the Bow, till the cut edges of the A. have 
 
 ( to throw out lymph (see \mh ion), and heal 
 
 as wounds of ot; When an A. is com- 
 
 pressed by a ligature, the brittle inner and middle 
 coats crack, curl inwards, and heal. See Hi.m D1NQ, 
 The arteries of the human body are all offsets, 
 more or less direct, of the aorta. As each main trunk 
 i : into a portion of the body, it divides into 
 
 two principal divisions: one, which breaks up into 
 branches for the supply of the tissues in the vicinity 
 —the A. of supply ; and another, which passes 
 almost hrani I i supply the parts beyond — the 
 
 A. of transmission. These, however, anastomose 
 (q. v.) freely, so that the distant tissues are not 
 solely dependent for their supply on only one 
 
 arterial trunk. Thus, the femoral A. divides in the 
 
 groin into the profunda, or ■ I, to supply 
 
 thigh, and the ' femoral, to supply the 
 
 leg below the ha n, the common carotid 
 
 divides into external carotid, to supply the neck and 
 1 and the in'' run! carotid, to supply the brain. 
 Although arteries have generally the same distri- 
 bution or arrangement of branches! they occasionally 
 vary, and thereby are apt to puzzle a I 
 
 anatomist. Mr Thomas Sunn of I. on. Ion. an excel- 
 lent human anatomist, lias lately shewn that these 
 
 .'i alies in arterial distribution are all governed 
 
 by the law of arterial distribution just mention d, a 
 
 fact which not only simplifies the study of ai 
 anatomy, but assists the operative surgeon out of 
 
 p. i pie one p.' .i • Che princi] will be 
 
 considered under their distinctive names. The best 
 29 
 
 authority on arteries is the splendid work of E. 
 Quain. 
 
 ABTE'SIAN WELLS are perpendicular borings 
 into the ground, through which water rises, from 
 various depths, according to circumstances, above 
 of the soil. hty of obtaining 
 
 water in this way in a particular district depends on 
 its geological structure. All rocks contain mi 
 less water. ins rocks receive water mecha- 
 
 nically, and according to their compactness and 
 purity, part with a larger or smaller proportion of it. 
 A cubic yard of pure sea-sand can contain, in addi- 
 tion to the quantity of dry sand wl s that 
 
 about one-third of its bulk of water. It. 
 part with nearly the whole of this into a well sunk in 
 it, and regularly pumped from. Chalk and 
 rocl . composed of fine particles, closely compacted 
 r. contain as large a proportion of water ; but 
 from the power of capillary attract i none 
 
 of this water would be drained into a well sunk 
 in such rock. From the existence, however, of 
 numerous crevices in chalk through which the water 
 freely ilows, and from the general presence of a 
 larger quantity of water than the porous rock is 
 able to retain, wells sunk in chalk often yi Id water. 
 There is yet a third clas3 of rocks, which are 
 perfectly impervious to water: such are clays, 
 which arc absolutely retentive, neither allowing 
 water to be obtained from them nor to pass through 
 them. When such rocks occur in Basins (q. v.) 
 1 in such order that pervious 
 impervious ones, it is 
 evident that if a perforation is made through the 
 retentive barrier-bed in the lower portion of the 
 basin, the water contained in the v. 
 strata will rise through the bore to a height rj 
 ing upon the pressure of water which has ae 
 latcd in the confined sloping space betwi ■ 
 impervious beds. The explanation will be more 
 evident by a reference to the accompanying 
 which may be con a diagrammatic : 
 
 of the London basin. There is here a number of 
 porous beds, b, b, composing the cretaceous mea 
 resting on the impervious gault, aa, and 
 
 Section of the London Basin. 
 
 again, arc covered by tb i i qually impervious series 
 of the London clay, ee, which form the strata on 
 the surface, and extend to i hie depth. 
 
 Che ed of the chall 
 
 in the higher grounds around London ; the water 
 falling - bole area of these exposed i 
 
 sinks into the moi 
 
 and would, in course of time, by continued accessions, 
 till up the basin, were it not prevented by the 
 clay above. J'.y driving a lore. </, through this 
 inferior water-Io ta aro 
 
 ■ I, and the subterranean water ris^s to the 
 , and llov, s continuously, by means of hydro- 
 static pressure. 
 Many such well ' ondon and its vicinity; 
 
 i form the ornamental fountains in 
 Trafalgar Square descend into the upper chalk 
 to a dentil ot 393 feet The most famous art 
 well perhaps is that of Crenelle, in the outskirts of 
 Paris, where the water is brought from the gault
 
 ARTEVELDE— ARTHUR. 
 
 at .1 depth of 170S feet. It yields 51Ci gallons 
 of water in a minute, which is > such 
 
 a force as to be propelled 88 the surface. 
 
 The pressure required to ell'ect this ha 
 calculated to exceed 50 atmo me bottom 
 
 of the bore. The water has a constant temperature 
 ol M 7 F. 
 
 It is believed that the Chinese have been long 
 
 it. .1 with artesian wells. They have been in 
 r centuries in Austria, especially in the ■ 
 bourhood of Vienna, where they are very abundant. 
 No knowledge existed as to their source, and conse- 
 
 v the boring'for them m en ed in and 
 conducted in a rude and empirical manner. An 
 
 ■nun was made till a bed of clay was reached ; 
 on this a perforated mill-stone was laid, and through 
 the hole the clay was bored until water rose. As 
 soon as geology took the position of a science, 
 and the theory of A. W, was propounded, the 
 engineer was able, after the geological survey of 
 a district, to discover whether a supply of water 
 could there be obtained in this way. A] 
 districts formerly dry and arid have received a 
 plentifid supply of water by means of such wells, 
 and many more applications have yet to be made : it 
 seems likely that erelong Africa's deserts may thus 
 be converted into fertile plains, In an official 
 report of the Algerian government for 1S56— 1857. 
 it is stated that artesian borings have been executed 
 in the Sahara of the province of Constantino with 
 remarkable success. The first attempt, after a 
 few weeks' labour, produced a constant si 
 forming a perfect river, and yielding 4010 quarts 
 of water per minute, at a temperature of 78° F. 
 Several other wells have been sunk with equal 
 success. The result is likely to be beneficial 
 not only to the country materially, but also to 
 the character and habits of its nomadic Arab 
 inhabitants. Several tribes have already settled 
 down around these wells, and forming thus the 
 centres of settlements, have constructed villages, 
 planted date-palms, and entirely renounced their 
 previous wandering existence. 
 
 A. \Y. have supplied a portion of the data upon 
 ■which the internal temperature of the earth lias 
 been calculated. They have their origin below that 
 zone which is affected by the changing sup' 
 
 rature of the seasons, aud consequently the 
 water is of a constant temperature. Thus the 
 Grenelle artesian well has a temp; rature of 81° 7 F., 
 while the mean temperature of the air in the 
 cellar of the Paris Observatory is only 53°. MM. 
 Arago and Walferdin observed the temperature as 
 the Work proceeded, and found that there was a 
 gradual and regular increase downwards. The latter 
 gentleman has recently made a series of very accurate 
 and careful observations on the temperature of 
 two borings at Creuzot, within a mile of each other, 
 commencing at a height of 1030 feet above the 
 Bea, and going down to a depth, the one of 2678 
 feet, the other about 1900 feet. The results, after 
 every possible caution had been taken to insure 
 correctness, gave a rise of 1° F. for every 65 f« t 
 down to a depth of 1800 feet, beyond which the 
 rise was more rapid, being 1° for every 44 feet of 
 descent. 
 
 ARTEVELDE, Jacob, a brewer of Ghent, cele- 
 brated as a popular leader in the 14th c. In the 
 war between England and France, he gave his aid 
 to the former, while the counts of Flanders sup- 
 ported the latter. A., after gaining great advantages 
 over the party of the nobles, went too far when ne 
 proposed that the son of Edward III. of England 
 should be elected Count of Flanders. For this the 
 Flemings were not prepared, and, in consequence, 
 A. was" killed in a popular insurrection, August 10, 
 ISO 
 
 II' son Philip, in 1881, was leader of tho 
 I of Ghent in their civil war against Bl 
 
 and gained a victory over Count Louis. The 
 
 Eterwards assisted by Charles VI. of France, 
 and l'hdip A. was defeated and slain in the battle of 
 Rosbeke, 13S2. The history of A. has bei D 
 times treated dramatically. In England, Henry 
 
 Taylor, a living writer of eminence, has produi 
 beautiful ' closet-play,' entitled Philip Van Art 
 A/BTHTJB, Kino of the tribe of ancient I 
 
 Silures, lived in the beginning of the 6th e. He 
 i round him the remains of the British tribes, 
 now driven into the west of England, and bravi ly 
 defended the liberty and faith of his people a 
 the encroaching and conquering pagan A nglo-c! 
 under Cerdic. Lancashire and the north-west seems 
 to have been the scene of the first part of his cs 
 afterwards it lay in the south, where he fought the 
 battles of Llongborth, supposed to be Portsmouth, 
 and Badon, identified by some with Bath. In a 
 battle with his own nephew, Modrcd, who bad 
 revolted, fought on the Camlan, in Cornwall, in 642, 
 A. was mortally wounded, and being conveyed to 
 Glastonbury, died, and was buried there (in insula 
 Avalonia). Tradition preserved the memory of tho 
 place of bis interment; and Giraldus Cambrensia 
 relates that he was present when the tomb was 
 opened by command of Henry II., and the bones 
 and sword of the monarch found. Thus much may, 
 perhaps, be received as history. 
 
 But this last struggle of the Celtic peoples before 
 they were nationally extinguished, became the 
 groundwork of a multitude of heroic legends, which 
 spread from Wales and Bretagno (Armories 
 the whole Romanic and Teutonic worlds, and for 
 centuries furnished favourite themes for the poets of 
 the middle ages. In the lays of the Welsh bards, 
 supposed to he as early as the Gth and 7th cen- 
 times (although no manuscript is extant of older 
 date than the 12th a), the national hero A. and his 
 brave companions arc celebrated. It is in tho 
 chronicles of the 9th c. (Nennius) that the li 
 ary additions begin to develop themselves, and the 
 magician Merlin comes into association with A. 
 According to the romances, A.'s father, Uther, con- 
 ceiving a passion for Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke 
 of Cornwall, was changed by Merlin into the like- 
 ness of Gorlois, and A. was the result. After his 
 father's death, A. became paramount leader of tho 
 British, vanquished the Saxons in a number of 
 battles, and made victorious expeditions to Scotland, 
 Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and even to 1 
 where he defeated a great Roman army. During his 
 absence, his nephew, Modred, revolted, and seduced 
 Ginevra or Guinevere, Prince A.'s wife. A. return- 
 ing, fell in a battle with his nephew ; but ace' 
 to popular belief, he is not dead; his sold went into 
 a raven, and he will yet reappear. His habitual 
 residence was at Caerleon, on the Usk, in Wales, 
 where, with his beautiful wife Guinevere, he lived in 
 Splendid state, surrounded by hundreds of knights 
 and beautiful ladies, who served as patterns of 
 valour, breeding, and grace to all the world. Twelve 
 knights, the bravest of the throng, formed the centre 
 of this retinue, and sat with the king at a round 
 table — the ' Knights of the Bound Table.' From the 
 court of King A. there also went knights to all 
 countries in search of adventures — to protect women, 
 chastise oppressors, liberate the enchanted, enchain 
 giants and malicious dwarfs, was their knightly 
 mission. The description of these adventures, the 
 scene of many of which is laid in what is still called 
 the Brazilian forest in Bretagne, forms the subject 
 of the innumerable romances about A. and his 
 knights that abounded in all the languages of the 
 A Welsh collection of stories called the
 
 ARTHUR'S SEAT— ARTICLE. 
 
 Afabinogion, supposed to !>o of the 14th c, ami 
 lately translated into Engl b by Lady Charlotte 
 Guest, gives an idea of the Arthurian legends 
 that circulated in the native land of tile 
 In France, whither the subject first found its 
 way, the 'knights of the round table' became the 
 ideal of that splendid and courtly chivalry, which 
 there reached its acme in the 12th c. Early in 
 that century, the chivalric romancee of France 
 became known in Germany, and there the rather 
 lifeless and wearisome matter of the Arthurian 
 legends assumed a more animated and artistic form 
 in the Pnr-iral <,f Wolfram of Eschcnbach, '/ 
 
 I tolt of Gottfried of Strasburg, Bret and Iva in 
 of llartmann, and Wigcdois of Wirnt. The most 
 renowned of the heroes of the Arthurian school are 
 Peredui (I'arzival or Perceval), Tristan or Ti 
 Iwein, Erec, Oawcin, Wigalois, Wigamur, Cauriel, 
 and Lancelot. From France, the Arthurian romances 
 spread also to Spain, Provence, Italy, and the Nether- 
 lands, and were also retransplantcd into England. 
 It was only towards the end of the middle ages that 
 these legends made their way through Germany to the 
 
 Norse and Slavonic ] pies. As early as the midiUe 
 
 of the 12th c., Geoffrey of Monmouth (q.v.) — pro- 
 fessing to translate from a history of Britain written 
 in the British tongue, and found in Armorica or 
 Brittany, but more probably himself weaving into a 
 kind of connected history the popular tales current 
 in Wales, of which he was a native, and in Armo- 
 rica — had written the story of King Arthur in Lntin 
 prose, but without many of the embellishments it 
 subsequently received from the Romancers. One of 
 the publications that issued from the press of Caxton 
 (14S5), was a collection of stories by Sir Thomas 
 Malory, either compiled by him in English, from 
 various of the later French romances (such as The 
 Prophecies of Merlin ; The Quest of the St Graal; 
 The llomance of Sir Lancelot of the Lake; The 
 i if , Sir Tristram, &c). or translated directly 
 from an already existing French compendium. A 
 reprint of Caxton's Kynge Arthur, with an intro- 
 duction and Notes, by Robert Southey, was issued 
 in 1S17 {The Ilyrth, Life, and Actes of Kyng 
 Arthur; of his Noble KnyglUes of Vie Sound Table, 
 &c, 2 vols. 4to). The name of King A. was given 
 during the middle ages to many places and monu- 
 ments supposed to have been in some way associated 
 with his exploits, such as ' Arthur's Seat' near 
 Edinburgh, 'Arthur's Oven' on the Carron near 
 Falkirk, &e. What was called the sepidchre of his 
 queen was shewn at Meigle, in Strathniore, in the 
 16th c. The interest of the legends about Kin,' A. 
 and his knights has recently been revived by the 
 publication of Tennyson's Idylls of t/ie King (1869). 
 See Turner's History of the A nglo-Saxons, Appendix ; 
 Warton's History of English Poetry; RitBon s King 
 Arthur; Do la Villemarque, Conies Populaires dee 
 i Bretons (2 vols., Paris, 1842) ; Grasse, Die 
 Orosse Sagenkreise des Afittetalters (Leip. 1842). 
 
 ARTHUR'S SEAT, a hill in the immediate 
 vicinity of Edinburgh, which rises to the height of 
 t above the level of the sea. The ascent is 
 easy, and the prospect from the top unrivalled 
 
 A. S. is supposed to derive its name [ram the 
 British king of that name. When the hill r. 
 this appellation is not known; but as early as the 
 close of the 15th c, Kennedy, the Scotch poet, 
 mentions ' Arthur Sate or ony hicher hill.' 
 
 The hill is formed of a mass of trap of various 
 species, upheaved through the oarboniferous strata 
 
 01 Central Scotland, and presenting on the Wl i- 
 and south sides, at the height of 570 feet, a perpen- 
 dicular range of precipices, called Salisbury Cl 
 60 to 80 feet high. The trap is in tabular masses, 
 and has elevated and hardened the carboniferous 
 
 sandstone, shale, and limestone beds, which dip east, 
 and crop out on the das being broken 
 
 through and overflowed by the trap-rocks. In the 
 centre of the hill, the trap often encloses fragments 
 of sandstone, and divides it by veins. The central 
 and upper part of the hill, and the remarkable 
 columns called 'Samson's Bibs,' consist of basalt 
 To determine the density of tie- earth, a series of 
 observations was made in 1855 by Lieutenant-colonel 
 James of the Ordnance Survey, on the attraction of 
 A. S., or the amount of deviation from the vertical 
 caused by its mass on the plumb-line. Calculation 
 made the mean density of the whole earth 
 (water being 1), or about twice the mean specific 
 gravity of the rocks forming the hill, which experi- 
 ment gave as 2710. 
 
 ARTICHOKE [C'ynara Scolymus), a thistle-like 
 perennial plant, now growing wild in the south of 
 Europe, but probably a native of Asia. The genus 
 Gynara belongs to the natural order Composite, sub- 
 order Cynarocephala; and is distinguished by the 
 bracts of the involucre being fleshy at the base-, and 
 emarginate, with a hard point, and the receptacle 
 fringed. C. Scolymus has the radical leaves 3 — i feet 
 
 ■ 
 
 Artichoke. 
 (Head of flowers.) 
 
 long, somewhat spiny, some of them pinnatifid, some 
 undivided The stem is two or three feet high, 
 branched, with large heads of violet-coloured | 
 times white) thistle-like flowers at tie summits 
 of the branches. The involucre is tumid, and 
 consists of fleshy, roundish-ovate, crenate, acu- 
 minate, imbricated scales. The seeds are ilongatcd 
 and quadrangular, with smooth and firmly attached 
 pappus. The plant has been Ion- eultiv.it. d for the 
 sake of the delicate succulent receptacles of the heads 
 of flowers, taken before the flowers expand, which 
 are boiled and eaten, or, on the continent of Europe, 
 eaten raw with suit and pepper. The part used is 
 Inch is called the cheese in thistles by 
 children, and is sometimes e:. ten by them. The tender 
 central leaf-Stalk is also occasionally Used in the 
 same way as that of the Cardoon. Several vai 
 are in cultivation, differing in the more 01 
 spiny leaves, and the more or less globose form of 
 the head. Artichokes are generally propagated by 
 rooted slips or suckers in spring. 'I hese are ] 
 
 is rows about four feet asunder, and two feet apart 
 
 in the row. Tie- A. bed continues productive for 
 
 several d is an excellent manure.— 
 
 v.) belongs to the same genus. — 
 
 The .li i:i -ah i A. (q.V.) is a totally different 
 plant. 
 
 ARTICLE (Lat. aiiiculus, a joint) signifies in 
 
 ill
 
 ARTICLE— ARTICLES OF WAR. 
 
 general a part of a systematic whole. Thus, we 
 apeak of the several articles of a confession; the 
 articles of war; a leading article, &c. 
 
 The use of A. as a grammatical term arose as 
 
 follows. In such a sentence as, • II. ■ found that (or 
 
 the) man that he was looking for,' the Greeks con- 
 
 ! die defining particles as connecting the two 
 
 parts of the sentence, and called them joil 
 
 ■. Lat. artiatli) ; the name was subsequently 
 confined to the first of the two, the other being called 
 the relative. 
 
 In English, there are two articles — thedefin 
 and the indefinite a or an; and other modern 
 languages have correspond in,' words. But articles 
 arc not essential to language. Hie Latin had no 
 articles, and the Greek, as well as the older < lermanic 
 M Gothic and Old Noise, e.g., 
 had only the definite A. ' In no language,' says 
 Dr Latham, ' in its oldest stage, is then 
 giving, in its primary sense, the idea of an or of the. 
 As tongues become modern, some word with a 
 >/• sense is used to express the relation. In 
 the course of time, a change of form takes place, 
 corresponding to the change of men 
 
 The definite articles originate uniformly in demon- 
 strative pronouns. Eng. lite is only a weakened funn 
 of tliat (Anglo-Sax. that). The same is the case with 
 md Fr. le, Ital. il and lo, and Sp. el, 
 are all from the Lat. tile, 'that.' In like manner, an 
 or a is from the old form of one (ane) ; Ger. ein is 
 M and a ; and so are Fr. ten, Ital. and Sp. uno, 
 both from Lat. unus = one. 
 
 In the Scandinavian tongues, the article is attached 
 to the end of the word; the Danish, for example, 
 I lie kinu' ; hus-et, the house. 
 
 A'KTICXES OF V7AB are regulations made for 
 the government of the military and naval forces of 
 the country. Tliey are of three classes — 1. Those 
 relating to the army, including therein the forces in 
 according to the provisions of the 21 and 
 22 Vict. c. 106 ; 2. Those relating to the marine 
 forces ; and 3. Those relating to the navy. 
 
 I. .1. of IT. for the Army. — These are 
 ! I OD8 or ordinances issued under the authority of 
 anual MrrnNY Aci (q. v.), and which Articles 
 that act provides shall be judicially taken notice of 
 by all judges and in all courts whatsoever ; and 
 copies of the same printed by the Queen's printer 
 shall, as soon as may be after the same shall have 
 beeniua'l" and established by Her Majesty, be trans- 
 mitted by Her Majesty's Secretary-at-war to the 
 : of Her Majesty's superior courts at West- 
 minster, Dublin, and Edinburgh respectively, and 
 also to the governors of Her Majesty's dominions 
 abroad ; provided that no person within the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or within 
 the British Isles, shall by such A. of W. be subject 
 to be kept in penal servitude, or to suffer any 
 punishment extending to life or limb, except for 
 crimes which the act expressly declares shall be 
 so punishable. And for the enforcement of such 
 A. of W., a power is given to the crown to erect, or 
 grant authority to convene, courts-martial with the 
 jurisdiction to try and punish offences according to 
 the Articles themselves and the provisions of the 
 Mutiny Act. In order, however, to limit as far as 
 possible the power conceded to the crown in this 
 matter, it is enacted that nothing therein contained 
 shall be construed to exempt any officer or soldier 
 from being proceeded against by the ordinary course 
 of law ; and that where he is accused of any offence 
 against a subject of the realm, punishable by the 
 known laws of the land, he shall be delivered over 
 to the civil magistrate. The military offences against 
 which these A. of W. are directed, relate to the 
 soldier's duties and obligations ; to crimes and 
 
 offences and their punishments ; to couits-martial ; 
 and to military rank. The military crimes and 
 offences referred to are those against divine worship, 
 mutiny, and insubordination, desertion and absence 
 without leave, offences in the field, camp, garrison, 
 or quarters j drunkenness, disgraceful conduct, false 
 p turns, billets and carriages, and miscellaneous 
 
 ■-. By the 3d of these Articles it is ordered 
 that every recruit shall, within ninety-six hours 
 after recruiting, have the 40th* and 46th of the 
 Articles read to him, and shall, within ninety-six 
 hours, but not sooner than twenty four hour-. 
 the following oath before some qualified authority : 
 '/ do make oatli. That J xcill be faithful and 
 true allegiance to her Majesty, / 
 
 will, as in duty bound, honestly and faith- 
 fully defend her Majesty, her heirs and successors, 
 in person, crown, and dignity, against all enemies, 
 ana "-ill observe and obey all orders of her Mi 
 her heirs and successors, and of the g< 
 officers set over me. So help me Ood.' Tin- 160th 
 article also deserves notice. It is to the effect, 
 that whenever any military forces shall have 
 embarked on board ships of war or transports, the 
 officers and soldiers of such forces shall, from the 
 time of embarkation on board ship, strictly conform 
 themselves to the laws and regulations established 
 for the government and discipline of the ship ; and 
 shall consider themselves, for these necessary pur- 
 poses, under the command of the senior officer of 
 th" particular ship, as well as under the superior 
 officer of the fleet (if any), to which such ship 
 belongs. See A. of W. for the Marine Forces. 
 
 2. . I . of W. for the Marine Forces are the regulations 
 made under the authority of another annual Mutiny 
 
 hich relates exclusively to the royal marine 
 forces ; but, unlike the A. of W. for the army, they 
 do not issue directly from the crown, but ar> 
 by the Lord High Admiral of the navy, or by the 
 commissioners for executing that office, and they are 
 
 ly authorised so : t sec- 
 
 tion of the last-mentioned Mutiny Act. With this 
 exception, they are in themselves very much the 
 same as the A. of \\ T . for the army. They relate 
 exclusively, hov< iver.to the marine forces while on 
 ialty is very anxiously expressed 
 in the preamble of the act, which proceeds on the 
 recital that ' the said forces may frequently be quar- 
 tered, or be on shore, or sent to do duty, or be on 
 board transport-ships, or merchant-ships, or ve 
 or they may be under other circumstances in which 
 they will not be subject to the laws relating to the 
 government of Her Majesty's forces by sea.' Of 
 course, while on board, and doing duty in any of 
 lb r Majesty's ships or vessels in commission, the 
 marines, like the other naval forces, are subject to 
 the A. of W. made for the government of the navy. 
 .3. A. of IF. for the Navy. — In regard to such 
 articles or regulations, the navy is differently situ- 
 ated. Unlike the army or the marine forces on 
 shore, the navy is not controlled or governed by any 
 annual Mutiny Act, but the A. of W. relating to it 
 are contained in, and expressly enacted by, an old 
 act of parliament, the 22 Geo. II. c. 33, which, with 
 some slight alterations, still supplies the law of the 
 sea-service. The first naval A. of W. authorised 
 by parliament were those contained in the 13 Chas. 
 II. c. 9, which was said to have been drawn up by 
 Admiral Montague, afterwards Earl of Sandwich, 
 with the approbation of Lord Chancellor Clarendon 
 and other distinguished members of the privy council. 
 
 • This is evidently a mistake, for the 40th article relates to 
 the misconduct or commissioned chaplains. It would appear to 
 be more reasonable that the articles to be read to the recruit 
 should be those relating to mutiny and insubordination, being 
 from the 41st to the 46th inclusive.
 
 ARTICLES, THE SIX— ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, 
 
 But that statute and its subsequent supple- 
 mentary acts were all repealed liy th.; -J.: i:. i II. 
 c. 33. See Mr Prendergast's Law of iht Xai-u, 
 1852, Part I., p. 15. 
 
 ARTICLES, THE SIX, often mentioned in the 
 ecclesiastical history of England in the 10th c, were 
 articles imposed by act of parliament in 1539, when 
 Henry VI 1 1, being displeased with some of the 
 bishops most favourable to the Reformation, their 
 opponents for a time regained the ascendency. 
 These A. asserted the doctrine of transubstant 
 declared communion in both kinds not to be neces- 
 sary, condemned the marriage of priests, enjoined 
 the continued observance of vows of chastity, and 
 sanctioned private masses and auricular confession. 
 The act imposing them was popularly called 'the 
 six-stringed whip.' Severe penalties were appointed 
 for writing or speaking against them, and for 
 abstaining from confession or the sacrament at the 
 accustomed times, for priests failing to put away 
 their wives, and for persons writing or speaking 
 against the doctrine of transubstantiation. Arch- 
 p Cranmer vainly opposed the act in the House 
 of Lords : the king was resolute to have it passed. 
 Its severity was mitigated by a subsequent act of 
 his reign (1544), and although it continued substan- 
 tially unrepealed, it was transgressed with impunity 
 even by ecclesiastical dignitaries. 
 
 ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the 
 Church of England, are the articles of religion 
 which were agreed upon by the archbishops and 
 ; of both provinces and the whole clergy 
 in the convocation held at London in the 4th 
 year of Elizabeth, 1562, under Archbishop Parker. 
 To have a clear view of the liistory of these im- 
 portant articles, we must go back to the promul- 
 gation of the original ones, forty-two in number, 
 in the reign of Edward VI. Tile council appointed 
 by the wifl of Henry YJII. to conduct the govern- 
 ment during the king's minority, was for the most 
 part favourably disposed towards the Reformed 
 opinions, and the management of church affairs 
 devolved almost entirely upon Archbishop Cran- 
 mer. In the year 1549, an act of parliament was 
 1. empowering the king to appoint a commis- 
 sion of 32 persons, to make ecclesiastical laws. 
 Under this act, a commission of S bishops, 8 divines, 
 liana, and 8 lawyers (amongst whom were 
 Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper, Coverdale, Scory, Peter 
 Martyr, Justice Hales. 4c.) was appointed in 1551, 
 and one of its first acts was to draw up a code of 
 articles of faith. These were forty-two in number, 
 and were set forth by the king's authority in 1553. 
 Strype and Burnet make it appear that these forty- 
 two articles were agreed upon in the convocation 
 that was sitting in 1552, but this was not the case. 
 Fuller, speaking in his quaint way of this convoca- 
 tion, declares that it had 'no commission from the 
 king to meddle with church business, and,' he 
 adds, 'every convocation in itself is born deaf and 
 dumb, so that it can neither hear nor speak con- 
 I complaints in religion till first Bfhphatha, 
 "Be thou opened," be pronounced unto it by 
 royal authority. However,' he continues. ' this 
 ion is entitled the parent of those 
 forty-two articles which arc printed with this title, 
 Articuli (/<; quibus in Synodo Londinensi 1552 a. i>. 
 intn-r aKot eonceneral' To these a 
 
 was prefixed the Catechism, and there is no > 
 Of ( 'ranner having had the principal hand in their 
 composition ; for he owned before Queen Mary's 
 commission that they were his doing. But immedi- 
 ately after their publication, Edward died, and one 
 of the first acts of the convocation summoned 
 with the parliament in the lirst year of ' 
 Mary, was to declare that these forty-two articles 
 
 had not been set forth by the agreement of that 
 House, and that they did not agree thereto. In 1558, 
 Elizabeth succeeded her sister. In 1559, Pari, 
 installed in the sec of Canterburv, an.l immediately 
 the other vacant Sees were tilled op And now came 
 a fresh opportunity of drawing up some articles of 
 faith which might serve as a test of orthodoxy in the 
 i. ied Church. Parker applied himself to this 
 work, and for the purpose, revised the forty-two 
 i of King Edward, rejecting four of "them 
 entirely, and introducing four new ones, viz., tl 
 12th, 29th, and 30th as they now Hand, and alter- 
 ing more or less seventeen others. This draft i 
 laid before the convocation which met in 1562, 
 further alterations were made; and .. 40th, 
 
 and 42d of King Edward's, which treated of the 
 resurrection, the intermediate state, and the doctrine 
 of the final salvation of all men, were finally rejected. 
 The 41st of King Edward's, which condemned the 
 Millcnarians, was one of the four which Parker 
 omitted. Thus the articles were reduced to thirty- 
 nine. They were drawn up and ratified in Latin, 
 but when they were printed, 33 was done both in 
 Latin and English, the 29th was omitted, and so 
 the number was further reduced to thirty-eight 
 From these thirty-eight there was a further omis- 
 sion, viz., of the first half of the 20th article, which 
 declares that ' the church hath power to 
 rites and ceremonies, and hath authority in contro- 
 9 of faith.' As all the records of convoca- 
 tion perished in the great fire of 1GGG. it is very 
 dilticult to ascertain how these omissions arose. 
 However, in 1571, the articles once more under- 
 went revision. Archbishop Parker and Bishop 
 Jewel made a few trifling alterations, and th 2 
 being restored, the convocation which w, 
 sitting ratified them both in Latin and English, and 
 an act of parliament was passed in that year com- 
 pelling the clergy to subscribe ' such of them as only 
 concern the confession of the true Christian faith, 
 and the doctrine of th : its.' There still, 
 
 however, remained some difficulty as to which was 
 the authorised copy, some of the copies being printed 
 with, and others without, the disputed clause of the 
 2Uth; but this was finally settled by the canons 
 passed in the convocation of 1004, which left the 
 thirty-nine articles as they now stand. - H;s Ma- 
 jesty's Declaration,' which precedes them, and direct 9 
 that they shall be interpreted ' in their literal and 
 grammatical sense,' was prefixed by Charles I. in 
 1G2S. 
 
 It may be interesting to know from what 
 sources the thirty-nine articles are derived. Some 
 of them, as the 1st, 2d. 2.1th, and 31st, agree not 
 only in their doctrine, but in most of their wording, 
 with the Confession of Augsburg. The 9th and 
 1 Gth are clearly due to the same source. Some of 
 them, as the 19th, 20th, 25th, and 34th, resemble, 
 both in doctrine and verbally, certain articles drawn 
 tip by a commission appointed by Hi nry VI II.. ami 
 annotated by the kings own hand. The 11th 
 
 article, on justification, i- a .inmer, but 
 
 the latter part of it only existed in the arti< 
 1562, '111- 17th, on predestination, may be traced 
 to the writings of Luther and Melancthon. 
 
 The thirty-nine articles hav.- been described as 
 'containing a whole body of divinity.' This can 
 hardly be maintained. They contain, however, what 
 land holds to be a fair scriptural 
 account of the leading doctrines of Christianity, 
 together with a condemnation of what she COS 
 to be the principal errors of the Church of Rome, 
 and of certain Protestant sects. As far as they go 
 (and there are many thing's unnoticed by them) they 
 are a legal definition of the doctrines of the Church 
 of England and Ireland; though it is to the Book 
 
 4M
 
 ARTICULATA— ARTILLERY. 
 
 of Common Prayer that members of that commiminn 
 bok for the genuine expression of her faith. Tiny 
 
 wen adopted by the convocation of the Irish Church 
 : i L6SS, and by the Scotch En opal ( Imrch at the 
 
 of tin- 1st], century. Corpus Ohritti Colle 
 Cambridge, contains the only copies of tit* A. ■ i > 
 manuscript or print that are of any authority. 
 Amongst them are the Latin manuscript of th 
 1662) and the En li h manuscript of the A. of 1671, 
 eaoh with the signatures of the archbishops and 
 bishops who subscribed them Bee An Account of 
 tlie Thirlii-iiinc A., by Dr Lamb. 
 
 For other 'Articles,' see Lambeth, Perth, and 
 Smai.kald. 
 
 AKTICULA'TA or ARTI'CULATED ANI- 
 MALS, one of the great primary divisions of the 
 Animal Kingdom, according to the system of Cu< r, 
 who in this is followed by recent naturalists generally. 
 The term indicates not the possession of articulated 
 members, but the articulated structure of the whole 
 body, The A. arc composed of segments articulated 
 or jointed together in a line, each segment being 
 formed of one or more rings, which in some appear 
 externally as mere transverse folds in a sol 
 but are often covered with a hard substance similar 
 in chemical composition to the bones of vertcbrated 
 animals. To this the muscles are attached, and it 
 has sometimes received the name of an external 
 skeleton — a name perhaps suggestive of closer and 
 more numerous analogies to the bony {rami 
 of the vertcbrated animals than actually exist. In 
 some of the A. the rings are almost equally deve- 
 loped; in others, the difference is very great. They 
 are divided into those which have, and those' which 
 have not articulated members ; the first subdivision 
 including Insects, Araclinida, Crustacea, and Myri- 
 apoda; the latter, Annelida and Entozoa. Some 
 naturalists rank Cirrhopoda (Barnacles, Acorn-shells, 
 &c.) among the A., and regard them as intermediate 
 between these two subdivisions ; others follow Cuvicr 
 in placing them among the Mollusca. The Rotifcra 
 (or wheel animalcules) are also placed by some in the 
 second subdivision of the A., but tleir right to be so 
 placed is by no means well established. It is in the 
 iirst subdivision only that the rings are very dis- 
 tinctly grouped in what are called segments of the 
 animal; and even in the Myriapoda (Centipedes, 
 Juli, &c.) they often seem little else than mere 
 repetitions of each other; whilst in some of the 
 Crustacea, as the Crabs, the trunk becoming i 
 in a hard envelope, the segments become immovably 
 united, so that they no longer appear as distinct. A 
 few only of the lowest A., however, are destitute 
 of a distinct head, in which are placed the eyes 
 and other organs of special senses, with regard to 
 which there is considerable difference in the different 
 classes. In it also they usually have jaws for 
 g their food and cutting or tearing it to pieces. 
 Their jaws do not open vertically, as in vertebrate 
 animals, but laterally; and there are frequently 
 several pairs of them. Some, however, have the 
 mouth adapted merely for suction. The alimentary 
 tube often proceeds in a Straight line from one 
 extremity of the body to the other ; and when it is 
 convoluted, its convolutions are usually few. There 
 is no proper heart; but instead of it, we find a 
 I veasd, a tube carried along the central line of 
 the body near the back or upper side, and divided 
 in a manner corresponding with the division of the 
 into rim;s and segments; a general con- 
 nection being thus maintained, whilst each segment 
 or each ring has to a certain extent a sj 
 of circulation for itself. Respiration is effected 
 either by gills (brancldoe), which is the case 
 in those A. that live in water, or by air-tubes 
 (tracliea;) and sacs; and the aeration of the blood 
 454 
 
 taking place not merely in one or two, but in many 
 
 ring's, great mutcnlaT power anil activity 
 
 untamed without ,-v very active tnrculation. 
 
 The muscular power is, indeed, greater in proportion 
 to the size in the A. than in any other animals. 
 I he Mood is usually white: in some of the Annelida 
 alone it is red ; but this colour (see Annelida) does 
 not indicate any approach to the higher classes of 
 animals, although even Cuvicr appears to have 
 
 d it as a ret igning to the Annelida 
 
 the iirst place among the A. The nervous - 
 
 exhibits a great similarity throughout the win il- of the 
 A., and corresponds in its general plan with their 
 system of circulation. It consists of a aeries ol 
 
 : muses or ganglia, arranged m a chain along 
 ■ilral line of the body On the under side of 
 the animal. A ganglion in the head is often termed 
 the brain, and from it proceed the optic nerves and 
 other nerves of the Bpei i I; but it by no 
 
 means perfectly corresponds to the brain in ver- 
 tebrate animals. There is usually a ganglion tor 
 each ring. The ganglia themselves are double or 
 composed of two halves, 
 more or less distinctly 
 separated; the connecting 
 cord also is double. In 
 those A. which have arti- 
 culated limbs, the ganglia 
 are largest in the parts 
 
 of the trunk with which 
 
 the limbs are connected, 
 whilst they almost disap- 
 pear from the more unim- 
 portant rings ; in the 
 Crabs, and some other tail- 
 less or very short-tailed 
 Crustacea, they are con- 
 densed into two masses. 
 
 The remains of tie \. in 
 the fossiliferous rocks are 
 numerous, althonj b 
 so fragmentary and imper- 
 fect that the determination of genus and species is 
 impossible, and their complex organisation cannot be 
 thoroughly investigated. It is evident, however, 
 that many of them differed much from any animals 
 now known to exist, and changes can be observed 
 from one geologic period to another; the great 
 Crustacean family of the Trilobites (q.v.),for example, 
 being found only in the palaeozoic rocks. Markings, 
 which are regarded as the tracks and burrows of 
 marine worms, appear among the earliest traces of 
 animal life. 
 
 ARTI'CULATE SOUNDS. Sec Letters. 
 
 ARTI'LLERY The various meanings given to 
 this word render it desirable that the read r I hould 
 know- under what headings in the Bncydopadia to 
 look for information on the subject. Sometimes A. 
 means large cannon or ordnance of every kind ; 
 sometimes it includes the shot and shell as well as 
 the cannon ; sometimes it applies to the soldiers, 
 officers and men, who manage the large cannon in 
 military battles and sieges ; sometimes it designates 
 the soldiers as well as the cannon, the personnel as 
 well as the mali-riel. In the present work, the large 
 I of ordnance, as a class, are described under 
 CANNON; while the specialties of each kind will be 
 found briefly noticed under such headings as Car- 
 
 ros ide, Howitzer, Gun, SCobtab, Shell-quit, &c ; 
 
 and in some cases under the names of the inventors, 
 as Armstrong Quit, Lancaster Gun, &c. By this 
 arrangement, we shall be enabled to confine the 
 word A. to such articles as relate more especially to 
 mound of the service — the skilled soldiers 
 who have to deal with large pieces of ordnance in 
 
 Nervous System of an 
 
 Insect.
 
 ARTILLERY COMPANY— ARTILLERY CORPS. 
 
 land-warfare. It may, however, be well hero to explain 
 that the term Equipment of A. is applied to a com- 
 bination of men, materiel, and horses, suitable for 
 coast-defences, siegea, or the arming of fortified 
 pasts. There are several kinds of equipments of 
 light A., under the names of horse, field, rocket, 
 lain, and reserve; and others of heavy A., for 
 
 the attack and defei fco« i i and fortified places. 
 
 'lii e various equipmei i rally divided into 
 
 smaller collections called batteries fa. v.), for more 
 easy control and manceuvring. Brief explanations 
 will be found under nearly all the names here 
 indicated, (See War-Sbrvk i i, to Si m I n:.vr.) 
 
 ABTI'LLERY COMPANY, Honourable, is 
 the oldest existing volunteer corps in Britain. 
 Four military bodies— the A. C, the Sergxi 
 Arms, the Yeomen of the Guard, and the <!nitlemen 
 Pensioners, were e i i b i as Ear back as the time 
 of the Tudors ; they all still exist, but under greatly 
 altered circumstances. In lo.'iT, lb -nry VI 1 1, g 
 a patent to three persons, appointing them ' Over- 
 ; of the Science of Artillery,' for long-bows, 
 cross-bows, and hand-guns. They were to constitute 
 a guild or fraternity for this purpose, with power 
 i i appoint assistants and successors, to purchase 
 and to use a common seal ; and their formal 
 otiicial name became 'The Masters, Rulers, and 
 
 nonalty of the Fraternity or Guild of Artillery 
 of Long-bows, Cross-bows, and Hand-guns.' The 
 ii Id or Company were empowered to 
 keep arms, and to exercise themselves in shooting. 
 In I(i(l5 a patent was granted by James I., intended 
 chiefly to effect the preservation of the shooting and 
 ing grounds around London, for the A. C In 
 lG.'J.'J a commission was appointed by Charles I., still 
 further to insure this object. In 103S the corpora- 
 tion of the city of London presented to the Company 
 the plot of ground ever since called the Artillery 
 Ground, near Moorfields, as a field for military 
 exercise. Royal princes frequently enrolled them- 
 selves as members of the Company, usually as 
 ' captain -general.' In 1710, George I. issued an 
 (inlcr that all the commission and staff officers of 
 the City Train-bands (a metropolitan militia) shoidd 
 
 i e members of the A. C, and exercise with the 
 other members at all convenient times. The word 
 'artillery' had heretofore been considered as apply- 
 ing to bows and arrows as well as to firearms ; but 
 
 I rubers of the Company, like other marl 
 
 had almost abandoned archery, without, however, 
 making any change in their designation. In a 
 summons to the Company to meet for exercise on a 
 particular day in 16S'-', it is said : 'Those gentlemen 
 that on that day handle muskets are desired to take 
 
 that their arms are clean and well lixed, and 
 
 hey bring with them tine dry powder, and even 
 match.' The t 'ompany, like many other city 
 lias nearly outlived its original purpose. In 17S0, 
 when the ' Lord George Cordon riots' alllicted the 
 metropolis, the members of the A. C. effectually 
 
 'I the Bank of England; in 1848, when 
 
 Chartist riots were apprehended, the Company was 
 
 the alert to render 1 service if needed; and 
 
 in the spring of 1859, when an uneasy belli 
 
 vailed in England concerning the designs of I 
 
 e i' i arms and looked forward 
 
 to eventualities; but the Company has never been 
 
 • ii ii in actual warfare with an enemy. 
 
 A. C. consists of members elected by ballot, 
 
 who pay one guinea annual i, and supply 
 
 , arms, and a< 
 
 payments, together with the rental received 
 
 from a small amount of real properly, constitute 
 the fund out of which 
 
 The members learn rifl ig as well as artil- 
 lery practice ; there are certain days of meeting 
 
 at Moorfields ; and every summer there are 
 certain days of drill and practice at & 
 The Prince Consort is the present colonel or 
 captain-general. The corps comprises six infantry 
 companies, a grenadier company, a light- infantry 
 company, a rifle company, ami an artillery company. 
 Until 1849, the members elected their own off 
 but since that year the crov. i nfc d them. 
 
 The lieutenant-colonel appoints the non-commis- 
 sioned officers. 
 
 ARTI'LLERY CORPS. Referring to Cannon 
 for a history of large pieces of ordnance, we here 
 treat of the organisation of the artdlery service. 
 
 The larger weapons, before the invention of gun- 
 powder, were sometimes called engines nj war, some- 
 times artillery, and were worked by strong and 
 oldiers, who needed no particular apprentice- 
 ship lo that art. When, however, large balls of 
 iron came to be propelled by the irresistible 
 of gunpowder, a great revolution gradually took 
 place, though garrison-guns and siege-guns were im- 
 proved more rapidly than field-guns. Nevertheless, 
 field-gims changed the whole aspect of military 
 tactics ; for it became necessary that an army 
 should form in order of battle at a much greater 
 distance from the enemy than in older times. And 
 when the cannon were made more rapidly movable, 
 so did tactics vary. Gradually, a body of men were 
 set apart to study the force and action of gun- 
 powder, the flight and range of projectiles, the 
 weight ami strength of cannon, and the manoeuvring 
 of heavy masses. The French were the first to 
 make these researches; after them, the Engli fa ; 
 and stUl later, the Germans. During the Thirty 
 Years' War, an important step was taken in Ger- 
 many — that of including the artillerymen, who were 
 till then a sort of guild, as a component in the regular 
 army. Gustavus Adolphus in Sweden, Frederick 
 II. in Prussia, and Napoleon I. in France, all 
 attached a very high degree of importance to the 
 artillery as an arm of the service. After the great 
 wars in the beginning of the present century, 
 nearly all the states of Europe formally recog- 
 nised the artillery as the third great branch of mili- 
 tary service (next after the infantry and cavalry) ; 
 indeed, some of them, including Russia and Sardinia, 
 have shewn a tendency to elevate it to the first 
 rank. 
 
 A. C., or artillerymen, are divided into land- 
 artillery and marine-artillery. The land-artillery is 
 divided into field, coast, garrison, and siege artil- 
 lery. The field-artillery is subdivided into horse 
 and foot. There are also the special appell 
 of reserve, light, and heavy artdlery. In most 
 European states, the artillerymen are divided into 
 regiments, battalions, brigades, and companies; but 
 in Britain the whole form one enormous regiment, 
 which is expanded or contracted according to the 
 exigencies oi the sendee. See Artillery, Royai 
 Reolmrnt of. When military men speak of Oie 
 field-artillery, thi y usually include cannon, carri 
 horses, ammunition, and Btores of every dee ription, 
 as well as the artillerymen. The distinction b tween 
 heavy and light artillery depends on the size of the 
 Cannon, and the weight of the shot and shell pro- 
 irom them. For obvious reasons the construc- 
 tion of very large field-guns is avoided. Military men 
 arc not quite agreed as to the pr. - ; but 
 
 there is a general concurrence in opinion that a well 
 appointed field-force should have two or three artil- 
 lery guns to every 1000 infantry, and five or six horse- 
 artillery guns to every 1000 cavalry. The proportion 
 affected by the kind of country and the 
 amount of a < nsport 1 hiring the Penin- 
 
 sular war, Wellington had seldom more than 1 
 gun to every 10U0 soldiers ; when he entered France, 
 ° 4M
 
 ARTILLERYMAN— ARTILLERY SCHOOLS. 
 
 he bad •'' to the 1000. Napoleon preferred 2 per 
 with .1 larger supply of ammunition than had 
 ry ; ■'"■■I many 
 followed bis example. I 
 in the British artUli ry nave laid it down as 
 al lull' that an armvof 00,000 men. 
 50,000 infantry. 7500 cavalry, and 2600 artillery, 
 I have 100 pieces of ordnance— vis., 30 
 artillery, 54 for foot-artillery, and 10 in 
 i ■ v. 
 
 ARTI'LLERTMAK. See Aum ;.,.■, Coeps; 
 Abtd ussy, Royal Reqimknt of. 
 
 ART! LLERY, Park OF, is a collective name 
 to the whole of the guns, carriages! ammuni- 
 tion, and other appurtenances essential to tie 
 ing of aii -'■ or field A. B ins and 
 
 carriages, there belong to it the an 
 
 I for the infantry and cavalry as for I 
 the implements and materials necessary for repairing 
 and completing equipments, banc field- 
 
 forges, laboratories, and (in some armies) transport 
 and provision wagons. The personnel of a park of A. 
 consists of A. officers, non-commis i is, and 
 
 artillerymen; besides a lar of smiths. 
 
 wheelwrights, saddlers, armourers, drivers, and other 
 mechanics and labourers. Sometimes the term is 
 
 1 to the pi 
 military stores collected there. During a siege, the 
 park lit A. is stationed cut I 
 Ore, but in communication witJ 
 
 . its locality is chosen close to 
 some good line of communication, either road or river. 
 All pi ring ox intrenching tools, and all handi- 
 craft implements, are arranged in rows nearest to 
 action, with requisite spaces for the con- 
 torekeepers and workmen. Behind 
 these are the materials batteries, making 
 
 fascines and gabions, and filling aand-bs I 
 
 red from the enemy are tin- laboratories, in 
 and near which shot and shell and other ki 
 ammunition are stored. A large park of A. is 
 usually divided into park-columns, for the sake of 
 better supervision. Under some circumstani 
 engineering park is distinct from the park of A, 
 especially where these two anus of the service 
 are so mutually independent as in the British 
 army. 
 
 ARTILLERY, ROYAL REGIMENT OF, is 
 
 the collective name for the whole of the A. belonging 
 to the British army. Under Arte 
 origin of similar bodies on the continent of Europe is 
 1 'riotly noticed. There was no regular regiment or 
 corps of A. soldiers in the rmy till the 
 time of Qui 'in Anno, when the present Royal 
 mi nt was formed. Since that ] i some 
 anomaly which is not easily explained, all the addi- 
 tions li v. 1 i made to the same regiment, instead 
 
 of forming new regiments, to be combined into a 
 division or corps. The regiment is now almost an 
 army in itself ; and to increase the anomaly, it corn- 
 horse as well as foot The foot- A., with 
 medium guns, attend infantry in the battle-field ; and 
 with hea vier guns, besiege and defend fort Hi. 1 1 j 
 while the horse- A, with lighter guns, accompany the 
 
 Iry. The mounted artillerymen were or 
 into a body long after those who m on foot. 
 
 Though both corps form one regiment, they have 
 ions — the Royal- A., and the 
 A. Besides these two corps, the regiment is 
 considered to include the Rocket- A., the I 
 Gunners, and the invalid Gv. 
 
 The regiment has varied from 1S.000 ti 2S.000 
 
 those placed upon the East India 
 
 establish!,,. i,i | during the last few years ; the foot 
 
 being .divided into battalions and companies, and the 
 
 horse into troops. A battalion usually comprises 
 
 Scompanics. At a time win in the number was 18,000, 
 
 1 119 companies and troops, 
 
 times, the companies hi from 130 t" -Jim 
 
 .eh. The companies and battalions of 
 A. are designated by ordinal numbers, such as 
 
 mpany, 12th battalion;' the troo] 
 A. are designated by letters, such as •!) troop.' 
 
 There are, nominally, S off npany 
 
 op ; but some of these are usual! 
 or brigade duties. In battles and sit - s 
 \. usually consists of eithei 
 or three companies, attached to a division of the 
 
 - army. Each company, with its qui 
 guns and stores of all kinds, constitutes a 
 
 .- and each troop with its quota, constatutee 
 [t ha I i propo 1 to al 
 the terms company end troop altogether, as being 
 properly applicable only to infantry and cavalry, 
 and to use only the term battery; but this change 
 has not yet taken place. Among the officers of 
 sal A., there are no majors, ensigns, or 
 ; equivalent services axe rendered by officers 
 otherwise designated. The men arc chielly cla 
 tiers and di 
 The mates for 1859 — 60 will afford 
 
 ormation concerning the present 
 state of the Royal A 
 
 t. FOOT- ARTILLERY. 
 Commissioned officers, . 
 Non-commissioned officers, 
 Rank and file, .... 
 
 013 
 1,786 
 
 22,351 
 
 ROYAL II" i SKY. 
 
 Commissioned officers. ... 7S 
 
 Nun -commissioned officers, . 14S 
 
 Bank and file 2,120 
 
 Total, 27,400 
 
 Of this number, S707 are placed at the A 
 of the East Indies, to be paid for out of Indian 
 revenues. There were also voted 5308 horses for 
 the foot- A., and 1SS0 for the horse. 
 
 The internal organisation of the Royal A.. I 1 
 lation between the men and the guns which 
 they serve, as well as some specialties of the si 
 kinds of service, will be described under Bati 
 (For recent changes, see the article Was-S] B 
 in the Supplement.) 
 
 ARTILLERY, SCHOOLS OF. The first school 
 for A. instruction was established by the VYi 
 in the beginning of the 10th c. Soon aftervi 
 Charles V. established similar schools at Burgos and 
 in Sicily. The French founded a school of practical 
 A. in Hi7-">; and in 1079, they added to it atheoretical 
 school at Douai. At present, France has no fewer 
 than nine such establishments. Saxony had an 
 A. school in 1700 ; but the other German states 
 were more tardy in this work. In Prussia, the 
 artillery and engineer schools are combined ; but in 
 most of the European states, a separation between 
 these two arms of the science is made. In 
 schools of A., the officers' studies comprise matlie- 
 . as much of physics and chemistry as is 
 necessary to the duties of the artillerist, field 
 and i " nnanent fortification, garrison-warfare, field- 
 tactics, military history and topography, military 
 surveying and sketching, drawing from the model, 
 he practical exercises include the serving and 
 of guns and mortars, the laying out and 
 constructing of field-batteries, and the operations of 
 the laboratory and A. workshop. 
 
 The head-quarters for A. instruction in England
 
 ARTOCARPACE.E-ARr.M. 
 
 are at Woolwich. A Royal Military Academy was 
 lished there in 1741, to impart professional 
 instruction to the i and engineers belonging 
 
 to the royal army. The Last India Compas 
 t h i • i i- A. cadets to this Academy from ll 1798 
 
 to 1810 ; but afterwards, they maintained a separate 
 ilishment at Addiscombe. At the present day, 
 the students in the Academy are recruited by fair 
 open competition. They enter between the ages of 
 seventeen and twenty ; and tiny remain two years, 
 or such longer time as may lit them to pass an examin- 
 ation for the Royal A. or Engineers. The sons i 
 tary officers are admitted on lower terms than those 
 of other persons. The liuaneial control is under the 
 Secretary of State for War ; but the Commander-in- 
 regulates the discipline and internal arrange- 
 ments. There are about 40 professors, led 
 masters, and instructors of various kinds. I 
 this Royal .Military Academy, there is at Woolwich 
 a Department of A. Studies, for the instruction of 
 junior officers of A., and for facilitating their visits 
 to the fortifications and public works of foreign 
 countries. There is also a Select Comm 
 duties are not so much educational as experimental; 
 it is a small establishment Cor examining and report- 
 ing on the numerous inventions relating to artillery, 
 brought before the War-office.* The establishment 
 at SAoi bury 1 1 inate to the head- quarters of 
 
 at Woolwich, is intended to experiment upon 
 ordnance, gunpowder, and projectiles, and to < 
 young A. officers in some of their duties. 
 
 ARTOCARPA'CEiE, a natural order of Dicotyle- 
 donous plants, of which the Bread-fruit (Artocarpus 
 incisa) is the type; very nearly allied to that of Horaces 
 (Mull.ru !■ s, Figs, &c), and. like it, by many botanists 
 regarded as a sub-order of Urticaci a (Nettles, &c). 
 The botanical distinction between ArtocarpacesB and 
 Moraceaj lies chiefly in the straight embryo and 
 large cotyledons of the former. The fruit is often a 
 
 1 (a single succulent fruit formed of the i 
 gated germens of a whole spike of flowers), as in the 
 case of tli- Bread-fruit (q. v.). There are upwards 
 
 Bread-fruit [A- incisa). 
 
 of fifty known species, natives exclusively of the 
 
 The milky juice of some yields <'mut- 
 
 i ' (q.v.); and that of a few Bp Ciea is so bland 
 
 lite for milk (see Cow - 
 
 Tin i :). The juice of others is, however, very 
 
 • This committee baa recently in the summer of IBM) been 
 remodelled, or rather superseded by a new urbanisation. 
 
 poisonous, as that of Antiaris toxicaria, the Antjar 
 
 Jioison, one of the -poisons called I pas by the 
 eda are always wholesome ; and 
 those of the Mmanr/a of tie it of Africa, 
 
 and of Brotimum ■• a the West Indii 
 
 eaten as nuts. The fibrous bark of the Bread-fruit 
 Tree is made into cloth in the South Sea Islands, 
 and that of other spec: ,s capable of 
 
 being used in the same way. The bark of Anliaris 
 •i is need in Western India 
 for making sacks, which are formed by cut! 
 branch of the dimensions of the sack wanted, and 
 simply turning back and drawing off the bark 
 after it has been soaked and beat' n, tie- 
 being sawn off so as to leave a little portion to form 
 the bottom of the sack. The fibrous bark of 
 C'ecropia peltala, or Trunipetwood, is used for era 
 in tropical Ami rica. The stem and branch 
 very hollow, and are used for wind-instruments. 
 The wood of some species is valuable, as that ol 
 Brosimum or Piraiinera Guianensis, the Snake- 
 wood of TJemerara. 
 
 ARTOIS was formerly a province of France, 
 bounded by Flanders and Pieardy. and almost 
 
 ending with the modern department 
 de-Calais (q.v.). The capital of A. was Arras. Louis 
 IX., in 123!), made A. a county, and gave it to his 
 brother Robert, who was succeeded by fa 
 Robert II., surnamed Posthumous, who died in 
 1302. Afterwards it passed into the hands of Flan- 
 ders and Burgundy, but was ceded to Fran 
 treaties in 1659 and 1678. Charles X , in his early 
 life, and also after bis abdication, was known by 
 the title of Count d'Artois. 
 
 ARTS, Degrees ix. The term 'Arts,' or ' Liberal 
 Arts,' as b chnically applied to certain studies, came 
 into use during the middle ages, and on the ■ 
 lishment of universities, the I ulty of Art-' 
 
 denoted those who devoted themselves to Science 
 and Philosophy, as distinguished from the faculty of 
 Theology, and afterwards of .Medicine and Law. 
 The number of ' Arts' embraced in the full mi 
 course of learning was seven: Grammar, 1 
 Rhetoric (constituting the Trivium), Music, Arith- 
 metic, Geometry, and Rhetoric (the I 
 The terms Master and Doctor were originally applied 
 synonymously to any person engaged in teaching. 
 In process of time, the one was restricted i 
 liberal arts, the other to Divinity. Law, and Medi- 
 When regulations wen- established to prevent 
 unqualified persons from teaching, and an initiatory 
 stage of discipline was prescribed, these terms 
 became significant of a certain rank, and of the 
 possession of certain powers, and were called 
 gradus, 'steps' or 'degrees.' Th of the 
 
 initiatory Stage, said to have 1 a first instituted 
 
 by Gregory IX. (1227—41), conferred the title of 
 baclielor (q.v.), and an additional course of discipline 
 and examination was necessary to obtaining that of 
 . The title of Mast r of Arts originally implied 
 ht, and even the duty of publicly teaching 
 of the branches included in the faculty of Arts; a 
 custom which is still retained, to some extent, in 
 the German universities, but has fallen into disuse 
 in Britain and France, whi nearly 
 
 will be more fully considered 
 under the general hi ad of Degree. 
 AHUM, a genus of Monocotyledonous i 
 natural order Araa a or A 
 This order consists of herbaceous plants, soino of 
 which are >i ad shrubby plants, somo of 
 
 which are arl h irescent, and some climb by aerial roots, 
 clinging to the trees of tropical forests. The 
 
 ithing at the base, convolute in bud. usually 
 with branching veins. The dowers are male and 
 
 •157
 
 ARUN— Al'J N l >!.!.. 
 
 female, naked) arranged apon a ipadia, which is 
 illy enclosed in a tfiaihe (q. v.) •, the mala 
 Bowers at the upper part of the spadix, and the 
 flowers at its base. The stamens are definit • 
 or indefinite in number; the anthers s.^ 
 nearly so, and turned outwards. The ovary 
 generally one-celled, many-seeded; the stigma ses- 
 
 The fruit is succulent, the seeds pulpy, the 
 embryo in the axis of lleshy or mealy albumen, 
 w.th a lateral cleft in which the plumule lie 
 albumen, however, is wanting in some plants of the 
 
 •. -As thus defined, this order contains almost 
 20 I known species, natives chiefly of tropical 
 tries, but some of the herbaceous kinds belong to 
 colder climates. — The limits of the order are, bow- 
 ever, sometimes extended, so that it includes as sub- 
 orders TyphaeetE, PitHactot, &c. — The genus .4. has 
 a convolute Bpathe ; the spadix naked at the point 
 In some species, a stench like that of carrion is pro- 
 duced during flowering, as well as a remarkable heat. 
 Flowers, in general, are slightly wanner than the air 
 around them, the heat being produced by tie 
 of oxygen with some starch-like ingredient in the 
 sap of the petals, or other parts of the Bower ; for 
 flowers, instead of absorbing carbonic acid gas and 
 giving off oxygen in the sunshine, like the L 
 
 -, absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid, 
 like the lungs of animals. But (lowers, in gem nil, 
 are only one degree, or one degree and a half, wanner 
 than the air, whereas the flowers of some of the 
 Arums and nearly allied plants are sensibly warm 
 to the touch, and that of A. cordi/ulium has been 
 
 Arum maculatum. 
 
 «, lcavr* ,t:ul root ; b, gpathc, with base of ppadix exposed ; 
 c, iruic. 
 
 found to have a heat of 121 1 F., while that of the 
 ir was only 66 F. — The only British species is 
 A.maculii/um, ClCKOW-riNT or WAKE-KOBIM, which 
 is abundant in England and in most parts of Europe, 
 growing chiefly in moist shady woods and under 
 hedges. It has a tuberous perennial root ; its leaves 
 are all radical, on long stalks, strongly arrow- ' 
 often spotted ; the spathe greenish yellow, enclosing 
 a rather short violet or brownish red spadix It 
 produces scarlet berries, 1—2 seeded, about the size 
 1 upon the spadix. The root has a 
 burning acrid taste, which, however, it loses in drying 
 or boiling. In a fresh state, it is a drastic purgative, 
 
 too violent for medicinal use ; ami, imbed, it, aa 
 well as the ' n active poison ; yet a nourish- 
 
 ing farina is prepared from it, aft r tie- acrid juice 
 unmoved. This farina is a pure starch, and 
 .in in England by the name at Portland Ba o 
 or Portland Arrow-root h 
 
 toaci" extent in the isle of Portland, where 
 
 also the tubers (conns) themselves are eaten by the 
 
 country-people. A COSmetio, called Cypress Powder, 
 
 is made from them in France, ami tie v an 
 
 rland as a substitute for soap. They e 
 
 1. a quantity of to which their 
 
 I to be owing. Tiny lose gnat part 
 
 of their acridity in drying, and wen- formerly used 
 
 i en ee a stimulant in impaired digestion, 
 
 a diuretic in dropsies, and an expectorant in chest 
 complaints. The plant is ev i iltivated in 
 
 India for food. — .-1. Indicum is al ni'i h cultivated 
 in Bengal for its esculent stems and small pendulous 
 tubers. — Acridity in the juice, and the presence of 
 an amylaceous substance of very nutritious quality, 
 from which the acrid juice is easily separated, are 
 characteristics of many plants of this order, particu- 
 larly species of Oa and Colucasia, much used 
 for food in warm countries, under the names Cocco 
 (q. v.), Eddoss, &C— .! us ecanpeaa 
 (A. campanulatutii), called Ol by the B 
 very much cultivated in some parts of India for its 
 roots (flat underground corms), which fonn a very 
 important article of food ; yet in a fresh state it is 
 i so acrid that it is employed as an external stimulant, 
 ' and is also used as an emmenagogue. Other species 
 of Amorphcmatlus are still more powerfully stimu- 
 lant. — Two large species of Ariscema, another genus 
 very closely allied to A., were found by l>r Hooker 
 to afford food to the inhabitants of the Sikkim 
 Himalaya at an elevation of upwards of 10,000 
 feet. Their tuberous roots are bruised by means 
 of wooden pestles, and thrown into small pits with 
 until the commencement of acetous fermenta- 
 tion, when the acridity is mostly dissipated ; but the 
 process is so imperfect that cases of injury from the 
 poisonous juice are frequent. The tubers of An 
 
 I of Linnaeus), a native of the 
 United States, and there known as Dragon-root and 
 Indian Turnip, yield a pure white starch like that 
 of A. maculatum. Then- medicinal uses an- 
 similar ; they are employed as a stimulant of the 
 ns. — The Dragon-plant, A. Dracunculu.t, a 
 native of the south of Europe, is not uncommon in 
 gardens in Britain, although it has a carrion-like 
 smell, and its emanations are apt to produce head- 
 ache and other disagreeable effects. It lias a singu- 
 lar appearance — straight stalks, three feet high, 
 curiously spotted like the belly of a snake. — 'Ihe 
 peculiar acridity of the Aracece is most remarkably 
 displayed in the DtniB Cane (q. v.). 
 
 A'BTTN, a river rising in St Leonard's Forest, 
 
 middle of North Sussex, and after a course 
 
 of 35 miles, falling into the I liannel. A 
 
 canal unites it with the Wcy, a feeder of the 
 
 Thames. 
 
 A'ltTXPEL, a small town 5 miles inland from 
 ' the mouth of the Aran, in a tertiary and chalk dis- 
 trict, on the south side of the South Downs, in the 
 S.W. of Sussex. It consists mainly of a very steep 
 rising from the right bank of the Aran to the 
 I summit of a hill crowned by a castle. The Aran is 
 navigable for vessels of ISO tons up to the town. 
 Park and timber are the chief exports. Pop. in 
 1851, 27-18. It returns one member to parliament. 
 It is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, and twelve 
 Dors. The castle, from its site, is a striking 
 ', and was built soon after the Norman con- 
 guest, It is an oblong, including 54 acres within its
 
 ARUNDEL MARBLES— ARYAN BACK. 
 
 walls. It was laid in ruins during the civil wars of 
 Charles I., but, being the baronial residence of the 
 Dukes of Norfolk, the late duke restored it to its 
 former Gothic magnificence. The keep, containing 
 the dungeon, is a circular Norman tower of imposing 
 strength. (1871— pop. 2936.) 
 
 A'RUNDEL MARBLES, part of a collection of 
 ancient sculptures, formed about the beginning of 
 the 17th c. by Thomas Howard, Earl of Al 
 and presented in 1GG7 to the university of Oxford, by 
 his grandson, Henry Howard, afterwards Duke of 
 No Ik. The principal portion of it is the 'Parian 
 Chronicle,' consisting of the fragments of an inscrip- 
 tion in marble, supposed to have been executed in 
 the island of Faros, about 2C.3B.C In its perfect 
 state, this inscription contained a chronological table 
 of the principal events in Grecian history from the 
 time of Cecrops (1582 B.C.) to the archonship of 
 
 tus (2G4 B.C.). The chronicle of the last 
 ninety years is lost, and the extant portion of the 
 inscription is much corroded and defaced. This 
 curious and interesting monument, the authenticity 
 of which has been questioned and vindicated with 
 almost equal ingenuity and learning, was pur- 
 chased for the Earl of Arundel, along with many 
 other relics of antiquity, at Smyrna, by Mr (after- 
 wards Sir William) Petty. The inscription, and all 
 the other principal sculptures in the Oxford Collec- 
 tion, are to be found fully illustrated in the relative 
 publications of Selden, Prideaux, M.iittaire, and 
 Chandler, under the various titles of Marmora 
 Arundd'.iana and M. 
 
 The nobleman whose name is associated wita 
 ancient marbles is worthy of remembrance, independ- 
 ently of his general merits, as the first of his order 
 
 land who liberally encouraged the fine arts, and 
 communicated the influence of his own taste and 
 enthusiasm in their cultivation to a wide circle of 
 imitators and successors. Among the scholars and 
 on whom his liberal patronage was specially 
 bestowed, were Francis Junius the Younger (his libra- 
 rian), and Oughtred the mathematician, Wenceslaus 
 Hollar the engraver, whom he brought over to Eng- 
 land, VandyeK and Inigo Jones, and the sculptors 
 Stone.Lc Sceur,and Faneili. His collection of works of 
 art, for the supply of which, from the treasures of 
 antiquity, he I the services of two distin- 
 
 guished men of letters, Evelyn and Petty, rivalled 
 
 tileries of princes. After his death, it was 
 unfortunately dispersed, and many of its choicest 
 
 ires were for ever lost sight of. His collection 
 of sculpture alone, when entire, numbered 37 statues, 
 
 lata, and 250 inscribed marbles, besides altars, 
 sarcophagi, fragments, and gems. 
 
 A'RTJNDEL, THOMAS, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 in the reigns of Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry 
 V., born in 1353, was the second son of Robert Fitz- 
 Alan, Earl of Arundel and Warren. He was first 
 Archdeacon of Taunton, and at the early age of 
 ■ ;. -i >ne, he v. i npe's appointment, con- 
 
 secrated Bishop of Ely. In 1388, he was, by the 
 
 luthority, transferred to the arcbiepisco] 
 of York, B i for some years Lord High 
 
 Hiving leu banished the 
 kingdom for talcing a leading part in the first attempt 
 made to deliver the nation from the 
 hard II., he was honourably n 
 at Borne, and by Pop B .- nominated Arch- 
 
 bishop of St Andrews, with a promise of fotore pre- 
 ferment in England. In 1396 be was enthroned, 
 rest pomp, as Archbishop of Canterbury'. He 
 of the Lollards and followers 
 of Wickliffe, and a chief instrument in procuring the 
 horrible act for the burning of heretics i D Heretico 
 i, passed ill the reign of Henry IV. He 
 
 even carried hi9 bigotry so far as to solicit from the 
 pope a bull ft up WicklihVs bones, which, 
 
 in. He also procured 
 a synodal constitution, which forbade the transla- 
 tion of the Scriptures into the vulgar tongue. 
 Amongst others whom he caused to be convicted of 
 heresy, and sentenced to the flames, was Lord 
 Cobham, one of the principal patrons of the new 
 sect, at the commencement of the reign of Henry V. 
 Soon after, A. was seized with an inflammation in 
 the throat, which proved fatal. He died 20th 
 February 1413. 
 
 ARU'NDO. See Er.ro. 
 
 ARVI'COLA. See Vole. 
 
 ARYAN RACE, ARYAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 The name Aryan (less properly, Arian) Race or Aryan 
 Family of Nations is now generally used to designate 
 that ethnological division of mankind othei 
 called Indo-European or Indo-Gernianic. It consists 
 of two branches, geographically separated, an eastern 
 and a western. The western branch comprehends 
 the inhabitants of Earope, with the exception of the 
 Turks, the Magyars of Hungary, and the Finns of 
 Lapland (see Eceope) ; the eastern comprehends 
 the inhabitants of Armenia, of Persia, of Afghanistan, 
 and of Northern Hindustan (see Hindustan). The 
 evidence on which a family relation has been estab- 
 lished among these nations is that of language. 
 Between Sanscrit (the mother of the modern Hindu 
 dialects of Hindustan), Zend (the language of the 
 ancient Persians), Greek (which is yet the lai 
 of Greece), Latin (the language of the Romans, and 
 the mother of the modern Romanic languages, L e., 
 Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian), 
 Celtic (once the language of great part of Europe, 
 now confined to Wales and some parts of Ireland 
 and Scotland), Gothic (which may be taken as the 
 ancient type of the Teutonic or Germanic languages 
 — including English — and of the Scandinavian), and 
 Slavonic (spoken in a variety of dialects all over 
 European Russia and a great part of Austria), the 
 researches of philology have within the present 
 century established such affinities as can be accounted 
 for only by supposing that the nations speaking 
 them had a common origin. No one of these nations, 
 whether existing or historical, can claim to be the 
 parent nation of which the others are colonies. The 
 relation among the languages mentioned is that of 
 sisters — daughters of one mother, which perished, 
 as it were, in giving them birth. No monuments of 
 this mother-language have been preserved, nor have 
 we any history or even tradition of the nation that 
 spoke it. That such a people existed and spoke 
 such a tongue is an inference of comparative philo- 
 
 the process of reasoning being analogous to 
 that followed in the kindred science of geology. The 
 geologist, interpreting the inscriptions written by 
 the tinker of Nature herself upon the rock-tablets of 
 the earth's strata, carries us back myriads of aires 
 before man appeared on the scene at all, and enables 
 us to be present, as it were, at creation itself, and 
 see one formation laid above another, and one plant 
 or animal succeed another. Now languages are to 
 the ethnologist what strata are in geology ; dead 
 
 res have been well called his fossils and 
 tions. By skilful interpretation of their 
 indications, aid d by the li lit of all other available 
 monuments, he is able to spell out, with more or 
 less probability, the ethnical records of the past, and 
 thus obtain a glimpse her' and there into the gray 
 cloud that i the dawn of the ages. 
 
 D these linguistic monuments are consulted 
 as to the primitive seat of the Aryan nations, they 
 point, as almost all ethnologists are agr 
 Central Asia, somewhere probably east of the
 
 AS-ASA. 
 
 Caspian, and north of the Hindu Blush and Parana- 
 There, b i atenor 
 to all Bnrapeao history — while Europe was perhaps 
 only a jungle, or, if inhabited at all, inhabited by 
 akin to the Finns, or perhaps to the American 
 Indians— dwelt that mother-nation of which we 
 have Bpoken. From this centre, in obedience to 
 a law of movement which has continued to act 
 through all history, successive migrations took place 
 towards the north-west. The first : warm Conned 
 the Celts, who seem at one time to have occupied 
 a great part of Europe ; at a considerably Utter 
 epoch came the ancestors of the Italians, the 
 Greeks, and the Teutonic peoples. Allthi le would 
 seem to have made their way to their n< v 
 Hunts through l'ersia and Asia .Mil mg into 
 Europe by the Hellespont, and partly, p 
 between the Caspian and the Black Sea, The 
 stream that formed the Slavonic nations is thought 
 to have taken the route by the north of the I 
 At a period subsequent to the last north-western 
 migration, the remnant of the primitive stock would 
 seem to have hroken up; part poured southwards 
 through the passes of the Himalaya and Hindu Rush 
 into the Punjab, and became the dominant race in 
 the valley of the Ganges; while the rest Bettled in 
 Persia, and became the Modes and 1 'ersians of history. 
 It is from these eastern members that the whole 
 family takes its name. In the most ancient Sanscrit 
 writings (the Veda), tl ■ :i . style themselves 
 Aryans; and the name is preserved in the classic 
 Am. a tribe of ancient Persia, Aria, the modern 
 
 Herat, and Ariana, the name of a district compre- 
 hending the greater part of ancient Persia, and 
 extended by some so as to embrace Bactriana. 
 Ariana, or Airyana, is evidently an old Persian 
 word, preserved in the modern native name of 
 I <. Airan or Iran. Arya, in Sanscrit, signifies 
 'excellent,' 'honourable,' being allied probably to 
 the Greek on'(stos), the best. Others conn 
 with the root or (Lat. arare, to plough), as if to 
 distinguish a people who were tillers [carers) of 
 the earth from the purely nomadic Turanians or 
 
 The several members of this ethnological group 
 will receive special notice each in its place. As 
 to the hypothetical mother-nation — the primitive 
 Aryan stock before separation, it might seem impos- 
 sible to affirm anything beyond 11 mi re existence 
 and locality. But the ethnologist doe; not con- 
 t. nt himself with this. In an admirable essay on 
 Comparative Mythology (Oxford Essays, 1856), Pro- 
 fessor Max Midler has drawn a picture of the 
 Aryan family while yet one and undivided, in which 
 the state of thought, language, religion, .and civilisa- 
 tion is exhibited in a multitude of details. Where 
 the same name for an object or notion is found used 
 by the widely spread members of the family, it is 
 justly inferred that that object or notion must have 
 been familiar to them while yet resident together 
 in the paternal home. It is in this way established, 
 that among the primitive Aryans not only were 
 the natural and primary family relations of father, 
 mother, son, daughter, hallowed, but even the more 
 conventional affinities of father-in-law, mother- 
 in-law, sister-in-law ; that to the organised family 
 life there was superadded a state organisation with 
 rulers or kings ; that the ox and the cow constituted 
 I le chief riches and means of subs: and that 
 
 houses and towns were built. 
 
 One general observation made by Midler is so 
 interesting that we take the liberty of quoting it 
 entire. ' It should be observed,' he says, ' that most 
 of the terms connected with chase and warfare differ 
 in each of the Aryan dialects, while words con- 
 nected with more peaceful occupations belong 
 
 generally to the common heir-loom of the Aryan 
 
 language. The proper appreciation of this fact in its 
 
 1 bearing will shew how a similar remark 
 
 made by Niebuhr, with regard to Greek and Latin, 
 
 requires a very different explanation fr that which 
 
 that great scholar, from his more rc.-tre t. d point of 
 view, was able to give it. It will shew that all the 
 Aryan nations had led a long life of peace before 
 
 tiny separated, and that their language acquired 
 
 individuality and nationality as each colony 
 in search of new bonus new generations Ecu 
 new terms connected urtth tic warlike and adven- 
 turous life of their onward migrations. Hence it is 
 that not only Greek and Latin, but all Aryan lan- 
 oave their peaceful words in common; and 
 hence it is that they all differ so strangelj in their 
 warlike expressions. Thus the don 
 
 m nerally known by the same name in England and 
 
 in India, while tin- wild beasts have different mine ., 
 
 in Greek and Latin.' 
 
 In this mainly pastoral life, the more important of 
 
 the primitive arts were known and exercised : fields 
 
 & and ground into meal ; 
 
 food was cooked and baked; cloth was woven and 
 sewed into and the use of the metals) 
 
 even of iron, was known. The numbers as far as 
 
 a hundred had been named, the decimal principle 
 
 being followed. The mime for a thousand had not 
 come into requisition until after the i a, for it 
 
 . in the different Aryan tongues. 
 
 Finally, it was among the yet undivided Aryans, 
 while ab did not yet exist, while every 
 
 word was a metaphor, and the setting of the sun, for 
 example, could only be expressed by his growing old 
 and dying, that those stories of gods, E roes, and 
 
 monsters originated, which, with more or 1 
 
 variety, but still with a family-likeness, formed the 
 pagan mythology of every member of the group. 
 
 as was the designation both of a Roman n 
 (called also libra) corresponding very nearly to an 
 English pound (q. v.), and also of a coin made of the 
 mixed metal firs or bronze. The As (coin) originally 
 no doubt weighed a (Roman) poimd ; but it was 
 gradually reduced to -,' (Y of a pound, and even lower. 
 It is thus difficult to assign any fixed value to the 
 As. About 27U B.C., the denarius (= 8.'d.) contained 
 
 10 ases ; so that the value of the As was then a 
 little more than 3 farthings ; when 16 ases went to 
 the denarius, the value was about a halfpenny. It 
 was by the sestertius (q. v.) that money was reckoned 
 at Rome. The oldest form of As usually bore the 
 figure of an ox, a sheep, or other domestic animal 
 [peats) ; from which it is usually supposed that the 
 Latin word for money, pecunia, is derived. 
 
 A'SA, son of Abijah, and grandson of Rchoboam, 
 was the third king of Judah. At the beginning of 
 his reign, he was very young, and his character appa- 
 rently undeveloped, for he allowed his grandmother, 
 Maachah, to encourage idolatry; but on assuming the 
 reins of government, one of his earliest ad . i to 
 remove her from all authority ' because she had made 
 an idol in a grove' (1 Kings, XV. 13 ; 2 Chron. xv. 16). 
 His zealous efforts to extirpate the vices and impieties
 
 ASA DULCIS— ASARABACCA. 
 
 of the people were on the whole successful. He took 
 away the Sodomites out of the land, ami the altars 
 of the strange gods, broke the images, and cut down 
 the groves. For the next tin yean, be derated him- 
 self to strengthening the defences of his kingdom, 
 and organised a magnificent army of more than half 
 a million, which seems to have been looked upon as 
 a menace by other monarchs, for one of these, Zcrali 
 the Cnshite, took the initiative, and penetrating 
 through Arabia Petraa, invaded Judah, but was 
 defeated with immense slaughter. Before the battle 
 commenced, Asa had invoked the aid of Jehovah; 
 and some time after the victory, he and all his people 
 
 l into a solemn covenant 'to seek the i 
 God '>f their fathers with all their heart and with 
 all their soul' (2 Chron. XV. 12). Pea' ! . 
 
 twi nty years in the kingdom, but in the 35th year 
 of Asa's reign, war again broke out between him 
 and Baasha, king of Israel. He sought and obtained 
 the aid of the Syrian monarch, Benhadad, but at 
 the expense of 'the treasures of the house of the 
 Lord;' and although successful against his ad\ i 
 he was indignantly upbraided and threatened by 
 the prophet Hanani for not relying on Jehovah 
 alone. Asa, flushed with success, threw the prophet 
 into prison, and, it would appear, ' in his 
 oppressed some of the people at the same time — per- 
 haps those only who si' led with Hanani, for we know- 
 that at his death the nation honoured liim with a 
 splendid funeral ; and the sacred historian pays the 
 highest tribute to his memory, declaring that ' A V I 
 heart was perfect with the Lord all his days. 1 He 
 d from 955 to 914 B. c. 
 
 A'SA DULCIS (i.e.. Sweet Asa), a drug in high 
 among the ancients as an antispasmodic, 
 
 deobstruent, and diuretic ; also for supposed virtues 
 of the most extraordinary kind, such as neutralising 
 the effects of poison, curing envenomed wounds, 
 restoring sight to the blind, youth to the aged, &c. 
 i He was estimated by its weight in gold. The 
 a of Cyrene caused a figure of the plant pro- 
 ducing it to be struck on the reverse of their coins, 
 and it was sometimes called !.<■ \ r ' 'yn naicum. The 
 enus Thapsia (of the natural order 
 tlmbelltfi c"), either T. Oarganica, or a nearly allied 
 species, T. Silphium — perhaps the drug was pro- 
 duced by both. They arc natives of the south of 
 Europe and of I'.arbaiy, and appear to be VI ry active 
 purgatives. 
 
 ASAFCE'TIT)A.orAS<Al'(ETIPA(i.e.,FetidAsa 
 or Assa), is a gum-resin, which has been supposed to 
 be identical with the exuded juice of the SttpJuon 
 of Dioscorides, so highly esteemed among the Greek 
 physicians; but which, perhaps, was rather the Asa 
 dldci». Its name is derived from the Persian word 
 
 : : i i "is it staff. This drug is 1 
 from Persia and Afghanistan, and is procured by 
 drying the milky juice which flows from the root 
 of the plant Ferula [NarOu i .1., which has been 
 referred to the genus Ferula by Linnams, and to 
 Xmilcr by Dr Falconer. The root of the A. plant 
 is Ion',', and generally undivided; white inside, but 
 having a black covering; and contains in its interior 
 a quantity of juice of an overpowering odour, which 
 much resembles that of garlic. Ferula or A 
 A. has its radical leaves tripartite, their segments 
 bipinnatitid, and nearly two feet in length. The 
 gum-resin is said by some to be obtained also from 
 i Pereica, a plant which has the root-leaves 
 very much divided, and all either tripinnat" or 
 quadnpmn.it. \ The name ferula, like the Persian 
 ama, refers to the appearance of the stem of the 
 plant. Fa < has long been prop 
 
 successfully in Britain, and even brings its seeds 
 to perfection. 
 
 A. is prepared in the dry southern provinces of 
 Persia, but chiefly in Khorassan and Afghanistan, 
 and also to the north of the Hindu Kush range 
 of mountains. About April, the root-leaves are. 
 taken away, and the root itself is more 03 
 exposed by removal of the soil from about it. 
 After a lapse of six weeks, a slice is cut hori- 
 zontally from its summit, and a thick white 
 juice exudes, the smell of which even I 
 in strength that of the drug when dry. The 
 drug is sometimes met with hi tl in the 
 
 form of tears, but more frequently in lumps, which 
 are made up of irregularly shaped tears, ag.luunat. d 
 together by a softer substance. A. is extensively 
 used in medicine, and po i - timulant and auti- 
 spasmodic properties. When taken internally, it 
 undergi i ion, and may be detected in almost 
 
 every secretion of the body, as the saliva, breath, 
 and urine. According to the analysis of Pelleticr, 
 A. is composed of the following substances i 
 65 parts; volatile oil, 3'6; gum, 19-41; ba 
 11 GO ; various salts, -.'10. In many parts of tin 
 this drug i-ii 1 as a condiment, in which respect 
 it seems to take the place of the garlic of some 
 European nations. 
 
 A'SAPH, St, a cathedral city, on a small hill 
 between the rivers Clwyd and Elwy, in the north- 
 west of Flintshire, \\ ales. The cathedral is a cruci- 
 form budding, ITS by US feet, and was built in 1284 
 on the site of a wooden structure founded before 596. 
 It has been enlarged and repair.. 1 Bince last century, 
 and has a tower 93 feet high. It is one of the 
 smallest of British cathedrals, and stands on the top 
 of the hill on which the city is built. Kentigern, or 
 st Mungo, Bishop of Glasgow, and his disciple, St 
 A., are said to have founded the see of St A. in the 
 6th c. The bishop, who has a revenue of i'4200, is 
 patron of 121 of the 14S benefices in the diocese. 
 Pop. in 1851, 2041. St A., with the Flint .Ustrict of 
 burghs, returns one member to parliament. 
 
 A'SAPHUS. See Tkilobite. 
 
 ASARABA'CCA {A'sarum Ewopasum), a plant 
 of the natural order Arutoloehiaccce (see Aristo- 
 i.ociiia), a native of Europe, growing in woods; 
 rare, and perhaps not truly indigenous, in Britain. 
 The whole plant has acrid propert ; tie' roots and 
 leaves are aromatic, purgative, and emetic. The 
 use of A., however, as an emetic has been much 
 
 Ai.-irabacca (Asarum Europccum). 
 b, detached anther ; e, style. 
 
 superseded by that of ipecacuanha, which is milder 
 
 and safer. The powdered roots and leaves enter 
 
 | into the composition of cephalic snuffs, which cause
 
 ASBEN— ASCAKIS. 
 
 jpuMuing, and are I as a counter-irritant in 
 
 idache, ophthalmia, toothache, fee. The 
 phut contains a volatile oil, and a crystalline sub- 
 stance called Asarint. to which it seems to owe its 
 
 ■ properties. The genu Atarum is 
 
 ted by twelvo horned stamens, distinct from 
 other and from the style, and by a bell 
 lobed perianth. A. Buropmum has a vary 
 short stem with two Bhining kidney-shaped leaves 
 on loner stalks, from the axil of which springs a 
 i loping greenish-brown flower.- V 
 I species, A. Canud' 3M , a native of ' 'anada, is 
 stimulant and diaphoretic, and is used under the 
 name of Canada Snakxroot, instead of 
 loc/iia Strpenlaria. It is also called Wild Gimur, 
 and used as a spier, being of a warm aromatic 
 quality, and not acrid, like its European congener. 
 
 AS'BEX, or A'lR, a country of Central Africa, 
 situated in 15°— 20° N. lat., and G— 11° E. long. 
 Pop. estimated at 64.000. Its territory com pi 
 
 amount of desert, as well as considerable tracts 
 of mountain land. The inhabitants are chiefly of 
 Berber extraction, and generally profess the religion 
 of Mohammed. They are of a degraded character, and 
 given to marauding. The climate is rather hi 
 and generally hot and dry. The rainy season is from 
 August till October. Tho soil in many places is 
 fertile, producing the doom palm, dates, and senna. 
 Dr Barth, the traveller. Bays of tho aspect of the 
 country: 'lloeky ground, overtopped by higher 
 mountain masses or by detached peaks, and hollows 
 overgrown with rich vegetation, and praam vi n 
 longer or shorter time the regular form of valleys, 
 succeed each other by turns, and constitute the pro- 
 mt feature of the country of Asben.' The 
 capital is Agadcs (q. v.). 
 
 ASBE'STI'S, a mineral very closely all 
 trcmolite, actinolite, and hornblende, and which, 
 along with tremolite and actinolite, is often ranked 
 ; the varieties of hornblende. It consists 
 chiefly of silica, magnesia, lime, and oxide of iron, 
 and is of a line fibrous character, the libres some- 
 times combined together in a compact mass, some- 
 i easily separable, elastic and flexible. It is 
 generally of a whitish or greenish colour. The 
 y called Jiock-corl: very much resembles cork, 
 is soft and easily cut, and so light as to swim in water. 
 leather and liock-wood are varieties somewhat 
 similar to rock-cork, but not so light. The 
 
 ■ variety with easily separable libre3 is called 
 A mOuu (from a Greek word signifying unpol- 
 lulible, as A. is from a Greek word signifying inde- 
 
 We), because cloth made of it was cleansed by 
 p 1 1 ; it through fire. This cloth was used by the 
 ancients to enwrap dead bodies placed on the 
 funeral pile, so as to preserve the ashes of the body 
 unmixed. Amianthus has sometimes been used for 
 the wicks of lamps, and is mi -a employed to till 
 vinaigrettes, being moistened from time to time 
 with a few drops of aromatic vinegar. The finest 
 amianthus is found in the Tarentaise in Savoy. It 
 is particularly abundant in Corsica. It is found also 
 in Cornwall, at Portsoy in Scotlaud, and in several 
 of the Shetland Islands. None of the varieties of 
 A. are very common, but they are not unfrequent in 
 serpentine and allied rocks in different parts of the 
 world. Minerals which resemble A. in their fibrous 
 character are sometimes called asbestcms or asbesti- 
 :id*«ome of them are believed to be varieties 
 of augit/rather than of hornblende. 
 
 A'SCALON, or A'SHKELON, a ruined city of 
 P me, situated on the shore of the Mediterranean. 
 3G miles W.S.YV. of Jerusalem, and 12 N. by W. ol 
 Gaza, It was in ancient times a fortified city, and 
 the principal town of one of the five lordships of the 
 
 Philistines. Its name often occurs in the history of 
 the people of Israel in the Old Testament, v. 
 is represented |y period in 
 
 hands of the tribe w Judah. Herod the I 
 
 embellished it with baths, palaces, and fountains ; 
 but in the subsequent wars with the Romans, it 
 Buffered much damage. There was a celebrated 
 temple of Derketo, the Venus of the Syrians, at 
 A., which is recorded i been plundered by 
 
 vtbiana, G.'iO b.c ilbet continuing long 
 under the dominion of the Roman empire, tli 
 came into the possession of the Saracens in the 
 7th c. In 1099 a great battle was fought on the 
 plains of A., between the Crusaders and Sal 
 when the Christians gained a decisive \ i 
 The city, however, a number of years after, was 
 recaptured by the Moslems, and held by thi 
 a strongly fortified place until llo.'J, when it was 
 taken by the Crusaders under Baldwin 111. In 1 1 >7 
 it was retaken by the Saracens, but aftci I 
 (1192) fell into the hands of ltichard Cceur de Lion. 
 Subsequently, being more than one d and 
 
 repaired during the wars between Richard and 
 Saladin, it was reduced to desolation by Sultan 
 Bibarsin 1270. 
 
 The ruins of this ancient city occupy an eztei 
 semicircular eminence, sloping gently to the i 
 but abrupt and steep towards tho sea. Part I 
 walls are still standing, with the remains of ( . 
 churches, a palace, and several edifices of more 
 ancient date, which attract the notice of the traveller 
 and the antiquary. 
 
 A'SCARIS, a genus of Entozoa, or intestinal 
 worms, of the order Xanatvidca of Zeder, Cuvier, 
 &c, and of the division Stertlmintha of Owen. 
 The ascarides have a body approaching to cylindri- 
 cal, but thickest in the middle. They inhabit the 
 intestines of animals. The species are numerous. 
 One of the best known is A. lumbricoida, ofl I 
 called the common round worm, which occurs in tho 
 intestines of man and of some of the lower an 
 as the hog, ox, horse, Jtc, and which often oce. 
 severe disease, and sometimes death, particularly 
 when it ascends from the intestines to the Btomach. 
 Its presence even in its most ordinary situation m 
 the small intestines, is attended with unfavourable 
 effects upon the general health; and the greater the 
 number present — which, however, is not usually 
 large— the greater, of course, is the injury ; alti 
 when they remain in the intestines, worms of tins 
 species are less injurious and less annoying than 
 other, and even much smaller intestinal worms. In 
 subjects otherwise diseased, they occasionally find 
 their way out of the intestines into the clot ed 
 cavities of the body, and even pass through ulr 
 parts of the external integument ; but the mouth 
 is formed only for suction, and is provided with no 
 
 Ascaris lurnbricoides (male). 
 
 One-third of the true linear dimensions ; a is the head of the 
 
 worm. 
 
 means of boring through the healthy intestine. An 
 immense number of remedies (anthelmintics or ver- 
 mifuges) have been proposed and used in or 
 expel this parasite, some of which are very effe 
 They do not in general kill the worms, but act by 
 making their dwelling-place disagreeable to them 
 Vermifuge). It is, however, remarked by 
 Kiichenmcister, in his work on Parasites, that tho
 
 ASCARIS— ASCENSION. 
 
 treatment of cases cf this description is as yet purely 
 empirical, because, although there must he a condi- 
 tion of the intestinal canal which favours the thriv- 
 ing of worms, we are by no means certain what it is. 
 The A. lumbricoid':s is ordinarily, in size and 
 
 uiith of Ascaris lumuricoidcs, magnified. 
 
 tubercles *presid out, with cockscomb-like 
 Iteriof to them, and the entrance to the intestinal 
 
 canal. 
 
 appearance, pretty much like the Common Earthworm 
 [J/umbriqu terabit), from which resemblance it has 
 received its specific name, although the resemblance 
 is rather in general form than in more essential 
 characteristics. It has been seen fifteen inches in 
 length. Its mouth consists of three fleshy tubercles, 
 winch can be spread out upon the intestine to form 
 a broad circular sucker, and within which there is 
 a small tube capable of being protruded. The ali- 
 mentary canal consists of a muscular gullet and 
 stomach, and a thin-walled intestine. Between the 
 muscular layers of the body is produced a pale 
 
 ii oily matter, with a strong and very peculiar 
 odour, which is gradually communicated to spirit in 
 which the worm is preserved. The males are smaller 
 than the females, and much more rare. The females 
 produce eggs in great numbers ; but it is uncertain 
 if ever they are developed within the intestine in 
 which the parent worm resides. They are certainly 
 capable of being developed elsewhere, and probably 
 voting enter the intestines of the animals of 
 which they are eventually to be the parasites, after 
 having spent a certain stage of their existence in 
 very different circumstances : the worm in a very 
 young state having never been found in the intestines 
 of man or of quadrupeds, the situation of its perfect 
 development. The inhabitants of damp valleys are 
 believed to suffer more than others from the A. 
 
 ieoida. It is said also to be particularly 
 frequent in persons who are much accustomed to 
 eat raw leaves and roots ; and it has been supposed 
 that the young may exist, perhaps in an encysted 
 state, in the bodies of insects or other very small 
 animals which are accidentally eaten along with 
 such food, as the young tapeworm finds its way into 
 the human intestines from its residence as a creature 
 of very different size and form in the flesh of the 
 sheep or the pig. The once prevalent idea of the 
 equivocal generation of these worms is now com- 
 pletely abandoned. 
 
 A. vermkulari* is another species usually referred 
 to this genus, and is the only other species trouble- 
 some to mankind. It ia known as the Thread-worm 
 or Maw-worm, and is very common both in children 
 and adidts. It infests chiefly the lower part of the 
 intestines, and particularly the rectum, great numbers 
 being often present together, and occasioning intoler- 
 
 itching, irritation, and loss of sleep, alt! 
 there is not in general much serious injury to health. 
 The same anthelmintics employed against other 
 intestinal worms are found efficacious also in the 
 expulsion of this; and clysters are often employed 
 with great success. The thread-worm is white, not 
 more than half an inch in length, the male much 
 
 less. Some recent authors of high reputation have 
 separated this species from A., and call it Ozyurit 
 
 Ascaris vcrmicularis (male). 
 
 Magnified twenty-five diameter? ; 
 a, the'mouth. 
 
 Ascaris vcrmicularis 
 
 (female). 
 
 Magnified eight diameters. 
 
 vermiadaru, bat the term Ascaridea is often 
 employed in medical works with exclusive reference 
 to it ; and indeed this name, derived from the Greek 
 askarizo, to jump or move briskly, probably owes its 
 origin to the liveliness of motion which this S] 
 exhibits. It has been recently discovered that its 
 nervous system is very highly developed, consisting 
 of many ganglia, with connecting and ramifying 
 cords. 
 
 ASCE'iS'SIOX, one of the comparatively few 
 single islands on the globe, being about SOO miles to 
 the north-west of St Helena, and almost as far to the 
 south south-west of St Matthew. It is said to have 
 received its name from the circumstance of its having 
 been discovered by the Portuguese on Ascension-day. 
 It is nearly in the middle of the South Atlantic, the lat 
 of its fort being 7° 55' 55" S., and its long. 14° 25 5" \V. 
 A. is S miles long by 6 broad ; its area being about 
 ire miles. Though it was discovered as early 
 as 1501, yet it remained uninhabited till 1S15, when, 
 in connection with Napoleon Bonaparte's detention 
 in St Helena, the English took possession of it 
 Even now the population, about 400, ia chiefly mili- 
 tary. Like St Helena, it is of volcanic origin, and 
 generally mountainous — one peak rising to a height 
 I feet. Owing to the extreme dryness of the 
 climate, which, however, is healthy, the surface is 
 nearly destitute of verdure. Among indigenous 
 productions are the tomato, castor-oil plant, and 
 pepper; and various European v. ■_ re suc- 
 
 cessfully cultivated. The chief exports of A. are 
 turtle and birds' eggs — 10,000 dosena of the latui 
 having occasionallybeen collected in on£ week. 
 
 ASCE'N'SIOX, Richt (Lat ateauio," a. rising; 
 Ger. gerade au/titagung),ihe name given in astronomy 
 to one of the arcs which determine the position 
 relatively to the equator of a heavenly 1 
 celestial sphere, the other being the declination 
 Armii.i.akv Si'HERE. It is the arc of the equator
 
 ASCENSION-DAY- ASCETICISM. 
 
 intero pted 1" bween the first point of ! 
 
 and tl"' point at which the circle of 
 
 the equator. Measured 
 always from west to east, right A on the heavi 
 
 i 
 ascertained by mi 
 instrument and clock. The transit instrument 
 its meridian passage, and the b 
 the time at which this takes place. When the 
 first point of Aries is in the meridian, the clock 
 stands at i> hours, minutes, Beconds, and it is so 
 arranged as to indicate 24 sidereal hours, the time 
 that elapses between two sucoi ivep i of that 
 
 point. The reading of the clock, thei , at the 
 
 i of any heavenly body gives its right A. in time, 
 and this, when multiplied by 15, gives the same in 
 degrees, minutes. and seconds. The right A. is I 
 given, however, in time. The old term, oUiqiu A., 
 ven to the right A. of the point "f the equator 
 that rose simultaneously with the heavenly body ; 
 and the dilference of the oblique and right A. was 
 called the ' ascensional differ! 
 
 ASCE'NSION-DAY, or HOLY THURSDAY, 
 one of the great religious festivals of the I 
 pal, and also of the Roman Catholic Church. It 
 1 nn t!i" fortieth day aft I I and is 
 
 intended to commemorate the ascension of Christ 
 into heaven. It is one of the six days 
 ring in the year for which the Church of England 
 appoint psalms, and the same chun : 
 
 ' amends it as a fitting day for 
 the receiving of the communion. Ascension-day 
 has been ved from the earliest tin 
 
 instian Church. St Augustine believes it to 
 been instituted cither by the apostles 
 Ives, or the primitive bishops sue, eding them. 
 Connected witli the religious observances of tins 
 
 ■ire certain civic ones, which in some p 
 England and Scotland are continued to this day 
 
 voids, or riding A 
 their religious connection is apparently fo] 
 Sec Rogation Days and l'l i [iATIONS. 
 
 ASCE'TICISM. Among the Greel 
 denoted tie- ex ireise and discipline practised by the 
 athletes or wrestlers, who had to harden thi a- bodies 
 by exertion and to avoid all sensual and effeminating 
 indulgences. In the schools of the philoso 
 
 i illy of the Stoics, the same word signified 
 the practice of mastering the desires and passions, 
 or of severe virtue. In these senses it passed into 
 the language of the early I 'hri-tians. lie language 
 of St Paul in comparing the Christians to wr 
 who had to contend with Satan, the world, and the 
 flesh, contributed to this. Hut the philosophy 
 of the time had more to do with it, which held the 
 D » of mind from matter to be the means of union 
 with Cod; or, at least, that the refraining from all 
 luxurious pleasure was the way to res-tore the soul 
 to its original purity. To understand the vast influ- 
 ence that ascetic ideas have exercised on the Chri 
 religion, we must look beyond the bounds of its 
 hi t iry. Their root lies in the oriental notion, that 
 the Absolute or All is the only real existence 
 that individual phenomena, especially matter in all 
 its shapes, are really nothing, and are to be di 
 and avoided, as involving the principle of separation 
 from the Absolute. The East, accordingly, is the 
 native soil of A. The glowing imagination of 
 oriental carries the practice of it to a monstrous 
 extravagance, as is seen in the frightful self- 
 tortures of the yogis and fakirs, the suicides in 
 I'd Ganges and under the wheels of Jugger- 
 nautli. and the practices now or recently prevalent 
 of offering children in sacritice, and of burn- 
 ing widows ; most of which, however, have been 
 
 ly suppressed by the efforts of the British 
 
 imi at Buddhi m, which ta 
 
 as a kind of puritan revival or reformation — 
 
 the methodism i I idian religion carried 
 
 the principle beyond its previous bounds. In 
 
 atemning the world; in its inculcating a life 
 
 litude ami beggary, mortification of the body, 
 
 and al 'in all uncleauness and from all 
 
 ait and 
 detached as] am this ' Vi >w' (seo 
 
 Bt wins'.! and NntV w \i. 1 
 the more moral and rational : 
 
 in to these extravagances; and the earnest 
 
 ans sought to confine it to monogamy of the 
 priests, abstaining from the llesh of swine and from 
 . rigid punr. . i a, mod 
 
 ad frequent contemplation of death (which 
 
 were arrangements inr bringing l" n 
 brance, even in the midst of festivities). The o 
 
 rtainly milder forms of A., but tin- principle 
 
 i line. 
 
 It i< in tli this fore-history that wo must 
 
 ler Judaic and tin a ascetici an. In the 
 1 mind, especially in Egypt, circumcision, 
 ing of all uncleanness. and fasting, were 
 humil; and in tie- Mosaic 
 
 iditions of the favour of tin- holy Jehovah. 
 
 Voluntary vows, abstaining even from lawful food, 
 wine, &c were held to have a special purifying, 
 consecrating efficacy, particularly for prophets ami 
 men of special callings. But s. 1 on con- 
 
 tinued fnr long foreign to the sobriety of Judaism, 
 
 and even ha into established practice 
 
 only shortly before Christ, in Palestine among the 
 Essenes (q. v.), in Egypt among the Therapeutae 
 (q. v.); though doubt! ' A. had become 
 
 more loomy since the exile in Babylon. 
 
 A. was far less congenial to the reflective nations 
 nf the West, above all to the cheerful Greeks. A 
 
 Greek felt himself entitled to enjoyment as well as 
 Is; hence I Ireek n ligious Ei t ivals were p i 
 i by cheerfulness. The only exception appi ira 
 i' I-- the Eleusinian mysteries, which never took 
 hold of the pi ople generally, and t 1 
 
 nf the Pythagorean fraternity, 'lie attack 
 ratio school upon the body as the 
 prison erf the soul a view n [rnnding "in- of th 
 — and the extravagant contempt fur the elegs 
 
 and even dee. ie n ; of life, professed by the I I r 
 Stoics and Cyi were no genuine fruits of the 
 
 popular Greek mind; and we must also ascribe to 
 the infusion of oriental philosophy the ascetic ten- 
 s of Neoplatonism, hi holding abstinence from 
 flesh and from marriage as chief conditions of 
 : .mi into the divinity. 
 It was into the midst of these ideas that < hris- 
 tianity was introduced The. I .wish converts brought 
 with them their convictions about fasting. Fasting 
 and Nazaritie observances were thought sanctifying 
 preparatives for great undertakings; and the incul- 
 cation of abstinence from marriage, on the ground of 
 tie- expected speedy re-appearance of Christ, falls in 
 with the same notion, namely, that the flesh, that is, 
 the sensuous part of our nature, is the seat of sin, 
 and must therefore, before all things, lie rigorously 
 chained. The old oriental traditions of A. ; the 
 spirituality of Christianity, pointing away from 
 to heaven ; opposition to the corruption of the 
 heathen world ; the distinction made between belief 
 and kie as a hi -her and lower stage of intel- 
 
 ligence, Lading tn a corresponding distinction of a 
 higher and lower stage of virtue: all combined to 
 make the Christians of the first two centuries hold 
 aloof from the world and its wisdom, and favour 
 abstinence from marriage, more especially on the 
 part of the clergy. This ascetic spirit began as early
 
 ASCHAFKENBUBG— A8CHAM. 
 
 as the commencement of the 2d c. to court trial in 
 i-ilous practice of men and women living 
 to er under vows of continence. We find 
 Cyprian dissuading from the dangerous experii 
 and even t lie authority of the church interpo 
 
 ■ ect, But during the first three centuries 
 no irrevocable vows yet hound the devotees to a life- 
 long A. Fasting was also comparatively rare. 
 
 lint the tendency to outward mi 18 now 
 
 began to grow stronger. The inward and spiritual 
 life of tli^ Christians had greatly declined ; and if 
 ion bl ly persecutions had driven indi- 
 viduals from human society into the deserts, the 
 growing secularisation of the church, after Christi- 
 became tbo state religion, had the same 
 effect to a still greater di graft All this paved the 
 mii of A. — namely, mon- 
 asticism (q. v.); and the church found herself com- 
 . tide of opinion within 
 and without to recognise this form of A., and to 
 take it under her protection and care. From the 
 African Church, represented by Tertullian and 
 Augustine, a spirit of gloomy and crushing 
 
 I deeper and deeper over the Western 
 Church generally, intensifying the ascetic tendencies, 
 and leading to stdl more marked separation from a 
 cd world. There w< re not wanting healthier 
 as Jovianus, Yigilantius, and others — to 
 raise their voices a ting, monkery, and the 
 
 outward works of A. generally ; but such protests 
 rain, and became ever rarer. 
 From the 11th c, the Cathari, Waldenses, and 
 other sects, though ascetics themselves in a way, 
 aded the external A. of the church; the 
 Petrarch fought on t ale; and so 
 
 did Wickliffe, Huss, and Jerome of Prague, in their 
 premal i * a1 reformation. After a pre- 
 
 liminary skirmish by Erasmus, the struggle was 
 di (rided in the reformation of the 16th c. The 
 fundamental principle of that movement, that salva- 
 tion is secured by justification through faith, and 
 not through dead works, struck at the root of 
 monkery and mortification in general. But the 
 victory has not been so complete as is often assumed. 
 The ascetic spirit often shews itself still alive under 
 various disguises even in Protestantism. The 
 Mennonites inculcat d a rigid A. ; and with the 
 Shakers of America, celibacy IS practi-i d as a virtue. 
 ence of A. is to hold self-denial and suffering 
 to be meritorious in the sight of Cod, in and for 
 itself, without regarding whether it promotes in any 
 way the good of others or the improvement of the 
 individual's own character. In this light, many 
 traits presented by Puritanism, Methodism, and 
 nam appear ascetic It is not impossible that 
 tarianism, total a! and other recent 
 
 austerities, though advocated on other grounds, 
 recommend, themselves to the feelings of many 
 from their falling in with this deep-seated pro- 
 pensity to A.; which seems a relic of that dread of 
 lignity of the invisible and supernatural 
 which haunts the human mind in an 
 unenlightened and savage state. 
 
 Even in the Romish Church, ascetic practices have 
 
 been modified in recent times; fastings are less 
 
 is, and the self-sacrifice of conventual life is 
 
 directed to beneficial ends. Mohannnedanisin 
 
 has undergone the same change. In the Greek 
 
 Church, monasticism had always a milder form. 
 
 Asc ! I A I ' 1 ' EH BTJ KG, the chief town on the right 
 bank of the Maine, in E 
 
 the line name flat oil 1 N.. Ion;. '.) 7 E). It is 
 built upon an eminence thy and 
 
 attractive situation ; but tin' streets are narrow, 
 alar, and slope steeply towards the river. The 
 castle of Johannisburg, built between 1005 — 1014, 
 80 
 
 by Johann S< hwoikhardt, Elector of Mentz, and the 
 favourite hunting residence of many of his suc- 
 cessors, forms a quadrangle, with towers at each 
 corner, and overlooks the whole town. Besides the 
 to church, the military barracks, and the 
 town-hospital, A. possesses a Roman villa, built by 
 the late King Louis, in imitation of the Castor and 
 Pollux edifice discovered at Pompeii. It is celebrated 
 for its manufacture of coloured papers, besides carry - 
 i considerable trade in wood, building-stone, 
 , wine, Ac Pop. 8500, principally Catholics. 
 A. existed as early as the invasion of Germany 
 by the Romans, who built a .In 974, 
 
 Otto I., Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, founded 
 the collegiate church, which greatly increased the 
 prosperity of the place. After Otto's death, it came 
 into the possession of the archbishops of Mentz, and 
 remained with them until the dissolution of the 
 Germanic empire. In 1814, along with the princi- 
 pality of which it is the capital, it was cd 1 
 Bavaria by Austria. 
 
 ASCHAM, Roger, a distinguished English writer 
 and classical scholar, was born in 1515 at Kirby 
 Wiske, in Yorkshire. He received his early educa- 
 tion in the family of Sir Anthony Wingfield, and in 
 1530 entered St John's College, Cambridge, whi 
 took his degree of M.A. in 1536. The study of the 
 classics, especially Greek, had recently been revived 
 
 Caml I '-, and the natural bent of A. inn 
 him with ardour to these studies. His reputation 
 as a classical scholar soon brought him nun 
 pupils; and there being at that time no Greek chair, 
 he was appointed by tin- university to read lectures 
 in tin public schools. He at first opposed the then 
 new method of pronimciation which is still used in 
 England; but afterwards adopted and defended it. 
 i ire hours were devoted to music, penmanship, 
 in which he excelled, and archery. In defence of 
 tli litter art, he wrote, in 1544, a treatise enl 
 Toxopldlu.1, the pure English style of which, inde- 
 pendently of its other merits, ranks it amo 
 classical pieces of English literature. For this tl 
 which was dedicated to Henry VIII., he was 
 rewarded with an annual pension of £10, equivalent 
 to about £100 of our present money. About the 
 same time, he was appointed university orator. In 
 154S, on the death of his former pupil, Grinds!, he 
 was called to supply his place as master of languages 
 to the Lady Elizabeth. In this office he gave the 
 faction; but at the end of two years 
 abruptly resigned it, on account of some offence he 
 had taken at some persons in the princess's house- 
 hold. That he did not lose favour at court, howei er. 
 is manifest, from his having soon after been appointed 
 secretary to Sir Richard Morysine, ambassador to the 
 court of Charles V. He spent three years in '■■ 
 
 . ad publish : nit of his ol 
 
 in that country. He also made a short tour in Italy. 
 During his absence, he had been 
 secretary to Edward VI. On his return, after the 
 of the king, the interest of Gardiner, Bishop 
 of Winchester, secured his appointment to tin 
 office under Mary; his pension also was doubled. 
 His prudence anil moderation pres rved him from 
 offending by his Protestantism. After the death of 
 Elizabeth retained him at court in tin- doable 
 capacity of secretary and tutor, which In- discharged 
 till his" death, in 1568. His principal woil,. 
 
 . a treatise on classical education, was 
 published in 1571 by his widow. His Latin letters 
 and poems have been frequently reprinted. The 
 of the former is that of EUstob (Oxford, 
 To an edition of his English works. I 
 Rev. .1. Bennet (1707). is prefixed a life by Dr 
 Johnson.— ASCHAM, a case for the reception of the 
 bow, arrows, strings, and other accoutrements of the 
 
 4*>5
 
 ASCHERRLEBEN— ASCIDIA. 
 
 archer, derive* its name from the author of the 
 
 ! itus. 
 
 ASCHERSLE'BEX, a town in the circle or 
 
 me name, in the Prussian province 
 
 irg.lat.51 46' N., long., ll' 27' E. It is 
 
 river Eine, is 7 Hides distant from 
 
 burg, and has a population of 11,6X10. He 
 
 inhabitants arc chiefly occupied in agriculture and 
 
 ling, but its trade is not very important. It 
 
 iwever, considerable manufactures of woollens, 
 
 linens, earthenware, &c. In the vicinity are the 
 
 ruins of the old burgh of Ascania, the original seat 
 
 of the House of Anhult. 
 
 ASCTDIA, a Linnxan genus of marine mollusca, 
 much restricted a i bat the type of a 
 
 family called Ascidiadce. Thenain is also 
 
 comniouly employed to designate all those timicated 
 mollusca which form the order Saccobrar, 
 " , or in which respiration is carried on by 
 i if gill-sacs [branchial sacs); and these are 
 divided into Compound and Solitary Ascidians [A g- 
 gregala and Svlitaria). The ascidians, along with 
 ■'■', are acephalous, or destitute of a 
 bead, and are i uelosed, not in a shell, but in an 
 elastic tunic with two orifices, composed of a sub- 
 stance apparently identical with the cellulose of 
 plants, consisting only of carbon and hydrogen. 
 Within the external tunic is a muscular membrane, 
 regarded as corresponding to the mantle of other 
 mollusca, and the openings of which agree with 
 those of the tunic. The greater part of the cavity 
 of the mantle forms a branchial sac, the lining of 
 which, folded in various ways, constitutes the gills 
 Mai); and into it currents of sea-water arc 
 continually brought by the respiratory movements, 
 ng out through the vent or anal orifice. 
 Multitudinous cilia in the mouth and branchial sac, 
 cause by their action this continual flow of water. 
 The motion of the cilia is apparently quite involun- 
 tary. By this flow of water, the particles of food 
 ite for the animal are brought in, so that the 
 aeration of the blood and the supply of the stomach 
 are carried on together and by the .same means. The 
 or gullet opens from the branchial sac, 
 which is indeed regarded as probably an expansion 
 of the upper part of it — a dilated pharynx. Under 
 the branchial sac is the stomach ; and the alimentary 
 canal, which is more or less tortuous, finally returns 
 upon itself, so that the two orifices are not far 
 separate. The liver consists of follicles produced 
 into tubes, and communicating 
 with the stomach by a single 
 opening. There is a heart and 
 a circulation of blood, with the 
 remarkable peculiarity of alter- 
 nations in its course, the cir- 
 culation every now and then 
 
 ng and being re. 
 The transparency of many of 
 the ascidians permits tie 
 other internal movements to 
 be easily observed. The ner- 
 ••3 vous system is very simple, 
 consisting of a single ganglion, 
 situated Detween the mouth 
 and the anal orifice, and which 
 sends out filaments to both of 
 them, and other branches over 
 
 „ ; the surface of the mantle. The 
 
 Ran?lw;i ; it, the mantle ., ,. e . . 
 
 external tunic mantle is capable ot contract- 
 being removed). ing suddenly to eject a jet of 
 water, and along with it any 
 body the presence of which is disagreeable. It also 
 contracts and ejects water, if the animal is touched, 
 and this appears to be the only means of defence 
 
 Nervous System of 
 
 Ascicha. 
 
 mouth ; b, vent ; 
 
 which these creatures possess. There' is no trace of 
 eyes or of other organs of spec 
 
 The ascidians are found in all seas, and often 
 constitute an important part of the food of fishes. 
 Some of them are occasionally used as human 
 
 !iia microcosmus on the shores of the Medi- 
 terranean. Many of them arc very small, but some 
 attain a size of five or six inches in diameter, and 
 when touched, eject water to a considerable height, 
 of them to about three feet. They are all 
 fixed by the base, in their mature state, to Bone 
 substance, as a rock or seaweed ; sometimes 1 
 
 Section of Social Asciilian. 
 
 a, mouth; 6, vent; e, stomnch ; il, intestinal canal; 
 
 e, common tubular stem. 
 
 intervention of a stalk or peduncle. In come 
 kinels [Social Atcidians), the peduncles of a ni 
 of individuals are connected by a tubular stem, and 
 to some extent they have a common circulation of 
 blood, although each has its own heart, respiratory 
 apparatus, ana digestive system; and if a ligature 
 is drawn around the peduncle of one so as to cut 
 it off from the common circulation, circulation 
 place in it as in a solitary ascidian. In other kinds 
 (more strictly called Compound Ascidians — which 
 
 ition, however, is by some authors applied 
 086 just described, whUst these are called 
 Aggregate Ascidians), the tunics of many are united 
 into a mass, and they form systems like zoop! 
 The compound system sometimes bears a 
 
 lance to an actinia. Very frequently it forms 
 a slimy crust upon alga;, shells, &c, or projects in 
 globular or conical masses, 'more like a lamp of 
 inanimate matte-r than a being endowed with vitality ' 
 — ' a curious and interesting internal organisation, 
 veiled by the coarsest exterior.' The individuals are 
 sometimes connected by a gelatinous flesh, which 
 consists of cellulose, and there is sometimes a calca- 
 reous deposition in this connecting substance as in 
 the compound polypes. The individuals in these 
 systems have always sprung by gemmation from 
 one, and both the solitary and compound ascidians 
 
 ate by eggs. The young have the pov 
 active locomotion, resemble tael- 
 poles in form, and swim by means 
 of a vibratile tad, which disap- 
 pears when they settle, being 
 usually detached by contra i 
 at the base. The sexes are sup- 
 posed to be distinct only in some 
 of the ascidians. The ovaries arc 
 usually large and the ova are Asci(Uan (Y0Un „,. 
 carncel away 1 y the stream which 
 passes through the animal. It is in the sol 
 ascidians that the highest organisation is to be 
 observed, and in which alone a distinction of sexes 
 appears. In them, a muscular ring surrouno 
 mouth, and can be closed to exclude what is unfit 
 to enter. Within this aperture there is also a 
 
 of tentacula, short and simple, or I 
 and minutely divided. In the compound ascidians, 
 gemmation does not begin till the single animal 
 has been fully developed; thereafter, bud after
 
 ASCLEPIADACEJE— A SCLEPIADES. 
 
 bud is produced, according to the plan upon which 
 the compound system is constructed, and ' I 
 creative force of the germ-mass finally exhausts 
 itself in the formation of male and female organs, in 
 which that force is again mysteriously renewed under 
 it3 two forms of the spermatozoon and the germinal 
 vesicle, by the combination of which the reproduc- 
 tive cycle again begins its course.' 
 
 The name Ascldian Zoophytes {Zoophyt" 
 
 la) has been used to designate those zoophytes 
 or polypes which form the class Polyzoa of Thomp- 
 son, liryozoa of Ehrenberg, and which in certain 
 res of their organisation resemble the A., 
 although in other respects they widely differ from 
 them. The Alcyonidium and Alcijone.Ua, already 
 noticed in the article Alcyonium, belong to this class. 
 See Polypi: and Zoophyte. 
 
 ASCLEPIADA'CE-E, or ASCLEPIA'DE.E. a 
 natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, 
 mostly shrubs, often with twining stems, almost 
 always with milky juice. The leaves are entire, and 
 have cilia between their stalks in place of stipules. 
 The flowers are peculiar in their structure, although 
 trical and regular. The calyx is divided 
 into live segments, the corolla into live lobes ; there 
 are live stamens, and the stigma has five angles. 
 The filaments are usually united so as to form a 
 tube, which is generally furnished with a coronet of 
 peculiar hood-shaped appendages ; the anthers are 
 two-celled, the pollen grains cohering in wax-like 
 masses, which fall out of the anther cells, and 
 become attached to glands at the angles of the 
 stigma; there are two ovaries and two styles very 
 close together, and often very short, with one 
 dilated stigma common to both. The fruit consists 
 of two follicles, or, by abortion, of one only, having 
 m-.iuerous imbricated seeds with thin albumen, the 
 if the seeds terminating in long down. There 
 are nearly one thousand known species, chiefly 
 
 Vincctoxicuin officinale. 
 a, root ; b, fruit ; c, a f Ingle wed. 
 
 natives of warm climates. Some of them arc culti- 
 vate ■! in gardens and hothouses, upon aoconnt of 
 their curim* or beautiful flowers, among the most 
 familiar of which are some of the species at Asclepias 
 (q.v.) or Swallow-wort; perhaps none of them is 
 
 more highly or deservedly esteemed than Stephanolis 
 
 • of which equals its h 
 and which, since its introduction into British hot- 
 houses, has been sought for the bridal-garlands of 
 the highest aristocracy. No hothouse climber is 
 better Known than lloya carnosa, at each flower of 
 which a drop of honey is always fom 
 A number of species are medicinal, as Indian Sar- 
 saparilla (q.v.), (Ihemidesmus Indicus) ; Modal 
 
 ropU gigantea), so highly prized in the East 
 Indies; Sarcoslemma glauaan, the Ipecacnai 
 Venezuela; Tylopliora aslhmalica and 
 emetica, the roots of which are used as emetics, and 
 in smaller doses as cathartics, and the former of 
 which is reckoned among the most valuable medi- 
 cinal plants of India ; Cynanehum aculum, which 
 yields a purgative called Montp li,_ T Scammony, and 
 xicum officinale, which possesses similar pro- 
 perties. Argel (q.v.), much used for adulterating 
 senna, belongs to this order. — The down of the seeds 
 is sometimes employed as a substitute for silk or 
 cotton (see Asclepias) ; and the stems of not a few 
 species afford useful fibres, as those of the Asclepias 
 Syriaca (see Asclepias), the Mudar (q.v.) and other 
 species of Calolropis, natives of India and Persia, 
 Hoya viridiflora, llolostemma Rheediannm, &e. The 
 Mudar or Yercum fibre is very highly extolled by 
 Dr I'oyle (Fibrous Plants of India). The bark of 
 Marsdenia tenacissima, a small climbing-plant, yields 
 a fibre called Jetee, of which the Rajmahal moun- 
 taineers make bowstrings, remarkable for their 
 great elasticity, which they are supposed in some 
 measure to owe to the presence of caoutchouc. The 
 fibre of if. Eoylei is used in Nepal. OrlhanOiera 
 viminea, which grows at the base of the Himalayas, 
 and has long leafless wandlike stems of ten feet in 
 height, yields a fibre of remarkable length and 
 tenacity, and which is supposed to be peculiarly 
 suited for rope-making. The fibres of Lepl" 
 iana and Periploca aphyllum an 
 in Sinde for making the ropes and bands used in 
 wells, as water does not rot them. — The milky juice 
 of most species of A. is acrid, but in some it is bland, 
 and they are used for food, as is the milk itself of 
 the Kiriaghuna or Cow-plant of Ceylon [Oymnema 
 ion). A few speeies, as Marsdenia tinctoria, 
 a native of Silhet, yield indigo of excellent quality. 
 The flowers of the genus Stapdia have a strong 
 smell of carrion, and flies sometimes lay their eggs 
 upon them, as it were by mistake. — Xo species of 
 A. is a native of Britain. — The order is generally 
 1 as nearly allied to Apocynaceas. 
 ASCLEPI'ADES, a Greek physician, born at 
 Prusa, in Bithynia, who flourished daring the early 
 part of Cicero's life. He has been confounded with 
 several other persons of the same name, and, in con- 
 sequence, our accounts concerning him are both 
 confused and contradictory. He seems to have 
 wandered about considerably before he finally settled 
 at Rome, as we read of his being at Alexandria. 
 Parium on the Propontis, and Athens. It is not 
 known either when he was born or when he died. 
 A. was opposed to the principles of Hippocrates in 
 medicine. Pliny, who professes very little respect 
 for him, reduces his medicinal remedies to live : 
 abstinence from flesh, abstinence from wine under 
 certain circumstances, friction, walking, and ' 
 tion ' or carriage exercise, by which he proposed to 
 open the pores, and let the corpuscles which c 
 disease escape in perspiration ; for his leading doctrine 
 was, that all disease rose from an inharmonious dis- 
 tribution of the small, formless corpuscles of which 
 the body was composed. He is said to have been 
 very popular with the Romans on account of his 
 pleasant and simple cures. His maxim was, that a 
 physician ought to cure surely, swiftly, and agreeably 
 
 '46:
 
 ASCLEPIAS-ASniTX. 
 
 I 
 
 ich, unfortunately, is not alv 
 
 . e b c-n the first w bo distin- 
 
 ■ I and elm. nl. i . bul in i 
 
 no\i ledge of anal very alight. 
 
 The fragments of his which remain have been 
 
 • I together, corrected, ami published bj 
 
 ■ I BiOiyni Frag- 
 
 (Weimar, 179S). 
 
 Asri.F.'Pl vs.m-sw UXOYV-WORT.agenusof 
 
 plants, the ty] f the natural order At 
 
 Tin- corolla is wheel-shaped and reflezed; the < 
 
 . and each of its hooded tips ho i a horn. The 
 eldom cl mbi 
 twining herbaceous plants with opposite, whorled, 
 or alternate leaves. They are mostly A 
 The flowers are disposed in simp].' umbels i> 
 the leaf-stalks. — A. Syriaca, Syrian or Vii 
 Swallow-wort, sometimes called Virginian Silk, 
 
 u i to be a native of North America, and not of 
 Syria.;: gposed. It is frequently cultivated 
 
 in flower-gardens. It has an unbranched stem 4 7 
 feet high ; thick, ovate leaves, covered with a 
 down "ii the underside; and huge, .'till,.'!, nodding 
 umbels of many dull red flowers, which dil 
 strong and sweetish odour. The whole plant is full 
 of an acrid white milk, which contains caouti 
 The young shoots are eaten in North America like 
 those of A. sdpitacea are in Arabia. 
 A brown well-tasted sugar is prepared in Canada 
 from the flowers ; an. I tin- Bilk-like down of the seeds 
 A for the manufacture of textile fabrics, 
 either alone, . ■. 1 1 1 r wool or silk, but is mon 
 
 Erequi ul Lj i oployed for the preparal ion o 
 ana for stuffing mattresses and pillows. The plant 
 
 , to be chiefly valuable for the fibi 
 of its stalks, which is used for the manufacture of 
 
 !. cloth, ropes, • in many parts of 
 
 North America, and upon account of which it has 
 been lvcniiiiiii'iiili d for general cultivation in Europe. 
 The fibre is said to lie of very superior quality. The 
 plant rapidly extends by its creeping roots, and 
 readily becomes a weed, where it lias been intro- 
 duced. — The roots of several other North American 
 species are used as diaphoretics and expectorants, as 
 I. arnata, A. tuber — ..'.■. The latter is a very 
 ornamental garden-flower, and is called Butterfly 
 \Y. ed and Pleurisy Hoot in the I faited state-, where 
 it is frequent on stony and sandy grounds. A. 
 called W ild [p cacuanha in the West 
 
 I, and a deeoction of it is used by the n 
 as an emetic and purgative. 
 
 A'SCOLI (anciently. Asculum Picenum), an old 
 episcopal city of Italy, the capital of a delegation in 
 the states of the Church, hit. 42' 50'N.,long. 13° 
 .';7 E. It is built on a hill, on the right bank of 
 the Tronto, which forms the boundary between the 
 a and Neapolitan territories. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 From the Adriatic, it is distant 16 D 
 from Ancona, 53 south. Its harbour (Porto 
 d'Ascoli) has some coasting-trade, and is defi aded 
 by two forts. The town is beautifully situated, 
 
 commanding a fine view of the fertile valley tl 1. 
 
 which the river Hows, and of the rugged Apennines, 
 which lure rise to an elevation of 7212 feet. 
 
 In ancient times, it was inhabited by the Piceni, 
 lendants of a colony of Sabines, who main- 
 tained their independence against the Romans until 
 2GS B.C. Nearly two centuries after, they took a 
 prominent part in the SocialWar; and ou the taking 
 of their town byPompeius Strabo, were subjected 
 severest punishments. The town was finally 
 annexed to the Papal States by Pope Clement V, in 
 1426. 
 
 ASELLI, ASELLIO, or ASELLIUS, CaSPAB, a 
 
 a physician, was born at Cremona 
 
 about the year 1581. a mili- 
 
 tary Burgeon, but afterwards became p 
 anatomy and surgery at Padua, In 1622, while at 
 Milan, where he was in the habit of spending a 
 portion of his time, b.. discovered the lacteal 
 i- i A. time, anatomj bad i uppo ed 
 that the chyle wa i >m the intestines into the 
 
 liver by the mesenteric vein . Happening oneday 
 s ■ .1: lect a living dog, he noticed tor the fit 
 the multitude of little vessels, which such up the 
 
 nutritive portion of the f I. At Brat, he took 
 
 them for mrves, and did not pay particular 
 
 tdon to them; but on pricking one with the point 
 
 of his ' white liquid spurted out. and til" 
 
 : iovi ■. B : bed on him in a moment. I Ce 
 
 r, never to have understood or described 
 them with co curacy. Jb- died at tl 
 "t 46, leaving a tn iti e on the subject of his 
 ry, winch was published a year aft 
 
 It is entitled /;. Linlihiis, .lift' l.ucl. i I . . ,. , 
 
 Quarto Vasorum M< arai rum Gem n . Aw. Invento, 
 itio, and has .-' v. ral timi i been r 
 It is curious to reflect that such nan as Gaspard 
 HoUhianand Harvey zealously combated theopi 
 
 of A. It was nearly half a century before pi 
 sional men admitted that a great discovery had 
 bei □ made in anatomy. See La( ii.ai.s. 
 
 ASE'LLTJS, in Ichthyology, a generic name now 
 1, but. by which the cod and other Oadidce 
 were formerly sometimes designated Itisrel 
 in the pharmacopo ias, in the name of • 'od- liver Oil, 
 OU "in jecorit asclli. — The same generic name is now 
 employed m :l different department of natural 
 history, to d te ■< genua of small Isopod Crusta- 
 ceans, i i which, .1. atpiaticuB, is common in 
 
 in Britain, and is sometim s called 
 the Water 1 big louse. This genus is the type of a 
 family, Asd 1 
 
 A'SES. The singular of this name in Old Not 
 As, pi. Aesir; in Gothic, Ann : in Saxon 
 The A. are a race of gods in Northern Or Scandina- 
 vian Mythology (q. v.), though not the oldest, yet the 
 most powerful, like the Jupiter d] mgthe 
 
 Greeks. Tiny are usually considered as numbering 
 
 twelve gods, and as man . The gods are - 
 
 Odin, Thor, Baldur, Niord, F-reyr, Tyr. Bragi, Eeim- 
 
 ilal, Widar, Wali, Oiler, and Forscti; the best known 
 of the goddesses— Frigga, Freyja, [dnnna, ECira, and 
 
 Saga. The worship of the A., or the Odm reli| , 
 
 was rooted not only among the nation; of Seamh 
 navia, but amen,' the Germanic races generally, at 
 li ast in its outlines. P.esides other traces, ]iroofs 
 of its prevalence are to be found in a multitude of 
 Gothic, Saxon, and ( lid High German proper D 
 many of which continue still in use, though then con 
 ■ * with German paganism passes imperceived: 
 Oswald, Esmond, Oswin, Anselm, Ansgar, &c 
 
 ASGILL, John, an eccentric English litterateur, 
 
 born about the middle of the 17th c. He studied 
 for the bar, and at intervals during the whole oi 
 his checkered life transacted legal buainesa in some 
 form or other; but having early displayed a predilec- 
 tion for writing political pamphlets, he soon I.. 
 involved in spite of his cleverness, in serious pecu- 
 niary difficulties. Fortunately for him, parliament 
 had just passed an act (1699) for the resumption of 
 forfeited estates in Ireland, and commissioners were 
 appointed to settle claims. A bright vision flitted 
 across the mind of the much-harassed man. He 
 sailed for the sister isle, and found the whole coun- 
 try wrangling in lawsuits. His talents, and the 
 favour of the commissioners, secured to him a 
 lucrative practice; and he even acquired sufficient 
 influence to obtain a seat in the Irish parliament, 
 Some time, however, before taking possession of
 
 ASGILL-ASH. 
 
 his seat, A. had published a most extraordinary 
 pamphlet, entitled An Argument proving that, 
 
 ling to the Covenant oj Eternal Lift fixated 
 ■in tin- Scripture), Man may be translated henet 
 into that Eternal Lij ■.■<;/ ttii-.ni/li 
 
 Death, although the Humane Nature qf Christ 
 liims.'i r.iii.f ik, i tint, be translated t> ! i he had 
 
 i through Death (17(10). Much to A.'s 
 surprise, the public Hew into a v oat this 
 
 absurd production; the Irish parliament voted it a 
 blasphemous libel, and the astonished author was 
 expelled from the House after four days. In 1705, 
 A. returned to England, and entered the Engh h 
 pari' unent as mi mber for Bramber, in Sussex But 
 the i mi" of his unlucky pamphlet haunted him 
 perpetually, and at last proved a Nemesis ; for the 
 EnglishHou • living to be not less virtuous than 
 tb [ri h one, took up the treatise, condemned it to be 
 burnt by the common hangman, as profane and 
 blasphemous, and expelled A. on the 18th December 
 1707. After this his circumstances rapidly grew 
 worse, until at last he found something like peace 
 in the King's Bench and the Fleet, between which 
 two pi lursions were confined for the term 
 
 of his natural life. Here he continued to practise 
 professionally, and — for he never succeeded in over- 
 coming this weakness — to indite innumerable pam- 
 phlets on political and theological topics. He died 
 in November 17oS. 
 
 ASH [Fratxinus), a genus of trees belonging to 
 the natural order I ; , and distinguished by very 
 
 imperfect flowers, in which the calyx is obsolete, 
 and the corolla either wanting or 3— 4-partite ; the 
 
 
 greatest in trees of which the growth has been 
 
 rapid, as it exhibits the cliaracteristic toughness in 
 
 Common Ash. 
 
 fruit is a samara, a seed-vessel foliaccous at the 
 extremity. The leaves are deciduous, and are 
 pinnate with a terminal leaflet. There are about 
 . mostly natives of Kuropc and of North 
 America, The Common Asn (/•'. excelsior) grows 
 wild in the middle and south of Europe and north 
 .. It is an undoubted native of Britain. The 
 flowers are quite naked ; the leaves have live or six 
 pairs of leaflets. The flowers appear before the 
 and the tree is not covered with 
 [eaves until I a is far advanced, losing them 
 
 again early in autumn. It is, however, a most beau- 
 tiful and umbrageous tree, highly ornamental in 
 parks ; but i" parks or hedgerows it is extremely 
 injurious to the era i or crops immediately around 
 it. It rises to the height of 100—150 feet, 
 ally with a smooth stem. The wood is white, 
 tough, and hard, much valued by wheel-wi 
 cart-wrights, coach-makers, joiners, and turners. It 
 is also excellent for fuel. Sometimes it bei 
 
 ilar in the disposition of its fibres, and finely 
 veined, and is then prized by cabinet-makers. The 
 Wood of the young trees is almost as valuable as 
 that of the old. Indeed, the value of the timber is 
 
 'im. 
 
 the highest degree. The A. prefers a loanrj 
 but grows in almost any, and succeeds in situa- 
 tions too elevated or too exposed for most other 
 trees. It has of late been extensively pi 
 in elevated situations in some parts of the north of 
 Scotland, and there, in the more sheltel 
 grows to a large size. Cultivation has produced and 
 perpetuated a number of varieties, of which the 
 most remarkable are the Weeping A., with I o 
 bent almost straight down to the ground : the 
 
 1 .1., with dark-grei n wrinkled or 
 leaves; and the / d A., a very curious 
 
 variety, with many or all of the leaves simple (not 
 pinnated), which has been erroneously regari I 
 
 Common Uh. 
 
 a, tt branch with loav. lcr..bljr 
 
 larger scale than the haves and Dl 
 
 some botanists as a distinct ad named F. 
 
 rheSMALL-u 
 
 A. [F. pan ' I 
 
 are both natives of the shores of the Mediterra 
 and are very graceful and ornamental trees. — The 
 AMi-.r.HWN A.. or Win r; a), is readily 
 
 I from the Common A. by its lighter 
 The flowers fa 
 calyx, and tile leailets are shortly stalked and entire
 
 ASIIANTI— ASHBURTON. 
 
 I of the Connnon A. being sessile and sen 
 
 bundant in New Brunswick and Canada, but 
 
 i ;re to the south of New Jersey. The 
 trunk often rises more than forty feet tin 
 The wood is used for the same pur] th.it of 
 
 the Common A. — Tho Bed A., or Bi lcb \. (/'. 
 its), is very similar, but of e, and 
 
 has a deep brown bark. It is moat abundant in 
 Pennsylvania. Maryland, and Vh ■ ially in 
 
 swampy ground,— -The Black A., or Water A. of 
 tlir Nisw Kngland States, New Brunswick, ■ 
 sambucifolia), is a lar™o tree with budfl of a deep blue 
 colour. — The Blue A. of Ohio, Kentucky, Ten 
 &c. {F. rjitadranpulata), is also a lit e tree. The 
 branches arc quadrangular, tl hoots having 
 
 on the angles four membranes which extend thi ir 
 whole length.— Tho Green A. (/•'. juglandifolia), 
 readily recognised by the brilliant green of its youii" 
 shoots, is chiefly found in the middle states ; and 
 the Carolina A. (F. OaroKniana), remarkable for 
 the great size of its ballets, chiefly in I 
 states. Besides these, North America produces a 
 considerable number of other species or vat 
 The wood of all of them is used for somewhat similar 
 purposes to that of the Common A. — In the south of 
 • ■ grows the Manna A., or Flow i htm; A. (/•'. 
 Ornus, called Ornus Europcca by some botanists), 
 whose flowers have a 4-partite calyx, and four small 
 ydlowish-white petals. The tree has mucli I 
 blance to tho Common A. From it the sub 
 called Manna (q. v.) is obtained by means of trans- 
 verse incisions in the bark ; but in very favourable 
 situations, it flows spontaneously during the greatest 
 "f summer. Manua is chiefly colic 
 
 ilia and Sicily. A nearly allied m . /■'. 
 
 ■. a native of Greece and the 
 Islands, yields it also in perhaps equal quantity. 
 The Common A. is said Bometimes to produce the 
 same exudation in the same warm climates. 
 The .V. is the BoWAN Ti;i;i; (q. V.) 
 
 ivnt natural order. Its resemblance 
 to the A. is chiefly in its leaves. 
 
 The A. has a peculiar importance in Scandinavian 
 
 'logy. The first man and v i d were 
 
 \ k and Ehnbla (Ash and Elm). The court of the 
 gods is represented in the Edda as held under an A., 
 called Yggdrasil (q. v.). Connected, perhaps, with 
 
 traditions is the superstitious belief in A. 
 ; as a charm against witchcraft and magic. 
 ASIIANTI', or ASHANTl o kingdom in 
 
 AVestern Africa, on the north of the Gold i . 
 near the British settlement of Cape Coast Ca 
 lat. C°— 8° N., and long. 0°— 3° W. A. is the most 
 powerful state of Upper Guinea. It is mountainous, 
 v. II watered, and healthy, except inthe lower alluvial 
 lets. The principal rivers are the Volta and 
 the Assinic. The population is estimated at about 
 a million. The land is extremely fertile; 00 
 indeed, with wild luxuriant forms of vegetation, and 
 producing maize, millet, rice, yams, tobacco, 
 cocoa, the pine-apple, and other lino fruits, with 
 
 dye-woods, and timber. The principal exports 
 
 old-dust and palm-oil, together with slaves. 
 The natives are remarkable for their skill in certain 
 
 s of manufacture; their cottons are beautiful, 
 
 > their earthenware and sword-blades. The 
 capital is Coomassie (q. v.). 
 
 The kingdom of A. was founded between 1730 
 
 7 10 by a barbarian conqueror, who established 
 a kind of feudal sovereignty over the adj 
 states. In their course of conquest over the 1 
 the Ashantecs became involved in war with the 
 British (1807— 1826), aud were finally driven from 
 the sea-coast, and confined within their inland terri- 
 Missionarics who have resided in A. describe 
 the people as exceedingly sanguinary in their 
 
 disposition and in their rob [lies, but 
 
 and cl edby a bij l d 
 
 . which surround 
 i sacrifices arc said to be very common. To 
 celebrate the funeral of a ■ n I per onage, nui 
 of slaves are massacred. On the death of a royal 
 re formerly gnat; but 
 h the influence of the authority 
 Coast Castle, and that of the missionaries, tie 
 happily on the decline. A mission to A. has been 
 maintained by the We leyan Missionary i 
 sinco 1811, and with encouraging prospects of suc- 
 cess. 
 
 A BHBOUIINE, a mull town in a rich district 
 
 near the left bank of the river Dove, in the v. 
 Derbyshire. It lies on a steep south slope, with 
 hills on the north. It lias a cruciform church, as 
 
 old as the 13th c., with triplet lancet windows, 
 which was restored in 1845 at the cost of £5000. 
 Pop. in 1S51, 2418, chielly engaged in the cotton, 
 I tee, and iron manufacture, and in the chet 
 malttra in 1644, the parliamentary troops 
 
 ted those of Charles I. 
 
 ASHBURTON, Lord, (Alexander Bartno), 
 born in 1774, a younger son of Sir Francis 1 1 
 Bart., was, in early life, for many years con 
 daily i i i the United States and the 
 
 is, iii the service of the great London mer- 
 cantile house founded by his father. On the 
 death of the latter, in 1810, he becamo the head 
 of the firm of Baring Brothers & Co., and in 1812 
 
 M. P. for Taunton, lie repp 
 that place, Callington, and Thetford, on the liberal 
 
 i. till 1831, and in 1832 was return 
 North Kssex as a i re. In the 
 
 short administration of Sir Robert Peel (1834 
 
 Pi ident of the Board of Trade, and Master of 
 the Mint, and wa i created Baron A. by patent in April 
 1S35. This title bad been oonfi rred, in April 
 
 celebrated lawyer, John Dunning, who had 
 married Alexander Baring's aunt, and it 1 
 extinct on the death of his cousin, the second Lord 
 A., in 1S23. In 1842, Lord A.'s knowledge of busi- 
 
 and thorough ace ■ with Anc 
 
 institutions, customs, and mo : ight, caused 
 
 him to be a] ' for to the 
 
 United States, to settle the north-west bom 
 question, and other disputes, that then tie 
 involve the two countries in war. In An 
 same year, he concluded tic famous treaty of Wash- 
 ington, commonly called the A. Treaty, by which the 
 frontier line between the state of Maine and Canada 
 was definitively agreed to. By this treaty, 
 twelfths of tli" disputed ground, and the British 
 settlement of Madawaska, were given to the Ohitt A 
 
 . and only five-twelfths of the ground to 
 Britain; but it seemed a better military f roc: 
 
 d included heights cole . lie St 
 
 Lawrei which the award of the king of lb ' 
 
 who bad been chosen arbiter, bad assigned to the 
 Americans. By the 8th and t)th articles, pro\ 
 
 ir putting an end to the African slave- 
 trade ; and the tenth article provides for the mutual 
 extradition of suspected criminals. Lord A. op 
 de, but strongly supported the penny-pi 
 system when first proposed by Lowland Hill in 
 1837. He formed a valuable collection of old 
 paintings. His death took place May 13, 184S.— 
 His eldest son, William Bingham Baring, I 
 Lord A. of this creation, born in 1700, and edm 
 at i Iriel College, Oxford, entered parliament in 1836, 
 as member for Taunton, and in September 1S41 was 
 ited Secretary to the Board of Control. In 
 try 1845 he becalm I neral of the 
 
 Forces, and Treasurer of the Navy. Iu 1855 he was
 
 ASHBURTOX— ASHMUX. 
 
 made Commander of the Legion of Honour, 'for 
 '•rs rendered to commerce, (lie died ISIJ4.) 
 
 A'SITJiURTOX, a small town, two to three miles 
 east of the river Dart, in the south of Derail 
 It mainly consists of two paved streets crossing each 
 other. It has a church in the perpendicular style, 
 with a town- '.)! fi-.-t high. I'op. in 1851, .'ll.'S, 
 but decreasing ; employed in the mines, slatc- 
 qnarries, and serge manufacture. The town returns 
 one member to parliament. 
 
 A'SHBY-DE-LA-ZOU'CH, a small town near 
 the source of the Mease, a tributary of the Trent, in 
 the north-west of Leicestershire. Pop. in 1851, 3762, 
 chiefly engaged in the. manufacture of stockings, 
 hats, and iirebricks, and in iron-smelting works and 
 collieries. A canal 30 miles long, without a lock, 
 connects the town with Coventry in Warwickshire. 
 Geologically, the district is carboniferous; and near 
 the town, in the coal-field, there are saline springs, 
 containing common salt in greater proportion than 
 the sea, and also bromine. The ruins of A. Castle, 
 once a vast and lofty pile, stand on a height on the 
 south side of the town. Mary, Queen of Scot 
 once confined in this castle. St Helen's Church, 
 an ancient structure with a tower, is the burying- 
 place of the Hastings family, as well as of Selina, 
 Countess of Huntingdon, the founder of the sect 
 called the Countess of Huntingdon's Connection. 
 
 A'SHDOD. SeeAzoTUS. 
 
 ASHES, the remains of animal and vegetable 
 after burning. It is not strictly correct to 
 speak of the ashes of a mineral. When lead, for 
 instance, is exposed to heat, it turns to dross, which 
 has the appearance of A., but is merely the lead 
 combined with oxygen. In the same way, volcanic 
 A., a3 they are called, are only a finer kind of 
 pumice-stone, the solidified scum of molten lava. 
 1'he ashes of organic substances destroyed by lire 
 consist of the fixed salts contained in these sub- 
 stances. In land-plants, the most important are 
 salts of potash, along with silica and lime ; in sea- 
 plants, soda takes the place of potash. By lixiviation 
 of the A., the potash or soda is dissolved and sepa- 
 rated from the insoluble mass, and is then purified 
 by crystallisation. The A. of sea-plants contain 
 also more or less iodine. Peat and turf ashes con- 
 tain, besides alkalies, more or loss clay and sand : the 
 same is true of pit-coal, which sometimes contains 
 iron. 
 
 At ono time, the A. or inorganic ingredients of 
 
 5 'Lints were considered unessential to their existence, 
 'iit the progress of vegetable chemistry has taught 
 that a certain proportion of saline food is abso- 
 lutely necessary to the development of plants. The 
 is of the A. of the different kinds of vegetable 
 substances has since become of great interest. 
 
 The A. of animal bodies do not differ greatly 
 from those of vegetables. Bonc-A. consist i 
 tially of lime muted with phosphoric acid. This 
 bone-earth is very valuable as manure for grain. La 
 well-wooded countries, A. from burnt wood form an 
 article of considerable trade. They are much used 
 in the arts, as Boap-bcdling, bleaching, dyeing, glass- 
 making, fee. Wood- A. are also used in washing and 
 other domestic processes, as a cheap preparation of 
 h (q. v.). 
 The covering of the head with A. fall 
 common sign of mourning among eastern nations, 
 indicative of the very deepest disbn a. in 
 of this are mentioned in Scripture. Penitents in 
 the early Christian Church signified their sorrow 
 and humiliation in like manner, by standing at the 
 door of the church in 'sackcloth and ashes.' See 
 
 Ahh-Wedneday. 
 
 ASllI'ORD, a small town on the west of the 
 
 confluence of the two upper branches of the river 
 Stour, near the middle of Kent. Pop. in 1851, 
 which has largely increased from its having I 
 the junction station of three great lines of railway. 
 Damask is manufactured here. 
 
 A'SHLAR, or A'SHLEB, building-stone squared 
 and hewn, as dist i from rubble, or i 
 
 which are used as they come from the . 
 
 ; being dressed. A. is laid in regular courses 
 in building, and nous kinds, according 
 
 to the stylo of working that side of the stone 
 
 -1 1- 
 
 Asldar. 
 
 wfaiob is to form the facing of the wall. Thus, there 
 are tooled A. — the marks of the tooling being either 
 random or in grooves; polislied A., in which the face 
 of the stone is rubbed smooth ; and rustic A., in 
 which only the joints are accurately hewn, the face 
 of the stone being left projecting irregularly. * 
 riers apply the term A. to squared stones before 
 1« ing hewn. In old documents, the term ai 
 under a variety of forms, such as achlere, ashelar, 
 aslure, and estlar. 
 
 ASHLEY, Lord. See Shaftesbury. 
 
 ASHMOLE, Elias, a celebrated antiquary, was 
 born at Lichfield on the 2.3d May 1617. In 
 when only sixteen years of age, be commenc 
 study of law, and five years after, he was admitted 
 to practice as a solicitor in Chancery. During the 
 civil wars, he embraced the side of +kc Ro\ 
 and was appointed captain in Lord Ashley's regiment, 
 and comptroller of the Ordnance ; but at the same 
 time exhibited his love of study by joining Brazcnose 
 College, Oxford, where he sedulously applied himself 
 to mathematics, natural philosophy, astronomy, and 
 astrology. In 1046, he became acquaint' '1 
 several famous astrologers; amongst others. William 
 Lilly, whose conversation had a great charm for 
 him ; and in 1650, ho published a work of Dr I 
 to which la- subjoined a treatise of his own. Continu- 
 ing with singular perseverance his I in this 
 dim region of superstitious philosophy, he was 
 
 Lin the course of two or three yi ars, to 
 hisThealnimChjm iocured 
 
 for him a high reputation, and the friendship even 
 a like "John Selden. In 165S, appeared his 
 Way to Bliss, a work on the philosopher's stone — 
 the last he published in connection with astrology. 
 At the restoration of King Charles various ho 
 and emoluments were conferred upon him. In 1682, 
 he presented to the university of Oxford a very fine 
 
 on of rarities, which properly, howevi 
 longed to certain persons of tie name of Tradesoant 
 In this transaction he exhibited a rather mean ambi- 
 i !i>n to i cclui I ml owners of the cabinet of 
 
 curiosities from participating in the honour of the 
 gift, and posterity has unfortunately gratified his 
 wish by calling "it the Ashmolean Museum. He 
 
 died May L8, 1G'.12, leaving behind him a 
 quantity of manuscript, a considerable portion of 
 which has since been published. 
 
 ASIIMI'N, .1 Enrol, an American ph 
 was born at Champlain, in the state of New Y oil;, 
 in IV'.M. He ws I with a view to the 
 
 Christian ministry; but eventually became editor,
 
 ASIITAROTH— Asia. 
 
 in Washington, of a monthly magazine rail 
 
 in this periodical he advocated the 
 ■ 
 ing a colony of liberated negroi i on U i 
 of Africa, tn 1821 he publi bed a life of the Rev. 
 I Bacon, who had fallen a victim to i 
 il attempt to real I ws in the previous 
 
 l rnmgthe difficulties which surrounded a 
 at planting a settli mi al in 
 
 A. resolved to d g t work. 
 
 Receiving an apjp ata of 
 
 i Colonisation Society, he conducted a 
 
 lib from Baltimore, 
 
 landed at Cape Meson eat of the infant 
 
 ■. . in the antumn of 1822. Dr Ayr s and the 
 
 i ui the Society having meanwhile 
 
 abandoned the settlement from severe illni 
 
 assumed the Buperintendi ace of affairs as the sole 
 
 i ol that body. Here, for more than 
 
 six year . he d voted his powers and his life to the 
 
 , on a fair and solid basis, thi 
 full of hope fur the American negro. He si 
 great courage and tact in opposing the united forces 
 natives at the outset of his a at, and 
 
 no less ability in after-negotiations with 
 by which the colony acquired very 
 
 inns to its territory. His health at 
 becoming sadly impaired, he hade adieu I 
 
 A, in March 
 1828, and land d al N . ■■•■ ha 1 en, I it, in a 
 
 state of great i xhaustion. Afb i tval, he 
 
 relapsed, and died on the 2Sth An u t ISL'S, in I 1 , 
 thirty-fifth year. His remain ho o 
 
 a public funeral. A memoir of bis life, bj i;. I:. 
 Gurley, appeared at Washington in 1 335. 
 A'SHTAEOTH. ! rABTE. 
 
 A'SHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, a 
 in a carboniferous dis South 
 
 Lancashire. Pop. in 1851,5679 iged in 
 
 id in the cotton manufai 
 A'SHTON-UNDEE-LINE. a town in the 
 oi Lancashire. Pop. in 1851, 29,791. It i 
 one member to parliament. It is a gnat 
 
 cotton manufacture. The population i 
 employed in bleaching, dyeii • printing, 
 
 in collieries, and in the manufacture of machines, 
 . &c To the west oi the town is a large moss 
 or shakii! f bog, containing fir-tr full of turpentine, 
 and black oak, with a loamy bottom at the depth 
 of 10 feet. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent (q. v.), 
 so called from the Roman Catholic ceremony ol 
 ing ashes on the head as a sign of penitence. This 
 custom, probably introduced t >y Gregory the Great 
 (590— 0U4), was sanctioned by I' Cell tin 111. 
 in 1191, and afterwards generally prevailed. I 
 mass, the ashes were consecrated on the altar, 
 sprinkled with holy water, and signed three 
 with the cross, while the pri I the words, 
 
 Mi mn alo quod 1 1 it • , ■ in ctneri m . v 
 (' Remember that thou art dust, and must return to 
 dust!') Next, th.y were strewed on the heads 
 of the officiating priests, the clergy, and the 
 
 11 d people. 'I I. i to lie those ol the 
 
 palms consecrated on the preceding Palm Sunday 
 
 (q. v.) — The Protestant Church in German] 
 
 not celebrate A. In the Church of England, it is 
 
 rved by the stricter members, but without 
 anything of the ceremony from which it derives its 
 name; and the comminalion — a series i 
 tions against impenitent offenders — is appointed to 
 be read in the service for this day. 
 
 A SI \, In largest division of land on tin- 
 generally regarded as the birthplace of the human 
 race, and the most ancient seat of civilisation. Its 
 
 472 
 
 superficial area, including islands, hi 
 at from lti to 20,000,000 square miles, and as popu- 
 lation at 650,000,000. Tins i 
 tinent lies 
 the i-it hi hemisphere, while its world of i 
 
 is across the equator on th On 
 
 three iinded by the ocean; but on 
 
 the west, is partially conn a and 
 
 Europe. The continental ms n four 
 
 1 ue idea in i lie formed 
 
 of its vast extent 1 iy the calculation that, thou 
 contains more than half of 1 1 
 
 , the number of its inhabit 
 
 i n 'ill its area, ipe a > be aid to 
 
 he three times more densely populated. The i 
 al i I 33,000 miles in length ; and o 
 el east, is diversified by seas, bays, and 
 affording advantages to navigation and comu 
 
 to e of A i. but mfi rior to fcho 
 ed by Europe and America. < in the 
 -ale, the Dardanelles and the Si a of Marmora may 
 irded a< but a si ption of the 
 
 i nils nf Europe and A. which form the i 
 the old world. 
 Hon ntai Configuration. L ST., by 
 
 the Arctic Ocean ; EX, by the Pai ic Oi in; S.,by 
 
 ■ i 1 1 
 Black Si a, Archipelago, Med 
 Red Sea. i (n the i osular 
 
 land of Kamstchatka is separated from Ninth An 
 only by the narrov. Strait. On the si mi h- 
 
 e of numerous islands — Sumatra, Java, 
 ii , .■. extends tov tralia. 
 
 The body of the continent may be regarded 
 trapezium, of 'which the offa 
 peninsulas, beai 
 
 i i.i \. ' . erytbing is on a n 
 gigantic de. 'I 
 
 sola of Arabia, is four turn trance. 
 
 On the wesl da of A. Minor, 
 
 or Anatolia, divided from Europe bytl 
 
 . , I ira, i . 
 
 u ll.s, with the Black Sea on the north, and 
 ant mi the smith, (in the outh ol A., the 
 ilar configuration may 1"' divided into 
 principal masses, corresponding to the southern 
 coa I ol Eun ipe : Arabia may 1 dered as a 
 
 counterpart to Spain; Italy, with its neighbour- 
 Sicily, i- i pr iii> I by Hind 
 i; and. as in Europe, the broken llrccian 
 peninsula is connected with A. by a bridge of 
 numerous islands i 
 in A., the Eastern Peninsula (or fn 
 
 ages), lying between the Hay of Bengal and 
 
 the ' binese Sea, is i icted with An tralia on 
 
 the south-east by the vast East rn Archipelago. 
 This win-Id of islands is divided into the I 
 
 of the Philippine Islands. Borneo, I 
 Molucca Is], latra and .lava, Timor anil 
 
 the numerous adjoining isles. The east COD 
 A. is characterised by the deep ind of the 
 
 Pacific Ocean in the CI Yellow Sea, and 
 
 of Japan, Okhotsk, and Kanistchatk ■ 
 fringed with numerous islands, and 
 peninsula of Corea, the island of Saghalien, at 
 peninsula of Kamstchatka, On the north, the Sibe- 
 rian coasts are also deeply indented ; but rather by 
 the embouchi ■ rivers than by arms o 
 
 i be whole length of continental A., from the 
 
 Dardanelles to the Japan Isl ads, is 61 i ! b ; its 
 
 breadth, from Malacca to the nortl i] f 
 
 Siberia, is 5300 miles; with its islands it extends 
 
 ii 10* S. lat. to 78 N., and from L'0' E. I 
 190 E. or ITU W". Such an extent of surface 
 must include all varieties of soil, climate, and 
 production.
 
 
 1 
 
 „, I, cn»Ha£RS lOHUON JtDlHBURGH 

 
 ASIA. 
 
 Verb ' •••ration. — Equally grand are the 
 features of this continent when regarded vertically: 
 it has the most extensive lowlands, the most immense 
 table-lands, the highest chains of mountains, and Up- 
 most elevated summits in the world ; tracts doomed 
 to everlasting snow or scorching sterility, salubrious 
 valleys of continual verdure, and noisome jus 
 the rankest growth. The table-lands of Asia o 
 two-fifths of the whole continent. I 
 extremity is 2000mues broad; the western, less than 
 1000. The whole mass may be regarded 
 ing of two pari ted, or, to 
 
 nected by the lofty, snow- 
 
 I mountain-isthmus of the Hindu I 
 
 ions are styled respectively: 1. The 
 l n Plateau, including the Table-land of Tibet 
 
 and the Di Gobi; 2. The Western I" 
 
 or Table-land of Iran. The former, a vast four- 
 aided mass, considerably larger than the whole area 
 of Europe, extends 2800 miles from the mountain 
 chain, Hindu Cosh, to the Tonquin Gulf in China, 
 (tn the south, tin- i divided from the plains 
 
 of Hindustan by I lya .Mum. 
 
 have a mi so height of 18,000 feet, while several of 
 their summits rise from 25,000 to 29,000 feet 
 the level of the sea. Even the passes over this 
 enormous range of maintains are almost as high as 
 the summit oi (font Blanc. Sere Dhwalagiri 
 supposed to be the Mont Blanc of the Himalayas, 
 and with precisely the diem, viz., 'white 
 
 i 27,60i 
 of the Andes far below ; while Kinchin p 
 to 28,1 78 I ] : lieved to be 
 
 lit in the world, attain 
 of 29,002 feet Cultivation is found at 10,000 feet 
 
 the sea; while flocks graze Borne 401 
 In CShinese-Tatary and Til round is 
 
 cultivated at a height only 20 tot than the 
 
 summit of M On tie i \ the table-land 
 
 of Tib mountain 
 
 Yun-ling and Khing-khaii, which, towards the 
 are connected with wild Chinese alpine 
 which little is known ; while, towai h, they 
 
 extend into another mountainous region, where the 
 
 rn chain of Shangpe-ahan i 
 Pacific Ocean a wall of rock 3000 feet high. On 
 the north, the chain of the Altai Mountain 
 miles long, and divided into several groups, forms 
 the boundary between the great plateau and the 
 plain of Siberia, which is larger than the whole area 
 of Europe. 
 
 The Western riateau, or Table-land of Iran, rises 
 generally about 5000 feet above the sea; but in 
 parts to ~(«)i) feet; descending again, however, in the 
 central and southern parts, wle re it spreads out into 
 
 sandy and gravelly plains, to 2 i and 1200 feet. It 
 
 has been divided into three sections : the l'l r 
 Iran proper : th'- Median-Armenian Al] 
 and the Anatolian Table-land. The jir.<t division, 
 or the Plat an of [ran, has a mean altitude of about 
 ;: i Li feet. Salt plains, with gravel and sand, form 
 large portions of the surface, and mountain-walls on 
 all sides hem it in. (in the northern edge ascend the 
 Persian mountain- . east, the steep and lofty 
 
 parallel chains of the Indo-Peisian boundary moun- 
 
 and on tie' plateau, tor 1000 miles 
 
 the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. is boi 
 
 D and 
 Earsistan. The second division, or the Median- 
 Armenian Alpine region, includes the mountainous 
 i of Armenia, Kurdistan, and Azerbijan. 
 
 Here the table land is compressed to about half its 
 
 I width. Prom this plateau, of which a part 
 is mentioned in 
 
 Ararat,' rises tie' volcanic cone commonly 
 Mount Ararat, to the height of 17,212 feet above 
 
 the sea lev. 1. Anatolia, the third and most westerly 
 division of tie- table-land, is bounded alon 
 
 is rising to 
 C000 or 7000 feet, and partly cover, d with f 
 on the south-west, th" Taurus chain of mountains, 
 the island i I ,i [tends 
 
 in several ramifications through a part of 
 Minor, runs in a sin,: coast of 
 
 Karamania, and in tie- cast has an occasional I 
 ot 12,000 i feet 
 
 i, thus divided into 
 sections, is full of div. 
 A great part of the table-land of [ran (i 
 extremely barren and arid, which ..plain 
 
 the enthusiastic terms in which t 
 
 i of the beautiful \ all. ys found hen 
 among the mountains. '1 he coasts of th.- 
 :i Gulf are sandy wastes. Between Irak and 
 Khorassan, a desert of clay, covered with salt and 
 nitre, varied only by patches of verdure ha 
 there, occupies 27,000 square miles, and joins the 
 wide sandy desert of Kcrman. A great part of 
 Bcloochistan is an arid plain, covered v..: 
 sand. 
 
 Besides these central masses, there are several 
 detached mountain chains and plateaus. The 
 Oral Mountains, forming the laud-boundary be- 
 tween Europe and Asia, and separated from the 
 Altai chain by salt lakes, marshes, and d 
 is divided into tions: the Northern, 
 
 Central, and Southern Ural. The second ot 
 divisions is rich in minerals gold, platina, 
 r. On the isthmus tx 
 k Sea an I 
 of the Caucasus reach a height of from 10,0 
 11,000 feet, while individual peaks tower up to the 
 
 c height of 17,000 or 18,000 f. 
 instance, the still faintly volcanic peak of EUerus, 
 the ex on of which is I feet, and 
 
 Mount Kasbeck, 16,52 
 Syria rise gradually from the neighboui 
 
 height of 10,000 feet in Libanus and Anti- 
 libanns, and ply in terraces down to the 
 
 lands of Phoenicia an i The 
 
 I of the Deccan, in India, rises to an avcr- 
 JiL of from 1500 to 2000 
 on the west from the narrow coast-level of Malabar 
 by the v bauts, 4700 feet : on th. 
 
 the broad level coast of CoromandeL, by the E 
 Ghauts, (in the north, it is divided from the low 
 plains of Hindustan by the Vindhya and Malwah 
 mountain-chains; and, on the south, the G 
 unite at the sources of ' ' y. and form the 
 
 Neilgheny (or Blue Mount.: .in, the 
 
 loftiest in the peninsular portion of Hindustan. 
 These slop,, steeply down to a low narrow plain, 
 then rise again to a considerable height in the 
 sink into the sea at Cape Comorin, 
 and reappear in 1 Adam's Peak in 
 
 i Mountains, or chaii 
 Peninsula, may 
 of the Sine -shan, and extend to th 
 point of A., reap in the 
 
 Sun.la Islands. 
 
 The six great J '■■ lst,The£ 
 
 lowland m the north, which is by far the 
 
 northern d Altai 
 
 and Ural Mo the shores of the Aret 
 
 and is, for the most pai iv, and i 
 
 u'.l. Th lowland, or the wild sterile 
 
 i the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral, much of it 
 beneath the level of the E a. It is composed to a 
 Large extent of gravelly sod. 3d, The Syrian and 
 
 I i lowland, the south of which is hot and 
 
 with almost no oases ; but the north is watei 
 the Tigris and Euphrates. 4th, The lowlands of
 
 ASIA. 
 
 comprising the great Indian desert, 400 
 broad, together with tl 
 
 u gal, generally called the Valley of the Ganges, 
 [■hips, next to China as a r. 
 v. 6th, i'he //i(/o-CAin«elowlands,coii>i 
 (he long levels of the Barman empire, through which 
 i rrawady, and the rich i ons of Cam- 
 bodia and Siain. 6th, The OHntat lowlands, corn- 
 east at Lckin, and cxtondm 
 south as the Tropic of Cancer, containing ^10,000 
 i seven times the size of Lom- 
 
 bardy. It is watered by a copious river-sysi 
 rous canals, and may bo n 
 
 ; in productiveness all other parts 
 of Hi" world. 
 
 Hydrography. — The hydrography of A. d 
 as striking a variety as the structure of its land. 
 The alpine regions send down in some dn 
 torrents of water, which form rivers almost rivalling 
 in mi ificence those of America, and which flow 
 for hundreds of miles through plains of I I 
 
 fertility. On the other hand, there are ^ 
 ing tracts, like the deserts of Africa, destitute of 
 water, and doomed to eternal sterility. Only one 
 considerable sheet of water, Lake Hamoon (q. v.), 
 refreshes the high table-land of Iran. The Ioti 
 of Turan contains the Caspian Sea (q. v.), the I 
 of all lakes, and Lake Aral (q. v.). In the valley 
 of Cashmere lies Lake Ular, 40 miles in < 
 fcrcnce, and the only considerable sheet of water 
 in tli" Himalaya chain. At the northern base of' 
 this mountain-chain. Lake Palte is remarkable for its 
 ir form. In Tibet and the Altai Mountains, 
 lakes are very numerous. 
 
 i in" df the most striking characteristics of Asian 
 river-Systems is found in its double rivers, or two 
 i I rising in the same region, flowing in I 
 
 Earallel directions, and either uno arly so, 
 
 efore entering the sea. Among thi • twin rivers 
 may lie mentioned — the Sihon and Gihon, flowing 
 into Lake Aral; the Euphrates and Tigris, in 
 We, tern A., surrounding the plain of Mesop 
 uniting at Koona, and together ito the 
 
 d Gulf; the Ganges and Brahmaputra; and 
 the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho, in China, rising 
 i ach other, then -widely separated in their 
 courses, but again approaching each oiler, and both 
 falling into the Yellow Sea, only 100 miles apart. 
 
 The six great river-systems of A., compi 
 rivers which will be found fully noticed under their 
 ■ ■, are — the Mesopotamian, that of 
 North-west India, that of North-east India and Tibet, 
 the Indo-Chinese, the Chinese, and the Siberian. The 
 first comprises the two famous streams, the Tigris and 
 Euphrates, The second comprises the Indus with its 
 tributaries. The third system com ■ i Brah- 
 
 maputra and Ganges, 'the fourth system comprises 
 the rivers of the tndo-l la; the chief 
 
 of which are the Irrawaddy, the Martaban or 6 
 tie- Me-nam, and the Me-king or Cambodia. The 
 fifth system is the Chinese. It comprises four great 
 .streams, all of wlrich flow in an eastern or ni 
 
 n into the Pacific: the Hong-kiang, 
 Canton Biver; the Yi ti (or Son of the 
 
 i) ; tli" Hoang-ho, or Yellow Liver; and the 
 Amur. The tern compri- rh 
 
 b ria, the principal of which are the Obi, the 
 
 \ • nisei, and the Lena. They all have their sources 
 
 in the Altaian Mountains; flow north, or nearly so; 
 
 and for 800 or 900 miles before their embouchure, 
 
 traverse a dreary, flat, monotonous waste, until 
 
 r sluggish waters creep into the Frozen S 
 
 Geology. — The geological structure of Asia is so 
 
 complex, the different formations are so broken up 
 
 and scattered, that a general description would be 
 
 unintelligible. We must refer to separate notices, 
 
 471 
 
 where the geological structure and phenomena of 
 
 circum tricts will be given m detail, and 
 
 ader will, in this way, be enabled to form a 
 
 on of the geo] i as a whole. 
 
 i a \. Hum l, Sxbkri \. fee, 
 
 Natural History. — The vast extent of A., and i's 
 
 great diversities of climate, naturally lead us to 
 expect in it a great variety of natural prodni 
 both animal and vegetable. This expectation is 
 heightened when wo consider how completely this 
 vast continent is divided into sepal ns by 
 
 mountain ranges of great altitude, and how exten- 
 sive the mountainous tracts themselves are, as well 
 as the great extent of the elevated plateaux or table- 
 lands, ami when we add to these considerations that 
 of the peculiar character of wide regions— wastes of 
 sand- es— and extensive districts of which 
 
 the soil is strongly impregnated with salt Accord- 
 ingly, we find, both in the flora and fauna of Asia, all 
 the var i derations might 1 
 
 pect. 
 
 eirt of the continent, ho 
 differs comparatively little in its productions from 
 the corresponding parts of Europe and America. It 
 exhibits the same arctic flora, with differences compa- 
 
 ly inconsiderable. Lines, birches, and v. 
 form, as in the other continents, the last forests of 
 the north; but upon account of the more 
 climate, they do not reach a limit so northerly as in 
 I particularly in the west of Europe. 
 Some of the c immon plants of Europe are abundant 
 as far east as Kamstcnatka: the Crowberry ( 
 truiii nigrum), so plentiful in the moors of Scotland, 
 is still more plentiful throughout Siberia; the same 
 Vaccinia (Bilbi tries, &c | and S tin (Brambli 
 abound in tl atkan forests as in those of 
 
 Scandinavia. There are, however, interesting dif- 
 ference i Heaths are comparatively rare in Asia, its 
 flora agl respect with that of America, 
 
 than with that of Europe. The larch, which 
 in Europe occurs only on the central mou 
 
 Is far northward at the mouth of the Obi to 
 the utmost lin < irescent vegetation ; prol lably 
 
 a mere variety of the sal . althon h it has 
 
 distinct. In Kamstchatka, a dif- 
 ferent kind of birch replaces the common birch of 
 Europe as a forest tree, and t in 
 
 lent from that of the south of Europe. Siberia 
 in its less I ' gions produces a luxuriant \ 
 
 tion, of which herbaceous plants of unusually largo 
 size for a cold or temperate climate are a charac- 
 teristic feature; as species of Rhubarb, Angelica, 
 and Cow-parsnip (Heracleum), some of wine i are 
 now well known in Britain. It is indeed from the 
 central and ea tern temperate parts of Asia that the 
 cultivated species of rhubarb are derived, and from 
 the same region the rhubarb root, so vain 
 medicine, is brought. In the abundance of'. 
 
 ae (Currant rmer parts of I 
 
 resemble North America, although most of the 
 species arc different. 
 
 To the south of the Altaian Mountains, the flora 
 of Asia corresponds in part with that of the great 
 eastern plain of Europe; but it exhibit 
 liarities which may in some measure be ascribed to 
 the saline character of large districts, the stony or 
 sandy desolation of others, and the elevation of the 
 great central plateau. The flora of Asia Minor and 
 of Syria has a general resemblance to that of the 
 south of Europe, although exhibiting also featuri I 
 which belong rather to that of India or of A 
 Shrubby Labiates are particularly characteristic of 
 this region, from which not a few of them have 
 found their way into the gardens of Europe and of 
 other parts of the world, upon account of their 
 fragrance, their medicinal qualities, or their use for
 
 ASIA. 
 
 the grateful seasoning of food. The tropical llora of 
 
 b a abound i inti i v. bich yield Era. ;rant I 
 and resins, particularly ot the natural order Amyri- 
 dacetx. Indeed, both the warmer temperate and the 
 
 tropical regions of Asia excel other parts of the world 
 
 in the number and variety of the odoriferous drugs 
 
 which they produce, with odours of the most various 
 
 characters, from myrrh and frankincense to asafcetida. 
 
 Arabia lias long been noted for the production of 
 
 , which is now also pretty extensively cultivated 
 
 in other warm parts of A. The date-palm is as 
 
 characteristic of Arabia as it is of Egypt. Acacias 
 
 and mimosas also abound.— The flora of Persia in 
 
 part resembles that of Arabia, although it is less 
 
 I, and the altitude of its mountains giv< boil 
 
 in some places an extremely different character. — The 
 
 abundance of Scitamincai is regarded as particularly 
 
 characteristic of India ; and plants of this order yield 
 
 . galangal, cardamoms, turmeric, and other 
 
 i of commerce, amongst which not the least 
 
 important is a kind of arrow-root. Its Lef/uminos'.e 
 
 very numerous, both herbaceous and shrubby, 
 Or arborescent, many of them exhibiting great beauty 
 of foliage and splendour of flowers ; some producing 
 
 kinds of pulse; others timber, gum, medicines, 
 ftc. The number of valuable medicinal plants which 
 
 ; to the Indian flora is very great, as is also 
 that of dyewoods; and it abounds m fine fruits, of 
 which the mango and mangosteen may lie particu- 
 larly noticed. L'ucurbitacew (Gourds) are very uume- 
 
 as are also trees of the genus Ficux (Fig), 
 
 of which produce caoutchouc, and amongst 
 which are the sacred pcepid and the banian-tree, 
 
 larkable for the roots which descend from its 
 branches to become new stems, and for the extent 
 of ground which it canopies. Palms are numerous 
 in the tropical) parte of A., and particularly in its 
 south-eastern regions, but less numerous than in the 
 tropical parts of South America. The cocoa-nut is 
 one of the most common palms in the vicinity of the 
 sea. Some of the Asiatic palms are valuable for 
 the sago which they yield. The natural order 
 Dipteracece is one of those that are peculiar to India 
 and South-eastern A., and includes some of the 
 noblest timber-trees; but the Indian teak, so 
 valuable for ship-building, is of the order Verbenacea:. 
 The llora of the Eastern Peninsula, Siam, Cochin- 
 China, and the south-eastern part of A. generally, 
 differs c iderably from that of India, and exhibits, 
 ible, a richer variety. The change from the 
 Indian llora is still greater in the islands, and a 
 
 1 .lance to that of Polynesia and of Australia 
 ! I to appear. The bread-fruit takes the place 
 
 congener, the jack of India. These regions 
 
 ice nutmegs, clove a, and other spices. The 
 
 it, yielding cinnamon, cassia, 
 
 and camphor. Gutta-percha has recently been 
 
 added to the number of the most valuable exports. 
 
 China and Japan have many plants peculiar to 
 
 Ives, and arc remarkable for the pre 
 
 the Ternstrasmiaeece, the natural order to which 
 
 the tea-plant and the camellia belong. It is 
 
 scarcely necessary to mention how extensively tea 
 
 cultivated in China, and how important it is 
 
 in the commerce of the world. The diversity of 
 
 ■, however, both in China and Japan, is so 
 considerable, as to imply no small dive; 
 productions. In like manner, the Bimalaya Moun- 
 tains possess a flora very different from that of 
 the Indian plains, and which in some of its 
 
 characteristic features, particularly in the 
 prevalence of large rhododendrons and magnolias, 
 has been found remarkably to agree with the Bora 
 
 of the southern parts of the United States; whilst 
 
 at still greater altitudes there is a strong i 
 blance to that of mure northern regions, or of the 
 
 I " opean Alps; to 
 
 with them the d ilar scarcely, if at all 
 
 different from the cedar of Lebanon. .The moun- 
 tains of Java also produce oaks and other 
 
 ling those ol rate zone, although the 
 
 species are peculiar. But many parts of A. have as 
 yet been very imperfectly explon d. 
 
 Many of the ct of Europe are 
 
 known to be natives of A., and others are su| 
 to be so. As the cradle of the human r. 
 scene of the earliest civilisation, it is natural to 
 suppose that it supplied the first fruits and other 
 
 lie productions which man sought to improve 
 by cultivation ; and of some which, as the apple 
 and the cherry, are probably natives of Europe, 
 it seems probable that the first improvi d 
 were introduced from A. We do not know with 
 certainty of what part of the earth some of the 
 principal cereal plants or grains are natives — as 
 wheat, barley, oats, and rye ; but there seems great 
 probability in the supposition that they are of 
 Asiatic origin. l'ice certainly is. It has been 
 cultivated from time immemorial in some of the 
 warm parts of A. ; and its introduction into other 
 quarters of the world is comparatively recent. 
 Maize — introduced from America — is now to be 
 reckoned among the most important cultivate. 1 
 plants of A., and its cultivation is rapidly extending, 
 as is that of the potato. Wheat, oats, bail • 
 beans, pease, and buckwheat, are the principal 
 of regions similar in climate to those in which they 
 are cultivated in Europe. Barley and buck 
 are ctdtivated in the 1 limalayas at the extraord 
 elevation of almost L2j000 feet, and crops of barley 
 are to be seen even at 15,000 feet above the sea. 
 Millet of different kinds, durra, and other grains of 
 inferior importance, are cultivated to some extent 
 in India and other warm regions; also diffi 
 kinds of pulse. The banana and plantain arc of the 
 same importance as in other tropical count 
 and the yam and cocco or eddoes contribute 
 largely to the supply of human food. The si 
 cane is cultivated in the warm parts of A., but 
 not with so much spirit or success as in America, 
 although it is a native of the East and not of 
 the West Indies. Pepper is one of the i 
 productions of the East Inches, and is ertei 
 cultivated. Tobacco, whether or not any I 
 of it is indigenous to A., is now produced in 
 quantities. Indigo is extensively cultivated 
 in India, and the opium peppy too extensively. 
 
 iiL species of cotton are natives of India, 
 and have long been cultivated there and in China. 
 Hemp is cultivated in India, not for its fibre, but 
 to afford the means of intoxication; and flax 
 chiefly for the oil of its seeds; but both 
 
 lx are exten ' for their 
 
 r parts of A.; and India and the other ti 
 regions produce many plants valuable for their 
 
 ■ which are species oi 
 (yielding the jute • 
 
 Among tndia mum, valui d fox 
 
 the oil of its seeds. 
 
 It seems probable thai we are indebted to the 
 warmer temperate parts of A. not only for the 
 orange, the lemon, and all the other spei 
 the genus Citrus, but also for the olive, the | 
 ami nee icot, the tig. the mulberry, 
 
 and He- mm . . the fruits now 
 
 I and cultivated. China and 
 Japan being 'the seats of an ancient civilisation, 
 many useful ' cultivated tin re, 
 
 v.loeh have scarcely \ .t found their way into other 
 parts of the world. Floriculture has been pi. 
 there wi ty from a i fuity; 
 
 and varieties of Hydrangea, Camellia, T:
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Chrysanthemum, Ac, haw, from time immei 
 been Bcarcely if at all less numerous than those 
 of the tulip and hyacinth in Holland. 
 
 The A. is not less tnl I ban its 
 
 botany. Amongst domestic animal;, 
 important are the ox and buffalo, the sheep, the 
 , the camel, and the elephant. 
 A number of species of ox ami buffalo are natives 
 . from more than one of which the do 
 appear to ha\ id 
 
 Very distinct from all tl thers is tin- yak 
 
 of Tibet, a creature which is oi use to tin' 
 
 inhabitants i ated regions of the Himalayas, 
 
 and is to them almost what the reindeei 
 the Laplander. The sheep and natives 
 
 of the mountainous parts of Central A. The horse 
 and the ass seem to be] met 
 
 and all of these have been domesticated from the 
 The camel is of incalculable value 
 a i a beast of burden in the it ami 
 
 at, ami as affording tie' means of travi 
 
 . Itis used prim : ...nth- 
 
 west of A. anil in India. The elephant is a native 
 of the tropical parts of A., lmt is of a different 
 species from that of Africa. The reindeer constitutes 
 the chief wealth of some of the tribes of the 
 north. Dogs are also used by some of the Siberian 
 tribes for drawing their sledges. Different races 
 of dogs are domesticated in different parts of A . 
 and a small kiml is fattened for its flesh in I 
 but in the Mohammedan parts of A., the dog is 
 aed an unclean animal, and is known chiefly 
 as a prowler about towns ami villages, ami a devourer 
 of offal 
 
 The tropical parts of A. abound in mo 
 of which the spi 
 
 tin in a i with 1 , and ■ ■...■■ with short toils, 
 
 but none with prehensile tails, like the sapajous 
 
 of America. Many are altogether tailless, and 
 
 a is the orang-outang, found in the 
 
 rn islands. A much larger ape, called 
 
 ago, has been said to exist in Borneo, but it 
 
 is still a doubtful species. The same warm i 
 
 abound in bats, many of whic 
 
 feed upon fruits, not upon insects. The flying 
 
 o is anothi r remark 
 Indian Archipelago. Bears am found in all 
 of A. — the white bear in tl. north, and 
 
 other formidable species in thi parts; 
 
 whilst the tropical regions prodi 
 are by no means ferocious, and feed chiefly on 
 insects, fruits, and honey. Badgers are also found 
 in A., and quadrupeds of several other plantigrade 
 genera, allied to the bear, but of ■" imparativi I J 
 size and inoffensive habits, as tin & i hi] Panda 
 ■-) of the north of lie! ! aturongs 
 
 | of Malacca and tl 
 ■.—Animals ■>! the Wea I family I If 
 are numerous, among which the Tel lu (.'/ 
 pa) of Java rivals the skunks of A 
 in the horrible stench with which it surrounds 
 
 or del . More important are the 
 ami the sea otter, pursued in the north rn n 
 
 account of their furs.- Of the Dog family, 
 or Canidce, A. has not only wild dogs, hut also 
 . foxes, hya nas. and jackals; tin 
 
 ahouu ly in the col latter in 
 
 the w ons. The arctic fox inhabits the 
 
 most northerly shores and islands. The v. 
 parts of A. produce a number of species of the allied 
 family of the Viverridce, among which are the 
 niangouste or Indian ichneumon— famous, like the 
 
 in ichneumon, for the destruction 
 — and i from which is obtained a celebrated 
 
 perfume. — Of feline animals, the most dreadful are 
 the lion and tiger; the latter of which is peculiar to 
 476 * l 
 
 A., abounding in the warm regions of the south 
 
 . id the 
 
 mountains and deserts which separate India from 
 ; but, on the contrary, advi to the 
 
 to which the lion ad\ 
 and even to the confines of Siberia. Tl I. 
 out id many other cats, some of them 
 
 and dangerous, are found in A., especially in the 
 i parts of it. Among them may he nnin 
 tali, or hunting-leopard, tamed I'm' tin . 
 i "ha.— A few small marsupial (or pouched) 
 quadrupeds I i found in the Mo] 
 
 and form one of the links by which the natural 
 
 of A. is i .etid with that of Australia. — 
 
 on the contrary, are numerous 
 in all parts of A., and many spei peculiar 
 
 to it. Squirrels, marmots, rats, i , &.c, 
 
 imon in all except the most northerly • 
 i brown rat, now so common in Europe, i 
 to have emigrated from Persia so recently s 
 
 lStli e. ! abound in 
 
 a and the Tatarian deserts, of which the 
 jerboa is also an inhabitant. Porcupines are frequent 
 in the warmer parts of A., and the beaver is i 
 
 north. — Of Edentate quadrupeds, the Pan- 
 golins (Mania) alone are Asiatic, and these arc 
 confined to the tn ins. —Of Pa 
 
 there are. besides the elephant, the horse, &c, 
 already mentioned, several species of rhinoceros, 
 wild boars, the be I tapir ; 
 
 all. except tie- wild hoar, natives of 1 b 
 
 11 . interesting facts, how- 
 
 A with the natural history ot 
 bundance of remains of the mammoth, or f 
 el. pliant, in the cold t par) of Sib ria, it 
 still affording a considerable supply of ivory. — Of 
 ruminating I I those of the < kind, 
 
 already mentioned, and the sheep and goat, there 
 are deer, antelope or musk-deer. The 
 
 reindeer ami elk are natives of Sibi r 
 south, the spi . er are much more numi 
 
 and tli ■ same countrii i produce manj sp 
 antelop . are found in al and 
 
 southern parts of the contii I of t 
 
 native of the highest mountains, yielding tin i 
 prized perfume from which it dem A. 
 
 possesses vul , owls, 
 
 . and other birds of the crow kind, b 
 
 . dm ks ' . various 
 
 . and many othi at its 
 
 . some of them abounding even in the coldest 
 
 regions. Albatrosses are very numerous on the 
 
 iiatkan shores; flamingoes on those of the 
 more south rn co Pigi ins abound, and 
 
 them is the turtle-dove. The gouras of the 
 
 birds of the pigi on family, of 
 
 which one species is almost as large as a turkey. 
 
 are many kinds of thrush, finch, warbler, 
 bunting, sparrow, and other birds identical with 
 or allied to those of Kurope, among which is the 
 nightingale, often mentioned ly tin- Persian poets, 
 ami many also, particularly in the wain 
 which are peculiar and characteristic. Of the 
 be mentioned the splendid birds of paradise of the 
 south-eastern islands, peacocks, phi The 
 
 gallinaceous birds of Asia are numerous, and from 
 tliis continent, ware probably derived t ; 
 poultry of otlnr parts of the earth. The abund- 
 ance of the parrot tribe constitutes a point of r 
 
 between tin- tropical parts of Asia ami i 
 
 L coun : 
 
 ih inhabits the deserts of Aral 
 well as of Africa. The cassowary is found in the 
 south-eastern islands. The edible swallows' u 
 
 t Indian coasts have long been celebrated. — 
 and other saurian reptiles are very abundant
 
 ASIA. 
 
 in the warmer parts of Asia at crocodiles 
 
 ■vials infest the rivers of the East Indies. 
 
 Be . pythons, and other great serpents, are found 
 
 in the tropical regions, whi ice also many 
 
 venomous serpents. The cobra da capcllo is one of 
 
 the most dreaded. But the temperate parts of Asia 
 
 also venomous i upents, scarcely less dan 
 
 of the East Indian tortoises are remarkable for 
 
 reat magnitude, and turtles are found in the 
 
 seas. — Both the salt and fresh waters ol 
 
 produce many kinds of fish. ; of the 
 
 rivers of Siberia supply an important part of the 
 
 food of it • inhabitants. T! well 
 
 known in Britain, is a native ofChina. Nome of the 
 
 • the tropical pa ia have attracted 
 
 attention from the peculiarity of their form or habits. 
 
 life is exceedingly abundant in the warm 
 
 parts of Asia, as in all other warm countries. Bees 
 
 are numerous, and honey is produced in great quan- 
 
 . Of other insects, it seems or ' iry here 
 
 to mention the silk-worm, which was intra 
 
 I'r.m Asia into Europe ; and the locust, which some- 
 
 n at tracts of the Asiatic countries 
 
 borderi Mediterranean and the Blacl 
 
 and occasionally extends its ravages into regions 
 
 further west. Of molluscous animals, the 
 
 deserves particular notice, upon account of 
 til'' important pearl-tisherics which exist in different 
 ■ 
 
 ky.—The whole pi ipulation, consi I 
 650,000,000 p v he divided into the ' 
 
 lian, Aryan, and Semitic groups. The first oi 
 
 les all the peoples and tribes in tlie east, north, 
 and south-east of Asia; the seeo ARYAN 
 
 Race) embrac a the inhabitants of Northern India, 
 oistan, Persia, and part of Asiatic Turkey; the 
 third includes the Syrian, Hebrew, and Arabian 
 races (see Ethnology). 
 
 A further subdivision and classification may be 
 made as follows: 1. The East-Ast , includ- 
 
 ing the i 1 oples of Tibet, China, Japan, Corea, 
 Indo-Chinese peninsula; all alike in the 
 use of monosyllabic languages. This last pco2>le, 
 however, must be subdivided into Western and 
 i. the former comprising the inhabitants of 
 B irman empire. Pegu, Laos, and Siam, I 
 es with the Hindus; and the latter, com- 
 prising the inhabitants of Tonquin, Cochin-China. 
 
 mbodia, have affinities with the Mongi 
 
 of Tibet and China. 2. The T"' . includ- 
 
 Turkomans, Mongols, and Tungusians, who 
 
 ere spread OVI r the v. -land of Central 
 
 nd the neighbouring lands in the north. The 
 
 Turkoman family is divided into three sections — 
 
 the lirst including the east Turkomans, inhabiting 
 
 nd, Kl: \.i. Balkh, and t a ; the 
 
 I including the so-called Tatars of the Urals 
 
 ami the neighbourhood of Astrakhan and Kazan ; 
 
 the third including the Turks or Osmanli. With 
 
 the exception of a few small tribes in Siberia, 
 
 all the Turkish varieties are .Mohammedan 
 
 the Arabic alphabet, and employ numerous Arabic 
 
 in their dialects. 3. The S 
 including the Samoiedes, people of Kamstchatka, 
 tc., speaking languages which have only recently 
 b tudied by philologists. 4. Tlie Malay-Poly- 
 group, mixed with Australasian negritos, are 
 spread over all the islands of Polynesia and the 
 Indian Archipelago. Tin- Malayan people of Java, 
 Sumatl I . the peninsula of Malacca, the 
 
 Sunda Islands, Moluccas, and Philippines, have 
 an incipient literature, which has been formed 
 under Modem and (since the ltith e.) under Euro- 
 pean influence. The South Sea islanders are clearly 
 d into two races by physical form, colour, 
 and language. One race is "allied to tlie Australasian 
 
 to the Malayan. In most 
 of tie- islands, there is a partial intermixture of 
 the two races, but generally the distinction is 
 lable that all the copper-coloured 
 ; to the same family with the 
 people of the Indian Archipel •".. The Daxan 
 
 group, including all the people employing the Tamul 
 Carnal -, all having 
 
 a certain measure of civilisation and a literature. 
 (i. The Indo-Oermcaiie or Aryan group, marked and 
 idi I by the three i | ,. r8 i ani 
 
 and Armenian. About thirty distinct nations, each 
 having a peculiar dialect and literature. ],. 
 the first subdivision ; the second ii 
 of Beloochistan, Afghan :, and Euro 
 
 the third, the Armenians. All these families have 
 cres partly written in dead languages— the 
 Sanscrit, Pali, '/, in. 7. The 
 
 heterogeneous tribes inhabit i i 
 affinities are not yet settled. 8. The Semitic g 
 including all 9 whose languages are i 
 
 to the Hebrew and Arabic. 
 
 B ' .; The same Asian characteristic of 
 
 variety and wide found in the en 
 
 in the countries and tribes of people : the Brahmin- 
 ical religion of India; the doctrines of Buddha, 
 Confucius, and of Lao-tse in China; the worship of 
 the Grand Lama in J 
 
 several varieties in Arabia, Persia, and India; the 
 rude heathenism of the north ; the various s 
 native Christians in Armenia, Syria, Kurdistan, and 
 India; the Creek Church in Siberia; tie 
 other forms of faith or religious profession display 
 ad contrasts nearly as striking as those 
 of Asian geography. Christianity, now the religion 
 of Europe and America, owes its origin t i 
 For an account of the exist 
 Asia, see articles MOHAMMEDANISM, HINDUISM, 
 
 Buddhism, Lamabm, &c. 
 
 Git e — The number of people civilised — in 
 
 the Asiatic sense of the word — is far greater than 
 that of wild and nomadic hordes; but cultur 
 when arrived at a certain point, assumes a station- 
 ary character, widely differing from the restless intcl- 
 I activity and industrial progress of Europe. 
 The laws of states, families, industry, comi 
 art, and science are, in India and (lima, so many 
 branches of one fixed and permanent reli 
 system, which has maintained its sway through 
 many centuries, and woidd long remain unch I 
 if left undisturbed by European influence. The 
 Arabs, Persians, and Turks, collectively known as 
 the Easterns, are distinct in civilisation from the 
 Hindus and Chinese. The institution of slavery 
 among tie' former, of caste among the Hindus, 
 and the civil and political equality of China, are 
 uishing marks. The Turk is a monotheist 
 and fatalist ; the Hindu is cither a mystical ran- 
 thcist or polytheist, acknowledging a multitude of 
 gods ; the Chinese is rather a utilitarian moralist 
 
 Industry. I try and commerce of the 
 
 Asiatic continent bear no adequate proj>ortion 
 to its capabilities— such as they are, they will be 
 bed under the different counl 
 
 /' fcical institutions of A. 
 
 present to us some striking contrasts. Wh 
 barbarous hordes in the north live almost without the 
 idea of government, and scarcely know that the 
 Russian czar claims them as bis subjects; and the 
 nomadic trib then khans or sheiks, have a 
 
 sort of patria nment, subordinate to higher 
 
 powers ; the most extreme forms of monarchy and 
 despotism have existed among the more cultiv.u d 
 rerament of China is an absolute 
 monarchy in form. but. in fact, is strictly limited by 
 the force of tradition. The emperor is apparently 
 
 i<7
 
 MIXOR— ASMAXXSHArSEX. 
 
 unlimited in authority; but it is an essential duty of 
 
 an emperor to rule exactly a 
 
 banded down by liis ancestors. Reverence for 
 
 r. .ra and their institutions is, therefore, the 
 sole presiding and conservative principle whi 
 BO long preserved the great Chinese empire from 
 
 ■d changes. A., now so passive, anciently took 
 nt in the great movements of the world's 
 
 /; contended against Egypt and G 
 afterwards contributed to the 
 of the Macedonian and Roman empires. 
 
 irth of the Caspian Sea, came thi 
 hordes of the Huns who spread themselves abroad 
 over Europe. The armies of Genghis Khan and 
 Tamerlane overran the Slavonian plains, while the 
 Arab califs, with their fanatical troops, established 
 their religion and government in three quarters of 
 the world. Under the Osmanli fell the eastern 
 Romas empire, and still the Turk maintains a 
 political position in Europe, but one now becoming 
 vi ry feeble and insecure. In proportion as Europe 
 
 Lvanci d, A. has declined in political power, I I 
 
 ■ countenance the theory of a gradual movement 
 
 of the spirit of civilisation and progress from the 
 
 tern world. It would appear that 
 
 at future changes in the destinies of Asiatic 
 as must proceed from European influence. 
 The P . Spaniards, Dutch, and French 
 
 have acquired possessions in India, but all are 
 now insignificant when compared with the vast ter- 
 ritory under British government. The following 
 
 from Johnston's Gazeiteer (cd. 1859 
 existing political divisions, with their extent and 
 population, as nearly as the data will permit : 
 
 Arabia, 
 
 China Troper, including the 
 I i,,!, Formosa, Hainan, 
 Loo Choo, .... 
 
 Chinese Empire, assumed De- 
 pendencies of Tibet, Mongolia, 
 Mantchuria, Korea, . . 
 
 Japan, 
 
 Further India, or India beyond 
 the Gannts : 
 Anam or Coebin-Cbina, ^vith 
 Tonquin and part of Cam- 
 
 
 
 Burmah, and part of ) 
 or CatbJ, J . 
 Peninsula, 
 Slum* 
 
 Afghanistan, .... 
 
 bistan, .... 
 KaflrsUin, .... 
 
 'Hilary or Turkestan 
 .i, . 
 Khok:in, .... 
 
 Koondooz, .... 
 Khirgbta Dominion, 
 
 Persia or Iran, 
 
 r.r.iTisn possessions in asia 
 
 Hindustan : 
 Bengal Presidency, 
 North-West Provinces, 
 Madras Presidency, 
 llombay Presidency, 
 tales in 
 
 
 
 Madras, 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Ceylon (Island), 
 
 fqnii. 
 
 1,200,000! 
 
 1,700,000! 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 235,000 
 
 450,000! 
 
 325,652 
 85,571 
 
 144 i 
 120,065 
 
 582.518 
 
 51,8118 
 57,375 
 
 23,310 
 
 Population. 
 
 8,000,0 91 
 
 35,000,000 ! 
 30,000,0 I 
 
 6,000.000 ! 
 8,iKki.iKin 
 
 5,120,000 
 Not known, 
 
 - 
 
 m oi 
 
 8,000,000 ! 
 
 094 .325 
 (01,087 
 
 .752.975 
 ,393,400 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 6t«t«. 
 
 ■ 
 
 ropultUon, 
 
 BIUTi EONS IN ASIA. 
 
 Further India : 
 E. Btnlti Settlement*-- Tcn- 
 
 assenm, Puto I'enang, i'ro- 
 vinic, Wcllcsley, and 
 t, 
 
 B. Archipelago and Malacca, 
 
 I 60s; 
 
 Labuan, , 
 lions Kong, 
 
 1,073 
 
 2:0 
 
 I 188 
 
 800 
 
 ■ 
 
 5,486,750 
 [ 508.8CO 
 
 57.421 
 
 f 81,44? 
 ■ 
 3,34 1 
 
 I 81,154 
 
 400,000? 
 38,000 
 
 •'.0 : 
 
 2,048,000 
 
 lfi,f 150,000 
 
 French Possessions in India i 
 Chanderna^or, . . 
 Kankal 
 
 Fondicherry, 
 
 nuu Asia: 
 
 Goa,Damatm, Dili, &c. (in India*, 
 Settlement* In the Islands Solor, 
 
 Timor, Midon, . 
 Macao (China), * • . 
 
 Russian Asia .- 
 
 Siberia , 
 
 Transcaucasia, &c, . . 
 
 Ottoman Asia .- 
 
 Syria,, .... 
 
 Mesopotamia, . . 
 Assyria 
 
 478 
 
 A'SIA MlXOll, the ancient name of what is 
 now called Anatolia (q.v.). Here, in Ionia, was the 
 early seat of Grecian civilisation, and here were the 
 countries of Phrygia, Lycia, Caria, Paphlagonia, 
 Bithynia, Lydia, Pamphylia, Isauria, Cilicia, Galatia, 
 iocia, &c, with Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna, ami 
 many other great anil famous cities. Here, from 
 the obscure era of Semiramis (about 2000 years B.C.), 
 to the time of Osman (about i300 a. p.), the great) t 
 conquerors of the world contended for supremacy; 
 and here took place the wars of the Medcs and 
 OS with the Scythians; of the Greeks with 
 the Persians; of the Romans with Mithridates and 
 the Parthians; of the Arabs, Seljoks, Mongols, and 
 Osmans with the w, ab Byzantine empire. It was 
 here that Alexander the Great and the Romans 
 successively contended for the mastery of the civi- 
 lised world. But, notwithstanding all these wars, 
 ; the country still continued to enjoy some measure of 
 prosperity till it fell into the hands of the 
 
 whose military despotism its ancient civilisa- 
 tion has been sadly brought to ruin. 
 
 ASKEW, or ASCOUGH, Anus, one of the suf- 
 ferers for Protestant opinions at the dawn of the 
 Reformation in England. Having embraced the 
 views of the reformers, she was turned out of doors 
 by her husband, a gentleman of Lincolnshire, and a 
 zealous Roman Catholic. On this she went up to 
 London to sue for a separation ; but was event- 
 ually arrested on a charge of heresy, and was 
 examined by the Bishop of London and others on 
 the doctrine of transubstantiation, the truth of 
 which she denied. After further examination and 
 torture by the rack, she was burned at the stake, in 
 Smithfield, July 1G, 1546. 
 
 ASMANNSHAU'SEN, a village in the jurisdic- 
 tion of Biidesheim, Nassau, is famed for the wine 
 which is produced on the slate-mountains in its 
 vicinity. Of this there are two kinds, red and 
 white, the former of which is greatly preferred. It 
 has a rich red colour, like Burgundy, possesses a 
 rare aromatic flavour, and is noted for its uncommon
 
 ASMODEUS— ASPAEAGUS. 
 
 strength and fire. But it retains its excellent 
 qualities only about three or {our years; after 
 which, year liy year, it becomes weaker, and loses 
 its colour. The choicest sort, which is preferred by 
 connoisseurs to all the other red wines of the Khine, 
 and even to Burgundy itself, is cultivated in the 
 ducal vineyards at Wiesbaden. 
 
 ASMODE'US (properly, Asciimedai, 'the de- 
 stroyer'), an evil genius or demon mentioned in the 
 later Jewish writings. A. was described as the 
 author of many evils. In the Book of Tobit (q. v.). 
 he is represented as slaying the seven husbands of 
 Sara, and hence, in modern times, has been jocularly 
 spoken of as the destroying demon of matrimonial 
 happiness. In the Talmud, A. is described as the 
 prince of demons, and is said to have driven 
 Solomon from his kingdom. 
 
 ASMON^E'ANS. See Maccabees. 
 
 ASP {asj)isj, a venomous serpent, tho name of 
 which has come down from ancient times ; the 
 vague descriptions of ancient authors, however, 
 causing uncertainty as to the species. It is very 
 jlly supposed to be the Naja ffaje, the El Ilaje 
 or Haje Nasher of the Arabs, which is very common 
 in Egypt, Cyprus, &c, and often appears in hiero- 
 ic and other sculptures as one of the sacred 
 animals of ancient Egypt. It is sometimes from 
 3 to 5 feet in length, of nearly equal thickness 
 throughout, with a gradually tapering tail ; brown- 
 
 ried with dark and pale spots; the sea 
 the neck, back, and upper surface of the tail slightly 
 carinated ; the tail about one-fourth of tho whole 
 length of the animal. The neck is capable of con- 
 siderable dilatation, through the distension of its loose 
 
 Naja Haje. 
 
 Bkin, although not so much as that of the nearly 
 
 apello of India {X"j<i tripw 
 The dilatation of the neck takes place when the 
 serpent is irritated. The jugglers of Egypt are 
 accustomed to perform tricks with this serpent, as 
 
 of India with the cobra da capcllo, causing it 
 to dance to their music ; after they have lirst, how- 
 ever, carefully extracted the poison-fangs. It is 
 
 venomous. Several varieties exist at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, one of which is nearly white ; and 
 
 one is called Spuugh Slang, or Spitting Snake, by the 
 colonists, from its supposed power of ejecting its 
 poison to a distance when irritated ; the poison 
 which distils from the fangs in such circumstances 
 being probably carried on by the forcible expira- 
 tions which the creature makes — a characteristic, 
 however, not exclusively belonging to a particular 
 variety. — Other serpents of the same family, I 
 idte, are by some believed to be the true asp, parti- 
 cularly Vipera Echit and V. Cerastes. The former 
 is of a grayish or yellowish brown colour, with rays 
 -like spots on tne upper part3: it is found 
 both in India and the north of Africa. The latter 
 is of a grayish colour, and has a very broad heart- 
 . a short obtuse rounded muzzle, and 
 the superciliary or eyebrow scales remarkably de- 
 veloped, so that one of them is often produced into 
 a sort of spine : it inhabits the deserts of Northern 
 Africa. — The name asp is now generally given to 
 Vipera Aspis, a native of the Alps, found also in the 
 south-east of Europe and in Sicily, which much 
 resembles the common viper, but is more slender, 
 and has a larger head ; it is also more venomous. 
 
 ASPA'RAGTJS, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Liliacece, having an almost bell-shaped six- 
 partite perianth upon an articulated stalk, six 
 stamens, one style, with three recurved stigmas, and 
 the cells of the berry two-seeded. The species of 
 tliis genus are herbaceous or shrubby plants, 1 1 
 
 of the south of Europe and of Africa, with 
 abortively dioecious flowers ; the stem is unarmed in 
 some, in others thorny ; at its first sprouting leafless, 
 red with scales at the top ; afterwards very 
 much branched, with numerous fascicidate, gener- 
 ally bristle-like leaves. The most widely diffused 
 species is tho Common A., A. officii 
 native of Europe, which grows on the banks 
 of rivers and on the sea-shore, in meadows 
 and bushy places, especially in sandy soils, 
 occurring in a few places in Britain, and 
 is also in general cultivation as a 
 vegetable ; its young shoots, when they first 
 sprout from the earth, forming a much esteemed 
 article of food, which, however, is only in a 
 slight degree nutritious. These sprouts con- 
 tain a peculiar crystalline substance, called 
 Asparagine, and have a specific action on the 
 urinary organs, so that their long continued 
 \ use in very large quantities is apt even to 
 
 produce bloody urine. They are no I 
 
 d in the pharmacopoeia, but both the 
 shoots and the roots of A. are still occasion- 
 ally used as a diuretic in dropsies, and as 
 a litliic to dissolve urinary calculi. For 
 purposes, the root is preferred, and is adminis- 
 tered in the form of an infusion or d 
 tion.— The thick and tender kinds of A. are 
 most esteemed for the table. It is one of 
 those plants which have been much increased 
 in size, and considerably altered in general 
 appearance, by cultivation, being seldom more 
 than a foot nigh in its wild state, and not 
 much thicker than a goose-quill, whereas it 
 has been obtained in gardens more than half 
 an inch in diameter, and its stems rise to the 
 height of four or five feet It was a favourite 
 Me of the ancient Eoman3. It is generally 
 planted in rows, at distances varying from 1 foot to 
 24 feet. Litter or vegetable mould is spread ov< r 
 it in autumn. It is allowed to occupy the same 
 ground for many years, and the shoots are not 
 
 fathered for use till the plants are four years old. 
 ome of the grow e rs of A. for the London market 
 have l 1 nder tins crop. — The seeds have 
 been used as a substitute for coffee, an I 
 mended for that use upon the continent, even at the 
 479
 
 ASPARAGUS 8T0NE— ASPEN. 
 
 present day. A kind of spirit has l>een made fiom 
 the fermented 1" rries. ; shoots of e 
 
 other species are also eaten, as those of A. Unui/olius, 
 
 : 
 
 ■ 
 
 Asparagus. 
 
 a, a vountr shoot ; '», flowers ; r, the upper end of n stem, 
 shewing branches, leaves, and fruit (all reduced). 
 
 -. and A. dttnu, natives of the south of 
 ■■■•; the last of which is much used in 
 and Portugal as a salad, in soups, and as a 
 
 ible. On the other hand, the sprouts of the 
 Bitter A., A. scaber, which is very similar to the 
 Common A., are uneatable, on account of their great 
 bitterness. 
 ASPA'RAGUS STONE. See Apatitk. 
 ASPA'SIA, one of the most remarkable women 
 of antiquity, was the daughter of Axiochus, ami 
 born at Miletus. The circumstance that in Athena 
 all foreign women, whatever their character, were 
 equally esteemed, or rather .1. and that 
 
 children, even when begotten in wedlock, were 
 held illegitimate, has originated the erroneous notion 
 that A. was a courtesan. She cert linly broke through 
 the restraint which confined Athenian matrons v, 
 ■ elusion of their own homes ; for after her union 
 
 v nil Pericles, who had parted from his first wife by 
 own consent, her house became the rendezvous 
 of all the learned and distinguished people in Athi D . 
 soften visited her. Her eloquence and know- 
 of politics were extraordinarily great. II i 
 1— though, strictly speaking, the At! 
 ■ mill have refused this appellation to Pericles 
 ; honoured with the title of Olympian 
 while she herself was dignified with the name of 
 Juno. Prom the com and others; she 
 
 - 1 much injustice. It was Hermippus, the 
 comic poet, who took advantage of a temporary 
 irritation of the Athenians against Pericles, to 
 A. of impiety; but the eloquence of the great 
 ■ ' d fined the enmity of the judgi 
 procured her acquittal. Her influence over Pericles 
 must have been singularly great, although this 
 isly been exaggerated, and even carica- 
 The brilliant b . -torically accurate 
 
 phanes charges hi r with the origin both of the 
 Samian and Peloponnesian war, the latter on account 
 of the robbery of a favourite maid who be Ion 
 her. Plutarch vindicates her against such accusa- 
 tions; and Thucydides, who details minutely the 
 causes of the Peloponnesian war, does not once 
 
 mention her name in connection with these. After 
 
 th of Pi i cles, A. married 1. 
 dealer (an important, lucrative, and dignified pro- 
 fession in ancient times), who, through hi 
 
 came an eminent man in Athens. The name 
 
 of A. was, after her death, applied to many wi 
 
 accomplishments and amiability. 
 
 A si'l'.i "I's, in ' . are certain positions of 
 
 b toi 'Mother, as seen from the 
 
 earth. In the days of re five 
 
 -Conjunction (u 1 by the symbol £), 
 
 ('). uuartile (□), Trine (a). Opposition ((f). 
 
 I WO planets are in conjunction when they ha 
 same longitude ; the aspect is sextile when tie 
 (in" apart ; quartile, when the distance is 90° ; trine, 
 when it . 120 : end at 180 they are opposite I 
 another, or in opposition. Astro] bed to 
 
 it influence over tie- fate oiindft 
 and of nations. The only two of the terms now in 
 use are conjunction and oppom 
 
 A'SPEN, orTREMIJLOUS POPLAB [Po\ 
 
 Pi PI Ui), a tree which grows plentifully 
 in Europe and in Siberia. It is a native of Britain, 
 and is frequent in Scotland, where it is found even 
 at an elevation of 1500 feet above the sea. It has 
 
 ed the specific name tramila, from 
 i" with which its leai iwn into a tremu- 
 
 Otion by the slightest breath of wind— a pro- 
 pcrty for which, indeed, the aspen-leaf has become 
 
 n [Populus tremula), reduced. 
 a, a portion of a branch with calkins; b, do., with leaves. 
 
 bial The leaves are nearly orbicular, but 
 broadly toothed, so as ai: ! libit angles. The 
 
 irks are cornier- ed, which favours the readi- 
 ness of i rows quickly, with a straight 
 stem, reaching to a height oi from GO to 80, oi 
 loo feet. In unfavourable situations, it becomes 
 dwarfish. The wood is soft, porous, light, white, 
 and smooth ; it does not make good fuel, but is very 
 fit for the turning lathe, and i specially for being 
 made into troughs, trays, pails, &c. It is deemed 
 excellent for arrows. If the stem be peeled and 
 allowed to dry before it be cut down, the 
 
 s harder, and is then capable of being used 
 as timber for the interior of houses; and on tins 
 accoimt the tree is of great importance in many dis- 
 tricts, and the more so as it succeeds in any soil, 
 although it prefers one wlrich is moist and gravelly. 
 The bark contains a great quantity of a bitter alka- 
 loid, Salicin. The charcoal made from this tree can 
 be used in the manufacture of gunpowder. — Populus
 
 ASPERGILLUS— ASPHALT. 
 
 la, a very similar species, a native of North 
 America, is called the American A. It is re- 
 garded by some as a mere variety. Very similar, 
 also, is another North American species, P. gnatdi- 
 dentata. 
 
 ASPERGI'LLTJM, a remarkable genus of Lamel- 
 libranchiate Conchiferous Mollusca, in which the 
 shell has the form of an elongated 
 cone, terminating at the larger 
 end in a disk, which is pierced 
 with numerous small tubular holes, 
 the little tubes of the outer range 
 being largest, and forming a sort 
 of ray around it. The animals of 
 this genus are borers, some of 
 them living in sand, others bur- 
 rowing in stone, wood, or thick 
 shells. A. Javan urn is popularly 
 called the Watering-pot, and the 
 same resemblance has suggested 
 the name A. (from the Latin 
 aspago, to sprinkle). The most 
 interesting circumstance in the 
 structure of the shelly tube of A. 
 is the presence of two small 
 valves, incorporated in the sub- 
 Aspergillum. stance of the tube, to which they 
 a, the disk with holes; bear a very small proportion. 
 «lveV Ud ' m ' ;m ' U " V 'They there form the stamp,' says 
 Owen, 'of its true affinities, but 
 subserve as little any ordinary final purpose as the 
 teeth buried in the gums of the fcetal whale.' The 
 affinities are with mollusca inhabiting bivalve shells. 
 A rudimentary bivalve shell is found, in like manner, 
 cemented iuto the shelly tube of the fossil Ten 
 which bored the drift-wood of the London clay. 
 
 There is also a genus ASPERGILLUS in Botany, 
 containing many of the small fungi commonly known 
 by the name of Mould (q. v.), which occur on decay- 
 ing substances of various kinds. Some of the species 
 are peculiar to diseased animal tissues. 
 
 ASPERN, or GROSS A'SPERN, a villa < of 
 
 ia, on the left bank of the Danube, 5 mils 
 E.N.E. of Vienna. Pop. about 700. This village 
 and the neighbouring one of Essling are celebrated 
 as the scene of a sanguinary battle in the summer of 
 1S09, between the French army under Napoleon I. 
 and the Austrians under Archduke Charles. After 
 the battle of Eckmiihl, in which the Austria!: 
 defeated, the Archduke retired to the left bank of 
 the Danube, leaving the road to Vienna open to the 
 French. ( in the 12th of May 1809, the French army 
 una, when the Archduke concentrated 
 his forces on the opposite bank of the river. Napoleon , 
 threw bridges nver the river, and on the 21st the 
 French army b ;an crossing to the attack. The 
 Austrians at first seemed to give way ; but when 
 about half the French had crossed the river, they 
 
 I to the charge, and almost BOrroui 
 the enemy in the narrow plain between the two 
 villages. Here ensued the battle of Aspern, a 
 terrific conflict, the grand object of the contending 
 hosts being the possession of the villages. At the 
 close of the day, it remained undecided ; but next 
 morning it was renewed with fury on either side, 
 when, after terrible slaughter, Napoleon ordered a 
 red ranks retired to the little 
 island of Lobau, in the middle of the river, whence 
 they afterwards slowly withdrew to the right bank. 
 
 The loss on the Bide of the Austrians was given at 
 4000 killed, and 16,000 wounded; that of the French 
 at double that amount. Marshal Lannes, the most 
 daring among the French generals, was am 
 slain. Both the villages were reduced to heaps of 
 nuns. 
 
 31 
 
 ASPE'RL'LA. See Woodruff. 
 
 ASPHA'LT.orASPIIA'LTOI.isthe name given 
 to a bituminous substance of a solid consistence. 
 See Bitu.mkn. It probably owes its origin to veget- 
 able matter which has been subjected to a slow 
 process of decomposition or decay, resulting in the 
 production of a bituminous coal, from which, by 
 volcanic agency, the A. has been distilled and 
 diffused over the neighbouring district. The largest 
 natural deposit of A. is in the island of Trinidad, 
 where the plain known as the Pitch Lake is 
 found. See Trinidad. The A. from Trinidad is 
 largely used for ships' bottoms, and is reputed to 
 kill the teredo or borer, which proves itself so very 
 destructive to the wood of ships in tropical regions. 
 A. is also found on the shores of the Dead Sea in 
 large quantity, and is known to the Arabs by 
 the name of Ilajar Mousa, or Moses's Stone, ft 
 likewise occurs in South America at Goxitambo near 
 Cuenca, in Alsace, and other parts of the European 
 continent, in East Lothian and Fifeshire (Scotland), 
 in Shropshire, &c. 
 
 During the manufacture of coal-gas, much tarry 
 matter is evolved from the retort, and is received in 
 the coolers or condensers. If this tar be subjected 
 to partial distillation, naphtha and other volatile 
 matters escape, and an artificial A. is left behind, 
 wliich possesses the principal properties, and can be 
 employed for the majority of purposes to which 
 native A. is applied. The various kinds of A have 
 a pitchy odour, are of a black or dark-brown colour, 
 but do not sod the fingers ; are insoluble in water, 
 sparingly soluble in alcohol ; but are in great part 
 dissolved by ether, od of turpentine, and naphtha. 
 Petroleum (q. v.), or Rock OH, is a native liquid bitu- 
 men, which largely exudes from crevices in rocks in 
 many districts, and is essentially A. dissolved in 
 naphtha. The specific gravity of A. is very near that 
 of water, ranging from 1000 to 1100. When set fire 
 to, it burns readily with a smoky flame, and is often 
 used in the smaller gas-works as fuel, by being 
 allowed to run very slowly into the furnace-fires. 
 A., besides being employed for coating the exterior 
 of ships' bottoms, is also used, in a heated condition, 
 for saturating timber which is intended for piles in 
 the construction of breakwaters, river-bridges, and 
 other situations where the combined action of the 
 air, water, and minute animals would soon render 
 ordinary wood rotten and useless. Wooden houses 
 may be preserved in the same manner by a coating 
 ot A. applied externally; and ground-flooring placed 
 in damp situations is much the better of the spaces 
 between the planks being rilled up with A. 
 
 About 1840, A. began to be generally used for 
 foot-pavements in cities, and also fur floors of 
 cellars and outhouses. For purposes of this nature 
 it is heated in portable boilers, into which, at a 
 certain stage of the preparation, there is po 
 quantity of thoroughly dried sand, gravel, or powdered 
 
 iie, which is well mixed with tho liquid A. 
 
 rture is then spread on the spot prepared for 
 id when cool, forma a hard kin 1 of pavi 
 (if this method of farming footways, high ea 
 tions were at first formed ; but latterly the process 
 hi asphalting has gone out of use in En g l a nd , as it 
 is found not to 1»- so durable as stone, and there- 
 fore, in ordinary circumstances, more i '■-. In 
 Paris, however, a ph ilting is still extensivel] 
 tised in the more spacious thi The 
 
 better kinds of A. are used in the manufacture of 
 k varnish, which is employed in forming the 
 
 enamel wliich coats the variety •>( leather known 
 
 \. is not of itself used in 
 
 it its natural solution in naphtha, vis., 
 
 3 a valuable agent when applied either 
 lly or internally. The synonyms c.i A. are—
 
 ASPHODEL— ASPHYXIANTS. 
 
 ■ Pitch, Mineral Pitch, Jews' Pitch, Dead Sea 
 Bitumen, Compact Bitumen, Trinidad Bitumen, and 
 Maltha. 
 
 ASPHODEL {Asplio'delus), a genus of plants 
 which has by many botanists been made the type 
 of a natural order Asphodelea>, now, how ever , gener- 
 ally regarded as forming part of the order Li 
 'I'll e Asphodelea; are either fibrous-rooted or bulbous- 
 1. Among the latter, are onions, hyacinths, 
 squills, star of Bethlehem, &c. ; among the former, 
 asparagus, A., &c. The roots of the asphod 
 
 •^ 
 
 *J&M*i 
 
 KVS 
 
 \ \P 
 
 A 
 
 > 
 
 White Asphodel. 
 
 fleshy and thick. The species are not very numer- 
 ous, and are mostly natives of the countries around 
 the Mediterranean Sea. The Yellow A. {A. luteus) 
 and the White A. (A. albue) have long been known 
 in Britain as garden-flowers. The yellow A. has an 
 unl.ranched stem 2—3 feet high, much CO 
 by the sheathing bases of the long narrow leaves. 
 The leaves of the white A. are all radical, and its 
 flowers are in branched clusters. Both species 
 flower about the time when spring passes into 
 summer. 
 
 ASPHYXIA (Gr.) means literally a cessation of 
 the pulsation from any cause, but is usually applied to 
 the condition resulting from the blood in the body 
 no longer being brought into the proper illations to 
 the atmospheric air by respiration, so as to allow 
 a sufficiently free exchange of carbonic acid for 
 i. See Respiration-. A, or suspended respira- 
 tion, may result from several causes. No air, or but 
 a scanty supply, may be admitted, as in strangula- 
 *' on > drowning, choking, or disease in the windpipe ; 
 the chest may be prevented from expanding either 
 from a superincumbent weight or paralysis, as when 
 a man breaks the upper part of his neck above the 
 
 phrenic nerve, thus paralysing the diaphragm ; and 
 again, although there may be every capacil 
 respiration, the air itself may be in fault, and contain 
 too little oxygen in proportion to other eli ments, as 
 carbonic acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, which act 
 as poisons when inhaled. Aquatic animals may be 
 
 it.'.l either by depriving the wati 
 inhabit of oxygen, or impregnating it with the gases 
 just mentioned. 
 
 As this condition of A. advances, in drown 
 otherwise, the small vessels of the lungs 1 
 gorged with blood, which the hurt has no longer 
 power to force freely through them, the right side 
 of the heart and pulmonary artery become filled with 
 blood, wliile but little returns to the arterial or left 
 side of the heart. 
 
 n becomes pallid, except in such vascular 
 parts as the lips, cheeks, and finger-tip . 
 become blue; and soon the blood, no longer aerated, 
 produces the phenomena of poisoning by carbonic 
 acid. After some slight convulsive movements, 
 the person becomes insensible, the pulsations of 
 the heart grow gradually feebler, and at last cease 
 altogether. In man this occurs in from a minute 
 and a half to five minutes. Some persons, no doubt, 
 as the Ceylon divers, can by habit do without a 
 fresh supply of air for a longer period ; and some 
 diving animals have an arrangement of blood-vessels 
 by which they are enabled to be under wat i for 
 a long time. Restoration of asphyxiated persons 
 may be attempted with hopes of success at a very 
 long period after apparent death. The object of all 
 methods is of course to rill the lungs with fresh air. 
 The most efficient is that of the late Marshall Hall : 
 lay the person down at once with his head on his 
 left arm, open the mouth, and draw the tongu. for- 
 wards, then roll him gently over towards the left 
 till he is nearly quite over on his face, then on 
 back again, making the body by its own v 
 compress the chest, which, on expansion by its . 
 city, (ills with air. Repeat this about 15 times in a 
 minute. This remedy has of late nearly super. 1.1 
 all others for the restoration of still-born infants and 
 other asphyxiated persons. It should be pcrs. 
 in for a long time, especially in cases of drowning, 
 as even after an hour it has been successful 
 
 ASP II Y'X IAN TS. Chemical substances enclosed 
 in shells or other projectiles, and which act by produ- 
 cing a suffocating and poisonous effect. The French 
 secretly made experiments with asphyxiating shot 
 at Brest in 1851. The principle of these missiles 
 seems to have been to carry into an enemy's ship 
 the means of generating deadly gases which would 
 suffocate the crews between decks. Scientific artil- 
 lerists dread and discountenance these novelties ; 
 they have learned to regard war almost as a mathe- 
 I science, or, at any rate, as an elaborate 
 application of such science ; and they see nothing 
 but savage cruelty in the ' diabolical chemistry ' of 
 asphyxiants. General Sir Howard Douglas, in a late 
 edition of his Naval Gunner;/, says: 'The author 
 learns, with great regret, that some awful experi- 
 ments have been made with fearful success, in the 
 royal arsenal, with asphyxiant projectiles, combining 
 in a frightful degree incendiary with suffocating 
 effects.' Adverting to sick and wounded men on 
 board a ship-of-war, he exclaimed : ' What shall be 
 said of that inhuman system preparing for naval 
 warfare in this age of enlightened humanity, which 
 would advisedly, purposely, and deliberately con- 
 sign the whole of these, and all other survivors, to 
 indiscriminate death or inutdation ? A ship may bo 
 sunk in action ; yet there is always time to remove 
 the sick and wounded, and save the survivors ; but 
 who shall approach a ship on fire to rescue her crew 
 from the sudden and awful effects of that merciless
 
 .WIDIOI 
 
 and barbarous system, the object of which is to set 
 fire to her at heart, and, if possible, blow her up?' 
 The Earl of Dondonald, Captain Norton, Mr Mac- 
 intosh, and many other inventors, have within the 
 last few years brought asphyxiating compositions 
 before the notice of the English Admiralty and War- 
 office ; and the French are known to possess many 
 such in store. Some of these compositions are 
 liquids which burn fiercely, and unite wood and 
 canvas readily ; some arc contained in shells which, 
 on bursting, scatter the suffocating and burning sub- 
 stances all around ; and some assume other forms. 
 
 ASPI'DIUM. See Fern, Male. 
 ASPIXW ALL, a town in New Granada, virtu- 
 ally, howevi r, a colony of the United States. It is 
 situated at the Atlantic extremity of the Panama 
 Railway, in lat. 9° 22" X., and long. "'.> '5.7 W., being 
 about 8 miles to the north of the old Spanish 
 port of Chagres, 49 miles from Panama, and equi- 
 distant from the great trading capitals of Valparaiso 
 and San Francisco. From its commanding position 
 as a place of transit, A. is one of the busiest and 
 most prosperous towns in the New World. It mono- 
 polises the benefits of the traffic in both directions, 
 to the almost utter exclusion of the rapidly 
 
 anama. Already the great link between the 
 Atl mtic and the west coasts of America, it promises 
 at no distant day to connect that ocean with Aus- 
 tralia, India, China, and Japan. 
 
 A'SPIRATE, the name given to the letter h in 
 grammar, as marking, not an articulate sound, but a 
 ing (Lat. spiro, I breathe). It is also applied to 
 a class of consonants. There is felt at once to be 
 a relation, accompanied by a difference, between p 
 and/, t and tli, &c. To express the difference, the 
 ■: called the first of such a pairpsiVon (bare), 
 the second dasu (rough) ; the Latin grammarians 
 adopted the terms lene and aspirate, probably from 
 the erroneous notion that the difference consists in 
 the addition of the sound of /;. There being no 
 sound and no character in Latin corresponding to 
 the Greek S (Meta),the Romans represented it by th; 
 and this misleading expedient is continued for repre- 
 ss ■nting this aspirate and several others in all the 
 alphabets derived from the Roman. According to 
 some, the word ought to be asperate, i. e., ' roughened.' 
 Of the sixteen mutes in a complete system (see 
 Letters), eight are lene, each having its correspond- 
 ing aspirate. 
 
 Lene— p, b, t, d, /.-, g, s, z. 
 
 Aspirate— f, v, tli(m), th[ine),ch, gli, sh, zh. 
 
 Q-y^» In the corresponding 
 
 — > i words of allied languages, 
 
 nothing is more common 
 than the interchange of an 
 aspirate and a lene : Ex., 
 Lat pater, Eng. father ; Gr. 
 thura, Ger. thitr, Eng. door; 
 Lat. cap(ut), Fr. chef, Eng. 
 chief; Ger. weib, Eng. wife. 
 Aspirated letters are also 
 frequently interchangeable 
 with one another : thr 
 tlier, a wild beast, is in Lat. 
 fera; Lat. /ucerc, to do, be- 
 comes in Span, hacer. 
 
 ASPIRATOR is the 
 name of an apparatus em- 
 ployed to draw air or other 
 gases through bottles or 
 other vessels. It is of great 
 ' use in the examination of 
 gases by the analytical 
 Aspirator. chemist. Thr simplest form 
 
 of the apparatus is that represented in the figure, 
 
 where A is a large vessel capable of being filled 
 with water, having a tulw with stop-cock at B, a 
 second tube with stop-cock at C, and a thermometer 
 introduced at D. In working, the apparatus is filled 
 with water ; the tube C is attached to the vessels 
 through which the gas is to be drawn ; and the 
 stop-cocks at C and li l>eing opened, the weight of 
 the water escaping at 15 acts as suction, and draws 
 in the gas from the tube C and the attached bottles 
 or other .vessels. The thermometer at D denotes 
 the temperature of the water, and subsequently gas, 
 contained in the reservoir, while the upright turn 
 of the tube B keeps any air from entering the 
 reservoir by that route. — A more complicated form 
 of A., but one which is much more convenient 
 to experiment with, is that known as Brunncrs' .\ . ; 
 the principle of action, however, i3 the same. 
 
 ASPLE >"IUM, a genus of Ferns, of the order 
 or sub-order Polypodiacece. The species are numer- 
 ous, and widely diffused both in the northern and 
 southern hemispheres. Many of them are of great 
 beauty ; and the small size of some recommends 
 them to cultivators of ferns who find themselves 
 much limited as to space. Some of the species 
 bear the English name Spleenwort, as A. Trkho- 
 manes, A. viride, A. Adiantum-nigrum, &c, having 
 been formerly supposed efficacious in removing 
 obstructions of the viscera. From the same cir- 
 cumstance the name A. (Gr. a, privative, and 
 sj'len, the spleen) is derived. They have now fallen 
 completely into disuse, but were at one time very 
 much employed, chiefly in the form of a syrup like 
 CapUUnrt (q. v.i, and were administered not only in 
 cases of cough, asthma, diseases of the liver, and 
 cutaneous diseases, but even in stone and gravcL 
 But perhaps none of them was so extensively used 
 as the species which is styled in old books Common 
 Spleenwort (A. Ce'terach), now the type of a distinct 
 genus, and known as Ce'terach officinarum. Some of 
 them, as A. Trkhomanes and A. Adiantum-nigrum, 
 are frequently called Maidenhair. A, Tricliomanet 
 is a very beautiful little fern, common on rocks and 
 old waus m Britain, and most parts of Europe, found 
 also in some parts of Africa, and in Jsorth America. 
 A very common British species, A. Euta-muraria, 
 is popularly known as Wall-rue. 
 
 ASS (Equus Asinus), a well-known quadruped, 
 usually referred by naturalists to the same genus 
 with the Horse (q. v.), but which it has recently 
 been attempted to make the type of a distinct genus 
 {Asinus), including all the solid-hoofed quadrupeds 
 (Solidungula or E'juida, see Horse) except the horse 
 itself. The distinction is founded on the short hair 
 of the upper part of the tail and the tuft at the end 
 of it, the darker stripes with which the colour is 
 marked, and the absence of the hard horny warts 
 which are found on the hinder-legs of the horse, 
 although the fore-legs exhibit warts in a similar 
 position. The long ears of the A. are one of the 
 characteristics of the species, but they are longer 
 in domestication than in a wild state. It is usually 
 also distinguished by a black cross over the should- 
 ers, formed by a longitudinal and a transverse 
 streak, the general colour being gray ; but when the 
 general colour is darker or lighter than usual, the 
 cross is often less apparent, or to be observed with 
 difficulty. The facial line is arched. 
 
 Some uncertainty still exists as to the origin of 
 the domestic A. ; a number of wild races having 
 been described, s me of which arc perhaps, like the 
 wild horses of America, the progeny of animals that 
 have escaped from domestication. The probability, 
 however, appears to be that the A. is a native of 
 Central Asia, where it is found in a perfectly wild 
 state, in Tatary, Mesopotamia, Persia, 4c, on the 
 
 4-3
 
 ASS— A8SAI 
 
 bank* of the in in-, and even to the southern 
 extremity of Hindustan; but its range does not 
 extend so far northward as that of the wild horse — 
 a circumstance which may perhaps partly ■ 
 f..r the inferiority of the d in northern 
 
 climate?. The wild A. is found both in mountainous 
 districts and in plains; vast t r. p. >j.s mam over the 
 great Asiatic deserts, migrating, according to the 
 season, in summer, as far northward as the Ural ; 
 in winter, southward to the borders of India. It is 
 fond of bitter and saline herbage, and of bl h 
 water. It was tirst accurately described by Pallas, 
 under the name Koulan, which it hears on the high 
 steppes around the Caspian Sea. It was, however, 
 well known to the ancients, and is called Onager 
 and Asinus sylreslris by Pliny, who also mentions, 
 under the name II • anothei 
 Hemiomia), a native of the same regions, non- 
 called the Kiana, or the DaggeOud. The latter 
 name appears to be of Turkish origin, and to 
 signify Mountain A., but seems to be sometimes 
 applied to the one of these specic3 and sometimes to 
 the other. This seems also to be I I a some 
 
 of their other i astern names, as Knur or Ge 
 is a source of no little confusion. — The cross on the 
 shoulders is less observable in the Koulan than it 
 usually is in the domesticated A. It ought also to 
 be mentioned that, in one remarkable particular, the 
 domesticated A. agrees with the Eq Hemioitus, 
 and ditfers from the Koulan, the infra-orbital foramen 
 of the skull bring situated much lower. But the 
 Kiang neighs like a horse, and the other brays. The 
 harshness of the voice of the A. is ascribed to two 
 small peculiar cavities situated at the bottom of the 
 larynx. 
 
 The allusions to the wild A. in the Old Testament, 
 and particularly in Job xxxix., naturally excite the 
 surprise of readers acquainted only with the dull 
 domestic drudge, the emblem of patience and 
 stolidity; but to this day they atifully 
 
 appropriate to the wild A. of 'the wilderness,' which 
 has the 'barren land' or 'salt places' for its dwel- 
 ling, and ' the range of the mountains' for its pasture. 
 — The wild A. has a short mane of dark woolly hair, 
 and a stripe of dark bushy hair nil lie ridge 
 
 of the back from the mane to the tail. It has longer 
 and carries its head higher than the domestic 
 A. Its troops have always a leader. It is a high- 
 spirited animal, very fleet and very wary, trying to 
 the utmost the powers of the hunter. It is a prin- 
 cipal object of the chase in Persia. tlesh is 
 i as venison is in Europe, and it is accounted 
 the noblest of game. Xenophon, in his Ait 
 describes the wdd A. as swifter of foot than the 
 horse, and its flesh as like that of the red deer, but 
 more tender. 
 
 The domestic A. is also, in Arabia. Persia. Syria, 
 and other eastern countries, a much finer animal than 
 as it is usually seen in Europe, although in 
 the favourable influence of a more genial climate 
 upon its development is visible, perhaps also of 
 better treatment, the A. lining more highly valued. 
 The A. is much used for riding in the East. 
 Judges v. Ill, we learn that, at a very early period, 
 the great were accustomed to ride' upon white asses, 
 and a preference is given to white asses in t' 
 to thi3 day. The A. has been domesticated from 
 the earliest times ; but it does not seem to have 
 been introduced into Europe till a comparatively 
 recent date. In Britain, it is employed chietiy by 
 i or, but might probably with advantage be 
 much more generally employed than it is. Its price 
 is scarcely one-twentieth of the price of the horse, 
 and it can be kept at one-fourth of the expense, 
 :ing in the coarse herbage which other animals 
 reject, and satisfied with comparatively scanty fare. 
 484 
 
 The obstinacy ascribed to the A. seems to 1,.- very 
 
 generally the result of ill treatment ; and pro\ 
 
 The Wild Ass. 
 
 as it has become for stupidity, it is probably quite 
 equal in intelligence to the horse. 
 
 There are two hybrids between the A. and the 
 horse — the Mule (q. v.). bred between the male A. 
 and the mare; and the HlNNY (q.v.), the offspring of 
 the horse and the female A. 
 
 The niilk of the A. contains more sugar of milk 
 and less caseine than that of the cow, and is 
 therefore recommended as a nutritious diet in 
 of weak digestion. Its usefulness in cases of con- 
 sumption has been long known, and it was often 
 prescribed as a kind of specific when that disease was 
 treated on principles very different from those which 
 regulate its treatment now, and when very nutri- 
 tious food was not usually prescribed to consumptive 
 paties 
 
 The leather called Shagreen (q.v.) is made by a 
 peculiar process from the skin of the A., which also 
 affords excellent leather for shoes, and the best 
 material for drums. The bones of the A., which arc- 
 very solid, were used by the ancients for making 
 flutes. 
 
 ASSAI, a beverage very much used at Pari ami 
 other places on the Amazon, and which is prepared 
 from the fruit of certain species of palm nearly 
 allied to the Cabbage Palm of the West Indies. See 
 Ai.ua and Cabbage Palm. The A. palms are 
 remarkably slender trees ; the most common ! | 
 [Eutt rpe oleracea of Martius) rising to the height of 
 sixty or eighty feet, with a smooth stem only about
 
 ASSAL— ASSASSINS. 
 
 JU 
 
 Assai Palm {Euterpe 
 oltracea). 
 
 four inches in diameter. The fruit is small, in size 
 ami colour resembling sloes, but is produced in great 
 i it y upon branch 
 • . which are thrown out 
 horizontally beneath 
 crown of leaves. It < 
 of a hard seed, with a very 
 thin covering of a firm pulp 
 h. The tree grows in 
 swamps flooded by the high 
 Boys climb the trees 
 for the fruit, upon which 
 warm water is poured, and 
 by rubbing and kneading a 
 1 is procured, consisting 
 simply of the pulp of the 
 fruit and water, which is 
 ■.ntly vended in the 
 streets of Para, and of which 
 the inhabitants are extremely 
 fond. This is A. It is a thick, 
 creamy liquid, of a purplish 
 colour, and a flavour like 
 that of a freshly gathered 
 nut. It is commonly used 
 along with the bread made 
 from Manioc (q. v.), called 
 farinha, and cither witli or 
 without sugar. Half the 
 population of Pari make a 
 daily meal of A. and farinha ; 
 and upon this hundreds are 
 said chiefly to subsist. — The 
 stem of the A. palm is some- 
 times used for poles and 
 rafters, and its terminal bud 
 as a cabbage or as a salad with od and vinegar ; 
 but it is too much valued upon account of its fruit 
 to be often cut down for these purposes. — An- 
 other species, Euterpe Cat ingot, is found in forests 
 of a dry sandy soil and very peculiar vegetation, 
 known as Catinga forests. Tin/ beverage made 
 from it is sweeter than the common kind, but 
 the produce of the tree is much smaller. 
 
 ASSA'L, an important salt-lake in the east of 
 Africa, 25 miles south-west of Tajurrah, the chief 
 t of Add, lat. 11° 40' N., long. 42° 40' E. Its 
 length is 8 miles ; its breadth, 4. It lies in a land 
 remarkable for its wdd, waste, and sterile character. 
 A. is enclosed on all sides but the east by hills, and 
 is nearly 700 feet below the level of the sea. Abys- 
 sinian caravans resort to it for the purpose of carry- 
 ing off the salt which incrusts its shores like ice, 
 
 ees to the depth of half a foot It ha 
 supposed that it was at one time connected with the 
 Bay of Tajurrah. 
 
 ASSA'M, a province at the north-east extremity of 
 British India, stretching in X. lat. from 25° 40' to2S° 
 17', and in II long- from '.Hi" 40' to 97° 1', and contain- 
 ing 710,000 inhabitants on an area of 21,805 Bouare 
 miles. It form3 part of the basin of the Lower 
 Brahmaputra, and is intersected also by about sixty 
 other oven. Being thus irrigated, as it were, by 
 nature, A. abounds in wood, and is very fertile. 
 Among its indigenous productions is the tea-plant, 
 which, under the management of a joint-stock com- 
 pany, promises to be at once beneficial to the country 
 and profitable to the shareholders. The other pro- 
 ducts are rice, mustard, gold, ivory, amber, musk, 
 silver, iron. lead, p broleum, and 00 
 Bengal the principal i re woollens, 
 
 fabrics, salt, opium, glass, earthenware, tobacco, 
 Sc. 
 
 In 1820, at the .close of the first Burmese war, A. 
 was ceded to the British. The upper portion of the 
 
 [ province, however, was conferred, as a separate 
 
 Eriucipality. on the native rajah, whom the Burmese 
 ad expelled; and it was only in 1838, that, in 
 consequence of hismisgovernment, the entire country 
 was actually placed under British administration. 
 Since then, the province has exhibited a noticeable 
 improvement, for which, considering that tile popu- 
 lation is barely 33 to the square mil", there is still, 
 however, almost unlimited scope. The great evil is 
 the prevalence of earthquakes, few months passing 
 without a shock or two. The people, however, seem 
 to think lightly of them — the only one that is 
 specially remembered as being of extraordinary 
 severity having occurred as far back as 1807. 
 
 A. is divided into rjpper and Lower, which are 
 again subdivided into districts. Gowhati is the 
 only town worthy of the name. 
 
 One of the most striking features of A. is the 
 abundance of wild animals, such as tigers, rhino- 
 ceroses, leopards, buffaloes, and elephants. Of the 
 elephants, not less than 500 are annually caught ; 
 and, when tamed, bands of them may be seen, harm- 
 I cows, in the charge of a single attendant. 
 
 The forests teem with game, and the rivers with 
 fish. 
 
 ASSAS'SINS, a military order, a branch of the 
 secret sect of the Ismaelites (q. v.). The secret 
 doctrines of these Ismaelites, who had their head- 
 quarters in Cairo, declared the descendants of 7 
 the last of the seven so-called imaums, to be alone 
 entitled to the califate; and gave an allegorical 
 interpretation to the precepts of Islam, which led, as 
 their adversaries asserted, to considering all positive 
 religions equally right, and all actions morally indif- 
 ferent. The atrocious career of the A. was but a 
 natural sequence of such teaching. The founder 
 of these last, Ilassan-ben-Sabliah-el-Homairi, of 
 Persian descent, and imbued with the free-thinking 
 I tendencies of his country, had, about the middle of 
 the 11th c, studied at Xishpur, under the celebrated 
 ' k, and had subsequently obtained from 
 Ismaelite dais, or religious leaders, a partial insight 
 1 into their secret doctrines, and a partial conse- 
 1 cration to the rank of dai. But on betaking him- 
 self to the central lodge at Cairo, he quarrelled 
 with the heads of the sect, and was doomed to 
 banishment. He succeeded, however, in making his 
 escape from the ship, and reaching the Syrian coast, 
 after which he returned to Persia, everywhere 
 collecting adherents, with the view of founding, upon 
 the Ismaelite model, a secret order of his own, a 
 species of organised society which should be a terror 
 to his most powerful neighbours. In 1090, Hassan 
 conquered the fortress of Alamut, in the Persian 
 district of Kudbar ; and continued to increase in 
 ill, intimidating princes and governors by a 
 series of secret murders, and gaining possession of 
 several fortified castles, with their surrounding 
 territories, both in the mountain range south of 
 the Caspian, in Kuhistan, and in the moun- 
 tains of Syria (Massiat). The internal constitution 
 of the or.'ler, which had some resemblance to the 
 orders of Christian knighthood, was as follows : 
 First, as supreme and absolute rider, came the 
 Sheikh-al-jebal, the Prince or Old Man of the Moun- 
 tain. His vicegerents in .lebal, Kuhistan. and Syria 
 lie three V . or grand-priors of the 
 
 or.l.r. Next cam - which last 
 
 were not. however, initiated, like the former, into 
 every stage of til nd had no 
 
 authority as teachers. To the uninitiated h I 
 
 1. .'.. the devoted: 
 
 1 of resolute youths, the ever ready and 
 blindly obedient executioners of the Old Man of the 
 Mountain. Before lie as igned to them their ' 
 tasks, he used to have them thrown into a state of
 
 ASSAULT— ASSAY. 
 
 -, . by the intoxicating influence of the B 
 (the hemp-plant), ■which ciroumBtanoe led toth 
 
 l 1 1 <hishmi, or hemp-eaters. The 
 I by Europeans into Assassin . 
 planted into tho languages of the Wist with the 
 ication of mnrderera The Leaks, or noi 
 
 1 the sixth division of tho order, and the 
 tabourere and mechanics the seventh. Upon thi so, 
 the most rigid observance of the Koran waeenjo 
 while the initiated, on the contrary, lookod upon all 
 ive religion as null. The catechism of the 
 order, placed by llassan in tho hands of his dais, 
 consisted of seven parts, of which the second 1 1 
 among other things, of the art of worming them- 
 
 into the confidence of men. It is easy to 
 conceive the terror which so unscrupulous a sect 
 must have inspired. Several princes secretly paid 
 tribute to the Old Man of the Mountain. 11 
 who died at the age of 70 (1124 A.n.i. appoii 
 his successor, Kia-Busurg-Omid, one of his i ml 
 priors. Eja-Busurg-Omid was succeeded in 1138 by 
 his son Mohammed, who knew how to maintain his 
 power against Nureddin and Jnssnf-Salaheddin. In 
 lit;.'!, Hassan II. i enough to extend the 
 
 secret privil initiated — exemption, namely, 
 
 from the positive precepts of religion to the people 
 
 illy, and to abolish Islam in the A 
 state; which led to his falling a victim I i 
 brother-in-law's dagger. Under the rule of his son, 
 Mohammed □., who acted in his father's spirit, the 
 Syrian Dai-al kebir, Sinan, became indi [indent, and 
 
 d into negotiations with the Christian king of 
 Jerusalem for coming over, ou certain conditions, to 
 tho Christian faith ; but the Templars killed his 
 envoys, and reje. I rtores, that they might 
 
 not lose the yearly tribute which they drew from 
 him. Mohammed was poisoned by his son, Hassan 
 III., who reinstated Islainisni, and thence obtained 
 the surname of the New Mo lem. Hassan was 
 succeeded by Mohammed III., a boy of nine years 
 old, who, by his effeminate rule, led to the over- 
 throw of the order, and was eventually murdered by 
 the command of his son, Rokn-cddin, the seventh 
 and last Old Man of the Mountain. In 1256, the 
 Mongolian prince, Hulagu, burst with his hordes 
 upon the hill-forts of Persia held by the Assassins, 
 Which amounted to about a hundred, capturing 
 and destroying them. The Syrian branch was also 
 put down about the end of the 13th c, but remnants 
 of the sect still lingered for some time longer in 
 Kuhistan. In 1352, the A. reappeared in Syria, and 
 indeed they are still reported to exist as a heretical 
 sect both there and in Persia. The Persian Israel- 
 ites have an imaum, or superintendent, in the 
 district of Kum, and still inhabit the neighbour- 
 hood of Alamoot under the name of Hosseinis. The 
 Syrian Ismaelites live in the district of Massiat or 
 Massyad. Their castle was taken from them in 1809 
 by tlie Nossarics, but afterwards restored. See 
 J ianuner, Geschichte der Assassincn (Stutt. and Tub. 
 1818). 
 
 ASSAU'LT. In the sudden and vigorous attack 
 of a fortified post, which is called an A., the troops 
 are told-off into ' storming-parties,' 'supports,' and 
 ' li ring-parties.' The storming-parties are those 
 who take the most terrible duty, being that of mak- 
 ing a forcible entry into the place. The firing- 
 parties or musketeers seek to shield the storming- 
 parties as much as possible from the fire of the 
 enemy ; they spread themselves out in extended 
 order, to keep down the fire of the garrison — aiming 
 at any soldier who may shew his head above the 
 parapet, and seeking to disable the artillerymen by 
 firing into the embrasures. Many assaults are made 
 1 y surjirLsp. ; and in that case the storming and firing 
 parties order all their preliminary movements as 
 
 quietly as possible. In most cases, there is a n 
 sity for tho stormers to descend into a dry ditch, 
 
 .1 from the ditch to a breach or 
 in the fortified wall To aid in this duty, ' laddi 
 parties' are placed at the disposal of tho stoic 
 ; these men havo previously been pm 
 i living scaling-ladders, descending and aseend- 
 i Ins, and adjusting the ladders. In some 
 celebrated sieges, ladders 40 feet long havo been 
 idlers the ditch was deep and the wall or 
 bastion high ; but it is seldom that a storming-party 
 could venture on so perilous a work, for the men 
 crowded on such a ladder would endangei 
 other. The ' supports ' aro troops who keep a little 
 in the rear of the storming and Bring pat I 
 
 ASSAULT, in Law. See Beatim; am> Wound- 
 in h. 
 
 ASSAT, or ASSA'YING, is the process employed 
 in determining the proportion of pure metal in a 
 metallic ore or in an alloy. This method of analysis 
 is more generally followed in tin on of 
 
 compounds of silver and gold, but is likewise 
 resorted to in the investigation of ores of iron, 
 copper, tin, zinc, bismuth, antimony, mercury, and 
 lead. In manufactured articles, also, such as I 
 plate and gold-plate, some foreign metal (gi a 
 copper) is present, to impart hardness to the metal ; 
 and in Great Britain, each article is assayed at the 
 I loldsiniths' Hall, previously to being sold, so as to 
 determine the exact richness of the metal whereof 
 it is made. In .the A. of compounds containing 
 silver, the apparatus employed is a cupel — a small 
 
 CnpeL 
 
 basin-shaped vessel of the form and size of the 
 figure, made of bone-ash ; and a muffle, composed of 
 lire-clay, about S inches in length and 3 to 4 inches in 
 diameter, shaped like a miniature railway-tunnel, 
 
 tlt'll 
 
 is- 
 
 Muffle. 
 
 open at the one end, A, closed at the other end, B, and 
 having numerous slits or air-boles, C, along the side. 
 The more simple A. of sdver consists in the examin- 
 ation of argentiferous lead ore. By a preliminary 
 process, the sulphur is separated (see Lead) ; and 
 weighed fragments of the mixed lead and silver 
 being placed on cupels, the latter are introduced 
 into the muffle, which has been previously heal id ill 
 a furnace, where it still remains. The fire is then 
 increased, and air being admitted to the muffle, the 
 oxygen of the air unites with the lead, forming oxide 
 of lead (PbO), which in part volatilises through the 
 openings in the side of the muffle, and in other part 
 sinks into the porous bone-earth of which the cupel 
 is made. Whilst the lead is thus carried away, the 
 silver remains behind as a molten metallic globule, 
 and when the last traces of lead-fumes leave the 
 silver bead, the latter suddenly lightens, and imme- 
 diately thereafter becomes brilliant and white. <0i 
 being slowly allowed to cool, the globule of silver 
 may be weighed, and the amount of pure metal
 
 ASSAY. 
 
 thus determined. The use of the cupel during this 
 process has led to the term aipellation being cm- 
 ployed in place of A. When silver contains copper, 
 which it does in ordinary coinage and silver-plate, it 
 becomes necessary to mix lead with the alloy before 
 attempting to separate the copper. The manner in 
 which the lead is generally added is to roll the 
 alloy of silver and copper in a piece of sheet-lead or 
 ! ad-foil, and place the whole package on the cupel. 
 During the heating in tho muffle, the lead oxidises 
 as usual, and in part passing into the bone-earth of 
 the cupel, carries the copper with it. The amount 
 of lead required to effect the separation of copper 
 from silver in this way is given in tho following 
 table : 
 
 Rt. n ^. r .t „f sii.-r Amount ofCoppcr Quantity or Load Quantlryof Loadln 
 iIoIp.S AUoylnOu. NffoMar, for One TWallnn t.. tlinl 
 
 In One Pun. f^ PnnofAlloy. ol Copper. 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 -ft 
 
 part. 
 
 
 950 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 parts. 
 
 60 to 1 
 
 900 
 
 100 
 
 7 
 
 
 „ 
 
 70 . 1 
 
 800 
 
 200 
 
 10 
 
 
 it 
 
 50 » 1 
 
 700 
 
 300 
 
 12 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 40 , 1 
 
 000 
 
 400 
 
 14 
 
 
 „ 
 
 35 ™ 1 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 16 to 17 
 
 » 
 
 32 » 1 
 
 400 
 
 000 
 
 16 » 
 
 17 
 
 „ 
 
 27 i. 1 
 
 300 
 
 700 
 
 16 „ 
 
 17 
 
 „ 
 
 23 ■ 1 
 
 200 
 
 800 
 
 16 . 
 
 17 
 
 „ 
 
 20 ,. 1 
 
 100 
 
 900 
 
 16 ■ 
 
 17 
 
 ■ 
 
 18 ■ 1 
 
 ■ copper 
 
 1000 
 
 16 , 
 
 17 
 
 ,, 
 
 16 , 1 
 
 The metallurgic chemist, while performing an A., 
 can determine, by the examination of the stains on 
 the cupel after the process has been finished, what 
 metal may have accompanied, and been separated 
 from, the silver, even in minute quantity. Thus, 
 lead alone imparts a straw-yellow or orange stain ; 
 copper, a gray or dark-brown tint ; and iron, a 
 black stain. 
 
 During the A. of silver by the foregoing or dry 
 method, a certain loss of metal generally occurs, 
 which averages 2 parts in 1000 ; and this circum- 
 stance has induced the authorities in the mints 
 of Great Britain, France, and other European 
 kingdoms, as well as the United States, to adopt 
 a humid process for tho A. of silver, which will 
 determine the value of a silver alloy to within 05 
 (or half a part) in 1000. The humid or wet A. 
 consists in dissolving the compound of silver in 
 nitric acid of density 125, and thereafter adding 
 a solution of common salt (chloride of sodium, NaCI), 
 which causes the precipitation of the chloride of 
 silver (AgCl) in white flocculi. The common salt is 
 made of a definite strength, and is poured out of a 
 measured or graduated vessel, till all further pre- 
 cipitation of the silver ceases, when the amount 
 required of the solution of common salt is read off, 
 and by a simple calculation its equivalent in pure 
 silver is obtained. 
 
 The A. of gold ores is conducted in a manner 
 .similar to that of sdver. When the ore contains 
 gold, lead, and copper only, it suffices to mix more 
 lead with it, ami heat in the cupel in the muffle 
 furnace, when the lead and copper sink into the 
 cupel, and tho gold forms a globule on the upper 
 surface. Tho proportion of lead required is regu- 
 lated by the amount of copper present in the alloy. 
 
 Proportion of Gold contained In One 
 Part of tho Alloy. 
 
 1000 thousands 
 900 . 
 800 
 700 
 
 C<H) 
 
 500 
 
 400 n and under. 
 
 Quantity of l^-ail nrrfMnry 
 
 to completely romoro tlio 
 
 Copper by Cupollatlon. 
 
 1 part. 
 10 parts. 
 16 . 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 34 
 
 When the gold is accompanied by silver as well 
 as copper, iron, and lead, it is necessary in the first 
 place to subject the alloy to the A. process in the 
 ordinary way, which gets rid of the copper, iron, 
 and lead, but leaves the silver still incorporated with 
 the gold The weight of this residual button gives 
 the combined weights of the silver and gold present 
 in the alloy. Hie method of separating the silver 
 from the gold is called patting, and consists essen- 
 tially in acting on the alloy with hot nitric acid, 
 which dissolves away the silver, forming the soluble 
 nitrate of silver (AgONO.J, and leaves tho gold 
 undissolved. When the silver is present in small pro- 
 portion, the gold assumes a protective influence, and 
 keeps the nitric acid from acting on the silver ; and 
 to effect this separation satisfactorily, it is necessary 
 that there should be about three parts of silver to 
 one of gold As that proportion does not occur 
 naturally, or in any kind of manufactured gold-plate, 
 it is requisite to incoqiorate some silver with it. 
 This is generally accomplished by taking the proper 
 quantities of gold and silver, wrapping them up in a 
 piece of lead-foil, and heating on a cupel. The lead, 
 during its disappearance from the heating vessel, 
 causes the most intimate amalgamation of the silver 
 and gold, which are left on the cupel as a metallic 
 button. The latter, on being allowed to cook is 
 beaten out on an anvil with a smooth hammer, and 
 is then passed through steel rollers, which yield a 
 ribbon of alloy about the tliicknes3 of an enamelled 
 address-card. The ribbon of metal being coiled up, 
 is technically called a cornet, and when introduced 
 into the flask with nitric acid, the entire solution 
 of the silver is accomplished, whilst the gold is left 
 as a brown-coloured spongy mass, of the shape and 
 size of the cornet. To give the metal the appearance 
 and compactness of ordinary gold, the very friablo 
 metallic ribbon is gently transferred from the parting 
 glass to a crucible by inverting the former into the 
 latter ; and the liquid which runs in with the gold 
 being pound oil', the cntcible and its contents are 
 raised to a red heat in a furnace, when the gold 
 recovers its beautiful yellow colour and metallic 
 lustre, and at the same time becomes soft and 
 flexible. The gold is now pure, and in a fit condi- 
 tion to be weighed, and the amount obtained indi- 
 cates the proportion of pure gold in the original 
 alloy. As the quantity of silver which is required 
 to be present during this process, in order that the 
 parting by nitric acid may readily take place, is 
 three parts of silver to one of gold, it is customary 
 to call this department of a gold A. quartation or 
 inquartation. 
 
 During the A. of silver or of gold it is necessary 
 to guard against any sudden increase or decrease in 
 temperature. Independently of the probable loss of 
 metal through the fracture of the cupels, it is found 
 that when the final buttons of pure metal are 
 obtained on the red hot cupel, if gnat tare be not 
 taken to cool tho whole very slowly, the bead of 
 gold or silver spitt, and little portions arc thrown off. 
 The mode of assaying gold now described can- 
 not always be followed out in the examination 
 of jewellery and other manufactured articles, as, 
 though only a few grains are required for the A, 
 yet the removal of such might entail the destruc- 
 tion of the article, and in such circumstances the 
 touchstone is resorted to. This stone was origin- 
 ally brought from Lydia in Asia Minor, and con- 
 sisted of a coarse-grained quarts saturated with 
 bituminous matter, but black basalt and other stones 
 are now employed for the same purpose. The 
 manner of using the stone is to draw a streak 
 upon it with the auriferous article ; and from the 
 colour of the streak the richness of the gold can 
 be very accurately determined by the practised 
 
 lot
 
 ASSAYE— ASSEM ELY. 
 
 nt actum f>f nitric acid on the 
 i streak serves still further u a mi 
 determining the purity of the metal, u thi 
 readily dissolves the copper and silver, and 
 
 ild. 
 
 ASS.VYE, a village in the territory of the Nizam, 
 lat -'0° 18' N., and loo 7fi B5 I. I inda in 
 the doab, or fork, of t lie Joah and Kaitna. A. 
 claims notice chietly as the scene of tli 
 victory of the Duke of Wellington, then major- 
 1 Wellesley, won on the 23 1 Sep) imber 1803. 
 The British troops in action were only about 4500, 
 while the Mahrattaa under Scindia and the 
 of Berar numbered 50,000, of whom 10,000 were 
 commanded by French officers. 9S pieces of 
 cannon, 7 standards, all the baggage, and a large 
 part of the ammunition of the Mahrattas f el] into the 
 hands of the conquerors, whose military supremacy 
 was soon acknowledged over a great portion of India. 
 In 1851 a medal was struck in commemoration of 
 the victory. 
 
 ASSEERGHU'E, a fort situated on an isolated 
 mountain at the north-east angle of the presi 
 of Bombay, in lat. 21* 26' .V. and long. 7ci 26 E. 
 Its elevation above the base of the mountain is 
 estimated at 750 feet. Its extreme length and 
 breadth are n . 1100 l 600 yards; from 
 
 the irregularity, however, of the outline, the 
 computed at not more than .100,000 square yards, or 
 somewhat less than -j'^th of a square mile. With 
 the exception of two avenues of ascent, both of 
 them difficult and strongly forti: 
 everywhere terminated by a carefully scarped pre- 
 cipice, varying in height from SO to 100 feet. This 
 formidable fastn> a twice taken by the 
 
 British— first in 1803, and finally in 1819. 
 
 ASSEMBLY ! . in the conduct of an 
 
 army, is the second beating of the drum before a 
 nuuvh, at which the soldiers strike their teuU if 
 encamped, roll them up, and stand to arms. 
 
 ASSE'MBLY, GENERAL, in Scotland, Ireland, 
 and the United i totes the highest court 
 
 of the Presbyterian Church. It differs from the 
 Anglican Convocation at once in its constitution 
 and in its powers, representing as it does both the 
 lay and the clerical elements in the church, and 
 possessing supreme legislative and judicial authority 
 in all matters purely ecclesiastical. The General A. 
 of the Established Church of Scotland Co 
 of representatives, clerical and lay, from all the 
 presbyteries of the church. The royal bur. 
 Scotland also return elders to the General A. of 
 the Established Church, and each of the Scottish 
 universities sends a representative. The Assembly 
 meets once a year, in the middle of May, at Edin- 
 burgh, ami sits for ten days. Its deliberations are 
 presided over by a Moderator, whose election is the 
 first step in the proceedings, after a sermon by his 
 predecessor. In former times, this office was some- 
 times filled by laymen : among others, in 1567, by 
 George Buchanan. In modern times, the moderator 
 is always a clergyman. S4 presbyteries, composing 
 16 synods, return members to the General A. of the 
 Established Church of Scotland Its relation to the 
 state is represented by a royal commissioner, who 
 exercises no function in the A. beyond that of adding 
 by his presence the sanction of the civil authority 
 to its proceedings. The other functionaries are a 
 principal and a deputy clerk, both clergymen, a 
 procurator, and an agent. All business not des- 
 patched during the session of the A. is referred 
 to a commission, with the moderator as convener, 
 which meets immediately after the dissolution of the 
 A., and again quarterly. The General A. of the 
 Free Church of Scotland, which has 16 synods 
 
 U8 
 
 comprising 71 pr. and of the Irish Presby- 
 
 terian I .-imil.-irly constituted, the principal 
 
 point of dil ace of tli 
 
 commissioner. See Pm •, BaBKEEB 
 
 Ai r. fee. 
 
 ASSEMBLY, Xa'tioxal (France). The States- 
 I (q.v.), convoked by Louis XVI. of Franca, 
 I May 5, 17S0, consisted of the two privi- 
 le i d orders, cliTL'y and nobles, and of the tin 
 or commons. The privileged orders refusing to join 
 tlie third estate and deliberate in a i imlier, 
 
 the latter, of its own authority, June 17 
 the title of Aaiemblec Rationale, and the righi 
 in the name of France. The court attempted tc i 
 this resolution in a royal sitting, JnilS -.'! ; but the 
 deputies of the third estate, along with the I 
 
 rs of the other two orders, had bound tie in- 
 ly oath not to separate until they had given 
 France a constitution, and had declared every 
 attempt at violence on the part of the court, tan 
 They refused to quit the common hall, aud the court 
 yielded, and commanded the nobles aud clei 
 join the National A. This was the beginning 
 revolution, and the A. proceeded with 
 rapidity to metamorphose old France. The aboli- 
 tion of all privileges on the 4th August was 
 followed by that of hereditary jurisdiction, 
 of restraints on religion and the press, and by the 
 ttionof the Eights of Man (q.v.). In February 
 1790, the monastic orders were suppressed, and ail 
 remnants of feudalism swept away ; in March, 
 .■nd the opj ilt-tax were 
 
 d ; in June, all orders and titles of nobility. 
 In July, non-catholics had the property confiscated 
 from their ancestors restored: Jews were relieved 
 from personal taxation ; and game-laws done away. 
 A decree of October 18 abolished the cruel cri 
 penalties of Louis XIV. In January IT'.'l all cor- 
 porations and guilds were abolished, and free-trado 
 introduced. In February, political rights were con- 
 ceded to Quakers ; in May, the customs at city gates 
 were abolished; in June, the torture; the violation 
 y of letters was also declared criminal. 
 In September, all citizens, of whatever colour or 
 religion, received political rights. 
 
 The principles on which the Assembly proceeded 
 were the sovereignty of the people, the independence 
 of the communes, the limitation of the royal | 
 through a conditional Veto (q.v.), the separation of 
 the political authorities, and the responsibility of 
 rs. Accordingly, the A., shortly after it was 
 constituted, declared that to it alone, subject to the 
 royal veto, belonged the legislative power. Several 
 decrees, in September 1789, determined that the 
 legislative body should form only one chamber, and 
 should be renewed every two years ; other decrees 
 declared the king inviolable, and the throne inalien- 
 able. A decree of 7th Xovember forbade the deputies 
 to undertake the place of ministers ; in December, 
 the new organisation of the communes was b 
 January 1790, France was divided into departments ; 
 m April, trial by jury was introduced; in May, it 
 was declared that the right of war and peace belonged 
 to the nation alone, that is, to the A. 
 
 In regard to finance, which had been the imme- 
 diate cause of the Assembly's being convoked, the 
 reforms were equally thorough. It was decreed at 
 the outset that taxes were to be apportioned and 
 raised without regard to rank or person. Then 
 followed the approval of a loan of SO millions of francs. 
 A decree of Xovember 17S9 ordered the publication 
 of the public accounts ; another in December estab- 
 lished a national bank. In March 1790 appeared 
 the first law sanctioning the sale of 400 millions 
 worth of the national domains; and in April, 
 another ordering the issue of cusignata (q. v.) on the
 
 A^F.MBLY OP DIVINES-A8SER. 
 
 national property ; in October, these assignats were 
 declared to bear no interest. These measures were 
 followed, in the beginning of 1791, by a series of laws 
 regarding coining, taxation, encouragement to indus- 
 try, revenue-management, &e. A committee of the 
 A. appointed to reform church matters, made a 
 complete overturn of the old ecclesiastical system. 
 After a declaration that Catholicism had ceased to be 
 the state religion, tithes were abolished, and church 
 rty confiscated. Church ornaments and valu- 
 ables were appropriated as patriotic gifts to the 
 state; the civil jurisdiction of the bishops was taken 
 away, and monks and nuns were freed from their 
 vows. The clergy were put under a civil constitu- 
 tion. Each department was a see, and the com- 
 munes ruled and paid bishop and cures. All the 
 wi re amenable to the civil courts, without 
 I to the pope or the interference of any ecclesi- 
 astical authority whatever. Every clergyman had 
 to take an oath accepting this constitution, which 
 ] 1 t p the emigration of a number, and subsequently 
 to enactments of excessive rigour against refractory 
 trea iiuertnentSs). 
 
 The A. having thus laid the revolution on a 
 foundation of 3250 decrees, and having sworn to 
 the new constitution, and got it accepted by the 
 king, closed its sittings, September 30, 1791. nam 
 its having framed the constitution (which lasted only 
 12 months), this assembly is usually called the 
 Constituent A. It made way for the LEGISLATIVE 
 ASSEMBLY, which was to reform the civil and 
 criminal laws in accordance with the spirit of the 
 n ew constitution. A decree had provided that no 
 member of the Constituent should be returned to 
 the Legislative A. But the democratic party received 
 such preponderance at the elections, that the A. 
 forgot its mission from the very first, and commenced 
 a war with the remnants of the royal authority, 
 which ended, August 10, 1 7'.'-, with the over- 
 throw of the throne and the suspension of the king. 
 The constitution had provided for an appeal to the 
 nation in extreme cases, and the Legislative A. now 
 exercised that right by convoking a National Con- 
 • (q.V.), which, being invested with the powers 
 of the sovereign, was to decide on the fate of the 
 monarchy, and remodel the whole political system. 
 
 The title of National A. has been assumed by 
 various other parliamentary bodies, originating in 
 popidar commotions, and aiming at radical political 
 changes ; as the French A . that met after the 
 revolution of February 1S4S, and organised the 
 republic, and which was likewise followed, April 
 \s['j, by a Legislative A. (see France) ; the German 
 National A. at Frankfort (see German) ; and the 
 Prussian National A. 
 
 LSSE'MBLY OF DIVINES, or WEST- 
 MINSTER ASSEMBLY, a celebrated convo 
 appointed by the Long Parliament for settling the 
 doctrine, liturgy, and government of the Church of 
 Rnglanrl. It consisted of 121 clergymen and 30 lay- 
 men— 10 of whom were lords and 20 commoners — 
 together with 4 clerical and 2 lay commissioners 
 from the Church of Scotland. Among the more 
 .aisled of the divines were Usher, Sannder- 
 son, Reynolds, Brownrigg, Ward, Twisse, Lightfoot, 
 (iataker, Burges, Goodwin. Calamy, and Wye J of 
 the laymen, t, the two Vanes, Rouse, 
 
 Wliitelocke, St John, and Maynard. The 
 Scottish olivines were Henderson, Gillespie, Ruther- 
 ford, and Baillie. 26 of those whose names were 
 contained in the ordinance calling the Assembly, 
 which was dated 12th dune 1643, never appeared 
 at the discussions, one or two of them having died 
 about the time of the first meeting, and the others 
 fearing the displeasure of the king. To supply 
 the place of these absentees, 21 additional members, 
 
 j called the superadded divines, were summoned 
 to attend. This notable Assembly held its first 
 meeting on the 1st of July 1043, and continued 
 
 , to sit till the 22d February 1649, during which 
 time it had met 11G3 times. Its most import- 
 ant work was concluded long before that time. 
 One of the first things it did was to give its sanc- 
 tion to the Solent against 
 
 j which Dr Burges alone stood out for several days. 
 
 J The Presbyterians formed a large majority in the 
 Assembly, and exercised a corresponding influence 
 on its decisions. In doctrine, the members were 
 almost unanimous; but on the subject of church 
 government, opinions extremely opposite were main- 
 tained with keenness, especially on the question 
 touching the sphere and limit3 of the civil | 
 in matters ecclesiastical. The principal fruits of its 
 
 I deliberations were the Directory of Public Worship, 
 
 J submitted to parliament April 20, 1644; the Con- 
 • of Faith, October and November 1040 ; the 
 
 I Shorter Catechism, November 5, 1647 ; and the 
 
 j Larger Catechism, September 15, 1648. These seve- 
 ral formularies, which contain a clear and rigid 
 embodiment of Calvinistic theology and Presbyterian 
 church government, constitute to this day the autho- 
 rised standards of the Presbyterian churches of 
 Scotland, Ireland, and England. The Directory of 
 Public Worship was ratified by both Houses of par- 
 t, October 2, 1044, and the doctrinal part of 
 the Confession of Faith in March 1048. An order 
 of the House of Commons, October 13, 1647, ordained 
 
 | that the Presbyterian form of church government 
 should be tried for a year, but no further legislation 
 
 I followed. What has hitherto been known as to the 
 
 I details of the proceedings of this remarkable convo- 
 cation, has been derived chiefly from the Letters 
 of Baillie, and Lightfoot's Journal, no complete 
 account being known to exist ; but the minutes of 
 its meetings, or great part of them, are reported 
 to have been discovered quite recently. See 
 Hetherington's History of the \\~>Mmin$ter Assembly 
 (1843). 
 
 ASSE'NT, ROYAL, is the regal act by which the 
 sanction of the crown to bills which have passed 
 through both Houses of parliament is given. See 
 Royal Assent. 
 
 ASSER, John - , the learned and congenial bio- 
 grapher of Alfred, was a monk of St Davids, from 
 the Latin name of which, Meat no, he is termed 
 in the old records Asserius Menevensis. About 
 the year 8S0, his reputation for learning and 
 piety procured him an invitation to the court of 
 Alfred, where he resided at intervals during the rest 
 of the king's life, assisting him in his studies, and 
 enjoying an affectionate confidence, of which he 
 seems to have been every way worthy. The king 
 promoted him to various dignities, and finally made 
 him bishop of Sherburn. The Saxon Chronic! 
 the date of his death to the year 910. Several works 
 have, with more or less authority, been attribn 
 A. The only one undoubtedly his, by which we 
 can now judge of him as a man and a writer, is his 
 Aunales Rerum OtsUavm Adfredi Magni. This 
 simple and most interesting narrative was first pub- 
 lished in 1574 by Archbishop Parker. Its trust- 
 
 ' worthiness has recently (1S42) been questioned by 
 Mr Thomas Wright, in the article ' Asser' of his 
 
 j Biographia Britannica Litteraria. This gentleman 
 
 has assuredly made the most of the objections to its 
 
 lity that can be legitimately urged. Lingard 
 
 and Dr Pauli have rep] . and, at present, 
 
 Ineral impression of scholars of Anglo-Saxon 
 literature is that there is no good reason for doubting 
 v and fidelity. The best edition 
 is that of Wise (Oxf. Svo. 1722). 
 
 M
 
 ASSES-ASSIGNATION. 
 
 ASSES, Feast op. Sec Fools, Feast of. 
 
 ASSE SSED TAXES. These are duties assessed 
 and charged upon the people, ander i 
 of numorous acts of parliament. i with 
 
 the t.'i Coo. III. c. 90. Tlio duties asm 
 under this branch of taxation are those on inhabited 
 houses, male-servants, carriages, horses, and mules, 
 dogs, horse-dealers, hair-powder, armori:il bearings, 
 
 :me. The duty on inhabited houses v. 
 stituted, by the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 30, for a former 
 tax on windows. The A. T. are colder i ! I 
 ment of the Commissioners of Inland I 
 3i e T- 
 
 ASSE'SSORS may be defined as persons who are 
 sometimes associated with judicial function::! 
 
 in the argument and procedure before them, 
 and to advise their judgments. They are called 
 A., because, according to the Latin derivation and 
 literal meaning of the word, they sit side 5y side with 
 others. They may lie usefully i by per- 
 
 sons in judicial stations whose previous education 
 and pursuits scarcely qualify thorn for the duties 
 cast upon them. A. are usually barristers or advo- 
 cates learned in the law, and familiar with judicial 
 proceedings. By the 5 and G William IV. o. 7f>, 
 commonly called the Municipal Corporation Act, it 
 is, by section 37, enacted that the burgessi 
 annually elect from among those qualified to be coun- 
 sellors, two auditors and two A., the former to audit 
 the accounts of the burgh, and the latter t< i 
 the burgess List. In the ecclesiastical law < if England, 
 a bishop, who is a spiritual judge, is assisted by his 
 ■llor, as tho episcopal assessor, and who, in 
 fact, holds courts for the bishop. But in the case of 
 a complaint against a clergyman for any ecclesias- 
 tical offence under the Church Discipline Act (the 3 
 and 4 Vict. c. 80), the bishop is directed to inquire 
 into the matter, assisted by three A., of whom the 
 dean of his cathedral, or one of his archdeacons, or 
 his chancellor,' must be one, and a Serjeant at law. or 
 an advocate who has practised five years in the 
 court of the archbishop of the province, or a barrister 
 of seven years' standing, another. 
 
 The judges of the common law courts, and the 
 
 tt's counsel, being Serjeants, are, as a condition 
 
 of their offices, A. of the House of Lords, advising 
 
 the House on points of law which may be propounded 
 
 to them by their lordships. 
 
 A'SSETS. This is one of those terms in the law 
 of England which in itself bears evidence of a 
 Norman origin. It is derived from the French word 
 assez, or more exactly, in Norman-French, asstlz, 
 ' enough ' or ' sufficient,' signifying the property of a 
 deceased person, which is sufficient in the hands of 
 his executor and heir for the payment of his del its 
 and legacies. In strictness, therefore, the term is not 
 applicable to the property of a person who dies 
 intestate, and without any debts to be paid. In 
 general acceptation, however, it is understood to 
 mean the property left for distribution by a deceased 
 person, whether testate or intestate ; and in com- 
 merce, and also in bankruptcy and insolvency, the 
 term is used to designate the stock in trade and 
 entire property of all sorts belonging to a merchant 
 or to a trading association. 
 
 A. are either personal or real, the former compre- 
 hending snch goods, chattels, and debts as devolve 
 on the executor; and the latter including all real 
 estate, whether devised or descending to the heir at 
 law. In connection with this distinction, A. are also 
 saiil to be A. by descent, and A. in hand, the former 
 of these being recoverable from the heir to whom 
 the land descends, and so far as such lands will 
 extend— A. in hand, again, signifying such property 
 as a person leaves to his executors sufficient for the 
 
 430 
 
 clearing of burdens and bequests affect u 
 
 sonal estate. A. are also in their nature either legal 
 
 . according to the nature of tho remedy 
 
 may be used by creditors against the executor 
 
 or heir. Where there are several creditors of I 
 
 itor is bound to pay him who first 
 
 judgment for his debt ; and he cannot resist 
 
 on tin- ground that nothing will be left for tin 
 
 m. If, after exhausting tile whole A. which 
 
 ■me to his hands, by the payment of debts in 
 
 due order, he be afterwards sued by a creditor 
 
 remaining unpaid, he is entitled to protect him If 
 by an allegation that he has fully administered, or 
 ally by a plea of ptene admmstramtj and 
 upon this plea the creditor is entitled to judgment 
 that he shall be paid out of any other A. that shall 
 come to the defendants, which is called a judgment 
 of A. in fuluro. 
 
 A. is not a technical term in Scotland, but it is 
 leless much used in the legal business of that 
 country. 
 
 ASSI'DIANS. See Chasidim. 
 
 ASSIE'NTO, i. c., treaty, a word specially applied 
 to a compact between Spain and some foreign 
 nation, according to which the Spanish government 
 conferred upon the latter, under certain conditions, 
 the monopoly of the supply of negroes for its 
 American colonies. It was Charles I. of Spain 
 who first concluded an A. with the Flemings. 
 !ar compact was entered into with tho 
 Genoese (15SO A.D.), the Portuguese (1696), and on 
 the accession of Philip V. to toe Spanish throne in 
 1 7< 12, with the French Guinea Company, which from 
 that time took the name of A. Company, upon the 
 understanding that for ten years it should have tho 
 ve right of annually importing 4800 negroes 
 of both sexes to the continent and islands of Spi 
 America. The A. was next transferred to England 
 at the peace of Utrecht in 1713, and made over by 
 government to the South Sea Company for 30 years, 
 permission being also granted to the company to 
 send yearly, during the term of contract, a ship, 
 carrying 50(1 tons of goods, to these Spanish colonies. 
 The misunderstandings that grew out of this last 
 clause contributed not a little to the war that broke 
 out between the two nations in 1 739. At the peace of 
 Aix la-chapelle in 1748, the English company having 
 still four years to run, their rights were guaranteed 
 to them ; but they relinquished them at the Madrid 
 Convention of 1750, upon the payment of £100,000, 
 and the concession of certain commercial advantages. 
 
 ASSI'GN, To, in Law, signifies to transfer or grant 
 over to a third party a security, a right of credit, or 
 other right, whether in possession or in reversion, 
 granted by a party indebted or under obligation to 
 the party assigning. The words of assignment are 
 to A., transfer, and set over, and they operate to 
 t both real and personal property. A chose en 
 action (q. v.), contrary to the ancient principle, can 
 now be assigned in England indirectly by the com- 
 mon law, and directly according to the recognised 
 principles of the courts of equity. Besides this 
 general application of the word, as a technical term 
 in conveyancing, both in England and Scotland, it is 
 also employed in England in judicial procedure, 
 where the decision of an inferior court is brought 
 under review, and in proceedings in bankruptcy. 
 See Assignment, Assignation, Assignment of 
 Error, Bankruptcy. 
 
 ASSIGNATION is a legal term in Scotch con- 
 ing, analogous to the English word Assign- 
 ment (q.v.j, by means of which the nolder of any right, 
 or the creditor in any obligation, or the proprietor 
 of any subject not properly feudal (see Feudal 
 t), transfers his right or estate to a third
 
 ASSIGNATION— ASSIGNATS. 
 
 party. Tlie party making the A. is called the cedent, 
 and the party in whose favour the A. is made is 
 called the assignee or cessionary, and the act of 
 assignment thus made is irrevocable, an element in 
 the deed which has been traced to the practice of 
 the French law, a source from which the Scotch 
 lawyers of the 16th c. borrowed so much — the Court 
 ion itself being a mere copy of the Parliament 
 of Paris. A direct conveyance of a debt in France was 
 termed un transport; the granter, cidant ; and the 
 grantee, cessionnaire ; and these terms, derived from 
 a Latin origin, were introduced into the Scotch law ; 
 and hence the names of the parties to an A, as we 
 have stated. Unlike the English commondaw view 
 of the assignment, the Scotch A. has the effect of 
 investing the assignee with the whole right, which 
 was in the cedent, although, according to the ancient 
 practice, the A- gave, not simply the sum or subject 
 aed, but also the deed or written evidence of 
 the right or thing assigned, a form arising from the 
 circumstance of the instrument having been regarded 
 as of the nature of a mandate or power of attorney 
 to the assignee to make his claim and to act as in 
 right of the cedent. In modern practice, however, 
 it is usual to employ simply the terms ' assign, 
 convey, and make over,' which correspond with the 
 real character of the deed. In order, however, to 
 complete the A., it must be intimated to the common 
 debtor — that is, the party originally indebted to the 
 cedent— and so essential is this intimation, that in 
 the case of competing claims against the right 
 interest or estate assigned, the A. first intimated 
 will be preferred to one prior in date, but posterior 
 in the date of intimation. Such intimation ouL'ht to 
 be made by a Notary Public (q. v.), but other formal 
 
 notice of the A. is sometimes admitted. But 
 there are certain assignations which require no 
 intimation, such a3 the endorsement of bills of 
 exchange, adjudication (q. v.), which is a judicial A., 
 and marriage, which is , ; and the same is 
 
 the rule with regard to all right and estate assigned 
 under the operation of the bankruptcy laws. In 
 Scotch agricultural leases, assignees are generally 
 excluded expressly. 
 
 But although A. is the strict Scotch term for 
 assignment, the latter is in Scotland the technical 
 term for the transference of certain property, such 
 as property in copyrights, patents, and registered 
 v oooo la. 
 
 A'SSIGNATS. After appropriating to national 
 s the land belonging to the church, the French 
 National Assembly (see Assembly, National), 
 instead of bringing it into the market at a time 
 of insecurity, when its value was depreciated, 
 issued bonds on the security of it, which were called 
 assignats, as representing land assigned to the 
 holder. This paper-money consisted chiefly of 
 notes for 100 francs (£4) each, though many of 
 them were'for sums as low as ten or five francs, 
 and even lower ; and the first issue amounted 
 to 400 million francs. The first A., which were 
 issued in the spring of the year 1790, bore interest ; 
 but subsequent issues did not. Tho facility of 
 this plan of providing government income led 
 to its being repeatedly had recourse to, as the 
 
 Sroperty of wealthy emigrants — persons who aban- 
 oned their country in alarm — fell into the hands 
 of the riders, and was confiscated, till the amount 
 rose to the enormous sum of 45,578 million francs, 
 besides a great number of forged A. manufactured 
 
 Zoida 33 Mai 
 *79Z- 
 
 (fiumeydolA 
 
 E59 -£-'" *."*<& ia 
 
 Domaines ^aJionaux'. 
 ^Assignat 
 
 j ) ova b J.o-axu^porteur. 
 PfSw 
 
 Facsimile of Assignat 
 
 abroad, and smuggled into the kingdom. The 
 value of the A. naturally soon began to decline, 
 and confidence once gone, the declension became 
 fearful. In June 1793, one franc in silver was worth 
 three fraucs in paper ; in August, it was worth six. 
 The state took the most extreme measures to compel 
 the acceptance of A. at their full nominal value. 
 Tho effects of these were to cause the A. to flow 
 back into the public treasury, to raise the prices of 
 all commodities, and to make every one averse to 
 have any dealings with the state. One of these 
 
 consequences was attempted to be met by fixing a 
 maximum of prices. But no one could compel pro- 
 ducers and dealers to produce and sell at a loss ; so 
 that all business became disorganised. At last the 
 value of A. came almost to nothing. Millions of 
 individuals had suffered incalculable loss, and only 
 a few who had bought public lands with the A. that 
 cost them little or nothing, had enriched then: 
 at the expense of the community. In March 17'.><>, 
 a louis d'or (24 francs) brought 7200 francs in A. 
 After this, they were withdrawn from the currency 
 
 M
 
 ASSIGNEE l\ BANKRUPTCY ASSISI. 
 
 in 1700. and redeemed, at -V.tli of their nominal value, 
 by mandate, a new kind of paper-money, which 
 enabled the holder al one to take possession of 
 publio lands at the estimated value, while A. could 
 only be offered .it a sale. The mandate also 
 to a seventieth of their nominal value, and were 
 returned to government inpayment of taxes or of land. 
 At length, in July 1 7;*<>. the system of paper- 
 credit, so obstinately peni ted in by government 
 and so disastrous in its results to the public, came 
 to an end. A law wa 1 p d, declaring that every 
 one was entitled to transact business in wh 
 circulating medium he pleased; that the mandate 
 should be taken at tluir current value ; and that 
 the taxi a be received either in coin or mandate at 
 that rate. The A. were executed on a coarse kind 
 of paper, and, as will be seen by the accompanying 
 fae-simile, the devices were so meagre as to be easily 
 counterfeited. 
 
 ASSIGNEE' IN BANKRUPTCY. See I 
 BUPTCT. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT, in the law of England, is the 
 name given to a conveyance by which the party 
 making the A. transfers or grants over, for a suffi- 
 cient consideration, a right in expectancy, in 
 Bion, or other right not in possession, such as a bond, 
 a debt, or other chose 01 - v.). In En land, 
 
 according to the strict rule of the old common law, no 
 such right could he assigned or granted over, because 
 such a proceeding was thought to be an encourage- 
 ment to litigation. The only exception 1 
 general rule was in the case of the crown, which 
 might always either grant or receive a (A 
 by A.; and now the proceeding is in constant prac- 
 tice, the courts of equity, making the rule il elf 
 give way to the expedi< acy of facilitating the trans- 
 fer of property, having directly sanctioned the prac- 
 tice : and even in the courts of common law the 
 application of the ancient principle is evaded. Mort- 
 gages may be assigned : indeed the right to make 
 
 ii a transfer is one of the properties of amo 
 security. A. is also the proper mode of assurance or 
 yance for passing leasehold estates fur years, 
 and other chattel property; and by the S anil !l 
 Vict. c. 106, s. 3, it is enacted that all assignments 
 made after the 1st of October lS4."i, not being an 
 it which before the passing of the act might 
 have been created without writing, shall be void 
 at law, unless made by deed. But a mere note in 
 writing, if didy signed by the parties, will neverthe- 
 less be supported in equity as an agreement, and pass 
 an equitable interest to the assignee. It also appears 
 that a parol or verbal lease for a term not exceeding 
 three years, and valid as such within the Statute of 
 Frauds (q. v.), may be assigned by a simple note in 
 writing, if impressed with a proper stamp. Copy- 
 right is assignable; indeed, by the 5 and G Viet. 
 e. 45, s. 3, copyright is expressly given to the author 
 and hit assigns ; but it is not required, like a patent 
 right, to be in every case under the seal of the pro- 
 pi 1 etor, it being enacted by section 13 of the 
 act that an A. properly entered in the book of 
 registry at Stationers' Hall shall be as effectual as if 
 made by deed. 
 
 In regard to the right of A. generally, it may be 
 laid down that the property in things personal is 
 transferable with absolute freedom ; and if they are 
 d under a condition which is either repugnant 
 to the gift itself, or against the policy of the law- 
 such as a prohibition to dispose of the property 
 assigned — the condition is void. There are some 
 cases, however, where the right of alienation is, in 
 respect of the incapacity of the owner, suspended : 
 as to which it wdl be sufficient to remark that the 
 law with respect to the disability of infants, insane 
 
 4M 
 
 persons, and persons under duress, applies in general 
 onalaswell as to real property. A married 
 
 woman, too, is in general under an absolute 
 
 ... ni-fer of thin ;a personal ; for, 
 with the exception of her equitable interest in pro- 
 perty settled in trust expressly for her separate use, 
 the goods and chattels which she ma\ havepot 
 at the time of marriage, or subsequently acquired, 
 by the gen. ral rule of law, to her husband. 
 Then are also some few cases where, in iv pect 
 of the nature of the interest itself, its alienation 
 irately prohibited. Thus, generally, the pay 
 or half-pay of a military or naval officer, or tin- 
 salary of an officer of trust, is, on a principle of 
 public policy, not assignable, the object being to 
 to such persons even against tin ir own 
 improvidence, the possession of those means which 
 are essential to the maintenance of their station and 
 the performance of their duties. The sale or transfer 
 of public appointments themselves is also, in general, 
 contrary to the policy of the law, and in most cases 
 
 ly prohibited. See Stephen's Comment 
 vol. ii. p. 43. 
 
 An A. of goods and chattels is frequently made 
 by a Bill of Sale fa. v.). Bills of Exchange (q. v.) 
 and Promissory Notes (q. v.) are assigned by 
 cndorscini nt. 
 
 The corresponding term in the Scotch law is 
 Assignation (q. v.). But in that system, A. is the 
 legal ami technical word for the transference of pro- 
 perty in copyrights, patents, and registered vessel-. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT OF ERROB is the technical 
 statement of certain grounds on which the judgment 
 of a court of law is sought to be reviewed by a 
 higher tribunal : but by the Common Law Procedure 
 Act (15 and 16 Vict. c. 50.. s. 15'2), it is now limited to 
 the case where the defendant in error intends to 
 rely in support of the judgment on the proceeding 
 in ermr being barred by lapse of tunc, or by release 
 of error, or other like matter of fact. Sec Aj 
 and Error. 
 
 ASSI'GNS, or, in Scotch law, ASSIGNEES, is 
 
 al name given to parties in whose favour an 
 : nation (q. v.) is 1 
 
 ASSIMILATION. See Nutrition. 
 
 ASSINIBOI'A, the district round Led River 
 
 1, ient. It takes its name from the Assiniboine 
 iim r. as the settlement itself does from the river 
 into which the Assiniboine flows. See Bed RivXR 
 
 IENT. 
 
 ASSINIBOI'NE, a river in the Hudson's Bay 
 Territory. Near kit. 50° X., and long. 96« \v., it fall's 
 from the north-west into the Bed River (q. v.), wdiich 
 discharges its waters into Lake Winnipeg. 
 
 ASSI'SI (Assisium), a town of Italy, in the 
 Papal States, in the delegation of Perugia, is 
 built upon a steep hill, in 45° £? N. lat, and 12" 33 
 K. long. Pop. about ollllll. It is surrounded by a wall 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 . ' d with towers, and overhung by a lofty citadel 
 in ruins. It is the birthplace of St Francis, who 
 here founded the t.'onvento Sacro, the first monas- 
 tery of the Mendicant order that bears his name, 
 a large and beautiful structu re, and one of the earliest 
 specimens of the Gothic style of architecture in 
 Italy. The church and the galleries of the monastery 
 contain line paintings by Cimabue, Giotto, and other 
 old masters. Besides the Convcnto Sacro. there are 
 eleven other monasteries in A. Of these, the 1 
 is the Portiuncula, which has a richly decorated 
 church, with a cupola by Vignola. In the last 
 century, this place was a great resort of pilgrims, 
 \ isiting the tomb of the saint, of whom one hundred 
 thousand are said to have been assembled here on 
 one day.
 
 ASSIZE— ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS. 
 
 A. occupies the site of the ancient Assisium, a 
 municipal town of Umbria, ami presents the remains 
 of the forum, the baths, and the aqueducts of the 
 of the Romans. In the piazza, or square, there 
 stands a beautiful portico of the ancient temple of 
 Minerva, com istingof fluted Corinthian columns and 
 a pediment. There are abundance of olive-trees, and 
 some fine mineral springs in the vicinity. The town 
 has given title to a bishop since 240 A.D. It has 
 manufactures of needles and : 
 
 ASSI'ZE, 'I'll is word, literally signifying a' sitting' 
 or 'session,' is a term used in the principal European 
 vstems, and very much in the same sense, or 
 rather senses in all, for it has more than one distinctive 
 meaning. As is common with regard to most of our 
 ancient legal technicality, the Latin language, in the 
 first instance (assideo), and then the French (asms), 
 appear to have led to its introduction into the phra- 
 seology of the law of England, and, it may be added, 
 also of Scotland, although in the latter country it 
 has a more limited application in judicial procedure 
 than in England, A. being in Scotland the old tech- 
 nical expression for a jury. In England, this word 
 may also signify a jury, and it is sometimes used to 
 denote an ordinance, decree, or law. But in modern 
 practice, it is commonly applied to the sessions or 
 sittings of the judges of the superior law-courts, 
 held perio<lically in each county, for the purpose of 
 administering civil and criminal justice. These 
 courts came into use in room of ancient justices in 
 eyre, jugUda rei in itinere. They are now appointed 
 by commissions issued to all the judges of the courts 
 of common law, and to other learned persons, such 
 a3 Serjeants and barristers of suitable rank; and 
 such commissions are accompanied by writs i I 
 
 , whereby certain persons (usually the clerk 
 of A. and his subordinate officers) are directed to 
 associate themselves with the justices and Serjeants, 
 and they are required to admit the said persons into 
 their society, in order to take the assizes, &c, that a 
 sufficient supply of commissioners may never be 
 wanting. But, to prevent the delay of justice by the 
 absence of any of them, there is also issued, of course, 
 a writ of Si non omnes, directing that, if all cannot be 
 present, any two of them (a justice or Serjeant being 
 one) may proceed to execute the commission. These 
 commissioners or j udges of A. are sent twice in every 
 year on circuits all round the kingdom, to try by a jury 
 of the respective counties the truth of such matters 
 of fact as are then under dispute in the courts of 
 Westminster Hall ; and occasionally a third circuit 
 is appointed in the course of the year, for the pur- 
 pose of jail delivery. The circuits are eight in 
 number— such as the Home, the Midland, the Xor- 
 folk, the Oxford, the Northern, the Western, the 
 North Wales, and the South Wales circuit ; and in 
 i, the judges or commissioners sit by 
 virtue of four several authorities : 1. The commis- 
 sion of the peace ; 2. A commission of oyer and 
 terminer; '.',. A commission of general jail delivery. 
 The other authority is, 4. That of nisi prius, winch 
 is a consequence of the ancient commission of A. 
 being annexed to the office of justices of A. by the 
 Statute of Westminster the Second (13 Edw.I. C 
 30) ; and it empowers them to try all questions of 
 fact issuing out of the courts at Westminster that 
 are then ripe for trial by jury. These, by the 
 ancient e. hi ■■■.urts, were usually api 
 
 to be tried at Westminster in some Easter or 
 Micliaelm.is term, by a jury returned from the 
 county wherein the cause of action arose ; but with 
 this proviso, nisi pritu, unless before the day pre- 
 fixed the judges of A. should come into the county 
 in question, which in modern times they have 
 invariably done in the vacations preceding ; 
 the trial has always, in fact, taken place before 
 
 those judges. And now, by the effect of the statute 
 15 and 10 Vict. c. 70 (the Common Law Procedure 
 Act, 1852), the course of proceeding is no longer 
 
 ostensibly connected with a proviso a' 
 prius, but the trial is allowed to take place without 
 the use of any such words in the process of the 
 court, and as a matter of course, before the judges 
 sent under commission into the several counties. 
 The circuit system, however, does not extend to 
 London and Middlesex, which have instead courts 
 of nisi prius, which are held before the chief or other 
 of the superior courts for the trial of civil 
 . at what are called the London and W( -t- 
 minster Sittings — the times for which sittings are 
 now regulated by the Common Law Procedure Act 
 of 1854 (17 and 18 Vict. e. 125, s. 2) ; and the estab- 
 lishment of the Central Criminal Court (by the 4 
 and 5 WilL IV. c. ."(j, the jurisdiction of which has 
 been recently extended by the 19 and 20 Vi t. c. 10), 
 has sufficiently provided for the administration of 
 criminal justice within these district . 
 
 The circuit courts of Justiciary in Scotland, of 
 which there are three — the North, the West, and 
 the South — very much resemble the assizes in 
 England, and have, in criminal matters at least, 
 very much the same jurisdiction ; but in civil causes 
 their authority is very limited. 
 
 In the sense of an ordinance or law, the term A. 
 has various applications, although chiefly in the 
 more ancient systems of jurisprudence. Thus, the 
 'Assizes ' of Jerusalem were, as we are told in Gibbon's 
 and Fall (vol. xi. p. 93), a code of feudal laws 
 for the kingdom of Jerusalem, formed in 1099 by an 
 assembly of the Latin barons and of the clergy and 
 laity under Godfrey of Bouillon. Then there were 
 the 'Assizes' or ordinances regulating the price of 
 bread, ale, fuel, and other common necessaries of 
 life, but all of which have been abolished. The 
 same regulations appear to have prevailed rn 
 Scotland in ancient times. See Juev Tiual, 
 Fairs. 
 
 ASSO CIATE STOOD, ASSOCIATE PRES- 
 BYTERY, ftc, designations adopted among the 
 Secedees (q. v.) from the Church of Scotland. 
 There is also an Associate Synod in America, and 
 an Associate Reformed Church, both of which have 
 sprung from the Scottish .Secession. 
 
 ASSOCIATION. See Co-opbrahok ; also, 
 Soi rEius, League, Company. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. This is a phrase 
 of great importance in the Philosophy of the Human 
 Mind, as expressing the most pervading fact at the 
 foundation of our intelligence. By giving therefore, 
 a somewhat full exposition of this subject, we are 
 able to explain, at once, a considerable numlxr of 
 the complex phenomena of mind in a more satisfac- 
 tory way than by treating the several phenomena 
 separately. What is meant by Association of Ideas, 
 is familiarly illustrated by such occurrences as the 
 following : When we see the sky l>ecoming overcast, 
 we think of rain as about to follow, the notion of 
 rain not having previou -ent to our mind. 
 
 When we hear the church-bells, we are apt to think 
 of the crowds in the street, or of some of the other 
 circumstances of public worship. When we pass a 
 house.wc are reminded of its occupier; and ne 
 a person we know, we may be carried iu thought to 
 his office, and from that to other persons holding the 
 office, and so on. If an object is before my 
 as a mountain, 1 am said to receive an impres- 
 sion or sensation of it. in consequence of the actual 
 presence of the thing ; but it is possible for me to 
 remember the mountain, or to have an idea of it, 
 when far away from the reality, in which case there 
 must be some power in the mind itself, ditlcrent 
 
 493
 
 ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS. 
 
 bom the susceptibility to present objects, a power of 
 
 reviving, or resuscitating those Btal 
 first induced by contact with the actual. B 
 the sights, anil sounds, and touches caused by con- 
 tact With real things, we are gratify occupied with 
 sounds, and touches remembered, anticipated, 
 or imagined, which is to live in a world of ideas ; and 
 it is in this world that the process termed Associa- 
 tion has its sphere. When an idea is brought before 
 the mind without its original, as when I picture to 
 my mind the late Duke of Wellington, the circum- 
 stance is owing to the mention of his name, or of 
 some incident connected with him ; and my remem- 
 brance of his personal appearance, as I have seen 
 him when alive, is said to be the result of an associa- 
 tion existing in my mind between two ideas, so that 
 the one is able to recall or restore the other. The 
 association between names and things comprehends 
 one of the most extensive applications of the | 
 in question. 
 
 The circumstances under which one idea brings 
 forward another into the view are principally these 
 two — viz., first, previous jyroximity ; and second, 
 
 is. The terms ' Contiguity ' and ' Similarity ' 
 d in Mental Philosophy to express them. The 
 first is exemplified in the examples of association 
 given above ; for in most of those it will be found 
 that the conjoined notions have been frequently in 
 the view at the same time, in consequence of which 
 they have, as it were, grown together, or become 
 part of the same whole. Thus, we nave often noticed 
 the darkened sky followed by a shower; the two 
 
 have occupied the attention simultaneously, 
 and in virtue of some power belonging to our mental 
 framework, they have cohered into an inseparable 
 couple or aggregate in the mind. This is proximity. 
 or contiguity. When one idea suggests another 
 which was never in company with it before, it is 
 generally through the force of some likeness between 
 the two. I meet an old man in the street with a 
 very peculiar face, which reminds me of the bust 
 of Socrates. These two things had never accom- 
 panied one another in my mind before, and therefore 
 it could not be the force of proximity that made the 
 second to arise at the instigation of the first ; but 
 there was a certain amount of likeness or similarity 
 
 n the old man's features and the feat 
 Socrates, as represented to us in the bust ; and it is 
 a fact of our constitution, no less certain and no less 
 important than the foregoing, that in cases where 
 sometlung now before the mind has a strong cast of 
 resemblance to something formerly observed or con- 
 
 I by us, but not at present thought of in any 
 way, the present is apt to recall that past idea, what- 
 ever it may be. By the force of likeness, the travel- 
 ler in new countries is constantly reminded of the 
 scenes and objects familiar to him, and so is induced 
 to draw comparisons beween the one and the other. 
 Identification and comparison both imply that things 
 are brought together by virtue of their similarity, 
 they not having been in company before. The 
 principle of proximity operates most in Memory, 
 Habit, and Routine ; similarity has to do with 
 invention and originality, and is essential to the 
 processes of Reason and Imagination. 
 
 Law of Contiguity, — The principle of association 
 by proximity is not confined to ideas. We must 
 state it in a more comprehensive form, in order to 
 comprise the full sphere of it3 application ; for our 
 mechanical habits are formed through the very same 
 ] lower of our constitution that enables us to recall 
 or remember ideas. The taught movements of a 
 soldier or of a skilled workman are connected 
 together so firmly that one succeeds to another 
 almost of its own accord. Everything of the nature 
 of acquisition supposes a plastic property in the 
 
 human system, giving permanent coherence to acts 
 that have been performed together. 
 
 The following is a general statement of the law 
 under consideration : 
 
 Actions, Sensations, States of Feeling, and Ideas, 
 
 n <j together, or in close succession, tend to grow 
 
 r, or cohere in suclt a way that when any one of 
 
 I afterwards presented to the mind, the other* 
 
 are apt to arise. 
 
 And first, as to association of Actions, or volun- 
 tary movements. When we perform a train of 
 movements without any further aid of the will than 
 to commence the series, there must be a lixed connec- 
 tion between each and the one that follows, and 
 this connection may be either instinctive or acquired. 
 There are various cases of instinctive trains, such 
 as the action of the heart, lungs, and intestines, and 
 the movements of deglutition. When a morsel of 
 food reaches the back part of the mouth, the 
 muscles of the throat seize bold of it, and transmit 
 it to the stomach, independent of our will. The 
 connected movements in this case are provided for 
 in the original structure of the nervous and muscu- 
 lar system. In walking, there is partly an instinc- 
 tive tendency to alternate the limbs, and partly a 
 confirming acquisition, the result of practice, lint 
 in those complicated operations that human beings 
 are taught to execute in the various avocations of 
 life, the associating principle is everything. The 
 apparently simple and easy act of taking food is a 
 complicated acquisition ; in other words, an exten- 
 sive group of a iciati d movements. The seizing of 
 .wed by the movement of the arm 
 that carries it to the mouth ; the mouth is opened 
 simultaneously ; after which follow the processes 
 of biting and chewing ; all which take place with 
 the certainty of a machine, and without effort or 
 attention directed to them. These associations were 
 originally built up by slow degrees. ' As a general 
 rule, it takes many repetitions to cement so firm a 
 union between successive and simultaneous move- 
 ments as is implied in the above instance.' 
 
 A good example of the association of movements 
 is furnished in our acquirement of spoken language, 
 as in committing to memory words, sayings, and 
 passages of books. When a child has perfectly 
 acquired the Lord's Prayer, the chain of association 
 is so firmly knit, that the articulation of the words 
 'Our Father' is followed irresistibly with those Di xt 
 succeeding, and so on to the end The cohesion in this 
 case is between the vocal movements corresponding 
 to the enunciation of the words. Having gone 
 many times through this one definite succession, tho 
 stream of nervous power, in some way that we can- 
 not at present explain, acquires a tendency to fall 
 into this one definite track, and in future to bring 
 on the movements in the exact order that they have 
 so frequently followed. 
 
 It is not merely actual movements that can be 
 joined together in this way, but the ideas of move- 
 ment ; for a man, meditating in language, and not 
 speaking out his thoughts, can consolidate his trains 
 so as to remember them afterwards. 
 
 When we proceed to Sensations and the Ideas, 
 or subsequent traces, of Sensations, and take along 
 with these the variety of our movements with their 
 ideas, we find an unlimited scope for the associating 
 principle ; and the consequences of its operation 
 spread far and wide in the domains of our happiness, 
 our knowledge, and our active capacity. It is only 
 possible here to present a few illustrative examples. 
 
 In the various mechanical acquirements, wliich 
 include the whole of special handicraft industry 
 and skill, as well as the use of the bodily members 
 in the more general actions of daily life, there may 
 be traced the Unkings of actions with actions, or
 
 ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS. 
 
 actions with sensations and ideas. The helmsman 
 steering a ship associates in his mind each deviation 
 of the needle from the proper point with the I 
 muscular exertion to be applied to the wheel to 
 rectify the ship's direction. The workman fabricat- 
 ing in wood, metal, or stone, acquires a firm connec- 
 tion between each aspect of the material and the 
 muscular power to be applied to bring it one step 
 nearer the desired form. The power of copying 
 anything we see, as in writing, drawing, moulding, 
 &c, when completely mastered, is made op of asso- 
 ciations between a visible appearance, and the train 
 of movements calculated to reproduce it. After 
 practice, all this is done, as it is called, mechani- 
 cally, or without those operations of considering, 
 willing, and remembering directions, that are essen- 
 tial to the learner in a new art. The associations 
 that grow up after a certain amount of practice, are 
 in this case associations between movements and 
 appearances to the eye, or sensations of sight. In 
 the greater number of crafts, the eye is the guid- 
 ing sense to the operator, but not in all. Some- 
 times the effect is vocal, as in performing music, and 
 in making and tuning musical instruments, in speak- 
 ing, &c. In other arts, the touch is the guiding sense, 
 and in some, as in cookery, the taste and smell direct 
 the operator. Each accomplished workman has in 
 his mind many hundreds, not to say thousands, of 
 couples or aggregates of definite movements with 
 other movements and with sensations, contracted in 
 the course of his apprenticeship to his calling. 
 
 If we inquire into the circumstances that favour and 
 promote this extensive circle of acquisitions, we shall 
 find several that maybe named as of importance. 
 In the first place, a natural activity of temperament, 
 or an abundant flow of power to the active mem- 
 bers, as shewn in a great and various mobility of 
 the frame, is a good oasis of bodily acquirements. 
 When the force of the system runs feebly towards 
 the muscular framework, being perhaps expended 
 in other ways, as in the thinking powers, more time 
 is requisite to attain difficult mechanical arts. 
 Another important circumstance is tlte aculeness or 
 delicacy of the sense involved in the operation. A 
 keen eye, sensitive to minute degrees of effect, is 
 wanted in all the various occupations that turn on 
 visible appearances ; a good ear is indispensable to 
 music and the art3 of producing sounds ; and so on. 
 With a naturally dull sensibility to flavour, no man 
 can easily become a good cook, or a taster of tea or 
 wine. The third consideration is the natural power 
 of adhesive association belonging to the individual 
 character. Some minds have originally a more 
 powerful adhesiveness than others, cither for things 
 generally, or for special departments. We see this 
 when a number of boys come together at school, and 
 in apprentices learning together. Some are always 
 found taking the start of the rest in rapidity of 
 acquirement; and although the reason maybe found 
 in some of the other circumstances now mentioned, 
 yet observation shews that when even-thing i 
 allowed for, there remain natural differences in the 
 rapidity with which the adhesive bond is cemented ; 
 some acquiring without effort what others take both 
 time and labour to accomplish. The fourth princi- 
 pal circumstance is the interest taken in the work, 
 or the degree to which it engages the feelings of the 
 learner. This is a material consideration, account- 
 ing for the acquisitions made in mattere that we 
 have a strong taste for without our having a | ire- 
 eminence in those other points that constitute 
 natural capacity. These four conditions apply more 
 or less to acquisition generally. 
 
 A detailed exemplification of this great principle 
 of our nature might be given through all the depart- 
 ments of the human intellect. The acquirements 
 
 of speech, as already said, contain a wide range of 
 instances. The adhesion of language is partly in 
 the vocal organs, partly in the ear, and partly in the 
 eye. when we come to written and printed charac- 
 ters. The associations of names with things, with 
 actions (as in obeying direction and command), 
 and with other names (in acquiring foreign lan- 
 guages), are a gradual growth favoured by such con- 
 ditions as the above. The acquirements in Science, 
 Fine Art, and Business, and in everything that con- 
 stitutes skill or knowledge, proceed upon this plastic 
 property of the mind. It also enlarges the sphere 
 of our pleasures and pains. There are connections 
 established in the mind between our states of feeling 
 and the things that have often accompanied them, 
 so that the accompaniment shall have pov 
 
 the feeling. It is thus that we contract affec- 
 tions, both benevolent and malevolent, towards per- 
 sons and things, our friends, our home, our country, 
 ourproperty, our pursuits. 
 
 This power of stirring up dependent associations 
 to an extent that may be almost called unlimited 
 (although there are limitations), is peculiar to the 
 animal organisation. Nothing parallel to it occurs 
 in the mineral or vegetable world. It is a property 
 of mind alone, and has its seat in the nervous tissue. 
 We know that growth or change is requisite to the 
 s of the adhesion; for it proceeds most 
 rapidly in youth, health, and nutrition, and decays 
 in old age, and during exhaustion and disease. And 
 even to Keep our acquisitions from fading away, it is 
 requisite that they should be occasionally revived. 
 A language acquired in early years may be utterly 
 lost by disuse. Sustained practice seems particularly 
 necessary in early education ; children's acquisitions 
 are very liable to disintegrate, if not kept up and 
 confirmed by new additions. 
 
 Law of Similarity. — This may be expressed as 
 follows : 
 
 Present Actions, Sensations, Thoughts, and Emo- 
 tions tend to revive their Like among j>/- 
 impressions. 
 
 If the mind worked only by the principle of con- 
 tiguity, nothing would ever occur to us except in 
 some connection already formed. But some explana- 
 tion is necessary as to the precise relationship sub- 
 sisting between the two distinct forces of mental 
 resuscitation, in order to shew at once their distinct- 
 aesa aud their connection. When the cohesive link 
 between any two contiguous actions, sensations, or 
 i 9 confirmed by a new occurrence or repetition, 
 it is perfectly obvious that the present impression 
 must revive the sum-total of the past impressions, or 
 reinstate the whole mental condition left on the 
 occasion immediately preceding. Thus, if I am dis- 
 ciplining myself in the act of drawing a round figure 
 with my hand, any present effort must recall the 
 state of the muscular and nervous action, or the pre- 
 cise bent acquired at the end of the previous effort, 
 while that effort had to restore the condition at the 
 end of the one preceding, and so on. But this rein- 
 statement of a former condition by a present act 
 of the same kind, is really and truly a case of the 
 principle before us, or of like recalling like ; and 
 without such recall, the progressive adhesion of 
 contiguous things would be impossible. It would 
 appear, therefore, that similarity is tacitly assumed 
 in the operation of contiguity, and is indispensable 
 to the process by which our acquisitions are gradually 
 built up. Why, then, do we set op the associating 
 force of likeness as something independent and dis- 
 tinct ? To answer this question, we must advert to 
 the fact, that in those eases where the same impres- 
 sion is deepened by every new repetition, the old and 
 the new arc not merely similar, they are identical, 
 
 and the resuscitation takes place without fail, and 
 
 «N
 
 ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. 
 
 as a matter of course. But in going deeper into the 
 explanation of the human intellect, we encounter 
 many classes of similars, where there is not absolute 
 identity, but the mixing up of a certain amount of 
 diversity with the likeness actually existing. The 
 botanist classing together all the plants of the same 
 order, as, for example, the Rosacea, has to be struck 
 with the occurrence of certain common characters — 
 viz., the properties that distinguish the order — in the 
 midst of great varieties in all other respects. It is 
 important that he recognise these general marks, 
 whether the plants be trees or shrubs, whether they 
 I poisonous or wholesome, and under many other 
 diversities. It is exceedingly important in science, 
 in the business of life, and even in the creations of 
 fine art, that the mind should take cognizance of 
 likeness surrounded by unlikencss; which is the 
 case that renders it necessary to characterise as 
 distinct the associating force now under discussion. 
 In the case of perfect identity between a present 
 and a past impression, the past is recovered, and 
 fused with tin- present, instantaneously and sun [y. 
 So quick and certain is the process, that we lose 
 sight of it altogether; we are scarcely made aware 
 of the existence of an associating link of similarity 
 under such circumstances. But when we pass from 
 perfect to imperfect or partial identity, we are more 
 
 readily led to perceive the existence of this link of 
 attraction between similars, for we find that the 
 restoration sometimes docs not take place ; eases occur 
 where we fail to be struck with a similitude: the 
 spark of resuscitation d< >. , not pass between the new 
 impression and the old dormant one. Then it is thai 
 we recognise differences between different minds ; one 
 man tracing resemblance and making' out identity 
 better than another. Moreover, we can assign lea- 
 sons connected with the culture of the individual, 
 which partially explain superiority or inferiority in 
 
 this important faculty; just as we have pointed out 
 the conditions favourable to the rapid growth of the 
 adhesive bond of proximity. The failure in rein- 
 stating an old impression by virtue of a present one 
 like it, is solely ascribable to the want of perfect 
 identity. When in some new presentation of an 
 object, the old familiar form is muffled, obscured, 
 distorted, disguised, or in any way altered, it is just 
 a chance if we recognise it; the amount of [is 
 still remaining will have a tendency to revive the 
 object, while the points of difference or unlikencss 
 will operate against the revival, and tend to restore 
 things of their own kindred. If we hear a musical 
 air that we are accustomed to, the new impression 
 revives the old as a matter of course ; but if the air 
 is played with complex harmonies and accompani- 
 ments which are strange to us, it is possible that 
 the elfect of these additions may be to check our 
 recognition of the melody; the unlike circumstances 
 may repel the reinstatement of the old experience 
 more strongly than the remaining likeness attracts 
 it. If our hold of the essential character of the 
 melody is but feeble, and if we arc stunned and con- 
 founded by the new accompaniments, there is every 
 probability that we shall not be put upon the old 
 mental track made by the same air; in other words, 
 we shall not identify the performance. 
 
 A few examples may next be given, to shew the 
 workings of this associating power, and the conse- 
 quences thence arising. The intellectual operations 
 k nown under the names Classification, Generalisation, 
 Induction, and Deduction, all proceed upon the dis- 
 covery of likeness among things lying wide asunder 
 in space and time, and very often veiled by diversity. 
 Thus, in order to include in one list all the species of 
 the rose, botanists have had to trace the characters 
 of the genus tlirough its various members, wherever 
 they occur, and under the greatest differences in 
 496 
 
 pect It takes a keen identifying 
 faculty— that is, a strong natural tendency for the 
 resurrection of like to meet like — to see the resem- 
 blance of some of these species to the rest; and it 
 has happened in many department; of tmowled e 
 
 that a class has remained incomplete for a time, 
 purely from the disguised character of some of (he 
 individuals. So in the process termed induction, by 
 which B general law is arrived at by comparing 
 
 instances of it everywhere, there must be an attrac- 
 tion of similars, in order to bring together in the 
 
 mind tlie collection of particulars that the induction 
 is based upon. Thus. Newton assembled in his view 
 the vai parent bodies that he had found in 
 
 the course of his experiments to refract or bend 
 li hi Btrongly, his only intellectual instrument for 
 do I so being the bond of likcm operating as a 
 power of recall. Having looked at them in companj . 
 he Baw that some were remarkable for their weight 
 ■ lie gravity, and others for containing inflam- 
 mable ingredients; upon which he raised the general 
 induction, connecting these two properties with high 
 refrangibility. Then, deductively, he applied tins 
 generalisation to the diamond, which refracts light 
 more than any other known substance ; and as it is 
 not a heavy material, he extended the other infer- 
 ence to it - namely, that it was made up of some 
 inflammable material, an inference afterwards con- 
 firmed by the discovery that it is crystallised carbon. 
 Many of the greatest discoveries in science have 
 turned on the identification of modes of action never 
 before supposed the same, as when Franklin was 
 si ruck with the resemblance between the atmos- 
 pheric thunder and lightning and the phenomena of 
 common electricity. 
 
 Another wide field for the operation of the same 
 principle, is the region of illustraim a 
 whereby two things widely remote are brought 
 together, in the view either to elucidate one another, 
 or for the sake of ornament and poetic effect. Most 
 men of genius in literature and poetry have contri- 
 buted original illustrations, similes, metaphors, or 
 comparisons in the course of their compositions. 
 Shakspeare carries the palm in this faculty. The 
 writings of Bacon are remarkably rich in those that 
 serve the purpose of exposition. Science is with 
 him the 'interpretation' of nature: final causes 
 are 'vestal virgins;' they have no fruit: fallacies 
 are ' idols.' Edmund Burke, another master of 
 illustrative comparison, has termed revolutions the 
 • medicine' of the state, and regular government 
 its ' food.' 
 
 If we inquire into the circumstances that render 
 one mind more prolific in new identifications and 
 comparisons than another, apart from difference of 
 original capacity, we must refer mainly to the fact, 
 that the one has had the greater previous familiarity 
 with the class of things thus brought up by the 
 attraction of similarity. A mathematician is the 
 most likely person to bring up comparisons from 
 mathematics ; a botanist is prepared to identify 
 plants ; a travelled man provides illustrations from 
 foreign countries; a historian, from history. The 
 sailor is notoriously rich in nautical simdes and 
 illustrations. When any one not specially versed in 
 a subject is yet prone to draw upon it profusely in 
 i be w ay of comparison, we must then refer to great 
 natural endowment as the sole explanation. But our 
 space does not allow us to dwell further on the 
 subject. (For the full exemplification of both the 
 ting principles and of the complications that 
 thev L'ive birth to, see Bain on T/ie Senses and the 
 Intellect) 
 
 The earliest known attempt to lay down the 
 laws whereby thought succeeds to thought, is that 
 contained in Aristotle's treatise on Memory. He
 
 ASSOUAN— ASSYRIA. 
 
 enumerates three different principles of mental 
 citation — viz., Similarity, Contrariety, and Co- 
 adjacency. He has been followed by most other 
 philosophers as regards all the three principles. It 
 is now, however, clearly Been and generally admitted, 
 that contrariety is not an independent associating 
 force. When a thing suggests its opposite or con- 
 trary, it will be found that the two have been pre- 
 viously together in the mind, and have therefore 
 acquired a mutual hold by contiguity. Such, for 
 
 example, is black and white, wet and dry, health 
 
 and sickness, prosperity and adversity, &c. Con- 
 tram s, in fact, have a natural inseparability; they 
 are of the class of relatives like father and son, which 
 imply each other necessarily, and have no meaning 
 except by mutual reference. It requires no new 
 principle of our constitution to account for ST1 
 
 ti i this particular case. Moreover, whi D tluu : 
 
 an- strongly contrasted with one another, as hi b 
 position before a fall, the mind is greatly imp] 
 with the shock of transition, and so retains a lively 
 recollection of the sequence, having by that means 
 i, neat r tendencj to pass from the one to the 
 other. Thus, then, the enumeration of Aristotle is 
 reduced to the two principles that we have now 
 expounded, 
 
 Hobbes recognised the principle of contiguity as 
 the foundation of reminiscence ; but the Aristotelian 
 philosopher, Vives, who wrote in the 14th c, was the 
 lirst to specify in minute detail the various circum- 
 stances that determine the adhesive bond of recollec- 
 tion. Hume's enumeration is well known to have 
 comprised the three principles of resemblance, con- 
 tiguity, and causation, which he illustrates as 
 Follows: ' A picture naturally leads our thoughts to 
 the original, [resemblance]. The mention of one 
 apartment in a building naturally introduces an 
 inquiry or discourse concerning the others, [conti- 
 guity]. And if we think of a wound, we can scarce 
 forbear reflecting on the pain which follows it, 
 [causation].' Causation, however, is merely a case 
 of contiguity ; so also wc may say of Order in Place, 
 and tinier in Time, which have been given as 
 distinct principles. 
 
 An attempt has been made to generalise Similarity 
 into Contiguity, but without success. For a full and 
 critical view of the history of these laws, see Sir W. 
 Iton's edition of ReicL 
 
 ASSOtXA'N, ESSUA'X, or F.SWA'X, the ancient 
 
 i town of Upper Egypt, on tic cast bank of 
 
 the Nile, near the borders ol Nubia, I in miles south 
 
 of Thebes, in lit. 24" 5' 30" N., and long. 32° 55' E. 
 
 There are few remains existing of the ancient city. 
 
 Some granite columns present themselves among the 
 
 but do not seem of an early date; and part 
 
 of a temple still remains with a dilapidated portico. 
 
 town-wall, that part which lies to the south 
 
 of the old town is still standing; and beyond it is 
 
 meteryof A., where there are numerous tombs, 
 
 mostly cenotaphs, with Arabic inscriptions. In the 
 
 i hbourhood there arc several granite quarries, 
 
 i u of them remarkable for remains of ancient 
 rials that had been cut from the rock, and 
 partially hewn, and for antique inscription 
 tablets, announcing the removal of blocks and the 
 reign of the I it monarch by whose orders 
 
 they had been cptarricd. The environs of A. are 
 
 and sandy ; but the palm thrives, and the 
 
 dat , which ai xcellcnt, form the. staple of the 
 
 trade. Some traffic is carried on in senna, hi una, 
 
 charcoal, wicker-baskets, and sla' 
 
 The ancient name Syene is the Coptic word aouan 
 or SlUin, signifying ' opening ; ' and the mod. 
 is formed by adding the Arabic e', 'the,' softened 
 into <•.*, viz., Ks-suan, ' the opening.' A. and its 
 vicinity are highly interesting to geologists and 
 32 
 
 mineralogists ; that kind of granite called syenite 
 receives its name from the town, 
 
 ASSUMPTION, a village and river of Lower 
 Canada. About 8 miles below the village, the river 
 Sows into the St Lawrence, or rather into the Ottawa, 
 nearly opposite to the lower extremity of the island 
 of Montreal. — A., or Asuncion, is also the name of 
 the capital of Paraguay, on the left bank of the 
 river of that name, ft has a population of 8000, 
 and has a trade in hides, tobacco, timber, wax, and 
 Paraguay tea. Tie- city was founded in !.",:;."; by the 
 Spanish, and soon became a place of importance, 
 though not of beauty, being ill built, dirty, and 
 disagreeable. The surrounding country is rich in 
 pastures, and also produces crops of wheat, maize, 
 sugar, tobacco, honey, wax, Sec. 
 
 ASSU'MPTION OF THE VIRGIN MART. 
 A festival of the Koni lit ireh. [n the 7th c, the 
 idea originated that the soid and body of the Virgin 
 had been carried up to heav !st and his 
 
 angels. The Roman Catholic Church, therefore, has, 
 ever since that period, kept the loth of August in 
 memory of Mary's translation into glory; although, 
 from the 4th e. until then, it had kept tie- sal 
 in memory of her death. Liguori, in his QU 
 Mary, gives a very minute account of the circum- 
 stances of her Assumption. 
 
 ASSU'RANCE. See Ixsuiia- 
 
 ASSURANCE, Common-, is del iribed bj 
 stone as the legal evidence of the translation of 
 property, whereby every man's estate is assured to 
 him, and all controversies, doubts, and difficulties 
 are either prevented or removed. For an account of 
 these common assurances or < mil . as they are 
 
 generally termed, see Deed and Convey i 
 
 A'SSYNT, a mountainous, moorish, and very 
 ragged district or parish, 25 miles long, and 15 broad, 
 in south-west Sutherlandshire. It mostly con 
 a net-work of rocky heights, interspersed with a 
 multitude (200) of dark, motionless tarns or pools, of 
 various sizes, villi some larger lochs, the 1. 
 Loch Assynt, being 111 miles long and 1 
 The district consists of gneiss, Silurian roc!: 
 primitive limestone. There are a dozen mountains 
 3000—3500 feet high. Some of the mountains are 
 ■ I, lead,, d I bom a and protruding 
 rocks like patches of snow. The mountains have 
 frequently the form of artificial pillars and c 
 and are the remains of an enormous denud 
 of the nearly horizontal strata of the d 
 Soil Veinn is a perfect sugar-loaf, towei 
 2000 feet above a n 1 ■■_ Ed bible laud of 
 800 to 1000 feet above the sea. In Advii, k I 
 on a promontory on the cast side of Loch A., the 
 famous Marquis of Montrose was confined in 165 k 
 
 ASSYRIA (called Athura on Persian cum 
 inscriptions, and Assura on the Median) v. 
 northernmost of countries that 
 
 occupied tin- Mesopot i innded 
 
 X. by the Nipli.it a Mountain | of Anne 
 
 the a., by Susiana and Babylonia; on the !■:.. by 
 .Media ; and on the \V.. according to some. '. 
 
 . but more correctly by the water-shed of the 
 Euphrates, for many Assyrian ruins are found to 
 the west, of the Tigris, It 'was thus about 2S0 miles 
 I om north to south, and rather more th 
 
 : Erom ea t to west This plain i ■ 
 by mountain-chains en I ; . and 
 
 watered bj the Ti rris ami its affiuei 
 two of which— the Zab rivers -lay the finest part 
 of the country. ■ A" H V 
 
 boundary-land' between the Semitic people and Iran, 
 it became t ; political i 
 
 Its extraordinary fertility enabled it to support a 
 large population. The high degree of
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 and civilisation reached by its inhabitants in very 
 early times is attested not only by ancient wi 
 but by the extensive rains of mighty cities, by the 
 canals and contrivances for irrigation, and by the 
 many proofs— furnished by recent excavations— of 
 an acquaintance with the arts and sciences. The, 
 ruins of many citie3 are grouped around Nineveh ; 
 while lower down, the Tigris exhibits an almost 
 unbroken line of ruins from Tekrit to Ba 
 Under the Mohammedans, this fine, country is now 
 almost a desert 
 
 History. — Ancient authorities differ widely from 
 each other respecting the rise and progress, the 
 extent and the duration, of the Assyrian empire. 
 is, a Greek of ('nidus, court-physician to 
 Artaxerxes Mncmon, is quoted by various ancient 
 writers ; and liis information, though utterly incredible 
 and fabulous, has been followed by most classical 
 historians, and by the whole series of ecclesia ticaJ 
 writers. Many ingenious but futile attempts have 
 been made to reconcile his history with the Scrip- 
 ture narrative. Bcrosus, a priest of liel at Baby- 
 lon, who wrote about 268 B.C., and Herodotus, differ 
 widely from Ctesias, but are confirmed in many 
 important particulars by the Bible, and by the con- 
 tinually increasing evidence derived from cuneiform 
 inscriptions'. 
 
 In the Bible narrative, we are. told that Nineveh 
 was founded by Aashur from Babylon (G a. \. 
 11). The latter city, therefore, must have been the 
 capital of a more ancient empire, as Berosus . 
 and recent discoveries go far to prove, though Greek 
 writers maintain the reverse. The next not. 
 have of A. does not occur till 771) B.C., when Pul, 
 king of A., invaded Palestine, but was bought off 
 by Menahem, king of Israel. Tiglath-pileser, who 
 succeeded Pul (738 B.c), conquered Syria, and carried 
 off many of the Jews into captivity. Next, Salman- 
 t (730 i. ) subdned I rael, which, at the instiga- 
 tion of the Egyptians, had refused to pay tribute, 
 The next is .Sennacherib (718 B.O.), who atl 
 
 it, and threatened Judah under Sezekiah. He 
 lain by his two sons, and succeeded by his 
 son Esarhaddon, who was also master of Babylon 
 (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11), which, under Nabonassar, had 
 been independent of Nineveh since 717. Very little 
 credit is to be attached to the expedition of 
 Holofernes recorded in the book of Judith. 
 
 After this, the empire appears to have gradually 
 decayed, until at last, in the reign of Sardanapalus 
 II., or Saracus, a league was formed for its destruc- 
 tion between Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, 
 and Cyaxares, king of Media, which was strength- 
 ened by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar, son of the 
 former, to Nitocris, daughter of the latter. The 
 war and siege are said to have been interrupted 
 by an invasion of the Scythians, which drew off 
 Cyaxares; but at length Nineveh was taken and 
 destroyed about G06 B.C., or, according to Bawlinson, 
 625. In the time of Darius Hystaspes. A. rebelled 
 without success in conjunction with Media. In the 
 time of Herodotus, the capital had ceased to exist ; 
 and when Xenophon passed it, the very name was 
 forgot, though he testifies to the extent of the 
 deserted city, and asserts the height of the, ruined 
 walls to be 150 feet. Probably in this height is 
 included the elevation of the river-bank and of the 
 mound on which the wall stood. An inconsiderable 
 town serins to have existed on its ruins in the reign 
 radius ; and the last notice we have of Nineveh 
 in the classics is in Tacitus. 
 
 According to the Greek legends, the Assyrian 
 
 empire was founded by Ninus. To this monarch 
 
 bis consort Semiramis are ascribed expeditions 
 
 on an incredibly magnificent scale against Bactria, 
 
 Ethiopia, and India." Wc are told that Semiramis 
 
 4J8 
 
 led an army of 3,000,000 infantry, .100,000 cavalry, 
 and 100,00(1 chariots, and a fleet of 2000 ship 
 was encountered by forces more numerous still, and 
 defeated ; that she returned to Nineveh, wheo 
 soon afterwards died, and was reckoned anion;; the 
 gods, and was succeeded by her son Ninyae 
 
 prince. The succeeding part of the 1 
 ns related by Ctesias is equally false, though that 
 
 managed to make the ancient world 
 credit to his narrative in preference to tb 
 Herodotus. He gives a list of monarchs from 
 to Sardanapalus, which is now considered to be a 
 clumsy forgery. According to him, for thirty gi 
 tions after Ninyas, the kings led a life of luxury and 
 ace in their palace; the last of them, Sarda- 
 . made a vigorous defence against Arbaces, 
 the rebel governor of Media, but finding it impos- 
 sible to defend Nineveh, he set fire to his palace, and 
 burnt himself with all his treasures ; this event took 
 place 1300 years aftcrNinua. Now, I 
 represents Nineveh to have perished nearly three 
 centuries before the real date, which was about ()!>."> 
 B. c, and is utterly incompatible with Scripture. 
 Herodotus assigns to the empire a duration of 020 
 years, and Berosus of 526. In order to reconcile 
 these conflicting accounts, historians have supposed 
 that Nineveh was twice destroyed, but this supposi- 
 tion is now generally rejected. However, that 
 Nineveh was actually destroyed by fire, is proved 
 from the condition of the slabs and statues found 
 in its ruins, which shew the action of intense 
 heat. 
 
 A. became a Median province, 605 B.C., and after- 
 wards, in conjunction with Babylonia, formed one 
 of the satrapies of the Persian empire. In 331 B. c, 
 at Gangamela, near Arbela, in A., Alexander 
 defeated Darius Codomannus. In 312 B.C., A. 
 became part of the kingdom of the Seleucido, whose 
 capital was Seleucia, on the Tigris. It was after- 
 wards subject to the Parthian kings, whose capital 
 was C'tesiphon, and was more than once temporarily 
 in possession of the Romans. When the P 
 monarchy of the Sassanides was destroyed by the 
 successors of Mohammed, A. was subject to the 
 califs. Their seat was Bagdad from 762 a. D. till 
 1258. It has been under the Turks from 1G38, at 
 which period it was wrested from the Persians. 
 
 We shall now proceed to mention a few historical 
 points that have been satisfactorily asccri 
 from the cuneiform inscriptions. For these we are 
 indebted to Rawlinson's Herodotus. 
 
 It has not been ascertained when A. first became 
 independent of Babylon (q. v.). The scat of govern- 
 ment was first at Asshur (now Kileh-Slterrjat), on the 
 right bank of the Tigris, 60 miles south of the 
 capital, Nineveh. At this place have been found the 
 bricks and fragments of vases bearing the names of 
 the earliest known Assyrian kings, for Ninus and 
 Semiramis are to be considered as mere inventions 
 of Greek writers. The earliest known king is 
 Bel-lush, one of a scries of four. These reigns 
 probably occupy from 1273 to 1200 B. c. Of the 
 next series of six, the names of five are recorded on 
 the famous Kileh-Shergat cylinder, the earliest 
 purely historical document as yet discovered in 
 Mesopotamia. The fifth king of this series, Tiglath- 
 pdescr I., records on this cylinder his own annals, 
 and traces back his ancestors thus : ' Tiglath-pileser, 
 the illustrious prince, whom Asshur and lb 
 have exalted to the utmost wishes of his heart, who 
 has pursued after the enemies of Asshur, and has 
 subjugated all the earth — the son of Assuur-rish-ili, 
 the powerful king, the subduer of foreign count) i< , 
 he who has reduced all the lands of the M 
 world — the grandson of Mutaggd-nebu, whom 
 Asshur the great lord aided according to the wishes
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 of his heart, and established in strength in the 
 government of A. — the glorious offspring of Asshur- 
 <lapal-il, who held the sceptre of dominion, and 
 '•ver the people of Bel, who in all the works 
 of his hands and the deeds of hi3 life placed his 
 reliance on the great gods, and thus obtained 
 a prosperous and long life — the beloved son of 
 Nin-pala-kura, the king who first organised the 
 country of A.,' &c. 
 
 Tiglatlii-nin.thelastof the Kileh-Shergat series, was 
 succeeded by his son, Asshur-dani-pal, the warlike 
 Sardanapalus I. of the Greeks. He made Call 
 modern Nimrud, his capital, lying 40 miles further 
 north, on the left bank of the Tigris. His annals are 
 very complete. Among other conquests, he mentions 
 that he had taken tribute from Tyre, Sidon, and 
 other Phoenician cities. He was the founder of the 
 north-west palace at Nimrud, which, next to that of 
 Sennacherib at Koyunjik, is the largest and most 
 magnificent of all the Assyrian edifices. The greater 
 ii of the sculptures now in the British Museum 
 are from this building. The palace of Solomon 
 covered little more than one-tenth of the space 
 occupied by this palace, and not one-thirtieth of 
 that covered by the vast building of Sennacherib. 
 
 Sardanapalus I. was succeeded by his son Shalman- 
 ubar, whose deeds are briefly recorded on the black 
 obelisk now in the British Museum, the full account 
 being apparently reserved for the colossal bulls, 
 which seem to have been the usual dedication after 
 a victory. Of his campaigns, the most interesting to 
 us are those in which he defeated Benhadad of 
 Damascus, and his murderer and successor HazaeL 
 According to his own account, Shalmanubar defeated 
 lla,:acl, killing 16,0(10 of his fighting-men, and 
 capturing more than 1100 chariots (SS4n.c.). The 
 obelisk also records the tribute paid by Yahua, son 
 of Khuniri, i.e., Jehu, son of Omri, king of Israel. 
 Jehu was son of Jehoshaphat, and had done 
 his utmost to extirpate the family of Omri ; but 
 probably Jehu, like other usurpers, was anxious to 
 identify himself with the family which he had dis- 
 possessed, and of course the Assyrians accepted the 
 title he gave himself. 
 
 Iva-huh, probably the Pul of the Scriptures, is 
 recorded on a pavement-slab from Nimrud to have 
 received tribute from Samaria, Tyre, Damascus, 
 Idumssa, and Palestine, which assertion agrees with 
 the account given (2 Kings xv.) of the 11100 talents 
 paid by Menaheni. With this king ends the lirst 
 dynasty, in which we have 18 monarchs from 
 Bel-lush to Iva-lnsh (1273—747 B.C.). 
 
 The later Assyrian empire begins with Tiglath- 
 pileser II. (747), and ends with the destruction of 
 Nineveh (025). It is plain from Scripture that the 
 empire was in a flourishing condition during the reigns 
 of those kings v. ho came in contact with the Hebrews, 
 and this account exactly accords with the monuments, 
 but contradicts Herodotus. Probably, on the acces- 
 sion of Tiglath-pileser II., who, in his inscriptions, 
 makes no mention of his ancestors, nor even of his 
 father, and therefore may be considered a usurper, 
 Babylon had revolted, and this partial rebellion had 
 readied Herodotus in an exaggerated form. The 
 
 annals of this prince exist only in a very fragmentary 
 state. The name of his successor, SnaJmaneser, has 
 not yet been found on the monuments. The capture 
 of Samaria is usually ascribed to tliis prince, but his 
 successor, Sargon, expressly asserts that Samaria 
 was taken by himself in his lirst year. Besides, in 
 2 Sings xvii. 6, the 'king of A.' is not necessarily 
 the same monarch as the 'king of A.' in the preced- 
 ing verse. It would appear, therefore, that Shal- 
 maneser died, or was deposed, while lloshca still held 
 out. Sargon's palace at Kliorsabad, near Nineveh, 
 furnished the valuable series of monuments now in 
 
 the Louvre. Sargon was succeeded by his son Sen- 
 nacherib. 1! the seat of government at 
 Nineveh, and employed the forced laXour of 31 
 men to repair the great palace. Later in bis 
 ho built a new and more magnificent edifice, 
 he decorated with sculptures representing bis various 
 exploits. This is the p | by Layard. 
 It contained at least three spacious halls — one of 
 them 150 feet by 125, and two long galleries, one of 
 200, the other of 185 feet, besides innumerable 
 cavated portion covers above eight 
 acres. The annals of Sennacherib extend only to 
 his eighth year. He relates at length his sue 
 attack upon Babylon, his invasion of 
 submission of Hezekiah, and his deportation of 
 200,000 Jews. This expedition is not to be con- 
 founded with the second invasion, in which he failed 
 ignominiously, and which is not recorded on his 
 monuments. Hi3 assassination very shortly after 
 his return to Nineveh, after his second expedition, 
 readily accounts for this silence. 
 
 E arbaddon, his son and successor, held his court 
 sometimes at Nineveh, sometimes at Babylon. Bricks 
 bearing his name have been discovered at Htilah, 
 and a tablet at Babylon dated in his reign. This 
 explains how Manasseb was brought to him at 
 Babylon, when be captive from Jerusalem 
 
 (2 Chron. xxxiii.). No record has as yet been dis- 
 covered of this expedition against Palestine, His 
 edifii ■- is are not inferior to those of his predecessors. 
 He employed Greek and Phoenician artists, and to 
 them probably we owe the beautiful bas-reliefs that 
 adorn the edifices of his erection. The decline of 
 the empire probably commenced with Asshur-hani- 
 pal II. The arts of peace flourished, while the mili- 
 tary vigour of the nation declined. The scuh 
 of this reign are decidedly superior to th 
 spirit, delicacy, and freedom from conventionality. 
 The slabs shew that hunting, not war, was this 
 king's favourite pursuit. He was succeeded 
 son Asshur-emit-ili, the last king of whom 
 records have yet been discovered. It is uncertain 
 whether Nineveh was destroyed under him. or under 
 a successor, the Saracus of Berosus, the effeminate 
 Sardanapalus of the Cheeks. The character usually 
 given of this last king, as a d 
 his indolent I and after performi 
 
 of valour, perishing mis death, rather than 
 
 surrender, is derived solely from < tesias. All we 
 know distinctly is, that Saracus was bi trayed by 
 Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, who ma 
 
 ■ with i lyaxares the Mi de, and cemented it by 
 a marriage which has been alluded to before; that 
 Saracus, despairing of success, fired his palace with 
 his own hand, and perished with all to him 
 
 in the conflagration. 
 
 Government. — The government was despotic, as 
 
 suited the character of tl Th ipil 
 
 a mere congeries of kingdoms bound to the supreme 
 authority only by certain obligations of paying 
 tribute, giving presents, and shewing • 
 Each kingdom rel aed its own rulers, laws, and 
 find some at* nipts to rule 
 by satraps and collectors of tri 
 
 lasts, in an inscription, of bavin,' punished 
 and crucified the Chalctoans who n i worship 
 
 his gods. In consequence of this imperfecj organi- 
 sation, the empire was exposed to frequent i 
 of the subject nations, when such opportunities 
 offered as a disputed succession, or want of ei 
 in the ruling prince. Then the labour of conquest 
 had to begin anew, and it was sought to diminish 
 the danger of the central power by indicting - 
 punishments on til ["he history of th 
 
 -viz., 
 the wholesale deportation of tho inhabitants of the 
 
 499
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 ling district. It may Ik- readily belie? 
 an empire, though imposing bom the d 
 and wealth of the capital, yet, fro 
 impoverishment and weakne states, 
 
 • utinually liable to fall to pieces, and was ill 
 
 an attack from without. That A. 
 did actually last for five centuries, was owing to a 
 long succession of wariike princes, and to tlic energy 
 of the population. 
 
 The religion of the Assyrians was 
 nearly identical with that of the Babylonians. It 
 .toss polytheism, then ; thousand! 
 
 in number, and each village h .. o particular 
 
 deity. From thousands of theological tablets now 
 in the British Museum, it is known that each 
 divinity had many names, and .some of them as 
 many as fifty titles h tin, many deities 
 
 that are prominent in the Babylonian pantheon are 
 : unknown 01 ition in 
 
 the Assyrian. Besides, the same gods did aoi 
 Hilar throughout. The supreme j 
 ::-. probably the deified patriarch. lb- wi 
 confined to A. Jle is generally associated in 
 inscriptions with Nin and Nergal (2 
 
 xvii, 30), who are represented by the man-bull and 
 
 • i lion. The win . so often i 
 
 i ;. re with a horned 
 
 t shoots his arrows, i 
 
 i. Next in raid; is the governing 
 triad, answi : '■ ptune 
 
 of the classical mythology; the next group corres- 
 to .-Killer, the sun, and the moon; then five 
 inferior deities, representing the five pi 
 god is associate, 1 with a goddess, M\ litta, or Beltis, 
 is the 'queen.' The male and female p iwers of the 
 sun are repres mtcd in the Scripture phrase, ' Adram- 
 melech and Anamelech, gods of Sepharvaim' — that 
 is, of Sippara, a town a few miles above Babylon. 
 inally an inferior deity, son of 
 li I ' i: bo under the later Babylonians, 
 
 we find him monopolising t - part of the 
 
 ■ which used previously to be divided among 
 Nebuchadnezzar say.--: ■ Merodach, the great 
 lord, the senior of the gods, the most ancient, has 
 ' i and people to my care.' Nisroch 
 
 (2 Kings xix. .jT) has not been yet ascertained. 
 Nebo (Isaiah xlvi.) is one of the five planetary gods, 
 and corresponds to Mercury. The systems of nota- 
 tion, divisions of time, the planets and stars, animals 
 and metals, divination and astrology, were all more 
 or less closely connected with theology. 
 
 Ethnology. — When we consider that Babylon was 
 flourishing in all its splendour many centuries after 
 its rival had ceased to exist ; that it was a city of 
 marvellous size, antiquity, and magnificence, curicheel 
 not only by the amazing fertility of its territory, but 
 by its commerce with India and other countries; 
 inhabited by a population remarkable for skill and 
 taste in costly manufactures, and possessing a priestly 
 caste, renowned as philosoph . tn lomers, and 
 magicians— we arc not surprised that the curiosity 
 idmiration of ancient writers \ 1, and 
 
 that numerous notices respecting Babylon are 
 in them. On the other hand, the importance and 
 y of A. as a country fell with its burning 
 ! : and since that event happened long before 
 classical historians had commenced to v. i 
 easily account for finding in them extremely little 
 information respecting the character of its population. 
 The Assyrians have been assigned by some ethnolo- 
 gists to the Aryan race, but it is now generally 
 acknowledged that they were a branch of the 
 Semitic family of nations, and therefore were mem- 
 bers of the same grand division of the human race 
 as the Syrians, the Phoenicians with their colonies, 
 the Jews, and the modern Arabians. In the 20th 
 BOO 
 
 c. B.C., Semitism, as a di tinct ethnic element, 
 
 I 01 i i 
 
 nailed E hie, Turanian or ! 
 appear to have once been Bpread over the whole 
 
 space from the Caucasus to the Indian 0© d 
 
 from the Mediterranean to the mouths of the ' 
 Their type of language ha3 continued to our t b 
 exist iu four-fifths of Asia, and in some of the rem- iter 
 corners of Europe, as among the lr I 
 and Hungarians. In Mesopotamia, and in the valley 
 of the Nile, where natural ad- induced men 
 
 early to form settled communities, the rude and 
 inartificial type of language was developed into 
 Ilamitism, and afterwards still further improved 
 in. Then seems to have commeno I a 
 
 of migrations. Asshur went forth prol 
 at this tune from Babylon to A., Abraham and Ins 
 followers to Palestine, the Joktanian Arabs to 
 
 k From these seats, Semitism was aftel 
 carried to Cyprus, to the southern seaboard countries 
 of Asia Minor, to Carthage, Sicily, Spain, and 
 
 .n Africa. 
 The Semitic family o a ilistriet of very 
 
 small size compared with the space occupied by 
 lie- Turanian and the Aryan or [ndo-Eup 
 Semitism has had remarkable influence over man- 
 kind in the development of religious ideas, and 
 by one Semitic people an cut- rpnsing and suc- 
 cessful commerce was long carried on, an-! 
 sidcrablc conquests made. Hut if we except the 
 
 . he Arabs in the 7th c. of our era, produced by 
 religious excitement, we find that this race, though 
 possessed of great passive vitality, has b en unable 
 to sustain an aggressive action for any length of 
 time. The traditions of A. indicate a very early 
 connection between Ethiopia, Arabia, and tin - 
 on the Euphrates. Mesopotamia undoubtedly 
 tained a large proportion of Arabians, and this 
 accounts for the fact that Herodotus styles E 
 cherib king of the Arabians and I he 
 
 Chaldsjans, colonies of whom were planted in 
 
 ia by the Assyrian kii ipposed by 
 
 ;i ile. which had imnii- 
 
 S-.it. d from the north, and become a priestly caste. 
 utthevl/.-£ao! race-, of v. hieh the « hull Bean is a tribe, 
 is with more probability thought to hive inli 
 Babylonia from the remotest times, and by it the 
 earliest civilisation in Mesopotamia was originated. 
 Probably the art of picture-writing was pes- 1 
 by the Hamitic tribes who lived in the valley of the 
 Xile, and passed eastward to the Euphrates. The 
 Ahkad language appears to have been formed before 
 Semitism attained its peculiar development and 
 organisation. Long after Semitism had become 
 dominant in Mesopotamia, the Akkad or Cha! 
 alphabet continued to be the scientific language in 
 all the tablets relating to mythology, astro- 
 . or science, as well as most historical and 
 official records, were written. This alphabet was 
 adopted with certain modifications by the Semitic 
 . which became predominant in A. The cunei- 
 form characters were elaborated from the forms of 
 natural objects, and gradually became phonetic from 
 being symbolic, and for convenience of engraving, 
 assumed the form of arrow-heads, instead of the 
 rounded and flowing forms which are introduced by 
 the use of plastic materials. After the Aryan race 
 read more extensively in Western Asia, the 
 Persian monarchs, when they wished to make any 
 communication to their subjects generally intelli- 
 gible, found it necessary to publish it in three 
 ges belonging to the principal divisions of 
 human speech; hence the trilingual inscriptions of 
 Behistun, &c, which consist of an Indo-European, a 
 Tatar, and a Semitic column. It is still necessary in 
 many places to employ three tongues, representatives
 
 ASTACUS-ASTEH. 
 
 of the three families, the Persian, the Turkish, and 
 tli" Arabic. 
 
 .1 , ( &c. — The excavations 
 
 1 en by M. Botta, Fn nch consul at Mosul, and 
 by Layard near Mosul, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, 
 have led, as we have partly . interesting 
 
 discoveries. The palaces and buildings that have 
 been laid open are full of sculptures, all i 
 with inscriptions, in deciphering which consc 
 is has been mad'', and more may 
 ag the most remarkable monuments now in the 
 British two win sd, human-] 
 
 lions, 1- feei high, and as many in lengi 
 human-headed Lulls of similar din ■ ith the 
 
 lions; winged sphinxes ; and the famous obelisk of 
 black marble, sculptured on the four sides. On 
 I b d a victory, a prisoner pros- 
 
 i at the feet of the king, and foreign 
 offering tribute, and leading such animals as the 
 Bactriau camel, elephant) lion, and rhinoceros — 
 
 Lion-hunt. 
 (From the North-west Pilace at Nimrud.) 
 
 animals found only in lands far east of the Tigris. 
 The bas-reliefs are very numerous, exhibiting especi- 
 ally war and hunting. The march, the onset, the 
 pursuit, the siege, the pa - . ' of rivers, the submis- 
 sion and treatment of captives, secretaries noting 
 the number of heads taken in battle, and the amount 
 of spoil ; the chase of the lion, of the antelope, of 
 the wild ass, and other animals — such are the 
 favourite subjects of the Assyrian sculptor. Nor 
 are they treated in the conventional style of Egypt, 
 but in a manner which, for grace, spirit, i 
 and delicacy of execution, excels everything else 
 known in Asiatic art. The artists sometimes follow 
 modes of representation different from oin 
 instance, a bull has five legs given him, in order 
 that from all points of view he may be seen with 
 four: a ladder stands edgeways against a wall, to 
 shew it is not a pole. But a truthful impret 
 always aimed at. and it is this that gives these 
 sculptures their value. The labour bestowed on the 
 
 1 finish of a priest's dress, and iii the tasteful 
 
 of an article of furniture, proves them to 
 
 b ■ the oious and painstaking pi ople. 
 
 the bas-reliefs we gain but little infon 
 
 ting the private life of the Assyrians. There 
 are a few which represent the foddering of cattle, 
 
 ii riding on mul< 
 It is natural to expect that Nineveh — a wealthy 
 and luxurious city imported many .if the pp 
 ot other countries, yet the ictured goods 
 
 would mainly be of home production. The jars, 
 bronzes, glass bottles, carved ornaments in ivory and 
 
 i oi-pearl, engraved gems, bells, earrings, turns, 
 utensils, are of excellent workmanship. 1 1 
 
 especially are in good taste, and evince no 
 inconsiderable skill in the working of metals. Trans- 
 parent glass was not unknown, nor the use of the 
 lens as a magnifying agent. The Assyrians knew the 
 principle of the arch, the use of the [ever and roller, 
 and the construction of aqueducts and drams. In the 
 
 arts of peace, they appear to have been not inferior 
 to any ancient nation ; while' their conquests, and the 
 
 long duration of tic ir empire, suffice to prove their 
 capacity for war. Even their nun, though usually 
 ascribed to degeneracy in warlike spirit, m.v. 
 siblv. with equal probability, be attributed to the 
 neighbourhood of a powerful and jealous rival, 
 by the arms of the most formidable of its subject 
 states. 
 
 A'STACTJS. See Crayfish and Lobsters. 
 
 ASTA'ItTE (.styhd Ashtaroth in the Old Tcsta- 
 , tin; name of the chief female deity of the 
 Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Syrians (Syria Dea), 
 also worshipped by the Jews in times when idolatry 
 prevailed. A. was the original from which the i 
 borrowed their Aphrodite (q. v.). As Baal was god 
 
 tin, A. was goddess of the moon. II 
 temples were in Tyre and Sidon. According to 
 ancient accounts, her worship was of a licentious 
 character. The oldest known image other 
 — that in Paphoa - represented her simply 
 under the form of a white conical stone. In 
 Canaan and Phoenicia she was subsequently 
 typified under the form of a cow, or some- 
 times she had only a cow's or bull's 1 
 still later, her emblem became a star ; 
 finally, she was conceived of as the 'queen 
 of heaven,' sitting on a lion, her head sur- 
 rounded with rays, and in the one hand a 
 thunderbolt, in the other a sceptre. 
 
 ASTA'RTE, a "genus of Mollusca, with 
 bivalve shells, the type of a family Aslar- 
 tube, very closely allied to the Venerida 
 or Venus family. It is interesting chiefly 
 with reference to geologic changes and 
 the history of life and organisation, because 
 only a few species seem now to exist, and 
 these limited to the North Atlantic and Arctic 
 Oceans, whereas the fossil species are 
 numerous, commencing with the :. and 
 
 distributed over the whole world. The Astartidte 
 may be regarded as having given place to the Vene- 
 rida, which commenced with the oolitic period, and 
 are among the most abundant bivalve mollusca of 
 the present time. 
 
 A-STAY', the position of an anchor when, during 
 heaving, the cable forms an acute angle with the 
 surface of the water. 
 
 A'STER (Gr. a star, from the form of the flowers), 
 a genus of plants of the natural order Cmnposita, 
 which Lindley has therefore chosen I 
 The ray and the disk are of different colours. The 
 genus contains a great number of specii s. both herba- 
 ceous and shrubby, which have been arranged into six 
 or seven groups, regarded by many as distinct genera. 
 One species only, .1. Tripolium or Ti 
 
 I Starwort, is a native of Britain. It is com- 
 mon in salt marshes. A number of perennial species 
 are in cultivation as garden-flowers, of which the 
 New-England A. (.4. ivi and the Michael- 
 
 mas Daisy (A. Trad (eantf), both natives of North 
 America, are perl st common, and, with 
 
 some of the other species, are prized as among the 
 comparatively few flowers to Be seen tit that dull 
 season when autumn is giving place to winter. But 
 I known and most vibud of all the asters is 
 ua A. [A. • ■ a summer annual, of 
 
 which many varieties are in cidtivat ion, and new- 
 ones arc continually introduced. It was brought 
 from China in the earlier part of the ISth c. The 
 varieties exh rarities of form and colour. 
 
 The plant delights in a rich free soil. In the northern 
 parts of Britain, the seed is generally sown in April 
 in a hot-bed, or in pots under a frame, and the
 
 \U AD- ASTON. 
 
 young asters arc planted Ottt in the open air i I 
 They Bower from July to the end of autumn, and 
 contribute much to the liveliness of the Bower- 
 I 
 ah, a native ol Van Diemen'e Land, smelling 
 ly of musk. The whole plant hi 
 
 i -i to a considerable si/e. but sue- 
 
 in the open air only in the very south of 
 irld. 
 
 ASTERABAD. See Asxrabas. 
 
 ASTE'RIAS and ASTERI'AD/E. See Star- 
 fish. 
 
 A STERISK (Gr. a little star), asign or symbol (•), 
 i writing and printing either as a reference to 
 n note at the bottom or on the margin of the 
 The obelisk (q, v.), or dagger (I'), and many Other 
 marks, are similarly employed ; but when then are 
 several references on the same page, it is now com- 
 mon to use the numerals 1, 2, ■'!, &C. The A. and 
 other similar signs may have any arbitrary meaning 
 >ed to them at the will of the writer, an i xpla- 
 nation being previously given what the signification 
 is to be. The Greek grammarians, or critics, used 
 the A. to mark a passage that had bei-n unjustly 
 suspected, but was to be held as genuine, Or a 
 passage in any way remarkable ; the oh 
 marked an interpolated or an objectionable n 
 passage. 
 
 ASTEROIDS. See Planetoids. 
 
 ASTERol'UY'LLITES (Gr. aster, a star, and 
 jahyllon, a leaf), a generic name, under which are 
 included many of the moat abundant fossil plants of 
 the coal-measures. The leaves are arranged in a 
 bed manner around the stems or branches, 
 The A. are ranked among the exogenous or dieoty- 
 nis fossils, but they are of doubtful affinity, 
 and the exact determination of their place in the 
 system has not yet been accomplished. 
 
 A'STIIMA is a disease characterised by the 
 breathing, previously natural, becoming difficult, 
 and accompanied by wheezing and a distressing 
 sense of tightness in the chest. A. generally aj 
 at first after some inllammatory affection of the 
 respiratory mucous membrane, and more especially 
 in those who have led dissipated lives. In others, it 
 i lily hereditary, and frequently affects 
 
 members of the same family. A. may be habitual, 
 or may occur in spasms, generally preceded by some 
 premonitory symptoms, as in some by great drowsi- 
 ness ; others, says Dr Hyde Salter, ' know 1 ly extreme 
 wakefulness and unusual mental activity and 
 buoyancy of spirits; and I knew one case in which 
 an attack of ophthalmia occurred.' 
 
 The spasms may occur at any hour; but in nine- 
 teen out of twenty cases tiny waken the patient 
 from sleep between three and four in the morning. 
 The horizontal position facilitating the flow of blood 
 to tin 1 right Mib- of the heart, and therefore to the 
 lungs, tlie disadvantage at wliich the muscles of 
 respiration are placed, and the greater readiness 
 with which sources of irritation act durii) 
 explain this fact. 
 
 Persons subject to A. scarcely dare fail 
 any imprudence in diet; if they continue aw: 
 upper is fairly digested, and the stomach i 
 may go to Bleep fearlessly, and have : 
 
 The asthmatic paroxysm is thus 
 described by Dr Salter, the latest authority on this 
 common but terrible disease : ' The patient 
 1-d and sleeps two or three hours, becom 
 
 1 in his breathing, and begins to wheeze, so as 
 
 ken those in adjoining rooms. He awakes, 
 
 changes his position, falls asleep again and again, 
 
 and the miserable light between A. and sleep may 
 go on, till the increased Buffering doea not allow the 
 patient longer to forget himself for a moment; he 
 
 I wide awake, sits up in bed, throws li 
 forward, plants his elbows on his knee , and with 
 head and elevated should its for 
 
 breath like a dying man.' 
 
 If the spasm is protracted, the oxygenation of his 
 b] 1 is imperfectly performed, owing to the Bcanty 
 
 supply of air, and his extremities get cold and blue, 
 but at the same- tine- the violent muscular efforts at 
 respiration cover him with sweat. The pulse is 
 always small. The muscles ol the back ami neck 
 1 to the ribs, act as extraordinary muscles 
 of respiration. The chest enlarges during the 
 paroxysm, but in it there is almost perfect stagna- 
 tion of air. The respiratory tubes affected si 
 
 small, and the parts at which they are so const 
 i -tantly shifting. 
 The remedies for A. are numerous, but not to be 
 
 di p tided on. They consist in paying attention to 
 the digestive system, and in anti-spasmodics, either 
 taken internally or by inhalation. 
 
 A'STI (Asia Pompeia), a city of Piedm nil. in the 
 
 government of Alessandria, lies on the left bank 
 of the Tanaro, on the line of railway from Turin 
 to Genoa, 26j miles B.8.E. of Turin. Pop. 25,200. 
 It is a large town, with walls considerably dilapidated, 
 and the streets generally very narrow and irregular. 
 It is the seat of a bishop, and has a court of justice 
 and a royal college. There is carried on a con 
 able trade in silk and woollen fabrics, leather, ami 
 hats, as well as in wines and agricultural produce. 
 A. is a town of high antiquity, having been famous 
 for its pottery before its capture by Hie Gauls in 
 4U0 B.C. On the occasion of its being again taken 
 and destroyed in an irruption of the Gauls, it was 
 rebuilt by Pompey, ami received the name of Asta 
 Pompeia. In the middle age-. A. was one of the 
 most powerful republics of Upper Italy. It was 
 captured and burnt by the Emperor Frederick I. in 
 1155 ; and after a series of vicissitudes, it came into 
 the possession of the Visconti of Naples, by whom 
 ceded to the French, in whose hands it 
 remained till the middle of the lGth c, when it 
 came into the possession of the Dukes of Savoy, as 
 it still remains. — The province of Asti, one of the 
 six subdivisions of the government of Alessandria, is 
 bounded on the W. and N. by the province of Turin, 
 S. by Alba, 8. E. by Alessandria Proper, and N. E. 
 by the province of Casale. The surface is hilly and 
 picturesque. The soil rests upon limestone abound- 
 ing in fossils, ami is fertile, producing corn, fruit, 
 and wine. It is celebrated for a fine white wine 
 ling champagne, called vino iVAsti. Silk is 
 ■ me of its most important products. Top. 118,709. 
 . 1-71 pop. of city, 31,033.) 
 
 ASTOX, Li'iSE, a German authoress of some 
 note, but principally known for her zeal in behalf 
 of the ' rights of women.' She was born in the 
 vicinity of Halberstadt, and at an early age was 
 married to a wealthy English manufacturer. Their 
 union was not happy ; perhaps her peculiar views of 
 , and of the proper position of her sex contri- 
 buted to the estrangement of their sympathies. 
 After separating from her husband, she attracted 
 public attention, especially in Berlin, by appearing 
 on the streets in man's dress, smoking cigars, &c. 
 This conduct brought her into several collisions 
 with the police, and she was twice forced to leave 
 the city. During the Schleswig-IIolstein war, 
 however, she found a nobler sphere for her woman's 
 nature, and displayed the greatest heroism and 
 self-sacrificing devotion as an hospital nurse. She 
 has written various books, the principal are — Wild
 
 ASTOR— ASTRAGALUS. 
 
 Hoses (Berlin, 1S4G), and Freischarlcr- Reminiscenzen 
 (L-ip. 1849), each of which contains twelve lyrical 
 poems, none remarkable for ability ; Heine Emanci- 
 pation, Verweisung, und Reclilfertigung (My Emanci- 
 pation, Exile, and Vindication, Brussels, 1846) ; a 
 novel, Ans dim Leben einer Frau (The Biography of 
 a Woman, Hamburg, 1847) ; Revolution und Contre- 
 revolution (Mannh. 1849). In the beginning of 1851, 
 she married Dr Meier of Bremen. 
 
 ASTOR, JoriN Jacob, an enterprising merchant, 
 founder of the ' American Fur Company,' was born in 
 a village near Heidelberg, in Germany, 1763. After 
 spending some years in London, he sailed to America 
 in 1783, and soon invested his small capital in furs. 
 By economy and industry, he so increased his 
 means that after six years he had acquired a for- 
 tune of 200,000 dollars. Although the increasing 
 influence of the English Fur Companies in North 
 America was unfavourable to his plans, he now 
 ventured to fit out two expeditions to the Oregon 
 territory — one by land, and one by sea — the purpose 
 of which was to open up a regular commercial inter- 
 course with the natives. After many mishaps, his 
 object was achieved in 1811, and the fur-trading 
 station of Astoria (q. v.) was established ; but the 
 war of 1812 stopped its prosperity for a time. From 
 this period A.'s commercial connections extended 
 over the entire globe, and his ships were found in 
 every sea. He died March 29, 184S, leaving property 
 amounting to 30,000,000 dollars. He left a legacy, 
 amounting to 350,000 dollars, for the establishment 
 of a public hbrary in New York. (Washington 
 Irving s Astoria.) 
 
 ASTO'RGA, Emanueix d\ a musician, celebrated 
 partly on account of his personal history, was born 
 in Sicily in 16S0. His father, a baron of Sicily, in 
 the contest respecting the annexation of the island 
 to Spain, was delivered over to the enemy by his 
 own mercenary soldiers, and was executed in 1701 ; 
 while his wife and son (Emanuele) were barbarously 
 compelled to witness the tragedy. The wife died 
 on the spot, and the son fell into a state of uncon- 
 sciousness. Afterwards, through the interest of the 
 Spanish Princess Ursini, he was educated in a 
 monastery at Astorga in Leon, from which he 
 1 his name. Here he especially devoted 
 himself to music, and made such progress that, in a 
 irs, he was invited to the court of the Duke 
 rma. His patron, erroneously suspecting that 
 Lughter was receiving the addresses of the 
 musician, sent him away to the court of the 
 Emperor Leopold. After Leopold's death, A. 
 travelleel through a great part of Europe, and it is 
 supposed that tie died in a Bohemian monastery. 
 II - best work is the Stabat Mater, a masterly com- 
 position, of which the original score is still preserved 
 in Oxford. 
 
 ASTO'RIA, originally a fur-trading station on 
 
 left bank of the Columbia, near the Pacific, 
 
 ; its name from its founder, John Jaco! , 
 
 • .... York. It demands notice here chieHy as 
 
 having been a main point in the American claim to 
 
 the Oregon Territory (q. v.). 
 
 ASTIIAI'.AI), a town in the north of Persia, 
 capital of the province of the same name, is built 
 at the foot of the northern slope of the Elbruz 
 Mountains, on a small river which runs into A. 
 Bay, at the south-east extremity of the Caspian, 
 from which it is distant 20 miles. Lat. 3G J 50" N., 
 long. 54' 31' E. It was long the residence of the 
 Kajar princes, from whom the present Shah of 
 l'ersia is descended ; but on account of its situation 
 in a remote corner of the kingdom, it was not 
 advanced to the dignity of the metropolis of Persia. 
 Teheran, at the foot of the chain of mountains which 
 
 separates Iran from Mazanderan, became the capital ; 
 and since then the importance of A has con 
 ably sunk. It is still enclosed by a dry ditch and 
 mud-wall, 3 miles in circumference, but its great 
 towers have disappeared. Trade is small. The 
 causeway constructed by Shah Abbas is, how- 
 ever, kept in good repair, and connects A. with 
 Khorassan, Afghanistan, 4c. Pop. varies from 4000 
 to 40,000, on account of the unhealthincss of the 
 place during the summer rains. 
 
 ASTRyE'A, daughter of Zeus and Themis, or 
 of Astneu3 and Aurora, was the goddess of justice, 
 the last of all the goddesses who left the earth when 
 the golden age had passed away and men began to 
 forge weapons and perpetrate acts of violence. She 
 took her place in heaven as the constellation Virgo 
 in the zodiac. — Greek art usually represented her 
 with a pair of balances in her hand, and a crown of 
 stars on her head. — A. is also the name of one of the 
 Planetoids (q. v.). 
 
 ASTR.E'A. See Coral and Madrepore. 
 
 ASTRA'GALUS, a bone of the foot, which, by a 
 convex upper surface and smooth sides, forms, with 
 the leg-bones, the hinge of the ankle-joint. Its lower 
 surface is concave, and rest3 on the os calcis, or heel- 
 bone, to which it is attached by a strong ligament In 
 front, it has a round head, which rests in the concavity 
 if tin scaphoid, another bone of the tarsus, and upon 
 an elastic ligament, its pressure upon which gives in 
 a great measure the necessary elasticity to the foot : 
 it is at this joint that inversion and eversion of 
 the foot take place. It will be seen that the A. is 
 a bone of great importance to the member, as it 
 supports the weight of the body in stantling, and 
 enters into most of the movements of the foot. It 
 is occasionally displaced, generally in front of the 
 outer ankle. 
 
 ASTRA'GALUS, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Leguminosw, sub-order Papilionacece. The 
 
 tagalua Coi-ticus. 
 
 pod is more or less perfect! 
 
 are pinnate, with a terminal leaflet The 8] 
 
 are numerous, natives chiefly of the temperate and 
 
 m
 
 A STBAKH AN— ASTROC ARYUM. 
 
 ba of the Old World, shrubby, and often 
 or unarmi '1 and herbaceous. A nam 
 yield the sub 
 
 Tragacanth (q.v.), or Gum 'IV. nth. 
 
 annual, native of the south of Europe, 
 
 with upright branching stems, is cultivated in 
 
 ay, Germany, and other parts of Europe, for 
 
 da, which are roasted, ground, and used as a 
 
 ate for caffi ■. or mix id with it to improve its 
 
 flavour.— The Sweet Milk-vetch, or Wild Liquorice 
 
 [A. {/' of Britain and other parts 
 
 ope, perennial, with Ion and i thick 
 
 roots, \. bich | rate d i I he Boil, and 
 
 almo I -terns, three feet in lei 
 
 aionally cultivated for f I of cattle a very 
 
 .abundant herbage. Cattle are not fond of it at 
 first, hut are said to become fond of it after 
 accustomed to it for some time The roots have 
 iiat of the sweetness of liquorice. 
 
 AKTRAKIIA'N, originally a province of the 
 1 empire, hut united with the Russian empire 
 in [554 At present, A. forms one of the south- 
 east governments of Russia in Europe, and is 
 
 A "ii tli S. by the Casp , i ,d the 
 
 is; en tin' W., by the country of the Don 
 Cossacks; on the x., by the government <>.' Saratov; 
 and on the E., 1 . :i, 50,000 
 
 ii 10. The province of A. is almost 
 entirely a barren the only fertile portions 
 
 ei of the Volga, which divides the 
 
 province into two equal parts. Salt is procured 
 from tie- marshes of the steppes, con iderable num- 
 bers of cattle are reared, and the annual value of the 
 sturgeon-fishing in the '■ much as •_' 
 
 rubles (about £400,000). The climate varies from 
 70 F. in summer, to 13 in winti r. The population 
 is composed of diverse elements — Russian, Tatar, 
 ' oian, Bokhareae, Persian, and 
 
 Hindu. 
 
 Astrakha'n, the chief town of the government 
 of the same name, is situated on an island of the 
 Volga, and ni :ir tin- Caspian Sea, in lat. 46° 21' N., 
 and long. 4S" 4' E. It is the seat of a Greek 
 archbishop and an Armenian bishop; has thirty- 
 i Greek, two Roman Catholic, one Protestant, 
 and two Armenian churches; til teen mosqi 
 Indian temple, a gymnasium, a seminary for | 
 a botanical garden, ami many manufactories. Pop. 
 30.4S0. The houses are mostly of wood, and irre- 
 gularly built. The fisheries in the Volga supply 
 occupation to great numbers of the inhabitants of 
 A. and its neighbourhood. The principal exports 
 are leather, limn and woollen goods, salted sturgeon, 
 caviar, and isinglass. Imports consist chiefly of 
 nibroidered silken goods from Persia, silk 
 stud's, woollen goods, rice, rhubarb, raw sill., i 
 &c. From July to October, the neighbourhood of 
 A. is frequently visited by swarms of locusts. — A. 
 is the name of a tine description of fur, the produce 
 of a variety of sheep found in Bokhara, Persia, and 
 
 (1SG7— pop. 47,839.) 
 
 A'.STRAL SPIRITS. The star (Gr. aslron) and 
 fire worship of the eastern religions rested on the 
 doctrine, that every heavenly body is animated by a 
 pervading spirit, forming, as it were, its soul ; and 
 this doctrine passed into the religio-physical theories 
 of the Greeks and Jews, and even into the ( Ihristian 
 world. In the demonology or spirit-syst 
 Christendom in the middle ages, A. S. are corn 
 of sometimes as fallen angels, sometimes as souls of 
 departed men, sometimes as spirits originating in 
 fire, and hovering between heaven, earth, and hell, 
 without belonging to any one of these provinces. 
 Their intercourse with men and their influence were 
 variously represented, according to the notion formed 
 504 ° 
 
 of their nature. As the belief in spirits and 
 witchcraft reach e M. in the 15th . 
 
 nologists, or special students of this subject* 
 
 loies of that wild pel I ; 
 
 and A. S. v.. . occupy the first rank among 
 
 evil or demoniacal spil tl however, ami 
 
 others attributed to every human being an . 
 
 spirit, or sidereal elemi at, in which the hums i 
 
 or spirit prop r, i I thought to inhere, and v, Inch luvi 
 for a t rson dies. 
 
 ASTRI'NGENTS, medicines employed for the 
 purpose of contracting the animal fibres and canals, 
 so as to check fluxes, hemorrhage, and diarrhoea. 
 The drugs most commonly used as A. are alum, 
 catechu, oak-galls, rliatany-root, &e. Many of the 
 vegetable A. owe that property, in whole or in 
 part, to tannin. A Bi ree of cold is a 
 
 powerful astringent. 
 
 ASTROCA'RYTJM (from the Gr. orfron, a star, 
 and karyon, a nut), a genus of Palms, of which ahout 
 n species are known, natives of fcn I 
 America, remarkable for the abundance of acute 
 and fan pines— in some cases, afoot long — 
 
 with which almost every part — stem, leaves, spat he, 
 and fruit-stalk — is armed. They have beautiful 
 pinnated leaves ; some of them are lofty, others are 
 of very moderate height, as 8—15 feet, whilst some 
 are almost or altogether stemless. The fruit of some 
 species is eatable a juicy pulp covering a stony 
 seed — as the fruit of the MtTftUMURO \:<h, • I 
 M uriiiimru), the pulp of which is said 1 ■ > p emble 
 a melon in flavour, has a sort of line ky odour, and 
 is highly esteemed. It is a palm of only about 8 — 12 
 feet high, abundant about Parii and elsewhere on 
 the Amazon. Cattle roam the forests in quest of 
 its fruit, and swine fatten on the seed, which they 
 crush with their teeth, although to break it requires 
 a smart blow of a hammer, and in hardness it 
 
 Tucum Palm [A. vulgarc). 
 
 almost resembles vegetable ivory. Another edible 
 fruit is that of the Tucuma' palm (A. Tucuma), 
 abundant in the same regions. These fruits are about 
 an inch long, the Murumuru ovate, the Tucuma
 
 ASTROLABE— ASTRONOMY. 
 
 almost globular. The Tucuma palm IS 30—40 
 
 high, the stem encircled with nai 
 of black spines, which are disposed with beautiful 
 
 Rtcmless Palm [A. acauh). 
 
 t, spadix, with ipathe forming a hood over fruit; c, fruit, 
 
 about onc-litth natural size. 
 
 regularity. Tlie Tn cm palm [A. mdgare), a species 
 ijuiti- distinct from the Tucunift, and more lofty, is 
 of great importance to the Indians, and in placi 3 
 where it is not indigenous, is cultivated with care 
 for the sake of the epidermis of its unopened 1 
 of which they make cordage, very useful for bow- 
 Mini i, lishing-nets, &c. The fibre is at once fine, 
 and durable, and may yet perhaps become 
 important as an article of commerce. Beautiful 
 hammocks are made of tucuni thread, which are 
 sold at about £3 each, or if ornamented with feather- 
 work borders, at twice that sum. Martins, in his 
 great work on Palms, has, by mistake, repri 
 the Tucuma instead of the Tucum palm as yielding 
 tin i lib iv. See Wallace, I'nlm Trees of the Am".,,, ,. 
 Lend. 1853. The fibre is obtained by cutting down 
 the terminal bud or column of unopened leaves 
 v hi li i ii i from the centre of the crown of foliage. 
 The tender leallets are then carefully stripped of 
 
 then- epidermis, in pale, ribbon-like pellicles which 
 
 shrivel up almost to a thread. These are tied IE 
 bundles, and dried, and are afterwards twisted into 
 thread, or made into thicker cords, by mere rolling 
 
 and manipulation. 
 
 A STROLABE (from two Greek words signifying 
 'to take the stars'), the name given by the Greeks 
 to any circular instrument for observing the stars. 
 ( nvuitr rings, arranged as in the Arniillary sphere 
 (i[.v.), were used for this purpose. A projection of 
 the Bphi re upon a plane, with a graduated rim and 
 
 . for taking altitudes, was known as an A. in 
 
 the palmy days of astrology, and was the badge of 
 
 the astrolo er. The A. has been superseded by the 
 
 more perfect instruments of modern astronomy. 
 
 ASTRO'LOGY meant originally much the same 
 
 7, 'the knowledge of the si u ■.-.' but was 
 
 at length restricted to U ienoe of predicting 
 
 future events, especially the fortunes of men, from 
 the po itions of ime heavenly bodies. This was con- 
 the higher, the real science ; while the mere 
 knowledge of the stars them places and 
 
 m itions (astronomy), was, till a very recent period, 
 cultivated mostly with a view to (jndici J 
 A. is one of the most ancient forms of superstition, 
 
 and is found prevailing among the nations of the East 
 (Egj ptians, Chaldseans, II nidus, Chinese) at the vi rj 
 dawn of history. The Jews became much addicted 
 to it after the captivity. It spread into the West and 
 to Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 Astrologers played an important part at Rome, 
 they were ' A ' 'haldteacs and Mathe- 
 maticians; and though often banished by the senate 
 and emperors under pain of death, and otherwise 
 persecuted, they <i i hold their ground. The 
 
 i poet Mauilius, author of an astronomical 
 poem still extant, was addicted to A.; and even 
 Ptolemy the astronomer did not escape the ins 
 which in his time had become universal. It a 
 weU with tl. iiarian doctrines of M 
 
 uiedani -in, and was accordingly cultivated with 
 great ardour by the Arabs from the 7th to the 13th 
 c. Some of the early I a fathers argued 
 
 against the doctrines of A., others received them in 
 a modified form. In its public capacity, the Catholic 
 Church several times condemned the system ; 1 mt 
 many zealous Catholics, even churchmen, have 
 cultivated it. Cardinal d'Ailly, 'the I '■• of the 
 doctors of France' (died 1420), is said to han 
 lated the horoscope of Jesus Christ, and maintained 
 that the deluge might have been predicted by A. 
 For centuries the most learned men continued 
 devoted to this delusive science ; Regiomontanus, 
 the famous mathematician Cardan, even Tycho 
 Brahfi and Kepler could not shake off the fascina- 
 tion. Kepler saw the weakness of A. as a science, 
 but could not bring himself to deny a certain con- 
 nection between the positions (' constellations') of the 
 planets and the qualities of those born under them. 
 'The Coperaican system gave the deathblow to A. 
 ■\Vhen the earth itself was found to be only one of 
 the planets, it seemed absurd that all the others 
 shoidd be occupied in influencing it. The argument 
 has really little force, but it produced the effect. 
 Belief in A. is not now ostensibly professed 
 Christian country, though a few solitary advocates 
 have from time to time appeared, as .f. M. 1'iall 
 in Germany, Astrologie (Bamb. 1810). But it still 
 holds sway in the East, and among Mohammedans 
 wherever situated. Even in Europe the craving 
 of the ignorant of all countries for divination is 
 still gratified by the publication of mnltitu ' 
 almanacs containing astrological predictions, though 
 the writers no longer believe in them. 
 
 Many passages of our old writers are unintelligible 
 without some know led.'e of astrological terms, num- 
 bers of which have taken root in the language, In 
 the technical rules by which human destiny was 
 foreseen, the heavenly houses played an important 
 part. Astrologers were by no means at on- 
 the way of laving out those houses. A < 
 way was to draw great circles through the north 
 and south points of the horizon, as meridian 
 
 h the poles, dividing the hi an as, \ -■' ' 
 
 invisible, into twelve equal parts six above the 
 horizon, and six below. These were the twelve 
 houses, and were numbered onward, beginning with 
 that which lay in the cast immediately below the 
 horizon. The first was called the house of life; the 
 second, of fortune, or riches ; the third, of 1 lvthrcn ; 
 the fourth, of re] iti >ns; the fifth, of children; the 
 sixth. Of health; the i ™g 
 
 eighth, of death, or the upper portal; the ninth, of 
 ,,; the tenth, oi i "th, of 
 
 friends and benefactors; the twelfth, of enem 
 of captivity. The position of the twelve hou 
 a given time and place— the instant of an individual s 
 birth. Ei ro construe! such 
 
 a plan was to i H ■ nativity. The ; 
 
 had different powers, the sta I 
 
 as it contained the part of the heavens about I 
 it was called the point of the 
 
 ecliptic cut by its upper boundary was thi 
 scope. Each house had one of the heavenly bodies 
 
 as its lord, who was strongest in his own house. 
 ASTRONOMY (Cr. aatron, a star, nemos, a law)
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 teaches whatever is known of (he heavenly bodies. 
 ly divided undar thn 
 ■ ■ . ' ' •' .1., including the exact 
 
 ruination of {he numerical and geometrical ele- 
 ments of the heavenly bodies — that is, their distances, 
 :. magnitudes, the figures they describe in 
 their motions, &c. 2. Physical A., or the nature "f 
 the powers or forces that carry on the heavenly 
 motions, the laws that they observe, and the 
 
 Cal ulation of the motions from a knowledge of 
 i laws. ."!. Sidereal A., or whatever is ascer- 
 
 the universe of the fixed star;. 
 Practical A. might form another division, which 
 would include a knowledge of the various astro- 
 nomical instruments; and a familiarity generally 
 
 with the rules and calculations by which the re- 
 results are deduced from observations. 
 Such parts of this extensive subje 
 deemed Buited to the present work, will be 
 found under their appropriate heads, such as 
 i utcu, Transit Instrument, Aberration op 
 Light, Refraction, Parallax, Kqcatob, Pre- 
 cession, Time, Solas System, Sun, Libration, 
 1'i.am i , I V-. in Stars, Comet, &e. A brief 
 sketch of the history of astronomical discovery 
 is all that can be attempted in the present 
 article. 
 
 The history of A. dates from a very early period. 
 It is the most ancient of all th The 
 
 < liinese, Hindus, Chaldfeans, Egyptian , and even the 
 1 .i eks, are known to have investigated the b< 
 very long before the Christian era. Rut with the 
 four nations, A. may be said to have been a 
 sentiment rather than a science— a vague notion 
 built up out of crude speculations, rather than a 
 correct theory founded on systematic observation. 
 I i China, A. was intimately associated with state 
 politics; the Indians, (Tialdaang, and Egyptians 
 it a matter of religion ; and each of these 
 nations applied it to astrological purposes. In 
 I '■" S alone was it prosecuted for its own » 
 
 The Chinese, Chakkeans, Hindus, and Egyptians 
 each claim the honour of having been the first 
 students of A., and each has had advocates to sup- 
 port its claim. TheTirvalore tables (asserted by the 
 Hindus to belong to an epoch of 3102 years B.C. — 
 the commencement of the Cali-yug, or iron age, of 
 lie ir mythology — at which period a conjunction of 
 the sun. moon, and planets is said to have occurred) 
 are, so far as their date is concerned, altogether unre- 
 lial lie. Modern calculations have conclusively proved 
 that no such conjunction could possibly have 
 place at the time specified ; and the elements of the 
 tables are, in the general opinion of scientilic men, 
 of a character far in advance of the actual observa- 
 tions of that period. There is no doubt that the 
 epoch is fictitious — that the date of these tables is 
 fixed much earlier than their internal evidence 
 justifies; but it is matter of dispute whether they 
 were the result of the observations of Hindus them- 
 selves at some later period before the Christian era, 
 or whether they were constructed after that era 
 from data furnished to them by the Arabs or Greeks. 
 Those who hold the former view, quote the well- 
 known mathematical attainments of the Indians, 
 and their aversion to intercourse with foreigners, as 
 ai [uments in its favour; those who support the 
 latter, point out that the tables are a mean between 
 those of Ptolemy and Albategnius, or Al Ratani, a 
 distinguished Arabian astronomer, and therefore 
 likely to have been derived from these two sources. 
 who are interested in the question of tin 
 n.ility of these tables, may refer to Delambre, 
 and to Railly's Hist, de VAslronomie Indiemie. 
 \The Chinese have astronomical annals claiming 
 to go back 2S57 years B.c In these there is little 
 
 606 
 
 of anything but of the appearance of 01 I I 
 
 and solar eclipses ; and regarding the latter pheno- 
 
 iley ti M nothing, save the fact and date of 
 their occurrence. Professional astronomers were 
 compelled to predict every eclipse under pain of 
 The popular idea was, that an eclipse was a 
 mmister having e\ on the sun, and it was 
 customary to make a great noise, by shouting, beat- 
 ing of gongs, ftc, in order to frighten it away from 
 its solar prey. The many eclipses which the t !] 
 report have been recalculated, but not more than 
 one anterior to the tii f Ptolemj old be vej ifii d. 
 
 At an early period, however, the Chinese appear to 
 
 have 1 inted with the luni-solar cycle of 
 
 ii years (introduced into Greece by M ton, 
 and since known as the Metonic Cycle), and they had 
 also divided the year into .'iiloj days. Solstitial 
 observances are said to have been made by a 
 gnomon in the 11th c. B.C. To the burning of all 
 lie books by one of their princes (Tsin-l'hi- 
 Hong-Ti), 221 B.C., the Chinese attribute the loss of 
 many theories, or methods previously ill use. The 
 precession of the equinoxes was not known to the 
 Chinese until 400 a.d., but long prior to that they 
 were familiar with the motion of the planets. 
 
 I ii mass of evidence seems in favour of the \ 
 plains of Chahhea being the primal seat of observa- 
 tive A. The risings and settings of the heavenly 
 bodies and eclipses were subjects of observation and 
 notation by their priests at a very remote period. 
 Simplicius and Porphyry mention that Aristotle 
 had transmitted to liim from Babylon, by order of 
 Alexander the Great, a catalogue of eclipses observed 
 during 1903 years preceding the conquest of that city 
 by the Macedonians. Ptolemy gives six of the eclipses 
 from this catalogue, but the earliest does not extend 
 further back than 720 B.C. The probability there- 
 fore is, that the statement of Simplicius, as t ■ their 
 early date, is .hi i \.i cation. In these observations, 
 the time is only given in hours, and the part of the 
 diameter eclipsed within a quarter; but rough as 
 they are, they are the earliest reliable observations 
 extant ; and a comparison of them with modern 
 observations, led Halley to the discovery of the doc- 
 trine of the moon's acceleration — that is, that she 
 now moves round the earth with greater velocity 
 than formerly. It is remarkably illustrative of their 
 habit of diligent observation, that the Chalda-ans 
 were acquainted with the cycle of G5S5J days, (lining 
 the moon makes about 223 synodical revolu- 
 tions, and experiences the same number of eclipses, 
 alike, too, in order and magnitude, comparing cycle 
 
 with cycle. The clepsydra as a clock, the g noil 
 
 for determining the solstices, and a hemispherical dial 
 for ascertaining the positions of the sun, were used 
 by the Chalda'ans, and they have the credit of the 
 invention of the zodiac and the duodecimal division 
 of the day. 
 
 The Egyptians, it is supposed, were the first 
 instructors of the Greeks in A. They do not, how- 
 ever, appear to have observed much for themselves. 
 The meaning of what data they have left behind 
 them can be guessed at only in a few instances. No 
 mention is made by Ptolemy of the idea ascribed to 
 them, that the planets Mercury and Venus moved 
 round the sun ; the probability therefore is, Ptolemy 
 not being likely to overlook such a novel theory, 
 that they entertained no such notion at the time 
 of Ins visit, but that it is an after-thought of 
 more recent ages. From the accuracy with which 
 some of the pyramidg^ face the cardinal points, 
 there is a supposition that they must have 
 erected for astronomical purposes; but if it bo 
 is stated, that Thales taught the Egyptians 
 how to find the height of the pyramids by the 
 shadow, and that the latter informed Herodotus
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 that the sun had twice been seen to rise in the 
 west, the conclusion is that the A. of the ancient 
 Egyptians was very meagre and absurd. 
 
 I ]i to this time, A. is little else than tradition. 
 
 The Greeks have the honour of derating it into a 
 
 I reliable history, and to the dignity of a science. 
 
 , ^Thales (010 B.C.), the founder of the Ionic school, 
 
 laid the foundation of Greek A. He it was who lirst 
 
 propagated the theory of the earth's sphericity. 
 
 here he divided into five zones. He predicted 
 the year of a great solar eclipse, but this it is now 
 
 ed he must have casually succeeded in 
 '1" n the Creeks at this time having no observa- 
 tions of their own to guide them — by means of the 
 ( Ihaldsean Saros, or period of eighteen years and ten 
 days, which gives a regular recurrence of eclipses. 
 He made the Greeks, who, prior to his time, were 
 content to navigate their vessels by the Great B 
 — i rough approximation to the north— acquainted 
 villi the 1 set constellation of that name, a much 
 better guide for the mariner. His system, however, 
 I deal of absurdity. Among other 
 i I, he held that the stars were composed of lire, 
 
 and that the earth was the centre of the universe. 
 The successors of Thales held opinions which" in 
 many respects are wonderfully in accordance with 
 modern ideas. Anaximander, it is said, held that 
 the earth moved about its own axis, and that the 
 moon's light was reflected from the sun. To him is 
 also attributed, on somewhat slender authority, the 
 belief in the grand idea of the plurality of worlds. 
 Anaxagoras, who transferred the Ionic school from 
 Miletus to Athens, is said to have offered a conjec- 
 ture that, like the earth, the moon had habitations, 
 hills, and valleys. 
 
 Pythagoras (500 B.C.), who was the next astro- 
 nomer of eminence, was very Ear in advance of his 
 | ''ssors. He promulgated, on grounds fanciful 
 
 enough, the theory, the truth of which, however, has 
 been since established, that the sun is the centre of the 
 
 uy world, and that the earth circulates round 
 it. Pythagoras also first taught that the morning 
 and evening star were in reality one and the same 
 planet, But the views of Pythagoras met with 
 little or no support from his successors until the 
 time of Copernicus. Between Pythagoras and 
 
 hint of the Alexandrian school, nearly a 
 C luple of centuries later, the most prominent names 
 in astronomical annals are those of Meton (432 B. a), 
 who introduced the lani-solar cycle, as already 
 
 intimated, and in conjunction with End 
 
 ed B sol Idee at Athens in the year 42-1 B.C.; 
 (.'allippus (.'!:>!) n. c.i, who improved the Metonic 
 1 ; Eudoxus of Cnidus (37(1 B.C.), who brought 
 into Greece the year of 3G5J days, and wrote 
 some works on A.; and Xicctas of Syracuse, who 
 lotted to have taught the diurnal motion of 
 the earth on its axis. 
 
 To the Alexandrian school, owing its existence to 
 the munificent 1'tolemies, we are indebted for the 
 
 first systematic observations in A. Hitherto the 
 truths of A. rested on no better evidence than the 
 conjectures of sagacious minds, and these being 
 I to the I fltimony oi Che senses, met with 
 but lit nee from the world. The Ale, 
 
 andrian school originated a connect i leriescf obser- 
 vations relative to the constitution of the uni 
 'I in- positions of the fixed stars were determined, 
 
 the paths of the planets carefully traced, and the 
 solar and lunar inequalities more accurately 
 
 lar distances were calculated with 
 instrument-; Mutable to the purpose by trigono- 
 metric d methods, and ultimately the school of 
 Alexandria presented to the world the first ; 
 of 1 1 lorctical astronomy that had ever comprehended 
 an entire plan of the celestial motions. 
 
 wc know to be false, and inferior to the Pythagorean 
 notions ; but it had the merit of being founded upon 
 and patient observation of phenomena, a 
 principle which finally brought about its own 
 destruction, while the previous theories wen 
 residts of pure hypothesis. 
 
 The most interesting circumstances connected with 
 the early history of the Alexandrian school are the 
 attempts made to determine the distance of the 
 earth from the sun, and the magnitude of the terres- 
 trial globe. Aristarchus of Samos— the pioneer of 
 the Copernican system, as Humboldt calls him— is 
 In iiithor of an ingenious plan to ascertain the 
 former. See Abistabciius of S.\" 
 
 Among other eminent members of this school were 
 Timocharis and Aristyllus, who made the observa- 
 tions, which, together with observations of his own, 
 enabled Hipparchus (q.v.) to discover the precession 
 of the equinoxes; Eratosthenes (q.v.), who was the 
 first who attempted to determine on true principles 
 the magnitude of the earth, and to clear, as Hum- 
 boldt expresses it, 'the description of the earth from 
 its fabulous traditions;' and Autolycus, whose books 
 on A. are the earliest extant in the Greek langi 
 
 We have now arrived at by far the greatest 
 we have yet met in astronomical science — that of 
 Hipparchus of Bithynia (160—125 B.C.), and hen- 
 may be .said to begin the real written history of 
 scientific A. ; for not until his era were there facts 
 correct enough and sufficient in number upon 
 which to build a system. Hipparchus was a1 
 a theorist, a mathematician, and an observer. He 
 catalogued no less than 1081 stars. This is the first 
 reliable catalogue we have. He discovered, as we 
 have already mentioned, the precession of the equi- 
 noxes ; he determined with greater exactitude than 
 his predecessors had done, the mean motion, as well as 
 the inequality of the motion of the sun ; and also the 
 length of th var. lie also determined the mean 
 motion of the moon, her eccentricity, the equation of 
 her centre, and the inclination of her orbit ; and he 
 suspected the inequality afterwards discovered by 
 Ptolemy (the evection). He invented processes ana- 
 logous to plane aud spherical trigonometry, and was 
 the first to use right ascensions and declinations, 
 which he afterwards abandoned in favour of latitudes 
 and [ongitud <. 
 
 for more than two centuries and a half after the 
 demise of this indefatigable astronomer, we meet with 
 no name of note. Ptolemy (130—150 A. D.) is tic- 
 next who rises above the mass of medic 
 
 S being a practical astronomer, he was accom- 
 plished as a musician, a geographer, and mathema- 
 tician. His most important . rj D 
 the libration or cvccti.m of the moon. Be also WBS 
 
 , t to point out the effect of refraction. He 
 
 led and improved many of the theories of 
 
 Hipparchus, and was the founder of the false system 
 
 known by his name, and which was universally 
 
 das tin- true theory of the universe, until the 
 
 hes of Copernicus exploded it. Hie Ptolemaic 
 
 -. expounded in the Oreai CoU rttoa, or, as it 
 
 Ued by the aoal . the ' from which 
 
 most of our knowledge of Greek A. is 
 
 h\r in the centre 
 
 of the universe, making the entire heavens revolve 
 
 inn. 
 With Ptolemy closes the originality of the Greek 
 school. His successors were men of no mark, con- 
 fining themselves for the most part toi 
 to comments on earlier writers. It is to the Arabs 
 that we owe the next advances in A. They com- 
 vations 70'- A. I)., in the reign 
 of the Caliph Al Mansur, who gavo great a 
 agement to bis successors, the 
 
 ' good Haroun Alraschid ' and Al Mauioum, both of
 
 KONOMY. 
 
 whom wit. them] elves diligent students of A. For 
 four centuries, the Arabs prosecuted the study of 
 i he cience with assiduity, out they are chiefly meri- 
 ts as observers. They had tittle capacity for 
 ' iti.in, and throughout held the Greek theories 
 in superstitious reverence. They, however, 
 mined with much mare accuracy than the Greeks 
 had done the pi mi axes, the 
 
 obliquity of the ecliptic, and the solar i 
 ami the length of the tropical year was ascertained 
 within a few Beconds of the truth. The most illus- 
 uf the Arabian school were Alhategnins or 
 Al Batani (8S0 A.D.), who discovered the motion of 
 the solar apogee (see Anomalistic Ykab), and who 
 was also the first to make use of sines and 
 sines instead of chords; he corrected the Gri ' 
 itions, and was altogether the most dis- 
 
 ti ahed observer between EipparchuB and the 
 
 Copernican era ; and Ibn-Yunis (1000 a, d.), an excel- 
 lent mathematician, who made observations of great 
 importance in determining the disturbances and 
 nicities of Jupiter and Saturn, and v. ho was 
 irst to use cotangents and secants. 
 In the northern part of Persia, an observatory was 
 erected l>y a descendant of the renowned warrior 
 ' bis Khan, where some tables were constructed 
 
 by Nasir-Eddin ; and at Samarcand, Ulugh B 
 grandson of Timur, made, in 1433 A. D-, many obser- 
 vations, and the most correct catalogue of stars 
 which, up to his time, bad been published. 
 
 In the 13th c., A. was again introduced into 
 i Europe, the first translation from the 
 Ahiinijdsl being made under the Emperor Frederick 
 EL of Germ ay, about 1230 ; and in 1252 an impulse 
 was given to the science by the formation of astrono- 
 tables under the auspices of Alfonso X. of 
 Castile. An Englishman, named Holywood (Sacro- 
 bosco), in 1220 wrote a 1 »h ik of gnat repute in its 
 day on the spheres, chiefly abridged from Etolemy; 
 and among others who did much to promote a taste 
 for A. were Purbach (1460), Regiomontanus (John 
 Muller), who died in 1476, and Waltherus, a pupil 
 of the latter, who made numerous observations of 
 I 
 
 We now come to the illustrious name of Coper- 
 ,'nicus (b. 1473, d. 1543), to whom was reserved the 
 grand honour and the dinger — for there is ever 
 i in bringing old notions into disrepute by 
 luring in» systems of truth— of exploding the 
 Ptolemaic idea, and of promulgating a correct though 
 imperfect theory of the universe. His system is in 
 some part a revival and systematic application of 
 the opinions said to have been held by Pythagoras. 
 It makes the sun the immovable centre of the uni- 
 around which all the planet in con- 
 
 centric orbits. Mercury and Venus within the earth's 
 orbit, and all the other planets without it. in the 
 ( lopernican theory, there war.' many of the old notions 
 which have since been exploded It is a current 
 l'ii I thai Cop micus, afraid to state bold; 
 I odox views of the universe as those he eat r- 
 t, i ve them forth in the form of an hypothesis. 
 Humboldt, in his second volume of Cosmos (p. 345), 
 that he did so. This distinguished authority 
 : 'The languag of Copernicus is powerful and 
 ad bursts forth from his inmost convictions, 
 and thus sufficiently refutes the ancient opinion, that 
 brought forward the system which is b 
 1 by his name, as an hypothesis made for the 
 convenience of calculating astronomers, or for one 
 which has but a probable foundation.' The same 
 author also i the popular notion that Coper- 
 
 nicus died a few hours after receiving a printed 
 copy of his book. He was broken down in body 
 and mind when his work On the Revolutions of the 
 Heavenly Bodies was brought to him, but he did 
 
 not die until 'many days afterwards, on the 24th 
 May 1643.' 
 
 Among the contemporaries of Copernicus were 
 biieinlmld, who coustl-iieled the I'niliiiic tables; 
 Recorde, who was the first to write on Lin En ! Ii ; 
 ami .Nonius, a Portuguese, who invented a method 
 for dividing the cio •■ 1 be study of A. was a] i 
 much aided about this time by the liberality of the 
 Landgrave of Hesse-Cass. I, \\ illiam I \ . 
 
 I ' !■ illy the most industrious observer and cnii- 
 i n .ietic.il astronomer from the time of the 
 Arabs to the latter half of the 16th c. was Tycho 
 I'.i ilic (b. 1546, d. 1001). Considerabl bum at- 
 taches to him on account of his repudiation of the 
 Copernican system, but it should not be forj 
 that in the time of Tycho that system was not 
 supported by the conclusive c video. aow in 
 
 possession of. Tyeho's :-\ |. m. which made the sun 
 move round the earth, and all the other pi 
 round the sun, they moving with it round the earth, 
 explained all natural phenomena tin D ol 
 equally wall, while it must have appeared more 
 prob i Lie than the crude and, at that era, undemon- 
 strable theories of Copernicus. Tycho BrahS com- 
 piled a catalogue of 777 fixed stars, mine perfect 
 than any that had previously appeared. He made 
 the first table of refractions, and discovered tho 
 variation and annual equation of the moon, the 
 inequalities of the motion of the nodes, and the 
 inclination of the lunar orbit, and rejected the 
 trepidation of the precession, which had hitherto 
 injuriously affected all tallies. He also made some 
 interesting cometary investigations. 
 
 To his researches arc mainly due the discovery 
 by Kepler (b. 1671, d. 1630) of those famous laws 
 which have rendered bis name immortal. See 
 KeI'I.kii's Laws. To Kepler is due the credit of 
 divesting the Copi I in tern of its absurd 
 Kepler is also said to have had some notion of the 
 i.ivilation. 
 
 Galileo (lalilei (b. 15G1, d. 1G42) first applied the 
 
 "!> ■ (w inch he made from a geni ral des riptdon 
 
 of the instrument of Hans Lipperhey of Holland, who 
 
 was the first inventor of the telescope) to the investi- 
 
 of the heavens, lb- was rewarded by the 
 
 i iy of the inequalities mi the n u's surface. 
 
 The important discoveries of the four satellites of 
 Jupiter, the ring of Saturn — not then distinctly recog- 
 nised as a cil pots on the sun, and the cres- 
 cent form of Venus, followed in quick succession. 
 For propagating the Cojiernican doctrine of the 
 world, Galileo incurred the displi asure of the priests, 
 and was compelled by the Inquisition to retract his 
 opinions. 
 
 But the eternal laws of nature are not to be sus- 
 pended by the recantation of a philosopher for. 
 the tyranny of priestcraft. The earth moved grandly 
 on round the sun in spite of both; and scientific 
 
 truth was now t Id to remain in the restrictive 
 
 leading-strings of any ecclesiasticism. 
 
 The next great epoch in the history of A. brings 
 us to England and Newton (b. 1642, d. 1727). In 
 the interval, practical A. had profited busily by the 
 logarithms of Napier; the mathematical resea 
 
 .it. s; the application of the telescope to the 
 quadrant by Gascoigne, an Englishman, and after- 
 wards by Auzout and Picard; by Bomer's discovi ry 
 of the progressive motion, and measurement of the 
 velocity, of light; by the invention of Vernier; and 
 the application of the pendulum to clocks by Buy- 
 gens, who also brought into use the spiral spring, 
 and made some valuable observations on the 
 and satellites of Saturn ; as well as by the inv 
 tions of Norwood, Horrocks, Hoi ike, Hevelius, Gilbert, 
 Leibnitz, and Dominicus L'a-sini, to the last of v. hom 
 especially the scientific world owes much. Among
 
 ASTUR— ASTURIAS. 
 
 a variety of other valuable observations anil dis- 
 coveries may be mentioned lu3 thorough inv 
 
 the zodiacal light, his di-termination of the 
 rotations of Jupiter and Mars, and of the motions of 
 
 i's satellites from their eclipses, his di» 
 of the dual character of Saturn's ring, and also of 
 
 four of his satellites. Newton's fame rests urTon" 
 
 ■ v. rv of tlic law of gravitation, upon which 
 mmon belief is he was li i t.. speculate by the 
 fall of an apple, Newton announced his discovery 
 in the /'. a in 1 1 j > 7 , which was briefly that 
 
 matter is attracted by, or gravitates 
 feo, every other particle of matter, with a force 
 ly proportional to the squares of their dis- 
 tances. I b mi of this grand conclu 
 said to have BO 01 Newton that he had to 
 suspend his calculations, and. all in a friend to 
 the few arithmetical computations that were incom- 
 This discovery is perhaps the grandest effort 
 of human genius of which we have any record. 
 Newton also made the important discovery of the 
 i. volution of comets round the sun in conic sections, 
 d the earth's form to be an oblate spl 
 a theory of the moon and tides, in\ 
 fluxions, and v rote upon Opi 
 
 While the foundations of physical A. were thus 
 broadly laid by Newton, Elamsteed — the first 
 nomer royal at Greenwich, to whom, untd recently, 
 scant justice has been done -and Halley were 
 greatly improving and extending the practical 
 tment of the science. To the former we arc 
 indebted for numerous observations on the fixed 
 stars, on planets, satellites, and comets, and for a 
 catalogue oJ 2884 stars. His H l 
 
 forme. I i ni « era in sidereal A. Dr Halley, who suc- 
 
 1 Flamsteed as astronomer royal. 
 the accelerated mean motion of the moon, an.l 
 
 laltties in Jupiter and Saturn, but he is most 
 
 I for Ids successful investigations into the 
 
 motions and nature of comets. His successor was 
 
 Dr Bradley, who, in the year of Newton's death, 
 
 made the important discovery of the aberration of 
 
 light, which furnishes the only direct an.l conclusive 
 
 proof we have of the earth's annual motion. To 
 
 lii in also weave indebted for our knowledge of the 
 
 nutation of the earth's axis. He was, besidi 
 
 unwearied observer, and left behind him at his 
 
 death upwards of 00,000 observations. Altogether, 
 
 Bradley s is deservedly one of the most honoured 
 
 names in modern A. Dr Maskelyne, who was 
 
 ated to the observatory after Bradley, origi- 
 
 & Almanac. 
 
 Merely to mention the names of men who from 
 
 the death of Bradley to the present time have added. 
 
 by theory and practice, to our knowledge of A., 
 
 would extend this synopsis much beyond the limit 
 
 m ' it. If the ISth c. opened with 
 
 lustre derived from the physical demonstrations of 
 
 on, it closed magnificently with the telescopic 
 
 of Sir William HerscheL who add 
 
 ■(Our universe a primary planet (Uranus) with its 
 
 satellites, gave two more satellites to Saturn, n 
 
 the milky-way into countless myriads of stars, and 
 
 unravelled the i nebula; and of double 
 
 and triple stars. Laland, I l.acaille, and 
 
 Delambre, in the latter half of the 18th c did 
 
 much by their researches and analyses to system 
 and improve the science of A. The instrumental 
 means of observation were also, during that time, 
 1 in his great 
 
 work the Mtcaniqvt Ctleate (1799 — ISiks). gave 
 what further proof was needed of the truth and 
 sufficiency of the Newtonian theory. 
 
 The 19th c. opened \wth tl . of the four 
 
 small planets Ceres, in 1801, by Piazza ; Pallas and 
 Vesta by Olbers— the former in 1802, and the latter 
 
 in 1807 ; and Juno, by Harding, in 1804. In 18-15, 
 
 Hencke discovered the lifth of this group revolving 
 
 n Mars and Jupiter, to which the name oi 
 
 a was given ; and up to the present time (1859), 
 di toidsfq. v.) have been disco 
 The greatest event of the century has been the dis- 
 of the planet Neptune in 1846. 
 Observations upon Uranus had shewn the n 
 of that planet to present great irregular 
 could not be explained by the action of Jupiter and 
 Saturn; and after carefully examining the analyti- 
 cal tin nits, Leverrier, a young academi- 
 cian of fiance, in the summer of lS4C,"pui . 
 the elements of an undiscovered planet, the cause 
 of the perturbations. He boldly predicted its exist- 
 ence, calculated its mass, and referred to its place 
 in the heavens ; and scarcely a month afterwards, 
 on the 23d of September, the hitherto core 
 
 : I Neptune) was found by M. Galle of Berlin. 
 But it has only been by accidental circumstances 
 that France has the honour of this remarkable 
 achievement. Mr Adams of Cambridge had ai 
 at residts more perfect than those of Leverrier, and 
 had communicated them to Mr ( hallis, professor of 
 A. at Cambridge in September lf>45, a year before 
 the discovery of the planet, and nearly a year before 
 
 blication of Leverrier' s final calculations. Mr 
 ( li.illis, it appears, commenced a search for the 
 planet on July 2!ith. and on August 4th and 12th, 
 he actually seized the planet, and recorded two 
 positions of it, but did not recognise it, through not 
 comparing his observations, which a pressure of 
 occupation, and an impression that the discovery 
 required a much more exfe ive search, prevented. 
 But for this, and the non-publication of the Cam- 
 bridge mathematician's results at the time they were 
 forwarded to Mr Airy in October 1S45, the honour- 
 able position of M. Leverrier would have been 
 occupied by Mr Adams, and that of M. dalle by 
 Mr Challis. 
 
 century so far. however, has been chiefly 
 remarkable for its laborious efforts to correct, 
 systematise, and extend the results of former dis- 
 coveries. Admirable and extensive catalogues of 
 stars, double stars, and of nebulae, have been i 
 and optical and other instruments in use by the 
 astronomer have been brought to what now appears. 
 almost a state of perfection, Lord Rosse's rerlectingf 
 telescope, with a speculum six feet in diameter, being/ 
 the triumph of modern mechanical and matheniati* 
 cal skill. The speculations which have excited moss 
 attention within recent years are the Nebular Hypo-' 
 thesis (q. v.) and the Plurality of Worlds (q. v.). 
 
 A'STUR. See Falconid.e and Goshawk. 
 
 ASTTJ BIAS, a northern province of Spain, 
 bounded on the E. by Santander, on the S. by 1. in, 
 on the W. by < lalicia, and on the N. by the Bay of 
 
 Biscay. The low lulls of Leon and • Ha Castile rise 
 gradually to the mountain-chain which forms the 
 south boundary, and towers to a height of about 
 1 1,000 feet in the summit PeRa-de-Peilarando. The 
 main road from Leon to Ovi - over the 
 
 mountain-chain at l'ajarcs. The northern slopes 
 are broken by steep and dark valleys or chasms, 
 which are among the wildest and most picturesque in 
 Spain. The summits of the mountains are covered 
 with snow even as late in the year as August. The 
 climate ds damp ; clouds hang almost continually 
 about tl them the fogs of the 
 
 Atlantic. From the mass of calcareous rock, 
 marble crags rise from 200 to more than 400 feet. 
 The principal kinds of wood are oak. chestnut, 
 silver and Scotch lirs. Some of the i. rests in the 
 remoter districts are very superb. Alpine pastur- 
 age decks the slopes, and a richer covering of green
 
 ASYLUM— ATACAMITE 
 
 is fnmi'l iii the narrow valleys. In the wider 
 
 valleys, the aofl yielda barley, wheat, maize, figs, 
 
 olives, grapes, oranges. The coasts have good 
 
 'n I minerals of the province are 
 
 i, iron, lead, cobalt, arsenic, antimony, and 
 
 The pasturage of the higher valleys supports 
 
 an excellent breed of homes, with numerous horned 
 
 A. was never firmly occupied by the Aral 
 afforded a place of refuge to the Goths in the 8th c. 
 Here the famous Pelayo was made king in 718 
 A. D. ; and his successors, after contending success- 
 fully against the Arabs, were made kings of Leon 
 in the ll)th c. The Astnrian still boasts of his 
 independence as a free hidalgo, and is simple in 
 its and brave, but less industrious and : ociable 
 
 than his neighbours in Biscay anil (lalicia. Many 
 Asturians leave their province to seek a livelihood 
 in other parts of Spam, and after saving money, 
 return to dwell among their native hills and valleys. 
 They have been termed the Swiss of Spain; and 
 they are equally faithful anil fond of money. Among 
 them, the Vuijueros form a distinct caste, inter- 
 marrying among themselves, and leading a nomadic 
 course of life, speniUng the winter on the sea-coast, 
 and the summer on the hills of Lcytariegos. 
 OvrjEDO, tlie capital of A., has, since 1833, gh 
 name to the whole province. The other CO 
 able towns are the ports Gijon and Aviles. 
 whole area of A. includes about 2148 square miles, 
 with a population of 510.000. 
 
 The eldest son of the Spanish kin,' has the title of 
 Prince of A., professedly an imitation ol the I 
 Trince of Wales, having been taken at the solicita- 
 tion of the Duke of Lancaster in l.;s. when his 
 daughter married the eldest son of Juan I. 
 
 ASY'I.T'M, a place of refuge. In ancient times, 
 sacred places, especially the temples and altars of 
 the | "ds, were appointed as asylums to which crimi- 
 nals, as well as persecuted individuals, might flee 
 for refu e; an 1 to molest them in such places was 
 
 d I . . an impiety. An analogous 
 13 found in the laws of the Jews as describi 1 in 
 the 35th chapter of Numbers, where six 'cities of 
 are appointed for p rsons guilty of man- 
 slaughter. Among the Greeks in early times, these 
 ms might be sometimes useful in preventing 
 hasty retribution ; but in the course of time they 
 were so much abused that their sanctity was in a 
 great measure disregarded. Thus Pausanias, who 
 lied to the altar of Minerva, was taken and slain 
 there by the Lacedaemonians, and in other cases the 
 refugee was compelled to leave the A. by tire or 
 starvation. In Homo, the Emperor Tiberius abolished 
 all such places of refuge from law, excepting those 
 in the temples of Juno and /Esculapius. The 
 custom of allowing to real or supposed criminals a 
 place of safety in temples, was also adopted by the 
 Christian Church. In the time of Constantine the 
 Great, the churches were made asylums ; and Tbeo- 
 dosius II. extended the privilege to all courts, alleys, 
 gardens, and houses belonging to the church. In 
 681 A. D., the synod of Toledo extended the privi- 
 lege of A. to a space of 30 paces around every 
 church. In the lawless periods of the middle 
 
 the inllucnce .of the church often prc\ 
 deeds of gross injustice and violence ; but the 
 sanctity of churches was abused by criminals ; and 
 this led to several modifications which gradually- 
 destroyed the privilege of Sanctuary (q. v.). In 
 England, it was abolished by acts passed in 1534 
 and 1697. The word A. is now applied to places of 
 shelter for unfortunate or destitute persons, and 
 especially to hospitals for the insane. See L' 
 
 A SYMPTOTE (Gr. not coinciding), a line that 
 C10 
 
 approaches nearer and n me curve without 
 
 ever meeting it. Ail example of an A. will 1 
 under Hyperbola. As another illustration, let All 
 lie a straight line which can be produced to any 
 length towards B. Take any point, ( ', without tho 
 line, and draw a perpendicular I , any 
 
 Asymptote. 
 
 distance, D, beyond the line ; set off any equal dis- 
 tances, E— 1, 1—2, 2—3, &c, along .Mi ; and draw 
 
 • 'I,/, i "2d", I 13d", ic., making Id, 2d', 3d 
 
 to ED. Now, it is evident that each of the points i/, 
 d', &c, is nearer to the line AB than the one to the 
 left of it ; if, therefore, a curve is traced through 
 these points (the curve is called i -'), it 
 
 must continually approach the line AB. On tho 
 other hand, it is evident that the curve can D 
 
 ' II ; for a line drawn from C to any point iu 
 AB, however distant that point, must, whan pro- 
 
 . cross AB. AB is thus an A. to the curve. 
 To the senses, indeed, the curve and lino soon 
 become one, because all physical or sensible lines 
 
 ireadth. It is only -with regard to maihem 
 lines (see Line) that the proposition is true; and the 
 truth of it has to be conceived by an effort of puro 
 reason, for it cannot be repre. 
 
 ATA'OAMITE, an ore of copper, fonn 
 on the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, especially <>n 
 o - i erupted in the years 97, 1804, 
 
 1820, and 1822. It occurs abundantly in sone pa 
 of South America, as at Atacama in Peru 
 which it derives its name; at J: Santa 
 
 and other district , and at Sari 
 
 in Bolivia, where it is associated in veins with 
 
 r. The natural varieties of A. are crystallised, 
 ■-, and pulverulent or granular. The in 
 or compact variety is usually reniform, with a fibrou i 
 structure. The crystals are short and needle-si 
 the primary form is a rhombic prism. It has been 
 sometimes described as a chloride of copper, but 
 incorrectly ; and sometimes as a hydrocldorate 
 (muriate) of copper; it is rather to be regarded as 
 a combination of protoxide of copper with chloride 
 of copper. It is a rich and productive ore, contain- 
 ing about 55 to GO per cent, of copper. The percent- 
 age composition of various specimens of A- is as 
 follows : 
 
 Copper Muriatic ,,...„. _„,„, 
 Protox.dc. Acid. ^ atcr - TotoL 
 
 Compact atacamite, 72-0 1G3 117 100 
 
 765 110 12-5 100 
 
 Sandy atacamite, . . 70'S 115 180 100 
 
 Crystallised atacamite, 73-0 16-2 10-8 100 
 
 A. often forms on the surface of copper exposed 
 to the air or sea-water ; and the greenish incrusta- 
 tion observed on antique bronze utensds, wei 
 and other articles, and commonly known as the 
 - nolnlis, is composed of this salt. On some 
 antique bronzes from Egypt the A. is crystalline. 
 Atacamite is worked in South America as an 
 ore of copper ; and considerable quantities are sent 
 to England to have the metal extracted therefrom. 
 See G'oppee.
 
 ATAHTJALPA— ATE. 
 
 ATAHTJATjPA, the favourite son of Huayna 
 Capac, Inca of Pern, who died in 152;;, about seven 
 years before Pizarro's arrival in Pom. The mother 
 of A. not being of the pure Inca blood, her son was 
 formally excluded from inheriting the throni 
 his handsome figure, bold spirit, and quick intelli- 
 gence so won upon the affections of his father, that 
 on his death-bed he declared it to be his will that 
 A. should receive as his portion the ancient kingdom 
 of Quito (recently conquered), while Huascar, his 
 
 son, should possess Peru. For five years the 
 brothers lived on terms of real or apparent friend- 
 ■hip ; but at length the restless ambition of A., who 
 was constantly aspiring to new conquests, excited 
 the uneasiness of Huascar, who, in an evil hour, 
 v, .1 , induced to send an envoy to his brother, with 
 instructions to require him to render homage for 
 lii; kingdom of Quito. A. fired at the proposal, 
 and war was instantly declared. Placing himself at 
 the head of the army of veterans which his father 
 fa id left him, he invaded Peru, and in the spring of 
 1532 completely defeated Huascar on the plains of 
 Quipaypan, in the neighbourhood of Cuzco, the 
 native Peruvian metropolis, only a few months 
 before the arrival of the Spaniards. Huascar was 
 taken prisoner, and confined in the strong fortress of 
 Xauxa. Then followed, according to Garcilasso de 
 2a, a series of atrocious massacres of all in 
 n ran tin' blond of the Incas; but his 
 statements are so monstrous, and possess so little 
 congruity, that they are rejected by Prescott as 
 intrinsically incredible. In the meantime, the 
 Spaniards had disembarked at Tumbez; and after 
 a long, brave, and perilous march through the 
 unknown country, I'izarro, at the head of his two 
 hundred cavaliers, approached the victorious camp 
 of A., where he found some fifty thousand men 
 assembled. By a daring but diabolical stratagem, 
 Pizarro obtained possession of the person of the 
 king, who had come to visit him in a friendly spirit. 
 
 a priest was explaining the Christian religion, 
 and the power of the pope over all the kingdoms of 
 the earth, and how the pope had presented Peru 
 to the Spanish monarch, m whose name they had 
 come, A., indignantly interrupting him, told him 
 that the pope (whoever he was) must be a crazy 
 fool to talk of giving away countries which were 
 not his own. When he inquired on what authority 
 BUch claims were made, the priest pointed to the 
 
 mi wdiich A. dashed the book on the ground, and 
 the fields began to fill with Indians. The moment 
 was critical. The crime which Pizarro had resolved 
 upon the night before must be executed then or 
 never. He waved a white scarf, which was the 
 
 signal agr 1 upon. The mysterious artillery poured 
 
 in death into the terrified masses of Peruvians, 
 while the Spanish cavalry rode them down with 
 merciless fury. Confusion seized the natives; 
 they submitted— being unarmed — to this horrible 
 butchery, only anxious to save their sacred Inca; 
 but all their effort! to accomplish this proved un- 
 availing, and after exhausting hours in the miserable 
 work of murder, the inhuman Spaniards succeeded 
 in capturing him. A. was treated with a great show 
 of kindness at first, and more especially when he 
 d, as a ransom. ' not merely to cover the floor, 
 but to fill the room in which he stood with gold 
 
 h as he could reach.' When A.'s brother, 
 Huascar, who was still a prisoner, heard of this, he 
 offered still more advantageous terms far himself. 
 To prevent this, A. had him secretly assassinated. 
 The golden treasure which was to constitute the 
 ransom of A. now began to pour in, and at length 
 A. demanded his freedom. ThisPisarro refused to 
 grant, and accused A. of plotting against him. The 
 result, after much base treachery on the part of the 
 
 Spaniard, was a mock-trial, in which A. was con- 
 demned to b • burned. On the 29th of August 1533, 
 lie was led to the stake, but on agreeing to be 
 ed, 1 his sentence was commuted to death by 
 strangulation. 
 
 ATALA'NTA, a mythical personage, the c 1 
 ter of Jasus and Clymenc, was born in Arcadia, and 
 '.led as a huntress, well skilled in the use of 
 the bow and arrow. Her father, who had v. 
 a son, exposed her, while an infant, on Mount 
 Parthenios, where she was found near the entrance 
 
 of a cave by hunters, who are said to have bi 
 her up, and afterwards restored her to her pal 
 While living as a wild mountain-maiden, she 
 slew the centaurs Rhcecus and HyUeus. After- 
 wards, she sailed with the Argonauts (q. v.) to 
 Colchis, and took a prominent part in the chase of 
 the Calydonian boar (q. v.). She had many suitors, 
 but was merciless in the conditions which she 
 imposed on them. Being the swiftest of mortals, 
 she offered to become the wife of him that should 
 outstrip her— the penalty of defeat being death. 
 At length she was conquered by a trick of one 
 Meilanion, wdiom she was compelled to marry. He 
 obtained from Venus a gift of three golden apples, 
 which he successively dropped in the race ; and A. 
 was so charmed by their beauty, that she could not 
 refrain from stooping to gather them, and so lost. — 
 Mention is made of anode r A. in Greek ant - 
 to whom a different parentage is assigned, but 
 ling whom the myth is essentially the same. 
 
 ATAHAIPU', a term signifying Devil's Rod: It 
 is applied to one of the most singular eminences in 
 the world, a granite pyramid in British Gil 
 which ris s abruptly from the plain about 900 
 wooded for rather more than one-third of the height, 
 but bare thence to the peaked summit. 
 
 ATCIIAPALAYA, a branch of the Mississippi 
 at its delta. It forms so large an angle with the 
 main river, that, after a course of only 130 miles, it 
 enters the Gulf of Mexico, 120 mile to the west of 
 New Orleans. From the Bed River, which enters 
 the Mississippi just above its own point of departure, 
 the A. had r.eeived so much drift-wood, as formed 
 at last a stationary raft 10 miles long, 220 ; 
 broad, and 18 feet deep — an obstacle to navigation 
 which the state of Louisiana required four years to 
 remove. 
 
 ATCIIKE'X, or A< 'IIKK'X, the capital of a nearly 
 extinct independent kingdom of the same name in 
 the north-west of the large island of Sumatra, is 
 situated on a river a few miles from the sea. and 
 surrounded at a distance by ranges of hills. 
 5° 35' N., long. 95° 45' E. Top. uncertain. The 
 entrance from the sea is rather dangerous, as a 
 bar stretches across the delta, and, at best, is 
 only possible for small-craft, so that the trade 
 which it carries on with Singapore and a few other 
 places, in camphor, benzoin, betel-nut, pepper, sul- 
 phur, cotton cloths, and gold-dust, is inconsiderable. 
 A. has a pretty look, a short way off, on account of the 
 houses, wdiich are separate, being girt in many 
 
 luxuriant fringe of trees, while the environs 
 are beautifully adorned in I as us - way. 
 
 ATCHE'VEMKNT is a term nearly equivalent to 
 armorial bearings, and is often used when speaking 
 of the arms of a deceased person as displayed at his 
 funeral or elsewhere. In this sense it is more com- 
 monly used in its abbreviated form of Hatchment 
 
 ATI'. I Homer, the daugl.t 
 
 r -or of Kris, as Hesiod says— was a vengeful 
 
 9, ever attending dumoima, or transgression 
 
 of law, though the herself prompted men to such. 
 
 She was banished from Olympus by Jove, whom sho 
 
 611
 
 ATELES-ATIT. 
 
 bail incited to take an oath of which he subsequently 
 .1. 8he tlun travelled to and fro over the 
 rapidity, always intent on exercising 
 a perni :io upon mankind, lint, he 
 
 follow i 1 by thi 
 benevolent d i hi irs of Jo\ a, who healed tho 
 had been afflicted by A. The tragic writer di Bribe 
 
 A. as tli Ideas of retribution. Thru- re] i 
 
 tations almost identify her with Nkjd IS and 
 ElilN'. 
 
 A'TELES (Gr. incomplete), a genua of American 
 monkeys, of the division wita . tils, 
 
 to which the name Sapajous (q. v.) i metim 
 
 ively applied. In the genus A., the head is 
 round, ana the facial angle about (i<i ; the Limbs are 
 i blj Ion and slender, upon which account 
 
 the English name Spidkk Monkey (q.v.) is some- 
 times used as a generic designation ; and the 
 limbs are cither entirely destitute of a thumb, or 
 have a mere rudimentary one, a peculiarity in 
 allusion to which the name A. was given. The 
 name Coaita or Quata is frequently given to some 
 of the species of A., but is sometimes 1 
 to A. Paniscug, as Spider Monkey sour times is to 
 
 dm. One ol known spi 
 
 the Marimonda (A. Bdzebub), a common monkey 
 of ( ; uiana, and which occurs in immense numbers 
 on the banks of the Orinoco. 
 
 ATELIERS NATIONATJX, or NATIONAL 
 WORKSHOPS, a term under which such institu- 
 tions became renowned in connection with the French 
 revolution of 184S. In almost all countries and 
 ages, there have been projects for organising labour 
 under public authority, de ignec generally for the 
 benevolent purpose of obviating the distress i : 
 
 by casual de] a trade. Eoweverdist fly 
 
 the laws of political economy were laid down on the 
 point, it could always be said that these were merely 
 theoretic, and therefore this one instance of practical 
 experiment, however calamitous in its day, left behind 
 it a valuable lesson. The principles of political 
 economy on this matter are— that competition oidy 
 can fix the extent to which labour is required in any 
 department, and the rate at which it must be remu- 
 nerated; that it is this competition which gives the 
 workman a stimulus to labour effectively and profit- 
 ably; and that if this stimulus were withdrawn, and 
 all were paid alike, whether they worked well OT ill, 
 all would work ill, the public would be losers, and the 
 large fund outof which labourers are supported under 
 the competitive system would cease to exist. Imme- 
 diately on the formation of the Provisional Govern- 
 ment in February 1848, a permanent department was 
 established, called TheComTnittet <</'/,, Qot> rnmentfor 
 the Workmen. This establishment acted on the doc- 
 trine, that all workmen were entitled to have a living 
 provided for them on a certain uniform scale. They 
 did not forcibly abolish private employment, but they 
 held out inducements which made workmen leave 
 and employers break up the existing establishments. 
 Consequently, nearly all the Parisian workmen threw 
 themselves ou the government, and others Hocked 
 in from other quarters in alarming numbers. It was 
 found that these crowds of meu, who claimed the 
 privilege of employment by the state, had very little 
 idea of the duty of working, even were there distinct 
 employment for them. Bat when the body had 
 increased to considerably above a hundred thousand, 
 the government found that they had this ever-increas- 
 ing mass to feed, and nothing to feed them with, 
 since trade thus meddled with was in reality mined. 
 It was consequently found necessary to put an end to 
 the system, and the result was the bloody battle of 
 Paris, which brought about the restoration of despot- 
 ism. One incidental experiment will perhaps best 
 
 explain the ruinous tendency of the whole system. In 
 the 1 1 ."• t • ■ I < 'liehy, 1600 tailors were assembled to 
 
 ma for the new g The mi n wars 
 
 ive among them for the completed « 
 
 .! i an army-contrai tor n oul I have di manded. 
 
 In the mean tine-, they were paid two francs a da] of 
 
 nee money; th i i be divided among 
 
 ll the end. The men were buoyed up with the 
 
 notion that they were to receive not only their own 
 
 . bul the indefinite and enormous sum 
 
 i ed to form the profit of ti 
 tracto] . thai h ] Idom i da 
 
 about 3 per cent. Their disappointment was reat 
 
 when they found nothing to divide. There v. 9 in 
 
 fact, a loss. When paid their two francs— not much 
 
 more than half what they obtained when employed by 
 
 ractor— they were paid more than tie- value of 
 
 1 bonr and the profit of the transaction to 
 
 i rctty obvious. Bach man working 
 
 for himself, and paid for his work on the competitive 
 
 ' I' iii, exerted himself; but when one man':-, exi i 
 tions went virtually for nothing, unless he got the 
 1499 others to exert themselves to the same amount, 
 all were alike lazy. 
 
 ATKI.I.A \ r, FabulcB 
 
 a kind of popular drama in Rome, first 
 introduced from Atella, a town in C mis 
 Capua and Naples. After th" Greek drama ii -I 
 been brought to Pome by Livius Andron i 
 
 Atettana were still retained as interludes 
 and after-pieces. They are not to be confounded 
 with the Gre I drama, although the character 
 
 of both was to some extent the same. In the latter, 
 figured; while the former personated real 
 Oscan characters. The Ufacchus and Bucco i 
 
 .1' liana maybe considered the origin of the 
 modern Italian arlecchino (harlequin), and other 
 characters of the same stamp. They were the 
 favourite characters; spoke the Oscan dialect, and 
 
 excited laughter by its quaint old-fashi 1 words 
 
 and phrases. The A. were neither so dignified as 
 the com/alia pralextata, nor so low as the ay, 
 tabernaria, but indulged in a kind of genial and 
 decent drollery. The caricature win at first always 
 it, and though quizzical, it did not lapse into 
 obscenity, like the nit'mt. Ri pectable Roman youths, 
 who could not appear as actors in the regular Gn '. 
 drama without losing COSte, were allowed to take 
 parts in the .1. A lew fragments of these popular 
 farces have been collected by Bothe in his Poetarum 
 Latinorum Scenicorum Fragmenta (Leip. 1834). See 
 also Munk, De Fabulis At U (Leip. 1840). 
 
 A TEMPO (Ital.), in time. A term used to 
 that, after some short relaxation in the time, 
 (former must return to the original degree of 
 movement. 
 
 A TE'MPO CUU'STO (Ital), in correct time. 
 A term used to denote that, after a recitative, the 
 pi rformer should keep the music true and correct, 
 which, during the recitative, had been altered to 
 suit the action and passion of the scene. 
 
 A'TESHGA (the Place of Fire), a spot on the 
 peninsula of Apsheron, on the west coast of the 
 f laapian Sea. It is considered sacred by the Go- 
 or Persian Fire-worshippers, who visit it in 
 numbers, and bow before the holy flames which 
 issue from the bituminous sod. It is about a mile 
 in diameter, and from its centre, in clear dry weather, 
 creeps forth a blue llame (caused by the ignition of 
 the naphtha), which shines with great brightness by 
 night. 
 
 ATEU'CHUS. See Beetle and Scarab.eis. 
 
 ATH, or AATH, a strongly fortified town in the 
 
 Province of Hainault, Belgium, situated on the 
 lender, in lat. 50' 36' N., long. 3' 46' E. It has an
 
 ATHABASCA— ATI! AN WAX CREED. 
 
 arsenal, hospital, and college, and important manu- 
 factures of linen, c-ili <, lace, gl j , large 
 
 hammers, &c, and carries on a brisk trad''. Pop, 
 10,000. Tin: ancient church of St .lulicn in A. is 
 noted for its extraordinarily high towi r. The town 
 has been several times besieged and taken : in 1697, 
 by < 'atinat and Vauban ; in 1 7' '<», by the allied forces 
 under tin- Dutch general Owerkerke ; in 174.), by the 
 French after a snort siege ; and in 1702, by the 
 forces of the Republic under BernerOD. 
 
 ATHABA'SCA, a river and ! ' north- 
 
 rtof the great basin of 
 the M . therefore, beyond the 
 
 v, properly so called. The 
 rises in the Rocky .Mountains near Mount 
 Bl I p lint in the range. It 
 
 source is the small lake, already mentioned under 
 tin- head of AMERICA as the Commit I 
 ' i Is its tribute at once through the 
 
 A. to the Frozen Ocean, and through the Columbia 
 to the Pacific. Its general course is north-east, 
 till, after passing throngh A. Lake, or rather crossing 
 i end, it turns towards the north-west, and, 
 
 after a course of 30 or 40 miles, unites with the 
 Peace River, from beyond the Rocky Mountains, to 
 farm tie' slave River, which, again, after pa 
 
 G re Lake, takes the name of the 
 
 Mackenzie. — Lake A. receives nearly all its waters 
 i \. riv.r, ami is probably unique in this, 
 
 that its principal feeder traverses not its length but 
 its breadth, and that not in its middle, but at its 
 extremity. The lake's single outlet is the river A 
 59 CT., and the long, between 106° 
 and 112° W., the length 230 miles, and the average 
 width 20. 
 
 ATHALI'AII, the daughter of Ahab. king of 
 Israel, married Jehoram, king of Judah, who 
 
 SS5B.C. After the death of her son Ahaziah, who 
 succeeded him, but reigned for only one year, she 
 paved her own way to the throne by putting 
 to death (as she supposed) all the seed-royal 
 ' But Jehosheba, the daughter of king Jehoram, 
 sister of Ahaziah, took joash, the son of Aha- 
 hini from among the king's sons, 
 who were slain.' The young prince thus rescued 
 was privately educated in the temple, and, after 
 A. had reigned six years, the high-priest Jehoiada 
 placed Joash on the throne (S7S c. a). A., hearing 
 the noise attending the coronation, hastened to 
 the temple, where the people were shouting, 'God 
 save the king!' As she looked round in astonish- 
 ment on the young king, whom she had supposed 
 to be d i, surrounded l,y priests, Levites, rulers, 
 captains, and a rejoicing multitude, she 'rent her 
 elothi - i i : !i ; treason!"' By the 
 
 command of tin- high-priest, she was led out of the 
 temple, and slain in tile gateway of the palace. The 
 i of Baal, with its altars and images, was broken 
 
 down. This narrative (2 Kings xi. ; 2 Chronicles 
 xxi. 0, xxii. lo -12, xxiii.) is the subject of Racine's 
 drama. .1'' 
 
 ATTTA \AKT( ', a king of the YV, 
 
 whose settlements I on the north bank of the 
 Lower Danube, in the 4th c. Having taken advan- 
 
 of th/ weakness of the Roman empire when 
 
 iperial armi ing the 
 
 lion of Procopius, war v a against him 
 
 by the Emperor Valena A. ricuy on the 
 
 defensive during two campaigns, in which the 
 Romans gained no advantage over him; but in 
 the third year of the war (369 A.I'.), he hazarded 
 a general battle, and was defeated, whereupon he 
 sued for ad, with that object, had a confer- 
 
 ence with Valens in a boat on the Danube. P 
 Was concluded, .and A. had his attention occupied in 
 
 33 
 
 settlin ut of the Arian contro- 
 
 ple, when ti 
 advance of tie n ,,„. alarmed the Gothic 
 
 nation. A. attem .re the eastern borders 
 
 of his kingdom; but the Huns forced the passages 
 of the Dni per, i Goths, and advan 
 
 great force into the plains of Dacia. When, i 37 1. 
 the Western Goths were received by the Romans as 
 
 and had settlements granted them on the 
 south of the Danube, A., with a part of his people, 
 refused to accompany them, removing to th 
 and fortifying himself against the new enemy. In 
 380, however, he » d to retire, when he 
 
 hospitality .ire, and removed 
 
 to Constantinople, where he met with a cordial and 
 honourable reception by the Em] 
 At this time died Fritigern, the king of the Goths 
 that had settled on the south of the Danube ; and 
 A. being made king of tin- whole Weal I 
 
 nation, concluded a treaty of peace, in behalf of the 
 whole, winch had tie- efii ■ t of incorporating that 
 people- with the other subjects of the empire. He 
 died at Constantinople in 381. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED, the third of the three 
 oecumenical symbols, derived its name from its com- 
 position being attributed to Athanasius ; it is also 
 known, from its initial words in Latin, as the creed 
 
 •/•in ViiH. The first part of this creed 
 contains a detailed exposition of the Trinity ; the 
 second, the doctrine of the incarnation. Modern 
 criticism has called in fpiestionthe title of Athanasius 
 to be considered the author of this creed. It was 
 known as early as the beginning of the 6th c, but 
 not imder its present name. It is spoken of as 
 ' Athanasius's Tract on the Trinity,' in some Articles 
 of the middle of the Sth c, and is supposed to be 
 alluded to, ' as the Faith of the holy prelate 
 Athanasius,' in the Council of Autun. about 670. 
 Athanasius himself makes no mention of this 
 creed, although its doctrines are essentially his ; 
 nor do any of the church fathers. Other two 
 circumstances speak against its authenticity : it 
 is in Latin, and Athanasius wrote in Greek ; the 
 
 :ons, again, are different from those used 
 by Athanasius in speaking of the same things. By 
 Protestants, therefore, and even by most Catholics, 
 its Athanasian origin has been given up, and i1 
 duction has been assigned with m lity to 
 
 the Sth e., and to Caul ; Hilary. Archbishop of Aries 
 (about 430), being conjectured to be the author. The 
 title of Athanasian probably became attached to it 
 during the Arian controversy in Gaul, as being an 
 exposition of the system of doctrine which was 
 
 I to tie- Arian system, and which would 
 naturally be called Athanasian from its chief pro- 
 pounder. It was received into the public officestif 
 lie Church in the 7th c, and by the middle 
 of the 10th c. it was adopt d at Rome and all over the 
 West. In Britain, it was probably in use as early as 
 800. The Creel; Church was late in receiving it. and 
 
 a-n not without altering the article concerning 
 the ' Procession of the Holy (.host.' The Reformers 
 adhered to the A. C, and Luther called it 'a bulwark 
 of the Apostles' Creed.' Even those churches 
 do not in any way acknowledge it as a symbol (as 
 tie- Presbyterian Churches of Britain and America, 
 as well as the Independents) generally accept its 
 nes. 
 The A. C. is the most rigid and intolerant of the 
 three Catholic symbols, and has given rise to much 
 controversy; and though still generally 
 
 I as I atlioh, -. the r- _.ml fnee had 
 
 for it has declined. The points m this creed that 
 
 give offence to some are defended by others, on 
 
 tie- plea that it was not drawn up for the sake 
 
 tuitously d- ulative
 
 ATHANASIUS— ATHEISM. 
 
 truths, but to counteract other dogmas which were 
 li 11 t • l> d in," ■i'.iu-ly herd Hand, in his 
 
 of tin Atltanasian Creed, says : 'The 
 
 use of it wiM thought sup< 
 
 there are any Arians, Photmians, Sabellian 
 
 donians. Ap • .riaiis. or EuU chians. in 
 
 ader these heads.) With 
 t to what arc called the 'damnatory i ' 
 (the clauses, namely: 'Which Faith i 
 
 and nndsfiled, without 3 iubt be 
 shall perish everlastingly;' and: 'This is the < 'atholic 
 faith, which except a man believe faithfully, he can- 
 not be saved'), the churches which adopt tie 
 do not mean by them to imprecate curses, but to 
 declare, as a logical sequence of a true faith 
 necessary to salvation, that those who do D 
 the true faith are in danger of perishing ; as it is 
 said, Mark xvi. 10, 'He that bebeveth not shall be 
 damned.' These clauses are also held to apply to 
 those who deny the substance of the Christian 
 religion, and not infallibly to every person who may 
 1"' in i ot a i to any <mc particular article. A rubric 
 to tins effect was drawn up by the comnii. 
 appointed in 1GS0 for the review of f i ■ 
 Common Prayer Book, but none of their suggestions 
 took effect. Compare also the 18th Article of the 
 Church of England with these clauses. 
 
 ATHANA'SIUS, Primate of Egypt, was born 
 in Alexandria about the year 29G A. D. There are 
 no particulars on record of his lineage or his parents. 
 Alexander, then officiating as jirimate or patriarch of 
 Alexandria, brought him up in his own family, and 
 superintended his education, with the view of' his 
 entering on the Christian ministry. In his youth, he 
 often visited the celebrated hermit St Antony, and 
 embraced for a time the ascetic life with 1 ! 
 recluse. He was but a youth and only a d 
 appointed a member of the first general council 
 at Nice, in which he distinguished himself by his 
 erudition and his eloquence. 
 
 His patron, Alexander, having died in the fol- 
 lowing year, he was duly elected to the primacy 
 
 by the clergy and j pie; and was but newly 
 
 installed in his office, when Arius, who had been 
 banished at the time of the condemnation of his 
 doctrine at Nice, was recalled, and made a recanta- 
 tion of his erroneous principles. A., it is said, refused 
 on this occasion to comply with the will of the 
 emperor that the heretic shoidd be restored to 
 communion. On this account, and in consequence 
 of several other charges brought against him by the 
 Arian party, ho was summoned by the Emperor 
 ntine to appear before the synod of Tyre, 
 in 335 a.d., which deposed him from his office. 
 His sentence was confirmed by the synod of Jerusa- 
 lem in the following year, when he was banished 
 to Treves. In 338, Constantius, now Emperor of the 
 East, though unfriendly to the principles of the 
 Trinitarians, recalled A. from his banishment, and 
 restored him to the primacy at Alexandria. His 
 entrance into the city was like a triumphal proces- 
 sion ; but the Arians soon rose against him, and 
 (in 341) he was again condemned by a council of 90 
 Arian bishops assembled at Antioch. Against this 
 decision a protest was made by 100 orthodox bishops 
 at Alexandria ; and in a council held at SardK 300 
 bishops, with Julius, bishop of Rome, at their head, 
 confirmed the decision in favour of A., who was 
 again replaced in his office (349 A.D.). The Arians 
 once more acquired the ascendency after Constantius 
 (in 353) had been made Emperor of both the East and 
 the West ; for in that year A. was condemned by a 
 council held at Aries, and the sentence was con- 
 firmed by another held at Milan in 355, the influence 
 of the sovereign being strongly exerted to secure 
 his condemnation. As the resolute patriarch had 
 514 
 
 declared that he woidd not leave his place without 
 an express order bom the emperor, violent means 
 were resorted tour his expulsion. While en : 
 in conducting divine service, be was interrupt 
 
 a company of soldiers, from whom he made his 
 escape into the Egyptian desert. A price was set on 
 
 1 ; and to avoid his | 
 from the usual haunts of the anchorets to a i 
 desert in Upper I re he was attend 
 
 thfol follower. Here he wrote everal works 
 
 to confirm orthodox Christians in their faith. On 
 the accession of Julian to the imperial I 
 toleration was proclaimed to all religions, and A. 
 returned to bis f.nn> I I 
 
 Alexandria (301 A.D.). His next controversy was 
 with the heathen .subjects of Julian, to whon 
 patriarch, by his zeal in opposing their religion, had 
 made himself very oil Do 
 
 was compelled again to tlee from Alexandria 
 remained concealed in the Theban desert until 363, 
 when Jovian ascended the throne. After holding 
 office .'again as patriarch for oidy a short space of 
 time, he was expelled anew by the Arians, under 
 the Emperor Valens. A. now found refuge in the 
 tomb of his father, where he remained hidden f< nir 
 months," until Valens, moved by petitions from tho 
 orthodox Alexandrians, restored the patriarch to his 
 see, in whieh he continued till his death in 373 A. D. 
 
 A. was the leading ecclesiastic in the most trying 
 period of the history of the early Christian Church. 
 l£is ability, his conscientiousness, his judicious- 
 ness and wisdom, his fearlessne33 in the storms of 
 opposition, his activity and patience, all mark him 
 out as an ornament of the age, as well as the most 
 influential public character in matters of religion. 
 i twenty years of his life were spent either 
 in exile, or what was equivalent to it, yet his 
 prudence and steadfastness, combined with the 
 support of a large party, crowned his exertions with 
 Complete success. He was a clear thinker, and as 
 a speaker, was distinguished for extemporaneous 
 on, force, and persuasiveness. 
 
 Ills writings are polemical, historical, and moral; 
 all marked by a style simple, cogent, and clear. The 
 polemical works treat chiefly of the doctrines of 
 the Trinity, the incarnation of our Saviour, and the 
 divinity of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 lie- earliest edition of the collected works of 
 A. iu the original Greek appeared in two volumes, 
 folio, at Heidelberg in 1000. It was accompanied 
 with a Latin translation. The most complete edition 
 is that published at Padua in 1777. A.'s Four Ora- 
 tions against the Arians, and his Oration against the 
 re translated by S. Parker (Oxford, 1713) ; 
 also, his Treatise on the Incarnation of the Word 
 was translated by W. Whiston, forming part of 
 that gentleman's Collection of Ancient Monuments 
 Relating to the Trinity and Incarnation, London in 
 1713. The Epistles of A. in defence of the Nicene 
 Creed, and on the Councils of Ariminum and 
 Seleucia, together with liis first Oration against the 
 Arians, were translated, with notes, by the Rev. 
 John Henry Newman, Oxford (1S42). 
 
 A'THEISM, a word of modern formation, from 
 Gr. atheot, 'without God,' signifies the doctrine of 
 those who deny the existence of a God. The term 
 atheist conveys such terrible associations to almost 
 all minds, that there is perhaps no reproach from 
 which men shrink more ; and yet it has been freely 
 applied by the zealous of all ages to those whose 
 notions of the invisible powers differed from their 
 own. The imputation is the most damaging that 
 can be made, and it requires only a little ingenuity 
 to make out a case of constructive A. from any set of 
 opinions at all differing from the common. Thus, 
 the ancient Greeks accused some of their phdosophers
 
 ATHELNEY— ATIIF.N'S. 
 
 of A. though they did not deny the existence of a 
 divinity, but only rejected the common notions of a 
 plurality of gods. And in the Christian Church, 
 after the doctrine of the Trinity hnd been fixed and 
 i, those that denied the divinity of Christ 
 were not unusually branded as atheists. 
 
 The horror in ibis name is strikingly 
 
 shewn in the way it is repudiated by the adherents 
 of pantheism (q. v.), who reject a pi I 
 and substitute the idealised principle of order tliat 
 pervades the universe. It is hardly to be d 
 however, that the idea associated with the word God 
 has hitherto involved personality as its very essence ; 
 and except for th I purpose of avoiding odium, there 
 could be little propriety in retaining the word when 
 the notion is so completely alt 
 
 The view of those who, like Kant, believe it 
 
 impossible to demonstrate satisfactorily the existence 
 
 of God, though it must be held on other grounds, is 
 
 ■ >sition to the dogmatic 
 
 A. of those who attempt to disprove that existence. 
 
 ATHELNEY, Isle of, a marsh at the junction of 
 thi- rivers Tone and Parret, in the middle of Somer- 
 setshire. Here Alfred, when driven from his throne, 
 hid from his enemies, and founded, in 888, a 
 abbey, now entirely gone. Anion,' the 
 many relics found in this spot is a ring of Alfred's, 
 preserved in the Oxford Museum. The name 
 Athelney means 'island of the nobles,' or ' royal j 
 island.' 
 ATHELSTAN, the grandson of Alfred the Great, | 
 
 rn about S'J.5 A. D., and was the lirst Saxon 
 monarch who took the title of king of England, 
 Alfred himself only assuming* that of king of the j 
 
 Saxons. He was crowned at Kingston-upon- | 
 Thames in 925, and seems to have possessed both . 
 great ambition and high talent. It is supposed that 
 his design was to unite in subjection to his single 
 sway the entire island of Britain. His resources, 
 
 i', were not equal to the undertaking, and he 
 had to content himself with the acquisition of 
 portions of Cornwall and Wales. On the death of 
 Sigtric, kins of Xorthumbria, who had married one 
 of nis daughters, A. took possession of his dominions. 
 This excited the alarm and animosity of the neigh- 
 bouring states, and a league, composed of Welsh, 
 Scotch, and Irish, was formed against the English 
 kins, for the purpose of placing Aulaff, the son of 
 
 , on his father's throne. A fierce and decisive 
 battle was fought at Brunenburgh, in which the 
 
 were utterly defeated, and which became 
 famous in Saxon song. After this, the reputation 
 of A. spread into the continent. His sisters were 
 
 A into the royal families of France and 
 
 ny, and he himself enjoyed the greatest 
 nee and consideration. At home, he exhibited 
 
 interest in the welfare of his people, improved 
 the laws, built monasteries, and encouraged the 
 translation of the Bible into the vernacular. He died 
 at Gloucester on the 25th October 941, in his 47th 
 year. 
 
 A.THENJETJM (Gr. Atlienaion), the Temple of 
 Minerva (Gr. Allan') at Athens, which was fre- 
 quented by I"" to, learned nun, and rhetoricians, who 
 there read aloud their works. — The A. in Home was 
 a school or college erected, by the Emperor Hadrian, 
 for the study of poetry and rhetoric, with a ■ ■■ 
 staff of professors. It existed for a long period. In 
 the time of Theodosius II., it had three professors of 
 oratory, ten of grammar, five of sophistry or dialec- 
 tics, one of philosophy, and two of jurisprudence. — 
 In modern times, the name A. has been revive,! as an 
 appellation for certain literary institutions, and also 
 as a collective title for literary essays and r< 
 A. is the title of two weekly journals of literature 
 
 and the fine arts— one published in London, the 
 other in Paris. 
 
 ATIIKN.i: T" - 
 bom at Naue pt He bred at the close 
 
 ! ' ird century. 
 
 His work, entitle! of the 
 
 Learned), in : but of which we possess 
 
 the first two, and parts of the th th, and 
 
 fifteenth only in an abridged form, is very in1 
 ing, as it has preserved for us copious fragments 
 of old writers, and treats, in 1 
 of almost all >ics of ancient Greek man- 
 
 ie rs, private and public life, arts, sciences, 4c. It 
 is not a work indicative of any high ability ; the 
 author, for the most part, appears in the ch: 
 of an agreeable, well-read, epicurean gentl 
 excessively fond of Ht- i of scandal and 
 
 cookery. He tells many stories to the disadvantage 
 of people whom history praises; but these we are 
 by no means bound to believe, nor, indeed, is he a 
 man whose opinions are worth much on any subject; 
 but as a melange of literary, social, and domestic 
 _ • p. the value of the work is unrivalled. A. 
 appears to have read enormously ; he states that ho 
 had made extracts himself from 800 plays of the 
 middle comedy alone. But his dialogue is pro] 
 lumbering ; and his work is not irradiated by a 
 gleam of genius, and has only achieved immortality 
 through being a store-house of miscellaneous informa- 
 tion, that otherwise would have been lost to the 
 race. The best editions are by Schweighauser (14 
 vols. Strasb. 1801—1807), and Dindorf (3 vols. 
 1 S J7). There is an English translation of A. in 
 Bohn's Classical Library (:; vols. Lond. 1854). 
 
 ATHEXA'GORAS, an early Christian philo- 
 sopher, who taught first at Athens, and afterwards 
 at Alexandria. He is one of the oldest of the 
 apologetical writers, and is favourably known by 
 his Legatio pro ' which he addre> 
 
 the Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the year 177 A. D. 
 He therein defended the Christians against the 
 monstrous accusations of the heathen, viz.. thai 
 were guilty of atheism, incest, and cannibalism. His 
 work is written in a philosophical spirit, and is 
 marked by great clearness and cogency of style. 
 We likewise possess a valuable treatise of his on the 
 resurrection of the dead. 
 
 ATHENA'IS, an Athenian of distinguished 
 beauty, the daughter of Leontinos the Sophist, 
 was born about the close of the 4th c, A.D. She 
 received from her father a superior education, being 
 skdled in Greek and Latin literature, rh 
 astronomy, geometry, and the science of arithmetic 
 After his death, she repaired to Constantinople, to 
 obtain justice for the harsh treatment to which her 
 brother subjected her. Here her beauty and intelli- 
 gence made her the favourite of Augusta l'ulcheria, 
 sister of Theodosius II., who considered that she 
 would make an excellent wife for the emperor. 
 In 421, A. having been baptized and named 
 Eudocia, was married to Theodoeius, and in 43S, 
 made a splendid pilgrimage to Jerusalem, bringing 
 with her, on her return, the supposed relics of the 
 first martyr, Stephen. Afterwards, she lost the 
 favour of Pulcheria — the real manager of affairs — 
 and was banish, d from the court. She then retired 
 to Jerusalem, where she suffer, d many persecutions, 
 aud died, in tlie odour of sanctity, 40(1 a.d. A. 
 wrote an epic poem on the war of Theodosius a 
 the Persian . and - tal other metrical works which 
 have not been preserved. 
 
 ATHENS ital of the ancient state of 
 
 Attica, is said to have been founded by Cecrops, 
 about 1551) B.C., and styled Cecropia; but even the 
 ancients themselves doubted this tradition. Equally 
 
 414
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 uncertain a the story tint it was first 9tyled A, in 
 honour of Athene, during the reign of Enchthonius. 
 The ancient citadel waa situated on t 
 
 ,15 i with a Hat summit, 
 
 I SOI dually, as ; 
 
 tion in. reased, A ext ■■■■ 
 
 iful plain below. This increase is 
 have 1 I by the orgai 
 
 twelve Attic tribes into a political confi 
 or union by Tin I i ightest figure that Bhines 
 
 through the ' dark ages : of Attic history. Tl 
 
 of A. mar the Gulf of Saronica, oppo: 
 
 ii coast of the Pelopoi is favourable 
 
 I tof naval power. The city, 
 
 was distant four or five miles from the sea. possessed 
 three harbours, all situated on the south-v . 
 connected with it by walls. The oldest of 
 harbours was Phalerum. It was also the neai 
 
 ty, and accessible at all times by a d 
 'i I 
 
 tocles. $A whole 
 
 rocky peninsula termed the Peir 
 importance strategetically. The two last harbours 
 ■were connected with the city by the famous 'long 
 walls,' of which we read so much in At 
 history. They were forty stadia, or nearly five 
 miles in length. Two streams Mowed in the vicinity 
 of A.; on the cast side, the Dissus, whic 
 
 of the city; and on the 
 west, the O ud a half beyond 
 
 the walls. To the west 1 .. 8 'amis, with I 
 on the north-west, Phyla; and Decelea on the north, 
 Marathon on the north-east, and Hymettus i 
 south. All i coast rose splendid build 
 
 The whole of th 
 by the Acropo!. all the most glorious 
 
 monuments of A. wer 1. First rose the 
 
 1'artheuon (q. v.), or Temple of Minerva, a pi! 
 even now, after the lapse of centuri 
 among the wonders of the world. The Propyl. i a, 
 all built of white marble, formed the entrance to 
 the Parthenon. Close to it, on the north side of the 
 Acropolis, rose the Kreehtheiiun, the mo 
 of all Athenian sanctuaries, and connected with the 
 oldest religious history of the city. The whole of it 
 was destroyed by the Persians, but was restored 
 during the Peloponnesian war. Its nuns still exist, 
 and allow us to form a very correct idea of its 
 external form and structure. In some points, it 
 differed from all other examples o tuple . 
 
 But it would be tedious and unprofitable to mention 
 in detail all those magnificent buildings which were 
 the glory of ancient Athens. It is sufficient to say, 
 that gods were never more superbly honoured in any 
 land. Thai, enthusiastic love of the beautiful 
 animated the Athenians, turning their religion into 
 an art, and making worship an education in 
 tics, is nowhere so clearly visible as in their reli- 
 gious architecture. Their mythological faith stood 
 daily before their eyes in monumental splendour, for 
 almost every deity had his temple or shrine in the 
 
 Two of the finest buildings— the Tern 
 Theseus, and that of ■ is — were on 
 
 the outside of the city; the first to the north- 
 second to the south. The former was 
 both a temple and a tomb, inasmuch as it held the 
 remains of Theseus himself. It was built about 
 40-j B. c, and was therefore older than the Par- 
 thenon. It had the privilege of an asylum for 
 slaves, and the large space of ground which it 
 enclosed was frequently used as a muster 
 for the Athenian s Idiery. It was built of the 
 favourite Pentelic marble, in the Doric style of 
 architecture, and is the best preserved of all the 
 monuments of aucient Athens. For centuries it was 
 a Christian church, appropriately enough dedicated 
 S16 
 
 1 ivahrous hero of the 'dark 
 
 lity, as '1'ln sens had been of the 
 
 ■ dark ages' of Attic history ; but is now the n; 1 
 
 :m of the city. Hie Temple of Jupiter, of 
 
 Co mna are still 
 
 extant, to th t of the A 
 
 the right bank of the I adour, 
 
 tures. 
 
 Immense sums of money were expended uj 
 from the time when it was commenced by Peisis- 
 . until it was completed by Hadrian, a period 
 
 quently sus- 
 I alls it 'a struggle with 
 
 time.' At the tin. I the city, it 
 
 was fortunately only 1 ginning to be built, and so 
 I 'Miction. I of it as a 
 
 work of despotic grandeur, and equal to the 
 pyramids of Egypt. Th ited by 
 
 rj<> fluted columns, CI feet in height, and 
 more than 6 feet in diameter. It v. 
 and 171 broad, and contain. 
 of the Olympian Jupiter in -\ try and gold, 
 the work of Phidias. 
 
 Besides these wonders of art, the city contained 
 places of interest of which the memory will perpe- 
 tually remain — the Academy where Plato, whose 
 lay near it. ga\ i bis lessons in a grove of 
 ; rees adorned with statues; tradition alleged 
 it to have belonged originally to Academns. Ii p- 
 Burronnded it v. ith a wall, and Cimon 
 adorned it with walks, fountains, and ol 
 The Lyceum, the most important of the Athenian 
 gymnasia, where Aria! and, near to 
 
 this, the Cynosarges, where Antisthenes the Cynic 
 uded bis 'harsh and crabbed' doctrine; the 
 hilloi't I . ' here the ] tost venerabl 
 
 of judicature wa I the Prytaneum, or 
 
 About a quarter of a mile to tl 
 of the Acropolis rises a low hill, which marks the 
 locality of the Pnyx, a pi at lembly, 
 
 forming a large semicircular arc at the 
 
 base by a line tune wall, from which proj a 
 pedestal, carved out of the rock, aud ascended by 
 steps. This most I I een pre- 
 
 served almost in its . and, as we look 
 
 around, we are carried 1 times when some 
 
 six thousand Athenian citizens were here assembled, 
 the orator, standing upon the pedestal, could 
 survey the Acropolis, with all its temples, the vene- 
 \reopagus, and li 'ended 
 
 < if Attica, with corn-fields, olive- 
 grounds, and vineyard s. 
 
 V. in its most nourishing period, num 
 
 free citizens; from which we may calculate 
 that it contained about 200,0011 inhabitants. More 
 than two thousai , I over the 
 
 nl city, and still its remains excite the admi- 
 i of the world. The Turks surrounded it with 
 wide irregular walls, partly built out of the ruins of 
 the old walls, and containing many fragments of 
 columns. Of the Prop] lit wing, or 
 
 le of Victory, was destroyed in 1656 by the 
 ion of a powder-magazine Six columns, with 
 lofty arches, remain to mark the site of the opposite 
 wing. The interior of the Parthenon was used 
 for some time as a Turkish mosque. limns 
 
 remain on the cast of the front. colon- 
 
 nades at the sides; and of the back pediment, 
 
 the combat of Minerva and Neptune 
 sculptured, nothing remains save the head of a sea- 
 horse, and two decapitated femal 
 pediment in front. to the 
 group representing the birth of Minerva are pre- 
 
 in the British Museum, and ju.-i 
 as master-pieces of ancient sculpture. Of all the 
 statues which the Parthenon contained, only one,
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 that of Hadrian, has been preserved. Binned as it 
 has been, the general aspect of the Parthenon is still 
 sublime. Of the Erechtheium (or Temple of Neptunus 
 Erechtheius) considerable vestiges remain, especially 
 the beautiful female figures styled Caryal 
 
 The situations and vast extent of the two theatres 
 may still be traced, though grain is now grown in 
 the arenas. AH these remains belong to the 
 polis. In the city below, there are no su 
 memorial. The Horologium, or octagonal Temple 
 of the Winds (built by Andronicus Kyrrhestes), has 
 
 been well preserved ; but a few fragments found in 
 broken walls are all that remain to 
 did Gymnasium built by Ptolema B id the 
 
 city, the attention of the s]>ectator is arrested by 
 the sublime ruins of the Temple of .Jupiter I llympos. 
 riptions have been found here and 
 there, sometimes buried in the earth. The sculptures 
 on the friezes of the interior of the Temple of 
 Theseu -. have 
 
 been well preserved, while the <xt> rnal sculptures 
 are almost utterly destroyed. A Turkish burial-place 
 
 A 
 
 Temple of the Winds, Athens. 
 
 now occupies the hill where the Areiopagus held its 
 sittings. The site of the Lyceum is indicated only 
 by scattered stoues, and a modern house and 
 occupy the place of the Academy. Scarcely anything 
 remains to shew the ol 1 ace of the harbours 
 
 us, Phaleros, and Munychia. 
 
 It is probable that, in the time of Pausanias, many 
 
 structures remained belonging to the period before 
 
 the Persian war, as Xerxes, during bis short time of 
 
 mastery over A., would scar I cen able to 
 
 ■y more than the fortifications and principal 
 Themistocles, in his rest 
 of the city, had chiefly a regard to utility; Cimon 
 
 attention to its decoration; but Pericles far 
 
 led them in the magnific nee of his di 
 which v. r ( i vast to be carried into effect i 
 times. The civilisation, spreading from A. as its 
 e ntr. , raised Macedon and other states int 
 gerous rivalry. The defeat at Ch.-eroneia was as fatal 
 to the fine arts as to the liberty of the Athenians. 
 
 the works at the Peirasus had 1 n destroyed 
 
 Hi. tli" naval power, and with it the whole 
 political importance of A., rapidly declined. It is 
 true that the city was treated leniently by its con- 
 querors; t' and statues were pri 
 from violation, and A., with all the trophies i 
 centuries of greatness, remained under the Antonines ; 
 but the free national spirit of the Athenians had 
 departed for ever, and slowly, but surely, the fine 
 arts shared the fate of Grecian liberty. Their trea- 
 
 which bad b le Roman emj 
 
 illy stolen away by various thievish 
 collectors, especially for the decoration of Byzan- 
 tiuni, or were destroyed bj 
 
 seal and barbarian invasion. About 420 A. le. the 
 ancient religion an lof A. had entirely 
 
 disappeared ; afterwards, the schools of philosophy 
 were closed by Justinian, and Greek mythology 
 gradually for - ok the place 
 
 us. and the Parthenon was • 1 into a ! 
 
 church. The surviving industry of A. was injured by I 
 Roger of Sicily, who removed its silk manufactures. I 
 
 In 14oG, A. fell into the 1 
 
 consummate its degradation, under the low, - I 
 
 Turks, the city of Athene was regarded as an 
 appanage of the harem, and governed by a black 
 eunuch. The Venetians, having captured the city 
 in 1CS7, intended to carry away as a trophy the 
 ry from the west front of the 
 Parthenon, but shattered it in their attempt to 
 it. In 1688, I into 
 
 the hands of the Turks, and the work of d ilition 
 
 now proceeded rapidly. The grand remains of 
 antiquity were used as quarries to supply mat 
 for all ordinary building-, and. in the course of 
 another century, the eitj- was reduced to its lowest 
 point of degradation. 
 
 Modern A. (styled by the Turks Athina or 
 Setines) is now the capital of the new kingd 
 Greece. Previous to t I 1^-1), 
 
 it was a provinei i inferior importance, the 
 
 seat of a Greek metropolitan bishop, and under the 
 ■tion of the Turkish governor in Eul oea. In 
 1S21, the war of hberation commenced, and the 
 Turks surrendered Athens in the following year; 
 l it in 1826, and took the Acropolis 
 m 1^-7. After this it was left in ruins until 1830, 
 when Attiea was declared united with I 
 the protocol of the London Conferen c e. In 1S34, 
 Otho, the son of the bavarian monarch, who had 
 been elected to the sovereignty of the new king- 
 dom, removed his residence from Nauplia I A. 
 Improvements now proceeded rapidly : Turkish 
 manners and customs disappeared; mptible 
 
 a houses and crooked streets were sup. 
 -v ones — among which the B Bolus, 
 
 -. and New Stadion streets are consjpii 
 and. in 1836, the foundation of a new palace was 
 laid. The municipal affairs of A. are no* 
 lated by a D irehos) and council el 
 
 by the citizens. Besides other public institutions, 
 modern A. 1 is a gymnasium, a library enriched with 
 many donations from France and Germany, and a 
 university, where about 39 professors and tutors are
 
 A.THEN8— ATHLT.INE. 
 
 I I li lumber of students is betwc 
 '. Several interesting works hav.- I i en 
 printed in A. The French ( baa founded 
 
 aii Archa-olngical Institute, and several mil 
 Bocieties have appointed agents here. A. hi 
 no trade except in walking-sticks and smoking-tubes 
 made of blackthorn, \\b~l — pop. 44,510.) 
 
 Political History of A. — It was the Ionic race 
 that manifested most signally the distinguishing 
 characters of Greek civilisation ; and of this portion 
 of Hellas, A., in the brilliant part of its history, 
 stauds out most prominently. According to tradi- 
 tion, its political power was first establis] 
 
 as, king of Attica, who made A. the metropolis. 
 Here he instituted the great popular festival of the 
 Panathenrca, and, by encouraging settlements in the 
 city, greatly increased its population. He divided 
 the citizens into three classes : hi il lility, agricu] I 
 and mechanics. Until the death of t'odrus in 1068 
 B.C., A. was governed by kings ; aft 
 
 OS elected from the nobility. The time of 
 g office was limited to ten years in 752 B. c, 
 
 one year in 6S3 B.C., when nine arehons were 
 annually elected, one being called tin caxA <n epony- 
 icause the year was distinguished by his name. 
 Here begins the authentic history of A. These 
 j ther with the council of nobles, after- 
 wards called the Areiopagus, exercised the whole 
 
 ■ of the state, and administered justice. The 
 Athenian government was thus, like all other 
 
 lie governments, an oligarchy; but the el 
 introduced by the archon Solon, 594 B.C., ( 
 remarkably moderate, laid the foundation of that 
 democratic constitution which was afterwards per- 
 
 1 lenes. The condition of the 
 
 lation at the time of Solon was one of extreme 
 suffering an ' trising chiefly from the < 
 
 Hive execution, by the aristocratic arehons, of the 
 law of debtor and creditor. This law was of old 
 extremely harsh in Greece as well as in Ronie ; it 
 assigned the debtor that could not fulfil his con- 
 tract as the slave of his creditor. The great part 
 of the soil of Attica was in the hands of the rich, 
 and the mass of the population, who tilled the 
 as tenants, were either in hopeless arrears, 
 or already, with their families, actual .slaves. Driven 
 to desperation, the popidace were ready to rise in 
 mutiny ; the oligarchy were afraid or unable to 
 enforce the laws ; and thus it was agreed to confer 
 dictatorial power on Solon, well known for his 
 wisdom, integrity, and sympathy with the people, 
 and allow him to solve the problem. The disease 
 being desperate, Solon applied the desperate remedy 
 of abolishing existing contracts, liberating those that 
 I to slavery, and forbidding for the 
 future any one from pledging his own person or that 
 of a member of his family. He next reformed the 
 political constitution by dividing the freemen into 
 four classes, according to the amount of their pro- 
 It was only the richer classes that paid 
 and were eligible to the offices of state ; but 
 all had votes iu the assembly that elected the 
 arehons, and all sat in judgment on their past con- 
 duet, on the expiry of their year of office. The 
 
 ament, though still oligarchical, was thus modi- 
 lied by popular control. Its free was for 
 some time (560 — 510 B.C.) interrupted by the usurp- 
 ation of Peisistratus and his sons, whose ty, 
 
 er, was mild and enlightened, the forms at 
 least of the Solonian constitution 1 
 
 On the banishment of the I i (510 a C.), 
 
 a further political reform was in: < 
 
 thenes, who extended i the constitution. 
 
 and rendered it essentially democratic. To 
 thenes is ascribed the origin of the practice called 
 Oiiracinn (q. v.). 
 SIS 
 
 Then followed the brilliant period of the Persian 
 
 war. when out of the circumstances which ■ I 
 
 to threaten destruction, A. rose to the highest point 
 of power and prosperity. Miltiades at Marathon, 
 and Themistocles at Salamis, gain.. I the vid 
 which infused new courage and enthusiasm into 
 the Greek nation. The period between the Persian 
 war and the time of Alexander the Great, or from 
 500 to 336 B. c, was the most glorious in Athenian 
 history; and in 4-14, Cimon ■ raised the 
 
 city to its highest point of grandeur and beauty. 
 But under Pericles, the beginning of a decline took 
 place, through the decay of ancient morals and the 
 Peloponnesian war, which ended in the capture of 
 A. by the Lacednmoniana. After this, A. retained 
 only the shadow of its former power and il 
 The thirty appointed ministers of government 
 in fact, so many tyrants, supported by the Lacedae- 
 monian army. After eight months of despotism had 
 been endured, the tyrants were expelled by Thrasy- 
 bidus, a free constitution was restored to A., and a 
 new period of prosperity commenced. But it was 
 not destined to endure long; a formidable 
 Philip of Macedon, now . a the north. The 
 
 Athenians having opposed liim in the Phociai 
 1'hilip took from them several of their colonies. 
 Then followed the defeat of the Athenians at 
 Choeroneia (338 B.C.), a fatal blow to Greece, 
 with other states became subject to Macedon. The 
 free spirit of the citizens was broken, and in moral 
 character they degenerated. After Alexander's 
 d ath, a fruitless attempt was made to regain their 
 liberty. Antipator instituted an oligarchy of wealth. 
 ifterwards, A. was taken by Caasander, and 
 placed under the ride of Demetrius Phalereus, who 
 employed his power wisely and beneficently. Once 
 more the old constitution of A. was restored by 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a short interval of inde- 
 pendence was enjoyed, until the city was taken by 
 Antigonu.s Gonatas. After liberating them 
 from the dominion of Macedon. and joining the 
 Achaian confederacy, the Athenians were so mis- 
 guided as to support Mithridates against the Romans. 
 This last error was fatal. Sulla conquered A., 
 destroyed the port of the Piraeus, and left only tl 
 
 ace of liberty and independent 
 vanished in the time of Vespasian. Still, after the 
 spirit of liberty and progress had departed, A. long 
 remained safe from spoliation. The Komans, in 
 their respect for Grecian pre-eminence in art and 
 philosophy, and moved also by religious reverence, 
 long regarded Athens as a captive too noble and 
 beautiful to suffer any indignity. 
 
 A'THENS, a name applied to twenty-three places 
 in the United States. The most important of them is 
 a thriving town in Georgia, 92 miles to the west- north- 
 west of Augusta. It is the terminus of a branch- 
 railway, which joins the Georgia Central. It con- 
 tains a cotton manufactory, and is the market for 
 an extensive cotton-growing region. It is the seat 
 also of Franklin College, a flourishing seminary of 
 education. 
 
 A'THERINE {AtJieri'na), a genus of small G 
 allied to the Mullet famdy (MugUida), but 1 
 separated into a distinct family, .1 The 
 
 Atherines have more than twice as many vert 0X88 
 as the Mullets ; they are of a rather slender form, 
 but few of them exceed six inches in length. They 
 have a protractde mouth, and very small 1 
 some are quite toothless. Almost all the known 
 species, which are numerous, and found in t! 
 of different parts of the world, have a broad silvery 
 band along each flank. Some of them arc I 
 esteemed for their delicacy. They all congregate in 
 great shoals. They abound in the Mediterranean,
 
 ATHEROM A— ATHOS. 
 
 One species, A. Pr'xhyter, is very common on the 
 south coast of England and on some parts of the 
 coast of Ireland, but is rare on the east coast of 
 Britain. In the markets of some of the southern 
 
 Atherine (Athcrina Pralyter). 
 
 towns of England, where the Smelt (q. v.) is 
 unknown, it is sold under that name : in Brighton 
 and some other places, it is called Sati'l 
 Where tliis fish abounds, it is often taken by anglers 
 from the shore, biting readily at almost any 1 
 
 ATHEROMA, or 'fatty deposit,' is generally 
 found in the tissues of aged persons, or those who 
 have lived dissipated and ill-nourished lives. In 
 appearance, it is yellow and cheesy, shewing under 
 the microscope fatty grannies and crystals of choles- 
 Its most common situation is between the 
 middle and inner coats of arteries, and is dangerous, 
 inasmuch as it interferes with the elasticity of the 
 arterial tube, rendering it more liable to injury, and 
 less able to repair itself, should any occur. A. gene- 
 rally precedes aneurism (q. v.). Cysts filled with con- 
 resembling bread-sauce, which frequently occur 
 in the scalp, are I iieromatous tumours. 
 
 A'THLETE (Gr. atltleo, to contend), the name 
 given to a combatant, pugilist, wrestler, or runner, 
 in ancient Greece. Athletics were studied in 
 Greece as a branch of art, and led to i 
 useful rules of diet, exercise, &c, applicable to 
 ordinary modes of life. Bodily strength and activity 
 
 u highly honoured by the Greeks, that the 
 A. held a position in society totally different from 
 that of the modern pugilist. When he proposed to 
 enter the lists at the Olympic or other public games, 
 he was examined with regard to his birth, social 
 position, and moral character. A herald then 
 Stepped forth and called upon anyone, if he knew 
 aught disgraceful to the candidate, to state it. Even 
 men of genius contended for the palm in athletic 
 -es. Chrysippus and Cleanthes, the famous 
 philosophers, were victorious athletes, or, at least, 
 
 to, i. e., persons who pursued gymnastic 
 exercises, not as a profession, but fejr the sake of 
 exercise, just as at the present day we have gentle- 
 men-cricketers, amateur-pugilists, &c. The profound 
 and eloquent Plato appeared among the wrestlers in 
 
 thmian games at Corinth, and also in the 
 Pythian games at Sicyon. Even the meditative 
 Pythagoras is said to have gained a prize at Elis, and 
 give instructions for athletic training to Eurymencs, 
 who afterwards gained a prize at the same place. 
 
 it was the honour of an Olympian victor, that 
 his native city was regarded as ennobled by his BUC- 
 and he himself considered sacred. He entered 
 the city tlirough a special breach made in the walla ; 
 he was supported at the public expense ; and when he 
 died, was honoured with a public funeral. Euthymus, 
 of Locri in Italy, who had, with oidy one ex 
 been regularly victorious at Elis, was honoured with 
 a statue, to which, even during his lifetime, homage 
 was paid by command of an oracle. Athletic sports 
 were tirst witnessed a1 Rome 1SG b.c. They were 
 introduced by M. Fulvius at the end of the -Etolian 
 war. and becami ly popular in the time 
 
 of the emperors. At Rome-, the athletes formed a 
 corporation. 
 
 ATHLO'NE, a small town in the centre of 
 
 Ireland, on both sides of the Shannon, chiefly in 
 the county of Westmeath, but partly in that of 
 Roscommon. It is the largest town between Dublin 
 and Galway, and lies on a commanding situation, 
 3 miles below Lough Ree, in a carboniferous lime- 
 stone district. The chief manufactures are felt-hats, 
 friezes, linens, and stays. A canal here, a mile 
 long, enables large river-steamers to navigate the 
 Shannon for 110 miles, from Killaloe to Carrick- 
 "ii shannon, uninterrupted by the river-rapids. 
 The Shannon is crossed by a fine bow-string and 
 lattice iron bridge of two arch's, 175 and 40 feet 
 span. Pop. in 1851, 0218. A. sends one member to 
 parliament. A. Castle, on the Roscommon bank of 
 the Shannon, was founded in the reign of King 
 John, and has now been rendered one of the chief 
 military positions in Ireland, The fortifications 
 cover 15 acres, and contain barracks for 1500 men. 
 
 A'THOLE (Pleasant Land), a district of 450 
 square miles, in the north of Perthshire. It occupies 
 a great part of the southern slopes of the Grampian 
 mountains, and is intersected by many narrow 
 glens, down which flow the rapid tributaries of the 
 Tay. It is chiefly composed of gneiss and quartz 
 rock, with beds of primary limestone. Dr Hutton's 
 explorations among the granite veins in Glen Tdt, 
 were among the chief means of establishing the 
 Plutonic theory of geology. A. was once one of the 
 best hunting districts in Scotland. Athole deer-forest 
 is said to contain 100,000 acres, and G000 head of deer, 
 of which 100 are killed annually. In the picturesque 
 Pass of Killiecrankie, in this district, 17 miles north- 
 west of Dunkeld, C'laverhouse fell in 16S9, though 
 victorious over the troops of King William III. 
 
 A'THOR, or ATHYR, but properly. BO-her, i. e., 
 ' the habitation of God,' the name of an Egyptian 
 goddess who, in the mythological system of that 
 people, is ranked among the second class of deities. 
 She was the daughter of Ra, the sun. By the 
 Greeks, she was identified with Aphrodite (Venus). 
 The cow was regarded as her symbol, and, in 
 hieroglyphics, she generally appears with the head 
 of that animal, bearing It,, d her horns the 
 figure of the sun's disk. A. is also represented as a 
 cow itself, and as a bird with human face, horns, 
 and the sun's disk. On the oldest monuments, she 
 is frequently portrayed bearing a temple on her head, 
 as in the Athor-capitals of the Ptolemaic buildings, 
 falsely supposed to be heads of Isis. Originally, 
 the goddess had a cosmogonic significance ; later, sho 
 was called the ' mistress of dance and jest,' and held 
 in her hands, as symbols of joy, the cord of love and 
 the tambourine. Queens and princesses were often 
 represented by the figure of A. Her worship was 
 generally spread through Egypt Her most sacred 
 abode was at Denderah! Alter her the third month 
 of the Egyptian year was named. 
 
 ATHOS, HA'GIOX O'ROS, or MONTE 
 SANTO, i. e., the Holy Hill, the principal mountain 
 of a chain extending, in a pt ninsular form, from the 
 coast of Macedonia into the .I'genn Sea, between 
 the Gulfs of Contessa and Monte Santo, and con- 
 nected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus. 
 The length of the peninsula is 40 miles ; breadth, 4. 
 According to tradition, it received its name from A., 
 son of Neptune, or from A., a giant who battled 
 oda The highest summit in the chain, 
 Br, a solitary peak at the southern 
 extremity of the peninsula, rises 6350 feet above the 
 1 i and nt I a were 
 
 built on A. Hreidotus mentions five. _ The most 
 manor " with A., is the canal 
 
 which Xerxes cut tlirough the isthmus, in order to 
 escape the stormy galea which rendered the naviga- 
 tion round the promontory very perilous, and which
 
 ATHY— ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 bad shattered the Beet of Mardonius some yean 
 i canal still exist. In the middle 
 
 .' . . \ . ■ irered with cd , of which 20 
 
 still remain (besides several hermitages, chapels, 
 &c). ii: largest are the monasteries of 
 and St Laura; the richest, Vatoptedi. The entire 
 Dumber of monks who inhabit the 'Holy Hill' is 
 about S0OO. They form a kind of monastic republic 
 under the Turkish government, to which they 
 pay .in nnnual tribute of nearly . 
 monks follow the rule of Basilius, and lead an 
 ascetic life, engaged chiefly in agriculture, gardening, 
 ami the care of bees. In diet, tl I them- 
 
 to I- rb . fruits, and fish. They carry on a 
 considerable trade in amuli 
 wooden articles of furni) own manu- 
 
 facture — and also reap profits from the numerous 
 visits of pilgrims. Karyas, the principal place in the 
 is picturesquely situated in the midst of 
 vineyards and gardens, and has 1000 inhabitants. 
 Here the market is held : but no female, 
 animal kind, is permitted t" be presi at, or even to 
 enter the peninsula. In the middle ages, A. was 
 the centre of Greek learning and I Ihristian-Byzantine 
 art. Now, scarcely more than two or three monks, 
 of tolerable education, can be found in a in.: 
 The libraries are neglected, though containin • 
 
 Eul old manuscripts, si. me specimens of which 
 : been brought to Western Europe. They 
 
 i. however, little or nothing of value in 
 classical literature. 
 
 ATHY', a small town in the smith-west of Kildare 
 county, Ireland, on the east side of the river Harrow, 
 here navigable for barges, It lies in a carboniferous 
 line .tone district. It chiefly consists of two 
 
 Pop. (1851) 5210. Its chief export is 
 grain. 
 
 ATLA'NTA. a flourishing city of Gi 
 Though it was founded only in 1845, yet, in 1853, 
 it numbered 4000 inhabitants. It ov, 
 perity chiefly to its situation, being the focu ■ ■ 
 of the principal railways of the Geo 
 
 the Macon and Western, the Atlantic and W. 
 and lastly, the La Grange. Independently ol 
 
 ■ oication, the surrounding country, 
 besides being rich in grain and cotton, contain 
 iron, and other valuable minerals. 
 
 ATLA'NTES, in Arch., so called, by the I 
 in reference to the mythical Atlas (q.v.), are male 
 
 Atlas Column, from the Baths at Pomp ii. 
 
 figures used instead of columns. The Romans called 
 them Telamones. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN, so called cither from 
 620 
 
 Mount Atlas, or from the fabulous island of Atlantis, 
 
 is that part of tl eean that divides the old v. 
 
 from the New. Its extreme breadth is about 
 miles, and its narrowest part, b . d Cape St 
 in Brazil, and the nearest point in Africa, 
 about 1600 miles. If the A. be supposed 
 bounded by the polar circles, it covers an area 
 computed at 25 million Bquare miles. The A. is 
 naturally divided into three porl 
 south, and intertropical A. It stands in opt u con- 
 nection with the north and south polar seas, and 
 
 remarkable parallelism of its coasts, reset 
 rather a vast river than an ocean. Its northern half 
 
 IS ramifications on both 
 of them forming almost shut seas: on the west, 
 Hudson the Gulf of St Lawrence, and the 
 
 Gulf of Mexico ; on tl Baltic, N 
 
 Mediterranean, and as. In the south, a tin, 
 
 coasts present a comparatively unbroken I ; 
 
 but there is a remarkable correspondence betwei a 
 their projecting and retiring angles, the convex 
 
 of Brazil lying opposite to the Gulf of Guinea, 
 and the projection ring to the 
 
 retirement of the / .oast in the Caribbean 
 
 whole of the New World, with the ex. 
 of the narrow strip lying west of the I 
 
 Mountains, belongs to the basin of this i 
 It drains comparatively little of the Old World, as 
 may be seen by tracing the water-shed on a map. 
 Owing to the numerous seas and inlets com. 1 
 
 with it, the extent of its shores is immense, over 
 
 50, mill ' vera! & m ands more than that of 
 
 the shores of the Pacific Ocean and Indian S a 
 
 r. Except near the continents, the Atlantic 
 is poor in islands compared with the Pacific. The 
 
 lands in the open ocean are Iceland, the Faroe 
 Is, Bermudas, Azores, Ascension, St Helena, 
 the Falkland Islands, .South Georgia, and .Sandwich 
 Land. 
 
 A. is now the greatest highway of tho 
 
 .1 world, and everything that concerns its 
 navigation becomes of vast importance. Dnd 
 system of observations established by Lieut 
 Maury of the United .States Observatory at 
 Washington, and now co-operated in by England, 
 much has been done, and is doing, to amass infor- 
 mation as to its currents, winds, depth, temperature, 
 &c. The operations connected with the 
 cable were also the means of furnishing us with some 
 valuable information regarding the Atlantic. It 
 was then discovered, from a comparison of meteor, .lo- 
 gical ol exh nding over a long period, that 
 the western part of what has been named the 
 graphic Plateau is exempt from gales during summer; 
 that the eastern part is almost free in August, except 
 on the coast of Ireland ; and that there is little risk 
 from storms in June and July. In June, fogs are of 
 
 requent occurrence on tl than on the 
 
 Between June and August, thi 
 
 I Erom ice than at any other time of the 
 
 year; and, considering all things, the A. is freest from 
 
 disturbing causes between the 20th of July and the 
 
 12th of August. 
 
 The chief A. currents are two. The Equ 
 Current, which, starting from the Lay of I 
 proceeds westwards on both sides of the equator 
 till near the coast of Brazil, where it dividi 
 branch running south, and the other 
 coast of Guiana into the Caribbean Sea. The v. lo- 
 city of this current is very varied, in some place3 
 
 - at the rate of 2.5 niiles a day. ami in ■•< 
 at three times the speed. Its force also varies 
 with the months ; but the mean velocity may be set 
 down at about 30 nautical miles a day. Its breadth 
 varies from 200 to 400 miles ; and its temperature is
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN- ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 lower than the surrounding ocean. The other 
 current is t : • This issues irom the 
 
 Gulf of Mexico through the Strait of Florida, ami 
 after following the direction of the American coast 
 to about 4(1', turns seaward, touches the great New- 
 foundland Bank, and gradually curving round, is 
 bout the Azores. But part of its waters find 
 their way to the British and Faroe Islands, and 
 
 coast of Norway. The water of this stream 
 is often upward I of 20" wamn r than the surround- 
 ing ocean. Its physical identity is preserved Ear 
 
 thousands of miles. Lieutenant Maury calls it 
 'a river in the ocean; 1 and the line of junction, 
 (v 11 as far out from the gulf as the Carolina 
 coasts, is so distinctly marked, that it may he 
 traced by the eye. 'Often one half of the vessel 
 may be perceived floating in the Gulf Stream water, 
 while ti lalf is in common water of the sea; 
 
 so sharp is the line, and such the want of affinity 
 between those waters.' The Gulf Stream has an 
 tinmen- cm the A. According to Lieu- 
 
 tenant Maury's calculation, it keeps in perpetual 
 motion one-fourth of all the waters in tie ocean. 
 Its velocity and breadth vary very considerably. 
 The branches and fruits of tropical trees, often 
 found on the coasts of the Hebrides and Faroe 
 Islands, are no doubt transported by this current. 
 it STREAM. Besides these great currents, 
 * . abounds with smaller ones, which are as 
 yet mysteries to the mariner. No researches that 
 have hitherto been undertaken have enabled him to 
 their whereabouts and their strength and 
 direction so precisely and accurately that he may 
 at all times 'be certain of their help, when favour- 
 able, and sure of avoiding them if adverse.' — 
 Speaking of under- currents, Lieutenant Maury 
 says : 'There seems to be a larger flow of polar waters 
 into the A. than of other waters from it, and I can- 
 not account for the preservation of the equilibrium 
 of this ocean by any other hypothesis than that 
 which calls in the aid of undercurrents. They, I 
 have no doubt, bear an important part in the system 
 of oceanic circulation.' As a means of ascertaining 
 the force and direction of these under-currente, 
 the same authority recommends a submarine kite, 
 constructed on the principle of an air kite. 
 
 It is only within very recent years that the depth 
 of the A. has been determined with anything like- 
 accuracy. Ondi r the old system of lead-ana-line 
 sounding, enormous depths were reported. 
 34,000 feet, 4C.000 feet, and even 50,000 feet, had 
 been run out in the South A. without discovering 
 any bottom. The reason of this is now attri- 
 buted, not to the great depth of the ocean, but 
 to the fact that the shock caused by a weight so 
 light as that in common use striking the bottom 
 
 it be communicated through very great depths; 
 and besides, the under-current s have, u- a 
 rule, more than sufficient fore- to take the hue out 
 
 liter the plummet -. Various experi- 
 
 ments were made with a view to improve the method 
 
 mding, chiefly by officers in the service of the 
 vernment, and, finally, it was deter- 
 mined to sound witli a cannon-ball of 32 lbs. 
 it was thought would be of sufficient weight I 
 
 on when it touched the bottai 
 to sounding-twine marked every hundred fathoms, 
 and wound on n> Is holding 10,000 E 
 As soon ken that the ball had 
 
 d tlie bottom, the line was cut an I 
 
 sing* on the reel measured, tie- difference 
 between that and the original length ben 
 depth of the ocean. This plan was not | 
 without various calculations as to currents, velocity 
 of descent, &c., which have since been made, and 
 which have rendered deep-sea soundings something 
 
 It is, that the ocean is not 
 above half the depth it was formerly supposed to 
 lie. Th depth of the North A. yet dis- 
 
 covered is 25,000 ; !;i i .. The deepest 
 
 part, in the opinion of Lieutenant Maury, is probably 
 between the parallels of 35* and 40 N. Int., and 
 immediately to the southward of tie- Grand Banks 
 of Newfoundland. A remarkable 
 and 10,000 to 12 000 
 
 lace of tie- sea, extends along the 
 bottom of the A. from Cape Clear in Irelai 
 
 Race in Newfoundland, a distance of 1640 
 miles. A specimen of the nature of this plateau 
 was brought up by a beautiful sounding-apparatus, 
 the invention of a United States officer, which 
 detaches the sinking-weight as soon as it touches 
 the ground, and is so contrived that it brill 
 specimens of the bottom along with it. When 
 examined by the microscope,. this specimen was found 
 to be chiefly composed of little calcareous shells 
 (Foramiitifam). No particle of sand mingled with 
 Lieutenant Berryman has since found 
 in tliis track obsidian, pumice, &c\, forming a line of 
 volcanic cinders 100 miles long. Upon this p] 
 
 A. Telegraph cable, unfortunately in a 
 useless condition. 
 
 Leaving out of account the coasts, the ' 
 shallowest in what the Portuguese call the M 
 
 o(q.v.),or' bract extend- 
 
 ing from the 3nth meridian to the Bahama Islands, 
 i the parallels of 30° N. and 19" N.. 
 densely covered in many parts with gulf-weed 
 nni, nm). See Gclf-weed. 
 The bottom of the A, as .shewn in a map executed 
 t Maury, is a series of ridges. The first 
 ridge nearest the shore is less than GOOO feet beneath 
 the surface of the sea ; the second ridge is r. 
 at a depth of 12,000 feet ; the third, at a depth of 
 18,000 feet ; and the fourth, at 
 
 This last ridge rises over di pths yet unfathomed. 
 between the Bermudas and the Grand Banks of 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 In the intertropical portion of the A., the trade- 
 winds (q. v.) regularly prevail ; beyond this, the winds 
 are variable. On an average of six years, the \ 
 from Liverpool to New York, by sailing-veasels, 
 takes not less than 40 days, while the return v 
 is accomplished in 23 days. The difference of time 
 out and home is entirely due to the prevalence of 
 south-west winds in the North A. 
 
 The A. abounds with fish; herring and cod fishing 
 , important branches of industry in Northern 
 
 Join: '''of. and Lieutenant Maury's 
 
 i Geography of '/<• Si a, afford detailed infor- 
 mation regarding the temperature, winds, currents, 
 navigation, &c. of the A. 0. 
 
 ATLANTIC TETLEGB \I'!I. History of. In 
 1842, Professor Morse of N w Sork, having 
 
 bed a submarine cal 
 and Covernor's Island, Boston, and succeeded 
 in transmitting an electric- current from one end 
 to the other. I his opinion that it I 
 
 be possible to effect an electrical cemmuni 
 
 b the sea. After further ns, ho 
 
 announced i vtary of I ry of 
 
 ted States, 'that a telegraphic communica- 
 tion on his plan might with certain I. -In d 
 
 irs prior to that, 
 Sir William O'Sh-e J proof that 
 
 inveyed through water, 
 by depositing a cable in the bed of the rlooghly; 
 but it was the successful .submarine telegraphic 
 undertakings of the Messrs Brett, who. in .Tun 
 
 a 'I ral Oceanic T< Ii graph Company,' 
 with the object among others of joining this country
 
 ATLANTIS -ATLAS. 
 
 '.iii'-riivi by means of a teli on the 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, and six yeara often 
 
 ad with Frai ph, Hi 
 
 that first fairly c I the pnblia mind 
 
 the Ni w Wi it be put on ■■■ b i i 
 
 . ! i with the Old. The 
 
 lantic I an pre- 
 
 1 the most imposing obstacle to this . 
 
 ness of communion ; l.nt when it was dis- 
 
 ed that between Ireland and Newfoundland 
 
 the bottom of the Atlantic, 
 
 at a depth of not more than two miles In Lav tin' 
 surface, a fine broad platform (see A i 
 
 t), seemingly so specially formed by nature 
 for the purpose of electrical communication, that 
 in -Maury at on e '.lit the T< I' • 
 
 graphic Plateau, the project of an Atlantic 
 marine cable assumed a practicable form. In 1854, 
 the colonial government of Newfoundland passed 
 aa act incorporating ai to establish 
 
 ■ communi Id ami 
 
 ■ I it by a sub idy, and by gr ml M 
 Thecoloni I so conferred upon 
 
 the company the exclusive righl of lax 
 
 ic line upon the coast under its jurisdiction. 
 ivernnnnts of Prince Edward's Island and 
 ■to of Maine mail.' similar concessions; and 
 authority for certain subsidiary operations in I 
 
 al 10 obtained. 'Tin- 1 y, incorj d under 
 
 tie of 'The New York, Newfoundland, and 
 graph Company,' commenced operations 
 by uniting St John's in Newfoundland with 1 
 lib d States and British North America, 
 done, numerous preliminary experiments were under- 
 i liy eminent electricians and engineers, in order 
 to determine the amount of retarding force which 
 inducted and disguised electricity were likely to 
 oiler to the transmission of currents along submarine 
 wires of unu oal 1- Qgth. Having by these i 
 
 , 20(10 in number, tried with 62 different kinds 
 of cable, determined the one best adapted for the 
 conveyance of electricity through such a length, 
 and at such a depth in the Atlantic, the next 
 was the formation of a more influential com] 
 In 1856, 'The A. T. Company,' to which all the 
 c ml irred on the old company ! 
 
 ! with a capital of £350,000. 'The 
 iments of Great Britain and the United Stati s 
 ill y aided the company, guaranteeing, by a con- 
 tract of 25 years' duration, to pay to the company, 
 until such time as its dividend t lachi '1 l> per cent., a 
 subsidy of £14,000 a year, and of .i'10,000 subse- 
 quently. They also agreed to furnish ships for laying 
 down the cable. 
 
 The cable, which weighed about a ton per mil . 
 equal to 14 cut. in water, was composed of a strand 
 of seven wires of pure copper, coated with 
 
 ite layers of gutta percha, wrapped over with 
 hemp saturated with pitch and tar, and linally bound 
 round with iron wins, 332,500 miles of iron and 
 r wire being employed in its construction. 
 It was deposited in the holds of the Agamemnon, 
 a line-of- battle ship supplied by the Bril 
 ment, and I A iagara, a splendid frigate fun 
 
 . and the two vessels started 
 
 if grand mission. After two unsuccessful at- 
 
 l during the years 1S.37 and 1S58, the expedition 
 
 started again for mid-ocean, whence the ships were to 
 
 start, paying-out towards opposite shores, on the 1 7th 
 
 of July 1858. The cable was united and low a Lou 
 
 i 29th of the same month; and the Agamt 
 
 : ; lauding a severe gale of wind, an. 
 
 itia, having successfully laid her portion of it, 
 
 on the morning of the 5th of August, 'lie Niagara 
 
 about the same time arrived in Trinity Bay, 
 
 ■midland, and science had annihilated space 
 
 between the Old World and the New. On the 
 17th August, the extremities of tie- cable having 
 been put in connection with the recording-instru- 
 ments, the following message was Sashed through 
 the ocean in thirty-live minutes: ' Europe and 
 America are united by telegraph. Glory t-< God 
 
 in the highest; on e l ] and g 1-will 
 
 towards men.' Messages and replies from the 
 Oueen to the President of the United Si ites, from 
 tie- -Mayor of London to the .Mayor of New Vork, 
 &c, followed. But on the 4th of September, the 
 
 at \ ah nt in became unintelligible. One ci mi- 
 ne ici: : oi '--reat impoi 
 
 le, in reference to this collision between the 
 Atlantic steamers, the Buropa and Arabia ; this 
 single ii. . . I the commercial world £50,000, 
 
 which would doubtless liave been .'pent in extra 
 insurance on the Teasels and ear oes thus delayed. 
 (The cable of 185 having become useless, two 
 
 other lines were laid in 1865 and 1866, and these 
 two now connect Great Britain with North Ame- 
 rica. A third cable Was laid in INi'.Un.ni ,'rancc 
 to the United States, and various other Iran at lantic 
 lines are projected or in progn a. See Tl lbgraph.) 
 
 ATLA'NTIS, according to ancient traditio 
 name of a vast island in the Atlantic Ocean. 1 1 is 
 first mentioned by Plato, win i represents an Egy] itian 
 prie t as describing it to Solon, but, of course, accord- 
 ing to Plato's view of the matter. In this descri ption, 
 H ared as an island larger than Libya and Asia 
 Minor taken together, and lying off the Pillars of 
 Hercides in the Atlantic Ocean. Plato gives a 1 lean- 
 tiful picture of the interior of this imaginary land, 
 and enriches it with a fabulous history. Some early 
 writers supposed that the Canary Islands were the 
 remains of the old A. ; for Plato had stated that at 
 the close of the long contest which its inhabitants 
 maintained against the Athenians, nine thou and 
 years before his time, the sea suddenly engulfed 
 the island, and had ever since been (innavigable, by 
 reason of the shoals of mud created by the sunken 
 island. Some found it in the Scandinavian penin- 
 sula; others (first Bircherod in 16S5) have Bup] 
 that Phoenician or Carthaginian merchant-ships had 
 been driven by storm on the coast of America, and 
 that the supposed vast island of A. mentioned by 
 Plato, as well as the great unnamed island spoken of 
 by Pliny, Diodorus, and Arnobius, may have been 
 the New World. 
 
 A'TLAS is that piece of the human vertebral 
 column which is nearest to the skull ; in other 
 words, it is the first cervical vertebra. It may 
 be known from the other six by its being without 
 a body or spinous process, by its being a mere 
 irregular bony ring, partly divided into two unequal 
 parts by a constriction ; this division in the recent 
 subject is completed by a ligament, the part in front 
 being occupied by the tooth-like process of the second 
 cervical vertebra, and that behind, by the t 
 marrow. On each side, the ring is very thick ; it is 
 smooth and cupped above to receive the condyles of 
 the occipital bone. The corresponding parts below 
 are flat, and rest on the second cervical vertebra. 
 
 The A., with the occipital bone, forms the joint 
 on which the head moves in bowing ; and turns on 
 the pivot of the second cervical vertebra, when we 
 look from side to side. 
 
 A TLAS, according to Hesiod's Thcogony, one 
 of the Titans, the son of Iapetus and Clymene, and 
 brother of Mencetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. 
 Apollodorus, however, states him to have been a 
 son of Asia, and Hyginus, a son of ./Ether and 
 ( 1 aea. He married Pleone, daughter of Oceanus 
 (or I (esperis, his own niece), and became the father of 
 the Pleiades. As leader of the Titans, he attempted
 
 ATLAS— ATMOSPH E 1 1 E. 
 
 to Btonn the heavens, and for this supreme 
 
 a was condemned by Zeus to bear the vault 
 
 of heaven on bis head and hands— the sting of this 
 
 aological punishment obviously boin^, that A. 
 
 compelled to support what he unrated to 
 destroy. The later writers, however, rationalise 
 
 yth, and state that A. v My kin.; v. ho 
 
 bad great skill in astronomy, and only tried to 
 
 : heaven intellectually.— In consequence of the 
 
 it views which made the vault of heaven rest 
 on solid pillars or other supports, the nam 
 originally mythological and cosmogonie, was intro- 
 duced into geography. Mercator, in the lGth c, 
 save the name A. to a collection of maps ; pn 
 because the figure of A. supporting the heavens had 
 been given on the title-pages of such works. 
 
 A'TLAS, a mass of mountain-land in the western 
 
 part of North Africa. Herodotus mentions a 
 
 smoking mountain of this name situated on the 
 
 south-west of the Little Syrtis, and twenty .1 
 
 journey westwards from the Garamantes, si vied by 
 
 the natives the ' j iven.' By later writers, 
 
 after the time of Polybius, the name A. was always 
 
 i to the chain of mountains in North-west 
 
 ■ [tending from the island of Cerne (now 
 
 through Mauritania, and 
 
 tana (now Fez and Marocco), and including 
 the heights di persed through the region of 
 
 i. It is divided into the Little Atlas ami the 
 i Atlas; the former denominating a secondary 
 
 in the country of Sous, and the other, the 
 
 mountains of Marocco. The A. is not properly 
 a mountain-chain, but rather a very irregular 
 mountainous mass of land formed of many chains 
 running in various directions, meeting in mountain- 
 knots, or connected by yokes, or short chains of 
 inferior height, and diversified still further by 
 
 d solitary mountains and groups of mountain-. 
 The A. attains its greatest height (13,000 feet) in 
 Marocco, the only part where it rises above the 
 snow-line, and obtains the name of Jebel-el-Thelj, 
 
 i wy Mountains. I: aks are Miltsin — 
 
 27 miles south-east of the city of Marocco— Biba wan. 
 and Tagherain. The most southern chain di-. 
 here from the central mass bears the nam' 
 
 or. The heights approach the sea, and form 
 
 promontories jutting out into the Atlantic. 
 
 From Marocco, the A. gradually decreases in height 
 
 Is the cast. In Algeria, the elevation is only 
 7673 feet; in Tunis, 4170 feet; and in Tripoli. 3200 
 
 The whole mountain-system is intersected by 
 the valley of the Muluia river, which Hows thl 
 
 irth-east part of Marocco, and falls into the 
 Mediterranean. The slopes on the north, west, and 
 south are covered with vast forests of pine, oak, 
 cork, white poplar, wild olive, &c. The valleys arc 
 well watered and capable of cultivation with 
 
 The A. seems to be chiefly calcareous in its 
 
 isition. The mineral wealth remains, however, 
 
 I wholly unexplored, t' hi r, iron, lead, 
 
 antimony, &C., are stated to exist in abundance. 
 
 A'XMOSPHEBE (Gr. atmoa, vapour, q 
 
 | is the name applied to the gaseous en 
 
 . surrounds the earth. The existence of an A. 
 T of vital importance. We owe 
 to its influence the possibility of animal and 
 able life, the modifying ami retaining of solar 
 heat, the transmission of sound, the gradual shading 
 . into night, the disintegration of rocks, and 
 tu of weather phenomena. In conse- 
 
 nt' tlie action of gravity, the A. assumes the 
 da] stratum concentric with the 
 heavily on its surface. It exhibits, 
 in common with all fluid bodies, the usual charac- 
 teristics of hydrostatic pressure, but its internal 
 
 condition differs from that of a liquid inasmuch 
 H it s particles repel each other, and can only be 
 held in proximity by external force. From this 
 circumstance, it follows that the volume of any 
 portion of air varies much more under the influence 
 ■ ' ■ i ■ than that of an equal volume of 
 
 water; hence, tie stratum of air nearest the earth 
 
 ions, where, 
 from their being subjected to tie: weight of a smaller 
 mass of superincumbent air, the repulsive f 
 irticles has freer play. 
 
 That air possesses weight, is illustrated by the 
 following simple experiment, If a hollow glass 
 globe of 5 or inches in diameter be weighed first, 
 when filled with air, and then, after the air has 
 been extracted from it by means of the air-pump, 
 it will, when thus exl 
 
 than it did before, and the difference of the' two 
 results will represent the weight of the quantity 
 of air which has been withdrawn. It hat 
 determined by Biot and AragO that 100 cubic inches 
 of dry air, when the barometer is at 30 inches, and 
 the thermometer at 00° Fahrenheit, weigh .'il/074 
 grains. The law of Archimedes (see A 
 fiiiMiri.E OF), that a body immersed in a fluid 
 loses a part of its weight equal to the 
 the volume of fluid displaced by it. finds its appli- 
 cation in the A. in water. If a glass 
 globe filled with air and closed be suspended at the 
 extremity of the beam of a delicate balance, and 
 be kept in equilibrium by a brass weight at the 
 other extremity, and if the wlee placed 
 i t the receiver of an air-pump, and the air 
 extracted, the equilibrium previously existing in air 
 will be disturbed, and the larger body will Ijecome 
 the heavier. The reason of this is, that wien first 
 weighed, they each lose as much of their own weight 
 as that of the respective volumes of air displaced 
 by them, and are therefore made buoyant, though in 
 different degrees, the ball with tl i olume 
 having the greater buoyancy. In a vacuum, they 
 are deprived of this buoyancy, and the larger 
 body, suffering the greater loss, becomes sensibly 
 heavier than the other. In like manner, a balloon 
 filled with heated air or hydrogen gas is 1 
 than the volume of air displaced by ir. It is there- 
 fore forced upwards till it reaches a stratum of such 
 density that the weight of the volume of air there 
 displaced by it equals the weight of the balloon 
 itself. In this stratum it will remain poised, or 
 move horizontally with the currents to which it may 
 "sed. 
 
 In endeavouring to determine the farm of the 
 
 atmospheric envelope, it is ni ceasaryto bear in mind 
 that, according to the law of fluid-pressure, in order 
 to produce a state of equilibrium at the level of the 
 sea, the pressure of the A. must be equal at that 
 level over the whole of the earth's surfac ■. Gravity 
 acts with less force on the air at the equat . 
 on that at the poles, in consequence of the spheroidal 
 form of the earth. It has there, in addition, to 
 id with the centi .tirely 
 
 fails at the poles, and which has a. tendency to 
 lighten the air by a • trary to that of gi 
 
 i to produce the same 
 
 pressure at tie- level of tie- si i. the atmospheric 
 
 1 1,...- must b than that at 
 
 1 that the A. must therefore possess the 
 
 form of an oblate spheroid, whose oblateness is con- 
 
 ; Ban that of the earth itself. The 
 
 greater heat at the tropical regions most also have 
 
 tile etl'eet of Hi- 1 
 
 of the A. has n-.t \. t been determined. 
 That it must have a certain limit, is evident from 
 the consideration that there must be a point at 
 which gravity ou the one hand, and centrifugal 
 
 5:3
 
 ATMOSPHERE 
 
 "ii the 
 other, are poised, and beyond which I 
 
 : ii met force, 
 particles would be borne away from the earth. As, 
 however, the law of the diminution of temperature, 
 which materially affects the repulsive action, is 
 unknown for the upper regions "f the air, it is 
 impossible to the height of t ti« ■ atmo 
 
 from the relation i of t! he 
 
 upon which dependence can be placed is derived from 
 the mathematical data founded <m the dnrai 
 twilight, which gives a height of abotri Ii 
 
 The pi oi the A. is one oi 
 
 ant properties. [I exhibited in the 
 
 of the ordinary water-pump. The piston is Stted 
 
 : ;t in its cylinder; ami on being drawn up, 
 creates a vacuum. The water within the 
 
 ilms free! from pressure, while that i 
 of it is exposed to the pressure of a column of 
 air reaching to the surface of the A., is at once 
 i:i res «n of the weight of air which it, 
 must rise to balance, I t of the water takes 
 
 place till the piston has reached the h dght of I 
 
 t, from which we conclude that a column of 
 air is equal in weight to a column of water 
 same fa ;. and of the height of nearly 
 
 34 feet. As mercury is 130 times heavier than 
 water, a mercurial column En Li rom 
 pressure at the one extremity, and subjected to it 
 at the other, is l."t> t in height than the 
 
 column of water, or about 30 inches. From the 
 more co rem lumn, mercury has 
 
 been a indard for atmospheric pres- 
 
 sure, and is employed in our ordinan 
 
 (q. v.). A i, i colon E 30 inches in I 
 
 and 1 square inch in seel m 15 lbs. (more 
 
 rately, 14-73 
 
 a column of atmospheric air of the i on. The 
 
 word A. i< often employed t i bis weight or 
 
 pressure on a square inch of surface, so that when 
 
 ik, in SIi ihanics, of the pressure of steam on 
 a boiler as amounting to three atmo 
 a pressure of 45 lbs. on the square inch. The 
 sure on a square inch being thus ascertained, we 
 have merely to multiply it by the number of square 
 inches on the earths surface to obtain the total 
 weight of th" A. It amounts to H'67085 trillions 
 
 . or about 
 
 of the earth' 
 
 i 
 It must be observed that the height of tin 
 
 column is not a constant quantity. as ii ■ 
 with the latitude, the season of the year, and the 
 hour of the day. At London, its mean height i '.".I vs 
 inches; at Paris, 29'92 in hi . The pressure of the 
 A. in the northern hemisphere increases as we 
 recede from the equator, reaching a maximum at 30 
 N. lat, and decreasing from 30 t<> 65°, where n 
 begins to rise. The greater height at 30° is said to 
 be due to tl 1 ition of air at that latitude 
 
 by the action of the trad ! . As the 
 
 the earth's surface increases the rarity of the air 
 above it, and causes the air at the top oi 
 column to overflow, we would expect that, during 
 
 rometer would stand at a mil 
 in summer, and a maximum in winter. In i 
 however, although the barometer i in mid- 
 
 winter, there is another maximum in mid-summer, 
 making thus two minima — one in spring, the other 
 in autumn. This arisi s from the part which watery 
 vapour plays in the pressur i of the atmo phi re. The 
 heat of mid-summer introduces into the air 
 quantity of moisture, in the form of elastic \ 
 which, adding its pressure to that of the dry air, 
 raises what would otherwise be the minimum baro- 
 metric column to a higher point than that at H hich 
 it stands in spring and autumn. Similar causes 
 affect the pressure of the A. during the 24 hours of 
 
 y. There are two maxima— one at )o A.M., 
 the other between 10 and 11 P.M.; and two minima — 
 at 4 a.m. and 4 p. m. Very slight variations indicate 
 
 ristence of atmospheric tidal waves ; but this 
 
 subject is still involved in some obscurity. The 
 
 ire of the A. exerei important 
 
 influen on the ini tno! thi human frame. A 
 
 i ordinary stature is ex] I to a pressure of 
 
 about 14 tens; but as the air permeates the whole 
 
 bs equally in all directions, oo 
 
 inconvenience is found to result from it. Erom 
 
 experiments instituted by the brothers Weber in 
 
 ay, it lias been osci rtainedthat the hi 
 
 the thigh and arm bones are kept in their sockets by 
 the pressure of the A. ; and in balloon ascents the 
 offers from bleeding at the nose, 
 lips, and even eyes a fact that would seem to indi- 
 cate that the strength of the Moo,; | is been 
 ■ d with reference to atmospheric pressure. 
 ■' nf i:,, a. Recent chemical 
 lies give the following as the mean composi- 
 tion of 100 volumes and of 100 air: 
 
 en, 
 
 i, . 
 Carbonic acid, 
 
 \ 
 
 79-02 
 20-94 
 
 . 004 
 
 lll(ll)l) 
 
 fir ii"s. 
 
 Tost 
 
 2310 
 0-06 
 
 loo-oo 
 
 Besides the substances just named, other gaseous 
 matters occur, but in quantities so small as not 
 
 ily to increase the bulk of the A., such as 
 
 ammonia and ammoniacal salts, carburetted and 
 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, carl, ride, sulphurous 
 
 dphuric acid, nitric acid, and perhaps iodine, 
 
 and even the presence of which are 
 
 ; I and meteorological i . Roughly 
 
 ing, then, dry air may be said to consist of 4 
 volumes of nitrogen and 1 of with a slight 
 
 admixture of carbonic acid, and a mere trace of 
 several other substances. As, however, the air of the 
 A. is lever found dry, we must add to the con- 
 stituents air d watery vapour, the amount 
 of which is constantly i I according to loca- 
 lity, weather, wind, and temperature. It is I 
 that of looo grains of atmospheric air, the pro 
 tion due to aqueous vapour varies from a minimum 
 of 4 to a maximum of 1G grains. By far the most 
 active chemi i cm titnent of the \. is 0x3 
 the agency of which are owing the existence of 
 animal life, the maintenance of combustion, the rust- 
 ing of metals, and the occurrence of several other 
 chemical phenomena too numerous to be detailed. 
 A small portion of this oxygen occurs in the form of 
 ozone (q. v.), a modification which, according to recent 
 chemical discoveries, plays an important part in tho 
 chemistry of the A. The nitrogen which forms the 
 bulk of the A. possesses few chemical properties of 
 importance, hnt performs the important part of 
 diluting the oxygen, which, if it occurred alone, 
 act with too gri iy. The presence 
 of carbonic 1 air is shewn by the produc- 
 tion of the white carbonate of lime in lime-water 
 influence. Carbonic acid is 
 
 led in all processes where carbonaceous matter 
 
 li with the oxygen of the air, such as in 
 
 animal respiration, in combustion, in fermentation, 
 
 in putrefaction, and similar processes. The green 
 
 of plants, on the other hand, possess, in 
 
 ie of sunshine, the power of decomposing 
 
 carbonic acid into its elements, absorbing the c 
 
 for their own tissues, and restoring the oxygen to 
 
 the A. in its original purity. Between the processes 
 
 above mentioned, on the one hand, and the action of 
 
 plants on the other, the quantity of carbonic acid 
 
 m the air is kept nearly constant. From the table
 
 ATM(i.s|-Jll.l:i: ATMOSl'IIEIUC HEEi TIUCITY. 
 
 it will be seen that lO.iino volumi - of atmospheric air 
 contain I volumes of carbonic acid. If it occurred in 
 eh larger proportion, b in poisonous, ii 
 
 beconi" dang to animal life; ami if it occurred 
 
 in a miicli less proportion, the vegetable world 
 would lark its requisite nourishment. The other 
 
 of which a trace is always or onl\ 
 times found in atmo pheric air, are difficult to deti et 
 in the air itself, but arc generally found d d 
 
 rain-water, more especially in thai fallen 
 
 immediately after a long drought. Of these, by far 
 
 the most important ana widely diffused are i 
 
 and ammoniacal salts, which are of essential import- 
 ance to I i conomy, because, (lis 
 in the rain, they furnish plants with the nil 
 
 i for the production of their flowers 
 ami fruit. Nitric acid is detected in the air after 
 thunder-storms, sulphuretted hydrogen in the tainted 
 air of sewers and such like places, and sulphurous 
 nml sulphuric acid only in the neighbourhood of 
 chemical or smelting works. A considerable quantity 
 of carbonic oxide and carburetted hydrogen e cap 
 onconsumed from our furnaces; and although the 
 latter gas is in addition given off to the air in marshy 
 and bituminous districts, the two occur in almost 
 inappreciable quantity in the atmosphere. 
 
 ]u addition to its gaseous constituents, the A. 
 contains solid substances in a state of exceedingly 
 fine division, the presence of which is rev aleu 
 in the sunbeam. Many of these minute pai 
 being the seeds of plants or e gs of animals, must 
 exert an important influence on the organic sub- 
 stances on which they may finally settle, inducing 
 in many of them the conditions of disease or 
 putrefaction. 
 
 \\ le in the composite nature of the A. was first 
 discovered, it was supposed to be a chemical 
 combination of nitrogen and oxygen, but further 
 inquiries have rendered this opinion highly im- 
 probable. When any two bodies unite with each 
 other chemically, the substance which results 
 from their combination invariably possesses pro- 
 D which the original constituents did not 
 
 possess. Now the atmospheric union of oxygen and 
 nitrogen is distinguished by no properties which may 
 not be attributed individually to these gases. We 
 have, then, in this respect, no indication that the 
 atmospheric combination of oxygen and nitrogen is 
 a chemical one. Again, when any composite 
 d .eii in water, the proportion of the ingredients 
 dissolved in it is exactly the same as that in which 
 they occur in the compound itself; but this is oot 
 the ' e with air dissolved in water, which is found 
 to be richer iii oxygen than atmospheric air. Now, 
 as oxygen dissob readily in water than 
 
 nitrogen, it is manifest that this hireer propnrti..n o] 
 n ■-,. from both gases acting independently 
 of each other in respect to the water, a condition 
 that would be impossible if they w ere in chemical 
 Prom the e and other corroborative 
 is considered to be simply a mechanical com- 
 bination of the gases contained in it. This, however, 
 does net pi \ en i he ^, from having a uniform com 
 position, as might at first si Jo be supposed; for 
 :ie mixed with each o inter- 
 
 mingle thoroughly throughout r space 
 
 occupied by tttem. Loi i may temporarily 
 
 affect the relative proportion of the atmospheric 
 ingredients, but the changes are so minute as to 
 require the most delicate anal to d 
 
 ATMOSPHERIC ELKCTIil CITY. Franklin 
 was the first to establish the identity of the light- 
 ning of the heavens with the i irk. By his 
 famous lute-experiment, he ascertained thai the 
 thunder-cloud assumes on electrical condition 
 precisely similar to that of the conductor of an 
 
 electrical machine, and that the same mechanical and 
 
 igfa in a different 
 degree, to botl 'l 
 
 directed by this disc rvi ry to the A. E, as displayed 
 in the thunder cloud, ha - i tnce thi n bi 
 to the electrical condition in all the 
 
 different states of the weather. It is now found that 
 the air is sensibl 
 
 is overcast with thunder-clouds, but when the 
 weather is clear, or when no thunder-clouds are 
 of A. 10., in the latter 
 circumstanci means of very delicate 
 electroscopes (q. v.). These instruments are con- 
 structed for i i roll iii the open air, 
 
 or in a room, in conjurn b an apparatus on 
 
 iof of the house for collecting the electricity. 
 
 Mowing are some of the r 1 from 
 
 Sons: Winn the sky is char and free 
 from clouds, the A. E. is alwa\ do an elec- 
 
 troscope exposed to tie- acta n of the air 
 with po iin electricity. On the- other hand 
 electricity of the ground is found to I 
 This was shewn in a very ingenious way by Volto, 
 who, by catching the tin.- .-pray of a fountain on the 
 plate of a straw electroscope, found the straws to 
 diverge with the negative electricity communicated 
 to them by the water, which was necessarily of the 
 same character as that of the ground. It. is from 
 this fact that electroscopes, or tie colli appa- 
 
 ratus connected with them, must not be 
 by the neighbouring trees or buildings, th negative 
 electricity of which materially affects the indications 
 given, and it is due to the same fact that no A. E. is 
 discovered in the middle of a wood, or in a room, 
 however high the ceiling. Under a clear sky, the 
 t n-iMii of tic A. E. is found to increase as we i 
 i in lower aerial strata being less electrical than the 
 higher. Becquerel proved this by a simple experi- 
 ment on the plateau of Mount St Bernard. On a 
 piece of oiled suk he placed a silk tl d with 
 
 tinsel, one end of which, terminated by are 1 
 connected with the rod of a straw > tectroso i 
 the other end was ted to an arrow arm .1 with a 
 metal point. When the arrow was sh it In mtally, 
 the straws shewed no divergence; but when the 
 arrow was shot upwards, they opened as H 
 and diverged most when the arrow, in asci 
 disengaged the ring from the rod of the , | 
 The same fact is shewn in the following way : When 
 a very delicate electroscope is adjusted for any par- 
 ticular position, it will, when elevat I a f. w feet 
 above that position, give i on of positivi 
 
 tricity, and when placed a I n fe i below, it will be 
 
 1 negatively. En clear weather, likewia 
 A. E. is found to be subject to certain daily | 
 nil variations, and app ars to ha\ i two maxima 
 and two minima in the course of twenty-four hours. 
 The first maximum takes place a she!: 
 sunrise, and the second shortly after sunset ; the 
 fust minimum shortly before sunrise, and tie 
 in the afternoon, when the heat of the day is 
 greatest. 'I he cause of tie e p riodical changes is 
 attributed to the formation and tion of 
 
 watery vapour in the atmospl ly after sun- 
 
 ■..:,: 
 
 ,, of the an-, and a. ■! n - a- a conductor, trans- 
 mits the electricity of the hi her strata towards the 
 
 surface of the en i tirst maxi- 
 
 mum. As 1 1 the day i the air 
 
 s hss and less moist, and h>s s. in i 
 , its een eel ng po ' when the 
 
 atmosphere is hotb : and 
 
 place. After sunset, a rapid 
 re, and the lowi r strata ar 
 
 I with moisture, which causes a - 
 maximum at the be lining of night. Before sunrise, 
 
 U9
 
 ATMONI'llKllH' i:\IIAVAY-ATOM. 
 
 the deposition of dew becom so tl int the 
 
 positive electricity of tin- lower strata is transmitted 
 
 to the soil, causing a minimum at that time. It 
 
 seems to hold gi a rally that anything which tends 
 
 toinci-i lower strata, 
 
 such: vapour m a visible form, increa 
 
 the sainr time the A. E., and hence it is that in time 
 
 of mist the electrical tension is higher than u 
 
 ■weather. I o be attributed to th 
 
 fact that the A. E. is greatest in January, a 
 
 in June, the former month I I and misty, 
 
 and the latter warm and clear. J n cloudy fl 
 
 the electroscope is affected sometimes positively, 
 
 sometimes negatively, and is 
 
 than in clear weather. The electricity of rain. 
 
 hail, <S:c., is sometimes positive, sometimes 
 
 tive. Tn Stuttgart) for i1 was found 
 
 course of a year that tli< ■ rain was 71 times i 
 
 to 69 times negative, and the snow 24 times positive 
 
 to G times negative. 
 
 The cause of A. E. has given rise to much dis- 
 cussion among meteorologists, and as yet no theory 
 ha3 been proposed which satisfactorily accounts for 
 it. According to l'ouillet's theory, the electricity 
 developed in e\ lation is a 
 
 sufficient cau=c for the pos I icity of the 
 
 air; the vapours and 'ved in til 
 
 cesses being charged positively, the soil and plants, 
 on th. ' I, negatively. This opinion is com- 
 
 bated by more recent oh uch as Ries3 and 
 
 of careful experiments, 
 give it as their opinion that if sueh be the cause of 
 A. E., the fact is wholly without experimental data. 
 Lamont maintains that the air itself is not electrical, 
 and is not capable either of conducting or of retain- 
 ing electricity, and that the phenomenon of A. E. is 
 due to the induction arising from the negative elec- 
 tricity of the earth, which he considers to be perma- 
 nent. This theory can account for all the phenomena 
 referred to in this article; but the statement that 
 atmospheric air is incapable of conducting or I 
 ing electricity, stands in need of experimental con- 
 firmation. For the electricity of the thunder-cloud, 
 see LlOHTJi 
 
 ATMOSPHE'RIC RAILWAY, a railway on 
 which the locomotive-power is supplied by tli 
 sure of the atmosphere more or less directly on the 
 carriages themselves. The idea of producing rail- 
 way locomotion in this manner has been succes- 
 sively prosecuted by Lewis, Medhurst, Vallance, and 
 Pinkus; and latterly with a greater prospect of suc- 
 cess by l with Samuda. V 
 patented a plan which proposed the conveyance of 
 passengers along a railway laid within an air-tight 
 tunnel i 1 in front of a carriage workii 
 piston, the pressure of the atmosphere acting on the 
 carriage from behind, This plan was made public in 
 1825, and ultimately brought into experimental oper- 
 ation at Brighton, proving the possibility of such a 
 mode of transit. The general opinion as to its merits 
 was, that though it might succeed in the transmis- 
 sion of goods, or, with a smaller tube than the 
 tunnel, might suit well the conveyance of the mails, 
 it could not lie expected to enjoy the favour of the 
 travel] . i m account of its dark close tunnel. 
 Thus the subject of atmospheric railways had 
 ceased to attract attention, when the curiosity of the 
 public was again called to it, by the proposal of 
 another plan of propulsion, by Henry Pinkus, an 
 American gentleman, resident iu England, who took 
 out a patent for it about the year 1835, under the 
 name of the Pneumatic Railway. The apparatus for 
 this was to consist of a cast-iron tube of about f< nty 
 inches diameter, having a slit of about two inches 
 wide on its upper side, the slit (which was covered 
 by a flexible Hap or valve) furnishing an opening 
 526 
 
 through which the mechanism of a piston WO 
 within the tube might be connected with tl 
 the leading carriage without. 
 
 i- unproved arrangements of the d 
 Messrs Clegg and Samuda made an experim 
 this plan in 1.840, on a part of the line of the 
 a Railway; and so favourable was the 
 that the directors of the Dublin and King tew n Rail- 
 loptedthe atmospheric .stem for a 
 
 ion of their line from Kingstown to 
 lialkey. The nature of the ground through which 
 this extension was to pass was so undulating, as to 
 ; of aline on it for being worked 
 
 parliamentary sanction was obtained for the lis 
 
 in full operation i the I inning 
 of th- ye r 1844. In that year the London and 
 Croydon Railway Company I ".en a 
 
 line of A. EL alongside of their locomotive line from 
 London to Croydon. The South Devon Railway 
 Company also adopted the atmospheric mode of 
 working on a part of their railway. Both of 
 lines, however, were shortly afterwards abai. 
 as unsatisfactory. 
 
 The result of these trials has clearly shewn that 
 the A. R. system cannot stand in competition 
 that of the locomotive engine, unless, perhaps, in 
 some very peculiar situation. The expense and care 
 necessary to keep the tube with its valve in good 
 working-order, led to the removal of the atmospheric 
 from the various railways on which it 
 was est i that the history of Atmospheric 
 
 Railways may be ranked under the chapter of 
 failures. 
 
 A'TOM (< an indivisible particle; from 
 
 a, not, and kmnO, I cut). In ancient philosophy, two 
 theories of the nature of matter were recognised, 
 and these have continued to form subjects of argu- 
 ment among speculative men since the year 510 B.C. 
 to tin pri enttime. The one theory is, that matter 
 is infinitely divisible. Thus, a livided 
 
 into two, and each of the parts may in its turn be 
 broken or cut into two, and each of the latter again 
 and again be subdivided, till the parts become so 
 small that it may bo impossible to si e them by the 
 but these parts are regarded as capable 
 of still further division, without limit or stop 
 i feet or delicate means con 
 employed to act upon them. The second theory 
 • constitution of matter is, that in 
 the repeated division and subdivision of a solid, 
 liquid, or gas, a point will be at length n 
 
 it will no longer be possible, by any conceiv- 
 able means, to break a molecule in two, the mol 
 being a real unity, not composed of separable parts — 
 in other words, an atom. The latter theory recognises 
 the finite divisibility of matter, and considers that 
 all matter is more or less compactly built up of 
 myriads of atoms aggregated together, and 1 
 
 or pores between the several atoms or par- 
 ticles, [f it were possible to subject such matl 
 the scrutiny of a sufficiently powerful magnifying- 
 glass, or microscope, and thus exhibit or behold tho 
 atoms so separated by spaces, then an appearance 
 I similar to that which the painter 
 chooses to depict on the canvas when he is repre- 
 senting a snow-storm, and where every little flake 
 of snow is separated from its neighbour one by a 
 
 in which there are none; or that 
 
 would be observed if, during a hailstorm, some great 
 
 power were to cry, 'Halt! and that instant every 
 
 minute hailstone was arrested in the spot it had 
 
 bed. 
 
 This view of the physical nature of matter is that 
 which is known as the atomic or corpuscular 
 and has in modern times received some support
 
 ATOMIC HEAT— ATOMIC THEORY. 
 
 from the facts embodied in the chemical atomic theory 
 ited by Dalton. Granting however, that the 
 chemist can prove that his simple and compound 
 forms of matter are built up of chemical atoms, the 
 problem still remains to be solved as to the | 
 identity of physical and chemical atoms. *\ hat the 
 chemist regards as an A. in his science, may not be 
 an ultimate and indivi able A. in a physical p 
 view; the chemicl \. pable of oi 
 
 as a chemical A., may still be composed or built up 
 of many physical atoms, and maybe capable of being 
 subdivided into such. Indeed, whilst the atomic 
 theory of Dalton, when first announced, was i 
 seized upon as the best possible evidence ." 
 existence of both chemical and physical atoms, the 
 tendency of recent researches and discussions in 
 chemistry has been to shew that the chemical A. is 
 different from the physical, and does not necessitate 
 the existence of the latter. See Atomic Theory. 
 According to the ordinary acceptation of the term, 
 it is a molecule of matter having a definite weight, 
 magnitude, and form, possibly alike for the atoms of 
 the same material, but differing in those of different 
 substances. The form of an A. is supposed by some 
 men of science to be the same as that which the 
 fragments of a substance assume when it is split in 
 the direction of the planes of the cleavage of its 
 . <T.VLLor.p.AMY), but the general 
 belief is, that all atoms are spherical, and that the 
 various crystalline forms are produced by the manner 
 in which the atoms are ether. In I 
 
 to the size of atoms, the res the famous 
 
 microscopist, Ehrenberg, have demonstrated that an 
 
 A. must be less than ^.TroTT.crcro" of a line m (liameter ; 
 and the late Dr Thomas Tnomson, of the university of 
 Glasgow, shewed that an A. of lead must occupy 
 a space something les3 than s^.iTrf.Tshs.TiTni.Tnns 
 part of a cubic inch. 
 
 ATOMIC HEAT. See Heat. 
 
 ATOMIC THEORY. When one or more atoms 
 of one kind of substance are brought into physical 
 contact with one or more atoms oi nt sub- 
 
 stance, the various atoms unite together by the force 
 of chemical affinity (q. v.), and produce a chemical 
 compound. The respective quantities of each of 
 the combining substances are not the result of mere 
 chance or casual freak of nature, but are regulated 
 by certain laws. These laws were partially observed 
 and discussed by earlier chemists and physicists, 
 but it was reserved for Dalton (q. v.) to systematise 
 the somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors, 
 and to announce, in positive language, the four laws 
 which regulate the union of various kinds of 
 ices, and which are still acknowledged by 
 chemists as the laws of co i uoroRTioN, 
 
 or the Atomic Theory. These laws regulate the 
 combination of unlike •'•', and 
 
 not by volume; and they are based upon the prelimi- 
 nary acknowledged fact, capable of experimental 
 demonstration, that the same compound substance is 
 always composed of the same ingredients or elements. 
 
 The Jirst law of combination by weight compre- 
 hended under the A. T. is Tin: law of co-. 
 proportion, wlr that the elements or 
 
 ingredientB which form a chemical compound are 
 always united in it in the same proportion by 
 weight. Thus, water, which consists of oxygen and 
 hydrogen, does not contain one or both of these 
 elements in indefinite amount, but it is invariably 
 made up of 8 parts by weight of oxygen to 1 
 part by weight Of hydrogen. It makes no matter 
 whether the total amount of either elene 
 rains, ounces, pounds, or t 
 will always be found that the proportion of 8 
 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydrogen is kept up. 
 
 Neither does the source of the water make any 
 difference, tor pure water obtained from rain, snow, 
 or had, the river or the sea, the sap of plants 
 or the juices of animals, invariably contains the 
 same elements in the same proporti ons. A^'ain, 
 common salt (chloride of sodium), whether it be 
 obtained from sea-water, salt-springs, rock-salt, 
 or even the blood of animals, always con 
 of chlorine and solium in the exact and never 
 
 • proportion rts of chlorine ' 
 
 parts of sodium. Whilst the law of constant 
 
 : ion teaches us that the same compound is 
 always built up of the same ingredients in the same 
 proportion, it does not necessarily follow that the 
 same elements or components in the same propor- 
 tions will invariably form the same compound body. 
 It is far ot'r ad many examples can be 
 
 obtained, especially from organic chemistry, where 
 the same components in the same proportions pro- 
 duce very different substances. Thus, starch and 
 cotton (bgnine) — very dissimilar substances— consist 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the very same 
 proportions ; and gum-arabic and cane-sugar are 
 similarly circumstanced. See Isomeric Bodies. 
 
 The second lata is the law of reciprocal 
 proportion", which tells us that if two substances 
 combine in certain proportions with a third, they com- 
 bine in the very same proportion with each other. 
 Thus, as has been already observed, 8 is the propor- 
 tion in which oxygen will unite with 1 of hydrogen, 
 and 6 is the proportion in which carbon unites with 
 1 of hydrogen ; and the law now under considera- 
 tion teaches us, tliat whilst oxygen combines with 
 hydrogen a3 S to 1, and carbon with hydrogen as 6 
 to 1, we can, from these experimental results, deduce 
 the conclusion that 8 will be the proportion of 
 oxygen which will combine with C of carbon. Again, 
 8 parts of oxygen unite with 2S of iron, and 10 parts 
 of sulphur combine with 2S of iron, and from these 
 statements we can deduce, by the aid of the second 
 law, that sulphur and oxygen will unite together 
 in the proportions of 16 to 8. The figures which 
 represent the proportions in which the elements 
 constantly combine with each other, are*ealled their 
 equivalents or atomic vxighU (q. v.). The second 
 law is one of great importance, and simplifies much 
 the researches of the chemist, for it renders it 
 unnecessary for him to determine in order the 
 proportion in which a new substance will unite with 
 every other of the sixty-one elementary substa 
 for having experimentally estimated the proportion 
 in which the stranger element combines with one or 
 two substances, be can predict that the very same 
 proportion will regulate its chemical union with all 
 
 iiers. 
 The third law is Tire law of ml-ltiple propor- 
 tion, which is, that when one substance combines 
 with another in several proportions, the higher pro- 
 portions are multiples of the fir.-t or lowest. Tims, 
 hydrogen unites with oxygen in two proportions ; as 
 1 of hydrogen to S of oxygen, when ordinary pure 
 water is the result of union ; and as 1 of hydn 
 16 of oxygen, when peroxide of hydrogen, a | 
 ful bleaching ag nt, is produced — the difference in 
 the respective amounts of the oxygen — S and 16— 
 multiple of the former by 2. 
 Again, carbon unites with oxygen in two propoi 
 as 6 of carbon to S of ox I the inflammable 
 
 gas, carbonic oxide, is formed : and as 6 of carbon 
 to 16 of ox D the non-inflammable gas, 
 
 carbonic acid, is I The variation in this 
 
 instance is, that the in the one 
 
 case as 8, and in the other as a multiple of that 
 
 2 
 of this law oo -urs in thi union of nn 
 
 and oxygen : 14 parts of nitrogen can unite w ith
 
 ATOMIC VOLUMES- ATwMlO WKIOIITS. 
 
 8 of oxygen, and then exist as Uughing-gaa ; but the 
 
 same amount of nitrogen can i June with 16, 24, 
 
 ;;•_'. in- !'i of oxygen in the latter case, constituting 
 
 nitric acid ■ ing multiples 
 
 of the first or lowest, vis. 8 by 2, .'(. 4, and 5 tunes. 
 
 The fourth law is ted impound propok- 
 
 ibs that the combining proportion 
 
 of a compound Bubstance is the sum of the combining 
 
 irtions of its components. Thus. ti. 
 
 : oar] ic acid, which consists of 6 of - 
 
 united with Hi of oxygen, has the combining propor- 
 tion 22, which is tic sum of the ci propor- 
 bon and .in;, d composing it. viz. 
 G-t-10 22. Similarly, the compound sub : ' 
 
 the in. lal calcium i 
 
 oxygen, and lias the combining proportion of °.i) + .s, 
 or 28. When carbonic acid ami lime are linked 
 together, as in marble, which is the • 
 lime, th' n they are united in tin' proportion of "2. 
 parts of carbonic acid ami 28 of lime. Not only is 
 22 the proportion in winch carbonic acid will com- 
 bine with lime, but it is tic in in which it 
 will form compounds with every other substance of 
 l'u. mi el lineal constitution. 
 
 The prec dine laws regulating the union of sub- 
 stances by weight were announced by Dalton as the 
 results of experimental " ; erratics, ami they are 
 , t" have full conliilciicc placed in 
 them. Moreover, i very sua bserver in the 
 
 sane- department of cni i ace has brought 
 
 forward researches which tend to strengthen the 
 belief in the existence of such laws, ami in the inter 
 pretation placed upon them. So long as we deal 
 with quantities of material which can be weighed 
 upon balances which may be BO i in their 
 
 i tarn and indicate with a thousandth 
 of a grain weight, then each fresh experiment but 
 to add fresh laurel.; to tic profound wisdom 
 and the clear head of the discoverer of these laws; 
 but Dalton, is his zeal to fathom the subject to its 
 greatest depths, carried these laws from their proper 
 sphere, viz. the regulation oi weighable quantities of 
 material, to the support of a hyp til which took 
 cognizance of unv:i.i<ih(M quantities or atoms. He 
 believed that, if it were possible to get hold of a 
 single atom of hydrogen, it would be represented 
 by the weight 1; that a single atom of oj 
 would be found to be 8; an atom of carbon, 6; 
 &c. In short, that the figures winch signified the 
 proportions in which the various substances i 
 into union with each ' indicated tic pro- 
 
 portional weights of single atom- ... tances. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to mention that the latter 
 hypothesis is quite separable from the doi trine pro- 
 pounded in the four laws of combining proportion, 
 and, whilst in the conception of these laws, 
 
 it is men Ij entitled to the position of a poetical 
 fancy. The laws of the A. T., however, are not based 
 upon this atomic hypothesis, and they demand our 
 adherence solely on account of their Icing the 
 enunciation of experimental facts, and are and may 
 be lieluv. d iii, totally irrespective of any opinion as 
 to the existence or non-existence of atoms. 
 
 I; icent ly, the subject of chemical atoms, and their 
 construction, has ,been revived by the celebrated 
 French chemist, Dumas. He considers it likely that 
 chemical atoms arc different from physical atoms. 
 and BU] i probable that whilst a chemical 
 
 atom of oxygen may be re pi 
 
 tional number 8, and carbon by 0, &C., and that these 
 are not divisible by chemical means, yet that such a 
 ical atom may be capable of division or separa- 
 tion by mechanical force, and then, ceasing to be a 
 chemical atom, it may fall down into an indefinite 
 number of physical atoms. In fact, Dumas inclines 
 to the belief, which is now being shared by many 
 
 £23 
 
 be, that all physical atoms are tic same; that 
 a chemical at'iu of any substance consists of 
 a number of physical atoms enveloped as it v 
 a bag or otherwise held together; that the oxygen 
 bag or I chemical atom contains s 
 
 more physical atoms than the hydrogen atom, and 
 
 thus its combining weight is 8 times greater; that the 
 i o .,! that of the hydrogen, &c. ; at 
 
 tin- same time, i pinion i a a; to the 
 
 number of I which may be in a 
 
 chemical atom. For lifioationa of the 
 
 atomic theory, sec OiuiMi- ii:, , in SoPPLl 
 
 ATOMIC VO'LUMES. The comic:. ... of 
 simple and compound gases by volume occupied the 
 
 attention of Dalton ami Cay LuBBBC, and they 
 announced a very Bimple relation which buI 
 
 en the A. V. of gases. Thus, taking equal 
 weights (']. v.) of various elements, we find that 
 1 equivalent or 8"0 tupj . al 60° 
 
 F. and a barometric pressure of 30 in., 23'3 cubic 
 inches; 1 equivalent or II) grain of hydl 
 occupies, at 00 J F. and 30 in. bar., 407 cubic in 
 1 equivalent or 355 grains of chlorine occupy, 
 I. and 30 in. bar., 4G-2 cubic inches; 1 
 equivalent or 127'0 grains of iodine vapour o. . apy, 
 at 60 b. and 30 in. bar.. 10 7 cubic inches. In 
 other words, that, equal atomic weights of hydro- 
 gen, chlorine, and iodine, occupy twice the bulk 
 of the same amount of oxygen, and hence the 
 atomic volume of tie former is 2, as compared with 
 oxygen, which is 1. Other gases exhibit a similar 
 relation, and an attempt has lately been made to 
 carry out an analogous relation in regard to liquids 
 and solids, but with very unsatisfactory ri 
 
 ATI i M I ( ' W BIGHTS, or CH i: M J I ' AL KQU1'- 
 VALENTS, arc the proportions by weight in which 
 
 the various elementary substances nun 
 It is necessary that one element I d as the 
 
 starting-point of tic Beri . and an arbitrary sum 
 affixed to it, and thereafter all the other el. 
 can have their sums awarded to 1! ling to 
 
 the proportional amounts in which they combine with 
 each other. The . o d law, mentioned under the 
 Atomic Theory (q. v.), explains the manner in 
 which it can be demon tinted that a given amount 
 of one element is equivalent to, and serves the 
 same purpose in combining with a second el 
 as a greater or less amount of a third substance. 
 In Britain and America, hydrogen is taken as 1, 
 and all the other elements arc represented by 
 a quantity which is the minimum amount in which 
 they might or do unite with 1 of hydrogen. On the 
 continent, oxygen is regarded as tic starting-point 
 of the series, and is called 100, whilst the other 
 elements have a proportional number attached. 
 In the following til. le, the various elementary sub- 
 stances are arranged alphabetically, and in a line 
 therewith, tic symbol of each is given, and the 
 atomic weight or equivalent on the hydrogen and 
 .i . See Chemistry, in hint. 
 
 Elementary Substances, with thexr Symbols, 
 and Atomic Weights or Equivalents. 
 
 Element. Symbol. 
 
 Aluminium. . . Al 
 
 Antimony (Stibium), . Sb 
 Arsenic, . . . As 
 Barium, .... 13a 
 Bismuth, . . . Bi 
 
 Boron, . . . . B 
 Bromine, ... Br 
 
 urn, . . . Cd 
 Calcium, . . . Ca 
 
 Carbon, . . . . C 
 
 A. w. or Equivalent 
 
 11 = 1 
 13-07 
 
 12903 
 75-00 
 
 6S-64 
 
 212*86 
 
 10-90 
 
 7'.' '.'7 
 66-74 
 20"12 
 
 G00 
 
 O = 1IMI. 
 
 17000 
 
 1612-90 
 
 937-60 
 
 85803 
 
 266076 
 
 136-20 
 
 !n'.ii;_! 
 
 0'.i070 
 251-31 
 
 7500
 
 ATI i MI (J WICIG I ITS-ATI IXEMENT. 
 
 Element. I 
 
 ' . >, 
 Chlorine, 
 Chromium, . 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Copper (Cuprum), 
 
 Oidymium, 
 
 Erbium, 
 
 Fluorine, 
 
 Qlucinum, 
 
 Golil (Aurum), 
 
 gen, 
 Ibnenium, 
 
 lodillc, 
 
 Tridium, .... 
 Iron (Ferrum), 
 Lanlanium, 
 Lead (Plumbum), 
 
 Lithium, 
 
 inm, 
 Id ineee, 
 Mi i iny (Hydrargyrum), 
 
 it, , 
 Nickel, 
 an, 
 • ii, 
 
 mium, . 
 Oxygen, 
 Palladium, 
 
 bonis, 
 Platinum, 
 
 1 <nm (Kaliuin), . 
 
 a. 
 Ruthenium, 
 
 •in, 
 Silicon, 
 - i . (Argentum), . 
 
 i (Natrium), 
 Strontium, 
 Sulphur, 
 Tantalum or Cohan 
 
 a m, . 
 Ti ii'iiim, 
 
 Till iri ii a III, . 
 
 bannum), 
 Titanium, . 
 Tungsten (Wolfram), 
 
 Uranium, 
 Vanadium, 
 
 a, 
 Zinc 
 
 /.in ■■•uiiim, . . 
 
 The less important, because rare elements, are 
 printed in italics. (See Chbubtry, in Sopf.) 
 
 I in comparing the n pective columns on the 
 hydrogen and oxygen scales, it will be apparent that 
 the two lines of agon ci pond; the only differ- 
 being, that whilst hydrogen is 1 in the first 
 column, it is 12 - 5 or 12! in the second, and tb 
 portions] difl rence is kept up with all the other 
 invert the column on the hydrogen 
 
 scale i'< t' rygen Bcale, it is only necessary to 
 
 multiply by 1-' ; and to find out the equivalent on 
 the hydrogen scale from the figures given under the 
 oxygen, it is sufficient to divide by 12.'.. Recent 
 i ins iii A. W. have led tu the conclusion that 
 
 the majority of the decimal G bed to many 
 
 of the ised with ; and it 
 
 was anticipated that possibly the whole of the deci- 
 mals would he swept away. Several of the elements 
 
 , however, to part with all their decimal 
 as chlorine, which is 35'50, or '.'•'<'. ; hut it is bi 
 thai all the equivalents will be reduced to whole 
 numbers, or, failing that, to o. In order to obtain 
 
 3i 
 
 ymbol. 
 
 A. W. or 
 11 = 1 
 
 = 1110 
 
 Ce 
 
 46-00 
 
 575-00 
 
 i 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 443-67 
 
 Cr 
 
 26-27 
 
 328-38 
 
 Co 
 
 2949 
 
 30805 
 
 Tu 
 
 31-65 
 
 395-60 
 
 D 
 E 
 F 
 
 1-00 
 
 coo-oo 
 
 1900 
 
 2375 
 
 G 
 
 6-97 
 
 87-12 
 
 An 
 
 98-33 
 
 1229-16 
 
 11 
 
 L-00 
 
 12-50 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 12688 
 
 1585-99 
 
 Ir 
 
 9866 
 
 1232-08 
 
 Be 
 
 28-04 
 
 350-50 
 
 l,a 
 
 
 
 I'l, 
 
 103S7 
 
 1294-64 
 
 Li 
 
 6-53 
 
 si -oo 
 
 Mg 
 
 12-65 
 
 15ST4 
 
 Mil 
 
 27-57 
 
 :ill r,s 
 
 Hg 
 
 100-1(1 
 
 1251-29 
 
 Mo 
 
 47G9 
 
 59010 
 
 Ni 
 
 29-54 
 
 309-33 
 
 Nl> 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 1400 
 
 17506 
 
 Os 
 
 9941 
 
 1242-62 
 
 
 
 s-oo 
 
 100-00 
 
 Pd 
 
 r,:;-2i 
 
 665-47 
 
 P 
 
 32-02 
 
 400-30 
 
 l't 
 
 9.S-.-.(i 
 
 123208 
 
 K 
 
 :;s on 
 
 487-00 
 
 Bo 
 
 5216 
 
 651-96 
 
 i:.i 
 
 52-11 
 
 651-39 
 
 Se 
 
 39-62 
 
 495-28 
 
 Si 
 
 21-30 
 
 26700 
 
 Ag 
 
 IDS 110 
 
 135000 
 
 Na 
 
 22-97 
 
 2S7T7 
 
 St 
 
 43-84 
 
 54802 
 
 s 
 
 lGOO 
 
 20000 
 
 Ta 
 
 
 
 Te 
 
 G40S 
 
 S01-76 
 
 Tb 
 
 
 
 Th 
 
 
 743-86 
 
 Sn 
 
 58-82 
 
 735-29 
 
 Ti 
 
 24-12 
 
 301-55 
 
 W 
 
 9401 
 
 1183-30 
 
 u 
 
 0000 
 
 750-00 
 
 V 
 
 0S-46 
 
 855-84 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 Zn 
 
 32-52 
 
 406-59 
 
 Zr 
 
 33-58 
 
 419-73 
 
 whole figures fur all the A. \\\, it has been suggested 
 that hydrogen, though still represented by 1. should 
 be halved in value, so as to possess one-half the 
 that it now possesses. If this suggestion 
 bo carried out, the following would then be the 
 A, YV. of a i "■■•>■. elements : 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 gen, 
 I 'hlorine, 
 i lion, 
 Iron, 
 
 100 
 16-00 
 7100 
 12-00 
 56-00 
 
 ATO'NEMENT. Sin violates the ground of 
 union, which the personal creature has, by nature, 
 with the holy God. 'The act of sin is one of separa- 
 tion; the act begets the state of sin, the state con- 
 firms and repeats the act. The doctrine od 
 treats of the mediation necessary for restorii 
 union between God and man, which has l>cen lost 
 by sin. The A., therefore, mi the funda- 
 
 mental doctrine in every religion of sinful ere. 
 In the Christian religion, it manifestly occupies this 
 central position; for the Christian doctrine of the 
 A. is but the explanation of its great historic fact — 
 the embodiment in one person of the Divine and 
 human natures in perfect agreement. In the person 
 of Christ, God and man are atoned: He is their 
 Atonement. 
 
 So fundamental is the doctrine of the atonement 
 in the Christian religion, that it does not, like many 
 other doctrines, form a ground of distinction among 
 the different bodies into which the Christian world has 
 been divided. All churches may be said to be equally 
 orthodox on this point. The Church of Pome, the 
 Greek Church, the various Protestant churches — 
 established and dissenting— all agree, taking their 
 standards as a criterion, in resting the sinner's hope 
 of salvation on the mediatorial work or atonement of 
 Jesus Christ. Nevertheless, there have been from the 
 very beginning of speculative Christian tin 
 and still continue to be, within the bosom of the 
 1 churches, various ways of conceiving and 
 explaining the exact nature and mode of operation of 
 this mediatorial work. What follows is a brief 
 sketch of the historical development of these 
 speculations. 
 
 Christianity differs from heathenism in the clear 
 perception which it has of the antagonism sin has 
 introduced between God and man. Heathenism but 
 vaguely conceives of this variance, and consequently 
 Las but an ill-defined notion of the atonement re- 
 quired, the notion Beldam containing more than the 
 idea of a reconciled union of the individual man with 
 nature and the universal life. Even v. hen- its myth- 
 ical divinities assume personality, it is but an 
 personality without any concrete reality of life, and 
 consequently without any real significance for the 
 conscience. In this state, the abject subject 
 in in to nature pp sphere 
 
 of conscious free. loin ■• "I, and 
 
 demands an A. with one who is Lord both of nature 
 aal man. 
 
 In Judaism, man stands above nature, in conscious 
 on to a persona] God, whose written law- 
 exhibits the requirements of His relationship 
 man— requirements which are m rer met, and which 
 only make bun fearfully conscious of the over- 
 ling breach between him and his God. Thus 
 ... awakened the sense of guilt, and the desire 
 for an A.: a desire it. could never satisfy. The 
 ig demands of these ever -unfulfilled 
 ce constantly acknowledged by its 
 . which expressed the hidden 
 ground of Jewish hope, and prophetically pointed to 
 its future manifestation. 
 
 But whilst the Holy Scriptures, throughout the
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 Old Testament, exhibit the making of an A. by 
 
 us sacrifice (Lev. xvi. 21 ; xvii. 11) ; and the 
 
 both of the Buffering and the dehveranoe of 
 
 many by the sins and \ one, was common 
 
 to all antiquity, the idea of the sutfering and 
 
 i j declared in the n 
 
 of the prophets (Luke xxiv. -10 ; Isaiali 1 . ; 
 I i xxii.), and not entirely hidden from the 
 
 more thoughtful and devout contemporaries of 
 Jesus (Luke ii. .'!!: John i. 29), was one which was 
 foreign to the Messianic faith of the great body 
 of the people. 
 
 IntheNewTesI nt,Chri I is everywhere exhi- 
 bited as one sent from God for the salvation of the 
 world (John iii. 10, 17); and as the condit 
 
 it of man, of his obtaining this salvation, we 
 read of the requirement of \ faith, and 
 
 reformation (Matt. iv. 17; V. .'!, 11; vi. 12; Mark 
 xvi. 10; Luke xv. 11), whilst, on the part of 
 God, as conditioning and mediating B 
 ness of sin , re life 
 
 of Christ upon earth conceived of as cm 1 
 severally its individual features (Acts v. ."1 ; 
 Kom. iv. 25; viii. 3-1); but more especially His 
 as a ransom for our sins (Malt. xx. 2S; xxvi. 
 28), as a vicarious sacrifice (1 Peter i. 19; 2 Cor. t. 
 21), by which we are red lemed from the bond 
 sin (1 Tim. ii. G; Gal. iii. 13; 2 Peter ii. 1), and 
 i. v. 19; 1 ' I John 
 
 i. 7), and eternal life and peace with God (John X. 
 11; Col. i. 20). Christ is therefore the Mediator 
 between God and man (1 Tim. ii. f>). having made 
 peace through the blood of His cros3 (Col. i. 20) ; the 
 propitiation for our sins (1 John ii. 2; iv. 10); and 
 our high-priest who oilers Himself a sacrifice to 
 reconcile us with God (Heb. ii. 17; v. 1; ix. 28). 
 Moreover, < I Might that God lias in Christ 
 
 reconciled the world with Himself (Kom. v. 10; 
 Col i. 22; 2 Cor. v. 10). 
 
 In accordance with this full and explicit teaching 
 of Holy Scripture, we tind that the sufferings and 
 death of Christ were e\ i ry and 
 
 essential importance in His work o n ; but 
 
 notwithstanding this, we look in vain throughout the 
 early centuries of the Christian Church for anything 
 like a systematic development of the doctrine of 
 the Atonement. The germs of the doctrine e 
 but without, any logical connection or clearness. ' On 
 this heal t sen a twofold mistake — some- 
 
 times the existing beginnings of many la; 
 borated dogmas have been overlooked ; or, on the 
 other hand, it has been attempted to point out with 
 literal distinctness church doctrines as if already 
 developed.' The early church fathers dwell with a 
 sort of inspired devotion upon those facts of the 
 gospel which represent Christ as the sacritice for our 
 sins, as the ransom paid for our redemption, as our 
 deliverer from the power of Satan, as the restorer to 
 mankind of whatever was lost by the fall of Adam ; 
 but they seM to shew how these blessed 
 
 results connect themselves with the sufferings and 
 death of Christ; neither do they shew in what 
 manner the A. has objectively been made, nor how 
 it is brought to the experience of its individual 
 subjects. 
 
 The narrow limits of this article will not allow its 
 to specify the many ways in which the su 
 and death of Christ were regarded in relation to 
 their A for sin. During the first four centuries 
 there appeared no certainty of opinion as to whether 
 they were a ransom-price paid to God or to the 
 devil. The latter supposition is the more prevalent, 
 and is shared in by Origen and St Augustine. G 
 of Nyssa explains this opinion by saying, that the 
 devil consented to receive Jesus as a ransom, because 
 he regarded Him as more than an equivalent for all 
 130 
 
 those under his power; but that, notwithstanding 
 his Bubtilty, he was outwitted, for, owing to the 
 humiliation in which Chi 
 fully rec nil i Sim as the Son oi God, and oonse- 
 
 quently was himself deceived. But bavin 
 
 to receive Him as a ransom for mankind, b 
 
 naly deprived of his dominion over man, 
 whilst he could not retain .ie«us when li 
 Him to be the Holy ( Ine of ( I 
 tormented by His holin 
 
 Athanasius first of all successfidly controverted 
 this notion, and maintained that the ransom was 
 paid to God. He argued that as God had thr. B 
 to punish transgressors with death. He could but 
 ■ His threat. But then it was not becoming 
 the character of God to allow I In purpose in the 
 creation of man to be frustrated by an imposition 
 practised up nhimbythedeviL Theonlyex] 
 therefore, which remained for his delivi 
 
 was the incarnation and sacrifice of the I OS 
 in his stead, by which the justice and veracity of 
 would be maintained, man delivered, the law 
 fulfilled, and the power of the devil brob .i. 1 1 h.-s 
 often been stated that Tertullian uses the term 
 satisfaction with respect to Christ's A. for sin, but 
 this is incorrect, for although he employs the term, 
 lie never does so in the sense of a vicarious satisfac- 
 tion, but only in the sense of making amends for our 
 own sins by confession and repentance. 
 
 These elemental and mythical conceptions of the 
 doctrine of the A. remained in a most imperfect and 
 i her undeveloped condition, until the acute and 
 genius of the Piedmontese Archbishop of 
 Canterbury reduced them to order, and pn 
 them in logical consistency. We must regard 
 Anselm, tin ■ the author, at least as to its 
 
 form, of the doctrine of vicarious satisfaction, which, 
 under various modifications, has ever since continued 
 to be held as the orthodox doctrine of the church. 
 The following is, in all essential respects, his state- 
 ment of the doctrine : The infinite guilt which man 
 had contracted, by the dishonour 01 his sin against 
 the infinitely great God, could be atoned for by no 
 mere creature ; only the God-man Christ Jesus could 
 render to God the infinite satisfaction required. 
 God only can satisfy Himself. The human nature of 
 Christ enables Him to incur, the infinity of His 
 divine nature to pay, this debt. But it was incum- 
 bent upon Christ as a man to order His life accord- 
 ing to the law of God; the obedience of His life, 
 therefore, was not able to render satisfaction for our 
 guilt. But although He was under obligation to live 
 in obedience to the law, as the Holy One he was 
 under no obligation to die. Seeing, then, that He 
 nevertheless voluntarily surrendered His infinitely 
 precious life to the honour of God, a recompense 
 from God became His due, and His recompense 
 consists in the forgiveness of the sins of His brethren. 
 — In this form of the doctrine we are taught the 
 necessity of an active vicarious satisfaction ; but 
 Anselm nowhere teaches the passive satisfaction, he 
 nowhere says that Christ endured the punishment of 
 men. Nor do we find in his writings the develop- 
 ment of the subjective side of the doctrine — namely, 
 how the satisfaction rendered to God mediates the 
 A. in the experience of the believer. 
 
 Subsequent to the time of Anselm, and prior to 
 the Reformation, there are two views of the A. which 
 divide the opinions of this period : the one regarding 
 the peculiar manner in which it was accomplished 
 as absolutely necessary, and deriving its efficiency 
 from its objective nature ; the other supposing a 
 subjective connection between the sufferings of 
 Jesus and the price of redemption, because this was 
 best fitted to effect the moral transformation of men. 
 According to Anselm, the satisfaction rendered by
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 Christ was greater than the guilt for which He 
 atoned; and it needed to be greater, for the pay- 
 ment of the debt due to God gave men no claim to 
 the favour of God. Thomas Aquinas and his 
 followers maintained Augustine's opinion of the 
 infinite value of the blood of Christ rendering it 
 more than sufficient; while the Scotists main; 
 that it was sutlicient only because God was pleased 
 to regard it as sufficient But in the period between 
 Anselm and the Reformation, little or no progress 
 was made in the development of this doctrine. 
 
 We now come to the period of the Reformation, 
 when the objective speculations of the schoolmen are 
 
 it under the subjective requirements of human 
 soids, and the doctrine of the A. is viewed in thi.s 
 In the writings of Luther, one will only with 
 difficulty arrive at his intellectual apprehension of 
 this doctrine in its scientific form ; but setting out 
 with the consciousness of sin, one will ever; 
 discover how he realised that in Christ all sin is 
 ' vanquished, killed, and buried, and righteousness 
 remaineth a conqueror and reigneth for ever.' The 
 an outline of the Lutheran doctrine, as 
 laid down in the Concordicnformd : It is alone by 
 faith wc can receive the blessings presented to us 
 in the gospel by the Holy Ghost. Faith justifies, 
 because it appropriates the merit of Christ. There- 
 fore, the righteousness which is imputed to the 
 believer, simply by the grace of God, is the obedience, 
 the suffering, and the resurrection of Christ, by which 
 He has satisfied the claims of the law, and atoned for 
 our sins. For as Christ is not merely man, but God 
 and man in one person, He was, as Lord of the law, 
 no more subject to it than He was subject to suf- 
 fering and death. For this reason, His twofold 
 
 nee — that which He rendered, on the one hand, 
 by His suffering and death ; and, on the other, by His 
 righteous fulfilment of the law on our behalf— is 
 imputed to us, and God acquits us of our sins, and 
 regards U3 as just, in view of His complete obedience 
 in what He did and suffered. This obedience em- 
 braces the entire existence of Christ upon earth, and 
 is so complete that it fully covers the disobedience of 
 men, so that it is not reckoned against them for con- 
 lemnation. Christ is our righteousness, therefore, 
 only in so far as in His entire person the most perfect 
 obedience is exhibited, which He was able to render 
 in that He was neither God alone nor man alone, but 
 both in one, God and man. 
 
 According to Calvin : if one asks how Christ has 
 reconciled us with God, and purchased a righteousness 
 wliich made Him favourable to us, it may In: answered 
 generally, that He accomplished this by the whole 
 course of His obedience. But although the life of 
 Clirist is to be regarded as paying the price necessary 
 fur our deliverance, the Scriptures ascribe our redemp- 
 tion especially to His death. Calvin attached 
 importance to the particular mode of His death — any 
 other mode of death would not have rendered the 
 same satisfaction to God. He, however, says little 
 or nothing about Christ's fulfilling the law for us, 
 but dwells upon His delivering us from its curse. He 
 does not, therefore, exhibit His active obedience sepa- 
 rated, as an essential part of His satisfaction for sin, 
 from His passive obedience. The importance attached 
 to the obedience of His life arises from its natural and 
 
 ary connection with His Buffering and - 
 And the great importance attached to His deatli is 
 drawn rather from the view of its subjective neces- 
 sity, than from the idea of the divine righteous 
 namely, that without such a death there would have 
 been no sutlicient ground for the subjective realisa- 
 tion of deliverance from sin and guilt. Calvin's view 
 differs from that of the Lutheran ConcordUi- 
 in that he docs not regard the relationship of God to 
 man merely from the stand-point of punitive and 
 
 satisfying righteousness, which always leads to the 
 merely negative notion of a Redeemer from guilt and 
 punishment, but looks upon Christ as the highest 
 Mediator, through whom the nature of God is 
 communicated to man. There was a necessity for 
 Christ's incarnation, not merely because, apart from 
 the suffering of the God-man, the divine righteous- 
 ness coidd not be atoned, but also because, without 
 such a divine Mediator, there could be no vital rela- 
 tion between God and man. ' Had man remained 
 free from all taint, he was of too humble a condition 
 to penetrate to G od without a Mediator.' 
 
 While the reformers established the doctrine of 
 the A. on the theory of Anselm, and extended it so 
 as to make the sufferings of Christ include the Divine 
 curse, and introduced distinctions between Christ's 
 active and passive obedience, Socinus endeavoured 
 to prove the falseness of Anselm's theory. He 
 shares with the Protestants the subjective principle, 
 which the period of the Reformation established, but 
 developed it in a one-sided manner. Socinianism 
 its man as attaining to oneness with himself 
 and with God by his own moral energy. It rejects 
 that idea of the righteousness of God which makes it 
 impossible for Him to forgive sin without a satisfac- 
 tion, as imposing finite limitations upon the divine 
 Being ; and also objects to the doctrine of satisfaction, 
 on the ground that satisfaction for sin i 
 ness of sin are incompatible with each other ; and, 
 moreover, objects that sin and punishment are of so 
 personal a nature as not to allow of their being trans- 
 ferred. It further opposes the doctrine of the active 
 and passive obedience of Christ, on the ground, that 
 the one excluded the other. Another objection 
 maintained the actual impossibility of Christ's 
 rendering the supposed satisfaction for sin. 
 
 The doctrine it sought to establish in the place of 
 the one it attempted to overthrow may in brief be 
 stated as follows. Man is reconciled to God by 
 repentance and reformation. Only from an act of 
 man changing his disposition, and not from an act 
 of God changing His relation to man, follows his 
 reconciliation with God. God is in Himself ever 
 the same towards man — reconciled from all eternity ; 
 man alone has to assume a new relation ; as soon as 
 he does this, he is immediately reconciled ; by this 
 act of his will, he is at one with God. Only in 
 man's moral state is there any obstacle to his recon- 
 ciliation. This greatest and holiest accomplisliment, 
 the reconciliation of man with God, is achieved by 
 an act of his will. 
 
 In this purely subjective theory, repentance 
 occupies the place of faith in the orthodox doctrine, 
 and faith becomes identical with obedience ; for 
 repentance and reformation are regarded as but the 
 two sides of the same act of the will. It follows 
 from this that justification is of works as well as 
 reconciliation. A necessity for the sufferings of 
 Christ is shewn for the following objects— that He 
 might become our example ; better lifted to render 
 us help ; that we might have a pledge and guarantee 
 of the Divine forgiveness; and as conditioning His 
 resurrection and ascensio 
 
 We must now hasten to the form of this doctrine 
 among ' Modern Calvinists,' without attempting fur- 
 ther to exhibit the links in the chain of its historic 
 connection. ' Modern Calvinism' represents the A. as 
 that satisfaction for sin which was rendered to God. in 
 His public character as moral governor of the world, 
 1 y the peril et obedience unto death of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ. The nature of this satisfaction was a moral, 
 not a pecuniary satisfaction. It preserves to the 
 moral government of God its authority, whilst its 
 tendency is to secure the forgiveness of sin. The 
 value of the BuflB rim • Christ consists in their 
 tendency to uphold the Divine moral government
 
 ATONEMENT, 
 
 unimpaired whilst pardon is extended to those who 
 
 i than in their intrinsic 
 lence, which, though essentia] 1", did not constitute 
 
 thnr value-, i i a moral necessity for < : 
 
 Bufferings and death ob taclea to the be towment 
 of pardon had to be removed— the influence of 
 the Holy spirit had to bi cored. The whole 
 contents of Christ's earthly existence, ami 
 both His active and passive obedience a distinction 
 which is unsupported by the word of God must be 
 
 led as i tributing to the A. which lit- made. 
 
 Oi the actual Bufferings of Chris! immediately attend- 
 ing His death, it would be unpardonable to speak 
 with confidence, so little has been revealed. It may. 
 however.be considered — whether the Savioi 
 privation of His Father's countenance may not have 
 been indirectly caused rather by His awful and afflict- 
 ing sense of the evil of sin, than otherwise'.' 
 the 'Extent' of the A., there i< a broad distinction 
 to be made between the stiff the A., and 
 
 its efficiency. It may be true thai Jehovah did not 
 intend to exercise that influence of the Holy Spirit 
 upon all which i- necessary to secure 1 1 1 ■ - Balvation 
 of any one, but as the A. was to become the 
 basis of ril government, it WS I I hat it 
 
 should he one oi infinite worth, and so m itself ade- 
 quate to the salvation of all S e, on this poinl "i 
 Extent' of the A., the art. Ej . I'inii- 
 
 i i i si: and I'mvkks.U.. 
 
 in ' represents the modified view of the 
 doctrine as advocated by 1 >r Payne, and as held, in 
 all essential by such men as Pye Smith 
 
 and WardlaW, which in its earlier form, and as found 
 in the writings of Owen and Edwards, maintains 
 that the A. was made only for the elect ; and 
 that its necessity with respect to them arose out of 
 the et.inal justice Of I oid. which required that every 
 
 individual should receive bis i t;a id, conse- 
 
 quently, that the sufferings of Christ 
 endurance of punishment equivalent in amount of 
 Buffering, if not identical in nature as Owen main- 
 tains — with that to which the elect were exposed; 
 
 and, moreover, that the mentor b dience of 
 
 Christ in fulfilling the law, imputes a righteoune - 
 
 to those for whom the A. secures salvation, which 
 
 ivea them a chum to the reward of righteousness. 
 
 Our space will not allow us to present to the 
 reader tic various forms which this doctrine is made 
 i i in the philosophic theologj ol Germany 
 
 from Kant to the present time. See N i 
 We must, therefore, confine 
 
 sentati i those views of the doctrine advocated 
 
 by our own countrymen in our own time, which may 
 fairly represent the present state of opinion with 
 respect to this fundamental doctrine. 
 
 Let us begin with the view of modern I'nita- 
 rianism, which may very clearly and fairly he pre- 
 sented in the words of one of its most able living 
 advocates, the Rev. Professor John .hum < Tayler: 
 "•There is one mediator between (led and men, 
 the man Christ Jesus." This can only refer to 
 unrivalled pre-eminence, not to exclusive function. 
 For all higher minds do, in fact, mediate between 
 their less gifted fellow-creatures and the great 
 s of the invisible world. This "owe" is 
 a human mediator, "the man Christ Jesus" — not 
 a being from another sphere an angel or a God — but 
 a brother from the bosom of our own human family. 
 •• lh gave himself a ransom for all" who embrace 
 His oilers and will hearken to His voice. He brings 
 from (oid a general summons to repent; and with 
 that He conveys, through faith, a spiritual power to 
 shake off the bondage of sin. and put on the freedom 
 of a new heart and a new life. He is a deliverer 
 from the power of sin and the fear of death. This 
 is the end of His mediation. This is the redemption 
 53i 
 
 of which He paid the price. His death, cheerfully 
 met in the inevitable sequence of faithful duty, was 
 
 only one among many links in the chain of in tru- 
 
 mentalities by which that deliverance was effected. 
 
 It was a proof such as could be given in no other 
 
 way, of trust in God and immortality, of fidelity 
 
 to duty, and of love for mankind. In those who 
 
 ; : v contemplated it, and saw all that it 
 
 implied, it awoke a tender res] Be of gratitude and 
 
 confidence, which softened the obdurate hear! 
 opined it, to serious impressions and the quickening 
 es of a religious spirit. 1 
 Professor Jowett advocates an opinion peculiarly 
 his own, if, indeed, language so confessedly vague 
 and indefinite can be said to embody an opinion. 
 It is this : ' that the only sacrifice, A., or satisfaction 
 with which the Christian has to do, is a moral and 
 spiritual one ; not the pouring out of blood upon the 
 earth, but the living sacrifice "todothy wilLO God;" 
 in which the believer has part as well as his Lord ; 
 about the meaning of which there can be no more 
 question in our day than there (Vaa in the Si I ages.' 
 — ' Heathen and Jewish sacrifices rather shew us 
 what the sacrifice of Christ was not) than what it 
 
 was. They are the dim, vague, rude, almost bar- 
 barous expression of that want in human nature 
 which has received satisfaction in Him only. Men 
 are afraid of Something ; they wish to give away 
 something ; they feel themselves bound by some- 
 thing ; the fear is done away, the gift "tiered, the 
 obligation fulfilled in Christ. Such fears and 
 can no more occupy their soids ; they are free to 
 had a better life; they are at the end of the old 
 world, and at the beginning of a new one.' -The 
 work of Christ is set forth in Scripture under many 
 different figures, lest we should rest in one only. 
 His death, for instance, is described as a Hansom. 
 It is not that God needs some payment before 
 He will set the captives free. Hansom is deliver- 
 ance to the captive. 'Whosoever committeth sin 
 is the servant of sin.' Christ delivers froi 
 'If the Son shall make you free, ye shall be free 
 indeed.' To whom? for what was the ran om 
 paid ? are questions about which Scripture is silent, 
 to which reason refuses to answer. 
 
 A remarkably original work has been i i 
 within the last few years by the low John M'Leod 
 Campbell on the subject of the Atonement. Sis 
 views are as follows : The work of the Son of Cod, 
 who came to do and did the will of His Father, 
 must, in view of the deliverance which He wrought, 
 irdcd as twofold : first, as dealing with man 
 on behalf of God, and second, as dealing with Cod 
 on behalf of man. 
 
 In dealing with man on behalf of God, Christ 
 I d to us the Father in His relation to a sinful 
 world, shewed us what our sins were to God, vindi- 
 cated in the world the father's name, and witni I 
 to the excellency of that will against which we were 
 rebelling. In thus revealing the will of the Father 
 towards sinful men, He necessarily became a man of 
 sorrow and suffering, but these arose naturally out of 
 wdiat He was, and the relation in which He stood to 
 those for whom He suffered ; and to the holiness 
 and love of His very nature must we refer their 
 awful intensity and immeasurable amount. He 
 suffered what He suffered just through seeing sin 
 and sinners with Cod's eyes, and feeling in refer- 
 ence to them with God's heart. By what Eesuffi red, 
 He condemned sin, and revealed the wrath of God 
 against it. His holiness and love taking the form 
 of suffering, compose the very essence and adequacy 
 of His sacrifice for sin. 
 
 Again, in dealing with God on behalf of man, tiro 
 oneness of mind with the Father which towards man 
 took the form of condemnation of sin, became in
 
 ATONLMEXT. 
 
 His dealing with the Father in relation to us a 
 perfect confession of our sins, which was a perfect 
 Amen in humanity to the judgment of God on the 
 sin of man. Such an Amen was due in the truth of 
 all things, due on out behalf, though we could not 
 render it, due from Him as in our nature and 'un- 
 true brother. II'- who was the truth, could not 
 be in humanity and not ntter it ; and it wag 
 necessarily a first step in dealing with the Father "ii 
 our behalf. This confession of our sins by Hin 
 as the Son of God and the son of man in one person, 
 could perfectly real vl "f man's alienation, 
 
 was a peculiar development of the holy sorrow in 
 which He bore tl:.- burden of our sins; and which, 
 like His sufferings in confessing His Father before 
 men, had a severity and intensity of its own. But 
 apart from t ; sent in that com 
 
 humanity o! I 
 to the divine condemnation of sin, is necessarily con- 
 ditioned by the reception of the full a] 
 and realisation of the wrath of G I as of 
 
 the sin which it comes forth into His soul 
 
 ami spirit, into the bosom of the divine humanity. 
 and, so receiving it, He responds to it with a perfect 
 ■-, and in that perfect response He absorbs it. 
 For that response has all the elements of a perfect 
 repentance in humanity, for all the sin of man — a 
 perfect sorrow — a perfect contrition — all the ele- 
 ments of such a repentance, and that in absolute 
 perfection ; all — excepting the personal consciousness 
 of sin — and by that perfect response or amen to thi 
 mind of God, in relation to sin, is the wrath of God 
 rightly met, and that is awarded to divine justice 
 which is its due, and could alone satisfy it. 
 
 This confession of the world's sin by the Head and 
 Represi ntative of humanity, was followed up by His 
 intercession as a part of the full response of the 
 mind of the Son to the mind of the Father — a part of 
 that utterance in humanity which propitiated the 
 mercy by the righteous way in which it laid 
 hold of the hope for man which was in God. ' He 
 bore tin-- sins of many, and made intercession for 
 sors.' 
 
 The Eev. F. D. Maurice professes to hold a purely 
 biblical theology, as opposed to the theologies of con- 
 sciousness, which he repudiates. His doctrine of the 
 A. is the answer which the Bible gives to the demands 
 of a sin-smitten consciei nner requires, and 
 
 is content to be told on the authority of Scripture, 
 that the Son of God has taken away sin. Una 
 in God is the gospel for all men. The 
 sinner wants to 1 I that God has spoken, 
 
 I fe has declared Himself the Reconciler, and 
 ^ to be shewn how and in whom He has 
 accomplished that work on his behalf. 
 
 To this question Sow and in whom the work of 
 reconciliation has been accomplished?— Mr Maurice 
 . in effect and almost in words as follows: The 
 will of God is Bet forth in the Bil ' til a will 
 whieh is good to all, and the ground of all that is 
 right, true, just, and gracious ; that it also sets forth 
 tie- Son fi <■"'! as being cue in will. purp.. 
 substance with tin- Father, and that His who 
 on earth was an exhibition of. and itoHis 
 
 Father's will; that the Son of God was 1. 
 nun, the Root and Bead of humanity, and the source 
 of all light and righteousness in man: that being 
 thus one with God and one with man. He brought 
 tin- will of God into our nature, fulfilled it in our 
 nature perfectly, and carried it down into the lowest 
 condition into which it had fallen through sin; that 
 111 the fulfilment of this will iu our nature, as its 
 head, I 1 gs, enduring that wrath, 
 
 or punishment, which proceeded from Holy Love, 
 thus realising, on the one hand, the SOU "1 the world, 
 and on the other, tin- consuming fury of the holiness 
 
 of the love of God — with an anguish which only a 
 perfectly pure ami holy Being, who is also a perfectly 
 sympathising and grace i an feel: that the 
 
 ' iu-ist Jesus was for ti tiie object of 
 
 ' hi r's continual complacency — a complacency 
 fully drawn out by tie death of the cross— which so 
 
 out to view the uttermost 
 of self-sacrifice which lay hidden in the divine 
 and consequently that He exhibited humanity, in its 
 atoned for. reconciled. In tins way, to Mr 
 Maurice, is < Ihrist -th'- Lamb of God, which taketh 
 away the sin of the world.' 
 
 Finally. Dr Trench, who maybe regarded as fairly 
 representing the prevalent views of th,- 
 and thoughtful men of tie- present day holding ortho- 
 
 linions, speaks as follows : ' 'lie- pirit o 
 cries out for something deeper than repentance, con- 
 . amendment of life; something which 
 shall reach further back ; which shall not be clogged 
 with sinful infirmities, as his own repentance ( 
 the very best must be. Men cry for some work to rest 
 upon, which shall not be their work, but which shall 
 be God's ; perfect, coin: I y feel that there 
 
 must be something which God has wrought, not so 
 much in them as./-//- then, : they yearn for this, for 
 A., propitiation, ransom, and conscience purged from 
 ■ lead works by the blood of sprinkling; a rock to 
 flee to which is higher than they, than their I 
 ance, than their faith, than , even 
 
 than their new life in the spirit. New, this rock is 
 Christ ; and John the Baptist point 1 to this rock, 
 when, to those about him who longed after more than 
 amendment of life, he exclaimed, in the memorable 
 words : "Behold the Lamb of Cod which taketh 
 away the sin of the world." ' 
 
 Christ's sacrifice was vicarious — He died not 
 merely for the good of, but in the room and in the 
 stead of others, tasted death for them. He did'this 
 of His own free will. He saw that nothing else 
 wotdd overcome their sinful perversity and wilful 
 obduracy, and that this would be effectual to d 
 
 Christ t""k upon Himself the penalties of a sinful 
 world, and His self-sacrifice is only not righteous, 
 because it is so much better than righteous, Because 
 it moves in that higher region where law is no more 
 known, but only known no more because it is 
 transfigured into love. Vicarious suffering is the 
 law and condition of all highest nobleness in the 
 world. It is this which God is continually demand- 
 's 'proving theme '■• - lliselect 
 as they freely own themselves tie of love 
 to the last penny of the requirements which it 
 
 But the sufferings and death of Christ were not 
 merely vicarious, they were a!- i ; And 
 
 thus atoning or setting tit one, bringing together the 
 Holy and the unholy, who could not have been 
 reconciled in any other way. It is not maintained 
 that God could have pleasure in the sufferings of 
 the innocent and the holy, and that innocent and 
 "holy His own Son; but only that He must have 
 the hi_ uv in the love, the patience, the 
 
 those Bofl Him the 
 
 opportunity o ng, which but for those He 
 
 never could have displayed. I sublime 
 
 the will of God permitted the Father 
 to say, ' 1 have found a ransom.' Christ satisfied 
 herein, no; the divine anger, but the divine craving 
 and yearning after a p rfi t holin isness, 
 
 and obedience in man; which craving no man had 
 satisfied, but all h 
 
 The read further and fuller infor- 
 
 mation on this so' following works, which 
 
 have been consult el and used in the preparation 
 of this article : I "i der 
 
 i Base's ' index's 
 
 M.1
 
 ATRATO-ATTACHM EXT. 
 
 Christliche DogmengescJiicJde ; Gieseler's Lehrbuch 
 der Dogmengeschiclile ; Hagenbach's Lehrbuch </• r 
 Dogmengeschichte, vicrte Aufiage; Calvin's Inti 
 of Oie < ion; Edwards, Ooi 
 
 Necessity and Reasonableness of the I ' letrine 
 
 of Satisfaction for Sin ; Owen's Death of D> 
 the Death of Christ, and Of the Death 
 Payne's Lectures on Divine Sovereignly; Oh.il 
 Institutes of Theology : Wanllaw's Systematic 
 logy; Campbell's (.Mm M'Leod) Nature of the 
 Atonement, &c. ; Taylor's (J. J.) < ' 
 Faitii and Duly (Discourse on 'Christ the Med: 
 Maurice's Theological Essays; Jowett's St I 
 
 .first and 8 nd editions (Article 'On 
 
 ment and Satisfaction'); Trench's Five Set 
 (sermon on ' Christ the Lamb of God '). 
 
 ATRA'TO, a river of New Granada, more import- 
 ant from its position than from its magnitude. It 
 has already been mentioned under the head oi 
 America in connection with the scheme of opening 
 a communication by water between the Atlantic and 
 the Pacific. 
 
 The main stream falls into the Gulf of Darien by 
 9 mouths— the quantity of water, from the almost 
 daily rains, being large in proportion to th 
 drained, which does not, at the utmost, exceed 300 
 miles by 75. Of the 9 mouths, the third in rank, 
 the Boca Coquito, appears to offer the most avail- 
 able facilities for improving the navigation. About 
 220 miles above this entrance, opposite to Quibdo, 
 the A is 850 feet wide and S feet deep at the shal- 
 lowest parts, while the entire fall to the sea a\ 
 less than 3 inches to a mile. Unfortunately, bow- 
 ever, the A. itself cannot advantageously be followed 
 thus far, because, as one advances to the 
 the intervening ridge to the west, and its streams 
 towards the Pacific become less and less practicable. 
 
 But a comparatively convenient route has been 
 surveyed through the munificence of Mr P. M. 
 Kelley, a private citizen of New York. Ascending 
 the Boca Coquito as before, this route leaves the 
 main stream at a distance of 63 miles from the sea, 
 following the Truando, one of its western affluents, 
 for 36 miles more without impediment or interrup- 
 tion. From this point on the Truando to the Pacific 
 there would still remain 32 miles ; and it is only on 
 this section that any serious difficulties would be 
 found. The heaviest work woidd be a tunnel of 3} 
 mdes in length. According to the plan, the canal 
 would be without a lock; and its termini would 
 require but little improvement to render them excel- 
 lent harbours. 
 
 Thus would the A. realise the destiny which 
 Humboldt chalked out for it upwards of 50 years 
 ago. 
 
 ATRI'P. An anchor is said to be A. when it is 
 just drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular 
 direction. A top-sail is A. when it is just started 
 from the cap. 
 
 A'TRIPLEX. See Cuexopodiace-E andORACHE. 
 
 A'TRIUM, in Roman Architecture, was the 
 covered court or entrance-hall which formed the 
 chief part of a Roman house. It was lighted from 
 the roof, which sloped towards an opening in the 
 centre (the compluvium), through which the rain- 
 water flowed into a kind of cistern situated on the 
 floor [iheimpluvium). On both sides, passages led to 
 the several chambers. Its size was in proportion to the 
 other parts of the house. After the burning of 1 tome 
 in the reign of X'ero, great attention was paid to the 
 decorations of the entrance-halls or Atria. Here 
 the female slaves were engaged in weaving and other 
 domestic occupations, under the superintendence of 
 their mistress. Family pictures were preserved in 
 the A, it also contained the nuptial couch, and it 
 
 634 
 
 served as a general waiting-room for visitors and 
 
 The Atria of tho temples were used as 
 
 places of assembly of tho senators, and for other 
 
 public meetings. 
 
 A'TROPA. See Belladonna. 
 
 ATROPHY (Gi •. want of nourishment ; 
 
 from a, irishment) is a morbid 
 
 animal or vegetable life, residting in 
 
 at nutrition of the body, or part of the body, 
 
 and B consequent decay and waste of its substance. 
 
 not applied to the mere withholding 
 
 the requisite supply of nutriment, but to the condi- 
 
 by various diseases that affect tho 
 
 body. See Nutrition, also Digestion, Dyspepsia, 
 
 .TROPHY. 
 A'TRYPA, a genus of fossil brachiopod or lamp 
 shells, having a close resemblance to the well-known 
 Terebratuta. It possessed a perforation for the pas- 
 sage of the peduncle, by which the animal attached 
 to foreign bodies. This foramen is not visible 
 in all examples of the same species, from the beak 
 touching and overlying the umbo of the other valve ; 
 the animal was, therefore, probably free dm 
 portion of its existence. The name (derived from a, 
 it, and trypa, foramen) was given to this genus 
 by Dalman, as he erroneously supposed that the 
 perforation was entirely absent. Judging from the 
 markings on the interior of the shell, the animal 
 seems to have differed little from the recent Rhyn- 
 conella, except that it had large calcareous spines 
 for the support of its labial I s. A. is a 
 
 strictly paleozoic brachiopod, the solitary Permian 
 species being the last representative of the genus. 
 Of the 17!) described species, 100 are Silurian, 56 
 Devonian, 22 Carboniferous, and 1 Permian. 
 
 ATTACHE (French), a subordinate or assistant. 
 The term is generally applied to young diplomatists 
 v ho accompany embassies. 
 
 ATTACHMENT is an English legal term, signi- 
 fying the form of process, by the authority of which 
 the person or the goods of a debtor may be seized in 
 satisfaction. As a proceeding against the person, it 
 is a species of criminal process, and has the force 
 of much that will be found under Apprehend 
 (q. v.) ; but in strictness, it means a process issuing 
 from a court of record against a person guilty 
 of a contempt, or, more properly, of a judcial con- 
 and who is punishable in a summary manner 
 court in whose presence, against whose autho- 
 rity. or against whose writ3 the contempt has been 
 overtly '• Thus, in Hawkins's Pleas of 
 
 I ,'. such contempts are thus classed : 
 
 1. Disobedience to the Queen's writs ; 2. Cont 
 in the face of a court ; 3. Contemptuous words or 
 writings concerning a court ; 4. Refusing to comply 
 with the ndes and awards of a court ; and 5. For- 
 gery of writs, or any other deceit tending to impose 
 on a court. Parties are also liable to the process of 
 A. as for a contempt of court where, in an arbitra- 
 tion (see Arbitration) the award having been made 
 a rule of court under the 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 15, 
 the parties refuse to obey the same. In Chancery, 
 there may be A. of the person for judicial default or 
 other offence to the court, as, for example, where a 
 defendant fails to put in his answer or proper plea 
 to the plaintiff's bill of complaint. The only other 
 process of A. against the person which it is necessary 
 here to notice, is the non-attendance in court of a 
 witness, who in such event is considered to have 
 committed a contempt of court, and to be liable to 
 be punished for such contempt by attachment. An 
 action may also be brought against such defaulting 
 witness at the suit of the aggrieved party, on 
 account of any loss or damage occasioned by the 
 non-attendance.
 
 ATTACHMENT— ATTAINDER. 
 
 The proceeding by A. of goods resembles in some 
 respects the Scotch diligence or process of arrest- 
 ment. See A i: i: Ivstm BUT. The best I I we can 
 give of it, in this sense, is th.it relating to the power 
 of a judgment creditor to recover under hi 
 ment. liy the 17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, it ii ]>i" id a 
 tli.it the judgment creditor may apply to the court or 
 a judge for a rule or order to have the debtor orally 
 examined as to the debt; owing to him by any third 
 party, or garnishee, as he is called (see Garnishee), 
 and also for an order that all such garnishee debts 
 be attached to answer the judgment debt, the 
 service of which order has the effect of binding or 
 attaching the debts in the garnishee's hands. 
 
 ATTACHMENT, Foreign. See Foreign 
 Attachment. 
 
 ATTA'CK, in military warfare, is an advance 
 upon the enemy, with a view of driving him from 
 rug position. It may cither be an attack in the open 
 field or an attack upon a fortress. 
 
 In an attack in the open field, the general first 
 ascertains the sin I position of the enemy, 
 
 by means of a reconnaissance or of spies. He then 
 seeks to discover at what point the enemy can make 
 the least resistance ; which is generally on one or 
 other flank. He next arranges to concentrate his 
 chief strength upon this particular point; and to 
 mask his real intention i Igned operations in 
 other places. He then attacks with energy and 
 force ; his troops advancing without halt till near 
 i no ' b to Use tni ir weapons with the greatest effect. 
 The more the attack has the character of a 'sur- 
 ! ,' the greater the probability of its success. In 
 order to make this success as much felt as possible, 
 and to be provided also against unforeseen disaster, 
 the attacking body shonld be followed at a distance 
 by a n erve; a neglect of this precaution has 
 frequently caused the entire failure of an attack. 
 Various forms have been devised for the attack ; but 
 generally the parallel or frontal is the one made use 
 of. Frederick the Great, however, won most of his 
 battles by the oblique attack, in which one wing is 
 more advanced than the other. The first Napoleon 
 fed, by means of his heavy columns, to pene- 
 trate and break up the enemy's centre. Another 
 mode combines an attack on one flank as well as 
 in front, by two separate corps ; so as either fco 
 into the enemy's rear, or to perplex him as to bis 
 retreat. A skilful general will he guided by circum- 
 stances in his selection among these several modes 
 of operating. An attack by night might act most 
 signally as a surprise; but as this requires a Very 
 exact knowledge of the ground, an attack at early 
 dawn is generally prefi m d. 
 
 The different arms of the service reml c 
 own kind of aid during an attack. First conic the 
 skirmishers, or perhaps whole battalions of light 
 and active troops, whose rifles or long-range 
 commence tile firing. Then come the main b 
 infantry in heavy column ; tliey halt within musket- 
 shot, lire, and charge with the bayonet— the skir- 
 mishers meanwhile deploying round to the rear of 
 the column, but holding themselves in readiness to 
 harass the enemy's flanks, English troops esp 
 
 excel in the attack by bayonet in line; but I 
 armies, for the most part, rely more upon the 
 
 momentum of a compact and heavy column in an 
 attack. There are positions in which the cavalry 
 attack, with its shock and the use of the sword, is 
 more efficacious than that of the infantry. The 
 troopers approach at a trot, break into a gallop at a 
 ace of one or two hundred paces from the enemy, 
 and endeavour by their weight and impetuosity to 
 force the enemy's line. There are many forms of 
 cavalry attack, according to the nature of the ground 
 
 and the position of the enemy. The artillery, work- 
 ing at a distance, often begin an attack long before 
 the infantry and cavalry can come up, hart 
 and con • enemy. At 80 
 
 distance, the artillery pour out shot and shell, and 
 
 try t<> silence tl lemy's guns, so as to make 
 
 way for the attack of the infantry ; while the 
 ■t -charge is being made, the artillery keep in 
 check tl dry. If the attack succeeds, 
 
 the infantry and artillery take up the ground 
 recently occupied by the enemy, leaving the cavalry 
 and riflemen to maintain a pursuit ; but if it fail, 
 the artillery and cavalry lake' up such positions as 
 will cover the retreat of the infantry. 
 
 In an attack upon a fortress, the operation is a 
 part of that of besieging (see Siege) ; but very 
 often intienchments are attacked in the open field. 
 Such, an attack has tho character of a surprise, 
 ■when the works are approached under cover of 
 and an attempt is made to break into them 
 on all sides. In such case, there is a reserve corps, 
 which is rapidly brought up when wanted ; but 
 the attacking corps retire behind the reserve, if 
 repulsed. Tho artillery post themselves on the pro- 
 longation of the line of works, and try to (bslodge 
 the enemy's guns and gunners; or pour a con- 
 centric lire sufficient to breach the works. The 
 infantry advance as close as will enable them to 
 fire upon the gunners. When the enemy's fire is 
 sdenccd, the engineers (under cover of the artil- 
 lery) proceed to remove palisades and all other 
 obstacles, and to bridge over ditches and openings. 
 Then follow the operations of the storming- p 
 analogous to those noticed under Assault. 
 
 ATTAI'NDER is the legal consequence of judg- 
 ment of death or outlawry, in respect of treason or 
 felony. It is said to have been derived from the 
 Latin word atlinclus, attaint, stained, and it is 
 followed by forfeiture of estate, i rsonal, 
 
 and by corruption of blood ; and generally it imports 
 the extinction of civil rights and capacities. Thus, 
 an attainted person cannot sue in a court of justice; 
 he loses all power over his property; and he is 
 by his A. rendered incapable of performing any 
 of the duties, or enjoying any of the privileges of 
 a free citizen. But absolute and severe as tli 
 sequences of A. seem to be, they have their limits, 
 lu regard to the attainted person, neither the govern- 
 ment nor the crown can exercise absolute or capri- 
 cious authority; everything must be don 
 to I al and constitutional principle and rule, and 
 for the ends of public justice alone. Formerly, an 
 attainted person could net give evidence in a court 
 of justice; but that disability in England has been 
 1 by the 6 and 7 Vict. c. S5, and in Scotland 
 by the 15 and 1G Vict, c. 27. 
 
 We have stated that the immediate consequences 
 of A. are forfi iture of estate and corruption of blood. 
 The forfeiture is of estate real ami personal ; tho 
 latter, indeed, maybe forfeited by mere conviction 
 alone, and without A., no sentence or jud 
 necessary to infer it, But A. is essential to the for- 
 feiture of real estate, as to which the most ! 
 A. occurs in treason, where the attainted man for- 
 feit; to the crown all his lands and freehold inherit- 
 ance, whether fee e-tail. and all his rights 
 of entry on lands and tenements of freehold tenure, 
 for ever vested in the crown : and also the 
 profits of all lands and tenements of freehold 1 nine 
 which lie had m his own right. This forfeiture' 
 ward to t' a com- 
 ! ; and yet il does not take effect unless there 
 be \.e. :, if a traitor dies before 
 judgment, or is killed in open rebellion, or is capi- 
 tally punished by martial law, the; A. operates no 
 forfeiture of lands, for he never was attainted of
 
 ATTAINDER— ATTKKTURV. 
 
 m. T.iit to this there is a curious exception 
 oned liy I'dackstonc viz., tli.it where the 
 
 chief-justice of the Court of Queen's Bench in p r- 
 tin' supreme coroner of all Rngland, upon the 
 
 view of the hoily of one killed ill op. n i. hellion, 
 records the fact, and returns the record into his nun 
 
 court, both lands and goods shall be forfeited. 
 
 A. tor felony involves the forfeiture of all chattel 
 interest absolutely, and the profits of all fie. -hoi. 1 
 estates during life; and hy A. for murd 
 hold lands of the offi ndi i held in fee-simple at 
 forfeited to the crown for a year and day. with 
 power to the crown of committing upon them what 
 
 ;i plea es, See Waste. This doctrine of year 
 
 and day, and VKLtU, applied, until recently, to anj 
 
 felony whatever, .• ■ i i ;eeption of tre; ion. But 
 
 now, by the 64 Geo. DDL c. 145, no A. for felon; 
 
 — except in the cases of treason or murder, or of 
 abetting, procuring, or counselling the same— shall 
 extend to tin- disinheritance of any heir, nor to the 
 prejudice of any pi rson othi c than the right or title 
 of the ull'ender himself during his own life. 
 
 The other consequence of A. — viz., corruption 
 of blood, is anxiously and learnedly treat 
 law-books, and in Blackstone's Commentaries j but 
 the ancient law on the subject has been so much 
 narrowed in its application by modern legislation as 
 to have lost much of its importance; and, indeed, 
 
 this doctrine of corruption of hi 1 was in modi rn 
 
 times always looked upon as a peculiar hardship, at 
 I as regards the family of the offender; and 
 now, by the statutes ~>l Geo. 111. c. 145, already 
 referred to, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 100, and 13 and 14 
 Vict. c. 00, whatever savoured of inhumanity or 
 harshness under the ancient system has been effec- 
 tually removed; in fact, it may be stated that, 
 excepting in the cases of treason and murder, the 
 law of corruption of blood, so far as the family of 
 the offender are concerned, has ceased to form pari 
 of the law. Besides A. by the operation of law as 
 al ove stated, there have been frequent in tances ol 
 attainders by express legislative enactment, as to 
 v, hich, see Bill ojj Ateaindj 
 
 The Scotch law of A., consequent on a conviction 
 for treason, corresponds to the English doctrine; and 
 although the word A. is not a Scotch technical term 
 in regard to crimes other than treason, the for- 
 feitures consequent on conviction and judgment are 
 very much the suae as the English. 
 
 ATTAI'NDEl!, Bui OP. See Bill op Att.ux- 
 
 ATTAI'XT, WRIT or, was anciently a mode of 
 inquiring whether a jury had given a false verdict, 
 which has been abolished hy the 4 Geo. IV. c. . r >i>. 
 A. is, however, still in use to some extent as a tech- 
 nical word in the law of England ; thus, there is 
 the plea of autrefois A., or of a former attaindi r, 
 for the same crime, and now regulated by the 7 and 
 8 Ceo. IV. o. 28, s. 4. 
 
 In the old Scotch criminal law. A., or altaynl, 
 signified a conviction, or being convicted. 
 
 ATTAEE'A, a genus of Palms, comprising a 
 number of species, natives of the tropical parts of 
 South Ann nea. They have in general lofty Cylin- 
 drical smooth stems, but there are some stemless 
 species. The leaves are huge and pinnate. The 
 fruit has a dry fibrous husk, enclosing a nut with 
 three cells and three Beeds. The leaves of some 
 species are much used for thatching, and those of 
 some are woven into hats, mats, &c. The nuts of 
 and of A. s/>eriiixa are burned to dry the 
 India-rubber obtained from the Sijilionia duxlini, 
 which acquires its black colour from their smoke. 
 The haf-stalks of A./unifera, which is found in the 
 southern maritime provinces of Brazil, and is there 
 636 
 
 called Piassaba, yield a fibre much used for cordage. 
 
 The ("Op II made of it are very strong, and extr.tii. ly 
 durable in salt water. The Piassaba palm of the 
 northern parts of Brazil, however, is totally differ- 
 ent, and much of the Piassaba (q. v.) fibre imp irted 
 into Britain is obtained from it. The fruit of A. 
 funifera, known hy the name of Coquilla mil. 
 
 as an ostrich's egg, and supplies a kind l 
 
 Lie ivory, used for making umbrella handles, 
 . The fruit of A. compta, the Pindova or Indaj.i 
 
 palm, is of the size of a i's i | '. and the I 
 
 are eatable. It is a stately and beautiful tree, with 
 
 a wide-spreading crown. 
 
 A'TTAR. See Otto. 
 
 ATTEMPT to commit a felony or criminal offence 
 is in many instances equally cognizable b; 
 nal tribunals with the completed crime itself. See 
 ii.i 1 ION, Fei.onv, Mi -hi nn 01 . 
 
 A'TTERBURV. Praui i . Bi bop of Rochester, 
 was born on the 6th of March 1662, at Milton, 
 near Newport PagneL. in r.uekinghamshire, and 
 educated at Westminsti c School, from which, in 
 L680, he passed to ( Ihrist I fhurch, < ixford. In 1GS7, 
 he gave proof of that ready controversial talent 
 which distinguished him through life, in a reply- 
 to a pseudonymous attack on Protestantism by 
 Obadinh Walker, master of University College, 
 Disappointed in his expectation of succeeding to his 
 father's rectory, in 1693, he sought a wider held 
 of distinction, tor ambition seems to have stimulated 
 
 his efforts rather more than the love of souls, and in 
 London his rhetorical [lowers soon won him reputa- 
 tion. He became a royal chaplain, minister of 
 |!r dewell, and l.-.-l hi. i' of Si liridc s. In 1698, a 
 temporary sensation was created in the learned 
 world by the appearance of the Hon. ( lharles Boj le'a 
 
 ination of Dr Bentley's Dissertations un the 
 . qf Pliaiaris and On FaUi ■ ■■ This 
 
 but shallow and malicious performance was 
 in reality composed chiefly by A., who had been the 
 young nobleman's tutor at Christ Church. In 1700 
 he di in. i'i '"d himself in a controversy witb Dr 
 Wake and others regarding the powers and privi- 
 [i of convocations. A.'s zealous and caustic 
 of the eccle is tical against the civil 
 authority, procured him the thanks of the lower 
 Souse oi ' onvocation, and the degree of D.D. 
 In 171M, he was promoted to the deanery of Carlisle, 
 on which occasion he subjected himself to just 
 obloquy by attempting to procure an alteration in 
 the date of his predecessor's resignation, which 
 happened to interpose a temporary obstacle to his 
 appointment, tn 1707 he was made a canon of 
 Exeter; in 1709, preached at the Rolls Chapel; ill 
 17 11 1 lie Was ell.. n proloentor to the lower House of 
 
 lation, and in the same year he had th 
 hand, according to the common belii E, in d 
 
 up the famous defi i ..." I >r Sacheverel] ; in 1712, he 
 
 became Dean of Christ Church, where, however, 
 his turbulent and combative spirit had meanwhile 
 involved him in bo many controversies, that there 
 was no peace until he was removed; in 1713, he 
 was made Bishop of Rochester and Dean of West- 
 minster. It is supposed, not unreasonably, that 
 
 lired to the primacy ; but the death of Qui en 
 Anne extinguished his hopes in that direction. His 
 known character and Jacobite leanings made him 
 no favourite with George I. In 171"> he n 
 to sign the bishops' declaration of fidelity, and 
 some of the most violent protests of the Peers 
 
 tb inment measures proceeded from 
 
 his reckless pen. His deep complicity in a suc- 
 
 if plots for the restoration of the .Stuarts, 
 
 brought down upon him at length the chai 
 treason, and, in August 1722, be was committed to
 
 ATTESTATION— ATT I! \. 
 
 the Tower. A bill of pains and penalties wa i brought 
 
 in tn tin' 1 1 "i E Commons, and passed in the I ,; 
 
 by a majority of 83 to 43. A., who had d 
 
 b If with great ability, was deprived of all bis 
 
 ecclesiastical offices, incapacitated from holding any 
 civil or spiritual office in the king's dominioi 
 condemned to perpetual banishment. There is no 
 doubt of the fact that A. was implicated in b 
 able plots, but the legal proof on which this a 
 was founded cannot be regarded as sufii ieni I i 
 justify its severity, ha June 1723, he quitted 
 England tor France, and after a short stay at 
 I ■ : i Is, finally settled in Paris, where he died, 
 February 15, 1732. in his i idle, he maintained o 
 mdence with hi-s friends, and took 
 an active part in the abortive conspiracies: of the 
 Jacobites. His fame as a writer is founded on his 
 sermons, and his letti i i to Pope, Swift, i c ; as a 
 letter-w riter, indeed, he has seldom been surpa I. 
 
 ATTESTATION, in conveyancing, is the verifi- 
 cation of the execution of deeds and wills by 
 witnesses; bene.- the clause at the end of these 
 ni i laments which immediately precedes the signa- 
 tures of the witnesses, is called the A. clause. See 
 DEEDS, Wilis, Witnesses. In the Scotch practice, 
 the corresponding clause is called the testing-clause. 
 See Testing-clavsi:. 
 
 A'TTIC, a term in Architecture, employed to 
 designate a low story rising above the cornice tint 
 terminates the main elevation of a building; in 
 domestic architecture, it is usually applied to sky- 
 lighted rooms in the roof. 
 
 A'TTICA, one of the political divisions or states 
 of Ancient Greece or Hellas, of which Athens was 
 the capital. The territory is of triangular shape, 
 having its north-east and south-west sides washi d by 
 the s"a, while on the north it is connected with the 
 mainland. In ancient times, it was bounded on the 
 VY. by Megaris and the Gulf of Saronica; on the 
 S., which ran out into the 'marble steep' of Sunium, 
 by the.l'.gcan Sea; on (lie K., by the iEgean Sea; and 
 on the N., by Bcootia, from which it is separated by 
 a lofty range of hills, the most famous part of which 
 was formerly called Citlueron. Ancient A. was thus 
 walled in from the rest of Greece. The two principal 
 rivers were the Cephissus and Ilissus; and if they 
 exhibited the same features in ancient times as they 
 do now, must have been mere mountain-torrents, dry 
 in summer. The unfruitfulness of the soil, and the 
 
 by of water, compelled the inhabitants occa- 
 .iMinMv to send out colonies. According to ancient 
 tradition, the Aborigines of A. were first civilised 
 under I lecrops, who is said to have come hither from 
 S.ns, at the mouth of the Nile iii Egypt, about 1550 
 B.C. ; and to have introduced the Culture of olives, and 
 of several species of grain, as also to have implanted 
 
 milder manners, and taught tin- WOrshi Hi 
 
 lie is stated to have divided the country into 12 
 communities or states. This, however, was not the 
 only division known in early A. A still older d 
 into phylai, or tribes, existed, a i also a minute 
 subdivision into demoi, or townships, By Theseus, 
 
 Alliens was united with the ■ s of A. 
 
 under one government, of which Athens was made 
 1;i. i at. After this union of the several stat, s, the 
 whole d \. shared in the fortune i of Athens (q. v.), 
 and, under Vi ipa ian, became a Roman province. On 
 tin- division nf the Etonian empire, A. naturally fell 
 into the hands of the Greek emperors. In 396 a.h., 
 il was captured by Alarie. king of the Goths. 
 What may have been its population La ancient 
 
 times, it is impossible to determine precisely. 
 
 Clinton estimates it at upwards of half a million, 
 but this is probably exaggerated. 
 
 At the present day, A., with Megaris and .E,ina. 
 
 forms a di partment or government in the kingdom 
 of Greece. The surface try is broken into 
 
 hills and narrow pi i t considerable hills 
 
 are— ti t; EIat6,4629; Pentelicna, famous 
 
 for its marble in ancient times, of a white brilliant 
 
 .-ad ji rdnrable i b Meter, 388-1 ; 
 Hymettus, 3506. The largest plains extend in the 
 
 neighbourh i of Athens and Eleusis. As early 
 
 as the time of Solon, A. was well cultivated, and 
 
 produced wine and coin. Mount llvimttus was 
 
 ted en- it - bee I and horn j , and m tals were 
 found in the range of Laurinm. Pi , olivi . ami 
 grapes are still cultivated. Goats and sheep find 
 Suitable e; but the country d>. 
 
 produce much grain. The modern population of A. 
 is S7,00O. See Leake on the J' 
 
 A'TTICUS, Tins PoMPONIUS, one of the most 
 aobli and generous men in ancient Home, was born 
 in 111!) B.C., or a few years before tin- birth ol I 
 His excellent education, during which h i 
 the companionship of Torquatu , theyoui 
 and Cicero, developed, at an early age, a love of 
 knowledge, which was increased during his stay in 
 Athens, where h- ri m lined many years, glad to be 
 separated from the political distractions of his native 
 land. After 65 B.C., when he was induced by Sulla 
 to return to Home, he still devoted himself i 
 to study and the pleasures of £ 
 to take any part in political affairs. Yet he was by 
 no means without influence on public m 
 lived on terms of familiar intercourse with 
 
 ; statesmen, and freely gave his counsel, which 
 was generally sound and wholesome, while it was 
 always benevolent. He was a man of great wealth, 
 having been left a large inheritance by Ins father and 
 his uncle, which he greatly increased by jud 
 mercantile speculations. His mode of life was frugal. 
 When he was informed that a disorder under which 
 he was labouring was mortal, he voluntarily si 
 himself, ami died in 32 B.C. Among his personal 
 friends, Cicero held the first place. The A n 
 written by A., were highly commended by his 
 contemporaries. They were especially valuable on 
 account of containing genealogical histories of the 
 old Etonian families. A. was one of those men (tut 
 uncommon either in ancient or modern timi 
 whom line culture and a fortunate social position had 
 highly developed the faculty of goo : I Ee bad 
 
 no creative genius, but was possessed of such di 
 that he could detect tin- Haw that ■ 
 have been invisible to Cicero, livery author was 
 anxious to secure his favourable opinion. None ol 
 his writings have been preserved. His biography is 
 found in Cornelius Nepos, and in Cicero's 7 
 to .1. 
 
 A'TTILA (Or. Etsd; Hungarian, Kih ' , conjec- 
 tured to have been originally titles of honour), king 
 Huns, was the BOO of '-Mmidzuk, a lluu of the 
 royal blood, and in 434 A.r>. succeeded his uncle 
 
 S i Chief Of countless hordes scattered over the 
 
 north of Asia and Europe, lb brother Bleda, or 
 
 r.l.idel, who shared with him the supreme authority 
 
 II the Huns, was put to death by A. in III or 
 
 • li;, ld. The Hun, re ardedA.with superstitious 
 
 ■ l t Ihristendom with superstitious dread, 
 
 as the 'Scourge of Cod.' It w 1 that 
 
 he was armed with a supernatural sword, which 
 
 belonged to the Scythian god of war. which must 
 
 win dominion over the whole world. It is not known 
 
 i tod 1 was tirst apt- 
 
 A. He is said to have received it from a hermit in 
 
 Caul. The whole race of Huns was regarded 
 same light. In an inscription at Aijiulcia. written 
 a short tune before tin' siege in 452, they are 
 described as iiumiiuntia pcecatorum JtagtUa tthe 
 
 3
 
 ATTOCK-ATTORNEYS. 
 
 threatening scourges of sinners). The Vandals, 
 Ostrogoths, Qepidse, and many of the Franks, 
 under his banner 1 , and in a short time his dominion 
 extended over the peoj rmany and Scythia 
 
 — i. e., from tlic frontiers of Gaul to those of ( lun a. 
 In 447, after his unsuccessful campaign in Persia 
 and Armenia, he advanced through Qlyria, and 
 devastated all the countries between the Black Sea 
 
 and the Mediterranean. Those inhabitants who 
 were not destroyed were compelled to follow in bis 
 train. The Emperor Theodosins collected an army 
 to oppose the inundation of the barbarians, but in 
 
 three bloody engagements fortune declari I 
 him. Constantinople owed its safety solely to its 
 fortifications and the ignorance of the enemy in 
 the art of besieging ; but Thrace, Macedon, and 
 Greece were overrun; seventy flouri 
 were desolated, and Theodoaius was compelled to 
 cede a portion of territory south of the Danub 
 to pay tribute to the conqueror, after treach 
 attempting to murder him. In 451, A. turned bis 
 course to the West, to invade Gaul, but was hi re 
 boldly confronted by Aetius, leader of the Roman . 
 and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, who compelled 
 him to raise the siege of Orleans. He then I 
 to Champagne, and in the wide plain of the Mam 
 — called anciently the Catalaunian Plain — wo 
 meet the enemy. The army of the \\ I, under 
 Aetius and Theodoric. i d tb c ■■.■• ;o In 
 
 Huns near the site now occupied by the city of 
 Chalons-sur-Marne. Both annus strove to obtain 
 
 the hill of 1 lerate height which rises mar Mury, 
 
 and commands the field of battle, and after a terrible 
 contest, the ranks of the Romans and their allies, 
 the Visigoths, wen- broken, A. now regarded victory 
 as certain, when the Gothic prince, Tliorismnnd, 
 immediately after his father had fallen, assumed the 
 command, and led on the brave Goths, wh 
 burning to avenge I i ' : ath of Theodoric. Their 
 charge from the height into the plain was irresistible. 
 On every side the Huns were routed, and A. with 
 difficulty escaped into his encampment. This, if old 
 historians are to be trusted, must have been the most 
 sanguinary battle ever fought in Europe; for it is 
 staled by contemporaries of A., that not less than 
 252,000 or 300,000 slain were left on the field. A., 
 having retired within bis camp of Wagons, collected 
 all the wooden shields, saddles, and other I 
 into avast funeral pile, resolving to die m the 
 rather than surrender; but by the advice of Aetius, 
 the Roman general, the Huns were allowed t I 
 without much further loss, though theywei i pur- 
 sued by the Franks as far as the Rhine. In the 
 following year, A. had recovered his strength, and 
 made another incursion into Italy, - 
 Aquileia, Milan, Radua, and other cities, and i 
 the terrified inhabitants into the Alps, Apennines, 
 and the lagoons of the Adriatic Sea, where they 
 founded Venice. The Roman emperor was hi 
 and Rome itself was saved from destruction only by 
 the personal mediation of Pope Leo I., who visited 
 
 the dreaded barbarian, and is said to have subd 1 
 
 his ferocity into awe by the apostolic majesty of his 
 mien. This deliverance was regarded as a miracle 
 by the affrighted Romans, and old chroniclers relate 
 that the apostles Peter and Raul visited the camp of 
 A., and changed his purpose. By 453, however 
 A. appears to have forgotten the visit of the two 
 beatitied apostles, for he made preparations for 
 another invasion of Italy, but died of haemorrl 
 the night of his marriage with the beautiful Qdiko. 
 His death spread consternation through the host 
 of the Huns. His followers cut themselves with 
 knives, shaved their heads, and prepared to celebrate 
 the funeral rites of their king. It is said that his 
 body was placed in three coffins — the first, of gold ; 
 538 
 
 the second, of silver; and the third, of iron; that 
 the caparison of his horses, with his arms and 
 ornaments, were buried with him ; and that all, the 
 
 i ; who were employed to make his grave were 
 death, so that none might betray the resting- 
 placo of the king of the Suns, 
 
 Jornandes describes A. as having the Mongolian 
 characteristics— low stature, a large head, with small, 
 brilliant deep-seated eyes, and broad shoulders. There 
 i an b - little doubt that circumstances conspired, in 
 the case of A., to give a certain largeness to his 
 barbaric conceptions, which made him a most 
 formidable foe to the civilisation of Europe. 
 
 A'TTOCK, a town and fort of the Punjab, on the 
 li Et or east bank of the Indus, Iat. .':.'! 64' X.. long, 
 7°.' W E. Rop. 2000. A. stands within the limil s 
 of the fort, which 13 itself a parallelogram of StIO 
 yards by 100. The place was established by the 
 Emperor Akbar in 15S1, to defend the passage of 
 the river. In modern warfare, however, it is no 
 longer a position of strength, being commanded by 
 the neighbouring heights. A tunnel under the 
 Indus at A. is in court i of construction. 
 
 The situation of A. is important, whether in a 
 commercial or in a military view. It is at the hi ad 
 of the steam-boat navigation of the [ndu . being 940 
 from its mouth ; while about 2 miles above 
 it, the Cabul River, the only considerable affluent 
 of the Indus from the west, is practicable for vessels 
 of 40 or 50 tons to a distance of 50 miles. The 
 valley, again, of this last-mentioned stream, present- 
 ing, as it does, the best approach to the east and 
 south from Central Asia, has been the route of 
 nearly all but the maritime invaders of India from 
 of Alexander the Great downwards. 
 Taxila, where the Macedonians crossed the Indus, 
 is supposed to have been the same as Attock. 
 
 ATTO'RXKY, in its general meaning, is one 
 appointed by another to act for him in his absence, 
 the authority for so acting being expressed by a deed 
 called a Rower of Attorney. 
 
 ATTO'RNEYS and SOLICITORS are those 
 legal practitioners who conduct litigation in courts 
 of justice, preparing the cause for the barristers, 
 or counsel, as they are called, whose duty and privi- 
 is to plead and argue on behalf of the con- 
 tending parties, and who in open court have its 
 exclusive audience. A. and S. also practise convcy- 
 , or the preparation of legal deeds and instra- 
 , and they manage a great deal of other general 
 business connected with the practice of the law, for 
 which, as well as for the discharge of all their duties, 
 they are highly remunerated by a lixed and liberal 
 scale of charge. Theirs is, indeed, an extremely 
 important, influential, and lucrative profession, and 
 the well-employed attorney, and the ' family solici- 
 tor,' are expressions which readily suggest the idea 
 of acute intelligence, along with comfort and affluent 
 means. 
 
 They are called A. as practitioners in the courts of 
 common law-, because the attorney is one wdio is 
 put in the place, stead, or tarn of another. Formerly, 
 when prosecuting or defending, suitors were obliged 
 to appear personally in court; but now, on principles 
 of convenience, A. may represent, and be made to 
 prosecute or defend any action or suit in the 
 absence of, the parties. They arc called' S. in the 
 Courts of Chancery, according theoretically to the 
 more gentle (but not less absolute) compulsion of 
 equity. S. also is the name usually given to this 
 profession when they transact family or other gene- 
 ral business out of court, and in their own chambers. 
 A. and S. are admitted by the superior courts, of 
 which, therefore, they are officers, having many 
 privileges as such, and they are, in consequence,
 
 ATTORNEYS AND SOLICITORS. 
 
 peculiarly subject to the censure and control of the 
 judges. 
 
 'J 1 1" statutes relating to this branch of the legal 
 profession being numerous and complicated, were 
 amended and consolidated by the G and 7 Vict. c. 73, 
 by which it is enacted that no person shall act as 
 an attorney or solicitor in any court of civil or crimi- 
 nal jurisdiction, or in any court of law or equity 
 in England or Wales, unless he shall have been 
 admitted, enrolled, and be otherwise duly que 
 according to the provisions of the act. And it baa 
 been decided that the person who acts as an attor- 
 ney without being properly qualified, is liable to be 
 indicted for a misdemeanour. There is an exception, 
 r, to the rule of admission as stated, con- 
 tained in a subsequent act, the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 101, 
 8. GS, which provides that clerks or other officers to 
 any board of guardians under the poor laws, may 
 commence or defend proceedings before magistrates, 
 in special or petty sessions, or out of sessions, with- 
 out being qualified as attorneys. And by the 20 
 ami 21 Vict. c. 39, facilities are afforded for the admis- 
 sion and enrolment in England of A. and S. of those 
 colonial courts where the English system prevails. 
 
 To entitlo a person to admission as an attorney 
 and solicitor under the above act, the G and 7 Vict. c. 
 73, it is required : 1st, That he shall have served 
 — having been duly bound by contract in writing so 
 to do — with some practising attorney or solicitor in 
 id or Wales, a clerkship Of live years; or — if 
 i ill have taken a degree, under such circum- 
 stances as in the act mentioned, at Caml 
 Oxford, Dublin, Durham, or London — a clerkship 
 of three ycar3 ; and 2d, That in addition and subse- 
 
 rutly to such service, he be examined by, or by 
 ection of, one or more of the judges at West- 
 minster, or (in the case of a solicitor) by the M 
 of the Rolls, touching his articles, sen-ice, fitness, 
 and capacity to act; and the judges (or Master of 
 the Boll i, as the case may be), upon being satisfied 
 by such examination, or by the certificates of ex- 
 aminers appointed by them, of the competency of 
 any candidate for admission, shall administer to him 
 Bitch oath OS specified in the act, viz., 'that he will 
 truly and honestly demean himself in practice,' and 
 also the oath of allegiance ; and after such oaths, 
 shall cause him to be admitted as an attorney of the 
 said courts of law at Westminster, or as solicitor 
 of the High Court of Chancery, as the case may be, 
 and his name to be enrolled as an attorney or soli- 
 citor of such courts. It is moreover enacted, that 
 there shall bo a registrar of A. and S., whose duty 
 it shall be to keep an alphabetical list or roll of 
 all A. and S., and to issue certificates as to persons 
 who have fa en duly admitted and enrolled; and the 
 duties of this office are by the act committed to the 
 ' Incorporated Law Society,' until some person shall 
 be appointed in their room. Such a certificate from 
 istrar, of due admission and enrolment, must 
 Luced to the proper authorities, by any person 
 desirous of pract : i attorney or solicitor, 
 
 i he can obtain the stamped certificate required 
 by the Stamp A.i 1. ."m< teo. III. c. 1S4, authorising him 
 tise lor the ensuing year ; and in order to 
 obtain such registrar's certificate, a declaration in 
 writing, signed l>y the attorn.. of practising, 
 
 or by his partner, or in Bome cas. s by bis London 
 . containing his name and address, the courts of 
 which he is an admitted attorney or solicitor, and 
 the date of his admission, must be delivered to the 
 registrar. And if any attorney or solicitor shall 
 practise in any of the courts aforesaid, without having 
 obtained a stamped certificate for the current year. 
 he shall be incapable of maintaining any ad 
 suit to recover his fees or disbursements for business 
 done under such circumstances. 
 
 The same statute also contains the following 
 regulations, among others of less general informa- 
 tion : That no attorney or solicitor shall have more 
 than two clerks, bound by contract in writing, at one 
 and the same time ; nor any such clerk after he shall 
 have left off business. That all persons admitted as A. 
 of one of the superior courts of law at V; 
 may, upon production of a certificate thereof, be 
 admitted in any other court of law in England or 
 , upon signing the roll of the same ; and 
 that persons admitted as S. in the High Court of 
 Chancery may in like manner obtain their admis- 
 sion in all other court3 of equity, and in the Court of 
 Bankruptcy. That no attorney or solicitor, who shall 
 be a prisoner in any jail or prison, may commence or 
 defend any action, suit, or prom eding in law, equity, 
 or bankruptcy ; or maintain any action for fe 
 business done during such his confinement ; and that 
 no practising attorney or solicitor shall be a justice of 
 the peace in England or Wales, except in counties or 
 towns corporate having justices by charter or other- 
 wise. And that no attorney or solicitor shall commence 
 an action or suit for his fees or charges in respect of 
 any business whatever, until after the expiration of 
 one calendar month after a bill of his costs and 
 charges, signed by such attorney or solicitor, shal 1 have 
 been delivered to the party to be charged ; and such 
 party may, on a proper application, obtain an order 
 lor referring such bill to be taxed ; and for staying 
 all proceedings to recover the amount thereof in the 
 meantime. An order may also be obtained directing 
 an attorney or solicitor to deliver his bill (when he 
 has not done so) ; and also an order for his delivering 
 up, upon payment of what is due, all deeds, papers, 
 and documents in his possession or power touching 
 the business in such bill comprised. It is provided, 
 however, that the act shall not extend to the exami- 
 nation, admission, rights, or privileges of any per- 
 son appointed to be solicitor to tl. .Cus- 
 toms, Excise, Post-office, Stamp-duties, or any other 
 branch of the revenue ; or to i uitor of the 
 city of London ; or the assistant of the council for 
 the affairs of the Admiralty or Navy j or the soli- 
 citor to the Board of Ordnance. (See Stephen's 
 Commentaries, vol. iii. p. 308, ct seq.) 
 
 The position of A. and S. in Ireland, like the system 
 of law and practice in that country generally, is so 
 like that of the same profession in England, that it is 
 unnecessary here to give any details respecting them. 
 
 The corresponding professional class in Scotland 
 is a numerous one, and of various qualities and 
 degrees. The chief and most privileged body among 
 them are tho Writers to tlie Signet (q.v.), who, 
 the Solicitors before the Supreme Courts, conduct 
 all the business before these tribunals, although tho 
 latter have not the privileges of the former, nor are 
 they so influential a body. They are both, how- 
 ever, on a footing of equality as practising A. or 
 S., or law-agents, as they are called in Scot- 
 land, and they arc both admitted by the Court of 
 Session, and have tho ei .lit of condu 
 
 legal business before that tribunal and the other 
 superior courts ; and they have facilities also for 
 practising before all the inferior courts of tho coun- 
 try. The provincial attorney class in Scotland are 
 variously denominated as writers and solicitors, tho 
 former being the more general name among them. 
 But in Aberdeen they have assumed the name of 
 advocates— a name, however, bywhich they must not 
 be confounded with the Faculty of Advocates at tho 
 Scotch bar. The Aberdeen advocate is neither moro 
 nor less than a country attorney. These provincial 
 Scotch practitioners are not admitted in that coun- 
 try by the superior courts, but by the various 
 sheriffs or county courts witliiu whoso jurisdiction 
 they practise their profession. 
 
 M
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL— ATWOOD'S MACHINE. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL, th-. title by -which, 
 in England and Inland, the first ministerial law- 
 officer of the crown is known. The A. is ap- 
 1 by letters patent. His office corresponds in 
 many respects to that of the Queen's Advocate in the 
 
 Court of Admiralty and of the Lord A d v< i -at ■ in Scot- 
 land (<i. v.). i i1 ] 'owers of the latter are more 
 extensive and less clearly defined. Originally, the 
 A. was simply the king's attorney, and stood to 
 ivereign in the sain" relation that any other 
 attorney does to his employer. The term " general ' 
 was afterwards conferred to distinguish him from 
 attorneys appointed to represent the interests of the 
 crown in particular courts, such as the Court of 
 Wards : or from the master of the crown ollicc, who 
 is called the ' • loroner and Attorney for the Q 
 The early history of this office is involved in obscu- 
 rity. Though there can be no doubt that the crown 
 must always have been represented by an at! 
 in the courts of jn re is no trace of the exist- 
 ence of such an officer as the A., in the modern 
 sense, till some centuries after the Conquest. Up to 
 a period comparatively recent, the king's a 
 was the chief executive officer of the crown in crimi- 
 nal proceedin . and thi circumstance gave rise to 
 various questions of difficulty as to the right to 
 precedency of these officers respectively. These 
 questions were set at rest in 1S11, by a special war- 
 rant by the then Priii . , afterwards King 
 George IV.. by which it was declared that both the 
 attorney and solicitor general should have place and 
 audience before all othi rs of the English 
 bar. A similar question arose in a Scotch i 
 in the House of Lords in 1 s.'lo, between the A. 
 and Lord Advocate, which was also decided, in 
 favour of the former. The following may be enume- 
 
 as the principal duties of the A. : I 
 exhibit informations and conduct prosecution 
 crimes which have a tendency to disturb the peace 
 of the state or endanger the constitution (see Fleas 
 of the Grown); 2d, To advise the government on 
 legal questions; .'id, To conduct i irosecutions and suits 
 relating to the revenue ; 4th, To lile informations in 
 the Exchequer for personal wrongs committed on 
 any of the possessions of the crown ; 5th, To protect 
 charitable endowments in the so-. 
 parens patriee, and, generally, t i app ar in all I 
 proceedings in which the interests of the crown are 
 at stake. The attorney and solicitor general are two 
 of the Commissioners of Patents (q. v.) ex i 
 The powers of the solicitor-general are CO-OP 
 with those of the A., and m the absence of the 
 latter, or during a vacancy, the former may perform 
 his functions in all their extent. Both must have 
 seats in the House of Commons, and their tenure of 
 ollicc concurs with that of the government of which 
 If not honourable by birth, tin y 
 are always knighted. 
 
 The duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall, and the 
 county palatine of Durham, have separate attorney- 
 generals. 
 
 ATTRACTION is the general name for the force 
 or forces by which all bodies, from the minutest 
 p articles to the largest planets, suns, and systems of 
 suns, tend to approach, or are drawn tow 
 traclus, drawn) one another, and when in contact, 
 are held together. The term is generic, ciubr 
 vast variety of facts, which arc subdivided under five 
 or species of A. These are — 1. Gravitation; 
 •_'. Cohesion; 3. Adhesion; '. Chemical Affinity; 
 5 The attractions of Electricity, Magnetism. <Vc. 
 See Gravitation-, CoriEsioy, &c. Attempts have 
 been made to deduce all those phenomena from one 
 principle of A., modified by an opposing force of 
 repulsion, but as yet without success. Still less 
 can they be explained by assuming only one force — 
 
 A. alone, or repulsion alone- for this, too, has been 
 attempted. The idea of an attractive force acting as 
 the bond of the universe was first introduced as a 
 seientil is by Newton, and was violently 
 
 combated by Leibnitz and others. 
 
 ATTRIBUTE, in the I'm ■ \il -, is a species of 
 
 . consisting of a secondary figure or object 
 
 accompanying the principal figure —as the trident of 
 
 Neptune, en- the owl of Minerva. Attributes serve 
 
 to mark the character meant, and add to tho 
 
 u I the ri p ii. The nee 
 
 of using them lies in the limited means of expression 
 p i ed by the formative arts. Attributes may ho 
 
 either essential or iventionaL Es ential attributes 
 
 rue real relation or resemblance to the object 
 or idea to be expressed ; and ar.- often such as could 
 
 alone as symbols — as the bee. n 
 ice. Attributes, in the strictest sense, and as 
 
 lushed from symbols, arc such as arc signifi- 
 cant only in connection with a figure, to which they 
 in a manner belong; e.g., the wings of genii, the 
 
 on the mouth of Harpoerates. The last is an 
 lie of an accidental or conventional A., of 
 
 kind are also the anchor, to express hope; 
 the cross, faith. Common attributes in Christian art 
 are — the harp for King David, and writing materials 
 for the evangelist ;, especially St John. 
 
 ATTRIBUTE, in Logic, is used to denote the 
 opposite of substance. The latter is considered to 
 be self-existent, while the former can only be 
 concived as possessing a dependent existence. 
 Attributes are commonly said to belong to sub- 
 stances. Thus, wisdom, holiness, g Iness, and truth 
 
 are termed attributes of God, who is Himself regarded 
 as the substance in which they inhere ; in the same 
 w ay, w hit ness is called an A. of snow. 
 
 A'TWOOD'S MACHINE, an instrument for 
 
 illustrating the relations of time, space, and velocity 
 in the motion of a body falling under the action of 
 gravity. It was invented by George Atwood or 
 Attwood, a mathematician of some eminence, who 
 was born in 17h~>. educated at Cambridge, became 
 fellow and tutor of Trinity College in that univer- 
 sity, published a few treatises on Mechanics and 
 Engineering, and died in 1807. It is found that a 
 body falling freely, passes through 10 feet in the 
 first second, 64 feet in the first two seconds, 144 feet 
 in the lirst three seconds, and so on. Now, as these 
 spaces are so large, we should require a machine 
 of impracticable size to illustrate the relations just 
 mentioned. The object of A. M. is to reduce the 
 scab- on which gravity acts without in any way 
 altering its essential features as an accelerating 
 force. Themachin essentially of a pulley, P 
 
 (see rig. 1), moving on its axis with very little 
 friction, with a fine silk cord passing over it, sus- 
 taining two equal cylindrical weights,/; and ;/, at its 
 extremities. The pulley rests on a square wooden 
 pillar, graduated on one side in feet and inches, 
 which can be placed in a vertical position by the 
 levelling-screws of the sole on which it stands. Two 
 
 . A and B, slide along the pillar, and can 
 be fixed at any part of it by means of lixn. screwB. 
 One of these stages, A, has a circular hole cut 
 into it, so as to allow the cylinder, p, to pass freely 
 t on ingh it ; the other is unbroken, and intercepts the 
 
 e of the weight, A series of smaller weights, 
 partly bar-shaped, partly circular, may be placed on 
 the cylinders in the way represented in rigs. 2 and 
 3.. A pendulum usually accompanies the machine, 
 to beat seconds of time. The weight of the cylin- 
 ders, p and g, being equal, they have no tendency to 
 rise or fall, but are reduced, as it were, to masses 
 without weight. When a bar is placed on p, the 
 motion that ensues is due only to the action of
 
 AUBE— AUBER. 
 
 Atwood's Machine. 
 
 gravity upon it, so that the motion of the whole 
 
 must be considerably dower than that of the bat 
 
 falling freely. Suppose, for 
 
 instance, that /> ani i 
 
 each 74 ounces in weight, 
 
 and that the bar is 1 . 
 
 the force acting on the sys- 
 tem — leaving the friction 
 and inertia of the pulley 
 out of account — would be 
 fa of gravity, or the whole 
 would move only 1 foot in 
 the first second, instead of 
 10. It the bar be left free 
 to fall, its weight or mov- 
 ing force would brin.: its 
 own mass through 10 feet 
 the first second ; but when 
 placed on p, this force is 
 exerted not only on the 
 mass of the liar, but on 
 that of p and </, which is 
 15 times greater, so that 
 it lias altogether 10 times 
 more matter in the second 
 case to move than in the 
 first, and must, in conse- 
 quence, move it 10 times 
 more slowly. By a proper 
 adjustment of weights, 
 the rate of motion may 
 be made as small as 
 we please, or we can 
 reduce the accelerating 
 force to any fraction of 
 gravity. Suppose the weights to be so adjusted 
 that under the moving force of the bar or circular 
 weight the whole moves through 1 inch in the first 
 Second, we may institute the following simple 
 experiments: Experiment 1. — Place the bar on ;>, 
 and put the two in such a position that the lower 
 surface of the bar shall be horizontally in the same 
 plane as the point of the seal', and lie the stage A 
 at 1 inch. When allowed to descend, tic' bar will 
 accompany the weight, p, during one second and 
 for 1 inch, when it will be arrested by the stage A, 
 after which ;. and g will continue to move from the 
 
 1 iituni they have acquired in passing through 
 
 the first inch. Their velocity will now lie found to 
 
 i be uniform, being 2 inches per second, lllus- 
 the principle that a falling body acquires, at 
 tic end of the first second, a velocity per second 
 equal to twice tlio space it has fallen through. 
 Exp. -■ — Take, instead of the bar, the <:■ 
 weight, place the bottom of /) in a line with tic 
 point, and put the stage B at 04 inches. Since the 
 weight accompanies )> throughout its fall, we have 
 in tins experiment the same conditions as in the 
 ordinary fall of a body. When let off, the bottom 
 of the cylinder, p, reaches I inch in 1 second, 4 
 
 in 2 seconds, 9 inches in :; seconds, 10 
 in 4 seconds, 25 inches in 5 seconds, 40 inches in 7 
 
 Is, and 01 inches and tic- stage in S seconds — 
 
 shewing that the spaces described are as the bo, 
 of the times. Exp. .'!. If the bar be placed as in 
 / 'tap, 1, and the st \i- fixed at 4 inches, the bar 
 will accompany the weight, p. during two seconds, 
 
 and the velocity acquired in that time by p and ;/ 
 will bo 4 inches per second, or twice what it was 
 lu the sane manner, if the stage A be 
 placed at 9, 10. 25, to. inches, the velocities acquired 
 in falling through these spaces would be respectively 
 C, 8, 10, &c. inches — two inches of velocity being 
 acquired in each second of the fall. From this it 
 is manifest that the force under which bodies fall is 
 a uniformly accelerating force — that is, adds equal 
 
 increments of velocity in equal times. By means 
 of the bar and the stage A, we are thus enabled to 
 remove the accelerating force from the ; 
 at any point of its fall, and then question it, as it 
 3 to the velocity it has acquired. 
 
 AUBE, the name of a river and a department of 
 France. The river A., a tributary of the Seine, rises 
 i'l.day, on the plateau of Langri ■ : Hows in a 
 north-west course by Rouvres, La Forte, Bar, and 
 Arcis ; and falls into the- Seine at Pont-snr • 
 after a course of 90 miles. — The department of A, 
 which occupies the southern part of tic- old province 
 of champagne, and a small portion of Burgui 
 bounded on the N. by the Marne ; on the 11 I 
 Haute-Marae ; on the s.W. by the ¥onne; and on 
 the N.W. by the Seine-et-Marne. The eastern part 
 s to the basin of thcA.: the w basin 
 
 of the Seine. Area, 2351 square miles. Pop. 261,673. 
 The climate is mild, moist, and changeable ; but on 
 the whole healthy. A great portion of tl. 
 is arable land. The north-east is chiefly applied 
 to pasturage; but the south-east is far more 
 fertile, rich in meadow-land and forest, and pro- 
 ducing grain, hemp, rape, hay, timber, and wine. 
 in minerals, the. department possesses little besides 
 limestone, marl, and potters' clay. The chief 
 manufactures are woollen cloth, cotton and linen 
 goods, ribbons and stockings, leather, parchment, 
 &c. The sausages and bacon of A. have long 
 famous. Troyes is the capital of the department. 
 
 AUBEXAS, a town in France', in the department 
 of Ardeche. It is picturesquely situated on the 
 right bank of the Ardeche, 14 miles south-west from 
 liivas, in the middle of the volcanic region of 
 Vivarais. It looks well from ad but the 
 
 streets, with the exception of one traversed by the 
 diligence, are narrow and crooked, the squares 
 and the houses very irregularly budt. An old and 
 rapidly decaying wall, flanked with towers, 
 the town, which contains an ancient castle. A. is the 
 principal mart for the sale of chestnuts and silk in 
 the department. Several important fairs are also 
 held here. It possesses in addition maud 
 silk, paper, cotton, coarse cloths, leather, &c, the 
 machinery of the mills being driven 1 ly water. I " - ■ j ■- 
 7410. 
 
 AUBER, Daniel Francois Esprit, a composer 
 of operas, was born at Caen in Normandy, January 
 29, 17S4. His father was a printaeller in I 
 and being desirous that his son should d 
 himself to business, he sent bim to London to acquire 
 a knowledge of the trade. Buthisirn dstiblep 1 
 for music obtained the upper-hand, a short 
 
 stay, he returned to Fans. A 1 
 positions may be noticed — the concertos for 
 violoncello, ascribed to Lamare tic I ; the 
 
 concerto for the violin, played by Mazas with 
 applause at the Conservatory ot Music, Paris; and 
 the comic op . with a modest accompani- 
 
 ment for two violins, two altos, and a bass. These 
 works Wei.' very successful ; but A., ospir 
 greater things, now devoted himself to a •. 
 study of music under Cherubim, and wrote a 
 for four voices. His next work, the opi 1.1 /. - 
 
 , (1 313), 1. red that A. 
 
 grew disheartened, and resolved to abandon the 
 idea of reaching eminence as a musical con 
 However, the death "f his father compelled him to 
 be dependent on his own resources; and in 1819 
 appeared /.. -dovx, which was 
 
 also unsuccessful; but in La J: IfetatM 
 
 he laid tho foundation of his subsequent fame. 
 In all these early essays, as well as in tho opera 
 of Emma (1821), be displayed an original style; 
 but afterwards he became an imitator of Rossini, 
 
 Ml
 
 ATTBIGNE— ATJBTJSSON. 
 
 one! disfigured his melodies with false decorations 
 
 nml strivings for effect All his later works, i 
 ing La Muette de Porliri (Masaniello), pr< 
 in 182S, are written with an assumed manni 
 l.ut in a li_ht and flowing style, with many 
 piquant melodies which have made the tour of 
 The operas Leicester (1S22), La Neige 
 (1823), Le Concert d la Com; and LSocadie (1824), 
 Le Macon (1825), Fiorclla (1S2G), LaFiancCe (1829), 
 Fra Diavolo (lS.'iO), were followed by a series of 
 lighter works: L'Flixir aV Amour, Le Dieu it la 
 Jiajadire, Lea Faux Monnayeurs, &c. ; the 
 
 cu le Bai Masavi, Le Lac det Fe\ 
 Le Chcvalde Bronze, Lc.i Diamante de la Couronne, 
 La Part du Viable, La Birene, and BTaydSe, exhibit- 
 in;,' the same popular qualities as their predecessors; 
 but their interest is evanescent, as they arc d 
 in d pth of thought an His later works 
 
 . re Jenny Bell (1855), and ifanon Leseaut (1S5C). 
 1 1! L842, A. w . ; appoinl ■■ i director of th C 
 tory of Music, Paris. (He died May II, 1871.) 
 
 AUBIGNE, Merle d\ See Merle d'Atoigite\ 
 
 ATJBIGNE, Theodore Agrtppa d', a famous 
 French scholar, was born on 8th February 1550, 
 near Pons in Saiutonge. At an early period, he 
 exhibited a remarkable talent for the acquisition of 
 1 uages. Although come of a noble family, he 
 inherited no wealth from his father, and conse- 
 quently chose the military profession. In 15G7, he 
 Qguished hims If by bis services to the Protest- 
 ant cause, and was subsequently rewarded bj 
 IV., who made him vice-admiral of Guienne and 
 Bretagne. 11m severe and inflexible character fre- 
 quently embroiled him with the court ; and al I 
 death of Henry, he betook himself to Geneva, where 
 he spent the remainder of his life in literary studies. 
 He died April 2'J, 1030. 
 
 His best known work is his Histoire Unirersclle, 
 1550— 1G01 (Amsterdam, 1616—1620), which had 
 the honour of being burned in .France by the common 
 hangman, as also his Ilistoire Secrete, terite par lui- 
 mSme (1721). A. was possessed of a spirit of biting 
 satire, as is proved by his Confession Catholique du 
 Sieurde Sancy, and his -4 ventures du Baron deFccneste. 
 
 AUBRY BE MONTBIDIER, a French knight 
 who lived in the times of Charles V., and, as tradi- 
 tion says, was assassinated in the forest of Bondy 
 by Bichard de Macaire in 1371. The latter became 
 suspected of the crime on account of the dog belong- 
 ing to the deceased Aubry invariably displaying 
 towards him the most unappeasable enm i I 
 was therefore required by the king to fight with 
 the animal in a judicial combat, which was fatal to 
 the murderer. This tale was afterwards, under the 
 titles of A uliry's Dog, The Wood of Bondy, The Dog 
 of Montargis, frequently acted, the ' dog ' always 
 gaining the greatest share of applause ! Alter being 
 performed with success at Vienna and Berlin, it was 
 appointed to be played at the Weimar Theatre, of 
 which Goethe was the manager; but the poet resigned 
 his office before the dog made his dibiU. 
 
 AU'BURN, the name of 23 places in the United 
 States. Of these, the most important is in the state 
 of New York, on the railway between Albany and 
 Buffalo. It is in lat. 42' 53' N., and long. 70 ' -10' W. 
 Bop. about 12,000. The outlet of Owasco Lake, 
 ■which is two or three miles to the north, flows 
 through the town, furnishing a water-power which 
 is employed in mills of various kinds, and in manu- 
 factures of wool, cotton, carpets, iron, and paper. 
 A. abounds in seminaries of education, but is 
 perhaps most widely known for its state prison. 
 The building itself is a large structure of stone ; 
 while the wall that encloses it is 30 feet high, and 
 500 long, on each of its four sides. The number 
 542 
 
 of convicts sometimes exceeds 600 ; and their I 
 
 is said to be generally equal to the expenses of the 
 
 establishment. 
 
 AUBUSSOX, I . grand master of tho 
 
 ordi r of St John of Jerusalem, was born in 1423 of 
 an ancient and noble French family. His early his- 
 tory is imperfectly known, but lie is said to have 
 borne arms, when very young, against the Turks in 
 
 ars in Hungary, and to have distinguished 
 himself by the mil ad valour he displayed. 
 
 Hire he acquired that intense antipathy to the 
 ' Infidels ' which subsequently animated his whole 
 public career, and gave a peculiar bis I to bis ambi- 
 tion. Having returned to France, he aocompan I 
 the dauphin in his expedition against the Swiss, and 
 was instrumental in securing their defeat at the 
 battle of St Jacob near Basle. His mind, however, 
 constantly reverted to the ominous encroachments 
 in the East of tho drea< 'nan, and at last 
 
 olved to betake himself to Rhodes, where he 
 d himself among the brotherhood of Christian 
 
 i ■!. Now, his history emerges into clear light, and 
 assumes a very considerable importance. He swept 
 the Levant, and chastised the pirates who prowled 
 perpetually among tho Greek isles, obtaining the 
 approbation and regard of the grand master. In 
 1458, by his ardour and address ho succeeded in 
 forming a kind of Christian league between tho 
 French monarch and Ladislaus, king of Hungary, 
 against Mohammed II. This was the great aim of 
 A.'s life, the ' idea' which continually possessed him 
 — viz., the necessity of a vast organisation of all 
 Christendom to overthrow the power of the Turks. 
 Step by step, through long years, he won his way to 
 supreme power in his order. In M70, he was elected 
 Grand Master. It was a critical period for the civi- 
 lisation and religion of Europe. Constantinople had 
 recently been taken and the Byzantine empire do- 
 I by Mohammed II. Every day the conqueror 
 marched further wi t. Thrace, Macedonia, Central 
 Greece, Servia, Wallanhia, Bosnia, Uegropont, Lesbos, 
 and the islands of tho Adriatic, had been succes- 
 sively conquered by him. Proud of his rapid glories, 
 and sustained by an immense prestige, the sultan 
 threatened to dictate terms from Bomo to the entire 
 West. Rhodes, however, stood in his way, the 
 sentinel isle of Christianity, on the great maritime 
 route between Asia and Europe. Mohammed saw 
 that the battle between the two faiths must begin 
 here ; and in May 1480. a Turkish army of 100,000 
 men, commanded by a Greek renegade, Pakeologos, 
 landed in the island, and commenced to besiege the 
 town. Two desperate assaults were made. The 
 Turks, however, were compelled to desist, and 
 sailed away, leaving 9000 dea I. Mohammed was 
 enraged, and planned a second expedition, which 
 was interrupted by his death at Nicomedeia in Asia 
 Minor, May 1481. After this, A. took a leading 
 part in the religious diplomacy of the papal court, 
 and received from the pontiff many honours and 
 privileges. Meanwhile, he exerted himself to impn ive 
 and strengthen the internal organisation of the 
 brotherhood, enriching the diplomatic code of his 
 order with several wise statutes and regulations 
 relative to the election of dignitaries, the finances, 
 &c., and exciting great admiration throughout 
 Christendom. In 1501, he was appointed general- 
 issimo of tho forces of the German emperor, the 
 French king, and the pope, against the Turks ; and 
 in spite of his great age, he enthusiastically entered 
 on his duties, and sailed to attack Mitylene ; but 
 the expedition failed on account of the discordant 
 aims which the various belligerents had in view. 
 Broken by disappointment and vexation, the grand 
 master returned, and died at Rhodes in July 1503, 
 at the age of 80.
 
 AUCH— AUCTION. 
 
 AUCH, the capital of the department of Gere, in 
 
 the south of France, situated on the river Gers, 42 
 
 miles west of Toulouse, lat. 43° 38' N., long. 0" 35' E. 
 
 gap. 7'J4-'. It is the seat of an archhishop, and 
 
 ,C3 a museum of natural science, together 
 
 with an old and beautiful cathedral, the painted 
 
 iws of which arc greatly admired. Its chief 
 
 re woollen and cotton stuffs, fruits, 
 
 wine, and brandy. 
 
 In ancient times, it was called EUmberis; and 
 at a somewhat later period took its name from the 
 Auscii, whose chief town it was. In the 8th c., it 
 became the capital of Gascony, and later, of the 
 county of Armaguac. 
 
 AUCHE'NIA (from the Gr. awhoi, the neck), a 
 genus of ruminating quadrupeds, of whieh the (Jama 
 | and the Alpaca (q.V.) are the best known. 
 The gcmi3 is ex* ! nth American; indeed, 
 
 the species occur only on the lofty ranges of the 
 Andes. They are nearly allied to the camels, and 
 1 as their representatives in the 
 They form, along with them, 
 the family Camdidm (see Camel), and were included 
 by Linmcus in the genus Camelus. They agree with 
 the camels in certain important anatomical charac- 
 ters, particularly in the structure of the stomach ; 
 and also resemble them very much in general form, 
 in the long neck, small head, prolonged and movable 
 upper lip, and small apertures of the nostrils. They 
 differ from them partly in dentition, and partly in 
 the more cloven feet and movable toes. The nails, 
 also, are stronger and curved, and each toe is sup- 
 ported behind' by a pad or cushion of its own ; 
 by all which the feet are admirably adapt 
 the rocky heights which the animals inhabit. Con- 
 siderable doubt exists as to the number of species 
 The Llama and the Vicugna (q. v.) are uni- 
 ty admitted to be distinct; but it is not so 
 certain that the Alpaca is more than a mere \ 
 of the llama, or that the Guanaco ('[.v.) or Huanaca 
 is not the llama in its wild Btate, although the 
 ration of M. d'Orbigny, who resided long in then- 
 native country, that in no circumstances do these 
 animals breed together, is of great importance with 
 
 nee to this question. As to the Hue; 
 Chilihueque — the Chilian sheep of some old authors 
 — perhaps too much dependence has been placed on 
 imperfect descriptions, aud further information would 
 seem to be requisite ere any place can be a 
 to it. — The genus A. is by some naturalists called 
 Llama. 
 
 AUCHTERA'EDEH, a Tillage in the south-cast 
 of Perthshire, on the west side of the S 
 Central Railway. Pop. (1S51) 2520, chiefly employed 
 in cotton-weaving. The popular opposition to the 
 presentee to the church of A. originated (1S39) the 
 struggle which ended in the secession from the 
 ( linreh of Scotland and the formation of the Free 
 Church in 1343. 
 
 AU'CKLAND, Bishop, a small town in the 
 middle of the county of Durham. Pop. (1851 
 It stands on an eminence, 140 feet above the plain 
 
 of the Wear. A. contains the abbey-like palace 
 
 of the Bishop of Durham. 
 
 AU'CKLAND, Lord, Wii.hvm Edbn, an able 
 statesman and diplomatist, third Bon of Sir Robert 
 Eden, Bart., of West Auckland, Durham, born in 
 17-H, educated at Eton and Oxford, and called to 
 the bar in 170S. In 177'-. he became I'nder-seere- 
 tary of State, and one of the directors of Greenwich 
 Hospital ; was chosen M.P. for Woodstock ; and in 
 March 1 77t> appointed a lord of trade. In 177 . 
 was nominated, with the Earl of Carlisle and 
 ' i nor Johnstone, a commissioner to treat with the 
 insurgent colonists of North America, but without 
 
 success. When the former was, in December 
 1780, named Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, he accom- 
 panied him as chief secretary, and remained there 
 till April 1782. Accredited in 1785 minister pleni- 
 potentiary to the court of France, he concluded a 
 commercial treaty with that country in September 
 and in the following August signed a conven- 
 tion for preventing disp d the subjects of 
 the two crowns iu the East Indies. In 178S, he 
 went as ambassador to Spain ; and on hi3 return 
 in Ootob 17 iras created an Irish peer as 
 Baron A. In 171)0 he was ai • i Holland, 
 
 and in .May 1703 was CI 
 
 1798 to 1801, lie was joint Postmaster-generaL He 
 
 died suddenly. May 2-i, 1814. A. was the author 
 of the /'/ tAe Penal Law (1771, 8vo); 
 
 Four Letters, addressed to the Earl of Carlisle, on 
 temporary political subjects (177!'i ; !,'■■ marks on t/ie 
 A ' War (1705); 8\ 
 
 on the Income-tax (1790); Speccft in Support of the 
 Union toitli Ireland (1800) ; and other pamphlets. 
 
 AU'CKLAND, Earl OF.GEor.cn Ede.v, Governor- 
 general of India, son of William Eden, Lord Auck- 
 land, born August 25, 17S4, was c the bar 
 in 1S09 ; succeeded his father in 1814 as Lord A. ; 
 and in November 1833 was appointed, in Ear] < 1 rev's 
 stration, President of the Board of Trade 
 and Master of the Mint. In July following, in 
 Viscount Melbourne's lirst mi 
 
 Lord of the Admiralty. He vacated that office in 
 November of the same year, but was appointed to 
 it again in 1S4G. In 1S35, he went out to India as 
 governor- general, on which occasion he was made a 
 Knight Grand Cross of the Bath; and in 1839 
 advanced a step in the peerage, being created Earl 
 of A. anl Baron Eden. He returned to England 
 in 1S-11, and in 1S43 was elected president of the 
 Asiatic Society. He died unmarried, January 1, 
 1S49, when the earldom became extinct, and the 
 barony of A. devolved on his brother, Robert John 
 Eden, born in 1S04; Bishop of Bath and Wells, 
 1S54. 
 
 AU'CKLAND, the capital of New Zealand, stand- 
 ing on the more northerly island in lat. 36" 50' S., 
 and long. 174° 50' E. A. was founded in 1S40, and by 
 1S56 it contained 7000 inhabitants. In 1S57. the 
 imports were £271,613, and the exports £', 
 Ships inwards were GO of 10,420 tons ; and outwards, 
 47 of S402. The native vessels register) d v. 
 averaging rather more than 20 tons each. The tem- 
 perature appears to be sin table. The 
 mean of the coldest month is' 51° P., and that of tho 
 warmest 08 . Annual depth of rain is 45J inches; 
 and the days with rain are 100. 
 
 AU'CKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands 
 to the south of New Zealand, being about the 51st 
 parallel S., and the 167th meridian" E. The largest 
 of them measures 30 miles by 15. It lias two good 
 harbours, and is covered with the I tation. 
 
 The A. I. arc valuable chietly as a wha! 
 
 Suence, as it were, of the 1'acilic 
 and Southern Oceans. 
 
 AU'CTION (Lat audio). The character of this 
 convenient mode of offering property for sale is 
 correctly indicated by the name. The Latin word 
 audio meaus 'an increasing or enhancement,' and 
 an A. is an arrangement tor increasing the price 
 by exciting competition amongst purchasers. What 
 is called a Dutdi Auction, in which the usual mode of 
 proceeding is reversed, the property King offered 
 at a higher price than the seller is willing to accept, 
 and gradna I till a purchaser is found, 
 
 is thu all in the original and | 
 
 sense of the ten.:. ; of Komai 
 
 is said to have been lirst introduced for the pi 
 
 113
 
 AUCTIONEER— AUDE. 
 
 of disposing of spoils taken in war. Soon A 
 said to take place .-»'' haM (under the spear), from 
 the custom of sticking a spear into tin- ground, 
 probably to attract purchasers to the spot "Condi- 
 
 oi Sale,' or -Articles of Roup, as they are 
 called in Scotland, constitute the terms on 
 the seller oilers his property, and form an in! 
 part of tho contract between seller and puri 
 
 contract is completed by the offer or b 
 on the part of the purchaser, and the acceptance 
 by the seller or his representative, which is formally 
 
 i by the fall of the auctioneer's oi 
 I mmer, the running of a Band-glass, the burning 
 i inch of candle (hence tin- term 'sale by the 
 caudle '), or any other means which may have 
 specified in the condition; of sale. These conditions 
 or articles ought further to narrate honestly and 
 fully the character of the object or the oa1 
 the ripht to bo transferred, to regulate the manner 
 of bidding, pre Bribe the order m which ■ 
 arc to be preferred, and to name a person who 
 
 skill be empowered to determine disputes between 
 
 bidders, and in cases of doubt to declare which is 
 the purchaser. Before the sale commences. I 
 conditions, which are executed on stamped paper, 
 are read over, or otherwise intimated to intending 
 purchasers. The conditions, thus published, < 
 be controlled by any verbal declaration by the 
 auctioneer. The implied conditions, which, in 
 addition to those thus expressed, are binding on 
 the seller and purchaser in all auctions, are : 1. That 
 the seller shall not attempt to raise the price by 
 means of fictitious offers, but shall fairly expose his 
 goods to the competition of purchasers ; and 2. That 
 the purchasers shall not combine to suppress com- 
 petition. Much doubt has arisen as to the lawful- 
 ness of biddings for the exposer. The exposer may 
 set a price below which the thing is not to be sold, 
 wh!.h is best and most openly done by fixing an 
 upset price, or he may expri ly: rve to h 
 a power to offer, 'lint if the sale is declared to 
 be without reserve, or at the pleasure of the com- 
 pany, the plain meaning and effect of this, even in 
 England, is held to be to bar all biddings in behalf 
 of the seller.' 'In Scotland, the law condemns 
 absolutely such interference.' 'It has been said, 
 that if there be no upset price, and no agree- 
 ment to sell at the pleasuro of the company, the 
 owner may bid, but that is not law, or is at least 
 too broadly laid down.' Bell's Commentariet, i. 97, 
 edit. 1S5S. The A. duties were repealed by 8 and 
 9 Vict. c. 15. 
 
 AUCTIONEE'R, the person who conducts an 
 auction (q. v.). The A. is in a certain sense the 
 agent both of seller and purchaser, and by the EaU 
 of his hammer, or by writing the purchaser's name 
 in his book, he binds him to accept the article 
 at the price indicated. The A. may also, and fre- 
 quently does, act as agent for absent purchasers, 
 or for persons who have instructed him to make 
 biddings for them during the sale. In both i 
 however, the purchaser must be bond fide, others ise 
 the A. would himself become a ' puffer.' As to the 
 circumstances in which he may bid foi 
 see Auction. Where the A. declines or omits to 
 disclose the siller's name, he undertakes his ri 
 sibilities to the purchasers. To the seller, again, 
 he is responsible for ordinary skill, assiduity, and 
 prudence. Every A. pays an annual duty of £10 to 
 government for Iris licence, which must be renewed 
 on the 5th July; though there are certain judicial 
 sales which may be conducted by bailiffs without 
 licence (see 19 Geo. III. c. 50, s. 3, and later Stamp 
 Acts). 
 
 AU'CUBA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 511 
 
 lit (q. v.), of which the only known I pi 
 I. ./,> onica, an evergreen shrub resembling a laurel, 
 but with dichotomous or vi n icillate yellow bran 
 and, as seen in Europe, always with pal' 
 
 curiously mottled with yellow. It is dioecious, 
 produces its small purple flowers in summer, and 
 ripens its fruit, a small red drupe, in .March. It is 
 a native of China and Japan, and was originally 
 Introduced into Britain as a stove-plant, but is 
 found to bo at least as hardy as the common 
 laurel, and is now a very common ornamental shrub, 
 especially in the suburbs of large towns, a sort of 
 ituation for which it i irly adapted, as it 
 
 isverj little liable to suffer injury from smoke. It 
 is often called the Variegated Laurel The mottled 
 appearance of the leaf is said, however, not to belong 
 
 to the plant in its ordinary natural state; but only 
 uii sty has yet been brought to Europe, and of 
 it only the female plant. 
 
 AUD^E'US, AuDi'rs (or, according to his native 
 Syriac name, Udo), the founder of a religious sect 
 in Mesopotamia, flourished during the 4th c. Ho 
 commenced by accusing the regular clergy of world- 
 liness, impure morals, &c, and is said to have 
 opposed to their manner of life a strict asceticism, 
 until his conduct seemed dangerous to the welfare 
 of tic church, when be was excommunicated. His 
 
 disciples, who were pretty numerous, now clung 
 more closely to him. and he wa el ot" 1 their 
 bishop. In 33S A.I'., he was banished to Seythia, 
 where he instituted a kind of rival church, and 
 
 ii died about 370 a. d. Our knowledge both 
 of his character and opinions is derived solely from 
 inimical authorities, such as Augustine, Athanasius, 
 &C, and is therefore to be accepted with caution. 
 But his labours amongst the tierce barbarians in the 
 
 i I, am acknowledged to have been beneficial, 
 
 and one writer, Epiph&nius, states that he ought to 
 be con id red schUmatical, but not h relieaL But if 
 
 I iding feature of his system wa is all 
 
 a dei ided tendency to anthropomorphism, we cannot 
 see — according to the principles upon which the 
 church usually proceeded why he should not have 
 
 called, lb- is said to have held that the 
 
 lani nage of the Old Testament justifies the belief 
 that God has a sensible form- a doctrine di 
 heretical in all ages of the church's history. This 
 particular tenet took firm hold on many minds, 
 and in the subsequent century, was widely spread 
 through the monasteries of Egypt. 
 
 AUDE (A (ax), a river in the south of France, 
 rises in the east Pyrenees, not far from Moot Louis ; 
 flows for some time parallel to the canal of Languedoc ; 
 and falls into the Mediterranean miles east-north- 
 e i. of Narbonne, after a course of more than 120 
 miles. 
 
 AUDE, a maritime department in the south of 
 France. It comprises some old ' counties ' which for- 
 iii, rly constituted a portion of the province of Langue- 
 doc. Pop. 282,833. Area, 2438 square miles. The 
 southern part of A. is mountainous, but the gl 
 portion of it belongs to the valley of the lower A. and 
 
 il innl of Languedoc. Its northern boundary is 
 
 formed by the Black Mountains, the most southerly 
 of the Cevennes. The coast is Hat, with no 
 bays or roadsteads, huts- vend lagunea The climate. 
 is warm, but variable. The mountains are compos, d 
 of granite, while the soil of the plains is chiefly 
 calcareous, and about tho coast— where salt and 
 soda are procured — is extremely fcrtde, producing 
 cereals, olives, fruits, and wines. A. is rich in iron 
 and coal, and mineral springs. The woollen and 
 silk manufactures are of considerable value. There 
 is liken ise a considerable export of corn, honey, &c. 
 The chief town is Carcassone.
 
 AUDEBERT— AUDITORY XERVE. 
 
 AUDEBERT, JeaM Baptistf, a distinguished 
 French naturalist, was born in 17">!> at Rochefort; 
 studied t ! • • • arts of de dgn and painting at Paris; ami 
 in *aily lift; attained a d< ice as a 
 
 miniature-painter. Indulging a predilection for the 
 study of natural history, ne was much employed by 
 naturalists in painting the more rare and beautiful 
 
 i in their collections. In 1800, after having 
 d England and Holland for the purpose of 
 making sketches, he published at Paris, on his own 
 account, a splendid volume, which raised him at once 
 to celebrity, both as a painter and author. This 
 work, tie- // 
 
 Qal 'opilh t- i Nat oral 1 1 ! tonkeys, 
 
 Lemurs, and Flying Lemurs), was a large folio, with 
 62 coloured plat , remarkable alike for their truth 
 and beauty. His nielli or-printing in oil, 
 
 which was then novel but now common, was to dis- 
 i M the colours on one p] 1 of using a 
 
 to plate for each colour. His use of gold and 
 
 I in the illustrations and letterpress was then 
 
 new as it is attractive. In his Hisloiri «k I 
 
 1 l ■ , et des 
 
 rops (Natural History of Humming-birds, 
 .lacunars, and Promeropses), he succeeded by the 
 same process in giving to his plates even a greater 
 brilliancy and finish. He died in 1S00. 
 
 AUDITOR. The name given to certain officers 
 appointed to examine accounts in behalf cither of 
 the government, of courts of law, of corporate 
 
 private persons. — Audit-office. In 1785 public 
 auditors were appointed, under the title of ' Commis- 
 sioners For Auditing the Public Accounts,' by25Geo. 
 1 1 1, e. 62, by which the patents of Lord Sondes and 
 Lord Mountstnart, as auditors of the *mj 
 were vacated, the sum of £7000 per annum being 
 made payable to each of them for life, in lieu of a 
 percentage which had been paid (hem on the 
 
 it of expenditure audited. Many BUDB 
 statutes have been passed for the purpose of extend- 
 ing and defining the duties of these commissioners, 
 and regulating the business of the audit-office. The 
 commissioners of audit are empowered to call on all 
 public accountants to account for moneys or stores 
 intrusted to them; and should they fail to do so, 
 are required to certify their names to the Remem- 
 of the] chequer, and the Attorney-general 
 of England or Inland, or the Lord Advocate of Scot- 
 land, in order that they may he proceeded against as 
 defaulters. These proceedings, however, may be 
 stayed for a time by the Lords of the Treasury, by 
 whom tli" whole arrangements of the audit-office are 
 controlled, on the application of the accused. The 
 
 its of the Ordnance, of the Army and Navy, 
 and the Land Revenue, are now subjected to exami- 
 nation in the audit-otliee. By 2 Will. IV. c. 99, the 
 •ns of the Commissioners of Public 
 Account in Ireland were transferred to the Commis- 
 sioners for Qreat Britain. The present establish- 
 ment at the audit-office consists of a chairman, five 
 commissioners, a secretary, and a large number of 
 
 tors and examiners. The patronage is in the 
 
 1 of 1 he i !■ ury. Auditor o* the < !oi bt of 
 
 0K, in Scotland, is an officer whose duties con- 
 sist in taxing the costs of suits in which expenses 
 are found due, a remit being mail" to him for that 
 purpc . • ithi ■■ by a division of the court or a Lord 
 Ordinary. The auditor returns a report to the judge 
 or court making the remit, by whom decree 
 
 il for the amount of the taxed ace.' .,. . Objec 
 tions to the auditor's report may be stated to the 
 judge or court. The nomination of the auditor is in 
 
 ice being hi Id 
 The auditor cannot practise b court, on pain 
 
 of deprivation. The p office 
 
 are -u nters to the signet, and solicitors before the 
 35 
 
 Supreme Courts in Scotland. In the inferior courts 
 an officer with corresponding powers is usually 
 appointed by the court in which he officiates. The 
 office ol auditor of the Court of Session corresponds 
 in many respects to that of the taxing-masters in 
 1 mcery, and of the masters of the 
 Bench and Common I ' 
 AUDITOR Y NERVE. By anatomists, the 
 A. -V is associated with the facial, and is the seventh 
 in order of origin from the drain, counting from 
 before backwards. The seventh pair consists of the 
 portio dura or facial, the portio mollis or auditory, 
 and a small intermediate portion. The portio mollis 
 apparently commences by some white streaks in the 
 floor of the fourth ventricle ; it then runs forward 
 to the back of the petrous portion of the temporal 
 bone, and enters the internal auditory meatus. 
 The facial then leaves it to pass along the canal 
 I the Aqueductus Fallopri, and the auditory 
 divides into two portions, which diverge — the smaller 
 stcrior for the semicircular canals and the 
 vestibule, the other for the cochlea. Those entering 
 the semicircular canals divide into five branches, 
 forming at last a nervous expansion somewhat 
 analogous to the retina. Figs. 1 and 2 represent the 
 A. X. (1) dividing into its two portions, the lesser 
 branch supplying the semicircular canals (2), the 
 larger branch supplying the cochlea (3). Fig. 1 repre- 
 the semicircular canals of the left side, with 
 their bony rings round the membranous labyrinth. 
 In this figure, the cochlea is cut in half longitudin- 
 ally from base to apex, shewing a section of the 
 spiral canal, with the nerve proceeding up through its 
 
 Fig. 1. —Left Auditory Nerve. 
 
 axis. Fig. 2 represents the membranous labyrinth 
 (2), with the bony framework cut away, and with 
 the cochlea opened so as to shew the manner in 
 which the ie rve spn ads out in the spiral lamina. 
 
 Several theories have been held at different periods 
 with regard to the manner in which the nerves ter- 
 minate in the cochlea, and how sound is transmitted 
 from tie- latter to the brain. The latest, and that 
 which is at present entertained by most phj 
 gists, is that of M. Schultze. It has been shewn by 
 . that whi n a nerve in connection 
 withamuscli upon by a succession of very 
 
 rapid strokes from the little hammer of a tetan- 
 motor, and when the strokes have arrived at a 
 i number in tie- b cond, a stimulus is sent 
 .citing the muscle to action. It is 
 in the same way that M. S, hult/e supposes the 
 
 impression of sound to in' propagated to the nerves 
 
 of the cochlea, by means of a series of little tetan- 
 
 calledthe t . thof Carti, who discovered them. 
 
 They are situated in thc> spiral lamina, which 
 rates the spiral canal in the interior of the cochlea
 
 ALDLEY— AUER. 
 
 into an upper and B lower half or scala. The spiral 
 lamina consists of an ptum, next I 
 
 cintral axis of the cochlea, and of a membranous 
 
 Fig. 2. — Eight Auditory Nerve. 
 
 layer, which prolongs the osseous septum to the 
 outer wall of the cochlea, thus completing (lie spiral 
 lamina. This membranous septum is double, and 
 between its layers there is a chamber which contains 
 the teeth of Corti, ranged side by side throughout 
 the whole length'of the spiral lamina, and gradually 
 getting shorter from base to apex, like the strings 
 of a harp or pianoforte. The chamber is filled 
 up by a tremulous jelly-like fluid. The diagram, 
 fig. 3, represents a perpendicular section of the spiral 
 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 c, the osseous jopttim grooved for the passage of the cochlear 
 nerve '<, wbl a terminates by a free end inside the chamber 
 c, along the floor of whicn it lies for a short distance; d, d 
 are the two layers of the membranous septum. Lying in con- 
 tact with the end of tho nerve la the enlarged extremity of a 
 rod e, which is connected in a flail-like manner by the hinge 
 /to another rod, which is fixed at#. 
 
 lamina. When tho waves or vibrations of sound 
 strike against the bone's of the head, those bones 
 are caused to vibrate ; this vibration is transmitted 
 through the head to the bones of the cochlea, which 
 in turn set in motion the tremulous jelly which tills 
 up the membranous chamber, c. 
 
 AU'DLEY, Sir James, one of the original 
 knights of the Order of the Garter, founded in 1344 
 by Edward III., on his return from France after 
 the victory of C'ressy, was frequently in personal 
 attendance on Edward the Black Prince, whom he 
 accompanied to France in 134C. He was so 
 conspicuously brave at the battle of Poictiers, that 
 the prince retained him as his own knight, and 
 declared liim to be the bravest soldier on his side. 
 He conferred on him an annual revenue of 500 
 marks, which A. immediately gave up to his squires. 
 This act of disinterestedness becoming known, the 
 Black Prince conferred a further annual sum of GOO 
 marks upon him. A. also accompanied the Black 
 Prince into Spain, and in 1 309 the office of seneschal 
 of Poitou was conferred upon him. He took part in 
 
 the capture of La-Loche-sur-Yon in Poiton, 
 
 same year, and da 
 
 attended his funeral obsequies at Poictiers. 
 
 AUDRAN, d'.r.AT.D, one of the most 
 
 was born at Lyon in 1640. Hebeloi 
 
 to a fain: 1 i I lor its excell 
 
 in tins department <>i art. After a time 
 
 i esiaence at Rome, where he studied 
 
 under Carlo Maratti, and acquired a high 
 
 reputation by his engraving of Popo 
 
 at IX., he was recalled to Fran e 
 
 1 Inert, and was appoint 
 
 1> his majesty Louis XIV. B 
 
 engraved the principal works of Lebrun, 
 with whom he lived on terms of the 
 closest friendship. His master- pieces are 
 a series of engravings illustrating the 
 ader. He died at Paris 
 1703. 
 
 AUDUBON, John Jams, a distin- 
 guished American ornithologist, \. 
 in Louisiana, United States, in M 
 where his parents, who were both French, 
 had settled on a plantation. His father, 
 who was himself an ardent lover of nature, 
 <aiiy directed his son's attention to natu- 
 ral objects. The youth conceived a passion 
 for the study of birds ; and a book of ornithological 
 uens determined him to become a draughtsman. 
 About the ago of fourteen, he went to 1'aris, and 
 .studied for some time under the celebrated David. 
 In 179S ho was settled on a farm in Pennsylvania 
 by his father, but he did not distinguish him self 
 as an agriculturist. In 1810 he sailed down the 
 <>hii> with his wife and child, on a bird-ski 
 expedition. The following year, he visited Florida 
 for a like purpose ; and for many years after he 
 continued his ornithological researches among th- 
 an woods, to t ' t of his ordinary 
 ] tter he finally abandoned; ami 
 in 1S'24 he went to Philadelphia, where he was 
 introduced to Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, who 
 so warmly encouraged him in his plans that lie 
 determined on publication. After two years' further 
 exploration of the forests of his native country, he 
 
 to Europe with the view to secure sub.-, i 
 for lu.s work on The Birds of America. He met with 
 a warm reception from such men as Herschel, 
 Cuvier, Humboldt, Brewi t er, Wilson, aud Sir Walter 
 Scott. The issue of his work was commenced shortly 
 after, each bird being delineated life-size. The 
 coloured engravings were chiefly executed by the 
 late Ah- W. H. Lizars of Edinburgh. The work was 
 completed in S7 parts, elephant folio, containing 1 IS 
 plates. While the work was in process of pubh 
 in this cotmtry (it was finished in 1S39), A. ie\ 
 America three times, in order to make fun lea- 
 researches. In 1831, he began the publication of his 
 American Ornitlioloijical Biography in Edinb 
 which was also completed in 1S39. In 1839, A. 
 finally returned to America, where, in 1S44, he pub- 
 lished a reduced edition of liis works. Assisted by 
 Dr Buchanan, he also published The Qi/"< ; 
 A merica, and a Biof/raphy of American Quadrupeds. 
 He died, January 27, 1851, in his 71st year. 
 
 AU'ER. Alois, director of the National Printing- 
 office at Vienna, was born May 11, 1813, at W. ! . 
 in Upper Austria, and was trained in a printing 
 establishment of his native town to be a compositor, 
 corrector, and manager. He thus went through all 
 the grades of his profession. During his scanty 
 leisure moments, A. employed himself in aequo 
 knowledge of French, Italian, English, and otn r 
 languages, in which he underwent an examination
 
 AUERBACH— AUGMENTATION. 
 
 in 18.35 and 1S3C, before the university of Vienna. 
 dliaut appearance on this occasion opened up 
 ibition the probability of a professorial 
 chair. In October 1S37, he was appointed professor 
 of Italian in the college at Litiz, in Upper All 
 Here he laboured assiduously in public; and private 
 ing, and published a variety of useful 
 , on a system peculiar to himself. In 1839 
 ho set out on his travels through Germany, 
 Switzerland, France, and England, collecting mate- 
 rials for his favourite art. On his return he was 
 ited, in 1841, to the office which be now holds. 
 As asp tphical learning, and the 
 
 resources of the o bis care, A. has printed 
 
 and published tl ' , in- Lord 'i Prayer in 
 
 K'iman types (Vienna, 1844); 
 Lords Prayer in 200 languages, with their 
 national alphabets (1SI7). & - Naii i:i:-1'i:inting. 
 
 AU'ERBACII, BbbTHOLD, a popular Gorman 
 author, of Jewish extraction, 
 
 ten, in the WUrtembero Black Forest, February 28, 
 1812. Be received his education at Carlsruhe, 
 Stuttgart, Tubingen, Munich, and Heidelberg. 
 Having at an early period abandoned the study 
 irish theology, he devoted liis attention to 
 literature. His first publications, Judaism and 
 'teratwre (Stuttg. 1836), and a translation 
 of the works of Spinoza, with a critical life of bis 
 author (5 Vols. Stuttg. 1S41), had a philosophical 
 tendency. In his Educated Citizen (t'arlsruhe, 
 i Village Tales of the Black Forest 
 d himself to the portraiture of 
 ■, and succeeded well. The Village Tales 
 were translated into English, Swedish, and Dutch, 
 and were generally admired. One of his later 
 publications, Schrifi und Volk (Literature and the 
 1 , 1S4G), discusses the relation in which litera- 
 
 ture stands to the mas3 of the people. 
 
 AU'GEAS, or AU'GEIAS, according to one 
 
 account, the son of Helios and Iphiboe, but accord- 
 others, of Phorbas and Hermione, was king of 
 Elis, and renowned for his wealth in oxen, of which 
 he fed 3000 head in his stables. When the dung 
 of these animals had been allowed to accumidate 
 for many years, Hercules was commissioned by 
 Eurystheus to cleanse the Augean stables in one 
 day, and was promised as payment a tenth part 
 of the oxen. -Hercules accomplished the task, 
 by turning the courses of the rivers Peneus and 
 Alpkeus through the masses of ordure. When 
 A. refi pay the stipulated wages, a war 
 
 ensued, and A. was slain by Hercules. The fable of 
 the Augi hi stables often serves as an allusion in 
 declamations on political corruptions, &c. 
 
 U'OEREAU, Pierre Francois Charles, Duke 
 
 i dial and peer of France, one of the 
 
 mo t. brilliant and intrepid of that band of general 
 
 I whom Napoleon gathered around himself, was 
 inan,andwasborn21stOctoberl757- 
 
 serving some time in tho French carabiniers, 
 into which he enlisted at the age of seventeen, he 
 entered the Neapolitan service, in which he remained 
 until 17n7. when he settled in Naples as a fencing- 
 master. With other French residents, he 
 
 ted from that city in 1702, and immediately 
 volunteered into the French revolutionary army 
 intended for the repulsion of the Spaniards. Bis 
 
 18 were so conspicuous, that in less than three 
 i made general of a division. In 1705 he 
 accompanied the army to Italy, where he greatly 
 distinguished himself, especially in the field, but 
 also in the council. He took an active part and 
 gained much glory in the 1 
 Lodi, Ci i i ! one (for which 
 Eoveredo, Bassano, &e. In 1707 he was appointed 
 
 to the command of the Army of the Rhine ; but in a 
 few months after, the Directory not liking the spirit 
 played there, made him commander of the 
 tenth division at Perpignan. This post he resigned in 
 1799, when he was elect council 
 
 of the Five Hundred. In 1801 he received the com- 
 mand of the army in Holland, and was active m 
 several engagements. In 1804 he was made a 
 marshal; and in the following year he commanded 
 a division of the army which reduced the Vorarlberg ; 
 and was afterwards ■ i I Wetzlar, , 
 
 Eylau; also in Italy (1 a (1810); I 
 
 Bavaria, and Saxony (1813). He died of water in 
 the chest, June 11, 1S1G. 
 
 ATT'GITE (from Gr. auge, brilliancy), or PY'- 
 ROXENE (from Gr. pyr, lire, and xenos, a guest), 
 a mineral very nearly allied to Hornblende (q. v.), 
 which has, indeed, by some mineralogists been 
 d as a variety of it, although the distinction 
 between them is undeniably important, as charac- 
 terising two distinct series of igneous rock 
 
 i of 47—56 per cent, of silica, 20—25 per cent. 
 of lime, and 12—1!) per cent of ma ■ mag- 
 
 nesia sometimes giving place in whole or in p 
 protoxide of iron, and some varieties containing a 
 tittle alumina, or a little protoxide of manjam 
 specific gravity is 3195— 3525. It is hi 
 by acids, or not at all. It is usually of a greenish 
 colour, often nearly black. It crystallises in six or 
 
 a, Common Augite ; b, Green Augite. 
 
 eight-sided prisms variously modified ; it often 
 occurs in crystals, sometimes often 
 
 in grains or scales. It is an essential component 
 of many igneous rocks, particularly of Basalt (q. v.), 
 Dolerite fa. v.), and A.-porpkyry (see Pokpiiyry), 
 from which chiefly it derives its importance as 
 a mineral species. A. Rock, consisting essentially 
 of A. alone, occurs in the Pyrenees. A. is a 
 common mineral in the bap-rocks of Britain 
 and other countries. It is rarely associated 
 quartz, in which respect it differs from hornblende, 
 but very often with labradorite, olivine, and leucitc. 
 Fluorine, which is generally present in small 
 quantity in hornblende, has never been detected in 
 A. Tho form of the crystals is also different in 
 the two minerals, as well as their cleavage ; but 
 
 or Gustav Rose of Berlin has endeavoured to 
 shew that the difference between A. and hornblende 
 arises only from the different circumstances in which 
 crystallisation has taken place, and that A. is the 
 production of a comparatively rapid, and hornblende 
 of a comparatively slow cooling. Be regards some of 
 the varieties as intermediate His views have been 
 supported by experiments, and by a comparison of 
 A. with certain crystalline substances occurring 
 among the scorisB of foundries. — Diopside, Sa/ilite, 
 
 'Ccolite are varieties of A. — Diallage (rp v.) 
 and Ifyperstliene (q. v.) are very nearly allied to it 
 AUGMENTATION, in Heraldry. Sec Hxs> 
 
 AI.IM1Y. 
 
 AUGMENTATION, in Music, is the reproduction 
 of a melody, or principal subject of a composition, 
 in the course of the progress of the piece, in i
 
 AUGMENTATION-AUGSBURG CONFEsMi i\\ 
 
 greater length than those notes in which the d 
 is lirst introduced. The tempo remains unaltered 
 A. is of great importance in the treatment of the 
 subjects, or themes, for fugues, and when cleverly 
 i reduces great effects. 
 
 AUGMENTATION, PbOOTBS of, in Scotch 1 iw, 
 is an action in the Court of Teinds (q. v.) by the 
 minister of a parish against the titular, or beneficiary, 
 and heritors, for the purpose of procuring an in 
 
 to his stipend. The moderator and clerk of the 
 presbytery to which tfa belongs must also 
 
 he called as partus, l'.y -IS Geo. III. c. I3S, it 
 is enacted that no A. shall be granted till the 
 expiration of 15 years from any A. previous to the 
 act, nor till the expiration of 20 years Ei im any 
 A. subsequent to the act. A period of 20 yi ITS 
 must thus elapse between each augmentation. The 
 amount of the A. is fixed, or modified, as it is 
 termed, in grain or victual; the stipend itself 
 being paid in money, according to the tiars' prices 
 (q.V.) of each year. In addition to the 
 ment or modification of a suitable stipend, regard 
 being had to the state of the teinds, the i 
 of the parish, the expense of living, and the like 
 ,-i process of A. has the further object in view 
 of locaUing the stipend so modified i. e., of 
 assigning it in due proportions to the heritors or 
 parties in possession of the tithes. This latter 
 object is attained by means of what is called a 
 scheme of locality— i. e., an allotment of the stipend 
 modified to the several parties liable therefor. This 
 is prepared at the instance of the second 
 junior Lord Ordinary (q.v.), on a remit from the 
 Teind Court. The last conclusion in a summons of 
 A. is for a suitable sum, or increase to the sum 
 already allowed, for communion < li mi nts— i.e., for 
 bread, wine, and other necessaries for celebrating 
 the sacrament of the Lord's Supper after the 
 Presbyterian fashion. When there is not a suf- 
 ficient amount of teind to bring the stipend of 
 the minister up to E150 per annum, with £8, 6 id. 
 for communion elements, it is provided by . r >0 
 Geo. III. c. St, and 5 Geo. IV. c. 72, that the 
 n >!iii' shall be paid by the Exchequer. In 
 addition to their stipend, ministers have right to 
 a manse and glebe, or a provision of £50 annually 
 in lieu of them. See Stipend, Glebe, Manse; 
 see also I'aui.iami.muiy t'ui ki'ii. 
 
 AU'GSBURG, historically one of the most notable 
 cities in Germany, is situated in the angle between 
 the rivers Wertaeh and Lech, and is the chief city of 
 the circle of Swabia and Neuburg, in the kingdom of 
 Bavaria. The population is about 38,000. Though 
 presenting an antique and rather deserted appearance, 
 A. has numerous fine buildings, and especially 
 one noble street, the ' imperial' Maximilian Strasse, 
 adorned with bronze fountains. Various buildings 
 are associated with historical events of world-inte- 
 rest. The industry of A. is reviving ; several cotton 
 and woollen factories are in operation, as well as 
 ma mifactories of paper, tobacco, and machinery. Its 
 gold and silver wares still retain their ancient n ,,n 
 tation. The once flourishing art of copp 
 is extinct; but printing, lithography, and bookselling 
 have taken a new start. The AlU/emeine Zeilung, or 
 Augsburg Gazette, the most widely circulated paper 
 in » iermany, is published here. Banking and stock- 
 jobbing aiv extensively carried on; and it is still 
 the emporium of the trade with Italy and Southern 
 Germany. It is the centre of a system of railways 
 connecting it with NUrnberg and Leipsic, with 
 Switzerland, Munich, &c. The foundation of A. 
 was the 'colony' planted by the Emperor Augustus, 
 12 B.C., after the conquest of the Vindelici, probably 
 on the site of a former residence of that people. 
 £13 
 
 It was called Aug ' licorum, and hence the 
 
 present name. It became the capita] of tin 
 
 vince of Kha tia, was laid waste by the Huns in the 
 
 5th c, and came next under the dominion of the 
 Prankish kings. In the war of Charlemagne with 
 Tha ilo of Bavaria, it was again destroyed. After 
 the division of Charlem i m s empire, it came under 
 the Duke of Swabia; but having become already 
 rich by commerce, was able to purchase gradually 
 many privileges, and finally became, in 1276, a free 
 city 01 the empire, it now rose to greater consc- 
 than ever, and ha I reached the summit of 
 ii j prosperity by the end of the 1 Ith c. About this 
 time ( I 368), its aristocratic government was set aside 
 for a democratic, which last.-d for l"o years, till the 
 aristocracy, favoured by Charles V., regained the 
 ascendency. A. continued in inence f or its 
 
 commerce" manufactures, and art, till the war between 
 i In. hi V. and the Protestant league of Schmalkald 
 [1540). Along with Niirnberg it formed the empo- 
 rium of the trade between Northern Europe and the 
 south, and its merchants were princes whose ships 
 were in all seas. See FCGGER. It was also the 
 c, ntie of German art as represented by the Holbeins, 
 Burkmair, Altdorfer, and others. Many diets of the 
 empire ware held iii A., and the leading events of the 
 Reformation are as ociated with its name. The 
 discovery of the mad to India by the Cape, and of 
 Am rica, turned the commerce of the world into new 
 channels, and dried up the sources of A's prosperity. 
 li lot its freedom with the abolition of the German 
 empire in 1806, and was taken possession of by 
 Bavaria. (1871— pop. 51,2S4.) 
 
 1 1 GSBURG CONFESSION, the chief standard 
 of faith in the Lutheran Church. Its history is the 
 following. With a view to an amicable arrangement 
 of the religious split that had existed in (iermany 
 since 1517, Charles V., as protector of the church, 
 had convoked a diet of the empire, to meet at Augs- 
 burg, 8th April 15HO, and had required from the 
 Protestants a short statement of the doctrines in 
 which they departed from the Catholic Church. The 
 Elector, John, of Saxony, therefore, in March, called 
 on his Wittenberg theologians, with Luther at. their 
 head, to draw up articles of faith, to lay before him 
 at Torgau. The commissioned doctors took as a 
 basis, in so far as pure doctrine was concerned, 
 that had been agreed to the previous year at 
 conferences held at Marburg and Scnwabach, in the 
 form of resolutions of the Lutheran reformers of 
 ( : ermany against the doctrines of Zwingli. These doc- 
 trinal articles supplemented, and with a practical part 
 newly added, were laid before the Elector at Torgau. 
 Melanchthon then, taking the Torgau articles as a 
 foundation, began in Augsburg, in May, and with the 
 advice of various Protestant theologians, as well as 
 princes and other secular authorities, composed the 
 document, which he first called an Apology, but 
 which in the diet itself took the name of the A. C. 
 Luther was not present in Augsburg, being then 
 under the ban of the empire, but his advice was had 
 recourse to in its composition. The Torgau articles 
 were in German ; the Confession was both in German 
 and Latin; and Melanchthon laboured incessantly 
 at its improvement till it was presented to the 
 emperor, June 25. The character of Melanchthon, in 
 the absence of Luther, had led him, in setting about 
 the composition of the document, to aim at main- 
 taining a spirit of love, forbearance, and mediation, 
 as wall as the utmost brevity and simplicity. Its 
 object, which only became gradually apparent after 
 the meeting of the diet, was, in the first place, to 
 give a collected view of the belief of the Lutheran 
 Protestants, aiming at the same time at refuting 
 the calumnies of the Catholics, and at laying a 
 foundation for measures of reconciliation.
 
 AUGSBURG INTERIM— AUGURIES AXD AUSPICES. 
 
 The first part of the Confession contains 21 articles 
 of faith and doctrine : 1. Of God; 2. Of Original Sin; 
 3. Of the Son of God ; 4. Of Justification ; 5. Of 
 Preaching; G. Of New Obedience; 7 and 8. Of the 
 Church; 9. Of Baptism ; 10. Of the Lord's Supper ; 
 11. Of Confession ; 12. Of Penance; 13. Of the Use 
 of Sacraments ; 14. Of Church Government; 15. Of 
 Church Order ; 16. Of Secular Government ; 17. Of 
 Christ's Second Coming to Judgment ; 18. Of Free 
 Will; 19. Of the Cause of Sin; 20. Of Faith and 
 Good Works ; 21. Of the Worship of Saints. The 
 second and more practical part, which is carried out 
 at greater length, contains seven articles on disputed 
 points: 22. On the Two Kinds of the Sacrament ; 
 23. Of the Marriage of Priests; 21. Of the Mass; 25. 
 Of Confession ; 26. Of Distinctions of Meat ; 27. Of 
 Conventual Vows; 2S. Of the Authority of Bishops. 
 
 This document, signed by some six Protestant 
 princesand two free cities, was read before the emperor 
 and the diet, 25th Jane 1630. Melanchthon, not 
 ag upon the Confession as bin Jim', began shortly 
 after to make some alterations in its expression ; at 
 last, in l.">li). he published a Latin edition [Confessio 
 I i which there were important changes 
 
 and additions. This was especially the case with 
 the article on the Lord's Supper, in which, with a 
 view to conciliation, he endeavoured to unite the 
 views of the Lutherans and Calvinists. This gave 
 rise subsequently to much controversy ; orthodox 
 Lutheranisin repudiated the alterations of Melanch- 
 thon, and long continued to subject his memory to 
 great abuse ; though it is clear that Melanchthon and 
 his adherents contemplated no substantial departure 
 in doctrine from the original Confession. It is not 
 certain that the form of the Confession found in the 
 Lutheran standards is identical with the unaltered 
 A. I '., as the two original documents — German and | 
 Latin — laid before the diet have been lost. The ' 
 chief distinction between the orthodox Lutherans 
 and the reformed churches of Germany lias all along 
 been adherence to the ' unaltered ' or to the ' altered 1 
 Confession. It was even a matter of controversy 
 whether the ' reformed ' were entitled to the rights 
 secured to the Protestants by the Religious Peace of 
 Augsburg, concluded in 1555, on the ground of the 
 ' unaltered' Confession. — Though the A. C. is still 
 formally a<lhered to by the Protestant churches of 
 Germany, it is confessedly no longer the expression 
 of the belief of the vast majority of the members, 
 after the great advances made by theology, and the 
 many alterations in public opinion and feeling. 
 
 AU'GSBURG INTERIM. Sec Intfium. 
 
 AU'GURIES and AU'SPICES. These terms 
 are familiar to every reader of Roman history, anil 
 are, besides, so frequently employe 1 in English in 
 a secondary and metaphorical sense, that a vague 
 notion of their original meaning is caught up even 
 by those who know nothing of classical anti- 
 quities. As, however, the entire religious and 
 political life of the early Romans was deeply pene- 
 trated by the influence of their sacred superstitions, 
 ami as amongst these auguries and auspices held a 
 prominent place, a clear conception of what tiny were 
 is a matter of considerable moment. The following 
 statements exhibit, in a condensed form, the sub- 
 stance of what is known on the subject. 
 
 Like almost all primitive nations, the Romans 
 I red that every unusual occurrence had a super- 
 natural significance, and contained, hidden in it. the 
 will of Heaven regarding men. To reveal or inter- 
 pret this hidden will, was the exclusive privili 
 tin' augur, who apparently derived his official desig- 
 i, in part at least, from an'-: a bird ; while 
 Roman history abundantly proves that I 
 tion of the flight of birds was a principal means 
 
 d for discovering the purpose of the gods. It 
 was not, however, any one who could be appointed 
 an augur. The gods selected their own interpreters 
 — that is to say, they conferred the divine gift lqion 
 them from their very birth ; but an educational 
 I necessary, and hence 
 
 a 'college of augurs' figures in the very dawn of 
 Roman history. Romulus, it is almost certain, was 
 an augur himself. lie is said to have 
 skilled in the art of divination from his youth ; 
 and by ' divination ' we must specially under- 
 stand augury; forthel' ith patriotic piety, 
 1 the forms of divination practised in otter 
 countries to be oa li e and profane. Previous to the 
 Ogulnian law, passed in the year 307 E. C., there 
 were only four augurs, who were selected from the 
 patricians. By this law, however, the pit 
 became eligible for the pontifical or augural ol 
 and five wire immediately created. For more than 
 two hundred years, the number continued the same, 
 till Sulla, in SI B. c, increased it to fifteen, [finally, 
 in tin- first days of the En. 
 sick of the long civil wars, hurried to thru. 
 privileges at the feet of the monarch who 
 brought peace into their homes, the right of el 
 augurs at his pleasure was conferred on Augustus, 
 after which the number became indefinite. 
 
 At first, the augurs were elected by the Com itia 
 Curiata ; but as the sanction of the former was 
 necessary to give validity to the acts of the latter, 
 they could always ' veto ' any elections which were 
 obnoxious to them; so that the .power of i I 
 members 'to fill up vacancies naturally fell into the 
 hands of the college itself, and so continued till lo3 
 u. c, when a tribune of the people named Ahenobar- 
 bus carried a law by which it was enacted that for 
 the future, vacancies in the augural and pontifical 
 offices should not be filled up by tin- 
 corporations themselves, but by a majority of certain 
 picked tribes. This new law was occasionally re; 
 and re-enacted during the civil wars which lasted till 
 the time of Augustus. The scramble for power, how- 
 ever, during tin—' political vicissitudes, as well as 
 the general advance of knowledge, had rendered its 
 prophetic pretensions ridiculous in the eyes of edu- 
 cated people. By Cicero's time, it had lost its reli- 
 gious character altogether, but was still regard 
 one of the highest political dignities, and coveted 
 for the power it conferred. 
 
 The modes of divination employed by the augurs 
 were five in number — augurium a t 
 
 dirU. The/'V.-', related 
 to the interpretation of the celestial phenomena, 
 such as thunder and lightning, was apparently of 
 Etruscan origin, and held to be of supreme s 
 cance. The second related to the interpretation of the 
 noise and flight of birds. It was not every bird, 
 however, that could be a sure messenger of the g"ds. 
 Generally speaking, those 'consulted,' as it was called, 
 were the eagle, vulture, crow, raven, owl, and hen. 
 The first two belonged to the class of alites, or birds 
 whose fiigH revealed the will of the gods; tl. 
 four to the class c ice divulged 
 
 i of augury w. > 
 oldest and most important. Of the ether three, the 
 auguries a tripudiu were taken from the fei 
 of chickens ; the auguries ex ijuadrupedibug, from 
 four-footed animals — as. for instance, if a dog, or wolf, 
 or hare, ran across the path of a Roman, and startled 
 liim by any unusual motion, he mentioned it to an 
 augur, who , hlfl to advise him 
 
 what to il"; the augurii 9 '■' ■!'■->< (a vague kind of 
 angary), from any trifling accidents or occurrences 
 not included in the previous four — such as Sn. 
 stumblin on the table, &c. 
 
 At Rome, the auspices were taken on the summit
 
 AUGUST— AUGUSTINE. 
 
 of the C.ipitoline Hill ; and the ground on which the 
 
 . tood was solemnly set apart for the no 
 The latter then took a wand, and marked out a 
 portion of the heavens in which his observations 
 were to be made. This imaginary portion "was < 
 a templum (hence conlemplari, to contemplate), and 
 was subdivided into right and left. According as the 
 birds appeared in either of thes • divisions were the 
 auspices favourable or unfavourable. How vast the 
 
 iiolitical influence and authority of the augurs must 
 lavs been is seen from the fact, that almost nothing 
 of any consequence could take place without their 
 sanction and ap pro val. The election of every im- 
 portant ruler, king, consul, dictator, or praitor, every 
 civic officer, every religious functionary, was invalid 
 if the auspices were unfavourable. No general 
 could lawfully engage in buttle — no public laud 
 could be allotted — no marriage or adoption, at least 
 among the patricians, was hold valid — unless the 
 auspices were first taken, while the Comitia of the 
 Centuries could be dispersed at a moment's notice 
 by the veto of any member of the augural college. 
 
 We have employed the two terms, auguries and 
 auspices, as synonymous. But a slight difference is 
 perceptible between them : not the augurs only, but 
 the chief magistrates of Home (inheriting the honour 
 from Romulus), held the 'auspices,' while the ' augu- 
 ries' were exclusively in the possession of the former ; 
 but the mode of divination, and the end to be 
 obtained by it, seem to have been the same in both 
 cases. 
 
 The power of taking the auspices in war was 
 confined to the commander-in-chief ; and any victory 
 gained by a legate was said to be won under the 
 auspices of his superior, and the latter alone was 
 entitled to a triumph. Hence has originated the 
 very common phrase in our language, 'under the 
 auspices' of some one, which usually denotes nothing 
 more than that the person alluded to merely lends 
 the influence of his name. 
 
 ATJ'GUST, the sixth month in the Roman year. 
 which began with March, was originally styli d 
 Stxlilis, and received its present name from the 
 Emperor Augustus, on account of several of the 
 most fortunate events of his life having occurred 
 during this month. On this month he was first 
 admitted to the consulate, and thrice entered the 
 city in triumph. On the same month, the legions 
 from the Janiculum placed themselves under his 
 auspices, Egypt was brought under the authority 
 of the Roman people, and an end put to the 
 civil wars. (See Macrobius, i. 12.) As the fifth 
 month, or (juintiUs, had previously been styled 
 Julius in honour of Julius Cesar, a day was taken 
 from February to make A. equal with July. 
 
 ATTGT sTA, the name of two considerable cities 
 in the United States.— 1. A. is the capital of Maine, 
 situated principally on the right bank of the 
 Kennebec, which is here crossed by a brid 
 feet long. Its lat. is 44° IV N., and long. G9° 5tf 
 W. Up to A., the river is navigable for sloops from 
 its mouth, a distance of 43 miles, in a straight line ; 
 while a dam, constructed immediately above the 
 
 nables steam-boats to ply more than 20 miles 
 above, as far as Watervillc. A. is also a station on 
 the railway between Portland and Bangor. The 
 dam, too, which improves the navigation, has 
 created a vast water-power, which is extensively 
 
 Hi for manufacturing purposes. Between 
 1R30 and 1853, the population had increased from 
 39S0 to 9500. — 2. A is the second city in < I 
 on the Savannah, 231 miles from its mouth. Its 1 at. 
 
 28' X., and long. Sl° 54' W. Standing at the 
 head of the navigation of the river.it is connected 
 with the interior by the A. and Atlantic Railway, 
 550 
 
 170 miles long; while to the north again, it com- 
 municates with Charleston by me South 
 Carolina Railway. The construction of the former 
 of those Lines was al Brsl pn judicial to the city j but 
 the internal 1 1 at soon brought more bu 
 
 i of a different kind, than it bad taken away. 
 Another cause of prosperity is a canal, which, 
 
 t9 miles up, brings the waters of the Savannah 
 to the city on such a level as to furnish a fall of 
 :;."> or 40 feet — a water-power which is extensively 
 and profitably employed. ( If lat • yean, the popula- 
 tion lias increased rapidly. In 1S5.'!, it was upwards 
 of 12,000. 
 
 AUGU'STENBURG, a village of 800 inhabitants 
 
 in the centre of the island of Alson. It is not) d for 
 
 b ing the residence of the Duke of Holstein-Sonder- 
 
 \ ugustenburg, for its splendid 'stables,' and 
 
 for the castle belonging to the ducal family. 
 
 AUGU'STI, a learned German theologian, born 
 in 177'- at Eschenberga, near Gotha. He studied at 
 Jena under the celebrated Griesbach, and afterwards 
 devoted himself for some time to public tea* 
 In 179S, he became lectnr r (pi ■') in philos- 
 
 ophy, and in 1S0O he was appointed professor- 
 extraordinary of the same. Three years after, he 
 succeeded Ilgen in the chair of Oriental Literature ; 
 but liis love of theological studies be. 
 dominant, he accepted the offer of a theological 
 professorship in the university of 1 
 exerted a wide and beneficial influence. In 1819 he 
 was transferred to Bonn, and made a director of the 
 consistory at Cologne. Other ecclesiastical honours 
 were conferred on liim during the course of his life. 
 He died on the 2Sth April 1841. 
 
 In the early part of his career, A. was a 
 1 rationalist; but subsequently he returned 
 to orthodox Lutherauism, more, perhaps, from the 
 conservative bias of his nature, than from any 
 profound conviction of the truth of the national 
 creed. The change, however, was not accompanied, 
 as is usual in such cases, with any intense bigotry. 
 A. remained to the last a liberal-hearted Christian. 
 His writings, marked by great learning, industry, 
 and spirit, are much esteemed by bis countrymen. 
 lost important is his Manual of Christian 
 Archaohgy (Leip. 183G— 1S37). 
 
 AUGTJSTIXE, Arr.r.urs St, the greatest of the 
 T, at in fathers, was born at I . a town of 
 
 Numidia, on the 13th of November 354 A.D. His 
 father, Patricius, was poor, but of good family, and 
 filled the office of magistrate. He continued a pagan 
 till advanced in years, and was only baptised shortly 
 before his death. He does not seem to hav 
 remarkable for any elevation of mind ; on the con- 
 trary, one may fairly conclude, from his son's state- 
 . that he was an irascible, kind-hearted man, 
 more intent on his son's advancement in this world 
 than in that which is to come. His temper often 
 caused great sorrow to his gentle and pious wife, 
 who loved him faithfully, however, and was I 
 fore rewarded with the secret by which she could 
 charm the evil spirit out of him. Patricius was very 
 as that A. should become a fine scholar, as he 
 noticed that not a few people in his day were obtain- 
 ing large incomes by their 'wits.' . A. was accord- 
 ant to school at Madaura, and subsequently 
 tii e, to complete his studies. Previous to 
 
 this, however, he had enjoyed the inestimable felicity 
 of a religious education at home. His mother, 
 Monnica, "had been his best instructor. K 
 truly says : ' Whatever treasures of virtue and 
 worth the life of faith, even of a soul not trained 
 by scientific culture, can bestow, was set before 
 him in the example of his pious mother.' 
 
 The energy and penetration of intellect exhibited
 
 ATJGUSTLNE. 
 
 by the young A. excited the most flattering hopes. 
 When he left home for Carthage, a joyous, ardent, 
 and resolute student, a bright career of worldly pros- 
 perity seemed to open before him. But strong as 
 A. was, the temptations of Carthage were stronger. 
 His nature, deep, impetuous, and passionate, thirsted 
 for excitement. He had just reached the age when 
 happiness is conceived to be synonymous with plea- 
 sure, and Carthage, the second city of the empire, was 
 rank as Rome in its sensual corruptions. A. felL 
 In his Confessions, he paints the frightful abyss into 
 which he felt himself plunged; nor does he seek to 
 
 himself ; on the contrary, the shadow of his 
 guilt is thrown forward over all his boyish life, and 
 he displays even a morbid zeal and acuteness in 
 pointing out what others, less censorious, might term 
 the frivolous errors of his childhood, but which 
 
 1 to A. the parents of his subsequent vices, 
 and therefore equally bad and equally reprehensible. 
 Before he had rea [hteenth year, his mis- 
 
 tress bore him a son, who was named Adeodatus — 
 afterwards baptised along with him at Milan. The 
 thing which appears to have first stirred his d 
 
 into life was a passage which he suddenly 
 across, in the fforb ntius of Cicero, treating of 
 the worth and dignity of philosophy. To o 
 language of Neander: 'The conflict now began in 
 his soul which lasted through eleven years of his 
 life. As the simplicity of the sacred Scriptures 
 possessed no attractions for bis taste — a taste 
 formed by rhetorical studies and the artificial dis- 
 cipline of the declamatory schools— especially as 
 his mind was now in the same tone and dii 
 with that of the Emperor Julian, when the latter 
 was conducted to the Platonic theosophy ; as, 
 moreover, he found so many things in the doctrines 
 of the church which, from want of inward experi- 
 ence, could not be otherwise than unintelligible to 
 him, while he attempted to grasp, by the under- 
 standing from without, what can be understood only 
 from the inner life, from the feeling of inward wants, 
 and one's own inward experiences ; so under these 
 circumstances, the delusive pretensions of the Mani- 
 chxan sect, which, instead of a blind belief on autho- 
 rity, held out the promise of clear knowledge and 
 a satisfactory solution of all questions relating t<> 
 things human and divine, presented the stronger 
 attractions to his inexperienced youth.' A. now 
 became a prof r l M-n ]i an. Returning to his 
 native town, he lectured for a short time on ' gram- 
 mar' — that is to say, on literature. Soon after- 
 . he returned to Carthage, to pursue his pro- 
 fession under more favourable auspices. Here he 
 
 in his twenty-seventh year, his first work, 
 jo — a treatise on aesthetics, which 
 
 iortunately been lost. About the same time 
 his spiritual nature became keener and more impera- 
 tive in its demands. The futile speculations of the 
 visionary sect to which he had attached himself now 
 apparent. II.- had a series of interviews 
 
 mversations with Faustus, one of the most 
 
 ted teachers of Manichasism ; and these so 
 Sana, that I 
 in disgust and sad bewilderment, 
 having wasted t i yean in a fruitless search for 
 
 1 and truth. 
 In 883 he went to Rome, followed by the tears, 
 
 vers, and the anxieties of his excellent mother, 
 who was not, however, bereaved of hope, for both 
 
 her faith and her lore were strong. After a shurt 
 stay, A. left Home, and proceeded to Milan, where 
 he became a teacher of rhetoric. No change could 
 more fortunate. At this time, the Bishop 
 of Milan was the eloquent and devout St Ambrose. 
 An intimacy sprang i i en the two. A. 
 
 often went to hear his friend preach. He was not, 
 
 however, as yet a Christian. He had only emerged, as 
 it were, from Manichadsm — the region of night-- 
 and shadows —and was now gazing on the gray dawn 
 of the Platonic philosophy, prophetic of the noon- 
 tide splendours "f Christianity which were soon to 
 burst upon his vision. Still, A. did not afterwards 
 despise this preliminary training ; he was too great 
 and honest a man for that. He confesses that the 
 Platonic writings 'enkindled in his mind an incred- 
 ible ardour ; ' they awakened his deeper spiritual 
 nature, which keenly upbraided him with his sins. 
 Once more he studied the Bible, although from a 
 purely Platonic point of view, and rather wishing to 
 lind in it 'those truths which he had already mado 
 himself acquainted with from the Platonic philo- 
 sophy, but presented in a different form.' II 
 
 k that Christ and Paul, by their glorious life 
 and death, their ilivine morality, their great holiness, 
 and manifold virtues, must have enjoyed much of 
 that ' highest wisdom ' which the philosophers 
 thought confined to themselves. For some time ho 
 clung to his Platonic Christianity, and shaped the 
 doctrines of the Bible according to it ; but when he 
 found that it was weak to overcome temptations, 
 and that 'he himself was continually borne down 
 by the ungodly impulses which he thought he had 
 already subdued,' the necessity of a living personal 
 God and Saviour to rescue him from the condemna- 
 tion of his own conscience, and impart a sanet . 
 vitality to the abstract truths which he worsh 
 shone clear through all the stormy struggles of his 
 heart. In the eighth and ninth books of his Con- 
 fessions, lie has left a noble though painful picture 
 of his inward life during this momentous crisis. It is 
 sufficient to say, that the Spirit of God triumphed. 
 On the 25th of April 3S7 a.d., A., along with his 
 natural son Adeodatus, of whom he seems to have 
 been justly fond, was baptised by Ambrose at Milan. 
 Shortly after, he set out on his return home. At 
 Ostia, on the Tiber, his beloved mother, who had 
 followed him to Milan, died ; her eyes had seen the 
 salvation of her son, and she could depart in peace. 
 After her death, and before leaving Italy for Africa, 
 A. wrote his treatises, De Moril/us Kcclesice Catholicce 
 el de iloribus ManicJtceorum ; De Quanlilale Anima; 
 and De Libero Arbilrio. It is unnecessary to relate 
 at any length the subsequent life of Augustine. 
 His character and principles of action had become 
 fixed, and he now brought the whole majesty of 
 his intellect to bear upon the side of Christianity. 
 Having, as was then customary for converts, 
 divided his goods among the poor, he retired into 
 private life, and composed several treatises — De 
 Genesi Contra Manicluzos, De Musicd, De Magistro, 
 and De Verd BeHgione, which secured him a high 
 reputation. In 391, he was ordained a priest by 
 Valerius, Bishop of Hippo ; and during the next four 
 years, though earnestly engaged in the work of 
 preaching, contrived to write three different works. 
 In 395, he was made colleague of Valerius. Then 
 ensued a period of hot strife, known in church history 
 as the Donatist and Pelagian controversies. A., 
 as may naturally be supposed, having passed through 
 so fierce a EL nee on religious 
 
 questions, would be very jealous both of what he 
 knew to be the truth, and of what he only tiumgld to 
 be the truth. This, added to his acute and pro- 
 found intellect, made him, in spite of the poverty 
 of his historical erudition, a most formidable and 
 relent 1 oist But this portion of his 
 
 career will f treated mare properly under 
 
 l'Ei..u:u\s and I'r.i.Aul.VN CoMTEOVKBSI (q. v.). In 
 .'J'.iT, appeared his Confasiontt, in 13 books. It is 
 
 . earnest, and sacred autobiography of one of 
 the greatest intellects the world has seen. Pa 
 of it have no parallel except in the Psalms of 
 
 iil
 
 AUGUSTINE— AUG USTIN IX 
 
 David. In 413, he conu Oe ( 
 
 and finished it in 426. It is generally considered 
 his mo.-t powerful work. Exception may be taken 
 to much that it contains. The learning is no 
 doubt very considerable, but it is not accurate. 
 A. was an indifferent scholar: lie had studied 
 the Latin authors well; lmt of Greek 'he knew 
 little, and of Hebrew, nothing. 1 .Many of his 
 sings arc based on false and untenable pre- 
 mises, and he en Li ten in his etymolo 
 
 , but in spi oi th e and other drawbacks, 
 the final impression left on the mind is, that the 
 work is one of the most profound and la 
 ments of human genius. In 428, A. publish' 
 Ketraciaiioni >, in which he do ■■< of all 
 
 his previous writings. It is a work of great candour. 
 He frankly acknowledges such errors ami mistakes 
 as he had discovered himself to have conn 
 explains and modifies numerous statements, and 
 modestly reviews his v. II- end was 
 
 now drawing nigh. In 429 the Vandals, under the 
 barbarian Genseric, landed in Africa; next year 
 they be ieged Hippo. A., now in his seventy-sixth 
 year, prayed that God would help his unhappy 
 church, and grant himself a release out of tins 
 present evil world. He died on the -Sth of August 
 430, in the third month of the siege. 
 
 No mind b lintlucncc on the church 
 
 than that of Augustine. Con tency of theol 
 opinion is not to be looked for from him, nor from 
 any of the church fathers. Al of freedom 
 
 was permitted to religious speculation in those un- 
 fettered days, before en acircled with that 
 traditionary sanctity they now possess. 
 we have little difficulty in determining the central 
 
 of Ins theological belief. He held the corrup- 
 tion of human nature through the fall of man, and 
 the consequent slavery of the human will. Both on 
 metaphysical and religious grounds, he asserted the 
 doctrine of predestination, from which he necessarily 
 deduced the corollary doctrines of election and 
 reprobation; and finally, he strenuously supported, 
 
 t the Pelagians, not only these opinions, but 
 also the doctrine of the perseverance of the Bainta 
 At the same time, it is but fair to add that, even on 
 such points, his language is far from uniform; that 
 much of the severity of his doctrines arose from the 
 bitter and painfid remembrance of his own early 
 sins, and from the profound impression which the 
 corrupt state of society in hi tun , and the vast 
 desolations of barbarism, had made on his earnest 
 and susceptible soul; and that, in his di 
 
 flory to ' rod, he sometimes forgot to be just 1 
 u illustration of tbis may be mentioned & 
 
 STeander, Mosheim, and Waddington's Church 
 Histories), that the maxim which justified the chas- 
 tisement of religious errors by civil penalti 
 to burning, was established and confirmed by the 
 authority of A., and thus transmitted to following 
 In his epistle to Dulcitius, a civil magistrate, 
 who shrank from putting in force the edict of Hono- 
 rius against heretics, he uses these words: 'It is much 
 ; ! . should perish by their own fires, 
 
 than that the whole body should burn in the 
 lasting flames of Gehenna, through the desert of their 
 impious dissension.' In the opinion of .Wander, it was 
 to the somewdiat narrow culture, and the peculi 
 sonal experience and temperament i if Augustine, that 
 the doctrines of absolu' D ition and il 
 
 ible grace, first systematized by him, owed, much of 
 that harshness and one-sidedness which so long 
 I their general reception by the church, 
 and which continue to render them repulsive to 
 multit 
 
 His life has been written by Tillemont, and his entire 
 works have been repeatedly edited. The Benedictine 
 
 edition, pub! I I 11 1 1 1679 1700), 
 
 is the best. Numerous editions of the < 
 
 D C D C have also appeared. In the 
 
 'Library of Fathers of the Holy Catholic Chi 
 ' published by .1. II. Parker, there are 
 
 a of A.'s Con) ■ on Bt 
 
 ' John's Ootpd, and 
 
 nt, and Short Treatise* His £ 
 ' has been translated by Trench, and 
 published by Parker and 
 
 AUGUSTINE, St, first Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was originally a monk in the convent of St 
 
 Andrew at Koine. [n 596 he was sent, alone with 
 bj Pope < ■ CI e V I., to convert 
 
 ixons to Christianity, and establish the 
 authority of the Roman see in Britain. The mi 
 aides were kindly received by Ethelbert, king of 
 Cent, whose wife Bertha, dan king of the 
 
 is, was a Christian, and retained a Prankish 
 i in her suite as chaplain. A n 
 d to them, at Canterbury, then called Duro- 
 i ' I liemselves to mor 
 
 .and preaching. The conversion aud I IS 
 of the king contributed greatly to the sued 
 
 Sorts among his subjects, and it is recoi i 
 that in one day A. baptised 10,000 persons i 
 river Swale. Nominal as much of t his com. 
 must have heen. there is abundant testimony to the 
 fact, that a marked improvement in the life and 
 manners of the Anglo-Saxons followed the evai I 
 istie labours of A. and his companions. 
 
 In 597 he went to Aries, by direction of the pope, 
 
 and was there con C 
 
 bury and Metropolitan of England. On his return, 
 he de-patched a presbyter and monk to Rome, to 
 inform the pope of bis success, and obtain in 
 
 on certain questions. Gregory's advices with 
 I to the propagation of the faith are admirable 
 examples of that pious ingenuity which has ofl a 
 characterisi d the mis ionary policy of the Church of 
 Rome. 'I'lm i i" tead of destroying the heathen 
 temples, A. was recommended to convert thi m into 
 Christian churches, by washing the walls with holy 
 water, erecting altars, and substituting holy I 
 and symbols for the images of tie- heathen 
 A.'s subsequent efforts to establish his authority 
 over the native British church were Dot BO 
 
 j ! m tsionary labours, lie died in G04, 
 
 and was buried in the churchyard of the luoni tery 
 
 ; his name, founded by King Ethelbert. His 
 
 body was removed to the cathedral of Canterbury 
 in 1091. Bede's Historia Eo. ' ■ c 
 
 at authority for the life ,.i St \" ustinc. 
 I and pleasing sketch of it will I' 
 ill the Rev. Arthur 1*. Stanley's Historical M > 
 v. Bond. 1855. 
 The site and remains of St A.'s monaster-, 
 purchased in 184 t by Mr Beresford Hope, by whom 
 they were presented to the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in trust, for the erection of a missionary col- 
 
 I in connection with the Church of England. 
 
 This institution was incorporated by royal charter 
 
 in I sis. The buildings, in which as much of the 
 
 structure as possible has been pi erved, 
 
 contain accommodation for about 45 students, w hose 
 
 of study extends over three years. Twenty 
 
 tions have been founded in connection with 
 
 the colh i . 
 
 AUGU'STINES, or AUGUST] NIANS, 
 given to several religiouB bodies in the Etoman 
 Catholic Church. Whether St Augustine ever framed 
 
 any formal rule of monastic life, is uncertain; but 
 
 from his writings, and n 
 l.v as many as thirty monastic fraternitr - h 
 
 the chief were the Canons Regular, the Knights
 
 AUGUSTULCS— AUGUSTUS. 
 
 Templars (q. v.), the Begging Hermits, the Friars 
 I hers or Dominicans (q. v.), ami the Pi 
 stratensians (q.v.). The Canons REGULAR OS St 
 Ai'cisiink, or Austin Canons, appeal to liave been 
 founded or remodelled about the middle of the 
 11th c. Their discipline was less severe than tliat of 
 monks properly so called, but more rigid than that 
 of the secular or parochial clergy. They lived under 
 one roof, having a common dormitory and refectory. 
 Their habit was a long cassock, with a white rochet 
 over it, all covered by a black cloak or hood, whence 
 they were often called Black Canons. In England, 
 where they were established early in the 12th <•., 
 they bad about 170 houses, the earliest, it would 
 seem, being at Nostell, near Pontefract, in York- 
 shire. In Scotland, they had about 25 houses: the 
 earliest at .Scone was founded in 1114, and lilled 
 by canons from Nostell ; the others of most note 
 6 [nchcolm in the firth of Forth, st Andrews, 
 Holyrood, Cambnskenneth, and Inchaffray. 
 
 The Begging Hf.i-.mits, Hkhmits of St Aigis- 
 TOTS, or A i ii S FbiABS, were a much more ;i 
 order, renouncing all property, and vowing to live 
 by the voluntary alms of the faithful. They are 
 believed to have sprung from certain soci' I 
 recluses who, in the 11th and 12th centuries, 
 I especially in Italy without any regulative 
 constitutinn. At the instigation, as is alleged, of the 
 rival fraternities of Dominicans and Franciscans, 
 Pope Innocent IV., about the middle of the 13th c, 
 imposed on. them the rule of St Augustine, whom they 
 claimed as their founder. In 1256, Pope Alexander 
 IV. placed them under the control of a superior or 
 president called a 'general.' In 1287, a code of rules 
 or constitutions was compiled, by which the ordi r 
 continued to be governed. About 1570, Friar 
 Thomas of Jesus, a Portuguese brother of the order, 
 introduced a more austere rule, the disciples of which 
 were forbidden to wear shoes, whence they were 
 called discalceali, or ' barefooted friars.' 
 
 The degeneracy of the order in the 14th c, called 
 into existence new or reformed Auguatinian so 
 among which was that Saxon one to which Luther 
 belonged. But in his day, even these had fallen 
 victims to the general corruption of the priesthood, 
 and ho inflicted serious injury upon it by his unspar- 
 ing denunciations. After tie French Revolution, 
 the order was wholly suppressed in Fiance, Spain, 
 and Portugal, and partly in Italy and Southern 
 my. It was diminished even in Austria and 
 Naples. It is most powerful in Sardinia and 
 America. 
 
 The name of AUGUSTINES was given also to an 
 order of nuns who claimed descent from a convent 
 founded by SI Augustine at Hippo, and of which bis 
 sister was the first abbess. They were vowed to the 
 of the sick and the service of hospitals. The 
 Edtel-Dieu at Paris is still served by them. 
 
 AUGU'STULUS, RoMULTO, the List emperor of 
 the western portion of the Roman empire. His 
 name- was Augustus, but the diminutive title under 
 which he is universally known was given him by 
 the Ro i count of the essential littleness of 
 
 his character. He was the son of Orestes, a l'anno- 
 bf birth and wealth, who rose to high rank 
 under the Emperor Julius N epos, whose favour he 
 repaid by stirring up the barbarian troops in tie pay 
 of Some to mutiny against bun. On the Bight of 
 nperor, On b conferred the vacant throne on 
 his son A. (476 v. iM. n taming all substantial power 
 
 in his own hands. Orestes, tailing to conciliate the 
 barbarians, who had helped him against bfepos, with 
 a grant of the third of the lands at Italy, they, under 
 the command of 06V ed him in 
 
 and capturing, put him to death. A. yielded at 
 once, and being of too little consequence to be put 
 
 th, he was dismissed to a villa near Naples 
 with an am , of GOOD pieces of gold. His 
 
 after-fate is unknown. 
 
 AUGU'STUS, Curs Jin I XT.vviANrs, 
 
 the son of Octavius and Ati.i (daughter oi 
 
 ounger sister of Julius I 
 
 mber B.C. 63. The Octavian family came origin- 
 ally from Velitrae, in the country of the Volsci ; and 
 the branch from which A. descended was rich and 
 honourable. His father had risen to the rank of 
 senator and praetor, but died in the prime of life, 
 when A. was only four years old. A. was carefully 
 educated in Rome under the guardianship of his 
 
 •■■ and his stepfather, Lucius Marcius 1 
 pus. At the age of 12, A. delivered a funeral 
 oration over his grandmother ; at 10, 
 the toga virilis. The talent3 of the youth recom- 
 mended him to his grand-uncle, Julius Caesar, who 
 adopted A. as his son and heir. At the time of 
 Mar h 15, b. < . 44), A. was a 
 student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus, at 
 Apollonia in Ulyricum, where, however, he had been 
 sent, chiefly with a view to gain practical instruc- 
 tion in military affairs. He returned to Italy, 
 assuming the name of Julius Caesar Octavianus, and 
 at his landing at Bmndusium, was welcomed by 
 deputies from the veterans there assembled: but 
 declining their offers, he ch nter Rome 
 
 privately. The city was at this time divided bi I 
 the two parties of the republicans and the D 
 of Mark Antony; but the latter had, by adroit 
 manoeuvres, gained the ascendency, and enjoyed 
 almost absolute power. A. was at tir^t ban. 
 treated by the consul, who refused to surrender the 
 property of Caesar. After some lighting, in which 
 Antony was worsted, and had to flee across the 
 Alps, A., who had made himself a favourite with the 
 people and the army, succeeded in getting the will 
 of Julius Caesar carried out. He found an able 
 friend and advocate in Cicero, who had at lirst 
 regarded him with contempt. The great orator, 
 while imagining that he was labouring in behalf of 
 the republic, was in fact only an instrument for 
 raising A. to supreme pow, r. When Antony 
 returned from Gaul with Lepidus, A. joined them 
 in establishing a triumvirate. He obtained Africa, 
 Sardinia, and Sicily; Antony, Gaul; and Lepidus, 
 Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the 
 massacre of those unfriendly to them in Italy, and 
 by victories over the republican army in Macedonia, 
 commanded by Brutus and Ca i the 
 
 battle of l'liilippi. won by A. and Antony, of which 
 the former unjustly claimed all the credit, whereas 
 it mainly belonged to the latter, the triumvirs made 
 a new division of the provinces A Italy, 
 
 and Lepidus, Africa. The Perusian war, excited by 
 Fulvia, wife of Antony, seemed likely to had to a 
 contest between A. and bis rival; but was ended by 
 the death of Fulvia, and the subsequi at marriage 
 of Antony v. r of Augustus. Shortly 
 
 afterwards, the claims of SextuS Pompeius and 
 Lepidus having been settled by force and fraud, the 
 Roman world was divided between A. and Antony; 
 and a contest tor supremacy commenced between 
 them. W bile Antony was lost in luxurious .1 
 tion at the court of Cleopatra, A. was industa 
 striving to gain the love and confidence of the 
 Roman people, and to damage his rival in public 
 estimation. At length war was declared again 
 queen of Egypt, and at the naval battle of Actium 
 
 (q.V.), B.C. 31, A. was victorious, and became Bole 
 
 ruler of the whole Roman world. Soon afterwards, 
 Antony and Cleopatra ended their lives by suicide. 
 1 i ^'i Antony by Fulvia, and Casarion. son of 
 
 i and ( li op ■■h ; and in 
 
 B.O. 20, after disposing of several affairs in 1
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 I ■. Syria) and Asia Minor, A. returned to 
 in triumph, and closing the temple of Janus, 
 limed universal peace. 
 His subsequent measures were mild ami pn 
 To insure popular favour, he abolished the I 
 
 ; riumvirato, adorn d tl i Some, 
 
 reformed many abuses. At the end of his si 
 consulship (n. c. 27), he proposed to I 
 office, in order that the old republican ] 
 government might 1"- re-established, but he v. as ulti- 
 mately indue 1 to ri tain his power. Hitherto, since 
 its death, the consul had been named Octavian : 
 
 bat nmv the title of Auguttut ( manning '| 
 
 consecrated') was conferred on him. In the 
 eleventh consulship of A. (r..c. 23), the tribunitian 
 power was conferred on him for life by the Benatc. 
 Republican names and forms still remained, hut 
 they were mere shadows. A. was in all but name 
 absolute monarch. In li b.c, on the death of 
 Lepidus, he had the high title of Pontifex Maximus, 
 or High Priest. on him. The nation 
 
 surrendered to him all the power and honour that 
 it had to give. 
 
 After a course of victories in Asia, Spain, Pan- 
 
 nonia, Ualmatia, Gaul, &c, A. (9 n. c.) Buffered the 
 
 st defeat he had sustained in the course of his 
 
 long rule, in the person of Quintilius Varus, whose 
 
 army was totally destroyed by the Germans. 
 
 This loss so afflicted A., that for some time he 
 allowed his beard and hair to prow, as a sign of deep 
 mourning, and often exclaimed : ' Varus, restore 
 mo my legions!' From this time A. confined 
 himself to plans of domestic improvement and 
 reform, and so beautified Rome, that it was said, ' A. 
 found the city built of bricks, and left it built of 
 marble,' He also founded cities in several parts of 
 the empire ; and altars were raised by the grateful 
 
 to commemorate his beneficence ; while by a 
 decree of the senate, the name Augustus wat 
 to the month Sextilis. 
 
 Though surrounded thus with honour and pros- 
 perity, A. was not free from domestic trouble. The 
 abandoned conduct of his daughter Julia was the 
 cause of sore vexation to him. He had no son, and 
 Marcellus, the son of his sister, and Cains and 
 Lucius, the sons of his daughter, whom he had 
 appointed as his successors and heirs, as well as his 
 favourite step-son Drusus, all died early ; whfl 
 
 in Tiberius was an unamiable character whom 
 he could not love. Age, domestic sorrows, and failing 
 health, warned him to seek rest ; and, to recruit his 
 
 h. lc undertook a journey to Campania ; but 
 his infirmity increased, and he died at Ncua ( ! 
 10, A. p. 14), in the seventy-seventh year of 1 
 According to tradition, shortly before his death, lie 
 called for a mirror, arranged his hair neatly, and 
 aid to his attendants: 'Have I played my part 
 well? If so, applaud me!' A. had consummate 
 tact and address as a ruler and politician, and could 
 keep his plans in secrecy while he made use of the 
 passions and talents of others to forward his own 
 i i and great measures which mark' d 
 
 i gn were originated mostly by A. himself. He 
 encouraged agriculture, patronised the arts and 
 literature, and was himself an author; but only a 
 few fragments of his writings have been pn 
 Horace, Virgil, and all the most celebrated Latin 
 poets and scholars, were his friends. His was the 
 Augustan Age of literature. His death threw a 
 shade of sorrow over the whole Roman world ; the 
 bereaved people erected temples and altars to his 
 memory, and numbered him among the gods. 
 AUGU'STUS, Elector of Saxony (1553- 
 son of Duke Henry the Pious, and of Katherine of 
 
 nburg, was born July 31, 1526, at IV 
 then the seat of his father's court. While still a 
 
 551 
 
 youth, he spent some time at Prague, and 
 
 1 an intimate friendship with Maximilian, 
 land's son, afterwards Emperor i 
 
 many. In 1548 he married Anna, dan-liter of 
 i ill. of l 1 miarlc, who was universally 
 
 iff on account of her i tice to 
 
 lUtheranism and of her domestic worth. After the 
 I of his brother. Maurice, in 1663, A. sin 
 
 II is rule is chiefly noticeable as 
 
 - upon the history of the newly established 
 
 tant Church. Equally intolerant and incon- 
 sistent in his theology, A. first used his i 
 influence in favour of theCalvini td< dod neof the 
 oents; and then, in 1674 adopted the Lutheran 
 tenets, and persecuted the Calvinists. On the other 
 hand, however, it must be owned, to his honour, 
 that, by bis skilful internal administration, he 
 
 his country far above the level of any other 
 in Germany, introdud reforms both in 
 
 jurisprudence and finance, and giving a decided 
 
 is to ( ducation, agriculture, manufactures, and 
 commerce. He even wrote a boo!; on the mi 
 ment of orchards and gardens, and command' 
 every newly-married pair should, within the first 
 of their marriage, plant two fruit-trees. The 
 Dresden Library owes its origin to him, as do also 
 most of its galleries of art and science. His own 
 favourite private pursuit was that of alchemy, in 
 which the FJectress Anna also took a part. In the 
 January of 15S6 — the electress having died in the 
 previous year — A. married a young princess of 
 Anhalt, but died a month after, and was buried in 
 the cathedral of Freiberg. He was succeeded by his 
 son, Christian I. 
 
 AUGU'STUS II., V , commonly called 
 
 iong, Elector of Saxony and king of Poland, 
 second son of the elector, John George III., and of 
 the Danish princess, Anna Sophia, was born at 
 Dresden in 1070. His extraordinary strength was 
 ped by a careful physical education, and his 
 mental faculties more successfully cultivated than 
 his morals. From 1G87 to 1689 he travelled over 
 the greatest part of Europe, but was prohibited by 
 his father from visiting Rome, Upon his father's 
 death (1691), he went to Vienna, and there formed 
 an intimacy with Joa ph, king i Home, which 
 materially influenced his politics. When, in 1694, 
 he succeeded to his brother George as Elector, 
 instead of turning I against France, according 
 
 to previous arrangement, he undertook the com- 
 mand of the Austro-Saxon army against the Turks 
 in Hungary. After the battle of Olasch, in 1696, he 
 returned to Vienna as a candidate for the throne of 
 Poland, vacated by John Sobieski. Bidding b 
 than Prince Conti for the crown (10 million i 
 florins), and adopting the Catholic faith, b 
 elected king by the venal nobles ; and having, by his 
 imposing force, awed the adherents of Conti, he 
 was crowned at Cracow, 15th September 1697. On 
 ascending the throne, he promised to regain, for his 
 new kingdom, the provinces that had been ceded to 
 Sweden ; but his efforts to do this only led to the 
 defeat of himself and his allies, his own deposition 
 as king of Poland, the election of Stanislaus Lcsz- 
 
 . and the ignominious peace of Altranstadt in 
 1706. So complete was his hiumliation, that A. was 
 compelled to send a letter of congratulation to the 
 new Polish kin-_'. together with all the crown-jewels 
 and archives. However, on receiving intelligence of 
 the defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa, in 1709, he 
 
 d the treaty of Altran-t'.idt annulled, marched 
 with a powerful army into Poland, formed a fresh 
 alliance with the czar, and recommenced a war with 
 Sweden, which continued racing with redo 
 fury, tdl the death of Charles XII. at Frederickshall, 
 iu 1713, gave a new aspect to affairs, leading first to
 
 AUGUSTUS— AUK. 
 
 1 eventually to 
 
 ■■'. hile, a confederation, headed by a Polish 
 
 nobleman, had been formed against the .Saxons, and 
 
 d them with mueli success, till, in 171C, 
 
 through the mediation of the czar, a compact was 
 
 madelictween the Poles and A., agreeably to which 
 
 ixon troops left the kingdom. The king now 
 
 I himself obi conciliation, and the 
 
 . plendour of his dissolute court BOOT favour 
 
 Polish nobles, who followed his example but 
 
 logely. .Saxony had bitter cause to regret the 
 union of the crowns. Its resources were shame- 
 fully squai d D when want and famine wen 
 in the land, i rnment of the capital, on the 
 ■: , his illegitimate children, and the 
 alchemists who deluded him with hopes of the elixir 
 of life. A. supporte<l the line arts as ministering 
 to luxury, but did little for the cause of science. 
 
 tic in principle, 1 . in temper; ambi- 
 
 D as luxurious; reckless alike in the 
 pursuit of war and pleasure, death overtook him in 
 the midst of projected festivities. On his way to 
 the Warsaw diet, gangrene of an old wound set 
 in February lT.'i.'i. and was buried 
 at Cracow. By his wife — a Protestant, and daughter 
 of the Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulrobach — he 
 left an only son, who succeeded to him. The most 
 celebrated of his numerous illegitimate offspring — 
 amounting, it is affirmed, to somewhere about 300 
 — was Maurice, Count of Saxony. 
 
 ATJGU'STUS III., Frederick, Elector of Saxony 
 and king of Poland, the son and successor of the 
 above, was born in October 1690, and carefully 
 educated by his mother in the Protestant faith. At 
 ige of fifteen, however, he left her tutelage for 
 a tour through Germany, France, and Italy, where 
 he changed his religion, secretly professing Catho- 
 licism at Bologna, in 1712, though the fact was 
 not publicly known in Saxony till five years 
 later. It is possible that an eye to the crown of 
 Poland, and to an alliance with one of the Austrian 
 princesses, may have had something to do with 
 After succeeding his father in the 
 electorate in 1733, he was chosen king of Poland 
 by a part of tho nobility; and triumphing over 
 the rival claims of Stanislaus Leszcynski, sup- 
 ported by Louis XV., was unanimously proclaimed 
 three years later. He inherited his father's sump- 
 tuous tastes, though not his talents ; and his 
 love of art, cultivated by his Italian tour, enriched 
 the gallery of Dresden with noble paintings. The 
 government of his country he made over entirely 
 
 prime minister, Count von Bruhl, whose whole 
 political system consisted iu complete dependence 
 upon Knssia. In 17-1— , alarmed at the mc 
 
 Prussia had obtained by the conquest of 
 
 -. A. formed an alliance with Maria Theresa; 
 and by the secret treaty of Leipsic, contracted to 
 supply her with 50,000 men. But their united troops 
 routed by the Prussians in 1745 ; 
 and Frederick II. pushing on into .Saxony, A. had 
 to escape from his capital, saving his art-treasures, 
 but leaving his I I in the hands of the 
 
 conqueror. In 1746, the peace of Dresden r 
 him Saxony; but th" close of the year again saw 
 
 rabroiled with Prussia. Joining the camp at 
 l'irna. In 1 narrowly escaped being taken prisoner, 
 and had to flee to Poland, where his popularity, 
 never verj IS much diminished by his 
 
 recent reverses in Saxony, added to which the 
 Empress Catharine of Kussia used every effort to 
 [6 him, as being an ally of France. At the 
 
 conclusion of the peace of HubertBburg, A. returned 
 to Dresden, where he died in 1763. II 
 Frederick Christian, succeeded him in the electorate, 
 aud Stanislaus Pouiatowski became king of Poland. 
 
 All: 
 of a family .. hieh was in great part 
 
 included in the Limircan genus Aim, and to many of 
 the species of which, now ranked in other 
 the name A. is still popularly extendi d. 'I 
 cadce are amongst those web-footed birds collectively 
 called ; i (i. e., short-winged) or 1 1 
 
 by Cuvier, remarkable for the shortness of their 
 
 
 Great and Little Auks. 
 
 wings, which they employ as fins or paddles for 
 swimming under water, some being even incapable 
 of living ; and for the position of their legs, further 
 backward than in other birds, which makes walking 
 diilicult, and compels them, when on land, to main- 
 tain an upright attitude. They are distinguished by 
 the very compressed bill, which, in the true auks, 
 is vertically elevated, and so sharp along the 
 as to resemble the blade of a knife; and by their 
 entirely pnlmated feet, destitute of hind toes. The 
 auks are entirely contined to the seas of the nortln rn 
 hemisphere — the penguins taking their place in the 
 southern — and are most abundant in the colder 
 regions. All of them have a dense plumage, which 
 generally exhibits on its surface a beautifully pi ' ! 
 appearance and silvery lustre. The genus ^1/ca, as 
 restricted by Cnvier and i ■ '• us only two 
 
 species, distinguished from the Puffins (q. v.), which 
 also belong to this family, chiefly by the greater 
 length of the bill, and its being covered! with 
 feathers as far as the nostrils. The bill, both in 
 the auks and puffins, is transversely and str 
 grooved. But even the two known species of the 
 restricted genus A from one another in a 
 
 most important particular— the wings of the one, the 
 Great A., being so short that it is quite incap:; 
 flight, like the pci .hieh it may be Al 
 
 hern representative, whilst the other, 
 ,:or-bill. has comparatively long wings, and 
 ill.— Th' Great A [Alea impennU) 
 
 It is an inhabitant of the most 
 northerly shores, and a very rare visitant of to 
 ad Shetland Islands and tie- 11 I 
 It is almost equally rare in Norway and Sweden, 
 and has nearly disappeared even from Iceland and 
 uid, and from localities on the coasts of 
 Labrador and Newfoundland, where it is said to 
 have been formerly frequent The rapidity with 
 which this bird moves under water is extraordinary : 
 
 them has been pursued by a six-oared boat 
 for hours in vain. Li the Alcadcr, the 
 
 Great A. lav- only one egg, which is very large, about 
 live inches iu length, and three in its greatest breadth.
 
 AULIC C0UNCIL-AU11ANT1ACE.E. 
 
 The egg is laid on the bare rock, without any 
 attempt at a neat. — The Kazou-bill (q. v.) (.i. 
 2'orda) is the only other Bpeciea now commonly 
 included in the genus Alea. — The name Lrri'LE A. 
 i often given to a bird also called the Kotcmk (q. v.) 
 [llergvdut Allr, formerly Aha Alle), common in 
 
 arctic regions. The common puffin is smii'li s 
 
 culled the Labrador Auk.- The northern parts of the 
 Pacific Ocean abound in auks remarkable for a 
 somewhat quadrangular bill, notched near the tip, 
 which form the genus Phaleria. One of them, P. 
 /■.■i'luriilit, is known as the l'arrakeet Auk. — All the 
 auks feed upon fishes, crustaceans and other marine 
 animals, which they pursue under water, and for 
 which they dive to great depths, 
 
 AU'LIC COUNCIL (Lat. coda, court or hall), 
 one of the two highest courts of the old German 
 empire, co-ordinate with the Imperial Chamber. 
 
 It came into existence in 1495, and seems to have 
 been at first employed principally in preparing 
 business-matters regarding the crown-lands and the 
 empire generally, in order to expedite the decisions 
 of the Imperial chamber. It soon, howewr, began 
 to assume or acquire higher functions. After 1502, 
 the States submitted important grievances to its 
 independent consideration ; but it did not receive a 
 fixed constitution before 1550. Ill 1G54, it was for- 
 mally recognised as the second of the two supreme 
 courts, and equal in dignity to the Imperial Chamber. 
 It was composed of a president, a vice-president, a 
 vice-chancellor, and eighteen councillors, who were 
 all chosen and paid by the emperor, with the excep- 
 tion of the vice-chancellor, who was appointed by 
 the Elector of Mainz. Of the eighteen councillors, 
 six were l'rotestants, whose votes, when they were 
 unanimous, could not be set aside by those of the 
 others, so that a religious parity was to some extent 
 preserved. The councillors were divided into three 
 classes— counts, barons, and men of learning — all of 
 whom were on a footing of equality, except that the 
 last mentioned received a higher salary, and wei'i- 
 usually advanced into the ranks of the nobility. 
 The Council held aloof from politics, but under 
 its jurisdiction were placed: 1st, All matters of 
 feudality in which the emperor was immediately 
 concerned ; I'd, All questions of appeal on the part of 
 the States from decisions in favour of the emperor 
 in minor courts ; 3d, Whatever concerned the impe- 
 rial jurisdiction in Italy. On the death of the 
 emperor, the Council was dissolved, and had to be 
 reconstructed by his successor. It finally ceased to 
 exist on the extinction of the old German empire in 
 1S0G. 
 
 AUMALE, Charles i>k Lorraine. D&C d', born 
 1554, was an ardent partisan of the League in the 
 politico-religious wars which devastated France in 
 the latter half of the lGth c. The aim of the League 
 was ostensibly to suppress the Huguenots, but in 
 reality to secure the supreme power to the Guises. 
 Closely allied by blood to this crafty and ambitious 
 family, A. from the very first entered with fanatical 
 sympathy into its schemes; and after the murder 
 of the Duke of Guise at LI I) ■■•inln-i- 15SS, 
 
 he became, along with the Duke of Mayenne, the 
 leader of the parly. In 15S9, he seized Paris, 
 dissolved the parliament, and imprisoned its mi ru- 
 bers. Shortly after, he put himself at the head of a 
 body of troops to attack the town of Senlis, but was 
 defeated by La None, and compelled to retreat. 
 Always unfortunate in war, his presence seemed 
 invariably to insure the overthrow of his friends. 
 He commanded a portion of the forces of the League 
 at the battles of Arqucs and lvri, where the Ho ue- 
 nots triumphed under their skdfid and sagacious 
 monarch, Henry IV. But A. was as obstinate as he 
 
 was unlucky, and in the end proved himself as 
 traitorous as he was obstinate. He held out for the 
 i in Amiens until the populace expelled him, 
 
 when he suddenly allied himself with the Spaniards 
 who had invaded Picardy, n rased the royal pardon, 
 
 ami (lei I \ rleil i-Wl'ld 111-' elp n I ',' Several places ill his 
 
 possession. For this he «.: . impeached, condi mm !. 
 and sentenced to be broken alive on the wheel. His 
 property was confiscated, but he himself escaped. 
 lie lived in exile till his death, which took place 
 at Brussels in 1031. He left no male posterity. 
 
 AUMALE, Henri- la ci.m:- I'lniiri'i:. Loins 
 ii'i b:i BANS, DUO l'\ born at Paris, January 16, 1822, 
 i; the fourth son of the late king of France, Louis 
 Philippe, lie enjoyed the privilege -so rare among 
 princes — of being educated along with his fellow- men, 
 
 at the college of Henri IV., where he exhibited 
 considerable talent, and obtained several honours. 
 When 10 years of age, he entered the army, 
 soon distinguished himself by his bravery, and 
 passed rapidly through the various grades of rani;. 
 In 1S43, be embarked at I'.iest for Algeria, where 
 be commanded a subdivision of the French army, 
 and performed some brilliant exploits, the most 
 signal of which was his surprising Abd-el-Kader, 
 when encamped in the environs of Goudjilab. By 
 this COUp dr main, which occurred on the 10th of 
 May bSt.'i, there fell into his hands a multitude of 
 cattle, 4 standards, 501 10 prisoners, and the correspond- 
 ence and treasure of the Emir, lie was, in conse- 
 quence, elevated to the rank of lieutenant-general, 
 and appointed to the government of the province of 
 ( 'onstantine. In 1S47 he succeeded Marshal P.ugeaud 
 in the governor-generalship of Algeria. While hold- 
 ing tins high office, he was exposed to a series of 
 bitter attacks by the Democratic ' opposition' in the 
 Chamber of Deputies, but was ably defended by 
 Cuizot. After the expulsion of his father, he with- 
 drew from Algeria, having first, with self-denying 
 patriotism, exhorted the colony peaceably to obey 
 the orders of the metropolis. The duke now re id 
 in England, and apparently takes no part in 
 politics. He has written two remarkable articles 
 in the A 1 ' vue des Deux Sfondes — one on the Zouaves, 
 and another on the Chasseurs-d-pied. He has also 
 composed a Ilistuire dee Condis, and several other 
 works. 
 
 AUNE, the French cloth-measure corresponding 
 to the English ell. Both words are derived from the 
 I. it. ulna. The English ell = 1J yard = 45 inches ; 
 the French aunt u tuelli (or nouvelk) = 1 ', metre =47 J 
 inches English. The old aunc was a little shorter. 
 
 AUNOY, MARIE-CATnERIXE-.JoiEU.E DE BekXE- 
 vii. id, COMTESSE I)', a celebrated French authoress 
 of the reign of Louis XIV. She was born about 
 1650, and died at Paris, January 17"5. she com- 
 posed fairy tales, romances, and historical memoirs. 
 Among her fairytales may be mentioned. The Yellow 
 Dwarf, The White Cat, and Cherry and Fair Star. 
 Many of these fictions have been translated into 
 English, and are greedily read by school-boys. They 
 have, both in France and other countries, gone 
 through numerous editions, and are the sole monu- 
 of her fame ; for her sentimental novels, 
 Hippolyte, and Comte de Duglat, have long ago 
 vanished from the eyes of men ; while her historical 
 memoirs are uot regarded as in the slightest degree 
 
 trustworthy. 
 
 AURANTIA'CE/E (from anrnntinm, modern 
 Latin for an orange), a natural order of exog 
 plan! :. consisting of trees and shrubs, often of great 
 beauty. Loth leaves and bark are generally very 
 smooth, and all parts are filled with little 
 parent receptacles of a fragrant volatile oil, which 
 especially abounds in the leaves and in the rind of
 
 AUREL1A— AlTJcrf.A. 
 
 the fruit. The leaves are alternate, and always 
 
 articulated with their stalks, which are frequently 
 winged. The flowers have a short, :; 5 toothed, 
 withering calyx, and 3—5 petals, which arc I. road at 
 the base, sometimes slightly coherent, and imbri- 
 cated in bud. Th are equal in num 
 the petals, or a multiple of their number; the lila- 
 slightly coherent in one or more 
 bundles; the anthers terminal and erect. The 
 stamens and petals are inserted on a disk. The 
 ovary is free ; there is one stylo with a thick ish 
 '. The fruit (a / j is pulpy, with a 
 I y rind, of one cell, or of a number 
 
 ; tlie seeds attached to tie 
 with thick cotyledons and no all I unfre- 
 
 quently containing more embryos than one. — The 
 order contains about one hundred known species, 
 of warm climates, and almost all of the East 
 1 The species of the genus Citrus (q. v.) are 
 
 the best known, among which are the orange, lemon, 
 citron, &c. But the order contains many other 
 plants producing agreeable fruits, among winch the 
 ./.';/'• i (see /Ecle) — called Bhel, or Bael, 
 
 in India -Co the Wampee), '/'< 
 
 I . iphasia trifoliala deserve particular 
 notice. The fruits, ripe and unripe, juice and rind, 
 the fin v. . bark, &c, of a number of species 
 
 ai" employed medicinally. The medicinal uses of 
 have been already noticed in the 
 article aeof tic species of < 'tinu will be 
 
 mentioned under their proper heads. The leaves of 
 Bergera Koaiigii are used by the Hindus as a 
 nd tonic, the bark and roots as stimu- 
 lants.— Feronia, elepluinlmn, a large tree growing in 
 most parts of India, yields a gum which i 
 resembles gum-arabic, and is used for similar pur- 
 ine young leaves of this tree have a smell 
 like that of anise, and are used by the native prac- 
 titioners of India as a stomachic and carminative. 
 imia (or Limonia) Laureola and Skintmia 
 OX are remarkable exceptions in this order, 
 a; to the climate to which they are adapted: the 
 fonier grows on the cold and lofty mountains of 
 the north of India, braving frost and snow; the 
 latter, a beautiful shrub, recently introduced into 
 Britain from Japan, is perfectly hardy even in the 
 evea reen leaves and pretty 
 little red berries remainin ; quite uninjured by frost, 
 its small white (lowers, produced early in 
 summer, have the fragrance of orange blossoms. 
 
 AURE'LIA. Sec Chrysalis. 
 
 AUREI.IA'N rs. Lucres Dosrrnus— also named 
 
 Cl m mi -; 1 iii-.m ns and V.\LEi:irs— one of the most 
 powerful of the Roman emperors, was of very 
 humble origin, his father having been a husbandman, 
 lie was born about A.I>. 212, and enlisting early as 
 a common soldier, he rapidly distinguished hi 
 and held the highest military offices under Vale, 
 rianus and Claudius II. On the death of Claudius 
 <\.\i. 27m, .\. was elected emperor by the army. 
 He commenced his reign by vigorous opposition to 
 the barbarian Alcmanni, or M in omanni, whom he 
 expelled. Thereafter, be commenced the erection 
 of a new line of fortified walls round Rome, 
 which were not completed till the reign of Probus 
 (a. D. -Tli). Their ruins still mark the boun- 
 daries of Rome in the time of Amelias. Binding 
 that the province of Dacia (now Wallachia) could 
 not be maintained against the assaults of the 
 Goths, he surrendered it, on certain conditions, and 
 
 hened the frontier of the Soman empire by 
 making the Danube its boundary. He next turned 
 his attention t.. the East, where the renowned 
 queen, Zenobia (q. v.), had extended her sway from I 
 
 Syria to Asia Minor and Egypt. A. defeated her in I 
 
 two battles, and besieged her in Palmyra, from which 
 ' inpted to . :l the saw defence would 
 
 prove unavailing. Sin- was, however, taken p 
 
 i. and was treated 
 Uy. Shortly after A. had departed, a nen 
 rection toe am A, in 273, at d 
 
 the splendid city up to di -traction. A. was again 
 called to the East by a rebellion in Egypt insti- 
 gated by I'iiiiiii-. a merchant of great mfi 
 which he speedily quell I. B ides, Tetricus, who 
 had held imperial power in Caul since before the 
 
 I un. ,1.1.- to wield 
 it, surrendered it to Aurelian. By restoring good 
 discipline in the army, order in done.:,- affairs, 
 and political unity to the Roman dominions, A. 
 I tie- title awarded to him by the senate — 
 ■ Be fcorer of the Roman Empire. 1 Me fell a 
 victim to conspiracy during his campaign against 
 the Persians (a. d. 270). 
 ATJRE'LII'S, Mabcob. See Anton i 
 Al'RICLES, two cavities of the heart. See 
 Heart. 
 
 AURICULA [Primula Auricula), a plant 
 same genus with the Primrose (q. v.), much cultivated 
 in flower-gardens. The A. has long been a florist's 
 flower. It was highly esteemed by the Romans, and 
 has, at least since the : of the ISth c, 
 
 received particular attention from the florists of 
 England and Holland. It is one of those ll 
 the cultivation of which is often most successfully 
 
 Auricula (wild state). 
 
 prosecuted in the little gardens of operatives near 
 large towns. Lancashire is particularly famous for 
 
 smooth, dark-green leaves, 
 (or leafless stems), and calices, covered with a mealy 
 powder. A similar tine meal appears also on the 
 flowers, and adds much to their beauty. The A. 
 is a native of the Alps and other mountains of 
 tie- middle and south of Europe, and of sub-alpine 
 situations in the same countries. It is found 
 on the Caucasus and the mountains of Syria; it 
 grows in shady and moist places. In a wild 
 
 comparatively small flowers, of a simple 
 
 colour, on short stalks, forming an umbel 
 
 of generally six or seven on one scape, with the
 
 AURICULA— ACT! OP. A BOItEALIS. 
 
 game delightful fragrance which aids so much to 
 
 make it a favourite flower in cultivation. The 
 
 leaves arc used by the inhabitants of the Alps as a 
 
 tori ■ hs. 
 
 By cultivation and art, the A. has b 
 
 to great beauty am 1 p] odour of colour. Bed, pink, 
 
 crimson, apple-green, and mulberry are the chief 
 
 rent varieties exhibit, (fore 
 
 than 1200 varietii I tve been reckoned, and new 
 
 .re continually r id. .Some of them 
 
 are entirely of one colour, others of two or more; 
 some are delicately shaded, and some van 
 The mere colour of an A. is not of so much con- 
 sequence, in the eye of a florist, as the form and 
 shading. The chief requisites of a good A. are tar 
 flowers, so many of them on one scape as to give 
 fulness to the umbel, the tlower-s talks BO strong t li.it 
 the flowers do not hang down ; the scape itself must, 
 be so tall, that the umbel of flowers may rise com- 
 pletely above the leaves, and so strong as to I 
 erect; the flower must be Dearly round; the while 
 or yellow eye in its centre must be distinct and round, 
 its colour not mixing with the ground colour, which, 
 however, may mix at the outer part with the green 
 of the margin. The green margin adds much to 
 the beauty of many varieties. The mcaliuess of the 
 flower differs much in different varieties. — The A. 
 blooms in April and May, and often also a second 
 time in the end of autumn, which adds to the charms 
 of the flower-border, although it is to the first or 
 proper flowering-season that the florist looks. It 
 succeeds best in a rich light sod, and cultivators 
 diligently prepare for it composts of various kinds, 
 but in g.neral consisting chiefly of fresh loamy soil, 
 and of well-rotted horse or cow dung, often with 
 the addition of a little sand. The finer varieties are 
 always cultivated in pots, and require great atten- 
 tion. They are protected from the severe weather 
 of winter, and during the flowering-season, from wind 
 and rain. They ought, however, previous to flower- 
 ing, to stand in an any, sunny situation. Their deli- 
 cacy forms a striking contra I to the natural hardi- 
 ness of the plant ; but few sights are more pleasing 
 than that of a collection of choice auri 
 fully arranged. They are propagated by offsets, 
 generally in the latter part of August. — When it is 
 proposed to raise the A. from seed, care ought to he 
 taken to select the finest flowers, which are encour- 
 aged to ripen their seeds by exposure to sun and air, 
 hand-glasses being placed over them during I 
 rains. The seed is sown either in autumn or spring, 
 generally in boxes placed under shelter, or in a 
 Blight hot-bed. The more weakly plants are tended 
 with particular care, as they are generally found to 
 produce the finest flowers. 
 
 The name A., originally Latin, is derived from 
 . an car, on account of a fancied resemblance 
 of the leaves to the ears of an animal. 
 
 AURICULA, a genus, and AUIUCU'LID.1'. o 
 family of Gastropod Mollusca. They have a spiralshell, 
 
 Auricula. 
 
 covered with a horny epidermis, the first whirl very 
 and the spire short, the aperture elongated and 
 
 toothed. They belong to that section of Gastropods 
 558 
 
 in which the sexes are united in the individual, 
 and to the same order with the common i 
 
 I for breath:, 
 air, although some of them an 
 for a . i time in water. Some of them 
 
 inhabit fresh-water marshes, and others prefer the 
 of salt water. They generally belon 
 
 warm climates, and s Main alar 
 
 ■ native oi the En t [ndii . i i known 
 to shell-collectors by the name oi Mid i i'b Ear. 
 AUEI'OULAR CONFESSION. See Com , 
 AURI'CULATE, in Botany, a Germ 
 
 . stipules, 4c, and signifying that they have 
 at the base two small car-like lob 
 
 AURILLAC, a town of Fran of the 
 
 department of Cantal (Auvergne). A. is situated in a 
 pleasant valley on the banks of the Jourdanne, about 
 2G9 miles south from Paris. It is said to owe its 
 to a Benedictine monastery founded in the 
 by St Gerard. The English, in the lb 
 15th centuries, often besieged the town, and it wa I 
 
 fy taken and pillageddurii 
 in Prance in the lGth c. The streets are wide, but 
 irregular, and are kept, cl an by streams supplied by 
 voir above the town and by a canal from the 
 Jourdanne. The neighbouring quarries supply . 
 to cover the bouses. The principal buildings of A. 
 e churches of Notre Dame and St Gerard, St 
 St iphen'a Castle, the theatre, college buildnu , 
 which contain a valuable public library, and I lie 
 corn-market. There is also a monument erected to 
 the memory of the French philanthropist, M. de 
 Montyon. Paper, jewellery, lace, copper ut 
 leather, and beer are the chief industrial products. 
 Pope Sylvester II. was born at A., and the infamous 
 Carrier of the first French revolution. Pop. about 
 11,000. 
 
 AURO'RA (styled Eos by the Greeks), the god- 
 dess of the dawn, or 'morning redness,' was the 
 daughter of Hyperion and Theia, anil Bister of Eelios 
 ami Selene, and wife of the Titan Astraius. Zephyrus, 
 
 I, Notus, Hesperus and the other stars 
 her children. She was described as rising in the 
 morning from her bed in the ocean, borne along on 
 a chariot drawn by the divine steeds Lampus and 
 Phaeton, ascending heaven from the river i ' 
 where she lifted with her 'rosy fingers' the curtain 
 of night, and announced the light both to gods and 
 inn. Homer frequently describes A. as the godd 
 of day, and the tragic writers identified A. witli 
 llcinera (the day). She was represented as el 
 in a rosy-yellow robe, with a star shining on her 
 ad, and a torch in her right hand. She had a 
 passion for mortal youths, and carried off Orion, 
 Clcitus, and Tithonus. 
 
 AURO'RA BOREA'LIS, or NORTHERN 
 LIGHTS (Ger. Nordlidd), the name given to the 
 luminous phenomenon which is seen towards the 
 north of the heavens by the inhal litanta of the I 
 latitudes. During the winter of the northern hemi- 
 sphere, the inhabitants of the arctic zone are without 
 the light of the sun for months together, and their 
 dreary night is relieved by the light of tb 9 
 beautiful meteor, which occurs with great frei | 
 in these regions. Those who have explored the 
 southern seas have seen the same phenomenon in the 
 direction of the south pole, so that the tenn Polar 
 Lights might be more appropriate than Northern 
 i to designate the aurora. The appearance of 
 the A. B. has been described by a great variety of 
 observers, both in Northern and Central line, 
 of whom give substantially the same account of the 
 manner in which the phenomenon takes place, it is 
 briefly as follows: A dingy aspect of the sky in the 
 du'ection of the north is generally the precursor of
 
 AURORA BOB I 
 
 the aurora ; and this gradually becomes darker in 
 colour, and assumes the [una of a circular I 
 surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting a 
 end on ths horizon. This dark segment, as it is 
 called, has the appearance of a thick cloud, and is 
 frequently seen as such in the fading tv. 
 the development of the auroral 1 nt, [te ilensity 
 must, however, be very small, as stars are soil; 
 seen shining brightly through it. This dark se 
 is bounded by a luminous arch of a blui b 
 colour, which varies in breadth from 1 to diameters 
 of the moon, having the lower edge sharply d 
 and the upp the breadth of the 
 
 arch is small. This arch may be considered to be a 
 part of a luminous ring elevated at a considerable 
 distance above the earth's surface, and having its 
 centre corresponding with some point near the north 
 pole. An observer al d roes south of this 
 
 auroral ring would see towards the north only a 
 Email arc of it, the larger part being hid by the 
 earth; to one situated not so far south, it would 
 appear as a larger and higher arch ; to one placed 
 
 below it, it would be seen as an arch passing through 
 the zenith ; and to one situated within the ring and 
 
 c north, it would be found as an arch i 
 Dating in the south. On this supposition, nearly all 
 of the auroral arch may be 
 accounted for. The centre of the ring com 
 probably with the magnetic north, which is at pre- 
 sent situated in the island of Boothia Kclix. I 
 it La that in Greenland, which is situated to the cast of 
 this island, the auroral arch has been seen stretching 
 from north to south with its highest point in the 
 west. The luminous arch, once form 
 
 for several hours, and is in a constant si 
 motion. It rises and falls, extends towards the east 
 and towards the west, and bre:i';s sometimes in one 
 part, sometimes in another. These motions become 
 all the more observable when the arch is al tout to 
 shoot forth rays; then it becomes luminous at one 
 point, eats in upon the dark segment, and a ray of 
 similar i to the arch mounts with the 
 
 rapidity of lightning towards the zenith. The ray 
 ■ form ill of time ; 
 
 but undergoes continual changes, moving ea 
 and westward, and fluttering uks a ribbon a 
 by the wind. After somo time, it gradually fades 
 in brightness, and at last gives way to other 
 rays. When the aurora attains its full brightness 
 and activity, rays an' projected from every part 
 of the arch, and if they do not rise too high, it 
 presents the appearance of a comb furnished 
 teeth. When the rays are very bright, they some- 
 times assume a green, sometimes a violet, a purple, or 
 a rose colour, giving to the whole a variegated and 
 brilliant effect, The accompanying sketch, taken 
 from Midler's Kosmisclte Pkysih, of the A. B. 
 in Norway, represents ■ beautiful aurora of this 
 comb-shaped character ; the effect of colour, how- 
 ever, is wanting to complete the picture. \\ h 
 rays darted by the luminous arch are numerous and 
 of great length, they culminate in a point which i3 
 situated in the prolongation of the dipping-needle, 
 somewhat south-east of the tenith. There they 
 form what is called the Boreal t roum ; and th i 
 heavens, towards the east, west, and north, p 
 
 the appearance of a vast cupola of fire, support 
 columns of variously col he rays 
 
 are darted less brilliantly, the crown first i 
 
 then, here and there, the light becomes faint and 
 
 intermittent, till at last tin- whole phenomenon 
 
 fades from the sky. 
 
 The preceding description indie neral 
 
 features of the appearance of the A. I'.. ; but - 
 auroras have been described which presented striking 
 
 pecidiarities. Sometimes the phenomenon assumed 
 the form of one or more curtains of light, depe 
 from dingy clouds, whose folds wire agitated to and 
 fro, as if by the wind. Sometimes this curtain 
 sr, mid to consist of separate ribbons of tight, 
 arranged side by side in groups of differ) nt 1 I 
 and attaining their greatest brilliancy at the lower 
 In this country the A. B. seldom occurs 
 with the distinctness and brilliancy which attend 
 it in northern latitudes, but the description just 
 given portrays the type to which such appearance of 
 the meteor more or less approximates, 
 
 Tho height of the aurora has been variously 
 
 W
 
 AURUXGAP.AD-AURUNGZEBE. 
 
 estim; i i i>t observers were inclined to place 
 
 the it of it beyond the atmosphere; lmt this 
 hypothesis is untenable, as the aurora does nol 
 
 rotation of the earth, lmt 
 appears to 1"- in every respect a terrestrial pheno- 
 
 i- By taking observations of the altitu 
 point of tlie arch of the same aui 
 
 it stations, heights varying from 5 to 500 
 
 have been calculated. The cause of these 
 widely differing results may be found in the prob- 
 ability that exists of each obi ing a different 
 arch of the aurora for himself, and he 18, in I 
 
 . furnished with no comparable or reliable 
 data for his calculations. It is now, hov 
 
 admitted, on what are considered to be 
 Li at grounds, that the A. B. occurs at, various 
 heights, and that it is seldom found beyond ninety 
 miles above the surface of the earth. The distance 
 of the stations at which the same aurora has been 
 visible, indicates the enormous geographical extent, 
 and Likewise the groat altitude which tin/ phenomenon 
 frequently attains. One aurora, for in 
 which occurred on the .'id of September 1839 — 
 Been in the Isle of Skyc by Si. do Saussure ; 
 at Paris, by the astronomers of the Observatory ; 
 at Asti, in the Sardinian states, by M. Qn 
 at Newhaven, in Connecticut, by Mr Herrick ; 
 and at New Orleans, by credible observers. On 
 the other hand, some observers of eminence 
 assert that the aurora sometimes descends to the 
 r m of the clouds, and appears almost as a local 
 phenomenon. A brilliant aurora was seen by Mr 
 Farqnharson, the minister of Alford, in Aber- 
 deenshire, on the 20th of December 1829, from eight 
 to half-past eleven in the evening, above a 
 
 bank of clouds, which covered the tops of the hills 
 
 to the north of where he lived, and winch never 
 attained an altitude of more than 20°. The same 
 aurora was seen in the zenith, at a quarter-past 
 nine, by Mr Paul, another minister, at Tulh 
 which is about two miles north of Alford, so that 
 the height of it could not have been quite 4000 
 feet. 
 
 The noise that is alleged to accompany the 
 A. P.. in high latitudes would indicate for it a 
 comparatively moderate height. Some of those v lio 
 have heard it, compare it to the noise that is pro- 
 duced by the rolling of one piece of silk upon 
 another; and others, to the sound of the wind Mowing 
 against the flame of a candle. In Siberia, it has been 
 related that this noise sometimes resembles that 
 attending the discharge of fireworks; and that the 
 dogs of the hunters, when overtaken by such an 
 aurora, lay themselves with terror on the ground.* 
 
 The intimate connection between the A. B. and the 
 magnetism of the earth is shewn by various facts. 
 During the occurrence of the phenomenon, the mag- 
 netic needle appears very much disturbed, some- 
 times deviating several degrees from its normal 
 position, and appearing to be most affected when the 
 aurora is brightest ; and this oscillation is frequently 
 perceived far beyond the district where the aurora is 
 seen. The vertex, likewise, of the luminous arch is 
 almost always found to be in or very near the 
 magnetic meridian, and the boreal crown has its 
 seat in the prolongation of the freely suspended 
 needle. There seems, moreover, to be a connection 
 between the magnetic poles of the earth in regard to 
 the aurora, for, so far as has been ascertained, the 
 meteor occurs simultaneously at both. The origin 
 of the A. B. is as yet a matter of conjecture. I in- 
 most common hypothesis is, that it is an electrical 
 
 • Arctic voyntrers, such as Parry and Franklin, throw doubt 
 on the existence of any such noise, for not one of the numer- 
 ous and brilliant auroras seen by them was ever attended with 
 the faintest sound. 
 M0 
 
 phenomenon; and this is borne out to some extent 
 by the great resemblance which the light attending 
 the passage of electricity through a nearly v. 
 jar bears to the luminous appearance of the aurora. 
 If one of tie- vacuous tubes lately invented by Mr 
 Gassint lie brought into tl lurhood of a 
 
 powerful electrical machine, both while the machine 
 is in motion and for some time after, flashes of light 
 in tie- wire at the one end of tin- tube to 
 that at the other extremity, which bear a striking 
 lance to the auroral rays. If the Conditions 
 
 ary for the production of the aurora be similar 
 
 to those holding in this experiment, it must be caused 
 
 by the electricity accumulated round the magnetic 
 
 discharging itself through the rare strata of the 
 
 re; but how such conditions (if 
 
 actual) occur, is a question still in need of solution. 
 
 AURUNGABAD, or Throne-lown, the name of 
 at least four places in India. The most important 
 is in the territory of the Nizam, situated on the 
 Doodna, a tributary of the Godavery. Its lat. is 
 10° M' X.. and long. 7.V 21' E. It is one of the stations 
 of the Nizam's army. In 1825, its population was 
 estimated at 00,00(1 — a number supposed to have 
 I Me then considerably diminished, its monuments 
 
 of former grandeur are a palace, built by Aurungzebe, 
 and the mausoleum of Aurungzebe's daughter. The 
 
 former is now in ruins; and the latter, though bear- 
 ing some resemblance to the Taj Mahal of Agra, is 
 
 greatly inferior. 
 
 AURUNGZEBE (properly, Aurangzih, 'Orna- 
 m nt of the Throne') was the most powerful of the 
 Great Moguls, the last who ruled with energy and 
 effect, He was born on the 22d October 1G1S, and 
 was ten years old when, his grandfather dyin , his 
 father, Shah-Jehan, ascended the throne. A. early 
 aspired to wield the rod of empire, but he craftily 
 hid his designs beneath the cloak of piety. In 
 
 Aurunszebe.— From a Native Drawing. 
 1657, his father, who had previously promoted him 
 
 to high civil and military olticcs in the state, in per- 
 forming the duties of wliich he greatly distinguished 
 himself, was Beized with an illness from which he 
 was not expected to recover. The reins of power 
 were at once seized by his eldest son, lima, who 
 treated his brothers very arbitrarily— Shuja' at 
 that time being governor of "Bengal, A. of the Deccan, 
 and Murad of Guzerat. The first immediately 
 took up arms. A.'s pohcy was to let the two fight 
 it out, and exhaust each other, and then to play off 
 his third brother against the victor. He conferred 
 with Miirad; assured him he had no earthly ambi- 
 tion ; that the crown he strived for was a spiritual,
 
 AUSCULTATION— AUSTEN'. 
 
 anil not a temporal one ; anil that, for affection's sake, 
 and with a view to promote the interests of the true 
 faith — Dara was liberal in his religion! opinions, and 
 had written a book to prove that Mohammed and 
 Brahma agreed in all essential points— he would 
 support his pretensions to the throne. Murad 
 believed him, and the forces of the two wire joined. 
 Meanwhile, Kara having overcome Shuja's army, 
 directed his forces against his other two brothers; 
 but A.'s plausibility prevailed over Dura's generals, 
 who deserted, and Dara had to seek safety in night. 
 By this time, however, Shah-Jehan had son, 
 recovered. A. professed the utmost loyalty, but 
 secretly gave his son instructions to take possi 
 of Shah-Jehan's palace, which was done, and the 
 Aged monarch was made prisoner. A. next seized 
 and confined his too confiding brother, Murad; and 
 after a struggle of two or three years' duration, 
 Dara and Shujfi also fell into his power, and all 
 three were put to death. The sceptre was now firmly 
 within the grasp of Aurungzcbe. Ho professed not 
 to care for the imperial insignia, but was ultimately 
 induced to receive them on August 2, 1678. He, at 
 the same time, assumed tin presumptuous title of 
 Alemgfr, 'Conqueror of the World.' He also took 
 the title of Molu-eddin, ' the Reviver of Religion.' 1 n 
 the seventh year of A.'s reign, his father died, at a 
 good old age ; but there arc suspicions, nevertheless, 
 that his death was hastened by slow poison, admini- 
 stered by command of his son. 
 
 A.'s long reign of half a century was distinguished 
 by great outward prosperity, but the empire was 
 d at its heart. Everywhere there was dis- 
 trust ; A., who had established his empire by fraud, 
 was naturally enough distrusted by all He lacked 
 confidence in his statesmen, who, in their turn, dis- 
 trusted him and one another. His sons imitated 
 him in his disobedience to his father, and the Hin- 
 dus, whom he treated with great harshness, excited 
 the Mahrattas against him in the south. Still his 
 great abilities sufficed during lus reign not only to 
 preserve his empire intact, but even to enlarge it 
 considerably. Discord between the monarchs of 
 Bijapur and Golconda, which was mainly due to 
 his policy when acting as governor of the Deccan, 
 enabled him to add these two kingdoms to his 
 empire. But the seeds of decay which had been 
 sown in his reign bore ample fruit in the reign of 
 his son. The decadence of the Mogul empire dai -s 
 from A.'s death, which took place at Ahnn dnuggur, 
 on the 21st February 1707, in the eighty-ninth year 
 of his age, and fiftieth of his reign. The latter year's 
 of A.'s life were passed in misery. The memory of 
 his own crimes weighed heavy on his soul. He lived 
 in constant dread that he himself would receive of 
 the measure which he had meted out to others. His 
 court was remarkable among Oriental courts for its 
 economy and freedom from ostentation. A.'s charac- 
 ter was not without its good features, as instanced 
 by the fact, that in the i i i, when 
 
 there was a great famine in the land, he gave unre- 
 servedly the funds of his treasury, whi 
 greatly augmented by his frugality, to procure food 
 i'or his people. 
 
 AUSCULTA'TION (Lat. ausadio, to 1 
 mode of detecting die cialrj those o i 1 
 
 heart and lungs, by listening to the sounds produ sed 
 
 in the cavity of the chest. This is done either by 
 the unassisted ear (Immediate A.), or by the aid of a 
 simple sound-conveying instrument, the stethoscope 
 (q.v.) (Mediate A.j. By rare and attention, the 
 normal sounds produced by respiration and the 
 beating of the heart may be di ;tinguished from the 
 it abnorma 1 sounds indicating disease* A. is 
 classed among the most important of discoveries 
 in modern medical science. Its details are ably 
 
 explained by the discoverer, Laennec. See Per- 
 01 [ow. 
 
 AUSO'NIUS, Decits Magi-TOB, the most conspi- 
 cuous Roman poet in the 4th c. after Christ, 
 bora at Burd gala (Bordeaux), about 309 A. u. 
 C asserts that his father, Julius A., was the 
 favourite physician of the Emperor Valentinian, but 
 the assertion has no historic basis, so far as we know. 
 He was, however, a man of considerable importane •, 
 having been at one time honorary prefect of Illyri- 
 cum, and he appears to have taken eare that the 
 young A. should receive an excellent education. 
 Many amiable female relatives fostered, and prob- 
 ably flattered the talents of the boy. After finish- 
 ing his curriculum at Toulouse, he returned to 
 Bordeaux, where, after practising for a short time 
 at the bar, he turned his attention to literature, and 
 soon distinguished himself as a professor of oratory. 
 Liter, he was appointed by Valentinian 
 tutor to his son Gratian ; afterwards quaestor, and, 
 by Gratian, prefect of Latium, and subsequently 
 consul of Gaul (379 A. p.). On the death of Gratian, 
 A. retired from public life to his estate at Bordeaux, 
 where he occupied himself with literature and rural 
 pursuits until the time of his death (392 A. D.). The 
 question whether or not A. was a ' Christian,' has 
 occasioned much controversy, and remains yet 
 unsettled. His works include translations of Greek 
 eclogues, a collection of 150 epigrams, epistles in 
 verse and prose, 20 so-called idyls and other de- 
 scriptive pieces, which, though admired in their day, 
 are generally worthless, and bear all the marks of 
 the corrupted taste prevalent in literature during 
 his time. But though destitute of every true poetic 
 quality, A. occasionally displays a certain neatness 
 and grace of expression, wliich shew that, in a 
 better era, he might have proved a greater poet. 
 Besides these, he also wrote a panegyric on the 
 Emperor Gratian, full of bombastic phrases and 
 fulsome adulation. Editions of his writings have 
 been given by Scaliger (Leyden, 1575), Tollius 
 (Amsterdam, 16C9— 1671), and Souchay (Paris, 1730). 
 
 AUSTEN, Jane, a novelist of deservedly high 
 reputation. Her father was rector of Steventon, 
 Hampshire, at which place his daughter was born, 
 December 16, 1775. Mr Austen, who was himself 
 a gentleman of some literary attainments, bestowed 
 on his daughter an education superior to that 
 usually given to young ladies in her sphere of life 
 in the end of last century. Jane was distinguished 
 alike by good sense, sweetness of disposition, and 
 personal attractions. Her novels, which are rather 
 limited in subject, are remarkable for the truth- 
 fulness with which they portray the everyday life 
 of the middle classes of England in her tune, and 
 for their di licate, yet withal distinct discrinm 
 of the various shades and peculiarities of char 
 Sir Walter Scott said of her: 'That young lady 
 had a talent for describing the involvements, 
 feelings, and characters of ordinary life which is 
 to me the most wonderful 1 have ever met with. 
 big bow-wow 1 can do myself like any one 
 going; but the exquisite touch, which renders 
 common-place things and characters interesting from 
 the truth of the description and the sent in 
 
 1 to me.' Ih-s A.'s first four novels — Sense 
 ntibilUy, Pridt <■ 'Part, 
 
 and Emma vn re published anonymouslv between 
 1SU and 1S10. Northrtmger Abbey and Persi 
 followed, with her name on the title-page, in ISIS, 
 alter her death, which took place at Winchester, 
 July 24, 1817. 
 
 AUSTEN, Wiiitam. an English metal-worker 
 and .1 tie- 15th c . o as the 
 
 constructor of the famous tomb of Richard da 
 
 Ml
 
 AUSTERLITZ— AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, in St Mary's Church, 
 Warwickshire. Men of taste and judgment nave 
 
 not hesitated to put his works on an equality with 
 those of Italian artists of the same period. 
 
 AU'STERLITZ, a small town in Moravia, 
 12 miles east-south-east from the town of Briinn, 
 stands on the Littawa, and has a population of 
 2400. A. has a handsome palace; but it is cele- 
 brated chiefly as the place where Napoleon L, in 
 December 1805, defeated the combined forces of 
 Austria and Russia, under the command of their 
 respective emperors. Afterthe capitulation of 
 at Ulm, October 17, Napoleon had marched on 
 without opposition to Vienna, of which he took 
 possession, November 11, 1805. The Russian and 
 Austrian forces had retreated to Moravia, and 
 Napoleon had fixed his head-quarters at Briinn. 
 Towards this locality the troops of Alexander 
 and Francis marched in tive parallel columns to 
 offer battle. The movements of the allies were ill- 
 conducted, and evidently made without a due know- 
 ledge of the strength of the French army, which was 
 concealed by the tactics of Napoleon. It amounted 
 to about 80,000 men ; while the allied armies 
 numbered 84,000, of which 16,000 were cavalry. 
 The battle commenced at seven, on the morning of 
 December 2, and the Russian line was soon broken. 
 The left wing of the allies suffered severely towards 
 the close of the engagement, and endeavoured to 
 save themselves by crossing a frozen lake ; but 
 Napoleon ordered his artillery to play upon the ice, 
 which was broken up, and about 2000 perished in 
 the water. According to Alison, the allies lost 
 30,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and the 
 French 12,000. Russian and French accounts make 
 their respective losses smaller. The battle was 
 followed oy an armistice, the terms of which were 
 dictated by Napoleon ; and immediately after, on 
 the 26th of December, by the treaty of Presburg, 
 which determined that Austria should surrender the 
 Venetian territories, and also her possessions in 
 Swabia and the Tyrol. 
 
 AU'STIN, the capital of Texas since 1S44, is 
 situated on the left bank of the Colorado, in lat. 
 30 s 15' N., long. 97° 47' W., at a distance of 200 
 miles from its mouth. In the season of high-water — 
 that is, in the winter — A. is accessible to steam-boats 
 from the sea. Population, in 1853, estimated at 
 3000. 
 
 AUSTRALA'SIA, a term etymologically equiva- 
 lent to Southern Asia, but according to usage 
 different. While Southern Asia vaguely means the 
 lower regions of that coLtinent, A. definitely indi- 
 cates those large, or comparatively large, islands 
 which, lying between the Malayan or Indian Archi- 
 pelago and Polynesia Proper, are at once rounded 
 off in collective position from the former, and 
 distinguished in individual rmiguitude from the 
 latter. The islands in question are chiefly Papua 
 or New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, 
 New Caledonia, New Hebrides, New Ireland, and 
 New Britain — all to be again noticed in their 
 places. Though the name is not in general use, yet 
 it seems necessary, to a satisfactory system of 
 geographical classification. In its entire extent, A 
 cannot be much less than Europe. 
 
 AUSTRA'LIA, the south-west division of Aus- 
 tralasia. By some, it is strictly defined to be an 
 island — as, indeed, may either of the masses of land 
 called the Old and the New Worlds — while by others 
 it is loosely described as a continent. It is bounded 
 on the W. by the Indian Ocean ; on the N., by Torres 
 Strait ; on the E., by the Pacific ; and on the S., by 
 Bass's Strait. It extends in S. lat. from 10° to 39', 
 and in E. long, from 113° to 154°; while its longest 
 
 dimensions, as incidentally noticed under the head 
 of America, may be said to run respectively on a 
 meridian and a parallel. The parallel in question is 
 that of about 25°, nearly the mean lat. of A. ; and 
 the meridian is that of 142 or 143 , near ! 
 long, of Australasia — a meridian, too, which, when 
 produced in I tion. seems to mark out both 
 
 Tasmania and Papua as geological oontinuatio 
 Australia. In English measure, the greatest bn 
 from north to south is upwards of 2000 ; and the 
 greatest length from east to west nearly 20011 milts. 
 Of the resulting rectangle of 5,200,000 square I 
 A. comprises more than a half, perhaps four- 
 sevenths, or, in all, about 2,970,000 square miles — 
 half the area of South America, as the next larger 
 continent, or ten times that of Borneo, as the next 
 smaller island. 
 
 In the mutual relations of itself and the ocean 
 — a point of vast importance to so large a mass 
 of laud — A is decidedly inferior to every one of 
 the grand divisions of the globe. It is not indented 
 by the sea, as is North America on the east, or Asia 
 on the east and south, or Europe on all sides but 
 one. Again, as to navigable channels between the 
 coast and the interior, A. is not to be compared 
 to Africa with its Nile and its Zambezi, its ."■■ 
 and its Congo, its Gambia and its Senegal, and its 
 many smaller arteries of communication besides. 
 
 Among the indentations of the coast, the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, on the north-east, the only one of 
 considerable magnitude, does, it is true, penetrate 
 inwards about 500 mdes from Cape York on the 
 east, and about 400 from Cape Arnhem on the west. 
 This opening is entirely Burrounded by tri 
 
 . rendered suitable for colonisation by the 
 it and moderate rains. In connection with 
 the construction of the overland electric telegraph 
 from Adelaide, through the heart of the continent, 
 to Port Darwin on the (iulf of Carpentaria, <l 
 2000 miles — effected by the Government of s. Aus- 
 tralia, and opened in 1872— settlements have 
 place in territories very different from what earlii 
 servations seemed to indicate. For, saving the i 
 lying 'u the centre in lat. 27° to 25 S.. (he interior 
 of Australia is found to be covered with soil more 
 or less fertile, in which, except during periodical 
 droughts, that sometimes reduce the surface to a con- 
 dition not unlike that of a beaten road, the rainfall 
 is sufficient to revive the dormant germs ol 
 life, and to clothe the country with grass ; while, 
 occasionally, the fall of rain is so great as to trans- 
 form the whole of a plain, as far as is visible, into a 
 sea, on the disappearance of which, in a wonderfully 
 short time, the ground becomes covered with ver- 
 dure. The other inlets put together are Bcarcely 
 equal in size to the (iulf of Carpentaria alone ; 
 while, strictly speaking, most of them are rather 
 mere bends in the coastline tlian actual arms of the 
 ocean. Of the secondary inlets, tin- two that cut 
 deepest into the land are the Cult of St Vincent and 
 Spencer Gulf, in the south. Of harbours, properly 
 so called, there is a remarkable deficiency ; and this 
 deficiency is all the more important from the 
 dangerous character of the reef-girt shores. As to 
 fluvial communications between the coast and the 
 interior, they can, with a single exception, hardly 
 be said to exist at all. The interior and the coast are 
 alike unfavourable to the production and mainte- 
 nance of regular and permanent streams. The interior 
 — comprising the whole mass within a border of not 
 more than 100 mdes in average width, and repre- 
 senting, in proportional size, the plate of a mirror 
 with the scantiest possible breadth of frame round 
 it— sends, as a general rule, hardly any tribute to 
 the ocean. So far from possessing any reservoirs for 
 the supply of rivers, its only large body of water,
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 the- brackish pool or salt marsh, according to circum- 
 stances, of Lake Torrens (q. v.), is the landlocked 
 receptacle of at least one of its principal streams. 
 With the single exception of the Murray, and per- 
 haps its southern affluents, even such inland water- 
 courses as do conduct their surplus to the sea, lose 
 each a large proportion of its volume through 
 evaporation and absorption. With regard to the 
 coast streams, again, the mountains, which form 
 the dividing ridgi b neral, onh 
 
 100 miles from the sea, the streams are for the most 
 part, from their shortness, of comparatively 
 nilicant size. This is more peculiarly tie 
 on the south — for the Murray, as flowing from the 
 inner slope of the maritime ridge, is no ex< 
 to the general rule. To the west of the 61 
 which empties itself into the Southern Ocean, 
 between Capes Northumberland and Bridgewater, 
 the coast yields not a single river worthy of the 
 name ; whde the entire line between Streaky Bay 
 ape Arid — a stretch of 10 of long, on the Great 
 Australian Bight — pours, incredible as it may seem, 
 not a single drop of fresh water into the Southern 
 Ocean. 
 
 But the poverty of Australian hydrography is 
 aggravated by the singularities of the so-styled 
 ' weatherology.' An alternation of mora or less 
 rainless and rainy periods is characteristic of the 
 Australian skies. The rivers undergo a similar 
 alternation of drought and flood, the one state b ins, 
 within certain limits, almost as destructive as the 
 other. Even in these inequalities there is great 
 irregularity. During the period of drought, a river 
 presents a succession of phases — a scanty, though 
 still regular stream ; nearly stagnant ponds with a 
 connecting thread of water between them ; detached 
 ' water holes ' in all the gradations of a constantly 
 decreasing depth ; moist pits that may yield their 
 buried treasure to the spade ; and, lastly, parched 
 hollows where the labour of digging may be expended 
 in vain. In the drought, for instance, from July 
 1838 to August 1839— during which ' not a drop of 
 rain fell in Sydney' — even the Murray, generally 
 
 ibed as the only permanent river of any D 
 fcude in the country, dwindled away into a chain of 
 pools ; and a recent explorer in Western A. found 
 on the bed of a large river — an affluent, if it may 
 be so called, of the thoroughly broiled and baked 
 Murchison — the indubitable footprints, then 3 years 
 old, of preceding explorers. The flood, again, varies 
 a ! w idely, if not so definitely and gradually, as the 
 drought. To select what may be regarded as an 
 average instance from a list of the floods of the 
 Hawkesbury in New South Wales : the torrent, at 
 the end of July and beginning of August 1808, rose 
 to a height of 86 feet, or fully 50 above the edge of 
 the bank, destroying the uncut crops of the settle- 
 ment, and sweeping away stacks of wheat and 
 freat quantities of stock of every description. 
 lore than 60 such visitatione appear to ha. 
 
 corded within the historical period, 
 now extending over 80 years, of which about a 
 third occurred in winter, tin- remainder being dis- 
 tributed in not very unequal proportions 1 
 nid autumn, and that withi 
 exemption of any one of the twelve months of the 
 year. 
 
 The rivers of the east coast — the Brisbane, 
 Richmontl, Clarence, Macleay, Hastings, Manning, 
 Hunter, Hawkesbury, and Shoalhaven — are, in 
 general, towarils their mouths, tidal streams, 
 flowing between high banks through a compara- 
 tively level region. Some of those of Victoria 
 — such as the Glenelg — spring from a moist and 
 undidating tract of country ; while most of the 
 others rise among the lofty ranges and snowy- 
 
 peaks of the Australian Alps— the coldest section 
 of the bordering mountains by reason both of 
 their altitude and of their distance from the 
 equator. They are subject to frequent freshets 
 in winter, and are less eccentric than the other 
 rivers of A. in general. To the west of the 
 Glenelg, as stated above, rivers may be said almost 
 to disappear. South A possesses only a few incon- 
 siderable streams, and a number of usually dry 
 torrent-courses; and as to the Great Bight, still 
 further to the west, more than 500 miles of the 
 coast have been already characterised as utterly 
 waterless. To the west, again, of Cape Arid, the 
 coast presents only a few small lakes and incon- 
 siderable water-courses, but nothing worthy of 
 the name of river. On the west side of A, the 
 Swan River is by far the largest of the water- 
 courses. Generally speaking, the whole of them are 
 fed almost solely by the winter rains, many of 
 them, during the dry season, either disappearing 
 through a great part of their course, or dwindling 
 into a series of detached pools. Along the remainder 
 of the west coast, no rivere worth notice have yet 
 been discovered. Nor yet along the north-west 
 have any been found, excepting a few small ones 
 towards Cambridge Gulf. The rivers of this neigh- 
 bourhood much resemble in character those of the 
 opposite angle in the colony of Victoria. They rise 
 at no very great distance from the sea. Near their 
 sources they are mere torrents ; but in the lowlands 
 their generally slow currents wind through fertile 
 plains and valleys, which are subject to sudden and 
 terrific inundations. In North A. are several com- 
 paratively considerable rivers — the Victoria, 
 Flinders, the Roper, and the Albert. They are 
 wide streams, rising in the elevated region of the 
 interior, and traversing a rugged country, which 
 is often flooded. Lastly, along' the north-east, the 
 streams are distinguished by their length, a distinction 
 which they owe to their being parallel with the coast. 
 They are the Mitchell, Lynd, Burdekon, Mackenzie, 
 Dawson, Fitzroy, Belyando, &c; the whole of them, 
 with the exception of the two last-named, having 
 been discovered by Dr Leichhardt. To pass from 
 the rivers of the coast to those of the interior, 
 we must confine ourselves to two of the latter — 
 Barcoo or Victoria, and the Murray with its numer- 
 ous tributaries. The upper part of the Barcoo was 
 first discovered by Sir T. Mitchell, in a broken 
 district, lying 300 or 400 miles from the east coast, 
 and nearly on the Tropic of Capricorn. Its broad 
 reaches might there have floated a steamer. Since 
 then, it has been traced by Mr Gregory through 
 a solitary course into Lake Torrens, though, in point 
 of fact, it is only from time to time that it actually 
 has a surplus to pour into its receptacle. The 
 system, again, of the Murray and its tributaries 
 is vastly more complex. Rising on the west or 
 inner slope of the Australian Alps, it flows to the 
 west-north-west with a plentiful stream, which 
 alone in the country, after the fashion of a tropical 
 river, rises and falls regularly according to the 
 season; and, though inaccessible to ships of any 
 size from the sea, it has an internal navigation of 
 JOOO miles in length. On its left or southern 
 side, it receives several considerable streams, such as 
 the Ovens and the Goulburn. But it is on the right 
 or northern side that the basin of the Murray is 
 most peculiar. The principal affluents in this direc- 
 tion are the Murium!. id-ec and the Darling. The 
 Murrumbidgee, to which the Lachlan, on:. 
 'mysterious^ than the Darling, contributes such 
 surplus as it from time to time may have, forms the 
 chief strand of a complicated net-work of water- 
 courses. The Darling, after it has received all its 
 tributaries, pursues its lonely way for 660 miles,
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 ug off branch after branch to lose themselves in 
 landlocked lagoons. Nor is its growth less curious 
 than its lower channel. The whole of the a 
 drainage of the maritime ridge of New South Walea 
 between lat. 25° and lat. 34", a stretch of about 025 
 miles, converges into a vast basin of clay, on the 30th 
 parallel, where the Balonne, Dumaresque, Qwydir, 
 Nanioi, Ca tlereagh, Macquarie, and Began, after 
 spreading out in spacious marshes, and amid com- 
 plicated junctions and bifurcations, unite such 
 surpluses as absorption and evaporation may have 
 left them to form the 'mysterious ' Darling. 
 
 Such being the hydrography of A., the investiga- 
 tion of the interior, so far as it has hitherto advanced, 
 has been conducted almost entirely by land. In 
 1844, Sturt penetrated to the centre of the country, 
 between Spencer Gulf on the south, and the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria on the north, meeting sterility and 
 drought. In 1847, Leichhardt, encouraged by tin- 
 success of bis previous expedition from Sydney to 
 Port Essington, started from Moreton Bay on the 
 east, for Western A., following a sort of diagonal of 
 marly the greatest possible length; and, as was to 
 be dreaded, he must have failed in his bold enter- 
 prise ; for neither of himself nor of his companions 
 ay intelligence ever been received. Subsequent 
 explorations made by Stuart 1 1858 1862), Burke and 
 Wills (1800 1801 >. ami by expeditious in Bearcb of 
 them, have resulted in the discovery that this interior 
 of the Australian continent is. on the whole, well 
 fitted for pastoral, and in many pla cultural 
 
 purposes. Bee \i-ir\u.\N Explorations in Supp. 
 Any detailed view of the climate, besides being 
 equally difficult and unsatisfactory with respect to 
 so vast an aggregate of latitudes and longitudes, has 
 been rendered comparatively unnecessary by the 
 incidental allusions to the subject in the preceding 
 paragraphs. The following arc tabidar statements, 
 extracted from local publications : 
 
 MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL. 
 
 Locality. 
 Brisbane, Queensland, lately ) 
 
 Moreton Bay, ( 
 
 Port Macquarie, New South I 
 
 Wales j 
 
 Sydney, New South Wal 
 Port Phillip, Victoria Colony, 
 Lake Alexandrina, Mouth of 
 
 the Murray, . 
 Adelaide. South Australia, 
 York, We3t Australia, 
 
 FREQUENCY OF RAINY DAYS. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Rainfall. 
 
 27° 1' 
 
 35-92 in. 
 
 31° 25' 
 
 70-7'.) » 
 
 33° 51' 
 
 38° 18' 
 
 4900 „ 
 29- 10 , 
 
 35° 
 
 17-45 „ 
 
 34° 55' 
 
 31 53' 
 
 19-90 „ 
 25-39 „ 
 
 Month. 
 January, 
 February, 
 March, . 
 April, 
 May, . 
 June, 
 
 July, . . 
 August, 
 September, . 
 October, . 
 November, . 
 December, 
 
 Whole Year, 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 4 
 
 . 4 
 
 5 
 
 . 10 
 
 10 
 
 . 11 
 
 14 
 
 . 15 
 
 11 
 
 . 10 
 
 
 
 . 5 
 
 105 
 
 Port Sydney, Port 
 
 Phillip. South Head. Macquarie. 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 7 
 11 
 13 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 12 
 12 
 10 
 
 _2 
 I20 
 
 13 
 12 
 13 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 13 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 11 
 11 
 
 143 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 120 
 
 The mean temperature of Melbourne is 59°, being 
 about 9 higher than that of London. The warmest 
 month is January, the mean of which is 08° ; the 
 coldest is July, 49 -34 The corresponding tempera- 
 tures of London are 63 and 30°. 
 SM 
 
 Geology.— The little that is yet known of the 
 geology of A 1 chiefly obtained from occa- 
 
 ■ :d in red through the journals of scien- 
 
 tific travellers. So utterly unknown were tie- mineral 
 treasures of this continent, that it was only compa- 
 ratively lately, and by the merest accident, that the 
 
 Burnt Burra copper-mines were discovered, In 1861, 
 
 farmers were turning up with the plough the auri- 
 ferous alluvium ; pebbles of gold-bearing quart/, were 
 used for garden-walks; and we have heard of an 
 Oxford graduate who ornamented his garden-walls 
 by budding into them masses of white quartz varie- 
 gated with portions of the unrecognised yellow metal 
 In 1S40, when Count Strelecki submitted to Sir K. 
 Murchison a series of rock and mineral specimens 
 gathered in Southern A., the practised eye of that 
 veteran in geology recognised in them a remarkable 
 resemblance to the the auriferous districts 
 
 of the Ural .Mountains, which he had thoroughly 
 explored. He could not ascertain that gold had ever 
 been found in the colony, but so certain was he that 
 the precious metal existed, that he printed and circu- 
 lated amongst the miners of Cornwall a paper 01 
 them to emigrate to New South Wales, and seek 
 there for gold, as they had been accustomed to seek 
 for tin and zinc among the alluvial debris of their 
 own hills. After a few years, in the 1 ei,, 
 Mr Hargreaves, and the diggings that followed, this 
 remarkable prediction was fulfilled to an extent that 
 could not have been anticipated. This narrative is 
 of much value, as shewing that geology is no longer 
 in the hands of empirics; that its truths have been 
 so gathered and arranged as to afford bases for safe 
 inductions; and that, when rightly used, this science 
 is of the first importance, even when tested by the 
 utilitarian Cui bono? of the age. Recognising this, 
 the colonial governments of A. have appointed state 
 geologists, who have begun their examination of the 
 Australian continent, and a few reports on circum- 
 scribed districts have been published. 
 
 In looking at the continent as a whole, it will 
 require not many broad touches to convey all t ' 
 at present known. An immense, roughly quadran- 
 gular and comparatively flat district in Central A, 
 extending from the southern shores in lat. 33° S., 
 where it forms a coast-line of somewhat bold cliffs, 
 to 18° S. lat., and having for its eastern and western 
 limits 124° and 138° E. long., is composed of Tertiary 
 rocks. The superficial characteristics of this vast 
 almost unpeopled tract have already been described. 
 Nothing more is known regarding its structure. 
 Three other patches of Tertiary rocks exist. The 
 largest is a broadish tract, which forms the coast of 
 Western A. northwards from the colony of Perth, 
 as far as the Tropic of Capricorn. The second occu- 
 pies a considerable portion of the valley of the 
 Murray River, in that district known as Lower Dar- 
 ling. The last and smallest patch covers the 
 southern slope of the Australian Alps, extending 
 along the shore from Wilson's Promontory to Cape 
 Howe. 
 
 The immense central expanse of Tertiary beds 
 is surrounded by a continuous belt of Plutonic and 
 Melamorphic rocks, only broken on the southern 
 shores, where it forms the coast-line, and where the 
 sea has indented it, forming a bay which ha3 for its 
 boundaries the more enduring primitive rocks. This 
 crystalline belt is, on its east, north, and v 1 1 
 
 sides, separated from the sea by a tract of land having 
 a nearly equal breadth of 100 miles throughout 
 its course. Tracing this from its southern termina- 
 tion in Western A, we find a limited region of 
 palaeozoic rocks occupying the colonised district 
 around Perth, and containing valuable coal-beds. 
 Northwards, as already indicated, the coast-line 
 consists of Tertiary rocks. From their termination
 
 W iR f HAMBE«S. lONDON t EDINBURGH 
 
 c
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 in lat. 23i° S., the rocks along the whole western and 
 northern shores are composed of Secondary strata. 
 On the eastern shore, from Cape York to the western 
 boundary of Victoria, the formations belong to one 
 or other of the Primary series. Through the whole 
 extent of this boundary tract, whether consisting 
 of Tertiary, Secondary, or Primary strata, numerjus 
 and often extensive patches of igneous rocks exist 
 which have been erupted during the Tertiary or 
 Post-tertiary epochs. 
 
 About 100 mils from the bounding tract of 
 palaeozoic rocks on the eastern limits of A, and 
 running parallel with it, there is an equally broad 
 strip of similar strata extending from the shores 
 of the Gulf of Carpentaria to Bass's Strait. These 
 two regions, which unite together and are 1 
 developed in the southern portion of Victoria, 
 supply the great store of Australian mineral wealth. 
 The veins which intersect these strata were the 
 original matrices of the gold. It has not, to any 
 extent, been sought for in this, its original position, 
 from a belief that the amount of metal decreases as 
 we descend in the solid rock. Mr Selwyn, colonial 
 geologist for Victoria, has, however, lately reported 
 in favour of quarrying for the gold in the solid rock. 
 The greatest amount of gold is found in the heaps of 
 debris or old alluvium derived from the denudation 
 of the old slaty rocks. The auriferous rocks of 
 Eastern A. are Lower Sdurian, as shewn by Messrs 
 Lonsdale and Salter, from the examination of 
 specimens of pentameri, trilobitcs, and corals from the 
 strata which overlie them. Mr Selwyn has referred 
 the Victoria gold-bearing strata to the same age, 
 from the occurrence in them of about GO species 
 of Lower SUurian fossds, including trilobitcs, grapto- 
 lites, and linguke. The auriferous quartzose veins 
 are most abundant in the vicinity of eruptive rocks, 
 whether granite, porphyry, or greenstone. 
 
 Messrs Selwyn and Resales have shewn that the 
 superficial drifts containing the gold consist of three 
 distinct stages. The lowest or oldest contains the 
 remains of wood and seed-vessels differing little 
 from the present vegetation ; among them the cones 
 of Banksia, an exclusively Australian genus, have 
 been identified. The remains of animals exhibit also 
 the representatives of the living fauna of the country. 
 Gigantic marsupials then existed— kangaroos, poto- 
 roos, and wombats— representing the elephants, and 
 even the large carnivora of Asia ; but with the 
 exception of the mastodon, of which one species 
 has been found in A, there were, it would seem, no 
 generic forms common to this great district and 
 the rest of the land in the eastern hemisphere. In 
 Victoria, these beds of alluvium have been over- 
 flowed and uvn interlaced by basaltic couliea, which 
 evidently proceeded from terrestrial volcanoes, inas- 
 much as the vegetable matter beneath them has 
 been charred and destroyed in silu by the eruption. 
 
 An extensive coal-field has been known for some 
 time as occupying the whole of the great basin of 
 the Hunter River and its tributaries, down to the 
 sea-coast at Newcastle, where several beds crop out 
 
 on the beach. For a a 1 m inj v are, the monopoly 
 
 held by the Australian Agricultural Company, in 
 the working of the coaL has ceased to exist, and 
 as the residt, the trade has increased enormously. 
 From Port Hunter the coal is despatched to all 
 parts of A., and even to New Zealand and California. 
 Beds belonging to the carboniferous system have 
 been discovered also in Western A., near Perth, and 
 the coal has been successfully, though not so 
 extensively wrought there. 
 
 After gold and coal, the next most important 
 Australian mineral is copper. The Burra Buna 
 mines, in Smith A., were discovered in 1S42. The 
 lode is 17 feet wide, and of vast extent. The ore 
 
 contains 75 per cent of metal, and is quarried out 
 like stone in immense masses. Copper has also 
 been wrought for several years at Bathuret, in New 
 South Wales. The poorest ores are here most 
 abundant, the rich pyrites existing only in small 
 quantity, Tra. i of copper have been noticed in 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Iron is spread in great profusion over all the 
 continent. To such an extent does it exist in several 
 of the mountains on the north coast, that they 
 violently affect the magnetic At Berrima, 
 
 in New South Wales, an oxidulated iron ore, from 
 which is manufactured a good steel, has been 
 worked, but not successfully. Iron has been n 
 in quantity in both Southern and Western Australia. 
 
 Lead is most abundant east and south-east from 
 Adel lide, at Mount Beevor, and near Cape Jervis. 
 The ore of Glen Osmond mines, near Adelaide, 
 75 per cent, of lead, besidi 9 a pro porti on of 
 sdver. This metal is also wrought at Geraldine, in 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Manganese, zinc, quicksilver, and antimony have 
 been met with in South A., as also good specimens 
 of jasper, chalcedony, and opal. 
 
 Zinc and quicksilver are mentioned as occurring 
 in Western Australia. 
 
 Botany and Zoology. — The natural history of A. is 
 remarkably different from that of any other quarter of 
 the globe. Its trees — which seldom form dense forests, 
 but are scattered as in a lawn or park, where the 
 colonist finds pasture for his flocks without any pre- 
 vious clearing — are, almost without exception, of very 
 peculiar appearance. Among the largest of them 
 are species of Eucalyptus (q. v.), some of which attain 
 the height of 150 or 200 feet, rising without branches 
 to at least half their height, their stately stems 
 resembling beautiful columns. Some of the Eucalypti, 
 on account of their resinous exudations, are known 
 to the colonists as Gum-trees. Their leaves are 
 leathery. It is, indeed, a general characteristic of 
 the trees and shrubs of A., that their leaves arc . v. r- 
 green and of a firm texture ; and although in this a 
 beautiful adaptation may be perceived to the pre- 
 vailing dryness of the climate, the foliage wants the 
 delicacy and the liveliness of tints which in other 
 countries form so much the charm of the landscape. 
 The Casuarince (see Casuarixa) or Cassowary-trees 
 (Beef- wood, She-oak, Swamp-oak, &c). among which, 
 as among the Eucalypti, are some of the largest and 
 most usefid timber-trees, are still more singular in 
 appearance ; their long, wiry, jointed branchlets, 
 which greatly res ' ■(. are quite 
 
 leafless, having only very small sheaths instead of 
 leaves. Equally destitute of foliage are the greater 
 number of the Acacias (a. v.), which abound in the 
 Australian flora. The abundance of Protcacea — 
 which order includes the genus Banksia, already 
 noticed in the geology — connects the flora of A. 
 with that of the Cape of Good Hope, to which 
 there are also other points of resemblance ; and 
 although true heaths do not appear, their place 
 is supplied by a variety of heath-like plants of 
 other natural orders, and particularly of the 
 order Epacridac -, of which some (of the genus 
 Epacris) now take their place with heaths among 
 the favourite ornaments of our greenhouses. Arau- 
 carias (q. v.) form a connecting link between the 
 flora of A. and that of Chili, In the more northern 
 parts, palms and other tropical productions connect 
 it in like manner with that of the south-east c>i 
 
 Few of the trees or shrubs of A. produce edible 
 fruits, and those known as Tasmanian Currants, 
 Tasmanian Cranberries, &c, are not of much value. 
 The seeds of the Arauearias are edible, having 
 sonic resemblance to almonds. Almost none of tho 
 native vegetable productions cf A. have been found 
 
 Mf
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 worthy of the care of the gardener, except as objects 
 uty or curiosity ; and it produces no plant 
 which has yet found its way, or seems in th 
 degree likely to find its way, into agriculture — unless, 
 indeed, some of its pasture plants may prove to be 
 peciUiarly adapted to dry rlllimtlll lint the culti- 
 ■I plants of other country introduced 
 
 with great success by the colonists, ami their gardens 
 boast not only of the fruits common in England and 
 the south of Europe, but of some of those of China. 
 
 The zoology of A. is particularly characterised by 
 the prevalence of Marsupial (q, v.) Quadrupeds, of 
 which comparatively few exist in any ether part of 
 the world. Some of them are herbivorous, as the 
 Kangaroos (q. v.), Potoroos (q. v.), and Wombats 
 | ; some feed indifferently on roots and 
 insects, as the Bandicoots (q. v.) ; some are car- 
 nivorous, as the Thylacine (q. v.) and the Dasyure 
 (q. v.)— the tiger and the wild cat of the colonists 
 — but all are marsupial; that is, tho females have 
 a pouch for the young, which are born in a much 
 less advanced state than the young of other vivi- 
 parous animals. Besides its marsupial quadrupeds, 
 A. lias few others, yet known, except some 
 <'f hat; a kind of dog, known as the Dingo (q. v.); 
 and t 1 ia (q. v.) and duck-bills (OrnttHo- 
 
 rhyncfau) (q. v.), animals which have been regarded 
 as forming a connecting link between quadrupeds 
 and birds, both upon account of external form and 
 anatomical structure, and to which nothing at all 
 similar exists in any other part of the world. 
 
 Many of the birds of A. are very beautiful, but 
 they do not exhibit peculiarities so general and 
 . striking as its quadrupeds, or even its plants. The 
 Emu (q. v.) may be regarded a3 the Australian repre- 
 sentative of the Ostrich and Cassowary. The Black 
 Swan is chiefly remarkable for its colour. Ducks of 
 various kinds, falcons, doves, parrots, and many other 
 birds of families well known elsewhere, connect the 
 natural history of this isolated continent with that 
 of the other regions of the globe. — Keptiles are 
 numerous but exhibit as a class no very marked 
 peculiarities, nor is there in any other department 
 of zoology so wide a difference from the rest of the 
 world as in the Mammalia. Among the fish of the 
 Australian shores and rivers are n which 
 
 are not found elsewhere, but they present no remark- 
 able common characteristic Among them are no 
 trouts, salmon, or other SoJmonidiF, which, indeed, 
 do not extend into the southern hemisphere. A 
 premium has been offered for the introduction of 
 salmon into one of the colonies. 
 
 As to the cultivated productions, wool may be 
 reckoned the grand staple of Australia. For 
 farming, the country, so far .as it is Dot a d 
 seems to be admirably adapted. The colonist, 
 
 instead of having, as in America, to hew his way 
 
 . h dense forests, with tangled underwood, sees 
 around him either open pastures or parklike 
 
 i lowing their green sward. His main diffi- 
 culty is the scarcity of water, or rather the possibility 
 that such a scarcity may occur. Wheat is grown to 
 advantage, particularly in South Australia ; cotton, 
 
 •o, and sugar are produced in New South 
 Wales and Queensland; the vine is grown : 
 aivelybythe colonists, who have begun to avail them- 
 
 Ot the capabilities of the respective' colonies 
 by rearing the productions of tropical and temperate 
 climates, both oi which are p I J Australia. 
 
 !oi 7/. — In 1C0C, the north coast was descried 
 by the Dutch on board of the Duyfen, and about 
 the same time by a Spanish expedition sent from 
 l'eru in 1G05, one of the commanders of which gave 
 his name to Torres Straits. It is probable, how- 
 ever, that A. had been long known to the Chinese. 
 In 1019 and 162*2 respectively, the west and 
 west coasts were seen. In 10 12, the ialaa ' 
 
 for some time Van Diemen's Land, but now Tas- 
 mania, was visited by Tasman, who, within a 
 month, sighted also New Zealand. In 1697, Swan 
 River was discovered by Vhuning. In 1770, Cook, 
 then on his first voyage, explored nearly the 
 whole of the east coast, designating the same New 
 Sooth Wales. In 1708, Bass, a surgeon in the navy, 
 ascertained the separation of A and Tasmania, 
 by passing through the strait that bears his 
 name. In 1S02, Port Phillip was entered ; and in 
 the same year, Flinders pretty nearly completed the 
 general outline by sailing along the southern shore. 
 To pass from discovery to colonisation : there was 
 established, in 17S8, the settlement of New South 
 Wales, and from this all the other British Austral- 
 asian settlements, with the exception of Swan Biver, 
 have successively been planted. Norfolk Island, 
 erected, in 1700, into a penal settlement for New 
 South Wales, has recently been allotted to the 
 descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty, 
 removed for this purpose from Pitcairu's Island. 
 The other colonies, whether offshoots or not of 
 New South Wales, assumed an independent exist- 
 ence in the following order : Tasmania, 1 S25 ; 
 
 in A. or Swan Liver, 1829; South A, 1S34; 
 New Zealand, 1841; Victoria, 1851; and, lastly, 
 Queensland or Moreton Bay, 18o9 (see these head,). 
 Besides these flourishing colonies, a settlement was 
 established near Port Essington in 1S30, but was 
 abandoned in 1S45, on account of tho unhealthiness 
 of the climate. Subjoined is a summary table of 
 statistics for all the more important of these depend- 
 encies, not including those incipient settlements that 
 have been effected along the course, and at the ter- 
 minus, of the overland fine of telegraph. 
 
 Colon u 
 
 New South Wale?, 
 
 South An- 
 l}ilern>l;in<l, 
 
 Australia, 
 ■ 
 New Zeal 
 
 Totals, 
 
 323.437 
 88,198 
 760,000 
 078. COO 
 978,000 
 36,315 
 102.000 
 
 r 
 
 1-71. 
 
 Expom. 
 
 503.981 11.245.032 9.609,451 
 II 557,821) 12 .,11 9 I 
 
 120,101 ' 
 35,353) 199,280 198,010 
 99,328 740,681 778.087 
 
 1,920,850,37,147,210 31,698,233 
 
 Lb* 
 
 66 5U3.300 
 
 84,0 l ■■■ 
 617 51S 
 
 298.160 
 
 Hi 
 
 29'e928 
 
 1,G47,3S9 
 
 100,634 
 730,029 
 
 2,774,980 
 
 Cwti. 
 
 13,340 
 
 Land 
 
 under Cul- 
 
 Urfttlon. 
 
 m m 
 
 909,015 
 
 960, i 
 
 47,034 
 
 60,36 - 
 
 330.257 
 
 1,129.811 
 
 2,218,699 
 6,717,166 
 
 778,094 
 799,005! 
 
 209.715 
 1 342,110 
 
 11,994 00 
 1,394,400 
 
 141,251 3,852,362 9,222,389) 38,477,032 
 
 native population of A. belongs to the race 
 bes variously designated as -\ 
 
 black islanders'). 
 
 The chief numbers of the group, besides th 
 
 tralians, are the Papuans of New (iiiinea. .New 
 
 onia, and New Hebrides, and the natives 
 
 of Tasmania. See Ethnology, Negritos. The 
 
 666 
 
 oiane are now- extinct, and the Australians 
 are- rapidly diminishing in number ; their condition 
 will be considered under the head of each cedony. 
 In Victoria they still number 1330 (not included in 
 
 regoing table). The 38,540 natives of New- 
 Zealand (also not included in the table) belong to 
 the Polynesians (q. v.). Pop. (1871) 1,917,070.
 
 AUSTEA8XA- AUSTRIA. 
 
 AUSTRA'STA, or the East Kingdom, the name 
 given, under the Men > the eastern pos- 
 
 sessions of the Franks, embracing Lorraine, Belgium, 
 and the right bank of the Rhine, and having their 
 central point at Mi tz. At the time of the rise of 
 the Frankish power, these districts were of great 
 importance, as they formed the connection with the 
 German mother-country, and were the most thickly 
 inhabited by Franks. After the time of Charles 
 Mattel, the division of the Frankish kingdom into 
 A. and Neustria lost its political importance. Under 
 Charlemagne's successors, A. merged into Germany — 
 and Neustria, or West Frank-land, into France. 
 
 Af STRIA, ABCHDUCET of, the cradle and 
 nucleus of the Austrian empire, lies on both sides of 
 i ! ' inube, from the mouth of the Inn to Presburg, 
 on the borders of Hungary, and embraces an area of 
 about 15.000 square miles, with a population, in 1854, 
 of 2,624,237. It now forms three of the crown-lands, 
 or administrative provinces of the empire — viz., 
 Lower and Upper Austria (or Austria below, and 
 Austria above the Ens), and the Duchy of Salz- 
 burg. See Ai.-ORiA, Emtire op. The south and 
 west portions are mountainous ; the north and east 
 are more level and fertile, containing the great plain 
 of Vienna, the Marchfeld, &c. The population is 
 mostly German and Catholic. The chief towns, 
 besides Vienna, are Wiener-Xeustadt, Salzburg, 
 Steyer, Linz, and Ischl (q. v.). 
 
 AU'STRIA, Empire of. The Austrian dominions 
 form a compact territory, with a circumference of 
 about 5350 miles. It is included between 42' — 51° 
 . and between 12°— 26° 20" E. long. The body 
 of the empire lies in the interior of Europe, though, 
 by means of the southern projection of Dalmatia, it 
 lias about 1200 miles of sea-coast, on the Adriatic. 
 With the rest of its circumference, it borders on 
 Venice, Lombard}-, Switzerland, Bavaria, Saxony, 
 Prussi 1 1. Walachia, Servia, Turkey, 
 
 an 1 Montenegro. It embraces an area of 237,202 
 square miles, and a population (on December 31, 
 1869) of 35,904,435. The empire falls into 
 teen administrative divisions called crown-lands 
 ther with a Military Frontier. 
 Their area and population are as follows : 
 
 Crown-landf. 
 
 Am In 
 !■ ,. MOM 
 
 Population 
 in 1MH 
 
 Lower Austria, 
 
 ".. 563 
 
 
 V|>per Aus'lI. i, 
 
 4 578 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stvrii, 
 
 8.567 
 
 1.137.:>90 
 
 Carinthia, 
 
 
 
 Carniola, 
 
 3.S11 
 
 ' 
 
 "icte, or Illvr.a, 
 
 
 600.525 
 
 Tyrol and Vurarlbcrg, 
 
 10.9S0 
 
 885,789 
 
 i • 
 
 18,821 
 
 5. HO. 544 
 
 Moravia 
 
 8,481 
 
 
 Silvia, 
 
 1.964 
 
 513.:;53 
 
 
 29.874 
 
 5,444,889 
 
 Bukowina, . 
 
 3,981 
 
 513,404 
 
 Dalmatia, . . 
 
 4,881 
 
 
 Hungary, 
 
 BE 583 
 
 11,633.162 
 
 Croatia and Slavonia, 
 
 
 1 
 
 i iij. 
 
 23. H7 
 
 2,115,024 
 
 Military Frontiers, . 
 
 12,800 
 
 593.232 
 
 Total, 
 
 237,202 
 
 35,904,435 
 
 The census of 1S67 for these crown-lands and 
 the Military Frontiers returned a population of 
 32,530,002— shewing an increase of 3,374,4:;.", a 
 little more than a tenth. 
 
 This population comprises the military establish- 
 ment, which, according to official returns, v. 
 the beginnii 1872, on a peace-footing, Zi 
 
 men; and 838,700 on a war-footing. Tae 
 forces of Austria consisted, in April 1S72, of 45 
 steamers and 10 sailing-vessels. 
 
 lirst eleven of these divisions — except a part 
 of lllyria — and also part of Gaiicia, making an 
 
 extent of 75,180 square mile.?, with a population 
 of above 12 mill. ons, formerly belonged to the 
 German Confederation. 
 
 Sfufeue. — Three-fourths of A. is mountainous 
 or hilly, being traversed by three great mountain 
 chains— the Alps, Carpathians, and Sudetes q.v.), 
 are of primitive rock. The RtttB- 
 tiau and Noric Alps stretch from Switzerland to the 
 Danube, and contain the highest points of the 
 Austrian territories, t 
 
 12.77'.» English feet. Their height declines jrradually 
 towards the east, where the Leitha Hills (3000 feet), 
 overlooking the plain of Vienna, form the transition 
 to the Carpathians. This chain rises on the left 
 bank of the Danube, near Presburg, and s»'. 
 in a curve, first east, and then southward thi 
 Transylvania, again meets the Danube. The 
 highest point is Butschetje in Transylvania, where a 
 height of 9528 feet is reached. The central part, or 
 Tatra Mountains, are vast granitic masses, resembling 
 the Air- in character; the highest of these is the 
 Lomnitz, in the longitude ot Cracow, 8133 feet 
 The Alps are accompanied, north and south, by 
 parallel ranges of calcareous mountains, covering 
 whole provinces with their ramifications. The 
 Carpathians are lapt on their northern side by sand- 
 stone formations ; mountains of the same character 
 also occupy Transylvania. Springing from the 
 | north-west bend of the Carpathians, the Sudetes 
 I ran through the north-east of Moravia and Bohemia, 
 in which last the range is known as the Riesen- 
 gebirge, or Giant Mountains. The boundary be- 
 tween Bohemia and Prussian Silesia passes over the 
 Schneekoppe, the highest peak of these mountains, 
 which is 5275 feet in height. Continuous with this 
 range, and beginning on the left bank of the Elbe, 
 are the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, on the con- 
 fines of Saxony ; and veering round to nearly south- 
 east, the range is further prolonged in the Bohemian- 
 F'.rest Mountains, between Bohemia and Bavaria. 
 1 — The chief plains of the Austrian empire are the 
 1 great plains of Hungary (the smaller of these is in 
 the west, between the offsets of the Alps and Carpa- 
 thians, and is about 4200 square miles in extent ; 
 the other, which is in the east, and traversed by the 
 Danube and the Theiss, has an area of 2 1,0 JO square 
 miles), and the plain of Gaiicia. 
 
 From the Gulf of Triest to the south point of 
 Dalmatia, A. has a sea-line of about 1000 mUes, not 
 coimtiug the coasts of the numerous islands, the 
 of which is Veglia, 23 miles by 12. The 
 chief lakes are the Flatten See (about 400 square 
 miles), and the Xeusiedler See (about 100 miles), 
 b.th in Hungary. The first is navigable by 
 steamers, and both are rich in tish, and have fruitful 
 vineyards around them. The Aljis and Carpathians 
 enclose numerous mountain lakes. The Long Lake 
 in the Tatra Mountains lies at an elevation of 
 6000 feet. The most remarkable of all is the 
 Zirknitz Lake (q.v.) in lllyria. There are extensive 
 swamps or morasses in Hungary. One connected 
 with the Neusiedler See covers some SO square 
 miles. A good deal has been done in draining 
 morasses. 
 
 Tie- hading rivers that have navigable tributaries 
 the Danube (q.v.), which has a course of 840 
 miles within the Austrian dominions, from 1'assau, 
 at the month of the Inn, to Onowm, on the frontier 
 of Walachia. and on the right, the Inn, 
 
 Traun, Ens, Leitha, Kaab, Drau. and Save ; and, on 
 the left, the March. Waag, Nostra, Gh in, Theiss, 
 [ ind Xemes : the \ istnla (q.v.), with its tribu- 
 
 tary the Bug : the Elbe Iq.v.), with the Moldau and 
 t and Adige (q.v.) have no navi- 
 gable tributaries ; this last, which rises in the 
 Kh.etian Alps, and Sows past the famous city of
 
 A I 3TBIA. 
 
 Trent, enters Lombardy above v'erona, and i 
 on that country the benefits of what comm 
 importance it possesses being navigable only up to 
 ■ point below Legnago. The Rhine only bounds 
 empire for about four! above Lake 
 
 uirc. The I.-im/n, Zcrmagna, I 
 Naivnta How into the Adriatic. 
 The canal system of Austria is in general 
 iv. Canal construction is recent. The 
 Vienna and Neustadt Canal, in Lower Au.-ti 
 a length of 40 miles; the Bacser or Franz Canal, 
 sen the Danube and Theis3 in Hungary, 69 
 pules; and the Bega Canal, constructed by the 
 
 Romans, between the Bega and Temea, B3 miles. 
 Extensive lines are still capable of being opened 
 up, affording the only possible communication with 
 many places now inaccessible, and, at the same time, 
 
 the means of rescuing tracts of arable laud from 
 inundations. 
 
 The climate of A. is on the whole very favourable ; 
 but from the extent, and diversity of surface, it pre- 
 sents great varieties. In the warmest southern 
 region between 4'2 J — 4G" lat., rice, olives, oranges, 
 and lemons ripen in the better localities ; and wine 
 and maize are produced everywhere. In the middle. 
 temperate region from 4G" — 49°, which has the 
 greatest extent and diversity of surface, wine and 
 maize still thrive in perfection. In the northern 
 region, beyond 49", except in favoured spots, neither 
 wine nor maize succeeds ; but grain, fruit, flax, and 
 hemp thrive excellently. The mean temperature of 
 the year is, at Trieste, . r )S' I''.; at Vienna, 51°; at 
 Lamix r ;, in I ralici . 44°. 
 
 The raw products of A. are abundant and various ; 
 and in this respect it is one of the most favoured 
 countries in Europe. What one province lacks, 
 another supplies. Its mineral wealth is not sur- 
 passed in any European country; it is only lately 
 that Russia has exceeded it in the production of gold 
 and silver. Mining has been a favourite | 
 in A. for centuries, and has been encouraged and 
 promoted by the government. Bohemia, Hungary, 
 Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, and Tyrol take the first 
 place in respect of mineral produce. Except platina, 
 none of the useful metals is wanting. The mines 
 are partly state property, and partly owned by 
 private individuals. The value of their yearly pro- 
 was stated in 1851 at 119,664,781 florins 
 (£11,966,478). Of this, salt yields 53 I 
 florins; stones and earths, 40 millions ; and metals, 
 
 isJ, and other products, 26J millions. (In 1855, the 
 value of metals and coal had increased to :>7! 
 million florins.) Gold is found chiefly in Hungary 
 and Transylvania, and in smaller quantity in Salzburg 
 and Tyrol. The same countries, along with Bol 
 yield silver. The discovery of quicksilver at Idria 
 (q.v.) lirst brought this branch of mining industry 
 into importance. This metal is now also 
 in Hungary, Transylvania, .Styria, and Carinthia. 
 r is found in many districts— tin, in Bohemia 
 alone. Zinc is got chiefly in Cracon rinthia. 
 
 The most productive lead-mines are in Carinthia. 
 [ron is found in almost every province of the mon- 
 archy, though Styria, Carinthia, an 1 • lamiola are 
 chief seats. The production, though great, is not yet 
 equal to the consumption. Antimony is confined to 
 Hungary ; arsenic is found in Salzlmr_' and Bohemia; 
 cobalt in Hungary, Styria, and Bohemia; sulphur 
 in Galicia, Bohemia, Hungary, Salzburg, &c., 
 though not enough to supply home consumption. 
 nte is found abundantly in Bohemia, Moravia, 
 Carinthia, &c. 
 
 The useful earths and building-stones are to In- 
 had in great profusion; all sorts of clay up to the 
 porcelain earth (in .Moravia. Bohemia, and 
 Hungary), and likewise marble, gypsum, chalk, 
 
 &c. Of precious and semi-precious stones are the 
 
 ; l merce as i 
 
 tal), Bohemian garnets (the finest in Europe), i 
 
 beryl, amethyst, jasper, ruby, sapphire, 
 
 The following table lews the principal mi 
 and minerals produced in Austria in 1867, and their 
 value in Sarins at the place of production : 
 
 Wclnlit. 
 
 (Austrian pi m 
 
 Silver, . . ii 81 
 
 Austrian hundredweight] 5944 
 
 Tin, 
 
 I. aa and Litharge, 
 Iron, 
 
 e, 
 
 Mineral coal, 
 
 591 
 
 40,Ji)li 
 47,1130 
 
 I : . 1 
 
 108,488,390 
 
 Value It, 
 
 723, 
 
 31 
 
 495 
 
 1.770, 
 
 an 
 
 ,041 
 
 to i 
 
 958 
 .812 
 
 810 
 ,884 
 
 | 
 
 2»3 
 
 A. is peculiarly rich in salt. Rock-salt exi 
 immense beds on both sides of the Carpatl 
 chiefly at Wieliczka (q.v.) and Bochnia in Galicia, 
 and ill the county of ttarmaros in Hungary, and ill 
 Transylvania. The annual produce of rock 
 greatly above 3 million cwt. Salt is also made at 
 State salt-works by evaporating the water ol 
 springs. The chief works are those at Hallstadt, 
 Ischl, Hallein, and 11 ill in Tyrol. From I 
 three million cwt. are thus produced annually. A 
 con idet itity is also made from sea-water 
 
 on the coasts of the Adriatic. Of other salts, alum, 
 sulphate of iron, and sulphate of copper are the 
 chief. There are inexhaustibli of coal in 
 
 the monarchy; hut they have not, yet been rightly 
 explored, nor are nearly all that are known yet 
 I. Tiny are spread over all the provinces; 
 but the richest are in the mountain-systems of 
 Moravia and Bohemia. Of recent years, howi 
 i M it di al has been done to develop this particu- 
 lar branch of mining, A. has abundance of mineral 
 springs, frequented for their salubrity ; HiiiO are 
 enumerated, some of them of European reputation, 
 as the sulphurous baths of Baden in Lower A., 
 the dil .1' re of Karlsbad, Maricnbad, and 
 Ofen, &c. 
 
 The veg table productions, as might be expected 
 1 nd position ■' 
 0,1 provinces, are extremely various. Although 
 three-fourths of the Burface is mountainous, more 
 than five sixths is productive, being used either for 
 tillage, meadows, pasture, or forest. Grain of all 
 kinds is cultivated, most abundantly in Hungary 
 and the districts south of it on the Danube; in 
 Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia. Agriculture 
 is not yet far advanced; the prevailing system is 
 still what is called the three-field system, intro- 
 duced into Germany by Charlemagne, in which a 
 crop of winter wheat is followed by one of summer 
 grain, and that by fallow. In Hungary, the Magyar 
 adheres to his primitive husbandry, the German and 
 Slave are adopting rational methods. Rice is culti- 
 vated in the Banat, but not enough for the con- 
 sumption. Potatoes are raised everywhere ; and in 
 elevated districts are often the sole subsistence of 
 the inhabitants. Horticulture 1 to great 
 
 perfection; and the orchards of Bohemia, A. proper, 
 Tyrol, and many parts of Hungary, produce a pro- 
 fusion of fruit. Great quantities of cider are made 
 in Upper A. and Carinthia, and of plum-brandy in 
 Slavonia. In Dalmatia, oranges and lemons are 
 produced, but not sufficient for the requirements of 
 the country ; twice as much oUve-oil is imported as 
 is raised in the monarchy. 
 
 In the production of wine, A. is second only 
 to France. With the exception of Galicia, Silesia, 
 and Cpper Austria, the vine is cultivated in all the 
 provinces ; but Hungary stands first, yielding not
 
 , 
 
 H I ItCHi ifl El ■ I 1 1 -i . i : i RGB 
 
 r
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 only the finest quality of wine, but four-fifths the 
 amount of the whole produce of the empire. The 
 average produce of the whole empire is e tim kted at 
 about 680 million gallons, which is mostly con- 
 sumed hy the inhabitants themselves. 
 
 Of plants used in manufactures and commerce, 
 the first place is held by flax and hemp. Flax 
 is cultivated almost universally ; white hemp in 
 Galicia, Moravia, and Hungary. Tobacco is 
 in great quantities, especially in Hungary, which 
 also is first in the cultivation of rape- seed. Bohemia 
 raises hops of the first quality, which are partly 
 exported ; though other provinces require to import 
 from abroad. Tin- indigo plant his been lately suc- 
 'i fully aeclimati- 1 in Halmatia. More than a 
 third 01 tie- productive surface is covered with wood 
 (7. r >,OII(l square miles), which, besides timber, yields 
 a number of secondary products, as tar, potash, 
 charcoal, bark, cork, 4c 
 
 As to animals, bears are found in the Carpathians, 
 Alps, and Dalmatia ; wolves, jackals, and lynxes in 
 
 thi se sa li itricts, and also in the Banat, Croatia, 
 
 Slavonia, and the Military Frontiers. The marmot, 
 otter, and beaver are also found in Dalmatia. 
 Game has of late sensibly diminished. The wild 
 goat lives in the highest, the chamois and white 
 Alpine hare in the middle regions of the Alps and 
 Carpathians. More productive than tin 
 the fisheries of the Danube, Theiss, and numerous 
 Streams, lakes, and ponds. The chief sea-fishing is 
 in Dalmatia. Leeches, procured chielly in Hungary 
 and Moravia, form an article of considerable trade. 
 For foreign commerce the most important branch of 
 rural industry is the rearing of silk. A. produces 
 about a quarter of a million of silk cocoons annually. 
 The silk trade is very extensive in the Tyrol — the 
 yearly supply of cocoons in that country being 
 32,000. 
 
 The breeding of domestic animals has not yet 
 advanced to what the home wants require, [n 
 districts it is excellent, in others quite noglcetod. 
 Horse-breeding is promoted by what are called 
 ' military studs.' Besides a number of imperial studs, 
 there are a great many private establishments, 
 especially in Hungary, for the same purpose. The 
 supply of black-cattle is not equal to the demand ; 
 great numbers are furnished by Hungary and Galicia. 
 The breeding of sheep, like that of horses, has been 
 a special object of care to the government. The 
 finer wools arc furnished by Moravia, Bohemia, 
 Silesia, Lower Austria, and great part of Hungary 
 and GsJicia. The great mass is, however, composed 
 of what is known as middling and inferior sorts. 
 Goats arc reared chiefly in Dalmatia, and swine in 
 Hungary. In 1851, the number of horses in the 
 monarchy was stated at 3,229,884 (not including 
 75,000 belonging to the army) ; cattle, 10,410,484; 
 sheep, 16,801,545; goats, 2,275,900; and swine, 
 7,401,300. Nearly three-fourths of the population 
 are engaged in husbandry, so that A. is decidedly 
 an agricultural state, though its capabilities in this 
 respect have by no means been fully developed. 
 
 The population is very unequally distributed. 
 The most populous districts are those of the south- 
 
 wi : and "i the th-west. The Alpine re ion 
 
 and lli" : the Carpathians are the sparsest; and 
 
 ally the density diminishes towards the east. 
 The Austrian empire, at the commenci meni of 1870, 
 enumerated 27 cities which had a population above 
 20,000 inhabitants ; and three with more than 
 100,000 Vienna at that date counting 834,2 ! 
 inhabitants. The population of Austria embraces 
 a greater number of races, distinct in origin and 
 
 language, than that of any other European country 
 
 except Russia. The proportions in this p 
 
 arc here given from the ollieial statements of 1S70. 
 
 The Slaves are the most numerous race, amount- 
 ing to 10,219,000, nearly 50 per Cent of the whole 
 population in ls70. They form the bulk of the 
 itiou of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Dal- 
 matia, Croatia, Slavonia, the Military Frontiers, 
 tie- Woiwodina, tie- north of Hungary, and Galicia. 
 They are, however, split up into a number of peoples 
 or tribes, differing greatly in language, religion, 
 culture, and manners ; so that their seeming prepon- 
 derance in the empire is thus lost, 'lie- chief 
 branches of the Slavi -stem are tie- northern ' 
 (the most numerous of all), Kuthenes, and Poles, and 
 luthern Slowens, Croats, Serb -arians. 
 
 Tie- Germans numbered 9,040,000, or about 25 per 
 cent. They are dispersed over the- empire, but pre- 
 dominate most in the duchy of A., Salzburg, i 
 Styria, Carinthia, the west of Hungary, &c. The 
 Romanic peoples (speaking langus d rived from 
 that of ancient Home) amounted t-. 3,456,000, or 
 fully '.!'. per cent., and are divided into western and 
 eastern. To the first, tb G eneral 
 
 name of Welsch. They consist of Italians, inhabiting 
 the south of Tyrol, Istria, and Dalmatia; the Lading 
 (Latins), occupying some valleys in Tyrol ; and the 
 Friauls about Gortz, north of Triest. The ei 
 Romans are the Valaks or Walachians, styled by 
 themselves Rumuni, who are found in Transylvania, 
 Hungary, the Woiwodina, Bukowina, and Military 
 Frontiers. The Magyars, or Hungarians proper, 
 numbered 5,431,000 (over 15 per ceat.) : they are 
 located chiefly in Hungary and Transylvania; also 
 in the Woiwodina, and a few in Croatia and Slavonia. 
 Tie- small remaining portion are composed chielly of 
 Jews, Armenians, and Bohemians or gipsies ; and 
 collectively they number 1,354,000, which is pretty 
 nearly 3 J per cent. 
 
 As to Ye, the great bulk of the nation is 
 Roman Catholic. At the beginning of 1870 there 
 were 23,954,233 Roman Catholics ; of Greeks in 
 union with the Church of Rome there were 3,941,796 ; 
 not in union, 3,050,S30. The Protestants of all de- 
 nominations numbered 3,570,989 ; and the Jewish 
 persuasion claimed 1,375.801. The Church of Rome 
 has 11 archbishoprics and 57 bishoprics, and an 
 army of secular priests. At the accession of Joseph 
 II., there were 2024 convents ; but at the end of the 
 French war (1S10), they had been reduce. 1 to soo. 
 There are at present nearly 300 abbeys, and above 
 500 convents in the empire. 
 
 Education, since 1849, is under the care of a 
 minister of Public Worship and Instruction. As 
 compared with other German states, the education 
 of A. presents some peculiarities. There is a greater 
 prevalence of establishments where the pupils both 
 live and receive instruction ; also of schools for 
 special callings, Instruction, again, whether high 
 or low, is mostly gratuitous, or of trifling cost, being 
 provided from general or, local public funds. The 
 government has recently made liberal allowan 
 elementary education. Another peculiarity is the 
 sway of the clergy, both in schools and univei 
 The primary school ly in their hands. Tho 
 
 Ji n't , banished in 1848, have been allowed tore- 
 turn, and have had their schools restored. The 
 number of elementary schools has increased greatly 
 in recent times. In German Austria the law en- 
 forces compulsory attendance at the ' Yolks-sihulen.' 
 or national schools, of all children between thi 
 of six and twelve; and parents are liable to be 
 punished for neglecting to send them. Hui 
 is still backward in elementary education. There 
 ii lies in the empire. They are at 
 
 Vienna, Prague, Gratz, Innsbruck, Pesth, Cracow, 
 and I inberg. The first four of these are classed 
 Q riuau universities, and were attended as 
 follow s, in the summer term of 1872 : 
 
 559
 
 AGSTKIA. 
 
 ■ >rs and Teachers — 
 
 us 
 Extraordin:!' .38 
 
 Assistant Pronators, . . 86 
 
 1 etchers of Languages, ic, 8 
 
 Total, 200 
 Students- 
 Faculty of Theology, . . 198 
 i, Juri-piudince, 1304 
 i, Philosophy, . 697 
 it Medicine, . 1383 
 
 Total Matriculated Students, 3564 
 
 Non-Matriculated Stujcnls, 317 
 
 Vltona. Fescue. Grass, lontbnick. 
 
 40 
 10 
 17 
 3 
 
 70 
 
 103 
 311 
 
 292 
 
 850 
 
 7>; 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 197 
 104 
 
 148 
 79 
 
 an 
 
 84 
 
 Total, 3881 17M 926 612 
 
 The university of Pcsth had in the same year 53 
 professors and 1700 st 1 1 tcow and Lemberg, 
 
 the universi : -ia, and th ivonian 
 
 provinces, aombered 70 professors and 1S00 students. 
 There are also a large number of establishments 
 where the pupils are received young, and educated 
 and trained for special professions, for the army and 
 navy, for the counting-house, for the mine and the 
 farm, as accoucheurs, &c. There arc besides a large 
 number of institutes for the promotion of science 
 and art. The fruits of this extensive educational 
 system are not what might be expected, in conse- 
 quence of the priestly and monarchical resti 
 which hedge it round. The chief libraries are the 
 Imperial and University Libraries of Vienna. There 
 are in the whole monarchy 362 newspapers and 
 other periodical prints ; of which only 134 are 
 political. Fully t lie half arc in German; but the 
 i by conditions which render them 
 quite worthless as organs of public opinion. 
 
 The man of A. i3 not yet 
 
 loped. The annual value of its 
 manufactures — not including small trades— is esti- 
 mated at KKIll—1200 million florins, while that 
 of its husbandry may reach 3000 millions. Bohemia 
 takes the had in this industry, then follow Aus- 
 tria proper, Moravia and Silesia, and II 
 Vienna is the chief seat of manufacture for articles 
 of luxury ; Moravia, Silesia, and Bohemia for linen, 
 woollen, and glass wares ; Styria and Carinthia for 
 iron and steel wares. The chief mannfa 
 articles of export are those of silk and wool ; the 
 only others of consequence are linen twist, glass 
 . aud cotton goods. The yearly value of manu- 
 factured iron is about 54 million florins. The glass 
 wares of Bohemia are of special excellence. The 
 hemp and ilax industry is one of the oil 
 most important. No branch of industry has risen 
 more rapidly than that of cotton. The annual 
 value of the silk industry is estimated at 60 million 
 florins. The manufacture of tobacco is a state mon- 
 opoly, and brings a revenue of nearly sixty million 
 florins. The salt monopoly secures 18 millions. 
 
 In respect of commerce, A. is most unfavourably 
 situated. High mountains oppose great obstacles 
 on all hands to communication, and separate the 
 producing districts from the only sea that touches 
 the empire ; while the chief navigable rivers have 
 their mouths in other countries. Much has been 
 done to remedy these obstacles. Since 1809, a 
 1 ugth of 19,000 miles of highways has been made. 
 The great Alpine roads over the Stclvio Pass, the 
 •Splugen, and the Semering (q. v.), are among the 
 most remarkable constructions of our times. The 
 first railway opened in A. extends from Linz on the 
 Danube north to Budweis on the Moldau. and south 
 to Wells and Gmnnden. It is worked by horse- 
 I te, in 1S41, resolved to undertake 
 
 the construction of railways, and since then a great 
 
 extent has 1 n laid down. The principal lines are 
 
 from Vienna to GrStz, from Gr.itz to Cillv, thence 
 570 
 
 to Triert; from Vienna to Stockerau, and thence 
 
 Ick ; and from Vienna to Briton, thenOS to 
 
 Olmttts aud Prague, In Hungary, the chief lues 
 
 BTS from lVsth to Bliolnok, and from IVsth to 
 
 e thence to Tyrnau. The 
 
 I ngth of railways in the empire open for 
 
 traffic at the beginning of 1n70 was 4">17 English 
 
 ' • " OS under cons tr uc ti on was 
 
 1696, and the lenjl li for v. Inch eon ■ 
 
 ranted at that date was 1719 English 
 
 The length of the telegraph lines in the empire in 
 1S70 was about 41.197 English mi 
 
 : communication received a great in 
 from tli' introduction of steam. By means of the 
 Dannbe impany, formed in I860, and a 
 
 I company (1852 ined to tug-navigation, 
 
 passengers are now on the 
 
 Danube between 01m and Gslats, and on to 
 stantinople. The Austrian Danube Steam-company 
 has a fleet of steamers plying on the Danub 
 annual receipts from conveyance of goods ■ 
 more than 7 million florins. Tins tr.illic would be 
 vastly greater wer 
 
 [uence of Russia. 
 
 at number of the political impediments to 
 
 roe have been removed or diminished. The 
 
 as-boundary that separated Hungary and the 
 
 adjoining provinces from the rest of the empir 
 
 way m 1851, so that the whole is included in 
 
 one customs-district, with the exception of Dalmatia, 
 which still forms a small district by itself. The 
 tolls that obstructed the navigation of the Kile; 
 and the Danube have also been removed by n 
 of conventions with the states through which tli y 
 pass. By the new tariff, which came into p 
 operation in 1852, A. hi from a prohi 
 
 to a protective sj item. No article is admitted duty- 
 free; but absolute prohibition is confined to art 
 
 of state monopoly (salt, powder, and tobacco). ('• Is 
 
 for mere transit or transhipment pay no duty. But 
 the foreign commerce of A. is nothing compared 
 with that between the different provinces. The 
 great centre of this internal commerce is Vienna; 
 other important markets are Linz, Prague, Lemberg, 
 Brody, Pesth, Gr&tz. The imports and export 
 merchandise and bullion for the whole of the em 
 except the province of Dalmatia, which, as has 
 mentioned, is not wit sin the imperial line of en 
 ibulated as follows for 1870 and 1871: 
 
 
 Iklcrrttnndlic. 
 
 Bullion mtil Coin. 
 
 
 nstbsa 
 
 Ho..u'. 
 
 IMPORT!) 
 
 
 
 1-7", . 
 
 421.S*- 1 
 
 41.056 117 
 
 1871, . 
 
 . 525,737,301 
 
 59.Sc ; 
 
 PS— 
 
 
 
 1870, . 
 
 391.477.CI5 
 
 34.061,028 
 
 1871, . 
 
 . 498,560, l-'J 
 
 63,107,832 
 
 The principal article of import is raw cotton, 
 which amounted to the value of 38,506,920 floi 
 1870. Next in importance is the import of iron, 
 which was received by the empire to the amount 
 of 27,401,833 florins. The silk manufactures un- 
 tile same year were estimated at 20,172, H) I 
 florins' worth. The most important articles of 
 export are corn, flour, instruments, and machines. 
 The last two were exported in 1871 to the value of 
 6,373,063. 
 
 The chief harbours of A. are those of Istria — 
 Triest, Rovigno, Pirano, C'itta Xuova, &c ; of 
 Croatia — Fiume, Buccari, Novi ; of Dalmatia — 
 Zara, Spalatro, Ragusa, L'attaro, C'urzola, kc. 
 
 As to form of go A. is a monarchy here- 
 
 ditary in the House of HapsbuTg-Lothringen. In 
 the case of the reigning family dj ing out, the 
 of Bohemia and of Hungary have the right of 
 choosin ing; but for the other crown-lands,
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 tlm last sovereign appoints his own successor. The 
 House must profess the Roman Catholic 
 faith. 
 
 Till ISIS, Hungary and Transylvania had a con- 
 stitution limiting the monarchy, which was al 
 for the rest of the empire ; though the several pro- 
 vinces had each its consultative council composed of 
 clergy, nobles, and burghers. After the Revolution 
 of 1848, and the so sequent reaction, all marks of 
 independence of the separate provinces disapp 
 The imperial constitution granted [octroyirU) March 
 4, 1849, as well as the provincial constitutions that 
 followed, were abolished, and government was 
 organised in the most absolute form by the imperial 
 t' or charter of December 31, 1851. The 
 patent guaranteed to every religious body recognised 
 by law prote tion in the observance of public 
 ordinances, in the management of its own affairs, 
 and in the possession of buildings and funds for the 
 of worship and instruction. The relation of 
 the Koman Catholic Church to the state was put 
 upon a new footing. It was no longer under the 
 oversight of the secular authority, the ph 
 regium and church-patronage were I . eccle- 
 
 siastical jurisdiction for discipline, and the independ- 
 ent administration of church- property, were conceded, 
 and the intercourse of bishops and of all Catholics 
 with Rome left free. The clergy had no longer to 
 submit to examination or tests on the part of the 
 state ; they were nominated by the state, but only 
 with the concurrence of the bishops, and without 
 that concurrence they could not be deprived of their 
 office. Along with all this, they obtained an over- 
 whelming influence over education, even in the 
 universities ; and by the concordat signed in the 
 early part of ISjG, this influence was very greatly in- 
 creased. The patent further guaranteed the equality 
 in the eye of the law of all citizens, irrespective of 
 nation, rank, or religion, and the liberation of the 
 land from all serfdom. Subsequent patents (e. g. 
 for Hungary, Croatia, &c. in 1853) regulated the 
 claims between existing proprietors and their \ 
 and determined the indemnities due to the former 
 for their seignorial rights. 
 
 But since the year 1SH7, Austria has been recon- 
 stmctedaa a twofold empire, consisting of a German 
 or ' Cisleithan ' monarchy, and a Magyar or ' Trans- 
 Ieithan ' kingdom. The former is generally known 
 as Austria proper, and the latter as Hungary. Each 
 of the two countries has its own laws, parliani »t, 
 ministers, and government; and the formal tie 
 between them is a body known as the Delegations. 
 These form a parliament of 120 members : the one- 
 half is chosen by the legislature of German Austria, 
 which is represented by it, audthe other half repre- 
 sents Hungary. The person of the sovereign is 
 another knot in the tie between the two members 
 of the empire. Tin- Magyars chum, under < 
 conditions, the right of freely electing their monarch. 
 I > legations have jurisdiction over all matters 
 affecting the common interests of the two countries, 
 ii affairs, war. and finance ; the 
 ministries of which three departments are responsible 
 for the discharge of their official functions to the 
 itions, a committee of whom -its permanently. 
 The acts of the Delegations require to be coufirmed 
 by the representative assemblies of their respective 
 countries; and in this manner, it is a tt e m pte d to 
 •vernment of both Austria proper 
 and Hungary free. 
 
 The administration of Austria proper is d 
 : nine ministries — For 
 Education, Agriculture and Public 
 Works, Finance, Interior, War and Navy 
 liurce, and .Justice. Formerly the ministry was 
 merely the collective organ of the emperor, and was 
 
 respoi- hi alone. But a bill passed by the 
 
 rath in 1-.07. and sanctioned by the emperor, 
 renders it responsible to that parliament of the 
 i n empire. 
 The Reichsrath consists of an upper and a lower 
 house. The upper house is constituted by pi 
 nobles, archbishops, bishops, and life members 
 nominated by the emperor. The lower house num- 
 bers 2"3 m-mbers, elected by the 14 provin ial 
 diets of the empire in the following proportions: 
 Bohemia, 54; Dalmatia, 5; Galicia, 38; H 
 Austria, 10 ; Lower Austria, IS ; Salzbui 
 13 ; Carinthia, 5 ; Carniola, ; Buctowiua, 5 ; 
 Moravia, 22 ; Silesia, 6 ; Tyrol and Vorarlber.- 12 ; 
 Istria and Triest, 6. The members of the Reichs- 
 rath are elected in the Provincial Diets, and no one 
 who is not a member of one of these is eligible to 
 the wider sphere of legislation. The em 
 nominates the Presidents and Vice-presidents of both 
 houses. The rights claimed by the Ueicksrath are : 
 "int to all military laws ; 2. Coh i 
 
 legislature affecting trade and commerce, customs, 
 banking, posting, telegraphs, and railways. 3. 
 Examination of the estimates, and general control 
 of the public debt. To give validity to bUls passed 
 by the Reichsrath, the consent of both chambers is 
 required, as well as the sanction of the emperor. 
 
 The executive of Hungary is carried on in the 
 name of ' the king' by a responsible ministry. 
 
 Finance. — The protracted wars of the tirst 15 years 
 of the 19th c. had so exhausted the resources "i A., 
 and shattered her credit, that paper-money, after 
 being alreadytwice reduced, had again sunk to 25 per 
 cent, of its nominal value ; and even 5 per cent, lmus 
 could only be obtained at a sacrifice of sometimes 
 more than 59 per cent. During the 30 years that 
 followed the war, much was done to restore the 
 state credit, and 4 per cent, state paper was I 
 at par. The revolution of 1848 brought new uilli- 
 culties, from which the finances had not recovered, 
 when the Crimean war increased the expenditure; 
 the Italian war must have added to it enormously ; 
 and the war with Prussia in 1SGG threatened ruin 
 to the empire. 
 
 The estimated revenue for 1871 was 17.'' 
 florins ; and the estimated expenditure, 1 22, 50 1,1 73 ; 
 shewing a deficit of 104,833,314 florins. The 
 Budget estimates for the common affairs of the 
 , for 1872, were — revenue, 17,208,853; ex- 
 penditure, 110,647,49S florin3 ; leaving a deficit of, 
 93,438,615. To cover this latter deficit, the Aus- 
 trian monarchy contributed 65,407,315; and the 
 im of Hungary, 28,031, 5S4 florins. On the 1st 
 July 1871, the national debt of the Austrian empire 
 was 3,065,269,072 florins, or £306,526,906 sterling. 
 
 History* — The nucleus around which this 
 empire has grown was that part of the Arch 'u; 
 A. that lies below the Ens. In the age of Charle- 
 magne, about 800, the defence of the south-, 
 frontier of Germany against Asiatic hord 
 
 i a Margraviate, called the Eastern Mark or 
 
 mpire, or I | Austria , the 
 
 i government; which, being united in 1156 
 
 to the country above the Ens, was raised to a duchy. 
 
 After coining, in 12S2, into the possession of the 
 
 of Hapsburg q,.v.), it rapidly rose to a i ower- 
 
 ful state. The princes of that Ho;; 1 their 
 
 dominion by marriage, purchase, and otherwise, over 
 
 a number of other states, and from 143S held almost 
 
 uninterruptedly the throne of the German empire. 
 
 By the acquisition (1528 and 1527) of the crowns of 
 
 Bohemia and Hungary, the House of A. i 
 
 rank of a European monarchy. In 1S04, I'; 
 
 rhe history of A. and its rulers inTolres, for many cen- 
 na main strand of the thread of European history, it is 
 somewhat more than the usual length. 
 
 ::i
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 declared himself hereditary Emperor of A., and, two 
 years afterwards, laid down the title of Gmpi tor of 
 Germany and King of the Romans. 
 
 In the earliest times, what is now the Duchy of A. 
 was inhabited by the Taurisci, a Cell p ople; but 
 their name subsequently disappeared before that of 
 the Norici. After the conquest of the Norici by the 
 Romans (14 B.C.), the country to the north of the 
 Danube belonged to the kingdom of the Marcomanni 
 (q. v.) ; on the south of the river lay the Roman pro- 
 of Noriciim and Rannonia, in which last was 
 the municipal city of Vindobona (Vienna). Tyrol 
 formed part of Rh.-ctia. All these boundaries were 
 BWept away by the irruption of the northern peoples ; 
 and the regions in question were occupied in sue- 
 11, daring the 5th and 6th centuries, by Boii, 
 Vandals, Goths, Huns, Lombards, and Avari. After 
 the Lombards had settled in Italy, the Ens came, 
 about 508, to be the boundary between a tribe of 
 German origin and the Avari, a people who had 
 
 i rated thither from the east. The Avari having, 
 
 in 7S8, crossed the Ens, and fallen upon Bavaria, 
 tlnii part of the Frankish empire, Charlemagne 
 drove them back (79G) as far as the Raab, and united 
 the district from the Ens to that river with Germany, 
 under the name of the East Mark, Marchia Orientalis, 
 or Austria. He sent colonists, mostly Bavarians, 
 into the new province, and appointed over it a 
 rave. It came into the possession of the 
 1 1 mi > arians in 900, but was reconquered by Otto I. 
 in 955, and reunited with Germany. 
 
 As margrave of the reconquered province, the 
 emperor, in 9S3, appointed Leopold of Babenberg 
 (q. v.), whose dynasty ruled A. for 260 years. Under I 
 Henry Jasomirgott ( 1141 — 1177), tie- Marls above the 
 Ens was annexed to the Lower Mark, the united ; 
 province raised to a duchy, aud important pn\ i 
 conferred on the newly named duke and his heirs. 
 This Henry Jasomirgott took part in the second i 
 crusade ; he also removed the ducal residence from 
 Leopoldsberg to Vienna, now first called a city, and 
 I. in the building of the cathedral of St Stephi n. 
 Under his successors, numerous additions (Styria, 
 Carniola) were made to the possessions of the House. 
 Leopold VI. undertook numerous expeditions against 
 the Hungarians and the inlidels, and is reckoned the 
 best of the Babenberg princes. The line became 
 extinct with his successor, Frederic, who fell in battle 
 with the Magyars (1246). 
 
 Then followed an interregnum from 1240 to 12S2. 
 The Emperor Frederic II. at lirst treated the duchy 
 as a lapsed fief of the empire ; shortly, claims were 
 Set up by Count Hermann of Bavaria, who was 
 married to a niece of the deceased margrave, 
 Frederic ; and when Hermann died, and the empire 
 was distracted by the contests between rival 
 emperors, the ' States ' of A. and Styria chose 
 Ottokar, son of the Bohemian king, as duke, who 
 made good his nomination about 1260. Ottokar, 
 refusing to acknowledge Rudolf of Hapsburg as em- 
 peror, was defeated, and lost his life and possessions, 
 in the battle of Marchfeld (l'-7S) ; and the emperor 
 shortly afterwards (12S2) conferred the duchies of 
 A., Styria, and Carinthia on his son Albrecht. 
 
 The accession of the Hapsburg dynasty with 
 Albrecht I. (q. v.) was the foundation of A.'s subse- 
 quent greatness. The despotic Albrecht couteuded 
 successfidly with Hungarians and Bavarians, but 
 while attempting to subdue the Swiss, he was mur- 
 dered near Rheinfelden (130S) by his nephew, John 
 of Swabia, whom he had deprived of his hereditary 
 possessions. Of his five sons, Frederic was chosen 
 (1314) by a party to the imperial throne, but was de- 
 feated (1322) by his rival, Ludwig of Bavaria. Duke 
 Leopold was defeated at Morgarten (1315) in his 
 attempt to reduce the Swiss cantons that had thrown 
 ill 
 
 olT their allegiance to Albrecht I. At last, by the 
 death of all his brothers, Albrecht II. reunited the 
 Austrian possessions, increased by various additions. 
 After his death (1358), two 80ns, Rudolf and Albrecht 
 III., successively followed in the Duchy of Austria. 
 Another son, Leopold, held the other lands, but lost 
 his life at Sempach, in seeking to regain the Haps- 
 burg possessions in Switzerland. The posterity of 
 Albert and Leopold formed the two lines of A. and 
 Styria. During Albrecht III.'s reign, Tyrol and 
 Other districts were ceded to Austria. After his 
 death (1395), the dukedom was held by his son, 
 Albrecht IV. Albrecht V., who succeeded his father 
 in 1 1(11, by marrying the daughter of the Emperor 
 Si lismund, succeeded (1438) to the thrones of Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia, and was at the same time raised 
 to the dignity of German Emperor, as Albrecht II. 
 With his death, in 1439, Bohemia and Hungary were 
 for a time lost to the House of A., as were also, after 
 a bloody struggle, the last of the family possessions 
 in Switzerland. But the imperial dignity »;i ; hence- 
 forth uninterruptedly held by them. With Ladislaw, 
 Albrecht's son, the Austrian line of the House closed 
 (1457), and their possessions went to the Styrian 
 line. Of this line was the Emperor Frederic III., 
 who raised the dignity of his House by making A. 
 an archduchy. After the death of Ladislaw and of 
 his own brother, Albrecht, Frederic came into the 
 undivided possession of the archduchy (1404). 
 
 His son, Maximilian I., by marrying Maria, 
 daughter of Charles the Bold, acquired (1477) the 
 Netherlands. Becoming emperor on the death of 
 his father (1493), he ceded the government of the 
 Netherlands to his son Pldlip. Under Maximilian, 
 Tyrol fell again to the chief branch of the House of 
 A., several districts were acquired from Bavaria, 
 and fresh claims were established on Hungary and 
 Bohemia. The court of Vienna began to be the seat 
 of German art and science. The marriage of the 
 emperor's sou Philip with Johanna of Spain set the 
 House of Hapsburg on the throne of Spain and the 
 Indies. Philip died in 15(16 ; and on the death of 
 Maximilian L, in 1519, Philip's son, Charles I. of 
 Spain, was elected German emperor as Charles V. 
 (q. v.). Charles resigned by treaty all the German 
 possessions, except the Netherlands, to liis brother, 
 Ferdinand I. (q. v.). 
 
 Ferdinand I. had married the sister of Lewis IT. 
 of Hungary ; and on the death of the latter in the 
 battle of Mohacz (1520), he claimed the kingdoms of 
 Hungary and Bohemia, along with Moravia, S 
 and Lausatia. His claim was contested by John 
 Zapolya, who secured the aid of Sidtan Soliman 
 IT. ; and Ferdinand, after contests extending 
 over twenty years, had finally to pay an annual 
 tribute of 3:1,000 ducats to Soliman for possession 
 of Lower Hungary. Ferdinand was also fain to 
 surrender Wiirtemberg to Duke Ulrich (1534), on 
 condition of its reverting to A. on the death of the 
 male line. Nevertheless, the possessions of the 
 House of A. (in the German line) were at this time 
 already of the extent of 110,000 square miles. 
 On the abdication of Charles V. (1550), Ferdinand 
 succeeded to the imperial dignity ; he died 1504, 
 with the reputation of a good ruler, though he was 
 strongly conservative of everything established, and 
 introduced the Jesuits. 
 
 In the partition of the inheritance that took place 
 among his tliree sons, the eldest, Maximilian II., 
 received the imperial crown along with A., Hungary, 
 and Bohemia; the second, Ferdinand, Tyrol and 
 Upper A. ; the third, Karl, Styria, Carinthia, &c. 
 Maximilian was more fortunate in Hungary than his 
 father. The death of Soliman before Szjgeth (1500) 
 led to a truce ; he got his eldest son, Rudolf, crowned 
 king of Hungary in 1572, and shortly after, of
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Bohemia, and also chosen king of Rome. But his 
 attempt to bring the crown of l'oland into his House 
 [ailed, Maximilian II. was fond of peace, tolerant 
 in religion, and a just ruler. He died 1570 ; and of 
 his five sons, the eldest, Rudolf II,, became en 
 Under him, the possessions of the Archduke Ferdi- 
 nand of Tyrol, who had married Philippine \ 
 (q. v.), the beautiful daughter of an Augsburg 
 ' r, reverted to the other two lines, Ferdinand's 
 children not being considered noble. Rudolf II. 
 adhered to the old feudal usages, and was a 
 negligent sovereign, leaving everything to his 
 ministers and the Jesuits. His war with the Porte 
 and Transylvania brought him little credit ; and the 
 Protestants of Bohemia, oppressed by the Jesuits, 
 extorted from him a charter of religious liberty. At 
 last he was obliged, in 1608, to cede Hungary, and, 
 in 1011, Bohemia and A., to his brother Matthias 
 (q. v.). Matthias, who became emperor in 1612, 
 concluded a 20 years' peace with the Turks, and 
 ceded (1G17 and 1018) Bohemia and Hungary to his 
 cousin Ferdinand, son of the Archduke Karl of 
 Styria, third son of Maximilian II. Matthias lived 
 to see the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (q. v.), 
 and died March 20, 1619. 
 
 Bohemia refused to acknowledge his successor, 
 Ferdinand II. (q. v.), to whom all the Austrian 
 possessions had again reverted, and chose the 
 Elector Palatine, Frederic V., the head of the 
 Protestant union, as king. The States of A. and 
 the Hungarians were aiso refractory. But the 
 battle of Prague (1620) subjected Bohemia to Ferdi- 
 nand ; who formally set about rooting out Protes- 
 tantism in that country and in Moravia, annulled 
 their right of electing their king, and the patent of 
 religious freedom granted them by Rudolf II., and 
 set up a ( 'atholic reformation tribunal which drove 
 thousands into exile. The emperor also succeeded 
 in extorting acknowledgment of his sovereignty 
 from the States of A., among which Protestantism 
 predominated ; after which Protestantism was 
 rigorously prohibited. Hungary also was at last 
 compelled to yield, which had revolted under the 
 Prince of Transylvania. But this religious war 
 and persecution cost the House of A. the life-blood 
 of its possessions. Of 732 cities in Bohemia, only 
 130 were left; of 30,7i'i> villages, only 6000; of 
 3 million inhabitants, only 780,000. Under Ferdi- 
 nand's successor, the Emperor Ferdinand III. (1037 
 — 1057), A. continued to be a theatre of war; and 
 at the peace of Westphalia (164S), had to cede Alsace 
 to France. Ferdinand III.'s son and successor, 
 Leopold I., provoked the Hungarians to rebellion by 
 his severity. Tekeli (q. v.) received aid from the 
 Porte, and Kara Mustapha besieged Vienna (10S3) ; 
 which was rescued only by an army of Poles and 
 Germans under John Sobieski hastening to its assist- 
 ance. The emperor's generals now reduced the 
 whole of Hungary, which was declared a hereditary 
 kingdom in the male line (1057). Prince Eugene 
 compelled the Porte (1009) to restore the country 
 between the Danube and Theiss, and, in 1718, to 
 cede other important provinces to Hungary. The 
 struggle between Leopold and Louis XIV*. of France 
 for the heirship to the king of .Spain, led to the war of 
 the Spanish Succession (q. v.), during which Leopold 
 died. May 5, 1705. He was of sluggish phlegmatic 
 character, and wholly under the influence oi the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 Bis eldest son and successor, the enlightened 
 Joseph I. (q. v.), continued the war. He died child- 
 less, April 17. 1711, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, Karl VI. The peace of Utrecht concluded 
 under his reign (1713) secured to A. the Netherlands, 
 Milan, Mantua, Maples, and Sicily. The monarchy 
 now embraced 1 'JO, 000 square miles, with 29 million 
 
 inhabitants, and had a revenue of 14 million florins, 
 with an army of 130,000 men. Its strength, however, 
 was soon much exhausted by fresh wars with 
 France and Spain. At the peace of Vienna (1737), 
 Karl VI. had to give up Naples and Sicily to Don 
 Carlos of Spain, and part of Milan to the king of 
 Sardinia ; receiving only Parma and Piacenza 
 instead. He also lost at the peace of Belgrade 
 (1739) nearly all the fruits of Eugene's conn 
 giving back to the Porte Belgrade, Servia, and the 
 parts of Wallachia and Bosnia that had bclon ! 
 Austria. The emperor conceded all these ] 
 with the view of securing adhesion to the Iv 
 matic Sanction (q. v.), which conferred the succession 
 on his daughter, Maria Theresa. 
 
 With his death (October 20, 1740), the male line 
 of the Hapsburgs was extinct, and Maria Theresa, 
 who was married to Franz Stephan, Duke of Lor- 
 raine, assumed the government. But counter-claims 
 were raised on all side3, and a violent war arose, in 
 which England alone sided with Maria. Frederic 
 II. of Prussia conquered Silesia. The Elector of 
 Bavaria took the title of Archduke of A., was 
 crowned king of Bohemia at Linz and Prague, and 
 elected emperor as Karl VII. (1742). The Hunga- 
 rians alone stood by their heroic queen ; who, at the 
 peace of Brcslau (1742) was forced to j 
 to Prussia. Frederic renewed the war by coming 
 to the assistance of the emperor; but Karl 
 (1745), Maria Theresa's husband was elected Ger- 
 man emperor as Franz I. A second treaty of 
 peace (1745) secured Silesia anew to Prussia ; and at 
 the peace of Aix-la-chapelle (174S), A. had to cede 
 Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to Don Philip of 
 Spain, and several districts of Mdan to Sardinia. 
 These sacrifices secured the existence of the Austrian 
 monarchy; but Maria Theresa wished to recover 
 Sdesia, and with this view, entered into alliance with 
 France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden ; but after a 
 bloody Seven Years' War (q. v.), Prussia retained 
 Sdesia, and A. had spent her blood and treasure in 
 vain. At this time, paper-money first appeared in 
 A., under the name of state-bonds. At Franz's 
 deatli (1705), his son, Joseph II., became German 
 emperor, and joint-regent with his mother of the 
 hereditary states. Collateral branches of the House 
 of A. were planted by the younger sons of Maria 
 Theresa, the Archduke Leopold in Tuscan}-, and the 
 Archduke Ferdinand, who married the heiress of 
 Este (see Moden-a). In the first partition of Polan 1 
 (1772), A. acquired Galicia and Lodomeria, and the 
 Bukowina was ceded by the Porte in 1777. At the 
 death of the empress in 17S0, the monarchy had an 
 extent of 234,000 square miles, with a pop. of 24 
 millions, and a debt of 100 million florins. The 
 atlministration of Maria Theresa was distinguished 
 by unwonted unity and vigour, both in home and 
 foreign relations. 
 
 Her successor, Joseph II., was an active reformer 
 in the spirit of the enlightened despotism of the 
 times ; though often rash and violent in his mode of 
 proceeding. H e introduced economy into every 
 department, remodelled the censorship of the 
 
 d liberties and rights to Protestants, abolished 
 900 convents, and revised the school-system. His 
 protective system of duties, I liliting his 
 
 narrowness as a statesman, gave a start to native 
 manufactures. But his reforming zeal and passion 
 for uniformity excited opposition; the Netherlands 
 rose in insurrection, and other disturbances 1 
 out, which hastened Iks end (1790). He was suc- 
 ceeded in the government by his brother, the I 
 Duke of Tuscany — as German emperor, Leopold II. 
 — who succeeded in pacifying the Netherlands and 
 Hungary. I'eaee was concluded with Prussia and 
 Turkey (1790). The fate of his sister, Marie 
 
 473
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Antoinette, and her husband, Louis XVI..]. ,1 1. 
 
 to an alliance with Prussia; bnt be died (March 1, 
 
 before the war with France broke out. The 
 war was declared by France on his son Franz II., the 
 
 j . ar (see Fkaxce). By the treaty of Campo 
 Formio (q. v.), 1"!'7, A. lost Lombard; and the Nether- 
 ring; in lien the Venetian territory; two 
 ■ second partition of Poland, it was 
 
 nted by West Oalima. Franz, in alliance with 
 
 , renewed the war with France in 1799, which 
 
 was ended by He peace of Luneville. It is m 
 
 to follow all the alterations of boundary that the 
 
 Austrian dominions underwent during these wars. 
 
 list serious was at the peace of Vi< una (1S09), 
 which cost A. 42,000 square miles of territory, and 
 11 million florins of her revenue. Itwasin 1804. \\h. n 
 Napoleon had been proclaimed Emperor of France, 
 that Fran/, declared himself hereditary Emperor of 
 Austria, uniting all his dominions in one empire. 
 On the establishment of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine, he laid down the dignity of German emperor, 
 which his family had held for nearly 11 
 years, and now took the title of Franz L, Emperor 
 of Au-tria. 
 
 The humiliating peace of Vienna was followed 
 (1809) by the marriage of Napoleon with the Arch- 
 
 s Maria Lordai ; and in March 1612, Napoleon 
 and Franz entered into alliance against Russia. But 
 when the Russian campaign of 1812 had broken 
 
 met of the French emperor, his father-in-law 
 declared war on him (August 1813), and joined the 
 alliance of England, Russia. Prussia, and Sweden. 
 The active part which the Emperor Franz now took 
 in the downfall of Napoleon, his consenting to the 
 banishment of his son-in-law to Elba, and the 
 firmness with which he signed the declaration of 
 outlawry against him on his return to France, and 
 contributed to his final overthrow, thus deciding the 
 fortunes of his own daughter and her son — all 
 furnished grounds of claim to that full indemnity for 
 her losses which A. obtained at the close of the 
 war. In the remodelling of the map of Euro; 
 took place at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 32,000 
 agnate miles were added to the 253,000 possessed by 
 A. after the last partition of Poland, besides the 
 advantages she gained in point of compactness, and 
 facilities for trade, especially by the acquisition of 
 Venice and Dalmatia. Ferdinand, the emperor's 
 uncle, was also restored to the grand duchy of 
 
 ay, of which he had been dispossessed by 
 Napoleon. 
 
 X that time, A. exerted a powerful influence 
 in European politics generally, and m<r- 
 in the German Confederation ; and that influence 
 was uniformly hostile to constitutionalism (see 
 
 B.NICH). When the Polish revolution broke 
 out, a strict neutrality was assumed ; but a Polish 
 
 I lat was driven into the Austrian territories 
 
 ned, and sent into Hungary, while a 
 
 ' that had taken refuge on Austrian 
 
 sml was let go, and equipped with the Polish 
 
 '!1S. 
 
 The death of Franz I. (March 2. 1832) made little 
 alteration in the policy of A. ; Ferdinand I. trod in 
 his father's footsteps. The political alliance with 
 Russia and Prussia was drawn closer by a personal 
 conference of the emperor with Nicolas I. and 
 Frederic William III. at Teplitz, October 183* 
 The wonted calm was interrupted in 1840 by the 
 war against Ibrahim Pacha in Syria, in which A. 
 took part in union with England. An attempt at 
 tion in Italy in 1S44 was a complete failure. 
 
 But under this long-continued peace and super- 
 ficial calm, the internal condition of the empire was 
 coming to a crisis. The stifling bureaucratic system 
 of government and police supervision, had produced 
 
 only irritation and discontent, and was powerless to 
 compress the fermentation. 'II pposttion in the 
 
 1 nationalities became 
 and the tactics of playing these oationaliti 
 
 t ono another, no longer succeeded. The 
 
 i insurrection, which led to the incorporation 
 ■v. with the monarchy (November 1846), had 
 
 ! into a frightful rising of the peasantry in 
 Galicia against the nobles. This enabled the govern- 
 ment to overpower the political rising ; but the 
 success only increased the danger of the crisis, by 
 encouraging it to proceed in the old redden way. 
 In the meantime the opposition to Austrian rule in 
 Italy, Hungary, and Bohemia, was becoming uncon- 
 trollable, and even the states of Lower Austria 
 
 1 on some control in the management of the 
 state. The revolutionary movement was already in 
 full swing in Italy, when the fall of Louis-Philippe 
 (February 24, 1S48) shook Europe to its fonndaf 
 A host of petitions and addresses was foil 
 March 13, by a popular movement in Vienna, to 
 which the government and military, after a feeble 
 resistance, succumbed. Metternich resigned, the 
 arming of the citizens and freedom of the press were 
 granted, and the emperor promised to convoke a 
 consultative assembly from all parts of the empire. 
 At the same time, the opposition in Hungary had 
 carried their demand for an independent ministry 
 responsible to the national diet, and the emperor 
 was not in a position to withstand it. The 22d of 
 March saw the insurrection break out at Milan, and 
 Radetzky, the military commander, forced to retire 
 on Verona. A'enice rose at the same time, and 
 drove out the Austrians. 
 
 While the revolution was thus victorious in the 
 provinces, the central authority was in a state of 
 dissolution. The authority passed into the hands of 
 the national guards and the students' legion (the 
 A rising of the people (May 15), in support 
 of the Central Committee, formed from the national 
 guards, which the government had attempted to 
 dissolve, compelled its continuance, and also a 
 
 ii of the electoral law, so as to convert the 
 new diet into a constituent assembly. These pro- 
 ceedings led to the flight of the court to Innsbruck 
 (May 17). An unsuccessful attempt of the govern- 
 ment to break the power of the ' Aula,' resulted in 
 the appointment of a Committee of Safety, to whose 
 influence the government had to submit. A Slavic 
 insurrection broke out in Prague after Easter, which 
 was repressed with bloody severity by Prince 
 Windiscngriitz. While the emperor was thus linger- 
 ing at Innsbruck, leaving Vienna in the power of 
 the populace, and the Hungarians were pursuing an 
 independent course, it was in Italy that the power 
 of A. began to recover itself. 
 
 Radetzky had at first been reduced to the main- 
 taining of a defensive position at Verona) against 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia, who had declared war 
 on A. at the outbreak of the revolution, and the 
 forces that came to his aid from Tuscany, Rome, 
 and Naples ; and the foreign policy of A. was in 
 such a state of discouragement, that negotiations 
 were entered into under the mediation of Great 
 Britain, offering the Lombards independence ou 
 moderate conditions. But in June, Radetzky took 
 up the offensive, reduced in succession Vicenza, 
 Padua, and other cities, and then turning against 
 the chief Sardinian force, defeated it at Custozza 
 (L'oth July), and drove it from the field. The fruits 
 of the victory were the dissolution of Charli 
 Albert's army, and a truce which again delivered 
 Lombardy to Austria. 
 
 In the meantime, the government at Vienna was 
 more powerless than ever. The emperor remained 
 at Innsbruck, and the constituent diet was opened,
 
 I 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 July 22, by the Archduke John, as his representa- 
 tive. But a new crisis was ripening in Hungary. 
 The Croats, under their Ban, Jellachich (q. v.), 
 opposed the predominance of the Magyars, and 
 refused obedience to the Hungarian government, 
 which, under the Batthyanyi- Kossuth ministry, was 
 pursuing a policy almost independent of Austria. 
 Jellachich's resistance was officially condemned by 
 the emperor, and he wa3 threatened with deposition ; 
 but, as subsequently appeared, his conduct was 
 secretly approved by the court. The Archduke 
 Palatine, Stephen, now left Hungary, after a last 
 attempt at conciliation ; and the emperor, who had 
 returned to Vienna after repeated invitations, named 
 Count Lamberg commissioner, with the supreme 
 command in Hungary. Lamberg, however, was 
 murdered on the bridge of Pesth (September 28). 
 The Hungarian parliament was now dissolved, and 
 the command given to Jellachich. But the parlia- 
 ment continued its sittings, and appointed K 
 president of the committee of defence. When the 
 imperial troops now began to march against Hungary, 
 a frightful insurrection broke out in Vienna (October 
 6), which was attributed to Hungarian instigation. 
 The arsenal was stormed, and the war-minister, 
 Latour, murdered ; the court fled to Olmiitz, a 
 committee of safety was appointed, the armed 
 populace organised, and the Polish general, Bern, 
 put at the head of military affairs ; while the diet 
 wavered between loyalty and revolution. In the 
 meantime, the military forces had withdrawn, and 
 joined Jellachich, in order to prevent the Hungarians 
 coming to the aid of the Viennese. Windischgratz 
 now approached with an army, and declared Vienna 
 in a state of siege. The attack began on the 23*1 
 of October, and after a resistance of 8 days, Vienna 
 surrendered. 
 
 Severe measures were then taken ; and a number 
 of leaders, amou» others, Robert Blum (q. v.), were 
 condemned and shot. The diet now met at Kremsir, 
 and a new ministry was formed, into which Prince 
 Schwarzenberg, Count Stadion, Bach, Brack, and 
 others entered. But the vigorous policy thought to 
 be necessary for the restoration, and advocated by 
 the Archduchess Sophia, was not responded to by 
 the easy nature of Ferdinand I. Accordingly, the 
 emperor abdicated, December 2, as did also the 
 Archduke Franz KarL and the latter's son, Franz 
 Joseph (q. v.), was declared emperor. 
 
 In winter, Windischgratz entered Hungary, and 
 began the Hungarian war. After the encounters 
 at Raab and Babolna, Ofen was besieged (January 
 1849), and the Hungarians retired beyond the Theiss, 
 and had time to organise themselves under such able 
 leaders as Giirgei and Klapka, and to prepare for 
 the struggle of the following summer. 
 
 In the meantime, important events took place 
 elsewhere. In March (21 — 23), Radetzky made his 
 rapid and decisive campaign, which, by the victory 
 of Novara, led to the abdication of Charles Albert, 
 and an indemnification for war expenses from 
 Sardinia of 15 million lire. With the surrender of 
 Venice, which took place in August, the subjugation 
 of Italy was complete. 
 
 At Kremsir, the diet proving intractable, was 
 dissolved, March 4, 1S49 ; and a constitution waa 
 granted {oclroyirt), with two elective chambers, 
 responsible ministers, and other constitutional pro- 
 visions. In the National Assembly at Frankfurt. 
 A. opposed the project of a confederated state under 
 the leadership of Prussia, and managed to thwart 
 the conferring of the empire of Germany on the 
 in kmg (March 1S49). 
 
 In Hungary, the Magyars, though the Germans 
 and Slaves within the country itself were hostile to 
 them, began the campaign with decided success. 
 
 Bern conquered Transylvania in spite of Russian aid j 
 and the rest of the Hungarian army advancing 
 westward in spring, were successful against the 
 imperial forces at Szolnok and Waitzen. Windisch- 
 gratz was replaced in the command by Welden, but 
 the imperial cause was not improved. Kossuth's 
 hopes rising, he proclaimed the deposition of the 
 House of Hapsburg, and virtually made Hungary a 
 republic. By May, Pesth and Ofen were again in 
 the hands of the Magyars ; and although General 
 Welden was recalled, and the command given to 
 Haynau, there was little prospect of success against 
 the Magyars, if a treaty with the czar had not 
 brought the aid of a Russian army under Paske- 
 witsch. The Austrians still suffered several reverses, 
 and the Hungarians performed splendid feats of 
 arms, such as Giirgei's victory at Waitzen, and 
 Klapka's sally from Komorn ; but from June, the 
 war on the whole began to be more favourable to 
 A., whose forces were well managed by Haynau and 
 Jellachich ; and the intervention of the Russians 
 brought an irresistible weight of numbers against 
 the Magyars. After the affairs of Szegedin and 
 Debreczin, Haynau's engagements on the Theiss, 
 and the raising of the siege of Temeswar, it was in 
 vain that Kossuth transferred the dictatorship to 
 Gorge! Giirgei, whether from treachery, as the 
 other Magyar leaders maintain, or from necessity, as 
 he himself avers, laid down his arms to the Russians 
 at Vilagos (August 13). The surrender of Komorn, 
 in September, completed the subjugation of Hungary, 
 which was treated as a conquered country, and the 
 officers taken in Arad were dealt with by Haynau 
 with a blood-thirsty rigour. 
 
 A. was now free to attend to politics, internal 
 and external, and the spirit of the restoration 
 soon shewed itself. One important fruit of the 
 revolution was retained — the liberation of the soil 
 from the burdens and trammels of feudalism. All 
 other liberal concessions very soon disappeared. 
 For a time, the forms of the constitution of March 
 1849 were retained; but the rigorous military 
 government and the surveillance exercised over the 
 press, shewed the tendency of things. The funda- 
 mental principles of the constitution turned out to 
 the profit only of the Catholic Church, which 
 got rid of the placetum regium. In the beginning 
 of 1S51, Schmerling and Brack, the liberal element 
 of the ministry, retired ; and in August appeared 
 a number of imperial decrees rendering the minis- 
 ters accountable to the emperor alone. At last, 
 January 1, 1852, it was announced that the con- 
 stitution and the fundamental rights were abolished, 
 trial by jury set aside, the old press law revived, 
 &c. This was followed by still greater concessions 
 of influence to the clergy. The emperor did not 
 conceal his predilection for absolute military govern- 
 ment. All this was not effected without manifesta- 
 tions of discontent. The fires of revolution were 
 still smouldering in Hungary and Italy ; and in 
 Lombardy, though still under 6trict military law, a 
 tumult broke out, February 1S53, in which a number 
 of officers and soldiers were stabbed. The finances, 
 too, notwithstanding vigorous measures for improv- 
 ing the material resources of the country, continued 
 in a bad state, so that incessant loans were required 
 to cover the current deficit. 
 
 On the confused arena of German politics, the 
 struggle for ascendency was kept up between A. 
 andPrussia. In October 1S50, the two powers were 
 armed and ready to come to blows ; but the bold 
 and determined policy of Schwartzenberg prevaUed, 
 and Prussia gave way- The points in dispute it 
 might be difficult for any but a German to under- 
 stand, even if it were worth trying. See Germany, 
 Hesse-Casjel. The result was that Prussia's 
 
 S75
 
 AUTEUIL— AUTO DA FK 
 
 i ■ of a union was given up, and also A.'a 
 admission with all her territories into the German 
 Confederation ; and in 1851, the old dietwaa restored. 
 After tie' death of Schwartzenberg, tie' 
 policy of A. was more conciliatory, and her inter- 
 ference ill German affairs less dictatorial. I'm 
 and A, after l' eember 1852,11 e more friendly, on 
 I'hole, though the war in Italy gave ri 6 I I 
 ble ill feeling between tile two powers. In 
 February 1853, a commercial treaty was concluded, 
 
 which was of the Utlll ■ in lice pl'os- 
 
 perity of A., as removing a great part of the 
 ictiona to her commerce with the rest of 
 Germany. 
 
 In 1S53, a difference took place between A. and 
 Turkey, which formed, as it were, a prelnde to the 
 war in the Crimea. In the quarrel between the 
 Montenegrines and the Porte, A. took the part of 
 •;i. Montenegrines; she had also complaints as to 
 the infringement of rights possessed by her on 
 the Adriatic coast, and regarding the treatment of 
 Christians in Turkey. The threatening mission of 
 Count Leiningen, February 1853, procured redress 
 of these grievances. As if following up this move- 
 ment, Russia came forward as the special protector 
 of the Greek Christians of the Ottoi 
 made demands on the Porte which were held incon- 
 sistent with his sovereign rights. It was the interest 
 of A., as well as of the rest of Europe, to maintain 
 the integrity of the Ottoman empire; but although 
 she united with Engl ind i ad Prance in end' 
 ing to settle the question by on, when the 
 
 war broke out, her peculiar relations to Russia led 
 her to remain neutral during the contest. 
 
 The conduct of A. in Italy, especially after 1S40, 
 was such as to make that country a 'standing 
 menace to Europe.' The government of A. in that 
 
 on of Italy of which she obtained possession by 
 the treaty of 1S15, was far from satisfactory; but 
 what was chiefly complained of by the other powers 
 was her interference in the affairs of the independent 
 states of the peninsula. By means of secret treaties 
 (copies of which were laid before the British Houses 
 of Parliament this year, 1S50), A. obtained a most 
 undue influence in Parma, Tuscany, Modena, the 
 States of the Church, and in the kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies. That influence was of course exercised in 
 the interests of despotism, and in opposition to the 
 welfare of the people, whose wishes their rulers, 
 backed by Austrian troops, . i led to set at 
 defiance. The position of A. in Italy was canvassed at 
 the meetings which followed the signing of the treaty 
 of peace at Paris in 1856, but nothing residted from 
 the discussions. Sardinia seeing herself gradually 
 environed by, and afraid to fall a victim to the 
 prevailing Austrianism, after all remonstrances of 
 a peaceful kind had failed, began to arm. A. 
 tided her immediate disarmament, on pain of 
 war; but Sardinia, whose army was swelled with 
 volunteers from every part of the peninsula, and 
 who had previously entered into a treaty, offensive 
 and defensive, with France, refused. A. accon 
 commenced hostilities by crossing the Ticino on the 
 20th of April 1S.59. On the 3d May, France, as the 
 ally of Sardinia, formally declared war against A. ; 
 but in anticipation of what was to follow, she had 
 several days before despatched troops into Pied- 
 mont. The Austrian troops were beaten in every 
 engagement that followed, and so effectually, that 
 on the Cth July, the emperor, who latterly had 
 taken the chief command of his army, was fain to 
 conclude an armistice with the Emperor Napoleon, 
 who also commanded in person. On the 12th of the 
 same month, the two potentates met at Villafranca, 
 and agreed to come to terms of peace, the chief 
 conditions of which were to be the cession of 
 
 576 
 
 Lombardy to Sardinia, while Venetia was Mill 
 retained by Austria. The formal treaty was cm- 
 eluded at Zurich in October. See Italy, Lombabsy. 
 In lSGli, a short and bloody war occuircd between 
 A. on the one hand, and Italy and Prussia on the 
 other, which resulted in the ce : f \ enice to Italy, 
 
 for details of which see ( : i, i:\i.\n\ in Stir. (Vol. X.). 
 
 AUTEUIL, a village with 5784 inhabitants, at 
 
 the entrance of the Bois do Boulogne, about three 
 miles from Paris, but enclosed within the forti- 
 fications of the city, is known as the residence of 
 famous literary men. Here lived Boileau, Moliere — 
 whom Andrieux introduced in his Moliin 
 ses Amis, ou le Soupcr <l Avteuil—aad the gifted 
 widow of Helvetius, whose parties even Bonaparte 
 often frequented in 1798 and 1790. This lady was 
 buried in her own garden at Auteitil. 
 
 AUTHE'NTIC (Gr.) is a term applied to any 
 writing or document, the contents of which may !"■ 
 depended upon for their truth or accuracy. It is 
 frequently employed as synonymous with genuine, 
 though a distinction lias Been drawn, especially by 
 biblical critics, between the two words. A Ulffu nticity, 
 it is said, refers to the statements made by an 
 author ; <jenuiitenes8,to the authorship itself. Thus, 
 we speak of a History nf ICwjtautl as .1., when the 
 narrative is admitted to be correct ; and we say of 
 such and such a gospel or epistle that it is g< 
 when we are convinced that it is the composition of 
 the writer to whom it is attributed. See Bishop 
 Watson's Apology for tiie Ilililr, and Dean Trench's 
 Study of Words. This distinction, however, appears 
 to be artificial rather than real ; that is to Bay, it 
 does not inhere in the original signification of the 
 words. 
 
 AU'TO, entering into many compound scientific 
 terms of Greek extraction, is the ( Irak pronoun tdf. 
 In some compounds, it denotes the agent or subject, 
 as in autocrat, automaton, autonomy ; in others, the 
 object, as in autobiography, (ititorri/ir, autmlitltictic ; 
 in others, again, a mere reference to the subject, as 
 in autochOtOTUms. This variation in the. gramma! teal 
 relation of A. sometimes occasions ambiguity in the 
 meaning of the compound. Thus, autograph means 
 both a machine that writes of itself, and also a 
 writing done with the person's own hand; autocracy, 
 both the mastery over one's self, and the sole rule 
 or absolute authority over a people or state. 
 
 AUTO'CRACY (Gr. self-mastery, or sole ma i , ■•!) 
 signifies that form of government in which the 
 sovereign unites in himself the legislative and the 
 executive powers of the state, and thus rides uncon- 
 trolled. Such a sovereign is therefore called an 
 autocrat. Nearly all eastern governments are of this 
 form. Among European rulers, the Emperor of 
 Russia alone bears the title of Autocrat, thus signi- 
 fying his constitutional absoluteness. — Kant used the 
 word A., in philosophy, to denote the mastery of 
 the reason over the rebellious propensities. 
 
 AU'TO DA FE (Port. Act of Faith) was tho 
 name given to the procession or ceremony that 
 used to take place in Spain and Portugal at the 
 execution of heretics condemned to death by the 
 inquisition. It was generally held on a Sunday 
 between Whitsunday and Advent, very often on 
 All-saints Day. At dawn, the dismal tolling of the 
 great bell of the high church gave the signal to 
 begin the drama of the day ; for as such it was 
 looked upon by the people, who thronged to it in 
 troops, believing that they did a good work in 
 merely looking on. Men of the highest rank 
 reckoned it prudent to give their countenance to 
 the 'holy' tribunal at these processions, and even 
 grandees of C'astde did not disdain to make them- 
 selves familiars of the inquisition. The procession
 
 AUTOGRAPH-AUTOMATON. 
 
 was led by the Dominicans, carrying the Sag of the 
 inquisition ; next followed the penitents, on whom 
 only penance had been laid ; behind them, and 
 separated by a great cross which was borne before, 
 came those condemned to death— barefoot, clad in 
 (he sanbenito, and with a pointed cap on the head; 
 then, effigies of the fugitives; and lastly, tin b 
 of dead culprits, in black colliii i painted with flames 
 and hellish symbols. The frightful train was closed 
 by the army of priests and monks. The procession 
 went through the principal streets to ih" church, 
 where, after a Bermon on the true faith, the sentence 
 
 was annon d. In the meantime, the accused stood 
 
 before a crucifix with extinguished torches in their 
 hands. After the sentence had been read to them, an 
 Officer of the inquisition gave each of the condemned 
 a blow on the breast With his hand, as a sign that 
 they were given over by that tribunal to the secular 
 [power; on which .a secular officer took them in 
 charge, had them fettered, and taken to prison. A 
 few hours afterwards, they were brought to the 
 place of execution. If they yet, at the last, made 
 profession of the Catholic faith, they were so far 
 favoured as to be first strangled; otherwise, they 
 were burned alive, and with them the effigies and 
 bones of the fugitive and dead culprits. As a rule, 
 tlie king, along with his whole court, had to exalt 
 by his presence the solemnity of the horrid transac- 
 tion. The most splendid Auto da Fe took place at 
 Madrid, under Charles II., in KiSO; the last was 
 field as recently as towards the middle of last 
 century. 
 
 AU'TOGRAPH (Gr.) is a term applied to what is 
 written with the persons own hand, and not by an 
 amanuensis. In relation to manuscripts, it is used 
 in opposition to a copy. The collection of autographs 
 has, especially in recent times, become an object of 
 eager pursuit, aud consequently they form a branch 
 of literary trade. Their value is determined by the 
 interest felt in the writer, the scarcity of such relics 
 of him, and the contents of the writing. Besides 
 portraits of famous persona, we wish, particularly in 
 the case of distinguished contemporaries, to po 
 a specimen of their handwriting, or at hast their 
 signature, as the peculiarity of the style — the 
 physiognomy of the handwriting — completes our 
 knowledge of their personality. Lithography is 
 particularly serviceable in this matter, not only by 
 supplying fac-similcs for biographical and historical 
 wor] 3 .oul for portraits, but also by multiplying 
 impressions of collected autographs, such as have 
 appeared in England by Smith, in Holland by 
 Nathan, ami in Germany by Dorow. But deserving 
 mention before all others are the laographie dee 
 Hommes Cilebres (3 vols. far. 182S-1S30), to which 
 
 Signature of Richard III. (Ricardus Rex). 
 
 l'rom tho Pastun Letters. 
 
 a supplement appeared in 1839 ; and the, A utographm- 
 PraaUalbum sur 200 jOtrigen Oedachtmssfeier des 
 Westfulischai Frirdnixxrhlussis (fob Leip. 1848). We 
 I i an uninterrupted succession of the royal 
 
 autographs of England from ECing Richard II. down- 
 wards. Fac-similes are to be found in Autographs 
 of Royal, Noble, Learned, and Remarkable Person- 
 an'*. Conspicuous in English History, from th- Reign 
 in' Riclucrd II- to that of Charles II., by John Gough 
 Nichols (fob Lond. 1829). The preface to tin 
 
 contains some interesting notices. 
 07 
 
 AUTO'LYCUS, a Greek astronomer and mathe- 
 matician of Pitane in /Kolia, about .'J.'JO B.O., 
 on the Revolving Sphere, and on the Ilisii 
 Setting of the fixed Stars. Both Work , printed 
 in Dasypodrua'a ProposiUones Dodrims op) 
 (Strasb. IoTl'j. contain, for the most part, only such 
 propositions of spherical astronomy as can 1"- solved 
 by means of a globe; and, instead of presupposing 
 
 the knowdedg pin i ieal i , i onomi try, tbi v i m 
 
 rather to prove that A. himself was unacquainted 
 with it. 
 
 AUTO'MATON" is derived from two Greek words 
 signifying Belf-movement, and is usually applied to 
 machinery constructed to represent human or animal 
 actions. The construction of automata I 
 th - attention of mankind from very early 
 Archytas of Tarentum is reported, ' :h4(KI 
 
 u c., to have in. eli. a pigi mi that could fly. Albertua 
 
 .Magnus and leg' r Bacon, in the 13th c, are said 
 
 but there is some dubiety about the matter — to have 
 made respectively a porter to open the door, and a 
 speaking head; while Kogiomontanus, in the loth c, 
 is declared to have been successful in imparting life- 
 like motion to a fly. In France, in the beginning 
 of the ISth c, many persons busied themselves in 
 the construction of automata ; and among other 
 things, a pantomime, in live acts, was represented by 
 actors moved by machinery. An automatic carriage 
 group, made by M. Camus for the anui . mint of 
 Louis XIV., is stated to have been very perfect ; 1 int 
 it is doubtful whether it was so complete as it is 
 represented to have been. The most perfect A. 
 about which there is absolute certainty, was one 
 constructed by il. Vaucanson, and exhibited in 
 Paris in 173S. It represented a flute-player, which 
 placed its lips against the instrument, and produced 
 the notes with its fingers in precisely the same man- 
 ner as a human being does. In 1741, M. Vaucanson 
 made a flageolet-player, who with one hand beal a 
 tambourine ; and in the same year he produced a 
 duck. This was a most ingenious contrivance, the 
 mechanical duck being made to conduct itself in 
 every respect like its animated pattern. It s. am, 
 dived, ate, drank, dressed its wings, &e.. as naturally 
 as its live companions; and, most wonderful of all, 
 by means of a solution in the stomach, it was actu- 
 ally made to digest its food! Maelzel made a 
 trumpeter, which, about 1809, was exhibited in 
 Vienna, and played the Austrian and French cavalry 
 marches with much skill. An A., produced by M. 
 Droz, drew likenesses of public characters ; and, somo 
 years ago, Mr faber contrived a figure, exhibited in 
 various places, Edinburgh among others, which, by 
 means of certain keys, was made to articulate simple 
 words and sentences very intelligibly, but the effect 
 was not pleasant. The inventor first mentally dn idi 5 
 tin' word or sentence into its distinct sounds — as a 
 phonographcr would do in writing — and having 
 cl. ;. rmined the sounds, i ■ e after the other 
 
 the leys which admitted the air into the various 
 compartments containing the mechanism constructed 
 to imitate them. The chess-player of ECempelen was 
 
 long regarded as the most w lerful of automata. 
 
 It. represented a Turk of the natural size, dressed in 
 the national costume, anil seated behind a box 
 resembling a chest of drawers in shape. Before the 
 
 :n commenced, the artist opened several doors in 
 the chest, which revealed a large number of pulleys, 
 . cylinders, springs, &c. The chessmen were 
 produced from a long drawer, as was also a cushion 
 tor the figure to re -t its .inn upon. The A. not being 
 able to speak, signified when the queen of his anta- 
 gonist, was in danger by two nods, and when the 
 kiiv,' was in cheek by three. The A. succeeded in 
 most of the players with whom it. engaged ; 
 but it turned out afterwards tint a crippled Russian 
 
 577
 
 AUTONOMY— AVA. 
 
 .1 very I A chess-player — wu con- 
 
 fcerior of the figure. The li 
 . . | . for tl irp 
 
 t, where 
 forfeited. So for as the mental p 
 was concerned, tl 
 
 an A. ; Ijut great ingenuity wis evinced in its move- 
 ment of the pieces (see Oh •', roL 
 xii., pi 66). la 1846, Mr John Clark of B 
 water exhibited an .1. Latin Versifier, wh 
 himself described as a practical illustration of the 
 law of evolution. 'The machine,' he said, ' contains 
 , in alphabetical ent; out of these, 
 through the medium of numbers, rendered tangible 
 I by indentures on wheel- work, the 
 instrument selects such as are requisite to form the 
 verse conceived ; the components of words suited to 
 form hexameters being alone previously 
 the harmonious combination of which will be found 
 to be practically interminable.' An automatic group, 
 ting of a child, d t, was 
 i this country in 1856, the motions of the 
 animals being very perfect. M. Houdin, the 
 brated conjuror, is the inventor of Borne striking 
 automata. Automata haveal o been coustru 
 play on the piano, and to set up type. The latter 
 are very ingenious machines, but hitherto they have 
 not been successful enough to warrant their 
 introduction. They are, however, in 1 
 printing-offices in London. One practical difficidty 
 tlev have not yet overcome, is the spacing out of 
 tho lines; that has to be done by the human hand. 
 See Hutton' lUonsj Mem 
 Bobert Houdin. Lond. 1S59. Chapman and Hall. 
 
 AUTO'NOMY (Gr. . the arrange- 
 
 ment by which the citizens i manage their 
 
 own legislation and government; and this s\ 
 may, with certain ■ also within 
 
 A bodies of the same people, such as parishes 
 corporations, religious sects. The term A. is used to 
 late tho characteristic of the political condition 
 of ancient Greece, whore every city or town com- 
 munity claimed the .right of independent sw 
 action. The idea of two or more town communities 
 sinking their individual independence, and forming 
 the lax ate unity which we understand by 
 
 a state, seems to have been intolerable to th. 
 mind. 
 
 AUTUN (Bibracte, Augustodunum), a town in 
 France, department of the Si ire, in 
 
 the Burgunaian district of Autiuiois. Pop. 9348. 
 It is situated on the river Arroux, is the seat of a 
 bishop, and has a fine cathedral. Cloth, carpets, 
 leather, stockings, and paper are manufactured in 
 the i ■lace. — The ancient Bibracte was the clii i 
 of the JEdiii, and had a much frequented Druid 
 school; and at a later period, under the Romans, 
 when ' "lunnm, it was no 
 
 less famous for its school of rhetoric. A. was 
 d by the Saracens in 725, and nearly destroyed 
 by tlie Normans in SS8. There still exist at A. many 
 ruins of Roman temples, gates, triumphal arches, and 
 other antiquities. At the Council of A. (109-1), King 
 Philip T. was excommunicated for divorcing his 
 ", Bertha. 
 
 AUVERGNE, a southern central district of 
 France, was before the revolution a separate pro- 
 vince, composing almost exclusively the i 
 departments of Cantal and Puy-de-Dome. Between 
 the Allier and the upper course of the Dordogno 
 and the Lot, A. rises into a highland region, having 
 Bourbonnais, Limousin, and Kouergue, as terraces 
 
 cent int. i the western plains, while on t 
 it joins the Cevennes and the southern hi- 
 Not only do the cone and dome-like shapes of tho 
 678 
 
 summits betray a volcanic formation, but also tho 
 great masses of basalt and trachyte that break 
 through the crust of gra ite as I ider it 
 
 le that this was a chief focus of plu 
 action. Among tho summits that have apparently 
 been at one time volcanoi , the mo b remarkable 
 
 are Cantal (G093), Mont-d'Or (6188), Puy-de I 
 
 (4S0G), and Parion ; the latter, adjoining Puy-de- 
 DAme, is basin-shaped on the top, and one of the 
 finest specimens of an ancient and extinct volcano i 
 all are now covered with verdure, A. falls naturally 
 into two divisions — Upper A., to the south, and 
 Lower A., to the north ; in which last the valley of 
 Limagne. on the left bank of the Allier, is distin- 
 guished for extraordinary fertility. The dim 
 colder in the mountainous districts than the southern 
 position, with a less elevation, would lead OS to 
 expect, and is remarkable for furious winds and 
 violent thunder-storms ; but in the deep valleys tho 
 heat of summer is often oppressive. The lava- 
 covered plateaus are desert, but the puh 
 volcanic earths that cover the slopes and valleys 
 form a rich and fruitful soil, as is shewn by the 
 crops of grain, garden produce, fine fruits, wine, 
 abundance of chestnuts in the south, and of walnuts 
 in the north, as well as by extensive thriving fon ta, 
 
 .. ith llax and hemp fields and meadow-lauds, 
 
 poorer districts. Agriculture is in a rather 
 
 neglected condition ; but the breeding of cattle, 
 
 Hy of mules, is well managed. A. produces 
 
 iron, lead, copper, antimony, ami coal, and is rich 
 
 in mineral springs. 
 
 The Auvergnese are a highland people, ru 
 
 manners, poor, ignorant, at the same time 
 honest and kind, though not free from the propen- 
 sity to revenge. They live by cattle-keeping and 
 
 agriculture, and by going to Paris as labo 
 
 Domestic manufactures, therefore, remain confine 1 
 to weaving, tannine, and paper-making. A. has, 
 however, produced distinguished men. It was tho 
 native place of statesmen aud warriors of the 15th 
 and 10th centuries; aud also of the Arnauld (q. v.) 
 family, so distinguished in tho history of Port 
 Royal and of Jansenism. In moro recent times, 
 tte and Polignac may be named. Cliief towns, 
 Clermont and Aurillac (q. v.). The country derived 
 its name from the Averni, who Ion I tin ir 
 
 fastnesses against Ca;sar, as later against the Goths, 
 Burgundians, and Franks, with whom they at last 
 coalesced. 
 
 AUXI'LIARY SCREW. ScoScrew-pkoii 
 
 AUXI'LIARY VERBS. See Verbs, Conjuga- 
 tion. 
 
 AVA, a mined city of Burmah, of which it has 
 dly b. en the capital, the honour having been 
 transferred again and again between it and Mon- 
 chobo, Sagaing, and Amarapura, which is the present 
 capital. It stands in kit 21° 51' N., long. 95° 5S' 
 E., on the south-east bank of the Irawnddy, here 
 about 4000 feet broad. The river at this point 
 receives two allluents, and these being joined by a 
 canal, the city is rendered circnmnavigable. The 
 name is a Hindu and Malay corruption of Ai 
 
 or Aaen-ua, meaning JUsk-pond, given it from I 
 
 built where there were formerly lish-ponds, of which 
 
 some still remain; but in official documents it is 
 
 ■ ited as Ratnapura, i.e., City of Pearls. The 
 
 city, which is, or was, eight or ten miles in circmn- 
 
 . is surrounded by walls and ditches. A. is 
 
 now almost a desert, having been reduced to ruins 
 
 by an earthquake in 1S39. — On the opposite bank 
 
 stands the city of Sagaing, which has twice been 
 
 the seat of government. The united populi tion of 
 
 the three cities of Ava, Sagaing, and Amarajmra, 
 
 t one time estimated at 4U0,0U0.
 
 AYA— AVEBTTEY. 
 
 A'VA, ARVA, YAVA, or KAYA (Macropiper 
 methyslicum), a plant of the natural order Piperacece 
 (q .v.), possessing narcotic properties. Until recently, 
 it was ranked in the genus Piper (Pepper). It is a 
 shrubby plant, with heart-shaped, aciiiuinate ' 
 and very short, solitary, axillary spikes of Be 
 It ifl a native of many of the South-sea islands, 
 ih" inhabitants intoxicate themselves with 
 a fermented liquor prepared from its root or (more 
 accurately) rhizome. The rhizome is thick, woody, 
 n 1, and aromatic. A tincture of it is useful in 
 chronic rheumatisms. The intoxicating liquor is 
 
 ed by macerating it in water. The 
 Taliitians were accustomed to prepare it in a very 
 manner; much as the Indians of the Andes 
 ■ CIrica or Maize beer — chewing the root, 
 ting it in a bowl, straining through cocoa-nut 
 and mixing with water or cocoa-nut milk, after 
 which fermentation speedily ensues. The taste is 
 unpleasant to those unaccustomed to it, and has been 
 ; ed to that of rhubarb and magnesia. Tin; 
 intoxication is not like that produced by I 
 spirits, but rather a stupefaction like that caused 
 by opium. It is succeeded by a copious perspira- 
 tion. The habitual use of ava causes a whitish 
 sciu-f on the skin, which, among the heathen 
 Tahitians, was reckoned a badge of nobility, the 
 common people not having the means of indul- 
 gence requisite to produce it. — The leaf of tl 
 plant is in some places usud with the betel-nut, 
 instead of that of the betel-pepper. 
 
 A'VALAJf CHES are masses of snow or ice that 
 slide or roll down the declivities of high mountain •, 
 and often occasion great devastation. They have 
 various names, according to their nature. Drift or 
 powder avalanches (Staul> Lavinen) consist of snow, 
 which, loose and dry from strong frost, once set in 
 motion by the wind, accumulates in its descent, and 
 comes suddenly into the valley in an overwhelming 
 dust-cloud. A. of this kind occur chiefly in winter, 
 and are dangerous on account of their suddenness, 
 suffocating men and animals, and overturning 
 houses by the compression of the air which they 
 cause. Another kind of avalanche resembles a land- 
 slip. When the snow begins to melt in spring, the 
 soil beneath becomes loose and slippery ; and the 
 snow slides down the declivity by its own weight, 
 carrying with it soil, trees, and rocks. The great- 
 est danger is where elevated tracts of moderate 
 declivity are separated from the valleys by precipi- 
 tous walls of rock; the softened snow of spring 
 beginning to roll or slide on these slopes, is hurled 
 over the precipices with fearful force into the valleys. 
 The very wind caused prostrates forests and houses. 
 Ice A. are those that are seen and heard in sum- 
 mer thundering down the steeps, e. g., of the Jungf rau. 
 They consist of masses of ice that detach them 
 from the glaciers in the upper regions. They are 
 most common in July, August, and September. 
 
 AVA'NTURINE, a variety of quartz, remarkable 
 
 for the brilliancy with which it reflects light, which 
 is supposed to result from small particles of mica 
 enclosed in it. It is of a yellow, red, or brown colour. 
 It is used in jewellery, but is not so much valued as 
 amethyst or Cairngorm stone. It is found in India, 
 Spain, and Scotland. 
 
 AVA'KI, a tribe of eastern origin, made their 
 appcaranco 100 years later than "tho Bulgarians, 
 iu the countries about the Don, the & 
 
 nd the Volga. One part of them remained 
 at the Caucasus, another part pressed forward 
 (about 555 A. D.) to the Danube, and settled in 
 Daeia. Here th 1 in Justinian's army, 
 
 isistcd lit" Lombards to overturn the king, 
 doin of the • and, about the end of the 
 
 6th c, under the mighty Khan Eajan, they con- 
 quered Pannonia. Later, they made themselves 
 masters of Dalmatia; made devastating incursions 
 into Germany, a3 far as Thuringia; and into Italy, 
 
 they warred with the Franks and Lombards, 
 and extended their dominion i laves livin« 
 
 on, and northwards from, the Danube, as well as 
 over the Bulgarians as far as the Black Sea. These 
 nations at last rose against them, and, in 640 A.D., 
 drove them out of Dalmatia, Confined to Pannonia, 
 they were subdued by Charlemagne, and well-nigh 
 extirpated by the Moravians, so that, after S-7, 
 they disappear from history. They usually sur- 
 rounded their settlements with fortifications of 
 stakes driven into the ground, and earth, of which 
 traces, under the name of Avarian Kings, are yet 
 found in the countries formerly occupied by them. 
 
 ults of the most recent criticism shew that, in 
 all probability, the A. belonged to the same great 
 Turanian stock as the Huns, and that their original 
 residence was the land lying east of the ToboL, in 
 Siberia. 
 
 AVA'ST, one of the peculiar terms employed on 
 shipboard. It is a command to stop or cease in any 
 operation going f onvard — such as, ' avast heaving.' 
 
 AVATA'lc primarily signifies, in Sanscrit, a 
 descent, but is specially applied to the descent of 
 a Hindu deity upon the earth in a manifest 
 either for beneficent or for retributive ends. It is 
 thus almost synonymous in its signification with the 
 Christian term Incarnation. The word is son: 
 rhetorically employed in English literature. The 
 avatars of Vishnu (q. v.) are the most famous in 
 Hindu mythology. 
 
 AVA'TCHA, a mountain and bay of Kamstchatka. 
 The bay i3 on the east coast, being by far the best 
 harbour of the whole peninsula, and containing the 
 capital city of Petropaulowsk (q. v.). The mountain, 
 9055 feet in height, is about 20 miles to the north, 
 and not far from the sea, in lat. 52 ' 15' N., and long. 
 15S° 50' E. It is a volcano with two craters — one at 
 the summit, and the other rather more than half- 
 way up, on the seaward side. 
 
 A'VEBURY, A'BURY.or A'BIRY, a small village 
 of Wiltshire, situated in N. lat. 51° 25', and AY. long. 
 
 25 miles north of Salisbury, and G wt 
 north of Marlborough. It is a place of no importance 
 in it-elf, having a population of 751 ; but is remark- 
 able as tho site of the largest so-called Druidical 
 temple in Europe — in fact, occupying the most of the 
 sacred enclosure itself — and as having in its neigh- 
 bourhood several remarkable barrows and cromlechs 
 of remote antiquity. 
 
 What is called the temple occupies a flat area 
 of ground on the south of the Kennet, a diminu- 
 tive tributary of the Thames. It consists, or rather 
 1, of a hundred large blocks of stone, 
 1 in a circular form, around a level 
 area of about 470 yards in diameter, bounded by 
 a deep ditch and a high embankment forming the 
 enclosure. There are also the remains of two small 
 circles of stones within the enclosure, suppa 
 be inner temples. Of these, one consisted of two 
 concentric circles of 43 upright stones, having a 
 single stone near the centre ; the other, a similar 
 double circle of 45 stones, to the north-west of 
 the former, with thn e large and high blocks in 
 the centre. The stones that remain of this ancient 
 work are not of uniform size: they measure from 
 ' feet in height above tin' ground, and from 
 3 to 12 in breadth and thickness. 
 
 The embankment, which is broken down in several 
 ■lly two entrances to the temple, 
 eastward and westward, from which issue 
 long walks, bending round to the southward, each 
 
 579
 
 AVETRO— AVERAGE. 
 
 furnished with a 1 ks on cither side similar 
 
 to those of the t avenues are 
 
 upwards of a mile in length, the width 
 varying from 56 t > 35 feet That which is 
 the east, or rather south-east, after turning 
 ward, bends ne to th 
 
 again, and closes on a knoll called Ovei 
 
 issues i 1 then 
 
 to south-west, ending in a point with a 
 
 Oft iding antiquities, that which a] 
 
 most closely I with the temple is a large 
 
 barrow, or lofty conical mound, called Silbury 
 Hill, lying due Bouth of it. at .a di tance of three- 
 quarters of a mile. It is situated nearly midway 
 two avenues, in the line of th i 
 i road between London ami Bath. Close to 
 the base, it measures 'Jiil'T feet in circnmfi 
 the slbping height is 316 ■'■ t; the i 
 
 170 the d the level i 
 
 | red by the whole 
 
 work, over 5 acres. What proves the structure to 
 have been more ancient than the time i 
 Itomans, if such hat the 
 
 ... straight for 
 ■1 miles till it reaches Silbury, when ii 
 
 rath, and again proceeds in a direct 
 hue to Morlborou 
 
 About a mile aort! ' ■ there are remains of a 
 
 large cromlech, th which hav- 
 
 turned; 
 
 i has two upright block apart, with a 
 
 larger one sunn m. In the nei 
 
 hood, all round the Downs, tli 
 
 ind the 
 sites of other antiquities now nearly obliterated. 
 
 Very little v.. is known of A. tempi 
 antiquities in its vicinity till the year 171" 
 Dr Stukeley, a somewhat fanciful antiquary, pub- 
 lished his work, Slo 
 
 I to ,-■'■ B) • 
 Aubrey, an ardent student of antiquarian lore, 
 had written an account of them in 1663, by 
 command of Charles II., the manuscript of 
 still exists. None of the earlier topograph 
 antiquaries appear to have left any description 
 of them. When Sir Richard Hoare, in coll 
 
 . ils for his A H 
 
 animation of them in 1812, 72 ; after the 
 
 ranee of Stukeley's work, and 164 after ; 
 survey by Aubrey, a great numb r of the stones had 
 disappeared, and in many places it was difficult to 
 trace out even the plan of the works. In I 
 order to satisfy the curiosity of the lovers of 
 antiquity as to the nature and intention of the 
 great barrow, Silbury HilL a tunnel was cut to its 
 centre, but nothing was discovered to throw light on 
 the subject. Som modern archteologists all 
 
 I the conclusions of Stukeley and his followers, 
 and call for proof of any connection 
 Druids and the atone- h it has been the 
 
 in for the last century to call Druidical. 
 
 AYEIHo, a maritime town of Portugal, in the 
 ice of Beira, between Oporto and Co 
 situated in an un 
 
 \ ■■ ... which forms a wide but shallow hart 
 ■ of a bishop, has 51)00 inhabitants, an 
 in oil, wine, oyst , and other . 
 
 and sea-salt. 
 
 AVELIil'JfO (anei. Dim), chief town 
 
 of the province of Principato-Oltra, Naples. It is 
 on the high road from Naples to Bari, at the foot of 
 Monte Vergine, on which is the famous moi 
 founded by S. Gnglielmo da Vercelli, on tli 
 of a temple of Cybele, in 1119. Pop. 23,000. A. 
 
 580 
 
 tly from earthquakes in 1694, 1731, 
 
 It has manufactures of woollens, 
 ni, and considerable t a and hazel- 
 
 nuts. The nuus Avdlana were famous even in 
 Pliny's time. Between A. end Benevento is the 
 
 iti defeated the 
 133 a.u.c. 
 \ \ ,: MAR1 A. : ' i ANGELICA SALUTA'- 
 TIO, or the Angelic .'salutation, are nanus given by 
 the Roman Catholics to a very common form of 
 address to the Virgin Mary. . ere the first 
 
 two words of the prayer, in Latin, which is I 
 
 i (L ike i. 28) : 
 
 Mary, highly favoured, the Lord is with 
 
 mi n. and blessed is the 
 fruit of thy womb.' In this form, according to an 
 ordinance of Oregory I., the invocation was at first 
 said by the priests during mass, on the fourth Sun- 
 \\ ith the i v hip of 
 
 tin" Vii the 11th c, the A. M. app 
 
 a lay-prayer of d J use with uie Pater 
 
 ■ ad of 
 12th e. '.' iordingly, no i did Urban IV. 
 (1261) add the concluding words. ./. I 
 
 . but since the first half of the 16th c the 
 prayer began to receive, more and more commonly, 
 Qtion to tie- old formula, what constitutes 
 inclusion of the modern form: 'Holy Mary, 
 ol God, pray for us .sinners, no* 
 at the hour of our death, Amen. 1 An edict of 
 John XXII. (1326) ordains that every Catholic shall, 
 morning, no ■ruing of the 
 
 ] . tin ing of bells 
 as a summons to morning, mid-day, and evening 
 prayer , Protestant conntrii 
 
 is still called the Ave Maria, or Angelus Di 
 
 Is of the 
 
 rosary, which are hence called Ave Marias, while 
 
 the large beads are devoted to the Pater Xoster. 
 
 150 Ave Marias form— after the 150 P dms — a 
 
 <r, and are thought to possess high 
 
 AYKNA. See Oat. 
 
 AVENGER OP i;LOOD. See Blood. Avenges 
 
 OF. 
 
 A'vr. '. . 
 
 AVENTI'NUS, JOHANNES Thormayb, a scholar 
 
 and hi torian. born at Abensberg, Bavaria, 
 
 Ins father was a publican, in 1476. Having studi d 
 
 at Lngolsi idt, he went to Paris, where he took the 
 
 of M.A. He afterwards taught Greek and 
 
 1 racow, and poetry and eloquence at 
 
 la 1512, the Duke of Bavaria called him 
 
 to Munich, and intrusted him with the education 
 
 of his sons. Here A. wrote 1 I /.' 
 
 ormn), a work which oo 
 
 him sixteen years. This work was not published 
 
 until twenty years after his death, which took place 
 
 in 1534, and then only with large portions, more true 
 
 than pleasant, about tie Romish Church, excised. 
 
 These, however, were all ro-tored in edition 
 
 of 1580. A. wrote several other learned works. 
 
 A'VERAGE. If any number of unequal quanti- 
 
 ■ given, another quantity may be found of a 
 
 or intermediate magnitude, some of the given 
 
 quantities being greater, and others less, than the 
 
 one found, which is called the average. The exact 
 
 relation is this : that the sum of the excesses of the 
 
 greater above the A. is equal to the sum of the 
 
 i of the less below it. If there are, say, 7 
 
 unequally tilled with sand, and if we take 
 
 handfuls from the greater, and add these to the less, 
 
 until the sand is equally distributed, then any one 
 
 : of the equalised measures of sand is the A. of the 
 
 I 7 unequal measures. If the quantities of sand in
 
 AVERAGE— A VERSA. 
 
 tho several vessels are stated in numbers, as 5, 10, 
 12, 8, 11, 14, :i ounces, tho A. is found by adding 
 her the numbers, and dividing by how many 
 there are of them — viz., 7. Ihe sum being 63, 
 this, divided by 7, gives !i ounces as the average. 
 The system of averaging is a very important and 
 time-saving one. By;., [culatea 
 
 the value of his crops : the grazier, the value of his 
 cattle; ami the forester, the value of his 
 Reflection, however, requires to be exercised in striking 
 averages; otherwise, serious errors may be i 
 mitt. .1. If a farmer, for instance, has three lots of 
 cattle, the first of which he averages at £25 a head, 
 the second at £15, and the third at £9, it might be 
 thought tha the whole stock made up of 
 
 the three lots would be got by taking the mean 
 
 of £25, £15, and £9— viz., 
 
 25 + 15-j-ri 
 
 ' . But 
 
 this would be correct only if there were an equal 
 numli.T mi cattle in each of the lots. To gel I e real A 
 in case of the lots being unequal, he must multiply the 
 A. of each lot by the number of cattle in it, add the 
 three products b igether, and divide 1 ly the whole num- 
 ber of cattle in all three lots taken together. If we 
 suppose 9 head in the first lot, 20 in the second, and 
 
 Id in the third, the A. is 
 
 i!5X9 + l. r .X2» + 9Xl5 
 
 215. 
 
 D+l'U + 15 
 
 A'VF.RAt : E (in Marit. Law). A rule was estab- 
 lished by the Bhodian law (q. v.), and has prevailed 
 in every maritime nation, that where a loss has been 
 sustained, or expense incurred, for the general safety 
 of the ship and cargo, a contribution should be made, 
 in proportion to their respective interests, by the 
 owners of the ship, freight, and goods on board ; or, 
 in modern times, by the insurers of these. To this 
 contribution the name of 6 A. is given. The 
 
 apparel, jewels, and other personal property of the 
 passengers, not carried for purposes of traffic, and 
 the seamen's wages and provisions, are net liable 
 for any share in this contribution. Good; thrown 
 overboard are now estimated at the price they would 
 have yielded at the port of delivery at the time, 
 freight, duties, &C., being deducted. See JETTISON. 
 Pa .1., again, is the loss of an anchor, the 
 
 starting of a plank, the leaking of a cask, the 
 goods washed from the deck, or the like, where the 
 common safety was not in question, and where there 
 is. consequently, no contribution. To losses of this 
 description, the term A., though generally, is incor- 
 rectly applied. Petty Averages are the di 
 anchorage, pilotage, Ac. If these occur in the ordi- 
 nary course of the voyage, they are not loss, but 
 i in; ly part of the expense necessarily in 
 But if they have been incurred in extraordinary 
 circumstances, and for the purpose of avoiding 
 impending danger, they are a loss which is included 
 in the general A., and covered by the contribution. 
 A. Bond is a deed which parties liable to a 
 A. are in the habit of executing, by which they 
 rwer an arbiter to value the property lost, and 
 fix the proportion which shall be borne by each 
 proprietor. 
 
 AVERDUPOTS. See AVOIRDUPOIS. 
 
 AVE'llXUS, in Gr. Aornos, or 'without I 
 called now Lago d'Averno, is a .small, nearly circular 
 
 lake in Campania, Italy, situated b> 
 
 Pateoti, and Baua, It is about a mile and a half in 
 
 ace, and oocn rater of an i 
 
 volcano. It is in some places as deep as 180 
 and is almost completely *luit in by steep and 
 wooded heights. The Bulphureous and mephitic 
 vapours arising from the lake ved in 
 
 ancient times to kill tic birds that flew over it; 
 hence, according to some, its Greek appellation. 
 Owing to its gloomy and awful aspect, it I 
 the centre of almost all the fables of the ancients 
 
 arid of shades. Here was located 
 Homer's Nekyia, or entrance del world; 
 
 here the Cimmerians are said to have dwelt— a 
 
 ithout ever 
 into the light of day, explored metals, and 
 imparted Stj . were placed the 
 
 grove of Hecate and the grotto of the Cum! an - 
 
 i caused the den thinned, by 
 
 nch of its wildnrss; and by 
 lera (,'occcius constructed the famous tunnel 
 through the mountain to Cumae, a work of compara- 
 nd ring that tie- hills round about are 
 -i d of volcanic tufa. The lake was also con- 
 nected in ancient times with the Gulf of Bake. 
 
 AVERRIIOA. See Caeambola. 
 
 AVERRHO'ES, properly, Ibn Roshd, or more 
 full}', Abul-Walid Mohann. | Ahmcd-lhn, 
 
 Mohammed-Ibn-Boshd, the most famous of the 
 Arabian philosophers, was born at Cordova, in 
 Spain, in 1149. His father, who was chief judge 
 and mufti, instructed him in Mohammedan juris- 
 prudence. In theology and philosophy, he had 
 fhophail for his teacher; and in medicine, Ibn 
 Zohr, the elder. His talents ami acquirements 
 made him be appointed sue© father, and 
 
 afterwards chief judge in the province of Mauritania. 
 Being accused, out of envy, of a departure from 
 the orthodox doctrines of Mohammedanism, he was 
 in his office, and condemned by the 
 ecclesiastical tribunal of Maroceo to recant his here- 
 tical opinions, and do penance. After this, he returned 
 to his native place, and lived in great poverty, until 
 the Calif Almansor reinstated him in hi- 
 which he went back to Maroceo, where he died in 
 1198 or 1206. A. regarded Aristotle as the gi 
 of all philosophers. He translated and illustrated 
 Aristotle's writings with great penetration; but the 
 influence of the Alexandrine view laid down in the 
 commentaries of Ammonius, Themistius. and others, 
 is easily seen in his works, as in those of most of the 
 Arabian philosophers. In opposition to the Arabian 
 orthodox school, especially against Algazali, A. 
 forth on the side of reason as the defender of philo- 
 sophy. The Arabians called him, by way of eminence, 
 the Expositor (of Aristotle), and his Syriac transla- 
 tion of Aristotle was held in the highest esteem 
 among them. His writings are known to us only 
 through Latin translations (Yen. 1489). His I 
 mi atari a on Aristotle appeared in an edition of 
 that philosopher's works ill vols. Ven. 1560). He 
 rote a sort of medical iiich, under 
 
 the name of ' corruption of the Arab 
 
 :. e., 'The To! I' system), * b 
 into Latin, and repeatedly printed (Ven. 1482 
 l."d4). The philosophy of A. attained to importance 
 in the Christian Church as early as the 13th C, 
 although his panthi istic doctrine of the unity of the 
 active principle in the universe was often repudiated 
 as an error, and astrology was characterised as 
 Averrhoism. 
 
 AVE T.SA, a town in the province of Terra di 
 I.avoro (Campania*, in the kingdom of Nap] 
 situated between Naples and Capua, in a beautiful 
 district rich in oranges and wine. It is well built, 
 with 1S,789 inhabitants; has a cathedral, and a 
 
 V< Inch. Ancb 
 I .-. the Darnley of Neapolitan history, was 
 
 nmrdend with the connivance of his wife, the beauti- 
 ful but guilty Joanna, queen 
 
 vlum for the in -h.il by Murat ; 
 
 and a foundling hospital A. was built in 10:29 by 
 the Normans on a territory ceded to them by Duke 
 Sergius of Naples, to be held in fief. About two 
 
 ■ few ruins of the 
 Oacan city of Atella, famous as the birthplace of 
 
 isl
 
 AVF.S-AVTLA. 
 
 the satirical farces so popular on the 
 
 A V$&. See Emus. 
 
 AVJSXKOH, a river and department in the south 
 of France. The river r rac-le-Cl 
 
 flows, for the most part, in a westerly dil 
 
 it of the same 
 after a course of 90 miles, falls into the 'i 
 feeder of the Garonne — below Montauban. I; 
 touches in its course the towns of Rhodez, Vil! ■■ 
 tranche, and Negrepelisse. — The department of A. 
 has an area of 31 miles, and is one of the 
 
 most mountainous parts of France. Situ I 
 the highlands of Auvergne and the ( 
 slopes like a terrace BOi 
 
 the basin of which the department belongs. The 
 principal rivers flow thr oartmentfi. 
 
 towest; and bet. ral ramified o 
 
 from the chain of the Cevennes travers e the country-. 
 The climate is healthy, but cold and ra I 
 in the nortli and east. North of the Lot, only rye 
 and oats are grown ; in the rest of the valleys, other 
 kinds of grain also thrive, as well as fruit, chi 
 
 oes, and truffles. A third part of the land is 
 unfit for cultivation, but affords excellent pas- 
 ture for the numerous herds of cattle, goats, and 
 sheep, which, along with the breeding of swine, form 
 the principal l of the mountaineers. 18,000 
 
 cwt. of cheese is sold yearly under the name of 
 Roquefort cheese. The mineral wealth of the depart- 
 ment is considerable. CoaL iron, lead, zinc, copper, 
 vitriol, alum, and antimony are found in abundance, 
 the mining, preps I sale of which form a 
 
 principal mean i of support to 1 
 Besides these, the principal employmen 
 making, cotton-spinning, tanning, the manufacture 
 of woollen cloth and i The seal 
 
 departmental courts is ilhodez, which is i 
 bishop's see. 
 
 A'VIAKY, aplace for keeping birds. The a 
 
 ments of an A. depend upon the habits of its ie 
 the climate suited to them, and other circumstances. 
 A bird-cage is a domestic aviary. Aviaries on the 
 largest scale are to be seen in zoological gardens. 
 
 AVICE'NNA, ; ■ more fully, 
 
 Abu AH AM lAhdallah] famous 
 
 n philosopl j sician, whose autl 
 
 for many centuries passed for indisputable, w 
 980, at Charmatain, a village near Bokhara, where he 
 received a very learned education. He studied with 
 special fondness mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, 
 and medicine. He was physician to several of the 
 Samanide and Dilemite sovereigns, and also for 
 some time vizir in Hamadan, but afterwards retired 
 to Ispahan, and died during a journey of the Emir 
 i-Daula to Hamadan, in 1037. He left a 
 multitude of writings, among which his system of 
 medicine, A" un fi the greatest 
 
 reputation. It is distinguished 1 nality 
 
 than by an intelligible arrangement and jud 
 
 ion from the writings of the Greek physicians, 
 at a time when the hi of Greek was not 
 
 widely spread. A. himself knew the Greek writers 
 only through Arabic translations. The Arabic text 
 of the Kanun, and of several of his philosophical 
 ■writings, among which those on metaphysics espe- 
 cially attracted the attention of tho schoolmen, 
 
 sred at Rome, 1593, 
 translated into Latin by Gerardus Cremonensis, and 
 
 illy printed (Yen. 1595, 2 vols.). His 
 BOphical writings have also appeared several times 
 in Latin translations (Ven. 1490, 152:;, 1664). 
 
 AVICE'NNIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Avicennece or Myoporacete, an order very nearly 
 allied to Verbenacea: (q. v.), aDd almost exclusively 
 
 confined to the southern hemisphere. The genus A. 
 consists of trees or large shrubs 
 
 . and, like them, growing in salt-swamps. 
 
 ereeping roots, often i for the space of 
 
 six feet above the mud before they stick into 
 tlie naked asparagus-like suckers which I 
 up, have a singular appearance. A. torn 
 
 Mangrove of Brazil, has cordate ovate I 
 downy beneath. Its bark is much used for tan 
 i coding from A. I 
 eaten by the New Zealanders. — The genus is 
 I in honour of the Arabian physician Aviccnna. 
 AVI'CULA. See Pearl Oysi 
 
 AVIGNON (An a city of Provence, 
 
 outb of France, capital of the department of 
 Vaucluse, is situated on the left bank of the Rhone, 
 which is here crossed by a I Tlie popu- 
 
 lation is about 26,312 ; the streets are narrow and 
 crooked. There is a midtitude of churches and 
 
 bjnents, among which the cathedral on 
 the Rocher des Dons and the church of the Fran- 
 ciscans, as well as the old papal palace and the 
 tower Glacierc, are distinguished. The Dominican 
 now serves as a cannon-foundry. The city is 
 the see of an archbishop, has a museum and picture- 
 gallery, and several other valuable institutions. The 
 university, founded in 1303, was abolished in 17 
 has manufactures of silk, silk-dyeing, tanning, iron- 
 founding, &c, and is famous for its garden produce, 
 its fruit, wine, honey, &c. The country about A. 
 is delightful, and extremely fruitful in corn, wine, 
 olives, oranges, and lemons. — In A., Petrarch spent 
 
 I years; it was here he saw Laura, whose 
 monument is to be found in the Franciscan church. 
 Vaucluse, wliich he lias immortalised, lies 
 three leagues from Avignon. A. was the capital 
 of the ancient Cavarcs, and presents many remains 
 of the times of the Romans. In the middl 
 it formed, with the surrounding district, a county, 
 wliich the popes, who hail already received the 
 
 • of Venaissin as a gift from King Philip III., 
 bought in 134S from Joanna, queen of Naples and 
 Countess of Provence. Tlie pope governed both 
 counties through a vice-legate, and continued in the 
 possession of them till 1790, when, after several 
 stormy and bloody scenes, tho city with 
 
 iited with France. At the peace of Tolentino 
 (I7!i7), the pope formally resigned A. and Vi a 
 A. is celebrated in ecclesiastical histc 
 for a time, the residence of the popes. By order of 
 Philip IV. of France, Tope Clement Y. and six of 
 his successors from 1309 to 1377, were obliged to 
 reside there. It was afterwards tlie residence of 
 more than one anti-pope. Two ecclesiastical coun- 
 cils were also held at A. (1.721", and 13.37) : thi 
 took into consideration the relation of the ch 
 the laity ; the other, the bad training of the c! 
 
 A'VILA, a town of Spain, capital of the province 
 of A., in i lid Castile, S3 miles north-west of M 
 
 irds declare that its original 
 name was Abula, and p] Ives and i 
 
 ra with the belief that it was built by 
 
 1660 B. C. It is the birthplace of two 
 
 highly remarkable persons — the first was the learned 
 
 iTostadod !, who died in 1455 
 
 whose doctrines (according to his biographer) were 
 _htened that the i mind to 
 
 i. in the opinion of Dor he was more 
 
 voluminous than luminous ; the second is ' Our 
 Seraphic Mother, the Holy Teresa, Spouse of .1 
 born March 2S, 1515; she was made the lady- 
 patroness of Spain by Philip III., and shares the 
 its of worship with St James. A. is the see of 
 >p, with a beautiful cathedral, and was at one 
 time one of the richest and most flourishing cities of
 
 AVILA Y ZUNIGA— AVOTRDTJPOLS. 
 
 Spain. The university, which had been founi 
 14S2, and enlarged in 1G3S, was aliohshed in L807. 
 It was at A. that the nobles of Old Castile assembled 
 in 14(>5 to depose King Henry IV., and raise his 
 brother Alfonso to the throne of Leon and Castile. 
 At A., also, was held the meeting of the so-called 
 Third Estate, or of the Holy League, in 1520, under 
 the leadership of Juan Padilla, to which nearly all 
 the cities of Castile sent representatives. 
 
 AVILA Y ZUNIGA Dew Luiz DE, a S] 
 general, diplomatist, and historian, born at PI 
 in Estremadura, enjoyed the favour and con 
 of Charles V., who intrusted him with embassies to 
 the popes Paul IV. and Pius IV., and made him 
 grand master of the order of Alcantara. He accom- 
 panied the emperor on his expeditions to Africa and 
 aj :111st the princes of the league of Schmalkald, and 
 wrote an account of the war which goes under that 
 name, partial, indeed, but able and spirited. The 
 Commentaries de la Ouen-a de Alemanna hecha 
 por Carlos V. en 154G y 1547, have been published 
 repeatedly (first, Ven. 1548), and translated into 
 several languages. — Avila, Gil Gonzalez de, born 
 at Avila, in Old Castile, in 1559, and died in 1G58, 
 was a Jesuit and canon of Salamanca ; also royal 
 historiographer for Castile and the Indies. He com- 
 posed a great number of historical works, of which 
 the following may be mentioned as containing many 
 valuable facts: Hisloria dc la Vida y Heckos del 
 Hey Don Henrique. III. de. Costilla (Madr. 163S) ; 
 Hisloria de la Vida y Hcclu>s del Monarca D. 
 Filipe. III. (in Mendoza's Mnnarrjuia dp, Espana, 
 3 vols. Madr. 1770) ; Hisloria de Salamanca (Salam. 
 1G0G) ; and the Tcnlro Ecclesiastieo de la primitiva 
 Igh in. de las Indias Occidentalr.s (2 vols. Madr. 
 1G49-1G5G). 
 
 AVI'Z, an order of knight- 
 hood in Portugal, instil 
 by Sancho, the first king of 
 Portugal, in imitation of the 
 order of Calatrava, and having, 
 like it, for its object the sub- 
 jection of the Moors. By the 
 present usage, the king of 
 Portugal, who is grand master 
 of all of them, wears decor- 
 ations of the first three 
 of Portugal — those of Christ, 
 .St James, and Aviz united in 
 one medal, divided into three 
 equal spaces. 
 
 Badge of Order of Aviz. AVO'CA, or OVO'CA (Celt, 
 meeting of the waters), a small 
 river in the south-east of Wicklow county, formed 
 by tho union of two streams, rising in the hills of 
 the centre of the county. The A. runs through a 
 very picturesque vale only a quarter of a mile 
 broad, with wooded banks 300 to 500 feet high, 
 and, after a course of nine miles, reaches the sea 
 at Arklow. A. Vale is celebrated in Moore's Irish 
 Melo, / 
 
 AVOCADO PEAR, or ALLIGATOR PEAR 
 (Persia gratissima), a fruit-tree of the natural 
 order Lauracea: (q. v.), a native of the warm 
 regions of America. It attains the height of 30 — 70 
 feet, and is a slender tree with a dome-like top. 
 '['lie leaves resemble those of the laurel. The flowers 
 email, and are produced towards the extremities of 
 tin- branches. The fruit is a drupe, but in size and 
 shape resembles a large pear; is usually of a brown 
 colour, and has a soft green or yellowish pulp, not 
 very sweet, but of a delicate flavour, which dissolves 
 like butter on the tongue, and is believed to consist 
 principally of a fixed oil. It is called vegetable butler 
 
 in some of the French colonies. It is much est 
 
 in the West Indies, and often eaten with sugar and 
 
 lime-juice or wine, or with spices. 
 
 AVOCE'T, or AVOSE'T (Recurviroslra), a 
 of birds, which, although having the feet webbed 
 nearly to the end of the toes, is usually ranked 
 in"" the Qra or ffi 'laiores, upon account of 
 igth of the legs, the half-naked thighs, the 
 long, slender, elastic bill, and the general agreement 
 in habits with snipes. They are distinguished from 
 all other birds, except a few species of humming- 
 bird, by the strong upward curvature of the bill, 
 which is much like a tliin piece of elastic whalebone, 
 and most probably a delicate organ of touch, adapted 
 for seeking food in mud, as their webbed feet are 
 for walking upon it, and their long legs for wading 
 in the fens and marshes which they frequent. They 
 are. birds of powerful wing. They are not much 
 addicted to swimming. They scoop through the 
 
 Avocet. 
 
 mud with the bill, first to one side, and then to the 
 other, in quest of worms and other small animals; 
 although Audubon has also observed the American 
 A. taking insects which were swimming on the 
 surface of the water, and expertly catching them in 
 the air, running after them with partially expanded 
 wings. — The Common A. (R. Avocetla), the body of 
 which is about as large as that of a lapwing, is found 
 in the fenny districts of England, where, however, it 
 is much more rare than it once was, and is a native 
 also of the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
 occurring even at the Cape of Good Hope. — Other 
 species are natives of North America, India, and 
 New Holland. — The American A. (I!. Amen 
 has tho bill less recurved than the Common A, but 
 its habits appear to be very similar. 
 
 AVOI'DANCE, in English ecclesiastical law, tho 
 term by which the vacancy of a benefice, or the 
 fact of its being void of an incumbent, is signified. 
 A. is opposed to plenarty, or fulness. See Benefice. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS, or AVEEDTJPOI'S. is the 
 name given to the system of weights and measures 
 applied in England to all goods except the precious 
 metals, precious stones, and medicines. The word is 
 generally said to be derived from the French nro?'r 
 du pais, to have weight ; but tho middle-age Latin 
 word averia or arera, used for goods in general, 
 or the middle-age Latin nd French r 
 
 meaning to I) rjfy, seem to offer more probable 
 etymologies. 
 
 The grain is the foundation of I 111. as 
 
 , I : Eroy and Apothecaries'. A cubic 
 
 inch of water weighs 252458 grains. Of the grains 
 so determined ! kfl a pound A., and 6 
 
 pound Troy. See Winiins and Measures. — The 
 A. pound is divided into 1G ounces, and the ounce 
 into 16 drams. A dram, therefore, contain 
 grains, and an ounce 437* grains.
 
 AVON-AXEL. 
 
 tatle op Avoir.nrrois WEIGHT. 
 
 27H grains • an ' ' dram, 1 dr. 
 
 ]i. drams or drachms ■ Ion] loz. 
 
 10 ounces . . - 1 pound, 1 lb. 
 
 2S pounds . ... 1 quarter, 1 qr. 
 
 4 quarters . . 1 hundredweight, lcwt. 
 
 20 hunch. ! ..1 ton, 1 ton. 
 
 A cubic font of water wi ighs 997'14 onni 
 
 or nearly 1 . which gives an easy role for 
 
 determining the weight of a cubic foot of anysnb- 
 
 ic gravity. A. is the - 
 used in the 1 "nit 
 
 however, in many places, the i as only 
 
 1001b., and the ton, 2009 lb. 
 
 A' VOX. a word of British orCel i, mean- 
 
 ing 'river' or 'stream,' which seems allied to Aa 
 (q. v.), the name of so many conti] . It is 
 
 the name of several of the smaller British rivers. Of 
 these maybe noticed: 1. The Upper or Warwick- 
 shire A., which rises in north-west Northampton- 
 shire, runs south-west through Warwickshire and 
 Worcestershire, ps .. arwick, Stratford, 
 
 and Evesham, and joining the Severn at T 
 bury. It has a com.- miles, and r 
 
 1 tributaries, 2. The Lower, or Bri 
 Wi rt A., which rises in north-west Wiltshire, 
 and runs 70 or SO miles, first south in Wiltshire, 
 and then W< it and north-west between Glou- 
 cestershire nn.l Somersetshire, It traver 
 oolitic basin, | Bradford, Bath, and B 
 
 and empties itself into the Bristol Channel. It is 
 [or lar e < >■- lels i toL ft runs 
 
 illy between deep banks in a rich vail 
 canal through the middle of Wiltshire conn 
 with the Thames. .'!. The Wiltshire and Hampshire, 
 or East A., which rises in the middle of Wiltshire, 
 and runs south 70 miles through Wiltshire and 
 Hampshire, passing Amesbnry, Salisbury, and Ring- 
 wood, and entering the English Channel at I 
 church. It is navigable np to Salisbury. It abounds 
 in the small deli I In Wales two I 
 
 named A. — one rising in Monmouthshire, the other in 
 Glamorganshire— -fall into Swansea Bay. In S • 
 laud th.re are several of the same name, afliu 
 the Spey, Annan, Clyde, and Forth. 
 
 '.'•. ::a v i: ES, a toy ince in thi i 
 
 Manche [q. v.). 
 
 AWE, Loch, a lake in the centre of Argyll 
 extending in a dii 
 
 about 24 miles, with i breadth o 
 
 half a mile to 2! miles. It rarely freezes, and its 
 surface is 10S feet above tl The country 
 
 around consists of mica slate. The scenery i 
 striking at the nbrth-i the lake, where the 
 
 water IS studded with numerous wooded islets, 
 overshadowed by towering and rugged mountains, 
 prominent among which rises the dark and rocky 
 ridge of Ben i Iruachan, 3669 fi 1 1 high, and 1 1 mill s 
 in circuit. Of the islands, the most noted is I 
 eilean, containing the remains of a cast I 
 I ■ rt M'Naughton in 1207 by Alexander III. < »n 
 a peninsula, in the north end of the lake, stands 
 Kilchurn Castle (Caesteal Chaoil-chuirn), once a 
 fortress of great strength, built about 1440 by Sir 
 Colin Campbell of Glenorchy, and garrisoned, as late 
 as 1745, by the king's troops. The waters of the 
 lake are carried off at its north-west end by the 
 river Awe, which, after a course of 7 miles, enters 
 the sea at Bunawe on Loch Etive. The magnificent 
 ' Pass of Awe,' through which the road runs beneath 
 the shoulder of Ben Cruaehan, was the scene of a 
 conflict, in 130S. between Robert the Bruce and the 
 M 'Don galls of Lorn, in which that clan was all but 
 exterminated. At the north-east end of the loch, it 
 
 551 
 
 the waters of the Orchy and Str.ie, flowing 
 
 i J as of their own n«n— I. ..eh A. abounds 
 
 in fine hah, especially trout and salmon; and the 
 
 small village of Claddieh, on the east side of the 
 loch, due north of Inverary, is the general resort of 
 
 A-WE.VTHER is a term denoting the po 
 ..f tln> helm when jammed close to the weather-side 
 
 of a ship; it i: tie- reverse of 
 
 A-WEI'GH, as applied to the position of an 
 anchor, when just loosened from the ground, and 
 hanging vertically ill the water, is nearly equivalent 
 to a-lri/i. 
 
 AWN [Ari \ > i the flowers of Grasses, a 
 solitary pointed bri tie. growing either from a glume 
 or a palea. Theflo ome grasses a 
 
 ; in many, the glumes alone are . 
 (or arutate), or only one of them; in others, the 
 glumes are awnless, and the palero, or one palea, 
 awned. The awn is often terminal, and appears as 
 a prolongation of the midrib of the glume or palea ; 
 from which, however, it sometimes separates b 
 
 ■ n!. and is then said to be on the back of it, 
 or damn I ; sometimes it is jointed at the base, and 
 finally separates at the joint ; sometimes it i- . 
 bent or geniculate ; sometimes it is twisted, and 
 liable to twist and untwist hygrometrically ; some- 
 times it is rough, or even serrate, at the edges, as in 
 barley; sometimes it is feathery, as in feather-grass 
 
 , which also is remarkable for the 
 i of its awn. The characters of genera and 
 species are often derived from it, but it is not ; always 
 invariable, even in the same species, and the . 
 vated varieties of wheat and oats differ nin 
 being more or less bearded. There appears to be a 
 tendency to the diminution or disappearance of the 
 awn through cultivation. 
 
 AXE, the nam.- of two small rivers in the 
 west of England. i in the Mendip Hills, 
 
 oerset, runs first south-west, and then 
 north-east, through a carboniferous linn 
 and diluvial basin, past Wells and Axbridgo, into 
 the Bristol Channel The other rises in v. D 
 and flows 21 miles south and south- w 
 east Devonshire, in an oolitic and trias i 
 Axminster into the English Channel. A. is only 
 form of Exe. Si i A \. 
 A'XEL, or A'BSALON, Archbishop of Lund, in 
 
 rk, and also minister and general of King 
 Wal.l.mar I., was born in 1128, and died 1201. He 
 d ei uded of a distinguished family, and, in his 
 youth, studied at Paris. A. distinguished fa 
 
 i and uprightness in p 
 valour and address in war. The Wendish pirates 
 
 ot only driv.-u from the coasts of Denmark, 
 but attacked in their own settlements, and Bub 
 
 Pomeranian prince, Bogialav, and 
 ident on Denmark. In the wise 
 
 i of Waldemar and of his son, he took a 
 
 part. He favoured and promoted learning 
 and art. and to his encouragement we owe the lirst 
 connected history of Denmark by Saxo Grammaticus. 
 By building a fortified castle for defence against the 
 pirates, he laid the foundation of the future great 
 city of Copenhagen, which was then an insignificant 
 
 . inhabited only by fishermen. Owing to 
 this origin, Copenhagen has sometimes got the name 
 of A .< Istadt. A. lies buried in the church of Soroe, 
 where he had founded a monastery. The relics 
 found when bis grave was opened in 1S27, the chief 
 of which were a bishop's staff and ring, are described 
 in the latest complete biography of A. by Estrnp, 
 translated into German by Mohnike in 11 
 
 '.ft jar Biglorixhe Theoloyie (2 vols. L.-ip. 
 1832).
 
 AXE8T0NE— AXI& 
 
 A'XESTONE, a mineral generally regarded as a 
 variety of Nephrite (q. v.). It is of a greenish colour, 
 is more or less translucent, har<l, tough, and not 
 easily broken. It occurs in primitive rocks, always 
 massive, and is found in Saxony, in Greenland, 
 and in New Zealand and other islands of the 
 Southern Pacific. It derives ita name from the use to 
 which it is put by the natives of these islands for 
 mating their hatchets. They also make ear-drops 
 of it. 
 
 A'XHOLME ISLE (A. Sax holmi . a river-isle), a 
 low level tract in the north of Nottinghamahir 
 
 led by rivers — the Trent on the east ; 1 inn, north 
 ami west ; Tone- and Idle, on the west; and Vicar- 
 dyke, between the Trent and Idle on the south. This 
 district, IS miles from north to south, and 5 on an 
 average east and west, was anciently a forest, but 
 afterwards became a marsh. The marsh was drained 
 into the Trent in Hi.'!4 by Vermuyden, a Dutchman, 
 after 5 years' labour, and at the cost of £56,000. 
 The reclaimed land became very fertile under Dutch 
 and French Protestant settlers, and after much 
 litigation, it was, in 1691, divided, the original 
 inhabitants receiving lo..";!'j acres, and the a 
 
 28G8. On the land are raise. 1 abundant crops of 
 wheat, oats, rye, pease, beans, clover, llax, rape, 
 hemp, potatoes, and onions. Peat and turf fuel 
 abound, and valuable gypsum beds occur. Tie- 
 water is brackish, too lend for washing, and curdles 
 milk when boiled with it. A. I. includes seven 
 parishes, with a population (lSol) of lj.SGO. There 
 are two small towns, Crowlc and Kpworth. 
 
 A'XIIj (axilla), in Botany, the angle between the 
 upper side of a leaf and the stem or branch from 
 which it grows. Buds usually grow in the axils of 
 leaves, although they arc not always actually i 
 oped; but a bud may be made to appear in such a 
 situation, and to form a new shoot or branch, by 
 artificial means, which direct the strength of the 
 plant more particularly to that quarter, as cutting 
 over the main stem, wounding it above the place 
 where the new branch is desired, &c. Flowers or 
 flower-stalks (peduncl -) growing from the axils of 
 3 are called axillary. 
 
 AXIXOMANC'Y (f!r. aztne,an axe, and mo 
 divination), a mode of divination much practised by 
 the ancient Greeks, particularly with the view of 
 discovering the perpetrators of great crimes. An 
 axe was poised upon a stake, and was supposed to 
 i so as to indicate the guilty person ; or the names 
 
 of suspected persons being prouounced, the motion 
 of the axe at a particular name was a ,.t 1 as 
 a sii.ni of gudt. Another method of A. was by 
 watching the movements of an ag | 1 upon 
 a red-hut axe. This is only one of a multitude of 
 analogous modes of divination practised in all 
 ages and among all nations. See DIVINATION, and 
 l>IY]M\c;-r.OD. 
 
 A'XIOM, a Greek word meaning a demand or 
 . is commonly used to signify a general 
 proposition, which the understanding recogm 
 true, as soon as the import of the words conveying 
 it is apprehended. Such a proposition is tin 
 known directly, and does not need to be deduced 
 from any other. Of this kind, for example, are 
 all propositions whose predicate is a pr op er ty 
 essential to our notion of the subject. Every 
 rational science requires such fundamental propo- 
 sitions, from which all the truths composing it 
 are derived ; the whole of geometry, for instance, 
 rests on, comparatively, a very few axioms. Whether 
 there is. for the whole of human know 
 any single, absolutely lirst A., from which all else 
 that is known may be deduced, is a question that 
 has given rise to much disputation ; but the fact, 
 
 that human knowledge may have various starting- 
 points, answers it in the negative. Mathematicians 
 word A. to denote those propositions which 
 they must assume as known from some other source 
 than deductive reasoning, and employ in proving all 
 the other truths of the science. The rigour of 
 method requires that no more be assumed than are 
 absolutely necessary. Every self-evident pi 
 tion, therefore, is not an A. in this sense, though, of 
 course, it is desirable that every A. !«■ self-evident; 
 
 He- whole of geometry on I 
 a amotion . but he proves propositions that are at 
 least a nt as some that h.- talc 
 
 granted. That 'any two sides of a triangle are 
 : than tie- third,' is as self-evident as that 'all 
 angles are equal to one another,' and much 
 more so than his assumption about parallels, which, 
 it has been remarked, is neither self-evident nor 
 even easily made evident. See Paraj .i.r.i.s. Euclid's 
 assumptions are divided into three 'postulat 
 demands, and twelve 'common notions' — the term 
 A is of later introduction. The di 
 axioms and postulates is usually stated in this way : 
 an A. is -a theorem granted without demonstra 
 a postulate is 'a problem granted without construc- 
 tion' — as, To draw a straight line between two 
 given points. 
 
 A'XIS, in Geometry. — The A. of a curved line is 
 formed by a right line dividing the curve int.. I 
 symmetrical parts, so that the part on one side 
 exactly corresponds with that on the other; as in 
 tie parabola, the ellipse, and the hyperbola. The 
 A of any geometrical solid is the right line which 
 passes through the centre of all the corresponding 
 parallel sections of it : in this sense, we speak of the 
 A. of a cylinder, a globe, or a spheroid. By tie- A. 
 of rotation, we understand the right line around 
 which a body revolves. — In physical - 
 A. of a lens is the right line passing through it in 
 such a manner as to he perpendicular to Lot 1 1 
 of it ; and the A. of a telescope is a right line 
 
 through the centres of all tie gli s in the 
 tube. The A. of the ei/c is the right line pa 
 through the centres of the pupd and the crystalline 
 lens. 
 
 A'XIS. in Botany, a t mi applied to the central 
 part both above and below ground, around which 
 the whole plant is regarded as The stem 
 
 is called the a , .1. ; the mot, the 
 
 axis. The opposite tendencies of growth appear as 
 soon as a Beed begins to germinate, in the radicle 
 and plumule ; the former of which is the descending 
 A., and the latter the ascending A. ; the former 
 descending deeper into I tiding 
 
 towards the air and light. That part of tb 
 around winch the flowers are arranged is called the 
 floral A., and. in describing some kinds of inflores- 
 
 , the terms, pi ' ., secondary 
 
 .•1., &e., oally empl 
 
 AX ! 5 (< , a species of deer, abundant 
 
 on the banks of tb I . but found throughout 
 
 India and in maoyislandt tern Archi] 
 
 It was known to the ancienta by the name 
 One of its Indian names is Chittra, and by British 
 sportsmen in India it is generally called I 
 Bog-deer. By some naturalists, it has been made 
 
 ;. ■ of a glints of I 
 
 has a great resemblance in size and colouring to the 
 European fallow-deer; it is generally of a rich fawn 
 colour, beautifully spotted with white, nearly black 
 along the back, the under parts snow-white. The 
 horns, however, differ very much from those of 
 the fallow-deer, being slender. Bharp-pointed, little 
 branched, and not at all palmated. The female has 
 no horns. The A. frequents thick jungles in the
 
 AXMIXSTER-AYALA. 
 
 during the night. Tt is 
 commonly found in herds of 15 or 20, of which 3 or 4 
 
 lis. [ta sense of smell is remarkably acute, 
 
 and it is generally very shy snd timid, bo tlint 
 
 men find it difficult to get within shot. The 
 
 ■ uubit great com 
 
 defence of the young. It is very ea icated, 
 
 is very gentle in its manners, lias 1 d frequently 
 
 imported into Burope,and line. Is frei ly in ti 
 
 in which it is kept at a few noblemen's and gentle- 
 
 men's seats in Britain and France. 
 
 A'XMINSTER, a small town in east Devonshire, 
 on the side of a little hill on the left bank of the 
 Pop. (1851) nuclei' 2000. -\. was once famous 
 for the manufacture of Turkey and Persian c 
 which were little inferior to those imported. Two 
 ilogists have been con th L: 
 
 DrBueklandwas brought up here, and DrCon; 
 v, . : 1 1 ml of the manor, and vicar. 
 
 A'XMOUTH, a village at the mouth of tho Axe, 
 ea t Devonshire. A mile east of A. occurred, in 
 1839, a landslip; an area 200 feet wide, for three- 
 is of a mile parallel to the shore, having sunk 
 'Jf)ii feet below the sea, with a great iw' . 'I he 
 i thus formed became a lagoon, while the 
 louring sea-bed rose 40 feet. Rather more 
 than a mil in. he r east, occurred another but smaller 
 
 lip in 1 i riot around con 
 
 greensand strata. 
 
 A'XOLOTL (Gyrinvs, or Axofotl, or Axohles edit- 
 
 remarkable animal, found in great abundance 
 
 in some of the Mexican lakes, and particularly in the 
 
 Lake of Mexico itself. It is a Batrachian (q. v.) 
 
 reptile of the family of the Proleida: or Pa 
 
 . in which tho gills remain 
 during life, and the lungs are never Buffi 
 developed to maintain respiration by then 
 i in general form very like a lish; has a large 
 
 V- 
 
 * 
 
 Axolotl. 
 
 and broad head ; and tapers into a long com- 
 
 { pressed tad, which has a thin membranous tin 
 >oth on its upper and its lower side. It has four 
 legs, with toes not webbed; and on each side of 
 the neck the gills form three long branched or 
 feathered processes, which give it a very remark- 
 able appearance. It is brown, and mottled with 
 ; spots. When full grown, it is 8 or 9 
 inches in length. It is esteemed a great d 
 ni Mexico, and is there constantly brought to the 
 market. 
 
 AXUM, once the capital of the Ethiopian king- 
 dom of the same name, is situated in the mi 
 Abyssini .,, province of Tigre. west from Adowa. 
 Lot 14° 7' X. ; long. :;:i 27' E. It now lies in 
 ruins, among which stands the principal church 
 of Abyssinia, built in 1G57. The former greatness 
 
 of the city is testified by yet remaining structures 
 cut in granite, 6ome of which h u iptions. 
 
 these it appears that the Alum 
 extended over Abyssinia, and even over Vein, a 
 eiel Saba in Arabia, and possessed the command 
 of the led Sea. It acquire,! political importance 
 i he circumstance, tiiat it formed on the south 
 a boundary to the world-embracing power of Rome, 
 as well aa to that of l'arthia, which then extended 
 ■ ; Arabia. The Byzantine emperors even paid 
 .in annual tribute to tho sovereigns of Axuni. This 
 country was also the furthest point southward that 
 
 i civilisation reached; through the .hum 
 
 pt, Greek phdosophy spread into A., and tho 
 
 language became the language of the court 
 
 and of the priests. Under King Aizan. . v. 1m., in a 
 
 still remaining inscription, appears as a heathen, 
 
 Christianity was introduced into the country from 
 
 by the two apostles Frumentius and . a [i 
 who were followed by many ] iriests from the same 
 quarter. The new doctrine soon spread over tho 
 whole country ; Frumentius was made tho first 
 Bishop of A., and Fremona was built in honour of 
 him. The stone churches, many of them very impos- 
 ing, yet scattered over the whole of Abyssinia, owe 
 ichitecture to Egyptian priests, and arose at 
 tliat period, as well as the most celebrated \L, 
 convents and hermitages. The Axumite empire 
 carried on, through Adule, an active commerce with 
 .Arabia and India ; it formed the outermost bulwark 
 of Christianity ; and, as such, particularly from about 
 the 6th c, it interfered in behalf of the Christians in 
 A ral na, and became the natural enemy of Moham- 
 medanism. The contests in which it soon became 
 involved with that power caused its fall, as the kings 
 gradually lost their possessions in Arabia, and the 
 whole coast on the Red Sea and Uulf of Aden. '1'he 
 outlets for commerce were thus cut off, and the 
 empire was at the same time so weakened by con- 
 stant wars, that internal disorders brought on its 
 complete dissolution. 
 
 AYACU'CHO, a town in a department of tho 
 same name in South Peru. Here, on the 9th Decem- 
 ber 1824, the combined forces of Peru and Colombia 
 — the latter then comprising Ecuador, New Granada, 
 and Venezuela — totally defeated the last Spanish 
 army that was ever seen on the new continent. 
 
 AYATiA, Pero Lopez de, called El Vicjo, to 
 distinguish him from his son of the same name, was 
 born at Murcia in lo."'2, of one of the first famdies of 
 the Castilian nobdity. He stood high in the regard 
 of several kings of Castde, and tilled the lirst ollices 
 of the state, latterly, that of high-chancellor and 
 Vimbcrlain of Castde. At the battle of Najera, 
 in 1367, he was taken prisoner by the English, then 
 in league with Peter the Cruel, and confined for 
 some time in an English dungeon ; and again in 1 385, 
 by the Portuguese, at the battle of Aljnbarota. He 
 died at Calahorra in 1407. A. has acquired a 
 not oidy as a statesman, but as a writer, 
 especially as a historian and poet. His best known 
 work is his CrOnicas de los Reyes de Costilla J). 
 />. Enrique If., D. Juan I., D. Enrique ill. 
 (2 vols. Madr. 1779-S0— the older editions of 1495 
 and 1591 are imperfect). He was the first among 
 the Spaniards to give up the usual simple narrative 
 of events in the order of time, and to seek to give 
 rational representation of them according to 
 the rules of historic art. It is only in recent times 
 that the poetical works of A. have been discovered ; 
 the most remarkable of which is the Libro o' Rimado 
 da Palacio. This ' Book in Rhyme on Court-life,' as 
 its singular title may be translated, was begun during 
 the poet's first captivity in England, and is composed 
 in the old national form of rhyming Alexandrine
 
 AYE-AYE- AYMA 11. 
 
 stanzas of four lines; the contents are satirical and 
 ic. A. appears also in his poetical works as a 
 representative of that transition epoch of 8p 
 national literature, when it was passing from a 
 popular 'ii iginal literature to one of a more artificial 
 imitative character. 
 
 AYE-AYE {Cheiromys Madagascaz u n > i. a quad- 
 rnped about the size of a hare, a native of 
 gascar, which was at lirst placed by naturalists 
 among Squirrels, and was ranked by Cuvier along 
 with them in the order of Rodents (Rodenlia), 
 although Sonnerat, who discovered it, pointed out 
 its affinity also to the Maids or Lemurs, to which 
 family it is now pretty generally referred. The 
 principal reason for placing the A. among the / 
 b i be ii found in the conformation of its teeth ; but 
 
 Aye-aye. 
 
 the other characters of the animal agree generally 
 with those of the Lemurs, and its habits resemble 
 theirs. The A. has largo broad ears, large round 
 eyes, long brov oish gray hair, and a large bushy tail, 
 which it does not carry over its back as squirrels 
 do. It is very active during the night, but Bleeps 
 during the day. In confinement, it will subsist on 
 boiled rice and fruits. It seems to be able to make 
 as good use of its front teeth for gnawing as any 
 Rodents (G Air Ellis mentions one 
 
 which ate its way through a barrel, and made its 
 e ijie. He thinks it probable that there are more 
 than one species. 
 
 AYESHAH. the favourite wife of Mahal 
 was liorn at Medina in CIO or 611 A.D. She was 
 only nine years of age when she married the 
 Prophet. Her father's name was Abdullah, but he 
 ii nam ' I Aim 1 '< Ur, 'father of the • • 
 
 euence, it is said, of his daughter being th • 
 only one of Mohammed's wives who was a 
 Although A. bore no childn n to Mohamm I 
 was bo tenderly beloved by him, that he v. as wont 
 would-be the first of his wives to 
 ' the gates of Paradise would bo opened. It 
 il by Mohammedan hi torians, that to the 
 charms of her beauty I a knowli 
 
 i ninties, rhetoric, ami music. But this 
 
 Blent is improbable. I of adultery, 
 
 but Mohammed bavin , relation from 
 
 lb . m to tii" effect i be was innocent, pun- 
 
 : I her accusers, and made it an article of faith 
 for all time, believe in her 
 
 purity should endure the pains of hell for over. In his 
 last ilh was carried 
 
 to her house, and expired in her anus. After the 
 
 Prophet's death, A. took an active; part in th 
 which deprived Kalif Othman of his power and life, 
 and headed a force to resist the accession of Ali. 
 After some partial success, however, the troops under 
 her were effectually defeated by Ali, and she 
 taken prisoner. Ali Bpared her life, ami alloy 
 
 ■in any town in Arabia ah >vidcd 
 
 sli- ilirt not interfere with state affairs. She d 
 
 | (077 A. I).). In spite of her political adver- 
 sities, A. was highly venerated by all trm- Mussul- 
 mans, and named the Prophetess, and the MM 
 
 rs. She was consulted on divers points of the 
 
 Koran, and her interpretations were held to be 
 binding. They have been collected in the Sunna 
 (q. v.). 
 
 AY'LESBURY, a town in the centre of Bucking- 
 bire, on a rivulet which Hows into the 1 
 an cast branch of the Thames. It lies high . 
 the vale in which the rivulet runs, which often 
 causes a scarcity of water in the town. Pop. (1851) 
 20,794. A. returns two members to parliament. It 
 is chiefly an agricultural town, but the inhabi 
 also engage in straw-plait, lace, and silk manufac- 
 tures. Many ducks are reared for the London 
 Christmas market. A. is a very ancient town, 
 having been taken from the Britons by the £ 
 ..i 571. 
 
 AY'LESFOllD, a village near the centre of 
 Kent, on the right bank of the Medway, 3j miles 
 north-east of Maidstone. Remarkable ancient 
 remains occur here. On a hill-slope a mile and a 
 half to the north-cast, there still stands a cele- 
 brated ancient cromlech, or burying-place, called 
 Kits Coity House — a small truncated pyramidal 
 chamber, open in front, and formed of lour 
 rude Kentish rag blocks, three of which are uprights, 
 with a slight slope inwards, and the fourth laid on 
 them. Of the side-stones, one is 7 by 7.' feet, 2 feet 
 and S 1 , tons in weight: the second is 8 by 8i 
 feet, weighing 8 tons ; and the third is smaller and 
 more irregular in form. The capstone is 12 by 9] 
 feet, 21 feet thick, and v. I ighs 10 tons. This crom- 
 lech seems to have been the centre of a group of 
 ancient monuments connected by a long stone avenue 
 with another group, 7 miles to the south-east. In this 
 it also occur, on the brow of the chalk-lulls on 
 both sides of the Medway, large circular sepulchral 
 pits, opening at bottom into one or more chambers. 
 of these pits are c b fiat stones, and 
 
 filled with flints. At .\. the <l the 
 
 Saxons in 455, and drove tli'in from the island ; but 
 early in the 7th c. ■ were victorious here. 
 
 AY'LOFFE, Sib Joseph, an English antiquary 
 
 of celebrity, born about 1708 in th 
 
 . In 1731 he was elected a Fellow of 
 il Society, and in the following year, a 
 Fellow of the So, ii He was one 
 
 of the first council of this Society, after it r, ■ 
 its charter of incorporation in 1751; and 1 
 made \ When the 
 
 new State-Paper Office was established in 170.'!. he 
 was made one of the commissioners for the preserva- 
 tion of the state papi rs. In 177-', he | ■ 
 
 work ■ D I national records. He also 
 
 wrote for the publications of 
 
 the Society' nd projected, and was 
 
 ed in the execution of the work, afterwards 
 
 aed by Gough, and known as Gough's 
 
 of his death in 17M. 
 
 AYMAR, JAQl rated French pro 
 
 of the art of divination. A. v as the son of a peasant 
 at StVi ran in September 
 1662. He was brought up as a mason, but he for- 
 sook that tod, which b 
 at lirst to point out springs, hidden treasures, &c 
 
 187
 
 AYMON— AYRSHIRE. 
 
 In 1092, a murder and robbery was committed at 
 
 Lyon, and A. and his rod were called into i 
 
 to detect tin' criminals, in some way or other, be 
 
 ded in discovering one of the guilty par- 
 i A.'s fame having been spree I by thi 
 
 dent, he was called to Paris to exhibit bis an 
 the Prince de Conde; but, unfortunately for his 
 
 reputati bis power of divination utterly failed him ; 
 
 and being forced to confess himself an impostor, he 
 
 ut hack in disgrace to his original obscurity. 
 
 \Y\luY, the surname of four brothers, called 
 respectively Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud, 
 Bona of Aymon or Eaimon, Count of Don 
 who figure among the most illustrious heroi oi 
 the chivalric poetry of the middle age . I 
 historic existence must be considered problematical, 
 as the deeda attributed to them pos i in i a large a 
 
 lin :i .11 re :i miraculous rh.a meter. What 1 ■ i : -: of 1.1, 't 
 
 may underlie the fanciful accretions of mythology, 
 
 it is now impossible to determine. Their career 
 
 belongs to the cycle of marvels, of which I 
 magne is the central point, and their adventures 
 furnished rich material to the romantic narratives 
 of Italy in the loth and 16th centuries, and, 
 in fact, were the exclusive subject of some of 
 lli A novel, entitled Les Qiuitre Fits .1 
 
 by Huon do Villeneuve, a French poet of the 
 age of Philippe Auguate, details very minutely 
 their exploits. Finally, Ariosto conferred a poeti- 
 cal immortality on the family by the publication 
 of hia Roland, in which Renaud, the bravest of 
 the four brothers, plays continually the most 
 distinguished part. The traditions concerning them 
 are not uniform or consistent. Sonic have a 
 Provencal origin; but the author or authors of the 
 popular German booh which Tieck has edited and 
 
 published, entitled Tiu Ihuutifiil ami Kut< rlillniiKj 
 
 History of the Four Brotliers Aymon, and offhew 
 Wot ■ Bayard, with tht Deeds and Heroic !'■ 
 they accomplished against the Pagans, in the Time 
 of Charlemagne, seem to have drawn from a 
 different source. The most probable hypothesis, 
 therefore, is, that the varieties in these poetic le nil; 
 are due to the fancy and national predilections of 
 (lie particular authors, and that there originally 
 existed a single tradition, out of which the whole 
 sprang. 
 
 AYR, the county town of Ayrshire, is situated on 
 
 (he left bank of the river Ayr, about the mid '■" 
 the coast of Ayrshire, 40 miles south-south \ 
 Glasgow by rail. It lies in a coal district. A. is a 
 clean and handsome town, and its principal 
 are well built. To the south, between the town and 
 the race-course, numerous elegant villas have recently 
 up. The spire of the Assembly-rooms is '_M7 
 feet, and the Wallace Tower, 113 feet high. The 
 river is here spanned by three bridges— the 'Auld 
 Brig' and 'New Brig' of Burns, and one built 
 long after, to permit the Glasgow and South- 
 Western Railway to be carried on uninterruptedly 
 into ( larriek. These connect the town with Newton- 
 upon-Ayr. A. harbour is formed by tin' estuary 
 of the river, and is protected on each .side by 
 a pier. There is a bar at its mouth, with a depth 
 only of sixteen feet at spring-tides, which pre- 
 the entrance of vessels above 200 tons. The 
 coasting-trade is considerable The chief export 
 ii cord, (in, (km) to 7ii.(iihi tons yearly being sent 
 t" Ireland from the Newton-upon-Ayr collieries 
 Formerly, much wine was imported from France. 
 At an early date. A. was a commercial and military 
 place of some importance. William the Lion made 
 it a royal burgh about 1202. During the Scottish 
 wars of independence, it formed a regular centre of 
 military operations, and, while in possession of an 
 
 rrison, it was the scene ... Wallace's 
 lirst exploits, 'the principal objecta of interei I 
 A. aiv connected with the memory of Robert 
 Burns, See Allot* w Kirk. Pop. in 1851, municipal 
 
 burgh, 9097; parliamentary burgh, including Newton- 
 upon A;, r. 17,624 A. unites with Campbelton, 
 live., iir, i i.u'v, and Oban, in sending a member to 
 parliament. In 1857, custom duties, £4930; value 
 V ! ' L. red ahipp ' 35 vi -'Is, or 
 3919 tons. 
 AY'RSHIRE, an exi ii ive maritime county in 
 
 thi h west ' Si otland, bounded, .Y. b B 
 
 shire; \V., by the Firth of Clyde and the North 
 
 ( i il; S., by Wigton and Kirkcudbright; E. 
 
 . K., by Dumfries and Lanark. Its great t 
 length is 78 mil i breadth, 26 
 
 avei ■ 144; estimated area, 1010 square mill 
 
 iii the event h in m "• of the Scott i I unl ii 
 
 ..; i ; ■ county is undulating and 
 
 hilly, tin- land attaining no great elevation, . 
 a small portion in the north, ami some consider- 
 able tracts in the smith and south-east, which 
 aie mountainous. None of the eminences ei 
 2000 feet. A. contains a great number of lakes 
 and small streams, the latter rising near the 
 inland boundary of the county. The chief rivers 
 only 20 to .'!.") miles long are the Ayr, with 
 its tributary the Lugar, and the Doon, which flow 
 across the centre of the county; the Garnock and 
 Irvine in the north; and the liirvan and Stinchar 
 in the south. A. to the south of the (iirvan con i t 
 of Lower Silurian rocks, and to the north of that 
 river, of patches of Devonian, carboniferous, and 
 trap loiks. It is rich in valuable minerals, espe- 
 cially coal, ironstone, linn stone, and freestone. 
 The other minerals have been long wrought, but 
 it is only of late years that the working of iron- 
 stone has been established — and is now carried on 
 on a large scale in the north of the county. ( In the 
 banks of the Ayr, is found an excellent species 
 of whetstone, called Wat r-of -Ayr Stone. The 
 climate of A. is mild and healthy, but moist. The 
 soil along the coast is light and Bandy, inter p 
 with deep loam ; tile most fertile districts are in the 
 centre of the county, where clay predominates. (In 
 i : :il.' are extensive mosses ami moorlands. 
 The three ancient divisions of the county 
 Carrick, south of the Doon, mostly wild and hilly; 
 Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine, containing 
 much rich level land, but towards the coast the oil 
 is light, and, though well cultivated, is less produc- 
 tive; and Cunningham, comprising all the country 
 north of the Irvine, mostly fertile. The chain 
 istics of tin districts arc rudely indicated in the 
 old country rhyme : 
 
 Kyle for a man ; 
 
 Carrick for a con ; 
 
 Cunningham for butter and cheese; 
 
 And Galloway for woo. 
 
 Agriculture in A., till about 1S00, was very back- 
 ward ; but since that time, especially of late years, 
 extraordinary progresa has been made in furrow- 
 draining, improved rotation, and road - making ; 
 while the condition of the peasants has been much 
 improved. In IS", 2,">!U)11 acres were in crop, held 
 by 3300 persons, the farms being generally small. 
 Dairy-husbandry is carried to high perfection in 
 Ayrshire, the breed of milch cows, of which it rears 
 a greater number than any other Scotch county, 
 being noted as the finest ill the kingdom for the 
 quantity and quality of their milk. The Iliinlop 
 cheese, so called from the parish of that name, is 
 almost as celebrated as Stilton. The breed of horsea 
 is ,"l.ii excellent. Manufactures, especially woollen 
 and cotton, arc carried on to an important extent.
 
 AYRER— AYUXTAM I ENTO. 
 
 The muslin manufacturers of Glasgow and Paisley 
 employ a considerable proportion of the female 
 population, whose needlework is celebrated. Of 
 the minor manufactures, the most character) 
 that of Bnuff-boxes, which i i tensivel; earri d 
 on at Old Cumnock and Maochline. Kilmarnock 
 Is' or night-caps used to be famous all over 
 Scotland, but tney have now d L Ironworks 
 
 exist at Muirkhk. There are considerable willow- 
 plantations for hoops and b keta Pop. in 1851, 
 
 189,858; inhabited bona . 23,554; day-scl Is. 
 
 298 with 23,372 scholars ; places of worship, IT'.) (.".I 
 of the Established, and 46 of the Free < Ihurch). A. 
 county it turn i one member to parliament. The chief 
 towns, besides Ayr, are Kilmarnock, Girvan, May- 
 bole, Dairy, Kilwinning, lieith. Irvine, Sti II 
 
 Ardro coats, Tr i, Mauchline, (ialston, 
 
 Newmilns, Killiirnie, and Largs. Of antiquities, the 
 most in are the ruins of Crossraguel Abbey, 
 
 near Kirkoswald, and of the castles oi Turnberry, the 
 family seat of Robert tie- I'.niee, I iiinure. Loch I loon. 
 D ' Auchinleck, Dundonald, &e. ; also the nuns 
 of Alloway Kirk. There are also relics of early 
 tun in the form of cairns and encampments. 
 
 A. was inhabited, in the time of Agricola, by the 
 Hamuli, with whom wire afterwards mixed the 
 
 Scots from tl pposite coast of Kintyre. In the 
 
 8th c, the Northumbrian Saxons seized the t rritory ; 
 and afterwards came the Normans, whose traces 
 still exist in local names. During the religious 
 lltions of the Stuarts, A. was a stronghold 
 of the Covenanters. 
 
 AYRER, JACOB, next to Hans Sachs the most 
 prolific and important German dramatic writer of 
 the 10th e. His history is involved in obscurity; 
 but it is known that he was a citizen of Nuroberg 
 in 1594, and a procurator in the courts of law. It 
 was not till after his death, in 1605, that a col] 
 of his pieces was published, consisting of (>(> trage- 
 dies, comi dii . inl carnival plays (NUrnb. IMS). A. 
 has the same garrulous breadth of dialogue as Hans 
 Sachs, but is inferior to him in wit and humour. 
 
 AY'TON, Sir. Robert, a Scottish poet and favour- 
 ite courtier in the reign of James VI. II ■ was a 
 younger son of Andrew Ayton of Kinaldie, Fife-hire, 
 where lie was born in Lull. Ho was enrolled 
 student in St Leonard's College, St Andrews, in 1584, 
 and took his degree of M.A. in loSS. For purposes 
 of study, he next visited France, from whence he 
 addressed, in 1603, an elegant panegyric, in Latin 
 
 to King Janus, on his accession to the throne 
 of England This poem appears to have been the 
 making of A.'s fortune, for we find him afterwards 
 appointed, successively, one of the gentlemen of 
 
 dchamber, private secretary to the queen, and 
 master of requests. Subsequently, he held the 
 appointment oif secretary to the queen of < lharles I. 
 King .lame, o vey copies of one 
 
 of his works, conjectured to be his Apology for 
 On Oath of Allegiance, to the German court,. A. 
 am'-; on terms of familiarity with all the most 
 eminent nun of his time — poets, wits, and philoso- 
 phers alike— among others, Hobbes and Ben J 
 He was him ; of considerable merit ; but, 
 
 unfortunately, a Large number of his effusions being 
 complimentary verses to his friends, are characterised 
 by conceil and extravagant flattery. He was one 
 of th" first Scotsmen who wrote in Kn dish with 
 any degree of elegance and purity. 1 lis verses on 
 general topics 'are conceived in a refined and tender 
 strain of fancy, that reminds us more of th 
 strains of Herrick than anything else.' Burns had 
 a great admiration of some of A.'s pieces, two or 
 three of which he paraphrased. A. is also said to 
 have written verses in Greek and French, as well 
 
 as in Engli h and Latin. Several of his Latin i 
 
 ! in the work called / ■n-n„i 
 
 ab '1 hi \ i in lii.'JT. A. dii d 
 
 iu Whitehall Palace, -March 16 
 
 AY'TOTX, \Vir.ii\-! is a native 
 
 of Edinburgh, having been born there in 1813. He 
 
 d : :i university, 
 
 and wa i called to tish bar in 1840. In 
 
 1845, he was appointed R Pi r of Rhetoric 
 
 and Belles-Lettres in th fcyof Edinburgh; 
 
 and after the formation of the Derby admin 
 tion, in 1852, he was promoted to the shrievalty 
 of i irkni y and Shetland. 1 1 
 of the late Professor Wilson. Ihuiug the I 
 years, Professor A. has wielded an u lep in. 
 
 work of bis with which we an 
 
 quainted is entitled TheZiift and '/' ifSicl 
 
 published in 1S40 — a subject well treated, and 
 singularly in consonance with his chivalrous and 
 
 e loving nature. Despite his minstrel ten- 
 dencies, be is a mi ter of caricature and parody; 
 and many of the most successful of the /.' 
 Ballade are understood to be from his pen. In 
 1849, he published the Lays oj tin Scott 
 
 and oUu r /' . which established his reputation as 
 a poet of the school of Sir Walter Scott, and which 
 has run through eleven editions. II- subsequent 
 writings am FirmHian, a Spasmodic Tragedy, pub- 
 lished in 1854; B '/■«•''. a narrative poem of 
 considerable length, in the measure and m 
 of Scott, and which has, since its publication in 1856, 
 to a considerable extent been recast and im; 
 His edition of tie- Scottish Ballads, iii - vols., appeared 
 in 1858. In the ensuing year, he, in conjunction 
 with his friend -Mr Theodore Martin, issued trans- 
 lations of various minor poems of Goethe, in one 
 volume. He has for many years been one of the most 
 frequent and brilliant contributors to Bl(v : . 
 Magazine. Professor A. has been bucc — ful in 
 quite opposite departments of literature — he is 
 distinguished as a poet and humorist. His poems 
 exhibit a ballad like simplicity, and a fiery flow 
 of narration — the special merits of the p 
 school in which he has graduated ; while his tales 
 —the best known and appreciated of which are 
 The Glenmutchkin Railway, and How 
 Yeoman — possess a certain robust humour and farci- 
 ed abandonment, and are related to the writ 
 
 at masters of humour much in the di 
 that the 'screaming farce' is related to gi 
 
 . His poetical [low t in their gi 
 
 i ion in the Lays of (hi • : the 
 
 special merits of his humour are best exhibited in 
 How J became a Yeoman. He has also acquired 
 some reputation as a critic, and wields, with con- 
 siderable dexterity and force, to the terror of a later 
 generation, the knout of the dreaded Christopher 
 North of the 'Nodes.' 
 
 AYUNTAMIE'NTO is the name given in Spain 
 to the councils or governing bodies of towns. Sprung 
 istitutions of the Romans, and firmly 
 established during the long struggles w ith the Moors, 
 the ayuntamientos acquired great influenc 
 political power, the more eo that the nobility were 
 not excluded from them. Although this impjm 
 
 d through the insurrection of Juan de 
 Padilla in 1521; and at a later period, under the 
 Bourbons, the last shadow of municipal freedom was 
 lost ; the remembrance of it continn rished 
 
 by the i pie. \ cordingly, the corb a of Cadis, in 
 
 lSl'J, took up the leading features of the former 
 i. adapting them, by more democratic modi- 
 fications, to the require ments of the time. On 
 
 burn of Ferdinand VTL, the ayuntami 
 were abolished ; they were again restored by the 
 
 0*3
 
 AZALEA— AZEGLIO. 
 
 cortes, in 1823; and after the invasion by I 
 once more set aside. Daring the civil 
 proposals were maden the ayuntanu 
 
 d1 a ol 1812 were ooi 
 
 by the constitution of 1S37. According I 
 statute, the A., with the alcalde as presid 
 appointr. 1 by the Eree choice of tho people, ami is 
 entitled to exercise the motions within the 
 
 circle of its jurisdiction. 
 
 ionally annul its acts, but must afterwards 
 procure the ratification of the cortes, by which alone 
 an A. can be dissolved. The ayontamientos are 
 empowered to make op the lists of electors and 
 jurors, to organise the national guards, to command 
 
 olios within tlnir own bounds, to direct the 
 apportionment and raisin',' of taxes, and to manage 
 the funds of the commune. In 1S40, a bi] 
 brought into the cortes, formed on the model of 
 
 French law, proposing to deprive the aj 
 mientos of all political power, and r 
 functions to purely municipal matters, and also to 
 limit the franchise to the most highly taxed. But 
 
 isurrection which this step excited, and which 
 ended in the expulsion of the queen, Marii I 
 prevented the imijcct from being carried out, At 
 last, in 1844, a law, similar to that proposed in 1S40, 
 was, through the intriguing of Christina, supp 
 by French influence, adopted by the cortes, then 
 composed of moderados ; and this law, with little 
 alteration, continues in force to the present day. 
 
 AZA'LEA, a genus of plants i to the 
 
 natural order Krinir, and distinguished from 
 Rhododendron (q. v.) chiefly by the flowers having 
 live stamens in Lead of ten. Most of the spe< 
 A. also differ from tho rhododendrons in having 
 
 Azalea Indica. 
 
 thin deciduous leaves. Some botanists unite the 
 
 fenu3 A. to Rhododendron. One of the speo 
 eserving of notice is A. Pontica, a shrub from 
 three to five feet high, a native of the countries 
 around the Black Sea, with large obovate or oblongo- 
 lanceolate shining leaves and umbellate yellow 
 flowers, which are externally covered with glutinous 
 hairy glands, and are very fragrant It may be 
 regarded as, like many of the other Ericeoz (heaths, 
 fee), a socio/ plant; and its gulden llowers give great 
 
 brilliancy to the landscape in many parts of the 
 
 l, the south-east of Poland, 
 It covers many mountain slopes, but does not 
 ascend to great elevations, giving place to the more 
 alpine It is comm 
 
 OS and shrubberies in Britain, and van , 
 
 , red, and almost white flowers The whole 
 
 plant is narcotic and poisonous, and the honey col- 
 
 i from ii which very much 
 
 i in honey, is said to ion and 
 
 delirium, as b ippenedto X. •: 'lion's soldiers in! 
 
 famous retreat in Asia. — North America abounds 
 
 s well as in rhododendrons, and 90m of 
 
 .' the species have been long cultivated in Britain, par- 
 
 iud A. vitcota, which, with -I. 
 
 the parents of many hybrids. 
 
 Both have nearly white flowers, very beautiful, and 
 
 Of delirious fragrance. A. I 
 
 1 with glutinous hairs like A. Pontica; but 
 I iwere of A. nudiflora are nearly death 
 them. Both species abound from Canada to the 
 southern parts of the United States. They are 
 taller shrubs than A. Pontica. Upon account of 
 its sweet smell, A. nudiflora is called in A 
 the Upright Honeysuckle. A. », a 
 
 native of the southern parts of the United States, 
 ribed as frequently clothing the mountains 
 with a robe of living scarlet. — India and China 
 produce several species of A., of which one of the 
 finest is A. Indica, well known in Britain as a 
 greenhouse shrub. Its flowers exhibit great bril- 
 liancy of colours. Many hybrids exist between tho 
 more hardy species and this. Another extremely 
 iful species is A. ledifuliii, an , which 
 
 en introduced into Britain from China. 
 A di procumbent, evergreen shrub, a 
 
 native of . ons in Europe and North 
 
 America, plentiful on high mountains in Scotland, 
 was long known as A.procumbens, but is now 
 Loiseleuria procumbens. The llowers are small and 
 rose-coloured. The whole appearance of the plant 
 widi ly differs from that of the genus Azalea. 
 
 AZE'GLIO, Ma'ssdio Marquis d', famous as an 
 artist, a publicist, a romance-writer, and a I 
 man, is the descendant of an ancient and noble 
 family of Piedmont. He was born in 1801 at Turin, 
 
 bis father held a high military position. In his 
 fifteenth year, A. followed his father to Borne, 
 where he had been appointed ambassador, and there 
 contracted a love for the fine arts ; but his study of 
 music and painting was cut short by his father pro- 
 curing him an appointment in a Piedmontese cavalry 
 
 nt. Hero A. devoted his leisure with such 
 intensity to scientific pursuits, that he brought on 
 an illness which forced, him to quit the service. A 
 journey to Piome, from which he returned to Turin in 
 1 21 1, restored his health, but deepened his passii hi fi .r 
 painting. After some difficulty, he got his 1 
 permission to devote himself entirely to this art. 
 A year had hardly elapsed ere A. had made himself 
 a name in Rome as an artist. In landscape-painting 
 he soon attained complete artistic skill. After a 
 residence of eight years at Home, during which 
 he had pursued the study of history along with 
 painting, he returned to Turin. On the death of 
 his father in 1830, he went to Milan, where, painting 
 was then flourishing. In Milan he made the friend- 
 ship of Alexander Manzoui, whose daughter ho 
 married. A. now began to make himself favourably 
 known also in literature, his novels, Ellore J 
 mosco (1833), and Niccolo di Lean (1841), having 
 done much to fan the national spirit of the Italians. 
 The political affairs of Italy soon occupied him 
 
 ively; he traversed the provinces, cities, and 
 villages, seeking to stir up the spirit of patriotism, 
 and to conciliate the unhappy party divisions, and
 
 AZERBIJAN— AZINCOCRT. 
 
 wa3 everywhere received with rejoicing and accla- 
 mation. A. never belonged to a secret political 
 society, ljut opposed conspiracies as miscnievous, 
 and exhorted the impatient to moderation. While 
 in Florence, he wrote his famous piece, Deijli 
 Casi di Romagna, in which he lashed the miser- 
 able j papal government, denounced the vain attempts 
 at insurrection, and proved to the Italian princes 
 the necessity of a national policy. After the elec- 
 tion of Pius IX. as pope, A. returned to Home, 
 ami ti> his influence were ascribed the reforms 
 with which Pius began his government. He was 
 intensely active at this time, and wrote much on 
 public questions. (The whole of his political writ- 
 
 coDected in one volume, appeared at Turin. 
 1851.) When Charles Albert, after the rising of 
 
 !.ly, crossed the Ticino, A. left Eome with 
 the papal I ined to support the Italian 
 
 contest. In the battle of Vicenza, where he com- 
 manded a legion, he was severely wounded in the 
 leg while fighting at the 'head of his troops. 
 
 ly was he recovered, when with his pen he 
 courageously opposed the republican party, now 
 intoxicated with victory. On the opening of the 
 Sardinian parliament, he was chosen a member of 
 the Chamber of Deputies. After the unfortunate 
 event of the battle of Koran, the young king, 
 Victor Emanuel II., appointed him (1849) presi- 
 dent of the cabinet, an office which he undertook 
 solely out of love to his king and country. His 
 influence in this high position was most beneficial, 
 Sardinia owing much of the prosperity and proud 
 national position she now enjoys to his foo 
 and sagacity. At the close of the late war (1859), 
 when several important towns in the States of the 
 Church declared for Piedmont, A. was appointed 
 (pro tempore) General and Commissioner Extraor- 
 dinary, purely military, for the Roman States. On 
 hi3 retirement, he issued a proclamation to the 
 people, which greatly tended to strengthen their 
 resolution by its noble yet temperate advice. 
 
 AZERBIJA'N, or ADEKBAIJA'X, the ancient 
 Media Atropatene, is the most northerly province 
 of Persia. It is situated between 1st 30' ami 4 
 long. 44° and 48' 40' E. ; bounded on the S. by 
 
 i Kurdistan and Irak, E by Ghilan, X.E. ami 
 N. by the Russian territory, and W. by Turkish 
 Kurdistan. It has an area of about 30,(K)0 square 
 miles, and a population of 2,000,000. The surface 
 of A. is very mountainous, many of the ranges 
 rising from 7000 to 9000 feet in height The peak 
 of Savalan (an extinct volcano) reaches an eleva- 
 tion of 13,000 feet. Mount Ararat rises on the 
 north-west border. The chief rivers of A. are the 
 Aras or Arcuce.% the Kara Su. and the Khdl-Uzen. 
 The salt lake Urumiyah or Urnmieyeh (q. v.), the 
 largest in Persia, is situated on the western border 
 of the province. The climate of A. is not unhealthy, 
 but it is subject to the extremes of heat and cold. 
 The transition from cold to heat is very rapid. 
 In the mountainous districts, the hail-storms 
 are occasionally so violent as to kill cattle. The 
 principal products of A. are rice, barley, wheat, 
 maize, llax, hemp, cotton, tobacco, honey, and 
 saffron ; camels, horses, cattle, and sheep are also 
 reared ; velvet, silks, stuff, carpets, woollens, and 
 leather are the most important articles of manu- 
 facture, and a little is done in hardware. Lead, 
 iron, copper, sulphur, saltpetre, and salt aro found 
 in the province. The capital of A. is Tabriz, with 
 a population of about 30,000. It has suffered 
 greatly from earthquakes. The other towns of 
 note are Urumiyah, on the lake of that name ; 
 Maragna, famous as the place where Nasir Eddin, 
 the asu ted his observatory; Miana, Khoi, 
 
 Sehnas, and ArdcbiL 
 
 AZIMGHU'R, or AZIM "S FORT, a name prim- 
 arily applied to a town in India, and thence extended 
 to ita district. 1. The town is in lat 26° N., and 
 long. 83' 14' E. From Calcutta it is 448 miles to 
 the north-west ; from Benares, 81 to the north ; 
 from Allahabad, 109 to the north-east; and from 
 Lucknow, 171 to the south-east. It is situated on 
 the north-eastern Tons, a considerable offset of the 
 Gogra, which is here crossed by a bridge of boats, 
 and wluch is navigable downwards, a distance of 40 
 miles, to its confluence with the Surjoo. The town 
 is estimated to contain about 14,11(10 inhabitants, 
 besides the troops in garrison. During the mutiny 
 of 1^-57, A. was, so far, a creditable exception to 
 the general rule of ruthless cruelty among the 
 insurgents. The sepoys did indeed mutiny, actu- 
 ated, apparently, by a wish to appropriate a passing 
 treasure of 7 lacs of rupees, or £70,000 si 
 Rut, having formed a square round their officers, 
 and sworn to protect them, they brought carriages 
 for them and their families, and escorted the whole 
 ten miles towards Ghazeepore. — 2. The district 
 stretches in N. lat. between 25' 30' and 26 - 
 and in E. long, between 82° 45' and S4 12'. Its 
 area is said to be 2520 square miles ; and its 
 population to be 1,313,950. These two estimates 
 can scarcely be both correct, yielding, as they do, an 
 average of 521 inhabitants to a square mile — a very 
 ■ able average, more particularly as populous 
 towns are unknown. The district is low and 
 remarkably level. The sod is fertile, excepting 
 that a few tracts are irreclaimably barren from 
 being impregnated with soda, nitre, and other 
 saline substances. There are tolerably extensive 
 manufactures — the silk looms being 3122, and the 
 cotton ones, 10,500. Connected with the latter is 
 the curious fact, that scarcely any cotton-wool is 
 produced on the spot 
 
 AZIMUTH. The A. of a heavenly body is the 
 angle measured along the horizon between the north 
 or south point, and the point where a circle, passing 
 through the zenith ami the body, cuts the horizon. 
 The word comes from the Arabic, and is said to 
 be derived from a word signifying a quarter of 
 the heavens. It is usual to measure the A. west- 
 ward from the point most remote from the el 
 pole, beginning at 0°, and returning to it at 360". 
 Thus, in northern Latitudes, where the north pole is 
 1. the A. is measured from the south point so 
 that the east point, for instance, has an A. of 270'. 
 See Apit tt.t.a -bv Sphere. A. circles are those which 
 extend from zenith to nadir, cutting the horizon at 
 right angles, or those in which all the points have 
 the same azimuth. 
 
 A'ZIXCOCRT, or AGLN'COUUT, a village in 
 the department of Pas-de-Calais, France, celebrated 
 for a bloody battle between the English and 
 French, October 25, 1415. The internal distrac- 
 tions of France under the imbecUe Chad 
 (q. v.) had encour.; nd to attempt to make 
 
 good her ancient claims on France. Henry V. of 
 England had landed at Hartleur, had taken that 
 fortress, and wished to march through Picardie to 
 Calais, in order to go into winter-quarters. The 
 Dauphin advanced against him with a powerful 
 force. A great number of the nobdity accompanied 
 him; and so great was their con, that the 
 
 I aid of the Duke of Burgundy and of the 
 city of Paris was r !• ted. Henry hastened to the 
 Somme, but was followed by the Frcnch, who 
 opposed his passage ; he at last managed to cross 
 with his army at .St Quentin. Greatly weakened 
 in numbers, and suffering extremely from want 
 uf pm\ ' I to pnrcaas 
 
 reparation of injuries. Rut the French would not 
 
 MI
 
 AZORES-AZOTUS. 
 
 hi a of a ti v, as thoy ent rl irn '1 the I 
 
 ietely annihilating the 1. 1 1 . 1 1 -1 1 army. They 
 had, in fact, intercepted the 1 2n-_'li^H march to 
 
 . bj gi ■nil: ■ )!!'•■ ssi >f the high road behind 
 
 the little river Temoise, near the Tillages of A. and 
 Frniuecourt. 'I'll.- invading army, therefore, still 
 
 cdins to livnrli accounts) 14,000 Btroi 
 
 whom 2000 were men-af arms though no I 
 
 writer makes il <■ than In. nun prepared 
 
 Hunt by posting themselves between two 
 woods, in a single line of battle, with the archers 
 mi tin- wings. 'I'll'' I'ri mli. to the number of 60,000, 
 under the command of the Constable, D'Albret, 
 were drawn up in two lines, the men-at-arms, of 
 wham only 2000 were mounted, being in the lirst. 
 The English were the first to begin the 
 The French cavalry rushed forward to meet tin in, 
 but were received with such a storm of arrows 
 that they took to Sight, threw thi upon the 
 
 first line, and put it into disorder. 
 light-armed English archers took to their bill- 
 
 1 ks and hat. li i , 1 n . .1 .• into the rank; of the 
 
 men-at-arms that fought on foot, whose heavy 
 armour and close array rendered them almo I incap- 
 able of resistance, and made the grot 
 among them. This being followed by a chai ■ oi 
 
 the English horsemen, the lirst line took to flight, 
 the second was unable to arrest the victors, and the 
 whole French army was soon completely dispersed. 
 
 The victory was decided. For a moment, Henry 
 believed that the rallying masses were going to 
 renew the fight; and hearing also that a troop of 
 armed peasants were plundering his baggage, he gave 
 Orders to slay all the prisoners taken. The order 
 
 was already executed when he discovered thegr ld- 
 
 I ; of Ins alarm. As many as 10,0(10 French- 
 
 men were slain, among whom were the Constable 
 and six dukes and princes, the Duke of Brabant, 
 the Count of Nevers, the Duke of Alencpn, the 
 Duke of Bar and his two brothers. Five p 
 among them the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, 
 were taken prisoners. The English lost 1600 killed, 
 including the Duke of York, the king's great uncle, 
 whom the Duke of Aleneon slew. Alencon had 
 even struck the crown from King Henry's head, 
 when he was surrounded by all present) and fell 
 with many wounds. Henry, however, was too weak 
 to pursue his advantage, and therefore continued his 
 march to Calais, where he embarked for England. 
 
 AZO'ItES, a cluster of islands in the All 
 SU0 miles due west of the southern half of Portugal, 
 ranging in N. lat. between ;;ii' 65' and 39" 44', and 
 in W. long, between 25° Iff and ."1 J 1G'. In the 
 first half of the 15th c, the A. were discovered by 
 the Portuguese, or rather, it has been said, appro- 
 priated by them, after having been revealed 1" them 
 by a Flemish navigator, Joshua Vanderberg of 
 Bruges. They were at that time uninhabited a 
 fact which, so far as it goes, seems adverse to any 
 notion that America could have been colonised from 
 Europe in tins direction. Their salient position, 
 however, may soon be turned to account, for the 
 A. have recently been suggested as a resting-place 
 for an intercontinental telegraph — and that in con- 
 nection with the Bermudas, which are precisely as 
 far to the cast of South Carolina as the A. them- 
 selves are to the west of Portugal. The Pori 
 colonists called the whole group A., from acor or 
 OXOr, a hawk ; and tin v named two individual 
 islands Corvo and .St Jnrgo, from C'orvos Marines 
 and St Jorsi, which, according to the maps of the 
 1-lth c, had been previously seen in the v ■ 
 ocean. Without reckoning mere rocks, the islands 
 are nine in number. Taken from east to west, they 
 are as follow: St Mary, St Michael, Terceira, 
 Graciosa, St Jorgo, Pico, Fayal, I'lores, and Corvo. 
 
 The at tl oup is estimated at Too square 
 
 miles; while its population is 343,672, yielding an 
 
 e of nearly 500 to a Bquare mile. In the 
 order of population and importance, the islands 
 
 stand thus: St .Mob i I. Terceira, Pico, Fayal, St 
 foi ", I [ores, Graciosa, St Mary, and Corvo. The 
 A. are still a dependency of Portugal. Thi ir i I 
 
 i . \u ■; .1, in 'I ere ira ; but I'o la and 
 
 a Grande, both in St Michael, are larger 
 
 towns. 
 
 As may be presumed fi. osity of the 
 
 oil is fertile, and the climate healthy. 
 
 The islands are al.-.o well watered. The exports are 
 
 3, wine, brandy, grain, pulse, pork, beef, 
 
 ■ '!■ ■ e, and coarse linens; and the imports are 
 woollens, cottons, hardware, iron, glass, cordage, 
 pitch, tar. staves, timber, oil, fish, nun. coffee, sugar, 
 salt, ami tea. Perhap the greatest want of tiii 
 
 is s good harbour. The A. are of volcanic origin 
 a fact from which may probably be inferred their 
 identity with the Isles ot Brazil or of Fire in the 
 above mentioned, of the Hth C Though most 
 of the volcanoes themselves appear to be extinct, 
 yet the islands contain hot Spnnj 9, and are subject 
 
 to violent, earthquakes. The coa te are generally 
 steep and rugged, while the interior parts abound in 
 ravines and mountains. The mountains range from 
 18t>9 feet to 7G13 — the latter being the height of the 
 lava-covered peak which gives name to Pico. 
 
 AZO'TE (Cr. a, depriver of, and zee, life) is the 
 
 .vii by French chemists to Nitrogen [q. v.). 
 
 A'XOTISED BODIES are those substances which 
 contain azote or nitrogen as one of their consti- 
 tuents, and which form part of the living struc- 
 ture of a plant or animal, or are produced during 
 its natural decay. The principal members of the 
 
 group are album a, present in white of eggs, and the 
 juices of plants and animals ; globulim . or i rystalline, 
 a variety of albumen found in the lens of the eye; 
 vitelline, another variety of albumen, composing the 
 
 ■ ii iter bulk of the yolk of the egg ; paralbumen, a 
 third variety of albumen found in the animal 
 system during certain diseases \fbrine, which occurs 
 largely in the seeds of cereals and in animal muscle ; 
 
 (or cheese matter), present in all milk; lego- 
 mine, a variety of caseine found in pease, b 
 and leguminous seeds in general: gelatine, which 
 ent in the skin, bones, and other parts of 
 animals; clumdrine, a variety of gelatine obtainable 
 
 fr the cornea of the eye and the permanent 
 
 cartilages ; isinglass, another variety of gelatine 
 manufactured from the inner membrane of the 
 bladder of sturgeons and other fishes; glue 
 and Size, winch are secondary forms of gelatine; 
 uric ncid, and liippuric acid, which are present 
 in the urine of the higher animals; kreatine and 
 Icrealinine, occurring in the juice of flesh; several 
 forms of urinary calculi, which are found as stones 
 in the bladder; and the very large and important 
 class of alkaloids, including strychnine, morphine, 
 quinine, kc The principal members of the series 
 of A. B. will be considered under their special head- 
 ings; and the use of several of them as articles of 
 diet will come into notice under Food. 
 
 AZO'TUS, the Asfldod of the Old Testament 
 (now Eedud), a village on the Mediterranean, -1 
 miles south of Jaffa. Lat. .'il 1 45' N., long. .'Jt 
 '■',"' E. It was formerly one of the chief citi 
 the Philistines, strongly fortified, and the scene of 
 numerous contests between that race and the Jews. 
 Into this city the Ark of the < 'ovnant was brought 
 by the Philistines, and placed m the temple of their 
 god Dagon, whose image fell in pieces before 
 it. In the 8th c. B.C., the town fell into the hands 
 of the Assyrians ; and in the following century was
 
 AZOV— AZURITE. 
 
 captured by the Egyptians, after a 20 years' blockade 
 and siege. In the wars between Alexander Balas 
 and Demetrius, A. was destroyed by lire. It was 
 afterwards rebuilt by the Romans, but never 
 regained its early importance. It has now a popu- 
 lation of about 300, and the sea is gradually r. 
 from its harbour. 
 
 A'ZOV, or A'SO W, a fortress and port-town in the 
 south of Russia, situated on the Don, about 20 miles 
 from its mouth. The sand and mud deposited by 
 the river have choked up the port, so that the trade 
 and shipping of the place have dwindled away, and 
 the 3000 inhabitants now depend mostly on fishing. 
 A. was anciently a Greek colony, under the name of 
 
 . and carried on extensive commerce with the 
 
 in peoples. In number of inhabitants and in 
 wealth it often rivalled Panticapaeum (now Kertch). 
 In the 13th c. it was taken possession of by tin- 
 Genoese, who called it Tana. They were driven 
 out of it by Tinmr (Tamerlane) in 1392. In 1471, 
 it was taken by the Turks, and since then has borne 
 the name of A., the Turks calling the town and the 
 
 iring sea Asak. After an obstinate sti-u^le, 
 
 at which Peter the Great, then beginning his career, 
 was present, it was captured by the Russians about 
 the end of the 17th c. It more than once fell again 
 under the dominion of the Turks, but at last, in 
 1771. remained in the undisturbed possession of 
 Russia. It was bombarded and destroyed by an 
 allied English and French squadron in ISoj. 
 
 A'ZOV, SKA or, named after the town, is a large 
 gulf of the Black Sea, formed by the peninsula of 
 
 i, or rather an inland lake connected with the 
 Black Sea by the long narrow strait of Kafi'a. The 
 
 i or Putrid Sea is the western portion of the 
 Sea of A. cut off by the long narrow slip of low sandy 
 land called the Tongue of Arabat. The entrance to 
 ;t rid Sea is by the narrow strait of Genitschi at 
 the north of the Tongue. The Putrid Sea is lit I 
 a succession of swamps. The ancient name of t 
 of A. was Pains Ma?otis. It gets the name of Batik- 
 l> .i his, or Fish-sea, from the Tiu'ks and Tatars, 
 from it; abundance of fish. The water is almost 
 fresh. The whole sea is shallow, and occupies an 
 area of about 14,000 square miles. During the 
 
 in war, an expedition, having on board 16,500 
 English, French, and Turks, was sent to this sea in 
 May 1855, which devastated the ports, and cut off 
 supplies intended for SebastopoL 
 
 AZ'TEC CHILDREN. In the year 1S53, there 
 were brought over to this country from America 
 two diminutive children, a boy and a girl, said to 
 be aged respectively 17 and 11, and who were 
 represented as descendants of the ancient Aztecs. 
 The height of each was under 3 feet, Their figure 
 was slender and not ill-proportioned ; that which was 
 chiefly remarkable being their features. While the 
 id and chin receded, the nose was so singu- 
 larly prominent as to suggest the idea of the face 
 of a bird. Yet, with dark lively eyes, an olive 
 complexion, and glossy long black hair, and a great 
 fund of good-nature, they were far from unpli 
 They spoke no intelligible language, but understood 
 a few words of Fngbsh, and seemed to have a taste 
 for music. Shewn to the public as curiosities, they 
 were usually exhibited on a large table, on which 
 they ran about amusing themselves. Their exhibitor 
 told a very incredible story of how they had been 
 obtained from the ancient city of Lximaga, where 
 they were reverenced as gods. A certain Seilor 
 
 uez, in company with a Canadian and American, 
 penetrated into this ancient city of Central America, 
 where they made the acquaintance of one of the 
 guardian priests of these undersized deities, who 
 was so charmed with the accounts of the outer world, 
 that he resolved to steal the gods of his people, and 
 escape with the strangers. One after the oi 
 the Canadian, the American, and the priest — were 
 overtaken by disaster, and Velasquez alone was 
 left to tell the wondrous tale, with no attestation 
 but such as the children themselves furnished. 
 Professor Owen considered them mere dwarfs, and 
 uthorities held a similar opinion. Belonging 
 probably to some Indian tribe, they were doubtless 
 monstrosities ; and this becoming apparent, interest 
 in them ceased. 
 
 AZ'TECS. The name of the dominant tribe in 
 Mexico at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, 
 ■aco, Antiquities or. 
 
 AZU'NI, Domenico Alberto, a distinguished 
 jurist, bom at Sassari, in the island of Sardinia, 
 t 3, 1740. He early applied himself to the 
 study of law, devoting himself particularly to the 
 maritime relationships of nations. He became judge 
 of the Tribunal of Commerce at Nizza or Nice ; and 
 in 1795, after that city had been taken by the 
 French, he published a work in which he endeavoured 
 to reduce maritime laws to fixed principles, and 
 which, being recast, was published at Paris in 1S05 
 under the title of Droit Maritime de V Europe. 
 The work was sufficiently anti-British in tone to 
 secure its author the favourable consideration of 
 Napoleon's ministry, by whom he was appointed one 
 of the commissioners for compiling the new com- 
 mercial code, the maritime portion being allotted 
 to him. Genoa having been annexed to France, 
 A., in 1807, was appointed president of the Court of 
 Appeal there, where he remained until the fall of 
 Napoleon. Among other things, A. published an 
 Ere Qtographiqwe Politique et Morale 
 de la Sardaigne, and a Dictionary of Mercantile 
 Jurisprudence, and some controversial brochures. 
 For some time after he had withdrawn from Genoa, 
 i ided at Nice, and afterwards in his native 
 island, where he was appointed, by King Charles 
 Felix, judge of the consulate of Cagliari, and 
 librarian to the university of that city. He died 
 in January 1827. 
 
 A'ZURE, a French word technically used in 
 Heraldry to signify blue. In engraving arms, it is 
 always represented by horizontal lines. 
 
 A'ZU B I N E ( L eueuaa eceruUus), a fish of the same 
 genus with the roach, chub. Sec, and most nearly 
 r mbling the Red-eye (q. v.) or Rudd(£. cn/t/iropli- 
 thalmus), from which, however, it is readily distin- 
 guished by the slate-blue colour of the lack, and the 
 whiteness of the abdomen and fins. It is a fresh- 
 water lish, and was first describi i by Yarrell from 
 specimens received from Lancashire, where it is 
 called the Blue Roach, but it is also an inhabitant 
 of some of the lakes of Switzerland. 
 
 A'ZURITE. a name which has been given to 
 
 the mineral more commonly called Lazuhte (q. v.), 
 
 and to which, along with Lapis Lazuli (q. v.) or 
 
 . mineral turquoise (see TOBQUOISl), fee, 
 
 aer ic name, ' - - sometimes given. 
 
 — The name A. is also given by mm 
 
 an ore of copper, generally known as Blue Copper 
 
 ft), nearly allied to Malachite (q. v.), 
 
 and remarkable for its beautiful azure colour. 
 
 m
 
 B 
 
 THE second letter in the Hebrew 
 or Phoenician alphabet, and in all 
 alphabets derived from it. belongs 
 to the order of labials, and is of 
 
 the kind called nuchal or Hat. See 
 Lettei;.s, ALPHABET. Its name in 
 Hebrew is beth, signifying 'house,' 
 probably because its original hiero- 
 glyphic or picture form was an outline of 
 a house or tent In the corresponding 
 words of sister-la u . we find b very generally 
 ied by some one of the other labial letters 
 [/>, / (///i), r] ; these substitutions, however, take 
 place not by chance or caprice, but according to 
 l laws. See Philology, CohpABATTVZ, 
 and (Ikimm's Law. The following aresomeex 
 of the interchange of b with other letters: Corre- 
 sponding to Eng. bear are Sansc. b/iri, Lat. ferre, 
 Gr. pherein: Eng. be, Sansc. bliu, Lat. fio and fax, 
 Gr. pkuo: Eng. "tore, Lat. forare: Eng. o/and off, 
 G r. npo, Lat. ab : Eng. wife, plural wives, Ger. weib, 
 Old H. Ger. wip : Eng. web, weave, tceft: Gr. epis- 
 copos, Eng. bishop, Fr. evique. In several 
 
 . 6 arose out of u (pronounced like r ■ 
 Thus, the original form of bellum, war, was duelltim 
 or dvellum ; of bonus, dvonus ; and the d being 
 dropped (as we drop the sound of /; in knee), the 
 v became hardened into b. Similarly, bis, twice, is 
 for duis. A remarkable interchange sometimes takes 
 place between b and m, as in Sansc. mri, to die ; Lat. 
 mort-, death ; and Gr. brolos, mortal 
 
 The Greeks pronounced their b (/!) like a v, for 
 they spelled VirgiMut, e.g., BirgUios ; and this con- 
 tinues to be the case in modern Greek. In Latin, 
 during the classical ages at least, the letter was pro- 
 nounced as it is in English, French, &c. But in the 
 time of the later emperors (beginning with the 3d c. 
 of our era), b was softened down, in the popular 
 i . to a slovenly sound like v; for in 
 inscriptions of this period, such spellings as rrrva for 
 i . are ipiite common. The 
 
 distinction between the two sounds being once lost 
 sight of, the letter b was frequently substituted for 
 v — as berba for verba, bivus for in'ffti I ftening 
 
 of b into v in the middle-age Latin, has left braces in 
 the modern Italian and French ; as Lat, habere, Ital 
 avere, Fi.avoir; Lat, tabula, Ital. tarda. A Spaniard, 
 on the contrary, has a tendency to use 6 instead of 
 v; thus he pronounces vivere like bibere, and Jams 
 aa if written Jubis. 
 
 B, in Music, is the seventh degree of the diatonic 
 scale of C, and the twelfth degree of the di 
 cliromatic scale. In harmony, it is called the major 
 seventh. According to the tempered system of 
 tuning, the ratio of B, to the fundamental note C, is 
 In the ancient diatonic scale, B was never used 
 as a key-note, as its fifth, F, was imperfect. In the 
 German notation, B is called H, while B flat is 
 called simply B. B fiat is half a tone lower than B, 
 and in harmony is called the fiat seventh. As a 
 harmonic arising from C, B flat, as produced by 
 nature, is considerably flatter than in the tempered 
 i of tuning. 
 
 VL, a Hebrew word signifying lord, owner, 
 m 
 
 or master, and applied as a general title of honour 
 to many different gods. In Hosea ii. 16, it is men- 
 tioned as a name which had been given to Jehovah 
 himself ; but when used with the definite article, 
 it specially designated the principal male deity of 
 the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, as Baaltis or 
 Astarte was the principal female deity. In connec- 
 tion with Babylon and Assyria, the same deity 
 is spoken of under the name of Bel or Being. 
 Originally, B. was the god of the sun, the ruler 
 and vivilier of nature, and Astarte the goddess of 
 the moon. In the later star-worship of the western 
 Asiatic nations, B. was the name of Jupiter, the 
 planet of fate, or, as some suppose, of Saturn. 
 The proper Phoenician name of 15., however, was 
 Melkart, Melkrat, or Melchrat, which is usually 
 supposed to mean ' king of the city ' — i. e., Tyre ; 
 but others consider it a contraction of two words 
 signifying 'king of the earth;' while the learned 
 
 Fig. 1.— Baal, or Melkart. 
 
 From a copper coin of Co^syra in the Uritioh Museum. 
 
 (Twice the size of tho original ) 
 
 Selden is of opinion that it is equivalent to ' strong 
 B. was perhaps the same god as tho 
 Phoenician Moloch. The Greeks confounded B. or 
 Melkart with their own Hercides; and, for the pur- 
 pose of distinction, termed him the Tyrian Hercules. 
 Prom the earliest foundation 
 of Tyre, he seems to have been 
 the tutelar god of that city, 
 and his worship apparently 
 
 ! d thence until it was 
 
 ; nt in all the towns of 
 the Phoenician confederation, 
 and was established in their 
 remotest colonies, such as 
 Malta, Carthage, and Cadiz. 
 It also overspread the neigh- 
 bouring countries of Assyria 
 and Egypt. Each country or 
 locality had its B. or chief 
 god. According to Scrip- 
 ture, the temples of thi3 
 idol (at least in Phoanii a 
 
 Assyria) were built on 
 the tops of hills, or still 
 more frequently in solemn 
 groves, and sometimes altars 
 
 In a warlike aspect, with 
 four legs, representing 
 tho pervading energy 
 and rapidity of the 6uu.
 
 BAALBEK-BABATAG. 
 
 were erected to him on the roofs of houses. His 
 priests were numerous. Incense was the most fre- 
 quent offering presented to him, but we also read 
 of saerilices of bullocks, and even of children. 
 In 1 Kings, chap, xviii., we read that the 
 of B. danced about the altar during the sacrifice, 
 and barbarously cut and mangled themselves, if 
 their god did not speedily answer their prayers. 
 
 The word B. enters into the composition of 
 many Hebrew, Chaldee, Phoenician, and Cartha- 
 ginian names, such a llasdruhal ('Help 
 
 id'), Hannibal (-Grace of Baal'), Ethbaal 
 (•With Baal'), Baal-bec ('City of Baal'). The 
 word is also frequently found in conjunction 
 with some epithet, and in such cases appears to 
 have denoted a different deity, though it is not 
 impossible that it may have been the same person 
 
 !d in another aspect, and as exercising 
 merely a different function. Thus, we have Baai- 
 
 . ' the Covenant Lord,' who was specially 
 worshipped by the people of Shechem ; Baal-Peor, 
 the Priapus of the Moabites and Midianites; and 
 
 ibub, or Baalzebub (the Fly-god), the idol of 
 the Philistines at Ekron, where he had a tempi". — 
 The Celtic deity Beal is usually identified with Baal. 
 See BBLTHN. 
 
 BAA'LBEK, the name of a ruined city in the 
 ancient Ccele-Syria, signifies the ' City of Baal,' 
 the Sun-mid, and was by the Greeks, during 
 the Seleueide dynasty, converted into Heliopolis. 
 Lat. 34 J 1' 30" N., long. 3C 11' E. It is situated in 
 the plain of Buku'a, ' at the northern extremity of a 
 low range of bleak hills, about one mile from the 
 base of Antilebanon,' in a well-watered and delight- 
 ful locality, rather more than 40 miles north-west of 
 Damascus. It was once the most magnificent of 
 Syrian cities, full of palacc3, fountains, and beautiful 
 
 r- 
 r 
 
 Ruins of Vi 
 
 monuments. It 13 now only famous for the splendour 
 of its ruins, of which three deserve special notice. 
 The most imposing is that of the great Temple of the 
 Sun, which was a rectangular building, 291) feet by 
 160, having its roof supported by a peristyle of 
 
 rinthian columns, ' 19 at each side, and 10 at 
 each end.' Of these, six are yet standing. The 
 circumference of these columns is about 22 feet, 
 and the length of the shaft 5S ; with pedestal, capi- 
 tal, and entablature, they measure about 89 feet in 
 height. The approach to this temple was through 
 two spacious courts, surrounded on all sides with 
 porticos and other boil eept the columns 
 
 mentioned, Uttle of the great temple, or of the build- 
 
 : front of it, is left standing, but the ground is 
 
 I with their ruins. The vast size of the stones 
 
 used in the substructions is remarkable, some of 
 
 them being CO feet long and 12 thick. South from 
 
 the great temple is a smaller one, known as the 
 Temple of Jupiter. It is similar in form, hav 
 peristyle and the walls of its cella still mostly 
 standing. Its dimensions are 227 feet in length, 
 by 117 feet in breadth, being thus larger than the 
 Parthenon at Athens. Both temples, as well as the 
 surrounding structures, are built of limestone, in a 
 ricldy decorated somewhat fantastic Corinthian 
 style. Besides these, there stands at the distance 
 of 300 yards from the others a circular budding, 
 supported <.n 6 granite columns; style, mixed Ionic 
 and I orinthian. It was once used as a Christian 
 church. 
 
 The early history of B. is involved in darkness ; 
 but it is certain that, from the most distant times, 
 it had been a chief seat of sun-worship, as its name 
 implies. Julius Cresar made it a Soman colony, and 
 under Augustus it was occupied by a ltoman garri- 
 son. B. had an oracle held in such high esteem that, 
 in the 2d c. a.d., it was consulted by the En 
 Trajan prior to his entrance on his second Parthian 
 campaign. To test the prescience of the oracle, 
 Trajan sent to it a blank piece of paper, which was 
 returned to him blank. This gave him a high opinion 
 of its powers, and he considted it in all seriousness a 
 second time. The response was some dead twigs 
 from a vine, wrapped up in cloth. Trajan's decease 
 some two years afterwards, and the transmission of 
 his bones to Rome, was deemed a sufficient interpre- 
 tation of the symbolical utterance, and con: 
 the celebrity of the oracle. Antoninus Pius (138 — 
 1G1 A.D.) built the great temple, which the 1 
 current among the modern inhabitants counts a 
 work of Solomon. This temple is said to have 
 contained a golden statue of Apollo, or of Zeus, 
 which on certain annual festivals the cluef citizens 
 of Heliopolis bore about on their shoulders. When 
 Christianity, under Constantine, became the domi- 
 nant religion, the temple became a Christian church. 
 In the wars that followed the taking of the city 
 by the Arabs, who sacked it in 748 A.D., the 
 temple was turned into a fortress, the battlements 
 of which are yet visible. The city was completely 
 pillaged by Timur Bey, or Beg, in 1400 a. v. Both 
 city and temple continued to fall more and more 
 into decay under the misery and misrule to which 
 Syria has been subject ever since. Many of the 
 magnificent pillars were overturned by the pachas 
 of Damascus merely for the sake of the iron with 
 which the stones were bound together. What the 
 Arabs, Tatars, and Turks had spared, was destroyed 
 by a terrible earthquake in 1759. B. is now an 
 insignificant village, with a population of some few 
 hundreds. See Wood and Dawkins's Ruins of 
 Baalbec (Lond. 1757) ; Cassas, Voyage Pittoresque de 
 la Si/rie (1799) ; Murray's Handbook for Travellers 
 in Syria and Palestine (1S5S). 
 
 BA'BA, a Turkish word signifying father, originat- 
 ing, like our word papa, in the first efforts of children 
 to speak. In Persia and Turkey, it is prefixed as 
 a title of honour to the names of ecclesiastics of 
 distinction, especially of such as devote themselves 
 to an ascetic life ; it is often affixed in courtesy, also, 
 to the names of other persons, as Ali-Baba. 
 
 BA'BA, Cape, a bold rocky headland near tho 
 western extremity of Anatolia — the Lectum of the 
 Creeks— in lat 39° 29' X., long. 20° 4' E, about 12 
 miles from the northern extremity of Mitylene, 
 the ancient Lesbos. On a shelving point of tho 
 cape stands the town of Baba, with a population of 
 about 4000, who do some trade in cutlery of a supe- 
 rior quality. The once large and prosperous, but 
 now utterly ruined city of Assos, mentioned by St 
 Paul, is m the vicinity. 
 
 BABATA'G, or BA'BA DAG, a city with 10,000 
 
 5.S
 
 BABiuoE-B.\r,i:n. 
 
 inhabitants, in th Silistria, in the i 
 
 mi part of European Turkey. It is situated 
 
 in a marshy district; has a high school and (iv. ■ 
 mosques, 01 which that built by Bajazet I. is the 
 i 1 Bajazet that founded the ciU. 
 
 i lopled witli Tatars, and after a saint, 
 
 whose moDUincnt, on a hill near by, is resorted to 
 as a place of pilgrimage. Through the port of 
 Kara-Kennan, lying a short May to tie- south, the 
 inhabitants of B. carry on a con iderable commerce 
 with tie' Black Sea. 
 
 BA'BBAGE, Cn.u-.i.r.s. born in IT I 
 early at Trinity College, Can here he ton!, 
 
 his degree of B.A. in 1S14. In ls-Js, 1 1 . ■ 
 Professor of Mathematics in his own university, an 
 office which he tilled for eleven years. B. unites, 
 in the most happy combination, powers of i 
 tion and observation with thorough scientific 
 culture. Among his writings, we notice Brat his 
 extremely correct and well-arranged Tables if 
 Logarithms (Lond. lS.'il). lb' was the first to 
 
 the method of constructing Buch tabl 
 object of earnest study. The difficulty of securing 
 accuracy in getting up tables on a Iar_ 
 him to the i omitting the i of the 
 
 work to a machine. Being commissioned by the 
 to uperinl sad the construction of such 
 a mac] inning the work, he visit. .1 a 
 
 great many manufactories and machine est 
 ments, l»'tii in Britain and on the continent, in order 
 to become acquainted with all the resources of 
 mechanical art. ami thus be in a position to make 
 a combined use of them in his great undertaking, 
 nrvey afforded him the necessary information 
 
 for his able work, On 
 
 mid Machinery (Lond. 1832] a book "Inch has run 
 through several editions, and been translated into 
 several languages — in which all mechanical processes 
 are cl.is-.ii.- 1 from the most c ic p lint of view, 
 
 and the most interesting examples of the more 
 important kinds of manufacture are des. 
 Besides hi3 Comparative View of the 1) 
 Life-assurance Societies, his Differential and l 
 Calculus, his I) Science (1S30), A Ninth 
 
 Bridgewaier Treatise, and The Exposition of 185] 
 (1S51), B. has contributed a number of very in; 
 ing papers to the-Transactions of the Royal Societie 
 of Loudon and Edinburgh, -With regard to B.'s 
 calculating machine, which, from some cause not well 
 explained, was never completed. Bee Calculating 
 
 Machines. (He died October IS, 1871.) 
 
 BA'BEL, Tower of. For an account of this 
 building, and the confusion of tongues which it 
 brought about, see the 11th chapter of Gel 
 The distinction of being a remnant of the To,. 
 B. has been claimed for three different masses: 
 1st, for Nimrud's Tower at Akkerkuf; 2d, the Mujel 
 libe, 950 yards east of the Euphrates, and five miles 
 above the modern town of Hillah; ;U, the I'.n . 
 Nimrud, to the west of that river, and about six- 
 miles to the south-west of Hillah — the whole 
 situated in Babylonia (q. v.). The last of these has 
 the majority of opinions in its favour. Every one, 
 it is said, who has seen the Birs Nimrud, feels at 
 once that, of the ruined mounds in this region, there 
 is not one which so nearly corresponds with his 
 previous notions of the Tower of Babel. According 
 to Mr Kich, it is of an oblong form, the total cir- 
 cumference being 762 yards. At the eastern side 
 it is cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than 
 50 or 60 feet high ; but on the western side it ri- 
 in a conical figure to the elevation of 19S feet : and 
 on its summit is a solid pde of brick 37 feet high by 
 2S in 1 n-eadth, diminishing in thickness to the top, 
 which is broken and irregular, and rent 1 iy a largo 
 $96 
 
 li 1 1 extending through a third of its height, It 
 is perforated by small square It- osed in 
 
 rhombo ire-burnt bricks of which it is built 
 
 have inscriptions on them; and so excellent 
 
 pears to be lime mot tar, that it is 
 -. bole. The 
 other parts of the summit of this hill are occupi 
 
 irk, of no determinate 
 figure, tuml fcher, and convert 1 into solid 
 
 vitrified masses, aa if they had und< action 
 
 of the fiercest fire, or had been blown up with gun- 
 powder, the layers of brick being pi rfectly di 
 lble. These ruins stand on a prodigious mound, 
 hole of which is itself in ruins, channelled by 
 weather, and strew.,! with fragments of 
 stone, sandstone, and marble. Sir li. K. Porl 
 shewn that the intense vitrifying heal to i the 
 
 • baa been evidently subjected, must have 
 -It of lire operating from above, and was 
 rodnced by lightning. This is a cu 
 
 circumstance, taken in i nectionwith tl 
 
 tradition that the Tower of I J. was rent and o 
 
 a by tire from heaven. Porter thinks that 
 irks ". the Bah] loni b kin lly the 
 
 stupendous temple ol B lus, which was erected on 
 the site of the old Tower, concealed for a while the 
 marks of the original devastation ; and that now 
 01 time and of man have reduced 
 it to nearly the same condition in which it a] pi I 
 after the conn 
 
 BAB-EL-MA'NDEB (i.e., 'the Hate of Tears') 
 is the name of the strait between Arabia and 
 the continent of Africa, by which the Red Sea is 
 connected with the Gulf of Aden and the Indian 
 Ocean. The Arabian peninsula hi re throws out 
 a cape, bearing tb in i il 
 
 to the height of 865 feet About, 20 miles distant 
 i t i ' ill-like coast of Africa, 
 
 Sejan to the height of 380 feet. Within 
 the straits, but nearer to Arabia, lies the bare rocky 
 island of l'erim (q. v.), now occupied by the English 
 as a fort ; th ride of this i id 
 
 is called tie- Little Strait, and that on the west the 
 Great strait. The depth of the former varies from 
 s to 12 fathoms; that of the I reaches 1S5 
 
 fathoms. The first is usually chosen by vessels on 
 account of its affording good anchorage. Close to 
 the African coast lie eight small islands, called the 
 Eight Brothers. The currents in these straits are 
 generally very strong, and are extremely dangerous 
 for small vi The name B. is supposed to have 
 
 originated in the frequent disasters occurring in the 
 strait. 
 
 BA'BER, or BA'BTTB (Zohir-Eddin Mohammed), 
 the first of the Great Moguls in India, a descendant 
 
 of Timur, was born in 1 ls:{. He was barely 12 years 
 of age when he succeeded his father, Omar Sheikh 
 in the sovereignty of the countries lying 
 between Samarkand and the Indus With a view 
 to the conquest of India, although constantly con- 
 tending with revolts in his own dominions, he made 
 v fraud and force, of the provinces 
 of Kashgar, Kundez, Kandahar, and CabuL Having 
 thus opened the way to India, he made two or three 
 rapid incursions into Hindustan ; and linally t 
 advantage of the feeble government of Ibrahim 
 l.idi. about the end of 1525, he crossed the Attock 
 l il.ul branch of th ■ Indus), quickly defeated 
 some bodies of troops that opposed him in the 
 Punjab; and at last, iu April 152l*>, on the plain 
 of Panipat, not far from Delhi, encountered and 
 fought a decisive battle with his enemy, whose army 
 was far superior in numbers. The 100,000 men and 
 1000 elephants of Sultan Ibrahim were dispersed; 
 Ibrahim himself fled; and B. made his entry into
 
 BABECF -BABOON. 
 
 Delhi. In the following month, Agra, the second 
 city of the empire, surrendered B. s enjoyment of 
 empire in India was short ; he died in 1530, having 
 bad to contend dorms the five yean of hi 
 with numerous conspiracies and revolts. To the 
 talent3 of a general and statesman, which he 
 manifested in his conquests, his improvements of 
 public roads, measuring of lauds, adjustment of 
 taxation, postal arrangements, &c, B. nnited a 
 taste for science and art. He wrote, in the Tatar 
 
 ige, the history of his own life and con 
 which was translated into Persian by Abdul 
 Bacliim, and, more recently, from the Persian into 
 I :i di 1 on the throue of Delhi 
 
 I eldest of his four sons, Humayun, and was 
 
 the founder of the B. or Great Mogul dynasty. 
 
 BABEUF, FRANCOIS Noel, generally known by 
 the name of 'Caius Gracchus,' which he affixed to 
 his political articles, was born in 1764 at St Quentin, 
 i'i the department of Aisne, France. On the break- 
 ing out of the Revolution in 1789, he became a 
 fanatical advocate of the popular demands. During 
 the Reign of Terror he took up a 
 hostdity to Robespierre and the Terrorists. In his 
 journal, established at Paris in July 1704, and 
 termed Tlie Tribune of Oie People, he preached 
 the sovereignty of the masses, and defended the 
 absurdest consequences flowing from that political 
 doctrine. He was in favour of a new distribution 
 of the land, of the abolition of every political order, 
 and the equality of all individuals, wise and foolish. 
 His violent language caused him to be imprisoned. 
 On his release, he attached himself to the members 
 of tho extreme Jacobin party, which had just been 
 overthrown. A secret conspiracy was formed, the 
 aim of which was the destruction of the Directory, 
 and the complete re-establishment of the democratic 
 constitution of 1793, which had been suspended 
 during the Reign of Terror. The plot was discovered 
 through the treachery of one of the members. B. 
 and other chiefs were seized, imprisoned, and ulti- 
 mately brought to trial. B. defended himself with 
 the courage of a fanatic, and overwhelmed his 
 judges with abuse. He w;!« of course condemned to 
 il ath. and was guillotined on the following day, 
 M v 2i. 17'J7. B. was a weak-headed enthusiast, 
 without talent or culture ; but abler men in the 
 conspiracy made use of his furiously resolute 
 character to secure the ends they had in view. 
 
 BA'BINGTON, AXTOXY, an English gentleman 
 of the county of Derby, head of a conspiracy in 
 favour of Mary- Stuart of Scotland. The rivalry 
 
 u Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth of 
 England was at the same time a contest h 
 Catholicism and Protestantism. Accordingly, the 
 various plots for rescuing Mary from the power of 
 her enemy wore the same character, and have been 
 misrepresented and judged of according to the 
 
 astical prejudices of each historian. B., 
 yi rang, rich, a zealous Catholic, and on that account 
 already an enthusiastic admirer of the unfortunate 
 Mary, was indu 1. through the agents of a deter- 
 I conspirator. Morgan, who had been arrested 
 in France at the of the English court, to 
 
 put himself at the head of a plot that had for its 
 object the murder of Queen Elizabeth, and the 
 rescue of Mary. The execution of the mur.l 
 undertaken by one Savage, in which he was to be 
 assisted by a number at the Catholic nobility, as 
 circumstances might require. Hie day of action 
 was lixed for the 24th of August loSG. B. 
 
 d the deliverance of Mary for his own share, 
 entered into correspondence with her, and r 
 letters purporting to be from harm return, approving 
 of the assassination of Elizabeth. The secretary, 
 
 I Walsingham, not only had all the threads of the 
 plot in his hand, but contributed, through his emis- 
 to spur on > the execution 
 
 of their plans. When the right moment was come, 
 B. and his accomplices were an 1 con- 
 
 denial, acknowledged Hie 
 to Mary to be his, and, September -", 
 1586, laid his head on the block. Savage, Barn- 
 well. Bollard, Atrington, Tichburne, and Tilnec, had 
 a like fate. Mary Stuart herself had, four months 
 later, to ascend the bloody scaffold ; and her con- 
 demnation was justified chieny on the ground of 
 those lc! d by Babington. Mary, however, 
 
 denied to the last moment that the letters were 
 written by her hand, or with her knowledge; and 
 her friends constantly maintained that they were 
 irk of Walsingham himself, in order that the 
 unhappy queen might be got rid of with a si 
 justice. Tho rest of Wabnngham'a conduct in this 
 affair, as well as tho way in which he was in the 
 habit of supporting Elizabeth"- general, give 
 
 at least a high degree of probabdity to the accusation. 
 BABOON (''.»/" oa \ >halus), agenusof the Monkey 
 family.' (see Monkey), and distinguished 
 
 from all the rest of that family by the vet 
 muzzle, which terminates abruptly, and is p 
 with nostrils at the end like that of a dog. The 
 face has, indeed, a general resemblance to the face 
 of a dog. The dentition agrees with that of the 
 other apes or monkeys of the Old World, to which 
 the baboons are entirely confined, being only dis- 
 hed by the remarkable strength of the canine 
 Baboons, like almost all the Monkey family 
 in the Old World, have callosities upon the but- 
 tocks ; and, like the greater part of them, they have 
 <li. k -pouches. The tail of some of the species 
 is of considerable length, that of others is a mere 
 tubercle, with an erect tuft of hairs. The ph\ 
 nomy of all baboons is repulsive, and md 
 the fierceness which strongly characterises them, 
 and in which they differ from monkeys in general ; 
 i some of the larger ones are dreaded by the inhabit- 
 ants of the countries in which they are found; 
 the danger to be apprehended from them being 
 increased by the numbers in which they usually herd 
 together. Their fore and hind legs are so propor- 
 tioned, that they walk easUy, and run swiftly on 
 the ground; but, like all other quadrumanous ani- 
 mals, they climb trees and rocks with great agility. 
 Their hair is long, forming a sort on the 
 
 upper parts. All of them are very BUS 
 cold, and they seldom live long when removed from 
 their native tropical countries. " They feed ch 
 fruits and roots: some of them inhabit barren and 
 stony places where scorpions abound, which 
 Seize, adroitly deprive of the sting, and d 
 They are very cunning, mischievous, and revengeful; 
 of them sometimes enter a plantation, not 
 merely to plunder, but apparently to amuse them- 
 Belves by destroying whatever they can find; they 
 however, always to have some appoint 
 natch, and they make off with great r. 
 first signal of alarm. When plui: 
 cram their cheek-pouches before they begin I 
 i lies are very capacious: a B . 
 
 in confinement, has b. ht eggs 
 
 into them at once, and then to take out tl 
 by one. to 1 L, and deliberately 
 
 k their contents. The larger baboo: 
 sometimes hunted by dogs where they ha- 
 
 t a single dog. however 
 
 powerful, cannot safely attack them; a baboon will 
 by the hiiid legs, and whirl him round 
 and round t;li he is stapified Baboons are u 
 casdy domesticated as many kinds of monkey; 
 however, they are not quite incapable of it when
 
 BABEIUS— BABYLON. 
 
 taken young. ' Happy Jerry,' a mandrill or rib-nose 
 B., which -was long a great object of attraction at 
 Exeter Change, used to sit with great gravity in an 
 arm-chair, awaiting orders, which he obeyed with 
 slowness and composure. He smoked tobacco, but 
 did not seem much to relish it. and was rather 
 induced to do it by a bribe of gin and water, for 
 which his fondness was unquestionable. 
 
 As examples of baboons with tails of considerable 
 length, may be mentioned the Chacma, or l'ig-faced 
 B., also called the Ursine B. (C. porcariits), a native of 
 South Africa : and the Dog-faced B. (C II 
 a native of Arabia, Persia, and the mountains of 
 Abyssinia. The latter species, perhaps the only one 
 known to the ancients, is often sculptured on the 
 ancient monuments of Egypt, and it is supposed to 
 have been the species of monkey to which divine 
 honours were paid. Its body was frequently 
 embalmed, and B. mummies are still found. — The 
 Chacma is one of the largest of the baboons, about 
 the size of an English mastill', and very much 
 stronger: it is common on the mountains of the 
 Cape Colony, and in troops woidd be very fi 
 able, but that they usually scamper out of the way, 
 instead of attacking travellers, unless they are pro- 
 L It is of a dark-brown colour, with long 
 shaggy hair. The tail is rather more than half the 
 i of the body, and is terminated by a tuft of 
 long black hair. 
 
 The short-tailed, or almost tail-less baboons, far 
 exceed their longer-tailed congeners in ugl 
 Only two species are certainly known — the Mandrill 
 or Rib-nose B. (C Mormon), and the Drill (C leuco- 
 phceus), both natives of Guinea, The mandrill is 
 
 Mandrill or Bib-nose Baboon. 
 
 the largest, fiercest, and most powerful of the whole 
 
 §enus. The colours of its fur are very fine, of a 
 ght olive brown above, and silvery gray beneath ; 
 but besides other things unpleasant to the sight, its 
 face is peculiarly hideous; the cheek-bones in the 
 adidt males being enormously swollen, so that the 
 cheeks are protuberant to the size of a man's list 
 upon each side, and ribbed with blue, scarlet, and 
 
 Eurple. In their native forests, mandrills generally 
 ve in large troops, and are said to put to flight 
 every other wild beast. 
 
 BA'BRIUS, a Greek fabulist, who lived about the 
 close of the Alexandrian age, or the beginning of the 
 succeeding Roman-sophistic period, made a consider- 
 able collection of ^Esopian fables (see ^Esop), which 
 he turned into verse, in a natural and popular 
 Btyle. Several versions and transformations of these 
 were made during the middle ages, and have come 
 down to us under the name of jEsop's Fables. 
 Bentley, who, in his Dissertaiio de Bahrio, was the 
 first to recognise in these fables of /Esop the 
 original work of B., endeavoured to restore portions 
 
 tse 
 
 of the verses, and pointed out other fragments 
 
 of the genuine B. in other quarters. A 
 
 were added from manuscripts by Furia, ECorais, and 
 
 Schneider, and all that was known at the tin 
 
 Enochs (Halle, 1836). At last, in 
 a Greek of the name of Minoidee Mini, emplo 
 
 nch government to explore nts of 
 
 the Past, discovered a manuscript with 123 hitherto 
 
 unknown fables of B., a copy of which he made and 
 brought to Paris, where they were published in 
 1844. The best edition is that by Lachmanu (BcrL. 
 L846). 
 
 BABYLON, BABYt.o'NIA. Babylonia was 
 the name given in ancient times to the Hat country 
 about the lower course of the Euphrates, called in 
 modern times Irak-Arabi. In the Old Testament, 
 it is called Shinar, Babel, and also ' land of the 
 Chaldees;' and by the later Greek and Roman 
 writers, occasionally Chaldaia. Its prop r bound- 
 aries were: on the >>'., towards Mesopotamia, the 
 Euphrates ami the Median Wall, which extended 
 from the junction of the Chabur with the Euphrates 
 to the Tigris; on the E., tow:: a and 
 
 a, the Tigris; on the S , the Gulf of I • 
 and on the W., the desert of Arabia. I 
 the wider extension of the Babylonian dom 
 the name comprehended al 
 
 potamia. The country forms a perfect plain, which 
 is a continuation of that of Assyria. The two 
 rivers, Euphrates and Tigris, here app 
 other most nearly, us I nded waters fall 
 
 into the Persian Gulf. The country was once 
 protected from flooding by numerous canals and 
 embankments, and several artilicial lakes, wliich 
 are now mostly in ruin. The most important canal 
 was that now known as Nahr-el-Melik, which is 
 undoubtedly the ancient royal canal that joined 
 o great rivers. It was kept in repair by the 
 Roman emperors, and was serviceable as late 
 7th c., till the Mohamiii possession of the 
 
 country. The soil, naturally fertile, was rendered 
 more so by the garden-like way in which it was 
 cultivated, and yielded abundant crops, especially of 
 wheat, barley, and dates. The want of stone and 
 wood was more severely felt than in Assyria. The 
 only building material was brick, for which the soil 
 afforded abundance of clay. The bricks were either 
 dried in the sun or burnt, and were very durable, 
 resisting, in the ruins, the effects of the weather to 
 this day. Mineral bitumen, everywhere 
 
 in abundance, served as mortar. In this favoured 
 plain, the human race attained early a state of 
 and political organisation, the oldest, indeed, that 
 antiquity gives us any account of. 
 
 The Babylonian i d to the Aramaic branch 
 
 of the Semitic stock, as Sir Henry Rawlinaon, by his 
 discoveries among the cuneiform inscriptions, has 
 now made clear; and to them the Assyrians owe 
 their origin. The Mosaic accounts give, as tho 
 founder of the kingdom, Kimrod, the Cushite, 
 which, from the construction of the whole gene- 
 alogy, seems to point to an immigration from 
 the south. Later Greek writera make the god 
 Baal or Bel the founder. Although there were 
 regular astronomical observations, and imperial 
 annals extending back to 19113 yeare before Alex- 
 ander the Great, and long lists of dynasties, from 
 Berosus, the national sacred historian of B., and 
 the old chroniclers, have been handed down, tho 
 whole history of B. is doubtful and dark. To 
 an ancient native dynasty of SG kings, succeed two 
 Median dynasties of 8 and 11 kings, which are fol- 
 lowed by a Chaldaic dynasty of 49 kings, and an 
 Arabian of 9; and lastly, by Queen Semiramis. This 
 much is evident, that the kingdom of Assyria, which 
 was at first an offshoot from B., gradually gained
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 the supremacy, and reduced the mother-state to 
 subjection. 
 
 In the history of B. we find frequent mention 
 made of the Chaldjeans. This term is used in 
 various senses: as denoting the inhabitants of 
 Chaldcea Proper, which formed the southern portion 
 of B. ; as synonymous with Babylonians or subjects 
 of their empire ; and, lastly, as the name of a 
 priestly caste. With respect to their origin, various 
 Opinions. are held by modern writers. Some main- 
 tain that they may be identified with the Kurds 
 or Carduchian mountaineers, who are supposed 
 to hare left the mountainous region l> 
 Assyria and the Euxine, and to have invaded 
 and conquered the plain country. By this theory, 
 the connection with the Persian Magi is readily 
 explained. Others, again, as Rawlinson, think 
 that the tide of immigration set in the opposite 
 direction, and that the Phoenicians and ChaliUeans 
 both originally came from Elam or Susiana. A 
 third opinion is, that they were a considerable tribe 
 originally settled in B., which gradually became the 
 ruling race. 
 
 No legends have yet been found among the 
 cuneiform inscriptions by which we may ascer- 
 tain the date of the commencement of the early 
 Chaldiean empire, which preceded the Assyrian, but 
 probably the traditional date (2234 n. c.) is historic. 
 An imperfect list of 20 kings lias been deciphered 
 from various legends ; but as the interval to fill up 
 is more than seven centuries, we must wait for 
 further discoveries before a successful attempt can 
 be made at arranging the chronology of this remote 
 period. Bricks have been found bearing the inscrip- 
 tion of Kedur-mapula, who is conjectured to be the 
 Chedor-laomer of Scripture, and to have lived in 
 the early part of the 20th c. -B. c. This king's 
 expedition seems to have been one of the migratory 
 movements, in which, as stated above, the Phoenicians 
 a'nd Chaldieans bore a part, for the distance from 
 Elam to Syria is too great to allow us to believe that 
 the incursion was merely for the sake of plunder. 
 In these ancient Chaldsean legends, Assyria is not 
 once mentioned ; and the only notice we have that 
 Assyria was subject to B., is found on the cylinder 
 of Tiglath-pileser I., where it is recorded that an 
 Assyrian temple had been originally built by a son 
 of Jsmi-dagon, the fifth king of the early Chaldaean 
 dynasty, whose date is about 1SG1 c. c. 
 
 At the close of the ChaliL-ean period ( 1273 B. c), the 
 empire was transferred from the mother-country to 
 its offshoot Assyria ; and from this date till 747, the 
 position of the former state is very subordinate. 
 
 The history of the period between 747 and 625 is 
 in many points uncertain. One point, however, 
 has been clearly ascertained from the inscriptions — 
 that B. was by no means a submissive vassal, but 
 that, on one occasion at least, a Babylonian monarch 
 invaded Assyria, defeated the opposing forces, and 
 insulted the capital. The name of Merodach-Baladan 
 occurs both in Scripture and in the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions. From the former, we know that this king sent 
 a message to Hezekiah, king of Judah, ostensil dy to 
 inquire about his recovery, probably with a view to 
 an alliance against Assyria ; and from the latter, that 
 Merodach was expelled by Sargon, king of Assyria, 
 that he made a fresh attempt to recover his throne, 
 and was finally dethroned by Sennacherib. An 
 inscription of this last-named monarch, which de- 
 scribes the punishment inflicted on the revolted pro- 
 vince, also records that he had recovered certain gods 
 which bad been taken from Nineveh 418 years before 
 by a Babylonian monarch. The complete subjection 
 of B. to Assyria at this time (680 B. c.) is proved 
 also from the Scripture account, which states that 
 Esarkaddon, son of Sennacherib, reigned in Babylon. 
 
 About fifty years afterwards, Nabopolassar, governor 
 of B. for the Assyrian king, proved faithless to his 
 trust, and entered into an alliance with the Median 
 king, Cyaxarea, fur the overthrow of the nilin 
 See Assyria. This undertaking was successful, and 
 B. now (025 B. c.) became, though it was but Cor a 
 short time, an independent and conquering l 
 The son of Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II. (or, 
 as he is called in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions, 
 Nabuohudratahara), next defeated the Egyptian 
 kin:.'. Necho, at Circesium (Karchemish), on the 
 Euphrat a (004 B. a), and thus annihilated the 
 Egyptian dominion in Asia. He then subdued 
 !:im, king of Judah; and in consequence of 
 repeated revolts, destroyed Jerusalem, and put an 
 end to the kingdom of Judah under Zedckian (5S8 
 B. C.), carrying the inhabitants captive to Babylon. 
 The Phoenicians submitted to him voluntarily, with 
 the exception of Tyre, which underwent an obstinate 
 " ithout yielding. After a fortunate expedition 
 against Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar turned his attention 
 to the adornment of his capital; and we may believe 
 that a considerable part of those building's, usually 
 ascribed to a very early period, and especially to 
 Semiramis, belong to him. The great embankment 
 at Bagdad, usually ascribed to tli s been 
 
 proved by Rawlinson to date from this monarch. 
 After his death (502 B.C.), the Neo-Babylonianempire 
 fell to pieces as suddenly as it had p, and 
 
 under Nabonedus (Nabunita, in the cuneiform 
 inscriptions, and in Herodotus, Labynetos), who had 
 entered into an alliance with Crcesus of Lydia, 
 t Persia, it came under the dominion of Cyrus 
 (539 B. c). The Belshazzar of Scripture is thought 
 to be the son of Labynetos, to whom was confided 
 the defence of B., while the elder prince held 
 Borsippa. After the fall of B., Labynetos submitted 
 to Cyrus, and was treated with kindness. As a 
 Persian province, however, B. made many attempts 
 to assert its freedom. Thus, in the 
 of Behistun (q. v.), Darius I. relates, that a: 
 accession to the throne at B., a certain Nuditabira 
 gave himself out for Nabuchudratshara, the son of 
 Nabunita, and gained over the whole people ; that 
 he (Darius) had defeated him in battle, but that it 
 had been necessary to besiege the rebellious city, in 
 the course of which siege the rebel had met his 
 death. From this time B. appears on the Persian 
 monuments as a Persian satrapy, under the name of 
 Babirus. 
 
 With the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, 
 B. came under the short-lived dominion of Alex- 
 tlie Great, who died in that city (323 B.C.). 
 Seleucus L, to whom it had been promised at the 
 conference of Triparadisus, contested and won the 
 possession of it from Antigonua (312 B. c.). 
 140 B. c, it was taken from the Syrian monarchs by 
 1 ;irthians. It came into the bands of the 
 Romans only temporarily, first under Trajan (114 
 A. D.), under Septimius Severas (K'9 A. D.), and again, 
 under Julian (363 A. ».). When, in 650, the suc- 
 cessors of Mohammed put an end to the new 
 n monarch v of th province of 
 
 B., where Bagdad was built (762—766), became the 
 seat of the califs till 1258. Since 1638, when the 
 Turks, for the second time, took it from the Persians, 
 it has been under the dominion of Turkey, divided 
 into the pachalics of Bagdad and Basra. 
 
 The civilisation of the ancient Babylonians was 
 of a rather high stamp, much like that of the 
 ana. The government was despotic, of a 
 kind to suit a crowded, luxurious, and effeminate 
 popidation. In the accounts of II 
 traces of administration by satraps. Justice is said 
 to have been dispensed by three great courts of 
 law. Arts and commerce were highly flourishing — 
 
 659
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 the last was carried on by caravans with Ba 
 
 . and Media, perhaps as far as India, and 
 
 by shipping on the Persian fiulf with A 
 
 l nni'i'cc lias ind d noil much in the 
 
 same position down to the most recent times. In 
 the 16th O., the ldiglish carried on I 
 this country; iu modern times, Bagdad holds 
 the place of the ancient B. and Ctesiphon. B. 
 was famous for its dyes, its cloths, and c m- 
 broideries, especially for the manufacture of rich 
 carpets with inwoven figures of strange animals 
 and arabesques, such as we yet see on the Nineveh 
 sculptures. Commerce gave rise to the invention 
 of measures and weights ; and the general prosperity 
 was such, that B. and Assyria together were able 
 to pay to Persia, in the time of Darius Hyi 
 a yearly tribute of HUM) talents (upwards of 
 £280,001)) — a sum considerably greater than that 
 contributed by any other province. This, how- 
 ever, reveals also the national character of the 
 Babylonians, who were notorious for their effem- 
 inacy, luxury, and licentiousness. Their ri ! 
 was nearly allied to that of the Phoenicians. The 
 essential part of it was the worship of the p 
 of nature, as they are manifested in the larger 
 heavenly bodies and in the fertility of the earth. 
 At the head of their system of belief stood 
 Baal (see Baal), reverenced through the whole 
 of Mesopotamia and Canaan, who represented, 
 in a general way, the power of nature, without 
 having any moral significance, and was specially 
 identified with the sun. Along with him stood, 
 as feminine complement, the goddess Baaltis, the 
 i itive Earth, with whose worship all manner 
 of licentious rites wer d. She makes 
 
 her appearance principally as Melyta or Mylitta — 
 i. e., 'the causer of generation.' How marly she 
 is related to Ashtarotk (among the Greeks, A 
 whose functions are so similar, it is not easy to 
 determine. Education and religion were iu the 
 hands of the caste of the Chaldees, which was 
 not, however, hereditary, but was drawn from 
 the body of the people, since even the 1 
 prophet Daniel was taken into the number. They 
 occupied themselves at the same time with astro- 
 nomy and astrology, and kept records, from the 
 earliest times, of their astronomical observations, 
 associating with them the chronicles of their kings. 
 All this they did in a strictly collegiate capacity, 
 for we always find the collective name, ' the 
 Chaldees,' and never the name of an individual. 
 Their scientific acquirements must have been con- 
 siderable. See Ideler On the Astronomy of the 
 Chaldtzans (in the Transactions of the Berlin 
 Academy, Historico-philological class, 1814 — 1815). 
 Beyond engraved cylinders and stones, we have 
 no considerable monuments of the state of the 
 representative arts among them, and cannot, there- 
 fore, satisfactorily judge of it. Their architecture, 
 on the contrary, according to the testimony of 
 the ancients, aud the ruins still remaining, deserves 
 to be ranked high. 
 
 Apart from canals, bridges, embankments, and 
 Bluices, the interest on the subject of Babylonian 
 architecture is concentrated in the ruins of the 
 capital, Babylon. The accounts that we find in 
 the ancients of the origin, the greatness, and the 
 structure of the city, are exceedingly confused. The 
 god Belus is named as its founder, and also Queen 
 Semiramis ; how we are to understand the two 
 statements is not explained. Semiramis, according 
 to the account of Diodorus, employed on it two 
 millions of workmen, collected from all p:u-t< of 
 her dominions. With the capital of the older 
 kingdom, the accounts of the ancients known to 
 us have, for the most part, nothing to do; they 
 COO r ° 
 
 an- all to be referred to the resuscitated and adorned 
 i deuce of Nebuchadnezzar. Herodotus 
 ription of tie- city, apparently from In 
 observation. It stood on both sides of the river, 
 
 in the form of a square, the length of whose 
 
 ■ Lven ; by Herodotus it is stated at 120 
 stadia, making the whole circumference tin miles. 
 It must be remembered, however, that the walls, like 
 those of most oriental towns, enclosed rather popu- 
 lous districts than cities, so that the whole ms 
 the population might easily find shelter within 
 the space enclosed. It was surrounded by a wall 
 •Jim cubits high, and 50 cubits thick, and furnished 
 with Urn brazen suites— the last number is i 
 by Diodorus to 250. The city was built with 
 extreme regularity, with broad straight streets 
 crossing one another at right angles ; and the two 
 parts were connected by a roofed bridge built of 
 ■ stones, fastened together with iron clamps, 
 ( if this bridge, not a trace has yet been discovered. 
 The western part of the city is undoubtedly the 
 older, belonging to the early and properly Bab] 
 dynasty. Here stood, in the middle of the city, 
 as it is described, the famous temple of Belus or 
 died by the Arabs, Bin Nimrud. See Babel, 
 
 TOWER of. The next important point on the 
 west .side is the mass of ruins called Mujellibe, 
 which was probably the royal citadel of the 
 old Babylonian monarchy. On the east side of 
 the river stood the buildings of the Neo-Baby- 
 lonian period, among which the 'Hanging Gar- 
 dens' of Semiramis are to be singled out as one 
 of the wonders of the world. Of these gardens, 
 Diodorus has left us a del liled description. Their 
 ruins may he recognised in the mound called 
 Id Ka-r. The city suffered greatly from the Persian 
 conquest, When it revolted under Darius I., aud, 
 a siege of two years, was recaptured through 
 the ingenuity of Zopyrus, the outer walls were 
 demolished. Xerxes plundered the temple of 
 Belus, which had been hitherto spared, and Herodotus 
 found it empty. Although the Persian kings made 
 B. their residence, nothing was done for the restora- 
 tion of the city ; and Alexander the Great, who, 
 on his entrance, in 331 B.O., bad promised the 
 inhabitants to rebuild the ruined temple, was unable 
 even to char away the rubbish, although he 
 employed 10,1)00 workmen for two mouths. After 
 ath in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 the foundation of Seleucia on the Tigris by Seleucus 
 Nicator, B. went rapidly to decay. This was partly 
 owing to the new city's being built of the materials 
 of the old, and partly to tie' want of durable mate- 
 rials for monumental buildings. Stones of any size 
 had to be brought from the mountains of Armenia; 
 their place was mostly supplied by burned brick. 
 As early as the time of Pausanias, there was little 
 to l.i- seen but the ruins of the walls. The older 
 Arabian geographers know, indeed, of a village, 
 I .'lil, but speak more of the great masses of rums. 
 Since the time of Delia Valle, who erroneously 
 looked upon the ruin Mujellibe as the tower of 
 Belus (in which he is followed by Reunel), the sito 
 of 1!. has been the object of many travels and 
 researches. The greater uumber of the explorers, 
 among whom Eich is the most distinguished, con- 
 sider the town of Hillah, with 7001) inhabitants, 
 as the representative of the ancient Babylon. The 
 great masses of ruins, from which we must not, 
 with Renuel, exclude the Birs Nimrfid, embrace, 
 
 ind 1, an enormous extent, but agree perfectly with 
 
 the accounts of the ancients in being arranged in 
 the form of a square. Recently, Eawlinson has 
 transferred the site of B. to Niffer ; but before 
 anything can be determined, researches must be 
 made oil the spot, which could hardly fail to lead
 
 Babylonish captivity bauchus. 
 
 at tin- same time to valuable results, like those 
 of Bottt and Layard in Assyria, and increase 
 the collection of cuneiform inscriptions, which are 
 yet only fragmentary. See Rich's Memoirs on the 
 Svins of Babylon (3d ed, Lond. 1818), and his 
 Personal Narrative of a Journey to England by 
 Sansora/t, Bagdad, the Buins of Babylon (Lond. 
 1820); Mignan's Travels in Chaldcea (Lond. 1829) j 
 Fraser's Tntr.t.; in Kourdi::/nii, JA *i,jnjlamia (Lond. 
 184(1) ; Wellated'a Travels to the City of the 
 Califs (Lond. 1810); Vaux's Ximvh mid Persepolis 
 [Lond. 1850); Kawlinson's Herodotus (Lond. 185S). 
 
 BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. In the despotic 
 policy of the East in ancient times, it was a rule to 
 remove the rich and leading inhabitants of a con- 
 quered province to a distant part of the empire, 
 where they were separated by nationality, language, 
 customs, and religion from the great body of the 
 population, and thus rendered politically harmless; 
 while the people that remained behind were by this 
 means deprived of influential leaders. The inhabit- 
 ants of Judea underwent oftener than once a depor- 
 tation of this kind, after they came into conflict 
 with the powerful kingdom of Assyria. Thus, the 
 kingdom of Israel was put an end to under King 
 Hosea (722 B.C.), by the Assyrian monarch Salmanas- 
 sar, who, alter taking the capital, Samaria, carried 
 the principal inhabitants into captivity in Assyria, 
 and brought stranger tribes into the land of Israel in 
 their stead ; these, with the Israelites that remained, 
 formed afterwards the mixed nation of the Samari- 
 tans. The most remarkable exile, however, befell 
 the tribe of Judah undi r Nebuchadnezzar. Zedekiah, 
 king of Judah, warned in vain by the prophet Jere- 
 miah, allied linn .elf with the king of Egypt against 
 the sovereignty of Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar soon 
 appeared with a powerful army before Jerusalem, 
 Which he took (5SS B. c). King Zedekiah had his eyes 
 put out, and he and the principal part of the inha- 
 bitants were carried captive to Babylon. It is this 
 Captivity, the duration of which is usually reckoned 
 at 70 years, although, strictly speaking, it lasted 
 only 50 years, that is called, by way of distinction, 
 'the Babylonish Captivity.' The situation of the 
 exiles was in other respects tolerable. Host of them 
 settled down, and acquired property, and even riches ; 
 many were called to court, and even raised to 
 offices in the state. They were allowed to retain 
 their organisation by families, and lived by them- 
 selves essentially according to the Mosaic law. 
 They had also their own chief, and were allowed 
 the free exercise of their religion. Nor did they 
 want consolation and encouragement; for Ezekiel 
 raised among them his powerful prophetic voice, 
 and the idea of the Messiah became more clearly 
 developed. When Cyrus overthrew the Babylonian 
 empire (53S B.C.), ho allowed the Jews to return 
 to their own country. Only the tribes of Judah, 
 Benjamin, and Levi, availed themselves of this 
 permission, the other ten tribes disappear from 
 history after the Captivity. It is probable that 
 they had become so mingled with the Babylonians, 
 a people of kindred origin, that they had ceased to 
 remember the country of their race. Vain attempts 
 have, in recent times, been made to discover the ten 
 lost tribes. Some learned men have sought for 
 them in China and India, while others have declared 
 the Afghans to be their descendants, and even the 
 North American Indians. A more probable con- 
 jecture, perhaps, is, that they were the ancestors 
 of the Nestorians in the mountains of Kurdistan. 
 
 BABYROU'SSA [Sus Bal>nroti.<.;ii), a species of 
 Hog (q.v.) inhabiting the forests oi Java and 
 
 the Molucca Islands, remarkable for the extraordi- 
 nary tusks of the upper jaw, which rise like horns 
 
 through the bone and integuments, are long, some- 
 what slender, and curved backwards ; their use being 
 
 " f 
 
 mm 
 
 i [Hahirussa alfun 
 
 probably similar to that of horns. The animal is 
 sometimes called the Horned Hog. Its limbs are 
 much more slender than those of the common hog. 
 
 BACCHIGLIO'NE, a river of Northern Italy, 
 having its source in the Alps, and its outlet in the 
 Adriatic. It passes through the town ..;' Vie. n/a, 
 where it is crossed by a fine bridge of nine arches; 
 Sows through the plain of Padua, and enters the 
 Adriatic about 3 miles south of Chioggia. Its whole 
 course is about 90 miles, and it is navigable by large 
 boats from Vicenza to the sea. 
 
 BA'CCHUS, the god of wine (called in I 
 Bakchos, Dionysos, and also, especially in the 
 ,\l y f cries, Iakchos). was the son of Zeus and Semcle, 
 the daughter of Cadmus. Before his birth, Semcle 
 fell a victim to the insidious counsels of the ji 
 Here, who induced her to petition Zeus to visit 
 her in his proper form and majesty — i.e., attended 
 with thunder and lightning. The mother was of 
 course consumed, but the six-months-old B. was 
 saved by being enclosed for sometime in the thigh 
 of Zeus. He was first consigned to the care of Ino, 
 the sister of Semele, and her husband Athamaa; 
 hut when Ino and Athamas were driven mad by 
 Here, Zeus caused him to be carried to Nysa, in 
 Thrace, and given in charge to the Nymphs. It 
 
 Bacchus. 
 
 was here that B. taught the cultivation of the vine, 
 
 and prepared intoxicating drink from the grapes. 
 In order to impart 1 ry to mank nd, 
 
 or, as some say, because Here smote him with 
 madness, he wandered throu b many countries 
 attended by the .Nymphs, who were crowned 
 with ivy aiid vine-leaves, and bore in their bands 
 the thyrsus, a pole bound round with leaves and 
 fnut. Tins expedition, according to a later form 
 of the myth, extended to Bactna and Media, to 
 
 , and India, where B. is said to have erected 
 pflfara as the eastern boundary of the world. 
 Wherever he came in his wide progress, tin i 
 Nvsa to be found. The worship of the god, which 
 J 601
 
 BACCHUS. 
 
 came originally (mm the East, anil was introduced 
 into Greece by Melampus, was thus sprea 
 !i aily the '• D known earth, and at 
 
 the same time the myth of B. was variously modified 
 
 ut | pies, so that it 
 
 one of the most perplexed and difficult. B 
 
 i, the protector of fruit-trees, and of fruits in 
 !. HU worsuip being thus extensively 
 and his festivals being held with music and song, he 
 naturally received a great many surnames; for 
 example, he was called Lenapos, from the wi] 
 {lenos) ; Biomius, from shouting [bromoa) j ll'iios(in 
 Latin, Evius), from the exclamation Bum, &c The 
 ial march or expedition above spoken i 
 rted to the fancy by the Bacchanalian f' 
 at which Bacchantes roved about in feigned mad 
 and made midnight processions to the mountains by 
 torch-light. B. mi I with much opposition on liis 
 expeditious, many refusing to acknowledge his divi- 
 nity. Thus, Lycurgus, king of the Edones, opposed 
 him, and also Pentheua of Thebes, who v. 
 that account torn to pieces by his own mother 
 her sisters. The daughters of Mynias (q. v.), who 
 i 1 to celebrate his festivals, were punished by 
 
 him with madness and metamorphosis. As I 
 
 : to Naxos, the Tyrrhenian sailors wi 
 carry him off to li dy, and, with tins view, I 
 him ; but the chains fell off, vines and ivy entwined 
 the ship, and held it fast in the middle of the sea. 
 B. changed himself into a lion, and the sailors from 
 terror leaped into the trans- 
 
 formed into dolphins. Those, on the contrary, who 
 received him with hospitality and reverence, were 
 rewarded; such as Midas (q. v). In general, the 
 character of B. is mild. In works of art, his type is 
 that of a youth inclining to effeminacy. I lis pecu- 
 liar ornament is the lillet. The long blond hair is 
 bound \ip in a knot behind, and only a few locks 
 fall down on both sides over the shoulders ; the hair 
 is surrounded by a twig of vine or of ivy. His figure 
 is neither stout nor slim. He is usually represented 
 quite naked; sometimes with a wide robe negli 
 thrown over, which either covers a part of the 
 shoulders and thighs, or, though more rarely, 
 enwraps the greater part of the body. Frequently, 
 a deer-skin hangs across the breast; at times, lie 
 wears shoes, more rarely, buskins. From this, the 
 properly Grecian B., the bearded or Indian B. is 
 completely distinct. This last appears in a more 
 dignified, lofty, regal form ; he is clad in a tunic 
 i g to the feet, over which he wears a wide and 
 splendid mantle. As a warrior, he wears a short 
 tunic girded round the waist, with buskins on the 
 feet; a panther's skin serves him for a shield. In 
 addition, he is to be seen at times with horns. After 
 the institution of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the 
 service of B. was conjoined with these; accordingly, 
 Pindar makes him the companion of Dcmeter. As 
 the followers of Orpheus held him to be also Apollo, 
 he is associated with the Delphic oracle. 
 
 The worship of B. consisted in noisy rites. Thebes, 
 in Boeotia, held to be the birthplace of the god, was 
 considered the chief seat of those rites in Greece. In 
 Athens, the worship of the Lena>an B. was the most 
 ancient, and may be traced back to ante-historic 
 times. The chief offerings made to him were goats 
 and oxen ; the last, because he himself was con- 
 ceived and represented under the form of an ox. 
 The Bacchic festivals deserving special notice are — 
 1. The Attic Dionysia, of which the minor, or country 
 Dionysia, were celebrated in the country in the 
 month Poseideon, at the time of the grape-gathering. 
 Among the characteristic amusements of the occa- 
 sion were the Askolia, which consisted in smearing 
 full wine-skins {askoi) with oil, on which the young 
 peasants attempted to leap with one foot, and by 
 
 602 
 
 frequent falls prod 1 merriment. There 
 
 dramatic entertainments. Tins i 
 
 was probably held at I lach of the wine- 
 
 !. and that of the Haloa at its close. These 
 
 followed, in the month Gamelion, by tho 
 
 1 of the Lenaea, which was peculiar to the 
 
 city of Athens. The festivities on the oo 
 
 s theatrical representations, consisted in a great 
 banquet, for which the state provided the meat, and 
 in a procession through the city, attended with the 
 
 ' and raillery usual at Bacchic < 
 After the Lewea came th ■ Anthesteria, on the 11th, 
 12th, and 13th of the month Anthesteriou, when tho 
 new wine was first drunk. On the second day of 
 
 ■ 'lief solemnity congi ted in i 
 public dinner, at which the guests, crowned with 
 i , and to the music of trumpets, entered into 
 in drinking, and in a privat 
 
 r the prosperity of the state offered by the 
 .rchon's' wife, who was at tho same timo 
 lically married to the god. On the third 
 ifice was offered to the Chthonian Hermi 
 
 to the souls of the dead. Last came the Great 
 Dionysia, which were celebrated in the month 
 
 liolion, and at which new comedies and 
 tragedies were represented. 2. The Triateric Dio- 
 
 v.liich were celel ry third year in 
 
 the middle of winter. The performers were women 
 and girls (called in Greek, Jilanades; in Latin, 
 BaccJia or BaccJumtes), and the orgies were held at 
 night, on the mountains, with blazing torches and 
 the wildest enthusiasm. This mystic solemnity camo 
 from Thrace, and its institution is referred to 
 Orpheus. When it was adopted in Greece, cannot 
 be exactly determined. It is earliest met with in 
 Bceotia, particularly at Thebes, where the Cithaeron 
 was the scene of celebration. An important place in 
 connection with it is also Parnassus, on the fa 
 summit of which the women of Attica and Delphi 
 nocturnal orgies in honour of B. and 
 Apollo. The Mamadcs orBacchantes were clad on the 
 
 Bacchant. 
 
 occasion in fawn-skins, swung about tho 'thyrsus,' 
 made a great noise with clapping of hands, and danced 
 wildly with streaming hair. In this ecstatic solem- 
 nity, the god himself was represented by the victim 
 sacred to him, the ox, which the Mamades in their 
 firry tore in pieces. In the most ancient times, even 
 human sacrifices were not uncommon. Descriptions 
 of these wild and terrible rites are not unfrequent 
 in the poets. 3. The Eaechanalia of later times, the 
 foundation of which was laid in Athens, during the
 
 BACCIO DELLA PORTA— BACH. 
 
 Peloponnesian war, l>y the introduction of foreign 
 rites. From Greece they were carried to Ital 
 early as 490 B.C., the Greek worship of B. was 
 introduced at Rome along with that of Ceres; 
 and Ceres, Liber, and Libera were worshipped in a 
 common temple. In honour of these deities, the 
 Liberalia were celebrated on the 17th of March, and 
 were of a yet simpler and ruder kind than the great 
 Dionysia of Athens. Afterwards, however, 
 rites degenerated, and came to be celebrated with a 
 licentiousness that threatened the destruction of 
 morality and of society itself. They were ma 
 occasion of the most unnatural excesses. At first, 
 only women took part in these mysterious Bacchic 
 rites, but latterly men also were admitted. When 
 the evil had reached its greatest height, the 
 government (18G B. c.) instituted an inquiry into it, 
 and rooted out the Bacchanalia with the greatest 
 severity. This was the occasion of the well-known 
 Senalils Consullum de Bacchanal i/ms. Mention of 
 them, however, still occurs at a later period under 
 the emperors. — Wild, excessive revels are still called 
 Bacchanalia. 
 
 BA'CCIO DELLA PORTA, better known by 
 the name of Fra Bartolomeo di San Marco, one of 
 the most distinguished masters of the Florentine 
 school of painting, was born at Savignano, in 
 Tuscany, in 1469. His first teacher was Cosimo 
 Roselli ; but he owed his higher cultivation to the 
 study of the works of Leonardo da Vinci. His 
 subjects are mostly religious, and by far the greater 
 
 Eart of his pieces belong to the later years of 
 is life, lie was a warm adherent of that bold 
 reformer of church and state, Savonarola (q.v.), 
 after whose tragical end he, 1500, took the habit of 
 the cloister, and for a considerable time renounced 
 art. The visit of the j r oung Raphael to Florence 
 in 1504 seems to have been instrumental in stimu- 
 lating him to return to it. He imparted to Raphael 
 his knowledge of colouring, and acquired from him 
 a more perfect knowledge of perspective. The two 
 remained constant friends — B., on one occasion, 
 Slushing certain of Raphael's unfinished works, 
 Raphael performing a like kindness for him at 
 another time. B. died at Florence, 1517. The 
 greater number of his works are to be seen at 
 Florence, in the gallery of the Pitti Palace. 
 
 BACH, Alexander, an Austrian statesman, was 
 born January 4, 1813, at Loosdorf, in Lower Austria, 
 where his father held a judicial office. The young 
 B. received a careful education. At the age of 24, 
 he was promoted to the rank of Doctor of Laws, 
 and then entered the imperial service, in which he 
 remained about nine years. During this period also 
 he travelled over the greater part of Europe and 
 some of the countries of Asia. He was on terms of 
 friendship with the members of the opposition of 
 Lower Austria, and belonged to that circle of young 
 men who well understood the failings of the old 
 
 i, and the inevitability of a change in the 
 ation of Austria. He took an active part in 
 founding the Juridico-politieal Reading Club, and 
 courageously defended it against the police. On the 
 "f the events "of March 1S4S, B. took 
 a distinguished place as a mediator. He formed part 
 of the Provisional Committee of the Commons, and 
 was also chosen in April, by the states ol Lowi r 
 Austria, one of their representatives in the Central 
 Commission of the Provincial States of Austria. 
 
 In this, the outset of his political carter, B. 
 already shewed a leaning to those views which he 
 afterwards manifested as minister. He advocated 
 
 ntralisation of the Austrian monarch] 
 declared himself against the independence of Hun- 
 gary, as well as against the entry of the German 
 
 provinces of Austria into the German confederation. 
 But he also desired an extension of the basis *f the 
 
 and of their parliamentary influence in the 
 direction of public affairs. During the occu: 
 of the 15th of May IS 13, B. kept away i 
 When, after tin te occurrences, the old liberal opposi- 
 tion came to the helm, R. undertook the ministry of 
 justice. He now entered with talent and energy 
 into the remodelling of the whole system 
 law. On the other hand, the part he took in the 
 assembly brought noon him the hatred of the ' 1 ft,' 
 and of the democratic, party generally. The opposi- 
 tion was particularly bitter on the question of 
 
 ing the burdens from peasant proprietors, on 
 which B. maintained the principle of compensation, 
 and wished a part of that compensation to be made 
 good by those who had hitherto borne the burdens 
 in question. His policy, also, with regard to Hun- 
 garian affairs met with violent opposition from the 
 ' left' In the events of the Gth of October 1848, 
 B. would have fallen a victim to popular fury, like 
 the war-minister Latonr, had he not found an 
 opportunity of withdrawing from pursuit. On the 
 formation of the .Schwartz' n U r_ r -Stadion ministry, he 
 again took the portfolio of justice, and participated 
 in the measures regarding Hungary and all the other 
 important steps 1 i unistry. On the 
 
 withdrawal of Stodion in May 1S49, B. took his 
 place at the head of the ministry of the interior, 
 which office he continued in 1859 to retain. Among 
 his most important labours in this department are 
 the constitutions for the different crown-lands, as 
 well a3 the organisation of their political adminis- 
 tration. His political opponents allow him to 
 possess cleverness, energy, and activity. 
 
 BACH, JOHAX LK, a celebrated musi- 
 
 cian, born at Eisenach, Upper Saxony, in March 
 1665. When he was ten years old, his father, who 
 was a musician at Eisenach, died, and B. sought the 
 protection of an elder brother, who, dying soon after, 
 he was again left destitute, and, to earn a livelihood, 
 entered the choir of St Michael's, LUneburg, as a 
 soprano singer. In 1703 he became court-musician 
 at Weimar, and, the following year, organist to a 
 new church at Arnstadt. His reputation in this 
 capacity soon spread, and in 1708 he was appointed 
 court-organist at Weimar, by the reigning duke. 
 While holding this office, he laboured assiduously to 
 make himself master of every branch of music. In 
 1717, he was made director of concerts, and six years 
 afterwards, director of music, and cantor 
 Thomas's School, Leipsic, an appointment which he 
 held to his death. About ten years later, the hono- 
 rary distinctions of Kapellmeister to the Duke of 
 Weissenfels, and court composer to the king of 
 Poland, were conferred upon him. B., who had a 
 son in the service of Frederick the Great, received a 
 pressing request to visit Potsdam on the occasion of 
 a conceit there. He went, and acquitted himself 
 greatly to the satisfaction of that monarch, some of 
 whose music he played at lirst sight. B.'s close 
 studies affected his eyes, and an operation designed 
 
 lit them, left him totally blind, and hastened 
 
 his death, which took place in July 1760. With the 
 
 I !. B. had no rival as an organist; 
 
 and Ins compositions for the organ have a deservedly 
 
 nutation. They .arc too elaborate, however, 
 ie wry popular, though his fame as a 
 composer is sure t i advi ace with the progress of 
 scientific musical culture. The highly educated 
 musician will best appreciate the grandeur of some 
 of his works. In 1850, a Bach Society for the study 
 and practice of his compositions was Conned in 
 
 i, and since that time some of them have 
 
 ly performed in this country. Three of 
 
 his sous were also musicians of some note. One of 
 
 m
 
 JJAC1IAKAI HLBOli. 
 
 them, Johann Christian, held the appointment of 
 urn ic-p in! Iharlotte. 
 
 BA'CHAB '.r:i, ■ mall town of l:h ni h !' 
 romantically situated on the left b Rhine, 
 
 -'_". miles above Coblenz. It has a populal i o 
 
 1000, v itha brisk trade, and a good deal of i 
 
 by river-craft It is said to have derived its name 
 from Bacchus [Bacchiara), and the vine is still largely 
 cultivated in the ni ighbourhood — the n Ine produi i d 
 being of a Buperioz quality. B. is noteworthy also 
 as the place where Blucher crossed the Rhine, on 
 January 1, 1814. 
 
 BA'CHELOE (Fr. bachdiar, I. at. laecalaureus, 
 or, as it is variously written in old documents, 
 . ami bacillarius). This 
 word, which first makes its appearance in middle- 
 Latin, is of very uncertain etymology, ami its 
 primary meaning is consequently involved in 
 obscurity. The usual derivation, from i 
 a laurel berry, gives us little help; but the S] 
 
 Hr, winch means at once a ami a 
 
 m r of arts, taken in conjunction with the Por- 
 tugu ise bacharel ami bacillo, a shout or twig of the 
 i in (from the Latin baculua or baculum, a stick or 
 shoot), and the French bacheletie, a damsel, seem to 
 point to its original and generic meaning, which 
 probably wa a Aooting, < i from 
 
 f his carver into another more aJ> 
 With this general signification, all the special 
 meanings of the word given by Ducangc sei to 
 1 some analogy. 1. It was vised, he says, to 
 
 in li ' ■■ ,i , .iliivated certain portions 
 
 of church-lands called baccalaria — which lie sup- 
 poses to have been a corruption of vassderia—a feu 
 I. l i ii ; to an inferior vassal, or to one who had 
 not attained to a full feudal recognition. 2. It 
 indicated ecclesiastics of a lower dignity than the 
 other members of a religious brotherhood — i. e., 
 monks who were still in the first stages of monk- 
 hood. 3. It was used by later writers to indicate 
 persons in the first or probationary Btage of knight- 
 hood; i.e., not esquires simply, but knights who, 
 from poverty and the insufficient number of their 
 retainers— from their possessing, perhaps, only the 
 baccalaria above referred to or, from nonage, had 
 not yet raised their banner in the Held (/. oi bannit n ). 
 4. It was adopted to indicate the first grade or 
 step in the career of university life. As an academi- 
 cal title, it was first introduced by Pope G) 
 IX. in the 13th c, into the university of Paris, to 
 denote a candidate who had undergone his first 
 academical trials, and was authorised to give I o 
 tures, but was not yet admitted to the rank of an 
 huh pendent master or doctor. At a later period, it 
 Was introduced into the other faculties as tin- km e 1 
 academical honour, an. 1 adopted by the other univer- 
 sities of Europe. See DegBEES, I Mveksitv. 5. 
 It came to be used in its popular meaning of an 
 unmarried man, who was thus regarded as a candi- 
 date or probationer for matrimony. 
 
 Tin- legislation of almost every country, at some 
 period of its history, has imposed penalties on male 
 celibates or bachelors, on the principle that every 
 citizen is bound to rear up legitimate children to the 
 state. By the Jews, the command, ' Be fruitful ami 
 multiply, was interpn ted strictly, and every Hebrew 
 I .led marriage as a duty. In Sparta, where the 
 
 interests of tlie individual were entirely sunk in those 
 of the state, criminal proceedings were authorised 
 by the laws of Lycurgus not only against those 
 who neglected to marry, but against those who, from 
 lite in life, or any other cause, formed 
 such alliances as rendered the procreation of healthy 
 children unlikely. By the laws of Solon, celibacy 
 was also treated as a crime, though the practice of 
 
 interfering with the feelings of the individual in tins 
 I early fell into desuetude at Athens. \| Rome, 
 ' i. s and disabilities were imposed on unie 
 .in an early period, ami latterly on unmarried 
 
 ■■> also. In the allotment, of the Campanian 
 luliu ar gave portions only to t hose who 
 had three or more children ; and in later times we 
 have the jut trium (quotum tt gv 
 The most import. nit provisions on this Mil.j 
 contained in the law (or rath, r tin- laws, for it 
 con i led of an a.t. and an amended act) ■ 
 Lex Julia <t 1'apia Poppa a, the I i t portion of which 
 i. longs probabrj to 18 B.C., and the second portion 
 i" '.I \.i.. In addition to various other provi n.ns 
 regarding marriage, this law imposed penalties on 
 those who lived in a state of celibacy after a ci rtain 
 ■ ■. No unmarried person could take a li 
 
 i r of a portion or of the whole possessions 
 of a dec s ed person, unless he complied with the 
 law i. e., got married within a hundred days 
 from the testator's death. Widows were at first 
 allowed a year from their husbands' death, ami 
 divorced women six months from the time of the 
 
 .. I.eforc they came within the penalties 
 ..■ the law; and these periods were afterwards 
 
 l .1 to two y ars, and a year and six months, 
 respectively. The original provisions of tie i . 
 did not apply to men beyond sixty, or women 
 above fifty, but they were extended to them l.y 
 subsequent enactments, and made perpetual even 
 in case of their marrying. The Senatils consultum 
 passed in the time of Claudius, however, again 
 exempted men above sixty who married wives under 
 fifty, as from their unions it was supposed there was 
 a fair prospect of issue. Childless married persons, 
 moreover, from the ages of twenty-five to sixty in 
 males, and twenty to fifty in females, were subject 
 to the penalties of the l<x, to the extent of lo 
 one-hall of any inheritance or legacy which in at 
 be bequeathed to them. The Lex Papia also con- 
 tained a provision by which a candidate who had 
 several children was preferred to one w ho had fewer ; 
 and various other premiums on fruitfulness were 
 held out both at Borne and in the provinces. 
 
 Iii Britain, there are numerous instances of addi- 
 tional or higher taxes being imposed on bachelors 
 and widowers, but apparently more with a view- 
 to the revenue than with any other object. Of 
 this, G and 7 Will. 111. c. 0, which was passed 
 in lC0."i. and which gran! id to his majesty cer- 
 tain rates and duties upon marriages, births, and 
 burials, and upon bachelors and widowers for live 
 years, ' for carrying on the war against France w ith 
 
 .' is an instance ; and another, probably, may 
 be found in the higher charge for the servants of 
 bachelors, first imposed by Mr Pitt in 17S.5, and 
 continued to the present time. By 52 Geo. III. c. 93, 
 unmarried daughters of persons alive are exempted 
 from the tax upon hair-powder; and in the income- 
 tax of 17IIS, deductions were made on accoimt of 
 children, 5 per cent, being allowed to a person 
 who had a family, and whose income was above 
 £60, and under £400 a year, corresponding deduc- 
 tions being made in other cases. Much might be 
 said in favour of such distinctions, on the ground 
 of expediency, as they enable the government to 
 impose a higher taxation, by lessening the burden 
 on those members of the community who are most 
 likely to complain ; but their recognition in practice 
 would, no doubt, be regarded as impossible by the 
 financiers of our day. who have hitherto failed to 
 distinguish between income derived from realised 
 property and from personal labour. 
 
 BA'CHELOK, Knight, the lowest grade of 
 knighthood, now very frequently conferred not 
 only on military and naval officers, but upon
 
 BACIOCCHI— BACKG A MMOX. 
 
 civilians who have in any way merited the favour 
 of the sovereign. The person who is to receive the 
 honour of knighthood kneels down before the sove- 
 s him on the shoulder with a naked 
 t, saying, in French : 'Boitdu nam de 
 
 1 1 (Be a knight in God's name), and then adds: 
 ceremony of degradation, in 
 former times, was more remarkable. It was effected 
 by nngirding the belt of the knight, taking off his 
 ■word, and breaking it, and I S the gilded 
 
 spurs, which were the peculiar emblems of knight- 
 u-ith a hatchet. In ancient times earls 
 " i to confer the honour of knighthood, but the 
 lege is now confined to the sovereign and to the 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In 1S.~>9 there were in 
 ■ lit 330 British knights-bachelors. 
 BACIO'CCHI, Marif.-An.n-e-Li.isa Bo.vap.yrte, 
 the eldest sister of Napoleon B onap arte, was born 
 at Ajaccio, Corsica, in 1777. When that island 
 i ... d bj the English, she, with her family, 
 emigrated to Marseille. Here she married, at the 
 . a countryman of her own, Captain 
 Baciocchi. Tii ■■ elevation of Napoleon raised her 
 also to rank and power; and in 1806, the princi- 
 of Massa ami Carrara was intrusted to her 
 administration, which was, on the whole, a bene- 
 ficial one for the people. In ISO!!. Bhe was made 
 Grand Duchess of Tuscany, and appointed as 
 administrator over that country in Napoleon's 
 Here the arbitrary measures of her brother, 
 which she had to carry out, and her own self- 
 will and harshness, rendered her anything but 
 1 1 id took no part in the govern- 
 
 ment. Whi n the allies entered Tuscany in 1814, 
 I to leave 11 rence. She died, at 
 I i, of nervous fever, in 182U. 
 
 BACK, in maritime language, has many techni- 
 plications. lo back an is to support 
 
 the large anchor by a smaller one, in order to 
 prevent it from loosening and coming home iu bad 
 I -7, is a mode of tacking when 
 
 the tide is with a vessel, but the wind against her. 
 To buck the sails, is so to arrange them as to make 
 the ship move astern or backwards ; it is done 
 when the tide or current is with the ship, and light 
 winds against her; and the manoeuvre is useful to 
 avoid collisions in narrow channels, to bring the 
 ship into a particular position during naval . 
 
 . or to keep ships well asunder when crowded 
 in convoy. To maintop-sail, and analo- 
 
 gous operations to other sails, is so to an 
 sail that the speed of the ship's progress may be 
 checked. 
 
 BACK, Sin GEOROE, a well-known traveller in 
 tho polar regions, was born at .Stockport in 17'Jti. 
 He cut i.'d early on a naval career, and accompa- 
 nied Franklin and Richardson in their expedition 
 to the north coast of America, !!•■ volunteered to 
 overnment to go in - arch of Captain Rosa, 
 
 who was supposed to have 1 o lost in his attempt 
 
 to discover the North-west Passage ; and his offer 
 having been accepted, he left London, February 17, 
 1833, and on the 2Sth of Ju: 1 from 
 
 Norwayhouse, a station of the Hudson Bay Com- 
 pany, on his journey to the north. After a 
 a terrible winter with his companions at Slave 
 1 red, in 1834, Artillery Lake, and 
 
 the Great Fish River, or Back's River, which he 
 followed to the Frozen Ocean. Being hindered 
 by the ice from proceeding along the coast as far 
 as Cape Turn-again, ho returned by the river; but 
 although he had received newa) 01 the return of 
 Captain Ross, he continued his explorations in 
 tli- North s . and did not return to England 
 until 1835, when ho was raised to tho rank of 
 
 post-captain for his services. In 183C and 1837. he 
 further explored the arctic shores in the interests 
 of geofjraph-. Geographical Society, in the 
 
 latter year, bestowing its gold medal upon him. 
 • • ars afterwards, he was knighted, and he 
 has since had a lucrative Treasury appointment 
 Accounts of his two expeditions, written by himself, 
 have been published. 
 
 BAC K 1 : 1 : ' ■ I ' - < . 1 ', a town of Bengal, situated 
 on Back Creek, an offset from the Ganges, 
 
 in lat. -2-2' 33" X., and long. 90 -.'J E- 125 m 
 the east of Calcutta. Till supplanted by LurrisoL 
 which is 12 null ! to the north, it was the capital of 
 the district of the same name. 
 
 BACKERGU'NGE. the district named from the 
 g town. It extends in X. lat. from 22 - 
 to 23 13', and in E. lone, from 89 49 1 to 91°, 
 containing 3794 squat ■ miles, and 733,800 inhabit- 
 ants, or about 193 inhabitants to a square mile. 
 Like the rest of the great delta of Bengal, B. 
 is of alluvial formation and level surface, being 
 watered at once by the lower streams of the Ganges 
 and the Be . arious 
 
 branches or offsets which interlace together those 
 mighty rivers. In consequence of the great number 
 of water-courses, which at once cool the atmosi 'here 
 and drain the soil, the country is fertile, and the 
 temperature is said never to rise above 88" in the 
 shade. From the same cause, the district is inde- 
 lar roads for intercourse and com- 
 munication. In the season of high-water, as may 
 be expected, inundations are common. To guard 
 ' them, the houses are built on mounds ; 
 while the corresponding excavations, like the natural 
 'water-holes' of Australia. Berve as tanks a 
 the effects of the dry season. As is often the case 
 in alluvial regions, land-slips are- frequent, and 
 
 mng of new channels for the streams. The 
 productions are rice, sugar, cotton, muse, mustard, 
 cocoa-nut, betel-nut, mango, guava, plantains, limes, 
 pine-apples, ginger, and turmeric. Buffaloes are 
 said t" be generally used ins! i, of which 
 
 the domestic breed is small and poor. 
 
 BACKGA'MMON is the modern name of a game 
 of considerable antiquity in England, where it was 
 formerly known by the appellation of 'the tables.' 
 re been ascribed to the 
 Welsh tongue, in which they are said to signify 
 battle; but Strutt, with greater plausibility. 
 traces the term to the 8 game* — that 
 
 is, back-game — so denominated because the perform- 
 ance consists in the two players bringing their men 
 back from their antagonist's tables into their own ; 
 uise the pieces are sometimes taken up and 
 i; that is. re-enter at the table 
 they came from.' Whatever be the etymol 
 the term, the game has been long established in the 
 country; an 'lit of a decorous 
 
 nature, is a favourite among clergymen, squires, 
 
 fanners, and retired professional p 
 
 I:, is played with an apparatus consisting of a 
 
 board "r tabl -. men "i- pie© 1 dice-boxes. 
 
 Tli.- introduction of dice in' ie, and their 
 
 nt use in determining moves, makes B. 
 
 i ■ of chance, and therefore brings 
 
 tw.i players of unequal talents nearer a level 
 
 than other diversions in which skill is the sole 
 
 or predominant element. The 1',. board consists 
 
 of two parts or table*, generally united by a hinge 
 
 middle, by which tiny can be shut up as 
 
 a box Each table possesses twelve paints, six 
 
 at each end. These points are coloured white 
 
 and black alternately: but this variation of colour 
 
 lias n. i refer ace t.> the gam.-, and is only done 
 
 ■ to make the points more easily counted. Tb
 
 BACKnUYSEN-BACON. 
 
 is played by two parties, and with 30 pieces or 
 men; each party has lf> men, one set of IS 
 black, and the other white. In beginning the 
 game, the men are placed on certain points on 
 tbles, u shewn in the follo>. The 
 
 famo is played with two dice and two i 
 'he dice are common to both ; but each party 
 uses hi and the throws are alternate. 
 
 Each die is a perfect cube, marked on its sides with 
 dots from 1 to 6. The 1 is called ace ; the 2, deuce ; 
 the 3, tre or trois ; the 4, qualre ; the 5, cinque ; and 
 the 6, ni~e. At every throw, the two dice are 
 employed ; consequently, a person may throw from 
 2 up to 12— that is, two aces up to two sizes. If 
 a player throw doublets, or both dice of one n 
 double the number of dote is reckoned; thus, by 
 a throw of two aces, the player does not count 
 2, but 4. These numbers thrown or accidentally 
 turned up by the dice, bear a reference to the points 
 on the tallies. In order to understand this connec- 
 tion between the dice and the men, the learner must 
 observe how the men are placed on the points, and 
 the rules by which their shifting from one to another 
 is governed 
 
 The tables are here spread out as if two partners 
 were seated, and about to begin to play. Tie 
 owning the white men is seated at W, and the party 
 owning the black men at B. We shall call one 
 party White, and another Black. White counts 
 round from the ace-point of Black, and Black 
 counts round from the ace-point of White. These 
 ace-points are respectively seen to have two men 
 upon them in opposite corners of the same table. 
 The grand object of the game is for each party 
 to get all his men played round into the table 
 containing the aces, removing them from point 
 to point agreeable to the throws of the dice. In 
 throwing, the number upon each die turned up 
 may be reckoned by itself, or collectively, with the 
 number on the other die. Thus, if quatre be thrown 
 by one die, and size by the other, a man can be 
 advanced 4 points, and another 6 points ; or one 
 man can be advanced 10 points, always providing 
 that a point is open to suit this movement to it. 
 No point can be moved to if covered by two men 
 belonging to the adversary. If covered by only 
 one man, which is called a blot, then that man can 
 be hit, and be removed from the point, and placed 
 on the bar between the tables, his place 
 
 man who has won it. The removal of a man 
 to the bars throws a player considerably behind 
 
 in the game, becauso the man must remain out 
 of the play t.ll tlio diee turn up a number corre- 
 sponding to one open point on the adversary's table, 
 fortunate to get an open point by th:s means, 
 n must be i round from 
 
 . as in the ease of others in the set to which 
 The frequent occurrence of this b 
 of a blot gives an adversary a great advi 
 allows lnm to win tie- gammon. There are two 
 kinds of victory — winning the hit, and winning 
 the gammon. The party who hi ill his 
 
 men round into his own table, and by fori 
 throws of the dice has borne or played the men 
 points tirst, wins the hit. The gammon may 
 A as follows: When you have got all 
 your men round to your own table, covering every 
 nd your adversary has a man out, then you 
 are enabled to licar or lift your men away. If yon 
 .in bear all away, so as to clear your table before 
 the adversary gets his man placed by a throw on 
 your table, you win the gammon. If tl 
 has been able to bear one before you have borne 
 all your men, it reduces the victory to a hit. Two 
 hits are reckoned equal to one gammon in playing 
 i. To win two games out of three is called 
 winning the rub, as at whist. 
 
 BA'CKHUYSEN, Lrooi.rn, one of the most 
 famous painters of the Dutch school, a master 
 in marine painting, was born at Emden in 1631. 
 Ilia parents intended him for a commercial cai 
 but he had not been long in a mercantde offico 
 in Amsterdam, to which he had been sent at the 
 age of 18, before he resolved to devote himself to 
 ig, and with that object received instruction 
 from Evendingen, and attained, in a short time, 
 extraordinary skill and readiness in execution. Ho 
 was a close student of nature; so much so, that on 
 the approach of a storm he often put to sea in a 
 boat, in order to watch and sketch its effects, which 
 he transferred to canvas immediately on his return 
 home. His most famous picture is the sea-piece 
 :i ih " gallery at Paris, which he was commissioned 
 to paint by the magistrates of Amsterdam, and 
 which was, in 1665, sent as a present to Louis 
 XIV. In all his pictures, the utmost truthfulness 
 prevails, at the same time that they embody all the 
 poetry of the sea. His colouring is also excellent. 
 After he was 71 years old, he began etching on 
 He also made attempts in poetry, and 
 gave lessons in writing, an art which he did much 
 to promote. He died, after long illness, in 1709. 
 
 BACK-STAYS are long ropes which extend from 
 the topmast-heads down to the sides of a ship, 
 where they are fastened in such a way as to assist 
 the shrouds in supporting the masts. Different 
 kinds are distinguished as after-B., brcast-B., and 
 travelling-stays. One rope generally forms a pair of 
 B. ; being looped in the middle to pass over the 
 mast-head. 
 
 BACON (from a root in the Teutonic languages 
 which seems to be allied to the Lat. vacca [in mid. 
 Lat. Eaca], a cow, and to have signified an animal 
 in general ; bathe, in Ger., signifies among hunters 
 a v. ild sow; bate, in Dutch, a swine in general) 
 is the cured sides of a pig ; while bacon-hams 
 are the hind-legs cured. The mode of curing will 
 be described under Hams ; and their properties 
 as articles of food, under Pork. 
 
 BACON BEETLE. See Derjtestes. 
 
 BACON, Sib Nicholas, the father of Lord 
 
 Bacon, was born in 1510, at Chiselhurst, in Kent. 
 
 II" received an excellent education; and being 
 
 by nature with sound and practical abilities, 
 
 ickly prospered in the legal profession, to 
 
 which he attached himself. At the age of 27,
 
 BACON. 
 
 he was appointed solicitor to the Court of Aug- 
 mentations; two years later, on the dissolution of 
 the monasteries by Henry VIII., he had the courage 
 to present to that irascible monarch a reasonable 
 project for applying the wealth which had been 
 'rescued' from the church. It was this: that 
 Henry should employ a portion of it in founding 
 a college for the study of politics and diplomacy. 
 Unfortunately, the king had already squandered it 
 away in presents, and was unable to comply with 
 the wise suggestion of the young lawyer ; but pro- 
 bably he remembered his good sense, for, in 1546, 
 Henry advanced him to the office of Attorney of 
 the Court of Wards, which he retained during the 
 reign of Edward VI. ; but his Protestantism neces- 
 sarily caused him to be deprived of all public 
 in and emoluments after the subsequent 
 Catholic succession. On the death of Mary, how- 
 ever, he was made a member of the Protestant part 
 of the Privy Council, by Queen Elizabeth ; and 
 in 155S, received at her hands the Great Seal. In 
 the beginning of 1559, he opened parliament with 
 a judicious speech on the difficult subject of a 
 national religion. He was also president of that 
 assembly of ecclesiastical disputants which met in 
 Westminster two months later, to discuss the 
 points of controversy between Protestants and 
 Catholics. In 1 564, he suffered a temporary eclipse 
 of royal favour, on account of the too patriotic 
 character of his religion ; but through the persever- 
 ing efforts of his old and constant friend, Sir William 
 he was at length restored to the sunshine in 
 which he had been accustomed to bask. Elizabeth 
 even went the length of paying him a visit in 1577, 
 at his magnificent mansion of Gorhambury, in 
 Hertfordshire. He died on the 20th of February 
 1570. Sir Nicholas was one of those solid and 
 '■ shmen to whose sagacity, high principle, 
 and firm demeanour his country owed its safety in 
 that critical period when Elizabeth mounted the 
 throne. 
 
 EA'CON, Fr.AN-ris Lord VkbTTLAK, Viscount 
 St Ai.i.ans, born in London, January 22, 1561, 
 was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon (q. v.). His 
 mother was the learned Anne Cooke. In early 
 childhood, he manifested superior powers, and an 
 ardent love of knowledge ; liis intelligence was so 
 precocious, and his sedateness so remarkable, that 
 the queen took pleasure in calling him her ' young 
 Lord Keeper.' At the age of thirteen, he was sent 
 to the university of Cambridge, which he quitted, 
 after a n ridence of three years, with a low opinion 
 of the course of study pursued there, and, as v. 
 the Aristotelian philosophy. On leaving the univer- 
 sity, he went to Paris, in the suite of Sir Amias 
 lor, and there occupied 
 If chiefly with statistics and diplomacy, the 
 result of his studies and observation being a work, 
 afterwards published, Of Oie State of Europe. The 
 sudden death of his father, about the end of 1579, 
 recalled him in 1580 to England, where, after failing 
 to procure from the government a provision which 
 would enable him to devote himself to science and 
 literature, he betook himself for several years to the 
 study of law. His professional progress was at first 
 very slow, and, contrary to what might have been 
 expected, it was long before he could obtain promo- 
 tion in the public service. This want of success 
 was chiefly owing to the hostility of his uncle, the 
 ber, Lord Burleigh (see Cecil), who 
 
 led him as a dangerous rival to his own son. 
 To Lord Burleigh and his son, 1$., in the hope of ad- 
 vancement, had paid court till it was clear no favour 
 was to 1 from tie ni, when he betook him- 
 
 self to their rival, the Earl of Essex, whose friendship 
 he speedily won. But the earl's influence could not 
 
 counteract the continued opposition of the Cecils, 
 through whom he was defeated, in 1594, in an 
 attempt to obtain for B. the then vacant office of 
 attorney-general. What he could do for his friend, 
 however, he did, for shortly after this disappoint- 
 ment he presented him with an estate at Twickenham 
 worth £2000 a year. It is painful to relate that B. 
 repaid the generous friendship of his patron with 
 flagrant ingratitude. When Essex was subsequently 
 brought to trial for a conspiracy against the queen, 
 B. came forward as his accuser with tongue and pen ; 
 he unnecessarily appeared as counsel against the 
 friend who had so largely obliged and confided in 
 him, and vised all his great talents and ingenuity as 
 a pleader to magnify his crimes and secure their 
 punishment. B. was straitened at the time in his 
 circumstances, through his extravagant mode of life, 
 and, moreover, was anxious to conciliate the court, 
 whose anger he had provoked by having espoused the 
 popular cause on his first entering parliament as mem- 
 ber for Middlesex in 1595. But whatever the temp- 
 tation was, it cannot affect our opinion of conduct so 
 mean and immoral. It remains to be stated, that, 
 after the earl's execution, he wrote, at the request 
 of the queen, A Declaration of (he Practices and 
 Treasons Attempted and Committed by Robert Earl of 
 Essex, which was printed by authority. 
 
 In 1590, B. obtained the post of Counsel Extra- 
 ordinary to the Queen, and a few years afterwards, 
 he entered parliament as member for Middle- 
 sex. It was not, however, till the reign of James L 
 that he made rapid progress. He was knighted in 
 1603, and in the following year was appointed 
 salaried counsel to the crown ; by 1C13, he had 
 advanced to the office of Attorney-general, in which 
 he unconditionally subserved the purposes of the 
 court. His conduct as attorney, in attempting to 
 extort by the rack a confession of treason from an 
 old clergyman of the name of Peacham, has met with 
 universal and deserved condemnation. He did not, 
 however, cringe to the king and the royal favourite, 
 Villiers, except to good purpose. In 1617, he was 
 appointed Keeper of the Great Seal, and in 1619 
 attained the dignity of the Lord Chancellorship, 
 with the title of Lord Verulam. In the year follow- 
 ing, he was created Viscount St Albans. 
 
 Having attained the highest honours of the 
 state by truckling to the king and his favourite, 
 B. proceeded to abuse his judicial functions to 
 increase his revenues, which, great as they were, 
 were unequal to his extravagance. Though his 
 official income was great, and his means hail been 
 enlarged by a marriage with the daughter of a 
 wealthy alderman, he could only support his style 
 of life by contracting debt and accepting bribes from 
 suitors. Nor was money his only motive to false 
 . lie more than once polluted the stream 
 of justice, to maintain the favour of Buckingham. 
 By 1621, the state of the courts had become so 
 dalous as to call for a parliamentary inquiry, which 
 resulted in his being convicted, on his own written 
 confession, of twenty-three acts of corruption. Li 
 consequence, he was O to pay a fine of 
 
 I llli.i ■ lie confined in the Tower during 
 
 the king's pleasure ; he was banished for life from 
 the court, and declared unfit to hold any office of 
 state, or to sit in parliament. The fine, however, 
 was remitted ; the imprisonment lasted only two 
 days ; he was allowed again to appear at court, and, 
 
 . was summoned to sit in the very next par- 
 liament. Age, however, fading health, and perhaps 
 shame, prevented him from appearing. Banished 
 from public life, he henceforth devoted himself to 
 literature and science; enjoying from the government 
 
 ion of £1200, and an annual income, in all. of 
 £2500. His mode of life still, however, continued 
 
 an
 
 BACON. 
 
 [and i I I : death, 
 
 in 1626 i ■ i amounted to upwards of £22,000. 
 ate occasion ol bi i death (a n lated by 
 .\ nl >r> ■•. . who prol ablj | i [ from Hobbes, \\ bo wa i 
 I ad) wa i cold caught in makii 
 
 experiment I o t I the powi r of snow to pr< 
 
 II ■ dii d in tin 1 house of the Ear] of Arundel, 
 i.. which he had been removed with the fatal chill 
 um which lie had caught in the course of the 
 experiment. 
 
 While, "ii the whole, the public life of Lord B. 
 is marked by meanness and dishonour, his literary 
 and scientific works are everywhere irradiated by 
 the powerful light of an intellect which towered 
 over those of other men. The first edition of his 
 Essays appeared in l"''.'"; his two books of the 
 ing in 1605; his Wisdom of 
 the Ancients— in Latin— in 1610 j a third edition 
 of his Essays, greatly ext ad d, in 1C12 ; his two 
 books of the Novum Orqanum, or second part of 
 the Instauratio Magna, designed to consist of six 
 in, l i in Latin— in Ki-.Mi; his History of the 
 of Henry VII., in UV1-1; his nine books, De 
 Augmentis Scientiarum—a. Latin translation and 
 extension of his Adoi/iaim nt <;/' Lraming in 1623. 
 Besides ti he wrote several minor works, which 
 need not here be specially mentioned. It is enough 
 to say that his writings embrace almost all subject i, 
 from jurisprudenci — which he treated not as a 
 mere lawyer, but as a legislator and philo oph c to 
 morality and medicine. The N< . / -• is a 
 treasury of the deepest knowledge of human rela- 
 tions, conveyed in a gorgeous and energetic style. 
 Almost the only Bcience with which he was unac- 
 quainted was that of mat hematics. Thus singularly 
 gifud ami accomplished, he appeared at a time w hen 
 science, from a variety of causes, started on that 
 progress which has never since been arrested. Ii it 
 is now a question how far he contributed by his 
 genius to that progress at its commencement, it is 
 a fact that he was long vulgarly regarded by his 
 countrymen as the father of Inductive Philosophy 
 — as having been the inventor and first teacher 
 of the method of interrogating nature by obser- 
 vation and experiment and inductive reasoning. 
 Nor are his writings wanting in materials quali- 
 fied exfacit to support his title to that eminence. 
 His claim to the distinction, however, has of late 
 been the subject of much controversy, the result 
 of which is that it has been generally disallow* d 
 But if it be true that he had a somewhat vague 
 and imperfect apprehension of the philosophy of 
 indueti overestimated the province of observa- 
 tion, and undervalued the use e.f deduction and 
 hypothesis, and that even his classification of the 
 sciences in the De Augmentis, on which his reputa- 
 tion long turned, has been properly superseded by 
 the superior and better-reasoned classification of M. 
 Comte; still it must be borne in mind that he was 
 one of the first that was aware of the true character 
 of the positive philosophy, and who understood its 
 conditions, and foresaw its final supremacy ; and as 
 for his classification, that it was a marvi lion i ll'oi I 
 of reason at a time when the sciences were in their 
 infancy, and many of them wire yet unborn. Also, 
 it must be said, that if B. cannot be claimed by the 
 physicists as the father of their science, and they 
 must look rather to Galileo, yet he may fairly be 
 claimed in that character by the students of man and 
 society; for he was the first to aim at the exten- 
 sion of the methods of positive philosophy to i -al 
 
 and social conceptions. If recent criticisms have 
 dethroned him from the position which for centuries 
 he occupied in relation to the physical sciences, by 
 shewing that neither his doctrines, experiments, nor 
 writings have materially affected their course, it is 
 60s 
 
 only to leave him free to be placed in a position no 
 Ignified in t lation to human and social 
 philosophy. • 
 
 As ;i writer, B. presents us in combination an 
 intellect al once one of the most capacious and pro- 
 found that ever appeared among men -one of the 
 
 must penetrating, one of the most far-reaching and 
 an imagination almost equally remarkable. In DO 
 other writer is so much profound thought to be 
 found expressed in such splendid eloquence. 'If,' 
 says llallaiu [Literature of Europe, ni. 218), 'ws 
 compare what may be found in the sixth, seventh, 
 and i ighth books De Augmentis, in the Essays, the 
 //, \ory of Henry I'll., and the various short 
 treatises contained in his works on moral and 
 1 wisdom and on human nature, from expe- 
 
 of which all such wisdom is drawn, with the 
 Rhetorio, Ethics, and Politics of Aristotle, or with the 
 historians most celebrated for their deep insight 
 into civil society and human character — with 
 Thucydides, Tacitus, Philip de < lomines, Machiavel, 
 Davila, Hume— we shall. 1 think, find that one man 
 may almost be compared with all oi fchi e together.' 
 The collected works and life of Lord J'., were 
 published by Mallet in 5 vols. (Lond. 1765) j a good 
 edition is that of Montague (16 vols., Lend. 1825— 
 1S3-I) ; but the best, it is generally admitted, is the 
 last (5 vols., edited by Messrs Spedding, Ellis, and 
 II ili. bund. 1858). Montague's edition gave occa- 
 sion to an able review of B.'a character by Lord 
 Macaulay, to be found among bis Essays. The 
 Encyclopaedias Britannica and Mclropolitana eon- 
 tain valuable papers on his writings, on which 
 also Sir John ilcrschel's Preliminary Discourse in 
 Lardner's I'.nnjrliij.nd'ui may be consulted. 
 
 BA'CON, Roger, an Enj Ii b monk, who. through 
 the force of his intellect, ra d himself far above 
 lus age, made wonderful d i" several 
 
 sciences, and contributed much to extend the then 
 scanty knowledge of nature, lie was di cended 
 of a respectable family, and born at Ilehester, 
 in the county of Somerset, 1214. He studied 
 at Oxford, and then at Paris, where he received 
 the degree of Doctor in theology ; and soon after 
 his return home, he entered the order of the 
 Franciscans, and settled at Oxford. Physics 
 to have been at that time the chief object of 
 bis labours; and liberal friends of seiencc supplied 
 him with the means of pursuing his researches. In 
 exploring the secrets of nature, he made discovi i ii s 
 and invented applications which were looked upon 
 by the ignorant as the work of hellish i 
 This prejudice was encouraged by the jealousy 
 and hate with which his brother monks regarded 
 his superiority. Besides, he loudly denounced the 
 ignorance and immorality of the clergy, especially 
 of the monks, and even wrote a letter to the 
 pope, in which he represented to him the necessity 
 of clerical reform. Out of revenge, an accusation 
 was brought against him at the papal court, and 
 
 the po|ie liiterdieled I from teaching in the 
 
 university. He was shortly after imprisoned, 
 forbidden all human intercourse, and hardly allowed 
 sufficient food. Among the few clear-sighted men 
 who admired Bacon's genius, and pitied his misfor- 
 tunes, was the cardinal-bishop of Sabina, at that 
 time papal legate in England. He desired to see 
 Bacon's writings, but the interdiction of the Fran- 
 ciscans prevented a compliance with his wish. On 
 his ascent to the papal throne as Clement IV., I>. 
 wrote to him, expressing his readiness to furnish him 
 with whatever he desired, and Clement in reply 
 repeated his request to see B.'s works, in defiance of 
 the Franciscan prohibition. B. accordingly drew 
 up liia Opus Majlis (edited by Jebb, 1733), which he 
 sent, along with two other works, it is said, to the
 
 BACON— BACTIUS. 
 
 pope, by his favourite pupil, John of London, anrl in 
 which he represented tin- necessity of a reformation 
 in the sciences through a diligent study of the 
 languages and of nature. How Clement received 
 thi m is not very well known ; but they could only 
 have reached him about the time he edwitb 
 
 hislasl r ten years after < atb, B. 
 
 was free from open persecution at least. Hut in 1278, 
 under Nicolas III., the general of the Fran 
 order, Jerome of F.soulo, declared himself against B., 
 forbade the reading of his books, and i tied an 
 aider for bis imprisonment, which was sanctioned 
 by the. pope. This new imprisonment lasted ten 
 
 years. WnenJeron I Eeculo became pope, under 
 
 the name of Nicolas IV., B. sent him a Treatise on 
 the Means of warding off the Infirmities of Old Age 
 (Lat. Oxf. 1590 j Eng., by Brown, 1683), with 'a 
 view to convince him of the harmlessness and 
 
 utility of his labours, but in vain. What the pope 
 ■ I to the representations of the old philosopher, 
 
 was yielded to the intercession of several influential 
 b noblemen, and B. at last recovered his free- 
 dom. He returned to Oxford, wrote a compendium 
 of theology, and shortly after died-— according to 
 some, in 1292, to cithers, in 1294. 
 
 B., although an extraordinary genius, could not 
 rid himself of all the prejudices of liis times. He 
 believed in the philosopher's stone and in astrology. 
 His chief invention is the magnifying-glass. There 
 are also in his writings other new and ingenious 
 views on optics; for example, on refraction, on the 
 apparent magnitude of objects, on the gnat in 
 in the size of the sun and moon in the horizon. On 
 other subjects, again, he fell into the greatest errors. 
 He made several chemical discoveries which were 
 wonders at that time. He knew, for instance, that 
 with sulphur, saltpetre, and charcoal, we may imitate 
 lightning, and produce explosions. Mathematics, 
 applied to observation, he considered to be the only 
 D of arriving at a knowledge of nature. He 
 
 studied several languages, and wrote Latin with 
 
 elegance and clearness. Deserving of honour- 
 able mention are his discoveries of the errors that 
 prevailed in the calendar, and bis proposals and 
 data for remedying them, in which he came verj 
 near the truth. He prepared a rectified calendar, of 
 which a copy is preserved in the Oxford library. 
 On account of his extensive knowledge, he received 
 the name of 'Doctor mirabilis.' Several of his works 
 
 have never 1 a printed, and are preserved among 
 
 the Cottonian manuscript i in t 1 a British Museum; 
 some are to be found in French libraries. 
 
 BA'CON, Jojiv, a distinguished statuary, was 
 born in London, 1740, and died there August 7, 1799. 
 He was at first a painter on porcelain, and only 
 began to work in marble at the age of 2.'); yet in 
 
 1709 he received the first prize from the Royal 
 Academy, of which he was soon after made a mem- 
 ber. His statue of Mars first established his fame. 
 Among his principal works ai -. two bu ts of Geoi e 
 
 EH., one in Christ Church College at oxford, the 
 other in the university library at GOttingen; the 
 monuments of Lord Chatham in Westminster 
 Abbey and in Guildhall; the statues of Howard 
 and of Samuel Johnson in st Paul's, and that of 
 Blackstone at Oxford. B. was di ficient in imagi- 
 nation, and had no refined perception of beauty. 
 
 B U'SA'NYI, Janos (pronounced Bat-shan-vi). a 
 Hun arian writer and poet, was born May 11, 1763, 
 at Tapolcza, in the circle of Szalader. After stud] ■ 
 ing atVessprim, Oedenburg, and Pi th, he b 
 tutor to the son of General Orczy, and while thus 
 employed, published his first work. The Valour of 
 the uagyars (Pesth, 1786). Mf receivt I the one 
 year an appointment in the finance department at 
 
 Kaschau, and there, in conjunction with Baroti and 
 Pazinczv. he»l 
 
 and ivsth, 1788—1792). In 179.'!, in consequence of 
 a liberal poem, he was deprived of his office, and in 
 1794, having tab a part in the conspiracy of Bishop 
 Martinovich. be was carried to Spielberg, where li- 
 ve confined till 1796. After recoverii 
 dom, he a i b 'I in i diting the Magyar - }l 
 th a came to Vi una. whi re be held an oi 
 the bank, and married (1805) the German j 
 Gabrielle Baumgarten — an unhappy match. When 
 the Pri a. h i al n d Vienna in 1809, B. tran 
 Napoleon's proclamation to the I 
 which account he found himself afterwi - 
 to take refuge in Paris. After 1 Paris, 
 
 ■ up, and had Einz assigned him as a 
 compulsory residence, but was allowed t i 
 French pension till his death. He died at I. 02, May 
 
 12, 1845 : the Hungarian Acadi i. iv had in I si:; again 
 elected the octogenarian a corresponding member. 
 
 In the Iatt.r part of his life, I : 
 
 published hi Collected P Pesth, 1827 ; Ofen, 
 
 1835). We are also indebted to him for th 
 
 edition of the poetical works of Anyos (Vienna, 
 
 1798) and of Faludi (Pesth, 1 
 
 BA'CTRIA. the ancient name of the imperfectly 
 known land lying between the western part of the 
 Hindu Kush mountains, and the river Oxus (Amu, 
 
 or Gihon), which separated it from S liar/a on 
 
 the north and north-east. Its boundaries in early 
 times cannot bo precisely ascertained, but it i 
 rally considered to have been identical with the 
 modern Balkh (q.v.). B. is supposed to have been 
 the seat of the parent-people from which the Aryan 
 (i|. v.) or [ndo-Enropean family of nations bran, led 
 oil'. The ancient BactrianS of historic times were 
 akin to the Medes and Persians, and used the 
 Zend language. 1!. was original]} re of a 
 
 powerful kingdom, which extended itself over the 
 Persia, but we have almost no record of its 
 early greatness; we only know that Ninas, the 
 Assyrian king, in spite of his vast army, found i 
 difficulty in conquering it, and that when Arl 
 besieged the last Assyrian 1 'us, in 
 
 his metropolis, he was assisted by a large force of 
 Uaetriaus. It is believed that the ancient Persian 
 religion was tirst developed in Bactra or Za] 
 the capital of B., which was the head-quarters 
 
 of the Magi till the land was overrun by the 
 Arabs, and a centre-point of the inland trad.- of 
 Asia. The modern town of Balkh (q. v.) is built 
 upon its site. Alexander, on his return from r 
 left in B. a colony of 14,(1(10 Greeks, who 
 extended civilisation. After the death of Alex 
 B. was annexed to the kingdom of Syria ; but was 
 
 raised to independence by its governor. Ihodotus I., 
 who founded the I heck kingdom of New B. 
 256 B.C. The history of this kingdom v 
 little known, but has I i ly elucidated by 
 
 numerous Gneco-Bactrian coin; found in the 
 or burial-places of Afghanistan. These coins give 
 the names of a series of kings, and bear indie 
 of the political circumstances of the Greek king- 
 dom of B. On those of Eucratides, a monarch who 
 flourished in the age of Mithridates, there are found, 
 bi ide the G: bars, others which have be n 
 
 i of the Sanscrit, and 
 deciphered by Mr Prinsep. 
 
 BA'CTRIS, a ■^■nu* of Palms, of which nearly 
 fifty species are known, all American. The 
 
 pinnate, those of others entire. They 
 
 i rally small palms, sonic of them very small, 
 
 and with slender stems; thai of /•'. tenuis is not 
 
 thicker than a goose-quul Some are spiny, and 
 
 form thickets not easily traversed. B. acantJi
 
 BACTRITES— B AD EN. 
 
 Ja call 1 1 l Bahia, and from it an 
 
 extremely tough thread is obtained, which ia 
 for making nets. ', the Mai: wV 
 
 produces Ur I of fruit, resem! 
 
 , with a thiu pulp of an agreeable subacid 
 flavour. 
 
 BACTRI'TES, a gi nua of fossil Ammmritiil 
 a straight shell, and mdi ntcd but not ran: 
 Five species have been described, all from Devonian 
 strata. 
 
 BA'CFLITES, a genus of the family of Amman- 
 ' ■, <liffermg from the true Arnm 
 [a. v.) in the perfectly straight form of 
 the 8hell, which tapers to a point, and is 
 either round or compressed. The species,, 
 like the other Animonitida?, are all 
 B. are characteristic of the upper chalk, 
 and appear to have existed only t 
 the expiry of the period over which the 
 existence of the Amnionitida- i 
 
 BADA'GRY, a seaport town on t ' 
 Coast of Upper Guinea. Pop. 10,<X 
 one time it carried on a large trade in 
 slaves with the Portuguese, who here estab- 
 lished several factories. B. has a monarch, 
 who is subject to the king of Katanga. 
 It was from this place that Land 
 Clapperton started on their expeditions to 
 explore the African interior. 
 Baculite. BADAJO'Z, called by the Romans 
 . Augusta, and by the Moors Bele- 
 daix, i.e. 'Land of Health,' is the capital of the 
 Spanish province of Estremadura, It is si 
 about five miles from the borders of Portugal, in a 
 fruitful district on the left 1 ank of the Guadiana, 
 which is here crossed by a stone-bridge of 28 
 arches. It numbers 12,000 inhabitants, is the 
 residence of a captain-general, and the see of a 
 bishop, has a cannon-foundry, and an old cathe- 
 dral with a splendid organ, and painti:. 
 Mateo Cerezo an who was lxirn at 1!. ; 
 
 a brisk traffic, chiefly contraband, is carried on with 
 Portugal. Its chief articles of manufacture are 
 soap, coarse woollens, leather, and delft-ware. As 
 one of the keys of Portugal, B. has often been 
 a place of importance in war. It was besii 
 by the Portuguese in 1060, and again 
 allies, in the of Succession, in 
 
 During the French war, B. was besieged '. 
 French in 1S0S and in 1809, and again in 1S11, 
 when it surrendered, March 11, to Soult. It was 
 thrice besieged by the English under Wellington: 
 first on April 17, 1S11, after the conquest of Olivenza, 
 on which occasion, the approach of Soult to i; 
 caused the siege to be raised on the 14th o 
 the second time, after the battles of Fuentcs d'Onor 
 and Albuera, the city was invested from May 27 
 to June 10, 1811, but still in vain. The third invest- 
 ment, March 17, 1S12, ended in the taking of the 
 city by storm, on the night of April 6, alter a mur- 
 derous contest, and a loss during the twenty 
 siege, of 72 officers and 963 men killed 
 officers and 3483 nun wounded. The garrison and 
 their commander, General Philippon, became pri- 
 soners of war. 
 
 BADAKHSHA'N, or BUDUKHSHA'X, a terri- 
 tory of Central Asia, lying between 30" and 3S° 
 N. lat., and 69° and 73° E. long. B. occupies the 
 western declivity of the great mountain-chain 
 of Bolor-Tagh (q. v.), and includes several of the 
 valleys through which the head streams of the 
 river Oxus (q. v.) flow. The territory is subject to 
 the ruler of Kunduz. It is bounded on the \V. 1 .y 
 Kunduz, on the S. by Chitral, on the E. by the 
 plateau of Pamir, and on the >T. by Bokhara. B. is 
 
 for tho most part mountainous. The mountains are 
 
 lly bare and barren; but the slopes of some 
 i i tdered productive by the t 
 system of cultivation. Gold is found in conaid 
 
 ties in the tributaries of the Oxus, the prin- 
 cipal of which is tho Kokcha. B. has several nil y 
 mines, and is famous for its production of lapis- 
 Iron is also found, which the inhabitants smelt with 
 much more skill than most cas i do. 
 
 The country is marked by great variety of climate. 
 Among the principal indigenous trees are tho 
 willow, the pistachio, and almond-trees, whioh 
 on the lower slopes ; an ' 01 dwarf lir in 
 
 the higher regions ; but poplar and fruit 
 are grown in the vicinity of villages, and the mul- 
 berry-tree, for food to tho silk-worm, is 1 
 cultivated in the valley of tho Oxus. 
 
 bio animals are horses, sheep, and cattle, 
 which find rich pasture oa the plains; nonce, 
 
 ■ yak (<j. v.), which in tho more mountain- 
 ous districts is the moat important animal of all. 
 It yields richer milk, but in less quantities till 
 
 and as a beast of burden, if not ao 8trong, it 
 
 is more aagacious and sure-footod than the 
 Among the wdd animals are liona, wolves, foxes, 
 &c., while deer, hares, pheasants, and other game 
 abound ; eagles and ravens are also met with. The 
 population of B. consists of Tadjihs and Moham- 
 medans, who speak the Persian language. B. i3 
 little known to Europeans. About the beginning of 
 the 16tli c. it was conquered by Baber, the founder 
 of the Mogul empire. After the fall of that empire, 
 me subject to Caluil. In 1823, tho Uzbecks, 
 under Murad Beg, defeated tho tribes of B. in a 
 pitched battle ; and two years after, thi 
 
 1. Their conquerors 1 ; 
 
 them most harshly, demolishing their towns, and 
 either selling them as s: : off to 
 
 people the unhealthy swamps of Kunduz. 
 
 BA'DDERLOCKS, or HEX'WARE (Alaria 
 esculenta), a sea-weed (see Aloje, where a figure of 
 it h given), of the sub-order Fucacece, growing on 
 rocks in deep water on the shores of Britain, Iceland, 
 and the northern parte of Europe. It has a stem 
 4 — 8 inches long, pinnated with a few short leaflets, 
 which contain the seeds, and a membranous olive- 
 green frond of 2—12 feet long, with a stout midrib. 
 The frond being stripped off, the mid-rib forms an 
 article of food to the inhabitants of the sea-coasts 
 of Iceland, Denmark, Scotland, Ireland, &c. The 
 thinner part of the frond ia also sometimes eaten. 
 
 BADEN, The Grand Duchy of, is situated at 
 the south-western extremity of the German Con- 
 federation. With an area of 5900 square miles, it 
 runs in the direction of the valley of the Upper 
 Rhine and of the Black Forert, from the southern 
 bend of the Main at Wertheim to the Bodensee or 
 Lake of Constance, and ia bounded on the N. by 
 Bavaria and Hesse -Darmstadt; on the E. by 
 Hohenzollern, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria ; and on the 
 W. and S. by the Rhine, which separates it from 
 Rhenish Bavaria, France, and Switzerland. It is 
 divided politically into four circles — the circle of 
 the ' Lake,' at the south, and the circles of the 
 t Rhine,' of the 'Central Rhine,' and of the 
 ' Lower Rhine;' these are again divided into 79 
 districts. 
 
 Surface and Hydrography.— Physically, B. falls 
 into two divisions — the western plain, lying along 
 the right hank of the Rhine, and the eastern 
 lands; the plain occupying about a fifth of the 
 whole duchy, and the hilly part, four-fifths. Of the 
 mountain-ranges, the Schwarzwald, or Black ! 
 is the most prominent. See Black Forest. For a 
 distance of 96 miles, it belongs almost exclusively to
 
 BADEN. 
 
 Baden. It terminates in abrupt declivities towards 
 the west, and on the cast d degrees into 
 
 the plateau of the Neckar in Wiirtemberg. It 
 decreases in height from south to north, its mean 
 elevation being from about 4000 to 2700 feet, 
 and is cut up into sections by numerous deep and 
 wildly romantic valleys. The most remai 
 summits are Feldberg and Belchen in the south, 
 part of the mountainous division 
 
 . which lies to the north of the Mure, 
 
 receives the general name of the Neckar highlands, 
 
 as far as to its intersection by the Neckar valley, 
 
 on the north side of which the Odenwald begins. 
 
 Southward, in the circle of the 'Lake,' rise the 
 
 extensive plateaus of the German Jura. This table- 
 
 i known !>y the local name of the Randen. 
 
 the 'Upper Rhine' between Alt- 
 
 h and Endingen, stands the small isolated 
 
 i ie group of the Kaiaerstobl or Emperor's 
 
 I :>ing to the height of 1100 feet, and overlook- 
 ing. 
 Being drained by the Rhine and the Danube, 
 >ngs to the basins of two opposite seas; 
 the sources of the Danube. drain only 
 
 about 336 square miles in the northern part of the 
 ' Circle of the Lake.' Beginning with the Bodensee, 
 which projects three arms or bays on the north- 
 west into B., the Rhine, in its tumultuous course, 
 form3 the south boundary, interrupted, ho 
 
 ral encroachments of the Swiss territories 
 upon its north bank. From Basel to below Man- 
 heim, the stream is the only and natural boundary. 
 The chief tributaries of the Rhine, on the B. side, 
 are the Xeckar, the Kinzig, the Murg, the Elz, the 
 Treisam, and the Pfinz. On the north-east the 
 Baden territories are bounded by the Main, which 
 there receives the Tauber. Except a part of the 
 Bodensee, B. has no lake of importance. In the 
 Schwarzwald, however, there are the following 
 sheets of water which go by the name of lakes: 
 Mummclsee, W'ildsee, Feldsee, Titisee, and the 
 Nonnenniattweiher, with a floating island. 
 
 Climate. — As the difference between the highest 
 and lowest points of B. — Feldberg, which rise3 to a 
 height of 4892 feet, and Manheim — amounts to some- 
 thing like 4500 feet, there is naturally a great 
 variety of climate, especially in respect of tempera- 
 ture. The mean temperature of the plains may be 
 stated at So", and that of the highlands at 44 
 Fahr., so that the Rhine valley of B. is one of the 
 warmest and most fruitful districts, not only of 
 Germany, but of Europe ; the land yielding often, 
 in the case of maize, a return of more than three 
 hundredfold. Walnuts, cherries, apples, and pears 
 grow in abundance, while the western terraces of 
 the Schwarzwald are decked with vines. On these 
 charming declivities, the walnut thrives at a 1 
 of 1340 feet, the grape at 1 other kinds 
 
 of Emit are cultivated in the higher regions to 
 an elevation of more than 2000 feet. The wild 
 
 . 13 found even as High as 2600 feet ; the 
 
 [s being profitably cultivated to . 
 
 ■ as high even as 3600 feet, 
 Q lie the exclusively pastoral districts. 
 About two-thirds of the population are el 1 
 
 in the cultivation of the land, which, as m 
 inf en\ I description, yields rich returns. 
 
 An area of about 2100 square miles is occupied 
 with tields and gardens, growing wheat, oats, rye, 
 barley, maize, potatoes, pulse, and vegetables of 
 all sorts. Tobacco, hemp, rape, opium, &c, j 
 large rover.'- v land and pasturage occupy 
 
 * fifth of the surface. An important branch of 
 cultivation is also the production of ch 
 nuts, almonds, &c. Tho quantity of wine produced 
 yearly is, on an average, 14 million gallons. About 
 
 1790 square miles are under wood. The Schwarz- 
 wald is one of the most remarkable piue-for 
 Germany. There whole tracts may be seen v. 
 of the height of from 160 to 180 feet, which an 
 exported to the Netherlands for ship-building. The 
 rearing of cattle is carried on to a large extent. 
 
 veral kinds of Etock may amount to the 
 following numbers : hi 7 _'00 ; asses, 7 
 
 cattle, sheep, 1S9.00O; goats, 22 
 
 swine, 480,000 ; making a total of 1,246,000 head of 
 animals, and representing a large amount of wealth. 
 Honey is also an important product, more than 
 14,000 bee-hive3 being kept in the duchy. Various 
 
 a exist for improving the breed of horses and 
 perfecting agriculture. 
 
 rals. — The mineral wealth of the country 
 lot seem to be valued yet as it deserves, if wo 
 may judge from the extent of mining operations 
 carried on ; but the activity of the Mining Soci 
 Carlsruhe 13 yearly bringing this department of the 
 national industry more and more into a fitting 
 condition. Iron, lead, silver, copper, and salt are 
 among the chief productions ; gold is extracted from 
 the sands of the Rhine, near Wittenweier, and 
 cobalt, sulphur, marble, and several kinds of precious 
 stones are found. B. is rich in mineral springs ; 
 as many as 60 are enumerated, some sulphureous, 
 some chalybeate, and some acidulous. Hence there 
 are a great number of much frequented watering- 
 33 Baden-Baden, Badenweiler, Griesbach, 
 Petersthal, &c. 
 
 res, ii-c. — The increasing activity in the 
 various branches of industrial art is testified by 
 the existence of 300 manufa.turing establishments, 
 with more than 9000 hands, and a yearly produce 
 of 14 million florins {£ 1,666,666). The industrial 
 activity extends chiefly to the following articles : 
 ribbons and cotton fabrics, mostly at St Blasia ; 
 toys and trinkets, and tobacco, which occupies the 
 first place ; chicory, paper, cloth, leather, beer, 
 wooden clocks, and articles of straw ; the last two 
 are characteristic of the Schwarzwald distrk i 
 known all over the world. The chief articles of 
 export are wine and timber, which last is sent almost 
 exclusively to the Netherlands, and brings in a sum 
 of at least 3 million florins (£250,000). The prin- 
 cipal imports are colonial goods, fruit3, drugs, horses, 
 wool, cotton, silk-goods, iron, steeL and articles of 
 luxury. Money is reckoned in guldens or florins of 
 24 to the mark of silver, a florin bein<* equal to 20rf. 
 sterling. Weights and measures are divided accord- 
 ing to the decimal system. 
 
 Populatio Education.— The population 
 
 of B., in 1S5S, amounted to 1,335,952, t 
 decrease of above 20,000 as compared with 
 With the exception of Jews, the inhabitants arc 
 exclusively German. The dominant church is the 
 Roman Catholic, whose adherents, in 1S5S, num- 
 
 ^77,311, or about two-thirds of the whole 
 population. Protestants numbered 433,075 ; Dis- 
 senters and Mennonites, 2004 ; and J 
 Tho school- it ; it offers the 
 
 means of instruction to every individual ; I 
 multitude of libra: 
 
 I i, are significant indications of the higher 
 elements of culture. (!- 7 1,4:>4,'7»70.) 
 
 rand ducny, 
 which is strictly indivisible and inalienable, is here- 
 ditary in the eldest of the male line, and, failing 
 that, of the female. The I 
 
 7ary Grand Duke, and the other sons and 
 daughters are called ! 
 The sovereign is 1 ound tti 
 constitution. 
 
 every two • two chambers. The 
 
 first chamber consists of the princes of the grand-
 
 BADEN— BADEN-BADEN. 
 
 ducal house, the heads of the Beignorial I 
 (seven princes and thn - and of the nobility 
 
 — on whom, when they possess hereditary pn 
 un lei feudal tenure, to the value of 300,0110 ; 
 the king confers tile rank of the high nobility — the 
 1 bishop and the protestant prelate, two 
 
 entatives of the universities, ami eighl 
 bers chosen by the grand duke, without regard to 
 rank or birth. 'I ! i chamber co 
 
 entatives chosen for ( . 22 for the 
 
 cities, and 41 for the country districts, giving one 
 representative for about 21,640 inhabitants. As 
 to the franchise, less regard has been paid in 
 B. than elsewhere to the property qualific 
 every settled citizen and all state otiicials may take 
 part in the nomination of electors, ami may become 
 electors; only representatives must either pay tax 
 on a capital of 10,000 florins, or be in possession of 
 an ecclesiastical or secular office bringing in at least 
 lnoo ilnrins. The 1 ' : deliberative and executive 
 body in the country is the council of state. The 
 grand duke is its president, and it is divided into the 
 ministries of foreign affair . "f justice, of the interior, 
 of war, and of finance. The expenditure, according 
 to the ordinary estimates for the united jn 
 1858—59, was 21,295,365 florins ; the 1 
 receipts for the same years being 21,640,052 florins, 
 leaving an excess of income of 344,687 florins. The 
 total receipts of each of these years are given at 
 16,327,572 florins, the expense of collection, admi- 
 nistration, &c, 1 >7..">46 florins, leaving a 
 net balance of 10,820,026 florins. There is a par- 
 ticular budget dealing with the finances of the 
 post-office, railways, 2CJ millions of 
 florins were added to the public debt of the country 
 by the events of 1848 and 1S49. The total state- 
 debt, including that on railways, amounted in 1S59 
 to 95,369,886 florins (£7,947,490). -Military ser- 
 vice is obligatory on all, with the exception of the 
 high nobility ; and B. furnishes to the eighth divi- 
 sion of the army of the German Confederation a con- 
 tingent of 10,400 men, with a reserve of 3333. The 
 < tive war-strength of the army in 185S was 
 1G.0G7 ; ]> ice, 7091. There exist three orders of 
 knighthood, besides a medal for military 
 and other decorations of merit. The capital and 
 residence of the soverei .1, is 1 ' .11 i-rnlie ; the capitals 
 of the four 'circles,' are Constanz, Freiburg, Carlsrnhe 
 (formerly Bastadt), and Manlieim. 
 
 History. — The original inhabitants of B. were 
 Alemaniii. These fi 11 under the dominion of the 
 Franks, the conquerors of Caul, and submitted at 
 the same time to the Christian religion. Under 
 their duke, Gottfried, they made repeated attempts 
 to regain their independence, but in vain ; and the 
 
 lorn of the Alemanni was abolished in 748 by 
 Pepin the Little. In the 11th c, a Duke Berthold, 
 said to have been a descendant of the Alemannian 
 Gottfried, built the castle of Zahringen in Br 
 and with him begins the unbroken line of the 
 princes of the House of Zahringen. A descendant of 
 his second son took the title of Margrave of B., and 
 became the ancestor of the still flourishing 1 1 
 Baden. He died in 1130. The history of this House 
 presents, for long, little else but a succession of 
 partitions of the territories among brothers, to be 
 again and again reunited by one or other of the 
 collateral branches becoming extinct. The pri sperity 
 of the country was thus greatly retarded. The 
 present capital, Carlsre nit in 1715 by the 
 
 reigning count, Charles III. It is to his gr 
 Charles Frederic, who succeeded in 1740, that B. 
 owes considerable accessions of territory and political 
 importance. By favouring the policy of Napoleon, 
 and joining the Confederation of the Khine, he 
 doubled his possessions in extent and population, 
 
 612 
 
 and acquired successively the dignity of elector and 
 
 the title of grand duke. Tn 1 SI 1 he was sue© 1 
 by his grandson, Charles Lndwig Frederic, who, tive 
 years before, had married Stephanie I -ui ■ \<] 
 
 one, an adopted daughter bl Napoleon. Vfter 
 the battle of Leip 1, ( h ■■'■■ L •■■■ ceded from 
 the Confederation of the Khine, and (1815) joined 
 the German Confederation, in whi da the 
 
 rank. 
 The original constitutions or 'states' of the 
 rate territories composing the grand duchy b 
 mostly become extinct, the Grand Duke Charles 
 
 granted (ISIS) the charter which forms the basis of 
 the present constitution. Charles \ 1.1 in 
 
 the same year by his uncle I.udwig, who was inclined 
 lutism, and had to contend at first with a 
 powerful opposition, which led him frequently to 
 dissolve the Chambers. He sue. « in 1825, in 
 
 carrying through an alteration of 1 
 
 ins th i duration of the pas , after 
 
 anient and the Chambers 
 more harmoniously. Ludwig dying cluldlcss ( 1 830), 
 
 eeded by bis brother Leopold. The known 
 
 libera] tendencies of this prince promised at first 
 a new life to constitutional government; but the 
 tide of reaction, become strong since the fall of 
 Warsaw, soon seized the government, ami the act 
 establishing the freedom of the press, which in 1S31 
 had been hailed with delight by B. ami the whole 
 of Germany, was, in 1S32, declared impracl 
 end abrogated. A fluctuating contest between a 
 reaction anient and a growing opposition 
 
 was carried on till 1846, when the constitutional 
 Bekk was made minister of the interior, and 
 liberalism thus placed at the helm. The first effect 
 
 1 calm the public mind, and to cause a split 
 a the liberals and the radicals. The ninth par- 
 liament met (December 1S47) underthe most friendly 
 and pre !pice8; when the French revolution 
 
 (February 1S4S), the vibrations of which were first 
 felt by B., suddenly call lical party into the 
 
 most violent activity. Not satisfied with a multitude 
 
 of liberal in pi ■■' bj the I. aslature, the 
 
 revolutionary leaders, Hecker and Struve (q. v.), 
 aimed at establishing a republic, and stirred up 
 an insurrection. The troops having sided with the 
 
 1 nts, the grand duke' tied, and a Constituent 
 Assembly v ■ May 1S49). The duke had 
 
 recourse to Prussian aid, and after several battles, 
 was reinstated on his throne (July 1S49). The 
 restoration w a followed by some thirty executions, 
 consisting chiefly of soldiers that had borne arms 
 n t the government, and of a few political leaders. 
 1 'pon the w hole, the reactionary tendency has been 
 irked in B. than in most other German Btatea, 
 and many valuable reforms effected in 1S4S have 
 been retained. See Germany, in Supplement. 
 
 BA'DEN, a town and fashionable watering-place 
 in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, is sitna 
 the left bank of the Linmiat. It has a population of 
 2840. It is of ancient date, being known to the 
 Romans as 77 rm ■ Hetv Hae. The temperature of 
 the baths is as high as 117° Fahrenheit. B., from 
 the loth to the beginning of the 18th c, was the 
 seat of the Swiss diet. 
 
 BA'DEN-BADEX, a town in the grand duchy of 
 Baden, situated in a pleasant valley at the base of 
 the Black Forest. It contains about C500 inhabit- 
 ants ; but its visitors during the season, which is 
 at its height in July and August, are often double 
 the number of the settled population. It is chiefly 
 celebrated for its medicinal springs, which were 
 known in the time of the Romans. B. having been 
 a fashionable place of resort so early as tie 
 of Antoninus and Aurelius, numerous Roman
 
 BADEN BEI WIEN— BADGE 
 
 antiquities have been found in the neighbourho 
 
 are pn rvcd in a run l here. 1 
 
 ; of a salini r, varying in tempera- 
 
 >ni 1 17° to 154° F. 'I ! 
 nated with iron, magnesia, ami lime, with sulphuric 
 and carbonic acid, and are especially recommend/ '1 
 
 in chronic cutani ' it, rheumatism, &c. 
 
 'Hi.- chief spring (Ursprung) discharges in twenty - 
 
 fnur hours c feet of water. The 
 
 gaming-tables of B. are the most renowned in 
 
 ipe. 
 
 BA'DEN BE! WIEN (i, a, 'Baden near Vienna'), 
 
 a much-frequented watering-place of Lower Austria, 
 
 about fifteen miles S.S.W. of Vienna. It was the 
 
 or Cethice of the Romans, and is 
 
 still famous for its warm mineral spri 
 
 ii raented during the season by from 12,000 
 
 to 15,000 persons chiefly from the Austrian i 
 
 1 temperature varies from 90° to about 99 P. 
 
 b Mi: are frequented by persons of both 
 
 hi the bath, promenade arm in arm. Many 
 
 ol Hi Austrian nobility have palaces here. The 
 
 ite walk in the neighbourhood is along the 
 
 i e valley, the Helcnenthal. Pop. about 4000. 
 
 BA'DENOC'H, a Highland district in the south- 
 
 , asi part of Invi i long by 15 
 
 broad, bounded by Lochaber, Athole, Bracmar, and 
 
 Murray, and traversed by the Spey. It is much 
 
 d with forest, and is chiefly composed of 
 
 i with a little granite. It was a lordship, 
 
 held during the 13th c. by the eldest branch of the 
 
 great House • i" Cumyn, on whose forfeiture Bruce 
 
 .. il ,i . M his nephew Randolph. In 1371, 
 
 King Robert It. gave it to his son, 'the Wolf of 
 
 aoch,' on the failure of whose descendants it 
 
 reverted to the crown, which, about 14C0, granted it 
 
 to the Earl of Iltmtly. 
 
 BADGE, the term by which, in general, all 
 honorary decorations and special cognizances are 
 known. Badges are cither conferred by the state 
 or sovereign, or assumed by the individual for pur- 
 poses of distinction, the former class having very 
 CD luently had their origin in the latter. Of Badges 
 inil by public authority, for the purpose of 
 inciting to exertion, and gratifying honourable ambi- 
 tion, numerous instances are to be met with in every 
 part of the world. The garter of the English knight, 
 the golden fleece of the Spanish grandee, and the 
 button of the Chinese mandarin, will occur as fami- 
 liar examples. To the same class belong not only 
 the stars and crosses with which princes and other 
 ins of rank are adorned in this country, and to 
 a far greater extent on the continent, but the medal 
 of the private soldier, and even those not less 
 honourable decorations which are now frequently 
 conferred by private societies for acts of voluntary 
 , such as the medal given by the Humane 
 Society for saving from drowning. Amongst the 
 ancients, one of the most usual emblems of authority 
 was a gold ring, which was worn generally on tin 
 fourth anger. A ring of this description was the 
 
 mark of senatorial and magisterial dignity, and 
 
 latterly of knighthood at Rune,'; iron rings, during 
 
 the earlier p nod, at all events, having been used by 
 ■ citizens. The right of wearin \ ■■< ■ old ring 
 (jus a dually i nd< a, till at 
 
 conferred it on all th 
 
 tl | .ire. !u the early times of the republic, 
 
 when ambassadors ^ere sent to foreign stat 
 wen- furnished with gold which they wore 
 during their mission as badges of authority, 
 an early period, > \ r, fire man in Greece appears to 
 have n ae enstom, not being men- 
 tioned by 11 r, can scarcely have belonged to the 
 
 earliest period of the history of that people, and is 
 
 commonly supposed to have be. n i f Asiatic i 
 ation d in Scripture as bad 
 tyboth amongst the Jews and other oriental 
 We r.ad of Pharaoh taking off his ring 
 and putting it on Jo i ph's hand, as a token i 
 p..w.r which he i to him (Gen. rli 42); 
 
 and still earlii r (Gen xxxviii. 18), Jndah left his 
 with Tamar as a pledge. In the New Test. 
 
 re spoken of rather as marks of wealth and 
 luxury than as badges of official rank ; 
 ii. 2, and Luke xv. 22, where, on the return of the 
 father ordered that a ring should 
 on his finger. As to the workman-he 
 materials of ancient rings, e t, &c. 
 
 Of badges assumed for the purpose of di tinction, 
 
 ire more famous than thi 
 of York and Lancaster. Henry VII. combined these 
 two i mblems, first carrying a rose n r pale, white 
 and red, and afterwards placing the white rose 
 within the red one. One of I 
 badges was a golden falcon perched on the stump of 
 a tree b I ranches of white and 
 
 red roses, a B. which is said to have been : iv. n to 
 her mother, Anne Koleyn. by Henry V 1 1 1 . The 
 bear and ragged staff, which as a sign in 
 
 London, was the B. of the great Earl of Warwick. 
 The white hart and sil . which ai 
 
 epiently met with as signs to inns, have a similar 
 origin, the first having been the B. of Richard II.. 
 and the second having belonged to the House of 
 Lancaster. The garb and sickle, the B. of the 
 
 Garb and Sickle. 
 
 Eungerfords, is another very beautiful and less 
 common example of the same class of badges. 
 Different countries have also 
 distinctive badges, generally 
 connected with the history 
 either of the actual ruling or of 
 some former dynasty. Of these, 
 ihejleur de lis of France (repre- 
 sented in the accompanying 
 engr aving of the seal of Louis 
 VI I.), and the other badges, for 
 which it from time to time 
 makes way viz., the cap of 
 liberty and other emblems of 
 republicanism, the eagles of the 
 Umpire, borrowed from home, 
 and the bees and oth r insignia which the Bonaparto 
 family have assumed, may all be taken as exan 
 
 B. of England.— -The present B. of England is a 
 lute and red, ensigned with the royal crown. 
 
 med with a crown, wh 
 a military accoutrements, is also a species of 
 national badge. 
 
 D. of Scotland is a thistle ensigned with a royal 
 crown. 
 
 /.'. of Ireland. — Ireland has two nat 
 
 golden harp and the tri foil, both of which 
 are carried ensicrned with the royal crown. 
 
 611 
 
 Flour de lis of Louis 
 
 VII.
 
 BADGE— BAD 
 
 The three l>adges of England, Scotland, and 
 1, carried conjoined, may he seen under any 
 .! rotation of the royal arms. 
 
 B. of Wales is a dragon passant, win 
 gules, on a mount vert. 
 
 B. of Ulster is on a shield or canton, or, a sinister 
 hand erect and apaumSe, </». This B., which is 
 popularly known as ' the hloody hand,' is borne in 
 the paternal coats of English baronets. 
 
 B. of Nova Scotia, which is borne by the 
 Nova Scotia baronets, is, or, a sal. 
 an escutcheon of the arms of Scotland, and unsigned 
 with an imperial crown, the motto bein 
 itia. 
 
 One of the oldest and m^t celebrated badges in 
 existence is the so-called jewel of King Alfred. For 
 
 An ornament of gold, apparently intended to hang round the 
 neck, found in Athclney, and now In the Ashmolean 
 um, Oxford. The inscription on the Ride here repre- 
 sented, around the female figure holdil ■ Aelfred 
 me haet pewercan ' i Alfred had ma wrought). On the other 
 Bide is a flower. The workmanship is in a good style. 
 
 the badges of the different orders of knighthood, see 
 their respective titles. 
 
 BA'DGER (Mcles), a genus of quadrupeds of the 
 Bear family or Ursidce (see Beak), and included by 
 Linnaeus in the genus Units or Bear, but forming a 
 sort of connecting-link between this family and 
 the Mustdidce or Weasel and Otter family. To the 
 Skunks (q. v.), which are ranked in that family, the 
 badgers have a particularly strong resemblance, and 
 their dentition and habits are almost the same. 
 The dentition of badgers differs from that of 
 chiefly in the large size of the tuberculous molar 
 teeth at the bottom of each jaw, shewing a still 
 greater adaptation to vegetable food. Badgers, like 
 the rest of the family to which they belong, are 
 plantigrade, i. c, they walk on the whole sole of the 
 foot, and not merely on the fore part of it. The 
 body is thus brought nearer to the ground than it 
 otherwise would be from their length of lhnb. The 
 head is long, with a pointed muzzle, the tail short, 
 the skin very tliick and tough, the hair long. The 
 gait is slow, the habits nocturnal and solitary. 
 There are five toes on each, both of the fore and 
 
 614 
 
 hind feet, and the feet are peculiarly adapted for 
 
 • and burrowing. A peculiar characteristic 
 of the badgers, not found in any other quadra] 
 
 iily, is the possession of a bag, beneath 
 the tail, for the secretion of a peculiar subsl 
 of a disagreeable odour, which i-s sup] 
 
 .eh other in their 
 solitary wanderings. — The common B. (M. Taxus 
 or it. vulgaris) is the only quadruped of th' 
 family now found in the British islands. It is 
 diffused over Europe and the n 
 
 
 --> 
 
 . It is grayish brown above, and Mack 
 beneath ; the head white, with a longitudinal black 
 band o de; the body long but robust, in 
 
 size about equal to that of a small fox, the hair 
 coarse and reaching to the ground as the animal 
 walks. The average length is 2 feet 6 inches, and 
 the height at the shoulder 11 inches. It haunts 
 Is, or thick coppices on 
 I hills, and digs for itself 'a ci. ep and 
 well-formed domicile, consisting of more than one 
 the single entrance to which is by a 
 deep, obliqui D tortuous excavation.' The 
 
 innermost chamber is circular, and lined with grass 
 and hay. The B. makes use of its nose in digging, 
 with the fore-paws, flinging the earth as far 
 back by them as possible, and when the accumu- 
 lation is considerable, pushes it away by means of 
 the hind-feet. The B. is extremely cleanly in its 
 habits. It is one of the most perfectly omnivorous 
 of animals, in a wild state as well as in confine- 
 
 ; fruits, roots, beech-mast, eggs, young birds, 
 small quadrupeds, frogs, snails, worms, and insects, 
 constitute its natural food It has been 
 known to visit a garden for strawberries. It is 
 also fond of honey, and of the larva? of was; 
 wild bees, for the sake of which it digs up then- 
 nests, its hide being impervious to their stings. 
 It is often caught by placing a sack in the 
 mouth of its hole, when it is out at i 
 are then sent into the wood to alarm it. upon 
 it flees to its hole. Dogs sent into the hole 
 are often foiled by earth which the B. throws 
 
 upon them, to block up their way, nor is it 
 > contend with it, owing to its great 
 
 th, and particularly the strength of its jaws. 
 A barbarous sport was formerly, and to some 
 extent still is practised, called B. -baiting, or d. i 
 
 the la' I t in a barrel was assailed by 
 
 last, yielding to superior numbers, was 
 dragged out, upon which it was released, and al 
 to go back to its den, to recover itself, and be ' 
 again, which happened several times daily, when 
 
 . was kept as an attraction to a public-house 
 of the lowest sort. The verb to lodger, exj 
 of persevering annoyance by numerous assailants,
 
 BADIA-Y-LEBLICH— BAEZA. 
 
 was originally employed with reference to the 
 practice of B. -baiting. The flesh of the B. is said 
 
 von - agreeabl . particularly when cured in 
 the form of hams. It is much used in China. The 
 B. is easily domesticated when taken yoni 
 becomes very familiar. In Scotland and the north 
 of England, a B. is still ca! 
 
 i name; and in some parts of England it is 
 •f,v, from which some derive gre; 
 Balysaur of 1 called the Sand 
 
 Bear and Indian B. {M. collarix), very much 
 
 les the common B., but is taller, and has a 
 more hog-like muzzle, and a longer tail. Its habits ; 
 and its food are similar to those of the common 
 B., and when attacked, it defends itself with great 
 It is chiefly found in hilly districts. — The 
 American B. [3f. Labradorica) was at first supposed 
 to be a mere variety of the European B., but has 
 proved to be very distinct, so that it has been 
 regarded by some naturalists as worthy of a separate 
 
 f(Taxidea), and is sometimes called Taxel. 
 ts teeth are more adapted than those of the B. 
 for carnivorous subsistence, and it chiefly preys on 
 small animals, such as marmots, which it pursues i 
 into their holes in the sandy plains near the Missouri 
 and the Rocky Mountains. It is in that region that 
 it abounds, over a considerable range of latitude, 
 but it is not known to exist in Labrador, so that 
 its specific name is perhaps the perpetuation of an 
 error. In its pursuit of the smaller quadrupeds 
 upon which it preys, it enlarges their burrows, and 
 renders some parts of the plains dangerous to 
 
 Eersons on horseback. Its prevailing colour is 
 oary gray in winter, yellowish brown in summer, 
 the under parts generally yellowish white; a white 
 runs from the nose over the forehead to the 
 The hair becomes not only very loo 
 woolly in winter. — The burrowing powers ot this 
 animal are extraordinary. It sometimes makes 
 burrows six or seven feet deep, running under 
 ground to a length of 30 feet. 
 
 BADI A-Y-LEBLICH, Domixgo, known also by 
 the name Ali-Bei-cl-Abbas ;i, one of the most enter- 
 prising of modern travellers, was born at Barcelona, 
 April 1, 1707. He studied the Arabic language, 
 and also physical science and mathemat 
 Yalentia. Possessed of a lively and restless spirit, 
 he formed the project of visiting Africa and Asia, 
 under the disguise of a Mussulman, both for the pur- 
 pose of avoiding the suspicions of the natives when 
 visiting those places forbidden to Christians, and 
 also for giving greater (dot to his adventures. In 
 pursuance of this scheme, therefore, he resigned an 
 office under government in the year 1797, and went 
 to Madrid, to make proposals of a scientific and 
 mercantile tour of exploration in Africa. Having 
 
 fained promises of support from Don Godoi, the 
 'rince of Peace, he betook himself for a short time 
 to London, to study commerce and politics. He 
 -1'ared no labour to make himself familiar 
 with the manners and customs of the people 
 as about to visit ; and in his anxiety to 
 
 detection, he even ventured to u 
 vere ordeal of circumcision. In b 
 I for Africa, where he represented himself, 
 under the name Ali-Iiei, as a descendant from the 
 Abbasides. His tact and talents gained for him 
 iteem that he was invited to th" court of 
 the Emperor of Fez and Marocco. After a two 
 rocco, he set out on a pilgrim- 
 age to Mecca in 1S05, and after sojourning some 
 time in Tripoli, Cyprus, and Egypt, arrived at the 
 place in IS '7. being the first Christian that had 
 1 it since the institution of Islam. 
 
 fnently, lie visited Jerusalem and the chief p] 
 'alestine and Syria, and in the autumn of 1S07 
 
 arrived at Constantinople, whence he had soon to 
 flee, the reality of his Mohammedanism being sus- 
 Aftcr his return to Spain, he was made 
 Intendant of Segovia and Prefect of Cordova ; bnt 
 y way in which he shelved his patriotism, and 
 submitted to the French conquerors, was fatal to 
 his pro- on the expulsion of the latter, he 
 
 was co. country. He went to 
 
 Paris, where, in 1814, he published an account of 
 his travels under the title Bei en 
 
 4/rique et en Asie pendant ! ! 903 d 1807. 
 
 His work was translated into most of the European 
 languages. Four years after the publication, B. set 
 off on another journey to the East, but died sud- 
 denly at Aleppo on the 3(>th of August 1818. The 
 Pacha of Damascus seized his papers, so that his 
 second enterprise has been without results for 
 Europe. 
 
 BAELorEHEL. See A; 
 
 E AE'XA . a town in the province of Cordova, Spain, 
 of about 12,000 inhabitants, it i- situated about 21 
 mil s south-south-east from Cordova, on the river 
 Marbella, and carries on a considerable export and 
 inland trade, chiefly in grain and oil. B. was a 
 Roman town ; and a Roman sepulchre was dis- 
 covered here in 1S33. 
 
 BAEE, Karl Ernst Vox. a distinguishe 1 
 sian natural lorn February 17, 1792, in 
 
 Esthonia. During 1810 — 1S14, he studied medicine 
 at the university of Dorpat, but convinced that 
 Russia as it then was presented very few advan- 
 tages for the acquisition of scientific knowledge, 
 he went to Germany in 1S14. where he studied com- 
 parative anatomy under Diillinger in Wiirzhurg. 
 He also made the acquaintance of Professor Nees of 
 Esenbeck, who exercised a considerable influence 
 over him. In 1S17, he went to Konigsberg, where, 
 two years after, he v. ,or of 
 
 zoology, and charged with the organisation of the 
 zoological museum. La 1S34, he was called to St 
 Petersburg, where he continues to be one of the 
 most important memljers of the Academy, and 
 has obtained several honorary distinctions. As a 
 naturalist, he has specially occupied himself with 
 the difficult subject of embryology ; and to his 
 laborious investigations we owe several most valu- 
 able discoveries m regard to the nt of 
 organic bodies. Beginning 
 Oct .Vammalium et Hominis Genesi (' 
 he still further cluei. subject in his 
 ; of Animal Development (Konigsberg, 1S28 
 — 1837) and History of the Dexelopmeu 
 (Leip. 1S33). Aft-r his return to St Petersburg, 
 he made the pi < the objects of his 
 study. Setting out (l v i : the czar, 
 from St Petersburg on his voyage of exploration, 
 he examined carefully the northern shores of Russia 
 from Areha: and subsequently 
 published a minute description of these and of their 
 peculiar animals and plants, partly in the Memoires 
 de VAcademie de St Petersbourg, and partly in the 
 Bulletins Scientifigws tie VAcadtmie. In 1S56 
 appear dions on the Jiusaian Empire and 
 Mouring Countries of . 
 
 BAEZA, a handsome old t iwn of Spain, in the 
 province of Jaen, from the capital city o; which it is 
 about 22 miles distant in a north-east dir 
 Pop. about 10,000. It wis here that the y< 
 Scipio I : rubal with imm 
 
 10,000 Spaniards prisoners. It was a flourishing city 
 under the Moors, several of whose caliphs and 
 . but it never fairly recovered its 
 'inand in the 13th c. Caspar 
 Becerra, th- celel was born h 
 
 but B. is chiefly proud of being the birthplace 
 
 615
 
 BAFFA— BAGDAD. 
 
 ol tlie 11,000 virgins, usually named of i lologne. Its 
 principal building! an the university, the old monas- 
 
 St Philip de Neri, and the cathedral I 
 leather, and soap are the chief manufactu 
 
 BA'FFA. the Paphos of ancient times, a e 
 town on the south-west coast of tl. 
 Cyprus. It has now fallen ., and 
 
 it a small population, who trade in cotton, 
 silk, and grain ; but under the Venetian rule, it was 
 a placi rable importance. i 
 
 town occupii the site of New Paphos, which. 
 under the Romans, was a beautiful city, full of 
 fine temples and other public buildings. Th Old 
 Paphos, famous as the plao where Venus landed 
 immediately after her birth from the foam, and as 
 her favourite residence, stood a little to the south- 
 east. A hundred altars were here erected to her 
 name, to which numerous worshippers, male and 
 female, from New Paphos, trooped annually to pay 
 their devotions. An earthquake in the t 
 Ai a ins destroyed the Roman Paphos, but it was 
 rebuilt soon afterwards. The Roman d 
 nor, Sergiu3 Panlus, was here converted by .St Paul 
 
 BA'FFIN'S BAT, a gidf, or rather sea, on the 
 north-east coast of North America, exl 
 
 en that continent ami Greenland. Lat. OS' 
 to 78 N., and long. 61 to 80 E. It is about 800 
 miles Ion", with 1th of 280. Its 
 
 greatest depth is 6890 feet. The tides do not 
 rise more than 10 feet. The currents are gener- 
 ally towards the south, though recent inv 
 tions would seem to shew that on the east 
 side of Davis' Strait and I!. B. a current from 
 Spitsbergen flows northwards round Cape Farewell 
 The shores are for the most part lofty ami precipit- 
 ous, backed by ranges of snow-clad mountains. The 
 prevailing rocks are granite and gneiss; the princi- 
 pal animals inhabiting the coasts are, on land, I k us, 
 black foxes, and han 9 ; in the sea. the black whale, 
 walrus, and seal, gulls, docks, and other sea-fowls. 
 The south shore of Whale Sound on the eaSl 
 in lat. 77° 20* X. was found by Captain Inglefield 
 in 1S52 to be inhabited. There are Danish settle- 
 ments on Disco and Whale Islands. B. B. communi- 
 cates with the Atlantic Ocean by Davis' Strait ; and 
 withtheArctic O a i by Smith Sound on tie' north, 
 and Lanca- Wellington 
 
 Strait, which forms the north-west outlet of Lan- 
 caster Sound, was entered in 1852 by Sir E. Belcher. 
 B. B. was lirst explored in 1616 by William 
 after whom it was called, and who was pilot of 
 the expedition, which was commanded by Bylot 
 Baffin's title to this honour seems to have been m t 
 faithfully earned ; and the accuracy of his observa- 
 tions and descriptions has been confirmed by subse- 
 quent navigators. Whale and seal fishing are pro- 
 secuted to a large extent in B. B., which, on account 
 of ice, is only navigable for some two months in 
 summer. 
 
 BAGASSE, CA'XE-STEAW, or CA'KE- 
 TRASH, is the refuse matter obtained during the 
 expression of the saccharine juice from the sugar- 
 cane. In the manufacture of sugar (q. v.), the 
 sugar-canes, in lengths of 3 to 4 feet, are passi d 
 between heavy rollers, which only partly E 
 out the juice, and yield the bruised canes, or B., 
 still retaining a large percentage (usually about IS) 
 of sugar. — The only use to which the B. is put is as 
 fuel in the heating of the boilers and pans in the 
 sugar-manufactory. The improved apparatus intro- 
 duced of late years has done much to save th 
 amoimt of sugar wasted in the B. and in other parts 
 of the process, which at one time amounted to not 
 less than one-half of the entire quantity of sugar in 
 the sugar-cane. 
 61t> 
 
 BAGATETjLE (Fr. signifying primarily any 
 •lie name of a nlbling 
 
 is usually about 7 
 id 21 inches broad; it is lined with cloth, and 
 a game is performed on it with balls and a cue 
 or mace, The ball lall ivory 
 
 the sport consists iii .striking one or more 
 
 holes at i end of the board. To perform 
 
 this and other feats, some skill and experience 
 . and the sport is far from unamus- 
 iug in a cheerful parlour circle. Of late years, 
 He-tables have 1 common in the 
 
 houses of the middle classes of society ; they possess 
 the recommendation of being purchasable at a small 
 expense. 
 
 BAGDA'D, the name of a town and pachalio 
 
 in the south-east of Asiatic Turkey. The pachalio 
 
 is from lat. 30 to :;v N., and from long. 10 to 
 
 IS F. ; and is bounded on the X. by the pachalics 
 of Diarbekir and Van; on the W. and S.. by Syria 
 and Arabia; and on the E., bj I : while at its 
 
 south-east extremity lies the Persian Gull Extreme 
 length, 5J0 miles; breadth, 350. Pop. 1,300,000. 
 It is watered by the rivers Euphrates ami ] 
 which unite their streams at the town of Kama, in 
 lat. ::l X.. and long. -17 E. The pachalic of B. is 
 Id into three parts. 1. That east of 
 
 ris, comprehending the districts of Kin 
 (anciently, Susidna) and Kurdistan (part of ancient 
 Assyria), the former of which is rich in grain and 
 fruit. 2. That west of the Euphrates, a sterile 
 If at last in the great Syro- Arabian 
 desert. 3. That between the two rivers, the 
 northern portion of which is known under the 
 name of _</.,, irah, or ' th" Island' (anciently, 
 Mesopotamia), and the southern under that of 
 Irak-Arabi (anciently, 
 
 I'll.- last of these divisions, though now a barren 
 wilderness, was in ancient times luxuriantly fertile, 
 the seat of mighty empires, and inhabited by indus- 
 trious populations. The barbarous misgovemment 
 and wretched incapacity of the Turks have red 
 it, to its present condition. The pachalic produces, in 
 the better-cultivated districts, crops of rice, wheat, 
 maize, barley, with some hemp, tlax, tobacco, ftc, 
 while dates are brought to great perfection. The 
 wild animals are lions — not numerous — 
 
 . jackals, wolves, gazelles, ostriches ; the chief 
 domestic ones are horses, asses, mules, buffaloes, 
 camels, and dromedaries. The inhabitants are 
 composed of Turkomans, Armenians, Turks, Jews, 
 Arabs, and Kurds ; the last two of which races are 
 notorious for their open and audacious depredations, 
 their mutual wars, and their utter contempt for 
 the authority attempted to be exercised over them. 
 Principal cities — Bagdad, Bassora, and Mosul For 
 a description of the cities which in ancient times 
 adorned tlu3 region, see AsSYBXA, BABYLONIA, 
 
 Nineveh, Babylon, Otesophon, Selkdxia, &c. 
 
 BAGDA'D, the capital of the pachalio of the 
 
 same name, is situated on both banks of the 
 
 , in lat 33' 20* N., and long. 44" 23' E. Top. 
 
 estimated at G.3,000. The city is surrounded 
 by a brick-wall 5 miles in circumference ; the two 
 parts are connected by a bridge of boats, and the 
 communication is guarded by a citadel It has an 
 extremely picturesque appearance from the out- 
 side, being encircled and interspersed with groves 
 of date-trees, through which oue may catch the 
 gleam of domes and minarets ; but it does not 
 improve on closer inspection. The streets are 
 narrow, crooked, unpaved, and dirty, full of ruts, 
 and strewed with dead carcasses, which, however, 
 are for the most part removed by dogs, the only 
 public scavengers in the east The exterior of the
 
 BAGGAGE— BAGLI VI. 
 
 individual homes corresponds with the repulsive 
 
 of the streets. They have, in general, no 
 
 windows towards the front, and an; built of old 
 
 ; lmt their interior is often v. ry gorgeously 
 
 raulted cei rich mo 
 
 inlaid mirrors, and massive 
 
 the recollection of the traveller 'the golden time 
 ood Harun Al-Raschid.' is. contains upwards 
 of 100 mosques. [ with the khans, 
 
 bazaars, and the palace of the governor, ate the 
 only ii gs in the city. The domes 
 
 and minarets are said to be finer than those of 
 Constantinople, and are beautifully painted. The 
 I s exhibit the produce of both Turkish and 
 European markets ; hut commerce has greatly 
 decreased since Persia began to trade with E 
 by way of I ou the north, and by the 
 
 I a Gulf on the south. Nevertheless, though no 
 1 r the chief emporium of merchandise between 
 I and West Asia, as in the middle at 
 I . and though Kurds and Aral a lurk 
 
 on all the roads that had from the city to waylay 
 and roll travellers and caravans, B. still carries on a 
 considcrahle traffic with Aleppo and Damascus, and 
 has manufactures of red and yellow leather, silks, 
 and cotton staffs. Of the 65,000 inhabitants, four- 
 fifths are Turks and Arabs ; the remainder are 
 i Armenians, Hindus, Afghans, and Egyptians. 
 In summer, the heat is oppressive; rain does Dot 
 fall on more than twenty or thirty days throughout 
 the whole year; lmt when the snows melt on the 
 Armenian hills, the Tigris becomes a majest 
 often a destructive river. In lS.'H, an inundation 
 destroyed one half of the town, and Bevi ral thou- 
 sand lives. The plague visits it periodically — once 
 every ten ye. u s. In 1831, 4' Kill people pel 
 daily for several days from its ravages ! Thi -<■ 
 ties, added to the blind stupidity of Turkish 
 le, which depresses all native effort by a 
 syst in of rapacious taxation, are gradually accom- 
 plishing the ruin of this once flourishing and famous 
 city. 
 
 1>. was founded by the Abbaside calif Almansur, 
 762 — 766 A.D. It was built out of the ruins of 
 Ctesiphon and Seleueia. In the 9th c, it was 
 greatly enlarged by Harun Al-Baschid, who erected 
 numerous edifices on the east side of th- 
 connected its two banks by a bridge of boats. The 
 built for himself, and the tomb of his 
 favourite wife, Zobeide, are said to have been of 
 extraordinary splendour. A hundred years later, 
 B. was ravaged by the Turks. In 1253, the grand- 
 Bon of G Khan, Hulakti, put an end I 
 old califate ; but the descendants of this Tatar 
 conqueror were expelled by Timor, who took the 
 city in 1393. After several vicissitudes, it remained 
 in the possession of a Turkoman chief, whose 
 dynasty governed until 147H. In the beginning of 
 the 16th e., Shah Ismael, the founder of the Sulfide 
 dynasty in Persia, made himself master of it; since 
 which period it has repeatedly been a bone of 
 
 contention between Turks and Persians. After a 
 
 memorably obstinate siege, it was conquered by 
 the sultan, Murad IV., in 1638. Nadir Shah vainly 
 i to retake it in the 18th c, and ever since 
 sen under the sway of the Porte. 
 BA'GGAGE, in the marching arrangements of 
 the British army, is placed under strict ml 
 order that the accumulation of weight may not ' 
 impede the movement of the troops; and rules I 
 
 of an analogous kind are enforced in troop-ships, 
 
 when soldiers are on ■ \ oy i je. The term il 
 made to apply chiefly to articles of clothing, and to 
 personal effectB. A private soldier is allowed 
 ry Dothing except that which his kn 
 and other accoutrements can hold; but those who 
 
 are married tit— a small 
 
 numlier in every regiment— are allowed one small 
 chest eai b ol d finite size, which may be can 
 a march, but at the men's own expense. Staff- 
 sergeant have similar p 
 sion. '1 gons are not expected to r 
 packagi _• more than . or as 
 much as four men can lift Officei ■ om-se, 
 much ii derable in amount than that of 
 the non-commissioned officers and privates. On 
 board I ,, r each 
 person is strictly defined— from 18 cwt for a 
 officer, down to 1 cwt for a married pri-. 
 with his wife and children. In encamp: 
 whether permanent or temporary, and in arm 
 ivice, the utmost care is taken to pr 
 Hie B. from I . by surrounding it as much 
 •ible with defensive troops. 
 
 BA'GGESEN, Jess, a well-known Danish poet, 
 
 but who also has a place in German literature, was 
 born at Korsbr, in the island of Zealand, February 
 1"), 1764. II" first obtained a reputation by his 
 C'omt'c Tales (1785), the opera 
 
 as well as by his odes and songs. Through the kind 
 assistance of the Prince of Augustenburg, he was 
 '.■■ a tour through Germany, 
 Switzerland, and France. In 1M I. hi was appointed 
 professor of Danish language and literature at Kiel ; 
 in 1814, he removed to I ;. where he 
 
 became involved in an unseemly strife with Uhlen- 
 
 er, and iii IS'Jii he left his native country 
 is later, a home-sickness 
 
 liim, and he set out on his return, but died 
 at Hamburg, October 3, 1S26. B.'s nature was; a 
 curious compound of pride and humility, love and 
 hate, sensitiveness and reflective power, free-think- 
 ing and faith ; and these conflicting qualities also 
 appear in his poems, which possess an unfinished 
 and inharmonions character. In 1803 appeal 
 Hamburg a collection of his German poems; in 
 1SU6, he published an idyllic epic, entitled Par- 
 r Alpenreise, in twelve cantos, and 
 written in hexameters, which greatly increased his 
 reputation. It contains sin_ _ s of great 
 
 beauty. B. possessed no lyrical talent, in sp 
 his warm-hearted and enthusiastic character. Only 
 a very few of his songs exhibit that simplicity and 
 tenderness which are the essential requisites o: 
 writing; and, besides, they are almost all destitute 
 of originality. Elopstock was the model whom 
 he had in view in j ; but 
 
 a far from reaching the level of his i 
 
 here in which he .shone most conspicuously 
 was the serii His 'humorous epic' (as he 
 
 called it) of published shortly after 
 
 :th, is a singular mixture of humour,, pathos, 
 levity, and i He left in manuscript a 
 
 poem of a similar character on the subject of 
 Faust. His Poetical Worlu in the Qerman I.an- 
 
 (Leip. lS.'Mi, .". vols.) have been published by 
 
 i. who has prefixed to thein an ' excellent 
 
 phy. 
 
 BAGLI'VI, Geo lebrated Italian | 
 cian, born at Ragusa in 1669. The inci- 
 dents of his life are almost entirely confined to his 
 r. Originally descended from an 
 Armenian family, he took the name of his adoptive 
 father, who \mis a wealthy physician of Lucca, and 
 1 on him an excellent education. He 
 studied at Salerno. Padua, and Bologna, and after- 
 i the principal hospitals of Italy. In 
 1692 he went to Home, where he enjoyed the ana- 
 tomical prelections of his friend M Shortly 
 after, he was appointed professor of anatomy at the 
 college of La Sapient*, Borne, where he died in 
 «17
 
 BAGNARA— BAGRATIOX. 
 
 170G. Ii !| discovery in medical ecienoe is the 
 
 a of 'solidism,' as it is called. Previous to 
 tana had held tl 
 of Hippocratea m the primary 1 
 
 ea— viz., tliat it is in the fluid 
 1 that thi3 was err 
 
 i3 in the solids. 
 1 the whole, Bound, and the doctrine 
 all but universally prevalent, though it is admitted 
 that cases do occur in which the fluida ap] 
 have been first 1 B pub 
 
 1.3 of great merit, in which his then novel 
 
 honest and 
 iclent in his jii'i i td warn his 
 
 pro ■ i ' licrcnce to mere d 
 
 on matter n b ( ce Imt impi ■ a. 
 
 BAGNA'RA, a seaport town of Napl * on the 
 Gulf of Gioja, 16 milea N.E. 1 I 
 wine is produced in the neigl 
 
 BAGNERES, the name of two t<>. 
 t, both well knoi 
 
 SB. — B. de Bigorre on the Adour, in the 
 epartment of the High Pyrenees, is 
 
 of Montalivet, and at the entrance to 
 unantic valley of Campan. 
 
 tes, it has a theatre, a 
 
 urn, a trad s-hall, and contains 
 COoO inhabitants. By the Romans, it was 
 
 gerronum. It was 
 destroy. (1 by the Goths, but the fame of its waters 
 survived, and is now 30 great that it is visited 
 by 6000 or I arly. The tepid, 
 
 warm, and hot 6 : ■ : ; are numerous, and are 
 
 recommended for cutaneous and nervous 1 
 Woollens, linens, and bareges arc manufactured 
 here. — B. be Luchon — the Aqua: Convenarum of 
 tli" Romans— is situate! in the department of 
 rjpper 1 and in a pleasant valli 
 by the Pique. Its cold, tepid, and hot snip 
 
 are recommend m, gout, cuta- 
 
 neous diseases, and paralysis. It has a , 
 
 BAGNES, the convict-prisons of France. In 
 ancient times, the severest punishment, next to 
 L, was that of the galleys fq. v.). In 1718, these 
 and the convicts were em 
 in hard labour iu arsenals and other public I 
 and the prisons in which they were lo 'I were 
 called bagnet, from the Italian bagno, literally, a 
 bath — a name supposed to have originated in the 
 fact, that the slave-prisons at Constantinople con- 
 tained baths, or because they stood near the baths 
 of the seraglio. The Constituent Assembly of 
 1701 and 1792 mitigated the sufferings of convicts, 
 and substituted for the detested oame 1 
 that of travaux publics, to which succeeded the 
 
 of the Code Napoleon. Th 
 tice of branding criminals with a hot iron was not 
 
 lied till 1832. The existing institutions of 
 this class are at Toulon, Brest, and Rochcfort, 
 at which the number of convicts, in 1850, was 
 respectively 3S73, 2831, .and 986. In these estab- 
 ! a hour of the convicts is turned to 
 profitable account, and the various handicrafts arc 
 taught in the prison under the direction of 0\ 
 
 industrious and clever are enabled I 
 small I good behaviour is rewarded with 
 
 1 of restraint. Formerly the 
 
 iiment of the galleys was inflicted for com- 
 paratively slight Ig land- 
 marks, begging, poaching, &c, but now hard 
 in the B. is reserved exclusively for such as commit 
 Crimes which seriously menace the public peace 
 and personal safety. The number of the 
 ever, is not less than 51. Of 7689 convicts 
 
 !») m 1S50, 3070 were condemned to 5 — 10 
 CIS 
 
 : 2239 to 11—20 years; ! i —30 ; 
 
 H to 80—40; 23 to 40—50; 9 to above 50 J and 
 
 r life. The principal crime was theft, for 
 
 which -1750 had been condemned; for murder, L027. 
 
 proportion of the criminals, viz. 
 Erom the rural districts; from towns. 2452; 
 
 643; most of them were of the 
 n 20 and 40; and 3902 were unable to 
 or write. The most numerous class were husband- 
 ireahers, gardeners, 1278 ; next, day-labourers, 
 I '.') 1078. Th- mini' 1 
 
 pardons to convicts in II '-'• In 
 
 1852 the imperial govern] ir 
 
 m c the B., a i bituted in their 
 
 ■i mo i.. ( luiana, But in ease any 
 prisoners then in the B. mi 
 
 condemned to. ii . 
 the choice of remaining in prison or of being trans- 
 : 3000 chose transportation. 
 
 BAGNES-LE-CHABLE, a j.ni ' 
 the canton of Valais, Switzerland, on the left bank 
 
 Dranse. Th 
 of the Bagne. Pop. 9000. The valley was twice 
 ted during the 16th c.; again m lsl.S, when 
 400 cottages were swept away, ale 1 lost. 
 
 BA'GPIPE, a wind instrument, which, up to the 
 18th c, was common in almost every country in 
 Europe, and still continues in rag the 
 
 country people in Poland, Italy, Sicily, the south 
 of France, Scotland, &c; but being Ear from a 
 
 toned instrument, and limited in its 
 of notes, it has fallen into disuse wherever 
 is any pretension to musical refinement. It con- 
 sists of a leathern bag, which the player ii 
 by blowing with his mouth through a tube. The 
 music proceeds from three or I whose 
 
 mouth-pieces are inserted into the bag ; the wind 
 1 out by pressin j I ! bag under the 
 arm. One o , , pes, the chanter, is a kind of 
 oboe with < a id is similarly handled ; the 
 
 hers, ci leddi on . i di ach only one conl i 
 low note. It is certain that the bagpipe was in use 
 the Hebrews and Greeks, and there are plenty 
 of proofs that in Germany and Bin] 
 
 it was among tho most favourite instruments in 
 h c. 
 
 Though fallen generally into disuse, the B. is 
 still a popular instrument in the Highlands of 
 Scotland, and wherever there are gatherin 
 Highlanders, and even of Lowland Scotch, i I 
 England and other countries. Pipers in proper 
 costume are also attached to the Highlan A 
 ments, and in some instances pipers are retained 
 by Scottish noblemen to play on festive occasions. 
 Skill in playing the B. is promoted by various 
 md societies, which, at periodical competi- 
 tions, | i to the 1 t players of pibrochs 
 (ij. v.), reels, and other airs. 
 
 BAGRATION, Peter, Prince, a distinj 
 in general, descended from 1 
 the Bagradites of G id ! 
 
 1756. "He entered the Russian service in 17S.'J, and 
 was trained under Suwarrow. In 17SS he was 
 
 d at the storming of Oczakow; fought in 17"2 
 ana I7:>1 against the Poles; in 1799, in 
 and Switzerland; and distinguished himself in tho 
 Austro-Russian war of 1S05 against the Fri 
 especially in the sanguinary engagement of Novem- 
 ber IG of that year, when, with a small body of 
 troops, he bravely stood during six hoc 
 
 superior forces under Murat, and thus enabled 
 the Russian general, Kutusow, to reach Znaym with 
 the main army. Subsequently, Prince B. was 
 engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and
 
 BAGSHOT BEDS— BAHAR. 
 
 IV Hand, 'i I iok a part in the Eta 
 
 btheTs cially in the battle of Sihstna, 
 
 1809. [nth a of 1812, he command 
 
 I Russian army of the west, and had the 
 
 misfortune to fail in his attack on Davoust near 
 
 lew; hut succeeded in forming a junction with 
 
 '■my .-it Smolensk. He was, however, 
 
 I in the battle ■ 
 
 died October 7, 1812. 
 
 BA'GSHOT BEDS, the lowest series of strata 
 in the Middle Bo ie ib l The 
 
 is derived from Bagshot Heath in Surrey, 
 ■ they were first examined ; but, as thi 
 
 nilly developed and better seen in the Isle of 
 i, the rocks there are now considered the 
 I representatives of the series. The strata are 
 arranged into four groups: 1. The Upper B. />'.. 
 ill of yellow and white sands with ferru- 
 ginous stains, generally unfossili 
 mini ptdon exists at Wliiteclitl Bay, Isle 
 
 of Wight, win i bi 1 contains a large nun 
 \ . triable shells. 2. The Barton beds, consisting 
 of coloured clays inter- tratilicd with sand and 
 They are rich in fossils, chiefly the si 
 but contain also the remains of a G 
 
 1 reptiles. Here, too, the Nurntmdite (q. v.), 
 
 80 characteristic of the Tertiary formations, makes 
 
 rat appearance in a descending order. This 
 
 genus dies out with the NwnmuMtu variola) 
 
 small species found in these beds. 3. The Brack- 
 
 , so called from their extensive develop- 
 
 at Bracklcsham Bay, near Chichester in 
 
 , are composed of marly clays and white 
 
 capped by a bed of flint-pebble con 
 
 ling on dark carbonaceous clays. This 
 is the most highly fossiliferous group in the series. 
 Two species of plants have been noticed. The 
 remains of 6 reptiles and 21 fishes have been 
 bed, besides a long list of mollusca, amongst 
 which is the magnificent Cerit/rinm (q. v.) < 
 - so conspicuous in the C'alcaire grot 
 Paris, where it is sometimes two feet in length. 
 The prevalence of genera now only known as inha- 
 bitants of tropical or sub-tropical seas, such as 
 volutes and cowries, together with their companion 
 lunvdites and corals, makes it highly probable that 
 a warm climate prevailed during the deposition of 
 strata. 4. The Lower 11. I',., consisting of 
 alternations of variously coloured sands with gray, 
 chocolate-coloured, or white pipe-clays. The white 
 clays contain the only fossil organisms found in this 
 group— beautifully preserved leaves spread out in 
 vers of the clay. 
 The series rests on the true London clay. Its 
 maximum thickness is about 1200 feet. 
 
 BA'GUL, or BHA'GUL, a small state in Korth- 
 [ndia, on the south or left bank of the Sntlej. 
 It contains about 100 square miles, and 
 
 fonts, yielding the high ! -tin) inhabi- 
 
 tants to a square mile, its lat is about .'11° N., 
 and long. 77' E. The surface is generally mountain- 
 preaenting two summits, Etal h and 
 
 Bara Devi, h, ly 6233 and 7003 
 
 H iih a revenue od ti 90, B. 
 
 arly 3000 men under arms. 
 
 D AHA'MAS, or LUCAY'OS, a chain of is! ' 
 stretching in a north-west direction from 
 bourhood of the north coast of Hayti to that of 
 the east coast of Flor i Florida r 
 
 separal isel |jhro i fa which Bo 
 
 Gulf Stream (q. v.) ; and from Cuba, 
 oa Channel These are the 
 n the open ocean and the Gulf of M 
 The chain extends in X. lat. from 
 and in W. long, from 72" 40' to 70° 5', having an entire 
 
 length from north-west to south-east of about 560 
 and it rests mainly on two shoals— th 
 
 Bank to the south, and the Little Bank to the north. 
 lands are | i in number. Ti 
 
 no account of coral rocks, or of sandy shelves, the 
 ■rs of the group, if reckoned from the 
 
 north--. Great Bahama ; A 
 
 l-.li mthera ; New I -.aliani 
 
 or Cat Island Salvador; Wathj 
 
 Exuma; i. on 
 
 ! is; Turk's I 
 
 The estimated .- |es; and, in 
 
 1851, th*e population was officially stated I 
 27,519 5499 white rsons, and 22,020 co' 
 
 generally i 
 narrow, and low— so much so, that in 
 smaller islands crops a: I y the 
 
 spray of the sea. With very lit nee of 
 
 porous rock to r ■■: 
 excellent pa 
 
 cotton, pine-apples, lemons, i' and a 
 
 of cinnamon. In '.' la, too, 
 
 : excellent timber, both for 
 for cabin, t-w irk. Si >me of the more southerly links 
 of the i : ily on their salt-] 
 
 the summer, the temperature ranges from 7 
 03° F. ; but in the wiuter the climate i 
 fully temperate, as to be generally prescribed in the 
 United St ites for pulmonary complaints. The 
 fall of rain is from 43 to 45 inches, being hea\ 
 October, November, and D , butpretty equally 
 
 mted over the other months. Hurrican 
 not unknown, for three severe ones have been n 
 within the last sixty years. 
 
 The B. were Columbus's earliest discovery. But 
 Hie precise spot of his first landing has not 
 ascertained. Guanahani or Cat Isl nerally 
 
 been believed to be the San Salvador of Columbus ; 
 but recent investigations appear to have tram 
 the honour to \ Vat ling's Island, situated a little 
 The B. having been depopulated, 
 but not aga d, by the Spaniards, were 
 
 English in 1029— to whom, after 
 various vicissitudes of fortune in the wars with 
 Spain and France, they were ultimately secured by 
 the treaty of 17.S:>. Nassau, in New Providence, is 
 the seat of government. Politically, however, the 
 
 has been recently BU The more 
 
 southerly islands, particularly Turk's Island and the 
 Caicos, have, at their i tion, been 
 
 rated from the B., ami erected into a dependency 
 of Jamaica. 
 
 BAHA'R, a district in the 
 so called from a town of 
 
 in X. lat. from 24' 12 to! from 
 
 S3 25' to 86 6'. It contains 5694 square miles, and 
 2,500,000 inhabitants, yielding an avi I 
 inhabitants to square mile. It is I 
 the X. by Patna; on the i:. and X. E., by Mod 
 on the s,, by Ramghur an 1 P 
 \V., by Mirzapore; and on the X". I!., by Shaha- 
 bad. Its towns are: Gayah, the chief place; I 
 now in rui i I ival, Juha- 
 
 nabad, Aurungabad Eto Hoi as. The 
 
 in general, arc said to be worse than those of 
 almost any country prof I ; but 
 
 roads and bridges well mad 
 
 thoroughly i here, during nearly half the 
 
 the surface i a try is inundated, and 
 
 torn by innui irrents. In the dry b 
 
 the beds of the rivers present on' 
 Among the minerals, the most important are coal and 
 
 i he latter, nearly as pellucid as «la<s. is 
 times found in bio i oi 86 inches 
 
 by IS. Potatoes, cabbages, "cauliflower, lettuces, 
 
 619
 
 BAIIIA-BAI.K 
 
 turnip have been i I from Europi 
 
 I U, Of indigenous productions, the most 
 d jar, cotton, indigo, and 
 i Is ly engaged in the 
 
 manufacturing i>f muslins, silks, carpets, blanki t ■■. 
 tents, tapes, threads, ropes, paper, glass, cutlery, 
 jewellery, leather, ink, soap, and pottery, i 
 spirits, too, are exl a ively distilled from the B 
 
 [q. v.). Before the d kys even 
 
 of Mosl tion, B. appears to have been the 
 
 centre of a Hindu empire, which native .-1000111113 
 
 as oi m hie i splendour, and of fabulous 
 
 duration. 
 
 BAHI'A, capital of the Brazilian province of the 
 
 sauic name. It is otherwise called San Salvador — 
 the more usual term being taken from Bah 
 
 itos, or Bay CjA - on which it 
 
 is situated, in lat. 1.'! I' S., and long. 38° 32 W. B. 
 contains about 125,000 inhabitants, pretty equally 
 divid '1 between whites, blacks, and mule bo 
 The number of vessels entering the port of B. in 
 1S5S was 1084, with a tonnage of 220,478, while 
 the number clearing out was 909, with a tonnage of 
 220,158. The shipping trade for the last two or 
 three years has been 011 the decline. The 
 imports for home consumption into B., in ls.">7, was 
 £2,325,152; and the value of exports in the same 
 yi it. £1,984,819. The chief exports of B. arc sugar, 
 cotton, coffee, tobacco, rice, rum, dye-stuffs, 
 
 woods, cocoa-nuts, horns, hides, and bullion; and it 
 imports manufactured goods, provisions, Hour, salt, 
 iron, glass, and wines. ]!. is the oldest city in I L 
 having been founded by the first captain-general of 
 
 the country, and was for a long tune the capital 
 of the whole colony. 
 
 BAHI'A, a province of Brazil, about the middle 
 of the coast, taking its nam" from its chief city. It 
 extends in S. Lit. from 10' to 10', and in W. long. 
 from 37° to 44°. Its length is 480mUes; and its 
 breadth about half as much. Its population in 
 
 1856 was 1,100,000. In addition to the usual pro- 
 ductions of the tropical regions, it yields salt and 
 Brazil-wood. The interior contains lofty I 
 but the maritime districts arc fertile, being well 
 watered by the Itapiciiru, Contas, and other rivers. 
 Besides tin- .streams that flow through B., the San 
 Francisco, a vastly larger river, forms about half of 
 the inland boundary, dividing this province from 
 that of Pernambuco. 
 
 BAHI'A HO'NDA, a harbour 0:1 the north 1 
 of Cuba, GO miles west south-west of Havana, 
 protected by a fort, ami much resorted to by 
 privateers and slavers. 
 
 BAHNA'SA, or BKIIX K'SEH, a town of Central 
 Egypt, on the Jlahr Yousef (Joseph's (anal). It is 
 noteworthy as the site of the ancient OxyryncJuis, 
 celebrated for its numerous monasteries, the ruins of 
 which are still to be seen. 
 
 BAHR, an Arabic word signifying a large body 
 of water, is applied both to lakes and rivers. Baiii:- 
 ki.-Aiiiad (the White River), and Baiii: -ij.-A/i: LK 
 (the Blue River), are the chief branches of the 
 Nile ((|. v.). — B.vnr.-Assu. is Bake Assal (q.v.). — 
 Bahr-Bela-Ma (the Sea without Water), a Ion- 
 deep valley in the desert., west from Cairo. It is 
 completely barren, but has the appearance of having 
 been once a water-course. 
 
 BAHR, .Tun. CHRISTIAN Fki.ix, an eminent 
 German philologer and critic, was born, 1708, at 
 Darmstadt, He was educated at the Heidelberg 
 gymnasium and university, where he gained the 
 favour and friendship of Creuzer, whose symbolic 
 system 01' interpretation in mythological matters he 
 himself pursued at a later period. He was elected 
 
 .1 professor in ls-JO. Previous to this, he hid 
 occupied himself chiefly with tie m and 
 
 in of Plutarch, the result of which v. 
 
 annotated editi I I i (Ibid, 1822), and of 
 
 io m» a. Flat I i 1826). At 
 
 I he ime i im . b i ied tin' frag- 
 
 ments of Ctesias. Bid a greater interest was i i i d 
 by his ! i atuTi (1828), which is 
 
 noted for its clean) Three 
 
 supplements to this work have also appeared: '/'/;.; 
 H /,'":/'■ t is;: 
 
 IS.')7), and tie' History 
 ni' Soman Literature in the Carloving 
 (1S10). One of his most important works is his 
 - of ll.rodotus (1832 1835). In 1835, he 
 published his De Univereitah Oonaiantinopoli Quinto 
 Saculo CoTiditd. lie has likewise contributed num- 
 articles to Jalm's Jahrbuch r JUr PhUolooie, 
 and other works. 
 
 B UIHDT, KARL Frtedrich, b German theo- 
 logian of the extreme sceptical school, was born, 
 1741, at Bischofswerda, in Saxony, and studied at 
 1 , where he so-ni displayed extraordinary 
 
 tahuts, and some i of disposition. IBs; 
 
 early theological writings betrayed the sceptical 
 t adencies which were afterwards more fully de- 
 veloped. On account of In, immoral conduct, how- 
 ever, he was, in 1768, comp lied to leave Leipsic, 
 he had been a popular preacher. In Erfurt, 
 his next residence, lie was appointed professor of 
 Philosophy and Hebrew Antiquities, ami wrote 
 Letters mi a Systematic Th ology, and Aspirations 
 
 qf a Mill' Patriot, two works whose heterodoxy 
 involved him ill controversies, and made his position 
 untenable. In 1771, he went to Giessen, where he 
 delivered theological lectures, and preached with 
 approbation. His translation of the New Testament 
 was regarded as so dangerous, that the author was 
 deprived of th" privilege of teaching. His creed, 
 
 in fact, was simple He: m, and one of the chief 
 points in his theology was his rejection of miracles. 
 Even the immortality of the soul was not positively 
 maintained in his works. I 'II imaMy. after attempt 
 ing to establish various institutions, he was reduced 
 to the position of a tavern-keeper; and as he still 
 persevered in his attacks on orthodoxy, he was 
 imprisoned for one year at Magdeburg, where ho 
 an autobiography. Among his others works 
 are — The Religious Edict (a satire on the Prussian 
 religious edict of 178S), and Tin: Qerman Union. 
 lie died at Halle, April 23, 17'. 1 -'. 
 
 BAHBEI'N ISLANDS, or AVAL 1ST. AND--, 
 a group of islands lying in the Persian Gulf. The 
 
 most important of these is Bahrein, or Aval, about 
 27 miles long, and 10 broad. It is hilly in the 
 centre, but the soil generally is fertile, and produces 
 dates, figs, and other eastern fruit, besides wheat 
 and barley. Bahrein is badly cultivated. Spring- 
 water is plentiful in the interior, but ou the coast 
 it can only be procured from the bottom of the 
 sea, where it springs up quite fresh, and is brought 
 up by divers in skins. Manama, the capital, in lat. 
 26° 12' N., and long. 50° 30' E., has a good harbour 
 on the north, but a safer though smaller one on the 
 south. The B. B are chiefly remarkable for their 
 
 pearl-fisheries, which were known in ancient times, 
 
 and which employ, during the season, from 2000 to 
 ."000 boats, each manned with from 8 to 20 men. 
 The annual value of the pearls is estimated at from 
 
 '-'-'HO. to £'300,000. Tortoise-shell, shark-fins, 
 
 and elates are also articles of export. The islands, 
 
 which have been subject to a g I many political 
 
 changes, are now inhabited by Arabs. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 BAI'.K, a small town of antiquity, on the coast 
 of Campania, 10 miles west of Naples, where the
 
 BAIKAL-BAIL. 
 
 present castle of Baja stands. When the Roman 
 empire was in its greatest the beauty 
 
 of its situation, the fineness of the surrounding 
 scenery, and the i of its mini 
 
 made B. such a favourite resort of 1 1 1- ■ Roman 
 nobles, that for want of spar.; for thrir baths ami 
 villas they encroached on the sea. Julius C'.xsar, 
 i Pompey, Marina, Julia Mamnuea, and others, 
 bad country -non Horace preferred B. 
 
 to all other places in the world. .Seneca warned 
 every one who desired to maintain dominion over 
 his passions, to avoid this watering-place. Cicero 
 thought it necessary to excuse himself for under- 
 taking the ■ 'I ecu Ccslius, a man who 
 I 1 1>., for 15. was considered by 
 the stricter moralists of those times as the abode 
 and luxury, and a den of vice. 
 The ruins, still standing on ' < ite coast, or 
 rising from the sea, are now the only evil 
 the former i a e of B., whose population, 
 dwelling in mean hovels, only amounts to SOD. 
 The ruins of thiv temples — one of Venus. 
 one of Mercury, and one of Liana Lucifera — as well 
 as the remains of a few thernue, or warm baths, 
 still attract the attention of archaeologists. The 
 harbour, one of the largest belonging to the Romans, 
 is now much destroyed The surrounding country 
 is covered with the ruins of Roman villas, sepul- 
 chral monuments, and other buildings. 
 
 BAI'KAL (in Turkish, Bei-kul, i.e.. Tli h Lake) 
 
 is, after the -Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral, the 
 
 largest lake of Asia. It is a fresh-water lake, and 
 
 buated in the south of Siberia, in the gov. of 
 
 Irkutsk, near the great military road between 
 
 Moscow, Kiachta, and the mines of Xortschinsk. 
 
 51 W to 55 3f/ N., long. 103° to 110' E. 
 
 It somewhat resembles a sickle in shape, and 
 
 varies considerably in breadth. Between the mouths 
 
 of the Selenga and the Buguldeicha, it is only 
 
 19 miles across. Its length is about 400 miles, 
 
 and its average breadth 4.~> miles ; the estimated 
 
 I miles. The Baikal Moun- 
 
 a spur of the Altai, enclose the lake, which 
 
 by numerous streams, the chief of which 
 
 are the Selenga and Bargusin. Its outlet is 
 
 by the Lower Angara, a chief tributary of the 
 
 Yenisei ; but the river is inconsiderable in size 
 
 compared with those which flow into the lake. It 
 
 has several islands, the largest of which, Olkon, 
 
 has a length of 30 miles. B., which forms an 
 
 important link in the chain of communication 
 
 between Eta ia and China, has two commercial 
 
 ports, and of recent years, steam-boats have given a 
 
 on and 
 
 aeries arc valuable, and large quantities of a 
 
 fish resembling a herring are also caught in it. A 
 
 r lish, called the golomynka ('''iilionymw 
 
 I, which is almost one mass of fat, yield- 
 
 dutiful train-oil, was at one time caught in 
 
 immense numbers, but it is now much scarcer. 
 
 The surface ke is frozen from November 
 
 ril, but the traffic is carried on over the ice. 
 
 Russians Bettled on the banks of the 
 
 lores of Lake 15. are also 
 
 inhabited by tribes of the Borates and 'funguses. 
 
 15AIL is a technical term in the practice of the 
 law both in England and Scotland, with this differ- 
 ence, that, in Kngland, it is used both in civil and 
 criminal procedure, whereas in Scotland it is applied 
 
 Lvely to the latter. By B. is nndi 
 the Security given by sufficient sureties for the 
 »ppea] art on a day, and at a place certain, 
 
 of a person arrested or imprisoned, anl v. 
 uoh security or B., is in the 
 time set at liberty, buck security, however, involves 
 
 the assumption of the custody of the arrested or 
 imprisoned party by his B., the meaning of the rule 
 that the party arrested or in 
 ■ d into the hands of those who bind tkem- 
 selves for his forthcoming, in order that he may 
 itected from prison until he has to make 
 his personal app sarance ; and, in this sense, it 
 differed from the old term, main},, solete, 
 
 and which signified a mere security without any 
 other or corresponding guarantee, as in the case of 
 bail. A technical and necessary distinction is taken 
 in law-books between what is called common B., or 
 /;. t, render to prison, and special /.'., or D. to the 
 action; but for general information, the following 
 statement of the law may soft 
 
 In civil process, the sureties give their bail-bond 
 to the sheriff himself for the appearance of the 
 di fi ndant, according to the exigency of the case, 
 and for nothing else. It does not appear that any 
 particular or limited number of sureties is to be 
 taken ; but it would seem that the sheriff cannot 
 insist on more than two, provided they have both 
 sufficient property within the county to answer the 
 penalty ; but if more than two be tendered, it is 
 not necessary that each should be worth the full 
 amount On the other hand, the bail-bond will be 
 good though there be only one surety ; but in 
 accepting such security it would seem that the 
 sheriff does so at his own risk. If there is reason- 
 able ground for believing the sureties to be sufficient, 
 tion, but is bound to accept 
 the B. ; and if he refuses to do so, he is liable to an 
 action. 
 
 The necessity of B., however, may be avoided 
 by the defendant availing himself of the provisions 
 of the 43 Co. 111. , . 46, extended by the 7 and 8 
 Geo. IV. c. 71, by which it is enacted that the 
 arrested or imprisoned party may obtain his imme- 
 diate discharge by depositing with the sheriff the 
 sum demanded by the plaintiff, together with C10 
 towards the costs, the same to remain in court to 
 abide the event of the suit. The 7 and S Geo. I V.. 
 however, contains a proviso that it shall be lawful 
 for a defendant who has made such deposit in pay- 
 ment, at anytime in the progress of the ■ 
 issue joined, or final or interlocutory judgment, to 
 receive out of court the sum so deposited and paid, 
 upon putting in and perfecting special 15., and 
 paying such costs as the court shall direct ; and. by 
 another enactment of the same statute, provision is 
 made for the case where a defendant who has put 
 in B., afterwards elects to deposit the plaintiff's 
 demand, and to pay the costs to abide the event of 
 the action. 
 
 As to those who maj- or may not be B., it would 
 appear, from the nature of the security undertaken, 
 that persons privileged from arrest cannot be B., 
 because the engagement on the part of the B. being, 
 in default of the principal party, to pay the d 
 dama_" . the plaintiff is entitled to require 
 
 the security of persons who are amenable to the 
 ordinary process of the courts. Therefore, ; 
 members of parliament, ami . and other 
 
 ;ed persons, cannot become bail ; nor, 
 ally, can attorneys or those employed in executing 
 the process. But persons who an- not in such a 
 position, but who are either housekeepers or free- 
 holders, may be taken as bail. The possession of 
 leasehold property is not enon • the party is 
 
 also a housekeeper ; bul vner of a/ 
 
 . r -in ill it may be, situated witkiu the 
 jurisdiction of the court, and provided he can other- 
 make up the- amount required, is qualified, 
 though he be only a lodger, or merely an occupant 
 by sufferance in the house of another. Again, to 
 constitute a ' housekeeper,' within the meaning of 
 
 eii
 
 BAIL COURT— BAILEY. 
 
 le, the house must be within the jurisdiction 
 and such n party must be the bn. 
 tenant of the houso in his own right, enjoying its 
 benefit ng its burdens. A person, 
 
 fore, in 1, but with ■ house in 
 
 Scotland, is not admissible as B. ich B. 
 
 must strictly in this sense be a nob 
 ' householder ' seems not to be sutl: 
 Stephen. 
 Besides t: • ments of the common law 
 
 with regard to 15., we may mention two other form3 
 of it — namely, B. in Error, and B. in Alton 
 The former is regulated by the Common Law Pro- 
 cedure Act (1852), 16 and 16 Vict c. 7<>, by section 
 it is provided that proceedings in error 
 shall not stay or delay execution on a judgment, 
 unless the person or pleading such 
 
 shall be bound, al no sufficient sureties, in 
 
 double the sum recovered by the judgment, in 
 to prosecute the proceedings in error with effect, 
 and make payment of the costs, in the event of the 
 judgment being affirmed, or the proceedings in error 
 
 discontinued. B. in attachment, again, signi- 
 fies the sureties required for a party arrested upon 
 a writ of attachment, and brought up before a judge 
 in order to obtain his discharge from custody, the 
 that he shall appear and 
 answer such interrogatories as maybe requ 
 him. '. T, only applies to attachment in 
 
 the case of contempt of court ; for it would appear 
 that an attachment for the non-payment of money, 
 or the non-performance of an award, is not bailable. 
 In the Court of Chancery, also, there are rules for 
 accepting B. ; as, for instance, for a defendant 
 whom attachment has issued for his contempt in 
 not making appearance to the plaintiff's suit ; but 
 an attacliment for non-performanco of a decree in 
 Chancery is not a bailable process. 
 
 Tn criminal procedure, the subject of B. is at 
 present regulated by the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 42, 
 les that if the justice or justices, before 
 whom a prisoner is brought, shall be of opinion that 
 the evidence against the prisoner be sufficient, or 
 even if it raise a strong or probable presumption of 
 his guilt, they shall either commit him to prison, or 
 admit him to B. — that is, allow him to be discharged 
 on entering into a recognizance — with some sufficient 
 surety or sureties — to appear and surrender himself 
 to custody, to take his trial on such indictment as 
 may be found against him, in respect of the charge 
 in question, at the next assizes or sessions of the 
 peace. The crime of treason, however, is not a 
 
 ile offence, except by order of a Secretary of 
 State, or by the Court of Queen's Bench, or by a 
 Judge thereof in vacation. But Justices are bound 
 
 i lit to B. in all cases of misdemeanour, i 
 ing in the case of a misdemeanour in receiving 
 property stolen or obtained by false pretences, or in 
 the case of any misdemeanour for the prosecution of 
 which the costs may be allowed out of the county 
 rate, as to all which misdemeanours, as well as in all 
 felonies — treason excepted — justices and magistrates 
 have a discretionary power either to admit to B. 
 or to commit to prison. The Court of Queen's 
 Bench exercises a paramount jurisdiction and con- 
 trol over this department of criminal practice ; but 
 it is not usual for that court or for justices or 
 magistrates to admit to B. ,in any case of felony, 
 except under circumstances of a special and favour- 
 able kind. 
 
 In Scotland, the term B., as wo have mentioned, 
 is only used in the proceedings in the criminal 
 courts; and there the general distinction is taken 
 between offences that are capital and not capital, 
 the former not being bailable except by order of the 
 High Court of Justiciary, who exercise a power in 
 622 
 
 tliis respect analogous to the jurisdiction of the 
 Court of Queen's Bench; offences that are not 
 ; bailable by m 
 mpetent judj e ■■. !u the i foil proce a of tho 
 
 ts, the term corresponding to 1J. is 
 m ('[. v.). 
 
 BAIL COURT is the name given to a new and 
 
 supplementary tribunal at \V . called into 
 
 ice by the 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. c. 70, 
 
 by which, after providing for the appointment of an 
 
 additional puisne judge in each of the three courts 
 
 of common law, it is made lawful for any one of the 
 
 if either of these courts, when occasion shall 
 
 i re, where the other judges of the same court 
 
 are sitting in banc I • B* apart from 
 
 them for the business of adding and justifying 
 
 i-ging insolvent debtors, adm 
 tering oaths, receivii: > declarati 1 by 
 
 and deciding upon matters in 
 motion, and making rules and orders in causes and 
 i depending in tho court to which such judge 
 shall belong, in the same manner and with the samo 
 force and validity as may be done by the court 
 sitting in banc. 
 
 This statute has been hitherto acted on only by 
 the Court of Queen's Bench, wherein ono of the 
 sits from time to time in the B. 0. for the 
 purposes above specified. It may i 
 a ride of the B. C. cannot be reopened in the full 
 court after tho term in which it is made, even 
 though the judge who pronounced it sanctions the 
 application ; and a judge sitting apart, under the 
 authority of tho statute, has equal authority with 
 the full court to reverse the decision of a judge 
 sitting at chambers. See Lush's Practice by Stephen. 
 
 BAILEE'. See Bail 
 
 BAI'LEY, derived through the French bailie, from 
 the middle age Latin BalUDM, which is a corruption 
 of the Lat. valhim, a rampart. The B. was the 
 whole space enclosed within the external walls of a 
 castle, with the exception of that covered by tho 
 keep. This space was variously disposed of, and, 
 of course, differed greatly in extent. Sometimes it 
 consisted of several courts, which were divided from 
 each other by embattled walls, so as to form a series 
 of fortifications. When these courts were two in 
 number, they were known as the outer and inner 
 bailey. The entrance to tho B. was generally by a 
 drawbridge over the ditch, and through a strong 
 machicolated and embattled gate. The B. was often 
 of great extent, containing the barracks for the 
 
 for workmen and artificers, i 
 zincs, wells, i tea even a monas- 
 
 tery. In towns, the B. had even a wider sigi 
 id was often retained after the castle or 
 had long dis s in the case of the Old B. 
 
 in London, and the B. in Oxford. 
 
 BAI'LEY, Philip Jams, a distinguished living 
 poet, was born at Basford, in the county of Not- 
 tingham, in the year 1S16. His early education 
 was conducted in his native town, and afterwards 
 
 .ine a student at the university of Glasgow. 
 
 s called to the English bar in 1840, but 
 never practised. The first edition of Festtts, the 
 poem by which he is best known, was published in 
 1839, and has in subsequent editions received a large 
 amount of new matter. It attracted considerable 
 notice in England, and was in America assailed by 
 a perfect tornado of applause. While the enthusiasm 
 
 Jlr B. was in certain quarters mentioned in 
 the same breath with Shakspeare, Milton, and 
 Goethe. This injudicious admiration was, however, 
 certain to cool down, and to prove more prejudicial 
 to the real interests of the author than unmerited
 
 BAILIE-BAILIWICK. 
 
 censure itself ; consequently, in literary journals, 
 Feslus is frequently mentioned with a contempt 
 which it is far from deserving. It is a wonderful 
 - the author at the period of it3 
 ken into account. It was com- 
 menced before the author had reached his 20th 
 year, ai Lcompl . Feetus errs from 
 
 ■lr B. speaks of universes as 
 other poets speak of hutter-cups. He has the 
 to Che highest heaven and to the regions of 
 fire. He is on terms of perfect familiarity with 
 Eternity. He lays his scenes in the ' Centre,' 
 where,' ' !.. ,' 'Nowhere.' Despite its 
 
 extra\ I Ml of poetical thought and 
 
 ; occasional d 
 
 grim humour in it, not unworthy of Goethe's mock- 
 inn fiend himself. The faults of the poem are as 
 , the beauties j there is no congruity or 
 proportion in it, anil you lay it down with a 
 
 [miration qualified with disgust. In 185H, Mr 
 B. published the Angel World, which possesses all 
 the faults and all the beauties of the former work 
 on a reduced scale. If the reader's admiration is 
 less, his disgust is less. The Anr/el World is now 
 incorporated with the larger work. -Mr B.'s sub- 
 
 i 
 
 a colloquial satire. The first production is in the 
 
 writer's early style, with all the beauties d 
 The second is an attempt in a new field. But 
 whatever measure of success may attend Mr B. in 
 ' Elsewhere' and ' Nowhere,' complete failure 
 him when he deals with mankind and the ordinary 
 ; and follies of earth. 
 
 BAI'LIE, a Scotch term, with Bevi ral legal appli- 
 cations. It chiefly, however, aud popularly, si 
 
 rior officer or magistrate of a municipal cor- 
 poration in Scotland, with judicial authority within 
 the city or burgh. In royal burghs, the olhce is in 
 some respects analogo\i3 to that of Alderman in 
 
 ad. The chief magistrate of a Scotch cor- 
 poration, called the Provost (q. v.), and often one 
 or more of the bailies, are, in virtue of their office, 
 in the commission of the peace ; and by tho 6 
 Geo. IV. c. 22, bailies are exempted from serving 
 on juries. There are also Bailies of Regality and 
 Barony, who are appointed by the Superior or 
 over-lord of the manor (q. v.), with l imi ted powers 
 fixed by the 20 Geo. II. c. 43. There is a B. for 
 the Sanctuary or Abbey of Holyrood, appoii. 
 the I Hike of Hamilton as hereditary keeper, ami 
 
 ig jurisdiction within the precincts. See 
 Sanctuary. The word B. was also formerly a 
 lice of Scotch conveyancing, and 
 signified an officer who represented the seller, and 
 who, as such, in or sasine (q. v.), or-di 
 
 of the lands sold to the buyer or his attorney ; 
 but by the changes and simplifications effected by 
 recent legislation, the office of B. in this sense 
 may bo said to be virtually abolished ; ind 
 
 1 and 22 Vict. c. 70, s. 1, called The Titles 
 
 :id Ad, seisin itself, as a separate and inde- 
 pendent documentary title,, is declared to lie un- 
 necessary, and registration "of the conveyance of the 
 estate held to be sufficient. 
 
 BAI'LIFF in English, Bailie in Scotch, Bailli 
 
 in I'i "alio in ItaL, are terms having a 
 
 common origin — namely, the middle Latin ba 
 
 which is again conneetrd with the older form, 
 
 irfua. Through all the chai 
 
 li.m they have undergone in tho course of 
 
 v, they have continued to agree in denoting an 
 
 on t of some kind— an officer exercising superin- 
 
 ilf of some superior an 
 the Greek imperial court in Constantinople, I 
 tutor of the imperial children was called Bajtdos. 
 
 The same title seems also to have been given in 
 Constantinople to the superintendent of the foreign 
 merchants, who was appointed by the Vcm I 
 and it may possibly be for this reason tb. ' 
 me at length to be applied also I 
 
 n ambassadors I The title Bal- 
 
 livus was introduced by the Knights of St John into 
 the south and west of Europe, as the eight members 
 of their chapter 1 BaUivi conveniuales, 
 
 whence also the name Ballet, given to the circles 
 
 ich the possessions of the order were divided. 
 1 Baillis were at one time com- 
 manders of the troops, administrators of the royal 
 domains, and judg a each in his district. In later 
 times, the royal Baillis were of the two 
 
 latter offices, and were consequently then called 
 Baillis d'Epce only. Proprietors of estates, also, 
 possessing supreme jurisdiction, appointed Baillis to 
 courts of justice. As very little 
 knowledge was required for these situations, and as 
 they might be purchased, they were held in little 
 estimation ; and in later times, the Baillis became 
 standing characters on the stage, held up to ridicule 
 on account of their ignorance and their absurd pre- 
 tensions, as well as for cheating and injustice. In 
 
 1, the name B. v. need in the reign 
 
 of William L, to designate the superintendents of 
 counties, which were called Balliva;. 
 
 BAI'LIFF, in English law, is a legal officer, 
 and may be described ai the keeper, protector, or 
 superintendent of some duty or charge 1 
 
 d on him. As officers of the law, bailiffs 
 put in force arresting process, and they perform 
 
 i ities within the county or bailiwick required 
 of them by the sheriff, who is their immediate 
 official superior. In this sense bailiffs are either 
 bailiffs of hundreds, or bound bailiffs. The duty 
 of the former is to collect fines, summon juries, 
 attend the judges and justices at the assizes and 
 quarter-sessions, and execute writs and processes 
 in the several hundreds. Bound bailiffs, again, 
 are officers usually joined by the sheriffs with 
 
 liffs of hundreds, and employed on account 
 
 t adroitness and dexterity. They are called 
 bound bailiffs, because tho sheriff, being civilly 
 responsible for their official misdemeanours, they 
 are annually bound in an obligation, with sureties, 
 for the due execution of their office. There are 
 also special bailiffs, who are officers appointed by 
 the sheriff on the application of the party suing 
 out tho process to be execnt d; and whenever a 
 party thus chooses his own officers, he is con 
 tn discharge the sheriff from all responsibility for 
 what is done by him. There is, iother 
 
 of bailiffs, called bailiff 
 honours, manors, and other lordships and franchises, 
 whoso appointments, duties, and responsibilities are 
 regulated 'by the 7 Vict. c. 19. The county 
 likewise have bailiffs for the execution of their 
 process, as to whom see 9 and 10 Vict. c. 95, 12 and 
 I 3 Vict c. 101, 13 and 14 Viet c. 61, and 19 
 Vict. c. 
 
 The sheriff himself is the Queen's />'., and, as such, 
 it is his business to preserve the rights of tho 
 Crown within his bailiwick. He must seize to tho 
 sovereign's use all lands devolved to the Crown by 
 attain I at; must levy all lines aud for- 
 
 feitures; and must seize and keep all waifs (q. v.), 
 wrecks, estrays (q. v.), and the like, unless they bo 
 grant) d to some subject. 
 BAI'LIFF, HIGH. See High Bailiff. 
 
 BAI'IilWICK legally means the con 
 
 trict within I lifts may I 
 
 ■ says that this word 
 introduced by tho priucus of the Norman fine in 
 
 B8
 
 BAILLEUL— BAILLIE. 
 
 in, i i ii of the French, whose territory was divided 
 into bailiwicks, as that of England into count 
 
 BAILLEUL, a town of France, i 
 Nord, with manufactures of woolli us, 
 hats, beet-root, Bngar, &c. — the cl 
 bourhood being also celebrated. Pop. in 1856,5943. 
 
 BAI'LLIE, Joanna, a modern poetess of distin- 
 1 merit, was born in 1762 at Bothv 
 1 . Sc itlnnd, Her father was a Presby- 
 
 I i clergyman. She received a superior • 
 
 timi. and boo which 
 
 be admiration of the | 
 II:- career was a singularly happy one, but a 
 of all striking incident At an early period, she 
 went to re de in London, where li t I 
 Matthew Baillie, had establi I U as a phy- 
 
 Here sin- remained till her d h, » hich 
 id mii tin- _.'!il of February 1851, when she 
 had attained the ' eighty-nine. No 
 
 authoress ever enjoyed a larger aht esteem 
 
 ami affection of her literary contemporaries. All 
 vied in shewing her a courteous respect, and even 
 America sent its votaries to her little shrine at 
 Hampstead. Her greatest achievement is undoubt- 
 edly the Plays An the Passions, which, though 
 erroneous in conception, are full of noble 
 
 ill iv intense 
 dramatic power. The prin i which Miss 
 
 11. proceeded in the construction of these works, 
 was to take a Bingle passion as the subject of a 
 luence on an individual 
 i be actuated by nothing else. I ; 
 of fact, such persons do not exist in society; men 
 are swayed by a variety of conflicting emi 
 and i veil when any one of these bei 
 I, nit, it does not wholly di itroy the rest, otherwise 
 
 i ictiiii of a ruling passion would lap 
 a monomaniac. The leading pel onages of Miss 
 
 plays are, therefore, rather impersonations of 
 certnn elements of human nature, than genuine 
 human beings. They are vivid p [dies in 
 
 psychology ; not I 1 up to nature, like the 
 
 brilliant and variegated creations of Shah 
 Still, there are scenes, in her ti cially, 
 
 it of the reader is excited 
 
 by the great art shewn in the minute delil 
 Of a particular passion, and where he i-s forced to 
 the artificial theory of the authoress. The 
 
 volume of the /'/■■ P <nt appeared 
 
 in 170S, and met with remarkable success. Four 
 years aftei ■■ second volui 
 
 1804, -V ' llaneom Play : in 1812, the third volume 
 of her Plays of Oie Passions; and in 1836, 
 volumes of dramatic poetry. The most popular as 
 well as the most powerful of her works is the 
 tragedy of Di MorUfort It was brought upon the 
 in Lond hi. Kemble acting for eleven nights 
 the character of the hero. Many of Miss B.'l 
 pieces are very sweet, simple, and beautiful ; and 
 are marked by a sprightly grace of versification, and 
 a playful serenity of spirit, which pleasantly remind 
 one of the personal character of the authoress I 
 
 BAI'LLTE, Matttif.w, M.D., a distinguished 
 
 ian and anatomist, was born on the :27th 
 r L761, in tie- Manse of Shotts, Lanarkshire, 
 Scotland. His father was descended from the family 
 of I'.iillie of .lerviswood, so not listory 
 
 otland during the reign of Charles II.; bis 
 mother was a sister of the two celebrated anato- 
 xin Hunter ; and one of his 
 I i Baillie, the poetess. Talent seems 
 to have been both hereditary and abundant in the 
 family. On account of his abilities, his father was 
 appointed professor of divinity in the university 
 of Glasgow, where young B. went through the 
 
 usual curriculum, and afterwards proceeded to 
 Balliol College, Oxford, as an exhibitioner on the 
 
 Snell foundation. In 1780, he commenced Ins 
 anatomical studies in London under the care of Ins 
 uncle, tly employed as demon 
 
 tor to tie- latter in his tneati I t Windmill 
 Street. His success in this capacity was bo 
 that on the death of Dr Hunter, in 1783, he 
 
 qualified to be or. I a 1784, he 
 
 iid acquired a high reputation as 
 
 ions and lurid expositor of tie- science of 
 anatomy. In 1795, he published a small work 
 
 Morbid .1 of 
 
 ; of the Human Body. It mad i 
 
 era in medical science. In addition to the infor- 
 mation formerly scattered through the writin 
 Bonnetn .1. baud, ''•■'> ii si, and others, ii i 
 
 tailed a multitude of ingenious observations le 
 
 by his uncle and himself, and greatly enhanced our 
 knowled i the changes produced on the human 
 frame by disease. It had a remarkable intluence on 
 the study of medicine, and excited in a greater 
 
 measure than any oiler 1 k, a spirit of 
 
 careful induction among lal men. In 17!';>, 
 
 Dr B. relinquished his anatomical lectureship, and 
 in 1800, his appointment as physician to 
 Hospital, which he had held for thirteen years, He 
 now devoted himself exclusively to his duties as a 
 medical practitioner, and by his honourable assiduity 
 succeeded in realising a large fortune. In one of 
 his busiest years, when he had scarcely time to 
 take a single m d, his professional income is said to 
 have reached £10,000. In 1810, he wa appointed 
 
 iin to the king, and offered a bain 
 which, how v.r, he declined. At a "Ut 
 
 with inces int labour, he died on the 23d September 
 1S23. 
 BAI'LLl i:, Rob] i: r, one 
 
 most ire 'd' rate of all t 
 Presbyterian lie time of the civil 
 
 war, was born at Glasgow in 1599, and ed 
 at the university of that city. In 1622, hera 
 
 d ordination— episcopacy being then nomin- 
 ally tin- established religion of the country i 
 Archbishop Law, and was shortly a it ed to 
 1 1 of Kilwinning. At first a main- 
 tainer of I ice, he seems 
 to have changed his opin lis point some time 
 during 1630 1636. In 1G38, he sat in that famous 
 .1 Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland which m t. 
 in Glasgow to protest aga opacy being thrust 
 on an unwilling people, but conducted himself with 
 greater prudence and temperance than was quite 
 agreeable to his excited brethren. However, he 
 irew himself eagerly into tie- national cause. 
 In 1640, he was selected by the Scottish leaders, 
 on account of his pamphlet against Laud's party, 
 as a proper person to go to London, along with 
 ners, to prepare charges against 
 Archbishop Laud, whose rash and tyrannical 
 measures were alleged to have been the origin of the 
 litics against the sovereign. On his 
 return to Scotland in 1642, he was appointed joint- 
 divinity at Glasgow, along with Mr 
 David Dickson, an equally distinguished, but less 
 te divine. In 1043, he was again sent to 
 i as a delegate to the Westminster Assembly 
 of Di\ B he conducted himself in an 
 manner, but cordially concurred in the 
 doctrines which were drawn up. It is curious to 
 
 , in connection with this incident of his . 
 that though Mr B. had himself experienced the 
 injustice of intolerance, like almost every other 
 an of his age, he vehemently discarded the 
 principle of toleration, and asserted the divine right 
 of presbytery with as much emphasis as Laud did
 
 BAILLIE— BAILY. 
 
 the divin" right of episcopacy. After the execu- 
 tion of Charles I., in 1049, 13. was chosen by 
 the church to proceed to Holland, and to invito 
 Charles II. to accept the Covenant and crown of 
 Scotland. Though it was not easy to deal with 
 one of Charles's slippery character, B. is admitted 
 to have borne, himself in the matter with great 
 prudence and dignity. After the Restoration, he 
 was made Principal of Glasgow University. Ho died 
 July 1662. His Letters axe a valuable contribution 
 to our knowledge of the times. 
 
 BAI'LLIE, ROBERT, of Jerviswood, happily de- 
 scribed as the Scottish Sydney, was a native of 
 Lanarkshire, and distinguished himself during tin- 
 latter part of the reign of Charles II. by his bold 
 lion to the tyrannical misgovernment of the 
 le. Having on a certain occasion 
 (June 1070) rescued a relative, the Rev. Mr Kirkton, 
 from the clutches of Archbishop Sharp /a principal 
 informer, a wretched profligate of the name of 
 urs, who pretended that he had a wan-ant for 
 the apprehension of the clergyman, but refused to 
 sh '■-.-.• it, B. was actually prosecuted for interfering 
 to prevent the illegal capture of his friend. For this 
 purpose, an ante-date 1 warrant was furnished to 
 Carstairs, signed by nine of the councillors. The 
 Marquis of Athole afterwards admitted to Bishop 
 Burnet that he was one of the nine who lent their 
 names to this infamous document. The case was 
 therefore made out to be a tumult against the 
 
 fovernment. B. was lined in 6000 merks (£318). 
 fe refused to pay. and was sent to prison ; but so 
 strong was the indignation of the Scottish gentry, 
 that iie was released at the end of four months, in 
 consideration of payment of one-half of his fine to 
 Carstairs. In 16S3, B. took a prominent part in a 
 scheme of emigration to South Carolina, as he saw- 
 no other refuge from the degrading tyranny of the 
 government. About the same time, however, he 
 entered into correspondence with the heads of the 
 new Puritan party in London, whose leaders were 
 1. Sydney, and the Duke of Monmouth, and 
 subsequently repaired to that city to concert mea- 
 sures for a vigorous insurrection against the govern- 
 ment, not, however, so far as he was concerned, with 
 a view to revolution, but as the only means of secur- 
 ing adequate reforms. On the discovery of the 
 Ryehouse Plot, B. was arrested, and sent down to 
 Scotland. Accused of conspiring against the king's 
 life, and of being hostile to monarchical government, 
 B. was tried at Edinburgh, and condemned to deatli 
 upon evidence at once insignificant and illegal. His 
 bearing both on his trial and during his imprison- 
 ment was such, that his cousin, Bishop Burn/ 1, 
 declared ' it looked like a reviving of the spirit of the 
 noblest of the old Greeks or Romans, or rather of 
 ; primitive Christians and first martyrs ; and the 
 • II -rated Dr Owen speaks of him as a ' great spirit,' 
 ' a person of the greatest abilities I almost ever met 
 with.' The sentence was carried into execution on 
 the '21th December 1GS4. It is to be regretted that 
 v opportunities were' afforded B. of achieving 
 anything really great, for he seems from all accounts 
 to have possessed a remarkable strength of character 
 and noble fearlessness of spirit. 
 
 BAILLY, Jean Sylvain, a distinguished French 
 savant. President of the National Assembly of 17S9, 
 and Mayor of Paris, was born in that city, Septem- 
 ber 15, 1730. Originally intended by his father 
 for an artist, he first turned aside into literature. 
 Until, becoming acquainted with Laeaille, he was 
 fortunately induced to study astronomy, which 
 proved to lie the true sphere of his genius. In 1703, 
 sontedto the Academie ceshis Lunar 
 
 Oitervaiions ; in 1700, appeared his Etaau on tlte 
 
 40 
 
 Bob Uitet of Jupiter, with Tablet oftJieir Motions; and 
 in 1771. a treatise on the light of these sat' ; 
 remarkable for the profundity of its astronomical 
 views, and wliich classed him at once among the 
 greatest astronomers of his time. His historico- 
 scientific works, especially his History of Indian 
 Astronomy, are full of learning ami ingenious d 
 sition, and written with great elegance. In 1777, 
 he published his Letters on lite Origin of the Sciences; 
 and in 1799, his Atlantis of Plato. In 1784, he was 
 elected a member of the Academic Francaise j and 
 in the following year, of the Academie des Inscrip- 
 tions. The (loges which he wrote about this p 
 for the Academie des Sciences on Charles V., 
 Molifcre, Corneille, Laeaille, Leibnitz, Cook, and 
 Gre3set, were very highly praised. Fontenellc was 
 the oidy Frenchman before him who had enjoyed 
 the honour of being a member of the three academies 
 at once. The revolution interrupted his peaceful 
 studies. During the earlier part of it, he occupied a 
 very prominent position. Elected President of the 
 National Assembly, June 17, 1789, and Mayor of 
 Paris on the loth of July, he conducted himself in 
 these capacities with great integrity and purity of 
 purpose ; but at last lost his popularity by all 
 the National Guard to fire on the masses who were 
 assembled in the Champ de Mars, on the 17th of 
 July 1791, to demand the dethronement of the 
 He now threw up his mayoralty, considering it 
 impossible to satisfy cither party, withdrew alto- 
 gether from public affairs, and went to live first at 
 
 . and afterwards with his friend Laplace at 
 Melun. Here he was seized by the Jacobin soldiery, 
 and brought to Paris, where he was accused of I 
 a royalist conspirator, condemned and executed with 
 the usual Jacobin preliminary of savage insult, 
 November 11, 1793. Among his papers were 
 found, and afterwards published, an Essay on tlie 
 i ira/in of Fables and Ancient Bdigions (1799), and 
 Memoirs of the Revolution by an /.'. (1S04). 
 
 There cannot be two opinions regarding the merit of 
 D.'s stylo, but his historico-astronomical speculations 
 are now considered fantastic. 
 
 BAILMENT, an English law term, defined to 
 'a delivery of goods for a particular pur] 
 upon a contract, express or implied, that the pur- 
 pose shall be carried into effect, and that, when 
 that is done, the goods shall be restored by the bailee, 
 or person to whom they are delivered, to the owner 
 or bailor, or according to its directions.' — Tomlin's 
 Diet. 
 
 BAI'LY, EDWARD Honors. R.A.. an eminent 
 sculptor, was born at Bristol on the 10th M a fa 1788. 
 In 1807, he went to London, saw Flaxman, and 
 
 1 his studio. In 1S09, he gained the silver 
 medal at the Society of Arts and Sciences, and the- 
 silver and gold medals at the Royal Academy. 
 works during this part of his career were 
 
 ogether, classical figures. They exhibit great 
 eaie in execution, and are simple and pure in con- 
 ception; but itwas not till Ins twenty-sixth year that 
 the full power and originali! . mani- 
 
 fested itself in his celebrated"' Eve at the Fountain,' 
 a figure of exquisite grace and loveliness. His next 
 works were. • lb ■;• enles casting Lyeus into th 
 ' Apollo Discharging liis Arrows,' and ' Maternal 
 Love.' c lorge IV. .1- . employed him, along with 
 other artists, to execute the sculpture in front of 
 Buckingham Palace, the figures on the marble arch, 
 and the 'Triumph of Britannia,' as also the bassi- 
 
 iliat surround the throne-room. ]'.. 
 
 r of busts and Bl 
 led contemporaries, such as Telford the 
 irl Grey (14 feet high), and Sir Astley 
 i in, m Trafalgar Square, 
 
 is likewise the work of his hands. His ' Eve listening 
 
 i,:j
 
 BAILY— BAIRD. 
 
 to the Voice' the 'Sleeping Nymph,' ' Girl preparing 
 for the Bath,' and ' The Graces Seated,' are among 
 the finest efforts of his genius. [Died 22d May 1867.) 
 
 i: AI'LY, Francis, an eminent English astronomer, 
 was horn at Newbury, Berks, in 1774, and died in 
 London in 184-1. I n the midst of active busmen M 
 a London stockbroker, he laid the foundation of his 
 scientific fame, and during the years of life usually 
 devoted to repose, underwent labours and rendered 
 sen-ices to astronomy, which entitle him to be 
 regarded as one of the most remarkable men of his 
 Among the chief of t res were his 
 
 share in the foundation of the Astronomical Si 
 and in the improvement of the _\ 
 his laborious repetition of Cavendish's pendulum 
 experiments, and the production of the Astrono- 
 mical Society's Star-catalogue. The latter, says his 
 biographer, Sir J. Herschel, 'put the astronomical 
 world in possession of a power, which may be said, 
 without exaggeration, to nave changed the face of 
 sidereal astronomy.' In addition to several stand- 
 ard works on Life-annuities, &c. (1808— 1813), and 
 an immense mass of contributions to the Memoirs of 
 the Astronomical Society, he wrote a valuable Life 
 of Flamsteed (1835), which gave rise to much hot 
 discussion on the subject of that eminent man's 
 connection with Newton. 
 
 BAIN I, Gicseppe, one of the most distinguished 
 scientific musicians of modern times, was born in 
 Bome on the 21st October 1775. In 1796, whan 
 still only a pupil in the Seminario Romano, he was 
 admitted among the singers in the Papal Chapel, on 
 account of his tine voice and his musical acquire- 
 ments. Having been initiated by G. Zauuaconi into 
 the art of composition, he soon gained distinction 
 by his compositions. The severe gravity and pro- 
 found science of these contrasted strongly with the 
 careless style and shallow dilettantism of the modern 
 Italian masters. B. has secured for himself a pro- 
 minent place in musical literature, less, however, 
 by his compositions than by his historical researches, 
 which he found both encouragement and opportu- 
 nity to make, when he was appointed director of 
 the papal concerts in 1804, and general director of 
 the choir in 1814 His principal work is his Memorie 
 Storico-critiche delta Vita e delle Opere di Giov. 
 Pierluigi da Paleslrina, &c. (2 vols. Rome, 182S). 
 It is a valuable work, although disfigured by pre- 
 judices. The German edition of B.'s work, additions 
 and explanations by Kandler, published by I. 
 wetter (Leip. 1834), is especially deserving of notice, 
 as very soon after its first publication it became a 
 rare book on account of the small number originally 
 published. Winterfeld published an edition of the 
 same work with critical remarks (Breslau, 1832). 
 B. died on the 10th of May 1844. 
 
 BAIRAKTA'R, or, more correctly, Bairak-dar, 
 signifying Standard-bearer, is the title of the ener- 
 getic Grand Vizier Mustapha. He was born in 1755, 
 and was the son of poor parents. He entered the 
 military service at an early ace, and soon distin- 
 guished himself by his valour. When he was Pacha 
 of Rustchuk in 1806, he fought not without success 
 against the Russian army, which had advanced into 
 Moldavia and Wallachia, and had taken Bucharest 
 After the revolt of the janizaries in 1S07, by which 
 Selim IIL (q. v.) was deposed from the throne, 
 in favour of Mustapha IV., B. at first con- 
 cealed his attachment to the deposed monarch, and 
 marched with his troops apparently against the 
 revolted Servians ; but as soon as he reached 
 Adrianople, he compelled the grand vizier to return 
 with him to Constantinople, in order to restore the 
 throne to Sultan Selim. On their return, they found 
 this prince murdered, and his dead body lying 
 
 in the first court of the seraglio. Filled wit h 
 at this sight, B. caused all those to be executed who 
 had had any share in the murder. He d 
 Mustapha IV., and proclaimed the brother of this 
 prince, Mahmoud II., sultan on the 2Sth July 1808. 
 B. was now appointed grand vizier. In the ex 
 of this office, he deposed the grand mufti, the 
 of the janizaries, and all the ulemas who hail 
 any part in the last revolution ; while at the same 
 time he was careful to secure the tranquillity of the 
 capital, and strengthened the regular army. His 
 chief object was the annihilation of the janizaries; 
 but, like the unfortunate Selim, he also fell a victim 
 to these fierce bands of soldiery, who resisted 
 thing like military discipline. Favoured by the 
 fanatical people, the janizaries rebelled, and, with 
 the support of the Ueet, attacked the seraglio 
 ■ hi the loth November lso.s, and demanded the 
 restoration of Mustapha IV. ];. defended him- 
 self bravely ; but when he saw that the flames 
 
 ned to destroy the palace, and th.it 1 
 in danger of falling alive into his enemies' hands, he 
 strangled Mustapha, threw his head to the besiegers, 
 and then blew himself up. 
 
 BAIRD, Sik Davxd, Bart., a general in the British 
 army, was born 6th December 1757, at Nev. 
 Scotland. He entered the service in 1772 as an 
 
 in the 2d Foot, was promoted to a lieutenancy 
 in 1778, and immediately after obtained a company 
 in the 73d, a Highland regiment just raised by Lord 
 Macleod, with which he sailed to India. In the 
 course of a few months, the young officer was plunged 
 amid the perils of a sudden and sanguinary war. 
 The English had excited the hostility of Hyd.r Ali 
 by a gross breach of faith ; and in the July of 1780, 
 the latter burst into the Caruatic at the head of 
 
 i men, disciplined and commanded by French 
 officers. On the 10th of September, a portion of the 
 English army fell into an ambuscade at Perambou- 
 ciuu. and was cut to pieces. Among the few who 
 remained alive to be taken prisoners was Baird, 
 whose heroism had actually startled the French 
 officers who were opposed to him. He was thrown 
 into a dungeon at Seringapatam, where he endured 
 a captivity of four years, that must have been pecu- 
 liarly galling to a spirit so fierce, restless, and resolute 
 as his. Released in July 1784, he obtained the 
 majority of the 71st in 17S9, and in the October of the 
 same year visited England. In 1791, he returned, a 
 lieutenant-colonel, and took part in several important 
 sieges, attacks, and skirmishes; in 1795, he received 
 a colonelcy ; in 1798, he was raised to the rank of 
 major-general; and in 1799 memorably signalised 
 himself at the victorious assault of Seringapatam. 
 He led the storming- party, having obtained that 
 perilous honour at his own urgent request, Colonel 
 Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) com- 
 manding the reserve. In requital of his brilliant 
 services, he was presented by the army, through the 
 commander-in-chief, General Harris, with the state- 
 sword of Tippoo Saib, and also with a dress-sword 
 from the field-officers who served under him at the 
 assault TTia merit was likewise acknowledged by 
 the home government. In the following year, he 
 was appointed to the command of an expedition 
 against Batavia, but which was afterwards sent to 
 Egypt. On his return to India, he found that the 
 star of Wellesley was in the ascendant ; and B., who 
 had already complained of the preference given to 
 that officer, and who was, besides, of opinion that his 
 own merits were constantly overlooked, applied for 
 leave of absence, and saUed for Europe in 1803. He 
 was received at court with great distinction, knighted 
 in June 1804, and made a K.C.B. in the following 
 August. In 1S05, he commanded an expedition 
 against the Dutch settlements at the Cape of Good
 
 BAIREUTH— BAJUS. 
 
 Hope, which was successful ; in 1SD7, he commanded 
 a division at the siege of Copenhagen ; and in 1808, 
 was sent to .Spain with an army of 10,000 men, to 
 assist Sir John Moore. He distinguished himself in 
 the battle of Corunna, January 16, 1SO0. Moore 
 having been killed in the action, Sir David succeeded 
 to the chief command, and had the honour of coin- 
 municating intelligence of the victory to govern 
 On this occasion, ne received, for the fourth time in 
 his life, the thanks of parliament, and was created a 
 baronet. After this period, he retired from active 
 . In 1810, he married Miss Preston Campbell, 
 a Perthshire lady, by whom he left no issue. He 
 died, August 18, 1829. 
 
 BAIREUTH, a city. ' '' a pi .pidation of 17,000, 
 capital of the province of Upper Franoonia, Bavaria, 
 and formerly the capital of the principality of the 
 same name. B. is beautifully situated on the Red 
 Mayn, about 12G miles due north from Munich Its 
 streets are broad and well paved, and are inter- 
 spersed with groves, promenades, fine gardens, and 
 public fountains. Its principal buildings are the 
 old palace, now the residence of the provincial 
 governor; the new palace, containing a gallery of 
 paintings; the mint, opera-house, riding- school, 
 infirmary, and town-hall. Its chief articles of 
 industry are leather, cottons, woollens, linen, tobacco, 
 
 Earchment, and porcelain. Jean Paul Richter died 
 ere in November 1825, and a monument has been 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 BA'JA, an important market-town of Hungary, 
 in the circle of Bacs, on the banks of the Danube, 
 and celebrated throughout Austria for its annual 
 swine-fair. Grain and wine, in large quantities, are 
 produced in its neighbourhood. Pop. 14,500. 
 
 BA'JAN. See Bejan. 
 
 BA J AZE'T, orBAJASI'D (pronouncedBayaze't) I., 
 Sultan of the Turks, was born in 1347. In 13S9, 
 he succeeded his father, Murad I., who fell in battle 
 near Kossova, fighting against the Servians. Imme- 
 diately on asccmbng the throne, he inaugurated his 
 rule, after the fashion of eastern kings, by strangling 
 his younger brother Yacub, lest he should dispute 
 the succession. In three years, he conquered Bul- 
 garia, a part of Servia, Macedonia, and Th 
 he also subdued most of the states of Asia Minor. 
 From the rapidity with which these extraordinary 
 conquests were effected, he received the name of 
 Rderim — that is, Lightning. He even blockaded 
 Constantinople itself for ten years, thinking to subdue 
 it by famine. To rescue this city, King Sigismund 
 of Hungary (afterwards Emperor of Germany) as- 
 sembled a large army, in which there were 2000 
 French nobles under the command of the Duke of 
 Kivey. With this army, King Sigismund attacked 
 the city of Nikopolis, in Bulgaria, situated on the 
 Danube. B. hastened to meet him, and gained a 
 decisive victory over the allied Hungarians, Poles, 
 and French, on the 2Sth September 1396. Sigismund 
 escaped captivity only by a speedy flight in disguise ; 
 but the greater part of the French, through whose 
 impetuosity the battle was lost, were taken pri- 
 soners, and were nearly all executed. B. would now 
 have entirely destroyed the Greek empire, if he had 
 not been prevented by Timur (q. v.), who attacked 
 his possessions in Asia Minor, and completely de- 
 feat' d him on the 16th June 1401, near Angora, the 
 capital of what was anciently called Galatia, on the 
 very spot where Pompey had formerly overthrown 
 Mithridates. B. himself fell into the hands of the ' 
 conqueror, who treated him with great gen 
 The story that he was carried about imprisoned in a 
 cage is H ithout any historical foundation. B. died 
 in 1403, in the camp of Timur. He was succeeded 
 in the government by his son Soliman L B. was 
 
 honourably distinguished by his efforts to improve the 
 administration of justice. During the 14 years of 
 :i, he built a large number of mosques, among 
 others, one at Adrianople, and a second at Broussa, 
 which two cities were then the ordinary residences 
 of the Ottoman princes. 
 
 BAJ AZE'T II., son of the Sultan Mohammed DL, 
 the conqueror of Constantinople, was born in 1447, 
 and ascended the Ottoman throne after his father'.: 
 death in 1481. His reign, which lasted 32 years, 
 was a succession of uninterrupted wars against Hun- 
 gary, Poland, Venice, Egypt, and Persia, which were 
 carried on with various Buccess and without any 
 events of striking importance, yet which served on 
 the whole to establish the Ottoman power. The List 
 years of his reign were much disturbed by disputes 
 between his sons about the succession to the throne. 
 Influenced by the preference shewn by the janiza- 
 ries for his younger son Selim, B. abdicated in his 
 favour, but died before he could reach the place of 
 his voluntary exile, in the neighbourhood of Adri- 
 anople, in the year 1513. B. was a friend to the 
 dervishes, at the same time liberal and fond of pomp 
 and splendour. Many of the most beautiful mosques 
 in Constantinople and Adrianople were built by him, 
 and fitted up in a style of the greatest magnificence. 
 
 BA'JIMOXT \S ROLL, the name given to a 
 valuation, according to which the ecclesiastical 
 benefices of Scotland were taxed, from the end of 
 the 13th c. to the Reformation. It took its name 
 from an Italian churchman, Benemund or Baiamund 
 de Vicci, who was sent from Rome by the pope about 
 the year 1276, to collect the tithe, or tenth part of all 
 the church livings in Scotland, for an expedition to 
 the Holy Land. Hitherto, the Scotch clergy had 
 been taxed according to a conventional valuation, 
 called the A ntiqua Taxatio. But Baiamund set this 
 aside; and, in spite of their reclamations, assessed 
 the benefices at their actual yearly worth, or verur 
 valor. Although more than once referred to as an 
 authoritative document in statutes of the 15th c, no 
 complete copy of B. R., in its original shape, is now 
 known to exist. A contemporary manuscript of so 
 much of the Roll as applies to the archdeaconry of 
 Lothian, or that portion of the diocese of St And 
 which lies to the south of the Forth (comprehending 
 the counties of Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh, 
 Linlithgow, and part of Stirlingshire), is preserved 
 at Durham. The real value of the benefices in this 
 district, as set down in B. R., exceeds the eon 
 tional value in the A ntiqua Taxatio in the proportion 
 of 420 to 2S6. A copy of B. R-, as it appears to have 
 existed in the reign of King James V. (1513 — 1542), 
 is preserved in the Advocates' Library at Edin! 
 in a hand of the beginning of the 17th c It is full 
 of inaccuracies ; and it omits all livings of less than 
 rfca a year. Of the Antigua Tajrn'io, which 
 was superseded by B. R., there are good copies in 
 inheriting of the 13th c., so far as concerns 
 the benefices in the four dioceses of St Andrews, 
 Brechin, Aberdeen, and Moray. 
 
 BAJOCCO, or BAIO'CCO (pi Bajocchi), is a 
 copper coin in the Papal States, value nearly a half- 
 penny. It is l-100th of the scudo, which is 
 to 4*. Z\d. In the island of Sicily, the Neapolitan 
 grano, the l-100th part of the ducato (= Zs.id.), is 
 also called a bajocco. 
 
 BA'JUS, Michael (properly, De Bay), one of the 
 most distinguished theologians of th.- Catholic 
 fa in the 16th c, was born in 1513 at Melon. 
 [.bed at Louvain, and became professor of 
 theology there in 1660. He was present at the 
 Council of Trent in 1563, and also in 1564. He 
 was the founder of a system of theology, based
 
 BA.TZA— BAKEWLLL. 
 
 directly on the Bible and the writings of the 
 
 . s, and setting aside the scb 
 
 l Btndied much the writings ■ •:' si An 
 and therefore confined himself closely within the 
 circle of idem held by this Father of the church, 
 whose doctrines of the entire inability of the I 
 will to do good, and tin- absence oi mi ri1 in all 
 good works, B. defended i a a th ■ Ji The 
 
 ions that the human will, bo l"" 
 to its own freedom, can do nothing but sin, and that 
 . v. 11 the mother of our Lord was not free from 
 
 d and actual ain, together with other such 
 doctrines, drew on him the accusation of heresy. 
 Seventy-six of his propositions wi i ten ned by 
 a papal bull B. submitted, but aererth less did 
 not give up his doctrines, and, in coi ■-, the 
 
 persecutions to which he was subjected did not 
 cease. He died December 10, 15S9, having 
 the reputation of great learning, pure m 
 singular modesty. He ma; I as the 
 
 predecessor of the Jansenists, who inherited his 
 Augustinian views, which were at that time I 
 Bajanisin. His writings, mostly of a pol 
 nature, were publi i . - rberou (2 vols. 
 Cologne, lGUti). 
 
 BAJ'ZA, Anton, a Hungarian poet and prose- 
 writer, was born January 31, 1804, al 
 1 1 tes. His Poei ! were pub- 
 
 lished in l'esth. earned for him a place among the 
 be t Hungarian lyric poeta. In th 
 tern, to which he contributed from 1831 1836, the 
 At/ienceum, and th \1 ■ ■ r), to which 
 
 he contributed from 1837 — 1843, in common with 
 uiany of the best literary writers of the day. he 
 exercised a beneficial influence on the i 
 turc of Hungary by his severe criticism, and his 
 solid and theoretically correct essays. He likewise 
 materially aided the Hungarian stage, then in its 
 infancy, by the publication of tl 
 Biihne (Foreign Dramas, l'esth. lS;;i>). and also by 
 his exertions as director of the National Tl 
 opened in l'esth on August 22, 1S37. At the same 
 time, he had begun to occupy himself with hi 
 studies, and enriched the literature of Hungary, 
 very poor in this respect, with a TOrh n !» KSnyvtdr 
 (Historical Library, 6 vols., l'esth, 1S43- I 
 which contained translations from many excellent 
 foreign historical works. He also pub! 
 Dilation from the German, Uj Plutarch (The Modern 
 Plutarch, Pesth, 1845—1847). His Vil&g 
 (Universal History, Pesth, 1S47) IS a rather unskilful 
 compilation from Schlosser, Heiren, Kotteek, and 
 other German historians. After March 1848, Kos- 
 suth appointed him editor of his half-official 
 the Kosmik Hirlapja (July till December 1848), in 
 conducting which, however, he displayed no great 
 editorial talent. B. was made a of the 
 
 Hungarian Academy in 1S32. (Died L8 
 
 BA'KER, Sir Richard, author of the Chronicle 
 of the Kings of England, a book long esteemed and 
 quoted on all matters of En Li b b fcory by the 
 •country gentry. Addison makes his model squire, Sir 
 Roger de Coverley, refer to it frequently. Notwith- 
 standing its reputation, however, among that class, 
 the book had no lack of errors, and is now all but 
 forgotten. Its author was born in Kent, or, accord- 
 ing to other accounts, in Oxfordshire, about the 
 year lotis. II i was educated at Oxford Univer- 
 sity, and in 1G'>3 was made a knight About 1020 
 
 !, n, ried led in Oxfordshire, of which 
 
 county he was made high sheriff; but h<- was soon 
 after thrown into the lit Prison for d bt which 
 his wife's family had contracted, but for which la- 
 had become responsible. Here he wrote b 
 first published in 1G41, besides several pious Works 
 G2S 
 
 of less note. He died in prison, in great poverty, in 
 1646. 
 
 liA'KERIES, Army. Fon a I 
 
 ally the means of obtaining soft or loaf bread ; but 
 British troops, on active Bervice, are more freqi 
 confined to biscuit— much to their own - 
 t ic m. The French, ever since the time of 
 
 X 1 V., i.i , ■ i : I to take portable ovens 
 
 with their armies; those now used will each bake 
 -loll rations at once. Outside Sebastopol, in the 
 winter of 1854, the British soldiers Bometimes will- 
 ingly exchanged with the French three or four 
 pound oi b curl for one pound of soft bread. From 
 the attention now paid to the wellbeing of tin' 
 soldiers, tin-re is every reason to believe that 
 improvements will gradually be introduced into our 
 military system in this matter; tie- arm 
 and th commi ariat I ran) ly ri comm 
 liberal policy. The French d on bread 
 
 and h-ss on meat than the English; tend this may 
 partly account for the differ, nee. The 1 
 soldiers are taught to construct Seld and to 
 
 bake their bread in camp, while government B 
 
 . bed till over France, entirely conduct 
 soldiers. Among other lessons afforded b; the 
 
 mi Sebastopol, was one relating to an impi 
 supply of army-bread. Two bci 
 
 /•and the Abundance, were sent out t" 
 l.lava. one provided with machinery for grinding 
 corn, and the other with machinery and ovens for 
 making and baking bread. In r;uli 
 and the machinery were propelled by tie- i DOS 
 steam-engine. When quietly anchored in tie- har- 
 bour, tin- null ground 24,000 lbs. of Hour per day 
 ■ I cheaper than could have 
 been obtained by contract. The bakery ship Al 
 ance had four ovens of 14 bushels' capacity each ; it 
 baked in an excellent manner G0O0 loaves of 3 lbs. 
 each per day, which loaves were Bent up to the 
 ■my as soon as cooled. The ships and 
 machinery were sold when the war was over — a 
 
 u hieh tin- commi u iat officers i 
 regretted; but the experience thence obtained v, ill 
 not be lost. The improved arrangement bed 
 
 meat-rations will be noticed under COOKEBY, 
 Army. 
 
 BA'KEWELL, a small but very ancient town in 
 Derbyshire, on the left bank of the Wye, near its 
 confluence with the Derwent, and 24 miles north- 
 north-west of Derby. It lies on the slope of a lull, 
 in the midst of vn-y beautiful scenery, in a carboni- 
 ferous limestone trot, and in tin- vicinity of I 
 marble quarries, and of coal and lead mines. Its 
 chalybeate springs and warm baths are much 
 resorted to. The celebrated Arkwright first 
 li bed cotton-mills here. On the opposite bank of 
 the Wye are the traces of a castle built by Edward 
 the Elder in 924. B. is now the property of the 
 Duke of Rutland, whose seat is Haddon Hall, two 
 i i from the town. B. is a centre for visiting the 
 tine scenery of North Derbyshire and tie- Peak; 
 the streams in the vicinity are much resorted to by 
 anglers. It contains a spacious cruciform church, 
 founded in Saxon times, aie 1 shewing specim 
 ecclesiastical Gothic architecture of three dii 
 periods. Three miles from B. st 
 House, the splendid mansion of the Duke of Devon- 
 shire. Top. (1S51) 9S97. 
 
 ll.VKEWKLL, a celebrated agricul- 
 turist, was born in 172G at Dishley, in tin- c ity 
 
 of Leicester, and died in 17'Jo. He docs not 
 
 ■ to have written anything, even upon the 
 
 its with which he was so well acquainted, 
 
 t his fame rests entirely upon his BUCCj ul 
 
 efforts to improve the breed of domestic animals.
 
 RAKHTEGAX-BALAAM. 
 
 His reputation was so groat as a breeder of sheep, 
 that he is said t<> have received the fabulous 
 
 sum of 400 guineas for one season of a ram. The 
 long-horned breed of cattle which he introduced 
 is still known as the I>i .hley or New Le 
 breed. His horses were also famous, and almost 
 as profitable to him as his sheep. One of his 
 objects was to produce a breed of animals that 
 would fatten on the smallest quantity of food. 
 
 BAKIITEGA'.V, a salt-lake of Persia, province 
 of Farsistan, from which remarkably line salt is 
 obtained. Its size i i variously stated — some writers 
 making it GO miles in length, with an ai 
 breadth of S miles; others, only 70 miles in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 BA'KING is the mode of cooking food in an air- 
 tight chamber or oven. The term is also applied in 
 the manufacture of bricks (q. v.), porcelain (q. v.), 
 &c. The B. of bread will be treated under Brk&d. 
 
 The oven attached to kitchen-grates for cool. 
 simply an iron chamber, with flues for conveying the 
 heated gases of the lire round it. In B., strictly so 
 called, the oven is kept close, so that the steam and 
 aroma arising from the enclosed substances are con- 
 fined ; but by opening ventilators a current of air is 
 produced, and then these ovens may be used for 
 what is called oven-roasting. The rank taste that 
 often characterises baked dishes is thus avoided. 
 Ovens are now often heated by water, or by steam, 
 and also by gas. Meat for B. is placed in a dish, from 
 the bottom of which it is raised on a wire frame or 
 trivet. In M. Sny.i's Baking-dish, a wire frame 
 rests on the edge of the dish, and on this potatoes 
 are laid; a trivet, rising above the frame, supports 
 the meat ; while the bottom of the dish contains 
 a Yorkshire pudding ; the dripping thus falls upuu 
 the potatoes and pudding below. 
 
 B., although a convenient mode of cooking, is not 
 considered quite so good as roasting (q. v.). The 
 practice of having recourse to the baker's oven, saves 
 both trouble and expense in heating, and is a matter 
 of necessity with those who have not means of 
 ing at home ; but it has this chief objection, that 
 every dish becomes impregnated with the steam and 
 odours of all the rest. Soyer pronounces it to bo 
 semi-barbarous. 
 
 BAKO'NY WALD (Forest of Bakony), a densely 
 wooded mountain-range of Hungary, south of the 
 Danube, dividing the great and little Hungarian 
 plains. Immense herds of swine are annually driven 
 hither to feed upon the mast of the forest. The 
 keepers of these swine furnish those notorious 
 robbers who play so important a part in the ballads 
 of the Hungarian people, and in the imagination of 
 travellers. The saintly King Stephen founded a 
 oloister in the forest 1030 a.D. Only in recent 
 times has this dangerous territory been thoroughly 
 explored. The hills have an average height of 2000 
 feet, with quarries of valuable marble, in which a 
 considerable export trade is done. 
 
 ]'. VKSIIISH. The ordinary meaning of this 
 word in Persian is a present ; but in the East, in 
 modern times, it has acquired the special significa- 
 tion of gratuity (I It. Trinkgdd), which, however, 
 the orientals do not quietly wait to receive, but 
 demon 1 loudly, and even insolently. Every traveller, 
 wh ithei in Turkey or in Egypt, in Asia Minor or 
 in Syria, if he receives ' ' service from any 
 
 one, is immediately reminded by the cry of ' 
 Bhiah, Bakshish,' to pay for the courtesy by a 
 money. Even when the amba the Supreme 
 
 Porte obtain an audience from the sultan, 01 
 any of the high dignitaries, they are obli 1. by the 
 prompt gift of a B., to avoid a peremptory demand 
 
 for it on the part of the A 
 
 servants. B . the 1!. has been lixed by 
 
 custom at certain sums. 
 
 j BAKTSHI-SKl: ! V [the 'City of tie Gardens'), 
 the residence of the ancient princes or khans of the 
 
 ; Crimea, stands in a Hey, not far 
 
 from the present capital, Simferopol The city is 
 
 I kept in excellent repair, and has a population of 
 1J.770, consisting almost exclusively of remnants of 
 
 i the old Tatar inhabitants. It thus presents a 
 
 to the modern towns of the 
 
 1 and i one of the most singular in Europe. 
 
 ancient klians has been com; 
 restored by the Russian government in the oriental 
 
 ! style. It consists of a great labyrinth of bin! 
 courts, and gardens, anil is situated about the 
 of the town, dividing it into two part i. Tli 
 manufactures of the place consist of articles of 
 copper, Turkish saddles, and silk. 
 
 BAKU', a seaport town of the Apsheron penin- 
 sula, in the Caspian Sea. It is under the dominion 
 of Russia, and contains 5413 inhabitants. Tho 
 whole soil around B. is impregnated with naphtha, 
 which forms an important branch of its industry. 
 Some of the fountains ignite spontaneously, and this 
 natural phenomenon has caused B. to be esteemed as 
 a holy city by the Parsees or lire-worshippers, many 
 of whom resort to it from very long distances. 
 Modern travellers have found there some of the 
 Bepoys pensioned by the Indian government. B. 
 has several tine mosques and bazaars, and beeid 
 trade in naphtha, it exports cotton, silk, opium, 
 i, and salt. 
 i he Arabian, Masudi (q. v.), is the first who 
 mentions B., about 043, and he gives an account of 
 a great volcanic mountain in its vicinity, whi 
 now extinct. B. was ceded by the Persians to the 
 Russians in 1813. The peninsula on which it is 
 built is notable for its volcanoes. In the immediate 
 vicinity of B. there is a remarkable spring of white 
 mineral oil, and in calm weather the people often 
 amuse themselves by pouring tuns of it into the 
 Caspian, and then [fire to it, the effect being 
 
 that the whole sea appears as if in flames. 
 
 BALA BEDS, a local deposit, oecurrincr in the 
 neighbourhood of Bala, in North Wales, and forming 
 ip in the Lower Silurian of Murchison. They 
 consist of a few beds, rarely more than 20 feet in 
 thickness. The beds are chiefly composed of hard 
 crystalline limestone, alternating with softer 
 laceous Viands, which decompose more freely. 
 leave the limestone like a cornice moulding, afford- 
 ing a characteristic by which, at a considerable 
 ice, the B. B. can be distinguished from the 
 rocks of hard gritty slate above and below. Trilo- 
 bites and l'\ the predominant fossils of 
 
 i 1 ' roup. Calcareous beds, containing similar 
 . have been noticed in the Silurian district of 
 the south-east of Ireland, and referred to this 
 
 BALAAM, the name of a prophet who figures 
 prominently in the early history of the Israelites. 
 tie is first mentioned in Numbers zxu. 5, where 
 I'.alak. king of the Moabites, alarmed at the irrup- 
 tion of tin- ell., eii people int.. his territories, is 
 
 i lented as sending messengers to lYthor, in 
 \1. ipotamia, the dwelling-place of the seer, to 
 me and curse the invaders. 'I he 
 narrative is, of course, familiar to every one, and it 
 is therefore unnecessary to recount it; but it is 
 milked by two p -'. which h 
 
 much .versy. The first is, 
 
 the admittedly prophetical character of B., who 
 was a ti'i ' ' ■-.■' the second is, the curious mir 
 the case of his ass. With re . ird to the supernatural
 
 BAL/ENA— BALANCE. 
 
 attril lit d to B. the most prevalent hypothesis 
 t he was the last relic of the patri.uchal age, 
 during which communion with God was not for- 
 mally restricted to one race, hut diffused more or 
 less among all the Semitic peoples. Some, again, 
 Suppose that liis knowledge of God, from whim 
 he apparently received miraculous communications, 
 was derived from traditions of the primitive faith 
 scattered over Mesopotamia by Abraham, Jacob, 
 Laban, &e. ; though Hengstenberg conceives that he 
 had been led to renoimce idolatry by hearing of the 
 miracles which attended the exodus of the Israelites, 
 anticipating, as a reward for his change of worship, 
 a furtner insight into futurity, and a greater power 
 over nature. B. has ever been considered a type 
 of those men who prostitute their powers and hold 
 the truth in unrighteousness, receiving the wages 
 thereof. 
 
 EALJE'XA. See Whale. 
 
 BALjENO'PTERA. See Rorqual. 
 
 BALAKLA'VA, a small port in the south-west of 
 the Crimea, separated by a rocky peninsula from the 
 harbour of Sebastopol, from which the ihrect dis- 
 tance is about 6 mdes. Population in 1840. 1007. 
 The harbour, which affords secure anchorage for the 
 largest ships, is perfectly landlocked, the entrance 
 being so narrow as scarcely to admit more than one 
 v 1 at a time. To the east, overlooking the bay 
 from a rocky eminence, are the ruins of a Genoese 
 fortress. The foundation of the work is excavated 
 into numerous chambers and galleries. It is the 
 Symbolon Limen of Strabo ; and the present name 
 is supposed by Dr Clarke to be a corruption of the 
 Genoe- lua, or Fair Haven. This was long 
 
 the seat of a Greek colony; in the 14th c, it fell 
 into the hands of the Genoese ; about the end of the 
 loth, they were expelled by the Turks; and on the 
 conquest of the Crimea by Catharine II. of Russia, 
 it was made a military station for a regiment of 
 Greeks and Albanians. In 1854, a few days after 
 the battle of Alma, the town was occupied by the 
 British army under Lord Kaglan, and the harbour 
 formed, during the ensuing campaign, the head- 
 
 Suarters of the fleet, and the basis of operation of 
 le army. Hero ensued those scenes of misman- 
 agement and confusion that have rendered B. a 
 synonym for chaos, and the recital of which, with 
 the resulting privations and misery to the soldiers, 
 stirred so terribly the heart of England in the winter 
 of 1854 — 1855. A terrible hurricane on November 14, 
 1S54, in which nine vessels were totally destroyed, 
 and several others seriously injured, tended greatly 
 to increase the confusion which incapacity and 
 divided responsibility first occasioned at Bala- 
 klava. Soldiers, six miles distant, were dying for 
 want of food, clothing, and medicine, which were 
 hidden hopelessly beyond reach in store-rooms at 
 B., or stowed away in the holds of ships that were 
 not permitted to enter the harbour. Transport 
 vessels, fur which the country was paying enormous 
 sums of money daily, were kept lying idle in port 
 with their most anxiously awaited cargoes (for lack 
 of which the troops were perishing by hundreds) 
 unladen, while poor mutilated and dying soldiers 
 lay miserably exposed on the heights for want of 
 ships to convey them to the hospitals at Scutari. 
 The rebuilding of the greater part of the town, the 
 formation of a line of railway between B. and the 
 , and certain official investigations in 1855, 
 completely remedied this disgraceful state of tilings. 
 The 25th of October 1854 was signalised, on the 
 heights between the town and the Tchernaya, by 
 unparalleled cavalry charges, the record of 
 b is among the saddest but proudest memories 
 of the British army. A detailed account of the 
 030 
 
 events connected with Balaklava is given in the 
 -/ of the Russian War, published by 
 
 \V. and K. ( lhambers. 
 
 BA'LANCE (of doubtful derivation), an instru- 
 ment for ascertaining the weight of bodies in grains, 
 ounces, pounds, or any other units of weight. The 
 ordinary B. consists of a lever called a beam, 
 i it of support is in the middle of its 
 length, and having dishes or pended from 
 
 ii lit y. As it is of importance that the 
 beam should move easily round its point of sup- 
 port, it rests on polished agate or steel planes, by 
 means of knife-edges of tempered steel, which pro- 
 ject transversely from its sides, and serve as the axis 
 of rotation. By this arrangement, the surface of 
 contact is reduced to a mere line, and the friction of 
 the axis of the beam on its support almost entirely 
 obviated. The scales are hung by means of chains 
 attached to steel hooks, which rest also on knife- 
 . but turned upwards instead of downwa 
 lirst case. Tne essential requirements of a B. 
 of this description are : 1st, That the beam shall 
 remain in a horizontal position when no weights are 
 her scale;" and 2d, That the beam shall be a 
 lever of equal arms, or have the distances between 
 the central knife-edge and those at either end 
 exactly the same. To insure the first of these con- 
 ditions, it is necessary that the centre of gravity of 
 the beam lie vertically below the point of support, 
 when the beam is horizontal. When such is the 
 case, the centre of gravity at which the weight 
 of the beam may be considered to act, 
 latesasm a pendulum round the point of support, 
 and always comes to rest right under that point, 
 thus restoring to the beam its horizontal position 
 when it has been tilted out of it. If the centre of 
 gravity were above the point of support, the beam 
 would topple over; and if it coincided with that 
 point, there being no restoring force, the beam 
 would occupy indifferently any position into which 
 it was thrown, the B. in both cases being useless. 
 That a B. possesses the second of the above condi- 
 tions, is ascertained by putting weights into the 
 scales which keep the beam horizontal, and then 
 transposing them, when, if it still remain so, the 
 lengths of the arms are equal. Should the arms be 
 of different lengths, a less weight at the end of the 
 longer arm will balance a larger weight at the end 
 horter arm (see Lever) ; but when transposed, 
 rger weight having the longer arm, and the 
 smaller weight the shorter, the beam can no longer 
 remain horiz< mtal, but will incline towards the larger 
 weight. A balance with unequal arms is called a 
 I!., as distinguished from an equal-armed or 
 just balance. When weighing with a false B., it is 
 usual to weigh a body in both scales, and take 
 the arithmetical mean — that is, half the stun of 
 the apparent weights for the true weight. This 
 is near enough to the truth when the apparent 
 weights differ little from each other ; but when it is_ 
 otherwise, the geometrical mean (q. v.) must be 
 taken, which gives the exact weight in all cases. 
 
 Although the preceding conditions are of essential 
 importance, they do not supply all that we look for 
 in a good balance. It is necessary, in addition, that 
 the beam should turn visibly from its horizontal 
 position, when there is a slight excess of weight in 
 the one scale as compared with the other. This 
 tendency is termed Mn.-thiUfy, and depends upon the 
 weight of the beam, the position of its centre of 
 g ravi ty , and the length of its arms. Let ABD 
 represent the beam of a balance, C the point of 
 suspension, G the centre of gravity, and ACB the 
 straight line joining the knife-edges, which may be 
 taken as the skeleton lever of the balance. We 
 shall here confine our attention to that construction
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 where the three knife-edges are in a line, because 
 it is the most simple and at the same time the most 
 desirable. We may, without altering tlie principles 
 of equilibrium, cousider the beam reduced to the 
 
 Fig. L 
 
 lever AB, and embody its weight in a heavy point 
 or small ball at the centre of gravity, G, connected 
 ■with C by the rigid arm CG. The scales (repre- 
 eented small in the fig. for the sake of space), with 
 the equal weights in them being at an equal distance 
 from C, have their centre of gravity in that point ; 
 and their combined pressure acting there, is met 
 directly by the supporting plane, so that they have 
 no intlnence in determining any particular position of 
 the beam. If a small weight, />, therefore, be put 
 into the scale at B, the position of the beam is deter- 
 mined by its rotating tendency (moment) round ( ..', 
 and the counter-rotating tendency of the weight of 
 am, \V, acting at G. The question of sensi- 
 bility is thus reduced to the action of the crooked 
 level GCB, with p acting at one end, and W at the 
 other. The relations of the arms and forces of a 
 crooked lever will be f ound under Lever. It is only 
 necessary here to state, that the moment of the 
 weight acting at the end of a crooked lever, increases 
 with its size, the length of its arm, and the small- 
 ness of the angle which that arm makes with the 
 horizontal line passing through the f lUcrum. Let us 
 suppose that, under the effect of the opposing 
 moments, the beam, as represented by the line AB, 
 takes up the position marked by the dotted lines. 
 1:', now, we were to lengthen CB', and keep CG' as it 
 IB, (i, w.uld rise nearer to the horizontal 
 line, and CB' fall further from it, before equi- 
 librium would be restored ; and the inclination 
 of CB', or the beam to the horizontal line, thus +| 
 
 ter, the sensibility of the balance 
 Would be increased. Consequently, tlte la 
 tlie arms qf a B. are. all oilier tilings being tlie 
 same. Vie greater will be its sensibility. But 
 
 me object would be reached by keeping 
 CB' its original length, and shortening CG, 
 or bringing the centre of gravity of the beam 
 nearer to the point of support The weight of 
 the balance then having a shorter arm, the 
 point G', for the same reason as before, 
 would need to rise higher, and B' sink lower, 
 before A'B' would find its position of rest. 
 Here, also, the nearer tlie centre qf gravity of 
 
 am is to the point of support, tlte greater 
 vyill be the sensibility of tlie balance. If now, 
 
 TOT, we keep the length of the arms 
 CG', CB' constants but diminish the weight A&* 
 acting at G', while p acting at B' remains *hF 
 
 une, it is manifest, that to make up the 
 
 ncy in the weight W, the two arms 
 
 will turn to the left, as in the preceding 
 
 so as to give W a longer, and p a shorter 
 ■ arm. The smaller, therefore, the weight 
 
 • at G, or the smaller Uw. weight of tlte beam, 
 iter will be the sensibility of tine balance. 
 In the construction of the B., it is a matter 
 of importance to have the sensibility 
 of the amount of weight in the scales, so that, 
 
 when heavily loaded, a small weight will produce 
 the same inclination as when not loaded at alL 
 This condition is implemented, as we have already 
 shewn, when the three knife-edges are kept in the 
 same straight line. If the line joining the two 
 terminal knife-edges he below the point of sus- 
 pension, then the centre of gravity of the equal 
 ts corresponding with the middle of that 
 line, will, upon the turning of the beam, be forced 
 from below that point, and will accordingly have 
 a tendency to resume its former position. The 
 weights thus counteract to some extent the 
 effect of the additional weight, in causing the beam 
 to incline, and their influence in this way will be all 
 the greater as they themselves increase. When a 
 B. is too heavily loaded for its strength, the three 
 knife-edges, although previously in a fine, do not 
 retain that position, for the arms of the beam yield- 
 ing to the pressure, cause the terminal knife-edges 
 to sink below the one in the middle, and the knife- 
 edges themselveslosing theirshape under the pressure, 
 the sensibility is considerably diminished 
 
 When a B. is very sensible, the beam keeps oscil- 
 lating for a considerable time from one side to the 
 other of the position in which it finally settles. 
 Although such an instrument may be useful for phy- 
 sical and chemical experiments, it is not serviceable 
 for the purposes of ordinary life, where minute 
 quantities of the substance to be weighed are of 
 little value, and where time, and consequently 
 rapidity of indication, are matters of importance. 
 The sensibility of a B. must, therefore, be adjusted 
 to the puqiose for which it is designed ; sensible 
 balances being employed for weighing finer, and less 
 sensible, or stable balances, for weighing coarser 
 materials. Tlie stability, or the tendency of the beam 
 to come quickly to rest, depends on requirements 
 nearly the opposite of those which conduce to sen- 
 In the construction treated of above, the 
 stability increases with the moment of the weight of 
 the beam acting at G round C, so that it thus 
 increases with the weight of the beam, and the 
 distance of the centre of gravity from the point of 
 suspension. The stability is also increased, as already 
 
 ±L 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 shewn, by Laving the line joining the scale knife- 
 edges below the point of support. 
 
 '2 is the representation of a common form 
 
 of the delicate balances employed in physical and 
 
 chemical researches. The beam is constructed so as 
 
 .. ith strength, and rests by a 
 
 line knife-edge <>n an agate plane. It is surmounted
 
 BALANCE AND BALANCE-SFRI.Vi;. 
 
 by a «. ight moving on a screw, so that the 
 bility may be increased or diminished, according as 
 the weight is raised or depressed. In order that 
 the knife-edge may not become blunted by et 
 contact with the supporting plane, a cross-bar, with 
 
 projecting pins, is made to lift the beamfi 
 plane, and sustain its weight when the balance is 
 not in jilay. The beam is divided by 1. 
 upon it into ten equal parts, and ;i small . 
 made of fine wire bent into the form of a fork, called 
 a rider, is made to slide along to any of the divisions. 
 If the rider be, for instance, -fa of a grain, and if, 
 after the weight of a body is very nearly ascei ■ 
 it brings the beam, when placed at the lir-t division 
 next the centre, exactly to its horizontal position, 
 an additional weight of yjj. of a grain will be 
 indicated. The use of inconveniently small v. 
 is, by this arrangement, to a large extent obviated. 
 As the beam takes some time before it COS 
 rest, it would be tedious to wait in each case till 
 it did so, and for this reason a long pointed index 
 is fixed to the beam below the point of suspension, 
 the lower extremity of which moves backward 
 and forward on a graduated ivory scale, so that 
 when the index moves to equal distances on 
 either side of the zero point, we are quite certain, 
 without waiting till it finally settles, that the beam 
 will be horizontal. The same is seen in ordinary 
 balances, only the tongue or index is above the 
 beam ; and according to its deviation on each side of 
 the fork or cheeks by which the whole is suspended, 
 is the future position of the beam ascertained. The 
 finer balances are never loaded to more than a ' 
 pound in each scale, and when so charged, will I 
 deflect with -j-J^j of a grain of additional weight in 
 one of the scales, or will turn, as it is technically 
 called, with -n^VoTJ of tne load - Th e finest I 
 balances turn with i q o o ft of the load, and some 
 have been constructed which turned with much less. 
 Even with the best achievements of mechanical skill, 
 no B. can be made whose arms are absolutely equal ; 
 and to remedy this defect, the method of double- 
 weighing is resorted to, when the utmost accuracy is 
 demanded. This consists in placing the body to be 
 weighed into one scale, and sand, or the like, into ! 
 the other, until exact equilibrium is obtained, then 
 removing the body, and putting weights or another 
 body in its place which exactly counterbalance the 
 sand. Both being thus weighed in precisely similar 
 circumstances, must weigh precisely the same. 
 The Roman B., or Steelyard (Ger. Scltnellwage), is 
 
 Kg. 3. 
 
 more portable than the ordinary balance. It consists 
 of a lever (fig. 3), AB, moving round a knife-edge or 
 point at C. The body to be weighed, W, is put into 
 the scale which hangs from A ; and a movable 
 weight, P, is made to slide along the longer arm, until 
 the lever, AB, remains horizontaL The weight of 
 >\ is then read off from the division at which P 
 rests. If the lever lie horizontal when unloaded, then 
 equal weights at equal distances from C will balance 
 
 [ each other, so that when \\ i by P at a 
 
 distance from C equal to AC, the two are' of equal 
 
 t ; but if equilibrium take place when P, say, 
 
 as far froi n \V will bo' 
 
 I he weight of P ; and the same holds for 
 
 any intermediate poini , P may stand, W 
 
 weighing as many times P as P's arm is a multiple 
 
 of W's arm. To weigh a body of 10 lbs, by the 
 
 | ordinary B., a counterweight of 10 lbs. i 
 
 total load of 20 lbs. ; but in the ease just 
 supposed, 1 lb. balances 10, making a total load of 
 only 11 lbs. The steelyard has, thei 
 advantage over the common B.,that the load on the 
 fulcrum, and consequently the friction, 
 j the other hand, however, there is this disadv 
 that the arms of the steelyard bend unequally under 
 the strain of great weights, which in a B. with equal 
 anus cannot, to the same extent, take plai 
 , the steelyard is ordinarily made, the longi r arm pre- 
 ponderates when the lever is unloaded, so that the 
 graduation of the longer arm begins at a 
 between A and C, and not at C. The 
 differs from the ordinary steelyard in having the 
 weight fixed to the extremity ot the lever, and the 
 fulcrum movable. 
 
 The Bent Lever B. (Fr. peson, Ger. Zeigerwarje), 
 shewn in fig. 4, is a 
 lever of unequal arms, 
 A, C, B, moving round 
 the pivot C, having a 
 scale, Q, attached to 
 the shorter arm AC, 
 and a fixed weight, 
 W, to the longer arm 
 CB. The longer arm 
 ends in a pointer mov- 
 ing in front of a fix* d 
 graduated arc. Whi a 
 iy is put into the 
 scale, the pointer rise3 
 from the bottom or 
 zero point of the arc, and rests opposite the mark 
 ponding to the weight of it. The higher the 
 weight W rises, the longer becomes its effective arm, 
 and the greater must be the weight it balances. 
 The arc is generally graduated experimentally, the 
 geometrical graduation being somewhat complicated. 
 
 For other weighing apparatus, see Spring -eal- 
 AH( B : \Vi:k,iiim,-ma' b 
 
 BA'LANCE and BALANCE-SPRING. The 
 balance of a watch is a wheel finely poised on 
 its axis; the pivot-holes in which it turns being 
 frequently — in chronometers and clocks, as well 
 as in watches — jewelled, or made of small rubies, 
 diamonds, &c, for the sake of durabdity. The 
 natural effect of an impulse given to such a wheel 
 would be a complete rotation on its axis. This, 
 however, is convertible, by the escapement (q. v.), 
 and by the balance-spring, into a vibratory motion. 
 The balance-spring is held to be a crowning inven- 
 tion in the mechanism of the watch ; and the 
 honour of its first suggestion has been claimed for 
 no less than three very eminent men — for Dr 
 Hooke, an Englishman ; for Abbe Hautefeuille, a 
 Frenchman; and for Hiiygens, the Dutch astron- 
 omer. The honour, however, undoubtedly belongs 
 to Hooke. 
 
 The balance-spring consists of a coil of steel- 
 wire, so delicately manufactured that 4000 of 
 them scarcely weigh more than one ounce, though 
 often costing more than £1000. In its applica- 
 tion to the balance of a watch, one of the extre- 
 mities (e, fig. 1) of the spring is fastened to a 
 point independent of the balance, wliile the other 
 is attached near its axis. AVhen the balance is 
 at rest, the spring is inclined neither way, this
 
 BALANCE OF POWER— BALANCE OF TRADE 
 
 position being called the point of rest ; but 
 the impulse is given to the balance by the crown- 
 ! of the escapement, the balance 
 moves round just so far as the 
 impulse given is able to overcome 
 the " lastic resistance of the spring 
 
 When that resistance becomes equal 
 
 to the impulse given, the balance 
 
 i moment, and then is 
 
 driven back by the elastic recoil of 
 
 '• 1. the spring, and continues thus to 
 
 vibrate so long as the impulse is repeated or the 
 
 watch is in motion. 
 
 The recoil of the spring is sufficient to drive back 
 the balance to a distance nearly double the length 
 of its lirst motion ; this is, therefore, called the long 
 arc of vibration. But when the motion of the 
 balance is free, with a certain length of sprii 
 long arc of vibration is made in less time than the 
 short one, to which the impulse is given : with a 
 spring of greater length this relation is reversed ; 
 e it was concluded by Le Roy and Berthoud, 
 that equality of time, or i&ochronism, in unequal 
 vibrations, coidd be more easily obtained by length- 
 ening the spring than by tapering it. In En 
 where time keepers have been brought to their 
 greatest perfection, it is considered that isochronism 
 is most easily attain- 
 able 1 >y usin g the cylin- 
 drical helical spring 
 (•?, fig. 2), which is 
 applied to all marine 
 chronometers. 
 
 An improvement 
 in watches, or rather 
 in chronometers, in- 
 F 'S- ~ vented by Mr Dent 
 
 of London, consists in coating the balance and 
 balance-spring with gold by the electro-metallurgic 
 process, by which means they are secured from 
 rust. 
 
 BA'LANCE OF POWER, an expression used 
 in diplomacy for that state of matters in which 
 no one of the European states is permitted to 
 have such a preponderance as to endanger the 
 independence of the others. This idea is not, 
 as some say, confined to modern times. The Greek 
 states acted upon it by a kind of instinct of self- 
 
 fvation, though it was not directly formulated, 
 t lias, however, become more distinctly avowed 
 as a motive of political conduct, and more syste- 
 matically acted upon, since the time of Charles V., 
 overgrown power and ambitious designs 
 awakened the other European powers to the danger 
 of such overwhelming preponderance in one state. 
 The motive of preserving the B. of P. came first dis- 
 tinctly into the foreground in those unions which 
 nd, Holland, and Austria repeatedly formed 
 t the menacing schemes of Louis XIV. for 
 acquiring the dominion of all Europe. It was 
 the same cause that broke up the most dangerous 
 (fox Louis) of these coalitions ; for in the war of the 
 Spanish Succession, when the Hamburg pretender 
 in the Spanish throne became, by the death of 
 Joseph I., sovereign of Austria and Emperor of 
 
 Germany, anil the power which, in the hands 
 of Charles V., had menaced the equilibrium of 
 Europe, was thus likely to be again wielded by 
 one man, England withdrew from the coalition, 
 and thus saved Louis from a decided overthrow. 
 The aggressions of Napoleon called all the powers 
 of Europe to arms against him in the name of the 
 B. of P.; and in readjusting the map of Europe, 
 • of P. was often invoked to cover the jealousy 
 which resisted not a few claims to restitution of 
 territory. For some time, the B. of P. in Europe 
 
 has been embodied, as it were, in a ]>cntarchy or 
 
 re, who 
 
 mutually watch one anoth nts. This 
 
 mutual jealousy among the hading lowers on the 
 score of extension of boundaries, is the great safe- 
 guard of the smaller states, and is the only thing 
 that prevents th.-ir absorption by their powerful 
 "urs. It was the dread of a coalition against 
 him among the other powers, which he was not then 
 red to resist, that made the Emperor of 
 ■ to the ti 1841; aty in 
 
 some degree moderated that influence in Turkey 
 which by private treaties with the sultan he had 
 contrived to raise to a virtual | . The 
 
 d attempt of Russia to extend her dominion, 
 if not territorially, at least politically, over Turkey, 
 gave rise (1854), after a lapse of 40 years, to another 
 war on behalf of the Balance of Power, 
 
 BA'LANCE OF TRADE. In the ' mercantile 
 system' of political economy, which looks upon 
 the possession of gold as the grand aim, it not 
 unnaturally came to be a maxim that a nation 
 becomes richer just in proportion as the money- 
 value of its exports exceeds that of it3 imports; 
 the excess, it was thought, being paid in gold, 
 is just so much added to the national wealth. 
 Now, the difference between the money-value of 
 the exports and imports of a state is called the 
 'balance of its trade ;' and by the adherents of the 
 mercantile system, this balance was said to be 
 'in favour' of the country '>r 'against' it, according 
 as the exports or the imports shewed the excess. 
 
 But this view of the matter rests on a twofold 
 error ; for, in the first place, the increase of 
 national wealth is by no means to be identified 
 with the immediate influx of hard cash ; nor 
 is gold the highest expression of national wealth, 
 but only a means of turning real wealth and 
 the faculty of labour to account. Further, the 
 assumption that excess of exports represents exces3 
 of income, is completely false. It takes exports for 
 income (because payment is received for them), 
 imports for expenditure (because they must be paid 
 for), while it would be more consistent with the 
 truth to say that exports are identical with expen- 
 diture, and imports with income ; so that wealth 
 increases in proportion as the value of the imports 
 (what is received) exceeds that of the exports (what 
 is given away) ; and that wli ■ xports and 
 
 imports consist solely of goods or partly of money. 
 It may sometimes be desirable to get payment of 
 exports in gold — that is, to import bullion. But the 
 case in which this will be benefieial to the mer- 
 chant seeking his own profit in the transaction, will 
 be that in wTiich it will be beneficial to the com- 
 munity. In the majority of cases, however, the 
 individual merchant finds it his best policy to lay 
 out the money due to him in a foreign country 
 in purchasing the wares of that country as return- 
 value. The far-sighted Venetians early recognised 
 the truth of the principle in a national point of 
 view ; for, by a law of 1272, they laid a tax of 
 one-fourth the value on the importation of all 
 coined gold and silver. The mercantile system of 
 political economy, on the contrary, consistently 
 following up the notion of the B. of T., enacted 
 laws prohibiting importation of foreign manufac- 
 ture-, or imposing high duties upon them, and giving 
 premiums and • encouragements 
 
 for exportation ; as if it were possible to go on 
 exchanging; always for gold only —ever exporting 
 
 foods alone, and never importing any. 
 
 f this could be, and if it were tme that a nation 
 with the B. of T. constantly in its favour must 
 become richer, while, with that balance against it, 
 it must become poorer, England, whose
 
 BALANTJS— BALBL 
 
 returns have for many years exhibited a large excess 
 
 of exports over imports, must have had at this 
 
 time about 500 million pounds in precious metals, 
 
 while in reality the amount does not ex 
 
 CO millions. The truth is, that no safe con 
 
 can be drawn from the B. of T. exhibited in official 
 
 ments; from the way in which thi 
 arrived at, a great part of the facts of the ci 
 necessarily left out Almost all nations exhibit 
 favourable balances, and how could that be 
 possible, if the whole affair were not deceptive ? 
 In the regular legitimate commerce between two 
 nations, both actually gain, though the gain may 
 not be cxhibitable in the form of a money-balance. 
 If the gains of nations from commerce consisted 
 of differences between the amount of exports and 
 of imports to be compensated by balances in money, 
 nearly all nations would be yearly receiving acces- 
 sions of gold and silver, the united amount of which 
 would exceed, by more than ten times, the produce 
 of all the mines in the world. 
 
 BA'LANUS, a genus of Cirrhopotht (q. v.) ; the 
 type of a family, including all those cirrhopods 
 which are destitute of a flexible stalk, and of which 
 the shell is symmetrical. These characters at 
 once distinguish them from Barnacles (q. v.). In 
 the genus B., the base is usually formed of a 
 thin calcareous plate, the sides of six valves ; and 
 four small valves form the operculum, exactly 
 closing the aperture at the top. The name 
 tying an acorn) was originally given by the ancient 
 ks, from a supposed resemblance of some of 
 the kinds to acorns ; and acorn-shell has sometimes 
 been adopted as an English name. There are 
 many species, and they are found in almost all seas, 
 attached to stones, timber, shells, crustaceans, &c 
 They cover the rocks between high and low water- 
 mark on many parts of the coast as with a white 
 calcareous incrustation, so that arithmetic fails in 
 computing, and imagination in conceiving their 
 multitudes. They may, however, be readily passed 
 over as individually objects of little interest when 
 they are seen after the tide has left them, for then 
 their valves are closed, and they exhibit no sign 
 of life ; but if observed in a pool of the rocks, or 
 anywhere uuder water, they present a very 
 at and extremely pleasing spectacle, the 
 i i!ar valves continually opening and shutting 
 with a quick but pretty regular motion, and an 
 exquisitely delicate apparatus of feathery arms or 
 cirrhi (see C'irrhopoda) being as frequently thrown 
 out and retracted like a hand or a little net, to 
 seize and carry in to the mouth the minute nutri- 
 tious particles or very small animals upon which the 
 creature feeds. Thus, the little balani, immovably 
 fixed to the rock, or carried about at the plea- 
 sure of mollusks or crustaceans to which they 
 adhere, obtain their food from the waters around 
 them. 
 
 A remarkable fact in the natural history of 
 these creatures has recently been discovered by 
 Mr Thompson of Cork, that in the earlier stages 
 of their existence they are not fixed as in their 
 adult state, but move about very actively in a 
 succession of bounds, by means of swimming- feet 
 like those of the Cyclops (q. v.) ; having, however, 
 a shell, apparently of two valves, resembling a very 
 minute muscle. Still more remarkable is the dis- 
 covery made along with this, that in their early 
 locomotive state they possess large stalked eyes, 
 which disappear along with the organs of locomotion 
 when they attach themselves — probably by the 
 guidance of some peculiar instinct — to their final 
 place of repose, undergoing a transformation into 
 perfect cirrhopods, and acquiring as a covering 
 their many-valved shelL 
 634 
 
 Some of the larger species of B. were est 1 
 
 a d e licacy by the ancient Romans. The Chinese 
 entertain the same estimation of /;. / 
 which is said to r temble lobster in taste; and B. 
 -, a South American species, which is in like 
 manner compared to crab, is exported in large 
 ties from Concepcion de Chili to Valp 
 Santiago, This species is sometimes almost 
 four inches in diameter, tli considerably 
 
 more. It is chopped off the rocks with a hatchet. 
 The two posterior opercular valves are beaked, from 
 which it receives the name of Pico, and its scientific 
 trivial limn', psiUaau (a parrot). 
 
 BAtiASO'RE, a seaport in the district of Cnttack 
 and presidency of Bengal, near the Boorabullung, 
 which enters the sea to the west of the Ho. 
 Calcutta River. It is situated in lot 21 30 
 long, S7' E., and has dry-docks and a coasting- 
 ; but it is entitled to notice chiefly in 
 connection with the past, having been the seat, 
 successively, of Portuguese, Dutch, and Danish 
 factories. It was only in 1846 that the Danes 
 sold their interest in the place to the English. 
 
 BA'LATON, Lake of (Platten-Sce), a lake, the 
 : in Hungary, about 55 miles south-west of 
 Pesth. Its extreme length is 4S miles, with a 
 breadth of from ,'i to 10 miles, and an estimated j 
 area, including its frequently submerged marshes, of 
 420 square miles. Its greatest depth is 39 feet. It 
 is supplied by upwards of thirty streams — the chief 
 of which is the Szala — as well as by numerous 
 springs which rise on its margin. Its outlet is by 
 the Sio, which discharges itself into the Sarvitz, a 
 feeder of the Danube. The waters of B. are clear 
 and transparent, except when they are agitated by 
 a storm, when they assume a bluish colour. They 
 have a slightly brackish taste. Fish of various 
 kinds are found in abundance, and sand impreg- 
 nated with iron, interspersed with which are small 
 garnets, rubies, and other precious stones, is taken 
 from it. Woods and vineyards cover the hills which 
 encircle its northern sides, and on its banks near the 
 town of Fiired there is a spring of acididous ( 
 The surrounding country is rich in rare plants and 
 mineral treasures, and was the scene of several 
 bio idy conflicts during the Hungarian war (1S4S — 
 The lake itself figures prominently in the 
 old romantic ballads of the Magyars. 
 
 PALAU'STA. See Perry. 
 
 BA'LAY, or BA'LAIS, the name now used to dis- 
 tinguish the ruby of a bright rose-colour from the 
 ruby proper, winch is of a bright red or cochineal 
 colour, and from the spindle ruby, which is of a red 
 hue approaching to rose-colour. This last kind of 
 ruby has been recognised only in times which are 
 comparatively modern. In the middle ages, they 
 seem to have known only the B. ruby and the ruby 
 , or le beau rubis, as it was often called. M. 
 de Laborde thinks that the term B. was anciently 
 employed as a name for all sorts of rubies. 
 
 BA'LBI, Adriano, well known by his geographi- 
 cal, and more especially by his statistical works, 
 was born in Venice on the 25th of April 17S2. In 
 1S08 he gained so much credit in Italy by his first 
 geographical work, that he was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Geography in the college of San Michele 
 at Murano, and in 1811 Professor of Physics in the 
 Lyceum at Fermo. Subsequently he resided for a 
 time in Portugal, and then went to Paris, to super- 
 intend the publication of his Essai Slalistique sur 
 le lioyaume de Portugal el d'Algarve (2 vols., Par. 
 1S2:!). This work was soon followed by the 
 VariiUs Poliliquea el Stalittiquet de la Monarc/ile 
 Portwjaise (Par. 1S22). B. lived in Paris till 18:32. 
 He was the intimate friend of Malte Brun, from
 
 BALBI— BALCONY. 
 
 whose papers he, jointly with Larenaudicrc .and 
 Huot, published the Traits Elcmcnlaire de G 
 phie (2 vols., Par. 1830—1834). He also put 
 several works of comparative national statistics. 
 His Ail'i-1 EOmographiqut tht Olobt (Par. 182G) 
 is distinguished by its extensive accumulation of 
 facts ami views, giving an account of German 
 researches on the subject, and entering into questions 
 of comparative philology. B.'s best known work is, 
 
 . ' r, the Abrigt tie <:• ■ ■■ 3d 
 
 Par. 1S38), which lated into 
 
 1 .1 I u 1832 be returned to Italy, 
 
 ill ed at Padua, where he died 14th March 
 1848. A collection of his Scrim <■■ 
 made by Eugene Balbi (5 vols., Turin, 1841 — IS 12). 
 
 H.V'LBI, GAsrARO, a Venetian merchant of the 
 10th c, who is worthy of mention as the first tra- 
 veller who has left an account of India beyond the 
 
 i. In the pursuit of his calling, B. was 
 led to Aleppo, and from thence, on one occasion, he 
 made a visit to India, which lasted several years. 
 After his return to Venice, he published, in 1590, the 
 results of bis travels in a volume entitled Viaggio 
 <-;'/' I mil,' (),■/■ n'-iti. A Latin translation was printed 
 in De Bry's Collection of Voyage* and Travels to Hie 
 East Indies, published at Frankfort in 1590— 1594. B. 
 appears to have set down, without exaggeration, all 
 tliat he himself saw, and is particularly minute and 
 exact concerning commercial matters ; but there is 
 ly any limit to his credulity with regard to 
 what he heard from others about the country. From 
 0, his journey was down the Euphrates until 
 i • Bagdad; thence down the Tigris to Bas- 
 il, where be embarked for the .Malabar coast. 
 
 II ving visited Goa and Cochin, and other Porta- 
 settlements, he sailed for Pegu, then an inde- 
 pendent empire, where he remained two years, 
 ling by the same route. The most interesting 
 part of his narrative is that relating to Pegu. 
 
 B.VLHI'NUS, Diiiimi s ('ri us, one of the two 
 emperors of Koine whom the senate elected on hear- 
 ing of the death of the elder Gordianus, and his son, 
 in Africa, in opposition to Maximinus, who had the 
 Support of the legions in Germany. He was cele- 
 brated as an orator and a poet, and was a man of 
 mild disposition. His coadjutor, Marcus Clodius 
 Pupienus Maximus, was a bold and resolute soldier 
 who had risen from the people. They had only 
 I a few mouths, during which time Maximinus 
 had been killed by his own soldiers, who after- 
 wards submitted to Maximus, when they were both 
 hilled in 242 A. D. by the prastorians, who at that 
 tune were animated by bitter hostility to the 
 civilians, and extended it to the riders who had been 
 elected by them. 
 
 BA'LBO, G&SAXH^ an Italian statesman and 
 author, was born 21st November 1789 at Turin. 
 Whi n IS years old, B., whose father had enjoyed 
 tronage of Napoleon, was appointed auditor of 
 the Council of State in Paris, and in 1S12 he was 
 made commissioner for the lllyrian provinces, - 
 tn I'Y.'ince by the Peace of Vienna. After the fall of 
 Napoleon, 11. went to London as secretary of the 
 
 Sardinian embassy. After leaving political affairs, he 
 
 -the study of DMtOiy, ami aiming 
 other works produced during the years 1821 
 were a History qf Italy, which, however, extended 
 only to the reign of Charlemagne; and a trim 
 with commentary of Leo's Da • 
 
 ■ ■fill'' Lomhai 
 (• Hopes of Italy'), published in 1S43, first extended 
 his literary reputation to foreign countries. One of 
 its main objects was to prove that national inde- 
 pendence must precede the enjoyment of constitu- 
 tional Uberty; and that to strive after the latter, 
 
 however good in itself, so long as the former had 
 not been secured, was both foolish and reprehen- 
 sible. It gave a vivid and intelligent picture of the 
 
 I condition of Italy, its amis and prospects. 
 
 mpendium of Italian history [V 
 & Italia, he.) was also successful. B. took a promi- 
 nent part as a moderate liberal in the poll 
 
 of 1S47— 1848. I 
 the ministry of -\ He died 3d June I ' 
 
 He was a man of strict morality and on 
 character. In all bis writii 
 
 to the Roman Catholic Church, whose truth lie 
 conceived to be the healing of nations as well as of 
 individuals, and the only source of true culture. 
 
 BALBO'A, Vasco Nunez de, a Spanish con- 
 queror, was born of a noble but reduced family at 
 
 Xeres-de-i labaDetee in 1476. After leading rather a 
 
 dissolute life in his youth, he glailly took part in the 
 great mercantile expedition of Rodrigo de Bastidas 
 
 Xew World. He established bin 
 Domingo, ami o cultivate the soil; but for- 
 
 tune proving adverse, in order to escape from his 
 irs, he had himself smuggled on hoard a ship, 
 and joined the expedition to Darien in 1510, com- 
 manded by Francisco de Enciso. It is curious to 
 reflect that the man destined to discover the 
 eastern shores of the Largest ocean on the globe," 
 should have been compelled to secret himself in a 
 cask before he could share in the new ent< I 
 An insurrection which took place obtained for B. 
 the supreme command in the new colony. Confused 
 accounts which reached him of a great western 
 ocean, impelled him, in 1513, to set out in quest 
 of it. On the 25th of September of this year, he 
 obtained the first sight of the Pacific Ocean from a 
 mountain-top in the Isthmus of Panama. His natu- 
 ral enthusiasm at this great discovery was shared by 
 all the educated men of his time, and the di 
 tions of it by contemporary authors may still be 
 read with much interest. The governorship of the 
 territories conquered by B. was obtained in 1514 by 
 Pedrarias Davila, by means of his intrigues at the 
 Spanish court. I!. <■■ dgned the command into the 
 hands of the new governor, a narrow-minded and 
 cruel man, and, in a subordinate situation, under- 
 took many successful expeditions ; but these, and all 
 his other merits, only served to increase the hi 
 Pedrarias Davila towards him. The government 
 of the mother-country sought in vain to mediate 
 between them, and B. even married the daughter of 
 lias, But on the first occasion of dispute which 
 arose, B., having been induced by Pedrarias to 
 deliver himself up. was accused of a design to rebel, 
 and in violation of all forms of justice was beheaded 
 at Santa Maria in 1517. 
 
 BALBRI'CGAN, a small maritime town in 
 Dublin county, 22 miles north of Dublin. It U 
 a seat of cotton, calico, and stocking manufactures. 
 The cotton stockings made lure are remarkable 
 for fineness of texture and beauty of o]H>n work. 
 Many females are employed in embroidering mus- 
 lins. B. is a favourite watering-place. After the 
 battle of the Boyne, William encamped here. Top. 
 (1851), 2810. 
 
 BA'LCONY, or BALCONY (Ttal. P.alcone), a 
 1 mg gallery in front of a window or of several 
 windows, with a balustrade or parapet before it. and 
 Supported by consoles, or brackets fixed in the wall, 
 or by pillars resting on the ground below. The B. 
 was unknown in Creek and Human architecture, 
 and is probably an the earliest 
 
 examples of it occur in Italy, to the climate of which 
 country it is peculiarly adapted, balconies con- 
 structed of wood are of constant occurrence in i.ie
 
 BALCOXY— BALDNESS. 
 
 tecture of Switzerland, to the picturesque 
 character of which they add very essentially. 
 
 Balcony. 
 
 BA'LCOXY, the gallery or stern-walk outside the 
 stern of a large ship. Three-deckers have two such 
 balconies, and two-deckers one. Where there are 
 two, the lowermost is connected with the admiral's 
 state-cahin, and the uppermost with the captain's 
 cabin. 
 
 BAT/DACHIN (TtaL Baldachino), signifies a kind 
 of canopy, of the form of a tent or umbrella, made 
 of costly materials and richly adorned, which is 
 either supported on pillars, or fastened to the wall 
 over a throne or couch, or over a pulpit, an altar, or 
 other sacred object. One of the most celebrated is 
 the B. in the church of St Peter's in Rome, cast in 
 bronze by Bernini, which is supported on four large 
 twisted columns. B. was also the name formerly 
 given to a kind of umbrella of a square form, made 
 of silk brocade or other rich material, and supported 
 on four poles, which was wont to be earned in the 
 middle ages at solemn processions, coronations, 
 marriages, &c, over the heads of royal personages 
 or high dignitaries as a symbol of their rank. In 
 Europe, the B. is now chietly used in the processions 
 of the Roman Catholic Church. It is generally 
 borne over the priest who carries the Host. The 
 word B., as well as the thing itself, comes from the 
 east Partly as a protection from the burning raj a 
 of the sun, partly as a symbol of their power and 
 dignity, the rulers - and great personages of the east 
 seldom appeared in public, whether on foot or on 
 horseback, in a litter or on an elephant, without a 
 splendid canopy, often borne by the great men or 
 chief officers of their kingdom. These canopies, 
 generally made in the form of a tent or umbrella, 
 were often sent, in the early part of the middle 
 ages, as presents from eastern princes to those in 
 the west ; as, for example, from the Calif Haroun- 
 al-Easchid to Charlemagne. During the Crusades, 
 and the consequent trade with the east, they 
 became well known to the Italians. Such canopies, 
 as well as the rich stuffs of which they were made, 
 were called, from the land whence they cam'-, 
 lonica ; and also Baldachins, from Baldach, the 
 eastern name of the city of Bagdad. 
 
 EA LDER, or BA'LDUE, a divinity worshipped 
 by the ancient Scandinavians, and probably also 
 by the other Germanic nations, is the hero of one 
 836 
 
 of the most beautiful and interesting of the nivths 
 of the Kdda. B., who, according to old northern 
 mythology, was the second son of Odin and 1 
 and the husband of Nannv (maiden), dreamed 
 IS which threatened his life. When he re 
 them to the gods, they held a council and endea- 
 i to secure his safety. Frigga took an oath 
 from fire and water, from iron and all metals, from 
 stones, earth, and plants, beasts and birds, the 
 on and all i , that they would 
 
 not harm Balder. After this was done, the gods 
 in their mirth sported with I'.., wrestled with him, 
 and cast darts at him, but nothing could injure him. 
 While the gods rejoiced at this, the thin,' displeased 
 Loki (mischievous cunning or destructive lire). He 
 changed himself into the form of an old woman, 
 and inquiring the cause of the invulnerability of 
 B., was told by Frigga that all things, animate and 
 inanimate, had sworn not to harm him, with the 
 exception of one little shrub, the misletoe. Loki 
 went in haste to fetch this shrub, and repaired 
 with it to the assembly of the gods, where ho 
 placed it in the hands of the blind Huder, the god 
 of war, directed his aim, and B. fell pierced to the 
 heart. The sorrow of the gods was unutterable. 
 Frigga asked who, to win her favour, woidd journey 
 to Bel— the goddess of Hades or the grave — to 
 release Balder. Hermoder or Helmod (the heroic), 
 the son of Odin, readily offered his services, and 1 1 el 
 consented to grant his request on condition that all 
 things should weep for Balder. All men, all living 
 beings, and all things wept, save the witch or 
 giantess Tho'ck (the step-daughter of Loki), who 
 refused to sympathise in the general mourning. B. 
 was therefore obliged to remain in the kingdom of 
 IE 1 until the end of the world. 
 
 The myths of B. have been very differently 
 interpreted. B., as the originator of all that is 
 beneficent and good— for B. and the other sons of 
 Odin (see Scandinavian Mythology) are only 
 personified aspects or functions of the dimly con- 
 ceived one unseen Power that moves all nature — is 
 represented as a hero of so lovely and graceful a 
 manly beauty, that a brilliant light streams from 
 his person ; the whitest of the northern flowers is 
 named lialders-brow. As the god of peace of tho 
 Germanic nations, who conducts to peace through 
 battle and victory, he is a purely ethical conception, 
 a mythical personification of the peace obtainable 
 through conflict, and agreed to by compact among 
 the gods. The gods, foreseeing doubtless that 
 peace cannot long endure, seek in every possible 
 way to secure the precious life of B., as even the 
 weakest and most insignificant have it in their 
 power to destroy peace. Loki, in his symbolical 
 character as the god of retributive justice, stirs up 
 Hoder, or War, through whom the god of peace 
 falls. Hoder, indeed, is also slain by Wali, or 
 Val-fader, the battle-god, and the war is ended by 
 a bloody overthrow ; but once violated and broken, 
 peace is irrevocably lost along with Balder. Her- 
 moder or Helmod labours iu vain to restore it, 
 for the giantess Thock (retaliation, revenge) pre- 
 vents it. Holy and true peace can only revive 
 again in a new world, when the old sinful world 
 and the old guilt-stained gods now ruling it shall 
 have been destroyed. — Others (among them Max 
 Muller) see in the myth of B. a representation of the 
 contest between Winter and Summer. Compare 
 Weinhold Die Sagen von Lnki, in Haupt's Zeitacltrijl 
 far Deutdut AUerthum (Leip. 1S49). 
 
 BA'LDNESS [alopecia). See Hair. There are 
 some rare cases on record in which the hair has 
 never been developed. This is termed congenital 
 baldness. 
 
 Accidental baldness may involve the whole scalp,
 
 BALDO— BALDWIN" II. 
 
 or may be only in patches ; these patches may run 
 into each other, and heuce some consider this con- 
 dition a species of ringworm. It is caused, says 
 Mr Erasmus Wilson, by an atrophy of the 
 follicles (q. v.). B. in the comparatively young and 
 middle-aged may occur from wearing waterproof 
 Caps, which, by p reventing evaporation from the 
 head, occasion an unhealthy state of skin. Naval 
 and military officers are liable to B. arising from this 
 cause. 
 
 Senile baldness (calvities) is not necessarily 
 the consequence of age — it may arise, like the 
 preceding variety, from an atrophy of those parts 
 on which the hairs depend for nutrition. It gener- 
 ally commences on the crown of where 
 the supply of blood is naturally less abundant. 
 Women nave a greater quantity of soft tissue under 
 the skin, therefore the vessels are less likely to be 
 i red with; hence they are not so frequently 
 
 causes of B. are the defective supply of 
 nutrition just mentioned, a family tendency, late 
 ition, but especially old age. The hair 
 falls off after severe illnesses, or after other causes 
 of general debility. During pregnancy the hair falls 
 out; and in this country we often see the long hair 
 of young women, victims to consumption, almost 
 completely shed. 
 
 Treatment of baldness consists in attention to 
 cleanliness, and in exciting the languid circulation 
 of the scalp to greater activity, by using a hard 
 hair-brush, and the application of stimulants, as 
 3 1 anish-fly ointment in the proportion of two 
 drachms to au ounce of lard mixed with about the 
 same quantity of pomatum. Or the stimulants may 
 be applied in the form of lotions. But at the same 
 time constitutional debility should be remedied by 
 attention to the various functions of the body; 
 tonics should be administered ; and, if possible, 
 causes of anxiety or night-watching should be 
 avoided. Shaving the whole head is sometimes 
 resorted to. If these remedies are successful, downy 
 white hair, like that of an infant, begins to grow, 
 which may or may not acquire the colour and 
 vigorous appearance of the former growth. 
 
 BAXDO, Mo'nte, a mountain of Lombai 
 the east of Lake Garda, with an elevation ol . 
 feet. It contains interesting petrifactions, and the 
 fine green sand known as the sand of Verona. 
 
 BA'LDRICK, or BACDRUK (Fr. Baudrier), 
 is a band or sash worn partly as a military and 
 
 Baldrick. 
 
 partly as a heraldic symbol. It passes round the 
 01 passes over the left shoulder, 
 and is brought down obliquely under the right arm, 
 or is from the right shoulder'in such 
 
 a way as to sustain a sword. Many of the effigies 
 of knights contain representations of the B., more 
 
 frequently as a belt than a shoulder-sash. Queen 
 i frequently wears a blue silken B. on state 
 occasions. The name is derived from the balteus of 
 the Koman soldier. 
 
 BA'LDUNG, Haxs, called also Hans Griin, a 
 ' i painter and wood engraver, a contemporary 
 
 oi Albert Durer, to whom, in expression, colouring, 
 and finish, he was little inferior as a painter. He 
 was born in Gmiind, Swabia, about 147U, and died 
 at Strasburg in 1552. His master-piece, a painting 
 of the Crucifixion, is in the catheiu-al of Freiburg; 
 his wood engravings are numerous. 
 
 BALDWIN" I., the first Latin emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, was born at Valenciennes in 1171 A.D., 
 his parents being Baldwin, Count of Hainan!'. 
 
 ret, Countess of Flanders. In 1103, he suc- 
 ceeded to his mother's possessions, and in the year 
 following, to the title and county of his father. In 
 1200, he appointed his brother Philip, along with 
 other persons, to the regency of Hainault and 
 Flanders, and joined the fourth Crusade. Tart of the 
 Crusaders — B. among others — were induced to assist 
 the Venetians in reconquering Zara, in Dalmatia, 
 from the king of Hungary. While at Zara, the 
 young Alexis, son of Isaac II., emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, craved the assistance of the Crusaders 
 against his uncle Alexis Angelas, who, having 
 deposed and blinded Isaac II., had usurped the 
 throne. In return for their aid, he promised them 
 a liberal sum of money, and also to help them to 
 recover Palestine. The Crusaders agreed, and soon 
 defeated the usurper's forces, and restored the right- 
 ful emperor ; but Alexis having some difficulty in 
 carrying out his promises, they turned their arms 
 against him. A revolution breaking out in the 
 
 I the same time, Alexis the younger 
 murdered, and his father is said to have died of 
 grief. Alexis Ducas Murzuphlus then usurped the 
 throne, but was defeated by the Crusaders, and the 
 city was sacked — the Crusaders and Venetians 
 sharing the booty. B. was chosen emperor, and 
 crowned on the 9th May 1204; but he received 
 .mly about a fourth part of the empire — Constan- 
 tinople and Thrace — the Venetians obtaining the 
 greater share of the provinces. A part aLso fell 
 to the French adventurers who accompanied the 
 expedition, and several provinces remained in the 
 hands of Greek princes. The abilities of B. — and 
 they appear to have been of a superior character — 
 were not able to cope with the evils necessarily 
 attending so anomalous a position. The Greeks 
 were discontented, and, backed by Calc-Joannes, 
 king of Bulgaria, while B.'s brother, with the Bower 
 of his troops, was away on an expedition in 
 they rose and massacred the Latins scattered 
 throughout the towns of Thrace, and made them- 
 selves masters of Adrianople. B. laid 
 the town with the forces he had at his disposal ; 
 but he was defeated and take!: ; f the 
 
 Bulgarian king, and died about a year after (120G) 
 in captivity. He was succeeded by his brother 
 Henry. 
 
 BALDWIN" II., emperor of Constantinople, was 
 born in 1217. He was the sen I ;enay 
 
 and Yolauda, Countess of Flanders, sister of 
 Baldwin I. Being but 11 years old when, by the 
 death of liis brot . he succeeded to the 
 
 throne, he was placed under the guard: . 
 of John of Brieune, titular king of Jer.' 
 who died about 1237. B. then assui: 
 of empire, but he had neither the means n 
 ability to wield it successfully against his power- 
 ful Greek and Bulgarian opponents. Two 1» 
 visits to Western Europe, in one of wh: 
 left his son Philip in pledge at Venice for a 
 
 637
 
 BALDWIN L— BALFE 
 
 ;iid disposed of several most holy relics for 
 money, were not successful in procuring hiui suf- 
 ficient forces to resist liis foes ; and on the night 
 of the 15th of July 1261, his capital was 
 
 of the generals of Michael Palaeologus, ruler 
 of NicsBa, and B. fled to Italy. With him termin- 
 ated the Latin Empire in the East, after it had 
 lasted 57 years. His descendants for more than 
 a century retained the title of emperor. 
 
 BA'LDWIN I., king of Jerusalem, 1100— HIS, 
 was born in 1058. He was the youngest brother 
 of Godfrey do Bouillon (q. v.), Duke of Lower 
 Lorraine or Brabant. He took part in the first 
 Crusade; but having quarrelled with Tancred, he 
 I to Edessa, at the request of the Christian 
 rants of the place, and was soon after elected 
 to bo Coimt of Edessa. After the death of his 
 brother Godfrey, in 1100, he became Protector of 
 the Holy Sepulchre, and Baron of Jerusalem, and 
 immediately assumed the regal title, which his 
 brother had refused. He conquered Csesarea, 
 Ashdod, and Tripolis, and with the assistance 
 of a Genoese fleet, lie became master also of 
 Acre, and subsequently of Sidon, but failed to 
 reduce Ascalon. He died in 1118. Unlike his 
 brother, who was a disinterested enthusiast, B. was 
 worldly and ambitious. — Baldwin* II. (Baldwin du 
 Bourg), cousin of Baldwin I., who had made him 
 Count of Edessa when he ascended the throne 
 of Jerusalem, succeeded him, and reigned from 
 1118 to 1131. During his reign Tyre was taken, 
 in 1124, with the assistance of a Venetian fleet; 
 and the order of the Ternplars was instituted. 
 Having been taken prisoner by the Turks, B. 
 endured a captivity of six months. He died on 
 the 21st of august 1131, leaving four daughters. 
 Shortly before his death he resigned the crown 
 in favour of his son-in-law, FouTques of Anjou, 
 who reigned till 1134 — Baldwin III., king of 
 Jerusalem, 1143 — 1162, the son and successor of 
 Eoulques of Anjou, was born in 1129. He was 
 a model of knighthood, which, during the period 
 of the first Crusades, was a personification of 
 Honour, Justice, Devotion, and Love. Edessa 
 was lost to the Christians during his reign. 
 In 1152, he fought victoriously at Jerusalem 
 against Noureddin, the sultan of Aleppo. In 
 1157, after he had defeated the same prince at 
 Jacob's Ford, on the Jordan, he again humbled 
 him severely near Putaha. After this, he ruled 
 in peace, and endeavoured to improve both the 
 external and internal defences of his kingdom. 
 The authority and influence of B. were so great, 
 that even Saracens followed under him the I 
 of the Cross. By his marriage with Theodora, 
 the daughter of the Greek Emperor Manuel, he 
 gained a faithful ally in that prince. He died, it is 
 believed, of poison, in the flower of his age, at 
 Tripolis, in Syria, on the 10th of February, 
 With his death the Christian power in the east 
 began to decline. He was succeeded in the govern- 
 ment by his brother Amalric or Amaury, who died 
 in 1173. — Baldwin IV., the son and successor 
 of Amalric, surnamed the Leper, reigned till 1183. — 
 When a child of 5 years old, Baldwin V., the 
 son of Sybilla, sister of Baldwin IV., was called 
 to the throne. He died in 11S7, a year before 
 Jerusalem was retaken by Saladin. 
 
 BA'LDWIN'S PHOSPHORUS is a term ap- 
 plied to the nitrate of lime, which, on evaporation, 
 parts with its water of crystallisation, and then, as 
 discovered by Baldwin in 1675, assumes a luminous 
 appearance in the dark. 
 
 BALE, John, Bishop of Ossory, in Ireland, was 
 
 63S 
 
 born at the village of Cove, in Suffolk, in November 
 L495. He was educated as a Carmelite monk, but 
 afterwards turned Protestant, and, being persecuted 
 by the Koman Catholics, Bed to Flanders, where he 
 remained eight years, during which he wrote numer- 
 ous works. He was recalled by Edward VI., and 
 successively presented to the living of Bishopstoke, 
 in Hampshire, and the bishopric of Ossory. In this 
 latter sphere he made himself so obnoxious to the 
 ( latholics by his zeal in the Protestant cause, that 
 on news of the death of Edward, his house was 
 attacked, and live of his servants killed. He him- 
 self escaped out of the country after great difficulty, 
 and the loss of all his effects. On the accession of 
 Elizabeth he returned to England, and was made a 
 prebend in the Cathedral of Canterbury. He died 
 in 1563. His fame mainly rests on a collection of 
 British Biography, which, notwithstanding that 
 sections of a book are not unfrequently set down in 
 it as distinct works, and that the names of persons 
 who never wrote anything are set down as authors, 
 is a valuable work. It was first published in 1548 
 under the title of Illustrinm Majoris Bri 
 Scriptomm, hoc est, Anglioe, Caml/riee, et Scotia 
 Summarium. 
 
 BALE. See Basel. 
 
 P.ALEA'RIC ISLES, a group of five islands— 
 Mallorca (Majorca), Minorca, Iviza, Formentera, 
 Cabrera — lying off the coast of Valencia, in lat. 38° 4' 
 —40° 5' N., and long. 1° — 5° E. They at one time 
 formed the kingdom of Mallorca, which was united 
 in 1289 with the crown of Aragon. They now form, 
 a Spanish province, and have unitedly an area of 
 1753 square miles, with a population, in 1S57, of 
 266,952. The soil generally is good. Vines, olives, 
 and other fruit-trees are cultivated abundantly ; but 
 corn has to be imported. The coasts are precipitous, 
 with some excellent harbours — Port Mahon, in 
 Minorca, being one of the finest in Europe. The Phoe- 
 nicians visited the B. I. at a very early date, and 
 they were followed by the Greeks, from one or other 
 of whom they are said to have received their name. 
 If from the Phoenicians, the name is derived from a 
 Phoenician word equivalent to the Greek gumnetas, 
 signifying light-armed troops; if from the Greeks, 
 then it is from baUtm, to throw, and was given 
 because of the expertness of the natives in using 
 the sling, to the use of which they were trained 
 from their infancy. Later, the B. I. became sub- 
 ject to Carthage; but after a short period of free- 
 dom, during which their inhabitants became pirates, 
 were annexed to the Roman empire by Metellus 
 (Balearicus), 123 B.C. From that time their history 
 is involved in that of the peninsula. See Spain. 
 
 BA'LE-FIRE. See Beacon. 
 
 BALFE, Michael William, an English com- 
 poser of operas, &c, was born May 15, 1808, in 
 Dublin. His musical talent received early culture, 
 and several anecdotes are related of his singular 
 precocity, which, if true, are all the more wonderful, 
 from the fact that B., though a brilliant and popu- 
 lar composer, is not considered remarkably original. 
 When only seven years old, he played publicly one 
 of Viotti's concertos for the violin. At nine, he wrote 
 the ballad entitled Tlie Lover's Mistake, which 
 achieved popularity through the singing of Madam 
 Vestris. At sixteen, he made his debut in London, 
 at the Drury Lane Theatre, as conductor of the 
 orchestra. Ln 1825, he left this situation, in order 
 to visit Italy, where he began his successful career 
 as a composer, with music for the ballet La Pey- 
 rouse, performed at the Theatre La Scala, in Milan. 
 In 1827, he returned to the stage, and sang in 
 the Italian Opera at Paris, where in concert with
 
 BALFOUR— BALIOL. 
 
 Malibran and Sontag, he gained great applause, and 
 many warm friends, who seemed to think it their 
 principal duty in life to lend the young Irishman as 
 much money as he wanted. He, however, returned 
 to Italy, and devoted himself to composition, 
 producing in rapid succession the operas — J 
 (1830), Un AwertimaUo (1S32), Enrico IV. (1834), 
 Assedio di La- Hoc/idle (1835), Manon Lescaul 
 (written for Malibran, 1S3C), C. Grey (1837), La 
 i> VoiUe and Fahtaff (1838), Jeanne a" Arc 
 
 (1839), Keolanthe (1840), and the Bohemian Girl 
 (1844). This last opera is one of the few I 
 compositions which have been popular in Ger- 
 many. The l:<mdman was produced, with some 
 success, in 1816; but failed to excite permanent 
 interest. A few years ago appeared The Hose of 
 . an opera which acquired a large measure 
 of t. ii popularity through the delightful 
 
 Louisa Pyne, the principal member 
 English operatic company. As a composer, 
 B., as wo have hinted, is little more than an imitator 
 (chiefly of Auber), and has no true creative genius ; 
 but liis opera airs, and other vocal music, are 
 extremely singable, and afford opportunities • 
 play acceptable to singers. (Died Oct. 20, 187 11 .) 
 
 BALFOU'R, Sn: Jamks, Lord President of the 
 Court of Session, and author of an able book. Practicis 
 of Scots Law, was a son of Sir Michael Balfour of 
 Fitteudreich and Mnntquhany, in l'ifeshire. In 
 early life he was implicated in the conspiracy against 
 Cardinal Beaton, and being in the Castle of St 
 Andrews when it surrendered, in 1547, he was 
 carried prisoner to France in the same vessel with 
 John Knox. About two years after, returning to 
 Scotland along with other of his fellow-prisoners, he 
 changed his religion, his apostasy gaining for him 
 the appellation of the 'Blasphemous Balfour' from 
 Knox, but unusual honours and emoluments from 
 the queen and court. B. was sagacious enough to 
 notice the increasing influence of Bothwell, and he 
 immediately insinuated himself into his confidence, 
 joined the conspiracy for the assassination of 
 Darnley, and framed the bond for mutual support, 
 signed by the conspirators. He was afterwards 
 accused by Lord Lennox as an accomplice in the 
 murder of Darnley, but the trial was hurried over 
 before proof of his guilt could be brought forward. 
 In 1507, at the instance of Bothwell, he was 
 appointed governor of Edinburgh Castle; and he 
 repaid the kindness of that nobleman and the queen, 
 by handing over to the confederate lords the cele- 
 brated letters upon which they endeavoured to 
 found Mary's guilt, and which had been given him 
 by Bothwell for safe custody. He afterwards sur- 
 rendered the castle to Murray, on certain conditions, 
 in which his own safety and interests were the chief 
 considerations. The great object of B.'s life appears 
 to have been self -aggrandisement, without regard 
 to the means by which that was accomplished. 
 Accordingly, we find him the recipient of favours 
 under the regency, as he was under the queen. 
 He was made a privy-councillor, Commendator of 
 the Priory of Pittenweem; and in exchange for the 
 clerk-registry, he received the Lord Presidentship 
 of the Court of Session, and a pension of £500. 
 When Morton was made regent, B. contrived to 
 curry favour with him, and received from him a 
 commission to make a general digest of t! 
 Not feeling himself safe in Scotland, howen 
 left it for France, where he remained for some time. 
 When the young king ascended the throne, he 
 
 joined the party hostile to Mort but again fled 
 
 to France, when in 1679 Morton recovered his 
 authority. In 15S0 he returned, aud was instru- 
 mental in obtaining Morton's death, by producing 
 the deed compassing the murder of Darnley, which 
 
 that nobleman, along with others, had signed. He 
 dud in I 
 
 BALFRU'SH (or more correctly BARFURf SI I, 
 ' mart of burdens '), an important commercial town 
 in the Persian province of Mazanderan, and situ- 
 ated on the river BahbuL about twelve miles from 
 its mouth in the Caspian Sea. The river, which 
 is here about fifty yards broad, but shallow, is 
 crossed by a fine stone-bridge of eight arches. It is 
 not navigated, all goods being landed at the port of 
 Mesh-hedi-Ser, on the Caspian, from whence they 
 are conveyed to B. by an excellent road. To the 
 south of the town there is an artificial island, about 
 half a mile in circumference, on which the palace 
 of Shah Abbas formerly stood. B. has excellent 
 bazaars, and several Mohammedan colleges ; the 
 population is variously estimated at from 50,000 
 to 200,000. The latter estimate was made by 
 Fraser, who visited it in 1S22, since which time it 
 has been greatly depopulated by plague and cholera. 
 Flax and cotton are much cultivated in the vicinity. 
 
 BA'LI, or BA'LLY, an island to the east of Java, 
 about 70 miles long by 35 broad. With an ;,: 
 1500 square miles, it contains a population of i 
 700(000, being 466 inhabitants to a square mile. 
 It is said to differ from the other islands of the 
 Indian archipelago' in shewing a majority of Hindus 
 and a predominance of Hinduism. Like the islands 
 generally in every section of the archipelago, from 
 the Philippines to Sumatra inclusive, B. is volcanic 
 — its highest mountain, with an elevation of 11. 326 
 feet, having been an active volcano as late as 1843. 
 The Dutch have a settlement in Badong, the chief 
 of the eight states into which the island is sub- 
 divided, and many Chinese are to be fouud in the 
 seaports. The lat. and long, of Badong harbour aro 
 8 42' S., and 116^ 33' E. 
 
 BA'LIOL, John, Lord of Galloway, and after- 
 wards Kim: of Scotland, was born in 1259, and on 
 the death of the Princess Margaret in 1290, became 
 a competitor for the crown of Scotland. As the 
 grandson of the eldest daughter of David Earl of 
 Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion, his claim 
 was pronounced superior to that of the other 
 principal competitor, Robert Bruce, Lord of Annan- 
 dale, son of the second daughter. The arbiter on 
 the occasion was Edward I. of England, who found 
 this a fit opportunity for asserting his claim as lord- 
 paramount of Scotland. That claim was acknow- 
 ledged by the Scottish estates in submitting the 
 contest to his decision; and, consistently with 
 this ignominious submission, B., before and after 
 receiving the crown (November 30, 1292), swore 
 fealty to Edward as his feudal superior. He was 
 soon made to feel that his sovcreiguty was merely 
 nominal, and, abject as he had shewn himself, the 
 indignities which he experienced at length i 
 him to an assertion of bis rights as king. In 1295 
 he took upon him, by the advice of hi3 nobles, to 
 conclude an alliance with France, then at war with 
 England. This act of revolt was followed 
 chastisement. Edward invaded Scotland with a 
 large force; defeated the Scottish I 
 prisoner, and compelled him, after perform 
 humiliating penance, formally to surrender his 
 crown, July 2, 1296. B. was confined for three 
 
 in the Tower, enjoying, however, a li 
 freedom, and something of royal state. At the end 
 of that timo he was permitted to retire to his 
 patrimonial estates in Normandy, where he died in 
 1314. a short time after the battle of Bannockburn. 
 The estimate by his subjects of this unfortunate and 
 poor-spirited prince was significantly indicated by 
 the surname of ' Toom Tabard,' or Empty Jacket. 
 
 BA'LIOL, Edward, son of John, makes himself 
 
 639
 
 BALISTA— BALIZK. 
 
 momentarily conspicuous in history by his daring 
 and successful invasion of Scotland, then under the 
 regency of Randolph, E.-.rl of Moray, in 1332. Accom- 
 panied by some English noblemen bent on recover- 
 in.' their forfeited estates in Scotland, he I 
 with a few hundred followers at Kinghorn, in Fife- 
 shire ; defeated the Earl of Fife ; pushed boldly into 
 the country ; and on Dupplin Moor, in Perthshire, 
 routed with immense slaughter an army upwards 
 of ten times more numerous than his own. On the 
 24th of September, seven weeks from the date of 
 his landing, he was crowned king of Scotland at 
 Scone. He had only enjoyed the kingly dignity for 
 about three months, when he was surprised m his 
 camp at Annan, and nearly lost his life as \ 
 the crown he had so recently assumed. His sub- 
 sequent career is the very reverse of what 
 have been anticipated from so adventurous a 
 nine, being marked only by weakness, servility, and 
 misfortune. He died at Doncaster in 13G3, and with 
 him ended the house of BalioL 
 
 BALI'STA, or BALLI'STA (Gr. baHan, to throw), 
 was one among the larger kinds of military weapons 
 
 before the invention of gunpowder. The B., 
 the catapulta, the scorpion, and the onager, propelled 
 large and heavy missiles, chiefly through the 
 
 n of a tightly-twisted rope of hemp, flax, cat- 
 gut, sinew, or hair ; or else by a violent movement of 
 levers. The scorpion was a kind of large crow-bar ; 
 the B. threw stones ; the catapulta threw heavy 
 darts or arrows, and was somewhat smaller than the 
 Balista. One man could manage the scorpion, but 
 two or more were needed for the B. or the catapulta. 
 There was a good deal of mechanism necessary to 
 bring about the propulsive force. The makers of 
 
 almost all inhabitants of tropical and subtropical 
 seas, frequenting rocky coasts and coral-reefs. Then 
 c il 'iirs are generally brilliant. The body is remark- 
 ably compressed. The ossification of the skeleton, 
 as m the other Plectognathi, is very incomplel 
 the externa] covering of the body resembles that of 
 ■[. v.) fishes, consisting, in some of the 
 genera) of large rhomboidal scales, disposed in 
 i rows, and not overlapping ; in others, of very 
 
 Balista. 
 
 those machines were very particular in the choice of 
 women's hn.ir, the sinews of a bull's neck, and the 
 tendons of the deer, wherewith to fashion the elastic 
 cord. The onager was a kind of B., which threw a 
 stone by the agency of a sling instead of a stretched 
 cord. The early chroniclers tell of catapultas that 
 would throw an arrow half a mile, or hurl a javelin 
 across the Danube ; and of a B. which threw a 
 stone weighing 360 lbs. Numerous other weapons 
 of an analogous character were known in the middle 
 ages — such as the mangonel; the trebvehet, which 
 threw a large stone by the action of a lever and 
 a sling ; the petrary, which (as its name implies) 
 threw a stone; the robinet, which threw darts as 
 well as stones ; the mate-griffon and mate-fun' 
 alinging-machines ; the tricoHe, which hurled quar- 
 rels, or square-headed arrows ; the espringal or 
 springal, which threw large darts ; the riba ud 
 a large kind of cross-bow ; the icar-ucolf, a stone- 
 throwing machine, &c. The Arbalest (q. v.) • 
 regarded as a small portable arrow-throwing Balista. 
 
 BALI'STES, or FI'LE-FISH, a genu3 of osseous 
 
 fishes of the order ' 'hi (q. v.) of Cuvier ; the 
 
 f a family, Balislida; the species of which are 
 
 tea conspicillnm. 
 
 small rough scales, with stiff bristles, as densely 
 
 1 as the pile of velvet. But the most inte- 
 
 g in connection with these fishes, is the 
 
 ion for firing the first dorsal spine in an erect 
 position, or lowering it at the will of the animal. 
 The spine is articulated 'by ring and bolt to t'.ie 
 broad intcrneural osseous plate.' 'When the spine 
 d, a depression at the back part of its base 
 receives a corresponding projection from th 
 
 is base of the second ray, which fixes it like 
 the hammer of a gun-lock at full cock, and it cannot 
 be let down until the small spine has been depressed, 
 as by pulling the trigger ; it is tin i I into a 
 
 groove on the supporting plate, and offers no impedi- 
 ment to the progress of the fish through the water. 
 This trigger-like fixing of the spine takes place also 
 in the dead fish ; and when a B. is removed from the 
 bottle for examination, it is generally necessary to 
 release the spine by pressing on the small trigger- 
 ray.' The spine is roughened with enamel ■ 
 whence the name File-fish. The flesh of these fishes 
 is generally regarded as unwholesome. 
 
 BALISTRA'RIA (ItaL Balestriera), one of the 
 names given to those narrow 
 apertures so often seen in the 
 walls of old castles, and tlirough 
 which the cross-bowmen dis- 
 charged their arrows. See Bal- 
 ista. B. do not seem to have 
 come into use till the 13th c 
 The lower terminations of B. 
 are generally circular, sometimes f- 
 in the form of a shovel. See 
 Loophole. 
 
 EALI'ZE, or BELI'ZE, a 
 British colony on the Bay of 
 Honduras, in the Caribbean Sea, 
 extending in N. lat. from 16° 
 ;"> to IS' 30', and in W. long, from SS' 
 It forms the south-east part of the peninsula of 
 Yucatan, which here divides the Caribbean Sea 
 from the Gidf of Mexico. Its area is said to be 
 19,200 square miles— about two-thirds of that of 
 Scotland. In 1850, the population was 10,710; 
 nearly half of the whole being in the town of B., 
 which stands at the mouth of a river also of the 
 
 Babstraria. 
 
 10" to S9° 
 
 I
 
 BALKAN-BALL. 
 
 same name. In addition to the Belize, which 
 
 traverses the middle of the country, the Bio Hondo 
 
 and the Sihoon form respectively the north-west 
 
 tie south-east boundaries. The presence of the 
 
 h in this neighbourhood was naturally < 
 an object of jealousy to the Spaniards, being Ions 
 tolerated from necessity, but formally sauci 
 only in l~>:;. I; .. ith tropical pro- 
 
 ductions in general, B. exports mahogany, cedar, 
 sarsaparilla, logwood, fustic, and other dye-woods. 
 The town is a depot of British goods destined for 
 Central America, and the river is said to be 
 navigable for 200 miles from its mouth. 
 
 BALKA'rT, or I IE MIS, the eastern branch of 
 that mountain-system which comprehends the ranges 
 
 ntenegro, Herzegovina, and the Dinaric Alps. 
 It ext the plain of Sophia to Cape Emineh, 
 
 on the Black Sea, and forms the southern boundary 
 of the basin of the Danube. The B. range runs 
 almost parallel with the Danube, and for about live 
 degrees of latitude divides Bulgaria from Eumclia. 
 Culminating in the west in the peak of Tcha> 
 9700 feet high, it decreases gradually in elevation as 
 it approaches the Black Sea on the cast, losing, to 
 some extent, its wild bare character, and becoming 
 diversified with valleys and wooded slopes, This 
 part of the B. has great strategical importance. 
 Numerous offsets traverse western Bulgaria and 
 Servia. The B. is traversed by rive or six passes, 
 the only important one of which is called Porta 
 Trajani, and forms the line of communication 
 between Vienna and Constantinople. 
 
 BALKA'SH, or TENGI'Z (Tenghiz or Tenguiz), 
 a lake of Central Asia, on the north-west borders of 
 
 n Turkistan, lat. 44 and 47' N., long. 77 and 
 80° E. Its length is stated at 150 miles, and its 
 greatest breadth at 75 miles. Its principal feeder is 
 the river Ili. It has no outlet. 
 
 BALKII, formerly the most northerly province of 
 Afghanistan, is now subordinate to the khanate of 
 Bokhara, though not incorporated with it. It 
 corresponds to ancient Bactria, and lies between 
 lat. 35' and 37° X.. and long. 04° and 69° E. It 
 is bounded on the N. by the river Oxus, on the E. 
 by Budukshan, on the S. by the Hindu-Kush, 
 and on the W. by the Desert. Offsets of the Hindu- 
 Kush traverse it in a north-west direction, and 
 slope down to the low steppes of Bokhara. Its 
 length is 250 miles ; its breadth, 120. Its situation 
 was once important daring the overland commerce 
 between India and Eastern Europe before the sea- 
 route by the Cape of Good Hope was followed. The 
 soil has the general characteristics of a desert 
 land ; only a few parts are made fertile by artificial 
 irrigation ; and such are the vicissitudes of climate, 
 that where grapes and apricots ripen in summer, and 
 the mulberry-tree permits the cultivation of silk, in 
 winter the frost is intense, and the snow lies deep 
 on the ground. The natives are Usbek Tatars ; and 
 their character seems to depend very much on that 
 of the country. In the barren legions, they are 
 simply plunderers of caravans ; in the more favour- 
 able ones, they are peaceful nomades ; and in 
 the most prosperous districts they are tillers of 
 the soil, and artisans in towns ami villages. Pop. 
 I at about 1,000,000. 
 
 Baj eh, the chief town. 'S.i miles from the Amu, 
 is situated where the Budi Haaj is distributed in 
 numerous canals. It is surrounded by a mud wall ; 
 but though bearing the imposing title of Amu al 
 Bulud ('mother of cities'), it has little of the 
 grandeur of ancient Bactra. on the site of which it 
 IB built. It was twice destroyed by Genghis Khan 
 and Timor; and as late as 1825, it was plan 
 by the powerful ruler of Kuuduz, Mir-Mur 
 41 
 
 The neighbourhood is famous for its corn and fruits. 
 As a boundary town lietween Afghanistan and 
 Bokhara, B. a sumed a prominent position in the 
 British-Afghan war. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BALL. Games with balls were among the most 
 favourite gymnastic exercises of the ancients. 
 
 layed almost daily by all, young and old ; by 
 the highest statesman equally with the lowest of the 
 people. The Greeks prized the game as a means 
 of giving grace and elasticity to the figui' 
 erected a statue to one Aristouicus for his skill in 
 it. The effeminate Maecenas amused himself during 
 a journey by playing B., a3 we learn from 11 
 In the gymnasia of the Greeks, and in the Koman 
 baths, there was a special compartment for B.-play- 
 
 '< man), where certain rules and ■_ 
 tions of the exercise were to be observed aco j 
 to the state of health of the player. The 
 were of very various kinds ; they were generally of 
 leather, and filled with air ; others were stuffed with 
 feathers. Ornamented balls, composed of 12 dif- 
 ferently coloured segments (such probably as are to 
 be seen in modern toy-shops), are mentioned in 
 Plato's Plvccdon. There was also great variety in 
 the kinds of game, each having a name. In one, the 
 B. was thrown up, and the players strove who 
 woidd catch it as it fell ; another was the same as our 
 foot-ball ; in a third, a number of persons threw it at 
 one another, either with a view to hit, or for the B. 
 to be caught and returned ; in a fourth, the B. was 
 kept rebounding between the earth and the palm of 
 the player's hand as often as possible. 
 
 Ball-playing seems to have been of equal antiquity 
 in the west of Europe, and to have erne down 
 uninterruptedly to modern times. In the lGth c, 
 it was in great favour in the courts of princes, 
 especially in Italy and France. The French jeu de 
 paume, and the English Tennis (q. v.), are 
 mentioned. Houses were built for playing in 
 all weathers ; and in gardens and elsewhei ■ 
 
 laid out for the purpose, the names of 
 which still adhere to many localities. The B. was 
 struck with a mallet — It. maglia; I'i naitte; 
 
 Eug. mall. The mallet was also called by the com- 
 pound name pail-viail, pell-mell, or pall-mall, from 
 
 la (Lat. pUa), a ball. The same names 
 fied also the game or the alley where it v 
 hence the English Malls and Pall-Malls. The game 
 is thus described in Bl 
 in Cunningham's Hand-book of Lo: 
 
 'Pale Maillc (Fr.), a game wherein a round bowl 
 is with a mallet struck through a high arch of iron 
 (standing at either end of an alley), which he that 
 can do at the fewest blows, or at the number 
 on, wins. This game was heretofore used in the 
 lley near St James's, and vulgarly called 
 Pen-Men.' 
 
 Towards the end of the ISth c, the game of B. 
 ceased to be played at courts, and at the same 
 time went out of fashion in the higher eir 
 continental society, though it is still practised by 
 pie in Spain and Italy. The form of it called 
 . | is still played in England by all cl 
 and Golf((\. v.) is a favourite game in Scotland. 
 
 For cultivating graceful motion, agility, and 
 strength, as well as promoi Ith of 
 
 body and cheerfulness of mind, l'..-playing is one of 
 the best gymnastic exercises. Ancient physicians 
 were in the habit of prescribing a course of balls to 
 patients where most modern doctors would 
 likely prescribe pills ; and in this point at least the 
 ancient practice might be copied with advantage. 
 
 BALL. In the somewhat indefinite language of 
 the military and naval arts, all kinds of shot and 
 bullets are occasionally called by the collective name 
 
 641
 
 B ALL— B ALLAH AT. 
 
 This was especially the case when nearly 
 all auoh projectiles were solid and spherical, before 
 the era of hollow and spheroidal shells. At pi 
 when tlic varieties are BO numerous, it is more usual 
 to employ the terms Bullet and Shot (q. v.). 'II,. e, 
 hier with Shell, are subdivided into numerous 
 kinds, tho most important of which will bo found 
 noticed under their proper designations. A parti- 
 cular class i 
 under Balls. For Bali .-('ahtkidoe, sec I 
 
 BALL (Fr. bal), a dancing entertainment. In 
 England there are county balls, attended by the 
 ■ of the shire or county, military balls, court 
 balls, subscription balls, besides balls on various 
 festive occasions. Whether designated ball or 
 assemblies, these entertainments are conducted with 
 great decorum, according to certain established 
 usages. If of a general kind, it is customary to 
 issue tickets only to those producing vouchers fur 
 their respectability; and to insure the most perfect 
 iety, a number of lady-patronesses (married 
 ladies of distinction) take a lead in the management, 
 and grace the assembly by their presence. Ordi- 
 narily, the charge for gentlemen's tickets at sub- 
 scription balls is at least two-thirds higher than 
 those for ladies. According to etiquette, no 
 unmarried lady can attend a ball unless she accom- 
 pany a gentleman, or a married lady. All, of both 
 sexes, are expected to be in full dress— anything 
 else would be held disrespectful. Fancy balls are 
 entertainments at which every person att 
 is expected to be in a fancy or peculiar national 
 costume; in other respects, they are conducted like 
 ordinary balls. Masked balls, once so common, have 
 now, for obvious reasons, lost their repute. At all 
 high-class balls, there is an appointed master of tho 
 "inics, who superintends the proceedings, and, 
 in the event of there being no programme, prescribes 
 the dances. 
 
 BALLACHTJ'LISH, a parish on the borders of 
 Argvle and Inverness shires, and partly in both 
 counties. In the Argyleshire part of the parish, 
 1 1 ' miles south-south-west of Fort William, mi the 
 south side of Loch Leven, an cast branch of Loch 
 Linnlie, are the celebrated quarries of blue I 
 clay-slate. These quarries have been wrought since 
 1760, and new employ 200 men. White and gray 
 marble quarries exist also in the parish. 
 
 The slate is exposed on the mountain-side, and 
 the quarries, commencing on the shore, extend 
 southwards along the side of the mountain. The 
 face of the rock is laid open by three worl 
 fronting the west, and rising one above another in 
 successive step-like terraces, all of them being 
 ed from the north end of the bed. The height 
 from the lowest terrace to the top of the workings 
 i< about 211) feet, and the face of rock wrought 
 536 feet. The situation of the quarries permits the 
 water and debris of broken and waste slate to be 
 at once got rid of into the sea. Tho great advan- 
 tage of this is evident when it is rememl 
 that this debris amounts to more than six times the 
 quantity of saleable material raised from the quarries. 
 A few years ago, the annual produce amounted to 
 from 5,000,000 to 7,000,000 of roofing-slates, I 
 ing about 10,000 tons. Pop. (1S71) 9«. 
 
 BALLAD. The name is of Italian origin (ballale), 
 and meant originally a dance-song, being derived 
 from the mid. Lat. ballare or balare, corresponding 
 to the (Jr. ballizein, to dance. The B. is a kind of 
 poi in which it is very difficult to characterise. In 
 the course of centuries it has undergone various 
 transformations, and the name has been transferred 
 to pieces which in extent, subject, and character 
 612 
 
 have no longer anything in common with the primi- 
 ballad, The confusion of ideas was rendered 
 still worse from the circumstance that poems of 
 exactly the same nature were styled sometimes 
 romances, sometimes ballads, sometimes epic 0! 
 lyrico-epic, or poetic narratives ; so that it was left 
 to the caprice of the poet which of these generio 
 
 lie would give to his production. As early 
 as the 12th c. the Italians gave the title of B. to 
 short, purely lyrical pieces, allied to the some i ox 
 still more to the madrigal, and which generally had 
 love-sorrows for their subject. Dante has snob. 
 ballate. Akin to these are those French ballads 
 which Moliere set him b, and which fell 
 
 into disuse. The earliest ballads, as the word 
 is now understood, are those of England, and 
 of Scotland, beginning about tho 14th c. They 
 in so far resemble the Spanish Romances, that the 
 subject in both is narrative, and handled lyrically. 
 See Lyric. The Spanish romance, however, has 
 more of the lyrical element, and is of a gayer cast, 
 reflecting the southern character of the people; 
 while the northern B. took a more earnest, sombre 
 shape, especially among the Danes ; though in the 
 north also there are Ballads of a cheerful and 
 sportive tone. 
 
 As far as subject is concerned, the B. is a species 
 of minor Epic (q. v.). The name is generally a ] 
 to a versified narrative, in a simple, popular, and 
 often rude style, of some valorous exploit, or some 
 
 nr touching story. Ballads are adapted to be 
 sung or accompanied by an instrument. They are 
 comparatively short, the story being circumscribed, 
 and not embracing a combination of events, as the 
 plan of the grand epic does. There can be little 
 doubt that the B. has been the first form of poetry 
 among all nations; and that the earlier epics or 
 heroic poems of the higher kind, such as the Spanish 
 ('id and the German Xibelungcn, grew out of such 
 simple beginnings. Of the popular B., Scotland, 
 or more correctly the border-land of Scotland and 
 I, is allowed to have produced the best 
 examples — as Chevy Chase, Fair Helm of Kir!.. 
 Lee, and many others. As a B. of modern com- 
 position may be instanced Goldsmith's Edwin and 
 ' ■ u a. 
 Many of the old popular songs of the Germanic 
 nations are just narratives of epic events and inci- 
 dents in which the feelings of the composer manifest 
 themselves. But the name of B. was not then iu 
 use, anil such poetical narratives were called simply 
 songs, or more specifically perhaps lays (Gcr. leieh). 
 It was not till the last half of the 18th c. that the 
 
 i name was transferred to them. 
 1 he B. has, in recent times, been cultivated chiefly 
 by the Germans, and in their hands it has assumed 
 a more artificial development. Burger may be said 
 to be the creator of the modern ballad. He was 
 intimately acquainted with the more simple Scotch 
 and English B. poetry; but while adhering to its 
 spirit, he gave to his own compositions a far wider 
 extent, surrounded his narration with descriptions of 
 scenery and other decorations, and by means of 
 1 lie imparted to them the vivacity of the 
 drama. His Leonore has become at once classical 
 and popular. Burger, Schiller, (iuthe, and Uhland 
 are the greatest German names in this department 
 of composition. Following the practice of these 
 writers, it has become common to confine the name 
 B. to an epic narrative with something fabulous and 
 supernatural in the background. In this sense, 
 Gothe's Brlktorig is a ballad; and Coleridge's 
 Ancient Mariner is perhaps the best exemplification 
 in English. 
 
 BALLARAT, the oldest of the considerable gold- 
 fields of Victoria, and in fact the oldest but one of
 
 BALLAST— BALLET. 
 
 all the gold-fielda of the colony. It is about 100 
 miles west-by-north oi Melbourne. It was first 
 il in September 1861, the comparatively unim- 
 portant ground at Anderson's Creek, which dated 
 li-. .m August of the same year, having been the 
 earliest result of the 'prospecting' which, a few 
 months previously, had been stimulated by the 
 newly discovered 'diggings' of New South Wales. 
 
 Though I'., was s] lily rivalled by Mount Alexander 
 
 and Bendigo, yet it has by no means lost its original 
 
 pre-eminence. As its surface-digging became ex- 
 
 lian ted, mines were formed — some of them now as 
 
 English coal-pits. It was esti- 
 
 I in !S72 that there were 21j M 
 
 6401 horse power, working the alluvial mines, 
 
 and 1-10, of .'J.'i'JO horse-power, used in quartz 
 
 i rivalled in the tineness of its gold, 
 
 2 rats, being only i less than 
 
 the unalloyed metal. 
 
 BA'LLAST is a heavy substance employed to 
 give a ship sufficient hold of the water, to insure 
 her safe sailing with spread canvas, when her 
 cargo and equipment are too light. The amount 
 of B. required by a ship depends not only on 
 /e and cargo, but also on her build; some 
 forms of construction requiring more B. than 
 others. It is not merely the quantity of B. which 
 a skilful mariner has to consider; he is required 
 also to take into account its distribution. If a 
 heavy mass of B. be deposited within a small com- 
 near the keel, it places the centre of gravity 
 very low down; the ship will sail sluggishly, and is 
 said to be 'stiff.' If, on the other hand, the B. be 
 massed too high up, the ship becomes ' crank,' and 
 cannot carry much sail without danger of being 
 npsi it Under average circumstances, it is considered 
 that a ship is well ballasted when the water comes 
 up to about the extreme breadth amid-ships. 
 
 In ballasting a ship, the cargo and B. are con- 
 sidered together, the quantity and distribution of 
 the latter being made dependent on the former. In 
 a ship of war, the B. is made subservient to the 
 requirements of the necessary stores and war 
 materiel ; in a merchant or passenger vessel, to the 
 convenience of the passengers and the careful 
 stowage of the cargo. During^ the last great 
 European war, the ships of the British navy were 
 supplied with a certain conventional weight of 
 B., according to size and armament. Thus, a 
 100-gun ship had 550 tons of B. ; an 80-gun, 440 
 tons; a 50-gun, 2.15 tons; a 36-gun, 225 tons; a 
 20-gun, 110 tons, &c. The recent revolution in the 
 sizes and shape of war-ships, however, and the 
 introduction of steam-propulsion, have rendered all 
 tiuli fixity of ratio inapplicable. 
 
 The substances used as B. are various — chiefly 
 
 iron, stone, gravel, sand, mud, and water. Iron is 
 
 now superseding the next three varieties in ships of 
 
 any importance; and water-ballast is gradually 
 
 introduced in the collier-ships of the Tyne, 
 
 Wear, and Tees. Water-ballast is employed in four 
 
 B. is contained in 
 
 proof bags laid on the floor of the vessel, 
 
 and filled or tied by means of a pump and a 
 
 hose. Bottom-water B. is confined beneath a false 
 bottom in the vessel. Hold-waler B., first employed 
 in screw-steamer colliers constructed by Mr Scott 
 Russell, is contained in a large receptacle, which 
 may be filled with the cargo when the ship is not 
 in li. Tank-water B. is contained in two fore-and- 
 aft tanks, which can easdy be filled and emptied. 
 The customs' laws relieve merchant-ships from 
 certain formalities and payments when leaving a 
 port in ball 
 
 The term B. is employed by civil engineers to 
 signify the sand or gravelly material which is laid 
 
 as a packing between railway-sleepers, in order to 
 give them solidity. No English railway is con- 
 sidered to be complete or safe for transit until it is 
 dressed and finished by ballasting. The ]K«sibility 
 of procuring ballast at a cheap rate, considerably 
 affects the cost of railway undertakings. 
 
 BA'LLAST HEAVING has reference to the 
 use of sand or mud ballast. In order to prevent 
 captains from filling up, or otherwise injurn 
 entrance to rivers, ports, havens, roadsteads, &c, 
 by the discharge of ballast, certain regulations have 
 been made at most maritime places as to its dis- 
 posal. The Trinity House Corporation has a 
 liar jurisdiction over the bed of the Thames, and 
 regulates all the proceedings touching the reception 
 and discharge of ballast. Before the use of water- 
 ballast, the collier captains ballasted their empty 
 ships with gravel or sand, mostly dredged up from 
 the bed of the Thames in and i ivichKeach. 
 
 Generally about 10,000 tons per annum were thus 
 used. The ballast-heavers were men employed by 
 the Trinity House Ballast-office in transferrin ; 
 from the bed of the Thames to the empty 
 When the collier vessels returned to the Tyne or 
 its neighbourhood, they were not permitted to 
 empty the sand in the river, but were under penal- 
 ties to discharge it on shore. This is the origin 
 of the vast mounds, or sand-hills on the banks of the 
 Tyne, which have been made very useful in the 
 construction of railways. Ships coming into, as 
 well as those leaving the Thames in ballast, are 
 equally subject to Trinity House control. The 
 Ballast-office Corporation of Dublin has similar 
 powers in reference to the river Liffey. 
 
 BA'LLATER, a village of Aberdeenshire, Scot- 
 land, on the banks of the Dee, 30 miles west-south- 
 west of Aberdeen. It is remarkable as the resort 
 of numerous visitors, on account of its chalybeate 
 springs. Pop. (1S71) 69L 
 
 BA'LLENY ISLANDS, a group of five small 
 volcanic islands discovered in the Antarctic Ocean, 
 1839. Lat. 60'44'S., long. 163° ll'E. 
 
 BA'LLET (of similar derivation with the word 
 ball — see Ballad), a species of dance usually form- 
 ing an interlude in theatrical performances, but 
 confined principally to operas. Properly, a B. is a 
 theatrical exhibition of the art of dancing in its 
 highest perfection, and must therefore, in general, 
 comply with the rules of the drama as to its composi- 
 tion and form. The pantomimic sacrificial dances of 
 antiquity, although they may be regarded as the source 
 of Attic tragedyrare not to be considered as directly 
 the origin of the ballet. The B., as known to us, 
 undoubtedly originated in the service of the courts. 
 We find it existing in Italy in the beginning of the 
 16th c., especially at the court of Turin, where it 
 was enriched by the inventive genius of Count Aglio ; 
 and where the princes and princesses of the court 
 Ives took part in it, in song and declama- 
 tion as well as in dance; for the B. at first appeared 
 in combination with the other theatrical arts, and 
 completed the chaotic medley exhibited in these 
 spectacles, which were at once mythological, allego- 
 rical, fantastic, warlike, and pastoral. From these 
 mingled elements the individual species of dramatic 
 entertainments were gradually evolved in their 
 it forms. Balta tar of music to 
 
 Catherine de Med ■•■ first to introduce the 
 
 B. into France, where it soon became such a 
 favourite, that Louis XIII. danced in one of these 
 ballets, and his example was followed by Louis 
 XIV. m his youth The latter made his last 
 appearance on the Stage in 1699, in the B. of Flora, 
 Hitherto, the B. had always appeared in combina- 
 tion with the characteristic features of the opera, 
 
 M
 
 BALL-FLOWER-BALLOON. 
 
 and even of comedy, as is evident from the works of 
 Quinault and Moliere, arranged liy Lully. The art 
 of ^quiring possessed then little dramatic expression. 
 and still requited to be introduced and explained by 
 singing and recitation. In lt'.'.iy, Antoine Houbart 
 d. la Motto undertook to reform the B., to which 
 
 he imparted both dramatic action and the expres- 
 sion of passionate feeling. About this time, women 
 first made their appearance in the B., as well ;us 
 in plays and operas, which had till then been 
 performed exclusively by men. There is no mention 
 of any female B.-dancer of note before 1790. About 
 the middle of the 18th c., Noverrc separated the 
 B. from the opera g re it an independent dramatic 
 form, and laid the foundation in his writings of an 
 ingenious theory on the subject. The Mythological 
 B., a relic of the magnificence of Versailles, came to 
 an end during the Consulate, when it gave place to 
 the newly invented Comic Ballets Dunsonmnie, La 
 mal Gardie, and the Arlequinades. Yincenzo 
 Galeotti, in Copenhagen, carried out the ideas of 
 Noverre so far as to subordinate the dance to purely 
 dramatic principles, instead of giving it the first 
 place as formerly; and thus I \. to his ballets 
 
 the character of great rhythmical pantomimes. These 
 did aud talented performances were longest 
 kept up in the theatre of Milan, where the most 
 lifelike and magnificent tableaux were exhibited in 
 pantomime ; and subjects were attempted far beyond 
 the limits of the ballet. The story of Hand 
 turned into a B., and the subjects of several other 
 tragedies were similarly treated. In general, the 
 B. has now become unfaithful to its original design 
 and its true artistic signification ; and exhausts 
 itself in the exhibition of mere feats of bodily 
 agility, tasteless displays of artificial dexterity, 
 distortions of the person almost to dislocation, and 
 balancings of the figure in attitudes often indelicate. 
 Consisting as it does more of external show than 
 internal meaning, it contributes gradually to blunt 
 the public taste for the enjoyment of the legitimate 
 drama, which speaks more to the mind than to 
 the eye. 
 
 BA'LL-FLOWER, & I resembling 
 
 a ball placed in a circular 
 iibwer; an ornament pi Mi- 
 liar to the decorated .style 
 of Gothic architecture 
 which prevailed in the 
 14th c. The B.-F. is sup- 
 ed by some to be 
 oitation of a pomi 
 
 . l by others of a hawk's 
 Ball-flower. , Itg f()rm %vlU ]lc . 
 
 better understood from the illustration. 
 
 BALLINA', a seaport town on the confines of 
 Mayo ami Sligo counties, Ireland, but chiefly in 
 Shgo, on the Moy, 7 miles south of its entrance into 
 Killala Bay. The Moy runs through the town, is 
 crossed by two bridges, and e iparates the two 
 counties. B. proper is on the Mayo side, the Sligo 
 portion being a suburb called Ardnaree. The tide 
 runs up t'i the town, but the river is only n i 
 from the sea up to a mile and a half below BaUina. 
 B. has a brisk trade in agricultural produce, salmon, 
 and cured provisions. Coarse linens and smitl" are 
 manufactured here. Many anglers resort to the 
 river Moy and Lough Conn. Killala Bay was the 
 rendezvous of the French invaders in 1798. They 
 landed, aud took B., but were, three weeks after- 
 wards, defeated at Killala Pop. (1871) 5551. 
 
 BALLINASLOE', a small inland town on the 
 
 borders of Galway and Roscommon counties, near 
 
 the centre of Ireland, on both sides of the river 
 
 Suck— which divides the two counties— S miles 
 
 614 
 
 from its confluence with the Shannon, and SI miles 
 west of Dublin. The Such at B. is divided into 
 
 I channels, over which the road from Athlone 
 to I ralway is carried by a succession of bridges and 
 causeways 500 yards long. B. is noted for its 
 
 annual fair in October, one of the largeel in 
 the kingdom. It is the Beat of a poor-law union, 
 and the station of the Galway militia BtafE Pop. 
 (1871) 4019. 
 
 BALLINRO'BE, a small town of Ireland, county 
 Mayo, picturesquely seated on the Kobe, about :i 
 miles from its mouth in Lough Mask, and about 
 10 miles S.S.E. of Castle Bar. B. is a seat of petty 
 and general sessions, and lias a union workhouse 
 and a barrack. It has a weekly market and two 
 annual fairs. Top. (1S71) 2057. 
 
 BA'LLIOL CO'LLEGE, Oxford, was founded 
 between 1263 and 12G8 by John de Balliol, father 
 of John Balliol, king of Scotland. The ori oal 
 
 i lotion consisted of 1G poor scholars, aud the 
 
 revenue for their maintenance amounted for many 
 years to only Sd. per week for each. In 1340, 
 
 tablishmentwas enriched by benefactions from 
 Sir William Fenton and Sir Philip Somervyle, the 
 latter of whom gave the college a new body of 
 statutes. Its most important subsequent benefac- 
 tors wire Bell, Bishop of Worcester, in 1566; Will. 
 Hammond, Esq., in 1575; Peter BlundeU's execu- 
 tors in 1615 and 1676; Lady Periam, 1620; Warner, 
 Bishop of Rochester, 1667; John SnelL Esq., 1077; 
 and Mrs Williams, 1830. The BOciety in 1873 
 consisted of a master, 13 fellows, and 24 scholars. 
 The number of members on the books was o'J-i. 
 The master and fellows enjoy the privilege of 
 electing their own visitor. John Wyclillo was 
 
 i- of this college in 1361 ; among its scholars 
 have been Jolin Evelyn, and Bradley the astro- 
 nomer. The Snell Exhibitions for students of 
 Glasgow University, attract annually to this college 
 a few distinguished Scottish .students. Among 
 these have been Sir William Hamilton and J. G. 
 Lockhart. 
 
 BALLI'STA. See Bat.tsta. 
 
 BALLI'STIC PE'NDTJLTTM. An instrument 
 so named was invented by Robins, in the latter 
 part of last century, to ascertain the velocity of 
 projectiles, and to prove the quality of gunpowder. 
 It consists of a large block of wood, suspended 
 from a strong horizontal axis; and it is so solidly 
 constructed as to bear the heaviest blow of the 
 heaviest shot without injury. An excavated centre 
 on one side of the block is tilled with sand, packed 
 in leather upon an iron frame; four bags form a 
 filling or core. The core, forming the place of 
 impact, is easily replaced after each tiring. Straps 
 of wrought iron suspend the block from the wrought- 
 iron axis or shaft. The shaft-ends have knife- 
 which rest on V supports. The construction 
 is such, that a violent percussion makes only a very 
 slight oscillatory movement in the block. A brass 
 graduated limb measures the arc of vibration ; and 
 a brass slide is pushed forward by an index attached 
 to a bar connected with the suspension straps. 
 Another form of instrument for similar purposes 
 will be described under Eprouvettk ; and some of 
 the results of these experiments will be noticed 
 under Cinnery. See War-Services in Supp. 
 
 BA'LLITJM. See Bailey. 
 
 BALLOON (Fr. ballon, a large ball). According to 
 the principle of Archimedes (q. v.), bodies immersed 
 in a fluid are buoyed upwards with a force equivalent 
 to the weight of the fluid displaced by them. If 
 their own weight is not sufficient to counterbalance
 
 BALLOON. 
 
 this force — that is, if they are lighter than the Huid — 
 they rise upwards with a force equal to the difference 
 of the weight of the displaced fluid, and of their 
 own weight. A B., therefore, which consists of an 
 integument enclosing a gas within it, will rise in air 
 
 Balloon. 
 
 in the same way that a cork rises in water, provided 
 that the weight of the whole be less than that of an 
 equal volume of air. If one, for instance, occupy 
 as much space as 1000 lbs. of air, but weigh itself — 
 covering, gas, and appendages — COO lbs., it will be 
 impelled upwards with a force of 400 lbs. The 
 gases employed for rilling balloons are either hydro- 
 gen or ordinary coal-gas. The former, when pure, 
 is between fourteen and fifteen times lighter than 
 atmospheric air, and the latter generally about two 
 and a half. 
 
 The B., as it is at present employed, is a large 
 pear-shaped bag, made of any pliable sdk cloth, 
 covered with a varnish, made by dissolving caout- 
 chouc in oil of turpentine, to render it air-tight. 
 The common size of this bag varies from 20 to 
 30 feet in equatorial diameter with a proportionate 
 height. The mouth or neck of this bag is just 
 large enough to enable a man to get inside to make 
 any necessary repairs, and is, of course, turned 
 downwards when the B. is inflated. A net-work 
 of hempen or cotton twine is accurately fitted to 
 Che I'., and the separate cords, on which it ends, 
 are tied to a circular hoop placed a few feet 
 below the neck. The car, generally a large wicker- 
 baskst, is suspended by ropes from this noop, and 
 1 1 at a considerable distance below, so that the 
 laut may be removed from the vicinity of the 
 gas. The net-work serves to distribute the weight of 
 the ear and its charge equally over the whole upper 
 surface of the balloon. One of the most important 
 requisites in the construction is the valve, which is 
 introduced into the top of the balloon. It consists of 
 a wooden clapper, four or five inches square, opening 
 inwards, and kept closed by a suiiicient spring. 
 A rope attached to this valve descends through the 
 neck into the ear, where, to prevent accidental open- 
 ing, it is allowed to dangle freely. The furniture of 
 
 the car are the ballast or sand-bags, by emptying 
 ■which the B. may bo lightened : the barometer, 
 or corresponding apparatus for telling the 
 ascended, or the upward or downward course of the 
 B. ; the map and compass, for shewing the direction 
 
 of the voyage ; and the grappling-iron, tied to the 
 end of a long rope, for anchoring the B. at the 
 descent. During his flight, the aeronaut has at his 
 al the means of guiding his air-ship only in an 
 upward or dowin. n, the motion of trans- 
 
 lation being wholly dependent on the wind by 
 which it is borne. If he wishes to ascend, he 
 throws some of the ballast over the side of the car ; 
 and if to descend, he pulls the valve-rope, so that, 
 the gas rushing by virtue of its specific lightness 
 through the passage made for it by the open valve, 
 the buoyant material may be lessened. It is 
 evident that the power of thus directing his machine 
 becomes more limited with each exercise of it, for 
 in each case there is an unrepaired loss of the means 
 necessary to it. All attempts at guiding balloons 
 in a horizontal direction have hitherto proved 
 failures. In ordinary flights, the mouth of the 
 B. is left open, so that there is no danger of 
 explosion arising from the expansion of the 
 the rarer regions of the atmosphere. The dii 
 that takes place through the open neck is inconsi- 
 derable during the few hours that an aerial voyage 
 lasts. Early aeronauts, who kept their balloons 
 closed, frequently ran considerable risk by inat- 
 tention to the valve when the imprisoned gas 
 demanded vent for its expansion. 
 
 The art of traversing the air by means of balloons, 
 generally called Aeronautics, and sometimes Aeros- 
 tation, is of comparatively recent date. The germ 
 of the invention of balloons is to be found in the 
 discovery by Cavendish, in 1766, of the remarkable 
 lightness of hydrogen gas, then called inflammable 
 air. Professor Black, of Edinburgh, seems to have 
 been the first who conceived the idea that a light 
 envelope, containing this gas, would rise of i 
 He requested Dr Monro, the professor of anatomy, 
 to give him some thin animal membrane for the 
 experiment, but for some reason or other, it was never 
 made. The first practical attempts were made by 
 C'avallo, who, in 1772, filled swine's bladders and 
 paper-bags with the gas, but found the former too 
 heavy, aud the latter too porous ; and he only suc- 
 ceeded in raising soap-bubbles inflated with the 
 The invention of the B. is due to the two brothers 
 Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, paper-makers at 
 Aimonay, in France, whose names are as dis- 
 tinguished in the development of their own branch 
 of manufacture as in the history of aeronautics. 
 It immediately struck these brothers, on reading 
 Cavendish's Different Kinds of Air, that the air 
 could be rendered navigable by enclosing a light 
 gas within a covering of inconsiderable weight. Led 
 by their avocation, they tixed upon paper as the 
 most fitting material for the purpose, and first 
 attemptedtomakeballoonsof paper tilled with inflam- 
 mable air. Finding that these emptied them 
 almost as soon as they were filled, uostet 
 doning the paper as an unsuitable covering for the 
 gas, they sought after another gas more suited to 
 the paper. By a chain of false reasoning which 
 need not here be detailed, they thought they found 
 such in the gas which resulted from the combustion 
 of slightly moistened straw and wool, which had, 
 as they imagined, an upward tendency, not oidy 
 from its being heated, but from its electrical pro- 
 perties, which caused it to be repelled from the 
 ground. It is hardly necessary to say, that this 
 so-calledMontgolti : no ad vantages for 
 
 raising balloons other than that possessed by I 
 air of any kind; in fact, the abundant smoke with 
 which it Was mixed, by adding to its weight, rather 
 detracted from its merits. At Avignon, in Novem- 
 ber 17S2. Stephen Mont ;■ ■llior first succeeded in 
 causing a silk parallelopiped, of about 50 cubic feet, 
 to rise to the roof of a room. Encouraged by this 
 
 MS
 
 BALLOON. 
 
 ;, the brothers made experiments on :i I a 
 I e at Annonay with an equally happy result ; and 
 finally, in June 1783, in the presence of the states of 
 \ ivaraie, and of an immense multitude, they I 
 
 B., .;") feet in diameter, to a height of 1500 feet. 
 This last, nearly spherical in shape, was made of 
 packeloth, covered with paper, and was heated by 
 an iron ohoffer placed beneath it, in which 10 pounds 
 of moist straw and wool were burned. 
 
 The news of this extraordinary experiment soon 
 reached Paris, where it produced a most lively 
 impression. A commission was appointed l>y the 
 Academy of Sciences to report upon it. Public curi- 
 osity, however, could not await the tardy decision of 
 tins body, and accordingly a subscription was entered 
 into to defray the expense of repeating the Annonay 
 experiment. Such was the excitement that the 
 subscription was filled in a few days, and the con- 
 struction of the B. was intrusted to the brothers 
 Robert, famous philosophical instrument-makers of 
 the day, and to Professor Charles, a young but 
 experienced physicist. As the detailed account of 
 the Annonay ascent had not reached Paris, and as 
 nothing was therefore known of the Montgolfier 
 gas, Charles fixed upon hydrogen as the gas most 
 likely to insure success. It was, however, a formid- 
 able undertaking to produce it in sullicient abund- 
 ance for a B., as it was at that time only dealt 
 with in small quantities in the lecture-room. By 
 ingenuity and perseverance combined, he triumphed 
 over this difficulty, and succeeded in filling, in the 
 course of four days, a silk globe of 12 feet in 
 diameter. This B. was transferred to the Champs 
 de Mars, the largest open space in Paris, where, on 
 the 27th of August 1783, it ascended in the presence 
 of 300,000 spectators, half the population of the 
 
 city. At the instance of the co n -ion already 
 
 referred to, Stephen Montgolfier constructed a lirc- 
 B., 72 feet high, and 41 feet in diameter. It 
 ascended before the commission on the 12th of 
 September 1783, but being held captive, it was 
 much injured by a violent wind, which blew at the 
 time, and after it descended it was finally broken 
 up by heavy rains. Another was made of nearly 
 the ane dimensions, which ascended on the lftth 
 of the same month at Versailles, the king and royal 
 family ' assisting ' at the spectacle. This ascent is 
 worthy of note, from the fact that a sheep, a cock 
 and a duck were placed in an ozier-basket attached 
 to the lower part of the B., and that these first 
 aerial voyagers reached the ground again in safety. 
 
 The B. was now a. fail accompli, and it began to 
 be seriously discussed whether it might not be 
 serviceable as an air-ship for bearing men aloft as 
 passengers. The solution of this question was first 
 given by Pil&tre des Hosiers. In a V 
 as the heated air-B. was called, 71 feet high, 
 and 'IS feet in diameter, supporting at its base 
 a gallery of wicker-work, he, in company with 
 the .Marquis d'Arlandes, made the first aerial 
 voyage, 21st November 1783. They remained in 
 the air twenty-five minutes, and sailed across the 
 Seine and over a considerable part of Paris. The 
 year 1783, so fertile in the annals of ae'rostation, 
 was destined not to pass away without witni 
 an additional, and even more satisfactory triumph. 
 On the 1st of December, Professor Charles, along 
 with Robert, rose from the Tuilerics gardens 
 with a hydrogen B. — then called a Chm 
 made from the proceeds of a public subscription. 
 This B. was made of alternately red and yellow 
 gores of silk sewed together, and coated with caout- 
 chouc varnish. It was covered with a net which 
 supported the car, and was furnished with a valve, 
 a barometer, and sand-ballast, and was, in fact, 
 a complete aerial machine. It may be said that 
 6lt; 
 
 the art of ae'rostation at once attained perfection 
 in Charles's P., and no essential change or imprc 
 incut has taken place since. In DOS BqUence of 
 the danger attending the use of Eire-balloons, and 
 the engrossing attention which they demand of the 
 aeronaut, they have now entirely given way to the 
 hydrogen or coal-gas balloons. Before they became 
 obsolete, several remarkable voyages were made in 
 them. The same Pilltre des Hosiers made 30 li 
 in one of them, the longest voyage ever executed in a 
 Montgolliere. Among the names of the fil I pro- 
 fessional aeronauts, those of Lunardi, Blanchard, and 
 Garnerin deserve special note. Lunardi was the 
 first wdio made the ascent in Great Britain ; and 
 Blanchard, along with the American Dr Ji 
 crossed the English Channel from Dover to Calais 
 in circumstances of almost unparalleled d 
 January 7, 17S5. Garnerin first descended from a 
 B. by a Parachute (q. v.), October 22, 17'.'7. It is 
 much to be regretted that the first aeronaut, Pilfttre 
 <les Rosiers, fell a victim to a blind devotion to his 
 art. In order to outvie Blanchard he constructed a 
 compound machine, consisting of a hydrogen B. 
 above and a Montgolliere below, and started from 
 Botdogne, accompanied by a young natural philo- 
 sopher named Hoinain, on the morning 01 the 
 5th of June 1785. lie had not ascended many 
 minutes, when, as it afterwards appeared, on 
 attempting to open the valve of the hydrogen B. 
 by the rope attached to it, he caused a rent of 
 several yards in it, so that it emptied itself almost 
 immediately, and fell on the Montgolliere beneath. 
 The fire in the latter not being kindled, the whole 
 machine fell with a frightful rapidity to the earth, 
 and the ill-fated aeronauts perished on the spot 
 whence they had risen. It is worthy of remark, 
 that though several melancholy incidents of this 
 kind are ou record, the number of casualties in the 
 navigation of the air has been less in proportion 
 than in the navigation of the sea. For 1500 aero- 
 nauts and 10,000 ascents, calculating approximately, 
 only 15 lives have been lost, certainly a small pro- 
 pi >i l inn considering dangers and inexperience. 
 
 I n 1 794, during the wars of the Revolution, an aero- 
 static institution was formed at Meudon, near Paris, 
 f< ir training a corps of ' aerostiers,' in order to observe 
 the enemy by means of balloons. A balloon under 
 the management of this corps was present at the 
 battle of Fleiirus, near Charleroi, fought againsl the 
 Austrians. During the siege of Paris. INTO 1S71, 
 
 the P>. was extensively employed. Countless tetters 
 and several persons left the beleagured city iu 
 balloons. There was, of course, no attempt made 
 to come back in such a conveyance : carrier pigeons 
 were the return messengers. 
 
 Balloons have been enlisted iu In half of science. 
 The first ascent for scientific objects was made at 
 Hamburg, July 18, 1803, by Robertson and Lhoest. 
 The results obtained, more particularly regarding 
 the diminution of terrestrial magnetism, and the 
 general feebleness of electrical and galvanic pheno- 
 mena in the rarer portions of the atmosphere, ware 
 considered of such importance by the French Insti- 
 t ni •■, that another ascent was determined on; MM. 
 Biot and Gay-Lussac were appointed to take tho 
 management of the B. and of the physical experi- 
 ments; and they started, accordingly, on the 20th 
 August 1804. As this aerial expedition was not alto- 
 gether successful, a second was undertaken by Gay- 
 Lussac alone, in the same year, in which he rose to 
 a height of 23,000 feet. The observations of tho 
 French savans did not confirm those made by 
 Robertson, for after a series of experiments, as care- 
 ful as their novel situation would admit, they found 
 that no diminution was perceptible in the intensity 
 of electrical phenomena in the upper air. Since
 
 BALLOON— BALLOT. 
 
 then, many scientific aerial voyages have been 
 
 taken, among winch may be mentioned tint 
 by Humboldt in America; those made by Mr Rnah, 
 in c mpany with Mr Green as steersman, on bebalf 
 of the British Association, during 1 s 17 1849; 
 that by MM. Barral and Bizu (1860) at Paris, 
 
 J;> nily, the most remarkable ascents have 
 
 made by MrGlaisher for meteorological observation. 
 < in one occasion he ascended to a height of 7 1 miles 
 the barometer standingatl inches. The B. contained 
 90,000 cubic feet of gas, and carried 60(1 bis. The 
 
 uetric ami thermometric laws of the air may 
 
 be ascertained by B. ascents. The nature of 
 
 aerial currents, at present so imperfectly under 
 
 might also be discovered by the sai The 
 
 introduction of coal-gas, instead of hydrogen, by Mr 
 
 i : ii, the most famous of English aeronauts, is the 
 
 most important advance in aerostation since the 
 earliest days of the art. His large coal-gas B., in 
 1888, bine Messrs Green, Holland, and Mason from 
 Vauxhal! Gardens, London, to Weilburg, in the 
 Grand Dnchyof Nassau, distant 500 miles, in 18 ho its. 
 In the United States, aerostation has been prose- 
 cuted with great zeal. Mr J. Wise has more than 
 once exploded his B., when high up in the air, to 
 shew what he considers to be always the case, that 
 the fragments with the net-work form in such 
 circumstances a parachute, which moderates the 
 rapidity of descent, and shields the aeronaut from 
 
 i. During 1S59, the longest flight on record 
 was made by Mr J. Wise, Mr La Mountain, and 
 others, who, starting from St Louis with the inten- 
 t i ' 1 1 1 of reaching New York, succeeded in following 
 the course they had mapped out for themselves 
 until they had crossed Lake Erie ; when they 
 were caught in an adverse current of air, and 
 forced to abandon their original design, after having 
 travelled 1150 miles in less than '2i> hours. In 
 September 1859, Mr La Mountain made a trip of 
 800 miles in 4 hours. Mr Lowe, another American 
 aeronaut, constructed an immense B., which he, 
 Called an aerial ship, the greatest circumference 
 of which was .'1S7 feet, with a capacity to hold 
 700,000 cubic feet of gas, and a lifting-power of 
 22J tons, and furnished with many new appli: 
 
 ivating, depressing, and directing the machine. 
 In ls7.'i, Mr Wise undertook the construction of a 
 bul hum to cross the Atlantic. He proposed to lay 
 in -ii >res for 30 days. 
 
 BA'LLOT (in French, ballotte) is a little ball used 
 in the practice of secret voting, which is theuce 
 generally called ' voting by B.,' whether it be a 
 ball or a ticket that is used. Votes may be taken 
 by B. in various ways — e. g., the voter may deposit 
 a ball in either of two boxes, so conjoined that no 
 one shall be able to say into which he drops it ; or 
 he may be presented with two balls — a white and a 
 black — and so drop one of them into a box that it 
 shall be unknown which he used. Tickets marked 
 ' Yes,' ' No,' or with the names of candidates, will 
 serve the purpose of balls in private voting. 
 The Dikasts in Greece voted secretly by means of 
 balls, stones, or shells, with marks. From this use 
 of marked shells (Gr. ostrahon) in popular voting 
 came the Greek i , or secret vote of the 
 
 people, by which they drove into exile those who 
 became obnoxious to them. Tabids or tickets 
 were chiefly used by the Unmans. If the vote con- 
 cerned a change in the law, the tickets were marked 
 A'. EL, the initial letters of the words ' Uti Rogas,' 
 • ing consent to the proposer's proposition; 
 
 and A. hi" Antiquo,' e\] herence to the old 
 
 law. If the vote concerned the election of candidates 
 to a public office, then the tickets bore the names 
 of the candidates. The system of secret voting in 
 Rome was iixed by various laws, of which the 
 
 Gabiniana Lex most closely resembles the modern 
 project of vote by ballot. 
 
 The system of vote by B. is much in use among 
 moderns in private or social clubs, and in the 
 i of officers and other acts of public or joint- 
 stock companies. The propriety of employing it in 
 private clubs has never been questioned, for to the 
 harmony of these it is essential that the votes of a 
 few should suffice to exclude an obnoxious person ; 
 and looking to the personal and invidious na> 
 the vote, it is equally essential to their hai 
 that the voting should be secret. A candidal 
 admission, who succeeds in the face of a few, though 
 not a sufficient number of voters, could not but 
 i rd those who voted against him as enei 
 But if the voting be by B., all he can know, if the 
 voters keep their uv, n counsel, is that soi 
 are unfriendly. It is thus left open for him to 
 associate on friendly terms with all 'hers — 
 
 a condition of the success and continuance of such 
 
 ttions. But whether the system was 
 to political and municipal voting, need to be in this 
 country the subject of keen debate, at a time when it 
 was in use in France, in several of the I 
 States, and in the Australian cole 
 
 We have said that the system prevailed in Greece, 
 and on its fruit there — especially in the exercise of 
 the ostracism — there have been various opinions. 
 While some have considered that the Athenians, 
 for instance, acted under cover of secrecy, fre- 
 quently without a just sense of responsibility, there 
 is the authority of MrGrote, in his History of Greece, 
 on the other side, to the effect, that they exercised 
 the right most beneficially. But if we have in Mr 
 Grote an advocate of the B., in Gibbon we have an 
 opponent of it. In his Decline and Fall of tlte Roman 
 Empire, that philosopher dates the decline of the 
 republic from the introduction of secret voting, 
 which, he says, destroyed public confidence — in 
 effect, broke up the ancient relations of patron and 
 client, and caused a general demoralisation of the 
 people. To come to modern times, we find the B. 
 in use in the Venetian senate ; and that in Britain it 
 was first demanded, not for the purpose of elections, 
 but of votes in pariiament. In Scotland, during 
 the revulsions against the court in the reign of 
 Charles II., the system was actually adopted in the 
 legislature ; but it docs not appear to have afforded 
 voters in all cases the desired protection. No one 
 would now dream of demanding its introduction in 
 parliament, whose proceedings, according to popular 
 opinion, cannot be too open and above board. On 
 this point it may be mentioned that secret voting 
 was the rule, for over five years (from 1840 — 1845), 
 in the Chamber of Deputies in France, when it 
 was abolished, as being productive of abuse. This, 
 however, as we have said, bears on a use of the 
 system that has now no advocates. Two illustrations 
 remain of its use in elections. In the colonies of 
 Melbourne and Sydney, the B. is said to have 
 worked well, though it has been doubted whether 
 its efficacy has been properly tested in these 
 countries, in which there is so much individual 
 independence, peculiar to new countries, thai 
 
 who vote care little for concealment. In the United 
 States, on the other hand, it is sanl I neral 
 
 opinion that the Bystem has proved inefficacious, tn 
 the state of New York, where the B. was ad 
 several years ago, there is now a party dem 
 . as a cure for the evils introdui 
 rystem. They say it has among the 
 Americans opposed no effectual obstacle to coercion 
 and intimidation from the majority, while th 
 whom the arrangements for secrecy are int; 
 flagrantly betray their trust, anil the voters on 
 either side are, as a rule, well kuown to the public. 
 
 647
 
 BALLOT FOR MILITIA— BALLYSIIANNOX. 
 
 The advocates of the B. used to maintain that it 
 would prevent bribery, intimidation, and undue 
 influence. They regarded its reputed failure in 
 America as being Inside the question as to its 
 suitability for this country, becav ■ in America 
 what the voter has to contend against is the pres- 
 sure of the many, while with us hi I to resist 
 coercion by individuals. The tenants, for iii 
 they said, want security, through concealment, 
 against the hiss of their farms, sin mid tln-y vote 
 against the wishes of their landlord, They believed 
 it would prevent bribery, through the uncertainty 
 that the bribed party would vote as he promised. 
 And as a candidate would not give bribi I, b 
 he could not trust that he would get value for his 
 money, so intimidation would not be attempted in 
 the absence of any security that it would be of 
 effect. To this it was answered, on the other side, 
 that the case of America was in point, inasmuch as 
 intimidation might arise here, as there, from a 
 majority, and that the case of a shopkeeper and his 
 patrons was that of many against one all over the 
 world. If the li. failed to protect the unit against 
 the crowd in one country, how could it succeed in 
 another'; As to the undue influence of individuals 
 over many — as of a landlord over his tenants — it 
 could only he prevented providing the many, in all 
 their public acts, contradict their secret votes. If 
 tin; many acted publicly as if they agreed with the 
 few, and privately voted against them, we should 
 have had a state of things in which the profi 
 public opinion would have been in antagonism with 
 the public policy, supported by private votes — a 
 state of things justly regarded as being impossible 
 t" lie produced The influence of individuals, then, 
 must remain — i. e., the secret voting would be of 
 no use, since, short of lifelong hypocrisy, it must 
 fail to be a protection. As to bribery, the oppo- 
 nents of the B. thought better of human nature 
 than those who would purify it by machinery. 
 'Honour among thieves,' they said : 'he who takes 
 a bribe, either has no principle left in him for 
 which to vote contrary to his promise, or will be 
 guided by his deceased sense of honour.' On the 
 other view, they put it, you secure the vote of a 
 rogue, through his playing the knave doubly, by 
 the public in taking a bribe, and by the briber in 
 not fulfilling his pledge. That men will be inclined 
 to give and take bribes as formerly, despite the 
 somewhat diminished security, they appeared not 
 to doubt. 
 
 An element in the controversy was the question — 
 whether the franchise was to be regarded as a 
 public trust, or a private power to be used at the 
 individual's discretion. The opponents of the B. 
 maintained the franchise to be a trust, on which 
 view, certainly, it should be openly exercised. Its 
 advocates, on the other view, held the object of the 
 franchise to be the ascertainment of the consci- 
 entious opinions of the people. The fact is, the 
 right partakes of both characters : it is a power of 
 expressing opinion by the agent under a sense of 
 responsibility. The B. gives greater security for 
 independence of thought ; but the public vote is 
 attended by the greater security for sense of 
 responsibility. It used to be common to sprinkle 
 pleas against the B. with high praise of the whole 
 scheme of British pobtics, as open, manly, and 
 candid, and with expressions of contempt for the B., 
 as sneaking, and dissonant with that scheme. But 
 the advocates of the B. were not unprepared with a 
 ready and obvious retort to such arguments. Public 
 feeUng was kept alive on this question by annual 
 motions in parliament. From 1S35, its introduc- 
 tion was an open question with the Whigs. The 
 Radicals, in ISd'.l, were greatly pleased to lind Lord 
 
 John Russell expri I mself as being almost a 
 
 convert to their views. The controversy was put 
 an end to in .Inly 1872, when voting at parliament- 
 ary and municipal elections in Great Britain and 
 
 Ireland was decreed to I"' by ballot. 
 BALLOT FOR MILITIA. Sec Miutia. 
 BALLO'TA. See Horeiiound. 
 BALLS, Hollow. In military pyrotechny, 
 
 many varieties of B. are made, differing in purpose 
 
 from bomb-shells, but, like them, filled with ignit- 
 ible composition. They are used to give light, to 
 produce a dense smoke, or to diffuse a suffocating 
 odour. Some of them, though called B., are not 
 globular in shape. Light B. consist of a 
 stretched over a skeleton-frame, and painted; the 
 frame is tilled with a composition of saltpetre, sul- 
 phur, resin, and lins. cd-oil, rammed down hard] 
 and is provided with a fuse, the length of which 
 determines the time that will elapse before tl m- 
 
 ?osition ignites. These light B. weigh from 5 lbs. to 
 lbs. each, according to their size. They are 
 intended to give out a brilliant light, which may 
 reveal the operations of the enemy during night 
 at a siege or in the held. Smoke-B. are made 
 of several thicknesses of paper, shaped by I 
 of a globular core or mould. They arc filled with 
 gunpowder, saltpetre, powdered sea-coal, Swedish 
 pitch, and tallow; and are calculated, after being 
 tired oil', to send out a dense smoke for nearly 
 half an hour, in order to blind or incommode the 
 enemy. Stink-B. are filled with a composition 
 which, when ignited, diffuses an odour almost 
 intolerable. Some of the contrivances of Captain 
 Norton and other inventors at the present day, 
 noticed under Asphyxiants, are extensions of the 
 same principle as these inflammable balls. It may 
 here be added, that most of these projectiles, espe- 
 cially light J!, and smokc-B., arc tired from mortars, 
 rather than from guns. 
 
 BA'LLY, BAB, a Celtic word or prefix, signifying 
 'town' or 'dwelling,' enters into the composition of 
 hundred:; of names of places in Ireland and Scotland 
 It is allied (see letter B) to Or. polis, city, and to 
 the Lat., Ital., and Span, villa. 
 
 BALLYCA'STLE, a small seaport town in the 
 north of Antrim county, Ireland, in an open bay 
 opposite Rathlin Isle, S8 miles north of Belfast, and 
 5 miles south- west. of Fairhead. It lies at the base 
 of Knocklayd Mountain, 1635 feet high ; and the 
 marine and mountain scenery around is very roman- 
 tic. B. consists of an upper and lower town, a 
 quarter of a mile apart. Its harbour and pier en t 
 £150,000, but the former is now filled with sand. 
 Coal was dug here at least 500 years ago. Linen 
 manufacture and salmon-lishcry are carried on 
 here. Near B. are the Bonnamargy Abbey ruins. 
 There is a singular iissure, called the 'Gray .Man's 
 Path,' in the face of a greenstone precipice near li. 
 on the way to Fairhead. Pop. (1S71) 1626. 
 
 BALEYMEXA, a small inland town in the 
 centre of Antrim county, Ireland, in a plain, on the 
 right bank of the Braid, 2 miles above its junction 
 with the Maine, and .'l.'i miles north-nortli-wesl of 
 Belfast. It lies in a densely peopled and well-culti- 
 vated district, the inhabitants uniting the pursuit 
 of agriculture with the manufacture 01 linen. B. is 
 one of the greatest linen and flax markets in 
 Ireland, and its vicinity is covered with extensive 
 bleach-fields. Pop. (1871) 7G2S. 
 
 BALLYSHA'NNON, a small seaport town in 
 the south of Donegal county, Ireland, the chief 
 town of the county, though not the capital. It 
 is situated at the mouth of the river Erne, on a
 
 BALM— BALNAVES. 
 
 email inlet running off from Donegal Bay, and 
 1 'ii miles north-west of Dublin. A bridge of 14 
 
 crosses the Erne here. The Erne dl» b 
 more water than any other Irish river except the 
 Shannon, and falls 140 feet over a rugged bed 
 in the last 9 miles oi its course; 400 yards below 
 the bridge at B. the river falls in a cataract 1G 
 feet high at low water, and 450 feet wide, over 
 a limestone ledge of rock. The chief streets of 
 ];. are verj steep. There is a valuable salmon- 
 flshery on the river. The export trade is small, 
 in consequence of the existence of a bar at the 
 mouth oi the harbour and the prevalence of west 
 winds. Pop. (1871) 2909. 
 
 13AT,M (MdUaa officinalis), an erect, branching, 
 perennial, herbaceous plant, of the natural order 
 Zabiaice, a native of the south of Europe, naturalised 
 In a few places ill England. It has ovate crenate 
 
 Balm {Melissa officinalis). 
 
 leaves, and axillary half-whnrls of white flowers on 
 one side of the stem. The whole plant has an 
 i.l>' lemon-like smell, on account of which 
 it is frequently cultivated in gardens. The stilus 
 and leaves are used in medicine as a gentle 
 aromatic, stimulant, and tonic. 15. is also employed 
 for making an agreeable and somewhat exhilarating 
 beverage railed B. Wine. B. was formerly in much 
 in ii i repute than now for its medicinal virtues. 
 Its qualities depend on an essential oil of a pale 
 yellow colour, called Oil of Balm. 
 
 For medical use, the herb should be cut before 
 the appearanco of the flowers, which begin to 
 expand in .Inly. It is nearly inodorous when dried. 
 Tin' baste is somewhat austere, and slightly aro- 
 matic B. scarcely produces any remedial operation 
 
 Upon the system. The quantity of oil which it 
 contains is mil more than sufficient to communicate 
 a pleasant flavour to the iiifusum, which forms an 
 excellent drink in febrile complaints, and when 
 taken warm, tends to [promote the operation of 
 diaphoretic medicines. — A variety of the common 
 Cat mint (Nepeta cataria), with a smell like that 
 
 of B., is often mistaken for it. — MOLDAVIAN B. 
 
 (Vracooj)halaui Muldaciaun) is a native of the 
 
 country from which it derives its name, and of 
 Siberia, &c. ; an annual plant, having, when 
 a smell like that of B., but less pleasant. It is 
 much used in Germany for flavouring dishes. — 
 Bastard l>- (.!/■ a native of 
 
 the south of England and of many parts ": Europe, 
 is a very beautiful plant, which when dried has a 
 delightful fragrance, and retains it long. All I 
 arc of the natural order Labiakc. 
 
 BALM OF GI'LEAD. See Balsam of Gilead. 
 
 BALMO'RAL CASTLE, the autumnal residence 
 of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, is situated in a 
 beautiful dell in Braemar (the south-west district of 
 Aberdeenshire), on a natural platform that 
 gently down from the base of Craigan-gowan I 
 margin of the river Dee in front; and about 48 
 miles west of the city of Aberdeen. The i 
 commands a magnificent prospect on all side I 
 1848, Prince Albert purchased the reversion of a 38 
 years' lease from the representatives of Sir 1 1 
 Gordon, who had held it under the Earl oi 
 and in 1852 he acquired the fee-simple of the • 
 from the Fife trustees for a sum of £32,000. The 
 old castle not being sufficiently commodious for the 
 royal family, Prince Albert erected a new one at his 
 own expense, in what is called the Scot, 
 style of architecture. The castle consists i 
 separate blocks of building, united by wings and a 
 massive tower 35 feet square, rising to the I 
 of 80 feet, surmounted by a turret 20 
 At a distance, the castle, which is built of granite, 
 has a strung and imposing appearance, looking 
 almost as if it had been hewn out of one huge rock 
 of that material. Great improvements have been 
 made, chiefly those projected by the late Prince 
 Albert in the approach', to the co; i 
 Tin' estate now includes Birkhall, Knoel 
 ruins, Loch Miiick, and 'dark Lochnagar,' celebrated 
 by Byron (which is about seven miles south- v, 
 B. C), and contains about 10,000 acres, in addition 
 to 30,000 acres of hill-ground, which hai b 
 verted into a deer-fo 
 
 BA'LNAVES, HENRY, of Halhill, an eminent lay- 
 reformer of the 10th c. Born at Kirkcaldy in 
 shire of poor parents, who, however, contrived to 
 give him a university education at St Andn ws, In' 
 went to the continent, and entered a free school at 
 Cologne, where he greatly improved his scholarship, 
 ami received instruction in the principles of the new 
 faith which Luther had just promulgated. <>n 
 his return to Scotland, he studied law, and 
 for some time as a procurator at St Andrews. In 
 1538, James V. made him a senator of the ( 
 of Justice; and on Arran being appointed to the 
 regency, B. was made secretary of state. In 1643, he 
 was imprisoned on accouut of his Protestant! 
 appears to have been liberated in the following year. 
 He new appears to have made bin on the 
 
 Protestant side; and it is asserted that he was 
 privy to the conspiracy formed for the mm 
 Cardinal Beaton, and that he acted for tl 
 spirators at the English court. In 1547, 1"' took 
 n in ' m the Castle "i si Andrews, ami >■ 
 a traitor and excommunicated. When the castle was 
 captured by the French, B., with Knox and < 
 w. le sent to Rouen as prisoners of war. W I 
 prison here, B. wrote a treatise on Justification, 
 to which Knox a Med marginal not'-', and pre- 
 fixed a dedication, and which was afterwards pub- 
 lished with the title of Tit < !\u!h. 
 When Maiy of Guise was raised to the n 
 in 1554, B.'s forfeiture was rescinded, and he 
 returned to Scotland, and took an active part on 
 ih ide of the Lords of the I on, by 
 whom he was appointed one of the commissi.. ners
 
 BALSAM. 
 
 who Battled the treaty of Berwick in 1559 — 1560, 
 which established by law the reformed religion in 
 Scotland. In 15ti.'>, B. was Dominated a commu- 
 te revise The Book qf DitcApline. He after- 
 acted for the Regent Murray in the inquiry 
 into the charges against Mary for the murder of 
 Damley. lie died in 1579; one account says 1570. 
 Both Knox and Melville had a high opinion of him 
 alike for his piety, wisdom, and learning. 
 
 B VLSAM, a name formerly comprehensive of 
 many resinous substances and oils, to which import- 
 ant medicinal virtues were ascribed, as well &S of 
 medicines compounded of resins and oils. When 
 the term B. is now used without addition, the 
 balsams of Peru and Tolu are generally intended. — 
 These two balsams are very similar in all their more 
 important properties, and are both produced by trees 
 of the genus Myroaparmum (or Myroxylon), of the 
 natural order Leyitmiiioso; sub-order Papilionoeeo, 
 natives of the tropical parts of America. M. perui- 
 fi rum, which is called theQninquino, a beautiful tree, 
 common from Peru to Mexico, is generally rej 
 as the species which produces the B. of Peru; ami 
 M. In! nil', rum. a very similar species, found on the 
 mountains of Tolu, the banks of the Magdalena, &c., 
 as that which produces the B. of Tolu; but it is 
 doubtful if the difference is not at least as much 
 owing to the modes of procuring and preserving the 
 B. ; and other species of the same genus (.'/. puno 
 totem and M. pubescens) are supposed also to yield 
 it. 11. of Peru appears in two forms, known as 
 White n. of Peru and Black B. qf Peru ; the former 
 of which has been said to be obtained from the 
 pods, and the latter from incisions in the trunk of 
 the tree ; but it has also been stated that the white 
 B. flows from the trunk, and that the black B. is 
 obtained by distilling down the wood after the 
 manner Of tar burning, or by boiling with water. 
 The actual evidence is insufficient to determine 
 these points with certainty, and it is not improbable 
 that different methods may be employed. White 
 B. of Peru is at first of the consistence of recent 
 honey, and of a light yellow colour ; the 1 Jack B. 
 is of a reddish or blackish brown colour, and of the 
 consistence of treacle. B. of Tolu, until recently, 
 appeared in commerce day and friable, but is now 
 generally soft and tenacious when first imported, 
 becoming hard by age. Both balsams have a very 
 fragrant odour. They are used in confectionary, 
 to impart a flavour like that of vauillc; also in 
 perfumery, and for pastilles, &c. In medicine, they 
 are administered as gentle stimulants and tonics, 
 and particularly in chronic bronchial affections. 
 Tolu lozenges are a popular and pleasant remedy 
 for troublesome coughs. These balsams are also 
 used for cleansing ulcers. — They contain Cinnamic 
 Acid, and a peculiar oily substance which has been 
 called Cinnameine, and is also known as Oil of B. of 
 Peru. The name White B. qf Peru is sometimes 
 given to a balsamic substance which flows from the 
 Liquidambar styracifiua. See Liqutdaaibai:. 
 
 BALSAM, or BALM OF GILEAD, is a liquid 
 resinous substance, which has long enjoyed a very 
 high reputation in the East, being prized not only 
 for its fragrance, but also for the medicinal virtues 
 which it is supposed to possess. It is the subject 
 of several allusions in the Old Testament, which 
 strongly indicate the prevalent opinion of its 
 preciousness ; and is celebrated by Strabo, Pliny, 
 Diodorus Siculus, and other ancient writers, almost 
 as a cure for every disease. It is still somewhat 
 doubtful what tree furnishes it, but it is generally 
 believed to be a species of Balsamodendron (q. v.) — 
 a small tree growing in Arabia and Abyssinia, and 
 known as B. Gileadense. The finest balsam, called 
 WO 
 
 Opobalsam or Balm of Mecca, is obtained by inci- 
 sions, is at first turbid and white, but finally becomes 
 of a golden yellow colour, and of a consistence like 
 honey. Inferior kinds are obtained by boiling the 
 fruit and the wood. B. of Gilead is irritating when 
 applied to the skin, and is believed to resemble B. 
 01 Capaiva in its effects upon the human system. 
 Balsamodendron Opobalsamum, a species very nearly 
 allied to B. Gileadense, is sometimes said to furnish 
 this balsam. 
 
 Other substances, sometimes designated bal 
 and possessing a somewhat similar fragrance, are 
 produced by different species of Aim/ridacca (q. v.). 
 Among them is one called American Balm of Gilead, 
 the produce of a tree called /ci'ra Corona. — Balsamic 
 substances are furnished also by a number of sp< 
 of Clusiacea; — Balsam of Umiri, a fragrant yellow 
 fluid, by Ilumirium jUirinvinhnii, a South American 
 tree, of the natural order Humiriacece.- CANADIAN 
 BaI 3AM is a kind of turpentine obtained from the 
 Balm of Gilead Fir (Abies balsa/mea); Hungarian 
 Balsam, from the Mugho or Mountain Pine {Pimm 
 Pumilio or Mughus); and CARPATHIAN Balsam, 
 from the Stone Pine (Piniis pinca). See Fin and 
 Pine. — Balsam of Copatva is the produce of 
 different species of Copaifcra. See CoPATVA. 
 
 BALSAM is also the common name of a natural 
 order of succulent herbaceous plants, BaUaminea 
 or B'tlsaminaeece of botanists, of which the beautiful 
 B. (Impatiens bahamina or Balsamina horteneis), 
 
 Balsam [Impatiens Noli-me-tangcrc). 
 
 a, top of stem with leaves ami flowera ; '<, ripe fruit unopened ; 
 
 c, ripe fruit, elastically opening. 
 
 so much cultivated in gardens and green-houses, 
 is a familiar example. Upwards of one hundred 
 species are known, natives chiefly of damp bushy 
 places in the East Indies, and many of them 
 plants of great beauty. They are almost all annuals, 
 and have generally white or red flowers. This 
 natural orcler is very closely allied to Geraniaceie 
 (see Geranium) and Oxalideoz (q. v.), wood-sorrel, 
 &c, but is distinguished from both by the extreme 
 irregularity of the flowers, and from the former 
 also, by the beakless fruit, which is a five-celled 
 capsule, bursting by five elastic valves. The leaves 
 are simple and without stipules, the flowers gene- 
 rally axillary. — The common B. is a native of the
 
 BALSAM OF SULPHUR-BALTIMORE. 
 
 i I Indies and Japan. Many fine varieties have 
 resulted from careful cultivation. It has an w, 
 succulent stem, usually about 1 — - feet high, luit 
 in favourable circumstance* will attain a gj 
 size. It often appears with flowers parti ill*, a. 
 but still capable of producing seed. In Britain, the 
 I usually sown on a alight hotbed, and the 
 plant is often kept in the green-house; although 
 even in Scotland it may be made an ornament of 
 a sheltered border. It is one of the flowa 
 qucntly to be seen in cottage-windows. A vulnerary 
 was formerly prepared from it, whence it has its 
 
 One species of B. (Impatient Nob I 
 called Yellow B. or Touch-me-not, is a native oi 
 Europe, and a doubtful native of Britain. It has 
 yellow flowers, and one of the petals prolonged into 
 a spur, its ripe capsules burst on the slightest 
 touch. This and two other species are natives of 
 North America. 
 
 BA'LSAM OP SU'LPHUR is a mixture 
 employed for medicinal purposes, and considered of 
 service when applied to foul ulcers. It is prepared 
 by dissolving 1 part of flowers of sulphur in 8 parts 
 01 olive oil, which yield a dark, reddish brown, 
 thickish substance, with a very unpleasant odour. 
 
 BALSAMODE'NDRON (Gr. balsam-tree), a 
 genus of small trees or bushes of the natural order 
 A myridaeea (q. v.), having small green axillary 
 I i, small dry oval fruits, and small pinnated 
 leaves with 3 or 5 leaflets. Some of them are 
 spiny : they generally exhibit a scrubby appearance, 
 and have little foliage. They are remarkable for 
 the balsamic substances obtained from their wood 
 ami fruit — as Balsam of Gilead (q. v.), Myrrh 
 [q. v.), Bdellium (q. v.), and Oriental Elemi (q. v.). 
 The red resinous wood of B. Kalof is a common 
 article of sale in -Egypt ; and a species called Schnee 
 is much cultivated in Afghanistan for its aromatic 
 and stimulant properties. All the known species 
 are natives of the East Indies, Arabia, and the east 
 of Africa, except that which yields African bdellium, 
 which is found in Senegal. 
 
 BA'LTA, a well-built and thriving town on the 
 Kodema, an affluent of the Bug, in the govern- 
 ment, of Podolia, Russian Poland. Pop. (1867) 
 1 1,528. 
 
 BA'LTIC PRO'VINCES (in Russia). This term, 
 in a wider sense, comprehends the five Russian 
 governments bordering on the Baltic — viz., Cour- 
 I .iii.l, Livonia, Esthoma, Petersburg, and Finland; 
 in a restricted sense, it often designates the first 
 three. The B. P. once belonged to Sweden, except 
 Courland, which was a dependency of Poland They 
 came into the possession of Russia partly in the 
 be inning of the ISth c., through the conquests of 
 Peter the Great, partly under Alexander in 1S09. 
 They have still very various constitutions, though 
 the usual ' government ' machinery has been intro- 
 duced, and every effort is made completely to 
 Russianise them. The five governments have an 
 area of about 200,000 square miles, with a popu- 
 lation in 1867, of 4,902,543, including St Petersburg. 
 BA'LTIC SEA, is the great gulf or shut sea 
 bordered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, and 
 Sweden, and communicating with the Kattegat and 
 North Sea, by the Sound and the Great and Little 
 Belts. Its length is from S50 to 900 miles ; breadth, 
 from 100 to 200; and area, including the Gulfs 
 of Bothnia and Fiidand, about 160,000 square 
 miles. Its depth is on an average IS— 20 fathoms, 
 in many places not half so much, seldom moxi 
 40 — 50, and never exceeding 167. Its shallowness 
 an.l narrowness, the flat coasts of Prussia on the one 
 side and the rooky coasts of Sweden on the other, 
 and above all the numerous and suddeu changes 
 
 of wind accompanied by violent storms, make the 
 navigation of the Baltic very dangerous. The group 
 of tin- Aland Islands divide the south part of tl 
 
 from the north part or Gulf of Bothnia (q. v.). The 
 Gulf of Finland (q. v.), branching off eastwards into 
 
 Russia, m Estl ia. A third 
 
 gulf is that of Riga or Livonia. The Kuri-i 
 other Hails (q. v.) are not gulfs, but fresh-water 
 lakes at the mouths of rivers. 
 
 The water of thi I older and clearer thr.n 
 
 that of the ocean. It contains only a tilth of the 
 salt of the Atlantic, and ice hinders its navigation 
 from three to five months yearly. Tides, as in all 
 inland seas, are little perceptible— at Copenhagen, 
 about a foot ; yet the water rises and falls at I 
 though from other causes, chiefly from the \ 
 quantity of water in the rivers at different seasons. 
 Upwards of 'Joli nvers flow into this sea. Tl. 
 from Germany are the Trave, Waruow. Oder, 
 I', a ant.', Vistula, 1'lVL" !. and Nielneli ; from 1. 
 the Windau, Diina, Narva, Neva, and Ulea ; and 
 from Sweden, Tornea, I.ulea, l'itea, Umca, Anger- 
 man, Dal, the water of Lake Maeler, and that of 
 Wetter and other lakes through the river Motala. 
 The basin of the Baltic occupies at least 888,710 
 square miles, or about one-fourth of all Europe; 
 and only about a fourth of the boundary of the 
 basin is mountainous. The principal islands are 
 Zealand, Fiinen, Bornholm, Samsiie, Moen, Langeland, 
 and Laaland, belonging to Denmark ; the Swedish 
 islands Gottland, Gland, and Hvecn (in the Sound) ; 
 the Aland Islands, Dago, and OescL, belonging to 
 Russia; and Rugcn, to Prussia. The number of 
 vessels that pass the Sound to or from the Baltic 
 annually is very large. See Souxd Dues. Timber, 
 bides, tallow, and grain, are the chief c 
 from the countries bordering on the Baltic. The 
 Eider or Schleswig-Holstein Canal, connecting the 
 Baltic near Kiel with the North Sea at Tonningen, 
 facilitates the grain trade in mild winters. The two 
 seas are also connected by the Gotha Canal, which 
 joins the lakes of South Sweden. The most 
 important harbours in the Baltic are : in Denmark, 
 Copenhagen and Klonsburg : in < ■ rinany, Schleswig, 
 Kiel, Travemtinde (Lubcek), Wismar, K 
 Stralsund, Stettin, Swinemtinde, Da ESbing, 
 
 sberg, Pillau, and Memcl ; in Russia, Riga, 
 Revel, Narwa, Kronstadt, and Sveaborg ; and in 
 Sweden, Stockholm, Karlskrona, and Ystad.— The 
 shores of the Baltic in Prussia and Courland have 
 been long noted for the amber cast ashore by the 
 waves in stormy weather. Another important 
 phenomenon connected with the Baltic, is an 
 slow vertical movement of its coasts, downward* in 
 the south of Sweden, but further north upi 
 being there supposed to be at the rate of thin 
 iu a century. See Lyell's Principles of Geoloyt/. — 
 The Germanic nations call tii I astern 
 
 Sea ; the name Baltie is derived by Dr Latham, from 
 an island I '.alt ia. mentioned by 1 'liny, and which Di 
 
 Latham i aiders to be Zealand. 
 
 HA LTIMORE, a city, port of entry, and 
 justice of Baltimore county, Maryland, I'. s., in Lit. 
 39" 17 S. t and long. 76 36' W. It stands round a 
 small bay which runs back from the left side of the 
 
 PatapsCO, about 12 miles from its entrance into 
 
 Chesap.'do' Bay, and about 200 miles, by a ship's 
 
 open Atlantic. The city III 
 
 le 1 so late as 17-9. The a of its 
 
 prosperity is to be found in the sue lultsoj 
 
 i I in mi >. there were 26,51 1 
 inhabitants; in 1810,46,455; iii 1820, 62,738; in 
 1830, 80,620; in 1840, 102,613; in I860, 160,064 ; in 
 Is. - ,:;, about 195,000; and in 1S70 there were 
 267,354, Besides ita safe and convenient communi- 
 cation with the sea, B. is connected by railwav with 
 
 651
 
 BALTIMORE-BIRD— BALZAC. 
 
 Philadelphia, Washington, Winchester, Annapolis, 
 Cumberland, York, Lancaster, and Harrisburg. 
 
 Prom ea I to (rest, tl ity is about 4.\ miles |..,,- ; 
 
 and froi ill, to south, about 3J broad, and covi : 
 
 about 10,000 acres. li is divided into two Qearly 
 equal parts by 'Jones's Falls,' a rapid Btream which, 
 though troublesome from its Hoods, and expensive 
 from its bridges, at once affords immense water- 
 power, and supplies an abundance of pure water fur 
 aomesi ic ai 
 
 Imports in 1868 amounted to 12,930,7:;:; dollars; 
 and the exports to 13,857,391. In the same year, 
 •_".l!l vessels, of 115,140 tonnage, entered the port, 
 and 595, of 21 1,250, cleared it. There are 25 
 papers, 8 of which are dailies. 
 
 Among the commemorative structures which 
 have gained for B. the name of the 'Monumi stal 
 City,' the most interesting is an elegant obelisk, 
 wliich was erected in 1815 to the memory of tlio.se 
 who had fallen the year before in defending the 
 town against an attack of the British. As 
 In' expected in the wealthiest city of Roman Catholic- 
 Maryland, the Roman Catholic cathedral takes the 
 lead among the ecclesiastical edifices of B. It is a 
 massive building of granite, being 190 feet long, 
 177 broad, and to the top of the cross, 127 high : 
 and besides one of the largest organs in the United 
 States, it contains two beautiful paintings, presented 
 respectively by Louis XVI. and Charles X. of 
 France. In B., however, the Roman Catholics are 
 now vastly outnumbered by oth -r denominations, 
 hiving only 20 churches out of 161. 
 
 BA'LTIMORE-BIRD, or BALTIMORE 
 ORIOLE (Tclerua Baltimorii), a very beautiful 
 American bird, found in all parts of the United 
 
 Baltimore-Bird. 
 
 States, and as far north as 55° N. lat., but migrating 
 to tropical or subtropical regions in winter. The 
 genus to wliich it belongs is usually referred to 
 the natural family of SiurnidoB (see Starling). 
 The B.-B. is in size somewhat less than a common 
 starling ; the bill conical, very acute, and a little 
 curved ; the plumage brilliant, particularly in the 
 adidt males, glossy black finely contrasting with 
 bright orange and vermilion ; the tail longish, 
 rounded, and slightly forked. The bird is remark- 
 ably active and lively; its song extremely agreeable. 
 Its nest is a curious and interesting structure — a 
 pendulous cylindrical pouch of six or seven inches 
 long, usually suspended from two twigs at the 
 
 652 
 
 extremity of a lofty drooping branch; the materials, 
 which vary according to circumstances, being woven 
 together with great nicety. It is sometimes sewed 
 through and through with long horse-hairs. Thread, 
 which may happen to l»- iiie.-iehing, is very liable to 
 be appropriated to the purpose of nest-building. 
 
 The nests of other species of Icterus are also 
 pensile. Several are natives of North America, and 
 others of South America. They are quite distinct 
 from the true Orioles (q. v.). 
 
 BALTSCHI'K, or BALI UI'IC, a town of Europe,,,, 
 Turkey, 18 miles north-east of Varna, noteworthy 
 in consequence of being in the vicinity of the ruins 
 of Tomi, to which place Ovid was exiled. 
 
 BA'LUSTER, popularly, banister or ballaster, 
 (Ital. balaustro ; Fr. Iialustre), the name given to 
 the small shafts or pillars set in a line at short 
 
 Balusters. 
 
 equal distances, and supporting a cornice or coping. 
 These miniature pillars have generally either a 
 pear-shaped swelling at the lower end, or consist of 
 two pear-shaped pieces, placed above each other, 
 a ring of mouldings being set between them. This 
 makes the profile resemble an ancient bow or 
 Balista (q. v.), from which some derive the name; 
 others derive it from Lat. palus, Eng. pole or pale. 
 
 BALUSTRADE, a range of balusters, together 
 with the cornice or coping which they support 
 The B. is often used as a parapet for bridges, the 
 
 Balustrade. 
 
 roofs of large edifices, &c., or as a mere termination 
 to the structure. It is also used to enclose stairs, 
 altars, balconies, &c. Balustrades are made of stone, 
 metal, or wood. 
 
 BALZAC, Jean Louis Gunz de, born at 
 AngoulOme in 1594. In his youth he was secre- 
 tary to Cardinal la Valctte at Rome, where he 
 cultivated his taste for elegant composition, and 
 on his return to Paris devoted himself to the refine- 
 ment of his native language. His efforts in this 
 direction have given him a permanent place in the 
 literature of his country; and though his writings do 
 not possess much intrinsic worth, they heralded the 
 splendid phalanx of genius which adorned the 
 subsequent age of Louis XIV. He was a favourite 
 of Cardinal Richelieu, a member of the French 
 Academy, a councillor of state, and historiographer. 
 His violent literary disputes with Father Goula, 
 caused him to leave Paris and retire to his here- 
 ditary property of Balzac, where he died on the
 
 BAI.ZAC-BAMBIXO. 
 
 18th February 1655. A collection "f the wori 
 appeared in Paris, edited by L'AbbS Cassaigne 
 (2 role. Par. 1665; •>' vols, Amst L684). I 
 his works, his Leltret (3 vols. Par. 1800) have 
 been most generally admired, and arc still read. 
 A selection from his writings was arranged by 
 Malitourne (2 vols. Par. 1822). Compare Moreau de 
 Ces de B. (Par. 1807). 
 
 BALZAC, Honors de, one of the best of the 
 modern French novelist/, was born on the 20th 
 May 1799, at Tours, where his father held a civil 
 At the age of twelve, he entered the college 
 df Venddme, but finished his studies at the Pension 
 Lepitre, in Paris. His father, who had been impo- 
 
 led by the loss of his situation, then placed 
 
 with a notary, to whom he acted as clerk. 
 'II:: occupation proving intolerably irksome, B. soon 
 after began bis literary career, and wrote about 
 30 volumes, under the names, St Aubin, M. de 
 Veillergrc, St Abne, &c. Ho received some I 
 
 nee in writing these novels, which were, 
 however, so unsuccessful, that he lived in the 
 
 t poverty. In the year 1826, he en 
 into partnership with the printer Barbier, and 
 published various works; but the speculation 
 turned out so ill, that he fell into debt, and returned 
 once more to book-making. His perseverance was 
 admirable. Although long utterly unsuccessful, 
 ho continued to write on until at last he opened 
 a path for himself by his novel Les Derniers 
 Ohouans, ou la Bretagnt en 1800 (Par. 1829). 
 In this book be abandoned for the first time the 
 manner of Pigault and I.ebrun, which he had 
 hitherto adopted. Among bis best works are the 
 
 iogit du IWari \i (2 vol 1. Par. 1831), 8dn 
 d< Ar I.- /'. '■■' (5vols. 1831), S&nesde la Vie de Pro- 
 
 (] Vie Parisiennc (1832), Le 
 
 Midtcin '/> Campagne, Le Pere Qoriot, La Peau de 
 Chagrin, J." Recherche de VAbsolu, whh-h were all 
 received with much favour by the public. Of all 
 bis novels, two only can lay claim to anything like 
 artistic completeness. They are the Sietoire Intel- 
 
 'le de Louis Lambert, and Eugeni Qra ■' 
 His other works suffer more or less from unnatu- 
 ralness, difroseness, and the wantof a solid know- 
 led ■ of the world, although there is a richness of 
 description in portraying individual features of 
 character, as drawn directly from the heart, not 
 to be denied. B. exercises immense power over 
 the female part of his readers. In his Contes 
 ])i;J,i/ii/m .',..,///./(<- <".< Ahhuies de Touraiiir, el mis 
 an lumiere par le Sieur de Balzac pour Vesbattement 
 de Pantagruelistes el non aultres (2 vols. Par. 18.'i3), 
 he follows exactly in the footsteps of Rabelais. Suc- 
 cess made B. conceitedly ambitious. He thought 
 
 i f equal to the most distinguished authors of 
 all time, and represented the aim of his literary 
 activity to be, to give a complete picture of human 
 lit'.' in all its varied phases. As a dramatic author 
 he decidedly failed. In the year lS.">n, he was seized 
 with hypertrophy of the heart, of which ho died 
 on the I Ml. d August. Almost the whole literary 
 world of Taris were present at his funeral. 
 
 liAMBA'KRA, one of the states of . v 
 Western Africa, lying, so far .as has been 
 I 1, between lat. IT and 14° X., long. 15 E. and 
 
 . r i W., and occupying both sides of the Joliba or 
 Niger, which flows through its centre from 
 west to north-east. The principal towns of B. 
 
 Stand on the banks of this river. The mountains 
 
 in which the Ni er has its Bource divide it on 
 
 the S. from Guinea; the Sahara desert bounds 
 it on the X.; on the W., Senegambia; and on the 
 1.'.. some of its sister-states. In its general 
 aspect, the country is said to bear a considerable 
 
 I lance to the agricultural districts of England ; 
 but in the west there are low chains of granite 
 hills, forming continuations of the highlands from 
 which the Niger springs. The climate in some parts 
 is intensely hot; in others, it is more temperate, 
 but it is generally healthy. The rainy season lasts 
 from June to November. The land is well v. 
 and fertile. Double crops of corn, rice, maize, yams, 
 &c, are raised annually without much labour. 
 
 The butter-tree, cotton-tree, oil-palm, baobab, and 
 date, are among the most important 
 growths. The manufacturing u 
 important; the women making a soft coarse cloth, 
 much esteemed for its beautiful blue colour, and 
 the men articles in gold, aan, and ivory, in which 
 a pretty exl le is carried on. The inha- 
 
 bitants, chii fl ' id to be superior 
 
 r neighbours in intelligence, and to be much 
 sought after as warriors by the petty chiefs around 
 them, who are at constant war with each other. 
 They generally lend their assistance on condition 
 of a certain payment. The up] > 
 Mohammedanism, but the lower are pagans. The 
 introduction of the former religion has had a1 
 one good i lied the native' dialect 
 
 with a written speech through the use of Arabic 
 letters. The chief domestic animals are b 
 cattle, goats, sheep, and line horses. The wild ani- 
 mals are lions, leopards, elephants, woh 
 &c. ; and venomous reptiles, of which the i. 
 are much afraid. Crocodiles are numerous in the 
 rivers, which also abound with fish. The principal 
 towns are Sego, Sansandintr, Yamiua, and Bammakn, 
 which are all populous. The country has a nominal 
 monarch, but it is in reality ruled by several chiefs. 
 
 BA'MBEBG, a city of Bavaria, in th 
 Upper Francouia, beautifully situated on the 
 of the Eegnitz, not far from its confluence with the 
 Main, and in the midst of v rchards, and 
 
 irdens. B., which has considerably de 
 in importance since the Reformation, is a city of 
 considerable antiquity, l:a\ ing originated, it is said, 
 with a colony of Saxons who sailed here in S(M. 
 The most noteworthy of its public build • 
 the cathedral, a magnificent edifice in the Byzan- 
 tine style, foimded by the Emperor Henry II. in 
 I aud restored after lire in 1110. It contains, 
 
 among other monuments, the elaborately carved 
 tomb of the founder and his empress, C'unigunda. 
 Attached to the cathedral is a library, with valuable 
 
 I and manuscripts, aud what is represen 
 be the prayer-book of Henry IL There are several 
 either line ecclesiastical structures of early date, and 
 the old palace of the former prince-bishops of Bam- 
 The ruins of the castle of Altcnburg, origin- 
 ally the seat of the Counts of Babcnberg, au i 
 scene of many important historical events, stand on 
 an eminence about a mile and a half from the town. 
 The educational institutions of B. arc numerous. 
 Top. (1S71) 25,748, chiefly enga :- 1 in the manu- 
 factur b which is famous throughout Ger- 
 many, porcelain, jewellery, gloves, musical instru- 
 ments, &c. A large export trade in liquorice and 
 garden-seeds is carried on. 
 
 BAMBI'NO, a term in art descriptive of the 
 
 swaddled figure of the infant Saviour, which, sur- 
 rounded by a halo, and watched over by angels, 
 occasionally forms the subject of altar-pieces in 
 Roman I latholic churches. XI i !'•.. in 
 
 irch of the Ara Cceli at Borne, is held in 
 veneration for its supposed miraculous power of 
 curing the sick. It is carved in wood, painted, and 
 richly decorated with jewels and precious stones. 
 . irving is attributed to a Franciscan pilgrim, 
 out of a tree that grew on Mount Olivet, and the 
 
 an
 
 BAMBOCCIADES— BAMBROUGH. 
 
 painting to Bt Lake. The festival of the B., which 
 
 at the Epiphany, is attended by great mini- 
 i i of country people, and tho 15. is said to draw 
 mora hi tlic shape of fees than the most successful 
 medical practitioner in Borne, 
 
 BAMBO'CCIADES, in painting, are grot. 
 
 ■ from common or low life — such as country- 
 fain, penny-weddings, boon merry-making. The 
 
 name is derived from I'ctcr van Laar, a painter, who, 
 on account of his penonal deformity, was surnamed 
 Bamboccio (Cripple) ; but he was not tho tirst painter 
 of such scenes. 
 
 BAMBOO' [Bambtua), a genua of passes, of 
 whk-h most of the species attain a great size, many 
 of them 20 or ."ill feet, some 70 or LOO feet in '• 
 The species are numerous, and are found in tropical 
 and subtropical regions, both of the eastern and 
 i i vs. They are of great importance 
 to the inhabitants of the countries iu which they 
 grow. All of them have a jointed subten 
 root-stock (rhizome), which throws up 10 — 100 stems. 
 These are generally straight and erect ; although one 
 large species (B. ayreslh), common in dry mountain- 
 ous situations in the south-east of Asia, has croc iked, 
 and sometimes creeping stems. The stems grow to 
 their full height unbranched, but afterwards throw 
 out straight horizontal branches, especially in their 
 upper parts, forming a dense thicket; and many of 
 them being strongly armed with spines, thi 
 
 planted for di fence, presenting a formidable barrier, 
 
 ■'ar troops. Someof the smaller kinds 
 are often planted as hedges. The stems are jointed 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 like those of other grasses, very hard, but light and 
 elastic, hollow, containing only a light spongy pith) 
 
 except at the joints or nodes, where tin \ 
 by strong partitions. They are. therefore, I 
 converted into water-vessels of various sorts ; and 
 when the partitions are removed, they are used as 
 pipes for conveying water. They are also much 
 employed for house-building, for bridges, and for 
 many other purposes to which wood is usually 
 applied. The smaller stems are converted into 
 walking-sticks, and are imported into Europe Under 
 the name of B. Cane, both for that purpose and to 
 be employed in light wicker-work. Some of the 
 ie now to the height only of a few feet; and 
 almost all of them are slender in proportion to their 
 height, although B. Gxadua, a native of Now 
 Granada and Quito, has a trunk 16 inches in diame- 
 ter. The stems of dillerent species vary also very 
 
 much in the thickness of the woody part, and so in 
 their adaptation to dif fer e n t purposes. The externa] 
 
 covering of the stem is, in all the species, remark- 
 ably siliciotis ; the stem of /;. tabaca ria is so hard 
 that it strikes lire when the hatchet is applied. 
 This species is a native of Ajnboyna and Java; its 
 slender stem J, and used for the stalks of 
 
 ■ -pipes. The leaves of some kinds are n 
 for thatch, and the CM] hats of thl I 
 
 the external membrane of the stems of some, they 
 make paper. From the knots of the 1'.. there exudes 
 
 i: nine juice, which dries upon in the 
 
 atmosphere, and which the Greeks ''ailed Indian 
 Honey. It is also i ■ , 
 
 slieer ; but this name more properly belongs to a 
 phosphorescent substance, containin I lime, 
 
 and possessing remarkable properties, v. Inch forms 
 
 in the joints of some S] oi I'.., and of 
 
 BB growing in dry situations. See Taba- 
 
 -The young shoots of some kinds of Ii. are 
 like asparagus, or are pickled in vinegar. 
 Those of B. Tulda, a common Bengalees 
 used fur these purposes when about 2 Ie, | 
 The seeds of some species are used as rice, and for 
 
 ig a kind of beer. Bamboos are ; ■ 
 very rapid growth, and they are often found in arid 
 situations, which would otherwise be destitute of 
 vegetation. It is not improbable that they may yet 
 be employed, where they do not naturally abound, 
 to render districts productive which are now little 
 else than deserts, iii climates like those of Arabia, 
 the north of Africa, and Australia; and the quality 
 of the grain of dillerent species seems to 6j 
 more attention than it has ever received. The 
 
 common in the West Indies (/!. vulgaris) is 
 
 ed to have been introdl d from the I 
 
 Indies. A few species are found in the II inula 
 
 an altitude of 12,000 feet, ami a dwarf species from 
 
 :ioii has been successfully tried in the 
 air in England. 
 
 BAM BOU'K, a country of Senegambia, Western 
 Africa, lying iii the angle formed by the 8 
 
 cine river, in N. lat. 12 W — 14° and YV. 
 long. HI — 12' 30'. lis extent, however, has not 
 been accurately a . but is roughly esti- 
 
 at 140 miles iii length, and from .so to 100 
 in breadth. It is populated by Mandingoes, who 
 are ferocious and cruel in the extreme. The climate 
 is sultry and unhealthy, especially during the rainy 
 
 i. Low ranges of mountains cover the greatest 
 portion of the surface of B. The intervening 
 valleys, which are subject to inundations, are 
 
 h ible for their fertility. Trees common to 
 
 rn Africa here attain enormous proportions. 
 
 Vast herds of wild oxen roam the hills, and the 
 
 most formidable wild annuals of Africa arc found 
 
 in the forests and rivers. B., however, is chiefly 
 
 : able for its rich gold-mines, the produce 
 of which the natives exchange for salt, cotton, and 
 other manufactured goods. Its inhabitants are 
 professedly Mohammedans, but they cling to many 
 of the ] lagan superstitions. B. was, four centuries 
 ago, in the possession of the Portuguese, but they 
 
 r to have been soon driven out. 
 
 BA'MBR< >UGH, or B.VMBOROUGH CASTLE, 
 one of the oldest castles in Britain, on the coast of 
 Northumberland, IG miles south-east of Berwick, 
 and crowning a basalt rock, rising 150 feet above 
 the sea, and accessible only on the south-east. 
 In this rock is a draw-well, 145 feet deep, sunk 
 through the basalt into the sandstone below. B. 
 Castle was founded in 1070. It was forfeited by 
 the Pin Ms in 1715, but afterwards purchased by 
 a scion of the same house. Lord Crewe, Bishop of 
 Durham, who bequeathed the castle aud estate for
 
 BAMIAX— BAMPTON LECTURES. 
 
 charitable purposes. In 1830, the income of the 
 charity was upwards of A'8000. Connected with 
 tin- castle is a market for the sale of provisions and 
 groceries to the poor at prime cost ; a dispensary 
 for gratis advice and distribution of medicines to 
 the sick; funds fur lodging, clothing, and educat- 
 ing; the children of the poor gratis; an extensive 
 
 . , open to all living within 20 miles ; life-boats 
 to save the crews of vessels in distress ; apartments 
 for shipwrecked sailors ; and a constant patrol 
 during stormy nights for 8 miles along the coast. 
 Part of the funds are also employed to increase 
 small benefices, to build and repair churches, to 
 support schools, and to aid young men at the 
 
 litdes. li. village, near the castle, was the 
 
 i an old castle once the residence of the 
 Northumbrian kings. Opposite B. Castle are the 
 dangerous rocks called the Farn Isles, abounding in 
 sea-fowL Here (irace Darling and her father saved 
 the crew of the Forfarshire steamer in 1838. 
 
 BAMIA'N, a fruitful valley and pass of Afghan- 
 istan, about a mde in breadth, and enclosed by steep 
 
 leading from Cabul to Turkistan. It is at an 
 elevation of 84% feet, and is as yet the only known 
 pass over the Hindu Kusli practicable for artillery 
 ami heavy transport. This valley was one of 
 the chief centres of Buddhist worship, as gigantic 
 idols, mutilated indeed by fanatical Mussulmans, 
 still remain to prove. B., with its colossal statues 
 cut out in the rock, was described by the Buddhist 
 monks who traversed Central Asia, on their way 
 from China to India, in the 4th and 5th centimes. 
 The statues are found on a hill about 300 feet high, 
 in which aro a multitude of cells excavated in the 
 rock all round, and rising above one another in irre- 
 gular tiers. The cells are covered with carving. The 
 male figure is about 160 feet, the female, 120. Both 
 are natural in attitude, and clothed in light drapery ; 
 the face of the former is the most perfectly preserved. 
 Each ligure is hewn out of a deep niche, also elabo- 
 rately carved, and representing royal personages and 
 a variety of symbols which resemble those on the 
 cuius of the Sassanidae. Each contains a winding 
 stair by which it is possible to ascend to the head. 
 The whole valley is covered with the ruins of tombs, 
 mosques, and other buildings, once belonging to the 
 town of Ghulghuleh, which more recently occupied 
 this site, and was destroyed by Genghis-Khan in 
 1221. Eight miles eastward of B. lies the ancient 
 fortress of Zohak, attributed to the fabulous Persian 
 Serpent-king of that name. The fortress is pre- 
 served for the purpose of guarding the important 
 pass. Both there aud in the valley of B., a 
 number of coins, ornaments, and other antiquities 
 have been recently found, aud fully described 
 by Masson, Wilson, Prinscp, Wood, and others. 
 
 B.VMPTON, a small town in the north-east of 
 Devonshire, chiefly on the left bank of the Batham, 
 a tributary of the Exe, and 22 miles north of Exeter. 
 There are lure extensive carboniferous limestone 
 quarries. The manufacture of serge and pottery 
 is carried on. St Michael's Church was built in the 
 1 1th >-.. and has a town- 70 ft. high. Pop. (1S71) 1111. 
 !;\ MPTON IN Till-: RUSH, a smalltown in 
 Oxfordshire, 14 miles south-west of Oxford. It 
 has an anci iform church, with ■ 
 
 Norman tower, and examples of every period of 
 the point' d Qothic style. Pop. (1ST l ) 764 
 
 BAMPTON LECTURES. These lectures are 
 so called after the name of their founder, the 
 Rev. John Bampton, Canon of Salisbury, who left 
 estates originally worth £120 per annum, to the 
 university of Oxford, for the endowment of eight 
 divinity-lecture sermons, to be preached at '■ 
 St Mary's every year, and to be published, at the 
 
 expense of the estate, within two months of their 
 being preach e d. The preacher is to lecture on one 
 of the following subjects : The Confirmation of the 
 Christian Faith, and the Confutation of all Heretics 
 and Schismatics ; the Divine Authority of the 
 Scriptures ; the Authority of the Primitive Fathers 
 in Matters of Christian Faith and Practice; the 
 Divinity of Christ ; the Divinity of the Holy < 
 the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. No person is 
 qualified to preach these lectures who has not taken 
 the degree of M.A., either at Oxford or Cambridge, 
 and the same person shall never preach them twice. 
 The first course was delivered in 17S0. In 1834 
 and 1835, no lecturers were appointed, and no 
 lecture was preached in 1841. With these excep- 
 tions, there has been an unbroken series of very 
 valuable, but rather learned than popular, discourses. 
 The most remarkable are the following : Those 
 delivered in 1784, on Christianity and Mohamme- 
 danism, by Dr White, who was accused of having 
 obtained assistance in their composition from 
 Dr Parr and Dr Badcock ; those by Dr Tatham 
 in 1700, on the Logic of Theology; those of Dr 
 Nott in 1802, on I ithiisiasm — this series 
 
 noted against the pretensions of Wesley and 
 Whitetield— those of Dr Maut in 1812 ; those of 
 
 Id Heber in 1815; Whately in 1822; Milman 
 in 1827 ; Burton in 1829, on the Heresies of the 
 Apostolic Age; Soames in 1S30, on the Dor; 
 of the Anglo-Saxon Church. But of the w 
 series, none have caused greater excitement and 
 controversy than those delivered by Dr Hampden 
 in 1832, on 'The Scholastic Philosophy cons 
 in its Relation to Christian Theology.' Hey were 
 attacked on all sides, but especially by the leaders 
 of the Oxford Tract Association. Hampdi a 
 accused of Rationalism and Socmianism. When 
 he was appointed Regius Professor of Divinity in 
 1836, a petition against his appointment was sent 
 up to the throne; and upon this bein 
 a censure was passed upon him in convocation by 
 a largo majority, declaring his teaching to be 
 unsound, and releasing undergraduates from attend- 
 ance at his lectures. Notwithstanding this, lie was 
 raised to the see of Hereford in 1S47, under tin- 
 government of Lord John Russell — thirteen of the 
 bench of bishops protesting against the appoint- 
 ment. There has been a recent course of B. I., 
 delivered by Henry Longueville Mansel in 1858, on 
 'The Limits of Religious Thought,' which have 
 caused a less bitter, but scarcely less interesting con- 
 Mr Mansel p p iww as a 
 dialectician, and his lectures contained many very 
 eloquent passages. The main p h he 
 took up was, 'That the human mind inevitably, 
 and by virtue of its essential constitution, tin. Is 
 itself involved in self-contradictions whenever it 
 ventures on certain cout rotation,' i. e, on 
 Speculations C the infinite nature of God. 
 He maintained that all attempts to oonstruot an 
 objective or metaphysical the il >_y must neee- 
 fail, and that tie- attainment of a philosophy of the 
 Infinite is utterly impossible, under the ex. 
 laws of human thought — tie- practical aim of the 
 
 course being t-> shew the ' right use of reason 
 in religious questions.' Mr Mansel was accused by 
 
 ademning all dogma! 
 (.-. »., all creeds and articles), and .-i mailing revela- 
 tion itself impossible. Mr Maurice has been o 
 his principal opponents. The B. L. ten 
 
 red by < 1 ■■ R iwlinson, the > ig The 
 
 - 
 ( lanon bullion's lectures in 
 
 a our Lord's Divinity, have been the most 
 important recently dalii 
 A course of lectures similar to the Bampton was 
 
 65$
 
 B AX— BANANA. 
 
 1 about the same time at Cambridge, bj 
 the Rev. John llulse. See lit lskan la 
 
 BAIT. Thu word occurs in most of the modern 
 languages of Europe, and its primary signification 
 appears to have been, 'to make a signal' (see 
 Bahhbb), 'to proclaim' or 'publish.' This n 
 ing it retains in the phrase, bans or banns (q. v.) 
 of marriage. In Germany, tlie aclu or / 
 was a sentence of outlawry pronounced in the 
 middli ost those who escaped from justice, 
 
 or refused to submit to trial. We often read of 
 i, and even cities, being placed 
 under the ban i I Ire. The following are 
 
 the terms of bannii a eo in an old formula: 'We 
 declare thy wife a widow and thy children 01 
 we restore all thy feudal tenures to the lord of 
 manor: thy private property we give to thy 
 children; and we devote thy body and flesh to the 
 
 ■ I-. ;t and the fowls of the air. In all 
 ways and in every place where others find 
 and safety, thou shalt find none; and we banish 
 thee into the lour roads of the world — in the devil's 
 name.' lit 1 sentences of outlawry, many 
 
 other announcements were accompanied with denun- 
 ciations and imprecations. When a grant of land 
 was made fi lis purpo.se, or when a charter 
 
 of lib ■ ranted, (In- transaction was pro- 
 
 claimed in public with certain ceremonies, and corses 
 denounced against any one who should violate 
 d. Thus banning, or publishing, came to be 
 associated with cursing; and hence the origin of the 
 popular use of the word. It occurs in this sense in 
 Shakspeare and Milton, and other old writers. 
 
 BAN; ARRIERE BAIT. Besides the civil use 
 of the word ban. as a proclamation or prohibition, 
 
 there was a military application of the term in former 
 days in France. When the feudal barons, who held 
 their e tates and honours from the king, were 
 summoned to attend him in the time of war. they 
 were called the ban, or the levy first called out; 
 
 the tenants, subordinate to these 1 
 f.ained the arri&re ban, or secondary levy. 
 
 BAN, or l'.A'XUS, supposed by some to be a 
 contraction of the Dlyric word Bojan, i. ... lord, 
 but more probably another form of the Slavonic 
 word Pan, which possesses the same signification. 
 Formerly, it was a title given to some of the military 
 chiefs who guarded the eastern b iui dari of the 
 Hungarian kingdom, and was therefore synonymous 
 with the German Markgraf. The ban, who was 
 appointed by the sovereign, but not for life, and 
 whose appointment had to be ratified by the national 
 diet, had originally very extensive, in fact, almost 
 unlimited powers. In political, judicial, and military 
 affairs, he was the supreme authority. With 
 own territory, he exercised an inlluence similar to 
 that of the l'alatiu in Hungary, and only lower than 
 a king. In time of war, he headed the troops of 
 his Banat (q. v.), and if the campaign occurred within 
 its limits, it was his duty invariably to occupy the 
 post of danger. lie led the van to battle, or covered 
 the rear in retreat. For these services, he was 
 recompensed partly in ready money, and partly by 
 a monopoly of salt. The most important banats 
 those of Dalniatia, Croatia, .Slavonia, Bosnia, 
 Machow, and Szoreny, but their boundaries changed 
 so frequently, that at the present day it is impos- 
 sible to ascertain what they originally were. The 
 encroachments of the Turks in the 16th c. rendered 
 the union of the various banats necessary; an ' 
 some time, the whole were formed into the double 
 banat of Dalmatia and Croatia. A still more com- 
 plete unity was subsequently obtained by centralis- 
 ing the military power. In 1723, the authority of 
 the B. was made entirely subordinate to that of the 
 636 
 
 ivernment of Hungary. Afteo 
 
 lu.les, his powers, rights, and titles were 
 strictly denned during the reign of Maria Theresa, 
 then acknowledged to Be the third dignitary 
 of the Hungarian kingdom, appointed a membc t of 
 the Hungarian council stent, and pn 
 
 of the council of the banat, and at the eor.inn 
 the Hungarian king went before him, bearing the 
 golden apple, the symbol ui\. Such was 
 
 the position of the ban until the 4th of March 1S49, 
 when Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia were trans- 
 formed into Austrian crown-lands, and the ban made 
 wholly independent of Hungary, and endowed with 
 thi re powers as the governors of other 
 
 crown-lands, but retaining, nevertheless, bis oj 
 title. During the disturb in Vienna and 
 
 Hungary, in 1848, the Ban Jellachich (q.v.) rei 
 important service to the Austrian emperor. 
 
 BANANA, a fruit originally East Indian, but 
 much cultivated in warm countries over the whole 
 globe. It is now generally regarded as a mere 
 
 variety of the Plantain (q. v.); although they were 
 formerly ranked by botanists as distinct species, the 
 Plantain under the name of J/ / .. and 
 
 the B. of M. sapientum — the specific name signifying 
 'of the wise men,' and being intended to convey an 
 on to a statement by Theophrastus concerning 
 a fruit which served as food for the wise men of 
 
 India, and which, from his description, is sup] 1 
 
 to have been the plantain or banana. The names 
 plantain and B. are somewhat vaguely used in their 
 
 Banana. 
 
 application to different cultivated varieties, which 
 are very numerous ; those called B. have generally 
 dark purple stripes and spots on their stems, and 
 the fruit 1- smaller, less curved, and of more delicate 
 taste than the plantain, with a soft and luscious 
 pulp. Each fruit is generally about four or five 
 inches long. The B. is always used in a ripe state, 
 and never like the plantain, as a substitute for 
 bread; unless when the pulp is squeezed thro 
 fine sieve, and formed into small loaves, which, 
 when dried, may be kept for a great length of time, 
 but which are saccharine, and not farinaceous. It 
 is sometimes fried in slices ; it is often made into 
 preserves; and its juice affords an excellent wine. 
 It has been produced of good quality in hot-hi 
 in Britain. — The fruit of Mum Cavendishii is some- 
 times also called banana. See Plantain.
 
 BANANA BIRD— BANCROFT. 
 
 BANANA BIRD (Xanthornua Icterus), a beauti- 
 ful bird, allied to the Baltimore Bird [q. v.), which 
 it considerably exceeds in size ; a native of the West 
 Indus and warm parts of America. Its colours 
 are tawny and black, with white bars upon the 
 wings. It is very lively and active. It is a 
 ous, and a number of the ne ta may often be seen 
 near each other, suspended to the extremities of 
 Blender branches of trees, so as to be out of the 
 teach of snakes and monkeys. It is often kept in 
 houses to destroy insects. It is very easily domesti- 
 cated, and delights to be caressed. 
 
 BA'NAT, any district or territory under a ban, 
 but specially applied to a province of the Ai 
 empire, which has, curiously enough, no ban. It 
 is bounded on the W. by the Theiss ; on the S., by 
 the Danube; on the K, by the line of mountains 
 which separates Hungary from Wallachia and Tran- 
 sylvania; and on the X., by the Maros. Pop., in 
 1858, 1,574,500. It is partly mountainous and 
 partly (lat, but is everywhere copiously watered, 
 and exceedingly fertile. The chief rivers are the 
 Temes and Karascli. The climate is warm in 
 summer, and comparatively cold in winter; but, 
 though not unpleasant, it is far from salubrious in 
 the west, on account of the swamps and morasses 
 which abound. Nevertheless, it is, next to Lom- 
 bardy, the most productive of the Austrian pro- 
 vinces, yielding rich crops of wheat, spelt, and other 
 grains; the vine is little cultivated. Wildfowl are 
 numerous, and the rivers swarm with fish. The 
 mines are valuable; coal, iron, copper, gold, silver, 
 and zinc being procured in considerable quantities. 
 The mineral springs of Mehadia are in great repute. 
 The principal town is Temcsvar. 
 
 Until recently, the B. belonged to Hungary, but 
 in consequence of an imperial edict of ISth Noveml «r 
 1849, it was separated from that country, and formed 
 into an Austrian crown-land under the title of the 
 ' Woiwudina of Servia and Banal of Temcs.' 
 
 BA'NBRIDGE, a small town in the west of 
 Down county, Ireland, on a steep slope on the left 
 bank of the Bann, 7(> miles north of Dublin. It is a 
 thriving seat of the linen manufacture in all its 
 stages, from the preparation of the soil for the llax- 
 seed to the finishing of the finest linen. Miles of 
 bleaching-greens exist in the vicinity, and numerous 
 factories along the Bann. Top. 3301. 
 
 BA'NBURY, a small town in the north of Oxford- 
 shire, on the right bank of the CherweU, 23 miles 
 north of Oxford. There formerly existed here a 
 very strong castle, which was built about 1125 
 sustained various sii a dining the early I 
 civil wars. At Danesmore, near B., the Yorkists 
 were defeated in 1 169. B. is the centre of the 
 famous rich red land of Oxford county. This land 
 is among the moat fertile in the kingdom! A system 
 of canals connects the town with all parts of Eng- 
 land. The vicinity of B. is thickly studded with 
 .. Numerous remains of the ancient Britons 
 are found in the neighbourhood. B. is noted for 
 its manufacture of agricultural implements, and 
 for its malt liquors, cheese, and cakes. Th 
 also manufactures of plush, shag, girth, and other 
 webbing. B. returns one member to parliament 
 of municipal borough, 4026; of parliamentary. B715. 
 B \\C, legally, is a seat or bench of justice, and 
 
 in this sense has give n rise to the expression of the 
 courts of law at Westminster 'sitting in banc' or 
 ;,, banco that is. sitting together on the bench of 
 their respective courts, in term-time, and otherwise, 
 as is provided by stai 
 
 B \ MCA, an island on the north-east coast of 
 
 Sumatra (lat. 2° 20" 8., long. WAV E.), from which 
 it is separated by a strait of its own name, with 
 
 an area of 4300 square miles, and a population 
 of 47,000; being barely eleven persons to a square 
 mile. It is famous for its tin, exporting annually 
 4000 tons, mostly to China and Java. 
 
 BA'NCO (It.), a commercial term meaning the 
 standard money in which a bank keeps its accounts, 
 as distinguished from the current money of the 
 place. The distinction was more necessary when 
 the currency consisted, as it often did, of dipped, 
 worn, and foreign coins. These the early banks 
 (Venice, Amsterdam, &e.) received at tleir intrinsic 
 worth, and credited the depositor in their I 
 with this bank-value. The term is now chiefly 
 applied to the money in which the Hamburg bank 
 keeps its accounts, which is not represented by 
 any coinage. The Hamburg Mark 15. (=1 
 sterling= 15' Prussian S. groschen) is to the current 
 mark '( = Is.' 2'jI. = V2\, S. groschen) as 20 to 16. 
 Sweden has also a peculiar bank-money, 8 dollars 
 B. being equal to 3 dollars specie. Genoa had 
 at one time a bank standard, and the present cur- 
 rent money being different from that, is still called 
 ' fuori banco,' outside the hank. 
 
 BA'NCROFT, George, American historian, horn 
 3d October 1800, near Worcester, in Massachusetts, 
 was the son of Dr Aaron Bancroft, an eminent 
 Unitarian minister. He entered Harvard I loll 
 the age of 13, and obtaining a valuable exhibition 
 there, proceeded in 1S18 to Gottingen, where 
 he studied history and philology under Heeren, 
 Blank, and Kiehliorn, and in 1S20 obtained the 
 degree of doctor. At Berlin, he attended the 
 lectures of Hegel, and had frequent intercourse 
 with Schleiermacher, W. von Sumboldt, Savigny, 
 Varahagen von Ease, and other literary men of 
 note. Subsequently, he travelled through Germany, 
 and formed an acquaintance with Goethe and 
 Schlosser. Having visited Paris, London, and Italy, 
 B. returned to America, and after some time spent 
 in tuition, devoted himself to politics. He soon 
 became celebrated as a democratic politician, and 
 was made collector of customs at Boston. He 
 still continued his literary labours, especially in 
 lectures upon German literature, philosophy, Sfcc. 
 When Polk was elected president, in 1S45, lie 
 appointed 1'. secretary of the navy. While in this 
 office, he established an observatory at Washington 
 and a naval school at Annapolis. In the autumn 
 of 1S4G, B. was sent by Boll. idor extra- 
 
 ordinary and plenipotentiary to England, where he 
 remained till 1S4!>, taking advantage of his stay 
 in London to carefully a aensively investi- 
 
 gate all the authentic sources for materials ; 
 him in writing the History ! '■ He pub- 
 
 u is 1 the result of his labours in his History qfthe 
 Hon hi North America (Boston, 1852). Ib- 
 had already secured for himself an honourable place 
 ann.ng modern historians by his History Of ft* 
 
 •tin,) of the i' f North A 
 
 (3 vols., Boston, 1834—1840). The whole of these 
 writings are now included in the author's // 
 ! ', which is a work of solid excellence, pictur- 
 
 ii style, and liberal in sentiment. 
 BANCROFT, RlCHAItD, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, and a bitter opponent of the Puritans, son of 
 John B. and Mary, niece of Hugh Curwyn, Arch. 
 
 , of Dublin, was bom at Farnworth, Lani 
 ,,, Se:.i mb L544 Edncal 1 at Cambridge, ho 
 took the .K e io! IV A. at Christ's College in L667, 
 and that of M. A. at Jesus' College in 1570, He 
 - rector ofTeversham, Cambridgeshire, in 1575, 
 ws, Eolbormin 1584, and treasurer of 
 St Raul's Cathedral in 15S5. In the latter year, 
 he was admitted D.D. By the Lord Chan 
 Hatton, to whom he was chaplain, he was presented 
 
 657
 
 BAND— BAND EL. 
 
 to the rectory of Cottingham, Northamptonshire. 
 J9 lio became a prebendary of .St Paul's, in 
 1692, (if Westminster, and in 1594. of Canterbury. 
 Consecrated Bishop of London, May 8, 1597, he 
 attended Queen Elizabeth daring her last illness. At 
 the famous Hampton Court Conference under Jame i 
 I., he was one of the ch sioners on I 
 
 of the Church of England, and took the lead in the 
 disputations. In the convocation of 1G03 — 1, lie 
 sat as president. In October 1004, he succeeded 
 Whitgift as Archbishop of Canterbury; and was 
 sworn in one of his majesty's privy council in 
 September 1605, and chancellor of the 
 of Oxford, 1608. lie (bed November 2, 1610. B. 
 had a high character as a preacher and statesman ; 
 and was a vigilant ruler of the church. He is 
 author of two sermons, one of which, preached at 
 St Paul's in 15SS, contains a furious in. 
 against the Puritans, and of two treatises respecting 
 church order and discipline. B. left his library to 
 his successors in the seo of Canterbury for ever. 
 — His nephew, John B., Bi hi p of Oxford, 1632, 
 died 1040, built the palace of Cuddesden for the 
 bishops of that see. Burned by the parliament 
 troops, 1044, it was rebuilt, 1079. 
 
 BAND, or BANDS, a portion of clerical dress, and 
 the only relic of the ancient amice, a linen v< 
 which was used in the ancient church to cover the 
 shoulders and neck of the priest. It also forms a 
 part of the full dress of the bar, the universities, and 
 the leading functionaries in schools of old founda- 
 tion. At Winchester and some other schools, it is 
 even worn by the scholars themselves. The 
 worn by lawyers and other civilians, may be a relic 
 of the wide stiff collar which was a part of the 
 ordinary civilian dress in the reign of James I. 
 
 BAND, in Architecture, is the name given to any 
 kind of ornament which is 
 continued horizontally along 
 a wall, or by which a building 
 is encircled. Bands i 
 consist of foliage, quatrefoils, 
 or of simple bricks. B. of 
 a shaft is the moulding or 
 suits of mouldings by which 
 the pillars and shaft 
 encircled in Gothic archi- 
 tecture. Several bands are 
 often placed at equal dis- 
 tances on the body of the 
 shaft, when it is long, in 
 which case they are known 
 as shaft-rii! 
 
 BA'NDA, chief town of 
 a district in Bundelcund, in 
 lat. 25° 2S' N., and long. 80° 
 23' E. In 1847, its population 
 was 33,404. It is a great 
 mart for cotton. It is situ- 
 ated on the right bank of the Cane or Keyn, 
 an affluent of the Jumna, being 95 miles to the 
 south-west of Allahabad, 500 to the north-west of 
 Calcutta, and 190 to the south-east of Agra. The 
 district of B. contains 2S7S square miles, and 
 552,525 inhabitants. 
 
 BA'NDAGES are used by surgeons to apply 
 pressure on a part, or to retain dressings upon 
 .wounds. The most common bandage, is a strip of 
 linen, calico, or elastic web, from 3 to 5 or more 
 inches in breadth, rolled longitudinally ; hence the 
 name roller. There are also B. to suit special 
 purposes, as the four-tailed for the head or knee, 
 which consists of a piece of cloth split up on each 
 side towards and nearly to the centre. When 
 
 6iS 
 
 Band of a shaft. 
 
 applied, the tails are crossed and tied so as to make 
 an extemporaneous night-cap. In applying the roller 
 
 '•."go. 
 
 bandage to a leg, the surgeon first turns it round 
 the foot, then round the ankle ; and so by repeated 
 turns, each one of which should overlap about a third 
 of the previous one, till he reaches the calf of the 
 leg, when he must fold at each turn the bands 
 sharply back on itself, by which manoeuvre the 
 bandage will lie flat and smooth on the limb. Tho 
 i t must remember that the bandage must be> 
 applied more tightly at the foot than in the leg, 
 so that it may not impede the course of the blood 
 through the veins. This requires to be practised, 
 as the effect of a bandage is always for good or evil 
 as it is well or ill applied. 
 
 BA'NDA ISLES, a portion of the Moluccas, 
 tang of 12 islands, of which are unin- 
 habited, about 50 miles to the south of Coram. 
 Their population is variously stated at from 5000 to 
 155,000. Their mean lat. and Inni respectively aro 
 .and 129" 50' E. Their chief production is 
 the nutmeg, the an ort of that spice being 
 
 about 500,000 lb .. witli a corresponding quantity — 
 about one-third — of the mace. Like most of the 
 islands in this neighbourhood, they belong to the 
 Dutch. They are lofty and volcanic. 
 
 1 IA NDA OHIE'N T A L, a state of South America. 
 Uruguay. 
 
 BAXDA'XA, a kind of printed handkerchief 
 of Indian origin, now extensively made in Britain, 
 usually of cotton. The cloth is first dyed Turk) y 
 red, and then the pattern is made by discharging 
 the colour with bleaching liquor in a dot 
 Bramah press. The pattern to be discharged is cut 
 out on two plates of such mi I as may not 
 
 be acted on by the liquor, and of the full size of the 
 handkerchief. A dozen or more are put in at once 
 between the plates, and so many of these courses 
 are entered together as fill the press, when the 
 pressure is applied, and the liquor is run in on the 
 uppermost plate, which is grooved on the upper side 
 to receive it, and holed to pass it from plate to 
 [date through all the cloth-folds in the press. The 
 ire on the cloth to make clean work by pre- 
 • the spreading of the liquor, is enormous. 
 itterns in the real B. style of printing are 
 spots and diamond prints, the best suited for dis- 
 chaiging, and even for these a pressure of 500 tons is 
 required to work them clean. See Calico Punting. 
 
 J l.V'XDEL, Ernst VOW, an eminent modern sculp- 
 tor, was born in 1800, in Anspach. While attending 
 the academy at Mimich, he prosecuted his studies so 
 diligently that in 1820 he sent to the exhibition a 
 r figure of Mars reposing, as large as life, 
 which procured for him considerable reputation.
 
 BANDELLO— BANDIERA. 
 
 Of various models of this kind done by him, one, 
 a figure of Charity, v. 1 in marble. This 
 
 occupied toe artist about ten years. It 
 exhibits great chasteness of design, and a minute 
 Carefulness of execution. Among his best portrait 
 busts, in which be exc .Maximilian, 
 
 oi Bavaria (1832), and of the artists D. Quaglio 
 and I'eter Hess. He has also executed the monu- 
 ment of the Knight von Skel] in the English garden 
 of the Art Institution at Munich, the tombstone of 
 the historical painter Longer, and several figures of 
 the gods. In 1S-42, B. executed a bust of the poet 
 Grabbe, and a marble statue, as large as life, of 
 Thusnelda, wife of Hermann. She is represented 
 loaded with chains, with her hands crossed on her 
 breast, as when she was led away captive by the 
 Romans. 
 
 BANDE'LLO, Matteo, an Italian writer of 
 novelle or tales, was born at Castelnuovo in Pied- 
 mont about the year 1480. In early life, he became 
 a Dominican monk, in the Convent delle Grazie at 
 Mil in, but soon abandoned this vocation for a more 
 free and independent life. His uncle, who had been 
 elected general of the order in 1501, took him to 
 travel with him ; and in Rome and Naples, 15. 
 devoted himself to the study of belles-lettres. He 
 then returned to Milan, whence he was driven by 
 the Spaniards, as a partisan of France, aftrr the 
 battle of Pavia in 1525. He accompanied Francis 
 I. to France, and was, in 1550, made bishop of 
 Agen by Henry II. He left the care of his diocese 
 Bishop of Gras.se, ic order to be able to 
 devote himself without disturbance to the comple- 
 tion of his tales, which he published in the Italian 
 ige in three volumes (Lucca, 1554), to which 
 a fourth was added after his death, which took 
 place in 1561. The tales of B. rank next to those 
 of Boccaccio in Italy. They are distinguished by 
 unaffected simplicity of style, fluency and vividness 
 of narrative, and a harmonious brevity of periods. 
 It must be confessed, however, that they are not 
 unfrequently very impure in tone. B. wrote several 
 other works. 
 
 BANDE NOIRE (' Black Band ') was the name 
 given, during the first French Revolution, to the 
 li -s of capitalists who bought the confiscated 
 buildings which had belonged to the church, emi- 
 grants, &c. The opprobrious name was fixed on 
 them on account of their vandalism in the destruc- 
 tion of old relics, works of art, churches, convents. 
 1 residences, &c, many of which 
 possessed both a scientilic and b nterest. 
 
 It has, however, been alleged, on the other hand, that 
 these societies have frequently done considerable 
 service to the community, in removing old and 
 useless edifices, and that their minute subdivision 
 into lots of the old territorial domains, has both 
 favoured a.Ticulture and ameliorated the condition 
 of the peu) 
 
 _ BA'XDEROLE, a small streamer 
 
 I immediately under the crook, 
 on the top of the staff of a crosier 
 (q. v.), and folding over the staff. — 
 I an architectural term for the flat 
 inscribed band used in the Renais- 
 sance buildings, similar to those now- 
 used for mottoes to coats-of-arms. 
 BAND-FISH, or SN.VKIM-'Ml (C« via), a 
 
 fenus of fishes of the Ribbon-fish (q. v.) family. The 
 oilvismurli I and compressed. Th 
 
 are little more solid than a mere fibroui net-work, 
 and everything else exhibits a corresponding deli- 
 cacy, so that specimens are seldom to be obtained 
 in an uninjured state. All the species inhabit 
 quiet depths, and are incapable of contending with 
 
 Banderole. 
 
 waves and currents. Their singular form, and the 
 beauty of their colours, make them objects of great 
 interest. One species, the Red B. [0. rubeeceiu), not 
 uncommon in the Mediterranean, is occasionally 
 cast ashore by storms on the British coasts. It is 
 about fifteen inches long. Its brilliant appearance, 
 when seen moving in the water, has suggest 
 names of Fire-flame and Red Ribbon, by which it is 
 known at Nice. 
 
 J I A'XDICOOT (Peramtles), a genus of marsupial 
 (q. v.) quadrupeds, occupying in the zoology of 
 
 
 Bandicoot. 
 
 Australia a place somewhat analogous to that of 
 shrews (q. v.) in Europe. Their dentition is remark- 
 able, as they have ten cutting teeth in the upper 
 jaw, and only six in the lower, the posterior ones of 
 which are two-lobed: in other respects, it nearly 
 resembles that of opossums. They have an elongated 
 head and pointed muzzle ; the hind-legs are consi- 
 derably longer than the fore-legs; the thumb and 
 little toe of the fore-feet are little more than simple 
 tubercles, so that there seem to be only three toes ; 
 and there is a fleshy tubercle in place of a thumb on 
 the hind-feet. Their movements are similar to 
 those of hares or rabbits. They live on bulbs, 
 insects, &c, make ravages in potato-fields, and 
 devour com in granaries. There are several species. 
 The Long-nosed B. (P. nasu(u) is about a foot and 
 a half in length from the extremity of the nose to 
 the origin of the tail, which is not unlike that of 
 a large rat, but better covered with hair. It is 
 chiefly found in the mountainous parts of New 
 South Wales. P. Gunnii is common in Van 
 Diemen's Land. 
 
 BANDICOOT, BANDICOOT RAT, MALA- 
 BAR RAT, or FIG-BAT (lft» gi'janteus), the 
 largest known species of rat. The name B. is a 
 corruption of the Telinga pandihaiku, literally signi- 
 fying pig-rat. The animal inhabits many parts of 
 India, and is plentiful in Ceylon. It is chiefly found 
 in dry situations, and often in hilly districts. It 
 the weight of two or three pounds, and is 
 24 — 30 inches long, including the tail, which at the 
 base is 2J inches in circumference. The body is 
 thick, and greatly arched, black above, grayish 
 below. Its flesh is a favourite article of food with 
 the coolies of India, and is said to be delicate, and 
 much to resemble young pork. It feeds chii fly on 
 grain and roots, and is \ miens. 
 
 ' Its nests, when rifled, are frequently found to 
 contain considerable quantities of rice, stored up 
 against the dry season.' — Sir J. E. Tcnnent's ' 
 
 BANDIE'KA, Ann to and Emilio, two brothers 
 well known for their tragic fate, were descended 
 fi.m a distinguished aristocratic family of Venice, 
 which had once held a place in the red book of the 
 r, public. I lieutenants in the Austrian 
 
 navy, their father being rear-admiral; but, instead of 
 the I'lo-Austnan sentiments of their parent, 
 they cherished enthusiastic dreams of the free ami 
 
 8H
 
 BANDINELLT— BANDOLINE. 
 
 tublio of Italy. In the year lsrz they 
 1 i i i correspondence with Mazzini, whom 
 they re urdi 1 a almo I ademi od. Thi c Rowing 
 ondenthusia tic patriotism bi every lined 
 
 their letters. Both were noble ^pirit^, ready for 
 any sacrifioe, bnt unfortunately impressed with the 
 delusive idea that their native country could be 
 saved by moans qf a conspiracy. Emilio, the 
 youngei , of s bronger bodily frame, but of a li 
 disposition, was under the influence of his gravel 
 and more thoughtful brother. In the yen- 1843, 
 1 that the time was come for a revolu- 
 tion by force of arms; but their premature appeal 
 finding no pi I I B, thl ., Bed t i < '"Tin in 
 
 March lstl, where they endured many bitter dis- 
 
 appointments and much misery. II 
 
 inspired them with life; but at length, misled b\ 
 
 false rumours of a rising in Naples, with which it 
 is supposed the Neapolitan I 
 
 to do, they ventured to land with twentj i 
 pardons at the mouth of the small river Nieto, in 
 Calabria, believing that their appearance would be 
 the signal f "i i I insurrection. I'll 
 
 government expected them; one of then m- 
 
 panions, a certain Boccheciampe, bad b 
 them. They were attacked by an overwhelming 
 force, and were nearly all taken prisoners at once. 
 One unly fell on the spot, and two escaped. Nothing 
 was ever allowed to transpire respecting the trial of 
 these unfortunate men. Attilio and limilio were 
 shot along with seven of their comrades in the 
 public square of Uosenza, on the '_\"ith July IS 1-1. 
 They died joyfully, exclaiming' Viva l'ltalia ! ' The 
 
 Eublic mind had not then become accustomed to 
 ear of bloody deaths for political causes. A cry 
 
 of indignation r tnded through Europe at this 
 
 ' kingly revenge,' as it was called in a conservative 
 paper of the day. A year later, their remaining 
 companions were pardoned. The fate of the brothers 
 B. attracted much attention in England, from the 
 circumstance that letters of M. Mazzini, then in 
 London, had been opened in the post-oflice by 
 authority of government, which was accused of 
 I iving such information to the Italian governments 
 as enabled them to entrap the insurgents. 
 
 I'.ANDINE'LLI, B.vrvio, the son of a f 
 goldsmith of Florence, and one of the best sculptors 
 of his time, was born at Florence in 1487. I ' 
 instructions were probably received in the workshop 
 of his father, for in those days goldsmiths wrought 
 from their own design '. He was afterwards a pupil 
 of Bustici, and the friend of Leonardo da \ ini i. 
 He was an angry and jealous rival of Michael 
 Angelo, whose grandeur of conception he str 
 equal, and who is said to have retaliated bis enmity 
 by contempt. It must be admitted, however, that 
 we have only prejudiced sources from which to 
 draw our information regarding him. Benvenuto 
 
 ni, whose language is generally pa 
 hyperbolical, is his chief accuser, although '■ 
 also speaks of bis proud and envious disposition. 
 Whatever may have been his moral infirmities, it is 
 impossible to deny that, as a sculptor, he was in his 
 day second ouly to Michael Vngelo. His tends with 
 his brother-artists do not appear to have in 
 him in the opinions of persons of distinction. He 
 was patronised by Cosmo de' Medici, Charles v., 
 Francis I., Clement VIL, and other powerful friends. 
 Clement even bestowed on him an estate. II dii 
 at Florence, 1569 1560. 
 
 His best works are bassi-rilievi, among which are 
 'i-it adorn the choir of theDuomo at Flo 
 I'll the high-altar in the same building is to be seen 
 
 i Corj f Christ, supported by an angel, with 
 
 God the Father, over it His most ambitioi 
 is Hercules with Cacus at his feet. In the Mcdiccan 
 660 
 
 ( rail i of tl roup of the Laoeonn 
 
 — a mi ttion of the antique, in which ho 
 
 I 1 that he excelled even : ' them- 
 
 ' : as of i ime of his 
 
 is; all his works exhibit power, vigour, and 
 
 skilful drawing, but it is alleged, apparently with 
 COE lit'. that ' be "as too fond of the 
 
 terrible graci 
 
 BA'NDIT, a word originally signifying a 'ban- 
 ished' Or outlawed person; then one who, be 
 Outlawed, wages war against civilised society ; 
 ami finally, a highway robber. The banditi, or 
 
 banditti, [brined in Italy in earlier times, as it 
 were, a separate community or guild, who sub- 
 mitted to tl ' stringent laws, carried on 
 both open and scent war with civilised society, 
 and kept up a certain romantic idea of honour. 
 By means of tie measures which v. ■ i - 
 adopted in 1820 by the papal government against 
 
 the banditti and their abettors, their haunt i were 
 broken up. Those wdio still occasionally disquiet 
 the frontiers of Naples an' in general people settled 
 on the spot, who regard robbery and murder as 
 equally a branch of their trade with agriculture. 
 Peter the Calabrian, one of the most famous B. 
 
 in 1812, assumed the titles of ' Emperor of 
 
 the Mountains, King of the Woods, and Lord of the 
 Highroads from Florence to Naples.' The govern- 
 ment of Ferdinand 1. found themselves obliged to 
 conclude treaties with him. The banditti must be 
 
 o Led from common robbers, who were called 
 Malviventi. In later times, the banditti were 
 joined by adventurers of all kinds, to such an 
 extent, that the Austrian troops who occupied 
 Naples were obliged to make frequent expeditions 
 against them. In Sicily, the banditti are most 
 numerous in the Val Dcmone. They formerly 
 acquired so much power there, that the Prince of 
 \ illai'rauca, as a piece of policy, declared himself 
 their patron, and treated them with much confi- 
 ars 1S41 — 1843, political fugitives 
 united with robbers ami adventurers of all kinds 
 in the Abruzzi, Calabria, and Koinagna, and since 
 then they have never been entirely extirpated. 
 The revolutions of 18-18— IS 10 added greatly to 
 their numbers, and in several districts of Italy, 
 illy in the States of the Church, between 
 i ra and Ancoua, they reached, an unheard of 
 
 of boldness, notwithstanding the Austrian 
 army of occupation. Under the command of one 
 o (known by the name of 'II Passatore'), a 
 daring and talented man, who died in March 1851, 
 they kept the country in terror, and even burned 
 sevi ral villages to the ground. They also earned 
 on a real guerrilla warfare against tin military forces 
 of the country. Recent events (]S. r >0) in Italy have, 
 it is said, recalled numbers of these banditti to a 
 more honourable course of life. 
 
 LANDOLEE'R, or LANDALEEH. Two cen- 
 turies ago, soldiers' muskets were provided with 
 ' ■•■ks, a very slow and ineffective contrivance 
 for firing. The musketeers were furnished with 
 gunpowder in small cylindrical boxes made of wood, 
 tin, or leather, each containing sufficient for one 
 of these little boxes were fixed 
 to a belt called a bandoia r, worn over the left 
 shoulder. In what way these wen' super eded by 
 a superior arrangement, will be found noticed under 
 I ! \l: I 'R1DOE. 
 
 BA'NDOLINE is a mucilaginous substance used 
 for stiffening hair, and keeping it in shape or form. 
 It is much used by ladies in the present prevailing 
 mode of wearing the hair, and by gentlemen, to 
 their moustaches. The usual receipt for 
 making the B. sold in the shops is to boil Carrageen
 
 BANDON — BANFFSHIRE. 
 
 (q. v.) or Irish-moss with water till a thick mm 
 
 is obtained, which is afterwards scented with Ban 
 
 ,l, (,,',,„. or other perfumed spirit ; a second mode 
 of preparing B. is to soak quince- i • U in cold water 
 for a day or two, then strain, and add perfume; and 
 a third process is to heat glim tragacanth with 
 water, and when a mucilage is obtained, add the 
 scent. 
 BANDON, a town <>f II aid, county Cork (a.. v.). 
 BANDCNG, a commercial town on the west 
 of Java, in the vicinity of th Gunong 
 
 Guntour, by an eruption of which eighty vi 
 were destroyed in 1S22. 
 
 BANDS, Military, consist each of a body of 
 ■killed musicians, attached to a regiment in the 
 British service. According to military regulations, 
 the only indispensable instruments are drums, fifes, 
 bugles, and trumpets, all of which are employed to 
 give signals on the march or in active service, ■ 
 for infantry or for cavalry. To supplement this 
 meagre musical establishment, however, the of 
 of regiments organise, chiefly at their own cost, 
 effective military bands, who use a variety of instru- 
 ments — such as flutes, clarionets, bassoons, horns, 
 ophicleides, big drums, cymbals, triangles, &c. \\ hat 
 at first appears to have been a matter of individual 
 choice, has at length assumed almost the force of 
 a regulation; for officers are obliged to contribute 
 twelve days' pay in the course of a year, and an 
 extra sum when promoted, to the band-fund. The 
 members of these bands are selected from the ranks ; 
 but the band-master, though in uniform, is usually 
 a civilian who is hired for the purpose, and who 
 generally refuses to accompany the regiment a 
 except at an increased rate of remuneration. The 
 musicians, generally, are in an anomalous position; 
 for, whilst serving in the band, their pay, and 
 eventually their pensions, are restricted to those 
 of the private soldier. Good musicians have at 
 all times a tendency to quit the B. ; their better 
 prospects as teachers, and players in orchestras and 
 concerts, induce them to obtain release by paying 
 the amount of compensation prescribed by regulation. 
 An attempt made by the Duke of Cambridge in 185G, 
 to relieve the commissioned officers of part of the 
 expense entailed upon them by the present system, 
 failed, and matters remain as they were. In most 
 of the regiments of the line, the band consists of a 
 band-master and about fifteen musicians; but in the 
 choice corps the number is often much larger. When 
 a regiment consists of two or more battalions, the 
 band goes with the first. The band plays on 
 and at mess, as a part of regular duty. When M. 
 B. play at festivals, concerts, &c., ' by permission of 
 the commanding-officer,' the payment goes to the 
 musicians ; and the chance of obtaining these fees 
 is one of the inducements to the mcu to remain in a 
 service which has very few attractions in relation to 
 the actual regular amount of pay. The bands of the 
 regiments of foot-guards — Grenadier, Cold- 
 stream, and Scut; Fusilier — are very frequently 
 engaged in this way during the London season. 
 B \ XEBEBRY. See Act.ka. 
 BANFF (pron. Bamf),the capital of Banffshire, a 
 seaport town in the north end of the county, on the 
 left bank of the mouth of the 1 . 
 
 north-west of Aberdeen. It stands on an abrupt 
 ! t on the Moray 1 ': an upper 
 
 or inland town, and a lowffl I n, with the 
 
 remains of an ancient castle on a height bit weej 
 Close to the south side of B, stands Duff House, 
 the seat of the Earl of Fife, with a park 14 n 
 circumference. The harbour is liable to be filled 
 with sand. A seven-arched bridge over the Doveran 
 unites B. with the town and seaport of Macduff, 
 
 which stands on the cast side of the river. The 
 
 corn, cattle, salmon, and 
 
 ■ ! I., in 1372, made B. a royal bin 
 
 the famous Archbishop of St An born 
 
 here in 1613, and the noted robin r, Maepherson, 
 
 was executed in 1700. The August floods in the 
 
 Doveran, in 1820, carried awi houses, and 
 
 destroyed much property in Banff. B. unites with 
 
 1 'alien, Inverury, fijntore, and Pet rhead in 
 
 Bending one memtx r to parliami at. Pop., including 
 
 i n u 
 
 BA'NFFSHIRE, a i rth-east of 
 
 od, bounded N. by the Mora . S.R, 
 
 and S. by Al re; W., by Elgin and Inver- 
 
 It stands fourteenth among the i 
 counties in size, and fifteenth in population. Its 
 greatest length is al » mt GS miles, its greatest breadth 
 about 32 ■ , 12 ; its extent of sea-coast about 
 
 30 ; estimated area, G47 square miles. The surface, 
 lly in the south and south-east, is moun- 
 tainous, interspersed with fertile valleys and fine 
 pastures ; but the surface near the coast is com- 
 paratively level The chief mountain-ranges and 
 , as well as the strike of the stratified rocks, 
 run from south-west to north-east, and the whole 
 county is an extensive slope in the same direction, 
 from the Grampians to the Moray Firth. The coast 
 is rocky, but not high, except to the cast of Banff. 
 The highest peaks are the North Cairngorm, 4090 
 feet; Ben-a-Main; 3874; Ben Bini I'orry- 
 
 habbie, 2569; Knock, 1416. Ben Muicdhui, 4299 
 ; partly in Banffshire. The rivers of B. 
 all How into the Moray Firth. The chief are the 
 Spey — one of the largest of thr rivers, 
 
 and" the most rapid in Britain — which bounds a 
 third of the county on the W. ; and the Doveran, 
 GO miles long, and included within the county. The 
 minant rocks are granite, quartz rock, mica- 
 slate, clay-slate, syenitdc greenstone, graywacke and 
 gray waeke -slate, and old red sandstone with fossil 
 Many patches of metamorphic limestone 
 and of serpentine occur. The serpentine near 
 long been famous as the 'Portsoy 
 Marble.' B rj 1 and rock-crystal occur on Cairn- 
 gorm. Slate and limestone are quarried. Lead, 
 iron, antimony, and plumbago occur in small quan- 
 tity. The soil is very fertile, and highly cultivated 
 best modern principles of agriculture, in a 
 tract along the coast two to eight miles broad, 
 as well as along the vail ran, and in 
 
 many of the glens. In 1857, nearly a third of the 
 surface of B. was in crop, the chief crops 
 
 1 grass. The b cattle 
 
 t of the farmer. The chief maim- 
 
 ; of B. are w. . . I I I lining, 
 
 and distilling. The produce of Gl r the 
 
 centre of B., 1 ' ■ 
 
 exports are grain, meal, and i. re are 
 
 iwns and villages along the coast. 
 The hi carried on. The 
 
 salmon of the S] y and Doveran employ 
 
 200 nr very valuable, the Spey ranking 
 
 after the T. a salmon -i 
 
 ^tricts of Enzie, Boyne, Strathisla, 
 Strath d Iveny, Glenlivet, and Strathavon. 
 
 The chief towns and > iflj Macduff, 
 
 Portsoy, Keith, Cullen, Buckie, Dufftown, and 
 Toman ! '171 ; day--. 1 J , 161, 
 
 with 8271 i ipil ; places of worship, 71 (20 of the 
 Establish' d. and 23 of the Free Church). IV. 
 with the counties of Aberdeen and Elgin, i 
 the Dick ] (•[■ v) far parochial edui 
 
 Two-thirds of B. belong to 1 ' proprietors. 
 
 lUnty returns one men I at, and 
 
 Banff anil Cullen unite with Elgin, Inverury, 
 Kiutore, and Peterhead in returning another, j:. 
 
 Ml
 
 BANGALOUE-BANGOR. 
 
 contains numerous remains of antiquity, the most 
 remarkable being the old churches of Qamrie and 
 nforUaeh. The former, built in 1010, and need Ear 
 public worship till 1880, is called the ' Kirk of 
 Skulls,' tin- bonea of the Norsemen who fell on the 
 
 neighbouring Geld <>f Bloody Pots having been I 
 into its walls. Mortlach was for a century t ! 
 of a bishop, but David I., in 1189, incorporai 
 see with that of Aln-i-.l-.-i-n. (Pop. 1ST! 
 
 BANGALORE, a fortified t v ! 
 
 situated 70 miles to the north-east of Seringapatarn, 
 in lat. 12° 68' N., and long. 77° 38' E. It is the 
 chief military station of the British in the territory. 
 It has a manufacture of silk ; but thai 
 or has been, far .riant, having b 
 
 one time estimated to employ 3000 looms. The 
 Hon of B. is about 00,000. As the place is 
 3000 feet above the level of the sea, the thermo- 
 meter, during six successive years, is said to have 
 risen only t -. 90°, ami then only to 92" 
 
 and 93°. During the same period of time, th 
 ratnre was 61°. 1). was a favourite re 
 of Hydex All; ami, in 1701, it was stormed by the 
 British under Lord Cornwallis. Water is good and 
 abundant ; and the usual vegetables of Europe come 
 to maturity in the gardens. 
 
 BANGKOK, the capital city of Siam, is ml 
 on the banks of the Mcina'm, about 20 
 from the mouth of that river, in tin- Gulf ol 
 and in Int. 18" 38' X., and long. 100° 34' E. Its 
 population has been estimated by the Roman 
 Catholic missionaries, who have had the best means 
 •rtaining it, at upwards of 400,000. Sir John 
 Bowling's ' impression ' is that it exceeds 300,000. 
 There are upwards of 200,000 Chinese, 
 hands is centered nearly all the trade of B., which is 
 
 For their right to trade here, the ( 
 pay a poll-tax of about three dollars on cnteri 
 kingdom, and a similar sum is collected from them 
 every three years. The payment of this tax . 
 them from the half-yearly servitude which all 
 oriental strangers resident in Siam are required to 
 give. The approach to B. by the Meinaui, which 
 can be navigated by ships of from 200 to 300 tons 
 burden, is exceedingly beautiful, the banks being 
 skirted by fine trees full of gay birds. As the town 
 is neared, numerous temples present themselves, 
 and floating-houses become common ; and I i 
 the whole city, with its rich gardens, and I 
 temples and palaces, bursts full upon the view. 
 A large number of the houses float on rat', 
 can be transferred from one place to anol 
 pleasure. There are a few houses in the city built 
 of brick and stouc, but the greater part are of wood. 
 There are usually in each house a division for i 
 and one for females. The land-houses are rais< 
 piles, 6 or 8 feet from the ground, and arc reac I . 
 rude ladders— the daily flow of the tides and the 
 annual inundations rendering this plan necessary. 
 The floating-houses are made of bamboo-boards, 
 wicker-work, or palm-leaves, and have generally a 
 verandah in front, with a small wing at each end. 
 The circumference of the walls of B., which i 
 feet high and 12 broad, is said to be G miles. The 
 internal traffic of B. is chiefly carried on by means 
 of canals, there being only a few passable . 
 in the whole city. Horses and carriages are , 
 seen except in the neighbourhood of the pal 
 The chief interest of the kingdom of Siam, aco 
 to Sir John Bowring, coi itself in Bar 
 
 B. i3 the constant residence of the two kings of 
 Siam and their respective courts. The palace of 
 the first king is surrounded by high walls, and is 
 nearly a mile in circumference. It includes temples, 
 pubbc offices, accommodation for some thousands of 
 
 soldiers, with their necessary equipments, a theatre, 
 and moms for about 3000 femafei , 600 OJ whom .ire 
 the wives of the king. The sacred white elephant 
 has also a place within the palace. Throughout the 
 interior are distributed the most costly articles in 
 gold, silver, and precious stones. The palace of the 
 second king, whose functions are not very clearly 
 
 I, is nearly as large as that of the first king, 
 but not so ostentatious. See Siam. The t 
 of B. are innumerable, and decorated in the 
 gorgeous style, the Siamese taking a pride in lavish- 
 ir wealth on them. Some of them, accord- 
 ing to the Catholic bishop Pallegoix, have cost 
 more than 4,000,000 francs (£100,000). In the 
 neighbourhood of B. are irnn-mines and forests of 
 
 rood. The chief exports are sugar, pepper, 
 ivory, feathers, hides, fiueVoods, rice, 
 salt, and fish. At one time, the exportation of rice 
 and teak was prohibited; and by the treaty con- 
 clude! by Sir John Bowring in 1866, the Siamese 
 
 the right to prohibit that of salt, ric 
 fish, in cases of threatened scarcity. The imports 
 
 >, manufactured silks, and piece-goods, opium, 
 camphor, porcelain, and glass wares. See Sir John 
 Bowring's A 
 
 BA'NGOR, an episcopal city, liorough, and sea- 
 port town in the north-west of Caernarvonshire, 
 
 Wales, on the south-east bank of the . . 
 Strait, 2J- miles from the Britannia Bridge, and 
 59} west of Chester. It consists chiefly of a 
 narrow crooked street, a mile long, stretching 
 south-west through a narrow fcrtde valley, bounded 
 on the si. nth by steep precipices. The grandeur 
 and beauty of the surrounding scenery lias long 
 made it a favourite resort, and the opening of 
 the Chester and Holyhead Railway, on the 
 line of communication from London to Dublin, 
 has greatly promoted its prosperity. The town has 
 of late years been greatly improved, and mostly 
 rebuilt. Its chief trade is derived from the great 
 slate-quarries of Llandegai, 6 miles distant, and 
 employing 2000 men. The slates are exported to 
 all parts of the world, and also manufactured at 
 B. into tables, chimney-pieces, &c. Pop. 0338. B. 
 unites with Caernarvon, Conway, Criccieth, Kevin, 
 and Pwllheli, in sending one member to parliament. 
 B. is a place of great antiquity. In 525, St Deiniol 
 
 idea a college here. It was raised to a bishopric 
 
 in 550, the founder being the first diocesan. The 
 cathedral founded by him was destroyed by the 
 Sa.\..ns in 1071, rebuilt in 1102, and again destroyed 
 by fire in 1 102. The present edifice, built between 
 1496 and 1532, is a plain embattled cruciform 
 structure, 214 by 60 feet, with a pinnacled tower 
 60 feet high. Several Welsh princes and distin- 
 1 ecclesiastics are buried here. B. bishopric 
 is the oldest in Wales. 
 
 BA'NGOR, a small seaport town in the north- 
 east of Downshire, on the south side of the entrance 
 to Belfast Lougb, and 12 miles east-north-east 
 of Belfast Pop. 2S50. It has linen and cotton 
 ifa ctures. The embroidering of muslin is carried 
 on. Cattle and provisions are exported. There is 
 much traffic with the west of Scotland. Coal, slate, 
 and copper are found in the neighbourhood. St 
 I inn gall, in 555, founded Bangor Abbey ('Ban-choir, 
 the ' White Choir,' whence the name Bangor), of 
 which the ruins still remain. From this abbey, 
 Alfred selected professors when he founded the 
 : ty of Oxford. In the 9th c. it had 3000 
 inmates. 
 
 BA'NGOR, a port of entry in the state of 
 Maine, on the right bank of the Penobscot, about 60 
 miles from its mouth, and at its confluence with 
 the Kenduskeag, which intersects the city, and
 
 BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY— BANK, BANKING. 
 
 affords an extensive supply of water-power. At 
 spring-tides, which here rise 17 feet, the harbour 
 is accessible from the sea for the largest vessels ; 
 and, as the navigation cannot go higher, B. 
 of the largest lumber depots in the world, absorbing 
 and monopolising the trade of the hi lavily timbered 
 basins of the Penobscot and its tributaries. During 
 the 8 or !l months of open water, steam-boats make 
 regular trips between J'>. and the adjacent ports 
 of Portland and Boston; there is here 
 station of the Eastern Railway. Its pope 
 which, in 1850, was 14,432, cannot now. in 1 
 uii.1t 20.000. Its lat. and long, are 44" 48 N., and 
 68° 47' W. 
 
 BANGO'RIAN CONTROVERSY. DrBenjamin 
 Hoadley, Bishop of Bangor, in a sermon preached 
 ■ George I., March 31, 1717, on the text, ' My 
 kingdom is not of this world,' advanced opinions 
 regarding the constitution of the church which 
 excited strong opposition from the zealous advocates 
 of ecclesiastical authority. A controversy ensued, 
 which was carried on with great heat for many 
 years, and resulted in a ponderous collection of 
 pamphlets. See Hoadley. 
 
 BA'NGOR-ISCOE'D (Bangor below the Wood), 
 an inland village, beautifully situated, in a fertile 
 and richly wooded country, on the right bank of the 
 Dec, on the borders of Flint aud Denbigh shires, 
 North Wales, 5 miles south-east of Wrexham. Pop. 
 554. It was once the seat of one of the largest 
 monasteries in Britain. This monastery was founded 
 before ISO a.d., and contained 2400 monks in the 
 time of St Augustine, in the end of the 6th c., when 
 they distinguished themselves in resisting the claims 
 of the papal see. Ethelred, king of Northumbria, 
 in 593, devasted the monastery, and massacred 1200 
 of the monks. 
 
 BANIALTJ'KA, a fortified town of Bosnia, Euro- 
 pean Turkey, situated on the left bank of the \ 
 with a manufactory of gunpowder, aud numerous 
 bazaars and public baths. Pop. 7800. 
 
 BA'NIAN or BANTA'N (from the Sanscril 
 a merchant), a word used in India to designate a mi r- 
 chant or trader generally. It is more particularly 
 applied to the great merchants in the west of India, 
 lly in the seaport towns of Bombay, Surat, 
 lay, &c, who carry on a very extensive trade by 
 means of caravans, with the interior of Asia, even to 
 the borders of Russia and China. Contrary to the 
 general custom of the Indian people, these merchants 
 travel much, and the establishments and counting- 
 houses of Indian Banians are to be found in almost 
 every commercial town of any note iu Asia. The 
 banians form a class or division of the caste (q. v.) 
 of the Vaisya, adopt a peculiar costume, and are 
 strict in the observance of fasts and in abstaining 
 from the use of flesh. 
 
 BA'NIAN DAYS, a sailor's phrase, nearly equi- 
 valent to the jours mairjres of the French. The 
 term denotes the days when no meat is served out 
 to a ship's crew. How far tins is likely to occur in 
 the royal navy, or the mercantde marine, will be 
 found noticed under Victualling. The term is 
 derived from the practice of the Banian (q. v.) traders. 
 
 BA'NIAN-TREE. See Banyan. 
 
 BA'NIM, Jorrx, a celebrated Irish novelist, born 
 1800, whose :, in the form of 
 
 have excited considerable interest in England, 
 m was to become for Ireland what "Scott 
 had been for Scotland. Ho has given proof of 
 vigorous intellectual grasp and vivid fancy, in a 
 scries of pictures of life, in which he del 
 the peculiarities of the Irish character in strong 
 light and shade, and appeals forcibly to the national 
 
 feeling. His Tales of Vie O'Hara Family (London, 
 1825) were followed, in 1826, by a second series, 
 which did not disappoint the high expectations 
 excited by the first. Of these, several have been 
 tran dated into German by Lindan. Next appeared 
 The Battle of the Boyne, The Croppy (1828), T/te 
 
 1S31), Tlie Mayor 
 of Wmdgap, FaOter Cotmdt, &c. In 1837, general 
 boon attracted towards B.'s priva- 
 tions, occasioned by disease that precluded all 
 ry exertion, a pension of £150 per annum 
 from the civil list was awarded him by government, 
 which was afterwards further increased by £ 
 the education of his daughter, an only child. He 
 died in poverty on the 1st August 1842, at Windgap 
 Cottage, near Kilkenny. 
 
 i led in his attempt to portray the manners 
 and frivolities of the higher classes; but none of 
 his predecessors, such i n, and 
 
 Crofton Croker, have succeeded in depicting so 
 vividly and truly the Irish peasant, with his pic- 
 turesque peculiarities in his sufferings and errors. 
 Although generally happy in the plot and develop- 
 ment of his story, he is too much disposed to 
 dwell on the horrible. His denunciations may be 
 well founded, but they disturb the poetic effect. 
 B. was also not quite free from a somewhat tiresome 
 minuteness of description, and his imitation of Scott 
 is frequently very palpable. 
 
 BA'NISHMENT, excepting in the penal sense of 
 Transportation (q. v.), with which it is popularly 
 synonymous, can only now be said t'> have a legal 
 nn aning historically. Formerly, in England, parties 
 who were required to abjure the realm — that is, 
 renounce and depart from the country — were, so to 
 speak, banished; but the word appears to have a more 
 technical and precise significance in the Scotch law 
 than in the I I jid in Scotch law-books, is 
 
 defined as the punishment of exile from Scotland 
 d on persons convicted of certain offences for 
 which that punishment is provided. But as a 
 punishment, it has cither been abolished in that 
 country by express enactment or become obsolete by 
 disuse. See Transportation, Penal Servitude, 
 
 BA'NISTER, a corruption of Baluster (q. v.). 
 
 BANJERMASSI'N, an extensive territory occu- 
 pying the south-east portion of the island of Borneo, 
 the river Banjer bounding it on the west, and the 
 strait of Macassar on the east. A range of moun- 
 tains, rising in many places to an elevation of 3000 
 feet, intersects it from north to south. Pop. 
 120,000, principally Mohammedans, and governed 
 by a sultan, who is absolute so far as his people 
 are concerned, but who is to a certain extent subject 
 to the Dutch. The manufactory of all kinds of 
 small-arms has been brought to a state of great 
 perfection in this country. Iron serves in place of 
 money. Coal of good quality was discovered in 
 1846, and is now profitably worked by the Dutch. 
 pital, which bears the name of the district, is 
 situated on the left bank of the Banjer, about fifteen 
 miles from its mouth, and has a considerable trade 
 with China through its port at Tabeniow, about 
 fifty mdes from the town, a bar at its entrance 
 rendering the Banjer inaccessible. 
 
 BANK, BANKING. A banker is the custodier 
 of tli ■ money of other persons. Such is his business, 
 viewed in its simplest aspect, A banker, if he 
 1 the money deposited with him, would be 
 simply a cash-keeper to the public ; his bank would 
 be literally a bank of deposit Even were the busi- 
 ness of banking limited to the keeping of deposits, 
 it would be of no small advantage to society : the 
 depositors would be relieved from the care of their 
 money, andin many cases, from the trouble of handing
 
 BANK, BANKING. 
 
 it to those to whom they required to make a pay- 
 ment. It the person to whom the depositor wishes to 
 pay money intend also to deposit it, a transfer in the 
 
 i of tlic banker from the one to the other, made 
 on the order or cheque of the depositor, would effect 
 
 ayment. The money itself would lie undis- 
 turbed. The Bank of Amsterdam, as it existed in 
 the 17th c., was a bank of deposit, pure and simple. 
 But the business of receiving money on deposit has 
 
 t always been, and is now, universally, com- 
 
 with that of lending it out. A banker d 
 not board all the money deposited with him — he 
 gives the greater portion out in loan. The lending 
 of money i3 as much a part of his business as the 
 receiving of deposits. The advantages accruing to 
 society from the operations of banko 
 immense. A million of money lent out to be used, 
 and which otherwise would have lain dead, either in 
 small portions in the repositories of the owners, or in 
 one large hoard in the coffers of the banker, makes 
 the world one million the richer — or at least pre- 
 vents it from becoming one million the poorer ; for 
 money, so long as unused, serves no end as a means 
 of exchange. With the money thus lent out, manu- 
 facturers can purchase raw material to be worked 
 up, and procure food and clothing for their work- 
 men ; and traders can go into the markets and pur- 
 chase commodities for resale. Commodities are thus 
 more quickly turned to useful purposes, and a stimu- 
 lus is given to the production of more. But a banker 
 deals not with the money onl)' of othi I ; h 
 money belonging to himself. This is his c 
 Pew would be found to deposit their money with a 
 person known to possess none of his own. If he 
 should lend deposits to those who fail to 
 them — that is, mai be has the means 
 
 from his capital of replacing the deposits thus lost. 
 Such, then, are the simple functions of a banker : he 
 borrows and lends. 
 
 l!ut for the money he lends he receives ii 
 from the borrowers ; and in this intere I b is paid 
 for bis trouble in taking charge of the deposits, and 
 for his risk of bad debts. The services that a banker 
 performs as the cash-keeper of his di positors arc 
 very great. In the case of persons not them 
 in business, it is quite usual for a banker to make 
 all their money-payments, beyond their small daily 
 expenditure, and to receive the money payable to 
 them. The money transactions of such persons are 
 thus contained in their banker's books. This is 
 effected by the depositor giving a cheque or order on 
 bis banker for the sums he has to pay; and by 
 handing to him all the ch&juet or orders the di 
 tor receives for sums payable to himself. Sup, 
 person's income derived from dividends on govern- 
 ment stock : he sends a power of attorney or autho- 
 rity to his banker to uplift the dividends for him. 
 These are received by the banker as deposits, and 
 are drawn out by the depositor as occasion occurs, 
 by cheques issued by the depositor to those to whom 
 he requires to pay it away. So he may receive 
 money due to him by a cheque given to him by bis 
 debtor. This cheque he sends to his banker, who 
 will obtain payment. If both persons deal with the 
 same banker, a simple transfer in his books will 
 carry through the transaction ; and if the bankers 
 be different, and each has had received, in the 
 course of his business, as is always happening, a 
 cheque on the other, there will be a set 
 them ; and two payments will be made as well as 
 two deposits, without trouble to the persons con- 
 cerned, and without the employment of any money. 
 But this mode of managing one's pecuniary transac- 
 tions is not confined to the case of those not 
 1 in business ; on the contrary, it is followed 
 on a scale out of all proportion greater in carrying 
 
 through the money transactions of those in l>u 
 or trade in the principal industrial count] 
 
 lea thus performing the function of cashiers 
 to their depositors, in consideration of the profit 
 made on their deposits, many banks allow 
 
 tors interest on their deposits. The rate 
 allowed is, of course, always less than that n 
 by the banker. Frequently a di argains 
 
 with the banker not to draw out his deposit without. 
 
 HI I notice, longer or shorter as may be agreed 
 on ; and in this case the banker will allow a higher 
 rate of interest than when the deposit is repayable 
 on call — that is, at any time, without pri 
 notice. The practice of allow ii 
 
 always obtained in Scotland, but in England is 
 of later growth. It has led there, of late years, to a 
 great increase in the amount of deposits, especially, 
 it is believed, of small sums. AY ! allow 
 
 I on deposits, it is quite common for persons 
 to lodge their money with them, solely for the i ike 
 
 of the return received in the aha] f interest from 
 
 ': I inks. These persons prefer the low rate of 
 intere t which banks give, to the higher rate which 
 may be obtained from individual borrowers, or to 
 the greater return which may be received if they 
 traded on their money. The low rate of interest is 
 compensated for by the greater security, and the 
 of trouble and labour to the depositor. 
 Occasions are always occurring for withdrawing 
 deposits, as well as making them. Traders and 
 commercial men, for example, day by day, deposit 
 with their bankers the drawings or sums of money 
 which they receive in the course of their business; 
 and, on the other hand, day by day, draw out such 
 sums as they require to pay away in purchases of 
 goods, in wages, rent, and other expenditure. A 
 bank, therefore, while continually receiving deposits, 
 is continually repaying deposits; and the amount 
 uncalled for is subject to a daily fluctuation. At 
 one period of the year, or in a certain condition 
 of trade, the amount of deposits may be high; at 
 another, low. As it is a principle, at the very 
 
 • banking, that money di ; ball bo 
 
 returned, either on demand, or punctually at the 
 expiry of a stipulated notice, it follows that I 
 must always have in their coffers as much of the 
 deposited with them as there is the least 
 likelihood of being called for by depositors. When 
 business is in its ordinary condition, a bank can, 
 after some experience, approximate pretty nearly 
 to the amount of the greatest demand for a return 
 -its throughout the year, and provide accord- 
 ingly. But sometimes the credit of a bank becomes 
 1, either from causes pecidiar to itself, or 
 on occasions of a panic or general distrust, when 
 all who own money wish to have it in their own 
 possession. In these cases, there is a run on the 
 bank for repayment of its deposits, and the amount 
 called for may be far beyond the maximum demanded 
 in ordinary times. If the bank has not retained 
 as much of the deposits in its coffers as meet the 
 di id, it is said to . ' /'ii/uiritt, and, as a 
 
 1 ride, it must wind-up its business; the 
 confidence of the public that it will in future restore 
 
 k isits on demand being now destroyed. There 
 are two prime rules in safe banking: the one is, 
 that the bank shall lend its deposits only on good 
 and undoubted securities, however low the profit ; and 
 the other is, that the bank shall retain a sufficient 
 amount of its deposits — and this is called the reserve 
 — to meet the possible demands of the depositors, 
 even in cases of a run, although there may be 
 ■ son to expect a run or unusual demand; 
 for when a run comes, it seldom casts its shadow 
 before. But it is evident that the greater tho 
 of a bank, the less the amount of deposits
 
 BANK, BANKING. 
 
 which it is lending out and drawing interest for; 
 hence the temptation which banks lie under of 
 imprudently lending out a too great proportion 
 of their deposits; and it is their yielding to this 
 itation which almost always precipitates the 
 failures of banks. 
 
 The reserve of the hanking department of the 
 Bank of England is always in coin, or, what is 
 the same thing, in notes against which there is 
 coin lying in what is called the issue department 
 of the Bank. In the case of all other banks in 
 this country, the reserve is only partly in coin; 
 sometimes the proportion of coin is very small. 
 A great portion of the reserve is generally in 
 Bank of England notes, equivalent, of course, to 
 coin. These other banks also hold a portion of 
 what is truly their reserve, in the shape of govern- 
 ment stock, in which they have invested it. In 
 this way, the banks obtain a return on this last 
 portion of their reserve, in the dividends or interest 
 paid by government on the stock — this return being 
 less, indeed, in the usual case, than if the bank 
 had lent out the money in the ordinary course 
 of business, but better than no return at all, as 
 must be when the coin or notes are lying idle. The 
 reason why government stock, in Great Britain, 
 is a safe reserve is, that it is sure to command a 
 purchaser at all times. If there, be a run on a 
 bank, it immediately finds a purchaser for the 
 stock, and with the price, whether paid in gold, 
 or in Bank of England notes, the only other legal 
 tender, it meets the demands of its depositors. 
 Sometimes, a bank has its reserve in the form 
 of a deposit at the Bank of England; or, if a pro- 
 vincial bank, with some Loudon bank which has 
 its own reserve there. From the Bank of England 
 being the channel through which, directly or in- 
 direetly, payments are made, and moneys received, 
 by other banks, it is more convenient for them 
 to have their reserve lying as a deposit in it, than 
 lying as gold within their own walls. In the 
 case of a demand on their reserve, the banks will 
 draw out their deposits, in notes, or, if gold be 
 in demand, iu gold, from the Bank of England. 
 Wh< ilier, therefore, the reserve of a bank is invested 
 in government securities, or is deposited in the 
 Bank of England, or is in Bank of England notes, 
 it is from the coin in that bank that the gold comes 
 in the case of a run. It is apparent from. this that 
 it is essential to the stability of all banks in this 
 country, so long as they themselves do not keep 
 a sufficient reserve of coin in their coffers, that 
 the Bank of England shall always be possessed 
 of coin, and never be unable, on demand, to pay 
 its depositors in gold, or to give gold in exchange 
 for all its notes that may be presented to it. It 
 may lie added, that while banks gain, through 
 the annual dividends, in keeping their reserve in 
 government stock, they run the risk of a loss in 
 rent of their requiring to sell it in the time 
 of a panic. For at such a time, when many 
 securities and stocks become unsaleable, and all 
 of them suffer depreciation in value, government 
 stock itself falls in price, although less so than 
 the others. Banks often invest portions of their 
 reserve in other stocks tie stock. 
 
 The higher return obtained on these other is, 
 , - . r, outweighed by the greater risk of depre- 
 ciation in their value, whether continued unsold 
 or thrown into the market for sale in times of 
 panic 
 
 We have hitherto been 1 5 banks as banks 
 
 of deposit and loan; but many of these banks, 
 ID all countries where banks are known, are also 
 banks of issue. Banks of deposit, as has been 
 mentioned, make loans from their capital and 
 
 deposits. If from capital, the banker has no greater 
 profit by the transaction than if he had L , 
 
 his money in any other way, equally safe, and 
 involving the same amount of trouble. If from 
 deposits, the interest he receives, in so far as it 
 exceeds the interest, if any, paid to the depositors, 
 and a rateable proportion of the expense of carrying 
 on the business of the bank, is pure gain to him. 
 But a banker may give the loan from hi 
 notes, and in that case his gain is still greater. 
 A bank-note is simply a written promise by the 
 bank issuing it, to pay to the bearer, on demand, 
 a sum of money — that is, in coin of the realm. Of 
 course, the borrower would not accept a loan 
 from a bank in its own notes, unless he believed 
 that it could redeem its promise of paying in coin, 
 and that the public were of the same opinion ; 
 for the moment that a suspicion arises that the 
 promise will not be made good, the note will cease 
 to pass from hand to hand as coin, or to perform 
 all the fimctions which coin performs. But when 
 the loan is accepted in a bank's own notes, it 
 is evident that the interest which the bank draws 
 for the loan of its promises to pay is pure profit, 
 except the rateable proportion — as in the 1 
 cases — of the expense of carrying on its business, 
 and the expense of the paper and printing of tho 
 Dotes with the government stamp-duty. In other 
 
 words, a bank which can get \ pie to pay to it 
 
 interest for the loan of its prom .. draws the 
 
 same income — barring the comparatively trilling 
 expense of manufacturing the written promises — 
 as a bank does which has to provide itself with gold 
 for making its loans. The motive which a bank 
 has to extend its issues on loans is therefore 
 apparent, so long, of course, as it is not compulsory 
 on it to retain unemployed in its coffers as much in 
 gold as it issues in notes. 
 
 But it by no means follows that when a bank 
 makes a loan in its own notes for a definite period, 
 it will really obtain the benefit of the interest on it 
 for that period ; for the borrower does not apply 
 for the notes that he may keep them beside him, 
 but that he may pay them away in making a 
 purchase, or in liquidating a debt, and this, most 
 commonly, on the very day he re© ives them. If 
 the person to whom the notes are thus paid by the 
 borrower has himself no purchase to pay for, or no 
 payment to make, he may, the moment lie gets 
 them, return them to the bank that issued the 
 lie there on deposit. If the bank pays interest on 
 
 . as most banks do, then out of the in; 
 drawn by it on the original loan, it will have I 
 interest to the depositor of the notes; in other 
 words, the loan is no longer a loan of its notes, but 
 a loan from its deposits. Or, the person receiving 
 the notes from the borrower, may immediately 
 present them to the issuing bank for coin, instead of 
 depositing them. Here, too, therefore, the loan that 
 was made iu notes is now converted into a 1 
 coin, that was in reserve from previous deposits, or 
 that was part of the bank's own capital ; in which 
 cases, the bank obtains no advantage whatever in 
 having made the loan originally in its notes. It 
 might equally well, so far as profit is coneiinel. 
 
 ■liginally made it in gold from it 
 deposits or capital. Notes generally find their way 
 back to the bank that issued them through other 
 banks, into which tiny have been paid 
 or for the liquidation of debts due to them. These 
 banks sutler the loss of profit or interest on the 
 amount of the notes thus received by them so long 
 as they keep them ; they therefore immediately 
 them to the issuing bank for gold, to 
 replenish their own reserves, or to lend out; or, 
 what is the same thing, they present them to the 
 
 MS
 
 BANK, BANKING. 
 
 bank for government stock, or other securi- 
 ties bearing interest, and wbidh that bank has had 
 ■ ram its capital and deposits. 
 It will now be apparent to the reader that there 
 arc two checks which prevent a bank issuing notes 
 to any extent it pleases. In the first place, there 
 
 i o a demand for its notes by borrowers. It is 
 only to people in good credit, and likely to make 
 a profitable use of them, that a bank will lend its 
 
 . :;nd such people will not take an increase of 
 
 unless trade be increasing, and new opportuni- 
 ties be presenting themselves tor profitably employ- 
 ing the notes borrowed. True, banks, when impru- 
 dently conducted, or when deceived in the character 
 of their customers, frequently lend their notes to 
 reckless persons, who overtrade with them, and 
 become bankrupt. But banks commit this error, 
 when they do commit it, to a far greater extent by 
 loans of their deposits and capital, thau by loans of 
 their notes. In the secon d the immediate 
 
 return of the notes, chiefly through other banks for 
 
 or for other portions of the reserve of the 
 bank, is a check to its issuing more notes 
 than it has a reserve to meet. This return of 
 notes through banks is called the excltanrje of notes — 
 the notes issued by a bank being returned to it in 
 exchange for the notes held by it of another bank. 
 
 Besides issuing its notes in loans, a bank may 
 issue them in repayment of deposits. In thi 
 there is the same profit to the bank as in the other 
 The bank gets the profit which it makes on 
 the money which was originally deposited or lodged 
 with it, without having to pay interest to the persons 
 who made the deposit or lodgmentj the deposit, 
 or money lodged, having now been repaid in its 
 notes. But here, too, these notes are equally liable 
 to be returned to the issuer as when they are issued 
 on loans. 
 
 Of all the notes issued, in whatever v 
 banks, a certain amount is not returned t' i 
 but is kept in circulation, being what is required 
 by the necessities of the public for use as money, 
 passing from hand to hand It is of course on this 
 portion that the banks make their profit; and, in 
 
 luence of this profit, they are able to afford 
 
 banking facilities to the pubhc more cheaply than 
 
 they could otherwise do. The profit is just the 
 
 t on the notes in circulation — less the expense 
 
 of manufacturing the notes, a rateable proportion of 
 
 qienses of conducting the banks, and the loss 
 of interest or profit on an unemployed reserve kept 
 from prudence, or by the requirement of law, to 
 meet a return of notes. This interest is paid by the 
 persons who originally borrowed these notes from 
 the banks, and who have not repaid them ; or if the 
 banks have repaid deposits with the notes, the 
 interest is paid by those to whom they lent what 
 was originally these deposits. The amount of the 
 bank-notes in circidation varies at different periods 
 of the year: at term-times and quarter-days, when 
 more payments than usual are made, there is a 
 greater quantity of money required by the pubhc 
 than at other times, and the notes in circulation 
 increase in amount. This addition to the circulation 
 is drawn from the banks by depositors or borrowers. 
 After it has served its purpose, this add 
 quantity gradually returns to the banks as deposits 
 or in repayment of loans. If the credit of an issuing 
 bank is at any time suspected, the holders of notes 
 will present them for gold, just in the same \ 
 
 lositors will call for a return of their de] 
 and a bank requires to provide itself with a reserve 
 — on which, of course, it makes no profit — to meet 
 a run from its note-holders, as well as a run from 
 its depositors. It has been generally imagined that 
 when issuing banks suspend payments on a run, the 
 
 run is one on the part of their note-holders : but 
 this is only a popular error. In a well-estal 1 1 
 bank, the amount of its notes in circulation is almost 
 nothing compared to its deposits; and though the 
 holders of small sums in notes may be more apt 
 than depositors to take alarm and rush in a panic 
 to the bank for gold for its notes, a small proportion 
 of its depositors suddenly demanding a return of 
 their money in gold, as effectually (brains a bank of 
 its reserve, as if its whole circulation were to be at 
 once presented to it for gold. 
 
 Banks make their loans chiefly in the form of 
 ,i's; that is, upon bills of exchange. Commo- 
 dities in the wholesale market are generally sold on 
 credit. The buyer promises to pay the amount at 
 a certain date to the seller, and his promise is con- 
 tained in a bill of exchange. The seller transfers it 
 to a bank, which, on the faith of it, advances the 
 amount in loan to him, less discount, that is, in 
 of the money till the bill be due. This is called 
 'of;/. But banks lend on other securities. 
 A holder of government stock, for example, will 
 obtain a loan on the security of his stock; the 
 banker being entitled to sell it, and repay the 
 loan from the price, if the borrower fail to make 
 punctual payment. So also, the holder of stock 
 or shares in any public company, as a railway 
 company, or of a debenture or bond due by such, 
 will, where the company is believed to be in a 
 sound condition, or the security is saleable, obtain a 
 loan from a bank. The owners of commodities 
 lying in a pubhc warehouse, may obtain a loan on 
 depositing with the bank the warrants or certificates 
 of ownership. Loans, too, are occasionally made for 
 short periods on the mere note of hand of the bor- 
 rower, when the banker is satisfied of the ability of 
 the borrower to repay the money. It is seldom in 
 this country that banks lend on mortgages over 
 land. Borrowers, in these cases, generally take 
 loans to lie unpaid for a few years; but to have his 
 money locked up in that way does not suit the trade 
 of a banker. Where a banker finds the security 
 which he has received to be insufficient, and repay- 
 ment of the loan is not forthcoming, he will, of 
 course, like any other trader, to avoid making a bad 
 I ake any other security the debtor can give 
 him — such as a manufactory or a mine. Banks have 
 in this way frequently become involved in manufac- 
 turing transactions, in their attempts to make more 
 money of the securities than they would have done 
 by an immediate sale of them; they have become 
 manufacturers and miners, and suffered great losses 
 in consequence. And it is not to be supposed that 
 banks always abstain from making loans when the 
 security is known to be doubtful ; far from it : banks, 
 like other commercial establishments, have been, on 
 many occasions, recklessly managed. In trying to 
 push business, they have made loans on insufficient 
 security, and banks are under strong temptation, to 
 which they frequently yield, when a trader largely 
 indebted to them is approaching bankruptcy, to 
 sustain lys credit by additional advances, in the 
 hope that he may retrieve his affairs, and pay in 
 fidl both the old and the new advances. The result 
 is often the loss of both. Conduct of this kind has 
 been the ruin of many banking establishments in 
 England, of two or three in Ireland and Scotland, 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 Bankers perform another very important function : 
 they remit money from one place to another. One 
 illustration will serve to explain how this is man- 
 aged. A debtor in Edinburgh makes a payment to 
 his creditor in London in this way : he pays the 
 money to a banker in Edinburgh, who, for a small 
 charge, called the exchange, gives him a draft for the 
 amount on a banker, his correspondent, in London.
 
 BANK, BANKING. 
 
 The debtor transmits the draft to his creditor, who 
 presents it to the London hanker, and receives the 
 money from him. No actual transmission of the 
 money, however, takes place, for there are debtors 
 in London requiring to pay money to creditors in 
 Edinburgh, and these debtors effect the payment by 
 giving the money to the London banker, and obtain- 
 ing his drafts on the L'dinburgh banker. The 
 London banker is thus refunded for the money he 
 pays away on the drafts upon him by the Edinburgh 
 Danker. The one set of drafts are set off against 
 the other. Not only may remittances between 
 two places be thus made without the use of money, 
 but the payments to and by the parties in both 
 places may also be made without it. The i 
 may pay for the drafts by cheques on the banker 
 who grants them, and the creditors may receive the 
 money by drawing cheques on the banker by whom 
 the drafts are made payable. 
 
 The large amount of money transactions carried 
 through without the intervention of coin or bank- 
 notes, in a country like England, i3 inconceivable 
 to those not engaged in business pursuits. The 
 manner in which these transactions may be effected 
 •without money, would be at once apprehended, if 
 all persons in the same locality dealt with the same 
 bank, and if all the banks scattered throughout the 
 I itn were only branches of the same establish- 
 
 But in practice, matters are so managed as 
 if this were the case. The cheques, bills, or other 
 drafts which come into the hands of a banker, 
 drawn on (that is, payable by) other bankers, are 
 set off and liquidated by drafts, which they have 
 received, drawn on him. The balance or dil i 
 only is paid in money. In London, the centre of 
 the money-world, there is an establishment called 
 the Clearing-house, of which most of the London 
 banks are members. There, at a fixed hour daily, 
 attendance is given by a clerk from each of these 
 banks, who presents all the drafts immediately 
 arable which his bank holds on the others ; the 
 ounce or difference, on the whole, for or against 
 each bank is ascertained ; and the bank which holds 
 a less amount of drafts on others than they hold on 
 it, pays the difference by cheques on the Bank of 
 nl. There are clearing-houses in New York 
 an I I Miblin, conducted on a similar principle. 
 
 Bank of England. — This institution, which is the 
 largest and most important banking establishment 
 in the world, was projected by 'William Paterson, a 
 Scotsman, and received its charter of incorporation 
 July 27, 1094. It was constituted as a joint-stock 
 association, with a capital of £1,200,000, which sum 
 was lent at interest to the government of William 
 and Mary, at the time in a state of embarrassment. 
 At its very outset, therefore, the Bank of England 
 was a servant of government ; and in a 
 or greater degree, it has enjoyed this character 
 through all the stages of its subsequent history. 
 At first, the charter of the Bank was for eleven years 
 only; but in consequence of the great services of 
 the institution to government, its charter has been 
 at various times renewed. The last renewal was in 
 1844, and the charter of that year still subsists, its 
 terms being subject to modification or revocation by 
 the legislature at pleasure. By the act or charter of 
 the Hank was divided into two departments — 
 the issue and the banking. What led to the division 
 was this : it was supposed that, when a foreign 
 drain of gold from us set in, it would, if the currency 
 or circulation in this country had been purely 
 metallic, have produced a contraction of the oircu- 
 . and a consequent fall of prices, and, as an 
 ultimate result, the cessation of the drain. It was 
 farther supposed that banks could issue their notes 
 to any extent they pleased ; that their ex 
 
 I 
 
 issues increased the currency, and therefore in- 
 creased prices, which in their turn led to foreign 
 drains ; and that, on the occasions of these drains, 
 the continued issues prevented the natural and 
 desirable contraction of the circulation, and i 
 vated the commercial convulsions occurring at such 
 periods. The object of the act of 1844 was to 
 t issues of notes beyond a certain amount, 
 unless against an equal amount of gold held by the 
 issuing bank, so that the mixed currency of notes 
 and coin might thus expand and contract like a 
 self-acting metallic currency. Experience, however, 
 has shewn, that when these foreign drains occur, 
 
 I 1 exported is taken chiefly from the reserves 
 in the Bank of England, betas withdrawals of 
 deposits or loans by the Bank ; and that the amount 
 of notes in the hands of the public has not been 
 affected by the legislation of 1844. In practice, 
 whenever there are signs of a foreign drain, and the 
 reserve of the Bank is diminishing, the Bank counter- 
 acts the tendency to a drain by raising the rate of 
 discount and restricting its loans ; the purchasing 
 I lower of the public is thereby limited, and prices 
 kept down; and, at the same time, gold is attracted 
 to this country for investment. The circulation is 
 in reality not interfered with. It was also intended 
 by the act of 1844 to add to the security of bank- 
 notes by insuring a supply of gold to meet thi 
 ment of them at all times. But the solvency of the 
 Bank of England is undoubted ; its notes would 
 at any time be taken as gold ; and this effect of the 
 act of 1 S44, and the supplementary act of 1845, has in 
 the case of the note3 of other banks been hitherto 
 inappreciable. 
 
 In the issue department of the Bank of England, 
 its sole business is to give out notes to the public 
 Before the separation of the departments, the govern- 
 ment was due to the Bank £11,015,000. This sum 
 was declared to be now a debt due to the 
 department, and for the issues of notes to that 
 amount, no gold requires to be held by it. This was 
 just the same thing as if the Bank had originally lent 
 £11,015,000 of its note3 to government, and these 
 notes had found their way into circulation. The 
 Bank was also allowed to issue additional notes on 
 securities — that is, to lend them to a limit which at 
 present amounts to £3,459,900, and this also without 
 holding gold. The amount of notes which may thus 
 be issued, without gold being in reserve ai.'ainst it, is 
 £14,475,000. All notes issued above that amount 
 can be issued only in exch Id. At the 
 
 passing of the act in 1S44, the limit of notes to be 
 issued against the government debt and securities 
 was fixed at £14,000,000 — past experience having 
 shewn that there was not the least risk of there 
 being at any time less than that amount of Bank of 
 
 I I notes in the hands of the public. The 
 addition of the £475,000 is an extra issne, authorised 
 by the act, in consequence of certain issuing banks 
 Laving since ceased to issue. The Bank has to 
 account to government for the net profit of this 
 issue Kan of notes of £475,000; and the profit the 
 Bank derives from its issue department is the interest 
 received on the £14,000,000 of government debt and 
 securities, which, at 3 per cent., is £420,000 yearly. 
 But out of this the Bank p»; mment, for 
 
 king privileges, and in lieu of stamp-duties, 
 £180,000. The expense of the issue department 
 being £160,000, the net yearly profit upon it to the 
 Bank is thus £80,000. The Bank also makes a 
 profit of £20,000 to £40,000 yearly upon bullion and 
 foreign coin. These are brought to the Bank for 
 notes ; they are worth £3, 17.*. 10Je/. per ounce; but 
 the Bank is obliged by its charter to purchase them 
 at £3, 17s. 9'/. The holders prefer taking this price 
 to having their bullion and foreign coin coined, free
 
 BANK, BANKING. 
 
 of charge, at the public mint, as the delay iu the 
 : ; is equal to a loss of interest of 1 
 
 ■ i it it of notes in the hands of the 
 public averages about £20,000,000; but the amount 
 issued by the iasue department is greater. The dif- 
 • ■ is the amount lying in the banking depart- 
 ment, and represents the reserve of gold of that 
 ment ; that is to say, the banking department 
 retains only a half or three-fourths of a million of 
 coin, and transfers the bulk of its reserve te the issue 
 department, in exchange for notes. We fch 
 require to regard the reserve of the banking depart- 
 ment as gold, though lying in the shape of notes 
 issued by the other department. 
 
 Viewed in its banking department, the Bank differs 
 from other banks in having the management of the 
 public debt, and paying the dividends on it; in 
 lidding the deposits belonging to government, and 
 in irmlnng advances to it when necessary ; in aiding 
 in the collection of the public revenue, and in being 
 the bank of other banks. For the management of 
 the public debt, the Bank receives about £247,000, 
 I which there has to be set £12-1,000 of charges. 
 The remaining profits of the Bank are derived from 
 its employment, like other banks, of its deposits, on 
 which it allow., no . and of its own capital. 
 
 The capital was originally £ 1 .'2110,000 ; in 1S1G, it 
 i 000— the | resent amount. There is 
 
 besides a rest of about £3,000,000. Tl ■■■ .' 
 (public and private) vary between £13,000,000 and 
 £2 2.1 11)0,000. 
 
 In 1707, the Bank found itself likely to be i ' 
 to suspend payments, and its notes were decla 
 law a legal tender, although no longer convertible 
 into coin. This state of matters continued till 1S21. 
 The notes during this interval m 't having be 
 vertiblc into coin on demand, there was no check upon 
 the Bank in the amount of its issues ; and the cur- 
 rency became depreciated — that is, a £5 note would 
 not exchange for live BOVen ; and every man to 
 
 whom £5 was due, was thus obliged to accept pay- 
 ment in a £5 note, not worth £5. It is, however, 
 said that the value of gold at the time wi i 
 owing to absorption by hoarding and by military- 
 chests, and that the depreciation wa I mo: apparent 
 than real The export of gold following on a rise of 
 , occasioned by au issue of bank or government 
 
 notes is unlimited, except by exhaustion, if these 
 notes are not payable in coin on demand, and are 
 I without any check from without or self- 
 imposed. But as prices estimated in these notes 
 
 . i he price of bullion, like other comni 
 rises too, and the price of coin which can be con- 
 verted into bullion, or be used abroad at its pr 
 Eurchasing power, rises also. Since 1821, the Bank 
 as been oftcner than once on the verge of a suspen- 
 sion of payments, owing to foreign drains of gold. 
 The separation of the Bank into two departments 
 is regarded by many as having a tendency to produce 
 a suspension in times of panic, when the reserve is 
 1 by withdrawals to supply a foreign drain, 
 or to meet an internal run. Before the separation, 
 the Bank, in the case of withdrawals of gold, had 
 the whole amount of gold witliin the Bank to meet 
 them ; but now it loses the command of all tl 
 in the issue department. It cannot get that gold 
 unless in exchange for notes, but, its reserve 
 reduced or exhausted, it has none to spare. The 
 restriction of credit consequent upon the approach to 
 an exhaustion of the reserve of the banking depart- 
 ment, is so great, that the fear of it occasions a panic; 
 and both in 1847 and 1857, on the possible suspen- 
 sion of payments by the banking department, owing 
 to a reduction of its reserve, being apparent, the 
 government of the day took the responsibility of 
 authorising the Bank to lend additional notes, not 
 
 C6S 
 
 I by gold, which was an indirect way of 
 getting at the gold in where 
 
 the obii i to obtain j old. In 
 
 1857, it was found necessary to take the 1 lit of 
 
 this authorisation. 
 The Hank of England is situated in the centre of 
 n ; but it has a branch in the west end, and 
 provinces. 
 
 M 
 1 95 of thi ban] of which 03 in tb 
 are entitled toi £3 303,357! 
 
 without its being compulsory to h'ld any gold in 
 
 ' allowed to 
 i hat amount ; and their actual issue is 31 
 
 hundredths I I \Jostoftl have branch- 
 
 two thai ing each about 100 be 
 
 and bu! branches. 1 ' 
 
 £21,000 to .'.'1,01)0,000; and there are as < reat dif- 
 ; in the numbers of their partners. The 
 of the ! I Ion are 
 
 about £-10,000,000. All of them allow interest on, 
 deposits. 
 
 1'ii —Of these, 
 
 are 312, of w 7 are in London. Of the 
 
 I banks, 151 have a fixed authorised issue 
 
 of £1.10 1,035, which cannot be exceeded. The 
 
 actual issue is about a million less. 
 
 In the case of all these banks, whether issuing 
 
 or non i sir profits are chiefly derived from 
 
 its. As already men! ii w [ . 
 
 the issues of tho 1 issessing the privilege 
 
 are small compared with thi a 
 
 There are lents of 
 
 IS colonial, Indian, and forei 10k banks. 
 
 "t. — The earliest banking institu- 
 tion in North Britain was the Bank of Scotland, 
 instituted by a charter of incorporation from the 
 parliament in 1(J'J5. The original capital was 
 £1,200,000 Scots, or £100,000 sterling. The 
 amount was raised by shares differing in extent^ 
 from £1000 Scots, or •-' 13, 6 , 8 I 1 terling, to £20,000 
 Scots. In 1774, the amount of stock was extended 
 lo ,12110,011:1 . ow it is £1,000,000 sterling, 
 
 and the shop 
 
 of Scotland continued to be the only 
 bank in the country till the year 1727. when a new 
 and similar establishment was constituted under 
 the title of the Royal Bank of Scotland, whose 
 advanced capital is now £2,000,000. In 1746, 
 another association was formed, and incorporated, 
 by royal charter, with the title of the British 
 Linen Company. The object of this association 
 was at first to encourage the linen manufacture 
 of Scotland, but gradually it fell into the course 
 'non banking business. From £100,000, its 
 capital has increased to £1,000,000. There arc other 
 joint-stock banks, with capitals varying from 
 £1,000,000 to £60,000. There are now no private 
 banks. The amount of deposits is understood to be 
 about 50 millions, ou which interest is allowed. Their 
 1 sue of notes is £2,749,271, but their 
 actual issue is between £1,000,000 and £2,000,000 
 more. The Western Bank, with a capital o£ 
 £1,500,000, a circulation of above £400,000, having 
 1300sli 1 00 branches, suspended 
 
 i i ;. holders, however, being 
 
 under unlimited liability, neither the depositors nor 
 the note-holders sustained any loss. The solvency 
 of the shareholders, as a body, being undoubted, the 
 other bonks at once paid off the Western Bank 
 deposits, and redeemed its notes, by wliich they 
 became its creditors at a remimerating rate of 
 t. Another Scot h ment, called the 
 
 argh and Glasgow Bank, had about the same 
 time to wind up its affairs, with the entire loss of 
 its capital. Both cases of stoppage arose from a
 
 bank, banking— bank-notes. 
 
 recklessly profuse system of discounting bills. In 
 il and Ireland, the creditors of bankrupt banks 
 I .Morally found great difficulty in 
 even a dividend on thi Is and not 
 
 in Scotland, the loss on such occasions has fallen 
 entirely on the shareho] in the case of the 
 
 rn Bank In consequence of allowing in! 
 on deposits, the banks in Scotland may tie said to 
 held the whole capital of the country, minus only 
 file money passing from hand tp hand. Thiswide- 
 spread system of depositing is greatly aided by the 
 establishment of branches from the parent-banks; 
 and these branches are found in every small town In 
 the kingdom. The entire number of branch-banks 
 in Scotland, in 1859, was 683, besides some sub- 
 branehes. At these branch-banks, the agent (usually 
 a respectable person in business) discounts bills 
 within certain limits, issues letters of credit, and 
 pays out notes, and also gives cash on demand for 
 th. in -, though, strictly, the notes of a bank are only 
 payable on demand at the head-office. By a strict 
 system of supervision, Scottish branch-banks are 
 usually well conducted, and are of great service in 
 every department of trade. For one thin_% they 
 have powerfully contributed to extinguish but 
 and highway robbery, as no one thinks of keeping 
 money, except to a trilling amount, cither in his 
 house or about his person. At all the great fairs, 
 bankers attend to receive deposits, and to pay 
 cheques. Forgeries of Scottish bank-notes are now 
 unknown. 
 
 The banks in Scotland, like the banks in Ireland, 
 but unlike the provincial banks in England, are 
 allowed to issue notes beyond their fixed issues, 
 on holding gold equal in amount to the extra issue. 
 But as the gold thus retained is, like the other 
 gold in reserve, liable for all the deposits, as well 
 as for the whole circulation of a bank, if it should 
 fail, the security of the establishment is increased 
 only in a small degree by this arrangement, which, 
 apart from the loss of profit to the bank on the 
 gold unemployed, is attended with inconvenience at 
 those seasons when the circulation is extended. In 
 Scotland, and Ireland also, banks can issue one- 
 pound notes; the English banks are not permitted 
 to circulate notes of less value than £5. 
 
 Besides employing money in discounting bills, 
 the Scottish banks grant loans of fluctuating 
 amount, called cash-accounts or cash ,- ,//' ... By a 
 cash-account is signified a process whereby an 
 individual is entitled to draw out sums as required, 
 to a stipulated amount, and by an implied condition 
 to make deposits at his convenience towards the 
 liquidation of the Bame. On entering into this 
 arrangement, he finds security to the hank that 
 lie will repay to the bank, whenever called on, 
 the balance of sums drawn out, less those paid in, 
 with the interest, that may be due. These accounts 
 are balanced j early like eurr b or depi ti t 
 The only difference between the latter and a cash- 
 account on the face of them is, that if the credit 
 allowed on the cash-account is b 
 the balance is in favour of the hank ; when 
 the other kind of accounts, the balance is in favour 
 «.i the hank's customi r. 
 Hanks in Ireland. 1 
 banks, having 172 branches. Their autl 
 issue is £6,354,494; the actual issue is a little 
 suinetiines above, ana sometimj below thai amount. 
 Of the authorised issue, £3,738,428 is that of the 
 Bant of Ireland. It is a national bank, 1 
 £2,630,700 n lal to gin It was 
 
 established in 1783, with privil cabling those 
 
 of the Bank of England. Its capital is about 
 JB2,800,000, and its rest £1,043,076. It allows no 
 interest on deposits. The capitals of the other 
 
 hanks vary from £125,000 to £500,00(1. I 
 
 uing hanks. There are also live private 
 linns in Dublin. 
 
 fori tffn and Colonial Banks. — On the continent of 
 Europe, there are both national or incorporated banks 
 and private hanks. The national hanks are, to a 
 greater or less extent, government establi omenta, 
 managing the public debt and finances, and, unlike 
 the Bank of England, subject to government influ- 
 ence or interference. In India and the British 
 colonics, there are joint-stock banks and private 
 ". The joint-stock hank i of Australia, though 
 in their infancy, are becoming establishments of 
 itude. The United States of America are 
 run with hanks. Insufficient capital, reckless 
 management, and the smallncss of the reserve kept, 
 b ii quently led to the suspension of paj 
 of these banks. In lS-JT. even the solvent hanks 
 suspended payments in self-defence, when all the 
 gave way. As a means of seeming the 
 note-holders, the law in some states requir 
 hanks to deposit with the state government securi- 
 ties against the notes issued. At all times, th" 
 number of forgeries of bank-notes in the United 
 States is very considerable, and great caution requires 
 to be exercised in accepting notes as payment. 
 
 BANK-NOTES, Manufacture of. The chief 
 object in the manufacture of B. is to rendi I 'fo i 
 impossible, or at least easy of detection. This is 
 sought to be effected by peculiarity of paper, 
 design, and printing, or by a combination of these 
 means, as is done by the Bank of England, and 
 by other banks in America and elsewhere. Si 
 l'APER-MAKIXi:. The chief reliance, however, has 
 been on mechanical design— that the impi 
 should be such as to make the genuine note 
 readily distinguishable by the public for its high 
 art, and to the hank officials by secret peculiari- 
 ties in its execution. Thus, the writing, the 
 emblems, and the ornaments are so com' 
 as to render forgery difficult. The ink, too, is 
 peculiar (sec Ink- making), being the blackest and 
 most indelible of inks. As a further security a 
 
 ry, a si if-registering machine was contrived by 
 the Messrs Oldham, engineers to the Bank of 
 England, and each note was impressed with a dis- 
 tinctive mark known only to the hank author- 
 
 Copperplate printing was the only printing in use 
 for hank-notes till 1837, when one of the great 
 
 icnts was made in practical engraving which 
 the history of the arts has to record. TI 
 
 production of designs by the mill and die, by 
 ire, as invented by Messrs Perkins 
 and Heath, for bank-note printing, and which was 
 afterwards attended with such extraordinary results, 
 as applied to calico-printing, as were all but fabu- 
 lous—creating a new order of means, with a rate 
 of production and style of patterns unappi I 
 able by hand-action. The principle of thi 
 invention is simply this : the pattern 
 on a soft steel plate, which is then hardened, to 
 transfer the pattern by pressure to a soft steel 
 roller, on which, of course, the pattern is pr 
 
 f. The roller or mill is then hardened, to 
 n produce the pattern in the plate from which the 
 
 printing is to be done, and thus almost any number 
 
 of plates for all common purposes can easily be 
 
 ■>1. 
 
 m of sidero tinned in i 
 
 ad i:ll 1865, 
 when electrotype-printing was introduced by .Mr 
 Smce, the Burgeon of the Bank, with th 
 of the mechanical officials (see El 1 1 i Ron pnra] ; 
 
 .ui.i nice that t; the notes of the Bank of 
 
 D all produced by surface-printing 
 by the elect i
 
 BA N K RUPTCY— BANKSIA. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY. See Insolvency. 
 
 RANKS, in Navigation, arc elevations of the 
 bottom of the sea; when tolerably smooth at the 
 top, they constitute shallows, shoals, and flats ; bat 
 when rocky, they become reefs, . L'ilots 
 
 ami captains of ships require to be intimately 
 acquainted with the B. along their route ; and 
 a chart, if properly prepared, always defines them 
 by means of small dots, if sands, I I crosses, 
 
 if rocky. In war time, small vessels often escape 
 capture by running into shallows where 
 vessels dare not follow them. The Newfoui 
 and the Bahama II. are well-known examples of 
 this kind of sea-bottom. 
 
 BANKS LAND, an island in the Arctic Ocean, 
 
 70 mdes to the south-west of Melville Island. It 
 is intersected by the parallel of 74° N., and by the 
 meridian of 110' W. 
 
 BANKS, Savincs'. See Savings' Banks. 
 
 BANKS, Sir Joseph, a zealous naturalist, was 
 bom, according to some accounts, at Revesby Abb y , 
 in Lincolnshire, according to others, in London, in 
 January 1743, and died June 19, 1820. Be was 
 descended from a family of Swedish origin, which 
 had been settled in England for about 200 years. 
 To this family belongs also John Banks, who 
 made his name known a? a writer of tr, 
 in the latter half of the 17th c. B. was educated at 
 Eton and Oxford. In 1763 he made a voyage to 
 Newfoundland and Labrador, collecting plants ; and 
 from 1708 to 1771, he sailed with Cook round the 
 world in the capacity of naturalist, and wrote the 
 botanical descriptions for the first voyages. In the 
 year 1772 he visited the Hebrides and Iceland, 
 whence he brought back a rich treasure of speci- 
 iiv OS for his studies in natural history. Before this 
 voyage, Staffa was hardly known beyond its imme- 
 diate vicinity. It was carefully examined by B., 
 and through him its wonders were made known 
 to the public. In 1777, he was elected President of 
 Eli iyal Society, an office which he held for 42 
 years ; and in 17S1 he was created a baronet. He 
 deserves particular credit for founding and managing 
 the African Association ; and the colony of Bi itany 
 Bay owed its origin mainly to him. Through his 
 efforts, the bread-fruit tree was transferred from 
 Otaheite to the West Indies, and the mango from 
 Bengal, as well as many of the fruits of Ceylon and 
 Many naturalists and travellers— Blumen- 
 thal, Hornemann, Burckhardt, Mango Park, and 
 others, were indebted to him for zealous and disin- 
 terested assistance in their labours. During the 
 French war, B. did much to alleviate the suffer- 
 ings of all captive men of science, and used his 
 influence with government to procure the restora- 
 tion of their papers. Cuvier, in his iloge on him 
 before the French Academy of Science, states that 
 no less than ten times had collections, captured by 
 the English, been restored to the Jardin du Roi at 
 Paris through the instrumentality of B. No man of 
 science appealed to him in vain for pecuniary assist- 
 ance ; and his splendid library of natural history 
 was at the service of those wdio desired to consult it. 
 With the exception of articles in magazines, and 
 contributions to the publications of learned socie- 
 ties, especially to the Pli'dosophical Transactions, B. 
 has written notliing but two small works — A Short 
 Account of the Causes of the Diseases in Com mild 
 Blight, Mild . m ' Rust, which was printed for his 
 friends in 1S03, and for the public in 1S05 ; and 
 Circumstances Relative to Merino Sherp (London, 
 1809). He left a valuable library, of which an excel- 
 lent catalogue was made by has friend Dryander; 
 and a rich collection of specimens in natural history, 
 both of which he bequeathed to the British Museum. 
 
 BANKS, Thomas, an eminent English sculptor, 
 born in Lambeth in December 1736. o. was appren- 
 ticed to a landscape gardener and architect, but he 
 soon abandoned these practical arts for the more 
 imaginative one of sculpture. In 1770, B. was a 
 successfid candidate for the gold prize of the 
 Royal Academy, established two years before. In 
 1 77-, with an allowance of £60 a year from the 
 Academy for three years, he went I study 
 
 the master-pieces of art there. After a residi ace at 
 several yean in Rome, daring which he ex] 
 two of his tinest works, ' Caractacu before 
 
 Claudius,' and 'Psyche and the Butterfly,' ana '■ 
 gained much fame but little profit, he returned to 
 England. Here his refined imaginative sly I 
 
 little appreciated in comparison with the popular but 
 
 inferior performances of some of In omries ; 
 
 and after two years, he went to Russia, where he 
 was well received by the Empress Catharine, who 
 purchased his Psyche, and gave him a commission 
 for a group called 'Armed Neutrality.' Having 
 executed this, he returned to England, where he 
 completed perhaps his tinest work, 'The Mourning 
 .' now in the British Institution. B. now 
 received several commissions, and was electa 1 a 
 member of the loyal Academy. The monuments 
 of Sir Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey, o 
 Captains Burgess and 'Westeott in St Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, were among bis last works. He died February 
 2, 1805. It was in purely imaginative works that B. 
 most excelled ; in practical subjects, his introduction 
 of the ideal was incongruous and inartistic, render- 
 ■m far less valuable than those of some of his 
 i ival ■. 
 
 BA'NKSIA, a genus of 
 Australian shrubs of the 
 natural order Proteacco: (q. v.), 
 named in honour of Sir Joseph 
 Ranks. A few of the species 
 become small trees. They 
 have hard dry leaves, gene- 
 rally white or very pale 
 gn a beneath, and present a 
 remarkable appearance from 
 the umbellate arrangement of 
 their branches, which bear 
 
 towards their extremit: 
 
 long heads of very numerous 
 flowers. The flowers secrete 
 much honey. Some of the 
 species are now frequent ornaments of green- 
 houses in Britain. They are abundaut in all parts 
 
 
 Eanksia littoralis 
 in tlower. 
 
 Fruit and Leaf of Banksia, 
 
 of Australia, forming, indeed, a characteristic feature 
 of its vegetation, and are called Honeysuckle trees. 

 
 BANN— BANNER. 
 
 B. yrandia, found at Swan River, exceeds all the 
 rest of the genua in size, attaining a height of 50 
 feet. 
 
 BANN, the name of two riven to the north-east 
 of Ireland ; the one, the Upper B., flowing into, and 
 the other, the Lower B., out of Loch Neagh. The 
 i B. rises on the north side of the Mourno 
 Mountains, to the south of Downshire, and runs 
 25 miks north-north-west tlirough the counties of 
 Down and Armagh, successively in a granite, Silurian, 
 trap, and tertiary basin, into the south side of 
 Lough Neagh. It passes Banbridge, Gilford, and 
 Portadown. At the latter place the Newry Canal 
 joins it. The Lower B., strictly the continuation of 
 the Upper, issues from the north-west corner of 
 Lough Neagh, and tlows 40 miles north-north-west, 
 through Lough Beg, and dividing the counties 
 of Antrim and Londonderry. It runs past Port- 
 glenoue and Coleraine, into the Atlantic Ocean 4 
 miles south-west of Portrush. One mile above 
 Coleraine it falls over a ledge of rock 13 feet high. 
 It bears the surplus waters of Lough Neagh to the 
 ocean, and has important salmon and eel-fisheries. 
 Vessels of 200 tons can reach Coleraine by the river, 
 4 miles from the ocean. 
 
 BANNATYNE CLUB, a literary club deriving 
 its name from George Bannatyne, to whose industry 
 we are indebted for the preservation of much of the 
 Scottish poetiy of the 15th and lGth centuries. The 
 J'.. C. was instituted in Edinburgh in 1823 by Sir 
 Walter Scott, with the assistance chiefly of Mr David 
 Laing of the Signet Library, Mr Archibald Con- 
 stable, and Mr Thomas Thomson. The object of the 
 institution was to print rare works illustrative of 
 Scottish history, topography, poetry, miscellaneous 
 literature, &c, in a uniform and handsome manner, 
 either at the expense of the club, or as the contribu- 
 tions of individual members. As a general rule-, the 
 number of copies of each work printed was limited 
 to the number required for distribution among 
 members, but in some instances a few were printed 
 for sale. The club originally consisted of 31 mem- 
 bers only, who paid an annual contribution of live 
 guineas ; but owing to the anxiety of many eminent 
 men to become members, the number was gradually 
 extended to 100, where it was definitively fixed, the 
 same annual payment being still required. Its I 
 first president was Sir Walter Scott, and its first 
 secretary Mr David Laing, who still continues to 
 bhe duties of the office. The club had 
 anmi:d meetings to December, which were of a very 
 convivial character, so far as can be judged from 
 an account of their first meeting published to 
 the Edinburgh L tfc of February 1824— 
 
 afterwards reprinted by the club itself — which 
 suggestively says that the Bannatyne Garland, 
 No. 1, a song composed by one of the members, was 
 sung 'to the tune of Four Boltles more.' 
 meetings, however, have, within recent years, been 
 given up; and the club itself, which, in 1859, 
 cumbered about eighty memb . was to be dis- 
 solved in a few months. Since its commen 
 it has numbered among its members many of the 
 most distinguished Scotsmen, and has printed more 
 
 than a hundred quarto works, besides several octavo 
 ones, some valuable as they are rare, aud all bring- 
 ing high prices at sales. 
 
 BA'NNER, a piece of cloth attached to a pole, 
 and usually bearing BOme warlike or heraldic device, 
 or national emblem. In this sense B. is a generic 
 term, including many species, such as standard, 
 ensign, pennon, flag, JtC. Banners have been used 
 from the earliest times, and in all countries, for the 
 purpose of directing the movements of troops. We 
 read of them constantly to the Old Testament, as in 
 
 Numbers ii. 2, ' Every man of the children of 
 Israel shall camp by his standard, and under the 
 
 i if his father's house.' The earliest Roman 
 standard was a bundle of straw fixed to the top of 
 a spear. This was succeeded by figures of animals 
 — the horse, the boar, &c, all of which soon gave 
 place t< i which continued all along to be 
 
 the chief Roman ensign, and was afterwards assumed 
 by the German, and latterly by the French emperors 
 of the Napoleon dynasty. In addition to the eagle, 
 each Roman cohort had a B., generally a serpent or 
 
 woven on a square piece of cloth. The 
 standard of the cavalry was a square piece of cloth 
 expanded on a cross, and it was to this that the term 
 vexillum properly applied. Examples of these stand- 
 ards are sculptured on the Arch of Constantine at 
 
 Km., ..la from the Arch of Constantino. 
 
 Rome. The top of the staff was also frcqi 
 adorned with a figure of Mars or of Victory, and in 
 later times, with the head of the reigning emperor. 
 After Constantine embraced Christianity, the Cross 
 was substituted for the head of the emperor on the 
 purple B. of Byzantium. Standards were less in uso 
 amongst the Greeks than has been usual with war- 
 like nations ; but a standard, and sometimes a scarlet 
 Hag, was employed as a signal for giving battle. On 
 the rise of Chivalry, in the middle ages, the or. 
 of banners, like every other branch of military 
 organisation, attained "to something like scientific 
 exactitude. From the B.-rnyal, which bore the 
 national emblems, to the small .streamer attached to 
 the lance, with its cross or stripes, there was a 
 regular subordination, each emblem having its place 
 and its meaning. The pennon of the simple knight 
 
 1 from the square P.. of the banneret (q. v.). 
 ill I., in p itoti 1 at the ends. In addition to their 
 varieties m i, and colour, these banners 
 
 wero distingui bed by the emblems which they 
 bore. Ono'of the earliest is the Danish raven, 
 depicted on th.' standard taken by Alfred, of which 
 
 mentions the tradition, that ' to .very 1 
 wherever that flag want he. ' they [tho 
 
 Danes] ■ o on tin- victory, a live crow would 
 
 appear flying on the middle .if the flag ; but if they 
 were doomed to I 1, it Would hang down 
 
 motionless.' Nor did the privilege of carrying 
 banners belong to princes and knights alone, 
 bishops and abbots displayed similar ensigns, which 
 were carried before them in religious j 
 
 671
 
 BANS EI! ET— BANNS. 
 
 and under which their retainers fought in their 
 defence. It was to these that the term 'Gonfalon,' 
 a word as to the origin of which much di\< 
 
 commonly applied. In 
 place of the emblems of the knight, the B. 
 
 of the Chorda, and of t audi usually 
 
 bore the effigies of Bairn . . '■■■ 
 
 displayed do ensigns whatever, and were known 
 simply by their colour. Of this the 01 or plain 
 
 ruddy flag "f St Denis, was a famous example. The 
 celebrated Bayeux Tapestry (q. v.) throws consider- 
 able light on banners, as well as on other matters con- 
 c (i,, | with the warlike arrangements of the middle 
 Much curious information on this and kindred 
 subjects will be found in Hewitfs I Armour 
 
 and Weapons in Europe. By every warlike ] pie 
 
 the B. has been regarded as the emblem of d 
 honour, as a palladium for the defence of which the 
 individual warrior was at all times ready to sacrifice 
 his life. From the converse of this feeling, b 
 and flags taken from the enemy have alwaj 
 regarded as special trophies of victory, and places 
 of honour in churches and public buildings have 
 consequently been assigned them. As to the Eta 
 borne by the ships of different nations, and the 
 arrangements concerning them in peace and war, sec 
 Flag; as to colours of regiment rs. 
 
 The relation which banners bear to other kinds 
 of flags, in their forms and uses will be explained 
 undi c Colours, Regimental; Ensign; Flag: Pen- 
 dant; &c 
 
 Banm r displai/i d, is the term used by heralds to 
 describe a 13. open and flying. 
 
 BA'NXEBET, a higher grade of knighthood 
 
 rred by the sovereign tor some heroic act 
 
 performed in the field, and so called because the 
 
 tin of the knight was then exchanged for the 
 tanner — a proceeding which was effected by the 
 very simple means of rending the points from the 
 pennon. The first B. iu England is said by Froissart 
 to have been made by King Edward I., and the 
 last time the honour was conferred was by Charles 
 I. after the battle of Edgeliill, the recipient being an 
 individual who rejoiced iu the familiar nai 
 John Smith. The ceremony of the creation of a 
 Knight-B. must have been very impressive to 
 pel ons tilled with the ideas which were prevalent 
 in the ages of chivalry. The king, or his general, 
 at the head of his army, drawn up in order of 
 battle after a victory, under the royal standard 
 displayed, attended by all the officers and nobility 
 of the court, received the B. elect, who was not 
 necessarily a knight previously, led between two 
 its of note, or other men fane mis in arms, 
 carrying his pennon in his hand, the heralds walk- 
 ing before him and proclaiming his valiant achieve- 
 ments, for which he deserved to be made a Knight- 
 B., and to display his banner in the field. The king, 
 or general, then said to him : ' Advance, Banneret ! ' 
 (AdvaTi Banneret), and caused the point of 
 
 his pennon to be torn off. The new knight, with 
 the trumpeters sounding before him, and the nobi- 
 lity and officers bearing him company, was sent 
 back to his tent, where a noble entertainment was 
 provided by the king. Seine attempts have been 
 made to revive the title in recent tunes, as when 
 George IU., at a review of the navy at Portsmouth 
 in 177'!. conferred it on Admiral Pye and several 
 other officers. 
 
 BA'NNOCK, a cake of home-mile bread, com- 
 mon in the country parts of Scotland, but now less 
 so than formerly. It is usually composed oi 
 meal or of pease and barley meal mixed; prepared 
 without any leaven, it is baked on a circular plate 
 of iron, called a girdle. When made of mixed 
 
 meal, it is called a maahlum bannock ' Bannocks of 
 
 meal' form ■ of a popular Scottish 
 
 A superior bind of I'... culled a Selkirk B., 
 
 Ero i the place where it is made, resembles the 
 
 liner and 1 bter species of tea-cakes prepared by 
 
 rd&is from the( 
 
 west of Scotland, it is pronounced bunnock. 
 
 'Here is an amusing fairy-talc called 77 Story of 
 
 the Wee (little) Bunnock. The B. is doubt!. 
 
 it antiquity, being, in fact, the primitive cake, 
 only varied in material, of every country. 
 
 BA'NNOCKBLTRN, a villa e in the ea 
 
 Stirlingshire, I es* south-south-east of Stir- 
 
 ling, on the Bannock rivulet, which falls, a few 
 miles below this, into the Forth, Near this was 
 fought the great battle of B. on Monday, 24th 
 1314. Robert Bruce, with 30,000 S i t< a, 
 a signal victory over Edward II., with 100,000 
 English, and secured his throne and the independ- 
 • ice of Scotland. The English are said to have 
 10,000, and the Scotch 8000 men. The 'Boro 
 Stone,' on which Bruce is said to have fixed his 
 standard on that eventful day, is still to be seen 
 on an eminence near the sci ae of the fight. On 
 the south-east of the field of B., at Sauchie Burn, 
 James III. was defeateil in 14SS by his rebellious 
 subjects, and assassinated after the battle iu a mill 
 where lie had taken refuge. B. is now an important 
 seat of the woollen manufactures, especially those 
 of tartans and carpets. Jt has long supplied the 
 tartan worn by the Highland regiments. Tanning 
 is carried on to some extent, and the neighbouring 
 
 1 for the manufacture of 
 Pop. 2627. 
 
 BANNS, or BANS, in the law of England, means 
 a proclamation, or public notification, or summons, 
 in which general sac. however, it may be said to 
 have become obsolete. It is now chiefly, if not 
 solely, used in the publication of intended marriages, 
 as to which, see next article. 
 
 BANNS or BANS OF MA'RRIAGE This] 
 of three alternative preliminary forms now essential 
 to the legal Celebration of marriage in England. The 
 other two are marriage by licence, and marriage 
 by a registrar's certificate. B. of M., like many 
 of our ecclesiastics Ions, has its origin in 
 
 the ancient practice of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 which our reformers wisely refrained from abi 
 ing. By the publication of these B. is meant the 
 legal proclamation or notification within the parish, 
 district, or chapelry, and in the proper church or 
 chapel, of the names and descriptions of the pi 
 
 wdio intend to be there married; tl bject I 
 
 the notoriety of the solemn act, so that all who have 
 objections to the marriage may be enabled to state 
 them in time. According to the old English i 
 law, the publication of B. might be made on 
 but a change was made to Sundays by the £ t 
 important Marriage Act, the 26 Geo. II. c. 3.'J; and 
 although that act was afterwards superseded by 
 the 4 Geo. IV. c. 76, the regulation as to Sundays 
 has been since continued. The latter act is still 
 the principal subsisting statute on the subject of 
 marriage B., although it has lie 1 and 
 
 extended by the 6 and 7 WilL IV. c. 85, the 1 Vic. 
 c. 22, the 3 and -1 Vie. c. 72, auel the 19 and 20 Vic-, 
 c. 1 1 0. The law, as contained in these acts of 
 parliament, is as follows : By the 4 Geo. IV. c. 7G, 
 s. 2, it is enacted that all B. of matrimony shall 
 be published in an audible manner, according to the 
 prefixed to the marriage-sendee in the Bool: 
 of Common Prayer, upon three Sundays preci 
 the ceremony, during the time of morning-s. 
 or of evening-service (if on the day of publication 
 there shall be no morning-service) immediately after
 
 BANQUETTE -BANTAM FOWL. 
 
 the second lesson. The rubric referred to is in 
 the following terms : ' I publish the banns of 
 
 marriage between M. of and N. of . If 
 
 any of you know cause or just impediment why 
 these persons should not be joined together in holy 
 matrimony, ye are to declare it. This is the first 
 [second, or third] time of asking.' By the 22d 
 section of the same act, all marriages celel 
 without such publication of B., or without licence 
 (or now, under the C and 7 Will. IV. c. 85, s. 42, 
 without a Registrar's certificate), are declan d to be 
 null and void. By the 26th section of the last- 
 mentioned act, the bishop, with consent of the 
 patron and incumbent, may license chapels for the 
 celebration of marriages in populous places; and by 
 the 33d section of the 1 Vic. c. 22, B. may be pub- 
 lished in such chapels. By section 9 of the -1 
 Geo. IV. c. 76, it is provided, that if the marriage 
 be not celebrated within three months after pub- 
 lication of B., the marriage shall not take mace 
 until the B. shall have been republished on three 
 several Sundays, unless it be a marriage by licence, 
 or now, by certificate, which two latter alternatives, 
 however, must also be availed of within the three 
 months. It only remains to be added on the law, 
 as contained in these marriage acts, that by section 
 8 of the last of them, the 19 and 20 Vic. c. 119, it 
 is provided, that in every case in which one of the 
 parties intending marriage without licence shall 
 dwell in Scotland, a certificate of proclamation of 
 B. in Scotland, under the hands of the session-clerk 
 of the parish in which such proclamation shall have 
 been made, shall, when produced to any person 
 duly authorised under the provisions of this act 
 to solemnise a marriage, be as valid and effectual 
 for authorising such person to solemnise such 
 marriage as the production of a certiiicate for 
 marriage of a superintendent registrar of a district 
 in England would be, in reference to a party 
 it within such district. 
 
 The purpose of the law is to secure public know- 
 ledge of intended marriages, and therefore, althouj : 
 the 4 Geo. IV., following in this respect the 26 
 Geo. II., declares that marriages shall be void 
 without publication of B. (where, of course, that 
 is the chosen preliminary), it is not necessary that 
 such publication should be made in the real baptismal 
 names of both or either of the parties ; it is sufficient 
 that the B. be published in the names by which 
 the parties are known, or either of them. Nay, it 
 even appears that where the baptismal names have 
 been discovered, having been previously concealed 
 OT unknown, it is better, if not necessary, that publi- 
 cation should be made in the names by which the 
 parties are familiarly known in the district, by 
 which, indeed, they may be said to be known to 
 the world. There are numerous cases decided in 
 England from which such doctrine necessarily fol- 
 lows. In one of these cases, Lord Chief-justice 
 Ellenborough, the highest judicial authority that 
 could be named, stated, in giving judgment: 'The 
 object of the act is to secure notoriety, to apprise 
 all persons of the intention of the parties to contract 
 marriage ; and how can that be better attained 
 than by publication in the names by which parties 
 are known ? I think that the act only meant 
 publication by known and acknowledged names.' 
 It has also he, D decided, that a fraudulent know- 
 ledge of a wrong name in the publication of B. will 
 not void the marriage, unless the fraud should be 
 on both side.-!. 
 
 In Scotland. B. have the same Roman Catholic 
 origin as in England. Indeed. Mr Erskine, one of 
 tip most authoritative Scotch legal writers, gives it 
 as Ins opinion, that the Scotch borrowed the practice 
 from the decrees of the Council of Trent; but a 
 
 recent able writer (see Frasers Domestic Relations, 
 vol. i. p. 113) considers this opinion erroneous, and 
 shews that B. were first sanctioned in Scotland 
 by councils which were held in that country long 
 of the Council of Trent. After the 
 Reformation in Scotland, tin practice of proclaimine 
 B., as the phrase is in that country, was continued. 
 They are described in the Scotch Act 1661, c. 34, 
 ' ;us a part of the laudable order and constitution of 
 the kirk ;' and they have since been mentioned in 
 various acts of parliament applicable to Scotland, 
 9 the 10 Anne, c. 7, and the 4 and 5 Will. IV. 
 c. 28. By the first of these acts, the privi! 
 publicly celebrating marriage was extended to the 
 Scotch Kpisi-upnltaii clergy, but with a proviso that 
 the B. should be duly published tliree Lord's Days, 
 not only in the Episcopal churches which the parties 
 frequent, but also in the parish church or churches. 
 Should the parish minister, however, neglect or 
 refuse to publish the B. of such parties, the act 
 declares that it shall be sufficient to do so in any 
 Episcopal congregation alone. The 4 Will. IV. c. 
 28, puts other dissenting bodies in Scotland in the 
 Bame position as the Episcopal Church there ; but 
 there is this little difference, that publication of the 
 B. of such dissenters is required to be made in the 
 parish church alone. There is one other regulation 
 of the Scotch law on this subject which is deserving 
 of notice for popular information — namely, that 
 when both of the parties have their domicile (q. v.) 
 within Scotland, and enter into marriage in England 
 or Ireland, they must have their B. proclaimed in 
 the parish church of their domicile in Scotland, 
 otherwise they are liable to the penalties of clan- 
 destine marriage. Such is the express enactment of 
 the Scotch statute 1661, c. 34. 
 
 The Scotch law differs from the English in regard 
 to the effect of non-publication of bums. In 
 England, as we have seen, the consequence is to 
 render the marriage absolutely void. In Scotland, 
 however, marriage, without proclamation of B., is 
 valid ; but in such case the parties, celebrator, and 
 witnesses are liable in the above penalties. See 
 Marriage Licence, Si>ecial Licence, Ro 
 Certificate. 
 
 BANQUETTE, in Fortification, is a raised ledge 
 or step inside the parapet of a rampart, of such a 
 height that musketeers, when standing on it, may 
 be able to fire over the crest of the parapet with- 
 out too much exposure to the enemy. It is about 
 4 feet wide, and 4 or 4f feet below the crest. The 
 musketeers ascend to it from the rampart cither 
 by a few steps or by a sloping path. 
 
 BANTA'M, a seaport, now decayed, in a district 
 of the same name, which forms the west end of 
 .lava. It is 4(1 miles to the west of Batavia. being 
 in lat. 6° 2' S.. and long. 106° 11' E. It was foe 
 by the Dutch in 1602, being their i iblish- 
 
 ment in the island. The district contains 362.242 
 inhabitants. 
 
 BA'NTAM FOWL, a well known variety of the 
 common Domestic Fowl (q. v.), originally brought 
 from the East Indies, and supposed to derive its 
 name from Bantam, in Java. It is remarkable for 
 small size, being only about a pound in weight, and 
 for a disposition more courageous and pugnacious 
 than even that of a game-cock. A bantam-cock will 
 drive to a respectful distance great dunghill-cocks 
 five times its weight, and has been describ 
 ' a beautiful example of a great soul in a little body.' 
 Tlere arc several subvarieties of the bantam. Most 
 of them ha\ much feathered. The flesh 
 
 and eggs are g lod, although the eggs are of course 
 small ; and the bantam lavs well in winter. 
 
 673
 
 BANTENO— BAHIOM ET. 
 
 BANTEXG (Bos Banleng or B. Bondman), a 
 
 • of 0« (q. v.), a native of Java an. 1 I 
 which, in. colour, shape, horns, ami want of d 
 bears some resemblance to tin' Qm (q. v.) of India, 
 ' hut in the skeleton of the gaur, the sacrum con- 
 of 5 vertebra, and the tail of 10, while in 
 tin' skeleton of the 1'.., the sacrum consists of bu( 
 4 vertebra?, and the tail of 18.' The B. is black, 
 with white hair is short ami sleek, i 
 
 limbs slender. The muzzle is sharp. The 
 rises into a high arch immediately behind the > 
 The B. inhabits forests, ami has been generally 
 described as untamable, but this opinion rests 
 on no satisfactory authority. 
 
 BA'STKY, a seaport town in the south-west of 
 Cork county, Ireland, in a cove opposite Whidd 
 at the head of B. Bay, and 44 miles west-south-wi it 
 of Cork. The two chief streets converge i 
 open space towards the sea, and mountains, '.Ki.'! fet 
 rise behind the town. The chief trade is thi 
 export of agricidtural produce. A little ashing is 
 carried on. In last century, there was an extensive 
 pilchard-fishery here ; but the pilchard has now 
 deserted the coast. Many tourists resort to B. in 
 summer. Pop. between 2IHHI ami 3000. 
 
 BA'NTRY BAY, a deep inlet in the south-west 
 extremity of Ireland, between Crow Point and Sheep's 
 Head Point, in Cork county. It is 25 miles long, 
 running east-north-east, with a breadth of 3 to 5 
 miles. It is one of the finest harbours in Europe, 
 alfording safe and commoiUous anchorage for ships 
 of all sizes. Near the entrance on the north side is 
 a line large sheltered harbour, formed by Bear 
 Island, with a safe passage on both sides. At the 
 head of the bay are two harbours : the one to the 
 south, or the landlocked roadstead of B. harbour, 
 is formed by Whiddy Isle, opposite B. town; the 
 other to the north, or Glengariff harbour, is also 
 sheltered by an island, but is small, and narrow at 
 the entrance. The coast around B. B. is rocky and 
 high, consisting of Devonian strata, and exhibiting 
 some of the finest scenery in the kingdom. On the 
 north side, 17 miles west of B. town, is tie 
 cataract of Hungry Hill, where three lakes, at the 
 heights of 1011, 1126, and 13G0 feet above the sea, 
 discharge their waters, by almost continuous c:e 
 into Adrigoole Creek Near the opening of B. B. a 
 skirmish took place, in 168ft between a small 
 b fleet under Admiral Herbert (afterwards 
 Lord Torrington), and the French fleet, which con- 
 veyed James IL to Kinsale. Several ships of the 
 French invading expedition under General Hoche 
 anchored here in 1796. 
 
 BANX'RING (Tupaia), a genus of insectivorous 
 quadrupeds, remarkably differing from the other 
 insectivora (q. v.) in their habits, as they din 
 trees with the agility of lemurs or squirrels. They 
 are also remarkable for their very elongated muzzle. 
 They have soft glistening fur, and a long bushy tail. 
 The few species known are all natives of the Indian 
 archipelago. 
 
 BA'NYA (Xf.oay), or NEU'STADT, a town of 
 Hungary, province Szathmar, with a royal mint, and 
 productive mines of gold and silver. Pop. 5500. 
 
 BANYAN, or BATTCAN (Ficus Indica), a tree, 
 native of India, remarkable for its vast rooting 
 branches. It is a species of Fie (q. v.) ; has ovate, 
 heart-shaped, entire leaves, about live or six inches 
 long ; and produces a fruit of a rich scarlet colour, 
 not larger than a cherry, growing in pairs from the 
 axils of the leaves. The branches send shoots down- 
 wards, which, when they have rooted, become stems, 
 the tree in this manner spreading over a great sur- 
 face, and enduring for many ages. One nas been 
 described as having no fewer than 350 stems, equal 
 
 to Urge oaks, and more than 3000 s; 
 covering a space sufficient to contain 7000 persons. 
 The branches aro visually covered with monkeys, 
 ind enormous bat . The m 
 
 the fruit and leaves. The vegetation of the B. 
 i ins on the ground. The seeds are 
 ed by birds in the crowns of palms, and send 
 down roots which embrace and eventually kill tho 
 palm. As the B. gets old, it breaks up into separate 
 masses, the original trunk decaying, and the props 
 becoming separate trunks of the different portions. 
 The wood of the B. is light, porous, and of no value. 
 The bark is regarded by the Hindoo physicians as 
 a powerful tonic, and is administered in diabetes. 
 The white glutinous juice is used to relieve tooth- 
 ache, and also as ion to the soles of the 
 Eeet when inflamed. Bird-lime is also made from it. 
 Gum-lac is obtained in abundance from the B.-tree. 
 The B.-tree is beautifully described by Southey in 
 his poem The Curse of Keltama. 
 
 BANYULS-SUR-MER, a town of France in 
 the Pyrenees Orientates, with a fishing-port on the 
 Mediterranean. The celebrated wines of Grenache 
 and liancio are produced in this district. Near the 
 town are four old towers, one of which marks tho 
 division between France and Spain. B. was the 
 immediate scene of many encounters between tho 
 French republicans and the Spaniards during the 
 first French Revolution. Pop. (1872) -2227. 
 
 BANYUWA'NGY, or BANJO UVA-NGY, an 
 important and populous seaport town and military 
 post belonging to the Dutch, on the cast coast of 
 Java, capital of district of same name. 
 
 BA'OBAB. See Adansonta. 
 
 BAPAUME, a fortified town of France, depart- 
 ment of Pas-de-Calais. A portion of the allied 
 troops advanced to tliis place after compelling the 
 French to abandon their fortified position, and to 
 retreat behind the Scarpe, in August 1793. Pop. 2S64. 
 
 BA'PHOMET is the name of a mysterious 
 symbol, which was in use among the Templars. 
 According to the oldest and most probable inter- 
 pretation, the word is a corruption of Mahomet, 
 to whose faith the members of the order were 
 accused of having a leaning. The symbol consisted 
 of a small human figure cut out of stone, having 
 two heads, male and female, with the rest of the 
 body purely feminine. It wa3 environed with 
 serpents, and astronomical attributes, and furnished 
 with inscriptions for tho most part in Arabic. 
 S[>ecimens are to be found in the archaeological 
 collections of Vienna and Weimar. Hammer, 
 however, in his Fundgruben des Orients, derives 
 B. from Gr. baphi, baptism; and metis, council or
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 wisdom. He charges the knigbta with a depraved 
 Gnosticism, and makes the word signify the baptism 
 of wisdom — the baptism of fire; in short, the 
 Gnostic baptism — a species of spiritual illumination, 
 which, however, was interpreted sensually by later 
 I cs, such as the Ophites (an Egyptian sect 
 
 of the 11th a), to whose licentious practices he 
 declares them to have, been addicted. But this 
 explanation is generally discredited. 
 
 BA'PTISM (Gr. baplo, to dip or wash, or to stain 
 with a liquid), one of the sacraments (q. v.) of the 
 ' tn Church, deriving its name from the 
 
 outward rite of washing with water, which forms 
 ential part of it. B. is almost universally 
 1 d il among Christians as a sacrament, 
 and is referred to the authority of Christ himself, 
 whose express commandment is recorded in the 
 
 Is (Mat. xxviii. 19; Mark xvi. 16). B. is 
 frequently mentioned in the New Testament as 
 a divine ordinance. 
 
 The name and the rite were not, however, 
 
 i her new when the ordinance was instituted 
 by Christ. Religious meanings were early attached 
 to washings with water, both by heathens and 
 Jews ; they were among the ordinances of the 
 Jewish law ; and it is not necessary to go beyond 
 that law to find the origin of the custom of wash- 
 ing or baptising proselytes upon their admission 
 into the Jewish Church. Washing with water 
 was requisite for the removal of ceremonial un- 
 cleanness, and every proselyte must have been 
 
 ted as, prior to his admission into the Jewish 
 i, ceremonially unclean. John the 1; 
 baptised not proselytes upon their renouncing 
 heathenism and entering the Jewish Church, but 
 those who, by birth and descent, were members 
 of it, to indicate the necessity of a purification 
 of the soul from sin — a spiritual, and not a mere 
 outward change. 
 
 One of the most important of the controversies 
 which have agitated the Christian Church as to 
 Bl, is that concerning the proper subjects of B., 
 whether adults only who profess faith in Christ 
 are to be baptised, or if this ordinance is to be 
 administered to their infants also. See Baptists, 
 and Baptism, Infant. The B. of adults was cer- 
 tainly more frequent in the apostolic age than it has 
 ordinarily been where the B. of infants has pre- 
 v.iii 1 ; for which an obvious cause presents itself in 
 the fact, that the first members of churches were 
 converts from Judaism or from heathenism. It 
 is, however, generally held by those who advocate 
 the B. of infants, that it was the practice of the 
 apostles and of the church of the apostolic age to 
 baptise the infants of Christians; which, on the 
 other hand, is as stoutly denied, and infant B. 
 is alleged to have crept in along with other corrup- 
 tions. For neither opinion can any positive histori- 
 cal proof be adduced, the arguments on both sides 
 being purely inferential. 
 
 It is admitted, on all hands, that at an early 
 period in the history of the church, B. was 
 administered to infants, although, according to 
 
 ler, even after 'it had been set forth as an 
 apostolic institution, its introduction into the 
 general practice of the church was but slow.' He 
 finds ' the first trace ' of it in Irenseus. It was 
 opposed by Tertullian about the end of the '2d c. ; 
 and was advocated by Cyprian, and acknowledged 
 as an apostolic institution in the North African 
 Church and in the Alexandrian and Syro- Persian 
 Churches in the 3d c. ; but it was not until the 
 5th c. that it became fully established as the 
 general practice of the Christian Church. It has 
 unquestionably continued to be the general practice 
 from that period to the present day ; feebly 
 
 opposed by some of the sects of the middle ages, 
 and more rigorously by some of those who have 
 adopted the general principles of the Reformation. 
 
 h the practice of infant B., and the neglect 
 of it in the early ages of the church, were con- 
 nected with particular views of religious doctrine, 
 and of the nature and purpose of B. itself. The 
 prevalence of the Augustinmn doctrine of original 
 sin is generally regarded as a principal cause of the 
 nee of infant B. ; but Pelagius, whilst oppos- 
 ing that doctrine, maintained the necessity of infant 
 B., apparently upon the ground that the kingdom 
 of heaven can be attained by human beings only 
 through God's •rice. No little influence in favour 
 of infant B. must be ascribed to the growing belief 
 of the absolute necessity of B. to salvation, and 
 of a sort of mysterious efficacy in the rite itself. 
 It is certain, on the other hand, that the 
 in the forgiveness of sins in B. led to a practice 
 of deferring it as long as possible, that all sins 
 might be blotted out at once ; thus the Emperor 
 Constantine the Great was baptised only a short 
 time before hi3 death. The approach of a war 
 or pestilence caused many to rush forward in ba.,tc 
 to be baptised, who had previously delayed. 
 
 Two modes of B. are practised by immersion or 
 dipping, and by aspersion or sprinkling, concerning 
 winch there has been much controversy in the early 
 period of the church's history, as well as in recent 
 times. Affusion, or pouring, the common practice 
 of the Church of Rome, may be regarded as essen- 
 tially the same with sprinkling. The advocates of 
 sprinkling universally admit the validity of B. 
 administered in the other mode, but the advocates 
 of dipping generally refuse to acknowledge that B. 
 by sprinkling can be true Christian baptism. The 
 opponents of infant B., almost without exception, 
 insist upon immersion ; whilst aspersion or affusion 
 of water is general, except in the Eastern ebm 
 wherever the B. of infants prevails. The argument 
 upon which Baptists depend most of all is from the 
 word B., and the verb baplho, to baptise, which 
 also, in classic Greek, signifies to immerse. On the 
 other side, it is contended that a strict limita- 
 tion to this sense does not well accord with its 
 character as a 'frequentative' form of baplo . 
 instances are I from the New Testament 
 
 itself, in which this signification cannot easily 
 be attached either to the noun or to the vci 
 1 Cor. x. 2, where Paid says that the Isr 
 were 'baptised unto Moses in the cloud and in 
 the sea;' ami Heb. ix. 10. Mark vii. 4, and 
 xi. 38, where both verb and noim are employed 
 concerning the tcashings of the Jews, and the noun 
 even of their washing of 'cups, and pots, brazen 
 
 . and of tables.' — To the argument in favour 
 of immersion, derived from the phrases eni] il 
 when B. is mentioned in Scripture, as when we are 
 told (Mat. iii. G) that John the Baptist baptised 'in 
 Jordan,' that our Lord after his B. (Mat. iii. 10) ' went 
 up out of the water,' that Philip and the Ethiopian 
 eunuch (Acts viii. .'IS) 'went down both into the 
 water ; ' it is replied that all the passages of this 
 description, even if their meaning were certainly 
 as precise and full as Baptists suppose it to be, are 
 insufficient to sustain the weight of the conclusion 
 as to the necessity of a particular mode of B. ; that, 
 however, it is far from being clear that these 
 passages must be interpret. ,1 or the meaning of the 
 prepositions so strictly defined as the argu- 
 ment requires; and further, that there are in>; 
 mentioned in Scripture which afford a presumptive 
 argument in favour of another mode of i 
 where we ar rest numbers added to the 
 
 church in one day; whilst we have nowhere any
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 intimation of converts being led to any pond or 
 river to I* baptised. To the argument drawn 
 from the language of Paul in Bom. vi. 4, Col. ii. 12 
 (see Baptists), it is replied that it depends upon a 
 fanciful interpretation of these texts. — Ace 
 to most of tl»- advocates of P>. by sprinkling, the 
 great error of their opponents is that of at I 
 too much importance to the question of the mode of 
 baptism. 
 
 It is, however, indisputable that in the primitive 
 church the ordinary mode of li. was by immersion, 
 in order to which Baptisteries (q.v.) began to be 
 erected in tho .'id, perhaps in the 2d c, and 
 the sexes were usually baptised apart. But B. 
 was administered to sick persons by sprinkling; 
 although doubts as to the complete efficacy of tins 
 (sick) B. were evidently prevalent in the 
 time of Cyprian (middle' of 3d c). 1!. by sprinkling 
 gradually Became more prevalent; but the dispute 
 e hi in i | the mode of P.. became one of the irre- 
 concilable differences between the Eastern ail 
 Western Churches, the former generally adhering to 
 the practice of immersion, whilst the latter adopted 
 mere pouring of water on the head, or sprinkling 
 on the face, which practice has generally ]n< 
 since the 13th c. ; but not universally, for it was 
 the ordinary practice in England before the lU'forma- 
 tion to immerse infants, and the funis (q. v.) in the 
 churches were made large enough for this purpose. 
 This continued also to be the practice till the reign 
 of Elizabeth ; and the change which then took place 
 is ascribed to the English divines who had sought 
 refuge in Geneva, and other places of the continent, 
 during the reign of Mary. To this day the rubric of 
 the I 'hurch of England requires, that if the godfathers 
 and godmothers ' shall certify him that the child 
 may well endure it,' the officiating priest 'shall dip 
 it in the water discreetly and warily ; ' and it is 
 only 'if they shall certify that the child is weak,' 
 that 'it shall suffice to pour water upon it,' which, 
 however, or sprinkling, is now the ordinary practice. 
 
 B. was accompanied, from an early period in the 
 history of the church, with various forms and cere- 
 monies, besides the simple rite of washing with 
 water and the pronouncing of the fornuda which 
 declares it to be 'in the name of the Father, and of 
 the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.' These ceremonies 
 are almost all retained in the Church of Borne, 
 and also generally in the oriental churches, but 
 have been entirely or almost entirely laid aside by 
 Protestants. The Church of England retains the sign 
 of the cross made upon the forehead alter B., but the 
 other Protestant churches in Britain reject it. It 
 was an ancient custom that the riilir/iunu-iis, as can- 
 didates for B. were called whilst receiving instruction 
 with a view to that sacrament, when they were to 
 be baptised, publicly made a profession of their faith 
 and a renunciation of the devil and all his works. 
 The profession of faith is still retained by Protestant 
 churches as the formal ground of the administration 
 of B. ; the renunciation of the devil and bis works 
 is required by the Church of England of the person 
 baptised, if an adult, or of the sponsors or ' sureties ' 
 of a child.— Sponsors (q. v.) were early admitted to 
 answer for those who could not answer for them- 
 selves, and particularly for infants. The belief in 
 the absolute necessity of B. to salvation led even 
 to B. of the dead among the Montanists (q.v.) in 
 Africa, in which sponsorship was also introduced. 
 Presbyterian and Independent churches generally 
 reject all sponsorship, and regard the profession 
 made by parents as simply a profession of their 
 own faith, which entitles their infants to baptism. 
 The ancient practice of exorcism (q. v.) imme- 
 diately before B. has been rejected as superstitious 
 by almost all Protestant churches ; as have also 
 676 
 
 that of immersing tliree times (trine immersion), 
 
 or sprinkling three times, with reference to the 
 three persons of the Godhead — that of brei 
 upon the baptised person, 'to signify th • I ipuls OH 
 of the devil,' and to symbolise the gift of the Holy 
 .Spirit — that of anointing with oil ., v.), to 
 
 symbolise the same gift, or to indicate that the 
 baptised person is ready, as a wrestler in the ancient 
 , to light the good light of faith — that of 
 giving him milk and honey, in token of his spiritual 
 youth, and of his reception of spiritual gifts and 
 graces — that of putting a little salt into bis mouth, 
 to signify the wisdom and taste for heavenly this 
 prop r to a Christian— that of touching his nostrils 
 and ears with spittle, to signify that his ear; are to 
 be ever open to truth, and that he should ever feel 
 the sweet odour of truth and virtue— and that of 
 clothing him after B. with a white robe (the chry- 
 tome), in token of the innocence of sold which by 
 B. he was supposed to have acquired. The white 
 robe and the anointing with oil were retained in 
 the Church of England for a short time after the 
 Reformation. — The giving of a name in B. (see 
 Names, Baptismal) is no essential part of it, but 
 is a custom apparently derived from that of the 
 Jews in circumcision (Luke i. 59— G3). — The Church 
 of Rome prefers the use of holy- water (q.v.) in B., 
 but regards any water as fit for the purpose in i 
 necessity. — According to an ancient usage, long obso- 
 lete, the ordinary administration of B. was limited to 
 the two great festivals of Easter and Whitsuntide. — 
 Whether B. may In red in private, has been 
 
 much debated, both in ancient and modern times. 
 The administration of B. in private houses, and not in 
 the presence of a congregation, was one of the i I 
 earnestly contended against by the Presbyterians in 
 Scotland in the first half of the 17th c. ; their oppo- 
 sition being grounded, not only upon hostility to 
 what they deemed usurpation of authority, but upon 
 the danger of superstitious views of baptism. And 
 apparently upon this latter ground, B. in private 
 houses is also discouraged, even while it is allowed, 
 if there is ' great cause and necessity,' by the Church 
 of England; yet it has become very frequent both in 
 1 1 1. I hurch of England and among the Presbyterians 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Some of the most important questions concerning 
 B. will be most appropriately noticed in the article 
 ment, particularly those relating to its place 
 in the Christian system and among the means of 
 grace. The opinions early became prevalent, that 
 forgiveness of sins is obtained in B., and spiritual 
 life begun, and that it is indispensably necessary 
 to salvation — exception being only made, if any was 
 made at all, of the case of believers, adult persons, 
 who desiring B.,Were prevented from being baptised, 
 
 and particularly of those who suffered martyrdom, 
 which was generally held to be equivalent to bap- 
 tism. The Church of Rome still owns, as supplying 
 the place of B. by water, these two — B. by d 
 and J!, by blood — i. e., in martyrdom. According 
 to the general doctrine of the Protestant churches, 
 B. is 'a sign and seal' of the covenant of gj ■■■, 
 representing as a sign the blessings of the covenant, 
 and as a seal, confirming the covenant. As a sign, 
 it is generally held to represent in its rite of 
 washing, the removal both of guilt and corruption, 
 by the ljlood and by the Spirit of Clirist, and so to 
 relate equally to pardon and regeneration, although 
 some have limited its symbolic reference to regener- 
 ation alone. One of the most important points 
 disputed concerning B., is that of baptismal regener- 
 ation. See Regeneration. 
 
 Some early Christian sects appear to have rejected 
 B., ou grounds somewhat simUar to those on which 
 it is rejected by Quakers (q.v.) at the present day,
 
 BAPTISM— BAPTISTERY. 
 
 who explain the passages which relate to it symboli- 
 i ritual I'., is tli" only real 
 
 B. of Christians, The Socinians (oyv.) si 
 modern times have maintained that B. is not an 
 ordinance of permanent obligation, but a merely 
 symbolical rite of little importance. 
 
 Much controversy has taken place concerning Ley 
 ..;. Wherever there is a recognised ministry in 
 the church, there is a general agreement in referrin" 
 the ordinary administration of B. to those who hold 
 office. It might be expected that the more 
 strongly the necessity of the transmission of holy 
 orders by apostolical succession is asserted, the more 
 strongly also would ezclnsiveness be manifested with 
 regard to the right of the der<)y to administer B. liut 
 this tendency is counteracted by the belief in the 
 necessity of B., or at least of its great importance to 
 I he tlvation of infants; so that from an early period 
 lay B. was allowed, although not without a struggle, 
 in im .11 :ipprehenileil danger; and in the Church 
 of Borne, this principle is logically carried out to 
 the fullest extent, and even women are authorised 
 to administer B. in cases of necessity, tin the 
 same ground, lay B. was at first permitted in the 
 Protestant Church of England ; but the prevalence 
 of other views led to a kind of formal restriction of 
 the right of administering it to 'lawful mini 
 although in practice the validity of lay B. is still 
 generally recognised. 
 
 Another question much agitated in the church 
 from early times, is that concerning the validity of 
 B. by heretics. The opinion ultimately prevailed, 
 that B. by heretics is valid, except in the case of 
 those who do not baptise in the name of the three 
 Persons of the Godhead. This continues to be the 
 almost universal opinion. Few Protestant theolo- 
 gians hesitate to acknowledge the validity of B. 
 administered in the Church of Rome. 
 
 The B. of Mis is a custom supposed to have been 
 introduced about the 10th ft, and still retained in 
 the Church of Rome. The term benediction is 
 sometime! substituted for I!.; but the rite itself 
 is very similar to that of B., and is accompanied 
 with many similar ceremonies — 'a sort of exorcism,' 
 sprinkling with holy-water, anointing ' with the 
 oil of catechumens ' and ' with chrism,' a formula of 
 consecration 'in the name of the Father, Son, and 
 Holy Ghost,' and sometimes also, if not always, the 
 giving of a name to the bell consecrated, and even 
 a kind of sponsorsliip as by godfathers and god- 
 mothers in baptism. This custom has no doubt 
 greatly fostered the notion of an efficacy in the 
 ringing of bells for protection in storms, and Car 
 other benefits; indeed.it is expressly avowed that 
 ' the bells arc blessed, to turn off storms and tempests 
 from the faithful.' 
 
 BAPTISM, INFANT. The chief arguments in 
 favour of infant B. are based upon the proposition 
 that the church is one throughout all changes of 
 dispensation. From this it is argued that as infants 
 were, so they still must be included in the visible 
 church. It is maintained that in all covenants 
 which God has made with men, their children have 
 been included; that the covenant with Abraham 
 was a renewed revelation of the covenant of grace, 
 lli temporal promises made to him being connected 
 with the greatest spiritual promises; that circum- 
 cision was a seal of the covenant with respect to 
 these, in which the children of Christians have the 
 same interest that Jewish children had; and that 
 B. is a seal of the covenant now as circumcision 
 was. the things to which it has immediate reference 
 i also blessings which children are capable of. 
 
 It is contended that the arguments in favour of 
 infant salvation derive additional strength from 
 that view of the place of infants in the church 
 
 according to which they are entitled to baptism. 
 ; issages which connect B. with faith are 
 I ively relating to adults, like the 
 
 passages which connect salvation with faith and 
 repentance. In reply to the argument that there 
 is no express command for infant B., it is argued 
 that the state of the case rather demands of 
 who oppose it the production of an express command 
 against it, without which the general command must 
 be held to include it ; the words and actions of our 
 Saviour (Mark x. 14) with respect to children are 
 quoted as confirming the opinion that the place of 
 infants in the church is precisely what it was under 
 the Jewish dispensation; and it is contended that it 
 would have been a very great restriction of pi i , 
 in the new dispensation if infants had been ex. 
 from a place which they held before, as entitled to 
 a seal of the covenant, whereas it is evident that 
 the new dispensation is characterised not by restric- 
 tion I nit by enlargement of privilege. — Those who 
 hold the doctrine of infant B. are styled Pa-do- 
 baptists. 
 
 The Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches 
 regard the B. of infants as admitting them mi i 
 the church, and making them members of Christ's 
 body. The Reformed (q. v.) Churches hold that the 
 children of Christians are included in the visible 
 church from their birth, and therefore entitled to 
 baptism. These are the natural starting-points of 
 very different systems. 
 
 BA'PTISTERY (Gr. baptisterion, a large vase or 
 basin), the name given sometimes to a separate 
 building, sometimes to the portion of the church 
 itself in which the ceremony of baptism was per- 
 formed. In the latter case, the B. was merely the 
 enclosure containing the font, to be seen in most 
 English churches. According to the earlier arrange- 
 ments of the Christian Church, however, the B. 
 seems usually to have been a building standing 
 
 Section and Plan of Baptistery at A ti. 
 
 detached from, though in the immediate vicinity 
 of the church to which it appertained. Baptisteries, 
 at first, were either hexagonal or octagonal, but 
 afterwards became polygonal, and even circular. 
 The B. of St Giovanni in Fonte, at Rome, commonly 
 know n as the B. of ( 'onstantine, is octagonal, whilst 
 the church of St Constantia, which was originally a 
 B., is circular. 
 
 The celebrated B. of Florence is an octagonal 
 structure, measuring about one hundred feet in 
 diameter. It stands detached from, but in the 
 immediate vicinity of the cathedral. It is built 
 of black and white marble, in the style which 
 Giotto is said to have introduced, and which is 
 still peculiar to Florence. Internally, a gallery, 
 which runs nearly round the whole building, is 
 supported by sixteen large granite columns, and 
 the vaulted roof is decorated with mosaics by 
 Andrea Tali, the pupil of Cimabue. Rut the magni- 
 ficent Irene dei.is. with their beautiful bas-reliefs, 
 are the most remarkable feature of this famous 
 baptistery. The most celebrated of the three doers 
 was executed by Lorenzo Ghiberti, the earliest being 
 
 6? 7
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 ' . i idrea of 1'isa. Fifty years were 
 required for their completion; audit is remarkable 
 that the i fca for their execution are still pre- 
 
 L Next in importance, and of even 
 I the B. of l'isa. It is circular in form, the 
 ter measuring 11G feet. Externally, it is 
 1 into three stories, the two under ones being 
 surrounded by columns, of which the upper are 
 smaller and more numerous than the under. The 
 buildim; is raised from the ground on three 
 and terminates in a pear-shaped dome, which is 
 famous for its echo, the side. whispering- 
 
 galleries. The largest B. ever el 
 to hive been that of St Sophia, at Constantinople, 
 
 which IS as to h:i\ on one 
 
 occasion for the residence of the Emperor Basibcus. 
 
 BAPTISTS (sometimes called AiUipcedol 
 as opposed to Pa who advocate 
 
 Infant Baptism*). This denomination of Christians 
 refuse to acknowledge any great name OS founder of 
 their sect. They trace their origin to the primitive 
 church itself, and refer to the Acts of the Apostles 
 and their Epistles as affording in their opinion, 
 incontestable evidence that their leading tenet- had 
 the sanction of inspiration. When Christianity 
 became corrupted by the rise o£ Antichrist, they 
 point to the maintenance of their scripture practice 
 : tbe C'athari and Alhigenscs and other sects 
 of the middle ages, who, in the midst of surrounding 
 darkness, continued to hold fast the apostolic 
 testimony. They sprung into notice in England 
 under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. They were 
 persecuted under both reigns, but tbey received 
 freedom to meet for worship from James II.. and 
 com] ill is liberty under William III. Ever 
 
 since, they have diffused their principles extensively 
 in ( treat Britain and North America ; many of their 
 XS have done good service to the cause of 
 science and literature, and, both as preachers and 
 writers, have taken a position of eminence in 
 society. 
 
 The B. hold the plenary inspiration and supreme 
 authority of the Holy Scriptures as a revelation 
 from < rod ; the equal deity of the Son and the Holy 
 Spirit in the unity of the ever blessed Trinity. But, 
 as a condensed view of opinions cannot be e >. | 
 in this work, it may be as well to state that the 
 denomination are distinguished by almost all the 
 Bhades of belief which exist in other bodies. They 
 have among them Calvinists both hyper and 
 moderate, also high and low Arminians, di\ 
 off in every variety of shade from a common centre. 
 The great body of them in Britain and America 
 hold the doctrine of Calvinism in a modified form; 
 that is to say, they maintain the sufficiency of the 
 Atonement for all men, the limitation for which 
 some have pleaded, they consider, lies in its a 
 tion to the sinner by the sovereign grace of God 
 through faith. They maintain the nece 
 regeneration and holiness of life as essential to true 
 religion, and that 'without holiness no man shall 
 see the Lord ; ' and their conduct, in general, will bear 
 a ci mparison with any class of their co-religionists. 
 
 /• B., so called because holding that 
 Christ died for an elect number, and i 
 B., who maintain that he died for all men, consti- 
 tute the two hading sects into which the body 
 is divided. English B., in their church order and 
 government, are the same as Congregationahsts, the 
 
 * The Baptists of Great Britain and America reject the name 
 
 of Anabaptists, as expressing only an accidental oircni 
 
 of their tenets— viz., the rebaptisinp; of converts from other 
 
 sects, who happen to have been baptised in infancy, and also as 
 
 iting them with the scandals of the German An i 
 
 "f the lGth c., from whom they claim to be hist 
 
 From the same feeltnff, the modern sect in Germany 
 and Upland style themselves Taufgesiunte. 
 67S 
 
 J baptism excepted. Scotch B., properly so 
 
 I on a plurality of pastors in every 
 church, and the exercise of mutual exhortation by 
 the members in their public assemblies. There ate 
 Baptist churches in England, however, who are 
 Scotcli in their order, and English B. in Scotland 
 who are English in theirs. Seventh-day B., we 
 believe, are to be found almost wholly in America, 
 who observe not the first day of the week, but the 
 seventh, as a day of rest. There are, besides these 
 peat divisions, various small associations of B. 
 scattered over Great Britain, America, and the 
 continent of Europe, whose opinions cannot be 
 gathered up into systematic arrangement, and who 
 wotdd not approve of being identified with any of 
 I arian designations here set down. 
 
 The particular tenet which characterises B. 
 among their fellow-Christians is, that baptism is an 
 ordinance the validity of which depends on an intel- 
 bgeut faith on the part of the recipient. Their 
 views on the matter of baptism may !• 
 two beads — the subjects and mode of baptism. The 
 subjects of the baptismal rite they hold to be 
 bebevers in the Lord Jesus Christ. They ground 
 their faith in this matter on the following 
 tions — namely: 1st, The Lord in his commission 
 to his apostles associates teaching with baptism, 
 and limits the administration of the rite to Me 
 taught 2d, The Acts of the Apostles shews how 
 I they understood their Master, for they b 
 none but bebevers, or such as appeared to be so. 
 3d, That the kingdom of Christ as it appears in 
 this world is restricted to credibly converted per- 
 sons, as is shewn in bis discourse with Nicodemus : 
 ' Except a man be born again, he cannot see the 
 kingdom of God;' and his subsequent statements 
 on to the hour when be emitted his memorable con- 
 fession before Pilate, 'My kingdom is not of this 
 World,' unif ormly proves that its subjects an i 
 tutes form a distinct and separate community from 
 the Jewish theocracy, which embraced parents and 
 en in nonage in one common weal th. 4th, They 
 maintain that the ordinance, as explained in the New 
 Testament, always point i to a moral and spiritual 
 change, apart from which it were indeed a meaning- 
 less ceremony. 
 
 As respects the mode, the B. hold that only 
 immersion in water is baptism. They argue, that 
 the original term baptizo conveys this meaning, and 
 no other; that nothing less can possibly answer to 
 the apostle's explanation in Korn. vi. 4, 5, and CoL 
 ii. 12, ' buried with him in baptism, wherein also yo 
 are risen with him;' that the many allusions in 
 the epistles to the churches manifestly bear out 
 this interpretation ; and, finally, that the fact of 
 John baptising at a spot selected for the purpose 
 ' because there was muclt water there,' is perfectly 
 conclusive. 
 
 Their form of church-government is congregational. 
 They maintain that the only order of officers 
 remaining to tbe church, since inspiration ceased, 
 are pastors (otherwise called elders and bishops), 
 deacons, and evangelists ; that the number of official 
 persons in each of the apostolic churches cannot be 
 ascertained from the record, but must of necessity 
 have depended — and always must depend — on cir- 
 cumstances ; that each church is possessed of the 
 power of self-government under its exalted head, 
 Jesus Christ, subject to no foreign tribunal or court 
 of review ; that discipline is to be exercised by the 
 rulers in presence, and with the consent of all the 
 members, and parties received or excluded at then- 
 voice. 
 
 The B. are divided among themselves regarding 
 communion — one portion receiving conscientious 
 1'a.dobaptists to the Lord's table and membership ;
 
 BAR— BARAGCAY D'HILLIERS. 
 
 the other refusing this privilege to any but Baptists. 
 The churches of the former are called open com- 
 munionists; the latter, strict coram 
 
 Next to the Moravians, the B. were earliest in the 
 field of missions. They have been honour d ' I 
 plant Christian churches in many parts of conti- 
 nental India, in Ceylon, in the Bahamas, th 
 Indies, Africa, and China. No mission hand has arisen 
 in any denomination, within the century, who have 
 the agents of the Baptist Missionary 
 Society in ardent zeal, patient perseverance, and 
 invincible fortitude, in carrying out their Lord's 
 eommission to preach the gospel to every creature. 
 The names of Carey, Marshman, Ward, and Knibb 
 will be had in grateful remembrance by all succeeding 
 generations ; and their footsteps are now being trod 
 by a long list of Christian missionaries of all evan- 
 gelical persuasions, who are ' the messengers of the 
 churches and the glory of Christ.' 
 
 This section of the Christian church was probably 
 less zealous than their brethren, at one time, in pre- 
 paring their ministers for their work by a sound 
 course of study in theology and general literature; 
 but this reproach has been long rolled away. They 
 have schools of learning inferior to none for training 
 young men of piety for pastoral duties, presided 
 over by men of great ability. At Bristol, Bradford, 
 Regent's Park (London), Pontypool, Haverf <■: 
 and Nottingham, there exist seminaries of learning 
 which are entitled to give certificates qualifying for 
 matriculation at the university of London ; and 
 many of the students have already taken degrees 
 and honours there. 
 
 In 1870, the B. of the United States had 17,745 
 
 churches, and 1,410,493 members. In 1872, the B. 
 
 gland had 4013 churches and chapels, and 
 
 <. 1072 churches, and 
 
 '■ members; in Scotland, 216 church' 
 
 members; in Ireland, 77 churches, and 1492 
 
 jii ambers; in Canada, 74,22') members; in the West 
 
 Indies, 23,990 ; in Germany, &c, 19,393. 
 
 BAR is any elongated piece of wood, metal, or 
 other solid substance. In the iron manufacture, B. 
 is a rod either round or square shafted. The round 
 axe made by drawing the iron red-hot through 
 a bore or hole in a plate, and the square ones by 
 passing it likewise red-hot through a roller-mill 
 between two rollers counter-grooved, with their 
 triangular-grooved faces forming the square opening 
 fur the passage of the iron. BaUway and knee iron 
 are made in the same manner. See Iron Manu- 
 facture. 
 
 BAR, in Ilydrography, is a bank opposite the 
 mouth of a river which obstructs or bars the 
 entrance of vessels. The B. is formed where the 
 rush of the stream is arrested by the water of the 
 sea, as the mud and sand suspended in the river- 
 water are thus allowed to be deposited. It is thus 
 that deltas are formed at the mouths of rivers. The 
 navigation of many streams (as the Danube) is kept 
 open only by constant dredging or other artificial 
 means. 
 
 BAR, in Music, is a line drawn across the stave, 
 to divide the music into small portions of equal 
 duration ; each of these small portions is itself called 
 
 BAR, or BARB, in Heraldry, one of those more 
 important figures or charges in heraldry which are 
 known as ordinaries. By the heralds of this coun- 
 try, the ordinaries, or, as, by way of eminence, they 
 are called, the 'honourable ordinaries,' are com- 
 monly reckoned as ten in number, the sub-ord!- 
 naries, or minor cl 
 
 ous. The B., like the Fess (q. v.), is formed by two 
 horizontal lines passing over the shield, but it differs 
 
 Bar. 
 
 from it in size, the fess occupying a third, the B. 
 only a fifth part of the shield. There is this fur- 
 ther difference between these two 
 ordinaries, that the fess is confined to 
 the centre, while the B. may be borne 
 in several parts of the shield. There 
 is a diminutive of the B. called the 
 Closet, which is half a B. ; and ae;ain 
 of the closet, called the Bamilet, 
 which is half a closet, or the fourth 
 part of a bar. — Bar-cemel i3 a double bar, from 
 the French jumeau, f.jumelle, a twin. 
 
 BAR, in Law. This word has several legal mean- 
 ings ; thus, it is the term used to signify an enclosure 
 or fixed place in a court of justice where lawyers 
 may plead, or perhaps more correctly, where they 
 can address their advocacy on behalf of their clients. 
 A veded-off space within the Houses of Parliament 
 is similarly called the B. See Pleading. The 
 dock, or enclosed space where persons accused of 
 felonies and other offences stand or sit during 
 their trial, is also called the B. ; hence the to 
 sion, ' prisoner at the bar.' This word is likewise 
 applied to the gate or rail thrown across a turn- 
 pike road for the levying of the toll-duties. It 
 has also a general meaning in legal procedure, 
 signifying something by way of stoppage or preven- 
 tion. There is also a trial at B., that is, a trial 
 before the judges of a particular court, who sit 
 r for that purpose in banc (q. v.). See the 
 following articles : Bar op Dower, Pleas in Bar, 
 Trial at Bar, Tollbar, Felony, Treason, Barris- 
 ters, Advocates. 
 
 BAR OF DOWER. Dower, the estate or provi- 
 sion which, by the law of England, a widow is entitled 
 to out of the lands and tenements of her deceased 
 husband, may be barred or defeated by her elope- 
 ment, her divorce on the ground of her own adul- 
 tery, the treason of her husband, and other disabili- 
 ties, and by detaining the title-deeds or evidences of 
 the estate from the heir untd she restores them. A 
 woman might also, while fines and recoveries were 
 in force, be barred by these assurances, as she now 
 may by the new method of conveyance appointed by 
 the statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 74, in substitution 
 for a fine or recovery, in the case of a married 
 woman. And another method of barring dower is 
 by jointure, as retaliated by the statute 27 Henry 
 VUI. c. 10.— Stephen's Commentaries, vol. L i 
 See Dower, Jointi i:e. Widow, Fines and RECO- 
 VERIES, and COMMON AssUBANCt 
 
 The term corresponding to Dower in Scotch law is 
 Tbrcb (q. v.), which may also be barred or excluded 
 in various ways ; as, for instance, by the widow's 
 express discharge or renunciation, by the deeds of 
 the husband affecting his real estate, by the hus- 
 band's conviction for treason, by the wife's express 
 acceptance of a different provision in lieu of the 
 terce, and by her divorce on the ground of adultery. 
 
 BAR, Pleas in. See Pleading and Pleas in 
 Bab. 
 
 BAR, Toll. See Toll. 
 
 BAR, Trial at. See Trial at Bar. 
 
 BARABA', a st |'|e of Siberia, extending between 
 
 ■ re Obe and Irtish, and occupying more than 
 
 100,000 square miles, and CO salt lakes 
 
 and marshes. It was colonised by the Russians 
 
 . . who have since cultivated parts of it. 
 
 B.VRACO'A, a seaport town on the north-east 
 the Spaniards. Lat. 
 N. long. . In its vicinity is a 
 
 remarkable mountain called the Anvil of Baracoa. 
 
 BARAGTJAY MHII.LIERS. LOOTS, a distin- 
 guished general of the French empire, was born in 
 
 679
 
 BARAGUA Y D'HILLIERS— BARBARA. 
 
 Paris in 1764. After serving under I 
 
 meat in the army 
 of Italy from Napoleon, and was a sharer In ail 
 
 the success of f ;ns of 1796—7. He 
 
 was made a general of division; and in vn. 
 Napoleon's treaty with the Venetian Repub 
 May 10, 1797, commandant of Venice. I'., accom- 
 panied the expedition to Egypt; and afterwards 
 successively held appointments in the anni 
 the Rhine, and the Tyrol, and in Catalonia. He 
 headed a division in the Russian campaign of 1S12; 
 but on the r treat) he incurred the displeasure of 
 Napoleon. He was sent as governor to Berlin, 
 where he soon after died of grief and exhaustion. 
 
 BARAGUAY D'HILLIERS, Annua:, a I 
 general, the son of the preceding, was bom in : 
 on the Cth of .September 1795. He rose rapidly 
 through the inferior military grades, and obi I 
 
 in 1S32, the appointment of governor in the military 
 school of St Cyr, when da republican 
 
 conspiracy that threatened to break out 
 institution. After he had served with various 
 success in more than one campaign is Algeria, he 
 was promoted to the rank of heutenant-geni r.d. on 
 the 6th of August 1S43; and in 1S47, he wa 
 inspector-general of infantry. After the re \ o 
 of February 1848, he was chosen a member of the 
 National Assembly, in which he joined the party 
 of reaction, and was in favour of the restriction of 
 the press. In the beginning of November 1849, he 
 went to Rome, as commander-in-chief of the Fn ach 
 army sent to sustain the authority of the pope. 
 He returned in 1850; and in January 1S51 obtained 
 the command of the army of Paris, in the place 
 of Changarnier. B. concurred iu the policy of 
 the coup d'ilat of December 1S51, and was made 
 a member of the Consultative Commission. During 
 the Crimean war, he received the command of the 
 French expeditionary corps of the Baltic, and Co 
 operated with the British fleet in the capl 
 Bomarsund. He was afterwards made a Marshal 
 of France, and commanded in the. Italian war of 
 1S59 with distinction. In Oct. 1871, he was made 
 president of the Court of Inquiry appointed to in- 
 vestigate the conduct of the French generals who 
 surrendered fortified places during the Tate war. 
 
 BA'RAS KHOTU'N, or BARS K HOT A X, a 
 ruined city on the banks of the Kherlon, o i o 
 the head-streams of the Amur, in the Moi 
 country. Some suppose it to have been built by 
 the Emperor Kublai; others, that it was erected 
 by Toghon Timnr in the 14th e., after the expulsion 
 of the Mongols from China. The remains of the 
 mud-walls shew that the city had been 5 miles 
 in circumference. 
 
 BARB, the designation of a noble breed of horses 
 cultivated by the Moors of Barbary, and introduced 
 by them into Spain. Barbs are less remarkable 
 for their beauty and symmetry, than for their sp 1. 
 endurance, abstinence, and gentle temper. 
 BA'RBACAN. See Barbican. 
 BARBA'DOES, the most easterly of the Carib- 
 bees, and the residence of the governor-general of 
 the British 'Windward Islands. See Antilles. The 
 lat. and long, of its capital, Bridgetown, are 13° 4' 
 ST., and 59° 37' W. Its area is about 166 square 
 miles, or 106,240 acres— the unprecedented propor- 
 tion of 100,000 being under cultivation. B io 
 capital, B. contains 3 other towns, all more or less 
 in a state of decay— Jamestown, Speights-town, and 
 Oistin. B. affords no harbours, 1 leing almost encircled 
 by coral-reefs, which here and there extend as much 
 as 3 miles to seaward. Inside of the coral-reefs, 
 the coast, excepting at two points, presents long 
 lines of sandy beach — one of the most remarkable 
 6>0 
 
 y with iU expo I . I I ad, on 
 occasional 
 I of yellow fever, the climate is healthy. 
 In 1844, the fall of rain was 72 inches; 
 the temperature is said to have ranged only 
 between ,<■, and 83.;" l\ shocks of earthq 
 aro sometimes felt, and thunder-storm 
 quent and sevei But hurricanes are the grand 
 scourge of Barbadoea. In 1780, one of them 
 destroyed 4326 persons, and property to the value 
 of £1,320,664 .sterling; and in 1831, anotl; 
 stroyed 1591 persons, and property to the value 
 of £1,602,800 sterling. Of the former of these, 
 the violence appears to have surpa ted all belief 
 the winds and the waves between them having 
 carried a 12-pounder gun a distance of 1 10 yards. 
 
 In 1834, the commencement of the appn 
 ship under the imperial act of emancipation, the 
 population was 102,231 ; by 1861, it had inci 
 to 152,727, being an average of 920 inhabitants to 
 every square mile. The trade and the revenue bear 
 a similar testimony to the benefits of emancipation. 
 Between 1833 and 1870, the revenue had increased 
 From 620,975 to £104,932; the imports from £481,610 
 to £1,069,868; the exports from £408,363 to £973,020; 
 the total tonnage entered and cleared in 1x711 was 
 27S.517 tons. During that year, sugar was ex- 
 ported to the value of £594,690; 111. .lasses, valued at 
 £98,383 ; and wheat, at £71,298. Being universally 
 cultivated in regular plantations, the island affords 
 no room for the squatting of negroes on unreclaimed 
 lands, as in Jamaica and other West-India posses- 
 sions. On this account, if from no "tier cause, the 
 negro population have been compelled to labour dili- 
 gently for hire, and are generally in a condition most 
 creditable to their industry and prudence — contrast- 
 ing, in this respect, with the improvidence and indo- 
 lence of some of the lower classes among the whites. 
 Altogether, however, the Barbadians aro a shrewd 
 and clever people, nor are they deficient in a due 
 appreciation of their own power and importance, 
 B. is the see of a bishop. It contains also many 
 well-endowed seminaries — Codrington College, in 
 p articular, having a revenue of £3000 a year. It 
 was first colonised by the English in 1625, having 
 previously been depopulated by the Spaniards. 
 
 BARBA'DOES CIIK'HRY, the name given in 
 the West Indies to the fruit of two small tn 1 s, 
 Malpighia wrens and M. glabra, which are 
 cultivated for its sake. Clusters of fruit are 
 produced from the axils of the leaves. The fruit 
 of it. urens is small, that of JW. glabra is like a 
 May. hike cherry in size and appearance, but inferior 
 in flavour. Each fruit contains three triangular 
 seeds. The leaves of M. urens have stinging liairs 
 on the under-side. See JLvLriGniACELE. 
 
 BARBA'DOES GOO'SEBERRY (Pereshia acu- 
 Uata), a pleasant West Indian fruit, produced by 
 a plant of. the natural order CadaB (q. v.), with a 
 round stem, thick flat alternate leaves, and large 
 strong spines. The fruit has expectorant properties. 
 
 BA'RBARA, Saint, who suffered martyrdom at 
 Nicomedia, in Bithynia, about 236, or, according to 
 ..tier accounts, at Heliopolis, in Egypt, about 306, 
 was of good birth, and well educated by her father, 
 Dioscorus. To avoid disturbance in her studies, he 
 had a tower built for her, where she spent her youth 
 in the deepest solitude. While in this retirement, 
 she was led, through Origen, as is said, to embrace 
 < 'liiisl iauity. Her father, a fanatic heathen, learning 
 his daughter's conversion, and failing to induce her 
 to renounce Christ, delivered her up to the governor, 
 Martianus, to be dealt with by the law. Martianus, 
 struck with the intelligence and beauty of the 
 maiden, attempted first by arguments to make her
 
 BAEBAEEA— BARBA KY. 
 
 relinquish Christianity, and when that failed, had 
 recourse to the most exquisite tortures. A,1 
 the blinded father offered himself to strike i 
 daughter's head. Scarcely w:l3 *^ e deed done, when 
 i struck with lightning. Hence St B. is to 
 this day prayed to in storms. For the same reason, 
 she is the patron saint of artillery, and her 
 was at one time frequently placed on an 
 powder-magazines, &c. The powder-room in a 
 French ship of war is to this day called Sainte- 
 Barbe. St B.'s day is the 4th December. 
 BARBA'REA. See < 
 
 BARBA'RIAN (Or. 6 among the Greeks, 
 
 as early as the time (if Homer, signified one who 
 could not speak the Greek language; and this 
 restricted signification was not wholly obsolete even 
 in the age of Plato, for the latter divides the entire 
 human race into HeUenes and Barbaroi. The 
 of the word is unknown, if it be not artificially 
 formed, on the principle of imitation, to represent a 
 meaningless babble of sound, such as the Greeks 
 conceived all foreign languages to lie. It first began 
 to acquire its secondary and invidious signification 
 at the period of the Persian wars. The Greeks, who 
 always exhibited a proud consciousness of their 
 superior intellect and privileges, employed the term 
 to designate the character of their enemies. It then 
 meant whatever was opposed to G reek civilisation, 
 freedom, or intelligence; but it coidd not yet have 
 attained the degraded sense in which it is now used, 
 for the Romans in the time of Plautus accepted 
 the appellation, and called themselves Barbaroi. 
 Subsequently, when Rome, under Augustus, became 
 the mistress of the world, the word was applied 
 to all the Germanic nod Scythian tribes with whom 
 she came into contact. In modern times, B. signifies 
 savage, uncivilised, or ignorant. 
 BARBARO'SSA. See Frederick L 
 BARBARO'SSA, Aroodje or Harudj and 
 Khaik EoDlN",two brothers, renegade Greeks, natives 
 of Mitylene, who, as Turkish corsairs, were the torn >r 
 of the Mediterranean during the first half of the 
 16th c. They made themselves masters of Algeria 
 (q. v.) and Tunis, and brought these countries under 
 the sovereignty of the Turkish sultan. 
 
 BARBAROTJX, CHARLES, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished and energetic of the Girondists, was born 
 at Marseille in 1767. The new ideas of equality 
 and fraternity found in B. a warm advocate, and he 
 did much to promote their spread. He was elected 
 the special delegate of Marseille, to attend the Con- 
 stituent Assembly at Paris. There he opposed the 
 court, and took part with the minister, Roland, then 
 out of favour. After the events of the 10th of 
 August, he returned to his native town, where he 
 was received with enthusiasm, and was soon after 
 chosen delegate to the Convention. In the Conven- 
 tion, he adhered to the Girondi ts, and belonged to 
 tie party who, at the trial of the king, voted for an 
 appeal to the people. As li. boldly opposed the 
 party of Marat and Robespierre, and even directly 
 accused the latter of aiming at the dictatorship, 
 he was, in May 1793, proscribed as a royalist and 
 an enemy of the republic. He wand, red about 
 the country, hiding himself as he best could, for 
 thirteen months, when he w as taken, and perished at 
 Bordeaux by the guillotine, June 25, 1794. 1$. under- 
 stood the revolutionary or., is much better than the 
 most of his party. Had the Girondists generally 
 possessed anything like his energy iy. the 
 
 Jacobins must have succumbed, and much oloo 
 and horror would have been spared to Fran 
 the world. 
 
 BA'RBARY, an extensive region in Northern 
 Africa, comprising the countries known in modern 
 
 1 of Barca, Tripoli 1' 
 
 Fezzan, Tuni i, Al 
 
 the hall ofSus; and in ancient 
 
 Africa 
 • notes. It stretches from I 
 to the Atlan' ad from the M 
 
 to the 1 ' bara, or between long. 10" W. and 
 
 •_'.".' I!., and lat. 25*- 37" N. The north-west of 
 this region is divided by the Atlas Mountains into 
 two parts: the northern comprising Marocco. 
 ria, and Tunis ; the southern, a half-desert n 
 called Belud ; 
 
 pertaining geographically to Africa, B. is not specially 
 African in an i racteristics ; but in climate, 
 
 flora, fauna, and geological configuration, belongs to 
 that great region which forms the basin of the 
 Mediterranean. It is watered by many small 
 streams, which either flow iuto the Mediterr 
 or into the salt-lakes on the edge of the Desert, 
 ling as tie y rise on the northern or southern 
 slopes of the Atlas Mountains. A large port 
 the country is capable of cultivation, and sandy or 
 rocky tracts are rare, except on the southern m 
 During the time3 of the Carthaginians, < 
 Romans, it was richly fertile, and all the natural 
 conditions of its ancient productiveness still remain. 
 — For an account of the climate, geology, produc- 
 tions, &c, see the various com; 
 
 Among the people, besides the French and other 
 Europeans, seven distinct races may be enumerated : 
 & rbers (or Kabyles), Moors, Beduins, Jews, Turks, 
 
 sand Negroes. The Berbers and Beduins 
 inhabit the open country, while the Moors, on tile 
 other hand, reside in the towns. Most of the Berber 
 tribes are cither wholly free, or subject to the mere 
 nominal jurisdiction of native chiefs, kaids, judges, 
 &c. The Beduins luxuriate in equal liberty, 
 had settled here in ancient times, but the greater 
 number of that race immigrated when the Moors were 
 expelled from Spain. The Turks entered B. in the 
 16th c. They form the dominant race in Tripoli 
 and Tunis, but never establish d themselves per- 
 manently in Marocco. Their sway in Algeria was 
 brought to an end by the French. The Kuluglis (the 
 children of Turks by native mothers) are ex 
 from the possession of all the paternal rights and 
 privileges. The negroes are not natives of P.. but 
 are brought I : I ives, principally from Sudan 
 
 and Guinea. They are for the most part domestic 
 slaves. The population, exclusive i t .lews and 
 Christians, is about 10,000,000, all Mo h a mmed ana . 
 Arabic is the language of commerce and inter, 
 and in Marocco, the language of government, and the 
 mother-tongue of Beduins, Moors, and i 
 but in Tunis and Tripoli, where, as we have said, the 
 Turks are still dominant, the language of government 
 is Turkish. The Berbers Proper, or Kabyles, 
 daily in the highlands, to which they have been 
 driven by foreign conquerors, use a peculiar speech 
 among themselves. 
 
 In the oldest historical times, we find the Mauri 
 (the ancestors of the modern Moors) mentioned as 
 
 i in the north-west of B., the Numidians in 
 the interior and eastern parts, and the Phoenician 
 
 i on the coasts. These last people formed 
 and founded cities— among them 
 Ihppo, Hadrumi turn, ] 
 
 aboul 1 B.O. It does not appear that they 
 
 ever penetrated far into the interior. Confining 
 themselves to the coast between the Great 5 
 and the Sb of ( ■ maintained com- 
 
 with the people of ir and the 
 
 seaports oi the Mediterranean. In the 7th c. B.C., the 
 Greeks founded Cyrene, considerably to the i 
 Carths ; I the plateau of Bama, now 
 
 stvled Jebel-el-Achdar by the Arabs. 'While the 
 J Ml
 
 BARBARY— BARRARY APE. 
 
 ••s held sway on the coast, the 
 Mauri and the Numidians wen divided into several 
 
 indent tribes, and, like their neighbours the 
 
 i. ware wholly uncivilised. Aft t the second 
 Punic war, the Romans extended their sw.i i 
 Carthaginian Africa, which became a Roman pro- 
 vince at the close of the third I'unic war, wh D 
 the city of Carthage was sacked and 
 Numidia was 'annexed' alter the victory over 
 ha, and Mauritania after the defeat 01 King 
 the ally of Pompey's party. 'I h • s ■■ ■ ■ 
 Julia. 1 ■ same name, was allowed I 
 
 as a nomin l l bj nstos; but 
 
 was. in fact, a Roman province. Thus, the 
 ul a territory in Africa extending 
 from t: -vrtis to the Atlantic (correspond in;.; 
 
 to the modern states of B.), which formed si 
 the largest and most flourishing provinces of their 
 vast BB . crywhere they built large towns, 
 
 ■whose extensive ruins are still to be seen scattered 
 over the whole land, even to the verge of the 
 
 1 ; as. for instance, those at El-Haman, in the 
 r ncy of Tunis, at Sava, Musulupium, and espe- 
 the splendid city of ruins, Lambasa, not 
 far from the Desert of Sahara. The Bomai 
 in general, only two legions, numbering 24,000 men, 
 in their African provinces; nevertheless, 
 authority was uncontested, and they were enabled to 
 undertake important works, such as the cistei i 
 
 nets at Rusicada, Hippo, and Cirta, and the 
 temples and amphitheatres of Calama and Annua, 
 which clearly shew that the inhabitants enjoyed the 
 benefits of a safe and powerful civilisation. 
 
 Under Constantine, North Africa was divided into 
 the several provinces, Mauritania-Tingitana, 
 tania-Carsariensis (on the east of the former), Mauri- 
 tania-Sitifensis, Numidia, Zeugitania, Byzacium, 
 Cyrenaiea, and t rtica. At the di 
 
 of the empire, tb . ith the 
 
 tion of the last, fell to the share of the 
 
 Western Empire. About this time, Christianity 
 
 was promulgated in Africa, and with such success, 
 
 that in the three Mauritanias there were more than 
 
 iceses. As Roman power declined in Europe, 
 
 ■nsequences were severely felt in the .' 
 provinces. Religious disturbances, native revolts, 
 
 the ambitious aspirations of the Roman 
 governors after independence, loosened the political 
 bands which bound the provinces together, and 
 made them an easy prey to the Vandal 
 
 I in Africa, in 420 A. P., under the ferocious 
 Genseric, and in an incredibly short space of time 
 overran the country, which they savagely mis- 
 sed in 1 1 i l 633, when they were defeated by 
 Justinian's great general, Beusarms. Meai 
 the Numidians and the Mauri had made them 
 masters of the interior and of the coast of Maun 
 
 Tingitana, and the Greek-Roman territories 
 were restricted to the neighbourhood of Carthage 
 and some points on the coast. The whole country 
 of B. was thus made an easy prey for the Arabs, 
 and in G47. Abdallah-bcn-Said, with 40,000 fanatical 
 Mohammedans from Egypt, defeated and slew tile 
 Greek prefect, Gregorius, at Tripoli. He did not. 
 however, follow up his victories; but in G65 — 670 
 A.D., the Arabian general, Akbah, conquered the 
 coast-towns of Tripoli, founded Cairo, and extended 
 his sway almost to the Desert. Hassan, the get 
 of the Calif Abd-el-Malek, in G92, stormed, plun- 
 dered, and destroyed the new Carthage, and, in fact, 
 annihilated the Greek-Roman dominion in 
 In the course of less than a century, the 
 part of the native tribes were converted forcibly to 
 the faith of Islam. In 7S9, the western provinces 
 separated themselves from the others, and Edris- 
 ben-Abdallah founded there the dynasty of the 
 
 After 800, ^ 
 ben-Aglah, declared himself independent) and 
 I the dynasty of the Aglabites, Afric 
 i the califs. From this time down to 
 i the changes of dynasty in R. were so frequent, that 
 mot here describe them in detail. The results 
 were, that independent states arose in Algeria, Oran, 
 . Tenez, &c. About this time, also, began the 
 I reaction of the Christian world against Mohamme- 
 ! danism in North A Spain. St Louis under- 
 
 took an expedition against Tunis. The Mom 
 
 I by, expelled from Spain, and settled tbein- 
 
 j selves on the coast of Northern Africa, there to 
 
 that course of piracy by which they became 
 
 . first as a fierce retaliation against 
 
 Christian persecutors, but ultimately as a 
 
 barbarous profession. As early as the time of 
 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, the Spaniards sought to 
 
 check their insolent ravages, and landed in Africa 
 
 ral occasions, capturing the ports of Ceuta, 
 
 Mclilla, Oran, Bugia, the island before Algiers, and 
 
 Tripoli The Portuguese landed on the coast of 
 
 Marocco, where at first they had great success ; but 
 
 they were ultimately compelled to leave the country. 
 
 ■ arious changes of fortune, Algiers, Tunis, and 
 Tripoli were brought under the government of the 
 sultan. Since 1830, however, the first of these (see 
 
 i.v) has been under French sway, while for 
 
 i ears the other two have been only nominally 
 
 h-nt on the Turkish ruler. A similar fate, at 
 
 a much earlier period, befell the western part of B., 
 
 where the successors of the Arabian Sherif, Mula- 
 
 Mehemed, overthrew the kings of Marocco and Fez, 
 
 and established the Sherif dynasty, which rules to 
 
 the present day over these lands.— Shaw's Travels 
 
 and Observations relative to several Parts of B,; 
 
 Mauroy, Du Commirce des Peuples de FAfri'jue 
 
 nale (Par. 1845). 
 
 EA'RBARY APE, PIGMY APE, or MA'GOT, 
 
 a small spec! or tailless monkey, interesting 
 
 as the only one of the monkey race which is found 
 
 in Europe. The only European locality, however, in 
 
 which it occurs i . ■ of Gibraltar, and it is 
 
 ■ have been originally brought from the north 
 of Africa. It inhabits the precipitous sides of the 
 Rock, inaccessible to human foot, and enjoys a certain 
 
 ire of protection from firearms in return for 
 the amusement afforded by its manners. It is gre- 
 garious, and large numbers are often seen together, 
 the females carrying their young upon their uacks. 
 In some parts of the north of Africa, the B. A. is 
 
 Barbarv Ape. 
 
 extremely abundant, inhabiting rocky mountains 
 and woods. It displays great agility in passing from 
 tree to tree, and its bands often plunder gardens, one 
 of their number keeping careful watch. It feeds 
 on fruits, roots, &c. ; and its fondness for eggs is 
 supposed to have given rise to the ancient story of
 
 B ARB ASTELLE— B AR B EL. 
 
 the battle of the pigmies and the cranes. It is of a 
 greenish-gray colour, paler underneath ; and in size 
 resenil ■ cat. The characters agr 
 
 those of the genus llaeaau (Wanderoo Monkey, 
 q. v., &c), except that the tail is reduced to a 
 mere tuber, le. The mil bat elongated, 
 
 although not nearly so much as in the baboons, with 
 which this ape has sometimes been classed, and the 
 facial angle is much higher than hi them. The face 
 is almost naked. hat wrinkled. The ears 
 
 are in form not unlike human ears. The eyes are 
 round, reddish, and of great vivacity. The B. A. is 
 one of keys most frequently to be seen in 
 
 captivity, at least in Britain ; and possessing a con- 
 siderable degree of intelligence, is capable of being 
 trained to many tricks. In order to this, however, 
 it must be taken young, as the older ones are often 
 sullen and I My walks on four 
 
 feet, although it can be trained to stand or walk, in 
 a more awkward mamier, on two. It is filthy in its 
 habits. 
 BARBASTE XLE. See Bat. 
 
 BARBA'STUO, a walled town of Spain, in the 
 
 Erovinee of Aragon. It is situated on the 
 cathedral with some paintings by Antonio 
 Oalceran. Bop. 6500. 
 
 BA'RBAULD, Anna Lftitta, an English 
 authoress, was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in 
 Leicestershire — where her father, the Rev. John 
 Aikin, a dissent:; in, kept an academy — 
 
 on the 20th June 1713. Her private education, the 
 
 >us influence of her home, and secluded life 
 in the country, were well fitted to develop early 
 her natural taste for poetry; but it was not until 
 1773 that she was induced to give her effusions to 
 tli" public, who appreciated them so highly that four 
 
 1 1 i were called for during the year. Encouraged 
 by this, she the same year, conjointly with her 
 I ineoiis Pieces hi Pro 
 
 (Lond. 1773), which also passed through many 
 editions. In the following year, the poetess married 
 the Rev. Bochemont Barbauld, a dissenting minister 
 at Palcravc, in Suffolk, in which village the newly 
 married pair opened a boarding-school for boys. 
 The literary fame and the assiduity of Mrs B. soon 
 made it celebrated. During the ten years Mrs B. 
 •was engaged in the duties of tuition here, she pub- 
 lished I for Children, and Hymns m 
 Pro . works which have been often reprinted in Eng- 
 land tor youthful readers, and translated into 
 languages. 1 1 ■ r ]h VOtional Pi s was also published 
 this period. In 1702, she commenced with 
 the brother previously 1 —who wrote the 
 most of them— the well-known series, Evenings at 
 E . which were completed in three years. In 
 170j she edited Akenside's Pleasures qf Imagina- 
 i . and Collins's Odes, prefixing to each a critical 
 essay. In 1804, she began to edit a selection from 
 the Spectator, Guardian, '!'•• ler, fee.; and in 1S10 
 published a Collection of the British Novelists, 
 the task of editing which she had undertaken to 
 divert her mind from the loss she had sustained two 
 years previously in the death of her husband. The 
 [Lond, 1MI) contains a selection 
 from her writings. Her last poetical effort was an 
 ode, entitled Eighteen Ilnmlr- i and Eleven (Lond. 
 1812). All her compositions are characterised by 
 simplicity of feeling, an easy, Bon ing style, and pure 
 and elevated Bentunent, and ; ive token of a mind 
 well versed in classical literature. She lived in 
 quiet retirement till her death, which I 
 the 0th March 1825. The life of Mrs B. fa 
 written by Lucy Aikin, also known as an authoress, 
 and prefixed to the coll A. I.. 
 Barbauld (2 vols., Loud. 1S23). The sain 
 
 also published from the posthumous papers of the 
 
 authoress, A Lojacy for Young Ladies (Lond. 1820). 
 
 BARBED and CRESTED, heraldic terms, by 
 
 which the comb and gills of a cock are designated, 
 
 it is necessary to particularise them a< I 
 of a different tincture from the body. The common 
 
 h term is Wattled and Combed, gules, or 
 
 er else the tincture may be. 
 BA'RBEL (Parous), a genus of fishes of the 
 family of the Cyprinida (q. v.), differing from 
 
 mu (Carp, Gold-fish, 4c.) in the short • 
 and anal fins, in having one of the rays of the 
 
 lin strong and serrated, and the mouth fur- 
 
 with four soft barbule3 (whence the nai 
 from I. : ), two near the point of the 
 
 snout, and one at each angle of the mouth. 
 
 Barbel 
 
 upper jaw also extends considerably beyond the 
 lower. The species are numerous. Like the other 
 Cyprinidie. they are all inhabitants of fresh water, 
 and generally of muddy ponds and rivers, where 
 they seek food by ploughing up the mud with their 
 snouts, like swine, and are said often to seize the 
 small fishes which come to share with them the 
 worms and insects of the mud. They also feed upon 
 the leaves and roots of aquatic plants. — The Com- 
 mon B. {P. vulgaris) is abundant in many of the 
 rivers of the temperate parts of Europe. It is the 
 only species found in Britain, and only in some of 
 ill and deep rivers of England. It is very 
 abundant in the Thames, frequenting the weedy 
 parts of the river in shoals in summer, and seeking 
 the deeper water in winter, becoming so torpid 
 cold weather, that the fishermen sometimes 
 take it with the hand, or by pushing it with a pole 
 into a small net fastened to an iron hoop. It 
 to a large size, sometimes 3 feet in length, I 
 to 18 pounds in weight ; it is rather of a loug shape, 
 in section nearly circular; the general colour of the 
 head and upper part of the body, greenish brown, 
 becoming yellowish green on the the belly 
 
 white, the tad somewhat forked, and of a 
 purple colour. It affords sport to anglers, but is 
 a very coarse Bah, and little used for food except by 
 the poor, who often boil bacon with it to give it a 
 relish. To larger barbels are esteemed the 
 The roe has poisonous qualities, although its effects 
 are disagreeable rather than permanently injin 
 
 Anotle r species, called the Binuy, or B. of the 
 Nile, is very abundant in that river; attains a very 
 great size, 70 lbs. or upwards; is much est. 
 for food; and is taken by hooks baited with 
 
 , A number of baited hooks, each 
 
 attached to a separate strong line, are enclosed in a 
 mass of clay. Hour, dates, ftc, which is sunk in the 
 river, and to which, as it begins to dissolve, the 
 3 are attracted; v. leu boring into it with 
 snouts, and devouring the dates, they are 
 caught The fish 1 illy hooked by tl 
 
 upper jaw, is allowed to n main in the water, 
 ag fast med on shore, and is taken out 
 when wanted for immediate i 
 
 BA'RBEL, Anqltno tor. The B. i- a ground-feed- 
 ing fish, grubbing on the bottom for his sustenance.
 
 BARBER— BARBEEINODI-MUGELLO. 
 
 The baits principally used to capture him arc worms 
 and in i and chee e : and the me u 
 
 angling for him are chiefly with a dead-line, called 
 a ledger, or with float-tackle. The ledger is a 
 perforated leaden bullet; through this the Imp runs 
 freely. To prevent its slipping down on the honk, 
 a large shot or other substance is fastened on the 
 1 i .-. about a yard above the hook. The hook 
 (about No. 5 or G in size) is baited either with a 
 lob-worm or greaves, and the lead is cast into the 
 water, and remains motionless on the bottom. When 
 a lish bites, the angler feels the tug, and strikes 
 smartly; as the tins of the I'., are Urge, and his 
 muscles powerful, he frequently offers considerable 
 resistance. The rod use. 1 fur ledger-fishing is short 
 and stiff. In float-fishing for B., the tackle is liner, and 
 the hook smaller. A cork-float suited to the depth 
 and rapidity of the river is used, and it is fixed at 
 such a height upon the line that the bait just 
 touches the bottom. The instant the Boat dis- 
 appears, the angler strikes, but not so forcibly as in 
 ledger-fishing. Previous to angling for B., it is 
 desirable to bait the place to he fished, for the 
 purpose of drawing the fish together. This is 
 accomplished by chopping up and casting into the 
 water from 500 to 1000 lob-worms, and it should be 
 done 18 or 20 hours before fishing. In float-fishing 
 for B., the float should be allowed to travel down a 
 considerable distance of water, at least 30 or 40 
 yards, in order that no spot where a portion of the 
 worms may have lodged should be missed. This 
 is sometimes done by the use of a float called a 
 slid er, which is not fixed on the line, but by the 
 management of the angler, accommodates itself to 
 the depth of the water. In this fishing, the bait 
 trails along the ground, and the rod should be at 
 least 14 or 15 feet in length, and the fine very light 
 and fine. B. will sometimes take a spinning bait, and 
 are often caught by the angler while trout-fishing; 
 but this is by no means a certain method of angling 
 for them. The B. may be said to be gregarious ; he 
 spawns in May or June, choosing some gmtlc 
 shallow for that purpose. Ho soon recovers his 
 strength again, however; and about the end of July, 
 he seeks the deep rapid streams, and may be seen 
 vigorously springing from the water in his endea- 
 vours to rid himself of the parasitical insects which 
 attach themselves to him during his quiescence. 
 Here he remains the greater part of the summer and 
 autumn. Frosty weather renders the B. torpid, and 
 he takes shelter under some large stone or weed, 
 where he can lie up during the winter. Although 
 the B. is by no means an estimable fish for the 
 table, it is much used by the Jews in their fasts and 
 festivals. 
 
 BA'RBER (Lat. harba, the beard), a shaver of 
 the beard, and who ordinarily includes hair-cutting 
 in his profession. Barbers are of great antiquity, 
 if not for the shaving of the beard, at least for 
 shaving a portion of the head. The office of the B. 
 is referred to by the prophet Ezekiel: 'Ami thou, 
 son of man, take thee a barber's razor, and cause 
 it to pass upon thine head and upon thy beard.' 
 — Ezek. v. 1. In all oriental countries, including 
 China, the shaving the whole or part of the head 
 continues to be performed by barbers. In every 
 part of the world, the professional B. and hair- 
 dresser is celebrated for his garrulity and general 
 obliging qualities, such being required by those 
 who place themselves in his hands. The amusing 
 character of the B. in one of the tales in the 
 Arabian Nights Entertainments, and also of the B. 
 in Rossini's opera of Figaro, will readily occur to 
 
 n llection. As will be seen from the succeeding 
 
 article, barbers at one time acted as a kind of 
 surgeons, and accordingly occupied a higher social 
 
 po tion than they now enjoy. Latterly, on ace mnt 
 
 of the simple mode of trimming the hair, and of 
 
 the prevalence of private shaving, the bu 
 
 of the 1!. in England has greatly declined, and 
 
 Ins services are chiefly confined to the humbler 
 
 In the United States, the business of 
 
 the B. is almost exclusively in the hands of the 
 
 ed population. Anciently, one of the utensils 
 
 B, was a brass basin, with a semicircular gap 
 
 in one side to compass a man's throat, by which 
 
 means, in applying the hitler to the face, the clothes 
 
 wire not Soiled. loaders will recollect that Don 
 Quixote erazily assumed a barber's basin as a helmet. 
 At the end of a pole, the brass basin is still hung 
 out as a Bign at the door of the B. in Great Britain, 
 France, and other countries. 
 
 BARBER-SURGEONS. In former times, aa 
 stated in the foregoing article, barbers acted as a 
 
 kind of surgeons, or at hast phlebotomists, and such 
 appears to have been the case in all countries. Till 
 this day, on the pole on which the barber's basin is 
 suspended, there is represented a twisted or spiral 
 ribbon, which symbolises the winding of a ribbon 
 round the ann previous to blood-letting. In Lon- 
 don, Edinburgh, and el: ewhere, the 15. formed corpor- 
 ations with certain privileges. The surgical duties 
 of these bodies now pertain to the corporations 
 of surgeons. The existence of B. as professors of 
 the healing art, in England, can be traced as far 
 back as the reign of Edward IV. in 1461, when 
 they were first incorporated; and from thence till 
 the reign of Henry VIII.. when they were united 
 with the surgeons, until the time of George II., 
 wdien the B. ceased to he anything but barbers, as 
 we now understand the term. In the latter reign, 
 an act was passed, the 18 Geo. II. c. 15, from tho 
 preamble of which we learn that not till then 
 had the discovery been made that the business 
 or trade of a barber was ' foreign to, and indepen- 
 dent of, the practice of surgery;' and it therefore 
 proceeds to dissolve the connection between the 
 two bodies, and to remit the B. to the more humblo 
 functions they now perform. But this is done 
 with an express saving of all their privileges as a 
 company or corporation, and as such they exist to 
 the present day. See an interesting account of 
 them in Knight's History of London, vol. iii. pp. 
 177 — I'.rJ, which concludes with the following curious 
 extract from the list of officers to Heriot's Hospital 
 in the statutes of that charity compiled in 1027: 
 ' One chirurgeon barber vlio shall cut and pol<: (lie 
 hair of all tin 1 scholars of the hospital; and otso look 
 to the cure of all those within the hospital who 
 anyway shall stand in need of his art.' And see 
 the Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed 
 to inquire into the corporations of London, and 
 printed in 1837, in which all particulars relating 
 to the government and working of this company at 
 the present day are given. The report states, that 
 the company exists 'for using and exercising the art 
 and mystery of barbers, which includes hair-dressers 
 within the suburbs and liberties of the city;' and 
 it concludes as follows : ' Tho company possess 
 extensive powers for the regulation of the trade, 
 but in practice none are exercised except the power 
 of compelling all persons using the trade or business 
 of barber (which, as before mentioned, includes hair- 
 dressers) within the city to become free of the 
 company.' The barbers still retain their ancient hall 
 —which they possessed before the surgeons were 
 disunited from them— in Monkwell Street, Cripple- 
 gate, in the city of London. See APOTHECARIES, 
 Surgeons, Trade Corporations. 
 
 BARBERINO DI-MUGELLO, a town of 
 Tuscany on the Siere, 15 miles north of Florence, with
 
 BARBERRY— BARBICAN. 
 
 a population of "lOOO, engaged in the manufacture 
 of straw-hats. The royal villa of Caffegiolo, the 
 ancient residence of the Medicis, stands in the 
 environs.— B. Di Val-d'Elsa, a village in the same 
 district, with a beautiful situation on the ridge 
 between the valleys of the Pesa an.l Eka, and 
 celebrated as the place where Pope I'rban VIII. 
 was born. One of the palaces of the Barberini is 
 here. 
 
 BA'RBERRY (BJrberis), a genus of plants, of the 
 natural order Berberidece (q. v.). All the species, 
 which are numerous, and found in temperate climates 
 in most parte of the world except Australia, are 
 ghrubs with yellow flowers, having a calyx of six 
 leaves, a corolla of six petals, and six stamens, 
 which, when touched at the base, display a con- 
 siderable degree of irritability, starting up from 
 their ordinary position of reclining upon the petals, 
 
 Common Barberry [Berberit vulgaru): 
 a, a flower ; t>, ripe fruit. 
 
 and closing upon the pistil, apparently a provi ion 
 to secure fecundation. The fruit is a berry with 
 two or three seeds. Not a few of the species are 
 evi i 'green. They are divided into two sub-, 
 sometimes ranked as genera; those with simple 
 leaves forming the sub-genus Berberis, and those 
 with pinnate leaves the sub-genus Mahunia, or Ash- 
 leaved 1!. — The Common B. (V. Bulgaria) is a native 
 of most of the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, 
 and North America. It produces its flowers and 
 fruit in pendulous racemes; has obovate, slightly 
 serrate, deciduous leaves; and numerous si 
 
 three-forked spines. Itisaverj ornamental shrub, 
 especially when covered with fruit. Its berries are 
 of an elongate oval form; when ripe, generally of a 
 bright red colour, more rarely whitish, yellow, or 
 almost black. They contain free malic acid. The 
 fruit of the ordinary varieties is too acid to be 
 eaten, but makes excellent preserves and jelly. 
 
 Malic acid fa, v.) is pretty extensively ]n 
 from it in 1'ranee. A yellow fungus, .1 
 
 Berbtridis, is very general upon the underside of 
 the leaves of the B. ; and a notion prevails that it 
 produces runt in corn, which is erroneous, the rust 
 (<[. v.) of corn being a totally different fungus, which, 
 like this, is apt to appear in humid weather. 
 The prevalence of this notion, however, appears to 
 have prevented the general employment of the B. 
 
 as a hedge-plant, for which it is admirably adapted, 
 hedges made of it being easily kept free from 
 and becoming more and more impervious by new 
 shoots thrown up from the root. The yellow root 
 of the B. is used for dyeing yellow, and especially 
 the inner bark of it, and also of the stem and 
 branches. The bark is capable of being employed 
 for tanning leather. In like manner, B. glaura, B. 
 Uicifolia, JJ. tomentosa, and B. lulea are used for 
 dyeing in Chili and Pern ; /.'. tinctoria by the inha- 
 bitants of the Neilgherry Hills, and B. arwlata in 
 Nepaul; and a strong similarity of properties appears 
 to pervade the whole genus. B. Byiton, a native 
 of the north of India, is characterised by great 
 astringency, and an extract prepared from it is 
 valuable in ophthalmia. Most of the species are 
 more or less spiny, and some of the evergreen species 
 might be very ornamentally employed for hedge- 
 plants ; as B. dulcis, now frequent in shrubbea 
 Britain. This species, sonic ti 
 
 B., is a native of the south-west coast of America, 
 Its leaves much resemble those of the common B. ; 
 it has solitary flowers on rather long stalks, and 
 globose black berries about the size of a common 
 black currant. The fruit is produced very copiously 
 in Britain, is quite sweet when fidly ripe, ami 
 makes excellent jelly. When unripe and very acid, 
 it is used for tarts. Pleasant fruits are produced 
 also by B. aristata and B. Asiatica, the berries of 
 both of which are dried in Nepaul, after the manner 
 of raisins ; B. concinna, also a Himalayan species ; 
 B. microphylla, found in the southern parts of South 
 America ; and B. trifoliate, found in Mexico. Those 
 of some of the other species are either disagreeable 
 or insipid, which is particularly the case with most of 
 the ash-leaved barberries, natives of North America 
 and the north of India. — Numerous species of B., 
 both from the Himalaya and South America, are 
 dady becoming more frequent in Britain aa orna- 
 mental shrubs. 
 
 BA'RBET (Bnrco), a genus of birds generally 
 placed by ornithologists in the family of the I' 
 or Woodpeckers (q. v.), but regarded as the type of 
 a very distinct sub-family, exhibiting points of 
 resemblance to the cuckoos. They have a large 
 conical beak, surrounded with tufts of bristles 
 directed forwards— a characteristic from which the 
 name B. is derived (Lat. barba, a beard). They 
 prey on insects, and some of them also on young 
 birds; some are at least partially frugivorous. They 
 inhabit warm parts both of the eastern and western 
 hemispheres, and most of them are birds I I 
 plumage. The Linna?an genus has been subdivided, 
 and includes, besides the true barbets, the Barbacous 
 l \fonasa), South American birds— the I 
 [Pogonias) of Africa and India the American 
 birds (Twnatia), &c. The Puff-birds are remarkable 
 for erecting their plumage till they resemble a round 
 ball. Being birds of short wing, both they anil the 
 true barbets wait for their prey, generally 
 with great patience on some withered branch till it 
 cornea near them, when they suddenly dart upon it. 
 They often choose positions close to bin 
 tions, and shew little fear. 
 
 BARBE'TTE, an earthen terrace 
 parapet of a rampart, serving as a platform Eoi 
 heavy guns; it has such an elevation that the guns 
 may be tired over the crest of the parapet instead of 
 through the embrasures, to give them a freer scope 
 by swivelling round into different directions. 
 
 BA'RBICAN (ItaL barbacune), a projecting watch- 
 tower, or other advanced work, ln-fore the gate of 
 a castle or fortified town. The term B. w.i 
 specially applied to the outwork intended to defend 
 the drawbridge, which in modern fortifications
 
 BA RBITON— BARCA. 
 
 is called the tete du font. ' To begin from with- 
 out, the first member of an ancient castle was the 
 1'.., a watch-tower, for the purpose of dei 
 an enemy at a gn i ■•e' (Grose's .1 tU 
 
 of England owl Waits), and, to the same effect, 
 Dg of Bedford Castle, says it was 
 taken by four assaults; in the first was taki 
 I;.; in the second, the outer balia. See Bailey. See 
 also Parker's Glossary of Ardiiieclure. There arc 
 
 [.-wx-v, 
 
 Barbican. 
 
 a few perfect barbicans remaining in England, as at 
 Alnwick and Warwick; but the best examples of it, 
 as of the other parts of the fortification of the 
 Middle ages, are probably to be seen in the ton n of 
 Carcassone (q. v.). A very curious and minute 
 account of the siege of Carcassonc in 1240, in the 
 form of a report to Queen Blanche by the seneschal 
 who defended it, preserved in the archives of France, 
 has been published in Hewitt's Ancient Armour 
 (p. 355, et seq.), in which the uses of the B. are fully 
 illustrated. The street called Barbican in I. 
 near Aldcrsgate Street, marks the site of 
 work, in front of one of the gates of the old city. 
 
 BA'RBITON, or BAUBITOS, a stringed instru- 
 ment of the ancient Greeks, made of ivory, in the 
 form of a lyre, with seven strings, and said to have 
 been invented by Anacreon. 
 
 BARBOU, the name of a celebrated French 
 family of printers, the descendants of John B. of 
 Lyon, who Lived in the ICth c. From his press 
 issued the beautiful edition of the works of Clement 
 Marot in 1539. His son, Hugh B., removed from 
 Lyon to Limoges, where, among other works, 
 his celebrated edition of Cicero's Letters to . 
 
 red in 15S0. Joseph Gerard B., a descendant 
 of the same family — who in the beginning of the 
 ISth c. settled in Paris — continued in 1755 the 
 series of Latin classics in duodecimo— rivals to the 
 Elzevirs of an earlier date — which had been begun 
 in 1743 by Coustelier, at the instigation of the 
 learned Lenglet Dufresnoy. This series of classics, 
 which is much prized for its elegance and cor- 
 rectness, was purchased, along with the rest of 
 the business, by Delalain, from the heirs of Hugh B., 
 who died in 1809. There is a complete set of the B. 
 classics in the Royal Library of the British Museum. 
 
 BA'RBOUR, John, an eminent Scottish poet of 
 the 14th c, regarding whom history has not much 
 to record beyond the production of the national 
 epic, entitled The Bruce. Nothing is known of his 
 parentage, and of his birth it can only be conjec- 
 tural to have been about 1320. The ascertained 
 facts of his life are few. We are informed only 
 that in his own age he was accounted a man of 
 great learning and worth; that he was Arch- 
 deacon of Aberdeen as early at least as 1357, and 
 held that office till his death in 1305; that in 
 1357, he travelled into England, accompanied by 
 three scholars, for the purpose of studying at Oxford; 
 
 that he repeated his visit to England for the same 
 purpose in 1364; that in 1365, lie obtained a pass- 
 port ' to travel through England with six companions 
 on horseback tow and other sacred 
 
 places;' that in 1368, he again received permission 
 to travel through England with two servants and 
 two horses, on his way for scholarly purposes to 
 France; that in 1373 he was Clerk «i Audit of 
 the household of King Robert II., and one of the 
 auditors of Exchequer; that in 1375, his 
 poem was more than half finished; that in i:;77, 
 lie had a gratuity of ten pounds from King Robert 
 II.; that in 1378, he received from the same prince 
 tual annuity of twenty shillings, which in 
 
 1380 he bequeathed to the dean and chap 
 
 leen, under the condition that they should sing 
 ly mass for the rest of his soul; that in 
 
 1381 he had a gift from the crown of the ward of 
 a minor, whose estate lay within the parish of which 
 he was rector; that in 1383, and again in 13S5, he 
 was one of the auditors of Exchequer; that in 13S8, 
 King Robert II. granted him a pension of ten 
 
 a year ; and that he died between Marl i 
 1394 and Whitsunday 1395, probably on the 13th 
 March of the year last named, his anniversary in 
 the cathedral of Aberdeen being celebrated on that 
 day until the Reformation. Besides The Bruce, 
 B. wrote another poem, now lost, called The I 
 in which he recounted the origin and history of the 
 royal house of Stuart. The Bruet is distinguished 
 
 at purity and clearness of style, the Ian 
 and versification contrasting advantageously with 
 those of any contemporary English poet, not except- 
 ii Chaucer. His imagery is not rich, but he 
 I lom other than lively, simple, and energetic. 
 Fortunate in the choice of a noble theme, he has 
 depicted, in rough but faithful outline, the life, 
 manners, and deeds of a truly heroic time, and 
 given to his country, not only the tirst poem in her 
 literature, but the earliest history of her best and 
 greatest king. — The best edition of The Bruce, 
 accessible to the public, is that of Dr Jamieson 
 (Edin. 1S20); but a superior one, under the care of 
 Mr Cosmo Innes, was produced for the Spaldui" 
 Club in 1856. 
 
 BARBU'DA, one of the British Caribbees, lying 
 30 miles to the north of Antigua. Of its north 
 end, the lat. and long, are 17° 33' N., and 61° 43' W. 
 Its area is estimated at 75 square miles, and its 
 inhabitants number about 15011. The proportional 
 density, therefore, of population is only about ^ of 
 that of Barbadoes (q. v.). In fact, the island, 
 small as it is, lias never been cleared for cultivation, 
 the greater part of the interior being a dense forest 
 interspersed with patches of savanna. The agricul- 
 ture, such as it is, is confined to the reariDg of 
 stock and the growing of provisions. B. is of coral 
 formation, and is beset with reefs. It has a road- 
 stead, but no harbour. 
 
 BA'RBY, a walled town of Prussian Saxony, on 
 the left bank of the Elbe, 15 miles south-east of 
 Magdeburg. It is well built, and has an old castle. 
 Pop. 5212, chiefly engaged in the manufacture of 
 woollens and linens. 
 
 BA'RCA, a country in the north of Africa, in lat. 
 26°— 33° N., and long. 20°— 25° E, between the 
 Kreat Syrtis (now called the Gulf of Sidra) and 
 Egypt. It forms the eastern division of Tripoli, 
 having the rest of that dominion on the W., the 
 Mediterranean Sea on the N., the Libyan Desert 
 on the S., and it is separated from Egypt on the 
 10. by no definite line, but by a number of roving 
 independent tribes. It nearly corresponds with the 
 ancient Cyrenaica (q. v.). Population variously 
 estimated from 300,000 to 1,000,000. The climate is
 
 V..\ RCAROLLB— BARCLAY. 
 
 healthy anil agreeable in the moro elevated parts, 
 which reach a height of about 1200 feet, and m 
 those exposed to the sea-breeze. There are none 
 but small streams, but the narrow terrace-like 
 tracts of country are <■ rtile, realising all 
 
 that is said of the ancient Cyrenaica. Rice, dates, 
 olives, saffron, &c., are produced in plenty. The 
 pastures are excellent; the horses still celebrated, 
 as in ancient times. But the good soil extends over 
 only about a fourth of B. : the east exhibits only 
 naked rocks and loose sand. Many ruins in the 
 north-western parts attest a former state of cultiva- 
 tion much superior to the present. So early as the 
 time of Cyrus, B. became a state, which proved 
 dangerous to the neighbouring state of Cyrene ; but 
 within a single century it sank, and became subject 
 to Egypt. In the Roman period, its inhabitants 
 were noted for their predatory incursions. It was 
 afterwards a province of the Greek empire, and had 
 declared itself independent when the Arabs invaded 
 and conquered it in 641. The present inhabitants 
 consist of Arabs and Berbers, who profess the 
 Mohammedan religion, and arc subject to the Pacha 
 of Tripoli, to whom each of the beys pays an 
 annual tribute. 
 
 BARCARO'LLE, a species of song peculiar to 
 the gondoliers of Venice. The name is applied to 
 musical compositions for voice or pianoforte of a 
 similar character. 
 
 BARCELO'NA, the most important manufac- 
 turing city in Spain, in the province of the same 
 name, is beautifully situated on the Mediterranean 
 between the mouths of the Llobregat and the Bcsos, 
 in the midst of a district as luxuriant as a garden. 
 It is walled, and possessed of a citadel, which, how- 
 ever, is effectually commanded by the fortress of 
 Montjouy on the south-west. B., like Edinburgh, 
 is divided into two parts — the old town and the new 
 — by the Hamhla (river-bed), which has been planted 
 with flowering shrubs, and formed into a beautiful 
 promenade. The streets of the old town, forming 
 the north-west division, are crooked, narrow, and 
 ill paved. Those of the new are much more spacious 
 and regular. There is a large suburb to the east of 
 the town, where the seafariu g portion of the popula- 
 tion chiefly reside. In 1864, the population was 
 10; but in 1SCS it had been reduced to 167,093, 
 chiefly by a frightful cholera epidemic in 180.3. 1). 
 is the see of a bishop. It has a university, and 
 colleges and schools for general and special i 
 tional purposes; public libraries, in one of which 
 there is a splendid collection .if MSS.; several hos- 
 and other charitable institutions; the 
 
 theatre in Spain ; and numerous ancient and - 
 churches, with a cathedral which, begun in 1298, is 
 not yet completed. B. manufactures silk, woollens, 
 cottons, lace, hats, firearms, &c., which form its 
 principal exports. It imports raw cotton, coffee, 
 eoeoa, sugar, and other colonial produce; also Baltic 
 timber, Bait-fish, hides, iron, wax. &c. Next to 
 Cadiz, it is the most important port iu Spain. In- 
 deed, more ar out of its port than out of 
 Cadiz ; but they are of smaller size, the entrance to 
 the harbour, which is itself commodious, being 
 obstructive to large vessels. The number of vessels 
 that entered in 1868 was 5464, with a tonnage of 
 626,000 tons; cleared out 2887, with a toons • of 
 383,299 tons; value of imports in 1863,405,872,631 
 re.ils; exports, 132,915,919 reals. B. is a p] 
 great antiquity, and associated with many historical 
 events. Local tradition fixes the date of its founda- 
 tion 400 years before the Romans; and it is said 
 to have been refounded by Amilcar Barca, the father 
 of Hannibal, from whom its ancient name, Barcino, 
 was derived. An important city under the Romans, 
 
 Goths, and Moors, B. in 878 became an independent 
 
 rity, under a Christian chief of its own, 
 whoso descendants continued to govern it, and to 
 hold the title of Counts of Barcelona until the 
 
 12th c, when its ruler adopted the title of King of 
 Aragon, to which kingdom it was annexed. During 
 the middle - ame a flourishing seaport, 
 
 rivalled in the Mediterranean by Genoa Only. To 
 its commercial code, framed in the 13th c., much 
 deference was paid by the whole of Europe ; and it 
 was at this time, says Ford in his Handbook of 
 Spain, ' a city of commerce, conquest, and courtiers ; 
 of taste, learning, and luxury; and the Athens of 
 the troubadour.' Columbus was received here in 
 1493 by Ferdinand and Isabella, after his discovery 
 of America. In 1040, it appealed to France against 
 the tyranny of Philip IV. ; but it turned against 
 that country in the war of the Spanish Succession, 
 and adhered to Austria. Iu IT* >."», the fortress of 
 Montjouy was surprised and captured by Lord 
 Peterborough, and the city surrendered shortly 
 afterwards. In 1714, after a moat heroic defence, 
 it was stormed by the Duke of Berwick, and given 
 over to lire and sword. Napoleon perfidiously 
 obtained possession of it in 1808; and with one or 
 two reverses, and in the face of great difficulties, 
 it was held by the French until the treaty of peace 
 concluded in Paris in 1814. For thirteen years, B. 
 remained quiet under the iron rule of Espana; but 
 in 1S27 its oM turbulent spirit returned, and it rose 
 in favour of Don Carlos. Since that time, B. has 
 successively supported the pretensions of any party 
 in the stato wnose ascendancy at the moment 
 seemed to offer most advantages to itself. 
 
 BA'RCLAY, At exander, a poet and prose writer, 
 born about the end of the loth c, whether in Eng- 
 land or Scotland is not certain. He studied at 
 Oxford, and then obtained, through his patron, 
 Bishop Cornish, an appointment as one of the pi 
 or prebendaries of St Mary Ottery, in Devonshire. 
 He afterwards became a monk of the Benedictine 
 monastery of Ely, where he continued until its 
 suppression in 1539. He died in June 1652, six 
 weeks after he had been presented to the rectory 
 of All-Hallows, London. Hi3 claim to notice 
 chiefly upon his famous poem. The Si m ■ >) ' 1'- 
 i/ie Worhle — partly a translation, and partly an 
 imitation of the German Narrenatk\ff by Brandt — 
 which was printed by Pynson in 1508, and since 
 several times reprinted. It is interesting (as most 
 satires are), as shewingthe manners and customs of 
 the times satirised. He published several works 
 besides; axaanao&eiB,TheMyrTOttTo/GoodAfa 
 The Castell of Labour, The EgXoga, the first eclogues 
 that appeared in the English language; and also made 
 a translation of Sallust's History of Ote Jinjurthiue 
 War. In his lifetime, he was admired for his wit 
 and eloquence, and his writings exhibit a refinement 
 not common in that age. 
 
 BA'RCLAY, JOBS, a clever poet and satirist, 
 was born about 15S2, at Pont-1-Mousson in Lorraine, 
 where his father, William B., a Scotsman, who died 
 in 1605, had held the office of Professor of Law. 
 He studied in the Jesuit College of that place ; and 
 the distinguished talents which he early dis| il 
 caused the Jesuits to try to induce him to enter 
 tin ir order. On account of his rejection of their 
 ds, he, as well as his father, suffered much 
 persecution. He accompanied his lather to Eng- 
 land in 1603, where he soon attracted the attention 
 of James I., to whom he dedicated one of his works, 
 Buphormionit Satirrkon (Loud. 1603), a pa 
 satirical romance, chiefly directed against the Jesuits. 
 Next appeared his Conspiratio AngUetnui (Lond. 
 1005), and his Icon Animarum (Lond. 1614). In 
 
 10
 
 BARCLAY— BARCLAY DE TOLLY. 
 
 1615, I ml, and w<"t tn Rome, where he 
 
 died August 12, 1621. In the Bame year hi 
 brated work Argtnis appeared in Paris (Paris, 1G21). 
 It was written in Latin, and has been translated 
 into several languages. ' are no fewer than 
 
 three translations into English; the last appeared 
 in 177—. It is a political allegory, containing 
 allusions to the state of Europe, more particularly 
 of France, during the time of the League. A 
 was acluiiivd both by Cowper and DTsraeli. 
 
 BA'RCLAY. Robert, the celebrated apologist "f 
 
 the Quakers, was born on December 2,'f. 1648, al 
 Gordonstown in Morayshire, Scotland. His father 
 was the son of David Barclay of Mathers, the repre- 
 s ntative of an old Scoto-Xormau family, which 
 i! iced ite U i' rough fifteen intervening generations 
 to Walter de Berkeley, who acquired a settlement 
 ill Scotland about the middle of the l'2th c. ; his 
 mother was the daughter of Sir Robert Gordon, the 
 premier baronet of Nova Scotia, and historian of the 
 House of Sutherland. Young 15. received the rudi- 
 ments of learning in his native country, and was 
 afterwards sent to the Scotch College at Paris, of 
 which his uncle was rector. Here he made rapid 
 
 ess in his studies, and existed the admiration of 
 his preceptors, as well as of his relative, who offered 
 to make him his heir, if he would remain in France, 
 and formally adopt the Roman Catholic religion, to 
 the ceremonies of which he had been habituated 
 during his residence there. This, however, B. refused 
 to do; and in compliance with the wish which his 
 mother had expressed on her death-bed, he returned 
 home in 1G64. Though only sixteen, B. was an excel- 
 lent scholar, and could speak in the Latin language 
 with wonderful fluency and correctness. In HitiT, he 
 embraced the principles of the Society of Friends, 
 for reasons more highly respected in our day than in 
 his. He states in his Treatise on Universal Love, 
 that his ' first education fell among the strictest sort 
 of Calvinists,' those of his country 'surpassing in the 
 heat of zeal not only Geneva, from whence they 
 derive their pedigree, but all the other so-called 
 reformed churches ; ' that shortly afterwards, his 
 I ion to France had thrown him among the 
 opposite 'sect of papists,' whom, after a time, he 
 found to be no less deficient in charity than the 
 other ; and that, consequently, he had refrained from 
 joining any, though he had listened to several. The 
 ultimate effect of this was to liberalise his mind, by 
 convincing him of the folly and wickedness of reli- 
 gious strife. In both Calvinists and Catholics, he 
 found an absence of ' the principles of love,' 'a strait- 
 ness of doctrine,' and a ' practice of persecution,' 
 which offended his idea of Christianity, as well as 
 his gentle and generous nature. He therefore 
 allied himself gladly to this new sect, whose dis- 
 tinguishing feature was its charity and pure 
 city of Christian life, and soon became one of its 
 most devoted adherents and its ablest advocate. In 
 the course of his life, he made several excursions 
 into England, Holland, and Germany, earnestly pro- 
 pagating his peaceful views wherever he went, and 
 occasionally enjoying the companionship of William 
 Penn. His first publication was Truth Cleared of 
 Calumnies. It appeared in 1070, and was intended 
 as a refutation of the charges — many of them noto- 
 riously false — made against the new sect. In Ki7.'i 
 appeared A Catechism and Con of Faith, the 
 
 answers to the questions being — to avoid theological 
 dogmatism— in the words of Scripture. This was 
 followed by The Anarchy of the Banters, &c. In 
 1675, he published his magnum opus, elaborately 
 entitled An Apology for the True Christian Divinity, 
 at the same is Iield forth and Preaehed by thi !'■ 
 
 ' in scorn Quakers: Being a full Explanation, 
 &c. It contains a statement and defence of fifteen 
 
 688 
 
 religious propositions peculiar to the Friends. The 
 leading doctrine which runs through the whole 
 book is, that divine truth is made known to us 
 not by logical investigation, but by intuition or 
 immediate revelation; and that the {acuity, if it 
 can be technically defined, by which such intuition 
 is rendered possible, is the 'internal light,' the 
 source of which is God, or, more properly, Christ, 
 'who is the light that lighteth every man that 
 conieth into the world.' The identity of this doctrine 
 with that held by Mr Maurice and others of the 
 Broad Church in the present day has been more 
 than once remarked. In 1077 appeared his Treatise 
 on Universal Love. It was the first of that long 
 series of noble and gentle remonstrances against the 
 criminality of war that has so honourably distin- 
 i the Society of Friends. It was addressed 
 to the ambassadors of the several princes of Europe, 
 met at Nimeguen. In 16S0, he published his last 
 work, which was a defence of the doctrine of 
 ' immediate revelation.' He died at Ury, in Kincar- 
 dini hire, October 3, lGflO. His estate remained 
 in the possession of his descendants till 1854, 
 its owner at that tune being Captain Barclay, the 
 famous pedestrian. ' The Apologist's Study,' which 
 remained much as he left it, was long an object of 
 pilgrimage with members of the Society of Fin oils : 
 it was destroyed a few years ago, when the old 
 house of Ury was pulled down. 
 
 BA'RCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Te 
 one of the most distinguished Russian generals, was 
 descended from a branch of the same Scotch family 
 to which the two preceding — Barclay the poet, and 
 the apologist of the Quakers — belonged, some of 
 whom had settled in Mecklenburg and Livonia. 
 He was the youngest of three brothers, and was 
 born in 17o9 in Livonia, where his father, 
 Gottlieb B. de T. — at one time a member of the 
 town-council of Riga — possessed an estate. Having 
 been adopted by General van Yermoulen, B. de T. 
 entered a Russian regiment of cuirassiers, at first 
 with the rank of sergeant. He fought with great 
 bravery in the Turkish war of 17S8 — 1789 ; in the 
 campaign against Sweden in 1790 ; and in those 
 against Poland in 1792 and 1794. In the year 1806, 
 at l'ultusk, as major-general, he commanded Ben- 
 ningsen's advanced-guard. He lost an arm at the 
 battle of Eylau. Although much hated by the Rus- 
 sian national party, because regarded by them as a 
 German, he was appointed minister of war by the 
 Emperor Alexander in 1810 — an office which he 
 held till lSlo. In 1812, he was made commander- 
 in-chief of the army of the west. His retreat to 
 Smolensko, and the loss of the battle fought thero 
 on the 17th of August, raised the hatred of the 
 Russian national party to a greater height than ever, 
 and he was obliged to yield the chief command to 
 Kutusow. It has been maintained by many, that 
 B. de T. was the originator of the Russian system 
 of defence in 1S12. He had indeed advised a r. treat 
 to the interior, and recommended the avoidance 
 of a battle ; but the system of defence, as a whole, 
 originated with General Pfuel, who had left the 
 Prussian service, and constantly accompanied the 
 Emperor Alexander from the year 1807, without 
 holding any distinct official appointment. At 
 Moskwa, B. de T. commanded the right wing. After 
 the death of Kutusow, he again obtained the chief 
 command of the army, which he held at the battle 
 of Bautzen, and retained till the truce. He after- 
 wards commanded the Russian army in Bohemia, 
 and took part in the battles of Dresden, Culm, and 
 Leipsic. He was commander-in-chief of the Rus- 
 sian army in France, and in consequence of this was 
 a prince and a field-marshal. He died in 
 1S18 at Insterburg, on his way to the Bohemian
 
 BARCLAY AND PERKINS' BREWERY— BAED. 
 
 baths. Two or three ! before his death, the 
 
 1 or Towie, in Aberdeenshire, tl 
 
 mi itance of his family, was for sale, and I 
 
 l to buy it, but refused, on the ground that 
 mily had" been so long expatriated that Scot- 
 land was now to them a strange country. 
 BARCLAY AM) PERKINS' BREWERY, 
 the largest establishments of the kind in the 
 world, is situated in Park £ hwark, Lon- 
 
 don, the buildings covering ngwi I of ten acres. 
 'in brewerj was founded by Dt Johnson's friend, 
 Henry Thrale, who, in 1773, according to a state- 
 ment made by the< i bis Hebridean tour, was 
 paying as much as £20,000 annually to the Excise. 
 After Thrale's death, it was sold by the executors to 
 Ban-lay (a descendant of the author of the Apology 
 forth': 1 and Perkins, who had been Thrale's 
 chief clerk, for £135,000. Since that time, the busi- 
 ness has assumed vast proportions, as the following 
 statistics will serve to shew : Two steam-engines, 
 together equal to 75 horse-power, are required to 
 work the machinery ; there are 24 malt-bins, each 
 equal in size to an ordinary three-storied house; and 
 Westminster Hall is not much larger than the great 
 brewing-room ; more than 10(1,000 gallons of water 
 are used daily, and 2000 quarters of malt weekly; 
 lo brewing coppers have an aggregate capacity of 
 120,000 gallons ; there are 4 fermenting vessels, 
 cajiable of hold I i 10 barrels of beer ; the cooling- 
 floor has a surface of more than 1000 square yards ; 
 300 vessels of 300 gallons each are used in the 
 working-off of the yeast from the beer, which is 
 M ired in 150 vats, the largest of -which holds 
 10S.000 gallons ; and the average gives 30,000 
 gallons each. 200 horses and drays are employed 
 in distributing the beer to London retailers. 
 
 BAR-CO'CHBA, Simon, the leader of the Jews in 
 their great insurrection against the Romans, under 
 the Emperor Hadrian, from 131—135 A.D. Three 
 times had the oppressed -Tews revolted without suc- 
 cess, from 115tollS;andin 130, soon after Ha 
 return from Syria, a new rebellion broke out, for 
 which they had been secretly preparing. At the 
 head of it was one Simon, who assumed the name 
 of Bar-cochba, i.e., 'Son of the Star,' pretending 
 that the prophecy was to be fulfilled in him, ' There 
 shall come a Star out of Jacob' (Numb, xxiv. 1"). 
 He fought at lirst with great success against the 
 Roman I a obliged them to evacuate Jeru- 
 
 salem, where he was proclaimed king, and caused 
 coins to be struck with his Dame. The war spread 
 over all the country of Palestine, and fifty towns, 
 B many villages and hamlets, came into the pos- 
 session of the Jews. But on the arrival of Hadrian's 
 general, Julius Severus, 3 was retaken; and 
 
 in August 135, Bether, the very last strong Eoi 
 held by the .lews, was stormed by the Romans, B. 
 fell on the day of this bli luess. During the 
 
 war, hundreds of thousa ' wsweredesi 
 
 many were executed, and very cruel edicts were 
 
 ainst them. From tl 
 struggle dates the final dispersion of the Jews over 
 the face of the earth. The Holy City was razed to 
 the ground, and rebuilt under another name. The 
 J rtill retain in their liturgy hymns which they 
 chant in mournful memory 01 this tragic i 
 J-'oi- a particular lii-dory ol tii ! niter's 
 
 Der JudiscJu Kri I Kauern Trojan und 
 
 1821). 
 
 BARD, the name, known to the Romans since 
 200 B.C., by which the ( inula and other I 
 peoples (British, Welsh, Irish, and Scotch) desig- 
 nated their minstrels. Like; • the Anglo. 
 ; linavia, the bards 
 Celebrated the deeds of gods and heroes at religious 
 
 solemnities, and the festivities of princes and nobles, 
 accompanying their recitations with the harp or 
 chrotta (jr. emit and i they excited the 
 
 armies to bravery, preced d tie m into the fight, and 
 formed the heralds of princes, and the mediators of 
 peace. The institution early disappeared among the 
 Cauls, but lingi red long in W 
 
 land. The bards formed a hereditary order, and 
 exercised a decided national influence. The min- 
 strels among the Celts, as among the Germans, were 
 the organ of the people, and the channel of all 
 historical tradition. It is supposed that in Wales, 
 about 940 A. i>., their privileges were define i 
 Sxed by the laws which bear the name of King 
 IIowcl Dha; and in 1078 the whole order is 
 said to have been reformed and regulated anew by 
 Cryffith ap Conan. At Caerwys, Aberfraw, and 
 Mathraval, there were held from time to time great 
 competitions in minstrelsy, called Eisteddfods, at 
 which the judges were appointed by the prince. 
 When "Wales was conquered by Edward I. (l-'Mj, 
 the bards lost their privileges, and were, according 
 to tradition, persecuted and put to death ; hut 
 succeeding princes countenanced the institution, 
 and Eisteddfods were repeatedly held under royal 
 commission down to the reign of Elizabeth. 
 then, exertions for the revival of national Welsh 
 poetry and the bardie | have been made 
 
 by several societies : the Gwvncddigion, founded in 
 1770; the Cambrian, in 181S; and more recently, 
 the -Metropolitan Cambrian Institution. To these 
 societies, and to the patriotism of individual 
 owe collections of the relics of the lays of the 
 Welsh bards, none of which, it should be added, 
 can be traced to MSS. of an older date than 
 the 12th c. The most interesting of those relics 
 are those of Liwarc'h-Heiin, Aneunn, and Taliesin. 
 See Jones's Relics of the Welx/i Bards (Lond. 
 1794); Owen's Myvyrian Archaeology of Wales 
 (3 vols., Lond. 1801—1807); Poemes des Bardea 
 Bretons du v v T. 11. dt In Y ill < marque 
 
 (Paris, 1850), &c. 
 
 In Ireland, the bards are believed to have been 
 a hereditary guild, divided into three classes: the 
 Filedha. who sung in the service of religion, and in 
 war, and were the counsellors and heralds of princes ; 
 the Braitheamhain, who recited or chanted the laws ; 
 who were chroniclers and genealo- 
 gists to princes and nobles. Their ample privileges 
 and endowments of land gave them an exorbitant 
 influence, which both princes and people had some- 
 . rise against and curb. The great skill of 
 the Irish ban! i on the harp was acknowledged every- 
 where. After the conquest of Ireland by Henry 1 1., 
 the profession began to sink. Still many of the 
 chiefs maintained bards in their families, whose 
 ' i kept up the national feeling. 
 This occasioned si sures of the English 
 
 rulers against the Irish bards; Elizabeth ordered 
 the bards that were captun d to be hanged, as the 
 < llion. Turlogh O'Carolan, born 
 1670, died 1737, is reckoned the last Irish bard; his 
 poems were translated into English by Furlory. 
 Other lavs of the bards ha\ instated by 
 
 Miss Brooke, ReHca o/Iriri Poetry (Dub. 17S9), and 
 I ' ib. 1831). 
 
 The banlism of Scotland may be conjectured to 
 li been similar to that of Ireland; but no 
 
 is certainly known of the subject beyond the fact, 
 that th " 1-ards, of differ) 
 
 in the Highlands down to the 17th c. 
 
 The name of B. was unknown among the I 
 
 manic nations; though a corrupt reading in some 
 
 \|>s of the I of Tacitus [bardittu for ban- 
 
 ) led Klopstock and others to 
 
 write wdd religious and war songs, which they called
 
 BARD-BARERE DE VIEUZAC. 
 
 ' Bardits,' under the notion that they were restoring 
 a branch of the national literature. This Ossiamc 
 aberration Boon came to an end. 
 
 BAUD, a fortress and village of Piedmont, 
 situated on the left bank of the Doire, about 23 miles 
 south-south-east of Aosta. When the French crossed 
 the St Bernard in 1S00, the fortress of B. offered a 
 resistance to their further advance into Italy, which 
 might have proved effectual had tho Austrian 
 in been sufficiently on the alert. The French 
 failed to take the fortress by storm, but they suc- 
 ceeded in dragging their artillery under and past 
 the guns of the fort during the night, and were 
 far on the road to Ivrea before the Austrian com- 
 mander was awaro that they had passed. B. was 
 taken a short time after by tho French, and razed, 
 but it has since been restored. 
 
 BARDESA'NES (properly, Bar-Deisan), the 
 founder of a Gnostic sect, was a native of Edessa, 
 in Mesopotamia, and flourished towards the end 
 of tho 2d c. He stood high in favour with the 
 monarch Abgar-bar-Maanu, but little is known 
 regarding him. It is stated that he held a dis- 
 putation with the philosopher Apollonius, who 
 appeared in Edessa in 165 A. r>., in the suite of L. 
 Antonius Vcrus. He wa3 first a disciple of Valen- 
 tinus, whose heresy he afterwards abjured, and 
 wrote against it, and also against other heresies; 
 but ultimately he relapsed into partial agreement 
 with his old master. His Onosis was not purely 
 dualistic. He did not consider evil the eternal 
 coefficient of good, but merely the result of a 
 temporary reaction of matter on spirit. Yet, inex- 
 plicably enough, he maintained the devil to be a 
 self-existent, independent being. He denied the 
 doctrine of the resurrection of tho body, and in 
 conformity with such a conviction, asserted that 
 Christ's body was not real, but only an illusive 
 image brought down from heaven. He diffused 
 his opinions through the medium of hymns, of which 
 ho is reckoned tho first writer in Syria. These 
 hymns, fragments of which arc still extant, exhibit 
 a rich and pure fancy. His followers were called 
 Bardesanisls. They never formally separated them- 
 selves from the orthodox church, though they con- 
 tinued to exist as late as the 5th c. See Halm' /.'. 
 Qnosttem Syrorum primus Hyiimologus (Leip. 1S19). 
 
 BARDOLI'NO, a town of Austrian Italy, with a 
 harbour on Lake Garda, and about 14 miles west 
 from the fortress of Verona. The battle of Rivoli 
 was fought in its vicinity in January 1797. 
 
 BA'REFOOTED (Lat. discalceati, i. e., shoeless), 
 an appellation given to certain monks and nuns 
 who abstain from wearing any covering on the 
 feet, either entirely (as the Alcantarines, who 
 originated at Placentia, in Spain, in 1540, but who 
 are chiefly found at present in the kingdom of 
 Naples), or for a specified period of the year (as 
 the nuns of our Lady of Calvary) ; or who, instead 
 of shoes, wear merely sandals, i. e., soles of wood, 
 leather, rope, or straw fastened by thongs. They do 
 not constitute a separate order in the Roman Catho- 
 lic Church, but are to be found as a higher grade of 
 asceticism with more or less severity ot observance, 
 among most of the orders, Carmelites, Franciscans, 
 Augustines, Eremites, Capuchins, &c. They are, 
 however, steadily ignored by the more dignified 
 Dominicans, though the latter are themselves mendi- 
 cant friars. The origin of this form of religious 
 austerity is to be traced generally to the custom 
 which prevailed among the Jews and Romans of 
 putting off their shoes on the occurrence of public 
 calamities, that in this condition of mourning and 
 humiliation they might implore the divine Being 
 for deliverance ; but perhaps more particularly to | 
 
 the command which Christ gave his disciples (Matt. 
 x. 10 ; Luke x. 4). 
 
 BAREGES, a small watering-place in France, 
 
 situated in the Pyrenees, about IS n 
 I'.agnfcres de Bigorre. The mineral water forwhioh 
 it is celebrated contains principally sulphur. it of 
 sodium, with portions of carbonate, muriate, and sul- 
 phate of soda, nitrogen, and sulphuretted hydr 
 
 Its efficacy in the cure of wounds, rheumatism, still- 
 ness of joints, and scrofulous complaints is said to 
 be very remarkable. See Murray's 11 ami- Book to 
 France. 
 
 BARE'GES, mixed tissues adapted for wo 
 
 dresses, called in Franco Crtpe de Bariges. The 
 name is derived from the place noticed in the 
 article; in reality, however, B. were never made in 
 that little watering-place, tho seat of the manufac- 
 ture being at Bagueres de Bigorre. B. are usually a 
 mixture of sdk and worsted; an inferior kind being 
 composed of cotton and worsted. They vary in 
 colour, and arc sometimes light in tint, with printed 
 patterns. All are of a slight fabric for summer 
 wear. The best are still manufactured in France. 
 
 BA'REGINE. Many AlgBB are found gr 
 in mineral springs, especially those of a sul| 
 nature. The product of their growth is a mucus- 
 like substance somewhat resembling the I 
 or glair of an egg. This deposit is particularly 
 abundant in the hot Springs at Bareges, when. :■ 
 tho name of baregine. It imparts a llesh-brotli 
 flavour and odour to the water, which is prized, 
 and is sometimes imitated by adding animal gelatine 
 to the sulphur-baths where B. is deficient. 
 
 BAREI'LLY, the chief city of a district of the 
 same name in Rohilcund, British India — a district 
 which, with an area of 2937 square mdes, contains 
 1,143,057 inhabitants, and wdiich is bounded on 
 the E. by OudG and Nepaul. The city itself, with 
 an estimated population of about 100.000, is in lat. 
 28° 23' N, and long. 79° 28' E., being 788 miles to the 
 north-west of Calcutta, and 152 miles to the east of 
 Delhi. It is pleasantly situated in a well-Wi 
 country on tho left bank of the Jooa, an affluent of 
 the western Ramgunga. Besides a brisk and lucra- 
 tive commerce, it has considerable manufactures, 
 more particularly in the article of ornamental chairs 
 and tables. B. became a name of notoriety in the 
 great mutiny of 1S57. On the 31st of May, the city 
 was a scene of rapine and bloodshed. The native 
 garrison, without any European troops to overawe 
 them, rose against their officers, and seized the 
 public treasure. They murdered every European 
 who had not the means of escaping. But fortu- 
 nately, from a suspicion of the outbreak, the ladies 
 and children of the Company's servants, both civil 
 and military, had been sent off in safety to Nynee 
 Tal, in the Himalaya. B. was recovered by Sir 
 Colin Campbell, now Lord Clyde, in the May of 
 the following year. 
 
 BARE POLES. When a ship has all her sails 
 furled, she is said to be ' under bare poles.' 
 
 BARERE DE VIEUZAC, Bertrand, a member 
 of the French National Convention, born at '1' 
 10th September 1755. He became an advocate in 
 the court at Toulouse. After acting as a deputy 
 in the National Assembly, the department of the 
 Hautes-Pyrcnees elected him to the National Con- 
 vention in 1792. He is said to have been naturally 
 in favour of moderate measures, but he was easily 
 overawed by the influence of the party of tin- 
 Mountain, with whom he generally acted, and 
 whom he supported by his eloquence, which was 
 so flowery and poetical in style that he came to 
 be designated the Anacreon of the guillotine. He
 
 BARETTI— BARGE. 
 
 was president of the Convention when the sentence 
 passed upon Louis XVI. He rejected the 
 appeal to the people, and gave his vote with these 
 words: 'The law is fur death, and I am here 
 only as the organ of the law.' His natural mild- 
 ness warring with the instinct of sclf-pres< rva- 
 tion, made him alternately a supporter of merciful 
 measures and an advocate of the guillotine, and his 
 whole public conduct betokens a man much more 
 selfish than patriotic or humane. After the death 
 of Robespierre, in which he had concurred, B. never- 
 theless proposed the continuation of the Revolu- 
 tionary Tribunal, for which he was denounced by 
 Lecointre, and afterwards impeached and sentenced 
 to transportation ; his sentence, however, was not 
 carrieil into effect, and he partook of the general 
 amnesty of the 18th Rrumaire. He was elected 
 as a deputy to the Chamber in 1815, during the 
 Hundred Days. After the second restoration, he was 
 banished from France, and went to Brussels, where 
 he devoted himself to literary work till the revo- 
 lution of July permitted his return. In the year 
 1832, he was once more elected as a deputy by the 
 department of the Hautes-Pyrenees ; his election, 
 however, was annuUed, on account of errors of 
 form, whereupon the government called him to be 
 a member of the administration of that department, 
 which office he continued to hold till 1840. He 
 died on 14th January 1S41. He bestowed upon 
 the younger Carnot his Memoires, which have 
 been published (2 vols., Par. 1842). His many 
 other political and historical writings are now of no 
 importance. 
 
 BARE'TTI, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at 
 Turin, 1710. He was intended for the law, but de- 
 voted himself to literature. In 1751, he established 
 himself as a teacher of Italian in London, where, in 
 1757, he published the Italian Library, giving an 
 account of the most eminent Italian authors and 
 their works. He was about this time appointed 
 secretary for the foreign correspondence of the 
 Royal Academy. In 1762, he published an account of 
 his travels through Portugal, .Spain, and the south 
 of France to Italy in LeUere Famigliari, which, 
 with additions and a new title, were afterwards 
 republished in England. B. now lived some time 
 in Italy, and published at Venice a journal called 
 the Literary Scourge, which brought upon him 
 many prosecutions. On his return to England, he 
 published, among other works, an Italian gram- 
 mar, and an Italian and English dictionary, which 
 have since gone through many editions. One 
 evening, ho became involved in a street-brawl in 
 London, and stabbed with his penknife a man, who 
 died soon after. B. was tried for inurder, made 
 his own defence, and was acquitted — Dr Johnson, 
 Burke, and Garrick testifying to the excellence of 
 his character. He died in 17S9 in London. 
 
 BARFLEUR, a seaport town of France, in the 
 department of La Manehe, about 15 miles east of 
 Cherbourg. It is now a place of little import- 
 ance, but it is noteworthy as being the port from 
 whence, according to report, William the Conqueror 
 srt out on his invasion of England. In tie- 13th 
 and 14th centuries, B. was twice pillaged by the 
 English. 
 
 BA'RGAIN AND SALE, in the law of K- 
 is a mode of conveyance whereby property, i 
 
 m:i!, in ' be assigned or transferred for valu- 
 ation. It finds a chief place, however, 
 in law-books in connection with the conveyance of 
 real estate. In regard to personal estate, a*s' 
 fa. v.) appears to oe the more appropriate, as it is 
 the more usual term. B. and .S., then, may be 
 described as a conveyance, in the way of a real 
 
 contract, by means of which property in lands and 
 tenements, whether that property be in possession, 
 remainder, or reversion, is conveyed from 
 to another. In its terms, it consists of a 15. and 8. 
 by the seller to the intended vendee for money ; and 
 by the statute of frauds, 29 Chas. II. c. 3, it must 
 be in writing ; and by the statute of enrolments, the 
 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10, it cannot pass a freehold, 
 unless it be b vithin six months 
 
 after its date, or with a custos rotulorum of the 
 comity. But hereditaments lying within any city 
 or town coqiorate, the officers of which have 
 authority to make enrolment of deeds, are excepted 
 from this statute. A B. and 8. for a term of ; 
 however, will be effectual without enrolment. But 
 see Lease and Release. 
 
 No particular form of words is essential to the 
 validity of a B. and S. ; ' bargain . re the 
 
 words of transfer ordinarily used. But other words 
 will have the same effect, and the distinctive 
 character of the conveyance is determined by 
 the consideration on which it is founded. This 
 consideration, however, is held to be a mere matter 
 of form, and sufficiently complied with if the con- 
 veyance purport to be so founded. To this end, 
 any trivial sum may be inserted in the convey- 
 ance, though the consideration wdiich really passes 
 between the parties be of larger amount; or 
 though it be, in fact, not of a pecuniary nature. It 
 is also immaterial whether the sum so inserted be 
 actually paid or not. — Stephen's Commentaries, voL 
 i., pp. 535 — 537. See Custos Rotulorum, Posses- 
 sion-. Remainder, Reversion, Indenture, Lease, 
 and Release. 
 
 There is no such title to land or other real estate 
 in the Scotch law, but in that system there may be 
 a bargain as to land, the evidence of which must be 
 in writing, the Scotch law in this respect agreeing 
 with the regulations of the English statute of 
 frauds above referred to. The term bargain is also 
 used by Scotch lawyers to signify a contract or 
 agreement for the sale of personal or movable 
 property, and to such a bargain the intervention of 
 writing is not necessary, but it may be proved by 
 witnesses. 
 
 BARGE, an ancient town of Piedmont, in the 
 province of Saluzzo, 30 miles south-west of Turin. 
 Pop. 7000, who are engaged in the manufacture of 
 firearms and the quarrying of slate. A brisk 
 general trade is also carried on. 
 
 BARGE. Various forms of vessel receive this 
 appellation. The Admiralty and city of London 
 
 Rirge — Royal. 
 
 barges, used on ceremonial occasions, are elegantly 
 fitted out, and supplied with accommodation rat 
 many rowers. The B. belonging to a man-of-war, 
 for the occasional use of the superior oi 
 is a well-trimmed, though not showy boat, light 
 enough to be easily hoisted in and out of the 
 amp. On our rivers and canals, a B. is a clumsy, 
 flat-bottomed vessel of burden, employed either 
 in conveying goods from one town or quay to 
 
 toi
 
 BARGE-BOARD— BARING. 
 
 another, or to aid in bringjl I I ] 
 
 i n|1 . These are several Kinds of this last o 
 emit— namely, coal-barges, sand-bar.;, s, west-country 
 
 Large — Common. 
 
 , tec. For the chief points of difference 
 between barges and other boats, see Boat. 
 
 PARGE-BOARD. Where the roof, in Gothic 
 houses, extends over the wall, the gable is generally 
 furnished with a board, which cither covers the 
 
 Barge-board. 
 
 rafter, or occupies the place of a rafter itself. Tie e 
 b boards were often very richly ornamented, 
 particularly in the 14th and 15th centuries. The 
 
 accompanying illustration is copied from Parker's 
 Glossary of Architeclurt . 
 
 BA'RI (ancient Barium), a city in the kingdom 
 of Naples, capital of a province of the same name, 
 is situated on a peninsula in the Adriatic, in lat. 
 41°S' N., and long. 1G = 5.T E., and about 14(1 miles north- 
 north-east from Naples. Pop. 27,300. It is strongly 
 fortilied, and defended by a massive old castle 
 of Norman origin, nearly a mile iii circumference. 
 The city is divided into the old town and the new. 
 The streets, with some few exceptions, are confined 
 and gloomy. B., which is the see of an archbishop, 
 lanufactories of cotton, silk, linen, soap, &c., 
 and carries on an active export-trade in oil, corn, 
 and fruit with Trieste and Dalmatian Its harbour 
 not admit of the entrance of large vessels : but 
 692 
 
 d of Creek and Latin In hops, with thi vil \v 
 of settling the differences between the two churi hi ; 
 
 v and roadstead are good It ha- some fine 
 iastical structun .. the most notable of which 
 is the priory of St Nicholas, a nob] 
 Lombard stylo of architecture, founded in 1087, and 
 liberally endowed by the brotb I rd Within 
 
 the Mails of this building. Urban II., in 1098, held 
 
 ell tile 
 
 and Roger II. was here crowned king of Sicily. 
 The priory contains some interesting monuments 
 and relies, the most remarkable of which is the ton ib 
 of Bona Sforza, queen of Poland, who died in the 
 in 1557. B. is one of the cities believed to 
 have been founded by lapyx, son of Daedalus. Its 
 coins shew it to have been a plac i of co derable 
 note among the Greeks as early as the 3d c. B.a 
 The Romans appear to have held it in but little 
 repute; but it rose in esteem when, in the 10th C, 
 it fell into the hands of the Greek emperors, who 
 made it the capital of Apulia, and the residence 
 of a viceroy. It was twice taken in the 11th c, 
 by the Normans, who added to its Btxen 
 importance. 
 
 BARIGA'ZZO, a village of Modena, province of 
 Lunigiana, remarkable for the stream of fire which 
 
 issue out of the soil to a height of several feet, and 
 which continue to burn for days without mi 
 sion. 
 
 BARI'LLA, an impure carbonate of soda, pro- 
 cured from plants which grow in salt-marshi a or 
 other places near the sea, and which forms a consider- 
 able article of commerce, being used in the manufac- 
 ture of soap and of glass, and for other purposes in 
 the arts. The greatest quantities of 15. are produced 
 m Spain and the Balearic Islands; but the Canary 
 Islands, Italy, and France, also contribute a part. 
 It is procured by burning the plants, much in the 
 same way that Bea-weeds are burned upon tho 
 coasts of Scotland to procure kelp. The Spanish 
 B. is most esteemed, especially that produced near 
 Alicante, which is chiefly obtained from the Salsola 
 eativa, a plant of the natural order I'ltt mi/militia-ir. 
 This plant is there cultivated in | rounds close by 
 the sea, embanked on the side nearest it, and 
 furnished with floodgates, tlirough which the ill 
 water is occasionally admitted It is cut in Septem- 
 ber, dried in small heaps, and then burned in a hole in 
 the ground. The exportation of the seed is prohib- 
 ited by the Spanish government under the sevi fi it 
 penalties. Other species of Salsola (Salt-wort), as 
 5. Tragut and & Kali (the latter, a common native 
 of the shores of Britain), are also burned for B., 
 although they yield it in smaller quantity than 
 8. fnittra. P. is made in Frame from Salicornia 
 
 herbacea or annua (Glass-wort), another of the 
 podiaceot, plentiful also in Bait-marshes on the 
 
 shores of Britain and other parts of Europe. See 
 S.VLT-WORT. 
 
 BA'RING. The firm of Paring Brothers is one 
 of the greatest commercial houses in the world 
 Its founder was John B, a German, who settled 
 in a small business in Exeter, England '" the 
 iirst half of the 18th c. Two of his sons, Francis 
 and John, established in London in 1770 the now 
 existing house. 
 
 Francis became a director of the East India 
 Company, and being a stanch supporter of Pitt, 
 was created a baronet by that minister in 17t'i>. 
 He took an active part in the discussions relative 
 to the Bank Restriction Act of 1707- 
 
 Sir Thomas B., eldest son of the above, born 
 June 12, 1772, succeeded his father in the baronetcy. 
 He appears to have taken no active part in the 
 business of the linn, being chiefly remarkable as 
 an admirer and encourager of art. His magnificent
 
 BAEITAH— BARK. 
 
 collection of paintings v is di persed by public 
 sole after bis deatb in April 1848. 
 
 Alexander B., brother of the above. See Lord 
 Ashbi rto . 
 
 Sin Francis Tiioi;miiit. I:., con of Sir Thomas, 
 
 III- succeeded, was born in 1790, was educated 
 
 at Oxford, where in 1 sly be took a double first class. 
 
 He entered parliament as M.P. for Portsmouth in 
 
 1826. Under si issive Whig governments, lie held 
 
 the offices of a Lord of the Treasury, Secretary to 
 the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. Ho was more noted 
 for his business aptitude than as a politician. He 
 died September 1866. 
 
 THOMAS li., brother of the above, born in 1S00, 
 devoted himself early to commercial pursuits, and 
 also to politics, taking the opposite side to his 
 brother. He is, however, much more widely known 
 as a partner of the firm of li. Brothers than as a 
 politician. 
 
 The lirm is engaged to a large extent in the nego- 
 tiation of national loans, in exchange and 
 broking, in the produce-trade, home and colonial, 
 in importation and exportation upon their own 
 foreign accounts, &c. 
 
 B.YRI'TAH (Bari'ta), a genus of large Australian 
 birds, plaeed by some ornithologists in the family of 
 Shrikes (q. v.), (Laniadae), and by others in that 
 of Crows (q. v.), (Corvida). The bill is large, conical, 
 scarcely curved, the base of it extending remarkably 
 backward on the forehead. The best known species 
 is the Piping Crow, or Piping Grakle, or Jar-ra-war- 
 nang of New South Wales (11. Tilncen). It preys on 
 small birds, is gregarious, assembling in small flocks, 
 lias a melodious voice, is easily tamed, and becomes 
 very familiar and amusing, learns to whistle tunes 
 extremely well, and exhibits a great power of 
 mimicking the voices of other birds. 
 
 BA'RIUM is the metal present in heavy spar 
 (sulphate of baryta) and baryta. Till lately, it was 
 r igarded as a white metal, but the recent researches 
 of Dr Matthiessen have demonstrated that it pos- 
 sesses a yellow colour. As yet, the metal B. has 
 not been obtained in mass, but only as a powder. 
 It decomposes water readily at ordinary temper- 
 atures, and exposed to the air, quickly combines 
 with oxygen, forming the oxide of B. (BaO), or 
 Baryta. The latter substance is an earth resem- 
 bling ordinary caustic lime, and may otherwise be 
 prepared by adding finely divided black oxide of 
 (CuO) to a solution of sulphuret of B. (BaS), 
 when the sulphuret of copper (CuS) is tin-own 
 down, and the baryta (BaO) is left in solution. On 
 evaporation, the water of solution passes off as 
 steam, and leaves the solid earthy-looking substance, 
 baryta. A third mod.' of preparing baryta is to 
 heat strongly the nitrate of baryta (UaONO.), when 
 the nitric ac'id (NO.,) Ilies oil', and leaves the baryta 
 
 (BaO). The sulphuret <>/ li. (BaS) is obtained when 
 the sulphate of baryta (BaOSO,) in powder is 
 mixed with finely-pulverised coal, and the whole 
 being plaeed in a crucible, is raised to a red heat 
 in a" furnace. The result is, that 4 atoms of the 
 Carbon (C) of the Coal carry off the 4 atoms of 
 ii iii the sulphate of baryta as carbonic oxide 
 (iiii, whilst the P.. united solely with sulphur is 
 left behind as the Bulphuret of B. (BaS). The 
 Monde of B. is prepared by adding hydrochloric 
 
 aeid (HC'l) to a solution of the sulphuret of B. 
 (BaS), when hydrosulphurio acid (IIS) escapes, and 
 chloride of B. remains behind, and on evaporation 
 of the liquid, is obtained in crystals. 
 
 BARK. See BARQI 1 , 
 
 BARK [cortex), in phanerogamous or flu v. 
 
 plants, is the external covering of the stem. It is 
 
 Compose rs of cellular tissue, whilst the 
 
 woody stem, to which it forms a sort of sheath, is 
 n wax. In endogenous plants (palms, 4c), there 
 is not, in general, a very marked line of separation 
 between the B. and the v els ot vascular Bundles 
 of the stem, so that the e plants are generally, but 
 incorrectly, said to have no bark. [( enous 
 
 plants, and especially in perennial woody stems, that 
 the development of B. is mo 
 tined. hi between wood and B. most marked. The 
 outermost layer of the I), of exogenous plants is the 
 epidt runs (q. v.), which; however, is in general only 
 to be Been in annual stems, and in the you 
 parts of woody stems; peeling off as the stem be- 
 comes older along with the outer layers of the true 
 bark. Beneath the epidermis is the true B., of which 
 the outer layer is called the • outer 
 
 hark), and consists of cells, usually rectangular and 
 il :iii mil, with thick walls. The inner layer of the 
 true B. is called the mesophUsum (Gr. middle I 
 and is generally formed of a cellular tissue of 
 
 r lish cells with thin walls. These layers are 
 
 sometimes very distinctly separated from one 
 another, and sometimes pass gradually into one 
 r ; sometimes there is merely a continuous 
 cellular tissue. Within the true B. is a rery 
 distinct layer, the inner 1'.., liber (bat.) or tndo- 
 phlmum (Gr. inner bark), also frequently called 
 Bast, which is composed of bundles of - 
 fibre or vascular tissue mixed with cellular tissue. 
 The layer of Cambium fa. V.) is i led as 
 
 belonging to the inner B., but rather belongs to the 
 vascular part of the stem. In the inner B. are 
 sometimes found cells containing a milky juice, as 
 in the Apocynocece, or vessels for a milky juice, as 
 in the common fig. The combined strength and 
 flexibility of the fibres of the inner B. render it 
 in many cases useful for various purposes. S e 
 Fibrous Plants and Hast. In the true B., the 
 peculiar juices and most characteristic substances 
 elaborated by the plant are very generally found, 
 for which reason that part is often of the greatest 
 importance in medicine and the arts. The B. of 
 many trees abounds in tnnniii fa. v.) or tannic acid. 
 
 The B. of a stem or branch of not more the 
 year old exhibits only a cellular integument or 
 epidermis with an interior lining of woody tibrc — 
 the inner B. ; but new I added from year 
 
 to year, the B. as well as the w ly stem 
 
 increased from the cambium, the mucilaginOU 
 which is interposed between them, and which par- 
 ticularly abounds in spring, when t ion of 
 the B. from the stem is most easy. I 
 layers, however, cannot long be distinctly I 
 in sed m the B. as in the wood; and in the older 
 portions of woody stems, the outermost parts of the 
 B. become desiccated and lifeless, and are in gi 
 gradually thrown off. On this _ account, ' 
 mosses, lichens, and other plants which attach them- 
 selves only to the outermost layer of the B. of 
 trees, and derive their nourishment from it, cannot 
 be regarded as true parasites, as they are in no 
 supported by the juices of the stem, but 
 only consume and remove external matter already 
 lite of life. The B. of some I mark- 
 able for the thickness which it acquires, as that of 
 the cork-tree, in which the epipMaum is formed of 
 many layers of cells. The outer parts of thick lurks 
 very often crack, to admit of the expansion of the 
 stem within ; in the lace-hark tree of th.' West 
 Indies, the fibres of the inner B. become partially 
 
 separated as it is distended, forming lozenge-shaped 
 es arranged with beautiful regularity. 
 
 I | connection between the cellular tissue of the 
 ]?. and that' pith in the centre of the tree is 
 
 continually maintained by means, in exogenous
 
 BARK—BARKER. 
 
 stems, of the medullary ravs. Sen Exogenous 
 
 i l'mi. The B. a a protection to the 
 
 and tender wood; it appears also to exercise 
 
 functions analogous to those of the leaves, 
 when young, it resembles in its colour, and which 
 are regarded as dilatations of it, so that it has been 
 called the ' universal leaf ' of a plant. 
 
 BARK, in Medicine, &c. The principal barks 
 used in medicine will be found noticed in separate 
 articles. See Ani.ii; \ (i am B.); 
 
 AbTGOSniBA B. ; Cakibbee B. {Jamaica B., St Lucia 
 B., Piton B.); Casi^arilla (Cascarilla II., 
 B.); Cinchona (Cinchona B., Peruvian B., Jesuits' 
 B., China, Cascarilla, Arica B., Calasaya B., Cam- 
 laya B., Huamalies B., lhumuco B., Jw 
 Loxa B., Maracaibo B., Ash B., Crown B., SHI 
 Yellow B., Tan B., &c); Clove B.; Copalche B.; 
 Culilawan B.; Winter's Bark.— When B. ia men- 
 tioned without any prefix, it is always Cinchona, 
 otherwise called Peruvian or Jesuits' B., which is 
 intended. 
 
 Tho barks used for dyeing, tanning, and other 
 purposes in the arts, being generally' named from 
 the tree3 which produce them, particular references 
 here are unnecessary. 
 
 BARK, for tanning. The B. of many trees is 
 capable of being used for tanning (q.V.), but those 
 kinds of B. are preferred which particularly abound 
 in tannic acid. Oak B. is principally used in 
 Britain, and throughout Europe ; also in North 
 America, although that of America is obtained from 
 
 species of oak different from the I an; in 
 
 Spain, the inner layer of the B. of the cork oak, 
 or cork-tree, is employed, and it is to some extent 
 imported into Britain for the use of tanners. The 
 B. of the chestnut is also much esteemed. Larch B. 
 and willow B. are used in preparing some kinds of 
 leather. The B. of the birch and that of the alder 
 are also employed ; birch B. being, however, more 
 esteemed for steeping fishermen's nets and cordage, 
 to preserve them from rotting, than for the prep n • 
 ation of leather. Different species of Acacia (q. v.) 
 and of Eucalyptus (q. v.) furnish barks used for 
 tanning in Australia, some of which have, to a small 
 extent, become articles of commerce. 
 
 The barking of trees can be accomplished with 
 facility only in spring, when the sap has begun to 
 circulate. The tree being felled, the rough external 
 lifeless parts of the B. are removed as useless, by 
 means of a sharp instrument called a scraper; the 
 smaller branches are cut into lengths of about two 
 feet, and their B. is loosened by beating with a 
 mallet, and easily taken off— as boys at the same 
 season make plane-tree whistles; the B. of the 
 trunk and main branches is cut through by a chisel- 
 like instrument, called a barking-iron, into similar 
 he, each of which is divided longitudinally, and 
 finally stripped off by the aid of mallets, chisels, 
 &c. The B. is sometimes dried in sheds, being placed 
 on narrow shelves or frames in such a way that 
 there may be a very free circulation of air about 
 it ; sometimes in the open air, when it is very 
 !ly made to rest in a sloping position against 
 trunks of trees placed horizontally at a little dis- 
 tance from the ground, the larger pieces of B. Lemg 
 placed so as to protect the smaller both from sun 
 and rain. Great care is necessary in the drying of 
 R, as it is much spoiled if allowed to get mouldy, 
 and is liable to suffer injury from rain or from the 
 exposure of its inner surface to the Sim. — Oak and 
 birch B. are usually about equal in their price, 
 which, however, varies very much, from £4 to £8 
 per ton. Larch B. is much less valuable ; it is also 
 of much greater bulk in proportion to its weight. 
 The B. is a very important source of the revenue 
 derived from many woods and coppices. 
 
 BARK BEETLE, or BARK-CHAFER, a name 
 common to many of the large family of Coleopter- 
 ous Insects (q.v.), called by cut 
 
 l' : '- v 1 eaters). They are all small, am 
 
 of uniform colour; they have hard bodies, and 
 short, often club-shaped antenna-. Most of the 
 family live in wood or other vegetable 
 as mushrooms, dried plants in herbarium . ■ and 
 some of them are extremely injurious to living 
 trees. Those called B. beetles or bark-ohafers bore 
 holes in tho bark, and deposit their eggs in the 
 inner bark, in which the larv.e excavate pathways. 
 
 often causing the death of the tree. One Bpeciee in 
 particular, son died the common Bark-i 
 
 {Tirmin aphtis), and some! 
 
 rapher Beetle, from the figure of its burrows, has 
 
 Tomicus typographus. 
 
 a, natural size ; l, Insect magnlfl 1 ; c, galleries made by 
 the insect. 
 
 from time to time appeared in extraordinary num- 
 bers, ra vagi d ts of Germany. In 1783, it 
 caused the death of a million and a half of pines in 
 the Hart?. Forest alone. This insect is mentioned in 
 some of the old German liturgies under the popidar 
 name of ' the Turk,' which its dreaded ravages 
 obtained for it. 
 
 BA'RKAD, or JE'BEL BATIKAL, a singular 
 sandstone rock in Nubia, situated in lat. 18° 3F Ni, 
 and long. 31° 46' E., about a mile from the right bank 
 of the Nile. It is quite isolated, perpendicular on the 
 side facing the river, and very steep on all. 1 1 i SI 
 two miles in circumference at the base, and •Kin feet 
 in height, its summit forming a pretty broad plateau. 
 Between it and the river are the remains of some 
 magnificent temples, the two principal ones I 
 known as the Typhonium, ami the Great Ten 
 one of the largest monumental ruins of Nubia. 
 The ancient city of Napata is supposed to ha\ 
 situated in the vicinity. The two red granite lions, 
 now in the Egyptian Room of the British Museum, 
 were brought from B. in 1832 by Lord Trudboe. 
 
 BA'RKER, Edmund Henry, a well-known Eng- 
 lish philologist, was born 22d December 1788 at 
 Hollym, in Yorkshire, and studied at Cambridge. 
 Besides editions of several Latin classics, and nume- 
 rous contributions to periodicals, particularly to the 
 Classical, Journal, he was led, during a residence
 
 BARKER— BACKER'S MILL. 
 
 with the famous philologist Parr, to undertake a 
 
 on of Stephens's Thuaurua Lingua <■ 
 This gigantic work was violently assailed in the 
 Quarterly Review by Blomfield, against whom B. 
 his Aristarc/tv.s mus (Lond. 
 
 1818) ; yet he and his publisher, Valpy of London, 
 carried it on and completed it in a spirited man- 
 >•■ i- (13 vol3., 181G— 1828). In 1812 appeared the 
 first volume of his Classical fiecreati ■ He also 
 supplied materials for the composition of Sturtz's 
 'nrjlcum Gudianum, He likewise translated 
 some works of German philologists, among others, 
 Buttmann's Creek < : rammar for Schools. He col- 
 lected the mass of anecdote and criticism relative 
 to his friend Dr Parr, which was published in 
 2 vols, in 1828—1829, under the title of Parriana, 
 a work well-nigh unreadable, from the superabund- 
 ance and ill-digested nature of its matter. He 
 also assisted Professor Dunbar in the comp 
 of the Greek and English Lexicon published in 
 1831. He lost all that he had in a lawsuit about a 
 valuable inheritance, so that he was obliged to sell 
 his line library, and was put into the debtors' prison. 
 He died in London, March 21, 1839, in extreme 
 poverty. 
 
 BA'RKER, John, descended of an English mer- 
 cantile family, became, in 1 . for the East 
 India Company at Aleppo ; in 1S26, British consul at 
 Alexandria ; and afterwards consul-general in Egypt 
 In the year 1834, he removed from this sit 
 to the lonely but lovely valley of Suedia on the 
 Orontes, 4 leagues from Antioch, where he employed 
 himself in the cultivation of the choicest fruits of 
 Asia and Europe. We are indebted to him for 
 the Hanwick Nectarine, the most delicious yet 
 introduced into our gardens. The good terms on 
 which he stood with the people around him and 
 with the government, enabled him to render many 
 valuable services to European travellers. He died 
 at Suedia on the 5th of October 1850. 
 
 BA'RKER'S MILL (Fr. Roue A reaction, Ger. 
 1 a Wasserrad), a water-wheel invented by 
 
 -JS&SttrcsJ 
 
 w 
 
 ^fe 
 
 .1. 
 
 Dr Barker towards the end of the 17th c. It is 
 
 nted in its simplest or typical form in 
 
 . A is a wide metal pipe, resting at its 
 
 lower end by the steel spindle T, on a metal block 
 
 B, and kept in a vertical position by the spindle S, 
 
 at its upper end, which passes through the frame 
 of the machine, so that it can easily revolve round 
 its axis. Near its lower end, two smaller pipe3 
 or arms, C, 0, are inserted, which project hori- 
 zontally from it, and these have each, at the 
 outer extremity, a hole cut vertically in them, 
 opening towards opposite sides. The water is 
 supplied by the pips P, which (.pens over a funnel- 
 like widening on the upper part of A, and the 
 quantity is bo regulated that while the pipe A is 
 kept nearly full, no more is admitted than issues 
 from the lower orifices. The reaction caused by 
 the water gushing from the arms, forces them 
 backwards, and gives to the whole machine a 
 rotatory motion. This reaction is much the same 
 as is seen in the recoil of a gun when fired, or 
 in the pushing back of a small boat by the foot 
 on stepping ashore. It may be also thus explained : 
 • that the arms were closed all round, the 
 water would press against the sides with a force 
 proportional to the height of the water in the 
 pipe A, and the pressure against any particular 
 surface of the side would produce no motion of 
 the arm, because an equal pressure is exerted in 
 a contrary direction by a corresponding surface 
 opposite to it. Now, if one of these surfaces be 
 cut out, the pressure against the other being un- 
 counteracted, forces the arm in the opposite direc- 
 tion to that of the side in which the hole is made. 
 This being done to both arms on opposite sides, 
 two equal pressures are produced, which conspire 
 in generating the same motion of rotation. As 
 soon as motion ensues, centrifugal force comes 
 into play, which, throwing the water out towards 
 the ends of the arms, increases the rapidity of 
 its discharge, and also its reacting power. When 
 the wheel is in action, the water thus acts under 
 the influence of two forces— one being the pressure 
 of the column in A, and the other the centrifugal 
 force generated by the rotation of the wheel itself. 
 The motion of the wheel is transmitted by the 
 spur-wheel fixed to the spindle S, to the machinery 
 which is to be driven by it, or, in the case of a 
 corn-mill, the spindle passes directly through the 
 lower millstone, and is firmly fixed into the upper 
 one. 
 
 The power is manifestly increased by heightening 
 the water-column, or by lengthening the arms — 
 the former increasing the pressure of the water, 
 and the latter increasing the leverage at which 
 this pressure acts. In the mill shewn in the figure, 
 the column in A cannot be advantageously height- 
 ened, for the higher it rises, the greater must be 
 the weight which the conical spindle, T, has to 
 sustain, and the greater, consequently, becomes the 
 friction. It is from thi3 circumstance that such 
 mills are found, in practice, to yield but a small 
 mechanical effect — the friction consuming too largo 
 a proportion of the work of the wheel. Hence, in 
 the reaction-wheels now in use, the original B. M. 
 has been so modified as to allow of the water being 
 conducted from the reservoir below the arms instead 
 of above. This is effected by making the vertical 
 pipe revolve below in a stuffing-box at its junction 
 with the conduit, and above, by a pivot moving 
 in the fixed frame. By this arrangement, the 
 friction attending the rotation is reduced to a 
 minimum, for not only is the weight of the water 
 placed out of account, but also a large proportion 
 of the weight of the wheel itself, which is borne 
 upward pressure of the water. The mechani- 
 cal performance of such wheels is said to be highly 
 satisfactory, producing, with a limited supply of 
 5 from a considerable height, a useful 
 effect, hardly to be obtained by any other contriv- 
 ance. The power of these machines may be also 
 
 M
 
 babk-stove-babley. 
 
 increased by using curved (fig. 2) instead of 
 
 anus. With straight .-inns, 
 a cm lose of force 
 
 is incurred by U 
 
 inge of the direction of 
 current when it leaves 
 the arm, which does not 
 place to the same 
 nt with curved 
 „ where this change is 
 
 Fl 2- - effected gradually. Cn 
 
 Whitelaw's Mil] (hence called the Scottish tur- 
 bine), the form of B. M. generally met with in 
 Scotland, there arc three instead of two curved 
 arms of this di acription. Co i 4 M A 
 of opinion still e is to the merits of B. M.._ 
 
 some considering it as the most perfect way oi 
 applying water-power, and others putting it in the 
 same rank as an under-shot wheel, with thi 
 water-supply. Of late years, it has been more 
 extensively employed than formerly, both in tins 
 country and on the continent. See Watjer-pOW BR. 
 
 BA'RK-STOYE, in Gardening, a kind of hot- 
 house intended for those plants which require not 
 only the greatest heat, but also a continually moist 
 atmosphere. It derives its name from the 
 tanners' bark, for the purpose of nroducinj th 
 atmospheric condition. The bark is placed in a 
 pit, lined and paved with brick, and pots containing 
 tropica] plants arc sunk in it; by which means 
 the plants not only enjoy a moisture resembling 
 that of their native climates, but the earth around 
 their roots is kept uniformly and moderately fa 
 The principle of the 15. is adopted in pineries, p dm- 
 houses, orcliid-houses, &c, also in forcing 
 employed for producing the ordinary fruits and 
 • Ides of temperate climates at unusual seasons. 
 A considerable heat nsnlts from the ferm. i 
 of tanners' bark, but it is not upon this that its 
 value in the B. chiefly depends. 
 
 BA'RLAAM AND JO'SAPHAT, one of the 
 
 most widely-spread religious romances of the middle 
 ages, relating the conversion of the Indian prince 
 Josaphat by the hermit Barlaam, and thereby 
 illustrating the power of Christianity to overcome 
 temptation, and proving its superiority ... 
 othercreeds. The celebrated divine, John I 1 
 has been by some erroneously supposed the author 
 of the original Greek MS., while others have' 
 attributed it to the church historian Anastasius 
 Bibliothecarius. At all events, it was the produc- 
 tion of an eastern, possibly an Ethiopian Christian. 
 The Greek original was first published by -M. de 
 Boissonade, in the 4th volume of his Anecdota (l'aris, 
 1832), and translated into German by Liebrecht 
 (Milnst. 1S-17). But even in the middle ages, a Latin 
 version of this romance had been extensively circu- 
 lated. About the end of the 15th c, it was often 
 printed in a detached form, and later, it a | 
 amongst the works of John Damascene (l'aris. 1609). 
 \ in.-, nt de Beauvais wove the story into his Specu- 
 lum Ilislorkde. From the Latin version sprung three 
 French poetical versions belonging to the L. 
 and as yet imprinted. The Italian Sloria di B. 
 Barlaam (latest edition, Borne, 1S1G) may bi 
 to a Provencal original as early as the beginning 
 of the 14th c. In Germany, Iludolf von Ems derived 
 i ;■.. in. /.' . ./ ./., lir'.,t printed at Eon 
 (1S18), and later at Leipsie, from the Latin of John 
 Damascene. There is also an Augsburg impres- 
 sion of a prose translation of the ancient Latin 
 text, belonging to the close of the 15th c. The 
 Spanish // B. y J., by Juan de Arze 
 
 Solorzano (Madrid, 1G0S), the Polish poetical ver- 
 sion, by Kulizowsky (Cracow, 1USS), as well as the 
 696 
 
 i (Prague, IS J), are all 1 
 the Latin; while the Icelandic Barlaanu Saga, 
 and the Swedish popular tale, /•'■ och •/"., have 
 ... German source. -\ vei ion, printed 
 
 from an old vellum MS. of the I of the 
 
 13th c, said to have been ti insisted by King Hakon 
 red in 1861. This roi 
 i ndered into the Tagala language of the 
 Philippines, and there printed (.Manilla, 1712). 
 BAB-LE-DUC, or BAB Sl"K-l iKNAIN, . 
 in the i tt of the -Mens,., [Trance. It is 
 
 situated on the Ornain, about 1 •_'."> miles ea i 
 
 with which it is I by railway, and 
 
 with the Rhine by canal Pop 13,334, who manu- 
 facture cotton and calicoes, and cany on a COU- 
 1 trade in timber from the Vbsges, for the 
 Paris, and inir<, i wine. B. has a 
 
 communal college, normal school, and public library. 
 Its origin dates from the 10th c. 
 
 BARLE'TTA, a fortified seaport of Naples, 
 province of Bari, on the Adriatic. Pop. 
 23,000, who carry on a large shipping-trad, 
 . e, the b.nian (aland . end ..tier ports of the 
 Adriatic. The town is well built, handsome, and 
 has a fine cathedral, a colossal statue sup- 
 po 1 to represent the Emperor Hirudins, a colli ge, 
 theatre, and castle, formerly one of the most impi 
 liable fortresses in Italy. A feature of B. 
 
 ; : a • ay which leads to its 
 
 harbour. During the blockade of 15. by the French 
 
 .' 1503, which ended in the defeat and 
 
 : of tli.ir commander, the Duke of Nemours, 
 
 the cell com i elevi a cavaliers of 
 
 , and SS many of Spain, in which the 
 
 lier Bayard so distinguished himself, took 
 
 place, and ended in a drawn battle. 
 
 BA'RLEY (Hordeum), a genus of Grasses, to 
 
 of the most ly cultivated 
 
 kinds of grain. The genus is distinguished by 
 
 Barley. 
 
 o, two-rowed barley ; b, sprat or battledore barley. 
 
 spiked inflorescence, three spike-lets being always 
 situated upon each tooth of the rachis, of I 
 
 nies only the middle one is fertile, and some- 
 times all the three, so that in the former case the 
 fruit-bearing spike is two-rowed, and m the latter 
 case, six-rowed; the glumes are two, containing a
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 floret; the pale.-e two, the outi r one owned ; 
 ■ 1 by the pal te. The 
 of this genua are ol t all annual, although some 
 
 ies of B. are sown in the end of autumn, and 
 the • ultivation of them extends over the winter, B. 
 is mentioned in the hooks of Moses and other books 
 of the Old Testament, also by the Greek and Roman 
 ■writers, and has been extensively cultivated from 
 remote Beer made from it was known to 
 
 th G ins, and the ancient Germans. 
 
 iltivation ol led from 
 
 Italy northwards in Europe, but it 
 than any other grain to the most north 
 some of its varieties being cultivated with advan- 
 tage where the climate is too cold, or the summer 
 too -it, for any other cereal crop; and it is deemed 
 i Je that its native country is Northern or 
 
 Central Asia. It is capable, however, ol 
 cultivated in very warm climates, and e: 
 a wider climatic range than any of the other grains. 
 
 il is used for bread in the northern parts 
 of Europe, but in other parts of the world, B. is 
 more generally converted into malt for the making 
 of beer (see Bkewino), or merely deprived of its 
 outer skin, and so used as an article of food. B. 
 intended for brewing is first subjected to the 
 process of malting, by which it is converted into 
 Malt (q. v.). J'., simply deprived of the husk 
 
 i in a mill is called Pol B. or So 
 
 When the pellicle of the seed is also removed, and 
 
 the seed itself rounded and polished, it is Pearl 
 
 -What is sometimes called Pai 
 
 obtained bj pearl B M and differs from 
 
 tree from a degree of acridity 
 
 . the latter derives from the integuments of 
 the seed. 
 
 It is doubtful if this grain is produc 
 more than ono species, or whether what have 
 met species by botanists, are 
 not really mere varieties, the result of long culti- 
 vation. H. vulgare is usually distinguished as 
 having the grains disposed in four rows; 11. 
 i having tlicm in six rows; and IS. 
 
 ion, as having the lateral spike! ive,and 
 
 ore, in two rows. But the lower 
 part of the spike in the varieties ranked under //. 
 is often six-rowed, and only the upper part 
 four-rowed; and in rich soils, a tendency to resume 
 the six-rowed form is otherwise manifest. Nor are 
 the kinds known as Naked Barley, in which the 
 seed spai-ates readily from the pales, to be looked 
 upon as more distinct. The four- rowed or six-rowed 
 varieties are generally coarser, but more productive 
 than the two-rowed ; and some of them, often called 
 BEAR, or BlOO, are regarded as most suitable for 
 exposed situations and inferior soils. A kind with 
 
 I seeds, call ' tete of some 
 
 writers), is extensively cultivated in some parts of 
 Europe, and its straw is regarded as affording a 
 
 . food for cattle than that of most other kinds. 
 
 i ;., another variety with 
 
 naked seeds, and further charaet eriaed by the 
 irregular manner in which the grains are placed in 
 pike, palete three-lobed at the end, and very 
 short awns— and which is tlier, led by 
 
 some botanists as a distinct species (//. trtfitrcaban 
 at B. ' has been recommended an particu- 
 
 larly adapted for cold mountainous regions, •.. 
 good crops in the Himalaya at an elevation of 
 
 above the level ol the 800. Of the two- 
 
 rowed R, there are many varieties, of which the 
 e -u or Early English P.., the Italian B., and the 
 t /.'. are among the most esteemed, the 
 
 I being in particular demand for the brewing of 
 
 the finest ales, it takes its name from M. Chevalier, 
 who introduced it. — The Sprat or Battledore B. 
 
 of many botanists) is als" I 
 but is distinguished by the grains standing oui 
 
 Ice, their awns spreading very widely. It 
 is sometimes called <; . as it swells by 
 
 boiling in the way that rice does, and for some 
 purposes forms a good substitute for it. It is 
 . cultivated in Britain, but is in much esteem 
 11 in the Alps at an 
 elevation of 3360 let 1. 
 
 Thre Britain, 
 
 of which one (//. a small gras3, is pretty 
 
 common on waste-grounds, especially in England, 
 and is apt to prove troublesome by its long awns 
 causing inflammation in the mouths of cattle. Still 
 more injurious in this way is the North American 
 is Tad. Another, Meadow 
 I;, or Meadow B.-Grabs (if. prate i nt in 
 
 meadows in England, i ture- 
 
 gras3. II. a native of the south of 
 
 Europe and north of sVfrica, is cultivated in Britain 
 for herbage, of which it yields a large quantity, 
 much relished by cattle, and particularly by horses. 
 Several species are natives of North America. 
 
 BA'BLET, i VuivATioN' of. Barley was culti- 
 vated largely by the Romans, as well as many other 
 
 nations of antiquity. Though so:: il as 
 
 f 1 by the soldiers, it was mi 
 
 food for horses. The ancient inhabitants of (laid 
 prepared a spiritno a kind of beer, from it. 
 
 .Many of the other nations latterly applied 
 
 it to the same use, and it also became an important 
 article of food. On the whole, its growth in modern 
 times has been greatly restricted on the continent 
 of Europe. Othei found to be more pro- 
 
 fitable. Being a plant which is most prodi 
 where the climate is moderately dry and warm, tie- 
 excessive heats of many parts of Europe are adverse 
 both to the quantity and quality of its grain. It is 
 only cultivated to a hit on a few limited 
 
 where the soil is specially suited to it, such as 
 in Belgium, Holland, Prussia, and Denmark. Indeed, 
 while most of the countries of Europe send us wheat, 
 efly Denmark and Sili sia that supply us with 
 bailey. For this reason, tie 
 
 relatively higher in this country than those of wheat, 
 since the introduction of free-trade in grain. No 
 country seems to possess a soil and climate so well 
 suited to its growth as many parts of Britain. In 
 former times, this grain was largely used in the 
 British Is] i'i this is tic 
 
 now only in Ireland and the Highl. - otland, 
 
 where the condition of the population has under- 
 gone comparatively little amelioration. In Scotland, 
 however, a considerable quantity is made vise of in 
 the making of broth. In this CI ain is 
 
 ed of its husk by the friction of revolving 
 millstones, and goes under the name ,.;' Pot Barley. 
 But the larger proportion of the B. grown in 
 Great Britain, as well as that which is imported, 
 
 'loyed ill the distillation of spirits, and in the 
 manufacture of beer, ale, and porter. The inferior 
 
 qualities are taken np by the distillers, wlide the 
 
 1 porter require the finest, which 
 
 are known by the colour of the husk, and 
 
 gravity of the grain. Fine matting b. 
 ! a ready demand in 
 well as a high pi 
 Perhaps the cultiva n i B. < H pro- 
 
 minent a share of the arable lands of Suffolk 
 and Norfolk as of any other part of Britain. Bine 
 malting qualities are grown on the turnip-soils of 
 throughout the aouth- 
 i counties, where the four-course rotation 
 is adopted. In this rotation, the B. follows the 
 turnip-crop, which is usually consumed an the land 
 by sheep. The ground is carefully prepared by 
 
 09?
 
 BARLEY— BARLEY-BREAK. 
 
 hinga and rollings, to pulverise it thoroughly 
 before the mention of the seed, which is u 
 ■own by a drill-machine at the rate of about two 
 bushels to the acre. Even on the strong cl. 
 of the eastern counties, excellent crops of 15. are 
 obtained by the peculiar model of culture adopted. 
 On the strong lands of Suffolk and Hani 
 for example, the B.-crop is sown after a summer- 
 fallow or a green-crop, in which case the soil is 
 ploughed before the frosts of winter set in, to render 
 it fria! -. As soon as the weather p 
 
 after the first v. iruary the seed is com- 
 
 mitted to the grouniL A tine mould is in this way 
 obtained, and the i : pa are usually abundant and of 
 good quality. In the south of England, the grain is 
 allowed to stand till it is fully ripe, when it is 
 cut with the scythe or the reaping-machine. In 
 many parts, it is not bound up into sheaves, but 
 remains in the swath for a few days, when it is 
 afterwards carted, and stored into barns. A 
 portion of the B.-crop is still thrashed out by the 
 Hail, owing to the maltsters being under the in 
 sion that the thrashing-mills injure the germinating 
 powers. The chief varieties grown in England are 
 the Chevalier, the Common, the Early English, and 
 the Norfolk. The first-named is the most 1 
 sown, as the quality is superior to any i 
 and, under liberal treatment, the yield is gl 
 The produce is more influenced by the seasons than 
 that of wheat, as it is liable to sutler from dro 
 in the early part of the year. On well . 
 land, from 48 to 60 bushels and upwards are got 
 to the acre. In the peaty -soils of the fens of 
 lnshire B. is not raised, as it is too liable to 
 lodge with the rain: neither is B. a favourite crop 
 in the moist climate of the west of England. It 
 does not endure the rains so well as whi 
 to be highly farmed. In Wales and Lancashire, it 
 is generally grown after a crop of wheat, and the 
 cultivation and management are not so carefid as in 
 the east. 
 
 Barley has long been grown in Scotland, and 
 comes to great perfection where the soil and climate 
 are suitable. The level parts of the Lothians and 
 other counties in the east of Scotland are the dis- 
 tricts in which the finest crops are raised. In these 
 rich districts, the six-course rotation is generally 
 followed, and B. is sown after a portion of the 
 turnip-break. For this reason, it does not occupy so 
 large a proportional breadth as it does under the 
 Norfolk four-course. The produce is equally abun- 
 dant, however, and the quality of the grain is not 
 much inferior. Chevalier is the favourite variety 
 there also. The crop, when ripe, is cut by sickle, 
 scythe, or reaping-machine; bound up at once, and 
 put into stooks, to defend it from the weather till 
 ready to cart, and to be built up in neat round 
 stacks. The grain is invariably thrashed out by 
 machinery. In the higher districts of Scotland, 
 where the soil and climate are not so good, the 
 inferiority of the grain, both in quality and quan- 
 tity, is very considerable. It is only in tine 
 seasons that the quality is such as to render 
 it an object to maltsters, and distillers can only 
 make use of it at a reduced price. The chi 
 variety is too late for inferior climates, and the 
 early English and other kinds that come sooner to 
 maturity are preferred. In Berwickshire, the live- 
 course rotation — of two years' grass, oats, turnips, 
 and B. — is more generally adopted than in an] 
 county in Scotland, and a large quantity of this 
 grain is raised, but the quality is generally i i 
 to that of the crops in East Lothian. Along the 
 light soils fringing the Moray and Cromarty lirtlis, 
 as tine quality of grain i3 got as in East Lothian. 
 On the other hand, in the less genial climate of the 
 
 western counties, and also of the upper | 
 Aberdeenshire, less B. is sown, and oats frequently 
 succeed the green-crops. In these parts, the variety 
 
 i as bear, or bigg, is preferred to any other, as 
 it is not so liable to lodge, and it withstand- wet 
 weather far better. Bear, too, is the variety which 
 is cultivated by many of the small cotters in the 
 
 mis and l.-lam]-, where agriculture has 
 httle advance for cent I r a rotation 
 
 in which green-crops find a place to husband and 
 spare the natural resources of the soil, a succession 
 
 'i-crops are taken. Late sowing is generally 
 
 d, as the want of manure in the soil c 
 
 made up by the more genial weather of sum- 
 mer. For tins reason, sowing is often delayed till 
 June, and the frost of autumn often causes the 
 premature ripening of the grain. 
 
 There is not much deserving special notice in 
 the manuring of the crop. On the turnip-soils of 
 the south of England, the land is enriched by the 
 droppings of the sheep which consume the turnips. In 
 the strong soils of Norfolk and Huntingdon, guano, 
 rape-cake, or other manures abounding in nit 
 are applied when the seed is sown. In the west of 
 England, the moist climate renders the application of 
 manures more precarious, and B. is frequently taken 
 after a crop of wheat without any application of 
 fertilisers. Manures containing phosphates might 
 be used there with great advantage. When the 
 turnip-crop is drawn from the land, as it often 
 is in East Lothian, guano is the manure held in 
 most estimation ; the quantity applied is from 2 
 to 3 cwt. per acre. In Berwickshire, as in Norfolk, 
 the prevalence of the five-course shift, and the 
 
 1 practice of eating the crop on the ground, 
 secure a sufficiently liberal manuring. In other 
 parts, where B. is taken after wheat, farmyard 
 manure is often applied, as well as guano and 
 phosphoric manures. In the Highlands, where bear is 
 i m the small farms, the chief manure is shell- 
 sand, or lime. There is one point in the man 
 of the crop which ought to be attended to — that 
 earlier it is sown in the season, the more 
 liberal ought to be the application of nitrogenous 
 manures. On the other hand, the later it is sown, 
 manures containing nitrogen should be used more 
 sparingly, and a portion of phosphoric manures 
 should be substituted in their stead. 
 
 BARLEY-BREAK, a popular amusement, very 
 common in the reign of James I., and, with certain 
 modifications, in name and practice still e. 
 among young persons, both in England and 
 land. Originally, it was played by six people, three 
 of each sex, who were formed into couples. A piece 
 of ground was then apportioned into three parts ; 
 and into the centre one, called fell, a couple 
 
 l 1 ly lot The sport consisted hi the t . 
 the condemned part ' catching ' one of the other 
 
 I while they were in the act of chai 
 places, when the couple caught had to go into the 
 centre. It was, however, no easy matter for the two 
 in the centre to capture another couple, for, by the 
 of the game, they were bound to keep united, 
 while the others, when hard pressed, might 
 Thus, .Sir Philip Sidney, in describing the game, 
 says : 
 
 Soon as the middle two 
 Do, coupled, towards either couple make, 
 They false and fearful do their hands undo. 
 
 When the whole had been caught, the game was 
 and the last couple taken was said to be in 
 In 11. Their punishment appears to have con 
 in kissing each other. Herrick says, in referring to 
 the game : 
 
 it w—hifl he of plagues the worst. 
 We 11 wish in bell we had been last and first.
 
 BARLEYCORN-BARNABAS. 
 
 In Scotland, the game consisted in one person 
 ne the rest round the stacks in a farmyard; 
 and when one was caught, he or she had to assist in 
 capturing the rest. The origin of the name is i 
 fill. Dr Jamie8on suggests that, in Scotland, the 
 locality of the game may have given it its name — 
 ' barla-bracks, about the stacks.' The same author- 
 ity also adds : ' Perhapa from barley and break, q., 
 breaking of the parley, because after a certain time 
 allowed for settling preliminaries, on a cry being 
 given, it is the b d "lie to catch as many 
 
 prisoners as he can.' This supposition is not im- 
 probable. In the modern games of 'Shephffrda 
 a-warning,' and 'Tig,' which appear to have been 
 derived from B., 'a barley ' means aparley. 
 
 BA'RLEYCORN, Jorrx, a personification of the 
 
 spirit of barley, or malt-liquor, used jocularly, 
 
 and also in humorous poetical effusions. There 
 
 exists a whimsical English tract of old date, under 
 
 the title of The Arraigning and Indicting of Sir John 
 
 . A"/;'., printed far Timothy Tosspot, in 
 
 which Sir John is described as of ' noble blood, well 
 
 d in England, a great support of the crown, 
 
 and a maintainer of both rich and poor.' See Hone's 
 
 y-day Booh, vol. i. 
 
 BARLEY-SUGAR, a confection prepared with 
 sugar and a decoction of barley. E 
 
 BA'RLOW, Jof.i, an American poet and pob- 
 tician, born in 176S at Heading in Conn 
 1 [e studied at Yale College in Newhaven. He 
 was intended for the profession of the law, but 
 I as a military chaplain during the War of 
 Independence. In 17S7 be published a poem called 
 The Vision of Columbus, which in 1805 appeared 
 anew in an enlarged form as The Columbti 
 abounds in beautiful passages, but is overburdened 
 with pobtieal and philosophical disquisitions, and 
 ired by ularities of expression. B. accepted 
 a commission in 17SS to prosecute the sale of lands 
 for the Ohio Company in England and France, 
 where he signalised himself by zealous republic- 
 anism ; published in 1702 in London a poem 
 entitled The Conspiracy of Kings, and endeavoured 
 also to work upon the public mind in England 
 by poUtical pamphlets. In autumn 1702 he was 
 deputed by the London reformers, with whom he 
 was associated, to proceed to Paris, where he i 
 the rights of French citizenship. He spent some 
 years on the continent of Europe in political, liter- 
 iul mercantile pursuits, and was for a short 
 time American consul at Algiers. He returned to 
 America in 1805, and was appointed ambassador to 
 France in 1811. He died in October 1812 at Zarna- 
 wiczc, near Cracow, when on his way to a conference 
 with the Emperor Napoleon at Wilna. 
 
 BARM. See Yeast. 
 
 BARMECIDES, or BAT.MEKIBE.S, a Persian 
 family, distinguished amongst the most powerful 
 in the province of Khorasan, the cradle of the 
 of the Abbaside califs, whose cause the 
 children of Barmek espoused. Khaled- 
 the. first of these whose authentic history has 
 led us, was the prime-niiuister of Abul Abbas 
 Al-Saffah, the first Abbaside calif; and h 
 
 , mine i of Al-Manaur and 
 
 I him with the edi 
 ofhissomtl chid. Yahya, 
 
 the son of Khaled — acd rn historians, 
 
 equally conspicuous for virtue and talent — was made 
 vizier by llarun upon his accession to the califate 
 \. D.), and both by his military skill and civil 
 admin i attributed largely to the 
 
 of the reign —the calif himself bestowing on him the 
 appellation of Father, llaruu, however, afterwards 
 
 becoming jealous of the growing power and popu- 
 larity of two of Yahya's sous, Fadhl and Jarfar 
 (the Giafar of the Arabian Nights), had 
 executed, and the whole of the B. throughout the 
 kingdom arrested, and their goods confiscated. 
 Harun even carried his enmity so far as to forbid 
 the mention of their name on pain of death; but 
 their virtues and their glory arc celebrated by almost 
 all Mohammedan poets and historians. 
 
 BA'RMECIDE'S FEAST, a phrase originating 
 most probably in the story of the barbers sixth 
 brother, recorded in the Nights, and 
 
 abridged in the Guardian, No. 1G2. The sub- 
 stance of the story is as follows : One Schacabac 
 being in great want, and not having tasted food for 
 two days, ventured to visit a rich Barmecide (see 
 Barmecides) noted both for his hospitality and 
 eccentric humour, in the hope of generous entertain- 
 ment. The Barmecide, on learning his con i 
 invited him to dinner. Schacabac was presented 
 with an empty plate, requested to 'make hunt 
 home,' and by and by, asked 'how he liked his rice- 
 soup.' It was apparently a cruel jest to play off on 
 a starving man. Schacabac, nevertheless, feigned to 
 enter into the humour of his host) and expressed his 
 conviction that the rice-soup was delicious. The 
 Barmecide continuing the imjiosition, next asked his 
 victim if he ever saw whiter bread. Poor Schacabac, 
 who saw neither bread nor meat, nor indeed anything 
 eatable, made a prodigious effort to look happy; 
 he even went the length of gently remonstrating 
 with his host for not BUpposmg him comj 
 satisfied. In this way a magnificent but fictitious 
 dinner was disposed of. When wine, however, was 
 produced, Schacabac pretended only to taste it on 
 the ground that he was ' quarrelsome in his 1 
 and might do his host an injury. The Barm 
 forced him, however, and at last Schacabac, who 
 was really in a most excusable rage at being so 
 elaborately tantalised, feigned to have got flu 
 and gave the eccentric old gentleman 'a good box 
 on the ear.' This put a stop to the joke. The 
 Barmecide was mightily pleased with the patient 
 humour of 1 , a visible dinner was imme- 
 
 diately ordered up, and Schacabac now enjoyed 
 in reality what be had previously partaken of only 
 in imagination. 
 
 BAR'MEN, a most cbarming valley, about two 
 leagues in length, on the Wupper, about i 
 from Elberfeld, in the province of 
 It is divided into Upper and Lowi 
 five towns or villages, which united form the town 
 of B., with 41,442 inhabitants, chiefly Protestants. 
 Nowhere in Germany is so much manufacturing 
 industry accumulated in a single spot. B. is the 
 principal seat of the ribbon-manufacture on the 
 continent. Its fabrics go to all parts of the world. 
 It produces lineu, woollen, cotton, silk and half- 
 silk ribbons of every quality, and all sorts of stay- 
 laces, &c. It has also considerable manufactures 
 of woven lace, Bewing-thread, th 
 cloth called Xiamoise, \v.c. There are. 
 the valley, numerous bleachfields and dye-works. 
 Lower B. has a mineral spring and a bathing 
 ilisbment. 
 
 BA'RNABAS, St, properly Jose=. mentii 
 
 ts of the Apostles as a fellow-labourer of 
 Paul, and even honoured with the title of apostle. 
 Be is also supposed to have founded the 
 
 u community at Antioch. According to 
 tradition, he became the first Bishop of Milan 
 he is differently reported to have died a natural 
 death, and to have suffered martyrdom at the 
 hands of the Cypriot Jews, 61 A. D. The Epistle 
 ascribed to him id of very doubtful authenticity. 
 
 699
 
 E ABNAB AS -BARNACLE GOOSE. 
 
 B \ It X ABAS, St, Epistle op. This Epistle con- 
 tains twenty-one chapters. Its aim is obviously to 
 strengthen the faith <>t believers in a purely spiritual 
 Christianity. It commences by declaring thai li 
 sacrifii li ihed, and then 
 
 though uot in a very coherent or logical manner, 
 how variously Christ was foretold in tl ! 
 t mi. nt. In the tenth chapter, it spiritually alle- 
 ; the commands of Moses con can and 
 
 a beasts j in the fifteenth, it explains the •true 
 meaning' of the Sabbath ; and in the sixteenth, what 
 1 niple really prefigured. This concludes what 
 may be termed the doctrinal portion of the I 
 the remainder, which is of a practical character, 
 describes the two ways of life the way of Light 
 and the way of Darkness, and closes with an 
 
 exhortation that those who read it may BO live that 
 may he Messeil to all eternity. It is a simple, 
 pious, and earnest work; hut makes a far more 
 judicious use of the New Testament than of t ' 
 
 BA'RNABITES, an order of monks which sprung 
 up at Milan in 1630. Tiny were so called bi 
 the church of St Barnabas in that city was granted 
 them to preac h in. TL 1 of by Pope 
 
 Clement VII. and Pope Paul III. Their special 
 duties were, to attend the sick, to preach, to ii 
 the youn<_', and to take the charge of souls. They 
 soon established themselves in Italy. France, Austria, 
 and Spain, and enjoyed the privilege of te 
 ■ y in the schools of Milan and i'avia. 
 nt men have been sent forth by them. 1 1 
 the three usual monastic vows, they took a fourth, 
 viz., not to sue for church preferments. In France 
 and Austria, they were employed 111 the conversion of 
 tants; but they have now, as a body, almost 
 fallen into oblivion. Only a few monasteries exist 
 here and there in France and Italy. 
 
 BARNACLE, or BE 1 : N I C I . K{Lepae, also called 
 fa and Pentalamtis), a kind of shell-fish, a 
 genus of Cirrhopoila (q. v.), the type of a 
 of articulate animals distingui bed by a long flexible 
 stalk or peduncle, which is provided « 
 upon the summit of which, in the true barnacles, 
 are shelly valves, tive in number, enclosing the 
 principal organs of the animal, and opening and 
 on one side like the opercular valves of 
 II (q. v.). to admit of its spreading out and 
 ting its net— an apparatus similar to that by 
 which the animals of that genus obtain their food. 
 Barnacles abound in almost all seas, attaching them- 
 selves in great numbers to logs of wood, shi| 
 toms, &c. They grow very rapidly. Some of the 
 
 Barnacle 
 
 species are eaten in some parts of the world, and 
 perhaps they were among the btilani whii 
 aucient Romans esteemed a delicacy. — In some cir- 
 rhopods, very nearly allied to the true barnacles, and 
 700 
 
 bling them in general form, the shelly valves 
 almost entirely disappear. 
 
 In former times, the B. was supposed to be the 
 . o of a goose or bird of some kind; a D 
 which doubtless arose from a fancied 1 
 
 u the convolutions of the fish in its shell and 
 
 the embryo of a bird in the egg. It was. therefore, 
 
 ed that the barnacle goose, described in next 
 
 article, sprung from these marine shells. Hollinshed 
 
 , affirms that such was the case; and the 
 
 arned men of their time were W 
 credence t" the absurdity. Gerard, in his 
 Herbal (1">'.I7), declares, that after 'a thing in 
 form like a lace of sfike finely woven, as it 
 
 !■' — which he correctly enou L states to be 
 •tiie first thing that appearefh' when 'the shell 
 gapeth open' — there next follow 'the legs of the 
 bird hanging out;' and at la t the bird, men 
 in size, ' haugeth only by the bill,' and 'in short 
 space after it Cometh to full maturity, and falleth 
 into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and 
 groweth to a fowl bigger than a mallard, ami 
 than a goose,' &c. All this was represented as con- 
 stantly taking place on the coast of Lancashire and 
 the Hebrides, and continental writers of gl 
 name reported in like manner the Bame fable, against 
 which Kay and other early naturalists were obliged 
 The B., however, really under- 
 goes transformations not less wonderful than the 
 fabled ones, which have rendered it an object of so 
 much interest. Sei PODA. 
 
 BA'EXACLE GOOSE, or BERNICLE GOOSE, 
 oft 11 also called BAItHACUB, or BXRHICLB (Anser 
 
 
 •m* . 
 
 Barnacle Goose. 
 
 Bernicla or leueopais), the bird which the fables of 
 former days represented as deriving its origin from 
 the cirrhopod of which it bears the name. It is in 
 
 taller than the common wild goose, being only 
 a little more than 'J feet long, and about 5 lbs. 
 in weight. It is very prettily marked, having the 
 forehead, cheeks, and throat white, the bill black, 
 and a black stripe extending from it to the eye ; the 
 crown of the head, neck, and upper part of the: 
 breast black ; the rest of the plumage on the upper 
 parts of the body chieHy ash-gray and black, in 
 undulating bars— on the lower parts, white. It is 
 a common winter visitant of the western coasts of 
 Britain and of Ireland, but in the eastern parts of 
 
 1 it is rare. It retires in spring to more 
 northern regions, where it breeds, vast nui 
 
 northward along the coast of Norway to 
 the Arctic Ocean. It is highly esteemed for the 
 table. 
 
 The Brent Goose, or Brent Barnacle [A 
 or torqwotus, A. Bernicla of some naturalists), has 
 frequently received the name of the B. G., and no
 
 BABNACLES— BABNEVELDT. 
 
 little confusion has existed concerning them in 
 
 of science, although the bird 
 distinct. The Bn smaller than the B. 6., 
 
 only about 21 inchi s in length. It is also of 
 much darker plumage, the whole head, throat, and 
 neck being black, < icept a small patch an 
 
 . Avliich is white, mixed with a 
 few regularly pi '. feathers; the 
 
 parts oi the body generally almost black, and the 
 lower parts slate- ' and under 
 
 tail-coverts, which are white. It is remarkable 
 • wing and powerful flight, and for its 
 distant ne. rations. It is very common in winter 
 on the I ires, but breeds in high northern 
 
 latitude-. It is a winter-bird of passage in the 
 i I as in Britain and on the 
 
 continent oi I u on . [1 i excellent for the ta 
 
 rly allied to thi 
 breasted Goose, or Bed-breasted Barnacle 
 
 lis), a beautiful bird, of which the neck and 
 
 part of the breast are of a rich chestnut 
 
 red, In size, it resembles the Brent Goose; it is 
 
 a very it of Britain and of the continent 
 
 of Europe, and is abundant only in the extreme 
 
 north of Asia. — Another species, called Hutehins' 
 
 or Barnacl , of dark plumage, 
 
 and with a triangular patch of white on each side 
 
 of the head and neck, is abundant in Hudson's Bay, 
 
 and the extreme north of America. 
 
 These species are regarded by some naturalists 
 
 ■ instituting a genus E uished 
 
 iter ami more slender bill from 
 
 f or true geese. 
 
 in i loose or Bargander [Anser I 
 
 [with these, sometimes 
 ; the type of a distinct gi nus, ' 
 
 account of the longer bill, a short spur with 
 
 ad of the wine is armed, and the anatomical 
 peculiarity of a hollow bony enlargement at the 
 bottom 01 the trachea of the male. It has long 
 
 1 n kept in parks and pleasure-grounds in Britain, 
 
 chielly on account of the beauty of its plumage, 
 and has become partially naturalised. It is a little 
 C than a common goose; its voice more 
 that of a wild-duck. The prevailing 
 colour of the plumage is light chestnut brown. 
 minutely rayed with darker lines; the neck and 
 part of the wings are white. Large chestnut patches 
 surround t'.ie eyes. It is very abundant on the 
 Nile, and is frequently figured in Egyptian 
 
 It is much I fbl the table, and was 
 
 and fattened for it by the ancient Egyptians. 
 
 ]' VKNACLKS, in Heraldry, resembling what 
 
 are now called twitchers, were instruments used 
 
 riers to curb and command unruly horses. 
 
 B. , . . i! lid into coats of arms as 
 
 a charge.- The term BARNACLES, applied to spec- 
 
 rivedfrom beryllvs, a transparent stone; 
 
 dim. ' '"• ' "'' ' >'■ bas 
 
 cl oi Bern, fc 3 « ' ; 
 
 the nose. 
 
 BA'BXARD CA'STLE, an inland town in the 
 south of Durham county, an the right bank of 
 the Tees, about 40 miles from its mouth. 
 miles Bouth-west of Durham. It stands on the 
 of an eminence rising from the river. Its 
 chief manufactures are hat 
 
 thread, leather, plaids, and stockings. It has one 
 
 st corn-markets in the north of England. 
 
 On a rocky height over the river arc the ruins 
 
 landed about 11 so 
 
 i. son of Gay BahoL a follower of the 
 
 Conqueror, and ancestor of John Baliol, king of 
 
 .nd, who was born in the castle, and founded 
 
 an hospital far the poor in the town. B. C. is the 
 scene of part of Sir W. Scotfa poem of J: 
 1608. 
 B A RXAT'L.a town of West Siberia, in the govern- 
 ment ol I * is situated at the junction of the 
 Barnaul with the river Oby, and has a popi 
 
 ' 10,000, who are chielly engaged i 
 mining and smelting of the innd in the 
 
 vicinity, which consist of silver, lead, and copper. 
 B. has 120 furnaces at work, is the seat of a n 
 board, and has a magnetic and meteorological 
 
 tory. 
 
 BARXAYH. AxTOrSE-PlERRE-JoSEPH-MAlllK, a 
 uished character and victim of the I 
 Revolution, was born at Grenoble in 1701, was 
 the son of an advocate, adopted bis father'. 
 fession, and early attracted attention in the parlia- 
 ment of Grenoble by the talents which he displayed. 
 A pamphlet which he published against the feudal 
 system led to his being returned as deputy from 
 ■ ites-gencral in 1789. He 
 ly advocated the proclamation of 
 of Man, was vehement in opposition to the Absolute 
 Veto, carried through the confiscation of church- 
 property to the ii- " of the nation, the emancipation 
 of the Jews, and the abolition of the religious orders, 
 and was mainly instrumental in the liberation 
 of the slaves and reorganisation of the colonies. 
 As a leader of the extreme party in the earlier 
 of the revolution, he became the idol of 
 the people, and particularly after his victory over 
 Mirabeau, in the question of the power of | 
 and war, which Mirabeau wished to remain with 
 the kin.', ami B. successfully claimed for the 
 
 ' 
 became inclined to a more moderate course ; 
 consequences of the sudden changes in the Cl 
 
 first to have alarmed him; and being sent, 
 with Latour-Maubourg and 1'ction, to bring 
 he king alter his flight, he was much D 
 by the spectacle of the misfortunes of the royal 
 family, and then . forth endeavoured to render 
 all the assistance in his power. He defended, in a 
 speech of great vehemence, the inviolability of the 
 king's person, and resisted the assertion by the 
 My of power to remove ministers. His 
 general opposition to the ii violence of 
 
 the revolutionary torrent, and this last step in par- 
 ticular, destroyed his popularity ; he was regarded 
 as a renegade fro tional party, and was 
 
 I by the tierce vituperations ol the daily 
 press. He retired to his native place on the d 
 tion of the National Assembly ; but after the 10th 
 of August 1702. he was impeached, along with 
 Lametfi and Duport-Dutertre, on account ni corre- 
 spondence with the court; was brought to I 
 tried before the ftevolutionary Tribunal, condemned, 
 ami guillotined on fie 29th oi Novt mb r l7'.'o. 
 
 BA'BNKT, CillPi'lNi"., a town in the south of 
 
 a lull-top. 11 miles north-north- 
 
 of London, Pop, 2380. It was formerly* 
 
 great thoroughfare, bat since the advent of railways, 
 
 its once bustling appearance is sadly altered. Here, 
 
 in 1471, t the famous battle of B. between 
 
 and Lancastrians, in which the I 
 
 after a -ere routed, and their 
 
 , Warwick, 'the ling-maker,' killed, by which 
 
 < I IV. was firmly established on the 
 
 throne. A commemorative obelisk is now erected 
 
 near the 
 
 I'.A |;N I.Vr.l.UT, .Tax vax Clues. Grand 
 , of Holland, born 1549, early shewed 
 
 ardour in the cause of the independence of his 
 country. As advocate-general of the province of 
 Holland, he proved equally his insight into affairs and
 
 BARNSLEY-BAROMETER. 
 
 his address in diplomatic management. Penetrating 
 tlio secret designs of Prince Maurice (q. v.) 01 
 i e, Ik.' became the head of the republican party, 
 
 I aimed at subordinating the etadthoM.r t.i 
 idslature. It was he also who opposed the 
 
 warlike tendencies of Maurice, concluded (1009) a 
 truce with Spain, and prevented the States-general 
 
 taking part in the revolt of the Boh' 
 His increasing influence excited tho House of . 
 
 I I greater jealousy, which in the religious con- 
 troversiea between the Remonstrants (q.v.) and 
 Gomarista degenerated into the bitterest hostility. 
 With the view of obviating a civil war, B. proposed 
 an ecclesiastical assembly, which resulted in agree- 
 
 t general toleration in respect of the disputed 
 ponit-!. The states at first concurred in this wise 
 ' re ; but the intrigues of the Orange party 
 brought about a change of views, by representing 
 the Remonstrants as secret friends of Spain. B., 
 who sympathised with the more tolerant principles 
 of that party, was attacked in scurrilous pubUca- 
 I and was insulted even in the meeting of the 
 
 states by the mob, with whom Maurice was an idol. 
 The st s-it" • between the liemonstrants and Gromarists 
 became hotter every day, and threatened to end in 
 civil war. In the meantime, Maurice procured the 
 summoning (161S) of the Synod of Dort (q. v.), which 
 condemned the Remonstrants with the utmost rigour 
 and injustice. This decision encouraged Maurice to 
 proceed to the most violent measures. Regardless 
 of the opposition of the states, he arrested 15. and 
 other chiefs of the Remonstrants, and got 26 venal 
 judges to condemn as a traitor the innocent man to 
 win mi his country owed its political existence. It 
 was in vain that his friends and relations i 
 their voice ; equally vain was the interference of 
 the Dowager Princess of Orange and of the French 
 ambassador; Maurice was not to be moved. On 
 May 13, 1619, the venerable man of 72 years of 
 age mounted tho scaffold, and laid down his head 
 with the same firmness that he had shewn through 
 all the events of his life. His sons, Wilhelm ami 
 Ren6, were at the same time dismissed from office. 
 Wilhelm and the Remonstrants formed a conspiracy 
 against the life of the prince ; but it was discovered, 
 and Wilhelm escaped to Antwerp. His brother 
 Rene was seized in his stead, and condemned to 
 death, although he had dissuaded Wilhelm from his 
 attempt. The mother, who had not sued in the ease 
 of her husband, because he was innocent, now, when 
 there was blame, interceded with the prince for the 
 life of her son ; but in vain ; he, too, was executed, 
 
 leza 
 
 B.VRNSLEY, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 39 miles south-west of York, on the river 
 Dearne and the Dearne and B. Canal. It is situated 
 on a hill, has coal and iron mines, linen manufac- 
 tures, bleaching and dye works, iron foundries, wire- 
 works, and glass-works. The damasks and drills, 
 and the iron-wire made here are said to be unrivalled. 
 Much of the flax spun in Leeds is woven at Barnsley. 
 An explosion hi Oak Colliery in 1847 killed 72 per- 
 sons. Pop. 14,913. (1871—23,021.) 
 
 BARNSTAPLE, a town in north-west Devon- 
 shire, on the right bank of the Taw, 6 miles from its 
 mouth, and 34 north-west of Exeter. Being the 
 chief city of north Devon, and occupying a fine 
 healthy situation, it is the residence of many respect- 
 able families. The Taw is here crossed by an 
 ancient bridge of 16 arches, which has been widened 
 by iron-work on each side. In consequence of the 
 river and harbour having become filled up with 
 sand, unfitting them for large ships, much of the 
 trade "f B. has been transferred to Bideford. It has 
 manufactures of pottery and lace. It sends two 
 502 
 
 members to parliament. B. ha3 existed since the 
 reign of Athelstan, who built a castle here. 
 poet Gay was born near the town, and eduoated at 
 its grammar-school. Pop. 8667. (1871—11,790.) 
 
 BAROCHE, Pierre-Jules, an eminent !' 
 politician, was born at Paris on the 8th Novi 
 
 He passed as an advocate in 1823, and dis- 
 hed himself by his talents as a pleader. In 
 1847, he was sent to the Chamber of Deputies as 
 representative of Rochefort, took his position among 
 the moderate reform party, and was one of 
 who signed the accusation drawn up again t the 
 Guizot ministry. During the republic, he voted at 
 first along with the democratic party, but subse- 
 quently supported General Cavaignac, ami, aft 
 10th December, the politics of Louis Napoleon. J!, 
 was now made Procureur-general of the Republic at 
 the Paris appeal court, in which function he played 
 a conspicuous part. In March 1850, he BUCC 
 Ferdinand Barrot as Minister of the Interior, after 
 which he became a decided Bonapartist, and carried 
 through several restrictive measures, both commer- 
 cial and political. In Aprd 1851, he was appointed 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, with Leon Faucher as 
 colleague. After the coup d'etnt of the 2d I >r< , mlir 
 1851, B. accepted the vice-presidency of the Consul- 
 tative Commission, and was authorised to make 
 known officially the result of the plebincitum. Since 
 that period, B. has stood high in favour with the 
 emperor, and in 1855 received the grand cross of the 
 Legion of Honour. 
 
 BARO'DA, a city of Guzerat, in lat. 22' 16' 1ST., 
 and long. 73° 14' E. It is 40 mile3 from Tunkaria, 
 on the Gulf of Cambay, 81 to the north-nort I et t 
 of Surat, and 231 north of Bombay. It stands on 
 the Biswamintri, which is here crossed by a stone- 
 bridge of singular construction — an upper ran of 
 arches resting on a lower one. B. is the rei idence 
 of the Guicowar, a protected Mahratta prince. 
 Pop, about 140,000 ; trade considerable. It occu- 
 pies an important position between the coast 
 the interior. Some years ago, the Guicowar contem- 
 plated the construction of a railway to Tunkaria ; 
 and at last English capital is accomplishing a far 
 longer line, which, as its name implies, will connect 
 B. with Bombay in the one direction, and with 
 Central India on the other. 
 
 BARO'METER (Gr. baros, weight; melron, a 
 measure), an instrument for measuring the weight 
 or pressure of the atmosphere. The term is gene- 
 rally understood to refer to one in which the measure 
 is the height of a column of liquid sustained by 
 atmospheric pressure. The fundamental principle 
 of the construction of the B. is best .shewn in the 
 experiment which led Torricelli to the first dis- 
 covery of the pressure of the air. A glass tube, 
 about 33 inches in length, open at oue end, is 
 completely filled with mercury, and, being firmly 
 closed by the thumb, is inverted and placed ver- 
 tically in a cup containing mercury. When tho 
 thumb is removed, the mercury sinks in the tube till 
 it stands, generally, about 30 inches above the level 
 of the mercury in the cup, leaving in the upper part 
 a space free of air, which receives the name of the 
 Torricellian vacuum (fig. 1). The mercury within 
 the tube being thus removed from the pressure of 
 tho air, while that in the cup is exposed to it, the 
 column falls, till the pressure at the section of the 
 whole, in the same plane as the surface of the mer- 
 cury in the cup, is the same within and without the 
 tube. A similar experiment is seen when, in a 
 U-shaped tube, having one branch much wider than 
 the other, a column of mercury in the narrow 1 
 balances a column of water nearly 14 times a 
 in the other. In the Torricellian experiment, we
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 have the air anil the space occupied by it tali 
 
 of the wide water branch of the U-shaped tube, 
 and the glass tube and mercury forming the narrow 
 branch, as before; the narrow branch, however, in 
 this case being closed above, to prevent the air from 
 as it were, both branches. In both cases, the 
 I to of the columns are inversely as the B] 
 
 gravities of the liquids of which they consist; and as 
 air is about 10,000 times lighter than mercury, we 
 
 : I Id have the aerial column 10,000 times 30 
 
 It will be found, under AXKOSPHBBB, that 
 from the air lessening in density as it ascend--, the 
 i is considerably greater. Any changes that 
 take place in the height or density of the aerial 
 column will be met by corresponding changes in the 
 height of the mercurial column, so that as the 
 ii or falls, the former increases or diminishes. 
 We have, then, in this simple tube, an infallible 
 index of the varying amount of atmospheric pres- 
 sure, and, in fact, a perfect barometer. The changes, 
 however, are indicated on a scale at least 10,000 
 times diminished, so that the variations in the tube 
 shew very considerable changes in the weight of the 
 atmosphere. If water be used instead of mercury, 
 tin' water column would be 14, or, more correctly, 
 313*6 times as high as the mercurial column, or about 
 34 feet; and the scale on which the change? take 
 place would be correspondingly magnified, so that a 
 water B. should be much more delicate than a mer- 
 curial one. Water is, however, exposed to this 
 serious objection, that its vapour rises into the empty 
 space above, and causes by its elasticity a depression 
 of the column, the depressions being different for 
 di Hi rent temperatures. At zero, Fahrenheit, for 
 instance, the depression thus arising would be J an 
 inch, and at 77°, more than 1 foot. It would be 
 doubtful, likewise, at the time of any observation, 
 whether the space referred to was filled with vapour 
 of the elasticity corresponding to the observed exter- 
 nal temperature or not, so that the necessary correc- 
 tion could not with certainty bo made. The vapour of 
 mercury, on the other hand, at 77° F. — a temperature 
 considerably above the average — produces in the B, a 
 depression of only x^iu °^ an mcn > an amount prac- 
 tically inappreciable. After 200 years of experience 
 and invention, we have yet no better index of the 
 pressure of the atmosphere than the simple mercurial 
 column of Torricelli, and in all exact observations it 
 is taken as the only reliable standard. 
 
 Simple as the B. is, its construction demands 
 considerable care and experience. It is of the first 
 importance that the mercury to be used is chemically 
 pure, otherwise its fluidity is impaired, and the inside 
 of the tube becomes coated with impurities in such 
 a way as to render correct observation impossible. 
 Mercury as usually sold, is not pure; andbefon 
 employed for barometers, must be shaken well with 
 highly dilute but pure nitric acid, to remove extra- 
 neous metals and oxides. The same object is e I 
 more thoroughly by keeping it several weeks in 
 contact with the dilute acid, stirring every now 
 and then. After either process, the metal must be 
 thoroughly washed with distilled water, and dried. 
 In filling the tube, it is essentially nee 
 the column free from air and moisture. To effect 
 tlw ' the mercury, after filling, is boiled in the tube, 
 
 BO that air and moisture may be expelled, partly by 
 the beat, and partly by the vapour of the mercury. 
 This process demands great experience and skill, 
 but the same end may h I ilyandasi 
 
 ally attained by boiling the mercury, in the first 
 in itance, in an atmosphere of oarbonio acid, and then 
 pouring it into the previously heated tube by a filler 
 : ng to the bottom of it. Such care is only 
 
 expended on the best instruments ; ordinary Wl 
 glasses, not needing to be quite accurate, arc more 
 
 simply filled. Notwithstanding all these precan 
 minute bubbles of air mans [e to keep secreted, and 
 creep up in the course of time into the Torricellian 
 vacuum. When the space above the column ia 
 considerable, these become, as it were, lost in it, and 
 produce no sensible depression, and this, of course, 
 must be kept in view in the construction. 
 
 Barometers are usually divided into two classes — 
 cistern barometers, and siphon barometers. The 
 simplest form of the cistern B. is that shewn in 
 fig. 1, which only requires to bo set properly in a 
 and provided with a scale, to make it com- 
 plete. Kg. 12 presents another form of that class, 
 being that generally seen in weather-glasses or 
 
 Pigs. 1, 
 
 2, 
 
 6, 7. 
 
 ordinary barometers. The tube is bent at the 
 bottom, and the cistern is merely an expansion of 
 the lower end. Very generally, the cistern is hidden 
 from view, and protected from injury by a wooden 
 cover in front. There are two causes of inaccuracy 
 in cistern barometers — one being the capillarity 
 arising from the mercury not wetting the tube, 
 which tends to lower the column; anu the other 
 being the difference of level in the cistern caused 
 by the fluctuations in the tube, which rend 
 readings on the fixed scale above at one time too 
 great, and at another too small, according as this 
 level rises above or falls below the original level 
 from which the scale was measured. The effect of 
 capillarity may be avoided by using tubes of more 
 than half an inch in bote, in which the depri 
 becomes so small, that it may bo left out of account ; 
 and in smaller tubes it may be estimated from 
 tables constructed for the purpose. Wide 
 have the additional advantage, that atmoep 
 changes are seen earlier in them than in narrow 
 tubes, there being less friction in the i 
 in the latter. It is worthy of notice, that the 
 capillary depression is less in boiled than in unboiled 
 tubes, in consequence of the admixture of a minute 
 quantity of the oxide of mercury, formed in the 
 process of boiling, which lessens the repulsion 
 between the mercury and glass. With ref era 
 the error of level, it must be l>orne in mind that 
 the height of the column SUSl mud by the attno- 
 sphere is always to be reckoned from the lower 
 level. This error becomes all the less the larger 
 the capacity of the cistern is compared with that 
 of the tube, for then a very considerable rise or fall 
 
 in the tube, when spread over the surface of the 
 
 cistern, makes only a slight difference of level in it. 
 
 703
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 ( 'are must he taken, then, in ordinary I 
 
 in as large ;;s possible. 'J I 
 B. in which the error of level is completely obviated, 
 is that invented by Rutin, which, from 
 every respect the most perfect c. 
 
 liar notice. The cistern, ami the 
 . of the tube of this 15., is shewn in 6g. •"• 
 jtern is made of boxwood, with a m 
 leather I '•• ami a glass cylinder is i 
 
 into it I ' icd in 
 
 lii the bottom or tl « a screw 
 
 . on the upper end of which the leathi t 
 to that by the sending in or taking out of the screw, 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Fi S . a 
 
 the bottom of the cistern, and with it the cistern 
 level of the mercury, can be raised or depressed at 
 will. A small ivory pin, p, ending in a line point, 
 is lixed to the upper frame of the cistern; ami 
 when an observation is made, the surface of the 
 mercury is made to coincide with the point of the 
 pin as the standard level from which the barometric 
 column is to be measured. The tube of the 11. — 
 tlic upper part of which is shewn in fig. 4 — is 
 • I in one of brass, which has two directly 
 opposite slits in it for shewing the height of the 
 column, and on the sides of these the graduation is 
 marked. A brass collar, <y, slides upon the tube 
 with a vernier (q. v.), it, marked on it for reading 
 the height with the greatest exactness, and in which 
 two oblong holes are cut. a little wider than the 
 slits in the brass tube. When a reading is taken, 
 the collar is so placed that the last streak of light 
 is cut off by the two upper edges of the holes, or 
 until they form a tangent to the convex mercurial 
 curve. By this means, the observer is sure that his 
 eye is on a level with the top of the column, and 
 that the reading is taken exactly for this point. 
 This is the contrivance usually adopted to prevent 
 the error of parallax, or that caused by the eye 
 being slightly above or below the top of the column, 
 by which the scale and the top of the column are 
 projected too high or too low, the one upon the 
 other, as the case may be. The only other 
 arran cement worthy of mention for effecting the 
 
 same object ii that by Wei i etches the 
 
 on a piece of silver; ■ I over 
 
 one side of the tube; and when -the mirror ami 
 
 tube being vertical — the image of the eye appears 
 
 he i ilumn, the eye 
 
 : in the samo horizontal line with it. Fortin's 
 
 15. is generally arranged so as to be portable, in 
 
 which case the screw, .-■. is sent in until the mi r- 
 
 ils the whole cistern, by which the air is 
 
 Erom entering the tube during transport, the 
 
 ling sufficiently at tl; 
 
 allow for expansion from increase of t 
 
 ks in a case, which serves as a tripod when 
 the instrument is mounted for use. On this t 
 
 led about title middle, swinging npon 
 
 two axes at right angles to each other, so that the 
 
 cistern may rt of a plummet in keeping 
 
 ie vertical — the position essential to all correct 
 
 measurements. 
 
 siphon B. consists of a tube bent in the form 
 
 of a siphon, having the same diameter at the lower 
 
 as at the upper end. Fig. - r > represents a I 
 
 ,:. Che tube travels along the bo::: 
 
 which it is placed by passing easily through lixed 
 
 or collars of brass. A scale, divided in inches 
 
 its of an inch, is fixed on the upper part of 
 
 the board; and when an observation is taken, the 
 
 tube is adjusted by the screw, f, working below it, 
 
 so that the top of the lower mercurial column may 
 
 a level with the lixed mark, a, which is the 
 
 point from which the fixed scale is measured. In 
 
 i he best forms of the siphon B., both tube and scale 
 
 1. the hitter being graduated upwards and 
 
 downwards from a zero-pomt near the middle of 
 
 the tube, and the height of the column is ascertained 
 
 by adding the distances from it of the upper and 
 
 lower levels. The siphon B. is in many respects a 
 
 more perfect instrument than the ei meter. 
 
 In the first place, the bore at the upper and lower 
 
 ends of the tube 1 leing the same, the depression arising 
 
 from capillarity is alike for both, and the error from 
 
 thiscar ..■■■ars in taking the difference of the 
 
 . In the second place, since the final r 
 is got from a reference to both upper and lower 
 i toes, the error in the cistern B. produced by the 
 at capacities of the tube and cistern, is effec- 
 tually avoided. On the other hand, the taking of 
 two readings, one for each column, is a serious 
 in to the labour of observation. Gay-Lussac'a 
 siphon B. (tig. C) is bent near the bottom, so as to 
 allow of the lower branch being placed in the same 
 ■it line as the upper one — a position highly 
 favoiuable to accurate observation. When con- 
 structed for transport, the tube at the bend is 
 narrowed, as in the figure, to a capillary width, which 
 effectually excludes the air; and when the tube is 
 inverted (fig. 7), being the position in which it is 
 1, the mercury is nearly all held in the longer 
 branch. Such a tube when mounted, like Fortin's 
 !'•., makes an excellent travelling instrument, and 
 is comparatively light, from the small quantity of 
 mercury it contains. See Ahkroxd Babomstbb. 
 
 The wheel B., originally invented by Hook, and 
 generally seen as a parlour ornament, has little to 
 recommend it as a trustworthy instrument. 1 : :. 
 8 shews the main features of its construction. It 
 is essentially an ordinary B. like the siphon 
 B. below, but having a cistern above, to increase 
 the amount of variation in the lower branch. 
 A small piece of iron or glass, f, floats on the open 
 surface, and a thread is attached to it, and passed 
 over a small wheel, a, fixed to a horizontal axis, 
 to which it is kept tight by a small weight, c, 
 hanging at the other end. A pointer, p, is fi 
 the other extremity of the horizontal axis, which 
 moves to the right or left of the dial, dd, according
 
 BAROMETER— BAROMETZ. 
 
 as the mercury falls or rises in the lower branch. 
 Tin- great sweep v. Inch the index takes. 
 with the comparatively minute variations ol the 
 mercurial column, is the only merit of this instru- 
 ■•, that with so much inter- 
 the mercury and the index, the 
 chances of em.r from friction and other causes are 
 nsiderable. 
 II..- correction of the B. for temperature is of 
 importance. Mercury expands g^jVo" °f '** ^ulk r,r 
 of Fahrenheit's thermometer; conse- 
 colamn of 30 inches at 32° P., or Hie 
 freezing point, would, at C5° P., for instance, be 
 times 30 inches, or nearly T \j of an inch 
 . for ."II ,V inches of mercury at 60° produce 
 | as 30 inches of it at 32°. In 
 
 ordi r, then fore, that all observations may be com- 
 correctly with each other, the oh 
 are reduced to what they would be at 32° 
 standard temperature. The ride for reduc- 
 tion is very simple : Multiply the mini 
 
 ; above or below 32° P. by thi 
 height, divide the product by 9990, and subtract or 
 bona or to the observed height 
 to the reduced height. Corrections are somi 
 
 lansion of the scale, but tins 
 dless refirn i 
 
 B. are found to be both 
 i and accidental Periodical variations are 
 1 and regular int. 
 and ai have no regular peri, id of 
 
 The only truly periodical variation is 
 the daily one, which amounts to about yj^j of an 
 b the accidental variations, when taken 
 on the avers ate something like periodical 
 
 variations at the different seasons of the year. Acci- 
 dental variations have a range of about 3 inches. 
 
 ages of the B. may be classified into pi 
 
 aL, and meteorological. It is of essential 
 i all physical researches where the mechanical, 
 ', acoustical, and chemical properties of air 
 i t gases are dependent on the pressure of the 
 Its use in hypsometry, or the art of 
 hts of mountains, is very valuable. 
 i a IS. is at the foot of a mountain, the pressure 
 ■ :iis is greater than that which it expel 
 tup by the weight of the column of air inter- 
 en th top and bottom. A formula of 
 . rable complexity is given by mathematicians 
 for findir • rerj nearly the true height of a moun- 
 tain from barometrical and thermometries! obser- 
 vations made at its base and summit, tin- interpre- 
 n.it come within the compass 
 !;. The following rules give very nearly 
 me result : 1. Reduce the mercurial heights 
 at both stations to 32 I'. '-'. Take the logarithms of 
 nvctc.1 heights, subtract them, and multiply 
 the result by 10,000, to give the approximate ] 1 1 ■ i -_; 1 1 1 
 in fathoms of the upper abo lower station. 
 
 3. Tab toftiie temperature at both stations, 
 
 I the difference between this mean and 32, 
 multiply the difference by the approximate i 
 and divide the product by 435. This last result is 
 added to the approximate height, if the mean 
 ratim is above 32, and subtracted, if below, 
 to find the true height in fathoms. A Fortin's or 
 'a B. is employed in measuring hnightB. 
 known use of the B. is as a mi 
 i instrument, or as a weather-glass. Bxpe- 
 has attached to certain heights of the B. 
 i I weather, and at certain points 
 scale the words 'Bain, 1 'Changeable,' 'Fair.' 
 ire marked, although the connection thus insti- 
 tuted is by no means invariable. Many of those 
 
 who have observed most carefully the connection of 
 barometric heights with states and changes of the 
 weather, are incline! to discard entirely the use of 
 these terms, and they tell us that it is the tendency 
 rather than the actual position of the column which 
 prognosticates the nature of the coming weather. 
 Several elaborate codes of rules have been drawn up 
 to serve as a key to the variations, but as these aro 
 more or less of a local character, they would be out 
 of place here. Generally speaking, a falling B. 
 indicates rain, a rising B., fair weather. A 
 15. foretells a continuance of the weather at tho 
 time; when low, this is generally bros 
 and when high, fair. A sudden fall usually pre 
 a storm, tin: violence of which is in propor ti on to 
 the suddenness of the fall. An on 
 an unsettled state of weather; gradual changes, 
 the approach of some permanent condition ol it. 
 The variations must also be interpreted with refer- 
 ence to the prevailing winds, each different wind 
 having some peculiar rule3. The connection 1>. 
 changes of weather and the pressure of the atmo- 
 sphere is by no means well understood. One reason 
 
 i. which may to some extent account Co] 
 B. D lower in wet than in dry weather — viz., that 
 so lung as aqueous matter remains in the air in the 
 form of elastic vapour, its elasticity assists in sup- 
 porting the barometric column ; but when it is pre- 
 cipitated in the form of rain, tin's force is lost, and 
 the column accordingly falls. The connection may, 
 however, with more reason, be attribut* I l 
 nature of the winds than to anything 
 south and south-west winds, which are. in \V 
 
 , more than any other, the rain-brii 
 winds, aro warm winds. Now, a column of warm 
 air, to be of the same weight as one of cold air, 
 must be higher; but this it cannot wall be in the 
 atmosphere, for no sooner does the warm column, 
 by its lightness, rise above the surrounding level of 
 the upper surface of the aerial ocean, than it flows 
 over, and lie comes nearly of the same height as tho 
 cold air around it. The interchange taking place 
 less interruptedly, and consequently less slowly, in 
 the higher strata than in those near the ground, it 
 
 ■ time before the equilibrium thus disturbed 
 is restored, and meanwhile the B. keeps low under 
 the pressure of a rarer atmospheric column. On 
 the other hand, the northerly and east rly wind-. 
 tn ing comparatively cold and dry. are accompanied 
 with fair weather and a high barometer. It is thus 
 to the warmth, and not to the moisture of these 
 
 i. So 
 far, then, as this reason holds, the rain attendant on 
 
 B., as wi !l as tie UJ ing 
 
 I : . :i- accidents of our ■_■ 
 
 ii — of our having the land I 
 in to the west of os. "n the La Plata river, 
 things are the reverse of what they are wi; 
 
 the eld south-east wind, coming from the 
 
 brings rain with a high B., and the land 
 
 winds, warmed by the plains ,.f South America, 
 
 an fine weather with a low barometer. That 
 
 i are, and not the moisture of the air. is 
 
 at least an important cause of the changes of the 
 
 1-.. shewn by the fact, that in I 
 where the variations of temperature are slight 
 mas, the I). e\p> I 
 almost no change, being as high in the rainy as in 
 the dry season. 
 
 BA'KOMETZ, or Tartarian or 
 the pro I of a fern (Aapidium 
 
 bich grows in the Bait-plains near tho 
 i .., Sea H is shaggy with a silky down. 
 
 and has a sort of general resemblance to an 
 animal. In the days of ignorant credulity, when 
 the story of the phoenix was received as a truth of
 
 BARON. 
 
 natural history, and barnacles were believed to grow 
 into geese, and horses' hairs into eels, marvellous 
 tales "were told of the B., which was supposed to 
 partake of the natures of a plant and an animal, 
 to grow on a stalk, and eat grass liko a lamb, &c. 
 Erman (Travels in 8iberia) supposes that the fables 
 og the B. may have some connection with the 
 cotton plant. 
 
 BA'RON. This term, as to the origin of which 
 much difference of opinion exists, is probably derived 
 from the Latin word baro (allied to vir, a man. a 
 hero), which origiually signified a stupid, brutal 
 man, afterwards "came to signify a man E 
 and latterly, by one of those strange transmuta- 
 tions which are not uncommon in langufl 
 man pre-eminently, or a person of distinction. 
 Teutonic, Celtic, and even Hebrew derivations 
 have also been assigned to the word ; but the fact 
 of its having been introduced into this country 
 by the Normans, seems in favour of a Be 
 origin. It is now the title which we apply to the 
 lowest degree of hereditary nobility. The degree 
 of B. forms a species of landing-place, corresponding 
 amongst noblemen, in a certain sense, to that of 
 gentleman, at a lower stage of the social pyramid, 1 1 
 was in this sense that the word was used in former 
 times to include the whole nobility of England, 
 because all noblemen were barons, whatever might 
 be the higher ranks in the peerage which they occu- 
 pied. The word peer has recently come to 1 - ■ 
 with the same signification, perhaps because it is 
 no longer necessarily the case that every nobleman 
 should be a B., there being instances in which 
 earldoms and other honours have been given with- 
 out a barony being attached to them, and in which 
 the barony has been separated from the higher 
 degree by following a different order of descent. 
 The general theory of the constitution, however, 
 still is, that it is as barons that all the peers sit in 
 the upper house ; and it is on this ground that the 
 archbishops and bishops are said to sit in virtue of 
 their baronies. The distinction into greater and lesser 
 barons seems from an early period to have obtained 
 in most of the countries of Europe. The greater 
 barons, who were the king's chief tenants, held their 
 lands directly, or in capite, as it was called, of 
 the crown; whilst the lesser held of the greater by 
 the tenure of military service. The greater barons, 
 who corresponded to the Freihcrren (free lords) of 
 Germany, had a perpetual summons to attend the 
 great councils of the nation ; whereas the latter were 
 summoned only in case of their lands embracing 
 a certain extent, which in England was thirteen 
 knights' fees and a quarter. .See Knight's Fee. 
 When the representation of the middle class in 
 England came to be confided to the knights of 
 the shire and burgesses of towns, the miuor barons 
 ceased to receive the royal summons, anil by 
 degrees the title B. came to be applied to the 
 greater barons, or lords of parliament, as they were 
 called, exclusively. For an account of the barons 
 of England immediately after the Conquest, and 
 of the lands which they held, see Doomsday-Book. 
 The habit of conferring the rank of B. by letters- 
 patent, by which it was converted into a mere title 
 of honour, apart from the possession of landed pro- 
 perty or of territorial jurisdiction, was first. intro- 
 duced by King Richard II., who, in 13S8, created 
 John Beauchamp, of Holt Castle, B. of Kidder- 
 minster. In Germany, the old barons of the empire 
 were for the most part raised to the dignity of grajs 
 (counts) and princes ; whilst the lesser, in place of 
 passing into the ranks of the untitled gentry, as in 
 England, constituted a grade of the lower nobility, 
 to which no duties were assigned, and scarcely any 
 political privileges belonged. 
 70G 
 
 When a B. is summoned to the House of Lords by 
 writ, a letter, in the sovereign's name, directs him to 
 repair to the parliament, to be holden at o specified 
 time and place, to advise with his sovereign, the 
 prelates, and nobles, about the weighty affairs of 
 the nation. On the arrival of the new peer, 
 presented by two barons to tho lord-chancellor, his 
 patent or writ being carried by a king-at-arms. This 
 having been read by the chancellor, he congratulates 
 him on becoming a member of the House of Peers, 
 and invests him with his robe. The oaths are then 
 administered by the clerk of parliament, and tho 
 new 15. is conducted to a seat on the barons' 1 
 In addition to barons by writ and barons by patent) 
 barons by prescription are usually mentioned, but 
 incorrectly according to Blackstone, who remarks 
 that ' those who claim by prescription must suppose 
 either a writ or patent made to their ancestors, 
 though by length of time it is lost.' (Kerr's Ed., 
 vol. i. p. 406.) There are some distinctions bel 
 a creation by writ and by patent which ought to bo 
 mentioned. 'The creation by writ,' says I 
 stone, 'is the more ancient way, but a man is not 
 ennobled thereby, unless he actually takes his Beat 
 in the House of Lords; and some are of opinion 
 that there must be at least two writs of summons, 
 and a sitting in two distinct parliaments, to evidence 
 an hereditary barony.' In consequence of the incon- 
 venience thus attending it, the creation by writ may 
 now be considered as obsolete, although the eldest 
 son of a peer is still frequently called up to parlia- 
 ment by means of it, there being in that case no 
 danger of the children losing their nobility 
 should their father never take his seat. But t 
 creation by patent is thus in general the surest way 
 of insuring the hereditary character of the pe 
 it labours under one disadvantage as compared with 
 a ei-eation by writ — viz., that whereas in the latter 
 case the dignity once insured by possession, passes 
 to the heirs of the holder without any words to 
 that purpose, in tho former there must be ■ 
 to tlirect the inheritance, else the dignity endures 
 only to the grantee for life. Where the pa 
 again, in place of being silent as to the succession, 
 expressly sets forth that the dignity is for life mi 
 it was held, in the Wensleydalo cose, that it doe3 
 not make tho grantee a lord of parliament at all. 
 
 The coronation and parliamentary robes of a 
 B. differ very slightly from those of an earl. 
 The right of wearing a coronet was conferred 
 on barons for the first time by King I 
 II. ; their head-dress till then having consisted 
 of a cap of crimson velvet, lined with ermine, 
 and having a plain gold band. 
 A baron's coronet is adorned 
 with six pearls, set at equal dis- 
 tances on the chaplet. Coronets 
 are worn only on great occasions 
 of state ceremoniaL In ordinary 
 garb, there is nothing to distin- 
 guish a B. from a commoner. A 
 B. has the title of ' Right Honourable Lord,' &c, 
 and is addressed as ' My Lord,' or ' Your Lordship.' 
 His wife has also the title of 'Right Honourable,' 
 and is addressed as ' Madam,' or 'Your Ladyship' 
 A B., in signing, sinks his Christian and family sur- 
 name, and subscribes his titular designation. His 
 children enjoy the prefix of Honourable, as the 
 ' Honourable Mr' — mentioning Christian and sur- 
 name. In literature and conversation, a deceased B. 
 is referred to by his Christian name, according to his 
 number in the list of peers of the same title, as 
 ' Henry, eighth baron.'— The Barons of Exchequer 
 (q. v.) and of the Cinque Ports (q. v.) are examples 
 stdl existing of the ancient barons by office. 
 
 In the United Kingdom, there ore persons who 
 
 Baron's Coronet.
 
 BARON AND FEME— BARONTUS. 
 
 possess the title of B. imparted by some foreign 
 ; as, for example, 'Baron Rothschild.' No 
 such honour can he legally enjoyed without the 
 consent of the sovereign ; but at best the title is only 
 honorary, and communicates no special privileges. 
 A good article on the Baronage will be found in 
 the Oyclopadia of Political Knowledge, published by 
 Bohn, London, 1853. See Peer. 
 
 BA'RON AND FEME, or FEMH B. These are 
 
 two Norman-French words used in English law- 
 books to denominate HuHBAHD and Wife (q. v.); 
 and see Marriage. 
 
 BA'RON AND FEMME, in Heraldry, is the 
 expression used to designate the bearing by which the 
 arms of husband and wife are carried per pale, or 
 marshalled side by side on the same shield. The 
 husband's arms are always carried on the dexter side. 
 Where the wife is an heiress — i.e., the represent- 
 ative of her father's house — her husband carries her 
 arms, not per pale, but in a shield of pretence ; and 
 they are quartered with the paternal coat by the 
 issue of the marriage. 
 
 BA'RON OF BEEF, a large piece of beef, con- 
 i of both sides of the back, or a double sirloin, 
 and weighing, according to the size of the animal, 
 from 50 to 100 lbs. This monstrously large piece of 
 beef, roasted, is served only on particular festive 
 occasions at the English court, and at great public 
 entertainments. When served according to ancient 
 custom at civic feasts in Guildhall, London, the B. 
 is honoured with a distinguished place on a kind of 
 elevated rostrum, where it is ceremoniously carved 
 for the assembled guests. The term B. probably 
 originated in a fanciful allusion to the word sirloin ; 
 mch as a baron is superior in rank to a sir. 
 
 EA'RONET. This title, which is the diminutive 
 of baron, is the lowest degree of hereditary honour 
 in the United Kingdom. Baronets were instituted, 
 for the lirst time, by King James I., on the 22d 
 May 1611. The ostensible object was to promote 
 the plantation of Ulster, in Ireland, with English 
 and So lets j but the real aim was to raise 
 
 money. Each B. was bound to maintain 30 soldiers 
 in Ireland for 3 years, at the rate of Sd. per diem for 
 each man ; the wages of one whole year to be paid 
 into the exchequer on the passing of the patent. 
 The sum thus exacted, with the fees of honour due 
 to the officers, amounted to upwards of £1000 on 
 patent. It is a striking proof of the passion for 
 hereditary distinction, that 200 persons were willing 
 to accept the honour on such terms. It was part of 
 the bargain that no title should be created beta 
 a B. and a baron, and that the number of the 
 former shoidd be permitted to diminish as the 
 fanulies of the original 200 died out, thus enhancing 
 the value of the title to those that remained. But 
 the latter stipulation was very speedily departed 
 from, and a new commission was appointed to till 
 up the vacant places, and even to treat with new 
 applicants. Such was the origin of English baronets. 
 From the date of the Union, in 1707, those created 
 in England and Scotland were baronets of Great 
 Britain. Irish baronets were created until 1800, 
 Bince which period all baronetcies are of the United 
 Kingdom. There is no limit to the creation of 
 baronets but the will of the sovereign. At investi- 
 ture there is no ceremony. The rank is communi- 
 cated by patent or writ, issued under authority 
 of the crown ; the fees of office being considerable. 
 There are differences in the terms on which the 
 honour descends (suggested, perhaps, by the recipient 
 according to family circumstances). Sometimes, 
 according to the patent, the rank is confined to 
 direct heirs-male ; sometimes it embraces heirs- 
 male collateral ; and sometimes, in default of direct 
 
 male heirs, it passes to the husbands of heirs-female. 
 For. the style and privileges of Baronets, in matters 
 of ceremony, see Burke 
 
 Baronets have precedence of all • xcept 
 
 those of the Garter, bannerets made under the 
 royal banner in open war, and privy-counedlors. 
 They are entitled to have Sir prefixed to their 
 name, along with B. as an affix. The wife of a 
 B. i- legally styled Dame; but in common speech 
 she is called Lady, and addressed as ' Your Ladyship.' 
 The rank of B. does not raise a person above the 
 degree of commoner; but many baronetcies have, 
 in course of time, been heritably acquired by 
 which lessens the ostensible number. 
 
 Baronets of Scotland and Nova Scotia originated 
 in a project of James I. ; but were not i: 
 1625, by Charles L The professed object • 
 encourage the settlement of Nova Scotia in North 
 America ; and a grant of a certain portion of land 
 in that province, to be held of Sir William 
 ander, afterwards Earl of Stirling, who was then 
 his majesty's lieutenant in Nova Scotia, actually 
 accompanied the title — the grants of land being of 
 course illusory, for their very designations were a 
 fiction. The first person who received the honour 
 of a Nova Scotian baronetcy was Robert Gordon of 
 Gordonstone, a younger son of the Earl of Suther- 
 land, whose patent bears date May 28, 1625, There 
 are no new additions to this branch of the ba' 
 age ; the latest creation having been in 1707, the 
 year of the Union of Scotland and England In 
 point of title and popular recognition, there is no 
 distinction between these and other baronets. 
 
 BARO'NIUS, Cesar, an eminent Roman Cath- 
 olic ecclesiastical historian, born at Sora, in > 
 on the 30th October 1538, and educated at K 
 and Rome. He was one of the first pupils of St 
 Philip Neri, who founded the congregation of the 
 Oratory, of which B. became superior in 1593. He 
 soon after became Father Confessor to the Pope, 
 Apostolical Prothonotary, and finally, in 15110, 
 Cardinal, and Librarian of the Vatican Library. 
 On the death of Clement VIII., in 1605, 30 voted in 
 conclave for the election of B. as Pope; and but for 
 the opposition of the Spaniards, who were indi j 
 at him for his treatise De 
 
 which he argued against Spain's claim to that coun- 
 try, he might have been elected. The contr. 
 against the work called the Mag 
 (q. v.), which had already been weakly attempted 
 by Muzio in 1570, seemed at that time the 
 important undertaking for the learning of the 
 Church of Rome. B. entered upon this controversy 
 with great energy and in a position most favourable 
 for access to authorities, composing his Annates 
 Ecclesiastici a Christo na'.o ad ann. 1198 (12 
 Rome, 1588—1007), in which work he laboured till 
 his death, 30th May 1607. As his object was to 
 prove that the Church of Rome has not departed 
 in doctrine or constitution from the Christian 
 Church of the 1st c, B. has been accused of not 
 using liis authorities according to their proper histori- 
 cal sense, but artfully concealing, obscuring, and 
 falsifying many things — sometimes, perhaps, from 
 ignorance of the Greek, but more frequently with 
 design. His AnnaU have h en frequently reprinted, 
 but the reprints are often incorrect and incomplete. 
 The most recent, provided with copious notes, &c, 
 and containing Pagi's Critical Examination and 
 Rinaldi's continuation, although not yet entirely 
 correct, is the edition of Mansi (43 vols., 1738— 
 1757). The ( '/ ' yi in Annates Ecclesiasticos Baronii 
 of Anthony Pagi, the Franciscan (4 vols., Antwerp, 
 17 "' ',1 by Francis Pagi, Antwerp, 1724), 
 
 corrects B. in many points, especially of chronology. 
 Among the continuations of the AnnaU, all of
 
 BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUER-BARRACKS. 
 
 which are inferior in value to the work itself, the 
 
 most rich in matter are that of Bzovius, extending 
 
 to 1572 (li vols., Rome, 1C1G — 1072), and that ol 
 
 Rinaldi (10 vols., Rome, 1040— 1077). who availed 
 
 IT of the materials left by B., for the period 
 
 from 1198 to 1571. Amongst the other works of 11., 
 
 his publication of the Martyrologium ffoi 
 
 deserves to be noticed (Rome, 15SU, and repeatedly). 
 
 EA'ltOXS OP THE EXCHEQUER. See 
 
 exchequer, b aeons ot; commojt law ; couets 
 
 Law; Revenue. 
 
 EA'ROXY is, or, it may rather be said, was a 
 manorial and hereditary right arising out of land, 
 known to the law both of England and Scotland. 
 In England, manors were formerly called baronies. 
 In the Scotch law, a right of B. is a right in 
 relation to lands which have been erected, or at 
 least confirmed by a clause in crown -charters 
 making the grant in libercm baroniam, as it is 
 called ; and by the crown alone could such a right 
 be conferred. It involved a civd and criminal 
 jurisdiction to which, in theory, all the inhabitants 
 of the B. lands were amenable. But such juris- 
 diction has, by modern legislation, been so limited 
 and obstructed as scarcely ever to be exercised ; 
 and, indeed, in regard to the right of B. itself, the 
 e in crown-charters erecting baroni 
 
 on of heritable jurisdictions by the 20th 
 Geo. 1 1, c. 43, become obsolete. Rut by the 35 Geo. 
 III. c. 122, they are permitted on the sea-coast for 
 encouragement of fisheries, and the bailies thereof 
 (see Bailie) are to have the powers of justices of 
 the peace. In England, the lord or baron of the 
 ■ may bold his Col ::r BAEON (ij. v. ; see also 
 Makoe -ion). 
 
 BABO'SMA See Bucku. 
 
 BARQUE, or BARK, is a name frequently 
 
 09, but with no very definite meaning. Some- 
 times it denotes simply a ship of small size ; sonie- 
 times a broad-stcrned vessel without a figure-head ; 
 
 Barque. 
 
 more technically it applies to three-masted 
 
 Is whose mizzeu-sails are fore-and-aft in 
 
 ing square. An armed B. is one variety of a 
 
 special sort of vessel noticed in another article. 
 
 See Armed Ship. 
 
 BARR, or BATIBA, a petty Mandingo kingdom 
 
 of Western Africa, at the mouth of the G: 
 with an estimated area of about 250 square I 
 and a ] h ipulatii in of 200,000, the males being remark- 
 able for their tine proportions. The surface, which 
 is fertile, but rather marshy, is well cultivated. 
 
 BA'RRA, a pleasant suburban town about 3 
 miles east of Naples, with a population of 12,000. 
 It has numerous fine country residences. 
 
 BA'RRA, a small island near the south extremity 
 
 703 ' 
 
 of the Hebrides, Scotland, belonging to Inverness- 
 shire, and 42 miles west of Ardnamurchan Point; 
 lat. of Barra-head, 50° 4S' X., long. 7' .'is' W. It is 
 Smiles long, and 2 to •! broad, with deep in] 
 the sea. A low sandy isthmus, over which th ea 
 nearly breaks at high water, connects the two parts 
 into which B. is divided. The south or larg r part 
 contains a rocky mountain, 2000 feet high, and is 
 divided into small valleys. The island is foi 
 of gneiss. The soil is sandy, but sheep and ca tie 
 1 on the hill and meadow pastures. Top. 
 1024, chiefly Roman Catholics, speaking Gaelic 
 v itii great purity; and among the most industrious 
 of Scottish fishermen. Their boats are sharp fore 
 and aft, and are built by the fishermen themselves, 
 who engage extensively in the cod, ling, herring, 
 and shefi-nah fisheries. 200 horse-loads of sir 
 (cockles, limpets, muscles, razor-fish, lobsters, crabs) 
 have been taken off the sands in one day during I he 
 summer spring-tides. The light-house on Barra- 
 head, the loftiest in Britain, is 0S0 feet above the 
 sea, and is seen 33 nnles off. 
 
 BARRACKPO'RE, a native town and military 
 cantonment on the left or cast bank of the Hoogly, 
 and 10 miles up the stream from Calcutta, in lat. 
 •1-1' 40' N., and long. 88° 20' E. On account of the 
 salubrity of its air, B. is a favourite retreat for 
 Europeans from Calcutta, the goveri I 
 
 having here his country n [n , B. 
 
 appears to have long enjoyed this kind of di 
 i i; Mr Job Chamock, the founder of Calcutta, 
 having erected a bungalow here as far ba ■!. 
 1GS9. In 1857, B. became famous as the cradle of 
 the formidable mutiny or rebellion of that year. 
 Several regiments of native troops were statio 
 Ba nackpi ire. The men objected to bite off the 
 of the cartridges for the Enfield rifle, believin 
 
 to be polluted by animal fat. Tl 
 connect' I '• nth— a mere prelude to the fatal 
 outbreak at Meerut in .May — commenced about the 
 beginning of February, and continued t i a time 
 various degrees of intensity, tdl at last two regi- 
 ments of Bengal native infantry had to b 
 — the 19th, on 31st March; and the 34th, on 5th 
 It was in the last-named corps that the first blood 
 would appear to have been drawn, an intoxi I 
 ■ poy having attacked and wounded his offic r, 
 Lieutenant Baugh, with sword and pistol. This 
 fellow, whose name was Mungal Tandy, would seem 
 to have had the equivocal honour of giving the 
 local d l of Ram lies to the entire body of 
 
 insurgents. 
 
 BA'RRACKS are permanent structures for the 
 accommodation of soldiers, as distinguished from 
 lints and tents. Originally, the word, derived from 
 the Spanish lmrracrt.% applied to small cabins or 
 huts ; but in England, the term is now always 
 considered to relate to structures of brick or stone. 
 Great opposition was made in this country to the 
 introduction of permanent B. during the early part 
 of the last century, on the ground that the liberty 
 of the subject might possibly be endangered by 
 thus separating the soldiery so completely from the 
 citizens, and placing them in the hands of the ruling 
 power. On the other hand, it was contended that 
 the older system of billeting the soldiers on the 
 people is vexatious and burdensome ; and that the 
 morals of towns-people and villagers are liable to be 
 vitiated by the constant presence of soldiers. The 
 permanent B. were few in number down to the 
 year 1792, when George III. obtained the con- 
 sent of parliament for the construction of several 
 new ones, and for the founding of the oilice of 
 barrack-master-general. Various changes in the 
 arrangements were made from time to time. The
 
 BARE ACOON—B ARRAS. 
 
 diturc for B., in building, rebuilding, enlar- 
 ging, and repairing, between 1793 and 1804, was 
 (64,100,000; between 1804 and 1819, £3,2*20,000; 
 and between 1819 and 1859 (including Aid 
 B.), upwards of £7,000,000. It has beenfoui 
 a detailed examination, tliat in 17 B., constructed 
 1 1832 and 1857, thi cost varied Erom £27 to 
 £209 per soldier accommodated, according to the 
 In m\ iness of the work, and to the inclusion or ezclu- 
 os and quarters far the officers. 
 The condition of British soldiers lias, ever since 
 rs in tlie Crimea in the winter of I 154, 
 been an object of much public solicitude. This 
 Bolicitude was bo strongly expressed as to break 
 through the cold formalities of the official depart- 
 Returns were ordered, and commissions and 
 . tecs appointed, partly to inquire into existing 
 partly to suggest improvements. The Barrack- 
 General «as repla I at the beginning of 
 
 this century by Commissioners for Barracks, whose 
 functions were absorbed by the now extinct Board 
 of Ordnance in 1822. Barracks are now under the 
 supervision of the Surveyor-General of the Ord- 
 
 who provides for their construction and 
 maintenance through the Royal Engineers ; and for 
 their victualling and daily service through Com- 
 missaries of the Control Department. Under these 
 commissaries are barrack-clerks and barrack-ser- 
 geants, to assist them in the duties. The furniture 
 of the B. is bought by the War office. The French 
 have a singular plan of hiring such furniture at 15 
 
 per hi in per annum ; the English cost is 
 about 25s, per man. and some of our officers are of 
 opinion that it might with advantage be superseded 
 
 In neh plan. The barrack-rooms have arm 
 coutrement racks, shelves, and pegs; with a 
 ir order for ; everything thereon. 
 
 the day, all the bedding is placed in exact 
 
 ; as well as dishes, tins, and canteens. A 
 
 subaltern officer visits every room everyday. The 
 
 iron bedsl ads arc tin n d down every evening, and 
 
 up every morning. One non-commissioned officer 
 at or corporal) has control over each room, 
 and is responsible for ipiiet, cleanliness, &c. Mar- 
 ried women, in the ratio of d to a company of 100 
 Soldiers, may live in the B. with their husbands, 
 in separate rooms known as '.Married Soldiers' 
 Quarters,' but not unless the marriage has been 
 with consent of the commanding officer. The 
 1 soldier may, however, sleep out of B., and 
 is all. .wed an extra -I. per day if he does so. Kaeh 
 i in a barrack has an iron bedstead, a rug, a 
 paillasse, a bolster, two blankets, and two sheets; 
 lie pays nothing for these. Each soldier has bis 
 name and number written near his bed and knap- 
 sack. 
 
 Notwithstanding the order and regularity estab- 
 lished in I!., committees of inquiry appointed in 
 Is:.:, and l s ".7 ascertained the existence of grievous 
 It was found that, out of 252 15., only '_'il 
 had separate sleeping-rooms for married soldiers ; 
 the wives of such soldiers, in the other 232, being 
 obliged to put up with arrangements repugnant to 
 all decency and propriety, or else Bleep away from 
 the I',, altogether. 
 
 In re nd i . niitary arran i m nl . great i 
 have been made at vast cost in recent years to 
 improve all the hygienic conditions, such as drains, 
 Ventilation, means of ablution, recreation, circula- 
 tion of air, &c. The result has been very apparent 
 in the reduced rate of mortality. Army-phv 
 recommend 600 cubi ■ feel of room space per soldier; 
 and this is the standard now demanded in all 
 practicable cases by the War Office. It has been 
 
 estimated that a new barrack for It foot [uards in 
 
 London would cost £150,000, ■'■ ridi i land, the cost 
 
 of which would depend wholly on the [.articular 
 for grounds for 
 urgery, offices, i 
 very costly * of bn Twi nty 
 
 the minimum space needed for 
 1000 men. in relation to all the various subjects 
 of barrack-lit.-, a committee of military officers has 
 drawn up a most i of reform; 
 
 but unfortunately the cost of making these iin] i 
 in in would be so enormous, that nothing better 
 than a very gradual adoption can be ei peci I. 
 
 The ii feing B. in this country are pei 
 
 those at AMershott, attached to the camp notic 
 another article. Si BOTrCiLMP. The build- 
 
 tend in two long lines, branching out of the 
 FaniboroughaudFarnham road, with a large parade- 
 ground between them. Tin- infantry and artillery 
 B. are on the north side of this space, and the 
 cavalry B. on the south. The infantry B. are 
 divided into blocks, forming each a spacious Quad- 
 rangle, with a courtyard in the centre. Each block 
 is a complete barrack for a full regiment, with all 
 the men's rooms, store-rooms, school-rooms, offices, 
 &c. The officers' rooms are, however, separate, and 
 occupy open spaces between the blocks of buildings. 
 All the four sides of each quadrangle are occupied 
 by various rooms and buildings ; the men's living 
 and sleeping rooms being mostly on the side next to 
 the parade-ground. The sleeping-rooms, each for 2 1 
 men, are very large and airy; the washing-rooms are 
 ample and will lifted; and the cooking-rooms will 
 each cook for 350 men. Dry play-grounds and drill- 
 yards, under glass roofs, are provided A I 
 balcony outside every range of sleeping-rooms enables 
 the soldiers to look out upon these grounds. The 
 married soldiers and their wives are comfortably 
 provided for, in rooms wholly apart from the rest. 
 The artillery and cavalry B. resemble in thi u general 
 features those for the infantry. 
 
 By the Military Forces Localisation Act of 1872, 
 ■J. :..".: )i >.i i( li ( n , 1 and expended in building 
 
 and adapting barracks for the 70 sub-district Lri- 
 ■'.■nlos among which the infantry is now to be 
 divided. 
 
 BARRACOON, the appellation given to a ■ 
 for newly captured slaves on the coast of Africa, 
 and where they remain under restraint untU carried 
 off by vessels in the slave-trade. 
 
 KARRA'DA, or BURA/DA, a river of Syria, 
 which rising in lar, 33° M' >"., long. 36' E., 
 in a south-south-east direction towards Dam 
 above which it divides, one branch being dil 
 to irrigate the city and its gardens, while the ..th. r 
 passes on the north side. The branches, which it is 
 supposed were the Pharpar and Abana of Scripture, 
 afterwards unite, and now into tho marshes and 
 lake of Bahr-el-Merj. 
 
 BARRAFRA'NCA, a town of Sicily, in t! 
 triet of Piazza, about 1(1 miles south-east of Caltaui- 
 sctta, with a population of about 0000. 
 
 BABRAS, I'm i-dr\\-l'i: w.ois-Ni, ot.As. i 
 in:, a distinguished character of the IV 
 lution, was born at Foy, in Provence, 30th June 
 1755. In his youth he served as a lieutenant I 
 the British in India, and after his return home, 
 
 i his property in Paris in dissipation. He 
 
 ly joined the revolutionary party, and v. 
 
 . v of the 2 i ™l in 
 
 ITn'.i. He was actively concerned in the storming 
 ..f the Tnileriee, was appointed administrator of tho 
 mi n;. of Var, and afterwards of the comity 
 .. in the Convention, he voted for the 
 execution of the king without delay or appeal, anil 
 on the 31st May 1798 d mat the Girond- 
 
 ists. The siege of Toulon, and triumph of the 
 
 709
 
 BARRATRY— BARREL. 
 
 revolutionary party in the south of France, were in 
 a great measure owing to his activity and energy ; 
 and after the victory, he was deeply concerned in 
 all the bloody measures which were adopted. Yet 
 he was hated by Robespierre and the Terrorists, as 
 one of the less decided revolutionists; and their 
 overthrow was accomplished mainly by him, the 
 Convention appointing him commander-in-chief, 
 and virtually investing him with the dictatorship 
 for the time. While holding this high office, in 
 which he acted with great decision and vigour, and 
 on the same day on which Robespierre fell, he paid 
 a visit to the Temple, and provided for the better 
 treatment of the king's son ; he hastened also to 
 the Palais do Justice, and suspended the execution 
 of a large number of persons who had been con- 
 demned to death. On subsequent occasions, he 
 acted with decision both against the intrigues of the 
 Royalists and the excesses of the Jacobins ; and on 
 13th Vendemiaire (5th October 1705), being again 
 appointed commander-in-chief by the Convention, 
 ho called his young friend Bonaparte to his aid, 
 and crushed the sections with merciless discharges 
 of artillery. The Directory being appointed in 
 November 1705, B. was nominated one of the five 
 members, and in this capacity he procured the 
 nomination of Bonaparte as commander-in-chief of 
 the army in Italy. It was he who arranged 
 the marriage of Bonaparte with the widow Beau- 
 liarnais. On ISth Fructidor (see Frakce. History 
 of), he was again invested with the dictatorship, 
 and was again victorious. His authority now 
 became preponderant in the Directory, and he 
 affected the pomp of a king, and began to give 
 splendid entertainments in the palace of the 
 Luxembourg. This continued for about two years 
 till the decline of the power of the Directory. 
 After 30th Frairial, Sieyes and he had the whole 
 executive power in their hands; and whilst B. 
 secretly negotiated, it is said, with the Bourbon 
 princes, demanding a large reward for their restor- 
 ation, Sieyes, in secret understanding with Bonaparte, 
 brought about the revolution of ISth Bnunaire. 
 Notwithstanding the favours he had formerly con- 
 ferred on Bonaparte, he was now, perhaps unavoid- 
 ably, an object of suspicion to him, was compelled 
 to remove from the neighbourhood of Paris, resided 
 in Brussels, then in Marseille, was banished to 
 Rome, and thence sent to Moutpellier, being kept 
 under constant surveillance of the police, and 
 actually found to have been engaged in conspiracies 
 for the restoration of the Bourbons. After the 
 Restoration, he returned to Paris, and purchased an 
 estate in the neighbourhood of it, where he died on 
 29th January 1820. He had acquired a consider- 
 able fortune in the Revolution. His Memoirs, 
 which must be of historic importance, were seized 
 by the government. 
 
 BA'RRATRY, Common, or, as it is called in 
 old English law-books, Barretry, is the offence of 
 inciting and stirring up suits and quarrels among 
 the queen's subjects. One offensive act of the kind 
 is not sufficient in order to maintain an indictment 
 for this offence; but it must be shewn that the 
 party accused frequently, or at least on more than 
 one occasion, conducted himself in the way imputed ; 
 and therefore the principle of the law appears to 
 strike at the halnt or disposition of evil-minded 
 persons, who would incite to quarrelling, or busy- 
 bodies, as they are in fact called in old law-reports; 
 who, to use a familiar expression, ' set people by the 
 ears.' This term is supposed by some to be derived 
 from the French word Barrateur, which signifies a 
 deceiver ; by others, from the Latin word Barratro, 
 a vile knave. Some, again, account for it by the 
 suggestion that it is made up of Barra, the bars 
 
 710 
 
 of courts of justice, and Rettum, an old word signi- 
 fying an offence; while, by other antiquarian 
 lawyers, it is supposed to have been borrowed from 
 the Normans ; tlie Anglo-Norman buret signifying a 
 quarrel or contention. In old English indictments, 
 charging this offence, the accused is not only 
 described as vaeis domini regit perturbator, but a] 10 
 oppressor vicinorum suorum; that is, he who is 
 guilty of B., is not only a disturber of the public 
 peace, but a nuisance to his neighbours. The 
 punishment for this offence is fine and imprison- 
 ment; but if the offender belongs to the profession 
 of the law, as is too frequently the case, he may 
 besides be disabled from practising his profi 
 for the future. And, indeed, it is the existing 
 statute law of England, that if any one who has 
 been convicted of J>. shall practise as an attorney, 
 solicitor, or agent in any suit, the court, upon com- 
 plaint, shall examine the matter in a summary way; 
 and if the fact of such conviction be proved, may 
 direct such offending attorney, solicitor, or a ant to 
 be kept in penal servitude for not more than seven 
 or less than three years. 
 
 Akin to this offence is another of equal malignity 
 and mischief; namely, that of suing another in tho 
 name of a fictitious plaintiff. If committed in any 
 of the superior courts, this offence is treated as a 
 high contempt, punishable at discretion, and in 
 inferior courts, by six months' imprisonment, and 
 treble damages to the party injured. 
 
 B., in the sense above explained, is not a technical 
 term in the law of Scotland. But in that system 
 there is a word Baratry, which is defined as tho 
 crime committed by a judge who is induced by a 
 bribe to pronounce a judgment, or who barters 
 justice for money. 
 
 There is also Baratry of Mariners, which si 
 — in the law not only of England and Scotland, but 
 also of France and other European states — the fraud 
 of the master or mariners of a ship tending to their 
 own advantage, but to the prejudice of the owners. 
 Such conduct, however, is one of those risks which 
 are usually insured against in marine policies of 
 insurance. See Marine Insurance. 
 
 BA'RREL (It. barile; Fr. baril = larrique), 
 
 primarily, a large vessel for holding liquids— pro- 
 bably from bar, in the sense of to guard, conline, 
 contain— and then a certain measure, but varying 
 in every locality, and almost for every liquid. In 
 the old English measures, the barrel contained .'III 
 gallons of wine, 32 of ale, and 36 of beer — the wine 
 gallon itself differing from that of ale and beer. In 
 imperial gallons, their contents would be : old wine 
 barrel = 26.} gal.; ale do., 32.J ; beer, 36J. The 
 Italian barile varies from 7 to 31 English gallons ; 
 the French barrique of Bordeaux = 228 French 
 litres = 50 English gallons. Four barriques make 
 a tonneau. In many cases, B. signifies a certain 
 weight or other quantity of goods usually sold in 
 casks called barrels. In America, Hour and beef 
 are sold on the large scale in barrels : a B. of 
 flour must contain 196 lbs. ; of beef, 200 lbs. A 
 B. of butter = 224 lbs. ; of soft soap, 256 lbs. ; of 
 tar, 26 j gallons. 
 
 BA'RREL, Gun. The relation which the bar- 
 rels of small-arms bear to the stock, lock, and other 
 parts, is described in such articles as Musket, 
 Pistol, Rifle, Revolver, Breech-loaium: Aims, 
 &c. ; but the remarkable processes of manufactur- 
 ing these barrels may be briefly noticed once for all. 
 
 The iron for all good musket-barrels contains a 
 portion of steel, or undergoes some kind of steeling 
 process. Horseshoe nails or stubs, after much 
 violent usage, yield a very tough kind of iron 
 when re-heated; and English gun-makers have been
 
 BARREL-BULK— BARRICADES. 
 
 accustomed to buy such refuse on the continent ; hut 
 the foreign makers now use the old nails themselves ; 
 and Birmingham puts up with those of English 
 make, which are inferior in quality. The best har- 
 rels are now made in England ..f laminated, twisted, 
 and Damascus steel. To prepare laminated steel, 
 Mr Greener, a celebrated Birmingham gunsmith, 
 collects scraps of saws, steel-pens, files, springs, and 
 eteel-tools, from the various workshops; cuts them 
 into small and nearly equal pieces ; cleans and 
 polishes them by revolving in a cylinder ; fuses 
 them into a semifluid state ; gathers them into a 
 'bloom' or mass; forges this bloom with a three. 
 tan hammer; hardens and solidifies it with a tilt- 
 hammer; rolls it into r. ids; cuts each rod into 
 pieces six inches long ; welds these pieces together ; 
 repeats the rolling, cutting, and welding several 
 times; and thus, finally, brings the metal into a 
 very hard, tough, fibrous, and uniform state. 
 Twisted steel for barrels is made by taking thin 
 plates of iron and steel, laying them alternately 
 one on another in a pile, welding them by heat 
 and hammering, and twisting them by very power- 
 ful mechanical agency, until there are twelve or 
 fourteen complete turns to an inch ; the length 
 becomes reduced one-half, and the thickness 
 doubled, by this twisting. Damascus steel barrels 
 are made of steel which has undergone a still 
 further series of welding and twisting operations. 
 ,Siiil, Damascus barrels are made of a mixture of 
 old files with old horse-nails; the files are heated, 
 cooled in water, broken with hammers, and pounded 
 in a mortar into small fragments; three parts of 
 these fragments are mixed with five of stub; and 
 the mixture is fused, forged, rolled, and t\w ted 
 An inferior kind of Damascus-twist is made by 
 interlaying scraps of sheet-iron with charcoal, and 
 producing an appearance of twist, but without the 
 proper qualities. Threepenny-skelp and Twopenny- 
 ski //> are inferior kinds of barrel-iron ; and the worst 
 of all is sham-flam skelp, of which gun-barrels are 
 made for hawking at a cheap price at country-fairs, 
 and for barter with the ludians in fur-hunting 
 countries. 
 
 The gun-barrel manufacture of England is now 
 almost wholly conducted at Birmingham and at 
 Enfield, very feu barrels being made elsewhere. The 
 best barrels are all twisted into form. The skelps, or 
 
 long strips of prepared steel, are twisted into a close 
 spiral a few inches long ; several of these spirals are 
 welded end to end ; and the fissures are closed up 
 by heating and hammering. The rough barrel, with 
 a core or mandril temporarily thrust in it, is placed 
 in a groove, and hammered cold until the metal 
 becomes very dense, close, strong, and clastic. The 
 interior is then bored truly cylindrical by a nicely- 
 adjusted rotating cutting-tool. If, on narrow 
 inspection, the interior is found to be straight and 
 regular, the exterior is then ground on a rapidly 
 revolving stone, and finally turned in a lathe. 
 Commoner ban-els are not twisted : the skelps are 
 heated, laid in a semi-cylindrical groove, hammered 
 till they assume the form of that groove, placed two 
 and two together, and heated and hammered until 
 one B. is made from the two halves. See Proof. 
 
 Common barrels are brownedexternallywith some 
 kind of chemical stain; but the best are rubbed 
 with fine files, and polished with steel burnishers. 
 
 BA'RREL-BULK, a term denoting a measure- 
 ment of 5 cubic feet, used chiefly in the OOasi 
 trade. 
 
 BA'RREL-OROAN. An organ (q. v.)in which (ho 
 music is produced by a barrel or cylinder, set with 
 pins and staples, which, when driven round by the 
 hand, opens the valves for admitting the wind to the 
 
 pipes according to the notes of the music. The 
 number of tunes that any one instrument can play 
 is, of course, very limited. Barrel-organs are gene- 
 rally portable, and mostly used by street-musicians. 
 A street-organ costs from £30 to £70, according to 
 size. The most perfect barrel-organs are 
 which are driven by a motive-power, of which the 
 best are made in Vienna, and cost from £100 
 to £300. The Orchestrion, made by Kaufmann in 
 Dresden, is a large self-acting barrel-organ. See 
 I h ' ,ii I EtION. 
 
 BARRHEA'D, a town of recent growth in the 
 east part of Renfrewshire, G miles south-west of 
 Glasgow. It has cotton-mills, and bleaching and 
 printworks. Pop. (1871) 6209. 
 
 BARRICA'DES are defence - works cmi 
 both in the military and naval services. Military 
 engineers, and sapjicrs and miners, are instructed iu 
 the art of barricading streets and roads with beams, 
 chains, chevaux-de-Jhse, and other obstacles, either 
 in defending a town against besiegers, or in suppres- 
 sing popular tumults. In a ship, a str 
 rail, supported on stanchions, and extending across 
 the foremost part of the quarter-deck, is called a 
 barricade ; during a naval action, the upper part of 
 this barricade is sometimes stuffed with hammocks 
 in a double rope-netting, to serve as a screen 
 against the enemy's small-shot. B. have been made 
 use of in street-fights since the middle ages, but 
 they are best known in connection with the insur- 
 rections in the city of Paris. As early as 1358, 
 the streets of Paris were barricaded against the 
 Dauphin, afterwards Charles V. A more noteworthy 
 barricade -fight was that in 15S8, when 4000 Swiss 
 soldiers, marched into Paris by Henry III. to over- 
 awe the Council of Sixteen, would have been utterly 
 destroyed by the populace, firing from behind I;., 
 had the court not consented to negotiation ; and the 
 residt was. that the king fled next day. The next 
 barricade-light of importance in Paris was that 
 of 1S30, which resulted in the expulsion of the 
 Bourbons from the throne of France, and the electii m 
 of the citizen king, Louis Philippe. Durin_ 
 three days which this revolution lasted, the number 
 of B. erected across the streets amounted to several 
 thousands. They were formed of the most hetero- 
 geneous materials — overturned vehicles, trees, scaf- 
 folding-poles, planks, building-materials, and street 
 paving-stones, men, women, and children taking 
 part in their erection. In February 1848, the insur- 
 rection against Louis Philippe commenced with 
 the erection of B. ; but the most celebrated and 
 bloody barricade-fight was that between the popu- 
 lace and the Provisional Government, which, com- 
 mencing on the night of the 23d June 1S4S, lasted 
 throughout the three following days, when the people 
 had to surrender. The national losses by this fight 
 were estimated at 30,000,000 francs; lG.OIK) p 
 i lied and wounded, and S01K) taken pri- 
 The Emperor Napoleon 111. has so widened and 
 macadamised the principal streets of Paris since he 
 ascended the throne, as to render the sue 
 erection of B. next to impossible. There was a 
 remarkable banieade-srection in London in 1821. 
 The ministry desired that tho body of i, 
 line should be conveyed out of the country to< 
 many, for interment, without the populace having 
 the opportunity of makin,' any demonstration, (in 
 the matter becoming known, a vast barrieadc WW 
 erected at the point where tie- flampstead Road 
 joins the New Road; and as nothing but the use of 
 artillery could have faced the way. the officer in 
 charge of the funeral cortege deemed it prudent to 
 ehange his course, and pass through a more central 
 part of the metropolis. During the revolutions of
 
 BARRIER ACT— BARRISTERS. 
 
 |s|s, B. were successfully carried in I' 
 i other places, by BDandoninj 
 :ii. and breaking through the hoi 
 tiguous streets, taking 1 i in the rear. 
 
 1 1 v im: 1 1" II ACT, the name commonly given to an 
 act of the Genera] Assembly of the Church of Scot- 
 land, 8th January 1697, intended as a barrier 
 innovations, and a hinderance to b 
 ! i pro\ idi i that ii>> chi lb lie 1 . < -. ■. - 
 
 of the church without being submitted by that 
 General Assembly which first approves it, to the 
 consideration of all the presbyteries, and approved 
 by a majority of tin m; after which it still remains 
 to be considered by the next General Assembly, 
 which then may or may not pass it into a law. The 
 B. A. is regarded as of the greatest importance, both 
 in the Established Church of Scotland, and ill the 
 I'll.' Church. Analogous regulations have been 
 adopted by other Presbyterian churches. 
 
 BA'REIER BEEF, an immense coral-reef extend- 
 ing along the uorth-east coastof Australia for nearly 
 1300 miles, at a distance from the shore of from 10 
 to upwards of 100 miles. The reef is, in general, 
 pitous, and in many places rises out of great 
 depths, lines of 280 fathoms having failed to reach 
 the bottom on the outer side. Formerly, ignorance 
 of anything like its precise extent and character led 
 my shipwrecks; but within the last thirty 
 years, it has been surveyed, and pretty accurately 
 laid down on charts. In the course of its length 
 there are several breaks or passages in it. In the 
 voyage from Sydney to Torres Strait, the inner route 
 is usually taken. It is narrow, and requires delicate 
 steering; but it is safe, and not so much I 
 as the outer route, which enters Torres Strait by 
 Flinders Entrance. 
 
 BA'RRING OUT, a practice formerly very com- 
 mon in schools, but now almost, if not altogether, 
 abandoned. It consisted in the scholars taking 
 possession of the school, and fastening the doors 
 against the master, at whose helplessness they 
 scoffed from the windows. The usual time for 
 B. O. was immediately prior to the periodica] 
 vacation. It seems to have been an understood 
 rule in B. O., that if the scholars could sustain a 
 siege against the master for three days, they were 
 entitled to dictate terms to him regarding the 
 number of holidays, hours of recreation, &c, for 
 the ensuing year. If, on the other hand, the master 
 succeeded in forcing an entry before the expiry of 
 that period, the insurgents were entirely at his 
 mercy. The masters, in most cases, appear to have 
 acquiesced good-humouredly in the custom ; bat 
 some chafed at it, and exerted their strength and 
 their ingenuity to storm or surprise the garrison. 
 Addison is said to have been the chief actor in a 
 B. O. of the master of Lichfield. One remarkable 
 and fatal case of B. O. occurred at the High School, 
 Edinburgh, in September 1595. The scholars had to 
 complain of an abridgment of their usual holidays 
 by the town-council, who, on being remonstrated 
 with, refused, even though the claim was support* d 
 by the master, to grant more than three of the 
 eight days which the boys demanded as their 
 privilege. They, accordingly, took advantage of the 
 mi 1'i's temporary absence to lay in a store of 
 provisions, and having done so, they barricaded 
 the doors. The magistrates, the patrons of the school, 
 in vain sought admission, the boys Baying they 
 would treat with their master only; and after a day 
 and night had passed, it was resolved to foi 
 entrance. The result was, that one of them, Bailie 
 Macmoran, was shot dead on the spot by a scholar 
 named Sinclair. The scholars of Witton School, 
 Cheshire, were directed by the statutes drawn up 
 712 
 
 by the founder, Sir John Deane, to o 
 a: 'To the end that the Bel ' 
 not any evil opinion < bh choolms bar, nor the 
 
 sehooin ill, I n.it mistake i ITS for 
 
 ; oi customs and orders, I will that upon 
 and Saturdays in the afternoon I 
 
 hojydays, they i • 1 1 
 before Christmas and Easter, according to < 
 ■ . f/f !j !■",■ and keep forth the school Ou ■ 
 , in such sort as other sehoUars do in 
 - hooU.' This school was founded in 1558. 
 Brand's Popular Antujuitiet, Chambers's Do 
 Annul-', and Carlii ■ < . 
 
 BARRINGTOXIA'CJ:.]:, a natural or,' 
 
 exogenous trees and shrubs, natives of fcro 
 countries, and generally very beautiful both in 
 foliage and flowers. Few plants, indeed, i 
 some of them in beauty. The stamens ore 
 numerous, and form a very conspicuous pari 
 flower. The fruit is fleshy, with bony seel |o i ed 
 in pulp. That of some species is eaten, as ' 
 arborea, an Indian tree, the stringy bark of which 
 is used in the countries along the foot of the 
 Himalayas as a slow match for matchlock 
 Humboldt and Bonpland mention that children 
 become quite yellow after eating the fruit of an 
 American species, '. \ of which, 
 
 ever, they arc very fond ; but that this colon 
 appears in a day or two. The Moobdtj LA. (Ba 
 tonia speciosa) is described by Sir J. E. Tenner 
 tree which much attracts the attention of travellers 
 in Ceylon. It has dark, glossy leaves, and ' ! 
 crimson-tipped white flowers. 'The stamens, ,.; 
 which there are nearly 100 to each flower, when 
 they fall to the ground, might almost be mistaken 
 for painters' brushes.' Some botanists include this 
 order in Mijrtacece (q. v.). 
 
 BA'RRISTER, Rlvisixc. See Revising Bar- 
 
 BA'RRISTERS.orBA'RKASTERS.as sometimes 
 spelt in old books. This is the distinctive name by 
 which the advocates' or pleaders at the English and 
 Irish bars are known; and thus its derivation i 
 perhaps sufficiently accounted for. They are 
 admitted to their office under the rules and n 
 lations of the Inns op Court (q. v.), and they are 
 entitled to exclusive audience in all the so 
 courts of law and equity, and generally in all courts 
 civil and criminal, presided over by a superior judge. 
 In certain of the inferior tribunals, a: 
 
 allowed to practise without the assistance of ins I ; 
 
 but the disposition of the judgi a of these in 
 courts is to encourage the presence of the re 
 bar. and to give them exclusive audience. In 
 land, the same body are styled ADVOCATES (q. v.), 
 and they have the same exclusive privileges that 
 B. enjoy in England and Ireland. Thi se 
 advocates, however, are members of the faculty of 
 Advocates, or Scotch Bar, properly so called, and 
 arc not to be confounded with the advocates who 
 practise under that name in the town and county of 
 Aberdeen, and who, as explained in a former article, 
 are simply country attorneys. See Attorneys and 
 Solicitors. 
 
 Barristers were first styled Appi dices, who 
 answered to the bachelors of the universitii 
 the state and degree of a Serjeant did to that of a 
 doctor. These apprentices or barristers seem to 
 have been first appointed by an ordinance of King 
 Edward I. in parliament, in the twentieth year of 
 his reign (Stephen's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 17, 
 and authorities there referred to). Of barristers, 
 there are various ranks and degrees, and among 
 each other they take precedence accordingly; the 
 general name, ' counsel,' being, in the practice of
 
 BARRISTERS. 
 
 urt, common to them all. But they i 
 divided into I iding bodies. I - Barristers 
 
 simply, or utter barristers, wh cupy the j 
 
 uf junior count I. wearing a plain stuff-gown ami a 
 short wig; 2d, ; 
 
 very ancient state and degree, and who an 
 I ihed by the eotf and other peculiarity 
 
 una a i-i \w ) ; and .'!■/. Qui I 
 
 Her Majesty's Coi ned in the law, as they 
 
 are more formally called, and who maybe sel 
 either from the outer or junior liar, or from the 
 They may I I the ordinary 
 
 of the bar, and u d by a silk 
 
 gown, and on st ins, and always in the 
 
 Bouse 0J !■ t a full-Dot 
 
 For further < ' < 
 
 rs or gradations of rank at the 
 English bar, the crown sometimes grants 1 
 patent of precedence to such barristers as Ha 
 
 may think proper to honour with 
 mark . they are entitled to 
 
 such rank ami pre ned to them 
 
 in their respective patents. See Preckdkncs, 
 
 Thus constituted, the English bar pi rform thi ir 
 functions, enjoying many prof< Bsional privileges and 
 
 immunities, and a high social position. As we have 
 before stated, they have exclusive audience in all 
 the supi rior courts, where upon terms and condi- 
 tions, and according to an etiquette, which are all 
 ■well understood by attorneys and solicitors, they 
 take upon themselves the protection ami defence "i 
 any suitor, whether plaintiff or defendant. With the 
 i. v.), or other instructions, by means of which 
 their professional services are retained, B. receive a 
 udorsed on the brief or in -t ructions, 
 and afterwards paid Such, generally, is the i 
 practice at the En differing in this I 
 
 from the practice of the bar in Scotland and, we 
 
 great extent La Ireland also — wherepr. 
 payment of the fee is the rigid etiquette. The amount 
 of this fee in England depends, of course, on the 
 
 nature of the business to be d ■. the time to be 
 
 occupied, and the labour to b sd; and it is 
 
 ly in the case of leading counsel, a 
 liberal sum. The barrister's fee, however, is not 
 a matter of express contract or stipulation, recover- 
 able at law like an attorney's bill of costs, but is 
 regarded as a mere honorary r 
 
 . as it is called in law-1 ks. There is. 
 
 therefore, no means of enforcing its payment, and 
 indeed, in this respect, the barrister has nothing to 
 rely upon but the honour and good faith of those 
 who employ him. Where, however, it can be 
 i that the client or party gave money to the 
 solicitor or attorney, with which to fee the counsel, 
 the latter may maintain an actii >n against the former 
 for the amount. 
 
 In order to encourage due freedom of speech in 
 the lawful di bheir clients, and, at the 
 
 ive a check to unseemly licentiousness, 
 it has been held that . lis not answerable 
 
 for any matter by him spoken, relative to the cause 
 l. .1,1 suggested in his client's instructions, 
 3d reflect upon the reputation of 
 another, and even prove absolutely groundless;* 
 but if he mentions an untruth of his own inven- 
 tion, or even upon instructions, if it be in 
 nent to the cause in hand, he is then liabli 
 
 action from the part}' injured; and counsel guilty 
 
 of deceit or collusion are punishable by the statute 
 Westm. I. (.'5 Edw. I., o. 28} with imprisonment 
 
 for a year and a day, and perpetual silence in 
 
 * Hut the publication of the counsel's statement by a third 
 party may expose such third party to an action. 
 
 the courts — a punishment which may be infl 
 for gro niours iu | ii the 
 
 orted to is f or the I of the 
 
 Inn of Court, to which the person :■■ 
 belong i, to 
 
 and K' i me, and see B 
 
 But besidi a advocacy and : 
 
 and have other business to which they have 
 
 extended their practice, to tl 
 the public. This additional practice - 
 advising on the law by their opinion 
 stated, by means of which harassing and fi 
 
 litigation is often prevent 
 
 L); in drawing or preparing thi 
 or statement of facts on which an 
 founded (see Pleading) ; and in preparing the • 
 or scrolls of legal instruments, indent! 
 contracts, or other conveyance . 
 ind < k. As a correlative i 
 
 the position in which they stand in 
 
 barristers are not personally liable for the 
 injurious consequences of any erroneous . 
 may give; ai claim absolute control 
 
 iluct of all litigation in which they n 
 I. even to withdrawing it from court 
 gether, and referring it to arbitration ; and until 
 lately, it was the opinion of the profession that 
 counsel might at any time, during the pi 
 cause, compromise the matter in d t the 
 
 exercise of such discretion was successfully 0] 
 in a recent ease, and it may now be don' rl 
 B. have any ex op ond the gui 
 
 and conduct of actual litigation in court. 
 It is from the body of B. that all the 
 England, superior and inferior, are apt 
 B. are also usually chosen for tl. 
 magistrate. The only exception to the 
 appointment of B. to judicial offie use of 
 
 the Court of Quarter Sessions — a court of anoi 
 constitution and jurisdiction, but which 
 in practice, and has many claims to consideration. 
 
 See Qt/aktek Sessions. 
 
 The bar in Ire! . : on the same fi 
 
 and has the same ranks and degrees, and is 
 very much to the same rules and i 
 
 i bar; and in that country, barrister also is 
 ne by which the i of an advi 
 
 distinguished. In Scotland, the same office is simply 
 called by its own name of .i . - ADVO- 
 
 CATES, Faculty of. 
 
 At the bar of the House of Lords, and 
 parliament generally, before the privy-© 
 also, it is believed, in all trials for high ti 
 whether in England, Ireland. L, the three 
 
 bars rank on a footing of equality, taking precedence 
 according to the date" of their call and m 
 their own respective bars, with the < 
 those who are Queen's counsel, who r, . > nily have 
 also been introduced into Scotland, and now are 
 next in precede 
 
 Advocate, Lord), the • ' 
 
 (q. v.). and the Dean <;/' Faculty (q. v.). It was at 
 one time disputed between the Lord 
 
 1 and tie- Attorney-General of England, 
 which of them should lead the other at the 
 the House of Lords ; and a case occum d i 
 in the House of Lords, before Lord I 
 Brougham, in which very high pre* i 
 urged ou I. half of both funi 
 the present Lord Chancellor Campbell as at; 
 gem r.d. and the late Lord Jeffrey as lord ad\ 
 who contended that as he was not only the lirst 
 
 i the crown in Scotland. 1 at also 
 political officer, he was entitled to had the fanner. 
 Hut the House decided that the atl r.d of 
 
 id has precedency over the Lord Advocate of
 
 BARROS— BARROW. 
 
 Scotland, in all matters in which they may appeal 
 as counsel at their lordships' bar; and it is presumed 
 that tin- : :■ i m ■ rule would be followed before parlia- 
 ment generally, the privy-council, and in all trials 
 Eor high treason, whether in England, Ireland, or 
 Scotland. The relative rank of the Irish law-officers 
 has not beeu determined. 
 
 It oidy remains to be added, that as the three 
 bars are on a footing of equality in the House of 
 Lords, and the other imperial and supreme tribunals 
 above mentioned, the BngKah bar have no exclusive 
 audience in these, even in English cases; but all 
 causes whatever there, whether English, Irish, 
 Scotch, or colonial, may be equally and indiscrimin- 
 ately taken and advocated by English, Irish, or 
 Scotch counsel. 
 
 BA'RROS, Joao de, the most distinguished of 
 
 Portuguese historians, was born of an ancient and 
 noble family at Viseu in 1496; became a page to 
 King Emmanuel, and afterwards companion to the 
 Crown Prince. He pursued his classical and other 
 studies with great diligence, and wrote a historical 
 romance in his 21th year, which attracted much 
 admiration by the peculiar beauty of its style. 
 1 [ereupon the king assigned him the task of writing 
 the history of the Portuguese in India, which he 
 undertook, but of which only the first three decades 
 proceeded from lus pen, under the title of Asia 
 Portuguena (Lisb. 1552 — 1563) ; the continuation 
 extending to twelve decades, was the work of Diego 
 de Couto. (A new edition of the whole appeared at 
 Lisbon, in 8 vols., in 1778 — 17SS.) B. was for some 
 time governor of the Portuguese settlements in 
 Guinea, and afterward -i treasurer and general agent 
 for the Indies. In 1539, the king bestowed on him 
 the province of Maranhao in Brazil, that he might 
 found a colony there ; but he was obliged to renounce 
 the enterprise after much loss. He died at his estate 
 of Alitern on the 20th of October 1570. 
 
 BARRO'SA, a village of Spain 16 miles south- 
 south-east of Cadiz, celebrated in history as the 
 place where General Graham (afterwards Lord Lyne- 
 doch), in March 1811, with a handful of English 
 troops, succeeded in gaining over the French, after 
 his Spanish allies had retreated, one of the most 
 glorious victories of the Peninsular campaign. More 
 than 2000 French were killed and wounded (some 
 authorities give nearly 3000 killed alone), 300 
 prisoners taken, 6 pieces of cannon, and an eagle — 
 the first captured in the war. 
 
 EAIIROT, Camtllb Hyacintite Odillon, a 
 French jurist and statesman, son of a member 
 of the Convention, and afterwards of the Council 
 of Five Hundred, was born at Villefort, Lozere, 
 19th July 1791. In 1814, he became an advocate 
 in the Court of Cassation, Paris, and soon acquired 
 a high reputation as an eloquent pleader. Entering 
 the Chamber of Deputies young, he in time came 
 to be regarded as one of the most influential leaders 
 of the liberal opposition. At the Revolution of 
 1830, he was one of the three commissioners ap- 
 pointed by the provisional government to accompany 
 Charles X. from Ramboiullet to Cherbourg, on his 
 embarkation for England. Under the new govern- 
 ment, he was appointed prefect of the department 
 of the Seine ; and in Lafayette's ministry, a member 
 of the Council of State. In a few months, however, 
 he resigned his office of prefect, and declined the 
 post of ambassador at Constantinople, offered him 
 by Louis Philippe. After Casimir Perier became 
 minister, he lost also his place in the Council of 
 State. He now began his opposition career in the 
 Chamber of Deputies against the reactionary policy 
 of the government, and became the rallying-point 
 for all who desired the carrying out of the principles 
 
 of the July revolution. He essentially contributed 
 to the removal of the Doctrinaires (q. v.) from office, 
 in February 1836, and energetically opposed the 
 ministry of Mole, even supporting the Doctrinaires 
 in accomplishing its overthrow, in January 1S39. 
 
 The same year he visited England and Scotland. 
 When, in March 1840, Thiers was placed at the 
 I nad of the government, B. for the first time 
 declared himself in favour nf the ministerial policy 
 on the oriental question. On the return of Guizot 
 to office in October following, his opposition to the 
 government was renewed. Taking a conspicuous 
 part in the Reform movement of 1847, he att 
 
 everal of the provincial reform banquets, which 
 ted to the revolution of 1848. On the outl 
 of the struggle of 23d February, when Louis 
 Philippe called upon Thiers to form a new ministry, 
 B. was appointed president. His advice to tie 
 to withdraw his troops proved fatal to the throne 
 of July. In the last sitting of the Chamber of 
 Deputies, B. supported the claim of the Count de 
 Paris to the throne, and the regency of the Db 
 of Orleans. Under the p' • ■; Louis Napoh m 
 
 he was for some time a minister, and conducted the 
 government with success till 1851, when he re- 
 tired from active political life. Since then, almost 
 his only public appearance has been at 1 
 ences in favour of Poland, held at Paris in 186 I. In 
 his retirement, he has, however, written a pamphlet, 
 De la Centralisation et de tea Effete (1861), and 
 several other papers on political subjects. 
 
 BA'RROW, a distinctive term applied to two 
 prominent localities of the Arctic Ocean in honour 
 of the secretary to the Admiralty of the same name, 
 the prime mover in the more recent era of northern 
 discovery. — 1. Point B., in lat. 71° 23' N., and long. 
 156° 31' W., generally received as the most northerly 
 spot on the American mainland ; see, how I r, 
 1 Jellot Strait, and Murchison Promontory. From 
 this circumstance it has also been called Cnjie Xiirth 
 — a designation inconveniently ambiguous, as tend- 
 ing to confound this headland at once with Cape 
 North in Asia, and with North Cape in Europe. — 
 2. Barrow Strait, the earliest of Parry's discoveries, 
 leading to the west out of Lancaster Sound, which 
 a immediate predecessor, Captain, afterwards 
 Sir John Ross, had pronounced to be landlocked in 
 that direction. Besides its main course, B. Strait 
 throws off Prince Iier/ent's Inlet to the south, and 
 Wellington Channel to the north. The pa 
 averages about 40 miles in breadth, extending, 
 pretty nearly along the parallel of 74° N, from 84* 
 to 90° W. 
 
 The interval between these two localities, thus 
 spanning 66° of long, or at least 2000 miles, only 
 one navigator has ever traversed — the indefatigable 
 M'Clure, carrying his good ship, the Ihv ■sliijntur, 
 round Point B., and leaving her behind him only 
 when almost in sight of B. Strait. 
 
 BA'RROW, a river in the south-east of Ireland. 
 Of the Irish rivers, it is in importance next to 
 the Shannon. It rises in the north of Queen's 
 County, on the north-east slope of the Slieve Bloom 
 ridge of mountains. It flows first east past Port- 
 ariington to the border of Kildare County, and 
 then south between Queen's, Kilkenny, and Water- 
 ford counties on the west, and Kildare, Carlow, 
 and Wexford counties on the east, passing the towns 
 of Athy, Carlow, and New Ross. It has a course 
 of 100 miles through a carboniferous, granitic, and 
 silurian basin. Two miles above New Ross it 
 receives the Nore (q.v.), and eight miles east of 
 Waterford, it is joined by the Suir (q.v.). These 
 three rivers (called the Three Sisters, from their 
 rising in the same mountain-ridge, and joining near
 
 BARROW— BARROWS. 
 
 the sea, after flowing through different counties) 
 form, near the sea, the large and secure estuary of 
 Waterford harbour, 9 miles long. The B. is navig- 
 able for ships of 300 tons to New Ross, 25 mil' ; up. 
 and for barges to Athy, 05 milea up, wham 
 Grand Canal communicates with Dublin. '1 
 below Portarlington, falls 227 feet. 
 BA'RROW, IsAAO, an eminent English mathe- 
 ian and dft ins, L630. 
 
 i irly education at the Charter-house, wh 
 was distinguished ohiefly by his negligence and 
 
 Eity. At Felstead school, in Essex, to which 
 e went next, he greatly improved : and in 1643, he 
 was entered at Peter-house, Cambridge, under his 
 
 uncle Isaac Barrow, then a fellow of that colli 
 
 an I finally bishop of St Asaph. On the 
 
 his uncle in I removed I" Trinity College, 
 
 where he 1 ame l'>. A. in 1648, fellow in 1649, and 
 
 M.A. in 1652. Finding that to he a good theologian 
 he must know chronology, that chronology implies 
 astronomy, and astronomy mathematics, he applied 
 himself to the latter science with distinguished 
 success. To the classics he had already di 
 much study, and on the vacancy of the Creek chair, 
 he was recommended for the office; hut a suspicion 
 of Arminianism interfi red with Ins success. After 
 
 disappointment, he went abroad (1655), and 
 travelled during four years through France and 
 Italy, to Smyrna and Constantinople, back to 
 Venice, and home thr my and 11 
 
 On the voyage from Leghorn to Smyrna, his deter- 
 mined personal courage seems to have been instru- 
 mental in scaring away an Algerine pirate, after a 
 exchange of shots. Soon after his return he 
 took orders, and in the following year was appointed 
 lor of Greek. The neglect with which he 
 
 treated after the Restoration is celebrated in 
 bis couplet addressed to the king — 
 
 Temasis optavit rcdtliturum, Carole, nemo, 
 Et nemo sensit tc rcdiissc minus. 
 
 In 1G02, he was appointed to the Gresham professor- 
 ship of geometry, which, on his being appointed to 
 teaman professorship in 1GG3, he thought it his 
 duty to resign. The latter also he resigned in 1669, 
 in favour of his pupil Isaac Newton. On quitting 
 his professorship, he obtained from his uncle a 
 living in Wales, and from Dr Scth Ward, bishop 
 of Salisbury, a prebend in that cathedral. 1! i 
 voted the revenues of both to charitable pm 
 and resigned them in 1672, on being appointed by 
 the king Master of Trinity College. To him. 
 in this office, is due the foundation of that valuable 
 library, which is one of the chief ornaments of the 
 university. In 1G7">, he was nominated vice-chancel- 
 lor of the university; and in 1077, he died at the 
 early age of -17, having achieved, by his numerous 
 able works, ami the force of his noble p< 
 character, a reputation which time lias left un- 
 impaired. Of his original mathematical works, the 
 principal are his Ledum ' bices and X< 
 
 Opticas, of which it has been said that they are 
 • a nine of curious interesting propositions, to which 
 geometry is always applied with particular elegance.' 
 As a theologian, his fame rests chiefly on his 
 sermons, which are very remarkable as specimens 
 of clear, exhaustive, and vigorous discussion. His 
 sermons, it may be added, were generally of exces- 
 sive length. One, on charity, lasted three hours and 
 a half; and at Westminster Abbey, bo once detained 
 the audience so long that they got the organ to 
 play ' till they had Mowed him down.' B.'s I 
 works, consisting of sermons, expositions, &c, have 
 been edited by Dr Tillotson, Dean of Canterbury, 
 and prefaced with a life by Mr Hill. His works, 
 
 besides those already mentioned, are vary numer- 
 ous, and include / 
 
 Mathematical . Opuscula, containing Latin 
 
 sermons, poems, speeches, &c. LecUonetMatA 
 and L. Geometriae have been translated by K irby and 
 Stone. /.'■■■■ nta lias also been tran-lat d. 
 
 BA'RROW, Sot John, BabOKBT, an English 
 traveller, wa3 born on the 19th June 1 T* 
 Drayleybeck, in Lancashire; was early instructed 
 in. mathematics: andafi a small 
 
 volume on land-surveying, filled a situation in a 
 Liverpool iron-foundry, visited Greenland with a 
 whaler, and after his return taught mathema 
 an academy at Greenwich, He received an appoint- 
 ment as private secretary and keeper of accounts 
 to Lord Macartney, who went as ambassador to 
 China. He availed himself of bis residence in 
 China to learn the Chinese laugua eollect 
 
 valuable materials for the account of China, which 
 he afterwards gave to the world, partly in articles 
 in the Quarterly Review, and partly in li 
 China (Lond. 1804). When Lord Macartney after- 
 wards became governor of Cape Colony, B. availed 
 himself of his residence in South Africa to make 
 extensive excursions in the interior of the country, 
 which he described in his still valuable Travels in 
 the Interior of Southern Afiica (2 vols., Lond. 1S01 — 
 1S03). Having returned to London, in the year 
 1804, he was appointed by Lord Melville secretary 
 to the Admiralty, which situation he continued to 
 hold till 1S45, except for a short time in 1806. 
 Besides the works above mentioned, B. pull 
 A Voyage to Coi I I in the Years 1792 
 
 a.„l ITU.: (Lond. 1S06), The Life of Mace 
 (2 vols., Lond. 1807), A Chronological History of 
 Voyages into the Arctic Regions (Lond. ISIS); 
 also a series of Lives of Engksh Naval Worthies. 
 Under Peel's ministry in lS.'io, he was raised to 
 the baronetcy. In the year 1S45 he retired from 
 public service, but afterwards published An Aid - 
 biographical Memoir (Lond. 1S47), and St 
 of the Royal Society, and died at London, 23d 
 November 1S48. He rendered many services to 
 geographical science by suggesting and promoting 
 scientific expeditions ; with him also 
 the idea of the Geographical Society, founded in 
 1S30, of -which lie was vice-president till his death. 
 
 BA'RROW-ON-SOAR, a village in the north of 
 Leicestershire. 10 miles north of Leicester. It is 
 noted for its blue bine or terras, which make- 
 cement under water. It has manufactures of lace 
 and stockings. It has free schools a 
 charities; and is the seat of the Poor-Law I 
 the district, with a workhouse capable of accommo- 
 dating 500 persons. 
 
 BA'RROWS, artificial mounds of earth generally 
 believed to have been erected for sepulcl. 
 monumental purposes. They are very numerous in 
 Great Britain, and many Of them are SUppOS 
 belong to a period long prior to the Roman in\ 
 The counties of Wilts and Dorset are especially 
 rich in these remains, and the B. of the former 
 have been thoroughly explored, i, and 
 
 classified by Sir li. C. Hoaro in his Ancient Wilt- 
 shire (2 vols. foL 1810— 1S21). In the sepulchral 
 B., the human remains arc buried either in a 
 rude stone ' cist ' or chest, in which the body was 
 doubled up. or are laid at full length in the earth, 
 accompanied by amis and Other utensils. Where 
 EDS body was burned, the remains were laid on the 
 floor of the barrow, in a cist excavated on tin 
 or at a later epoch, in a clay urn. Sir li. Hoaro 
 considers the Wiltshire B. as indicating three - 
 in the progress of society. The first class contains 
 spear and arrow heads of flint and bone; the second, 
 
 713
 
 BARRY— BABTAN. 
 
 of brass; and the third contains arms and instru- 
 ments made of iron. One of tin- largest barrows in 
 Europe is Bilbury Hill, near Marlborough, in Wilt- 
 shire, which covers r> acres, 34 perches of land, 
 and lias a slope o£ 316 feet, with a perpi B( 
 height of 170. According to .Sir R Hoare, barrow- 
 burial was practised down to the 8th c, from a 
 
 mi unknown antiquity. The practice ol 
 inc; sepulchral mounds prevailed among all the 
 principal nations of antiquity both in i 
 Asia, and they are found iu great numbers in 
 Centra] America. Many barrows are only partly 
 artificial; natural mounds having been shaped by 
 bum in hands into the form, round or oblong, which 
 it was wished they should take. 
 
 BA'RRY, a small island, of about a mile long, in 
 the r.iistol Channel, off the south coast of Glamor- 
 ganshire, 10 miles south-west of Cardiff It has 
 th ruins of an ancient castle and of two chapels. 
 On Nell's Point, in the south part of the island, is a 
 fine well, to which great numbers of women n 
 on Holy Thursday, and having washed their eyes 
 iu the spring, each drops a pin into it. 
 
 BA'RRY (in Heraldry), the term applied to a 
 shield which is divided transversely into four, six, 
 or more equal parts, and consisting of two or more 
 tinctures interchangeably disposed. 
 
 'liJilliiE'iiii'rr 
 
 MIIIMIIIIWMIIIII 
 
 Barry. 
 
 Barry-bendy. 
 
 Barry-pily. 
 
 Barry-lendy is where the shield is divided into 
 four, six, or more equal parts, by diagonal lines, 
 the tincture of which it consists being varied 
 interchangeably. 
 
 Barry-pily is where the shield is divided by 
 diagonal lines, the colours being interchanged as 
 in the example. 
 
 EA'RRY, Comtesse du. See Vaubernier. 
 
 BA'RRY CO'RNWALL. See Procter, Bryan 
 Walter 
 
 BA'RRY, Sir Charles, R.A., architect of the 
 two Houses of Parliament, son of Walter Barry, 
 Esq., Westminster, was born there in May lT'.'o. 
 Educated at private schools in Leicestershire and 
 Bedfordshire, he was indentured to Messrs Middle- 
 ton and Bailey, architects, Lambeth. In 1S17, at the 
 age of 22, he went to Italy. A wealthy countryman 
 of his own, attracted by the beauty of his drawings, 
 took him with him to Egypt, as his companion, 
 defraying his expenses. He also visited Greece and 
 Rome. On his return to England after an absence 
 of three and a half years, he became the successful 
 competitor for the design of a church at Brighton. 
 He was also the architect of the Manchester Athen- 
 aeum, a building in the Grecian style; and of the 
 Grammar School of King Edward VI. at Birming- 
 ham ; the latter esteemed the most beautiful of his 
 works. In London, he designed the Traveller's 
 Club, and the Reform Club, both in Pall Mall, and 
 the College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields. After 
 the burning of the old Houses of Parliament in 
 1S34, on a public competition, B.'s design for the 
 new building was adjudged the best. The work 
 was commenced in 1S40; and on 3d February 1S52, 
 Her Majesty opened the Victoria Tower and Royal 
 Gallery in state, and on the occasion knighted the 
 architect. Chosen a Royal Academician in 1842, 
 Sir Charles was also a Fellow of the Royal Society, 
 716 
 
 of the Society of Arts, and of the Institute of British 
 Architects. He died May 12, 1SG0. 
 
 BA'RRY, James, a historical painter, born at 
 Cork, October 11, 1741; and distinguished more by 
 the force of his conception than the excellence - 
 manipulation, or the beauty of his colour. L)r 
 Johnson's criticism on his works was: ' Wha1 
 the hand may have done, the mind has done its 
 part. There is a grasp of mind there which you 
 will find nowhere else.' The chef-d'oeuvre of B. is 
 the Victors at Olympia—a work, the sight of which, 
 Cauova said, was of itself sufficient to repay a 
 journey to England. B. was a protege of Edmund 
 Burke. He was of irritable temper, which led 
 him into many quarrels ; and the result of one with 
 the Royal Academy was his expulsion from the 
 academy. He died on the 22d of February 1S0G, in 
 poor circumstances, while some friends were engagi I 
 in raising subscriptions to purchase him an annuity. 
 
 BA'RRY, Martin, a physiologist of emine ic ■. 
 was born at Fratton, Hampshire, in 1802. Ho 
 studied at the medical schools of London, and also 
 at the university of Edinburgh, where he took his 
 ■ i -of M.D. in 1833. He wrote much on physio- 
 
 logical subjects, and especially on animal develop- 
 ment and embryology, for discoveries in which he is 
 best known. Until the publication of his papers in 
 the' Philosophical Transactions' of the Royal Society 
 of London in 1840-1843, it was not known that 
 spermatozoa actually penetrate within the ovum; 
 and physiologists are also indebted to him for the 
 knowledge of the segmentation of the yelk in 
 mammals. In his private capacity, B. was an 
 and greatly benevolent. His means being ample, he 
 gave his professional services largely to the poor; and 
 he acted as house-surgeon to the Edinburgh Royal 
 Maternity Hospital He died at Beccles, iu Suffolk, 
 iu April 1S55. 
 
 BARSCH, or BARS, a fortified town of 1 [unj a ry, 
 capital of the county of the same name. It is situated 
 on the Gran, which divides it into Old and New B. 
 It is a mart of some importance for grain and fruit. 
 Pop. of county, 137,191. 
 
 BAR-SUR-AXJBE, a town of France, in the 
 department of Aube, situated on the right bank of 
 the river of that name. It is an ill-built ancient 
 town ; numerous old coins and urns attesting that 
 the Romans must have had a station here. B. 
 was destroyed by the Huns in the 5th c, but 
 rebuilt again soon after, when it became a place 
 of commercial importance. A chapel built on the 
 bridge which here crosses the Aube, now marks 
 the spot from which the Bastard of Bourbon was 
 hurled into the river by command of Charles VII. 
 in 1440. B. is also noteworthy as the place 
 where the council of the allied sovereigns, v. huh 
 decided the plan of the campaign ending in the 
 first fall of the Empire, was held in February 25, 
 1S14; and where, two days after, the French were 
 defeated by the allies, under the chief command of 
 Schwartzenberg. B. has a population of 4356; a 
 good trade in wine, wood, hemp, corn, and wool. 
 Its principal industrial products are calicoes, table- 
 covers, brandy, paper, vinegar, and nads. 
 
 BAR-SUR SEINE, an ancient town of France, 
 in the department of Aube, pleasantly situated ou 
 the left bank of the Seine. It has a trade in grain, 
 brandy, wool, and wine. Pop. 2443. It is celebrated 
 as the place where the allies, under the Prince of 
 Wttrtemberg, defeated the French under Macdonald, 
 in March 1814. 
 
 BARTA'N, a town of Anatolia, situated near the 
 mouth of the Chati-su (ancient Parthmius) on the 
 Black Sea. Pop. 10,000, who carry on a brisk trade 
 with Constantinople.
 
 BARTAS-BARTII. 
 
 BARTAS, Gi Hi una m: Sai.luste, a soldier, 
 diplomat] t. and man of letters, was born at Mont- 
 u, about the year 1544. His repu- 
 tation was great during bis lifetime, alike in 'the 
 
 the camp, the gi .' His chief poem is The 
 
 Divine Weeks and Works, which gives an account 
 of Ui" creation, and the history of the Jens as far 
 
 book of Chronicles, and is said to have had 
 
 iderable inilucnce on Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 Thirty editions of the work passed through the 
 
 ui , lis years! Dryden, when a boy, thought 
 his verse incomparably superior to Spenser's; an 
 opinion, however, which he lived to be d n 
 
 • entertained. B.'s name is now quite 
 forgotten, or remembered only in connection with 
 baa taste. It is not to be denied, however, that 
 his fancy, though generally grotesque and Is 
 
 strikes out most picturesque imagery 
 and epithets. His use of compound words 6 
 to their introduction into England, through his 
 t ran latnr Sylvester (q. v.), ami to the eonscqucnt 
 
 • hi 1 nt of our poetry. He died of wounds 
 
 received at the battle of Iviy, 1590. 
 
 BA'RTER, in commerce and political economy, a 
 i a used to express the exchange of one comm 
 for another, as contrasted with the sale of commo- 
 dities for money. It is usual to suppose that in the 
 history of any community J!, preceded the other 
 
 . as people would find thi 
 venience of exchanging one article for another before 
 they were acquainted with money or credit. In 
 point of fact, ships visiting savage countries are 
 illy to some extent freighted with weapons, 
 tool . or ornaments, to be used in 15., if it lie desirable 
 y on a trade with the inhabitants. Under 
 old artificial systems of political economy, there was 
 , ! 33 discussion about the question, whether 
 a B.-trade or a money-payment trade was more 
 ius to the community at large, and which 
 of them slioidil be encouraged while the other is 
 depressed. On the one side, it was maintained that 
 nothing but an export sale fur cash was really pro- 
 fitable ; on the other, that it was more advantageous 
 to get goods in return, because thus there 
 double transaction and double profit. See Balance 
 OF TRADE. But the simple doctrine of the present 
 day, that whatever the merchant finds most profit- 
 able to himself will also be most profitabl • to the 
 community, saves the necessity of making these 
 inns, and of acting upon them by interference 
 with commerce. B. is, in reality, one of the 
 1 it forms of trade, taken at large in the | 
 day. The exporter Bends goods to his agent, who, 
 without probably ever touching hard cash in the 
 course of the transaction, lays in a cargo of import 
 gnods with the value, and these are literally brought 
 
 in - in exchange for those sent out. 
 
 In law, Barter, or Exchange, as it is now more 
 illy called in law-hooks, is a contract for 
 
 property, the cot 
 commodity; or it may be d aeon- 
 
 tract for the exi ban •- of two subjects or commo- 
 dities. It thus differs from sale, which is a contract 
 for the transference of property in consideration of a 
 price in money. See Exchange; Sale. 
 
 BA'RTFA, or BATRTFEED, a small but very 
 
 old free town of North Hungary, in the province 
 
 of Soros, on the Tenia, 15s miles north-east of 
 
 Pesth. Its position on the borders of Galicia has 
 
 frequently made it a place of refuge for Poles and 
 
 ns. Its hot baths are much frequented, and 
 
 a trade in wine, brandy, linen, and earthenware is 
 carried on. Pop. 6303. 
 
 EARTH, lliiMiinr, rh.B., D.C.L., an enterpris- 
 ing modern African traveller, born at Hamburg, 19th 
 
 May 1821, received his education in his native town, 
 and afterwards went to tl a. In 
 
 his youth his favom i were the Roman and 
 
 Greek classics and antiquities, alone with the geogra- 
 phical sciences. Hence lie imbibed a.stn 
 to explore the shores and countries of the Hi 
 ranean. After visiting Italy and Sicily, he embarked, 
 in 1845, at Marseille, and from Gibraltar i 
 
 over to Tangier in Africa. Proc ling along the 
 
 Algerian coast he made excursions into the ii 
 to Tunis, Tripoli, and BengazL <>n his journey 
 thence to Cairo, he was attacked by a hand of 
 Aral) robbers, whom he bravely resisted, but was 
 severely wounded, and lost all his effects and p 
 He afterwards extended his researches into I 
 Sinai, Palestine, Asia .Minor, and Greece. '. 
 
 I ■ ■ ipied him for nearly three years, and in 
 1849 he published, at Berlin, an account of a portion 
 of them in a work entitled II 
 
 lerdes .^filtelsmefres. On t 
 of that year I . 
 
 been (along with Dr 1 1 ppointed by the 
 
 British government scientific companion to Mr 
 James Richardson, then charged by t' 
 i (ffice with a political and i 
 Central Africa. Starting from Tripoli on the 4th 
 
 y 1850, Dr B. and bis companions eros 
 Great Desert amid much difficulty and danger. B. 
 soon separated from his friends, and pursued his 
 researches for the most part by himself. Both Mr 
 Richardson and Dr Overweg succumbed to the 
 climate, and thenceforward I',, was quite alone. He 
 did not, however, return disheartened, but contin- 
 ued Ii i explorations, which, when he retur 
 Tripoli in September 1855, had extended oi 
 degrees of latitude and 2(1 of longitude, from 1 
 in the north to Andamawa in the south, and 
 
 m in the cast to Timbuktu in the 
 wards of 12,000 miles. The result of his - 
 was given to the world in his Trav 
 in i ' ui rii i Africa, 5 vols. (Loud. L857— 1858). After- 
 wards, he made several journeys in Grec 
 Asia Minor, and other count ti liter- 
 
 rancan. Shortly after returning Eroi 
 he died at Dresden, Nov. 25, 1866. In 1858, app 
 his /o ise von Tr 
 
 liens nacli Skutari; in 1802, his 
 und II arbeitung a ntral-afrii. Vocal 
 
 BARTH, Jean, or BART, a French naval hero, 
 the son of a fisherman, born in 1651 at Dunkirk, but, 
 i; to others, in the Netherlands. At an 
 early age he entered the Dutch navy, but on the 
 commencement of the war with Holland he [ 
 over to the French service. As persons not of noble 
 birth could not then obtain the rank of ollieer in 
 the navy, he became captain of a privateer. In 
 this capacity he displayed astonishing bravery, so 
 that Louis XIV. despatched him on a special 
 mission to the Mediterranean. His exploits at 
 last induced the king to appoint him lieutenant 
 of a man-of-war. In an action against a superior 
 English force ho was taken prisoner, and c 
 to Plymouth, from which lie made bis escape in an 
 open fishing-boat to France, whi i the king now 
 
 him to the rank of captain. In the year 1696, 
 Louis XIV. received him with distinction at Ver- 
 sailles, but at the E poke continually of the 
 mischance which had befallen him the year 1 
 Stung by this. I',, hastened to Dunkirk, and in spite 
 of the blockade of the harbour by the English, 
 undertook a cruise, in which he wis remarkably 
 
 -ml. Louis XIV., in a personal audience in 
 1097, appointed him to the command of a squadron, 
 upon which B. exclaimed: 'Sire, you have done 
 well in this.' The courtiers laughed, as at a piece 
 of gross rudeness; but the king took the answer in 
 
 717
 
 BARTHELEMY— BARTHOLIN. 
 
 good part, ami B. very soon shewed how well ho 
 merited such an appointment. The peace of Rys- 
 wick terminated his active career. He died at 
 Dunkirk in 1702. His rough frankness and coarse 
 wit, in which he spared neither high nor low, made 
 him popular, no less than his boldness and readiness 
 for battle. When the Prince do Conti was nomi- 
 nated king of Poland, B. was required, by command 
 of Louis XIV., to convey him to Elsinore, and the 
 ship being attacked by the English on the voyage, 
 was near being taken. After the action, the prince 
 expressed to him his great delight that they had 
 escaped from the enemy. ' We had no need,' was 
 the reply, ' to be afraid of being maelc prisoners ; I 
 had despatched my son with a match to the powder- 
 magazine, to blow up the ship on the first wink ! ' 
 
 BARTHELEMY, Jean Jacques, a historian and 
 antiquary, born 20th Jauuary 1716, at Cassis, near 
 Aubagne, in Provence. He was educated under 
 the Jesuits for the church, but soon abandoned all 
 thought of becoming a priest, and devoted himself 
 to the study of the Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, 
 and Chaldce languages, though he retained the chess 
 and title of an abbe. He first acquired distinction 
 by the discovery of the Palmy ran alphabet. In 
 1745, he was appointed assistant-superintendent of 
 the Royal Cabinet of Medals, and in 1747 i 
 a member of the Academic dt s Inscriptions 1 i B 
 lettres. To complete his studies, he visited Rome in 
 1754, in the suite of M. de Stainville, afterwards 
 Duke of Choiseul, and then French ambassador, 
 where he was courteously received by Pope Benedict 
 XIV. After his return, he was again employed in 
 the arrangement of the Royal Cabinet of Medals, 
 which he augmented by a great number of costly 
 specimens. The Due de Choiseid, who became min- 
 ister in 1758, placed him, by means of a pension and 
 other favours, in a position to devote himself entirely 
 to learned researches, which he quietly pursued till 
 the revolution of 17S9 deprived him of his offices. 
 In September 1793, he was imprisoned on charge of 
 being an aristocrat, but almost immediately released. 
 Shortly after, he was offered the situation of national 
 librarian then vacant, but his age and infirmities 
 compelled him to decline accepting it. lie died on 
 the 30th April 1795. 
 
 His most celebrated and popular work is the 
 ge du jeune Anacharsis en uric d ms h Mttii < 
 du quatrieme Steele avant Vere Chrctienne. Paris, 
 1788, 4 vols. (Travels of the Young Anacharsis in 
 Greece about the Middle of the Fourth Century B. c). 
 The work (see AnAOHAKSB) is a very pleasing and 
 agreeable performance; exhibits an extensive know- 
 ledge of the ancient world, especially of Greece and 
 its colonics ; aud abounds in observations which, if 
 not profound, are at least judicious. Later and more 
 severe criticism has, however, pointed out many 
 deficiencies and anachronisms. It has been trans- 
 lated into almost every European language. Among 
 B.'s other works may be mentioned a romance, 
 entitled Caryle el Pohjdore (Paris, 1700) ; Explication 
 dt la Mosa'ique de Paleslrine (Paris, 1700) ; l!''jl xions 
 sur V Alphabet el la Langue de Palmyre (Paris, 1754). 
 
 BARTHELEMY SAINT- HILAIRE, Jules, 
 a learned Frenchman, member of the Institute, and 
 formerly a representative of the people, was born 
 at Paris on the 19th of August 1805. He first held 
 a subordinate office under the minister of finance. 
 During 1828—1830, he was one of the editors of the 
 Globe, a Paris paper. After the July revolution, he 
 took part with the society Aide-toi el le Ciel (aid* ra 
 (q. v.), revised several of its democratic mani- 
 festoes, established the Bon Sens, and continued 
 to attack the government of Louis Philippe in 
 the Constitutionnel, the Courrier-Francais, and the 
 718 
 
 National. In 1S33, he desisted from political strife, 
 and betook himself to more quiet studies. In 1S34, 
 le- was named Ihpetiteur for the French Literature 
 .it tin- Boole Polytechniqut ; and in 1838, pro- 
 of Greek and Latin philosophy in the ( 
 de France. The revolution of February, however, 
 brought him once more into the political arena. Ho 
 was appointed secretary to the Provisional Govern- 
 ment, but refused his support to the government of 
 ( lavaignac, and even appeared as his accuser, though 
 he faded to establish his charges against the sup- 
 pressor of the June insurrection. B. was at first m 
 of I. mi i Napoleon, but the coup oVftai on the 
 2d of Deo "i 1 sr, and the overthrow of the constitu- 
 tion, compelled him to become an oppositionist. He 
 then retired for a time from public fife, and resigned 
 tair; but in IS .2 he was reappointed, and, at 
 the general election of 1869, was returned to the 
 Corps Legislatif as deputy for the first circumscrip- 
 tion of Seine-et-Oise. 
 
 His principal writings are his translation; of 
 Aristotle's works— /'o 1 ' Paris, 1837); 
 
 De la Logique d'Aristote (1838); La Iiogvme 
 d'Aristote, translated into French for the first 
 time (1S39 — 1844, 4 vols.); Psychologic d'Ai 
 Traiti de I'dme (1846); De VEcole oVAlexa 
 (1S45) ; Rapport sur la Comparaison de la I'luU 
 Morale ct Politique de Plalon et d'Arlslote, avec lea 
 Doctrines des plus " Modernes 
 
 (1854); Des Vidas (1854); Du BouddMsme (1855). 
 An enlarged edition of this last work, containing an 
 account of Buddhism as practised in Ceylon at the 
 present day, was published in 1S60. 
 
 BARTHEZ, Paul JosErn, one of the most 1 
 physicians of France, son of a distinguished engineer, 
 born in Montpellier, 11th December 1734. After 
 serving as an army-physician, he founded at Mont- 
 pellier a medical school, which rose to a b b 
 European reputation. His A 
 
 de Vffomme (Montpell. 1778; 2d ed., 2 vo . 
 Par. 1S06), in which he set forth a system founded 
 on dynamical principles, was translated into most of 
 the languages of Europe. He became, in 1785, titular 
 chancellor of the university of Montpellier; and 
 consultations with him on serious cases were sought 
 from all parts of the civilised world. The revolution 
 deprived him of the greater part of his property and 
 his places, and compelled him to leave Paris ; but 
 Napoleon recalled him, and heaped honours and 
 dignities upon him in his old age. He died in gri 
 suffering, after an operation for stone in the bladder, 
 on 15th October 1806. Of his numerous writings, 
 the following deserve special mention: Normal* 
 Mecaniquc des Mouvements de V Homme et des Anl- 
 maux (Carcassonne, 179S; Traitemeni des Ma 
 Qoutteusee i (2 vols., Par. 1802; new ed., 1S19 ; aud 
 Consultation de Mtdecine (2 vols., Par. 1810). — See 
 Lordat, Exposition de la Doctrine Medicale de 
 , <l Memoircs sur la Vie de ce Mcdecin (Par. 
 1818). 
 
 BARTHOLIN, the name of a Danish family 
 distinguished for learning and authorship, and the 
 members of which have rilled many important offices, 
 especially in the university of Copenhagen. Kasi-ai: 
 B., born 12th February 1585, at Malmti, where his 
 father was a minister, studied theology and phUo- 
 sophy at Rostock and Wittenberg, and afterwards 
 studied medicine. In the year 1610, he was made 
 doctor of medicine at Basle. He practised for some 
 tune in Wittenberg, and in 1613 accepted an invita- 
 tion to be professor of the Greek language and of 
 medicine at Copenhagen, where, in l(>2t, he became 
 professor of theology. He died at Sora in 1629. 
 His Institutiones Analomiccc (Wittenb., 1611, and 
 often reprinted), which were translated into the
 
 BARTHOLOMEW— BARTHOLOMEWS DAY. 
 
 German, French, English, and Oriental languages, 
 served in the 17th c., in many universities, as a 
 text-book for prelections. Of his sons, who are all 
 known in the learned world, the following especially 
 deserve to be mentioned : the orientalist, Jacob B., 
 born 1623) died at Heidelberg, 1653, known as the 
 editor of the cabalistic works, Bahir and Majan 
 Hachochma ; and Thomas B., equally celebrated as 
 a philologist, naturalist, and physician, who was born 
 20m October 1616. lie became, in 1047, professor 
 and in lij IS professor of anatomy, 
 at Cop 'I "initted these offices in 1661, and 
 
 thereafter l tirement upon his estate of 
 
 tad. In 1670, the kins appointed him his 
 physician in ordinary, which situation he filled till 
 his death, 4th November 1680. He enlarged the 
 new edition of his father's Anatomy (LeydT, 1041 ; 
 often reprinted) with a mass of new observations. 
 Besides many other valuable anatomical and medical 
 works, his works on biblical and other antiquities, 
 and on natural philosophy, are particularly worthy 
 of notice. He was one of the most learned and 
 studious of physicians, and warmly defended Har- 
 vey's doctrine of the circulation of the blood. His 
 son. K.wai: B., born 1654, died 1704, was likewise 
 an accomplished anatomist; and another son, 
 Thomas B., born 1659, died 1690, is the author 
 of a standard work on northern antiquities — the 
 > Damicarwm lAbri Tres (Cojxinh., 16S9) ; 
 also of De Causis ContempUe a Danis adhue gaitUibu* 
 Mortis. 
 
 BARTHO'LOMEW, St, one of the twelve 
 apostles, supposed to be the same person as 
 Nathaniel He was a native of Galilee, but nothing 
 authentic is known regarding his life and labours. 
 According to the traditionary record of Eusebius, he 
 carried Christianity into India; Clirysostom speaks 
 of him as a missionary in Armenia and Asia Minor, 
 while a still later legend declares that he was cruci- 
 fied at Albania Pyla, the modern Derbend, a town 
 on the Caspian Sea. The relics of St B. ' appeared ' 
 at Rome in 983 A.D., and are preserved there iu 
 the church bearing his name. The Roman and 
 Anglo-catholic Churches hold a festival in his 
 memory on the 24th August; the Greek Church, 
 on the 11th June. The primitive church possessed 
 an apocryphal Gospel under his name, but it is now 
 lost. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, St, a Caribbean island, 
 ceded, in 1784, by France to Sweden, whose single 
 transatlantic colony it is. It lies al>out 30 miles 
 to the west of St Ivitts, the lat. and long, of its 
 etively 17" 53" N., and 62° 
 52' W. With an area of only 36 square nn 
 B. contains about 10,000 inhabitants, The soil is 
 fertile, though, as is generally the case in the 
 groan, fresh water is scarce. Like most of its 
 neighbours, St B. is difficult of access, its only 
 harbour being on its west side, near the chief town 
 Gustavia. 
 
 BARTHO'LOMEW FAIR, formerly held at 
 West Smithfield, London, but discontinued since 
 1855. The charter of this fair was granted by Henry 
 I., in 1133, to a monk named flayer or Habere, who 
 had been his jester, and had founded the church aud 
 priory of St, Bartholomew', with an hospital attached. 
 The fair was held annually at the festival of St Bar- 
 tholomew (August 24, old style), and, like all an oil at 
 fairs, was originally connected with the church, 
 under whose auspices Miracle-plays (q. v.), founded 
 on the legends of saints, were represented, which 
 pave place to Mysteries, and these again to Morali- 
 afterwards, profane stories were introduced — 
 the origin of the modern EngUsh drama. After the 
 opening of the fair, it was customary anciently for 
 
 wrestlers to exercise their art. Wild rabbits were 
 hunted for sport by the mob, and the scholars 
 from the different London schools met at the 
 priory for disputations on grammar and logic, and 
 to wrai r in verse. In the first cent 
 
 of its existence, B. F. was one of the great annual 
 markets of the nation, and the chief cloth-fair of 
 the kingdom. The clothiers of England and the 
 drapers of London had their standings, during the 
 fair, in the priory churchyard. A pedlar's court, 
 or court of Pie Poudre (q. v.), was held withiu the 
 priory gates, for debts and contracts, before a jury of 
 traders formed on the spot, at which the prior, as 
 lord of the fair, presided by his representative or 
 steward. In 1415, four persons were appoint 
 the Court of i A the fair and of 
 
 the court of Pit Poudre, the city being thus in that 
 court represented as joint lord of the fair with the 
 prior. As the fair prosper ed , its chief art; 
 traffic were, in the first instance, cloth stuffs, leather, 
 pewter, and live cattl.-; while it was rendered 
 attractive to the crowds that attended it by a 
 variety of popular amusements. All manner of 
 shows, exhib trieal booths, &c, thronged 
 
 the fair; and tumblers, acrobats, stilt- walkers, 
 mummers, mountebanks, and mcrry-andrews re- 
 sorted to it in "Teat numbers. On the suppression 
 of the religious houses, the priory was disjoined from 
 the hospital, and the latter, on 27th December 1540, 
 was, by Henry VI 11., transferred to the corporation 
 of London, a new hospital being established on the 
 tin- former. The priory was purchased for 
 £1064, Us. 3d, by Sir Richard Rich, Chancellor of 
 the Court of Augmentations, afterwards Lord Chan- 
 cellor under the title of Lord Rich, and became his 
 town-house. Towards the close of the 16th c, 
 streets of houses began to be built on the site i 
 Cloth Fair, a name which is still retained. In 
 1593, the keeping of the fair was, for the lirst time, 
 suspended by the raging of the plague. The 
 same thing happened in 1603, in 1626, in 1630, 
 in 1665, and in 1666. At this fair, foreigners 
 were at first licensed for three days, and ti 
 city freemen as long as they would, which was 
 six or seven days. In 1661, after the R. 
 ation, the fair lasted for fourteen days or more. In 
 1685, it was leased by the city to the sword-bearer. 
 After this period, it began to decay as a place of 
 trade. Iu 1691, the continuance of the fair was 
 limited to three days, besides the proclamation- 
 da v. In 1701, it was represented as a nuisance. In 
 1750 it was again limited to three days. By the 
 alteration of the calendar in 1752, the fair, in the 
 following year, was, for the first time, proclaimed on 
 3d September. In 179S, the question of abolishing 
 the fair wa by the corporation. It bad 
 
 long ceased to be a place of traffic, and was only 
 considered as a haunt of amusement, riot, and dissi- 
 pation. The fair had latterly been attended only by 
 the keepers of a few gingerbread-stalls; and in 
 1839, measures were tirst seriously adopted for its 
 suppression. In 1S40, tho exhibitions were removed 
 to Islington. Wild-beast shows wore allowed, but 
 dwarfs and giants were excluded. In 1S50, the last 
 proclamation by the lord mayor took place, and in 
 1855 the once famous B. F. came to an end. An 
 octavo volume, entitled Iftautiri of Bartholomew 
 I .- Henry M published in London in 
 
 1869. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEWS (St) DAY (Fr. La St.- 
 Barthflemy; Ger. BarikolomOmmKMtH, i. e., Bartho- 
 lomew's Night, or Bluthoclizcit, i. e., Blood- wed 
 the appellation given to the massacre of the 
 testante in Paris on the night of St B. D., In: 
 24th and 25th August 1572. After the death of 
 Francis II. in 1560, Catharine de' Medici (q. v.), as
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S nOSPITAL— BARTOLINI. 
 
 Ear b c in, Charles IX., a minor, in order to 
 
 annoy the Catholic party of the Duke Francis of 
 
 (q. v.), bad granted an edict of toleration to 
 
 Reformed, at whose head was the Prince of 
 
 ( undo. Both parties took up arms, and there ensued 
 which lasted for eight years, the cruelties of 
 which, through mutual exasperation, are almost 
 Libia, The Duke Francis of Guise was murdered 
 l>y an a i in, and the Prince of Conde was taken 
 i r in the battle of .Tarnac, in 1569, and i hot. 
 
 sung Prince Henry of Beam, afterwards King 
 I V., a nephew of Conde, then became leader 
 of the Reformed, along with Admiral Coligny (q. v.). 
 It was not till the strength of both sides was ex- 
 I d, that the peace of St Germaiu-en-Laye was 
 
 concluded in 1 570, whereby the Reformed obtained 
 the free exercise of their religion. Catharine de' 
 Medici now expressed much friendliness towards the 
 Reformed, and even endeavoured to lull them into 
 negligence by the marriage of the youthful Henry of 
 Beam with her daughter Margaret, ISth August 
 1572. Admiral Coligny was drawn to Paris, and 
 the king not only made him costly presents, but 
 gave him an important office in the council of 
 state. However, all this was only the basest hypoc- 
 risy. When, by means of the marriage of Prince 
 , the most eminent of the Reformed had been 
 allured to Paris, Admiral Coligny was wounded by 
 a shut from a window of the palace on 22d 
 ].->7i The king, indeed, hastened to him, and swore 
 to avenge him; but, on the very same day, the 
 king was persuaded by his mother that the 
 admiral sought Ins life. 'By God's death!' he 
 • icd, 'let the admiral be slain, and not him 
 only, but all the Huguenots, till not one remain 
 trouble!' That night, Catharine 
 held a council, and appointed St B. D. for carrying 
 the Long-contemplated massacre. After 
 ay bad been murdered, a bell in the tower of 
 I ya] palace, at the hour of midnight, gave the 
 
 I to the assembled companies of citizens for a 
 ; eneral massacre of the Huguenots. The king him- 
 self fired from his palace upon those that were 
 past. The Prince of Conde and the king of 
 Navarre only saved their lives by going to mass, 
 and appearing to conform to the Catholic Church. 
 The provinces were at the same time summoned to 
 similar slaughter; and although in some of them 
 the officials were ashamed to publish the murderous 
 commands which had been transmitted to them, 
 there were found bloodthirsty fanatics enough, who 
 ited the greatest horrors for several weeks 
 her in almost all the provinces, so that it was 
 led that 30,000 (some authorities make the 
 number 70,000) persons were murdered. The pope 
 celebrated the events of St B. D. by a procession 
 to the church of St Louis, a grand Te Deum, 
 and the proclamation of a year of jubilee. Many 
 of the Huguenots fled to pathless mountains and 
 to La Rochelle, to which the Duke of Anjou laid 
 siege. Upon receiving intelligence, however, that 
 he had been elected king of Poland, he made 
 an arrangement on July C, 1573, according to 
 which the king granted to the Huguenots an 
 ' y, and the exercise of their religion in certain 
 . ■ . 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S (St) HO'SPITAL, Smith- 
 In U, London, was originally a part of the priory of 
 St Bartholomew', founded in 1102 by Rahere, the 
 first prior. At the dissolution of the religious 
 nou ^, it was founded anew by Henry VIII., and 
 udowment has been subsequently enlarged from 
 \. ious sources, public and private. The hospital 
 contains more than 600 beds, and affords relief to 
 70,000 patients annually. There is a medical school 
 attached. The revenues are large and ample. 
 720 
 
 Bartizan. 
 
 BA'RTIZAN, a small stone closet, thrown out 
 upon corbels over doorways, 
 and on other parts of me- 
 dieval castles, generally for 
 defence, but sometimes only 
 for convenience to the in- 
 mates and defenders. 
 
 BA'RTLETT, William 
 Henry, an artist and popu- 
 lar writer, was born at 
 Kentish Town, London, on 
 the 29th March 1SO0. He 
 was a pupil of the eminent 
 architectural antiquary, Mr 
 John Britton, of London, 
 and during his apprentice- 
 ship displayed more than 
 ordinary talent for drawing, 
 wdiich was fostered by his 
 master sending him into 
 many of the most interest- 
 ing counties in England, 
 to make sketches from 
 nature. Mr Britton after- 
 wards employed him to 
 
 make drawings for his GaOiedral Antiquities, and 
 also for his Picturesque Antiquities <;/' English 
 Cities. Subsequently, H. visited the continent, the 
 Holy Land, and America several tines, on each 
 occasion enriching his portfolio with innumerable 
 interesting scenes. -No lower than nineteen quarto 
 volumes, containing about 1000 engravings from 
 his sketches, and letterpress from his own pen 
 and those of his fellow-travellers, Dr \V. Beattie, 
 N. P. Willis, and Miss Pardoe, were devoted to 
 these countries. Several other volumes, of H bdeh he 
 was the sole author as well as artist, have also been 
 published. Some of the books had a wonderful suc- 
 cess, especially those on Switzerland, the Holy Land, 
 and Egypt. B. died on the voyage from Malta to 
 Marseille on September 25, 1854. He had been 
 revisiting Palestine, and the materials he had col- 
 lected were given to the world in a posthumous 
 volume entitled Jerusalt m R( visited. 
 
 BA'RTLETT is also the name of several Ameri- 
 can authors, the most eminent of wdioin is John 
 Russell B., born at Providence, Rhode Island 
 (TJ. S.), in October 1805. He was employed by 
 the United States' government, in 1850 — 185.'!, as 
 a commissioner for determining the Mexican boun- 
 dary-line, and, in 1S54, published an account of his 
 explorations and adventures, &C, in that capacity. 
 He is also tin: author of The Progress of Ethnology, 
 a popular Dictionary of Americanisms, Bibliography 
 of Books relating in tin. Civil War, and other works. 
 
 BARTOLI'NI, Loi:enzo, a celebrated Italian 
 sculptor, was born at Vernio, in the north of Tusi lany, 
 in 1777. Circumstances brought him to Paris while 
 still a young man, where he practised his art for 
 some time with very little pecuniary success; l.at 
 at length, having obtained an academy prize for a 
 bas-relief of Cleobis and Biton, he was suddenly 
 ushered into notice and prosperity. Several influ- 
 ential persons patronised him, such as Denon and 
 Reguauld de St Jean d'Angely. Through the first, 
 he obtained a commission to execute one of the 
 bas-reliefs in the hall of the Vendome palace, and 
 also the bust of Napoleon over the door of the 
 Institute of France. Napoleon himself gave him a 
 multitude of orders, many of wdiich, unfortunately, 
 were never executed. In 1S08, the emperor sent 
 him to Carrara, to establish a school of sculpture. 
 Here he remained till 1814, when he accompanied 
 his imperial master to Elba. After the battle of 
 Waterloo, he repaired to Florence, where he was
 
 BARTOLOMEO-BARYTA. 
 
 equently appointed director of the sculpture 
 i mint in the Academy of the Fine Arts, an 
 oflice he retained till his death in 1850. B. m a 
 prolific artist. Besides the works already 
 mentioned, B. executed bus! I ibini, Mehul, 
 Madame l: aauld, a magnificent statin- of Napo- 
 leon f. (now in , 'asite sepul- 
 chral monuments, such as that of Lady Stoat- 
 ford Canning in the cathedra] of Lausanne, and 
 pa, the most celebrated of which are hie 
 '( ad 'Hercules and Lycus.' In Bngland 
 and France, his style is in general 
 
 i many, it is less highly thought of. His 
 figures are characterised by their truthfulness of 
 proportion and classic repo 
 
 I i a remarkably lifeli] 
 
 1 ova, B. is reckoned the most distinguished 
 Italian sculptor of modern times. 
 
 BARTOLOMEO, Sax, a town of Italy, in the 
 province of Capitanata, with a population oi ."■ luu. 
 
 BARTOLO'ZZI,Fi;\- I n,i -raver, 
 
 ■ i born in Florence about 1730. After pi 
 his art under Wagner of Venice, he went to 
 • he executed his admired plates from 
 the life of St Xilus. He was afterwards O 
 sioned by Mr Dalton, librarian of George III., to 
 engrave a series of drawings by Guercino, and 
 •was induced by the same gentleman to settle in 
 England. Here 15. produced his spirited and highly 
 1 engravings of the 'Virgin and Child' after 
 Carlo Dolcl, and ' Clytie ' after Annibale Carracci, 
 which entitle him to occupy the front rank in his 
 profession. He also engraved numerous specimens of 
 the works of his friend Giovanni Cipriani, of Michael 
 Angelo, Cantarini, C'ortona, &c, with crpial truth 
 and effect. B. likewise enriched Alderman Boydell's 
 Shakspeare Gallery with many fine engravings. In 
 1802 he received a flattering invitation from the 
 Prince Regent of Portugal, to take the superintend- 
 ence of a .-ihool of engravers at Lisbon, whither he 
 repaired three years afterwards, in hi3 seventy- 
 
 \ ear, and there resided until his death iu 
 ISIS. He was the grandfather of Madame Vestris, 
 the celebrated com dian. 
 
 BARTON, BKRNAKD, an English poet, born 
 31st January 1784, in London. His parents were 
 members of the Society of Friends, to the tenets of 
 ■which body B. adhered through life. In 1810 he 
 became clerk to a banking-house at Woodbridge, in 
 which situation he continued until within two years 
 of his death. His first poetical efforts, published in 
 1812 under the title of .1/. on*, brought 
 
 him into correspondence with the poet Southey. 
 Poems by an Amateur (1818), and Poems (Loud. 
 1820), increased his reputation, and gained him the 
 friendship of Lamb and Byron. Na/ioleon ami otht r 
 Poems appeared in 1S22, and was followed within 
 five years by several other productions. All the 
 of B. are pervaded by pious sentiment, and 
 some passages display much natural tenderness and 
 
 ous fervour; but he is, on the whole, rather a 
 fluent, pleasant versifier than a poet. So eai 
 1S24, a reading-club founded by him in Wood- 
 bridge collected the sum of £ 12(11 1 sterling, and pre- 
 
 1 it to him. Some years before his death, he 
 received, through Sir Robert Peel, a pension of £1(K) 
 
 i-'. In addition to the works mentioned, he 
 published Fisher's Jut - out (Loud. 1S36), 
 
 t% Reliquary (Land. 1836), and Household Verses 
 (Loud. 1845). After his death, which took place 
 suddenly, 19th February 1S49, his daughter pub- 
 lished the Poems and Letters of 
 Jj.rn.n;/ Barton (Lond. 1S49). 
 
 BARTON, Elizabeth-, commonly called ' the 
 Holy Maid of Kent,' a wretched creature, subject to 
 16 
 
 spasmodic nervous affections, during which she gave 
 utterance to incoherent exclamations and phrases. 
 te was servant in a tavern at 
 Aldington, in Kent; and the cunning priest of the 
 parish seeing her in her paroxysms, on the strength 
 of her misfortune conceived the idea of pre* 
 her to tie; world as a prophetess. I'ndcr his 
 tions, she p 1 : it so well that not only the 
 
 common people, but even men of intellect and edu- 
 cation like Sir Thomas More, and Barium, the 
 Archbi ed by her. 
 
 former, however, afterward! 1 her 
 
 a nun. and when, in 
 ibmy VIII. quarrelled with the court of 
 Rome, she w I to denounce loudly the 
 
 king's a his lirst wife, and his 
 
 marriage with Anne Bo even to prophesy 
 
 tli. Being by the king's command, 
 
 along with her a d before the 
 
 lublicly 
 li had 
 been perpetrated, and 
 
 ' she was after- 
 
 wards a ' ■ uted along 
 
 with some of her accomplices in 1634 
 
 BA'RTON BE 1 1 of strata, composed of 
 
 clay and sand, and forming part of the Middle Eocene 
 formation, included in the Bagshot sen 
 
 BA'RTON-ON-HTT'MBBE, a town in North 
 Lincolnshire, on the' south side of the Humber, 
 six miles south-west of Hull. It is a very ancient 
 pla . having been one of the chief ports of the 
 Humber before the foundation of Hull. It was once 
 surrounded by a rampart and fosse, as a protection 
 against the incursions of the Dai - ixonS. 
 
 The ferry across the Humber, on the great road 
 from London to Hull, used to be lure; but the 
 London and Hull inland traffic has now been 
 diverted from B. by the steam-ferry at New Holland, 
 six miles below Barton. The chief manufactures 
 arc ropes, sacking, bricks, tiles, pottery, and whiting. 
 There are qtaarnes of chalk and oolite. The tower 
 of St Peter's Church, which was built about the 
 time of the Conquest, has both round and pointed 
 arches; and, with the part of the braiding to the 
 west, constitutes one of the few existing examples 
 of undoubted Anglo-Saxon architecture. St Mary's 
 ( ihurch is a handsome structure of the 14th c. Pop. 
 (1871) 4332 
 
 BA'RU, a fine woolly substance found at the base 
 of the leaves of the Saguerus tr (also 
 
 called A reii'i' no), one of the most valuable 
 
 lms of the Indian Archipelago. It is much 
 d in calking ships, in stuffing cushions, and 
 for other similar purp 
 
 BA'RUCH (i. e,, the 11 .-sed), the son of Xeriah, 
 was the person to whom the prophet Jeremiah dic- 
 tated his oracles. Daring the sice,. ,,f Jerusalem by 
 zar, both he and the prophet were, by 
 
 mi countrymen, shut up in a narrow p 
 but obtained from the conqueror freedom and per- 
 mission to choose ; oained 
 for some time in Palestine, but afterwards accom- 
 
 Jen mi. ili to Egj j'i. 1 1 
 IS unknown. An apocryphal work in the I 
 language has conic down fa) us under his name — 
 viz.. the Book of B., which contains wm 
 fort for the Israelites, and predicts the rebuilding of 
 
 ■ in. There is usually appended to it, as 
 chapters vi. and vii., a lctt< rvphal — of 
 
 the prophet Jeremiah to the exiles in Babylon, 
 BA'RWOOD. See Camwood. 
 BARYTA, or BAR'S CBS, or Oxide of Barium 
 (q.v.) — symbol BaO— is the earth present in the 
 minerals withtritt (carbonate of B.) and
 
 BAR YTOX— BAN A LT. 
 
 (sulphate of B.). It may be prepared in seven] 
 
 1. By acting upon the carbonate of B. (BaOCO,) and that on Bakium. 
 
 by nitric acid (N0 5 ), which causes the disengage 
 ment of the carbonic acid (CO ), and the nitrii 
 combining witli the B. form3 the nitrate of baryta 
 (BaONO,). On evaporating the latter substance 
 to dryness, and igniting the residue, the nitre 
 volatilises, and leaves the baryta (BaO). 2. Another 
 mode of preparing the same substance is to act 
 upon a solution of sulphurct of barium (BaN) by the 
 black oxide of copper (CuO), when an interchange 
 of elements occurs, the sulphur uniting with the 
 copper, producing sulphuret of copper (CuS), and 
 the oxygen with the barium, forming B. (BaO), 
 which remains dissolved in the water, and, on 
 evaporation, deposits crystals in the hydrated 
 condition (BaO.HO). B. belongs to the group of 
 alkaline earths, and has the property of acting like 
 an alkali (q. v.) on colouring matters. It has a 
 very harsh taste, is highly caustic, and is very 
 poisonous. A solution of B. is used by the chemist 
 as the best indication of the presence of car- 
 bonic acid gas in the atmosphere, for when a 
 plate or other vessel containing the solution is 
 exposed to the air, the carbonic acid floating 
 across the surface combines with the B., and forms 
 a film of white carbonate of baryta (BaO,CO a ). 
 Otherwise, B. possesses little interest, as it is not 
 put to any commercial or medicinal use. The 
 compounds of B. are, however, of considerable 
 importance. The sulphate of B. (BaOS0 3 ), other- 
 wise called ponderous or heavy spar, is found in the 
 mineral kingdom, diffused in fissures or cracks, 
 
 B., have been previously referred to in this article 
 
 BA'KYTON (Viol di Bardoni), an old chamber- 
 instrument, somewhat like the viol di gamba in 
 tone: had a broader finger-board, with seven gut- 
 strings, while under the neck there were sixteen 
 strings of brass wire, which were touched with the 
 point of the thumb, to produce a sound, while tho 
 gut-strings were acted on by a bow. 
 
 BA'RYTON, that species of the human voice 
 which lies between the bass and the tenor, tho 
 tone-character of which is more allied to the bass. 
 
 The compass of a B. voice is from ^-): — i- 
 
 bnt the principal 
 
 3 
 
 notes of the voice are from 
 
 S 
 
 and these should possess the ener- 
 
 getic character of a bass voice, and, above all, be 
 produced from the chest, excepting perhaps the 
 highest. In former times, the music for this 
 species of voice was written on a stave with 
 
 the F clef placed on the 3d line, thus : -, 
 
 Crystal of Sulphate of Earyta. 
 
 passing through other rocks, especially in Cumber- 
 land, Durham, and Westmoreland, and in the island 
 of Arran. At the latter place, an extensive mine 
 of heavy spar has been worked for many years. 
 In its native condition, the sulphate of B. occurs 
 of a crystalline texture, is sometimes found pure 
 and white, but generally presents a flesh-red colour, 
 from the red oxide of iron (rust) incorporated 
 in it. The rust can be got quit of by reducing 
 the sulphate of B. to a fine powder under rollers or 
 travelling-wheels, and subjecting the pulverised 
 material to the action of dilute sulphuric acid, 
 which dissolves the red oxide of iron, and leaves the 
 sulphate of B. as a white dense powder. The 
 principal use of heavy spar is as a pigment under 
 the name of permanent white; but having little 
 opacity, it cannot be employed by itself, but only 
 when mixed with ordinary white lead. When 
 added to the latter, however, it must be regarded 
 as an adulteration, for the little opacity it possesses 
 renders it of service only as an incrcaser of the 
 bulk of the white lead. Several mixtures of 
 sulphate of B., and white lead are manufactured, 
 and are known in commerce. Venice While contains 
 1 part Sulphate of B., and 1 part White Lead. 
 Hamburg White contains 2 parts Sulphate of B., 
 and 1 part White Lead. Dutch White contains :} 
 parts Sulphate of B., and 1 part White Lead. The 
 native sulphate of B. has been employed by the 
 celebrated potter Wedgwood in the manufacture of 
 jasper ware, and for the formation of white figures, 
 &c, on coloured jars and vessels. The Carbor j 
 B. found native as Withcrite, and the Kilrate of 
 
 722 
 
 Basalt section. 
 
 BAS, or BATZ, a small island in the Erj 
 Channel, belonging to France, and situated off the 
 north coast of the department «i I . re. Its 
 
 length is about 3 miles, and its breadth 2. It! 
 light-house, in lat. 4S° 45' N., and long. 4" IV W., 
 cm an elevation 223 Eeet above the sea, and is 
 defended by two forts and four batteries. Pop. 
 above 1000, whose chief occupation is fishing. 
 
 BASA'LT, strictly a variety of trap-rock (q. v.), 
 although some writers use the words as synony- 
 mous. It i3 composed of the same materials as 
 tone (q. v.), and other varieties of trap, viz., 
 hornblende and felspar, with a small quantity of 
 iron; but these exist in a state of finer division 
 than in greenstone, shewing that the crystalline 
 action has been stopped at its commencement by 
 the more rapid cooling of the mass. To this is 
 owing its sharp conchoidal fracture and its hard- 
 ness. As the hardness is frequently accompi 
 with tenacity, it makes B. a valuable material in tho 
 making of roads. It is of a more uniform dark-gray 
 colour, approaching to black, than the other varieties 
 of trap. 
 
 A rock of a similar appearance and structure 
 occurs as a variety of lava, in volcanic districts. 
 This Lava-B. differs from 
 the older Trap-B. in the form 
 which the silicates of mag- 
 nesia and lime assume when 
 crystallising. In the newer 
 rocks, they appear as augite ; 
 in the older, as hornblende. 
 These two minerals can 
 scarcely be distinguished by 
 their chemical composition, 
 the different formulas given 
 by mineralogists being the 
 result of the presence, in the specimen analysed, of 
 accidental ingredients or impurities. The sli 
 (liffering crystallographic angle has been accounted 
 for by the supposed more speedy cooling of the vol- 
 canic rocks. Rose, indeed, has shewn that the horn- 
 blende of melted greenstone, in re-cooling, crystallises 
 as augite ; and we have observed that the same 
 change has taken place in specimens of recrystallised 
 B., obtained from works which existed lately at
 
 BASALT. 
 
 Birmingham for converting this rock into an opaque 
 glass for various economic uses. 
 
 The remarkable columnar structure which B. frc- 
 
 ?uently assumes, is its most striking characteristic, 
 'he columns vary in the number of their angles from 
 three to twelve ; but they have most commonly 
 from five to seven sides. They are frequently 
 divided transversely by joints at nearly equal dis- 
 tances. The direction of the columns 13 always at 
 Rgfat angles to the greatest extension of the mass, 
 ao that when B. occurs as a bed, either overlying, or 
 
 interstratified with the regular strata, the columns 
 qwndicular, while they are horizontal when 
 the B. exists as a dike. 
 
 The columnar structure was at first believed to 
 be owing to a modification of the crystalline force. 
 Such a supposition was favoured by the external 
 form of the columns ; but the total absence of inter- 
 nal structure shewed that the explanation must be 
 ■ought elsewhere. In 1804, Mr Gregory Watt pro- 
 pounded a theory of the origin of the structure, 
 ascribing it to the pressure of numerous sphere* 
 
 '"$tf8£7- 
 
 Fingal's Cave. 
 
 on each other, during the proces3 of cooling, such 
 spheres being produced in planes of refrigeration 
 or absorption. They increase by the successive 
 formation of external concentric coats, until their 
 growth i3 prevented by the contact of neighbouring 
 spheres ; and as in a layer of equal-sized spheres, 
 each is pressed on by six others, the result is that 
 each sphere will be squeezed into a regular hexagon. 
 Watt published this theory as the result of his 
 celebrated observations on the cooling of a mass of 
 molten basalt, in which he noticed the production 
 of numerous spheroids, having a radiate structure. 
 Many greenstones, in weathering, present such a 
 structure, giving often to the rock the appearance 
 as if it were composed of a mass of cannon- 
 balls, and Watt's experiments satisfactorily explain 
 this phenomenon ; but they will not go further. 
 Anxiuus, however, that they should tlirow some 
 light on the structure of basaltic columns, he 
 manages it by the following remarkable assump- 
 tion: 'In a stratum composed of an indefinite 
 number in superficial extent, but only one in height, 
 of impenetrable spheroids, with nearly equidistant 
 centres, it" their peripheries should come in contact 
 in the same plane, it seems obvious that their 
 mutual action would form them into hexagons ; and 
 if these were resisted below, and there was no 
 opposing cause above them, it seems equally clear 
 that they would extend their dimensions upwards, 
 anil thus form hexagonal prisms, whose length might 
 be indefinitely greater than their diameters. The 
 further the extremities of the radii were removed 
 
 from the centre, the greater would be their approach 
 to parallelism; and the structure would be finally 
 propagated by nearly parallel fibres, still keeping 
 within the limits of the hexagonal prism with which 
 their incipient formation commenced ; and the 
 prisms mi^ht thus shoot to an indefinite length into 
 the undisturbed central mass of the Quid, till their 
 structure was deranged by the superior influence of 
 a counteracting cause.' Unfortunately, such dreams 
 too often meet with more acceptance than the drier 
 deductions from observed facts ; which must, how- 
 ever, in the end, form the only basis of all geologic 
 science. But there is no occasion here to urge even 
 the most imaginative to resort to hypothesis, for the 
 formation of columns in other substances than B. 
 is quite familiar, and their producing causes evident 
 In starch, columns having the external prismatic 
 nice, and the internal earthy structure, are 
 produced simply from the escape of vapour, and 
 consequent shrinking of parts. We have seen 
 singularly regular joints produced in the argillaceous 
 ironstone at Wardie, near Edinburgh, on its expo- 
 sure on the beach, the contractions forming the 
 columns evidently resulting from the escape of the 
 moisture retained by the bed while it was covered 
 by other strata. The same occurs in beds of fine 
 clay that have been recently exposed. But the 
 most regular series of columns that have 
 noticed by us, were produced on bricks which 
 formed the lx>ttom of a public oven. The long- 
 continued and powerful heat to which they had 
 been subjected, though it had not caused fusion, had
 
 BASCINET— BASE OF OPERATIONS. 
 
 so affected them as to produce a beautiful series of 
 regular hexagonal prisms. The columns had a dia- 
 meter of nearly half an inch. Their direction was at 
 right angles to the oven floor. The earthy stru c tu re 
 of the brick remained. The columns, in short, were 
 in every respect, except the material of which they 
 were formed, true basaltic columns. It is surely 
 better to look for an explanation of this structure in 
 causes similar to those which have produced the 
 examples adduced, than to rind it in Buch gi 
 less assumptions as are at the foundation of the 
 generally received theory of Watt. The columnar 
 structure of B. seems to have been produced subse- 
 quently to the cooling of the mass, by changes in 
 the solid rock, probably from the escape of some 
 volatile matter. 
 
 The two best known and most beautiful examples 
 of columnar B. are Fingal's Cave, in the island 
 of Stafl'a, on the west coast of .Scotland, and the 
 Giants' Causeway, on the north coast of Ireland. 
 BA'SCINET. See Helmet. 
 BASE, in Heraldry, the lower portion of the 
 shield is called the B. ; there is a dexter base, middle 
 base, and sinister base, marked by the 
 
 G, H, I, in the accompanying dia- 
 gram, in which, for the convenience 
 of the heraldic student, the other 
 points of the escutcheon are also 
 indicated. The chief or principal part 
 of the escutcheon is the top, marked 
 A, B, C. The dexter or right-hand 
 side is that marked AG ; the sit isti r 
 or left-hand side, CI, an arrangement which is 
 explained when we consider that the shield is 
 always supposed to be on the arm of the wearer, 
 and that it is his right and left hands, not those 
 of the spectator, which are kept in view. The 
 ground or surface of the shield, on which all the 
 dtarges or figures are depicted, is called the ji< Id. 
 
 In Base. — When any figure is placed in the B. 
 part of the shield, it is said to be in base. 
 
 BASE (Fr. and Ital.). the foot or lower member 
 of a pillar, on which the shaft rests. Of the classical 
 orders, the Doric column alone had no base. The 
 height of the B. is usually about half the lower 
 
 Tuscan Base. 
 
 diameter of the shaft ; and it is divided into the 
 plinth, or flat projecting square block or blocks, 
 immediately above the ground, and the mouldings 
 (q. v.), or fillets, which surround the column, and 
 are usually circular. In the early Norman style, the 
 bases of pillars still retained, from the Romanesque, 
 forms closely resembling the Tuscan order. As 
 Gothic architecture advanced, and emancipated 
 itself from the arbitrary rides by which the classical 
 orders were governed, bases became infinitely varied 
 in detail, though something approaching to the 
 original conception of a strong and firm foundation 
 for the column, adhered to them throughout. 
 
 BASE, in Chemistry, is a term applied to a 
 compound body, generally consisting of a metal 
 724 
 
 united with oxygen. Thus, the metal pert 
 (K), when it combines with oxygen ((I), tonus the 
 B. potash (K<>): sodium (N'a) .-111.1 .,> \ 11, the B. soda 
 (Na(i): had (Pb) and oxygen, the B. oxide of bad 
 or litharge (PbO). A distmguishing feature of a 
 B. is that it unites with an oxygen acid, such as 
 sulphuric acid (SO.,) to form a salt [q. v.). Thus, the 
 B. potash (KO) combines with sulphuric acid (SO s ) 
 to make the salt sulphate of potash (KOSO,); 
 potash with nitric acid ( X 1 1 , ) to form the salt nitrate 
 of potash, or nitre (KON0 5 ). Occasionally sulphur 
 replaces the oxygen in a base. Thus, the metal 
 potassium (K) unites with sulphur (S) to form the 
 sulphur base, sulphuret of potassium (KS), which 
 can unite with a sulphur acid like sul] 
 acid or oqiiment (AsS.) to make the salt sulphar- 
 senite of potash (KS,AsS 3 ). The metal half of 
 a B. need not be a simple element, but may be a 
 compound body which, for the time, plays the 
 part of a simple substance. Thus, the compound 
 ethyl (C 4 H 5 ) can combine with oxygen to form 
 ordinary ether ([C 4 H s ]0) ; and the B. thus pro- 
 duced can, in its turn, combine with acids to 
 form salts. A base may be soluble or insoluble in 
 water. Thus, the bases potash (KO), soda (NaO), 
 ammonia (NH 4 0), baryta (BaO), strontia (StO), lime 
 (CaO), and magnesia (Mg<>), arc in. ire <n- less soluble 
 in water ; whilst the oxide of iron or rust (I'V 11 |, 
 the red oxide of lead (Pb a 4 ), the red oxide of 
 mercury (HgO), are insoluble in water, but soluble 
 in acids. See Ciiemistky, in Si PP. 
 
 BASE, or BASS (from basis, the foundation), in 
 Music, is the deepest or lowest part, by whatever 
 instrument it may be performed. The B., next to 
 the upper part, is the most striking, the freest in 
 its movements, and richest in effect. Its movement 
 downwards is unfettered, unconcealed, and undis- 
 turbed, whereas the middle parts are circumscribed 
 and concealed. In respect to harmony, the I!, is the 
 most important part in music, containing more fre- 
 quently the fundamental notes of the chords, while 
 on it is formed that most important and effective 
 figure in music called 'organ-point' (q. v.). — B. is 
 also the name of the lowest and deepest quality of 
 the human voice. The compass of a B. voice is 
 
 generally from 
 
 which should aU bo 
 
 chest-notes, except, perhaps, the highest. The most 
 
 useful range, however, is from Q-_ 
 
 rJ : 
 
 In 
 
 the characteristic use of the B. voice, the old m 
 were unquestionably the greatest, especially Handel 
 and Bach. The IS. voice only begins to shew 7 itself 
 at the years of manhood, and is generally a change 
 from the alto voice of a boy. — B. is also the name 
 of an old stringed instrument, with from live to six 
 strings, timed variously to suit the music, and played 
 with a bow. It was a sort of middle instrument 
 between the contra-bass and violoncello, but is now 
 out of use. Double B. (contra-bass) is the deepest- 
 toned of stringed instruments. 
 
 BASE OF OPERATIONS, in Military Man- 
 oeuvres, is some spot or line which the general of an 
 army relies upon as a stronghold and magazine. An 
 army cannot take with it all the food, forage, and 
 ammunition for a long war ; the consumption is 
 enormous, and a constant supply is indispensable. 
 Again, the sick and wounded cannot accompany the 
 army through toilsome marches ; the commander 
 endeavours to send them back to some place of 
 safety. Furthermore, fresh troops must have some 
 spot from which they can safely advance through tha 
 enemy's country. To secure all these advantages, a
 
 BASE-COURT— BASEL. 
 
 B. of 0. is necessary. It may be a port, a stretch 
 of sea-coast, a river, a mountain-range, according 
 to circumstances ; bat it must be such as to serve as 
 of supply, a place for retreat under 
 i', and the end of a a i ommuni- 
 
 eation extending to the spot occupied by the army. 
 When Lord Raglan and Marshal St Arnaud 
 advanced from the Alma towards S bastopol, in 
 Beptember 1854, they intended to attack the 
 fortress mi the north side; but the tactics at the 
 "■ as prevented this; and the allies, changing 
 
 their plan, resolved on the celebrated flank-march to 
 Balaklava, by which they secured the whole coast 
 from balaklava to Kamiesch as a B. of 0. during 
 the siege of SebastopoL See Balaklava. In 
 the military contests arising out of the Indian 
 mutiny, in 1S57 and 1858, Cawnpore was the chief 
 B. of 0. whence Havelock, Outram, and Clyde made 
 those advances towards Lucknow which led ulti- 
 mately to the suppression of the revolt. In the 
 Italian war of 1859, the Austrian B. of 0. was very 
 fluctuating, owing in part to the disaffected state 
 of the Lombard population around the great for- 
 of Mantua, Peschiera, &c. ; and indeed the 
 only reliable base was furnished by the Eastern and 
 Tyrolese Alps. The French and Sardinian base, in 
 the same war, was virtually Genoa, and the line 
 of country extending thence to the great stronghold 
 of Alessandria. 
 
 BASE-COURT (hasse-cour), the outer court of 
 a feudal mansion, which contained the stable-yard 
 and accommodation for servants. It was distinct 
 from the principal quadrangle, and was sometimes 
 constructed of timber. 
 
 BA'SEDOW, Jon. Bekxh. (properly, Job, Berend 
 Bassedau, or Bernh. von Xordalbingen, as he is 
 often called), a remarkable educationist of the 18th 
 c. was born, Sth September 1723, at Hamburg, 
 where his father was a peruke-maker. He attended 
 the Johanneum there from 1741 to 1744, and after- 
 wards studied philosophy and theology in J. 
 from which he went in 1746 as a private tutor to 
 Holstein. In the year 1753, he was appointed a 
 i c in the academy for young noblemen at 
 
 Sortie. In 1701 he was removed from the Gymna- 
 sium at Altona on account of heterodox opinions. 
 Rousseau's EmU awakened in him, in 1702. the 
 thought of improving the method of education, and of 
 reducing to practice Rousseau's maxims and those of 
 Comemus. Contributions from princes and private 
 persons, amounting to 15,000 thalers (about £2171 
 sterling), covered the cost of his Element' 
 which, after the most pompous announcements, 
 appeared as an ". . with 100 copper-plates 
 
 by Chodowiecki, and was translated into French 
 and Latin. Therein the young receive a large num- 
 ber of representations of the actual world, whereby 
 B. sought at once to delight ti ] to awaken 
 
 iment of cosmopolitanism, at which his whole 
 method aimed. As an I on this method, 
 
 he est.<; ! 774 the PI . • I ■ 
 
 to which place he had been called in 1771. EC 
 lessness of disposition, and the quarrels in which he 
 was involved, especially with his active but capri- 
 cious coadjutor Wolke, caused him to leave the 
 l'hilanthropin; but he proceeded with as much 
 eagerness as ever in endeavours to give effect to 
 his ideas by educational works, which, however, 
 aimed mare at popularity than solidity, until, after 
 changes of residence, he dud at Magdeburg, 
 2.">tb July 1790. His influence on the public mind 
 of his age, particularly in Germany, was very 
 great. He has Wen justly reproached with disparag- 
 ing the ancients, a consequence chiefly of his own 
 want of sound scholarship, and with a multitude of 
 
 rations, mistakes, and conceits ; yet it cannot 
 
 luted that his numerous philosophical and 
 educational works powerfully awakened attention 
 and interest in the much-neglected subject of educa- 
 tion, and that he set many excellent ideas and 
 Weighty truths in rapid circulation among men. 
 
 1. A SEL, or BA'SLE (Fr. Bile), a city and canton 
 of Switzerland. The canton was divided in 
 into two sovereign half-cantons, called Ba- 
 (Basel-stadt, or Basle-ville) and B" 
 
 I indschaft, or Basle-campagne), each having 
 half a vote in the diet The half-canton of Basel- 
 city consists only of the city, with its precincts, and 
 three villages on the right bank of the Rhine; the 
 remainder of the canton forms the half-canton of 
 Basel-country. The canton of B. is bounded by 
 France and Baden, and by the cantons of Aargau, 
 Soleure, and Berne, and has. according to different 
 estimates, an extent of from 170 to about 200 square 
 miles. Lying on the northern slope of the Jura, it 
 is a country of hills and valleys. The mountains 
 attain an elevation of from 2000 to 3000 feet. The 
 chief rivers of B. are the Rhine (which flows through 
 the north part of the canton) and it3 tributaries, the 
 Birz, and Ergloz. The sod is fertUe and well culti- 
 vated. The climate, except in elevated situ 
 is very mild. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 in agriculture, the cultivation of fruit-trees and of 
 the vine, cattle-husbandry, fishing, salt-works, the 
 manufacture of ribbons (which are manufactured to 
 the value of £400,000 sterling annually), paper, 
 woollens, linens, and leather. The transit trade is 
 very considerable. 
 
 The city of B. arose out of the Roman fortified post 
 of Basilia or Basiliana, near Augusta Rauracorum, 
 of which once more important place the little \ 
 of Angst, near B., exhibits a few ruins. On the divi- 
 sion of the Frank Empire, the district of B. E 
 Louis or Ludwig the German. The Emperor Henry 
 I., in the earber part of the 10th c, rebuilt the 
 town, which had been destroyed. It then became a 
 place of importance, and belonged for a time to Bur- 
 gundy, but after 1032 formed part of the German 
 empire. It became at an early period the seat of a 
 bishop, who, from the lithe, shared in the supreme 
 power with the imperial governor, a number of 
 
 families, and the burgesses. Amidst many 
 internal and external disturbances, the power of the 
 nobility was gradually broken, that of the b 
 restricted, and the authority of the bur. 
 extended. Surrounding towns were also destroyed, 
 or conquered, and purchased, along with their terri- 
 tories, so that the city extended its dominion over a 
 country district which untd very recently was kept 
 in a state of dependence and subjection. Involved 
 in many feuds with the House of Hapeburg, B. 
 closely allied itself to the Swiss c on fed era cy ; and 
 after the peace between the Emperor Maximilian I. 
 and the confederacy, B. formally joined it in 1501. 
 From 1519 onwards, the writings of Luther were 
 printed in B. ; and at the end of twenty years from 
 that time, the r formed doctrine had become 
 rally prevalent, the chapter of the cathedral had 
 left the city, and the convents had been suppressed. 
 After the union with 8w itzcrland, the triumph of the 
 :ne also more complete, part of the 
 nobility emigrated, and those who remained were 
 placed upon the same level with the freemen of the 
 municipal corporation. Orderly industry, economy, 
 and an external severity of manners, became the 
 characteristics of the citizens ; but the peace of the 
 city was not unfrequently disturbed by strifes con- 
 sequent upon the assertion of what was di 
 undue authority by the magistrates. The govern- 
 ment of the city, to which the whole canton was 
 subject, was intrusted to a Great and a Little
 
 BASEL. 
 
 Council, under the presidency of alternate burgo- 
 masters and chief wardens of the guilds; but the 
 Little Council, uniting legislative and judicial func- 
 tions with the highest executive authority, became 
 gradually more and more preponderant. All parties 
 in the city, however, remained always well com- 
 bined against the country district ; and persons 
 belonging to the city were appointed to all offices, 
 civil and ecclesiastical, whilst the depression of 
 the country district was completed by the neglect 
 of a proper provision for education. This state of 
 things caused great dissatisfaction, which repeatedly 
 broke out in fruitless rebellion. Under the impulse 
 communicated by the French Revolution, equality of 
 rights was conceded in 1798; but in 1S1 I. although 
 the equality of rights remained apparently intact, 
 the new constitution of the canton was so framed, 
 and the representation so distributed, as virtually to 
 make the city again supreme. The discontent 
 of the country district became so great that, after 
 unsuccessful attempts to obtain redress of grievances 
 by petition, civd war broke out in lS.'il . which did 
 not cease till the troops of the Swiss Confederation 
 took possession of the canton, and the diet recognised 
 the separation of the city and the country district, 
 as sovereign half-cantons, in 1S33. The constitu- 
 tions of the two half-cantons are in most respects 
 similar, and are framed on the basis of the old con- 
 stitution, modified in accordance with the principle 
 of universal suffrage. According to the census of 
 1871. the half-canton of Basel-city contained 47 760 
 inhabitants, of whom 34,437 were Protestants ; and 
 Basel-country, 51,127, of whom 10,245 were Roman 
 Catholics. Each division sends one member to 
 the diet, but they have only one vote between 
 them, and that does not count at all when the 
 deputies take opposite sides, which as a rule they 
 do. The capital of Basel-country is Liestal. Since 
 its separation from the city, more ample provision 
 has been made for education, and there has been 
 a rapid increase of material prosperity. Both 
 Roman Catholic and Protestant clergy are paid 
 by the state, and the parishes of the Reformed 
 Church have received the right of choosing their 
 own pastors. 
 
 The city of B. was much more populous in the 
 middle ages than it is now. Its population in 
 1810 was 41,834. In the 14th c, the number 
 of its inhabitants was greatly reduced by the 
 plague, or 'black death' (q. v.), which raged in 
 it with terrible severity, and is sometimes men- 
 tioned as the 'death of Basel.' It is well-built 
 and clean, but its appearance does not proclaim 
 it the wealthiest city in Switzerland, which, how- 
 ever, it is. Amongst its buildings are a cathedral, 
 founded in the beginning of the 11th c, by the 
 Emperor Henry II., and a bridge over the Rhine, 
 built in 1226. The Rhine divides the city into two 
 parts — Great B., on the south side, and Little B., on 
 the north. B. is connected by railway with Stras- 
 burg on the one hand, and Berne, Lucerne, Zurich, 
 &c, on the other. It has many benevolent and 
 educational institutions, among which are an orphan 
 asylum, and an institution for deaf mutes ; a uni- 
 versity, founded in 1459, which has a library of 
 50,000 — 60,000 volumes, and a very valuable collec- 
 tion of manuscripts, a numismatological collection, a 
 botanic garden, and a museum of natural history; 
 the new museum, in which there are several pictures 
 of the younger Holbein, who was long resident in 
 B. (some accounts say, he was born here) ; a public 
 bbrary of 70,000 volumes. During the Reforma- 
 tion, the university was a central point of spiritual 
 life, and it has numbered among its professors 
 men of great eminence in learning and science, 
 including Erasmus, who died here in 1536, and the 
 IK 
 
 mathematicians Enter and Bernouilli, who were 
 - of B. ; but it is now little frequented. The 
 population of the whole canton in 1870 was 92,217. 
 BA'SEL, Council of, a memorable and important 
 istical council, held in the city of Basel. It 
 was summoned by Pope Martin V., and his successor 
 Ehigenins IV., in accordance with an announcement 
 it the Council of Constance, and was opened 
 on 14th December 1431, under the presidency of the 
 Cardinal Legate Julian Cesarini of St Angelo. The 
 hall in which it met is still shewn at Basel. It 
 addressed itself to the reconcdiation of the Hussites 
 with the Roman Catholic Church, and to the reform 
 of abuses in the church itself. But the first attempt 
 to conciliate the Hussites, whom an army of cru- 
 saders had in vain sought to subjugate, was met 
 with resistance by the pope, who not only refused 
 his sanction, but empowered the cardinal legate to 
 dissolve the council. The council strongly re I 
 
 the pope's pretension of right to dissolve it, and pro- 
 ceeded with its business. His injunctions, that it 
 should remove to Italy, were equally disregarded. 
 It renewed the decree of the Council of Constance, 
 asserting the right of a General Council to exercise 
 authority over the pope himself, and on his perse- 
 vering to issue bulls for its dissolution, caused a 
 formal process to be commenced against him, and 
 cited him to appear at its bar. It assumed the 
 papal powers, and exercised them in France and 
 Germany, where its authority was acknowledged. 
 It concluded a peace, in name of the church, with 
 U.xtines, the most powerful section of the 
 Hussites, by the Prague Compact of 20th November 
 1433, granting them the use of the cup in the Lord's 
 Supper. By this, the Emperor Sigismund was much 
 helped in obtaining possession of Bohemia; and he in 
 return sought to reconcde the councd with En 
 IV., who, being hard pressed by insurrections in the 
 States of the Church, and afraid of losing his 
 influence in France and Germany, solemnly ratified 
 all its decrees, by a bull dated loth December 1433. 
 Desirous, however, of limiting the papal prerogatives, 
 the council restored to the chapters of cathedra! and 
 collegiate churches the free right of election to stalls 
 and benefices, of which the pope had assumed the 
 right of disposing ; and with a view to the reforma- 
 tion of gross abuses, restricted the power of granting 
 interdicts, and prohibited annate and other grievou3 
 exactions. It left the pope the right to dispose of 
 those benefices only which belonged to the diocese 
 of Rome, and prohibited the bestowal of reversions 
 to ecclesiastical offices. It also appointed punish- 
 ments for certain immoralities in the clergy; and 
 prohibited Festivals of Fools, and all the inde- 
 cencies which had been commonly practised in 
 churches at Christmas. It adopted decrees concern- 
 ing the election of popes, and for the regulation of 
 the College of Cardinals. 
 
 Eugenius, exasperated to the utmost, com- 
 plained loudly to all sovereign princes. At this 
 time, a prospect was opened up of the union of the 
 distressed Greeks with the Church of Rome ; and 
 both the pope and the council endeavoured to make 
 use of this for the advancement of their own inter- 
 ests and influence. Both despatched galleys for 
 the Greek deputies, but through the intrigues of his 
 agents, the pope was successful, and brought the 
 Greek deputies to Ferrara. The Archbishop of 
 Tarentum, a papal legate at B., circulated an ordi- 
 nance in name of the councd, and sealed with its seal, 
 recommending; Udine or Florence as the place of 
 conference. The ordinance was a forgery, and this 
 proceeding put an end to forbearance on the part of 
 the council, which, on July 31, 1437, again cited tho 
 pope to its bar ; and not only on his failing to appear, 
 declared him contumacious, but on his opening an
 
 BASEL-BASIL, 
 
 opposition council at Ferrara, went so far as, on 
 January 24, 1438, to decree his suspension from the 
 functions of the popedom. His party, however, was 
 so strong that this decree could not be carried into 
 effect ; and some of those who had been anions the 
 most influential members of the council, the Cardinal 
 Legate Julian himself, and the greater number of 
 the Italians, left 15., and went over to his side. All 
 the more resolutely did Cardinal Louis Allemand, 
 Archbishop of Aries, a man of most superior under- 
 Btanding, courage, and eloquence, now guide the 
 proceedings of the council, which, on May 16, 1 139, 
 di clared the pope a heretic, for his obstinate disobe- 
 dience to its decrees ; and in the following 
 
 Uy deposed him for simony, perjury, and i I her 
 offences. On this occasion, the holy relics which 
 were in B. were deposited in the places from which 
 
 laniah and Italian members of the council had 
 disappeared ; and the sight of them produced much 
 emotion, and reanimated the courage of the assem- 
 bly, still consisting of 400 prelates, priests, and 
 
 j. mostly French and German. On November 
 17, 1430, the council, notwithstanding the still fur- 
 ther diminution of its numbers, caused by the 
 plague in B., elected Duke Amadeus of Savoy to be 
 pope, who then lived as a hermit in Ripaglia, on the 
 Lake of Geneva, He accordingly styled himself 
 Felix V., but was recognised only by a few princes, 
 citi'-s. and universities. The Kmperor Sigismund 
 was dead, and even France and Germany, al 
 they accepted the reforming decrees of the council, 
 thought proper to remain neutral in the question 
 regarding the popedom. The friendship of the 
 k III. strengthened the party of 
 Eugenius ; and the council gradually melted away, 
 till careful only for personal security, its men 
 after three years of inactivity, held its last session 
 at i'>. on May 16, 1443, and removed its seat to 
 Lausanne. Here a few prelates still remained 
 together under the presidency of Cardinal Allemand, 
 till iu 1419, after the death of Eugenius. and the 
 resignation of the anti-pope Felix, an amnesty was 
 offered to them by the new pope, Nicholas V., which 
 they joyfully accepted. The B. reforming decrees 
 are contained in no Roman Catholic collection of 
 decrees of councils, and are held to be invalid by 
 the canonists of Rome ; yet they are of authority 
 in canon law in France and Germany, where they 
 were included in pragmatic sanctions, although 
 their amplication has been modified by more recent 
 concordats. 
 
 BA'SEL, Treaty of. Basel gives its name to 
 two important treaties of peace, concluded there on 
 5th April and 22d July 1795, between the rem 
 atives of the French Republic, Prussia, and Spain, 
 by which Prussia withdrew from the coalition against 
 France, took under her protection all the states 
 of Northern Germany which should, like herself, 
 relinquish the war in which the German empire was 
 engaged, and also gave up to the victorious republic 
 her possessions beyond the Rhine ; whilst Spain gave 
 up her portion of St Domingo, and prepared the way 
 for that alliance witli France which was afterwards 
 productive of consequences so important. 
 
 LAMELLA, a genus of plants, generally re- 
 garded as belonging to the natural order Cheno- 
 |. v.), but by some botanists as the type 
 of a distinct order, BaseUacetB. The species are all 
 d. B. alba and B. mbra are known in 
 Britain as stove biennials. They are plants with 
 twining stems, in common use as pot-herbs in the 
 East Indies, and cultivated in China. In tin 
 bourhood of Paris, they are raised on hot-beds, 
 transplanted into warm borders, and furnish a sub- 
 stitute for spinach in summer. B. rubra yields a 
 
 very rich purple dye. The great fleshy root of B. 
 tuberosa, a South American Bpecies, also with a 
 twining stem, is edible. 
 
 BA'SEMENT-STOKY 
 
 BA'SIIAX.o, liATAN.KA. a country of Pal 
 stretching from Mount Hermon in the Anti-Libanus 
 on the north, to the brook of Jabbok on the south, 
 I on the west by the Jordan, its eastern 
 limits not 1 dearly defined. Ashtaroth 
 
 an 1 Edrei were its chief cities, and the residence of 
 its kings during the Amoritish dynasty. The last 
 of its Amorite rulers was Og, who with all his 
 sons was killed by the Israelites under Moses, at 
 the battle of Edrei ; ami the half tribe of Manasseh 
 settled in the land. The men of B. were remarkable 
 for their stature, its pastures for their richne 
 its sheep and oxen for their size and fatness. B. 
 - the tetrarchy of Phdip, and afterwards 
 to that of Agrippa II. 
 
 BASHAW (Turkish, liasch; Arabic, batlia; Persian, 
 pasha, the way in which the word is now commonly 
 written) signifies head, or master, a Turkish title of 
 honour given to viceroys, provincial governors, gene- 
 rals, and other distinguished public men. The term 
 B. is also used to characterise a man of an arrogant 
 and domineering disposition. 
 
 BASHEE' or BASH1' ISLANDS, a small cluster 
 in the line between Luzon, the chief of the Philip- 
 pine chain, and Formosa, the lat. and long, being 
 respectively 21 N. and 122° E. Politically, they 
 are a dependency of the Philippines, having been 
 colonised by the Spaniards in 1783. Physically, 
 they form a link in the vast archipelago which, 
 from Formosa to Sumatra inclusive, connects the 
 south-east of China with the west of Malacca. 
 They were discovered in 1687 by Dampier, who 
 called them the Baslii Islands, on account of the 
 rity among the islanders of an intoxicating 
 liquor of that name. 
 
 BASHI-BAZOU'KS are irregular troopers in 
 the pay of the Sultan. Very few of them are 
 they are mostly Asiatics, from some or 
 other of the pashalics in Asiatic Turkey. They are 
 wild turbulent men. ready to enter the Sultan's 
 service under some leader whom they can under- 
 stand, and still more ready to plunder whenever an 
 opportunity offers. During the Russo-Turkish war 
 of 1854, &c, they had many encounters with the 
 enemy in that kind of irregular warfare which the 
 Russians intrust to Cossack horsemen; but the 
 peaceful villagers had almost as much distrust of 
 the B.-B. as of the Russians. When the British 
 government resolved, in 1855, to take into pay a 
 Turkish contincent, to aid in the operations of the 
 war, they intrusted to General Beatson, an officer 
 who hail seen much Indian service, the el- 
 and drilling of a corps of bashi-bazouk irregulars; 
 but it was "a troublesome and unpleasant duty, and 
 the war came to an end before the men were fit 
 for service. 
 
 BASIDO'H. or BASSADO'RE, the principal 
 station for British ships in the Persian Gulf, situated 
 at the west end of the island of Kishm. 
 
 BASIE'NTO, or BASE'NTO, a river ot Italy, 
 
 which, rising in the Apennines, west of Potenza, 
 
 in an east-south-east direction through the 
 
 ice of Basilicata to the Gulf of Taranto. which 
 
 n "J.") miles west-south-west of Taranto city. 
 
 Near its mouth are the remains of the once famous 
 
 city of Metaponlum, where Pythagoras ended his 
 
 days. 
 
 BASIL, surnamed TnE Great, and called 
 St B., one of the most eminent and eloquent of the 
 Greek Fathers, was born about 329 at Csesarca, in 
 
 in
 
 BASIL I.— BASILICA. 
 
 Cappadocia; studied under the heathen philosophers 
 at Athens, and became an advocate in his native 
 city, but afterwards founded a monastic society : was 
 ordained a presbyter in 302; and succeeded Eusebius 
 as Bishop of Ctesarea in 370, in which office he con- 
 tinued till his death in 379. He resolutely resisted 
 invitations to the court of Julian the Apostate, with 
 whom he had contracted an intimacy as a fellow- 
 student at Athens, and displayed great constancy 
 when the Emperor Valens began to persecute him, 
 on account of his opposition to Arianism. He was 
 engaged in most of the controversies of his time, 
 but conducted controversy in a peaceful and gene- 
 rous manner. His rules of monastic life are still 
 followed in the Greek and other oriental churches, 
 in which he is higldy honoured as one of the great- 
 est of saints. In the Roman Catholic Church, also, 
 they are followed in a few convents, styled of the 
 order of BasiUans. The influence of B. was greatly 
 felt in the promotion of monasticism throughout the 
 West as well as the East, and to him is ascribed 
 the introduction of the three universal moi 
 vows of obedience, chastity, and poverty. The best 
 editions of his works are that of the Benedictines 
 (3 vols., Par. 1721—1730, fob), and that of the 
 brothers Gaume (3 vols., Par. 1S35— 1840, Svo) ; 
 but the authenticity of many of the moral and 
 ascetic pieces is doubtful. His anniversary is cele- 
 brated, m the Greek Church, on the 1st of January 
 — the clay of his death ; in the Latin Church, on the 
 14th of June — the day of his ordination. 
 
 BA'SIL I., the Macedonian, Emperor of the East, 
 was born in a village of Macedonia, in 813 A. D., or, 
 according to others, in 826. His early life is differ- 
 ently related, but his biographers agree that he 
 came to Constantinople when still a young man. and 
 was appointed chamberlain to the Emperor Michael 
 in 801. Subsequently, the eniperor made him his 
 colleague in the sovereignty. B. now used his 
 influence to restrain Michael from committing those 
 excesses which rendered him hateful to the people ; 
 but when he found his remonstrances unavailing, 
 he headed a conspiracy against him, the result of 
 which was the assassinatiou of the emperor in 867. 
 His first care was to heal the wounds both of the 
 church and the state. He replaced Ignatius upon 
 the patriarchal throne, and dismissed Photius, 
 whom, however, he re-established in his authority 
 the year after. His valour made him the terror 
 of the Saracens, from whom he reconquered Asia 
 Minor. The prodigality of Michael had exhausted 
 the public treasury ; by a wise economy, B. refilled 
 it. All extortioners, moreover, were sought out 
 and punished. The profligate companions of the late 
 monarch were condemned to disgorge one half of the 
 largesses which Michael had showered upon them. 
 B. also entered into a treaty of alliance with the 
 Russians of Kiew, to whom he sent missionaries 
 to preach the gospel, and who, from that time, 
 began to embrace Christianity, and acknowledge 
 the authority of the Greek Church. He died in SS0, 
 from wounds which he received while hunting a 
 stag. Several letters of his are still extant, besides 
 a book full of wise advice addressed to his son. 
 
 BASIL (O'cymum), a genu3 of plants of the 
 natural order Labiatm (q. v.). The species are all 
 natives of the tropics, or of the warmer temperate 
 parts of the world, and are generally characterised 
 by a pleasant aromatic smell and taste. They are 
 reckoned among sweet herbs.— Sweet B. (O. Basili- 
 cum) is an annual plant, a native of the East Indus, 
 about one foot high, with ovate or oblong leaves, 
 and flowers in whorls of six, which has long been 
 cultivated in Europe for culinary purposes, being used 
 as a seasoning. It has also enjoyed the reputation 
 
 of being a palliative of the pains of childbirth. — 
 Bush B. (O. minimum), also a native of the East 
 
 Basil (Ocymum Basilicum). 
 
 Indies, is cultivated for the same' purposes, and 
 possesses the same qualities. It is a plant about 
 six inches high, with an orbicular bushy head. In 
 Britain, the seed of both species, obtained from the 
 south of Europe, is generally sown on a hot-bed, 
 from which the plants are afterwards removed to 
 the open ground. — A native British plant of the 
 same order (Clinopodium vulgare) bears the name 
 of Wild B., and another (Acinos vulgaris, for- 
 merly Thymus Acinos) is known as B. Thyme. 
 Both are fragrant and aromatic— B. Vinegar is made 
 in the same manner as Mint Vinegar, by steeping 
 the leaves in vinegar. It is used for seasoning, in 
 winter, when the fresh plant cannot be obtained. 
 
 BASI'LICA, a code of laws of the Grecian empire, 
 the compilation of whieh was begun in the reign 
 of the Emperor Basil I., the Macedonian, who died 
 in SS(3 — from whom it is generally supposed to have 
 derived its name; completed by his son Leo, the 
 Philosopher ; and revised, in 945, by order of Con- 
 stantine Porphyrogenitus, the son of Leo. There 
 is some doubt whether the work has come down 
 to us as completed by Leo, or as revised by I 'mi- 
 stantine, and unfortunately we do not possess the 
 whole of the sixty books of which it originally 
 consisted. It was very much an adaptation of the 
 code of Justinian to altered circumstances, and is 
 of great value for the interpretation of the ' 
 Juris. The principal editions are that of Fahrott 
 (7 vols, fob, Par. 1647), and the recent one of 
 Heimbach (vols. 1—5, Leip. 1S33— 1850), which 
 includes portions discovered since Fabrott's time. 
 The B. has been the subject of many commentaries. 
 
 BASI'LICA (Gr. Basilike, from Basil us, a 
 king). Originally, the B. seems to have been the 
 hall or court-room in whieh the king administered 
 the laws made by himself and the chiefs who formed 
 his council. When monarchy was abolished at 
 Athens, the second of the magistrates who succeeded 
 to the kingly power was called the Archon-basileiis,
 
 I: WLICA. 
 
 the first being styled the Archon by pre-eminence; 
 
 anil it is as th art or hall (gtoa) ID which the 
 
 Archon-basileus administered justice, that the B. 
 
 in in nntlientic history. But it was 
 
 -t the Romans tliat the B. attained its chief 
 
 ince ; and in addition to its original use as 
 
 a court of justice, became a market-place, an 
 
 exchange, a place of meeting for men of business 
 generally. It was not till a comparatively late 
 period, however, that a B. was erect. 
 Hie lit t we 1 of ii the B. Porcia in 182 B.C. 
 From this ]ierioil till the time of Constantino 
 were constructed in great numbers. Some twenty 
 are known to have existed in Home and latterly, 
 
 Section of Trajan's Basilica, Rome. 
 
 every provincial town, even those of small extent, 
 had each its li.. as that of Pompeii, which is now 
 the most perfect example, stdl testifies. The most 
 frequented part of the city was always selected 
 f ■ >r the site of a B. ; and as this was almost always 
 I >rum, the words Forum and B. are occa- 
 sionally used as ient writers. 
 The earliest basilicas were entirely open to the 
 external air. It was usual, for this reason, as 
 well as for the convenience of those who might be 
 compelled to frequent them in bad weather, to 
 select for them a sheltered and convenient position. 
 Latterly, an external wall was substituted for 
 the peristyle of columns with which the original 
 basilicas were surrounded ; the external columns, if 
 continued at all, being used only as a decoration, 
 and confined generally to the vestibule. It was in 
 i nn that the B. suggested the idea of the 
 Christian Church, as has already been explained 
 under Apse (q. v.); and the readiest mode of ex- 
 plaining the structure of the B. to a modern, is to 
 le the process which was then performed 
 reversed, and in place of converting the B. into a 
 church, to convert the chinch into a basilica. This 
 will be effected by simply removing the roof from 
 the none, the aisles remaining covered, and 
 being frequently furnished with galleries, as in 
 Protestant churches. The ju ' nerally 
 in a circular portion of the building which protruded 
 from it-; further end, in which the altar was after- 
 wards placed (see Apse), the great entrance to the 
 B. fronting it, as the western door of a cathedral 
 fn.nts the high-;' space required by the 
 pnetor for his court was L oy a railing 
 from the other portions of the building, which were 
 I to the various purposes we have mentioned. 
 It must not be supposed from this description, that 
 the form of the B. was always the same. Some- 
 was no hemicycle or apse, as in the B. 
 at Pompeii, in which case the tribunal was cut off 
 from the nave; sometimes there wi in the 
 B. of Trajan. Again, th i !'•. was sometimes entered, 
 not from the end, but from the sides, where the 
 transepts of a modern church are situated; and at 
 the end opposite that in which the tribunal was 
 placed, there was often a row of small chambers, 
 
 oses of whi.h do not seem to be very 
 rately ascertained, and probably were not invariable. 
 In the plan of the B. of Ponipeii, there was au 
 outside stair which led to the upper gallery, which 
 in this case passed entirely round the building. 
 
 The gallery was the place to which loiterers usually 
 resorted for the purpose of watching the business 
 
 Ground-plan of Basilica of St Paul, Home. 
 
 proceedings below; and the one half of it is said 
 to have been devoted to men, the other, to women. 
 Of the vast size' : these buildi 
 
 form a c a from the accommodation which 
 
 must have been required for the tribunal alone, 
 
 in addition to the curule chair of the ] I 
 and space required by the suitors and their advo- 
 cates, seats had to be provided forth 
 jurymen, who occasionally amounted to as many 
 as 18tt 
 
 Many of the principal churches in Italy, and 
 particularly in Rome, are still called Basiliche. 
 
 Th- term B. Was also applied in the middl 
 to the large strut I d over the ton 
 
 distinction, probably from their I 
 blame to small churches ; thus, the tomb of Edward 
 nfessor, in Westminster, is called a B. (see 
 chronicle of the Mayors of Loudon, quoted 1 y 
 Parker). 
 
 Tit
 
 BASILICATA— BASILISK. 
 
 BAS] 1 . 1 < \ I' A. a Eormi t province in the south 
 of the kingdom of Italy, now Poteoza, includes 
 nearly the same territory as ancient Lacania, Capi- 
 tanata and Principato Ultra bound it on the .V ; 
 Ban and Otranto, on the N'.K. and E. ; the Gulf 
 of Taranto and Calabria < litra, 8.E. an. I E. ; and the 
 Principato Citra and the M in, on the W. 
 
 Its area is 4000 square miles. Pop. (1871) 508,880. 
 ] P itenza ; the other chief tow 
 
 ! ivilln and Tursi. B, lies mainly on thi 
 
 side of the main ridge of the Apennini 
 it and the Gulf of Taranto. The interior is wild 
 and mountainous, and though there are some lo- 
 in the province, the general aspect i bai 
 and barren. Four considerable rivers — the Basiento, 
 
 I no, Agri, and Sinno— flow through it from the 
 west in an east-south-east direction, farming as many 
 
 . .s, which slope gradually into an exceedingly 
 
 plain, varying in breadth from 4 to 10 miles. 
 
 Here corn is raised in abundance, also wine, hemp, 
 
 tobacco, and liquorice. Swine, sin its are 
 
 1 in the mountainous districts, and silk forms a 
 product of the valleys. B. is greatly in need of good 
 roads, and is much subject to earthquakes. 
 
 BASI'LICON (Gr. 'royal,' or of great virtue), a 
 name given to an ointment composed of yellow wax, 
 black pitch, resin, and olivo oil. Hence it was 
 called Ungui ntum Tetrapharmacum (tetra pharmaka, 
 four drugs). The resin, wax, and pitch arc melted 
 her over a slow fire ; the oil is then added, and 
 the mixture, while hot, strained through linen. The 
 straining is directed in consequence of the impurities 
 which resin often contains. B. ointment, or resin 
 cerate, as it is sometimes called, is much used as a 
 gently stimulant application to blistered surfaces, 
 indolent ulcers, burns, scalds, and chilblains. 
 
 BASI'LICON DO'RON (Gr. royal gift), a cele- 
 brated prose work of King .lames VI. of Scotland, 
 written for the instruction of his son, Prince Henry, 
 a short time previous to his accession to the Engli h 
 throne. It consists of three books. The first treats 
 'Of a King's Christian Duty towards God;' the 
 second, 'Of a King's Duty in his Office;' and the 
 third, 'Of a King's Behaviour in Indifferent Things.' 
 It was first published in 1599 ; afterwards in I 
 in 1603, 8vo ; and translated into Latin by Henry 
 Peachain, who presented it, richly illuminated, to the 
 prince. This Latin version was published in London 
 in 1604, Svo. A French edition appeared at Paris 
 in 1603, 8vo, and another in 1C04, 16mo. Like the 
 royal author's famous work on Demonology, and his 
 Counterblast to Tobacco, the B. D. is now only con- 
 sidered as a literary curiosity. 
 
 BASI'LIDES, an Alexandrian Gnostic, who 
 flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and 
 Antoninus Pius. Regarding his life, little is known. 
 He is said to have taught in Antioch ; afterwards in 
 Persia ; and. finally, in Egypt, where he is supposed 
 to have died shortly before the middle of the 2d c. 
 He was a disciple of one Glaucias, not elsewhere 
 mentioned in history, but whom he terms an inter- 
 preter of St Peter, and from whom he alleges that 
 lie had received the esoteric faith of that apostle. 
 B. probably considered himself a Christian, but his 
 fantastic speculations bore a greater resemblance to 
 the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in some points to 
 I Indian philosophy, than to the religion of 
 Christ. According to the system of B., there are two 
 eternal and independent principles — the one, good ; 
 the other, evil. Whatever exists, emanates from 
 these. The good principle — i.e., the Supreme God, 
 or Father — constitutes, with his seven perfections, 
 viz., the Mind, the Word, the Understanding, Power, 
 Excellences, Princes, and Angels, the blessed ogdoad 
 (combination of eight). These seven perfections, or 
 730 
 
 powers, in which the Supreme God is reflected, are 
 in their turn themselves reflected, but more feebly, 
 in seven other angelic powers, which emanate 
 from them ; and so on through the whole circle 
 of emanations, which amount to 365, the m 
 number so often inscribed on the ymbolio 
 in the Gnostic schools (see ABRAXAS Shines). Each 
 of these angelic powers governs a world. There 
 are, consequently. 365 worlds, to each of whj 
 gave a name. The head of the 365th, or 1 
 world, rules the material universe, which, 
 with other angels, he also created. He is the God 
 or Jehovah ■ ■ ! Testament, and when the 
 
 earth was divided among the rulers of the material 
 universe, the Jewish nation fell to the DSJ G of him- 
 self, who was the prince of the lowest cl 
 
 But wishing to absorb all power himself, he 
 ■trove against the other angels, and to make them 
 subject to his ' chosen people,' the result of which was 
 war, strife, division in the world, together with the 
 loss of the true religion, to restore which the Su| ■■ 
 God sent the first /Eon (Noun, or Int Uigi oce), who 
 united himself to the man Jesus at his baptism, and 
 so taught men that the destiny of their rational 
 spirit was to return into God. This Nous, however 
 (who was the true Christ), did not really suffer cruci- 
 fixion, for, changing forms with Simon of Cyrcne, he 
 stood by laugkmg while Simon suffered, and after- 
 wards returned to heaven. B. also taught the doe- 
 trine of a purgatorial transmigration of souls in the 
 case of the wicked. His disciples (Basilidians) were 
 numerous in Egypt) Syria, Italy, and even in Caul, 
 where they continued to exist till the 4th c. They 
 were accused by their enemies of Antinom 
 and ' magic,' but whether on good grounds or not, 
 cannot be ascertained. 
 
 BA'SILISK, according to ancient and nv 
 authors, a terrible creature, which, however, may 
 be regarded as entirely fabulous — the fables con- 
 cerning it being so many and so monstrous, that it 
 is vam to seek for any foundation of truth, or to 
 inquire if any of them originally had reference to 
 any particular creature whatever. The ancients, 
 as Dioscorides, Galen, and Pliny, describe it as a 
 serpent : in the middle ages, it was generally repre- 
 sented as more of a lizard appearance, but pro- 
 vided with eight instead of four feet. It ap 
 to have been at last pretty completely identified 
 with the Cockatrice (q. v.), which was believed to 
 be generated in a very wonderful manner, bets 
 produced from an egg laid by an extremely old 
 cock, and hatched by a toad ; for which reason we 
 find the B. sometimes figured with something like a 
 cock's head. The B. was the king of dragons and 
 serpents, all of which left their prey to it whenever 
 it approached ; whence its name, basiliscus (Gr.), 
 diminutive of baMleus, a king — sometimes exactly 
 translated into Latin by rrr/idus. It had some pro- 
 minences on its head, which, when it was figured 
 in books, assumed very exactly the appearance of 
 a crown. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and, 
 indeed, could only inhabit a desert, for its breath 
 burned up all vegetation ; the flesh fell from tho 
 bones of any animal with which it came in contact, 
 and its very look was fatal to life ; but brave men 
 could venture into cautious contest with it by the uso 
 of a mirror, which reflected back its deadly glance 
 upon itself. — These things are still necessary to be 
 mentioned, were it only on account of the allusions 
 to them by poets and other writers. — The blood of 
 the B. was, of course, extremely valuable to magi- 
 cians. It occupies an important place in some of 
 the legends of the saints, and Pope Leo IV. is said 
 to have delivered Rome from a B. whose breath 
 caused a deadly pestilence. 
 
 The word B., and its equivalent regulut, are some-
 
 BASILISK-BASKET. 
 
 time3 used in the Latin Vulgate, where the authorised 
 h version of the Old Testament sometimes has 
 oiler, and sometimes cockatrice. ; but no trace of any 
 ui i be marvele concerning theB. is to be found there. 
 BA'SILISK [Barilisau), in modern Zoology, a 
 g mi of saurian re]>tiles of the family of Iguamida 
 
 i ig from the in thi 
 
 want of the dewlap or appendage of skin under the 
 throat, and of the series of pores on the inside of 
 each thigh ; also in having a continuous elevated 
 enst along the back ami tail, capable of being 
 erected or depressed at pleasure, ami apparently 
 intended to aid the motions of the annual m 
 like the corresponding I'm of a fish.— The i> 
 
 markably adapted both for climbing trei 
 for swimming. Their feet are not webbed, their toes 
 rather long. They are perfectly harmless creatures, 
 very active and lively, and it is difficult to say why 
 they should have received the name of the fabulous 
 monster of antiquity, unless because their appear- 
 ance is far from agreeable to those unaccustomed to 
 it, and perhaps because an appendage at the back of 
 the head may have been thought to represent the 
 
 t of the dragon king. This appendage is most 
 conspicuously developed in the Mitred or Hooded 
 B. (B. mitralus), a native of the tropical parts of 
 America, and consists of a hood or membranous 
 
 Hooded Basilisk. 
 
 capable of being dilated with air, and then 
 about the size of a pullet's egg, which is supi 
 notwithstanding its extremely different situation, to 
 have a use somewhat analogous to that of the air- 
 bladder of fishes. The mitred B. is from 25 to 30 
 inches long, including the long and very tapering tail. 
 — Another and larger species, of a generally greenish 
 colour [11. Am/ioinensis), inhabits the islands of the 
 In. ban Archipelago, and is much used there for food. 
 Its llesli is said to be very white and tender. It is 
 often seen on the branches of trees above water, 
 into which it drops when alarmed. 
 
 BA'.SIN, a geographical term of considerable 
 importance. The /,'. of a river is the whole 
 tract of country drained by that river, and is, of 
 course, more or less concave. The line or boundary 
 which separates one river-basin from another is 
 called the water-shed. By tracing these water- 
 the whole of a country or coutinent may be 
 divided into a number of distinct basins; and this 
 is one of the most instructive elements in the physi- 
 cal geography of a country. The B. of a lake or 
 IS made up of the basins of all the rivers 
 that now into it. 
 
 l'.A'SIN, in Geology, is a term applied to depres- 
 sions in the strata, in which beds of a la! 
 have been deposited. Thus, the London B., con- 
 sisting of tertiary sands and days, occupies a hollow 
 in the chalk, which is bounded by the North I 
 on the south, and by the chalk-hills of Berks, WUts, 
 Bucks, and Herts on the north. The term has also 
 been applied to synclinal depressions of strata, which 
 have been produced by the elevation or depression 
 of all the strata contained in the B., as the coal-B. 
 of South Wales. 
 
 BA'SINGSTOKE, a town in the north of Hamp- 
 shire, 40 miles west-south-west of London. It is a 
 place of much activity, being situated at the junction 
 of five main roads to London from the south and west 
 of England. The country around is fertUe and 
 wooded. The chief trade is in corn, malt, coal, and 
 timber. Near the town is a tract of 108 acres, on 
 which every householder has the right of pasturage. 
 There is also, not far from the town, an ancient 
 camp, surrounded by an irregular oval embankment, 
 1100 yards in circumference, with an entrance on 
 the east and west sides. Basing House Castle, 
 belonging to the Marquis of Wind ; with- 
 
 stood the forces of the Commonwealth, but Cromwell 
 at last took it by storm, and burned it to the ground 
 in 1645. Pop. (1871) 5574. 
 
 BA'SKERVILLE, Jonx, a celebrated English 
 printer and letter-founder, was born in 1700 at 
 Wolverley, in Worcestershire. He became a 
 writing-master in Birmingham, and afterwards 
 
 carried on the business of japanning there with 
 great success. He began about 1750 to make 
 laborious and costly experiments in letter-fonnding, 
 and succeeded in making types which have scarcely 
 yet been excelled. He printed an edition of Virgil 
 at Birmingham in 1750, which was followed by 
 other Latin classics, a few English and Italian 
 authors, and a New Testament (Oxf. 1703), much 
 admired as specimens of printing, although not other- 
 wise possessing high merit His services to the 
 art of printing met with little encouragement and 
 no requital. He died in 1775. He was a man of 
 obliging disposition, but of a gloomy temperament, 
 and condemned all religious service as superstition. 
 L. was buried in a tomb of masonry in the sh 
 a cone, under a windmill, in his garden; but the 
 ground becoming valuable for building purposes, his 
 remains were exhumed in the summer of 1S21, and 
 deposited in the vaults of Christ Church, in the 
 neighbourhood of the spot where they were originally 
 interred. Baskerville editions of works are now 
 prized by persons of taste. 
 
 BA'SKET (Welsh, basged, or basgrncd, a netting 
 or weaving of splinters), a domestic utensil, usually 
 made of willows, reeds, or chips, interwoven, 
 although sometimes the materials are gold, silver, 
 iron, glass, &c. Baskets have been in use from ory 
 early ages. The Israelites were commanded (Deut- 
 eronomy xxvi 2) to offer unto the Lord, as soon 
 as they came into possession of the land of Canaan, 
 
 rat of all the fruit of the earth' in a 
 The baskets used on such occasions by the rich Jews 
 were made of gold and silver, and were returned to 
 the offerers; but those used by the majority of the 
 people were of barked willow, and were retained by 
 the priests. The ancient Britons were remarkably 
 expert in the manufacture of baskets, which were 
 much prized by the Romans for their neatness and 
 elegance. The process of B.-making is very simple, 
 and appears to be well known among the rudest 
 
 s— even among the aborimnes oi Van 1' 
 Land. In this country the willow is d 
 the manufacture of baskets. In several parts of 
 
 | land, great attention m paid to the 
 
 cultivation of the willow ; and judging from the 
 statements of some of the cultivators, the returns 
 very satisfactory. One calculates his 
 profits at ilS, 10s. per acre, and another at £10 
 
 e. The tools required being few and inex- 
 pensive, a large number of poor persons 
 
 manufacture of baskets, that are hawked 
 about the streets by their wives and cluldren. B.- 
 making also tonus a part of the industry of almost 
 all blind asylums. Baskets are of all shapes and 
 sizes, and their uses are so well known to all as to 
 
 731
 
 BASNAGE DE BEAUVAB-BASS ROCK. 
 
 obviate the i of description here. I 
 
 value of £30,000 or £40, > are annually 
 
 imported from the continent. 
 
 BASNAGE DE BEATVAT,, Jaqubs, thi 
 guished of a distinguished French 
 j supporters of I was the 
 
 son of Henry Basnage, an able advocate in the 
 parliament oi Normandy, and was born at Roui i, 
 
 l 8, 1653. Elaving studii 3 tl 
 and Sedan, he bee >r of the reformed i 
 
 in Rouen (1676). That church being interdicted in 
 1685, B. obtained leave to retire to Holland, where 
 he finally settled as stipendiary minister of the 
 Walloon Church in the Hague, having gained the 
 friendship of the Grand Pensionary Beinsius. Bei . 
 while zealously .1 
 
 called upon to t 
 affairs, particularly in negotiating the di 
 alliance concluded between Fiance, England, and 
 the States-general, 14th February 1717. ' Amid all 
 these duties and distractions, B. cultivated litera- 
 ture with ardour, and was no less distil 
 his extensive learning than for the po 
 manners and the integrity of his character. B., 
 who commanded in a singular degree the i 
 both of Protestants and Catholics, died on the L'l-M 
 September 1723. 
 
 His chief works, whieh have been frequently laid 
 under contribution without being named, air La 
 Communion Sainte (Uott. 1CS8), a work approved 
 ev.n by Catholics, and often reprinted; T, 
 In Conscience (Amst. 1696, 2 vols.); Histot 
 VEgl (Rot*. 1699, 2 vols. foL) ; Histoire da Jutfs 
 (Bott. 1706, •"> vols.), one of B.'s best productions, 
 
 and translated into English l.y Th. Taylor (L L 
 
 1708); Dissertation Historiqut sur les Duels et Its 
 Ordres de Chevalei-ie (Amst. 1720). 
 
 BASQUE PROVINCES, a district of Spain, 
 in lat. 42 25' 43= 28' X., and long. 1° 44' 3* 25 
 W., and comprising the three provinces of Biscay, 
 • voa. and Alava, which constituted the ancient 
 
 . form a sort of triangle, the base 
 of which is tl" Bay of Biscay on the north, and the 
 apex the town of Logrono in the south ; the bound- 
 ary-lines of Navarre on the east, ai der and 
 lii os on the west, forming the two sides. The 
 total area of the provinces is about Mono 
 miles, and the population in 18G7, 461.8S0. The 
 surface of the B. P. is very mountainous, particu- 
 larly that of Alava. which is everywhere cut np into 
 deep narrow valleys by offsets from the main 
 chain of mountains. The rivers of Biscay and Gui- 
 puzcoa, none of which are important, empty them- 
 selves after a short course into the Bay of I; 
 those of Alava How down the opposite slopes into 
 the Ebro, which carries their waters to the Medi- 
 terranean. The climate in all the three pron 
 is, on the whole, mild and salubrious. The 
 I as | net of the country is very picturesque, 
 lis in most cases being covered with wood to 
 the very summit. The principal trees are oak, 
 beech, and chestnut. The fruit of the chestnut 
 forms an article both of diet and of export. The 
 * 'il in the valleys and plains, though not very rich, 
 I productive by the energy of the 
 people, who spare no labour in the cultivation. But 
 as yet, science and machinery have done little or 
 ag to assist nature and manual exertion. A 
 spade, or prong-fork, is the chief mecli 
 aid the Basque peasant has. The farms are small, 
 usually only about four or five acres, and rarely 
 more than can be I by the farmer and his 
 family. Notwithstanding, the roads and agriculture 
 of these provinces contrast very favourably with 
 those of Spain generally. The products are wheat, 
 
 barley, maize, tlax. hemp, &Cj the wheat, hnw- 
 only ripening in the m 
 
 I'" tore-land oocs k considerable portion of the 
 
 ; and a poor vine, called chacbii, is mad. in 
 large quantities, and forma tie- chief beverage ..i the 
 inhabitant i, v. ho appe n to reli h it, although it is 
 disliked by all tea 
 
 There are numerous rich veins of iron in the hills, 
 
 ■ no extensively v. i ...l copper and tin 
 
 are also obtained, as well as marble of various kinds, 
 
 porphyry, and jasper. The fisheries employ a 
 
 number of people on the coast, and many arc 
 
 dial -on of charcoal. The I'm 
 
 are said to be the first : n ho went to the 
 
 whal 
 
 The Basques are a simple, brave, and in 
 people, «i filing to undergo air. rather than 
 
 surrender their mountain-freedom. None a) their 
 many invaders were ever able to effectually 
 or expel them. The B. P. still retain a si 
 
 nteeing them many political and 
 
 fiscal pi alleges not possessed by the rest of Spain. 
 
 They have freedom from con cription, and free-trade 
 
 in salt and tobacco, upon which a heavy duty is 
 
 levied in the adjoining provinces. The Basques are 
 
 • > ii prouder than Spaniards, and the mere fact of 
 
 being born in their territory secures tin' privilege of 
 
 'universal nobility.' h'uscaldunac is the name the 
 
 es give themselves; their country they call 
 
 ria : and their language, whi b i p i oliarly 
 
 their own, Euscara — the pri being 'the 
 
 old Osc, Vt | I j of Italy and Iberia.' The 
 
 origin of the Basques is doubtful. Humbol.lt 
 
 considers them d udants of the ancient Iberi, 
 
 who once occupied the whole of the peninsula, 
 
 and spoke the language now confined solely to the 
 
 B. P.; whde Air Borrow's opinion is, thit the 
 
 e is of Tatar origin. The Basques are fond 
 
 of music, and on their chief holiday. .Sunday, they 
 
 indulge in singing, dancing, and single-stick, which 
 
 they enjoy immensely. For a more particular 
 
 account of the B. P., we would refer to that 
 
 1 nt manual, Fori 
 
 BAS-RELIEF. See Alto-kilievo. 
 
 BASS. See B I 
 
 BASS ROCK, a remarkable island-rock near the 
 mouth of the Firth of Forth, about 2 miles from 
 Bay, Haddingtonshire^ opposite the ruined 
 castle of Tantallon. It is composed of fine granular 
 greenstone or clinkstone, and is about a mile in 
 circumference, nearly round, and 350 feet high. It 
 
 
 Bass Rock. 
 
 is inaccessible on all sides except the south-west, 
 
 it shelves down to the water, and there the 
 
 landing is difficult, and almost impossible, when 
 
 there is any swell. On the west, north, and east,
 
 BASSA— BASSE. 
 
 the precipices rise perpendicularly out of the sea, 
 often tn the height of 200 feet. These are the 
 abode of immense numbers of solan geese (it is 
 estimated that 10,000- 15,000 of these fowls resort 
 here annually) ami other aquatic birds, which give 
 to the surface of the rock quite a snowy appearance 
 in the distance. A huge cavern traverses the rock 
 from north-west to south-east, and is acces I 
 tow tide. There is a spring i I d, and a few 
 
 sheep are pa tared on it, the mutton of which is 
 much prized. How early the Bass was tenanted, is 
 doubtful; but there is a tradition to the efl ct thai 
 St Baldred resided on it as early as the 7th c. It is 
 also in it very certainly known when the Bass was 
 first fortified, but it formed a retreat for the son of 
 Robert QL, afterwards James 1. 1 I before 
 
 his nineteen years' i activity in England. Jain 
 visited the Bass in 1581, and was anxious to 
 it for state purposes ; but its owner, ' Lauder of the 
 Bass,' refused to part with it. The Registers of the 
 
 ii of Scotland were sent to the Kiss in 1651, 
 fur preservation from Cromwell; but the Protector 
 forced their surrender in the following year. In 
 1671, Charles II. purchased the rock for £4000, 
 and within its dreary dungeons many i 
 
 it of the Covenanters were confined during 
 that and the following reign. It is a 
 curious fact, that the ES pot in the 
 
 British Islands which held out for the Stuarts. 
 A mere handful of adventurers in the oV 
 interest, -1 in number, had the address to capture 
 the island, and to retain it in name of King 
 James, from June lG'JI till April lli'.)4, against all 
 the forces which the government of William III. 
 .sent against them; at last, the spirited little 
 garrison surrendcrol on honourable terms, ami 
 only from a consciousness of failing provisions. 
 For an account of this romantic incident, see 
 P H v of England, v..h iv. p. 16, new 
 
 edition. In 1 T< > 1 the fortifications were demolished 
 by order of William III. Five years afterwards, 
 the Bass passed into the possession of Sir Hew 
 Dalrymple, to whoso lineal descendant it now 
 belongs. The king of the Belgians (then Prince 
 Leopold) visited the rock in 1819, and, three 
 
 afterwards, George IV., on passing it on his 
 voyage to Scotland, was honoured with a royal 
 salute from some guns then on it. The Bass is let 
 to a ' keeper,' who pays a considerable sum for 
 it annually, the lint being made up by the money 
 obtained for the young geese, which are used as 
 food, and by the fees exacted from visitors to the 
 rock. There is an interesting volume on th 
 historical, geological, and botanical, the joint pro- 
 duction of Dr M'Crie, jun., Hugh Miller, and 
 Professors Fleming and Balfour. 
 
 BA'SSA, or l'.ATFA, an excellent port on the 
 Grain Coast, Guinea, formerly much resorted to by 
 trading-vessels for coarse pepper ; latterly, for 
 The country around produces lemons, orange 
 bananas in abundance. 
 
 B \SS.VXO, a town of Italy, in the former pro. 
 vino' of Venice, ID miles north-east of Viceuza, on 
 the I'm in a population about 12,000. It is situated 
 on a rising-ground in an extensive plain, and has a 
 considerable trade in wine, olives, silk, leathi 
 as will as a great printing establishment. It has 
 30 churches, and a number of line palaces. One of 
 its gates, the work of Palladio, is greatly admired. 
 It is famous for a victory of Bonaparte m 
 Austrian field-marshal, \\ iu m r, on 8th September 
 lT'.Hi. and was the scene of other hat 
 tin French and Austrians in the wars of that 
 
 BASSA'NO (or, moro properly, Giaoomo da 
 
 Pome), an artist of great eminence, was born at 
 
 Bassano, in the north of Italy, in 1510. He was 
 first educated in the principles of his art by his 
 father, I , himself a 
 
 i tble merit, and aftirv. 
 Venice, where he became a pupil of Bonifazio 
 Vem-ziano. Here hi- opportuniti 
 
 studying the designs of Parmegiano, Titian. Tintor- 
 etto, and others. Tin- m' his pro- 
 fessional career clearly indicate that these 
 painters had kindled a rich and emulative ■ 
 
 i J;., for Iih works display —nius, 
 
 both as regai . cecution, than at 
 
 a later period. 1 1 is principal effort, belonging to 
 
 this higher e] h, i< a fresco painted mi tin- front of 
 
 the house of the Michelli family. It represents 
 Samson destroying the Philistines; the figure of 
 
 ■ .1 not unworthy 
 
 had Angela After his father's death, he 
 returned to ] 
 a simpler stylo of art. From this time, ho. 
 
 his celebrity. He may even be sai.l to 
 have founded a school, whose peculiarity was 
 the delineation of common things, markets, fairs, 
 country inns, farm-yards, fee. He had a passion 
 for introducing cattle into his pictures, even under' 
 the most inappropriate circuit 
 
 merits of this lower style, into which B. finally 
 lapsed, are it and picturesque colon 
 
 and its accurate imitation of nature. B.'s land- 
 rever, betray a compi" norance 
 
 of perspective. Occasionally, during his later years, 
 B. shewed that his early love of the sublime 
 was not wholly extinguished, by painting several 
 altar-pieces, which exhibit a noble grandeur of 
 execution, such as the 'Entombing of Christ,' in 
 the church of St Maria, Padua; a 'Nativity, 
 in the Louvre, Paris; 'St Roche interceding with 
 the Virgin for a People infected with the Plague,' 
 at .Viceuza; 'Tin' Wise Men's Ottering,' and the 
 ' Seizure of Christ in the Garden.' His rural pic- 
 tures are abundant in the alleriea and 
 in English collections. B. al I heads of 
 several of his cot o, &c., 
 and was in high favour with the Emperor Rudolph 
 II.. for win in he also executed several works. He 
 died in 1592. He left four sons, who all followed 
 their father's profession, but wore not marked by 
 any special originality of manner. 
 
 BASSE [Labrax), a genus of sea-fishes of the 
 
 Perch (q. v.) family, di true 
 
 [Pi rca) by having the tongue covered with 
 
 small teeth. The species are found on the shores 
 
 both of Europe and America. The only British one 
 
 ton B. (L. lupus), a fish which in it 
 scales. ,xi'.. much resembles a perch, but has a moro 
 elongated and salmon-lil I fc is pretty abun- 
 
 dant on 
 
 unfrequently taken by mglmg from the rocks, or by 
 small seine-nets on sat > 
 the hand-line and by the long line. It is a si 
 active fish, and was well known to the an. 
 
 is its Greek name; the Romans called it 
 lupus (i. '•.. wolf), from its remarkable voracity. It 
 is much esteemed for the table. It sometimes 
 attains a large size, fifteen pounds or more in v. 
 but is mnerally much smaller. It not unfrequently 
 rivers to some distance, and the experiment of 
 
 j it m a fresh-water pond has evi n been tried 
 with success. The Striped 1!.. or Rook-fish of the 
 
 ! States (L.lineatttt), very nearly resembl 
 common B., but attains a larger size, and is marked 
 by seven or eight longitudinal hlack lines. The 
 name Stone B. is given to the Potuprion m-nium. a 
 fish very ram on tin coasts of Britain, but abundant 
 in more southern parts of the Atlantic Ocean, as tar 
 as the Cape of C-ood Hope, and found on the 
 
 733
 
 BASSE-CHANT ANTE— BASsompieuur 
 
 American coasts and in the Mediterranean. In 
 1 1 appearance, it resembles the common perch 
 more nearly than the B., but differs from both in 
 bavins only a single elongated dorsal fin. It some- 
 times follows ships of which the bottom is covered 
 with barnacles, is easily taken, and is esteemed 
 lent for the table. 
 
 BASSE-CHANTANTE, in Music, the higher 
 of the two basses in a score, partaking of more 
 melody, and performed by the violoncello. 
 
 1 : ASSE-CONTRAINTE, a French term in music, 
 meaning a bass melody of a few bars repeated 
 throughout the piece, while the other parts vary. 
 
 BASSEI'N, the name of two cities in India — 
 
 1. B., in Perju-, the capital of a district of the panic 
 
 stands on the left bank of an arm of the Irra- 
 waddy, which joins the Bay of Bengal a few miles 
 to the south of Cape Negrais. It lies in lat. 16" 45' 
 N., and long. 94° 50' E. ; and though it is 90 miles 
 from the sea, yet it is easily and safely accessible to 
 the largest ships. In a military view, also, tl 
 is important, as it completely commands the naviga- 
 tion of the stream. It was captured by its present 
 masters, the British, in 1S52, the first year of the 
 second Burmese war. Its estimated population is 
 about 3000. — 2. B., in the presidency of Bond my. is 
 situated on an island of the same name; lat. of the 
 island, 19° 20'— 19° 28' N., and long. 72° 48'— 72° 54' E. 
 It appears to be the mere WTeck of former grandeur, 
 having been found by Bishop Heber, in 1S25, with 
 many churches and convents, to be altogether unin- 
 habited and desolate. In 1531, it was ceded to the 
 Portuguese ; in 17G5, after a possession of 231 years, 
 it was wrested from them by the Mahrattas ; in 17S0, 
 it surrendered to the British, after a regular siege of 
 twelve days. The island, which contains about 35 
 square miles, is separated from the continent by a 
 narrow channel, which, as a shelter for shipping, 
 constituted its value in the eyes of the Portuguese. 
 Historically, B. is of some interest, having been 
 promised, though never delivered, as part of the 
 dowry of Charles II.'s Portuguese consort. 
 
 BA'SSES, two ledges of rocks to the south-east of 
 Ceylon, distinguished as Great and Little — the former 
 group being more to the south-west, and the latter 
 more to the north-east. They lie in N. lat. 6° 11' — 
 6° 26', and in E, long. 81° 40'— 81° 59'. Their 
 importance arises merely from their position, which 
 is in a great thoroughfare of traffic. 
 
 BASSE-TERRE, a French term, equivalent to 
 the English Lowlands, or, rather, Lowland, appro- 
 priately applied to several localities in the 
 Indies. — 1. The capital of St Kitt's, on the we 
 coast, in lat 17° 17' N., and long. 62° 42' \V. It 
 is a low, hot, dusty place, standing at the outlet 
 of a lovely valley of the same name. Its popu- 
 lation is about 7000 ; and its trade, as the port 
 of the island, is considerable. The designation of 
 the valley and town is a memorial of the former 
 occupation of the half of St Kitt's by the French. — 
 
 2. The capital of Guadeloupe, giving its name to the 
 
 : of the two islets into which Guadeloupe is 
 divided by an arm of the sea, known as Salt Paver. 
 B. stands on the south-west coast, in lat. 16° N., and 
 long. 61° 44' W., having nothing worthy of the name 
 of harbour, but merely a roadstead. It contains 
 about 6000 inhabitants. — 3. The chief town of Marie 
 Galante, a dependency of Guadeloupe, which is about 
 12 niiles to the north-west. It is otherwise ambi- 
 tiously called Grand Bourg. 
 
 BA'SSET HORN (corno di basetto), the richest 
 
 and softest of all wind-instruments, invented in 
 
 Passau, in 1770, improved by Lotz in Presburg, in 
 
 1782. It is similar to a clarionet in tone and 
 
 734 
 
 fingering ; its compass is two and a half octavos, 
 
 it. 
 
 - Q £j 
 
 the notes written for it being from OTE~ 
 
 but the instrument sounds a fifth lower than the 
 notes are written. 
 
 BA'SSIA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Sapotacea (q. v.). The species are trees, tropical or 
 sub-tropical, the flowers of which are remarkable 
 for their fleshy corolla, and for the abundance of oil 
 or butyraceous fat which the seeds contain, and 
 which is used for many purposes by the inhabitants 
 of the countries to which they are indigenous. The 
 fruit has a pulpy rind, and 3 or 4 1 -seeded cells. 
 The ovary has 8 cells; but some of them are always 
 abortive. The Bottsb-Tkeb, described by Mango 
 Park as growing in the interior of Africa, in the 
 country of Bambarra, has been supposed to b 
 to this genus, and named B. Parkd. Aoco 
 to the eminent botanist Robert Brown, however, 
 the seed of the butter-tree, as figured by Pari;, 
 scarcely belongs to the genus B., but rather to the 
 nearly allied genus ViteJlaria or Lucuma. It pro- 
 duces the Galam Butter, also called S/iea Butter (i. c., 
 Tree Butter), which is highly valued, and forms an 
 important article of internal commerce in the interior 
 of Africa. The seeds of the fruit, which resembles 
 an olive, are dried in the sun, or in a peculiar kind 
 of oven, and the kernels are then boiled in water, in 
 order to obtain the butter from them, which not 
 only keeps for a whole year without salt, but is also 
 whiter, more solid, aud more pleasant to the taste 
 than the butter of cows' milk. This butter is used 
 both as an article of food and of medicine. It has 
 ■d that the introduction of this tree 
 might bo of great importance in other ti 
 countries. — The Madiicca, Maiiwa, or Mahowa 
 Tree of the East Indies {B. latifolia), is described as 
 resembling a good oak in size, and is a valuable 
 timber-tree. It is found in the mountainous parts of 
 the Circars, Bahar, Bengal, &c. Its flowers are eaten 
 raw, and a kind of arrack or spirit is distilled from 
 them. The seeds yield, by expression, a consider- 
 able quantity of a concrete greenish-yellow oil, 
 which is used for lamps, and occasionally for frying 
 articles of food. — The Indian Butter-Tree, or 
 I'liii.wAi: v or Fulwa Tree (B. butyracea), is found 
 in some of the more mountainous parts of India, and 
 attains a height of 50 feet. Its timber is light and 
 of no value. The leaves are 6 — 12 inches long. The 
 fruit is of the size of a pigeon's egg, and although 
 eaten, is uot much esteemed; but from the seed, 
 a concrete oil or butter is obtained, by expression, 
 of a delicate white colour, much valued for medicinal 
 uses, and as an unguent. It keeps for many months 
 without becoming rancid. — The seeds of the Illttie- 
 Trf.e, or Indian Oil-Tree (B. lomjifulia), a native 
 of Coromandel, yield a large quantity of oil, which 
 is used for lamps, for soap-making, and also by tho 
 poorer classes in cookery. Tho fleshy flowers are 
 eaten, and are much esteemed; and the timber is 
 very hard and durable, so much so, indeed, as to 
 be compared in quality to teak. 
 
 BASSINET. See Helmet. 
 
 BASSOMPIERRE, Francois de, Marshal of 
 France, was born in 1579 at Harnel, in Lorraine. 
 Belonging to one of the oldest French families, he 
 came, at the age of 20, to the French court, where 
 he gained the favour of Henry IV. After the 
 murder of Henry IV., he attached himself to the 
 [■arty of the queen, who appointed him colonel of 
 the Swiss Guards; but on the murder of Concini, 
 he sought to establish himself in the favour of the 
 young king, and when the quarrel broke out betwixt
 
 I:\ssOON— BAST. 
 
 mother and son, he particularly contributed to the 
 overthrow of the former. He was raised to the 
 rank of Marshal of France in 1G22 ; was sent on 
 embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England ; was 
 actively employed in the siege of La Rochelle ; 
 took the pass of Susa by storm in 1629; and com- 
 manded for a little while the troops raised in 
 Langucdoc against the Huguenots. He became, 
 however, an object of suspicion and dislike to 
 Richelieu, who caused him to bo cast into the 
 Bastile in February 1631, from which he was not 
 liberated until the death of Richelieu, in 1043, after 
 he had been twelve years imprisoned. He died in 
 10 Hi. He was an accomplished courtier, extra- 
 vagant, and excessively addicted to gallantries. At 
 the time of his arrest, he destroyed 6000 love-letters. 
 His Mhnoires (2 vols., Cologne, 1CC5; 4 vols., 
 Amst. 1723), written in the Bastile, are rendered 
 interesting by their spirited style. 
 
 BASSOO'N (Ital. Faijotto), a well-known wind- 
 instrument of the reed species, made of maple- wood 
 or plane-tree. The B. is an Italian invention ; its 
 name fagotto, meaning a bundle, probably from its 
 made in different pieces laid one against the 
 other. The French call it Basson de Ziaulboit; the 
 ( iii-mans retain its Italian name. Its invention 
 is attributed to Canonicus Afranio, in Ferrara, in 
 1539. In the middle of the 10th c, it had already 
 reached great perfection. Sigmund Schnitzer, in 
 Js'iirenberg, who died in 1578, was a celebrated 
 maker. The B. consists of a bored-out tube of 
 wood in several pieces, fixed together alongside 
 each other, so as to bring the holes and keys 
 within the reach of the fingers of each hand. The 
 B. has, in general, not less than S holes and 10 
 keys. In the narrow end of the wooden tube is 
 fixed a small tapering brass tube in the form of an 
 S, on the end of which is placed the reed for pro- 
 ducing the tone. The compass of the B. is from 
 
 BI 
 
 tit 
 
 but the best tones are those 
 
 from 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 . The lowest C sharp, and 
 
 ri" *^ B natural, are wanting. 
 
 The notes for the B. are written on tie bass clef for 
 the lower part, and on the tenor clef for the higher. 
 The best keys for the B. are E flat, B flat, F. r. < :, 
 D, and A ; all the other keys are more or less 
 difficult. For military bands there are different 
 sizes of bassoons — one a fourth lower ; another, the 
 contra B., an octave lower ; and a third, the tenor 
 B., a fifth higher — all of the same construction. The 
 best instruction books for the B. are by Almcnrader, 
 Fronlich, Ozi, and by the Paris Conscrvatorium. B. 
 is also the name of an organ-stop, the pipes of which 
 are made to imitate the tones of the instrument. 
 
 BASSO'RA, BUSSORA, or BASRAH, a town of 
 Asiatic Turkey, pashalic of Bagdad, is situated on 
 the western bank of the Euphrates, here called the 
 Shat-cl-Arab, about midway between the mouth of 
 the Tigris and the Persian Gulf, from which it is 
 70 miles distant. Lat. 30° 30' N., long. 47 ' 34' E 
 There are many gardens within the walls of the 
 city, and many plantations of roses around it, but it 
 is very dirty. The river, which is navigable up to B. 
 for ships of 500 tons, is there divided into a number 
 of channels, and by evaporation and frequent over- 
 flowing, makes the climate very unhealthy. The 
 inhabitants, 60,000 in number, are for the most part 
 poor Arabs and Persians; the officials and military 
 alone are Turks. Commerce is in the hands of 
 Armenians. Most of the houses are low huts, built 
 
 of unburned bricks. An extensive trade is carried 
 on in the exchange of the productions of Turkey and 
 Persia with those of India, and also in European 
 goods, particularly articles of British manufacture. 
 Amongst the exports, are strong and beautiful 
 horses. Caravans travel to Persia, and also by 
 1 and Aleppo to Constantinople. To guard 
 against the incursions of the Arabs, a wall of about 
 04 nides in length has been erected in the neighbour- 
 ing desert, at all the gates of which a watch is 
 maintained. B. was founded in 636 by the Calif 
 Omar, and soon became one of the most famous and 
 opulent cities of the East. The possession of it has 
 been the subject of many contests between the 
 Turks and the Persians. It is a place of great note 
 in the history of Arabic literature. A number of 
 Arabian poets and scholars derive from it the 
 surname of Basin. 
 
 BASSORA GUM, a whitish or yellowish-opaque 
 substance resembling gum-arabic, but differing 
 from it by being mostly insoluble in water. Its 
 source has not been satisfactorily ascertained. 
 
 BASSO-RILIE'VO. See Alto-rilievo. 
 
 BASS'S STRAIT separates Tasmania from 
 Australia. It contains many islands, chiefly in its 
 southern section, and is greatly beset by coral-reefs. 
 It runs almost due east and west, has an a 
 breadth of about 200 miles, and is pretty nearly 
 bisected by the parallel of In'. 
 
 B. S. deservedly bears the name of its explorer, 
 who, without having been professionally a seaman, 
 is entitled to a very high place among maritime 
 discoverers. After having made shorter excursions 
 from Port Jackson, in a mere wherry of 8 feet in 
 length, Mr Surgeon Bass resolved to settle, in a 
 whaling-boat, the question as to the connecti"ii or 
 separation of New Holland and Tasmania. In his 
 frail craft, he penetrated as far as Western Port, near 
 the entrance of Port Phillip, where, from the trending 
 of the land and the swell of the sea, he inferred that 
 he had most probably reached the open ocean. He 
 did not rest contented, however, until, in a tiny bark 
 of 25 tons, he actually circumnavigated Tasmania. 
 The discovery, so deliberately prosecuted, and so 
 satisfactorily completed, soon proved to be fertile. 
 of residts; for in 1802, only tour years after the 
 exploration of Bass, Port Phillip was entered; in 
 1804, Tasmania was colonised ; and now the strait 
 is the highway for at ire than a million 
 
 sterling bet. ilia and Tasmania— a 
 
 which has very re entry received an additional 
 impetus from the layiug of a telegraphic cable 
 between the two colonies at their joint expense. 
 
 BAST, or BASS, also called Inner Bar!:, Liber, or 
 Endoplueeum (see Babe), the fibrous inferior 
 of the bark in the stems of exogenous plants, which 
 is particularly conspicuous in exogenous trees, as a 
 peculiar substance interposed between the true bark 
 and the wood. It consists in great part of sap- 
 vessels (laticiferous vessels, see L.vnx and Sap) 
 together, and assuming the appcaranco 
 of tough fibres. In a fresh state, it has generally a 
 whitish colour; and it is often composed of several 
 layers, to which, however, the collective name of 
 B.-layer is very often applied. The uses of this part 
 of plants in the- arts are very numerous ; the fibres 
 of hemp, flax, jute, &c., are nothing else than 
 The name B., however, is more commonly applied 
 to the inner bark of trees, and is originally Iiu 
 designating the inner bark of the lime-tree (q. v.) or 
 linden-tree, which is employed for making a ooarse 
 kind of ropes, mats well known as B.-mats, and a 
 kind of shoes much worn by the Russian peasantry. 
 The trees are cut when full of sap in spring. For 
 B. to be plaited into shoes, young stems of about 
 
 "35
 
 BASTARD BAR— BASTARDS AND BASTARDY. 
 
 three years old are preferred ; and it is said that 
 
 1 ■.'. ■ three are required to make a angle | 
 
 Trees of six or eight years old are onl down 
 for the better kiud of mats, which are exported in 
 large quantities from Russia, and particularly from 
 the port of Archi ' > mucn.i ,| tor pack- 
 
 ing furniture, for i ider plants in gardens, 
 
 supplying strands with which plants are bed, &e. 
 Tlir ti bicb the I'', is tal 
 
 ally burned for charcoal. After the bark is dl 
 
 arc .ailv separated by steeping in water. 
 The finest layers are the inner, and tin- coal 
 the outer ones. — The manufacture of B.-iuats is 
 nearly confined to Russia and Sweden. Not fewer 
 tli in .;..~.ihuh>i) are annually exported from I: 
 and from 5(1(1,1111(1 to miii.iiiiii are annually imported 
 into Britain. A few are made in Monmouthshire. 
 Lime-tree B. is used in the south of Eur.>; 
 making hats. The name B.-hat is, however, very 
 given to a hat mule of willow-wood planed oil' 
 iii tlnn ribbons, and plaited in the same manner as 
 straw-hats. The inner bark of On una ilhlyma, a 
 tree of the same natural order with the lime-tree, is 
 for making ropes in the Himalaya Mountains. 
 BA'STARD BAR. In popular speech we fre- 
 quently hear of a Bar-sinister, as a mark of bastardy. 
 But a bar-sinister, strictly speaking, is an impossi- 
 bility, inasmuch as the Bar (q.v.) is not formed of 
 diagonal but of horizontal In J. A Bend-sinister 
 (q.V.), winch, by the French, is called a bar, has 
 with more reason been confused with the true mark 
 of illegitimacy, and has on that account been avoided 
 even by heralds. But the real B. B. differs very 
 essentially from the bend-sinister, being half of 
 the scarp, which again is half of the bend-sinister. 
 'The half of tie scarp.' says Nisbet, 
 ' with the English, is called a Batton- 
 sinister ; by the French, Baston- 
 sinister; it is never carried in arms 
 but as a mark of illegitiination, com- 
 monly called the Bastard-barr.' In 
 t> i "j t> modern practice, the baton does not 
 Bastard Bar. tQUch ^ cxtri , mitic . 3 o{ t^ shic U, or 
 
 of the quarter in which the paternal arms are 
 placed, but is couped — that is, cut short at the 
 ends. In this form the baton, when used as a 
 mark of illegitimacy, is placed over the paternal 
 coat of the bastard, whether used singly or in a 
 quartered shield. Nisbet informs us that the baton- 
 sinister, both in England and Scotland, is compara- 
 tively of modern invention, natural children in 
 earlier times not having been permitted to assume 
 the arms or even the names of their fathers. ' The 
 unlawfid children of John of Gaunt, Duke of 
 Lancaster, heyot on Katharine, daughter of Sir 
 Payen Roat Guyn, King of Arms, did not carry the 
 arms of their father the king, though nobilitate, 
 with a baton-sinister, as now used; . . . but after 
 the legitimation of these 
 three natural sons by act 
 of parliament, they then 
 assumed the BOven i u 
 ensigns of England, with- 
 in a bordure gobbonated 
 (q. v.), argent and azure.' 
 
 According to the practice 
 of France, which probably 
 \\\ was followed in England 
 rTr^jL jISbtRu I a ^ so ' th e bastard could not 
 cancel or alter the baton 
 without the consent of the 
 chief of the family, or the 
 authority of the sol 
 Even where the baton was 
 not removed, it was com- 
 mon for the sovereign to grant his permission to 
 
 73.. 
 
 Earl of Murray's Arms. 
 
 carry it dexter, in place of sinister. Charles VII. 
 
 ace allowed John, the Bastard of 
 
 for his valour against the English, to turn his si] 
 
 e to the dexter, with v. Inch he and li 
 .afterwards h arms of Orleans, as dukes 
 
 of I.ongueville. The same privili 
 to .lames. Earl of Murray, natural sen 01 King 
 
 V. of Scotland, by his sister Queen 
 
 and he thenceforth carried the Lion : 
 of Scotland thus bruised, unaltered with the feudal 
 arms of the earldom of Murray. The general prae- 
 thc milder heraldry of our own day is to 
 tute the gobbonated bordure for the l;, B., 
 Dot only in the c legitimate children of 
 
 bastards, but of bastards themselves. 
 
 BASTARD EIGNE is the name given in 
 lish law-books to an eldest son illegitimate by birth, 
 but whose father and mother wi aently 
 
 married, and had other children born e 
 See B.vsi \uks and Bastardy. 
 
 BA'STARDS and BASTARDY. Bastard 
 
 described by Blackstone, are such children i i 
 net born either in lawful wedlock, or within a com- 
 petent time after its determination. The Scotch 
 lawyers, again, true to their peculiar law of ma I 
 
 bod as a child bom of a woman, who 
 was not married to the father at the time of < 
 tion, and wlio wa* , ,n. It 
 
 was at one time the law of England, wh 
 a mensa et thoro were adjudged by the < 
 courts, that if the wife had children during the 
 legal separation occasioned by the former kind of 
 divorce, such chddren were pi bastards — 
 
 for the law presumed the parties to live conform- 
 ably to the sentence of separation. But in n 
 times, the presumption has changed, and now always 
 favours legitimacy. 
 
 Bastards are incapable of ii i I i in 'perty ; 
 
 nor can they claim any share of pi i <mial e tate as 
 next of kin to a party dying intestate. They are 
 said to be filii nonius, or fiii pc ms of 
 
 nobody, or the sons of the people, having no inherit- 
 able blood in them. As laid down, however, in 
 many authorities, and among others in the last (4th) 
 edition of Stephen - I here is an i 
 
 tion to this ride in the case of a bastan 1 
 
 r puisne*, and where, it may be observed, the 
 principle of the Scotch law of legitimation appears 
 to some extent to be admitted. Thus, where a man 
 has a bastard son, called a basfai (<J. v.), and 
 
 afterwards marries the mother, and by her has a 
 legitimate sou, who, in the language of the law, is 
 ,11 1 : ,- I'ttisne — if the father dies, and the 
 
 I fi'jni enters upon his laud, and enjoys it to 
 his death, and dies seised thereof, whereby the 
 inheritance descends to his issue, 1 1 
 and all other heirs are totally barred of their right, 
 because the laws of England pay such a regard to a 
 person in the situation of the bn.thtrd eigne*, that 
 after the land had descended to his 
 would not unravel the matter again, and Buffer his 
 estate to be shaken. But this indulgence was shewn 
 to no other kiud of bastard; for if tie mothi 
 never married to the father, such bastard could have 
 no colourable title at all. And the above exi 
 would almost appear to be the law of England at 
 the present day. But a recent statute renders this 
 opinion somewhat doubtful, for by the 3 and 4 W ill. 
 IV. c. 27, s. 39, it is enacted that no descent cast, after 
 the 31st day of December 1833, shall defeat any right 
 of entry or action for the recovery of land. By descent 
 cast is meant an heir of a party who had com 
 illegally to enjoy the land without challenge during 
 his life, and was thereby enabled to transmit it to 
 his heir, who thenceforward had a title which could
 
 BASTARDS AND BASTARDY. 
 
 not be impeachi'il either by the original rightful 
 owner, or by any of his descendants. The 
 statute, however, has cut off the rights in this behalf 
 of all such descents cast, and the true owner can now, 
 under the pi E the act, always recover. But 
 is the son of a fa cast' as 
 is contemplated by the 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 27? 
 It may be doubted whether he is. The expression 
 ut cast ' is generally applied in law-hooks to 
 who, under a forcible, wrong- 
 ful, and illegal entry on the land, bad - ■ ieded in 
 
 diverting the inheritance from the direct and 
 nal channel. But such i3 not the position of a 
 tattard ■ ignt. Be is not, in any sense of the word, 
 a stranger ; nor is the above privilege or favour 
 allowed him and his family at all in respect of his 
 position towards, or of anything that can be called 
 his title to the /„„,/, but such privilege and favour 
 are "is en him solely because of his peculiar bculardy. 
 In tact, it is just because he is not astranger, but 
 his father's eldest sou by birth, that the law from 
 ancient times decided that he should not be alto- 
 gether deprived of what otherwise would ha\ 
 his natural rights. The rule, as we hav< 
 appears to be founded on the principle of the Scotch 
 law of subs lunation; and the intention 
 
 probably was to give effect to the good feeling of 
 the second or other legitimate son, who, from a 
 regard to his mother's character, as well as his 
 i position, might find himself excused from 
 
 asserting his claims. Whether the above statute 
 can. by its general terms, be understood arbitrarily 
 to alter such a reasonable ami natural law of family 
 1 is a question for lawyers and law-courts. 
 Tie- point, however, is important for popular expla- 
 nation. In all other cases, the law of England 
 appears to be as distinct as it is severe. It has 
 even been decided that a child bum before wed- 
 lock in a foreign country, and according to whose 
 law such child was legitimate, could not inherit 
 land in England where his bastardy was indelible. 
 
 There can be no collateral succession through 
 bastards ; for as they cannot be heirs them 
 SO neither can they have any heirs but those of their 
 own bodies. A bastard is not entitled to the name 
 either of his reputed father or of that of his mother, 
 though he may acquire for himself a surname by 
 tion ; nor can he take property by the mere 
 I'tion of c/iild of his reputed parent, until 
 he has acquired the reputation of standing in that 
 relation to him. Nor does a bastard follow, as 
 legitimate children do, his father's place of paro- 
 chial settlement under the poor-laws, but he has 
 and follows the settlement of his mother until he 
 attain of 10, or until he acquires a 
 
 mant in his own right, and after that age his 
 
 primary settlement is in the parish where he was 
 born. Another peculiarity of the status of bastardy 
 is, that a bastard being ««, the consent of 
 
 his father or mother to his mania 
 and is of no avail ; but a guardian may be appointed 
 by the ( oiirt of Chancery for the purpose, or a 
 zranted upon oath made that there 
 is no person authorised to To this 
 
 may be added, that although in general a 
 may by deed or will appoint a guardian for his 
 infant child, in the event of bis .1 has no 
 
 such privilege if the child be illegitimate. 
 
 .Such may be stated to be the principal peculiari- 
 ties attaching to bastardy in the law of England. In 
 other respects, a bastard is very much in the same 
 position as a legitimate person. Thus, he can hold 
 land in fee-simple, and can dispose of it as he may 
 think proper, making an unlimited alienation of it ; 
 and of course he can make a will bequeathing his 
 whole estate ; a simple and reasonable privilege, 
 47 
 
 however, which, strange to say, was not conceded 
 to bastards hi Scotland dying without lawful issue, 
 till tie- year 1836, when an act of parliament was 
 
 tie- 6 Will. IV. e. 22, which, on tl 
 amble that ' it is just, humane, and expedient,' 
 empowi Is in that country to dis|>o«e of 
 
 their person I property by testament or will in like 
 ergons might do, any law or prac- 
 tice to the contrary notwith In regard 
 to his whole estate, although is entitled 
 
 in the ease of a bastard dying intestal 
 
 royal claim is not strictly enforced; but upon petition, 
 
 rwn's right will "lie transferred to the nearest 
 
 member of the deceased bastard's family. In the 
 
 I Scotch law, also, the crown may, by what is 
 
 a gift a/ bastardy, grant not only the personal, but 
 
 the real estate of an intestate bastard to the 
 
 ' donatory,' or person similarly entitled, as in the case 
 
 i ty in England. It is also to be 
 
 that the prohibitions as to marriage which 
 
 extend to collaterals, and to those related by the 
 
 half blood only, also apply although one of the 
 
 parties be a bastard. Again, the laws relative to 
 
 incest apply to a bastard with equal force as to 
 
 others ; the principle of the two latter points l«ing 
 
 that, although the bastard lje Jiliux nulliua as to 
 
 many civil consequences, his relationship to his 
 
 natural pan nt is recognised for moral purposes. 
 
 Of course, it need not be added that a bastard may 
 
 be made legitimate by an act of parliament for all 
 
 a for that of inheriting land, ' as was 
 
 done,' says Black-st' me, 'in the case • if J. >hn of 
 
 Gauut's bastard children by a statute of Richard 
 
 II.' 
 
 The paternity of a bastard or illegitimate child in 
 England is ascertained by several statutes — 7 and S 
 Vict. c. 101, 35 and 36 Vict c. 65, 36 and :;7 Vict, 
 c 9 ; and the father is bound to make a proper 
 allowance for the child's support till sixteen. But it 
 is on the mother herself that the maintenance of the 
 child in the first instance devi 8 is for this 
 
 purpose entitled to its custody in preference to its 
 lather ; and she is bound to maintain it as part of 
 her family while she remains unmarried, or until 
 the child attains the age of 16, or gains a I 
 ment in its own right, or (being a female) is married ; 
 and in the event of the mother's marriage, the same 
 liability attaches to her husband. If the mother be 
 of sufficient ability to maintain the bastard, while 
 he is so dependent on her, and neglect that duty, so 
 that he becomes chargeal lie to a parish, she is 
 liable, by 7 and S Vict. c. Ml, s. 6, to be punished 
 under the provisions of the (q. v.). 
 
 Whether the mother b of sufficient ability or not, 
 she can, by affiliation proceedings, compel the father 
 to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week till 
 the child is sixteen (35 and 36 Vict 0. 68 
 
 t s in the Scotch law to which we 
 have adverted, it is to be observed that in that 
 i. the maintenance, or ' aliment,' as it is called, 
 of illegitimate children, is a joint burden upin both 
 parents. Tie mother is entitled to the custody of 
 the child, but it does not appear whether she is to 
 have such custody for any fixed time. It is in the 
 discretion of the Court of S to deb nnine this, 
 
 and it would seem that the period may vary accord- 
 ing to circumstances, from seven to fourteen years. 
 During this tune, the father is bound to contribute 
 his proportion of the expense; and if neither the 
 father nor mother can support the child, it must be 
 maintain, d by the parish in which the mother has a 
 settlement. 
 
 There is a nice and curious difference in the laws 
 of England and Scotland as to the mode of ascer- 
 taining the paternity of a bastard child. According 
 to the statutes we have referred to, that fact may 
 
 W
 
 BASTARDY—BASTILLE. 
 
 be proved in England l>y the evidence of the mother, 
 provided her statement is supported m 'some 
 material particular' by other testimony. But in 
 Scotland, the order of the inquiry is reversed; 
 the woman's evidence in that country being taken 
 
 :;]d only where the other and indepi 
 evidence amounts to what is called a em/ 
 lire as induces a i 
 lief, although not complete evidence, in which 
 case she is admitted to give what is called hi 
 in supplement. 
 
 Both in England and Scotland, the widow of a 
 bastard, whether there be issue or not of the 
 marriage, is entitled to dower, teres, jus relictce, and 
 all the othi ■ [hts of widows. See Legiti- 
 
 Si i'AKATiox, Divorce. Miu:iim:, Di 
 CAST, Imii.kii'ANCK, Fei.-Simvi ! I B8SI0N, 
 
 Parish Settlement, Ultima FLeres, Vagrant 
 Act, Oatii in Scitucmext, and Semie-lena 
 Pbobatio. 
 
 BA'STARDY, Gift of. See preceding article. 
 
 BA'STARDY, Declarator of. This is a suit 
 i maybe instituted in the Court of Session in 
 ml, for having it declared that the lands or 
 effects which belonged to the deceased bastard, 
 belong to the donatory in virtue of the gift from the 
 crown. The 'defender,' or person against whom 
 ; nit is formally brought, is the party who would 
 have succeeded to the bastard, had he been legiti- 
 mate, 1!. can also be judicially dec! 
 similar mode of proceeding at the suit of a party 
 who lias any other interest, or, indeed, any interest 
 
 , to have such illegitimacy determined. 
 
 By a recent act of parliament, the 21 and 22 
 Yict. c. 93, the same conclusion may lie substanti- 
 ally obtained by the English proceeding, directed 
 by the act in the Court for Divorce and .Matrimonial 
 I i i, it is declared, may be 
 
 for all purposes, as the 'Legitima 
 ti m Act, 1S5S.' 
 
 BASTI'A, the former capital of Corsica, is pictur- 
 esquely situated on the slojie of a mountain, rising 
 from the sea in the form of an amphitheatre, in 
 the north-eastern part of the island, in lat. 42" 
 42' N., and long. 9° 27' E. It has about 20,000 
 inhabitants. The streets are narrow and crooked. 
 It has a harbour suitable for small vessels, defended 
 by a mole, at the mouth of which is a rock resemb- 
 ling a lion couchant, and designated ' II Leone.' 
 There is a considerable trade in leather, skins, 
 wine, oil, figs, and pulse ; and many stilettos and 
 daggers are manufactured here, which are prim 
 exported to Italy. Until recently, the printing- 
 presses of B. were actively employed in the produc- 
 tion of Italian publications that would not have been 
 permitted to appear in that country itself. B. was 
 founded in 1380 by the Genoese Leonel Lomellino. 
 During last century, it was oftener than once taken 
 by the British. It was made, in 1791, the capital of 
 the French department of Corsica, which rauk was 
 afterwards transferred to Ajaccio. It is the scat of 
 the highest courts of the island. 
 
 BASTIAT, Frederic, an eminent political 
 economist, was born at Bayonne on the 29th of 
 June 1S01. His father was a merchant, and edu- 
 cated his son with a view to the same profession. 
 After completing his studies, B. entered the com- 
 mercial house of one of his uncles, established at 
 Bayonne, and employed his leisure hours in the 
 study of political economy. Circumstances called 
 him into Spain and Portugal in 1S40, where he took 
 advantage of the opportunity afforded him to study 
 the customs and institutions of these two countries, 
 which have still much to learn before they can be 
 on a footing of equality with other nations in 
 
 733 
 
 matters of finance and political economy. His first 
 appearance as an author was in 1844, when he pub- 
 lished, in the Journal tlt.i Ecu* article ' I 'u 
 uenoe of French and English Tariffs on the 
 tive Futures of the two Peoples.' Itcontained 
 i l'..'s theory of political economy, who, from 
 i di cide I opponent ol 
 of protection. Subsequently, in the same journal, 
 he combated the economic fallacies of Socialism 
 and the rights of labour. During a \ i.-it to England, 
 
 he made the acquaintance of Cobden, and on his 
 return to France, he translated (1845) the Bpe 
 
 of the free-traders, which he published With an 
 
 Lctory preface, entitled Cobden and 
 or tlie English Agitation in Favour of Fi 
 which he gathered up into one solid mass the incon- 
 iea of the protective system. I'., now went 
 e in 1'aris, where he continued to props 
 his views with considerable success; I 
 
 ry of the societies, and chief editor of the 
 journal, established to vindicate the princip! 
 free trade. After the revolution of 1848, lie was 
 
 i successively a member of the Constituent 
 and Legislative assemblies. In 1S50, he can 
 ward as the ist of the Socialist writer, 
 
 Prudhon. Suffering from pulmonary di . I a 
 repaired to Italy for change of climate, but died at 
 Borne on the 24th December 1850. 
 
 des the writings mentioned, B. pub 
 Sopliismes Economiques — Propriiti it Lot, Ju 
 Fraternili — Protectionisme et Communisms, Har- 
 monies. Economiques, and several other important 
 tractates, all of which cxliibit extensive knowh I 
 the subjects discussed, convincing logic, and a | 
 of sprightly and biting satire. The Sars 
 Economigues has been translated into English by P. 
 J. Stirling {Harmonies <y Inn-ay, 
 
 Lond. 18G0). The soundness of the principles which 
 the writings of B. uphold, notwithstanding the pro. 
 tectionist tendencies of the late president, M. Thiers, 
 i now (ls7i!i generally acknowledged in France. 
 
 BASTIDE, Jul i 1 I i i ich journalist and politi- 
 cian. Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1848, and mi 
 of the Constituent Assembly, was born at Paris in 
 1800. In 1S21, he became one of the first members 
 of the French Carbonari ; and after the July revo- 
 lution, he was conspicuous among the writers of 
 the radical opposition. On the reconstitution of 
 the National Guard, B. was elected commandant- 
 in-ehief of the legion of artillery, in which the 
 republicans were grouped, and took part in two 
 insurrectionary movements, for the second of which 
 — the (meule at Paris, 5th June 1832— he was con- 
 demned to death, but escaped to London. Pardoned 
 in 1834, he returned to Paris, and again devoted 
 himself to politics in the columns of the National. 
 1!.. however, being one of those Nco-catholic re- 
 publicans who regarded the Church of Rome as the 
 religious synonym of democracy, could not heartily 
 sympathise with the tone of that newspaper on reli- 
 gious topics, and in 1847 he founded the J' we 
 tTationaie, in which he advocated his peculiar 
 opinions. During the revolution of 1848, he was a 
 Supporter of General Cavai'jnae, and an opponent 
 of Socialism. In 1858, he published//'; RtpubHoue 
 ' Vltalie en 1848 ; and in 1859, Guerres 
 de Religion en France. 
 
 BA'STILLE was, in France, a general term for 
 a strong fortress, defended by towers or bastions 
 (q. v.), and in this sense it was used in England also 
 after the Norman Conquest. The famous prison to 
 which the name latterly was appropriated, was 
 originally the castle of Paris, and was built by 
 order of Charles V., between 1370 and 13S3, by 
 Hugo Aubriot, Prfivdt or Provost of Paris, at the
 
 BASTINADO— BAT. 
 
 Porte St Antoine, as a defence against the English. 
 Afterwards, when it came to be used as a state- 
 prison, it was provided, during the 16th and 17th 
 centuries, with vast bulwarks and ditches. On each 
 of its longer sides the B. had four towers, of five 
 6toric3 each, over which there ran a gallery, which 
 was armed with cannon. It was partly in these 
 towers, and partly in cellars under the level of the 
 ground, that the prisons were situated. The unfor- 
 tunate inmates of these abodes were so effectually 
 removed from the world without as often to be 
 entirely forgotten, and in some cases it was found 
 impossible to discover either their origin or the 
 cause of their incarceration. The B. was capable 
 
 The Bastille. 
 
 of containing 70 to SO prisoners, a number fre- 
 quently reached daring the reigns of Louis XIV. 
 and Louis XV. Though small compared to the 
 number which an ordinary prison contains, these 
 numbers were considerable, when we reflect that 
 they rarely consisted of persons of the lower ranks, 
 or such as were guilty of actual crimes, but of those 
 who were sacrificed to political despotism, court 
 intrigue, ecclesiastical tyranny, or had fallen victims 
 to family quarrels — and were lodged lure in virtue 
 of letlres de cachet (q. v.) — noblemen, authors, savans, 
 priests, and publishers. On the 14th of July 17S9, 
 the fortress was surrounded by au armed mob, 
 which the reactionary policy of the court had 
 driven into fury, and to the number of which 
 moment added The garrison consisted of 82 
 invalids and .'!_' Swiss. The negotiations which 
 were entered into with the governor led to no 
 other result than the removal of the cannon | 
 on the Faubourg St Antoine, which by no means 
 contented the exasperated multitude. Some cut 
 the chain3 of the first drawbridge, and a contest 
 took place, in which one of the besieged and ISO 
 of the people were killed, or severely WOW 
 but the arrival of a portion of the troops which had 
 already joined the people with four field-, 
 turned the fortune of the conflict in favour of the 
 besiegers. Delaunay, the governor — who had been 
 ited by one of his officers, when on the 
 point of blowing the fortress into the air — permitted 
 the aecond drawbridge to be lowered, and the people 
 
 rushed in, lulling Delaunay himself and several of 
 his officers. The destruction of the B. commenced 
 on the following day. amid the thunder of cannon, 
 and the pealing of the Te Deum. This event, in 
 itself apparently of no great moment, leading only 
 to the release of three unknown prisoners — one of 
 whom had been its tenant for thirty years— and four 
 forgcrs, and in which it is said only the 664 per- 
 sons whose names now appear on the column in 
 the Place de la Bastille, took part, nevertheless 
 finally broke the spirit of the court-party, and 
 changed the current of events in France. 
 
 BASTINADO (from the Fr. boston or baton, a 
 cudgel), the name given by Europeans to the punish- 
 ment in use over the whole East, which consists in 
 blows with a stick, generally upon the soles of the 
 feet, but sometimes upon the back. 
 
 BA'STION, in Fortification, is one of the principal 
 defence-works in a fortified place. It is a kind of 
 tower, very broad in relation to it3 height, The 
 plain wall, called the curtain, which often surrounds 
 a fortified town, is usually a polygon of many sides ; 
 and in that case, bastions occupy all, or nearly all, 
 the salient angles. Bastions are mostly five- 
 the two outermost sides are theyiices, meeting in an 
 angle towards the enemy ; the two on cither side 
 of these are the Jlanks, meeting two curtains or 
 portions of wall; and the fifth side, open to the 
 interior of the fortified place, is the gorge. Bastions 
 may be regarded as projections, which enable the 
 defenders to watch the approach of the enemy to 
 the foot of the wall, and to frustrate them by a 
 Hanking fire. Taking the average range of modern 
 ordnance and muskets as a basis, engineers decide 
 on a distance of 300 to 400 yards between B. and 
 B. ; but if Armstrong or Napoleon guns, and Enfield 
 or Minie rifles, should hereafter be employed in 
 attacking and defending fortified places, these figures 
 will probably need modification. The length of 
 each face and flank of a B. is so regulated, that two 
 bastions can defend each other and the intermediate 
 portion of wall. This principle was partly acted 
 upon in the middle ages; but some of the Italian 
 military engineers of the 16th c. first constructed 
 the B. proper. The main substance of a B. is an 
 immense mound of earth, capable of supporting 
 heavy guns, and of receiving the fire of the enemy ; 
 but it is faced and strengthened in many parts with 
 brick and stone. The top is broad enough to allow 
 room for the large guns, and for infantry ami 
 artillery soldiers. A hollow B. has the space within 
 it kept down to the level of the town or natural 
 ground; but a solid B., tilled up to the top with 
 firm materials, is considered to be the best defensive 
 construction. Vauban, the great French en. 
 devised the plan of having large turns 
 
 opposite the chief angles of the place, with a ditch 
 behind each ; a tower or small B. being placed at 
 the real angle of the wall behind. This was 
 intended to enable the besieged to hold out for 
 some time, even after the great bastions were taken. 
 
 The relation wdiich bastions bear to the general 
 system of attack and defence, is noticed under 
 Fortification and Sieof. ; while various details 
 on the subject will be found under Battery, < ' ISB- 
 mate, CURTAIN, Dnvn, 1 iu BB \>; 1:1. K-.Ai.r, Para- 
 li. I', Hamfart, &c. In wood-cuts illustrating many 
 of these articles, the relative position of the I!, will 
 be better shewn than by any diagram in this place. 
 
 BA'SYLE is the name given by chemists to a 
 .simple or compound substance which can unite with 
 oxygen to produce a base (q. v.). Thus, all the 
 metals are examples of simple basvles. and 
 ammonium (XII,), ethyle (C.1I ). methyle (C 11 I. 
 ,'.r.. r. pp sent compound basylee. Another property 
 which a B. possesses is, that it can unite with a 
 salt radical (a. v.), like chlorine or cyanogen, to 
 form salts. Thus, the B. sodium (Xa) combines 
 with chlorine to produce a salt — in fact, common 
 salt (NaC'l); and mercury (Hg) unites with cyanogen 
 (Gy) to form the salt cyanide of mercury (Hg< 
 
 BAT, the common name of all animals of the 
 class M ned with true 
 
 wings, and so are capable of really living or propel- 
 ling themselves in the air. They were all included 
 by Linnaeus in the genus Vtspertilio (old Latin 
 name), now subdivided and forming the family 
 
 739
 
 BAT. 
 
 VespertQionideB, which is very generally ri 
 as of precisely i I at with the sub-order 
 
 I optsrafGr. hand-winged), although tome natur- 
 alists still follow Cuvier in the Oaieo 
 pUheada [Colugos or Flying Lemurs) as another 
 
 Long-eared Bat [Plccottis auritus). 
 
 Family of Cheiroptera. But besides other characters 
 which connect the Colugos with Lemurs rather than 
 with bats, they greatly differ from bats in having a 
 mere I on of the skin of the Hanks attached 
 
 to the limbs— as in the Flying Squirrels and 
 Petaurists or Flying Phalangers, and in the Flying 
 in among saurian reptiles — capable of sus- 
 taining them in the air like a parachute in a very 
 extended leap, but not of being expanded and 
 by a succession of strokes tor true Sight. The 
 power of true flight, bats, on the contrary, possess; 
 and some of them not only fly rapidly, Dul 
 about very nimbly in the air, in pursuit of thcir 
 insect prey. 
 
 It is very interesting to compare the organs of 
 flight in bats with those of birds, both as to the 
 points in which they agree, and those in which they 
 differ. They beat the air, as birds do, with ii 
 anterior members ; but the requisite extension of 
 surface is not obtained by quills, but by a 
 
 lion of the arms and fingers, upon which 
 a thin membrane is stretched, folding close to the 
 body by moan; of their j lints, when the wing is not 
 in use. A little attention to the aecoi 
 figures of the skeleton of a bat and of a ba1 
 wdl make plainer than mere words can the relation 
 of the bones of a bat's wing to the bones of the 
 human arm and hand, or to the ordinary hones of 
 the anterior extremities in quadrupeds which have 
 
 or toes. The thumb, a (in figure of skel 
 is .-lent, armed with a strong nail, and not at all 
 included in the wing-membrane, nor used in flight. 
 
 Skeleton of Bat. 
 
 The bones most elongated of all arc the metacarpal 
 bones, or bones of the hand, 4; the true finger-bones, 
 
 r, are not so much so. The fore-arm, </, lie not two 
 
 id ulna), but only one Olio ulna), 
 
 with a sort of rudiment of the other; tie- rotatory 
 
 motion, of which these two bones afford the means, 
 
 being not only umn > my to bats, but at variance 
 with tin- put I in this part of 
 
 truetnio.iif a powerful stroke in particular 
 
 direction. For a similar reason, 'the fingers of this 
 strange hand are incapable of closing towards the 
 I !mi, as ours do, when grasping an object: their 
 only movements are SUCh as fold up tin 
 
 t the side of the body, by Laying the fingers 
 
 close along the side of the fore-arm, as in dosing a 
 
 fan.' ( Ireat bren bh, however, n u i n qui be in the 
 
 shoulder; and, accordingly, we find an anal 
 birds in the size and solidity of the bones in this 
 part, as well as in the thickness of tin- muscles by 
 which the wings are moved, and still more in the 
 great dimensions of the sternum, or breast-bone, to 
 which they are attached. The sternum is also 
 furnished with a medial ridge, as in birds, for the 
 better attachment of the muscles. The ribs are 
 large; but the other bones generally, as the 
 the head and of the pelvis, are deli ate, and appear 
 designed for lightness.— The wing-membrane of 
 
 bats extends along the Hanks to the hind 
 although these aid little in flight ; but it is attached 
 to them so as to leave the feet free, which are much 
 like the feet of ordinary small quadrupeds with toes 
 and claws, and are employed along with tile thumbs 
 of the anterior limbs in creeping upon the ground, 
 in climbing perpendicular rough surfaces, or for 
 
 Si i. 
 Bat in repose. 
 
 Dg with the brad downward in that remark- 
 lure of repose in which bats pass great part 
 of their lives, and in which they differ from all 
 Of hi r animals. 
 
 In the greater number of species of B., the wing- 
 membrane extends not only to the hind-legs, but 
 beyond them to the tad, which is included in it, a 
 l< culiar bone (e in fig. of skeleton) also arising 
 from each heel to afford further support to this 
 part of it, which seems to serve purposes analogous 
 to the tail of birds, acting as a rudder, and enabling 
 the animal to make those rapid evolutions in the 
 air, which it is so pleasing to see as bats Hit about 
 in the summer evening. The fruit-eating bats of 
 tropical regions, which have no need to perform 
 such evolutions, are destitute of this interfemoral 
 part of the membrane ; and according to the habits 
 for which each species has been designed, the tails 
 are long or short, entirely included in the membrane, 
 or oidy for part of their length, or produced a very 
 little beyond it, and terminating in a hard tip, so 
 that the tail is capable of being used to aid in 
 creeping or climbing, evidently possessing consider- 
 able power, and being curved and moved in a
 
 BAT. 
 
 manner which suggests a slight analogy to the 
 prehensile tails of monkeys. 
 
 Bats were placed by Linnajus in his order 
 Primates, along with monkeys and lemurs, with 
 which they agree in their pectoral teats and 
 in other characters, particularly of the organs of 
 reproduction. In one genua (Dysopu*), there is an 
 additional resemblance to the Primates in the 
 partially opposable thumbs of the hind-feet, and a 
 trace of this character is to bo found in the fore- 
 thumbs, already noticed. Hats are now, however, 
 generally placed by naturalists in the order Feree 
 or Oarnana, although, like many other animals of 
 that tn-eat order, most of them are by no means 
 exclusively carnivorous. The greater part of them 
 feed chiefly on insects, some chiefly on fruits. 
 They exhibit considerable variety both in the 
 number and character of their teeth, as might be 
 expected in animal-; which differ so much in their 
 food. All of them have four rather large canine 
 teeth ; the incisors vary much in size and form, as 
 well as in number. The digestive apparatus exhibits 
 a variety corresponding with that of the teeth; 
 the intestinal canal of the Vampyres (q. v.), which 
 live by Backing the blood of animals, proceeding 
 almost in a straight line from one extremity of the 
 body to the other, whilst that of some of the 
 
 Head of Pteropus. 
 
 frngivorous bats, as the Kalong (i|.v.) (Pteropus) of 
 Java, is seven times as lone as the body. 
 
 Except in the power of Bight and things essential 
 to it, bats present no resemblance to birds. The 
 old English name VUttermouae, and the German 
 Fledermaua, indicate an early popular recognition 
 of their true place in creation. They are generally 
 nocturnal animals, or, at least, prefer the twilight, 
 although one of the British species may occasionally 
 be seen pursuing insects during winter at mid-day. 
 They generally spend the day in eaves, hollow tn i s, 
 and oilier dark recesses, often under roofs of houses, 
 and in crannies of ruined or deserted buildings. 
 They are found in almost all parts of the world, 
 except the very coldest, but are most numerous and 
 of greatest size within the tropica Those of tempe- 
 rate climates generally spend the winter in a state 
 of torpidity, in which, although circulation continues 
 very languidly, respiration does not ordinarily take 
 place. Tlie whole number known to Linnaeus 
 amounted to a very few sjieeies. not half so many 
 as are now known to inhabit Great Britain alone. 
 Upwards of 130 species have been described, and 
 there is great probability that the actual number 
 existing is very much greater. It is not unlikely 
 that Bom rated accounts of the great bats of 
 
 warm cl ■•■ ive rise to the fable of the Harpies, 
 
 which Virgil introduced into the .Km id The bats of 
 Europe are all small ; the body of the largest British 
 one is not so large as ;i mouse, and the fullest stretch 
 of its wings about 15 inches, whilst the common British 
 species are much smaller ; but in the Kaloug, already 
 
 mentioned, the stretch of wing is 5 feet. Of ] 
 species, the largest is the Noctule B. ( Vt ■-,.■ 
 noctuld), a very local species, found chiefly in the 
 south of England ; the 1 ' rdlus) 
 
 is perhaps the most common. It was long con- 
 fonnded by British naturalists with the common B. 
 of the continent of Eir |, which is 
 
 much larger, and very rare in Britain. In some parts 
 of the country, the Long-oared B. (PUcolvs Ot 
 is very common. It U distinguished by its enor- 
 mously large and very beautiful ears, which, when it 
 is asleep, are folded up in a remarkable manner under 
 the arm, the long tragus then resembling a slender 
 
 1 
 
 « Great Eat or Noctule Bat (J - 
 6 Greater Horseshoe Liat [B 
 
 Both Uritish. 
 
 ■rtnlti). 
 cquinum). 
 
 ear. This great development of the ears is charac- 
 teristic of certain genera of I!., that part of the ear 
 called the tragus attaining also a remarkable size, so 
 that it seems like a smaller ear in front of each large 
 one. In many species, only two of which are 
 in Britain, there is a still more remarkable mem- 
 branous or leaf-like appendage on the nose, which 
 in some is simple, in some, complex, and often of 
 large size, giving an extraordinary appearance to the 
 face. Some o) the larger species, having a n I 
 crest, are called Spectre lUts (q. v.). Only two 
 species of B. (/.'/ , r such an 
 
 appendage, are found in Britain, both of tin in very 
 rare; from the form which it assumes, they are 
 called Horseshoe Bats. It is supposed that this 
 nasal append is of use as a very delicate organ of 
 touch, perhaps also of smell ; as the great ears may 
 bo of use both for touch and hearing. These . 
 must often guide bats when that of sight cannot be 
 employed; and the sense of touch appears to be 
 possessed in no ordinary degree even by the wing 
 membrane. By supposing it to be affect- I by tin- 
 pulsations of the air. i luvier accounted for the power 
 displayed by bats which had been cruelly deprived 
 of sight, of avoiding obje I which they flew, 
 
 without the necessity of ascribing to them, as Spal- 
 lanzani had done, the possession of a sixth sense. 
 
 It deserves to be here noticed that, amongst the 
 peculiarities which distinguish certain genera of 
 bats, is the absence not only of the upper cutting 
 teeth in the East Indian and African genus Megar 
 derma, but even of the bone in which thi -v teeth 
 are usually placed ; and that another tropica] c 
 
 , (, oi whii U the i found in Africa 
 
 and .lava, have the skin attached to t he body only 
 at a few points, and capable of being blown op like 
 a bladder, at tile pleasure of the animal, by means 
 which is inhaled through the nostrils into 
 cheek-pouches communicating by small apertures 
 with the gem ral .-kin-bag. The use of this is wholly 
 unknown. 
 
 Bats walk or creep awkwardly upon I 
 one si.le of the body being jerked forward, and then 
 the other, yet they run with considerable celerity. 
 There is a common notion, that they cannot rise 
 easily from a level surface, but must find 
 eminence from which to throw themselves. Of tho 
 fallacy of this, any one will soon be convinced
 
 BAT-BATAVI. 
 
 who gets a B. and places it upon the floor. — Bats 
 commonly produce one or two young at a birth. — 
 
 Bat walking (Plccotus aurilus). 
 
 .Some of the species are very gregarious ; others 
 often fly about in pairs ; great numbers, and of dif- 
 ferent species, are often found congregated in their 
 places of hybernation or repose. — Some of the species 
 are easily tamed, and become very familiar; but 
 their odour is disagreeable, and it is generally found 
 difficult to keep them long alive. 
 
 Fossil remains of Cheiroptera are occasionally 
 found in eocene rocks, but owing to the delicacy of 
 the bones, great difficulty has been experienced in 
 the determination of the genera and species. 
 
 BAT, or BAT (Fr.), in military matters, was origin- 
 ally the name of a kind of pack-saddle ; and hence a 
 bat-horse was a baggage-horse bearing a bat or pack, 
 and a bat-man was a servant in charge of the horse 
 and bat. By a modification of meaning, a bat-man 
 is now any soldier allowed to act as servant to an 
 officer. When British troops arc sent on foreign 
 service, bat-horses or mules are provided (if cai 
 are not forthcoming) for carrying the regimental 
 books, the kettles and tents, the medicine-chest, 
 the veterinary medicine-chest, intrenching tools, 
 armourers' stores, saddlers' stores, &c— about 20 
 such horses or nrules to each battalion. Bat-horses 
 and bat-men are also provided for carrying officers' 
 camp-equipage. An allowance for procuring these 
 accommodations is usually called Bat-money. 
 
 BATA'NGAS, a seaport town of the Philippines, 
 island of Luzon, and capital of the province of the 
 same name. Lat. 13° 45' N., long. 121° 5' E. 
 Distance from Manilla, oil miles S.; founded 1581. 
 Top. of town and district, 17,000. B., which is well 
 built, and has an elegant appearance, is linely situ- 
 ated on an extensive bay which opens into the 
 Strait of Mindoro. Considerable advantage is taken 
 of its facilities for commerce. 
 
 BATARDEAU', a strong wall of masonry, built 
 across the outer ditch of a fortress, to sustain the 
 pressure of water when one part of the ditch is dry 
 and the rest wet. It is built up to an angle at the 
 top, and is armed with spikes, to prevent the enemy 
 from crossing ; and sometimes a stone tower is 
 provided to strengthen the defence. There is a 
 sluice-gate to regulate the admission of water. 
 
 BATA'TAS, or SWEET POTATO (Convolvulus 
 Batatas, or Batatas cdulis, the genus Batatas having 
 recently been separated from Convolvulus [q. v. |, 
 chiefly upon account of the four-celled ovary), a per- 
 ennial plant with long creeping stems, heart-shaped 
 leaves on long stalks, and variously lobed, large 
 purple flowers much resembling those of the best 
 known species of Convolvulus, and very large oblong 
 acuminated tubers. It is a native of the East 
 Indies, but is now cultivated in all tropical and sub- 
 tropical countries for its tubers, which are highly 
 esteemed as an article of food, and are eaten either 
 roasted or boiled ; they are sweet, wholesome, and 
 nutritious, but somewhat laxative. The B. forms, 
 next to maize, the principal food of the poorer classes 
 in some parts of America. Its cultivation is very 
 
 easy ; it is readily propagated by tubers or by 
 cuttings of the sb 111, requires little attention, and 
 soon produces its tubers. In hot-houses in Britain, 
 these are without difficulty obtained of 1 lb. or '2 lbs. 
 '. The cultivation of the B. has been hit 10. 
 
 d I into the south of Europe. In America, it is 
 
 little cultivated to the north of New Jersey, and 
 .<" there is inferior. The leaves are used as a 
 boiled vegetable, It is the 1!., or sweet potato, 
 which is usually meant by the older English writl r . 
 when they mention potatoes. Its tubers were 
 imported into England by way of Slain, and BO 
 a delicacy, before the potato was known. — Batatas 
 panlculata, or Convolvulus paniculatus, a nearly allied 
 
 Batatas. 
 
 species, is cultivated in the same way as the common 
 B., and its tubers are similar in quality. — To the 
 new genus Batatas, has been referred also the plant 
 formerly known as Ipomoea macrorhiza, now Batatas 
 jalapa, so called from supposed purgative quali- 
 ties of the root, which, however, it is found not to 
 possess, being white, insipid, saccharine, and Carina- 
 ceous, and of great size, 50—60 lbs. in weight. The 
 plant inhabits sandy soils in Georgia and Carolina. 
 
 BATA'VI (or, according to some MBS., Yatavi), 
 the name of a German people, who anciently 
 inhabited a part of the present Holland, particularly 
 the island which was called after them, Batavia, 
 
 fori 1 by the branch of the Rhine which falls 
 
 into the sea at Leyden, the Waal, and the Mense. 
 Their country, however, extended across the Waal, 
 but its boundaries cannot now be precisely deter- 
 mined. According to Tacitus, they were origin- 
 ally a branch of the Chatti, who emigrated across 
 the Rhine. They were conquered by Germanicus; 
 became subject to the Romans, and served them 
 so well, that they obtained the honorary title of 
 friends and brothers of the Roman people ; were 
 exempted from taxes and assessments, being only 
 required to provide a proportion" of troops ; and 
 were permitted to choose their commanders from 
 amongst themselves. Their cavalry were particu- 
 larly good, and were often employed by the Romans. 
 The lirst who terms the insidar district inhabited by 
 these Gauls, Batavia. is Zosimus, who also informs 
 us that in the time of Constantius (358 A. v.) it had 
 fallen into the hands of the Salii, a Frankish tribe.
 
 BATAVIA— BATH. 
 
 BATA'VIA, properly the name of the island 
 occupied by tlie ancient Batavi, became at a later 
 date the Latin name for Holland and the whole 
 kingdom of the Netherlands. The name Batavian 
 
 IlEi'Ulsi.in was given to the Neth m their 
 
 new organisation of ICtli May 1795, and they con- 
 tinued to bear it till they were converted into the 
 kingdom of Holland, under Loui3 Bonaparte, 5th 
 June 180G. 
 
 BATA'VIA, the capital of the empire of the 
 Netherlands in the East Indies, stands on the 
 north-west coast of .lava, at the mouth of the Tjili- 
 wong, frequently called the Jaccatra, from the for- 
 itive town, on the ruins of which the present 
 city was built. There is good anchorage for large 
 ships in the offing, ami it is navigable for smaller 
 v els towards the interior. The influence of a 
 vertical son on this Holland in miniature led it to 
 become proverbial as the grave of Europeans. Lat- 
 terly, however, the climate has been greatly 
 unproved by draining. The temperature, though 
 not extreme, is oppressive from its uniformity, the 
 mean of winter being 7ST° F., and that of summer 
 only 78-G°. The latitude is G° 7' 40" S., and the 
 longitude 100° 62 E. Pop. 55,000. Notwith- 
 standing the growing prosperity of Singapore, I!. 
 continues to be the commercial emporium of the 
 far East. Its markets present at once all the pro- 
 ductions of Asia, and all the manufactures of 
 Europe. In 1811, while Holland was a vassal of 
 France, B. fell into the hands of the English, by 
 whom it was restored to its former owners in 1816. 
 Latterly, B. has found Singapore a formidable com- 
 petitor for the trade between East and West. The 
 Dutch government has recently laid a telegraphic 
 cable along a line of COO mdes from B. to Singa- 
 pore. 
 
 The province of Batavia is low, but rises gently 
 towards the south. The forests have all been cut 
 down for the use of the sugar factories. It is well 
 adapted for fruit-trees and vegetables, which are 
 cultivated by Chinese gardeners. Pop. 401,563, eon- 
 aisting of 4145 Europeans, 41,137 Chinese, 355,338 
 natives, and 943 foreign orientals. The peculiar 
 character of the people has been lost by the influx 
 
 of and intermarriage with strangers from all dis- 
 tricts of the Indian archipelago. The language is a 
 mixture of Soudanese, Malay, and other tongues, 
 and is called low Malay. The largest estates are 
 held by Europeans, the smaller by Chinese and 
 natives. The religion is chiefly Mohammedan. 
 There are goo. I post-roads. The industries continue 
 to increase, and chiefly consist of factories for making 
 machinery for distilling and for sugar works; dis- 
 tilling arrack, copper and tin work, dyeing, jfce. The 
 nutmeg, cacao, and cocoa-nut tree are successfully 
 grown. 
 
 BATAWA' PALM. See CEnocahfcs. 
 
 BA'TENBURG, a town of the Netherlands, in 
 the province of Gelderland, situated on the right 
 bank of the Maese, 9 miles west of Nymegen. It is 
 worthy of notice only on account of its association 
 with the Romans, whose Oppidv/m Balavorum it 
 was. 
 
 P..VTH, the chief city in Somersetshire, England, 
 is beautifully situated in a wooded valley in the 
 north-east part of the county, on the Avon, 20 miles 
 from its mouth, ami 106 miles west of London. The 
 
 1 see are built wholly of white freestone — 'Bath 
 
 oolite,' worked in the neighbouring quarries- 
 being entirely discarded! The city has a liner 
 appearance than any other in England, the variety 
 of level giving very commanding sites for its tine 
 and regular streets, crescents, and public buildings. 
 The beauty and sheltered character of its situa- 
 
 tion, the mildness of its climate, and especially the 
 curative efficacy of its hot chalybeate springs, have 
 long rendered 15. a favourite fashionable re3ort. The 
 springs, which are four in number, were known to 
 the Romans, who bruit baths on the spot in the 1st 
 c, of which extensive remains were discovered in 
 1775. The temperature of the springs varies from 
 97° to 117' P. ; they rise near the river bank, in the 
 centre of the city, and discharge 184,320 gallons of 
 water daily. The water is most useful in b 
 nervous, and scrofulous complaints, palsy, rheum- 
 atism, gout, and cutaneous diseases. Though the 
 gaiety of B. has greatly . days of the 
 
 Prince Regent, there has been a great general im- 
 provement in the city, but the population some- 
 what diminished during the twenty years 1851 - 
 1871. It has two parks, and many public walk I 
 open places ; theatre, concert-rooms, and other 
 places of amusement ; subscription library, me 
 club-house, educational institutions, &c. The 
 Church is a cruciform structure in the latest p 
 dicnlar style, with a line roof in the style of Henry 
 VII.'s chapel, and a central tower 150 feet high. 
 About a mile to the north-west is Beckford's Tower, 
 built by the eccentric author of VaOuHc, bat now a 
 cemetery chapel It is 154 feet high. B. returns 
 two members to parliament. Pop. 53,704, at tines 
 much increased by visitors. B. has no m 
 of any note. Coal is found in thi tirhood. 
 
 The Great Western Railway from London to the 
 west passes through the city. B. is oi 
 quity ; it was a Soman station called : 
 at the intersection of the great Roman ways from 
 London to Wales, and from Lincoln to the south 
 coast of England. Kichard I. granted 1!. it - 
 extant charter, which was subsequently com 
 by Henry III., and tended by George III. 
 
 A greater number of Etonian remains havi 
 found in and near B. than elsewhere in Britain ; 
 they form a collection unrivalled in extent and value. 
 BATH, KNIGHTS of THE. The name of this 
 order is derived from the ceremony of bathing, 
 which used to be practised at the inauguration of a 
 knight, as an emblem of the purity henceforth 
 required of hiin by the laws of chivalry. The 
 
 Collar and Cadge of the Lath. 
 
 ceremony is of unknown antiquity, and is spoken 
 of by writers of the 13th c. as an ancient custom. 
 See Knight. The earliest authentic instai 
 
 its observance which we have in tliis country, is in 
 the time of Henry IV., who, in preparing for his 
 coronation, made forty-six knights at the Tower of 
 Loudou, who had watched all the night before, aud
 
 BATH, BATHING. 
 
 bathed themselves. The last knights of the B. 
 created in the ancient form were at the coronation 
 of Charles II. in 1661. Front that period till the 
 accession of the House of Hanover, the order I U 
 into oblivion. It was revived by George 1. in 1725, 
 and ia now the second order in rank in England, 
 the Gist being the Garter. By the statutes then 
 
 En '1 for the government of the order, it was 
 
 declared that, besides the sovereign, a prince of 
 
 Star of the Bath. 
 
 the blood, and a great master, there should lie 
 thirty -live knights. At the conclusion of the 
 great -war, it was thought expedient, with a view 
 to rewarding the merits of many distdngi 
 officers, both military and naval, to extend the 
 limits of the order, which was effected on the 2d 
 January lSl. r >. But the order was still purely 
 military, and it was not till 1847 that it was placed 
 on its present footing by the admission of civil 
 knights, commanders, ami companions. The fol- 
 lowing is its present organisation. 
 
 First Class.— Knights Grand Cross (K.G.C.) ; the 
 number not to exceed, for the military service, . r iO, 
 exclusive of the royal family and foreigners; and 
 for the civil service. 25. 
 
 Second Class.— Knights Commanders (K.C.B.); 
 military. 102. and civil, . r >0, exclusive of Eon 
 These, like the lirst, have the title Sir, and take 
 precedence of Knights Bachelors. 
 
 Third Class. — Companions (O.B.); military, 525, 
 and civil, 200. They take precedence of Esquires, 
 but are not entitled to the distinctive appellation of 
 knighthood. No officer can be nominated to the 
 military division of this class unless his name lias 
 been mentioned in the London Gazette for di lan- 
 guished services in action; and the order has 
 never been conferred on an officer below the rank of 
 a major, or commander in the navy. 
 
 BATH, BATHING. By bathing is usually 
 understood the immersion of the body, or a part of 
 it, in water. In a more extended signification, it 
 means the surrounding of the body with any medium 
 differing in nature or temperature from its usual 
 medium; thus, we speak of a blood-bath, a vapour- 
 bath, a cold-air bath, a compressed-air bath (q.v.), 
 an earth-bath. A fourfold division may be made 
 of baths: 1. According to the substance with w bich 
 the body is surrounded — into water, oil, milk, gas, 
 .sand, and other baths ; 2. According to the manner 
 of application — into river, slipper, plunge, shower, 
 dropping, vapour, and douche baths; 3. According 
 to the parts of the body subjected to the applica- 
 tion—into whole, half, sitz, foot, hand, and eye 
 
 batl.s; and 4. According to the temperature of the 
 substance applied— into cold, tepid, warm, and hot 
 baths. 
 
 The practice of bathing undoubtedly reaches back 
 
 earliest tunes in the existence of the human 
 
 and Hi' 1 most ancient historical accounts as 
 
 well as popular myths make mention of it. Among 
 
 the Egyptians, the bath was practised as a religious 
 
 lit' 1 ; and, in general, we find t! pinion prevailing 
 
 throughout antiquity, that purification of thi 
 
 induced or signified ral purity. Man, it was 
 
 thought, ought to present himself pure in body and 
 Mini, when he engaged in the service of his god, 
 or many transaction that brought him into immedi- 
 ntact with that being. In making the bath 
 a religious ordinance, Moses may have bad in 
 
 view tlio prevention or more speedy cure of those 
 
 skin-diseases so prevalent in the East The Mosaic 
 Law prescribes expressly, in some cases, the use 
 of running water, which has given rise, through a 
 
 ■lii'standing, to the deleterious cellar-baths of 
 the Jews. In Palestine, the wealthier Jew had 
 1'iu.ite baths in their houses, and ponds in their 
 
 is, an arrangement which prevailed in all 
 the civilised parts of the East, and which does so 
 still. There were, besides, public bath-houses among 
 the .lews, as among other nations. Among the 
 Greeks, also, bathing was very early in use. The prac- 
 tice is often alluded to in Homer. Bathing, among 
 the Greeks, as among other nations, was counted 
 a religious rite, and was connected with the prepara- 
 tions for sacrifice, for the reception of orach 
 marriage, &e. Wc possess, however, no detailed 
 accounts of the construction and arrangements either 
 
 of private or of public baths in Greece, which last 
 were mostly connected with the gymnasia. The 
 men bat lied together; that there were public baths 
 for women, appears probable from various iiulica- 
 
 Among the Romans, although warm-baths 
 [thermce) were in use from the earliest times, yet 
 it was only at a late period that they were so exten- 
 sively adopted ; and then the increase and nun I 1 
 spread of luxury had driven the primitive .object 
 of bathing into the background, so that the public 
 baths were looked upon as places of g. in ral n u-t 
 f"i pleasure. The most of these public baths were 
 built under the emperors. They were numerous 
 in Rome and in the provincial cities. Their con- 
 struction may be gathered from their numerous 
 
 remains, and from the descriptions of them en 
 by Roman writers; they resembled the Turkish and 
 Etus ian baths. 
 
 The essential parts of a Soman bath were as 
 follows. — 1. The hypocaust, or stove, in the basement- 
 story, for heating both the bath-rooms and the 
 water. The water was contained in three recep- 
 tacles or boilers, so arranged that the undermost, 
 i'iiii: diately over the lire, contained the hot water; 
 the one in the middle, the tepid water; and the 
 
 uppermost, the cold water. These vessels were bo 
 
 connected by pipes, both with the bath-rooms and 
 with one another, that the hot water that (lowed 
 from the lowest boiler was replaced by tepid water 
 from the one above; and that, again, by cold from 
 the uppermost — 2. The apodytervwm, or room for 
 undressing. '■'. The frigidarium, a room with a 
 basin for cold bathing. — 4. The tepidariu/m, the 
 purpose of which cannot be exactly determined, 
 
 but which seems to have been intended for bathing 
 ill tepid water, and also for allowing the body to 
 
 cool down in a mild temperature. — 5. The calda- 
 rium, in which sometimes the sudatio, or sweating- 
 bath, and sometimes the real hot-water bath, were 
 taken. This room had hollow walls, and the floor 
 rested on low pillars over the hypocaust, so that 
 it was surrounded on all sides with heated air. 
 The liieoiuiun, which is spoken of as a part of the 
 caldarium, was probably a kind of stove that was 
 heated from the hypocaust, and contributed to
 
 BATH, BATITIXO. 
 
 raise the temperature. In the bath-rooms there 
 were basins (afvei) for holding the water, and rotmd 
 Che Malls were benches or seats, which, in the 
 caldarium, were raised as in an amphitheatre, in 
 
 order to give the bathers the choice of the higher 
 
 temperature of the upper part of the room, or of the 
 more moderate of the lower. The caldarium con- 
 tained also a labrwm or vase of several feet diameter, 
 filled with cold water, into which the bathers dipped 
 
 after the Lot hath. With these essential parts of 
 
 Roman Bath, from a Painting on the Walls of the Thcnna; of Titus at Borne. 
 
 a bath, there were usually connected an iinctiiariiim 
 or elcEOtheaium — i.e., an anointing-room, and often 
 gardens, covered walks, rooms for games, &c. 
 
 The process of bathing was this : After undress- 
 ing in the apodyterium, the bather was anointed in 
 the eheotheaiam with a cheap coarse oil, and then 
 
 pro* Led to a spacious apartment devoted to 
 
 exercises of various kinds, among which games at 
 ball held a prominent place (hence the hall was 
 called spTuBrielerium). After exercise, he went into 
 the caldarium, either merely to sweat or to take the 
 hot bath; and during this part of the process, the 
 body was scraped with instruments called etrigiles. 
 Bi in : now dried with cloths, and slightly anointed 
 all over with perfumed oils, ho resumed his dress, 
 and thin passed a short time successively in the 
 
 tepidarium and the frigidarium, which softened the 
 
 transition from the great heat of the caldarium into 
 the open air. 
 
 The public baths for women were of similar 
 construction, and were much frequented even by the 
 most respectable. The women bathed in company, 
 like the men. The irregularity of men and women 
 bathing together is also alluded to by ancient 
 writers; ami in later times, the baths in general 
 became the scenes of all sorts of debauchery, as was 
 the esse at Baite, 
 
 The most remarkable remains of Roman baths are 
 those of the baths of Titus, of Caracatla, and of 
 Diocletian in Home, and the recently excavated 
 therms at Pompeii : remains of the kind are also 
 to be found in (Jermany, I'Yance, and Kngland. 
 The extent and magnificence of those edifices it is 
 difficult for us now to conceive. Speaking of the 
 baths of ( 'araealla. Mr PergUSSOn, in his II, < 
 qf A rchitecture, says : 'St. ( leorge's Hall, at Liverpool, 
 is the most exact copy, in modern tunes, of a part 
 of these baths. The hall itself is a reproduction, 
 
 both in scale ami design, of tin- central hall of 
 Caracalla'a baths, but improved in detail and design, 
 
 having live bays instead of only three. With the 
 two courts at each end, it makes up a suite of 
 apartments Very similar to those found in the 
 Roman examples. The whole building, however, is 
 less than one fourth of the si/e of the central mass 
 of a Roman bath, and therefore gives but little idea 
 of the magnificence of the whole.' 
 
 The ancient Hermans seem, according to Tacitus 
 and other writers, to have been fondest of the cold 
 river bath. When Roman luxury was driven out 
 by German habits, and the north of Europe 
 the upper-hand of the south, baths cease. 1 to be of 
 public importance, and amid the tempestuous irrup- 
 tions and fluctuations of the different nations, those 
 splendid edilices fell into ruins. ( hristianity, how- 
 ever, by the institution of baptism, had pri 
 for the bath its religious Signification ; and in the 
 
 middle ages, among the ccren ies preceding the 
 
 solemnity of conferring the honour of I 
 
 the bath was held essential. The Arabians ami 
 
 the Mohammedans generally had more completely 
 adopted bathing into their manners and customs. 
 Islam enjoins on the believer the careful pi 
 ration of corporal purity ; and lor this pui 
 
 Ins repeated daily ablutions. Besides 
 certain circumstances and times make the use of the 
 B. ritually obligatory on both men and women. Far 
 this end, not only did the rich erect splendid baths 
 in their houses and '.'\rdens, but bath-houses for the 
 people in general were established in every town 
 in which there was a mosque. The public baths 
 of the Turks of the present day are a copy of 
 those ancient Arabian baths. The eon 
 those oriental balks, imitations of which are now t" 
 be found in some European cities, is as follows: 
 The building is of stone, the bath-rooms have a floor 
 of marble, which is heated from below, ami tubes in 
 the walls conduct the heat in all directions. The 
 bather undresses, wraps himself in a blanket, puts 
 on wooilen slippers, to proted him from tie' heat of 
 the Ho,, I-, and enters the bath-room. Here a general 
 perspiration soon bn '• irough the skin, which is 
 washed ,,|1 with cold water. The body is then 
 rubbed with woollen cloths, and smeared with a 
 soap or salve beneficial to the skin. This is gener- 
 ally accompanied by the operation of - 
 The bath-attendant stretches the bather on a table, 
 pours warm water over him, and then begins to 
 
 press, squeeze, and twist his whole body with won- 
 derful dexterity. Every limb is straightened and 
 
 Stretched, and when he has finished one side, he 
 begins on the other. Jle kneels upon the bather; he 
 Seizes him by the Bhoulders, makes his backbone 
 crack, and every vertebra quiver, or applies soft
 
 BATH, BATHING. 
 
 blows to the flashy parts. He then takes a hair- 
 cloth, and cube the whole body, rubs off the hard 
 skin of the fiit with pumice-stone, anoints the 
 bather with Map and perfumes, and Sni 
 
 ting his hail and beard. This treatment lasts some 
 three-quarters <>f an hour ; and the feeling after it is 
 as of being born anew. An inexpressibly delicious 
 (em of comfort p body, and soon 
 
 ends in a .sweet sleep. After bathing, people 
 in a cooler room, stretched on couches, and finally 
 . sherbet, or lemonade. 
 
 In England, France, and Germany, public i 
 liahments for bathing were long unknown. It was 
 during the Crusades, which brought the 1 1 
 and West into contact, that Europeans first became 
 acquainted with the baths of the Asiatics; and 
 tlie want of such institutions came to be more 
 sensibly felt from the leprosy and other skin- 
 diseases which intercourse with Asia introduced into 
 Western Europe. The evil was at first sought to be 
 met by establishing hospitals; but as the 
 fi mud insufficient, baths and bath-rooms were erected, 
 which gradually became public establishments. 
 
 Besides the kinds of baths already described, 
 there are now to be found in the larger cities of 
 Europe, generally in connection with water-baths, 
 imitations of the vapour-baths which have been 
 long in common use in Russia* The R\ 
 Bath consists of a small apartment built of wood, 
 with broad benches running round it, on which 
 the people lie undressed. By throwing water 
 upon glowing hot pebbles, a dense hot steam is 
 produced, which envelops the bathers, and throws 
 them into such a heat, that the perspiration breaks 
 out over the whole body. In this atmosphere of 
 steam, the thermometer often rises to 1 12° — 140° F. 
 After they have sweated for some time, and from 
 time to time cooled themselves again, by having 
 .iter ] mured over them, the skin is rubbed with 
 soap, and with towels made of inner bark, or with 
 brushes; they are Hogged with softened birch-twigs, 
 and then washed with tepid, and afterwards with 
 cold water ; and at last have cold water dashed over 
 them. A bather will also go direct from the sweat- 
 ing-bath, and plunge into a river or a pond, or roll 
 himself in the snow. These baths are a necessary 
 of life in Russia, and are to be found in every 
 village. The German vapour-bath differs in this, 
 that the steam is produced in a boiler, and that the 
 bather remains for some time in an adjoining room 
 of moderate temperature, wrapped in blankets, to 
 allow the perspiration to go on, and the blood to 
 become calm. A ruder kind of sweating-bath, in a 
 hole in the earth, or in a baking-oven, is practised 
 among many nations ; among the Finns, the natives 
 of -Mexico and South America, &c. 
 
 As regards detergenoe, the vapour-bath is the 
 only kind of bath that is really effectual. l 
 naked in a room tilled with hot vapour (which pro- 
 duces no inconvenience in breathing), the scurf, 
 which, notwithstanding all sorts of previous ablu- 
 tions, has accumulated on the skin, is gradually 
 softened and loosened, and is rubbed off in a sur- 
 prising manner by the hands of the bath-man who 
 is in attendance at these establishments. As in 
 the Turkish bath, the person is cooled down by 
 l»ing dashed with tepid and cold water. After 
 this kind of bathing, the sensation is exceedingly 
 agreeable. The process just mentioned may be said 
 to resemble that in use by the Romans ; the hands 
 of the operator having much the same effect as the 
 atriijilfs of the ancients. Few of the ordinary bath- 
 ing establishments in Great Britain have vapour- 
 baths, at least not on a proper footing; and tie- 
 great value of this species of bath as a purifier of 
 the skin is little known. 
 710 
 
 Bathing is a very important agent in the preser- 
 vation and restoration of health. Resides promot- 
 ing cleanliness, the refreshing and invigorating 
 effects of cold bathing in its various forms nave 
 always been more or less understood, as ban 
 the soothing effects of the warm bath. But the 
 virtues of water as a curative agent have 
 fully developed in modern times, since the i 
 the system of therapeutics known as the water-cure 
 or hydropathy. With that i i which i 
 
 incident to everything new, the lirst promoters of 
 this system gave it out as a panacea 'for all the 
 ills that rlesh is heir to.' But now that these 
 quackish pretensions are all but universally given 
 up, it is very generally admitted that water is 
 capable of a large range of ell., be, soma of them 
 apparently of the most lands; while the 
 
 mode of action is nothing mysterious, but capable of 
 explanation on the recognised principles of physi- 
 ology'. The fuller exposition of this part of the 
 subject will be more conveniently considered mider 
 li', DBOPATHY. 
 
 A Medicated Bath is one in which some sub- 
 stance, intended to act as a medicine, lias been 
 mixed with the liquid. This is one of the most 
 important methods known to medioal art of bring- 
 ing remedies to bear upon the system. The skin is 
 by no means impervious to foreign substances ; and 
 no other organ presents at once so large a surface to 
 the matter to be imbibed ; at times, also, the other 
 channels by which remedies are introduced into the 
 body cannot be used. Baths of this kind are partly 
 imitations of natural mineral waters, and partly 
 other remedial mixtures. The mineral substances 
 used are common salt, chloride of lime, nitric acid, 
 corrosive sublimate, potash or soda caustic or car- 
 bonated, ashes, soap, iodine, sulphur, iron, &c. ; the 
 vegetable are wine, vinegar, solutions of essential- 
 oils, infusions of thyme, rosemary, lavender, worm- 
 wood, willow, oak, and Peruvian bark, &c. ; such 
 animal substances as milk, blood, bouillon of meat, 
 &c, are also sometimes employed as baths, with a 
 view to impart nourishment, but whether much is 
 taken up into the system, is doubtful. In the case, 
 also, of vapour-baths, medicaments are added to the 
 water with good effect; these must, of com 
 volatile. If the whole body is to be immersed in the 
 vapour, nothing must be used that might injure 
 the organs of respiration ; when the application is 
 partial, and by a special apparatus, this precaution 
 is less necessary. In connection with this may be 
 mentioned the so-called Smoke-baths, or medicated 
 fumigations, in which the whole body, with excep- 
 tion, of course, of the head, or particular parts of it, 
 arc brought in contact with the vapours of dry 
 medicinal substances. Resinous aromatic substances, 
 incense, myrrh, benzoin, amber, sulphur, cinnabar, 
 and mercury are used for this purpose. The appli- 
 cation must be made in what is called a fumigatmg- 
 box, in which the particular part of the body alone 
 is enclosed along with the vapour, in order that the 
 respiratory organs may not be incommoded. The 
 utmost precaution is requisite with the vapours of 
 sulphur and mercury, as they are apt to occasion 
 serious accidents. 
 
 Another species of vapour-bath is what is called 
 an ANIMAL Bath, which was known to the ancients, 
 and was in great reputation in cases of lameness. 
 Either the whole body of the patient is wrapped in 
 the skin of a newly slaughtered animal, or an open ing 
 is made, and the diseased limb inserted into the 
 breast or belly of the animal while yet alive, or 
 into the newly drawn blood. Sometimes smaller 
 animals are killed, split up, and immediately applied 
 to the diseased part. 
 
 Of Gas Baths, the most generally used are those
 
 BATHS XSV WASH-HOUSES. 
 
 of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas, 
 which are to be had at certain mineral springs. The 
 first, mixed in small quantity with atmospheric air, 
 lowers the irritability of the air-tubes, and affords 
 relief in many diseases of the respiratory organs. A 
 stronger mixture of it, brought in contact with the 
 miter surface, is of use in d Arising front 
 
 depression of the functions of the skin. Carbonic 
 acid gas gives a gentle stimulus to the skin, pro- 
 motes menstruation, and is much u -d in many 
 in the form of half-baths. In recent times, 
 at lschl and other places, the vapours that arise 
 from the mineral springs loaded with saline particles, 
 are received in close rooms, in which the patients 
 walk about, and allow the vapours to act upon the 
 lungs and skin. 
 
 The terms water-haih and mmd-lath have been 
 adopted in chemistry, to signify a contrivance by 
 which vessels that are to lie heated to a certain 
 temperature are not brought into immediate con- 
 tact with the fire, but receive their heat through tie 
 medium of hot sand or water, so that the heating 
 takes place uniformly, and overheating is avoided. 
 
 BATHS AND WA'SH-HOUSES, PoBLIO. The 
 last few years have witnessed the erection of a 
 number of public establishments, at which the 
 masses may enjoy a bath for the merest trillo 
 of their weekly earnings. Where steam-engines 
 are employed in connection with cotton- factories 
 or other works, there is usually a certain quantity 
 of waste steam or waste hot water at disposal, 
 which could, at an insignificant cost, be directed 
 into baths for the use of the workmen of the 
 establishment We are aware of one instance where 
 seven baths were c omf or t ably fitted up at the 
 small expense of £'S0, in which the men and women 
 bathe on alternate days, to the number of from 
 thirty to eighty a week — paying a mere trillo to the 
 keeper, who attends an hour and a half each even- 
 ing, and finds towels, soap, &e., nothing being 
 ed by the proprietors for the original outlay. 
 But this is only a small part of the cure for a great 
 evil. Where the masses are densely packed in lanes 
 and alleys, where house-accommodation is dear and 
 limited, where the necessaries of life have to be 
 continually struggled for, and these conventional 
 evils increased, in too many instances, by improvi- 
 dence — the house is but a night-shelter, affording 
 little or no convenience for the necessary operations 
 of the housewife. Independent of this, a public 
 wash-house is, in point of economy, preferable to any 
 number of isolated efforts. By co-operation, supe- 
 rior accommodation, better apparatus, and a cheaper 
 and more satisfactory result can be obtained; and 
 thus the public wash-house, where self-paying and 
 self-supported, may be classed among the co-oper- 
 ative arrangements which characterise the social 
 features of the age. 
 
 Mrs Catherine Wilkinson of Liverpool, in a year 
 of cholera, bravely offered the use of her small 
 house, and the value of her personal superintend- 
 ence, to her poorer neighbours, to facilitate the 
 washing of their clothes at a time when cleanliness 
 was more than usually important. The success 
 attending the exertions of a single individual led 
 to the formation of a benevolent society, and 
 ultimately to important municipal arrangements. 
 
 In IS44, a public meeting was held at the Mansion 
 House, attended by many persons of wealth and 
 influence, to encourage the formation of B. and W. 
 in London; hence resulted an 'Association for Pro- 
 moting Cleanliness amongst the Poor.' Independ- 
 ently of this movement, a reform had already been 
 commenced by a 'Committee for the Houseless Poor,' 
 who, among other things, purchased or rented an old 
 roomy building in Glasshouse Yard, surrounded by 
 
 the poor and dense population of the London Docks 
 district. A bath-house and a wash-house were 
 fitted up ; baths, cisterns, boilers, cold and hot water, 
 towels, soap, soda, were provided; and the poor 
 avited to come in, and wash and bathe with- 
 out expense to themselves. There were also pro- 
 vided pails, brushes, and whitewash, to those who 
 would take the trouble to give a little cleanliness to 
 their poor dwellings. This was effected mainly 
 through the benevolent exertions of Mr Bowie, a 
 surgeon, who applied himself with earnestness t i the 
 subject. The association, afterwards founded at the 
 city meeting, sought two objects — to induce a wish 
 for cleanliness among the poor ; and to render public 
 B. and W. self-paying, as a guarantee for their 
 pennanency. Having obtained plans and estimates 
 from architects, the association built a model estab- 
 lishment in Goulston Square, White-chapel; but the 
 outlay unfortunately reached £26,000. In the 
 meantime, another society had succeeded in • 
 fishing B. anil W. in George Street, Hampstead 
 Road, favoured by a liberal arrangement on the 
 part of the New lliver Company in the supply of 
 water: this establishment was opened in August 
 1846. In the same year, parliament passed an act 
 to enable borough-councils and parish vestries to 
 establish public B. and W., supported by borough 
 ami parish rates, if the householders should sanction 
 such a proceeding. In 1847, another act strength- 
 ened the former ; and the two together contain the 
 necessary clauses for defining the details of the 
 plan (see the following article). The parish of St 
 Martin's-in-the-Fields was the first to take advant- 
 age of the new act; and before the close of 1892; 
 six parishes had erected public B. and W. At the 
 beginning of 1856, the list had nearly doubled. The 
 original free but humble building in Glasshouse 
 Yard had been abandoned; but the model cstabbsh- 
 ment in Goulston Square, and the separate under- 
 taking in Hampstead Koad, remained. There are, 
 in 1873, about sixteen of these public and parochial 
 B. and W. in the metropolis. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that these efforts have 
 been confined to London. Liverpool took precedence 
 in date, and has since worthily maintained her 
 interest in the matter. Manchester, Oldham, Hull, 
 Bristol, Birmingham, Preston, Bath, Wolverhampton, 
 Coventry, Plymouth, Chester, Sunderland, ! 
 Macclesfield, Oxford, Maidstone, Exeter, K 
 ham, Colchester, South Shields, Dublin, B 
 Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen, and other towns, have 
 since adopted a similar course; and it may safely 
 be predicted that borough and parochial B. and W. 
 will increase in number year by year; for if they 
 do not actually pay their full expenses at the low 
 tariff charge, the deficiency will be so small as to 
 1 ie practically unf elt by ratepayers. 
 
 When the legislature took up the subject, the 
 purpose of the committee appointed in 184(1 was in 
 great part answered ; but that committee continued 
 to exist until 1856; and the exertions of its mem- 
 ln is were attended with very beneficial results, in 
 drawing the attention of influential persons in 
 various countries to the advantages of public B. 
 and W The French government voted 000,000 
 francs to assist the promotion of such institutions in 
 France, after the plan of the model establishment; 
 and a scheme was set on foot for i nrteen 
 
 establishments in Paris, for which 2,000,000 francs 
 would be required. The municipality of Venice 
 marked out an expenditure of £33,000 in the 
 erection of B. on the same plan. The Norwegian 
 g o v er nment applied to the committee far 'Uw puna, 
 &c, of their wash-house at Goulston Square, as a 
 guide for the erection of one at Christiania ; and a 
 subscription was made for the erection of B. and \V. 
 
 7«
 
 BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 
 
 ,'t Copenhagen, The Belgian government, and the 
 authorities at Hamburg, Turin, Munich, Amster- 
 dam, Lisbon, New York, and other places, were in 
 like maimer furnished with information on the 
 subject 
 
 In nearly all the London establishments, which 
 may also be taken as types of those in the country, 
 the characteristic features arc as follows: The h. 
 for males and females are on opposite sides of the 
 building, She separate IX, in large well I 
 and well-ventilated rooms, are shut in by walls, 
 
 rally of slate; and the B. themselves, sup- 
 plied with fifty or sixty gallons of water for each 
 bather, are either of zinc or enamelled iron. There 
 are two, three, or four classes of B., charged differ- 
 ently according to the amount of accoinnio 
 afforded. At the St Martin's establishment, where 
 there arc only two classes of I'.., it has been found 
 that the second-class bathers are thrice as numerous 
 as the first. Arrangements, slightly varying in 
 different establishments, afford means for conveying 
 hot and cold water to every bath. Iu some instances, 
 there are tepid as will as cold swimming or plunging 
 B. ; while two or three of them afford t 
 for shower and vapour baths. The washing-rooms, 
 in most of these establishments, are provided with 
 numerous small compartments, doorless and roofli 
 each for one person. Each compartment contains a 
 boiler and a washing-tub, with taps for hot water, 
 cold water, waste water, and steam: all unlimited 
 in quantity, wilful waste of course being guarded 
 against. An American washing-board assists the 
 operations; and a rack-work stand protects the 
 feet. The steam from all the compartments is 
 carried upwards to one great ventilating shaft. The 
 'wringing' of the wet washed linen is effected by 
 putting the articles into a sort of perforated cylinder, 
 which is then rotated with great velocity; the cen- 
 trifugal force drives out the water through the per- 
 forations and interstices, leaving the linen, though 
 damp, much drier than it can be made by the fami- 
 liar laundry process. The clothes are then taken to 
 the drying-room, where they are hung on frames or 
 'horses' in small chambers heated with hot air to 
 about 200° or 210°. 10,000 articles of V, 
 clothing can now be dried with about £1 worth 
 of fuel, or much less in the towns of the north. 
 In some of the improved establishments, there is 
 a lining compartment belonging to each wa 
 compartment, effecting a manifest saving of time 
 to the washers; in some of them, too, there is an 
 ironing-board to each compartment; but the general 
 plan is to have a large ironing-room, well provided 
 with irons, ironing-blankets ami boards, and heating 
 arrangements. The charge is from Id. to °J.</. per 
 hour, according to the class and the accommoilat ion. 
 One particular establishment at Manchester may 
 usefully be described more in detail, as a type of 
 the general class of B. and \V r . There is a men's 
 swimming-bath, 70 feet by 25, with a pavement 
 of polishi il York stone on a foundation of concrete 
 and cement; the sides are of porcelain tiles laid in 
 cement. There are 32 enclosed dressing-closets. 
 Over these, on iron pillars, arc 17 men's warm 
 baths, each 8 feet by 7. Separated from this 
 gallery by an open passage are f> extra first I 
 baths, larger in size, and having shower-baths. 
 There is a second-class swimming-bath nearly like 
 that for the first-class; with its gallery of small 
 baths over. The w r omen's baths, iu a different 
 part of the building, comprise 4 first and 7 
 second class. The laundry is at one end of the 
 building. The washing-room is 64 feet by 38; 
 it comprises 6 first-class and 30 second-class 
 compartments, each of the former provided with 
 three tubs, and each of the latter with two. 
 
 718 
 
 There is provision for drying any amount of clothes 
 in twenty minutes after tin- washing and writ 
 
 mpleted, All tin- women bave access to two 
 patent wringing-maohines. There is an ironing- 
 room adjoining, fitted up with stoves, The water- 
 tank has a capacity of 3000 gallons; the baths, if 
 all full, would bold 60,000 gallons. 
 
 Since the taking up of tins subject by the muni- 
 cipal authorities of various towns, there have I n 
 
 v. reliable statistics obtainable relating to the 
 extent to which these valuah omenta arc 
 
 used: but it is known that the I'.. and \V. e 
 
 li bed by the several parishes either pay their 
 
 oi 1 ing expenses wholly, or approach so near to it 
 as to encroach very little on the parish rates, 
 
 I hie satisfactory feature connected with the sys- 
 tem is, that when the local authorities are slow to 
 
 tablish ft and W., wealthy manufacturers or 
 townsmen often take up the matter at their own 
 expense, and then leave the ratepayers nothing 
 
 iodo than to provide the small balance of 
 annual working accounts. As an example of free 
 baths for men and boys (without washhouses), may 
 be cited the establishment opened at Derby in June 
 lsT-'i, and presented to the corporation by Mr Ball, 
 .M.I', for the borough. It comprises two swimming- 
 baths, one for men and one for boys, each Ion feet 
 Ion by 60 in width. There arc 57 half-closed 
 dressing-boxes around the men's bath, and 72 open 
 boxes around the boys'. The two baths together 
 hold 200,000 gallons of water, which is renewed 
 once a week. 
 
 The least satisfactory part of the system in its 
 practical operation, is that which relates to the wash- 
 houses. Laundresses, boarding and lodging house 
 keepers, and families in the middle ranks of life, use 
 these W. rather than really poor families; they do 
 : ' I use the expense is very low. not because they 
 are unable to pay higher. It is sometimes believed 
 that those for whose benefit the system was estab- 
 lished are ashamed to bring their scanty, coarse, 
 and much-worn apparel to a place where it may 
 meet the eyes of others: if this be so, surely a 
 remedy might be applied ! 
 
 BATHS and WASH -HOUSES, Acts ee- 
 i:\iii.im:. The establishment of public B. and 
 W. is regulated in England and Wales by two 
 acts of parliament — the and 10 Vict. c. 74, and 
 lo and 11 Vict. c. 61 — which arc to In' considered 
 as one act. The sanitary regulations so legalised 
 are merely permissive, and in no respect made 
 compulsory on the public; but their wisdom, bene- 
 volence, and consideration for the health of the 
 people, strongly recommend their adoption. The 
 provisions of the act may be adopted for any incor- 
 porated borough, or for any parish not within any 
 such incorporated borough; subject, however, in tho 
 case of a parish, to the approval of one of Her 
 Majesty's principal secretaries of state. In tho 
 case of a borough, the adoption of the act is left 
 to the discretion of the council of the borough ; and 
 the expense is to be charged upon the borough 
 fund, the council being empowered to levy, either 
 as part of the borough rate, or by a separate rate, 
 such sums as may from time to time be necessary. 
 In the case, again, of a parish, it is left to the 
 vestry, with the sanction of one of the secretaries 
 of state, to decide on the adoption of the act ; and 
 in such case, the vestry shall appoint not less than 
 three, and not more than seven persons, rate] layers, 
 to be Commissioners for carrying out the provisions 
 of the act. Regulations for the proceedings of 
 these commissioners are prescribed in the act. The 
 expense is to be charged upon the poor-rate. The 
 vestries of any two or more parishes may concur in 
 carrying out the act.
 
 BATHGATE— BATH!" ROT 
 
 The act contains numerous other provisions and 
 regulations relating to the facilities required for the 
 tions of the -uncils and parish com- 
 
 uers: thus, they may barrow money -with the 
 approval of the Treasury; they may have money 
 advanced to them by the Public Works Loan • "in- 
 missiom rs ; they may avail thi mserves of the Kail- 
 way Companies Clauses Consolidation Act of 1846 
 for certain limited purposes, such as borrowing 
 money on mortgage, the accountability of officers 
 of the company, the making of by-laws subject 
 to other provisions, and the recovery of damages 
 and penalties. 
 
 After these preliminary facilities, the act pro- 
 to specify the powers of the borough councils 
 and parish commissioners, as to erection or purchase 
 of buildings, &c, for the purposes contemplated. 
 Among other things, it is provided that the number 
 of baths and the number of washing-tubs for the 
 labouring-classes shall not be less than twice the 
 number of those for any higher class ore] 
 
 The council and commissioners respectively are 
 empowered to make by-laws for regulating the use 
 
 of the B. and W., which, howi not be 
 
 enforced until they have been approved by a 
 tary of state. These by-laws must make sufficient 
 provision for a variety of purpose I in the 
 
 schedule (A) to the act 9 and 10 Vict. c. 47; the 
 of those purposes being to secure order, clean- 
 . and decency. The charges for the use of the 
 B. and W. are regulated by anuther schedule 
 attached to the act 10 and 11 Vict c. CI. In tie- 
 baths for the labouring-classes, a single cold bath is 
 not to exceed one penny; a single warm or vapour 
 is not to exceed twopence. Ji. tor any higher 
 are not to exceed three times the chars 
 those of the labouring-' n the wash-houses 
 
 turtle --. the use of a single washing- 
 
 tub, and other conveniences, is not to be charged 
 more than one penny for one hour, or threepence 
 fur two hours together. 
 
 The various Local Management Acts, p 
 sdnee the above-cited acts of 1846 and 1847, have 
 strengthened the powers of town-councils, 4j 
 
 -tablishinent of B. and W. ; but the principle 
 ration remains nearly uniform — viz., that any 
 surplus outlay, beyond the receipts from bathers and 
 washers, shall be defrayed <uit of the rates. It may 
 safely be asserted that no item in house-rate is more 
 . applied than tin So I is the importance 
 now attached by medical men to bathing, that the 
 Metropolitan Board of Works is (187.'!) taking into 
 consideration the expediency of establish;! 
 public swimming-baths in various parts of the 
 metropolis, to supplement the parochial B. and W. 
 
 BATHGATE, a town in the centre of Linlith- 
 
 fowshire, 17 mi] nth-west of Edinburgh. 
 
 'he old town lies on a steep slope, and the new on 
 a more level site. Freestone, coal, and carboniferous 
 limestone, are wrought in the vicinity. In 1663, 
 King Charles II. B. a charter, since which 
 
 time it has been a fri I barony. In the 
 
 vicinity is the site of an ancient castle, which 
 Margaret, daughter of Robert the Bruce, brought 
 
 as a part of Eer dowry to her husband, Walter, 
 great steward of Scotland, who died hi re. The cele- 
 brated gas coal called Torban Hill mineral, which 
 has been the subject of so much litigation, and of 
 discu opinion among scientific 
 
 men, is worked here. 1'.. has manufactures of 
 
 Is, but mining is the chief occupation 
 
 of the inhabitants. Top. (1S71) 09 1'-'. 
 
 BA'THORI, Ki isAiu'iir, the i Stephen 
 
 Bathori, king of Poland, and wife of fount Nadasdi, 
 
 a Hungarian nobleman, was born in the latter half 
 
 of the 16th century. Her diabolical cruelty has con- 
 l her memory to eternal infamy. By means 
 of large bribes, she induced an old man-servant and 
 male servants to kidnap and convey to her, 
 either by stratagem Is from the 
 
 neighbouring country, whom she slowly put to death 
 in the dungeons of her castle by tie- most horrible 
 tortures. It is. related that on a certain oci 
 having violently struck one of her victim 
 spirted np into her own face, and, as she fa 
 left the skin whiter when it was wiped oil. An 
 infernal idea instantly possessed her. she invited 
 
 t all the young girls round . 
 and caused 300 of them to be put to death, being 
 under the impn asion that a bath of blood would 
 renew her youth. So in matrons a story is probably 
 
 . but it at least shews that sh 
 conceived capable of it. Inquiry was at 1 
 made into the appalling rumours, when it was dis- 
 I that this female fiend had murdered, in cold 
 blood, not fewer than 650 maidens. The dole 
 who assisted her were either beheaded or burned 
 alive; but the countess, whose crimes lu 
 infinitely the greater punishment, was i. 
 imprisoned for life in her fortress of Esej, where 
 she died in 1014. 
 
 BATHOS (Gr. *h)is a term em] 
 
 by critics to designate a ludicrous descent from a 
 lofty thought to a mean one, or a sinking below the 
 ordinary level of thought in a ridiculous effort to 
 • mmw. It is of the essence of B. that 
 he who is guilty of it should be unconscious of his 
 fall, and rvelling on the earth, should hi 
 
 that he is still cleaving to , A good example 
 
 of B. is the wen-known couplet : 
 
 And thou, Dalhoutie, tfw nreat rjo*i of tear, 
 LituUnant-gmeral to the E<ir! </ Marl 
 
 BA'TH- STONE, a building -stone extensively 
 used in England on account of its beauty, is obtained 
 from quarries in the Lower Oolite, in Wiltshire and 
 Somersetshire. It is line grained, of a rich cream 
 colour, and is composed OI about 04'.- per cent, of 
 carbonate of lime, and 24. per cent, of carbon 
 magnesium, but is free from silica. It is easily 
 
 t in the quarry. cutting alii 
 
 readily as chalk, and hardens on exposure to the 
 air, but is not very durable. Within twenty-five 
 years after the reparation of Henry VII. s chapel, 
 in Westminster Abbey, with this stone, it had 
 begun to decompose. The name is derived from 
 ighbourhood of Several of the quarries to 
 Bath. 
 
 BATHTJBST, Eajm, (Henry Baxhuhst), an 
 
 eminent Tory stat 22d May 170'-'. 
 
 second earl (Lord Chancellor from 1771 to 177 s 
 in 1804 appointed Mast r Worker of the Mint. In 
 1807, he became President of the Hoard of Trade, 
 and was Secretary of Mate for Foreign Affairs from 
 11th October to 6th December 1809. Appointed, 
 11th Juie- 1812, Secretary for the Colonies, in the 
 administration of the Earl of Liverp -ol, he held that 
 office for sixteen years. In 1828, in the Wellington 
 administration, he became President of the Council, 
 which office 1 till the t 
 
 ministry in 1830. He died 20th July 1834. At 
 his death, he was a teller of the 
 OCT, clerk of the Crown, and elder brother 
 of the Trinity II u- , K.G., D.C.I... F.R.S., F.S V. 
 &c He was much esteemed by his party. His 
 son, Henry George, su fourth earl. He 
 
 died in 1866, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 William Lennox, fifth carl. 
 
 BATHTJBST, a name applied to various locali- 
 ties iu honour of Earl Bathurst, Colonial Secretary 
 
 ;4ti
 
 BATIGNOLLES— BATRACJIIA. 
 
 at the time.- l. B. in Nevt (South Wales, the Brat 
 county that waa settled beyond the Bine Mountains 
 (q. v.i, lone believed to be impnannhlfr It waa 
 [ore 1813 th i ible ronte waa i irmed ; 
 
 and in April 1815 Governor Macquarie era 
 
 I . v the newly made road with his lady and a 
 
 numerous retinue, in order to mark with becoming 
 
 i and circumstance' so important an epoch in 
 
 rowth of the colony. B. has been still further 
 
 dial inguished in the history of New South Wales as 
 
 the seat of its gold-fields, As early as 1844, the 
 
 precious metal had, on geological grounds, be in 
 
 fled to exist, in Australia ; hut it was only on 
 
 li'tli February 1S51 that Mr Bargreaves, a digger of 
 California experience, washed the glittering prize 
 out of a tin dish of grave] on the B. Plains. The 
 county is bounded on the N.K. by the Macquarie, 
 
 and oil the S.W. by the Lachlan. The whole dis- 
 
 trict is admirably adapted to pastoral pursuits. It 
 
 is well watrrd. and, being 1970 feet above the 
 level of the sea. it lias a moderate temperature. Its 
 town, which is now tin' third in New South 
 Wales, is a handsome city with numerous elegant 
 public buildings, and was erected into a munici- 
 pality in 1862. Pop. (1871) of city and district, 
 16,826. -2. Ji. [aland, offlTorth Australia, about lat. 
 12" S., and long. 130° E. It is fully T due weel of 
 
 Port 1> .Ill-ton. With Melville Island between. Its 
 
 area may be estimated at 1000 square miles. Except- 
 ing the west end, which is barren, the island is 
 densely wooded. — 3. B., the principal settlement of 
 the British colony on the Gambia. It is situated 
 on a small island at the mouth of the river, in lat. 
 y.v 28 -V. and long. 16" 32 W. Top. about 3000, 
 chiefly negroes. The principal buildings are the 
 government house, an hospital for liberated Africans, 
 and Wesleyau schools. The exports consist of gum, 
 wax, hides, ivory, gold, tortoise-shell, rice, cotton, 
 teak, palm-oil, and native cloths.-— 4. B., in I pp r 
 
 i la, a district on the right bank of the Ottawa, 
 
 1: re the boundary between the two C'anadas. It 
 contains the Ilideau River and Canal, thus occupy- j 
 ing an important position with regard to the inter- 
 provincial trade. The removal, in 1858, of the seat 
 of government to Ottawa, tended still further to 
 : ■ the prosperity', of the district. — 5. An 
 island in the Arctic Ocean, intersected by the 100th 
 meridian, and situated immediately beyond the 75th 
 parallel Sherard Osborn here found the vertebra) 
 of an ichthyosaurus — one of the few install 
 organic remains occurring on the American side of 
 the polar basin. See Ar.e'Tic Oceax. 
 
 BATIGNOLLES, a thriving town of France, in 
 the department Seine, north-east of Paris, of which 
 city it forms a suburb. 
 
 BATLEY, a town in Yorkshire, near Dewsbury 
 (q. v.). 
 
 BATN-EL-HA'GAR (Womb of Rocks), a stony 
 district, stretching along the Nile, in lat. 21 — '!•!' 
 N., and long. 30° 40'— 31° 10' E. The Nile, in the 
 upper portion of the district, is often forced by 
 the approaching rocks into a very narrow channel, 
 and its navigation is frequently interrupted by 
 small islands, rocks, and cataracts. The district is 
 peopled by Beduins, and other Arabs, who go naked 
 ami derive a scanty subsistence from beans and the 
 fruit of a wild shrub called keriedan. 
 
 BATON— variously written Battoon, Batune, and 
 in old French Baston — is the figure in heraldry 
 commonly known as the Bastard Bar (q. v.). 
 
 BA'TON is the name of a short staff, presented 
 by the sovereign to each field-marshal, as a symbol 
 of his newly bestowed authority. It is also the 
 name of the long staff carried by the drum-major of 
 an infantry regiment. 
 750 
 
 HATiiN KOUGE, since 1847, capital of the 
 of Louisiana, having iii that year superseded 
 New Orleans. As far back as 1888 it' was the seat 
 of a college. Its population is about 5600, Bi 
 the l.oiusiai; ry, B. R» contains an asy- 
 lum, when .'ill the deaf and dumb of the state E i 
 
 in to 30, and all the blind from 8 to 25, are entitled 
 i ' be educated and maintained af the public charge, 
 It contains also an elegant state-house, 4 churches, 
 
 and 2 nevi spaper offices. < in the opposite side, too, 
 
 of the Mississippi, another town of the same name 
 contains nearly an equal popul 
 
 BATRA'CHIA (from Or. ba'trackos, a frog), in 
 Zoology, one of the four orders into which the class 
 
 Reptiles (q. v.) is now usually divided; although 
 
 some naturalists regard the differences between 
 this and the other three orders as so important that 
 they make this a distinct class of vertebrate 
 animals, under the name Amphibia (q. v.). I >f these 
 differences, the most essential and important is that 
 the young B. undergo metamorphoses, and breathe 
 by gills alone, in the earlier part of their life; 
 whilst in their adult state they either breathe 
 by lungs alone, or possess at once both bin 
 gills. The body is also covered with a soft naked 
 skin, through which water is imbibed, and through 
 which the aeration of the blood appears to be m 
 part carried on. The B. are all oviparous ; their 
 eggs are not covered with a hard shell, but merely 
 with a soft membrane. Fecundation commonly 
 takes place after the eggs have been deposited. It 
 is sometimes given as a distinctive character of B., 
 that, in their adidt state, they have limbs, but in 
 some genera these are very rudimentary, and they 
 are altogether wanting in C<rcilia (q. v.), a genus 
 which is now decidedly referred to this order, bi 
 it has been found to undergo the metamorphosis 
 from a gill-breathing to a lung-breathing state, and 
 which Cuvier, with hesitation, placed among ser- 
 pents, because the fact of its metamorphosis had 
 not then been ascertained. The ordinary number of 
 limbs is four, but in the Siren (q. v.) there arc only 
 two. — Another character frequently given as distinc- 
 tive of tho B., that their feet are destitute of claws, 
 is in like manner only general, and not universal. 
 
 in the earlier period of life, the form of the B. 
 is lish-like, of which the common tadpole, the young 
 of the frog, is a familiar example; and this form 
 some of them retain with comparatively little 
 modification, whilst some of them ultimately acquire 
 a form resembling that of lizards, with which the 
 n v. is were indeed ranked by Linmeus as species of 
 the same genus ; and others, as frogs and toads, 
 assume a peculiar quadruped form, the tail entirely 
 disappearing, except in the elongated coccygeal 
 bone which represents it to the anatomist. 
 
 In their anatomy, the adult B. present some 
 important points of resemblance to fishes ; in some 
 important points, they differ both from fishes and 
 from other reptiles. The skidl resembles that of 
 fishes in its general form, although rather agreeing 
 with other reptiles in the parts of which it is com- 
 posed. Teeth are often entirely wanting, sometimes 
 they are present only in one jaw; when present, 
 they are generally small and numerous, either in a 
 single row or aggregated. In some of the fossil 
 genera, however, which are referred to this order, 
 the teeth are of large size. — The B. have either no 
 ribs, or they have mere rudimentary ribs. They 
 have, however, a breastbone, often in great part 
 cartilaginous, to which some of the most important 
 muscles are attached. They breathe air by a sort of 
 gulping. — The heart of the B. was long believed to 
 have only one auricle and one ventricle, but the 
 apparently single auricle is now known to consist of 
 two divisions. As in the other reptiles, only a part 

 
 BATRACHIA. 
 
 of the blood received from the circulating system is 
 sent to the organs of respiration, and another part 
 returns immediately into the circulation. See 
 Rbftilbb. 
 
 In the wonderful transformations which the B. 
 • ciruidation of the blood is chai 
 accordance with the change in the organs of i-»-sj iii-- 
 ation. These, in the earliest stage, arc external gills, 
 which appear as long coloured binges, hanging 
 loosely upon each side of the neck. In some B., 
 these external gills, which resemble those of the 
 aquatic mollusca, remain till the lungs are sufli- 
 »tion ; in some, as the 
 Axolotl (i|. v.), of wlileli a description and figure 
 have already been given in this work, they are 
 permanent during the whole of life. In the greater 
 part of the B., however, the external gills soon 
 disappear, and are replaced by internal gills, when 
 the tadpole exhibits its most perfectly fish like form, 
 
 de of progression also corresponding with that 
 of fishes. Its respiration is carried on essentially 
 as in lishes, water entering the cavity of the mouth, 
 and being forced out through the gill openings, so as 
 to come in contact with the minute filaments of the 
 gills. The gills are attached, as in fishes, to arches 
 connected with the hyoid bone. In this stago of 
 
 ace, the large arterial trunk which proceeds 
 from the ventricle of the heart, scuds forth, from a 
 bulbous enlargement which it forms, a.s in 
 an artery to each of the gills, and the bloo-1 
 being aerated in them, is collected into an aorta, 
 and proceeds into the general circulation. But an 
 
 Newt, in successive stages. 
 
 art ry is also provided an each side for the convey- 
 ance of blood to the lungs, both the lungs and their 
 s being at first rudimentary, but increasing, 
 whilst the gills, on the contrary, diminish along 
 with the blood-vessels connected with them; ana 
 the gilM.reathing is gradually transformed into a 
 breathing animal, no longer perfectly aquatic, 
 as at first, or capable of existence only in water, 
 but amphibious, or almost entirely terrestrial, and 
 incapable of remaining long under water without 
 coming to the surface to breathe. — Whilst these 
 changes take place, others no less extraordinary are 
 
 also going on. The tadpole which subsisted on 
 vegetable food, and possessed a mouth adapted to 
 the purpose of feeding on it — a small horny beak — 
 acquires a mouth fitted for seizing and swali 
 small in.- ts, lugs, &c, upon which the adult B. 
 chiefly or exclusively feed, and its habits change 
 accordingly. The mouth of the Siren, however, 
 always retains a character somewhat similar to that 
 of the tadpole.— In the course of transformation, a 
 pelvis is formed, and limbs sprout forth, which in 
 B., as frogs, become v. ry perfect and powerful. 
 Whilst the limbs grow, with all their bones, joints, 
 muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves, the vertebii 
 many B., diminish in number, and the tail gradually 
 I and disapi 
 
 The extremely different characters of the adult 
 B. suggest the idea of an arresting of the metamor- 
 phosis at different stages ; but whilst this idea may 
 be helpful to our understanding of the close affinities 
 which really pervade the whole order, it Dm 
 remembered that it does not equally apply to all 
 parts of the animal system ; and that even as to 
 which have been particularly mentioned in 
 count above given of the metamor- 
 phosis of the B., some in their perfect state appear 
 to have one part in what, for convenience, may be 
 termed a more advanced state than another; whilst 
 all are adapted with equal perfection to the situations 
 in which they arc appointed to live, both with 
 reference to the wants of their own existence and 
 the preservation of that of their species. 
 
 If the limbs of the tadpole or the frog are injured 
 or destroyed during their growth, the loss is won- 
 derfully repaired. This power of reproducing lost 
 limbs continues to be possessed in an extraordinary 
 degree by the adult newt (q. v.). 
 
 B. are generally inhabitants of warm or temperate 
 climates. Those which inhabit temperate eln 
 generally become torpid during winter. They arc- 
 either almost entirely aquatic or are found in moist 
 situations. The British species are very few. In 
 some of the Scottish isles they are unknown. 
 
 B. are commonly divided into two sub-orders — 
 Caducibranchiata, in which the gills [brandija) dis- 
 appear (are caducous), and Perennibranrliiata, in 
 which they are persistent {perennial). The Percnni- 
 branchiate B. are comparatively few. Axolotl, 
 Siren, and Protevts are examples. The Caduci- 
 branchiate B. are subdivided into Taillens or 
 Anourous, as Fr . fee. ; and Tailed, as 
 
 Newts, Salamandi - me of the frogs and 
 
 toads of warm climates are much larger than those 
 of Britain; but the largest known B. are the 
 Sieboldia maxima of Japan, and Protonopria liorrida 
 of the Ohio (variously styled Hellbender, Mud 
 Devil, Ground Puppy, Young Alligator, and Fish 
 Salamander), both creatures of the newt or sala- 
 mander fonn, the latter of which is two feet long, 
 and the former is of still greater si 
 
 Fossil remains and footprints in rock attest the 
 existence, in former geological periods, of B. of large 
 size. ' It is only in tertiary and post-tertiary strata 
 that extinct species refernble to stiU existing genera 
 or families of this order have been found.' These 
 occur both of the tailed and tailless forms. One of 
 them has been a subject of particular in 1 
 because its remains, when first discovered by 
 Scheuchzer. in the beginning of the 18th c, were 
 mistaken lor the remains of a human being, and 
 the discoverer enthusiastically urged them upon 
 the attention of his contemporaries as a proof of 
 the deluge. To this salamandroid fossd the name 
 Andria.i (from the Qr.fOT man) Sclieudizeri has been 
 given. — Footmarks in the sandstones and shales of 
 the coal-measures in Pennsylvania seem to have 
 belonged to B. resembling frogs or toads, but of
 
 BATRACIIOMYOMACHIA— BATTEL. 
 
 great size, BOtne of the footprints being two inches 
 in diameter, and a breadth of nearly four inches 
 between the right and left footprints. — Some of tlie 
 older batrachian fossils differ so widely from all 
 
 ig types, tliat i orders have I 
 
 formed for them. Those oi the sub-order Qano 
 cepAolo— of which Archegosaurua (4. v.) i^ the Inst 
 known are remarkable fur having the head cdvi red 
 with bony plates; those of the order LobyrintJio- 
 
 . for the labyrinthie structure exhibited in 
 the transverse section uf the teeth. See Lacy- 
 Kl . I BOSON. 
 
 BA'TRAOHOMYOMA'CHIA (the War of the 
 Frogs and the Mice), a Greek mock-heroic poem, 
 
 erroneously a cribed to Homer, with whoso works it 
 has been generally printed. Pigres of Caria, who 
 lived in the times of the Persian wars, was named 
 amongst tin- ancients as its author. It is a parody 
 on the Html, iii which the military preparations anil 
 contests of beasts, with single combats, intervention 
 of the gods, ami other Homeric eircunistam 
 described with much humour. 
 
 BATRACHUS. See Fkog-fisii. 
 
 BAT.SHIA X, one of the Moluccas, lying to the 
 south-west ot" GUolo. It belongs to the Dutch, who, 
 in 1610, took it from Spain, or, rather, from Portugal, 
 then a portion of the Spanish monarchy. Its area 
 is estimated at 900 square miles. It is almost inter- 
 
 bj the equator, being only 35' S., with a 
 of l-7 = 35' E. B. produces large sago and cocoa 
 palms, good nee, and the best cloves in the .Moluccas. 
 Chief town, Batshian, near the ceutre of the island, 
 with a pop. of 1100. 
 
 BA'TTA, in relation to the British army in India, 
 is an allowance in addition to the ordinary pay of 
 officers. The pay is tixed; but the B. varies , 
 ing to the part of the country in which Che troops 
 are phv ed, and also depends on the circumstance of 
 their being in the Geld or m cantonments. If in the 
 field, or more than 200 miles from the presidential 
 government cities, the officers receive full 11. ; if in 
 garrison, or iu cantonment within that distance, half 
 batta. During the troubles of 1S57 and 1858, the 
 government was frequently embarrassed in deter- 
 mining whether particular officers were entitled to 
 full or half B., owing to the confusion into which 
 the whole military system was temporarily thrown. 
 
 BATTA'LION istheuuitof command in infantry. 
 It comprises the largest number of meu who, when 
 Irawn up in array, can conveniently hear the word 
 Df command from an officer, in whatever ways the 
 armies of Europe differ iu other particulars, they 
 seldom depart very far from a mean K'rtr-strcngth 
 of 1000 men per battalion. Two or more of those 
 units combine to form a regiment (with exceptions 
 presently to be noticed) ; and those regiments are 
 further aggregated into brigades, divisions, and 
 d'arm& , or other large groupings. The unit, or B., 
 is divided into wings, and these into companies and 
 squads. The continental regiments arc for the 
 most part so large as to comprise several battalions 
 each; but the liritish infantry regiments, in time 
 of peace, have mostly only one B. each. The usual 
 way of increasing the British infantry in war-time 
 is, not by creating new regiments, but by in. i 
 the number of battalions per regiment, and of com- 
 panies per battalion. In 1S7:{, there were 110 regi- 
 ments of line-infantry ; of these, 83 have only 1 
 battalion each, 25 have '2 battalions, and 2 h 
 many as 4. The full complement of a B. is usually 
 12 companies ; and when these are drawn up on 
 parade, two ranks in depth, the two choice com- 
 panies, called the 'grenadier' and the 'light-infantry' 
 companies, are placed at the right and left extremi- 
 ties of the whole line ; the other eight companies, 
 
 each designated By a number or letter, being between 
 them. £ this form, the front of a B. ol 1000 men 
 
 is about 390 yards in |. ■ 
 
 An English B. of '.inn private soldiers approaches 
 
 Hear I lllll strong when the officers, &.C., are included. 
 The following may be taki D a ; the i omp 
 elements, under the average mar arrangements 
 of the liritish service: lo regimental stall-., 
 (la utenant-eolonel, 2 majors, adjutant, instructor in 
 
 musketry, surgeon, paymaster, and quartermaster) ; 
 36 company officers (captain, lieutenant, ami Bub- 
 lieutenant); 1 warrant officer (regimental school- 
 master); 10 non-commissioned stall' officers (staff 
 
 and chief sergeants) ; 50 non-commissioned company 
 officers (colour-sergeant ad si i pants) ; 900 rank 
 and tile (50 corporals, 850 privates, and 24 
 drummers). 
 
 The relation which the B. bears to the regiment, 
 
 in various details of discipline and service, will be 
 
 better noticed under Regiment; while a few 
 
 related matters of a more gi Qeral nature will be 
 found treated under Imin.-n Ann. 
 
 BA'TTAS, a people inhabiting that part of Sum- 
 atra between 0' 20" and 4 20" .Y lat. They claim to 
 be the first settlers of Sumatra, and cling to the 
 
 C ms of their ancestors. The B. are light-brown, 
 
 of n in Idle stature, have somewhat prominent features, 
 and Inn- hair. They believe in a supreme creator, 
 and the influence of good and evil spirits. The 
 men are lazy, and engage in hunting, while the 
 women grow rice, collect pepper for trade, weave 
 and dye cloth. Iron is made into large knives and 
 weapon-points. Their houses are of wood, and the 
 villages have earthen walls. The 15. are nominally 
 governed by the kings of Siniainniv, Salindbng, and 
 Butar. The language is a Malay dialect, written 
 
 on bamboos, in a peculiar alphabet, fr the bottom 
 
 upwards, but laid horizontally, ami read from the 
 left. A man pays a dowry of ten buffaloes for a 
 chiefs daughter, and the i one of lower rank, but 
 has usually only two wives, who are as slaves. 
 Cannibalism exists, though checked by the Dutch. 
 They never eat the flesh of women, and only mur- 
 derers, prisoners of war, and adulterers, who aro 
 first speared to death. 
 
 BATTASZEK, a market-town of Hungary, 
 county Tolna, on the west of the Danube. Pop. 
 (1S71) 6542. 
 
 BATTKL, Tkiai, by, or WAGER OF BATTEL. 
 This relic of our legal barbarism is happily of the 
 things of the past, having been abolished by act 
 of parliament, the 59 Geo. III. c. 4G, and might 
 have been passed over with a brief notice, had it 
 not been for a circumstance which we shall presently 
 mention, and which affords a curious and striking 
 illustration of a principle peculiar to the character 
 of English law, as distinguished from the legal 
 systems of other countries. 
 
 The trial by B. was a proceeding by way of appeal, 
 and it obtained in civil and criminal cases, and also 
 iu military matters, to which, indeed, it was more 
 appropriate. It consisted of a personal combat 
 between the parties in presence of the court itself; 
 and it was grounded on the impious idea of an 
 appeal to Providence, the expectation being, that 
 Heaven woidd give the victory to the innocent or 
 injured party. In civil cases, the B. was waged by 
 champions, and not by the parties themselves; but 
 in criminal cases, the parties fought in person, 
 unless the appellor were a woman, a priest, an 
 infant, or a man of the age of sixty, or lame, or 
 blind, all of whom might refuse the wager of B., 
 and compel a trial by jury. Peers of the realm 
 also cotdd not be challenged to wage B., on account 
 of their personal dignity, nor, by special charter,
 
 BATTEN— BATTECSEA. 
 
 could tli" citizens of London, fighting being con- 
 red foreign to their education and employ- 
 ment. Whether by champions or in person, the 
 
 ■ " proc i I be same. The aj 
 
 or defendant, as he might be called, threw down 
 his glove, and declared that he would prove hU 
 right, or defend himself with his body. The appellor, 
 or prosecutor, in accepting the cl took up 
 
 and replied that he wa o make 
 
 good his appeal, body for body; and thereupon 
 th • parties, holding each other's hands, joined issue 
 before the court in a very formal and solemn 
 r. The weapons used were batons or staves 
 an ell long, and a tour-cornered leathern target, and 
 
 i : mbatante were obliged to swear that neither of 
 
 them would resort to sorcery or witchcraft! The 
 
 ted till the i ired in the evening, and 
 
 • tv who by that tame had either killed or g..t 
 
 the letter of his opponent, was considered the suc- 
 
 1 suitor of justice. In a charge of murder, if 
 
 ccused was slain, it was taken as proof of his 
 
 guilt, and his blood was attainted ; and if so far 
 
 vanquished as not to be able or willing to tight any 
 
 l r, lie was adjudged guilty, and sentenced to be 
 
 hang dimm 
 
 So late as the year ISIS, this barbarous procedure 
 lemnly decided by the Court of King's Bench 
 to be a valid and legal mode of trial, which the 
 king's subjects were free to adopt! Of course, the 
 principle was, that all laws, no matter how unsuit- 
 able to the times, could be enforced, unless expressly 
 repealed by act of parliament. As a matter of 
 curiosity, we may give the names of the parties (they 
 were of the labouring-class) who seriously submitted 
 e intention in the above form before Lord Chief- 
 ESIenboroUgh and his brother-judges of the 
 period. The case is that of Ashford V. Thornton, 
 and is reported in the first volume of Barnwall and 
 Ald.rson's Reports, p. 405. As we have stated, the 
 court decided in favour of the validity of the trial, 
 one of the judges remarking that sufficient had not 
 stated to induce their lordships to refuse the 
 1!., and another more plainly and unequivocally 
 observed that the defendant was 'entitled to this 
 bis lawful mode of trial.' But Lord EUenborough 
 put the matter more clearly by stating, that 'the 
 general law of the land is iu favour of the wager of 
 I!., aud it is our duty to pronounce the law as it is, 
 and not as we may wish it to be; whatever preju- 
 dii . therefore, may justly exist against this mode 
 of trial, still, as it is the law of the land, the court 
 must pronounce judgment for it.' Happily, the 
 pugnacious litigant who obtained this judgment 
 was induced to go no further, and the above statute, 
 the 59 Ceo, 111. c. 46, was passed, by which the 
 shocking ordeal was wholly abolished. 
 
 In Scotland, we believe the matter would have 
 been differently disposed of; for the judges there, 
 following the doctrine of the Roman law, would 
 have held the proceeding to have been in desuetude 
 and obsolete, and there the matter would have 
 ended. Mr Rush, the then American envoy to 
 the British court, thus justly remarks on this 
 in ins Beiidena at the Court o/ London 
 (published 1833). 'To repeal laws belongs to the 
 legislature. Courts expound ami apply tlieni. Free 
 government is complex, and t ly; tyranny 
 
 is simple, and <l»^ its work at once. An absurd 
 law may sleep in a free code, because overlooked ; 
 but whilst there, it is the law. It is so, I suppose, 
 that wc must reason ; and generally, the reason 
 would be right. Yet it might have been thought 
 that, in a case like this, long disuse added to obvious 
 absurdity, would have worked the silent repeal of 
 the law. according to the doctrine of desuetude 
 under the lloman code.' 
 48 
 
 Montesquieu, in his Spirit tf taws, book 28, 
 chapters L'O and 22, very ingeniously and plausibly 
 deduces the e of duelling and the 
 
 SO called laws of I mi the above barbarous 
 
 judicial combat. u.. 
 
 BATTEN, or LAY, or LATHE, is the swing 
 utensil or a loom h the weft or woof is 
 
 stmek home, and in which the buttle runs. I;, and 
 synonymous, B. being the English name, and 
 lay the Scotch, a e \\ i w i .... 
 
 BATTENS, a species of sawn fir timl 
 smaller dim i , ailed planks. B. 
 
 are usually from 12 to 14 feet long, 7 inches bread, 
 and •>•. inches thick. Cut in1 rds (1J" inch 
 
 thick), they are used for flooring ; cut into three 
 boards, they are put on roofs below slates; in 
 TSt pieces, they are put upright on walls for 
 fixing the laths for plastering. The best B. are 
 a from Norway, and sold wholesale by 
 wood-merchants. 
 
 BATTER, in Architecture, used as a verb to 
 express the manner in which the walls of towers, 
 which are smaller at the top than t 
 inwards. The walls of wharfs, and those built to 
 suppi.it embankments and the like, usually bath r. 
 
 BATTERING-RAM, an engine of war used in 
 ancient times, and in the middle ages. 11 
 of a beam of wood, with a mass of bronze or iron on 
 one end. resembling the head of a ram (in Lat. a 
 Iu its simplest form, it was borne and impelled 1 y 
 
 'r^-r^r- 
 
 ' 
 
 Battering-ram. 
 
 the hands of the soldiers; afterwards, it was 
 ponded in a frame, and made to swing. Another 
 florin moved on rollers. The alternating motion was 
 communicated by ropes. To protect those working 
 it. a wooden roof (teitudo) was constructed over it, 
 aud the whole was mounted on wl 
 of the ram varied from 60 to 120 feet in length, the 
 lead sometimi i weighed above a ton, and as many 
 as 100 men were employed in impelling the machine. 
 When the blows were long enough continued, hardly 
 any wall could resist. When or where it was invi 
 is unknown. It is mentioned by Ezekiel. The 
 Romans derived it. from the Creeks. 
 
 BA'TTERSEA, a south-west suburb of London, 
 situated in Surrey, on the south bank of the Thames, 
 at the bn.l to I helsea, which is nearly opposite. 
 It lies in B. pariah, which is partly laid out in 
 market-gardens for London, and has many lnann- 
 I'lie church has a monument to th 
 i Lord Bolingbroke. The tlats, called R, 
 ed as a rich botanical station, are 
 now formed into a public park. Adjacent t.> tin- 
 park, the Thames is crossed by B. Bridge (lately 
 rebuilt), Albert Bri Ige, ( 
 and a railway bridge. The tirst aspa- 
 near London was grown by the market-garden, is 
 of Battersea; but railways have much changed the 
 
 locality. 
 
 J 753
 
 BATTERY. 
 
 BA'TTERY, in criminal law, moans the beating or 
 wounding, or, more correctly, an assault by beating 
 or wounding of another. Violence or force is not a 
 necessary element in this offence, but the least 
 touching, however trifling, of another's person in 
 an angry, rude, insulting manner, is a B. ; for the 
 law, says Blackstone, cannot draw the line between 
 different degrees of violence, and therefore totally 
 prohibits the first and lowest stago of it, every man's 
 person being sacred, and no one having a right to 
 m rd. He with it in any the slightest manner. The 
 remedy for an injury of this kind may 1 le either by a 
 ( ivil action, as for damages, or by indictment, as 
 for a misdemeanour. Where the B. is on a man's 
 wife, the former may sue for damages by action of 
 trespass, and it must be brought in flic names of the 
 husband and wife jointly; but if the maltreatment 
 be so serious as to have deprived the husband for 
 any time of his wife's company, the law then gives 
 him a separate remedy, by an aetion in which he may 
 recover special damage, on the ground of the loss 
 of his wife's society, whilst suffering from the 
 beating. By the Common Law Procedure Act, the 
 15 and 16 Vict. c. 76, the remedy for such ill usage 
 is further varied, for by section 40 of that act, it is 
 provided, that in any action brought by a man and 
 his wife for an injury done to the latter, it shall be 
 lawful for the husband to add thereto claims in his 
 own right, and separate actions brought in i 
 of such claims may be consolidated, if the court or a 
 judge shall think fit. 
 
 It is a good defence to prove that the alleged 
 B. happened by accident, or that it was not in anger, 
 or that it was merely the correction which a parent 
 or master is entitled to use to a child, or scholar, or 
 servant, or that it was done in self-defence, or in 
 defence of a wife, a husband, a parent, a child, a 
 master, or a servant ; or that it was such personal 
 force as a proper officer was entitled to employ, or 
 that the defendant has already been summarily 
 proceeded against under the 24 and 25 Vict. c. 100, 
 by sections 44jand 45 of which act it is provided 
 that further proceedings shall be barred where the 
 complaint has been disposed of by two justices 
 either by conviction or dismissal of the case, pro- 
 vided, in the former case, the defendant has paid 
 the penalty, and suffered the imprisonmeut awarded ; 
 and, in the latter, the magistrates have dismissed 
 the case, because it was justified, or so trilling as 
 not to merit punishment, and this be forthwith 
 certified under their hands. 
 
 In the Scotch law, there was what was called a 
 B. pendente lite, which consisted in assaulting an 
 adversary in a lawsuit during its dependence. This 
 peculiar offence was created by two old Scotch 
 statutes passed respectively in 15S4 and 1594 — and 
 which curiously provided as a punishment the loss 
 of the cause to the offender — but they were repealed 
 in 1S26 by the 7 Geo. TV. c. 19. 
 
 BA'TTERY, in military language, has two mean- 
 ings : the one relating to field-operations ; the other, 
 to fortification. A battery in Field-operations con- 
 sists of from 4 to S (in the British army, usually C) 
 pieces of ordnance, together with the necessary gun- 
 carriages, ammunition-wagons, horses, artillerymen, 
 and officers. A B. of foot-artillery (see Artillery, 
 Royal Reoblott of) is usually called ajield-li., as 
 distinguished from a horsc-B. There are also heavy 
 and light batteries, according to the weight of the 
 ordnance. The term B. is also applied in a narrower 
 sense to the personnel, or complement of men and 
 officers attending such a set of guns. The desig- 
 nation for this used to be, in the foot-artillery, a 
 company, and in the horse-artillery, a troop; but 
 by an order issued in 1S59, both these terms are 
 now nearly superseded by the word B., thereby 
 75i 
 
 S'ving complexity to a term already used in two 
 it meanings. The personnel of a field- B. 
 of six 12-pounder rifled gone, is thus composed : I 
 I captain, •'! lieutenants, 1 surgeon, 1 battery 
 it-major, 1 battery quart-i-master-sergeant, 
 6 sergeants, 4 corporals, I bombardiers, 66 gunners, 
 
 2 trumpeters, 1 farrier and carriage-smith, 3 shoc- 
 
 ,ths, 2 collar-makers, 1 wheeler, 01 drivers 
 (privates] —in all, i.">s. In war, gunners and drivers 
 would be added tall the total strength of the battery 
 became 277. Two batteries together form the com- 
 i a lieutenant-colonel, and have the services 
 berinary surgeon between them. 
 The materiel for a 12-pounder B. of G guns com- 
 prises 6 carriages for the guns, 1 spare gun-carriage, 
 
 3 store-wagons, 1 store-. I e-wagon, 1 to 
 
 , 12 gun-ammunition wagons, and wagons 
 for small-arms ammunition for the use of the 
 infantry. To draw these guns and vehicle 
 required in war about 212 horses, toother with ... 
 
 horses, and eight baggage-horses. The vi 
 and boxes are prepared for the reception of 1284 
 rounds of ammunition for the guns, 150 rockets, and 
 '.IS,2,S0 rille cartridges. There is also carried a supply 
 ol empty cartridges, port-fires, fuses, quick match, 
 slow match, and an immense number of tools and 
 small articles, besides stores for the wheelers, shoo- 
 ing-sniiths, and collar-makers. Nearly all thi I 
 supplies are equally divided, so as to make each 
 indi pendent of the others ; but some of the 
 are in reserve, for the use of the whole battery. 
 
 A battery, in Fortification, is a row of large guns 
 of any number from two to twenty or upwards, 
 mounted on an earthwork or other platform. It 
 differs from an artillery or field B. in having 
 no horses or vehicles immediately belonging to it. 
 
 uns are mostly placed in or on such batteries; 
 and when an army is preparing to resist the occu- 
 pation of a particular place by an enemy, a B. of 
 position is frequently one of the defensive means 
 adopted. On the other hand, the fortifications on 
 and within the walls of a stronghold generally 
 obtain other names than that of B. ; although par- 
 ticular rows of guns in certain places may be so 
 called. Military engineers distinguish many differ- 
 ent kinds of batteries, according to the nature of the 
 duty which they are to fulfil, or of the ground on 
 which they are placed. An elevated B. has the 
 parapet raised above the ground; the earth for 
 forming it being' obtained from a ditch in front. A 
 11. has the interior slope sunk a little 
 below the surface. A sunken B. has the base from 
 24 to 42 inches below the level of the ground. The 
 guns mounted on these three kinds of batteries 
 partake in the varying elevations of the batteries 
 themselves, and are adapted to different modes of 
 firing on the enemy. A suv/e-B. consists of a range 
 of heavy guns, for silencing the enemy's fire, ruining 
 parapets and buildings, and making a breach through 
 which infantry may enter. A cavalier-B. is especially 
 elevated, to fire over a parapet without embrasures. 
 Enfilade, en revers, enecltarpe, ricochet, cross, oblique 
 batteries, and others variously named, differ chiefly 
 in the direction in which they pour out the fire of 
 their guns upon the enemy. The distinction between 
 gun- batteries, howitzer- batteries, and mortar- bat- 
 teries, depends on the kind of ordnance employed. 
 A mortar-B. has a ditch of extra width, to afford 
 spare earth for a platform of extra strength and 
 solidity. A military engineer, in planning a B., 
 imitates a civil engineer in planning a railway; he 
 makes his calculations in such form that the quan- 
 tity of earth taken out at one spot may about equal 
 that heaped up in another. 
 
 These batteries are all nearly alike in the gene- 
 ral principle of their construction. They consist
 
 BATTERY— BATTLE. 
 
 primarily of an (paulement, or built-up shelter, behind ; it3 own, in March ISIS. Ilh ability was not equal 
 which the guns are placed ; the platform on which i to the goodness of his intentions, and the circum- 
 the guns actually rest may or may not be above the i stances in which he was called to act were very 
 ordinary level of the ground, according to the nature difficult and embarrassing. He did not hold the 
 of the battery. The cpaulement or parapet is of im- office long, and afterwards took part in public 
 mense thickness, to resist the action of the enemy's j affairs, chietly as a member of the diet, and with 
 cannon-balls. The thickness at the top is seldom less great moderation. Yet, after the Austrians entered 
 
 than 12 feet, and may be as much as 20; for it is 
 found tliat a 24-pounder ball will penetrate 18 feet 
 of earth. The 1,11113 are placed about 20 feet apart, 
 behind the parapet. Some batteries are straight, 
 with all the guns parallel; while others may be 
 portions of a triangle (redan) or of a polygon, and 
 the earthwork has to be constructed accordingly. 
 There is generally a ditch from 12 to 20 feet wide, 
 outside the earthwork ; and the depth from the 
 crest of the parapet to the bottom of the ditch is 
 12 to 10 feet. For gun and howitzer batteries, there 
 are embrasures through which the tiring takes place ; 
 but mortar-batteries are without those openings. 
 
 Sometimes the cpaulement i3 thrown up loosely, T 
 in haste; but for the better kinds of batteries, ! Hastings), fought on the heath between it and Hast- 
 
 Pesth, he was arrested in January 1849, and on 6th 
 October was executed by sentence of martial law. 
 His condemnation was unexpected, and awakened 
 the more sympathy, because all men regarded it as 
 unjust 
 
 BA'TTLE, a town in East Sussex, 8 miles north- 
 west of Hastings, where the country rises in wooded 
 swells. Consisting of one street, built along a valley 
 extending from north-west to south-east. Pop. 881 5. 
 It is noted for its manufacture of gunpowder, well 
 known to sportsmen as B. powder. It was anciently 
 called Hetheland or Epiton, and derives its present 
 name from the battle (usually called the Battle of 
 
 fascines, gabions, and sand-bags are largely employed '?^,'. on ^October 106% when the Normans, under 
 
 The main structure is lined with fascines 9 feet long, I William the Conqueror bnally overthrew the Saxon 
 
 and the embrasures lined with other fascines 18 feet j d y°asty in England William, to commemorate his 
 
 long^40 or 50 of the two kinds being required per \ ™* i7j/°!^ 1 , ul 106,,onthe spotwkerelfar olds 
 
 gun. 
 
 of brush-wood, w( 
 
 required per v '" OI y> «">■ 
 The fascines here spoken of are long bundles ! sta , n(lar< J w <» ta S e 3' a splendid abbey, which was 
 
 endowed with all the land within a league of it. 
 The abbey had the privileges of a sanctuary, and 
 the Conqueror's sword and a roll of his barons were 
 deposited in it. The existing ruins, which belong 
 to a building erected subsequently to the original 
 abbey, occupy three sides of a quadrangle, and are 
 about a mile in circumference. 
 
 3 to 200 lbs. each. Some- 
 times sand-bags are used instead of fascines, each 
 containing about a bushel of sand or earth; ami 
 sometimes gabions, which are wicker cylinders filled 
 with earth. A 6-gun sand-bag B., made wholly of 
 these materials, requires nearly 8000 sand-bags. 
 
 The fate of a field-B. often decides a battle. At 
 the battle of the Alma, when once the Guards and 
 Highlanders had reached the Russian batteries 
 on the hill, the day was won. At the battle of 
 Inkermann, the issue depended mainly on the 
 possession of a small 2-gun sand-bag B., which 
 remained, after many vicissitudes, in the hands of 
 the allies. 
 
 BATTERY, Floatkg. See Floatlvg Battery. 
 
 BATTERY, Electric and Galvaxic. See Elec- 
 TRicnv and 1 Ialyaxism. 
 
 BATTHYA'XYI, one of the oldest, richest, and 
 most celebrated families of the Hungarian magnates, 
 which can trace its origin as Jar back as the invasion 
 of lannonia by the Magyars, in 884 A.D., and 
 which has given to Hungary many warriors and 
 men. The surname is derived from lands 
 obtained in the 14th c. — Balthasar von B., who was 
 the head of the famUy in the latter half of the 16th 
 C, fought with distinction in the Turkish wars, and 
 constantly maintained at his own expense 1200 
 infantry and 500 cavalry. — Charles, Prince of B., 
 a Lieutenant-field-marshal of the Empire, distin- 
 guished bin 1 Bavarian War of Succession, 
 and particularly by a victory over the French and 
 Bavarians at Pfaffenhofen on 15th April 1745, — 
 Count • 'asimir B., a member of the principal branch 
 of the family, was born 4th June 1807. He was 
 Minister of I ! Bain in Hungary during the 
 insurrection in 1S49. in which he also distinguished 
 himself as a military governor. After the catas- 
 trophe of Vilagos, he fled, along with Kossuth, 
 into the Turkish territory, where ho remained 
 till 1851. He then went to France, and died 
 at Paris, 13th July 1S54. Count Louis B., belong- 
 ing to another branch of the same family, and 
 born at Presburg in 1S09, having espoused the 
 national cause, yet seeking to maintain the con- 
 nection with Austria and his allegiance to the 
 Austrian sovereign, was appointed President of the 
 Ministry, when Hungary obtained a ministry of 
 
 BA'TTLE is a combat between large masses of 
 troops, or whole armies. Every B. ought to have 
 for its object the determination, if possible, of 
 the whole contest, or at least the effecting of some 
 important step to that end. It is therefore the aim 
 of a general to bring about an engagement at the 
 decisive point. This constitutes Strategy, while 
 Tactic is concerned with the handling of tlie troops 
 in the actual battle. Victory on the battle-field is 
 not enough for a general ; it is only by following up 
 his victory to the annihilation, if possible, of the 
 beaten army, that its fruits are secured. Order of 
 B. is the particular way in which the several corps 
 of different arms are disposed for entering into an 
 meut. It varies at different times, and is 
 modified according to locality. 
 
 general account of a 6. can be given. Infor- 
 mation on the various elements of which a B. consists 
 will be found described under such heads as Attack, 
 Artillery, Cavalry, Inkaxtry, Ciiarue, Fleet, 
 Ginnery, Tactics, Sus. The more important indi- 
 vidual battles will be found described, in their 
 causes and results, under the names of the places 
 with which they are associated. 
 
 Considered in their political relations, the import- 
 ance of battles is not always in proportion to their 
 magnitude. 'There are some battles which claim 
 our attention, independently of the moral worth of 
 the combatants, on account of their enduring import- 
 ance, and by reason of their practical influence on 
 our own social and political condition, which we can 
 trace up to the results of those engagements. They 
 have for us an actual and abiding interest, both 
 while we investigate the chain of causes and effects, 
 by which they have helped to make us what we 
 are; and also while we speculate on what we 
 probably should have been, if any one of those 
 battles had come to a different termination.' — Pro- 
 fessor Creasy 's Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, 
 from Marathon to Waterloo. The fifteen battles 
 which, in Professor Creasy's opinion, have had the 
 most decisive influence, are the following : 
 
 7»
 
 BATTLE— BATURTN. 
 
 D.C. 
 
 490. 
 413. 
 331. 
 207. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 9. 
 451. 
 732. 
 
 1066. 
 1429. 
 
 15S8. 
 1704. 
 1709. 
 1777. 
 1792. 
 1815. 
 
 BA'TTLE, Wa'oer of. See Battel. 
 
 BA'TTLE-AXE was a weapon much u i d by the 
 early northern nations, Celtic and Scandinavian, 
 requiring great strength in its use. Some were 
 beta with one hand, some with two; the former 
 kind could be wielded equally by horse and foot, 
 but the latter was for foot-soldiers only. The B. 
 had a longer handle, and a broader, stronger, and 
 sharper blade than the common axe. During the 
 
 Battle of Marathon. 
 
 Defeat of tlie Athenians at Syracuse. 
 
 Battle of A rln la. 
 
 i. n the Metaurus. 
 
 Defeat of the Romans under Varus. 
 Battle of Chalons. 
 
 i< n Tours. 
 
 n .i Hastings. 
 Joan of Are's \ ictory at Orleans. 
 1 1. feat of tie' Spanish Armada. 
 Battle of Blenheim. 
 
 „ » Pultowa. 
 Defeat of Burgoyne at Saratoga. 
 Battle of Vahny. 
 
 „ .. AVatcrloo. 
 
 eLa 
 
 ^ f,. 
 
 Battle-axes. 
 
 middle ages, and somewhat earlier, it was much 
 \ised in sorties, and to prevent the escalading of a 
 besieged fortress. The pole-axe differed but little 
 from the battle-axe. , The black bill and brown hill 
 were a sort of halbert, having the cutting part 
 hooked like a woodman's bill, with a spike project- 
 ing from the back, and another from the head. 
 The glaive was a kind of pole-axe or bill used by 
 the Welsh. 
 
 BA'TTLEMENT, a notched or indented parapet 
 used in fortifications. The rising parts are called 
 
 Early English Traceried Battlement. 
 
 cops or merlons; the spaces by which they arc 
 separated, crenels, embrasures, and sometimes loops. 
 The object of the device is to enable the soldier to 
 
 i ri-^Trr 'jTT 
 
 -in r— r 
 
 Simple form of Battlement. 
 
 shelter himself behind the merlon, whilst he shonts 
 through the embrasure. The bas-reliefs of Nineveh, 
 and the Egyptian paintings, testify to its antiquity, 
 
 and there is perhaps no nation by which it has not 
 been adopted 
 
 BA'TTLE-PIECES arc paintings representing 
 
 battles. The modern mode of warfare is less 
 
 favourable for this branch of art than the ancient, 
 where persona] valour bad more room to display 
 ii elf, Among the greatest paintings of this kind 
 are, the battle of Constantino, sketched by Eta I. 
 and executed by Giulio Romano; Lebruns battles 
 of Alexander; and the battle of the Amazons by 
 Rubens. In smaller scenes, such as skirmish. I 
 
 urprises, Antonio Tempesta, Hans Snellink, Pet, 
 ! tryd rs, Fulcone, Phil Wbuverman, &c., are distin- 
 guished. The most eminent of recent battle-painters 
 is Horace Vernet. 
 
 BATTUE (from Fr. battre, to beat). The B. is a 
 method of killing game on a great scale, by causing 
 animals to be driven forward to a point whi re B 
 number of shooters are waiting to shoot them. The 
 driving is effected by beating the bushes; hence 
 the term battue. This term, like the practice which 
 it imports, is only of modern date ; yet a plan of 
 killing deer by driving them forward in herds in an 
 ever-narrowing circle to a place where they are to 
 be shot, is an old usage in the Highlands, where it is 
 called the finch' I. The Ii. is at best a common-place 
 and butcherly amusement, for it can scarcely be 
 said to have the merit of being attended with i veo a 
 able degree of exercise and excitement. It is 
 practised chiefly in extensive preserves of pheasants 
 and hares during the autumn and winter months, 
 when country gentlemen invite acquaintances to their 
 mansions for the sake of field-sports. The B. takes 
 place early in the day, and with good arrangements, 
 it is attended with neither fatigue nor danger. The 
 number of shooters is usually eight or ten, each pro- 
 vided with at least two guns, which are loaded by 
 an assistant as quickly as they are discharged. 
 When the shooters are stationed at safe distances 
 from each other, and ready to commence work, the 
 beaters begin theirs by driving the game before tie mi. 
 Sometimes, however, pheasants will run a long way 
 before rising on wing, and to make them take to 
 flight on approaching the guns, a low net is stretched 
 across then- path. It should be stated, however, 
 that in the B., hares, rabbits, &c., are shot as readily 
 as pheasants ; and at length the ground is covered 
 with slain, like a field of battle. By means of the 
 B., large quantities of game are killed, and sent t j 
 market; the profits derived from this species of stock 
 on some estates amounting to no inconsiderable sum 
 annually. For an account of B. -shooting, we refer to 
 The Shot-gun and Sporting Rifle, also, Manual of 
 British Rural Sjiorts (London, 1859). 
 
 BATU'M, BATOO'M, or BATOU'M, a maritime 
 town in the Turkish pashalic of Trebizond, from 
 which city it is 10S miles north-east (lat. 41° 39' N., 
 long. 41" 37' E.), with about 3000 inhabitants, 
 mostly Turks and Lasians, or Laz. The harbour 
 is one of the best on the east coast of the Black 
 Sea. A pretty extensive trade is carried on. 
 Hides, wax, honey, and, above all, oak for ship- 
 building, are the principal exports. Great ruins 
 of Greek churches and other buildings are found 
 in the neighbourhood, which belong to a period 
 in the middle ages when B. was a place of great 
 consequence. 
 
 BATURI'N, a town of Russia, in the government 
 of, and 78 miles east from, the city of Tchernigov, on 
 the Seim. It was founded by Stephen Bathory, king 
 of Poland, and was at one time the favourite resi- 
 dence of the Hetmans of the Cossacks, of whom 
 Mazeppa, who, in 1708, sold himself to the Swedes, 
 is the most notorious. The palace of the Hetmans,
 
 BAUDEKYX— BAUMGARTEX. 
 
 with its once beautiful grounds, is now going rapidly 
 to decay. 
 
 BAU'DEKYX, a conniption of Baldachin (q. v.). 
 
 BAU'EIt, Bi:.rxr>, a celebrated biblical critic 
 and philosopher, belonging to the extreme school 
 of German rationalism, was born at Eiaenberg, in 
 the duchy of Saxe-Altenbnrg, on the (itli September 
 1809. He is the son of a porcelain-painter, and 
 Studied at the university of Berlin, where he 
 became doctor of theology in 1834. Prom this 
 pel od, be baa devoted himself exclusively to whai 
 is termed in Germany the scientific criticism of 
 Scripture— that is to say, a criticism based on the 
 conviction, that the contents of the Bible have a 
 natural, and not a supernatural origin, and ought 
 to be subjected to the same process of phil 
 cal analysis as other human productions are. In 
 I ' B. became a privcttrdocent in the university 
 of Bonn, but in 1842 was forbidden to deliver any 
 more theological lectures. He then removed to 
 Berlin, where he has since resided. He has passed 
 through various stages of anti-supernaturaliam. At 
 first, he contented himself with believing that the 
 substance of the Christian religion might bo extri- 
 cated from the entanglements of a confused and 
 erroneous system of interpretation. Such is the 
 idea that runs through his earliest works, his Cri- 
 
 of Btrouss'e Znfe of Jesus, published in the 
 
 Berlin Year-book of Scientific Criticism (183S — 
 1836), his Journal of Speculative Theology (1S3G — 
 1838), and his Critical Exposition of the /'Union of 
 
 tin Did. Ti .ttatin ill (Berlin, lS.'JS). He s however, 
 
 advanced so far in his 'scientific' demands, that it 
 b. line quite clear the Scriptures, m bis eyes, hail 
 
 lost even the derate authority which he on. 
 
 supposed them to possess. To this period belong 
 his Doctor Hengsienberg (Berlin, 1S39), and Th 
 Evangelical Church of Prussia and Science (Leip, 
 IS HI). In the former of these works, B. appears 
 as an opponent of the school of apologetic theolo- 
 gians, and exposes what he conceives to be the 
 weakness of their , in as a method of appre- 
 hending characteristic differences in the historical 
 development of Christian doctrine; in the latter, 
 he wished to prove that true philosophic union is 
 the dissolution of the outward dogmatic church in 
 the realm of the universal and free self-conscious- 
 ness— language which is not very intelligible to 
 the finite Anglo-Saxon mind. Iu his Critique of 
 /If Evangelical History of Joint (Brem. Ispi), and 
 Critique of the Evangelical Synoptfcists (Leip. 1S40), 
 he attempted to shew that the so-called facts of 
 the gospel never really had a historical existence, 
 and that those artistic compositions which we term 
 the gospels, were simply the product of the human 
 self-consciousness. B. considers Strauss, a mere 
 apologetical theologian, a comparatively orthodox 
 writer! and regards his conclusions with the super- 
 cilious contempt of one who has reached a far 
 higher elevation, while he conceives that his own 
 
 s| ial work in this world has been to strike oil' the 
 
 last head of the Hydra of the Tradition-hj po 
 The persecutions to which he was now subjected 
 lit about a complete rupture between him 
 and the church; the e of which was a 
 
 brochure entitled Tht Q 
 
 own Private Affaire (Zurich, ls-t:)). Then followed 
 his Christianity I'm-, tied (Zurich, 1S43), in which he 
 expressed the same conviction that he had previously 
 
 done in two ironical treatises -viz.. that a dogmatic 
 i was opposed to our self -conscionsness. About 
 this time he broke with his old friends, the liberals, 
 by writing a pamphlet against the emancipation of 
 the Jews. Die Judenfrage (Brunswick, 1S43). This 
 tractate forms the transition point to the third period 
 
 of B.'s intellectual activity, in which he seems to have 
 abandoned theology altogether as something hope- 
 less. He now occupied b m sli . with 
 literature and political philosophy. The number 
 of his writings in this department i3 very great. 
 The principal are, History of Uie Politics, 
 
 , and /.' ' of il" I -i 
 
 (C'harlottenbnrg, 1S43 — 1845); History of Germany 
 during the French Be\ Reign of 
 
 '■•a (Charlottenburg, 1846) ;' History 
 Establiehm 
 /,'r /nil, lie (Leip. 1S47); Western Dictatorship; Tlte 
 ' I'niisia ; 
 
 nd. The prominent idea in the 
 whole of his works belonging to th that 
 
 the failure of the popular and national struggles 
 in the I'.'th c. results from the essential wi 
 of the •> ol the 18th c More lately, 
 
 B. has again returned to ■ i 1851, 
 
 appeared his I • ' H 
 
 of tht ir Origin, and his ' 
 
 Paul, the latter of which the author I wholly 
 
 apocryphal, and written during the 2d c. B 
 tic works mentioned, B. has composed various 
 other treatises on important points of history, theo- 
 logy, and politics. All B.'s writings exhibit great 
 learning, industry, research, and acumen ; but are 
 completely antagonistic to the received opinions in 
 theology, or to any form of evangelical religion. 
 He is generally admitted to be quicker in the dis- 
 covery of error than of truth, and to have a greater 
 talent for overthrowing than for building up. 
 
 BAUCK a town in the department of Maine- 
 et-Loire, France, 23 miles east-north-east of Angers. 
 The English, under the Duke of Clarence, 
 i here in 1 121. Pop. (1872) 2891 
 a inufacture ol 
 
 BAUHI'XIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Leguminosat, suborder < . The upper 
 
 petal is somewhat remote from the rest. The leaves 
 are generally divided into two lobes. The species are 
 I of the warmer regions of both hemispheres, 
 and some of them are remarkable for the size and 
 beauty of their flowers. Most of them arc twining 
 plants, or lianas, stretching from tree to tree in the 
 tropical forests; but some are small trees, as IL 
 porrecta, tin- Mountain Ebony of Jamaica, so called 
 from the colour of its wood. The inner bark of 
 /?. raceinu.ia (the Maloo Climber), of D. scandals, and 
 of B. porrlil.ru. Bast Indian species, is employed for 
 making ropes. /.'. '. also 
 
 Ea i Indian, exude a brownish coloured mild 
 
 whilst the astringent bark of B. varicgata IB used in 
 Malabar for tanning and dyeing leather, and also in 
 medicine. Th I avi of various species are used in 
 Brazil as demulcent medicines, having mucilaginous 
 properties. -Livingstone mentions a species of B. in 
 South Africa, called the MopanS Tree. It is remark- 
 able for the little shade which its leaves afford. 
 They fold together, and stand nearly erect during 
 
 the beato li< day. On them the larvroof a - 
 of Psylla cause a saccharine secretion, in circular 
 patches, beneath which the pupa of the insect is 
 found. The natives scrape it off, and eat it as a 
 dainty. 
 
 BATTMGA'RTEN, Alkxamu k GOTTLIXB, a clear 
 and acute thinker of the school of Wolf, was born at 
 Berlin on Hi 17th of July 1711. studied at Halle, 
 and in 1740 I I of P ilosophy at 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he died on the 26th 
 of May 1702. He is the founder of .F.sthetica (q. v.) 
 as a systematic science of the beautiful, though his 
 mode of treatment is objected to by the more trans- 
 cendental Germans, as being purely psychological; 
 that is to say, he makes aesthetics only a portion of
 
 BAUMGABTEN-CRUSIUS-BAUR. 
 
 the philosophy of the senses, and contrasts it with 
 logic, which belongs to the sphere of the reason. 
 The idea of a science of the beautiful first appears 
 in his treatise, De NannvXlisad 1'oema Pertinent Hm*. 
 published at Salle, 1735. In 1750 — 1758, he i 
 two volumes of his JSatheHca,b\\t his death hindered 
 the completion of the work. His writings in other 
 departments oi philosophy are marked by clear- 
 ness and precision; his Metaphysial (Halle, 1739; 
 7th edition, 1779) is still considered one of the 
 most useful books for the study of the Wolfian 
 philosophy. 
 
 BATJMGARTEN-CRTTSITTS, Linywra Fried- 
 rich Otto, a German theologian, born at Merseburg, 
 1788, and died at Jena, 31st May 1S43. He studii a 
 theology at Leipsic, and in 1810 became university 
 preacher. In 1S17, he was appointed Professor of 
 Theology at Jena, and always distinguished himself 
 as a champion of religious liberty, on "behalf of which 
 he wrote various treatises. In 1S20 appeared bis 
 Introduction to the Study of Dogmatics (Leip. 1S20), 
 a work of considerable originality and richness of 
 thought. More complete exhibitions of his opinions 
 are to be found in his Manual of Christian EOiics 
 (Lcip.lS27); Outlines of Biblical Theology (Jena,lS2S); 
 and Outlines of Protestant Dogmatics (Jena, 1830). 
 In 1S31— 1S32, he published a Text-book of the His- 
 tory of Doctrines; in 1S34, a work on Schleiernuoh ,-, 
 his Method of ThouglU, and his Value; and also 
 Considerations on certain Writings of Lamennais. 
 After his death, Kimmel published the whole of his 
 exegetical prelections on the Gospels and Pauline 
 Epistles. 
 
 B. was conspicuous for the breadth and solidity 
 of his learning, the originality of his spirit, and the 
 acuteness of his understanding, but was nevertheless 
 deficient in clear and vivid expression. He attached 
 himself to no school theological or philosophical. 
 At an early period, he had been greatly influenced 
 by the metaphysics of Sebelling, from which, how- 
 ever, he ultimately emancipated himself. His think- 
 ing was, to a certain extent, rationalistic, but on the 
 whole approached more closely to the direction of 
 the spiritual Schleiermacher. 
 
 BAUMGARTXER, Andreas Bitter vox, or 
 Chevalier, de, was born at Friedberg, in Bohemia, 
 23d November 1793, and studied at Vienna, where, 
 in 1S23, he became Professor of Natural Philosophy. 
 Whilst filling this office, he gave popular lectures 
 on Sundays upon mechanics, etc., for artisans and 
 operatives, which | met with much approbation. A 
 result of these lectures was his Mechamk in Hirer 
 Anivendung auf KHmstt and Qewerbt (2d ed. 
 Vienna, 1S23), and his NaiarUhre (Vienna, 1823). 
 An ailment of the throat induced him to resign his 
 professorship, but he was appointed director of the 
 imperial porcelain, mirror-glass, and smalt manu- 
 factories, and afterwards superintendent of tobacco 
 manufactories. In the year 1S46, the setting up of 
 the electric telegraph was committed to him, and 
 he was intrusted with the principal charge of the 
 making of the Austrian railways. After the events 
 of March 1S4S, he was Minister of Mines and of 
 Public Buildings, and chief of one of the depart- 
 ments in the Ministry of Finance. In May 1851, 
 he was appointed Minister of Commerce, Trade, 
 and PubHc Buildings. At the same time, he was 
 appointed President of the Austrian Academy of 
 Sciences, of which he had been vice-president for a 
 number of years. He published in 1862, Chemie und 
 Geschichte der Uimmclskbrper nach der Spectral- 
 analyse; in 1S64, Die mechan. Theorie der W&rme, 
 He died in 1S65 ; and Freiherr Von B. Ehie 
 Lebensskizze was published during the followin 
 year. 
 758 
 
 BAUR, Ferdinand Christian, the founder of the 
 ' New Tubingen School of Theology,' was born on the 
 21st oi June 1792. In 1S17, he became professor in 
 the seminary of Blaubeureii, where he gave the first 
 indications of his remarkable abilities by the publi- 
 cation of his Synilinlixm and Mythology, or the Xaturi - 
 
 religion of the And* nts (Stuttgart, 9 vols., 1824 — 1825), 
 a work which indicates the influence of Schleier- 
 macher over the author. In 1820, he was called to 
 Tubingen, where he held the chair of Protestant 
 theology. His whole life was consecrated to 
 religious studies — the history of doctrines, the 
 Bymbolism of the church, and biblical exegi 
 On account of the universality of las culture, the 
 wonderful activity and fertility of his mind, his 
 rare combination of speculative thought with 
 knowledge, and that faculty of historic divination 
 or insight which enabled him to draw decisive 
 results from separate, obscure, and neglected data 
 - he has been regarded by] many in Germany 
 as the most massive theological intellect since 
 .Schleiermacher. Unlike Bruno Bauer, he made 
 comparatively little use of the Hegelian philosophy 
 in Ins writings; and when he did, it was professedly 
 only that he might more eh ally understand historical 
 phenomena iu their internal spiritual connection, 
 and be enabled to represent the logical process of 
 their development. His method of investigating the 
 progressive history of religious opinion, however, 
 incurred the reproach of formalism from its adver- 
 saries, who said that he applied it, too rigorously, 
 and made dogmas develop themselves with a kind of 
 abstract inevitable regularity from previous histori- 
 cal conditions, without allowing for immediate and 
 extraordinary providences. His most important 
 works in the history of doctrine are — Die chrisUichc 
 Gnosis oder die chrisUiche fieligions/ihilosophie 
 (Tubingen, 1835), (The Christian Gnosis, or the 
 Christian Phdosophy of Religion) ; a work which 
 makes the Christian Gnosis of the 2d and 3d cen- 
 turies the starting-point of a long series of religio- 
 philosophical productions traceable uninterruptedly 
 down through middle-age mysticism and theosophy 
 to Schelling, Hegel, and Schleiermacher; Die chri.4- 
 liche Lelire von der VersOhnung (Tubingen, 1S38), 
 (The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement) ; and Die 
 christtiche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Mensch- 
 werdung Gottcs (Tubingen, 1S41— 1843), (The Christian 
 Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation). In 
 reply to Miihler, the celebrated Roman Catholic 
 theologian, who had attacked the Protestant Church, 
 he wrote Der Gegensal: d<:< Catholicism/at und Protest- 
 antismus (Tubingen, 1836), (The Opposition between 
 Catholicism and Protestantism). Besides these 
 works, based on a historical treatment of religion, 
 to VI liieh class also belongs his Lehrbuch der < 
 lichen Dogmengeschichte (Compendium of the History 
 of Christian Dogmas), (Stuttgart, 1S47), he pub- 
 lished various critical treatises on parts of the New 
 Testament; such as, Die Cliristuspartei in dn- Kor- 
 inthisrhen Gemeinde ; der Gegensatz des Paidinischen 
 und Pelrinischen Chrislenthums ; der Aposlel Petrus 
 in Pome (1831), (The Christ-party in the Corinthian 
 Community; the Opposition of the Pauline and 
 Petrine Christianity; the Apostle Peter in Rome), a 
 work in which the author endeavours to demonstrate 
 the existence of deep-rooted (Inferences in that 
 sphere of primitive Christianity, in which we are 
 accustomed to see nothing but unity and harmony. 
 His inquiries concerning the Gnosis led him to 
 study minutely the pastoral epistles, the residt of 
 which study was Die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe des 
 Apostels Paulus (Stuttgart, 1835), (The So-called 
 Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle Paul), in which he 
 combats the idea that St Paul was their author, 
 and refers them to the 2d c. Of a similar nature
 
 BAUTATN— BAVARLV. 
 
 is his Paulus, dcr Aposlel Jem C'lirisli (Stuttgart, 
 1845), (Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ). II I 
 work on the Gospel of Jolin produced a start- 
 ling effect, as up to B.'s time that gospel had 
 generally been held prior in date to the three 
 synoptic gospels, whereas B. strove hard to shew 
 that it was of post-apostolic origin. In 1847, ap- 
 peared his A 'ermchungen iiber die canon- 
 ICrangelien, ihr VerhuKniss zueinander, ihren 
 Ursprung u 'r (Critical Inquiry Ceo 
 mg the Canonical Gospels ; their Relation to each 
 other; their Origin and Character). In 1851, be 
 published Das Markus-evangelium nach seinem Ur- 
 i und C/iarakter (The Origin and Character of 
 k's l lospel). B. died Dec. 1800. In these and 
 Other works of a similar nature, B. maintained that 
 we must extend our notions of the time within which 
 the canonical writings were composed to a period 
 considerably post-apostolic, and which can only be 
 determined approximately by a careful investigation 
 of the motives which apparently actuated their 
 authors. The chief characteristic, therefore, of the 
 'Tubingen School,' as exhibited in the works of its 
 founder, is, the union of a subjective criticism with 
 a strong conviction of the historic reality of the 
 New Testament writings. The most distinguished 
 adherents of this new school of German theology 
 are Zeller, Schwi gler, Kostlin, and Hilgenfeld. 
 
 I'.AUTAIN, Loris- Euqehb-Mabie, a French 
 philosopher and theologian, born at Paris, February 
 17, 1700. He studied under Cousin at the Normal 
 School. In 1S10, he was appointed professor of 
 philosophy in the College of Strasbourg, and soon 
 
 uisiied himself by the influence ne exerted 
 over the earnest youth of that city, who carried their 
 admiration even to the length of imitating his walk 
 and dress. The religious tendencies of his character, 
 however, not finding a satisfactory expression in 
 philosophy, he threw himself into the arms of the 
 church, and became a priest in 1828. After the 
 events of 1830, he resigned his professorship, which 
 until then he had retained; but his reputation for 
 orthodoxy, never very strong, had been destroyed in 
 the eyes of his bishop by his work La Morale de 
 VEvangUt comparee A la Morale des Philosoplies, 
 published a few years before, and he was in conse- 
 quence suspended from sacred offices for several 
 years, but reinstated in 1S41. In 1838, he was made 
 dean of the Faculty of Letters at Strasbourg, and 
 afterwards director of the College of Juilly. At a 
 still later period, he was translated to Paris, and 
 appointed vicar-general of the metropolitan diocese. 
 In 1848, he attempted to give a religious direction to 
 
 volution. He was selected as one of the 
 professors of the Theological Faculty of Paris, and 
 was an extremely popular preacher. His principal 
 works are — Phuc 
 
 [1839), PhUotophie Moral (1842), PI 
 Christian (1835), La Religion it la 
 
 i (1848), L« Moral it 
 
 (1855). M died in L867. 
 
 BATJ TZEX, or, in official language, BUDI 
 capital of the circle of the me, kingdom 
 
 of Saxony. It has a population (1871) of 13,165, 
 including many II. nclt, remnants of the old \ andals, 
 It is situated on a rising ground overlooking the 
 river Spree, and is the seat of the chief offices of 
 justice in the circle, which has a population 
 (ls7 1 1 of 330433, including 30,000 Wends. It 
 has several churches, a royal palace — formerly 
 the residence of the niaikgrafs of Meissen — 
 numerous schools, and two public libraries and 
 an hospital The chief branches of industry 
 are manufactures of woollens, fustian, linen, hi 
 
 leather, and H. i< a place of con- 
 
 siderable antiquity, and was known in the time 
 of II nry I. (931), but was first made a town 
 under Otho I. Its several privileges, and the repu- 
 tation of certain holy relics preserved in St Peter's 
 Church, made the place important. It suffered 
 greatly in the war with the Hussites, and still more 
 the Thirty Years' War. Meissner, tho poet, 
 1 in 1806, was born here. B., however, is 
 chiefly celebrated as the place where Napoleon, with 
 an army of 150,000.men, after an obstinate resistance, 
 won a barren victory over 90,000 of the allied Rus- 
 sians and Prussians, May 20—21, 1813. The allies 
 lost in the two days 15,000 in killed and wounded ; 
 in addition to 1500 prisoners, mostly wounded, which 
 the French captured. The French left 5000 dead 
 upon the field, and upwards of 20,000 were wounded. 
 ■ ■suit of the battle, and the splendid retreat of 
 the allies, were most disheartening to the French 
 army, and even to Napoleon himself. 
 
 BAVA'RIA (Ger. Baiern, and officially, Bayern), 
 one of the states of the German empire ; according 
 to its size, the second in importance. B. is di 
 into two unequal parts, which are separated by the 
 and Hesse-Darmstadt dominions. The east- 
 ern portion, comprising fully eleven-twelfths of the 
 whole, is situated between lat. 47 s 20', and "><)' 
 41 X., and long. 9° and 13' 4S' E. It is bounded 
 X. by tie; Prussian province of Hesse-X'assau, the 
 Thuringian principalities, and the kingdom of 
 Saxony; E., by Bohemia and Austria; S., by the 
 Tyrol; and W., by Wurtemberg, Baden, and the 
 Grand Duchy of Hesse. /The western part, occupy- 
 ing the Rhine Palatinate, on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, lies between lat. 48° 57' and 49° 50' N., and 
 between 7° 5' and 8° 27' E. Rhenish Prussia, the 
 Grand Duchy of Hesse, and Baden bound it on the 
 W., X., and E, and France on the S. 
 
 B. is divided into eight circles, as follows : 
 
 Circle. 
 
 Upper DaTBrta, 
 Lower Bavaria, 
 Palatinate, .... 
 
 Upper Franconla, 
 
 Middle Franconi.i, . 
 
 I ranconia. 
 Swabla and Newbury, . 
 
 Military in France, 
 Total, 
 
 Are, la tq. miles. Pop. In tsri. 
 
 6,493 
 
 3.CT9 
 
 •.••.■14 
 3,409 
 3.M8 
 
 Ml." - 
 
 I. "J.".'-. 
 
 $1.1,10* 
 583.417 
 
 5M,in 
 
 53J.S33 
 1J86M03 
 
 Surface, Hydrography, Railways, &c. — B. may be 
 described as a mountainous country. It is walled 
 in on the south-east, north-east, and north-west by 
 mountains ranging from .'!IHM> feet to upwards of 
 10,000 feet in height. The highest elevation is 
 reached on the south, the Zugspitz of the Noric Alps 
 being 10,150 feet high. On the east, the highest 
 I f the Bohmerwald, dividing B. from Bohemia, 
 are the Arber and liachelberg, which are respectively 
 4613 feet and ljl.l feet high. On the north-cast, the 
 Schneeberg, in the Fichtelgebirge range, attains a 
 height of ;>4S1 feet A branch of this chain, which 
 is connected on the north-west with the Thuringer- 
 : rtends south between the rivers Regnitzand 
 Vils. TheRhtJngebirge, the greatest height of which is 
 3000 feet, forms the northernmost chain of Bavaria. 
 In the Rhino Palatinate, the principal mountain 
 is the Hardt, whose culminating peak is about 2300 
 feet high. In the interior, B. is intersected in 
 
 us by various less elevated ranges, alternat- 
 ing with extensive plains and fertile valleys. B. is 
 rich in wood, nearly one-third of its surface being 
 1 with forests, mostly of pine and lir. 
 
 As to Hafa/drog . B. has the Rhine flowing 
 
 along the whole eastern boundary of the circle of
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 the Palatinate, which is also watered Ivy the Speyer. 
 the Lauter, and the Queich. The Danube enters 
 B. Proper at Ulm, where it is joined by the Dler, 
 and pursues its course in an east-north-east direction 
 through the centre of the country, until it passes 
 out at Passau into the Austrian dominions. Includ 
 ing its windings, the length of the Danube in B. 
 is about -Til miles, which can be navigated through- 
 out. In its passage through B., it receives no fewer 
 than 88 rivers, tin- chii f of w ln.-li, en the right hank, 
 are. besides the Dler, already mentioned, the Lech, 
 the Isar, ( and the Inn; and on the left, the Wornitz, 
 the Altmiihl, the Kocher, the Naab, the Be ;en, 
 and the Ilz. The north part of B. is in the ba in oi 
 the Main, which, rising in the north, flows with 
 many windings through the kingdom in a south- 
 west direction to the Rhine, with which it unites 
 at Mayence. Its most important tributaries are the 
 Regnitz, the Rodach. the Tauber, and the Saalc. 
 B. has several lakes, the principal of which are the 
 Chiem, which has a circumference of 85 miles ; the 
 Wurm, with a length of 14 miles, and a breadth 
 of 4 miles; and the Ammer, with a circuit of 27 
 miles. These lakes are situated in the south, at the 
 foot of the northern slope of the Noric Alps. A 
 corner of Lake Constance also belongs to Bavaria. 
 The lakes and rivers abound in fish. There are 
 a few canals in the country, the most important 
 of which is the Ludwiijs-K 'mini, which, taking 
 advantage of the rivers Main, Regnitz, and Altmiihl, 
 unites the Rhine and Danube, and through them, 
 the German Ocean with the Black Sea. This canal 
 was executed by government at a cost of upwards of 
 £800,000. B. has altogether about 1000 miles of 
 railway in operation. The longest is that between 
 Augsburg and Lindau on Lake Constance, a distance 
 of 80 miles. These lines join Munich with Augs- 
 burg, Donauworth, Nurnberg, Bamberg, Ulm, and 
 Kufstein. B. has nearly 6000 miles of public roads, 
 and over 1400 of telegraphs. 
 
 Climate, Soil, Products, &e.— The temperature of 
 B. varies considerably, being cold and bleak in the 
 mountainous regions, and very hot in summer 
 in the plains and valleys. The climate may be 
 described generally, however, as mdd and salubrious. 
 The soil, particularly in the valleys of the Upper 
 and Lower Danube, is very fertile, second to none 
 in Central Germany ; but its capabilities as yet have 
 not been fully developed, although even now the 
 wealth of the country consists almost whoDy of 
 its agricultural produce. The plain south of Munich 
 has been described as the granary of Germany, in 
 consequence of its great productiveness, while the 
 circles of Upper and Middle Franconia are styled 
 the hop-garden of Bavaria. Wheat, rye, oats, and 
 barley are the chief articles of produce, but buck- 
 wheat, maize, and rice are also grown to a small 
 extent. The vine, as well as the hop-plant, is culti- 
 vated extensively in Franconia, and the wine is held 
 in great esteem. Rhenish B. also produces good 
 wine. The quantity annually produced in B. is 
 estimated at upwards of 9,0(10,000 gallons. Fruit, 
 tobacco, flax, hemp, linseed, liquorice, and beet-root 
 are cultivated. Cattle - rearing forms the exclu- 
 sive occupation of the inhabitants on the slopes 
 and at the foot of the Alps, pasturage being found 
 at an elevation of 8500 feet. Sheep, goats, and 
 pigs are reared in Middle and Upper Franconia, 
 and horses chiefly in Upper B. and Swabia, but the 
 live-stock is far from being adequate to the extent 
 and capacity of the country. The forests of B. 
 annually furnish large quantities of timber. The 
 soil is rich in mineral wealth, which as yet has not 
 been drawn upon to anything like its full extent. 
 The chief minerals are salt— which is a government 
 monopoly, and obtained by evaporation, principally 
 
 from the rich mines in the south-east comer of the 
 Alps — coal, and iron, which is worked almost every- 
 where throughout the territory. In Rhenish B., 
 copper, manganese, mercury, and cobalt are found; 
 quii 1. -ilver and black-lead are obtained in seme 
 places ; marble in great variety is common, se also 
 are gypsum, alabaster, and some of the finest porce- 
 lain clay in Europe. 
 
 Manufactures, eve. — The manufacturing industry 
 of B., like its agriculture, is generally in an unde- 
 veloped state, and not centered in the hands of 
 capitalists, who can largely take advantage of new 
 inventions to prosecute it with energy and success, but 
 distributed among numerous small manufacturers. 
 
 This is not the ease with beer, the manufacture of 
 
 which is carried to great perfection in B., and to an 
 extent, if we take population into account, quite 
 unparalleled in Europe. There are upwards of 
 6000 breweries in B., making nearly 156 million 
 gallons of beer annually, which are mainly con- 
 sumed in the country, the quantity of beer that a 
 Bavarian can imbibe being quite marvellous. Nearly 
 two-thirds of the revenue of the state are said to 
 be derived from this source alone. Next to beer, 
 coarse linen is the most important product of manu- 
 facturing industry, ami of late years some consider- 
 able cotton-factories have been erected; but the 
 supply of cotton, woollen, and worsted goods is ret 
 eipial to the home consumption. Leather is pretty 
 extensively manufactured, so also are paper, articles 
 of straw and wood, porcelain, glass, nails, needles, 
 jewellery, beet-root, sugar, and tobacco. The 
 mathematical and optical instruments of Munich 
 are held in high repute. The exports consist of 
 timber, grain, wine, cattle, wool, salt, hops, fruits, 
 beer, leather, glass, jewellery, optical and mathe- 
 matical instruments, butter, cheese, &c. The annual 
 value of these is estimated at about £1,500,000. The 
 principal imports are sugar, coffee, woollens, silks, 
 stuffs, drugs, hemp, and tlax. The position of B. 
 gives it the transit trade between North Germany 
 and Austria, Switzerland and Italy. 
 
 Po/ndntion, H'liijiou, Education. — The growth of 
 the population of B. is much checked by the regula- 
 tions which relate to marriages. No marriage can 
 take place until the authorities who superintend the 
 relief of the poor are fully satisfied that the persons 
 wishing to marry have adequate means to support 
 a wife and family; and certain military obliga- 
 tions have also to be fulfilled before a man can 
 enter into wedlock. These restrictive laws have 
 another consequence besides that of preventing a 
 rapid increase of the population; they have ten- led 
 to increase inordinately the number of illegitimate 
 children. B. has a very bad pre-eminence in this 
 respect on the continent. In the capital, the illegiti- 
 mate births about equal the legitimate; and over 
 the whole kingdom the proportion ranges from 1 in 
 45 to 1 in 5 of the total births, equal to a percentage 
 of from 22.J to 20 illegitimate births. In 1817, 
 the population was 3,564,757; in 1833, 4,187,390; 
 and in 1S55, it had only increased to 4,541.5."!!. 
 During recent years, however, the increase has been 
 more rapid, the population in 1864 amounting to 
 4,807,440 ; and in 1871, to 4,861,402. The Bavarians, 
 net withstanding their beer-bibbing propensity, are 
 essentially a sober and industrious people. Though 
 all of German origin, they differ materially in 
 character. The Franconians are intelligent, dili- 
 gent, and steady; the Swabians, good-naturedly 
 indolent ; and the inhabitants of the Palatinate, 
 lively and enterprising; while the Bavarians proper 
 are dull and superstitious. 
 
 As to religion, in 1807, the Roman Catholics 
 numbered 3,441,029; Protestants, 1,328,713; dews, 
 49,840; and other minor sects, 4S3U. The state
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 allow-! perfect toleration, guaranteeing the same 
 civil rights to Catholic and Protestant alike. 
 I ii. i i \ ii luals of every sect have the privilege of 
 worshipping privately without fear of molestation; 
 and "ii application t" the king by a sufficient 
 mnnber of I right of public worshi 
 
 be secured. A concordat with Rome dividi 
 
 into 2 archb and bishoprics. The 
 
 mries of Anspach, Bain-nth, and Speyer, under 
 the superior consistory of Munich, govern the 
 Lutheran Church, the Munich consistory being in 
 some degree subject to a section in the home depart- 
 ment, which manages 1 I concerns 
 the churches. The president of t he Munich consistory 
 has a seat and vote in the council of the state. The 
 revenues of the Church of Koine I from 
 lands and endowments, the Protestant i hurch is sup- 
 ported by the state. Of late, the Bavarian govern- 
 ment has become conspicuous by opposing the 
 Ultramontanes, and encouraging the 'Old Catholics.' 
 
 B. has a good system of education, under the 
 supreme direction of a minister of public instruc- 
 tion, to whom certain members of the provincial 
 governments, specially instructed to watch the edu- 
 i I interests of the communities, are subordi- 
 nate. They, again, have numerous inspectors under 
 tli in, who make systematic reports as to the state 
 of education in the country. It is obligatory on all 
 children, whose parents have not received permis- 
 sion to have them educated at home, to attend 
 School until they are 14 years of age, and they are 
 then required to attend a Sunday school for two 
 years longer. B. has three universities, Munich and 
 WUrzburg, which are Catholic, and Erlangen, Pro- 
 testant. These universities arc well attended both 
 by natives and foreigners. Munich has the greatest 
 both at home and abroad, Erlangi n the least. 
 l no are numerous schools for special instruction 
 in the kingdom. 
 
 Government, Revenue, &c. — B. is a constitutional 
 monarchy, the throne hereditary in the male line. 
 Its constitution dates no further back than 1818, 
 when it was declared a part of confederated 
 Germany. The king is the executive. The legis- 
 lature consists of a chamber of senators, and one of 
 deputies. The senators are hereditary, the king, 
 however, having the power, within certain limits, 
 to Dominate members for life. The Chamber of 
 Deputii of five different classes — one-eighth 
 
 of the whole members being chosen from landed 
 proprietors, who exercise judicial powers in right 
 of their property, and have no seat in the upper 
 . another eighth from ecclesiastics of the 
 Protestant and Raman Catholic churches; a fourth 
 from the inhabitants of cities and market towns ; 
 and a half from lauded proprietors who neither 
 i judicial rights, nor a seat in the other 
 
 chamber. There are, besides, three members from 
 the universities — one from each. There is one 
 member in the Chamber of Deputies for every 7000 
 
 families, or 35,000 inhabitants. In the c\ 
 there not being a dissolution, the chamber lasts for 
 Bix years. The usual length of the annual se 
 two months. The chambers, in ordinary circum- 
 . meet once a year for the dispatch of busi- 
 ness, and it is compulsory on the king to summon 
 them once in three years. No deliberation can 
 take place onli I two-thirds of the deputies are 
 I ii. All matters relating to public bio 
 
 &e., come first under the consideration of the 
 
 Chamber of Deputies; with reference to other 
 questions, the king exercises his own discretion as 
 to which chamber shall tirst discuss them. No 
 
 alteration in taxation, and no new law, can be pro- 
 mulgated without the consent of the legislature; 
 but the royal prerogative is loosely dctincd. 
 
 The cabinet consists of so 
 tie- departments of foreign affairs, justice, home 
 
 . public worship and in tmd On, 
 meroe, and public works and war. They are not 
 
 arily members of the chambers, though they 
 are privileged to be pn ent at the deliben I 
 
 'lie- privy council is composed of the king, certain 
 royal print ee, the mini ters ■ ■ uncil- 
 
 ininated by the king. 
 
 The i B. in 1871 unonnte 1 1 
 
 florins of the B which 10,330,000 
 
 florins were raised by direct taxation, 27,765,155 
 florins by indirect taxation, the rest chiefly from 
 domains and state' monopolies. The i 
 during the same year amounted to 87,1 1 1,606 llorins 
 | .7.202.050). The interest on th I debt 
 
 swallowed up about .'il per cent, of the whole 
 expenditure; the army, 22] per cent.; and the 
 educational establishments, about 19} percent. In 
 IsT", the public debt amounted to 
 florins (£35,440,290), 163, 12 
 
 tei i 1 for railways. In 1858, the public debt was 
 122,839,495 florins, and the debt on railways was 
 88,643,834 florins. 
 
 The raising of the arm;/ of B. was in 1871 adapted 
 to the Prussian method of conscription, as was also 
 that of all the states of the empire. Every Bavarian 
 is liable to service for seven years, and no substitu- 
 tion is allowed. The pi riod of active service is four 
 years, the remaining tin ■ pent in the army 
 
 of reserve ; and the soldier, after (putting the 
 reserve, is bound to serve other five years in the 
 Landwehr. When B., in November 1870, b 
 one of the kingdoms of the German empire, her 
 army, on the established conditions of its formation, 
 was enrolled as the second corps of the imperial 
 army, consisting of two divisions, under the com- 
 ii! in I of the king of B. in times of peace, Cut 
 controlled bytlieeiuperiii-.it Germany in war. On 
 the peace-footing, the infantry consists of 10 
 ments, 48 battalions, '20,708 men in all. Thei 
 10 battalions of cavalry, consisting of 5540; and 
 32 battalions of Landwehr, made up of 51 _' 
 each; the entire number of men being thus 32 
 The war-footing is, of course, on a much I 
 scale. 
 
 History. — The Boii, a race of Celtic origin, 
 the first inhabitants of 1 - : whom tradition 
 furnishes any account. Prom them. H I 
 nam.-. Baiern, as well as its old Latin name. Boiaria, 
 is said to have been derived. They 
 have conquered the country about oik i B.C., and 
 
 they retained it until shortly before the Chi 
 
 era, when they wire subjugated by the B 
 
 the country being made an integral part of the 
 
 Roman empire, under the names of Vindelieia 
 
 and Xorieuin. After the decay of the Roman 
 
 power, the Ostrogoths and Franks successively held 
 
 possession of it, until Charlemagne com 
 Aft.-r his d.-ath, it was governed by lieutenai 
 the Frank and German kings, until ld7", when it 
 passed into possession of the Guelph family; and it 
 nsferled by imperial grant, in 1 I so, to Otho, 
 
 Count of Wittlesbacn, whose descendant now 
 s the throne. The Rhenish Palatinate was 
 
 conferred on tins family by tie Emperor Frederick 
 ill. in 1216. Now followed quarrels between rela- 
 
 iid divisions of territory, until the dnk 
 of B. v I from the Rhi nisi 
 
 Palatinates (see Patau the latter, how- 
 
 ever, it repossessed itself in 1021- the peace of 
 Westphalia, in 101S. confirming the title of its 
 princes to Uial on, as well as its right to the 
 
 electoral dignity to which it had bun raised in 
 1624. In the war of the Spanish Succession, B. 
 supported France, and suffered considerably in
 
 BAVARIA— BAXTER. 
 
 consequence; but in 1777, ou the extinction of the 
 younger Wittlesbach line, it received the accession 
 of the Rhine Palatinate. In 1805, B. was erected 
 a kingdom by Napoleon I. The king assisted 
 Napoleon in his wars, and in consideration of his 
 aid received large additions of territory. In 1813, 
 however, the Bavarian king opportunely contrived 
 to change sides, and thus managed to have con- 
 firmed to him, by the treaties of 1814 — 1S15, an 
 extent of territory nearly as valuable as the posses- 
 sions which the treaties of l'reslmrg and Vienna had 
 given him, and which he had now to restore to 
 Austria. 
 
 In ISIS, as already intimated, the new constitu- 
 tion came into existence, but owing to various 
 causes, it did not secure that measure of popular 
 he,. lom and contentment that had been expected. 
 In 1S25, Louis I. ascended the throne. He was 
 a well-meaning, liberal, and intellectual monarch, 
 and was favourable to the liberty of the people 
 and the press ; but he lavished the wealth of the 
 kingdom to an extravagant degree on the end ii II b 
 ment of the capital, and on works of art, while lie 
 neglected to a considerable extent works of practi- 
 cal value, that would have tended to enrich the 
 country, diminish the public burdens, and conse- 
 quently increase the welfare of his people. In 1830, 
 a wave from the French revolution swept over the 
 country, disturbing its equanimity, but not to any 
 Berii ins extent. The Bavarian government, how ever, 
 took alarm, and restricted the freedom of the press. 
 These restrictions excited so much opposition, that 
 they were soon after rescinded, but new dissatisfac- 
 tion was created by the imposition of new taxes. 
 The Jesuits now obtained an immense influence with 
 the king, which they used to the detriment of popu- 
 lar rights. The wrath of the people was further 
 aroused against their monarch by his connection 
 with the notorious Lola Montez, who was looked 
 upon as an agent of the Ultramontanists — an 
 imputation which that lady, in her autobiography, 
 published in 1S5S, indignantly repudiates, maintain- 
 ing that she was the inveterate enemy of that party, 
 and the true friend of the people. In March 1848, 
 following the example set by the French revolution- 
 ists, the people of Munich seized the arsenal, and 
 demanded reforms and the expulsion of Lola 
 Montez. The king had to consent; but in the 
 same month he abdicated his throne, in accordance, 
 says Lola Montez, with a promise made by him to 
 her. His son, Maximilian II., ascended the throne. 
 He died in 1S04 ; and Louis II., a distinguished 
 patron of Wagner, the great musician, now (1873) 
 reigns. See Germasty, in Sutp. 
 
 BAVA'RIA, a colossal female statue at Munich, 
 which bears the name of the country of which it 
 is a personification, is said to be second in size only 
 to the famous Colossus of Rhodes. It was erected 
 by King Louis I., the model having been executed 
 by Schwanthaler. Externally, the figure bears a 
 German aspect. A long folding garment reaches from 
 the middle to the naked foot ; over the half-naked 
 breast a skin is cast, and the hair falls freely over 
 the back. The brow is adorned with sprigs of oak ; 
 in the left hand, which is raised, she holds a 
 wreath of oak; and in the right, which is bent 
 towards the breast, a sword ; at her side reposes the 
 Bavarian lion, the guardian of her kingdom, in a 
 sitting attitude. The statue is C5 feet high, the 
 pedestal being 30, so that the whole monument has 
 a height of 95 feet. The statue was cast from the 
 bronze of Turkish and Norwegian cannon. Inter- 
 nally, it is very remarkable. Through the back 
 part of the pedestal, a door leads to a stone stair- 
 case, consisting of 60 steps. The figure itself is 
 hollow, and resembles a mine, with side-passages 
 
 762 
 
 which lead into the lion. A staircase of cast iron, 
 of 58 steps, leads through the neck up into the head, 
 where there are two sofas, and several openings for 
 the enjoyment of the view. At the highest part of 
 the head, there is the following inscription : 'Tins 
 Colossal figure, erected by Louis I., King of Bavaria, 
 was designed and modelled by L. von Schwanthaler, 
 and east in bronze, in the years 1844 to 1850, by 
 Ferdinand Miller.' The head contains standing- 
 room for thirty-one persons. Tho whole figure 
 consists of seven pieces, and the lion, of five. The 
 monument was formally uncovered, amidst great 
 rejoicings, on the 7th August 1S50. 
 
 BA'VINS, in the pyrotechny of warfare, are small 
 bundles of easdy ignited brushwood, from two to 
 three feet in length. They are made by arrai 
 the bush-ends of the twigs all in one din 
 tying tho other ends with small cord, dipping the 
 bush-ends into a kettle containing an inllanmiable 
 composition, and drying them. They are employed 
 among the combustible materials in lire-ships. 
 
 BAWBEE', or BA'BEE', the popular designation 
 of a half-penny in Scotland, now dropping out of 
 use. The origin of the term is obscure ; but it 
 is most probably a corruption of has billon, Fr., 
 applicable to debased copper money. In the plural 
 form, the word is often popularly used in Scotland 
 to signify money generally. In Scottish song, B. 
 is synonymous with a girl's fortune or marriage- 
 portion — as, Jenny's Bawbee. 
 
 BA'XTER, Richakd, one of the most eminent of 
 the Nonconformist divines, was born, November 12, 
 1 015, of poor but genteel parents, at Rowton, in Shrop- 
 shire. His early education was somewhat neglected. 
 Instead of attending, as he wished, one of the uni- 
 versities, he was obliged to content himself with a 
 course of private study, in the midst of which he 
 was induced, singularly enough, for he was habit- 
 ually serious, to try his fortune at court. Hither 
 he accordingly hied, fortified with an introduction 
 to the Master of the Revels. A month sufficed 
 to convince liim that he was out of his element at 
 Whitehall, and a protracted illness after his return 
 helped to deepen the earnestness of his religious 
 convictions. Soon after, at the age of 23, he 
 ordained, and entered on the Mastership of Dudley 
 Grammar School, from which he removed to act as 
 assistant to a clergyman at Bridgenorth, where he 
 resided nearly two years. In 1640, he was invited 
 to become parish clergyman of Kidderminster, an 
 offer which he accepted; and within a compar- 
 atively brief period, not only did he establish his 
 reputation as one of the most remarkable preachers 
 of the time, but what was better, succeeded in 
 effecting a wonderful improvement in the manners of 
 the people. On the breaking out of the civil war, 
 his position became somewhat peculiar. Sincerely 
 attached to monarchy, his religious sympathies were 
 almost wholly with the Puritans ; and though a 
 Presbyterian in principle, he was far from admitting 
 the unlawfulness of episcopacy. These views, which, 
 some time before the Restoration, became extremely 
 popular, were now too catholic for the general taste, 
 and the open respect shewn by Baxter to some 
 leading Puritans exposed him to some danger from 
 the mob. He accordingly retired to Coventry, 
 where he ministered for two years to the garrison 
 and inhabitants. He afterwards accepted the office 
 of chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment, and waa 
 even present at the sieges of Bridgewater, Exeter, 
 Bristol, and Worcester. His influence was at all 
 times exerted to modify the intolerance of partisan- 
 ship, and to promote 'the spirit of love and of a 
 sound mind.' On the urgent invitation of his parish- 
 ioners, he returned to Kidderminster, when ill
 
 BAXTERIANS— BAYA. 
 
 health forced him to leave the army, and continued 
 to labour there for some time. Doling Una 
 period, he greatly extended his fame by the pub- 
 notion of his .Saints' Best and Call to the Uncon- 
 verted. He never dissembled his sentiments with 
 i I to the execution of the king and the usur- 
 pation of Cromwell, even in the presence of the 
 i , who endeavoured, without success, 
 t<> enlarge his ideas on the subject of revolutions. 
 On tho return of Charles, B. was appointed one 
 of iiis chaplains, and took a leading part in tho con- 
 ference held at tin' Savoy to attempt a reconciliation 
 between the contending church factions, a project 
 defeated by tho bigoted obstinacy of the bi 
 J;, was tempted with the offer of the see of Hereford, 
 but declined the honour, praying instead to be per- 
 mitted to return to his beloved flock at Kidder- 
 minster, lie asked no salary, but his request Was 
 1. The Act of Uniformity at length drove 
 him out of the English Church, and in July 1GG3 he 
 retired to Acton, iu Middlesex, where he spent the 
 i- part of nine years, chiefly occupied in the 
 composition of some of the most important of his 
 numerous works. These he produced with a rapid- 
 ity unparalleled in modern generations, at least in 
 this one respect, that the quality was not always 
 in the inverse ratio of the quantity. The Act of 
 Indulgence in 107- permitted him to return to 
 London, where he divided his time between preach- 
 ing aud writing. At length, in 1GS5, he fell into 
 the brutal clutches of Judge Jefferies, who con- 
 demned him, for alleged 'sedition' in his Paraphrase 
 of the New Testament, to pay a line of SKI marks, 
 and in defaidt, to lie in the King's Bench Prison till 
 it was paid. The circumstances of the trial are 
 graphically described by Macaulay in the second 
 volume of his History. After a confinement of 
 nearly eighteen months, B. was released and par- 
 doned, on the mediation of Lord Powis. He lived 
 after this to see better times, and died on the 8th 
 December 1G91, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. 
 
 B. is said to have preached more sermons, en 
 in more controversies, and written more books 
 than any other Nonconformist of his age; and Dr 
 Isaac Barrow has said of him, that 'his practical 
 writings were never mended, and his controversial 
 Eeldom confuted.' Tho total number of his publi- 
 cations exceeded 1G0. Of these, by far the most 
 popular and celebrated are his Saints 1 Rest, Call to 
 tlte Unconverted, and Dying Thoughts — 20,000 copies 
 of which were sold in a twelvemonth, and it was 
 translated into all European languages. More import- 
 ant, however, in a theological point of view, are his 
 Jti thodus Theologian and Catholic Theologij, in which 
 his peculiar system — a compromise between Arinin- 
 ius and Calvin — is embodied. Hia autobiographical 
 narrative is historically valuable ; the review of his 
 religious opinions is spoken of by Coleridge as one 
 of the most remarkable pieces of writing in r< I 
 literature. A complete edition of hi3 works, in 
 25 vols., with a life by Orme, was published in 
 1830. His Practical Works, in 4 vols., were pub- 
 lished iu 1S47. 
 
 BAXTE'RIANS is the term that was formerly 
 applied to those who adhered to Baxter's theo- 
 logical system, the peculiar doctrines of which were: 
 1st, That though Christ died in a special sense 
 for the elect, yet he also died in a general sense 
 for all ; 2d, The rejection of the dogma of reproba- 
 tion; 3d, That it is possiblo even for saints to 
 fall away from saving grace. Tho tendency of 
 .; \ e\\s was towards a more liberal theology, 
 but they are deficient in logical consistency. Never- 
 thi less, they have been, ami still are. embraced by 
 many pious people — especially among the dissenters 
 — who shrink from accepting what they consider 
 
 the hard conclusions of Calvinism, or the latitu- 
 dinarian views of Arminianism. The two most 
 eminent B. are Dr Isaac Watts aud Dr Philip 
 Doddridge. 
 
 BAY (from a Saxon root, 'to bend') is properly 
 1 to an indentation of the sea into the land, 
 with an opening wider than the depth. A gulf is 
 understood to be deeper than a bay, and has o] 
 narrow opening. These terms are often lo 
 applied ; Baffin s Bay, e.g., is really a gulf. When 
 the body of water is large, and the entrance narrow, 
 it becomes a shut .sea. as the Baltic, the Bed Sea, 
 &c. Hudson's Bay, the Persian Gulf, and the Gulf 
 :ico, might with propriety be termed seas. 
 
 BAY, a name given to a number of trees and 
 shrubs more or less resembling the Laurel or Vic- 
 tor's Laurel (Lain i, which is also i 
 Sweet Bay (see Laubkl); the name Bayt, which 
 was once exclusively applied to the fruit, having 
 been extended to the whole plant. The Common 
 Laurel or Cherry Laurel (Prvmu Laurocerasus) is 
 sometimes called Bay Lai kki.. Bee Lai ki.i. — The 
 Ran Bay of the southern states of America is 
 Caroliniensis. See Laurel. — The WHITE 
 Bay of America is Magnolia glauca (see MajONOI i \ I, 
 and the LOBLOLLY Bay of the same country is 
 Oordc See Gordonia. 
 
 From early times, bay-leaves have been associated 
 with popular superstitions and usages. Along with 
 other evergreens, they have adorned houses and 
 churches at Christmas; and in token of rejoicing or 
 of some meritorious deed, sprigs of bay, as well as 
 of laurel, have been worn in the hat, or WTeathed 
 around the head. There appears to have' 1 
 notion that the B. was an ant u i ■ 
 of thunder. In an old play, The While Devil, 
 Cornelia says : 
 
 ' Reach the bays : 
 I'll tie a garland here about his head, 
 'Twill keep my boy from lightning.' 
 
 According to Shakspeare, the withering of bay-trees 
 was reckoned an omen of death. Thus Richard says : 
 
 ' 'Tis thought the king is dead ; we'll not 
 The bay-trues in our country are withered.' 
 
 The following passage occurs in Parkinson's Garden 
 of Ploin rs. 1629, p. 898: 'The bay-leaves are neces- 
 sary both for evil uses and for physic, both for the 
 sick and for the sound, both for the living and the 
 dead. It serveth to adorn the house of < I 
 as man ; to crOwne or enriche, as with a garland, the 
 heads of the living; and to strike and decke forth 
 the bodies of the dead ; so that from the cradle to 
 the grave, we have still use of it, we have still need 
 of it.' For other notices of this kind respectim: the 
 1'.., we refer to Brand's Popular Antiquities, also to 
 Hone's Year Boole. Bay-Live! are sometimes used 
 in cookery for the sake of flavouring. 
 
 BAY ISLANDS, a small group in the Bay of 
 Honduras, about 150 miles to the south-east of 
 Balize, embracing only 25' of lafc, and 1° 15' o 
 The cluster was proclaimed a British colony in 1 852. 
 The chief island is Ruatan (q. v.) ; and the others 
 of any consequence are Bonacca, L'tila, Burburet, 
 t ; and Marat 
 
 BAY OF ISLANDS, near the northern extrem- 
 ity of New Ulster, the more northerly of the New 
 Zealand Isles. Lat 35° 14' S., long. 174" 11' E. On 
 its coasts, which are pretty nearly the antipodes of 
 the Straits of Gibraltar, are the British settlements 
 of Russell and Kororarika. 
 
 BA'YA (Ploceus Philippinus), a small East Indian 
 bird, of the great family of the Fringillid<T (q. v.). 
 and of a genus to some of which, from their remark- 
 able manner of constructing their nests, the name 
 
 763
 
 BAY A DE R ES-B A YARD. 
 
 Weaver Bird (q.v.) is often given. It is described 
 by the older ornithologists under the name of tliL- 
 Philippine Groe beak, or £ Philippines It is 
 
 yellow, spotted with brown, the throat black, the 
 beak conical ami large. Its nest is very curious. 
 Suspended from a slender twig of a lofty branch, so 
 that monkeys, squirrels, and serpents may not reach 
 it, it is rendered still more secure l>y its form, which 
 
 very like that of a common Florence llask, the 
 entrance, however, being from beneath, and not 
 from above, with lateral openings to separate cham- 
 bers, in one of which the female sits upon the eggs, 
 whilst another is occupied by the male, who there 
 pours forth his song. It is composed of fine fibres 
 of leaves and grass The B. is very easily tamed, 
 will perch on the hand, and can be trained to fetch 
 and carry at command. 
 
 BAYADE'RES (from the Portuguese bculaddra, 
 that is, dancing-girl) is the name given by Euro- 
 peans to the dancing-girls and singers in India, who 
 are divided into two great classes, each comprising 
 many subdivisions. The first of these class. 
 are called Devadasi — that is, slaves to the gods — 
 are divided into two distinct grades, according to 
 the rank of the families whence they have sprung, 
 the dignity of the idol to which they are devoted, 
 and the authority and riches of the temple to which 
 they belong. Those of the first rank are chosen 
 from the most iutiuential families of the Vaisya 
 caste, to which the rich landed proprietors and 
 merchants belong. Those of the second class air 
 chosen from the chief Sudra families, who correspond 
 to our mechanics. No girls can be admitted among 
 the Devadasis but such as are still in childhood, 
 and free from any bodily defect. The parents of the 
 girl must renounce by a solemn agreement all right 
 to their child, who then receives the necessary 
 instruction. The employment of the Devadasis is 
 to sing the praises of their god at festivals and 
 solemn processions, to celebrate his victories and 
 great deeds, and to dance before him, to weave the 
 wreaths with which the images are adorned, and in 
 general to perform subordinate offices in the temple 
 ami for the priests. On the other hand, they are 
 excluded from the celebration of such rites and 
 ceremonies as are accounted peculiarly sacred, 
 for example, at sacrifices for the dead, suttis, &c. 
 The Devadasis of the first rank live within the 
 enclosure of the temple, which they arc not per- 
 mitted to leave without the special permission of 
 the high priest. They must remain unmarried for 
 life, but are, notwithstanding, permitted to choose a 
 lover, either in or out of the temple, provided he 
 belongs to one of the high castes. A connection 
 with a man of low rank woidd be punished with the 
 utmost severity. If they have children, the girls 
 are brought up to their mother's profession, and the 
 boys are educated for musicians. The Devadasis of 
 the second rank differ but little from those of the 
 first, but they have more freedom, as they live 
 without the temple. A certain number of them must 
 attend daily at the temple service, but at public 
 processions they are all obliged to appear. They 
 not only dance and sing before the images — for 
 which they receive a fixed allowance of rice-money — 
 but when summoned by the nobles, they perform at 
 marriages, banquets, &c. All the Devadasis rever- 
 ence, as their special patroness and protectress, the 
 goddess Rambha, one of the most beautiful dancers 
 in the paradise of Indra. They bring a yearly 
 offering in spring to her and to the god of love. 
 The singing-girls who travel about the country are 
 of an essentially different class from the Devadasis. 
 They perform only at private feasts, entertain 
 strangers in the tschultris, or public inns, and get 
 different names according to the special arts in 
 
 which they excel. Some of them live independently 
 in bands, consisting of from IK to 1- persons. They 
 travel about the country, and divide their gains 
 with the musicians who accompany them. (Minis 
 are under the authority of den/an, or old dancing- 
 women, who receive all the money tlicy gain, and 
 give the girls only enough for food and clot Inn . 
 .Some are really the slaves of such old women, who 
 have procured them in their infancy either by pur- 
 chase or by capture, and have instructed tin in in 
 their art. To one of these classes belonged those 
 B. who visited several of the European capitals in 
 1S39. The costume of the B. is not without a cer- 
 tain alluring charm. Their dances do not resemble 
 what we are accustomed to call dancing, but are 
 rather a species of pantomime, which is explained 
 by the sougs recited by the accompanying musi- 
 cians. The themes of these songs are usually either 
 happy or despairing love, jealousy, &c. Europeans 
 have spoken with much enthusiasm of the charms 
 of these pantomimes ; but to judge by the perform- 
 ances of the above-mentioned B. during their visit 
 to Europe, these descriptions must be looked upon as 
 very much exaggerated ; for although these dancers 
 possessed great physical ability, their movements 
 were wanting in dignity and grace. 
 
 BAYARD, Piekke Btr Tebrail, Chevalti 
 knight sans pcitr ct sans reproche, born 1470. at ( lasl le 
 Bayard, near Grenoble, was perhaps the only hero 
 of the middle ages who deserved the unniingW 
 praise and admiration bestowed upon him. Simple, 
 modest, a sterling friend, and tender lover, pious, 
 humane, and magnanimous, he held together in rare 
 symmetrical union the whole circle of the virtues. 
 After acting as page to the Duke of Savoy, E. 
 entered the service of Charles VI IT., whom ho 
 accompanied to Italy, and gained renown in the 
 battle of Verona, where he took a standard from 
 the enemy. At the beginning of the reign of 
 Louis XII., B. was engaged in a battle near Milan, 
 where he followed the defeated and retreating fumes 
 with such impetuosity that he entered the city with 
 them, and was made a prisoner, but the Duke Ludo- 
 vico Sforza released him without ransom. At Bar- 
 letta, in 1502, B., with ten other French cavaliers, 
 fought a tournament with an equal number of 
 Spaniards, in order to decide their respective claims 
 to superiority ; and although seven Frenchmen 
 were overthrown in the first charge, the result, 
 chiefly through B.'s bravery, after a six hours' 
 combat, was declared equal. Next, we find him 
 fighting bravely in Spain, and against the Genoese 
 and Venetians. When Pope Julius II. declared 
 war against France, B. hastened to support the 
 Duke of Ferrara ; but failed in his scheme for 
 making the pope a prisoner. Subsequently, he 
 won fresh laurels in Spain. In the war with Henry 
 VIII. of England — who had threatened Picardy, and 
 besieged Terouane, in 1513 — when the French, on 
 one occasion, were about to lay down their arms, B. 
 made a sudden attack on an English officer, and, 
 pointing his sword at his breast, said : ' Surrender, 
 or I take your fife.' The Englishman gave his 
 sword to B., who returned his own, saying : ' I am 
 Bayard, your prisoner; and you are mine.' The 
 emperor and the king of England exchanged their 
 prisoners without any demand of ransom for Bayard. 
 When Francis I. had ascended the throne, B. was 
 sent into Dauphine to make a way for the army 
 over the Alps and through Piedmont. In this 
 expedition, he made Prosper Colonna a prisoner. 
 Next, B. gained, at Marignano, a victory for the 
 king, who, in consequence, submitted to receive the 
 honour of knighthood from Bayard. When Charles 
 V. broke into Champagne, at the head of a large 
 army, B. defended Mezieres against all assaults, and
 
 BAYAZID— BAYEUX TAPESTRY. 
 
 on his entry into Paris, he was hailed as the saviour 
 of his country, was made knight of the order of St 
 Michael, and appointed over a company of loo men, 
 led in his own name, an honour which until then 
 
 had been confined to princes of the blood-royal 
 
 Jl<; was slain by an arrow from an arcpiebuss, while 
 crossing the Sesia, April 30, 1524. So highly was he 
 esteemed for all noble qualities, that his death was 
 
 ' ited not only by the French king and nation, 
 
 lint also by his enemies. His love of virtui 
 dally of that tangliest of virtues, justice, was so 
 passionate, that he was wont to declare that all 
 as, kingdoms, and provinces where justice did 
 not rule, were mere forests tilled with brigands, 
 Hi a body was taken by the enemy, lmt was i. 
 to France, and interred in the church of the Mino- 
 rites' monastery, near Grenol lie. 
 BAYAZID, or BAYEZEED, a town ofTt 
 
 Armenia, in the pashalie of Krzeroum, from which 
 place it is distant east-south-east about ISO miles. 
 It is situated about 15 miles to the south-west of the 
 foot of Mount Ararat; is fortified; and has a popula- 
 tion of about 5000, mostly Kurds. Prior to 1830, its 
 population was estimated at upwards of 15,000, and 
 it had a brisk trade; but since that time, on account 
 of Russian interference, its commerce and inhabit- 
 ants have gradually decreased. Being near the 
 Russian frontier, it has been the scene of several 
 i; during the C impaign, the Rus- 
 sians gained a victory over the Turks here. 
 
 BAYAZID I. See Baj A/. i i . 
 
 J (A V BERRY. See Cahdlbherby. 
 
 BA'YER, JoiiANX, a German constructor of charts 
 of the stars, was born, either at Augsburg or at 
 
 Rhain, in Bavaria, in th" latter part of the lGth c., 
 and fill till. d1 nt pa-tor in 
 
 ral places. His zeal for the Protestant Church was 
 so conspicuous that he obta nomen, ".« 
 
 '" mttwrn (the .Mouth of Protestants); other 
 accounts state that be was an advocate . 
 It matters little which, as he is now remen 
 only on account of lu.s Uranometria (1803, and 2d 
 id. 1639), in which he rave 51 maps of tin- heavens, 
 constructed from the i 
 sors, and followed by explanations in hi 
 Caraa ... 1624). 
 
 Although his maps are not remarkable- i 
 even for his tine', he has the merit of introducing 
 the simple plan of distinguishing the stars of a con- 
 stellation by means of letters. The largest star of 
 the constellation he named by the lirst utter of the 
 Greek alphabet (<<), and in th" order of 
 
 tie ir apparent brilliancy, by the following letters. 
 This convenient plan is still followed. 
 
 BAYETTX, a city of Normandy, in France, di p. 
 Calvados, situated on tie- Aure, QOl far fro 
 mouth. Pop. (1872) 7716. B. is chiefly built ol 
 and plaster, is famous i,,r its porcelain, and h .- 
 manufactories of lace, linen, calicoes, leather, and 
 It is a town of gnat antiquity — its cathedral 
 being said to be the oldest in Normandy. In it was 
 
 .I for centurii a tie- famous Bayeux Tap 
 (q. v.), now in tie- BOtel de Ville of the place. 
 the seat of a bishop, and has a college. 
 
 BAYEU'X TAPESTRY, a web of can 
 linen cloth, 214 bet long by 20 inches wide, pre- 
 in the public library, Bayeux, upon which ifl 
 embroidered, iu woollen thread of various colours, 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry. 
 Ilarold coming to anchor on the coast of Normandy. 
 
 a representation of tie- invasion and conqi 
 England by tin- Normans. Tradition asserts it to 
 
 I-, i ie work of Matilda, wife of William the Con- 
 queror, and it is believed that, if she did not actually 
 stitch tie- whole of it with her own hand, she at. bast 
 took part in, and directed the execution of it by her 
 maids ; and afterwards presented it to tie- cathedral 
 
 of Bayeux, as a token of her appreciation of the 
 effect r which its bishop, Odo, nnl 
 
 her husband at the battle of Hastings. Some anti- 
 quaries conteud that it was the work not of Queen 
 Matilda (the wife of the Conqueror), who died in 
 10S3, but of the Empress Matilda (the daughter of 
 
 King Henry 1-). who died in 1107. According to 
 Mr Bruce, the tat i the subji 
 
 tapestry contains, besides tie- hguree of 505 quadru- 
 peds, birds, sphinxes, &c, 'tie- figures of 623 men, 
 202 horses, 55 dogs, o7 buildings, ll ships and boats, 
 and 49 trees— in all. 151 The tapestry is 
 
 divided into 72 distinct compartments, each repre- 
 one particular lu-t . ami 
 
 explanatory Latin inscription. A tree is 
 usually chosen to divide the principal events from 
 each other. This pictorial history — for so it may 
 lied, and indeed, in several particulars, it 
 is more minute than any written history we 
 
 To j
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY-BAYLE. 
 
 have— opens with Harold, 
 ure for Normandy, taking 
 
 prior 
 leave 
 
 his depart - 
 Edward the 
 
 Eayeux Tapestry. 
 The crown olfeicd to Harold by the people. 
 
 Confessor. Harold is next observed, accompanied 
 
 by his attendants, riding to Bosham with bis hawk 
 and bounds ; and be is afterwards seen, successively, 
 embarking from the Sussex coast; anchorn 
 France and being made prisoner by Guy, Eon of 
 Pontbieu; redeemed by William Duke of Normandy, 
 and meeting with him at bis court; assisting him 
 against Conan, Earl of Bretagne ; swearing on the 
 sacred relics never to interfere with William's 
 succession to the Saxon throne, &c. ; and finally 
 re-embarking for England. Ehs tapestry then 
 represents Harold narrating the events of his 
 journey to Edward the Confessor, whose death and 
 funeral obsequies we next see. Harold then receives 
 the crown from the Saxon people, and ascends the 
 throne; and next we have the news brought to 
 William, who takes counsel with bis half-brother, 
 Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, as to the invasion of 
 England. Then follow representations of the 
 active war-preparations of tlio Normans ; their 
 embarkation ; disembarkation ; march to Hastings, 
 and formation of a camp there ; the battle, and 
 death of Harold, with which the tapestry finishes. 
 
 The B. T. gives an exact and minute portraiture of 
 the manners and customs of the times ; and it has 
 been remarked that the arms and. habits of the 
 Normans are identical with those of the Danes, as 
 
 Baycux Tapestry, — Battle of Hastings. 
 
 t hey appear in the miniature paintings of a manu- 
 script of the time of King Cnut, preserved in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 M. Lancelot appears to have been the first to 
 direct attention to the existenco of this curious 
 monument, by a description of an illuminated draw- 
 ing of a portion of it he had discovered, in a paper 
 presented to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles- 
 Lettres, in 1724. This led to the discovery of the 
 tapestry itself, in the Bayeivx Cathedral, by Pere 
 Montfaueon, who published an engraving of it in 
 1730, with a commentary on the Latin inscriptions. 
 In 17G7, Dr Ducarel gave an account of it in his 
 Anglo-Norman Antiquities. From that time until 
 1S03, when Napoleon had it conveyed to Paris, the 
 B. T. excited little attention. Its exhibition, how- 
 ever, in the National Museum there awakened 
 public curiosity concerning it, and gave rise to 
 various speculations as to its age, intention, &c. 
 The discussion satisfactorily established it to bo 
 what tradition asserted it — a contemporary pictorial 
 record of the events of the Norman Conquest. The 
 Society of Antiquaries (London) pubbshed an engrav- 
 ing of the whole in the sixth volume of the Velusta 
 Monumenta. The B. T. would have been destroyed 
 at the Revolution, had not a priest fortunately suc- 
 ceeded in conceabng it from the mob, who demanded 
 it to cover the guns. It was formerly preserved in 
 the cathedral of Bayeux, where it was wont to be 
 exhibited, on certain days every year, in the nave of 
 the church, round which it exactly went. Brace's 
 Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated (London, 1855); Arclweo- 
 logia, vols, xvii., xviii., xix. ; Vetusta Monumenta, 
 voL vi. ; Pictorial History of England. 
 
 BAYLE, Pierre, one of the most independent 
 thinkers in the 17th c, was born in 1G47 at Carlat, 
 in the old county of Foix, France, and studied philo- 
 sophy under the Jesuits at Toulouse. The arguments 
 of his tutors, but especially bis friendly intercourse 
 and quiet disputation with a Catholic clergyman, who 
 lived in his neighbourhood, led him to doubt the 
 orthodoxy of Protestantism, and shortly prevailed 
 so far that he openly renounced his father's creed, 
 and adopted the Catholic one. In the course of about 
 17 months, however, the conversation of his rela- 
 tives brought him back to the Protestant profession. 
 To escape ecclesiastical censure, he now went to 
 Geneva, and thence to Coppet, where be studied the 
 philosophy of Descartes. After a few years, he 
 returned to France, and in 1675 was elected to fill the 
 chair of philosophy in the university of Sedan. In 
 this office be remained until 1G81, when the univer- 
 sity was disfranchised. His next appointment was 
 that of professor of philosophy at Rotterdam. The 
 appearance of a comet in 1080 having given occa- 
 sion to a widely spread alarm, B., in 10S2, pubbshed 
 his Pensees Diverses sur la Comite, a work full of 
 learning, and treating, in discursive style, many 
 topics of metaphysics, ethics, theology, history, and 
 pobtics. This was followed by his Critique ۥ 
 de ' VHistoire da Calvinisme de Maimbourg.' In 
 1GS4, he commenced a periodical, Nouvelles de la 
 Republique des Lettres. The religious persecutions 
 in France gave B. occasion to write bis Commentaire 
 Philosophique sur ces Paroles de VEvangile : ' Con- 
 trains les d'entrer,' which professed itself to be 
 a translation from the Engbsh, and contained a 
 strong defence of the principle of toleration. In
 
 BAYLEN-BAYONNE 
 
 consequence of the accusation* brought forward by 
 the theologian, .Turieu, who regarded B. as an agent 
 of France, and the enemy of Protestants, B., though 
 he skilfully defended himself, was deprived of his 
 licence to teach (in 1693). He now assiduously 
 devoted his leisure to the IMctionnaire Historique et 
 • edition, 2 vols. Iiotterd., 1696— last edi- 
 tion. 16 vols., Paris, 1820). This was the first work 
 
 bed under his own name. Again Jurieu came 
 forward as B.'s adversary, and induced the consistory 
 berdam to censure the Dictionary, chiefly on 
 account of the supposed irreligious tendency of the 
 article on ' David,' and the commendation bestowed 
 on the moral character of certain atheists. B. pro- 
 mised to expunge all the objectionable matter; but 
 afterwards, when he found that the public entertained 
 a dill, rent and more favourable opinion of the pecu- 
 liar passages than the Rotterdam Consistory, he 
 
 I it bust to allow them to remain as they were. 
 or made only slight alterations. Xew opponents 
 
 railed into the arena by his Jlepoiue aux 
 Questions d'un Provincial, and the continuation of 
 his Penates sur la Comile. Jacquelot and Leclerc 
 now attacked his religious opinions, while others 
 persecuted him as the enemy of Protestantism and 
 of his adopted country, Holland. These literary 
 and theological controversies had a bad effect on 
 his failing health, and a disease, for which he refused 
 to employ medical aid, proved fatal. He died, 
 December 2S, 1706. 
 
 B. stands at the head of modern sceptics and 
 I ins. Accustomed to view every question 
 scrupulously on all sides, he was apparently led to 
 doubt on religious matters generally; at li 
 is not to be denied that his scepticism carried 
 him the length of doubting the worth or the 
 wisdom of the religious dogmatism that ruled both 
 Catholics and Protestants in his day. B. was thus 
 the antithesis of a bigot, but his hostility to 
 bigotry rather originated in his indifference to the 
 doctrines about which theologians quarrelled, than 
 in any clear or high perception of the iniquity of 
 religious persecution. With great eloquence and 
 persistency, he vindicated the doctrine that moral 
 characteristics and convictions may exist and flourish 
 independently of particular religious opinions; and 
 considering the barbarous manner in which the 
 rival churches in B.'s time sought to enforce 
 conformity of sentiment, and crush the liberty of 
 private judgment, it is not to be wondered at that 
 this doctrine, however objectionable abstractly, 
 should have found a wide acceptance in Europe. 
 Voltaire calls him 'a more admirable logician than 
 a profound philosopher ; ' and adds that ' he knew 
 almost nothing of physics.' This probably means 
 no more than that he was ignorant of the then 
 recent discoveries of Newton ; for the scientific 
 articles in tho Dictionary presuppose a knowledge 
 of the theories of Descartes (q. v.), with which he 
 was conversant enough. The style of B. is clear and 
 natural, but diffuse, and often impure. The articles 
 in the Dictionary seem to have been chosen merely as 
 vehicles to introduce numerous digressions in notes, 
 many of which are prolix and uninteresting; but 
 the greater number of the articles are characterised 
 by good sense, logic, critical acumen, and great 
 learning. Though it is impossible to detect the 
 presence of a religious or a philosophical system in 
 the work, it everywhere gives indications of the 
 high intelligence, honest principle, and universal 
 knowledge of the author. It was proscribed both 
 in France and Holland, and was consequently very 
 widi ly diffused in both countries, and has exercised 
 an immense influence over the literature and philos- 
 ophy of the continent. It was the dawn of scepti- 
 cism in the 18th c, and may be historically regarded 
 
 as the protest of the enlightened human intellect 
 against the irrational dogmatism of the churches. 
 In his personal character, B. was amiable, obliging, 
 disinterested, and modest, but at the same time 
 morally courageous and independent His Q 
 IHverses were published in four volumes at the 
 Hague, 1725—1731. Sec life of B. by Des Maizcaux 
 (Amsterdam, 1712). 
 
 BAYLE'N, a town in the province of Andalusia, 
 Spain, situated 22 rth-north-east of Jaen. 
 
 It has manufactures of linen, glass, bricks, tiles, 
 soap, &c. Pop. 4970. B. is celebrated as tho 
 place where the Spaniards won their first and only 
 victory over the French in July 1S08, and that 
 more by accident, and the errors of the French com- 
 mander, Dupont, than by good generalship on their 
 part. About 18,000 French soldiers laid clown their 
 arms at B., the only condition being, that they 
 should be sent to France; and other detachments 
 of French troops afterwards offered their submis- 
 sion. The Spaniards, however, basely brok'- faith 
 with them, and sent them to the hulks at 
 Cadiz. The capitulation had the worst effect on 
 the French arms. Joseph Bonaparte at on' 
 from Madrid, and Napoleon could find no words 
 ■bong enough to express his indignation at the folly 
 and pusillanimity of the surrender. 
 
 BATONET, supposed to be named from Rayonne, 
 as the place of its invention, is a dagger or small spear 
 fixed at the end of a musket or similar weapon. The 
 first bayonets, used in France in 1071, called bayonets- 
 h'\ had handles which fitted into tho muzzle 
 of the guns ; but at a later date were introduced 
 the bayonets-d-douille, or socket-bayonets, having a 
 socket which enabled the B. so to be used as not to 
 interrupt the firing. The use of pikes went out 
 when that of bayonets came in. It seems very 
 probable that the first B. was a dagger, which the 
 musketeer stuck by means of its handle into tho 
 muzzle of his weapon, to shield him from a cavalry 
 charge; and that the usefulness of the contrivance 
 suggested a permanent arrangement Bayonets are 
 now made with great rapidity at the government 
 rifle factory at Enfield. Two pieces of metal are 
 first selected — viz., a piece of the very best cast 
 steel, 7 inches long by J inch square ; and a piece 
 of the best WTought-iron rod, 4 inches long by 
 about 1 inch in thickness. The steel is to form 
 the . blade, and the iron, the socket-handle. Tho 
 ! being properly shaped at one end, is joined to 
 the iron by welding. A forging- machine is next 
 employed to give a rough outline of the required 
 shape. Then comes the action of a swa 
 machine, with dies which come down upon the 
 metal in great force, and counter-dies beneath the 
 metal. The metal is then annealed; turned in a 
 cutting-machine to remove a wire-edge thrown up 
 in the act of stamping ; cut to a proper length, and 
 the socket-end made square ; drilled and bored, 
 to make tho socket hollow ; shaped and furrowed 
 along the blade ; bent at the neck ; hardened and 
 tempered; and finished by a numerous train of 
 minor operations. The B.-charge is now one of 
 the most terrible manoeuvres of trained infantry, in 
 which each nation fancies itself to excel all others. 
 
 BAYOXXE, one of the most strongly fortified 
 towns of France, in the department of the Basses- 
 Pyreneee, situated at the confluence of the Adour and 
 Hive, about 3 nnles from the mouth of their united 
 waters in the Bay of Biscay. These rivers divide 
 the town into three parts — Great and Little B., 
 and the suburb of St Esprit. Population in 1^7-. 
 17,977. B. is beautifully situated at th. 
 of the Pyrenees, and is itself a han.lsomo place. 
 It has extensive ship-yards, rope-walks, jlass- 
 
 707
 
 BAY-SALT— BAZOCHE. 
 
 
 manufactories, sugar-refineries, and distilleries, and 
 a brisk export trade in hams, for which it is famous, 
 chocolate, liqueurs, timber, tar, and cork. Its chief 
 imports are wool, olive-oil, and liquorice. It is the 
 see of a bishop, lias a cathedral, a mint, and schools 
 of commerce aud navigation. 13. is also historically 
 interesting. It is said that here Catharine de' 
 Medici and the Duke of Alba planned the massacre 
 of the Huguenots, which took place on St Bartholo- 
 mew's Day, 1572, Here the great Napoleon cozened 
 Charles IV. out of the crown of Spain, after he had 
 tually endeavoured to get Ferdinand VII., 
 to whom Charles had previously resigned it, to give 
 it up. The forcing of the passage of the Nive, 
 immediately in this vicinity, by the British, in 
 December 1813, occasioned some of the most bloody 
 conflicts of the Peninsular campaign. The place 
 was invested by the British early in the following 
 year, and a sally from it by the French, in April 11, 
 was only repulsed after great loss on the side of tin- 
 British. B. is also famous as the place where the 
 bayonet was invented about the year 1670. 
 
 BAY'-SALT is a name applied to common salt 
 which is obtained from sea-water by solar evapor- 
 ation. It is extensively obtained from salt-marshes 
 which exist along the coasts of France and on the 
 shores of the Mediterranean. See .Salt. 
 
 BAY-WI'NDOW, or (corruptly) BOW-WI'N- 
 DOW, a window peculiar to Gothic architecture, so 
 called because it fomis a lay or projecting space 
 outwards from a room. The external walls of bay- 
 windows are, for the most part, either rectangular or 
 polygonal, the semicircular form from which the term 
 bow was probably derived having been unknown 
 previously to the introduction of the debased Gothic. 
 
 Eay-Window, at Compton, Wingatc, Warwickshire. 
 
 Though mentioned by Chaucer, bay-windows are 
 not found in any of the styles before the perpen- 
 elicular, during the prevalence of which they were 
 frequently introduced, particularly in halls. Bay- 
 windows generally reach to the floor, and are 
 frequently supplied with a seat, which is called the 
 bay-stall. There are many very beautiful examples 
 of bay-windows in the colleges and halls of Oxford 
 and Cambridge. When used in upper stories, such 
 windows are supported on corbels, or large project- 
 ing mouldings. See Okiel. 
 
 BA'ZA (the Basti of the Romans), a town of 
 Spain, in the province of Granada, and about 50 
 miles east-north-east of the city of that name. It 
 bes in a rich plain, is generally ill built and irregular, 
 with no feature of architectural interest. Popula- 
 tion about 11,000, who are chiefly engaged in agri- 
 cultural pursuits, but who also manufacture to some 
 768 
 
 extent hats, linens, and earthenware. B. is famous 
 for its red wines ; and its women, according to Ford, 
 are among the prettiest in Spain. In early times, li. 
 was a place of considerable note, and many remnants 
 of antiquity are still found in its vicinity. In I 180, 
 [sabella captured it from the Moors, after a seven 
 months' siege, and some of the rough iron cannon 
 used by her army still ornament the town. In 
 November 1810, the Spaniards, under Blake and 
 Freire, were beaten in front of B. by the French 
 under Soidt. 
 
 BAZAR, or BAZAA'Ii, an oriental market- 
 place, either open or covered, where various articli 9, 
 including slaves, are exposed for sale, and where 
 eastern merchants meet for transaction of business, 
 as on 'Change or at the Bourse in England and 
 France. The B. of Ispahan is one of the most 
 splendid, and that of Tauris is the largest. In 
 London, Paris, and other European cities, several 
 places opened for the sale of various articles 
 (chiefly fancy goods) are now styled bazars. 
 
 BAZARD, Amaxd, the founder of French 
 Carbonarism (q. v.), and subsequently an earnest dis- 
 ciple of St Simon, was born at Paris on the 10th 
 of September 1791. After the Restoration, along 
 with several other 'patriots,' he established, under 
 the disguise of freemasonry, the revolutionary 
 society of the 'Friends of Virtue ;' and in 18:20, in 
 concert with his friends Dugied and Joubert, who 
 had brought from Naples the statutes of the associa- 
 tion of Italian Carbonari, he founded a similar 
 association in France, which in the course of a year 
 had extended over the departments, and contained 
 200,000 members. He was the leading conspirator 
 in the 'plot of Befort,' which, however, proved a 
 failure, and nearly cost him his life. After some 
 time, a change passed over Bazard. Experience 
 seems to have taught him the wortldessness of mere 
 political agitation and reform. Impressed with the 
 narrow and one-sided character of common democ- 
 racy, and the necessity of a total reconstruction of 
 the conditions of society, before any radical improve- 
 ments could become possible, be attached himself to 
 the school of St Simon, and along with Enfantin, 
 undertook to elaborate the theoretical and specula- 
 tive portion of the system. In 1S25, he became one 
 of the editors of a St Simoniau journal, termed Li 
 Producleur. In 1S2S, he delivered at Paris a series 
 of prelections on his politico-religious creed, which 
 met with extraordinary success. His socialistic 
 views were afterwards published in the chef- 
 d'oeuvre of the sect, Exposition of the Doctriiu of St 
 Simon (1828—1830), of which only the first part 
 was by B., the second, containing the principles 
 of the new social rebgion, being the composition of 
 Enfantin. After the July revolution, a larger scope 
 was afforded to the St Simonians. The masses were 
 attracted by the flattering doctrine, that ' all social 
 institutions ought to have for their end the moral, 
 intellectual, aud physical amelioration of the poor.' 
 In a short time, B. and his coadjutors had 
 ' created a new society, bving in the midst of the 
 idd,' with peculiar laws, manners, and doctrines. 
 But B.'s connection with it was of short dura- 
 tion. He differed from Enfantin on the doctrine of 
 a ' community of wives,' and in November 1831 
 seceded in disgust. His efforts to found a school of 
 his own proved unsuccessful, and during a heated 
 discussion with his former friend Enfantin, he was 
 struck with apoplexy, from the effects of which he 
 never recovered. He died at Courtry, near Mont- 
 fermeil, on the 29th July 1832. 
 
 BAZOCHE, or BASOCHE, a kind of burlesquo 
 translation into French of the Latin word basilica, 
 i. e., royal palace. When the French parliament
 
 BDELLIUM-BEACON'. 
 
 ! t<> be the grand council of the king, and 
 confined itself exi I ring justice, 
 
 a distinction of nj 
 
 those noblemen who fanned the royal train and the 
 t he co\irt of justice. The former were 
 called courtiers ; the parlia- 
 
 rks. But inasmuch as the word i 
 
 irily presupposed a king, t] 
 keep up La mock one 
 
 Lr own making, who resided at the Chateau 
 
 just as the 
 courtiers did round the reality at the Louvre, 
 Such was the origin of the Basochian king and 
 i historical ■ ■ ' traced 
 
 beginning oi the I -lth c, when Philip the 
 Fair conferred on the brcK rtain privi- 
 
 i The principal authorities in thi, harmless 
 
 monarchy, after the 
 chancellor, the masters of requesl 
 and the attorney-general. Henry III. suppressed 
 tin- title of kin'.', and conferred all the privileges 
 
 and rights attached to that offic i ti. 
 
 Still t a, minus 
 
 its head, ami affected on all occai 
 of royalty. Its ji 
 
 arose anion 
 
 fc, ami also caused a coin to 
 
 ruck which hadcurreni embers; 
 
 but if we are to judge from the bout la 
 
 !•■; it ili'l not enjoy an i: 
 credit in the outer world of hard cash. The mock- 
 monarch a! ■ d the extensive privilege of 
 selecting at his ) 
 royal forests, a tall I I his gubji 
 
 . were in the habit of planting, on the 1st of 
 -May, before the grand court of the palace, to the 
 
 I of tambourines and trumpets. But ' 
 not all. In the public sports, this fantastical little 
 
 lorn was worthily honoured ; its chancellor hail 
 rooms at the Hot e; at the carnival, 
 
 9 of the 
 and to the i I ''> farces 
 
 and 'mysteries.' They acted in their turn a 
 of satirical 'morality' (q. v.), in which they made 
 
 i live use of the liberty granted to them, in 
 ridiculing vices and the favourites of fortune. Of 
 course, they could not fail to ) ■:■■. ty and 
 
 occasion serious scandal Louis XII. patronised 
 
 amusementsi In 1500, he gave the b 
 hood of the B. permission to perform plays in 
 
 I and sah ' l 
 
 i hem in 153 1540, thi 
 
 licted as in This interdict only 
 
 applied to those of Pi I years after, 
 
 we read of the Basochian f ax. In 
 
 their later development, they seem toha . 
 the Fa -day Spot 
 
 so popular in Germany both before and after the 
 Reformation. They were the bej French 
 
 comedy. 
 
 BDE'LLITJM, a gum-r sin, r myrrh 
 
 (q. v.) in appearance ai . hut weal, 
 
 at the same time more virtues 
 
 were . I ancients, hut it is now 
 
 little used. It is supposed to be the produce of 
 
 in India, and of B. 
 hi 'mi (also calle I 6 
 
 trees or shrubs belonging to tin" natural order 
 
 ! (q. v.), so remarkabli ubcrof 
 
 r substances which it produces.- Ecvritw !'•.. 
 
 however, is obtained from tlie Doom (q. v.) palm. 
 
 jliivlr '. a similar substance is yielded 
 
 also by C a furcata, a half-succulent plant 
 
 of the natural order | •. inhabiting the 
 
 newt sterile regions of the south-west of Africa; 
 
 49 
 
 whilst the SICILIAN B., formerly used in medicine, 
 is produced by 1> . a species of the 
 
 same- genus to which the carrot belong, growing 
 on thi ' tin- Mediterranean. — The B. 
 
 mentioned in Hen. ii. 12 ly not a gum-resin 
 
 at all ; but what it is, is uncertain. 
 
 BEA'CHES, I: usi d. M 
 
 that thi the hmd is liabl 
 
 even in the | 
 
 -it parts of thi- world have been 
 raised, in CO! . within the 
 
 remembrance of the pri ration. Tie 
 
 good proof that ci rtain parts of Eastern Swedi n, 
 bordering on the Gulf of Bothnia, hi 
 about three fe t within the last hundred years. 
 re us to !• .round the 
 
 British Islands, and in other pari earth, 
 
 there are ti ound at \ ationa 
 
 which have evidently 
 been sea-B. at a former time. The evid 
 
 of. first, t! of the ground in the 
 
 general r con- 
 
 Dg beds of 
 sand and gravel, such as we see composing the 
 
 . third, the presence "f m 
 shells, which, nerally of sj 
 
 now living i" o what 
 
 may be call tations 
 
 made in a roc] the lip of the sea in 
 
 ancient I iting of a Hat platform 
 
 - 1 a backing wall 
 or sea-clill, the 1. I with 
 
 deep caves. In Scotland, there is a \ 
 terrace of erosion all round the IjoM coasts of the 
 
 D Islands, at an • 
 tion of about 25 feet above the level of the similar, 
 but sea ell-marked indentation which the 
 
 sea is now malting . In Lapland, there is a similar 
 terrace, but - - feet in the 
 
 also a clear and 
 well-marked me kind, at aba 
 
 feet above hind Troudhjem 
 
 in Norway. 
 
 .. by K. Chain 
 where a series of gravelly terraces are dcsci. 1 
 existing in I various heights 
 
 of an uprise of the frame of the land 
 j by their uniformity of level 
 that this movement was equable. 
 
 BEACHY HEAD, f headland on the 
 
 south coast of England, | 
 Channel. 2\ miles south-south-west of i 
 
 dicular chalk-din 1 
 feet high, forming the cast end of the South 1 ' 
 
 at out in the rock, for 
 shipwrecked seamen to - but ship- 
 
 wrecks have In en far fewer 1828, when the 
 
 Bell Tout Light-house wis built 1 
 
 above the sea. in lat. 
 . ii 1 2 :j E . een above 20 i 
 
 a from B. II.. in clear weather, extends 
 to Hastil le ] ■ ' \\ i^ht. and France. The 
 
 dill's an- tie ea-fowL otTthis 
 
 the combined English 
 and Dutch fleets in 169a 
 
 BE VCoX la':' , to give a 
 
 signal) denol aal set opon a height, but 
 
 the intelligence of foreign invasion or other 
 event. These are-signals were in use in the • 
 
 of them arc found in the literary 
 remains of ancient Persia, 
 
 They were made by kindling a pile or bale of wood 
 on the tops of lofty mountains, and keeping the 
 flame bright by nigra* or having the fin
 
 BEACON— BEADS. 
 
 as to emit a dense smoke l>y day. There were 
 various preconcerted modes of exhibiting the light 
 or smoke, so as to indicate the nature of the 
 intelligence. Thus, an act of the parliament of 
 .Scotland, in 1455, directs that one bale on lire shall 
 be warning of the approach of the English in any 
 manner; two bales blazing beside each other, that 
 they are coming indeed; and four bales, that they 
 are coming in great force. 
 
 An early instance of B. -signals is found in the 
 book of the prophet Jeremiah, in his call, in chap, 
 vi. 1, to the people of Benjamin to kindle a fire- 
 signal on one of their mountains : ' Set up a 
 sign of tire in Beth-haccerem ; for evil apj 
 out of the north, and great destruction.' An 
 instance of the use of a Hue of beacons in very 
 ancient times is given in a passage of the t 
 of Agamemnon, by the Greek poet iEschylus. The 
 commander-in-chief of the Greek army at tli 
 of Troy is repre ing the intel- 
 
 ligence of the fall of the city to his queen, Clytem- 
 t, at Mycena?, in the Peloponnesus. The line 
 consists of eight mountains, and the news is supposed 
 to be conveyed in one night from Tn ly. 
 
 In England, the beacons were kept up by a rate 
 levied on the counties, and had watches regularly 
 stationed at them, and horsemen to spread the 
 intelligence during the day, when the beacons 
 could not be seen. They were carefully organised 
 while the Spanish Armada was expected. In the 
 beginning of 1S56, an old B.-work on Malvern Hill, 
 in Worcestershire, which had done its part in 
 former days in spreading the intelligence of the 
 appearance of the Armada, of the approach of the 
 young Chevalier, and of that of the Dutch fleet 
 afterwards, dealt with by Admiral Blake, was lighted 
 up in anticipation of the close of the Crimean war, 
 and afforded an interesting amusement to scientific 
 persons in estimating the distance at which the 
 blaze could be seen from distant mountains. 
 
 BEA'CON, in maritime affairs, is a signal for 
 warning against dangers, or for indicating the 
 entrance into a channel, harbour, or river. Gener- 
 ally speaking, a B. is fixed ; whereas a buoy floats. 
 The power of constructing these beacons rested at one 
 time in the sovereign ; but in 1565 an act of parlia- 
 ment empowered the Trinity House corporation to 
 erect them on such parts of the sea-coast and 
 forelands as appeared to be most in want of those 
 safeguards ; and tolls were levied on the maritime 
 comities for their maintenance. In recent times, 
 the construction of floating beacons has occupied 
 a good deal of attention, as it is conceived that 
 they might in many cases supply the place of 
 much more costly light-hor. Brown and 
 
 Lenox have constructed for the Trinity Board a 
 B. for the Goodwin Sands — comprising a hollow 
 wrought-iron floating vessel, with G water-tight 
 compartments ; a tower 28 feet high, tapering in 
 diameter from 7 to 3i feet ; and a ball at the top 
 of ?,), feet diameter. This B. was visible from a 
 considerable distance ; but some leakage fn; 
 its continued use. Mr Herbert, in 1854, introduced 
 a new B., intended to float upright in all states of 
 the winds, tides, and currents. It consists of a 
 wrought-iron pear-shaped body, circular in plan, 
 with an apex at the top, and the weight so distri- 
 buted that the centre of gravity shall be situated a 
 bttle below the centre of the plane of flotation ; the 
 bottom is made concave, and raised up intemall}' so 
 as to form a cone, to the internal apex of which the 
 mooring-chain is to be attached. Many beacons are 
 now made in which a bell is sounded instead of a 
 light shewn, as a warning. One of the most recent 
 is Messrs Brown and Lenox's, patented in 1858, and 
 60 constructed as to yield a continuous bell-ringing, 
 170 
 
 r current is tie.,, e is a 
 
 M the bottom, to mike the B. turn w 
 tide. There a nels bel ■ ■ • he line of dotation! 
 
 h which the tide- water or current flows; the 
 two undershot wheels to n 
 this revolution, by means of axes, cranks, i 
 and levers, is made to bring the force of a hi 
 to bear on a bell Some beacons on this principle 
 
 heady been constructed with a bell of 2 
 The clistinction between these and othei 
 is further illustrated under BUOY and Light- in" 
 
 BEAT), BEADE, or BEDE (allied to ' bid '), in 
 Anglo-Saxon and Old I oified 'a pi 
 
 and hence came to mean the small 1 balls 
 
 Id, silver, glass, ivory, hard wood, &e.. 
 for keeping account of the number of p 
 repeated. A certain number stnmg on a thread 
 makes a rosary (q. v.). 
 woman is one who prays for another. Perso 
 
 i and wealth in old times 'had re 
 appointed bedesmen, who were paid to weary fi 
 with their supplications.' Bedesmen appoii 
 pray for the king and state, sorm I 
 
 b r, and hence bnlehouse is synonymous with 
 an almshouse. A common form of signature at one 
 time was : ' Your bounden bedesman,' or, ' Your 
 humble bedeswoman,' instead of the modern, ' Your 
 obedient servant.' 
 
 BEAD, in Architecture, a small round moulding, 
 sometimes called an astragal. It is of frequent 
 occurrence in architecture, particularly in the clas- 
 sical styles, and is used in picture-frames, and 
 ether objects carved in wood. 
 
 BEA'DLE is an inferior parish-officer chosen and 
 appointed by the vestry. His business is to attend 
 the vestry, to give notice of its meetings to the 
 parishioners, to execute its orders, to assist the 
 parish constable, and generally to do and execute 
 all the orders and business of the vestry and of the 
 parish, as their messenger or servant. Shaw's / 
 Law, c. 19. See Parish ; Vestby. The B. holds 
 his office during 'pleasure, and he may therefore 
 lie dismissed at any time for misconduct by the 
 parishioners assembled in vestry.' 
 
 BEADS, small perforated ornaments, usually of 
 alar shape, worn by women hi necklaces, 
 bracelets, head-dresses, &c. ; and also used in the 
 ornamentation of slipp rs, parses, watch-gaan 
 a variety of fancy articles. B. are made of various 
 ils — gold, diamond, amber, pearl, coral, garnet, 
 crystal, steel, paste, glass, wood, &c. ; but rnconi- 
 parably the greatest quantity are of glass manufac- 
 ture. Glass B. seem to have been manufactured 
 by the Phoenicians more than 3000 years ago. The 
 Egyptians, however, as woidd appear from the 
 adornment of their mummies with them, were also 
 early acquainted with the manufacture of glass B., 
 was introduced into Europe on the revival of 
 civilisation by the Italians. Glass B. are commonly 
 manufactured over the blowpipe, the glass, which 
 had been previously drawn out into a tube, '< 
 when sufficiently heated, blown into a bulb of the 
 uired for the bead. At Murano, near Venice, 
 where there are extensive manufactories, the process 
 is somewhat different. There, glass tubes of various 
 colour having been cut into small uniform pieces, 
 the pieces are thrown into a mixture of wood-ashes 
 and fine sand, and stirred about until their cavities 
 are tilled ; they are thence transferred to an iron 
 pan, heated by a moderate fire, and agitated until 
 siune a smooth rounded form. Taken out, 
 and their bores cleared, they form beads. 
 
 When the glass is not originally coloured, a colour- 
 ing matter is applied to the inside of the tube. 
 
 fn commerce, B. are known as the hollow, the
 
 BEADS— BEAMING. 
 
 common, the tube, and the bugle. The hi illow .ire the 
 
 ■ sive kind, and im t variety of 
 
 colour, the price varying from -•■ to Ida the hunch 
 
 2 strings. Common black B. are sold at from 
 
 li ir/. to 1«. per pound. 
 
 Large quantities of B., used for dolls' eyes, are 
 manufactured at Birmingham. Glass B. are imported 
 into this country from the continent to the annual 
 value of £S0U0 to £10,000. 
 
 BEADS, St Ci-ti!lf;rt's, a title popularly given 
 to the single joints of the articulated stems of 
 1 hierinites (q. v.). The central perforation permitted 
 them to be strung as beads ; and from the fancied 
 resemblance, in some species, of this perforation to 
 a cross, they were formerly used as rosaries, and 
 associated with the name of St Cuthbert : 
 
 On a rock by Lindisfarn 
 St Cuthbert sits, and toils to frame 
 Tlie sea-born beads that bear his name. 
 
 They are also known as Entrochites, or wheel- 
 stones. 
 
 BEA'GLE, a -.mall variety of hound, formerly 
 much used in England for hare-hunting. It has now 
 been almost wholly superseded by the Harrier (q. v.), 
 to which its name is also sometimes given. The 
 true B. is smaller than the harrier, not above ten or 
 eleven inches in height at the shoulder, sometimes 
 considerably smaller, stout and compact in make, 
 with long pendulous ears, smooth-haired, sometimes 
 dark-brown, with a streak or spot of white about 
 
 ;i 
 
 Beagle. 
 
 the neck, sometimes white with black or r 
 spots. There appears to have been also a rough- 
 haired variety. The B. is remarkable for its ex- 
 uisite scent and perseverance ; and although much 
 tanced by the hare at first, is almost sure to kill 
 it. It was cost inary in England, in former times, 
 when beagles were used, to follow the chase on foot, 
 a hunting-pole being employed to assist in leaping. 
 During the chase, the B. gives utterance to a cry 
 which has been regarded as particularly musical ; 
 and Qi beth had little 'singing -beagles,' 
 
 one of which could he placed in a man's glove. The 
 smaller breeds were pi haps, at first, for 
 
 the prolongation of the chase ; and the diminutive 
 size of a pack or ' cry ' of b me a boast. 
 
 The smallest are sometimes called lap-dog beagles. 
 The origin of the name B. is uncertain. 
 
 BEAK. See Bill. 
 
 I K !'D, BECQITE. When the beak of a fowl 
 is of a different tincture from the body, it is then 
 said, in heraldry, to be beaked of such a tincture. If 
 its legs are of the same tincture, it is then beaked, 
 and i o and so. In place of B., Guillim 
 
 commonly says ' armed.' 
 
 BEA'KER, a term formerly in use, signifying a 
 kind of drinking-howl or cup, am the 
 
 same root a the Italian 6m 
 
 or the barbarona Latin baccariunu The Scotch call 
 a hooped wooden dish a ' bicker.' 
 
 BEAU Qer. baum, Dut. boom, Ang.-Sax. beam, 
 signify ' a tree '), any piece of wood, long like a tree. 
 In the arts, the word has many special technical 
 It is the name, for instance, for three 
 parts of a weaving-loom (q. v.), for a part of the 
 balance fq, v.), ami for a part of the steam-engine 
 (q. v.). In ship-building (q. v.), it is applied to any 
 of the transverse pieces of framing extending across 
 the hull. In ship measurement, it means breadth 
 at the wales. See Toxjjace. B., in engineering, is 
 a strong stay of wood or of iron, for supporting 
 lateral pressure. See Strength of Materials. 
 
 BEAM, of a ship, is one of the main timbers 
 which aid in supporting the decks. Beams stretch 
 across from side to ling to strengthen and 
 
 uphold the sides of the hull as well as the decks ; 
 and they are themselves supported at the ends hy 
 massive pieces, called knees, standards, and clamps. 
 Each is made of one fine piece of timber, if jios- 
 sible; but if the length be too great for this, two 
 or more timbers are scarfed together. Wherever 
 it is practicable, the beams are upheld at or 
 near the middle by pillars. In ti 
 steam-ship, the beams are of iron, and, like most 
 other parts of the vessel, are cellular in construc- 
 tion. In the old timber-built sailing sh:; 
 war, now rapidly becoming obsolete, the beak- 
 head B. was the broadest in the ship ; the 
 ' was the longest ; the orlop was that which 
 supported the orlop deck, and strengthened the 
 hold. The old 74 ,'un ships had each 24 beams under 
 the lower deck Many of these characteristics 
 still prevad ; but others have given way to change, 
 owing to the increased length of war-steamers, and 
 to the necessity of making room for the machinery. 
 The beams of all ships are generally made deeper 
 in the middle than at the ends, in order that the 
 decks supported by them may have a slight con- 
 vexity on the upper surface, to carry off tie rain- 
 water readily, anil to lessen the recod of the guns. 
 
 The position of the beams, stretching across a 
 ship at right angles to the direction of the keel, 
 has given origin to many technical phrases used 
 •hoard. 'On the starboard B.' is applied to 
 any distant point out at sea, at right angles to the 
 keeL and on the starboard or right hand — as \ 
 from the stern — side of the ship. ' On the larboard 
 B.' similarly applies to the left hand. ' On the 
 weather B.' is that side of the ship which r. 
 or is towards the wind. ' Before the B.' i 
 bearing of any object when seen more in advance 
 than on the beam. ' Abaft the B.' is the reverse 
 of the expression just noted. 'On her B. -ends' 
 is applied to the position of a ship when so much 
 inclined to one side that the beams become nearly 
 vertical. 
 
 BEA'MIXG is a handicraft pro cloth- 
 
 manufacture preliminary to weaving, and was for- 
 merly done by th inself ; but it has long 
 since become a special employment, followed by 
 workmen trained to the business as beamers, and, 
 like hand-weaving, is tending to extinction by 
 machinery — warping and beaming, in wearing by 
 power, being conjoined into on See 
 WEAVING. "B. i3 simply the art of winding the 
 web on the weaver's beam in a manner suitable 
 for weaving — the two essential requirements being 
 firmness in the winding on of the web sufficient to 
 wing, and evenness in 
 the spreading of the yarn at the required width. 
 This is < by what is called ah 
 machine, which is simply a kind of roller-null, 
 extending from end to eud of the beamer's shop. 
 The weaver's beam, on which t to be 
 wound, is set horizontally on two upright standards
 
 BEAM-TREE-BEAX. 
 
 at the one end of the shop, and at the other end 
 is a friction-roller, set likewise level in a 
 heavy frame, fixed to the floor, on which the web is 
 wound like a tope, with the thrum-end i 
 
 The number of pins or strands in the web being 
 known, the beamer lias merely to take a ravel (a 
 comb-like utensil) with the corresponding number of 
 teeth in the breadth required for the web, and fill- 
 ing i iach tooth successively with its I j 
 
 pleted ; and the web be 
 to the beam, the winding on of the web is a common 
 crane operation, in which the tension on the yarn 
 is regulated by the friction on the friction-roller. 
 The beamer may thus beam for 400 weavers. The 
 juice of beaming a web varies from 2d., to perhaps 
 Sd. or 10,/. 
 
 BEAM-TEEE, White (Pj/rw - : ■ ''"■ see 
 a tree of 20 — 40 feet i.i 1, igli a native el' ; 
 ]>arts of Europe and of corr climai in 
 
 Asia, not uncommon in the mountainous di 
 of Britain, and frequently planted. It has been 
 variously referred by botanists to several allied 
 genera, Sorb, . Oral gua, and MespUus. It baa a 
 it erect trunk, and a round or oval head ; the 
 are ovate, cut and serrated (in some va 
 deeply lope: 1 .), white and downy beneath; the 
 
 i i [; terminal corymbs^ the fruit i 
 of the size of small peas. The fruit is acid and 
 igent, but becomes agreeable by inc 
 it ■ times called Sorb or Servi 
 a, id resembles the true Service (q. v.) in quality, 
 although much smaller. Beer is made of it by fer- 
 mentation. The wood is very hard and fine-grained ; 
 it is used for cogs for the wheels of machinery. The 
 whiteness of the foliage makes the tree — sparingly 
 inl led need — ornamental in plantations. 
 
 BEAN (/■'■ I, : mis of plants of the natural 
 order Legumiuosa?, sub-order PapilionacOB, included 
 by Linnaeus and many other botanists in the genus 
 
 (see Vetch), from which it is distingu 
 chiefly by the leathery tumid pods, spongy within, 
 and by the large scar on the end of the seed. — The 
 OH B. (/''. vulgaris, Vicia Faba of Linnaeus) is 
 
 Bean leavc3 and flower. 
 
 somewhat doubtfully supposed to be a native of 
 the borders of the Caspian Sea; it has been in 
 cultivation from remote antiquity in Em-ope as well 
 
 as in Asia. It is an annual plant, generally from 
 two to four feet high, with thick angular stem, 
 haves with 2—5 oval leaflets, and destitute of 
 tendrils. The pods are thick, long, and woolly 
 within ; the seeds more or less ovate and flattened 
 The flowers, which are almost without stalks, are 
 ordinarily white, with a black spot in the mid 
 the wine; but there is a variety with flowers 
 entirely white, and another in which they are 
 scarlet. The flower are di liciously fragrant. Burns 
 . to this in the lines — 
 
 The zephyr wantoned round the bean, 
 And bore its fragrant sweets along. 
 
 \ field of beans perfumes the summer air for a 
 con Merahle distance. The varieties and sub-va r 
 in cultivation are very numerous, differing in the 
 size and form of the seed, the colour of the 
 the period which they require for growth, the 
 i uubranched, in others 
 
 divided at the base into a number of stalks— the 
 pods in some mostly solitary, in others clustered, 
 &c. The B. is cultivated both in fields and gardens, 
 and the seeds (beans) are used for feeding cattle, 
 also for making a sort of meal for hiuuan food, and 
 in a green state are put into broths or boiled for the 
 table. They are very nutritious, containing when 
 ripe about :;ti per cent of starch, and 23 per cent, of 
 .substance analogous t>> the 
 of milk. Whether for man or for cattle, 
 however, they particularly require to be mixed with 
 other food. The straw is used for fodder, and is 
 very nutritious when cut before it is fully ripe. The 
 B. succeeds best on a dry and moderately rich soil. 
 A well-drained clay is very suitable for it. Its taper- 
 ing and deeply penetrating root unfits it for shallow 
 soils. The varieties of B. preferred for the garden 
 M ■ generally much larger, both plant and seed, 
 ose cultivated iii the field. The Windsor B. 
 i; eds of a flattened, almost circular shape, fully 
 an inch in diameter; whilst those of the Horse B., 
 or Tick lj., cultivated as a field-Crop, are often not 
 more than half an inch in length, and not quite 
 three-eighths of an inch in breadth. Garden-beans, 
 in Britain, are usually sown in spring, in rows two 
 feet or more apart ; and sowings are made at differ- 
 ent dates, that there may be a succession of unripe 
 beans for cidinary use. The Windsor, Lone; Pod, 
 and Early Mazagan, arc among the most approved 
 garden varieties. 
 
 The roots of the B. are diuretic, and a decoction 
 of them has been used with advantage in cases of 
 dropsy. 
 
 B. crops are very liable to be injured by a species 
 of Aphis (q. v.), A. Fabir, sometimes called from its 
 colour the Collier Aphis, and sometimes the Black 
 Dolphin Fly, which destroys the leaves, and so 
 lenders the plants incajiableof bringing the ordinary 
 amount of seeds to perfection. The most effectual 
 lj known is to cut off the tops of the plants, 
 which are always first attacked, as soon as the 
 Aphis appears, and so to prevent its multiplication. 
 The topping of beans is regarded by many gardeners 
 as a good practice, even when they are quite free 
 '.plus. 
 
 The Kidney B. (q. v.), or Haricot (Phaseolus 
 vulgaris), is an entirely different plant from the 
 Common Bean. 
 
 BEAN, in Agriculture. The B. was cultivated 
 to a small extent at least in ancient times, both in 
 Palestine and Egypt, The Roman family of the 
 Kabii are said to have derived their name from this 
 plant. It requires a rich or alluvial land to grow 
 the bean in jierfection, and hence it is only found 
 entering into a regular rotation of cropping upon 
 soils of the best class. Since the introduction of
 
 BEAN-CAPER— BEAN-KING'S FESTIVAL. 
 
 maize into the south of Euro id under this 
 
 been con icted The maize 
 
 thrives better, and is far more productive than the 
 
 R, in warm climates. In the i>'>rth <>f Elurope, too, 
 
 ips are 
 "itivc and certain. Indeed, the high 
 ir temperature of the continei 
 Arm i > means favourabli owthof 
 
 m. In the era are 
 
 ratlier too moist for its yielding its seeds in 
 i .'ind haulm an- apt to b 
 
 too much, ami the blOSSOmS iln nit set Well. 
 
 are lai ■ ated on all the i iptions 
 
 1 nt and 
 Suffolk. 'J'he variety grown there 
 
 is the Common Tick or Field B . having much 
 resemblance to the Sea -' or Bora Be 
 
 The modes of cultivation are very various, and a 
 
 large breadth is still sown broad-cast. The 
 
 objection to this mode is the liability of weeds to 
 
 up and cheek the growth of the crop, Beans 
 
 are considered one of the fallow crops ; but the soil, 
 
 after it lias borne a crop of beans, is little fitted 
 
 for a cereal crop, unless it has been hood and kept 
 
 clean in summer. To effect this end, beans are 
 
 usually sown in rows, and hoed during their early 
 
 ! i either by the hand or hor e boa In pre- 
 
 the land for a bean crop in England, the 
 
 ing liberally dressed with farm-yard 
 
 manure in autumn, receives a deep furrow, so as 
 
 to expose the soil to the winter frosts. The surface 
 
 is then scarified, and after being harrowed, the 
 
 ^vn in drills of 18 inches in width, at 
 
 ■ t ■ od •'• to '■'•'. ii The Bowing 
 
 t<r the month of January as the 
 
 soil admits of the necessary operations, and may 
 
 tetised up to the middle of March. Tin' earlier 
 the crop is put in, the better in general is the 
 chance of its being productive. The greater liability 
 of the eastern counties to drought, renders the crop 
 more subject to the attack- of as the 
 
 ' black dolphin,' or 11. Aphis, which usually makes 
 its appearance as soon as the plant suffers from the 
 want of moisture. For this reason, t 1 
 rather an uncertain one in the climate of the i 
 counties, and other crops are gradually encroaching 
 on the breadth which it used to occupy. The 
 Russian or win! c I as are sown in thi ■ countii i 
 
 ne extent in autumn, and from rip 
 
 the attacks of vermin, and Buffer le 
 from the drought. 
 
 Perhaps E Lothian is as favourable, in r 
 
 of soil and climate, to the cultivation of the 
 field bean, as any part of Europe. The summers 
 
 are comparatively • 1. and the rains generally 
 
 i Urate, and pretty well diffused over the growing 
 
 The ' rops are less liable to depr idations 
 of the 'black dolphin,' and the 
 which the growth of the plant is extended, is favour- 
 i crops. Sometimes the crop is sown broad- 
 cast, when the land is clean and well manured; and 
 it is said that as large crops have been ra 
 this way as by sowing in rows. The produce 
 by this mode of cnltiva rer, is much more 
 
 irregular, and the land is often left in a foul con- 
 Drilling is therefore the general practice in 
 cultivat crop in the Lothians. The stubble 
 
 is usually i 1 ploughed in autumn, and 
 
 when the weather admits, in spring it is p] 
 again, and t 1 b ire sown by a small machine 
 
 in every third farrow; or the land 
 in autumn, and formed into drills or ridges by the 
 double mould-board plough in spring. Into these 
 
 the farmyard manure is put and spread, and the 
 
 are sown above it srl or by a 
 
 three-barrelled machine. The seed is then covered 
 
 by the doubl a the plant 
 
 . Ry this mode, the plants receive a plen- 
 tiful supply of nutriment m their early 
 
 1 . th. When Land is curl of conditio 
 when the crop is sown upon lighter and inferior 
 Hons of soil, tin the most advis- 
 
 to follow. Mr Hope of Fenton-barna 
 has lately introduced ti method of culti- 
 
 vating the Ii. into Bast Lothian. The stubble is 
 dunged; icd in autumn, and as soon as the 
 
 ring, about 3 oa are 
 
 I apart, by means of Gran 
 
 i • appears above ground, 
 Garrett's lever horse-hoe is put over the ground, 
 to stir the surfai . 
 
 During t] early summer, the horse and 
 
 d as often as it is d> 
 ile, until the crop covers in the land by its 
 abundant foliage, and keeps down all weeds. Mr 
 Bop - exp rimenta indicated that the yield of grain 
 is greater by the narrow than by wide drilling. 
 
 In England, the cro] aa vary from 20 
 
 to 40 1 it in dry and warm 
 
 . the produce often falls below the first- 
 ly. Th • weight per bushel is from 60 
 to 64 lbs. On some of ti is in Fife, and in 
 
 the Lothians, as many as CO bushels per acre are 
 I in favourable seasons, and the weight of 
 the bushel is sometimes as much as Ob lbs. In 
 Scotland, the straw is more abundant than in 
 England It forms good fodder both for cattle 
 il as supplying material for the 
 are usually cut by the 
 I to li I a few days unbound to winnow, and 
 when bound, put up inl In late e 
 
 when there has been a consideral de growth of leaves, 
 they are often long before they are ready for carry- 
 in.' to the stack. Notwithstanding the relatively 
 idth under thi 
 ' ininishing also in Scotland. H is 
 said that the draining of the soil has not be 
 beneficial to the Ii. as to other crops. The greater 
 returns which the land gives under potatoes in the 
 1 and the Lothians since the open- 
 
 ing of the railways, has 1 upon the extent 
 
 former!' in the six-course rotation. 
 
 In the Carse < 
 hold much better, and form; the chief preparation 
 
 .. The Held B. is now Htth 
 as an article of human food It is considered 
 
 for the feeding of horses which 
 1 to bard work. For this purpose, it is 
 uh a little 
 bran. In th e v, in! often boiled, 
 
 andgn : t. When the pi ii 
 
 rate, a mixtux I beans and oilcake, or 
 
 linseed, is mi I for milch cows, as well aa 
 
 for fattening cattle and si: 
 manur. pplied to the B. crop than I 
 
 other. In many instances, nitrate of soda and 
 sulphate of lime have been used with advai 
 but farm-yard manure is almost essential to ii 
 growth. 
 BEAN-CAPER. See Ztgophtij v 
 BEAST GOOSE. So < 
 
 BEAN-KING'S FESTIVAL, a social rite piinci- 
 d in France, from which country it 
 would seem to have been transplanted to Germany. 
 iiii il of Twelfth Pay (q. v.>, or, as the 
 
 Germans call it (in allusion to the legend that the 
 wise men of the i -hip Christ 
 
 l' Pay I i I 
 companies a pend a few hours in mirthful 
 
 ■ baked with ■ 
 hidden somewhere m it The cake is then divided
 
 BEAN-BEAU. 
 
 ^ 
 
 into i b person present receiving one, and before the latter part of the 11th c The Brown B 
 
 btains the piece with the bean is king for is usually about four feet long, and two and a half 
 ear. In this capacity, he holds a mock-court, and feet high. Its claws are about two inches lonn and 
 any, who also amuse much curved. It hag a convex forehead, and 
 themselves with other diversions. The Bean King, rally a brown fur, which is somewhat woolly in the 
 howev.r. is compelled to pa; for his dignity, for he younger animals, but becomes smoother with age. 
 has i i entertainment on the next Twelfth 
 
 Night, that an opportunity may be afforded to 
 choose another king In France, this custom was 
 at an earlier period so common, that even the 
 court indulged in it, although the church, in the 
 17th c, i d itself zealously for its suppri 
 
 The opinion that the B. K. F. owes its origin I 
 Roman saturnalia, when even the children, partaking 
 in the universal gl c. were wont to elect a king, is 
 not destitute of probability. 
 
 BEAN, St Igxatius's. See Stryctinos. 
 
 BEAB [Urms), a genus of quadrupeds, the type 
 of a family called Ursula:, belonging toil 
 Ferce, sub-order Carnbvora, and tribe. Plantigrada. 
 In the Ursiehe or B. family, are included not only 
 the true bears, but also badgers, gluttons and 
 wolverines, racoons, coatimondis, binturongs, the 
 kinkajou, the panda, &c. (See these articles.) "Walk- 
 ing on the whole sole of the foot (plantigrade), the 
 animals of this family are not, in general, capable of 
 running very swiftly; and the nearly equal length 
 of their fore and hind legs unlits them for leaping; 
 most of them are also heavy both in form and gait. 
 But whilst thus delicient in the powers which other 
 carnivorous animals possess for obtaining prey, they i 
 really Exhibit the same beautiful mutual adaptation 
 of endowments and wants ; they are, in fact, by no 
 means strictly carnivorous; no animals are more 
 t'.iov. mghly omnivorous than some of them; whilst 
 others, even of the true bears, always give a decided 
 preference to vegetable food when it can be obtained. 
 and their teeth and digestive organs are in i 
 accordance with such tastes. Their jaws are much 
 more elongated than those of feline animals, and 
 their bite proportionally less powerful, alt! 
 some of the bears are still very formidable from 
 their great general strength and the size of their 
 canine teeth. Their claws are not retractile, and 
 are adapted for digging in the earth, or for climbing 
 trees, rather than for seizing prey. Al. 
 the family have five toes to each both of the fore 
 and hind feet. 
 
 Bears have six cutting teeth above, and six below, 
 one canine tooth on each side in each jaw, with 
 four false molars and two molars (or grinders) on 
 each side above, and four false molars and three 
 molars below. The false molars are, in general, 
 soon lost by the more carnivorous species. The | 
 true molars are very large and tuberculous, the 
 false molars comparatively small. The tuberculous 
 crowns of the molars exhibit the adaptation to 
 1 'le food. — The tail in all species of B. is very 
 short, so that some of them almost appear tailless. ! 
 Most of them may be described as nocturnal in I 
 their habits. 
 
 Bears are found in Em-ope, Asia, and North and 
 South America, and both in warm and cold climates, 
 the species belonging to cold climates being in 
 general the most fierce and carnivorous. The 
 ancients mention them as occurring in Africa; it 
 must, therefore, be regarded as a curious circum- 
 stance that no recent accounts make i 
 existence of any species in that continent. Nor is 
 any known to belong to Aust] 
 
 The common B. of Europe, or Brown B. ( I 
 Arctos), was at one time a native of the British 
 islands. Bears were carried from Britain to 
 for the cruel sports in which the 1 d lighted, 
 
 and they certainly were not exterminated in Scotland 
 
 Brown Beat; 
 
 It produces from one to three young ones at a birth, 
 which remain blind for about four weeks. It is 
 generally believed to be the oidy European species, 
 although different varieties occur; and one, the 
 Black B., has been regarded by some naturalists 
 as specifically distinct. The common B. is very 
 widely distributed over the whole of Europe and 
 of the north of Asia, Japan, and North America. 
 In America, it is known as the Barren Ground 
 Bear. It is a solitary animal, and generally inhabits 
 mount. or thick forests. It 
 
 preys on Iambs, kids, &c, is fond oi 
 which in some countries, as in Kamtchatka, consti- 
 tute a great part of its food : climbs trees in quest 
 of honey, eat i also fruits and vegetables, and in con- 
 finemen . a strong appetite^for bread. It 
 
 usually pref ble to . d food. The skin 
 
 ted for making fur-cloaks, &c; the flesh is 
 used a tape of hams, as is that 
 
 of the Amerj '. B.; the paws are esteemed 
 
 a delicacy. The fat (bear's grease) is in great 
 request as an unguent for the hair. The intestines 
 are used in Kamtchatka, instead of glass, for 
 lows. To the people of Kamtchatka, indeed, 
 , which are there very abundant, afford many 
 of the necessaries and comforts of life. — The com- 
 mon I',., like others of the genus, in cold climates, 
 usually spends the winter in a torpid state. It 
 selects a cavern or the hollow of a tree for its hyber- 
 nation, or makes a hole for itself by digging; it is 
 
 • iid, but this u Is confirmation, sometimes to 
 
 construct a sort of hut with branches of trees, lined 
 with moss. The winter being spent without food, 
 it is saiil to be very lean on the return of s] 
 This and other species of B. are very often killed in 
 winter dens, 
 The American Black B. (Ursus Americanus) is 
 found in all parts of North America. Its total 
 ceeds 5 feet. The fur is soft and 
 smooth, and generally of a glossy black ; but there 
 are varieties of other colours, as the Cinnamon B., 
 The American Black B. usually 
 exhibits a timid disposition; seldom attacks man; 
 feeds chiefly on berries, when they can be obtained; 
 occasionally visits gardens for the sake of cab 
 and otlnr vej i: ides; and strongly prefers vegetable 
 to animal food, but has recourse to the latter when 
 i I i hunger, and in such chrcumstances occa- 
 
 sionally approaches human habitations and captures
 
 BEAR— BEAR-BAITING. 
 
 pigs, which it endeavours to carry off. In such 
 i the 15. walks on its In bhe pig being 
 
 firmly squeez n its tore | 
 
 makin .. Iiich frequently leads to a I 
 
 This and other species of 1!., when i 
 unfrequently hug their adversaries in the manner 
 here 3 ribed, when their strength renders them 
 very dangerous. The skin of the American Black 
 B. is used for caps, rugs, &c, and great numbers are 
 annually lulled upon this account, chiefly by the 
 Indians in the employment of the Hudson's Bay 
 
 my. Almost 10,000 skins are annually im- 
 
 into Britain, of which, however, the greater 
 
 part arc again exported. In the of the 
 
 19th c, the number import ' than twice 
 
 >t as now; the skins w ic h higher 
 
 ' A B.'s skin is still worth from £1 to 
 
 The Grisly B. (U. ferox) of North America, found 
 chiefly on the Rocky Mountains and the plains to 
 the eastward of them, from Mexico to Iat. til" N., 
 is much larger than cither of the species already 
 noticed, and much more fierce and carnivorous. It 
 sometimes measures more than 9 feet from nose to 
 tail, and the claws of the fore-feet more than G 
 inch) i in length. It has a lengthened and narrowed 
 muzzle, a very short tail, and iong grisled hair. No 
 animal of the New World is more formidable than 
 the (irisly B. It is capable of overpowering the 
 bison, and dragging away the huge carcass. It 
 feeds, however, also on fruits and roots. — The 
 Arctic B., or Polar B„ also called the White 1!. 
 (U. jnaritimu.i), resembles this species in size and 
 
 Polar Bear. 
 
 fierceness, but is very distinctly characterised by 
 its flat head and comparatively long neck. It has 
 10th white fur. It is the only known species 
 > is strictly marine in itss habits, never 
 found far from the sea. It inhabits the most 
 I of Asia and America, Spitzh 
 
 it pursues seals, both in the wsh 
 upon the ice, and preys upon fishes, birds, fcc 
 Amongst the articles of its fo a and berries 
 
 in their season, and in confinement it will 
 
 on bread and othej food. Like other 
 
 it displays great affection 
 
 td will brave ail dangers in their 
 
 ' >r other species of B., the Syrian B. 
 
 ('*. 8yri i mentioned, as perhaps the 
 
 ne 1!. in the 
 > estament. It is generally of a dingy-white 
 
 or brown colour, and lias a stiff mane erect hairs 
 between the shoulders. Flocks are not safe from 
 it, yet it more frequently commits • a crops 
 
 of pulse. In its Unlets generally, it much resembles 
 the i iramon B. : 
 
 led B. {!'. ornatut), so called 
 
 from semicircular yellow marks above its eyes, a 
 native of the Andes of Chili.- The Long-lipped B., 
 or Sloth B. (..'. labiatus), of I Indies, is the 
 
 kind commonly led about by Indian jugglers. Its 
 
 Syrian Bear. 
 
 long hair, short limbs, high back, peculiarly uncouth 
 
 .mend 
 it for this purpose. In a wild state, it is said 1 
 chiefly on fruits, honey, and ants. It possesses in 
 a remarkable degree the power, common in some 
 measure to all the bears, of protruding the lips in 
 order to lay hold of food. — Some other East Indian 
 species, whi' I tly on fruits and honey, are 
 
 known .as Sun-bears, as the Malayan B. ( If. M 
 anus) and the Bornean B. [U. J.'iiryxpUus). They 
 are characterised by an extremely long extensile 
 tongue. They are of gentle disposition, and become 
 very affectioi tamed. Sir Stamford I 
 
 had a Malayan B., which was very playful and quite 
 harmless, although a powerful animal, and which 
 innt of taste in refusing to eat any 
 fruit but the mangOSteen, or to drink any wine but 
 lagne. This species in a wild state doe3 much 
 damage to cocoa-nut plantations, by climbing the 
 trees, and eating off the terminal bud. when it is said 
 also to drink the sap (toddy) which flows out in 
 da 
 
 Remains of several extinct species of B. have been 
 discovered in caves in Germans', England, and other 
 countries, some of which appi been larger 
 
 than the present bears fi 1 of more decided 
 
 carnivorous propensities. Of these, the U. m 
 Cavern B., has the skull of < 
 1 elevation from the upper end of the muzzle, 
 and larger than that of the b . ' iwn B. The 
 
 US has a skull nearly of the configu 
 of that of the U. A . and of the size of that 
 
 of If. spdems. The t Ancient B., has 
 
 the skull of a smaller size, and differing less from 
 that of living bears. 
 
 Ant B. is a name of I 'wit-cater (q. v.). 
 
 BEAR, BERE, or BEEP. See Barley. 
 BEAR, Great and Little. See Ursa Major 
 am. Motor. 
 
 LR-BAITING. In different countries, bears 
 irmerly made objects of cruel sport) by being 
 baited with dogs. In England, P. was one of the 
 established amusements, not only among the com- 
 mon people, but among nobles, and even royalty 
 itself; it is related that Queen Elizabeth did 
 not consider it unbefitting her sex or rank to 
 attend these rude entertainments. Pennant) in his 
 Zoology, quoting from The Houtehold Book of 
 rland, says: 'Our nobility 
 also kept their bearward ; twenty shillings was 
 the annual reward of that officer from his lord, 
 the tilth Earl of Northumberland (who died 1527)) 
 
 774
 
 BEAEBEKRY— BEA11D. 
 
 "when lie comyth to my Ionic in Christmas, with 
 Ishippe's bei I for making liis lordschip i 
 
 iid twelve days." ' Tin- places where 
 were kept and publicly baited were called 
 bear-gardens. There is a Bpot in the neighbourhood 
 of the court at Westminster, which, until lately, was 
 known as the Bear-garden. IS., like bull and bad: r 
 ! I ag been unknown in England. 
 
 I'.r.A'RBERRY. See Abbutob. 
 
 BEAR LAKE, Great, in British America, In 
 X. lat. 65° 67°, and W. long. 117°— 123°. It is the 
 northerly of that chain of fresh-water seas — 
 Huron, Superior, Winnipeg, Athabasca, Great Slave, 
 Great Bear— which mark a continuous hollow in 
 the middle of the continent. Great Bear Lake is 
 irregular in shape, with a surface estimated at 
 14,000 square miles, equal to about half the area 
 of Scotland. It sends forth a river of its own name 
 to the Mackenzie. Its height above the ocean is 
 computed at 230 feet. The climate is, of course, 
 severe. The rigour of the. winter may lie interred 
 from the fact, that boats are sometimes blocked 
 up by solid ice, after the crews have begun to sillier 
 from the heat and the mosquitoes. 
 
 KEAR-LEADER. In former times, bear 
 led about with a chain, muzzled, and made to dance 
 or stand on their hind-legs for popular enter- 
 tainment; small dancing-dogs being usually added, 
 for the sake of attractiveness. As a measure of 
 police, these somewhat dangerous and painful exhi- 
 bitions are now stopped. From this old practice 
 has been taken the phrase, B., now used jocularly 
 to signify a discreet person who takes charge of a 
 youth of rank on his travels to see the world. 
 
 BEAR-PIT, a pit prepared for the keeping of 
 bears, usually seen in zoological gardens. A pit of 
 this kind is circular, measuring about 25 feet in 
 diameter, and 2(1 feet deep. The sides are built 
 with brick; the bottom is level, and paved with 
 stone ; and around are vaults with doors for the 
 residence of the bears. From the centre of the 
 pit rises a stout and tall pole, on which are cross- 
 spars at proper distances, to enable the bears to 
 Climb to the top. As is well known, the animals 
 are fond of climbing up these poles, and catching 
 morsels of bun from the visitors. The poles are 
 sufficiently distant from the sides to prevent the 
 bears from leaping out. The vaulted receptacles 
 require to be cool and dry. 
 
 BEAR'S GREASE. Under this name there are 
 sold by perfumers and others, large quantities of 
 pomades, tastefully done up for the todet, and 
 which are represented to be of great efficacy in 
 nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. These 
 so-called preparations of B. G. are for the most part 
 composed of purified beef-marrow, hog's-lard, or fat 
 of veal, and spermaceti, along with almond oil, and 
 some scenting ingredients. The genuine bear's fat 
 or B. G. would appear to possess the virtue of 
 encouraging the growth of, and strengthening the 
 hair, in an eminent degree; but the scarcity of the 
 commodity is such that substitute fats are employed 
 to supply the demand. See Hair. 
 
 BEARD, the hair which grows on the upper lip, 
 and on the chin and cheeks of the male sex. It is 
 usually, though not always, of the same colour as 
 the hair of the head, but somewhat shorter, stronger, 
 and more wiry ; it is invariably the colour of the hail' 
 on the eyebrows. The B. is the distinctive sign of 
 manhood. In women, an incipient B. sometimes 
 appeal's in the later years of life. Instances also 
 occur of women with a B. almost equal to that of 
 the male sex, but these are recorded as prodigies. 
 The B. is generally luxuriant in persons of the 
 
 Slavic and Celtic races. The aborigin . of America, 
 
 who are naturally almost beardless, make theiu- 
 
 entdrely so by plucking out the L 
 
 braid. In early times, the B. was considered by 
 almost all nations a sign of strength and an orna- 
 
 of manhood, was carefulh cheri bed, and even 
 regarded as sacred Among the Turks, Arabs, P< r- 
 
 and many other nations, the removal of the 
 B. was, and is yet to a very rded 
 
 as a severe punishment and an extreme degradation. 
 The ease of David's ambassadors, recorded in 2 
 
 ! , chap, x., illustrates the same feeling as 
 prevalent among the ancient Jews. The Mo [i ms 
 carry combs constantly about with them for the 
 purpose of dressing the beard. It is common to do so 
 immediately after prayers, the devotee remaining on 
 his kne i durin the operation. The hairs that fall 
 out are then carefully picked up and preservi 
 entombment with their owner when he dies; fre- 
 quently he himself deposits them beforehand in his 
 di I ied tomb. The ancient Jews did not dye their 
 beards, and the Turks rarely, but the practice was 
 common among the Arabs and Persians. The 
 Arabs dyed the B. red, not only because dye of 
 that colour (being m rely a paste of henna leaves) 
 was easily obtainable, but because it was an approxi- 
 mation to golden yellow, the colour recommended 
 by tluir prophet Mohammed, who hated black, the 
 colour the Persians preferred The Persian kings 
 are saiel to have interwoven their beards with 
 thread. It is customary among the 'links to anoint 
 the B. with perfume, and to smoke it with incense. 
 The Jews also anointed 1 ds. The Moslems 
 
 commonly clipped their whiskers, the Jews did not. 
 The Egyptians shaved their beards e :ci pt in time of 
 
 Egyptian Beard-case. 
 From the Memnon's head In the British Museum. 
 
 mourning, when they let them grow. From some 
 of the ancient Egyptian statues, however, it would 
 appear that beard-cases were worn, which would 
 seem to indicate that the practice of shaving was 
 not universal. The fashions of beards have been 
 very different at different times and in different 
 countries. 
 
 A neglected B. was a sign of mourning among 
 the Jews. According to Levi's Succinct A^-muit 
 of the Riles and Ceremonies of the Jews at Ms 
 /uTMiit Time, they are forbidden to shave or cut 
 their naUs, or bathe for thirty days after the death 
 of a father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, 
 wife, or husband. In Greece, the B. was uni- 
 versally worn till the time of Alexander the Great, 
 who ordered shaving, that the beards of his soldiers 
 might not be laid hold of by their enemies iu 
 battle. Shaving was introduced among the Romans
 
 BEAI1D MOSS- B 
 
 about ."'Hi B.O, Pliny says Scipio Africanus was 
 
 the first Roman who shaved ov.ry day. 
 
 guently, the first day of shaving v. 
 
 by the Romans as the enti 
 
 and celebrated with great festivities. I 
 
 ii, the B. v 1 to grow again; and 
 
 this fashion prevailed till tb m i 
 
 the < creat, when it wi tied. I ' 
 
 i compelled ' in I :i ia by impo 
 
 the 14., and further, by having the 
 i i of all whom he found wearing them pli 
 
 : the roots, I with a blunt razor. 
 
 The B, immonly worn in Prance ill the 
 
 time of Louis XIII., wl ithemonan 
 
 young and beardless, the fa bion changed at the 
 court and throughout the kingdom. A Bimilar 
 change took place in Spain on tb ac& sion of 
 Philip V. With regard to onr own country, the 
 i Saxons wore beards for a con iderable time 
 their invasion of Britain; and the B. appears 
 to have been general among the people at ti. 
 of the Norman Conquest. But the Normans not 
 only shaved themselves, but compelled the con- 
 quered to do so likewise ; and many of the English 
 preferred to leave the country rather than submit to 
 have their whiskers shaved. It would appear, 
 however, from the sculptured representations o 
 tombs of kings and nobles, that not very long after 
 the Conquest some of the Normans adopted the 
 custom they had prohibited among the vanquished. 
 I 1 III. is represented on his tomb in West- 
 
 Abbey with a very long beard. In the time 
 of Elizabeth, beards were of tb ied and fon- 
 
 ts cut Ta; lor, the ' Wati r-poet,' thus latirises 
 the extravagance of beards prevailing in that and 
 the succeeding reign : 
 
 Beem as they wire starched stiff and fine, 
 Like to the bristles of some angry swine : 
 Some cut and pruned like to a quick-set fa 
 Some like a spade, some like a fork, some square, 
 Some round, some mowed like stubble, some stark 
 
 bare; 
 Some sharp stiletto-fashion, dagger-like, 
 That may with whispering, a man's eyes out-pike, 
 Some with the hammer-cut, or Roman T, 
 * # # * 
 
 That heights, dip hs, triform, square, oval, 
 
 round, 
 And rules geometrical in beards arc found. 
 
 The B. gradually declined under Charl a 1. ; in the 
 reign of Charles H., whiskers and mou taches only 
 were" worn ; and the practice of shaving the whole 
 face soon became general all ovi t Europe ; and it is 
 only within the last GO years that the B. ha been 
 
 ne measure restored, the soldiers of Bonaparte 
 
 the example. But until within the last two or 
 
 finer years, it was regarded bysomeof the continental 
 
 ; as a badge significant of .1- mocratic 
 
 cents, and as such v. .1 v. ith by 
 
 Solice regulations. Physicians recommend that the 
 !. should be allowed to grow on the chin and 
 throat in cases of liability to inflammation of the 
 larynx or of the bronchus; and mon 
 whiskers are reckoned tion of tooth- 
 
 aches and nervon The British 
 
 soldiers in the Crimea were allowed to wear their 
 beards; and with some limitations, the British 
 army generally are now permitted to do SO. The 
 
 wearing of the B. has, in short, been a matter of 
 fashion in all ages and countries in extreme in 
 one way usually leading to an extreme in the other. 
 At present (ISoiii, the tendenoy in England and 
 
 ! ere is to let the B. mow, thou 
 suggested by the taste of the individual. I 
 , ' If liable to the • ith the hair 
 
 of tire bead, and to a peculiar disease {imntagra) 
 
 np by shaving, consisting in a 
 bark-lik 
 gland* of the hair. For detail 
 
 Kitto's / 
 
 1653) ; II' 
 I ! of 1 'discus; T; 
 
 vtiri ; &c. 
 BEARD MOSS. S 
 BEARDIE. I is the little fish called 
 
 ii. 
 BEARING, of a ship at I direction in 
 
 lints of the coin- 
 sense, it is the 
 a in which eacl situated in 
 
 When the latitndi 
 longitudes of > | oown, theii 
 
 n be calculated by 
 
 limn often con- 
 
 ly refer the B. of another ship, or of an 
 
 object on shore, points of the compass, 
 
 but relatively to I at the moment 
 
 by the ship's keeL Thus, the Ii. of the distant 
 
 may be a?iea<t, 
 boiv, on the larboard quarter, >ve. ; the bow being 
 b twei D tb oidship, and the quarter 
 
 between the mids] 
 
 en her i he verb to : or, i 
 as a technical direction on shipboard. Thi 
 'bear in with the land,' to 'bear off from the land,' 
 to 'bear up,' to ' bear away.' Jtc., are nearly equiva- 
 lent to sul ug, or steaming, or steering, in such and 
 such directions. 
 
 BEARING THE BELL, a phrase which signi- 
 fies to take the lead or tii t | 1 in anything, or to 
 
 carry away the pri This old colloquial phrase is 
 
 said to have originated in a practice, at the early 
 part of tie' seventeenth c, of giving a small 
 golden or silver bell as a prize to the winner at 
 horse-r i I'.ui.. In Dudley Lord Nbrth's 
 
 . '■ ties, p. 17.". we read i 
 
 Jockey and bis horse were by their masters sent 
 To put in for the bell — 
 Thus right, and each to other fitted wall. 
 They are to run, and c the bill. 
 
 BEABN. if the thirty-two pro- 
 
 hito which Kr I. and now 
 
 forming the I ■ nccs. 
 
 B. was a portion of Aquitania under the Romans, 
 and after the downfall of that empire, under its 
 ruling dukes, it was a country of considerable im- 
 marriage of the ruling 
 . the Counts of l'oix. with that of N: 
 the I'ri Dch monarch Henry IV., v. : 
 born and brought up in B., was 
 called the Bearno u V\ Bended the throne 
 
 of France, it, of COU1 96, virt 
 
 lunti ; but j formally in 
 
 with it in 1620 by Louis XI II. In 1813 
 British bad i Nive, and established th m- 
 
 Belves in Uro ■ . SI J< d d l.u.\ &c., the rii '• 
 ,,f B. furni hi 1 them ample supp 
 taking their produce, for which thi 11 paid, 
 
 British BtationB as to market. 
 BE AS, '' Hi of thi live rivers 
 
 Which give niun' to t . or land of live 
 
 waters .ii him, Chenab, Rai 
 It rises mi the vi Ritanka Pass of the 
 
 Himalaya, in lat. . . and Ion.-. 77 12 11, 
 
 13 200 I above the sea-level. 
 
 Aft' r ''out 220 mil. s. it joins the Sutlcj, 
 
 ;{."i mi' nth-south-east of Amritsir. It is 
 
 subject to periodical rises and falls, lung in tho 
 
 ■ nerally fordaUe; but after the rainy 
 
 months, it is sometimes nearly half a mile iu 
 
 i il
 
 BEAT— BEATING AND WOUNDING. 
 
 breadth about 20 miles above the point of con- 
 fluenc . 
 
 BEAT, in Music, a species of cmbelli ; 
 
 written thus : 
 
 , and played as follows, 
 
 Zl . Beat also means a signal given by 
 the hand or foot in music to insure 
 simultaneous performance — the hand or foot 
 raised on the unaccented, and lowered on the 
 accented part of the bar. 
 
 BEAT OF DRUM, in military matters, is a 
 signal or instruction convoyed by a particular 
 mode of drum-beating. It is an audible 
 phore, a telegraph that speaks to the ear i 
 of the eye. There are many varieties, known by 
 the names of the general, the reveille, the a? 
 the foot-march, the grenadiers' march, the i 
 the taptoo or tattoo, the call to arm3, the call to 
 church, the pioneers' call, the sergeants' call, the 
 drummers' call, the chamade, the rogue's march, the 
 long roll, &c. Some of the same instructions or 
 commands are also given by the bugle, and some by 
 the trumpet. 
 
 BEATIFICA'TION is a solemn act in the 
 Catholic Church, by which the pope, after scrutinising 
 the life and services of a deceased person, pronounces 
 him blessed. After this he may be worshipped in a 
 specified portion of the church, and the act holds out 
 the prospect of future canonisation, which entitles 
 him to genera] worship in the church universal, B. 
 was introduced in the 12th c. It may be regarded 
 as an inferior degree of canonisation (qt, v.). 
 
 BEATING "ami WOUNDING, or simply 
 wounding, is the name sometimes found in Jaw- 
 books for the offence of inflicting on another some 
 dangerous hurt or wound ; and it has been 
 wise described as an aggravated species of Battery 
 (q. v.). A still more aggravated and atrocious 
 offence of this kind is explained in the category 
 of offences against the criminal law of E 
 under the term Mayhem, which is a violently 
 depriving another of the use of a member proper 
 for his defence, such as an arm, a leg, a fin 
 eye, a fore-tooth, and . others; but it is laid 
 
 down quaintly enough, that the loss of one of the 
 jaw-teeth, the ear, or the nose, is no mayhi I a 
 common law, because these members eau be of 
 no use in fighting. 
 
 The offences to which we have referred — viz., 
 battery, beding < m — can, 
 
 however, be best considered under the important 
 and well-known term Assault, which is indeed 
 often used to express the above injuries, and which 
 is implied in them all. The above offences, it will 
 have been observed, all involve an actual attack on 
 and injury to the person of the party assaulted. 
 But there may be an assatdt without such actual 
 hurt. This is a common assault, and hence, in crimi- 
 nal law, assaults are distinguished by their being 
 common or aggravated. A common assault has been 
 defined as an attempt or offer to do a corporal hurt 
 to another, as by striking at another with a stick 
 or weapon, or without a weapon, though the party 
 striking misses his aim. The principle is, that it is 
 sufficient, in order to constitute such an offence, that 
 there has been such an exhibition of a violent and 
 offensive tmimtls as to shew at once the intention, 
 and an attempt, to commit it. So, drawing a sword 
 or bayonet, or even holding up a fist in a m> 
 manner, throwing a bottle or glass with intent to 
 woimd or strike, presenting a gun at a person who 
 U within the distance to which the gun will carry, 
 
 pointing a pitchfork at a person who is within 
 
 reach, or any other similar act, accompanied with 
 
 I circumstances as denote at the time an 
 
 intention, coupled with a present ability, of 
 
 actual violence against the person of another, will 
 
 amount to an assault. — Basse]] on Crimes and 
 
 re, vol. i. p. 750. It has even been laid 
 
 down, that to present a pistol, purporting to be 
 
 . so near as to produce danger to life if the 
 
 pistol had gone off, is an MSI alt in point of law, 
 
 although, in fact, the pistol was not lorn : 
 
 But no words, however provoking or irritating, 
 can amount to an assault. On the other bend, 
 the injury need not be effected directly with the 
 hand of the person making the assault. Thus, 
 there may be an as?ault by encouraging a dog 
 to bite, by riding over a person with a horse, 
 or by wilfully and violently driving a cart, &c, 
 against the carriage of another person. Nor is it 
 necessary that the assault should be immediate, as 
 where a defendant threw a lighted squib into a 
 market-place, which, being tossed from hand to 
 hand by different persons, at last hit the plaintiff in 
 the face, and put out his eye, it was adjudged that 
 this was actionable. And the same has been held 
 where a person wantonly pushed a drunken man 
 against another, and thereby hurt him, A defendant 
 put some cantharides into coffee, in order that a 
 female might take it ; and she did take it, and was 
 made ill by it ; and this was held to be an assault. 
 It is also an assault, wilfully and of malice, to expose 
 another to the inclemency of the weather; so is the 
 taking indecent liberties with females without their 
 consent, although they did not actually resist ; and 
 to such indecent liberties a very wide application 
 has been given, even to the extent of holding a 
 medical practitioner guilty of assault, who sta 
 a young girl of her clothes, on the pretence that he 
 could Dot otherwise judge of her illness. I'hilan- 
 1 9 and benevolent people will likewise be 
 glad to be told, that not only does the striking that 
 takes place at a prizi 'fight constitute an assault as 
 between the combatants themselves, but all persons 
 present in concert and co-operation at the odious 
 proceeding are equally guilty. Again, an assault 
 may be committed by unlawfully imprisoning or 
 di t. lining the person of another ; and by such 
 detention is meant every confinement of (she pe 
 whether it be in a common prison or in a private 
 house, or by a forcible detaining in the public 
 Numerous other cases could be stated, 
 shelving how nicely and protectively the law on 
 this subject has been elucidate.'. . bnt the expla- 
 nation we have given is sufficient for its popular 
 illustration. 
 
 Generally, it may be laid down, that the essential 
 thing is the intention with which the alleged act is 
 done, so that no matter how violent or menacing 
 the conduct of the accused may have appeared 
 to be, nor even how serious the injury, if it can 
 be shewn that the whole was unintentional or 
 accidental and undesigned, there is no assault. It 
 remains to be added on the subject of common 
 assaults, that the party injured may proceed against 
 the defendant by action and indictment for the 
 same assault ; and the court in which the action 
 is brought will not compel him to make his election 
 to pursue either the one or the other ; for the 
 punishment consequent upon the criminal prose- 
 cution, and the damages to the party in the civil 
 action, are perfectly distinct in their natures ; but 
 by the 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, a conviction for a common 
 assault may be had in a summary manner before 
 two magistrates. 
 
 With respect to a ' a laults, their special 
 
 character arises from the great criminality of the
 
 BEATING JUDGES-BEATON. 
 
 object intended to be effected. Thus, attempts to 
 
 murder, or to do great bodily harm, to ravish, and 
 
 to obstruct ' the law in the execution of 
 
 legal process, are all of the nature of agi- 
 
 assaults ; as are also attempts to commil 
 
 any other felony. The remedy Cor an 
 
 assault is usually by indictment preferred, the 
 
 Eunishment in many cases being imprisonment with 
 aril labour. In certa n 
 
 at statutes : thug, by tin- 14 and 15 
 Vict. c. 11, ss. 1 and G, it is enacted that persons 
 unlawfully and mal ■■ ting an appi 
 
 or servant, whereby the bfe of such person .shall be 
 Ith injured, shall be guilty of 
 a misdemeanour, and on con I] be impri- 
 
 soned, with or without hard labour, for any term 
 not exceeding three years; and where the ol 
 shall he against a young i the age ol 
 
 10 years, and shall amount in point of law to a 
 felony, or to an attempt to commit a felony, or 
 to an assault with int int to commit a - 
 the guardians of the union or parish, or, where 
 there arc no guardians, the overseers of the parish, 
 are authorised and required to prosecute, the costs 
 of the prosecution being paid out of the com- 
 mon fund of such union or parish. Again, by an act 
 pa led in the same session, c 19, s. 4, it is declared 
 expedient to make further provision for the p 
 
 ment of aggravated assaults, and it is therefore 
 enacted, that if any person shall unlawfully and 
 maliciously inflict upon any other person, either 
 with or without any weapon or instrument, any 
 grievous bodily harm, or unlawfully and malicioii h 
 cut, slab, or wound any other person, every such 
 offender shall he guilty of a misdemeanour, and 
 bi og convicted i hereof, b ill be liable, at the d 
 tion of the court, to be imprisoned, with or without 
 hard labour, for a like term of i line years : provided, 
 however, that nothing contained in the act shall lie 
 
 i re i the 20th Bection of the 
 10 Geo. IV., o. 34, by which it is provided, that if any 
 person shall unlawfully and mal assault, 
 
 beat, or wound a: , | i as thereby to end 
 
 the life of such person, or so as i inflict 
 
 na, evi ry 
 such off hall be liable 
 
 to be trans] i ond the seas, for the t 
 
 , or to be imprisoned with or without 
 hard labour, in the com or house of correc- 
 
 tion, for any term three years; a 
 
 a male, to bo once, twice, or thrice publicly or pri- 
 vately whipped, in addition to such imprisonment, if 
 ill think lit. The i I ate we 
 
 may here notice is an act al o pass d in thi 
 
 i viz., Ha 14 and 15 Vict. c. 100, s. 29 — which 
 provides that any person convicted of any in 
 assault, or any assault occasioning actual bodily 
 hall be im I for any ti nn m... 
 
 d by law, with hard labour during the whole 
 
 or any part i incut. 
 
 In Scotland, the principle of the law of a 
 
 vain uis, is very much the same as 
 that a!' I In the Scotch system, it is laid 
 
 down that it is of the utmost importance 
 of actual assault to ascertain who struck t. 
 blow, and tlie p; it will be e 
 
 for retal lo not 1 tl and fair 
 
 measure of resentment. Tl hest of 
 
 all aggravations is the assault with intent to murder. 
 It is :■' .nation that the assault ha 
 
 ciiiiin lit of an old 
 
 principle of i ice has 
 
 been accompanied with an intent to compel a rise of 
 
 at a certain I 
 in pursuance of a combination entered into for 
 illegal purposes, Anot ition of the offence 
 
 in Scotland i I • committed by a child on its 
 
 wife, or by any person 
 upon another within his own house, although the 
 latter crime falls more' 
 
 termof//a«' v.). The remedy in Sco 
 
 is, as in England, by civil action i and by 
 
 a criminal j; both being maintainabl 
 
 the latter usually at the suit of the Lord Adi 
 
 it ; but the party 
 
 may prosecute criminally should the Lord Adi 
 decline to do so. See, on the subject of this article 
 genera'! ours, 
 
 in Engl mil, and Alison's 1', 
 Orimi; 
 
 BEATING JUDGES, in the Scotch law, is the 
 title of a strange offence, according to the 
 tenment of the pn namely, that of 
 
 committiie.' a personal assault on a judge; but the 
 subject will be found, along with I 
 law in England, sufficiently treated and i 
 (q. v.). 
 
 BEATING THE BOUNDS is the popular 
 expression in England fortho ysor 
 
 ]i: i ambulations by which the ancient boundaries of 
 parishes are preserved, The procedure according to 
 common custom, is in this wise: On Holy Thursday 
 or Ascension Day, the clergyman ol h, with 
 
 the parochial officers and other pari I llowed 
 
 by the boys of t he ] 
 
 master, go in procession to the different | 
 boundaries, which boundaries the boys strike with 
 peeled willow-wands that they bear int 1 
 and hence the expression beating the bounds. The 
 correct legal term is Perambulation (q. v.). See 
 Brand's Popular Antiquities, vol i. pp. 174. 175; 
 Lyson' 146; Ho 
 
 iL i. p. 651 ; SI x rs / 
 by Hodgson ; and Toiilmin Smith' no. 
 
 According to these and other old authority 
 beating was not coi 
 
 I he boys with their willow-wands ; but where it was 
 desired to pi 'once of particular boun 
 
 the singular expedient was a hipping the 
 
 boys tl on the spot, or ■ . who 
 
 received a stated fee for the 
 
 out of the parish funds — it b .ht that the 
 
 impression made on the i the whipp 
 
 was cal ' have a benelicial effect on the 
 
 preservation of 1 A simil.n 
 
 appears anciently to ha. i in Scotland, and 
 
 for the ::ne i mi i i. I .ord Stair's Institutes oj 
 
 Hie Scotch Law, book iv., title 4.'i, s. 7, where it is 
 stated that I 
 
 BEA'TON, or BETHUNE, Davis, Cardii 
 Primal lent of the 
 
 Reformation in that count 
 eel ibrated Fi ai h family. \ . .< r son of 
 
 John Beaton of Balfour, Fifeshire. Born in 
 he became, in Oi iber loll, a student at the 
 university of St Andrews, and afterw: 
 
 in and civil laws at Paris. 
 Early entering the church, he was preferred by his 
 
 to the 
 ; and 
 l abilities recommended him to the Duke of 
 Albany, regent during the minority of Jan 
 who, in 1519, appointed him resided for Scotland at 
 the French court. In 1525, he t ok his seat in the 
 Scots parliament as Abbot of Arbroath; bis uncle, 
 on being translated two arch- 
 
 bishopric of St Andre' .I to him 
 
 that abbey, with the half of the rents. In 1 
 was appointed Lord Privy Seal, and is said to 
 
 in instituting the 
 i ■ of Justice or Court of Session .
 
 BEATTIE— BEAUCAIRE. 
 
 the idea of which was suggested by the constitu- 
 tion of the parliament of Paris. B. subsequently 
 became Prothonotary Public, and was twio 
 ambassador to France, to negotiate James's two 
 marriages first, with the French king's daughter, 
 Princess Magdalene, who died sis; months afti 
 nuptials; and secondly, with Mary, Duchess of 
 iieville, daughter of the Duke of Guise. The 
 king's union with the latter he solemnised, in 1537, 
 in the cathedral church of St Andrews. During his 
 residence at the French court, he was admitted to 
 all the privileges of a French citizen, ami a] p 
 by Francis I. Bishop of Mirepoiz in Languedoc. 
 After his return, he became coadjutor to his uncle 
 in the see of St Andrews, and on 28th Deo 
 1538, on the recommendation of the king of France 
 was. by I'oj.e Paul III., elevated to the dignity of 
 a cardinal On his uncle's death, in 1539, he suc- 
 ceeded him as Archbishop of St Andrews and 
 Primate of .Scotland, and soon commenced a furiou 
 persecution of the Reformers, already numerous 
 and increasing That he might be invested with 
 supreme authority in all matters ecclesiastical, he 
 obtained from the pope the appointment of legatus 
 a latere in Scotland, and induced the king to 
 institute a Court of Inquisition, to inquire after 
 heretics in all parts of the kingdom. To maintain 
 the French influence, and prevent all danger to the 
 Roman Catholio Church in Scotland bya friendlv 
 connection with England, he contrived to frustrate 
 a proposed meeting of King .Tames with his uncle, 
 Henry VIII., and even prevailed on the former t,, 
 declare war against his royal relative. On the 
 death of James, after the disastrous overthrow of 
 the Scots at Solway Moss, December 14, 1542, B. 
 produced a forged will of the late king, appointing 
 If, with three others, regents of the kingdom 
 during the minority of the infant Queen Mary. 
 The nobility, however, rejected the fictitious docu- 
 ment, and elected the Earl of Arran regent, who 
 then professed the reformed faith. The following 
 month, B. was arrested and imprisoned, ac 
 among other charges, of a design to introduce 
 French troops into Scotland, in order to stop the 
 negotiations then in progress with Henry of Eng- 
 land for a marriage between the young Prince 
 of Wales, afterwards Edward VI., and the infant 
 Queen of Scots. He was soon after liberated, 
 and reconciled to the regent, whom he induced 
 to abandon the English interest, and publicly 
 to abjure the reformed religion. On the young 
 queen's coronation in 1543, B. was again admitted 
 of the council, and appointed Chancellor. He 
 now renewed his persecution of the Reformers; 
 and, in January 1546. accompanied by the regent, 
 he made a diocesan visitation of the counties under 
 his jurisdiction, and punished with the utmost 
 severity all the Protestants he could find. At 
 Perth, a number of persons, accused of heresy, were 
 banished the city, others were imprisoned ; three 
 men were cruelly hanged, and one woman drowned, 
 by his direct inns. During a Provincial Councd of 
 the clergy held at Edinburgh, at which he presided, 
 he caused the celebrated evangelical preacher^ 
 George Wishart, to be apprehended, and conveyed 
 to the castle of St Andrews, where he was burnt 
 at the stake, B. and other prelates witnessing his 
 sufferings from a window. A conspiracy having 
 been formed against him, at the head of which were 
 Norman Leslie and Iris brother, B. was assassinated 
 in his own castle of St Andrews, L'tlth May 1.110. 
 Though endowed with great talents, B. possessed 
 little learning. He is said, however, to have written 
 Memoirs of his Own Embassies; a treatise on St 
 Peter's Supremacy; and Letters to Several Persons, of 
 which Dempster observes there are several copies 
 780 » 
 
 extant in the Imperial Library at Paris. Haughty, 
 ;;l "l intolerant, he was also licentious in the 
 extreme. He had six natural children, three sens 
 and three dauj hi be latter married into families 
 
 of distinction, one of his sons became a Pn . 
 His death was scarcely lamented l.y any party iu 
 the state. 
 
 BEA'TTIE, Jambs, poet and moral philosopher 
 
 11 I born, -"'Hi October IT:;."., .■,', Laurencekirk, 
 Kincardineshire, Scotland. He studied at Mari ich i 
 College, Aberdeen, where he acquired a high reputa- 
 tion as a classical scholar. In 1758,he was appointed 
 one oi the mo bers of the grammar-school m that 
 and in 1760, Professor of Moral Philosophy in 
 Marischal Coll . T n years afterwards appi ai id 
 B. s famous I I'nit/t, which met with i 
 
 extravagant success. It was intended as an antidote 
 to Hume, wle.se penetrating scepticism had found 
 >-. y into all the enlightened circles of Scotland, 
 and alarmed the friends of revealed religion. Drs 
 Reid and Campbell had previoti I. attempted to 
 refute the scepticism of the great historian, but, in 
 
 the opinion of many, t leferentially. I;., who,,.- 
 
 nature was poetically vehement, and whose zeal 
 was consequently very ardent, assaulted Hume 
 more violently, if not more powerfully, than his 
 predecessors. The author him elf natural!] shared 
 the popularity of his .■ ay. He was introduced to 
 George III., and solicited by dignitaries of the 
 English Church to take ordi ; high 
 
 also promised, which, however, he mai_'naiii- 
 Ij refused, shrinking with delicacy from .doing 
 anything which might give his adversaries a 
 chance of saying that he had written on behalf of 
 religion for hire. It was thought for a time that B. 
 had demonstrated 'the immutability of Truth,' and 
 exposed the ' sophistry of scepticism • ' but if we may 
 judge from the neglect which has overtaken his 
 treatise during the last fifty years, his acl 
 nicnts had been overestimated. I!, was di 
 in logical acumen and in extent of philosophic 
 erudition, but his poetical fancy, pure enthusia m, 
 and pious intentions, recommended the essay to 
 multitudes. In 1771, appeared the fii i part of 
 The Minstrel, and in 1774, the second part. It 
 is a delightful poem. Time has dealt gently with 
 it. for it still retains the freshness of its youth. It 
 overflows with a sweet poetic emotion, and is rich 
 in picturesque descriptions, while the versification 
 has a quiet fulness of melody. The author's genl i 
 
 yet fervent spirit beats in every line. The'] m 
 
 describes 'the progress of a poetical genius born in 
 a rude age, from the first dawning of fancy and 
 \ till that period at which he may be supposed 
 capable of appearing in the world as a minstrel' 
 B. intended to have added a third part, but circum- 
 stances hindered him. In 1770, he published a scries 
 oi essays on Poetry, Music, &c; in ITS::, Disserta- 
 tions Moral and Critical; iu 1786, The Evidences of 
 ' ■ '' _' Religion br> %y and plainly stated ■ and 
 in 1790—1793, The Elements of Moral Science; all 
 of which works are written in a clear and i : 
 style, and with a high appreciation of whatever is 
 beautiful and good. He died August 18, 1S03. 
 His life has been written by his friend, Sir William 
 Forbes. 
 
 BEAUCAIRE, a well-built commercial town of 
 France, situated on the right bank of the Rhone, 
 in the department of Card, opposite Tarascon, with 
 which it is connected by a magnificent suspension 
 bridge. Pop., exclusive of garrison, 9694 The 
 harbour is commodious for vessels, which enter 
 it by a canal communicating with the Mediter- 
 ranean, and avoiding the 'sand-hanks at the 
 mouths of the Rhone. The main feature of B. is
 
 BEAUCIIAMP— BEAIHAPNAIS. 
 
 it fair, established, it is said, as early as the 
 12th c. It is held annually, beginning 'JiM .July, 
 and lasting six days. In i , when this 
 
 fur was free from duties, it was attended by mer- 
 
 and manufacturers from almost all parts of 
 Europe, from the Levant, and even from Persia and 
 Armenia; and as tin- smalltown could not contain 
 the vast concourse of b lusands of v. 
 
 hats and oi tents were erecti ! in d louring 
 valley. Put the numerous i Handed since 
 
 lli.'JJ, foreign war.;, and the competition of .Marseille, 
 i and other b i, reduced the traffic of 
 
 1!., which sank still lower in the days oi the Revo- 
 lution. The fair, however, is still held in much 
 repute, the numb! it being estimated at 
 
 100,000, and the amount of property changing hands 
 at £210,000. The chid articles of commerce are 
 silks, wines, oil. almonds, and other Era 
 
 , leather, wool, and cotton. B to nave 
 
 sown in ancii i I times as Ugi mum, which, in 
 the 7th e., was a place of importance in a military 
 point of view. 
 
 BEAUCHATtfP, AtPHOSSE in:, a French histo- 
 rian and pul 0, 17o7 ; died in 
 
 .June 4, 1832. I ' '.ion in 
 
 and enter, i i I linian military I 
 
 At the outbreak of the war with France, 
 I , bear arms against ry, and obtained 
 
 his discharge; but bed lonable 
 
 designs,! After 
 
 his liberation, he returned to Paris, where he took 
 part against Robespierre'; and on the eel 
 ment of the Directory, obtained a situation in the 
 
 of the minister of police, and had the 
 ; lance of the press. II Histoire 
 
 dela I i i (J vols., Par. 1806; 4th 
 
 1820), for which Foul-Ik- supplied the in. 
 As this work displeased the Emperor, J!, was ban- 
 ishedtoKhe :alled in 1811, and 
 
 received a subordinate appointment (on condition 
 that he should publish nothing concerning his politi- 
 cal coutem]ioraries), which he lost in 181 
 the Restoration, h la] nsion (1S20), and 
 
 wrote for the. 1/<i»/' ; - .'/-.the',, e tie del and the 
 
 l i dited by Michaud. 
 
 The numerous historical writings of B. arc in 
 ing, but hear the impress of party-spirit ; but in 
 In Hi toire du Brltil [Far. 1S15), and Histoire de la 
 
 '■■ tin I'.'rou (Par. 1SU7), he found no oppor- 
 tunity of expressing his political partialities. Among 
 his other works in 
 
 , Par. ISIS), the 
 Histoire de la involution directed 
 
 I De la Rosa (Far. 1823), and I 
 X VI II. (Far. 1825). After the July revolution, he 
 was employed on several legitimist journals; and 
 the : uppo ititious M.'ir '-:., l'ar. 
 
 1828 — 1S29) have, with good rcasou, been ascribed 
 to Beauchamp. 
 
 BEAU'FORT. an inland di fcrict of the 
 division of the Caj ito 12 field- 
 
 cometcics. It is - I for pastui 
 
 being, in seasons of abundant ram, decidedly the 
 fattest in the colony. its area is about 13,050 
 square miles ; and its population, in 1849, was 7131. 
 Its capital, of the is on the Ganika. 
 
 being 363 miles to the east of Cape Town, and 1-14 
 
 vest o G raaffi einet. 
 
 BEAU "FORT, Cardinal, and Bishop of Winches- 
 ter (born about l.'>7"), was a natural bod of John oi 
 Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and was half-brother to 
 King Henry 1 V. He was educated in England and 
 Germany, and in 1 KM became Uishopof Winchester. 
 He repeatedly filled th Lord Chancellor, 
 
 and was involved in all the most important political 
 
 movements of his times. He was present at the 
 
 Council of Constat ir the election of 
 
 Pope Martin V., by whom he was subsequently 
 
 made a cardinal. When the cardinal's ni 
 
 Henry V 1 to levy a - 
 
 on the clergy, in order to raise- money for carrying 
 
 on the war again t France, B. was the - 
 
 nent of the measure ; but nevertheless he lent the 
 
 h. out of In own pi rate purse, £28,000 — an 
 almost incredibly large sum in those days, and 
 one whi he belief that he was the 
 
 wealthiest Bubject of his time in all England. His 
 service -in this affair was soon recognised by the 
 pope, who sent him as lega 
 
 gainst the follow i 
 Huss. This undertaking failed; and the cardinal, 
 having expend) d, in levying an English army a 
 France, the monej from Rome for 
 
 purposes, now fell under papal displeasure. In 1 l.'M, 
 B. conducted the young King, Henry VI., to France, 
 to be crowni 
 
 land, i ured, but van 
 
 Duke of 1!> dford, Km - at ol l 
 with th ' 'ardinal B. 
 
 died at \\ in ' '7. Ill . m mory is stained 
 
 by his suspected participation in th of his 
 
 great political rival, th , who 
 
 the! 
 
 . and by the fact, that he pr 
 ever the tribunal which sentenced the Maid of 
 Orleans to perish at the I 
 
 BEATJGE ancient town of Fl 
 
 in the department Loiret, and situated on the 
 
 l' I of the Loire, 15 miles south-v. 
 
 Orleans. B. was at one time surrounded by walls, 
 flanked with towers and bastions, an 
 \>y a strong castle, now ruined, in the history of 
 the war; of France, B. occupies a conspicuous 
 place. It was successively in the hands ol 
 1 English, but i1 
 lained mosl damage'i 
 
 lGlh e. B. manufactures woollens, leather, .v., and 
 lias a trade in w ine, WOOL and corn. Pop. 
 
 BEAXJHARN'AIS, Alexahdkb Vicomte de, 
 born 1700, in the island of Martinique, e 
 
 under Marshal Rochambeau, in the American War 
 of Independence. Afterwards, lie wen! to France, 
 but though well received by the French court, he 
 embrace ipular cause. Fleeted deputy to 
 
 the States-general by the nobility and the jus- 
 ticiary authorities of among the 
 lirst of his order to fraternise with the 
 or democratic party. < 'n the night of A 
 4, 17S'.l, he vot.d for the abolition of all privi- 
 leges, and the political equality of all cil 
 As a reward far h a constancy to ti 
 liberty, he was nai tary of the National 
 
 member of the mil 
 committee, but lost his popularity considerably by 
 venturing to praise and defend the conds 
 General Bouille in the sanguinary suppression of 
 the insurrection at Nancy. The manner in which 
 l ived the news of tho flight of Louis XVI. 
 
 exhibits a curious mixture of contempt and di 
 'Gentlemen,' said he to mblyover which 
 
 li pie .:,! I. • the king has just gone nil' ; let us pass 
 to the order of tin- day.' In 1793, he declined the 
 office of Minister at War, and tendered his resigna- 
 tion as general of the Army of the Rhine, 1 
 it had been determined to exclude the nobility from 
 During t: or, lus ene- 
 
 1 the report that he had participated in 
 render of Mentz, because he had remained idle 
 with his troops for 1.") days, [n conseqnenoe of this 
 accusation, he was called from his couutry residence 
 
 m
 
 BEAUHARNAIS— BEAUMONT. 
 
 at FertS-Imbault to Paris, where he was trii 
 ath l>y the revolutionary I . 
 He submitted to his fate with firmness, and 6 
 the scaffold, July 23, 1704, aged 34 years. His 
 widow, Josephine, married Napoleon Boi 
 adopted Eugene and Hortensia, son and i 
 is. Sortensia was married to I 
 king of Holland, and became the mother of 
 ■ imperor of the Fn m h. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, El Qi .. i ;, Viceroy of Italy 
 during the reign of Napoleon L, and afterwan I I 
 of Leuchtenberg, and Prince of Eiehstadt, was born 
 : , 1781, and wa the son of the Viscount 
 Beauhamais. After his mother's marriage with Bona- 
 parte, he accompanied him in his campaigns in Italy, 
 
 and in the expedition to Egypt. He rapidly rose 
 to the highest military rank ; and in 1S0.5, after the 
 erection of the imperial throne, he was made a 
 Prince of France and Viceroy of Italy. In 1806, he 
 married the Princess Amalie Augusta of Ba 
 
 .long afterwards was created Prince of Venice, 
 and declared by Napoleon his adoptive son, an 
 of the i of Italy. Although his pol 
 
 ■ was much limited, he conducted himself in 
 Italy with much prudence, energy, and moderation, 
 and in all the various scenes of his life main 
 an honourable and virtuous character. It is to 
 be regretted, however, that he considered himself 
 so entirely a vassal of Napoleon, and bound to 
 carry out the often harsh decrees of the latter 
 in regard to Italy. His military talents were 
 great, and were displayed particularly in the 
 Italian campaigns, in the wars against Austria, and 
 in the retreat from Moscow, in which the )- 
 vation of the French army from total destruction 
 was very much to be ascribed to the skill and 
 resolution of the viceroy and of Key. The victory 
 of Liitzen was decided by his conduct in that battle. 
 Napoleon sent him from Dresden to Italy, which 
 he ably defended, even after Austria had joined 
 the coalition, and Murat had deserted the cause of 
 the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, he 
 entered into a convention with Count Bellegarde. 
 In the affairs of the Hundred Days, he took no part ; 
 and in the treaty of Fontainbleau and Congress of 
 Vienna, he was allowed to retain his possessions in 
 the March of Ancona ; and large sums were granted 
 to him in compensation for his other Italian posses- 
 sions, with which he purchased from his father-in- 
 law the landgraviate of Leuchtenberg and princi- 
 pality of Eiehstadt, and took his place as 1 1 1 
 Leuchtenberg among the nobles of Bavaria. He 
 died at Munich on the 21st February 1S24.— His 
 eldest son, Charles Augustus Napoleon, Duke of 
 Leuchtenberg, married the Queen Donna Maria of 
 Portugal on the 25th January 1S35, but died on the 
 25th of March in the same year. — Another son, 
 Max Eugene Joseph Napoleon, who succeeded his 
 brother as Duke of Leuchtenberg, married the 
 Grand Duchess Maria Nikolajewna, a daughter of 
 the Emperor Nicholas of Russia; and his children 
 bear the name of Romanowski, and are ranked 
 among the members of the Russian imperial family. 
 He died 1st November 1852, of ^case of the lungs, 
 consequent upon a scientific tour in the Ural. He 
 was a zealous mineralogist, and left large collections, 
 which are preserved at St Petersburg 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre Augustin Caron 
 de, a French poet, born in Paris, January 24, 17.i2 ; 
 died May 17, 1799, was the son of a watchmaker, 
 and was brought up to his father's trade. He soon 
 displayed a remarkable taste for music, attained 
 proficiency as a player on the harp and the guitar, 
 and was appointed music-master to the daughters 
 of Louis XV. This was the beginning of his course 
 782 ° & 
 
 of good-fortune. He acquired considerable property 
 by marriage, and to dignify tile somewhat ambigu- 
 ous position in which his calling placed him, he 
 d his talents to literature. His first play, 
 (1767), was successful, and was followed by 
 I mis (1770). Having become involved in 
 
 lits with Lablache and (Jota he n v< n ed 
 
 himself on the latter— who was a member of the 
 
 so-called Parlamtni Sfaupeott~-hy publishing his 
 
 ,; is, 1774), which united" the 
 
 St satire with the sharp at 1"' ic, and gained 
 
 for him a reputation that made even Voltaire uneasy, 
 
 could not bear a rival in his own department.' 
 
 D pite his wit, however, he li :.. His fame 
 
 now rests on his two operas, Lo. Barbier de Seville 
 
 (1775), and Le Marimje de Figaro. Of his later 
 
 works, we may mention Af ( .i ■ v, in which 
 
 he describes the perils through which he had passed 
 
 in the first period of the Revolution. During the 
 
 American War of Independence, he entered into a 
 
 speculation for supplying arms, &c, by which he 
 
 realised a considerable profit, but was a great 
 
 loser by his expensive edition of Voltaire's works, 
 
 and other speculations. The desire of gain and 
 
 love of distinction were the leading motives which 
 
 actuated Beaimiarehais. His literary merits have 
 
 been differently estimated. The most judicious critic 
 
 of his writings and character is M. de Lomgnie, 
 
 whose B. and his Times is full of interesting literary 
 
 anecdote. An edition of B. was published at Paris 
 
 in 1809. 
 
 BEAUMA'RIS, a seaport and chief town of 
 Anglesea, North Wales, is situated on the west side 
 of the picturesque Bay of B., near the north entrance 
 to the Meuai Strait, 3 miles north of Bangor, am! 
 239 miles north-west of London. B. has the ivy- 
 covered remains of a castle, erected by Edward 
 1., and a free grammar-school, and is a favourite 
 sea-bathing resort. The bay is a safe anchorage in 
 stormy weather. B. unites with Amlwch, Holyhead, 
 and Llangefin in sending one member to parliament. 
 It exports copper and other ores, slates, marble, etc. 
 Pop. 2465. Vessels belonging to port, in 1S57, 2G9; 
 tons, 28,141. In 1858, 3403 vessels, of 455.SS4 tons, 
 entered and cleared the port. 
 
 BEAU'MONT, Francis, poet and dramatist; 
 FLETCHER, JoriN, poet and dramatist. These 
 writers were so closely associated in their lives and 
 labours, that their names have become mdissolubly 
 united.— Francis Beaumont, the third son of Sir 
 Francis Beaumont, one of the justices of the Com- 
 mon Pleas, was born at Gracedieu, in Leicestershire, 
 in 15SG, ten years after Fletcher ; and died in 1615, 
 ten years before him. 'When ten years of age, he 
 became a gentleman-commoner of Broadgate Hall 
 (now Pembroke Hall), and in 1600 was admitted 
 a member of the Inner Temple. Two years there- 
 after, he published certain translations from Ovid. 
 When about nineteen years of age, he became the 
 friend of Ben Jonson, and wrote commendatory 
 verses to some of his dramas. At the theatre, which 
 attracted to its service most of the intellect and 
 wit of the time, he became acquainted with 
 Fletcher, and drawn together, they lived in the 
 same house till B.'s marriage in 1613. He married 
 Ursula, daughter and coheir of Henry Isley of 
 Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he had two daughters. 
 He died at the early age of thirty, and was interred 
 in Westminster Abbey. Poetry seems to have run 
 in the blood of the Beaumonts. Several members 
 of B.'s immediate family wrote verses, and the elder 
 brother of the dramatist, Sir Jolrn Beaumont, is 
 said by the critics to have much improved our 
 rhyme couplet. 
 John Fletcher was born in 1576. His father was a
 
 BEA U MONT— BEAUNE. 
 
 i man, ami appears to have inherited many of 
 
 nours of the church. He was for some time 
 incumbent of Rye, in Sussex ; thereafter, he was 
 .ted Dean of Peterborough, and is said to 
 have attended Queen Mary on the scaffold, and to 
 have embittered her last hours with irrelevant 
 exhortation. On his elevation to the see of London, 
 he married a sec 1 thereby procured the 
 
 disfavour of the Virgin Queen. He died shortly 
 after, some maintaining, of a queen's frown, others, 
 of the immoderate use of tobacco. John F. entered 
 t College, Cambridge, on the 15th October 
 v, here he acquired some reputation for classical 
 erudition. It is uncertain how long he remained at 
 the university, or whether he took a degree. The 
 Woman-hater, produced in 1G0G — 1CU7, is the earliest 
 play of his which is known to exist It is not 
 known precisely in what circumstances F. passed 
 his life. He asserts his independence in some verses 
 introductory to The Faithful Shepherdess, published 
 about 1610, yet he wrote more rapidly than most 
 men then writing for bread. The last four years 
 of his life produced eleven new plays — a swiftness 
 surpassing that of Shakspcare himself. Tarrying 
 in London, it is said, for a suit of new clothes, he 
 caught the plague, and died. Hi3 death occurred 
 in 1625, and he was buried in the church of St 
 Saviour's. F. also could boast of poetic descent and 
 connection. Dr Giles Fletcher, the bishop's younger 
 brother, has been called 'an excellent poet ; ' and two 
 sons of his, Giles and Phineas, distinguished them- 
 selves by their verses. The one wrote ' 
 Victory and Triumph ; the other, Tlte Purple Island. 
 The works of B. and F. comprise in all fifty-two 
 plays, a masque, and several minor poems; but it 
 is difficult to allocate, in any satisfactory manner, 
 the authorship of these. F., being the longer lived 
 and more prolific writer, of course contributed the 
 : share. Rowley assisted F. in The Maid of 
 tlte Mill. Some critics think that the hand of 
 Shakspeare may be detected in The Two Noble 
 Kinsmen, and not without some show of reason. 
 There is a tone of music and a step of thunder 
 in some of the passages to which no parallel could 
 be found in any of the companion-dramas. Two 
 plays left unfinished at F.'s death were com- 
 pleted by Shirley. Out of the lifty-two plays, 
 B. is supposed to have had a share in the composi- 
 tion of seventeen, and only three out of that small 
 number were, during F.'s lifetime, published as 
 joint productions. Two of these — Philaster, and 
 The Maid's Tragedy — are, with the exception of 
 the great passages in The Two Noble Kinsmen, 
 the glory of the collection. The question has 
 been often discussed, why these plays are called 
 by the name of B. and F., thus giving prece- 
 dence to the younger and less voluminous writer. 
 Mr Dyce thinks, that of the three plays pnl 
 as joint productions during F.'s life, B. had cither 
 the greater share, or that, through feelings of natural 
 courtesy, F. placed the name of his deceased associate 
 before his own, and that future editors naturally 
 followed the arrangement which they found to then- 
 hand. Mr Darling is inclined to give no reason 
 at all, and ascribes the whole thing to accident. 
 From all that can be gathered, it would appear that 
 eased the deeper and more thoughtful genius ; 
 P., the gayer aud more idyllic. There is a strength 
 as of granite rock in The Maid's Tragedy; there 
 is a dad exuberant music, and a May-morning fight 
 and freshness, in The Faithful Shepherdess, which 
 Milton did not disdain to accept as a model in the 
 lyrical portions of Vomits, and of which the Endtjmton 
 of Keats is but an echo. In these plays, B. and F. are 
 the cleverest, gayest gentlemen. They never sound 
 the deep sea of passion j they disport themselves, 
 
 dolphin-like, on its surface. They have no power 
 of serious characterisation, and their numerous 
 tions .i it; but they say the 
 
 most clever, pleasant, and glancing things. Morally, 
 little can be said in thi No audience of 
 
 the present day could sit out t!i tation 
 
 of their purest plays. Some of the impurest are 
 almost beyond conception, yet there is always an 
 air of good-breeding about them, and the filth is 
 handled in the most gentlemanly manner. It was 
 a great intellectual period in which B. and F. lived ; 
 but Shakspeare stands above them and the rest of 
 that dramatic brotherhood like Mont Blanc above 
 the summits of the Lower Alp3 — conspicuous not 
 only from his altitude, but from bis pur 
 
 BEAUMONT, Gcstave de, a distinguished 
 French publicist, born February C, 1S02, at Beau- 
 mont-la-Chartre, in the department of Sarthe. Ho 
 studied law, and wa3 made procurator-substitute in 
 the superior tribunal of the Seine, but lost this office 
 after the July Revolution. In 1831, B. and Tocque- 
 ville were commissioned by the French govern- 
 ment to study the prison-discipline of America. 
 When B. returned to Paris, he received a place 
 under government, but was soon deposed, as he 
 refused to conduct the prosecution in the scandalous 
 process against the Baroness de Feuchcrcs. In 1840, 
 he was elected deputy for the department Sarthe, 
 and distinguished himself, as a member of the 
 Opposition, by his information and readiness on all 
 political questions. After the February Revolution, 
 1848, he was returned as member of the Legislative 
 Assembly, and here maintained the character of a 
 sincere but moderate republican. After the 2d 
 December 1851, he was arrested and imprisoned for 
 some time in the fortress of Mont ValCrien. On 
 regaining his liberty, he retired to his patrimonial 
 estate, where he has since resided. B. is the grand- 
 son of Lafayette, and in 1830, married his cousin, 
 the daughter of Georges Lafayette. The writings 
 on which B.'s reputation is founded are — Note surle 
 Systeme Pinitentiare (1831), Jj itiare 
 
 aux Etats-unis et de son Application en 
 vols., 1832; partly by Tocqueville), Marie ou F/'i- 
 clavage aux Ftats- Cnis (2 vols., 1835), and L'Irlande, 
 . P,.'!ti'pie, et l: . 1839).— 
 
 Beaumont- Yassy, Edouard Vicomte pe. a relation 
 of the former, has acquired a reputation as the 
 writer of a romance, Vn 
 
 and some historic?.! works, especially a History of 
 the European Slat'-s since the Congress of Vienna 
 (vols. 1—4, Par. 1S43— 1847). 
 
 BEAUMONT (EUB ] . JkaK B 
 
 I 
 
 Mines at Paris, and in 
 
 born at Canon, in the department Ca". 
 
 tember 25, IT'.'S. He has gained distinction, not 
 
 merely as a practical geological investigator, but 
 
 ! a clear and acute specula, 
 which prevails regarding the eleva utain 
 
 systems has been elaborated chiefly by 
 
 i, which he 
 reckons as twelve, he has imparted to the world in 
 several treatises. All later critici.-m has left the 
 theory unshaken in its basis. The chief 
 
 I '. 
 
 'pies sur les D'<< 
 
 , L829; . 
 '•:.» sur o 
 
 - 
 en An/ L, 1 - " 1S39). 
 
 BEAl'NE, capital of an ammdissement in the 
 
 French department Cute d'Or, formerly inclu- 
 the Duchy of Burgundy, is situated in a y 
 district ou the river Bouzeoise, about 23 miles 
 
 ;s3
 
 BEAUNE— BEAVER. 
 
 of Dijon. The town is well built ; 
 Las n fine pariah church, Notre Dame, founded in 
 976 bj Duke Semi of Burgundy; ami a b] 
 
 il, founded in 141:; by Nicholas Rollin, 
 :ellor of Philip, Duke of Burgundy. II 
 Beveral manufactories of serges, woollen clo, 
 A considerable trade is cai 
 indy and Champagne wines. B. gives its 
 name to one of the best of the Burgundy 
 Pop. 9700. 
 
 BEAUNE, Flortmond, a distinguished mathema- 
 and friend of Descartes, was born in 1601, at 
 Blois, in France, whi re he died in 1652. His labours 
 and discoveries contributed greatly to the in 
 incut of the mod rn analytical geometry first intro- 
 duced by Descartes. Algebra was also enriched 
 by B.'s shewing that, in equations to the fourth 
 degree, the limits of positive roots might be found 
 from the coefficients. B. ma be n aid I as the 
 proper founder of the Ini I as he 
 
 first endeavoured to deduce the- nature of curved 
 lines from the properties of their tangents. The 
 so-called ' B.'s Problem' (which has been completely 
 solved only by Jean Bernouilli), still given in the 
 ■i ( ilculus, was for his time new and remark- 
 able, it turns also on the determination of the 
 of a curved line from a property of its tangent. 
 
 i dy work of his we possess is De d!q 
 LtnatBms Opveexda duo, et Not 
 
 BEATJ'TY. See ^Esthetics, Art. 
 
 BEAU VAIS, an important manufacturing French 
 capital of the department Oise. It is sitn- 
 a1 id in the valley of the Therain fa tributary to the 
 Oise), about 41 miles north-north-west of 
 and surrounded by rising woodlands. Formerly, IX 
 was included in the old province, He de Pi 
 It is now the seat ol 
 
 and the residence of a hi. I: p. . id - etui 
 and economical society, a public library, a museum, 
 &C. Among its severs] the most 
 
 noteworthy is its uncomplete ■• choir 
 
 of which is the loftiest as well as one of the finest 
 specimens of Gothic in : The manufactures 
 
 of B. include woollen cloths, shawls, car; 
 I tapestry, &c. Pop. 12,507. B. is a very ancient 
 town. It was included in the country of the 
 ful Bellovac'i, in Gallia Belgica, and was known by 
 the Romans as Ccesaromagus, afterwards 8 
 
 In the middle ages, it was styled Belvacum. 
 In S50, and at other times, 11. was desolated by the 
 Normans. The Jacgvt He, or Peasants' War, broke 
 out in the neighbourhood of B., March 21, )-'!5S. In 
 1443, is. was besieged by the English, who were 
 repulsed by the heroic self-sacrifice 
 Again, in 1472, it was besieged by Charles the Bold 
 of Burgundy, with an army of 80,000 men, when 
 the women of B., under the leadership of the heroine 
 Jeanne Laine, snrnamed La Hachette for her 1 1 
 displayed remarkable valour. The standard which 
 the Burgundians had planted on the wall was torn 
 down by Jeanne Laine, and borne off by her in 
 triumph. The banner] d in the town hall, 
 
 and a procession, in which it is carried by young 
 girls, annually commemorates the heroic deed. B. 
 is the birthplace of the learned Dominican Vincent 
 de Beauvais (Vincentius Bellovaccn 
 
 BEAVER (Caslor Fiber), a quadruped of the 
 order Glires, or Bodt Mia (q. v.), valued for its fur, 
 
 and for the peculiar substance called C'a*: 
 
 (q. v.), which it yields, and also much noted for its 
 
 instincts. Some naturalists regard the Ami 
 
 B. as distinct from that of Europe and Asia; but 
 
 the differences observable either in external or 
 
 anatomical characters are very inconsiderable; and 
 
 the ojiinion that a great difference exists in instincts 
 
 and habits, appears" to have been too hi bilyad 
 
 lecies of B., it is very widely 
 
 distributed in the northern regions of the world, 
 
 og in America almost as far Bouth .- 
 Gulf of Mexico. It once existed in the I 
 
 . where, however, it has long been extinct-, 
 and it has become rare in Europe, in many parts of 
 which it was once common. It lias becom 
 also in the I before man ; 
 
 but is nowhere so abundant as in that wide 
 i of lakes and rivers which lies to the north and 
 of the settled parts of North America. Considi 
 
 rs of beavers are found on the banks of the 
 1 'i'i and other rivers of Siberia, and in Kamtcl 
 The incisors or cutting b eth of the B. are re 
 ably strong, and exhibit in the hi; 
 re cl ir icter of the ord 
 • >nt of hard enamel, which in the B. i 
 bright orange colour; the back of the tooth fo 
 of a softer substance, more easily worn down, so 
 
 Beaver* 
 
 that a sharp, cliisel-Uke edge is always pre: 
 i pel at, so that the tei I 
 continually growing, a; by their employment in 
 gnawing weed, they arc continually being i 
 away. There are four fiat molar t 
 on each side in each jaw. Bach foot has live toes : 
 those of the fore-feet are short, and not connected by 
 a web; those of the hind-feet are long, spreading 
 out like the toes of a goose, and webbed to the nails. 
 In accordance with this remarkable peculiarity, the 
 B., in swimming, makes use of the hind-feet 
 tic fore-feet remaining motionless and close to the 
 body. Another character, to which nothing similar 
 s in any other rodent, is the large, horizon- 
 tally flattened tail, which, except at the root, 
 
 I with hair, like the rest of the body, but with 
 The candid vertebra), however, do not 
 exhibit a flattened form. 
 
 The B. is usually at least two feet in length, from 
 the nose to the root of the tail ; the tail is of an oval 
 form, about ten inches in length, fully three inches 
 in greatest breadth, and scarcely an inch in thick- 
 ness. These dimensions are sometimes exceeded. 
 The general form of the animal is thick and cln 
 
 it at the hips, and then narrowing abruptly, 
 i it seems to taper into the tail. The head is 
 thick and In «e obtuse, the eyes small, the 
 
 ears short and rounded. The fur consists of two 
 kinds of hair; the longer hair comparatively Bi 
 smooth, and glossy ; the under coat dense, soft, and 
 silky. The colour is generally chestnut, rarely 
 black, spotted, or nearly white. 
 
 The B. is very aquatic in its mode of life, and it 
 seldom wanders far from Borne lake or river. In 
 consequence of its habits, it is also limited to wooded 
 districts, and the northern range of the species is 
 everywhere terminated by the limits of the wood 
 upon the river-banks.
 
 BEAVER. 
 
 Tim food of the B. consists of the bark of trees 
 and Bhruba (birch, poplar, willow, &c), and of the 
 rod i of water-lilies (Nuphar Ivi u/m] and other 
 
 aquatic j>lnn 1 ■.. I aer, it eats also 1 
 
 | i one kinds of he] 1 here is 
 
 , to think that it never, as hi be 
 
 kills or eat i fish. Like some it lays 
 
 up stores of provisions for winter; but 
 in thi ca "f the J'.., consist chiefly of bar] 
 branches, and even trunks of tr Its extraordi- 
 nary powers of gnawing are i 
 trees of several inches in diameter, both for food, 
 and for the con traction of I i ami dams 
 
 which have n nd red it .so much an object of admir- 
 ation to mankind. A tree of IS ini hi in dis 
 ba i' en I rund thus cu1 down by beavers, all b mgh 
 smaller ones are usually preferred; ami when a 
 i i size is cui he only, ami not 
 
 the trunk, air i mpl iyed i ti the architectural opera- 
 tions of the .animals. These operations an 
 wonderful, although the statement, at one time com- 
 monly made, that heavers drive stal I ini' tin- 
 ground, has no foundation in fact ; and some of the 
 other particulars which passed current ahum with it, 
 
 were equally fabulous. The houses or I" 1 ' 
 
 beavers are grouped together mar the edge of the 
 water, thi' mud being scraped away from the front, 
 t,n that there may be a sufficient depth of water 
 there to allow free egress, even during the most 
 severe frost The winter stores of the animals, con- 
 ting of piles or heaps of wood, are also always 
 under water, at such a depth that they cannot be 
 locked up in ice. When the depth of water i, 
 not sufficient, the beavers const met a dam across 
 in stream, by the side of which the lodge is 
 i ; the dam is sometimes as much as 3011 yards 
 m length, convex towards the current, ami most 
 lie strongest currents, sometimes extend- 
 in,' en both sides beyond the natural channel of the 
 stream. The materials of which it is composed are 
 sticks, roots, and branches, with stones, moss, grasses, 
 and in ml,: trail ely commingled, but in such a manner 
 that the structure becomes absolutely water-tight. 
 Branches of which the bark has been used for food, 
 or taken oft for winter provender, are very generally 
 employed fur building purposes. In their building, 
 beavers interlace small branches with each other 
 and with the larger; and a 15. kept in conlinement 
 has been known to manifest this instinct, by inter- 
 lacing branches with the bars of its cage, whilst it 
 also till, d the interstices with carrots, and other 
 i it for food, nicely bitten to the 
 propi i- size, end packed in snow, to protect itself 
 from tin 1 cold B. dams are built with the skies 
 inclining towards one another, so tli-'t although ten 
 or twelve feet wide at bottom, tiny have a narrow 
 top. The dams and houses are annually repaired, 
 
 before winter comes on. the work being performed 
 by night. 'Inplao ' ■ .> Beanie, 1 which hai 
 
 requented by beavers undisturbed; their dams, 
 by frequent repairin bee ime a solid bank, capable 
 
 of resisting a great force, both of water and ice; and 
 as the willow, poplar, and birch generally take root 
 and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind ol 
 
 Jar planted hedge, w hich i bin en in somi 
 
 so t ill that birds have built their nests among the 
 branches.' A broad ditch is often dug all 
 thelod id pthat it cannot freeze to the 1 
 
 and into it the beavers make the holes by which 
 
 the; at and bring their food The larger lod 
 
 are in the interior, about seven feet in diameter, and 
 ;. n i v.o and three Ee< t high. The top is Eonm d 
 
 of branches of trees, matted with mud, grass, -, 
 
 fee. The walls are very thick, ami the whole struc- 
 ture not only seemvs much warmth, but is a sullicient 
 protection from wolves, wolverines, and other beasts 
 (0 
 
 of prey. Different apartments have often one com- 
 mon roof, but they have usually no internal 
 municatam. animals are 
 
 around the wall of their lodge, the centn 
 
 ly of a little grass or 
 tender bark of trees. & n con- 
 
 tains im tl a 1 li ivers, but 
 
 such families an- cegated in one 
 
 Beavers, both in a wild state ami in confine] 
 : anly in their he 
 Beav it on the hind-feet and tail, and 
 
 eat in this posture, holding up tie- too 
 fore-pa v : . with 
 
 support of the tail, v, : 
 tie a- buildings, except branches, which a 
 They have considerable power in the tail, and not 
 nnfrequently flap it. which has given ri e 
 opinion, | i i hap I not alto:- , that 
 
 they use their tails for | their buildii 
 
 and adjusting the mud which is emp 
 
 111 tie-ill. 
 
 Beavers do not usually eat in their lodges, but in 
 holes or burrows in the bank of the river, the 
 entrance to which is from beneath tie- water, and 
 which theni obliquely urn a to a 
 
 di bance of many feet. To these holes I 
 also flee when their lodge i- broken np; and it is 
 therefore a common practice of the li. hunt 
 break up th ■ B. lodges, that they may take tie- 
 animals m tie ir holes or vaults. Beavers are also 
 taken by lets and traps. 
 
 It is chiefly in winter that beavers congregate 
 !-. During summer, they wander al 
 little. The yoiin. illy produced in April 
 
 or May. from two to seven at a birth. Tine 
 are opi D when they are born. 
 
 Single beav. rs are frequently met with, which 
 live apart from all others of then All of 
 
 these are males, which, it is supposed, have been 
 conqni n -1 and driv< n away by others of their 
 
 In the parts of North America where beavers have 
 now become rare, they live mostly in burrows in the 
 river-banks, like those which are still found in 
 Europe. Cireumsl tuci i preventthem from Co 
 ,,i .mi, their gregarious tendencies. Tie. 
 : of Europe and Asia construct lodge 
 dams, when they have opportunity of congn 
 in sullicient numbers, appears to be no has i 
 than that those of America do so. 
 
 i ■ • a- glandular pouches, two in number, ' I 
 
 Lnectedwith thi < o) reproduction, contain 
 
 the substance called i 'a WN (q. v.). Its uses in 
 
 the animal economy are by no means well known; 
 they are probably analogous to thos of musk, 
 
 ,V,..'; I. I IT IS so atl 
 
 to beavers, that use is made of it as a bait for B. 
 tram 
 
 The B. is very • ' ; but no w 
 
 will keep OB ot in the extraordinary 
 
 building instincts alreadj noticed,*! -.Inlets 
 
 The use of the B.'s fur for 
 
 making hats i will known. See Hat. An act of 
 
 theEngl ' 
 
 of any other material for hat-making, contnbut 
 the rapid diminution of tin- number of beavers in 
 in Ami rica from which their 
 d. During great part of the 18th, 
 
 and tin- earlier part of tie- I'. 1 
 
 skins annually exported from America appi 
 have been not less than 200,000. It is • 
 diminish ed, but is still 1. i The flesh of the B. is 
 much i b med a le of food by trappers 
 
 bhers who frequent the fur-countries, but it 
 is v.-rv oily. 
 
 I, ill main of beavers, apparently of toe same 
 species with that now existing, are found in tho
 
 BEAVER— BECHER. 
 
 deposits referred by geologists to the pliocene and 
 pleistocene periods. Other remains are also found 
 of a much larger animal of the B. kind, which must 
 have existed in Europe and Asia along with the pre- 
 sent species, but which seems to havo become ex- 
 tinct before the historic period. They were different, 
 however, not merely in size, but in other particulars 
 so important, that Owen has constituted for the 
 'great B.' a distinct genus, Trogontherium (Or., a 
 chewing or gnawing beast). 
 
 Of existing animals, the most closely allied to the 
 B. is the Coypu (q. v.), sometimes called the Chilian 
 B. (Myopotamua Coypus), which yields the fur called 
 Bacoonda (q. v.). 
 
 BEA'VER. See Helmet. 
 
 BEA'VER WOOD. See Magnolia. 
 
 BEBEE'RINE is one of the alkaloids, and is 
 obtained from the greenheart bark or bebeeru of 
 Demerara. It is used in medicine in place of 
 quinine, which it resembles in properties, though it 
 is not so powerful in its action as a tonic and 
 febrifuge. The condition in which it is gem rally 
 sent into market is as the sulphate of B., occurring 
 in shining scales of a pretty brown colour, and 
 soluble in water. 
 
 BEBEE'RU, BEEBEE'RU, or BEBI'RI. See 
 Greenheart. 
 
 BECCAFI'CO {Sylvia hortensis, or Cumiea lior- 
 tensis), a little bird of the family of the Sylviadce, 
 or Warblers (q. v.), sometimes called the Pettychaps, 
 and sometimes the Garden Warbler, rather rare in 
 Britain, but abundant in some of the more southern 
 parts of Europe, and in great demand for the table 
 in Italy, its flesh being regarded as of peculiar 
 delicacy. It is a mere summer bird of passage, how- 
 ever, not only in Britain, but even in the south of 
 Europe. The upper parts are mostly of a brown 
 colour, the lower parts whitish. It is a bird of very 
 pleasing song. B. is an Italian name, and is some- 
 times extended to other birds of the same family 
 used for the table. 
 
 BECCAMOSCHI'NO (Sylvia cisti'cola), a little 
 bird of the family of the Warblers, found in Italy, 
 and remarkable for its nest, which resembles that of 
 the tailor-birds, being usually placed in a bush of 
 lengthened herbage, the leaves and stalks drawn 
 together over it, and a flooring formed for it by 
 leaves curved across below, and sewed together 
 generally with some kind of vegetable fibres. 
 
 BECCARI'A, Cesare Bonesanw, a political and 
 philanthropic writer, was born at Milan 1735 or 
 1738. The opinions of the French encyclopaedists, 
 especially those of Montesquieu, had the greatest 
 influence in the formation of his principles and senti- 
 ments. The work which most favourably exhibits 
 the character and genius of B. is his Trattato d<:i 
 Dditti e delle Pene (Treatise on Crimes and Punish- 
 ments), first published in 1764, in w'hich he argues 
 against the seventies and abuses of criminal law, 
 especially capital punishment and torture. The 
 work wa3 extremely popular, and was translated 
 into several European languages. It is marked by 
 eloquence, sensibility, and lively power of imagina- 
 tion. Kant unfairly accuses the author of an affected 
 humanity, though it must be admitted that the 
 German philosopher has exposed the invalidity of 
 some of the arguments brought forward. On the 
 whole, however, the work of B. is acknowledged to 
 have done great good, and the subsequent reforms in 
 the penal code of European nations have generally 
 taken the direction he has pointed out. He was 
 among the first to advocate the beneficial influence 
 of education in lessening crime. This naturally 
 brought upon him the hatred of the priesthood, who, 
 
 according to their usual formula of persec 
 accused him of impiety; but their malice was frus- 
 trated by the efforts of Count Firmian, the An 
 governor of Lombardy, a man of liberal and ex 
 ened sentiments. In 1768, B. was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Political Philosophy at Milan, and achieved 
 great success as a lecturer. He died of ape 
 in November 1793. In the course of his life he 
 published several works. 
 
 BEC-FIN, the common French name for di ; 
 species of birds of the family of Bjflviadas, or Warb- 
 lers (q. v.). It is sometimes to be met with in 
 English books. 
 
 BECHE-DE-MER, or TREPANG, an article of 
 
 luxury among the Chinese, consisting of the i 
 bodies of several species of Holotliuria (q. v.), or 
 Sea-cucumber, which are found in great abundance 
 in the shallow waters of lagoons, and on reefs, from 
 the south-eastern coasts of Asia to New Holland. 
 The traffic in B. is very extensive, and the Malays 
 catch the animals, and prepare them in large 
 quantities for the Chinese market. They are 
 usually about S or 9 inches long, but some are 2 
 feet in length, and 7 or 8 inches in girth. They are 
 often found nearly buried in the coral sand, their 
 feathered tentacula alone floating above it. The 
 larger ones are sometimes speared in shallow water; 
 but most of them are taken by divers in depths of 
 from 3 to 5 fathoms. An expert diver will bring 
 up eight or ten at a time. They are split down one 
 side, boiled, pressed flat with stones, dried in the 
 sun, and afterwards in smoke, and packed in bags, 
 in which state they are bought by the Chinese, and 
 conveyed in junks to China. Fleets of Malay proas 
 are employed in the search for this curious produc- 
 tion of the sea. Macassar is the great staple-place 
 of the trade, and from it above 8000 cwt. of B. are 
 annually sent to China, the price varying, according 
 to the kind and quality, from thirty shillings to 
 twenty guineas per cwt. There is also i 
 able export of B. from Manilla. B. is extremely 
 gelatinous, and is very much used by tho Chinese 
 as an ingredient in rich soups. 
 
 BECHER, Johann Joachim, author of the first 
 theory of chemistry, was born at Speier in 1625. 
 In his youth, he had many difficulties to contend 
 with, but his zeal and perseverance overcame them 
 all. He acquired an extensive knowledge of medi- 
 cine, physics, chemistry, and even polities, and in 
 1660, was made a member of the Imperial Council 
 at Vienna. While residing in this city, he assisted 
 in establishing several manufactures, and drew op 
 the plan of an East Indian commercial society, but 
 unfortunately he fell into disgrace, and had to leave 
 the city. He next went to Mainz, and subsequently 
 lived in Munich, Wurzburg, Haarlem, and finally 
 London, where he died in 1682. He had many 
 enemies, and was accused — not altogether unjustly 
 — of charlatanry. Nevertheless, he rendered im- 
 portant services to chemistry. His Physica S 
 ranea was the first attempt made to bring physics 
 and chemistry into close relation ; in these two he 
 sought the causes of all the inorganic phenomena iu 
 the world. He at the same time began to construct 
 a theory of chemistry, and also investigated the pro- 
 cess of combustion. B. taught that every metal was 
 composed of an earthy substance common to all 
 metals ; of a combustible principle also identical in 
 all ; and was differentiated from other metals only by 
 the possession of a peculiar mercurial element ; when 
 a metal was heated, until it had changed its form, 
 the mercurial substance was discharged, and no 
 remained except metallic calx. Herein lies the lirst 
 germ of Stahl's phlogistic theory, which obtained 
 universal currency until the time of Lavoisier.
 
 BECHUAX.S- BECKERATH. 
 
 BBCHUAITS. See Betj: 
 
 BECKER, Gottfried Wiehkw, a German 
 author, born at Leipsic in 1778, entered the univer- 
 sity of that city with the view of studying medi- 
 cine, and having taken his doctor'3 degree in 
 1801, settled there as a practising physician and 
 a writer of medical works, several of which 
 reached many editions. 'Hie wars of the period 
 im, however, to turn his attention to history 
 and modern 1, and he became well known 
 
 by his contributions to periodicals, his scries of 
 popular histories, and his translations from the 
 li, French, and Italian. In 1833, B. entirely 
 relinquished prat ( cine, and devoting him- 
 
 self to literature, became a fertile and admired con- 
 tributor to many of its more popular branches. Ho 
 died at Leipsic, 17th January 1854. He published 
 several attractive volumes of travels in hi 
 country, peculiarly adapted to tile young, among 
 which we may instance his T 
 
 of Southern Germany, &c. His historical writings, 
 which are not less numerous, chiefly narrate the 
 events of his own time. Amongst them we may 
 particularise Andreas Hofer, tu it Now is. 
 
 The Fate of Spain in Modem Times, tec. I 
 literature, also, ho was very successfid as a transla- 
 tor. All his works have been published at Leipsic. 
 
 BECKER, Jony Philip, one of the most active 
 Radical politicians of late year-;, was born, March 
 1809, at Frankenthal, in the Palatinate, and brought 
 up as a bmshmaker. The French revolution of 
 July 1830 gave a political bias to his native ten- 
 dencies, and he took an active part in the political 
 agitations of the day, in consequence of which he was 
 imprisoned; but in 1833 he was released, and exerted 
 himself warmly on behalf of his brothers in opinion. 
 In 1837, he settled in Switzerland, taking a part in 
 several Radical publications, and organising, in 1838 
 and 1845, volunteer corps. In the autumn of 1847, 
 he was summoned to the military bureau at Berne, 
 and being chosen adjutant of Ochsenbein's divi- 
 sion, fought against the Sonderbund with acknow- 
 ledged bravery. Upon the failure of H 
 attempt to revolutionise Baden in 1848, B., who 
 had organised troops for his support, return 
 Switzerland, to plan an expedition of German and 
 Swiss auxiliaries, to support the cause of freedom in 
 Rome and Sicily. Their movements being frus- 
 tr.it d, he led his troops in the summer of 1849 
 into the Palatinate and the Duchy of Baden, where 
 a rising had taken place, 1 a prominent part 
 
 in many engagements. Subsequently, he settled in 
 Geneva, and engaged successfully in commerce. A 
 history of the revolution of 1849, in Southern Ger- 
 many, has been published by him and Eeselen. B. 
 is a man of strong and hardy frame, and for prudence 
 and decision, ranks high among the leaders of the 
 revolutionary party. 
 
 BECKER, Karl FERDINAND, born at Leipsic 
 in 1804, may be named with Ki. -wetter and 
 Winterfeld as one of the best German writers on 
 the history of music, and also as an excellent 
 composer for the organ, as is proved by his trios 
 and other compositions well adapted to the genius 
 of the instrument. Among his works may bo 
 mentioned : a Choral-hook, or collection of psalm 
 and hymn tunes (Leipsic, 1844) ; Clioral M 
 for Spitta's Psalter and Harp, 1S41 ; a Co 
 of his musical library, one of the most extensive in 
 Germany; On the Clioral Collections of I 
 Christian Churches, 1841 ; The Choral Compositions 
 of tlte 16th ,1847; and The 
 
 Composers ofUic 19/A Century, 1S49. 
 
 BECKER, K vi'.L Fkhpinaxd, one of the most 
 distinguished German philologists, was born at 
 
 Laer, in the old electorate of Treves, in 177"'. 
 At first a teacher, he afterwards studied medicine, 
 and ultimately settled as a practitioner at Offenbach. 
 
 he educated his own children with such suc- 
 
 A several families induced him to take charge 
 
 of theirs anil thus his house was converted into an 
 
 23), which he conducted till his death 
 
 in 1849. This gave scope to his early predilection 
 
 for linguistic studies, to which his scientific training 
 
 • to give a quite new direction. B. contem- 
 plates language as an organism, pervaded by Btrict 
 logical laws. From this point of view, he wrote his 
 Deutsche GrammaOk (2d el., 1842). He neglects too 
 much the historical development of language, and 
 thus, 03 rniglit be expected, comes at times into 
 conflict with the results of comparative phil". 
 yet his work is valuable for its logical CO 
 and for its leading idea of organism in language. 
 Besides a Schulgrammatik (Cth ed., 1846), which is an 
 outline of Ins larger work, he published several other 
 treatises on the German language. 
 
 BECKER, Wiuielm Adolf, a distinguished 
 German author, was born at Dresden in 17'.Hi. 
 Originally intended for commercial life, he soon 
 abandoned a pursuit which he found uncongenial to 
 his tastes, and devoted his time to the acquisition of 
 learning. In 181C, he came to Leipsic, where he 
 studied theology, and more particularly philology. 
 In 1840, he travelled through Italy; and in 1842, 
 was appointed Professor of Arclueology at the 
 university of Leipsic, where his prelections on the 
 Latin authors were numerously attended. He 
 died at Meissen, 30th September 184G. His lively 
 fancy, aided by a thorough knowledge of the classic 
 1 him to make quite a novel use of 
 antiquity. In his Charicles (Leip. 1840), he ventured 
 to reproduce the social life of old Greece; and in 
 his Callus (Leip. 1838), to give sketches of the 
 Augustan age at Home. The learning which he 
 has contrived to stuff into his picturesque sentences 
 is marvellous, not to speak of the quantity buried 
 in his tions, which, in the 
 
 English translation of the works by Metcalfe, are 
 transferred from the text to the end of the volumes. 
 Lockhart's Valerius is the only thing in English 
 literature which corresponds to these compositions 
 of the German author. B.'s treatise, Dt ( 
 Uomanorum Fabvlia (Leip. 1837), is a valuable 
 contribution to the history of Roman dramatic 
 poetry. His most important work, in a scholastic 
 point of view, is his Hand-boil; «j Romai. 
 (1843—1846), which, after his death, was continued 
 by Marquardt 
 
 BECKERATH, Hermann vox, one of the most 
 
 remarkable public characters of Germany, was born 
 i Id (in Prussia), December 1801. He sprang 
 from a commercial family, and made a considerable 
 as a banker. But he pave himself also to 
 pursuits of a more intellectual character, and especi- 
 ally to the studies of jurisprudence and politics. 
 The accession of Frederick-William IV. to the throne 
 roused B. to a sense of the political condition of his 
 country, and he devoted himself to work out its 
 constitutional freedom. In 1S43, he was elected 
 representative of his native town in the provincial 
 diet, and continued for several years to take a pro- 
 minent part in Prussian politics. He was a deputy 
 in the NatA bly wliich sprang up in the 
 
 eventful year 1S48, and held its sittings at Frankfort. 
 His eloquence exercised considerable influence on 
 this ass ably. He m appointed minister of finance, 
 and shortly after called to Berlin, to construct a 
 
 . ; but in this he failed. 11 
 totioni IS not apparently 
 
 court, and ho returned to Frankfort. An advocate
 
 BECKET— BECKFORD. 
 
 for German unity, it was he who made use of the 
 
 km : ' This waiting for Austria is death to 
 
 the anion of Germany.' But zealous as he was for 
 
 constitutional freedom and ( rerman unity, hen 
 his assent to any measure of a revolutionary t m- 
 dency. When the retrograde movement set in, he 
 resigned such posts as he held under government, 
 
 but continued, as a memlier of the second Prussian 
 chamber, a vigorous opposition to the Manteuffel 
 ministry, which had deserted the cause of I 
 unity, and returned to the old traditional politics of 
 
 the court. 
 
 BECKET, TnoMAS a\ Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 
 was the son of a merchant, and was born in London in 
 
 1110. The story which makes his mother a Saracen 
 
 is charmingly romantic, but there are doubts if it 
 
 lias any historical basis. He studied theolo J at 
 
 Oxford and l'aris, and afterwards law at Bo 
 
 and at Auxerre, in Burgundy. Having been recom- 
 mended to Henry II. by Theobald, Archbj hop of 
 
 Canterbury, who had had experience of his abilities, 
 
 B. was promoted to the office of high chancellor, 
 
 and thus (according to Thierry) resuscitated the 
 
 hopes of the English as the first native Englishman, 
 
 since the Conquest, who had filled any high office. 
 
 The sympathies of his countrymen gathered round 
 
 him, for in him (it is alleged) they once more rose 
 
 to honour- and power. His duties as high chancelli >r 
 
 were numerous and burdensome, but he discharged 
 
 them vigorously. He was magnificently liberal in 
 
 his hospitality. Henry himself did not live in a 
 
 more sumptuous manner. As yet, B. seems to have 
 
 regarded himself as a mere layman, though, in point 
 
 of fact, he was a deacon, and to have considered the 
 
 splendour of his household neither unlawful nor 
 
 unbecoming; but iu 11G2, when he was created 
 
 Archbishop of Canterbury (an office which, as it 
 
 then involved the abbacy of the cathedral monastery, 
 
 had never but twice before been held by any but 
 
 a monk or canon-regular), a remarkable change 
 
 became manifest in his whole deportment. He 
 
 resigned the chancellorship, threw aside suddenly 
 
 his luxurious and courtly habits, assumed an austere 
 
 religious character, exhibited his liberality only 
 
 in his 'charities,' and soon appeared as a "zealous 
 
 champion of the church against all aggressions by 
 
 the king and the uobdity. Several noblemen aud 
 
 laymen were excommunicated for their alienation 
 
 of church property. Henry II., who, like all the 
 
 Norman kings, endeavoured to keep the clergy in 
 
 subordination to the state, convoked the nobility 
 
 with the clergy to a council in 11G4, at Clarendon 
 
 (near Salisbury), where the so-called 'constitutions' 
 
 (or laws relative to the respective powers of church 
 and state) were adopted. To these, the primate, at 
 first, declared he woidd never consent; but after- 
 wards, through the efforts of the nobles, some of 
 the bishops, and, finally, of the pope himself, he was 
 induced to give his unwilling approbation. Henry 
 now began to perceive that B.'s notions and his 
 were utterly antagonistic, and clearly exhibited his 
 hostility to the prelate, whereupon B. tried to leave 
 the country. For this offence the king charged B. 
 
 with breach of allegiance, in a parbamentsuinin .1 
 
 at Northampton iu 1164, confiscated his goods, and 
 
 sequestered the revenues of his see. A claim was 
 
 also made on him for not less than 44,000 marks, 
 
 as the balance due by him to the crown whin he 
 
 ceased to be chancellor. B. appealed to the pop 
 
 and next day leaving Northampton in disguise, fled 
 
 to France, where he spent two years in retirement 
 
 at Pontigny, in Burgundy. The French monarch 
 
 aud the pope, however, now took up his cause. 
 
 B. w'ent to Home, pleaded personally before his 
 
 holiness, who reinstated him in the see of I which he does not spare living artists, and assails 
 
 Canterbury. B. now returned to France, whence | the cant of criticism with the polished weapon of 
 
 he wrote angry letters to the English bishops, 
 threatening them with excommunication. Several 
 
 efforts were made to reconcile Henry and B., which, 
 r, proved futile; but at length, in 1170, a 
 formal agreement was come to at Fretville, on the 
 borders of Touraine. The result was, that l;. 
 returned to England, entering Canterbury amid the 
 rejoicings of tin- people, who were unquestionably 
 proud of B., and regarded him whether wisely or 
 not is another question as a shield from the oppri • 
 sions of the nobility; but he soon manifested all 
 his former boldness of opposition to royal authority. 
 At last, it is said, the king, whde in Normandy, 
 expressed impatience that none of his followers 
 woidd rid him of an insolent priest. The fatal 
 suggestion was immediately understood, and carried 
 into effect by four barons, who departed by separate 
 ways for England. On the evening of the 291 
 December 1170, they entered the cathedral, and 
 having failed in an attempt to drag him out of the 
 church, there slew B. before the altar of St Benedict, 
 in the north transept. Henry was compelled to 
 make heavy concessions to avoid the ban of excom- 
 munication. The murderers, having repaired to 
 Rome as penitents, were sent on a pilgrimage to 
 Palestine; and, two years after his death, B. was 
 canonised by Pope Alexander III., and the anniver- 
 sary of his death was set apart as the yearly festival 
 of St Thomas of Canterbury. In 1220, his bones 
 were raised from the grave in the crypt where they 
 had been hastily buried two days after his murder, 
 and were by order of King Henry III. deposited in a 
 splendid shrine, which for three centuries continued 
 to be the object of one of the great pilgrimages 
 of Christendom, and still lives in English literature 
 in connection with Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. At 
 the Reformation, Henry VIII. despoiled the shrine, 
 erased B.'s name from the calendar, and caused hi i 
 bones to be burnt aud scattered to the winds. It 
 is extremely difficult to estimate properly the char- 
 acter of Bccket. We do not know what his ultimate 
 aims were, whether, as some suppose, they were 
 patriotic, i. e., Saxon, as opposed to Nonnan, or, as 
 others believe, purely sacerdotal. At all events, the 
 means he used for the attainment of them was a des- 
 potic aud irresponsible ecclesiasticisin. He admitted 
 nothing done by churchmen to be secular, or within 
 the jurisdiction of civil courts, not even murder 
 or larceny. Fortunately, the Plantagenets were as 
 dogged believers in their own powers' and privileges 
 as U. in those of the church ; and by their obstinate 
 good sense, England was ever kept in a state of 
 wholesome jealousy of the pretensions of the 
 Roman see. See Br Giles's Vita el Episloloz S. 
 Thomce Canluariensis (C vols. 8vo) ; Canon Morris's 
 Life of St Thomas Bechet; Canon Robcrtson's.Xi/e 
 of Bechet ; Canon Stanley's Historical Memorials 
 of Canterbury; J. G. Nichols's Pilririmwjes of 
 Wokingham and Canterbury. 
 
 BE'CKETS, on shipboard, a general name for 
 any large hooks, short pieces of rope, or wooden 
 brackets, used for confining ropes, tackles, oars, or 
 spars, iu a convenient place. 
 
 BECKFORD, William, the only legitimate son 
 of Alderman Beckford, was born iu 17G0. When 
 he was about nine years of age, his father died, 
 and he inherited the larger portion of an enormous 
 property, consisting for the main part of estates in 
 Jamaica, and of the estate of Fonthill, in Wiltshire. 
 His annual revenue is said to have exceeded £100,000. 
 Young B. evinced unusual intellectual precocity; 
 for in 17S0 he printed a satirical essay, entitled 
 Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters, in
 
 BECKMANN— BECSKEREIC XAGY. 
 
 liis wit. In 1778 he visited the continent, and met 
 Voltaire at Paris. Two years thereafter, he started 
 on his first great continental tour, and p it twelve 
 months in rambling through Flanders, Germany, 
 and Italy. In 17^'J he made a second visit to Italy, 
 and in 1787 he wandered through Portugal ami 
 Spain. In 1783 he married the Lady Mi 
 Gordon, daughter of Charles, fourth Ear] of Aboj ne; 
 and in the following year he entered parliament as 
 one of the members for Wells. In the same 
 published Vaihek in French, P.. inform 
 wrote this tale, as it now stands, at twenty -tv. i 
 of age, and that it was composed at one sitting. 
 ' It took me,' he says, ' three days and two ni 
 hard labour. I never took of! my clothes the w hole 
 time. This severe application made me very ill.' 
 Immediately on its publication, Vathek was trans- 
 lated into English; B. professes never to 
 known the translator, but thought his work well 
 done. In 1790 he sat for Hindon; in 1794 he 
 accepted the Chiltcrn Hundreds, and again left 
 England. He fixed his residence in Portugal, 
 purchased an estate, and busied himself in the 
 erection of the 'paradise' which Byron commemo- 
 rated in Childe Harold. Tormented by unrest, he 
 returned to England; and in 1801 the splendid 
 furniture of Fonthill was sold by auction, and the 
 next year his valuable collection of pictures was 
 disposed of in London. These dispersions were no 
 sooner made than he began a new collection of 
 books, pictures, furniture, curiosities, and proceeded 
 to erect a new building at Fonthill, the most promi- 
 nent feature of which was a tower above 260 >•• I 
 high. B. resided at Fonthill till lt>li2, when in 
 one of those strange vagaries of feeling, of which his 
 ,i ; so full, he sold the estate and house, with 
 all its rare and far-gathered contents, to Colonel 
 Farquhar for £350,000. Soon after, the great I 
 which had been raised on an insecure foundation, 
 came to the ground. On the sale of Fonthill, B. 
 removed to Bath, and immediately proceeded to 
 erect another lofty building, the plan of which also 
 included a tower, but this time not more than 100 
 feet high. While residing there, he did not 
 
 ■ m Bath society, and the most improbable 
 stones concerning the rich and morose genius in 
 their neighbourhood were circulated among the citi- 
 zens, and were believed by them. 1 luring all his life. 
 B. was a hard-working student, and was devoured 
 by a passion for hooks. Some of his purchases 
 My imperial in their way. He bought 
 Gibbon's library at Lausanne, to amuse himself 
 when he happened to be in that neighbourhood, II" 
 went there; read in the fierce way that he wrote, 
 three days and two nights a1 a sitting ; grew weary of 
 his purchase; and handed it OVi c -ician, 
 
 Dr Scholl. Dp till 1834 he hadpubli I I 
 since Vathek, but in that year the literary sir 
 half a century w app nance of a 
 
 of letters, entitled / Uy, w ft St 
 
 and Portugal, in two volumes. In the 
 yeai hi i publi bed b i 
 
 r»; and in 1835 he is ned another vi 
 entitled Recoil < 'on to the Mono - 
 
 r ' de in June 1 
 
 From the period of this lad publication till his death, 
 
 took pise,, on i be 2d of May 18 1 1. he lived in 
 
 t 'I ment. 
 
 I'.„ since the public it ! his Arabian 
 
 has been a power in English literature. Mis wit, 
 his sarcasm, his power of graphic desa 
 
 ii 1 and letters; and his 
 
 faculties of imaginative conception and 
 
 reign in the unmatched passages that 
 
 shadow forth in gloom and glory the ' Hall of 
 
 Eblis.' 
 
 BECKMAXN, JoHAmr, a German author, I. 
 by his : al history culture, 
 
 tat Hoya, in Hanover, June^, 1739. After 
 
 directed h ation to the physical sciences, and 
 
 ' peoiallj to their economical applicat 
 hoi, ling, for about two years, a profi 
 pie ics and natural history in SI I' made 
 
 atourthrou ! e he gained an acquaint- 
 
 ance with the working of mines, and 
 sometime instructii ! oa us. In 1766 he 
 
 was appoint .1 professor of philosophy, and 
 ' ordinary pn El 
 
 where he died, Fi bruary 4, 1811. He was tl 
 German author who v. rote on agriculture in a 
 tifio style. Among hi; tioned: 
 
 , lea of <?i n 1806), 
 
 Introduction to Technology (5th ,,l. 1809), 
 
 of < 1781 
 
 tributiona to th History of I 
 This last-mentioned work has been translated into 
 English with some abridgment. 
 
 BECQUEREL, Axtoise Cebab, a distinct 
 French physicist, was born 7th March 17 
 Cnatillon-sur-Loing, in the department of J. 
 In 1808, he entered the French army as an 
 of engineers, and served with distinction in 
 under Marshal Suehet. Retook part in the sieges 
 
 of Tortosa, Tarragona, Valencia, and other | 
 
 (•n his 1' turn to France, he was appointed inspector 
 
 of the / ; ,n 1S| i. lie went th] 
 
 the campaign of France; and at the peace of 1815, 
 retired from the e, that he might pursu 
 
 idies with greater advantage. In 1819, 
 
 he published a volume of geological and niinera- 
 1 ration was 
 
 ! ' icity and i 
 
 While studying i 1 
 amber, asion to • limcnts on 
 
 i ration of electricity by pre rare. Th 
 him to im the laws by which the pheno- 
 
 mena of lil .ration are governed in chemical 
 i he n 
 
 761 'a theory of contact, and I 
 by him, of the tirst constant pile. He next dis- 
 imple method of determinie 
 nd animal 
 
 without sen ibly injuring them, and by numerous 
 physiological applicatioi d, thai when 
 
 a muscle contractu, there is a development of heat, 
 B. is In ' ,istry. 
 
 His labours in this branch of science opened for him, 
 in lS'JO, the door of the i ■Sciences, 
 
 apply electro-cherj 
 in the i and in 
 
 the treatment by the humid way of silver, 
 and copper on ij and in 1837 thi Royal Society of 
 London recognised his great merits by award 
 him the Co] 
 
 savant may be specified his researches 
 eductiliility of m Ivano- 
 
 . on the ele< pro] of 1 
 
 atmosphei . ■ . I i I 
 
 Quncil-general of I 
 hi atific know ! extremely 
 
 lie is professor and administrator of the 
 '] o mi of Natural History. 
 . 
 
 ; himie; 
 
 de Physique co 
 
 i . I M ! : 
 
 BECSKEBETK ZTA'GY, orGKEAT BECSKER- 
 
 EK, a town of llni ii,. in the county of Toronto], 
 situated on the left tank of the Bega, about 45 
 
 ;s9
 
 BED. 
 
 miles south-west of Temesvar, with which place it is 
 till by canal. B. N. is an important market- 
 town, and has a population of about 15,000. 
 
 BED (with some variations in spelling, tho 
 word is common to all Germanic lani 
 article of household furniture on which to sleep. 
 Bods have been, and arc of various forms, almost 
 every country having its own kind of bed. In 
 ancient times in Palestine, the B. seems to have 
 been a simple kind of couch fur reclining on during 
 the day, and sleeping on at night, and I 
 removable from place to place, as is referred to in 
 different parts of Scripture. About tho heat of the 
 day, Ishbosheth lay on his B. at noon (2 Sam. iv. 
 5). In receiving visitors, tho king bowed himself 
 upon the bed (1 Kings i. 47). Jesus saith, 'Take 
 up thy B., and go unto thine house ' (Mat. ix. G). Yet, 
 in these early times, beds or couches must, in some 
 instances, have been highly ornamented : thus, ' I 
 have decked my B. with coverings of tapestry, with 
 carved works, with fine linen of Egypt' (Prov. vii. 
 16). The ancient Greeks had an elegant kind of beds 
 in the form of open couches ; they rested on a frame- 
 work with posts; their mattresses were stuffed with 
 wool or feathers ; and they had coverings of a costly 
 nature. The Romans had latterly beds of great 
 richness and magnificence. They were of two k 
 the lectua tridiniaris, or couch for reclining upon at 
 meals; and the lectus cubictdarls, or B. placed in 
 bed-chamber3 for sleeping in during the night. In 
 eastern countries, at the present day, beds are for the 
 most part simple couches or mattresses, which can bo 
 easily rolled up and carried away. In India, these 
 couches are called charjwys. It will be understood 
 that, in hot climates, few bed-clothes are used — in 
 general, there being only a single sheet employed ; 
 care is taken, however, to use mosquito-curtains, 
 without which rest would be impracticable. See 
 Mosquito. 
 
 Throughout the continent of Europe, beds are of 
 the open couch form, suitable in width for one per- 
 son. They consist of a frame or bedstead, less or 
 more ornamental, bearing ono or two hair or wool 
 mattresses ; they are often provided with curtains, 
 which depend from the ceiling of tho room. In 
 French hotels, such beds, neatly done up, are seen in 
 sitting-rooms. In Germany, there is a common 
 practice of placing large fiat bag3 of down above 
 the other coverings of beds, for the sake of warmth ; 
 and sometimes a bed of down altogether supplies the 
 place of blankets. Throughout America, the beds are 
 usually of the French, or open couch, form. The 
 simplest kind of B. yet invented — except, indeed, the 
 Oriental rug spread on the floor — is one frequently 
 to be seen in America. The bedstead consists of a 
 folding tressel, constructed with canvas on the 
 principle of a camp-stool, with a movable head- 
 board at one end to retain the pillow. With a 
 hair-mattress, a pillow, and the necessary coverings 
 laid on it, this makes one of the most comfortable 
 beds imaginable. Its great advantage consists in 
 its being easily folded up and put away in small 
 space. In some of the hotels in the United States, 
 when the arrival of guests exceeds the ordinary 
 accommodation, a number of tressel-beds can be 
 improvised in a few minutes in one of tho largo 
 halls. 
 
 To prevent the falling of dust on the face, the 
 Romans, in some instances, used canopies (aulcea) 
 over their beds; in no country but England, how- 
 ever, has the canopied bedstead been thoroughly 
 perfected and naturalised. The English four-posted 
 B., or B. proper, is a gigantic piece of furniture, to 
 ■which all persons aspire; and when tastefully fitted 
 up, it offers that degree of comfort and seclusion 
 which is characteristic of the domestic habits of the 
 790 
 
 people. Like most English beds, it is made of suffi- 
 cient size to accommodate two persons — the husband 
 and wife — and is hence known 08 the family-bed. 
 The dimensions of a good family B. aro as follows : 
 lying part, 6 feet 6 inches in length, by 6 feet 
 2 inches in breadth ; height from the floor, 2 feet 
 9 inches; height of the posts from tho floor to the 
 top of the cornice, 9 feet. The roof or Canopy ia 
 supported by the four posts, which are of mahogany, 
 finely turned and carved. On rods along the cornice, 
 hang curtains, which can be drawn around the sides 
 and foot. The top stands towards the wall, so that 
 the B. can be approached on tho two sides. The 
 curtains are composed of silk or worsted damask; 
 in old times, they were of tapestry. With a spring- 
 mattress below, and a wool-mattress above, the B. 
 is complete, all but the blankets, sheets, bolster, 
 and pillows. Ticks with feathers, laid on a hair- 
 mattress, are also common. Fully equipped, a B., 
 as just described, costs from £50 to .£80. The great 
 B. at Ware, in Hertfordshire, is one of the curiosities 
 
 Bed of 'Ware. 
 
 of England, and is referred to in the Twelfth Night 
 of Shakspeare ? ' Although the sheet were big enough 
 for the Bed of Ware in England.' This famous B., 
 which is still seen in one of tho inns at Ware, 
 measures twelve feet square, and is said to be 
 capable of holding a dozen persons. 
 
 Latterly, a species of B. has been introduced into 
 England, called the Elizabethan Bed. In point of 
 size, it resembles the four-poster, but it has only two 
 tall posts, with a canopy and curtains at the head, 
 leaving more than half of the B. exposed. The tent- 
 B. is an inferior kind of four-poster ; it has a semi- 
 circular light frame roof, and light calico curtains. 
 A more novel variety of bedsteads are those made of 
 iron or brass, formed like open couches, and adapted 
 for cottages in summer, but not likely to come gener- 
 ally into use. Tho cold and humid climato of the 
 British islands, independently of tho habits of the 
 people, has greatly influenced the form of the B. ; 
 for although it may be more wholesome to sleep 
 without than with curtains, it will be difficult to 
 introduce the practice of doing so, particularly during 
 the winter and spring months. In the humbler class 
 of rural cottages in Scotland, there still lingers the 
 old custom of sleeping in wooden bedsteads with 
 sliding doors. This box variety of B. is considered 
 as unfavourable to ventilation, but it is tho only 
 kind of sleeping-place which is endurable where 
 there are damp earthen floors and imperfect ceilings. 
 Its use is disappearing in the progress of cottage 
 improvement. 
 
 In old times in England, beds were formed with 
 straw instead of wool, hair, or feathers, as at 
 present ; hence the phrase of a ' lady in the straw,' 
 signifying that she is being confined. By the
 
 BED— BEDCHAMBER 
 
 humbler classes in the rural districts, straw is still 
 used for beds, and also ticks stuffed with 
 According to on old superstition, no person could 
 die calmly on a J!, of feathers of game birds. 
 
 For invalids, there havo been invented ai 
 and water-beds, which are now in use, and justly 
 appreciated. See Aib-Bed, al o W.vn 
 
 BED, or STRATUM, is a layer of sedimentary 
 rock of similar materials, and of some thickness, 
 cohering fcogi therso as to be quarried and lifted in 
 single blocks. Beds are often CO 
 fine lamina) or plates. The laminae are ti 
 intermissions in the supply of materials, prod I i 
 such causes as the ebb and flow of the tide, river- 
 floodfl, or the more or less turbid state of the water 
 under which they were depositi A. When the 
 intervals between the supply of materials were 
 short, the numerous lamina; closely adhere, and form 
 a bed cut off from the superior deposit, by the 
 occurrence of a longer interval, during which the 
 bed became consolidated mure or less before the 
 next was deposited When the lamination is 
 obscure, or not distinct from the stratification, it 
 would seem to indicate that the materials had been 
 supplied without any intermission. 
 
 BED OF JUSTICE (Fr. lit de justice), literally, 
 at or throne occupied by the French mi 
 when he was present at the deliberations of parlia- 
 ment. Historically, a B. of J. signified a I 
 session, in which the kiie,' was present, to overrule 
 the decisions of parliament, and to enforce the 
 acceptance of edicts or ordinances which it had 
 previously rejected. The theory of the old French 
 constitution was, that the authority of paxli 
 was derived solely from the crown : consequently, 
 when the king, the Bource of authority, was 
 present, that which was delegated ceased. Ackuow- 
 ; such a principle, the parliament was 
 logically incapable of resisting any demand that 
 the king in a B. of J. might make, and decrees 
 promulgated daring a sitting of this kind were held 
 to be of more authority than ordinary decisions of 
 parliament. Monarchs were not slow to take advan- 
 tage of this power to overawe any parliament that 
 exhibited signs of independence. The last B. of J. 
 was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles in September 
 1787. 
 
 BEDA, or BEDE (surnamed, on account of his 
 learning, piety, and talents, VENERABLE), the greatest 
 name in the ancient literature of Britain, and prob- 
 ably the most distinguished scholar in the world 
 of his age, was born about the year 073 a.d. The 
 exact spot of his birth is a point in dispute 
 antiquaries, but is commonly believed to have been 
 in what is now the parish of Monkton, near Wear- 
 month, in Durham. In his seventh year he - 
 the neighbouring monastery of St l'etcr, at Wear- 
 mouth, where he remained for 13 years, and was 
 educated under the caro of the abbot Benedict 
 Biscop, and his successor, Ceolfrid. His religious 
 tor was the monk Truinbcrct ; his music- 
 master, John, chief-sin in St Peter's 
 Church, Rome, v ' id to England by 
 the Abbot Benedict. After these studies at 
 mouth, B. removed to the twin-monastery of St 
 Paul at Gyruum (now writ i i, founded in 
 682 ; here he took deacon's orders in his nineteenth 
 
 and as ' rdained prii it in bis thirl 
 John oi Beverley, then bishop of En the 
 
 - of his quiet and sacred retreat, while the 
 lest of barbaric strife raged without, i 
 
 of all men in Ed land were torn by san- 
 guii i i us, B. m ily to conso- 
 
 les life to such literature as was possible in 
 days, including Latin and Greek, and at least 
 
 some acquaintance with Hebrew, medicine, astro- 
 nomy, and prosody. He wrote I ves of 
 saints, liyuii is, works on chronology and 
 grammar, and comments on the books of th 
 and New Testament. His calm and gentle spirit, 
 tie' humanising character of his pursuits, and the 
 
 s of his life, present a striking contrast to 
 the violence and slaughter which prevailed in the 
 whole island. To none is the beautiful language 
 of Scripture more applicable — 'a light shining in a 
 dark place.' When labouring under disease, and 
 near the close of his life, he engaged in a translation 
 of St John's Gospel into Anglo-Saxon, and dictated 
 his version to his pupils. He died May 20, 735, and 
 was buried in the monastery of Jarrow : long after- 
 wards (in the middle of tin- 11th c,), his bones were 
 removed to Durham. His most valuable work is the 
 Historia Ecci ■ rum, an ecclesias- 
 
 tical history of England, in live books, to which we 
 are indebted fur almost all our information on the 
 ancient history of England down to 731 A.D. B. 
 gained tin- materials for this work partly from 
 Roman writers, but chiefly from native chronicles 
 and bii . records, and public documents, 
 
 and on 1 and written communications fro] 
 
 nporaries. King Alfred translated it into 
 
 i. In chronology, the labours of B. 
 
 were important, as he first introduced the Dionysian 
 
 reckoning of dates in his work, De ti,_-x ^Kloiibun 
 
 \ wliich served as a basis for most of the 
 medieval chroniclers of leading events in the world's 
 history. Among the editions of B.'s History may 
 be noticed: the first, published at Strasburg about 
 
 a much better edition, by Smith (Cambridge, 
 1722) ; one not less valuable, by Stevenson (Loud. 
 1S38) ; another, by the late Dr Hussey (Oxf. 1S46) ; 
 a fourth in the Monumenla Hutorica Britannica 
 (Lond. 1 8 18) ; and that included by Dr Giles in 
 his edition of the whole works of B., with an 
 English translation of the historical parts (G vols., 
 Lond. 1S43 — 1S44). Entire editions of B.'s writings 
 have been pubhsked in Paris (1544 — 1554), Basel 
 (15G3), and Cologne (1G12 and 1GSS). English ver- 
 sions of his Ecclesiastical History wcro published by 
 Stapleton, in 1505; by Stevens, in 1723; by Hurst, 
 in 1S14; by Wilcock, in 1818; and by Giles, in 
 1S40. See Gehle's De Bedce VeneraUlis Vita et 
 Scriptis (Leyden, lSIxS) ; Wright's Bioffraphia 
 Britannica Litteraria, vol. i (Lond. 1843) ; Surtees's 
 History of Durham, voL ii., pp. 2 — G, 66—69. 
 
 BEHARIEUX, a town of France, department of 
 Herault, situated on the river Orb, well budt, and 
 second to none of its size in industry. Pop. <J17<>, 
 who are engaged in the manufacture of tine and 
 coarse cloths, stuffs, cotton and woollen stockings, 
 hats, paper, oil, soap, leather, &c. 
 
 BE'DCHAMBER, Lords of the, officers in the 
 British royal household, twelve in number, who, 
 in the reigu of a king, wait in turn upon the sove- 
 reign's person. They arc under the groom of the 
 stole, who attends his majesty only on state occa- 
 sions. There are also thirteen grooms of the B., 
 who take their turns of attendance. The salary 
 of the groom of the stole is ££000 ; of the lords 
 of the B., £1000; and of the grooms, £500 a year. 
 These offices in the reign of a queen are performed 
 by ladies. Corresponding to the groom of the stole 
 is tin mistress of tne robes, and to the grooms of the 
 ]'.. ere I'.. women. At present (1866), Her Majesty 
 has eleven ladies, and extra ladies of the B., and 
 '■. women. These offices, which are in the royal 
 nomination, are objects of high ambition, from the 
 they give to the person of the sovereign, and 
 are for the most part tilled by "the prime nobility 
 of England.' They are not usually vacated on a 
 
 T'Jl
 
 BEDDOES— BEDEGUAR. 
 
 change of ministry, and Sir Robert Peel's departure 
 from the usual etiquette on tbis poiut, in 1839, 
 ■ I no small commotion. 
 
 BEDDOES, Thomas, a physician of remarkable 
 ■, and a popular writer on chemistry, physics, 
 
 logy, disease, &c., was born at NhiU'nall, in 
 Shropshire, 17G0. In his studies at Oxford and 
 Edinburgh, he distinguished himself by his know- 
 Ii I of ancient and modern languages — the modem 
 he acquired without the aid of a teacher— and 
 by his varied attainments in botany, mineralogy, 
 geology, chemistry, &e. In Edinburgh he attracted 
 the notice of Dr Cullen, wdio employed him to add 
 notes to Bergman's Physical and Chemical 1 
 In 1785, he published a translation of Bergman's 
 Essays on Elective Attractions, with valuable original 
 notes. In 17S7, he was appointed to the chemical 
 lectureship in the university of Oxford. Here 
 hi3 lectures became exceedingly popular; but his 
 unconcealed sympathies with the French revolu- 
 tionary party in England, appear to have rendered 
 his post so uncomfortable that he resigned it in 
 1702, and retired into the country. While in retire- 
 ment, he wrote his work On the Nature of Demon- 
 atrative Evidence, with an Explanation of Certain 
 
 '/ties occurring in the Elements of Geometry, 
 which was intended to shew that mathematical 
 reasoning proceeds entirely on the evidence afforded 
 by the senses, and that geometry is based on experi- 
 ment. Several patriotic pamphlets followed, and 
 the History of Isaac J< nkins, in which ho laid down, 
 in a popular style, rules of sobriety, health, &c, for 
 the benefit of the working-classes. Of this work, 
 40,001) copies were sold in a short time. In 1798, 
 after having spent considerable time in studying the 
 use of artificial or medicated gasi 3 in the cure of 
 
 les, especially consumption, aided by his father- 
 in-law, Mr Edgeworth, and pecuniarily assisted by 
 his friend, Thomas Wedgwood, he opened a pni 11- 
 matic hospital at Bristol. This institution did not 
 succeed in its main object, which w\as to shew that 
 all diseases being, as B. maintained, referrible to an 
 undue proportion or deficiency of some elementary 
 principle in the human organism, could be cured by 
 breathing a medicated atmosphere ; and B.. 
 zeal had abated, retire/1 from it about a year before 
 
 ,ith, in 1S0S. The only results of the enterprise 
 were several works by B. on the application of 
 medicated air to diseases, and the introduction 
 to the world of Davy (afterwards Sir Humphry), 
 who was the superintendent of the institution. Sir 
 Humphry Davy says of B. : ' He had talents which 
 would have exalted him to the pinnacle of philo- 
 sophical eminence, if they had been applied with 
 discretion.' A life of B. was published in 1S11 by 
 Dr Stock. 
 
 BEDDOES, Loveix Titomas, eldest son of Dr 
 Thomas B., and of Anna, third daughter of Richard 
 Lovell Edgeworth, of Edgeworthstown, Ireland, 
 sisterof Maria Edgeworth, the distinguished noveli f, 
 was born at Rodney Place, Clifton, on the 20th 
 July 1S03. In 1809 Dr Beddoes died, leaving his 
 son to the guardianship of Mr Davits Giddy, who, 
 under his after-name of Sir Davies Gilbert, became 
 the president of the Royal Society. By this gentle- 
 man, young B. was placed at the Bath grammar 
 school; from thenee, in 1S17, he removed to the 
 Charter House; and in May 1820, he entered as a 
 commoner at Pembroke College, Oxford. In 1821 
 he published the Improvisatore, On this, his earliest 
 poetic offspring, he looked with no favour at 
 a later period, and was wont to hunt after stray 
 copies in the libraries of his friends, and to disem- 
 bowel them mercilessly when he effected a capture. 
 In 1S22 he published The Bride's Tragedy, which 
 
 792 
 
 .! hieved Cor its author a great reputation. In 1824, 
 
 he wont to (iiittingen to study nii-dioinc, and from 
 tin's time forth continued to live in Germany and 
 Switzerland, witli occasional visits to England. 
 While i I at Frankfort (1847) in dissecting, 
 
 he received a slight wound, which was the means 
 of infusing a noxious virus into his system. Bis 
 health now began to fail. In 1S4S he went to Basel, 
 where he fell from his horse, and injured his leg. 
 An amputation following, he died on the L'ljlli 
 January 1849, and was buried in the cemetery of 
 the hospital 
 
 During his wanderings in Germany, B. was en- 
 gaged at intervals in the composition of a drama 
 entitled Death's Jest-book. This work, together with 
 his other manuscripts, consisting chiefly of poetry, 
 he, on his death-bed, confided to the care of a 
 friend in England, desiring him to use his discre- 
 tion as to their publication. In consequence, in 
 1851, his poetical works, with a memoir attached, 
 appeared in two volumes. The merits of these 
 dramatic fragments are quite peculiar. The author 
 exhibits no power of characterisation, no ability in 
 the conduct of a story ; and, on the other hand, the 
 crush of thought and image, the tone of music, and 
 the depth of colour, are quite wonderful. Mr B. 
 never could have become a dramatist, and of this, 
 during his later years, he seems to have become 
 aware. His works pall with splendour, and are 
 monotonous by very richness. They are like a 
 wilderness where nature has been allowed to pour 
 hei If forth in all her waste and tropical excess, 
 unrestrained by a priming hand, and unpierced by 
 any path. 
 
 BEDEAU, Marie Arpiioxsr, a distinguished 
 French general, was born at Vertou, n c 
 August 1804. In 1817 he entered the military 
 school of LaFleche; in 1S20, St Cyrj and in ] si"i 
 received a commission in the army. In the Belgian 
 campaign of 1831—1832, he was aide-de-cam i 
 General Gerard, and attracted notice at the si 
 Antwerp. In 1830 he was sent to Algeria, as CO a- 
 mandant of a battalion of the Foreign Legion. 
 he acquired his great military reputation. He took 
 part in most of the military operations by which the 
 dominion of France was established over the natives, 
 and rose to the rank of general of brigade. In 1S47, 
 he was for a short time governor of Algeria, but was 
 superseded by the Due d'Aumale. 
 
 When the revolution of February broke out, B., 
 who was in Paris on leave of absence, was commis- 
 sioned by Marshal Bugeaud to suppress the insur- 
 rection. This he found it impossible to do, but his 
 conduct on the occasion has been severely blamed. 
 By the Provisional Government he was appointed 
 Minister of War, an office, however, which he 
 immediately changed for the command of the city 
 of Paris. On the formation of the Constituent 
 Assembly, he was named vice-president, and always 
 voted with the republican party. Along with 
 Cavaignac, Lamoriciere, and others, he was an 
 on the 2d December 1851, and went into exile. B. 
 was a Roman Catholic, and the fervour of his con- 
 victions gave rise to the groundless rumour that he 
 bad entered into holy orders. He died in 1S03. 
 
 BEDEGU'AR, a remarkable gall (q.v.), often 
 foimd on the branches of various species of rose, 
 particularly of the sweet-brier, upon which account 
 it is sometimes called Sweet-brier Sponge. It is 
 produced sometimes by Cynips rosa:, sometimes by 
 other species of gall insect. It is usually of a 
 roundish shape, often an inch or more in diameter; 
 its nucleus is spongy and fibrous, containing numerous 
 cells, in each of winch is a small larva; externally 
 it is shaggy, being covered with moss-like branching
 
 BEDELL— BEDFORD. 
 
 fibres, which are at first green, afterwards purple 
 or red. It was formerly in some repute a 1 a diuretic 
 and as a remedy for stone; it has more recently 
 been recommended as a vermifuge, and as a cure 
 for toothache. 
 
 BEDELL, William, one of the best prelates 
 that have adorn'.! arch, was born at 
 
 Black Not! .. E lex, in 1670. He was cducal 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and after his ordina- 
 ifficiated as a clergyman for several years at 
 | r St Edmunds. In 1004, he accompanied ba- 
 ton as his chaplain to Venice. There he 
 at years, deep! 
 honoured by the friendship of many distinguished 
 men, in particular of Father Paul Sarpi, then 
 1 in the composition of his celebrated History 
 0J -" t l~:. , of Trent While residing here, he 
 
 translated the English Common Prayer Book into 
 Italian, which was highly appreciated by many 
 of the Venetian clergy. On his return home, he 
 resumed his pastoral duties at Bury, where he lived 
 for some time in such retirement, that when his 
 Diodati came to England, he inquired in vain 
 for the admirable B., whose merits were so well 
 known at Venice. He had given op hopes of find- 
 ing him, when one day he encountered him in the 
 L In 1615, B. was presented to the 
 livin" of Horingsheath, in Suffolk, where he remained 
 twelve year , His retired life and his Qalvinistic 
 
 theolo »v long hindered the recognition of his merits. 
 
 At length, m lu°7. he was unanimously elected 
 
 provost" of Trinity College, Dublin, to which the 
 
 of his learning and piety had extended, Be 
 
 L to undertake the charge till positively com- 
 
 i 1 by the king. At the end of two years, he 
 
 iromoted to the united bishoprics of Kllmore 
 
 and Ardagh, the latter of which I I in the 
 
 L630. He immediately set himself 
 
 that prevailed in bis 
 
 diocese, and with so happy a combination of wisdom, 
 
 „l charity, that even llis enemies were 
 
 to his virtui . 
 
 . he removi ■' I 
 
 an d took upon himself t) 
 
 E hearing and deciding causes. 
 
 chancellor obtained a decree against him in 
 
 Chancery, with costs, but was so impressed with 
 
 tl„. BU p the bishop's services to his own, 
 
 that he dropped his claim, and even appoi, 
 
 surrogate, with orders to pay implicit obedience to 
 
 ithority of the bishop. The translation of 
 the Old Testament into li 
 
 , D (the N w had ba d al 
 ited), as well as of some of the bom I 
 ■it ,m and Leo on the reading of the 
 Onthebn iking out of the rebellion in 1641, 
 
 his popularity foi lv tr " m 
 
 » the only English house in the 
 
 ' ' '"'• "" 
 his refi seized, and 
 
 imprisoned in the castle of Cloughboughter. Thence 
 he was removed to the house of a Protestani i 
 man, where he continued to ally till 
 
 his death, at the end of a few weeks. February 7. 
 . enty-tirst year of his age. The 
 is body to the -rave in the i 
 of Kihuore. !'. sides Borne "tier works, I'.. 
 translated the last two books ol r her Paul's 
 History, lbs life was written by Burnet. 
 
 BEDFORD (Saxon, Bedcanford, town of the 
 ford), the cl i of Bedfordshire, is i 
 
 on the i»u--' (which is navi 
 
 nice of 71 miles), aboul 63 !i oorth- 
 
 v , vs t ol I ■ by rail, and in thi ' broad 
 
 expanse of rich pasture-, wheat, and barley lands. 
 
 The town is clean and well paved, but the drainage 
 is very defective. The number of charitable and 
 istitutions 13 remarkable. These are 
 . Sir W. 1 larpur. alderman of Loudon, in 
 1561, wl ..1 in l;.. and endowed 
 
 it with 13 acres of land near the town. The enor- 
 mous increase in the value of the property (from £150 
 to £14,000 or upwards a year) enables the trustees 
 to maintain a free grammar school, comm 
 preparatory, girls', and infant schools, a hospital for 
 poor children, and 65 alms-houses, besides exp. 
 considerable sums of money in marriage-portions, 
 apprentice fees, donations, &c. Much of the charity 
 is under the control ■ p pularly elect. I 
 The social effects of so extensive a system of elee- 
 mosynary aid are found to be deeply injurious, and 
 the time* wasted in public and private debates on the 
 distribution of the funds is almost incredible. 1'arty- 
 spirit divides the inhabitants into the ' B.-born ' and 
 the ' squatters,' or recent settlers, who are regarded 
 by the more intolerant of the old inhabitants as 
 intrudi rs on eserves. The 'educa- 
 
 tional' and 'i -ry' factions also divide the 
 
 government of the charity— the latter being an 
 overwhelming majority. Parliament has more than 
 once been called in to regulate the distribution 
 of the charity, which, notwithsta nding its extent, 
 owing to former bad management, is in 
 The only important manufacture of D. is that 
 of iron goods, especially agricultural implements. 
 Lace-making and straw-plaiting employ many 
 poor women and children. A considerable traffic 
 in malt, timber, coals, and iron is maintained 
 with Lynn Regis, by means of the Ouse. B. is 
 of great antiquity, and is mentioned in the Saxon 
 Chronicle under the nam.- of Bedcanford, as the 
 scene of a battle between the Bi 
 in 571. The Danes burnt it in 1010. After- 
 wards its old castle, said to be built by Edwai 
 Elder, is frequently mentioned in history; there 
 being, as Camden says, 'no storm of civd war that 
 did not burst upon it' as long as it stood. R, 
 tuned two i ment since 1295. 
 
 ■ .1 1,693. John bun 
 He dreamed his immortal dream in B 
 ministered to the Baptist congregation in Mill Lane 
 from 1071 to his death in 1688. The inhab 
 stdl hold his memory in deep veneration, and some 
 relics of him are p (1871— pop. 16, 
 
 BEDFORD, Duke OF. There have been two 
 I '.. That to be noticed hero 
 
 existed in the 1 Ibhn 1 
 
 of Frame, ami third son of Henry IV. of Enj 
 who was born about 1389. During his father's 
 lifetime, governor of Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
 
 and warden of V In 1414, 
 
 I is brother's reign, he was 
 I Duke of B.J and he was made com- 
 mander-in-chief of the forces in England while 
 
 dance 
 with the dying wish of the king, left the affairs 
 
 of l"e his brothel 
 
 and went to > look after the intel 
 
 the infant prince, his nephew. The regency of 
 ompliance with a request of 1. 
 
 nuke of Burgundy, who 
 1 it ; he then assumed it himself, but not 
 
 r consulting Bui • the best method 
 
 of carrying out the treaty of Troyes, by which 
 
 Charles' VI. declared Henry V. next heir to the 
 
 ■ ii. On tl ' VL, a 
 
 after Henry V., P.. had his I 
 
 md E n gl and , as Henry 
 
 y\ | uphill win 
 
 1 great generalship, and defeated the
 
 BEDFORD LEVEL— BEDLAM. 
 
 French in several battles — most disastrously nt 
 Verncuil, in 1424. But, in consequence of the rath* r 
 parsimonious way in which men and money were 
 doled out to him from England, and the with- 
 drawal of the forces of tho Duke of Bin 
 he was unable to take full advantage of his victories. 
 The appearance of Joan of Arc, notwithstanding the 
 utmost energy of B., was followed by disaster to 
 the English arms; and in 1435, B. was mortified by 
 the treaty of peace negotiated at Kouen b 
 Charles VII. and the Duke of Burgundy, which 
 effectually ruined English interests in France. The 
 death of the regent, which took place September 19, 
 1435, fourteen "days before the ratification of the 
 treaty, was mainly, if not altogether, occasioned 
 by his anxiety and vexation on account of the 
 union thus formed. B., who was a patron of letters, 
 purchased and removed to London the Royal 
 Library of Paris, consisting of 900 volumes. For 
 the present family of B., see Russell. 
 
 BEDFORD LEVEL, an extensive tract of flat 
 land on the east coast of England, embracing nearly 
 all the marshy district called the Fens. It extends 
 inland around the Wash into the six comities 
 of Northampton, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Lincoln, 
 Norfolk, and Suffolk, and has an area of about 
 400,000 acres. Its inland boundary forms a horse- 
 shoe of high lands, and reaches the towns of 
 Brandon, Milton — 3 miles north-north-east of Cam- 
 bridge— Earith, Peterborough, and Bolingbroke. It 
 is divided into three parts— the north level, between 
 the rivers Welland and Nene ; the middle, between 
 the Nene and the Old Bedford River; and the south, 
 extending to Stoke, FeltwelL and Mildenhall. It 
 is intersected by many artificial channels, as well 
 as by tho lower parts of the rivers Nene, Cam, 
 Ouse (Great and Little), Welland, Glen, Lark, and 
 Stoke. It receives the waters of the whole or 
 parts of nine counties. The substratum of the 
 Fens is a stiff clay, called gault, a newer tertiary 
 deposit, on which rest earth, vegetable matter, silt, 
 and water. This district seems to have been a 
 great forest at the time of the invasion of the 
 Romans, who cut the forest down; formed 
 embankments, to exclude the tide ; and rendered the 
 tract for a time a fertile inhabited region. The 
 Emperor Severus, in the 3d c, made roads through 
 it, one of which is now covered with two to five feet 
 of water. In the 13th c, violent incursions of the 
 sea stopped the outflow of the rivers, and it became 
 a morass. The practicability of draining this exten- 
 sive region seems to have been thought of as early 
 as 1436, and many partial attempts were made after 
 this. The first effectual effort was in 1034, when 
 Francis, Earl of Bedford, after whom the district 
 was thenceforth called, obtained, along with 13 
 others, a charter to drain the level, on condition 
 of receiving 95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. The 
 work was partially accomplished in 3 years, at the 
 expense of £100,000; but was pronounced by the 
 government to be inadequate. Charles I. tried 
 to get the work, with a greatly increased premium, 
 into his own bands; but the civil war stopped 
 further progress. In 1G49, parliament confirmed 
 William, Earl of Bedford, in the rights granted 
 to bis father; and after a fresh outlay of £300,000, 
 the contract was fulfilled. In 16S8, a corporation 
 was formed for the management of the level, which 
 still exists. But only within the last 30 years has 
 the drainage been rendered thoroughly efficient, by 
 means of large and small drains and embankments. 
 Although at great expense, a large tract of country 
 has been redeemed from water, and is now converted 
 into fertile pasture, grain, flax, and cole-seed lands. 
 In some parts of the district, the annual increase 
 of property is now equal to the purchase-money paid 
 
 for it GO yean ago. Steam-engines and wind-mills 
 are now used to pump the water into the artificial 
 chamiels. 
 
 BF/DFORDSHIRE, a midlandcounty of England, 
 bounded N.E. by Huntingdon; E. by Cambridge- 
 
 S.E. and S. by Hertford ; N.W. and W by Bucl 
 ham ; and N.W. by Northampton. It stands 37th 
 of the 40 English counties m size, and 36th in 
 population Extreme length, 31 miles; breadth, -J.". 
 Area, 4G3 square miles, livc-sixtlis being arable, 
 meadow, and pasture lands. The general si 
 is level, with gentle undulations. In the south, a 
 range of chalk-hills, branching from the Chiltern . 
 ■ i'>. in a north-cast direction from Dunstable, 
 and another parallel range runs from Ampthill to 
 near the junction of the Ivel with the Ouse. 
 Between the latter ridge and the north-west part of 
 the county, where the land is also somewhat hilly, 
 lies the corn vale of Bedford. No hill in B. much 
 exceeds 900 feet in height The chief rivers are the 
 Ouse (running through the centre of the coimty, 
 17 miles in a direct hue, but 45 by its windings), 
 navigable to Bedford; and its tributary, the Ivel, 
 navigable to Shefford. By these rivers, B. communi- 
 cates with the counties of Cambridge, Huntingdon, 
 and Norfolk The south and south-east parts of 
 the coimty consist of chalk, and tho north and 
 north-west of oolitic strata. Freestone is quar- 
 ried, as well as chalk or clunch, to be burnt for 
 lime. The soil varies greatly. In the south of 
 the county, it is chalk thinly covered with earth, 
 and lit only for sheep-walks ; but three-fourths 
 of the county is clay, which is very stiff between 
 the Ivel and Ouse. A rich gravelly loam exists 
 along the rivers. In tho vale of Bedford, the soil is 
 chiefly rich clay and deep loam; and to the north, j 
 the clay is stiff, poor, and wet. There are extensive 
 market-gardens, especially on the rich deep loams. 
 The chief crops are wheat aud beans on the clayey 
 land, barley and turnips on tho chalk and sandy 
 soiL B. is the most exclusively agricultural county I 
 in England. The principal proprietors are the Duke , 
 of Bedford, the Marquises of Tavistock and Bute, | 
 Earl de Grey, Lords Holland, Carteret, and St 
 John. Little trade or manufacture exists in the 
 coimty. Lace-making and straw-plaiting— for which 
 Dunstable is celebrated— are the only branches of 
 industry practised to any extent, and they are 
 carried on almost entirely by women. B. is divided 
 into 9 hundreds, and contains 10 market-towns, 
 124 parishes, and 6 poor-law unions. In 1851, pop. 
 124.47S; schools, 227, with 13,003 scholars; places of 
 worship, 327 (Church of England, 133; Methodists, 
 96 ; Baptists, 55). Two members of parbament are 
 returned for the county of B., and two for the town 
 of Bedford. Many British and Roman antiquities 
 exist in B., as well as the ruins of several monas- 
 teries, and some fine relics of Anglo-Saxon, Early 
 English, and Norman architecture among the parish 
 churches. Three Roman ways once crossed the 
 county, and several earthwork camps still remain. 
 
 BE'DLAM, a popular corruption of Bethlehem, 
 the name of a hospital for lunatics, in St George's ' 
 Fields, London. It was originally founded in 
 Bishopsgate Street Without, in 1246, by Simon 
 Fitz-Mary, one of the sheriffs of London, as 'a 
 privy of canons with brethren and sisters.' When 
 the religious houses were suppressed by Henry VIII., 
 the one in Bishopsgate Street fell into the posses- 
 sion of the corporation of London, who converted 
 it into an asylum for 50 or 60 insane persons. In 
 the year 1675, the hospital was taken down, and a 
 new one, affording accommodation for about 150 
 patients, was erected in Moorfields, at a cost of about 
 £17,000. In 1814, the hospital was again pulled
 
 BEDMAR— BEDSTEAW. 
 
 down, and the patients transferred to a new hospital 
 in St George's Fields, erected for 19S patients ; but 
 in 1838 extended so as to accommodate ICG more. 
 The building, with its grounds, now covers an area 
 of 14 acres, and is lacking in nothing likely to insure 
 the comfort or promote tha recovery of patients. 
 In former times, the management of 6. was deplor- 
 The patients were exhibited to the public, 
 like wild beasts in cages, at so much per head, and 
 treated and made sport of by visitors, as if 
 had been animals in a menagerie. The funds of 
 the hospital not being sufficient to meet the expend- 
 iture, partially convalescent patients, with badges 
 affixed to their arms, and known as Tom-o' -Bed- 
 lams, or ' Bedlam Beggars,' were turned out to 
 wander and beg in the streets. Edgar, in Shak- 
 speare's Lear, assumes the character of one of these. 
 This practice, however, appears to have been stopped 
 before 1075 ; an advertisement in the London Gazette 
 of that date, from the governors of B., cautions the 
 public against giving alms to vagrants representing 
 themselves as from the hospital, no permission to 
 beg being at that time given to patients. Now, the 
 moral and physical management of the patients is so 
 excellent, that annually more than one half of their 
 number are returned as cured. 
 
 BEDMAR, Alfonso db Cueva, Marquis be, 
 was born in 1572. He has won an enduring noto- 
 riety on account of his daring and unscrupulous plot 
 for the destruction of Venice, to which city he had 
 been appointed ambassador from the court of Spain 
 in 1G07. It was a difficult office to fill, for Venice 
 and Spain cherished most unfriendly feelings towards 
 each other. B. probably conceived that he was 
 acting a patriotic and justifiable part, in taking 
 advantage of his position to play the spy and con- 
 spirator ; but whether or not, his scheme was con- 
 trived with admirable ingenuity. He first leagued 
 If secretly with the Duke of Ossuna, viceroy 
 of Naples, and Don Pedro of Toledo, governor of 
 Milan, whom he made his confidants and coadjutors. 
 He then purchased the services of a large number of 
 foreign mercenaries, and scattered them throi 
 city, to prevent suspicion. Ossuna furnished him 
 with a band of semi-pirates, who were to enter the 
 Venetian fleet, corrupt the sailors, and hinder opera- 
 tions in any way they could. The conspirators were 
 to set fire to the arsenal of the republic, and seize all 
 the important posts. At this precise moment, the 
 Milanese troops were to appear at the extremity 
 of the mainland, and those sailors who had been 
 seduced from their allegiance were to convey them 
 rapidly over to Venice. A Spanish fleet was to 
 creep up the Adriatic, in order to assist if necessary. 
 The city was then to be plundered and destroyed. 
 The day chosen was that on which the d< > ;c wedded 
 the Adriatic, when all Venice was intent onbeholding 
 the august ceremony. Fortunately, the night before 
 the crime was to have been perpetrated, one of the 
 conspirator- ! tho whole. Several persons 
 
 were executed; but curiously enough, B., the arch- 
 delinquent, was only dismissed. This has excited 
 the scepticism of many writers as to the truth of the 
 accusation ; but the evidence iu favour of the historic 
 reality of the plot is generally held to be incon- 
 testable. The event forms the subject of Otway's 
 popular and pathetic play, Venice Preserved. B. now 
 Went to Flanders, where he became president of the 
 council, and, in 1622, was made a cardinal by the 
 pope. He then went to Borne, and finally returned 
 in as Bishop of Ovicdo, where he died in 1G55. 
 He is said to have been the author of a pamphlet 
 published in 1G12, din 1st the liberties of 
 
 . It is entitled Squittino dilla Liberia Venela. 
 
 BEDOS DE CELLOS, Don Jean Francois, a 
 
 Benedictine monk of the congregation of St M mr, 
 and the most learned and practical master of the 
 art of organ -building in the 18th c, whose work on 
 the art is to the present day of the greatest import- 
 ance. He was Dom about 1714 at Chaux, and 
 entered his order in 1720 at Toulouse, where he 
 built several large and superior church-organs. He 
 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 in 1758 ; in 1770, he completed for the Academy 
 his great work, L'Art du Facteur d'Orgue^, in 4 
 vols., large folio, with 137 copperplates, beautifully 
 executed. This work has never been translated into 
 English, but the greater part of it has been translated 
 into German. B. de C. died in 1797. 
 
 BE'DSTRAW (Galium), a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the natural order RulXacca (q. v.), and dis- 
 tinguished by a small wheel-shaped calyx, and a dry 
 two-lobed fruit, each lobe containing a single seed. 
 The leaves, as in tho rest of the order, are whorled, 
 and the flowers minute ; but in many of the species 
 the panicles are so large and many-flowered that 
 they are amongst the ornaments of the banks and 
 other situations in which they grow. The species are 
 very numerous, natives chiefly of the colder parts of 
 the northern hemisphere, or of mountainous regions 
 within or near tho tropics. About 16 species are 
 found in Britain, some of them very common weeds. 
 Amongst these is the Yellow B. [G. verum) — some- 
 times called CHEB3E Er.XNET, because it has the 
 property of curdling milk, and is used for that pur- 
 pose — a small plant with linear dellcxed leaves and 
 dense panicles of bright yellow flowers, very abun- 
 dant on dry banks. The flowering tops, boded in 
 
 Yellow Eedstraw (Galium verum). 
 
 a, top of stem, shewing leave* and flowers ; b, e, two views 
 
 of a flower. 
 
 alum, afford a dye of a bright yellow colour, much 
 used in Iceland; and the Highlanders of Scotland 
 have long been accustomed to employ the roots, and 
 especially the bark of them, for dyeing yarn red. 
 They are said to yield a red colour fully equal to 
 that of madder, and the cultivation of the plant has 
 been attempted in England. The roots of other 
 species of the same genus possess similar properties.
 
 i;ki>sti;a\v -bebuins. 
 
 as those of C Hnctorizm, a species abundant in low 
 marshy grounds in Canada ; and those of G. tepten- 
 
 trionale, another North American species, used by 
 some of the Indian tribes. Like madder, they 
 possess the property of imparting a red colour to 
 til" 1 > • >ii- ; and milk of animals which fml upon 
 them. Meihcinal virtues have been ascril ted to 
 of tho species, as (.'. rigidwm and G. Mottugo, 
 have been extolled as useful in epilepsy. — The roasted 
 .seeds of some, as G. Aparine, the troublesome Goose- 
 
 gri i, of our hedges — remarkable for the 
 
 hooked prickles of its stem, leaves, and fruit — have 
 been recommended as a substitute for coffee; but 
 it does not appear that they contain any principle 
 analogous to caffeine. This plant is a native of the 
 northern parts equally of Europe, Asia, and America. 
 It3 expressed juice is in some countries a popular 
 remedy for cutaneous disorders. — The roots of G. 
 tuberosum are farinaceous, and it is cultivated in 
 China for food. — The name B. is supposed to be 
 derived from the ancient employment of some of the 
 species, the herbage of which is soft and fine, for 
 strewing beds. 
 
 BE'DUINS (Arabic, Bedawi, i. e., ' dwellers in 
 the desert') are Arabs who lead a nomadic life, and 
 are generally regarded, according to tradition, as 
 the descendants of Ishmacl, and the aborigines of 
 Arabia. The most ancient notices found in Scripture 
 agree, in their descriptions of the manners and cus- 
 toms of the B., with the facts of the present time. 
 As nomads, the Beduin Arabs have no united history, 
 but only a collection of genealogies. They have but 
 seldom appeared as a united people, taking a pro- 
 minent part iu the world's politics, and have never 
 been entirely held in subjection by any i 
 power. The desert of Arabia, especially the plateau 
 of Nedjid, is their central place of abode; but, even 
 in ancient times, they had spread themselves over 
 the deserts of Egypt and Syria ; and in later times, 
 after the decay of ancient civilisation, they entered 
 Syria, Mesopotamia, and Chaldsea. The conquest 
 of Northern Africa, in the 7th c, opened up to them 
 still vaster tracts, and they soon extended them- 
 selves over the Great Desert to the shores of tho 
 Atlantic Ocean. At present, they are to lie found 
 scattered over an immense breadth of territory — viz., 
 
 Beduins stripping a traveller. 
 
 from the western boundary of Persia to the Atlantic, 
 and f n an the mountains of Kurdistan to the negro 
 countries of Sudan. In the cultivated lands of 
 Mesopotamia, Chaldsea, the Syrian confines, Barbary, 
 Nubia, and the north of Sudan, the Arabs are found 
 intermingled with other nations; but in the deserts 
 they have maintained their distinct character and 
 ndenee. The characteristics of the B., as 
 herdsmen and robbers in the desert, are intimately 
 connected with the nature of their habitation. Their 
 abstinent, precarious, and often solitary mode of life, 
 makes them disposed to exercise mutual hospitality ; 
 but their independence, love of liberty, and other 
 good qualities, are associated with violent passions 
 and an infamous love of plunder, which is utterly 
 reckless of the rights of property. They are gener- 
 ally well-made men, lean, sinewy, and active; but, 
 on account of frequent hardships and privations, arc 
 a immonly below middle stature. Their senses, espe- 
 cially sight, are keen, and their carriage is free and 
 independent. The nose is commonly aquiline, the 
 face rather lengthened, and the eyes arc well 
 and expressive of both daring and cunning. In 
 
 complexion, they have various shades of brown. With 
 the exception of certain tribes in Syria, all the B. are 
 professedly Mohammedans, but by no means strict 
 in the observance of their religious rites and duties. 
 Their Marabouts (q. v.) — a class of ascetics — take 
 tlic jikice of priests, and exercise considerable inllu- 
 encc in all social and public affairs. As the Aral-is 
 have no settled government or policy, religious tra- 
 is and customs form the only bond of order 
 and union among them. Though their intellectual 
 powers are naturally good, they arc miserably desti- 
 tute of solid knowledge. Their endless tales 
 and poetical effusions shew a wonderful activity of 
 imagination and an oriental love of hyperbole. The 
 relation of the sexes to each other is less constrained 
 than among the settled peoples of the East, and a 
 substitute for polygamy is found in a frequent inter- 
 change of wives. Their favourite pastimes are the 
 chase, ball-play, dancing, songs, stories, and the dolce 
 far niente (pleasant laziness) of drinking coffee and 
 smoking narghiles. Their diet is principally derived 
 from their herds, but includes a few vegetables, and 
 even locusts and lizards. Honey is also a principal
 
 BEDWIN— BEE. 
 
 luxury with all classes, aud, moreover, one which 
 
 has a rejig i and , for it was indulged in by 
 
 Mohammed himself, who makes copious mention of 
 it in the Koran. They manufacture their own 
 ; )< thing, which consists of the Aa&A — along, 
 wide garment fastened on the head, and descending 
 to the, feet — ami the burnoose, a large mantle. Only 
 superior men wi r breeches and linen or cotton 
 shirts. The hah of the head is shaven, hut the 
 beard is a favourite object of cultivation. He poli- 
 tical condition of the B. may be styled patriarchal. 
 One or more families, the males of which bear the 
 title of sheik, form the core of a tribe, and along 
 with the marabouts, or priests, constitute a kind 01 
 aristocracy. Out of their number, the superior slieih, 
 or kaid, is elected, who rules in patriarchal style 
 over the whole tribe. This general sketch of the B. 
 applies ehielly to the true n Hers in 
 
 the desert,' and is subject to several modifications 
 with regard to tribes located in Barbary, Syria, and 
 Mesopotamia, who practise agriculture, and dwell in 
 houses. 
 
 BE'DWIN, Great, a town of Wiltshire, on the 
 Sennet and Avon Canal, and the Great Western 
 Railway, Gil miles west-by-south of Loudon. Top. 
 2103. A fierce but indecisive battle occurred here 
 in (574, between the kings of Mercia and V. 
 St Mary's Church was built in the beginning of the 
 14th c, and is constructed of Hint, except th > piers, 
 arches, and dressings, which are (if freestone. Jane 
 Seymour, one of the queens of Henry VIII., and Dr 
 Willis, an eminent physician of the 17th c., were 
 born here. In the end of last century, the remains 
 of a Roman villa were discovered, including tessera;, 
 bricks, a tesselated pavement, a huge leaden cistern, 
 and the foundations of baths. 
 
 BEE, the common name of a very large family of 
 insects, of the order Hymenoptera (q. v.), belonging 
 to the section of that order called Acultata, in 
 which the females are furnished not with an ovi- 
 positor, but (usually) with a sting- Bees were all 
 included by Linnteus in the genus Apia (Lat. for 
 B.), but are now divided into many genera ; and the 
 
 name Anthopkila ((!r. flower-loving) or Mdlifera 
 (Lat. honey-bearing) is given to the family which 
 they constitute. All bees in a perfect state feed 
 exclusively or chiefly on saccharine juices, particu- 
 larly the nectar or honey of flowers; and the ordin- 
 ary food of their young, in the larva state, is the 
 pollen of flowers, or a paste, often called 1 J. -broad, 
 composed of pollen and honey. They evidently 
 perform a very important part in the economy of 
 nature, in the fertilisation of flowers, which depends 
 upon the contact of particles of the pollen with the 
 stigma; and, as if to secure this object more per- 
 fectly, in their search for honey and pollen, they 
 usually — some have perhaps too hastily said always 
 — pass from flower to flower of the same kind, and 
 not to flowers of different kinds indiscriminately. 
 They abound in almost all parts of the world, but 
 particularly in the warmer parts of it. Not fewer 
 than 250 species are known as natives of Britain. 
 
 To enable them to reach their liquid food at the 
 bottom of the tubes of flowers, and in the little 
 receptacles in which it is produced, bees have 
 certain parts of the mouth — the maxiUa and labium 
 (see Insects), or lower jaws and lower lip, with their 
 
 feelers (palpi) — elongated into a sort of proboscis; 
 and the Ugula is elongated, sometimes, as in the 
 common Hive B., assuming the form of a filament, 
 is capable of extension and retraction, and is folded 
 up when not in use. This is the organ som 
 called the tongue Of bees, although the name cannot 
 be regarded as very appropriate, it being a part of 
 the labium or lower lip. The other elongated parts 
 
 of the mouth serve as a sort of sheath for this organ, 
 when it is folded up. It is not tubular, and 
 employed in the maimer of suction, as was at one 
 time supposed, but illy more or less hairy, 
 
 so that the honey adheres to it as it is rolled and 
 moved about, and is conveyed up through the 
 mouth into the honey-bag, sometimes called the 
 
 first stomach, an appropriate receptacle, in which 
 
 it apparently undergoes some change -without, 
 
 1 to any process analogous 
 
 to digestion, and is ready to be given forth again by 
 
 tin- mouth, according to the habits of those species 
 
 which are social, as food for the mem' 
 the community that remain at home in the n< 
 to be stored up in cells for future provision. 
 Honey. But the mouth of bees is also adapted for 
 cutting and tearing, and to this purpose their 
 mandibles or upper jaws are especially appropi 
 Of these, BOme of them, as the common Humble B. 
 (q. v.), make use to open their way into the tul 
 flowers which are so deep and narrow that they 
 cannot otherwise reach the nectar at the bottom. 
 Others make use of their mandibles to cut out 
 portions of leaves, or of the petals of flowers, to form 
 or line their nests ; the common Hive B. uses them 
 in working with wax, in feeding larvae with pollen, 
 in cleaning out cells, in tearing to pieces old combs, 
 in combats, and in all the great variety of purposes 
 for which organs of prehension are required. But 
 it is not by means of any of the organs con 
 with the mouth that bees collect and cany to their 
 nests the supplies of pollen needful for their young. 
 The feathered hairs with which their bob 
 partially clothed, and particularly those with which 
 their legs are furnished, serve for the purpose of col- 
 lecting the pollen, which adheres to them, and it is 
 brushed into a hollow on the outer surface of the 
 first joint of the tarsu3 of each of the hinder pair of 
 legs, this joint being therefore very large, com- 
 pressed, and of a square or triangular form — a con- 
 formation to which nothing similar is found in any 
 other family of insects. It is also worthy of i 
 vation, that in the social spei ! 
 
 and the queens, which are nevi r to be employed in 
 collecting pollen, do not exhibit this conformation 
 adapted to it, but only the sexually imperfect 
 females, commonly called neuters or workers. 
 
 Bees, like other hymenopterous insects, are 
 extremely well provided with organs of sight, and 
 evidently possess that sense in very great peri' 
 In the front of the head, they have two large eyes, 
 the surface of each consisting of many hex 
 plates, which perhaps may not unaptly be 1! 
 to tiie object-glasses of so many 1 ' nd the 
 
 faculty which these insects certainly possess, of 
 returning in a direct line to their hive or nest, from 
 the utmost distauee of their wanderings, hi 
 with greatest probability ascribed to their power of 
 But besides these large eyes, they have, like 
 the rest of the hymen order, three small 
 
 : the very top of the head, which are BUD] 
 to be intended to give a defensive vision upwards. 
 from the cups of flowers. — Tiny are evidently, 
 ever, possessed of organs which enable them to 
 guide their movements in the dark as accurately a; 
 in the full light of day, at least within the net or 
 
 hive; and ties power is generally ascribed to the 
 
 ' (q. v.), which are sometimes 8U1 
 
 to be not merely del,, i. but 
 
 also organs of hearing, or of some special 
 unknown to us. It is certain that the social 
 bees have some means of communicating with 
 each other by means of their antennas ; ami that 
 they avail themselves of ti. as both for 
 
 tie it ordinary operations, for recognition of each 
 other, and for what may be called the conduct 
 
 ?97
 
 BEE. 
 
 of the affaire of the hive. There can be no doubt 
 that bees possess in a very high degree the sense 
 of smell; and their possession of the senses of 
 taste and hearing is almost equally unquestionable, 
 whatever difficulty there may be in determining the 
 particular organs of the latter sense. — The wings of 
 - like those of other hymenopterous insects, are 
 four in number ; thin and membranaceous ; the hinder 
 pair always smaller than the others; and in flight, 
 attached to them by a number of small hooks, bo 
 that the four wings move as if they were two. 
 
 The sting of bees is a very remarkable organ. It 
 consists of two long darts, with a protecting Bheath. 
 
 mm bag is connected with it, and powerful 
 mi! ties for its propidsion. The wound appears to 
 
 t made by the sheath, along which the poison 
 
 Bee Sting, highly magnified. 
 A, sting of bee ; S, sheath of sting ; F, end of sting, greatly 
 magnified, shewing six barbs curved upwards; B, glands for 
 secreting poison; C, ducts through which it flows to D, 
 where it is kept re;idy fur use; O, circular dilatation to prevent 
 sting being thrust too far out of sheath. 
 
 passes by a groove ; and the darts thrust out after- 
 wards in succession, deepen the wound. The darts 
 are each furnished with a number of barbs, which 
 render it so difficult to withdraw them quickly, that 
 bees often lose their lives by the injury which they 
 sustain in the effort. — The males are destituto of 
 sting. 
 
 The great family of bees is divided into two 
 principal sections called Andrenelcz and Apiarice, or 
 Andrenidce and Apidce ; the latter names, however, 
 being sometimes employed in senses more restricted. 
 In the first of these sections, the ligula is compara- 
 tively short and broad; in the second, it is lengthened, 
 and has the form of a filament. All the A ndrenelce 
 live solitarily, as well as several subdivisions of the 
 Apiarice. These solitary bees do not lay up stores 
 for their own winter subsistence ; but they display 
 very wonderful and various instincts in the habita- 
 tions which they construct and the provision which 
 they make for their young. There are among them 
 males and perfect females only, and no neuters. 
 The work of preparing nests and providing food for 
 the young seems, in all of the species, to be per- 
 formed exclusively by the females. Culletes succincta, 
 a common British species of the Andrenetce, affords 
 an example of a mode of nest-making, which, with 
 various modifications, is common to many species of 
 that, section. The parent B. excavates a cylindrical 
 hole in the earth, usually horizontal, to the depth of 
 about two inches, in a dry bank or a wall of stones 
 and earth. The sides of this hole are compacted by 
 
 798 
 
 means of a sort of gelatinous liquid, secreted by the 
 insect, and it is occupied with cells, formed of a 
 transparent and delicate membrane, the substance of 
 which is the same secretion in a dried state. The 
 cells are thimble-shaped, fitting into each other, a 
 little space being left at the furthest end of each for 
 the reception of an egg and a little paste of pollen 
 and honey. The last cell being completed, and its 
 proper contents deposited in it, the mouth of tho 
 whole is carefully stopped up with earth. — Souio of 
 the solitary bees, possessing great strength of nian- 
 dililej, excavate their nests in old wood. Xylocopa 
 violacea, one of the Apiarice, not uncommon in 
 some parts of Europe, makes a tunnel not less 
 than twelve or fifteen inches long, and half an 
 inch wide, which is divided into ten or twelve 
 cells ; an egg with store of pollen and honey is 
 deposited in each compartment, and as the lowest 
 egg is hatched first, a second orifice is provided at 
 that part of the tunnel, through which each of 
 the young ones in succession comes forth to the 
 light of day, each larva, as it is about to change 
 into the pupa state, placing itself with its head 
 downwards in the cell. — Numerous species of soli- 
 tary bees excavate their tunnel-shaped nests in the 
 soft pith of decayed briers or brambles, of the 
 particles of which they also form their cells.— Somo 
 species of Megachile, Osmia, &c, line them and 
 divide them into cells with portions of leaves or 
 of the petals of flowers. See Leai'-cutter Bee. 
 Some of the solitary bees make their nests, not in the 
 earth, but in cavities of decaying trees, or other such 
 situations, where they construct their cells without 
 the same necessity of excavation; but some of 
 them, by a very admirable instinct, surround their 
 nest with down collected from the leaves of plants, 
 an excellent non-conductor of heat, so that a nearly 
 uniform temperature is maintained in situations in 
 which the changes woidd otherwise be great and 
 rapid. Some bees make their little uests in old 
 oak-galls, and there are species which appropriate 
 empty snail-shells to that use. — Some species of the 
 genus Meyachile build their nests of a sort of 
 mason- work of grains of sand glued together with 
 their viscid saliva. The nest of M. muraria, thus 
 constructed, is so hard as not to be easily pene- 
 trated by a knife, and very much resembles a splash 
 of mud upon a wall. 
 
 The social bees live in communities like those of 
 ants, which also, like theirs, consist of males, females, 
 and neuters — these last being females with ovaries 
 imperfectly developed, and characterised by pecu- 
 liarities of form and structure, as well as of instinct 
 and employments, remarkably different from those 
 of the perfect females. The social bees are conve- 
 niently divided into Humble Bees (q. v.) and Honey 
 Bees, of the latter of which the common Hive B. 
 (see the next section of this article) may be regarded 
 as the type. Before proceeding to a more particu- 
 lar account of the Hive B., it may be proper to 
 remark that the species of Honey B. (the restricted 
 genus Apis) are not few, and that they are natives 
 of the warm parts of the Old World ; the Hive bees 
 (Apis mellifica) which now abound in some parts 
 of America, and which have become naturalised in 
 the forests to a considerable distance beyond the 
 abodes of civilised men, being the progeny of those 
 which were conveyed from Europe. The Hive B. 
 is said not to have been found to the west of the 
 Mississippi before 1797, but in fourteen years it had 
 advanced 600 miles further in that direction. The 
 different species of Honey B. in a wild state generally 
 make their nests in hollow trees, or among the 
 branches of trees, sometimes under ledges or in 
 clefts of rocks ; and their stores of honey aro 
 not only sought after by man, but afford food to
 
 BEE 
 
 numerous animals, some of which equally delight 
 to prey upon their larvae. The B. mg amongst 
 the ancient Egyptians the hieroglyphical emblem 
 of royalty. The B. domesticated or cultivated in 
 Egypt, is not, however, our common Hive B., but 
 another species called Apisfasciala; and in Italy and 
 Greece a species called A. Liguslica is employed, 
 which has been recently introduced into England, 
 and is now domesticated at the B.-house of the 
 Apiarian Society, Muswell Hill, near London. 
 These species differ little from the common Hive B., 
 aud their honey is very similar ; but that of some 
 species is considerably different. A. unicolor, of 
 Madagascar and the Isle of France, yields an 
 esteemed honey of a green colour. It is domesti- 
 cated, or is the object of human care and attention 
 there, as are also A. Indica in some parts of India, 
 and .!. Adantonnm Senegal. We regret that our 
 limits do not permit us to give a particular 
 account of any of these species. — The genus ilclipona 
 is nearly allied to Apia. The species are natives of 
 South America, and their honey is extremely sweet 
 and agreeable, but very liquid, and apt to ferment. 
 They make their nests in the cavities or on the tops 
 of tre 
 
 '/'A- IT- Bee.— Natural History. — The instincts 
 and social economy of the Hive B. {Apia mellifiea) 
 have been studied with great attention both in 
 ancient and modern times, and discoveries — than 
 which, perhaps, nature presents nothing more 
 interesting and wonderful — have rewarded the 
 patient observations of Huber and others who 
 have devoted themselves to this subject. Apiarian 
 eocieties have been formed for the purpose of pro- 
 secuting this single branch of natural history, and 
 of promoting successful apiculture, or the economical 
 keeping of bees. 
 
 The Hive B. is probably not a native of Britain, 
 and may even have been brought to Europe from 
 the East. Its communities seem ordinarily to 
 number from 10,000 to 60,000 individuals, and 
 there appears no reason to think that the care 
 bestowed upon the insect by man, or the hives 
 which he has provided for it, have made any 
 important difference in this respect. One member 
 of each community is a perfect female — the queen 
 or mother B. ; from 600 to 2000 at certain seasons 
 are males ; and the remainder are neuters or workers, 
 the real nature of which has been explained in the 
 previous part of this article. 
 
 The workers have a body about half an inch in 
 length, and about one-sixth of an inch in ; 
 breadth, at the upper part of the abdomen. The 
 antennae are twelve-jointed, and terminate in a 
 knob. The abdomen consists of six joints or rings, 
 and under the scaly coverings of the four middle 
 ones are situated the wax-pockets or organs for the 
 secretion of wax. The extremity of the abdomen 
 is provided with a sting, which is straight. The 
 basal joint of the hind tarsi is dilated to form a 
 pollen-basket, and the legs are well provided with 
 hairs for collecting the pollen and brushing it into 
 this receptacle. — The males or drones, so called 
 from the peculiar noise which they make in their 
 flight, arc much larger than the neuters, and 
 thicker in proportion. The antenna) have an 
 additional joint. The eyes are remarkably large, 
 aud meet upon the crown. — The perfect females 
 are considerably longer than either the workers or 
 males; they are also distinguished by the yellow 
 tint of the under part of the body, and very remark- 
 ably differ from all the other inmates of the hive 
 in the shortness of their wings, which, instead of 
 reaching to the extremity of the abdomen, leave 
 some of its rings uncovered. — Neither males nor 
 queens have v ax-pockets, nor have they pollen- 
 
 baskets. Their legs also are less hairy. The sting 
 
 of the queen li. is curved. The mandible 
 
 of the males and perfect females are notched or 
 
 Bees. 
 1, queen; 2, drone; 3, neater. 
 
 toothed beneath the tip, which those of the workers 
 are not. — It will be seen from this brief desci 
 that the sexe3 differ so widely as to appear, if the 
 contrary were not well known, insects of different 
 species ; but still more remarkable is the difference 
 between the females and the workers when we 
 con ider that it is all to be ascribed to the different 
 forms of the cells in which the eggs are hatched 
 and the young bees reared, and to the different 
 kinds of food with which they are supplied. All 
 doubt upon this point is removed by the inte- 
 resting discovery of Schirach, that when a hive is 
 deprived of its queen, the bees provide them 
 with another, if there are eggs or very young larva: 
 in the cells appropriated to the breeding of workers; 
 proceeding immediately to transform, for this pur- 
 pose, one of these cells, and sacriticing, without 
 scruple, the eggs or larvae in the cells adjoiningthat 
 selected for transformation and enlargement. ! 
 are facts well ascertained, but of which science has 
 yet been unable to give any explanation. 
 
 The greater part of the life of the queen or 
 mother B. is spent in laying eggs for the increase 
 of the population of the hive ; and this increase goes 
 on at a rapid rate, as the queen not unfrequently 
 lays 300 eggs in a day. The number, however, 
 varies greatly. In cold weather it is very small, but 
 the invariable presence of brood in different stages, 
 in a well-stocked hive, proves that some eggs are 
 laid even in winter. During the later spring months 
 the number is very great ; many practical apiarians 
 considering that as many as 1000, or even 2000, are 
 deposited daily. The community, however, is not 
 destined to an indefinite increase ; but in certain 
 circumstances, swarming takes place, and new 
 colonies are foun 
 
 The impregnation of the queen takes place in the 
 air, aud usually within a few days after she I 
 has emerged from the celL It is the only occasion 
 of her ever leaving the hive, except that of swarming, 
 and there is no repetition of it during her who] 
 The question has therefore been asked, why there 
 are so many males in a B. community ; but no very 
 satisfactory answer has been given to it The males 
 are not known to fulfil any other purpose than that 
 of the propagation of their species ; and after the 
 swarming season is over, the greater part of them 
 are ruthlessly massacred by the workers, as if in 
 f their consuming too much of the common 
 store. The greater part of the workers them 
 are sup> ly to live for a year ; the duration 
 
 of the life of queen bees is often more than three 
 years. 
 
 m
 
 BEE. 
 
 The queen B., when about to begin to lay eggs, is the 
 object of great attention on the part of the worki rs, 
 ana so continues. She moves about in the hn 
 
 led by a sort of retinue of about ten or fifteen 
 workers, by some of which she is En quen.1 Ij BUpplied 
 with honey. But the name of queen B. appears to 
 have originated in a mistaken notion that something 
 analogous to a monarchy subsists in the B.-hive; 
 imagination being permitted very free scope, man} 
 
 have 1 ii invested with a false coil 
 
 derived from this analogy. The queen or mother 
 B. appears to bo the object of particular regard, as 
 indispensable to the objects for which the B. com- 
 munity subsists, and to which the instincts of all its 
 members are variously directed. iShe moves about, 
 b [gs in the cells which the workers 
 have prepared, and they are ready to take oh i 
 each egg from the moment that it is deposited. Her 
 employment requires that she should be fed with 
 food collected by others, and many of the «l 
 are in like manner supplied with food whilst busy 
 within the hive, as well as the larva' in the 
 but there is no evidence whatever of anything like 
 authority exercised by the queen, or, indeed, of 
 any superiority of one over another in the whole 
 multitude. 
 
 The queen B. at first lays eggs which give birth 
 to workers, and afterwards there tak ■■- pla-o a 
 laying of eggs which become drones. With line] i . 
 instinct, she places each egg in the land of cell 
 appropriate to it ; whilst also, at the proper time, 
 cells of the proper kind are prepared beforehand by 
 the workers, the drones' cells being larger than the 
 workers' cells. The cells in which future queens 
 are to be reared are very unlike all the others, but 
 the eggs differ in no respect from those deposited in 
 workers' cells. It is a curious circumstance, that 
 queens, of which the fecundation has been prevented 
 till they are considerably older than usual, lay only 
 drone eggs. It occasionally also happens that some 
 of the worker bees lay eggs, and these invariably 
 produce drones. 
 
 The eggs of bees are of a long shape and bluish- 
 white colour, about one-twelfth of an inch in length. 
 They are hatched in about three days. The larvae 
 are little worm-like creatures, having no feet, and 
 lying coiled up like a ring : they are diligently fed 
 
 Egg, Larva, and Pupa of Hive Bee. 
 a, egg, and very young larva ; h, young larva cmled up at the 
 bottom of the cell ; c, larva when ready to undergo meta- 
 morphosis; d, pupa. 
 
 by the working bees, until, in about five days, when 
 large enough nearly to fill the cell, they refuse food, 
 upon which the attendant bees seal up the cell with 
 wax, and the larva, spinning itself a fine silken 
 envelope or cocoon, is transformed into a pupa ; 
 and about the eighteenth day — or, in the case of 
 drones, the twenty-fourth day — from the deposition 
 of the egg, the young B., in its perfect state, breaks 
 the covering, and issues from the cell It is caressed 
 and supplied with food by the attendant bees, and 
 is believed not to try its wings untU the following 
 day. The cell from which a young B. has issued 
 800 
 
 ■1 ily cleaned out, and prepared for the reception 
 of another egg or of honey. The fine silken enve- 
 lope of the pupa, however, remains attached to the 
 cell, of which the capacity thus becomes gradually 
 smaller, until the cells of old combs arc too small to 
 
 leive ' a, and can be used for homy all 
 fact of which the importance in relation to the 
 economical management of bees is obvious. — The. 
 spinneret, by means of which the larva 
 cocoon, is a small organ connected with the D 
 — The food with which the Ian 
 is a mixture of pollen, honey, and water, with 
 the addition, possibly, of some secretion from the 
 stomachs of the working bees, in which it i 
 pared. It varies a little, according to the age and 
 kind of the larva, and the peculiarities of thai 
 to young queens appear to be indispensable to 
 their fitness for their future functions. Pollen is 
 constantly found stored up in the cells of the hive, 
 and is often called B. -bread. Moat people have met 
 with such cells in honey-comb, and have observed 
 the bitter and peculiar taste of the contents. 
 
 The combs of a bee-hive are parallel to each other, 
 forming vertical strata of about an inch in thick] 
 and distant about half an inch from each other. The 
 cells are therefore nearly horizontal, having a slight 
 and somewhat variable dip towards the centre of each 
 comb. The central comb is generally first begun, and 
 next after it those next to it on each side. ( 'ircum- 
 stances frequently cause some departure from this 
 uniform and symmetrical plan, which, however, still 
 remains obvious. Each comb consists of two sets of 
 cells, one on each side ; and it may be mentioned as 
 an illustration of the wonderful industry of bees, 
 and the results of their combine! labours, that a 
 piece of comb, 14 inches long by 7 inches wide, and 
 containing about 4000 cells, has been frequently 
 constructed in 24 hours. The greater part of the 
 comb usually consists of the kind of cells fitted for 
 breeding workers, a smaller part of it of the larger 
 or drone cells. After the principal breedings, on 
 is over, the cells of some parts of the comb are often 
 elongated for the reception of honey ; and sometimes 
 comb of greater thickness, or with unusually long 
 cells, is constructed for that purpose alone, in which 
 case the mouths of the cells are inclined upwards, 
 more than is usual with the ordinary brood cells. 
 When a cell has been completely filled with honey, 
 its mouth is sealed or covered with wax. 
 
 It is impossible to look at a piece of comb taken 
 from a B.-hive, without admiring, not only its 
 beauty, but the perfect regularity of the size, form, 
 and arrangement of the cells ; and the more care- 
 fully that it is examined, the more must it be 
 admired. For in it are practically solved, by an 
 instinct which can only be referred to the infinite 
 wisdom of the Creator, some problems ditficult to 
 human science, particularly in the combination of 
 the greatest economy of materials and of space, 
 with the most perfect convenience and the greatest 
 strength. It appears even at a glance, that the cells 
 are hexagonal or six-sided, the hexagons perfectly 
 regular, and in this way there are no interstices 
 between the cells. Now, the mathematician knows 
 that there are only three regular figures, that is, 
 figures of which all the sides and angles are equal, 
 bounded by straight lines, with which a space can 
 be perfectly filled up in this way — the equilateral 
 triangle, the square, and the hexagon ; and of these 
 the hexagon is at once the most suitable for the 
 larva of the B. in its form, and the strongest in its 
 nearest approach to the circle. The circular form 
 itself would have left large interstices. But this is 
 not all: the same wisdom which has given the 
 solitary bees, already noticed, their instinct to 
 surround their nest with a cottony substance, which
 
 BEE. 
 
 Pyramidal bottoms 
 of Cells, 
 
 servos as a non-conductor of heat, lias directed the 
 hive JJ. to tlii; constant adoption of a mode of 
 H combs, which adds greatly to the 
 : _ili they would have possessed with the same 
 amount of materials, if the cells had been 
 p hexagonal prisms, and tin- partition in the 
 
 middle of the comb, between 
 [3 the cells of the one side "i it, 
 I and those of the other, there- 
 fore a j 1 1 1 f > 1 ' • |ilane. It is 
 far from being so, that 
 when carefully exami u 
 a; pears, if the expression 
 may be used, the mi 
 
 gi 11 i part of the whole 
 
 are. It i3 com ' 
 of a multitude of little 
 rhombs, or four-sided G 
 with equal and parallel Bides, and two obtuse 
 and two acute angles, the obtuse angles being 
 invariably angles of 109° 28', and the acute 
 of 70° 3%, agreeing precisely with the r 
 mathematical analysis, applied to the difficult 
 question of the form of the facets of a tin 
 pyramid, which should terminate a six- idi ! pri m, 
 so as to combine the greatest economy of materials 
 with th" greatest strength. On looking at a piece 
 of empty honey-comb, placed between the eye and 
 
 iit. we readily perceive that the c 
 oj ii ite to each other, cell to cell; but that the 
 point of meeting of three sides of three cells, on one 
 side, is oppo i. to (In- .< ntir of a cell on the other 
 side — a circumstance which of itself we cannot but 
 
 calculated greatly to increase the si I 
 of the whole fabric. It follows also from this, that 
 the terminating pyramids of the cells on the one side 
 do not interfere with the form of the cells on the 
 other side, but the three rhombic facets, which 
 terminate each cell, belong likewise to three distinct 
 cells on the opposite side of the comb. 
 
 The only departure from perfect regularity in the 
 form of the cells, is in the transition from the 
 t or workers' cells to the larger or drones' 
 ei Ms. which, when it takes place, is managed with 
 great simplicity and beauty of contrivance. Our 
 limits, however, do not permit us to enter further 
 bis subject. 
 
 The material of which the ells are built is 
 
 chiefly wax (q. v., and see Bees-Wax), which is 
 at first of a white colour, but becomes brownish- 
 yellow with age, and in very old combs, almost 
 black. Although wax exist; as a vegetable pro- 
 duct, yet bees-wax is now known to be pro- 
 duced by a chemistry which is carried on ill the 
 of bees ; and it has been found that they 
 produce wax and build combs when supplied only 
 
 with honey or saccharine substances. The 
 
 . in the abdomen of working-bees have been 
 already referred to. The bees which are about to 
 
 ■ I to wax-make Ives in 
 
 rs in the hive, attaching themselves to each 
 
 other by means of hooks with which their feet arc 
 
 provided ; and whilst they remain motionless in this 
 
 on, the wax appears to be formed, in small 
 
 , which they afterwards take in their mouths 
 
 curiously work up with a secretion from the 
 
 month itself, passing the wax, in the form of a 
 
 minute riband, through the mouth, lir.st in one 
 
 direction and then iii the opposite one, and finally 
 
 depositing it in its proper pi for the foundation 
 
 of the comb. On 8 j begins the comb alone, 
 
 the rest, in gradually iiienj-in numbers, proceed 
 is accordance with what has Been already done. 
 The bees which elaborate and deposit the wax, do 
 not, however, construct the cells, which is done by 
 others, partly at least by a process of excavation ui 
 
 the wax deposited. It is supposed by many natu- 
 ralists, that some of the working-bees are exclusively 
 wax-workers, some nurses, &c. ; but others think 
 that there is only one class of working -bees, all 
 ready for any kind of work according to circuin- 
 
 But Ugh the chief, is not the only 
 
 material i Propolis (q. v.) is also 
 
 employed in small bands to give greater strength to 
 
 Us, the mouths of which are Burroti 
 with it, and made thicker than their walls. This 
 substance, which is obtained b 
 
 buds of trees, is also employed for more firmly 
 attaching the combs to the hive, for cloein i 
 apertures in the hive, for covering up obnoxious 
 substances, intruding slugs, 4c., which are too 
 large to be removed, and for a variety of similar 
 
 It has In stated that queen-bees are 
 
 hatched and reared in cells different from the rest. 
 They are, indeed, very different, being vertical and 
 not horizontal in their position—not hexagonal, but 
 lather oval in form and much larger than the other 
 ci II . ' ven in proportion to the size of the animal 
 that is to inhabit them : they are generally placed 
 on the edge of a comb, and when they have served 
 their purpose, are partially removed, so that during 
 winter th ible acorn-cups in appearance. 
 
 Two queens cannot exist in the community 
 together. There is implanted in them the most 
 deadly rivalry ; and the mothcr-B., if permitted, 
 would even tear open every queen cell of which 
 the inmate has nearly approached maturity, and 
 inflict death by her sting. One of those wonderful 
 instincts, however, with which bees are endowed, 
 counteracts this at those times when, upon account 
 of the increased numbers of the community, and 
 in oilier to the formation of new colonies, it is 
 requisite that it should be counteracted. The 
 workers throng around the queen, hem her in, and 
 prevent the execution of her purpose. The cell 
 of the young queen is also carefully guarded, and she 
 is not permitted to leave it. At such times pecu- 
 liar sounds, produced probably by the action of the 
 
 .ire emitted both by the actual queen 
 restraint in her movements, and by the young one 
 in the cell, which may be heard by an car applied to 
 the outside of the hive, and are familiar to B. culti- 
 vators as one of the surest signs of swarming. 
 The queen now becomes restless; her ogrl 
 communicates itself to those around her, and extends 
 through the hive ; the ordinary work of the com- 
 munity is in great part negll id; fewer bees than 
 usual are seen to leave or return to the hive ; and 
 at last the queen-B. rushes forth, preceded and 
 followed by crowds which press and throng upon 
 each other, form a buzzing cloud in the air, and 
 very generally settle upon a bush in the I 
 bourhood, where th.y soon congregate ' 
 
 together, hanging by their claws in a dense cluster. 
 
 mes fchi j rise up in the air, and fly 
 once to a considerable distance, apparently to some 
 previously selected place in the thick top of a 
 tree in the chimney OX roof of a house, where 
 they happen to find an aperture — or in seme such 
 situation. More frequently, they settle not far from 
 the hue which they have left, often on SOmi Very 
 
 humble plant, or even on tl ad soon rise 
 
 again. It is the care of tin cultivator to pre- 
 vent tins by providing them immediately with a 
 suitable habitation in a new hive, invitin.lv placed 
 
 above them, or into which he pute the swarm after 
 they have congregated closely together as above 
 described It sometimes happens that bees hurry 
 
 out of their hive without their queen, in which case 
 they do not in general congregate so closely together
 
 BEE 
 
 i i hoy settle, and soon return to the hive again. 
 Swarming generally takes jilaee in a fine day ; and 
 . . i in on the very point of coming off, 
 
 a cloud passing over the sun is enough to retard it. 
 Bad weather occasionally not only retards lmt pre- 
 vents it, the young queens being at la t killed in their 
 cells. — When the first swarm of the season has left 
 the hive with the old queen, as is usually, if not 
 always the case, the imprisoned young queen is set 
 at liberty; and if the B. community is a large and 
 prosperous one, other young queens also come forth 
 from their cells, and leave the hive with successive 
 swarms, the number of which depends upon the 
 climate, the season, &c. In Britain, it is not uncom- 
 mon for a B.-hive to send off three swarms in a 
 summer, the first being almost always the largest, 
 and not unfrequently itself sending off a swarm 
 before the season is over. 
 
 Bees left without a queen, and with no means of 
 supplying the want, appear to feel themselves cut 
 off from the very purpose of their existence; the 
 labours of the community are relinquished, and its 
 members are dispersed and die. It has already, 
 however, been stated, that bees left without a queen 
 can provide themselves with one, by transforming 
 and enlarging a worker's cell which contains an 
 egg or very young larva. This process is sometimes 
 1 on as if by several distinct parties, in differ- 
 ent parts of the hive at once; and as if aware that 
 time will be gained, the bees generally prefer cells 
 containing larva; of two or three days old to these 
 containing eggs. 
 
 Bees become partially torpid during cold weather, 
 consuming much less food than they would other- 
 wise require. They are readily aroused from this 
 state, however, as may at any time be proved by 
 tapping on a B.-hive, when it wdl be found that 
 the temperature of the interior of the hive rises 
 rapidly. Respiration is consideral >ly lessened in the 
 state of partial torpidity, and the temperature rises 
 when it is resumed. The respiration of bees takes 
 
 by air-tubes or traclietz (see In.-- i i 
 and is very active when the insect is in a state 
 of activity. The respiratory movements are easily 
 seen in looking at a bee. The consumption of 
 oxygen by this process might be expected soon to 
 reduce the atmosphere within a hive to a state in 
 which it coidd no longer support animal life; but 
 in summer, when respiration is active and the hive 
 populous, a constant circulation of air is maintained 
 by the insects themselves, some of which are 
 employed in a rapid vibration of their wings for 
 tliis purpose. A greater or smaller number of 
 them, according to circumstances, may frequently be 
 seen thus engaged iu fanning the air at the mouth 
 of a bee-hive. 
 
 It may well be deemed an extraordinary fact, 
 that among the enemies of bees are to be reckoned 
 certain species of moth, which, notwithstanding 
 the danger of the stings of the bees, enter the hives 
 and deposit their eggs. After the eggs are hatched, 
 the larva? feed upon the combs. Mice sometimes 
 eat their way into the hives in winter, and destroy 
 and plunder unmolested. 
 
 Bees are sometimes very destructive to each 
 other in their combats, as when one B. community 
 ailed by others for the purpose of plunder. 
 To this the weaker communities are liable, par- 
 ticularly when flowers are few, and bees arc 
 awakened to full activity in the warm days of 
 early spring. The narrower that the entrances of 
 bee-hives are at this season, at least of the less 
 ■us hives, the less likely is the B. owner to 
 loss from this cause, as the narrow entrance 
 • easdy defended even against very numerous 
 invaders. 
 602 
 
 Management of Bees.— We do not think it neces- 
 sary to enter largely into the subject of Apb 
 — the cultivation or management of bees. 
 
 It is, of course, necessary that the apiary or stock 
 of B.-hives should be situated in a m i 
 where flowers sufficiently abound for the supply of 
 honey. It is, however, by no means certain to « hat 
 distance bees roam. Some authors mention one mile 
 as the probable distance; but the opinion has appa- 
 rently been hazarded on mere conjecture, and there 
 seem to be good reasons for supposing that a much 
 greater distance might more correctly be named. 
 But whatever distance bees may be capable of 
 travelling in quest of honey, it is undoubtedly 
 of great importance that they should have good 
 : m -ground in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 the apiary; and in many parts of the world, the 
 practice prevails of removing them from place to 
 place, according to the season, in order that advan- 
 may be taken of the greatest abundance of 
 flowers. Thus in the south of Scotland, B. -hives 
 are very frequently removed to heath-covered tracts 
 in the beginning of August, and remain there tdl the 
 heath is out of flower; and this affords in many 
 parts of the country the most plentiful honey-harvei i, 
 although in other parts, especially where white clover 
 abounds, the greatest quantity of honey is obtained 
 earlier in summer. The difference between // 
 Honey and Flower Honey is well known in Edin- 
 burgh. No small number of B. -hives from that city 
 and its immediate vicinity are annually conveyed 
 for a few weeks to the Pentland Hills. The con- 
 veyance of bees 'to the heather' is generally accom- 
 plished either by a handbarrow or a spring-cart of 
 easy motion, so that the combs may not be displaced 
 by shaking ; and the mouth of the hive is carefully 
 closed with a plate of perforated zinc, or other con- 
 trivance for keeping in the bees and permitting cir- 
 culation of air. Fifty or one hundred B.-hives may 
 often be seen collected in one place, and under the care 
 of one person, during the heather-season. — In I 
 far greater numbers of hives (of Apis jasciala) are 
 often kept in a single vessel on the Nile, and are 
 conveyed from place to place on the river, aco 
 to the succession of flowers in the different districts. 
 A somewhat similar practice prevails on the Rhone ; 
 and the transporting of bees (Apis Lirjustica) from 
 ■ to pasture has been usual in Greece, in Asia 
 Minor, and in Persia, from remote antiquity. 
 
 As to the form of B.-hives, and the material of 
 which they should be made, there are great differ- 
 ences both of opinion and practice. Glass hives, and 
 hives with glassy-windows, which can be covered at 
 pleasure with wooden slides, are employed by those 
 who wish to observe the movements and habit3 of 
 bees ; but for profitable purposes, wood and straw 
 are in Britain the only materials in common use. 
 A simple and useful form of a capped hive is shewn 
 in the accompanying illustration. For the mat' rial 
 of a hive, wood has the advantage over straw 
 in its greater neatness and durability ; but there 
 is a disadvantage in the greater likelihood that, 
 unless shaded from the sun, portions of the comb 
 may be so much melted as to fall in hot weather. 
 In some parts of Europe, cylindrical cork-hives are 
 much used, made by removing the wood of a portion 
 of the cork-tree, and leaving the bark uninjured ; 
 and hives of earthenware are common in Greece 
 and Turkey. The form of hives is of little couse- 
 quence ; but it is important that the owner should 
 have facilities for giving increased room both above 
 and below the stock-hive: increased room above is 
 required for the reception of pure honey-comb 
 unmixed with brood, and the capability of adding 
 to the hive below, by raising it up an additional 
 story, is often requisite to prevent swarming, which
 
 BEE— BEECH. 
 
 is incompatible with the collection of a large store of 
 surplus honey. 
 
 Bees require attention at the time of swarming, 
 
 x<?ay| 
 
 Simple form of Bee-hive, 
 With cap removed to shew glass top. 
 
 that they may not fly away and be lost. They 
 require also to be fed during v. n, on 
 
 account of a bad season, the lateness of the swum, 
 or other cause, they have not enough of honey to 
 support them. A common rule is, that the weight 
 of the contents of the hive must be at least twenty 
 pounds, that the bees may survive the winter with- 
 out being fed ; and even in this case a supply of food 
 for a short time in spring promotes the activity of 
 the bees, and their summer prosperity. The food 
 ordinarily supplied to bees is either the coarser kind 
 of honey, or sugar and water. Strong alo and sugar 
 I are also frequently given as food. The 
 practice has very largely prevailed in Britain and 
 elsewhere, of killing bees by fumes of sulphur, in 
 order to take from them their honey in the end of 
 autumn, a portion only of the increase of the stock 
 being kept through the winter. This practice still 
 has its advocates; but many now take only what 
 they can by top boxes .or by cutting out 
 
 combs, preserving all hives which are not so light 
 that there is no good hope of their surviving the 
 winter. It may be doubted if, in almost any part 
 of the country, the number of bees kept is so great 
 as nearly to exhaust the floral resources, and in all 
 probability this may yet becomo a much greater 
 source of wealth than it is in Britain. 
 
 When honey is to be taken from bees, the person 
 doing it must be carefully protected from their 
 stings by gloves, veil, &c. It is best done during 
 the neat of a fine day, when the bees more readily 
 leave the combs of. the super that is taken away, and 
 return to their hive. A little gentle tapping 
 ally causes them to leave the combs, and a 1 
 is used for brushing off those whi< to do 
 
 ao. The smoke of the common Puff-ball (q. v.) 
 causes them to fall down in a stupefaction from 
 which they speedily recover, and it i use is very con- 
 venient. It is gathered and dried for the purpose. 
 Chloroform is also sometimes used for the same 
 purpose, but the effect is apt to be fatal, unless care 
 n to choose the morning of a fine day, so that 
 the stupificd bees may have time to recover in the 
 air and sunshine. 
 
 Bees are much less apt to sting when swarming 
 
 than at other times, and in general all the neces- 
 sary operations are performed without gloves or 
 veil, and with perfect safety. The sting of a B. is 
 to many persons a thing of no great consc<| 
 although, in some, it causes great local in Ham i 
 and swelling, and general derangement of health. 
 The application of a little ammonia usually n 
 the pain, or an onion or shallot cut through the 
 midille may lie applied, aud has the same efb 
 
 The apiary should, if possible, be in a sheltered 
 place, and where it enjoys a good amount of sun- 
 shine. The hives are very generally placed at 
 small distances in the open ground, but some B.- 
 kcepers protect them by a shed. In the former 
 case, each hive is usually covered with a straw-hood 
 in winter, to keep away the rain, as damp is par- 
 ticularly injurious to bees. For the avoidance of 
 damp, and to prevent the bees from coming in 
 contact with the ground when they hang in a 
 cluster at the door of the hive — as they oft 
 before swarming, when the weather 13 hot, ai 
 hive very populous — each hive is raised to a i 
 of at least fifteen or eighteen inches from the ground. 
 
 Bees, Law Relating to. B. are stated by 
 Blackstone to be wild by nature (/era natura), but 
 when hived and reclaimed, are regarded in the 
 nature of property belonging to the person on whose 
 ground or soil they have swarmed; and in sup- 
 port of this doctrine, he refers to the Charter of the 
 Forest, 9 Henry III. c. 13, which allows every 
 man to be entitled to the honey found within his 
 own woods. The qualified property which may be 
 thus held in B. continues while the swarm remains 
 on the soil; and in the event of flight, so la 
 the owner can pursue it. Indeed, so clearly are they 
 considered in law to be of the nature of property, 
 that it has been decided in England that B. may be 
 the subject of larceny (q. v.). 
 
 The same appears to be the Scotch law. Mr 
 Erskine, who may be described as the Scottish 
 Blackstone, founding on the Roman law, lay ! 
 that, when B. have abandoned their hive, not I 
 observed and followed, they are understood to have 
 recovered their original liberty ; and if they light on 
 the grounds of another, and are enclosed by him in a 
 new mve, they become his property. See Property, 
 Ownership, Ground, Soil. 
 
 BEE, Humble. See Holcle Bee. 
 
 BEECH {Fagtts), a genus of trees of the natural 
 order Oupuli >■ The male catkins are 
 
 almost globose, stalked, their flowers consistii: 
 bell-shaped 6— -6-cleft perianth and S — IS s; 
 The female flowers, which grow on the same 
 consist chiefly of a germen with three awl- 
 styles, and are situated two or rarely three to. 
 within a stalked r on its outer 
 
 surface many fleshy threads. This involucre, after 
 the flowering is over, closes and forms a husk 
 sort of capsule, which when ripe opens 
 in four valves, is externally covered with soft spines, 
 and encloses one or two (rarely three) triangidar 
 nuts, which bear the name of B -The 
 
 species are not numerous ; all of them are 
 
 [ty. — The CoMMOH B. (F. sylmtica) 
 forms Whole forests in many parts of Europe. It 
 grows to a height of 1011 I -J a diameter 
 
 of 4 feet; and particularly when standing alone 
 becomes a very ornamental tree with far-spreading 
 branches, which often droop gracefully aim 
 the ground. It has thin, ovate, obscurely to I 
 leaves, finely ciliated on their margins. Its bark is 
 smooth, often of a whitish colour; and it is remark- 
 able for the frequency with which hard wooden 
 knobs — abortive branches— occur in its bark. I 
 does not grow readily under the shade of the B., but 
 
 m
 
 BEECH-DROPS— BEECHER. 
 
 in B. woods may sometimes be found rare plants 
 almost peculiar to such situations. The B. thrives 
 best in light soils ; and does not send its roots deep 
 
 
 sv ■--■ 
 
 Y > 
 
 Common Beech. 
 
 into the ground, but rather horizontally under the 
 surface. The wood is more or less of a reddish- 
 brown colour, as the tree has grown in a dense 
 forest, or has been freely exposed to sun and air. 
 It is very hard and solid, but brittle ; and when 
 exposed to the open air, very liable to rot and to be 
 eaten by worms. It is therefore not adapted to the 
 purposes of the house-carpenter ; but when kept 
 always under water, it is very durable, and is 
 accordingly employed in the erection of mills, and 
 for weirs, sluices, &c. It is also employed for many 
 purposes by cabinet-makers and turners. It is very 
 much used in France for making the sabots or 
 wooden shoes of the peasantry, being preferred for 
 this purpose to every other wood except walnut, ( id 
 account of its property of not absorbing water. It 
 is one of the best kinds of firewood in Europe. Its 
 
 Common Beech. 
 
 a, part of a brancfalet with leaves and catkins, reduced ; 6, a 
 
 single male flower ; c, a single female flower. 
 
 ashes yield much potash and of excellent quality. 
 The raspings of the wood are used in the preparation 
 of vinegar. See Vinegar and Pyroligneous Acid. 
 The bark is sometimes employed for tanning when 
 oak -bark is scarce. The B. bears lopping well, and 
 is often planted for hedges ; and it is a curious fact, 
 
 804 
 
 that when it is prevented from attaining a tree-like' 
 size, and is kept closely pruned, the withered leaves 
 remain on the branches all whiter, winch is not 
 the case hi other circumstances. In some countries, 
 as Dauphiny and Switzerland, the leaves of the B. 
 are collected in autumn before they have been much 
 frost-bitten, and arc used for making beds or mat- 
 tresses. — Beechmast, when fresh, has a sweet taste, 
 like that of a walnut. It contains in large quantity 
 a bland iixed oil, along with a starchy farina, a little 
 sugar, and an astringent substance. A volatile, nar- 
 cotic, poisonous principle, called Fagim . is also found 
 in it, but more in the rind than in the kernel : and 
 when not only the smooth leathery outer rind, but 
 also the thin brown inner pellicle have been removed, 
 it is wholesome food. It is, however, more generally 
 used for feeding swine, poultry, &c, and is much 
 employed in France and other parts of Europe for 
 the manufacture of Beech Oil, which, when expre sed 
 without the application of heat, and well clarified, 
 has an agreeable taste, is lit for use as food, and keeps 
 long without becoming rancid. When less pure, it is 
 used for lamps and in the arts. The oil-cake which 
 remains is good food for poultry, for swine, and even 
 for oxen, but is injurious to horses. Many manufac- 
 turers of cocoa adulterate it with beechmast, lirst 
 depriving the cocoa of its oil, which they sell separ- 
 ately as cocoa-butter, and trusting to the oil of the 
 B. for supplying its place.— B. forests anciently 
 abounded in England, and great herds of swine 
 were fed in them. The B. is not, in general, found 
 iu Europe north of lat. 59% although it occurs 
 two degrees further north hi the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. It is found in the temperate parts of 
 Asia and in North America ; the WHITE B. of that 
 country being generally regarded as the same 
 species, a very common tree iu some parts of the 
 United States. In gardens and pleasure-grounds a 
 variety is very frequently to be seen, of which the 
 leaves have a bloodied colour. The same colour 
 appears also in some degree in the leaves of the 
 Red B. of North America (/>'. ,h rruginea), which is 
 distinguished by elongate-ovate, coarsely serrated, 
 and much acuminated leaves. It forms extensive 
 forests in the North-eastern States and the adjoining 
 British possessions ; and its wood, which is of a some- 
 what red or rusty colour, is more valued than that of 
 the White B. — Two species of B. are found on the 
 mountains of Java ; four are natives of the more ele- 
 vated parts of the south of New Zealand ; several 
 belong to the south of South America. The genus is, 
 in fact, more characteristic of the colder latitudes of 
 the southern than of the northern hemisphere. /'. 
 betuloidcs (also known as F. Forsteri) is the ' myrtle- 
 tree' of the mountains of Tasmania — a very large 
 tree with evergreen leathery leaves, in form much 
 resembling those of the birch, although the general 
 habit of the tree agrees with that of other beeches. 
 The same species is the evergreen B. of Terra del 
 Fuego, where it forms forests of which the dark 
 green foliage contrasts strikingly in winter with the 
 dazzling snow. There can be little doubt that it 
 will soon become a favourite and common ornamen- 
 tal tree in Britain. The wood is too heavy and 
 brittle for masts, but makes tolerable planks, and is 
 carried to the treeless Falkland Islands for rooiing 
 houses. F. A ntarctica ascends higher on the moun- 
 tains about the Strait of Magellan. It has deciduous 
 leaves, and much resembles the common B. — F. 
 procera grows in the Andes of Chili, and attains a 
 majestic size. It is a valuable timber-tree. 
 
 BEECH-DROPS. See Cancer Root. 
 
 BEECHER, the name of a celebrated American 
 famdy of preachers and litterateurs. 
 
 Lyman B. was born at Newhaven, Connecticut,
 
 BEEGTIEY— BEE-EATER. 
 
 U. S., October 1775 ; studied divinity under the well- 
 known American theologian Dwight ; and obtained a 
 church at East Hampton, Long Island, in 1798. He 
 afterwards removed to Litchfield, Connecticut, and 
 from thence, in 1S20, to Boston, In 1832, he was 
 appointed president of the Lane Theological Semin- 
 ary at Cincinnati, and to the charge of the second 
 Presbyterian church in that city. In 1842 he 
 returned to Boston, where he has since resided. He 
 has written on ' temperance,' very warmly against 
 slavery, on theology, &c. His collected works, in 
 3 vols., revised by himself, have been published at 
 Boston. Three of his sons — Edward, Charles, and 
 Henry Ward — are also ministers, and have written 
 extensively on religious subjects. 
 
 Henry Ward !'•., the best known, was born at 
 Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1813, ami after gradu- 
 ating at Amherst College, Connecticut, he studied 
 theology under his father at Lane Seminary. 
 After ten years' pastorship of two churches in 
 the state of Indiana, he removed to Plymouth 
 Church, Brooklyn, New York, ' an organisation 
 of Orthodox Congregational believers,' when' he 
 still remains. He is said to have the largest con- 
 gregation in the United States, and his popu- 
 larity as a public lecturer is great. He is editor of 
 the New York Independent, a paper devoting itself 
 chiefly to religious and social subjects. He is a 
 strenuous and eloquent opponent of slavery. He 
 has published several works, the most popular of 
 which are, Lecture^ to Young Mm (Boston, 1850), 
 which have gone through many editions; and Life 
 Thoughts (Boston, 1858), of which 20,000 copies were 
 Sold in a few months. 
 
 CATHERINE I!., eldest daughter of Lyman B., was 
 born at East Hampton, Long Island, in 1S00. From 
 1822 — 1832, she was principal of a female seminary 
 at Hartford, Connecticut, and afterwards of a similar 
 institution at Cincinnati. She is a fertile and popu- 
 lar writer, chiefly on subjects coming within the 
 sphere of her own sex, but also on physiology, 
 theology, mental and moral philosophy, &c. 
 
 Harriet B. See Stowe, II. B. 
 
 BEECHEY, Sir William, B.A., an English 
 portrait-painter of high reputation, was born at 
 J !ui -ford, < Ixfnrdshire, December 12, 1753. He entered 
 the Royal Academy as a pupil in 1772, and devoted 
 himself chiefly to portrait-painting, in which he was 
 so successful, that in 170.'! he was chosen portrait- 
 painter to Queen Charlotte, of whom he painted a 
 full length. In the same year he was elected an 
 associate of the Royal Academy; and in 1798, he 
 received the honour of knighthood, and was made a 
 Royal Academician for bis picture of the Review of 
 the :M and 10th Dragoons in Hyde Park byG< 
 III. (accompanied by the Prince of Wales and 
 Duke of York), which is reckoned B.'s greatest 
 work. B. now received the patronage of the royal 
 family — most of the members of which sat to him — 
 as well as that of the court nobility. Among his 
 
 portraits are those, of Lord Nelson (pi arved in the 
 
 Clothier's Hall, London), Sir William Hamilton, 
 Lord St Vincent (in Fishmonger's Ball), Lord Corn- 
 walhs, John Kemble, and Mrs Siddons. B. is not a 
 portrait-painter of first rank, but his portraits are 
 generally character.-, d by easy attitude and natural- 
 ness of expression. He retired from his profession 
 in"lS3G, and died at Hampstead in January 1839. 
 
 l'.EECHEY, Frederick William, son of Sir 
 William li., the portrait-painter, was born in London, 
 February 17, 17'. n>. He entered the navy when he 
 
 was ten years of age. and at the age of fifteen was 
 | it in an engagement oil' the coast of M; 
 
 car, in which three I'leinL frigates v. .■■ 
 In ISIS, he took part under Franklin in a scientiiic 
 
 voyage of discovery to the north pole, of which the 
 i nli were published by order of the Admiralty 
 (1SI3). For the services hi 1 with his 
 
 pencil during this voyage, B. received a grant of 
 £200 from parliament. In 1819, he was cngn 
 another arctic expedition under Sir Edward Parry ; 
 and in 1821, rendered other important services to 
 science by his exploration of part of the north coast 
 of Africa, of which the residts were published in 
 1828. After being appointed commander, Captain 
 B., in 1825, received a commission to procei 1 by the 
 Pacific Ocean and Behring's Strait to the Polar Sea, 
 in order to communicate, d po 1 , v .it h Franklin, 
 who was to make the journey overland from North 
 America. The explorers did not unit, although at 
 one time they were within 150 miles of each other. 
 He returned in 1828, having been two years and a 
 half away, and in 1831 published a narrative of his 
 voyage, which was afterwards followed by an account 
 of the botany and zoology of the Arctic regions. 
 Port Clarence and Port Crantlcy, to the south-east 
 of Cape Prince of Wal covered by B. in 
 
 1827. He was afterward I in surveying the 
 
 coast of Ireland and of South America; and was 
 made Bear-admiral of the Blue in 1S54. He died 
 in IS5G. 
 
 BEE'DER, the capital of a district of the same 
 name in the Nizam's territories. It is about 75 
 miles to the north-west of Hyderabad, being in lat. 
 17° 53' N., and long. 77' 36' E. It stands near the 
 right bank of the Manjera, a considerable tributary 
 of the Godavery, and occupies a table-laud about 
 2400 feet above the sea, and about 100 feet above 
 the adjacent country. Though 1!. was formerly a 
 place of grandeur and importance, yet it is at 
 present remarkable chiefly for its manufactures in a 
 compound metal made up of twenty-four parts of 
 tin to one of copper. 
 
 BEE-EATER (Memps), a genus of birds of the 
 order Insessores and trii the type of 
 
 a family, Mcrojikhv, nearly allied to that of the 
 Kingfishers. The birds of the B. family have 
 rather long slightly arched beaks, and long pointed 
 wings : they are mostly of a green colour; resemble 
 swallows in flight; and, like them, prey on in 
 but chiefly on bees, wasps, and other hymenopter- 
 ous insects. Their skiu is very thick. The species 
 
 Common Bcc-ca. I apiusler). 
 
 of the genus Meropt are numerous in Africa 
 and Asia; none arc known in America; two 
 are European, one of which, the Common B. 
 (.1/. apituter), is common in the south of Europe
 
 BEEF— BEER. 
 
 as a summer bird of passage. It is a very rare 
 bird in Britain. It is mentioned by Aristotle, 
 under the name Merops, as vei'y destructive to 
 bees. It seizes them on the wing, and also often 
 watches near their hives, and at the mouths of 
 wasps' nests. It breeds in holes, which it excavates 
 in the banks of rivers. 'When the young are partly 
 Be ; 1 1, but not yet fit toll)', they creep to the mouth 
 of their holes, where they seem to enjoy the happy 
 summer light and genial sunshine ; but on the least 
 alarm, they trundle stern foremost into their inner 
 chambers, where they lie concealed until tranquillity 
 again prevails.' In the banks of the Don and Volga, 
 the excavations made by the flocks of bee-eaters 
 are so numerous, that the bank in many places 
 resembles a honey-eomb. Livingstone describes the 
 banks of the Leeba, in South Africa, as perforated in 
 a similar manner. The Hottentots watch the flight 
 of the bee-eaters, that they may be guided to the 
 nests of bees. 
 
 BEEF. See Food, Animal. 
 
 BEEF-EATER, a term now applied jocularly to 
 certain f unctionaries belonging to the Yeomen of the 
 Guard (q. v.), who, ever since the time of Henry 
 VII., have formed part of the train of royalty, 
 attending the sovereign at royal banquets and other 
 state occasions. They have maintained the same 
 costume, with a slight alteration made in 1S5S, for 
 nearly four centuries ; and this costume has had 
 much to do with their attractiveness to sight-seers. 
 The origin of the term is a case of what Dr Latham 
 calls 'words of foreign simulating a vernacular 
 origin.' It was originally beaufetier or buffetier (Fr.), 
 one who attends the buffet or side-board. Similar 
 instances of false etymology, arising from resem- 
 blance in sound, are seen in Shot-over (a bill near 
 Oxford), from Cliateau Vert; sparrow-grass, from 
 asparagus; ancient, for ensign; dog-cheap, from the 
 old English god-kepe, i. e., good-cheap, meaning a 
 good bargain ; &c. 
 
 BEEF-EATER (Buphaga), a genus of birds, of 
 the order Insessores, tribe Conirostres, to which the 
 name Ox-peeker is also and more correctly given. 
 The beef-eaters have short bills, square at the base, 
 and rather swollen towards the point. They are accus- 
 tomed to sit upon the backs of buffaloes, camels, 
 and other large animals, and to feed upon the larva 
 of gadflies, which they find in their hides. They 
 are exclusively African. One of the species is the 
 Buffalo Bird of South Africa. Livingstone mentions 
 that the sight of the bird being much more acute 
 than that of the buffalo, it is much more easily 
 alarmed by the approach of danger ; but the buffaloes 
 always, begin to look about them when the birds 
 rise from their backs. 
 
 BEEF-TEA is a light and pleasant article of diet, 
 obtained from the flesh of the ox. It is generally 
 prepared by placing the meat (as lean as possible) 
 in cold water, which is gradually heated, and then 
 allowed to simmer for two hours or so ; but the best 
 method appears to be to commence by chopping 
 the meat small, adding the cold water, and rapidly 
 heating so as to bring it to boil. A little salt 
 is then added, to suit the taste. Either process, 
 by commencing with cold water, succeeds in dis- 
 solving out of the meat the savoury natural juices 
 which it contains to the extent of about one-eighth 
 of its weight. Occasionally, hard-toasted bread, 
 in fragments, is added to the tea just before 
 being partaken of, which imparts to it some of 
 the nutritious qualities of the bread. In using 
 the B., the bread may or may not be eaten. 
 The popular notion is, that the B. contains all 
 the nourishing constituents of the entire amount 
 of meat employed in its preparation; but this 
 
 is erroneous, as much nutritious matter is resident 
 in the seven-eighths of the original meat, left 
 as residuary fleshy fibre, though the latter will no 
 doubt prove of difficult digestion. The chemical 
 constituents of B. are gelatine ; albuminous mull ir ; 
 /creatine, a substance resembling tluine, the essen- 
 tial principle of tea and coll'ee ; ulnirtir.- malt: rs 
 (osmazome), to which the tea owes most of its odour 
 and flavour, besides a part of its nutritious qualities ; 
 lactic acid; salts; a little fat; saccharine matter, and 
 water. B. is highly palatable, and from its very 
 easy digestion, it is recommended to invalids and 
 convalescents. Mutton, treated in a similar man- 
 ner, yields a broth or tea which is not so easdy 
 digested, and is hurtful to persons of weak stomach, 
 especially if the fat be not skimmed off from the 
 liquid. A knuckle of veal affords a similar broth or 
 tea ; but it is not so light as B., and, moreover, 
 gelatinises on cooling. A broth or tea prepared 
 from a young chicken is, of all decoctions of 
 animal matter, the most readdy digested, and is 
 specially suitable for invalids, where great irritability 
 of the stomach exists. 
 
 BEEF-WOOD. See Casuawna. 
 
 BEE'HIVE-HOUSE, a name generally given 
 to certain dome-shaped buildings in Ireland, which 
 are believed to be among the oldest architect- 
 ural remains in that country. They are round 
 edifices, of no great size or height, built without 
 cement, of long thin stones arranged in horizontal 
 layers, the one slightly overlapping the other, and so 
 gradually converging untU they meet at the top. 
 The doorway, which is square-headed, is somewhat 
 narrower at the top than at the bottom, as in 
 Egyptian architecture. Beehive-houses are of two 
 lands — single or clustered. The former are generally 
 found beside ancient oratories, and are supposed to 
 have been the dwelling-places of the priests ; the 
 latter, which are often underground, shew two or 
 more hive-shaped chambers, connected by a passage 
 or gallery, or opening from a larger central apart- 
 ment, which is also hive-shaped. Irish antiquaries 
 refer the beehive-houses generally to the period 
 before the Anglo-Norman invasion of the island, in 
 the 12th c, and claim for some of them an antiquity 
 as high as the 7th and 8th c. Ruins of single 
 beehive-houses are found in the Western Isles of 
 Scotland ; and some of the ' Picts' houses,' or ' earth- 
 houses,' of the east coast, seem to resemble tho 
 subterranean aggregated beehive-houses of Ireland. 
 
 BEE'LZEBUB (i. e. ' the god of flies'). Under 
 this name the people of Ekron, in Philistia, wor- 
 shipped their god Baal (q. v.) or Bel. The Greeks 
 also had their 'Zens Apomyios' or 'Myiagros' — 'the 
 disperser of flies.' As the heathen deities were all 
 regarded as demons by the Jews, the name Beelze- 
 bub became, in course of time, commonly applied to 
 the chief of evil spirits, and in this sense it is 
 employed in the Gospels. The more correct reading 
 of the word, as given by the Evangelists, is Beelze- 
 bul — an opprobrious change of name, making it 
 signify 'god of dung,' to mark the low and grovelling 
 character of the demon. See Baal. 
 
 BEER, derived from the German Bier (see Ale), is 
 the term applied to a fermented liquid which has 
 not undergone the process of distillation. It may be 
 prepared from many varieties of vegetable matter, 
 but in Britain the raw material operated upon is 
 generally barley, although pease, beans, wheat, &c., 
 might be employed. In other countries, B. is often 
 prepared from other sources, to which allusion is 
 made at the close of this article. The process 
 followed in the manufacture of B. is divided into 
 two parts — viz., malting and brewing; and so dis- 
 tinct are these, that very often the malting proceeds 

 
 BEER. 
 
 in a building at some distance from that in which 
 the brewing is conducted, and in many cases the 
 malting is superintended and accomplish/ d by a 
 r, as his particular and only branch of trade, 
 the malt thus prepared being afterwards purchased 
 by the brewer. 
 
 The variety of barley pre f erred for the prepara- 
 tion of the finer kinds of B. is the chevalier ; but 
 other varieties are exten 
 
 The process of malting, or the conversion of 
 barley iDto malt, is accomplished in four sue 
 steps. 1st, Steeping of the barley, which consists in 
 
 Kg. 1. 
 
 introducing the grain into a large wooden or stone 
 cistern, a (fig. 1), and adding thereto as much water 
 as will cover it. On being thus treated for twenty- 
 four hours, the grains of barley absorb the water, 
 and the contents of the cistern, near the top, 
 even begin to feel dry. The barley swells up much, 
 so as to increase considerably in bulk, and the 
 Excise officers, if they choose, can gatige or measure 
 in at this stage, and charge by the bulk thus 
 indicated. The amount of water which barley takes 
 up in the steeping, affords good evidence of the 
 excellence of the grain for brewing. Thus, the 
 binds of barley, on the average, take up 
 sufficient water to increase their weight by one 
 I Occasionally, however, the increase is not 
 
 more than a tenth. The time during which the 
 grain lies in the steeping-cistern is about 40 hours, 
 when the excess of water is drained off; but a 
 
 iion exists that the cistern cannot have a 
 second charge of barley till four days have i I 
 
 I lie introduction of the first charge. 2d, I 
 ing. — The grain is thrown out of the steeping cistern 
 in a heap on the floor, b. At this stage, the barley 
 is soft, and when pressed between the fingers, it is 
 readily bruised. It lies in the couch or heap for 26 
 hours or so, and during that time, it rises in tempe- 
 rature about 10' F., and gives out some of its extra 
 water. This sweating, as it is called, is the result of 
 the partial germination or growth of the barley; and 
 little rootlets or fibrils of the radicle, ami a primi- 
 tive stem (plumula or acrospire), begin to form and 
 present themselves. As the temperature rises, the 
 radicles lengthen rapidly, and means are then 
 taken to check the germination. 
 The heated barley is spiv el by tie' workmen with 
 
 I on the floor to the di pth of about 15 inches at 
 first, cc. It is repeatedly turned and r 
 a larger area, with a thickness of I 
 6 inches. At this stage, the radicles have attained 
 
 greatest length. 4th, A -The half- 
 
 germinated barley is mm- I into a kiln 
 
 i rforated floor of which it is B] 
 
 partment beneath the kiln-room is fitted up 
 I coves or choffers, A, which evolve much heat ; 
 
 and this, rising and passing through the I 
 perforations in the floor of the kiln, B, necessarily 
 
 dries any moist barley laid thereon, and the steam 
 escapes at the roof, C. The heat which the I 
 is subjected to in the kiln is, at the commence- 
 ment. 00' F„ but this gradually is raised to about 
 150° F. While drying, the radicles — called corn ings 
 
 Fi 3 . 2. 
 
 or cummings — break off from the grain, and are 
 afterwards removed by a wire-sieve. The colour 
 which the barley assumes as it becomes dry malt 
 in the kiln i led by the heat to which 
 
 it is subjected, the higher temperature yii 
 the darker-coloured malt. Pa 
 malt are used in the brewing of the lighter 
 s of l;.— such as bitter-B., table-B., ami 
 i '.. ; whilst a darker kind of malt is used 
 t ale, and a very dark malt in tie 
 •) di po] t' r. ; BO version of 
 
 into malt, a hiss of material occurs. Thus, 
 i its of barley yield 80 parts of malt; but 
 
 as the 1(10 parts of barley contain 12 of water, 
 it, follows that there are present only 88 parts 
 of dry matter, end th ISS re M 80 parts of dry malt, 
 at. of the original weight of 
 i v. While there is a decrease in v. 
 there is ail increase in bulk. 100 measures of '< 
 
 i i to 109 measures of malt. Certain 
 chemical chamres likewise occur as the barley is 
 * 807
 
 transformed into malt, which maybe noticed from 
 the following table : 
 
 Hordein (q. v.), 
 Starch, . 
 Sugar, 
 
 Gluten, . . 
 Gum, 
 Ecsin, 
 
 Composition of 
 Barley. Malt, 
 
 12 
 32 56 
 
 f> 15 
 
 3 1 
 
 4 15 
 1 1 
 
 100 100 
 
 The principal chemical change is, therefore, the 
 transformation of much hordein (a form of starch) 
 into starch, gum, and sugar. The mechanical con- 
 dition of the contents of the grain is also altered : 
 the grain is now of a fine mealy nature, and is 
 readily broken between the fingers, when thi 
 in the interior is found to be soft and distinctly 
 sweet to taste. 
 
 The towing of the malt comprehends no less 
 than six stages. 1st, (I rinding the malt, whirl] may 
 be accomplished in BeveraJ ways: either by placing 
 the malt Between two revolving horizontal circular 
 stone3, such as are employed in llcmr-grinding; or 
 passing the malt through a mill like a largi 
 coffee-mill; or braising it between revolving steel 
 rollers. The last plan is the best, as it is desirable 
 that the grinding should not be ton perfect, which 
 would give a line flour, readily becoming pasty on 
 the addition of water. When coarsely bruised, 
 however, the water can find its way into all pails 
 of the grain, and thoroughly soak it. 2d, Mas/dug 
 Ih: touiu'd /;/"".- r l'his operation is conducted in a 
 large tun (fig. 3), built up of wooden staves, and 
 surrounded by hoops — somewhat .similar in con- 
 struction to an ordinary domestic churn. Water, 
 which has been previously heated in a copper, is 
 allowed to run into the comparatively cold mash- 
 tun, while the bruised malt at the same time 
 
 "" 
 
 Fifi 
 
 descends by the hopper, ah; the water thereby 
 becoming reduced to 160° P., or slightly below 
 that temperature. The whole is then thoroughly 
 agitated by long poles, g, worked by the hand or by 
 machinery, def, till every particle of the malt is 
 brought into contact with the water. The result i I 
 that the malt absorbs the water in part, and a very 
 active change begins to take place. In the malt, 
 there is developed a substance called diastase (u.v.), 
 which reacts on the starch of the malted bailey. 
 and changes it into the variety of sugar called 
 grape-sugar. See Sugar. So rapidly does this 
 transformation of starch into sugar occur, that 
 almost immediately on the mixing of the water 
 with the bruised malt, the liquid assumes a sweet 
 taste. In the space of half an hour the temper- 
 ature of the mash-tun will be found to have 
 decreased to about 140° F. ; and then a second 
 quantity of water, at a heat of 190" F., is run in. so 
 as to raise the temperature to about 167° F., which 
 ■ of heat is found to be the best for enabling 
 the diastase to act most powerfully in transforming 
 the starch into sugar. After two to three hours' 
 action upon the malt, the water, which is now very 
 sweet to the taste, is drawn off into a large vessel 
 called the underbade, and fresh water, at a temper- 
 ature of about 190 P., is admitted to the tim, and 
 80S 
 
 allowed to soak the malt still remaining there. This 
 part of the process is styled the second mask : and as 
 the water is at a higher temperature than hi the 
 first mash, much of the- residuary matter in the malt 
 is changed into sugar, and dissolved. Alter some 
 hours, the liquid from the second mash is drawn off, 
 and added to that of the first mash already in the 
 underback; and a third quantity of water, at a still 
 higher temperature, about 200° F., is run in upon 
 the malt, which dissolves out all the remaining por- 
 tions of any value, and leaves the husk skin of the 
 grain and other insoluble matters. The liquid from 
 the third mash is not strong enough to be in general 
 mixed with the other solutions in the underback, 
 and is either employed in brewing small-B., or is 
 again heated and used in treating new bruised malt. 
 
 In order that the brewer may be enabled to prepare 
 the same variety of B. day after day, it is requisite 
 that the liquid in the underback, and which is now 
 called the sweet-worts, should be of a definite strength ; 
 and to determine this, an instrument called a sac- 
 charometer, a form of areometer (q. v.), is used, which 
 enables the brewer to determine the strength of the 
 sweet- worts, and, if necessary, to add some of the 
 liquid from the third mash, to reduce the strength of 
 that in the underback. 
 
 In the drawing off of the several worts from the
 
 BEER. 
 
 mash-tun, advantage is taken of a finely perforated 
 false bottom of plate-iron, which lies about a foot 
 above the trne bottom of tli>- tun, and the liquids 
 being drained away through the perforations in the 
 i.i bottom, the insoluble husk and other matters 
 are left behind. The material left on the false bottom, 
 called grain i or draff, is used for feeding cattle. 
 
 3d, Boiling of the worts with hops. — When reduced 
 to the proper strength, the worts are pumped up from 
 the and i book into a coi ered a boiler or i 
 AA (fig. 4), and being mixed with hops, are raised 
 to the Boiling-point, and kept in a state of ebullition 
 for some time. During the Boiling, it is necessary to 
 keep the hops and other sediment from settling at 
 
 the lower part of the boiler near the tire, DD, and 
 for that purpose, a sort of rake with teeth, 1315, 
 tuned by a wheel (C) above, is kept turning round, 
 which tends to hold the sediment in mechanical 
 
 suspension. To economise heat, it is customary 
 to have a tank fitted to the upper part of the boiler 
 
 in which water or the worts can be heated. The 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 hops which are obtained from Kent and Sussex 
 are the strongest, and are employed in the brewing 
 of porter, while the Worcester hop is milder, and 
 is preferred for ale. The hops are useful in He- 
 brewing of B. in imparting to the liquor a volatile 
 fragrant aromatic oil, a bitter resin, and a little 
 tannin. The quantity of hops i red to be 
 
 added depends much on the kind of B. which it is 
 intended to brew. The stronger the B. is to be, 
 and above all, the more bitterness is required, the 
 more hops must be added to the boiler. In 
 common ale or B., the quantity of hops doe3 not 
 exceed 2 lb. to the quarter of malt; whilst in 
 bitter-B., and especially that intended for foreign 
 countries, the amount of hops is .s lb. and upwards, 
 
 Besides imparting to the worts the active constitu- 
 ents of the hop, the boiling operation serves other 
 important ends. In the sweet-worts, there is a 
 considerable quantity of nitrogenous matter, which 
 
 is very liable to pa3s into decomposition, and which, 
 were it to do so, would destroy the beer. 1 1 
 
 rr 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 the boiling, the excess of this nitrogenous matter 
 separates as a flaky and stringy solid, called by the 
 brewer mucilage. The boiling is continued till the 
 hops have yielded their aromatic and bitter principles, 
 
 and till the liquid has been concentrated to the 
 extent required by the brewer, and then the whole 
 is run into the hop-back, a form of cistern which 
 has a false bottom composed of perforated iron 
 plates (tig. 5), admitting of the liquid worts percol- 
 ating through, while all the mucilage and other 
 solid matters are retained on the upper surfs 
 this metallic sieve. 4th, Cooling the worts. — As the 
 liquor drains through the false bottom of the hop- 
 back, it is run on to the cooler or . 
 (fig. 6), which, in size and appearance, resembles the 
 ordinary wooden floor of a large room. The planks 
 are so closely connected together that the liquid 
 cannot run through, and a wooden ledge, B, runs 
 round the sides of the room, which is also I 
 The hot worts, which are spread to the depth of a 
 few inches over the Boor, are very rapidly cooled 
 down, by allowing a free current of cold air to pass 
 over the top of the liquid, and often by having 
 a series of fans, CC, revolving rapidly immediately 
 above the liquid, so as to cause a more B] 
 removal of the heated air loaded with steam, and 
 the substitution of cold air. Occasionally, the 
 brewer is at the expense of having a coil of metal 
 pipe, A, placed up and down the floor of the 
 cooler, through which metal pipe cold water is 
 allowed to run at the time the hot worts are 
 being cooled down. By these means the worts are 
 very soon reduced to a temperature of about tin 1 
 F. This step in the process of brewing is a very 
 important one, as, if the cooling is not conducted 
 with the greatest rapidity, the sugar in the worts 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 will become partially converted into acetic acid, 
 or. as it is termed, foxing occurs, which communi- 
 cates bad properties to the worts, and ultimately 
 produces a beer with an unpleasant taste I 
 
 flavour.— 5th, Fermenting Vie worts. — When the 
 
 SOS
 
 BEER. 
 
 liquid has been cooled down to 55° — 60° F., it is 
 conveyed to tlie fermenting tun, where it is mixed 
 with the yeast (q. v.), and the process of ferment- 
 ation proceeds. The tun or vat is formed of strong 
 wooden staves, aud is cither circular or square. 
 The latter form has recently been introduced, and 
 appears to be preferred by some brew e rs. The 
 yeast is added in varying quantity, according to 
 the strength of the worts, but the more common 
 amount is one gallon to every 100 gallons of the 
 worts. Very soon after the yeast is mixed with 
 the worts, the whole contents of the tun begin 
 to pass into a state of commotion, much gas is 
 evolved, and this, tending to escape, causes a frothing 
 on the surface of the liquid termed the rocks, from 
 the irregular mountainous appearance of the masses 
 of froth piled on each other. The colour of the froth 
 at this period indicates the quality of the beer. Thus, 
 if the froth appears of a yellowish-white or yellow 
 tint, the operation is going on satisfactorily ; but 
 if the colour darkens to a brownish-yellow or a light 
 brown, it is considered a bad sign, and the beer is 
 spoiled as a lirst-class beverage. The chemical 
 changes which occur during the process of fermenta- 
 tion (q. v.) are due to the action of the particles of 
 yeast on the sugar or saccharine matter. This 
 action proceeds most satisfactorily at a tempera- 
 ture of 72' F., aud care is taken in the brewing 
 of the finer varieties of beer, such as India pale 
 ale and bitter-beer, that the temperature never 
 exceeds 72° F. The grape-sugar which is pre- 
 sent in the worts as they are introduced into the 
 fermenting tun, is composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen in the proportion C laf H I4 , 14 ; 
 and when the yeast acts upon it, a greater or 
 less proportion of it is converted into alcohol, 
 carbonic acid, and water. Thus, one atom of sugar, 
 C, 2 H ]4 14 , is converted into 2 atoms of alcohol 
 (C 4 H 6 0„) = C 8 H 1 „0 4 ; 4 atoms of carbonic acid 
 (CO.,) = C 4 9 ; and 2 atoms of water (HO) 
 = H„0 2 ; which, when added together, give the 
 atom of sugar, 0,„H 14 14 . The carbonic acid 
 tending to escape, causes the frothing or rocks, and 
 the alcohol and water are left in the fermenting 
 tun. During the progress of the fermentation, a 
 considerable amount of new yeast is formed, which 
 gets entangled in the froth ; and when the operation 
 slackens, and the frothy head begins to fall, the 
 upper yeast is skimmed off. This process of the 
 conversion of the sugar of the worts into alcohol or 
 spirit, is termed attenuation (Lat. tenuis, thin) ; and 
 the degree to which the change is carried depends on 
 the kind of B., and the market it is to be sent to. 
 Ba sweet ale or B., the attenuation is not allowed to 
 proceed far, and much sugar is left in the beer. 
 Bitter-B., however, is attenuated to a greater degree, 
 and consequently there is less saccharine matter left 
 in it ; while in India pale ale, and other beers 
 intended to be sent great distances, the attenuation 
 must be carried on much further, else the liquor 
 would not be preserved during its transit to many 
 parts of the globe. 6th, Clearing and storing. — The 
 B., when properly fermented, is placed in casks like 
 hogsheads, called rounds, where the remaining traces 
 of fermentation proceed, and the B. ceases to 
 appear thick or drumly, and becomes clear ; when it 
 is pumped up into store-casks of great size, or at 
 once placed in the casks in which it is sent into 
 market. During the storing of the B., an extra 
 quantity of hops is often added, to increase the 
 bitterness and pungency. 
 
 The principal constituents of the various kinds of 
 B. are water, alcohol, sugar, gum, gluten, and the 
 bitter extractive matter of the hop. The amount of 
 alcohol varies : in small-B., it is only about 1 per 
 cent. ; in ale, the stronger kinds of B., and porter 
 
 for home consiimption, 5 to 7 per cent. ; in East 
 India pale ale, 10 per cent. In B. intended to 
 be forwarded to California from Britain, the attenu- 
 ation is carried so far, that there is more than 10 
 per cent, of alcohol, and the B. is then called i 
 
 B. is advdterated in many ways. Burned 
 (caramel) is added to give colour; cocculus indicus, 
 to supply an intoxicating agent which will give an 
 appearance of strength to the B. ; quassia, to impart 
 bitterness in place of hops; grains (if paradise and 
 Cayenne pepper, to communicate pungency ; cori- 
 ander and caraway seeds, to yield flavour ; uqu 
 treacle, and honey, to supply colour and consistence. 
 To stale-beer there is sometimes added green vitriol 
 (sulphate of iron), or aliun and common salt, which, 
 when agitated with the B., communicati; a line 
 cauliilower head. It is unnecessary to state that 
 such admixtures are never made in any extensive 
 brewing establishment with respec tal ill h lections. 
 
 For the home-brewing of B., many recipes have 
 been published, aud one of the best is that i 
 
 by Mr Donovan in the Cabinet Cyclopa'dia. The 
 apparatus he suggests is of the roughest description, 
 and comparatively inexpensive. A porter I 
 forms the mash-tun ; the upper end being taken out, 
 perforated with a gimlet, and lowered into the 
 barrel to near the bottom, where it is supported 
 about a couple of inches from the true bottom, and 
 constitutes the false bottom through which the 
 liquid drains from the bruised malt. A hole is 
 made in the side of the barrel, near the bottom, 
 and between the true and false bottoms, which can 
 be plugged up with a spigot when not required to 
 let the liquor run off. A second porter-barrel will 
 be useful as an underback and fermenting tun. An 
 ordinary household boiler, or a large common tin-plate 
 one, will answer the purpose of boiling the worts. 
 The mash-tun is first well scalded with hot water, 
 and then is s^jplied with 15 gallons of boiling water 
 and 5 gallons of cold water at 60° F., 2J bushels of 
 first-class bruised pale malt are shaken in, and well 
 stirred through the water, the top of the barrel 
 being in greater part closed with a thick cloth. In 
 an hour or so, the liquid which is in the tim will 
 be clear when allowed to run out at the spigot-hole ; 
 and immediately after it ceases to run, about 20 
 gallons of nearly boiling water are run over the hal f- 
 exhaustcd malt, and this carries off all the soluble 
 matters, yielding altogether about 23 gallons of 
 sweet-worts. These are placed in the copper, 3\ lb. 
 of the best mild hops are added, and boiled for 20 
 minutes. The liquor is then strained through a 
 fine sieve into the fermenting tun ; and when it has 
 cooled down to below a blood-heat (98° F.), a 
 quart of yeast is added, aud the fermentation allowed 
 to proceed. When the frothy head begins to droop, 
 the upper yeast is skimmed off, the liquor put in 
 a cask, bunged up, and allowed to clear for a fort- 
 night, when it will be ready for use. 
 
 The foregoing remarks on the manufacture of B. 
 apply to all the varieties of B., ale, and porter (q. v.), 
 brewed and used in Britain. The liquor may i 
 in strength, from difference in the quantity of water, 
 or in colour, from the malt being more or less charred 
 in the kiln-drying. There arc, however, many other 
 varieties of beer. In South America, the Indians 
 prepared and thank a B. obtained from Indian corn, 
 and called chica or maize B., long before the Spanish 
 conquest. The process followed in making chica is 
 similar to that of B.-brewing in Britain. The maize is 
 moistened with water, allowed partially to gem i 
 and dried in the sim. The maize malt so prepared 
 is bruised, treated with warm water, and set aside 
 till the fermentation is over. The chica or maize B. 
 has a yellow colour, and a pleasant acid taste. In 
 the valleys of the Sierra, the maize malt is chewed
 
 BEER-BEER ACTS. 
 
 between the teeth of the Indians and their house- 
 holds, and the chewed morsel incorporated with 
 the saliva is put in jars with hot water, when the 
 fermentation proceeds more rapidly than befoi 
 a more highly-prized B. is obtained. The chica is 
 also made from barley, rice, pease, manioc, pine- 
 apples, and grapes. The Crim Tatars prepa 
 from millet-sued, called bauza or millet-beer. The 
 same seed is used in Sikkim, on the southern slopes 
 of the Lower Himalaya, and yields B. there called 
 murwa. The Arabians, Abyssiuians, and many 
 African tribes, employ leff, or the seeds of Poa 
 nica, and millet-seed, as sources of beer. The 
 Russians prepare a 15. from rye called fjuass or rye- 
 beer. The Tatars ferment milk into koumiss or milk- 
 beer. The Arabians use the milk to yield their leban, 
 and the Turks to produce their yaourt. In the north 
 of Scotland, the Orkneys, and some parts of Ireland, 
 buttermilk, or sour-milk, is allowed to stand till 
 fermentation begins, and an intoxicating liquor 
 The South-sea islanders prepare a B. from 
 the root of Macropiper methysticum, or the intoy 
 epper, which is called Ava (q. v.). 
 
 The successful brewing of B. depends much on the 
 kind of water employed. The water which is found 
 most suitable contains much common salt, sulphate 
 of lime, and carbonate of lime, in a state of solu- 
 tion. The waters employed in the most extensive 
 breweries contain at least GO grains of earthy salts 
 dissolved in each imperial gallon. Great care must 
 be taken to select water which not only has the 
 proper amount of saline ingredients, but at the 
 same time is free from organic matter either of 
 animal or vegetable origin. Water containing such 
 is liable to the decomposition and putrefaction 
 of its constituents, and by contamination, causes the 
 B. prepared by means of it to be more liable to 
 go wrong in the brewing, and to possess ultimately 
 an unpleasant taste. 
 
 The employment of B., especially of that variety 
 it as Bitter-B., has recently rapidly advanced 
 in public estimation as a beverage and article of 
 diet. Bitter-B. acts as a tonic and slight stimulant, 
 and in many cases it is recommended by medical 
 men to convalescents in place of wine. Some 
 statistics regarding the consumption of the different 
 kinds of B„ and other kindred beverages, will be 
 found under the head of Fermented Liquors. 
 
 BEER ACTS. The 11 Ceo. IV. and 1 William 
 IV. c, ill. the 4 and 5 William IV. e. 85, and the 
 ,'! and 4 Vict. c. 61, amended by the 11 and 12 Vict. 
 c. 4'J, s. 2, are commonly so called ; to which may 
 be added the IS and 19 Vict. c. 118, restricting the 
 time for the sale of beer on Sundays and holidays. 
 By the first three of these acts (all relating to 
 England), every householder assessed to the poor- 
 rates, in any parish or place (and not h 
 sheriffs officer, or officer employed to execute 
 judicial process), may, without any licence from 
 the magistrates, apply for and obtain an I 
 licence, to enable him to sell beer and cider, by 
 retail, at some house situate within such parish or 
 l in such licence. But in order to 
 obtain such licence, the applicant must produce an 
 er's certiheate that he is the real resident, 
 holder, and occupier of such house, and rated to the 
 poor-rate in a certain amount; and must enter into 
 a bond with one sufficient surety, in the penal sum 
 !0, or two sufficient sureties in the penal sum of 
 .•.In each, for the payment of such penalties as he 
 may incur under the acta ; and if he is also desirous 
 f il permission that the liquor should be drunk on 
 the pr I must, moreover, annually deposit 
 
 with the commissioner [now the Board of 
 
 Inland Revenue), or other person authorised to grant 
 the licence, a certificate ' of good character,' signed 
 
 i ated inhabitants of the parish, of whom none 
 shall be maltsters, common brewers, or licensed pub- 
 licans, or owners of licensed public-houses. But 
 such certificate is not necessary when the house to 
 be licensed is situate in London or Westminster, or 
 within the bills of mortality (q. v.) ; or within any city 
 or town corporate, or within one mile from the place 
 used at the last parliamentary election, where the 
 population of such city or town exceeds five thou- 
 sand; and no licence, on the other hand, may be 
 granted, even upon certificate, to sell in any such 
 city or town (whatever the population), unless the 
 house to be licensed is of the value of £10 per 
 annum. It is, moreover, required that every ] 
 obtaining a licence shall paint conspicuously over 
 the door of his premises, in such form and manner 
 as the acts specify, his Christian name and surname 
 at full length, and the words 'licensed to sell 
 (or cider) by retail,' with the addition of 'to be 
 drunk on the premises,' or ' not to be drunk on the 
 premises,' as the case may be. Penalties are also 
 imposed on every retailer of beer or cider who shall 
 transgress, or allow to be transgressed, any of the 
 conditions of his licence; and the penalti 
 generally recoverable before two justices. The 
 licence to sell beer is confined to that particular 
 privilege ; and persons, under cover of it, attem 
 to sell wines or spirits, are not only liable in a 
 heavy penalty, but may be deprived of their beer 
 licence. On the other hand, a licence to sell wines 
 and spirits cannot be granted unless the party 
 applying for it has previously obtained a beer 
 licence. 
 
 Subsequent legislation may be thus explained : 
 The latest governing act is the 18 and 19 Vict c. 
 118 ; that act repeals in toto the previous one of the 
 17 and 18 Vict. c. 79. But the object of the latter 
 is stated in its preamble to be to extend the benefits 
 of the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 49, which at first sight 
 ■night be imagined also to be repealed by the 18 and 
 19 Vict. But it is not so; the 11 and 12 Viet. 
 remains in force, and it is only its extension by the 
 
 17 and 18 Vict., which has been repealed, so that the 
 
 18 and 19 Vict and the 11 and 12 Vict, must, as 
 regards the sale of beer on Sundays and holidays, 
 be read together. The law thus enacted is as fol- 
 lows : No beer or other liquor mentioned in these 
 acts can be sold on Sundays or holidays before half- 
 past twelve in the afternoon of Sunday, or until the 
 conclusion of morning divine service in the principal 
 church or place of worship of the district. From 
 that time until three o'clock, beer or other hquora 
 can be sold to the public. Between the hours of 
 three and live, all beer-shops or other places where 
 beer and other liquors may be sold, must be i ' 
 They may be reopened at fivt\ and remain so open 
 till eleven o'clock the same (Sunday or other holiday) 
 
 after which they must be closed, an 
 reopened again till four o'clock on Monday morning. 
 'The pla ■ whi re bet c is exclusively sold is called 
 a beer-luiuse, differing in this respect from an ale- 
 which means a place where other liquors as 
 well as beer are retailed. The term public-house 
 applies to both.' 
 
 The sale • ales in Scotland i- 
 
 lated by the 44 Geo. III. a 55, the -is Geo, III. 
 9 Ceo. IV. c. 5S, and the 16 and 17 
 . 1)7. commonly called the ' Forbes Mackenzie 
 Act,' according to the regulations of which hV 
 are at present (1S60) granted. By the form of 
 licence thereby prescribed, no liquors of any kind 
 can be sold on Sunday in any inn, hotel, or 
 other public-house, except to lodgers and bon&fidt 
 travellers— an expression that has caused some diffi- 
 culty in construction. Various devices have been 
 attempted, in order to evade the stringency of the 
 
 811
 
 BEER— BEET. 
 
 latter provision, the most successful of which has 1 leen 
 the plan of forming clubs with a nominal entrance- 
 fee, where the members have stores of their own, 
 from which they can be supplied in the club-house.* 
 
 BEER, J. Meyer. See MEYERBEER. 
 
 EEERBHOO'M, or BIRBHOO'M, a district in 
 the presidency of Bengal, with an area of 4370 
 square miles, and a population of 1,040,S76. It 
 extends between N. lat. 23' 32' and 24° 40', and 
 between E. long. 86° 25' and SS° 30'. Though part 
 of B. is within SO miles from Calcutta, yet little is 
 known concerning it. The inhabitants are repre- 
 sented as generally a rude race, and there appear to 
 be hardly any places worthy of the name of towns. 
 
 BEER-MONEY is a peculiar payment to private 
 soldiers in the English arm}'. It was established in 
 the year 1SO0, at the suggestion of the Duke of 
 York, and consisted of one penny per day for troops 
 when on home-service, as a substitute for an issue of 
 beer and spirits. It still continues as an addition to 
 the daily pay; and something in the mode of keep- 
 ing military accounts induces the authorities to 
 allow it to figure as a separate item, instead of being 
 consolidated with the other elements of the soldier's 
 pay — for which, sec Ray. 
 
 BEE'RSHEBA, or BIR-ES-SEBA ('well of the 
 oath,' or 'well of the seven'), so called because here 
 Abraham entered into an alliance with Abimelech, 
 king of Gerar, which he ratified with an oath and a 
 gift of seven ewe lambs. B. was situated on the 
 southern border of Palestine, about 52 miles south- 
 west from Jerusalem, and formed the limit in that 
 direction of the Israelitish dominion. It was one of 
 the most ancient as well as one of the most interest- 
 ing places in sacred record. While Abraham resided 
 at this place, he received the command to sacrifice 
 Isaac, whose residence it also was. Esau was 
 robbed of liis birthright and blessing here, and here 
 Jacob sacrificed to God before departing into Egypt ; 
 the sons of Samuel were made judges here, and it 
 was from hence that Elijah was forced to flee into 
 the desert from Jezebel's wrath. After the captivity, 
 B. was occupied for some time by the Jews, and in 
 the 4th c. A. D., it was a Roman garrison. After- 
 wards, the Crusaders are said to have fortified it, 
 and to have regarded it as a place of importance. 
 Two circular wells of fine pure water — the largest 
 being 44 feet deep to the surface of the water, and 
 12i feet in diameter — and a heap of ruins about 
 half a mile long and a quarter broad, remain to 
 mark the place where B. once was. 
 
 BEE'SHA, a genus of grasses with the habit and 
 most of the characters of bamboos, but remarkable 
 for the fleshy pericarp which encloses the seed, 
 forming a sort of berry. The species are few, natives 
 of the Bast Indies. 
 
 BEES-WAX is principally obtained from the 
 ordinary bee-hive, where it is elaborated by the 
 workers. See Bee. For some time, it was matter 
 of dispute whether the bees really manufactured 
 the wax from other ingredients in their food, 
 or if they performed the simple task of carrying 
 the wax ready made from the plant to the hive. 
 It appears now to be definitely settled, that while, 
 in ordinary circumstances, bees may derive part 
 of the wax from plants, yet, when they are fed 
 entirely upon pure sugar, they continue to elaborate 
 
 * It is remarkable that the Forbes Mackenzie Act 
 does not expressly repeal, and, in fact, does not recite 
 or make mention of the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 40, by which 
 spirits and other liquors may be sold in Scotland on 
 Sunday after half-past twelve, or at and after the con- 
 clusion of morning-service. But this latter act, of 
 course, must be held to be superseded by the former. 
 812 
 
 wax, and to build up the walls and partitions of the 
 honey-comb. The wax procured from British hives 
 
 is isidered the purest and best, but the sinalhiess 
 
 of the amount necessitates the importation of com- 
 paratively large quantities from North America, 
 Brazil, Singapore, Ceylon, Cambia, and Mogadniv. 
 British B. is naturally of a yellow colour, whil t 
 that procured from foreign countries is darker in 
 tint; and in the case of the wax from Brazil, which 
 is yielded by a species of black bee hiving under 
 ground, the colour is a dark mahogany, and the 
 material is soft and tenacious. In the separation of 
 the honey from the wax, the honey-comb is subjected 
 
 to pressure, which squeezes out most of the h y , 
 
 the residual comb is then treated with water, and 
 heated, with constant stirring, till the wax melts, 
 when the whole is passed through hair-bags. The 
 wax is received in a vessel of cold water, where it is 
 at the same time washed, and cooled down till it 
 solidifies, as a thick cake, on the surface of the wain - . 
 For many purposes, it is necessary to bleach the wax, 
 and the common method is to obtain it in thin 
 sheets or ribbons, by melting it under water, and 
 pouring it upon horizontal wooden cylinders, which 
 are kept revolving half immersed in water in a 
 perforated vessel. The sheets or ribbons of wax 
 so obtained are laid out upon a field with a southern 
 aspect, and being repeatedly watered, are subjected 
 to the joint action of the sun's rays, the ozone of the 
 air, and moisture. In a short time, the wax loses 
 its yellow tint, and becomes white. Attempts have 
 been made to perform the bleaching more expedi- 
 tiously by employing chlorine, bleaching-powder, 
 and other chemical agents. The only process which 
 appears not to injure the wax is to melt it, 
 and for every pound add two ounces of pulver- 
 ised nitrate of soda, and one ounce od of vitriol, 
 diluted previously with eight ounces of water. 
 While the latter is gradually poured in, heat is 
 applied, and the whole mixture swells up, neces- 
 sitating the employment of a capacious vessel. On 
 cooling, the wax gathers on the surface, aud being 
 repeatedly treated with hot water, to wash away 
 impurities, is finally allowed to solidify in a cake. 
 
 Purified B. has a density of 9G0 to 900, and is 
 therefore lighter than water, which is taken as 1000. 
 In thin slices, it is translucent, and is tasteless, 
 odourless, and colourless. At 32° F., it is hard, 
 brittle, and solid. When heated to So'— 90° 
 F., it softeus, and can then be kneaded between 
 the fingers like moist dough or putty, and at 
 145° F. it fuses, and becomes a true liquid. It is 
 insoluble in water, and is partly soluble in boiling 
 alcohol, and partly not. The alcoholic solution, 
 which takes up about SO to 90 per cent, of the wax, 
 contains principally a substance called cerlne, which 
 separates in crystals as the solution cools, and 
 ceroleine, which remains dissolved in the cold 
 alcohol. The matter which resists the solvent 
 action of the alcohol is a substance called myricine. 
 B. is largely used in the manufacture of wax-candles 
 and tapers; and though it has recently been very 
 much excluded from the manufacture of ordinary 
 candles, from the readiness with which first-class 
 composite candles can be made indirectly from 
 tallow, yet it is often used as one of the ingredients 
 in composite candles to impart hardness to the 
 manufactured article. The very large candles used 
 in Roman Catholic countries for church-services, are 
 always made of wax alone. 
 
 BEET (Beta), a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Ghenopodiacece (q. v.), distinguished by a 
 5-eleft perianth, five stamens inserted on a fleshy 
 ring surrounding the ovary, aud the fruit adhering 
 to the calyx, and collected in clusters of two or 
 three. The species are not numerous; they are
 
 BEET- FLY— BEETHOVEN". 
 
 mostly biennials, with smooth, ovate, stalked root- 
 leaves, and tall, leafy, flowering-stems. Tic 
 natives of the temperate parts of the Old World. 
 The Common B. (B. vulgaris is a native of the 
 shores of the Mediterranean, but is now in very 
 general cultivation both in fields and gardens, chiefly 
 lor the sake of its large succulent and generally 
 carrot-shaped roots, which are used as food both for 
 man and for cattle, and from which also sugar is 
 largely extracted on the continent of Europe. Beet- 
 roots may be ubstituted for malt, when deprived of 
 part of their juice by pressure. The 
 variety chiefly cultivated in gardens is known as 
 Bed 11, from the colour of the root, whi b. also 
 
 or less appears in the leavi 
 The gubvarietiea are very numerous. In son: 
 root is rather turnip-shaped than carrot-shaped, and 
 the size and colour also vary much, some being of 
 
 p blood-red, or even almost blackish colour, 
 both externally and internally ; and others of a much 
 lighter red, and internally, even white, it forms a 
 favourite pickle, and is also very agreeable as a 
 boiled when properly dressed. The seed 
 
 Is sown so late in spring, that the plants may not 
 produce flowering stems the first year, which, when 
 it occurs, renders the root fibrous and useless. — 
 M.wcoi.h-wi BZEL (q. v.), bo valuable as a field- 
 crop for food of cattle, is, in general, regarded as 
 merely a larger and coarser variety of the common 
 U.. in which the red colour is comparatively little 
 exhibited, although some botanists have, on very 
 slender grounds, endeavoured to erect it into a 
 distinct species. — The Wiiiti: B. of our gardens 
 (B. cicla of some botanists) is now also generally 
 supposed to be a mere variety of the common 
 1!., with little or no red in its roots or leaves, 
 and a comparatively slender root. It is cultivated 
 for the sake of its leaves, which are used in the 
 
 manner as spinach, and form an excellent 
 substitute for it, especially in the beginning of 
 spring. The leaf-stalks and midribs (chords) of the 
 I . especially of a variety in which these parts 
 
 are unusually developed, are also dressed for the 
 table. — Sea-B. (B. maritima) grows wild upon the 
 shores of Britain, and differs from the common B. 
 in its perennial root, its partly prostrate stems, and 
 other characters. The leaves are used for food in 
 Ireland, as are also those of B. B in the 
 
 East Indies. 
 
 BEET-FLY {Anthomyia Beta), an insect which 
 infests crops of mangnld-wurzcl. and other kinds 
 of beet, depositing its eggs on the leaves, the soft 
 parts of which the lame devour, causing them to 
 assinne a blistered appearance, and when D 
 ous, injuring the hi alto of the plants. It is a two- 
 t (see Diptera), of the great family 
 Muscides, of which the common house-fly may be 
 ded as the type, and belongs to a genus of 
 which more than 100 British species are known, 
 the larva; of some of which are well known as feed- 
 ing upon the roots of cabbages, turnips, to. See 
 Cabe.uie-Fi.v, Tn:Nir-F:.v. and Potato-Fly. It 
 is not so large as the common house-fly, 
 
 BEETHOVEN, Ltowtg vast, the unrivalled 
 
 composer, whose works have male a new epoch 
 in the development of music, was born at 
 
 iber 17, 1770, and died in Vienna, March 2G, 
 1m!7. His father, a tenor-singer in the el 
 chapel at Bonn, began to cultivate the genius of his 
 son when only five y re of I 
 him under the court-organist, Van Eden, and shortly 
 
 after under the composer Neefe. In bis 
 
 liment by his performance on the 
 violin ; when only eleven, he played the music in 
 Bach's II V- i ■/■; and in his thirteenth 
 
 year he published, at Manheim, a volume of varia- 
 tions on a march, songs, and sonatas. In K 
 was sent to Vienna by his patron, tl 
 Cologne, to enjoy the instructions of Haydn, who 
 first made him acquainted with the works of Handel. 
 He also stndii 1 composition under Albrechtsberger. 
 There he soon attracted notice by his extraordinary 
 ability as an extempore player of fantasias, am 
 by some compositions, which, however, did not 
 escape the censure of critics. I! o much 
 
 attached to Vienna, that, after bis patron's death in 
 1801, he determined to remain, and declined an 
 invitation to England Iii 1809, when another offer 
 
 1 him to leave Vienna, several friei 
 music, with the Archduke Eudolf at their Lead, 
 raised a subscription to provide foi poser a 
 
 to retain him. At Vienna, 
 fore, he stayed during the remainder of his life, 
 secluded from the world, of which lie knew as little 
 as it knew of him ; and in later years, still 
 isolated from society by ad 
 
 gradually became confirmed into en1 >s. In 
 
 I inviolable solitude, he produced his new 
 
 bis sublime overtures, bis i| i I 
 
 quartette, so full of profound conceptions and mys- 
 terious revelations of t 
 his pianoforte sonatas, which express, si I 
 peculiar train of feelings, at other times appear to 
 represent his own recluse character. i>liut out in 
 a I e ■ measure from the ordinary pleasures of life, 
 ignorant of the sweetness of married life, and able 
 to enjoy only in a slender measure social inter- 
 course, he retired for compensation into the world 
 of his own imagination, and brought forth from its 
 deep resources those 1 harmony which, 
 
 though at first received with a •' hment 
 
 rather than a cordial admiration, are now ranked 
 among the works of art which cannot die. These 
 new forms and original creations, which i 
 majestic powers in music, were only gradually 
 developed ; in his early productions, he submitted 
 to established forms of composition. 
 
 The works of B. may be divided into three el 
 or may be a act periods of his 
 
 lopment All the works of his 
 first period, though important, shew the imluence of 
 his teacher Haydn, or of bis more highly esteemed 
 model, Mozart. This period of composition may be 
 said to extend to his liith orchestral work, including, 
 
 ■ al pianoforte sonatas, trios for piano- 
 forte and for stringed instruments. All these early 
 works display the highest cultivation of the forms 
 and principles of art previously established in the 
 Viennese school of music.- The second period of 
 
 B.'s artistic life, in which his genius was , ipletely 
 
 self-reliant, extends from the lljth to the 80th work. 
 This was certainly the D five and brilliant 
 
 part of his career. To it belong b I crea- 
 
 tions, his magnifiei nt and powerful orchi -tral works 
 — symphonies, overture . of which display 
 
 the highest qualities of inn composition. 
 
 rreat orchestral works, it includes many 
 sonatas for pianoforte, and various compositions of 
 chamber-music— septetta, . quartetta, trios, 
 
 lea, ore. In dramatic con B. pro- 
 
 duced only one opera, but tie to, the tirst 
 
 tndy German musical work of a dramatic chai 
 This was the residt of great study, and. as it is now 
 riven, is the reconstruction of an earlier composi- 
 tion. Other dramatic pieces are— the overture, inter- 
 ludes, and melodramatic music in Goethi 
 and the instrumental music and choruses m the 
 Bums of Athent.- In the third and last period of 
 B.'s career we find those two gigantic works, the 
 .1/ Soltmnis m /> Minor, and the ninth symphony 
 
 (D minor) with chorus. These works transcend 
 
 813
 
 BEETLE— BEFFANA. 
 
 all common laws and forms, and belong to the 
 highest sphere of art. Their deep mysteries can be 
 apprehended only by those who have deep emotions 
 and profound technical knowledge of music. Other 
 works of this last class approach those just men- 
 tioned, though they do not reach the same elevation. 
 But all arc alike in passing far beyond the ordinary 
 traditional forms of art. All are pervaded by an 
 impulse as of inspiration. Among these worl 
 be mentioned, the great quartetts for bow-instru- 
 ments (mostly published after the death of B.), the 
 grand overtures— works 115 and 124— and several 
 sonatas for pianoforte, especially that in Bb major. 
 
 The life of B. has been written by Schlosser 
 (Frag. 1S2S), Hies, Wegeler, Schindler (Minister, 
 1S45), and Moscheles (2vols., Lond. 1S41). 
 
 BEETLE, a name popularly applied to many 
 kinds of coleopterous insects. It is never extended 
 to insects of any other order, and it is sometimes 
 used in works on natural history as a common name 
 for all coleopterous insects ; but this makes it to 
 include many kinds to which it is not popularly 
 applied, as fireflies, lady-birds, weevils, cantharides, 
 &c. It is also employed by some authors in a more 
 restricted sense, as a designation of the insects form- 
 ing the large tribe Scarabcchles; but the restriction, 
 equally with the extension, is an interference with the 
 popular use of the English word, of which, however, 
 the limits are very uncertain. To frame an article, 
 with strict regard to that popular use, and at the 
 same time to science, would not be easy, nor would 
 it be profitable, as the assemblage of kinds would be 
 not only large, but very miscellaneous. We think 
 it better to refer to the article Coleoptera, and to 
 the articles Scarab-eides, Bombardier Beetle, 
 Stag Beetle, Burving Beetle, Goliath Beetle, 
 Rose Beetle, &c. The name Black Beetle is 
 often given to the Cockroach (q. v.). See also 
 Blaps. 
 
 BEETLE-STONES, the name given by the 
 lapidaries of Edinburgh to hard nodules of clay 
 ironstone, found abundantly in a low cliff, composed 
 of shale, at Newhaven, or strewed upon the beach in 
 that neighbourhood. They take a beautiful polish, 
 and have been employed to make letter-weights and 
 other ornamental articles. The name was given in 
 consequence of the supposed origin of the fossd which 
 is of most frequent occurrence as the nucleus of the 
 nodtdes, which, however, is not a fossd beetle, but a 
 coprolite (q. v.). Some of the nodules contain a 
 fossd fish, and some a fossd of vegetable origin. 
 
 BEE'TLING is a finishing mechanical process 
 applied originally to linen shirting, and afterwards 
 to cotton shirting, in imitation of linen, to give the 
 cloth a hard and wiry look, by flattening the yarn 
 irregularly in an angled manner. This is done by 
 the rising and falling of upright wooden stampers, 
 placed close together in a row, with their square 
 buts resting on a roller over which the cloth passes 
 under them, doubled in a particular way so as to 
 give the yarn an angled appearance when struck. 
 The stampers are worked by the rotation of a 
 horizontal shaft, acting with tapets, like the cylinder 
 of a barrel-organ. 
 
 Linen weft is likewise beetled, but by hand- 
 hammering, on a large flat stone, with a wooden 
 mallet, to soften the yarn for easiness of working it, 
 or 'getting it on,' in the language of the craft, in 
 wearing. Beetling is likewise a process in flax- 
 dressing, to separate the woody from the flexible 
 fibres of the plant. See Flax-dressixg. 
 
 BEET-ROOT SUGAR. See Scgar. The sugar 
 
 obtained from the beet is similar to cane-sugar, but 
 
 inferior in sweetening power. Beet-root contains on 
 
 an average about 10 per cent, of saccharine matter 
 
 6U 
 
 (sugar-cane, 18 per cent.) ; of the varieties, the 
 white Schleswic beet is the richest. To obtain the 
 the roots, after being washed, are first rasped 
 down by machines, so as to tear up the cells. The 
 pulp is then put into bags, and the juice is sqi 
 out by presses. The juice is next treated with lime 
 or sulphuric acid, to clarify it, and also filtered till 
 no deposit is formed ; after which it is boiled in large 
 boilers to concentrate it. When it has attained a 
 certain density (25° Beaume), it is poured tin 
 flann e l , and is now a dark-coloured sirup, which, 'm 
 order to yield pure sugar, must be deprived of its 
 colouring-matter and mucilage. This is effected by 
 filtering it through animal charcoal or bone-black. 
 The filtered juice is now .treated with lime-water 
 beat up with a little white of egg to a lather, till it 
 is slightly alkaline, and is then further concentrated 
 by boding in copper pans, care being taken to stir 
 and scmn it all the while. When sufficiently con- 
 centrated, it is put into vessels, and allowed to stand 
 several days in a warm room to crystallise; the 
 I allised part, or molasses, is then drained off, 
 and what remains is raw sugar. This is stdl further 
 by again dissolving and treating it with 
 albumen apd blood. In separating the crystallised 
 from the uncrystallised part, centrifugal machines 
 are now much used. Another improvement is the 
 vacuum-pan, which allows the juice to be boiled 
 without burning. The molasses drained off 
 from beet-root sugar has a disagreeable taste, and 
 cannot be \tsed for sweetening, like cane molasses. 
 
 About the middle of the 18th c, MarggreJ, an 
 apothecary in Berlin, drew attention to the sugar 
 contained in beet-root; but Achard, the Pre 
 chemist, was the first who was tolerably buoci 
 in extracting it. Stdl, as only 2 or 3 per cent, of 
 BUgar was obtained, the product did not pay the 
 cost, until Napoleon's continental system raised the 
 price of sugar, and gave rise to improved methods 
 of manufacturing it. Even after the fall of Napo- 
 leon, protective duties kept alive this manufacture 
 in France ; and when numerous improvements of 
 method had raised the percentage of sugar re 
 to about 5 lb. from 100 lb. of beet, it took a fresh 
 start (about 1S25) in France and Belgium, was 
 revived in Germany, and spread even "to Russia. 
 The falling off of the customs' duties on the import 
 of colonial sugar obliged the German governs 
 to impose a small duty on beet-sugar, which checked 
 the manufacture for a time ; but owing to the pro- 
 tective measures of the Zollvcrein, it is now more 
 flourishing than ever, though it is not disputed that 
 its prosperity is that of a hot-house plant, and is 
 purchased at a loss. In M'Culloch's Commercial 
 Dictionary, the produce of beet-root sugar, on the 
 continent of Europe, in 1858, is estimated at 230,000 
 tons, that of cane-sugar for the same year beinc 
 1,250,000 tons. b 
 
 BEFFA'NA, a corruption of Epiphania (Epiph- 
 any), is the name given in Italy to a singular custom 
 p revaili ng on Three Kings' Day (see Bean Kino's 
 Festival), or Twelfth Night (q. v.). According to 
 tradition, the B. was an old woman who, being busy 
 cleaning the house when the three wise men of the 
 East passed by on their way to offer their treasures 
 to the infant Saviour, excused herself for not going 
 out to see them on the ground that she would have 
 an opportunity of doing so when they returned. 
 They, however, went home by another way ; and 
 the B., not knowing this, has ever since been watch- 
 ing for their return. She is supposed to take a great 
 interest in chddren, who on Twelfth Night are put 
 earlier to bed, and a stocking of each is hung before 
 the fire. Shortly, the cry ' Ecco la B.' is raised; and 
 the children, who have not gone to sleep, dart out of 
 bed, and seize their stockings, in which each finds a
 
 BEFFROI— BEGAS. 
 
 present hearing some proportion in value to his 
 conduct dm iar. If any one has been con- 
 
 spicuously ill behaved, he finds his stocking full of 
 ashes — the method the B. takes of expressing her 
 disapprobation. It was also customary in Italy, on 
 Twelfth Night, to carry an effigy called the B. in 
 <ion through the streets amid great rejoicings; 
 but this, which was probably the relic of the 
 celebration of a middle-age 'mystery,' has fallen 
 greatly into disuse. The word is also used to awe 
 naughty children. 
 
 BE'FFROI, or BELFRY, was the name of a 
 tower used in the military sieges of ancient and 
 medieval times. When a town was to be besieged, 
 a movable tower, as high as the walls, was brought 
 near it ; and this tower was the beffroi. Its use 
 is more than once spoken of by Caisar in his account 
 of his campaigns in GauL Froissart describes, with 
 his usual spirit, a B. employed at the siege of the 
 castle of Breteuil in 1356. At the siege of Jeru- 
 salem by the Crusaders, a B. was carried in pieces, 
 put together just beyond bow-shot, and then pushed 
 
 BeHroi, or Breaching Tower. — From Gr. I Antiquities. 
 
 on wheels to a pi ion. The object of such 
 
 I i was to cover the approach of troops. Some- 
 
 bhey were poshed on by pressure, som 
 
 by capstans and ropes. The highest were on 
 
 six or eight wheels, and had as many as twelve or 
 
 I stories or stages; but it was usual to limit 
 
 the height to three or four stages. They were 
 
 red with raw hides, to protect them 
 
 from the flames of boiling grease and oil directed 
 
 i them by the besieged; and there was a 
 
 1 drawbridge at the top, to let down upon 
 
 irapet of the wall, to aid in landing. The lower 
 
 frequently had a ram I I!vm); 
 
 the others were crowded with archers, arba- 
 
 [8, an.l slingers; or there were bowmen on all 
 
 the stages azoi pt the top, which had a storming or 
 
 rty. Daring the wars under Charles L, 
 
 the royalists made a H. to aid in the besieging of 
 
 a town or castle in Herefordshire; it was higher 
 
 than I -works, and was provided with 
 
 loopholes, a bridge, &c. ; but the Roundheads 
 
 captured it before it could be applied to use. 
 inks that the name of belfry (q. v.) given 
 to a bell-tower, was derived from the wa 
 machine called the beffroi or belfry. 
 
 BEG, or BEY, a Turkish title, rather vagne in its 
 
 import, and comin a to superior military 
 
 . ship-captains, and distinguished foreigners. 
 
 to the governor of a small 
 
 r, who bears a horsetail as a sign of his rank. 
 
 The governor of Tunis has this title. — ' Beglerbeg,' 
 
 or, more correctly, Beilerbegi ('lord of lords '), is the 
 
 iven to the governor of a province who bears 
 
 orse- tails as his badge of honour, and has 
 
 authority over Beveral begs, agas, &c. This superior 
 
 title belongs to the governors of Rumelia, Anatolia, 
 
 and Syria. 
 
 BEGAS. K.u:i, court-painter to the king of 
 ! ifeasor and member of the Acadt i 
 
 Art in Berlin, was born there in 1794, Ho had been 
 destined for the law, but early manifested a love fur 
 
 US
 
 BEGGAR. 
 
 art, and while at Bonn, received his first lessons in 
 painting from Philippart. In 1811, he proceeded 
 to Paris, and there spent eight ecu months in the 
 studio of tin: celebrated Gros. In 1815, Frederick- 
 William III., on the occasion of his visit to Paris, 
 bought a large original painting by B., ' Job 
 surrounded by his Friends,' and gave him two com- 
 missions fur different churches in Berlin, This led 
 to his moving thither in ISIS, and to his subse- 
 quently residing in Italy at the king's ei pen e. 
 On his return to Berlin in 1825, he painted a n 
 many biblical subjects for churches, as well as other 
 pictures. He died 23d November 1801. There 
 arc frescoes of colossal size by him in the new 
 church of Sacrow, near Potsdam. He is especially 
 distinguished for the animation and individuality 
 of his portraits, and has painted for the king 
 a gallery of celebrated authors and artists, in- 
 cluding Humboldt, Schelling, &c. Several of his 
 genre paintings have been rendered familiar by 
 repeated engravings; and his works, in general, are 
 eminent for expression, rich colouring, ami a 
 peculiarly clear cliiaro oscuro, 
 
 BE'GGAR, a person who solicits charitable aid 
 from the public at large. The word is supposed to 
 have some connection with the fraternity known as 
 Beghards. SeeBEGUlN. The actual begging or solici- 
 tation of temporal aid became, however, so conspi- 
 cuous a feature among these mendicant orders, that 
 the term originally applied to their sacred duties 
 seems at a very early period to have acquired its 
 modern vulgar acceptation. There is no class of 
 men who have had their lot and condition so varied 
 by ethnical and social conditions as beggars. In a 
 civilised industrious country, the B., to have auy 
 chance of relief, must manage to get it believed, 
 whether it be true or false, that he is on the verge 
 of want, and requires the solicited alms to keep him 
 from starvation. Among oriental nations, on the 
 other hand, beggars have often been a potent class, 
 who may be rather considered as endowed with the 
 privilege of taxing their fellow-creatures, than as 
 objects of compassion. It has sometimes been sup- 
 posed that a nsidue of this feeling of superiority 
 characterises the mental physiology even of the 
 mendicant of civilisation, aud that, abject as he 
 seems, he considers himself to some extent a privi- 
 li I person, entitled to support from his fellows, 
 without being amenable to the slavish drudgery by 
 which the working-classes live. In Europe, during 
 the middle ages, those doctrines of Christianity 
 which are intended to teach us to abjure selfishness 
 and worldly -mindedness, were exaggerated into a 
 profession of total abstraction from worldly cares and 
 pursuits. Hence arose the large body of religionists 
 who, as hermits or members of the mendicant orders, 
 lived on the contributions of others. In later times, 
 the mendicant orders became the proudest and the 
 richest of the clergy ; but while the chiefs lived in 
 affluence, the practices of the lower adherents 
 fostered throughout Europe a system of mendicancy 
 very inimical to civilisation and industrial progress. 
 In Great Britain its evil results have been long felt, 
 in the inveterate establishment of practices naturally 
 out of harmony with the independent, industrious 
 character of the British people. Ever since the 
 Reformation, the British laws have had a death- 
 straggle with the B. ; but neither by the kindness of 
 a liberal poor-law, nor by the severity of a merciless 
 criminal code, have they been able to suppress him. 
 When a country provides, as Britain does, that no one 
 shall be permitted to starve, it would naturally be 
 expected that the springs of miscellaneous charity 
 would be dried. But it is not so, and it is indeed 
 often plausibly urged, that entirely to supersede all 
 acts of kindly generosity between man and man, 
 
 through rigid legal provisions, must lower the stan- 
 dard of human character, by depriving it of all 
 opportunity for the exercise of the generous emo- 
 tions. It is clear that, in the light of political eco- 
 nomy, promiscuous charity is the most costly and 
 most corrupting way of administering relief to indi- 
 gence. No one wdl maintain that the idle B. on the 
 street deserves such a luxurious table as the indus- 
 trious mechanic cannot afford to himself. But, at 
 tin : nee time, no one who drops acoiu in a beggar's 
 hat can say how many others m lie deposited 
 there during the day, and whether the B. is merely 
 drawing a wretched pittance, or deriving a good 
 income. Begging being a trade, it is not always 
 those who are the poorest, but those who arc' tile 
 most expert, who will practise it to the best results. 
 The great object is to • on and appropriate any 
 characteristic calculated, whether permanently or 
 temporarily, to excite compassion. Hence periods 
 ci I disl i ! are often the harvest of the B., 
 and his trade rises aud falls in an inverse ratio with 
 that of the working community. Times of pros- 
 perity are not favourable to him, because he is then 
 told that there is plenty of work for him. But 
 when workmen are dismissed in thousands, and 
 their families turned on the road to seek alms, the 
 professional beggars, by their superior' skill and 
 experience, will be sure to draw the prizes in the 
 distribution. Many surprising statements have been 
 made of the large incomes made by skilful profes- 
 sional beggars, especially in London. The most 
 remarkable anecdotes on the subject will be found 
 in Grose's Olio, whence they have often been 
 repeated. Attempts have been made, but with 
 questionable success, to set forth an average state- 
 ment of the earnings in different departments of the 
 B. trade. A good deal of information of this kind 
 will be found in the Report of the Constabulary 
 Force Commission of 1839 (see p. 60, et sea.). It 
 does not appear, however, that this trade <-. like 
 others, dependent on the law of supply and demand. 
 The B. generally is so constitutionally, whether 
 from hereditary or other physical causes. He has a 
 loathing, even to horror, of steady systematic labour, 
 and he will rather submit to all the hardships and 
 privations of the wanderer's lot, than endure this 
 dreaded evil. 
 
 Beggaks, The Law of England Relating to, 
 is regulated by the 5 Geo. IV. c. 83 (amended 
 in regard to other points by the 1 aud 2 Vict. 
 c. 3S). By the third section of the 5 Geo. IV. it is 
 enacted that every person wandering abroad, or 
 placing him or her self in auy public place, street, 
 highway, court, or passage, to beg or gather alms, 
 or causing or procuring, or encouraging any child 
 or children so to do, shall be deemed an idle and 
 rly person; and it shall be lawful for any 
 justice of the peace to commit such offender to 
 the house of correction, there to be kept for any 
 time not exceeding one calendar month. And by 
 section 4, it is further provided that any person so 
 convicted, and offending in the same way again, 
 shall be deemed a rogue and a vagabond, and may 
 be punished by being committed to the house of 
 correction for three months, with hard labour; and 
 by the same section, every person wandering abroad 
 and endeavouring, by the exposure of wounds or 
 deformities, to obtain or gather alms, and every 
 person going about as a gatherer or collector of 
 alms, or endeavouring to procure charitable con- 
 tributions of any nature or kind under any false or 
 fraudulent pretence, shall be deemed a rogue and 
 vagabond, and be punishable as before mentioned. 
 By section 15, however, of the same act, the visiting 
 justices of any county jail, house of correction, 
 or other prison, may grant certificates to persons
 
 BEGGAR-MY-XEIGHBOTJR— BEGTA STI [. 
 
 discharged, to receive alma on their route to their 
 places of settlement; but if such persons shall act 
 m a manner contrary to the directions 01 
 of their certificates, or shall loiter upon their route, 
 or shall deviate therefrom, they shall be deemed 
 and vagabonds, and punished accordingly; 
 and section 16 enacts that no justice of the peace, 
 mayor, or other magistrate, shall grant such a certi- 
 ficate, or for any purpose whatever, to persons other 
 than those entitled thereto under the 43 Geo. III. 
 c. 61, that is, by sections 1, 2, and 3 to soldiers, 
 .sailors, and mariners, and the wives of soldiers ; 
 and by section 4, it is provided that certifies 
 passes from the Admiralty or War-office to dis- 
 1 sailors, soldiers, or marines, or to the fami- 
 lies of sailors, soldiers, or marines serving abroad, or 
 lately deceased, to carry them to their respective 
 homes, shall have the same effect as certificates 
 allowed by sections 1, 2, and 3. 
 
 The attempt or purpose to obtain money or alms 
 
 by means of shows or entertainments on the 
 
 ts of London, is also an offence under the 
 
 Metropolitan Police Act. 2 and 3 Vict. c. 47, s. 54 
 
 (No. 1 11, and punishable by a line of forty shillings. 
 
 In the Scotch law, there are many severe statutes 
 of the Scotch Parliament against beggars anil 
 bonds, all of which, along with the proclamations of 
 the Scotch Privy Council on the same subject, are 
 renewed and ratified by the act 1698, c. 21, which 
 forms the existing Scotch law in regard to beggars. 
 The Scotch foii-law Amendment Act, 8 and 
 !) Vict, ft 83, contains no provision on the subject. 
 Anciently, in Scotland, legal permission to beg was 
 given to certain sick and infirm poor persons, and 
 in the reign of James V., a system of tokens for the 
 same purpose was established. — See Burn's Justice 
 of the /'■ use, vol vij Charnock's Police t 
 Dunlop's I'uroehial Law of Scotland, Lorimer's 
 Hand-booh of the Scotch Law, and the works aud 
 authorities referred to in these publications. 
 
 BEGGAR -MY-NEIGHBOUR, a game at cards 
 usually played by two persons, between whom the 
 cards are divided. Holding their cards with the 
 backs upwards, the players lay down a card alter- 
 nately, until an honour is played, which is paid for 
 by the adversary — four cards for an ace, three for a 
 king, two for a queen, and one for a knave ; such 
 payment being made, the winner lifts the trick. If, 
 however, an honour should be laid down during the 
 payment, then the opposite party must pay for that 
 in the same way ; and so on, till a payment is made 
 without an honour. The game is played chiefly by 
 children. 
 
 BEC.HA'RMI, or BAGI'EMI. a country in Cen- 
 tral Africa, bounded on the N. by Lake Tsad ; on 
 the W. by the Shari, or Great Etiver, which divides 
 it from the kingdom of Bornou ; and on the E. by 
 the Waday kingdom. It extends southward to 
 about lat. 10° N. Its greatest length is about 240 
 miles, and its breadth 150. The whole of B. Proper 
 is flat, with a Blight inclination towards the north — 
 its general elevation being about 1000 feet above 
 the level of the sea. The outlying provinces in the 
 south-east are slightly mountainous. B. has three 
 considerable rivers flowing through and along its 
 borders the Benuwe, Logon, and Shari ; the last of 
 which, augmented by the Logon, is upwards of 600 
 yards across at Mele. There is, in general, however, 
 the utmost scarcity of water in the country, and the 
 inhabitants guard their wells with jealous care. The 
 soil is partly composed of sand, and partly of lime, and 
 produces the grain and fruit common to countries 
 of Central Africa. Worms and ants are very destruc- 
 tive to the crops. The ants appear to be a perfect 
 pest. Dr Barth describes them as eating through 
 
 his matting and carpeting, and he had the I 
 difficulty in pr> from entire 
 
 destruction by them. The total population is 
 about a million and a half. From Hie numerous 
 ] with which the traveller con- 
 
 stantly meets, the population would appear t 
 been much greater at one time. Mohammedanism 
 reduced among them, but many are still 
 pagans, and all are grossly superstitious. The only 
 inln trial arts are weaving and dyeing. Physically, 
 they are a fine race of people, superior to the 
 around them, the women being especially handsome. 
 The men are subject to a peculiar disease in the 
 little toe, called ' mukardam.' It seems to be caused 
 by a worm, which eats the toe away. One in ten 
 of the male population are said to have los* 
 little toes through this cause. The sultan is 
 absolute in his own dominions, and several smaller 
 states are tributary to him ; and he, in his turn, is 
 tributary to the more powerful ruler of B 
 The lighting-force of the kingdom is about 13,000 
 men. Masena (q. v.), the capital, has a circum- 
 ference of about 7 miles. — Earth's Travels in Central 
 
 BE'GKOS, or BEI'KOS, a large village of Anatolia, 
 on the Bosphorus, 8 miles north-north-east of Scu- 
 tari, said to be the locality of the 
 Pollux and Amycus, in which the latter was killed. 
 See Arconauts. At the commencement of the 
 Crimean war, the Allied fleets anchored in B. Bay, 
 prior to their entering the Black Sea in January 
 1854. 
 
 BEGLERBEG. See Beg. 
 
 BEGOXIA'CEiE, a natural order of exogenous 
 plants, the place of which in the system is doubtful, 
 but is supposed by Lindley to be near Cucurbitacece 
 (q. v.). The B. are herbaceous or suffruticose plants, 
 with alternate leavi s. which are oblique at the 
 and have large dry stipules. The flowers are in 
 cymes, unisexual, the perianth coloured, with four 
 unequal divisions in the male flowers, and five or 
 eight in the female; the stamens are numerous; 
 the fruit is membranous, winged, 3-celled, bursting 
 by slits at the base, the seeds minute. — The order 
 contains about 160 known species, all of which have 
 pink flowers. They are almost all tropical plants, 
 and some of them are often to be seen in British 
 hot-houses ; but a small species of Begonia ascends 
 the Himalaya to at least 11,500 feet, often growing 
 on the trunks of trees. The leaves of the Be/joniaa 
 have a reddish tinge. The leaves and young stems 
 are succulent and acid, and those of B. Malaharica, 
 /,'. tuberota, and other species, are used as jiot-herbs, 
 or in tarts. The juicy stalks of a lai 
 found in Sikkim, at an elevation of live or six thou- 
 sand feet, are mentioned by Pr Hooker as employed 
 to make a pleasant acid sauce. This, and the 
 small Himalayan species already mentioned, would 
 probably succeed in the climate of Britain, 
 roots of some are used in their native count i 
 
 nts, and some of the Mexican species are 
 used as drastic purgatives. 
 
 BEG-SHE'HR, a freshwater lake of Asia Minor, 
 Karamania, 44 mdes south-west of Coniyeh, pre- 
 sumed to be the ancient Ccaraiitis. It is ab 
 miles long, and from 5 to 10 miles broil. It con- 
 tains many islands, and discharges its. It by a river of 
 the same name into Lake Soglah. On its east and 
 north shores are the towns of Begshehr aud Kereli, 
 the old Caralio, which issued imperial coins, and 
 which is also supposed to have occupied the site of 
 Pamphylia, 
 
 BEGTA'SHI, a religious order in the Ottoman 
 
 . which had its origin in the 14th c. The 
 
 name is b?lieved to be derived from that of a 
 
 817
 
 BEGUINES— BEHAIM. 
 
 celebrated dervise, Hadji Begtash, to whom also the 
 order appears to owe its institution. The members use 
 secret signs and pass-words as means of recognition, 
 in the same way as is done by the masonic orders, 
 some of them indeed appearing to be identical with 
 those of freemasonry. Although numbering many 
 thousands of influential persons in its ranks, the 
 society does not appear to exercise any material 
 influence in the religion or politics of Turkey. 
 
 BEGUINES, BEGUrN^E, or BEGU'TIVE, the 
 name of the earliest of all lay societies of women 
 united for pious purposes. The reason of their 
 origin is not quite certain, but it is usually attri- 
 buted — in part, at least — to the disproportion in 
 the numbers of men and women which was occa- 
 sioned by the Crusades. These wars had robbed 
 Christendom of thousands of its most vigorous sons, 
 and left multitudes of widows and maidens, to 
 whom life had henceforth something of a solemn 
 and sorrowfid aspect, and who therefore betook 
 themselves, in earnest and affectionate piety, to 
 the charities and duties of religion. The origin of 
 the word is doubtful The popular tradition of 
 Brabant since the 17th c., that a .St Begga, daughter 
 of Pepin, and sister of St Gertrude, founded, in 690, 
 the lirst sisterhood of B. at Kamur, has no historical 
 basis. Halhnann has also shewn that the supposed 
 oldest document of the B. (10G5), giving an account 
 of their establishment at Vilvorde, near Brussels, is 
 unauthentic. The most probable account is, that 
 a priest named Lambert le Begue, or Le Beghe, i. e., 
 the Stammerer, about the year 1180, founded, in 
 Liege, a society of pious women, who were called 
 by his name. The B. were not restricted by vows, 
 nor did they follow the rides of any order, but were 
 united under a superleure for the exercise of piety 
 and benevolence, and lived generally in separate 
 small cottages, which, collectively, formed the 
 Beginagium, or ' vineyard' as it was scripturally 
 termed. Their establishments were often enriched 
 by liberal donations. A church, a hospital, and a 
 house of reception or common entertainment, gener- 
 ally belonged to every community of Beguines. The 
 sisters were distinguished from the rest of the laity 
 only by their diligence and devotedness, piety, 
 modesty, and zeal for the purity of youthful educa- 
 tion. Societies of B. flourished greatly during the 
 12th and 13th centuries, when they spread them- 
 selves over France and Germany. Among the most 
 important were those in Hamburg, Liibeck, Regens- 
 Magdeburg, Leipsic, Goslar, Bochlitz, and 
 Giirlitz. As the pietists of the middle ages, the B. 
 were often subjected to persecution by the mendi- 
 cant orders of friars ; but, on account of their 
 practical usefulness, were sheltered by the pope and 
 councils as well as by secular authorities. In the 
 13th and 14th centuries, the B. became united with 
 the persecuted spiritualists among the Franciscans 
 [Fratrkdlea), and with the sect of the 'Brethren 
 and Sisters of the Free Spirit.' Hence arose certain 
 heresies, which, of course, occasioned interference 
 on the part of the Inquisition ; and on account 
 of certain immoralities, a synod held at Fritzlar 
 ed that all candidates must be forty years 
 old before they could enter a society of Beguines. 
 These sisterhoods maintained their position in 
 Germany and the Netherlands longer than in other 
 countries. In Holland, they existed at the close of 
 the 18th c. ; and in the present day we find here and 
 there so-called Bvguinen-hauser (Beguin-houses) in 
 Germany; but they are now nothing more than 
 almshouses for poor spinsters. At Ghent, there 
 is still a celebrated institution of B., numbering 
 ny as GOO sisters, besides 200 localaires, or 
 occasional inmates. Their houses form a kind of 
 distinct little town, called the Beguinage, which, 
 
 though environed by a wall, is open to the visits of 
 strangers. Living here a life of retirement and 
 piety, the B., in their simple dark dresses, go 
 out as nurses to the hospital, and perform 
 acts of kindness among the poor. As above stated, 
 are under no monastic vow, but having 
 attached themselves to the sisterhood, it is their 
 boast that none is known to have quitted it. There 
 are houses of B. also at Antwerp, Mechlin, and 
 Bruges; and in 1S54, one was established in France, 
 at Casteluaudry, in the department of Ande. 
 
 Beghakds (Ger. begehrea, to seek with impor- 
 tunity). Societies of laymen styling themselves 
 B., lirst appeared in Germany, the Netherlands, 
 and the south of France in the beginning of the 
 13th c, and were known in Italy as Bizachi and 
 Boccusoti ; but they never obtained the reputation 
 enjoyed by the Beguine sisterhood. Towards the 
 end of the 13th c, they were commonly stigma- 
 tised as lions (jargons, boni pueri, ' ministers' men,' 
 • bedesmen,' ' pietists,' ' vagabonds' — contemptuous 
 which expressed the low estimation in 
 which they were held. On account of heretics 
 of all sorts retreating into these half-spiritual 
 communities, they were subjected to severe perse- 
 cutions after 1307, and were gradually dispersed, 
 or joined the orders of Dominicans and Franciscans. 
 In the Netherlands, where they had preserved a 
 better character than elsewhere, they maintained 
 their ground longer, and were protected by Pope 
 innocent IV. (1215), in Brussels by Cardinal Hugo 
 (1254), and in Liege by Pope Urban IV. (1261); 
 but their communities disappeared in the 14th c. 
 — See Mosheim, De Beghardw et Beguinabus (Leip. 
 1790), and HaUmann's Gt xhidite des Ursprunga der 
 Belg. Beghinen (History of the Origin of Beguines in 
 Belgium), Berlin, 1S43. 
 
 BEHAIM, Martin, a famous cosmograplier, 
 descended from a Bohemian family which settled 
 in Nuremberg after the middle of the 13th c, 
 and still flourishes there. B. was born in Nurem- 
 berg in 1430 (or, more probably, in 1436). He 
 early entered into mercantile life, and went 
 to Venice (1457), and to Mechlin, Antwerp, and 
 Vienna (1477—1479), in pursuit of trade. In 1480, 
 lie was induced to go to Portugal, where he soon 
 acquired a reputation as a skilful maker of maps. 
 From 14S4 to 14S5, he accompanied the Portuguese 
 navigator, Diego Cam, in a voyage of discovery 
 along the west coast of Africa, and sailed as 
 far as the mouth of the Zaire or Congo river, ia 
 hit. 22° S., which was 19J further than had ever 
 been previously reached. In 14S6, B. sailed to 
 Fayal, one of the Azore islands, where a Flemish 
 colony had settled. Here he married the daughter 
 of Jobst von Kiister, governor of the colony. 
 In 1490, he left Fayal, and returned to his native 
 city, Nuremberg, where he resided from 1491 to 
 1493. During this stay, he constructed a large 
 globe, principally from the writings of Pti 
 I 'liny, Strabo, Marco Polo, and Sir John Mandeville. 
 It is still preserved by the family of B. in Nurem- 
 berg, and is a valuable record of the progress of 
 discovery, though it indicates that B.'s geographical 
 knowledge did not at that period extend beyond 
 Japan on the east, and the Cape Verd Islands on 
 the west. After travelling through Flanders and 
 France, B. again resided in Fayal from 1494 to 
 1506, and then removed to Lisbon, where he died, 
 July 29, 1509. The servioes rendered by B. to 
 geographical discovery and the science of navigation 
 were considerable, though, according to the latest 
 investigations, there is no support for the theory 
 that B. was the discoverer of America, or even that 
 Columbus and Magelhaen were indebted to B. for 
 guidance with regard to their discoveries. B. left
 
 BEHEADING— BEHISTUX. 
 
 no works behind Lira except his maps and charts. — 
 Whit's Diplomatitche Geschiclite des Sitters von B. 
 (Niirn. 1778 ; 2d Auf!., 1S01) ; and A. von Humboldt's 
 Examcn Critique de Cllistoire de la O'iographie du 
 Noiwe.au Continent, vol. i. (Par. 183G). 
 
 BEHEA'DING. See Capital Pcxisiimen't. 
 
 BEHISTU'N, or BISUTU'N (Lat. Bagutaniuj 
 Persian, Baghistan, Place of Gardens), a mined town 
 of the Persian province of Irak-Ajemi, 21 mil 
 
 of Kirmanshah, lat. 34° 18' N., long. 47' .'Jit' E. B. 
 is chiefly celebrated for a remarkable mountain, 
 which on one side rises almost perpendicularly to 
 
 leight of 17'K) feet, and which was in ancient 
 times sacred to Jupiter or to Ormuzd, According to 
 his, Semiraniis, on her march from Babylon 
 to Ecbatana, in Media Magna, encamped near this 
 rock, and having cut away and polished the lower 
 part of it, had her own likeness and those of a 
 hundred of her guards engraved on it. She further, 
 according to the same historian, caused the following 
 inscription in Assyrian letters to be cut in the rock : 
 
 iramis having piled up one upon the other the 
 trapping of the beasl - [en which accom- 
 
 pa il hi )'. ascended bj the i means from theplain to 
 
 the top of the reck.' >"o trace of these inscriptions 
 
 is now to bo found, and Sir Henry Bawlinson 
 accounts for their I v the supposition that 
 
 {hey were destroyed 'by Khusrau I'arviz when he 
 was preparing to form of this long scarped surface 
 the back wall of bis palace.' Diodorus also mentions 
 that Alexander the atana 
 
 from Susa, visited Behistun. But the rock is espe- 
 cially interesting for its cuneiform inscriptions (f|. v.), 
 which within recent years have been successfully 
 deciphered by Sir II. Kawlinson. The principal 
 inscription of B., executed by the command of 
 Darius, is on the north extremity of the rock, at 
 an elevation of 300 from the ground, where it 
 
 en engraved without the aid of 
 scaffolding, and can now only be reached by 
 the adventurous antiquary at considerable r 
 his life. The labour of polishing the face of the 
 rock, so as to fit it to receive the inscriptions, must 
 have been very great. In places where the stone 
 was defective, pieces were fitted in and fastened 
 with molten lead with such extreme nicety, that 
 only a careful scrutiny can detect the ai 
 'But the real wonder of the work,' says Sir 11. 
 Rawlinson, 'consists in the inscrip: i i rtcnt, 
 
 for beauty of execution, for uniformity and correct- 
 ness, they are perhaps unequalled in the world. After 
 
 
 
 Eock Inscriptions at Behistnn. 
 
 the engraving of the rock had been accomplished, 
 a coating of silicious varnish had been laid on, to 
 give a clearness of outlino to each individual letter, 
 and to protect the surface against the action of the 
 elements. This varnish is of infinitely greater hard- 
 ness than the limestone rock beneath it.' Washed 
 down in some places by the rain of twenty-three 
 centuries, it lies in consistent Hakes like thin layers 
 of lava en the font-ledge; in others, where time has 
 honey-combed tie- rock beneath, it adheres to the 
 broken surface, still shewing with sufficient dis- 
 tinctness the forms of the characters. The inscrip- 
 whieh are in the three forms of cuneiform 
 writing, Persian, Babylonian, and Median — set 
 forth the hereditary right of Parius to the throne 
 of Persia, tracing his genealogy, through < ight gene- 
 rations, up to Achasmenes ; tiny then enumi rate the 
 provinces of his empire, and recount his triumphs 
 
 over the various rebels who rose against him during 
 the first four years of his reign. 1 he monarch him- 
 self is represented on the tablet with a bow in hand, 
 and his foot upon the figure of a man, 
 
 while nine rebels, chained together by the neck, 
 stand humbly before him; behind him are t 
 his own warriors, and above him, another ligi.r 
 
 out]. The Persian inscriptions which Sir ll.Kaw- 
 
 I in the five main 
 columns numbered in cut 1, 2, 3, ■!. ■"'• T- 
 column contains 19 paragraphs, and '.If! . 
 
 SI ih after the first, wliich commences. ' 
 arius the Great King,' begins with, 'Says I 1 
 the King.' 1 column has the same num- 
 
 ber of lme3 in Iti paragraphs; the third, !>2 lines 
 and 14 paragraphs; the fourth has also '. 
 IS paragraphs; and the fifth, which appears to be a 
 supplementary column, 35 Unos. With t:
 
 BEHME-BELRAM. 
 
 of the first paragraph on the first column, all 
 begin with, 'Says Darius the King.' The second, 
 fourth, and fifth columns are much injured. Sir H. 
 Rawlinson iixes the epoch of the sculpture at 
 516 — 515 B.C. See Journal of Asiatic Society, voL x. 
 
 BEHME, Jacob. See Bohme. 
 
 BEHX, ArnAr.A, or ArnnA, a licentious poetess 
 and novelist of the reign of Charles II., the date ol 
 whose birth is unknown, was the daughter of Mr 
 Johnson, a gentleman who, through his aristocratic 
 connections, obtained the appointment of governor 
 of Surinam. He died on his passage out, but the 
 daughter pursued her journey, and resided at 
 Surinam for some considerable time. Here she made 
 the acquaintance of the celebrated slave Oronoko, 
 who afterwards became the subject of one of her 
 novels, aud of a tragedy by Southern. Returning 
 to England, she mimed Mr Behn, a merchant of 
 Dutch extraction, was presented at court, where her 
 personal appearance and vivacious freedom of 
 manners pleased the ' Merry Monarch,' who deputed 
 her to watch events in Flanders. She accordingly 
 went to Antwerp, where she succeeded in dis- 
 covering the intention of the Dutch to sail up the 
 Thames and Medway, and communicated the secret 
 to the English court ; which, however, took no notice 
 of the information, a slight which caused the fair 
 agent to throw up state politics in disgust. On her 
 return to England, she became intimate with all the 
 profligate wits as well as the more staid scholars 
 and poets of the time, and devoted herself to litera- 
 ture. Her numerous plays, poems, tales, letters, 
 &c, are disfigured alike by general impurity of 
 tone and indecency of language ; and, in point of 
 intellectual ability, none of her works appear 
 deserving of the high praise lavished on them by 
 Drvden, Cotton, Southern, and others. She died 
 in 16S9. 
 
 BE'HRIXG, Vitus, the discoverer of the strait 
 called after his name, was a native of Denmark, aud 
 entered as captain the newly formed navy of Peter 
 the Great. From the ability and daring he had 
 displayed in the wars with Sweden, he was ap- 
 pointed to conduct an expedition of discovery 
 in the Sea of Kamtchatka. Sading. in 1728, from 
 a port on the east of Kamtchatka, he followed the 
 coast northward until lie believed, from the west- 
 ward trending of the land, that he had reached the 
 north-east point of Asia. It is now, however, 
 believed that the cape which B. rounded was to the 
 south of the real East Cape (in lat. 60°), and that he 
 ni rer actually reached the strait to which he has 
 given his name. After some years spent in explora- 
 tions on the coasts of Kamtchatka, Okhotsk, and 
 the north of Siberia, he sailed in 1741 from Okhotsk 
 towards the American continent, and sighting land 
 about 58J° N. lat., he followed the coast northward 
 for some distance ; but sickness and storms obliged 
 him to return, and being wrecked on the desert 
 island of Awatska, since called Behring's Island, he 
 died there, Sth December 1741. The previous year, 
 he had founded the present settlement of Petropau- 
 lovski, in the Bay of Awatska. 
 
 BEHRIXG'S STRAIT separates Asia from 
 America, and connects the Paeilic with the Arctic 
 Ocean. The proof that the two continents were 
 not connected was given by the voyage of a Cossack 
 named Deschnew, who, in 1G4S, saded from a 
 harbour in Siberia, in the Polar Ocean, into the 
 Sea of Kamtchatka. But the whole voyage was 
 long regarded by Europeans as a fable, untd 
 Behring's (q. v.) expedition in 1728. The strait 
 has since been explored by Cook and Beechy. 
 The narrowest part is near CO 3 lat., between 
 East Cape in Asia, and Cape Prince of Wales in 
 
 820 
 
 America. The distance between the two capes, in 
 a direction from north-west to south-east, is nearly 
 50 mUes; about midway are three uninhabited 
 islands. The greatest depth, some 30 fathoms, is 
 towards the middle, and the water is shallower 
 towards the American coast than the Asiatic. A 
 very old Japanese map in the British Museum shews 
 tlie leading features of this strait very accurately. 
 — Behring's Sea, a part of the Xorth Pacitic Ocean, 
 commonly known as the Sea of Kamtchatka, 
 bounded W. by Kamtchatka, E. by E 
 America, S. by the Aleutian Islands, and X. by 
 Behring's Strait. There are several islands in 
 this sea, and fogs prevail constantly ; but owing 
 to the shallowness of the strait, there are no 
 icebergs of magnitude to be met with. — Behbxng'8 
 Island, the most westerly of the Aleutian Islands in 
 lat. 55° 22 X., long. 166° E. It has an area of 30 
 square miles, and is noteworthy as the place where 
 Behring, the discoverer, was wrecked and died in 
 1741. 
 
 BEILA'X, a pass and town in the northern 
 extremity of Syria, on the east shore of the Gulf 
 of Iscanderoon. The pass of B. runs from south-west 
 to north-east, between the mountain-ranges of 
 Rhosus and Amanus, and is the common route from 
 Cdicia into Syria. It i3 one of the two Amauiau 
 passes, supposed to be the lower one, mentioned 
 by Cicero as capable of easy defence on account 
 of their narrowness. There seems to be no doubt 
 that, in the war between Darius and Alexander, the 
 B. Pass was an important consideration to both 
 commanders, but historians and geographers appear 
 to be at variance as to the precise advantage taken 
 of it in the straggle. The town of B. is situated 
 near the summit-level of the pass, at an elevation 
 of 1584 feet above the Mediterranean Sea. It has a 
 popidation of about 5000, many of whom are wealthy, 
 and is much esteemed for its salubrity and line 
 water, which is supplied by numerous aqueducts. 
 Between the north-western foot of the pass and the 
 sea, are caves and springs, supposed to be the site of 
 the ancient Myriandrus. B. was the scene of a 
 battle between the Egyptians and Turks in 1832, 
 when the latter were defeated. 
 
 BETRA, a Portuguese province, bounded X. by 
 the provinces of Minho aud Tras-os-Montes ; S. by 
 Estremadura and Alemtejo; K by Spain; and W. 
 by the Atlantic Ocean. It has an area of about 
 9800 square miles, and a population of 1,181,968. 
 The surface is mountainous, and the soil on the 
 plains sandy, and generally far from fertile. The 
 mountain-slopes afford good pasturage for sheep 
 and cattle. The products are com, wine, oil, flax, 
 and various kinds of fruit, and considerable attention 
 is pud to the rearing of bees. Sea-salt is obtained 
 at the coast. The river Douro waters the whole of 
 its northern, and the Tagus, a portion of its southern, 
 boundary. The Mondego and Vouga flow through 
 its centre. Iron, coal, and marble are wrought in 
 small quantity. There is little done in manufactures, 
 The inhabitants are an industrious race of people. 
 In 1835, the province was divided into Upper and 
 Lower Beira, the former having Viseu and the 
 latter Castel Branco for its capital. 
 
 BEIRAM, or BAIEAM, a Mohammedan festival 
 somewhat analogous to Easter. It commences imme- 
 diately after the fast of Ramadan, or Bamazan, 
 which corresponds to Lent. Being one of the only 
 two feasts the Moslems have in the year, it is looked 
 forward to with great interest, the zest being 
 enhanced by the previous abstinence. Its advent 
 is announced at Constantinople by the discharge of 
 artillery, the beating of drums, and blowing of 
 trumpets. Properly, it should terminate in one day,
 
 BEIT— BEKE 
 
 but the Moslems in the capital think it no offence 
 to their abstemious prophet to carry the festivities 
 over two day.-; ; while in other parts of Turkey and 
 Persia, they are often protracted a week or more. 
 Dances, music, processions, &c, in which the women 
 are permitted greater indulgence than usual, firm 
 prominent features of the feast; and at this time 
 tile different orders of the empire pay homage to the 
 sultan. Seventy days after, the Moslems celebrate 
 their only other feast (' the festival of the sacrifices'), 
 called tiie tester B., which is the day appointed by 
 the Mecca pilgrims for slaying the victims, and was 
 instituted in commemoration of the offering up of 
 Isaac by Abraham. The lesser B. usually lasts 
 three days, but it is not celebrated -with anything 
 like the pomp of the other. During the continuance 
 of each of the festivals, only one religious service 
 takes place. The Mohammedan year being the 
 lunar one of 354 days, in the course of thirty-three 
 years the festivals run through all the seasons. 
 
 BEIT is an Arabic word, signifying house, abode, 
 or place, the equivalent of which in Hebrew is Beth. 
 Thus, in the former language, we have Beit-al-IIardm, 
 ' the bouse of the sanctuary,' or 'the sacred house ;' 
 and in the latter, Beth-el, ' house of God ;' Beth-any, 
 ' place of dates ;' Belh-abara. ' place of fords,' &c. 
 
 IIEIT-EL-FA'KIH (House of the Saint), a town 
 of Tehama, on the Red Sea. Being the frontier town 
 of the Egyptian government, it has a considerable 
 trade in coffee, wax, gum, &c, which articles are 
 
 exchanged for Indian pi ^goods and British shawls. 
 
 It has a population of about 8000, and a citadel of 
 some strength. The houses are built partly of mud 
 and partly of brick, and roofed with branches of the 
 date-tree. It is described 1 ly travellers as the hottest 
 town in Tehama. 
 
 BEITU'LLAH (Arab., House of God), the 
 spacious building or temple at Mecca, 'which contains 
 the Kaaba. See Mecca and Kaaba. 
 
 BE'JA (the Pox Julia of the ancients), a town in 
 the province of Alemtejo, Portugal, 3G miles south- 
 south-west of Evora, with a population of ."500. It 
 is fortified, its walk being flanked by 40 towers, 
 has a castle and a cathedral, and manufactories of 
 leather and earthenwares. 
 
 BE'JAN, or RAMAN, the name of the first or 
 ' freshman ' class in some at least of the Scotch, and 
 of old in many continental universities. The word 
 is believed to he derived from the French?/" 
 or yellow neb, a term used to designate a nestling 
 or unfledged bird. The levying of 
 payments for 'first-footing' by students on entering 
 college, was forbidden by the statutes of the urn- 
 f of Orleans in 1365, and of the university of 
 Toulouse in 1401. The election of an Alibas 1 
 
 , or ' Abbot of the Greenhorns,' was prohibited 
 by the statutes of the university of Paris in 1493. 
 In the university of Vienna, the bejan was called 
 I •. a word of the same meaning, and no doubt 
 
 of the same origin. 
 
 HEJAPTJ'R, a deserted citv in the presidency 
 of Bombay, lat. 1G> 50" N.. and" long. 75* -is' 10. It 
 is situated to the south-east of Bombay, Foonah, and 
 i. at the respective distances of -15. 170. and 
 130 rndes, being on an affluent of the Kistna or 
 Krishna, which How-: into the Bay of Bengal, and 
 nearly touching the west border of the Nizam's 
 territories. B. was for centuries the flourishing 
 capital of a powerful kingdom, falling therewith 
 under various dynasties in succession, Hindu and 
 Mussulman, till, in 1GS6, it was captured by 
 Aurungzebe. Thus stripped of its independence, If. 
 Bpeedily sank into the shadow of a mighty name, 
 passing, duriu" the early part of the ISth a, into 
 the hands of the Mabrattas. Ou the overthrow of 
 
 the Peishwa in 1818, it was assigned by the British 
 to the dependent Rajah of Satara ; being resumed, 
 however, by the donors on the extinction of the 
 reigning family in 1848. Now that a gradual decay 
 has done its worst, B., as its own mausoleum, pre- 
 sents a contnt-t p rhaps Oneqil ailed in the world. 
 Lofty walls of hewn stone, still entire, with an 
 imposing background of cupolas and mu 
 enclose the silent and desolate fragments of a city 
 which is said to have contained 100,000 dwi 
 and to have been divided into quarters that mea- 
 sured their circuit by leagues. With the exception 
 of an ancient temple, the sole relic of aboriginal 
 domination, the rums are of Mohammedan i 
 such as beautiful mosques, colossal tombs, and a 
 fort of more than G miles in circuit, with an inner 
 citadel. In addition to the architectural remains, 
 one of the wonders of the place is, perhaps, the 
 largest piece of brass ordnance in existence, cast at 
 Ahmednuggur, where the mould may still be seen. 
 Latterly, all these monuments of the instability of 
 human grandeur have been carefully preserved, both 
 the Rajah of Satara and the British government 
 having done everything to prevent further decay 
 and dilapidation. 
 
 BEKAA, the Ccelc-Syria of the ancients, the 
 'Plain of Lebanon' of the Old Testament, and El 
 Bekaa (the Valley) of the natives of Syria, is 
 d between the parallel ranges of Lebanon and 
 Anti-Lebanon, which mountains it divides, and 
 extends about 90 miles from north to south, its 
 greatest width being about 12 miles. It is the most 
 rich and beautiful plain in Syria ; but although the 
 soil is good, and water abimdant from the nun 
 mountain-springs, a very small portion of it is culti- 
 vated. It is very much frequented by the Arabs, 
 who bring down their young horses in the spring- 
 time to graze on the plain. 
 
 BEKE, Charles TrxsTOHB, a modern English 
 traveller in Abyssinia, was born in Lond' m, I ' 
 10, 1S00; received a commercial education; after- 
 wards studied law in Lincoln's Iun, and devoted a 
 great part of his attention to ancient history, 
 philology, and ethnography. The results of these 
 studies first appeared in his work, Origmet Bi 
 or researches in primeval 1 tory, vol i, Lond. 
 1834. His historical and geographical studies of the 
 East, led B. to consider the great importance of 
 Abyssinia for intercourse with Central Africa; but 
 his proposals to undertake an exploring journey were 
 declined by the government and by several learned 
 societies. Supported only by private individuals, 
 he determined to procei d to Abyssinia ; and joining 
 there the party led by Major Harris, he distin- 
 guished himself by the exploration of Godshem and 
 the countries lying t i the south, which were pre- 
 viously almost entirely unknown in Europe, The 
 results of these researches appeared partly in several 
 journals, and in -I a Statement of Fact.*, &c. 
 
 (2d ed., Lond. 1846). Having returned to Europe, 
 he excited the attention of geographers by his pub- 
 lications: the Essay on the Nile and its (Tributaries 
 (Lond. 1S47) ; Oh the Sources of the Nile in the Jfotav 
 bWMoftht Moon (1848) ; On'the Sources of the N He 
 (1S40) ; and by his Mi' moire Jxtstifieatif en li 
 litation • Paez et Lobo (Paris, 1SJ-S). He 
 
 became involved in a controversy with M. d'Abbadie 
 by a /.■ '<■>■ to M. Daussy ( 1 S4 '. I nr/uiry into 
 
 A. d'Abbadie's Journey to Kaja (1S50), in which he 
 attempted to shew that this said journey for dis- 
 covery of the Nile's sources (1S43 — 1844) was a mere 
 fiction. Besides many essays on ethnography and 
 phy, B. has published a tx< Geo- 
 
 graphical Distribution of Languages in Abyssinia 
 (Edin. 1S49). 
 
 m
 
 BEKES— EELEMNITES. 
 
 BEKES, or BEKESVAR, a town of Hungary, 
 
 be county of i ituated 
 
 at tli- i ee of the Black and White Euro's. 
 
 Pop. 1S,000, who do a trade in cattle, corn, and 
 
 honey. 
 
 BEKKEK, Immanuel, a German philologist, 
 aiahed by his recensions of the texts of Greek 
 and Roman classics, was born in Berlin, 1785; 
 studied in Halle, 1S03 — ISfiT, and was the most 
 eminent pupil of F. A. Wolf. Afterwards, he was 
 engag' 1 at Paris on the Corpus InacripSomim One- 
 . The results of his researches in the libraries 
 of Italy (1S17— 1S19) appear in his Anecdota Graca 
 (3 vols., Berlin, 1814 — 1821), and his numerous 
 recensions of texts derived solely from MSS., and 
 independently of printed editions. The writers 
 included in these recensions are Plato, the Attic 
 orators, Aristotle, Sextus Empiricus, Thucydides, 
 Theognis, Aristophanes, Photius, the Scholia on the 
 Iliad, &c. (B died July 1871.) 
 
 BEL AND THE DRAGON, an apocryphal 
 book of the Old Testament. It does not seem to 
 have been accepted as inspired by the Jewish ( 'huivh, 
 nor is there any proof that a Hebrew or ( 
 version of the story ever existed. Jerome considered 
 it a 'faijle,' an opinion in which most modern readers 
 will coincide. It is, nevertheless, read for edifi- 
 cation both in the Roman Catholic and Anglo- 
 Catholic churches : in the former, on Ash Wednes- 
 day; in the latter, on the 23d of November. 
 According to Jahn, the aim of the writer was 'to 
 warn against the sin of idolatry some of his brethren 
 who had embraced Egyptian superstitions.' 
 
 BELA, the name of four Hungarian kings of the 
 family of Arpad.— B. I. (1061— 1063) energetically 
 suppressed the last attempt to restore heathenism, 
 and by the introduction of a fixed standard of 
 measures, weights, and coinage, virtually founded 
 the commerce of Hungary. He was also the first to 
 introduce the representative system into the diet, 
 by appointing, in lieu of the collective nobility, two 
 nobles only from each of the different counties. — B. 
 II., surnamed 'the Blind,' 1131 — 1141, was entirely 
 under the guidance of his bloodthirsty spouse, 
 Helena, and after her decease, drank himself to 
 death.— B. III., 1174—1196. Educated in Constan- 
 tinople, he introduced Byzantine customs and culture 
 into his own country, which was certainly favour- 
 able to its social development, though, on the other 
 hand, his evident devotion to the Greek emperor 
 Emmanuel threatened its political independence. — B. 
 IV., 1235 — 1270, son of that Andreas from whom the 
 nobles extorted the ' Golden Bull,' Hungary's Magna 
 Charta. His chief aim was to humble the nobility, 
 and restore the royal power to its former propor- 
 tions; and he thus roused a spirit of universal dis- 
 content, which led to a party among the nobles call- 
 ing in the Austrian duke, Frederick II., to their 
 aid ; but, in the year 1236, he was conquered by B., 
 and forced to pay tribute. Before long, however, 
 the king had to seek a refuge with his discomfited 
 foe; for the Mongols, who invaded Hungary in 1241, 
 defeated liim on the Sajo, and put him to flight. 
 It was only after robbing him of all the treasure he 
 had managed to save, and extorting from him three 
 of his counties, that Frederick II. granted the royal 
 fugitive a shelter in Austria, where he remained till 
 the Mongols, having heard of the death of their 
 khan, left the country they had devastated. I!. 
 now made it his especial care, by rebuilding the 
 destroyed villages, and inviting new settlers thither, 
 to do away with the tokens of that terrible invasion ; 
 and he so far succeeded as to be able, in 1210, to 
 repay Frederick's inkospitality by defeating him 
 at Vienna, and to repulse a second attempt at 
 
 Mongolian invasion. He died in 1270, his last yean 
 having been embittered by an attempt at rebellion 
 on the part of his son Stephen. 
 
 BELAYING, one of the many modes of fas! ling 
 ropes on shipboard. It is effected by wind] 
 
 lly a part of the running ri; 
 a piece of wood called a cleat or a kevel, or else 
 p nuid a belaying-pin, which is an ashen staff from 
 twelve to sixteen inches in length. 
 
 BELBEY'S (ancient BwbasHs Agria), a town of 
 5000 inhabitants, situated on the east arm of the 
 Nile, Lower Egypt, and 28 miles north-north-east of 
 Cairo. It is enclosed by earthen ramparts, has 
 numerous mosques, aud is one of the, stations on the 
 route from Cairo to Suez, and from Egypt to Syria. 
 
 BELCHER, Sik Edward, a distinguished 
 English naval officer, born in 17!'9, entered the navy 
 in 1812 as a first-class volunteer, was soon made 
 a midshipman, and in 1816 took part in the 
 bombardment of Algiers. In 1S25, B. was appointed 
 assistant-surveyor to the expedition about to 
 explore Bebring's Strait under Captain Beechey; 
 in 1S29, he was raised to the rank of commander. 
 1836 saw him in command of tin- Sut/Ino; v.-\a- 
 ted to explore the western coasts of America 
 and the Indies. He was absent six years, in which 
 time he had sailed round the world. During this 
 voyage he rendered important services in the 
 Canton river to Lord Gough, whose successes over 
 the Chinese were greatly due to B.'s soundings 
 and reconnaissances pushed into the int 
 On his return, ho published a narrative of the 
 voyage; and in 1S43, in consideration of his services, 
 he was made a post-captain, and knighted. After 
 being employed on surveying service in the East 
 bid;:, he was, in 1S52, appointed to the command 
 of the expedition sent out by government to 
 search for Sir John Franklin. B. has pub] I 
 several other works besides the one already men- 
 tioned, including The Last of the Arctic Voyages 
 (Lond. 1S55) ; Narrative of a Voyage to the East 
 Indies in 1843 — 1848; and Horace Edward Brenton, 
 a novel (Lond. 1S56). 
 
 BELCHI'TE, a town of Spain, in the province of 
 Saragossa, about 22 miles south-south-east of the 
 city of that name, celebrated as the place where, in 
 June 18, 1S09, the French, under Sucnet, completely 
 routed the Spanish under General Blake, capturing 
 all their guns, 10 in number, with a loss of only 40 
 men. 
 
 BELE'M, a town of Portugal, on the right bank 
 of the Tagus, 2 miles south-west of Lisbon, of 
 which it may be said to form a fashionable suburb. 
 It has an iron foundry, a custom-house, and quaran- 
 tine establishment, a tower defending the entrance 
 of the river. It is historically interesting as the 
 place from whence Vasco de Gama set sail on his 
 voyage of oriental discovery. It was taken in 
 November 1807 by the French, the royal family of 
 Portugal embarking from its quay for Brazil as they 
 entered. In 1833 it was occupied by Don Pedro's 
 troops. 
 
 BELE'M, or PARA', a city of Brazil, on the right 
 bank of the Para, the most southerly arm of the 
 estuary of the Amazon. See Paka. 
 
 BE'LEMNITES (Gr. belemnon, a dart or arrow), 
 an interesting genus of fossil cephalopodous Mottusca, 
 the type of a family cahsiBdemnitidce, to the whole 
 of which the name B. is very generally extended, 
 closely allied to the Sepiada;, or Cuttle (q. v.) family. 
 No recent species of B. is known : fossil species are 
 very numerous, and are found in all the oolitic and 
 cretaceous strata, from the lowest lias to the upper 
 chalk, some of which are filled with myriads of their
 
 BELFAST— BELFUY. 
 
 remains. These remains .are generally those of the 
 
 :ilone, which is now known to have been an 
 
 internal shell, entirely included within the hody of 
 
 the animal, like that of the cuttle. The shell, as 
 
 Bfilemnites pistiliformis. 
 
 seen in the most perfect specimens, is double, con- 
 sisting of a conical chambered portion (the , 
 i, inserted into a longer, solid, som 
 conical or tapering, and pointed sin ath. The space 
 between the phragmocone and sheath is occupied 
 cither with radiating fibres or eoni L i. The 
 
 chambers of the shell are connected by a tube 
 ( iphunde), so that the animal probably had the 
 power of ascending and descending rapidly in the 
 water. Its arms are known, from some singularly 
 perfect specimens, to have been famished with 
 horny hooks; and these it probably fixed upon a 
 fish, and descended with its prey to the bottom, like 
 the hooked calamaries (q. v.) of the present seas. 
 
 ins of an ink-bag, like that of the cuttle, have 
 been found in the last and largest chambers of the 
 ];. | l,it remains of this chamber, which must have 
 contains) all the viscera of the animal, are very 
 rarely praerved, the shell having been very thin 
 at this part. The part most commonly found, and 
 i :■ in rally known by the name of belcmnite, is the 
 so-Hd mucro, or point. into which the sheath was pro- 
 
 ,1 behind the cumbered shell. These bum 
 ed such popular names-.. ' 
 fied Fiiijjfrcrs, Spectre-candles, Picks, Thundi I 
 &c, from? their form, or from the notions entertained 
 of their natt-ire and origin. B. appear to ha\ i 
 
 of very differ -ent sizes; in some of the I. est, the 
 mere naicro is -K> inches long, and the entire animal, 
 with its arms outstretched, must have been several 
 feet in length. 
 
 BELFA'ST, the chict town of the county of 
 Antrim and province of Dlsiter" '.. ','; ''md. 
 great seaport stands at the embouchure of the 
 
 L, at the head of Belfast Lough, pj 
 from the Irish Sua, 101 north of Dublin, 36 
 north-east of Armagh, 130 south-west i l 
 and 150 north-west of Liverpool. The site is 
 
 ■ on an alluvial deposit not more than (i 
 feet above the si a-level, and reclaimed f 
 
 es of the Laj in. On the land-side, it is 
 picturesquely bounded by the ridges of Divis (1567 
 feet high), and Cave Hill (1185 feet). The j 
 
 i of 1!. is indicative of life and prosperity, 
 exhibiting all the trade and manufacture of I 
 gow and Manchester, with far less of their 
 and dirt Many of the st. ially in the 
 
 White Linen Hall quart 1 built and spe 
 
 The mercantile quarter lies chiefly near the 
 sive and well-built quays. The manufactor 
 
 y on the rising-ground on the north an 
 town. Numerous villas sprinkle tl 
 
 Malone to tin' south. The chief public boil 
 are— Queen's Coll ■ ■. a beautiful structure in the 
 Tudor Btyle, opened in 1' 19, with a revenue of 
 £7000 from the consolidated fund . ademi- 
 
 cal Institution, incorporated in 1810 
 London University, and comprising an elemi 
 and collegiate dep 
 
 am, Linen Hall, Coiniuerci.il and Corn Ex- 
 S, churches, and b;m!;s. The fine i 
 Gardens of the Natural History Soi 
 17 acres. B. is the chief seat of the trade and 
 manufactures of Ireland, and is second only to 
 
 Dublin as an Irish port. The staple manufactures 
 are linen and cotton. The linen manufacture dates 
 from 1637. Cotton-spinning by machinery dates from 
 1777, and linen from I I, In 1S5S, there were in 
 1 suburbs 33 steam-spinning mills, en- 
 • 32,000 hands, while the number of such mills 
 in all Ireland was 70. There is a Loyal Society in 
 1!. to promote the growth of tlax in Ireland. The 
 chief branches of industry are linen and 
 cotton weaving, bleaching, dyeing, calico-prin 
 and iron founding. There arc many Uoro 
 oil mills, chemical works, breweries, ship-building, 
 rope and sail-cloth yards. The inland trade is ear- 
 by the Lagan, a canal, and three railways. 
 The I ''. harbour improvements have, since 1S31, cost 
 £450,000 ; yet vessels drawing much above 15 feet 
 r have to d part of their cargoes at 
 
 I 1 yle on the Lough, -1 miles below Belfast. The 
 chief exports arc I i I cotton goods, 
 yarn, flax, tow, cattle, and provisions. In 
 the imports were valued at £6,1 having 
 
 doubl ( in 15 years, ami the exports at ;4,63 
 
 istercd shipping, in 1S">7, was - 
 
 85,377 tons. In 1858, 8120 vessels, of 1,293,309 
 
 tons, entered and cleared the port, The most 
 
 important branch of commerce is the Channel 
 
 bout 40 steamei regularly between 
 
 I Scotland, 
 
 besides Dublin and Deny. The foreign trade is 
 
 at. Pop., 1821, 37,000 ; 1851, 100,300. B. 
 
 is governed by a corporation of 10 aldermen — one 
 
 mayor— and 30 councillors. It returns 2 
 
 'I by 
 Edward ...... jo in the 14th c, but became an import- 
 ant to v. charter in 1611. In 
 the great civil war, the inhabitants at lirst ; 
 the pai but afterwards became royalists. In 
 loyalty to A regium 
 doiiimi,' at 1 
 
 b dan Synod i f Ulster. (1871— pop. 174,394) 
 
 BELFOItT, or BE] 
 
 the department of the ilaut Bhin. It is si I 
 
 at the southern base of the Vosges, on th 
 bank of the Savoureuso, and i~ of the 
 
 d class, bavin 
 bra. I Vauban. B. has a superior tribunal, a 
 ; -ial court. of customs, and public 
 
 library. Pop., exclusive of garrison, 5284. Iron, 
 paper, hats, print ., are manufac- 
 
 tured nt B., which is the entrepot of a great part 
 of the French tr. (many, and 
 
 i land. B. \ ria in 
 
 1018. Trior to that time, it was a place of little 
 th. B. was v the allies in January 
 
 1S14. 
 
 BE'LFRY (Fr. btffiroi), a word of doubtful origin ; 
 
 a bell-tower, or turret, usually forming part of 
 
 ■ h, but sometimes detached from it— as at 
 
 m end Berkel ■>. in I ' more 
 
 oily in Italy. See (' Where a 
 
 i was built in a dee]' y was 
 
 a nei hbouring height, as at St 
 
 ..all, and at Ardclach and 
 id. At this last place, the bell was 
 on a tree, as was corn? i in Scotland 
 
 i of the 17th a WheretheB.com 
 a men' turret, it is often called a bell-gable 01 
 
 1 is always pla end of the 
 
 ; a smaller one being i placed at 
 
 end, which is for the sanctus bell, for which 
 
 i over the altar. Municipal belfries 
 
 i on the continent than in this 
 
 country. When the 1 B into 
 
 ■nee after the 12th C, th. I their 
 
 right to have bells to call the burghers I r
 
 BELG.-E-BELGIOJOSO. 
 
 council or for action. Tims detached belfries arose 
 ,,, the heart of towns. At a later date, they often 
 
 became part of the maison da villi; or town-house, as 
 
 Belfry or Bell-gable, Idbury, Oxfordshire 
 
 at Glasgow and Aberdeen, in this country; at St 
 Quentin and Douai, in France; and at Brussels, in 
 Belgium. 
 
 BE'LGiE, the name given by Caesar to the war- 
 like tribes which in his time occupied that one of 
 the great divisions of Gallia which embraced part of 
 the basin of the Seine, the basin of the Somme, of 
 the Scheldt, of the Maas, and of the Moselle, which 
 itself belongs to the basin of the Rhine. Their 
 country was level, containing no mountains of any 
 height, except the Vosges in the south. The name 
 seems to have originally designated several power- 
 fid tribes inhabiting the basin of the Seine, and to 
 have been afterwards used by Caesar as a general 
 
 appellation for all the peoples north of that river. 
 These B. were, in all probability, chiefly of Celtic 
 origin, but within their territories were to be found 
 both pure and mixed Germans. 
 
 When South Britain was invaded by Caesar, be 
 
 found that B. from the Opposite shores of Gaul 
 had preceded him, and were settled in Kent and 
 
 Sussex, having driven the aborigines into the interior. 
 The B. in Britain resisted for nearly a century the 
 Roman power, but were finally forced to yield to it. 
 Caesar regarded tlum as German, but they rather 
 arm to have belonged to the Celtic portion of the 
 Gallic Belgie. Certainly, none of the nanus of their 
 three chief towns are Germanic. Aquae Bolifl (Bath) 
 is Latin; Ischalis and Venta (Ilchester and Win- 
 chester), British. 
 
 BELGAU'M, the chief city of a district of tho 
 same name in the presidency of Bombay, situated 
 to the east of the dividing ridge of the West < rhauts, 
 at a height of about 25U0 feet above the sea. Its 
 lat. is 15° 50' N., and long. 74° 30' JO., its distance to 
 the north-west of Dharwar being 42 miles. B. pos- 
 sesses a fort, wdiich, in ISIS, was taken from the 
 Tcishwa by the British. Under its new masters, 
 the place has made considerable progress. It has a 
 superior institution for the education of nj&Vo 
 youths, which is supported at once by the Jteign- 
 bouring princes, tho British government, and private 
 individuals. This seminary, in 1 So.'!, was at i 
 by more than 50 pupils of all grades. M 1848, the 
 citizens spontaneously subscribed a onsiderable sum 
 for the complete reconstruction of their roads an ' 
 lanes — a liberality which, b sides drawing forth 4 :l 
 suppflanentarv Erart «r*public money, roused * uc 
 emulation of adjacent towns and villages. B. lS on e 
 of the principal military stations of the pre sideney, 
 and as such it was, in 1857, the scene of v'otting, if 
 not of mutiny, in common with Kolapj*re, Poonah, 
 Satara, &c. The district of B. contains 5405 square 
 miles, and 1,025,SS2 inhabitants. 
 
 BELGIOJO'SO,atown..f 1/ .mhardy, North Italy, 
 pleasantly situated in a fnr*Jiul plain between the l'o 
 and the Oh-iia, !• miles cast of Pavia. It has a fine 
 aqueduct .oio castle, in which Francis I. spent the 
 night previous to tho disastrous battle of Pavia, in 
 which he was made prisoner. The Austrian general 
 Gyulai made B. his head-quarters after his defeat at 
 Magenta, June 4—5, 1859. Bop. 3000. 
 
 END OF VOL. I. 
 
 Edinburgh : 
 Printed by VT. and It. Chambers.
 
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