G CCcXC Rrccccc Scccc :'< . \j "3 man, father, all. Of these, the third may \J " be considered its primitive and proper it is its name-sound in perhaps all lan- except English, and is that which is assigned to it in comparative grammar. This sound is the purest and fullest iu human speech; it is that which the child learns first and most easily to produce, and its sign stands as if by right at the head of the alphabet. In the oldest languages it is the predominating vowel, and gives them their peculiar fulness and strength. 1'hilolo- gists consider it th ! of the three fundamental vowels ; the other two, i and u (whose primitive and E roper sounds are heard in me and do), seem to ave arisen out of a, by lightening or weakening it (Lat. cadence incidence, calco — incidco). By com- bining with these, n gives ri au, which in their turn c islesce into i and <>.-- In the Phoenician alphabet, the letter A bears the name of aiephj i.e., 'ox.' with reference to its most ancient form, which rudely represented an ox's head. From this came the Greet name alpha. For engraving or tracing on stone or other hard materials, characters com- posed of straight lines are best adapted, and BUch was naturally the earliest form of A and the other letters. It is easy to trace the growth of our small a or a out of the monumental A. In Greek and Roman inscriptions executed hastily or carelessly, the form /\ is often found ; and this, written with a flexible reed, became rounded into £1 . — For A and the other letters as abbreviations, see Abbreviations. l A, as a note in Music, is the major sixth of the scale of < 1, major. fectly in tune to C, it stands in tli'- proportion of 9 of 1. But in this state it would not be a fifth to D, the second note of the scale of C, being a comma too flat, which difference is as 80 to 81. The ear being sensibly offended with this deficiency, the note A is therefore made the least degree higher than perfect— namely, Mr, by which the advantage is gained, that A is a fifth above 1) (|j|'j\ or only deficient in the propori — a deficiency so trilling that the pts th B fifth, D, A, and the sixth. ( '. A, as perfect, alt 1. mathematically calculated, the one istm other too small. — For A Major and A Minor, see Kr.v. Al, a symbol by which first-cl Is are known in Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping (<[. v. ), and by which the operations of shippers of goods and insurers are governed. Sur- veyors appointed by the Bociety examine all \ in course of building, with a view to ascertaining their character, and inscribin r them accordingly in the register. Ade racter of the hull of the vessel ; the figure I. the efficient state anchors, cables, and stores ; when these are insuffi- cient, in quantity or quality, the figure 2 is used. I haracter A is assigned to a new ship for a certain number of years, varying from four to G .: I, according to the material and mode of building, but on condition of tl being statedly surveyed, to see that the efficien maintained. A vessel built under a roof is allowed an additional year on that account. An additional period of one year, and, in certain cases, of two years, is also allowed to vessels whose decks, outside on condition of certain specified repairs. — When . passed the age far the character A. but is still found lit for conveying perishable goods to -iii parts of the world, it is registered A | in red. (The symbol for this class was formerly JB A CAPELLA— ABANDON as! i risk in r 5& in black form the third ind consist of sui till found, on sur- Me goods on s E and [ © ships sufficient to oon- vey goods not lial le one class, for voyages of any length, the other, for shorter A CArELLA, or A LA CAPELLA, in Jim., means, in the church style; it is equivalent to Alia i (q. V.), a time-signature which frequently appears in church-music. It also denotes that the instruments are to play in unison with the or that one part is to be played by a number of instrumental AA, the name of a number of rivers and in the north of France, Holland, Germany, ami Switzerland. As many as forty have been enume- rated. The word is said to be of Celtic origin, but it is allied to the Old German aha, Gothic aliva, identical with the Latin aqua, 'water.' Ach or Aaeli is another form of the same word. Four streams of the name of Aeli fall into the I, I nee. The word, in both forms, occurs as final syllable in many names of places, as, Futda (for- merly Fuldaha), Biberach, Biberich, &c. In the it i, A then (waters, springs), which is the ' .11 name of Aix-la-thapelle (q.v.). Aix, the h name of so many places connected with springs, is derived from Lat. AqucB, which became in old French Aigues, and then Aix. Compare the Celtic Esk, Ex, AJce, Ouse. AALBORG (meaning Eel-town), a seaport in the north of Jutland, with considerable trade ; pop. 8000. AAK, next to tin- Rhine and Rhone, tin river in Switzerland, rises in the glaciers near the Grimsel in Berne, forms the Falls of Hamlck, 200 feet high, flows through Lakes Rrienz and Than, and passing the towns of Interlaken, Thun, Berne, Solothurn, Aaran, Bragg, and Klin joins the Rhine at the village of Coblenz, in Aargau, after a course of nearly L >( H) miles. It is a b 1 stream, ami, though rapid, is navigable for small-craft from Lake Thun. There arc several small rivers of the same name in Germany. AARGAU (ARGOVTE), a canton of Switz on the lower course of the Aar, and having the Rhine I north boundary. Its surface is diversified with hills and valleys, is well wooded, and generally fertile. The area is about 530 sq. miles, and the population in 1860 was nearly 200,000, rather more than half being Protestants. Besides agricultui siderablc manufacturing industry in coi is earned on both in the towns and country, and <>f late m i [n this canton is the castle of Hal or Hapsburg, the original seat of the im family of Austria. The chief town is Aakau, situated on the Aar ; pop. 4G57. AARHUTTS, a seaport on the east coast of Jutland ; pop. 6800. AARON, the elder brother of Hoses, was ap- pointed his assistant and spokesman, and at the giving of the Mosaic Law received for himself and his descendants the hereditary dignity of the Aaron assisted his brother in the : istratinn of public affairs. He died in tli year of his I nut Hor, on the borders of Ldui i. Hi. third son, Eleazar, succeeded him in i 'i-iest. ABACA, or MANILLA HEMP, is the fibre of a species of plantain or banana {Mum trOj a native of the Philippine Isles, where it is exten- sively cultivated. The leaf-stalks are spUt into long stripes, and the fibrous part is then separated from the fleshy pulp. A labourer can in this way prodnce daily 50 lbs. of hemp. Before ISl'o, the qu produced was in but BOfl H " to nearly 3000 tons annually, In .Manilla there is ii rope-work for making ropes of it for naval purposes. They are very durable, but not very flexible. — The dine ol a inui. i ][u*a is used in tropical com it i u.v. AT.ACUS, an instrument seldom seen exi ' , where it 1 to make the ele- mentary operations of arithmetic palpable. It n of a frame with a number of p wires, on which or counters are Cliineso Abacus. In ancient times, ii l ii practical reckoning, and is said to 1 still in China and elsewhere. — Abacus Pythag meant the multiplication-table. — Abai is. in arch., is a square or oblong level tablet on the capital of a column, and supporting the entablature. In the Doric, old Ionic, and Tuscan orders, the abacus is Doric Abacus. Inr oblong ; but in the new Ionic, Corinthian, IB i ; . the abacus 1; with truncated angles. Square marble tabli 1 iiitlii.-in Abacas. into walls, and fields with figures in them in in mosaic floors, were al i hided under the term abacus in ancient architecture. ABAD (allied both in etymology and meaning to the Eng. aboil<\, an affix to nanus of Pel as Hyderabad, the 'dwelling' or city of II ABAISSE (lowered), a term used in Heraldry, the fesse, or any other armorial fign led, or situated below the c atre of tin it is said to be abai ■'. k to back), affronli or COnfronti (facing or fronting one anc ' (sharpened at the point), aile (winged), are other heraldic term3 borrowed, like aba the French, and U3ed by En not differing essentially from their ordinary signifi- cations in that language. ABANDON (Abandoning, Abandonment). This term, in its different grammatical and etymol forms, has various applications in legal phras but all more or less corresponding to its [ i g. The following are exami Abandoning as Action is a technical exp: in Scotch legal procedure, signifying the act by which a plaintiff — or ' pursuer,' as be is called in Scotland — abandons or withdraws from his aei the payment of the costs incurred, and with the appn 'val of the judge before whom the action had pre- viously been conducted. The same purpose is effected in England by the plaintiff in a Court of Common ABANDONMENT— ABAUZFT. Low either entering a No" I' ■■', or at the • onl. In the Courts of Equity, the plaintiff may move the diemiaml of his own bill, or the defendant may move to dismiss the suit for uxmt of pro '•'. Suits may also abode by the death or supervening incapacity of the parties. See Action. Abandonment, in Marine Insurance, signifies the relinquishment to the insurer or underwriter of goods or property saved from a shipwreck, and of all interest in the same, previous to the owners' demanding payment in terms of the policy. See Insci: 1 Ab.\ of Railways, By the act of parliament 13 and 14 Vict. c. 83, facilities are afforded for the A. of railways, and the dissolution of railway companies by consent of the holders of three-fifths of the shares or stock, and by warrant of the ' Commissioners of Railways,' or, as it now is by the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 64. by warrant of the Board of Trade, who, in this respect, as well as in other matters regarding the regulation of railways, have aupenedi d the former body. .See Railway. Abandoning or deserting seamen, by masters of merchant-vessels, is, by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 30, a misdemeanour, and punishable by imprisonment. . MKN. ABATEMENT. This is a term used in various senses in the law of England, as follows : 1. A of Id, where a stranger without right enters and gets possession. See Freehold. 2. A of 2Vut«- . which is a i nst injury by nuisance. See Nuisance. .". Plea in A. by means of which nlant, on some formal and technical ground, to abate or quash the action. See Action. 4. A of Legacies and Debit, where the estate is insufficient for payment in full. See Id I 5. A. by the death of parties to actions at law and suits in equity, which are in consequence stopped till revived. The marriage of a plaintiff, the change of interest and right, and other similar con- siderations, have also the effect of abating legal pro- ceedings. See Action. G. A. or discount, in Commercial Law. Bee t w. Law. 7. A. or deduction of duties levied by the Custom-house. 9 ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, is a mark placed over a parti rmu coat-af-arms of a family, significative of some base or ungcntleman-like act on the part of the bearer. is then said to be abated, or lowered in dignity. Guillim nine sue] all of which are of either one or the of the two i and sanguin to him who revokes his challenge; the I r to him who offends the . or widow, om his miO, due to him who overmuch boa his martial acts ; and the like. Marks oi gener- ally Lie author!' . and Montagu is of opinion that we shall seek in vain for a more / X menta are carefully to be distin- r ( J \J pushed from such subtractive •atinns in coats-of-arms as y juniority of birth, or 1 from the principal house or senior branch of the family. are commonly called marks of cadency, ires. The latter term is generally applied to marks of bastardy, o, c Abatement. which might with less impropriety be classed with abatem ABATTIS, a species of intrenchment, and one of the oldest. It consists of trees felled (abattu.) and laid side by side, with the branches directed towards the enemy, the softer twigs being cut off. It thus forms a breastwork to fire over, and is very useful in field-works and in the out-works of regular fortifications, for retarding the enemy's advance. ABATTOIR (Fr. abattre, to f. 11 or destroy), a use. The use of this term has passed .gland from France, where the example was first given of public establishments for the slaughter of animals used as food, on such a scale and with such sanitary arrangements 03 to obviate the injuri- ous effects that are found to result from the existence of private slaughter-houses in the midst of a crowded population. This great public improvement origin- ated with Napoleon, who passed a decree in 1807 for the erection of public abattoirs. The extensive works connected with this design were nearly com- pleted before the fall of the Empire ; but it was not till the close of 1818, that the Parisian butchers ceased to slaughter in their private establishments. There are now five of these abattoirs in Paris — three on the right, and two on the left bank of the - containing 240 slaughter-houses in all — which, both in architectural propriety and completeness of internal arrangement, may be regarded as models of their kind. The charge per head is, for an ox 6 francs, a cow 4 fr., a calf 2 fr., and a sheep 50 cents. Of the appearance and management of one of the great Parisian abattoirs, a good account is given by Sir Francis Head, in his amusing woi! < Uher towns in France have similar abattoirs ; and so have Mantua and Brussels. The erection of similar establishments in Britain is of comparatively recent date. Public slai houses formed part of the plan in the establishment of the new cattle-market in the Metropolis in Copenhagen Fields. Those built are well arranged ; but th in number, and the old system is still in full operation, to the great detriment of the public health. In Edinburgh, an establishment of this kind, excellent in its construction and arrange- ments, was erected by the town-council in 1851. A BATTUTA (ItaL), in Music, in strict or measured time. ABAUZ1T, Fin-.ny, a French savant, was born doc, L679, and died at Geneva His parents were Protestant, and at the •ion of the Edict of Nantes, being only six years of age, he ilty, by his r's contrivance, from the hands of the a tics who wis' 1 ate him into i I .1. Here he prosecuted his studies with such int '".that he became in abuost all thi '• d in ■I Holland in 1008, whew he made the acquaintance of Newton, Baj Bier eminent writers. Newton, in sending him one of his c i compli- m r.t I I '. and me.' King William wished to retain him permanently in England, and to that end made him several advai Sera; but his no for his mother induced him to return to < translated t! t into French in 17^(> ; and for his lucid investigations into the ancient history of Geneva, he received from its authori- ties the rights of citizenship. He likewise wrote numerous theological and archaeological tr . leaving one or two scientific and artistic itions in manuscript, but the greater )>ortion of these were burned by his heirs, who were Catholics. ABBADIE-ABBOT. His orthodoxy has lx-on disp i some of his that he was a Unitarian. Hi.- p. rsonal qu •' L him unii I iuld not bear to praise a contem- porary, p ii i .1 ins solitary panegyric on A. ABBADIE, Am.iink ami Abnould-Mice t w ,, brothers, French travellers, known for their reeearches in Abyssinia, from lS.'i" i .. I-- 1 i. \ ing to their own account, their objects won- purely ethnological anil but they were regarded by certain En llera and m aries as agents employed by the French government for religious and political purposes ; and were ai of inducing Pnnce Dme to expel the Lutheran missionaries from Adoa. Arnould returned a second time to Abyssinia in 1853, and continui d his explor- ations for a year. Tl oi their travels appeared from time to time in the French ^graphical journals. They an chiefly valuable in a philological ami ethnological point of view. ABBANDONAMENTH (Hal.), in Music, with sol I- abandonment ; deepondingly. ABBAS, the umlo of Mohammed, the Arabian prophet, and the chief promoti rof his religion (d. 652), was the founder of the family of the Abbasides, who ruled as califs of Bagdad from 749 to 12.58, and afterwards exercised the spiritual functions of the califate in Egypt, under the protection of the Mamelukes, tiil 1517, when that dignity passed to the Turkish sultan. Di cendants of this family still live in Turkey and India. — The Abbasedbs in Persia were descended from the race of the Soli, who ascribed their origin to the calif Ali. This race acquired dominion in 1500, and became extinct in 1736. Among them, Abbas I., surnamed the Great, was the most eminent ruler. He came to the throne 15SG, and died 1028. His reign was marked by a series of victories over the Turks. In alliance with England, he destroyed, in 1021, the Portuguese colony at Ormuz. ABBAS-MIKZA, a Persian prince, well known by his wars against Russia, was the son of tli Feth-Ali, and was born in 17s:. Abbae po great talents and acquirement . and a love for the manners and culture of the West. When he was yet young, his father made him governor of the province Azerbijan, where, by the help of English officers, he applied himself to the reform of the army. When Persia, in 1811, influenced by France, declared war against Russia, Abbas was com- mander-in-chief of the main body of the Persian army, but was un-u cessful Persia lost, at the peace of Gulistan, in 1S13, its remaining in the Caucasus, and was forced to ackr, flag of Russia on the Caspian S i. At the u tion of Abbas, a new war broke out in 1826, ; Feth-Ali and Russia. The prin :e fought a second time with extraordinary bravi > v a1 th head of the army, but was again obliged to yield to the riority of th Liu i mil to CO lude p on February 22, 1S28, at Turkmantschai, by which Persia lost all share in Armenia. In tins treaty, Russia had guaranteed to Abbas the succession to the Persian throne, the consequence of which was that he became dependent on Russia, and was obliged to give up his connection with England. When, in 1829, the Russian ambassador at Teheran was murdered in a popular tumult, which he had provoked by imprudence, Abbas went in person to >St Petersburg, to prevent any ill consequences, and to maintain the peace. Ho was i eived by the emperor with kindness, and went back to Persia loaded with presents. He died in 1833. His death was a great loss to his coimtry, although he could not have prevented the encroachments of Russia, His eldest son, Mohammed Mirza, mounted the throne in 1S.14, on the death of Feth-Ali, under the united protection of England and K ABBATE, Niiioi.o Dell, or Niocolo Abati, was born at Modena in 1509 or 1512, and died at i 1571. II' was an able and skilful arti I in painting, and was a follower both of B o; yet he rather blent the two Btj i tthi r separat iy. His influi nee is i I art which prevailed dining the 1 ; Bry. Hie earlier works are to be seen at Modena; his later ones at B among which is his ' Adoration of the Shepherds,' it; but he is best known by the pi hi it i for tic i ntain- bleau, from ti of 1 'rimaticcio. These, how- ever, with tl ■- , ic ption of the tabli aux representing tli-' bistorj of Alexand r the A.U.C. (.46 Urbe Condita), From the building of the city — that is, Rome. B.A or AB. (Arlium Baccalaurcue), Bachelor of Arts. Bart, or Bt., Baronet B.C., Before Christ B.C.L., Bachelor of Civil Law. B.D., Bachelor of Divinity. B.M., Bachelor of Medicine. Bp., Bishop. C. (Centum), A hundred ; chapter. C.A., Chartered Accountant. C.B., Companion of the Bath. C.C., Cains College. C.E., Civil Engineer. Clk., Clerk. C.M.G., Companion of the Order of St Mieln St George. Crim. Con., Criminal conversation. Ct, Count, cwt, Hundredweight. D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Law. G D.D., Doctor of Divinit v ; / ' D.G. (/ I. >>,' said ), The said ; the same. or Debtor. D.V*. (Deo Volenti), God willing. dwt, penny-weight 1 1 pie. Etc. (Et altera), And the o on. Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. Fellow of the B P.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defend I ith. ., of the Geological Society. F.L.S., Fellow of the Limuean Society. Field-marshal F.R.A.8., Fellow i 1 Astronomical, or of the B r.u.i UP., Fellow o F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Sol England. . Fellow of the Royal Geographical Sot K.K.s.. the Royal Soci ty. L., London; E., Edinburgh. F.R.S.S.A.. r. Hi. iv oi the Royal Scottish So Arts. . Fellow of the Society of Antiqi l-'.s.A.Seut., Da of Scotland. F.8.S., Fellow of the Stat al . iety. F.Z.S., Fellow of the Zoo G.C.B., (Knight) Grand Cross of the Bath. G.C.H., (Knight) Grand Cross of B G.C.M.G., (Knight) Grand Cross of .St Michael and orge. Gr., Greek ; Lat. Latin ; Ital., Italian ; &c. H.E.I. C.S., Hon. East India Company's Service, II. M.S., Jlis or Her Majesty's Service, or Ship. H.K.H., His or Her 1: lb. or fbid. (J ' the i une place. I.l'.TH.U.S. (.*««), lesous Christos, Theoti lluioa, Soter — Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour. Id. (Idem), The same ; (Idua), The Ides. i.e. (Id est), That is. I.H.S.* Iesus Hominum Salvalor, Jesus the Saviour of men ; In hdc (Cruce) Salus, In this (cross) salvation. Incog. (Incognito, Ital.), Unknown. 1. N.U.I. (Ietua Ncaaremu Hex Iudaorum), Jesus of Nazareth, king of the 3 Inst (/, menee understood), Instant, of the present (month) ; Institute. I.P.D. (In Prtesenlid Doi Iu presence of the Lords (of Session). J.C. (Juris Oonsultut), Juris-consult J.P., Justice of the Peace. J.V. (or P.) D. (Juris Utrivsqw Doctor), Doctor both of Civil and of Canon Law. Kal. (KalendcB or Kalendis), The Kalends. K.B., Knight of the Bath. K.C.B.. uunander of the Bath. K.C.H., Knight Commander of the Order of over. Commander of St Michael and St George. K.G., Knight of the Garter. K.H., Knight of Hanover. KM. Knight of Malta. K.P., Knight of St Patrick. K.T., Knight of the Thistle. K. r. /., Km t« >.:m,u!ta (Kai ta leipomena), same as ' Et cjetera,' • This was originally IH2, the first three Greek letters of the name Je6Us ; but its origin having hern lost Fight of, by fubstituting S for 2, and then mistaking the (Jr. H [«aj for Lat. II, a signification was subsequently found out km letter. The symbol was still furttier altered by converting the horizontal stroke, which was the usual sign of abbrcvintlun, Into a cross, as it now generally appears, Irl S. ABBREVIATIONS— ABD-EL-KADER. Lb. (libra), Pound. L.D., Lady Day. LL.B. (Leyum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws (the plural being denoted by tin; double L). LL.D. j r of Laws. I 8 . Licentiate of the Koyal College of Sur- geons. I ... Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. L.8.D. (Libra, Solidi, Denarii), Pounds, shilling-!, pence. M. (Mille), A thousand. M.A. or A.M. (Allium Mayister), Master of Arts. Mass.. Massachusetts ; Vt, Vermont ; Pa., Pennsyl- vania ; &c. See United States. M.D. (Medi p. Doctor of Medicine. M.P., M I arliainent M.R.C.S., Her ! red the I loyal College of Surgeons. Mil. I. A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., Manuscript; MSB., .Manuscripts. Mug. D. (Mwriaz Doctor), Doctor of Music. M.W'.S . Member of the Wernerian Society. N.B. (Nota bene), Mark well : observe. Nem. con. (Nemine contradicente), or Nem. dis3. (X* mine dissidenle), No one contradicting or dis- ; unanimously. N.P., Notary Public. N.S., New Style, O.S., Old Style. Oxon. (Oxonienais), Of Oxford. 07., Ounce. P., President ; professor ; &c. P.C., Privy Councillor. P.C.S., Principal Clerk of Session. Per ann. (Per annum), By the year. Per cent. (Per centum), By the hundred. Ph.D. (Philosophic Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. P.M. (Post Meridiem), After noon. I'.l'.. Parish priest. pp.. Pages. Pro tem. (Pro tempore), For the time. Prox. (Proximo), in the next (month). P.S. (Post geriptum), Postscript Q., Query or Question. Q.C., Queen's Counsel Q.E.D. demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated. Q.E.I". [Quod tratfaciatdvm), Which was to be done. Q.S. (Quan , Enough. <]. v. (Quod ridi |, Which see. . King or Queen. B.A., Boyal Academician ; Royal Artillery. U.K., Boyal Engineers. R.M., Royal Mari R.N.. Boyal Navy. ELS V. Soy ! Scottish Academician. S., South ; saint ; seconds. Meet, same as viz. N.I,.. Solicitor at Law. S.M. (f>a Majesli), llis or Her Map -ty. S.P.Q.B. (Si '• Romanus), the Roman senate and people. . tb ■ following ; Sqq., do. in the plural. . Solicitor before the Sopreme Courts. S.T.P. (Saruta Theoloyice Professor), Professor of T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. Ult (Ultimo — mense understood), In the last (month). tJ.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States ; United Service. V.D.M. (Yuhi Ltd Minister), Preacher of the Word. Po wit ; namely. W.s.. Writer to the Signet ristian, 4c. Vc, Y' ; Ilie, That. (This use of Y originated in the Anglo-Saxon character fi,\ ■juivalentto the modern th. In manuscripts, this ch... itraU j into a form like a black letter y, retained in these contractions after its origin and real sound had been lost sight of.) Besides the generally current abbreviations given above, other short methods of statement are fre- quently employed in particular circumstances. In the present work, for instance, in which the saving of space is of great mon. tie or head- ing of a subject recurs in the body of the article, it is generally — especially if a sented by its initial 1 A. for . Kader. Two dates thus (121 j — 1250j. following the name of a king, a pope, &c., indicate briefly the beginning and end of his reign or term oi oil thus (b. 1215— d. 1250), the dates of his birth and death. The meaning of these and similar contrac- tions is in general sufficiently obvious from the connection in which they stand. Si ADD signifies in Arabic ' slave ' or ' servant,' aud enters, along with the name of God, into the com- position of many proper names; as, Al 4- Allah. nt of God;' Abd-el-Kader, 'servant of the mighty God ; ' Abd-ul-Latif, ' servant of the gracious God,' &c. ABD-EL-KADER, properly El-Hadji-Abd-el- Kadcr- Ulid-Mahiddui, is the descendant of a Marabout family of the race of Haschein, who trace their pedigree to the califs of the lineage of Fatiina. I a born at Ghetna, an educational institution of the Marabouts, near Mascara, which belonged to his family. His father, who died in 1834, being esteemed a very holy man, had exercised influence over his countrymen, which influence he bequeathed to his son. In his eighth year, A. made a pilgrimage to Mecca with his father; and in 1S27, he visited Egypt, where, in Cairo and Alexandria, he first came in contact with western civili us enthusiasm and melancholy were the most prominent features of his character. He early shewed an uncommonly gifted mind, and at the chief school of Fez he acquired such know- ledge as composes Arabian science. A. was free from the savage cruelty, as well as from the sensuality, of the Arabs ; he maintained purity of manners, and did not suffer himself to lje misled by anger or passion. Although he firmly adhered to the faith of his nation, and used their fanaticism as one of his most important sources of influence, yet he had no sympathy with the tana! ance of the majority among them. His public i at the time of the conquest of Algiers by the French. No sooner was the power of the Turks brok.' i trills of the ice of Oran seized the opportunity to make Ives independent Having got possession . they elected A. as thi ;r emir, who soon succeeded in a authority over a number of the neighboui He now attacked the French ; fought on December 3, 1833, and January 6, against General Desmichels, then commanding in Oran, obliged the latter to enter into a treaty with him. In the interior of the country, the power I spread in an alarming way. In consequence of vid • hiefs, he became master of Miliaua and Medi a. All the cities and trilies of the provinces of Oran and Titcri ackn. . their sultan; till distant I him ambassadors with presents. It was .. '-'es broke out 1 I him and the French. The commencement was favourable to him, for the fir ■; us of . tzel kd to that fatal retreat, during ABDICATION— ABDOMEN 1 . which the French army was attacked at Makl i. on June 2S. 1S.'!5, by the whole assniilj. i nearly 20,000 cavalry, and Buffered ul defeat. ! t nggle of six year-;, A. found I I'll (IS U) to take refuge in Marocco. II. i h ncceeded in getting np a sort of crusade against the enemies of Islam ; and the arms of I , . i now turned against Marocco for the count' i to A. An t the decisive battle of tsly (l s l I) ti sultan was obliged to give up A.'s . luit soon found that the latter v. as i [ual in power, and that he could not even pre- vent him from in irehii I. Hi hi. both in October 1845, and in March 1847. Bui : of A was inc.-. In the aightof the 11th I Ii on the Moorish camp, in wl defeated, and had to resolve on Bight, Se m i i ly have secured his own safety, but he would not abandon In ;.i bached follow era, men, v. omen, and cl to the plunder and massacre of the Mara After a heroic combat on the 21st December, lie effected their retreal across the Muluia into the I ory of Algerie, where they mostly surrcndi"! d II" himself, with a few hoi resolved to fight his way through to the aouth ; but coming to the Pass of Eerbous, he found the way closed, and was received with musketry. Dis- ii, A. surrendered, on December 2'-', IS 17, to General Larnoriciere and the Due d'Aumale, upon condition that he should be per- mitted to withdraw cither to Egypt or to St Jean d'Acrc. The French government, who at last saw the man in their power who had given them so much (rouble for fifteen years, refused to ratify this A. was embarked with his family and Bent to Toulon, whence he was removed, in January 7, lsis, to Fort Lamalgue, afterwards to Pau, and finally to the Chateau d'Amboise. He was liberated in 1852 by Louis Napoleon, and bad Brussa, in Asia Minor, assigned as a residence. Since the destruction of Brussa by an earthquake in 1855, he has been permitted to reside in Constantinople. The ex-emir has several children, both male and female. See Delacroix, Sistoire Privieet Politique ,r.\i.,i-,r-K,«i.r (] i ; Bautruche, Vied? Aid- d-Kader (Paris, 1848). ABDICATION is the act of giving up an office, generally the office of ruler or sovereign. It is rarely done out of pure preference of a private station, but is generally the result of vexation and disappoint- ment. It was perhaps voluntarily, and from being wearied with dominion, that Diocletian, and along with him Maximian, abdicated (305). Christina of Sweden retired from the throne (1G54) out of prefer- ence for the freedom of private life, but wished I ill to exercise the rights of a sovereign. Charles V. laid down the crown (155G) because his great schemes had failed. Philip V. of Spain did so (1721) in a lit of melancholy, but resumed it on the death of his son. Amadeus of Savoy abdicated (1494) to become a priest. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia, who abdi- I in 17-'io, wished to recall the Btep, but was not allowed. Louis Bonaparte resigned the crown of Holland, because he woidd not consent to treat that country as a province of France. Charles Kmanuel • .I Sardinia retired from the throne in 1802, not finding himself equal to the crisis; and the same was the case with Victor Emanuel in 1S19. William I. of the Netherlands resigned (1S40), as his policy had become impossible from the turn of affairs in Belgium. Foreign force compelled the abdication of Augustus of Poland (1707), and later, that of laus Leszczynski (1735) and of Poniatowski (1705) ; as well as that of Charles IV. of Spain (1,m is), and of Napoleon (1814 and 1S15). Insurrec- tions have been the most frequent cause of forced abdications. The early history of th" Scandinavian kingdoms abounds in instances. In England the compulsory abdication of Richard II. (1399) early example. In the case of James II., it was disputed whether the kins bad 'abdicated' or ed.' Mure recent limes saw I Oar! V (1830) and Louis-Philippe (1848) retin storm of revolution, without the conditions they made b led. The abdication of Ferdinand of Austria (1848) was an indiri of the of the Mar of revolutions; that of Charles Albert of Sardinia (1849), of the battle of Novara. Of sevei i i ■ i ■ cases anion; (Jen . -. tic that of I.udwig of Bavaria (ISIS), 'lie instance is that of Soulouque, Emperor of Haiti, who has (Jan. 1850) rather been driven from his domi- nions than abdicated In some countries, the king can abdicati be pleases ; but in England the constitutional relation ii the crown and the nation being of the nature of a contract, the king or queen, it is considered ean- not abdicate without the consent of parliament. It is, however, said that the king does abdicate, or. to Bpeak perhaps more con i tly, an A. may be pre- sumed, and acted on by the people, if Ins conduct politically and overtly is inconsistent with, and sub- of, the system of constitutional government, of which the qualified monarchy of his office forms part. At the conference between the two Hon Parliament previous to the passing of the statute which settled the crown on William 1 1 1., it would appear that the word 'abdicated' with to King James II. was advisedly used instead of 'deserted' — the meaning, it is presumed ' that King James had not only deserted his i but that by his acts and deeds, of which the said ion formed part, he had, in view of the con- stitution, ceased to have right to the throne. From this it may be inferred that A. was considered to have a twofold political signification, involving maladministration as well as desertion. The Scotch Convention, however, more vigorously and dis- tinctly resolved that King James ' had fore [forfeited] the crown, and the throne was become vacant.' ABDO'MEN. The trunk of the human body is divided by the diaphragm into two cavities — the upper being the thorax or chest, and the under, the abdomen or belly. Both the cavity and the viscera 10 U Organs of the Abdomen. 1. Diaphragm. 2. Gall-bladder. 3. Pyloric end of Stomach. 4. Right Lobe of Liver. 5. Duodenum. C. Great end of Stomach 7. Spleen. 8. Piece of Caul, or Omentum. 9. Pancreas (Sweetbread). 10. Small Intestine (Jejunum). 11. Great Intestine (Colon). 12. Small Intestine (Ilium). ABDOMEN— ABDUCTION. it contains are included in the term A. It con- tains the liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidnej well at the stomach, small intestine, and the colon. The lower bowel, the bladder, and internal organs of generation lie in the lowest part of the cavity, which is called the pelvis. The A. is lined by a membrane, tie- peritoneum, which is folded over the i ci i ', allowing them a certain freedom of motion, but keeping them in their proper re] to each other. The A. i< divided externally by two horizontal lines into time principal region* ■ the upper or epigastric, the middle or umbilical, and the lower or hypogastric The.-r are . tin subdivided by two vertical lines the side-divi being called the hypochondriac, lumbar, and iliac . . 1 1 pi ; u elj ; the names i pigaatric and I plied i.i a i i ■! bo middle divisions oi thi two t ppi r | rincipal region i ; w bile the middle divi ion oi tie 1" .-;■ 1 1. . 1 the region oi the pubis. Diseases oi tie abdominal viscera are frequent, and chiefly consist either of chronic disorders of the dig fcive organs, or oi derangements of the nerve-plexu esand there situated. These di orders announce th unserves partly in bodily pain, and partly in mental affections, such as hypochondria and hysterics. AjBDOMBN, in Entomology, the last of the three i the liodyof an insect is divided. It is composed of a number of rings or e igments, frequently nine, more or h-.s distmct from each Other. It contains a portion of the intestines and the sexual oralis. In the perfect insect, its s, nt. bear no legs nor wings ; but the hind-legs of larva or eati-q.ill.irs, which afterwards disappear, are attached to them. In many insects, its last mi ill i bear appendages of various uses and forms, as pincers, stings, borers or ovipositors, &c. ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, in the I.inna-an arrangement, an order of Fishes including all the Osseous Fishes of which the ventral tins are placed upon and beneath the abdomen, and so in hi.nl the pectoral fins. Subsequent natur li have thought it right in classifying Fish to give a I i In i place to other characters; and in the SJ Stem of Cuvier, the name A. is given to an order of much more limited extent, a subdivision of the ifalacopterygii or Soft-rayed Osseous Fishes, distinguished by having the ventral tins placed beneath the abdomen and not attached to the bones of the shoulder. It includes the Cyprinidw (Carp, Minnow, &c), Exnciibn (Pike, ,'■,,-.), Sihu-i'la; Sel- la (Trout, Salmon, &c), and Clupeida (Herring, &c). _ ABDUCTION, in the criminal law of England, signifies the unlawful taking away of the person of a female. Such is the usual limitation of the word ; although, under the Jewish law, and subsequently according to the principles oi the Civil law, the A. or 'stealing' of the per on was applied to the male m ... s.;v.eii as to women, coming more nearly to wl understand by Kidnapping (q. v.). In the Civil law, the offence was called / ' or crimen plagii, under which name it still has place in the Scotch criminal law, and, in practice, is applied to the A. of children of either : , i of women generally. Hie A. may be accomplish,,! either by force ,>r 1,;, any fraudulent or sinister means; and this latter quality seems more appropriate to the strict meaning of the term, as ,1 rived from the Latin v • 1 1 > abducere, to hid off, or induce, or persuade away. This subject will be best explained under the heads to which we have already refc ml. 1. Abduction or Child.— It is provided by the 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 21, that if any person shall maliciously, cither by force or fraud, lead or take away, or decoy or entice away, or detain any child uinl, r the age of ten years, with intent to deprive ! rent or parents, or other person having hoe lawful charge of si ■• ih- -possession of such child, or with intent to steal any article on ii or shall with any such intent as af- or harbour such child, kno ime t > have been so stolen or entio -1, . very such offi nder shall be guilty of felony, and .-lull be bah!,- to be transported for seven years, or imprisoned, « without hard labour, for any term not more than two years, and also, if a male, to be whipped, if the ii ,11 so think fit. 'Ih,- Scotch law on this subject is more severe than the English, and there also a distinction is taken between stealing a child, at The stealing a child is in that legal system a capital crime. Sir Archibald Alison, in his work oi Principles of the Criminal Lair ,/' N, ,,//,,,,,/ fp, -jsni, says: 'This [sf aling a child] is obviou I of the very greatest atrocity, from the unequalled a -hi;, and distr « hich it m o arilj .. lict en the unfortunate parents who are in this cruel manner bereaved of their offspring From earliest times, accordingly, this atrocious offi ncc has been punished with death by the .Scotch law. No* is it any defence that the child is taken av. affi ction to its.-lr, or from any other motive, and hot for the sake of lucre, taken in its ordinary sense, for th.- detainer has at least that advantage and benefit which he coveted in taking away the child ; and thi is sufficient to constitute theft in the estimation of the law.' The same principle is recognised by the 1 a ,-. - i England, which holds that as the offence of A. is positively prohibited, th,- absence of a Corrupt motive will n,,t be a I large. i- on, in the same work (p. 630), Sir Archibald lays it down that 'The wickedly ami felon, enticing or inducing an infant child to leave its parents or guardians without their knowled consent is a crime at common law;' and in Bupport of this he refers to a case where the prisoni r. who was a teacher of elocution, and was desirous ' a little child to recite poetry to his aud applied to a girl, an infant of i the Orphan Hospital I] ! on her, by pro- of tine clothes, and making a lady of her, to leave the bespital, and coin,- t , him, where she was soon found after in his custody. This was done at clandestine interviews with the child, and without tin- knowledge or concurrence of her i had placed her in the hospital. '11,,- flight of the accused, who was out on bail, prevented any furthi r lure in the ease, beyond his outlawry. 2. Abduction op Wife. — Blacl Stephen loth lay down that tl. may be either by fraud and persuasion or op.-n violence; though the law supp rce and con- straint in the former case as well as in tin- ; the wife having no legal power t-> cor remedy to the husband is :u action by which he ' i ra int. the possession of his wife, but dan for the A. of her; and by statute •'< Edw. I. e. l.'i, tlie offend r b dl al o be impi - om l t* ■ ] fined at the of th,- crown. Bo eiown and the husband may tl, refore have this action. The husband is also entitled to i uch a : pen ui de and entice the ■ live separate from him without a sufficient But, although such appears i law of England, it is too antiquated, and is quite I t,, tie- pri n "i, dy for the oil, nee, or rather injury in question, will 1 e ppropriately found in the recent act 20 and 2] Vict c. So, to amend the law relating to divorce ABDUCTION-ABD-UK-RAHMAN. ami matrimonial causes, and under wlii. h ill inn- l ther annulled, with, in the case of lull iy i.f tiir wife, tli>- punishment of the adulterers; or the partus may bo 'judicially Beparai 3. op Ward, or Pirn. — By the England, a guardian was always, and ■tion, if his wanl or pupil be taken from him ; but the proper remedy now is by an application to the Court of Chancery, which is the supremi gu rdian of, and lias independent jurisdic- tion over, all the infants in the kingdom, in Soot- land, a Bimilar jurisdiction as to the charge and ly of all Scotch pupils is Court of Session. 4. Abduction os Heiress. — The law on this subject is very distinct. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, it is d that where any woman shall have in! lit or future, in any real or | shall be bob I such interest, if any | ball, from motives of lucre, take away or detain Buch woman tst her will, with intent to m lie her, or to cause her to be married or defiled by an;, person; every sue] and every person coun- selling, aiding, or abetting him, shall be guilty of subject to Iran p i f or 1 oi Eor any term not less than seven years, or to imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for any term not four years. By section 'M of the 8amo statute, it is enacted that if any person shall unlawfully take, or cause to be taken, any unmarried girl under sixteen years . out of the possession and against the will of I ther, or mother, or other person havii lawful charge of her; every such ofl I lilty of a misdemeanour, subject to fine or imprisonment, or both, as the court shall awa It is an offence within the statute to take away y of her putative father a natural child under sixteen years of age. the 10th Geo. IV. c. 34, the same law is d to Ireland, with tie's difference in the case resses, that while the ICnglish act applies to 'any woman,' the Irish act provides for the offence iy unmarried girl under eighteen years of The marriage of an heiress under sixteen years of vhen obtained by means of force, may be set on that ground. And the force may be actual or Co: Thus, in law, fraud is hi dent to force ; and ly where (G | both the A. a triage were in fact, they were held in law to be forcible, the consent to both having been obi by fraud. 5. Abduction ok Women generally. — The A. and forcible or fraudulent marriage of women and girls is a felony ; and by 5 and Vict. c. 3S, s. 11, must be tried by o Abduction of \ of, Election, Parliajientaky. ABD-UL-LiATIF, a celebrated Arabian writer of multifarious acquirements, was born at 1161. During hi-i youth, he underwent an iimaziit' amount of mental drudgery, in accordance with the i n fashion of his time, in order to lit himself for a scholar. d in his committing to memory a large number of stai works, suck as the Koran, the novels of Hariri, and not a few grammatical treatises. To com]'! culture in the various branches of Moham lot , he betook himself to Damascus, where the is Saladin had gathered round him the most learned men of the time. Through the liberality of 10 the] FadheL, he > proceed delivered 1 at St Ji :l me intimate with Maimonidea, the great Jewish writer. He rated him— if chienj to the study of me i n | lated into Latin by Professor \'\ I >. lie died ai II, on his way to Mecca, in j i c of his age. ABDUL- MED J ID-KHAN, the Grand ... b of May 1822, and sui father, Mahmud II., July 1, 1839. 'i then in a vei ■ 'I he Egj p- of Nisili (June 29 on Constant party . party wished to lo I Ali. i hakan (the ancient title of the Grand Suit as the onl. capable of uphol i .ih within and without, not been for the intervention o the House of Osman was lost. Tl of July 1S40, from which France kept alfl 1 the young Padishah from sure destruction. M I) ; and the treaty of July 1841, to which France subsequently adhered, set 1 1 on of Egypt to Turkey. The sul energetic in body or mind, pi reform begun by Selim 111. and 1 1. In this he had for his e'.i i ha, an intelligent and humane Mussulman, - France. The aim the Osman population on a footing with the ci inhabitants of ] of all' hi without n pect of creed. A sort of proclamation of their rights was issued in the hatti-sherif of November 1839. '1 his was foil I by numerous reforms in all and in 1850, the professors of all . I ii the of the law. That these decrees remained, in a great measn not attributable to the will of tl chivalrous part acted by A. (1850) in n fusing, at the risk of losin ne, to give up E the otb and Austria, will make b annals of humanity. The sovei ! long been in an anomalous position. Ti ! the divan ; and the sultan b Russia ations to it. A. was 1 tee ,,! man, and the I enty-eighth the takin : of < lonstantinoj mod Murad, was born September l'l'. I but accordin apire, his hi \xiz ib. Is.'iO), succeeded to the throni his death in l8Cl. ABD-UK r, the sultan of Marocco, born 177s, was the rightful heir to the throne when his father died, 1704; but was super- I 23. His lirst four years. of rule were 1 in quelling insurrections. Next, some to the state of Marocco was threatened by isal of Austria to pay the tribute for safety against pirates; but the sultan wisely adjusted the ABEL— ABENCERRAGES. dispute l.y relmqmshing this sort of 'black-mail,' for- o on European ships in the i oub war and ast the Pren sd the sultan in its m i nenl ; b u by the ibjeote brink of «ar with mon an .state. The sultan was a zealous M man, without the wild fans i ion among 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 1 . 1 1 ; :i - a ruli r, he was strict, and cruel. I! ded in 1869 by his eldest son, Sidi-Mohammed (b. lsn.'i). ABEL appears in the 1 k of Qeni is as the get I Bon "i Adam, and a shi phi id. 1 [e was slain | influence of i the offering of the latter had been 1 by. I. hovah, and that of I 1 I ; the sacrifice of Abel; 1 ■ iour, u) the ks of 'right from which ded that there dwelt in him as] :. in tfa sea I ■' d, of which his i, tute. The writer of tfa the Hebrews opens his enumerati Ethe 'faithful' lltli chapter of Hebrews, with these words: 'By faith Abel offered unto God, a more excellent sacrifice than Cain.' Such, also, has bei D in ■ < 1 opinion of the Christian Church, which ! I as a type of innocence and faith. ABEL,* i-', a native of Ccethcn, in G i many, born in 1719, was a distinguished musi- cian. He was a pupil of Sebastian Bach, and ful- some years a member of the i den band of r of Saxony, king of Poland. In 1758, ly forty years of age, he came to El in a state of great destitution; but his taleni quickly recognised, He was appointed cb in. i i ■' i 1 1 queen of George III. His p nt. tii" viola da gamba, a small violoncello, with six strings, was never played by any one in equal perfection. He also obtained considerable p >n i anposer, though bis pieces are not now held in very great estimation. He died in 17b7, having shortened bis life by his intemperate 1 ABELABD, Petei:, a scholastic philosopher and : ian, unquestionably the boldest thinker of th e., was born in France, in 1079, at Paletz or , not far from Nantes, a village which belonged to his ad Lucie. An irrepn s- sible thirst for knowledge, and a special 1 1 logic, moved him to resign his rights of prim' in favour of his your He left] in order to hear the pre- i I of WiBiam of < . but soon incurred tli" hatred of his master, whom 1 wonderful subtlety. He fled to Mclwn L persecuted and a he went i for I oration H. With i" ngtb, he i I to Paris, reconciled himself with his opponents, and led, by his influence as a lecturer, some of the most distinguish" were the Eul ore Pope ' leli I ine 1 1. bis future "Id of B uvea in Paris, 1 1 the niece of the Canon Fulb. it, thi irkable for her beauty, taunts, and knowledge. She soon kindled in the b. A., then thirty-eight yean < at and over- ling with no less fervour. By means of Full I ie teacher and companion of Heloise, and the ther until A.'s ardent | effusions reached the ears of the canon, Ho sought to separate the lovers; but it was too late. Bed together to the country. loise bore a i privately married to A., with the i of her uncle. Not long ait returned to Fulhert's house, and denied the mar- that her love might be no hindcrance t • d at this, and at a second flight which with her Fulbert, in order to make him canonically incapable of ecclesiastical preferment, caused A. to be emascu- lated, in deep humiliation. . v l monk the abbey of St Denis, and indui : to take the veil at Argenteuil But the lectures wh cms (1121) d opinions on ,iity to be fa i - 1 Den ] built at Nogent-on-the-Seine a chape] and hen Paraclete, which, by his scholars to a monastic found,' i ii ; .] oint- ment as abbot of St-Gildas-do i overtoHelo aoodforadw struggle against hi of the monks ; till at last, in 1140,1 1 con- demned by Pope Innocent 1 ' ' I to be imprisoned. But Peter the \ of Clugny, after A. had retracted his opinions on the Trinity and Redemption, recoi to his enemies. A. died with the reputation of a model of ic propriety, on April 21, 1142, in the of St Marcel, not far from I Heloise had him interred at the Pal day to lie by his side. She survived A. t v. The ashes of both were taken to Peris in 180 in 1828 were buried in one sepulchre in Pere la i — The doctrines advanced by A. in liis contr t Bernhard, have a decided!} t tend- ency; and he, and his pred rigena, may be looked upon as the first avowed representatives of that school. A. laid down the principle, that nothing is to be believed but what has xl; while the church held that we must believe in order to understand ; and Bernhard was for banishing inquiry altogether from the pro- vince of religion. In judging of A.'s merit are not to look so much to 1 to the which his wonderful power of publi him to exercise on bis aj •. His ter, no less than his i ly, it is chiefly t of his love that hi Xhe chief biography that fa : it, under the title of A. (2 ling his life, character, v, i The Latin writings and letters of A i • were collected by Al by Duchesne (Par. 1G1G). Some winks Xun. a collection of di | (far. 183G), partly by RheinwaJd (Bed. ABELE. v:. ABELITi:s, a : ,l11 '.'■• hiefly in ti ■■ North Africa. Thi ir chii f d marrying but abstaining from m in i held that Abel so lived, because tin no children of his. ABELMOSCHUS. See llir.i ABENCERRAGES, a noble Moo family of tlie Zegris, and t in the royal palace of the All. aada, in the time of Abu-Hassan lli' ABENDBERG -ABERDEEN. t but one of the kings <'f Granada, famish the Spanish work of f Histoi ■ • ' • From this Chateaubriand composed /• the text of an opera of Cherubim's. Mie work, however, seems to be destitute of historical founda- tion; at least Conde is perfectly silent on the subject in his Hittoric de lu.t j,. i i EapaSia (3 vols., Madrid, 1829). ABENDBERG, a liill in tJ i of B rising abruptly out of the waters bun, on mth side. It is in! resting asl tution, established bj Dr GuggenbUhl, for the cure of Cretins (q. v.), and supported by contributions from far ana mar. Ihe sanguine ho] to the good to be effect d by the healthiness of the in, and the mo le oi treatment followed, have been greatly di ip] ted, little alleviation being ] I I still exists as an asylum for these unfortunate beings. ABEN-ESRA, properly Abraiam-Ben-Meir-Ben- barn 1093 in Spain, died 110s in Rome, was one of the most learned Jews of his timi --. Be under- B «r, Arabic, and Aramaic langn had considerable knowledge of mathematics, astro- jcientific observer; and fished himself as a sagacious thinker, laving left his native land, he visited Lombardy, pt, and England, and | tin- later years of his life in Koine; ever;. giving lectures on grammar, theology, astronomy, I ad translating several wo Hebrew and Arabic. His Comnu 1 are the most important of his works, which include some, treatises on astrology, since published in Latin. The scholastic writers m Aben-Esra as Abbnabb or Avenabd. ABER is a Celtic word which enters into the ,iti"!i of several nami ol ; . chiefly in Wales and Scotland. It indicates the mouth or i mbouchure of a stream, either into the sea, or into i- river as Aberbrothock, at the month of the Brothock, in Forfarshire; Abergavenny, at the jun ion of the Usk and G ivenny, in Wales. ABERCROMBIE, John, .MIL, in his own day the most eminent of Scottish physicians, and still worthy of remembrance for his professional and moral excellence, was born in 1781, at where his father was long a parish minister. He I medicine in Edinburgh, taking liis degree in 1801, and thenceforth devoted him of his profession in the ttd b i '. At a com- i ively early age, he attained a high reputation ; and after the death (in 1821) of tli lebi 1 cognised as the first consulting physician in Seotlaml. His professional writings contributed to his celebrity, which was still further extended by the publication, in 1830 and 1833, of t 771 Mora' Feelings. These works have no preten i< lity or depth of thought, bul d iquired, from the high personal character of the author, a reputa- tion during his life, which a few years have sufficed to impair. Tin;, pos iss, however, the merit of being more readable than many works cd I ae class, and ■ led by a moral and feeling, which, in the case of their pious and benevolent author, was perfectly genuine. Dr A. died suddenly, Nov. 14, 1S44. Among the honours bestowed upon liim during his life were the degree of Ml I. from Oxford, the rectorship of hal College, the vice-presidency of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the offii ! Physician in Ordinary to Her Majesty for Scotland. 12 ABERCROMBY, Sib Ralph, was horn at 1 i lT.'l. He was 1 by his father for I l from 1782 to 1765 at the univer itics of Edinbui b I I His natural inclination, I to a military life ; and in 1758, he went to Germany as a cornet in the 3d Di Guards, in 17mi I ment in Ireland, which was called tin- 103d, or King alri h. It v. banded in lTs.'i ; and th by Sir Ralph in the retirement i rylife, He had married in 1 7 i 7 [n 1793, i 1 1 the i York to Holland. I that unfortni i . : at in the winter of 1794 ■". won! ithe love and admiration of th ■ whole army. On his n i I maud dition to the West Indies, which, u ith landing the vexatiou i ob trui he conducted with < I success, tal Grenada, Demerara I St] E \ and Trinidad. S mander of the forces in Ireland ; bul and in. ■■ i DSt the 1 "I ; ey of government towards that country occasioned his ! to a similar command in Scot] ad. In 17'.*'1, lie was appoi I Duke of York in the expedition to Holland, still more unhappy and than the former. A. alone a quitted himself on all is with entire credit. On his return, lie was appointed to © Mediterrani an. The fleet anchored in Aboukir Day on the 2d of March. On the 7th, A. I the shore in person. Before mid-day of the 8th, were in possession of the sand- hills that commanded the shore, bavii I 11 in the face of a storm of shot that ploughed the water around them. On the 13th, the enemy were driven within the line of Alexandria, On the morning of the 21st, Menou attempted to surprise the Briti-h camp. He found them ready, under !n the glorious action that ensued, the British commander was Btruck by a musket-ball in the thigh ; but not till the battle was won, and the i nemj retri ing, did he shew any sign of pain. He was a the Held in a hammock, cheered by the tale ings of the soldiers as he passed, and conveyed o M ship. The ball could not be e\i : and on the 28th he died, in the sixty- eighth year of bis age. In the characf 'i A. ombined the qua] uliarly characteristic of a I li Boldier. He was at once gentle and brave, cl ighted and cool in ation, in a ag, even to hardihood. Apart from his qualities as a soldier, he was a man of libera] accoi prejudices, and of sound practical judgment, national gi ok the form of a pi i his v. idow, afterwards i in, with the title of Baron unby. — His third on, 3 ! OMBT, after being MP. for Edinburgh and Speaker of the id House of Commons, was raised to the British peerage in 1839, with the title Babon He dii d in March 1858. ABERDEEN, the principal city in the north of Scotland, is situated in the S.E. angle of the county of the same name-, at the month of the river Dee, which forms its harbour. This city i I of high ity, its privileges as a royal burgh bein to have been conferred by William the Lion as early as the- year 1179. In 1336, it was burned I by the English ; the city erected on the old site | was thenceforth locally designated New A. The ABERDEENSHIRE -ABERDEEN. present town of Old A. included within the ',inilarie3 of the city, is) situated about a mile distant to the north. In 1494, EaBg'e College and University was founded in <>M A. Man chal College and University was i I ' lished in the ni w town in 1593. In the 17th c., A. had Income a place of considerable import- ance, but it suffered severely from Ij'jUi parties during the civil wars. It is now a rlourishii of bade and manufactures ; and its handsome granite architecture excites the admiration of all i ■>. The harbour has been greatly ini] The number of ve sela belonging to the port in ! wag, Bailing-vessels, 231— tonnage, 56,8G7 ; steamers, 14 — tonnage, 4070. The principal ezpi u 1 ! arc, line cotton and woollen fabrics, granite, cattle, grain, preserved meat, and fish. The granite quar- I .-works afford occupation to a large number of people. The manufacture of combs is a branch of industry. There are also consider- able ironworks, and ship-building is < \t I on. The A. clippers are celeb ated sailers. As a seat of learning, A. has always main- tamed a high place. Connected with ii. cally or a idemically, are the names of Barbour and Boece ; Bishops FJphinstone, Dunbar, and Forbes ; Arthur Johnston, James Gregory, Arbuthuot. Beattie, Gerard, and Campbell. The average num- ber of students annually attending both univer- ia nearly COO. The burgh of A. is governed by a provost, four bailies, and fourteen councillors. Pop., in 1851, of municipal burgh, 53.S08 ; parlia- 71,973. [1871— par. burgh, 88,125.) ABERDEENSHIRE, an extensive maritime county in the E. of Scotland, bounded, N., by Banff and the North Sea; S., by Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth; W., by Inverness and Banff. Its a length is about 90 miles; its greatest breadth 40; its extent of sea-coast about CO. It is the fifth in size of the Scottish counties. Estimated area, 1970 Bquare miles; pop. in ISol, 212,032. It 1 described under the five ancient dri (proceeding from south-west to north-east) of Mar, Strathbogie, Garioch, Formartin, and Buchan. The south-western parts of the ci runty arc' entirely moun- tainous, the principal range of the Grampians running all mg the southern 1 lonndary, from which a lesser chain branches to the north and north-east. The 1 are, Ben-Macdhui, 4390 feet; Caimtoul, 4095; Cairngorm, 4000; Btn-na-Buird, 3940; andLoch-na- gar, 3815. The predominant rock-formation is mica slate ; and, in the mountain district of Braemar, granite, which also underlies the whole ncighbour- h I of the city of Aberdeen, yielding large supplies of a valuable building-stone. The principal river is tic I 1 mountains of the south-west, and falling, alter an eastward course of 90 nule3, into • rman Ocean. In its upper course arc falls ; and on its banks, in the parish of Crathie, amid will mountain scenery, is Her M favourite residence, Balmoral. Next in size to the Dee is the Don, rising in the west, and flowing into r a comae of about 80 miles. The Ythan rises in the north-west, and Hows, with alight variation, south-eastward. Its pearl n was once reckoned of some importance; the mussel still inhabits its bed, but few pearls of any value are found. The Deveron rises on the borders of Aberdeen and Banff, and Hows to the north-east, into the Moray Firth, at Banff, after a course of about GO miles, chiefly within the boundaries of Banffshire, but partly in A. The arable land of the county lies chiefly in the districts b the Don and Ythan, in the centre of the county, and in its north-eastern angle. Breeding more cattle than any other county in Scotland, A. i ses about three times as much oats and turnip3 as any other. The est duce of the former, in 1855, was 5,347,118 bushels; of the latter, 1,232,007 tons, I 'in the lower coast-lands ; in the upjx r districts, there is a ■ i sandy loam. A.ii- culture ha3 made great and in no | the kingdom have natural di > of soil ami climate l»ecn more successfully overcome. The prin- cipal towns and villa_< t, Peterhead, Iluntly, Fraserburgh, Kintore, ami Inverury. The county returns one member to parliament ; the city, one; and the burghs of Pet ! id, Kintore, ami Inverury, in conjunction with Elgin, CuUen, and Banff; one. P 51, 21 2,032 ; day-school - with 30,271 pupils ; plaa - 7 (70 of the Established, and 70 of the Free Church. Owing to it Dick and Mill beq or parochial schoolmasters, A. holds a high place in the st..' ication. (Pop. 1871—244,607 ABERDEEN, GeOBGE Hamii.i. <:. G MX . E.U:L as born at Edinburgh in 17M. II educated at Harrow and at St John I Cambridge, where he took his degree of MA. in 1804. Before this, on succeeding to the earldom in 1801, he made a torn- through Greece, the record of which is preserved in Byron's well-known line — 'The travelled thane, Athenian Arcrdecn.' In his twenty-second year, he was elected one of the sixteen Scottish representative peers, and I public life as a Tory. In 1813, he was appointed ambassador to the Austrian court, and conducted the negotiations which terminated in the alliance of that power with Britain. At this time he formed that close friendship with Prince Metternich which so decidedly influenced Ilia subsequent policy as a statesman. On the conclusion of the war, he \ to the British peerage as Viscount Gordon. From this time till the year 1S28, his lordship made no 1 nent appearance in public life. In that year he took office in the new ministry formed under the I Hike of -.ton. The general principle which guided his policy, as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, was that of non-interference in the internal affairs of foreign states, which, joined t> bis well-known thy with such state-men as Mette rn i c h, has exposed nim — not always justly— to the being inimical to the cause of popular liberty. His gradual abandonment of high Tory principles was evinced by his support of the bill for the repeal of st and Corporation Acts and of the Roman Catholic Emancipation Act From the fall of the .ton ministry till tine Peel administration in 1S41. his lordship was out of office, with the • tion of his brief administration of the Colonial I in the Tory ministry of 1S34 5. In 1841, h received the seals of the Foreign I Hi',, e. M. G was at that time foreign minister in France, and , . .. cordial alliance. The lion of the < Ehinese War. the Ashburton 1 and the Oregon Treaty, were the princi] 1 to the country during his adminisi of foreign affairs. His" act in 1843 for removing doubts regar Unission of ministers to bi ae- fice3 in Scotland, was too late to save the dis. of the Church, and in working it does not seem t" have i verysatisfai tory. Be had long been in ■ of the repeal of the corn-laws, and from the time that that question became the raUying-point of Uw P 1 party, he became identified with their policy. In 1S4C, hi with Sir Robert FeeL In l v the r. Lord Derby, the extraordinary state of parties necessitated a coalition, and 1 \ BERDEVINE— ABDTODON. was selected as the fittest mm to head ft 1 ich for some tiro s popu- lar, 'i Hating p ftc conduct of the war with I undi r- niin.-.l it i stability, and the d in I h I : public I ii ■■■■ i ted with , filled up tli" measure of the popular i tent. ()» t! bruary 1855, I offi :e. His lordship was author i I .1 ! in 1822, He died in I860. ABERDEVINE, or £ . ,. it is placed by Guvier ami others in ft ' It is rather smaller than the goldfinch, nii.l less elongated in form. and the throat are black, the nape, dusky green, and t broad eye. it is only a win in, and its nest in high trees. It is frequently ki tamed; and lywith the canary. It i- of the thistle, alder, bin!' elm, and occasionally iloes great da aage to Hie hop plant:' i rmany. In France it injures the as of the apple-trees. The nest of the A is rarely found. ABERNETilY, John, a very eminent English surgeon, was born in London in 17G4. His father was the Rev. John ' hy, an Irish Presbyterian clergyman, who acquired distinction by his writings, and his bold adoption of Bishop Hoadh " of private judgment ana the subscription of Co A.'s early t' 1 him to the bar; but in 1780 he was apprenticed to Mr (afterwards Sir P.licke, 1 nl St Bartholoni bal B at the same time the lectures of John Hunter and Sir W. Blizard. In 1787, A was elected assistant- 1 to St B s, an ollice which he filled for twenty-eight years; at the end of which time he was appointed surgeon, with a salary. Soon after his election, he began to lecture in the I 1 on anatomy and surgery, and maybe said to have laid the toundatioi 1 iracter as a school of surgery. At first, he ma ■ rtraor- dinary diffidence, but his power soon developed bis lectures at last attracted such or that, in 17 ( J", it was found necessary to build a hospital for his use. His clear, simple, and positive style, illustrated by an inex- haustili! . yari fcy of apt anecdotes, made him the popular med sail r of his day. In 1S13, he was appointed surgeon to Christ's Hospiti ! in 1814, Professor of Anatomy and Surgery to the I ons. His practii d with bis celebrity, which ft c eccentricity and oal rud .^ of his mann co itributed to hstanding, however, the irritability as which he so who knew him best bear unanimous testimo the generosity and kindliness of his character. He married in 1800, and h d several children. Hi at Enfield, in 1831. Of his works, the most oi I and important is his disclose and make known to her Majesty, her heirs and successors, all treasons and traitorous con cics which may bo formed against her or them ; and I do faithfully |> maintain, support, and defend to I b of my power, the succession of the Crown, which succession, by an Act, intituled An Act for the further limitation of the Oroum, and hi ih,- securing th \d liberties of the Sub- ads limited to the Princess Sophia, Electi aover, end the heirs of her body, being Protestants; hereby utterly renouncing and abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto any m claiming or pretending a right to the ii of this realm; and I do declare, that no i prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate, hath or ought to have any jm-isdiction, power, superiority, pre-eminence, or authority, ecclesias- '. within this realm: And I make this declaration upon the true faith of a Christian. So help me God.' The act provides for a form of affirmation by Quakers and other persons permitted to decline taking an oath. By another act passed at the same time, the 21 and 22 Vict. c. 41), it is permitted to either house of parliament to resolve that thenceforth any | ing the Jewish religion, in taking the above oath to entitle him to sit and vote in parliament, may omit the words, ' And I make this declaration i of a Christian ; ' but on the occa- two members professing the Jewish rel ion recently taking their scats in the House of Ci mi- nions, according to a resolution by the House, under the powers of this act, it was decided by the r that such resolution could only remain in during the continuance of the session when it was adopted; and it would therefore appeal solution must be renewed, and of course at the pleasure and discretion of the House during on of the parliament in which any Jew or Jew.; may have 1 t to sit. An re modification on this point! iposed. The act further provides, that in all other it for sitting in parliament, or in qualifying to exercise the right of presentation to any ecc! tical benefice in Scotland, whenever any Jew shall i to take the above oath, he may omit (ted. t iken by Roman I of till . and Abjura ■I by the 10 Geo. i V. o. ~. monly called the tan 'atholic Relief Act, and is in the foil ' I, A. B., and swear, That I will be faithful and bear true allegiance I n Victoria, and will defend In r to the i of my i" 1 attempts whatever, whi dnst her person, Crown, or dignity; and I will do my utmost endeavour to disclose and make known to her Majesty, her heirs and successors, all treasons and traitorous conspiracies which may be formed against her or them : Anil I do faithfully promise to main- tain, support, and defend, to the utmost of my power, the succession of the Crown, which succession, by an Act, intituled An Act i of the C'roum, and Letter securing tlr , liberties of tin Subject, is and stands limited to the Princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and tho heirs of her body, being Protestants; hereby utterly renouncing and abjuring any obedience or all to any other person clan , ight to the ( 'row ii of this realm : And I do further declare, That it is not an article of my Faith, and that I do renounce, reject, and abjure the opinion, that nmunicated or deprived l>y the 1' any other authority of the me, may lie deposed or murdered by tl or by any i : Ami I do declare, That I believe that the Po le, or any other t i a prince, prelate, person, state, or potentate, hath, or to have, any temporal or i iiction, . superiority, or pre i tly or indirectly, within this realm. I . That I will defend, to the utmost of my power, the iperty within thi i by the laws; and I do her- n, disavow, ilemnly abjure any intention to subvert the at church establishment, as settled by law within this realm: And I do loli mnly swear, "• ' never will exercise any privilege to which I may become entitled, to disturb or weaken the Protestant Religion or Protestant Government in the United Kingdom: And I do solemnly, in the presence of God, profess, testify, and declare, that I laration, and every part thereof, in the plain and ordinary 'he words of this oath, without any evasion, i i, or mental ■ration whatsoever. So 1.' This oath itself, however, has been considered objectionable, as covertly imputing disloyalty and insincerity to the Roman Catholic body, and a Bill has been introduced into parliament for the purpose of modifying its terms still further. ABLATIVE CASE. See Declension. ABLUTION. See PrmrjiCATiON. ABO (pronounced Ohn), the chief town of the government of Alio, in Finland, now belonging to sian Empire, is situal Aura- jokki, near its embouchure in the ' Sulf of Bothnia ; pop. 14,000. The town was founded by the S I in 1157, and remained the capital of Finland until L819. In the year 1827, a great part of the town, including the university bufldings, was di itroyed by msequently the univeri to llelsingfors, now the capital. — The Abo, c ; 17, 1743, between Sweden and Russia, put an end to tile war comn by Sweden, under French instigation, in 1741. of the whole of Finland through the misconduct of the two ."' inhanpt and Bi 1, d. In this treaty, tl lvymeiie was made the ' terri- i Sweden and Russia . but by another , led in 1809, the "h as far as led to llussia. ABOLITIONISTS, a term used to designate a m the I .8., wl i di re the immediate and solition of I i;v- , They arc most numerous and powerful in the Northern id thoughtful pel-sons Od 1 to possess, in a larger measure than is generally suppi of the and enlightened minds of the south. . as well as by m my who profess to dislike the institution, the A. are accused of entertaining views so cxtrem ABORIGINES-ABRAHAM -MEN. impracticable, as to l>e damaging to the cause which the \ espou ABORIGINES ( Lat.), properly the earliest inhabitants of a country. The corresponding term used by 1 I Us was Avb Che nam in and Greek historians, however, apply tho name t , , j. cial people, who, according to tradition, had id seats in the mount. tins about E&eate, now Etieti; but, being driven out by the Sabines, descended into Latium, and in conjunction with a tribe of Pelasgi, subdued or expelled thence the SiciUi, and occupied the country. The A. thi i as a distinct people, they and their allies the 6 having taken the name of Latini. The non- I ' jic element of the Roman population is supposed to repres at these A., who would thus belong to the Oscans or Auson. ABORTION, in Criminal Law. Neither in the law of England nor of Scotland is it murder to Uill a child in the mother's womb (although perhaps it would be different where the mother herself dies in conse- quence of the treatment). But the oil. nee in question falls under the name A., which may be defined as the crime of administering to a pregnant woman any medicine, poison, or noxious drug, or of using any surgical instrument or other means, with the intent of procuring miscarria e. The English law on the subject is now regulated by the 7 Will. IV.and 1 Vict. c. 85, s. G, which makes the offence felony, and subjects offenders to transportation for life, or for not less than fifteen years, or to be imprisoned for any term not more than three years. In the law of Scotland, the procuring of A. is an offence at common law, punishable with 'an arbitrary pain,' and that equally whether the desired effects be pro- duced or not. As in England, transportation or imprisonment, according to circumstances, is the ihment usually awarded. See Si itle.ment. ABOUKI'H, the ancient CanopUS, is now an insignificant \ ill age on the coast of Egypt, about 13 miles north-east of Alexandria. The castle of Aboukir stands on the west side of the bay of the same name. This bay is celebrated on account of Nelson's victory here gained over the French fleet, August 1, 1798. The French fleet was stationed in a curved line near a small island guarded by a battery; but Nelson, with his usual intrepidity, forced a passage with half of his fleet of fifteen between the island and the French line of battle, while the other half attacked the enemy in front. The French admiral Be Brueys was killed by a cannon-hall, and his flag-ship, V Orient, was destroyed by lire. Only sixty or seventy men were saved out of a crew of 1000. The French fleet was completely defeated, and only two vessels escaped. ABOUSA'MBTTL, or irSAM HUB, a place on the left bank of the Nile, in Nubia, lat. 22° 22', Hi of two very remarkable rock-cut temples, perhaps the oldest existing specimens of architecture in the world. The larger temple contains fourteen apart- ments, hewn out of the solid rock. The first and largest of these is 57 feet long, and 52 broad, and is r| id by two rows of massy square pillars (four in each row), 30 feet high. To each of the pillars is attached a standing colossus, reaching to the roof, overlaid with a kind of stucco, and painted with gaudy colours. In front of the temple are four ores— -the largest pieces of Egyptian sculpture yet discovered Reproductions of two of these, on the scale of the original (05 feet in height), form very striking objects in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, where also may be seen a fac- simile, on a small scale, of the temple itself. These figures are supposed to represent Rameses the Great A B It A C A D A H It ABRACADAB A B B A O A A A B I! A A D A B K-A C A A B R A C A B R A A B R A B A (or Sesostris), whose achievements are described on tu | tinted walls of the temple. ABRACADABRA, a word said to be of 1' origin, and to designate in that language Mithra, the sun-god. It was, in fanner tunes, the most venerated of tho '1 formulas that wen constructed out of the letters of the alphabi t. and was supposed to be highly efficacious for thi fevers, and esp -dally quartan and semi-tertian agues. is Sammonicus gives the following dire for its use: Write the letters of the word K> as to form a triangle, capable of being lead many ways, on a square pit w paper. Fold the paper so as to conceal the writing, and stitch it into the form of a cross with white thread. . .„.„.„ This amulet wear in the A B bosom, suspended by a linen ribbon for nite Then go in dead silence, before sunrise, to tho banks of a stream that ' e istward. take the amulet from off the neck, and lling it backwards into the water. If you open or read it, the charm is destroyed. The adjoining is one of the principal forms of arranging this mystic word, ABRAHAM, the progenitor of the Earaelitish nation, lie was a native of Chaldfiea, but migrated, with his wife Sarah anil his nephew Lot, to Canaan, where he lived a nomadic life, and worshipped the one God, Jehovah, in the midst of the polytheistic Canaanites. The details of the narrative, as in the book of Genesis, arc familiar to every one. A. died at the age of 175 (about 1S00 B.C.). Of his two sons, Isaac was the ancestor of the Israelites; and the Arabs claim to be descended from Ishmael. whose mother was Hagar, a bond- woman. Later tradition ascribed to A. a complete knowledge of astronom\ and philosophy, the inven- tion of alphabetic writing, the art of interpreting dreams, &c. Even among Mohammedans, A. is reckoned a prophet and the friend of God; and they attribute to him the building of the sacred Kaaba at Mecca. ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLAK A, a very eccen- tric but popular and useful German preacher, was born 1G42, and died in Vienna 17i'0. His real name was UlrICH Milium:, but he is generally know n fay the name given to him in his monastery. Uncouth puns, coarse expressions, and strange freaks of humour, marked his sermons; but beneath their fantastic shells they had _ 1 kernels. A. was an honest, faithful, and devoted priest, as was proved by his self-sacrificing conduct during the plague in 1079. Though very severe in his reproof of vice, he was highly esteemed. The singular style of his writings is indicated by their very titles, e.g., Oaek Gail:, i.e.. Walljarth M aria Stern in Texa; Ileikames Qemuch-GemascJi (Wholesome II podge). His collected works amount to twenty vols. (1S35). A selection was published in 2 vols. (Vien. 184G). ABRAHAM-MEN, a class of sturdy beggars who simulated lunacy, and wandered about the country in a disorderly manner ; at one time working on the sympathy, and at another on the fears of women, children, and domestics. They were common in Shakspeare's time, and, it would seem, existed even as late as the period of the civil wars. The term is a cant one. ' An Abram cove,' as Decker, in his English ViZUmies, calls one of these mendicants, meant one who personated a ' Tom o' Bedlam.' He would 'disguise himself in grotesque rags, with ABRAHAMITES— ABSCESS. knotted hair, long ."tall', ami with many bing contrivances to excite pity,' but he did not hesitate to live by thieving too, and when • 'I pilfering or in any species of depredation, he pleaded the immunities 01 the real Bedlamite, who was formally permitted to roam about the eountrywh I from 'Bethlem Hospital.' A verbal relio ol Una class is still pres erved iu the slang phrase, ' to sham Abraham.' A BBAHAMITES, or Bohemian deists. Under this name, a number of residents in Bol tmstin'.' in th lici of toll I II. , avowed themselves (1782) as believers of the to have be< a held by Al before his circumcision. c, a sect of the same name had arisen in aud had denied the divinity of Christ But the ian deists professed t.j be followers of John JIu-;, though they held no Christian doctrine .1. and a nothing of the Bible save the Lord's Prayer. As I join neithi r .Jewish nor Christian ,i • them ; and ; from their native Ian .1 them in various parts of Hungary, 1 Bylvania, and Slavonia, where many were made convei aurch, while as martyrs to their simple en ABRANTES, Dckk • U . - I not. ABRA'XAS STONES are so called from having the word abraxas or abnuaz engraved on them. They are cut in various forms, and bear a variety of capricious symbols, mostly composed of human limbs, a fowl's head, and serpent's body. These gems, whose value and significance have been greatly exaggerated, arc common in collection are represented as coming from Syria. Egypt, and Spain. It is certain that the use of the name abraxas was at first peculiar to the Gnostic Basilidians (q. v.i ; and j the word, by taking the numerical value of it; i rieek letters, may signify the number 365, so t have recourse to old Persian or Egyptian, sometimes done. The Basilidians, however, did not designate by this name the highest deity, but the - of the world collectively. At a later period, the doctrines and prad were carried by the Prisccllianists to Spain, whence many of stones are got. ' rmbolswere after- wards adopted by all aects given to magic and alchemy; and thus there is little doubt that the r part of the abraxas-stones were made in the middle ages as taliam ABROGATION of laws is the repealing or recall- ing of them — as where als a previous 1 rally, in England, all -• how old, or how onsnited soever to the times, remain in force until I cpressly r | But in Scotland a statute ma; obsolete and virtually repealed, so that it may not owing to the lapse of time be founded on. See STATUTE. A'liurs, a genus at rural order Leguminoaas, sub-order PapiltimaatB, at which the only known spec: . is ■ shrub, origin- ally belonging to India, where it is chietly found in ■ now ii"t uncommon in the West Indies and "thcr tropii The roots possess properties exactly similar to those of the common liquorice. The seeds are nearly spherical. as small peas, of a scarlet colour, with a blacl and are familiar enough to le in Britain, la, They are narcotic. ABRU'ZZO, t 1 the kingdom of Naples, lies between the - he Church on the west, and the Adriatic on the east, and is divided into three parts Abruzzo Ulteriore 1st and 'Jd, and Abruzzo ' i, ho called in relation to the - The whole district contains about 5000 square miles, and 800,000 inhabitants. Its chief towns are I hieti, Teramo, Aquila, Sulmona. It fonns the wildest and loftiest portion of the Apen- nines. The streams are numerous, but the only river of any consequence is the Pescara, which flows into the Adriatic. The rent and jagged mountain- groups arrange themselves in picturesque si. reaching in 11 Gran Sasso d'ltalia, or 'the great rock of Italy,' which i3 the hi chain, the on of 10,000 feet. The highlands slope pre- cipitously on all sides, but especially towards the north-eastern shore. The climate of A is raw in the higher regions ; snow rests on the lulls from r to April, and on some of the peaks all the >und ; but the valleys are extremely fertile, i husbandry is in a wretched condition, and the low open plains are left without the n from inundations of the rivers in spring, or means for irrigation in the arid summer. Dense forests of oak and fir clothe the sides of the mountains ; at the base, almond, wal- nut, and other fruit-trees grow abundantly ■, in the deep-lying valleys. Fine cattle pasture in regions ; herds of swine roam through the lofty pine-woods; and the remoter fast the haunt of bears, wolves, and wild boars. The chief importance of A is its military position .as a defeni f the kingdom of Naples. There ai roads into it, so that it is very difficult for an enemy to reach Naples from the north. It is admirably suited for the purposes of guerilla warfare. I people have ceased to possess a reputation as banditti. Hi i trace of the old spirit which made their ancestors, the Marsi, Sabines, and Samnites, so terrible to the Romans, and which in modern times manifested itself in a love of petty plundering, is to be found. They have become a race of rude and simple shep- iondly attached to their mountain homes, musical, superstitious, and hospitable ; but they are and powerful, and during the French invasion of Naples, in 1799, displayed a vigorous courage in opposing the soldiers of the Revolution. ABSALOM, the third son of David, king of Israel, remarkable for his beauty, and for his unnatural rebellion against his father. By popular • rived to win the affections of the p and then stirred up a formidable rebellion. The adherents of the king having rallied round him, a was fought in the forest of Kphraim, in wlu'ch the rebels were defeated. En i. was riding under a tree, his hair caught in the branches, and he was left suspended ; in which position J the commander of David's army, thru-t him through, contrary to the ki - orders that he should be spared. The griej of David for his loss was i Si ' - Sam. c 18. ABS \ r.i IM, .Vrchbishop of Lund. See Axel A'BSCESS {Aposlema), a collection of purulent matter formed by disease within some tissue or organ of the body. The process by which an abscess is formed is the following : First, the capillary vessels become overcharged with blood, in consequence of inflammation. From the blood thus made stagnant, or flowing very feebly, a fluid ex h the walls of the capillary vessels, and, containing a large portion of albumen, becomes pus or purulent matter. .tter.at tirst contained in the minute in* I of the t di tally dissolves them, and so makes for itself a larger cavity ; and frequently, by gradual tion of the adjacent parts, works its way either to the surface or to some natural cavity of the body. Pus thus makes its appearance often in a ABSCISSA— ABSORPTION. different part of the body from where it was f It also occurs, that win n the purulent matter does ii"t find any outlet eith Ij or artificial ia gradually dried up or absorbed. In afc icially seated— either in or close under the Bkin — the early treatment consists chiefly in pro- moting tin' formation of pus by tin' applical \'. .inn bandages or poultices. Thi step is the removal of the pus. When this is too long delayed, serious distal of the organ, or even poisoning of the blood, may ensue. An must It- p [aided not as a distinct, cm in itself, but as the result of another di- on ; or as an effort of nature for the removal of injurious matters from the system. ABSCISSA. See Parabola. ABSENTEE', a term applied, by way of reproach, to capitalists who derive their income from one country, and spend it in another. It ha cially used in discussions on the social condition of Ireland. As long as Ire! bs own parliament, a great portion of the ! ly in the country during summer, and passe winters in Dublin; thus spend portion of their incomes among their . or at least among their countrymen. The Union changed the I ; of the Irish nobility and gentry, who wi re attracted to London as the political metropolis, or were induced, by the disturl to choose residences on the continent. Such Irish landed ors were styled 'absentees;' and it was argued that their conduct was the source of Irish poverty, as it drained the resources of the land, or, in other words, sent money out of Ireland. One class of political economists — among M'Culloch — maintain that, economically viewed, 1 has 110 injurious effect on the country from which the absentee draws his revenue. An Irish landlord living in France, it is argued, receives his remittances of rent, not in bullion, but in bills of exchange ; and bills of exchange represent, in the end. the value of British commodities imported into France. The remittance could not be made unless I to the same amount were also drawn from in. Thus, although the landlord may consume, for the most part, French productions, he indirectly, a demand lor as much of British | ; and his income goes, in the end, to pay for them. His residence abroad, then, does no harm to idustry and resources of the country at although it is admitted that it may be felt as an evil in a particular locality. The truth of this doctrine, however, in its full extent, is disputed. ng other objections to it, it is argued, that whatever may lie true of the amount 1 sumed, all the tradesmen and others who supply the r-e's wants have their profits, and have thus the means of aecuinulating; and that these accumu- lations which are thus added to the national wealth of a foreign country, woidd have b ! to the fcb of his native country had he been li. result of the contri that absenteeism does, to some extent, act injuriously le wealth of a country, though it is not true that the whole revenues thus spent are so much clear loss, there being several indirect compensa- tions. — On the evil of absenteeism, in a moral point of view, all are agreed; especially in a country in tho comhtion of Ireland, where nearly the whole is in the hands of extensive landed proprietors, with almost no middle class. The possessors of land have duties to perform which cannot be di the very least of these obligations being that of setting a good example in a neighbourhood, and one not less important being that 01 giving personal aid 18 in effecting local improvements. It is a bad sign ot cial condition of a country when its pro- prietors systematically live abroad, or in great away from their estates. The relations 1 and tenant then become more and more cold and distant; while, to,, . ents of the landlords have no good feeling I 'lit strive only to raj ! 'i- their principals, and tu 1 elves. But 1 ■ vils of such a s: evident, it is not ei sound remedy. Fo n is to make Ireland a more pleasant home for lauded tors. AT.SOLUTE stand osed (0 rdali S, and 1 ed iii itself, and without refer her things. In physics, we velocity of a body — i.' ind ot the 1 velocity of two bodies— i.e., the rate at winch om one anoth of modern meta- unconditioned, onalter- 1— that which is the ultimate cause 1 lie visible world. ite, in politics, is applied to a ndcr whoso authority is unrestricted by constitutional checks. , ABSOLUTION, originally a term of Roman law, In the primitive Christian Church, it- was this : Members that had and open sins, were excluded from the Lord's Bupp or from the congregation altogether, anil could bo readmitted only if they repented and underwent the e laid upon them by the church, had done bo, the presbyter, along with pronounced the absolution in presence ■ gregation — meaning, that the congregation forgave the offence, on their part, and received the again into their number. Down to the 3d c, tho concurrence of the congregation continued necessary to absolution. But by the 4th c, it had become a right of bishops to absolve, and the confession h lly turned into a private confession before the priest, who now imposed tho penance of himself, mollified or remitted it, and then absolved. Absolution In i t, been extended but open and gross sins; but when the on of the hierarchy over men's minds had .and the fourth Lateran Council (1215) macular confession, at least onco a year, obligatory, confession and its attendant absolution were extended to all sins whatever ; and the absolution was made to convey, not merely, as before, forgiveness on the part of the church, but forgiveness in the sight of God. The formula, istus absolvit le, which was used till the l'2th c., was changed into Ego afmolvo le; thus ascribing to the priest the power to forgive sins in the sight of God. This is still the received theory of i lution in the Roman Catholic Chi ioncd by the Council of Trent, and grounded on John xx. 21. — The 1'rotcstant churches ascribe to the absolu- tion of the clergy only a declarative, and not an v.- power; on the ground of repentance, it announces and assures forgiveness on the part of God, but does not impart it. See PENANCE. ABSORBENTS. See Lacteals and Lvmiija- ABSORPTION (in Botany).— It is believed that plants absorb carbonic acid gas, and to some extent fluids, by their leaves and other aerial organs ; and it is supposed that this absorption takes place principally through the stomala of tho ABSTINENCE-ABUTMENT. leaves (see Leaves), and both ljy the upper and under surface of the leaf, in some plants by both surfaces indifferently, in others much more power- fully by the one surface or the other. But plants principally depend upon their roots for nourishment, and it is at the extremities of their fibrils that absorption takes place most rapidly, according to a peculiar process to which has been given the name of Endosmose (q. v.). ABSTINENCE. See Faxtim:. ABSTINENCE SOCIETIES, associations for rnmotion of abstinence from all kinds of alco- olic liquors, and the members of which usually i' the designation of abstainers or teetotalers — last phrase inferring an utter and imcompro- i " abstinence; or at least that the only tion snail be for sacramental and medical purposes. Abstainers usually take a pledge or vow to thai round of their abstinence from alee! being that they are injurious to, or at least ij promotive of, health, and that from the great evils of intemperance it is important to set an example ' ire abstinence. A. S. exist in great numbers in i America and the United Kinudom. In the growth of this remarkable social movement, A. S. were called Temperance Societies, aid tliat head the subject will lie treated in its various i of development. ABSTRACTION is that intellectual process by the mind withdraws (abstraJto) some of the attributes of objects from the others, and tliinks of them to the exclusion of the rest. The abstract is ed to the concrete. John, William, my brother, form concrete images iu my mind, each with a mul- titude of attributes peculiar to hiniself. But they have also certain attributes common to them and to all individuals of the race ; I can overlook the others, and attend to these, and thus form a notion or con- eption, which is called a man. Man is, therefore, an abstract notion, the word connoting, as it is called, a certain though not very well-defined num- ber of attributes. With the exception of proper names, all nouns are tlms abstract. There are ies, however, in abstraction. The abstract notion animal rises above that of man, embracing all men and innumerable organised beings besides. An organised bang, again, is a still higher stage, and embraces both animals and plants. Being, time, space, are among the highest abstractions. The higher abstractions rise, the fewer attributes are implied or connoted in the name; hence the pro- priety of the phrase, empty abstractions. On the other hand, the number of objects to which the name is applicable, increases; and thus reasoning tract terms has the ail. > ing general, .ir extensive in its application. But such reasoning is apt to Income vague and fallacious, unless constant regard is had to concrete instances. Abstract lage is best adapted for scientific exposition; ete, for graphic and poetical effect — Abstract in Arith. is applied to numbers considered in them- selves, and without reference to any objects nuni- bered ; thus 7. 20, are abstract numbers ; but 7 feet, ■rses are concrete numtx.'rs. AI'.SURDUM, Reductio ai>, the metli proving a truth by shewing that to suppo proposition untrue would lead to a contradiction or rdity. ABSYNTHIUM. See Wormwood. ABUorBU (Arab, fur 'father') is prefixed to many Arabic proper names, as the equivalent syllabi fixed to Hebrew Hallux : ex., Alui-hckr, ' I of the virgin 1 (Aysha). But Abu, like Ab, often signifies merely possessor ; as in Abulfeda (possessor of fidelity), 'the Trusty;' Abner, 'the Brilliant'— literally, ' father or possessor of light.' ABU-BEKR ('Father of the virgin' Aysha, the wife of Mohammed), was a man of great influence in the Koreish tribe ; and in G32, when Mohammed died, was made the first calif or successor of the Prophet. After defeating his enemies in Arabia, ainl warring successfully against Babylonia, Syria, and the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, Abubckr died 63S a. u., aged 63, and was buried at Medina, near the remains of Mohammed and his wife A •■ ABULFARA'J (Lat. Ab\ called also Barhebreeus— i. e., Son of the Hebrew, . birth a Jew, though afterwards a Christian — was at Malatia, in Armenia, 122G, and became so distinguished for his knowledge of the Syriac, Arabic, and Greek Ian . | of philosophy, v, and medicine, that he was called the phoenix of the age. At the age of twenty, he was lishop of Gida, and afterwards of A! and rose to the rank of Maphrian. the i dignity among the Jacobite Christians next to Patriarch. Of his numerous Syriac and Arabic writings, most of which yet lie buried in the library of the Vatican, the best known is a Chronicle, in Syriac, of universal history from Adam down to his own time. Only the first part has been published, by Brans and Kirsch (Leipz. 17S9). A. himself d this work in Arabic, under the title of History of the Dynasties (edited by 1' < and Lat., Oxf. 16G3). Among bis writings of a theological kind may be mentioned his ' of Mysteries, being a Commentary on the Syriac Version of the Bible. AEU'LFEDA, a Moslem prince, known as a writer of history, was born 1273 A.D., at Damascus; and during his youth, distinguished himself iu ral campaigns against the Christian kingdom fo by the Crusaders. From 1310 to the time of his death, he ruled over the principality of Hamat, in Syria, was a true ally of the sidtan, \isited Egypt and Arabia, patronised literature and science, and died in 1331. lie left several important works in Arabic, among which are his Anna's, the earlier portion of which has been edited by Fleischer, under the title of Historia Anteislamiea (Leip. 1831), and the rest by Rciske, in his Annates ih. 17S9-94). This work was in great part compiled by A. from earlier Arabic authors, and is a valuable source of history, especially of the Arabic ■ . He also wrote a Geography, from which extracts are given in Kohler's Tabula Syria', Michaclis's Descriptio Egypti, and Rommel's Arabia: i lie whole work has been edited, with 1 and De ! the title Geoyraphie tV AbuljXda (Paris, 1848). ABUSHE'HR(variously written Bushehr, I'mshire, in Pers. Benderahehr) is the name of a seaport on t of the Persian Gidf. It is situated at tremity of a peninsula. The district is liable to be devi si ited by earthquakes, iwarms of locusts, and the simoom, and is deficient iu water; but tho situation, so favourable for commerce, has rais. town to importance, so that it numbers about 1 inhabitants. It is the emporium of the Indian trade with Persia ; and the East India government has a factoiy here. The exports are horses, fruits, shawls, pearls, silk, rose-water, asafcetida, &c. ; imports, sugar, indigo, iron, cotton goods, &c. ABUTMENT, in Arch., is the part of a pier or wall from which an arch springs, and which the outward thrust. The term impost is use I win ii the arch is a semicircle, so that the pressure is vertical. In reference to a bridge, tho 19 ABYDOS— Al.YSSINIA. abutrc Ua adjoining the land, which support the end of the roadway, or the extra ABY1 HIS, a town in Asia Minor, situated at the narrowest p I ! It is celebrated as Que place whence Xerxes and his vast army passed into Europe in 480 B.O. : also as the scene of the stun of Hero (q i Leander. En the latex times of antiquity, the ■ of A. were reproached for their effeminate and di lolute manners.— There was another Abyi Upper Egypt (Thebais), on the left l«nk of the Nile, and "i\ the main rout.- of i with Libya. Even in the time of Stratlo, this town was in rains. Sere the remains of the Memnonium and of a temple of Osiris are still remarkable. Jn the former, \V. .1. Bankes, in 1818, discovered the celebrated Tablet of A., bearing, in h lyph . a |i j oi the • Meenth dynasty ofthe Pharaohs. Jt is now in Paris, and copies have been published. ABYSSI'M A. large tract of highlands in the i ast of Africa. From the Bed Sea on thenort i in a succes- berra towards thi the highlands and the Red Sea lies a flat tract o ill< d narrow at the north (in lat. 15° M), and widening to the south. The plains of Nubia and Eordofan form the boundarii a on the north and west, while the southern limits are not well known. The country consists of high table-lands, intei by deep ravines formed l>y tin; rivers, ami tone terraces. Numerous mountain-i mostly of volcani igin, rise above the tab! I {he 1 he mountains of Samen or Samien, rising to about 15,000 I ovi the Bea level. Some of the plains have an elevation of from 7 to 10,000 feet A. gives birth to numerous rivers, the largest of which are the \!>ai or Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue Kiver), and the Takkazie, an affluent of the Nile. In the south is the Hawash — from which the country takes its name which flows eastward into the salt-lake of Assal in Ada! The largest lake is that of Tzana or Dembea, through which the Abai or Blue Nile flows. The climate in the elevated tracts of Abyssinia is temperate and salubrious; in the low tracts along the coast, and in the north and north-west, the heat is excessive, and the climate noxious. On the whole. A. is a country of great fertility; but, like the climate, the productions of the soil vary greatly with the different degrees of elevation. Wheat and barley are cultivated, also maize, the grains called Toff (Poo Abysrinica) and Tocussoi/.v Ti into), various leguminousplants, cotton, coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco, &c. The coffee- plant grows wild. Among carnivorous animal-, the lion, leopard, hyena, v jackal, are found. There are also elephants, buffaloes, rhinoceroses, zebras, &c The people of A. belong mostly to the Shemitic race, and resemble the Arabs both in physical characteristics and structure of language. See Ethiopia. The ethnology of the country is vari- ously given by different authorities. According : ' RUppell, there are throe principal races. The aboriginal Abyssinians, inhabiting the greater part of Amhara, and numerous also in Tlgre, are of middle size, with oval faces, lips not thicker than those of Europeans, pointed noses, and straight or slightly curled hair. In this i inclul the lalashas, or Jews, the Gamant, and the Agows. A second race, abounding most in the north of Tigre, have thick lips, noses blunt and somewhat carved, and thick hair, verging on woolli- ness. The third are the Gallas, inhabiting the south of Shoa and the regions west of Lake Dembea and 20 the Abai; a large-bodied race, round-faced, short- « ith a depression between the nose and brow, I lively eyes, and thickish lips. The colour of tin-so races is brown of variou hades. The only . roes in A. arc slaves from the country of the ■ 'i in ' i to thi The "Mi' t accounts of tin- Abj siuiati I alv full of fables, but see oi n i Hi. ii nt to prove thai they attained s tegree of civilisation even in remote antiquity. ianity was introduced about the mid the ftb c, and s i prevailed extensively. Ixum was at that time the capital. Two centuries the Abyssinians were powerful enough to \rabia, and conquer a pari of Yemen. In the subsequent struggles against the invading Mi. [em, the i I and the country 1 were lost. In the 10th e., :i Jewish pi irew the reigning dynasty, the surviving itative of | I i to Shoa. After three centuries of confusion, the em]. ire was restored [con Alulae, and some progress was I in improvement Early in the 1 5th c the Abys- enti fed UltO close I'.bilioUS V. itll tlie . e, ';, tance the empire was saved, in 1540, from falling into the hands . r Granie, sultan of Ada! The southern pro- vinces, however, were lost, ami il -.it of empire n ved from shoa to Gondar. Under the influence of the Portug royal family adopted the B an Catholic faith; and the old I optic Church was formally united to the see of The | pi.- and eccl . 1 the innovation; the emperor gave way; and ultimately, in 1632, the Romish prie ts were expelled or put to death. In consequence of the commotions thus excited, the monarchical power declined, while that of the governors of provi greatly increased, and, indeed, became almost lute. The governor [Bos) of Gondar now nomirj the emperor [Negus). The political divisions of the country aie subject to continual alteration. Iff the existing states, the following are tin- most import- ant: — 1. The kingdom of Vtgri, extending between the river Takkazie or Bahr-el-Aswad [Black Kiver), and the m lins i Samen on one. side, and the district of Samhara on the other. Its chief towns are Antalo and Adowa. 2. The kingdom of Qondar or Amhara, extending on the west of the b i and tlie Samen Mountains. i: • . situated in the north-east of the plain of Demi Gondar, at an elevation of 7420 bet. .'i. The doni of Shoa [including Efal), lying south of Amhara, and separated from the Galla tribes by the Hawash. This is, by all accounts, the b. 1 and most powerful state ii og in A. The capital, Ankobar, at an elevation of 8108 feet, contains from 8000 to 10,000 inhabitants, and enjoys a delightful climate. The Gallas, a savage but enter- prising race, effected a settlement in the south of A. in the loth c. They inhabit the whole of the eastern part of tropical Africa. Several of their tribes have been modified in character and en by conversion to Mohammedanism, and have founded kingdoms— such as Enarea, one of the highest mountain countries of Africa, and rich in .; Kit-//", on the river (loshob, where the slave-trade is actively carried on by the Po and several smaller independent states of which little is known. In consequence of invasions and civil warfare, the present social and political condition of A. is very unfavourable. Tlie kingdom of Shoa is in better circumstances than the other states. Though Christianity is .still the professed religion of the majority of Abyssinians, it exists among them oidy in its lowest form, and is little more than ceremonial ACACIA— ACADEMY. Their church is national and independent, but the 1, or Allium ('our father ') is ordained by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines of the Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic ii, especially in the monophysite heresy; out several peculiar rites are observed, including circum- cision of both Bexee, and observance of the M laws respecting food, &c. : love-feasts, and adult bap- tism. 1 he old! t Abyssinian vhurches are hewn out of rocks. The modern churches are mostly small, round, or conical buildings, thatched with straw, and surrounded by pillars of cedar, Imrchea, but paint- are numerous. The state of manners and morals in A. is as low as might be looked for in a country bo long a prey to anarchy and violence. Human in'.' is lightly valued, the administrai justice is liarbarously negligent and corrupt, and the Ige-bond is tied and loosed with extreme v. The land generally yields at least two crops annually; but the agriculture is miserable, and the condition of the lower classes proportion- ally wretched Among fruits, the fig is the most plentiful Wine is used only for the Eucharist ; the common drink is bouza, a kind of sour beer, made from the fermentation of bread The manufac- tures of A. are rude, but sufficient, with a few exceptions, for the wants of the natives; cotton stllll's and leather goods are the staple articles. The foreign trade is carried on principally through Massowah ; the chief exports being 3] butter, musk-horns, wax, and ivory. A. has been frequently visited in recent l.y Christian missionaries, scientific travellers, and mercantile and political agents ; and our know- ledge of its literature has received great addi- tions. See the Travels and Journals of Bruce, Lord Valentia, Salt. Hitter, Gobat, faenberg and Krapf, Rochet d'Hericourt, Ruppell, and Parkyns; the Report of the French Scientific Commission (1845); Contributions of MM. d'Abbadie to Journ. Asiat., and of Beke and Kirk in Journ. of Buy. Qeogr. Hoc. See Theodore in Supplement. ACACIA, a genus of plants of the natural order Lc'juminosa', sub-order Mimosece. Tie- genus A. differs from Mimosa in i at. r number of its stamens (10—200), and in the want of transverse partitions in its bivalvular legU] The aeaeiasaiv diffused over all quarters of the globe except Europe. The greater number ..f them have a singular appearance, becan the leaf-stalks spread- ing out in a leaf- like form Iphyllodium) ; while the leaflets are more or less stunted in appearance, and fre- quently an- altogether absent. Other species have bipinnate leaves, with a gnat numb i' .>: leaflets) and are extremely beautiful. Many are reat importance in an economical point of view, be.-ause of the juice which Sows from them, which, when inspissated, 1 a article of commerce under the nan f Gum (q. v.). Thi species called A. gunvmifira, .1. Seyal, A. Ehren- bergii, A. lortUis, A. tfilotica, and .1. vera, natives of Africa, produce gum-arabic, also A. spi and A. Arabica, natives of the south of Asia. A. Arabiai is called the Babul-tree in India, and its Acacia Arabica (Gum-arabic Tree). gum, babul. A gum similar to gum-arabic i duced by A. dea the Silver Wattle), and A.affinis (the Black Wattle), in New ipe of Good Uoj . Gum Senegal is the produce of .1. Verdi, and A. Ada 1 , coast of '. fel .1. Perei i. al o i.l to j Id true white gum- I techu (q. v.) 1 fn.m the wood of A. catechu. The astringent bark and pods of some species are used for tanning. The bark of A. Arabica is administi red is India i a powerful tonic medicine. The pods of A. condnna form an article of commerce; in India, its seeds being saponaceous and used in washing; A decoction of the pods of A. Arabica is sometimes used in tl A considerable number of ird useful timber. The flowers of many spec rant Am of species from New Holland and other countries have been introduced into the south of Europe. are of frequent occurrence in green-houses in Britain ; and a few of the Australian species SU tolerably m the open air in the south of Eng- land. The foliage of the acacias with bipinnate leaves shews a peculiar sensitiveness to char. weather ; when a thick cloud obscures the sun, the opposite leaflets close together, and so remain till tie- sun lea]. pears. The Locust-tree of North America [Robvnia pseud-acacia] is often called A. both in Britain and upon the continent of Europe. Other species of Robinia also receive the .:...'. Sei l."> ' - 1 i l i a. and Kose A. Flares Icada (A. Blowers) is an old medical name for Sloe flowers. ACADEMY, a name originally applied to the philosophical school of Plato, and derived from the place in which that philosopher was accustomed to meet and converse with his pupils. This was a garden or grove in the suburbs of Athens, said to have onfce belonged t<> the hero Academus, and by him to have been presented to the citizens for a gymnasium. The spot is at this day known under the name of Akaaimia. The variations of doctrine among the successors of Plato gave rise to the distinctive titles of Old, Middle, and New A. The first is a]. plied to the philosophic teaching of Plato himself and his immediate followers; the . to that modification of the Platonic phil- osophy taught by Arcesilaus (ij.v.) ; and the third, to the half-sceptical school founded by Carneades (:ry valuable iiie sum. The lirst series of its transactions (1725- 47) bears the name of Commcntarii : the (1748-77), of NoviCommentarii the third (1777-*-). of Acta. Up to this date, they were written in t2 Latin ; thenceforth in Latin or French. From 178.'! to 1795, tie-; i ; from thai d to the present they are entitled Miinoiir.1. The A. of Sciences a/ Stockholm, founded in 1739, consisted at first of six members, one of whom was the celebrated Liniueus. It received a royal charter in 1711. but no endowment, Its publications, ITT'- 1 , are distinguished as New Transactions. Papers i-ulture are separately published, under the title of I" 1799, it was divided into six classes: 1. Political and Rural Economy, 15 members; 2. Commerce and Mechanical Arts, 15; .". Swedi h Physics and Natural History, 15; -1. Foreign Physics and Natural History, 15; ;.. Mathematics, 1*; 6. History, Philolo Arts, \1. The resident meml" i pre ide in rotation, during a term of three months: the transactions appear quarterly. At the annual meeting in April, prizes are distributed. — The /,'mi-il A. of ill i'nprnhai]in owes its origin, lil med, to six learned men, employed by Christian VI. in 1 7-4— to arrange his cabinet of medals. In 1743, the kin:,', on the recommendation of Count Ho] I'-in, their iii>t president, took the ny under his protection, endowed it, and "ill, -red that natural history, physics, and n niaties should 1 inbiaeed within the sphere of its li I uiled to the national history The academy's transactions are in Danish; s-mie of them are translated into Latin. — The A. of Sciences of Mannheim was founded in 17."io by the Elector-palatine Karl Thcodor, and divided into the sections of history and ph] I science; the latter was subdivided in 17*0 into physics proper and meteorology. The transactions under the two fonner heads are published under the of Actaj the meteorological memoirs are entitled Ephemerides. — The A. iff Sciences qf Munich was founded in 1759. Soon after the erection of Bavaria into a kingdom, it was reorganised on a very extensive footing, under the presidency of Jacob!. Its memoirs are published under the title ,,f Abhandlungen der Baterischen Akademie. — The A. qf Lisbon, established by Queen Maria in 177!', numbers 60 members; viz., 24 ordinary, and 30 honorary and foreign; and is divided into three sections: 1. Natural Science; 2. Mi :i. Portuguese Literature. It is liberally endi by government, and has a library, museum, i vatory, and printing-office. Its Memorial have appeared since 1787. — The Royal Iri.^Ii A. dates its origin from 1782, when a number of gentlemen, chiefly connected with the university of Dublin, associated themselves for the pursuit of science, , and literatirre. The plan of the society was afterwards extended. The first volume of its transactions appeared in 1788. — The American A. of Art* Km! Sciences was established at Boston in 17S0 : it had previously existed in another form, the original institution being due to Franklin. The lirst volume of its transactions was published in 1785. — The A. of Sciences al Vienna was founded in 1S46. It is divided into the sections of History and Philology; Mathematics and Natural Science; Philosophy, Political Economy, and Medicine ft published Reports of its meetings since 1S48, and since 1S50, Memoirs. Among the academics established for the cultiva- tion of particular departments of knowdedge, are the followinir: — 1. Languages. The Academia della , or Academia Fwfuralorum was founded at Florence in 15S2, chiefly for the purpose of promoting the purity of the Italian language ; .whence it s what fantastic designation — crusca signifying chaff or bran. It lirst drew attention by its attacks on Tasso. Its principal service has been the compilation ACADIE -ACALKl'll .]■:. of an excellent dictionary, and the publication of correct editions of the older Italian poets. A new edition of this dictionai nt ID preparation, but from the slow rate of its prog i kulatcd that many centuries must elapse before its comple- tion. For an account of the Aeademu Fra instituted in 1629, as a private society, see In The Royal Spanish A. was founded at Madrid in 1711, by the Duke of Escalona, for the cultivation and improvement of the national 1 e, in which it has done good service particularly l>y the com- pilation of a Spanish dictionary. A similar insti- tution was founded at St Petersburg in 17 afterwards united to the Imperial A. At Stock- holm, a similar academy was established in 178G ; and at Pesth (for the cultivation of the .V. language) in 1830. 2. AechjKolocy. At the head of antiquarian institutions stands the Acadfraii d> Insaipaons, founded at Paris in 1663, by Colbert. See I.nsiiii i. For the elucidation of northern lan- guages and antiquities, an academy was founded in 1710 at Upsala, in Sweden ; a similar institution was established ai Cortona, in Italy, in 17-7. Both have issued valuable works. The .1. of 1 1 < rndaneum was founded at Naples in 1755, by the Marquis of Tanucei, for the elucidation of Herculanean and Pompeiau antiquities. Its publications, commencing in 1775, boar the title of Antichita di Ercolano. An academy for the investigation of Tuscan antiquities was established at Florence in 1807 ; and at Paris, in 1S05, a Celtic A. for the elucidation of the language, history, and antiquities of the Celts, especially in France. This society changed its name, in 1S14, to SoeUU dee Antiguaires de France. — 3. History. The Royal A. of Portugues< History was founded at Lisbon, in 1720, by John V. At Madrid, in 1730, a learned association was formed for the elucidation of Spanish history. It was constituted an academy in 1738, by Philip V. It has published editions of Mariana, Sepulveda, Solis, and the ancient Cas- tilian chronicles, some of which had never before been printed. A historical academy has existed for some time at Tubingen. — 4. Mkdkink. The Acadania Naturtv Curiosorum was established at Vienna, in 1G52, by the physician Bauschius, for the investigation of remarkable phenomena in the animal, ile, and mineral kingdoms. In honour of Leopold L, who patronised it liberalry.it took the additional name oi -Leopoldina ; and, since 1S08, has had its chief seat at Bonn. Its valuable memoirs have appeared at irregular intervals under the title of Miscellanea, Ephemerides, and Acta. The Academic Imperials Dl of Ai'.i'MiTF.'rtify. Every word in English has one syllable thus bn markedly into notice. When the accented syllable falls near the end of a long word, there may bo one or more secondary accents, as in ? BuMrdind'tion. A. depends upon force of vocal or articulative effort, not upon highness or lowni pitch. Variations of pitch produce what elocu- tionists call inflection. It is the confoundie A. with a rise of tone, and the contrasting of it with a sinking of tone, that has produced so much confusion on this subject, especially as regards the accents of the ancients. In English, many nouns are converted into verbs simply by transposing the A., as object — object. It is A., and not quantity, that determines English measures or metres in versi- fication. No rule can be given as to what syllable of a word shall be accented! There seems to lie an increasing tendency in our language to throw the A. towards the beginning of words. In the Fin- nish language, the A. is said to be invariably on the tirst syllable. — Emphasis is to sentences what A. is to words; it is a stress laid upon one word of a sentence to make it prominent. If A. is syllabic emphasis, emphasis is logical A. A'CCENT, in Music, is analogous with A. in language. It consists of a stressor emphasis given to certain notes or parts of bars in a compi i and may lie divided into two kinds— grammatical, and rhetorical or aesthetic. The first kind of A. is perfectly regular in its occurrence — always falling on the "first part of a bar. It is true that long or conrpound measures of time have, besides the chief A. in every bar, some subordinate accents ; but these are only slightly marked. As a general rule, we may observe, that the grammatical or regu- lar A. must not be exaggerated. It should be marked only so far as to give a clear sense of rhythm. The ,-esthetical A. is irregular, and depends on taste and feelinj is does the A. and emphasis used in oratory. In vocal music well adapted to words, the words serve as a guide to the right use of ajsthetical accer ACCE'PTANCE is the act whereby the drawee engages to pay a bill according to the terms of the A. K may be said to consist in the drawee writing the word 'accepted' on the bill and sub- cribing his name; or writing, as has been decided in England, the word 'accepted' only (although it is not so in Scotland, where the act of A. must be shewn by the actual signature of the acceptor) ; or merely subscribing his name at the bottom or across the bill, lint there are other and various forms cif A., in England and Scotland, as to which, and generally, see Bill of BXCBAHSK In com- mon parlance, the accepted bill is called oh A., and the drawee, or party who engages to pay the bill, is called the A. is also a term in the Scotch law of contracts. A mutual contract may commeuce by an offer, and ACCESSOR Y—ACCL1 MATISE. be completed by A. The offer is viewed as an 1 "ii ti.. \., lint ni.i-. . before A., be recalled, or condition oi muHng repai v loss fairly occasioned by 1 1 1 ■ - offer. 'II"' offer may be verbal, l>y Letter, or even t when goods are sent without an order, or contrary ' r, in which case, acquii may be either tacit or express. The word is not a ical one in the law of England, but the matt * to which it relates in that system will 1"' found under i !ok hi li r. A'CCESSARY or ACCESSORY. In the criminal law ot England, an A. is a person who is not tin' in a felony, nor even present at its perpetration, hut who i^ in Borne way concerned, either btfort or after the fact committed. An A. 1 who procures or counsels r to commit a crime, he himself being absent. An A. after the fact is a person who, knowing a felony to. have been co m A receives, protects, or the felon. In sudden and unpremeditated i, there can 1»' no accessaries oe/bre the .and in all cri] ■ ' of f'inny there are no accessaries at all, either before or after the fact, but all persons concerned therein are held to be equally guilty as principals. There are no , but all are principals, on account of the heinousness of the crime. In the Scotch law, 'art and part' in the indict- ment, or formal accusation, is the phrase by which accession to a crime is signified ; and it applies to all offences against the criminal law, there being, according to the practice of the Scotch courts, no tion in this respect between felonies, properly so called, and misdemeanours. ACCESSORY ACTIONS, in the practice of the Scotch law. i those which are, in some il gi >c, subservient or ancillary to other actions. For example, actions for reviving a cause, or prosecuting it against the heir of a deceased defendant, or for restoring lost deeds or other documents, are of the nature of A. A. ACCESSORY OBLIGATION is a technical term in the Scotch law signifying an obligation annexed to another obligation which is antecedent or primary. Thus, an obligation for the regular pay- ment of interest, or by way of further security, is an A. 0. ACCESSION. In the law both of England and Scotland, property may lie acquired by A., and this A. may be either natural or artificial. The young of cattle and other animals, for example, belong to rson who is the owner of the mother, and tin- fruits and produce of the earth to the proprietor of the soil ; and for the same reason, the gradual addi- tion to lands on the bank of a river belongs to the proprietor of the land receiving the addition. These arc instances of natural A. Property, again, is said to be acquired by artificial A. when it is the result of human industry ; thus trees planted, or build- ings erected, on the ground of another, belong to owner of the ground itself, and not to the planter or builder; and so with regard to the con- II of wood or metal, which, in whatever form, remain the property of the original owner. ACCESSION TO THE THRONE signifies the commencement of the sovereign's reign. ACCESSION, Deed of. In the practice of Scotch conveyancing, this is a deed by which the creditors of a bankrupt or insolvent debtor approve of a trust-settlement executed by the debtor for the 1 behoof, and consent to the arrangement pro- posed. The corresponding deed in English practice is a deed of trust for creditors, or, under the Bank- nipt Law Consolidation Act, 1! and lo Vict. c. 10G, a deed of am ditors. ACCIDENTAL COLOURS. See Light. A'CCIDENTS, in Mns,, occasional sharps, fiats, and naturals placed fo fore not B in the i piece. ACCIDENTS, in Log., areoppoi id to Essentials, or to Sub bancs. \n Occident is a property of an object which may I d, or even b ■led. without the object ceasing to I tially what it is. But many of the distinctions by the older philosophi rs 1» tween lential are fallacious. AC0TPITRE6 (plural ,,f the Lat. acdpUer, a hawk), the name given by Linn.-eus to an order of Birds, including, . Yultur (Vultures), Falco (Ea ins, Hawks, Head and Foot of Gulden Eagle. kc), Strix (Owls), and Laniits (Shrikes), and princi- pally distinguished by a hooked bill, short strung feet, and sharp hooked claws. The name has m i generally been adopted by subsequent ornithologists, but the order, as a truly natural one, has been retained under the names Rapaces, Saptores, &c. ; the Shrikes, however, being generally excluded from it. ACCLI'MATISE, to accustom an animal or plant to a climate not natural to it. The process, of conn ". varies widely, according to the amount of dill- between the old and the new climate, in oases where the difference is extreme, important changes take place in the constitution, and arc often attended with certain diseases described as 'diseases of accli- matisation.' Thus, Europeans settling in tropical parts, are liable to disease of the liver, while natives of tropical lands, when resident in England, arc exposed to pulmonary disease. The power of bearing changes of climate, or the capability of acclimatisa- tion, is remarkable in mankind, but especially in the Anglo-German race, now bo widely spread ovi globe. Among animals, we find great powers of adaptation to various climates in the horse, dog, cat, rat, &c. ; and among plants, in the variou < , real . in potatoes, and several weeds common to almost all climates. Intelligence, of course, as-i 1 i he physical power of man in bearing changes of climate ; but there seems to be a limit to the power, at least as seen in the individual. To A. beyond a certain point is the work of some few generations. — The Acclimatising of domestic animals is one of the most important triumphs of human enterprise. Almost all the domestic animals now- commonly spread over Europe, and even in high northern latitudes, were originally natives of warm dim The change produced by the acclimatising of animals may be cither an improvement or a deterioration; of the latter, we have an instance in 11 sin tland pouy ; of the former, we see an example in the ACCOLADE— ACETIC ACID. merino sheep of Spain. As an instance of want of the faculty of being acclimatised, the reindeer may serve. Kemoved from the mosses and lichens of the cold north to the fertile valleys of a temperate clime, the reindeer degenerates and dies. On the other hand, the horse, whose native land is the Bast, arrives at its highest development in England ; and the £ p, brought northwards as far as Spain, becomes remarkable Cor its fine fleece. Spain, on the whole, has a climate much wanner than that of Silesia and Pomerania ; and yet the merino sheep, bred in countries, have liecome superior to their ancestors imported from Spain. Tins is a proof that art may do rary much in modifying the influences of climate. Silk-worms, brought from China first into Italy, have been acclimatised not only in the south of France, but even on tin- coast of the Baltic. Recently, attempts have been made to A. in France the llama, the vicugna, and the alpaca of Peni, and with some success in the last instance, as alpacas have been found to thrive pretty well in the Pyrenees.— . ! ing <>/ Plants. It has been very generally believed that plants may become illy inured to a climate so different from that to which they have be < aeon omed, that if they had been at once transferred to it, they would have perished; and that their adaptation to it becomes more perfect when successive generations are raised by seed. On the other hand, it is maintained by some of the most distinguished botanists of the at time, that each species of plant has certain limits of temperature, within which it will succeed, and that alleged instances of acclimatising have merely instances of plants formerly supposed to be more delicate than they really were, lint as it is certain that different varieties of the same species are often more and less hardy, it would seem that in the production of new varieties by seed, there is still a prospect of the acclimatising, to a certain extent, of which the existing varieties are too delicate to grow well iu the open air. ACCOLA'DE, the term applied to the ceremony with which a knight was admitted into the order <>f chivalry. The grand-master, in receiving the neophyte, embraced him by folding the arms round the neck (adcollum). — In music, the A. is the couplet uniting several staves, as in part-music or pianoforte- ■ ACM 'I I'MPABTIMENT, in Music, is the assisting or aiding of a solo part by other parts, which may t of a whole orchestra, or a single instrument, or even subservient vocal parts. It serves to elevate and beautify the solo part, and is subject fo certain rules for composition as well as for performance. It must be subservient, and therefore should not predominate, bui -ist to place the solo part in its brightest light. In this point of view, modern oomposers have often erred by making the A. too l'nll, and causing it to stand out so inde- nt and en foa me. that the solo part is often, were, entir Ij list. This abuse takes place ly in vocal music; and not only is the effect -e.l, but the vocal organ of the singer is frequently ruined. Were it not too true that this bad practice has become the t'a-li'o m. it would be difficult to believe that a composer would lend him- self to it. In proper A., after faithfully fulfilling its duty to the solo part, there always remains oppor- tunity enough for display in the ritornells and Symphonies. The Italians in their best period were celebrated for the simplicity and effectiveness of their A. Now. tlev have entirely lost this claim. In A.. the composer must keep three principal points in — namely, harmony, rhythmical figure, and suitable choice of instrumentation, in respect to number and character of tone ; but all must be subservient to the ruling character of the solo part. Right or proper harmony is, or should be, easily found by every experienced o It is, as it born at the same time with the melody, and only requires to be here and there adjusted with When this is not the I character, which interrupts and total' the melody. The figure oi tl»- A. should so as to be conformable to the solo part 1 to express what the solo part cannot I to do, and may also, by a succession of secondary ar and certain the- individuality of the principal solo part, such a tering of the poltroon, tin- daring of the courageous, or the fear of the timid. The necessity of a iud choice of instrumentation for the proper support of the solo part is evident. Tin- A. should, above all things, by its certainty and fij ing. (food A. is as creditable as solo p] all qualified orchestras view it as i ance. — The word also means the art of pi my from a figured bass; this, though more in use formerly, is still a necessary study for the A. of tative. See FIGURED B ACCO'RDIOX, a simple musical instrument, but little better than a toy, which produces its toe the vibration of metallic tongues of various sizes, while wind is supplied by the action of bellows. The concertina and the hcarmonivm are superior instruments, constructed on the same principle — the action of a gust of air on metallic tongues. ACCUM, FREDERICK, a native of Westphalia, came to London in 1803. He is known in country chiefly on account of his work, A Pro Treatisi on Oas-ligtU, which had the effect of intro- d of illumination into London and all tie- large towns of England. It was translated into several languages, and became very popular. Subsequently, he wrote a book upon practical chemistry, which was well received, ami is still held in considerable estimation. Ultimately, he quitted England, and went to Berlin, where be obtained employment. He died in 183S. ACCUSATIVE CASE. See Declension'. ACE'PHALA. A'CER and ACERACi:.". See Maim;. ACE'TIC ACID, the sour principle in vinegar, is the most common of the vegetable acids. If alcohol, diluted with water, be mixed with a ferment, such t, and exposed to the air at, or a Little its ordinary temperature, it is rapidly converted into vinegar or A. A. The change is accompanied by tin- absorption of oxygen, 2 atoms of which combine with as many of hydrogen to form water, whilst other 2 take the place of the hydrogen which has water, so that A. A. is produced from alcohol by the substitution of 2 aton -n for •_' of hydrogen. Tims alcohol is C" 4 H <>,. if we take from this 2 atoms of hydrogen, and add 2 of oxygen, it becomes C 4 H 4 4 . But from the mode in which A. A. acts when it combines with bases, it is certain that one of the equivalents of hydrogen and one of oxvgen are united as wat that the formula of A." A. is 4 B BO. A striking experiment may be made illustrating the mode in which alcoh 1 is converted into A. A. If slightly diluted alcohol be dropped upon platinum- Mack, the oxygen condensed in that sub ' with great enei j on the spirit, and A. A. is evolved in vapour. Ibi.' the whole office of the pi itinum is to determine the oxygen of the air. and the bye of the alcohol to unite. Iu the commercial pro ACHAIA UTUU..F.A. formanufact Ibu .uncus priii; the place of the platinum-black, and A. A. i- n..t known in tin' anhydrous form. In its most concentrafc d nt of water, i' ,11 ,' », I HO. When it combines with mel I they take tli.- pUv of the wati rj acetate of sod ' for example, of anhydrous soda and anhydrous A. A.. Nat i.l \ iT ,( >,,. flu- salts of A. A., .all. ilAu i arc numerous and important in tin- arts. The most important is acetate or sugar of lead. See Leas. Forth i ea of manufacturing A. A., sec Vinegar AC'HA'IA, a small district in the north of the Peloponnesus, was divided into twelve little status; and was bounded K. by the Saronic Gulf; N. and W. bj the Bay of Corinth ; and S. by Arcadia and Elis. Ihe land, rising gradually from the i the hills of the ulterior, was famed, in ancient times, for fertility in the produce of oil, wine, and fruits. When the Bomans divided the whoU- of Greece into Macedonia and A., the latter included till Greece excepting Xhessaly. In the modern kingdom of Greece, A. forms, along with Elis, a nome or department, in the extreme north-west of the Morea, and its chief town is l'atras (q.v.). Excepting the west coast, the land is fertile, and produces corn, wine, and oil. Ihe ancient \.l,. .mi. were, in a great measure, separ- ated from the other people of Greece. Their twelve little towns, of which .Egium was the chief, formed a confederacy which was dissolved in the Ionian times; tut was renewed in 280 B.c, anil subsequently extended itself, under the name of the J. /(<..„ League, throughout Greece, until 14U b.c, when Grecian liberty fell under the power of Home. ACHAKD, FRANZ Karl, a meritorious naturalist and chemist, born April 28, 1754, in Berlin, chiefly distinguished himself by his improvements in the process of preparing sugar from beet-root In these labours he was supported by the king of Prussia, The results of his experiments were acknowledged as partK succe -fill in 1799 and 1800; but were not carried into extensive application until the king gave to A. a farm in Lower l.usatia, where he founded a model manufactory of beet-root sugar. Sere, after six years of experiments, conducted with the aid of Neubeck, a medical man, A. found out the true method of extracting beet-sugar; and in 1812, when the factory had Income a very pro- fitable investment, the lung annexed to it a school for teaching the process of manufacture. A. was called to Berlin as director of the physical class in the Academy of Sciences, and died April 20, 1S21. He wrote, among other similar i ays, one on the tan Uanuftuture of Sugar from H"< (Leip. 1809). ACHELO'TJS, now called ASPROPOTAMO (i. e., White River, from the cream-colour of its waters), the largest river in Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, flows through the land of the Dolopians, divides iEtolia from Aearnania, and falls into the Ionian Sea. The extensive alluvial deposits at the mouth river have been observed from ancient times. It i said that the banks of the A. were anciently the haunt of lions. ACHENIUM,ACH(F.XIX*M,orAKKNH'M,a term now very frequently employed by botanists, to di : date a dry, hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, in which the integuments of the seed arc close! applied to it, but distinct from it. Such are what are popularly called the sffd* of borage, and other plants of the same natural order. They were termed nuts by Linns us. aare ag p i a i man recepl iclei forming wl called an etaerio, as in the ranunculi! b b they ced upon a dry receptacle, or in the straw- berry, in which th.- receptacle is fleshy. Somi tunes i ,, edachi « ithin the B I 1 ..- calyx, as in the rose. Ihe Eruil of the OomposiUe is also sometimi called an A.; but a different appellation [cypeela) • to it, because the tube of the calyx coheres with the fruit, the nunc A. being limited to Sli fruits. A'CHI'.IM IN, the name given to leveral rivers by the ancients, always with reference to some peculi- arity, such as black or bitter waters, or mephitic The A. in rhesprotia, which flows through the lake Acheritsia, and pour- itself into the Ionian Sea; another river of the same name in Klis, now called Sacuto; and BeveraJ streams in E I to have innii it « ith the infernal world. According to Pausanias, Homer borrowed from the riverin Thesprotia the name of his infernal A., which the later poets surrounded with many imaginary horrors. Other lib. bi idi bove mentioned, bore the name of Acherusia; e. g., the lake near Hermione in Argolia. A-CHEVA'L POSITION. When troops are arranged BO that a river or highwaj p i tic centre and forms a perpendicular to the front, they are Baid to be drawn up in A. 1'. Wellington's army at Waterloo was drcJteval on the road froi oi to Brussels, lu eases where a river forms the perpendicular to the front, secure possession of a bud-.- is necessary ; otic half of the troops might be routed, while the remainder stood idly as spectators. A'CHILL, or 'Eagle' Isle, off the west coast of Ireland, is reckoned within the county of Mayo. It is 151 Hides long by 12J miles broad, and has a very irrcgidar coast-line, though its general shape is almost that of a right-angled triangle. It has a wild and desolate appearance; mosl of the surface is boggy; of the 35,000 acres which the island contains", not half a thousand are cultivated. There are three villages in A., and a number of hovels or huts scattered over it- barren moors. in :-ni ill clusters, forming hamlets, but BO Ill ( as hardly to be lit tor beasts. A. rises tOV. the north and west coast, where the mountains attain an elevation of 2000 feet. One of them, composed, like the rest of the island, wholly of mica-slate, presents, towards tin- sea, a she* C preci- pice from its peak to its base, a height of -g-jus feet. is a mission. station in the island, which forms an exception to the general wretchedness of the houses. It possesses, amongst other agencies of civilisation, a printing-press. The population is decreasing, from emigration and other causes: in 1841, it amounted to 5000 ; in 1851, to 4000. ACHILL-E'A, a genus of plants of the natural order Composita (q.v.), having small flowers (heads .,f flowers) disposed in corymbs, and the receptacle covered with chaffy scales (small bractess). The florets of the ray are female, and have a short, roundish tongue or lip; the florets of the disk are hermaphrodite, the -tube of the corolla flatly com- pressed and two-w inged ; the involucre is imbricated. The common V u:i:ow or Milfoil (A. mfflefoUwrn) abounds in all parts of Europe and in some parts of North America- into which, however, it has perhaps been carried from Europe— growing in meadows, pastures, &c. It is about a foot in height : its leaves hipinnate, the pinna deeply divided, the segments narrow and crowded. It has white or rose-coloured flowers. The leaves have a bitterish aromatic, ACHILLES-ACHROMATIC. somewhat austere taste, ami little smell ; the flowers have a strong aromatic smell, with an aromati taste, and contain an essential oil, a resin, bitter extractive, gum, several salts, ami traces of sulphur. Both haves and flowers are used in medicine as a powerful stimulant an The leaves were formerly much used for h—Ung wounds, and are still so employed by th tnunon people in the lands of Scotland and in some parts of the continent. The expressed juice is a popular spring medicine in Germany. Yarrow is often sown along with grasses intended to form permanent | for sheep; and .1. mo times called Musk .Mil foil, is cultivated as food for cattle in Switzer- land. A. mosclmta, A. atrata, and A. nana — all natives of the Alps --are very aromatic, and bear the name of t.KMi'i or GKHIPP. The inhabitants of the Alps value them very highly, and use them for making what is called Swug Tea. Tiny are luting and tonic ; as are also A. sr.tacea Hit, both natives of Switzerland and other middli Europe, and .1. ageratum,a native of the south of Europe, used by the French as a vulnerary, and called Herbe au Cha BWOBX [A. Ptarmica) is a native of Britain and other puts of Europe, 1—3 feet high, with lanceolate . and nnieh larger flowers than the common 1. It grows in meadows and damp* | The runt, which is aromatic, is used as a substitute for Pellitory of Spain (q. v.), and the whole plant is pungent and provokes a flow of saliva. Ai IH'LIjES, the hero of Homer's ///or/, was the son of KingPeleus and Thetis, a sea-goddess, belong- ing tfl a line descended from Jove, Of bis life before the Trojan war, and of bis .Lath after the fall of Troy, the poets after Homer first pro give accounts. We are told that he was dipped in the river Styx by his mother, and was thus made invulnerable, except in the heel, by which he was held during the process ; hence ' the heel of A.' became a proverbial phrase to denote any vulnerable point in a man's character. It had been prop at his birth that his life v.. mid be short; and, fore, when the seer Calchas announced that without A. Troy could not be taken, his mother, to keep lurn from the dangers of the expedition, concealed him at the court of King Lyeomedes, among daughters the boy lived disguised as a girl. But discovered him by a stratagem. He o to the young ladies a number of articles, some of nine attire and others of arms; and the warrior was betrayed by his choice. A., in the Greek campaign against Troy, appeared with fifty vessels manned by his followers, the Myrmidons; but remained sullen and inactive during a great p the contest. When the city of Lyrnessus was taken, he had seized and carried away the beautiful Briseis. -V pestilence in the Greek camp being ascril the anger of Apollo, whose priest had been robbed of his daughter, Chrysela, by Agamemnon; Aga- memnon was compelled by the army to send Chrysi ; 9 back to her father. On this, he took away Briseis from A., which greatly offended the latter. With this incident, the Iliad begins. Neither the splendid offers made by A i nor the disasters of the Greeks, could aft >\v A. to take any part in the contest, until bis friend 1'atroelus was slain by Hector. The hero then buckled on his armour, which had been made for him by Vulcan, and of which the shield i at great length by Homer. The fortunes of the held were now suddenly I hanged in favour of the Greeks; and the vengeance of A. was not satiated until he had slain a great number of the Trojan heroes, and lastly. Hector, whose body he fastened to Ins chariot, and dragged into the Grecian camp. He then buried his friend Patroclua with great funereal honours. King Priam, the father of Ho I by night to the tent of A., and prayed that the body of his son might be given back to the Trojans. A. COnSl and with the burial of II loses. We are told, that soon after the fall of Hector, A. made a contract of marriage with P.,1. r of the J king, but was slain by her brother Paris, in the temple of . where the mai should have been celeb According to other accounts, he was slain by Apollo, who assumed the likeness of Paris as a disguise. His ashes were placed in an urn, with those of his friend Pal 1 were buried on the promontory of Sigeum, where, after the fall of Troy, the princess Polyxena, who had been made a prisoner, was offered as a propria sacrifice. Achilles, from an ancient statue. ACHILLES' TEXDOX(7V»./o.' taches the soleus ami gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of the leg to the heel-bone. It is capable of rt a force equal to a 1000 lbs. weight: and yet is fre- quently ruptured by the contraction of these mu in sudden extension of the foot. The name was given with reference to the death of the Grecian hero Achilles by a wound in the heel. Ancient surgeons I wounds or serious bruises of the A. T. as fatal. ACHIME'XES, a genus of plants of the natural order Qemeracea (q. v.), much cultivated in stoves and greenhouses for the beauty of their flowers. The species are numerous — natives of the warm parts of America. ACHROMATIC (without colour), the name applied to lenses and telescopes through which objects are seen without false colours, or, in other words, free bom that coloured fringe- which, in the old " copes, surrounded the object, and diminished its < ■ tinctness. The white, or rather colourless ray of light is composed of several cob" which arious degrees of refrangibility. See Ei i Tioy, Light, Colour. When the direct ray is d, e divides itself into coloured rays, d< ing in various degrees from the right line of the primitive ray. The rays thus refracted by the con- vex object-glass do not meet exactly in one point, the focus of the glass, but rather at several p the various colours, red, blue, and yellow, which surround the object Newton, misled by imperfect experiment ie to find an. for this defect ; but Enler, in 174", exprei ed his com ction that the desh improvement was praci belief was confirmed by the dish niathe- matii -inn Klingensticrna. The practical solution of the difficult lerved for John Dollond; i. when he obtained a patent for his A. teles- cope, a priority of invention was claimed for a man of the name of Hall. Dollon.i m forming an A. object-glass by a combination of crow 1 flint-glass, which follow one law as to their relative refractive po another as to their powers of dispersing the colours. By uniting a convex lens of crown-glass with a cou- caye one ol Bint-glass, in certain relative dimei a reunion of the coloured rays may be effected, and n ACI KEALE— ACONITE. the object will lie seen without false colours. In the construction of A. telescopes, I'-' 1 ! I followed by his son Peter, and also by the ii. A further improvement was bj Fraunhofer of -Munich, who am ded is ily pure glass— a very difficult i in the case of llint gla . \V ,vo an important improvement oi tin- A. tel to the Viennese optician Plb'sal, who lias lately invented what he calls the dialytie telescope, in which the Beveral kinds of glass composing the compound object-glass are not placed close to lated distances apart. This arran Hie tube. Sec Telescope. A'OI KEA'Lri, a town of Sicily, in the district of .it tin- foot "i Mount Etna, on the small river Aei. Sowing from Etna, • a. The town is 1 id contains 19,000 inhabitants, who uployed elm Bj in tin- manufacture of linen id . ilk ;' it also on a not inconsid ids in llax and grain. -Many of the edifices a, A. K. is famed for it mineral i , , and cave of l'olyphemus ami the grotto oi t 1 llatea in its vicinity. A'CIDS. An acid i ishedbythe prop mbiningwith bases ; ions to form salts (q.v.J. The most strikin of A. are a sour taste, and iperty of reddening vegetable blues. They are also mostly oxidi . and at one time :i was thought to be essential to an arid, as tile d-producer) indicates. Subse- quent experience has extended the definition. There is an important class of undoubted A. that con- tain no oxygen ; and silex, or Hint, which, being insoluble, neither tastes sour nor reddens litinus- , is held to be an acid because it conibin. and forms compounds like acknowledged A. '! I ■ ' A., which are by far the most i ' i id of elements (sulphur, nitrogen, chromium, &c), with two or more equiva- lents of oxygen. The elements that form the strongest A. with die, and of them have more than one stage of acid lion. Thus sulphur, with two equivalents of oxygen, forms sulphurous acid, symbol S0 2 ; with three equivalents it forms sulphuric acid, symbol SO,. Similarly, arsenic gives rise to arsenious acid (AsOj) and arsenic acid (AsO). The higher of oxidation forms the stronger and more a.id. All metals, except arsenic, that form A. with n, have also, at a lower stage of oxidation, one or more oxides. To these oxygen A. must be added the organic A., composed cither of carbon and 0x3 11, as oxalic acid (C 2 O s ), or of these two dn .gen, as acetic acid (C^HjO,) and acid (C,HO,). There are also A. found in 1 fluids or resulting from their decomp which contain nitrogen in addition to the three elements above nan id ; Midi is uric acid (C^N,!!^). The hydrogen -1. are formed of hydrogen and a I, 11! her simple or compound. The most im- pe of it ■ claf 1, 1 1 hydro- chloric or muriatic acid (CI II) ; others are liydi iodic (III) and hydrocyanic A. (NC.H). As all A., I ow- ever, even oxygen A, possess acid properties — i.e., combine with bases — only when in combination with water, a new view of the constitution of A. is beginning to prevail, which makes hydrogen the : lement in all A. Thus, in of considering vitriol as a compound of sulphuric acid and water (S0 3 +HO), the hydrated acid is held to he the real sulphuric acid, and its rational formula to be (S0 4 U). It thus becomes analogous to hydro- chloric acid (C1H). This view has not oidy the advantage of bringing all A. into one .lass, but iin theory of uieir combination with bases and of their capacity of saturation uniform anil 1 11 usTiiv, iii Supplement. ack r.i;.M AN' N, Rudolph, a native of Saxony in ny (b. 17(14 — (1. 1834), cami I 1 1 ondon, where In opened a repository of the tine arts in the Strand, which succeeded will. lb- ii I the art of aphy into England, and was ator of iniials' (i|. v.), which he eon in I- 'iice. 1 by his For- not, published iii 1823 and following years. Among his numerous illui bated publications maybe n .1 his H I Arts, Lib rature, and : Microcosm of London ; Westmit and l v, l-engraving, Q really fc. i by this 1 ' n. His kind- nrhom he had left in Si onj ought aot to be left unmentioned. A'COLYTKS, a name occurring first abon .Id c, and applied to fun. i i ..ho assisted hops and priests in the performance of reli- gious rites, lighting tl I" rating the and water at the communion, > were con idered as in holy ord next to sub-deacons. These mi. have, since the 7th c, been performed by laymen and boys, who are improperly called A. ; but in the Romish Church, aspii-auts to the priesthood are still at one stage consecrated as A., receiving caudles and cups as the symbols of the office. See Orders, Holy A'CONITE (Aconitum), a genus of plants of the natural order Iln 1111 iiciilun CB (q. v.), having live petaloid sepals, of which the upper one is helmet- shaped, and two hammer-headed petals concealed within the helmet-shaped sepal. The tin of 3 — 5 follicles. A. NapdhiS, the common Wolf's- cam: or Monk's-hood, often cultivated in flower- gardens for the sake of its erect racemes of blue k's-hood [Aco ellut): ,1, fruit ; b, root, , is a somewhat doubtful native of England, but common in some parts of Europe. The rool fusiform and clustered. The root and whole plant are very poisonous, containing an alkaloid, called I'iia; one of the most virulent of all known poisons; but an extract of the leaves is a valuable medicine, administered in small 1 for nervous and other diseases. An A., sometimes called A. Stoerckianum, but generally regarded as a ACORN-SHELL-ACOUSTICS. variety of A. Cammarum (also known as A.pani- eulatum), was brought into great repute on the continent during last century by Dr Stoerck, an Austrian imperial physician, and is still much cnltival iicinal use. Tho same prop or less degree to belong to a number, if not to all, of the species of this genus, ntain the same alkaloid Tho virulent poison of India, equally fatal in its effects •a In tlier introduced into wounds or taken into the stomach, is prepared from the roots of ; -. The A. ferox of Nepaul, from which much of it is obtained, lias been identified by Drs Hooker and Thomson with .4. Napdlua. Two other Himalayan specii i, .1- pahnatonn and .-1. luri- dwm, are equally employed in its preparation. A. nil, nm, or white-flowered monk's-hood, a native of Hie Levant., and A. lycodonum, yellow-fl monk's-b 1, or wolfs-bane, a native o are not unfrequent in our flow ACORN-SHELL. See Lalams. A'CORUS, .1 genus of plants of the natural 1 i;i it), or, according to other botanists, i natural order OronHaeeas, which is rei connecting-link between Aroideai and J The plants of this genus have a leaf-like scape, which bears upon its side a dense, cylin greenish spike of Bowers, with 6-p aceous th and six stamina in eaeli flower. To this belongs the Sweet Flag [A. ailamus), which ago brought from Asia, and in the c. was planted in the gardens of princes and rich men, but has now become naturalised in ny, &c, growing in marshes and ditches. Its root (rhizome) is perennial, divided into long joints about the thickness of the thumb, has a bitterish acrid taste, and is very aromatic. It is a powej ml medicine of transient tonic effect, occasion- ally used, especially in cases of weak digestion. In many places of the continent it is to be found in every confectioner's, cut into slices, and prepared with sugar. It is also used to correct the empyreumatic odour of spirits, and to give them a peculiar flavour. It is called Calamus Boot. In Britain it is chiefly employed by perfumers in the manufacture of hair-powder. — The other species of A. are likewise aromatic, and are applied to the same A> gramineut is cultivated in China. ACOSTA, Gabriel, a Portuguese nobleman, ruled from a Jewish family, bom at Oporto in 1587. After being educated in the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, ho became sceptical, and leaving Portugal, went to Amsterdam, where he adopted the Jewish faith. He did not remain long inted with his new creed; but wrote against the Pentateuch, disputed the doctrine of the soul's immortality, and became involved in controversy with his rabbinical teachers. On account of his work, entitled Examende Tradifoens Phariseas con- las ron a ley Bteripta (Examination of Pharisaic Traditions compared with ffle Scriptures), lt'.j I, he was charged with atheism liy the Jews before a Christian magistracy. Having lost his property, and being sentenced to a seven years' excommuni- cation, he sought reconciliation with the synagogue, and submitted to very ignominious chastisements, which were repeatedly inflicted as often as his reli- gious doubts arose again ; until, ina state of in he ended his career by suicide in 1G40, or, as others say, in 1047. His autobiography was published in Latin and German (I.eip. 1847). ACOTYLE TDONOTTS PLANTS (Acotyledones oi Jussieu), one of the great primary classes into which the vegetable kingdom is divided, according to the structure of tho seed and whole development therewith connected. See Cotyledon'. The class of Acotyledones contains those plants which, in the l.innaan system, form the class CBYPTOGAjriA (rj. v.). * irtly of Acror/enous Plants (i). v Ferns and (losses, and partly of Tludloaenous J' (q. v.), as Lichens, Fungi, and AlgSft It thus includes t organisation, v embryo exhibits no distinct seed-lobes (cotyledons), but is a mere cell i th -.Tanular matter in its interior, and germinates indifferently from any point of its surface. ACOU'STICS (Or. < r) is the science of sound. This part of physics is often treated in connection with the atmosphere — an arrangement that seems inappropriate ; for the atmosphere is only the most common conductor of sound ; and every substance, whether solid or fluid, is capable, as well as air, of soimding itself, or of conveying the sound of other bodies. A. is rather a part of the science of motion. All motion is either lineal, circular, or vibratory ; and when a vibratory motion is quick enough to affect the sense of hi — for which at least thirty vibrations in a second required — it constitutes a sound. A definable, uniform sound is a note or tone, and the rapidity of the vibrations is its pitch ; a confused indeterminate soimd is a noise. The chief subjects treated of in A. are : 1. .Musical sounds, or Notes (q.v.). Here tho cpiestion is concerning the absolute and relative velo- cities of the vibrations, and those modifications, called iinent, to which their original proportions are subjected for the practical purposes of music. 2. The origin of Soimd (q. v.), and the laws which guide the vibrations of sound i . and which give rise to different phenomena in different sub- stances. In all sounding bodies, it is elasticity that is to be looked upon as the moving power. Tl i icity "f a soimding body may arise from stretching, as in the strings of a violin or the head of a drum ; or from its own stiffness, as in rods, bells, te. 3. The propagation of sound, as well through the air and other gases as through solids and liquids; and the reflection of sounds or echoes. All ela conduct soimd, many much more powerfully than air. In water the conducting power is four times stronger than it is in air ; in tin, seven times ; in sUver, nine times ; in iron, ten times ; in glass, seventeen times. 4. Perception of sound, or tho structure and functions of the Ear (q. v.). The ancients had made attempts to cultivate A. Pythagoras and Aristotle were aware of the way that soimd is propagated through the air, but as a science independent of its application to music, it belongs almost entirely to modern times. Bacon and Galileo laid the foundation of this new- mathematical science ; Newton shewed by calcula- tion how the propagation of soimd depends upon the elasticity of the atmosphere or other conducting medium. He observed that a sounding body acts by condensing the portions of air that lie next it, and in the direction of the impidse. These condensed portions then spring back by their elasticity, aud at the same time impel forward the portions lying next Bach separate portion of air is thus driven forwards and backwards; and thus all rouim sounding body then- is an alternate condensation and rarefaction of air, constituting, as it I waves of sound. In determining the velocity of sound, Newton, Lagrange, and Eider erred in their calculations ; the best researches on this subjt those of Laplace. Chladni first raised A. to an independent science. In recent times, compar- atively little has been done in this branch of physics. Savart has determined more exactly the number of vibrations in a second necessary to produce an audiblo sound; aud Cagniard do Latour invented the ACQUI— ACROGEXOUS PLANTS. and discovered man; of the conditions under which both solids and fluids sound. The Bounding of heati d metals, when laid on cold metallic support i i li ili eusaion. Bee Eainb. Phil Journal. Faraday and Marx have examined the of Bound; Wheatetone, the phenomena of sympathetic sounds; and Willi-, the formation of vowel nl- by the human voice. While tin' principles of A. arc well known in j , they are seldom carried out to a satisfactory result iii practice. We allude more particularly to the many instances in which costrj as embly halls anil church. . .hi ill 1. 1 tivi i public peaking ; it. In in . . linn \y a mere chance that new edifici of this kind exhibit proper acoustic qualities. Cn some cases, the sounds uttered cause echoes anil revi rberations, perpli ring alike to a speaker and his auditory, and in others the sound- are dispersed at a high elevation and are lost. This subject urgently demands consideration in connection with architec ture. As a general rule, the ceilings of halls should be at a in. .derate elevation : the lowering of a ei iling and the removal of chandeliers, have been known to improve the peaking and hearing properties; and the hanging u j...i il.. ; and draperies has, in a variety of instances, had a similarly s 1 effect. The whispering gallery of St Paul's, London, oilers an interesting example of one of the phenomena in acoustics. See El HO. A'CQTJI (Lat. Aqua; Statielhe), a walled town of Piedmont, on the left hank of the Bormida, and distant. 18 miles from Alessandria. It derives its name from its hot sulphur springs, which were known to 11"' Romans, and which are much fre- quented by invalids from the north of Italy. The town is of great antiquity, and contains many remarkable buildings, especially of an ecclesiastical character. It has some silk-factories, &c. Pop., 8000. ACRE. The word is identical with Lat. ager, Gr. , ' a lielil ; ' the i ler. acker means both 'a field' i 'measure of land.' Most nations have some measure nearly corresponding; originally, perhaps, the quantity which one plough could plough in a day; uniformity, then fore, is not to be looked for. The English statute A. consists of 4840 square yards. The chain with which land is measured IS 22 yards long, and a square chain will contain '22 x 22, or 48 I J ard - ; so that 10 square chains make an acre. The acre is divided into -1 roods, a rood into 40 perches, and a perch contains 30.} square yards. The Scotch A. is larger than the English, and the Irish than the Scotch. 121 Ir. ae. = 190 Eng., nearly; 48 Sc. ac. = til Eng. The following table shews the values of the more important corre- sponding measures compared with the English A. : English acre, Scotch » Irish » , . . Austria, Joeh l. nil n, Morgen or Acre, . Belgium, Hectare (French), . 1 i elc, Tocndc, ,. (Hectare (= 100 arcs), tnam t&rpent (common), Hamburg, Morgen, . . Hanover, » , . Holland, • , Naples, Moggia, . Poland, Morgen, . Portugal, Gcira, Prussia JLittle Morgen, 1 nls '■' (Great Morgen, . Pussia, licciatina, Sardinia, Giornate, . Saxony, Morgen, . Spain, ranegada, Sweden, T.innclanil, . Switzerland, Faux, . » , Geneva, Arpent, Tuscany, Saccata, 33 United States, English aero, . . . 1*00 Wurtemberg, Morgen, . .... - 10 n'C'i t'leiiiron [ancient), 1*39 win:, Si .li .-. d', the biblical Accho, known as wis in the middle ages, is a seaport town situ- ated "ii the coast hi Syria, not far lYoni the base of Mount I'armel, and contain. 111 15,000 inhabitants. The harbour is partly choked with sand, yet i of the best on this const. A. has often been the arena of warfare, and has Buffered man;. i-.i i une. In 1004, it was taken by the Gene 1 187, bj the Sultan Saladin ; afterw ■ it bei ime the i inef landing-place of the Crusaders, tin eal of hi hop and of the Order of St John ; next, it. fell into the hands of the Egyptians; and in 1 .".1 7 was captured by the Turks ; in 1799, ii i I Lby ili.. French for sixty-one days, luit was mi. sci defended bythe garrison, aided bj I oglish sailors and marines under Sidney Smith. In 1832, it was stormed by Ibrahim Pacha, s fthe viceroy ..f Egypt, and continued in his possession till ii bombarded and taken, in 1840, by a combined English, Austrian, and Turkish licet. See I'.gvit. A'CROBAT, a word di rived from the Greek, and nearly synonymous with rope-dancer. It literally one win. walks on tip-toe [aJcron, an ■ tremity, and baino, I go) i ami is employed to designate those who p erf orm difficult feats, vaulting, sliding, tumbling, and dancing on or tight rope, stretched either horizontally or obliquely. These feats rei|iiire great skill, suppleness, and steadiness. For a longtime, acrobat wi re contented to divert and astonish only children or Hie most, nt of the populace ; lmt the extraordinary skill of some recent performers has given this perilous art a great celebrity. Within tin' present century. Farioso, Madame Saqui,&nd Signor Diavolo have excited the admiration of all Paris by their marvellous agility. The acrobats of antiquity appear to have closely resembled those of our own day. ACRO'GENOTJS PLANTS (Gr., growing at the summit) are plants in which the structure of the stem is aavj- .".•'.'••.' that is, in which the vascular bundles are developed simultaneously, and not in succession, the stem increasing by the coin Section of Acrogcnous Stem. $tim* '•tree Fern. of the bases of the leaves and by elongation at the summit. In a transverse Bection of the stem, a circle of vascular tissue is found near the cir- cumference, and the centre is composed of cellular tissue, some portion of winch frequently disappears, so that the stem, although solid when young, becomes hollow in a more advanced stage of its growth. Tree-ferns afford the finest specimens of the acrogenous stem. All A. P. have ttomata, or breathing-pores, on the surface. In general, they have a "distinct stem and leaves arranged with ACROLITHS— ACT. most perfect symmetry. Some plants, in which the distinct stem in absent, are tanked with A. P., because the thallua has the texture of leaves, and exhibits a higher organisation than in Thcilio- genous Plants ((\. v.). A. I', an; all Acolylrihuinus [a. v.); ami under this designation are included Ferns, Eguisetacece, Lycopoaiaeae, Marsileacece, Mosses, and Bepaticce, A'CROLITHS (Gt. acron, extremity; lithos, a stone), the name given to the oldest works of ( toeek plastic art, in which wood-carving is seen in transition into marble statuary. The trunk of the figure is still, in the old style, of wood, covered with the usual temple-vestments ; but the extremities — head, amis, feet — which are meant to appear naked from below the ib-apcry, are of stone. ACROPOLIS, ' the highest point of the city.' Many of the important cities of Greece and Asia Minor were protected by strongholds, so named. The A. occupied a lofty position, commanding the city and its environs ; inaccessible on all sides except one, which had, for the most part, artificial defences. It contained some of the most important ~^.:': m Acropolis at Athens. public buildings, especially temples, besides afford- ing a last refuge in case of a hostile attack. The A., like the castle of the middle ages, had formed the centre or nucleus around which the town gradu- ally grew. Among the most celebrated of the ancient Acropolises was that of Argos, whose name, Larissa, indicates its Pelasgie Orion ; that of Mesaenia, which bore the name of Ithome; that of Thebes, called Cadmeaj that of Corinth, known as Acro-Corinthus ; but especially that of Athens, which was styled pre-eminently the A. See Athens. ACROSTIC is a Creek term for a number of verses the hist letters of which follow some piv- determined order, usually forming a word -most commonly a name or a phrase or sentence. Some- times the final letters spell words as well as the initial, and the peculiarity will even run down the middle of the poem like a seam, sir .John Davies composed twenty-four Hymns to Aetna (Queen Elizabeth), in every f which the initial letters of the lines form the words Kusabetha Recsixa. The following is one of the twenty-four; E v'ry nicht from ev'n to morn. 1* ovi's chorister nmitl the thorn I s now so sweet a ringer : S sweet, as for her son? I scorn A polio's voice and linger It ut, nightingale, sith you delight E ret to watch the starry night, T ell all the stars of heaven, 1 1 caven never had a star so bright A s now to earth is given. H oyal A«trea makes our day E ternal with her beams, ner may G ross darkness overcome her : I now perceive why some do write >' o country hath so short a night A s England hath in Bummer. In the A. poetry of the Hebrews, the initial letters of the lines or of the stanzas were made to run over the letters of the alphabet in their order. Twelve of the psalms of the Old Testament are written on tins plan. The 119th Psalm is the most remarkable. It is composed of twenty-two divisions or stanzas (cor- responding to the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet), each stanza consisting of eight coup and the first line of each couplet in tic first stanza begins, in the original Hebrew, with the letter aleph, in the second stanza, with belli, &c. The divisions of the psalm are named each after the lett. I begins the couplets, and these names have been retained in the English translation. With a view to aid the memory, it was customary at one time to compose verses on sacred subjects after the fashion of those Hebrew acrostics, the successive verses or lines beginning with the letters of the alphabet in their order. Such pieces were called Abecedarian Hymns. See Hook's Church Dictionary. ACROTE'RION (Gr., the summit or extremity), a term in Arch, for a statue or other ornament placed on the apex or at one of the lower angles of a pedi- ment. Some understand by A., the pedestal on which such ornament stands. ACT, in the Drama, is a distinct part of tile general plot or action, and its conclusion is usually marked by a fall of the curtain. An act should be, in a certain sense, complete in itself, and at the same time shoidd form a necessary- part of the whole drama. As every dramatic plot naturally divides itself into three parts — the exposition, the development, and the conclusion or catastrophe — a division into three acts woidd seem most natural ; but in practice it has been found inconvenient to enclose extended plots in such limits, and since the time of the ancient Greek tragedy, five acts have generally been considered necessary. In the first act, the general nature of the drama is indicated, the characters are introduced, anil the action commences, The plot shoidd rise in interest in the second, and reach its climax in the third act. In the fourth act, the conclusion or catastrophe should bo prepared, but shoidd by no means be anticipated so as to weaken the effect of the denouement, which most occupy the fifth act. This is a rather difficult task ; and, accordingly, many dramas fail in the fourth art. ACT, in the University sense, is an exercise pre- paratory to receiving a degree. The student who ■ keeps the Act,' and who is called the ' Respondent,' reads a Latin thesis on some proposition which he has announced that he is to maintain. Three other students, who have been naiied by the Proctor as ' Opponents,' then try, one after another, to refute his arguments syllogistieally in Latin. The practice of keeping Acts is still adhered to, as a form at I at Cambridge. ACT, in Law, has various meanings. In its more general acceptation it is used to denote solemn accomplishment of some distinctive pro- ceeding, as when a person in England, when execut- ii!" a legal instrument, declares it to be bis act and deed. Formerly, in Scotland, the word A. was fre- quently applied to tin- procedure in a liti U ACT OF BANKRUPTCY— ACT OF PARL] \MENT. cause; and to this day the technical term t" a plaintiff in Scotch pleading is . Ada <•/ Sederunt (q. v.). By an A. ia tin. s meant an act or proceeding, or rather the record of an act or proceeding, of a public na1 and in this sense it is used when "■• speak "i an A. of Parliament (q.v.). This ose of the woid appears to be derived from the Romans, who employed Acta i" signify specially public official transactions, and oftener perhaps the records of such transactions. The Ada Dwrna was a kind of official Roman gazette, giving an account of the public tious and events of the day. The Germans use Aden, and the French A < airy official or legal documents, or papers generally, lie' title Acta has been applied in modern times to the journals or records of learned societies : Acta Soeu tatu R< gia — the Transactions of the Royal Society. Acta Erudiloriim, tlie oldest journal of erudition in Germany, was begun at Leipsic in 1GS0, and iv.u .1 pubbcation in 1782, when it had extended to 117 quarto volumes. To these may he added (shewing the close connection between the Roman and Scotch legal institutions and their phraseology) the Acta Auditonan, or the records of the proceedings of the Lords Auditors, who were a committee of the old Scotch Parliament appointed to hear causes, by way of appeal, and otherwise to exercise supreme juris- diction. Also the Acta Dominorum Concilii, or ancient records of the supreme court in Scotland. But the word A. has at the present day several precise legal applications, the principal of which we now proceed to mention and explain : Act of B.vnkui rrcv, by which is meant a certain ostensible indication of insolvency on the part of a debtor, sufficient to bring him within the operation of the bankrupt laws. .Section 67 of the existing Bankrupt Law Consolidation Act, 12 and 13 Vict. c. 106, defines Acts of B. in the follow- ing terms : ' That if any trader, liable to become bankrupt, shall depart this realm, or being out of this realm, shall remain abroad, or shall depart from bis dwelling-house, or otherwise absent himself, or begin to keep his house, or suffer himself to be arrested or taken in execution for any debt not due, or yield himself to prison, or suffer himself to be outlawed, or procure himself to be arrested or taken in execution, or his goods, money, or chattels to be attached, sequestered, or taken in execution, or make or cause to be made, either within this realm or elsewhere, any fraudulent grant or conveyance of any of his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels, or make or cause to be made any fraudulent surrender of any of his copyhold lands or tenements, or make or cause to be made any fraudulent gift, debvery, or transfer of any of his goods or chattels, every such trader doing, suffering, procuring, executing, permit- ting, making, or causing to be made any of the acta, deeds, or matters aforesaid, with intent to defeat or dfil&y his creditors, shall be deemed to have thereby committed an A. of B.' — The expression, A. o/B., is unknown in the phraseology of the Scotch law ; but in the definition of notour bankruptcy, and of mercan- tile bankruptcy in the Scotch sequestration statutes, there will be found an enumeration of the evidences of insolvency analogous to the English Acts of B. Act of God is a legal expression, and signifies any natural or accidental occurrence, not caused by human negligence or intervention; such as the consequences arising from storms, lightning, tempests, &c, and which are deemed fatalities and iosses such as no party under any circumstances (independently of special contract) is bound to make good to another. It has been ruled in England that the loss must be immediate, and the necessary consequence of the accident. 34 V [ ok Grace is the name given to an old Scotch act (1696, o. 82) for the msinti nance of poor persons imprisoned for debt. It is usually applied in England to insolvent acts, and general pardons, at the beginning of a new reign or on other great occasi. Ai i nr Imif.mnitv is an annual act of parliament passed for omissions in taking the oaths and assur- ances required by law of persons admitted to any i employment. See ABJURATION. ACT OF PARLIAMENT U a resolution or law I dby all the three branches of the legislature; — the King [or Queen], Lords, and Commons. The expression is generally used to signify the record of an A. of P., and such records are strictly synonymous with the term ' statutes ' or 'statutes of the realm.' An A. of P. thus made is the highest legal authority acknowledged by the constitution. It hinds every subject in the land, and even the sovereign himself, if named therein. And in England it cannot be altered, amended, dispensed with, suspended, or repealed, but in the same forms and by the same authority of parliament. In Scotland, however, a long course of contrary usage or of disuse may have the effect of depriving a statute of its obligation, for, by the Scotch law, a statute may become obsolete by disuse, and cease to be legally binding. It was formerly held in England that the king might in many cases dispense with penal statutes ; but by the statute 1 W. and M. st. 2, e. 2, it is declared that the suspending or dispensing with laws by royal autho- rity, without consent of parliament, is illegal. An A. of P. or statute is either public or private. A public act regards the whole c inutility, but the operation of a private act is confined to particidar persons and private concerns, and some private acts are local, as affecting certain places only. As the law till lately stood, the courts of law were bound ex officio to take judicial notice, as it is called, of public acts, that is, to recognise these acts as known and published law, without the necessity of their b.ing specially pleaded and proved; but it was otherwise in regard to private acts ; so that in order to claim any advantage under a private act, it was necessary to plead it, and set it forth particularly. But now, by the 13 and 14 Vict. c. 21, s. 7, every act made after the then next session of parliament is; to be taken to be a pubbc one, and judicially noticed as such, unless the contrary be expressly declared. Acts of P. are also sometimes described as ib dara- lory, or penal, or remedial, according to the nature of their object or provisions. Declaratory statutes are where the old custom of the kingdom has almost fallen into disuse, or become disputable, in which case the parliament has thought proper (in pcrpetuum rei testimonium, and for avoiding all doubts and difficulties) to declare what the common law is and ever has been. Penal acts are those which merely impose penalties or punishments for an offence, as in the case of the statutes relative to game. Remedial acts are such as supply some defect in the existing law, and redress some abuse or inconvenience with which it is found to be attended, without introducing any provision of a penal character. There is also a distinction of Acts of P. as being either enlarging or restraining, enabling or disabling acts. An A. of P. begins to operate from the time when it receives the royal assent, unless some other time be fixed for the purpose by the act itself. The rule on this subject, in England, was formerly different ; for at common law, every A. of P., which had no provision to the contrary, was considered, as soon as it passed (i. e., received the royal assent),_ as having been in force, retrospectively, from the first day of the session of parliament in which it passed, though, in fact, it might not have received the royal assent, ACTS OF SEDERUNT— ACT OF TOLERATION. or even been introduced into parliament, until long after that day; and this strange principle was observed for centuries. The ancient aets of the Scotch parliament were proclaimed in all the county towns, burghs, and even in the baron courts. This mode of promulgation was, h o wever, gradually dropped as the use of printing became common ; and in 1581, an act was passed declaring publication at the Market Cross of Edinburgh to be sufficient. I British statutes require no formal promulgation; and in order to lix the time from which they shall become binding, it was enacted by the 33 Geo. III. c. 13, that every A. of P. to be passed after 8th April 1793 shall commence from the date of the endorsement by the clerk of parliam.-nt, stating the day, month, and year when the act was passed and received the royal assent, unless the comnii-ncenient shall, in the act itself, be otherwise provided for. An A. of P. consists of various parts — such as the title, the preamble, the enacting sections and clauses, and sometimes certain forms or schedules added by way of appendix — and it is referred to by the year of the sovereign's reign, and the chapter of the statutes for that year. The old acts of the Scotch parliament, before the union with England, are acted by the year in which they were passed, and the order of the number or chapter. See Statutes, Scotch Statutes, and Parliament. ACTS OF SEDE'RUNT are ordinances of the Court of Session or supreme civil court in Scotland, made originally under authority of the Scotch Act 1540, o. 93, whereby the judges are empowered to make such rides or ordinances as may be necessary for the regulation of legal procedure and the expedit- ing of justice. The power thus conferred was exceeded, and it became necessary to ratify several of the A. of S. in the Scotch Parliament. In so far, however, as A. of S. are confined to declarations of the purposes of the court to decide in a particular way, on an occurrence of similar circumstances, they seem to amount to little more than authoritative announcements of the intention of the court to adhere judicially to certain precedents ; and for upwards of a century and a half, they have been almost exclu- sively confined to the regulation of judicial procedure, and to matters therewith connected. In several recent statutes, express power is given to the Court of Session to pass A. of S., for carrying the purpose of the legislature into more complete effect ; and it is usually provided that the A. of S. made in virtue of such power shall be laid before parliament within a limited time. The old quorum of nine judges is requisite in passing an Act of S., 48 Geo. III. c 151, s. 11. ACT OF SETTLEMENT, a name given to the statute 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, by which the crown was limited to the family of her present Majesty, Queen Victoria, It was towards the end .if ting WiIIkuu III.'s reign, when all hopes of ..tl„ r issue died with the Duke of Gloucester, that, as we are told by Blackstone, the king anil parlia- ment thought it necessary again to exert their power of limiting and appointing the succession, in order to prevent another vacancy of the throne, which must have ensued upon their deaths, as no further provision was made at the Revolution than for the issue of Queen Mary, Queen Anne, and Kin^' William. The parliament had previously, by the statute of 1 W. and M. st, 2, .-. 2, enacted, that every person who shoidd bo reconciled to, or hold com- munion with, the see of Rome, should profess the Roman Catholic religion, or should many a Roman Catholic, should be excluded from succession to, and be for ever incapable to inherit, possess, or the crown ; and that in such case the people should be absolved from their allegiance-, and the crown shoidd descend to such persons, being Protestants, as would have inherited the same, if the p so reconciled, holding communion, professing or marrying, were naturally dead. To act, therefore, consistently with themselves, and, at the sane pay as much regard to the old hereditary line .as their former resolutions would admit, they 'tune eyes on the Princess Sophia, Electress and Duchess- dowager of Hanover ; for upon the imp. a< tion of the Protestant posterity of Charli I., law of regal descent direct. A i . ,., to the descendants ..i .lames I.; and the Princess Sophia, being the youngest daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, who was the daughter of James I., was the nearest of the ancient blood-royal who was not incapacitated by professing the Roman Catholic religion. On her, therefore, and the heirs of her body, being Protestants, the remainder of de- crown expectant on the death of King William and Queen Ann.- without issue, was settled by statute 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2. And at the same time- it was enacted, that whosoever should then come to the possession of the crown, should join in the communion of the Church of England as by law established. This is the last limitation of the crown that has been made by parliament ; and the several actual limitations, from the time of Henry IV. to tie- present, clearly prove the power of the king and parliament to re-model or alter the succession. It is even made highly penal to dispute such power, for by the statute 6 Anne, c." 7, it is enacted, that if any person maliciously, advisedly, and directly, shall maintain, by writing or printing, that the kings of this realm, with the authority of parliament, are not able to make laws to bind the crown and the descent thereof, he shall be guilty of high treason ; or if he maintains the same by only preaching or advised speaking, he shall incur the penalties of prepmunire. The Princess Soplua dying before Queen Anne, the inheritance, thus limited, descended on her son and heir, King George I. ; and having, on the death of the queen, taken effect in his person, from him it descended to King George II. ; from him to his grandson and heir, King George III. ; from him to his son, George IV., who was succeeded by his brother, William IV. ; and from the monarch bust mentioned the crown descended to his heiress, the daughter of his brother Edward, Duke of Kent, our present gracious sovereign, Queen Victoria. ' Hence,' Blackstone remarks, ' it is easy to collect that the title to the crown is at present hereditary, though not quite so absolutely hereditary as for- merly ; and the common stock or ancestor from whom the descent must be derived, is also different. Formerly, the common stock was King Egbert, afterwards William the Conqueror, and now it is Princess Sophia, in whom the inheritance was \ by th.- new king and parliament. Formerly, the descent was absolute, and the crown went to the next heir without any restriction ; but now, upon the new settlement, the inheritance is conditional ; being limited to such heirs only of the body of the Princess Sophia as are Protestants, members of the Church of England, and are married to none but Protestants.' ACT OF TOLERATION is the name commonly given to the act of parliament 1 William and Mary, statute 1, c. IS, continued by 10 Anne. c. 2, by which all persons dissenting from the Church of England (i-xcept Koman Catholics and persons deny- ing the Trinity) were relieved from such of the against nonconformists as prevented their assem- or religious worship according to their own 86 ACT OF UNIFORMITY— ACTINIA. forms, or otherwise restrained their religious liberty, on condition of their taking the oaths of allegiance and Bnpremacy, and subscrioing a declaration traiisubstantiation ; and in the oas ' dissenting ministers, Bubscribing al.su to certain of the Thirty- nine Articles. The clause of this act whi persons denying the Trinity from the benefits ol its enactments, was repealed by 63 I reo. 1 1 1, c, 160. Tin' Protestant dissenters, however, still remained, notwithstanding these provisions, Bubject to the obligation imposed by the Test and Corporation Acts (q. v.) on all those who were admitted to any office, of taking the sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to the rites of the Church of Eng- land; 1. at this disability was at length removed bj the 9 Geo. IV. c. 17. And to this list of con© si. .us we are now to add the act of 15 and 1 » » Vict, c. 30, allowing the dissenters to certify their places of worship to, and register tin m with, the Kegistrar- general of Births. Deaths, and Marriages, in.-t. ad of the Archbishop, Bishop, or Court of Quarter-sessions. These various Lets of T. operated, however, to the exclusive benefit of Protekani dissenters, and afforded no relief to Roman Catholics. With respect to the latter, the progress of emancipation was slower and more reluctant. Bv statutes, however, of 18 Geo. III. c. GO, 31 Geo. III. c. 32, and 43 Geo. III. c. 30, most of the severer penalties and disabili- ties to which they were formerly subject, were removed ; and by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, commonly called the Catholic Emancipation Act, Roman Catholics were restored in general to the full enjoyments of all civil rights, being only excluded from holding ecclesi- astical offices, and certain high appointments in the state. By another act of the 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. llf>, it was provided that Roman Catholics should be subject in this particular to the same laws as were applicable to Protestant dissenters ; the effect of which provision is to empower them to acquire and hold property for such purposes. And now, by the acts of 7 and 8 Vict. c. 102, 9 and 10 Viet. c. 59, and 21 and 22 Vict. c. 48, Roman Catholics and Jews are relieved from all enactments calculated to oppress them, and are thus practically admitted to all the privileges of the constitution. In Scotland, toleration in religious matters is secured by various old Scotch statutes passed before the Union with England, particularly by the act 1G90, c. 27; and this was followed up after the Union by the British statute 10 Anne, c. 7, S. 6, which declares that ' it shall be free and lawful for all the subjects in that part of < Ireat Britain called Scotland to assemble and meet together for divine service without any disturbance; and to settle their con- gregations in what forms or places they shall think fit to choose, except parish churches;' an enactment which amounts to a legal recognition of dissenters, if, indeed, it may not be called their charter in Scotland. ACT OF UNIFORMITY is the name by which the statute 13 and 14 Car. c. 4, is usually described. By that statute it was enacted, that the Book of Common Prayer, as then recently revised, should be used m every parish church and other place of public worship in England, and ■&«* every schoolmaster and person instructing youth should subscribe a declara- tion of conformity to the Liturgy, and also to the . ffect of the oath 'and declaration mentioned in the act of 13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1. It further enacted that no person should thenceforth be capable of holding any ecclesiastical promotion or dignity, or of conse- cr.Ltin.j or administering the sacrament, till he should be ordained priest according to episcopal ordination, and with respect to all ministers who then enjoyed any • d benefice, it directed that they should, within a certain period, openly read morning 30 and evening service, according to the Book o£ Common Prayer, and declare before the congregation their unfeigned assent and consent to the use of all things therein contained, upon pain of being ipso deprived of their spiritual promotions. By this statute, two thousand of the clergy, who refused to comply with its provisions, were deprived of their pr. t.i lueuts. This statute also contained a regula- tion that no schoolmaster in a private house should instruct youth without having obtained a licence from the I (rdiuary ; but this regulation was repealed l.\ and 10 Vict. c. 59. ACTS, Test and Corporation. See Test and Corpokation Acts. ACTA SANCTO'RUM or MA'IITYRUM (Acts of Saints or Martyrs), the collective title given to several old writings, respecting saints and martyrs, in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, but now a]. pli.d especially to one extensive collection begun by the Jesuits in the 17th c, and intended to serve as a better arrangement of the materials found in ancient works. This great undertaking, which was commenced by the Jesuit, Heribcrt Rosweyd of Antwerp, has considerable importance, not only in a religious and ecclesiastical point of view, but also with regard to history and archae- ology. After Rosweyd's death, in 1629, J. Holland was commissioned by the order of Jesuits to continue the work ; and with the assistance of G. Henschcn, he prepared two volumes, which appeared in 1G43. After the death of this editor (16G5), the work was carried on by a society of learned Jesuits, who were styled ' Bollandists,' until 1794. when its further progress was prevented through the invasion of Holland by the French. In recent times, the undertaking has been resumed ; and in 184G the fifty-fourth volume was published at Brussels. Three or four additional volumes have appeared since. The lives are arranged in the order of the calendar. The first two volumes, published in 1043, contained the lives of the saints for January. The volumes last published are for October. For notices of other collections of the same kind, see the articles Sain rs., Maiitvi:, and MabTYKOLOGY. ACTiE'A, a genus of plants of the natural order Ranunculacece (q. v.), the type of the _ sub-order Adaea?, distinguished by the coloured imbricated calyx and indehiscent succulent fruit. The genus Actaea has four deciduous sepals, four petals, and a single baccate carpel. — A. spicala, the Baneberry or lbrb ( 'hristophcr, is a native of the north of Europe, found in bushy places in some parts of England. It is a perennial herbaceous plant, about 1—2 feet high, with triternate leaves, and the leallets deeply cut and serrated, the flowers in racemes, the berries black ami poisonous. The root is anti-spasmodic, expectorant, and astringent, and is sometimes useful in catarrh. Botrojihis aelmviil'.i (Adam racemosa of Linnams) is a native of the United States, whose roots are said to possess similar qualities, and are also reputed as a remedy for the bite of tho rattlesnake. ACT^E'ON, a mythical personage, a grandson of Cadmus. He was trained as a hunter by Chiron. Having once surprised Diana while bathing in a fountain, he was changed by the offended goddess into a stag, and his own dogs, not knowing him, tore him in pieces. According to Euripides, Diana was jealous because Actieon nad boasted that he excelled her in hunting. ACTI'NIA, a genus of marine animals closely allied to the Hydraforni Polypi, but of much greater size, and always living separately, very generally affixed by the base to rocks or shells. The old genus Actinia has been subdivided into a number ACTION— ACTON. of genera, and is now the type of a family, Actiniada: They consist of a fleshy sac with one orifice, around which are numerous tentacula, and when these arc expanded, much resemble Bowers, and have there- fore been called Animal Flowers and Sea An- They are found on all shores ; those of Britain Actinia seen from above. Section of Actinia : a, cavity of stomach ; 6, sur- rounding chambers. possess a number of very beautiful species, but they are most abundant, and attain their greatest size and beauty in tropical seas. They are capable of moving by alternate contractions and expansions of the fleshy base, and can also make use of their tentacula for locomotion. The tentacula appear to act as suckers in capturing prey, which they promptly convey to the mouth, and which consists of small , mollusks, Crustacea, &c. They produce living young, the germs of which are formed in ovarian chambers, divided by radiating vertical partitions in the fleshy substance around the stomach cavity, and which pass into the stomach cavity, ami are ejected from the mouth ; but simple gemmules, furnished with cilia, are also discharged through the tenta- cula. The Actiniada; possess a remarkable power of reproducing parts which have been cut away, and may be multiplied by division. They are very sensi- tive to light. In many parts of the world they are eat'ii, and are esteemed a delicacy. A small A. was kept by Sir John G. Dalyell for twenty-six years. ACTINISM, the property of the sun's rays which produces chemical changes. See Spectrum. ACTION, in its large and general sense, means a judicial proceeding before a competent tribunal for the attainment of justice ; and in this sense it is applied to procedure, whether criminal or civil. In its more limited acceptation, it is used to signify proceedings in the civil courts, where it means the form prescribed by law for the recovery of a right, or what is one's due. And it is in this sense that it is regarded by the Roman law, which defines an action as jus teauendiiv judicio quod nbi debetur. In the law of England, the term A. is usually applied to proceedings in the courts of common laio, as distinguished from those of equity, where the word suit is commonly used to denote litigation. Thus, in the courts of Queen's Bench, Common I and Exchequer, we speak of an A.-at-law ; whereas in the courts of Chancery, the forensic controversy is described as a suit in equity. In the Scotch law, which recognises no distinction in legal administration between law and equity, the won! A. is defined comprehensively as a demand regularly made mid insisted on before the judge competent for the recovery of a right. \eeord ingly. while in Scotland there is, as in l\r a remedy for every wrong, the law rec and gives effect to the right of a party t" i and to have declared a particular interest or right, evil although tli I or right may not be withhold, or called in question. It is sufficient that it is doubtful, and that the ascertainment of it is necessary for the position and purposes of tho plaintiff, or pursuer, as the Scotch law calls the active party. This procedure is known by the name of an A. of declarator, which has been described as a suit in which something is prayed to be decreed in favour of tie- plaintiff, but nothing sought to be paid, performed^ or done by the defendant. Lord Stair, in his Institutes of the Law of Scotland, says ' such actions may be pursued for instructing or clearing any kind of right relating to 111 dominion, or obligation;' and he further oh- ' there is no right but is capable of declarator.' Various attempts have been made to introduce this mode of proceeding into the practice of the law in England, but as yet without success. The idea of the declarator has been said to have been derived by the Scotch lawyers from the French legal system, according to whose forms the existing administration of the Scotch law was originally moulded. In the Institutes of Justinian there are, however, indications of the partial use of this form of A. by the Roman lawyers. We may add that the word A. is derived from the Latin actio (agere), and that the plaintiff in a suit or action was originally said to be the which, indeed, in the recorded pleadings of the Scotch courts, his counsel or advocate still is called. A'CTIUM (now Azio), a town and promontory on the west coast of Greece, at the entrance of the Ambraciot Bay, now the Gulf of Arta, is memoral >le for the sea-fight which took place near it, 2d Sep- tember, 31 E. c, between Octavianus (afterwards the Emperor Augustus) and Marcus Antonius. These two had for some time ruled the Roman world between them — the former in the west, the latter in the east ; it now came to a straggle for the sole sovereignty. The two armies were encamped on the opposite shores of the gulf : Oetavian had So.OCIO infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 200 ships of war; Antony, 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 ships. Antony's ships were large, and well provided with engines for throwing missiles, but clumsy in their movements ; Octavian's were smaller and more agile. Antony was supported by Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, with sixty vessels, who ind him, against the opinion of his most experienced generals, to determine upon a naval engagement, dtle continued for some hours undecided ; at last, Agrippa, who commanded Oetavian's fleet, suc- ceeded, by a skilful manoeuvre, in compelling Antony end his line of battle, whose compactness had hitherto resisted all attempts of the enemy to break through. Cleopatra, whose ships were stationed behind Antony's line, apprehensive of that line being broken, took to flight with her auxiliary fleet, and Antony recklessly followed her with a few of his ships. The deserted fleet continued to n sist bravely for some time, but was finally vanquish' d ; the land-army, after waiting in vain seven days for Antony's return, surrendered to Oetavian. As a memorial of the victory that had given him the empire of the world, and out of gratitude to the gods, Oetavian enlarged the temple of Apollo at A., dedicated the trophies he had taken, and tuted games to be celebrated every live years, lb' also built, on the spot where his army had been encamped, the splendid city of Nicopohs (city of , near where Prevesa now stands. ACTON, Joseph, Prince, prime-minister of nd IV. of Naples, was the son of an Irish physician, and was bom at Besancon in 1737. After acquiring distinction in the naval service of France and Tuscany, he gained a position in the Neapolitan government, anil became the favourite of Q Caroline, Sis measures, prompted by his extreme hatred of France, were cruel and intolerant, ami ultimately caused a reaction against the royal family ACTS OF THE APOSTLES— ADAM AND EVE. of Naples, and in favour of the French party and the I'm] u i. \\ In n left unaided by English influence, A. 1 ■ .^t the power he had so often abused, and died in 1SI 1, deservedly contemned by all pal ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the tilth book of tin' New Testament, the authorship of which is ascribed by tradition, and with the highest proba- bility, to the Evangelist Luke. Beginning with the ascension of Christ, it gives an account of the spread oi the Christian Church; confined, however, chiefly to the part taken therein by the Apostle Paul. Notwithstanding its title, little is said of the other apostles, with tlie era ption of Peter. The narrative closes with the year (V2 a. d., Paid being then a prisoner at Home. The book has always been red as canonical, except by a few Man heretics. In the early centuries, numerous spurious Acts of the Apostles were put in circulation by various sects. A'CTTJARY. The Acluarii, in ancient Rome, were clerks who recorded the Acta of the and other public bodies. The term ought tic so far as its etymology is concerned, be applied to men of business iu general. But in the constantly increasing tendency to subdivide labour and speci- alise functions, there has arisen, in recent times, a distinct branch of business, embracing all monetary questions that involve a consideration of the separate or combined effect of Interest and Probability, especially as connected with the duration of human life ; and it is to one who devotes himself to this department of business that the name of A. has been specially assigned. The investigations and calcula- tions of the A. supply the principles of operation for the numerous institutions now engaged in the trans- action of Life-assurance, Annuity, and Reversionary business. His functions might be briefly defined as the application of tlie doctrine of probabilities to five affair* o/' life. There are two Societies of Actuaries in this country : ' The Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ireland,' established in London in 1S48 ; and the ' Facidty of Actuaries in Scotland,' estab- lished in Edinburgh in 1S5C. ACU'LETJS, in Botany. See Prickle. ACUPTT'NCTURE (Lat., puncturing or pricking with a needle \acus\), is a very ancient remedy, and one practised extensively in the East, for the cure of headaches, lethargies, &c. In Europe it is principally employed to relieve neuralgic pains, and those of chronic rheumatism. Steel needles arc made use of, about three inches long, and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotatory movement, passes one or more to the desired depth in the tissues, and leaves them there from a few minutes to an hour. Their insertion is accompanied by no pain, except the first prick — a fact the quacks of the 16th c. did not fail to take advan- tage of. According to Jerome Cardan, they travelled from place to place practising A., and before insert- ing the needle, they rubbed it with a peculiar kind of magnet, cither believing, or pretending, that this made the operation painless. The relief to pain afforded by this simple operation is sometimes astonishing, and the woimds are so minute as to be perfectly harmless. — The needles are sometini as conductors of the galvanic current to deep-seated parts, and are sometimes made hollow — on the suggestion of Dr Alexander Wood of Edinburgh — to allow of a small quantity of some sedative solution being injected into the tissues, by which even the terrible pain of Tic Douloureux may be almost immediately relieved. See Neuralgia. ADAGIO, a slow movement or measure of time in Music, between largo, grave, and andante. In our more extended compositions of instrumental or 38 chamber music, the second or third movement is My marked adngiti, and serves as a contrast with the rapid and energetic movement of the ling and following parts of the sonata or symphony. The A. must be written in a measure of time which wdl afford scope for a flowing ami expressive slow melody with a gracefully \ . , i accompaniment. Without contrasted movement and a lively variety in the accompaniment, the slow air would have a monotonous or dull effect. A cjlear and expressive execution of the A is a sure test of ability and good taste in the player or singer, as it demands a pm'e and beautiful intonation, a true reading and phrasing of the cantilena, even in its most minute details, and a careful attention to all points of effect. The finest specimens of the A. are found in the works of the old masters, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, and are as distinct in their features as were the composers in their personal characteristics. La recent works, our composers have generally succeeded better in their rapid movements than in the A. ADA'L and ADE'L. The name Adal is applied by geographers to the flat country lying between AbyBsinia and the Bed Sea. from Mossowa in N. lat. 15° 40', to the Bay of Tajurra, lat. 11° 30'. Add would seem to designate the coast-country from Tajurra to Cape Guardafui. part of which is known as the country of the Somauli. ADA'LIA anciently AttaBa, the chief seaport on the south coast of Asia Minor, in N. lat. 36 52 : E. long. 30" 45'. The streets rise like the seats of a theatre, up the slope of the hill behind the harbour. Pop. 13,000. ADAM and EVE. The narrative of the creation and fall of A. and 10. is given in Genesis. To the Scriptural account, the later Jewish writers in the Talmud have made man}' tasteless additions. They tell us that the stature of A., when first cr> reached to the heavens, while the splendour of his countenance surpassed that of the sun. The very angels stood in awe of him, and all creatures hastened to worship him. Then the Lord, in order to shew the angels his power, caused a sleep to fall on A., and removed a portion of every limb. A thus lost his vast stature, but remained perfect and complete. His first wife was Lilith, the mother of demons ; but she fled from him, and afterwards E. was created for him. At the marriage of A. and K. , angels were present, some playing on musical instru- ments, others serving up delicious viands; while the sun, moon, and stars danced together. The happi- ness of the human pair excited envy among the angels, and the seraph Sammael tempted them, and succeeded in leading them to their fall from inno- cence. — According to the Koran, all the angels paid homage to A., excepting Eblis, who, on account of his refusal, was expelled from paradise. To gratify his revenge, Eblis seduced A. and E., and they were separated. Adam was penitent, and lived in a tnt on the site of the temple of Mecca, where he was instructed in the divine commandments by the archangel Gabriel. After 200 years of separation, he again found E. on Mount Arafat. Many other traditions of the Jews and the Moham- medans respecting A and E. may be found in Her- bert's BiSUaOiique Orientate. — In the system of the Christian Gnostics and Manicmeans, A. is one of the highest iEons. — According to the Calvinistic theology, A was the covenant liead or federal representative of the whole human race, who were thus involved in the consequences of his breach of the Covenant (q. v.) which God made with him at his creation. This view is supported by reference to the parallel drawn between A and Clirist in Bom. ADAM— ADAM'S PEAK. v. and 1 Cor. xv., in the latter of which <■! Christ is called, in contradistinction to A., 'the Si caild man,' and 'the last A.' ADAM (of Bremen), an old historical writer, work entitled Gesta Haamu riburg i 'ontificum, gives a history of the archbishopric of Hamburg from 788 a. d. to the death of the Archbishop Adalbert in li>72. This work has great historical value ; in addition to its notices of eccle- cal affairs, it gives accounts of the northern lie tribes, which the author collected during a visit to the Danish king Svend-Estrithson. A. was canon and magister schdarum at Bremen from 10G7 to the time of his death, which took place in 1076. ADAM, Ai.kxanL'KR, LL.D., an eminent scholar and teacher, WHS born in the parish of Kafford, near Forres, in 1741. His father was a small farmer, with limited means and a numerous family, so that young Adam had to struggle through much hardship in the pursuit of the learning for which he thirsted. While studying at the University of Edinburgh, he bad to support himself by giving private lessons, for which he was paid at the rate of one guinea a quarter. He breakfasted and supped on porridge and small-beer; a penny loaf served him for dinner. Such was the stern initiation — not, indeed, a singular case in Scotland — of the brave young scholar. His patient merits, however, soon gained recognition. A-'s first public office was that of classical master in Watson s Hospital, Edinburgh ; and not long after (1761), he succeeded to the head-mastership of the institution. In 1768 he was appointed rector of the High School ; and this situation he filled for nearly forty years with distinguished ability and success, giving himself to its duties with singular devotion, and raising the reputation of the school beyond what it had ever been before. In some of his efforts to that end he encountered such opposition as now seems almost fabulous. He composed a new Latin grammar (1772), in which he aimed at combining the study of English and Latin ; but the town-council prohibited bun from teaching it. In 1701 he published his Human Antiquities, the work which did most to promote his reputation, and which, though now generally superseded by more accurate and comprehensive dictionaries, was for many years the best manual of the kind in exist- ence. His Summary of Geography and History appeared in 1794, his Classical Biography in 1800, and his Latin Dictionary — an abridgment of a larger work unfinished at his death — in 1805. On the 18th of December 1809, Dr A. died of a fit of apoplexy, the effect of intense study, by which he had been seized in bis class-room live days before. 'Amidst the wanderings of mind that accompanied it,' says the writer of the biography in the Encyclopedia Briiannica — who afterwards filled bis chair — ' he was constantly reverting to the business of the class, and addressing his boys; and in the last hour of his life, as ne fancied himself examining on the lesson of the day, he stopped short and said: "But it grows dark; you may go," and almost immediately expireiL.' ADAM, Robert, a distinguished architect, was born at Edinburgh in 1728. His father, William Adam of Mary burgh, in Fifeshire, was also an architect of no mean repute. After receiving a university education, Robert A. proceeded in 1754 to Italy, and thence to Dalmatia, where he devoted some time, in conjunction with Clerisseau, a French architect, t 44 Adipose Tissue, mtgolflsd. stance. A piece of a liver that has suffered what is called fatty degeneration, if immersed for some time in water, is said to become exactly like A. ADIPOSE TISSUE is a peculiar kind of animal membrane or tissue, consisting of an aggregation of minute spherical pouches or vesicles tilled with fat or oiL The tissue itself is organic and vital, the vesicles Secreting the fatty matter from the capillary blood-vessels with which they ' .11'.' Min minded ; tin >■<■ Lil product, or fat (q. v.), is in- organic, and devoid of vitality. The adipose tissue differs from cellular or filamentous tissue in having the vesicles closed, so that the fat does not escape even when fluid. A dropsical effusion, which infiltrates the filamentous tissues, does not affect the adipose tissue. There is a considerable layer of adipose tissue immediately under the skin ; also around the large vessels and nerves, in the omen- tum and lie sentery, around the kidneys, joints, &c. A'DJECTIVE is the name of one of the classes into which grammarians have divided words. An adjective is so called, not so much from its being added to a substantive, as because it add) to the meaning, or more exactly describes the object, than the simple substantive or general name does. The effect of an adjective is also to limit the application of the name to wdiich it is joined. Thus, when tall is joined to man, there is more meaning conveyed ; there are more properties suggested to the mind by the compound name tall man, than by the simple name man; but lull man. is not applicable to so many individuals as man, for all men that are not tall are excluded. — Nouns, or names of things, are often used iu English as adjectives ; thus, we say a silrer chain, a stone wall. In such expressions as ' Income Tax Assessment Bill,' Inconu plays the part of an adjective to Tax, which is, iu the first place, a noun ; the two together then form a sort o£ compound adjective to Assessment ; and the three, taken together, a still more compound adjective to Hill, which, syntactically, is the only noun in the expression. This usage seems pecidiar to English. — ■ Languages differ much in their way of using adjec- tives. In English, the usual place of the adj. is beforo the noun. This is also the ease in German; but in French and Italian, it comes after. In these Languages, again, the adj. is varied for gender, number, and, in the German, for case. In English it is invariable ; and in this simplicity there is a decided superiority ; for in modern languages these changes in the adj. serve no purpose. The only modification the Eng, A. is capable of is for degrees of comparison. ADJUDICATION is a technical tenn used in the practice both of the English and Scotch law, but with a totally different meaning in the two systems. Iu the law of England, the term A. is commonly used to denote tin- judicial determination at a certain stage of the proceedings in bankruptcy. The pro- cedure is regulated by 32 and 33 Vict. c. 71. The petition prays that the trader may be adjudicated a bankrupt, and, after proof of the petitioning creditor's debt, and of the Act of Bankruptcy (q_. v.), which must have been committed within twelve months before the issuing of the fiat, an A. is made by the court that the party is bankrupt. Formerly, a trader might be adjudicated bankrupt summarily, and without previous petition for A. — namely, where, after filing a petition for ai i inent with his creditors, he appeared not entitled to the benefit of the arrangement. See I'.ankui new Iu Insolvency, which differs from bankruptcy in this ADJUSTMENT— AD LIBITUM. respect, that it is not confined in its operation to traders, or to any particular class of men, but applies to the community at large, tlie A. is made by the debtor delivering into tin London Bank- ruptcy Court, if the debtor resides or carries on business within the district of that court, or in the Bankruptcy Court of the district within whii b he resides i>r carries on business, a declaration admit- ting Ilia inability to pay his debts, which may be H,d as the ground of an A. by his creditors, if the oourt think it requisite ; or if "the creditors neglect to pass a resolution for liquidation or composition, or resolve in favour of bankruptcy; or if after the passing of a resolution for liquidation or composition, the court shall for some sufficient cause adjudge the debtor bankrupt, This A. authorises the discharge of the prisoner from custody as to all debts and sums of money due or claimed to be due to his several creditors. See Insolvency. The distinction between bankruptcy and insolv- ency has for some time been generally disapproved in England ; and it may now lie held as practically abolished. The Insolvent Debtors Court is abol- ished, and its jurisdiction transferred to the Bank- ruptcy Court. Insolvent persons can now be adjudged bankrupts in every case in which their creditors wish that, or the court think it proper. In the law of Scotland, A. signifies a process by which creditors may attach heritable or real pro- perty of their debtors. It applies to real estate in its most extensive signification, including not only feudal rights, but all rights or interests affecting or connected with land, such as bonds and mortgages, as also annuities, and all rights 'having a tract of future time,' life-interests, reversions, rights of lease, offices of dignity or jurisdiction, personal rights to lands, a certain class of personal bonds, rights of patronage, stock of any chartered bank, with, where the process of arrestment (the process, in the Scotch law, for attaching personal estate ; see Arrestment) is excluded, the husband's right in his wife's real estate, fair, harbour, and ferry duties, entailed estates during the life of the heir, and the like. The arrangements for the equitable administration of this law are regulated by various orders of the Scotch courts and by different statutes. There are various other forms of the A. in the Scotch law, one of the most important and useful of which is called the A. -ill-implement, a form of legal proceeding devised for the completion of defective titles to landed property. ADJU'STMENT, in the Law of Insurance, is the ascertaining the exact amount of indemnity which the party insured is entitled to receive under the policy, ami fixing the proportion of the loss to be DO] ie by each underwriter. The nature and amount of damage being ascertained, an endorsement is made on the back of the policy, declaring the proportion of loss falling on each underwriter; and on this endorsement being signed by the latter, the loss is said to have been adjusted. After an A. has been made, it is usual for the underwriter at once to pay the loss. As a question of law, however, it does ooi appear to have been decided how far the A. is conclusive and binding upon the underwriters. In the opinion of some mercantile lawyers, the A. is merely presumptive evidence against an insurer, and it is, notwithstanding, open to the underwriter to shew facts which, if proved, would have the effect of relieving him from liability. A'DJUTANT, as the derivation of the word implies (adjuvare, to help), is the title of an officer who assists tie- commanding-officer of a garrison or regiment in all the details of duty, lie receives orders, and promulgates them to the several companies ; he inspects escorts and guards before proceeding on their duty ; attends to the drill of recruits, is accountable for the keeping of the regimental books, and ought to note every infrac- tion of established mis. An Adjutant-general performs analogous duties for the general of an army. He keeps an account of the strength of each regiment, distributes the orders of the day to the brigade-majors, and sees tie- troops drawn up for action. The Adjutant-general of the Forces is an officer of high rank at the Horse-Guards. To him all communications are addressed regarding leave of absence, discharging, recruiting, &c. Besides the adjutant-general at the Horse-Guards, there are deputy and assistant adjutants-general for special military districts. ADJUTANT (Ciconia Argala), a bird closely allied to the Stork, made by some naturalists the type of a separate genus, Argala. Adjutant is tho popular name given to it by the English in India — Argala the native name. It is a native of tie- warmer parts of India. It is of large size, and has Indian Adjutant. very long legs ; in its erect attitude, it is about five feet high; its extended wings measure fourteen or fifteen feet from tip to tip; its lead and neck are nearly bare; a sausage-like pouch hangs from the mi. lei- part of the neck ; the bill is of enormous size. It is very voracious, swallows a cat or a leg of mutton quite readily, and is of great use in devour- ing snakes, lizards, and all sorts of offal. It - times catches birds upon the wing. Tie- beautiful Marabou feathers are obtained from the under side of the wings of this bird, and of another very similar species which inhabits Senegal. AD LI'BITUM (in Ital., a piacere, or a pin- Ctmento) is a musical term which implies that tho part so marked may be performed according to the taste of the performer, and not necessarily in strict time. When there is an accompaniment to the music thus marked, it must strictly follow the ad libitum time of the principal performer. Sometimes the words, coUa parte, meaning with the leading part, are written over the accompanying Ad Libitum also frequently means, that a part for a particular instrument or instruments, in instrumental scores or pianoforte arrangements, may either be played or entirely left out; thus: 'Overture arranged for the pianoforte as a dint, 45 ADMINISTRATION'— ADMIRALTY COURT. with ml liliitiim accompaniments for the violin, or vi< ill medio.' Al-MIMvn: A TION, in Politics, in its-. is equivalent to the executive government of a state, .13 distinguished from its permanent constitution, ami embraces not only the political ministry, but all the offices of judicature, ftc. In a more restricted sense, as used in England, it i he Privy Council (q. v.), and more especially that select committee of it known as the Cabinet or Ministry (q. v.). ADMINISTRATION' and Al >M INISTl: \- TOR. An administrator, in the law of England, is the person to whom, in default of an executor named in the will, the ordinary or bishop of the diocese commits the administration or distribution of the estate of a person dying intestate. ADMINISTRATION OF CHARITIES falls in the last resort to the sovereign as parens pa and in the case of any charity being dilapidated or d, the attorney-general will tile an informatimi in the Court of Chancery. The A. of C. is now, however, chiefly regidated by 16 and 17 Vict. c. 137, 1 v which the crown is empowered to appoint com- missioners and inspectors for the purpose. The act contains a reservation of the rights of the Church of England ; and it does not extend to the universi- ties, or to such charities as are partially dependent on voluntary contributions. Charities for Roman Catholic purposes were also excluded from its tion for two years, and this term has been extended by subsequent enactments. ADMINISTRATOR-IN LAW. In the Scotch law, a father is A.-in-L. for his children, and as such, is their guardian during minority. This power in tin- father ceases by the child's discontinuing to reside- with him, unless he continues to five at the father's expense ; and in the case of daughters, it ceases on their marriage. A'DMIRAL, the title of the highest rank of naval officers. The word is generally supposed to have been derived from the Arabic J-.'mir or Amir, a lord or chief (Amir-al-Mumenim, 'Commander of the Faithful;' Amir-al-Omra-, 'Commander of the Forces '). Thus the early English form was . I or Ammiral (occurring once in Par. Lost) ; and so it is still preserved in French. In Spanish the word is Admirante or Almirante ; in Italian, Ammiraglio. The term seems to have been introduced into Europe during the Crusades, and to have been first used in a definite sense by the Sicilians, and afterwards by the Genoese. About the end of the 13th c. it came into use in France and England. The first English Admiral of the Seas (.1 de la Met du Roy d 1 Anglet'rre) of whom there is record was William de Leybourne, 12S0. His office, however, was not that of a commander, hut embraced those general and extensive powers after- wards associated with the title of Lord High Admiral of England ; that is, both the admini- strative functions now vested in the Lords Commis- sioners qftlie Admiralty (five in number), and the judicial authority belonging to the present High Court of .1 The niiice of Lord High Admiral was last filled by HUH. the Duke of 1 ace, afterwards William IV. It had pre- viously been in commission from 170S to 18*27. On his resignation in 1828, the office was again put in commission. See Admiralty, Court op. In the British navy, the admirals are ilistinguished into three classes: Admirals, Vice-admirals, and Rear-admirals ; the admiral carrying his colour at the main, the Wee-admiral at the fore, and the rear- admiral at the mizzen mast-head. In former times, each grade was subdivided into three sections, is as Admirals (or Vice or Rear-admirals) of of the White, and of the Blue, reap* itively. The Hag hoisted by the admiral (thence called a ll.ig- l in colour with his section; and all the ships under his command carried ensign and pendant, of the same hue ; but the distinction was otherwise without praei Fleet is a higher rank, conferred at the will of the ign. The rates of full or sea pay of Bag- ire as follow : Admiral of the fleet, per day, £6; admiral, 65; vice-admiral, 64; rear-admu An admiral cominanding-iu-chief receives £3 a day additional at home, and '-'I, 10s. abroad, as table- money, when his Hag is Hying within the limits of his station. 15y an order in council, 1 •>'> I of flag-officers in the British navy was i BO: vis. '■'< admirals of the fleet, 7 admirals, 16 vice-admirals, and 25 rear-admirals. The ne of admirals on 'reserved half-pay' and -retired' amounts (1873) to 159, The admiral of the takes rank with a field-marshal, admirals with erals, vice-admirals with lieutenant-general-, rear-admirals with major-generals. ADMIRALTY COURT. This court, the object of wliich is to try and decide maritime causes, is said by Sir Henry Spelman and Lambard to have been first erected by Edward III. Till recently, the maritime courts of England were divided into the Instance Court and the Prize Court; and these courts were in reality separate tribunals. The same judge usually presided in both, but his authority to hear and decide questions as to prizes of war was under a special and separate commission, issued at the commencement of each war ; and the court itself existed only during the war, or untd the litigations to which it had given rise were brought to a conclu- sion. In this respect it differed from the Instance Court, which was a permanent institution. The jurisdiction in question of booty of war, and the dis- tribution thereof, has now, however, been conferred on the A. C. itself, and the Prize Court has thus been virtually abolished (3 and 4 Vict. c. 65, s. 22 ; see also Kerr's Blackslone, viii. p. 77). By a later statute, jurisdiction relating to the attack and cap- ture of pirates is vested in the A. C. in this country, and in the vice-A. courts abroad (13 and 14 Vict c. 26, 27). Whilst there was a Lord High Admiral, the judge of the A. C. usually presided in virtue of a patent from him ; but since the office has been intrusted to commissioners, the judge holds a direct commission from the crown imder the great seal. By 3 and 4 Vict c. 65, s. 1, the Dean of the Arches is authorised to sit for the judge of the A. C. in certain cases ; and advocates, surrogates, and proctors of the Court of Arches are admitted to practise in the A. C. (s. 2). The pro- ceedings of the A. C, like those in the ecclesias- tical courts, were originally based on the civil law, and upon this account it is usually held at Doctors' Commons. But it is merely as the basis of the earlier mercantile codes, such as the Rhodian laws and those of Oleron, and by no means exclusively, that the civil law is of authority in these courts. Questions of the utmost nicety in the law of nations fall to be decided by maritime courts in time of war ; and it was as an A. judge that many of the most remarkable of Lord Stowell's famous judg- ments were pronounced. The appeal from the A. C, which was originally to the king in Chancery, and afterwards to certain commissioners of appeals, consisting chiefly of the privy council, and not of judges delegated by that body, is now to the judicial committee of the privy couued (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 41). The jurisdiction of the vice-A. courts in the colonies and foreign dominions of the Queen has been extended and defined, and ADMIRALTY DROITS— ADOPTIAH I ONTROVERSY. their procedure regulated l>y statute (2 Will. IV. c. 51). Appeals from these courts formerly lay to the A. C. in England, and were also c om p e tent to the Queen in council; lmt .in the A. C. itself, they are now carried to the judicial committee (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 41, s. 2). The ci\il jurisdiction of the A. Courts was B extended by 3 and 4 Vict. c. 20, by whi. E practice was much improved. It now ext- -mis generally to all marine contracts and other questions' of maritime right, such as disputes between part- is of a ship, suits for mariners' and officers' . suits for pilotage, suits on bottomry and ndentda bonds, and relating fa) soli collision of ships, &c. In criminal matters, the A. 0. formerly took cognizance of piracy and t offences on the sea, or on the coasts Beyond the limits of any county, and, concur- rently with the common law courts, of certain felonies committed in the main stream of great rivers below the bridges. The criminal juris- in of the A. is regulated by 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 36, and 7 and 8 Vict. c. 2. By the former statute, the judge of the A. is made one of the judges of the Central Criminal Court, and that court is empowered to try offences com- mitted within the jurisdiction of the A. By the latter, any court of assize, oyer and ter- miner, or jail-delivery, may inquire of and deter- mine such offences without special commission. Since the passing of these enactments, the criminal jurisdiction of the A. C. may be regarded as obsolete. There is a separate Court of A. in Ireland. The A. C. of Scotland has been abolished, and its ordinary jurisdiction transferred to the Court of Session, the Court of Justiciary, and the sheriffs; questions of prizes, captures, condem- nations, and the like, being vested exclusively in the High Court of A. in England. ADMIRALTY DROITS are a portion of the hereditary revenues of the crown, arising from enemies' ships detained in the prospect of a declaration of war, or coming into port in ignorance of the commencement of hostilities, or from such ships as are taken by non-commissioned c the proceeds of wrecks, the goods of pirates, and the like. The proceeds of the Droits of A. are now paid into the Exchequer for the public use. ADMIRALTY ISLAND lies on the X.W. coast of N. America, between 57° 2 1 and 5S° 24' lat. X.. and 134° 52' and 135° 30' long. W. It is about 80 miles long, well wooded and watered. It is inhabited, and belongs to Russia. ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about 40 islands, to the X.I1 of New Guinea, between 2' and 3° lat. S., and 14G° 18' and 147° 4G' long. E. They red by the Dutch in 1616. The largest lut 50 miles long from E. to W, Th. v al in cocoa-nut trees, and are inhabited by a race of tawny frizzle-headed sa\ ADO'XIS, a mythical personage, whose beauty as a child so attracted the love of Venus and 1' pine, that they quarrelled about the ]>ossession of him. Jupiter, appealed to, settled the dispute by deciding that A. should spend part of the year with \ enus, and part with Proserpine, so that he lived eight months of the year in the world, and four in the under. A. was afterwards killed by a boar while hunting, and Venus, coming too late to his rescue, changed his blood into flowers. — A yearly festival was celebrated in honour of A., and consisted of two parts — a mourning for his departure to the under world, and a rejoicing for his return to Venus. This festival, wi among the countries bordering on the Bfedrtecranean, lebrated with peculiar pomp at Alexandria. th were the Gardens of ! i- 're the festival, wheat, fennel, and lettuce were sown in earthen, and even in silver Adonis. pots, and forced by heat; intended to indicate, doubtless, by their brief bloom, the transitoriness of earthly joy. The myths connected with A belong originally to the east. They display a worship of the powers of nature conjoined with that of the ily bodies, and A. himself appears to lie the god of the solar year. The similarity of the name to the Phoenician Adon, which signified 'lord,' i3 unmistakable ; and this word Adon was specially applied to the king of heaven, the sun. — In refer- ence to the brilliant beauty ascribed to A, a beauti- ful man is called ' an Adonis.' ADONIS, a genus of plants of the natural order Iianunculacece (a. v.), in which the flower has 5 sepals and 5 — 10 petals without scales at the base, and the fruit consists of awn- less pericarps. The species are all her- baceous—some of them annual and some per- ennial. Several are natives of Eiu'ope, but only one, A. a< sometimes called Pheasant's Eye, is a doubtful native of Britain. Its bright scarlet petals have obtained for it the name of Flo» I, their colour having been fancifully ascribed to their being stained with the blood of Adonis. It is a well-known ornament of our gardens ; in which also A. asUvalit frequently appears, and A. r-malis, a perennial species common upon the lower hills of the middle and south of Germany, with early and beautiful flowers. ADO'PTIAN CONTROVERSY, The, was an echo of the Arian controversy, and originated about the end of the Sth c. in Spain, the country in which the doctrine of Arius had longest held out. Elipandus. Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, the learned Bishop of Urge], advanced the opinion that Christ, in respect of his divine nature, was doubtless by nature and generation the Son of God ; but that as to his human nature, he must be considered as only declared and adopted, through the divine grace, to be the first-born Son of God (Rom. viii. 20), just as all holy men are to be adopted as sons of God, although in a less lofty sense. Tho flame of controversy thus kindled, spread into the Prankish empire, the special domain of 'Catholic' Christianity, and gave occasion to two synods, one held at Ratisbon (792). and another at Fraukfort [794), in which Charlemagne took part in person, and which condemned Ad oj nanism as heresy. The Catholic doctrine of the unity of the two natures of 47 Adonic autii-. ADOPTION— ADRIATIC SEA. Clnist in one divine person, anil tin- i sequent impossibility of there being a twofold Son an original and an ;i[ >t<-y the law as his own master [mti jvrit . t!ie pro- ceeding was called adrogation to), A,how- ever, was also used as a generic term comprehending the two species; and in Greece, where then nothing corresponding to the paternal power of the Romans, this distinction did not obtain. At Athens, the adopted child was transferred from ln> own family and parish ortribi into those of the adoptive father, whose property he inherited in the absence of legitimate children, and whose sacred rights he was bound to maintain, (inly Athenian citizens could be adopted, so that not only the next of kin, lmt the w hole community were interested in prevent- ing fraudulent adoptions. With this view, registra- tion in the demus of the adoptive father was requisite, in order to entitle the son to the rights of citizenship as a member of it. In Home, the adopted child assumed the name, ami became hound to discharge the religious duties, of the- adoptive father, which usually consisted in saerilices to the jirnnia or other divinities. These observances were for the most part connected with the geru or tribe to which the individual and his family belonged; and Savigny has even denied the exist* nee of sacra peculiar to the family. A. was effected under the authority of a magistrate, the pra-tor at Rome, or the governor [prases) in the provinces. Adrogation originally required a vote of tie ] pie m the < Cvriataj lmt under the emperors, it became the practice to effect it by an imperial rescript. A patrician was sometimes adrogated into a plebeian family for political purposes. OlocUus, tie- enenrj of Cicero, was so adrogated, in order that he might be eligible to a tribuncshipof the people. If a father. having children in his power, was adopted, both he and his children passed into the power of the adop- tive father. It wa.s requisite that the adoptive father shoidd have no children at the time, and no i able prospect of having any. He was also required to be older than the person adopted. Females could not be adrogated, nor. from their not sharing in the paternal power, could they adopt in any form. An opposite rule has prevailed where the institution has been received in modern times. A. was unknown to the law of the Teutonic nations; and though most of the states of the continent have borrowed it from the Roman law, it has never existed as an institnt em either in England or Scotland. The patrimonial benefits of A. may. however, be conferred by deed; and there is no illegality in any one assuming the name, arms, and other distinguishing ch n n teristies, and corresponding responsibilities, of a person who does not belong to his family. In France, A. is used only in a very modified form 1 1 art. 34.'i, et eeij.). ADOU'R, a river in France, rises near Tour- 43 inalet, in the department of the Cpper Pyrenees, waters in it.s course of 'Jllll miles the department nli' part of the department l.andes, and enters the Atlantic belovi Bayonne. It p -> \. i.il tributaries, and is navigable to the extent of 80 miles. r.agncres-dc-Bigorre, celebrated for its hot baths, i- sitbated on tie A. A'DKIA. in the delegation of Rovi o i" Lorn- hardy, is situated between the river rO and the Adeje, contains alioiit 1(1.0011 inhabitants, and is chiefly remarkable as being one ,,f the oldesl i in Europe. According to tradition, it was founded by tin' Tela _i. 1376 B.& In the time of the Romans, A. was one of the most frequented har- bours in the Adriatic Sea; but by the continual deposition of alluvium on the east coast of !tal\, it has been gradually separated from tin sea, from which it is now almost ten miles distant. It still - several interesting remains of Etruscan and Roman antiquity; but its wine, formerly so cele- brated, is now deplorably bad. \ I'KIAN". the name of six popes, none of them very remarkable. A. IV. was by birth an Eng- lishman, the only one of that nation that ever sat in the papal chair. His name was Nicolas Breakspeare. He was a native of Langley, near St Albans, became first a lay-brother or servant in the monastery of St Kufiis, near Avignon, and in 1137 was elected abbot His zeal for strict discipline raised a combination to defame his char- acter, and he had to appear before Eiigciiius III. at Home. Here lie not only chared himself of all charges, but acquired the esteem of the pope, who appointed him cardinal-bishop of Albano in 1146. I in the death of Anastasius in 1154. he was raised to the papal see. A. was at first on friendly terms with the Emperor Frederic I. ; but his high notions of the papal supremacy, which he carried as far as even Gregory VII., led to the beginning of that long contest of the pones against the house of Hohenstaufeu, which ended in the destruction of the dynasty. He was about to excommunicate Frederic, when he died at Anagni, 1150. It was in A.'s time that the doctrine of Transuhstantia- tion (q. v.), advanced by IVtnis Lombardus, was established. A'DRIAJS'OPLE, the second city in the Turkish empire, was founded by the Emperor Hadrian on the left hank of the navigable river EDebrus (now Maritza). Here the sultans ruled from 13GG to 1453, when Constantinople was made the capital, The city has now about 50,0110 inhabitants, the half of whom are Turks. Two palaces, forty mosques, twenty-four public schools, twenty-two baths, and the numerous gardens laid out on the hanks of the Maritza. may be named as the prin- cipal features of A. Its trade consists in opium, oil of roses, with silk and other manufactures.- The Russian-Turkish war was here concluded, September 19, 1829, by the Peace of A., which left the Porte in possession of Wallachia, Moldavia, and the con- quests made by Russia in Bulgaria and Roumelia. On the other side, Russia got possession of the whole of the coast of the Black Sea, from the mouth of the Kuban, in lat. 4.V 15', to the haven of St Nichola, lat. 42", with the territories of the Cau- casus, and the greater part of the pachalic of Akalzik. This Peace of A. sei ly to confirm the power of Russia in Eastern Europe and in Western Asia. ADRIATIC SEA, a large arm of the sea, extending, in a north-westerly direction, be! the cast coast of Italy and the west coast of the (e continent, being connected with the Ionian Sea by the Strait of Otranto. In the north, it forms ADULE— ADVENT. the Gulf of Venice, ami in the north-east, the Gulf of Trieste ; while, on the Italian side, it forms the bays of Ravenna and Tremiti, and the narrower and deeper Gulf of Manfredonia. On the side, the coasts of Illyria. Croatia, Dalmatia, and Album, rocky, and barren, and begirt with a chain of almost innumerable small rocky i The chief bay in tl no, lying of I -tria. The mi able rivers Bowing into the A. and the Po, which are continually dep an the coast, so that places once on the sin now inland. Xhi saltness of the A. is probably owing to the comparatively BmaH quan- tity ol ired into it by rivers. Navi- i in the A. ind pleasant in gammer, but in winter the Dorth-wesi gales are formidable, on account of the rocky and dangerous coasts on ^lia are the D AIM Us, an ancient town oc the coast of the Red Sea, rt of Aimu, and is noticed chiefly on account 01 an inscription, of sonic import' ancient geography of those ■'. first pub- 5th c, in the Top iii"i Indie 'Hie modern town is called Zulkv ADULTERATION OP FOOD, ic. The more important adulterations will be noticed under the is articles. See also Food. ADC LTJXY (Lat. l) has been well defined as 'the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with a person other than the offender's husband or wife.' , g 415). By the Roman law, there was no A. unle- .as married, and the same was the rule in Athena It was iu this limited form also that A. was recognised by the law. By the canoi ad and footing; and thi has b 1 by all the nations of mi i the American state of NewJei ided that a married man does not commit this crime in having connection with an unmarried woman. 1 1 Ij I ) But such has not the prevalent doctrine even in America ; and it has never been doubted that the offence necessary to found the sentence of divorce is committed by unlawful sexual intercourse equally whether the is were married or single. A. was recogi. crime even before '. xxxvni. -J4|. and it is probable that in affix:- the punishment of death (Lev. xx. 10), he i : revailing custom. A very remarkable law was introduced for the trial of A., by causing the woman of jealousy (Numb. v. 26). In Kome, the Julian law, i in the tune of et, and imposed special ing of forfeiture of g Is and banish. and the paramour. The tin cases, was permitted to kill the latter, and tie- father might sometimes kill both. ne, the authenticity of which has be.n doubted, made A. a capital - part Whatever Constantino's law was, Mid by Justinian, who further condemned the wife to be whipped, ami imprisoned in a convent for tin- rest of her days, unless relieved by her hus- band within two years {Novel, 134, c 10). The offence was visited in Athens with punishments closely resembling those of Che earlier Roman lation. In many continental countries. A. is still treated as a criminal offence, but in none of thi m .'■ punishment now exceed imprisonment for a limited period, which is frequently accompanied with a line. Lord Coke says, thi I taw of id in early times, A. wa by line and mment i.'i i During the Common- . it was made a capital off i partii, p. 121); but this 1 onfinned at the Re (oration. ] f the iiciary shew that capital punishment equently inflicted. At tin- pi , it is punishable in Great Britain censure ; and even this may be regarded as in ■ tude. But when coin;. a civil injury, and, till I of the star. Jn and L'l Vic. c. 55 and 59, : , of an action of damages for criminal convei . I (commonly known as an action of by the husband against the paramour. N action was compet snt to tin- wife, • it or America ; and her only obtaining a separation or divorce. In Sc itland, A. forms a ground for dissolution of the mama the suit of the injured party. .See SepaB DlVOJ A 1 >VKXT, or Time of Advent (Lat. the approach, or coming), a term applied, by tin i bristian ' tain weeks before Christmas. In the Greek Church, the time of A. comprises forty but in the Romish Church, and those Brot Churches in which A. is observed, only four v. irigin of this festival, as a Church onlinance, i is not clear. The lirst notice of A., as an appoint- ment of the Church, is found in the Synod of Lenda (524 A. D.), at which marriages were inter- dicted fmrn tin- beginning of A. until Christmas. or Sundays of A., as observed in the Romish Church and the Church of England, were probably introduced into the calendar by Gregory tin I It was common from an early pel ik of the coming of Chi-. id: his ' lirst con : tin- hour ol isions u -I'll by St John) ; his coming at the fall of Jerusalem _ nent. According to this fourfold view of A., the 'go were chosen for the four Sundays, as was in the Western Church by tin /i of Charlemagne. The festival of A. is intend accord in spirit with the object As mankind were once called upon to prepare tl selves for tin- persona] coming of Christ, so, a» ing to the idea that tin should ■nt the life of the founder arch, Christians are exhorted, during thi- to look for a spiritual advent of Christ. The time "i the year when the shortening days are ! ward the solstice — which almost coincides witli the festival of the Nativity— is thought to harmonise with the • I a> ntiment proper during A. In opposition, heathen festivals, observed by ai Romans and Germans, which took place at the sun.' season, the Catholic CI I that ii- weeks of A. should be 1. me of penitence; according to the words of Christ: • Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.' During tlnse weeks, therefore, pul nents, marriagi -. and dan fasts were appointed, and sombre garments were used in religious ceremonies. The Protestant Church [many has also abstained from public recreations and celebrations of marriage during A. It was perhaps a natural thought to begin the ecclesiastical year with the days of pi ation for tin- coming of Christ. This was first don. by thi Neetonan Church in the Bast in the 6th c. ; the example was soon followed in tt ADVERB— ADVOC \TK. and often tne general throug] t the '■■■ e •VERB. As an adjective is joined to .1 noun, an A., for an adjective, or another \. Prom the frequency with which adverbs are joined to verba, thi their name. An A. cannot be the abj copula, or the predicate of a proposition : d therefoi idary part of speech, 1 Uy ing. According to their signification, adverbs ded nto 1. Adverbs of Pla /. ; 2. of lime, .' •'!. of Degre 1. of Manner, as, thus, . 1 of Belief or Doubt, as, pi rhaps, no, &c. — ■ 11. 1. nly said, that ' ■ bs admit of d ;' as if in this reap differed from adjectives. The truth is, that adverbs admit of limitations, neither more nor li the comparison ol Tims, goon is compared as naturally as hard. It now or thus cannot be 1 red, neither can wooden nor lory and in both cases, foi reason — the iinnv prevent alike rabli and miserably from aparedgram- ■lly, i. i'.. by the addition of 1 r and est ; hut both admit of logical comparison bj of more l large of adi erbs in English are formed from adji ag the syllable ly, which is just the word like. \b> t languages have the A. from the ' ive, except the* lerman, in which tin van- alike. il may be looked upon as abbre\ ia- tions .1!' phrases; thus, Acre in this place, then = at .. ( lombinations of winds that can thus be represented by a single adv. 1I1, and all combinations that are analogous, thou 11 they may have no single word equivalent to them, are called 1 pre -ions. ADVERTISEMENT (Pr. avertissemeat). The public notification of a fact. This is now commonly effected either by means of the ordinary newspapers, or of newspapers, printers' lists, and other public*- ■dly devoted to the purpose. Advertise- 1, hoth printed and written, are still posted on b-doors, and other places of public resort, in which case they are commonly called I .ills or placards. The 1 1 1 kind of A., and that which is cm- {■'. ' 1 "lis and the ike, is publication in t (q.v.); but so little is the (j 'I ■ mis, that the courts of law have held that publication in it alone is not a sufficient notice of a dissolution of partnership to free the partners from debts afterwards contracted in name of the company. Public notifications are Enjoined by si , for example, under I Bridge Acts, the Bankrupt Statutes, &c. In many other ways, their legal effects are import- ant. " tents by public carriers, railway com- panies, and the like, are equivalent to offers whereby advertiser will be bound to those wl on the faith \. By advertising a gi neral ship, for a parti- cular > .hi the foot- ing of a public carrier, and is bound to receive goods port to which the vessel is advertised to sail. A merchant in such < on Ins goods being received, unless the ship be full, or the entire Er of affreightment is completed by the A., and the shippi poods in conformity and with to. See 1 Iraki ER-PARTY, Ca&BIKR. — In lutyon adv . which was ;; 1, 64 in Great Britain, and 2s. (i7. in the former country, and Is. in the latter (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 23). In 1S33, 50 v. holly repealed (16 and 17 Vict c. 62). In 1832, the year previous to the reduction, (1"' duty .111.1.111.1 .1 i" 170,690; in 1841 it »:. 131 608; and in Is;,:;, the year of the repeal, it had increased to £180,000, thus exi Iiiilc the amount before the period of reduction. Advertisements are found in middle of the 17th c, ; but was not genera] till the beginning 18th. In America, where adi rl isne\ rbeen taxed, it has long been practised to an enormous extent; and repeal of the duty, it has iu- creased in this country at a very rapid rate. Must nevi spapers are rendered remunei ir pro- prietors only by means of th 1 mts which they contain. Sec Newspaper. ADVICE. See Bill of Exchange. ADVOCATE (Lit. advoeatut). An A. is gener- ally defined 'the patron of a cans.-,' though it n"i appear that the 'patrons' who, in ancient Rome, assisted tln-ir clients with advice and pleaded their causes, were ever 'ailed by that name. Keen in the t 1 E Cicero, the term advoeatus was not applied to the patron or orator who pleaded in public, but rather, in strict accordance with the etymology of the word, to anj who in an] of business was called in to assist another. There .■mi bo no doubt, however, that the forensic orators and jurisconsults of the later period of the republic, who followed law as a profession, and received fees {honoraria) for their services, occupied a position closely analogous to that of the A. of modern times, and thus it has been said that the profession is older than the name. The occupations of a jurisconsult and a forensic orator Beem t" have differed pretty much as those of a consulting and a practising counsel do with us. They might be exercised separately, but were generally combined; and thus Cicero speaks of his master, Scaevola, as 'the most eloquent of the learned, and the most learned of the eloquent' (jurisperitorum eloquentissimus, eloquentiiun juris- peritissimus, De Or., i. .'19). Ulpian defined an A. I., be any person who aids another in the conduct of a suit, or action (Dig. oil, til. 13), and in other parts of the digest it is used as equivalent to an orate also Ta. it. ItmaL, x. til, so that the word would seem gradually to have assumed its modern mean- ing. The office of the A. or barrister who conducted the cause in public, was, in Home, as with us, alto- gether distinct from that of the procurator, or, as we should say, attorney or agent, who n pi person of th" client in 1 1 ion, and fun. the A. with information regarding the facts of the Case. The distinction between these two occupa- tions, however, obvious and important as it seems to us, does not everywhere prevail ; and in many of the states of Germany, 111 Geneva, in America, and in some of our own colonies, as, for example, in Canada, they are united in the same person. In England and Ireland, advocates are called Barn which title will be found a statement of the duties and responsibilities which the A. undertakes to his client, and of the state of the profession in countries. In Scotland, as in France, the more ancient name has been retained. See ADVOCATES, FACULTY of. In France, the avocal and avoue correspond very nearly to the barrister and attorney in England. The advocates do not form a corporation, in the technical sense, but are a free society or association (ordre), which has the power of protecting its mem- i.l of exercising internal surveillance and i" over them. Neither do they exercise any rial functions like those which public atitl. 1. under certain conditn.11- and respon- sibilities, on avoues and notaries. The French A. is ADVOCATE, LORD— ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF. simply a free man, who lias graduated in law, ami of The advocates who practise in each court forma i col] !ii ion to which can be obtained only with the approval o) those who are already members. Enrolment in the hooks of the eoll ■■■■■ does not confer the title of A., for this i ' to every licentiate who ha taken the oaths before a court; but it gives tin: right of communicating [droit de ccrmmunuTuer) with the other members of the body, without which the exercise ol tin profession would be impossible. As a necessary consequence of this arrangement, erasure of the name of any individual from the list is oquivalentto a prohibition to practise. The French A. pi • same privi- legi as to irresponsibility for his advice, and for the facts contained in his instructions, which belong gibers of the corresponding branch of the legal don in this country. He is also entitled to plead covered (see RajsI'L'itk), and as In- has no action they are, a; with us, paid in ail 'flu- French advocates have, on several occasions, id, as an encroachment on their privileges, the attempt to compel them to grant receipts for their fees. It further belongs to the etiquette of the bar of : :i ie that, in communicating articles of process to i ich other, no acknowledgment shall be exchanged; and we are told, with honest pride, that during the many centuries that tins custom has existed, not one instance of its abuse lias occurred. In Belgium, in Geneva, and also in those of the German states by which the Code Napoleon has been received, tin* organisation and discipline of this branch of the legal profession are similar to those which prevail in France. In the other German . with the exception Of Saxony, the formation 111 Ih" advocates into a body has been persevering] y ! by tie' governments, A general assembly of German advocates wis attempted at Mayence in 1844, and in Hamburg in 1846; and iu the latter city, it actually took place in the following year, but it led to no permanent results. ADVOCATE, Lord. The L. A. for Scotland, i also the King's or Queen's A., is the public prosecutor of crimes, senior counsel for the crown in civil causes, and a political functionary of very great importance in the management of Scottish may issue warrants for arrestment and imprisonment in any part of Scotland, and po many other discretionary and indefinite ] Previous to the Union, the King's A. had a the parliament of Scotland ex officio; and sin.'-- tli.it event, he has been almost invariably a ne m parliament, lb- is appointed by tin' crown, and his tenure of office ceases with that of the ailmini of which he is a member. As first law-officer of the crown for Scotland, the 1,. A., when in parliament, is expected to answer all qu -stions relating bu 'in IBS of Sootiand, and to take the superintend- ence of legislation for that portion of the I Lorn. Notwithstanding his multife , tic I,. A. a. pts ordinary : at the bar, ami. ind 1, is usually the mo -I'd with the party in power. He is assisted in tin' duties of public pro- secutor by the aolicitoi ad by four junior its, called advocates-deput ed by himself. 'I'll- 1.. A. and solicitor i ■ alone entitled to plead within the bar, and they B only barristers in Scotland who have the dis of silk gowns. When the L A. declines to prose- cute, it IS competent for a private party to do so; and in this ease the coiieuien. or * concourse,' as it is called, of the L. A., which is granted as a matter of course, must be obtained. Such a proceeding, however, is scarcely known in practice in Scotland. Tie best historical account of this important, and, in many respects, anomalous office, with which wo ai i outlined in dgment of tie- la;- Lord Medwyn in King's uist Lord Doug] I ber 21, 183& In Eni land, the sovereign pursues in Ids own name; and such was tie- practice in Si otland also, till about the middle of the Iffth c., when wo tiiid <,n n Mary prosecuting by lni '. . probably in imitation of the French custom, lor after the institution of the College of Justice in 1532, tie- A. for the crown was always one of the judges of the Court of Session, and as in Fiance the king's advo- cates were also at I | |,i, coinci- dence has been mentioned by Sir ( (eorge .Mackenzie in i i of the French oi if I ; ' but a combination of offices, now held to 1..- incompatible, • I then uncommon. Lord Medwyn informs i lat among tin' original fifteen ordinary ju was Sir Adam Otterburne, who was King's A. from 1525 to 1538, and also provost of Edinburgh from 1524 to 1535. So late as 1686, Sir George Lockhart, when president of the court, was ordered by a letter from King James VII. to officiate as his A. in parlia- ment. It is not certain that the King's A. was ■ ally authorised to act as public pros rimes; but he certainly possessed that power in 1587 (c. 77), and it seems to !»■ implied in an earlier statute (1579, c. 78). It was indeed, as Lord Medwyn remarks. 1 an anomaly that a judge of the Court of Session sin mid act as the representative of the crown in criminal than in civil causes, seeing that the former adjudge, 1 in another court. The King's A. i mentioned as Lord A. in the record of the Court of Justiciary in 1598. But although it was not till the institution of the College of Justice tie was placed on its present footing, we have mention of its existence in 1479 ; but the King's A. was not then one of the officers of state, a dignity, indeed, which he does not seem to have attained till 1540. In 15,8:2, the salary of the L. A. was only £40 Scots. His present salary is £2387, and he is entitled to per- quisites which raise his emoluments greatly above that sum. The L. A.'s deput I a year, and his secretary in Loudon £350. The crown-i who is a Writer to the Signet (q. \ forms in refer ice : i crown causi s pn tty much the nine duties that fall to an atton mt in ordinary litigation, receives £1400. As i tion in which the L. A. stands to the public ntors of crimes in the inferior courts, see PrOOUBATOI ;. e\i.. The L. A., though not a iirivy-councillor, is, by court as the light Honourable during bis tenure i ADVOCATES, Fa< m Hand. The constitution of this body. lis its members are known, from France. The pro: in Scotland from a very early time; and in 1424 curing the an E A. to The words of the s are remarka'' period, highly inity and enlight- enment oft : eh. ' And git ti' creature, for faulte of cunning, or dispenses, that cannot, nor may not follow his cause, the king, for tod, sail eni line the jud use guide be di I xmined, to purwey and get a leill and a wise advocate, to follow sik pure creatures causes; and ued [gained], the wronger [wrong-doer] sail sssyith baith the partie skaithed, and the advoeatis eoastcs and 1: This institution ha 1 with little alteration to the present tint ft'S boll I. I'.ut though Ig as a profession, the A. of Scotland did not form a Faculty or Bociety till the institution of the SI ADVOCATES' LIBRARY ADVOWSOX. i ■ i.|. v.) iii 1532. At first, their r was limited to ten, but there is now no The number on the rolls of the body is 125; but the number of the not exceed 120. Even i small m live by the pro From iprovements which have I d made in the sheriff-courts, and from .■Hi in the < "in i of Si lining of the and the continued of new men Faculty of A. is to be a >r only by th that the Bar is still regarded a i the regular avenue t.i public and official Life in Scotland. Two examin- ations are imposed on candidates for admission, the one in general schol it in law; the first, however, I I he intrant shall produce e\ Sen is a Ma of any British uni> i i I j , o that he ha i attained such degree in a foreign univi the opinion of the Dean of I affords evidence oi i afforded bj ilaster of Arts of a Scottish whim rsitj . Should no in b degri i be posse ed, an exam mtion takes place before a com- mittee of the Fi ■ i lb; three or more ling (generally pro in the ibur in. mi the following subj 1. l.i. i; 2. Gr k, oi [in the intrant' op two of the follow in.- languagi uami ly, French, n, Italian, - 3 Ethical and Mi I iphj - Philosophy ; 4. Lo ;ic, or otrantrs i) M.iih. n .I :. be found holarship, he may, after the Eor in pi ■:■> i e i Kamination mi lav. . The exarnin i ot take him on trial if, during the yeai befo uch examin- ation, i igaged in any trade, bu ion, either on bis 6w a ace i , or as assist- ant to, or in the employment of another. Proof of attendance on the Law-classes in the univer Edinbu is also requisite, to plead hi everj court in Scotland, civil, eci iperior or inferior; and also befori - I A party ! his om • ■ I I, but with defene ■ ' aed by an advocate. There i- a widow's fund belonging to .lv. which Iso regul heriffs, and tl tui ..'■i.illy, ted from the bar. The fees on i the Faculty of A. ADVOCATES' LIBRARY. Thislibrary, which longs to the Facu ■ ' . . it in Edi - itablished by Sir Ge ' trie in 1682. It had at fil to time, set apart sums for its maintenance, and donations were made for its By the copyright Law of 1709, it nl'i ' lit othi r Libraries, the privilege of receiving i every aev This privilege is still I to the A. I.. (."> ami 6 Vict, C. 45, B. 8), although withdrawn mm i'i. otb r Scottish Libraries ; and I is mainly owing the complete charai ter of the collection in British 1 ks. It com] ratively at in foreign lit' Faculty have no other funds at their disposal Chan ees di rived from ' into u»1 -.' and th Bum tin y il.-vutc to tin- maintenance of the library is quite inadequate. The number of volumes is ited at 160,000 perhaps twice as many as any other Scottish library. It is particularly rich in law; in Scottish history and antiquities; Lathers and a, and in theology generally. The Spanish department is particularly valuable. The b . notwithstanding the reci nt improvi i ... ■■ under the Parliament House, where the courts of h the library bale I ly to the l'li'ii't'. of vdvo >t< , yet, under their managemenl of a public institution. Any stranger arriving in Edinburgh is admitted to see the library; and with an introduction, any on >r1 to it to consult books. Books may even be borrowed through the I ■ -ulty. who are remarkably Liberal in tins respect Thomas Ruddiman and David both held the office of librarian or ' keeper of the \. L.' ADVOCA'TION, a form of in the law of Scotland, tl « hich is to i i supreme i i for the purpose of review, or that the cause in its i may be conducted in the Court of m. Final judgments of inferior courts are thus brought under i of tl Court of S by lodging a written note of A. with one of the of S it (1 and 2 ■ . 86). A certified notio top to all further steps in tl rails.-. The party advocating mu I find caution for the ea pen ■■ aire be incurred, in the Court of Session. See Cai and Jura roRH I '.\ (f. \ eneral rule, A. is competent, unless debarred either by statute or confirmed practice; but no cause can be advocated I exceed the value of £25 (16 and 17 \ ict c, 80, s. 22). A. is incompetent in ad to particular court itute, Small Debt Ads. Road Acta, •Ve. Eh which the claim exceeds £40, may be removed into irt of Session, so sunn as an order allowing a proof has I o pronou 1. Bhould either party be nf opin ought tn !"■ tried by jury. It is i: o -.'. ' "ii.'i" tent in all a vo thiol for either party, ling of the ca th Lord Ordinary, to move for its removal to the liner House by report On the other hand, the parties have it in th udicial con- t that the Lord ( >rd final, and n : to review ; in. i i he - . prt i ■ '"'ih parties i (16 and 17 Vict i 25). ADVOCA'TUS DIA'BOLI, the Devil's Advocate. In the Romi b I tun '< when it is proposed that a 1 l person shall b i i.an examination i his past Life takes place. In this process, one party holds 1 1 Iliee ol aeeii it, or . A Saxon grammar in Latin. CHILIAN PROVINCES. See Emilia* Pao- .KMl'LIUS PAULTJS. The most remarkable of this name was the son of the consul .E. J'., who fell in tie- battle of < lannse, 216 B.C. Young . Emilius. ited his father's valour, and cnj<- wonti public csti ' 1GS B.C. he I nl for the second time, ami intrusted with the war again t Perseus, king of Macedcn, whom he defeated m tic battle of Pydna. During the war, his two younger sous died; and been i is to avert calamity from the pie. .EN K'A- Virgil's ./.'«• id, was, accord- ing to Homer, the son of Anchises and Venus, and was ranked next to Hector among the Trojan hi roes, raditions of his adventures before and after U of Troy are various and lie- followii warned by Priam in tic night when tie I ntered Troy. ; i:a the city, r eo itest until Priam 1. 11. with him his family, he escaped fron , hut. m tie- confusion of his ! lost his wife Crei • la fleet of d to Thrace, where he buildiug the city of .Enos, but was terrified by an unfavourable omen, and abandoned his plan of a settlement hen-. A mistaken mi rpretation oracle of Delphi now led him to Crete; hut from be was driven by a pestilence. P tie- promontory of Aathim, l. • i i round Sicily to tin- promontory of Drepanum on where died. A storm drove ca, and land ngi r( hospitably received and entertained by B in th I ii.lo was pn i by Jupiter, who sent Mercury with a coiniuaud that 1 I v, lie sailed away, leaving tie- disappointed queen, who com- mitted suicide. During Ins stay in Sicily, where he celebrated tie- ran of his companions and seamen, weary of long voyages without e. rtamty of finding a le , set lire to his fleet. After building tie- city Acesta, he sail Italy, leaving behind him tie- women, and some of tin- men lid fleet. On landing in Italy, I • ived intima- tions of his future destiny. Then, sailing along the ast side of the river, he found himself n, intry of I.atinus. king of tie- Aborigines. Lavinia, the daughter oi I. had bt iii marry a stranger; but her mother had prom • her in mam. .kiiiijof the Eutuh. A waron-eied. . i tie marriage ol /Eneas with Lavinia. Their Bon, -K\r.\s Sylvius, as the ancestor of th I Alba 1 ga, and also of Romulus and Renins, was rej arded as tie- founder of the Roman empire, hardly to add that all tin-- statements an- merely mythical, having no historical basis. iEO'LIAX HARP, a very simple musical instru- ment which produces harmonic sounds when placed irrent of wind. It is formed by stretching eight or ten strings of catgut, all tuned in u over a wooden shell or box, made generally in a form slop in k. The sounds produced by lli rising ami falling wind, in passing over the . are of a drowsy and lulling character, and have been beautifully described by tie ] I Thomson, as supplying the most suitable kind of music for the Cattle of J ml JEO'LIANS, one of the principal races of tho Greek people, who were origu saly, from which they spread and formed inn- settlements in the northern parts of Greece and in the- west of Peloponnesus. In the 11th c B.O., art of them emigrated to Asia Minor, where they founded, mi tie- \. W. coast, in Mysia. and the adjacent isles, more than thirty cities; among them, Smyi 1 Mitylene in tie- island of Lesbos, where tie' .Rohan dialect of tie- Greek Ian chiefly developed itself in the- forms employed in the and Sappho, The .Eolian shared the fate of the other Grecian colonies in Asia Minor. First oppressed by the Lydian kings, then deprived tence by the Persians, they became real empire founded by Alexander, ami, passing through a stage of subjection to the oi tin- Seleucids , were ultimately absorbed in the Roniau empire. .H'OX, a Creek word signifyinc an age, and also eternity. The Gnostics spoke of .-Eons, in a peculiar vers that had emanated from Cod i inning of time, and existed as distinct entities or spirits. They were called .Eons either as partak- the eternal existence of God, or because they thought to preside over the various ages and transformations of the world. See < ■ A'EKATED BREAD, a term that has been applied to bread prepared by a process very recently AERATED WATERS. patented, and likely to come into use. In ordinary bread-making, the wheat- Hour is moistened with water and worked into dough, to which common salt and yeast are added. The latter causes the flour to ferment or decompose, when carbonic acid is given off at every part ; and when the fermented don 1 in an oven, the bubbles of carbonic acid gas expand, and cause the formation of the spongy mass characteristic of well-made loaf-bread. The new process of preparing A. B. consists in placing the flour in a strong enclosed iron box, and moisten- ing it with carbonic acid water, prepared as stated under A. Waters. The dough is then worked up by machinery inside the box, and in ten mi or so, it is taken out, shaped into loaves, and | in an oven, when the carbonic acid, previously introduced with the water within the dough, ex] lands, and forms a light palatable bread. The advantages which this method of working has, as set forth by the patentees, are — 1. There is a saving of the whole of the waste caused bj fermentation, which averages fully 10 per cent. Thus lo per cent, more bread is made out of a sack of flour than by the old process, 2. The i' instead of occupying eight or ten hours, is completed in half an hour. 3. The cost of machinery and gas I than that of yeast used in the old process. 4. The dough requires scarcely any handling to form it into loaves. 5. The bread is absolutely pure — it is simply Hour, water, and salt. Finally, should the whole of the bread in the kingdom be thus made, a B would be effected in one year equal in amount to the entire ordinary importation of foreign wheat. AERATED WATERS are employed largely as refreshing, refrigerant beverages to allay thirst during warm weather, and dm h conditions of the animal frame. The most common A beverage is Carbonic acid water, generally spoken of as Soda- water, though it seldom contains any soda. It is pre- pared on the large scale by placing whiting, chalk, or carbonate of lime (CaO, a1 n it tor two hours, when, if the screw stop-cock at the upper part be opened, the carbonated water will flow out readily into any vessel placed to receive it. The explana- tion of the action which goes on in thi that tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda have no action on each other so long as they are dry ; but whenever water is admitted, the tartaric acid th the soda and water to form tartrate of soda and water fNaOJBCO I t the same time, carbonic acid (CO„) is given off, and descend- ing the tube into the lower glob e. dissolves in the water contained therein. Occasionally, bisulphate of potash is used instead of the tartaric acid, to save iter expense of the latter. — The gazogenes can e be used in the preparatii soda- water, or Eau de Vichy, by addii s little car- bonate of soda to the water in the 1 •■ charging with carbonic acid. A. wine may be obtained by placing white wine with a little candy in the lower globe instead of wate . .\. ling Itmonade is procured when the carbonic acid water is run into a tumbler containing a little sirup of sugar; and A. fruit-beverages, when the water charged with carbonic acid 1 in a glass containing about a table-spoonful of either of the fruit-sirups. The less common A. W., prepared on the large seale.are — \.A.tod tamed by adding 15 grains de of soda to each bottle before it is charged witl carbonic acid water; 2. A. by employ- ing in a similar way 20 grains of bicarbonai potash ; .'I. A. Seltert-wal irbonate of soda and chloride of sodium (common salt) arc dissolved in carbonic acid water; 4. A. I ', when finely divided Carrara marble is dissolved in the acid-charged water; 5. A. lime-l forms of lime than the Carrara marble are used; 6. A. ma r, when magnesia, or the car- bonate of magnesia, is used ; and . I . when a compound of iron is dissolved in the carbonic acid water. The latter beverage has lately employed in medicine, as an easy means of intro- ducing iron into the blood, and with good effect. A. Carrara and lime v. now admini s where the bony structure requires to be I : and A. magnesia-water is a very agreeable mode of patient a dose of mag- Tile well-known effervescing draughts i I leUUitz-powden, are two other kinds of A. drinks. In the former, bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid are added to water in a tumbler, and a refreshing draught iustantau' prepared. Sodliti mtain tarn and bicarbonate of soda in o and tartaric aeid in the other; and when both are added to wat r. and the liquid is then partaken of. A. \V. bk naturally. Water, as it is drawn from a BU rcntly from the same water after being boiled and cooled ; and this is due to the unboiled water containing the ly the Ived in it. Spring-water is ,-. at' r has a ma 1 AERIAL POISONS U'.llOUTE.S. insipid taste, mainly 1" ■ minute quantity 1 1,. i in dissolved ; but when thai trick! ^ dow ii the mountain-side, and is d i i.iiii led ■ to ledf f roi k, it absorbs an I d rom i id orally l. M:mv waters are aerated in a natural but peculiar way, wh upon them important m idicinal properties; and these will i te before us under their more popular title of Mineral Sp< AERIAL POISONS. -Musma. AERODYNAMICS , thai bi ini b oi which treats of an- ami other ■ es in motion. It ■ phenomem Ei m a :, which corre ipond in many respects with of water. See Hydrodynamics. Much depends, as in the case of wati r, upon I lie oatuj i of the oi ifice, whether a mere hole in the side of the vessel, or a Another smbji ct of A. is the motion of air in long tubes, where the &c., ha i to be a < rtained. That n i tance is found to 1»-' nearly in proportion to the square of the velo- city, to the 1» ogth of the tube, and invi width. A. examines also the veld ity of air ru into a vacuum, of wind, Ac. The instrument for the latter purpose i led an i oemometer. See Winds, Air is round to rush into a void spa e I.' of from 1300 to 1 WO feet per second. One oi the most important in A. is the resist- ance offi red to a bodj moving in air, or— which is pr< ure exerted by air in motion upon a bod The law may be stated, with sufnci practical purpo i follows: Tht vesistanc* or prt 'sure w proportioned sqitart of Ou velocity. We might conclude from teas without experiment, that such would be the case; for if one body is moving through the air four times Easter than another of the same size, not only will it encounter four times as many par- ol air, but it will give each of them four times as great an impulse nr shock, ami thus eiieuuntiT 4x4, or sixteen times as much n This - i tance is greatly increased by another circumstance, especially with great velocities The air in front of the moving bod) becomes accumulated or condensed, and a partial or even entire vacuum is formed behind it. With a velocity of 1700 feet per second, for instance, the re t is found to be about three times as great as the simple law of the square of the velocity would give. By the operation of these lay of resi tarn . a heavj body let fall with a parachute attached to it, comes, afi tame, to move with a velocity approaching mure and more nearly to a uniform motion. A'EROLITKs [Gr. a r, air, u i liOios, Btone), or M I .i OEI( STOK l -. FlR] U 0OTE»l PA] are now classed together as being merely varieties of the same phenomenon. Aerolites (hat tall during the day, are observed to he projected from a small dark i loud, accompanied by a noise like thunder, or the firing of cannon ; at ni ht, i bej proceed from a fireball, which splits into fragments with a similar sound. It is believed that the dark cloud that accompanies the fall of aerolites by day, would be luminous at night; and smoking, exploding fireballs havi aetimi □ luminous even in the brightness of tropic i [he conn a aerolites and fireball is thus established, cannot b . the two phenomena being sometim and also being found to merge into one another, both with re peci to the size of their disk . the emanation the velocities of their motion. Tnei rous records and stones in all ages and countries oi the fall of stones from the sky; but until recent times, they were treated by pkiloso- 66 pliers l of popular credulity and super- iot till the beginning of the ll'th c i h it the i." I i ibli lied bej I a doubt. — According to I, ivy, a shower of si a fell on the Uban Mount, not far from Rome, i I I 654 B.O. The fall of a great sto tami, on 1 be l telle ipont, about ti>7 B.O., is recorded in the Parian iicle (q. v.), ami mentioned by Plutarch and Pliny. It was still shewn in the daj oi Pliny hi. T'.i A.m. who i it as of toe sii a in, and of a burned colour. In the year 1492 A. D., a ponderous st , weighing 260 lbs., fell from the sky near the village in Alsace; part oi it is still i" be seen in lib church. An extraordinary shower of stones fell near I,' in Normandy, on the '-'lith April 1803. The cell brated French philosopher, M. Biot, wa i deputed by government to repair to the spot, and collect the authentic facts; and since the date of his report, the ■ . ,i in \ oi Buch occurrenoi - ha i qo Longer been que ti d. Nearly all the inhabitants oi a In c district had seen the cloud, heard the noises, and observed the stones fall. Within an elliptical area nulls by three, tic number of stones that had fallen could not be less than two or three fchou and; the i i w.re 17 lbs, iii weight. These are only a few out of hundreds of instances on n cord. As was natural with such mysterious mi in. meteoric stones have always been regarded wiiii religious veneration. At Eknesa, in Syria sun was worshipped under the form of a Mack stone, reported to have fallen from heaven. 'I he holy Kaalia of Mecca, and the ureal, stone of the pyramid ol I 1 1 , . 1 1 1 1 .' i . in Mexico, have all the same history. The existence of such bodies once admitted. led i > oi a meteoric character to strange ferru- ginous masses found in different countries, and which li.nl no history, or were only adverted to in tradition. (if this kind is the immense ma en by Pallas in Siberia, now in tin- Imperial Museum at St Petersburg. The largest known is one in Brazil, estimated at 14,000 lbs. One eon. taut characteristic of meteoric ston tie fused black crust, like varnish, with winch the surface is coated. From the circumstance of this being very thin, and separated Erom the inner ily defini d line, it is thought to sunn rapid action of heat, which has not had time to penetrate into the substance of tin- stoic This view is favoured by tic fact thai ai found in a strongly heated, hut. not incandi Btate, when they fall. Their specific gravity ran oto on v n eight times that of wati mposition, tic pred in; ,i is iron, m a, native or metallic 'at., gener- ally combined with a small proportion of nickel. According to Humboldt, the aerolites that fell in the neighbourhood of Agram, in Croatia, in 1751, the Siberian stone, an 1 ii em. ht by that philosopher from Mexico, coni i 96 per cent, of iron; while in those of Sienna the iron scat lis to "J per cent , and. in some rare iustania ^, metallic iron is altogether wanting. A writer in the QuarU rly !!• vu »■, No. CLXXXI1IT, thus sums up the i nli of all the chemical analyses hitherto made: • We find the actual number of recognised elements discovered in aerolites to be nineteen or twenty — that is, about one-third of the whole number of elementary substances (or what we are yet forced to i as such) discovered on the earth. Further, all these aerohtic elements actually exist in the earth, though never similarly combined there. No new substance has hitherto come to us from without; and the most abundant of our terrestrial lie lals, iron, is that which is largely predominant in aerolites, forming frequently, as in some of the instances just AEROLITES. mentioned, upwards of 90 parts in 100 nl tli Seven other metals — copper, tin, nickel, i chrome, manganese, and molybdena en1 into the composition of these stones. Cobalt and nickel are the most invariably present; but the proportion of all is trifling npared with tl iron. Further, there have been found in different aSroliteS, sin alkalies aiel earths namely, soda, pota ii. magnesia, lime, silica, and alumina; and, in addition to these, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and hydrogen. Finally, oxygen must also be named as .' con tituent of many ae*roliti ;. enterj composition "i several of the Bubstances i> tioned. \ ■■ respects the manner of conjunction of tie ie elemi n1 , ri lingly variou i m d tea. A few there are. especially examined by Berzelius i I augite, horn- blende, and other earthy minerals; and closely n ' mbl a i i i ■ ifline compounds which we find on ili' of 1 be earth.' lose solid masses of considerabl of dust that suchdu i has generally been lund I i c in mull hard i D the sky are ranked by Humboldt among the mythical fab mi t •ology. It h .posed that such may have originated in the very rapid growth of gelatinous al toe (q. v.). Shower of Shooting-stars witnessed in North America. Fireballs and Shoohng-stars. From the I and apparent diameter, the actual chain iter i in i t fireballs is estimated by Humboldi to \ ■••. front BOO to -sou feet; others allowadia ter of about a mile. Shooting-stars are though! to diameters varying from St) to l'.M feet. In most cases "f Illinium; i of light many miles iii length is left behind. < hie or two instance are on record where the train qf th i ball con- tinued shining for an hour after the body disap- peared > tin are I to range from 15 to 150 miles, a1 the poL 1 1"'. I in and cease to be \ isible. Their u vary from IS to .'111 miles in a : eond. When it is I ih i the velocity of Mercury in it is 26"4 lnil.s iii a second, of Venus 19'2 Earth Hi t, we have in this fart a Btrong confirmation of tie- planetary nature of me1 (hie of tie' most remarkable facts conned d with shooting-stars is, that certain appearani are j>< nodic < in most occasion i tn that is, tiny appear singly, and traverse tie' sky in all directions. At other times, they appear in swarms of thousands, moving parallel; and these ', arm i are pet iodic, or recur on the same .1 1 the j ear. Attention wa ' t dir cted to thit mi occasion of the prodigious .-warm which app In t ween the 12th and 13th of November l^.'i.'i. described by Professor Olmsted of Newhaven. 6 11 on this > like flakes of snow, ,.. the number, as was estimated, of -J40.000 in i ' hour-, and van borescent line to globes i important observal ion mad i they all appeared to proceed from the same tjnai . leavens the Nation Leo; and alt] igh c had changed greatly its bei hi ami azimuth due me that the phnioiii lie from the Bame point [( wasafl rwai ts computed by Encke, ■ at was the very direction in which the earth was moving in her orbit at the time, atten- tion being d ' • it" i ■"' ■"■ I'd appearan same kind, it was observed w ith surprise that t tired on th illy that seen by Humboldt at i 'uiuaiia j n IT'. 1 '.', and by other over a 47 AER0NADT1CS— AEROSTATIC l'KESS. great extent of the earth. The November stream was a i '1 in the a 1834, between tin- 13th ami 14th, though leas tnt Thou we, and in Borne yean altogether alis. nt. this phenomenon lias recurred with Buch in America and Europe, liah its peril oter. Another periodic awi i derable regularity i he 9th and tin' llth of d noticed in ancient legends as the 'fiery .ii st Lawrence, n boss festival is on the loth at month. There are other perio ; and Humboldt gives the to >, of remark: *-"-M to 25th of April; ITU. of July; 10th of August; 12th to llth of November; 27th to 29th of November; 6th to 12th of December. It remains to notice briefly the various opinions that have been advanced as to the origin of aerolites, and the theory of meteors i thesi that have been Eo d in answer to the question — Wnenc i is solid mat upon the earth ? are of two kinds; Borne ascribing to them a telluric origin, and others making them alien to the earth, t If the first kind, is the conjecture that they may be Btones ejected from terrestrial volcanoes, revolving for a time along with the earth, and at last returning to it. Another theory, which at one time found considerable favour, supposed that the matter of which aerolites are composed existed in the atmosphere in the form of vapour, and was by some unknown cause Buddenrj ted and pre- cipitated to the earth. These conjectures are un- tenable in G of the phenomena Btated above, and are now tpletely given up. In seeking a Bource beyond the earth, the □ d itself. Olbers v. as the first to IT'.io, the initial velocity necessary to i'i masses projected from the n i. This ' ballistic problem,' as Humboldt calls it, occu- pied during ten or twelve years the geometricians Laplace, Biot, Brandes, and Poisson. It. was calcu- lated that, setting aside tin- resistance of air, an initial velocity of about 8000 feet in a second, which is about five or six times that of a cannon-ball, would suffice to bring too stones to the earth with a velo- city of 35,000 feet But Olbers lias shewn, that to neooiiut for the actual measured velocity of meteoric stones, the original velocity of projection must be fourteen times greater than the above. It is a this lunar theory, that we have no proof of active volcanoes UO\\ existing in the moon; and with the improvement of the telescope, the probability of the contrary is increasing. It is, accordingly, giving place to tie- planetary theory, which we noticed at the outset — a theory which harmonises better with ndency of physical research and of speculation generally. Tii' discussion of hypotheses as to the genesis of then gnised planets out of portions of the gradu- ally contracting vaporous mass of the sun ; the con- i discovery of hitherto unobserved planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter ; the adtitudes of cornets th rved travera- our system in all directions, and und appreciable alteration both ol all prepare us for the idea, that matter may exist in the inter-plan- I , in every variety of form i iccount for the pie n n.'i ol irs a above described, we must Buppose that are both detached masses, each revolt an independent orbit, and givin VOradic ors ; and also connected systems, forming rings ound the sun. The intersection o earth's orbit by such zones or .streams, wotdd account for the periodic swarms of meteors; and if we the asteroids eompi»in_' ii nl.irly .in why tin bream should not be always of equal intensity. I 111 P eM u be periodicity in this respect too. Between 1799 and 1833- the two most brilliant manifestations of the November stream on record th ,'il year..; and Olbers has predicted that the Will be in lsr.7, Web to enter upon such qui a : \\ hat CaUSei the luminous and ignited com: of aerolite.,? The height at which many meteors . n. pe, i he ■" ■ mo) I he at m ignition ont of tl n, ami the terrestrial . Ban As to those meteors that are unattended b that they are merely deflected from their path by the proximity of the earth, are rendered luminoi a a. short arc, an l continue their it we are not to assume, that wlure no precipitation of matter is \ e takes place ; it in dissipated in powder. See Meteors in AERONAU'TICS, the art of navigating tl See Balloon. AEROSTA'TICS. This branch of science I of the equilibrium ami pressure ol air and other ami of the methods of measuring it by the barometer and other instruments. The expansive ton e oi pri - sure of atmospheric air varies with time and place. In a medium tdition of the atmosphere, and near the sea-level, barometrical obeen ,, are or weight equal to thai ol a coin oil inchi high, or of a column of water about ,'il feet high. Tins makes die mean pi of the atni" ily 15 lbs. on every Bquare inch. Tins mean pressure of the atmosphere is the unit or measure oi or elastic forces generally; any particular pi is said to be equal to bo many atmospheres. Aero- also investigates the phenomena of the compression of gases; in other wands, the ■ bill n the elasticity and the density or v of a gas. According to the law of Mariotte, tin expansive force of and the same body of proportional to its density; or, which i thing, the expansive force of a body of gas under different degrees of compression, varies inversely as e which it occupies. If its elastic force, at one stage, be measured by oil lbs., when eompn ed into half the space, that force will be lull His. ( 'mi. I with this is the investigation of tie- variation of density and pressure in the e ■■< ral vi rtical strata of tin- atmosphere. It is obvious that the weight of the atmosphere must diminish as we ascend, as part of it is left below; and it results from Mariotte's law, that, at different distances from the earth's surface, increasing in arithmetical progression, the atmospheric pressure diminishes in geometrical progression. This principle furnishes the means of mi ,1-iu in | hi i his by the Barometer (q. v.). The clastic force of air and other gases is very much increased by heat; and consequently, when allowed, they expand. It is found that a rise of temperature of 1° of Fahrenheit, causes any gas to expand -jJ-^ of its own bulk ; and this expansion is uniform. If adding 10° to the temperature of a body of gas increases its bulk .'! cubic inch- addition of 20° will give an increase of inches ; of 50°, 1") inches, and so on. Tins law was discovered by I lay-Lussac, and has been verified by subse- ,'ators. Both it, however, and that of Mariotte, can be looked upon as only nearly true, and that within certain limits. AEROSTATIC PRESS. This is a macliine used for extracting the colouring-matter from dye-woods .ESCHINES— /ESOP. and such like A divided bya horizontal Upon this the substance containing 1 1 1 * - colour is laid, and a also perforated, is placed upon it The extracting liquid ia then poured on the top, and the air being drawn from the under ]>art of the vessel by a pump, the liquid is forced through the substance by the pressure of the atmosphere. JE'SCHINES, an Athenian orator, second only to Demosthenes, whose contemporary and rival he was. Philip in Macedon was then pursuing hie designs for ibjugation of the several Greek states to his own sway; and while Demosthenes advocated the policy of opposing him before it was too late, the peace-parly. -E. was re than one embassy sent by the Athenians to deal with Philip; and Demosthenes ivin_' bribes from the Macedonian nd of betraying the cause of Ath i DO proof that this v, ami perhaps .E. was deceived by the wily ing that he meant no harm to the liberties of Athens, and that peace was the best policy for his countrymen. The result justified the OUS fears of Demosthenes, and condemned the ■ ting policy of .E. When it was proposed to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown, for his patriotic exertions in defence of his country, -E. ition of illegality against the pro- < 'tcsiphon. Demosthenes replied, and .Esdiim s vanquished, and having thus incurred the . to an unfounded accusation, was obliged iom Athens. He finally established in Rhodes, which enji On one occasion, he read t<> his I Rhodes his oration a. siphon; and sonic of them expressing their astonishment that he should i nd in spite of such a he replied : ' STou would o be astonish' id heard l> The oration against Ctesiphon and two others are the only authentic productions of -E. that have come down to us. He was bom 389 B.C., and died at Samos 314 B.c. -E'SCHYLTJS, the father of Greek tn was born at Eleusis, in Attica. 525 B. C. We have but scanty notices of his life. He fought in the battles of Marathon, Salamis, and I'lataa. witnessed tie- fall of Darius and Xerxes, and shared in the ing sentimeuts which afterwards pervaded liberated Greece, Of the seventy or ninety tn ascribed to .E., only seven have been preserved — PromdSum Sound, tie -. the . the Choiphory and the Suppliants. These are sufficient to prove that .E. was the creator of the Greek drama in its r form. He introduced action in place of the perpetual chorus, and dramatic dialogue to supersede thelong narrations of his predecessors Thespis and rilus. Scenic effects, masks, and dresses, were other improvements introduced in the plays of . K. I he plots of Ins pieces are very simple, an. I display no ingenuity of construction or solution, I lis general tone is elevated anil earnest, and slews a pre le emotions. Destiny is repn in its sternest aspect; gigantic heroes. Titans, and rather than men, appear on the scene, ami the lofty grandiloquence of the language is in accordance with we characters. In the choruses, the language is often turgid ami obscure, Tor some reason, not well known, .E. left his native city, and went to Sicily, wh h.- was hi Drably received by King lliero. Here he died at Qela, 456 a. a, ami the inhabitants of the city raised a monument to Ins memory. In the poetical translation by BUckie, a very tolerable randeur and fire of this greatest of all ancient dramatists. -iESCULA'PIUS appears in Homer as an i lent physician, of human origin ; in the later Is, he becomes the god of the healing art. The accounts given of his . .rious. According to one story, he was the son of C'oronig and the Arcadian Isclr. by the infidelity "f I moriis, caused her to lie put to death by Diana, but spared the boy, who was afterwards educated by Chiron. In the hauling art, .E. soon surpassed his teacher, and succeeded so far as to the dead to life. This offended Pluto, who to fear that his realm would not be Buffic peopled; he therefore complained to Jove of the innovation, and Jove slew A'., by a flash of lightning. Alter this he was raised to the rank of the yods by ratitude of mankind, and was especially wor- shipped at Epidaurus, on the coast of I.aconica, where a temple and grove were consecrated to him. Here oriental elements, especially serpent-worship, seem to have been mingled with the rites ami monies. From Epidaurus the worship of the healing nod extended itself over the whole ol I to Rome. According to Homer, .E. left two sons, Machaon and Podalirios, who, as physicians, attended the Greek army. From them the race of the Asclepiades descended. Hygieia, Panaceia, and .H_lo are represented as his daughters. His temples usually stood without the cities in health j on hillsides, and near fountains. Patients that were cured of their ailments, offered a cock or a goat god, and hung up a tablet in his tempi e. recording the name, the disease, and the mam cure. Many of those votive tablets are still extant The statue of the god at Epidaurus, formed of gold and ivory by Thrasymedes, represented .E. as I on a throne, and holding in one hand a staff with a snake coiled round it, the other hand resting on the head of a snake ; a < at the foot of the deity. Praxiteles and ol her sculp- presented the god as an ideal of manly beauty, and closely res cabling Jupiter; with hair thrown up from the brow, and falling in curls on each The upper part of the body was naked, and the lower was covered l>y a mantle falling in folds from the shoulders. He had sone on his head, and a cock or owl at his feet ; or was attended by a dwarf-figure named Tclesphorus. — Asclepiades, the followers of .E., who inherited and kept the secrets of the healim: art ; or, a -siuning that ^E. was merely a divine symbol, the Ascli | must be regarded as a medical, priestly caste who preserved as mysteries the doctrines of medicine. The members of the caste, or medical order, were bound by an oath — the Hipp du m not to divulge the secrets of their profession. In Rome, 282 & <•.. when a fatal pestilence prevailed, the Sibylline books commanded that .-Escidapius must be brought from Epidaurus. Accordingly, an embassy was sent to this place, and. when they had made their request, a snake crept out of the temple into their ship. Regarding this as the god .11. they to Italy, and. as they entered the Tiber, the snake sprang out upon an island, where, afterwards, a temple was erect, d to .E. and a company of priests appointed to take charge of the service and practise the art of medicine. Hippocrates is said to have descended from the Asclepiades of Cos, who I their descent, on the mother's side, from Hercules. .ESOP, an and . writer, whose name is attached to t he most popular of the existing collections of Fables, His history is very uncertain, and some critics have even denied his i lint Ml these is Luther, in his preface to the Oinnan .t'eoj; .ESTHETICS. i 130. We are told, however, on the authority of Herodotus (ii 134), Diog. Laeitius (L 72), ai torch [Sept Sap. I '■ that . Esop lived in thi latb r hall i B.c. ; that he was a slave at Samoa j that, on rei he vi ii dl Iro as and P by the I'm he was c ini~^i."in-:s'i'ii E Tics, a term invented about the middle of last centurj bj Bi n, a professor of philos- iii the university of Frankforl on the-Oder, to denote the science i le uitiful, pai ticul Art, as th" mosl perfed mar tation o the B t'ul. It has the merit of being a unprehen ive and clear, and has tin n tty widely adopted, of late years, by critics both in Prance and England. Tim Beautiful (Gr. tokalon) was a faM.iintsul.jrri of conti in]. lata. n amongst the and ni ■. Th of Plato is inseparably associated with it. but in bis philoaophisings, he nowhere separated the Beautiful from ii." G I. Aristotle, again, from the immense tance which he p i ( « itb objects of art, deduced the most admirable laws and rules (Canons i i riticism), so that his Poe£u», , according to Schiller, constitute a true Khadamanthme tribunal for] ts. I'.ut ii,.- results he arrived at are regarded by the a priori school of sestheticians as i than science. Baumgarten they hold to 1." th who considered the subject from the true tific point of view, and therefore entitled to be called the Eoundei of the philosophy of art. All sensuous apprehension, not in one form or mam- El iti: ni only, but in every possible form or mani- festation, was included in his view of the subject, ami this conception he expressed by the word .^Esthetics, from the Greek aittfumomai, I feel, 60 indicating ii"t absolute or objective knowledge of bul ach I.iiinn .1 Bubjectivelj bj the play of our Ben ibilitii , The term is thus not i ... l; tutiful ■ on h a point of fact we emploj it in tins imii. Beauty was, with Baumgarten, the n nil oi , i hi hi i and pun I asstb itdc perception, I realisation of which the finer portion of our nature ; and to trace which through the whole philosophy [Sinni ■ '■■ " '"■' J il il "lit til! on ■ d power of the Jud i . i'i- I ver I bin | he red maj be da .. Sea lj , wi U as ah olutely, in refer- as well as in reference to nature. ni harmony with our as well as in harmony with the totality of material phenomena; m- it may no1 be in harmony with the former, and yettruly arn.nl with the latter. So, too, with the judgment It maj choose to apprehend I in their adaptation to man, or in v. hat is called the teleological point of view that is, their final end or obji ctivi ad kptal iontoi u b oth r. Hi aci these thet- tgmentconsii i titiful, agreeable, .1 i si .al ; while th" t. leological judgmi al " i. b their absolute design, and remains mdifferent to personal predilections. Why certain objects excite in us a purely selfish interest, and others a purelj unselfish pleasure, Kant does not venture to determine, for he ni vi r ini i qualitj of the Beautiful, but confines himself strictly inflvi "" ■ upon the feelings and desires. Schelling was the first to undertake this in after Schiller had paved the way for him ii treatise on .1-Mh. I Chelatb r, p i hap- the 10 lucid and intelligible of German a ithetacians, in a i la i twentieth letter on .I'.-iln tu- ( lulture, explains his conception of the new scii ni e as fo All things that can ever 1 bjecis of per© ption d under four different relationships. A fa. a "...I !■ ; ."" din itlytoour Bensuous condition [qu i ; or to the undi i ;l , quality ; or to the will that is its moral quality; or to the entirety of our different powers, rather than to anj particular mani- ,. [i ese thai i i its esthetic quality. There i - a culture for the health, for the understand- and for ta t oi b uty ; the last . . ... ii ha ■ for ii - '■' pul 1 1 f our I. a"" and piritual powers in thi ir greatest possibli . Schiller's idea of the Beautiful is arily as comprehensive a hi ptionofthe of .i:-t!i"t:' . He will not admit that it is i oited experience, taught us , the operation of phe nena, animate and inanimate, on our senses, bul of pure abstraci reflec- tion. It is. therefore, a transcendental idea. It i pel . U i of matter ami spirit. tfollo i: ' Beauty can be exclusively i ,ih er mere life, as Borne ingenious observers have Mill, nor mere form, as has been decided by ..i speculative philo .phen and philosophising (for instance, Burke and Raphael Mengs). i ... Schelling's transcendental specula- which are couched in a style not very-intelli- gible to the English mind, we come to the theory of ii. . i, I..L. thai of Si hellm .. H : o proce d o-called metaphysics of tie Beautiful ft is the absolute ideal realising itself. Nothing is truly beauti- cept this. Nothing, therefore, which exists can .1. .I such. Out ol tin phe f the pure n :i on we have only an eternal aspiration. Iu the linite the absolute ideal is always striving to realise itself, but never completely succeeds. There is only a c.aseless approximation. Hegel then traces the /K-riir/ni < growth and develo] mt of the Beautiful, th form of whose existence is n Be raty unfolded in b Bni this Beauty, whether of nature* accidi atal, fugitive, and mixture with the ii' ■ ■ or limitation Erom ii '" '"" 'I'll'' Beaul if ul is, so to a its infani her that it is or what it is. It first ]'■ in the 'lawn of human mtelligi nee, and its i - proportion to i ure ol the r the ind ition of it is Art j for fl- it is '■ pea according to as idea. The looks on 1 dea — everj < nature being stripped o ■ matter, is thus a deliverance from d and the particular Art maj cons quently be pded as the gradual working of the mind out ol in ' ■ tecture, Sculpture, Painting are silent, heavy, still partly rial Music is an advance on these. It breathes in a ; . ton. The material m Sound bee all hut ideal Poetry is a furthi i ad . race, i the pathway of the intellect to pure th i' of view, is a sc ' i knowled I the historic development of the Beautiful It wanders throvi of « bioh Art is only a provim : ien, the richest ana most valu Such was the aspect in which Hegel regarded the i it int- > his b di i:ii metaphysic, and so stirred up regarding it the old quarrel which had agitated the latter. Realists made their appearance, who vigorously assailed the principh nf Kiclito, S ml liogcl, in their various applications to Philosophy, Theology, and l' thi tics. The reaction was and is most conspicuous in the second of these, but has as certainly man itself in the others also. It is denied t bat the [di al conceived bj minis superior to the Real, as it is in It is man who lowers it by his inadequate apprehension of its harmony and perfection. The 1 hi f : I does not strn \ I it bine or rex to i i'li the beauty of nature, but to m in it. The whole historic theory of Hegel is like- rejected, after severe and searching cril from :i ' nt of view. I lege! conceives the first effort of art to have arisen from a lonj the pari ol the human spit This is the ideal U on tl ther hand, affirms that it ari ■ I ch man is mi'l' r to bind his thoughts to one firm spot, and rial a form « bich ' i is thus ospecth e. This maj be 'listio view " b ning. So the presei In Prance, the rounder of the Eclectic School of i nil "i'h> . Victor ( Ion ounded the Platonic view of .11. In the si Ins treati e Da I ! du Bu n (( >n the True, the Beautiful, and the < rood), he b i a chapter on 'the Beautiful in 01 which, after discussing the pi of the mate- rialists and i -lit what he conceives to be t ml limitat on theorii I -Is to a consideration of ph; intellectual, and i to dis- cover the quality or qualities in which thej from this rises to the apprehension of an Heal beauty whose realisation he finds in Qod, 'God,' says Cousin, 'in whom is combined absolute unity 'finite variety, is necessarily the realised ideal uty.' abject in Britain havi moetlj lina autiful in form and colour. ought, like the ' i the Beautiful, but the Beautiful Our criticism may. and indeed does seem • and imphilosophical to them, but it is at least ml its purpose obvious. We have put to our- re, or are there not, in certain bich make them what we call Beautiful? I arise nything inhen at in th pend upon ;i com- "1 niiiul .■ rl i iation? Is it objective Tim first [ml. lien;, mi "ii this subject of any con- ice if we except Lord , in which there is set forth a 'rapturous Platonic doctrine' impo cause imnii'M as Dr Huteheson's Inquiri 1725). In this worl tence of an - through which we cither obtain a perception of the Beautiful or are made in some waj ■ mscious of its presence, was maintained. The notion of a sense has 1 u very severely criticised by Jeffrey in his celebrated article on Beauty. Certain explanations and mollifications of this theory were made by the followers of Hnt< : but; nothing really new was brought out till Edmund Burke published his T ■• and There is no work upon the subject so popular or so worthless. Every one has heard or it, large numbers have read it yet the fundamental principli He confounds the beautiful with the luxurious. 'All appear beautiful which have the pov producing a peculiar relaxation of our nerves and fibres, and thus inducing a certain degree of I languor ami sinking !' sir Joshua Reynolds, a contemporary of Burke, maintained a very remarkable tl \ of tl which he borrowed from the celebrafc 'l Pere Burner, and illustrated at great length. Beauty wai "nan between two i This doctrine is open to the fatal objection that the most ordinary is therefore thi autiful, and that, consequently, the greatest poem or the finest land- si ape i, at which is the most commonplace. N'ev. rtheless, Sir Joel to push leoryto extremities, declaring that if wl term the deformed or monstrous were only more common than what we call the beau would exchange names and sensations — a statement which may safely be left to refute r The next work on this subject that excited any measure of popular attention - //, -Ye'/,-, and Principles of 7 The theory propounded by this wr I rally known as the theory of Association. Thi iwerful exposition of the Association theory is that given by Jeffrey, in his famous article hi | Britanniea, and in his critique on Alison in the ■ (181 1). A i Ji Efrey : 'These emotions (that is, tln.se excited ] i "lit' niplation of certain oh i i r.ginal emotions, nor produced directly by ai in the objects which excite them ; but are reflec- of the more radical and familiar emotions to which we have already alluded, and occasioned not by any inherent virtue in the objects before us, but by the accidents, if we may BO express ourselves, by which these may have been enabled to BUggest or recall to us our own past sensations or sympathies.' In his defence of this theory, Jeffrey is obliged to consider those of 61 I VATIOX-.F.TOLIA. le Knight, the fanner of which is partly, and the latter entirely, op] own. Ho long as he confines his argument to association in connection with landscapes, it seems \t i y conclusive; but when he coiner to CO Knight's doctrine as to the intrinsic beauty of colours, it ceases to be satisfactory. This writer maintains that colours possess a primitive and original beauty, which may be enriched by asso- ciation, but which does not depend upon it. Jeffrey • this, and attempts to prove that our ; tion of the beauty of colour, instead mere organic sensation,' arises from association aloni the same way, he refuses to believe that there is any independent or intrinsic beauty in form; and that architecture owes its beauty not essential harmony of its proportions, but to a of curious considerations on our part. He con of this beauty, with special refer- ence t<> Greet architecture, 'perfectly satisfactory.' It arises, 1st, from the association of utility ; 2d, of l.ill of the architect; 4th, of magnificence; 5th, of antiquity; Gth, of Grecian uess! To this it may be replied, that such ease, but do l . our percep- tion of the beauty of Greek architecture. The theory of Association in this its primitive lannot be said to be held now by any who think on the subject. It is felt to be more plausible and ingenious than sound or adequate. Raskin, Professor Blackie, and others, have nearly destroyed ipularity. Profesf iys on ., which are remarkable for the brisk and biting humour with which they assail the Asso- ciation theory, as well as for the passages of tine nee which they contain, make a vigorous effort to indoctrin - con brain with the ideal speculations of Plato. Professor Blackie is a Platonist in theory, but the elaboration of that theory is entirely modern and original. 'F [ement, oi power, or in one proportion, but i proportions ;' the principal of these are r, congruity (or harmony), actuality, perfec- tion (in the Platonic sense — viz., the fidl result of a creative energy), expressiveness, smoothness, deli- and curvature. With reference to this last Efl [mints to the fact that nature everywhere avoids angular lines, especially in the human figure, and most of all in th which has era been considered the highest symbol of the beautiful. In the second volume of his a on Metaphysics, the late Sir William HamUton (Lecture 46th) distinguishes Beauty into Absolute and Relative. "In the former case,' lys, 'it is not necessary to have a notion of what the object ought to be before we pronounce it beautiful nr not; in the latter case, such a previous notion is required. Flowers, shells, ara- besques, &c., are freely or absolutely beautiful. We judge, for exam] 'le, a Bower to be beautiful, I unaware of its di pparatus of organs all admirably adapted ion of the plant. When we are made cognizant of this, an addi- tional gratification, but one wholly ,1 . Inch we experience in the contemplation of the Bower itself apart from all consideration of its adaptations.' Sir William thus states his theory of r Absolute Beauty : ' In the case of beauty — -both the imagination and the under- standing find occupation ; and the pleasure we experience from such an object is in proportion as it affords to these faculties the opportunity of exerting fully and freely their respective energies. Now, it is the principal function of the understanding, otrf oftlte 62 irious presented to ii, to form a I entire activity i<. in fact, v towards unity; and it is only satisfied when this object is so constituted as to afford the opportunity of an easy and p performance of this its function. In t!. object is judged beautiful or pleasing.' Sir William conclude I by defining the beautiful to be that • whose form occupies the imagination and the understanding in a free, full, and consequently au ble activity.' There would seem, on the whole, to be a I ency at present towards an amalgamation of what have hitherto been considered irreconcilable trines — towards the behef that there is an easi >n the harmony of forms and in the com- bination of colours, and that the keen delight which we experience in beholding them is incapable of being explained by any number of associations; wliile it IS admitted, on the other hand, that many things are made beautiful by association, that all t' have their beauty enriched by it, and that some things even have their intrinsic beauty called forth by it operating in the form of, .FSTIVA'TIOX, in Botany (from the Latin as- tivus, belonging to summer), a term employed to denote the manner in which the parts of the Bower are disposed in the flower-bud prior to its opening. Sometimes the JE. is valval*' o r, when the parts of the same verticil exactly meet together by their edges, like valves. But if the edges are turned in, the M. is indupUcate; if they are turned out, it llplicate. In many flowers, the .1'.. is contorted or twisted; sometimes it is spirally A. In pentamerous flowers, it is very generally 7 two of the parts being external, two internal, and one intermediate. In Papilionaceous Flowers (q. v.), the other parts of the corolla Uy included in the standard or vexillum, and this is sometimes called vexiUary .1'.. In poppies, the petals are generally crumpled together before flowering. jE. of the calyx is frequently of a different kind from that of the corolla. Thus, in Gere the calyx is imbricated, that of the corolla twisted. The manner in which the stamens and pistils are disposed in the bud is not so much taken into account in the characters of orders and genera, but is sometimes also noticed ; thus, it is a character of Rosacea that the stamens are curved inwards in .F. JETO'liTA, a district of ancient Greece, lying on the north coast of the Gidf of < 'orinth. The ancient JB. was divided from Acamani ended as far as the: river Fuenos. On tl it was bounded by Locris and Dons; on the X., and Fpinis; on the W., by Aearnania; the S., by the Bay of Corinth. In later times, 1 to the X. and E. The country had few cities, was generally wild and barren, and. according to Bel Aristotle, was infested by lions on the banks 1 id in other places. Here, accord 1 boar ilians make a great figure in the heroic age of Greece; but at IVlo- ponnesian war, they were nnl reus. The rst called into existence by the l.amian war (323 B.C.), became more important time of the Acha:-an League (q. v.). The assembled annually in autumn at Therm um. This assemblage was styled the / At first, they called in the aid of the Romans against the Achiean League ; but as they saw that the Komans had designs against the pendence of .E., they next allied themselves with Antiochus of Syria, afterwards with Perseus of AFFIDAVIT— AFFRE. In ISO B.O., they wei i compelled to , runl were subjugated by the Romans.— .1'. now forms a governmental department, or noma, of the modern kingdom of . The moi Viena— form a wild offset of the Pindus chain, and steeply on the 8.W. down to the tint ml . partly covered with morasses and partly cultivated. 8. of the lakes Apokuro (anciently, Trichoma) and Zyu">s (Hyria) rise a range of moun- tains — the Aracynthxu mountain of the ancients — ■which fall on the 8.W. to a broad coasl occupied by morasses and lagoons; but on the s.i:. ramon- tory of Antirrhion reaches to within 24(H) yards of the opposite cape Rhion, thus fanning tin- Strait a). The chief rivers of (Achelous), in the \\'., and the Fi in the E. The people in the mployed fa agriculture and fishing; while m the mountain-.] cesoftheruc ill be found. in i" towns are Missolonghi and Lepanto (q.v.). AITIDA'VIT, an oath in writing, or a written ration made before a magistrate, or other person i to administer an oath, the truth of which is confirmed either by an oath sworn, or a solemn atlirmation emitted in terms of 18 Vict. c. L'."i, and the other statutes referred to under Affir- mation. Where evidence is required in England to •1 before a court or a judge, it is usually ed to the form of an A., in place of being delivered orally, as in jury trial. An A. ought to bfi the matter of fact only, and not to declare : . of which the court is to 21 i Sar. 1. B. EL). The name and designation party making the A. are written at length, and he signs it at the foot. Win n tie- paper is shewn to hnn, he is required to swear or affirm that its contents are true, and that the name and hand- writing are his. Affidavits in the Sigh Court of i ressed in the first person of the deponent, 'IT. Jurat, with which the A. clo i tl Hie. r before whom, the place where, and the time when it . and this is by the officer or n When an A. is sworn in open court, that cireumst. mentioned, and > , < named. In Scotland, voluntary affidavits are not generally received as evidi nee, because they are ,./• parte statement-;, no opportunity being afforded for cross-examix To this rule, how ons. Claim- ants are required by the Bankrupt statute to lodge their claims with A. or oaths of verity; and ■re other similar statutory provisions. An A. is sometimes required also at common law, as in applications for warrants By ii Will. I V. c. 62, various unnecessary oaths and affirmations wire abolished, and dcclar substituted in hi ii id voluntary and judicial oaths and affidavits were suppressed. The oath of allegiance, and all oaths in were . mptedfrom of the statute; and by (! and 7 Vict. c. 43, thi was extended to ratifications by married v. The Lord Chancellor of England is empowered by I 7 Vict. c. 82, to u'raut commissions for taking affidavits, affirmations, and declarations in Scotland. AIITXITY , the relationship 1 by man reen the husband and the bl 1-rclations of the wife, and between the wife and I uiil-lelatious of the husband. The relations of the wife stand to the husband in the s nne degree of A. in which they stand to the wife by blood or consanguinity, and r But between the relations of the two parties by A. there is no A Thus, there is no A between the husband's brother and the wife's sister ; and by our law, there is no impedi- ment to their marriage. The question as to whether those who are related 1 •>• A. stand in all respects in the same position as regards marriage with those connected by blood, is one on which much difE of opinion at present prevails. Marriage between ■ man and the sister of his deceased wife is at present forbidden by statute (5 and f> Will. IV. c. 64) ; but an attempt is annually made in parliament to obtain its repeat Bee Mabbiaox. AFFINITY. Chemical A, or chemical attrac- tion, is the force which produces all chemical pheno- mena. It differs from the attraction of gravita- tion in acting, not between masses, but b. I atoms, and only when the atoms are at insensible distances. It differs also from cohesion, which unites the particles of the same substance, while A unites atoms of different substances. The compounds thus formed are new bodies, often bearing no lance in appearance or other properties to the elements which combine to produce them. Thus, water results from the combination of two gases. The strength of chemical A. is different between different substances. Sulphuric acid combines with lime, and forms gypsum ; but if potash is added, the sulphuric acid leaves the lime, and combines with the potash. As a sort of choice is here manifested, it is called a case of elective A These elective affinities, however, are often altered by a change of temperature, or other accompanying circumstance. AFFIRMA'TIOX, a solemn declaration, which, in the case of members of certain religious ■ is admitted in lieu of an oath. By ■'■ and 1 Will IV. c. 49, 3 and 4 Will. IV. e. 82, "and 1 and -J Vict, c 77, it is provided that Quakers, Moravians, and Separatists (q. v.) who, from conscientious scruples, to take an oath in courts of justice, may, both in civil and criminal cases, make a solemn A., according to a prescribed formula, I ikers and Moravians the formula is: 'I do solemnly, [y, and truly declare and affirm.' In the case of Separatists, this A. further bears to be 1 'in the presence of Almi penalties of perjury are imposed on those who shall be proved to have affirmed falsely. A later statute (IS Vict. c. 25) has extended the pri\ of substituting an A. for an oath to all persons who refuse to be sworn from conscientious motives ■I (hat (he motives are eoiudentiout. See Oath. AFFRE, Denis who fell in the insurrection of Jul At the time of the Restoration, he was pro! of theology at the semiuary of ; and on account of his prudent and temperate character, was made Archbishop of Paris by the government of Louis Philippe in 1840. Though not yield- ing a blind submission to all the measu] '.-eminent, he abstained from all oil n Louis Philippe became an exile, and a republic was proclaimed, the archbishop kept aloof from political strife, but displayed earnest care for the public welfare. During the insurrection in Paris, lslS, he climbed upon a barricade in the Place >lo Bastille, carrying a in his hand, as a messenger of ■ and wished to persuade the insurgents to lay down their amis. He had scarcely uttered a few words, wlnii the insure. nts and the troops com- menced tiring again, and he fell, mortally wounded by a musket ball, coming apparently from a window Be was carried by the insurgents into the AFGHANISTAN. i.i I .1, oved to ! i lie died, J i 27, 1848. B it hor "i several tl : >l of a work I i hieroglyph AFGB \.\ 1ST \ N, the land of the Afghans, for- merly known by the names of Drangiana and in lit. from 28 to 36 LN from 62 to 7." I'. 1 1 soul b . irlj 150 miles; its bri adth, 470, with mi of 212 000 square miles. Afghan is a Pi : the inhabitants style themselves Pti [plural of Puthtu). Their count] ded on the X. by Turkistan; on the Ii. by Peshawur and Sinde; on the S., by Bel diistan; and on the W., by the Persian highlands of EChorassan. It has I. en calculated to i mtain from five to six millions i.i inhabitants. In the N.E., the alpine region of the Hindu fCush,awild mountain isthmus cleft by numerous ravines, and towering up el me of perp itual ice, unit thi hi ■ [and in Bastern, w ith those in . and presents formidable obsi i ad .... to c tion be! ween the territory of the Indus. In the E.. the parallel cl ains ... i e Soliman M ..mtain.?, together with those of ECalabagh and 1\ V, abruptly dii ide the count of the Pui plains of : Indus. There are only two ] ' the higl lands ol formed byt ol strong p.. :. at Jelalabad wiir, not far from the Khyber Pass; whil tin- south, I'l. I'.. .Km P of i •inmu- nication with Sinde. The mounl rinth of Paropam the G reeks called i 1 1 * - rai Hazareh and ba a been Little e - plorei I i in its eastern parts or in the ; ing out towards Persia, although the historical important f this re The elevated terraces of (.'abul ami (!hi/.ncc slope gently down towards the south-west. I outline of the country is snllici.-ul to shew 1 1 1 : n A. holds a very important position I" twe< n Bast and West Asia, and may be regarded bj fndia a datural fortification against all inroads from the we :. Though the dim ; ter, j . t the differenc ol eleva and unequal distribution of water render it var 9. The dat i-palm ornaments thi oasi in the i ind] de ■ a I to the south-west, and in the deep sheltered valleys of the east, the cultivation ol cotton and succeeds; but the high I I bul and G-hiznee (8 9000 feet aboi i the li vel ol the sea) are exposed to a severe winter, with heavy falls of snow, still, the average temperature of this tabli -land i about I . and the hi at ol I be summer ripens the I i The < ine flourishes here in company with apricots, apples, pears, plums, cherries, and fields of Europ an i :i. Tulips, aromatic herbs, rhubarb, tobao da are vi U grown ; and in the well-watered valleys, pomegranates and oranges, with a profu ion i display the luxury and splendour of an Indian clime. The mulberry-tree flourishes in the cool valli ys. In particular, vast plantations of it are grown in the valleys of the Hindu Cush, where the fruit i xhibits iiian\ \ arii Ld< and when dried and ground intoflour is largely used for food by the inhabitants. The animal life found in the country corresponds in van.-ty with the climate and vegetation. In the colder mountain. his regions, we find the bear, the wolf, and tin- ii ix ; in the tropical valleys, the Hon. ti_'.r, leopard, jackal, and hyena; while fertile pastures support Bheep, goats, horses, and horned - Horses, mules, and asses are numerous, and the camel is used in the table-lands. A. is rich in lis; iron and copper especially, are abundant. liner is of such [lent quality that, if i.i li.it it would rival r i Juable Guropean iron; while tin. Latl to yield in a places nearly 80 per cent, of tl:.- metal Lead, pluml lllphur, salt, and alum, are also . Lined. The four principal plao I labul, e, Candahar, and Hei q. v.) ha i e import- . i'u t be hi h ... ;:\ . . India to Central and Western Asia. Cabul and Jelalabad guard the passage to India on the V. as iron the s. ; while in the extreme \\\, : the border near Pel The variety which nature has given to the co - found in the pi ople ; but all are united by Dt. Love of independence and equality n .t to old customs and simple ; itality, carried indeed to a irti.d spirit, are their ■-. The A ■ ' i ' . i. rally power- fully i.i bough tl I'll are - of the men bones being high, ■ very large, they are often expp -. and delih Tin ir language, th i Pushtu, is allied t i tl..- Persian ; at lea i . .i ' i proportion of the words are r. .... language belong to ■i I i hi the Pushtu language are lyri writers, but the Persian is empl composition, and the Persian auth< » the educated \\- bans. In rein ■ ■.; duns according to the :. of the Sunites, and are strongly opt I to the Persians and the Sikhs, who belong to other Beets, Yet they are not bigoted, for those heretical Shiite sect may hold almost any official position in the state, while Hindus and Christian i enjoy the utmost toleration. The Afghans bed among orientals for their truth- fulness, the respect with which they treat women, their indifference to rank, and then- reverence for i in j cannot be said to 1"- well armed, as they employ matchlocks, and their artillery is unwieldy ; but, lis tern people, they are expert in the ; be sabre. The first i \. as an independi at power took pi. ii .■ during I be internal discords of Persia aft r the death of Nadir shah. Ahmed Chan, of the race of Abdalli (1717 — 1773), took advai nf these feuds, and liberated A. from Persian rule. :ess founded the Douranee dynasty. Winn n Timur died, in 1793, a contest for the throne brothers Zemaun, Mahmud, and Shah Suj.ili. which ended m the Mahmud, who, bowever, was compelled to abdicate the throin- in 1823, : m 1829. The empire ii'ivi till into the hands of three brothers, of whom the oldest. Dost Mohammed, ruled at Cabul, the m> t important of the three rlh isious of the country, where he had a revenue of 1,400,000 dollars, and an army of 18,000 men. Still, the country was in an unsettled state ; for Dost Mohammed was at with Lahore in the east, and in the wast, the Persians had invaded Herat. On the 1st of October 1838, the governor-genera] of India (Lord Auck- land) declared war against A., on the grounds, that l>nst Mohammed had unlawfully atta I the British ally, Runjeet Singh; that the military operations of the Afghans had betrayed a hostile purpose towards India; and that Shah Sujali, as the rightful heir to the Afghan throne, had placed under British protection. All this was true, but did not make the invasion of A. by the Anglo- Indian forces either just or politic. However, the British forces advanced through the Bolan l'ass to "> I ft R CHAMBERS lOHOOM I EDINBURGH r AFRICA- ■ Shah Sujah formally claimr '1 pos- mo 'itry. < in thi ped before Ghiznee, and after some hard ki ii. On th: 7tl • Eorci ■, entered < labul, and the conquest i ! '1 ae complete. It was ake ol iii e aa1 are of the country and the pie. l hi land had been invaded, but was by no meant conquered. Doet Mohammed had surrender .1 to the Enj liafa ; but his son, Akbar Khan, was m aged in a conspiracy, of « hich Sir Al' randi t Burni and the envoy Macnaghten intil it was too late. At tli' nine of winter, when help from India was inq i itbri ■! to. I; place at Cabul, when 1 M acnaghten, and several Brit were slain. Another serious error was nov. committed: in decided and bold movement, which red r | ' i b British forces, humiliating terms of c ipit ol ition were ai r. It was agreed tli i ; while, mi the other hand, Akbar Khan and stipu- lated to provide an • reort, and make other nei arrangements for the retreat. Depending or the liritish army left Cabul mi tli' 1 6th oi January 1st-, in order to return by tin- Khyber Pass into India; but neither escort nor provisions were supplied by the Afghan leaders, ami tin- severity of • 'I the misery of the retreat. The fanatical tribes of the districts harassed the flanks ar of tie- army, and slew women and children : ii. Out of a host of 16,000 or, if we include women and children, about L'G.UIN) — only man (Dr Brydon) escaped t<> carry the dismal I Sale, who still held his position at Jelalabad, Almost against his own will, the new r-generaJ, Lord Ellenborough, sent other o ei nit" A. < ieneral Nott marched from I ! and ah ar to Q iii/.nec. which was again taken after a and tlen pjoc led to meet the army .1 Pollock, had marched through the iChyber Pass to CabuL Here the force of Akbar defeated and runted, and the pb was as ilili desolated. The English officers and their ladies who had surrendered l 1, aers to Akbar Khan, were restored to liberty ; and soon afterwards, the troops marched bach bo ft was believed now that the Afghan deprived ol to confederate again mment of India: but this conclusion was fcoo hasty, for in 1S4(> they formed an alliance with the sikhs against the British; and the disturb- in the Punjab were not quelled without igements. After the decisive battle of Gujerat (February 21, If Sikhs . the Afghans! and Dost Moham- med, with about 16,000 men, fled over the tndus. 1,1 more the British arm I through the K li\ Ix t Pa wed tin- work of Bubju .■ ml Afghan tribes. Si of tie Sikn war, they b u3 ; and there is that, as they learn to recognise the in '•• England not to extend the boundai i - t beyond the Indus, th.y w ill ,. ase to ex- ing which h ed their n lations and intercourse w ith her. 1 Lady Sale (Lend., 1843); Eyre's Military Opt • I I ond i ' la History of tin War in . by J. W. ECaye (2 Tola Lond., ls:.| |, A'FRICA, one of the great divisions of th. — the second in point of size, hut by far t! ■ important as regards the civilisation and pro the human species. This continent, so long a land of mystery, has, in modern times, been partly a for us by the enterprise of explorers, the / lines, tie- p er sever a nce of commercial l.ition. and the military aggressions of Europeans. X. ami N.E. borders, which in a times - civilisation, while all the other parts lay hi' I . had fallen back into a barbarism, but are now partially restored to ition of importance in , with the political ami commercial interests of Europe. I also been made, from the s. ( lolony, in exploring the elevated land of the ii and introducing commerce among the natives. The efforts of England to suppress the slave-trade, and to open new channels for manufacturing imi seem likely, in the course of time, to make great alterations m the condition of th , an ,J tribes of people on the we . while the recent ami present attempts to tan ii ate thi Quoits, or Niger, have considerably advanced our know H the interior. The chief hindrances are found in the comparatively few accessible points on the coast, the pestilential climate of the marshy lowland bor- dering on the sea. the barrenness of vast tracts like the desert of Sahara, over which one must travel rapidly, and only by certain routes; and lastly, the barbarism ami sanguinary character of thenai On the other hand, the position of A. is favourable to its exploration by Europeans. Its most remote harbours are almost as near as North America- nearer than the Brazils, and much nearer than British India. A sailing-vessel from Bristol can reach the river Senegal in about twi Sierra Leone in thirty; Cape Coaaf in thirty-live; and the Congo in fifty. Of course, steam-communi- cation is far more rapid. The valley of the Nile was known in the earliest period "f history as the nursery of commerce, arts, and sciences; but while Egypt was Hourishii rest of A. was almost totally unknown, ami was vaguely spoken of as Libya. In later times, the Greeks and the Romans became more with the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, ami trated into A., probably as far as the Niger: hut. tiny had scarcely any definite knowledge of the countries lying beyond Nuniidia, while South A. entirely unknown. The tradition thai Jewish and Tyrian merchants, on their voyages to ( ipliir, explored the east coast of A., is dubious; but another account, that, in the time of Pharai ih- V tli Phoenicians circumnavigated A., seems to be well authenticated ; and it is probable that thi ' thaginians had a better knowledge of the interior than we have in the present day. For a history of the older discoveries in A., we may refer to Murray's (2 vols., E.lin. 1817), and to Leyden's SketA ,,{ n,. Discoveries in _Y H (Edm. 1799). The 15th e. was marked by an extension of geographical knowledge in A. as elsewhere. Henry the Navigator sailed round the formidable i ape Nun I Diaz and Vasco de Gama dis- G Hop 1 both the ii ami tl re partly explored by several European voyagers. The older travels and discoveries may be arranged in thi order: in the 14th e., the travels of the Arabian Elm in the north of A. In the loth c, the l'ortu.i of Madeira. Tape l'.laneo, ■I. Guinea, Benin, the Cape of Good Bone, ■ 1 the navigation of the east coast by the Portuguese Covilham, who first travelled in Abys- sinia. In the 16th c. th" travels of Leo Africanus through I'.arhary and Sahara to Abyssinia ; the i '-man Kanwolf in North A., and Windham's voyage to Guinea, which was followed AFRICA. etions in 1554 and 1662, In 1570 and 1600 the Portugal icrtapa, ■ powerful state uear the Mozaml In the 17th c, the Rnglinhmm Jobson and Thom- son, in their journey to Timbuktu, opened B with A., and the slave-trade immediately followed. In 1662, we find a French colony on the il, ami many exploring journeys to the interior li i: nouard and others. In 1624, the endeavoured to find a way from tile equator through the interior as far a 1 Ale . . to E ypt in 1652, the English occupation of Cape Coast in 1004, Brue's voyage to S a, and several other visits to the westeni I. the progress made in tin 1 latter hall of the 17th c. One German traveller, Wan a description of his journeys on the west coast : and another, Von an, in 1683, founded in Cpp i Guinea the colony of Fredericksburg, which afterwards fell into the hands of the Dutch, bu1 now abandoned. In the course of the 18th C, various additions were made to our store of information on Africa ; but they an- not all trust worthy. In the year 17S8. the African Society was founded uj London, and, undi r its direction, Ledyard and Lucas were sent to explore the Niger, and were followed by Major Houghton, The English colony of Sierra Leone was founded in 1790. The French expedition to Egypt, towards the close of this century, gave a new impulse to researches in A. In the 19th c, the most various motives have co- operated in favour of an extended knowledge of this vast continent. The captains of English cruisers, employed to suppress the slave-trade, have supplied some valuable information; the governors of the colonies and private merchants have contributed their share ; and enterprising travellers from all sides of tho coast have endeavoured to strike out paths to the interior. The works published on A. since the year 1S00 are consequently very numerous. It would be useless to specify the whole of these, inasmuch as many of them are only hasty and frag- mentary sketches by casual travellers, and have recently been superseded by volumes containing the results of more accurate and extensive researches. A few of the more important may be mentioned. In 1S02 — 1805, Lichtenstein travelled in the • north of the Cape of Good Hope, and first furni formation regarding the Bechuana tribe. The trawls of Mungo Park from Timbuktu to Bussa arc familiar to every one. In 1809, Burckhardt was sent out by the African Society, and his explorations, rich in manifold results, occupied the years 1812 — 1810. To the French we are indebted for lunch valuable information concerning Marocco, Algeria, and the neighbouring parts of Sahara. In 1821, Oudney, Clapperton, and Denham set out from Tripoli, in a southerly direction, through the border-land that separates the Libyan from the Sahara Desert, intend- ing to proceed to Bornu, and explore the course of the Niger. Oudney died in 1824 ; but Clapperton and Denham continued their journey, and reached Sokoto or Sacatoo, the residence of the rider of Sudan. They discovered the fresh- water lake Tchad. In the following year, Clapperton, accompanied by three friends, started from Benin, intending to travel through the whole region lying between Timbuktu and Abyssinia, but died of dysentery at Sokoto, April 13, 1827. His servant, Richard Lander, after g an account of their discoveries, was employed in another exploration of the Niger, and tra 1 its lower course to the embouchure in the Bay of Benin. During the last twenty years, our knowledge of South A. has received many important additions from the nussionaries stationed there, especially Moffat; while David Livingstone, who, since 1S43, has be. u ino to op d the conn- Good 1 lope, penetrated in 1849 as Ear as Lake N'gami, in 20 s. kit.; and in 1853,1 - Leeambye (Zambesi) northward far several hundred mill ngthe nt to Loando on tin- \v. ■ oast, in the Portu- guese province of Angola. Having retraced h steps to the point of the Zambesi from which he rted. the adventurous traveller next followed thai stream, which there bends eastward, till he I the EL coast, in 18 . s . Lit. He is still (1859) engaged in prosecuting discoveries in that rich L Further north, the geography, e, and manners of the inhabitants oi sinia, Seimaar, and Kordofan, have, during late I ;ly illustrated by the effm various Europeans, who have travelled thither with the hope of exploring the con Nile. Finally, the extensive and long-continued res. of Dr Barth and his companions, proceeding by the Same general route from Tripoli as Clapperton and Denham, and investigating, though more compre- hensively, the same central division of the continent, have enriched our store of knowledge regarding this land of mystery. (Notices of subsequent explora- tions will be found under Nii.r, Nvan.'a, \ . Zambesi; and Albert Nvanz.v and Spike in Supplement.) A. is situated in the eastern hemisphere, to the S. of Europe, and the 8. W. of Asia, and lies between hit. 37* 20" N. SO" 8., and long. 17° 30' \Y., and 51" 3C 10. It is of an im triangular form, with the vertex towards the S., having the Mediterranean on the N., the Isthmus of Suez, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean on the E., and the Atlantic on the W. It is thus almost insular, the connecting isthmus being only 72 miles across, of no great elevation above the level, and even in part occupied by salt lakes and marshes — ottering in this respect every facility for the connection of the Red Sea and Mediter- ranean by canal. The coast-line is marked by few indentations or projections ; the most important gulf being that of Guinea, on the YV. ; and Capes Bon, Verde, Cooil Hope, and ( luardafui, the extreme points respectively on the -V. \V., S., and E. The greatest length of the continent, taken from north to south, is about 49S5 miles; its grei breadth, from east to west, 4015; and it including the adjacent islands, not less than 1 1.854,000 square miles. What is known of the physical features of A may be shortly sketched under the following heads : 1. The triangular region south of Cape Guardafui and the Gulf of Guinea, is mostly a high table-land, having fringes of mountains crowning its • Between the coast and the beginning of the elevation runs a belt of lowlands, varying from 50 to 300 miles in breadth. The Lupata range, seen running parallel with the coast, forms the eastern crest of the table-land. Between ,S° and 4° S. lat., it reaches, in the snow-clad Kilimandjaro and Kenia. the height of 20,000 feet. These are believed to be the real Mountains of the Moon, which have hitherto been represented as running across the continent from E. to W. The mountainous country of Abyssinia is the eastern prolongation of the plateau and its elevated crest ; in the summit of Abba Yared, at the northern extremity, it rises to 15,000 feet. At the south, the lulls of Cape Colony rise in stages from Table Mount to the summits of the Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg, in the N. of the colony, which are estimated at 7 — 10,000 feet ; the spaces between the ranges being shrubby kloofs or valleys, and broad elevated terraces or karroos. From the elevated crest that runs parallel to the west coast AFRICA. from Cape Colony to Valiish Bay, Mr I the country as sloping both W, and V... thus giving a cup or hi the continent. Towards the N.W. the border of the table-land rises in the I roons to the height of 13,000 feet Its northern boundary is not determined; but it is likely that the valley of the western branch of the Nile pens- into it, dividing it into twx> portions, an in and a western. A m< niiitiiin Men sn nth from Lake Tchad is BU] i be one of its northern outposts. 2. North of the great triangular table-land nor I ' n tin! Nigrii may be comprehended the countries watered by tin- 9 in, and Niger, along with the coast of Lower Guinea ; and the he in of Lake Tchad. In the west •tion is a mountainous table-land of no elevation, in which the riven above named their rise; the Kong Mountains, which run . 1 to the Guinea coast, are a branch of this mi. Eastward of the Niger, the country is hilly, alternating with rich, often swampy | In the basin of Lake Tchad is a vast alluvial plain, ... .hi' great fertility. 3. Bed ween Sudan and tin' cultivated tract which borders tin- Mediterrai i mra or Great Desert. It extends smith nearly to the il, the northern bend of the Niger, and Lake l, northward to the Atlas range in Marocco \ Igi i in. and towards Egypt it reaches to the .Mediterranean. ! breadth from N. to s. is about 1000 miles. Its length from the i tic to the v |ge of the valley of the Nile is 2000. Over a great part of tins , . and everywhere it is rare; it is thus nimil tn sterility. It consists partly of tracts of line shifting sand, which frequent Storms of wind raise into the air, so as often to overwhelm travellers. Hut the greater part of the surface consists of naked but lirm soil, composed i I indurated Band, sandstone, granite, and quartz-rocks, into ridges or hills. Tim desolation is interrupted at intervals by patches, sometimes of considerable extent, covered with bushes and coarse grass, and often of great beauty and fertility. Theee oasen, i. tin v in' called, which are occa- l by subterranean springs, are most numerous and fertile in the eastern portion of the Desert. The easiest route across the Desert to Sudan runs from Tripoli through the kingdom of Fczzan to l.l.i 1 Tchad. Fezzan enjoys periodic rain from the winds of the Mediterranean, which . further into the continent here than elsewhere. i of the Desert lying east of the route above described is called the Libyan Desert. It is chiefly in this region that the oasi fsu ceptible of cultivation; the tracts of vegetation in the western portion are fit for Lttle else than .'ts and sheep. The principal iiM re fertile oases is dates; but other fruits and grain are also cultivated. Gum- arabio is another production. Some of the oases support thousands of inhabitants living in villages. Commerce is carried on across the Desert by various routes by means of caravans, con Of from 600 to 2000 camels, with their attendants. The distance between the wells sometimes ■ ten days' journey ; and when a well is found dry, men and animals are in danger of perishing. The inhabitants consist of independent tribes of Moors, Berbers, and Arabs. 4. The Atlas region, comprehending the mountain- ous oountries of Mai'i'ii, Algeria, and Tunis. The northern slope towards the Mediterranean, called the Tell, is, in aspect, climate, and productions, similar ate coast of Europe ; the southern illy into the Sahara. Some parts of the chain are considerably above the snow-line, and the highest summits may i D feet 6. Thi j mi the fled Sea, consisting of Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt, Abyssinia, we have seen, is the mountainous termination of the u. I:, tween this and the bends the low valley of the Nile, in the Red Sea on the es t by a rugged mountainous region, and from tin- Libya the west by a low ridge of limestone and sands- riling the hydrography of A., much is still I ii which, until recently, nil. I tic • unexplored territory,' seems to be anything but the barren and rivcrlcss desert that we imagined ; still it may be safely stated that A., as a whole, is far from being a Wei] A con- tinent, though hardly one of its streams has been traced throughout its entire course, while nearly the entire tributaries of these, ii (as is probable) such exist in abundance, are almost wholly unknown. Those of the south, which mostly rise in the neigh- bouring highlands, arc, in many instances, little better than mountain-torrents, having short and rapid courses ; and the embouchure, generally i delta form, is commonly obstructed by a bar of sand. The Orange Liver, for instance, is filled with sand at its mouth. Rivers. — The great rivers of A. are the Nil Nigei-, the Zambesi, the Orange, the Congo, the 1. and the Gambia. Sec arts. Nile, Nil &c. The first bf these is formed by the junction of two rivers — the White Nile (Balir-el-Abiad) and the Blue Nile (Bahr-el-Asrak). The former flows from an unknown source near the equator, through a region as yet unvisitcl by Europeans, skir eastern edge of Kordofan, and passes into Nubia, where it is joined by the Blue Nile at Khartum, after the latter has broken through the highlands of Abyssinia. The single stream then rcuit- ously through Nubia in a succession of cataracts, and descending into Egypt, reaches the Mediter- ranean through the far-tamed Delta. The second of the great rivers the Niger, Joliba, or Quorra — for it goes by tins,- and other names in different parts of its course — rises in the Kong Mountains of Guinea, about 9° 25' Y Lit.. 9 r> \V. long., and flows first N.L. till it reaches Timbuktu, where it bends E. for a short distance, and then descends in a S.K. direction into the (lull of Guinea, Its length is estimated at 2600 miles; and its navigability has been ascertained for a distance of upwards of 4ihi miles ; but its banks are very pestilential. I principal tributary is the Tchadda or Benm'. At the extreme west of the mountains of Kong, and not far from the source of 1 ! which flows with a crescent sweep to the N.W. through Senegambia, and enters the Atlantic north of Cape Verde. The Gambia, a BCC . runs in a smiil.ir direction through the same country, and falls into the sea south of Cape Verde. i which has its origin somewhere in that great division of A. south of the equator that has recently been I to us, is very imperfectly known. It empties its waters into the Atlantic I 'adrone, in South Guinea. The UraiiL'e River flows from east to west with many windings through what is popularly termed 'the country of the Bottenf while the Zambesi, though only partially arj seems rich in affluents, and runs in a genera] easterly : feeti and an elevation of 850 feet above the sea-level. Though it has do outlet, its waters are cool and clear, and abound with Bah. Besides a multitude of temporary .streams, it is the recipient of large rivers. The chief is the Shary or Ami, from the south-east. ' T/ana, in Ah\ li which tlie Blue Nile (lows, is about 65 miles long, and 30 broad, and lies 6000 feel above the Bea-Ievel Lake N" garni, in Southern A., has been iiin.no, I. I i incurring accounts of Arali travellers and natives, it i led that there is a large lake in the interior called Nyassi or I'niamesi, about .">' S. lat.. ami '-".I K. Ion,-. It is in tin- midst of a fertile and populous country, and feeds a large river, the Lutlia, which flows eastward into the sea on the Zanzibar coast. <•'■ ology. The geology of A. is known as yet only from cursory observations made at isolated i character of the Sahara has been already indi- cated. The section traversed by l>r Livingstons presents a \ Bhales, sandstoni tufa, through which protrude granite and trap-rocks. In one place towards the east side of the continent, i found overlying coal. Between Tripoli and Mnr/iik there is a plateau, the dark sandstone of which disintegrated, nils up the inequalities of the surface, from which the black :and. out in fantastic cones. The lofty harrier of limestone winch forms the western boundary of Egypt, reappears in the rugged ranges of hills which break the monotonous waste of Sahara; they sometime:; contain marine shells. Secondary lime- stone also constitutes the lower skirts of the Atlas Mountains, but what constitutes their basis has not yet ben discovered. There are three great varieties of climate, corresponding to the physical structure of the con- tinent : first, that of the plateaus; second, that of the terraces which had to them ; and third, that of the coasts. In the vast desert of Sahara, extending over ia equal to that of the Mediterranean Sea. almost di statute ofwatei and vegetation, and partly covered with tracts of sand and bare low rocks, the heat of the day is uniformly contrasted with the coldness of the night; whfl i the terrace-land of Limbu, for instance, situated behind the Sierra Leone region, we find a temperate and wholesome climate ; and in that rising bel I the Slave I 'oast, we have beautiful landscapes, abundant springs, new- forms of vegeta- tion, ami a mild Italian air. The natives of Congo call their terrace-lands, which are well cult i and thickly peopled, 'the Paradise of the World.' Hut the flat coasts, which are often over-flooded in the rainy season, have a very oppressive atmosphere, and from the morasses at the mouths of the rivers, a malaria arises which is pestilential to Europeans. This malaria has been supposed to arise from the decay of the vegetable matter brought down by the rivers from the dense mangrove-woods, which, mixing with the salt water on the coast, pro- duces sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Nothing can be more unfavourable to the health and energy of Europeans than the climate of Sierra Leone, the Gambia, and M'Carthy's Island. In the last, the thermometer is often at 106° in the shade during the dry season, and the whole island is little better than a morass in the four rainy months. The region of pestilential air has been calculated to extend about Hill miles inland ; but only 4H miles out at sea, and to rise to a height of 400 feet above the sea-level. Productions. — The vegetation of A. is decidedly less varied than that of Europe or Asia. Along the Mediterranean sea-board, it greatly resembles that of Southern Europe. The tropical regions are not so rich in I plants as those of South .A no a iea, but still they exhibit many ] uliar genera. As we have the sultry coasts, and ascend the terraces towards the interior, we pass gradually from tropica] productions to th'tse of the temp cones, which all Sourish well in several parts of A. b the forests cannot rival those of Brazil, tiny are rich in valuable woods, especially tits harder kinds; some of them excellent for ship- building. Here we find the gigantic Adam (q.v.) digitata or baobab. Ebony, certain bands of rosewood, and the timber called African teak, are among the productions of the tropical forest Butter-tree i Basria, q. v.) is one of the most remark- able productions of the central regions. Ext level tracts are covered with acacias. Certain palms are very chai •■■ diffi " at parts of A., and are of the greatest importance to the inhabitant . particularly the Date-palm (q. V.) in the north, and in an inferior degree, the Doom-palm (q. v.), both of them growing in regions comparatively arid, and Often surrounded by the \r Latham. Atlantid:e. the Ethiopic of other ethnologists. Tin subdivision into tribes is endless, but they may be all classed in six groups : Is', Tli \ - Atlantidce. — These have, in an exag- 1 Conn, the black unctuous skin, woolly hair, ting jaws, Mat nose, and thick lips, character- istic of the whole variety. But it is important to observe the comparatively narrow area to which the negroes proper are confined. They- occupy Western A., < raboon, Sudan in the centre, and the low parts of the Upper Xde. The dusky or brown hue is more prevalent through A. as a whole than the jet-black of the negro; which seems nearly coincident with river valleys and deltas lying within •_''/, Kafir Atkmtidas. — In physical con- formation, tiny are modified negro; the jaws are less ting; their language has some singular pecu- liarities. Tiny occupy from north of the equator ith of the Tropic of Capricorn. .'!>/. II cording to Dr Latham, have a claim to be considered a second species than any other section of mankind. Their colour is brown rather than black ; the hair grows in tufts. The stature is low, and the bom a of the pelvis peculiar. Their language has a characteristic dirk. They inhabit the south of the continent, and are divided in I.. Hottentots and Saabs, or Bushmen. Oh, Atlantida, occupying the water-system of the Upper and Middle Nile." The leading tribes are the I tajiks, -, .Nubians, ami Bishari, forming the population of Abyssinia, Add, and Nubia. It connects by imperceptibl one the Coptic and Semitic groups with the rest of the African. 5th, J tufa, usually called Berbers. In conformation, they vary linni the negro to the Arab type. The langn i Si untie. They inhabit thi i Hi-, tli.- Sahara, the Canary Isles, and are is far south even as the centre of Sudan, ith, ptians, represented by the modern Copts. Both language and physical conformation connect them, on the one hand, with rs and Nubians; on the other, with the Assyrians, .bus, &c. In religion, the natives are a.s various as in Ian- : but it may be questioned whether some of the tribes, especially in South A., can be Fairly described as having any religion. In not a few of these, the religious consciousness seems wholly 1, and the very terms which express it, dropped out of their hu - tch, at was the result of Moffat ttions, though perhaps the degradation in which he found some phmged was in itself a barrier to a just and adequate communication with them; for the lower that races or individuals sink, the less easy is it to understand them. Throughout the north, and to a ti rablc extent in the interior, the creed of Mohammed is received, but held very loosely by many. Tin: Mohammedan tribes on the west coast divide themselves into two classes — the MaraljouU and the Sonnacheea; but it is not easy to under- stand the exact nature of this distinction, beyoud the simple fact, that the Marabouts profess to adhere rather strictly to the laws of tin- Prophi t. while the Sonnachees are more secular, make little profession of sanctity, but eat pork and will drink spirituous liquors. The lowest form of superstition. I ...... among the uncurl a as well as among the Gallas. a nation widely spread south-east of Abyssinia; and the practice of ofl human sacrifices is found in many tribes. The inians hold by tradition a crude form of Christianity. Of the forms of government among the several nations and tribes, our knowledge is not sufficiently definite. Though there is despotism, it appears to be limited to some extent by a respect for the ' head men ' in every tribe, who form a sort of aristocracy, and whom the king must consult on all important affairs. The liberty of .sp.och employed in a native parliament, or rather palaver,' is often considerable. Though women are generally found in a de_ position, the wives of the. king often take a part in council, and exercise their influence in the affairs of state. Civilisation, in the proper sense of the term, is only to be met with in the settlements of t le- ans ; for the condition of the M oors. J and Egyptians is scarcely entitled to rank higher than that of semi-civilisation. ( if science, art, and literature, we can say little; for all that had been achieved under the Pharaohs and Ptolemies disappeared with the conquest of the Moslems, A schoolmaster is found in almost every Mohammedan village ; but the Koran is the only book studied. Medicine is little understood, though the tribes in the south and elsewhere havi faith in its powers, and practise it in a very absurd and superstitious style. Among many tnl>es, the religion might lie styled medicine-worship. Inocu- lation, as a preservative against the smaQ-pox, is common among the Mohammedan tribes. Mechan- ical skill is generally respected ; and the smith or worker in iron is reckoned among the "head-men' in every tribe. To the African mind, the products of European skill and industry an- the strongest arguments that can be brought forward to prove tin- superiority of our n i thus com- merce seems indispensable to prepare the way for any extensive changes of cxei d. Of the interior t or barter, if the natives among themselves, our km>.\ ' nty. Cara- vans of camels pass over tin wide deserts by such as lead tln-m t i number ol springs, brooks, and oases, or comparatively/ fertile The chieftains in the di Bert are the principal traders; ami on.- feature in their character, though carried to a cruel extreme, is certainly favourable to commerce : debtors are treated with great severity. When payments are delayed, not only the debtor If, but. if he is absent, any member of his family, may be seized as a slave. Timbuktu, on of Sahara, is the chief conim depot and central station for the caravans which arrive from Tafilet, Tripoli, and other places in 69 AGA— AGAMA. North A. From Timbuktu they proceed nil their route along the course of the Niger to B another station of commercial importance, which is d by the caravans from Sudan and Bornu. From Kaslnia the caravan-rout' li Bornu and Lake Tchad or Tsad ; thence to the territories of the Tibboug and the Tawarcks, and on to Murzuk in the oasis of Fezzan. Kulfa is another great meeting-place of the caravans coming from I lahomey in the south-west, Borga in tlie north-cast, and Nine m the south-east. Then- Beema to be no doubt that these caravans are in communication with others from the east, and thus connect, in ■ primitive style of commerce, the Indian Ocean with the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. Ihi cipal places of commerce in the east are Main- ar, Berbera, Ancobar, Gondar, Sonnaar, and Kolilie. In Bengnela and Angola, negro caravans from the interior arrive at the chief places on the coast, linn in slaves, ivory, and gold-dust, which are i it for various commodities. Though A. is so rich in natural productions, and capable of maintaining a thriving commerce with other parts of the world, it is still a painful fact that alone; its coasts, and in the caravan-roads of the interior, the principal trade is in slaves. Bcgarding the cruelty and wickedness of this traffic, it is unnecessary that a single word should be said here. The verdict of enlightened Christendom lias eon- denmed it, but the prejudice against the negro race remains, and they are still considered by a large number incapable or unworthy of culture, it is prob- able that B more thorough knowledge of the Africans will dissipate so erroneous and pernicious an idea As yet, we have chiefly come into contact with the barbarous tribes who dwell around our settlements on the coast; and it is unfair to judge the whole population by these. We must remember that several tribes have independently, and by their own exertions, arrived at a certain stage of culture, and seem to be on their way to civilisation. As we advance towards the interior, we do not find the people in a condition which can he fairly described as savagism; but with fixed dwellings, though they are merely mud-huts, defended by stockades, and possessed of some laws or customs which are favour- able to commerce. Among several tribes, the native merchant is highly respected ; and his goods are safe even in times of feud or warfare. The land is cultivated; the natives wear dyed cotton dresses, thicker and more durable than those exported from England, and consequently far dearer, (odd and iron are manufactured with ingenuity. The principal tribes on the Gambia, the Bulahs, the Johnes, and the Mandingoes, have qualities which forbid us to despair of the progress of A. in culture All that is wanted is a free commercial intercom with the civilised world. Commerce must carry into A. the doctrine that it is better to employ nun in trade, such as collecting palm-oil, than to sell them as slaves. Ability to understand such a truth will not be wanting ; and when it is known and practised, the negro will prove that he is human, and will break through all the natural obstacles placed in the way of liia development and improvement. That portion of A. which is known is divided as follows: Native states and , hanti, Dahomey, Fezzan, Barea, Bornu, Darfur, Kordofan, Dongola, Guinea, Abyssinia, Marocco, Senegainlua. Sennaar, Sudan with Sahara, the territory of the Iniaum of .Muscat, and the countries of the interior, with others on the east coast. British possessions are — Cape Colony and Natal, atthe south; the island of Mauritius, St Helena, Ascension, Sierra Leone, Cape Coast, and the Gambia Colony. — The French have settlements on the Senegal, with the islands 70 of St Louis and Coree, the Isle de Bourbon, St M and the great ri.lony of Algeria. Egypt, Nubia, Tunis, and Tripoli belong nominally to Turkey. — Danes and North as well as the Dutch, have forts and i :i Guinea.— The Porta- have the Aran rod Cape Verde [elands, with i. Porto Santo, st. Thomas, Angola, Bengnela, and Mozambique. — The Canary Island In Ion to e island of Madagascar and the Comoro group are under native rulers; but in of these on fchei coast the French have established themselves, as at Mayotta. AGA or A01IA, the Turkish title ol military commander; also of the higher office) oi the seraglio. A'GADKS, formerly a very important city of Central Africa, but at present in a declining eon- dition. It is the capital of Air or Asben (q. v.), and is built upon the eastern edge of a table-land, at an elevation of not less than 2500 f.et, inlat. 16° 33* N., long. 7 3ff K. It hold; little intercourse with the northern cities, such as Murzuk, which, indeed, is never visited, except by pilgrims on their way to Mecca ; but its merchants still frequent the markets of Katsena, Tasawa, Maradi, Kami, and Sokoto. At one time A. was a sort of ■ D repfll for the vast trallic carried on with Gogo — • ient capital of the Songhavoinpire (q. v.) - but I and destruction of this city, the centre of the gold-trade, has fatally injured the prosperity of the former, 'cutting away the vary roots through which it received life. 1 A. was founded some hundn ds of years ago, in all likelihood by the Berbers, who were expelled by the great Songhar iqueror, llaj, Mohammed Askia, in 1616. Its highest degn S of power had been reached previous to this, when it probably contained 60,000 inhabitants. At present, it has not more than 0000 or 7000. The Ian is the Emgedesiye, the same as that spoki a at Timbuktu, with which place, however, it has no urse now. There is a large admixture of Berber blood in the people of A. The trade and manufactures are trilling in extent. Dr Barth is of opinion that A. would form, for a European agent, a very good and comparatively healthy place from which to open relations with Central Africa. See Barth's Travels in Central Africa, vol. i. A'GAMA, a genus of Saurian Reptiles, the type of a family call d Igamida. The Agamas are allied to the i lianas, and have a lax akin, which they have the power of inflating with air. None of them arc of a large size. They are found in warm climates, and are of various habits, some of them living in trees, and others confined to the ground. The Egyptian A. (.1. SgypHaca at Trapthw I Frilled Agama. is remarkable for changing colour, like the cha- meleon. Some of the most common lizards of Australia are of this family. The Frilled A. (cWomy- ilumurtix) is a remarkable Australian lizard, having a sort of frill around the neck, which usually bes AGAMEMNON— AGAPEMONE. back in plaits, but is raised when the annual is alarm'. I. AGAME'MNON", son of King Atreus, and brother of tlenelaus. After his father's death, he reigned in Mycenae, and married Clytemneatra, by whom he had three children — Iphigenia, Electra, and Orestes, rwards celebrated in the Greek drama. When Paris, son of the Trojan Icing, Priam, seduced and carried away Helena, the wife of Menelaus, A., with his injured brother, made a tour throughout Greece,- exhorting all the leaden of the people to unite their forces in an expedition against Troy. Having gained their alliance, A. was appointed general-in-chief of the united forces assembled at Aulis 111 Bceotia, where they were delayed some tune. In the following campaign against Troy, which forma the subject of Homer's Iliad, A. is described as a very stately and dignified character. After the fall of Troy, he returned home, taking with hiin Cassandra, the daughter of Priam. Shortly afterwards, he was murdered by Clytemnestra, aided by j-Egisthus, in whose care he had left his wife and children. A tragical fate had always lowered over the house of A. ; and the lies of his children — Iphigenia, Electra, and Orestes — were the favourite subjects of the Greek drama. A'GAMI [PsopMa), a genus of South American . allied to Cranes, Only two species are known. They are sometimes called Trumpeters, from a peculiar Z - Againi. Bound which they make. The best known species is d Trumpeter (P. crepitans), which is of the size of a large pheasant, but with much longer legs and neck, and a very short tail. It runs very quickly; so much so, that a tame one in England lias been known to keep up with hounds. It is capable of the most perfect domestication. At:.YI\E were love-feasts, or feasts of charity, usually celebrated by the early Christians in lion with the Lord's Supper. The name is derived from the Greek word agape, which signifies love or charity. At these feasts, the rich Christians presented their poorer brethren in the faith with and all ate together, in token of tleir equality before God ami their brotherly harmony. The ineetie eened and closed with payer; and during the feast, spiritual songs were first, a bishop or presbyter presided, who read a i of Scripture, proposed questions upon it, and l the various answers of the brethren. After- wards, whatever information had been obtained regarding the other churches, was read such as the official letters of overseers, or private communiea- tiwis from eminent members; and thus a spirit of teal sympathy was engendered. Before the conclusion of the proceedings, money was collected for will m, the poor, prisoners, and I who hail Buffered shipwreck, Then the members embraced, and the feast was ended with a ' philau- prayer.' As early as the l ustom of celebrating the A. and the Lord's Supper to- had ceased, on account of the persecutions. Justin, when writing on the latter subject, does not speak of the former; but Ignatius, on the other hand, seems to regard them as identical. Generally, the feast of the A. preceded the celebration of the Lord's Supper. But during the period of the persecutions, when the Christians had often to hold divine service before dawn, the A. were, for the most pan, delayed till the evening. Later, a formal separation was made between the two rites. In the 3d and 4th centuries, the A. had degenerated into a common banquet, where the deaths of relatives, and the anniversaries of the martyrs, were commemorated, and where the clergy and the poor were guests ; but with the increase of wealth, and the decay of reli- gious earnestness and purity in the Christian Church, these A. became occasions of great riotousness and debauchery. Councils declared against them, forbade the clergy to take any share in their celebration, and finally banished them from the church. At the same time, it must be admitted that the heathens ignorantly calumniated the practices of the Chris- tians in these A., and that the defences made by Tertullian, Minuchis, Felix, Origen, &c, are emi- nently successful. The Moravians have attempted to revive these A., and hold solemn festivals, with prayer and praise, where tea is drunk, and wheaten bread, called Love-bread, is used. AGAPE MOXE (Gr. love-abode), a conventual establishment of a singular kind, consisting of persons of both sexes, founded at Charlynch, near Bridgewater, in the county of Somerset, by Mr Henry James Prince, formerly a clergyman of the Church of England. The inmates are called Lampeter Brethren, and belong to a new re] sect originating with Mr Prince, and a Mr St also a clergyman. The adherents of the sect generally, of whom there are many hi the south- western counties, are known as Princeites or Starkcyites. As curate in a village on the coast of Dorsetshire, Mr Starkey, who possessed the gift of eloquence to an extraordinary degree, effected real good. His parishioners, most of them lawless smugglers, and those who flocked to hear his discourses, listened to him as to one inspired ; and many who did net follow him in his wild theories, ascribe their first real impressions of religion to his ministry while he was yet a clergyman of the Established Church. Gradually, his doctrine changed, and in company with Mr Prince, he began to hold forth in barns, whence loud bowlings were heard by I by. People of all classes flocked to hear the new preachers ; even clergymen's families were in with the taint of this heresy, which spread through eluded villages on the coast, obtaining especial bold among the farmers, several of whom, as in the times of the apostles, brought their wealth, and laid it at 'Brother Prince's' feet — community of goods being the tenet most strenuously insisted upon. meanwhile, funds accumulated rapidly. Three of the Brothers — Messrs Price, Thomas, and Cobb — married three sisters, daughters of a wealthy widow lady named Kottidge. These young women, hand- some, clever, and of independent fortune, began by listening, against the wish of their parent, to Mr Prince's preaching, and finally left their home to marry Ins disciples. A fourth sister afterwards followed" their example. So strong was the feeling under which they acted, that, on their aged mother coming in person to remonstrate on their conduct, 71 AGAFEMONE Ac U3SLZ. they rejected her claims of authority, savin- thai the di king to them by her ■- a The affairs ot the A. have Ben rat time to proceedings in the courts of law, mi which ■ions tin- public obtain internal regulations of the establishment In 1846, one of tin- ladies above mentioned, having bi dissatisfied with tin- doctrine ami ride of Life in the A., was expelled from tin- society, and put away by her husband, Mr Thomas, though then about I birth to a child. After she had lived four years with her mother, who had made provision fi child, Mr Thomas wrot ing her for ever, and < ■ 1 .- 1 1 1 1 1 i n •_; tli- "i liis son. This was resisted; and in the coins.- of tin' Lav. that took place, much that was oil in the conduct of the Agapemonians trail 1 Although the inmates were in appeared that they entertained Borne religioui taon to the increase of population, as if believing that the perfection of all things will be the extinc- tion of the human lace. In short, the doeti n peculiar notions of this remarkable Beet are seemingly a natural and not unusual c in equence of allowing an excited i - the judgmi nt ; and, h ■ 'is hut a new or r form of extrem e religious fanaticism. Mr Prince's Brat i atablishmi ut was at Weymouth. The present A, which has existed now (1859) for about ten years, is a beautiful and spacious building, most luxuriously fitted up, and co itaining a mag- nificent ill, with all kinds of melodious instruments. When summoned thither, his Bocks, herds, and crops, even in the midst of harvest, and will of his 'Lord'— such is the title by which Mr i'rin. k of him. At other times, the i at Ins own dwelling I ■ of the Princeites, and entertain, them with hospitality. For this, it is to be supposed, he has his reward, since one of Mr i ciples, upon being offered assistance towards the recovery of a large sum which he had lost, replied that the money ' had been repaid by the I thefriendof.fi who sticketh closer than a bro Letters intended for Mr Pi igh the post-office directed to 'The Lord;' and his fol- lowers have to say that he is their 'creator.' In 1851, Mr Prince took up a party of them to London bition. lie drove about town and in the parks in a ca ntlv attendi d by oul riders, ban rase tin y were in th pri lence of 'i Mr Prince ha-s put forth many pane in the highest degree objet tionable ; othei -. in which the tenets of the christian religion are mingled with his own peculiar doctri t came to redeem the soul. Prince affirms that hit errand is to m the body. One test applied to his di from which many shrank, m-.-ls, that they v in si punishment of those whom best loved, and to rejoice in it as redounding to -lory. When this Mas pro] several persons oi «*ho had hi along with Mr I Lined to proceed further; others agreed to it cord: illy. There is now, it is said, no necessity for prayer; mourning for deceased relatives is forbidden; a sort ot millennium is attained, in which no exertion is aded nothing but joy and thanks Pain and grief, sorrow and sickness, have Fo lost their dominion over the Princeites; yet still, to the incredulous, it appears that consumption, matism, and other infirmities of human nature, do at- and that they die, and : hi r in n. In one of Mr Prince's latest pamph- 72 lets, the following words occur, which may to elm .v hat mysterious doctrine: is i 'hrist has again .lit with man at the i i of mankind, and this etion, and DOW 1 llis witm is." 'This on.- man. Brother Prince, bs ted and appointed His witm nis. 1 and purp i Lido the day of grace, and to introduce the day of judgment. To .1 the dispensation of tin and to i nter into covenant with t! I.. 1 859 appear .1 /.v..'/.- 1 ■ l/-u»>//l ■ '. tt was commenced, according to Bi twenty-tin i, and more- than nine- > ars have elapsed sine.- it s completion. It- aim is simply this: to shew t- in the soul, from its first struggling manifestations to that absolute harmony in utteri] 1 and swallowed up in God. Brother Pi a nal, deliberately 1 i.h is him - of fur- ther improvement. 'Ih Is: 'Having neither wish. ires, my will can havi tioli whatever to move in any one din than another, but like the finely poised of a well-adjusted balai icatelysus- i on th.- divine will, in a holy equilibrium of inward -.' ft was some time after Br Prince had reached thi ilation of self-consciousness, that he started his Bin ishment at Weymouth. It Mould appear that a society, similar in its and character, though not c el m the loth and 17th cent 1 the ' family of Love.' Its four li generally supposed to have been Henry Nichol native of Miinst.-r. in Westphalia, but who In- considerable time in Holland. He held himself to i.r than Moses or Christ, for tin- form.. id the latter tO I he hrst annoiui 1 the - Love. He n.-e about 1540. Othei . nowi » of ..pinion that the real fat her ol t hi ' Familj on-- David George, a fanatical Anabaptist of Delft, in Holland, who died in 1556, and who impart 'damn t.. (Nicholas, an old friend - In the reign of Edward VI.. according to Fuller, Nichols er to England, and comn ion of silly people in a secret way. By 1573, they had apparently increased in numbers consider- ably, for in that year one John Bo bed a work against them, entitled, qf an and Wit '■ i II > g On mselves the Family of Lom , with tht of their J - y teach in i In 1580, Queen Elizabeth issued a procla- mation for the hunting out and p of the 'damnable Beet. 1 The Love, 'ot Lust, ,' as old Fuller has it, 1 1 mat.' them- races of King James, by pre- | a petition. . ... - i I 1 At length, the society expired from continual - in prose and v. i well as from its own intrinsic worthlessneas. Their m to have been a species of ]. spiritual sentimcntalism. resulting in gross impurity. See Muckers, in Supplement. A'GARIC and ACA'KK '- . oom. AG SlSSIZ, Lot is. one of the most distinguished of modern naturalists, Mas born at Orbe, in the \"aml, in 1807. After passing through fhe usual course of elementary learning at Bid and Lausanne, he prosecuted his studies at Zurich and AOATE— AGAVE. Heidelberg, and lastly, studied medicine at Munich. In •arly youth, ho had displayed a Btrong love of natural history; ami at Heidelberg and Monich comparative anatomy was Ins favourite occupation, In Munich he 1 ame acquainted with .Martins ami Spix, the well-known travellers in Brazil; and when died (in 1826 ction of lib' s|>ecies of fish collected in B left in the care of A.. who published it tinder tit -, <(■''., quos fit , < ping ch 1829 1831, with 91 illustrations in trthog- .i Led by this work to study ichtiij mote closely, A. next ondertook a systi ement of i water fishes found in (if this work, the first fasciculus, containin.' tile family of the Salmonide, appeared at Nenfchfitel in 1839, with . "it illustration criptionsin French, English, and < lennan. A second cuius, prepared by his friend \ -•. was published ill 1840; and a third, des Salmon?*, appeared in 1845 as a part third volume of the M y of Naha B ond this, the work ■was not continued, A. at the same time devoted his attention to tiie fossil remains of fishes, and during his stay in Paris (1831 1832), i uunini d private and public fossil collections. The results of m his work l!*rh*rch> - PoUi' , published a! Neufchatel, with 311 lithographed illustrations, 1833 1842. Meanwhile, he had been invited to take the professorship of natural history at Neufchfite] ; and here he found two active young fi-i> i considerable aid iu the completion of his w< irks. With their assistance, his work on fossil fishes was brought to a conclusion in 1842. During several visits to England, A. made himself well acquainted with the collections of fossils in this country; and in 1844, published a monograph on fo- I found in the old rid sandstone of the Devonian system. His study of these remains led him to examine other fossils; and the results appeared in his works ption '!■ • E and Monographies d'Echinodi < met Vivants et Fossiles. In the hitter work, Profi Bsor Valentin of Berne sup- plied tin a on the ' Anatomy of the Sea-urchin.' A. next turned his attention to the mollus. produced his Cri - lies on Fossil Mottusca, which was soon followed by his on the i and Fossil Moilusca. His work 1 great interest, as it opened new views in geology. The results of further study were given in a second work on Th I : or ].'■ Marches on Glaciers 1 1 ' In preparing tins work, lie was assisted by his 6 Guyot and Desor. In 1846, a. went to North America, where hi anted to a professorship in Harvard College, near Boston ; from which he was ouently removed to occupy the chair of com- parative anatomy in the 1 11. recently declined the offer of a chair in I made him by the fonp tor of the French. He has published in America P of Zoology, \ and Collo, and Lake I 1850 . Iu | ■.■■. written in conjunction with .Mr A. A. Gi A. upholds the doctrine of the creation of higher orgi on the surface of the earth. lion, by A., has just been published (Lond., at presenl rest w.>rk. I History of (Boston, 2 vol-, it , to be oompleted in 10 vi A'GATE, a mineral layers of e generally of different varieties or colours, intimately ther. The layers are often concentric, ami in - appear nearly circular or elliptical, ingolar. • amethyst, common quartz, jasper, flint, la-... ra in A. It takes a fine polish, and is much used for o rna m enta l ; It is common in • Many a| - itland, and are sold under the nam.' , A'GATHA, ST, a noble : dy of great beauty, who rejected the love of the Pi vianus, and suffered a cruel martyrdom in cution of Christians under Dei a high rank amon_ church ; her day falls February 5. AGATHOCLES, one of the boldest bul unworthy adventurers of antiquity, was born at Thenire. in Sieily. in .'ibl B.C. Be 1 amble circumstances through the patronage of llamas, a noble citizen of Syracuse, and received a command in the expedition against Agrigentum. Aften he married the widow 01 Damas, and became one of the most wealthy men in Syracuse, Under the rule tratus, he was obliged to lb Lower Italy, where he collected a band of par- tisans. Returning to Syracuse, after the death tratus, he _ suprem acy, confirmed it by a massacre of several thousands of n , and took possession of the greater part of Sieily. To establish 1 . and keep his army employed, he now attempt) expel the Carthaginians from Sieily; but b undertaking he was defeated. His next plan \ pass ov. t to Africa with a part of his army, and there attaek the Carthaginians. This war lie carried "ii with success for four years, or until 307 B.C., when auce3 in Sicily compelled him to leal army for a time. On his return to Africa, he found his troops in a state of mutiny i son Areha- gathus, whom he had left in command, but pacified them by promises of large booty. Soon afterwards, he suffered a serious defeat, and with deli 1 treachery, left his own son exposed to the veng of the disappointed soldiers. The son was put to and the troops surrendered themselves to enemy, while A escaped safely into S caly, whi i fraud and cruelty, he soon r mar . and was afterwards engaged in pree inroads upon Italy. It was lus intention to li ave tie- throne to his youngest son, A.; but his gran dims, made an insurrection, slew the royal heirs, and persuaded Mamon,one of the favour; the aged tyrant, to destroy him by i 1 toothpick This took pi '.. was 72 years old, and had n igni d 28 AG A' VJS,a genus of plants belonging to the natu- ral order AmaryUidea (q.v.), and having a tubular perianth with 6-partito limb, and a triangular, many-seeded inferior ca] I y are herbs' plants, of remarkable and beautiful appeal There are a numl>cr of species, all natives of the wanner parts of America, By unscientific pi they are often confounded with Aloes (q.v.) ; and A. nerally known by the name of AUKBICAB Ai.ok. The Agaves have either no pro- : , or a vi-ry shorftine, bearing at its summit a crowded head of huge, fleshy leaves, which are spiny at the margin. From the m otsup the straight, upright scape, 24— .')<> feet high, and at ii one foot in diameter, along which are small, appressed, lanceolate bractess, with a terminal . often bearing as many as 4000 flowers. In South often flower in tho eighth year, but in our hot houses m>t until they ached a very advanced age; when, i tlieir flowi once in oue AGDE— AGE. hundred years. After flowering, the plant always dies down to the ground, but the tool oontinuing to live, sends up new shoots. The best known ; . was first brought from South America to Europe in 1661, and b nropa- by suckers, is employed tor fences in Italian Switzerland, and has !■ tnralisedin Naples, Sicily, and the north of Africa. By maceration of the leaves, which are G to 7 !• > I Ion are obtained coarse fibres, which arc used in America, undi r the American Aloe. name of maguey, for the manufacture of thread, twine, ropes, hammocks, &c. This iibre i known as Pita Flax. It is now produced to some extent in the south of Europe. It is not very strong nor durable, ami if exposed to moisture, it soon decays. The ancient Mexicans employed it for the preparation of a coarse kiud of paper, and the Indians use it for oakum. The leaves, cut into . are used for feeding cattle. — Another species, A. ifexicana, is particularly described by Humboldt upon account of its utility. When the inni leaves have been torn out, a juice continues to flow for a year or a year ami a half, which, by inspissation, yields sugar ; and which, when dilated with water, and subjected to four or five days' fermentation, becomes an agreeable but intoxicating drink, called pulque, to which the Mexican Indians not unfre- qucntly sacrifice both fortune and life. It is made likewise from A. Americana, and from several other species. — The roots of A. saponnria are u Mexico for washing, being a powerful detergent, and fonnmg a lather with salt water as well as v. ith fresh. The juice of the leaves, made into cakes, is for the same purpose. AGDE, an ancient French town inthedepai of Herault, founded by the Greeks, and situated : a league from the Mediterranean .Sea, on the left bank of a navigable stream. To the north, under the walls of the town, flows the Languedoc Cai The mouth of the stream forms a harbour, which is entered by 400 vessels yearly. The coast-trade 74 of A., in particular, is wry brisk, while it is also the entrepot for the traffic of die south and i ace. 1 1 has, besides, cor iderable inti i with H ily. Spain, and Africa. It carries on a large and prosperous trade in wine, oil, salt, corn, til \inul, Milk, and cloth ; but tie' geni of the mbre and forbidding, on of tie' black basalt oi which tie- hen in lilt, n hence it has popularly received the name of tie' black Town. esses a Naval Academy, :: ml i- acted in history as the place at which Alaric, king of tie: Goths, con- vened a council. Pop., 9000. ACE. The legal divisions of human life, beiug sometimes arbitrary, and sometimes founded on nature, differ considerably in different countries. In England, the whole period previous to twenty-one of A. is usually spoken of as infancy, a term which has a totally different signification in tho e es that have followed the civil law. Bat notwithstanding tins general division, which is common to both sixes, the ages of male ami female are different for different purposes. 'A male, at twelve years old, may take the oath of allegiance; at fourteen, is at years of disi n Bon, ad thi may consent oi i to marri , may choose his guardian, may lie an executor, although he cannot act until of age; and at twenty-one, is at his own disposal, and may alien and devise his lands, goods, and chattels. A female, also, at seven y . i 01 age, betrothed or given in marriage; at fourteen, is at years of legal discretion, anil may choose a guardian; at seventeen, may he an executrix; ami at twenty-one, may dispose of herself and her lands. So that full A. in male or female is twenty-one which A. is completed on the day pre of a person's birth, who, till that lime, is an infant, and so styled in law.' — (Is- Illiirlc.itime, vol i. p. -I!!.'!.) By the law of Si ain, life is divided into periods — pupilan ". and maj The first extends from birth to the age of puberty, which is fourteen in males and twelve in females, at which ages they may respectively marry; the second embraces the period from the termination of pupilarity till the attainment of majority, which takes place at tho age of twenty-one in both sexes; and the third incl tin v, hole of after-lib'. The term Minority, how- ever, is often applied to the whole period anterior to majority, and is thus equivalent to infancy or nonage in England. Infancy in Scotland can scarcely be said to possess a technical meaning ; but when used at all, it is always in the sense of the Roman infantia, to indicate the period from birth till seven years of age, during which a child, in very unusual circumstances, is intrusted to the care of the mother. The office of tutory cor- ids in duration to pupilarity, that of curatory lority. See Ti Tot:, ( i i: Mm:. By the Roman law, an approach to majority was held to modify the character of minority, and so of the other periods ; but this rule has not been followed by the law of Scotland; and a youth who wants but a day of twenty-one, is as much incapacitated as if he were In France, the marriageable A. is eighteen in males, and fifteen in females (Code ( art. 144), an arrangement which seems more reason- alile than that which we have borrowed from the Romans, and which, however suitable it may have been to the climate of Italy, could never have been free from inconveniences in this country. Twenty- one is generally the age at which men arc eligible for public offices; and at this age they may elect, and be elected members of parliament. But a man must bo twenty-four before he can be admitted to priests' orders, and thirty before he can be a bishop. In AGEN— AGES. rica, a membi must be thirty, and a member of the House of Representatives, twenty- five; this latter was a] n the |» rioel of majority |jy the civfl law. The li ' attaching to the different stages of minority, or, to speak more correctly, the privileges which the law confers on minors for their protection, will be treated of under the different subjects to which they relate. 9ee < ;< a im iia n .mi', • lorn eht, I 'own u r, : Marriage, &c. AGE'N, (ho chief town of the depart mi Lot-et-Garonne in France, is situated in a fertile i ion on the right hank of the Garonne. The town is old and gloomy in appearance ; but carries on an active trade in woollen and linen fabrics, leather, coloured paper, colours, cordage, and sail- cloth. It forms the connecting-link of the inter- course bet we d Toulouse and Bordeaux, ami exports plums, brandy, hemp, flax, and poultry. Close by it is the old-fashioned house in which Joseph Scaliger, the prince of scholiasts, was born. In ancient of many a tierce martyrdom , when it was under the rule of in pnetors. Afterwards it suffered the miseries of war, during the barbaric irruptions from Ger- many, to a most incredible extent, having been taken and plundered by Goths, Vandals, ami Huns, in their turn. Next it came under the thraldom of the English, in their early French wars, ami, at a later pi nod, was twice taken by the Huguenots, in the religious contests of the lUth e. Pop., 16,000. AGENT (Lat. ar/en.i). An A. is one who is authorised or delegated to transact business for another (wdio in this relation is called his Principal or constituent) in whose place he comes, and who is bound by his acts in the business to which the agency extends. The appointment of an A. may ■lie ,/, //end, having reference to all the princi- pal's affairs, or medal, concerning some particular object It may further be limited by instructions " . coi duct he is to pursue, or unlimited, in which case liis conduct is left to his own discretion, in the last case, however, the A. is not freed from all responsibility for his conduct; he is bound to do his best for his employer, and he oughl not to accept or retain tie- agency unless he is com- petent to its performance. The mutual relations of principal and agents, and their respective responsi- bilities to the public in mercantile transactions, will be treated under Pwnctpai and Agent, S I'mioi;, BROKER, ( 'uii missiuNKI:, ( 'n'Jll issicin- Aqi '.i'. Ai SENT and CLIENT. The employer of a law- agent is entitled to presume that he is possessed of competent professional knowledge, and the A. is consequently responsible to his 0. for the conse- oui aces of gross professional ignorance, or llagrant negligence in the conduct of the business inn 1" hnn. It is not enough to entitle the 0. to ■s that the A.'s proceedings have not had tin' effect which was exj ted, or which he himself led from them, it has been observed in the House of Lords, that it is of the very essence of an action against a professional man by his einpl,,y,r, that there shall be gross (l'urves V. i ni'hll, t i'„ii, hi). See Attorney, Solicitor, \\ RITES TO i in: Niom r. AGENT, ARMY. A person authorised by the government to manage the monetary affairs "' lnents in the army, as a kind of military banker. Formerly, persons were employed to effect thepur- and Bale pi cemmi dona in the British army (the only army in whirh this strange system of pur- eli i ■ exists), without much reference to fitness; but to prevent pernicious trafficking, no one is now permitted to manage these transactions I the authoi i ieler a heavy penalty. The Army Agent ! are also bound down by lions, in ri lation to any pecuniary ads derivable by them m the sale and purchase. Their business, hoi ore intimately con with the regular expenditure of government money. Every regiment has an agent," a lected by the eol I, and empowered by him to be his representa- tive in the monetary arrangements of the corps. The colonel is responsible to a for tin' honesty of the Army A.; but tie- agent is in many ways regarded as a servant of the public. When money is wanted for the regular expenses of the regiment, the agent applies to the War-office; whereupon the Secretary of State for War issu t., the Paymaster of the Forces to advance thi requisite sum; the Paymaster does so, and tal from the agent. There is an annual settlement of accounts between the Paymaster and thi one paying or receiving, according to the side on which excess or deficiency m then distributes the pay and other charges of the regiment. The percentage allowed to Army A for their trouble in paying the full-pay of officers, is allowed for ley the state, ami is included among the annual army estimates; but the this charge in relation to half-pay and allowance a I iinv Agents conduct all correspondence send all the requisite notices concerning pay and pay- ment ; the colonel of the regiment takes no part in the matter. The details of the- system have- varied con- siderably at different times, and in different portions of the British dominions. .Sometimes the agent re- ceives twopence in the pound on the amount of pay ; sometimes three-halfpence in the pound, with an addi- tion varying from sixpence to one shilling per day for each company of infautry or troop of cavalry ; some- times (in li'el.'ind, and in the colonies) a fixed The amount paid for this agency is about £40,000 a year. Many i mrii need government- otlicers have recommended the abandonment o system, and the paying of all moneys by the War- office direct, as a measure of simplification and economy; but there is not a unanimity of opinion on this point. When the colonels of regi Bpro- vided the men's clothing, under a Byst em now aban- the Army Agents were very intimately mixed up with the transactions; but at present, tin- duties of those agents are limited t . • the following: applying monthly to the- War-office for the money required for each regiment; receiving that in v; app part of it to the payment of officers; disbursm regimental paymasters' bills for the cost of the expenditure; paying soldiers' remittances for the il of their families: settling the- effects and credits of soldiers; distributing prize-money; ami managing the sale and purchase of eoninii AGENT, N.wv, a naval banker, who l>car3 some such relation to Admiralty expenditni tin' Army A. (q. v.) to War-office expenditure. His employment consists in managing the pecuniary matters of naval office I s. men, in all that concerns pay. prize-m ly, &C. All su must be sanctioned by the government, and must conduct their operations according to certain pre- scribed rules. The Navy List for 1888 contained the names of 17 navy ami m for officers of the royal navy, resident in London ; 1 agent for otlicers of the Koyal Marines ; and Id li Navy Agents ie'i' p whom four hail tie ii' offices in London, an. I the rest at Ports. a. . Chatham, Plymouth, and Birmingham. AGES, a term employed to designate tie . AGESILAUS— AiiN \TR. of civilisation in the history of t !».- human race. The old poets and philosophers Hesonbed these in har- with what they conceived to have been the and political condition of thi ii anc The idea of n '•> ^- presented itself at a very early period to the Greek mind. The life of the was like 1 to that of the individual hence i , . ' inner n i ii.it of the latter, the mo and Berei E all. Eeaiod mentions Eve A. the Bimple and patriarchal ; the silver, voluptu- ous and god brazen, warlike, wild, and violent ; the heroic, an aspiration towards the better; the iron, in which justice, piety, and taithfulne vanished from the earth, the time in which n l that he himself lived. Ovid closely imitates he omits the This idea, at first perhaps a mere poi tic comparison, gradually worked its way into prose, and finally became a portion of scientific philosophy, the divisions of the great world-year, which would be completed when the stars and planets had performed a revolution round the heavens, after winch di m>> would repeat Thus mythology was In-ought into CMiin. ■■■ti..n with astronomy. The golden 1 '" be governed by Saturn ; the by Jupiter : the brazen, by Neptune ; and the bj Pluto. Many curious calculations were entered into by ancient writers to ascertain the i of the heavenly year, and its various dw The great si discrepancy prevailed, as might natur- ally i„ ag that it-was 3000, and others, as many at 18,000 olar years. The Sibylline books compared it to the seasons of the solar year, calling the golden age the spring, &c. ; and on tine . ,,ini.l. fcion oi the cycle, tie- old order was renewed The idea of a succession of A. is po natural, that it has inwrought itself into the n li- convictions of almost all nations. It is sanc- i by Scripture, for it is symbolically adop the Apocalypse to a certain extent; it al anifesta itself m the sacred books of the I tfod rn philosophy, at least in Germany and France, has ttempted to divide human history into definite A. or periods. Fichte numbers five, of which he ives that we arc in the third; Hegel and ■ ite Comte reckon three, placing us in the last Fortunately, the course of history is not arrested bj such speculations, but proceeds hi quiet indiffer- ence to all metaphysical di > AGESILA'US, king of Sparta [399 360 B.C.), was d to the throne chiefly by the exertions of I., inder. Being called upon by the lonians to assist them against Artaxerxes, he commenced a splendid campaign in Asia; but was compelled by the I orinthian war, in which several of the Gl states were allied against Sparta, to leave his con- ■ over the Persians incomplete, and return to Greece. At I Ihceronea (394 B.O.), he gained a victory over the allied forces, ami in 378 the war was concluded by a treaty of peace in favour ol - I wards, 'in the Thckan war. though hard pressed by l'.lopidas and Epaminondas, he bravely and ably defended his country, lb di 1 in his 84th \ i , described s of "small stature but commanding et, blameless in his private character, and. in public life, just, as far as his partiality for b country allowed. His biographers are Xenophon, Plutarch, and i rornelius Nepos. A CIXOOURT. See AziNvc.rr.T. A'GIO, an Italian word, signifying 'accommoda- tion,' was first used in Italy to denote the premium taken by money changers in giving gold for silver, on account of the greater convenience of gold for ime woid is now UBt d to d the rfi •■•cell the r al and the nominal mi y ; also t ! . fixed pars I iily to 'premium.' A SIS, the name of several kings of Sputa. Men- tion is made of a king A. as early as about 1000 yean i:,c, who subdued the old inhabitants oi Sparta, and made the Helots vassals or slaves. (it the others, \. I. i ! ing thi gl iter part oi the Peloponnesian war, from 4-_'(i to 397 B.a A. II. aso ndi •! the thr in '■■'■'•* b.c. Hi hi I of the Macedonian supremacy led him to form alliances with s '• tan satraps again I Uexanderthe \ . aft r extending Ins conquests to o Pi toponni us, fell in battle 330 B.O. \. 1 1 1. came to the throne in 'JU B.C., when thi la had fallen into a ruinous condition through ontinui d war. Though only twenty years old when hi bi gan to ri ii. he D institution ' 3parta ; but intrigues and self-interest in thi higher classes frustrated his d. -ens. The rich, s of the state were now in of a few persons, while o majority of the people were in extreme indigence. A., therefore, in accordance with the old laws state, proposed a redistribution of landed estates by lottery. The new ephorns, AgpffilauB, who wa i i m landed property, but burdened with man-, astutely proposed that first all debts should be can- celle L and next the lands should be divide, 1. Tie- first part of tics plan was BOOH efifect d ; but great hindrani opposed to the carrying out oi the remainder. Meanwhile, the disappointed people ■ led that A. had end, avoured to introduce measures inimical to the welfare oi the state. Pursued by his fled for i to a temple, but v. d by false friends into the hands of the magistrates." who immediately h b put to death by strangulation (240 B.O.). His mother ami Imother, who had favoured his mes ares, were barbaroii m the same manner. Allien, the Italian pa t. wrote a powerful tragedy on the fate of A. III. AGNA'NO, a small lake near Naples, is about sixty feet m depth, and has no in i, country is vi ous. Formerly, the lake was named from the number of snakes in thi ici the right of Lake \. Ii i the Grotto ad Cane— so from the stratum of carbonic acid gas, s e 18 inches deep, which always covers the floor, and which i dog (cone) or other small taken into it— and on the left are found the n t baths of San C ed for the cure of gout, rheumatism, Ac, but inferior in virtue to tic- baths (>''»/ di Nerone) at Baue. The vol surrounding the lake have been extinct since 1198 A.i>. Further on the left from A. lies the lake of Astroni, which occupies the crater of an i volcano, and is surrounded by beautiful woodlands. A'GNATE ll.at. agnahu). Agnates, in the law both of England and Scotland, are persons related through the fath re pi rsons n her. In the Roman law, both of terms had a somewhat different signific a, by that system, were persons i i ; ii males only, whilst cognates were all those in whose connection, though on the father's aid or more female links interv ned Thus, a brother's is his uncle's A., because the propinquitj wholly by males; a sister's son was Ins , because a female was interposed in that relationship. With US the intervention of females is immaterial, led the connection be on the male, or paternal, AGNESI AGBA. side of the house. The cause of our having thus changed the meaning of term tly borrowed the Koman law, seems to be that in Borne tli" distinction between agni founded on an institution which baa not been adopted in the Roman sense by any modern nation — that, namely, of the patria potesUu (a. v.). Roman defined by Qugo to be all I were actually under the sum- pa or would have been so had he been alive; and tlms it was that, as no one could belong to two different families at the same time, the agnation to the d family was destroyed, and a new agnation oundation of cognation, again, was a marriage. All who c up tin ir ori i 'it; and thus the term comprehended atjnatus. thus almost always a - nly when liis p by blood was traceable through males. Justinian abolished entirely the distinction b bee and cognates, and admitted, both to 4on and to the office of tutor of law, not only i . the father, thou '•■ hail been ■ >scd, lmt •-. uy the mother 118, c. -1. ')). As to the legal effects of thi it in the modern sense, see 3 <;i AKWANSIIIP. AGXESI, Matua O.ktana, a woman remarkable for her varied attainments, was born at Milan, 171s. In hi r ninth year .she could c Latin, ami gave a lecture in this language, in which sin- argued that a knowledge of the ancient lan- guages was a proper accomplishment in women. In ■ leventh year she could also speak Greek fluently, and subsequently acquired with great i Mental Ian ud also i, Spanish, and German. She was ji i 'the walking polyglot,' This precocious development of intellect was encouraged by her father, who invited parties of learned nun to his . with whom Maria disputed on philosophical points. Of! s in these parties, her father published some specimens, entitled Proposi ■ (Milan, 1738). After her twentieth year, sue devoti d her mind to the study of mathe- , on C .-■. ami published her ItutUuzioni Ana ■■.. Milan, 174S). This work so extended her •ion, that, when her father was disabled by ■r of Matln- ■ ■ University of Bologna, by the appoint- of Pope Benedict XIV. Jt is said thai her devotioi idy of mathematics, her i fulness vanished, she avoided Bociety, and at last le a nun, and gave the who] time to attend was a remarkab] t and short life, as she lived to the of 81. \ i. NTS DEI (Lat'Lamh of G d'), on i of the i the name given to a certain prayer used in tin- Roman G service of Mass. The litanies generally conclude with the same prayer : ' 1 1 Lamb of I tod, that takest away the sms of the world, have mercy upon us.'- — The figure of a lamb hearing a cross, stamped upon an oval of wax, silver, or gold, is also styled an A. IK Such medals have been consecrated by the pop.s since the Hth c, and are generally distributed among the faithful on the tirst Sunday after Easter. In the ancient church, Candida: baptism received similar medals of wax. and wore them as ainulets. See Amulet, la the I Church, the cloth which covers the cup in tho is Dei. hears the image of a lamb, and is styled the A. J). AGOU'TI (Daxypzoct ' a smaU quadruped allied to the < lavy or ' luini a-pig, very abund- ant in some parts of the \V- I South ten very injnrion Agouti. ane. It is gregarious. II enables that of the hare or rabbit. Other species are found in the same regions, and even in the colder parts of South America. The Pampas Hare is Da*rocta Patactt" A'GRA, a British district in the lieutenant- governorship of the North- west mProvino -.hounded >,'. and ]'.. by the districts of Muttra. Mini and Etawah. S. and \V. by the territories of Dhort- r,andBhnrtpore. Its area is 1860 square nidcs. The surface of the country is for the most part very level, the principal elevation of tie- l'utteli- s.kri lulls, a sandstone range on the west frontier, being about Tim f t. The principal rivers are the Jumna — flowing along the north-east frontier, and its tributary the Chumbu] southern boundary), both of which are the channel to be of much avail for irrigation, district generally is, in com ient in water ; and the failure of tl 1837, I s -* hi - I- ■ a follow,,! by famine. The temperature has a wide range, : during the hot winds of April, May, and Jui high that the city of A. is scarcely habitable by Europeans, while m January, severe frosts occur at night, though the thermometer at mid-day is important commercial product is ■ which generally occupies about a tenth of (he arable- land. There are two 1 1 consisting of varii plants. Sax, tobacco, Ac, the autumnal crop of maize, mung, nu-'li. melons, Ac. The cultiva- tion of rue is very limited, owing to the want of water. The population in 1848 86,557 were Mohammedans, Europeans, Ac., tl Hindus. Of the Hindu population, aliout two- A.GRA \<:i:\i:i \\ LAW. thirds are agricultural; of the al one-fourth, — The 'division' of A. which constitutes one of the six North-western Provinces, embraces the districts oi \.. Muttra, Furruckabad, Minpooree, and Etawah, and coi o iboul 9000 Bquare with a population in 1849 of 3,600,000. In 1833 il was resolved (3 and 4 Will. IV. cap. 85) to divide the Bengal Presidency into two, one oi which was to !»■ called the A. Presidency. This act was never carried into effect, and a mo ded its operation, substituting the present arrax NORTE-WBBTSBK PROVINCES. Tile seat I lieutenant-governor is i om which oircum- t hat functionary is sometimes called the lieutenant-governor of A. AGRA, the capital of the B Provinces in India I in tin' district of the sum' name on the right bank of the Jumn S.E. from Delhi, and 7N.'! NAY. from Cal- cutta. The ancient walls of the city embrs area of about 11 Bquare miles, ol whi h about one- halfis at present occupied. The houses are for the most part built of the red sandstone of the i bouring hills. The principal street, running north- we t from the fort, is verj Bpacious, but the real are generally narrow and irregular, though clean. Some of the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timonr, are on a scale of striking magnifii Anion- the fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which are the palaoe and audience-hall of Shah Jehan, and the Mod Masjid or Pearl Mosque, bo called for its surpassing architectural beauty. Still more celebrated is tin- Taj Mahal, situated without the eity, about a mile to the the fort This extraordinary and beautiful i Ii him was built by the Emperor shah Jehan for himself and his favourite wife, Arjimand Banoo (surnamed Mumtaz Mahal). 20,000 men, says Tavernier, who saw the work in progress, were employed incessantly on it for twenty-two Tin' principal parts of the building are constructed or overlaid outside and in with white marble; and the mosaic work of the Bepulchral apartment and dome is described hy various travellers in terms of glowing admiration. It is composed of twelve kinds of stones, of which lapis-lazuli is the most frequent, as well as the most valuable. Of British edifices in and near the eity, the principal are the Government House, the College (for the i in ition of natives), the Metcalfe Testimonial, the h Church, and the barracks. The climate at A., during the hot and rainy seasons (April to Sep- tember), is very injurious to Europeans ; but on the whole, the average health of the city is equal to that of any other station in the North-western Pro\ As the seat of the lieutenant-governor of these provinces and of the administrative, judicial, and military establishments, A. is a place of considerable importance, independently of its past history. The population, before the late revolt, was estimated at 70,000. The principal articles of trade are cotton and salt, which arc conveyed in large quantities down the Jumna to the lower provinces. This city is held in great veneration by the Hindus, as the scene of the incarnation of Vishnu under the name of Farasu llama. It first rose to import- ance in the beginning of the loth c, and from loiO to 1658, it was the capital of the Mogul sovereigns. In that year, Aurungzebo removed to Delhi; henceforth, A. declined. It was taken in 17S4 by Scindia. and surrendered in ISO.'! to Lord Lake, after a bombardment of a few hours. Among the spoils on that occasion was a cannon of 23 inches calibre, 11'. inches metal at the muzzle; hngth, 14 feet 2 inches; weight, 96,000 pounds. The balls, of cast iron, weighed 1500 pounds. 78 I !. of ordnance is said to bai i been wantonly reduced to Eragmi nt . by blast ; i tdUery-afficere in is.';;;. (Tho of India.) During the late mutiny, A. was oi the places in which the Europeans were shut up. At the outbi •'•■.. the gan coi •iith and 07th regiments of B. N. [nfantry, the 3d European Fusiliers, and a few artillery. The native i were disarmed in .Inne 1N,">7; and the defence of this important city devolved upon the Europeans. The ladies resorted at night to places of refuge appointed by th< while the gentlemen patrolled the streets; but matters growing worse both in the eity and count i v. it was resolved, after a battle with the mutinei abandon the city and retire to the Fort or Residency. It was time ; for some thousands of prisoners gi loose, began to fire all the European buildings in the city. Hardly a house escaped destruction ; num- bers of traders were ruined, and had to endure the of beholding their ruin from the Fort. the Fort was bol and strongly defended, . a Docked in from all parts of the country, and the numbers soon swelled to 6846. Heroic sullies were occasionally made. Major Montgomery's march to Allygiirh, and his defeat of the rebels. though twenty t imes as numerous, was a feat worthy of llaveloek. When Delhi fell, its rabble of ders hurried off in the direction of A., which place was seriously threatened by them, bul nlieved by the rapid and brilliant march of Colonel Greathed, who discomfited the enemy, and despoiled them of nearly all their baggag AGRAM, the capital of Croatia, finely situated a| the foot of a richly wooded range of mountain about two miles from the Save, in lat. 45" -ID' .Y, long. 16° 4' E. King Bela rV. raised it in 1266 to the dignity of the royal town, in sequence having assi dust the Tatars. The town ded by a small stream into I . each of which is under a separate jurisdiction. The e at — the royal town proper, or upper town, built upon two eminences; the capital, or lower town ; and the epil pal town, under the jurisdiction of the bishop. The inhabitants are principally Croats, who carry on an insignificant trade in wood, corn, ami tobacco. The lower town is the newest and finest in appear- ance, many of the houses having Italian roofs. A. is the residence of the governor of Croatia, of the military commander-in-chief of the ( v and of a Catholic bishop. It also possesses a academy, with a public library, and various other educational institutions. Pop. 11,800. AGRARIAN DAW. With the name of A. I., used to be associated the idea of the abolition of property in land, or at least of a new distribution of it. This notion of the A. laws of the Romans was not only the popular one, but was also received by most scholars. The French Convention, in 1793, passed a law punishing with death any one who should propose an A. L., understanding by the term an equal division of the soil among all citizens. Now, it would have been strange if the Romans, with whom private property was so sacred, could ever have been brought to sanction any measure of the kind. It was the German scholars, Heyne. Ss I and especially Nicbuhr, who first explained the true nature and character of the Roman A. laws, lie re are still some disputed points on this matter, but one thing seems made out — that those lawB had no reference to private lands held in absolute property, but to public or state land . As the dominion of Rome extended, a portion more or less of each conquered territory was confis- cated to the state, and became public domain. All AGRARIAN LAW. laws respecting th lands were . \. laws ; which are therefore of various kinds. What modi these laws be so long mistaken for an ' interference with private rights, and excited such opposition to them at the tone, was the use which was made of the public domains while unappro- priated. 'It was the practice at lys Dr I, 'and doubtless in other states of Italy, to allow individuals to occupy such lands, and to enjoy all the benefits of them, on condition of paying to he of the produce; as an ai I ledgment that the state was the proprietor ofthe land, and the individual merely the occupier. Now, although the land was undoubtedly the prop :, the occupiers of it w on to the sta : iints-at-will, yut it is in human nature that a long undisturb & possession hould give a feeling of ownership; the more so as, while the state's claim lay dorms i or was, in fact, proprietor, and the land would tin b i g by regular sale from one oo ! 1'T.' state, however, was often obliged to interfere with these spiers of the public lauds, and i very idea of a citizen, in ancient involved that of a landholder, and when new us were to be admitted, they had each to then: portion out of the unallotted public domain; which was attended, of course, with the ion of the tenants-at-will. It appears, also, that the right to enjoy the public lands in this temporary way was confined to the old burghers or patricians. This, taken in conjunction with the tendency, strong at all times, of larger possessions to ow up smaller, kept up an ever-incn number of landless commons, whose destitution and iition came from time to time to such a pitch, that alleviation was necessary, to prevent the very dissolution of the state. It is easy, however, I what motive the patricians, as a body, had to oppose all such measures, since it was their interest, though not their right, to keep the lands unallotted. The enactment of A. laws occasioned some of the itruggles in the internal history of Roma Most of the lungs of Home are said to have oai i ied an A. L., that is, to have divided a portion of the public land among those whom they admitted to the rights of citizenship. 'The good king,' Serviui Tvillius, may be looked upon as the lirst victim of the hostdity of the nobles to A. laws. About twenty-four years after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the distress of the commons called aloud for remedy, and the consul, NpuriusCassius, proposed an A. L. for a division of a certain proportion of the public land, and for enforcing the regular payment of the rout or tithe from the occupiers of the remainder. The aristocracy, however, contrived to I the proposal, and wdien the year of his consulship was out, (.'assies was accused of trying to make himself king, was condemned, scourged, and beheaded, and his house razed to the ground. The lirst important A. L. of a permanent nature, actually passed, was that proposed by the tribune, Licinius Stolo, and carried, after a struggle of live years, in the year of Home .'1S.J. The provisions of I jeniius's bill, or rogation, were as follows: * Every Roman citizen shall be entitled to occupy any portion of the unallotted state land not exceeding bwjugi ra (see Aihk), and to feed on the public pasture-land any number of cattle not exceeding liM) head of large, or BOO head of small, paying in both cases the usual rates to the public treasury. Whatever portions of the public land beyond 5IMI jugera are at ,i occupied by individuals, shall be taken from them, and distributed among the poorer citizens as absolute property, at the rate of seven jugera apiece. public land shall also be bound to ly a certain number of freemen as laboui i This law produced for a time very saint I . But before the year 621, when Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune, the Lieinian law hail 1 to fall into abeyance; and although tracts had been acquired by the Italian, the Punic, and the Greek wars, no regular distribution of land among the destitute citizens had taken place for upwards of a century. Numerous mditary coli had indeed been founded in the conquered districts, and in this way many of the poor r Romans or their allies had been provided for ; but stdl there remained territories, the property of the state, which, instead of being divided among the poorer members of the state, were entered upon, and brought into cultivation, by the rich capitalists, many of whom ime to hold thousands of jugera, instead of the live hundred allowed by the Tamilian law. To a Roman statesman, therefore, looking on the one hand to the wretched pauper population of tiie meaner streets of Rome, and on the other, to the enormous tracts of the public land throughout Italy which the wealthy citizens held in addition to their own private property, the question which would naturally present itself was — Why should not the state, as landlord, resume from these wealthy capitalists, who are her tenants, as much of the public land as m sary to provide little farms for these pauper citizens, and so convert them into respectable and independent airriculturists ? This question must have presented itself to many ; but there were immense difficulties in the way. Nol only had long possession of the state lands, an expenditure of large sums in bringing them into cultivation, given the wealthy tenants a sort of proprietary claim upon them, but in the course of generations, during which estates had been bought, sold, and inherited, the state lands had become so confused with private property, that in many cases it was impossible to distinguish between the two. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Tiberius Gracchus had the boldness to propose an A. L., to the effect, that every father of a family might occupy GOO of the state land for himself, and 250 jugera additional for each of his sons; but that, in every case where this amount was exceeded, the state shoidd resiune the surplus, paying the tenant a price for the buildings, eve, which he had been at the expense of erecting on the lands thus lost to him. The recovered land3 were then to be distributed among the poor citizens; a clause being inserted in the bill to prevent these citizens from selling the lands thus allotted to them, as many of them would have been apt to do. According to the laws and constitution of Rome, there was nothing essentially unjust in this proposal, which was, iu private, at least, approved of bj of the most distinguished men of the time. The energy of Gracchus carried the measure, iu spite of the opposition of the aristocratic party, v. uce, however, could only be satisfied wit! assassination of Gracchus and his brother, Gracchus, The attempts to carry' out the ' proaian law,' as it was called, were at t end e d with great difficulties, and although not formally repealed, it continued to be evaded and r. inbred inoperative. Various A. laws were subsequently passed, some by the victorious aristocratic party, in a spirit directly opposed to the Licinian and Sempronian laws. dea A. laws having for then: object the division among the commons of public lands usurped by the nobles, there were others of a more partial and local nature, for the establishment of colonies in particular conquered districts; theso naturally met wit' opposition. Still more different were those violent Af;i;n m,.\ a«;i:h i " i/ji' i; k. by tin- victorious military leaders in the latter i.. reward their soldiers, and establish exclu- sive]} i colonies, [n these the private rights occupants v.' led. ACUICOLA, (is \i:i sm-l i i of the imperial times, distinguished not less by bis great ah uq and a Boldii r t 1 the beauty of his private character, was born a1 Forum Julii (now Frejus in Pi n < no 1, 37 u o. 1 1 with distinction in Bril '"1 Aquitania, ami through the round of civil offices, he was, in 77 a.i>., elected i auL and in the following year 1 1 rnor, to Britain the Bcene oi bi military and civil administration durin seven II i' was tliriir-t Human general who effectually subdued the island, ami the only one v. ho displayed as much "cuius ami success in training the inhabitants t" tic amenities of civilisation as in breaking their rude force in war. In his seventh and last campaign (84 A.D.), his decisive victory over the Caledonians under Galgacus, at tin- foot of the Grampians, established the Roman dominion in Britain to that ext'-nt northward. At tie- close of this campaign, his fleet circumnavigated the coast, for tie- first time, discovering Britain to he an island. Among the works executed by A. during his administration, were a chain efforts between the Solway and the Tyne, and another between the I lyde and Forth, Numerous traces of his operations are still to be found in Anglesey ami North Wales, and in Galloway, Fife, Perth- shire, and Angus. The new. of A.'s successes inflamed the jealousy of Domitian, and he was speedily recalled. Thenceforth he lived in i ineiit ; ami when the vacant pr iBulships of and Africa lay within his choice, he prudently declined promotion. The jealousy of the emperor, however, is supposed to have hastened his death, which took place at the early age of 55. His life. by bis son-in-law Tacitus, has always been regarded as one of the choicest specimens of biography in literature. ACRICOLA, John |«1 true name was Schnitter or Schneider, hut who was also called Magister [slebius and John EUsleben, after tin' name of his native town), born 1492, was one of the . ealous founders of Protestantism. Having studied at Wii id Lcipsic, he was sent (1525) by Luther, who highly appreciated his talents and learning, to EYankfort-on-the-Main, to institute there, at the desire of the magistrates, the Protestant np. On his return, he resided as a teacher and preacher in his native town of Eiajeben, till 1536. in 1537, Ic became a professor at Wittenberg, where the Antinomian controversy, already begun between him and Luther and Melanethon, broke out openly. See Antino.miam.sm. The trouble.: in which he was thus involved obliged him to withdraw (1538) to Berlin, where he was reduced to extreme want, and was thus induced to make a recantation, never altogether sincere. Hethi a found a protector in tic Elector John of Brandi a who appointed him preacher to the court ami general superintendent. He made great exertions for the spread of the Protestant doctrine in the Brandenburg states; but ere his death, which took place at Berlin. °.'2d September 1566, he had become as much hated for his share in the drawing up of the Augsburg /iii< rim (q. v.), as he had formerly been for his Antinomian opinions. Besides his numerous theological writings, his country pos a truly national work of his, entitled Die Gemanen '< ii SprUchw&rU r mit ihnr auAegwig [i 'onunon German Proverbs, with their Explanation ; Hagcnau, 1592; and a very complete but somewhat altered edition at Wittenberg, 1592). 'Ike patriotic Eei pure morals, ami pithy language of this book, have procured for it one ,,i" the first places among the 1 ' orks of thai AC Kll 'OLA, Ki iioi.riti s. one of the mo t i of the 15th c, and a chief instrument in transplanting tic taste for lit i i. M i rived ill Italy, into his native country of Germany, was born, 1443, in tb 3o, near B was properly Rolef Huys- mann (Le., houseman or husbands |, which Latinised by him into A., after the usage of the time. He was also called I'risius, and Rudol G aingen, from his native place; and sometimes Rudolf of Ziloha, from the monastery of Silo, where In some tune, ibn me bei " tn -t a disciple of 'I'll a .i K em] lis at Zwolle, he weni to Louvain, then to Paris, and thence to Italy, where, during the years L476 and 1477. he attended the lectures of the mo i i l. brated men of his age. Sere he entered into friendship with Dalberg, who afterwards became Bishop oi Worms. Me was the first German who distinguished himself in Italy in public s|ie;ikin and lecturing, and this he did not only by his erudition, but by the elegance of his language ami the correct- ness of his pronunciation. Jle likewise acquired reputation as an accompli bed mil aciar ; and hi were popular throughout Italy. On his return to Germany, he endeavoured, in connection with several of his former co-disciples ami friends, among whom were Alexander Hegius and Rudolpbus I. to promote a taste for literature and eloquence in .. Several cities of Holland vainly strove with each other to obtain his presence, by offering him public functions; but not even the brilliant overtures made to him by the court of the emperor Maximilian L, to which he had repaired in connec- tion with atl'airs of Hie town of GrBningen, could induce him to re tnce his independence. At length yielding (1483) to the solicitations of Dalber , who was now chancellor to the Elector Pal ami Bishop of Worms, he established him i i Palatinate, where he sojourned altornatelyat Heidel- berg and Worms, dividing his time between private studies and public lectures, ami . njoj ing high popu- larity. He distinguished himself a] os s painter; and at the age of -III set with ardour to learn Hebrew, in order to study theology, lie went, a air (14(34) with Dalberg into Italy, ami died shortly after his return to Germany (on the '_'Mh October 1485). Hi- i ■ oi il\ on the personal influ- ence he exerted. His compositions, which are written in Latin, are neither BO numerous nor so important as those of many of his learned contem- poraries. The first nearlj complete edition of them was that published by Alard (2 vols., ( lologne, 1539). < '< insult Tresling, Vita •■ Merita /.'..I. (GAningen, L830). AGRICULTURE (Lat ager, a field, and colo, I till) is the art of rearing those plants and animals that are best suited to supply the wants of man. Man has found the earth, in almost every clinic, I with vegetation, yet this often yields little that he can use. The spontaneous growth of nature affording but a limited quantify oi food, he at lot attempts to supply tin' deficiency by capturing the wild animals, which often feed upon what is unsuiti d for his sustenance. Sometime., however, the most fertile lands under luxuriant forests, or other natural vegetation, only support a small number of animals. In the most favourable circumstances, a given ana of territory cannot maintain many of the human family, so long as they depend upon the natural vegetation or on the chase. It is only after those AGRICULTURE. plants which yield man an abundant Supply of food are selected and made the objed oi etui ili.it population auj Bents, and civilisation takes its rise. Man has selected a great variety of plants for cultivation to afford him food and clothing. 1" northern latitudes, wheat, barl rye, and the potato form the chief plant ■ del subsistence. Thcso crop an most productive when i ow ii in Bummer in the tempi rate elima , iiili. being fced to the heats of the torrid zone. 'I In ii ■■ ■"■■ra pi ileal In nil i, 1 j • ■ %v • - vi r, ar.- •_'!'' ally i .1. mil il bj growing them as winter crops on the In. rilers of, and even within, the tropics. In these i on hoi i maize, millet, and other grain ■ [armorer of food than the already mentioned < reals are in high latitudes, as they flourish during the heats of summer. Where heat and Hi" tin' i banana, thi tree, and other herb plants and trees, are most prod human tood. — A short historical nntlii E the A. of different parts of th nlate the pi iiuan. The . ins for it tie mil line '" the chi I ry items of A. The teeming popul itdontl i in ancient in the narrow valley of the Nile, th riding army which was maintained, thi rs i unary works of engineering and architecture still visible Modem Shadoof. in our day, and the exportation of corn to other nations, indicate an advanced state of the art of A. Rain is a ram phenomenon in Upper Egypt, and fertility is only maintained by the waters of the Nile, winch are subject to annual floods. The risings and ebbinga are as regular new as they were iii (he ilays of HeiodotUSJ and the agricultural systems are also in a -real measure the Bame. The iimitdatinii which, unless prevented by embankments, covers the whole land, occurs at tile hottest season. As the waters retire m I I. . ,1 >. r. the land is sown with what are there styled winter ctops, consisting of wheat, barley, Lentils, tlax, lupines, eluek-pease. \c. All tl ceouire uo further watering, as the moisture which the sod 9 ui.ilied during the inundation is sufficient to bring them to maturity about the end of Apia], or \ n a month a ler in I pper Egypt Only one crop in the year is grown upon most of the inun- d ii >1 lands. Buton those lands which are pro! from the inundati crops a year may bo raised by means of artificial watering. Few of the plants used as winter crop i • b grown in summer 1 mts adapted for summer OOn rice ii I d in the Delta), durra, millet, maize, sesame, m I a is, I D 01 thej are sown from A].ril to August, and of several of them two crops in the ripen under the cloudless sky of Egypt. A miial labour and animal power is I -p ml. din watering the ground for thesummcr AGRTcn/rrnr:. The peasants use the tliarfnqf for the purpose, which is .1 simple oontxiranosj used in drawing water, over a large portion of the Last. 1 ' i wheel, driven n, is hugely employed ; so much BO, that about a arc at pr in the valley of the Nile, ■ rope, cotton, ii and sugar-cane are now cultivated to a : r ill i Winn the waters rest long on the land, it answers all the ends of a fallow, by extirpating the land-weeds and disintegrating the soil. The ground, in such cases, requires iii) further ou i treading in the seed by anim face with bushes. On the other hand, the summer orops require a great deal of tending, both in cultivating and watering the soiL The diminution of the population in Egypt lias in some measure deprived tho country o the m ans of its former advanced state of A.; nor is its present poUtical condition at all likely to lead to much improvement. Few historical records of the state of 23 A. have come down to us. We can only judge of its productiveness by the i pula i that was Supported in the plains liordoring the Kuphrat. s, where the summer climate is almost as arid as that of Egypt. That river also was subject to overflow, when the snows melted on the- mountains of Armenia in summer. Further than this, however, we have no knowledge of the syeti led or crops cultivated) The Scriptures arc full of allusions to the opera- tions of the husbandman in Palestine as well as in Egypt, The operations in the two countri l sarily formed striking contrast the crops in the former being chiefly dependent on the rains tor growth; in the latter, on the inundations of the Kile, In the Holy Land, tier are extensive plains of fertile sod which yielded the finest Wheat, The hillsides were covered with vines and olives, often planted on terraces formed with much labour, to el lad mass of soil, in which the plants might flourish in the almost rainless Bummers. The valleys were well watered, and afforded pasture for numerous flocks. Of the smaller cultivated plants, millet was the chief summer crop, but it was only cultivated to a limited extent, being confined to those spots that could be artificially watered. Wheat and barley were thechi as the winter rains were sufficient to bring them to maturity. The large number of inhabitants that Palestine supported under the Jews is the wonder of all modern travel- lers, wdio are struck with the ruins of ancient cities and the desolation of the country. The means of cultivation, however, disappeared with the inhabit- and the destruction of the wood has added to the aridity of the climate. Concurring testimony indicates that the systems of cidtivation v, ere what similar in all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, which arc characterised by arid summers, and autumn and winter rains. Irrigation, therefore, was bad recourse to wherever it was practicable. The A. of Italy in the present day exhibit contrasts in its condition ; for while a garden-like cidtivation is seen in Lombardy, the utmost rude- ness and backwardness prevail in the southern parts of the peninsula. Into the social causes that have led to these results our limits forbid us to enter. The. literature of the A. of the ancient Romans, throws much light on tho systems that then existed in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. As is well known, the wide-spread dominion of Home rose out of a diminutive colony planted on the banks of the Tiber. In the time of the early kings, its original territory did not extend above five miles towards the Alban Hills, and still less in other direc- tions. Romulus is said to have divided a portion of his small territory amos the rate of little more than an acr I mint. 'i in perpetuitj . wa i not liable to be I and could 1"- Bold I hole ten was in' . to the citizen 1, but the larger part ' ■. which yielded a revenue let to the wealthy cl ... lands were i i i.liivate.l or allowed to remain i i upants of the corn-land paid one- ol the produce as rent ; of vines and fruit one-fifth ; and a n for sleep or cattle i : he occupant andthi Id resum at anytime. A similar policy seems to have been pursued by the nu a\ Italy. As ',. were all conquered in succession by the Romans, their lands became the property of the Roman state Sometimes the inhabitant i wholly extirpated, or Bold into slavery, and their partly assigned tn tic poorer c I d in the war ; the r mainder, ■:, hii ' ; the much larger part, I d 'main lands. In other instances, only a portion of the land tab i from the conquered nations; the former owners were allowed to retain them as tenants, paj ing the ordinary rent. Thus, from the earliest times, two classes of Cultivators were in existence tie- small proprietors, and hi ■' \a tenants, hoi the lauds of the state. Betwixt the two, thi i almost a perpetual strife— Hie one demanded the distribution of the state domains, while the ot constantly resisted it. Even after the Ro e masters of the whole of Italy, the citizens had little more than four acres of land assigned to > ■! i : an.l Hi ■ domain lands Increased enonn Attempts were constantly made to restrict the extent of domain held by the patricians, but ■ ally Without i lee Ai:i:ai:ian Laws. The extent of domain lands gave rise to the employment of slave labour in their cultivation Wealthy citizens. This led to the dlscoun jeeni of i mall proprietors, bo that the free population 1 in A. diminished throughout Italy. I I evil was furl her aggravated by the policy that the (tomans pursued towards the inhabitant the conquered provinces: there, none of the land told, but it wa) solely vested in I he Roman ] pie, being all Let out for the benefit i elate. On the conquest of Sicily, the wet Romans flocked over, and farmed the rents, as well as cultivated tee lands by means of slave-labour. Indeed, the chief supplies of grain sent to Lome from Sicily, Sardinia, ami Cartilage, were raised by d of slaves. A. was long the only source of wealth open to the patricians ; and it was deemed the most honourable of occupations. Its operations were I'nrn directed by men of wealth and learning; and I wonder that its literature was so copious, and held in BO high estimation. Cato, the first and most celebrated agricultural writer (who died aged ,ss, 150 ».<:.), was in the middle period of life at tho enil of the second Punic war. The large farming system bad then been fully established ; and he gives m. not only the mo-t minute particulars regarding the management of the slaves on his Sabine farm, but all the details of husbandry, from the ploughing of the fallows to the reaping and threshing of the crop. The chief gram ctdtivated by the Romans was wheat, but barley was also cultivated to a consider- able extent. Land devoted to grain was fallowed for a whole year every alternate year ; in other words, the rotation consisted of let, wheat, 2d, fallow. One- third of the fallow was manured and sown with some green crop as cattle-food. Fallow received from four to five furrows before the wheat was sown in AGIilCULTURE. autumn. The last ploughing left the land in narrow ridges ; and u the seed was bowo broadcast, it come ii)p in rows, which admitted of the crop being several times hand-hoed, The craps of wheat ripened about tin- middle of June, but the summers were too dry to allow of millet and other summer crops being with certainty. Kyi', hemp, Sax, beans, turnips, lupines, vetches, and lucerne are also men as occasionally cultivated. Meadows were highly d, and irrigation to some extent adopted. wire fed i" the plains in winter, and driven towards the Apennines us the snows melted in Bpring, and when the pastures below became parched by the heat. Hie greater proportion of the surface of Southern 1 tahy consists of thin calcareous soils, ill adapted for the growth of grain or grass; and the vine, the olive, and the mulberry become the chiel objects of culture. The principal district i Effl ing wheat are, in the neighbourhood of Naples, and in the ancient Apulia, where Hannibal gener- ally wintered when he overran Italy. Some of the e rich plains are still held directly from the government, and cultivation is of the rudest char- acter. One-third of the land is in pasture the other two-thirds in fallow and grain. Tliree or four crops are taken in succession, and the soil is I Inn allowed to recruit its exhausted strength by remaining under pasture. In the great plain of Northern Italy watered by the I'o, agriculture is now in a very advanced con- dition. A great part of it is of great natural fertility ; it drew forth the praises of Polybius, who visited it about fifty years after it came into the hands of the Romans. The oak-groves which he found scattered over the plain, fed the immense droves of swine that were then raised in Italy. Now, however, rich and poor soils arc subjected to the fertil- ising influences of irrigation, and the region has become the best cultivated in Europe. No less than 1,600,000 acres of land are under irrigation, and the results are of the most striking character. The land is forced to produce a constant succession of grass and grain. The irrigated meadows, like the pastures of Ireland and Scotland, are made the comer-stone of the systems of rotation. In general, three years in meadow arc succeeded by three years in rice; two years in Indian corn and flax; one year in wheat sown out with grass-seeds. Large numbers of cattle are kept on the farms of Lnmbardv, where the land is often a complete net-work of canals, with their smaller distributing channels. There is b i irgs exportation both of grain and dairy produce, Mi vast ranges of snowy mountains that bound the plain te the north, afford a never-failing supply oi water during tin- heats of summer. The Nine and mulberry beautify the country, and also give employment to the dense population. The lower latitude of Bpain gives i a still more arid summer climate than Italy. Rains commonly fall only during the autumn and winter, and the Supply is scanty and irregular. This renders Spain a poor and unproductive country, excepting where the sod can be irrigated. For this reason, the resources of its agriculture are chiefly confined te its well-watered valleys, which are capable of being made to outstrip Egypt itself in productiveness. The M -s early introduced the art of irrigation m II uth of Spain, and carried it to a high pitch in the kingdom of (Iranada. Before the comjuesl oi that country by Ferdinand and Isabella, the valley of (,'rannda was one well-cultivated garden. Though tile undiminished poWBTS of the land arc still attested by a few spots in the Vegas of Mureia and Granada, its present condition cannot be compared to its condition under the Moors. The high tempera- ture admits of a succession of crops being raised in one year, as in Egypt. After wheat has been gal in June, a emp of maize or millet, or of vegot is got. Maize is scarcely grown in 8p where the land is irrigated, so that every valley is more or less under the productive influem The melting of tic- snows in sumn the high ran of mountains, affords a supply when it is most needed in th olives, and oranges find a . i tlnir growth in the southern nd are important of culture. France musl be regarded as one of the richest agricultural countries in Europe. In the the climate is sufficiently hot for olive-, mai?e, toe mulberry, and the vine. The summer rain arc more abundant than in Spain, and penult maize to be extensivi I alternately with wheat, which forms a most, productive course of crops. Irrigation has received considerable attention in lie- southern valleys, and the reclamation of the barren wastes of the Trail in Provi nee. testifies to its fertilising effects. Much of the soil is poor in I lc iithern provinces, and not suited to the growth of grain ; but such soil admits of the growth of the mulberry, the olive, or the vine. All these crop, demand a large amount of labour in their cultur. and sustain a dense population. Normandy i celebrated for its pastures. The north-wi France generally is the most fertile tract of land in Europe. In the less advanced districts, fallow. wheat, and oats is the rotation still followed Clovers and lucerne are largely sown m the chalk) districts. In the best cultivated di diets in tie north, wheat and beet-root or poppy are sown alternately. Beet forms a most important plant in the agriculture of France in the present day, as a large part of the sugar consumed in tin- is derived from it. Much of France is divided small properties, which is more especially tic in the less fertile provinces. This division of pro- perty is, so far, a necessity, as no other industrial occupation is open to the ] pie. As soon as manu- factures raise the standard of living in the town, it will influence the condition of the rural population, and had to the enlargement of prop I In Austria, Hungary, and tic countries on both sides of the Danube, the dim ibles that of Cithern half of France. Maize and wheat are the chief products, but the agriculture labours under so many impediments to progress, tint it is yet in a backward state. In Southern Russia, there are vast tracts of rich land bordering on the rivers flowing into the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, from which Western Europe derives large supplies of wheat and flax-seed, as well as some maize. The noi ; parts of Russia arc less fertile, and as yet the means of transport is defective and limited, flax, skins, and tallow are the chief products sent to market, bye forms the common bread-corn of the lower classes. Prussia, unless i shores of the Baltic, has no great proportion of i land within her territory ; the chief article exported i- wheat from the Baltic provinces, which is of tine quality. The potato enters largely into the food of the i imon people in Prussia, and is also used in the manufacture of an!. allure, how- ever, has no peculiarities deserving of special notice in this cursory .sketch. Flanders has lone been celebrated for its farming, and its cultivators arc generally Supposed to have carried improved systems into the cistern counties of England. It is characterised by painstaking management, ami. at the same time, liberal appli- cation of manure. The general size of the farms would be considered rather small in England, but considerable capitals arc invested in stock and U AGRICULTURE. implements, and Beveral hands of crop unknown to British A. A large part of the stock is stabled throughout the year, the gram being cut and i d from the fields, The rearing and the feedin of cattle, as veil as the dair} i combined on one faun. Flax is a crop which receives s deal of careful management. Hemp and ' i i'H Iil»'i I treatment with iv- p manure, and only enter into the rotation where high farming is followed, The ero] in the rotation, that tw real crops do not an each other. In no country are th" fields 1 free from v. they are in I landei . and in none do the agriculturists sutler so little from fluctu- ations in the prices of grain, owing to variety of crops that are raised, England had made con er Ivances in A. bo far back as the I6thc. This far athered from the writings of Ertehi rVx rt, Tusser, and others. \t an earlier period, her chief article of export had been wool, which supplied t J i - - leata of manufacturing industry in Holland, hut now she also erp large quantity of wheat. The increasing pro of the country caused a demand for butcher-meat, which began to rise in price much sooner than it did in Scotland By the middle of the 17th c, turnips and red clover as field-croj by the cud of it, tile two wen- extensively cultivated in many parts, in alternation with corn. In 1760, the four-coin bift was not uncommon in many parts of Norfolk. Under tins system of 1st, wheat; 2d, turnips ; 3d, barley; 4th, grass, one half of tho land was constantly under corn-crops, and the other under cattle-crops. Large numbers of sheep and cattle were fatten i i pa and clover. In the preparation of the land for turnips, it was well cultivated and weeded, and the ci in of the roots on the land increased the yield of the barley. The four-course shift has formed tho basis upon which furthi tnents have been made in the southern and eastern parts of England The strong soils of Suffolk an ; ' : pasture, and about a century ago, tiny were mostly devoted to dairy-fanning. The high price of corn, however, encouraged the conversion oil thi elands into i farms. The course followed was 1st, wheat; 2(z, fallow; 3d, barley; 4th, clover. Instead of the fallow, mangel-wurzel is now largely substitut 1, which enables the farmers to feed large numbers of bullocks in the yards, without so large an expendi- ture in the purchase of oil-cake as was at one time it necessary. In . until a, where the climate is mom suitable for :n i ■. and less so for wheat, dairy and stock-rearing become g objects of attention. The demand for dairyproduce in the neighbourhood of the large manufacturing towns of the west, renders tie' land of much i value under grass than under corn, more especially where the soil is tenacious. In the more friable soils of the north-western counties of England the systems of A. resemble somewhat that i Instead of the land lying I year under grass, it lies two, followed by oats, then turnips or potatoes, and the wheat-crop is taken after this grei n • and not after the grass. Tie nristic which distinguishes the arable farming in the v, from that in the eastern counti- I nd. A large portion of the surface of England is under permanent pasture, and the beauty of the meadows is unrivalled in any part of the world. The surface of England is very unequally fanned, for while A. has attained a L'reat degree of perfect such counties as Suffolk, Norfolk, and Lincoln, it is in a comparatively primitive state in others. The causes which have led to this state of things are often difficult to trace. The spirit of improve- in, nt now seems, however, far more generally diffused and spirited farmers are everywhere spring- ing up. who, . will find many imitate In Ireland, the want of manufactures has con- tinned to act as a great hindrance to agricultural improvement. The c pi I ition thai arc e among a population in taking small i fed to extravagant rente, the payment of which involved the starvation of the tenants. The faithful pictures, which Arthur Sonne drew, toward of the last cen iiuy. ahi wed the workings of such a system. The genera] introduction of the pi upon which the people chiefly subsisted enabled ruts > be | I / Uing the scanty produce of gram, or the pigs that were reared. 1 o crop in 1846 produ 1 the most heart-rending of n that have been witnessed in our When Young made his tour, it was the inoii practice, among the small fanners, to take from four to six en i] is of oats or bail' y in succession, after which the land was allowed to n powers by the growth of the natural grasses. On the moderate-sized farms, the cultivation was better; but turnips had little place in a course of cropping i ly a century after thi ' ivfttea ■■folk. Tim Protestant population in the north of Ireland introduced at an early period tile culture of tlax, which still forms a peculiar feature in the A. of that part of tin country. The huge amount of manual labour which it requires in its prop; i for market, has so far served to preserve I he cultiva- tors from descending so low in the scale oi ice as those in tin- south. As a general rule, it is found that the worst land is most densely peopled; the secondary descriptions are in moderate- sized farms; while the best land has hitherto been devoted to pasture, for which the climate is admir- ably suited. The winters are so mild in the south, it tie are often not stabled. In Young's time, the Irish graziers were the only class of agriculturists that were possessed of capital. Tho , todus which took place after the potato-failure, has relieved the country- of a portion of the redundant population, but it is still too dense in many places. Scotland made comparatively tittle or no advance to V for ages previous to the beginning of the 18th e. Donaldson, who published bis //<< Anatomised ten years before the Union, affords a pretty accurate picture of the art as then prac- The farms were small, and divided into outfield and infield land, (hi the former, which was fin tie -t from the homestead, tie- rotation con bed in grass, succeeded by two years in oats. (In the infield land, barley, oats, and pease were sown in succession, and the whole manure was com- monly applied to the barley-crop. The yield of corn was fiom three to four times the quantity of '■ re of the poorest description, as no artili- cial grasses were sown. Little encouragement was held out to rear cattle, for a heifer did not bring i v than twenty shillings in the market — scarcely the price of two quarters of barley at that time. At fli'- Union, however, Scotland gained free trade with her wealthier rival, from which flowed the happiest consequences. Every branch of industry i iu the new field opened up, and \> I than A. A lai'L'e trade soon arose in sending the lean cattle and sheep that were reared on tic i mtainous wastes, as well as in the low country, fattened on the pastures and green crops in the south. A great rise in the prices of stock followed, which not only encouraged improved breeds, but enabled cultivators to devote a certain portion of the arable-lands to the growth of artificial grasses and turnips. Neither of these were grown pre- vious to the Union ; but in little more than lifty years AGRICULTURE. afterwards, one fanner in Roxburghshire is said to have had MM) acres of turnips in one year. Towards tli. end of the century, turnips and artificial ■_ of improved A. in every county. A great rise in the value of land took place. The trar-prices in the beginning of the present cex • -Initiation ol I nts, however, were not effected without a great revolution in the state of the rural population, Formerly, the farms were small, and often lain uired by the members of a single family. A consolidation of farms took place, which sitated a great change in the social condition of employers and employed, producing often painful 1 if late yi an, the commercial prosperity of the country has neatly helped to elevate the rural population, and necessitated impn . ■ accommodation. Scottish A. is distinguished for great economy in labour, forming a contrast in this respect to that in nef com districts of England. Few farms are jeen in the richer districts without having a fixed steam-engine for driving the Kara and other machinery. Labour-saving machines have also been freely introduced. With sod, climate, and situation, the mode of cropping varies greatly over the country. In the Lothians, the six-course shift is common: namely, 1st, wheat ; 2d, beans or potatoes; 3d, wheat ; Hit, turnips; f«7i, barley or wheat; 6th, grass-seeds. In certain situations, the potato-crop has lately'becn still more extensively planted, occupying the place of the li an or the turnip. On secondary farms, the'five- course rotation becomes more common: 1st, wheat, or barley; 2d, grass; 3d, grass; 4th, oats; 5th, turnips or potatoes. The larger proportion of the surface of Scotland, however, is devoted to pasture for sheep and cattle. The mountainous tracts are ally unfit for cultivation. Little else has been done in the way of improving them than digging a few surface-drains, and improving the breeds of the sfeek they feed. Sheep-farms vary in extent from 1000 to 60,000 acres. A few of the best stock-farms may summer and winter a sheep to the acre, but most require three acres. The black-faced are i upon the most elevated and exposed ground, whde the Cheviots thrive on those parts that are less so. No other food is usually given in winter than what is left on the fields in autumn. Cross-breeds between the Cheviot and the Leicester are reared in the lower ranges, where a supply of turnips may be had to give to the ewes while suckling their offspring. When the sheep are to be fattened, they arc taken to the arable districts. The opening of steani- and lately, the system of railways, have bei ii of infinite benefit to Scottish A. in getting a market for Eat animals. In North America, the same crops are raised as in corresponding latitudes in Europe. The winters in Canada and the United States are much more than those of Western Em-ope. while the summers are quite as hot, and far more moist, ami hence arise considerable variations in the practices of agriculture. In Canada and the northern states, wheat is the staple article of export In all the chief exporting districts, wheat and red clover are grown as alternate crops. Betwixt latitudes !'j and 39", wheat is often grown alter- nately with maize, after the land has been under pasture for Borne years. Again, betwixt la- 39° and 35*, the climate is better suited for than wheat, which becomes less produi The 1 ! r ,1,-ns are in south Ohio and throughout Kentucky. Below latitude 86°, maize is much less productive, and the climate becomes suitable for cotton. This plant furnishes the staple article of production from latitude 36 to res of the Gulf of Mexico. Rice is the profitable crop in the southern states; but its culture is chiefly confined to the tidal sv. which can be flooded by fresh water. The sugar- cane is limited to the rich alluvial lands on the of the Mississippi as far north as latitude 31°. a principal crop in Virginia and some i I surrounded by the warm waters of the gulf, s im the cold mirth winds of the Aire i circumstance favours the growth i which is so susceptible of injury from frosts. The rich lands of these islands prodii' Coffee is also grown to a a extent on I of the Antilles. On the Pacific coa climate is characterised by ludd winters and dry- summers, so that the methods of agriculture must conform to those of the countries bordering on the sfediterrani The soil of South America appears to be much more fertile than that of North America. In the southern parts, the winters i i itively mud, when contrasted with those on the same latitude s in the British possessions. The valli y of the Bio de la Plata is admirably suited for rearing sheep and cattle, which are found in immense herds in the interior. Brazd is densely wooded, shewin abundance of the rains, and the capabUities ol country for the growth of the sugar-cane. In the north, where the dry seasons are of longer duration, there arc immense grassy plains called savannahs, covered with herds of wild-cattle. Though no cattle were found on the continent when discovered by Europeans, it has been asserted that more cattle are now running wild in South America than the whole domesticated cattle of Euro] ie. China possesses a climate having a great simi- larity to that of the United S; of the Rocky Mountains. The winters are cold, and the summers moist and hot. Rice forms the great staple crop in the warmer regions of the wherever the land can be irrigated. This plant is also cultivated to a limited extent on dry lands, along with millet and maize. The density of the population in China, is an indication of the advano d state of its A. The careful manner in which all the refuse of the towns and villages is husbanded and applied to the land, wlnlc w ot suffered to grow among the crops, is the true secret of the productive A. of the Chn The condition of A. in China shews what we might expect from eidightencd policy in the pi tion of that of India. The monsoons which prevail over Hindustan during summer cause a great luxuri- ance of vegetation while they last ; but the extreme droughts that precede and follow them parch and wither up the shallower-rooted plants. < rver a part of India, irrigation is required to produce many of the crops with certainty. In the tropical latitudes, rice is the most abundant gram-yielding plant, and forms the chief food of the people. The numerous rivers of Northern India supply the means of irriga- tion, and the production of food then becoa matter of comparative certainty. Where the winters are cool, wheat and barley are grown at that - and riee, maize, millet, ic. in summer, just as we find in the irrigated valleys of the south of Spain. At the present time, the principal drawbacks to the better cultivation of land are the deficiency in the of transporting the produce, and the tenure by which the land is held. The immense qua of cotton and flax which are grown and literally lost for want Of a market, is a Subject that is thinning to attract attenti out manufacture] Buffering from the scarcity of raw material. It would 1 ut of place to give an outline of the 8S AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY— AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. A. of the other intertropical count i of the world, which have contributed bo little to the common civilisation of mankind. Where rains are abundant, tli. ease with which a subsistence can b from large herbaceous plants, and trees yieldm fruit at all i i the year, has been justly regarded as inimical to the progress of society. The productiveness of the banana and the bri tree, considering the small amount of cultiva- tion they require, is calculated to strike natdvi a of colder climates with a sit. Captain eloquently remarks: "Whoevei l planted the bread-fruit trees, has fulfilled his duty to his own and succeeding generations as completely and amply as au inhabitant of our rude clime who, throi his whole life, has ploughed during the rigour of winter, reaped in the heat of Bummer, and not only provided las present household h ith bread, but pain- fully saved some money for his children.' In the southern hemisphere, the extent of sea greatly predominates over the land. The vapours which are raised over so vast an expanse of water flow towards the equator, and are chiefly deposited there in copious rains. They arc not diverted by the peninsulas of South America, South Africa, or New Holland, as they are by the continents of America and Asia. Comparatively sterile regions are the result. Australia and the Cape of Oood Hope arc sparingly Supplied with rains, so that their soil is not very productive of grain. Cultivation languishes, and the agriculturist devotes his attention to the rearing of cattle and sheep. New Zealand, however, possesses a climate having considerable resemblance to that of England, and is favourable for the produc- tion of grass and grain. Under the heads of Cultivated Plants, Dairy, Domestic Animals, Drainage, Irrigation, Imple- ments, Manures, Soil, Rotation of Crops, Lease, &c, will be more particularly treated the systems and rationale of farm-management pursued in the British Islands. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, that branch of chemical science which treats of the composition of soils and manures, and of the vegetable and animal substances which it is the object of agriculture to produce. Instead of considering the subject by itself, it will receive attention under the heads of Drainage, Irrigation, Manures, Soils, &c. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, as at pre- sent understood, is a comprehensive term, including instruction in chemistry, geology, botany, zoology, mechanics— embracing, in short, the science as well as the practice of agriculture. However important the branching off of education into this special track, it is only of late years that adequate attention has been paid to it. The lirst agricultural school landed by Follenberg at Hofwyl, in Switzer- land, in 1S0G. His pupils were taken from the poorest class of peasantry, of whom lie truly observed, that having 'no other property than their physical and mental faculties, they should be taught how to use this capita] to the best advantage,' by a combination of ' discipline, study, and manual labour.' No fewer than 3000 pupils were trained in this school, which flourished for thirty years under the able direction of Wehrli. Since then, various institutions of the same character have sprung up ou the continent. In France, several have been supported by the state — the principal being the one at Grignon, to which an old royal palace with its domain of 11S5 acres has been given up. One of the lirst duties undertaken by the new government Of Marshal MacMahon, in 1873, has been the nomination of a commission to re-organise the system of agricultural education. In Prussia, there 86 is Bcarcely a proviuoe that docs do i agri- cultural scl 1 and model farm; and, indeed, throughout Germany, as well as in Russia, we find educational institutions supported by the state, in all of which, with some alight '1 Herein ( detail, agriculture is practically as well as theoreti tan-lit. More recently, experimental stations have bed in various parts of the BS In England, there are as yet no state institutions of tins hind. In 1846, an Agricultural Colli established, by private enterprise, at Cirencester, for the education of both resident and aon n lident pupils —the' former paying as high as £130 per annum, the tatter £50, a ml the oourse of instruction extending over two years. A large farm i l tttl to the school. Iii Scotland, special instruction in agriculture has taken the form of lectures at uni- versities, provincial associations, ftc, by which, as well as by the labours of the Highland Society, much valuable educational knowledge has bei a ciliated. Private agricultural instruction is also given by fanners, who board and educate students for a stipulated sum per annum. Many of the counties m Scotland are exceedingly well adapted for agricultural student-, a, the ttatUl the ground permits of both sheep and ordinary farming being practised together. But it is in Ireland, where peculiar eircum-l rendered it eminently expedient, that the most matic and successful efforts have been male. For several years past, the Commissioners of National Education have judiciously paid special attention to agriculture. Altogether, Ireland has 205 farm- schools, with land attached of very various extent, ranging from 2 to 180 acres. These schools may be divided into three classes, and present a gradual ascent from small to great: 1st, There are 169 Ordinary National Agricultural Schools, where, by a slight addition to the ordinary salary of a national schoolmaster, the teachers are encouraged to culti- vate school-gardens and small holdings, and thus to give daily practical lessons to the children under their care. 2c/, There are 36 Model Agricultural Schools in various parts of Ireland ; 10 of them under local management, 20 under the exclusive management of the Board. These, whether their scale of culture be small or extensive, present to the iuferior schools standards of excellence and imitation, linking the lowest of the agricultural establishments — namely, the cottar farm attached to the Ordinary Agricultural School — with, 3d, the highest establishment of the kind, the Central, or Albert School at Glasnevin, containing 180 acres, and cultivated by some 00 pupils, from all parts of the country. With regard to these minor schools, which are annually visited by two inspectors, the reports are, with very few excep- tions, highly favourable, both as to the success of the establishments themselves, and their influence on the surrounding population. An Irish rector has given it as his opinion that they tend to make districts 'more orderly and quiet, to diminish drunkenness, and to keep down agrarian disturb- ances.' Another good authority states that their example has introduced 'rotation of crops' and encouraged 'attention to winter-feeding of stock, and to toe collection and pn of manure.' Glasnevin Training Farm was established by the toners of National Education in 1838, and considerably enlarged in 1849. Its prof' is to supply young men with instruction in the science and' practice of agriculture. Three classes are admitted to its benefits. The 6rsl consists of prospective land-stewards or farmers, drafted, as we have seen, from minor institutions, undergoing au eutrauce-examiuation, and receiving AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. a two-years' braining, and who are admitted free by competitive examination ; the second, of farmers' sons, prospective tenant-farmers, who desire to advance themselves in life by punning new modes of managing, and who pay for tine of their and lodging. The third class is comp men who board and lodge, at their own . in the immediate neighbourhood, and who Imitted on the payment oftn i quar- ter. For all these classes alike, labour and study a itii -ally alternate, the entire number of pupils formed into two divisions, the one devoting orning of one day to the farm, the other to the room, and via v i on the morrow, bah working together on the land in the afl winding up the day with two hours of study. Obe- . punctuality, and habits of cleanliness and order are strictly insisted upon. Various rotations of are exemplified upon separate divisions of the farm, and the system of house-feeding cattle is I on, both summer and winter. Tin- training institution situated on the farm comprises, in addi- tion to dormitories, school and lecture room, &c, a museum, library, and laboratory. The chief super- vision of the whole establishment devolves upon or Baldwin, head of the agricultural depart- who makes it his hea Iqv The chief labours of the farm, including draining operations, i formed by the pupils, under the direction of a resident agriculturist. Practical horticulture is also taught, and a good general education imparted i by two competent literary instructors. Two ses- | sional courses of lectures are annually delivered on animal and vegetable physiology, 7:i) its members number 4500. The ordinary subscription is £1, \U. id. annually, which may be redeemed by one payment of £12, I- . Tenant-farmers are admitted on a subscription of 10a annually, or £5, Si. for life. Th more import- is aimed at by the society are — 1. Agricultural meetings and general shows of stock, implements, and dairy produce held in the principal towns of Scotland. 2. Encouraging a system of district shows, for the improvement of breeds of stock most suitable to the different parts of the country. 3. The encouragement and promotion of a proper system of agricultural and forestry education, by means of powers conferred by a supplementary royal charter in 1850. authorising 'the Cow the Highland and A. Society an Education' to pre- scribe a curriculum of study, and to _ r rant diplomas and certificates to students of agriculture who shall pass the requisite examination. 4. The advancement of the veterinary art, by con- ferring the Society's certificate on students who have passed through a regulated curriculum in tin- Edinburgh Veterinary College, and who are found by a rigid examination qualilied to practise. te appointment of two chemists for the pur- pose of analysing soils, manures, &c. to members, and for promoting the application of scien agriculture. 6. The establishment of an agricultural museum, illustrative of the vegetable products of the country; but this collection has been handed over to the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. 7. The annual publication of reports and piusi - essays on all branches of agriculture and arboricul- ture, as well as the proceedings of the laboratory. The general shows of stock, 4c, are held once every year, at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, or some other principal town, and are attended by vast numbers of persons. The business of the society is conducted by a secretary at an office in Edinburgh. The writings of Arthur Young directed attention to the agricultural condition of England, shortly after the middle of the last century. In l~'J'3 the ' Board of Agriculture ' was incorporated. This was a private association, but being supported by parliamentary grants, it so far partook of the nature of a pubbc institution. Its ' surveys' of the different counties collected and diffused an immense amount of information of the most valuable kind. It lat- terly encouraged experiments and improvements of all kinds in agriculture, but was dissolved in 1S16. have sprung up since then in ■ut parts of England; oi ' Sinithticld t'.ittL Club,' 'The Bath and V. .land .' and the 'Yorkshire A. S is the most influential. ;hnnd vigour of the national society, ' The Royal A. Society of Englani D beyond all precedent. ashed in May 1838, ^nd thi of 460' members, but in l>7:i the members were as many in number as 6 00. The objects wh with those of th. lin.l. Ordinary mein- , t'l annually, or £10 for life. The Journal, containing interesting and original reports on A. subjects is scut free to all the members. Ireland also boasts of its 'Royal A. Society of Ireland.' 87 agiugi-atpm acrm'Pa. It was formed in lsu, and in adi ultuiv of the (■■unit iv. ally by introducing improved dp bue. utriee of continental Eur .p.- have followed the example i otain in the form- ation di' A. Associations of various kinds. In the Erei mea tea, where the land is owned by those who farm it. A. s. have sprung op in great numbers. Every state hi central Society, which in its torn number of local associations. Indeed, in all grain-producing d its own society. These being all partly Bupi ill inf.iriiiati.nl i published, and sold at a cheap rate in B l. follows i" the wake of her enterprising neighbours, and supports bj of money a ocial Bhow in each province, while the county societies are numerous, and supply mat. -rials for the Reports of the Boards oi Toronto and n al. In ( lanada and the I nil d States, the A. S. are nf a highly popular charai ter. 1'n. given, not only f..r animals, implements, and dairy produce, but also for fruits. 1 1 nature, combining agricultu culture, and domestic economy, such exhibitions are by all classes. They are u tall} deno though partaking little of the character and ance of what is understood by a 'fair' in Bi The diffusion of education among the farmers of the free stairs lias mad.- them i of A. writings, and the numerous i eti knowledge of improved stock, implements, and I hen wide territories. AGRIliE 'X'lTM (6r. A Girgenti, a town on I of Sicily, in lat 37 17' V. and long. 13" 28' E., founded by a colony from I '■■ la (582 b.i i, and, in the earlier ages, one of the most important places in the island. In its palmy days, it to liave contained 200,000 inhabitants, \it.r being free, and then subject to tyrants, it was demo by the Ians (405 b.i again. In the course of the Punic wars, it was compelled to submit to the Romans. From S2."> to 10SG A. D., it was in the possession of the Sai from whom it was conquered by Count B 1 .id. The modem citj about 15,000 inhabitants, and exhibitB numero plendid ruins, which, glittering in the brilliant light of a southern sky, afford inexhaustible material pictorial representation. Among the bi t preserved of these remains of antiquity is the Tempi. ' of which only the roof and part of the front are wanting. The most extensive ol les was of Jupiter, 340 feet long, 120 ... I high, and 160 feet wide, which, at the tune of its di rtru appears not to he I. Only the base- in. nt and somo fragments remain. Considerable ruins of the temples of Juno Lucdna, of H> and . K-culapius, are still found. The trade of the modern city is inconsiderable. Some cum, fruit, oil, &c., is exported, but the harbour is little frequented. A'GRIMoNY [Agrimonia), a genus of plant- of the natural oi i CE(q. v.), sub-order Po The calyx is five-cleft, without bracts ; the hardened l is covi i d with hook.d bristles. — The CoMJJO Eupatoria) is a native of Britain and other p Eur<>]" in borders ..f ti.l.ls, on waj &c. It has an upright habit, attains a lie) two feet or more, and has interruptedly pinnate . with the leaflets serrate and downy bi The flowers are small and yellow, in close ia Tic whole plant has a pleasant, slightly aromatic smell, and is bitter and styptic. ' D of it is used as a gargle; the dr.. form a kind of herb tea; and the root has some celebrity as a Common Agrimi vermifuge. Very similar to tk I. of Virginia, Carolina, &c It has a very !•■ fragrance. ackipi'A, Cornelius Hknby, a remarkable character of the 16th c, distinguished as writer, opher, and physician, who united great ability and . d acquiremi its with quackery, was born of a noble family at l lol I4sg. lie led an turoua and unsettled life, quite in the spirit of his tunes. As early as 1509, he was appointed teacher of theology at Mole, in Fro . and attract..! real attention by hi ; but having by his bitter . res on the monks drawn upon hiin.-clf the hatred of that body, he was .-.. of heresy, and obliged to leave Dole. Be next taught theology for sonic time in I olognc, occupying himself at the same time with alchemy, and then . Italy, where he took militai under Maximilian i., and was knighted. He was after- and of Me.ii. in.-, and gave lectures at I ■'. burdened with 1 to Casale. After a time, he was appointed Syndic of Metz; but in 1520, he was again in •.cited the hostility of the inquisi- tion and uf the monks by hi Of a witch. His old enemies, the monks, persecuted him still in . ■, so that he n int to Freiburg in Sw itzerland, where he began to practise as a physician. In 1524, he went again to Metz. and ther I Buch a reputation that the mother of Francis 1. chose him eiall. As he declined fa) p TO ] ' 1 1 •' S\" 1 1 1 ue . campaign that Francis L undertook in log.") in Italy, he lost his post, and went to Holland. Here he wrote his eelebr.it.,1 1 k. I), Incertitudim . 1527), a biting satire on the sciences as th.\ : osation . n i him havin ibi Chai lea V., on account of thi again became a fugitive, and i. pan. .1 to l.\ on. Bte i here found the i he had early . raited in France not yet i xtinguished, and was imprisoned; but bene liberated, through the exertions of his friends, he retired to Grenoble, when- he died (1535). A. was a char headed man, and had the merit of successfully comba' in _• many of th. ; f his age. Jlis hook, /v Ocmlla Philosophic!, which contains the most nt of the Cabbala (q. v.), stands in direct .In 'turn with the work above mentioned. The most complete collection of his writings appeared at Ly in two vols, without date (about 1550). AGRIPPA, lliiion, I., son of Aristobulus and AGRIPPA— AGUADO. Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great, was educated at Rome. lie lived there in a very extravagant style, giving splendid entertainments, especially to the princes of the imperial i ami scattering his money lavishly in gifts to the freedmen of the emperor, until his debts tendered it unsafe for him to remain longer in the city. Be then took refuge in Idumea. From this period almost to the death of Tiberius, he sutured a variety of misfortune's, but having formed a friendship with i laligula, the latter, on his acce to the thi him the tetrarchies of Abilene Bs Traohonitis, and Amanitas. After the- banishment of Herod Antipas, he t Lved his tetrarchy also namely, Galilee and Perea. Claudius, whom A. helped to secure Hie possession of the empire, added to his dominions .lud.ea and Samaria, ami he was thus the ruler of a more extensile territory than even Herod tie- Cleat had 1 u. His govern- ment was mild towards the .lews, witli whom he was remarkably popular ; hut he severely persecuted the Christians. He caused James, the brother of John, and the head of the' Church at Jerusalem, to he beheaded, and Peter to be thrown into prison. lie died of a peculiarly loathsome disease at Caesarea, in Palestine, while celebrating games in honour of the emperor, in the 55th year of his age, and the 44th of the Christian era. The account 'jiven of this in the Acts of the Apostles, substantially agrees with that of Josephus. AGRII'l'A, HEROD, II., son of Agrippa I., was at Rome when his father died, and only 17 years of age. Claudius, therefore, resolved to detain him for some time, and in the meanwhile re-transformed tie' kingdom info a Etonian province, but presented him with tie- little territory of Chalcis when his uncle lb-rod, who was its ruler, died. In 63 A. I>., he 1. it Rome, :md received from the emperor nearly tie- whole of his paternal possessions, which were subsequently enlarged by Sera. Like his father, A. was fond of line buildings, a taste which he probably acquired by his long sojourn at Rome, if apenl area! sums in adorning Jerusalem, Berytua, and other cities; but he was not prudent in the distribution of his favours, or just in his treatment of the high-priests, so that he failed to secure the good-will of the .lews. He did all in Ins power, howev.r. to dissuade t linn from rebelling against the Romans ; but when he found his adl ices ami warnings neglected, he abandoned his country- men, and joined the imperial troops. When Jeru- salem was taken, he went with his sister to hvo at Rome, where he was made pnetor, and where he died in the 70th year of hi last of the Herods. 1 1 n as before him Paul made Iris memorable del. nee. AGRIPPA, Marcos VrpsAHius (63—12 b.c), a I! all. who, though n"t: of high birth, rose to mi exalted position through Ins own talents. He lirst espoused Marcella, the niece, and then Julia, the daughter of I tetw ins. He was eminent both in war and in peace ; and as a general, counsellor, and friend of the emperor, did good service to him and to the Roman state. As a general, he hud the foundation for the sol..' dominion of 1 1 . and commanded his Ihs t in the battle of Aetium (31 B.C.). H generous, upright, and a friend to the arts; Koine owed to him the restoration and construction of il aqueducts, and of the Pantheon, 1 other public works of ornament and utility. A< I KHM'l'X A. I. The daughter of M. Vipsanius A rippa, by his wife Julia, was one of the most heroic and virtuous women of antiquity. She was married to Cessai Germanicus (see Ckumwi- ii si, whom she accompanied in all his campaigns. She openly accused Tiberius before the senate of having hired the murderers of her husband ; and the tyrant, who hated her for her virtues, and the esteem in which she was held by the- people, banished her to the island of I'audataria, near Naples, where she voluntarily died of 1. (.'i.'i A. Ii.). The antiquarian museum at Di possesses four excellent busts of her. — II. A very different character was Ai;i:irriv\, the daughter of the last mentioned, one of the most deb women that have lived. In hi she induced the Emperor Claudius, her own to marry her, and espoused his daughl already betrothed to another, to her son Nero. In order to bring tlie latter to the ii many rich and noble Romans, excluded Uritannicus, the son of Claudius by M and finally poisoned the emperor, her husband. She then endeavoured to govern the empire through her son Nero, who was chosen emperor ; but her ascendency proving intolerable, Nero caused her to be put to death (Oil A. le). She enlarged and adorned her native city, Cologne, which received from le name of Colonia Agrippina. ACTELEK, Cavern of (in Hungarian, Bm i. e., a suffocating place), one of the largest and remarkable stalactitic caverns of Europe, is •■■ ■ near the village of Agtelek, in the county ol I not far from the road from Pesth to Kaschau. It opens at the foot of a mountain with an en scarcely 3 .", feet high by 5 feet wide. It O a labyrinth of caverns communicating with one another, many of which it is difficult, and even lore, v. Inn the streams that flow through them are high. Numerous stalactite tuns occur in all the caverns, which, from their singular shapes, have given rise to the var of -the Great Church,' 'the Mosaic Altar.' 'the [mage of the Virgin,' &c. The 1 1 most imposing of those caverns, sii from the entrance, is called the FU is 96 feet high, 90 feet wide, and runs feet in a straight line. AGUADO, Ai rwM'i r Mama, Marquis de I. a; del Guadalquiver, one of the weal bankers of modern times, was born at Si villi . I i and died 1 1th April 1842. He was descended from a Jewish family, and in his youth bore anus as a Boldier. During the Spanish war of independ he fought with distinction on tie i the French army to the rank of colon ■!. and acted as aide-de-camp to Marshal S mi:, bul in 1815, and 1" gan a commission htisiie In this In- soon realised such wealth as enahl to found a bank. Good-fortune, energy, and bold- ness, with a singular talent for con 1 i H in .■ bankers in Paris. He al tation bj ui ol iatingthe Span h of 1823 1828, L830, and 1831. S these op i eons, the Sp government frequently invested him with unlimited powers, which he dexterously employed to sav e his country from national bank] i inand VII. conferred on him the title of Maron de I Mariamas del Guadalquiver. His s. rvices wi r recompensed by privileges in mining and in execut- ing pubhe undertakings. All the Spanish bonds issuing from his hoo d the name ol ' tt -was through A. that the Greek loan of [834 naturaliscl in France in 1828, his death left a fortui ill 1 million francs, ol which he had invested part in landed pro- perty; the castle of Chateau. Mar.-aux. eel! for its wine, belonged to him. His distingu collection of pictures gave occasion to Gavari the publication of the U'alerie A. (Paris, lSoT— 1 8 i- . AGUAS CALIENTES— A-HUXL. A'(;r.vs c.\[.ir.NTi:s, a well-built town in Mexico, in the province of Zaoi , ] in [J. lat. -i 53', and W. bng. lul" -l.V. in a plain 6000 feet above the i a level d on a stream of the s.na.' name, which is tributary to tl Grande de Santiago. It contains a population of 20,000; and beaidea the cultivation of field gardens, the manufacture of woollen cloth i considerable, and isoarriedon on the fin ; The town is favourably situated for trade, as the great road from Mezioo to 8 ra and Dun here crossed by that from San Louis Poto Quadalaxara. The environs abound in hot from which the town takes its nai A'GTJE (/' hrii ■ . ■ amon Dome for an intermitting fever, accompanied by paroxysms or fit-s. Each lit is composed of three stages; the •Id, the hut, and tin' swi I B a lit, the patient has a sensation of debility and die- about the epigastrium; feels weak and disin- clined for exertion ; the surface of Ids body becomes cold, and th" bloo Hi akin shrivels up into the con- tlition termed C i i -skin (mti.i aii/nrina). A cold sensation ereeps up the back, and spreads over the body ; the patient shivers, his teeth shatter, Ins knees i. fa lip i are, and nails turn blue; he has pains in his head h I ami loins. This condition is succeeded by flushes of heat, the coldness gives place to warmth, and the surface as its natural appearance. The warmth con- tinues to increase, the face becomes red and turgid, i he head aches, the breathing is deep and oppret u d, the pulse full an 1 i n - The third stage now comes on; the skin Incomes soft and moist, the pulse resumes its natural force and frequency, and a copious iweai breaks from the whole body. Tin -I' paroxysms recur at regular intervals. The interval Between them is called 'an intermission.' When they occur every day, the patient has quo- tidian A.; every second day. /■rtimi; and when they are absent for two days, quartan. .Ml ages are liable to this disease; and a ease is on record of a pregnant woman having a tertian A. which attacked her of course every other day; but on the alternate days, when she was well, she felt that the child also had A., although the paroxysn not coincide with her own. The exciting causes of th visible effluvia from the surface of the earth (marsh mias- mata). A certain degree of temperature seems ■iry— hiidier than G0° Fahrenheit — for the production of the poison. It does not exist within the Arctic Circle, nor does it appear in the cold i- of temperate climates, and seldom beyond the 56° of N. lat. (Watson). It also requires moist- ure. In Kngland, A. is almost exclusively eontined to the eastern coast ; and the extension of dr. has rendered agues far more rare than before, .bum , I. and Oliver Cromwell died of A. contracted in London. 'The Pontine Marshes to the S. of Borne have long been notorious as a source of aguish fevers. Peat bog, or moss, is not productive of malaria, as is in parte of Ireland and Scotland. Neither is \. ever seen among the inhabitants of the Dismal •Swamp — a ' of 160,000 acres on the fron- tiers of Virginia and North Carolina in North America. — The treatment of aguish fever consists i illy in calomel given in purgative doses, followed by preparations of cinchona -bark, and in applying, the paroxysm, external warmth t AGUE'SSEAU, Henui Francois i>\ a distin- guished lawyer and chancellor of France, and pro- nounced by Voltaire to have been the most learned magistrate that France ever possessed, was born at Liiuoge, 1 GG8 A. D. He received his earliest education from his father; and afterwards devoted himself to idyof law, became one ' at Paris in lii'.nt. and .it the age of thirty-two, proem parliament. In this office, he effected many improvements in the laws and in the administration of justice. He displayed gnat benevolence during a famine which occurred in the winter of 1709, appl.v- iii'; all the means in his power for the alleviation of i lamity. As a steady defender of the rights of i in- people, and of the Gallican Church, he suo fully opposed the decrees of Louis XIV. and the Chancellor Voisin in favour of the papal bull Uni- gcnilus (q. v.). I luring the government of the I > n! of Orleans, he became chancellor ; but in the follow- ar fell into disgrace by opposing Law's system oi ice, and retired to his country-seal aj Pre ae . \\ Inn. however, the ruin induced by Law's systl m i In ed a ral outcry of dissatisfaction, A. was reinstated, in 1 1"' people. Hut his well meant efforts could not retrieve the desperate state of affairs. A. was afterwards exiled a second in consequence of bis opposing Cardinal Dubois; and though he (in 17-7) obtained from ( 'animal Floury permission to return, yet, he did not again resume the office . lor till 17.'I7. He resigned in 1750, and died, Feb. 9, 1751. His works, oj ol pL adin i ad i pet ches at the opi of the partial t, occupy thirteen volumes (Pans, 1759 1789. Newest edition, Paris, 1819). AGU'LHAS, CAPE, (meaning Needles), the most southern point of Africa, lies about 100 miles B.S.E. of the Cape of Good Hope, in lat. 34" 61' S., long. Ill o.V E. In 1849, a light-house was erected on it, at an elevation of 52 feet above high-water. The A. Hank extends .along the whole southern coast of Africa. It is 5(51) miles in length, and, oppo Cape of Good Hope, as many as 200 in breadth. A'HAB, the son and successor of Omri, wa of Israel from 918 to 897 B.C. He married Jezebel, the daughter of Kthbaal, king of Salon; through whose injurious influence the Phoenician worship of Baal was introduced, the king himself seduced to idolatry, and the priests and prophets of Jehovah cruelly persecuted. Yet the propfii ta retained their influence over the people ; and Elijah dared openly to attack the priests of Baal, and reprove the wickedness of the king with the most severe threat- enings of punishment. A. prosecuted tlircc wars, with various success, against Bcnhadad, king of Syria ; but in the last ca was killed by an .arrow. His whole fanidy was afterwards extirpated under King Jehu. AHASUE'RUS is the name, or rather, perhaps, the title, by which several kings of Media and 1 '. t - ia are mentioned in Scripture. The best known of these is Esther's husband (see Ksnir.u), who is probably the same as the Persian king Xerxes; the Sebrew form of his'name (Achaaehverosch) pointing to the old Persian form of the name Xerxes yaxschan). A- HULL, a maritime term, used to denote the position of a ship when all her sads are furled, and her helm lashed on the lee-side ; in such a position, she lies nearly with her side to the wind, but with the head turned a little towards the direction of the wind. It may be convenient to mention in this place that the phraseology adopted by British naval officers and seamen, whether belonging to the royal navy or to the mercantile marine, comprises a large number of words formed on a principle similar to that of ahead, with the vowel a (a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon preposition on, meaning on, in, al) pre- fixed to a noun. Such are the following: Aback, abaft, aboard, abreast, a-coclcbill, adrift, afloat, afore, aground, ahead, ahull, a-hr, aloft, aloof, amain. AHMEDABAD— AIDE-TOI ET LE CIEL T'AIDERA. amidships, an-end, apea I li n-wi-fii/i' r, w-weigh. Such of these tern to require it, will bo found briefly explained under their proper head AH.MEDABA'D, or more properly AHMADA- BAD, the chief town in the district of the same name, in the Pn id ncy ol Bombay, is situated on the left bank <>f the Sabermutty, which flows nearly doe south into the Gulf of Cambay. It was built in the year 1412, by Ahmed or A1ith.u1 Shah, and underwent all the vicissitudes of government u to the ci1 1. j of Hindustan, till the year 1818, whi n it finally came under the power of the British. It was formerly one of the largest and d ficent capitals in the East— in the opinion of a Dative writer, 'the handsomest city in Hindustan; perhaps in the world.' Its architectural relics are gorgeous, even in the midst of decay. The Jumna or Juma'ah Maajid, or Great Mosque, rises from the centre of the city, and is adorned by two superbly decorated minarets, 'each of which con- tain! a circular (light of steps, leading to a gallery near the summit, Its domes are supported by lofty columns, regularly disposed ; the concave of thi 8 cupolas is richly ornamented with D and fret-work. The pavement is of the finest marble.' The mosque of Sujaat Khan is extremely elegant. There is likewise an ivory mosque, which has obtained that name from the circumstance, that although built of white marble, it is ' curiously lined with ivory, and inlaid with a profusion of gems, to imitate natural (lowers, bordered by a on mother-of-pearL' There are also the Fire Temple and the Tower of Silence of the l'arsis. A. once abounded in gardens, aqueducts, reservoirs, &c. ; but these, especially the gardens, are now sadly defaced and injured. Its prosperity has been almost wholly destroyed by the rapacity of the Mahrattas, although at one time it was famous for its manu- facture of rich fabrics of silk and cotton, articles of gold, silver, steel, and enamel. ' It employed many artists in portrait-painting and miniatures,' and had extensive trade in indigo, cotton, and opium. The old city-walls, built in 14S.5, which had in the course SB, and through tie assaults of enemies, become very dilapidated, were repaired in 183-1 at an expense of 250,000 rupees, and water conveyed from the river through the city by means of pipes. It is distant from Bombay 290 miles north; in lat. ^.'1 X., long. 72" 3ff. Pop. 130,000. All MEDNTJ'GGUR, or AHMADNUGGUK, an important town in the Presidency of Bombay. It was founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah. During the reign of his son, Boorhan Nizam it reached a high degree of prosperity; but after his death, it Witnessed an incessant series of wars, confusions, and murders. In 1707, it fell into the hands of the Hiahrattaa; and in 1803 was sur- rendered, after a trivial resistance of two days, to General Wellealey. It was, however, shortly after re bored to I as Pi i hwa ; but in 1 s 1 7 , the fort was again occupied by the British. The town has ed rapidly since it came under British pro- tection and rule. It possesses a mo I : 11 :l 1 a, in addition to its wall ; this consists ol in 'immense prickly-pear hedge about 20 feet high. which is SO full of sap that no lire will kindle it, and so vigorous that it is almost impossible to force one's way through it.' a. contains an Knglish church, a i (or place of entertainment for travellers) ca|iable of holding 250 persons. It also good supply of water b\ It is 11 from Bombay 122 miles east, in lat. 19° 6', long. 74° 40'. There are several places of the same name in Hindustan. A' HR IMA N (in tin Zend. aKhro mainyus, i.e., the malignant, destroying spirit) is, according to the dualistic doctrine of Zoroaster, the personifii of malignity, the original source of all moral and I evil, the chief of the devils and ma] spirits, the king of llarkneas and of .1- ati consequently the eternal enemy and ppponi Orrauzd and of bis kingdom of light. .Sec Z0B.0A.STK1:. AIDE-DE-CAMP, an officer who may 1 garded as a kind of superior confidi ntial at* upon a general in active service. The A. is the of the general. He carries all 01 lield of battle ; these- he Is to dohvc r ill tile pi terms, bo hi to be distinctly understood ; and when so understood, the orders are to be as implicitly obeyed as if the general himself were pri si speaking. Aa an example of theimpori matter, may be adduced i he brill ai bu light-cavalry charge at Balaklava in the antra 18f>4. Lord Laglan - nt a message, partly \ and partly written, to the Earl of Lucan, concerning a particular piece of strategy at a certain time and place; the message was misconceived, and the Earl of Cardigan was directed to make a military move- ment, perfectly hopeless in its character, resulting in a very serious cavalry loss; although the inci- dent presented a fine display of heroism united with discipline. An A. also acts as secretary to the general, and assists him in his correspondence, he has not specifically a military He aids likewise in dispensing the courtesies of the general's bouse or tent. Generals arc much tamed to appoint their sons or other relations to this confidential post. The Aides-de-camp vary from one to four in number, according as the comm is a brigadier-general, major-general, lieutenant- general, general, or field-marshal : each t li./. a day besides regimeutal pay. Ben Cer can be appointed as A., he must ha\ years with bis regiment, and must pass B tion. Aides-de-camp are not removed from the list of their regiments; and, most e ptains. Besides these Aides-de-camp to generals, the 1 • has the power to appoint any number ol camp to herself, in her capacity of nominal head of the army. There are no particular duties at: to the office ; but it is much sought after, both as an honour, and as conferring on the holder the rank of colonel in the army. There are G who receive daily- pay as Aides-de-camp, and who take it in turn to attend the Queen on state occasions. In the year Is;:;, there were no fewer than thirty-three military Aides-de-camp to the Queen, of whom seven were peers of the realm ; but of the thirty-three, only nineteen belonged to the army, the rest, 1 of the marines, being mibtia officers, whose appoint- ments are purely honorary. In addition to all the there are' naval Aides-de-camp to of whom there were eleven in the year l s 7o. AIDE-TOI ET LE CIEL T'AIDERA yourself, and Heaven will help yo moral aphorism was the cry of certain Frei writers to the middle classes, about the and became the watch-word and title of a society. having for U 1 ;i nl «te the electoral body in Opposition to the government. Tins, however, was done by means strictly legitimate, and chiefly by out and political poblicatii founders and active members belonged to the party of Doctrinaires (q. v.). as Guixot, who was it for some time, Duchatel. Duvergier de Du Kemusat, Thiers, Cava ewspaper was the organ ■ association, and afterwards Le National. It had U ATniX-ATNMrr.LEfi. a great share in bringing about the revolution of .lulv 1S30, and was at lirst cnuntcnanc d by the government; but after a short time it waa dissolved (1832). AIIM'N, or lUZKLinsSAi:. a town of ' Turkey, on the river Meander, in the pachalio of Anatolia, bnilt out of the rains of the ancient Tra lies, which was situated Mi. a plateau above tie' it, town. It lies sixty miles south-east of Smyrna, contains 6000 houses, and a popu estimated at from 36,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, is f..ur milrs in circuit, ami earn. . on a trade D importance to that, of Smyrna. It. is adorned, like all eastern cities, with numerous mosques and other . and lias a pictun AIDS. These were originally mere benevolences granted by a tenant to his lord, in times of di I mt gradually they came to In- regarded as matters of right, and not of discretion. There were three principal objects for which A. were demanded: 1 '. To ransom the person of the lord when taken pri- soner; "2 I Munich for all parts of the world England among the n at— A. displayed the highest artistic faculty in giving to the figures a rich setting of architi ornamentati in such away as to] ■ with the style of the building. — A. has also acquired a great reputation as an architectural painter in oil. Anion.; bis pieces are St Mark's Church, in Vi the interior of St Stephen's Church, Vienna; the interior of Windsor Chapel, of Westminster Abbey, and the Poets' Corner. He died December 1870. AI'NSWORTII, Robert, the author of a once extensively used Latin Dictionary, was born at Wbodvale, near Manchester, in 1660. He was educated at Bolton, and taught a school there for time, but afterwards went to London, where lie v. 1 for many years in educational pin-suits. In 1711, he commenced his Dictionary [Latin-English and English-Latin), which, however, was not published until 1730. A. died near London on the 4th of April 1743. He wrote also some Latin poems, and a few treatises on various sub- . but nothing keeps his memory alive i the Dictionary, which itself is now f away into obhvion. The labour expended on su u a production was indeed highly honourable to the author, hut the work has no claim to the character of an accurate or philosophical li neon, and, in spite of the numerous emendations it has received, it remains essentially what it was at first. Tt ha superseded by Riddell's, and more recently by , and other Lexicons. AINSWORTH, Willum Francis, an English physician, .1 traveller, a relation of the foregoing, was Bom at Exeter, lsi>7. He studied I Edinburgh, and iving ( 1827) his medical diploma, he travelled in France, and i [ical investigations in the Auvergne and Pyrenean mountains. Returning to Edinl in 1828, he conducted the publication of the J< of Natural and Geographical Science, and delivered lectures on '..I- ii 35, he wa physician and geologist to the Euphrates expedition under Colonel Chesney, at the recommendation of Colonel Sabine, and returned heme in 1 s.'i7 through Kurdistan, the Taurus, and Asia Minor. In tie following year, he went s ain to Asia Minor, being Bent with Rassam and Russell by the G Society, and the Societj for the Diffusion of I tu - tiau Knowledge. The objc cts were cliietly to ex])lore the course of the Halys, and to visit the Christians in Kurdistan. On his return (1841) he publish d I- ', and Travels in tlie Tr< 10,000. He has edited Xenophon' M I published, among other • I alley Boyle to 1 bytht VaUeyqfth Tigris — a project which the Turk- ish government has since carried out He is (Isy.j) tor and editor of the A', w Monthly Mag AINSWOBTH, Wim.iam Haebjbon, a well- known writer of fiction, wi >, 1805, at Manchester, where his father was a solicitor. His creative fancy began early to ■ in ballads and tales, which appeared in the local news] ■ and in contributions to the London Magazine and other p d hi.s 1 after a while he lor. ook law for literature, and at first began a ; in London, which, however, he soon gavi up in di appointment. He had pre\ published his first novel, Sir ' Hon (1825). After spending some time on the continent, he returned to England, and wrote .'■ 1834), which was favourably received. It was follov Crichton (1837) and Jack Sheppard (1839 edited for a time !>• ntley'a M began his own Ai in 1 345 he acquired also the N< u> Monthly Mogozim from Colburn. He published the Lancaslurt Witt 1S4S ; six years later, appeared the Star Ch imbi r : in 1860, Ovingdean Orangt ; the Lord Mayor of London was published 1862, Cardinal Pole the following year, and John Law,th< Projector, in 1864. His more recent works are the Spanish Match, the ConstabU d* Bourbon, Old Court, Middleton Pom- plin t, and Hilary Si Ives. AIR, or ASBEN, a kingdom of Centre' extending from about 17 to 19 1J. lafc, and fro to :r E. long. Agades (q.v.) is the capital, and residence of the sultan, but his power is in a large measure merely nominal. The country contains various towns and villages, and is principally inhabited by three large tribes— the Kel-owi, the Kel-geres, and [tisan, each of which has nun subdivisions. There are, besides, the Kel-n-Ni the Imgbad, &c. The word tel means 'people,' but specially denotes sfttlrd people, in opposition to Thus, Kel-owi is people settled in the valley of Owi. Many of the tribes and families live not in fixed dwellings, but movable tents made of mats. The valleys of A. are naturally rich, but they are poorly cultivate! 1. Food end clothii both imported. The population, which lerable, could not be 8u n L, v ri I salt-trade of Bilma, a town lying to the east of A., in the Tebu country. Although the valleys of A. are in the region of the tropics, the dim comparatively temperate. See Earth's i d Africa, vol. i. AIR is the name given to that compound of constituting tie- substance of our atmosphere. merly, all aeriform tbi" : I'd 'airs,' but in this sense the word gas is now- used. The chief properties of air. and the phenomena they give rise to, will be found treated ondi r Atmosphere, igrodj nmp, Baron All!, in Music, s-e Am w AIR-EEL'S and AIR-CUSHIONS. Ail known as early as the beginning of the 1" ing made of feather, were expensive, It was only after the invention of air-tight 01 Mai cloth that it became possible to use air in this way at a moderate cost. An air-bed consists of a sack in AiR-BLADDER-AIR-CHN. the form of a mattress, divided into a number of comportments, each air-tight; a projection . end forms a bolster. Each compartment lias a valve, throu h which the air is blown in by a The advantages of such beds, in point of cleanness, coolness, Hghtna—, and elasticity are obvious. They are specially valuable in man', knees. The travelling-cuthion is another con- trivance of the same kind. Recently, vnle i India-rubber, instead of cloth, has been used in the fabrication of such articles. The chief drawback to itrivancee is the liability to being spoil, d by a rent or other injury. AIR-BLADDER, or SWIMMING-BLADDER, iii Fishes. An organ apparently intended to aid them in ascending in deep water, and for the accoiu tion of their specific gravity to various depths. It is made to serve this purpose by the increase or dimi- nution of its voluiti ig to the degree of pres- sure exerted upon it by the ribs. Its place is in the abdomen, under the spine; and it is very various in size and form in different kinds of tishes. It gene- rally has an opening into the phagus, or into the oh, but apparently only for the ejection, and not for tin admission of air. In some lislies, it has no opening. The air with which the A. is filled appears tobe the result of secretion; and in fresh- water lislies. consists in general almost entirely of nitrogen, but contains a larger proportion of oxygen in sea-fishes; the oxygen in deep-sea fishes having found to amount to 87 per cent. The A. is in some tishes very small; in others, it is entirely wanting, particularly in lislies that are destined to live chiefly at the bottom of the water, as flat fishes, D Air-bladder of Carp : Consisting of two parts -1! ami (', Joined by a narrow necl< ; A 1», a canal communicating with oesophagus, IS. eels, &c. ; but there arc remarkable instances of its absence also in species of very different habits, such as the common mackerel, whilst it exists in other species of the same genus or family. The A. of tishes affords the finest kind of isinglass, AIR-CELLS, or AIR-SACS, in Birds, are remark- cavities connected with 1 1 1 ■ - respiratory sys- tem. They are distributed along the inside of the whole cavity of the chest and abdomen ; and in birds of Btrong win rapid Hi lit, oi ben send prolongations into the bones. They are con- nected with t lie ex tivnn In- active respiratory and communicate with the lungs, giving an im- mense extension to the surface with which thei i inhaled come inci The cells in the lungs of m , Jtc, of Ostrich : a a ,/ a 'i, air-cells; b ft, lun^s; c, heart ; d, stomach J c, intestines. the mammalia, into which the air is conveyed by minute ramifications of the windpipe, in order to be brought into contact with the - blood distributed on their walls. Air-tubes of Insect, are very small ; in man, only about one-hundredth part of an inch in diameter. — Air- 94 cells, or air gaos, iiny be said to form tie- wholi in .some of the lower kind animals (see A\M LtDA), whilst in others, higher in misatton, particularly in in , arising from these ramify throughout the whole body. Thi' air-tubes ol in i are formed of a spiral fibre within a membrar. spiral vessels of plants, so that they po i I city. AIR-CELLS in plan ontaining air stems or leaves. Thi of the inter- cellular passages are closed up, bo as to prevent the oi the plant from entering them. They are very variable in size, figure, ami arrangement, but are formed according to a uniform rule in each parti- cular species in which they are found. They are large and numerous in many aquatic plants, evi- dently serving tin; purpose of buoying them up in the r \. of regular form, there are irregular cavities, also called by the same name, which to be formed by the tearing of the cellular tissue in the rapid growth of the plant, as in grasses and umbelliferous plants. AIR-ENGINE. See Caloric K\c;i\i:. AIR-GUN, an instrument for firing bullets or other projectiles, by the force of compressed air instead of gunpowder. Various forms of construc- tion have been adopted, 'lie- most usual plan is to insert a condensing syringe in lie n I. of the gun. The piston of this syringe is worked by an apparatus which passes through to the exterior of the gun ; and this working causes a small body of air to be condensed into a chamlwr. The chamber lias a valve opening into the barrel, just, behind the place the bullet is lodged. The gun is loaded from the muzzle, as ordinary muskets or fowling-pieces ; and there is at that time just behind it a small body of highly compressed air, ready to rush out at any opening. This opportunity is afforded by a move- ment of the trigger, which opens the valve ; the air rushes forth with such impetuosity as to propel the bullet. By a certain management of tic i. two or three bullets, successively and separately introduced, can be tired oil' if firing it can be called — by one mass of cone Another form of A. contains several bullets in a receptacle or channel under the barrel ; by the movement of a cock or lever, one of these bullets en readily be shifted into the barrel; and thus several successive discharges can be made after one loading — on a principle somewhat analogous to that of the revolving pistol. Some varieties of A. have the condensing syringe detached, by which a more powerful condensation of air may be produced; this done, the air-chamber is replaced in lis proper position behind the bullet in the barrel, air-guns which present the external appear- ance of stout walking-sticks, and arc thence called air-canes, have a chamber within the handle for containing condensed air, which can be unscrewed, and subjected to the action of the condensing ; \ i One inventor has devised a form of A. with two barrels — one of small bore for the reception of the bullets, and another of larger bore for the reservoir of condensed air; the condensing syringe being within the stock of the gun. An attempt has more recently been made to combine the action of elastic springs with that of compressed air, in an A. ; springs of gutta-percha, or of vulcanised india- rubber, are employed in substitution of, or in co- operation with, a condensing syringe. No form of A. hitherto made has had power enough to propel a bullet to any considerable distance ; and therefore the instrument is scarcely available in war ; there are, however, circumstances in which AIR-PLANTS— AIRY. such an arm may be useful — seeing that then is no expense for gunpowder, do noise, no smoke, no unpleasant Odour. The A. was known in Franc- more than two centuries ago ; but the ancients wit': acquainted with some kind of apparatus, by which air was made to act upon the shorter arm of a lever, while the larger arm impelled a bullet. \ir-PLA.\ts. Bee Enra AIR-PUMP, an instrument far removing the air from a vessel. 'I 1 part is a hollow or glass cylinder, in which an air-tight piston is made to move up and down by a rod. From the bottom of the cylinder, a connecting tube leads to the space which is to be exhausted, which is usually formed by placing a bell-glass, called the receiver, with edges ground smooth, and smeared with lard, on a flat, smooth plate or tabic. When the bottom of the barrel, and is then drawn up, it lifts out the air from the barrel, and a portion of the air under the receiver, by ib expansive force, passes through the connecting tube, and occupies the space below the piston, which would otherwise be a vacuum. The air in the er and barrel is thus rarefied. The piston is now forced down, and the effect of this is to close a valve placed at the mouth of the connecting and opening inwards into the barrel The air in the barrel is tints cut off from returning into the ad, as it becomes condensed, forces up a valve in the piston, which opens outwards, anil thus escapes into the atmosphere. When the piston reaches the bottom, and begins to ascend again, this valve closes ; and the same process is repeated as at the first ascent. Each stroke thus diminishes the quantity of air in the receiver ; but from the nature of the process, it is evident that the exhaustion can never be Complete. Even theoretically, there must always lie a portion left, though that portion may be rendered lees than any assignable quantity ; and practically the process is limited by the elastic force of the remaining air being no longer sufficient to open the valves. The degree of rarefaction is indi- by a i/iiiye on the principle of the barometer. By means of the partial vacuum formed by the A., a great many interesting exp rated, illustrating the effects of atmospheric her mechanical properties of gases. A. was invented by Otto Guerickc (i 1664 ; and though many improvements and varieties have been principle of all is the same. Two barrels are generally 01 as to double the effect of one stroke. I pumps, Stop-COCks tuned by the hand take th of valves; and in others, the entrance of the con- ' i tube into the cylinder is so contrived that the valve through the piston is not required. AIRD, XHOHAn, a poet of considerable g born at Bowden, in Roxburghshire, in 180ft Hfe received the rudiments of education at schools in his native county, from which he passed to the university of Edinburgh. While in the metropolis, he made the friendship of many lUstingiushed men, especially Professor John Wilson, who was accus- to speak of him in the b L In 1835, he became editor of TV Herald, a BOW journal, started rativs prin< Ills genius is of a purely literary character, and Teethe in the discuss. is. His works are not so well known as they deserve to be, from their intrinsic f very warm eulogy from 8< the greatest names in popular criticism, and in spite of many elaborate and discriinina: in various important magazines, they 1 to secure a large measure of public a]. pro! The Dt e ■■''" •« Dn am is perhaps an exception I rest, for it is both well known and adin petent judges have asserted that there is utesque in the stern, intense, and sublime literalness of the conception. This | of realisation in painting object .rand characteristic of Mr A.'s mind. Whether th* scenes are colossal, as in The 1) minute, as in The Summer's Day, there is the same clear, vigorous, and picturesque word-painting. Herein lies Mr A.'s chief originality, I thought and sentiment, though always pur.- and re not strikingly novel. In 1^-7, he published us Characteristics, a piece of exalted prose- poetry; in 1845. Tlie Old Badtelor, a volume of tales and sketches ; in 1848, a collected edition of his poems — a second edition of which appeared in 1850 ; and in 1852, he edited the Bali of David Macbeth Moir (the 'Delta' of / prefixing a memoir for the benefit of l)r I family. AI'RDUIK. a town recently separated from th-> parish of New Monkland, and erected into a quoad parish, Lanarkshire, 11 miles E. of Ola The high-road between Edinburgh and 01 intersecting it, forms its principal street. It lias . and is now one of the most flourishing inland towns in Scotland. Little more than a cen- tury ago, it consisted of a solitary farmhouse or two ; but the abundance of iron and coal in the vicinity •en its progress an imjietus like that of an American city (see G vrtshf.rrie). The Monkland Canal and the Caledonian Railway receive the pro- duce of the coal-pits and iron mines. The tow some neat buildings, is well paved, and lighted with gas. The weaving of cotton goods for I manufacturers is carried on t .tent, as is also the distillation of spirits, silk-w. anl paper-making. Fop. in 1871, 15,671. A.IT.Y, George BrnDEix, D.C.L., M.A., A-v nier Royal, was born at Alnwick in 1801. 11 educated principally at Colchester, from which he I in 1S19 to the university of Cambridge. In 1828, he was lolar; in If k the of B.A.. with the honour of .Seiner Wrangler ; and in 1S26. that ofM.A. In the same >ear, hi d to the chair of Science founded by Lucas, which he rescued from the reproach of bein g a sinecure, by delivering a course of public lectures on experimental philosophy. In 1828, he was made Plnmian professor, and had the management I newly erected Cambria tory intrust him. On account of his Bevere and unintcrmitting labours in connection with this office, his income was augmented from the funds of the university. He published his observations (Astronomic arranged in a olear and simple manner ; and they have served as a model ever since for those of Greenwich and other observatories. In 1S35, the office of Astro: H AISLE-AIX-LA-C'ITArELLE. I loyal becoming vacant, MrA. was appointed toil by Lord Am lv 1. 1 1 m I . then Krst Lord of the Admiralty. He lias introduced new ox more perfect scientific instruments, more rapid methods of calculation, and irches in magnetism, meteorology, photography, &c. Mi' contributed the well-known article on 'Gravitation,' to the Penny Gyclopcedia (18.17). Equally excellent ami popular is his treatise on Trigonometry, which was written for the E 1 '■urn ( 1 855). He ; has deservedly obtained the reputation of being one of the most able and indefatigable of living eavans. He served on the Royal Commission appointed in 1868, to inquire into the standard weights and measures. In 1809, he communicated, in a 'Note' to the EtoyaJ Astronomical .Society, a remarkable discovery on 'Atmospheric Chromatic Dispersion, a Telescopic Observation, and the mode of correcting it.' lie was nominated a Companion (Civil) of the Bath in 1871. Mr A. is an I'.ll.s. ; an Honorary Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, C sponding Member of the French Institute, a D.C.L. of Cambridge and Oxford, and LL.D. of Edinburgh. AISLE (fromLat. ala, (Melrose Abb J I. i I means any lat- eral division of any part of a church, whether nave, choir, or transept. The number of aisles varies in II Imivlies of differenl countries. In England, there is only n each side of the eue or choir ; in most foreign countries, there i nerally two, and .it i lologne there are even tluve. The continental edifices, it would seem, have antiquity in their i.i our for this arrange- ment (see Basojca). The word is often incorrectly applied to the open ^ pace in the nave of churches between the Beal i of the congregation. AISNE, a tributary of the Oise, in France, rises in the department of Mense, anil Hows north-west through the departments of Marne and Ardennes, and then west through that of Aisne and part of Oise, where it falls into the river Disc, above i gne. Its course extends to 150 miles, of v. hich 7" are navigable. AISNE, a department in the north of France, form, d of a part of ancient Picardy and the Isle of France. It belongs to the basin of the Seine, and is intersected by the river A, and by other na\ igable streams and canals. The soil is fertile; the chief culture is wheat, and other grain. Its rich meadows supply Paris with hay. The ana is 2830 Bquare miles,' with a population of (1871) 652,439. It is the seat of considerable cotton and other manufactures, the centre of which is St Quentin (q. v.), and at St Cm!, m is the famous manufactory of mirrors. The department is divided into 6 anondissements and "tons. The chief town is Laon (q. v.). AIX, a town in France, formerly the capital of Provence, now the chief town of an arron- • nt in the department of the Bonehos-dn- Khone. It is believed to have been built by the Roman consul, C. Sextius (120 B.O.), on accounl of the mineral springs in the neighbourhood, and thence called Aquas Sextiai. A. is the seat of a court of appeal ; and possesses an academy for theology and law, aud a public library which 96 reckons marly 1(1(1,00(1 vols., and 1100 MSS. The baptistery of file cathedra] is believed to have been onginallj a temple Of Apollo. The numerous public fountain ivi a i hi rful air to the place. One of them has a sculpture of the Good Kong i;.n. . cuted by David. There is also an old clock tower, the machinery of which, when the dock Btriki , ' a quaint-looking figures in motion. The industry of this again flourishing town consists chiefly in the cultivation of the olive, in cotton- spinning, leather-dressing, and trade in oil, wine, almond . a c. Tie' warm springs are slightly sulphu- i . with a temperature from tin to loo' f., clear and transparent as the purest well-water, almost loe from smell, yet with a slightly bitter Thej have tie- reputation of improving the beauty of the shin, and are on this a m , pecially fre- quented by the fair sex. The field on which Marins defeated the Teutones lies in the plain between A. ami Aries. In the middle ages, under the I 'oinil ot Provence (see lli.s k), A. was Ion;.' the literary capital of Southern Europe. The population of the muni- cipality of Aix in 1871 was 18,905. AIX (Aqmi (,'riii'umn, AUdbrogwm), a small town of Savoy, pop. 2 3000, in :i delightful valley near i Bourget, seven miles north from Chambery. It was a much frequented bathing-place ni t he times of the lioman empire, and among its numerous remains of ancient times, are the arch of Pompom'us, the ruins of a temple and of a vaporarium. The king of Sardinia has a palace hi re. The hot springs, two in number, are of sulphurous quality, and of a temperature above 100° !•'. They are used both for drinking and as baths, and attract annually above •-' visitors. AIX-LA-OHAPELT.1-: (Ger. Aachen) is the capital of a district in llhenish Prussia, It is situati d in a fertile hollow, surrounded by heightB, eel v.iii' red by the \Vunn ; N. lat. 50° <17', E Ion 6 5' ; pop. (1871) 71,-38, of whom a very small propor- tion arc Protestants. A. is the centre of numerous thriving manufactories, especially for spinning ami weaving woollen fabrics, and for needle and pin- making. There are also immense manufacture of machinery, bells, glass-buttons, chemicals, cigars, &c. As a principal station on the Belgian- llhenish rail- ways, A. is an important staple place of Prussian trade. The city is rich in historical associations. It emerges Eronuhistorical obscurity about the tin f Pepin, ami Charlemagne founded its world-wide celebrity. Whether it was the birthplace of ( Iharle- ,. is doubtful, but it became his grave 814 A. li. In 700 A.le. Charlemagne caused the already existing palace, called the Imperial Palace, to be entirely rebuilt, as well as the chapel, in which Pepin had celebrated Christmas in 705 A. n. The two buildings Mere connected by a colonnade, which fell into ruins a short time before the emperor's death, probablyfrom the effects of an earthquake. The present town-house has been built on the ruins of the palace; the chapel, after being destroyed by the Normans, was rebuilt on tin- ancient plan by Otho III., in OS.'!, and forms the nucleus of the present cathedral. This ancient cathedral is in the form of an octagon, which, with various additions round it, forms, on the outside, a sixteen-sided figure. I" tli" middle of the octagon, a stone, with the inscription * Cap.oi.o Mac.no,' marks the grave of Charlemagne. Otto III. opened the vault in the year 007 a. n. The body of the emperor was found in a wonderful state of preservation, seated upon a marble chair, dressed in his robes, his sceptre in his hand, the Gospel on his knee, a piece of the holy cross on his head, and a pilgrim's scrip attached to his girdle. Otto caused the tomb to be built up again, after repairing the injuries of the arch. In ATX-LA-CHAPELLE. ] L65 a.d., when the emperor Frederick I. caused the vault to be re-opened, the limn suf tin- great emperor were enshrined in a casket of gold and silver, ami a large and beautifully wrought chandelier was hong up over th - tomb as a memorial In 1215 a.d., Frederick II. caused the remains c.f tin' emperor to In- 1'iielosi'il in a costly chest, in which they are yi t kept iii the sacristy. The marble chair was, in later times, overlaid with gold plates, and used till 1558 A. n. at the imperial em'"iiations, as a throne for the newly crowned emperor. The imperial inaignia were removed to Vienna in 1795. In the 14th c, a choir in the Gothic style was added to the east side of the Octagon, which had been 1 milt in the Byzantine style; while mi the west side, a square belfry was joined to it, as well as two small round towers, with winding stairs leading to the treasury. Here are kept the so-called 'great relics,' which, once in seven years, arc still shewn to the people, in the month of duly, from the gallery of the tower. This spectacle attracts many thousands of strangers to A. Much has of late years been done to restore tins venerable pile. The columns brought by Charle- magne from the palace of the Exarch at Ravenna, to decorate the interior of the octagon, had been carried off by the French; and although pan m them had been restored at the peace of I'aris, they v. ti in 'I replaced in the building till recently. Tin- town-house which encloses the remains of tie I in |" i id I 'a lace —adorns the market-place, having the ISell or Market Tower on the left, and on the right the Granus Tower, a memorial of old Roman tunes. The coronation-hall, I (jl! feet long, by 60 feet wide, in the interior of the town-house, was, in the last century, divided in the middle by a wooden hi. Tins noble hall, in which thirty-seven m emperors and eleven empresses have been crowned, has been restored to its original form, and the walls are in process of being decorated with large fresco-paintings of scenes from the life of Charlemagne, by Bethel. Before the town-house stands a beautiful fountain, with a bronze statue of Charlemagne. In the church of the Franciscans, :in tn be seen a tine picture of the Taking Down of Christ from the Cross, by Vandyck, and two other pictures representing the Crucifixion, by A. lliepen- beeck. At a Bhort distance from A., and surrounded by the river, stands I'rankenburg, once the favourite abode of Charlemagne and of Fastrada, and still rich in legends. It has been rebuilt from its romantic nuns. As a town, A. has recently been much im- proved. It now possesses many tine buildings, among which are several large and splendid hotels. I'' i "in being a quiet old city of historical interest, it has become a busy centre of manufacturing industry. In 1S70, a new Polytechnic School was erected. A. was formerly noted for its gambling- i tbles; but these are now disallowed. I In- name of Aix or Aachen is evidently derived from the springs, for which the place has been always fa l . (Sec \ \.) The name \ipiis C.ranuni, which it i iv.d about the .'id c, may possibly be derived from On . one of the names of Apollo, who was w.irshipped by the Romans near springs. The French name. A., refers to tli" Chapel i>! the Palace. Charlemagne granted extraordinary privi- leges to tins city. The citizens \miv exempted, in all parts of tic empire, from personal and military service, from imprisonment, and from all taxes. The cits al o] ssed the right of sanctuary : 'the air of A. made all free, even outlaws.' In the middle agi -. tin-' Eree imperial city (thru included in tin- circle ol Westphalia) contained more than Inn. olio inhabitants; and held an important place smong the confederated cities of the Rhine. The emperors were crowned in A. from Louis the Pious 7 to Ferdinand I. (813—1531 A.D.). 17 imperial diets and 11 provincial councils were held wit I walls. The removal of the coronations to Frankfort, th.- religions contests of the 16th and 17th centuries, a in at fire which in 1656 a.d. consumed about loco b in the city, combined with other causes to bring into decay this once flourishing community. In January 1793, and again in 1794, A. -was occu- pied by the French. By the treaties concluded at i 'ampo Formic and Luneville, it was formally ceded i ' I i nice, and became the capital of the d ment of Boer; at length, in 1815, the city fi Prussia. S,e Quix, QeschiclUt dor Stadt . I .'( History of A.), 2 vols., A., 1841. J The Mineral Sriaxos of A., of which six arc hot, and two cold, were known in the time ( if I harlemagne, and were much frequented as early a- IITn. The hot springs are strongly sulphurous, and contain also hydra hlorates. The temperature varies from 1 1 1° L36 F. They chiefly act on the liver, and on the mucous surfaces and skin, and are therefore efficaci- ous in eases of gimt, rheumatism, entam m ivo. The most remarkable is tin- - Emp u-i <)iritiL.',' which rises in the middle of tin- H rbad. The baths themselves are from 4 to 5 feet deep, and are built quite in the old Boman style. Th' springs arc chalybeate, and not so copious. The new ' Eiscnquelle ' (iron spring), first discovered in 1829, is provided with an elegant bath-house. The well-proved medicinal virtues of the mineral spi of A. firing yearly to the city many thousands of strangers. Treaties of Peace, and Congress of A. — The first Peace of A. ended the war carried on between France and Spain for the possession of tin- Spanish Netherlands. On the death of Philip IV., Louis XTV. laid claim to a large portion of those territories in the name of his wife, Maria Theresa, the daughter of Philip, urging the law of succession prevailing in Brabant and Nainur respecting private prop The victorious progress of Louis was checked by the triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden ; and a treaty of peace was concluded at A. in 1668, by which France retained possession of the fortresses of Charleroi, Lille, &c, winch she had already taken. The second Peace of A. concluded the war respect- ing tlie succession of Maria Theresa to the empire. .•s.e Si i cession, Wars of. After the war had Been earned on with various success for eight years, peace was concluded in 1748. En i. the possessions of the several Btates remained as before the war. Austria ceded Parma and Plaeentia to the Spanish infanta, Philip; and the po sion of Silesia was guaranteed to Prussia. The privilege of the Assicnto Tnaty anew confirmed to England fur four years, and the pre- tender was expelled from France. Owing chiefly to the exertions of her minister. Kaunitz. Ai oil' with but small sacrifice, while England, notwith- standing her splendid victories, derived little solid advantage, and was left with a debt raised t" 80 millions. The Congress of A. was held in 1818, for regulating the affairs of Europe after the war. Ii began on the 30th September, and ended mi the 21sl November. Its principal object was the withdrawal from France of the army of occupation, 150,000 strong. :is well as the receiving of France again into aoeof ..t powers. Hie emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, were personally fin plenipotentiaries were — Metternicli, and Wellington, Sardenberg and Bern- storrT, Nesselrode and Capo aVIstrias, with Richelieu on tin- part of France. France having engaged to complete the payment of the stipulated sums of 97 AJACCIO— AKBAR. money, was admitted to take part in tho delibera- i and tlv 1 five great powers assembled, signed a | ol announcing a policy, known as that of the < Holy Alliance' (q. v.) (1867— pop. 68,000.) AJA'CCIO, the chief town of tip which forma a department of France. Pop. in 1872, 13,580. The chief employments are tin- anchovy -. ami thi' bade in \\ Mi oil, which the neighbourhood produces in abundance, and of good quality. 33 ■ is protected by a strong fort. A. is remarkable as the birthpl Teon; the house is still to be seen. AJA'N, a portion of tie E. coast of A < ing from Cape Guardafui nearly to the equator. A .1 AX was the name of two of the Greek heroes of the Trojan war. One of them was called A. the Less, or the Locrian, being the son of Oilens, king of the Locrians. At the head of forty Locrian ships, he I against Troy, and was one of the bravest of the Greek heroes; in swiftness of foot, he excelled all except Achilles. When Cassandra fled to the temple of .Minerva, after the taking of Troy, it is said that A. tore her from it by force, and dragged her away captive. Others make him even violate the pro- phetess in the temple. Though he exculpated him- self l>y an oath when accused of this crime by Ulysses, yet he did not escape the vengeance of the goddess, who caused him to be engulfed in the waves. The other A., called by the Greeks the Greater, was the son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and, by lus mother's side, a grandson of .Eacus. He t Troy with twelve ships, and is represented l>. Homer as, next to Achilles, the bravest and handsomest of the Greeks. After the death of Achilles, A. and Ulysses contended for the arms of the hero, and the prize was adjudged to Ulysses, which threw A. into such a state of rage and despair that he killed himself with his sword. This melan- choly fate of the hero is the subject of one of the extant tragedies of Sophocles. AJMEE'R, a British 'non-regulation' district in the North-west Provinces of India, lying between lat. 25° 43'— 26" 42' ; long. 74° 22'— 75" 33'. Its length from south-east to north-west is about 80 miles; breadth, 50; area, 2029 square miles. The surface of the country towards the south-east is generally level. In the north, north-west, and west, it is broken by mountains and hills belonging to the Aravulli range. The mountain of Taragurh, above the city of Ajmeer, contains carbonate ot lead, man- ganese, copper, and abundance of iron ore. The general elevation of the plain of A. is about 2000 feet, and the frosts in winter are sometimes severe. Strong breezes are prevalent, and the climate on the whole is healthy. The scarcity of water, however, often occasions great distress. The only permanent stream is the Koree, the water of which is so impregnated with mineral salts as to bo unlit for alimentary use except during the rains. To compensate for this deficiency, water- tanks are nume- rous. The staple crop is bajra (Jlulcus tpi Sheep are reared in great numbers, and wool is cheap, affording the material of their clothing to the lower orders. Among the more prevalent diseases are small-pox and ophthalmia. The population in 1848 was 224,891, of whom 27,288 were Mussulmans, &c, the rest Hindus. The principal race are the Rajpoots, tho conquerors of the native Bheels, Minors, and Neenas. The present limits of this district by no means correspond to its former importance. In the 12th c., at the time of the Mussulman invasion, the sultan of A. and Delhi was the most powerful monarch in India. Under Akbar also, who acquired this territory in 1559, A. was a large aud important province. It after- 98 wards fell into the hands of the Mahrattas, from whom it was wrested by the British in 1S17. AJMEER, an ancient city of Hindustan, the capital of the British district ot Hie same name, 228 west from Agra. It is situated in a pictur ami reeky valley, at the foot of the mountain of nil, which is crowned by a fort, onco strong, but now dismantled. The city is surrounded by a stone wall, with live lofty and handsome gateways en tie 1 west and north. Must of the streets are narrow and dirty, but some of them are spacious, and contain many tine residences, besides Beveral land temples of very massive architecture. A. is the seat of a British political agency, a medical school, and an English and Oriental school. The tomb of tie- Mussulman saint, Kwajah, within the town, i hi Id in great veneration, and pilgrim are made to it even by Hindus. The Emperor Akbar journeyed to it from Agra on foot in 1570, in fulfilment of a vow after the visit of his son Jehanghir. In October, a great annual fair is held in honour of the saint, at which ridiculous miracli pretended to be wrought. The pop. of A. is probably about 30,000. AKBAR (i.e., 'Very Great'), properly JELAL- ED-DIN-MOIIAMMi;'D, emperor of Hindustan, the greatest Asiatic monarch of modern times. II is father, Humayun, was deprived of the tin-" usurpers, and had to retire for refuge int > Persia ; and it was on the way thither, in the town of Amerkote, that A. was born, in 1542 A. D. Humayun recovered the throne of Delhi after an exile of twelvo years ; but (bed within a year. Tho young prince at first committed the administration to a regent- minister ; but finding his authority degenerating into tyranny, he, by a bold stroke, shook it off, and took the power into his own hands ( 1 5S8). At this time, only a few of the many provinces once subdued by the Mongol invaders were actually subject to the throne of Delhi ; in ten or twelve years, A.'s empire embraced the whole of Hindustan south of the Deocan ; but although great in subduing, A. was yet greater in ruling. The wisdom, vigour, and humanity with which he organised and administered liis vast dominions, are unexampled in the east. He promoted commerce by constructing roads, establish- ing a uniform system of weights ami measures, and a vigorous police. He exercised the utmost vigi- lance over his viceroys of provinces and other officers, to see that no extortion was practised, and that justice was impartially administered to all classes of liia subjects. For the adjustment of taxation, the lands were accurately measured, and the statistics taken, not only of the population, hut of the re- sources of each province. For a Mohammedan, the tolerance with which he treated other religions was wonderful. He was fond of inquiries as to religious beliefs ; and Portuguese missionaries from Goa were sent at his request to give him an account of the Christian faith. He even attempted to promulgate a new religion of his own, which, however, never took root. Literature received the greatest encour- agement. Schools were established for the education both of Hindus and Mohammedans ; and numbers of Hindu works were translated from Sanscrit into Persian. Abu-1-Fazl, the able minister of A., has left a valuable history of his master's reign, entitled A.-nameJt (History of A.) ; the third volume, con- taining a description of A.'s empire, derived from the statistical inquiries above mentioned, and entitled Ayin-i-Akbari (Institutes of A.), has been translated into English by Gladwin (3 vols., ( aleutta, 1786 ; and London, 1800). A.'s latter days were embittered by the death of two of his sons from dissipation, and the rebellious conduct of the AKEE- ALABAMA. third, Selim (known as Jehanghir), who succeeded his father at his death in 101 15. AKEE' (Cupania or Blighia tapida), a fruit-tree •nig to the natural order aapindacea (q. v.), a native of Guinea, introduced into Jamaica in the end of last century. It grows to the height of 'jo 25 feet or upwards, with numerous branches and alternate pinnate leaves, resembling those of the ash. The flowers are small, white, on axillary racemes ; the fruit is about the size of a goose's egg, with three cells and three seeds, and its succulent aril has a grateful subacid flavour. The fruit is little inferior to a nectarine. Boiled down with Sugar and cinnamon, it is used as a remedy i'"r diarrheea. The distilled water of the flowers is used by negro women as a cosmetic. The A. sometimes produces fruit in stoves in Britain. In order to obtain this, the roots should be cramped in pots. — The Aki of New Zealand is a totally different plant, Melroaits for perfumes. Such pots were called alabattra, even when made of other materials. ALAGO'AS, a maritime province of Brazil, which d at one time a district of the province ol Pernambuco. It is bounded on the X. and W. by Pemambnco, and on the s. is divided from the province of Sergipe by the navigable riv Francisco. The country, which is mountainous in the north-vest, and low, marshy, and unhealthy on the coast, contains 300,000 inhabitants. The chief pro- ductions are the sugar-cane, cotton-plant, mandioc or cassava, maize, rice, Ac, and also timber and dye-woods. Tlie capital, A., is situated on the Lake Manguaba. The name A. is derived from the lakes (lagoas) in which the province abounds. ALA.M AN N I, Ll »;i. a distinguished Italian poet, born at Florence, October 28, 1 196. His father, a man of noble birth, was a zealous partisan of the Mi dici, and Luigi stood high in their favour, till, in revenge for some real or fancied wrong, he conspired against the life of < Sardinal • ruuiano, the representa- tive of Leo X. This being found out, A. fled to Venice, and thence, on the accession of the cardinal to the papal chair, to France. In 1527, encouraged by the pope's reverses, he returned to Florence, ami urged the Republic to seek the protection of Charles V., by means of Andrea Doria's friendly mediation. The Republic declared such a proposal treachery, and A. saded with Doria for Spain. Finally, he settled in France, employed as a diplomatist by Francis I. and Henry II. A. died at Arnboise in 1536. He wrote epics, dramas, and minor poems, much admired in their day, and disputes with Trissino the claim of iirst introducing blank verse into Italian poetry. ALAND ISLANDS (pronounced Oland), a numerous group of small islands and rocks at the 1 i.t r. nice of the Golf of Bothnia, opposite Abo, about -J."> miles from the Swedish coast, and 15 from that of Finland. They are called, by the Finns, Ahven- anmaa. About 80 of them are inhabited. Although these rocky isles are covered with but a thin stratum of soil, they bear Scotch fir, spruce, and birch trees, and with proper cultivation, produce barley and oats, besides affording subsistence to a hardy breed of cattle. The inhabitants are of Swedish origin, skdfid sailors, tishermen, and seal- hunters. The total population is about 16,000. The largest of the islands, which gives its name (signifying ' Land of Streams') to the whole group, is about IS niilcs long by 14 broad. It is tolerably wooded and fruitful, and contains nearly 11,1100 inhabitants. These islands belonged formerly to Sweden, but were seized by Russia in 1809. Previous to this, they had several times changed hands between ; wo powers. In 1717, the Swedes were defeated by the Russians in a naval engagement near Aland, the first in ol the Muscovite navy, The importance of these islands as a military position led to the construction, in the reign of the Eumperor Nicholas, of those strong fortitieations at Bomarsund which, in August l.-v'ii. were destroyed by the Anglo-French force, commanded by sir Charles Napier and Baragnay d'Huliers. Two thousand prisoners were taken. Tins extensive fortress (which is supposed to have been but the first of an intended seriesof similar menacing fortifications in the Baltic) commanded the anchorage of YttenuBS, capable of containing a large fleet. ALANC1A ( K.K, a natural order of dicotyle- donous plants, allied to Mt/rtucca (q. v.), and containing only about eight known species, trees and large shrubs, of which the greater number bel the American genus Xyssa (see 1 from the rest of the order in the absence of petals. The one-celled fruit, and pendulous albu- minous seeds, constitute marks of distinction from Myrtacea;. The fruit of Alangium decapetalum and A. hexapetalum, natives of the East Indies, are eatable, but mucilaginous and insipid. The timber is good, the roots aromatic. ALAKCON Y MENDOZA, Jew Hi 17. he, the most eminent of Spanish dramatists, born at the town of Tasco in Mexico, about the end of the 16th c. He belonged to the ancient family of the Ruizes of Alarcon. of which a branch hail emigrated to America. Having studied at the college that had been instituted in Mexico, he removed to Spain, where he is mentioned as Relator del real cunsejo de las Indias (Reporter of the royal councU of the Indies) in 1622. The success that early attended his pieces, joined to the haughty disdain with which, in the consciousness of his own powers, he treated the opinion both of the public and of his brother-writers, excited the envy and jealousy of his contemporaries, so that he became the object of venomous epigrams by the most famous poets of the time, in which deformed upstart from New Spain, with his pride and contemptuousness, was held up to pubbc ridi- cule. This kind of persecution continue, 1 till his death, which occurred in 1639. Even during his lifetime, his best pieces were attributed to others, and ware printed and represented under the names of more favoured poets. This early withdrawal and oblivion of his name, together with the scarcity of his works, have been the cause that he has seldom been mentioned, and still less appreciated by histo- rians of literature, even down to the latest times. Yet some of the best critics rank him next to Calderon and Lope de Vega as a dramatic writer. ■ many single or detached pieces printed in collections, he published a number in his Comedias (vol. i., Madrid, 1628; vol. ii., Barcelona. 1634). Hartzenbusch began a collected edition at Mailrid, 1848. A. attempted almost all the kinds of drama in vogue in his tune ; and was especially eminent in the heroic, as the best specimens of which may be mentioned, El Trjedor de Segovia,and or La que viuclio rale mucho chesta. A.'s ma in delineating character is shewn in the Comedias de '■res, or character-comedies, of which he may be held as the creator. The best known an Verdad Sospechosa (imitated by ComeiHe in his M enteur) and Lou Parades Oyen (Wallshave I which arc yet represented on the Spanish Of his comedies of intrigue, the best specimen is Todo a venturo. It does not appear that A. wrote any Autot (q. v.), fchnngh his two pieces, El AntichristO, and (,'ui'en mal ande en ■■'«', betray a t end e n c y to ascetic mysticism. Although, through the artifices of his contemporaries, as well as the 6 lot of Lo] and Calderon's dramas, the compositions of A soon driven from the stage, yet he remains, together with Tirso de Molina, the most ■ 1 and original among the successors of Lope. Lope and Calderon, the coryphaa of that age, arc the only dramatists that excel A. Combining, in no mean . the charae. both, he excels them in purity of language and elevation of moral feeling. A'LARIC I. (in Gentian Al-ric, i. e., all rich) belonged to one of the noblest families of the \ ilis. He makes his !ir>t appearance in hi9tory in 394 A.te. as leader of the Gothic auxdiai Theodosius in his war with Eugenmi : but after tin- death of the former, he took advantage of the 101 ALARIC IT.— ALATERNUS. dissensions and weakness that prevailed in the Roman Empire to invade (395) Thrace, Macedon, Thessaly, and lllyria, d the country, and threatening Constantinople itself. Rulinus, the minister of Areadins, appears to ha\ Greece in order to rescue the capital, and Athens was obliged to secure its own safety by r A. proceeded to plunder and devastate the P ponnesus, but was interrupted by the landing of Stilicho in Elis with the troops of the Stilicho endeavoured to liem in the lioths on the Peneius ; but A. broke through his lines, and led with his prisoners and Booty to lllyria, of which he was appointed governor by the Emperor Arcadioj, who was frightened by his successes, and hoped, by conferring this dignity on him, to make him a peaceful subject instead of a 96). In 402, he invaded Upper Italy, and Honorius, the emperor of the west, fled from Rome to the more strongly fortified Ravenna. On the way to Gaul, A. was met and defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia on the Tanaro ; but it was not till the following autumn that the residt of the battle of Verona forced him to retire into lllyria. Through the mediation of Stilicho, A. concluded a treaty with Honorius, according to which he was to advance into Epims, and thence attack Areadius in conjunction with the troops of Stilicho. The projected expedition did not take place, yet A. demanded indemnification for having undertaken it ; and Honorius, by the advice of Stilicho, promised him 4000 pounds of gold. When, after the death of Stdicho (q. v.), Honorius faded to fulfil his promise, A. advanced with an army, and invested Rome, which he refused to leave till he had obtained the promise of 5000 pounds of gold, and 30,000 of silver. But neither did this negotiation produce any satisfactory result, and A. again besieged Rome (409 a.d.). Famine soon ren- dered it necessary that some arrangement should be made; and in order to this, the senate proclaimed Attalus, the prefect of the city, emperor instead of Honorius. But Attalus displayed so little discretion, that A. obliged him publicly to abdicate. The I'-ii'Wi ions with Honorius proved equally fruitless with the former, and A. was so irritated at a perfidious attempt to fall upon him by surprise at Ravenna, that he advanced on Rome for the third time. His victorious army entered the city on August 24, 410, and continued to pillage it for six days, A. strictly forbidding his soldiers to dishonour women or destroy religious buildings. When A. quitted Rome, it was only to prose- cute the conquest of Sicily ; the occurrence of a storm, however, which his ill-constructed vessels were not able to resist, obliged him to abandon the project for the time; and his death, which took place at Cosenza, in Calabria, soon after (410), prevented his resuming it. In order that his remains might not be discovered by the Romans, they were deposited in the bed of the river Busento, and the captives who had been employed in the work were put to death. Rome and all Italy celebrated the death of A. with pubbc festivities : and the world enjoyed a momentary repose. But A. himself was much less barbarous than his followers. He admired those monuments of civilisation with which the Eternal City abounded, and sought to preserve them ; he checked the excesses of his fierce soldiery, and at times gave indications that the lessons of Christianity which he had learned from the Arian missionaries had not been altogether forgotten. Yet through him, the Goths learned the way to Rome. ALARIC II., eighth king of the West Goths, or Visigoths, succeeded his father in 4S4 A. 1). He was of 102 a peaceful disposition, and wished to live on friendly terms with tin- Franks. His dominions were \ ■ ry ext. -nsive. Besides Ilispania Tarraconensis and Bictica, he possessed numerous rich provinces in Gaul, and formed an alliance, which still further increased his power, with Gondebandand Tl doric, the latter of whom was his father-in-law, and king of the Fast Goths. At length, however, he came into collision with the Prankish monarch, Clovis, whose cupidity had been ■ SO -it.-.l by the extent and fertility of the territories over which A. ruled. An excuse was found for breaking the peace which existed between the two nations, in the fact that A. was a zealous Arian. This circumstance had given great offence to many of bis subjects, who orthodox Catholics; and ostensibly to vindicate tie- true doctrine, the newly converted barbarian, Clovis, declared war against him. The result was fatal to A. He was shun by the hand of Clovis himself at Vouille, near Poitiers, and his forces completely l'ollted. A. is said to have been indolent and luxurious in his youth; but this may simply implytli.it I not fond of those sanguinary | which capti- vated hi* savage contemporaries. He was tolerant in his religious convictions. Though an Arian, he did not persecute the Catholics. He even permitted the orthodox prelates to hold a council at Agde in 500. In his secular capacity, he displayed an appre- ciation of the blessings of law and order. I If enacted several useful statutes, and kept a watchful eye on all parts of his kingdom. It was during his reign that the Breoiariwm Alaricicmum, or code of A., was drawn up. It is a selection of imperial statutes and writings of the Roman jurisconsults. A. sent copies of it to all his governors, ordering them to use it, and no other. An edition of it was published by Sichard, at Basle, in 1528. ALA'RM. In military matters, the word alarm has a more defined meaning than mere terror or fright. An alarm, among soldiers in an army, is not so much a danger, as a warning against danger. An alarm, signified by the firing of a gun or the beating of a drum, denotes to an army or camp that the enemy is suspected of intending a sudden surprise, or that the surprise has actually been made. There is an alarm-post in camp or garrison arrangements, to which the troops are directed to hasten on any sudden alarm being given. ALA'SKA or A LI ASK A, a peninsula, formerly part of Russian America, occupying nearly the same latitudes as Kamtchatka and Britain. Forming the south-eastern boundary of the Sea of Kamtchatka, it may I I, physically, as a continuation of its southern limit, the Aleutian Isles. It was, accordingly, assumed by the Russians to be an island— a link in that great chain of stepping-stones, wliich had certainly guided them, and perhaps successive shoals of adventurers before them, to the New World. The connection of A. with the conti- nent was left to be ascertained by Captain Cook, whose explorations in search of an Arctic passage — for Behring's Strait was still a matter of doubt — were recorded in the adjacent names of Bristol Bay westward, and Cook's Inlet to the eastward. Thus A, though materially known only as a home for the hunter and his game, becomes morally a word of interest in connection with the history of dis- covery and colonisation. All that was formerly Russian America now belongs to the United States. ALATE'RNUS, according to some, a genus of plants of the natural order Jthamnacea (q. v.), akin to Rhamnus (see Buckthorn) ; but more generally regarded as a sub-genus of Rhamnus, consisting of evergreen shrubs, of which the best ALAVA— ALBA. known is Rhamnua A., or A. phillyrea, a large shrub, densely branched, with shining alternate leaves, which are more or less ovate. The flowers are dioecious, racemed, numerous, and small, much sought after by bees. This shrub is abundant in the south of Europe, and is often planted in town-gardens in England to conceal walls and other objects, being of rapid growth, readily pro- pagated by cuttings, bearing to be clipped into any shape, and not eat lly injured by smoke. Both tin- bark and wood have been used in dyeing. ALA'VA, Don Miguel Ricardo de, a Spanish general, born at Vittoria, in 1771, of a noble family in the province of Alava. He entered the navy in early life ; but afterwards changed to the land- service. After the abdication of Ferdinand VII., he was for a time a zealous partisan of France ; however, in 1811, when he saw the fortunes of Joseph beginning to wane, he abandoned the cause of this prince, to embrace that of the national party, and accepted the office of Spanish com- missary on the staff of Wellington. He gained the confidence of this general, and from this time manifested the strongest predilection for England and English institutions. The war of independence furnished him with numerous occasions of dis- tinguishing himself. After the restoration of the king, however, he was arrested, on the suspicion of entertaining liberal opinions ; but on the appli- cation of his uncle, Ethenard, the inquisitor, seconded by the influence of Wellington, he was not only liberated, but appointed ambassador to the Hague. He returned to Spain in 1S20, after the revolution ; became captain - general of Aragon, made himself conspicuous among the Exaltados, and figured in the ranks of the militia on occasion of the revolt of the royal guard at Madrid, July 7, 1822. In the Cortes assembled at Seville in 1823, he voted for the suspension of the royal authority, and took part in the negotiations carried on with the Duke of Angouleme, at Cadiz. The re-establish- ment of absolute monarchy in the Peninsula drove him, as a political refugee, to Brussels and England, till, at the death of Ferdinand, he was recalled by the regent, Maria Christina. In 1S.34, he was appointed Spanish ambassador to London ; and towards the end of 1835, he undertook a mission to Paris. Under the administration of Isturiz, A. shewed himself as zealous for the moderate system as he had been for the preceding one, and advocated the French intervention, which he had opposed during his embassy to London. Alter the insurrection of La Granja, he refused to swear to the constitution of 1812, declaring that he was tired of constantly taking new oaths ; he gave in his resignation accordingly, and retired to France, where he died in 1S43. A'LBA, or A'LVA, Ferdinand Alvarez von Toledo, Duke of, prime-minister, and general of the Spanish armies under Charles V. and Philip II., was born in 1508, of one of the most illustrious families of Spain. He was educated under the eye of his grandfather, who instructed him in the arts of war and of government. He fought, while yet a youth. at the battle of Pavia, and had the custody of Francis I. while a prisoner. He commanded under Charles V. in Hungary, was present at the siege of Tunis, and accompanied the expedition against Algiers. He defended Perpignan against the dauphin, distin- guished himself in Navarre and Catalonia, and was in consequence created Duke of A. His cautious- ness and his taste for political intrigue afforded as yet no very high evidence of his military talents ; and even Charles V., whom he counselled, when in Hungary, to build a bridge of gold for the Turks, rather than hazard a decisive battle, seems to have intrusted him with the command rather as matter of personal favour than recognition of his 9. His pride was hurt at the low estimation in which he was held ; and his real genius began to : shew itself. The victory which Charles V. gained at MiilUberg over John Frederic, Elector of S in 1547, was due to the able generalship of the Duke of A. Under his influence, as president of the council of war, the cap' r was condemned to death ; and it was entirely against his wish that the emperor commuted the sentence. He took part under the emperor in the expedition against Henry II., king of France, who had taken possession of Mctz ; but here his exertions, as well as those of the emperor, proved unavailing. He was more fortunate in Italy against the combined armies of the pope and the French king, which he repeatedly d' during the campaign of 1555. After the abdication of the emperor Charles V. in 1 566, he continued to hold the command of the army, and overran the States of the Church, which, after the retreat of the French army in 1557, lay entirely at his mercy. He was obliged, however, by the command of Philip H., to conclude a peace with Pope Paul IV., and restore all his conquests. Being recalled from Italy, he appeared in 1559 at the court of France, with which Spain had become reconciled by the peace of Chateau- Cambresis (April 3, 1559) ; and, as proxy for his sovereign, espoused Elizabeth, Henry 1 1.'s daughter. When the inhabitants of the Netherlands, who had been accustomed to freedom, revolted against the tyranny of Spain, and especially against the hated inquisition, the Duke of A.'s counsel was to suppress the insurrection forcibly and with rigour. The king accordingly committed the matter to his hands, and sent him to the Netherlands, 1567, with unlimited power and a large military force. His first step on arriving was to establish what was called the ' Bloody Council,' in which he himself at first presided, and over which he afterwards appointed the sanguinary Don Juan de Vargas. This tribunal condemned all without distinction whose opinions appeared dubious, or whose wealth excited y. The present and the absent, the living and the dead, were subjected alike to trial, and their property confiscated by the council. A number of the merchants and mechanics emigrated to England; above 100,000 abandoned their native country, and many others enlisted under the banners of the pro- scribed princes, Louis and William of Orange. A., rendered still more savage by a defeat which bcfcl his lieutenant, the Duke of Aremberg, put to death the Counts Egmont and Horn on the scaffold. Ho after wards defeated Prince Louis, and compelled William of Orange to retire to Germany ; upon which he entered Brussels in the greatest triumph on the 22d December 1568. The pope piooantl d him with a consecrated hat and sword, as Defender of the Catho- lic faith ; an honour which, having been hitherto conferred only on crowned heads, increased his inso- lence to the highest degree. He caused a statue to be cast, in which he was represented as trampling under Coot two human figures, representing the nobles and people of the Netherlands ; and this he set up in Antwerp. His executioners shed more blood than his soldiers ; and none now withstood his arms except Holland and Zealand. But these provinces continually renewed their efforts against him, and succeeded m destroying the fleet which had quipped by bis orders. This disaster, and per- haps still more the apprehension that he might lose the king's favour, induced him fa) request that ho might be recalled. Philip gladly acceded : as ho perceived that the obstinacy of the rebels was only increased bv these cruelties : and he was desirous of 10S ALBA LONGA— ALBANIA. trying the effect of milder measures. A. accordingly resigned the command of the troops to Don I.mui. de Requescns, and (Di ior IS, l.">7.'i) left the country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had executed 1S,000 men. The war which he had kindled burned for sixty-eight years, and COS! Spain 800,000,000 dollars, her finest troop., and the loss oi seven of the richest provinces of the Netherlands. A. was received al Madrid with the highest di taon, but did not long enjoy his former consideration. Don Frederic, one of his sons, having seduced one of the -item's Ladies of honour under promise of marriage, and bring arrested on this account, the father assisted him to escape, and in opposition to the desire of the king, united him in 111:11 of his relatives. He was in consequence banished from the court to his castle of Uzeda, where he lived two years. But now the troubles in Por- tugal, the crown of which Philip claimed as his hereditary right, indued the king to draw A. anew from his retreat. The duke accordingly led an army into Portugal, and drove out Hon Antonio, who, as grandson of John 111., had taken possession of the throne. The whole country was speedily conquered (15S1) ; and A., with his accustomed cruelty and rapacity, seized the treasures of the capital himself, whde he allowed the soldiers to plunder without mercy the suburbs and the surrounding country. Philip, dissatisfied with these proceedings, desired to have an investigation of the conduct of the duke ; but the haughty bearing of the latter, and the fear of a revolt, induced him to abandon it. A. died at Lisbon, December 11, 1582, at the age of 74. He had a fine countenance, with a haughty air and a robust frame ; he slept little, while he both laboured and WTote much. It has been said of him, that during sixty years of military service he never lost a battle, and never allowed himself to be surprised. A'LBA LO'NGA, one of the most ancient cities of Italy, situated on the rocky ridge that runs along the eastern shore of the Allan Lake, between the lake and the Alban Mount. Sec Axbaxo. According to legendary history, it was built by Ascanius, the son of -Eneas, about 3tl0 years before the foundation of Kome, which is represented as a colony of A. Xot- withstandingthis, the Romans, underTullus Hostilius, destroyed the city, and removed the inhabitants to Rome. It seems certain that A. was an important city long before the existence of Rome, and the head of a confederation of Latin towns, and that when it was destroyed, many of its inhabitants settled at Rome. Some traces of its walls are yet to be seen. A'LBAN, St, the first martyr of Britain, was born at Verulam, in the 3d c, and after having long lived as a heathen, was converted to Christianity, but put to death at the commencement of Diocle- tian's persecution of the Christians. His anniversary is celebrated on the 22d June. The town of St Albans (q. v.), which bears his name, is believed to stand on the site of his birthplace, or the scene of his martyrdom. ALBA'NI is the name of a rich and celebrated family of Rome, who came originally from Albania in the 16th c, and settled first at Urbino. The great influence of the family dates from the accession (1700) of Giovanni Francesco A to the papal throne, as Clemens XL It has since furnished a succession of cardinals. It was Cardinal Alessandro A. (b. 1002 — d. 1770) Who formed tile fallloUS collection of objects of art in the Villa A, outside the Porta Salaria at Rome. It is still a rich collection, although part of it was carried off by the French. The pieces taken away were restored in 1S15; but the then possessor being unable to pay for their removal to Rome, sold them to the king of Bavaria. 104 ALBA \ I, li im i sco, a painter of the Bnlognese school, of the time of the Caracci ; born at Bologna, L578, and died there in 1660. He studied, along with Guido Eteni, first under Calvert, and afterwards under the Caracci. lb- has painted above fifty altar-pieces, worthy of the Caracci school; but his inclination lay more to the representation of scenes of a plaj ful and pastoral, or of a mj thical hind, and of this nature arc the greater pari of his pieces, lie bad by his second wife a family of twelve children of extraordinary beauty, in whom he found exqui ite models for his Yeuuses. Kalateas, and angels' heads; with the disadvantage, however, of imparting a certain uniformity to the countenances of his figures. His representation of the hour Seasons, so often imitated, gamed him great renown. A.'s chief defect lies in the expression of life and feeling. ALBANIA (allied to Air, and meaning 'moun- tain region') forms the south-west province of Euro- pean Turkey, having Montenegro, Bosnia, and Scrvia on the N., Macedonia and Thessaly on the E., Greece on the S., and the Ionian and Adriatic seas on the W. It is divided into four circles, following the four confederations of tribes that people it — the Jegani, Tohkaui, Liapuri, and Jamuri. These circles differ both in climate and in the manners of their inhabit- ants. A distinction is also made between Upper Albania, the Illyria of the Romans, in the north, and Lower Albania, the ancient Epirus, in the south. On the east boundary, forming the water-shed of the peninsula, rises the range of the. Bora-dagh and the Pindus. The first detaches itself from the wild masses of the Tshar-dagh (dagh in Turkish means mountain) and Argentaro mountains; and west of it lie parallel chains, enclosing on the one side, long elevated valleys, and sinking on the other in terraces, down to level strips along the coast, con- sisting mostly of unhealthy swamps and lagoons. Pindus, to the south, is also flanked by isolated basins or hollows, whose western edges pass into tho jagged and thick-wooded Epirotic highlands. These highlands advance to the sea, forming steep rocky coasts ; one promontory, the Acroceraunian, project- ing m Cape Lingiiett.i far into the sea, reaches a height of 4—5000 feet. The chief rivers are the Bojana, the Drin, the Skombi, Ergent, Vojussa, Glykys or Acheron (which follows for some distance a subterranean channel, and on reappearing, is called Mauropotamos), the Ai'ta, and the upper course of the Aspropotamos. Among the lakes, those of Bojana, Oehri, and Janina, are the most important. A fine climate, the heat of which is tempered 1 >y high mountains and the proximity of the sea, and a favourable soil, would seem to invite the inhabitants to agriculture; but for the most part in vain. In the north, little or nothing is cultivated but maize; in the moist valleys, a little rice and barley are produced ; but the mountain-terraces are used as pastures for numerous herds of cattle and sheej i. I n Epirus, there is more variety. Here the slopes of the lower valleys are covered with olives, fruit and mul- berry trees, intermixed with patches of vines and maize, while the densely wooded mountain-ridges furnish valuable supplies of timber. The plateau of Janina yields abundance of grain ; and in the valleys opening to the south, the finer fruits are produced, along with maize, rice, and wheat. Even cotton and indigo might be profitably cultivated in the moist valleys ; but in its present wTetched condition, the country can barely support its scanty population. The inhabitants, estimated at about a million, form a peculiar people, the Albanians or Arnauts ; they call themselves Skypetars. They are descendants of the ancient Illyrians, mixed with Greeks and Slaves, and not to be confounded with the Albani that live ALBANO— ALBANY. on the Caspian Sea. The Albanians are half-civilised mountaineers, frank to a friend, vindictive to an enemy- Miry are constantly under arms, ami are more devoted to robbery and piracy than to cattle- Feeding and agriculture. They Live in perpetual hy, every village being at war with its neigh- bour, and even the several quarters of the Bame town carrying on mutual hostilities. Many of them as mercenaries in other countries, and they form the best soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time, the Albanians were all Christians; after the death oJ their last chief, the hero Scanderbeg, and their sub- jugation by th'' Turks, a large part became Moham- medans, who distinguished themselves l>y ' and treachery towards the tribes that remained true to their old faith. The st'-'-p valleys of the Achi ron in the south, forming the district of Suli. arc inhabited by a powerful tribe, the Suliotes, who till their fields SWOTU in hand, and conceal their harvests in the earth. They made themselves famous by their long resistance to Ali Pacha. In the north, between the Black Urin and the sea, is the country or circle of the Mirdites, i e., the brave, who arc always ready with weapons in their hands to defend their freedom and their religion- the Boman Catholic A. is divided into the pachalica of Janina, Ilbcssan, and Scutari, and the sandjaks of Delvino and Avloua. The chief towns are the ports of Durazzo, Avlona, I i I BBS, and Parga ; the more inland towns, Scutari, Bi rat, Argyro Castro, and Arta ; and in the eastern mountain districts, Akhrida and Joannina. ALBA NO, a town formerly in the States of the Church, ou the declivity of the lava-walls which encompass the lake Albano, about IS miles from Borne, It is the seat of a bishop, numbers 5000 inhabitants, and is siu-rounded with handsome man- sions of the wealthier Romans. It is on the op] side of the lake from where Alba Longa stood, and owed its origin to the villas of ancient Boman magnates, such as Pompeius, Domitian, and Clodius. A valuable wine is produced in the environs. At a short distance from the town, on the old Appian Way, are found the remains of an amphitheatre, and a sepulchre of Etruscan architecture. The Ai.ban Lakk, or Lago di Castello, is formed in the basin of an extinct volcano, and has a circum- ferenc 1 li miles, with the enormous depth of more than looo feet Its elevation is nearly 1000 feet above the Bea-leveL While the Romans were at war with the Vcicntes (390 B.C.), this lake rose to an ordinary height in the heat of summer, aud ut any apparent cause. Etruscan diviners declared that the conquest of Yeii depended upon letting off the waters "I the lake. Stimulated by this, the Romans, under the direction of the Etruscans, opened an emissary or tunnel through the lava- wall which bounds it. In the execution of this work they acquired the art of raining, which they now applied to undermine the walls of Yeii. The tunnel, which still remains, ami still fulfils its ancient office, I mil s in length, with a height of 7 feet, and a width ol 'I feet On the eastern bank of the lake, Ifonte Cavo, the ancient Mount Albanus, 3 feet high, affording an extensive and magnificent view from its summit I pan it once stood the mag- nificent temple of Jupiter I.atialis, which was approached by a paved way, for the ascent of the solemn processions of the Latin confederation (F>rr: Latince), and for the ovations of B generals. The road remains, in great part, perfect to this day. The Albano stone, called Peperino, was much used in Roman buildings. It is a kind of volcanic tufa, of an ash-colour, and is still quarried extensively at A. A'LBAXS, St, an ancient borough in Hertford- shire, situated on tic top and northern side of a picturesque hill. 2] miles north-west from I. : The Ver, a small tributary of the t olm it from the . rulamium (Ycru- lam |, an important station in tl f the scene of a terrible slaughter in the insurrection under Boadicea. In honour of St Alban, said to have Buffered martyrdom lure in -'• '7. a Benedictine monastery was founded by Offa, lung of Mercia, in 796. The foundation of the town is supposed to be due to I Ung (or ' who was abbot about 150 years later. Two I were fought near St A. during the V, Roses, in 1455 and 1461. In the first, Henry YI. a captive ; in the other, he was set at liberty by his brave queen, Margaret of Anjou. The most noteworthy object in the town is the old abbey- church, aerueiform building, of irregular architi •"•IT feet in length, by 206 in breadth, with an embattled tower 146 feet high. The Abbot of St A. had a seat in the Bouse of Peers, and had preced of all other English abbots. In St Michael's i Ihurch is to be seen a monument to the memory of the great Bacon, who bore the titles of Baron Yerulam and viscount St A. More recently, the Beauclerk family have taken from this place tiie title of duke, and the Grimston family that of earL The po tion, in 1871, was S293, many of whom are emp in straw-plaiting and silk-spinning. In the n bourhood are great numbers of corn-mills. '1 he borough, which formerly returned two members, was disfranchised in 1852 for notorious bribery. A'LBANY, or ALBAINN, an ancient name for the Highlands of Scotland, and retained in some degree of use down to our own day. Conn with it is the term Atbiona, applied to the inhabit- ants of the entire British island in FeStns A\ i account of the voyage of llannlcar. the ( 'arthaginian, in the 5th c. B.C. ; also the term Albion, which appears as the name of the island in Aristotle's 'IV of the World. It may, indeed, be pretty safely assumed that Albion or Albany was the original name of Britain among its Celtic population; and that it only became restricted to the north-west provinces of Scotland, when the Celts had for the most part become confined to the same region. Albainn means a country of heights (the root being alb or alp, a height); and it is remarkable to find .Albania also a mountainous country. The modern use of the name A. may be said to have taken its rise in an act of a Scottish council held at Scone in dune l.'JOS, when the title of Duke of A. was con- ferred on the brother of King Eobert 1 1 I., then a as regent of the kingdom. The title, being forfeited in the son of the first holder, was afterwards con- ferred on Alexander, second son of Kin,' Jami i II.. in the person of whose son, John, il ctinct in 1636. Subsequently it was conferred in sue© on Henry Lord Darnley, on Charles I. in in! on James II. in infancy, and (as a British title) on Frederick, second son of George LTX The unfortunate Prince Charles Stuart, in his latter years, assumed the appellation of Count A. as an incognito title. and gave the title I ! of A. to his legrtii titer. ALBANY, the capital of Yew York, is situated on the west bank of tin- Hudson River, 145 miles north of New York city, in 1 at. I'J 39" -V. and long, 7.'i l-V W. After Jamestown and St Augustine, in Virginia, it is the oldest town in the Union, having been founded by the Hutch in 162 it did not receive ita present appellation until 1664, when it came into the possession of the English, and was so named in honour of the Duke of York and Albany. It is situated in the midst of a fertile and ALBANY— ALBE. well-cultivated country, and is one of the most flour- cities in the States, being the chief emporium for the transit-trade of the coast-towns with those of the north and north-west. It is advantageously built for commerce, at the head of the sloop-navi- gation on the Hudson, communicating by means of canals with Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Lake Champlain. It is also the centre in which a number of railways meet, connecting it with New York, Buffalo, Boston, &c. One of the most important articles in its commerce is timber. It is one of the largest timber-markets in the world ; the quantity ed in 1SG3 amounting to 243,611,500 feet of boards and scantling, and 140,740,000 lbs. of staves, and thousands of cubic feet of other articles — the whole valued at over 7,000,000 dollars. \i>>\. 1 from some [parts of the river, A. has ■ picturesque and imposing appearance. In general, it is not very remarkable lor the regularity of its streets or the elegance of its houses ; nevertheless, it contains some of the most splendid edifices in the Union. A new state capitol, in the Renaissance style, is being erected, at a cost of 4,000,000 dollars, which will be one of the finest public buildings in America. A. is honourably distinguished for its educational and literary institutions. The university, incorporated in 1852, has for its aim the discipline of the it is seen sweeping the surface of the ocean in pursuit of flying-fish. It seems rather to float and glide in the air than to tly like other birds, cept when it is rising from the water, the motion of its long wings is scarcely to be per- ceived, The plumage is soft and abundant, mostly white, dusky on the upper parts, some of the feathers of the back and wings black. The bill is of a delicate pinky-white, inclining to yellow at the tip. The A. is extremely voracious ; it feeds chiefly on fish and mollusca, but has no objection to the flesh of a dead whale, or to any kind of carrion. It is not a courageous bird, and is often compelled to yield up its prey to sea-eagles, tne most important Drancnes / v<' .,--- The medical college, founded K ='' .^>-E of practical science. xiie meuicui uuiicge, luuii'ini ■ in 1839, has one of the best museums in the S States, and is otherwise amply furnished with the means of instruction. There is likewise a number of public schools. Top. in 1870, 69,422. ALBANY, Louisa - Maria - Carolixi:, also Aloysia, Countess of, wife of the unfortunate Prince Charles-Edward (q. v.), grandson of James II. of England, She was the daughter of the Prince Gustavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Gedern, who fell in the battle of Leuthcn in 1757. This lady was born in 175.1, and, during her married life, bore the name of the Countess of A. She had no children ; her marriage proved an unhappy one ; and in order to escape from the ill-usage of her husband, who lived in a state of continual drunkenness, she sought n fuge in a nunnery, 17S0. At the death of the prince in 178S, the court of France allowed her an annual pension of 60,000 livres. She outlived the House of the Stuarts, which became extinct at the death of her brother-in-law, the Cardinal of York, in 1807. She died at Florence, which was her usual place of residence, on the 29th of January 1824 Her name and her misfortunes have been transmitted to pos- terity through the works and autobiography of Alfieri (q. v.), to whom she was privately married. Their remains repose in the same tomb in the Church of Santa Croce at Florence, between the tombs of Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo. A'LBATROSS (Diomedea), a genus of web-footed birds of the family of the Laridce, nearly allied to Gulls and Petrels. Their feet have no hind toe nor claw; they have a large strong beak — the upper mandible, with strongly marked sutures, and a 1 ked point. The common Albatross (/'. r-sitliiiix), also called the Wandering A., is the largest of web- footed birds, the spread of wing being sometimes twelve feet, and the weight twenty pounds or upwards. The wings are, however, narrow in pro- portion to their length. This bird is often seen at a great distance from land, and abounds in the southern seas, particularly near the Cape of Good Hope, whence sailors sometimes call it the Cape Sheep. It often approaches very near to vessels, and is one of the objects of interest which present themselves to voyagers far away from land, particularly when i'O Albatross, and even to the larger kinds of gulls. When food is abundant, it gorges itself, like the vultures, and then sits motionless upon the water, so that it may sometimes be taken with the hand. Not unfre- quently, however, on the approach of a boat, it yea the undigested food, and thus lightened, off. Its cry has been compared to that of the pelican ; it also sometimes emits a noise which has been likened to the braying of an ass. Its flesh is unpalatable. It heaps up a rude nest of earth not far from the sea, or deposits its solitary egg in a slight hollow which it makes in the dry ground. The egg is about four inches long, wliite, and spotted at the larcer end ; it is edible. There are seven species of this genus. One of these (D. fidiijinosa), chiefly found within the Antarctic Circle, is called by sailors the Quaker Bird, on account of the prevailing brown colour of its plumage. Albatrosses appear in j*reat numbers towards the end of June, about the lvurile Islands and Kamtchatka. The Kamtchadales take tin m by baited honks, blow up the entrails for floats to their nets, and make tobacco-pipes and vari- ous domestic articles of the wing-bones. ALBE, or ALB (Eat. , white), the long linen vestment worn in early times by all ecclesiastics at divine service. It differed from the more modern sur- plice (q. v.), which is only a modification of it, in having narrower sleeves. At the foot and wrists were em- broidered ornaments called apparels. In the ancient church, Albc ALBERONI— ALBERT. newly baptised persons were obliged to wear a similar garment for eight days ; and hence catechumens were called albati ; and the Sunday after Easter, on which they usually received baptism, came to be called Dominica in Albi-. See WH1IHUJIKAT. ALBERO'NI, Grcnjo, Cakmnai, the son of a poor vine-dresser, was born on the 31st of May Kill I at Firenzuola in Parma. From being merely a chorister in a church at Piacenza, he quickly rose, through his abilities, to tin' dignity of chaplain and favourite of Count Roncovien, Bishop of St Donino. Ho was afterwards scut to .Madrid as chargt (Caffaire*, by the Duke of Panua, where he gained the favour of Philip V. of Spam, and had the honours successively rred on lum of grandee, cardinal, and prime- minister. In this last capacity he was of singularly ce to Spain, overthrowing the intriguing family of L'rsini, bringing about the second ni.'o oi Philip V. with Elizabeth Farnese, and stimulating the expiring energies of Spain. A new life dawned upon the nation, which learned to forget the hard- ships it had suffered in the Spanish Wars of Succes- : HMi ; although, on the other hand, it must be admitted that it was principally through his instru- mentality that the last libertic'3 and rights of the people were sacrificed in favour of absolutism. He was ambitious, and ambition is always despotic and unscrupulous ; hence, to gratify the covetous desires of his new mistress, he suddenly invaded Sardinia, in violation of the Peace of Utrecht, cherishing tin- hope of re-establishing the monarchy of Charles V. and Philip II., and startling Europe by his insolent audacity. The Regent of France broke oil' his alliance with Spain, ami united himself with England and the Emperor; but A. was not dismayed. Even when the Spanish fleet in the Mediterranean was destroyed by an Engbsh one, he contemplated an extensive war by land, in which all the European powers would have been entangled. He patronised the Pretender, to annoy England, and the French Pro- testants, to annoy Louis, lie sought to unite h tei- of Russia and Charles XII. with him, to plunge Austria into a war with the Turks, to stir up an insurrection in Hungary, and, through his influence with one of the parties at the French court, he actually accomplished the arrest of the Regent him- self (the Duke of Orleans). But so universal became the complaints against A., that Philip lost con and concluded a treaty of peace, the chief condition of which was that the cardinal should be dismissed, which was effected through the influence of Elizabeth herself, now weary of the arrogance of her late favourite. On the 20th of December 1720, A- re- 1 a command b > quit Madrid within twenty-four hours, and the kingdom within five days. Exposed to the vengeance of even,- power whose hatred he had drawn upon himself, he knew no land where he could remain. Not even to Rome could he venture, for Clement was more bitterly inimical to him than any secular potentate. He wandered about in disguise, and under fictitious names. At length, he was imprisoned in the Genoese territory, through (he itiou of the pope and the Spanish monarch; but he speedily recovered his liberty, and two ti- i the death of Clement, was reinstated by Innocent X1I1. in all the rights and dignitii cardinal. In 1710 he retired to Pi - Bfire lie died twelve years after (June 'JO. 1752) at the age of ss. II.- bequeathed his possessions in Lorn- bardy to Philip V., while Ins cousin and heir, i lajsar A., became possessor of 1,000,000 duc.it-. A'LBERT, Alexander Mautin, a member of the Provisional Government of France after the revolu- tion of February 1848, was born at Bury (Oise) in 1815. His father was a peasant, and he himself learned a mechanical bade at Paris. He took part in the revolution of July 1830, and was implicated m the celebrated trial of 1834; after which he devoted himself to the study and discussion of political -us, yet not abandoning his workshop, lb- commenced at Lyon tic- republican journal called La Glanen.se, on account of which he was ■ to a fine of 5000 francs when the insurr- out at Lyon. In 1840 he began L' Atelier, a paper conducted exclusively 1 .and dev-i their interests. On the evening before the proclam- ation of the republic in February 1S48, he was milking buttons in his workshop; and on the nomi- nation of Louis Blanc, he was called t<> take part in the Provisional Government. He was afterwards chosen president of the Commission for Natl Rewards; but he ned this post. He was elected by a large majority of voices as the repre- sentative of the department of the Seine in the National Assembly; but involving himself m the attempt of May 15, 1848, against the government as it then existed, he was arrested the same day, and condemned to a lengthened imprisonment. ALBERT, Coot op Bollstadt, usually called Albcrtus Magnus, also Albertus Teutonicus, a man less distinguished for originality, than for the extent of his acquirements and his efforts for the spread of knowledge, especially of the works and doctrines of Aristotle, was born at Lauingen, in Swabia, in 1205, or, as some say, in 1111.'!. After finishing his studies at Padua, he entered the order of the Dominican friars, and taught in the schools of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1230 he repaired to Paris, where he publicly expounded the doctrines of Aristotle, in spite of the prohi I - of the Church. In 1240. be became rector of the school at Cologne; and in 1254, provinci the Dominican order in Germany. In 1260, he received from Pope Alexander IV. tin- bishopric of Ratisbon. But in 12G2, he retired to his co- at Cologne, to devote himself to literary pm and here he composed a great number 01 '-' especially commentaries on Aristotle. He had fall- d into dotage some years before his death, v occurred in 1280. The fullest edition of his works was prepared by Pierre Jammy. tin- Dominican (21 vols., Lyon and Leyden, 1651); but it is far from being complete. Many of the wril attributed to A seem to be spiu-ious ; among others, that entitled J> n, which was widely circulated during the middle ages. The extensive chemical and mechanical know] which A. possessed, considering tin- age in which he lived, brought upon him the imputation of sorcery; and in German tradition he has a very ambiguous reputation. It is recorded, for instance, that m the winter of 1240, he gave a banquet in iden of his com I to \\ illiam of Holland, king of the Romans; and that during the entertainment, the wintry scene was suddenly transformed into one of summer bloom and beauty. This myth rests most likely on the fact of A. having had a green-house. — The scholastics who d A.'s opinions took the name of Allierlitts. ALBERT, Fu.vsi'is | ' S-l ii vr.i i:s- Emm am i:i.. Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Consort of Victoria, Qneen of Great Britain, l-om August 2ii. 1819 was the second son of the late 1 >uk burg- Gotha, by his iirst marriage with Louisa, daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. The Prince, after a careful domestic education, along with his elder brother, the reigning Duke, attended the university of Bonn, when.', in addition to tho sciences connected with state-craft, he devoted 107 ALBERT-ALBERT THE BEAR. himself with ardour to the Btudy of natural history ami chemistry, and displayed great taste for the fine arts, especially painting and music. Several compo- sitions of his obtained publicity, and an opera was afterwards performed in London, Bald to have been composed by him. Gifted with a handsome figure, lie attained ezpertness in all knightly exercises. It was this accomplished Prince thai the yung Quern of Croat Britain selected as her partner tor life. The marriage was celebrated in London on the loth of February 1840. On his marriage, Prince Albert received the title of Royal Highness, was naturalised as a subject of (ireat Britain, and obtained the rank of Field-marshal, the knighthood of the Order of the Bath, aud the command of a regiment of Hussars. As the union proved, in the highest degree, a happy one, the prince was loaded with honours and dis- tinctions both by the Queen and the nation. The title of Consort of Her Most Gracious Majesty was formally conferred in 1842, and that of Prince Con- sort, in 1867, made him a prince of the United King- dom. He was also made a member of the Privy Council, Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle, Colonel of the Grenadier Guards, Acting Grand Master of the Order of the Bath. Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, Master of the Trinity House, &e. Notwithstanding his high and favoured position, the Prince, with rare prudence and tact, abstained from meddling with state affairs, anil thus escaped the jealousy and detraction of parties. When the Whig ministry of 1840 proposed for him the income of £50,000, as Consort of Queen Victoria, the Tories, in conjunction with the Radicals, succeeded in limiting the sum to £30,000. This appears to have been the only instance of any mani- festation of party feeling with reference to the Prince. On the other hand, he opened for himself an influential sphere pf action, in the encouragement and promotion of science and art, appearing as the patron of many useful associations and public under- takings. The Industrial Exhibition of 1851 owed much to the suggestions and encouragement of the Prince. He died 14th December 1801, to the pro- found grief of the whole nation. ALBERT or ALBRKCHT. Five sovereign dukes of Austria (q. v.) bore this name, of whom two (I. and V.) were also emperors of Germany, A. I., Duke of Austria and Emperor of Germany, was the eldest son of Rudolph L, and born in the year 1248. Rudolph, about the close of his career, made an effort to have A. appointed his successor ; but the electors, tired of his authority, and emboldened by his age and infirmities, refused to comply with his request. Alter Rudolph's death, Austria and Styria revolted; but A., having vigor- ously crushed the insurrection, had the audacity to assume the insignia of the empire without waiting for the decision of the Diet. This violent measure induced the electors to choose, in preference to him, Adolphus of Nassau. Disturbances in Switzer- land, and a disease which cost him an eye, now rendered liim more humble ; he delivered up the insignia which he had so rashly assumed, and took the oath of allegiance to the new emperor, who, however, after some years, so completely disgusted his subjects, that A. began to entertain hopes of recovering his imperial dignity. In 1298, Adolphus was deposed, and A. elected ; but the former having resolved to maintain his title, A. was obliged to fight for the crown. The rivals drew up their forces near Worms, where a battle ensued, in which Adolphus was defeated and slain. A., feeling that he might now safely display magna- nimity, voluntarily resigned the crown which had been recently conferred upon him ; and, as he had anticipated, was unanimously re-elected. His coronation took place al Us la-Chapelle, in August L298. But the pope; Boniface Vlll., denied the right of the princes to elect A., declared himself the only true emperor and legitimate king of the Romans, summoned the former before him, required him to ask pardon and do penance, forbade Che princes to acknowledge him, and released them from their oath of allegiance. A., on the other hand, with his usual intrepidity, tidied his Holiness, formed an alliance with Philip the Pair of France, ii cured the neutrality of Saxony and Brandenbur , invaded the electorate of Met/, and forced the archbishop to break off his alliance with Boniface and to form one with himself for the next five years. The pope was alarmed by his success, and entered into negotiations with him. A., whose duplicity and unscrupulousness equalled his courage, suddenly broke oil' his alliance with Philip, admitted t lie western empire to be a papal grant, and declared that the electors derived their right of choosing from the Holy See. Moreover, he promised upon oath to defend the rights of the Romish court whenever he was called upon. As a reward, Boniface gave him the kingdom of France, excommunicating Philip, and declaring him to have forfeited the crown ; but the latter severely chastised the pope for Ins insolence in daring to give away what was not his own. In the following year, A. made war unsuccessfully .against Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Hungary, Bohemia, and Thuringia. .Shortly after- wards, news reached him that a rebellion had broken out amongst the Swiss in Dnterwalden, Schweitz, and Uri, in January 1308. A. had not only foreseen, but desired this, in order that he might find a pretext for completely subjugating the country. A new act of injustice, however, occasioned a crime which put an end to his ambition and life. His nephew, Duke John, claimed Swabia as his rightful inheritance, aud had set his claims before A., but in vain. When the latter was departing for Switzerland, the former renewed his demand. A. scotiingly refused; and Duke John resolved to be revenged. Along with four othcrs, he conspired against his uncle's life, and assassinated him on the way to Rheinlelden, while separated from his followers by the river Reuss. The emperor expired May 1, 1308, in the arms of a beggar-woman sitting by the wayside a spectacle calculated to excite stern reflection on the vanity of human ambition. His daughter Agnes, queen of Hungary, frightfully revenged her father's death. See John, tiii: Pauuicide. A. left five sous and five daughters, the children of his marriage w itli Elizabeth, daughter of the Count of Tyrol. ALBERT THE BEAR (so called, not from any peculiarity of character or appearance, but from the heraldic cognizance that he assumed), Margrave of Brandenburg, one of the most remarkable princes of l.i age, was born HOG. He was the son and successor of Otho, the rich Count of Ballenstadt, and of Ekca, eldest daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony. Having proved faithful to the Emperor Lothario, he received from the latter Lusace, to be held as a fief of the empire ; but the Duchy of Saxony, to which he had the best claim, was given to Henry of Bavaria (11 27), the son of the youngest daughter of the duke. As a compensation, A. was made Margrave (Markgraf) of the Northern March or Marck (Salzwedel) ; but in the year 1138, Henry having been put under the imperial ban, the duchy reverted to the former, when he took the title of Duke of Saxony. Henry, however, again got the upper hand, anil A. was com- pelled to fly, and to content himself with the mar- graviate of Northern Saxony, and the government of Swabia, which was given him as an indemnity. ALBERT— ALBIG ENKEft Returning to his own country, he got himself invested with the lands which he bad conquered Erom tin.' \Y. nds as a hereditary fief of the empire, ami thus became M' founder ami tirst Margrave of the new state of la'and. nl.m j. I ii.ii- \ . tli. \l.-n ■. i avi dom was afterwards raised to be an Electorate, and he I If became Elector oi Brandenburg. After he had quelled a revolt of the Wends in 1157, he determined to take extreme measures against the younger son of the elector. John Cicero of Branden- burg, was born in 1489. In 1513 he became hi hop of Magdeburg; in the i Adminis trator of the bi Qalberstadt, and in the following year, Archbi hop and Elector of Mentz. LeoXnavii d him permission to sell indulgences, on cmihtion that he should deliver up half the booty to the papal ezcheqi the Domini: an Ti tzi I ' indi her, who, vanquished. He almost depopulated their country, by the shameless mam ich he went about anil then colonised it with I'lcmings. (Mi his return his work, firsl itirred Luther to post Op 1 from a pil vniicojo |,, pair -tine iu company with his known line l fivi thl i i iii the are], wife in 1159, he exerted himself to suppress the language and paganism of the Wends, and to intro- duce ( 'liri tiaiuty aniongst them. I [e died in I I7n. at Ballenstftdt, where he was buried. Brandenburg continued in tie- possession of his descendants for two centuries, and finally (1416] fell to the house of HohenzoUern (q. v.). ALBERT, last grand-master of the Teutonic Order, and first Duke of Prussia, was horn in 14!)0. lie was the son of the Margrave Frederic of Anspach and Balreuth, who, having several children, wished to make him enter the church. He was educated under the care of Archbishop Hermann, of Cologno, where he became canon. He did not, however, neglect knightly exercises. He accom- panied the emperor Maximilian 1. in his expe- dition against Venice, and was present at the of I'avia. In 1511, when scarcely twenty-one years old, he was chosen grand-master of the Teutonic Order, the knights expecting their feudal allegiance to Poland to Be abolished, on account of his near relationship to Sigismund, the monarch of that country, while they also hoped for protection against the latter from his friends in Germany. He was consecrated at Mcrgcntheini with his father's consent. In 1512 he removed to KBniga- berg, having been acknowledged by Poland like- wise; but refusing to take the oath of allegiance, he was plunged into a war with Sigismund in 1520. The year after, a four years' truce was agreed to at Thorn. A. next made his appearance at the imperial Diet at Nurnberg, as a German prince of the empire, to induce the other princes to him against the Poles. But Germany could at that time grant no assistance to any one. Dis- appointed in his hopes, A. tlirew himself into the cause of the Reformation, which had rapidly spread into Prussia, and broken the last strength of the declining order, whose possessions now appeared a certain prey to Poland. A. still hoped to preserve these, by acting upon Luther's advice, which was, to declare himself secular Duke of Prussia, and place In ; land under the sovereignty of Sigismund. This was done with great pomp at Cracow, on the 8th April 1525, the duchy being secured to him and his descendants. During the remainder of his life, A. zealously BOUght to further the weli'ai f his duchy. lb- regulated the administration of all affairs, both secular and ecclesiastical, established the ducal library, founded in 1543 the university of Konigs- berg, gathered many literary men around him, and caused their works to be printed. In 1527, he married Dorothea, daughter of Frederick, king of Denmark. A. earnestly desired peace, but hi --hishop'a own diocese, the reformer's doctrini found not a few adherents, so that A. ft mil" rial Diet at Augsl.i the part of peace- maker. When he joined the Holy Alii the Treaty of Schmalkal.l, Luther made a attack on him in writing. He v.. is the first of all the German princes who received the Jesuits into his dominions. In 1541, he granted religious liberty to his subjects, under the condition pay his debts, amounting to 500,000 florins. He did this, not from any love of religious liberty, but either because of the consideration n i< rred to, or from a dread of popular compulsion. The last days of his life were spent in Aschaffenburg, where he di 1545. ALBERT, or ALBREi !HT, Archduke of Austria, born in 1559, was the third son of the emperor Maximilian II. He was brought up at the Spanish court, and dedicated himself to the church. In 1577 he was made cardinal, in 1584, Archbishop of Toledo, and during the years 1594—96, held the ollice of viceroy of Portugal He was next appointed Stadt- holder of the Netherlands, where he continued, until his death, the representative of the Spanish monarch, discharging the duties of his function with prudence and dignity. Cardinal Beutivoglio, who resided a considerable time at his court, praises his upright- ness, his moderation, his love of serious study, his industry, his perseverance, and his discretion, t£ he does not conceal the fact that he was a prince better fitted for peace than for war. He display.,! at first both courage and enthusiasm, but afterwards he was accused of dilatorincss and timidity. Mean- while, he did not receive from Spain the promised help; and, moreover, affairs ! » • i bed. such a pitch, that they could hardly become worse. A., how ever, did the best that could be done. His mild, moderate, and unpersecuting character, essentially contributed to the re-establishment of the Spanish authority in the Netherlands. Philip employed him to mediate amid the disturbed provinces. A. now abandoned his ecclesiastical profi ssion, and married (159S) the Infanta, Isabella, who reci iv. .1 the Nether- lands for her dowry. He died in 1621. ALBERTUS MAGNUS. See Albert of BOLLSTADT. ATilJI, capital of the department of Tarn in I . is luult on a height. It is very old. and suffered greatly during the religious wars which devastated the land in the time of the Albi Besides the usual government offici ises a public library- of 12,000 volumes, and a museum. The most remarkable b lie the eatl built in the style of the 13th c. the old pall not an age m which peace could be purchased. The t)ll , ,.,„ mt , ,,, xn transition period from the old to the new is always considerable trade m corn. wine, anise. prUE violent, and the duke found hims.li entangled m clover-seed. The chief manufactures are table-linen, conflicts with the nobles, and in theological disput ■. which, along with other crosses of a more pi I ion 1 character, saddened the close of his life. He died in 1508. See Psuasi \. ALBERT, Archbishop of Magdeburg, and Elector cotton and WOOlli I Is, leather. .Ye. Pop. 13,008. A'LBIGEN'SKS is n name applied loosely to the •heretics,' belonging to various sects, that abounded in the south of Frani about I hi of the l.'ith C. The chief s.ct was the Cathari (q.V.); but they of Mentz, generally called A. of Brandenburg, all agreed in renouncing the authority of the popes 109 ALBIGENSES— ALBOKXt >Z. and the discipline of the Romish Church. The name arose from the circumstance that the district of AlbigeoiB in Languedoo— now in the department i if Tarn, of winch All>i is the capital— was the first Foint against which the crusade of Pope (nnooeni II., 1209, was directed. The immediate pi crusade was the murder of the papal legate and inquisitor, Peter of Castclnau, who had been commissioned to extirpate heresy in the dominions of Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; hut its real object was to deprive tin 1 count of his lands, as he had become an object of hatred from his toleration of the hereties. It was in vain that lie had submitted to the most humiliating penance and flagellation from the hands of the legate Milo, ami had purchased the papal absolution by great sacrifices. 'I Arnold, Abbot of Citeaux and Milo, who directed the expedition, took by storm Beziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew, Roger, and DUU 20,000— some say 40,000— of the inhabitants, Catholics as well as heretics. ' Kill them all,' said Arnold; ' God will know his own!' Simon, Count of Montfort, who conducted the war under the legates, proceeded in the same relentless way with other places in tin- territories of Raymond and his allies. Of these, Roger of Beziers died in prison, and Peter I. of Aragon fell in battle. The conquered lands were given as a reward to Simon of Montfort, who never came into quiet possession ,.i the gift. At the siege of Toulouse, 1218, 1 killed by a stone, and Counts Raymond VI. and VII. disputed the possession of their territories with his son. But the papal indulgences drew fresh crusaders from every province of France, to continue the war, Raymond VII. continued to struggle bravely against the legates and Louis VIII. of France, to whom Montfort had ceded his preten- sions, and who fell in the war in 1226. After hundreds of thousands had perished on both sides, a peace was concluded, in 1220, at which Raymond piu'chased relief from the ban of the church by immense stuns of money, gave up Narbonne and several lordships to Louis IX., and had to make his son-in-law, the brother of Louis, heir of his other possessions. These provinces, hitherto independent, were thus, for the first tune, joined to the kingdom of France ; and the pope sanctioned the acquisition, in order to bind Lotus more firmly to the papal chair, and induce him more readily to admit the inquisition. The heretics were handed over to the proselytising zeal of the order of Dominicans, and the bloody tribunals of the Inquisition; and both used their utmost power to bring the recusant A. to the stake, and also, by inflictii punishment on the penitent converts, to inspire dread of incur- ring the church's displeasure, [from the middle of the 13th c, the name of the A. gradually disappears. The remnants of them took refuge in the east, and settled in Bosnia. Compare Fauriel, Croisade conlre lea Alhigeois (Par. 1838); Faber, Inquiry int>< Hit Hwloryand Theology of die Vallenscs and Albigenses (Lou. 1838). ALBI'NOS— called also Leuccethiopes, or wdiite negroes, and by the Dutch and Germans Rakerlaken — were at one time considered a distinct race ; but closer observation has shewn that the same pheno- menon occurs in individuals of all races, and that the peculiar appearance arises from an irregularity in the skin, which has got the name of leucopaUiy or leucosis. It consists in the absence of the colouring matter which, in the normal state, is secreted between the cuticle and the true skin, and also of the dark pigment of the eye ; so that the skin has a pale, sickly white colour, while the iris of the eye appears red, from its great vascularity. As the pig- ment in the coats of the eye serves to diminish the stimulus of the light upon the retina, A. generally cannot bear a strong light; on the other hand, they Bee better in the dark thin others, The colouring matter of the hair is also wanting in A., so that their hair is white. All these differences are of course more striking in the darker varieties of tho sp and mot "i all in the negro albinos. Albinoism is always born with the individual, and occurs not only in men, but also in other mam- malia, in birds, and probably in insects. It is not improbable that the peculiarity may. to some extent, be hereditary. The opinion that A. ai lushed from other nun by weakness of body and mind, is completely refuted by i A'LBION is the most ancient name on record of the island of Great Britain. See \i raww Ai.bai.vn. A'LBOIN, the founder of the Lombard dominion in Italy, succeeded his father in 561 A.D., as king of the Lombards, who were at tint time settled in l'annoina. His thirst for action first vented itself in aiding Xarses against the Ostrogoths; and after- wards, m a war with the Gepidffl, whom he, in con- junction with the Avari, defeated in a great battle (566), slaying their king Cunimond with his own hand. Hn the death of his first wife. Klodoswinda, he married Rosamond, daughter of Cunimond, who was his prisoner. Some of his warriors, who had accompanied Narses into Italy, brought back reports of the beauties and riches of the country. This determined A., in 568, to enter Italy with his own nation of Lombards, the remains of the Gepidffi, and 211,11110 Saxons. He soon overran and subdued lie north of the country as far as the Tiber, fixing his principal residence at Pavia — wdiich long con- i lined to be the capital of the Lombards; when his barbarity cost him his life. During a feast at Verona, he made his queen drink out of the skull of her father, which he had converted into a wine- cup. In revenge, she incited her paramour to murder her husband, who fell 574. Strangely eni High, A. was a just and beneficent ruler. He was beloved by his subjects, whom he stimulated into that vital activity that characterised their descendants for For several centuries, his name continued to be illustrious among the German nations, who cele- brated lus praises in martial songs. To escape the fury of the Lombards, PLOsamond fled with her associate and the treasure to Longinus, the exarch, at Ravenna. Longinus becoming a suitor for her hand, she administered poison to Helmichis, her paramour, who, discovering the treachery, caused her to swallow the remainder of the cup, and die with him. ALBORNOZ, .r>.nurs Alvarez Carillo, a warlike prelate of the middle ages, was born at Cuenca. He studied at Toulouse, and subsequently became almoner to Alfonso XL, king of Castile, who appointed bun Archdeacon of Calatrava, and finally Archbishop of Toledo. He took part in the wars against the Moors, saved the life of the king in the battle at Tarifa, and was present at the siege of Algeciras, where the king dubbed him knight. On account of the Christian boldness with which he denounced the criminal excesses of Peter the Cruel, he fell into disgrace, and had to flee to Pope Clement VI., at Avignon, who made him a cardinal. Innocent VII, also recognised his political talents, and sent him as cardinal-legate to Rome, where, by his tact and vigour, he secured, in spite of the intricate complication of affairs, the restoration of the papal authority in the States of the Church (1353—62). Pope Urban V. owed the recovery of liis dominions to him, and out of gratitude, appointed him legate at Bologna, in 1367. In the same year he died at Viterbo, but ALBUERA— ALBUQUERQUE. expressing a wish to be buried at Toledo, almost royal honours were rendered to his dead body by the Spanish monarch, Henry of Castile; and Urban even granted an indulgence to all who had assisted in the transference of his remains from Vtterbo to Toledo. He left a valuable work upon the constitution of the Romish l.'hurch, printed for the first time at Jesi in 1473, and now very i ALBUE'R A, in the Spanish province of Estrema- dura, an insignificant hamlet, famous for the battle of May 16, 1811, between the combined Ei Spanish, and Portugese forces under General Beresfard; and the French under Marshal Soult, who were scarcely BO numerous, but had abundant artil]sarea of the Romans, an old fortified Spanish town, built by the Moors in the province of Bstremadura. The present population is about 4000. It was plundered 1 >y the French under General Lapisse in 1809. The bridge from which it takes its naiin- was built for Trajan. 105 A.D. It consists of six arches, the two central ones with a span of 110 feet; the whole length is 070, and the height 210 feet. This remarkable structure was partially blown up by the English in 1812, anil was again destroyed during lie.. civil war of 1836 ; and though el be easily repaired, it is h ft in a state of ruin, the lazy Spaniards being fen led over m a lumbering boat. The Obdf.ii of A. (formerly .St Julian), one of the reli- gions orders of Spanish knighthood, was founded II..10 as a military frater- nity for the defence of Estre- madura against the Moors. Iu 1197, Pope Celcstine HI. raised it to the rank of a reli- gious order of knighthood ; bestowed great privileges on it, and charged it with the defence of the Christian faith, and the maintenance of eternal war with the infidel. AJphonso LX., having taken the town of Alcantara, Order of Alcantara. ALCEDO ALCHEMY. it in 1218 to On < ' rava (q. v.) ; but tli' '" i" hold ' with tl yielded it to the knighta of St Julian, who tral it their scat, and hencefortil were known by its name. At I the grand-masteiahip of the order was, by nder \'i.. unit '1 to thi ■•■•■ o in 1 195. The order is still richly h,who follow the rule of St B ad quaff the golden draught. Th great mystery, the mo grandmother of the stars. There was the philo- and there was the pit 1 ophical-stone v. , yet at her virgin touch t! re) among them all would blush jrold. The philo other hand, was the iirst-born of nature, and u- king of metal who had attained full insight into tli rtyled who were only striving after th ■ v.r i Phil Op] am; while the ordinary practi- tlie axi ; onaries that formed themselves into Rosicrucian Societies and ot'i OS. It was also in con- nection with this mock-A., mixed up with astrology and magic, that quackery and imposture so abounded! 88 ia depicted bj Scott in th of Doustcrswivcl in 1 vary, Desj knaves would, for instance, make up large nails, half of iron and half of gold, and lacker them, so that they appeared common nails; and when their Credulous and avaricious dupes saw them extract from what seemed plain iron an ingot of gold, they I ady to advance any sum that the 1... pretended to be necessary tor pursuing the process- on a large scale. It is from this degenerate and effete school that the prevailing notion of A. is derived :: notion which is unjust to the really meritorious alchemists who paved the way for genuine chemistry. It is interesting to observe that tie- leading tenet in tiie alchemists creed — namely, the d msmutability of other metal, into gold and silver — a doctrine which it was at one time i that modern chemistry had utterly explodi 1 — receives not a little countenance from a variety of racts every day coming to light. 'ITie multitude of phenomi ine of - osti>oned the impeachment till he had set sail, when they stirred up the people t him to such a degree, that he was recalled, in order to stand his trial. On his way home, he 1 at Thurii, Bed, and Ix-took himself to Sparta, where, by conforming to the strict manners of the people, he scon became a favourite. He induced the Lacedaemonians to send assistance to j racusans, persuaded them to form an alliance with the king of Persia, and after the unfortunate issue of the Athenian exjiedition in Sicily, to support eople of Chios in their endeavours to throw off ke of Athens. He went thither himself, and all Ionia in revolt against that city. But i nd the other leading men in Sparta, jealous of the success of A., ordered their generals in Asia to have him assassinated. A. discovered this plan, and . Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap, who had ! to act in concert with the Lacedaemonians. He now resumed his old manners, adopted the luxurious habits of Asia, and made himself indis- pensable to Tissaphernes. He represented to the latter that it was contrary to the interests of Persia entirely to disable the Athenians. He then sent word to the commanders of the Athenian forces at Samos that he would procure for them the friend- ship of the satrap if they would control the extrava- gance of the people, and commit the government to an oligarchy. This offer was accepted, and Pisander was sent to Athens, where he got the supreme power vested in a councU of 400 persons. When it appeared, however, that this council had no intention Balling A., the army at -Samos chose him as eommantler, desiring him to lead them on instantly to Athens, and overthrow the tyrants. \. did not wish to return to his native country till he had rendered it some service, and he accord- ingly attackeel and defeated the Lacedaemonians <■ and land. Tissaphernes now ordered him to be arrested at Sardis on his return, the Batrap not wishing the king to imagine that he had been accessory to his doings. But A. founel means to escape ; placed himself agam at the head of the army ; beat the Lacedaemonians and Persians at Cyricus; took Cyzieus, Chalcedon, and Byzantium; restored nians the dominion of the sea; and then retained to his country (407 B.c), to which he had formally invited. He was received with general enthusiasm, as the Athenians attributed to his banishment all the misfortunes that had befallen them. The triumph of A., however, was not dest ; last. Hew t to Asia with 100 shi; not b 1 with money for the soldier he wa k assistance at Caria. where he transferred the command in the meantime to Antiochus, who, being lured into an ambuse Lysander. lost his life and part of the ships. The enemies of A. took advantage of this to accuse him and appoint another commander. A. went to Thrace, where he lived in voluntary exile in Pactyae, one of the castles which he had built out of his earlier spoils. But being threatened here with the iK>wer of Laecdaemonia, he removed to Bithynia, with the intention of repairing to Artaxerxes, to gain him over to the interests of his country. At the request of the Thirty Tyrants^ nd with the concurrence of the Spartans, Pharnabazus, a satrap of Artaxerxes, received orders to put A. to death. He was living at this time in a castle in l'hrygia ; I'harnabazus ordered it to be set on fire during the night, and as his victim was endeavour escape from the (lames, he was pierced with a volley of arrows. Thus perished A. (404 B.C.), about the forty-fifth year of his age. He was singularly endowed by nature, being possessed of the most fascinating eloquence (although he could not articu- late the letter r, and stuttered in his speech), and having in a rare degree the talent to win and to govern men. Yet in all his transactions, he allowed himself to be directed by external circumstances, without having any fixed principles of conduct. On the other hand, he possessed that boldness which arises from conscious superiority, and shrunk from no difficulty, because he was never doubtful concerning the means by which an end might be attained. His life has been written by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos. ALCMAN, an ancient lyric poet, was born at Sardis, the capital of Lydia, in Asia Minor, but lived first as a slave, and afterwards as a freeman in Sparta. He is the earliest erotic poet, and is said to have intro- duced some new metrical forms called Alcmanica metra. He composed in the Doric dialect a poem on the Dioscuri, Parthenia, or songs sung by choruses of virgins, bridal-hymns, verses in praise of love and wine, &c. We possess only a few fragments of A., nor do these justify the high opinion entertained of his merits by the ancients, though some of them exhibit considerable beauty. A. died of a loath- some disease (morbus pedicuiaris). ALCO, a variety of dog, domesticated in Mexico and Peru before the discovery of America by Europeans, and also found in a wild state in these countries. But whether it is originally a native of them, or has escaped from domestication, is uncertain, nor is the variety well known to naturalists. It is described as having a very small head and pendulous ears : the latter being in dogs one of the ordinary results of domestication. Humboldt supposed it to be allied to the shepherd's dog. It has been attempted to elevate it into a species under the name of Cams A. It is not improbable that the name A. was given to more varieties than one, A'LCOHOL is a limpid, colourless liquid, of a hot pungent taste, anel having a slight but agri smelL It is the characteristic ingredient of fer- mented elrinks. and L'ives them their intoxicating quality. Looking at the extraordinary consumption e liquors, and to the extensive application of A. for other purposes, it becomes one of the most important substances proeluced by art. There is only one source of A. — namely, ti. mentation of sugar or other saccharine matter. Sugar is the produce of the vegetable world. Some plants contain free sugar, and still more contain starch, which can be converted into sugar. TI: able substances, then, for yielding A. are those that contain the greatest abundanc r of starch. .. and I'lMlLLATION. i the attraction of A. for water, it is impossible to procure pure A. by distillation alone. Common spirits, such as brandy, wl 'utain cent of A.; in other words, they are about half A, half water. Proof-spirit, which is tho no AI.COHOLOMF.TKY- AIX'l HI \. of A. ling ."'7 -7 per cent, by i and 49*50 per cent, bj gravit] o pi - piril 918*6; and when is call '"''. it denoh a that it conta ctified spirit, with ' proof, and requir 1 54 to added lo it. to bring thi i dow n to thai i spirit ; whilst the to a li lit than the standard. See \ n iimi 1 1 ::. The most primitive tni thod of learning A i' with it, bi t fire to tin- spirit, and if it inflamed the gun- i mt, then thei 1 i |iirit. The highe ■Him possib] '.'ii per cent, of A., still leaving 10 per cent, of water. tn to remove ( I calcium, quicklime, or fused carbonal holic liquid, the whole allow ■' far twelve hours, and then the spirit may be distilled off quite free from water. Spirit of wine may also be di p of its remaining water by suspending it in a bladder in a v bladder allows d water to pa littl ■ of the A. The latti r method is called Soi i Is on the different di pidity with which the bladder admits of and A. passing through it. Thus, introduce r, and iiitu a second, eight ounces of A., and allow both bladders to be similarly exposed on a sandbath, t.ll all the water lias evaporated through thi of the memb bich will b accompli hed in about four days, and it will tl lerved, that whilst a les water exil from tl . that only one ounce of A. h«is thus evaporated, and in the bladder. This experiment explains why smugglers, a few generation ky which v,. r, and hi D prefers y carriea the whisky in bladders from in much gn iter proportion than the A., a r spirit was left V rnally and nally. I runon form for int rnal use is ly, and is that generally recommend physici 1 re in the later Btages o rnally i p ' ] it fainting ■ operations, and to ration in cases of aded animation. In cases of diarrhoea, unac- I great ally, A. is applied to . the cuticle over tender parts, as the nipple- livery, and to feet which have been blistered from walking or tight-fitting Absolute or anhydrous A. has a specific gravity of 793 al the temperature of tit*. It boils at 17.'i . and ha been frozen by .any cold hitherl duced. Red d to a t mperature of ■ — 130", \. ■ ty and greasy consistence; a1 I 16 . it assumes the aspect of melted wax ; and at 166°, it 'jets still thicker, 1 mt does not congeal at the lowest attainable temperature. This prop non-freezing at any degree of cold to which the objected, has led to the emplcyn A. coloured red ' al, in the thermal sent out to the Arctic regions. It at ■ : from the parts it touches. It is hi rhly inflammable; its combustion yielding only 116 lie .acid and water. When mixed with water, I ormula of A. is C 4 H,0,. In luo pounds, therefore, of A., about 63 are carbon, 13 hydrogen, I oxygen. Bi \. consumed in w ine, beer, and spirits, it is much mployedi and in the arts. It is a powerful solvent tor resins and nil : ■ mployed in the preparation of varnish,;, [n Germany, a cheap piril made from i inn. li ii i-d for cooking on a small cale. See Minnimi' SPIRIT. The use and abuse of lie drinks will be considered under FOOD isn ., and Teupebaki i M.COIIOI.O'METRY is the process of esti- the percentage of Icohol in a sample of Spirits. See Alli-'.oM ALCORAN. See Km ■ ■.. AI.( 'I lA'K (Spanish, o'er,/,,/, which is derived from the Arabic, El-kauf, a I ectural term, denoting a sort of niche or recess in a chamber where one may recline, or where a bed ma placed. An A. is either hung with curtains or closed with doors during the day. ft was known to the ancients, and at one time very common in Franco, when the immoderate size of the apartments ren- dered it absolutely necessary as a preventive against the cold during sleep. It is no longer fashionable, tie- most eminent physicians b declared it to be prejudicial to hearth ALCO'T, a town in the province of Valencia, Spain, about 24 miles north-west of Alicante. It is 'built in a funnel of the hills, on a tongue of land hemmed in by two streams, with bridges ami arched viaducts.' The old, quainl looking leu - hang pictures, pi Jy ,,v, r tie- terraced gardens ami ravines. The walls of A. an- of clay, and suffered consider- able damage during the last war; but the I contains new edifices, and has numerous manufactories. 'Hi re is mad, the papel ,/ /, book J. which forms the entire , iino library of nine-tenths of Spaniards, and with which they make their papebitoa, or little ] 200,000 reams are annually made, of which In. noil ure used tor writing. 10,000 for packing, and I sii. imii) for the pa] L is also ir-plums. It les a parish church, schools, - , lum, ], ill, lie granary, ( , . Pop 27,000. ALCI'IMA. M i ini>!<: D EOF, known i jos, in Spain, 12th t>f May 1767. Poor, but! and musical, tit the age of twenty, he entered tin- king's body- guard at Madrid, anil olirite ,,f the weak ( lharles I V.. as well as of his queen. Honours ,:,! emolun I in i pidly. In 1801, he I,,! the Spanish army against tin- Portuguese, and i igned ■ of 1 1. I so !. he w .i, of tin- Spanish forces on sea and land, and invested with unlimited power. The alliance ,,f Spain with and tin- war with Kngland which ensued, in spite of the I by Spain to secure neutrality, the defeat of Trafalgar, and con- lerce — all tended t,, exasper- e, 1, said a court-party was formed against him, with the Prince of Aaturias at its head. A. now resolved to shake off the French alliance, and to treat secretly with the Lisbon court. Hut howevei i on ly taken, bis warlike measures oi Napoleon, and determined him roji '! ,,f dethroning the Bourl . Meanwhile, the people had been further exasperated against the favourite by his unprincipled accusations i the Prince of Asturias; and when, in 1808, Charles abdicated in favour of his son, the duke's ' life was only saved by the promise of his trial. ALCUIX— ALCY0N1 1 IM. This trial, however, never took place. Napoleon, who knew his influence over the minds oi Spanish maje bii . had him liberated, and 1>i ght to B lyonne, where hi takes by the ex-king and queen, retaining their favour till their death. After his fall, he lived Chi By in France. Iu 180S, his income had been esthn oillion piastres. After the revolution of 1830, we find him subsisting in Paris upon asm.!]] a ved by Louis-Fhilippe. In 1847, his return bo Spain was permitted, and his titles, togi ther with great part of his wealth, restored. He died al •1th October 1851. ALCUIX, or FLACCUS ALBTNUS, the most distinguish! d scholar of the 8th c, the conJ aud adviser of Charlemagne, was l">ni at York about the year 735. He was educated under the care of Archbishop Egbert, and his relative, Aelbert, and succeeded the latter us master of the School of York. Charlemagne became acqua with him at Parma, as he was returning from i I whither he had gone to bring home the ^.e'V/.e i . . i- a friend; and in the year 782, this monarch invited him to his court, and availed himself of his assist- in his endeavours to civilise his subjects. A. ptorof Charlemagne himself, whom he instructed iu the various sciences. To render tractions more available, Cnarlem lished at his court a school called Schola Pala the superintendence of which, as well us of monasteries, was committed to him. In the learned society of the court, A. went by the name of Flaccus Albums. Most of the schools in France were founded or improved by him. Among others, he founded the school in the Abbey of .St Martin, in Tours (796), taking as his model the School of York; and in this school he himself taught after his retire- ment from court (801). While Irving at Tours, he ntly corresponded with Charlemagne. At his death, in S04, he left, besides numerous theological writings, a number of elementary works on phil- osophy, mathematics, rhetoric, and philology; also ! d , and a great number of letters. His letters, while they betray the uncultivated character of the morally, shew A. to have been the most a I man of his time. He understood Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The most complete edition of his works appeared at Ratisbon in 1777- See the life of A. by Lorenz (Halle, 1829), translated into English (Loud. 1S37). ALCYO'NIUM, a genus of Zoophytes, the type of a family called Alcyonidce, belonging to the class Alcyonium digitatum : 1. Reduced Rencnil 2. A portion shaving the figure- polypes protruded, tad wits extended tentaeula AntfiKoa, and order Asteroida, and consisting of a polype-mass with starlike pores and protrusive A. digitatum is extremely common on the British shores, on stones, old shells, &c., in deep !' -"'"• I ''■ crust, about Mb of an inch in thickness, but commonly lines forms which : ired for it the popular name of td other similar appellations. The polype-mass is gelatin., us within, and co with a sort of leather} skin, the ma by a multitude of minute canals, terminating on the tarlike figures, which, from the surface, and appear as pd . eight • Sei ins to to I e, whi e placed in its proper element, a structure of wonderful beauty and full of animal life, tder peculiar and wonderful cond ■ in which I b pol p p them elves, has been likened to thai in which the horns of a snail are protruded and Their i short, obtuse, and elegantly fringed at the margins. The external part of the polype is a m mbrane so transparent, that by the employment of a magnifying-glass the whole rial structure can be seen through it. See fig. 3, 4. 3. Alcyonium digitatum : b, the polype fully protruded, magnified; c, the polype partially protruded, magnified. This delicate membrane, however, is Ci two very thin membranes, intimately united, the outer of which increases in thickness at the I the polype, coal ith that of adjao ai polypes, and is continuous with the common leathery skin of the polype-mass. The inner membrane retains its extreme delicacy "ilt : it ex- tends into and lines the cell of the polype (see fig. 4) and the tube or canal which I from the cell mass, and is thus also continuous with the correspond- ing membra: o1 her pob pi s; for the canals divide into branches in their : ! i'i k of the polj pe-mass to rface, and the intimacy of union in the whole is increased by a fine tubular net- work which occupies i between principal canals. If a portion of an A. is irri- tated, not only the particular polypes named subjected to irritation retract themselves as to withdraw from danger, but the gradual collapse 117 4. Alcyonium digitatum : Section shewing internal structure. the ALDEBARAN— ALDER. and contraction of the whole polype-mass shews that the irritation has been felt through it all. The contraction of the mass is owing to a dischu water, which the polypes, when protruded, imbibe, and which circulates through and distends the polype-mass, so that when the polypes are ondis- 1, and in full activity, it has twice or times the size w hi as we find it cs upon the beach. The stomach of each polype is cylindrical (as m tin fig. '■'■. b, immediately under the oval disk or expanded tentacula), and ill it i3 a comparatively large cavity, into which hang loosely (as may all in the figure just referred to) eight twisted filami is, the use of which is not well ascerl and lias been the subject of very different op among naturalists. In the gelatinous ml the polype-mass, which tills the interstices of the tubular net-work, numerous crystalline calc spicula lie immersed, like t 1 [q. v.) found in the iutercellu!. a pa ! of some plants. They are toothed on the sides, but are of various forms, and ha i inflection with an;, animal structure; th to impart some degree i th to the whole. These spicula are of g i of this order, and bed by the common skin of the polype-mass. The polype-mass IKS or buds, which grow into new braa but the pn the Bpeci s takes place by Ova "r eggs, which first appear as minute ■ warts on the membrane of the canals in the interior. The constriction of the neck, by which the . separates them from the parent membrane, and they move through the canal by means of very i \ tbrating cilia or hail v. tth « bich they arc fur- y reacli tin i of a polype, into which they enter, and through which inure slowly proceed till at last they are ejected by the mouth (the only opening), and committed to the waves and tl as if capable of feeling wl ilst within the parent mass, and may be observed to move backwards and forwards, and to contract their sides as if by voluntary action in their passage through the body of the polype. These wonderful phenomena of nature are the more easily observed, because the ova are of colour, beautifully contrasting with the pure white of the polype, through the tunic of which they are seen. — One of the most remarkable known of A., and the largest, is that called A. pocn Neptune's Cup, which was .1; n over d by S r ford Raffles upon the coral-reefs of Sumatra, and is found in the neighbour- hood of Singapore. It grows erect, sonn banting nearly thn in height and eighteen -» inches m diami OS are now frequent in museums in this coin The name Aleyonium was fonnerly also given to many zoophytes now- found to be of very differ ent structure, some of which now bear the name others that of . I The genus Alcyonidium belong class of Zoo] . 'i Hyzoa, order Iiifn n - a. See Zoophytes. The most common British ics w -'■ Bedu, t'tnosum. It resi I us a sponge m appearance, but is more pellucid and gelatinous, and IS full of polypes, each having 15 or 16 long slender tentacula. It is attached to old shells and stones, and is sometimes much lobed, as in the pp ii almost simple. The colour varies from a very pale brown to surface is speckli d with minute dots, from which, when it is placed in sea-water, the protrude. The polype differs widely from that of A Icyoninm in having an intestine, which, pro- ■ from the stomach to the aperture of ti U, opens there by an orifice distinct from the mouth, a difference characteristic of the classes to which they . The ova are clothed with cilia, and their mot ions either are or most stnkinely re- voluntary motions. — AlcyoneUa belongs to the I r Hypoartpta. See Zoophytes. is one llriti I Alcyondla stagnorum, found in stagnant waters, especially in autumn, in ! lly-like masses, of a blackish-green colour, usually adhering to th uatic plants. lly-like mass is ti > in base to BUI by multitudes of tubes, which open by a round [i d aperture ; the heads of the polypes project a little way from the aperture, and i xpand into a circle of about fifty tentacula. About 1600 polypes an- situated on a square inch of the surface of the mass. The number of tentacula on a specimen of ite size has been computed at more than .",00(1.1100. The tentacula are covered with minute cilia, only to be observed with a high magnii power, by means of which a constant whirlpool is centering in the mouth of ; and essential. ig as well I the supply of food. Each polype is organically connected with the mass, its tunic being continuous with the tube. The alimentary canal has two op, Dings. The ova are to be found in vast numbers in the tubes which traverse the mass. They are dark brown, whilst the tubes arc colourless or tinted with green, of a lens-like form and destitute of cilia. They are produced from all parts of the side of the gelatinous tubes; and as there seems to aperture for their escape, it is supposed that they are liberated from the parent mass only on its and decomposition. The Alcyondla is an interesting object in a fresh- water aquarium, but is rather difficult to preserve. It is not, however, always to be found even in ponds where it might be expected, and is abundant in particular seasons and rare in others. The ova arc probably capable of remaining long dormant, until some concurrence of circumstances favours the development of the ucrm of life which they contain. See Johnston's History of British Zoophyti . 2 vols., Lond. 1S47 — a most interesting and valuable work. ALDE'IiARAN, the Arabic name of a star of the first magnitude in the constellation Taurus. It i the lamest and most brilliant of a cluster of five which the Greeks called the Hyades. From its position in the constellation, it is sometimes termed Bull's Eye.' ALDER (Almu), a genus of plants of the natural order Betuiacas (regarded by many as a sub-order of tlacae; seeEnaii and Ame>.tace.e). Thegenus consists entirely of trees and shrubs, natives of 1 temperate climates; the flowers in terminal, imbricated catkins, which appear before the I the male and female flowers in separate catkins on ie plant; the male or barren catkins loose, cylindrical, pendulous, having the scales 3-lobed, and each with three flowers whose perianth is single and 4- partite; the fertile catkins oval, compact, hi the scales sub-trifid, and each with two flowers destitute of perianth ; styles two ; fruit, a compressed ALDERMAN— ALDER NEY. nut without wings.— The Common" or Black A. (A. ,,l,ili,iosa) is a native of Britain, and of the northern i .f Asia and America. It has roundish, •wedge- shaped obtuse leaves, lobed at the margin and < &&&£ ^m^ ■ Tree. serrated. The bark, except in very young trees, is ,- black. It succeeds best in moist soil . tn secure swampy river-banks against the hi' tloods. It attains a height of 30 — 60 feet. I ts leaves are somewhat glutinous. The wood is of an orange-yellow colour, not very good for fuel, but ling one of the best kinds of charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder, upon which account it is often grown as coppice-wood. Great numbers of small A. trees are used in Scotland for making staves fur herring-barrels. The wood is also employed by turners and joiners; but it is particularly valuable on account of its property of remaining for a long time under water without decay, and is therefore used for the piles of bridges, forpumpg, sluices, pipes, cogs of mill-wheels, and similar purposes. The bark is used for tanning and for dyeing, also for staining fishermen's nets. It produces a yellow or red colour, Alder leaves, &c. : i, a lir.mchkt with male and fi-male catkins, reduced; b, a brancblfit v, itli taavoti Hid female catkins in a more advanced reduced; c, the fruit-bearing female catkin; d, the aamfl, cut across, to shew the small nuts or seeds. or with copperas, a black colour. The leaves and female catkins are employed in the same way, by the rs and dyers of some countries. The bark is bitter and astringent, and has been used for gargles, and also administered with success in ague. The are a favourite food of greenfinches. — The Allrr is one of the ornaments of many of the most exquisite landscapes in Britain. The dark gp i its foliage, and the still darker hue of its bark, con- trast beautifully with the colours of the other trees with •which it is usually associated on the banks of our rivers. Iu boggy grounds it is often almost the only kind of tree that appears, and in many parts of the Higldands, groups of alders a I over the lower and moister parts of the mountain-slopes. The individual tree vi ■■« ed 1 ly itself may be regarded as somewhat stiff and formal in appearance ; but in groups or clusters, it is always far otherwise. — The common A. ceases on the Swedish shore of the Gulf of Bothnia, in the south of Angermannland, and is there called the Sea A ., because it is only in the lowest grounds near the sea that it occurs. — The Gray or Whtte A. {A. ineana), a native of many parts of continental Europe, especially of the and also of North America, and of Kamtchatka, but not of Britain, differs from the common A. in having acute leaves, downy ben i not gluti- nous. It attains a rather greater height, but in very cold climates and unfavourable situations appears as a shrub. It occurs on the Alps at an ele\ above that to which the common A. extends, and becomes abundant also where that species irs in the northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. The wood is white, tine-grained, and compact, but readily rots under water. The bark is used in dyeing. — A. conHfolia is a large and handsome tree, with cordate acuminate leaves, a native of the south of Italy, but found to be cpiite hardy in England. Some of the American species are mere shrubs. The bark of A. semdaia is used in dyeing. — Several species are natives of the Hima- layas. — The BEKRY-BEAKING A., or A. i is a totally different plant. See Buckthorn". ALDERMAN, a title derived from the Anglo- Saxon ealdorman, compounded of ealdor (older) and man. Whether any definite and invariable functions were connected with the ancient rank of ealdorman, does not seem to be very clearly ascertained. The term was generally applied to persons of high and hereditary distinction, such as princes, earls, and governors. Its special signification in the titles ' A. of all England ' (Alderrri totmsAngliatyanA ' King's A.' (Aldermannns Regis), is not distinctly indicated. There were also aldermen of counties, hundreds, cities, borouglis, and castles. In modern times, aldermen are officers invested with certain powers in the municipal corporations of En, Wales, and Ireland, either as civil magistrates, or as assessors of the chief civil magistrates in cities and towns corporate. The corresponding title in Scot- land is Bailie. The London Court of Aldermen consists of twenty-six aldermen, including the Lord Mayor, and constitutes the bench of magistral the city, besides having judicial and legislative authority in the corporation. A'LDERNEY (Fr. Aurigny, Lat. Aurinio), an island in tin i unel (see CHANNEL Islands), lat. 49 s 45' N, long. 2° 13' W., separated from the coast of Normandy by a strait about 7 miles in breadth, called the Race of Alderney. Through this channel, which is very dangerous in rough weather, the remnant of thar French fleet escaped after then- defeat at La Hogue in 1692. The d tween Alderney and the nearest points of Gun Jersey, and Great Britain, are respectively about 15, .'::!, and CO miles. The length of the island is about 4 miles, the breadth about 1 J. The coast to the south-east is bold and lofty, to the north-east and north, it descends, forming numerous small ■ eie of which, that of Crabby, affords the only anchorage in the island. A harbour of : l ' water have been constructed on the north side of sive works cted with which have greatly increased the population. Six miles to the west are the t'askets, a small cluster of rocks, on which light- The soil in the centre of the island is highly productive; and the A. til but han breed, have always been celebrated. The climate is mild and healthy, and gOi -1 water abounds. The popu- lation had il creased between 1813 and 1S41 from 119 ALDERSHOTT CAMP— ALDINE EDITIONS. 1308 to 1030; in 1861 it amounted to i..u to some extent is universal. The population was originally French, but half the inhabitants now liah, and all understand it. P ii has prevailed bare Bin Reformation. A. is a dependency of Gui id I ch il powi t ii a judge appointed by the i and e chosen by the peopli . with twelve popular representatrvi (who do ncit vote), constitm The court • 1 of the jud jurats, the royal procureur and comptroller and the registrar <. ■/'"'..'"''• *"•• nominate)} by the governor. ipanies of infantry, and a Town.' rituated ma picturesque valley oear theci utreofthe d, contains a few public buildings, among which is the old ehurch, said to have been erected in the 12th <-., and a new one in the early English with a tower ln4 feet high. The living us a perpe- tnal curacy in the archdeaconry and diocese of Winch A'LDEKSHOTT CAMP. When England and France declared war against Russia in 1854, in rela- tion to Turkish affairs, the British army was known to be in an unsatisfactory state. Thirty-nine tee had all- . important elements in military organisation to fall into a Btate of ineffi- ciency'. Among ' power of acting ides and divisions had scare ;. taughi to our i Jdiers, who had been familiar with N lore than the discipline and tactics of battalions and companies. To P rl I u ■ the bbject held in view in establishing the camp at A. It was to lie a permanent camp, with barracks and huts, instead oi mere canvas tents ; and was to be provided with all the appli for a military school, valuable to officers as well as to privates. A dreary waste, on the Surrey, Hants, and Berks, called A. Heath, was purchased by the government as the locality tor tie- new camp. The area was Ti'o.'i acres, and the purchase-price about £130,000. The spot was deemed suitable as being distant from auy thickly inhabited district; as being with three or four stations on the South-western and South-eastern railways ; and as being conveniently placed for the quick transmission of troops to any part of the southern coast. The camp was ready for the reception of troops in 1S55. At first, no brick structures were attempted. The soldiers were accommodated in wooden huts, each furnishing living and sleeping room for about twenty-live men. When p was inaugurated, in April of the year last named, by a review at which the Queen was present, there were 18,000 troops, regulars and militia, temporarily stationed there. The huts for each regiment were grouped apart, for maintenance of regimental discipline. Bach hut had a range of iron bedsteads on eitln I is hie of being doubled up; and a long table through the middle, in a line with two doors at the ends of the huts. The officers' huts, though of course superior in construction and convenience, were as simple as they could well be. The cooking was performed in huts especially set apart for that purpose, pr with efficient cooking apparatus. The wooden huts have gradually been superseded by brick barracks, at a cost of more than a quarter of a million sterling. These will be briefly described in a future article (Rai:i;acks), as examples of the finest barracks hitherto constructed in this country. The B stoke Canal, running directly across the 1 has occasioned a division into North Camp and South Camp ; but each of these is susceptible 120 of a good deal of extension. On various occasions spring of 18.">."> and that of 1859, rand 'field-days and reviews at the camp; but the more n ant operations are those whicl ed on daily, and are known to very few besides those rind. There are many square miles of plain, heath, shrub, morass, valley, and hill sur- rounding the camp, on which soldiers, and esp the militia regiments, are 1 in the various evolutions and strategic movements connected with the battle-field ai vorks. It is no child's the men are often scv. a foretaste of some of the fatigues of militai ■ On otl they are exercised in various quiet tnd huts, barracks and kii intended to teach them many of the useful knacks in which French soldiers ai I dged to bo more skilled than the English. Difl regulars as well as militia, artillery as well as cavalry and infantry, take it in turn, to cxp< camp-life at A. At the time when this article is written (May 1859), there are about 15,000 mp, comprising infantry, cavalry, artillery, and militia. The war authorities have i or leased a portion of forest-land i A. and Winchester ; i i rangements of a temporary kind wi] will be occasionally exercised with a tough man a dozen miles. One unfortunate circumstance con- with the camp is. that the barracks have been built at the very . i round belon : consequence, private speculators built li and haunts of dissipation, almost close to the barracks, greatly to the demorali of the soldiers ; and it is not easy to buy up I people, owing to the enormous rise in the value of i near the camp. ATjDINE EDITIONS, the name given to the works that issued from the press of Alio Mai (q.v.) (I. at. Aldus Manutras) and his family in Venice (1490 1597). Recommended bj their intrinsic value, as well as by their he ■ ' . have been highly prized by the learned and by book- is. Many of them are the firs! [edition* i of Greek and Roman classics; others contain corrected texts of modern . . care- fully collated with the MSS. AH of them are distinguished for the remarkable correctness of the aphy ; the Greek works, how i what inferior to the Latin and Italian. Irtdons published by Aldus, the father, form an epoch in the annals of printing, as they contributed in no ordinary measure to the perfecting of types. had ever before used such beautiful Greek types, of which he got nine different kinds made, and of Latin as many as fourteen. It is to him, or rather to the engraver. Francesco of Bologna, that we owe the ; led by the Italians Cortivi, and known to us as Italics, which he used for rat time in the 8vo edition of ancient and modern classics, commencing with \ ns on parchment arc exceedingly beautiful ; he was the first printer who introduced the custom of taking some impressions on better paper — that is, finer or stronger than the rest of the edition. The first example of this is l in the Epistola Orceca (1499). It would be another who has brought so much zeal, disinterestedness, taste, and knowledge to the furtherance of literature, especially classical litera- ture. After lus death, in 1515, his business was superintended by his father-in-law, Andreas Asu- lanus. Paul, the son of Aldus, possessed the enthusiasm for Latin classics that his father had for ALE— ALEMBERT. Greek. He (lied at Rome in 1597. The printing [ishment founded by Aldo continued in active lion for 100 years, and during tliis time printed 908 different works. The distinguishing mark is an anchor, entwined by a dolp] !Iy with the motto. Under the direction of the -<>n of the founder, it lost the superiority which it had formerly maintained over all the other print- in Italy. The demand which arc in this office, and especially for the earlier induced the printers of Lyon and Florence, 1502, to begin the system of issuing counter- feit Aldines. The Aldo-mania has considerably diminished in later times. Among the A. works which have now become very rare may be mentioned the flora- !>■ "' • Mnrite Virginia of 1497; the Virgil of 1501 ; and the Rhetores Grirci; not to mention the editions from 1494 to 1497, which are now extremely rare. The moat complete collections known are those of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and of Henouard, the bookseller of Paris. In 1834 appeared a third edition of the monograph published by Renouard, ' Us Aides, ou Histoire des Trdit Mamuxs, tt de lew Editions: (Paris, 1834). Ebert has published a catalogue of all the authentic A. E. in the sup- plement to the first volume of his Bibliographical miry. ALE would seem to have been the current name in England for malt liquor in general before the introduction of hops. This took place, according to Johnston {Che mistry »f Common Lift), as late as the reign of Henry VIII., about the year 1524, As the use i - was ill-rived fn an Germany, the l rerman name for malt liquor (bier), beer, was used at first to dis- tinguish the hopped liquor from ale, the unhopped. The word ale had in all likelihood been 1 introduced 1 ry the Danes and other Scandinavian settlers — for til (allied probably tootf) is still the name for inalt liquor in the Scandinavian tongues — and must have driven out the bear of the Anglo-Saxons, which that people had in common with the other Teutonic nations. As now used, ale signifies a kind of beer (q. v. and Fermentation), distinguished chiefly by its strength and the quantity of sugar remaining imdi compost d. Strong ale is made from the b ilt; and the fermentation is allowed to proceed slowly, and the ferment to be exhausted and separated. This, together with the large quantity of sugar still left uiidecomposcd, enables the liquor to keep long with- out requiring a large amoimt of hops. The Scotch ales are distinguished for the smallness of the quantity of hops they contain, and for their vinous flavour. They are fermented at an unusually low nature. The ales of Edinburgh and rVestonpans have a high reputation. Burton ale is the strongest made, containing as much as 8 per cent, of alcohol; while the best brown stout has about t> per cent., and common beer only 1 per cent. India pale ale differs chiefly in having a larger quantity of hops. A-LEE, expressed by the French sous le vent, or ' under the wind,' is a maritime term applied to the position of the helm when so worked, as to bring the head of the ship to windward. ALEMAX, Matko, a famous Spanish novelist, was born about the middle of the 16th c, at Seville, and died in .Mexico during the reign of Philip III. In 1604 '"' published a poetical biography of St Antonius of Padua; and in 1608, while in the New World, an Ortogrofia •■■■ ritten during his voyage ; but his gnat work is I I Alfarache, a novel with a rogue for the hero, like some of the more recent English fictions. It was first published at Madrid in 1699, became immensely popular, and in half-a-dozen years had gone through twenty-six editions, consisting of not less than 50,000 copies, in Spain and other countries. Both as regards the ition of manners and the purity of style, this masterly creation of A. ranks next to that most celebrated of all tin- Spanish novels of the same character— the A Tormu of Mendoza. It displays keen powers of observation ; and is readily recognised as the work of a ripe and cultivated mind. Mi ndoza's hero has the advantage in freshness, and vivacity; but Guzman exhibits a richer variety of gifts in the various characters he is compelled by circumstances to assume, such as stable-boy, beggar, thief, coxcomb, mercenary, valet, pander, merchant, &c The manners of the authors own age are hit off with great skill and effect, a wide knowledge of human nature is mani- fested, and the whole narrative is interspersed with shrewd and solid reflections and moralising. A. is considered to rank with Mendoza, Cervantes, &c, as one of the masters of the Castilian style. ALEMAXXI (that is, all-men), the name of a military confederacy of several German tribes which began to appear on the Lower and Middle Maine about the beginning of the 3d c. i iracalla fought with them first on the Maine in 211 a.d., but without conquering them : Alexander Severus wa3 equally unsuccessfid ; but Maximums at length succeeded against them, and drove them beyond the Rhine. After his death, they again invaded ( Jaul, 1 mt were defeated by Posthtimius, who pursued them into Germany, and fortified with ramparts and ditches the boundary of the Roman territory, called the Agri Decumatee. The moimds near Pforung, on the Danube, the rampart extending through the principality of Hohenlohe to Jaxthausen, and the ditch with palisados on the north side of the Maine, are remains of these works. The A., how- ever, did not desist from their incursions, although they were repeatedly driven back. After 2m\ being pressed upon from the north-east by the Burgundians, they took up permanent settlements within the Roman boundary from Maintz to Lake Constance. At last, Julian came (357) to the relief of Gaul, which had been suffering from the in- cursions of the A., and soon compelled eight of their chiefs to sue for peace. Their united force, in their principal battle with Julian, amounted to 35,000 men. After the 5th c, the Co 1 nation is spoken of as A. and Suavi or Suevi. In the c of the 4th c, they had crossed the Rhine, and extended as far west as tin- Vosges, and south to the Helvetian Alps. At length, Clovis, king of the Franks, broke their power in 490, and made them subject to the Frankish dominion. The south part of their territory was formed into a duchy, called Alemannia. The name of Swabia came afterwards to be applied to the part of the duchy lying east of the Rhine. From the A., the French have given the name of AUemands and : -and (ierrnany in general, the of the north of Switzerland, with these of Alsace and part of Swabia, are the proper -descendants of the Alemanni. ALEMBERT, Jean if. Rond d', one of the most distinguished mathematicians and writers of the ISth c, was born in Paris, November 16, 1717. He was the illegitimate .-en of Madame de Tencin, a lady of considerable notoriety in the time of the Regency, and of a M. Destouchea lie wxs exposed by his mother on the steps of the church of St Jcande-Rond, and the policeman who found him committed the seemingly dying infant to the care of the wife of a i r glacier, thinking it too weak I taken to the depot. The father, without publicly avowing the child, secured to him an allowance of 121 ALEMBIC— -ALEMTEJO. L200 Eranca a year. At the age of twelve, he entered the CoU < \Ii rin, where he soon gave indication of that inclination, or rather passion for mathemati- idies which distinguished him through life. <>n tg college, he returned to the humble home of his kind foster- fcher, where he continued to live and pursue his favourite studies for aearly forty ring with her household his small revenue. ingh the g 1 woman loved him as a son, so little did she i □ lour i ition to -'. that v ben he spoke of hi i d writings, she replied with a sort of pity : ' You will never be anything but a er; and what is a philosopher, but a fool who torments himself during his life, thai peo] I about him when he is dead.' At first, bis friends urged him to qualify himself for trying for a time the study of law, and then of m ive up the attempt as hopeless, and abandoned If without reserve to his passion for In 1741, at the age of 23, he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, having already attracted attention by several [ihysieo-mathematieal tracts. Two yi ed his Treatise on Dynamics, founded on a new and fertile principle ■ makes an epoch in mechanical philosophy. 'This principle consists,' says Condorcet, 'in Halting the equality, at every instant, between the changes which the motion of the body has under- did the forces which have been employed to produce them;' in other words, it reduces all (he laws of motion to li ration of Equilibrium. Among the more important of his other scientific works are : his 77 . which gained the prize of the Academy of Berlin, 1740, and which contains the i' t conception and use of the Calculus of Partial Differences; a treatise on the Precession of the Equinoxes, 1740, giving for the first time an analytical solution of that phenomenon, as well as of the nutation of the ear' I on (Iteliesist- once qfJPluids, 1702; JlesearcJies on some Imp Points in Vie System of Ike Universe, \~~7. Vfter the pr tria at'the battle of Marengo in 1800, parte concluded an arm V. with his s, according to which. Dipper Italj the Mincio, was ceded to the French, with twelve sea. It was the principal armory of the Piedmontese duri irrection of the hardo-Venetian states in 1848—9, when man; fortifications were added to it. At present, the 1 is one of the strongest fortresses in Europe ; ALEUTIAN ISLANDS— ALEXANDEK THE CHEAT. of enonnoi . larger, it is said, than many a town, and in the event of a war in Italy, will probably be once ! cene of many a de p ami bl ly struggle. A. contains, exclusive of the garrison, about 10,000 inhabitants, who earn ■ trail'- in linens, woollens, The culture of Bowers is also much attended t". Two fairs are held in A. annually, which are largely frequent d, ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, or the CATHEK1NI: ARC EHPELAGO, is tin- name of a group of islands. numbering above 150, ami consisting of si vera! elus- b is. 'liny belong to Km-sian Ami nca, and form an insular continuation of the North American peninsula of Alaska, in the shape of an arch or bridge betwe a the former continent and Asia. They lie in 55° N. lat., separating the Sea of Kamtchatka from the Pacific, and naturally Bubdivide themselves into live groups : 1. Behring's [slands (where Behring died in 1741); 2. the Sasignan, or 'Nearest' Islau called becan tto the coast of Kamtchatka ; 3. the ltat Islands ; 4. the Andreianowsky, \\ hich are very small and little frequented; 5. the Fox Islands, aniMiy which is L'nimak, the largest in the archi- pelago. Tin' islands are all craggy, and have a di "- lat. appearance from the sea. They exhibit traces of violent internal commotion. .Several volcanoes are stiU periodically active ; and warm volcanic I | are numerous. The whole chain or group forms a connectingdink between the volcanic range of the west coast of America and Kamtchatka. On .nn, nut iif the numerous rocks which lie off their shores, they are not very aco ible to ships. Under a climate which exchanges only for a short time the monotonous rigour of winter for a cloudy spring and a hot summer, little can be expected of so niggardly a soil. There are pi niy of low scrubby bushes, gra si -. moss, and lichens, hut no strong and stately growth of trees. An experiment tried at TJnalaska of planting pines had very little success. Here and there, however, European kitchen-gardens have been apted with better results; and the cultivation of the potato has likewise succeeded. The islands abound in springs, and are overrun with foxes, dogs, and reindeer, while the coasts swarm with fish, . and otters. The inhabitants, who an- extremely rude, and of Kamtchatkan origin, were converted to Christianity by Russian priests. They are reckoned about 9000. Their occupation is hunting and fishing. Their trade is chiefly in furs and fish, of which the ipal tntrepOt is Alexandria, in the island of Kojak. (See United Status in Supp.) ALEXANDEK THE CHEAT, son of Philip of Mao don and Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus of Epirua, was hum at iVlla, 366 B.C. Endowed by nature with aha; lie early announced his I character. Philip's triumphs saddened him. On one occasion he exclaimed : ' My father will leave nothing for me to do.' His education was committed first to beonidas, a maternal relation, then to Lysimachus, and afterwards to Ari This great philosopher withdrew him to a distance from the court, and instructed him in every branch of human learning, especially in what relates to the art of government, while at the same time he dis- ciplined and invigorated his body by gymnastic exercises. As Macedon was surrounded by danger- ous neighbours, Aristotle was anxious to inspire his pupil with military ardour, and with this yievi recommended him to study the Iliad, a revision of which he himself undertook for his use. A. was 16 years of age when his father marched . Byzantium, and left the government in his ban ' during his absence. Two years afterwards, he displayed singular courage at the battle of Ch (338 B.C.), where he overthrew the Sacred Hand of the Tic Kins. • My son,' said Philip, as he embraced him after the conflict, 'seek for thyself another kingdom, for that which 1 leave is too small for The father and son quarrelled, however, when i, | H i. haled Olympias. A. took part with Ins mother, and Bed, to escape bis father's i to Epiru ; but ring his pardon soon afterwards, he returned, and accompanied him in an expedition against the Triballi, when hi saved Ins life on the field. Philip being appointed generalissimo of the Creeks, was preparing f"r a war with Persia, when inated (336 B.C.), and A., not yet twenty years of age, ascended the throne. After punishing Lis father's murderers, he went into the Peloponri and in a general assembly of the Creeks he caused himscll tn be appointed to tin- command of tin- | against Persia, tin his return to Macedon, he found the Ulyrians ami Triballi up in arms, whereupon he marched against them, forced his way through Thrace, and was every where victorious. Hut now the Thehans had been induced, by a report of his death, to take up anus, and the Athenians, stimu- lated by the clnipieuce of Demosthenes, were pre- paring t.i join them. To prevent this coalition, A. rapidly marched against Thebes, which, refusing to surrender, was ' ai red, and razed to the ground: (Hi: id ..I the inhabitants were slain, and 30,0(10 sold into slavery; the house and family of the poet Pindar aloi pared. This severity struck terror into all Greece. The Athenians were treated with more leniency, A. only requiring of them the banishment of Charidemus, who bad been most I in his invectives against him. A., having appointed Antipater his deputy in . now prepared to ] the war with pi Jlc crossed the Hellespont in the spring of 334 n.c. with 30.000 foot and .".000 horse, attacked the Persian satraps at the river Granlcus, and gained a complete victory, overthrowing the Bon-in-law oi Darius with his own lance. The onl\ real res the Macedonians met with was from the G auxiliaries of the Persians, who were marshalled in phalanxes, under the command of Memnon of , hut finally they were all slam exci p1 2000, vim were taken prisoners. A. celebrated the ob plies of his fallen warriors in a splendid manner, and bestowed many privileges on their relations. of Asia Minor, Sardis not excepted, opened theii to thee merer, nor did Miletus or Haliearnassus offer longer resistance. A. restored democracy in all t be Creek cities, cut the Gordian-knot (q. v.) with his sword as he passed through Gordium, ami proceeded to the conquest of Lycia, Ionia, ('aria, Pamphylia, and ( lappadocia. His career was cheeked for a time by a dangerous illness, brought on by ; in the Cydnus. On this occasion he displayed his magnanimity in the following circumstances. He received a letter from Parmenio, insinuating that Philip, his physician, intended to poison him, having been bribed by Darius. A. handed the letter to Philip, and at the same time swallowed the draught which had been prepared for him. As soon as he recovered, he advanced towards the defiles of Cilicia, in which Darius had stationed himself, with an army of above 500,000 men. He arrived in November 333 B. c. in the neighbourhood of Issus, where a battle took place, between the mountains and the sea. The disorderly masses of the Persians were thrown into confusion by the charge of the Macedonians, and Bed in terror. On I wing, 30,000 Creeks, in the pay of the Persian kino, held out longer, hut they, too, were at length compelled to yield. All the treasures as well as the family pf Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated the latter with the greatest ALEXANDER THE GREAT. magnanimity. The king, who fled towards the Euphrates, twice made overtures oi peace, which A. tily refused I bal I larius must n gard linn as the ruler of ^sia, and the lord of all hi* people. I hie of the condition- of the mul overture was that A. should possess all Asia to the Eiiphrat On hearing which bis | eneral, Parmenio, exclaimed : 'I wouhl do it, if I weir A.' ' So would 1,' replied the monarch, "if I were Parmenio.' The victory at i as opened the whole couni ry to the Ma Ionian : A. now turned towards Syria and Phoenicia, to cut off Darius's escape by sea. He occupied Damascus, where he found princely t> i ad secured to himself all the cities along the shore lof the Mediter- ranean. Tyre, confident in its strong position, bed him, hut was conquered and destroyed after : \ en nth of incredible exertion (332b. a), 'i b.e marched victoriously tliroi 1 i ■ .- . 1 . ■ line, where all the cities submitted to him except Gaza, which ■ ha red the same fate as Tyre- Kgypt, weary of the Persian yoke, welcomed him ns a deliverer; and in order to strengthen his dominion here, he re all the old customs and religious institutions of the country, and founded Alexandria in the beginning of 331 B.C., which became one of the first cities of ancient times. Thence he marched through the Libyan Desert, in order to consult the oracle of Jupiter Amnion, whose priest saluted him as a son of Jove; and at the return of Bpiing went against I loins, who had assembled an army in Assyria, A battle ensued, in October 331 B.C., on the plains of Arbela, or rather Guagamela, for Arbela, the point to which A. pursued the Persians, is 50 miles from the scene of the tight. See Arbela. Notwith- standing the immense superiority of his adversary, who hail collected a new army of 500,000 men. A, was not for a moment doubtful of victory. Heading the cavalry himself, he rushed on the Persians, and put them to flight; hut as soon as he had entirely dispersed them, he hastened to the assistance of his left wing, winch, m the meanwhile, had been sorely pressed, fin was anxious to make, a prisoner of the Persian king himself, Imt the latter escaped by flight on horseback, leaving his baggage and all his treasures a prey to the conqueror. Babylon and Susa, the. storehouses of the treasures of the east, opened their gates to the conqueror, who next marched towards l'erscpolis, the capital of Persia, which he entered in triumph. The marvellous successes of A. now began to dazzle his own judgment, and to inflame his passions. He became a slave to debauchery, and his cap] were as cruel as they were ungrateful In a lit of drunkenness, and at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian courtezan, he set lire to l'erscpolis, the won- der of the world, and reduced it to a heap of ashes ; then, ashamed of the deed, he set out with his cavalry to pursue Darius. Learning that Bcssus, the satrap of Bactriana, held the king a prisoner, he hastened his march, in tie' hope of saving him, hut he found him mortally wounded on tin- frontiers of that country (330 B.O.). He mourned over his unfortunate enemy, and caused his body to he buried with all the usual rites observed in Persia; but he pursued Bcssus, who himself aspired to the throne, through llyr- cania, Iran, P.actriana, over the OxQS to Sogdiana (now Bokhara), whose satrap, Spitaniencs, surrendered Bcssus to him. Having discovered a conspiracy in which the sen of Parmenio was implicated, he put both father and son to death, though Parmenio himself was innocent of all knowledge oi the affair. This cruel injustice excited universal displeasure. In 329 he penetrated to the furthest known limits of Northern Asia, and overthrew the Scythians on the banks of the Jaxartes. In the following year, he subdued the whole of Sogdiana. and married Koxana, whom he had taken prisoner. She was the danj : of one of the i oi m; cap! i d said to 1 '■ oi " conspiracy broke i, ut again t A, at . which were lb r- molaus and Callisthi d . a pupil of Aristotle, which occasioned the death of many of the culprits; while Callisthenes himself was rnutS ted at I 1 about in an iron cage through the army, till some one put an end to hi* sufferings by poison. In the year 327 B. C, A. proceeded to the conquest of India, then known only by name, He crossed the Indus near to the modem At and pursued his way under tl ■ prince to the Hydaapi : [modi rn Jelum), whi was opposed by Porus, another native pro , whom he overthrew after a bloody contest. Tie nee he marched as lord of the country through thai part of India which is now called, the Pi Greek colonies. He then wished to advance to the Ganges, but the general nnirniuriii": oldest i him, at the Hyphasis (modern Sutledge), t his retreat, which was accomplished under circum- stancesof extreme danger. When he had a' ain r ad A the Hydaspcs, he built a fleet, and sent one division of his army in it down the river, while the other followed along the banks, fighting its way through successive Indian armies. At length, having reach I the ocean, he ordered Nearchus, the commander of the fleet, to sail thence to the Persian Gulf, while he himself struck inland with one division of his army, in order to return home through Gedrosia (now Beloochistan). Here he had to traverse immense deserts, where a great part of his army perished tin- want of food and water, and were buried in the sand. The other division marched through Axachosia and Drangiana (Afghanistan) under Craterus, but they united again in Cannania. of all the troops, how- ever, which had set out with A., only about a fourth part arrived with him in r i is. c). At Susa he married Stateira, the daughter of Darius, and he bestowed presents on those Mace- donians (about 10,000 in number) who had married Persian women, his design being to unite the two nations as closely as possible. He also distributed liberal rewards among his soldiers. At Opis on the Tigris he declared it to be his intention to send home the invalids richly rewarded; and t 1 ' i omplished, but not till he had with seme diffi- culty repressed the mutiny which bloke , ut on the occasion. Soon afterwards he was deprived, by d of his favourite Hephsestion, en which occasion his grief was unbounded, and he interred t 1 with kingly honours. As he was returning from Ecbatana to Babylon, it is said that the Magi fore- told that the latter city would prove fatal to him; but A. despised their warnings, and, in spite of the advii f his friends, marched to Babylon, before reaching which, howi ' by ambassadors from all parts of the world Libya. Italy. Carthage, Greece, the Scythians. Celts; and Iberians. Here he .-train occupied himself with gigantic plans for the future, both of conquest and civilisation, when he was suddenly talon ill after a ha in i let. and died eleven da ys afterwards, on tl ■ I I lh or 13th of Mayer .line. 323 B C, in the 32d year of his age, having reigned twelve yeai and months. His body v. i de] ted in a golden Coffin at Alexandria, by Ptolenueus, and e honours were paid to him, net only in Egypt, but ill other countries. A. had appo I heir to his immense dominions; but In the question . friends: 'Who should inherit them?' he replied: ' The most worthy.' After many disturbances. his general- recognised a kings tin' weak-minded Ariiiaus — a SOU of Philip by l'hilinna. tie- CUU and A.'s posthumous sen by Roxana, while they ALEXANDER SEVERUS— ALEXANDER I. shared the provinces among themselves, under the name of satraps. Perdiccas, to whom A. had, death-bed, delivered his ring, became guardian of tin- kings during their minority. It is l>ul more than shed blood during his life He d the language ami civilisation of Greece whi victory led him, ami planted Greek kingdoms in b continued to exist for son. At the very time of his death, ho was ing plans for the drainage of the unhealthy marshes around Babylon, and a 1 ive plains. It is even supposed that the which he caught then, rather than his famous drinking-bout, was the real cause of his death. To A., the ancient world owed a vast increase of its knowledge in geography, natural history, tec. He taught Bun road to India, and gave them the first glimpses of that magnificent iplendour which has dazzled an .1 I their imagination for two thousand years. ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Roman emperor (222 — 2.'l.">A.R),\vas the opted son, and suc- cessor of Hch'ogabalus. The excellent education which he received from his mother, Jidia Mammaea, rendered him one of the best princes in an age when virtue was reckoned more dangerous than vice in a monarch. He sought the society of the learned; 1'aulus and I'lpian were his counsellors, Plato and Cicero were, next to Horace and Virgil, his fa\ authors. A B, he reverenced the doctrines of Christianity, and often quoted that saying: 'Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye so also to them.' Beloved as he was by the citizens on account of his equity, he soon became an object of hatred to the unruly praetorian guards. His first expedition, against Artaxerxi of Persia, was happily terminated by a speedy over- throw of the enemy. But during one which he under- took against the Germans on the Rhine, to d the frontiers of the empire from their incursions, an insurrection broke out among his troops, headed by Maximin, in which Alexander was mm along with his mother, not far from Mentz. The nl people, however, placed him among the . After his death, mil it ism obtained the ascendency, and the Roman power rapidly declined. ALEXANDER NEWSKI, or NEVSKT. a Rus- sian hero and saint, born at Vladimir in 1219 a. d., was the son of the Grand Duke Jaro I orod. In order to defend the empire, which was attacked on all sides, but especially by the Mongols, Ins father quitted Novgorod, leaving the cares of the government to his sons, Fedor and Alexander, the former of whom died soon after- wards. The latter vigorously resisted the enemy; yet Russia was forced to submit to : ■ ion in 1238 a.i>. A. now fought to defend 9 gainst the 1 1 and the Teutonic knights. He received the surname of Xewski, on account of the splendid victory over the Swedes, which he achieved in 1240, on theNewa (Neva), hi the province where St Petersburg now stauLs. In 1243 A. P.. on the ice of Lake I h.' defeated the Livonian Knights of the Sword, n stimulated by the pope to attack the in heretics. At the death of his father in 1217, he became Grand Duke of Vladimir. Pope Innocent IV. now made a diplomatic attempt to reunite the Greek and Roman churches, since his military scheme had faded, and with this view, sent an embassy to A., which, however, proved as ineffec- tual as the former. To the end of his life, however, he remained a vassal of the Tatars or Mongols. 120 renew lus oath of fealty to the barbarians, making in each instance a journey to their camp. He died in I2(j.'i a.d., at meow, on his return from the last of these journeys; and the gratitude of the nation perpe- I his memory in popular songs, and even ! Peter the Great honoured his memory by building a magnificent convent on the ijlit his great battle, and by founding the knightly order of A. N. ALEXANDER VI. fBoKOlA), 1492—1503, the most celebrated of the eight popes (see Popes) of ne, but at the same time the most infamous one that ever lived, as well as the most vicious prince of his age. His most conspicuous qual were a cunning and insidious cruelty, united with great fearlessness in danger, an unwearied perse- verance and vigilance in all his undertakings, a soft and plausible manner towards his inferiors, a harsh and grasping spirit towards the rich. In of his talents and his love of art and science, he disdained, throughout his dissolute career, no means of gratifying his lust — not even perjury, murder, and poisoning. He was born at Valencia, in Spain, 1 130. His own name was P»odrigo Lenzuoli, but he assumed the ancient and famous one of his mother's family, Borgia. He had five children by Rosa Vanozza, a woman celebrated for her beauty, two of whom equalled himself in criminality, Csesar and Lucretia (ses BORGIA). A. was made a cardinal by his uncle Calixtus III., and on the death of Innocent viii., was elevated to the papal chair, which be had previously secured by flagrant bribery. The long absence of the popes from Italy had weakened their authority and curtailed their revenues. To com- pensate for tliis loss, A. endeavoured to break the of the Italian princes, and to appropriate their possessions for the benefit of his own family. To gain this end, he employed the most execrable means. He died in 1503, from having partaken, by it, as is commonly believed, of poisoned wine, I d for his guests. Under his pontificate, the censorship of books was introduced, and Savonarola, nest and eloquent Florentine priest, who had ted his deposition, was condemned to be burned as a heretic. ALEXANDER I., PauXOWTTSCH, Emperor and it of All the Kussias (1S01 — 1825), was born December 23, 1777. His education, in which his father, Paul L, had no hand, was conducted by his grandmother, Catharine II., and < 'oloncl Laharpe and other tutors. He always shewed great affection for his mother, Maria, daughter of Engine, Duke of inlier - With a humane and benevolent dis- position, the 'northern Telemaque' was imbued by Laharpe with the enlightened principles of the ir Kraft instructed him in experimental physics, and Pallas in botany. It was thought better not to devote his attention to poetry and music, as it woidd have required too much time to i at acquirements. In 1793 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Karl Ludwig, Crown Prince of Baden, and, on the assassination of his father Paid (q. v.), on the 24th of March 1801, succeeded him upon the throne. Although A. doubtless knew of the conspiracy to dethrone his father, , . no reason to believe that he contemplated the crime of murder. His ace rion was celebrated by Klopstock in an ode. To Humanity, indicative of the high expectations formed of him. The young ruler seemed deeply penetrated with a sense of his I ion to make his people happy and to promote eivilisation and prosperity. He was the first to lay the foundation of the national culture and popular instruction on a regular plan, to introduce ALEXANDER I. ligation into the internal administration, un- i hackle tin.- industry of the nation, raise the foreign commerce of Russia, and awaken in tin; 1" f< eling of unity, and a spirit of patriotism. Of specific internal improvement effected l>y A., his exertions on behalf of tin; language, literature, and general culture of the Slavonic nations deserve . i notice. Seven universities, at Dorpat, Kasan, Charkow, Moscow, Wilna, Warsaw, and St Peters- were either instituted or remodelled by him ; 204- gymnasiums and normal schools, and above 2000 district elementary schools, v. life and activity given to the higher scientific insti- tutions in St Petersburg and Moscow, lie did more than any other sovereign in Europe for the spread of Bible, by supporting the Bible Society (which was suppressed, however, in 1S-G) ; and in 1820, he had a bishop instituted for the evangelical Lutheran church, and a general consistory in St Petersburg for the whole empire. He devoted large sums to the printing of important works, such as Krusen- BternS TraciU, and Karamsius Sistory of Russia, and prized and rewarded scientific merit both at home and abroad. Several scientific collections were purchased by liim, and in ISIS he invited two orientalists, Demange andCharnioy, from Paris to St Petersburg, to promote the study of the Arabic, Armenian, Persian, and Turkish languages. Young men of talent were sent to travel at his expense. P.y the ukase of 1S10 he prepared the way for the abolition of slavery in the Baltic provinces ; he also declared that no more gifts of peasants would be made on the crown-lands. As early as 1S01 he had abolished the secret tribunal which is said to have extorted confession from political offenders by means of hunger and thirst. The practice of slitting the nose and branding, which had been customary in connection with knouting, was also done away with. Laws were enacted to prevent the abuses of power by governors. The privilege of the nobles, that their inherited property coidd not be confiscated as a punishment, was raised by him to a common right for all subjects ; and much was done in composing ,. code of civil law. He promoted the manufactures and trade of the empire by amending the laws regarding debt and mortgages ; and by the institution of an imperial bank, the construction of roads and canals, making Odessa a free port, and, above all, by the ukase of ISIS, permitting all peasants in the empire to carry on manufactures, wdiich was before only allowed to nobles and to merchants of the iirst and second guilds. A-'s far-sighted policy with regard to the foreign commerce of Russia is shewn in various expeditions round the world sent out by him ; in the embassy to Persia in 1S17, in which was the Frenchman Gradanne, who was acquainted with all the plans of Napoleon respecting India and Persia; in the missions to Cochin China and to Khiva ; in tile treaties with the United States, Brazil, and Spain ; in the naval and commercial treaties with the I and in the settlement on the north-west coast of America. A.'s foreign policy was characterised at the outset by a desire for peace; in 1S01 he concluded a con- vention, putting an end to hostilities with England, and made peace with Prance and Spain. He entered, along with France, into negotiations respecting the indemnification of the minor states in Germany and Italy, but soon discovered how little the French ruin- intended any real compen- sation. As Bonaparte encroached more and more, took possession of Hanover, and annihilated Hol- land, A. bioke with l' ranee, and joined the coalition of 1S05. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz, when the allied armies of Austria and Kussia were defeated, and retin d with the remains of his forces into Russi ... declining to enter into the treaty that followed. Next year, he came forward as the ally of Prussia ; but ait r t battles of Eylau and Friedland, in 1S07, he was obliged to conclude til- peace of Til-it. in which he managed to prevent the restoration of im of Poland, and to mitigate the hard fate of the king of Pni ia. D the war with France, A. had also had to carry on hostilities with Persia and with Turkey. Dazzled by the fortun ius of Napoleon, A., in pursuance of the stipulations of Tilsit, ace. 1. .1 with his huge empire to the Fi hental system, thus altering entirely . .ijcy of Kussia. He began by declaring war on England in 1S0S, and attacking her ally Sweden, wn sti A from that country, by the peace of Friedrichahamm (1S0D), the province of Finland. On the other hand, the Russian fleet sent to the aid of the French at Lisbon, fell into the hands of the British. In the autumn of 1808, the two great potentates held a meeting at Erfurt, attended with great splendour, at which A. represented, as it were, the empire of the east of Europe, while Napoleon assumed the dominion of the west. In the war of France against Austria in 1S09, A. took only a lukewarm part, although at the peace of Vienna he received the rcleol Tarnopol as his share of the spoil of Galieia. Against the Porte, which had not observed the armistice of Slobosta, he renewed the war, which was continued till the peace of Bucharest in 1812. The alliance, however, of A. with the Corsican conqueror involved such an inconsistency, and was so contrary to the real interests of Russia, that a rupture and a complete change of the Russian policy wei-e inevitable. The pressure of the continental system on the material resources of Russia, the despotic changes made by Napoleon, the augment- ation of the duchy of Warsaw, the proffer alliance by England and Sweden, awoke in A. first discontent and aversion, and soon the thought of a decisive contest against the subjugator of I and the disturber of the peace of the world. When this gigantic struggle at last began (1812), B brought into the field an army of nearly 900,000 men. During this war (see Russo-Gkrmas War), A. repeatedly exposed himself to person in order to fire the courage and patriotism of his troops. His magnanimity towards France after the taking of Paris facilitated the negotiatioi and won for him great personal regard, amounting to a kind of enthusiasm. He was ri ith the same feeling in London, which he visited after the treaty of Paris in June 1S14. When he returned to St Petersburg, his first care was to provide for tin- wounded, and for the families of the Soldiers that had fallen. The senate wished to give him the title of 'Blessed,' which, from Christian humility, he declined. After a short i in bis own capital, he repaired to the Congress of Vienna. i claim to Poland as essential to the interests of Kussia, but promised to confer on it a constitution, and, on the whole, appeared to act for the good of humanity and the Ereedoj of oat lu the return of Napoleon, A. saw the con of Europe begun again, d the fulfilment of the treat , ont and the out- lawry of the com ' iy. His appearance in the French capital after the battle of Waterloo raised less enthusiasm than previously; yet on this occasion, too, France owed much :■ It was about this time that the tendency of A. to i, fostered i\ intercourse with Madame Kriidcner (q. v.). was most strongly man;i and exercised decided influence on his political views. It was under the influence of this religiosity Si ALEX \m.i:i: L— ALEXANDER 11. that I & the Holj Alliance (q. i rf which was | ■ I in the ( arrangements of the world, but which became, in fact, a no re handli In the end of Octobi t 1815, \. returned own dominions. His policy, and the march ol events, had completely changed the i of Russia and hex foreign relations. Her weight in European politics had I the Limits of the empire bad i rl mded in all d rectiona j and notwithstanding the war, the 1 Legi lative reforms had begun to act favour- ably on the industry and well-being of the i 1805, A. had remodelled th ter the >n of the west rn pow< re, and ra tion that menaced Europe. Winn peace was attained, he not only sought to heal the w inflicted by the war, but to carry forward the work of reform formerly begun. Numerous administrative abuses were done away with, and the condition of the peasants was more and more alleviated. In 1816, the Jesuits, who were cau t deal of disturbance, were made to leave St Petersburg and Moscow, and in 1820 were Bent out of the On ill-' other hand, proselytism was > prohibited, and the Duchol sect of the Russo-Greek church, were allowed the free hip. But however good A.'s intentions might be, his internal policy met with obstructions, partly arising from his personal views and character, parti} from the nature of his position. Affected with a morbid ir Li baity, worn out and shaken perhaps in body and mind by the vast events in the vortex of which he had moved for the last ten years, the emperor became possessed by the dread of another Euro- pean revolution ; and the political struggles a reaction in Germany, and the outbreaks despotism in Italy and spam, appeared to him as the beginning of a new and terrible catastrophe. The attention now bestowed by A. on foreign relations ■ internal improvements into the background; and the liberal reformer and pupil of Lohorpe found If involved in hopeless inconsistency, when he fully concurred in the policy of the Austrian cabini t. and, at the congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and \ i rona, helped to crush, along with the insurrec- tions, the just requirements and political progn ol nons. This complete reversal of policy could not fail to produce fruits, especially as llussia peculiarly abounded in fermentable materials. Poland saw i ompletely disappointed in its national expecta- tions, and required the actual carrying out of the promised constitution. The contact into which the Russians had come during the war with the civilisa- tion and institutions of the western nations, had excited in different classes of Russian society n and views by no means compatible with their condition at home. On the other hand, tli rt had long existed in the most influential circles an Old- Russian party, who cither found their interests hurt by the enlightened measures of the emperor, or aau in them the downfall of the national church, and of the nation itself. Resides, the army was kept up on the war-footing, and in 1821 number d about 830,000 regular troops ; and this pressed severely on the people, and produced discontent, along with exhaustion and disorder of the finances. Xo meet this evil, A. began the planting of military colonies, which, however, met with insuperable ol ration, and did not attain the end in view. But to exorcise the spirit of political discontent and the phantom of a Russian revolution, the emperor j adopted the same measures that were very generally applied over the ra l of Bui nilar views. n rlhe importation of I a n reduced ; n pui on science. Literature, and edui linquirii bed into all d cratic movement ■ lodges and missionary societies suppn and gradually all plans for reform and pro up. ( Iver all the provina • oi the empin . a net of open and secret, was spread, which intei with the ordinary inter iety. The experience thai, in spite of this system of repri lion, public opinion could not he stifled,' and that partii ■ and indh [duals only expn ed i more bitterly; the variance with his former self in which A. found himself involved ; and the difficulties of governing the huge empire, which were now a « in. mile I and tartlin ; all this tor- mented and imbittered bis morbid mind, and led him to complain o) ingratitude and of a want of oition of his good intentions. Sometimes he his position in the dissipation Splendid court, in which luxury and piety were trangely Mended ; at other times, he plunged i I i the darkness of religious mysticism. The pro "' the r. volt m < Lreece brought the polii , oi the emperor into complete opposition to public opinion and the most sacred sympathies of the nation. The Russian people, restrained from all participation in political movements, were profoundly affected by the religious' element of the Greek strug Le; but the emperor condemned the rising as insurrection, dis- claimed the favour he had formerly shewn to the < Lreek cans.-, and confined himself to exhortations to the Porte to act with humanity. The death of his only and much-loved natural daughter, the terrible inundation suffered by St Petersburg in 1824, in which he exposed himself to personal danger, and the alarm caused by a I lusso- Polish conspiracy against all the members of the lions,, of Romanow, buted not a Little to break the heart of the emperor, and completely destroy the composure of i el. Sick in body, weary of life, and possessed by thou iih, Im commenced, iii September 1825, a journej to the Crimea, with a view to benefit the health of the empress, who was ailing, and that he himself might enjoy retirement. Leaving the empress at Taganrog, he continued his journey, but wa nddenlj eized by a fever peculiar to the country, and obliged to return to Taganrog. Sere, in spite of all care, he became worse, ai,,l died, December 1, L825. The rumour that he had been poisoned is altogether groundless. He is said to have learned, shortly before his death, the details oi the eon. piracy which his brother and successor, Nicholas I. (i). v.), had to begin his reign by putting down. Interesting notices of the life and chart of A. are given in Choiseul-Gouffier's M&moirea Historiquis sur V Empereur Alexandre et la C our de AV.We (Par. lSi'tli. ALEXAXDKIl II., Kmperor of Russia, was ' pril '20, ISIS. He was carefully educated by his father, Nicholas, who professed himself delighted with the manifestations of 'true Russian spirit' in At sixteen, he was declared of age, made commandant of the Lancers of the < ruard, Hetman of i ossacks, lirst aide-de-camp of the emperor, and :• d daily to a life of manoeuvring, reviewing, and military parade, which at last seriously injured In- health. He then travelled through Genua recruit his energies, and while there, concluded a marriage with the Princess Maria, daughter oi the Grand Duke of liannstadt, in 1841. He now vigorously applil '1 himself to his duties as chan- cellor of the university of Finland. By his di ous and subtle manners, he insinuated himself into the affections of the Finns, and weakened ALEXANDER I— ALEXANDER OP HALES. love of independence. He founded a chair of the Finnish language and literature, patron i academy for the culture of Finnish literature, and defrayed the expenses of remote explorations under- taken by their savans, such as Cygnceus, W.-dlin, and Castren. In 1S50, he visited Southern Russia, Nicolaieff, Sebastopol, Tiflis, Erivan, &c. It is said tliat he witnessed with regret the attitude which his father assumed towards Europe, and that he a fcher disapproved of the Crimean war. On his accession to the throne, March 2, 1855, lie found himself in a very critical position, lie had two parties to conciliate at home — the old Muscovite party, Mindly zealous for war, and the more peace- able and intelligent portion of the nation, who personal sympathies. He pursued a ed to encourage both ; spoke of adhering to the policy of his ' Ulu ■ and at the same time concluded peace. Since then, he has .shewn a strong desire to purge the internal administration of its impurities; he has sharply rebuked the corruption of functional-! leverely punished some, as a warning to the rest. An honourable recognition has been given to public instruction, which he has placed under his own superintendence. His moderation has even raised the hopes of the Poles. By a ukase of May 27, 1856, he granted to all Polish exiles who were willing to express repentance for the past, permission to return home ; but though desirous of preserving the nation- ality of Poland,' he will not have it separated from tie- - great Russian family.' The grand achievement of his reigu, however, as yet, is the emancipation of the serfs -2.i , ,000,000 souls— by a ukase of March 3, 1861. This marks an epoch in the national history. In 1SC5, A. established elective representative assem- blies in the provinces. He carried on a war against the Ameer of Bokhara in 1S6G; and during the year 1873, a war against the khan of Khiva. ALEXANDER I., king of Scotland, a younger son of Malcolm Ceannmor (big-head), succeeded his brother, Kdgar, in 1107, and amidst incessant dis- turbances, governed Scotland for seventeen yeara with great ability. In addition to good natural powers, he had enjoyed, through his mother, Margaret of England, the advantages of a higher mental cultivation than any of his predecessors. One of the most formidable insurrections whi i energy enabled him to quell, was that excited in 1120 by Angus, great grandson of the wife of Macbeth; in allusion to which, old Wynton says : Pra that day forth his lieges all Used him Alexander the Fierce to call. lbs determined resistance to the pretensions of the English hierarchy secured the independence of the Scottish church, while his liberal patronage of the monasteries promoted her strength at home. In 1123 he founded the Abbey of Inchcolm. He died at Stirling in 1124. ALEXANDER II. was born in 1198; succeeded fcher, WUliam the Lion, in 1214. He early tyed that wisdom and strength of character, is '■■'< t which he holds so high a place in history among Scottish kings. The first act of his reign was ' nil cms who had ''"mi 1 to resist the tyranny of King John. This drew down upon him and his kingdom the papal excommunication; but two years subsequently 1 1 'JIM. the ban was removed, and 'the liberties of the Scottish church were even continued. On the acces- sion mi' Henry II I. to the English throne. V the lends of the two nations to a temporary clo a treaty of peace (1217), in accordance with which he married Henry's eldest sister, the Princes3 Joan 9 (1221). The alliance thus established was 1 after the death, without if sue, of Queen Joan (1238), and the second marriage of A. with the daughter of ileman of France. In 1211. Henry marched against Scotland, to compel A.'s homage. In this emergency, the Scottish kin I the steady support of the barons, whose ordinary policy was opposition to the crown, and is said, in a short time, to have found himself at the ) foot, and 101X1 horse. A peace was concluded without an appeal to arms. While engaged in one of those warlike expeditions which the turbulence of his subjects so frequently rendered necessary, A. died of fever at Ken-era. a small island opposite Oban, on the west coast of Argyleshire, iu the thirty-fifth year of his reign. ALEXANDER III. succeeded his father. A. If., on the Scottish throne at the age of eight, and, two years later, in 1251, he married the Princess laughter of Henry III. [ The tender age of the sovereign enabled Henry to prosecute successfully for some time his schemes for obtaining entire control over the Scotti-1 but long before he reached manhood, A. displayed so much energy and wisdom as to give- assurance that when the aciTrunistration of affairs should come under his personal direction, it would be vain to think of reducing him to submission. Very shortly after he had come of age, his energies were sunn to the defence of his kingdom against the formidable invasion of Haco, king of Norway (1263 claimed the sovereignty of the Western Isles. Qj attempting a landing at Largs, on the coast of Ayr, the Norwegian prince sustained a total defeat ; and A., as the result of this important victory, secured the allegiance both of the Hebrides and i oi Man. The alliance between Scotland and Norway was strengthened in 1282 by the m of A.'s only daughter, Margaret, to Erie, kin,' of Norway. This princess died in the foUowin leaving an infant daughter. Margaret, commonly designated the Maiden of Norway, wln.se untimely death, on her way to take possession of her throne, was the occasion of so many calamities to Scotland. During the concluding years of A.'s reign, the king- dom enjoyed a peace and prosperity which it did not taste again for many generations. The ju liberality, and wisdom of the king, endear.. 1 his memory to his subjects, while the misfortunes that followed Ins death, heightened the national sense of his loss. His only son. A., who had married the daughter of Guy, Count of Flanders, died without issue in 12S4. A. contracted a second marriage in 1285 with Joleta, daughter of the Count de 1 1 The hopes of the nation were soon after cloud. his untimely death. Riding on a dark night between Burntisland and Kinghorn. he fell with his horse over a precipice, and was killed on the - ALEXANDER OF HALES (in Latin, Alex- ander Halensis), a famous theologian, known as the 'Irrefragable Doctor' (d. 1245 I is originally an ecclesiastic in Gloucestershire, but had attended the schools of Paris, got the degn r, and had become a noted professor of philosophy and theology there, when (1222) he suddenly entered the of the Minorite Friars. From that thx lived the life of a studious recluse. His chief and only authentic work is tile Gumma L.st ed., Venice, 1576, 4 vols.), written at the command of Pope Innocent IV., and enjoined by his successor, Alexander [V.,to be used by all prof and students of theology in Christendom. A. gave the doctrines of the church a more rigorously syllo- gistic form than they had previously had. and may thus be considered as the author of the scholastic i... ALEXAOTERS— ALEXANDRIA. theology. Instead of appealing to tradition and authority, he deduces with great Subtlety, from assumed" premises, the. most startling doctrines of Catholic "i, ' pepially in favour of the prerogatives of the papacy. He refuses any toleration to hi and would have them deprived of all property; he absolves subjects from all obligation to obey a prince that is not obedient to the church. The spiritual power, which blesses and consecrates kings, is, by that very fact, above all temporal pon thing of the essential dignity of its nature. It has the rigid to appoint and to judge these powers, while the pope has no judge but God. In ecc Idea] affairs, also, he maintains the pope's authority to be full, absolute, and superior to all laws and customs. The points on which A. • dialectics are sometimes simply ludicrous ; as when he discusses the question, whether a mouse that should nibble a consecrated wafer would thereby eat the body of Christ. He arrives at the conclusion that it would. ALEXANDERS (Smwrniu Dial plant of the natural order I (q. v.), found in waste ground, near ruins, I >., in and the south of Europe. The stem is.'; 1 Eeet high, very stout and furrowed ; the leaves twice or thrice . stalked, serrate, of a bright yellowish-green I the leafli I i very 1 irge, 'I be Bowers are yellowish-green, in very dense, numerous rounded umbel i, of involucres; the fruit almost Mark. The plan! ha i an aromatic taste, strong and pungent, but becomes rather pleasant when blanched, and was formerly much cultivated and used in the same way rv. although at present it is little regarded. The frequency of ltsoccum nee near ruins in Britain, probably be referred to its former cultivation. The fruit is carminative. — .V. }•• rfoliatum, a native of Italv. with the upper stem-leaves embracing the. stem, 1 in the same way. — The genus Smi/rniumcoa- t iins only a few known species, chiefly natives of mperate parts of the northern hemisphere. It has compound umbels; is variable in the involucres; ilyx is obsolete; the petals inflected at the point: the fruit consists of two nearly globose carpels, each with three prominent sharp dorsal ribs; the lateral ones distant and obsolete; several a the interstices; the albumen involute. ALEXANDRIA (called Skanderi'eh by the Turks and Arabs) was founded by Alexander the Great in the autumn of the year 333 B.C. It was bed originally on the low tract, of bind ites the lake Maieotis from the Meditern about 14 mdes west of the Canonic mouth of the Nile. Before the city, in the Mediterranean, lay the upon the north-east point of e (ITiaros), and which wis connected with the mainland by a mole, called, from its Length, tile Heptastadium, or 'Seven Pur- long' mole, thus forming the two harbours. The plan of A. was designed by the architect rates, and its original extent is said to hav •1 miles in length, with a circumference of 15 miles. It was intersected by two straight main reets, ci . each other at right angles in the middle of the city. Colonnades adorned the whole h of these streets, which were in j very regularly built. The most magnificent quarter of the city was that called the Bnicheium, which was situated on the eastern harbour. This quarter of the city contained the palaces of the Ptolemies, with the Mu eum and the old library : the S mausoleum of Alexander the Great and of the Ptole- mies, the Poseidonuin, and the great theatre. Further ■west was the emporium or exchange. The Serapeion, or temple of Serapis, stood in the western division of 130 the city, which formed the Egyptian quarter, and I Ethacotis : a small town of that name had occupied the site before the foundation of A. To the "e-t of the city lay . Necropolis, and to mi beyond which was the suburb of -Nieopolis. The greater part of the space under the houses was occupied by vaulted subter- ranean cisterns, which were capable of containing .1 sufficient quantity of water to supply the whole population of the city for a year. From the time of its foundation, A. was the Creek capital of I Its population, in the time of its prosperity, is said by Diodorns to have amounted to about 300,000 free Citizens, and if we take into account the slaves and strangers, that number must be more than doubled. population consisted mostly of Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians, together with settlers from all nations of the known world. After tie- di Alexander the Great, A. became the residence of the Ptoli uiies. They made it, next to Rome and Antioch, the most magnificent city of antiquity, as well as the chief scat of Grecian learning and literature, which spread hence over the greater part of the ancient world. The situation of the city, at the point of junction between the east andwest, rendered it th ntre of the commerce of the world, and raised it to the highest degree of prosperity. A. had readied its greatest splendour, when it came into the possession of the Romans, about 30 B. o. From this moment its prosperity i i decline— at Srst almost imperceptibly, but afterwards more rapidly, in consequence of the removal of the works of art to Home, the ma of Caracalla, the laying waste of the Bnicheium by Aurelian, the siege and pillage of the city by Diocletian, and, lastly, the rising prosperity of the rival city of Constantinople. All these causes combined, to destroy A. so speedily, that, in the 4th c. no building of any importance was left in it except the temple of Serapis. The strife between Christianity and heathenism gave rise to b contests in A. The Serapeion, the last seat of heathen theology and learning, was stormed by the Christians in 389 A.D., and converted into a Christian church. This put an end to heathi i and A. became henceforward a chief tristian theology, and continued to be so till it was taken by the Arabs, under Amru. in dune C.'.'S a. l>. This siege, and, stdl more, its conquest by the Turks in 868 a. d., completed the destruction of the city. It revived, indeed, in some degree under the Egyptian califs, and continued during the middle to be the most important emporium of trade n the cast and west ; but the discovery of America, and of the passage to India by the Cape of ollonius Rhodius, Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, Euphorion, Callimaiims. Theocritus. I >i onysius, and the seven tragedians called the A. Pleiades. The A. school has a spirit and character altogether different from the previous intellectual life of tii From the attention paid to the study of language, it was natural that correctness, purity, and elegance of expression should becomi , cultivated: and in these respects many of the A. writers are distin- guished. But what no study and no efforts coidd give — the spirit, namely, that animated the earlier 131 ALEXAXDRTXES— ALEXirS COM X i:\IS. poetry, wbb, in most of these works, wanting. In place of it, there was displayed greater :irt in composition; what had formerlj me by genius, was now to be done by the rules furnished by criticism, only a few display real geniuB; the works of tin 1 rest, faultless acoording t * > rule, are destitute of life and soul In a Bel I, where imita- tion and nil'' thus took tin- |> [ Minn of disciples became more artificial and lifeless than thru- masters. Criticism degenerated into frivolous fault-finding, and both prose and poetry became laboured affectation. The Alexandrine Philosophy is characterised by a blending of the philosophies of the East and of the West, and by a general tendency to eclec- ticism, as it is called, or an endeavour to reconcile conflicting systems of speculation, by bin ■ << together what seemed true in each. No! that the A. philosophers were without their sects; the most fa is of which wen- the Neoplatonists (q. v.). Iininc.' the religious notions of the Bast with Greek dialectics, fchej represent the struggle "f ancient civilisation with < hnsti mil v ; and thus tie ir system was not without influence on the form that Christian dogmas took in Egypt The amalgamation of eastern ideas with < Ihristian, gave rise to the system of the Gnostics (q.v.), which was elaborated chieflj in Alexandria. — The A. sc] 1 was no less di til ■ill. 1 1 . 1 1 I'm' the culture of the mathematical and physical sciences, which here n ached a greater height than anywhere else in ancient times. As early as the 3d c. B.C., Euclid had here written his ii workon geometry. Tin astronomers of the A. school were distinguished from all their predecessors bj their setting aside all metaphj leal speculation, and devoting themselves to strict observation. Among the distinguished physicists and mathematicians of fie A. school, were Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Aristarehus of Samos, I'tolcm.ous, ,Vc. For about four centuries, the A. school was the centre of learn- ing and science in tho ancient world. Counting from it, origin to its complete extinction, it lasted 1000 years. ALEX AX DIM X MS are rhyming vei each of twelve syllables or six measures. Tic is most probably derived from an old French | >■ ■• m On Alexander flic Great, belonging to the 12th or 13th c, in which this measure was firsf used; accord- ing to others, it was bo called from the name of one of the authors of that poem being Alexander. The Alexandrine has become- the regular epic or heroic verse of the French, among whom each line is divided in the middle into two hemistichs, tli syllable always ending a word. In English, this rule is not always observed, as in the following verse from Spenser : That all the woods shall an|SWCT f anil their echo .ring. The only considerable English poem wholly written in A. is Drayton's Pciyou/ion : but the Spenserian stanza regularry ends in an Alexandrine, and the measure occurs occasionally in our common heroic verse, as the last line of a couplet : When t'otli arc full, the; feci! cur I. lest abode, Like those that watered onee|thc paradise of God.— /' ALEXANDRO'VSK, a town in the south of Russia, capital of the district of the same name, situated on the left bank of the Dnieper, below the cataracts. It is 48 miles south of Ekaterinoslav, is fortified, and has considerable trade. Inland pro- ductions are shipped here for the Black Sea. Pop. 4G01. — There are various other towns and districts of the same name in Russia ; the most important of which is that in the government of Vladimir, in the centre of the empire. It was a favourite summer 132 i idi nee of the Czar Ivan Vasiliewitch, who intro- duced there the first printing press known in Russia. It has also .-, ai imperi I stud, commenced by the Empress Elizabeth in 1761, and completed id,., ut twenty years after. Pop. (1867)5810. ALEXE'I MICHA'ILOWITCII, the second Russian czar of the I [ouse of Romanow (b. March Id, 10 - 29— d. January 29, 1676), succeeded his father, M i,i,i,l ]•'• ■d.ii-ow itch, iii 1645. The young Czar A. yielding himself to the control of his chancellor, i'l, -mi, and his tutor. Morosow, the avarice of these bad advisers caused an insurrection in 1648, in which Plessow lost his life. Popular discon- tent favoured the plans of two pretenders to the throne Demetrius III. (q. v.) and Ankudinow. 'I he Latter, professing to be a son of the Czar Wasili Shui ' cecuted at Moscow in 1653. A. possessed good qualities, which appeared when 1 ame to riper years. In his two campaigns the Poles (1654 lOol'i, and llit'.ll KiCTl, he took Smolensko, conquered and devastated almost iin whole of Lithuania, and even secured for I self the possession of several provinces, lie also gained a put of the Ukraine ; and though his war with Sweden (1656 1658) was unfortunate, he lost nothing by Hie following peace, a. conferred great benefits on his countrymen, by the introduction of various important reforms into the Russian laws; he ordered translations of numerous scientific works, chiefly of a military nature, into Russian; and even ventured on some ecclesiastical changes. In his private character, he was amiable, temperate, and pious. Ills second wife, the beautiful X ,' 1 1 1 1 1 : a Xarischkin, was the mother of Peter tin ( licit. ALEXEI, PETBO'WITCH. The eldest son of l'i ter the Great of Russia, was born at Moscow, I', bruary Is, 1690. Having shewn himself ,,;. to the reforms and ii rations made by the emperor, he was excluded by Peter from the line of succession to the throne. With this decision, he appeared to be satisfied, and ,1, clam] Ids intention oi spending the remainder of his days in a monastery. But when I', ter the Great undertook his second tour m Northern Europe, A. .under the pretence of foll,,v, nig the Ozar, escaped in 171" to Vienna, and thence v., nt to Naples. He was induced to return to Russia, where, by the ukase of February 2, 1718, he was disinherited, and an investigation was ordered to detect all parties concerned in his recent (light from Russia. His mother, Eudoxia, with .Mario Mm, wnii, step-sister to the czar, and several other eminent persons, were made prisoners, and either C.eelltcl er otherwise pUnisllCll. A. WHS C lellllled to death, but soon afterwards received a pardon. II, oiever. tin- terror and agitation of the trial so affected his health, that he dad June 26, 1718. The czar, to avoid cm, Id, ordered the trial to be published. Other accounts assert that A. was beheaded in prison. By his wife, Charlotte Christine Sophie, Princess of Brunswick- Wolfenbtlttel, A. left a son, who, as I'eter II., was elevated to the throne. ALEXIUS COMNE'NUS, one of the ablest rulers of the Byzantine empire, was born at Con- stantinople in 1048. He was the third son of Johannes Comnenus, the brother of the emperor, ' "inneuus. The family came originally from Italy, and settled in Asia .Minor. J lis father I, refused tin purple on the abdication of Isaac, it was given to i Ducas, the son of a distinguished general. A. in his youth gave brilliant promise of the rigorous military genius which he afterwards manifested ; and at length, after a series of anarchic reigns of brief duration, his soldiers succeeded in elevating him to the throne, while the old and feeble Xiecphorus Botaniates, his predecessor, was obliged ALFIERI-ALFONSO I. to retire to a monastery. Gibbon graphically paints the position and achievements of A. in the 48th chapter of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 1 vwhriv he a\ ;is encompassed with foes. The Scythians ami Turks were pouring down from the north and north-east; the fierce Normans, who had violently effected a lodgment in .Sicily and Italy, were menacing his western provinces ; and, finally, the myriad warriors of the first crusade had burst into his empire on their way i" Palestine, and had encamped around the gates of his capital. Vet ha contrived to avoid all perils and disgraces by the wisdom of his policy, the mingled patience and promptitude of Ins character, his discipline in the camp, and his humanity on the throne. lie reigned for .'i7 years; and if it had been possible to preserve the weak and corrupt Byzantine empire in its integrity, a ruler like A. might have done it. He could only delay its inevitable destruction. Undoubtedly, the great interest which attaches to A. arises from his relation to the crusaders. Historians differ as to the purity and sincerity of his conduct towards them. His daughter Anna, who wrote his life, defends his ' policy ' with idial piety ; but it seems clear that he entertained a profound dread and suspicion of the half-civilised Franks, and, knowing the weakness of his own empire, was compelled to dissimulate. He certainly promised them help, and persuaded them to go off into Asia ; it is equally certain that he did not fulfil his promises, and that he simply used them as instru- ments to reconquer from the Turks the islands and coasts of Asia Minor. Perhaps, however, little apology is needed for a monarch who ' subdued the envy of his equals, restored the laws of public and private order, caused the arts of wealth and science to be cultivated, and transmitted the sceptre to his children of the third and fourth generation.' He died in 1118. ALFIERI, Vittorio, Count, a modern Italian dramatic poet, was born at Asti, in Piedmont, on the 17th January 1749. He received a very defec- tive education in his father's house, and was then sent to the academy of Turin, which he quitted, as ignorant and uninformed as he had entered it, to join a provincial regiment. After a hurried tour through the greater part of Europe, he returned to Turin in 1772. He then left the military service, and renouncing idleness and unworthy amours, devoted himself to literary occupation. The applause which his lirst attempts received, encouraged him in his determination to win fame as a dramatic author. But as he clearly saw the deficiencies of his educa- tion, lie began at a mature age to learn Latin, and also to study the Tuscan dialect, for which purpose he went to Tuscany. On his journey thither, A. made the acquaintance of the Countess of Albany (q. v.), to whom he became deeply attached. To render himself worthy of her esteem, he strove with unremitting earnestness alter poetic excellence ; and in order to he perfectly free and independent of all other cares, he transferred his whole property to his sister, in exchange for an annuity. A. now- lived alternately in Florence and in Borne. After- wards, when his friend the Countess was released from other ties by the death of her husband, tie. lived together in the closest intimacy in Alsace or in Paris, where A. was incessantly occupied in writing, revising, and publishing his works. There appears to have been a marriage, although it was never made public. On the first outburst of the French Revolution, A. went to England, but soon returned to Paris. In 1792 lie was again forced to ilee from France, and he then settled with his inseparable coin]. anion in Florence. Here he died, on the 8th October 1S03. The ashes of A. and those of his friend repose in the church of Santa Croce, in Florence, under a beautiful monument by Canova, between the tombs of Micha.-l Angelo and Macchiavelli. As a dramatic, author, A. has attempted three different departments of his art. He published 21 tragedies, G comedies, and 1 ' tramelogedia,' a name- invented by lihnself. His dramatic works shew a want of fresh imaginative' vigour, and betray the laborious perseverance with whi.h he did violence both to himself and to art. A. was inspired more by politics than by poetry. lh wished to breathe a spirit of freedom into the dormant minds of his countrymen, and considered the theatre as a school in which tic people might learn to be ' free, strong, and noble.' In order to preserve the purity of his muse, A. had resolved to read no other poet. He wished to produce an effect by the very simplest means, and, renouncing the aid of ornament, to please by manly strength and earnestness alone. His works are on this account cold and stiff, his plots simple even to poverty, his verse hard and unpleasing, and his language destitute of that magic splendour of colouring which stirs the inmost soul. Notwithstanding tins, A. did good service to Italian tragedy. He corrected the effemin- ate taste which had before prevailed, as well as the pedantry of an affected imitation of Attic model-. Succeeding writers endeavoured to imitate his strength and simplicity. A. was more unsuccessful in his comedies than in his tragedies. They manifest the same serious political tendency ; the invention is poor, the development of the plot uninteresting, and the characters are only general sketches, without individuality. The most successful of his dramatic works is Abel, a mixture of tragedy and opera, invented by himself, which he designated by the singular name of ' tramelogedia.' Besides the dramatic works of A., we possess an epic poem, in four cantos, written by him, also many lyrical poems, 16 satires, and poetical translations of Terence, Virgil, and portions of /Eschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. After his death, appeared his Misogallo, a memorial of his hatred to the French. The Countess of Albany had a collected edition of his works pubbshed (3."> vols. 4to, Pisa, rSHo -l.sl.1) containing his autobiography; Centofauti published Tragedie e Vila d'AIJieri (Florence, 1842). ALFONSO I., earliest king of Portugal, was the son of Henry of Burgundy, conqueror and Count of Portugal. He was born in 1 1 111 A.D., and being only two years of age at In; latin i ■' ■■ . I ■ . ment of affairs fell into the hands of his ambitious and dissolute mother, Theresa of Castile, from whom he was compelled forcibly to seize it, on attaining Ins majority. He then entered on a war with Castile, whose supremacy he did not recognise, and le himself with Navarre, made several conquests m Oalicia, after which he proceeded to .attack the Moors, whose invasions he had already begun to check by building the fortress of Leiria. A battle was fought in the plains of Ourique, July 25, 1 1 .39, wh.n victory declared for the Portuguese, after a bloody struggle, in which, it is said, not less than 21 H l.l II II I Moors perished. From that day. A. assumed the title of king, which the pope confirm! d. On the 26th October ll47,he took Lisbon.hythe help of the English licet of crusaders ; and ill 1158, after a ■i< e of two months, made himself master of Alcazar- de-Sal and Evora. in 1171, be took by assault the fortress of Santarem from thi . and annihilated the garrison ; and tit the same place he defeated the Almohadian ruler, Jusuf-ben-Jakub, in list. He invited to his land the Knights-Templars and Knights of Si John, and • -taUished, the orders of Avis, and of St Michael. The Portuguese style him El Conquistador (the Conqueror). But he was also a ALFONSO VL— ALFORD. legislator, establishing the Cortes of Lanugo, tad promulgating a node of laws relating to the order of urn, the privileges of the nobility, the admi- nistration of justice, &c. He died at Coimbra, December 6, 1 185. ALFONSO VI. , king of Portugal, second son of .John IV., was .it first destined for tiie church, bu1 the death of his elder brother in 10.10 alto changed his circumstances. Being then a minor, the government <>f tin- kingdom was intrusted to his mother, Louisa de Guzman, a woman of great wisdom and prudence, who felt it her duty to retain the power in her own hands, even alter A. had reached his majority; for the sickly anil dis- solute prince displayed little aptitude for business. But the court minions, who had their own reasons for wishing him to rule, ur ad him to remove his mother from her office. This was accomplished in 1(36:2. The minister, Count Castel-Melhor, a mere tiill.T, possessed supreme authority. Nevertheless, Portugal was victorious in the war which she under- took against Spam, although for this sin- had to thank her English and French allies. In 1666, A married Maria-l-'ranci>ca-K!izahcth of Savoy, who, however, soon conspired with his brother Pedro against him. The plot succeeded. A. and imprisa 1 at Cintra, where he died on the 12th of September 1683. Pedro then obtained the throne, and married the widow of his deceased brother. ALFONSO III., surnamed Tin: GREAT, king of Leon, Asturios, and (bilicia, horn SIS a. i>. IL- succeeded his father, Qrdofio 1.. in 800, but had to maintain his rights by force of anus against Count Froda, who had usurped the throne. Having caused the latter to be murdered, he proceeded terabyte reduce to obedience the powcrftd nobdity of the kingdom, who looked with a jealous eye on the monarchy remaining in one family ; and then, carrying his anus against other enemies, he fought through more than 30 campaigns, and gamed numer- ous victories over the Moors. Be crossed the Douro, broke down the walls of Coimbra, penetrated to the Tsgus and Fstremadura, enlarged Ins terri- tories by a portion of Portugal and I lid 1 lastile, and re-peopled the conquered and desolated Burgos, But these wars entaued great expense and misery on the nation. In 888, A. bad to endure the pain of beholding, at the bead of a rebel army, his own son Garcias, who wished to seize the crown, although pretending a simple desire for the prosperity of the commonwealth. A. collected his forces, conquered his son, and threw him into prison. But Oarcias' mother, by the help of several of the grandees. excited a m-w conspiracy, which resulted in the abdication of the monarch in favour of liis im- prisoned son. In order, however, to be still useful to his country, A. became commander of Garcias' forces in an expedition against the Moors. Alter returning in triumph, he died at Zamora, 'Jill. ALFONSO V., king of Aragon, Naples, and Sicily (1416 — 1458 A. 1).), received the surname of 'the Magnanimous, 1 because on his accession to the throne he destroyed a document containing the names of all the grandees who were bostde to him. His historical importance arises from his having brought Southern Italy under the dominion of Aragon. In 1420, he attacked Corsica, but speeddy hastened to Naples, at the request of Queen Joanna II., who besought his assistance against Louis of Anjou. For some time he enjoyed the highest favour; but, in 1423, having thrown into prison her minion I laraocioli, who was his enemy, the queen declared for his rival. Louis. At her death, in 1435, A. resolved to claim the kingdom, but Rene of Anjou, whom Joanna had apjiointed her successor after the death of Louis, 134 opposed him, Bonn and Genoa sided with Bene, and the Gi He. ie Beef attacked and defeated that of A . tie- monarch himself being taken prisoner. Ho nt to Duke Philip of Milan, who. charmed by his manner and talent, set him at liberty, and even formed an alliance with him, After several battles, ami a long mountain-war in the Ahru/z.i, A. overthrew his adversary, and entered Naples in triumph. Having once lirinly established his power, he proceeded b' suppress the disorders which had sprung up during the worthless reign ot Joanna, and b airably distinguished himself by his patronage of letters. He died at Naples while his troops were ring Genoa, June 'J7, 1458. ALFONSO X., surnamed ■ the Astronomer,' 'the Philosopher,' or • the Wise' (/,'/ Sabio), king of Leon and Castile, born lL'Jl, succeeded Ins father, Ferdi- nand lib. in 1252, As early as the storming of Seville in l'JIS, he had given indications of his COU spirit, But, instead of wisely attempting to expel tliu Moors and subdue the nobility, lie lavished the resources of his kingdom in fruitless efforts to secure Ins election to tie imperial throne of Germany, Rudolf of Hapsburg was chosen in opposition to him. Nor would Pope (Iregory X. recognise bis claims even to the Duchy of Swabia. Soon after, his throne was threatened by tic turbulciu f the nobdity, and his wars with the Moors. The latter, however, he defeated in 1263, in a bloody battle, and took from them Xcres, Medina-Sidonia, San-Lucar, and a part of Algarve, uniting at the same time Murcia with Castile. In 1271, an insurrection broke out in his dominions, at tin- head of which was his son Philip. Three years elapsed before it was finally quelled. In the mildness with which he treated the rebels, men saw only indications of his weak- ness. But afterwards determining to employ more stringent measures, his son Sanclio also rebelled, and in 1282 deprived him of his throne. He now sought the help of the Moors; but after fruitless efforts to recover his power, he died at Seville, April ■1, P284. He was the most learned prince of his time, and has acquired lasting fame through the completion of the code of laws commenced (though this i- disputed) by his father, and called /.;/<« <>ri.x, or spores with mo\ ing cilia, w hieh exhibit phenomena of motion resembling those of animal life. The Dto- -. in which the rflOTrillgthereceptlc!e , oft i ie ordinary mode of repro- fructification «, a, at the duction is by spontaneous endsofthebranchlngfroiid; separation, have by some M, ». targe air-cells which . * - , . .£ help to float the l.lunt. I.. en referred to the am- ' mal kingdom. They are entirely microscopic, resemble the animalcules called Infusoria, and are generally found iu still waters and moist places, but occur in j li. !"■! 1 1 1 1 ml ii i - in """ parts of the Antarctic Ocean, where they give a colour to . iter. A. differ from Fungi (q. v.) in deriving their nourishment exclusively, as it would seem, from the medium by which they are surrounded, and not from the substance upon which they grow. The sub- of which they are composed is also different. Yet it has been felt not a little diflicult to determine to which order some of the lowest forms of vegetable life should b As to their sal .stance, A. consist chiefly of \ able gelatine, winch dissolves in water when are boiled in it. The harder parts of I fnetimes coriaceous, or horny, or cartilaginous, but never really ligneous. Their colour is not alw a\ s green, but mostly brown or yellow, BOmel purple or violet, or rose colour; and many of them i a very beautiful appearance when examined through a micro-cope. Many contain an abundance of iodine. Different species of Wrack i/ (q. v.), which are cast on shore in vast confused masses by the waves, are gathered and burned in I. my Islands, in Normandy, and other parts of the world, the ashes funning an article of com- merce under the name of Kelp (q. v.), and contain- ing much of the iodide of sodium. Sea-weeds of all kinds are an excellent manure. None of the species are poisonous, and some of them are used for food, as CaekaOKEN (q. v.) or Irish-moss, Dti-sj; (q. v.), (q. v.), 8SC. The edible swallows' nests of i lian Archipelago are composed of a species of sea- weed. Several kinds are eaten as articles of luxury by the Chinese. Plocaria tenaz, one of the bo used, furnishes them also with an admir- able glue, of which great quantities are prepared and brought to the market. /'/..■ niitliurmiun, an moss, a native of the Mediterranean, and found principally around the shores of Corsica, is used as a vermifuge. See 1'i.m LABIA. This natural order is divided into five sub-orders, regarded by some as distinct orders — namely, ALGARDI— ALGEBRA. CharacevE (q. v.), FacAcas (q. v.), Cerami (q. v.), Contervace.e (see Conferva), and Diato- : (q. v.i. Tlie Characeoe are sometimes sepa- rated as a distinct order of higher organisation, whilst the rest are united under the name Algaj. See Kiitzing's I '/■;," >hnjin (,'enei iHs (Leip. 1 ^13), and his Species Algarum (Leip. 1849); Greville's A. Britannicce (Lond. 1830); and Harvey's Manual qf British A. (Lond. 1841). ALGA'RDI, Alessaudro, an Italian sculptor (b, at Bologna 1602 -d. 1654), ranked next to Lor. Bernini among Italian sculptors of the 17tH c, and especially excelled in the representation ol nude figures. His works, however, suffered from the faults prevalent in bus time, especially from a striv- ing after pathos and picturesque effects, opposed to the true character of sculpture. His must important work is a colossal relievo of Attila in .St I Rome. His statue of the God of Sleep in the Villa Borghese has frequently heen mistaken for an antique. ALGARO'BA. See Carob. ALGARO'TTI, Francesco, Count, an Italian author, was born at Venice in 171—, studied in Rome and Bologna, and when 21 years old, published in i \~:::',) a work, entitled Newtonianismo per le (The Newtonian Pliilosophy adapted to the Ladies), which was the basis of his subsequent reputation. Until 1739, he lived in France. On his return from a journey to Russia, A became acquainted with Frederick II. of Prussia, who elevated him to the rank of count, and made him. in 1747, lord chamberlain. He was also patronised by Augustus III. of Poland, and lived alternately in Berlin and Dresden until 1754, when he returned to Italy. He died March .'{, 1764, at Pisa, where, in the Campo Santo, Frederick the Great raised a monu- ment to his memory. In his own time he was recog- I as a good judge of painting and architecture, and his reputation is confirmed by his work Saggi sopra le Belle Arti (Essays on the Fine Arts), and by the paintings he selected for the Dresden Gallery. His poetry displays no great genius ; but his other works shew that he was an accomplished man; and bis letters rank with the best in the Italian language. ALGA'RVE, the smallest and most southerly of the provinces of Portugal, Lies between Andalucia and the Atlantic Ocean. In ancient times, it was much mure extensive. It received its name from the Aral.s. in whose language A. signifies "a land lying to the west.' It was a Moorish province till 125$ when Alphonso III. united it to the crown of Portugal as a separate kingdom. Its area is < bi- mated at ^7.'H> square miles, and its population is 177,000. The northern part of the province is occu- pied by a lj-i ■ . i tntains of an avers i height oi WOO feet, which form the continuation of the Morens of Spain, and terminate in Cape St Vincent, the south-western extremity of Europe. The highest entirely destitute of \- tion ; and the mountainous tract in general admits ol but little cultivation. From the main ridge, the ry slopes southward in jagged terraces and low hills, leaving a levi I brad of a tew miles along tin- coast The soil of this plain is but indifferently i d for the production of grain, or even of pasturage; but it produces abundance of the finest fruits of the south, even plantains and dates. The wine is also of excellent quality. Tin \ can heat of the climate is mitigated by the cool Bea I The only river of importance is tin- Guadiana, on the frontiers of Spam. The inhabitants ' themselves chicll) in fishing, in manufacturin and in cultivating fruit. They are considered the best sailors and the truest friends in Portugal. The chief town is Faro (pop. 8500). A'LGEBHA is a branch of pure mathematics. The name is derived from the Arabs, who call the science Al gebr wal mok&bala — Le., supplementing and equalising — in reference to the t m and reduction of the terms of an equation. Among the Italians in early times it was call, d Arte Mag as having to do with the higher kinds of calculation, and still oftener Jiegola de la < 'osa, because the un- known quantity was denomin the 'thin'.':' hence the name of Cossike Art, given to it by early English writers. The term Algebraical is generally used somewhat vaguely, to denote any expression or calculation in which signs are used to denote the operations, and letters or other symbols are put instead of numbers. But it is perhaps better to restrict the name A to the doctrine of Equations (q.V.). Literal arithmetic, then, or multiplying, dividing, 4c., with letters to of Arabic ciphers, is properly only a preparation for A ; ■while Analysis (q. v.), in the widest .-ens.', would embrace A. as its first part. A. itself is divided into two chief branches. The first treats of equations involving unknown quantities having a determinate value; in the other, called the Diopnantine or Inde- terminate Analysis, the unknown quantities have no exactly fixed values, but depend in some d upon assumption. The oldest work in the West on A. is that of Diophantus of Alexandria, in the 4th c. after Christ. It consisted originally of 13 books, and contained arithmetical problems; only six are now extant. They are written in ' and evince no little acuteness. The modern Euro- peans got their first acquaintance with A., not directly from the Greeks, but, like most other knowledge, through the Arabs, who derived it. again, from theHindus. The chief European source was the work of Mohammed Ben Musa, who lived in the time of Calif Al Mamun (813— S33); it has been translated into English by Dr Rosen (Lond. IS.'ll). An Italian merchant, Leonardo Bonacciu, of Pisa, travelling in the east about 1200, acquired a know- ledge .of the science, and introduced it among his countrymen on his return; he has left a work on A, not yet printed. The first work on A. after the revival of learning is that of the Minorite friar Paciolo or Luca Borgo (Ven. 1494). v pio Ferreo in Bologna, discovered, in 1505, the solution of one case of cubic equations. Tartaglia of Br< -cia (died 1557) carried culm- equations still further, and imparted his discoveries to Cardan of Milan, as a secret. Cardan extended tin overy himself, and published, in 1545, the solution known as 'Cardan's Rule.' Ludovico Ferrari and Bombelli (1579 the solution of biquadra ms. A. was first cultivated in Germany by Christian Rudolf, in a work printed in 1524; Stifel follow) dwith his Arilh- metica Integra (Ntirnb. 1544i. Robert Recorde, in Kneland, and Pelletier, in France, wrote about 1550. a Frenchman (died 1603 di the grand step of using letters to denote tin- known as well as the unknown. Harriot, in England and Girard, in Holland (1633), still further improved on the advances made by Vieta. The (1637) of Descartes makes an epoch in A.; it is I - ii in new invi to Geometry, and was the lirst to represent the nature of curves by means of equations. Fcrmat contributed much I nee; ami so ,ii,l the ArtiJani Hea I Newton. 1 names may be added Maclaurin, Moivrc. Taylor, and Fontaine. Among the chief promo in more recent times, are Buler, I Causs, Abel, Fourier, Peacock. De Morgan. &a 137 ALGECIRAS-ALGERIA. ALGECI'RAS, or ALGK/.IKAS, .1 town in Spain, in the province of Cadiz, on the Gulf of 1 Itar. [ta harbour is bad, but it possesses a good dock, and the inhabitants arc supplied with fine aqueducts. The citadel is in a very dilapi- dated condition, and the trade iii corn and brandy is no longer important. The place, however, which is pleasantly situated, has a picturesque appearance. It was the first town in Spain taken bj the Moors (713), in whose possession it remained for 7 centuries; but in 1344, after a siege of 20 months, it was retaken by the brave Alfonso XI., king of Castile. It is said that crusaders En parts of Europe were present at this siege, which was (he siege of the age, and is spoken OI a3 such. Edward 111. of England puqiosed coming in person to the assistance of the Spanish monarch, whom he greatly admired. Alfonso destroyed the old Mi town; the modern one was built by Charles 111. in 1700. On the 6th of June 1801, between Algeciras and Tarifa, the English admiral Saumarvz attacked the combined French and Spanish lints uniler Bear- admiral Luinois. lie was defeated, but renewed the engagement a few days after, and gained a complete victory. A. is 5 miles from Gibraltar, across the bay or gulf, and 10 round by land. Top. 11,500. ALGE'lUA 1 in French, Auaian. a country on the north coast of Africa, which was a sub- ordinate part of the Turkish Empire till 1830, and is now a French colony. It lies between 2' 8' W. long, and 8' ."'2' E. long. It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, on the east by Tunis, on the south by Sahara, and on tho west by Marocco. The French have extended their dominions more than 200 miles into the interior, but those of the deys — the former rulers of A. — comprehended terri- tories lying nearly twice as far south. The area of A., now that the southern limit is defined, is about 173,000 s.|. miles: and the pop. 2,004,014, includ- ing '_'I7.'.)'.KI Europeans. The chief towns are Algiers, Bona, Constantino, and Tlemzen. Upwards of 5,000,000 acres are under cultivation. Physically, A. forms a part of the northern border of the great plateau of North Africa, which here rises from the sea in three terraces. The Atlas Mountains run parallel to the coast-line. Behind these, a vast tract of heathy plains, called the Sebkhas, interspersed with salt-lakes, stretches southwards, until bounded by a second chain of mountains of various heights ; beyond which, again, lies the great desert of Sahara, extending to the banks of the Niger. The plains and valleys which open out towards the sea in the north of A., such as those round Bona, Algiers, Oran, &c., are extremely fertile, abound in wood and water, consist mostly of a calcareous soil, and are well adapted for agriculture. They form the Tell, which was once one of the granaries of Italy. In strong contrast to these are the Sebkhas or lesser deserts, covered with herbs and brushwood, but almost destitute of fresh water, except where here and there they are interrupted by an oasis. The most southern part of the country beyond the Atlas partakes of the nature of the Sahara, but contains oases covered with palm-trees, and well peopled. Tliis is a part of the 'date-country,' or 'Blad-el- Djerid.' There are no rivers of any importance in the entire colony, nothing beyond mere coast- streams, wliich rise in the neighbouring Atlas. The largest is the Shelif, about 230 miles in length. With respect to the climate, the heat in the Tell is some- times very great. On the coast it is mitigated by the sea-breeze ; and among the high mountains of the interior, the winters are even cold. The average temperature of Algiers is about 63° F. A. is not unfrequently visited by the simoom, or hot wind, called by the Italians sirocco, and by the Spaniards 138 sulano. Its mineral wealth is considerable ; iron, had. copper, and manganese are found. The marble of Numidia was in requisition in ancient times. Extensive forests of oaks, cedars, pines, and pistacbio- nut trees cover large portions of the country, and furnish an abundant supply of timber and 1 sin. The . 1 reals and the olive are cultivated in the Tell ; and the oases of Sahara are famed for their dates. The domestic animals of A. are the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the camel; but the once noble race of Mumidian horses is degenerated. The population is composed of various elements. Besides Europeans, tin re are Kabyles and Arabs, who compose the bulk of the people ; also Moors, Negroes, and Jews. Language, - Four languages are spoken in A. The Berber, the Arabic, the Turkish, and the Negro dia- lects. The Berber, which is the most ancient of all, has a variety of dialects, and is spoken by all the Kabylo tribes. It possesses no literature written m its own alphabet, Arabic characters alone being used. The Arabic is of course an importation from the East, and has borrowed expressions and idioms from (lie various native languages with which it came into contact ; but its ditiereiices are comparatively slight. The Koran is the great bond of union. The Turkish, since the French conquest, has become almost ex- tinct. The Negro dialects are of little consequence. History. — In the most ancient times we find the Numidians settled in the eastern part of the regency, and the Moors (or Mauri) in the west. Under the Romans, the former was included in the province of Africa, while the latter was called Mauritania Caesar- iensis. Like the rest of North Africa, it had then reached its highest prosperity. It had numerous cities, which were principally l'.oman colonies. But its conquest by the Vandals, under the famous Genseric about 440, threw it hack into a state of barbarism, from which it only partially reco after the Mohammedan immigrants had estab- lished their dominion. About tho year 93"), the city, Al-Jezira, i. e., the island, and later AI-Gazie, i.e., the warlike, now called Algiers, was built by an Arabian prince, Zeiri, whose successors ruled the land till 1148, after which it was governed by the Almohades (q.v.) till 1200. It was then split up into many small territories. In 1402, the Moors and • lews who had been driven out of Spain, settled in A., and began to revenge themselves on their perse- cutors by piracy. Ferdinand, the Spanish monarch, attacked them on this account, took the city of Algiers in 1509, and erected fortifications on the island which forms its harbour. One of the Algerine princes, the Emu' of Metidja, whose territories were threatened by the Spaniards, now invited to his assistance the Greek renegade, Horuk or llarudo Barbarossa, who had made himself famous as a Turkish pirate chief. This laid the foundation of the Turkish dominion ; for when Barbarossa arrived in 1510, he treacherously turned his corsair bands against the emir, whom he murdered, and then made himself Sultan of Algiers. His subse- quent successes alarmed the Spaniards, who marched an army against him from Oran. Barbarossa was defeated in many encounters, and, at last, being taken prisoner, was beheaded in 1518. His brother was then chosen sultan. He put himself under the protection of the Ottoman court, by the help of a Turkish army drove the Spaniards out of tho country, and established that system of military despotism and piracy which lasted till 1830, ami which sunk A. into a state of ruinous degradation. In 1541, the Emperor Charles V. made a bold attempt to crush this nation of corsairs. He landed in A. with a fleet of 370 ships, and 30,000 men; but a fearful storm, accompanied by earthquakes and water-spouts, destroyed the greater portion of tho ALGERIA. former, and rendered the latter destitute of victuals, &c. ; so that the expedition proved a failure, and Charles was glad to re-embark, which he managed to do with extreme difficulty. Tin- history of A., under the Moslems, offers few episodes worthy of notice. The AJgerines continued to carry on their piratical war against the powers of Christendom, venturing even to land on the Italian and Spanish coasts. Inland, too, they were con- stantly fighting tn extend their territories. Before the end of the 16th c, they had subdued the whole country to the verge "i Marocco, with the exception of Oran, which belonged to Spain. The Spaniards were invariably unsuccessful in their attempt* at <^5S~ VT^} C0NSTAHTIHE9 <~~± J* \ irtlf 'fa OH ""«s»'E| reprisals. Emboldened by success, the Algerines pushed their piratical expeditions even beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. In the year 1G00, the Turkish janissaries of Algiers obtained from the Constanti- nopolitan court the right to choose a dcy from among themselves, who should share the power with the pacha appointed by the Sultan, and be |Im si' rommauder-iu-chief. The result of this divided authority was internal strife and confusion. Never- theless, the insolence of the Algerines at sea increased. They attacked even the coasts of Provence, compel- ling Louis XIV. to chastise them thrice ; which he did, however, with very little effect. An incident occurred during the first bombardment of Algiers by the French fleet in 1682, which illustrates the reckless ferocity of these corsairs. By way of answer to the cannonading of lus enemies, the dey caused the French consid, Vacher, to be shot off from the mouth of a mortar! After the third bom- bardment in 1687, the dey scornfully inquired of the French how much money the burning of Algiers bad .■list their master, and on being told, coolly replied that ' he would have done it himself for half the sum, and spared their king the trouble.' No more decisive result followed the attack of Admiral Blake in 1655, in ii' of the English and Dutch fleets in 160!) and 1670; yet (he English were the first to form treaties with the Algerines. In 1708, the dey, Ibrahim, made himseli master of (Iran; and his successor, Baba-Ali, succeeded in effecting the virtual emanci- pation of the country from the dominion of the Porte, lb' banished the Turkish pacha; craftily persuaded the Sultan of Turkey to leave the power solely in Ins hands; carried on war, and concluded peace at his own pleasure) and paid no more tribute. A. was now ruled by a military oligarchy, at the head of which stood the dey, and after him the powerful Turkish militia, recruited from Constantin- ople and Smyrna, because their cluldren by native mothers could not enjoy the same privileges as themselves. Besides these, there was a divan, or council of state, chosen from the sixty principal civil functionaries. The internal history of the country henceforth presents nothing but a Moody series of seraglio revolutions, caused by the lawless janissaries, who permitted few of the deys to die a natural death. In the year 1775, Spain under- took her last great expedition against A., with 44 ships of war, 340 transports, and 25,000 soldiers. This, however, was as singularly unfortunate as all her previous ones. Everything went wrong, and the Spaniards had to re-embark as speedily as possible, leaving behind them 1800 wounded, and all their artdlery. Thus A continued to defy the greater Christian powers, and to enforce tribute from the lesser. During the French Revolution, and the time of the Empire, its piracies were much diiniuished in consequence of the presence of powerful fleets in the Mediterranean Sea; but at the close of the war, they were recommenced as vigorously as ever. This brought down upon ' the nation of corsairs ' the vengeance of the Christian powers. The Americans took the lead, attacked the Algerine Beet off Cartha- gena, on the 20th June 1815: defeated it- a" 1 ' pelled the dey to acknowledge the inviolability of the American flag. About the same tune, the Kn lish admiral, Lord Exmouth, extorted from the other states of Barbary the recognition of an internal law respecting the treatment of prisoners. A. alone refused to consent to it; and after a delay of six weeks, the English and Dutch fleets, under the command of Lord Exmouth, fiercely bombarded the capital. The batteries of the pirates were soon silenced; and in a few hours the half of the city lav in ruins; its naval force and its magazines being all destroyed. The dey, an ignorant and obstinate barbarian, still wished to protract the tight, but lus soldiery forced him to yield, and a treaty was con- cluded (1816), by which all Christian slaves were released without ransom (the number was 1211), and a promise was given that both piracy and Christian slavery shoidd cease for ever. But nothing 13J ALGKRIA. could ka p these wretches from piiacy. As early as 1817. they ventured as Ear as the North 8ea, ana ! .,11 ,1,|], . ,1, I In II' ,',,11, -J' lint l,i 1 . » 1 1 ■ ■ i 1 1 ■ ' In :ill\ ,,i the powers who sent them tribute or pn ei was ,1 by Sweden, l», cmark, Portugal, Naples, Tuscany, and Sardinia. Nor did i avail to proti i I European vessels at all times. The Spanish. the Papal.. -in, I. in particular, the < lennan ship- ping, suffered severely; while the dey mocked by Ins ins,, lent replies the remonstrances addressed to him. Meanwhile, the internal condition oi A. continued to pi-> sen! the spectacle of a cruel pnetorian despot- Ism. In the year 1M7, the power of thi was greatly weakened by the skilful tactics of I Ali. Upon Ins death, which wi i occi ioned by the in the following year, Be is in was cho his s(,a,l. under whom the Moslem dominion was terminated by a conflict with France. The can this conflict were various. A French tradin was plundered in Bona in 1818; the dwelling oi thi French consul was attacked in 1 n-j:j ; Roman ships Bailing under the protection of the French Bag were .1 . and ™ u French ships were detained and plundered. But the chief cause of the quarrel was a dispute about the payment of a debt incurred by Hi, French government to two Jewish merchants of \l :, , . at the time of the expedition to Egypt This debt was fixed at seven millions of francs; four and a half millions were immediatelj paid; thereat was reserved until the counter-daims of certain Fn rich creditors should be decided in the French law-courts. For three years the lawsuit dragged its slew length along, till the dey became impati, i himself a principal creditor of the Jewish Ugerine house — and angrily demanded payment from the lving of France. To his letter no answer was returned. Th, feast of Beiram occurring soon after, wl was customary for the dey to receive all the consuls publicly, he asked the French i sul why Ins master had remained silent. The latter haughtily replied thit ' a king of France could not condescend to cor- respond with a dey of Algiers.' Upon this, the dey struck him on the I ■ e, and Sera Ij abused his sove- reign. In consequence of this insult, a Fn ai b qu id ron Was sent to Algiers, which received the con ul on board, and blockaded the cttj (12th June 1827) Six days after, the (ley caused the French coral- fisherii i at Bona to be destroyed. For three years the blockade was listlessly carried on ; but in April ls::o. during the ministry of Polignac, a warlike mai appeared; and a month later, a fleet sailed for the African coast, consisting of l'«i slops ,,f war. and 3S7 transports, having on board an army of 37,000 infantry, 4000 cavalry, and a proportionate number of artillery, under tie- command of Lieutenant general Bourmont The landing was effected under trifling opposition. A perpetual Bkiimishin took place previous to the bombardment of 6 which commenced on the 4th July. Next, day. a capitulation was agreed to. The Turkish soldiers hed out — for such were the conditions their families and private ons, and the French took possession of the place. Fiffe a hundred guns, 17 ships of war. and 60,000,000 Eram into their hands as spoil. The dey retired to Port Mahon, with his private property and a train oi I is persons, while the greater number of the Turkish janissaries were conveyed to Asia Minor. The conduct of the French soldiery, however, it must be confessed, tarnished the -lory of their conquest They went about plundering remorselessly the beautiful villas and gardens in the neighbour!) 1 of Algiers, as well as the ancient valuables and works of art ; thus exciting a universal spirit of ity in the natives, who kept up an incessant guerilla warfare outside the capital. After the revolution of July, Mai hal Bourmont and I -i .i 1 < lausel was appointed his or. The latter, who was a prompt and ; man, set about subduing the country, and ii government Ei had en, nutted a great mistake in driving out the Turks, who might have 1» i a aa Eullj • mpl in subordinate functions ei authority. Aftei banishment, the ECabylea and Bed d b Ives emancipated from all . and stun, dated by intense fanaticism against the new conquerors, rose in rebellion, or rather commi draggles, winch obstructed the colonisation of i. for many years, and which cannot i i,, have altogether ceasi d i ren yi t. The ii, ,n of French laws .and institutions made not in the wisest spirit, most of the old Turkish regulations being summarily abrogated. :■.. des this, the natives were wounded in their most susceptible point Their mosques and bur; grounds were frequently desecrated and destroyed; and Clausel, whose vigour was more remark- able than his justice <,r prudence, confiscated in direct contradiction to the very WO capitulation— all the immovable property ol the and other exiled Turks, and of the town- ships, besides various religious institutions. The effect of these political crimes was instant The entire | determined obstinately to n some even of the provincial rulers who had pre- w,,u lv submitted, now appeared in arm l was compelled to undertake a mil expedition against the refractory beys; but his uncertain successes only inflamed the hatred and tisrn of the Kabyles and Arabs, who opposed him energetically. A young emir at last appi on the scene, Abd-el-Kader (q.v.), who boos b came the rallying-point of the Jad ['holj winch tin- Marabouts had begun to preach, I these circumstances, it becami impossible for< llausel to carry out his scheme oi colon] ation, and only a reckless speculation in land took place, was in every way injurious. To stiei position, the French general, whose arm\ was now , reduced, made a treaty with the B Tunis, but the home-governmeni it. he was recalled in consequence, lb General Berthezene, having achieved nothing but, defeat and disgrace in spite of his cruelties, was 1,., lily recalled, and Lieutenant-general tin' Duke of Bovigo appointed to th,. command. Hi on the 25th ei li, ci ml,, r 1831, .in,! , stablishea a most Bevere and relentless system. lie scrupled not to perpetrate the most arbitral j cruelties, and treacheries. His two mOBt remarkable acta, ns were, first, the complete annihilation of the Arab tribe FJ-Uffia, when even old men, women, and children were massacred during the night, on account of a robbery committed by some of the cabers of the tribe ; second, the execution of two \i 'I' chiefs who were hostile to him, and whom he had treacherously allured into the city by the written promise of a safe-conduct. Such monstrous proceedings fired the entire nation. The most il tribes tlew to arms, and the French were attacked on all sides. The Emperor of Marocco, who secretly fomented the strife, and even m ,ii tated the conquest of Oran, assisted the tierce and impetuous Abd-el-Kader in hi The health of the duke now declined. He returned in March 1833, and the administration of affairs was provisionally intrusted to General Avizard. who -amed some credit by establishing the Burma AraJbe. After the death of the duke, & Voirol, a man exactly the reverse of his | ccssor, was made interim commander-in-chief. His ALGERIA. efforts were more directed to promote the material rte of the colony, than to extend the power of Prance He met with little opposition in the province of Algiers, and in the eastern districts; trat, "ii tli'- other hand, the war raged fiercely in the we i, where Abd-el-Kader had either gained over or subdued all thr tribes between Mascara and i I At 1' ngth a treaty was effected with him, in which he pledged himself to make peace, and to deliver up all his prisoners. In return, he received a monopoly corn-trade, ami the right to buy arms and ammunition in 1 the French ports. Towards the end of 1834, the French government, having resolved to retain permanent possession of the colony, organised its administration anew, placing the supreme power, both civil and military, in the hands 01 I, who received his orders from the minister of war. General Drouet d'Erlon was the first appointed to this high dignity. (Tnder him there were a commander of the troops, a commander of 1 be naval force, a military intendant, a civil intend- ■ nit, and a director of finance. The administration is also regulated by the erection of many ils. Frenchmen and foreigners were to he I to French laws, hut the natives to their own. Moreover, the ,,ld Algerine courts of justice still to he kept up. D'Erlon apparently desired, at first, to occupy himself with the internal administration of the regency, and, in truth, ed much credit for the introduction of French dpal institutions, and the French system of education and police arrangements; bnt a disgrace- ful defeat suffered by the French army at Makta, on an expedition against Abd-el-Kader, who had ly broken the treat}', caused the recall both of the officer in command and of D'Erlon himself. Clansel was now sent back to A. with the title of marshal. He arrived on the 10th of August 183o, his first anxiety being to wipe away the disgrace of the defeat at Makta. About three months after, he marched out at the head of 11,000 men, to attack Mascara, the centre of Abd-el-Kader' s power: he had to fight many petty battles on his way. but was always successful On reaching Ma ira, he resolved to set it on fire, winch he did on the Sth December, and then commenced his retreat, in which his army suffered severely from bad weather, and from perpetual harassments by the enemy. Abd-el-Kader was soon more powerful than ever, and General Bugeaud had to be sent out from France with reinforcements; but nothing came of this save a few fruitless victories over Abd-el-Kader, which did the latter no real harm. Bugeaud was at length compelled to make peace on the 30th May ls:;7. Abd-el-Kader recognised the sovereignty of France over the regency: he I, in return, the government of the provinces of Oran, Titeri, and Algiers, with the exception of the cities of (Iran, Arzeu, Masagran, Mostaganem, Algiers, Blidah and Koleah, Sane! (or the 'sea- . and the plain of Metidja. In exchange for the city of Tlemzen, he delivered to the French army 60,000 sacks of corn, and 6000 oxen: he was e permitted to buy anus and ammunition in France. In February 1837, Marshal Clause] was recalled, and Lieutenant-general Pamremont suc- ceeded him. The condition of the colony was at this moment desperate, for the disgraces which followed the rash an. I even reckless measures of Clausel had everywhere' lowered the pnstigi Ol the French army. The duty of the new governor- general was clear, but difficult : he had to wipe out the stain which attached to the honour of his Soldiery, and to re-create the conviction of their Superiority. Tie first attacked the Kahyles of the province of Algiers, and chastised them with considerable severity, and then commenced his great work of taking Constantine, from which his predecessor had been compi ininiously to rtire. In the month with an army of 12,000 disciplined troops, besides Zuam hght infantry raised among the natives), .Sato WAfrique (convict-battalions at first), the TiraU- h UTS ". and the well as the Spahis (a cavalry corps composed of native soldiers commanded by French oC Damremont march d to I. of ( tons! n and in spite of fearfid weathi led in storming the city on the 13th. This victory laid the foundation for the entire subjugation of the province of Constantine, which was completed in the course of the two follow itnout any i il'ort. On December 1, 1837, General Vail pointed governor-general in the stead of Damremont, who had fallen at the storming of Constantine. He, like the others, misunderstood the character of Abd-el-Kader when he considered it possible for him to remain quiet. New treat which only delayed hostilities. Meanwhile, the work of colonisation went on in spite of numerous obstacles. The province of Constantine was much improved by the building of towns and the making of roads ; but suddenly, in October 1830, Abd-el- Kader, whose power had now become formidable to an unprecedented extent, violated the treaty on an insignificant pretext, and fell upon the unprepared French with an overwhelming force. The Em settlements in the open plain were attacked and laid waste, bodies of French troops were -uqirised on their march and cut to pieces, small outposts and encampments were taken in a moment, and by the "24th of November, the dominion of the French was confined to the fortified cities and camps. Even the settlements in the plain of Metidja were lost Forty thousand Arabs swept over it, and threatened Algiers itself. This state of things demanded ener- getic measures. The spring campaign was vigorously opened on both sides: everywhere the French gained splendid successes ; while the heroic defence of the fort of Masagran, near Mostaganem (garrisoned by only 123 men), against from 12,000 to 15,000 Arabs, who stormed it incessantly, and with the utmost fury, for three days, raised the /»■<.-■'/ ■ of the invaders higher than ever. Still, however, nothing was really accomplished. After rep bloody defeats, the native tribes again rushed to arms, swept the plains, and rendered hie insecure at the very gates of Algiers. The only tiling of any practical importance which took place during the whole year, was the beginning of the eiivumvallation by which the fertde plain of Metidja was to be secured against the hostile Incursion Marshal Valee was now recalled, and Lieutenant- general Bugeaud appointed his The latter arrived at Algiers on February 22, 1841, and adopted a new system, which was completely suc- cessful. A brave, inexorable, and unscrupulous man, he resolved to employ any and every means for the attainment of his purpose. He wearied out the enemy by incessant ro - (predatory excui against individual tribes, corrupted them (not a difficult thing to do) by all the arts of brib- ery, and on special occasions undertook great expeditions to annihilate the regular power of U "1 el-Kader, whose strong defensive positions he destroyed, and whose authority he spared no pains to undermine. The French army wa SO.0OO or 100,000 men. Its operations were c on from three principal points. Victory fol Bugeaud wherever he went. He relieved and victualled hard-pressed garrisons; intimidated the HI ALGERIA. surrounding country ; penetrated to Tekedcmpt — the very stronghold i>f Abd-el-Kader himself ho bud in ashes; marched thence to Mascara, which was also taken; and on all sides received the iion of the terrified Arabs. Even the I period of the summer was made 086 of. Bi I and Beduced fmm thi ir tho i Arabs who were under the sway of Abd-el I The autumn campaign was for the tun - the last i gallant emir, was utterly destroyed, and now almost the entire country waa subdued. Abd-el-Kader ti Ifarocco, where he raised a new army, for his old one had been completely annihilated. He was, however, defeated by Genera] Bedeau, and again compelled to retreat into Marocco, from which, however, he issued a second time, in the summer of 1842, and contrived to maintain a Here,- hut desultory warfare, for two or three years, aided by the Saltan of -Marocco. At last, however, deserted by most of his followers, pursued by his late ally, and, in fact, hemmed in on all sides, he was forced to surrender to General Lamoriciere, at tho close of December 1847. See Aed-KL-KadER. The revolution of February 1848, somewhat dis- turbed the progress of conqui I and subjugation in A. That superb race of mountaineers, the Kabyles. of thirty members. Tn 1863, the Emperor Napoleon announced that he was willing to give the colony a new constitution, with a Chamber of I tiers f.ir provincial affairs : he also addressed a letter to the governor-general, in which he explained that A. was no colony in the strict sense Of the word, but an Arabian kingdom ; and that the nath : •■ li.-ht t" protection as the colonists. In 1864, however, strife again arose between the colo- nists and the Arabs ; and it was only . nents, during the months of April and May, tiiit peace was restored by the submission of the conquered tribes. Pelisaier having died in May I sill. Marshal MacMahon was appointed to succeed him. In the following year the emperor himself made a journey to A., and, on M led a mation, in \\ Inch, although explain! Arabs that A. must continue to be united to France, he promised to maintain their nationality ; and at the same time gave them assurance that they should always remain in Undisturbed possession of their territories. Yet these and other measures for con- ciliating the Arabs were all in vain; for, shortly after the emperor's return to Franoe, insurrections broke out in the province of Oran and Si-Hamed, a native chief, with 12,000 horsemen at his command, began to harrass those tribes which descendants of the ancient Numidians, and possessed remained in submission, until he was routed by of the same fiery and dauntless spirit, broke out into ' a new insurrection, which, however, was speedily quelled. The National Assembly now offered to the European population of A. to incorporate the country with the republic of France, and to grant it ail the accompanying political privileges of a French province ; but intelligent men of all parties acknow- ledged the uselessness and danger of this stej ; was, therefore, simply declared to be a permanent possession of the republic. Four deputies from the colony were permitted to take a part in all d sions in the National Assembly on Algerian affairs. Meanwhile, the work of conquest, colonisation, and, ill some respects, civilisation went on. The French troops penetrated into the far south, almost to the borders of .Sahara, sternly reducing ace the desert tribes, who manifested a not unnatural antipathy to these inroads, and in sonic eases fiercely resisted the invaders. Various tribes of the Kabyles, I >. opposed every attempt at organised taxation, and the imposition of civilised discipline ; the result of which patriotic obstinacy was, a new campaign against them by the French general, Bugia. Fortune again declared for the invaders ; but the most alarming insurrection was that excited by the ( Iherif Bou-zian, who fled for freedom to Zaatcha in the oases. The French pursued him thither ; but were beaten, and had to retreat. Some months after, they returned, largely reinforced, and in spite of the broad belt of palm-trees which hindered operations, and the wild and strenuous heroism of the besieged, the place was stormed and destroyed. The defenders all perished. In 1S53— 1S54, and again in 1S">G— 1S57, expedi- tions were organised against the Kabyles ; though not altogether with the will of the colonists, who could not but recognise the great intelligence and industry displayed by that highland race. The was sanguinary and barbarous on both 1 mt the French at last subdued their enemies. For two years (185S— 1860) the military government of A. was superseded by the institution of a special ministerial department for A. and the col which was first of all intrusted to Prince Nap In December 1860, however, a military govern- ment was re-instituted, and Marshal Pi-Ussier made Governor-general, with a Vice-governor under him, Colonel Colomb of Gervville, and forced to i into Sahara : after which, in the beginning of Isn7, two expeditions, led by Colomb and Bonis, succeeded in reducing to submission the other tribes which had revolted. In 1807 and 1S08, a severe and general famine checked the military enterpi of the Arabs ; and there was peace till 1870, when, the Franco-Prussian war having begun, the em] found it necessary to withdraw to Europe the greater part of the forces in Africa. MacMakon's was then taken by General Durieu, as interim governor-general ; and the natives be entertain hopes of freeing themselves from the yoke of France. Movements were begun in the provinces of Constantine and Oran, which it required all Gen- eral Durieu's vigilance and activity to hold in check. After this, again, some disorder arose among the colonists themselves, who strongly desir> > t ii hi of the military government — a change which the new republican government at Paris soon grati- fied them by effecting. To Durieu's place was appointed a civil governor, and under him pn h of the three provinces. A council was formed — composed of the prefects, archbishop, com- mander of the army, and other members appoint 1 by the French government —with which, in all important cases, the governor has to take counsel. The present (1873) governor is Vice-admiral J. do ! Ion, appointed August 1871. The French troops still stationed in A. consist of one 'corps d'armee,' numbering 60,000. It is said that the possession of A. has cost France the lives of, 150,000 men, besides £120,000,000 in money. The revenue of A. is derived ehiclly from indirect I licenses, and customs duties on imports. In 1870, it amounted to 4. r i..'!lj0.8.VJ francs, and the expendi- ture to 51,762,316 francs. The cost of maintaining the army, however, the outlay for public works, and other large sums disbursed — amounting in 1873 to 24,49G, 109 francs— are not included in the ex p ture, being provided out of the French budget. ' Since the subjugation of A., the French have con- ferred various benefits on the colonists and native tribes, not the least important of which has been the ..f Artesian wells (q. v.). In May 1856, a 'boring' was commenced in an oasis of the Sahara or desert of the province of Constantine. A civil a Director-general for Civil Affairs, and a Council | engineer, a sergeant of Spahis, and a detachment of ALGHERO— ALGOA BAY. soldiers of the Foreign Legion, succeeded in bringing to light a splendid fountain or river, yielding not leas than 4010 quarts of water per minute. The work was considered a miracle. From all quarters the Arabs flocked to behold and enjoy it. The native priests blessed it, naming it the ' Fountain of Peace.' Another well was termed the ' Fountain of Benediction.' In the oasis of Sidi-ltached, unpro- ductive for want of water, a well was dun, and at a depth of 54 metres, yielded 4300 quarts per minute. It is known as the 'Fountain of Gratitude,' and the enthusiasm excited at its opening was boundless. The idea of providing such wells has rightly been considered 'a stroke of strong political wisdom.' The government has done service to the colonists by encouraging the formation of banking-companies, while the former is almost wholly Moorish both in its edilices and inhabitants. The great centre of bustle and activity in A. is the Place Eoyale— a large oblong apace in the centre of the town, planted with orange and lime trees, and surrounded by houses in the European style. Sere may be found as motley a crowd as anywhere in the world, denizens of all nations— Arabs, Moors, Jews, French, Spaniards, Maltose, Germans, Italians, &c. The city is inter- sected by two large parallel streets, Bab-el-Ouad and Bab-azoun, running north and south for more than half a mile. They are flanked by colonnades, but are very narrow, and therefore inconvenient for traffic ; as promenades, however, nothing could be more agreeable. In 1833, A had upwards of 10 mosques and marabouts. The mosque - &.c. In July 1800, arrangements were made with divided into two classes — the djamas, or principal the state, and a great company formed, to construct! mosques, and the mesjids, or inferior mosques. The railways throughout the colony : difficulties occurred, I marabouts are the tombs and sanctuaries of saints. however, and, of all the projected lines, that from the sea to Constantine was the only one approaching completion by the beginning of 1870. A telegraph cable was laid in 1S70 between Bona and Mar- . ill". It would be too much to affirm that the colonisa- tion of A. has advanced rapidly. The French government has acted neither very promptly nor VI ry liberally towards settlers; and the number of formalities which require to be gone through before one can properly secure the land which he nas pur- chased, often disgusts the poor farmer. However, great efforts have been made for the improvement of agriculture : altogether, 5,139,136 acres are stated as being under cultivation; 413,112 acres being cultivated by Europeans. The total exports of A amounted in 1870 to A'4,07S,250 ; the imports to £6,907,628. Large quantities of 'esparto' for mak ing paper are exported to Great Britain. A number of Mohammedan schools for instruction in French and Arabic have been established, and are regularly attended by pupils of both sexes, who learn to read and write fluently in the French language, and to keep accounts. In Algiers itself there are several of these schools where the female children are taught the art of sewing. Thus, although progress is slower than might have been anticipated, it is real, and its pace accelerating. When fierce memories have been softened by time, and such atrocities as those of Dahra (q. v.) have been forgotten in the substan- tial blessings which an enlightened civilisation can- net fail to bestow, the presence of the French in A. will cease to be deplored by the natives. ALGHERO, or ALGHEBX a seaport on the west coast of the Island of Sardinia, lfi miles S.W. from Sassari. It is well defended towards the sea, being built on a rocky point, and surrounded by thick Walla, but is commanded by some lulls which over- hang the town. A. 1ms acsthi dial, Beveralcom a college, and public schools. It exports wine, tobacco, anchovies, skins, coral, bones, to. It was a favourite residence of Charles V., in whose 1 ■d to Spain. Pop., 8000. ALGIERS (Arabic, Aljezira. the island), the capital of Algeria, was built about 935 a.d. by an Arab chief. It rises from the sea-shore up" the sides of a precipitous hill in the form of an equi- lateral triangle. The apex is formed by the Casbah, the ancient fortress of the deys, which is 500 feet above the sea-level, and commands the whole town. The base is a mile in length. The present eit j be regarded as divided into two parts: own; and the new, or low town. With the exception of some mosques, the latter consists of wharfs, warehouses, government houses, squares, and streets, principally built and inhabited 1 .y the French ; Everywhere A. wears the aspect of a rising colonial city. Other towns in the province still retain their oriental character, with the exception of a few military buildings ; but the new town of A might deceive the traveller into the belief that he i in Europe, were it not for the throng of s- faces he meets. The streets are regular, spacious, and elegant; some of them as handsome as the Parisian Boulevards, and adorned with arcades. The shops, too, are occasionally very good. The houses are in some instances five stories high, which, t ' it gives a massive and imposing appearance to the city, is yet a very perilous innovation in a which has suffered dreadfully from earthquakes. But perhaps greater interest attaches to the old Moorish town, which is connected with the new by a steep, narrow, jagged-looking street called the Casbah, leading down from the fortress of the deys. The houses are square, substantial, flat-roofed ; rise irregularly one over the other; and have no dov.-s, but only peep-holes, which are intended to exclude impertinent eyes, and are therefore foi with iron gratings instead of glass, so that the houses have a very prison-like appearance. Although the streets at first contrast unfavourably with those of Europe, on account of their narrowness, the coolness which this secures soon reconciles the traveller to other inconveniences. The inhabitants have recourse to their flat roofs or terraces in the evening, fc the dehcious sea-breeze. The French have introduced many useful reforms. There are conduits in part of the city, public baths, coffee-houses, 1 omnibuses, tec. The markets are held in the & de Chartres. Malum, and d'Isly. Horse-racing is the great amusement. The Arabs are passionately fond of it. The French have also unproved, a: expense and labour, the port, which was in carious condition. The town has supreme courts of justice, a chamber and tribunal of conm a college and schools, a Catholic cathedral and severed churches, a French Protestant church, a synagogue, a bazaar for the exhibition of i. industry, tin aires, and 1 « A., which had 1 verned by a long succession of Turkish deys, fell into the hinds of the French in 1830 [see Alosbia), who swept away evety trace of the ferocious despotism that had prevailed, The Turks withdrew in great numbers to Tunis and Alexandria ; a small remnant, however is still left. Pop. in 1866, 52,614, of whom about 34,000 were Europeans. ALGO'A BAY, an extensive inlet at the east ex- tremity of the south coast of Africa, being inter- by the parallel of Cape Town, from which it is dis- tant about 8 degrees of longitude. t»m is sheltered, excepting on the south-east, the hoi ground being excellent. It receives two livei , ALGONQUINS— All PASIIA. Sunday and t ? j . - Baaaher. At the month of the a Port EHizabi th. \. B. La ti by Ear the most flourishing action my; and it will ever !«• locally menu as tli- l.i ii. linu'- 1 'l.n'i- of about 40(10 sunk in 1 S'.'O, the lirst IJritisli emigration to this once I'm. I p.. ... ssinn. Si then, the had.- of thi rapidly increased. See ifurther, Cap] JIoi-i:. AXGO'NQTJINS. The A. formed the mosl pro- minent of the tin - that the French found in the great basin of the St L.iwrei Th. v were then the lords not merely of the best part of i ! i t:i. Ihi: of much adjacenl ten boi the north and west At the present day. the A., as well as the Hurons and the Iroqn i i rist, a1 least within pale of settlement, only as the shadow of a mighty name, being chiefly confined to several miserabl \ lis a, with hardly anything of civilisa- tion but its individual helplessness. This deplorable result, from whatever causes it may have arisen, is certaii ■■■ imputed either to oppre aion or to indifference on the pan of the French, who, polit- ically, religiously, and socially, have always treated the red man with consideration and humanity. On this interesting subject, see further under the general head of Ameeic \. A'LGTJACIIi, or LLGUAZIL (derived from the Arabic WasU, i.e., the 'power' derived from the bang), is the general name in Spain of the officers ted with the execution of justice. There are 'AJguaciles mayores,' who either inherit the office justice in a town as a hereditary right belonging to their fam lii , i • are chosen to the by the municipality ; formerly, the name was also given to the officers that executed the sentences or orders of tribunals, such as the tribunal of the Inquisition, and of the various orders of knights. But usually, under the name of V. is under, t I the ' Alguaciles menores,' or 'ordinarios,' that is to say, the attendants or officers of the courts of in tice, d'armes, bailiffs -in short, all the u Jul and poln . ALHA'GI. Sec .Manna. ALHA'MKKA is the name given to the fortress which forms a sort of acropolis or citadel to the city Entrance to the Court of the Lions — Alhainbra. of Granada, and in which stood the palace of the anei.nt Moorish kings of Granada. The name is a corruption of the Arabic Kul-'at al ltamra, 'the lit tie.' It is surrounded by a strong wall, i than a mile in circuit, and studded with towers. The towers on the north wall, which is defended by nature, were used 1 with the palace. One of them I in the famous Hall of /!■ .l»l.i..,o./..«. The n mains of the Me.. , palace are called by the Spaniards the ( 'asa Ileal. i.. mi by Hum lalimar. and continued by his 1248 1348). The portions still stand- • ranged round two oblo com i .-, one calli .1 the Court of tlie Fish-pond, the other the Court of Tin J nsist ..1 porticos, pill. ii. .1 halls, cool chambers, small gardens, fountain mo uc pavements, &c. The lightness and si I the columt i i hi and the richness ,,f th na- ni. nt 1 1 m ,n, are unsurpassed. The colouring is but little altered by time. The most character be parts of the i asa ileal have 1 n reproduced in the ' Alhambra Court' of the Crystal Palace at Syden- ham. A great part of the ancient palace was removed to make way for the palace begun by( lharles \ . I. n 'I I I ..iej.il \ p.nl of the M ash palace was inhabited ; but it, is kept in a state of preservation as a work of art, and as a .al of the tragic legend of the Al.. ac n (q.v.). ALI PASHA, one of the most ferocious and unscrupulous men that even the east lias produced, was descended, from an Albanian pasha, who perished at the siege of Corfu in 171b. He was born at Tepcliu, a small place at the foot of the Klissoura Mountains, in Albania, in 1741. His tier was a vindictive and merciless woman, who never hesitated to employ the most revolting means of accomplishing her purposes. Saving lost his father, a comparatively quiet and enlightened man, his education necessarily devolved upon her; and she did not fail to inspire him with the same remorseless sentiments that animated herself. His youth was passed in extreme peril and hardship, for the neighbouring pashas • bining, had robbed his father of nearly all his pos- sessions, in the effort to recover which, young Ah was repeatedly defeated, and at last had to betake him- self to the mountains, and even CO pledge Ins sword to save himself from dying of hunger. These calamities were not calculated to soften the native ferocity of his disposition ; they only nurtured a mingled boldness and cunning, which afterwards developed itself in a variety of qualities, such as subtlety, dissimulation, foresight, treachery, vigour, and diabolical cruelty. It is said that the change in his fortune arose from his having accidentally dis- covered a chest of gold, with which he raised an army of 2000 men, gained his lirst victory, and entered Tepelen in triumph. < hi the very day of his return, he murdered his brother, and then imprisoned his mother in the harem on the charge of poisoning him, where she soon after died. He next reconciled himself to the L'orte by helping to subdue the rebel, lions Vizier of Scutari; and thus acquired not only the lands that had been WTested from his father, but likewise several Greek cities. He also attacked and slew (with the permission of the sultan) Selim, Pasha of Delvino, and, as a reward, was appointed lieu- tenant to the new Pasha of Derwend ; but instead of attending to the security of the high roads (which was his office), he rendered them more insecure than ever, by participating in the plunder which the Hephtis (robbers) were allowed to make. The result was, his deposition by the Porte; but he speedily purchased back its favour, for lie was a master-hand at bribery. Shortly after this, he acquired a high reputation as a soldier, and did such good service to the Turks in their Austro- Russian war of 17S7, that he was named Pasha of Trikala in Thessaly ; at the same time he seized Janina or Joannina, of which he AIJBATJD- ALIEN. got himself appointed pasha by the instrumentality of terror, a forged iirman, and brihery. It must be admitted that, as a ruler, he now displayed many excellent qualities. Jle swept his old friends, the robbers, from the mountain-roads, incorporated them into military troops, quelled the wretched I that prevailed, and everywhere introduced order in the place of anarchy, by the vigour and vigilance of his administration. A short time after this, he entered into an alliance wiili Napoleon Bonaparte, who sent him engineers. When Bonaparte was defeated in Kgypfc -Mi, in 1798, took the places in Albania possessed by the French. After a three years' war, he snlidued the Snliotos, for which the Porte promoted him to he governor of Romania. About this time, he revenged upon the inhabitants of I iardiki an injury done to his mother forty years before, by the murder of 73!) male descendants of the original offenders, who them- s 'l\ eS were all dead. In the' interior of his dominions, Ali maintained the strictest order and justice. Security and peace reigned, high loads were constructed, and industry llonrished, so that the European travellers, with whom he willingly held intercourse, considered him aai active and intelligent governor. From the year 1807, when he once more entiled into an alliance with Napoleon, tin- dependence of Ali on the Porte was merely nominal. Saving failed, however, in his principal object, which was to obtain, at the peace of Tilsit, through the influence of Napoleon, Parga, on the coast of Albania, and the [onian Islands, he now entered into an alliance with the English, to whom he made many concessions. In return for these, they granted Parga, nominally to the sultan, hut really to Ah. As he now considered his power to be securely established, he caused the commanders of the Greek Arinatoles (or Greek militia), who had hithei-to given him assistance, to be privately assassinated one by one, while at the same time he put to death the assassins, to save himself from the suspicion of having been their instigator. The Porte at length determined to put an end to the power of this daring rebel; and in 1820, Sultan .Mahinoud sentenced him to lie deposed. Ali resisted for a time several pashas that were sent against him; hut at last surrendered, on the security of an oatli that his life and property would he granted him. RegardleBS of this, he was put to death, February 5, 1822. Ali possessed, indisputably, great natural gifts; hut along with them, a character of the worst description. He never scrupled t :m\ means, provided it speedily secured his end. Yet we cau hardly help aclmiring the singular talent which he invariably displayed. like many other half-civilised monarchs and cni fs who have lived within the sphere of European influ- ence, he was keenly alive to whatever transpired ai g the powers of Christendom. Though utterly illiterate himself, he had all the foreign journals translated and read to him. He watched every political change, as if conscious that the interest i of his little region depended for their future prosperity on the west, and not on the cast; and made friendly advances to both the French and the English, nising, with a sagacity remarkable in a bar- barian, that the practical dominion of the world had 1 from the Crescent to the Cross. ALIBATTI), Loi is, notorious for his a I to murder King Louis-Philippe, was, at, the Revo- lution of July, quarter-master in the loth regiment of the line. Having been degraded subsequently for an accidental brawl in tic streets of Strasbourg, he demanded his discharge in 1834, and went to live at Perpignan, and then at Barcelona, where, having become a fanatical republican, he returned to Paris, with the determination to murder the kiug. A 10 weariness of life had also seized him, so great, that he thought of suicide. It was on the 25th of June 1836, al tic moment that the king, when driving through the gate of tic TuilerieS, bowed to the national guard as they presented anus, that A. fired the well-aimed hall, which passed close by the king's head. Being i ;." seized, he regretted notion _' hut tie- failure of his attempt. Alter a short trial, he was sentenced to death, and was guillotined on the 1 1 til of .Inly. ALI-BEN -ABI-TALEB, the. first convert to Mohammedanism, and fourth calif, was the bravest and most faithful follower of the Prophet, whose daughter, Fatima, he married. Being made calif in tic place of the murdered Othman, he was \ cms over the rebels in ninety er He took prisoner Aysha, the young widow of Mohammed, and his greatest enemy, in the battle of the < | bo called because Aysha appeared in tic field riding on a camel. Ali was murdered by a fanatic in the year CCO. He was buried near Kufa, where a monument was afterwards erectcil . I,,m, to which his votaries still go on pilgrimage, and which caused the building of the city Medjed Ali. The religious sect formed by the followers of Ali, called Shiites (q. v.), has spi nsively under that name in Persia and Tatary. The descendants of Ali and Fatima, called the Fatimites (q. v.), although much persecuted by the Ommaiades, have neverthi ruled on the hanks of the ^iile and of the Tagus, in West Africa and in .Syria. The In -t i ditioD of the Proverbs or Maxims ascribed to Ali has been pub- lished ly Fleischer (Ali's Hundred Proverbs, A and Pervitin, I.eip. 1S37) ; Ali's Jiii-mi, the most complete collection of his lyrical poems, mostly On religious subjects, appeared lately at Bulek, near Cairo. A'LIBI, Lat., signifying ' elsewhere.' This is a defi nee resorted to in criminal prosecutions, when the party accused, in order to prove that he could not have committed the crime with which he is charged, tenders evidence to the effect that he was in a dif- ferent place at the time the offence was committed. When true, there can be no better proof of innocence; but as offering the readiest and most obvious oppor- tunity for false evidence, it is always regarded suspicion. In the case of crimes the place of commit- ting which is immaterial — as, for example, the act of fabricating the plates, or of throwing oft the spurious notes, iu a case of forgery — a proof of A. is of no avail. ALICA'XTE, chief town of a province of the same name in Spain. Tin." province, formed el pails of tic old king. hiins of Valencia and Muroia, contains (18G7) 42G.C56 inhabitants. The town, one of the most considerable seaports of Spain, has 31,500 inha- bitants, and is tic staple place tor the produi Valencia, especially soda, cotton and linen fabrics, rapes, corn, oil, silk, and the wine ol I hbour- ing district, known as A. or vino (into, on account of i ink colour. A good deal of this rough, and at the same time sweet, wine is used to doctoi clarets for tic British market. In 1331 the town was besieged by the Moors ; and again by the French under Asfeld in 1709, when the English commandant of tin' citadel, Colonel Richards, with all Ins staff, perished hy the i of a mine. ALIEN (Lat. alienus, belonging to another, foreign). The citizen of one state, when resident in another, unless natural B u.isatiox), is an alien. The condition of an alien does not necessarily result from foreign birth, for the son of a natural-bom or naturalised Englishman is not an alien, wherever he may he hoi a M i,,,,. II. & 21, s. 1). This privilege even extends to the e US ALIGNMENT— ALIM FATA I: V < ' A XA I, t iciii on the father's side; and thus a man whose paternal grandfather was an Englishman, is an Englishman himself, unless either his father or grandfather be liable to the p< aaltiee of felony, 1i;i.m been attainted of treason, or be serving in the army of a prince at war with England at the of his birth (13 Geo. III. c 21, b. 1). Neither is this privilcgo affected by the fact that the mothers of such pei ion wi re foreigners. The children of aliens burn in England, except in the case of a ! invasion, are natural-born subjects ; bnt the children of Englishwomen by aliens are al born within the British dominions. l!y 7 and 8 Vict. c. C6, s. 16, alien women married to natural-born subjects are naturalised. The allegiance due by an alienor stranger to the prince in minions he reside", is usually called local or temporal . It differs from natural allegiance chiefly in this, that whereas natural allegiance is perpetual, and unaffected by change of residence, local alle- giance ceases when the stranger transfers himself to another Ungflnm See A FIANCE. In 1792 and 1793, in consequence of the influx of foreigners i used by the French Revolution, several :• parliament were p ed, which are Known by the name of the Alien Acts. The object of these acts was expressly to confer on the crown the power of banishing aliens from the realm; a power which there is reason to think was included in the general prerogative which the crown possesses of declaring war against the whole or any portion of the inhabi- tants of a foreign state. They were superseded by the Peace Alien Act (G Will. IV. e. 11, 1836). CI i ling the power of aliens to hold property, were introduced by 7 and S Vict, c 66, and 10 and II Vict. c. S.'l; and the whole legislation regarding aliens was revised and placed on its present looting by the Naturalisation Act of 12th .May 1870 (33 Viet. c. 14). By this act both real and' personal property of every description may now be acquired, held, and disposed of, by an alien, in the same manner, in all respects, as By a natural- born British subject; and a title to real and personal property of every description may be derived from an alien, in the sane' manner, in all respects, as from a British subject. An alien is not qualified for any office or municipal, parliamentary, or other franchise, unless naturalised in accordance with the provisions of the act. The act does not affect any interest arising in pursuance of any disposition made before the passing of the act, or in pursuance of any devolution by law on the death of any person dying before the passing of the net. Where a convention has been entered into with a foreign state to the etl'cct that the subjects, or citizens, of that state, who have been naturalised as British subjects, may divest themselves of such status, any person, originally a citizen of the state with which the convention exists, may make a declaration of alienage, and on so doing he I hall lie regarded as an alien and subject of the state to which he originally belonged. Even a British-born subject may now cease to bo such, provided that, at the time of his birth, he was, and still continues to be, the subject of another state, by making a declaration of alienage. The privilege of aliens of being tried by a jury dc medktate lingual is abolished, and it is provided that henceforth they shall be tried in the same manner as natural-bora subjects. On the subject of expatriation, it is enacted, that any British subject who has at any tune before, or may at any time after the passing of this act, when in a foreign state and not under any disability, voluntarily become naturalised in such state, shall thenceforth cease to be a British subject In the case of a British subject who, before the passing of the act, HO a naturalised in a foreign state, desiring to retain his British nationality, he may do BO by making a declaration and tal.iu ; the oath of sis Whilst, resident within the limits of the i..>. n tate, however, he shall not be deemed e subject unless hehascea ed to be a subject of that state. On naturalisation .nil the n , British nationality, Bee N 4 n n lusatiow, By the above provi ions it will he seen, that in o far as Great Britain is concerned, the injustice lis; been obviated of a man who had been nature in state being still held to bis citizenship in another, and thus exposed, in the event of war, to the guilt of treason if he fool, part on either side. The right of merchants to reside in England, and Bg is, money, and other personal effects, is recognised by Magna Charts (Art. -lb). Si a i i I '.i i.i,. ALI'GNMENT, a term used in military tactic ■ equivalent to 'in line.' Thus, the A. of a battalion ii effected when the men are drawn up in line; the .\. of a camp is a rectilinear arrangement of the tents, according to some prearranged plan. A'LIMEXT(l.at. alimentum), that which feeds or es. A. is not known as a technical term in the law of England. In the law of France and in that of Scotland, it has retained the meaning which ii possessed in tiie Ken em law [Dig. 34, 1. 6), and signifies the food, dwelling, clothing, and other .! lo the support of life, or such niouey as may be judicially demanded in lieu of them. In this sense, it is applied in Scotland to the allowance granted to a wife des rted by her hus- 1m nd, or whilst an action of divorce is in dependent a, i- it be at his instance or at hers, to a paupi c parish, to a prisoner for debt by his creditors, and the like. Alimentary allowances, being generally barely sufficient for the support of the lit, and made to him in consequence of his being in want of such support, are not att ■■', ' J,. I. lent (q. v.). ALIME'NTAET f'AXA'b, in Mammalia, is that apparatus through which the food paS ' afl ' ei' Is It is lined by a I membrane, whii b exti I i I from the lips to . I modifi id in ■ i -a region. Si e Mucous Membrane. The A. C. n ally begins al in. bach of the mouth, in the lower part of the bag called the pharynx, which communieates with the above, and the gullet or oesophagus below, and also with the mouth and the larynx. The pharynx i; surrounded by three muscles, the con- strictors, which grasp the f 1, and force it into tin' next portion of the A. ( '., the (esophagus. This is a tulie composed of an outer layer of longitudinal muscular fibres, and an inner of circular, > i down to, and spread out upon the stomach. ' i, by a series of peristaltic contractions, I he morsel of food along into the stomach. In vomiting, there is a reversal of these actions, which i animals can accomplish at will. The oesophagus passes through an opening in the ud joins the stomach, which is a pouch curved with the concavity upwards, expanded into a ad ile. sac on the left side (the cardiac extremity), and gradually narrowed to the right or pyloric end. data of muscular fibres continuous witli the' of the oesophagus, which become thicker towards, the pylorus. Its external surfaces are covered by peri- toneum, and it is lined by a thick soft mucous membrane, which, when the stomach is empty, lies in folds. Between the muscular and mucous layers is a fibrous layer, in which the blood-vessels lie before they pass into the mucous layer. See STOMACH. At its pyloric or left extremity the ALIMONY— ALISON. stomach communicates with the 6inall intestine, which is about 21) feet in length, becoming gradually narrower towards its lower end, and arranged in numerous convolutions, which occupy the mi'MI" of the abdominal cavity, and are kept in position by the peritoneum, which attaches them to the hack of the abdomen. The small intestine is subdivided into three parts. The first 10 inches from the stomach is the duodenum, into which open the duct of the pancreas and the common bile duct; of the remainder, the jejunum includes about two-fifths, and the ileum, three-tilths. The differei s between these last two are not visible externally, but consist in modifications of their internal structure. The tube consists of peritoneum, longitudinal and circular muscular fibres, a fibrous layer, and the mucous membrane. See iNTBsrnrjSB, Small. The ileum ends at the right iliac region in the large intestine, which is from 5 to 6 feet in length. It begins at the pouch called the blind gut (caput cecum eoli) or cul de sac (see Cecum) which has a small worm-like appendage (appendix vcrmiformis) ; a double valve guards the opening of the small into the large intestine. The colon passes upwards on the right side to below the liver (ascending colon), then crosses from the right hypochondrituu across the upper umbilical region to the left hypochondrium (transverse colon), then descends to the left iliac fossa (descending colon), when it bends twice like an S (sigmoid flexure), and then joins the rectum at the left margin of the true pelvis. The colon is distin- guished by its pouched or sacculated appearance, the saes being separated by tliree fiat bands of longitu- dinal muscular fibres. The peritoneum only covers it in parts. See Colon. The Rectum is not saccu- lated, but its muscular coat becomes much thicker; at its lower end the longitudinal fibres stop, but the muscular become more numerous, forming the internal sphincter muscle. The rectum is not straight, but takes a curved course. The A. C. thus consists of a continuous passage lined by mucous membrane, which rests on a fibrous and muscular basement. Its length is generally about live or six tunes the length of the body, or, in other words, about thirty feet. It begins below the base of the skull, and passes through tie- thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, and consists shortly "I the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The above is the description of the A. C. in human anatomy ; its parts are variously modified in different animals, as will be found in the articles on its several Subdivisions. A'LIMONY signifies, in English law, the allow- ance which a married woman is entitled to receive out of her husband's estate, on separation or divorce a mensd el thoro. It is generally proportioned to the rank and quality of the parties. Where the wife elopes and lives with an adulterer, the law allows her no A. By Scotch legal writers, the term i ; used as synonymous with Aliment (q.v.). A'LIQUOT PART. One quantify or number is said to be an A. P. of another, when it is contained in this other an exact number of" times without remainder. Thus 2, -'.. 4, and 5 are A. parts of 20, being contained in it 11), 8, 5, and 4 times. The consideration of A. parts occurs chiefly in the rule of Practice. Suppose we have to find the price of a number of articles at 6%d. : since J;/, is the 8th part of Gd. , to the price at iid. (which is found at once in shillings, by taking half the number of articles), add J of that price. ALISMA'OEJE, a natural order of monocotyle- donous plants, consisting of herbaceous plants either floating m water or growing in swamps. The leaves have parallel veins, even if expanded into a broad blade. The flowers are in umbels, racemes, or panicles ; the Bepals 8, the petals .'i, the number of stamens definite or indefinite. The ovaries are several, superior, one-celled, distinct or united ; the styles and stigmas equal to them in Dumber. The fruit is dry, with one. or two seeds in each carped ; tho seeds exalbuminous. — There are about fifty Water Plantain (Alisma plantayo). known species, excluding the natural order Ji ■ • , - cink.k, which is very nearly allied, and is included in this by some botanists. The species of both orders are chiefly natives of the northern parts of the world. Water Plantain [Alisma plat is a very common plant in stagnant waters iu Britain, and is not destitute of beauty. Its li which have long footstalks, shoot "up above the water and amongst them, but far above them the erect scape or leafless stem, (hviding into slender whorled branches and brancldets, among which the little flowers appear to he thinly scattered. The fleshy rhizome, or root-stock, is eaten by the ( Kal- mucks, after it has been deprived of its acridity by drying. The conns of the Arrowhead [Saijittaria) possess somewhat similar properties. See ARROW- HEAD. A'LISON, Rev. Archibald, was born in Edin- burgh in 1757. He studied at the university of Glasgow, and afterwards at Oxford. He took orders in the church of England in 17S4, and sub- sequently held several preferments, among others, a prebendal stall in Salisbury, and the perpetual curacy of Kenley, in Shropshire. From lsoo, M r A. ceased to reside iu England, and of!; in a chapel in his native city, where he died in 1839. A. is principally known by his Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, first published in 1790. The second edition, in 1811, gave occasion to an article by Jeffrey, in the Edinom which brought the book more before the public, Tt has since gone through several editions, and been translated into German and French. The Essays advocate what is called the 'association' theory of the sublime and beautiful, and are distin- guished for their pleasing and ell ant style, and the fine feeling that pervades them. See ^Esthetics. ALISON, Sn; Ar.nmiALi', Bart., born at Kenley, Shropshire, in 1792, was the younger son of the Rev. Archibald A., author of the Essays on the Nature 117 ALISOX-ALKAUMF.TFn. awl Principles of Va ' . Bis mother was Dorothea i i v, daughter of Dr .(•■lm Qregory of l-Min- ln 1.300, his father removed to the Scottish metropolis, where he had accepted the senior charge in the Episcopal chapel in the Cowgat thns A. had the advantage of studying in a city then, as now, distinguished far its politeness and learning. At Edinburgh University he obtained the holiest honours in Greek and math/ m After he had finished Ids curriculum, he became a member of the Scottish liar in 1814, but spent a considerable number of years 15; a continual on, ondi r tie- tule of '/'/"■ Hi pi from the . •■ 1 ('.I vol's.), was finished in 1S5'.>. He also published a /. f, of th Duke of Marlborough, The Frindi oj ■ ,.-. i'-i;, ,,. i i-i:>, besides contributing for many years to Blackwood's Maga of tedious articles on Tory politics. It is very ditlicttlt to char- acterise Sir Archibald's magnum opus, Thi History of Europe, Although a work of immense industry, of very respectable accuracy, « ritten with great ani- mation ana tolerable candour, h has failed to impress critics with a high idea of sn- Archibald A.'s abilities. The style is at times exci j wordy, and even when animated, it is never picturesque. Neither has he much insight into events or characters. Never- theless, as his work supplied a felt want, and is sufficiently entertaining for a large class of readers, it met with an excessive popularity. It has gone through numerous editions, and has been translated into German, French, Arabic, and other languages. A. died May 1867. ALISON, William Puxtkxey, M.I>., political ( nomist, physician, and professor of the practice of medicine, in the university of Edinburgh, from which last office, however, he retired in 1855, was an elder brother of the historian. He was extremely popular with all classes of the community, from the amiable and humane disposition which he invariably shewed in his efforts to alleviate tie oj the poor. A pamphlet published by Dr A. in 1840, to shew Imw the inadequate provision for the poor in Scot- land led to desolating epidemics, was the principal means of bringing about an improved i r law for that country. His other writings are Physiology, and Outlines of Pathology and Practia ofMediciii'. In a work published at Edinburgh in is:, (i. entitl.d a Di^rttititiii <■<> tlu Reclamation of Waste Lands, he fully examines the subject, and recommends the colonisation of these by paupers and criminals. He died .September 1S59. ALIYV.Y'L, a village near the southern bank of tlei. and not far from the town of Loodianah. in lat. .'>o r>7' >,".. long. 7-V ,'i(i' E. It was the scene of a fierce conflict between the British and Sikh HS forces on the 28th of January 1846. The latter having crossed the river for the purpose of foraging, or otherwise obtaining supplies, had threatened Loodianah, when they were attacked by sir II utj Smith, defeated, and driven hack with great slaugh- ter. The victory of A. is said by g 1 judges to have been ' without a fault.' AT.KAHI'.ST. or LLCAHEST, the uni solvent of the alchemi See Alobckmy. ALKALIES. The word alkali is of Arabic o /..- , b ing the name of the plant from the ashes of which an alkaline substan ! procured. name now denotes a class of substances b similar properties. The alkal number — potash, soda, lithia, and ammonia. The first three i rid ol metals ; the- last pound of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, and. being in the farm of a gas, is called the volatile alkali. Potash, being large!] presi nt in the ashes of plants, is called the vegetable alkali ; and soda, predominating in th ■ mineral kingdom, is designated the mineral alkali. The alkalxni earths, as they are called— lime, magnesia, baryta, and strontia are distin- I from the former by their '-ail... nates not being soluble in water. The distinguishing property of alkalies is that of toning vegetable blues green, and vegetable yellows reddish brown. Blues red- dened by an acid are re tored by an alkali. The alkalies have- great affinity for acids, and combine with them, forming salts, in which the- peculiar quali- ties of he.tli alkali and acid are generally destroy i ; hence they are said to neutralise one an. ether. In a pure state-, alkalies are extremely caustic, and act as corrosive poisons. Combined with carbonic acid, especially as bi-carbonates, they are uscel to correct acidity in the stomach; but the injudicious and continued us< of them is attended with great evil. ALKALI'METER. Commercial pota always contain greater or less quantities of foreign ii. i in.-.- - . such as sulphate of potash, oommon salt, silicates, oxide of iron, water, &c., which diminish the percent;' ;e of real alkali in a given weight. It is important, then, fen- the manufacturer to have Borne simple- and ready means of determining thepropoi tion of pure carbonate of potash or Boda contained in any sample, that he may he able to judge of its value. Ordinary chemical analysis takes too much time. The A. serves this purpose. It consists of a graduated glass tube, filled with diluted sulphuric acid, and containing as much absolute sulphuric acid as we.nlel neutralise a given weight, say loo grains, of carl ate of potash, ion grains of the article to be judged of is then dissolved in water, and as much gradually added to it from the tube as to neutralise the solution, that is, take- up all the alkali. The application of coloured when the neutralisation is complete. The purer the article, the more of the acid will be required; and if the tube, which is divided into 100 degrees, has ■ mptied tee the- ,sir, the impure article contains 80 per cent, of pure carbonate or potash. This method of determining the strength of alkali.-s is called tin- tilhiilini'ii-ii /eiuce .... .- but the instrument is not confined in its use to the estimation of the It of alkaline- substances. It is likewise employed in the determination of the strength of . ■ ii. Ii as sulphuric acid, hydrochloi ic acid, nitric >l and acetic aciel (vinegar). For this end, the graduated instrument is charged with a solution of an alkali of known strength, such as a given weight ed carbonate of see.la (washing soda), dissolved in wate-r, and according to the numh ■ r of divisions of the liquid poured from the A., the strength of the acid into which the- alkaline liquid has been decanted, is calculated. The latter appkeation ALKALOIDS— ALLAH. of this instrument is called oxidimetry. Again, the same graduated glass tube has been recently employed in many other ways, such as the deter- mination of the strength of a solution of silver, by brnment with a known or standard solution of common salt; and fortius purpose it is used largely by i j Royal Mint, and other metailurgie chemists. This mode of analysis is every day becoming of more and more impoi and, in fact, has given rise to a new department of analytical chemistry, which has I ..mated ysis. A'LKALOIDS form an important class of rob- es discovered by modern chemistry. They are divided into two classes — namely, natural ial. The natural A are found in plants and animals, and are often designated organic Oases. Those obtained from plants are likewise called vegelo-alkalies. They are composed essentially of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen; besides which, number contain oxygen. The A have generally an energetic action on the animal system, and hence are every day employed in small dosi - as medicine; whilst in comparatively large dosi they are powerful poisons. They have-, aUhont low degree, the characteristic alkaline properties on iMe colours, &C; have generally a hitter, acrid , and form the active principles of the plants m which they are found. .Such are morphia, codeine, and narcotine, Eonnd in opium; quinine and chinco- niue, in chincona bark; strychnine, in nux-vomica; hycocyamine, in henbane; nicotine, in toba prperine, in black pepper; caffeine or theine, in coffee and tea, &c. The animal A. are few in number, the more important being urea, found in the urine of the mammalia; and kreatine and kreatinine, two of the constituents of the juice of flesh. The arti- ficial A. are those organic bases which are not found in any known plant or animal, but of which the later researches of chemists have contrived to form a large number. As the artificial A. do not differ essentially from the natural A. in comp structure, or properties, it is confidently believed that the day is not far distant when all of the A. will be prepared artificially ; indeed, recently several of the natural A. have- been manufactured on the small scale without the intervention of the living plant or animal. For instance, urea can be formed from the simplest form of dead organic nitrogenous matter. A'LKANET (Anclwsa), a genus of plants belong- ing to the natural order Boragineos, and having a ite calyx, a funnel-shaped or salver-shaped corolla, with live scales closing its mouth, live stamens, an i ma, and ovate achfenia, which are surrounded at the base by a plaited tumid ring. The species are herbaceous plants, rough with stiff hail's, and having lanceolate or elon ovate leaves, and spike-like, bracteated, lateral and terminal racemes of flowers, which very much resemble those of the species of Myosn' Forget-me-not.— The Commok A. [A. officinalis) grows in dry ami sandy places, and by waysides. in the middle and north of Europe. It is rare and a very doubtful native in Britain. The flowers are of a deep purple colour. The roots, leaves, and flowi ra were formerly used in medicine as an emollient, i ling, and soothing application. — -The r.vuioKiiN A. [A. ens) is also a native of Europe, and a doubtful native of Britain, although not uncommon in situations to which it may have escape, 1 from gardens, being often culti- vated for the sake of its beautiful blue Bowers, which appear early in the season, and for its leaves, which retain a pleasing verdure all winter. It is a plant of humble growth, rising only a few inches above the ground. — A number of othi arc tonally seen in our flov borders. — A. tinctcria, to which the name A. or Ai.kanna (Arab. more strictly beloi is a native of the Levant and of the south of Euri ading as far north as Hungary. I root is sold under the name of A. or Alkannaroot ; it is sometimes cultivated in England ; but the i part is imported from the at or the south of France. It appears in commerce in pi< of the thickness of a quill or of the finger, the rind blackish exter- nally, but internally of a beauti- ful dark-red colour, and adha rather loosely to the whitish heart. It contains chiefly a resin- ous red colouring-matter, called Alkanna A'"/. An ' id, or The colour wliich it yields is very beautiful, although not very durable. It is readily soluble in oils, and is therefore officinalis). ^ in very general use amongst perfumers for colouring oils, soaps, pomades, lip-salves, Ac. It is extensively used i,,r colouring spurious port-wine. It also enters into compositions for rubbing and giving colour to furniture. Its solutions in oils and alcohol have almost a carmine red colour, although to water it gives only a brownish hue. It combines with alka- lies, forming blue solutions ; with chloride of tin, it becomes of a carmine red ; with acetate of lead, blue ; with sidphate of iron, dark violet ; with alum, purple; and with acetate of alumina, violet. — Viki-imax A. [A. Yir'ihnrn) yields a similar colouring-matter, and is used in the same way. ALKA'NXA (Alrlienna) \< also a name given to a colouring-matter prepared from the lea' Lawsonia memos, and used by oriental ladies to give a red colour to their nails. See Hknna. ALKMAAE, an i Id town in the province of North Holland, in tie Netherlands, situated on tie Selder Canal, 20 nides N.X.W. of Amsterdam, in lat. 32° .'is' N., h.ng. 4° 43" E. Pop. 10,500. It is well built, has very clean streets, and is intersected by broad ca It possesses a town-house, ornamented with curious Gothic carving. The inhabitants support themi by important manufactures of sail-cloth, sea-salt, &c, as well as by trade in grain, butter, and cl A. is said to export more of the last-mentioned niodity than any other town in the world ; 9,000,000 lbs. annually is the quantity sp rifled It is the birthplace of Henry of \. - I "lis. Here, on October IS. 17911. the Duke of York signed a not very honourable capitulation, after his B British army had been twice del', ated by the French general Brune. A'LLA BREVE. In old music, the breve c . as the longest note, was equivalent to our s. mi- breve, O, the longest not I in modern music. Consequently', the minims ancientij were equivalent to our crotchets. Music written with four minims in a bar I ' Bttve, which implies that the four minims must be Bung as four crotchets. The difference between tile two of writing is in. ivlv formal. Other signs for A. B. time are — }, 2, or Q or Alia Capdla A'LLAH (compounded of the article, ol and il&h — i. e., ' the worthy to be adored') is the Ml ALLAHABAD. Arabic name of the one God, to whoso worship Mohammed pledged his followers; and th has passed into all languages wherever the name of Islam has been heard. The notions of the character of this God given by Mohammed in the Koran bear manifest traces of Jewish and I : influence, and are much superior to the national superstitions and impassioned fancies of the orientals in general. Above all other things, Mohammed inculcated the unity of God in i in opposition not only to idolatry, but also in some points to the belief of the .Jews and ( 'hri seen in the following formula or creed : 'There is no God but Ute God (Allah). This only true and highest God has his existence of himself, is eternal, not begotten, and begets not, suffices for himself, tills the universe with his infinity, is the centre in whom all things unite, manifest and concealed, Lord of the corporeal and spiritual worlds, creator and ruler, almighty, all-wise, all- S 1, merciful, and bis decrees are irrevocable.' Mohammed has ventured on very bold illustrations of these attributes for popular representation, as in the passage of the Koran where he says: 'If all the trees on earth were pens, and if there were seven oceans full of ink, they would not suffice to describe the wonders of the Almighty.' The different attributes of God, divided under his ninety- nine names, and connected together in a certain order m a litany, form the rosary of the Moham- medans, which c In. Irs with the name A., as the hundredth, including in itself all the former epithets. ALL UIAIJA'D. a I'.ritish district in the North- West Provinces of India, between lat. 24° 49', 25° 44' ; long. 81° 14', 82° 26'. It is 85 miles in length by 50 in breadth — area, 2801 square miles. The surface of the country is in general level, with a slope towards the S.E. The principal rivers are the Ganges (flowing partly within it, ami partly dividing it from (hide and Mirzapore), ami its great affluent the Jumna, which joins it at the city of A. The district is well watered, and vegetation is luxuriant The native agriculture at the end of the last century was singularly rude and deficient, but the efforts of British residents have done much for its improvement. The principal | luctc of the district are cotton and salt; and there is a brisk transit- trade by the Jumna in cotton, indigo, and sugar. The population, in 1S72, was 1,382,826, chiefly agri- cultural, about 100,0(10 being Mohammedans and others not Hindus. The four principal towns are Allahabad. Shahzadpore, Bhugeisur, and Adampore, — The Province or ' Division' of A. comprehends the districts of Cawnpore, Futtehpur, Humeerpore, and Gal pee, I'.auda. and A. It is bounded X. by Oude and Agra, EL by Behar, S. by Gundwana, and W. by Mahva. Its length is about 270 breadth. 120; area, 11,83!) square miles ; population, 4,527,000, It comprises one of the must populous and productive territories in India. ALLAHABAD. This ' city of God '—for that is the meaning of its variously pronounced name — occupies the fork of the Ganges and Jumna, lat. -V 26 N., long. 81° 85" E., thus forming the lowest extremity of tie region which, as lying between those natural boundaries, is distinguished as the Doah, or the country of Turn Sim rs — an analogous term to the Punjab, or the country of !'"■■ h'irir.1. The .situation of A., at tile ConlllleUec of the holy streams of India, besides giving the city ! • ■■> ippellati.ni, has rendered it a much-fre- quented place of pilgrimage for the purposes of ablution, some of the devotees sinking themselves with weights to rise no more. In point of appear- ance, A. was scarcely worthy of its character and 150 renown. With the exception of a few ancient monuments of costly, elaborate, and tasteful work- manship, the native part of the city consists of houses and narrow streets. As in the towns generally of India, the Kuropean quarter, on the whole, is vastly superior. Its nucleus appears to have been the native fort, which, on the east and south, rises directly from the banks of both rivers, while towards the land its artificial defences, of great strength in then from the net hi rl I by any higher ground. This citadel, described by Heber as having been at one time 'a very noble ca ti .' has lost much of its romance by having had its lofty towers pr d down lions and cavaliers. The Europeans of the garrison occupy well-constructed barracks. Beyond the fort are the cantonments for the native t; In connection with these are numerous villas and bungalows, few other spots in India 1 handsome buildings of this kind ; and these showy retreats are rendered still more attractive and agreeable by avenues of trees, which wind between them, and connect them with the fort, the city, and several of the circiuujac, I The summer of 1857 I nought disaster to A. On the 6th of June of that year, the insurrection, which had begun at Meerut on loth May, extended itself to A. Though tie- Europeans continued to hold the fort, yet the mutineers were, for some days, undisputed masters of all beyond; and between the ravages of the marauders and the lire of the garrison, the city soon became little better than a heap of blackened ruins. In the history of this fearful outbreak, A. must be 'a magic word' to every English ear, as the spot where the fiery Neill entered on his brief career of glory. It was here also that Lord Canning, after the close of the mutiny, distributed three millions sterling in presents to the chiefs who had remained loyal. But although situated thus in the heart of the out- break, and feeling its disastrous effects, the city es natural advantages that have allowed it to recover. Its position at the confluence of the holy rivers, which has so long made it a centre of superstitious reverence and worship, now renders it naturally a centre of commerce and civilisation, and has been fully appreciated by government. It Commands the navigation both of the Ganges and of the Jumna. It is on the direct water-route between Calcutta and the Upper Provinces; and is a main station, not only on the Grand Trunk Road, but also on tin: Last Indian Railway. -New buil'lin , many of them possessing great architectural merits, have accordingly sprung up with rapidity since 1S57 ; the most noteworthy buildings being still, . the ( i at Mosque and the Sultaun K les- sor's Caravanserai — a fine cloistered quadrangle. The Fort is of red stone, and is approached by a very handsome gate: it contains the palace or ncy, and the < lada pillar or Club of Lhin Sen, in the Chalee Satoom Temple, which is said to communicate with Benares by a subterranean [pas- sage, through which Hows a third holy river, the . ati, visible only to the eye of faith. A. possesses a college, an hospital, theatres, bazaars, &c. The inhabitants number 75,000. So many poor pilgrims throng the city, especially at the time of the Great Eair, which is held once every twelve years, that instead of Allahabad, the natives call it ' Fakirabad,' or the City of Beggars. The cotton, sugar, and indigo produce of the fertile district of A. is brought in large quantities into the city, to be transported thence to Calcutta and re. Steamers sail to Calcutta, and I to Delhi. A. is distant from Calcutta, by laud, 406 miles; by water, SOS miles iu the rainy season; ALLAMANDA— A LLASTOIS. by water, !>S5 miles in the dry season. From Delhi it is distant 380 miles; ami from Bombay, hy the Jubbulpore branch of the East Indian Bail- way, 840 mill . ALLAMA'X DA, a genua of plants of the. natural order Apm-i/mintr (i|. v.), distinguished by a !>■ parted calyx without glands, a funnel-shaped corolla with its limli campanulate, and the fruit a prickly A. caUiartica, a native of the West Indies, is a shrub with whorled or opposite oblong leavi j, and large yellow flowers on many-flowered footstalks. It has violently emetic and purgative properties; but in small doses, an infusion of the leavi is e teemed a valuable cathartic medicine, especially in the cure of painter's colic. All the species are natives of the tropical parts of America. A'LLAN, Bridge of, a beautiful village, con- : chiefly of lodging-houses, lying within the Iter of a spur of the Ochils, on the road from Stilling to Perth, from the former of which towns it is only three miles distant. It is situated on the banks of the Allan, which, like the heights behind the place, arc richly wooded. It owes its prosperity partly to its mineral (saline) wells, and partly to its sheltered situation and mild climate, which render it a, favourite resort of invalids, especially in spring and autumn. There are excellent hotels, and abundance of good lodgings. Pop. (1S71) 3055. ALLAX, David, a distinguished Scottish painter of domestic subjects, in which he was the fore- runner of Wilkie, was born at Alloa in 1744. In 1755, be entered the academy for drawing, painting, and engraving, established in Glasgow by the celebrated printer l'oidis, where he studied for seven years. The liberahty of Mends enabled him, in 1704, to go to Rome, where he resided for sixteen years. In 1773, he gained tho gold medal given by the Academy of St Luke for the best historical composition. The subject was the 'Origin of Painting,' the old legend of the Corinthian maid who drew her lover's profile from the shadow. This picture, the highest effort of Allan's powers, was engraved by ( 'unego. Of his other pictures executed at Home, the best known are four humorous pieces illustrating the Carnival, which were engraved by Paul Sandby. In 1777, A. came to London, where he painted portraits ; after a year or two, lie removed to Edinburgh; and in 1780, succeeded Runciman at the head of the art academy established there by the Board of Manufactures. Ilis works subsecpient to this date were chiefly of a humorous description, and illus- trative of Scottish domestic life. His illustrations of Allan Ramsay's Gentle S/ieplterd became very popular, but are of no great merit. A. died at Edinburgh in 17%. 'His merits,' says Allan Cunningham, 'arc of a limited nature; he neither excelled m line drawingnor in harmonious colouring j and grace and grandeur were beyond his reach. Ilis genius lay in expression, especially in grave humour and open drollery.' ALLAN, Si i: William, a distinguished Sci historical painter, was born at Edinburgh in 17S2. lie was educated at the High School; and having early displayed a taste for drawing, was entered as a pupil in tin- School of Design connected with the Royal Institution, with the intention of becoming a coach-painter. Among his fellow-students and 1. were I (avid Wilkie, .1 dim Burnet, and others who after- wards rose to eminence. He subsequently studied for some time at; the Royal Academy of London. Find- ing difficulties in the way of professional advance- ment in the metropolis, he determined to go abroad ; and in 18115, set out for St Petersburg, where tho friendly interest of his countryman, Sir Alexander C'richton, the imperial family physician, soon pro- cured him employment. In the Russian capital, he spent several years, diligently pursuing his profes- sional labours, and making occa ional tours to tho south of Russia, the Crimea, Turkey, and Circassia, where he made numerous sketches, some of which supplied the materials of his best known works. In 1Mb be returned to Edinburgh, and soon after exhibited his 'Circassian Captives,' a large picture, ii till; llislleil bj' Hie picture;-, ( ||,. |i. and the elaborate fidelity and spirit of its treatment. lie bid exhibited several pictures before this, but not till now was Ins reputation as an artist fairly established. The remuneration of his labours, how- ever, was not so ready as the public acknowledgment of their worth. The purchase of two of his pictures by the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards em when on a visit to Edinburgh, contributed in no small degree to promote the sale of his works. A severe attack of ophthalmia obliged him for a time to suspend his exertions. He employed his leisure in visiting Italy, Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor. On returning home, be resumed his brush, and for many years laboured with great assiduity. In 1826, he was elected an Associate of tho Loudon Academy ; in 1 S35, an Academician. In 1 S38, on the death of Mr George Watson, the Royal Scottish Academy elected i,i as its president, and on the death of Sir David Wilkie in 1841, he was appointed Limner to Her Majesty for Scotland. He was at the same time knighted. At intervals, be made excursions into continent, visiting Spain and Marocco in 1834, St Petersburg in' 1841, and Germany and Belgium in 1847. At St Petersburg, he received a commission the emperor to paint a large picture of 'Peter the Great teaching Shipbuilding to his Subjects;' it was exhibited at London in 1845, and is now in the imperial Winter Palace. For some time before his death, he had been diligently working at a great picture of 'Bruce at Bannockburu.' He (lied in his painting-room, to wliieh bis bed had been removed, on the 22d of February 1S50. The great merits of Sir W. A. as a painter consist in his conscientious fidelity - , his skill in composition, and the dramatic force of bis representations. The impulse contributed by him to historical painting, especially of national subjects, entitles him tb a very high place in the history of Scottish art. Among his chief works, many of which are well known through engravings, arc — 'John Knox admonishing Queen Mary,' 1S23; 'Queen Mary signing her abdication,' 1821; 'Death of the Regent Moray,' 1825; 'Polish Exiles,' 1834; 'The Slave-market at Constantinople,' 1837; 'Battle of Prestonpans,' 1S42; 'Waterloo,' two pictures, from the French and i ii Ii Ii positions, the first of which was bought by the Duke of Wellington. ALLA'XTOLS, a delicate membranous bag, which makes its appearance in tie ej of birds during incubation, and is a provision chiefly for ration of the blood of the embryo or chick. It sprouts from the lower part of the intestine of the chick, and rapidly enlarges, so as almost com- pletely to enclose it, lining nearly the whole extent of the membrana putamims the double membrane which is immediately within the egg-shell. It is covered with a net-work of arteries and veins. Corresponding to the umbilical artery and vein of Mammalia; and the aeration of the blood is accom- l.y tie sir which enters through the pores of the shell; but as the lungs become capable of their function, the circulation in the A. diminishes, and its footstalk contracts, and at bust divides. Ii only a ligamentous remnant. The A. is never developed in tie , ! and Amphibians, hence these arc called Auallautoid Vertebrates ; 151 ALLAJLD— ALLEC ORY. while Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia, in which it is present, are called Allantoid In the Mammalia, it is superseded at an early period of fa to] life bj contrivances, but continues to exist in the lower t be urinary secretion th rachus, a purpose which it Berves in bird reptili - ill. v. ise. in the human sp< ippears very early, only a minute vi -i. I "ing. ALL.Y'KI), ^I'ln -nilis, iini> ,,i' the army of Lahore, .•mil previously adjutant to Marshal Brune under Napoleon, was born in 1 7^.;. After the murder of Marsha] Brune (q. v.), A. left Prai intending to emigrate to America] but ch his plan, entei i mto the sei \lu. . ol Persia, and afterwards wenl to Lai (1820), where be engaged in I of Etunjeel (q. v.). by \\ bom be i ined iu the European i lea of warfare. Saving married a native of Lahore, l"' identified himself with the interests <>f his adopted country, but could not i. rely forget France, The July revol brought liim back to Paris, where he was ved with distinction, and was made French chargt aires in Lahore. He presented to the Royal Library of Paris a valuable collection of coins, and returned to Lahore 1 1836), l< ai inj Ins n i children in Paris. In the subsequent battles ol Runjeet Singh with the Afgnn.na, A. repeatedly dis- tinguished liimself. and died at Peshawur, January 23, 1839. His remain rding to Ins own wish, buried with military honours at Lahore. ALLEOHANlKs, a name perhaps originally limited to the iiMnuitain-eiM.il,- of the river next mentioned, hut often popularly extended to the whole chain, otherwise called th Appalachians (q. v.). ALLEi :i I \ 'N "V, a river, which, rising in the north part of Pennsylvania, unites with the Monon- - ■ . 1 1 1 , I . i si Pitt burs to Form the i Hiio. 'I'll. . Bows through a hilly country, yet it is navi for nearly 200 miles above Pittsbui i I • oin, with a trifling impi dii u or Loui rille, 9 bich has been overcome bj : I canal, the aavi embraces, down to 111" Gull' ..) Mexico, 950 mill I on the Ohio, and 1216 on the \li sippL What a 'sugge! i'\. Fact i i • sh am-1 iat i b inneJ of 2366 miles in one section of a continent, i qua! in length to the : lie that e.'tn be m:iv. u in I whether from Brest to Astrakhan, or from I ipe Matapan to North Cape ; ALLE'GIAJNCE (IV. aUigeance, from Lit. aJXigo or ad-ligo, to bind to, or attach). ' A.,' says Blafck- Btone, 'is the tie ox ligamen which binds the Bubject to the sovereign, in return for that protection ■which the sovereign affords the subject A. is the highest legal duty of a subject, and consequently its violation, Treason (a. v.), is the highest le al offence. A. is of three kinds : 1. Natural or implu d A., which every native or naturalised citizen owes to the community to which he belongs, inde- pendently of any, express promise, every man, by availing himself of the benefits which society allurds, comes under an implied obligation to defend it, and this equally whether the attack be from without or from within. In time of war, this obli- gation involves the duty either of bearing arms in defence of the state, or of contributing to the addi- tional taxes and other impositions which the support of a standing army may render necessary. In peaceful times, it will he adequately fulfilled bj an efficient performance of ordinary citizen duties. 2. Expri i .1. is that obligation which arises from an expressed promise, or oath of A. The old ' li of A. corresponded in the case of the sovereign, as absolute superior of all the lands in England, to the oath of fealty which, by the feudal law, all vassals were required to take t<> Bubject superiors : 'As administered for upwards of six hundred years, it contained a promise to bi and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith 1" bear of lite and limb ami terrene h r, and not to know or hear of any ill or dam:: in tended him, without defending him therefrom.' Blackstone, Kerr's edition, vol. i. 368. Thi thought to favour too much the notion ofnon- another form was introduced by the Con- vention Parliament That in usi ino bep lingof the new Naturalisation Act in 1S70 (33 Victc. 14), is as follows: 'I do swear that I will be Faithful and lie A. to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, according to law. So help me God.' From the reign of Queen Elizabeth down to -.Tit time, the oath of A. has been required from all public functionaries, before entering on then offices, and by all professional persons before being permitted to practise. 3. Local or temporary \. i that obedience and temporary aid due bj an Alien (q. vA to the state or community in which be resides. Local differs from the higher kinds of A. in this, that it endures only so long as the alien resides within the Queen's dominions, when m natural A., whether implied or expressed, is per- petual, following not only the individual himself, but his children and grandchildren. By the provi- sions of the act above referred to, A. may new be renounced, even by natural-born subjects, and this whether born within the realm or not, by a declara- tion of alienage (sect. 4), and it is Forfeited by the acceptance of the allegiance i if a foreign state (sect. 6). But the allegiance thus forfeited maybe resumed. A natural-burn British subject who has become an alien in pursuance of this act. may, mi perfoi the same conditions as are required of an alien applying for a Certificate of Nationality N mi i:\i.is\rn.\l, apply to one of Her Maji principal Secretaries of State for a certificate of re- i mi: don to British nationality (sect. 8). In a colony, Mn like powers are conferred on the Govi By the lav, of England, and agreeably to the spirit of the constitution, a usurper in undisputed PO sion of the crown, or king xo, i/iusto, nmunoilo, vivace, assia, ill molto, con brio, &c. As a substan- tive, A. is used as the name of a whole piece of music, or a movement of a symphony, sonata, or quartet. A'LLEMAXDE, the name of a dance invented by the French in the time of Louis XIV.. and which again became popular at the Parisian theatres during the ivi'jn of the first emperor. It has a slow waltz kind of tempo, and consists of three steps (/)n.< marches) made in a sliding manner, backwards and forwards, but seldom waltzing or turning round. The whole charm of the dame lies in the graceful manner nf entwining anil detaching the arms iu the different steps. Both the dance and the music are said to have originated in Alsace ; and thus the introduction of the A. at the court of Versailles was a sort of artistic way of symbolising the incorpora- tion of the newly acquired (lennan provinces. A'LLEN, Boo OF, a general name applied to a congeries of morasses east of the Shannon, iu King's County and Kild.ir-, Inland, comprising in all about 238,500 i land which intersect tb occasionally watered by livers which have tle-ir sources in the - fens, such as the Harrow, Boyne, and Brosna Grand Canal al o pi es through it. The a-. elevation of the moras-. : i ■■ 250 feet abon seadevel. They approach to within 17 miles of Dublin on tie- east, and almost to the Shannon on est. The depth of the peat found in tb about -2r, feet. ALLKN", John, M.D., a litterateur of con able talent, was born at Bedford, in the parish of Colinton, near Edinburgh, in ITT'i. II- v, as edu- cated at the university of Edinburgh, where he took his degree at the age of twenty - years later, he entered the lists against DrOregory in defence of Hume's speculations on necessity. In 1801, he published An I to the Study of the Animal Economy, translated Cuvier. About a year after, along with Lord and Lady Holland, he set out on a tour through France aud Spam, where he resided till 1805. On his return, he devoted himself | discussion of political questions in the- pages Edinburgh Review. He was a keen reformer, and brought to bear upon constitutional q wealth of research, a closeness of reasoning, and a vigour of understanding that rendered him a formidable adversary. He is said to have contri- buted upwards of forty articles to the Edinburgh Review, chiefly on British. French, Spanish, and South American politics. His most valuable work is considered to be his Inquiry into (Iu Si Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England (1 On one or two occasions, he held temporary political offices, and was, in addition, for some tim Dulwich College. He died in 1843. A'LLBNTOWU", a thriving borough of Pennsyl- vania, U. S., 85 miles to the east of Harrisburg, and oil to tin- north of Philadelphia. It is situated on an affluent of the Lehigh, with a canal and a railway passing through it. It is within easy reach of slate, limestone, coal, and iron. Pop. in 187", lo,SS4. ALLEYN, Edward, a distinguished actor, the contemporary and fneud of Shakspeare, was boi 1566, and died in 1626. His connection with the English stage during the period of its highest prospe- rity, invests his life with interest to the stua literary history ; but it is as the munificent and pious founder,,! Dulwich College (q.v.) that he principally claims tile remembrance of posterity. The building of the college was begun in 1613, and in 1619 the institution obtained the royal charter, after some obstruction on the part of Lord Bacon, who the king to apply part of tie' grant to tie- foundation of two lectureships at Oxford and Cambl A. himself took up his quarters in the coll. i master, living, with his wile as a pensioner, on equal terms with "the sharers of his bounty. 11 founded numerous almshouses in London. A'LLIA. a small stream which fell into the Tiber, eleven mil. 9 north of Feme. It is cell brated scene of the defi al of the Roman army by the I under Brennus in .').s7. or. according to others, 390 B.C. Immediately afterwards, Feme was taken, plundered, and burnt. It is difficult to identity the A. with any of the modern streams; but the evidence seems in favour of the Scolo del Co.va/t'. ALLIA'CEOl's PL \\ I Allium (q. v.), or others nearly allied to it. The term is generally empli tote not only the ! son of certain botanical . but also of a certain smell and taste, wall known by the term alliaceous, and of which examples arc readily found 'liJ AL LT ANCE— A LLIG ATOR. in the onion, leek, garlic, and other familiar species of Allium, much employed for culinary pnj plants contain free phosphoric acid, and a sulphuretted oil, which is partly dissipated in boiling or roastiDg. The A. flavour is, however, found also, although in comparatively rare instances, in plants of entirely different botanical affinities— for example, in Alliaria officinalis, of the natural order ' V (see AllIAMA), in the young shoots of ( angustjfolia, a tropical American tree of the natiu-al order & ^allied to mahogany; and in i species of Dysoxylon ami Hartighsea, of the kindred order Mdiaceas, the fruit of which is used in of garlic by the mountaineers of Java. ALLI'ANCE, a compact between independent families or nations. See Ti.eatv, SOLY ALLIANCE, TiariE ALLIANCE. ALLIA'RIA, a genus of plants of the natural order Crucifera (q. v.), closely allied to i and Erysimum, but differing from both in ha\ stalks of the seeds flat and winged. The best known speaics is A. officinalis {Erysimum A. of Linnssus, and ranked l>y some botanists in the Sisymljrium), known by the popular names of : alone and Jack-by-the-Hedge. It is a native of Britain, not unfrequcntly found on hedge-banks and in waste places in dry rich BO common in most parts of Europe. It is a biennial, with a stem 2 — 3 feet high; large, stalked, heart-shaped leaves; Alliaria officinalis. a, upper part of stem, with leaves and (lowers; I, extremity of a branch, in fruit. white flowers, and pods much longer than their stalks, wliich are somewhat spreading. It is remark- able for its strong alliaceous odour, is occasionally OS 1 as a pot-herb in Britain, and very generally, at least by the poorer classes, in some continental countries. It seems more deserving of cultivation than many other plants which have long received the constant care of the gardener, being wholesome, nutritious, and, to most persons, pleasant. The powdered seeds were formerly employed as a ster- nutatory. ALLICE, or ALUS. See Siiad. A'LLIER, a river in France, a tributary of the Loire, has its source in the water-shed of the east of the department of Lozere ; flows with a northerly course through Il.mte-Loire, Puy-de-Dome, and Allier; and after a course of more than 2'«) miles, falls into the Loire below the town of Nevers. It is navigable for a considerable portion of its length. 154 ALLIER, a department in the centre of France, has an area of 2830 square miles, and a pop. of 39 It is a hilly district, especially in the south, sloping down towards the river Loire in the north, and is partly woody, but generally well cultivated, pro- ducing 1li" nana] kinds of grain with wine and oil. It is also rich in minerals, especially iron, coal, antimony, manganese, and marble. There is some manufac- turing industry in cotton, wool, linen, < y, and glass; but the majority of the popu- lation is engaged in agriculture. Mineral ; are found at Vichy, Neris, and Bourbon-l'Archam- bault. The chief town is Moulins. Other im] places are Montlucon, La Palisse, Gannat. At Chantelle-le-Chateau are the extensive ruins of King Pepin's Castle. ALLIGA'TION", from a Latin word signifying 'to bind together,' is a rule in arithmetic which I to solve such questions as the following: 3 lbs. of at Oil. are mixed with "> lbs. at lOd. ; what is the price of a pound of the mixture? or: In what proportion must sugar at G ■/. be mixed with sugar at life/., to produce a mixture at S'd 1 The solution of the first is — —-: = {> In the second, the proportional number for one ingredient is the difference between the price of the other and that of the mixture; the number for the cheap sugar is thi refore 1 ', and for the dear, 2!, winch are as :) ; 5, so that there must be 3 lbs. at 6V. for every 5 lbs. at 10(2. If there are more than two ingredients, the problem becomes indeterminate ; that is, it admits of a variety of answers. Thus: Of three metals, whose specific gravities arc 10, 15, and 16, it is required to compose an alloy, whose gravity shall be 14. The conditions will be answered by mixing them in any of the following proportions: 1,2,1; 2, 2, 3; G, 2, 11, &c. ALLIGA'TOK, a genus of saurian reptiles, of the family of the CrocodUidce, and still regarded by some naturalists as a mere sub-genus of Crocodilus ; although it has recently been proposed to constitute a family or sub-family of Allipa/orida', and to divide it into the genera Jacarc, Alligator, and Caiman, The alligators differ from the true crocodiles in the shorter and flatter head, the existence of cavities or pits in the upper jaw, into which (and not int< notches between the teeth, as in the crocodiles) the long fourth tei th of the under jaw are received, and the much less Webb, d I' > t. In consequence of the different manner in which provision is made in the upper jaw lor the reception of the longest teeth of the lower, the head of the alligators is broader and the snout more obtuse than in the crocodiles. Alligator. Their habits are less perfectly aquatic ; they frequent swamps and marshes, and may be Ig on the dry ground during the day, in the heat of the sun. They are most active during the night, and then make a loud bellowing. They feat strength in their tails, with wni ones can easily upset a light canoe. They luefly on fish, but do not object to other animal food. The females lay their eggs, 20—60 in number, in the mud, and leave them to bo hatched by tie- heat of the sun, but keep watch over the spot, and Bhew much affection for their young ALLIGATOR APPLE— ALLIUM. ones, manj' of which, however, fall a prey to the old males, and to vultures and fishes. There are several -. varying from two to twenty feet and upwards in length. Perhaps the most fierce and dangerous is that found in the southern parts of the I States, as far up the Mississippi as the Bed River, A. Lucius. The snout is a little turned up; and its resemblance to that of a pike has led to the specific name Lucius. In cold weather, these animals bury themselves in the mud, and become so torpid, that they may be cut to pieces without shewing signs ibility; 1j ut a few hours of bright sunshine are them. Like the other species, they are so protected by their mailed plates, that they are not easily killed, except by a shot or blow over the A very strong kind of leather is prepared 1 lie skin, which is used for making saddles. It is said that a considerable quantity of oil can be extracted from an A., which IS transparent and burns well. The alligators of South America are there very often called Caymans, probably an Indian name, and some of them bear the name of Y particularly A. sclerops, also distinguished as the Spectacled Cayman, on account of a prominent bony rim surrounding the orbit of each eye. This species appears to lie widely distributed over tropical America, and attains a great size. Alligators are not known to exist in any quarter of the world except America, in which, however, true crocodiles are also found. But among the fossils of the south of England are remains of a true A. (A. XTantonUnsis) in the Hordle beds. The flesh of alligators is eaten by Indians and negroes. It has a musky flavour. — The origin of the name is uncertain, but it is supposed to be a corruption of the Portuguese >, a lizard. Cuvier adopted it as a scientific name. ALLIGATOR APPLE. See Custard Arr-LE. ALLIGATOR PEAR. See Avocado Peak. ALLITERA'TION is the frequent occurrence in a composition of words beginning with the same letter. In Old Herman, Anglo-Saxon, and Scandina- vian poetry, A. took the place of rhyme. This kind of verse, in its strict form, required that in the two short lines forming a couplet, three wards should begin with the same letter, two in t 1 line or hemistich, and one in the second; as in the following couplet of Anglo-Saxon poetry : .Firum /oMan /rca almuitig.— Grrfmon. A. has not quite disappeared from Icelandic poetry to tins day. Alliterative poems continued to be written in English after it had assumed its modern form; the most remarkable is Pierce Ploicman, a poem oi the 1 Ith c, of which the following is a iien, the two hemistichs being written in one line: J/ercy hight that maid, 1 a meek thing withal, A full ocnign turd, | and fluiom of speech. iter the introduction of rhyme, A. continued to be largely used as au embellishment of poetry, and is so, though to a less extent, to this day : The fair Areeze fclcw, the white /unm /lew, Tbe/urrow/ullowcd/ree.— L'vlcridgt. les the < '.othic, there are other nations widely separated from each other, among whom the essential distinction of verse is A.; theTinns, for instance, and the Tamuls in the south of In- But A. is not confined to verse ; the charm that i great influence on human speech generally, as may be seen in many current phrases and proverbs in all languages: Ex., 'life and lirab;' 'house and home,' 'wide wears, tight tears.' sec. It often constitutes part of the point and piquancy of witty writing. Among modern writers this appli- cation of A. is perhaps most felicitously exemplified by Sidney Smith, as, when in contrasting the conditions of a dignitary of the English Church and of a poor curate, he speaks of them as ' the Bight nd Dives in the palace, and Lazarus-in-orders at the gate, doctored by t/ogs and comforted crumbs. In the early part of the 17th c, the fashion of hunting after alliterations was carried to an absurd ; even from the pulpit, the chosen people of God were addressed as ' the chickens of the church, the sparrows of the spirit, and the sweet swallows of salvation.' A* , or address, pre- sented to Mary Queen of Scots by the poet, Alex- ander Scott, concludes with a stanza running thus : Fresh, fulgent, flourist, fragrant flower formoso, Lantern to lore, of ladies lamp and lot, Clu rry maist chaste, chief carbuncle and chose, Ac. In the following piece of elaborate trifling, given (but without naming the author) in IL Southgate's Matty Thoughts on Many Things, Alliteration is combined with Acrosticism : A n Austrian army, awfully arrayed. It oldly by battery besieged Belgrade : C ossack commanders cannonading come, i> eating destruction 1 ' devastating; doom ; V. very endeavour engineers essay J i r lime, for fortune, forming furious (ray. <; mint gunners grapple, giving gashes good; II eaves high liis head heroic hardihood; 1 braliam, Islam, fsmael, imps in ill. J octie .lolin .larnvlUz, Jem, Joe, Jack, Jill; K ick kindling EEutUBofT, king- 1 kin-nun kill L abour low levels loftiest, longest lin ■ ; M en march 'mid moles, 'mid mounds, *mid murd'rous N ow nightfall 's near, now needful nature nods, O pposed, opposing, overcoming odds. V oor peasants, partly purchased, partly pressed, Q uite quaking, ' Quarter! quarter!' quickly quest. K eason returns, recalls redundant rage, B aves linking soldiers, softens signiors sage. T nice, Turkey, truce! truce, treach'rous Tartar train! U niriae, anjuat, uamerciml rkraine, V anish, vile vengeance! vanish, victory vain ! t\" isdom wails war — wails warring words. What were X erscs. Xantippe, Ximenes, Xa V et Y assy's youth, ye yield your youthful vest. Z ealously, zanies, zealously, zeal's zest. A'LLIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order Liliacece (ci. v.), containing a large number of species, perennial — more rarely biennial — herbaceous plants, more or less decidedly bulbous-rooted, natives chiefly of the temperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere. The flowers are umbellate, enclosed in a spathe, and the umbel often bears also small bulbs with its flowers. The jicrianth is of six spread- ing pieces, resembling petals, having the stamens d in tluir base. The fruit is a t riangular capsule, and the seeds are angular. The leaves are generally narrow, although in some species, as A. ur.-inum, they are rather broad, and in a considerable number they are rounded and tistulose. Garlic fa. v.), Omox fa. v.), L*bk (q.v.). Shallot (q.v.), Chive (q.v.), and I ! fa., v.), are species of this genus in common 1 The first four are cultivated in the gardens of India as well as of Europe, along with md the hill- Ot India eat the bulbs of .1. leptophyUvm, and dry the lea-. rve them as a condiment. A number of other species are occasionally used in :it countrii s. Eight or nine species are 1 of Britain, of which the most common (.1. ur sinum ), a species with much broader leaves than- most of its congeners. It is most frequently found in moist woods and hed^e-banks ; but occa- sionally in pastun s. in which it proves a trouble- some weed, communicating its powerful odour of garlic to the whole dairy produce. Crow Garlic ALLOA— ALLOTMENT OF LAND. f.I. vineale), another British species, is sometimes a the same way, in drier pa Both are perennial, an. I to rid i, th< ir must be perseveringly rooted out, when the ppear in spi A l.l.ii. \, a seaport town in Clackmannanshire, aid, is situated on the left bank o! the Forth, where the river widens into its estuary, 7 m road) below Stirling, Population in 1871, 9362. a town of considerable antiquity, and is an active 1 1 nl t ■ of b ide and m eipal articles manufactured arc w hisky ami ale, the latter of which is highly esteemed. 'I tensive glass, iron, and brick works, and ship-building yards. Copper utensils, shawls, and blankets, leather, toba , and snuff are manufactured to a [erable extent; andalarge quantity of coal is regularly exported from the pits in the immediate neighbour] I of the town. The latter Conns one of tin- chief items in the coasting trade, besides which there is a considerable foreign trade, chiefly outwards. The total tonnage registered at the porl amounts to about 8400 tons. The harbour is good, with 16 feet of water at neap, and 22 at spring tides ; it is furnished with a dry-dock. There is a steam-boat ferry across the Forth, connecting the town by a short junci ion line with the Scoti i I Central Railway. It is also connected with thai line, and with the Edinburgh and Northern Railway, by the Stirling and Dunfermline branch. There is regular steam-communication by the river with Edinburgh and Stirling. In the neighbour}] I is Alloa Tower, 89 feet high, supposed to have been built in the l.'itli c, once the residence of the Erakines, and at different times of Scottish p ALLOCU'TION,whichsiiii|l\ tneansan 'address,' is applied, in the language of the Vatican, to denote specially the address delivered by the pope at the College of Cardinals on any ecclesiastical or pol circumstance. It may lie considered as corre p I ing in some measure to the official explanations which constitutional ministers give when questions are asked in parliami nt, or to the political m of the French emperor. The eom i makes abundant use of this method of address, when it di res to guard a principle which it is compelled to give up in a particular case, or to i rve a claim tor the future which has no chance of recognition the present. ALLO'DIUM, or ALLODIAL TENURE (in T.aw). is the free and absolute right of property in land, independent of any burden of .homage or fidelity to a superior. When the principal landholders of England submitted to the yoke of military tenure, and surrendered their lands into the bands of the Conqueror at the council of Sarum, feudality, the previous existence or non-existence of which has been a subject of much discussion, was formally recognised, and it henceforth became a fundamental in i ■.mi in the law of real property, that 'the kin," is the universal lord and original proprietor of all the lands in his kingdom, and that no man doth or can possess any part of it, but what has mediately or imincdiati ly been derived as a gift from him, to be held upon feudal services' (Blackstone, vol. ii. p. 51, Kerr's edition). Ibis maxim, though, as J'.Iackstone remarks, it was even at first little more than a fiction, was not peculiar to Kngland. but prevailed wherever the feudal system obtained, and still forms what may be called the starting- point in all feudal tenures of land. Even where subinfeudations have prevailed to the extent, every title is traceable, in the last instance, to the paramount and universal superiority of the Sec FEUDAL System. The surrender of 166 lauds in England being the result of political , e. is one universal national act, and. - qui ntl> . allodia] tenun a ased to exist ; but in in. in. other countries ii was accomplished by private arrangements between the allodial pro]. and the prince, the former being anxious I their nominal independence foi the rea Is of i iverei m the latter . i\e them a i dependents, I either oi tl i a] > in war, or the equivalents of these servi e, the produce of the lauds. In such countries, feudality, though s neral, was not uni- versal; and allodial tenures consequi nil\ continued to subsist alongside of those originating with the crown. In this position was Denmark, and it i ■ curious that . only i camples of allodial tenures to be met with iii Great Britain are the CTdal rights in the islands of Orkney and Shetland, which formerly belonged to that country. 'When these islands,' says Mr Erskine, 'were first transferred from the crown of Denmark to that of Scotland, the right of ! lands was held by natural possession, and be proved by witnesses, without any title in writing, which had probably been their law formerly while they were subject to Denmark; and to this day, the lands, the proprietors of which have never applied to the sovereign, or those deriving right from him, for charters, are enjoyed in tins manner.' By the law of Scotland, all properly and Buperioritii belonging to the crown itself, and all churches, churchyards, man and gli ! " . the ri hi to which does not How from the crown, are regarded B8 allodial ; and the term in a wider SI use, as opposed to/ tidal generally, is sometimes used with refi renci to movable property. The etymology of the word A. lias been much discussed, and both I clue and Teutonic origin been a ■ tied to it. The latter s.-. m the more probable conjectures, as the word, in senses closely resembling that which we attach to it. is to be found in all Se,'ini]in:i\ ian and Uci manic Ian: oages. On this supposition, its derivation from nil (all, or wholly) and od (property), seems probable. Anotle ■• assigns it to nil and o. ./. (w; That adopted by .Mr Erskine, of its having coin] J oi .i privative, and leude or leute, people (taken from the poop ins wholly in as being inconsistent with the forms of Teutonic speech. ALLO'PATHY. See Homoeopathy. ALLOTMENT OF LAND, although not a technical, is a well-understood expression in the law of England; and under the General Kuclosure Act ! 41 ( In. 111. c. 109), is used to denote the kind of conveyance or distribution direci d to be made to the pel ion or persons who at the time of the drt and enclosure shall have the actual possession of the lands, b nements, or hereditaments, m lieu of, or in right of which the allotment is made, but wil ■ any question of title. By the ancient Statute of Merton (-20 Henry III. c 4), the lord of the manor, or any other owner of a common, mi. enclose so much of the waste as he pleases for tillage or wood-ground, provided sutlieielit is left for otln parties entitled to the use of the same. This right, to enclose common fields and waste lands lias in modern times been very generally extended through- out England by means of local acts of parliament, a number of the regulations of which have been con- solidated by the act above referred to, by section 7 of which commissioners are appointed to make the allotment. Generally speaking, this term, as a legal word, may be considered as signifying the grant or ALLOTROPY— ALLOW A1JCES, OFFICEES". allowance of a portion of land too inconsiderable to be made the Bubject of a forma] conveyance ; and in this sense it has been used to denote tlie system or species of agricultural holding which prevailed to some extent in England towards the close "f the last Century, but which was not in common use throughout the country till is.'iii, when the a tural labourers In many counties owing to thi a of thrashing-machines and other improvements, which they dreaded would lower their wages rose in insurrection against their employers. To this danger, the A. system was resorted to, and different societies were established for its promotion; and by the comparative contentment and comfort it produced, it may be considered to have been successful in its object. It has been stated to have diminished crime among the peasantry, and generally to have improved and elevated their character. By the form of agreement usually signed by A. truants, the use of the spade in the cultivation of land is insisted upon, and the plough prohibited, and there are other conditions of the occupancy more or less capricious. The A. may be forfeited for non-payment of the rent, ii tenant's misconduct or crime, or wilful [i ci of his land; but it has been thought (inadvisable to exclude any one from enjoying an A. on account of his previous bad character, a , from thi nature of the industrious occupation which the A. nece; it, ib -, there is the chance of Ins reclaiming his ch i See Spade Husbandry. ALLOTROPY is the term applied in chemistry to the existence of the same clement in various forms, each of which, though containing no extra- neous substance, possesses dlffi rent properties from the others. The various conditions in which a single element can be obtained are known as its aflo- tropic modifications, and though as yet only a few elementary substances have ben observed to exhibit such modifications, yet it is generally believed that every element is capable of existing in allotropie forms. Phosphorus affords an excellent illustration of this doctrine. In ordinary circum- stances, and when freshly prepared, phosphorus is a pale, yellow solid, of the consistence and aspect of wax, and to some extent flexible and translucent. It requires to be placed in a vessel with water to keep it from taking fire spontaneously. At any lary natural temperature it appears luminous, and evolves an alliaceous odour when exposed to air. Owing to a slow process of combustion taking place ; and when wanned to 140° P., it bursts into flame, and burns vividly. Common phosphorus is soluble in alcohol, ether, the fixed aud volatile oils, and especially in bisulphuret of carbon, 1111) parts of which, when warm, dissolve 20 parts of phosphorus. But tic imeel m at, when dried and kept for some days, with little or no access of air, at a temper- ature tanging from 446° to 482° P., passes, weight for weight without addition or Mil. tract ion of matter -into a reddish substance, which is known to chemists a.s (imor/i/iuiis phosphorus. The colour of this new variety is scarlet, brownish red, or even blackish ted ; and It exists as a powder or cake, w Inch does not evolve anj odour, or readily take fire, and fore needs no! to be preserved under water. When I to 140 . and even to a. temperature a little short of 482°, it refuses to burn; and, in fact, it is questionable if phosphorus in this condition will take fire at all ; though at 482°, and above, the red variety pa bach again to the ordinary or yellow phos- phorus, and then bursts into flame. Moreover, amor- phous phosphorus is insoluble in alcohol, i the fixed and volatile ods, and even in bisulphuret of carbon. Probably the most striking difference between these two forms of the same substance is, that ordinary phosphorus is a deadly poison, as is too often evider of children from suck- ing the ends of In, m r-ii ivhilst the red or lions phosphorus is not known to be poisonous at all.- Besides the two varieties already men- tioned, and which are best known, there a,\- black phoaphonu, whUi j . and scaly \ i he only manner of accounting for the c ! properties evinced by ordinary and red phosphorus, is to refer tl to an absoi of heat during the pa igi of the ordinary inl ted variety. It is an observed fact that such absorption or disappear: i ol hi ' di then take place ; whilst, when the red phosphorus is heated till it passes back to the ordinary kind, a very rapid disengagement of hi Sulphur furnishes another example of A. In the ordinary condition of roll-sulphur, yellow, brittle, crystalline solid ; insipid to taste, odourless when cold, and evolving a peculiar odour when heated or rubbed. It dissolves in small quantity in turpentine and the G . nd to the extent of 35 per cent, in bisulphurel of carbon. When common sulphur is heated to 232 . n and forms a thin, yellow, limpid liquid I oil; at 480°, it passes into a thick. dark-brown. Liquid, resembling in consiste] ordinary treacle; and if, at this stage, it be poured into water, the sulphur forms itself into a thread-like mass or net- work, possessing great elasticity, like india tubbi cue: at all brittle, and so soft, that it can be moulded by tie fingers into casts and seals. Again, this elastic form of sulphur is no! soluble in turpentine ani US, or even in bisulphuret Of carbon. There i other allotropie forms of sulphur. ( Kvgen may be taken as a third illustration of the same doctrine. In the ordinary form in wh exists in the atmosphere and elsewhere, it is with no odour, no bleaching properties, and no dis- infectant powers. To a certain extent, it oxi metals. &c; but comparatively, it maybe regarded eble oxidising agent. By several pro© - namely, the introduction of a heated glass rod into a jar containing ordinary air and a little ether; or the presence of clean-scraped sticks of phosphorus in a glass vessel with a confined portion of air; or the passage of electric discharges through or round a glass tube or bottle with air — tl Eygen of the atmospheric air is transformed into an allotropie form called ozone. In the latter condition, oxygen possesses a verystroi] long known as the electrical odour; has great bleach- ing powers, and is regarded as the agent in the air which bleaches clothes on the household bh ach- ing-green ; and possesses such powerful disinfe properties, that tainted meat introdu air, has Hie di agreeable odour destro] d, and smells fresh when taken out. Ozone is doubtless the gnat natural agent which removes man-. gases and . e. after fhiating in or diffused through the air. See Ozonk. ALLOWANCES, Officf-rs - . In the British army— and to i other countries military officers, besides their I niscd pay, receive certain A. tot duties, or ■when placed under , cceptional circumstances. Without detailing the actual amount of these A., it may be well to en rate the principal modes in which they arise. An officer command- ing and paj op or company, contingent allowance as an indemnification for the expense of repairing | , and scabbards; for burials; and for the debts of soldiers who b non-effective. A kind of general average is struck for the probable amount of these charges. An officer on duty in the United Kingdom, m a situation 167 ALLOWAY KIRK-ALLOY. entitling him to be lodged at the public expense, and whose lodging is not otherwise paid for by the public, receives an allowance as 'lodging-n ag in amount according to his rank, in officer mg with troops i» the [Jnited Kingdom, on a route determined bycompetent authority, if unable s with In ment on a particular day, receives an allowance in camp (ion. An officer scut on permanent or temp duty from one place to anotli' • . a travelling allowance of so much per mile. An officer on a court-martial receives an allowance . \ lomuch per day, besides a travelling allowance if the place bant. An officer temporarily detached on duty, where lie cannot join his regjm has an allowance for mess-money. Besides those here enumerated, there are A. for detention at ports of embarkation, &c, and othi rs of a minor kind. A. or extra payments to private soldiers and non-commissioned officers, will be noticed under Pay, Pension, &c. — The daily food served out at the public expense, which is called . rs, is more usually known to sailors as an \nce. See Ration. A'LLOWAY KIRK, an old ruined church in the parish of Ayr, mar the mouth of the J loon, celebrated in Burns's Ta wiler. At very short dii from it are the cottage in which the poet wa the monumei ! lo his memory in 1S2.'S, and the ' Twa Brigs,' 'theAuld Brig o' Doon' and the new bridge over that river. ALLOY' (in Chemistry) is .1 mixture of two or more metals, either natural, or produced artificially by melting them together. The A., or mixture, has often different properties from the component metals, and hears a distinct name. Thus, bell-metal is an A. of copper and tin; tombak, of copper and zinc; brass, of copper, with a larger proportion of zinc, &c. Alloys are generally harder than the 1 thai eompo ;e them, and this is the motive for alloy- ing the precious metals. Until gold and silver, « hen pure, are very soft, and easily worn away by use; and ther. -fore, a certain proportion of copper is added, to give these metals the requisite hardness. In this case the word 'alloy' signifies the inferior metal added, and not the mixture. For coin, the proportion "f copper to be added is fixed by law (see the following article), and differs in differenl It has been found by experiment that ,'5 of A. gives the greatest durability. This is exactly the proportion in British gold coin, a pound troy of the metal containing 11 parts gold and 1 part copper. The A. in our silver coin is somewhat less, being IS dwt in the pound instead of 20dwt. Forconveni- ence in reckoning, the standard of the coinage in France, and other countries that adopt its monetary system, as well as in the United State,;, is made ,';, pure metal and -j'rr A., usually stated 900 (in NKlli) parts line. Our gold and silver standards similarly stated WOUld be !H7 and 925 respectively. I limes alloyed with silver, or with a mixture of silver and copper. The colour of gold and silver is affected by the nature and amount of the A. A strong A of copper makes gold red ; of silver, green ; and a still stronger of silver, a bright yellow. A compound of mercury with another metal is an Amalgam (q. v.). Alloys seldom possess the density which theory or calculation from tho specific gravity of their con- stituents would indicate. Thus, many alloys po a greater density than the mean density of their cou- nts, whilst others have a less density. The increase in density of tho A. indicates that the metals have contracted; in other words, that the metallic molecules have approached each other more ; whilst the decrease in density denotes ■ separation of the molecules to greater distances from each other. AI.I.OVS which exhibit ■ greater denolty Ityofthe metals composing them. Gold and Zinc. „ ,, I n » Bismuth. n ii Antimony. „ Cobalt. Silver „ Zinc. ,. Tin. i, n Bismuth. ,, » Antimony. C ii. Zinc , Tin. I, .. Palladium. n ., Bismuth. Lead ii Antimony. Platinum and Molybdenum. Palladium .. bismuth. The strength or cohe i if an A. is generally greater than that of the mean eh. ■ ..hi nl I lie metal . contained therein, or even of that of the most cohesive of its constituents. Thus, the breaking weight of a bar of copper or tin (meaning the longitudinal strain it can bear) is very much lower ihan the breaking weight of a bar composed of an A. of tin and copper. The following bibles represent the ALLOYS which poma ii !.■- than tl ii mi .In.- It] ni lie- metala composing them. Hold and Silver, n ii Iron. ., bead. a H Co] •i h Irid Nickel. i loppei . Bismuth. Antimony. Lead. Lead. Palladium. Antimony. Bilvi r. Antiii. Silver llell Tin Nickel Zinc COHESION OF 51 ETA I.S. Bar, one Incl hreuks v. nl. it >i. Barbary Copper, 22,570 i. 20,272 lish Block Tin, . 6,650 ii .1 a 6,322 Bar a Tin, . 3,679 Malacca Tin, 3,211 Bismuth, 3.00S Zinc, 2.6S9 Antimony, . 1,060 bead, 8S5 When any two of the al iovo metals combine her, they generally — hough not al grays — yield an A. which is much stronger than wo slioidd expect ; thus the COHESION OF ALLOYS. * Bar, one inch square, 3 L-iils with lb.. 10 parts of Copper and 1 part of Tin, . 32,093 8 „ n 1 it ii 36,088 G i, „ 1 i, ii 44,071 4 „ „ 1 ii „ 85,739 2 „ „ 1 i, it • 1,017 1 „ ,. 1 „ „ 725 ■1 „ English Tin and 1 „ Lead, . 10,607 4 i, lianca ii ii 1 ,, Antimony,13,4S0 4 „ , 1 ii bismuth, 10,0U2 4 „ English Tin » 1 „ Zinc, . 10,258 4 n ii ii ii 1 « Antimony, 11,323 The power of conducting electrical currents is not so great in an A. as the mean conducting- [lower of its components. The composition of the more commonly occurring and commercially important alloys, is as follows : Plumber's solder, 1 tin and 2 lead ; soft solder, 2 tin and 1 lead ; common pewter, 4 tin and 1 lead ; gun-nietal, 9 copjier and 1 tin ; bronze, 9 copper and 1 tin and zinc ; cymbals and Chinese gongs, 4 copper ALLOY— ALLSTOX. and 1 tin ; bell-metal, .'; copper and 1 tin ; speculum metal, - copper and 1 tin ; pot-metal or cock-metal, 2 copper and 1 lead; gilding-metal, 16 copper and 1 to 1 1 zinc; Mannheim gold pinchbeck or bath- metal, L6 copper and 4 zinc; Bristol brass, for Soldering, 16 copper and 6 zinc; ordinary I ting, 16 copper and 8 zinc; Muntz sheathing- metal, 16 copper and 10J zinc; spelter Bolder, for rand iron, L6 copper and 12 zinc; gp liter solder, for brass- work, 16 copper and 16 zinc; Mosaic gold, 16 copper and 16* zinc; hardest silver Bolder, 4 silver and 1 copper; hard .silver solder, 3 silver and 1 copper; soft silver solder, 2 .silver and 1 copper; German silver, 100 i ipper, 60 zinc, and 40 nickel; type-metal, ordinary, 15 lead, -1 . ■ . and 1 tin, or 14 lend, 7> antimony, and 1 tin small types, 4 lead and 1 antimony — lar • type . 6 lead and 1 antimony; stereotype metal, 48 lead, 6 antimony, and 1 tin ; Britannia metal, 50 tin, 4 antimony, 4 In ninth, and 1 copper. ALLOY, or ALLAY (in Law), the term used to denote the base metal mixed with gold and silver in the coinage of tho realm. The gold and silver to be converted into sovereigns, half-sovereigns, shillings, and the other current silver coins, must be of the I in standard, or ol sterling quality, as it is called; and by the statute 25 Edward 111. c. 13, all the coin ot the kingdom must be made of such ster- ling metal. By the 50 Geo. III. c. liS, gold coin — with certain exceptions recited in the act — is declared to he tho only legal tender for payments, and that such gold coin shall be of the weight and linencss prescribed by the indenture with the Master of the Mint; and according to the standard thus indicated, the pound troy of gold, consisting of twenty-two carats — or twenty-fourth parts — fine, and two of A., is divided into forty-four guineas and a half, of the pre- sent value of twenty-one shillings each. In the case of silver, the pound troy is declared by the same act — extended by a recent statute, the 12 and 13 Vict. c. 41 — to consist of eleven ounces two penny- weights of fine silver, and eighteen pennyweights of A., and in weight to be divided into sixty-six shillings. The regulation of the coinage forms part of the prerogative of the crown, although parliament also exercises a control over it; indeed, since the Revolution, the coinage has been chiefly regulated by the authority of parliament. See COINAGE and .Mint. ALL-SAINTS' BAY, in the province of Bahia, Brazil, in 12°— 13" S. lat., and 38°— 39° W. long. It forms a superb natural harbour, iu which the _ navies of the whole world might anchor. Its length from X. to S. is 37 miles ; its breadth from E. to W. 27. It contains several islands, the largest of which, Itaparica, is 18 miles long, and 3 broad. The entrance to the bay is easy. The town of Bahia (q. v.) lies just within it, on the right hand. ALL-SAINTS'-DAY, in old English, All-ITal- lows, All-Hallowmas, or simply Hallowmas, a festival of the iioman Catholic Church, introduced because of the impossibility of keeping a separate day for every saint. As early as the 4th c, on the cessation of the persecution of the Christians, the Sunday after Easter was appointed by the Greek Church for commemorating the martyrs generally; and in the i mirch of Homo a similar festival was introduced about G10 A.D., when the old heathen Pantheon (the present liotouda, or Santa Maria dei iMartiri) was consecrated, on the 13th of March, to Maiy and all the Martyrs. But the real festival of All Saints was iirst regularly instituted by Gregory IV., in 835, and appointed to be celebrated on tho 1st November. It was admitted into England about 870. The choice of the day was doubtless determined by the fact, that November 1, or rather the eve or night preceding it, was one of tie . ,|-, d-t I'ebruary, 1st May, 1st An 1st November) of the heathen nations of the north; for it was the of the church to supplant heathen by Christian observances. .. I. ; , m: and Hallow i ALL-SOTTLSVDAY, a festival of the Roman Catholic Church, which falls on the iM of Novem- ber, 'l lie object of it is, by prayers and almsi to alleviate i i js of the souls in purgatory! It was Iirst instituted in tin- monastery of Clugny, 993, and the following is the account givi n i circumstance in which it originated: A pUgr m return- ing from the Holy Land, was compelled by a storm to land on a rocky island somewh n en Sicily and Thessalonica. Here he- found a hermit, who told him that among the cliffs of Un- island was situated the opening into the under world, thn huge flames ascended, and the groans and cries of souls tormented by evil angel ndible. The hermit had also frequently heard the compl and imprecations of the devils, at the number of souls that were torn from them by the pi and alms of the pious; they were especially enraged, he said, against the Abbot and monks of (1 The pilgrim on his arrival acquainted OdUo, ' of Clugny, with what had come to his know- ledge, and tho abbot thereupon appointed the day after All Saints to be kept in his monastery as an annual festival for 'All Souls.' The observance was quickly adopted by the whole Catholic world. By another account, the scene of the incident is transferred to Sicily, and the institution to the year 90S. In some parts of the west of England it is still 'the custom for the village children to go round to all their neighbours sending, as they caU it — collecting small contributions, and singing the following . taken down from two of the children themselves : Soul! bouII for a soul-cake ; Pray, g i mistress, for a M>ul-cako. One f"i Peter, two for Paul, Three for Them who made us Ml. Soul ! rouI ! for an apple or two : If you 've got no Apples, pears will do. Up willi \our kettle, and down with your pan [ Give me a good big one, and 1 11 be gone. The soul-cake referred to in the verses is a sort of bun, which, untd lately, it was an almost general custom for people to make, ami to give to one another on the 2d of November.' — Xotes and < t >. First Series, vol. 4. A'LLSPICE, a name frequently given to the kind of spiee called 1'iMr.M.v (q. V.) or Jamaica pepper, the fruit of Eugenia pimenta and £'. The name originated in its being supposed to com- bine the flavour of differen particularly cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. — The name Caboi isa A., or A.MKKICAX A., is given to the aromatic bark of Calycanthiu floridus (see Caxycaotitob), which is employed in tho United States as a substitute for cinnamon. — The berries of B ri/erum, of the natural order Lauracete, are said to have been used for A. in the same country during the war with Great Britain. ALLSTOX, WASHINGTON, one of the best known of the painters and poets of America, was born at George Town, South Carolina, in 1770. He at tirst prosecuted the study of medicine, but was after- wards induced, by his acquaintance with the painter Malbone, to devote himself to art. When he had completed his studies in America, he went to London, where he became a friend of his countryman Wi it, who was at that time president of the Academy. In the year 1804, he proceeded to Home, where he US ALLUVION— AT. MM : P.O. lived for some yean in the closest intimacy with .1. Vanderlyn, Thorwaldsen, and Colerid e. after a short stay in America, to which be retained in 1809, In- once more visited England in 1811, when he fthi 200 guinea prize of the British Institution, ii 1817 1"' went to Paris with Leslie, and tl • after returned to America. In 1819, he was elected .in Associate of the Royal Academy of London. He now permanently fixed his n > I ambridge Port, near Boston, where he lived, cultivating b ami the muses, till liis death on the Stli of Jul} |s(:;. His pictures are very munero of them are mostly taken from Scripture, such as, -i ii . Dream, Elijah in the Wilderness, Saul and . itch of Endor, the Deliveiance of Peter out of Prison, &c The style of A. is noble, bis ideas are imaginative, and man) of bis paintin true poetic spirit. In cohiuring, ho ■ ■ i- tin' old masters than most modern painters do. Among bis printed works, tin- most remarkable and known is the poem, The Sylpi (published first in Lond 1813), and the art-novel, Monaldi (Bost 1842). ALLU'VIOX. This is .-i I gal term, nifyinc land gained fro up of sand and earth bo as to mak< the right of pro lated as follows in the laws o) Eingland and Scotland: By the law of i land, if the addition to the soil thus made be by little and little, by small i it goes t'i the owner of the land immediately in' I; bul if ! L, be a Budden and considerable acquisition from the ihore, the ground acquired shall belong t" the crown. Where, however, the crown ma} bavi mad< s grant to a subject cum that is. the Bpace between the bigh and low water marks it would seem that a sudden iiii increase of lands by A. within these limits must belong to the grantee. In the Scotch law, again, if the A. is mad. insensibly, it is said to 'accresce' to, or become the propertj w the owner of the ground to which the addition is made; but if it be caused bj a violent il 1. or by any convulsion of nature, the ground so added to the Boil does not belong i" tl « in y the I; us. They were rented by the Fu ei of Augsburg in the 16th c, but were taken under the eaie ot the Spanish government in 1645. Some years since, the hrm of Rothschild undertook the working of these mines. There is a Bchool of mines in the pi A'LMAGEST, the name given by the Arabs to the great work of Ptolemy the astronomer (q. v.). ALMAGRO, Dikoo i>', a Spanish conquistador — i.e„ advent in c in the conquest of South Ami ri a, im in 1 Ifi I. He was a foundling, and derived his name from the town in the vicinity of which lie v i found. Alone with many other adventurers, he went, as was common in thos ■ days, to Seek his fortune in the new* world which Columbus had Opened up. There he insiderable wealth by plunder, and became one of the most influential in tic new colony "f Darieii, when he was led to join Pizarro in his attack on Peru. The undertaking was crowned with astonishing Ei now appointed, in the absence of Pizarro, who bad returned to Spain with rich i\ r of the conquered country, and 1 permission from the Spanish court to conquer for himself a special province south of the territory subdued by Pi/arro. In I'M, therefore, he man 1" d on Chili, penetrated deeply into the land, and returned in 1536, just when the Peruvians had flown to arms under their young Inca, Mungo L'apae, and shut up the Spaniards in CUZCO and Puna. A< these towns lay south of Pizarro's district, they were * Almack, it is said, was originally a poor Scottisli 1 1 i trli - lander, named M'Call. As a preparatory step to rising into importance in London, he inverted the syllables of his name. ALMALEE— ALMANAi . claimed by A. He dispersed the Peruvian army before Cuzco, and advanced with his forces against Lima, hoping to make In !i sole master of the coimtry. But the crafty Pizarro contriyedj by means of a truce, to pain time for collecting his forces. On the Oth of April 1538, a desperate engaj i mi al took place near Cuzco, in which A. was defeated and taken prisoner. He was condemned to death; and on the 26th of the same month, he was stra in prison, and his corpse beheaded in the market- place of Cuzco. His s.m, Diego d'A., gathering together Beveral hundreds of his father's followers, stormed the palace of Pizarro, whom he assassinated (loll); he then proclaimed himself captain-general of Peru; but, the I'm nils of tin- murdered governor ng his claims, Baca de Castro was sent out Spain, as Bupreme arbiter, to quell all disturb- ances. Diego was now requested to submit; and on In attacked by the troops of Baca, i the bloodiest battle took place that had evi r known in America (1542). Diego, having defeated and taken prisoner, was executed along with forty of his companions. ALMALEE, or A I, .MA LI', a large town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Anatolia. It is .-■ on the river Myra. about 25 miles from the sea, and is much frequented by European merchants from .Smyrna, &c, who purchase the various products of the place. A. has numerous mills propelled by r, tan-yards, dye-works, and factories. The inhabitants are very industrious, and everywhere may be seen indications of their prosperity — in the clean and comfortable houses, neat apparel, excellent roads, fences, bridges, &c. A. is built m a picturesque valley at the edge of a large plateau, 5000 feet above the sea, and is embosomed in gardens, which, together with the minarets and lofty poplars interspersed through the town, give it a striking appearance. Top. 20,000. " A'LJIA MATER (I.at. nourishing mother) is a name given to a university in relation to those who have studied at it, to distinguish it from inferior schools of learning. The word Alum (nourishing, sustaining, or kind) was applied by the Latin authors to such of tlie deities as were friendly to men — I lares, Venus, &C, and also to the earth, the light, the day, wine, and the soil. A'LMANAC, from the Arabic article at, and manah, to count, a word received by tic European nations from the east, denoting a book or table con- taining a calendar of the civil divisions of the year, the times of the various astronomical phenomena, and other useful m- entertaining information. Till a comparatively modern date, this additional matter consisted of astrological predictions and other analo- gous absurdities; it now embraces, in the best almanacs, a wide variety of useful notes and infor- mation, chronological, statistical, political, agricul- tural, &c. — The Alexandrian Greeks had almanacs. The tune at which they first appeared in Europe is not precisely known. The oldest of which copies (in manuscript) still exist, are of the 14th c. ; there are specimens in the libraries of the British M and of Corpus Christi College. Cambridge, The earliest European A. worthy of notice was compiled by the celebrated astronomer 1'urbach, and appeared between the years 1450 and 1401 ; but the first printed A. was thai composed by his pupil. I: montauus, for the thirty years from 1475 to 1500, for whuh he received a munificent donation from Mathias Corvinus, king of Hungary. Bernard de Or; lacks of Barcelona commenced the publication of an A. in 14S7 ; the printer Kngel of Vienna, in 1491; and stoillcr of Tubingen, in 1524 Copies of these are now very rare. In 1533 Rabelais published. at Lyon, his A. for that year, and renewed the publication in 1535, 1548, and 1550. The fane [popularity of the celebrated astrologer, Nostradamus, who prophesied minutely the death of Henry II. of France, the execution of i harles I. of England, the great lire of London, the Restoration, &&, gave u impulse to the publication of predictions, that, in 1579, Henry III. of France prohibited the insertion of any political prophecies in almanacs — a prohibition renewed by Louis XIII. in 1628. ;io . .ii the reign of Charles IX., a royal ordonna red every a. to be stamped with the approval of the diocesan bishop, I'rophetic almanacs still circulate to an incr extent in Prance in the rural districts, and among the uneducated. The most popular of all these is tl,.- Almanac]) LitgeoU, a vem remnant of superstition. It was lirst published at Liege — according to the invariable title-page which takes no note of tune — in 1036, by one Matthieu Laensbergh, whose existence, however, at any time seems very problematical The Abnanach LiigeoU is . convenient one for those who are unable to read, for by certain symbols attached to certain dates, the most unlettered persons can follow its instructions ; thus the rude representation of a phial announces the j. roper phase of the moon under which a draught of medicine should be taken; a pill-box desigi the planet most propitious for pills ; a pair of scissors points out the proper period for cutting hair, a lancet for letting blood. Of course, amidst innumerable [predictions, some may naturally be expect come to pass. So in 1774, this A. predicted that in the April of that year a royal favourite would play her last part. Madame Dubarry took the prediction to herself, and repeatedly exclaimed : 'I wish this villanous month of April were over.' In May Louis XV. died, and Madame Dubanv's la-t [part was really played. The credit of old Matthieu was established more firmly than ever. In 1s5l' a number of commissioners, appointed fay M. Maupas, minister of police, having examined between 7000 and 8000 of the national chapbooks, which included a great number of almanacs, pronounced thi deleterious, that it became necessary forcibly to check their circulation. Although still in vogue amongst tin- ignorant peasantry, it is gratifying to learn that then; popularity is greatly on the wane, ami that various periodicals on a better plan have starteil up in France of late years. In England, so far was any restraint from being put upon the publication of prophetic almanacs, or • Prognostications,' as they were usually called, that tic royal letters-patent _:tve a monopoly of the trade to the two Universities and the Stationers' Company, under whose patronage, ami with the imprimatur of the Archbishop of Canterbury, such productions as Moore's A. and Poor Robin's A. flourished rigorously; although 'it would be diffi- cult t'l find, in so small a COmpaSS, an equal .plau- tity of ignorance, profligacy, and imposture, aa was condensed in tins' publications.' The met ef Partridge, long employed as the prophet of the Stationers' Company, is preserved in the lively diatribe of Sv, n't. writing under the name of Bicker- stall'. In 1775. a < the Court . if Common Pleas, in favour of a bookseller named Carnan, abolish dl n ipoly of tie- Stationers' Company. In 1779, Lord K ht in a bill renewing their [privileges. the measure by Erskine, who exposed the pernicious influence of the productions published and monopoly . it was I Statio iers' • !om- [i.inv, however, still maintained their ground by buying up all rival almanacs; and it was not until the publication, in I.S28. of the J!,itU'i A. by the 161 ALMANAC— ALMEIDA. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, that tin? eyes nf the English public became opened tu the irrational and del lure of the comm which their own indifference or folly, as much aa the selfishness of their purveyors, had hitherto maintained in exist ei hi i icceaB of this admir- publication — which still continues to appear annually — stimulated the Stationers' Company to improvement, ami they accordingly published the Englishman's .-!., which is entirely tree from the superstitious absurdities of its predecessors. hi Scotland the earliest almanacs seem to have beginning of the 16th c. ly after the beginning of the 17th c, the Almanacs or 'Prognostications' published at Aber- deen had begun to establish that celebrity which is hardly yet extinct. About the year 1077, they were sold for a pi ; and the annual circulation amounted, on an average, to 60,000 [n lO.s.'i appeared a rival publication, under the title of Edinburgh's . or a Nt to PrognosH- '. For a long time the Scottish almanacs con- tinued, like all others of that age, to contain little besides a calendar, with a list of fairs, and — what ' uted the great attraction — predictions of the weather. But sumething more instructive and com- prehensive became requisite, and the Edinburgh A. seems to have been among the first to respond to this requirement of advancing civilisation ; for, by vari- dditions, such as a list of Scottish members of parliament, it had, in 1 7-1-""'. been extended from the original 10 pages to 36. In twelve years from that date, it had swelled to 72 pages; in 1779 it had reached 252pa i . Since 1837, it has been published under the title oi ' Boyd's New burgh A., and now (1859) extends to 800 pages. It contains an amount of information on all public matters, especially on those connected with North Britain, which, in its completeness, leaves little to be de- What Oliver and Boyd's Edinburgh A. is to Scot- land, is Thorn's Irish A. to Ireland— a work not less excellent, and even more extensive. Almanacs, containing astrological and other pre- dictions, are still published in Great Britain, but their influence is extremely limited, even among the most ignorant portion of the community, and their contents are fitted to excite amusement rather than any stronger emotion. Of important national almanacs are the French Almanack Imperial, begun in 1079, a bulky octavo volume, fidl of useful information; the B ' A., very similar in character; the Prussian Royal A. ; and the American A., a very meritorious publication. The Almanack •' Ootha, begun in 1703, has a European, or rather a cosmopolitan character. See Gutha, A. de. The most important astronomical A. published in Britain is the Nautical A., projected by the nomer-royal, Dr Maskelyne, and first, publi bed, with the authority of government, in 1 T < '■ T - lu3 death it gradually lost its character, and in 1S30, in consequence of the numerous complaints made against it, the government requested the Astroi - i sty to pronounce upon the sub- ject. The - of the Society were adopted, I be first number of the new appeared, with such additions and improvem the advanced state of astronomical science re necessary. Still older than this A. is the Freni b commenced in 107!' by . and now published under the authority Bureau des Lontfitu les. Its plan is similar to that of the Nautical A., but it contain .mount j.iual memoirs, many of them of great value. Equally celebrated is the Berlin Ephcmcris, published under the superintendence of Professor Encke, being an improvement on tin I ./ ultrliuch, so lncteil by Ins predecessor B Another kind of A., which has especially flour- ished in Germany and France, belongs rather to the class of publications known in Bi Such are the A Populairc, Icarien, Wapoteonien, &c, the latter of whichare specially devoted to the interests of parti- cular parties, political or i .Of this kind, the examples in Britain are innumerable, and, in fact, the publication of an A. has now become a favourite medium of advertising and puffery. The heavy stamp-duty of fifteenpenoe per copy, to which almanacs were long liable in the United Kingdom, was abolished in 1834, since which time, the character, number, and circulation of this class of publications have strikingly advanced. There is new a very large sale of almanacs in Great Britain for popular use, at not more than one penny each. A i.man wo is also the term applied by antiquaries to calendars found carved, usually on staves, but also on tablets of wood, scabbards of swords, handles of hatchets, &c. The inscribed charactei sometimes the Runic — hence the name of runstaffs, Sri/iion and sometimes the Gothic. The Saints' days are denoted by symbols, as a pair of shoes for St Crispin's Day. These primitive almanacs were in use among the Scandinavian nations, and the examples of them found in Britain are thought to have been introduced by the Norsemen. ALMANSOR, or, with his full name, Abu-Jafer- Abdallah - ben - Mohammed - al - Manser (al - mansor, 'helped by God'), the second calif of the house Abbasides (q. v.), reigned from 754 to 775. Warfare, treachery, and murder were his steps to the throne, and his whole rule was as cruel as its beginning. He especially persecuted the Christians in Syria and Egypt. In war against external foes, he had but little success. He removed the seat of the califate from Kufa to Bagdad, which he built at immense cost, raising the money by oppressive taxation. He introduced the pernicious custom of making his freed slaves, mostly foreigners, rulers of provinces. The best feature in his character was his patronage of learning. He can mails of Euclid to be translated from the Syriac, and the famous fables of Bidpai (q. v.) from the Persian lai L died during a pilgrimage to Mecca, in the sixty-third year of his age. ALMETDA, one of the strongest fortified places in Portugal, is situated on the river Coa, on the Spanish frontier, in the province of Beira. Pop. 6000. In 1762, it was captured by the Spaniards, who soon afterwards surrendered it. Here, in 1S10, when the French, under Marshal Ney, attempted to cross the Coa into Portugal, the English colonel, Cox, defended the town against Marshal Mas but the explosion of a powder-magazine compelled him to capitulate. In their retreat from Portugal, 1811, the French, under General Brenier, destroyed at portion of the fortifications of A.; which, Id. .ever, were speedily repaired by the English. ALMEIDA Dos Francesco d', a famous Portuguese warrior, who flourished in the latter part of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th c. He was the seventh son of the Count of Abrantes, and at an early period distinguished himself in the wars with the Moors, but especially at the conquest of Granada, in 1492. In 1505 his sovereign, Emanuel L, in consideration of his great abilities, appointed lihn viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in the Indies. On the 25th of March, he set sail from Lisbon with a fleet of 36 vessels, containing 1500 men, many of whom were noblemen, and all ALMERIA— A LMONTX of good family. On the 22d of July, he reached Quiloa, on the Mozambique coast, where he was Boon involved in a quarrel with the king of that city, the result of which was that A. deprived him of his crown, built a fortress to overawe the inhabit- ants, and proceeding to Zanzibar, destroyed the 'if Mombaza. He then saUed for the Indies, rting ( verywhere the superiority of the I'ortu- flag. At Cananor, Cochin, Coulan, Ceylon, umatra, he either built fortresses, to protect factories and commercial interests of his nation, bablished new factories. With the king of Malacca, a commercial treaty was formed about the same time. His son, Lorenzo, carried on several Htions as his father's lieutenant, visited Ceylon, iscovered the Maldive Islands and Madagascar. The chief design of A. was to make the Portuguese sole masters of the Indian seas, and by block Ih- Persian and Arabian gulfs, to exclude the Egyptians and Venetians from commerce with the To frustrate his endeavours, the Egyptian sultan fitted out, by the help of the Venetians, a large fleet, which, under the command of the vi, _Mii- Hakim (or Hossein, according to others), was sent to the assistance of the king of Calicut. In the port of Chaul, young Lorenzo was attacked in very disadvantageous circumstances by Mr- Hakim. He fought with astonishing bravery; his ships had all but made their escape out to the open sea, when his own was separated from the others, and struck upon a rock ; one chance shot carried off one of his legs, and another, tearing away a part of his side, killed him. His father speedily took measures to revenge the death of hi upon the hated Mussulmans, when Alfonso d' Albuquerque appeared on the scene (1507), having been sent out by the Portuguese government to supersede A., whom it had begun to distrust, on account of his brilliant successes. The latter refused to recognise Albnqnerqne as viceroy, and for some months kept him prisoner at Cochin. He now- sailed along the coasts, burning and plundering various seaports, amongst others Goa, and at length utterly destroyed the Egyptian fleet at Diu. From this lierce anil avenging expedition, he returned to Cochin, resigned his office into the hands of Ins successor, and set out on his homeward voyage, November 13, 1~>I>8. But he was not destined to see his native land again, for he was slain in an obscure affray with the savages at ('ape Saldanha, in the south of Africa, where his men had landed. He was a man of stern, rigorous, and yet impulsive character, capable of severe retaliation of injuries, but not destitute of clemency and generosity. ALMERI'A (Arab. Al-Meryah, 'the conspicu- ous'), anciently Murgis, or Porta* Magma, the chief town in the Spanish province of the same name, at the mouth of the river Almeria. It has a well-defended harbour, a cathedral, besidi churches and monasteries, and a grammar-school. In the time of the Moors, it was, next to (Jranada, the richest and most important town in the kingdom, and flourished alike in arts, industry, and commerce, being the 'great port' of traffic with Italy and the At one time, it was as terrible a nest of as Algiers itself, under the Moorish chief 11m Mayman, when even Granada, according to the proverb, was merely its 'farm.' New, it has only a few trifling manufactures, although it still keeps up considerable trade in cochineal, red silk, lead, grapes. and especially wine. The cotton-tree has been planted in the environs of A. by English merchants. Pop. 20,000. ALMOIIADES, the name of a dynasty that ruled in Africa and Spain during the 12th and 13th centuries. The word is Arabic, and signifies Uni- tarians. It was taken as a term of distinction ; for the A. considered themselves the only Mohammedans ! who worshipped God properly. The founder of this ! sect, which at first was religions rather than polit- .-. as called Mohammed [bn-Toumert, a native : of the Atlas region. He was a man of a bo] subtile intellect, and extremely ambitions. He had led much, and acquired a manifold knowledge and experience. His first measures wen- extremely prudent. He commenced preaching with great zeal the reformation of all abuses, affecting himself an austere and unselfish life. He went about covered with rays, prohibiting wine, music, and all pleasures. At first, his denunciations were generally held in contempt; but at length his partisans became so numerous, that Ali, bine of Marocco, was compelled I to take measures against him. It was, ho too late. The Arabs and Berbers flocked to his standard ; and at the end of a few years, he was J master of the provinces of Fez, Marocco, 'Denizen, Oran, and Tunis. Mohammed imposed on his disciples new ceremonies, and composed for their benefit a special treatise, entitled On ilt, : l_ God. The A. extended their conquests into Spain, sul i jugating Andalueia. Granada. Valencia, and a part of Aragon, and Portugal as far as the Ebro and Tagus. Mohammed was succeeded in his authority by Abdelmoumen, who had formerly been his lieu- tenant. Under him and his descendants, Jussuf and Jacob, the dynasty of the A. continued to flourish in great splendour. But in 1212 they were com- pletely defeated by the Spaniards in the famous battle of Tolosa, the residt of which was a general revolt of the Christian provinces under their sway. The power of the A. was destroyed in Spain in 1257, and in Africa in 1269. A'LMOND (Amygdalus), a genus of the natural order Rosacea (q. v.), sub-order eorDntp- acece, consisting of trees or shrubs, distinguished by Almond [Amyytlalus communis). the coarsely furrowed and wrinkled shell (. mlocarp or puiamen) of the drupe, and by the young leaves being COnduplicate, or having their sides 1 r. According to the greater number of botanists, it includes the Peach (q.v.), consti- tuted by some into a distinct genus, Persica, in 163 ALMOXDS, FIXED OIL OF— ALMONDS, VOLATILE OIL OF. which the drape has a fleshy covering [sara whereas, in toe bo which the name \. i [Only given, this part is a dry Gbrona husk, which shrivels as the fruit ripens, and finally *>|>ciis of its own accord. The A.-tn e | i is very similar to the ] and is distinguished from it principally, besides the differ- of the fruit, by the fine glandulous Berraturee of the leaves, the stalk of which equal eds, in length the breadth of the blade. [1 t 20 .'in feet high, a native of the East and of Africa, bat has now be ipletely wild in the whole south of Europe. Even in the re northern parts of Germany and of Britain it is planted for the sake of its beautiful flowers, which are produced in great abundance, and resemble those of the peach in form and often in colour, although illy paler and sometimes white. The Uossonis appear before the Leaves, and are ■ ■'/■ oraai in shrubberies in March and April; ami even when frosts destroy the germ of tie- fruit, the brilliancy of the flower is not impaired. The wood of the A. -tree is hard, and of a reddish colour, ami is used by cabinet-makers, &c. But it is chiefly valued on account of the kernel of its fruit, well known by the name of Ai mohds, and forming an im- portant article of commerce, for the of which it is extensively culti- :n the south of Europeand other countries of similar climate. It in men- tioned in the Old Testament, and ap- pears to have been cultivated from a very early period. It was introduced into Britain as a fruit-tree before the middle of the llitli c; but it is only in tip' most favoured situations in the south of England that it ever product fruit. — Almonds are either sweet or bitter. The bitter appear to be the original kind, and the sweet to be an accidental variety, perpetuated and improved by cultivation. Sweet Llmonds contain a large quantity of a very bland, fixed oil, emulsion, gum, ami mucilage sugar, an- of a very agreeable . and very nutritious, and in the it. in confectionary, and medicinally in an i niMlsiou. which forms a pleasant, cooling, diluent drink. Bitter Almonds contain the sane- Bub- stances, ami, in addition, a substance called amyg dalin, from which is obtained a peculiar volatile oil. i For tie' oils derived from almonds, Bee the following articles.) — The muddy water of tin Nil'' is clarified by robbing bitter almonds on the sides of the water- vessels, in the same way in which the nuts of the Strychnos potatorum (see Clearing Not) are used in India. The principal varieties of A. in cultivation are — the common sweet A., with thick hard shell; tie- on ■''. with a very thin, almost leathery brittle shell, and sweet kernels; the bitter A., witli thick hard shell (sometimes also with a brittle shell), and bitter kernels; the la ', with large flowers of a whitish rose-colour, aud very large sweet fruit; the smaU-frmted, with very small sweet fruit ; and the peacli A., with a slightly suc- culent blackish sarcocarp (see above), yellow shell, and sweet kernels. The sarcocarp is, in the different varieties, more or less dry, or somewhat fleshy and juicy, so that some authors have disputed even the Almond. specific distinction between tin- A. and tin- peach. In commercr, the long almonds of M iwn as Jordan almonds, and tin- broad almonds of Valencia, -t valued. Large quantities of almond annually imported into Britain ami America from Prance, Spam, Italy, and the Levant, Bitter almonds are brought to Britain chiefly from Moga- don.— The Dwarf A. [A. nana) a very shjiilar to immon A., except that it is a low shrub, seldom more than - or ;i feet in height. Its fruit i similar, but much smaller. It is common in the plains of the south of Russia, ami is frequently planted a, an ornamental shrub in Britain, flow i in March and April, but not producing fruit. It is very beautiful when covered with its pink flowers in spring, ami deserves to be more frequently I than ii i-- A sheltered but sunny situation is favourable to it. other species, little known, but very similar to these, are found in the east, and one on arid hills in Mexico. ALMONDS, Fixr.t. On, m. When almonds aiv subjected to pressure, a li lather bitter or .-■.. .Is may be employed; I ait tin- former are generally used, as they are chi than the bwi i ^pressed cal valuable in the | preparation of the essential oU. 1 cwt. of the almonds generally yields 4s to 52 lbs. of the lixed nil. \\ In n first obtained, it possesses a turbid or milky appearance; but when allowed to stand at rest, the impurities settle, and B ■!. ir, light, yellow oil remains above. It has the specific gravity of 918, and solidities when reduced to — l.'i° F. It has i dour, and to the taste is truly oleaginous and bland. I i in medicine, ami possesses a mild laxative property, when administered in large doses. It is often given to newly born infants, mixed with sirup 01 violets or sirup of roses. It is beneficial, also, iu allaying tronbli coughs, when administered with confection of roses and sirup of poppies. ALMONDS, Volatile On, or Essential On. of. The cake which is left after the e sion of the lixed oil from bitter A., contains, among other matters, a portion of two substa called, respectively, anivgdalin, and cmulsin or synaptase. When the' eake is bruised ami into a paste with water, the synaptase acts ferment upon the amygdalin, and 1 atom of the latter resolves itself into ■_' atoms of volatile oil of bitter A., 1 atom hydrocyanic (prussic i acid, 1 atom pe-sugar, '2 atoms formic acid, and 7 atoms of water. This paste is placed in a retort, and allowed to stand for 24 hours, when beat is cautiously applied, and distillation carried on. The volatile oil rises in vapour, and passes over into the receiver, accompanied by much water, and contaminated with a considerable amount of prussic acid. The oil is not originally present iu the hitter A. ; in fact, the latter do not contain a trace of the oil i formed, so that the oil is purely the product of the fermentation of amygdalin, 100 parts of which yield 47 of crude oil. Commercial oil of bitter A. has a golden yellow colour, but may be purified so as to be almost colourless. The crude oil is very poisonous, owing to the prussic acid dissolved therein, and many fatal cases have occurred from the wilful, accidental, ami careless use of the oil. It is unfortunate that the manufacturers of the volatile oil should not subject the crude oil to the action of lime and an iron salt, and then re-distil, when the prussic acid would be left lixed bytho lime ' and iron, and the pure volatile oil be alone obtained I in the receiver. As so procured, the pure oil is not j a dangerous poison. The oil has an agreeable odour, j an acrid, bitter taste, and burns with a smcky white ALMONER— ALOES. flame. It is heavier than water, being of the den- sity of 1083; is soluble in water to the extent of 1 port in 30 parts of water, and is very soluble in alcohol and ether. Heated to 356° F., it boil distils over unaltered ; and, exposed to the air, it is gradually oxidised into benzoic acid. The oil is called by the chemist the hydride of benzoyle. In medicine, the volatile oil is used in place of prussic acid, but is very variable in strength, being some- times four times the strength of medicinal prussic arid. The dose is a quarter of a drop to a drop and a half in an emulsion. The cook and confectioner employ the oil for flavouring custards, &c, and the perfumer uses it for scenting toilet-soap, &c. A'LMONER is the name given originally to that member of a religions order who had the distribu- tion of the money and other things set apart for alius, which, by canonical law, was to amount to at least a tenth of the revenues of the establishment. Afterwards, those ecclesiastics also received this name who were appointed by princes to the same in their households. The Grand A. of France was one of the principal officers of the court and of the kingdom, usually a cardinal, and, in right of his office, commander of all the orders, and also chief director of the great hospital for the blind. Qui us, princes, and princesses had also their almoners, and bishops were usually appointed to this office. In England, the office of Hereditary Grand Ah/toner is now a sinecure, his only duty being lo distribute the coronation medals among the assembled spectators. The Lord High Almoner, who is usually a bishop, distributes twice a year the Queen's bounty, which consists in giving a silver- penny each to as many poor persons as the Queen is years of age. A'LMUG TREE, or ALGUM TREE This name, occurring in the Old Testament, was formerly supposed to denote a species of Acacia, or a conifer- ous tree like the cypress ; but it is now thought more probable that it was one of the kinds of Sandal- wood (q. v.), the Santalum album, a native of India. ALNTIS. See Alder. A'LNWICK (town upon the Alue), the county town of Northumberland, is situated in lat. 55 25' N., long. 1° 42' W., and is distant about 34 miles from Newcastle. The streets are broad, well paved, and well lighted, the houses modern, built of stone, and in some instances handsome. A large market- place occupies the centre of the town. The town-hall is a spacious building crowned with a tower. -V. was at an early period a fortified town, and same fragments of the ancient walls even yet remain. An ancient gate, built by Hotspur, still forms one of the entrances to the city. A. ' tic resideaj I the Dukes of Northumberland, stands at the north entrance of the town. It was repaired some years ago, and is con one of the most magnificent baronial structures in England. During the middle a'.'es. it was a bulwark against the invasions of the Scots, who thrice besieged it. A. is the election town for the north division of the county. It has various charity schools, a mechanics' institute, a theatre, &C, but the trade is insignificant: Pop. C300. A'LOE (Aloe), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order LUiacea (q. v.) sub-order Alointat, dis- tinguished by a regular cylindrical perianth in six pieces, , \paiided at the mouth, and nectariferous at the base, the stamens hypogynous, or springing from beneath the germen, the ovules indenni number, the fruit a membranous three-celled capsule. The species are numerous, natives of warm coun- tries, especially of the southern parts of Africa. About fifty miles from Cape Town is a mountainous tract completely covered with aloes, and the hills on the .„■ Socotra eviiil.it them in similar profusion. The species all have stems, but vary in height from a few inches to thirty feet. They have permanent succulent leavi s. 'I he mgroes of -i of Africa mat irds and nets of the til. res of their leaves, and stockings are woven from the fibres of a species found in Jamaica. But aloes are chiefly valuable for their medicinal prop The well-known drug called ALOES (q. v.) is the inspissated juice of the leaves of several almost tree- like speei.s, and particularly of A. 6 native of the island of Socotra ; A . purpurascens: A. tpieata, and A. JrvHeosa, which principally yield the Cape aloes; A. Indira ; A. n A. Unguaformis; A. Commelini ; and A. vv which is found in the East and West Indies, in Italy, and in some of the islands of the .Mediterranean, being the only species which can be reckoned Euro- pean, although it also is probably an introduced plant. The extract prepared from its lea-. known as Hepatic aloes, or as Barbadoes aloes. The bitter principle of aloes has been called Aloesin. It forms several compounds with 01 which possess the properties of acids.— The y.. aloes was anciently used in embalming, to preserve dead bodies from putrefaction. In the East Indies, it is employed as a varnish to prevent the attacks of insects; and has even been applied to bottoms of ships to protect them from marine worms. A l>eau- tiful violet colour is ob- tained from the leaves of the Socotrine A, which does not require any mor- dant to fix it. It also affords a fine transparent _„ colour for miniature paint- ing. — Mohammedan pil- grims suspend an A. over their doors on their re- turn from Mecca, to sig- nify that they have per- formed the pilgrimage. The Americah A. is a totally different plant. See Ac A VI'. ALOES is a drug of great antiquity, for we find Dioscorides (50 a.d.) making mention of AloK as a substance obtained from a plant, and pos- sessing cathartic proper- ties. The great demand for A. in Britain has led to its importation from numerous sources, includ- ing l'.ombay. Arabia, Socotra, Madagascar, tie - of Good Hope, the Levant, and the West Indies. The drug is the inspissated juice of various B] of Aloe (q. v.). All these are characterised more or less by producing large, thick, fleshy leaves, still' and brittle, pointed, and generally terminating in a strong spine, tilled with a mucilaginous pulp internally, and containing in the proper vessi their exterior portion an intensely bitter juice, which yields the medicinal substance A. It is obtained, sometimes in the form of tears, by incision. Spontaneous exudation, and inspissation upon the plant; sometimes by spontaneous evaporation of the which drops or exudes by pressure from the leaves when cut away mar the base ; sometimes by evaporating the same juice with the aid of heat; and lastly, by evaporating together the juice and a ion of the leaves. in -*mm. Aloe fruticosa: f; the fl ALOES WOOD— ALOYSTA. Owing to the gnat difficulty of determining the true botanioa] source of any given ample, the fol- lowing namee are made use of in commerce to denote the various kinds of A. found in the market — namely, Socotrine, Clear, Cape, East [ndiau, Barbadoes, and Caballino A. The moat important an : 1. Socotrine A. (Ale eallcd from its supposed source, the island of Socotra, near the mouth of the Arabian Gulf. This is the most esteemed of all the varieties used in medieal practice. Many hold that tins is only a tine variety of East Indian A., but the characters given in the Edin- burgh Pharmacopoeia a garnet-red fcranslueency in thin pieces, and almost complete solubility in spirit of the strength of sherry — define a particular e which is the true Socotrine A. of pharmacologists. 2. East Indian A. [Aloi Indica), alaocallcd i lepatic A., from its liver-brown colour, is imported into Bombay from Arabia a . and is known in India by the name of Bombay A. A considerable portion is probably obtained from the same sources as the Socotrine A., which it resembles in colour; and according to Dr Pereira, 'the two are some- times brought over intermixed, the Socotrine occa- sionally forming a vein in a cask of Hepatic A.' 3. Barlxadoes A. (Alov Barbadensis) is prepared in the West Indies from A. Socotrino, and from a variety of A. vulgaris. We learn from Browne's Xn'iirirf History of Jamaica thai the largest and most succulent leaves are placed upright in tubs, that the juice may dribble out. This evaporated, forms what is sold as Socotrine A. ; but the com- mon A. is obtained by expressing the juice out of the leaves, boiling it with water, evaporating and pour- ing it into gourds ; whence this kind is often called gourd A. It is much used for veterinary medicine, and thus brings a high price in the market. Caballine A. (Aloi caballina) is a very coarse kind, and is so called because it is considered tit only for horses. It contains many impurities, such as wood, sand, and charcoal, and evidently con- stitutes the lowest stratum in the vessels in which the better sorts are allowed to cool. It is now in a great measure superseded in veterinary practice by Barbadoea A. All kinds of A. are remarkal ile for their disagree- able taste. The odour is peculiar, and is more per- ceptible when the drug is breathed upon. A. is in a great measure soluble in water, and more so in hot than cold water. A. was former! 1 to be a gum-rcsiu ; but the portion which was thought to be of the nature of gum is now regarded as a varietj of extractive, and to it the name of Alocsin has been given. Action. — When employed in small doses, A exerts a tonic, and in larger doses, a cathartic action. It is considered by some authorities to stimulate the liver, and also to supply the place of deficient bile in torpidity of the intestinal canal, and mot cially towards its lower part. Both taken singly. and also in combination with other cathartics. A. is perhaps the most important and th nsively if vegetable remedies of its class ; and there is no end to the variety of cases in which it i employed with advantage. ALOES Wool) (ca! igilaWood, Wood, or Agallochum) is the inner part of the trunk of .1 / ' and A. AgaUochuTn, trees of the natural order J , (q. v.), natives of the tropical parts of Asia, and supposed to be thi or lign aloes of the Bible. They are large spreading trees with simple alternate leaves. Aloes-wood con- tains a dark-coloured, fragrant, resinous substance, and is much prized in the east as a medicine, and for the pleasant odour which it diffuses in burning. It has been prescribed in Europe in cases of gout 166 and rheumatism. The resinous substance is found only in the inner part of the trunk and branches; the younger wood is white, and almost scentless. A -miliar substance, still more esteemed, is obi l in the south-eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, from the central part of the trunk otAU) . an upright-growing tree with simple alternate leaves, and terminal panicles of small flowers, of the natural order Ltgvminosat, sub Ccesalpiniece. This tree abounds particularly on the highest mountains of Cochin-China and the Mob. a character of sacredness is attached to it. and it is cut with religious ceremonies. The A. W. which it yields is not only much prized in the caM perfume, but many medicinal virtues are ascribed to it. The ancients ascribed to it similar virtues, and so valued it for these and its fragrance, that Serodotus says it once sold for more than its weight in gold. It was regarded almost as a universal medicine. Its very fragrance was supposi d to a beneficial influence, and it was therefore wen, about the person. As it admits of a high polish and exhibits a beautiful graining, precious gems were set in it; and it was cut into fantastic forms and worn in head-dresses, &c. There seems to be allusion to a similar use of it in Psalm xlv. 8, ' All thy garments smell of myrrh and aloes and cassia." < >r perhaps this merely refers to its being employed to perfume clotlung. It was also from a very early period much used to perfume the apartments of the great. The fragrance continues undiminished for years. Lign Aloes is a corruption of Lignum Aloes (Aloes Wood). ALONG-SHORE, a phrase applied in navigating coast, to denote a passage near to, and parallel with, the shore. ' Along-shore-men,' or ' 'long-shore- men,' is a peculiar designation given to some of the humbler and rougher men employed about docks and shipping, in the Thames and other rivers. ALOO'F, at sea, is simply 'at a distance.' To ' keep the loof,' or ' keep the luff,' is a command given to the man at the helm. ALOPECU'RUS. Sec Foxtail. ALO'SA See Clupeida: and Shad. ALOST (the name signifies 'to the east,' and was probably given to the town because it lay near the eastern frontier of the province), a town in Belgium, the old capital of the province of East Flanders, is situated on a tributary of the Scheldt, called the Dender, which is here converted into a canal. It is a walled city with live gates, has trad.' in hops, corn, &c, and I manufactures,' besides numerous breweries, distd- hleach-fields, print-works, copper and iron foundries, flax and cotton mills, &e. The finest building in A. is the church of St Martin, an unfinished edifice, but one of the grandest in Belgium, and containing a famou3 painting by Rubens — 'St Roch beseeching our Saviour to stay the Plague of A.,' and also the mausoleum of Thierry Martens, who was born here, and who introduced the art of printing into Belgium, 1475 A.l). A. has a town-hall (founded in 1200 a. i>.), a college, a hospital, chamber of commerce, academy of design, 4c Pop. 15,000. ALOYSIA, a genus of plants of the natural order Verbenaceai (q. v.), to which belongs a shru! ora, much cultivated in greenhouses and apart- ments in Britain for the grateful fragrance which its leaves emit when slightly bruised. It i quently to be seen in the windows of oottagi re, and is by them generally named Verbena. It was for- merly known to botanists as Verbena triphylln, and has also been referred to the allied genus Lippia. The leaves are in whorls of three. It is a native of Chili. In the Channel Islands and the south of ALP— ALP-ARSLAN. Ireland, it becomes a luxuriant shrub in the open air, reaching a height of 10 — 25 feet, with osier-like shoots. ALP, ALB, also called the Rauhe or Swabian Alp, is a chain of mountains above 00 miles in length, and from 12 to 15 in breadth, situated between the Heckar and the Danube. It forms the water-shed between these two rivers and the basin of the Rhine, and Ilea almost entirely within the kingdom of Wurtcmberg. It is also in the vicinity of the Black Forest, but presents a totally different appearance, on account of its being clothed with forests of hard wood instead of pine. It forms a table-land intersected by a few narrow deep valleys. The average height of the system is rather more than 2000 feet. On the north, it descends to the Neckar in ridges of rocky cliffs, and abrupt pointed headland s ; but on the south, it gradually slopes ! away to the level of the valley of the Danube. I The scenery is often very picturesque, for the sharp, precipitous crags are frequently crowned with the ruined castles and strongholds of the famous old German families, such as the Hohenzollerns, Hohen- staufens, &c. The geological formation of the Alp is calcareous, and presents a regular stratification. Caverns of a very remarkable character abound among the rocks. The valleys at the base of the hills are fertile, and produce abundance of wine and fruit, but the high table-land has an extremely- poor and barren soil. ALPA'CA, or PAC'O {AucJienia Paco ; see Acchexia), an animal of the same genus with the Lama (q. v.), and so closely allied to it, that many naturalists regard it as a variety rather than a distinct secies. It is remarkable for the length and fineness of the wool, which is of a silken texture, and of an uncommonly lustrous, almost metallic appear- ance. The A. is smaller than the lama ; the legs and breast are destitute of callosities. In form, it somewhat resembles the sheep, but with a longer neck and more elegant head. It carries its long neck erect ; its motions are free and active, its ordinary pace a rapid bounding canter. The eyes are very large and beautiful The wool, if regularly shorn, is supposed to grow about six or eight inches iu a year ; but if allowed to remain upon the animal for several years, attains a much greater length, sometimes even thirty inches, and not (infrequently twenty. Its colour varies ; it is often yellowish brown ; sometimes gray, or approaching to white ; sometimes almost black. The A is a native of the Andes, from the equator to Tierra del Fuego, but is most frequent on the Alpaca. highest mountains of Peru and Chili, almost on the borders of perpetual snow, congregating in flocks of one or two hundred. In a wild state, it is very shy and vigilant ; a sentinel on some elevated station gives notice of the approach of danger by snorting to alarm the flock. Alpacas seem instinctively to know when a storm is coming on, and seek the most sheltered situation within their reach. Flocks, the property of the Peruvian Indians, arc allowed to graze throughout the whole year on the elevated pastures, and are driven to the huts only at shear- inu'-tmie. When one is separated from the rest, it throws it If on the ground, and neither kindness nor severity will induce it to rise and advance alone. It is only when brought to the Indian huts very young, that they can De domesticated so as to live without the companionship of the flock ; but then they become very bold and familiar. Their habits are remarkably cleanly. The Indians have from time immemorial made blankets and ponchos or cloaks of A wool. It is not quite thirty years since it became an article of commerce, but its use for the manufacture of shawls, coat-linings, cloth for warm climates, umbrellas, &c., has gradually increased, and more than 2,000,000 lbs. are now annually imported into Britain. The credit of introducing and raising to its present magnitude the Alpaca wool-manufacture in Britain, is due to Mr Titus Salt. Attempts have been made to introduce the A. into Europe ; but not yet with very satisfactory results. The only considerable flock known to exist is in the Pyrenees. There seems no reason, however, to doubt that the mountains of Wales and Scotland are suitable for this branch of husbandry ; and it is to be hoped that enterprise such as has been directed to the manufacture of A wool in Britain, will soon, and with equal success, be directed to the production of it. There are probably not yet more than two or three hundred alpacas in Britain, and these mostly in parks connected with the residences of en and gentlemen, not iu the situations for which they seem to be peculiarly adapted. An attempt is now being made to introduce the A Australia. The animals intended for this purpose were brought from South America to Glasgow, and again shipped for a second long A. wool is straighter than that of the sheep, very strong in proportion to its thickness, and breaks little in combing. The fibre is small, and it is very soft, pliable, and elastic. — The tlesh of the animal is said to be very wholesome and pleasant. ALP-ARSLA'X. a Persian sultan, the second of ljukide dynasty, born in Turkestan in 1028 or KloO. In 1053, he ascended the throne of Khor- after the death of his father Daoud, and in 1003 he also succeeded his uncle. His first act was to unite the whole of his dominions in one vast monarchy. He next embraced Islamism, and it was on this occasion that he took the surname of Alp-Arslan (the Lion-heart), his real name bein" .Muhammcd-Lhaz-ed-Dyn-Abou-Choudja. The Calif of Bagdad gave him the title of Adhad-eddin (Defender of the Faith), with this extreme honour — namely, that prayer should be made in bis name. He had an excellent vizier, Xisam-al-Muik, one of those lettered ornaments of early Jloham- sm. This vizier was the founder of all the colleges and academies in the kingdom, he directed the internal administration of affairs, A. made war successfully. He suppressed r. and extended the northern boundaries of his dominions. In 1007 and 100S be pursued the coarse of his conquest-, carrying off the gates of the church of St Basil . which were enriched with fold and pearls, and overthrowing the Greeks under licephorus Botoniates. In 1069, he invaded 16; ALPICS— ALI'HAHKT. Armenia and Georgia, at that time Christian The mnel p 1,1 irkable incident is dition was tin- blockade of the convent of Mariam- . situated on an island in the middle of a lake, and considered impregnable An earthquaki threw the walls during the siege, when it imme- diately surrendered. He next proceeded t mist tin- Greeks who, under their brave emperor, Bomanue IV., had thru,- driven back the Turks bey 1 the Euphrates. In August L071 a a bloody battle was fonght near the fortress of Malaakerd, between the towns of Van and Eraaroum. A. gained the victory. The Greek emperor was taken p ad only obtained his liberty by a ransom of il.OOO.OOO, and an annual tribute of £160,000. Bather more than a year after this (December 15, 1072), A. perished at Berzem in Turkestan by the poniard 01 Cothuol, whom he had insult' d. He was buried at Merve, in tin- tomb of his ancestors. ALPES is the name of two departments in France, tin- /.'■■■ or L iwer Alps), and the i a (or Upper Alps). Ihe department of the Basses-Aipes occupies tin- N.E part of Provence, ami includes an area of 2680 square miles. It is, for the most part, mountainou sisting of spurs or offshoots from tin- Maritime Alp-, which run in numerous chains towai Khone. In the north, the climate is cold, the soil poor, and the cultivation bad; in tile south, the climate is much better — almonds, apricots, p ami various other choid re grown, am which the plums of liignolles form a well-known article of commerce. The wines of this n are reckoned excellent. On the sides of the Alp-. oxen and sheep find admirable pasturage. Tin- mines produce lead, green marble, &e. At Digne and Greoulz there are hot mineral sprir Pop, 150,000; the trade carried on is insignificant. The department is watered by the Durance. The chief town is Digne; pop, 3720. The 11m hes-A-LPEB, lying north of the Basses-A., and forming a part of the old province of Dauphine, is traversed by the chief range of the I Alps, which here rise, in Mount Pelvoux, to the height of 14,000 feet, and .Mount ( Plan to 13,120 feet. The scenery, especially along the course of the impetuous Durance, is singularly picturesque. The Hautet-A. is the highest di partment in France ; the fierce north wind and the perpetual snow lofty peaks, make the climat id the winter long, so that the barren soil will yield little else than potatoes, a little rye, oats, and barley. Here and there, in the most southerly valleys, mi: chestnuts, vines, and other choice fruits, thrive. ( inlv horned cattle, asses, and mules are bred profitably. The most important roads through this department are: 1st, The road from Grenoble to Uriancon ; '2d, The road from Briancon to Susa, in Piedmont, over the Col-de-Gcnevre (which has recently been used to transport masses of French soldiery into Italy) ; 3d, The road from Gap to Id ' The area is 213G square miles ; pop. 130,000. Tin- inhabit- ants are employed in the manufacture of leather, linen, and woollens. A number arc likewise engaged in the unties, which produce lead, copper, iron, and anthracite. About 4000 leave the department annually to seek employment. Chief I pop. 5450. ALPHABET. The A. of any language is the series of letters, arranged in a fixed order, with which that language is written. Picture-writing was doubtless the earliest method invented of conveyin g thought through the eye. The idea of an ox was readily expressed by a sketch of the animal, or, for shortness, by an outline of his head and horns. picture was used symbolically; as the figure of aii eye, to express the action > or the attribute of wisdom. In process of time, some of i . Lev, to at. not ideas, lmt sounds. But the sounds 1 would at first be whole words, or, at lee; and the important step •. m yet to be taken of analysing syllables into their elementary sound-, ami of agreeing upon son unvarying picture or sign (a letter) to represent each. This constituted the invention of the A. By what steps alphabetic writing most probably rose "it of picture-writing, will be seen and) Ol H 1 1 lo m ; l 1 111 l. s. S.,. .-,].,, ChINJOU! IiANGl and Ci KE "i.M i iiai: M inns. The Phoenician A. is the oldest of which we have any account ; and from it hi ■ ■ or indirectly, all the modes of writing now iii use in the world. It is the foundation of the Greek, the Latin, and the Arabic alphabets; and the great influence of the nations speaking these tol ace, nnt. for the wide-spread similarity. Taking :t and modem times into account, as many as 400 alphabets have been enumerated ; lmt m in use, if we set aside slight van a of form, the number does not exceed 50. Auer's S/ii-'i'/i/i.tll, (Vienna. Is' a rich collection of alphabets. We must confine ourselves lure to those more immediately connected with the 1. of the English A. A point of considerable importance is the order of the letters. In modern alphabets, this apj at first Bight to be quite arbitrary; but traces of a principle of arrangement, or natural system accord- ing to which the series grew, have recently brought to light.* The evidences of such a natural order are best seen in the Hebrew A., which was almost identical with the Phoenician. The following table exhibits the Hebrew letters, with their names, and sounds or powers; and also the names of the letters composing the early Greek A., as borrowed from the Phoenician : XtlTtlt. Sound or Power. f ^ Aleph, a vowel or breathing. Alpha. 2 Beth, B. Beta. 1 J GimeL G(gun). Gamma. 1 Daleth, r>. Delta. n ii >, a vowel or breathing. E(psilon). 1 Vau, V or F. F = V (diganuna). L' [f Zayn, Z.] Zeta. PI Ivlieth, KHorCH. tO Theth, TH. Theta. ' Vod, J. Iota. ID Kaph, K, variety of.] Kappa. ■• U Lamed, L. Lambda. ■ • Q .Mem, M. Mu. J Nun, N. Xu. [Q Samelfh S, variety of.] Sigma. V -Vvn, a vowcL O(mikron). 3 Pe, P. J'i. [^ Tsadi, TS.] -1 p Koph, K or Q. Koppa. [1 Besh, E.] Bio, [li/Sin, s.] San. . D T.m, T. Tau. Leaving out of account the letters enclosed in brackets, which are not easily accounted for, and * The theory was first propounded in 183.1, by Pro K. y, di" Inivcrsity College, London, in the Penny Cj/clopadta, art. "Alphabet.* ALPHABET. are possibly later interpolations, the whole fall into four groups, the law of which will best appear iu the following scheme : d o '2 a i-J Palatals. Dentals. a g d Flats or medials. e V eh th Aspirates. i P k t •Sharps. Liquids. I m n Without entering at present into the nature of the relation between the letters in the several rows, horizontal and vertical, of the scheme (for which see Lkttkks), it will be seen that group (1) in the Hebrew A. consists of a vowel followed by three mute letters, all having one character (flats or medials) ; that group (2) consists of a vowel followed by three mutes, also having one character (aspirates); and that group (4) consists in like manner of a vowel followed By three mutes, all of the same character (sharps). The order, moreover, according to the organ of utterance, in which the mutes follow in each group, is invariable: the labial (lip-sound) coming first ; the palatal (palate-sound), second ; and the dental (tooth-sound), last. This principle of j arrangement is characterised by Dr Latham as a circulating order. Group (3) likewise consists of a vowel and four consonants of one character (liquids) ; but in this case the order of the vocal organs is not observed — at least in the form in which the Hebrew A. is known to us ; in order to be symmetrical with the other groups, the sequence would require to be m, I, n. The nucleus of the original A. would thus seem to have consisted of sixteen letters, grouped in four tetrads or quaternions, on an organic principle of arrangement. This principle is obscured in English and other modern alphabets, by some of the letters having gradually come to represent quite other sounds than their original. There is .sufficient evidence, for example, that in the earliest Latin alphabet, from which the English is derived, the third letter, C, bad the power of G (in gun). There was a subsequent period in the development of that language when the distinction between the sharp and flat palatal sounds seems to have been lost, and when two syllables like ham and gam would have been both pronounced alike (kam). C thus acquired the power of K, and the letter K itself went almost out of use. But about the time of the First Punic War (264—241 B.C.), the distinction between the sharp and the flat sounds revived ; and while the original C continued ever after to have the power of K (Cicero, for instance, was pronounced Kikero), a new character (('.) was formed from it. by a very slight alteration, to express the flat sound. Again, the modern II, which has in most cases bee. mere evanescent breathing, can be traced back until it becomes a strong guttural, like ell in the Scotch word loch. The place of the third consonant in the cycle of aspirates is a complete blank in the alphabets derived from the Latin; because that language being originally destitute of the Bound, dropped the sign of it, from the first. The Latins were, in fact, completely destitute of the genuine aspirate sounds; for even the letter F had not the sound we give it. Therefore, when they had to represent the aspirate consonants of the Greek language, f, x-i 'i tle-v had recourse to the combina- tions ph. cli. Oi — a clumsy expedient still followed in modern alphabets derived from the Roman, and constituting one of their most serious defects. — The cycle of the sharps is pretty perfect in the English alphabet, for Q is only a variety of K. It is easy to conceive a language represented by sixteen characters of the nature above described. The most serious deficiency would seem to be the want r>f r and n. But the sound of th is very nearly allied to that of s (witness 'loves or lo the pronunciation of a person who and one character might be mad.- to stand for both, as easily as in English c is i present two sounds so different as those exemplified in cat and city. Some nations, again, are said to make no distinction between r and /, so that one character might stand for both these sounds. But whether or not the Phoenician A had origin- ally only sixteen letters, it is evident that when transplanted into Greece, it had twenty-one letters, if not twenty-two. In accommodating' itself to the necessities of the Greek tongue, it gradually under- went a series of changes. Some of the letters were modified: J/e became e; C/iet/i, m; Sigma became ; = x, and the name Sigma was transferred to Other letters were altogether dropped, as Digamma ( = v) and Kappa, On the other hand, for simple sounds as had no representatives in the Phoenician, new characters were invented, and annexed to the end (u, f, x, V> ")• Another important change was in the direction of the writing. In the Phoenician and other Semitic languages, the writing proceeded from right to left. The Greeks, on borrowing the Phccnician A., also wrote for some time from right to left The mode called bustropliedon (turning like an ox in ploughing), of writing alternately from right to left and from left to right, was then introduced; and finally the direction from left to right prevailed throughout the West, to the exclusion of the other modes. In the classical period of the ( Ireek language, the A. had come to consist of twenty four letters, as in columns 2, 3, 4 of the following table. Column 1 (copied from Ballhorn's Alphabet! i gives some of the earlier forms of the Greek letters, found on coins and other inscriptions, of the period when writing still proceeded from right to left; column 2 is from the Alexandrian Codex (q.v.), as given in Key's Alphabet ; and N'os. 3 and 4 are the modern printed forms of capitals and small letters. The small characters are merely cursive forms or variations of the capitals ; and it would not be difficult to shew how, in each case, the endeavour to trace the capital on soft material rapidly and without lifting the hand, would bo the form non used as the small letter. GREEK AI.l'H via r. 3 4 .Y.o/if. 4 x_ 1 G "\ r V £w 3 G H I * B H ■•"< / I :l K A a. Alpha a B J3 b r y Gamma A 5 Delta d E i e (short) H r. e t I I K ■ Zeta Eta Th.ta Iota Kappa da e (long) th 1CS ALPHABET. 1 2 1 M Ml // tSS f 3> o 1 •I I 9 °l p MJ c T T Y X + (JO J 4 Mam Poxrer. A x Lambda 1 m p My m n > Ny u 3 5 Xi x o o Oinikron o (ahort) II «• Pi p P f Rho r 5 «■,- Sigma s T •> Tau t X u Ypsilon U * p Phi x * Chi v ^ Psi !i * Omega f ph ch ps o (long) by the Dorian Greeks of Cumx and Sicily. The writing in the oldest Latin inscriptions u never from nght to left, as is mostly the case in Etrurian. On the other band, tin- Kaph and the Koph (K and Q) of the Phoenician, which disappear in Etrurian, lined in Latin. The Creek A. of Cumie had noi yet received the addition of 4 and *; but it still il the representative of the Phoenician Cow, the I n gamma, and also Koppa, and thus consisted of twenty-four letters. The Latin tongue, being i tute of aspirate sounds, dropped the three letters t, », %, so that the original Latin A. consisted of twi ntv-one letters, the forms of which, as seen on the oldest inscriptions, were as in the following table. See Corssen's Axisspradie, Vocalismus und Betonung der Laleinuchen Spraclie (Lcip. 1858). II. With regard to the figures or shapes of the letters, it is believed that they all arose out of pictures or hieroglyphic characters. The names of the Hebrew letters 'are also the names of material objects; aud the letters themselves were at first, in all probability, rode outlines of the objects. Aleph, for example, means an - ox,' and the letter was in its origin an , .inline of an ox's head. The history of GimeL which means 'camel,' is probably similar. The Hebrew characters known to us are believed to l,e comparatively modern, and much corrupted from their original forms, and the likenesses are more difficult to trace in them than in the Samaritan and the early Greek, or even in the Latin. Mem, again, is the Hebrew word for 'water,' and some of the earliest forms of the letter M are zigzag similar to the sign of Aquarius (Sgj) in the zodiac, intended no doubt to represent the undulations of water. Ayn, the name of the Hebrew letter equi- valent to 0, also means an 'eye,' and the picture of an eve would naturally degenerate into a circle, in the centre (which some ancient O's actually have), and then without a dot. The A. came into Italy not directly from Phoenicia, but from Greece, and that at a time when the Greek A. had undergone some of the changes described above, although not all of them; a, f, and x na(1 been added, but not 4 and ». Moreover, there must have been distinct and independent importa- tions into more than one part of Italy, and that, probably, from different parts of G or, at all events, "at different periods. The Etrurian A. is evidently an earlier importation than the more southerly Latin, as it departs less from the Phoeni- cian. There are even differences i:i different parts of Etrnria itself. The alphabets of Etruria north of the Apennines (for numerous inscriptions recently discovered shew that this remarkable race must have extended at one time as far north as the Alpine valleys of Provence, Tyrol, Graubundten, and Styria) differ slightly from the alphabets of the in- scriptions in Etruria proper, which are demonstrably taken from the A. of the Greek colony of Ca?re. The Latin A, which became that of Rome, and thus of the whole western world, was borrowed from a newer form of the Greek — namely, that imported 170 i. a A, A, A, A. la m M.W,AV. 1 2. b fc, B. 13. n N, N. 3. c <. C, C. 14. o <>. °, 0. O. 4. d D. i5. p n r 5. e E. 1 I. 10. q Q. 6.1 |> F. 17 - r K. R. 7-* Z. 18- » $ £. S. 8. h H. i9. t r, t. 9.i 1. 20. v (u).V. o. k K.(t) 21.x X. 1L1 fcA,L. Z was early dropped, and the new letter G (see above) substituted for it; and thus the Latin A. continued to the last to consist of twenty-one letters, until it was applied to the modern tongues of Western Europe. The distinction made between U and i', and between i and j, in printing Latin books, is a modern innovation; and no Latin word contains cither y or z. The five additional letters that make up the twenty-six of the English A., arose from the addition of :, and the development of i into j, and of » into 10, r, and y. The Anglo-Saxon A. had two usefid letters, wdiich have disappeared from modern English — namely, one for the sound of th in thin, and one (or rather two) for that of tli in thinr. These v. ere derived, in all probability, from the Moseo-Gothic A., which (as well as the Russian and other Slavonic alphabets) was foimded on the Greek rather than the Latin. The loss of these letters is owing to the influence of the Xorman-Frcnch, the alphabet of which is exclusively Latin. The forms of the Anglo-Saxon letters are as under : A * 00 N n JE re (ye) B b P P C c (C) B r (?) D d 0) S s (r) E e (e) T t (c) F f (f) U u G g (Pi) w w(r y?) X H h (ftp) X I i Y y L i V P th {dim) M m (0>) D 4 th (i/dne) ALPHETUS— ALPINE PLANTS. ' The characters between brackets were written by the Anglo-Saxons, but, being for the most part mere corruptions of the Roman forms, are now seldom I.' — Vernon's Anylo-Buxon Oram*. The peculiarities of the several letters will be noticed in their proper places. For their classifica- tion, and the defects and redundancies of the English A., see Letters and Articulate Sot ms. Other points connected with this subject will be found under Ruck-Letter, ORTnOGRArrry, and Puonetic Wetting. ALPHEIUS (nowRuiea, Rufia, or Rofia) is the chief river of Peloponnesus (Morea), rising in the south-east of Arcadia, and flowing west through Elis, and past the famous Olympia, into the Ionic Sea. This river is one of the most celebrated in ancient song, and is connected with a beautiful and charac- teristic Greek legend. The nature of the upper course of the A. was calculated to affect strongly the imagination of the Greeks. In its passage through Arcadia, a country consisting of cavernous limestone, and abounding in shut-in basins and valleys, it repeatedly disappears under ground and rises again. After these feats, it was capable of anything — even of flowing under the sea — and the Greek colonists of thought they recognised it in their new country. Close on the margin of the sea in the island of Ortygia (the site of Syracuse), there was a beautiful and copious fountain ; and just where the water of this fountain joined the sea, another strong spring bubbled up under the salt water. This could only be another freak of the A. ; and it was popularly believed that the sweepings of the temple of Olympia, after the great festival, when thrown into the river, reappeared in the springs at Ortygia. Strabo asserts as a fact that a cup did so. This wonderful phenomenon found its explanation, as usual, in a myth, connecting it with the history of the gods. The river-god AJpheius became enamoured of the nymph Arethusa while bathing in his stream. To escape him, she prayed to Diana, who changed her into a fountain, and opened up an underground passage for her to < htygia. The river still pursued the object of his love, passing from Greece to Sicily below the sea. without mingling his waters with it, and appearing in the spring that bubbles up by the shore. A f.PIXE HUSBANDRY. The characteristic feature of A. fanning is, that the preparation of fodder is the chief object, and the cultivation of main only secondary. In the less elevated regions Bordering on the flat country, it is the practice to break up the grass from time to time, and take a succession of grain crops. In more elevated districts, the moisture of the climate and the shortness of the season of vegetation, prevent crops requiring tillage from coming to perfection, and there the whole attention is devoted to pasturage and the preparation of meadow-hay. The top-dressing of the plots devoted to hay-growing, with the solid and liquid manure of the cattle the cutting and making of the hay, and transporting it to the farm- occupy a great part of the labour of the population of the Alps. They turn to account for hay-making those shelves and crevices among the mountains which arc inaccessible to cattle, and even goats ; tin- herbage, which often grows luxuriantly in such situ- ations, is cut. bound up ill cloths or lets, and carried down ditlicidt paths on the head, or is flung over the precipices. The grass-lands in the lower regions near the dwellings being mostly reserved for hay. the cattle are pastured in summer in those regions that lie too high or too remote to be inhabited m winter. These pastures consist of plateaus and slopes, which imme- diately on the disappearance of the snow, become clothed with a rich carpet of herbage and flowers. Each separate locality or pasture is called an A lp. Some of these * alps ' belong to individuals ; others to the commune or parish. The more rocky and steep places are pastured by sheep and goats. There are three zones or stages in the A. pastures. The cattle are driven to the first and lowest stage about the end of May ; about a month later, they ascend to the ' middle Alps ' ; and by the end of July, they reach the Upper Alps. As the days shorten, they descend in the same gradual way, so that the whole ' Alp-time' lasts about 20 weeks. The pastures are provided with huts for those who have charge of the cattle, who also convert the milk into cheese. Little butter is made. The departure for the 'Alps ' in spring, and the return in autumn, are made the occasion of popular festivals. ALPINE PLANTS. This appellation is given not only to those plants which are found at eleva- tions approaching the limit of perpetual snow in the Alps of Central Europe, but also to plants belonging to other mountainous regions in any part of the world, whose natural place of growth is near snows that are never melted even by the beams of the summer's sun. As the elevation of the snow-line, however, varies very much in different countries, according to the latitude, and also from peculiar local circumstances, the term A. P. is not so much significant of the actual elevation of the habitat, as of the average temperature which prevails there. On the Andes, near the equator, at an elevation of 12,000—15,000 feet above the level of the sea, many kinds of plants are found, of humble growth, resem- bling in their general appearance those which occur in Germany and Switzerland at an elevation of 6000 feet ; and these, again, either resemble, or are even identical with, the species which in Lapland grow upon hills of very little elevation, or which, in the northern parts of Siberia, are found at the level of the sea. Similar plants occur also in the Himalaya Mountains, at elevations varying remarkably within very narrow geographical limits from local causes, which also create great differences in the general dryness or humidity of the atmosphere. The Taws of this natural distribution of plants have been in our own day for the lirsttime investigated and elucidated by Humboldt, Wahlenberg, Schouw, Dccandolle, and others, and form the most essential part of a branch of science still in its infancy, and much requiring further study, phytogeography, or the science of tho geographic distribution of plants. When the A. P. of Central Europe are spoken of, those are meant which grow at an average height of 6000 feet, mark- ing what, in the language of phytogeographic science, is called a zone. This, on its northern limit, the Riesengebirge, or Giants' Mountains, falls as low as ( i ieet, and rises, in the southern Alps and Pyrenees, to an elevation of 90(10 feet, and sometimes even t. Although very rich in forms peculiarly its own, tliis zone contains many plants winch are like- wise found on much lower lulls, and even in the plains. The number of these, however, diminishes as the elevation increases. Hence the small spaces clear of snow in the highest regions possess a very characteristic flora, the plants of which are distin- guished by a very low diminutive habit, and an inclination to form a thick turf, frequently, also, by a covering of woolly hairs, whilst their stems are "ften cither partly or altogether woody, and their flowers are in proportion remarkably lai brilliant colours, and in many instances very odori- ferous, upon which accounts, they remarkably attract and please the occasional visitors from the plains. In the Alps of Central Europe, the eye is at once caught by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, and ALPLXIA— ALPS. various species of primrose. With these and othi r Shanerogamous plants, are associated a Dumber of ehcate ferns and exceedingly beautiful n i mountains in Scotland exhibit a some- what similar flora, and beautiful plants, both phane- rogamous and cryptngamoiis, are found on wlii.U never appear in lower situat Alpine Speedwell ( Veronica Alpina), the small Alpine ( li-ntiaii [Oi "' is), the Bock Scorpion Grass, or Alpine Forget-me-not (jfjosotis Alpi itris), i vmbens, Woodtia Uveitis and hyperborea, &c. Many A. P. are limited to a very small district Thus, the llor.i of Switzerland differs considerably from that of Germany, the latter being now known to contain .'MOO phanerogamous plants, of which the former contains 2200, and along with them also 126 sp cies which have hitherto been found only in the Swiss Alps. There are, moreover, particular species of plants which are found only in a litres, OS Hypericum com, upon the mountain of \\ r i, in the canton of Giants; WtJfenia Carinthiaca, upon the KUweger Alp. in Upper Carinthia, and many others. There are. however, many species which, occurring on the mountains of Central Europe, app. ar also in those of Britain ami of Scandinavia at low vr altitudes, but are not found in the inti rvening plains. See Species, lMsiuna iion ok. Cryptogamip plants are generally found in Alpine regions in much great] abundance than elsewhere. The transplanting oi A. P. into gardens is attended with great difficulties, and is rarely successful. Their great beauty, even ■when dried, makes them favourites with those plant-collectors who have amusement more in view than the mere interests of seience. Small herbaria of them are offered for Bale everywhere in Switzer- land; and in some places, large collections have been prepared and thrown open to the public. ALPI'NIA See Galaxcai v.. A'LPXACH, or ALPXACHT, a Swiss village, in the canton of Dnterwalden, at the foot of Mount Pilatus, 1.J- miles from that part of Lake Lucerne called Lake A. It is known principally on account of its celebrated ' slide.' This was a sort of wooden trough by which the felled timber of Mount Pilatus was conveyed with amazing velocity from a height of 2500 feet down to the lake. In order to prevent friction, the trough was perpetually lubricated by a slender rill of water. It is no I used, the wood being now drawn down by horses ami oxen. Population of A., 1500. ALPS, the most extensive system of lofty moun- tains in Europe, raise their giant masses on a basis of 90,0(111 square miles, between ty iff and Is I ■:. long., and extending in some places from the 44th to tli- 48th parallel of latitude. The word Alp or Alb, signifying in the Celtic language ' wind .' was the name given to these mountains on account of their tops being perpetually com red with snow. The Alpine system is bounded on the N. by the hilly ground of Switzerland and the upper plain of the Danube; on the E., by the low plains of Hungary; on the S., by the Adriatic Sea, the plains of Lomiiardv. and the Gulf of Genoa; and on the W., by the plains of Provence and the valley of the Rhone. A string of lakes encircles both tlie northern and southern bases of these mountains, the tenner at an elevation of 1200— 2000 feet j the latter, con 700 feet. The varied natural Bcenery of France, Italy. Germany, and Hungary has a common centre oi union in this lofty region. Valleys open out in all directions, sending their melted snows on side into the North Sea. on another into the l;lack Sea, and on another into the Mediterranean. The water-system of the A. may be thus 1 sketched: 1. In the basin of the Khillc, there is 173 the Rhine itself, which partly forms the Lake of ( onstage, at the north-eastern extremity of Switzer- land, and receives on the hit the important tribu- rif the Thur and the Aar; the latter of which SOWS through bale s Brienz and Thun. and i augmented by various affluents, th< ■ t ol which are the EteuSS and the l.immat. 2. In the basin of the Danube there flow from the south the Dler, I I . and flu- Inn. Still further east, the Danube has for its tributaries the Traun. tie- Ens, tie- Baab, the Drive, and the Save, the last thl which have their sources in the extreme Eastern A. 3. In the basin of tie- Po, there are numerous streams, which rise in the Southern A.; the prin- cipal of these are the Dora Laltea, the See: Ticino from Lake Ma ior . the Mincio from Lake < tarda, and the Adige. -1. In the basin of the Rhone, there are the Rhone (flowing through the Lake of Geneva), and various Alpine tributaries, the most important of which arc the Arve. the Iscre. and the Durance. 5. The Var is the principal I.igurian coast stream; the l'iave. ami the Taguamento, the largest of those which fall into the Adriatic from the Soui Is 'i'ii A. Divisions. —In order to give a clear view of the manifold ranges of this mountain land, a distinction s rally made between the East, the West, and the Middle A.; the last of which is again divided into a northern, central, and southern chain; while a natural separation by river-valleys into groups is also made. 1. WEST A. The principal ranees of these are : 1. The Maritime A., extending from the middle Ihlrance southwards to the Mediterranean, and rising in the Col Roburent to the height of 9400 feet 2. The Cottian A., north of these, highest summit, Monte Viso, is 13,599 feet. 3. The Graian A., forming the boundary between Savoy and Piedmont, ami attaining In Mont Iser elevation of 13,272 feet, and in Mont Cenis, an elevation of 11,457 feet. II. Middle A. Central Chain. — 1. The Pennine A., between the plains of Lombardy and the valley of the Lhone. Highest summits: Mont Blane, 15,744 feet; Monte Rosa, • 15,151 feet; Mont Cervin. 14,836 feet. 2. The Lcpontian or Helvetian A., from the depression of the Simploii, .along the plateau aiel masses of St Gothard (12,000 feet)', to the pass of Mont SplUgen. 3. The Klcetian A., between the I mi. tic Adda, and the I'pper Adige. Northern Chain. 1. The B A., between the Rhone and the Aar; highest sum- mits: Einstcraarhorn, 14,020 feet; Jungfrau, 13,716 feet; Sehreckhorn. 13,397 feet. 2. The A. of the Four 'Forest Cantons,' tin- Schwytz A., &c The Soutliem C'lmin. 1. The ( lertler A., between the Adda and the Adige; highest summit. Ocrthrspit/, 12,822 feet. 2. The Trientine A., between the Adige and the l'iave ; highest summit, La Marnio- 9802 feet. III. East A. — The principal chains of these are: 1. The Noric A., between the plains of the Drave and the Danube; highest summit, I Glockner, 12,431 feet. 2. The Carnic A., between the Dirave and the Save. 3. The Julian A., between the Save and the Adriatic Sea; highest summit, Mont Terglu, O.'IGG feet. 7.7. valion.- With respect to height, it is a general rule that the A. are lowest where' the system is broadest, that is, in the E., and highest where the system is narrowest, that is, towards the A\ . Making a threefold distinction of crests, summit , and passes, tlie principal ranges maybe charai I as follows. The crest-line (1) of West A., 6000— 11,000 feet; (2) of Middle A., 9000— 13,000 feet; (3) of bast A., 3600—9000 feet. The summits: (1) of West A., 9000—14,000 feet; (2) of Middle \, 9000—15,800 feet; (3) of East A., 0000—12.0110 feet. Height of the passes: (1) of West A., 4000— S000 ALPS. feet; (2) of Middle A., 6500—1 1,000 feet ; (3) of East A , .TjOO— 6000 feet. A comprehensive classification leads to a division of the elevations into three regions: 1. The lower range forming the buttresses of the main mas- Dg a height of 2500—6000 feet ; that is, to the extreme limit of the growth of wood. 2. lbs middle zone lying between the former limit and the snow- line, at the elevation of 8000—9000 feet. :i. The high A.. ri^liiL.' to 15.744 feet. The middle zone forms the region of mountain-pasturages, where the charac- teristic Alpine dairy-farming is carried on. These res consist of a rich carpet of grass and flowers. This threefold division of heights, however, does not everywhere coincide with the same phenomena of it ion: the line of peqietual snow descends i in the north side, and the boundaries of the zones above described vary accordingly. 1. The line of demarcation between the region of mosses and ad that of peqietual snow, is from 8000—9000 feet on the northern declivities ; but on the southern, it approaches 10.000 feet. 2. The highest limit to which wood attains on the north is 6000 I-, t, while on the south it is nearly 7000 feet. 3 ' beech, and oak, on the north, disap- I at the elevation of 4000 feet; on the smith, contrive to exist, some hundreds of feet higher. t. The region of the vine, as well as of maize and chestnuts, extends to an elevation of 1900 feet on the northern declivity; and on the southern declivity, i i feet. The ranges of outlying lower moun- tains which flank the high central Alps on the X., E,, and W., are mostly wanting on the S., especially where the Middle A. descend into the plains of Lombard}-. Thus the A. rise in steep rocky preci- pices from the level of the flat plains of the Po, whilst they sink more gradually into the plains on the north; hence their mighty masses closely piled together present an aspect from the south more grand and awful; from the north, more extended and various. Valleys. — The variety in the valleys as to form and arrangement is not less striking than in the elevations. Most worthy of notice is the characteristic form of the wide longitudinal valleys that lie at the foot of the high central chains. On the E. side, they open directly into the plain; on the N., they are connected with the plain through transverse valleys which often end in lakes. The transverse valleys on the S. side are mostly in the aha] ! steep rocky ravines, forming in some parts long- stretching lakes. Besides the deep-sunk principal valleys, there are extensive scries of basin-shaped idary valleys, which are the scenes of Alpine life, properly so called. Many of the Alpine valleys have names distinct from the rivers flowing through them. Thus, the valley of the Rhone is styled the Upper and Lower Vallais; that of the Adda, the Valtcline ; of the Arve, Chamotmix. tunications -Pasta.- The valleys of the high A. form the natural means of communication. Sum are more accessible than others. The entrance into a longitudinal valley is almost always smooth and easy; art baa often had to force an entrance into a transverse valley. On many of the high roads which link the principal with the secondary valleys. it has been found necessary to blow up long I of rock, to build terraces, to make stone-bridges and long galleries of rock as a protection against avalanches, as well as to erect places of e >m storms. The construction of these roads may be reckoned among the boldest and most skilful works of man. In crossing the A., several denies (usually seven) have to be traversed ; for in addition to the pass of the main crest, there are other defiles on both sides, at the entrances of the different valleys. In the E, the number of these narrow passes or defiles is considerably increased. The nan I to the Alpine passes vary accord- ing to tie ir natural features or the local dialect; as 3attel (Saddi , J ch 5 oke) Scheidi CoL Chiusa. The traveller on these beautiful mountain-roads passes in a short time through the phenomena of the various seasons. In the com a day's journey, he experiences a succession of climatic changes, which is accompanied with an equal variety in the manners of the peop No lofty mountains in the world can boa«t of being so easily crossed as the European A. Hence we can understand how the plains of Upper Italy, accessible from the French, German, and Bur. Sides, have been the til' : The passage of the West A is made by five principal 1. The military road. La Cornii he, a coast- road at the foot of the A. from .Nice to G 2. The causeway over the Col-di-Tenda, between Nice and Coni, made in 177s : highest point, 5890 feet. 3. The high road so much used in ancient times over Mount Genevre, connecting Provence and Dauphinc with Turin ; highest point, 6550 feet 4. The carriage-road made by Napoleon in 1805, over Mount Cenis, connecting Savoy with Piedmont ; highest point, 6770 feet. 5. The pass of the I St Bernard, connecting Geneva, Savoy, and Pied- mont; highest point, 7190 feet By this pass, Hannibal crossed into Italy. It is not much used now. Besides these great roads, there are many smaller ones branching otf from them, which form a pretty close net-work of communication. The of the Middle A. is made by eight principal roads. 1. That of the Great St Bernard, con- < the valley of the Rhone with Piedmont ; highest point, 8170 feet. Itwas crossed by Napoleon in lSOO. 2. The magnificent road over the Simplon, constructed by Napoleon, 1801 — 1806, and cos ing the Vallais with the confines of Piedmont and Lombardy; highest point, 6570 feet .'!. Bel the Great St Bernard and Monte Rosa is the Col of Mont Gervin, the loftiest pass in Europe, being nearly 11,200 feet, connecting Piedmont with the Vallais. 4. The pass of St Gothard, conn. Lucerne with Lago Maggiore ; highest point, 6800 feet. This road passes through scenery of exquisite beauty. 5. The Beruardin Pass, made 1819 by the - GriBOns and Sardinia; highest point, 6800 feet. 6. The Splugen Pass, repaired i ting the sources of the Rhine with the Adda. This pass was the one used by the Romans in their intercourse with the countries bordering on the Danube and the Rhine, and also by the (German armies on their marches into Italy in the middle ages. 7. Tie- Wbrmser Joch, also called the Orteles opened by Austria m 1824 It is the loftiest carriage-road in Europe, and con- nects the Tyrol with Lombardy. 8. The Brenner Pass, known to the Romans. It also connects the Tyrol with Lombardy; highest point. 4650 B the-.- great roads, leading south into Italy, tiler.' are two which lead north from tie' valley of the Ilhone, and cross the Bernese A., over the Grimsel Pass, O.-.iio feet high, and the Gemini Pass, 71" high. The roads over the East A. are much 1 and also much more numerous than those in the Middle or West A. The principal are l. The road from Venice to Salzburg, crossing tl at an elevation of rather more than 5100 feet. 2. The road over the Carnic A., which divides into three branches- tic first hading to Laybach,; the second, to the valley of the bonzo; and the third to tic valley of the Tagliamento. ;>. The roads from the Danube at Linz to Laybach. Geology. — The A. offer a rich field for geological 173 ALPS— ALPTTJ ARRAS. investigations, the results of which hitherto may he thus summed op: The highest central mass — the ry A., as they are called— that rises from the plain to the S.W. of Turin, and stretches in a mighty curve to the Neunedlaraee, in Hungary, sts chiefly of the crystalline rocks i;nei- ; I Mica-slate, with a much smaller proportion of Granite. Enclosed among the Centra] A. •ntatives of the Carboniferous and .Turassic formations : hut so altered and become so crystal- line that their age can only be guessed from a few remaining petrefactions, which are accom- panied here aud there by garnets. In the Graian. Pennine, aud Phatian A occur great masses of serpentine; in the N. of Piedmont, and in the upper valley of the Adige, quartz-porphyry. In the E. there are, on the N. and S. aides of the chief: range, vast deposits of clay-slate and grauwacke mixed with transition limestone. Beginning on the Mediterranean coast, and follow- ing in general the direction of the central chains, a belt of sedimentary rocks runs along the W. and N. sides to the neighbourhood of Vienna. On the south side, a similar belt runs f> Maggiore to Agram. The undulating curves and colossaidisloca- tions presented by these regions, shew that the form of their mountains must have been the residt of a mighty force acting northwards and southwards from the Central A In respect of age, these sediment- ary or calcareous A. include all the members of the series of formations from magnesian limestone up to the lowest strata of the tertiary group. The south- eastern portion of these calcareous mountains, form- ing the Julian A., mostly consist of cavernous rocks of the Jurassic and chalk groups ; and are continued with this character into Dalmatia. Mineral*. — Precious Stones are found in abund- ance in the trap .and primary mountains, especially in the region of the St Gothard. The rock-< of St Gothard has a world-wide reputation. Milling and smelting become more and more productive as we advance eastward. Switzerland itself is poor in useful ores. Gold and silver are foimd in Tyrol, Salzburg, and Carinthia ; there are also silver-mines in Styna and Illyria, anil one near G France. Copper is found in the French A., in Tyrol, and Styria. The lead-mines near Villach, in Car- inthia, yield yearly about .io.000 cwt. The yield of iron in Switzerland. Savoy, and Salzburg is trifling; Carinthia, on the other hand, produc 260 BOO cwt., and stiria 450,000 cwt Quicksilver is extracted at Idria, in Canuola, to the amount of 1000 — 1500 cwt. The Alpine region is rich in salt, especially at Hall in Tyrol, and Hallein in Salzburg. Coal is found in Sv.it/erlaiid. in Savoy, and in the French A., but in no great quantity ; the Austrian A. are, again, richer in this important mineral. The mineral springs, hot and cold, that occur in the region of the A. are innumerable. See Ai\, l.-vni., Leuk, Baden, «Vc Animals.- The Alpine mountains present many peculiarities worthy of notice in the animal as well as in the vegetahle kingdom (see Alpink Plants). On the sunny heights, the number of insects is very grea^j; *'"' butterflies are especially numerous. There are few fishes, although trouts are sometimes caught in ponds even 61X10 feet above the level of a. Although the lofty mountains are inha- bited by eagl B, hawks, and various species of owls ; yet the birds are few in comparison with the numbers in the plains, and those few are mostly confined to the larger valleys. Among the quadrupeds, the wild goat is sometimes, though rarely, to be met with ; the chamois is more fre- quently Been, chiefly in the eastern districts. The marmot inhabits the upper Alpine regions. Wolves m are seen more frequently in the west than in the east ; in the latter, on the other hand, liears, lynxes, and wild found, although constantly dunin- r, • it the domestic annuals. and oxen are scattered herds. are fewer sheep and horses, and these are not of good breeds. Mules and asses are used more iitly i" the south than in the north as beasts of burden. Swine and do common ; the latter are used almost solely 1 herdsmen, or are kept in the hospices, to assist in searching for the unfortunate wanderers who may be lost in the snow. The Alpine mountains are rich in singularly beau- tiful natural scenery, of which the inhabitants of flat countries can scarcely form an idea. Nature in the A. has an infinite variety of aspects. Here the hardened masses of the icy glacier cover the naked rock, avalanches are hurled into immeasurable 9, the fall of rocks or mountain-slips overwhelm the dwellings, and cover the fields in the valleys ; and in the east, the bora, with its hurricane strength, hurls before it the upraised masses of snow. There the sun glances upon the scattered silver threads of a water- fall, or mirrors himself in the pe waters of a glassy lake, while his rising ami his innonnced to the expectant traveller by the ruddy -low on the snowy mountain-tops. The inhabitant of the A, surrounded on every side by mountains, is unconsciously subdued by their pres- ence, aud receives from them a peculiar stamp of rs fascinate him as well as their charms. The most ceaseless variety of occupa- tion demands all his time and his thoughts; in the mountains he acknowledges his only despot-, who seize his soul, and lead it unresistingly. In his constant struggle with the elements, the Alpine dweller strengthens both his mind and body ; he opens bis heart to the impressions of nature; he gives utterance to his childlike gladness in simple songs, and at the same time defends with self- ing devotion bis inountain-fortre i aggression. But the manners and spirit of uring plains have penetrated into the 1 along with the dust of the highway. There the true Alpine life has more and more passed away. The simplicity and characteristic industry of the Alpine farms are now preserved only in the higher secondary valley-'. Six states share the A. The western portion is shared by France and Sardinia. Switzerland claims the Middle A. almost exclusively for her own. Bavaria has only a small share. Austria has tho largest share of the A. — in Lombardy, the Tyrol, LUyria, Styria, and the archduchy. The wide valleys opening to the east allow the civilisation of the plains to en1 ' the mountains. The value of the minerals, and the fertility of the soil, have permitted: mining, manufactures, and agricul- ture to take firm root, and a flourishing trade has caused large towns to usurp the place of mere Alpine villages. In the Tyrol, the pastoral life of the mountains has long been mixed up with the working of mines of salt or other minerals. The inhabitants of whole valleys are occupied in various branches of industry to a greater extent than in any other district of the A, and their sons travel far and near as artisans. See H. and A. Schlagintweit, Researdies into tlie Pltyxical Geoqrajiloj qf tlie A. (Untersuchunnen ii/>er die Phygilcalisdte Geo'jraphie der Alpen), Leip. 1850. ALPU JA'RRAS (a corruption of an Arabic word which signilies ' grass '—an allusion to the splendid pasturage on the north side), a range of mountains 1 to the Sierra Nevada, and approaching the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Their southern siT1:. eg until the ra n achi Kamtchatka. The mines ore rich in gold, silver, copper, ami lead. The botany of the mount ..ii.rily known as the geology, bul be worthy of closer attention. North of the A.- Bjelki, lies the broad zone of the A. mineral di the inhabitants of which are employed igricultural labourers, over whom a strut watch is kept. The south-east is peopled by the < lalmucks of the mountains, a Mongolian race. They are heathens, and their government is a patriarchal one. They hail a nomadic lite, encamping in summer among the rich pastures on the mountain-terraces, and in winter within the sheltered recesses of the « ly glens. See Altai in Supplement. A 'L'I'.UI i Lit. aUare, from altug, high), the place .hi offerings were laid both by .lows and heathens. The Brat on record is that which Noah built on leaving the ark. The Israelites, after the ig of the Law. were commanded to make one. We and, from the. Old Testameni (1 Kings, iii. 3; 1 Kings, xi. 7; and 2 Bongs, xxiii. 15), that altars were often erected on high places — sometimes, also. on the roofs of houses. Both in the .Jewish taber- nacle and temple ill re were two altars, one for sacrifices, and another for incense. Tor a minute description of these, see Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. The Je^ i )h and oriental altars were gener- ally either square, oblong, or approximating to such; i,i ece and Koine, on the other hand, were often round. Sacrifices were offered to the infernal gods, not on altars, but in cavities dug in the ground. Roman Al The word has been transferred into the Christian system. For upwards of five centuries, altars in the ( Ibxistian churches were, for the most part, made of wood; but in oim a.h., it was di creed by a council held at Epone, in France, that none should be con- secrated with chrism except those built of stone. In the first ages of Christianity, there was only one A. in a church; but. from a very •ally time, the Latins have used more than one. In the 12th c, the adorning of churches with imagi a and numerous altars was carried to a great extent, and they were embellished with "old, silver, and precious stones. The Greek Church use but one \. Altars were fie- quently placed at the west end of the ancient churches, instead of the east, but in England almost uniformly in the east. The only perfect A. of the old tunes m England is the high A. of Arundel < Ihurch, Sussex. The slab is 12 feel 6 inches long, by -I fei t wide, and •_", inches thick. The support is of solid stone, quite plain, and plastered over. For 300 years after the time of Christ, the word A. was constantly u be the table of the Lord; subsequently, 'table' and ' altar ' were used indifferently. In the first Prayer-book ol King Edward, 1549, the word A. was in the Rubric, and the Lord's Supper was still called the Mass; but in 1550, an order was issued for the setting up of tables instead of altars, and in the second Prayer-book of 1552, the word altar was everywhere replaced by tabic. The table was further "17G tJ to be of wood, and movable. In Mary's reign the altars were n erected; but in Queen Mi's, some were riotously pulled down, and injunctions were then issued directing that tins should not In' .lone, except under the oversight of the curate and at lea-tone churchwarden. It was charged . . i n I Archbishop Laud that he had con- I communion-tables into altars. What he really did was to remove the tables out ot the body - church, and place them ' altarwise,' i.e., north and south, at the upper end of the chancels, where the altars formerly St 1 ; and a dog having on oni I sion run away with a piece of tie' consecrated b he directed that Tails sllollld !>0 ClVcted to pi such desecrations in future. The old stone altars us. d frequently to be made in the shape of tombs, and they enclosed reins; this was from the early Christians having often celebrated theeucharist at the tombs of the martyrs, or, as others say. tie \ were thus made with the design of representing > ' s humanity as having 1 u rial, and vouched for by the fact of his body lying in the tomb. The Credence Table and Piscina are adjuncts of an A. By the judgment in the Arches Court, 1845, in the case of Faulkner r. Litchfield, it was decided that altars may not be erected in churches. This case arose out of the erection, by the Cambridge i '. iiiel. n Society, of a stone A. in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in that town. The old English divines, and, indeed, all Pro- testant ecclesiastical writers of any importance, are unanimous in the opinion, that an g Christians (lie word cannot mean what tl and heathens expressed by it. The later fathers used various phrases to denote the solemnity which should attach to the communiontable, such as 'the Mystical and Tremendous Table,' 'the M\ Table,' ' tin Holy Table.' &C. And tiny termed it an A., because, first, the holy eucharist was regarded as a kind of commemorative sacrifice, or. more properly, a consecrated memorial before Cod of the o,reat sacrifice on Calvary; and, second, the prayers of the communicants were held to l.e in sacrifices or oblations — sacrifices of thanksgivic it were. Tins is the view of those who hold High Church opinions, but does not exclude the other view. \ mi. tiny termed it a table when the eucharist was considered exclusively in the fight of a sacra- ment, to be partaken of by believi rs as spiritual food. In the former case, the sacrifice was com- memorated ; in the latter, it was applied : in the i i : . rpn ed more directly the gratitude ; in the latter, more directly the faith of the Christian. A LTDORFEli, Arm: re fit. painter and engraver, was born at Altdorf, in Bavaria, 14SS, and died at Etatisbon, 1538. H" i< said to have been a pupil of Albert Diirer; but this is not certain. He belongs, however, to that religious school of artists of winch I lUrer was tin- head. His pictures are also animated by a glowing and romantic spirit of poetry, which is delightful to any one who appreciates the conditions of old German life. The landscape is delineated with tin- same truth and tenderness as the li ■ a rich manifold life p rvades the scenes, and everything is handled with the utmost delicacy. His master-piece, now in Munich, is 'The Victory of Alexander over Darius,' a painting which, it is said, affects the beholder like a heroic poem. As an engraver, A. is reckoned among the lesser masters. A I.TE2T, Kael August, Count of, one of the chief Hanoverian generals in the French and German war, was born October 20, 1764 ; entered the army in 1781, and gained distinction at the siege ALTEXEURG— ALTO. Hondschooten. He was first lieutenant in 1S00, lmt on account of the unhappy capitulation at Lauen- burg, found it advisable to leave Hanover, ami came bo England. Here he was d i of tie- tirst i 1 •_' 1 s t battalion in the German Legion In 1808 he a siated, as general of brigade, in covering the retreat of General Moore to Coruuna, ami in the following year commanded the troops stationed in Sussex. In 1811. he took part, under General Beresford, in the si< of Badajoz and the battle of Albuera, and in the followin promoted l>y the Duke of Wellington. In almost all the en.' of the Spanish war of libera- tion — at .Salamanca, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelte, Nive, Orthez, Toulouse, &c, A. took a prominent part, and had the command of a corps of 30,000 men, stationed near Madrid, in 1S1"2. lie fought with great distinction at Quatre-Bras and at Waterloo, where he was severely wounded ; Ins efforts greatly coutrihuted to the decision of the battle. After Ins return to Hanover, he wa minister of war, and in this capacity died, April 20, 184tt A LTEXBURG, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, is situated in a fertile country about -i miles from Lcipsic, and contains 16,000 inhabitants. Standi ij on an almost perpendicular rock of porphyry, the old castle of A. forms a striking feature in the landscape. Its foundations are probably as old as the 11th c. It is remarkable • scene of the historical incident known as the Prinzenraub (q. v.). Brushes, gloves, and cigars are among the chief manufactures carried on in A., and the book-trade is considerable. A railway connects it with Leipsic and Bavaria. A'LTENGAARD, or A I.TEX, a seaport town in the province of Finmarken, Norway, situated at the month of the river Alten, in lat. G9° 55' X., and 1 this point, no cultivation is attempted; and even ha ley alone oduced. A. has a harbour and considerable trade. It is visited principally by Russian and Norwegian vessels. ALTEN-OTTING, or ALTOTTIXG, a place of pilgrimage not far from the Inn, is situated in one of the most beautiful and fertile plains of Upper Bavaria. It is frequented by thousands of Roman Catholics from Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia. on account of a famous image of the Virgin Mary (the ' Slack Virgin') which it possesses, and may be called the Loretto of German}'. The Redemp- torist fathers, who were invited hither in 1838, have built an educational institution, which may be held as a virtual revival of the old Jesuit col- i ivcted in 177o. A. was originally Several German emperors, such as Henry HI. and Henry IV., held their court here. The emperor Leopold I., and other princes of the House of Hapsburg, made pilgrimages to it. It also con- tains the tomb of Count Tilly, who was buried t his ov. a request. This tomb is called Tilly's Chapel, and is held in such high veneration, that Maximilian 1.. and nil princes and srs of tic- Bavarian family, have had their hearts interred in it. A'LTr.RATivr.s, i„ Medicine, a term remedies that have the power of changing to of the living solids of the body, and consequently altering the functions which they perform. It is generally applied, however, to medicines which are irritant in full d i but which almost imperceptibly alter disordered actions or secretions; acting speci- ally on certain glands, or upon absorption in when they are given in comparatively small doses, the treatment being continued for a considerable 12 of time. For example, mercury is an irritant in some of its preparations ; but when small doses of blue pdl, Rummer's pill, or corrosive sublimate are given at intervals for some length of time, they 'pro- duce alti . so as to cause an improvement in the nutrient and digestive functions, of eruptions, anil the removal of iing of the skin or of other tissues' (Royle); and they will effect these changi a without otherwise affecting the constitution or inducing salivation. So iodine, also an irritant in concentrated doses, and poisonous in some forms, is most useful, when given in small doses, in effecting the removal of enlarged glandular organs, and need not cause iodism, if illy given. The preparations of gold are likewise stimulants of the absorbents, and are used in cases of scrofula. Some preparations of arsenic are powerful A. in of skin-disease. So also are the decoctions of the woodn and their substitutes, such as decoction of sarsaparilla, and the like, which, when taken in large quantities of water, must operate partly by their diluting and solvent properties, and partly by the stimulant effect of the active principles of the several ingredients in these diet-drinks, conveyed into the capillaries. It will be seen, therefore, that the term A . - implies the method in which some dru . Imin- i. than any special alterative I by them. The most useful it may be added, are also the most dangerous in unskilled hands. ALTE'RXATE, in Botany. See Leaves. ALTHiE'A. See Mak.sii Mallow., and Holly- hock. A'LTITUDE, in Astronomy, is the height of a heavenly body above the horizon. It is measured, not by linear distance, but by the angle which a line drawn from the eye to the heavenly body makes with the horizontal line, or by the arc of a vertical circle intercepted between the body and the horizon. Altitudes are taken in observatories by means of a telescope attached to a graduated circle i ;.- which is fixed vertically. The telc-< directed towards the body to be observed, the angle which it makes with the horizon is read off the graduated circle. The A. thus observed must receive various corrections — the chief being for parallax (q. v.) and refraction (q. v.) — in order to get the true A. At sea, the A. is taken by means of a sextant (q. v.), and then it has further to be cor- rected for the dip of the visible horizon below the true horizon (see HORIZON). The correct determina- tion of altitudes is of great importance in most of the problems of astronomy and navigation. See Longitude. — An Altitude and Azimuth INSTRU- MENT consists essentially of a vertical circle with its telescope so arranged as to be capable of being turned round horizontally to any point of the is. It thus differs from a Transit Circle (q. v.), which is fixed in the meridian. See Azimuth. A'LTO (<:■■ cuo) is the deepest or lowest species of musical voice in boys, in eunuchs, and of all in females, where its beauty of tone gives it the preference. This quality of the human voice has been too much neglected by modern com- i g-masters. The powers of ■ sion which it | ' culiar, and cannot be supplied by any other kind of voice. Its ton. -character (timbre) is serious, spiritual, tender, and romantic. The low A. in particular has a I of tone combined with power in the lower rang.-. No other voice expresses so decidedly dignity, greatness, and religious resignation : it can also represent youthful manly power as well as romantic heroism. The high A. has generally the same range of 6 177 ALTOX-ALTO-RELIEVO. compass as the mezzo soprano, hut differs from it in ■sition of the cantabile and in its character ■ .; tone. A. voices generally consist of two r the lowest beginning at P or <; below middli ng as high xs the A or II al The higher notes op to the next P or ( '. partake more of the character of the soprano. . ALTON, Jos. Wilh jsorof Archseology and the History of Art at Bonn, was born, 177*2, at Aqoileia, and died in 1840. In early . his attention was directed to natural dally that of the horse, on which a splendid illustrated work ( .'. 1810), which was completed in 1817. In concert with his friend I'ander, he pro- jected an extensive work on comparat ive of which the first division was published at Bonn 1821 — 1828. His etchings of animals, &c. are esteemed as valuable. Albert, Prince Consort of Queen Victoria, was a pupil of A. in the History of Art. A'LTOXA, the largest and richest city in the duchy of Hoistein in Denmark, is situated on the Elbe, so near Hamburg, that the two cities ai divided by the state-boundaries. It contains 32,20 I inhabitants. A. lies higher than Hamburg, and is much healthier; but, on the other hand, it is destitute of the num I ■- so necessary for the tr, of good hich Hamburg is so abundantly pro- vided. In a commercial point of view, it forms one city with Hamburg. Its trade i England, France, the Mediterranean Sea, and th Indies. There are many important Industrie 1 lishments in A. ; among others, the manufacture of tobacco is largely carried on, one factory working np 600,000 lbs. yearly. A. is a free port, and many privileges in respect of trade, and also of civil freedom ; all sects are allowed the free exercise of their religion. The city is connected by a railway with Kiel, Kendsburg, and Glllckstadt. The observa- tory is a private institution, which has gained a great reputation under the direction of Schumacher, who died in 1851. The rise of A. to its present importance ha3 been recent and rapid, for a conti- nental town. A'LTORF, the chief town in the Swiss canton Uri, is situated in a sheltered spot at the bae Grunbcrg, about two miles from the head of the Lake of the Four Cantons, and contains about 2000 inhabitants. It is a well-built town, having several open places, a church, a nunnery, and the oldest Capuchin monastery in Si L The little tow r on which the exploits of William ' painted in rude frescoes, is known to be older than the legend of Tell. The lime-tree under which the scene of the shooting of the apple was laid, was removed in 1657, and a stone-fountain erected in its stead. Situated on the St Gothard road, A. has some transit trade, but little or no industry of its own. A'LTO-RILIE'VO (ItaL), high-relief, the term in sculpture to designate that mode of repre- senting objects by which they are made to strongly and boldly from the background, without being entirely detached. In Alto-Rilievo, some por- tions of the figures usually stand quite free, and in this respect it differs not only from basso-rilievo, or low-relief, but from the intermediate kind of known as mezzo-rilievo, in which the figures are fully rounded, but where there are no detached portions. In order to be in high-relief, objects ought actually to project somewhat more than half their thi no conventional means being employed in this style to give them apparent prominence. In bass-relief, on the other hand, the figures are usually flattened ; 178 but means are adopted to prevent the projection from appearing to the eye to be less than half; ■ if an object projects less than half, or, to •. be more than half buried in the round, it is obvious that its trn tented, This rule, that in all : i I 1 or I projection of at lertst half the tl round . was strictly observed in t art, but it has 1 I in the i . in lab i- times, and hence attempts made at fori and perspective, which have ed in partial failure. Relief forms a kind of intermedia tween art and painting, the mode of represi ntation b mowed from the former, whilst the mode of arrangement, to a ceil . is in accordance with the latter. The plastic principle occupi most prominent place in the simple and tranquil of the earlier art of Greece, v pictorial principle preponderates in the crowded and often excited seen ited in the later Roman reliefs. In such reliefs as have been produced in modern times, the one element or the othi prevailed, according as the one model or the other has been followed. The works which have nd from the ruins of Persepolis, Nib and Babylon, still attest the i mployment of relief in 1 Vivian and Assyrian art. Of the which usually belongs to the class of n some of the finest specimens in existence are now to Winged Bull. be seen in the British Museum. Though never exhibiting the life and freedom of classical or modern European art, the elaborately executed and majestic reliefs of these semi-oriental nations are greatly in advance not only of the wlu'msical distortions of nature exhibited by the Hindus, but of the inanimate and motionless representations of the ians. earliest Greek reliefs possessed a hard and character, somewhat approaching to the art of those earlier nations of which we have just spoken, and were very slightly raised. Of this wo have an example in the two lions over the gate at Mycenas — probably the oldest Greek relief in Phidias who gave to relief its true character, and finally brought it to a degree of perfec- tion which it has never since att • alti- rilievi which adorned the metopes of the Parthenon at Athens, and the Temple of Apollo at Phi- Arcadia, now preserved in the British Museum, are still not only unsurpassed, but unapproached as examples of the style. In none of these do we see any attempt at perspective, and even foreshortening for the most part is avoided. Under the Romans, sculpture was employed ALTO-RELIEVO- A LUM. to an enormous extent in the decoration of tombs ami sarcophagi, whole str eta of such monu- ments i " n tne Appian ■ result of i that sculpture became a manufacture rather in art, ami attempts were made to supply by technical execution and mere mass what had be a lost in thought and spirit. Relief was nowa] often by Greek artists resident in Italy, to purposes Panathenaic Frieze. — From the Parthenon. for which the Greeks, in their own land and in their better times, had rightly conceived it to be unsuited. Behind figures standing nearly free, a second rank was introduced, and those numerous examples of a false style, still to be found in every gallery in Europe, were produced, the imitation of which after- wards led to such a lavish expenditure of artistic talent in Italy. The attempt which the Romans had made to invade the province of painting, by means of sculpture, was carried still further by the 1 tine artists of the 16th and 17th c. Not only were several rows of figures represented in but even landscape was introduced with a success which, in the hands of such artists as Ghiberti, was positively marvellous. If the highest perfection in the true plastic style of relief was attained by Phidias in the metopes of the Parthenon at Athens, a corre- sponding merit may be claimed as regards the pictorial style by Ghiberti in the cele- brated bronze doors of the Baptistery of San < I iovanni at Florence. Even Canova's reliefs ] i to far too great an extent of the character of paint- ings in stone; and to Flaxuian, and above all, to aldsen, must be assigned the merit of restoring tins style of art to its genuine and original prin- ■ it is to be remembered, in studying the reliefs of c ues, that studiously as the Greeks avoided a pictorial conception of their sub- ject, they did not eschew the use of colour w : could be employed to heighten the effect There is reason to believe that in many excellent examples the background was painted blue, and that the hems of ants of the figures, and the like, were often coloured or gi A'LUM, a whitish. saline substance; ly it is a double salt, being compi sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumina. with a certain proportion of water, crystallise i r in octahedrons or in cubes. Its formula IB KOSO,-rAl,0,3SO,+24HO. A. is soluble in eighteen times its weight of cold water, and in its own weight of hot water. The solution thus ol has a peculiar astringent taste, and is stroii to coloured test papers. When heated, the crystals melt in their water of crystallisation ; and when the water is completely driven off by heat, there is left a spongy white mass, called burnt A, or anhydrous is much used as a mordant in dyeing. This property it owes to the alumina in it, which has a strong attraction for textile tissues, and also for colouring matters ; the alumina thus becomes the ig the colour in the cloth. The manu- facture of the colours or paints called lakes depends on this proi>erty of alumina to attach to itself certain colouring matters. Thus, if a solution of A. is coloured with cochineal or madder, and ammonia or carbonate of soda is added, the a'mrnina of the A. is precipitated with the colour attached to it, and tho Liquid is left colourless. Alumina, the basis of pure clay — which is a silicate of alumina — deriv name from being first extracted from A. A. is also used in the preparation of leather from skins, anil, licine, as a powerful astringent !' ig and mucous discharges. Its use in the of bread, to give a white appearance and more pi nee to bread made from at Hour, is highly objectionable. A. rarely occurs in nature, except in a f :id in some extinct volcano, s. where it appears to be formed from the action of sulphurous acid vapours upon felspathic rocks. In this country, it is prepared artificially from A.-shale, obtained from coal-mines at Hurlett and Campsie. near Glasgow ; and alum-slate, which occurs at Whitby, in Yorkshire, and there forms precipitous cliffs, extending about thirty miles along the east coast of England. The alum-slate, shale, or schist, consists mainly of clay (silicate of alumina), iron pyrites (bisulphuret of iron), and coaly or bituminous matter. When the shale is exposed to the air — as it is in the old coai-vxutea or mines from which the coal has been extracted — the oxygen of the air, assisted by moisture, efl led change upon it. The original hard stony substance begins to split up into thin leaves, and becomes studded over and ini crystals. The latter are the result of the oxidation of the sulphur of the j into sulphuric acid, and the iron into oxide of iron, both of which iu part combine to form sulphate of iron, whilst the excess of the sulphuric acid unites with the alumina of the clay, and produces sulphate of alumina. When the alum-shale thus weathered is digested in water, there dissolve out, the sulphate aina (Al O .'!S0 3 ) and • sulphate of iron •lution is treated with chloride of potassium (KC1), which decomposes the sulphate of iron, forming sulphate of potash (KOSO,) and chloride of iron (FeCl). When this li porated to concentration, and allowed to cool, 1 .irate, consisting of sulphate of :. sulphate of potash and water, thus, i.u.Mi, ; Al (i :;sn : _ d the chlor iron is left in the solution or moffier-Uquor. The crystals of A. obtained from the first crystallisation arc not free from iron, and hence require to be redissolved in v, at r, ^concentrated, ai , This operation d a 'third time before the A. is obtained pure. — As the preliminary weathering of the shade takes >some years . "S method is now largely resorted to. The shale is broken in its," and piled up over brushwood in long ■ huge potato-pits, and the brush- wood b dy matter of the shale begins to burn, and the who! ridge undergoes the process of roasting ; the results of which are the sanio as that ithering operation— namely, the oxidation of the sulphur and iron, and the for- i of sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron, laterial is afterwards worked up as prc\ led. The roasting operation is so much more expeditious than the weathering process, that months ALUM BAfiH— ALUMINA. 1 i, \. urn! ■ :i' To] i. DJ U < Si . I Vecchia, is extracted from alum-stone, a mineral con- taining sulphate of potash and sulphat • of alumina, : id hi such a to lerthem insoluble. , tin- mineral i; calcined, tin 1 sulphates become soluble, and are extracted by lixiviation. 1 thus manufactured is prized, as being free of iron. The potash in A. can In- replaced partly or alto- gether by sods or ammonia; the alumina by oxide of chromium or bi [uioxide of in in m e; o sulphuric acid bj ■ icid, or peroxide of iron, ■it altering! ' rj rtals. There are thus soda, ammonia, chrome, Ac, alums, form gi nus of salts of which i .is onlj oni The more important a ril in symbols, at KOS0 3 + A1.0 | \. NaOSO.+AJ o 3 10 24HO, oda A. Nil O.SO. + A1 <> 3S0, l -Ml!" \. KOS0, + Cr,O. 1 3S0 : 24HO, chromic pofc FeOSO a +Al,d 3 3SO,+24HO, ferrous A. ALUM BAGH, a fort rendered famous, during the battles and siegi ari ing out of tin' Indian mutiny in 1857, by t£e indom lution of its defenders. The A. B. ('G ird m of tin- Lady Alum, or Beauty <>f tli" Soul') was a domain about four from the city of I, u. know, inr the Caw opore road. It comprised Beveral buildings, includii a i, a mosque, and an emanbarra or private temple, bounded by a beautiful garden, which was itself in the middle <>f a park, and the park enclosed by a wall with corner towers, ft had belonged to some members of the royal family of I Huh-; 1 ut when the wars of the mutiny had be n fairly be on, the A. B. was converted by the rebels into a fort. It was large enough to contain a powerful military ami might have bi irmidable stron ;hold, if well defended; but it proved powerless against a small British force. In Si pi I , Ol lock, and Neill crossed the Ganges from Cawnpore, marched rapidly towards Lucknow, and captured the A. B. on the way. About 300 at the place, with f oui a number of sick, wounded, and 4000 n p followers, under Colonel M'lntyrc; while tl i nerals pro- ceeded with the main body of their force to Lucknow. It was intended that M'Intyre should soon he relieved or reinforced; but Havelock and Ou i in, shut up for two months within the Residency at Lucknow, could scarcely send even a small note in a quill to the A. B. Not until the close of November did the British, under Sir Colin Campbell, relieve both Lucknow and the A. B. lie brought away all the garrison from the former place, but left Sir James Outrun, with 3500 men, to hold the A. B. It was at that time the only spot in the whole province of Oude in the hands of the British; and during the whole Sir James had to defend it against Hie enemy. On the 12th of January 185S, he was attacked by an anmd rabble of sepoys and other malcontents, amounting to 30,000 men. These, however, he completely defeated. They attacked him again with 20, men on the 21st of February, at a tune when nail force was weakened by the absence of a liment employed in escorting a convoy of pro- visions and stores from Cawnpore; he, however, met th.m with the same heroic resolution, and effectually repulsed them. In the next following month, Sir Colin Campbell re-COnquered Lucknow; and the garrison at the A. B. was relieved from its perilous isolation. Although only a domain converted temporarily into a fort, the A. B. must ever occupy a memorable place in military history. ALUM BOOT. This name is given in the 180 United States to two plants, natives of that country, very different from oni another, but agreeing in the remarkable ncy of their roots, which aro IS. ii i. t)ne of these plants is Geranium ■'-,;.: n i , :i plant of general habit and appearance very much resembling some of the of geranium which are common weeds in Britain. The root contains more tannin than kino (q. v.) dors. The tini ture is of use in sore throat and ulcerations of the mouth, and is also administered The property of a tringency belongs, in an inferior degree, to some other species of Ot ranium, and of the kindred genera, Wrodium and /'. 1 1, •goniwm. -The other American plant to which the name A. II. is given is Heuchera Americana, a plant of the natural order Saxifragea (q.v.),an o I in which aJ o a tringency is a prevalent property. The genus Ii '< ra ha I the calyx ."id. ft, the petals undivided, five stamens, and the styles remarkably long. //• Americana is everywhere covered with a , down; the leaves are roundish, lobed, and toothed ; the peduncles, diehotoinnus and stra The root is D powerful styptic, and is used to form a wash for wounds and obstinate ulcers. ALU'MINA, the most abundant of the earths (q. v.), is the oxide of the metal Aluminium (q. v.), the formula being A1..0.,. It occurs in n abundantly in combination with silica, associated with other bases. The most familiar of its native compounds is felspar, a silicate of A. and potass (Al ,0 ..-JSiO, +KO,SiO ,). This is one of the constituents of granite, and of several other igneous rocks. Certain varieties of these, by expo- sure to the atmosphere, become completely disinte- , passing from the state of hard, solid rock, such as we are accustomed to see in buildir ranite, into soft, crumbling, earthy masses. It is the Ei which undergoes the change; and it appears to be owing to the action of rain-water charged with car- l, which dissolves the potass and some of the silica of the felspar, leaving the excess of and Hi- A. still unit' 1 1. It is not known, however, why certain specimens of granite are rapidly cor- roded and crumbled down, whilst others have ! the same causes of decay. By suchaproc ofdi ate ration as we have described, the clays ol i if arable soils are produced. <'lay consists of silica and A. in a state of chemical i ibination. It never is pure A, but the quan- tity of silica united to the latter is variable. I it is pure, clay is quite white, as we see in the porcelain clay o D ' re and Cornwall, which is derived from colourless felspar. More frequently, clay is red. owing to the presence of oxide of iron ; or black, from the diffusion through it of vegetable From alum, A. is prepared by adding to a solution of the former, water of ammonia, as long as it occasions a precipitate. The A. appears as a voluminous, wl i nous substance, consist ide of the metal combined with water. When A. is precipitated from a solution containing colour- ing matter, sueh as logwood, &C., it carries down the colour chemically united to the flocculent precipi- tate; in this way are formed the coloured earths, called lakes (q. v.). A. in the state of precipitate, after b itiy dried, is readily soluble in acids and ill alkalies; but if heated to whiteness, ,. loses the associated water, contracts greatly in bulk, and forms a white, soft powder, not at all gritty, and with difficulty soluble in alkalies and acids. A., as generally prepared, whether hydrated or anhydrous, is insoluble in water, possesses no taste, and dons not alter colouring matters; but recently Mr Walter Cnun has obtained A. in an allotropic form, in which it is soluble in water. ALUMIN IUM— ALUF.ED. It is quite different, therefore, in properties from the alkaline earths, and is a much weaker base. In the anhydrous state it absorbs water with readiness without combining with it, so that it adheres to the tongue, and is felt to parch it. Clay retains this property ; and the ends of tobacco- pipes are glazed, to prevent adhesion to the lips or tongue. A. is not fusible l>y a forge or furnace heat, but it ne ll i before the ozyhydrogen blow-pipe into a clear globule, possessing great hardness. It occurs in nature in a .similar state. The more coarsely crystallised si imens form the em ry which is used for polishing; the l transparent cry itals, when of a blue colour, owing to a trace of metallic oxid ■, stitute tin' precious gem the sapphire, ..Inn red, (he ruby. A., in common with other sesquioxides, is a feeble hasc. The salts it forms with the acids have almost all a sour taste, and an arid action on colouring matter. ALUMI'NIUM is one of the metals present in clay, granite, and other rocky and earthy substances. It was discovered by WoMer iu, 1S'2S, and was re- examined by him in 1846, when he obtained the metal in minute globules or beads, by heating a mixture of chloride of A. and sodium. Within the last live years, however, the subject has been re- investigated by Deville and others, and it appears probable that the metal A., recently SO rare and costly, will soon rank among the more common metals both in use and price. The original experi- ments of Deville were mad- at the cost of Napoleon III., who subscribed £1500, and was rewarded by the presentation of two bars of the metal. Tie' process followed by Deville was the same as that suggested by Welder, and appears to have been so successful, that the metal could, in 1857, be purchased in Paris at the price of 7s- Grf. an ounce. In 1855, Hose announced to the scientitic world that A. could be more readily and cheaply prepared from a mineral called cryolite, found in Greenland in large quantity, and cargoes of which are regularly im- ported into Germany under the name of 'Mineral Soda,' at the price of 9s. a cwt. This mineral is a double fluoride of A. and sodium, is used on the Rhine as a washing-soda, and also in the manu- facture of soap, and only requires to be mixed w ith an excess of sodium, and heated, when the metal A. at once separates. The latter process for the preparation of the new metal is about to be carried out on the large scale at works which are now in progress of erection at Battexsea, London; and it is expected that the price will not exceed 3s. 9 ■■'. per ounce. Indeed, an order for 500 ounces at that sum has already been accepted. The properties of A. are, that it is a wdiite metal, somewhat resembling silver, but possessing a bluish hue, which reminds one of zinc. It is very malleal le and ductile, and in tenacity it approaches iron. When heated in a furnace, it fuses, and can then be cast in moulds into ingots. Exposed to dry or moist air, it is unalterable, and does not oxidise so much as lead and zinc do. Cold water has certainly no action upon it, and in the majority of experiments, hot water has not sensibly affected it. Sulphuretted hydrogen, the -is win h so readily tarnishes the silver in households, forming a black film on the 3urface, does not act on A. When fused and cast into moulds, it is a soft metal like pure silver, and has a density of 2"56j but, when hammered <>r rolled, it becomes as hard as iron, and its density increases to 2"67. It is therefore a very light metal, being lighter than glass, and only one-fourth as heavy as silver. This property has been taken advantage of by Napoleon III., who some tune ago ordered lie eagles surmounting the standards of the French army to be made of A. instead of silver; and thus the sau u ced to one-fourth of its former weight. A. is very sonorous ; and when a rod or small bell made ,,; it, i i struck, it gives out a ■ t clear I i ad ; hence it has been 1 that the metal would be useful in making A. forms, with light, very hard, white alloys, which will doubtless i " find their way into our manufactures of ; . tea-kettles, dish-covers, &c. ; and also a yellow alloy, which, though much ligl 'gold, similar to it in colour, and in being faintly ad I - by acids. With iron, the new metal yield alloys, one of which, thou I, con! lining 75 per cent. of i yet will not ru | to a damp a1 phere, and may therefore bo useful in m i pipes, &e. Ornaments for the mantel lis- arm, and the neck, have been fashion A., hut hitherto they have proved unacceptable to the public eye, on account of its peculiar blue or zinc hue; but recently, Dr Stevenson Macadam, of Edinburgh, has suggested a process of imm the A. iii a heated solution of [potash, which partially eats into the surface of the metal, ami produces a fine white frosted appearance, like that of fl silver. A number of medals of A. have I" m this way, ami after a year's exposure, have not lost their original beauty. ALU'NNO, Niccolo, or Niccolo of Fuligno, one of the old I nibrian painters, whose works first indicated the qualities discernible in that school. His earliest known piece is a ' Madonna with Angels and Saints,' 1458 A. D. ] dso a gonfalon — a banner used in religious processions— of the year 1466, in tin' church of Santa Maria Nuova at i. which A. painted for the brotherhood, as the inscription testifies: 'Soeietcu Annuncia fecit fieri hoc opus.' ft is a work of peculiar beauty, displaying deep religious feeling and exquisite i ness. A. painted several of these gonfalons. Some of his pictures were carried oil" by the French, and sent to Paris; but at the restoration of artistic spoil, ' The Nativity,' 'The Resurrect ,' &c., were returned, although 'The Agony in the Garden' still remains in the Louvre. There is also a 'Madonna between 'Two Angels,' of the year l-l!l'.), to he seen in the parish church of the village of Bastda. Frag- ments, too, are still in existence of an altar-piece for tie' cathedral of Assisi. The picture repp a Fieta, with two angels bearing torches, and, according to Vasari, weeping so naturally, thai 'no one,' he thinks, 'could have painted them bitter.' A. is not so remarkable for the originality or fertility of Ins invention, as for his selection of details, warmth of feeling, purity, and devout faith. His earnestness, however, leads turn at times into exaggeration. ALT7RED, or AUtED, of Beverley, in York- shire, an old English historian of the time of Henry I. Little is known regarding him ; but he is said to have been educated at Cambridge, and to have greatly distinguished himself by the variety of his ttg. It is also stated that he had enriched his mind by travel, both in France and Italy. and that at Koine he became domestic chaplain to Cardinal Othobom. H I office, however, to have been thai of canon and treasurer of the church of St John in his native town of Beverley, ■>. hi re he wi . i hi work commences with a fabulous period of British history, and ; ilov, ii to the twentj ointh \. u of lb m j l. ll was publi Is d at t Ixford in 171(1 by 'I b lleanie, and i Its Latin is extremely good, and even elegant, while it sadly in dates, is unusual for the age in which its author lived. He IS very doubtful, to have written, ALVARADO— AMADEUS. besides the Annals, a work on the libertie I ur privi- nf the church of St John of Beverley. The work, whoever wrote it, is a translation of old , charters, &c, relative to that . and is still in manuscript. A. died in 1128 or 1129. ALVARA'DO, ■ ", a famous companion of Corl joz in Spani dura, 1 the clo3e of the loth c. In 1517 or world, and in the patched from Oul governor of that island, to explore, and command of Grijalva, the shores of the Am continent. The expedition touched mil (the Isle of Swallows), and at various places in Yucatan. Ascending also the rivers Tabai i Grijalva was so enchanted with the country, its line cultivation, and the numerous traces of advanced civilisation, that I i un d it New Now, for the first tiro paniards I of the riches of Montezuma, and I A. was ord r d to return to Cuba, and inform Velasquez of the result of the exn The sight of the gold which A. brought with him, stimulated the covetousness and ambition of Vilas- quez, who became greatly incensed against Grijalva, because the latter had not i further into w region, and on ; bo I aba deprii I him of his command. In February 1519, Cortes sailed from Havanna, solely for the purpose of con- i ships, containing 508 soldiers, and 109 seamen. A. i landed one of these ships; but a storm separating the licet, he arrived at the [ale of Swallows, three days earlier otl Here the conquest of Mexico •■ planned by these intrepid ail venturers. A. ,. in every conspicuous incident; he was, i hardly less distinguished than the sagacious Cortes himself, who knew his worth, and whom he served with unfalti and fidelity. While 1 the city of Mexico, during the absence of his chief, he massacred, in the midst of a fete, a great hi of Aztec nobles, which act is said to hi ve i the ind I but, on the other hand, it is asserted that the had d istruction of the Spi si A. had become cognizant of . [n the famous night-retreat of 1st duly 1520, A. commanded the rear-guard. Alter the conquest of Mexico, he was . o. 1523, at the head of 300 foot, 160 hon 4 pieces of cannon, and a tree], of auxilia- ries, to subdue the tribes on the coast of the I in the direction of Guatemala. He: was completely successful, reci iving everywhere the submission of the native chiefs, while the people brought him presents, in token of the sincerity of their friend- amed to Spain, where the em les V., gave him a splendid reception, and appointed him governor of Guatemala. On depart- ing again for the new world, he was accom by numerous friends and cavaliers desirous of making their fortune. His adventurous spirit soon launched him into new enterpris -. Pizarro and Almagro were prosecuting a brilliant career of conquest in South America. A. resolved not to intrude upon i i territories. He considered the province of i to be without the limits of these, and so, ting with a force of 500 soldiers, 227 of whom were cavalier . fa i I aded at Bahia de los Ca near Cape San Franeiseo, whence he ponetr.il the heart of the country, crossing the Andes by as bold and hazardous a march as it is possible to con- In the plain of Km Bai IDS ' I was met by some of the troops of Pizarro, headed by Almagro; but instead of disputing by force of anus his right to the possession of the country in which he found himself, he agreed to retire, on receiving nn indemnity for his arduous undertaking. Se therefore retired to Honduras, and aided the . i n cstablishin w tnents, amongst others, ( tracias-a-Dios and San Juan de Puerto dc Caballos. Meanwhile, Pizarro, loaded with wealth, went back to Spain in 153 misrcpiv-. ntedthe conduct of A to the emperor; but I I i e ■ -..fully, that he received the govern men l, of B luraa in addition to Guatemala. Again he embarked for the new world, and pursued his course of discovi I ; but ill an affray with the Indians upon oacan, in 1511. he was accidentally killed by his horse falling upon him and crushing him. In the same year, an inundation, accom; by a fr overthrew the walls of the i < iv. n of San Jago, when his wife and children all perished. ALVAREZ, Dox Jose, a Spanish sculptor, was born April 23, 1768; at Priego, in the provii < lordova. During youth he laboured with his a stone-mason; and when twenty years old, K i to study drawing and sculpture in the academy at Granada. His early essays in sculpture seem him the patronage of the Bishop of Cordova, and in 1794, he was received into the academy of San Fernando, where, in 1799, he gained the first prize in t cl Subsequently, he gained the prize for sculpture in the Institute of Paris, and in 1804, increased h j by a plaster-model of Ganymede, which proved that he could rival i Janova in gracefidness of style. He now attempted g i i In- more severe style, and prepared a model for a wounded Achilles, which was accidentally broken. Ik mved to Home, he was here employed by Napoleon to design bass-reliefs for the Quirinal Palace on Moni iCavallo; but, on account of political changes, his works were not allowed to occupy the places for which they bad been di In Rome, where he lived on terms of friendship with Canova and Thorwaldsen, he executed, among oth works, his Qrupo Golosal de Zaragaza, now in the [ l mm of Madrid, > a scene in . I of I This work alone is nttoestahl I -ss of design, - ! mplicity in execut m, trueness to nature, intiment, mark the sculptures of A, who, next to nature and classical studied the works of Michael Angelo. Se dii I, in Madrid, Nov nb. :■ 26, 1827. AMADE'US (i.e. Love-God), a common name in ,'i House of Savoy. The first who bore it was V., eldest son of Count Humbert, who lived about the commencement of the lithe. His suc- cessors gradually enlarged their paternal dominions ; but the lirst to make an important figure in history was A. V., who was born in 12 19, succeeded his uncle Filippn in 1285, and dinl in 1323. lb 1 acquired the ■ of a prince of the empire. He had a brother who resided for a long period in England, and while there, built the Savoy Palace in London. — His son, A. VI., the ' Green Count,' born in 1334, succeeded his father in 1343. He was a sagacious, moderate, and vigorous ruler, won various places from the Dauphin of France, became lord - paramount of Piedmont, and through the favour of the emperor Charles IV., obtained the viceregency over a great part of Upper Italy. His influence among tire I talian states was very great, lie died in 13S3. — A. Yilf., born in 1383, was at first under the guardianship of his grandmother, a woman of superior talents; but in 1398 he assumed the reins of government himself, and displayed a spirit of moderation, and, at the same time, a love of order which augured well for his people. The zeal with which he AMADIS— AMADOU. aided the policy of the Emperor Sigismund secured mm tin.' imperial favour, and the elevation of Savoy into a duchy (1416). On the extinction of its native dynasty, in 1418. Piedmont chose liim for its ruler, : I kin. But a religious melan- choly taking possession of his mind, he (Novi 7, 1434) laid down his authority, and along with six of liis I elf to a moE hermitage which b i had caused to be built on the shores ofthe Lake of Geneva. H edpope in 1430, whi ttl med the name of Felix V. ; but he resigned the papal chair in 1448, and died three '. — A. IX., after govern- ing for four over his authority to his wife Jolanthe, on account of ill health; but she 1 it very imprudently. While he lived, A. was a mere tool in the hands of grasping factions. He died in 1472. A'MADIS, a much-used heroic name in chivalric poetry. At the head of those heroes of romance, stands A. of Caul, called the Lion Knight, from the on his shield, and also Beltenebros, or the Darkly Beautiful The other Amadises that figure in romance are represented as descendants more or less remote of A. of Gaul. He himself was what the ins call a love-child of the fabulous King Perion of France and of Elisena, a princess of Bretagne. The relationship of several of the other Amadises to the princes and princesses of Colchis, Trebisond, Greece, and Cathay, that figure as their parents, is of the same unsanctioned kind. Nor do such irregularities seem at all to have shocked, in these fabulous regions, or to have derogated from the dignity of any of the personages concerned. The romance ■which narrates the adventures of A. of Gaul is both the most ancient and the best of all the A. romances, (t even found favour in the sight of Cervantes, who won immortal honour by overthrowing the long usurped dominion of this ' evil sect.' This one, how- ever, has maintained its reputation even to the pre- sent day, not only because it was regarded by him as a literary curiosity, but also f n >m its own merits, as the original production of a creative fancy. The question which was early raised, and cannot yet be demonstratively settled, as to whether this romance was originally a Portuguese, a Spanish, or a French production, proves at least the absence in it of all national peculiarities, and the entire want of all national traditions connected with it ; and hence the want also of a living historical back- ground, which, in the case of all really national ds, is discerni h the purely epic struc- ture. It may lie asserted with certainty, both from internal and external evidence, that this romance is the pur hi!/ rei lation of the fancy of a single individual ; and that it was composed at a time when the genuine epic style of chivalric writing was bear nently, not earlier than the 1-lth c. It is also apparent that this romance must have been originally written in prose, and intended to be read, and not to be recited. Lastly, it is not to bo doubted that the author was well i iquainted with the earlier le , and has imitated it in many things, but i theless, struck ont for himself a perfectly new path, in an opposite direc- tion, which natut 1 to lead his less imitators into a bottomless abyss, and at ! about the extinction of tin' wl le class. For chivalric romances — doubtless, unintentionally becam>' '■ ; more and more of an ironical and only a. g< oius like Cervantes was w in order to compli te their extinction, by mains nt the fundamental tone, and exagger- lity inherent in such compo-, The Span b ' . ices consist of fourteen books, of which the first four contain the history of A. of Gaul. Yet, according to the researches of the learned ! I in his ) (Madrid, 1S33), it can scarcely be doubted that I ancient part was originally written in the Portuguese language, by the knight Vasco.l t orto, who died in 1403 ; and that it must I composed b I 18 12 and 1567. Tii-. ipt is said to have been first in ti po -ion of the Infant Alfonso of Portu- gal, the son of John L, the f. in .use of Braganza, who died in 1401 ; that of the Duke o. ad to have been I during the earthquake in 1755. At feast these first four hooks have only 1. , ed in the Spanish translation which was made by Garcia I de Montalvo, about 14G0, and was first printed between 1402 and 1505. The same Montalvo added to it the fifth book, Las Serga* [ergo actions or deeds] de Espland :•■„, //;/'„ dt Am lie began this book in 14S5, but did not complete it till 1492. The books from the Gtk to the 14th contain the Exploits and Adventures of Florisando, by Paez de Ribera ; of Lisuarte of Greece, and of Perion of Gaul, by Juan Diaz ; of A. of Greece, of Florisel of Nicea, and of Anaxarte, by Feliciano de Silva ; of ltogel of Greece, and of Silves de la Selva, by the same ; of Lcpolemo, and of Leandro the Fair, by Pedro de Lujan ; and lastly, of Penelva, by an anonymous Portuguese. The French translators and continuators, beginning with Nicolas de Herberay, Sieur des Essarts, who pub- lished the first eight books between 1540 — 1548, have increased this series of romances to twenty- four books. Gilbert Saunier, Sieur de Duverdier, has written a conclusion, in seven large volumes, to all the adventures begun in the whole series of legends, which he has called Le Roman des Romans. How popular and widely circulated these romances were in their day, may be proved by the many editions of single legends, by the translations of most of them into Italian, English, German, aud even into Dutch, and also by the numerous chivalric romances written in imitation of them. As, never- theless, a change came over the public taste, they almost all fell into oblivion, and indeed justly so, because of their want of intrinsic merit. They were ired from the Ten the .Muses to the literary lumber-room, where I 1 they only serve to feast the eyes of bil .1 io . A. of Gaul has been deservedly excepted from this fate, and has not only found readers in the present day. 1 nit has been in modern times translated, revised, and imitated. The Portuguese Gil Vicente, and the Spaniard Andres Rei de Artieda, extra ted from it the mate- rials for two Spanish o De Lubert and Count Tressan revived this romance in tasteful extracts ; and as Bernardo Tasso formerly did in his - 1 madigi, so now Creuze de Lesser and Wilbam Stewart Rose have extract 1 Erom it the materials for epic poems: A. de G auxCIi la Table rondi (Paris, 1813), and A. I id, a poem in three books (London, 1803). On the other hand, Wicland's A* ■■■ r A. has nothing in common with the more ancient Amadises, except the title, and the multitude of adventures encountered by the hero. A MADOU, a name given to Polyppru* ignianug and /'./(.. or division ii'iiv included in the genus ■ in Britain, and Europe. "■ 1 with the hj in. 3 with d. rather angular, tubular, vertical passages the who . ithery ; the undi r side of which is pi by deep pores. P. igniarius is called Hard A., or AMAIN— AMAI.c \M. Touchwood. P. ) i i is called Soft V. or a 'I'nhl r. ' Tiny are used as sty] stanching sli hi wou id ; and « In i teeli ad Hint w. re ,,i geni ral use for striking fire, employed as tinder, beii d for this purpo by boiling in a solution ol oiti . The Soft A. i ■ i for making small surgical pads, for which it ticity peculiarly fits it. P. , ■ or a very similar Bpeci -. is found in India, and used 11 in Europe. It is also employed by the Laplanders and others for moxa (q. v.). It i i made into razor-straps, and this use is likewise made of P. betulinus. P ! ' which grows upon larch-trees in the smith of Europe, is a drastic purgative, now rarely employed. P. suaveoluw, which grows upon the I ms of willows, and is easily recognised by LI I e smell, was Polyporus suaveolens. formerly employed in medicine, in cases of consump- tion, under the name of Fungus solicit. All these species are very similar in appearance. Another species of the same genus, P. destructor, is one of the fungi known by the name of Dky Hoi (q. v.). — The remarkably light wood of J/< Ouianensis, a shrub of the natural order ThymeUeaceas (q. v.), is readily kindled by Hint and steel, and is used in Guiana a I \. AMAI'N, a peculiar phrase applied by sailors to signify at once or suddenly; in Buch orders or directions as 'lower amain,' 'strike amain,' &c. AJMAXEKITES, one of the most fierce and warlike of the Canaanitish nations. They dwelt 'in the land of the south' (Numbers, xiii. 29), that is, in the land south of Palestine, or be! Idumea and Egypt. From the very lir.d, they manifested an uncompromising hostility to the Israelites, whose rear-guard they smote after the i through the Red Sea, In consequence of this, they received no mercy at the hands of the Israelites, when the latter had established them- selves in Palestine. Saul (1 Samuel, xv. 2) nearly annihilated them. Twenty years later, David, while dwelling amongst the Philistines, penetrated into their land, and made dreadful slaughter of them. After this, they made a last dei pi rate reprisal but were overtaken by David in the midst of their drinking and dancing; and 'from twilight, even unto the evening of the next day,' he smote them, 'and there escaped not a man of them, save 41 ill young men who rode upon camels and fled' The descendants of these were finally eztirpati 'I in the days of Ile/.ekiah, king of Judah, by the Simeonites. AM VI. IT. . | i the Gulf of Salerno, on the IS. coast of the kingdom of Napli , contains about 3000 inhabitants ; has a at cathedral, and is the seat of a bi hop. ft is said to have been founded under Constantino the Great, and during the middle b i e a n public; afterward was ruled h\ dill OJ A.; and about the close of : . m.'i c, fell under the power of the .Normans. The maritime laws of A. [Tabula Amalpkitana] once prevailed throughout Italy. The unique manu- script of the pandects (q.v.) was discovered at A.; and Flavio Gioja, the inventor of the com] , and Masaniello, were born thi AMALGAM i i applied to thai i alloys (q.v.) in which one ol the combinin ; metals is On tin na w ol the uni it has been o . d thai ' on adding successive small quantities . r to mercury, a great variety of fluid amal- gams are apparently produced; but in reality, the chief, if not the ole compound, is a solid A., which ' . difiu ' '1 throu (hout the fluid ma -' 'I he of an A. would tuns seem to depend on there being an excess of mercury above what is necessary to form a definite compound. Mercury unites readily with gold and silver at the usual tempi rature. It has no disposition to unite with iron even when hot. A solid A. of tin is used to silver looking-glasses. Amalgamation is employed on a small scale in sonic processes of • Ldin the Bilver or other metal being overlaid with a film of gold A., and the mercury being then driven off By heat. But its most extensive use is in separating gold, and especi- ally silver, from certain of tin Lr ores. The mercury dissolves the particles of the metal, and leaves the earthy particles ; it IS Hen easily separated from the gold or sihar. Tins process, discovered in Mexico in 1557 by BartolomS de Medina, is very ively used in Mexico at the present tune, and has lately been introduced with great BUCCeSS into the Cahforaian and Australian gold-fields. The mode of application is to crush the quartz rock which Bervi the matrix in which the small particles of gold i abi Ided; place the Era toents in a barrel or revolving drum with i ! I!, tune. The mercury to itself ; and in the apparatus, when fully agitated, there is found a semi-fluid mass, which is the mercury, appearing half congealed, and containing all the gold. It is only tessary to place this A. in a retort and apply heat, when the mercury sublimes over and can be re- employed for furtl unation and leaves the -old in the body of the retort. This process is the only known m idol iting the liner particles of gold from a E ro -.and is always used by the gold-cm I panies. Indeed, it is now truly commercial mode of gold- ■ is the only one which, in a few years, will be had recur i to. Several amalgams may be I '1 as definite chemical compounds, 'thus, when gold-leaf is placed in mercury, and the A. bo produced filtered by being squeezed in a cha j: r bag, the uucom- u " ury oozes through the skin, but a definite A. of 2 of gold and 1 of mercury remains behind in the leader filter. Tin A. is employed in silvering looking-glasses, and is formed by laying a ahi tin-foil on a table, covering it with mercury, and then plaeiiiL', by uovement, the sheet of glass over it. 'IT as 3 of mercury and 1 of tin; -lass balls are silvered with an A. of 10 mercury, 1 tin, 1 lead, and 2 bismuth. A silver A. highly crystalline — and, from the clusters of crystals bat resembling a tree, called Arbor Diana , or Tree of Diana— is prepared from 3 parts of tho AMALIA— AMARANTH. strongest solution of nitrate of silver, 2 parts of solution of junto-nitrate of mercury added to an A. of 7 mercury and 1 Bilver. In a day or two, the arborescent appearance presents itself, and the crystals contain Go per cent. mercury, and 35 silver. The A. used for frictional electric mach from I tin, I zinc, and 3 mercury, to which sand is afterwards added. AMALIA, Anxa, Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, an amiable lady, and generous patron of literatui born in 1739, and, during the I rt of the 18th c, was the centre of the court of Weimar. Left a widow in tli ■ seemd year of her marriage (1758), her judicious rule, as guardian of her infant son, enabled t!i" country to recovi r from the effects of the Seven years' War; while her I Hurts were no less effectual in promoting the education of the people, she appointed Wieland tutor to her son, afterwards I take, and attracted to Weimar such men as Herder, (iocthe, Ivnebol, iiijttiu'er, Musaus. Schiller; forming a galaxy of genius such as oo single court, perhaps, was ever graced with. How much the fine qualities I and heart possessed by the duchess herself contributed to this success, was shewn by the fj .■: that, when she resigned the government into the hands of her son in 1775, she continued to be sur- rounded by the same society. She has the high distinction of having honoured and encouraged the greatest writers that Germany has produced. The battle of Jena is said to have broken her heart; she died (1807) six months after that event. AMALIE, Marie, the wife of Louis Philippe, king of the French, was the daughter of King Ferdinand [, (IV.) of the Two Sicilies, and' was born April 26, 17S2. When she married Louis Philippe (then Duke of Orleans), he was a political exile, ■without a hope of ever rising to the throne of l'i i It was a marriage of personal choice on both sides, and was consequently happy. After Louis Philippe's elevation to the throne, the queen avoided interference in political affairs, and devoted her attention to plans of beneficence. In her domestic relations, her conduct was highly exem- plary, and won the esteem of all parties ; indeed, the only charge ever preferred against her, was her supposed excess of piety. She shared the fortune of her exiled husband, and was very respectfully 1 in England. Louis Philippe, shortly before his death (at Claremont, 1850), gave expression to the love and esteem with which he regarded his faithful wife. AMANDE DE TERRE. See Cyteihs. AMANI'TA, a genus of Fungi, nearly allied to Agarieus, but bursting from a volva. A. mil Amanita M in a young stats. Amanita Huscaria, full-grown, moN reduced* which i- pretty common in woods, especially of 6r and beech, in Britain, is one of the most dangerous fungi. It is sometimes called Fly Ai;ai:ic, being I Sweden and other countries to kill Hies anil bugs, for which purpose it is steeped in milk. The or cap is of an orange-red colour, with white warts, the gills white, and ; bulbous. It grows to a considerable size. Notwithstanding its very poise us nature, it is used by the Kamchat- kadale3 to produce into t imp its an intoxicating property to the urine of those who swallow it, of which they or otl i avail themselves, when abundance of the fungus is not at 1 1 I ■ i L A'MARANTH (Amaranthm), a genus of plants of the natural order Anua laceai. This contains nearly SOU known species, natives of to and temperate countries, but chiefly abounding within the tropics. They are herbs or shrubs, with simple exstipulate leaves, and flowers in heads or spikes ; the perianth usually coloured, 3— 5-partite, hyp nous, scarious, persistent, generally surrounded with small bractese; the stamens hypogynous, either 5, and opposite the segments of the perianth, or some multiple of 5, distinct or united into a tube, some- times partly abortive ; the anthers either 2-celled or 1-celled; the ovary single, superior, 1-celled, with 1 or few ovules, which hang from a free central cord; style single or absent ; stigma simple or com- pound ; fruit, a small membranous bag or utricle, or a caryopsis (q. v.), rarely baccate; shaped, externally crustaceous, embryo curved round the circumference ; albumen farinaceous. — The genus Amaranthm has mostly mono flowers (although the order is generally hermaphro- dite), with two or three stigmas, and a 1-celled, 1 -seeded utricle, bursting all round transv Some of the species are naturally of singular form, and others assume singular but monstrous forms through cultivation. A. cauda/us (Love-lies- Love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthm caudatm). . .!. hypocho (Prince's : i, and other species, are common animals in our flower-gardens. The spikes of A. caudabu are sometim i several feet in length. The dry red which surround the flower retain their fresh- ness for a long time after being gathered ; for which reason the plant has been employed by poets as AMAEAPURA— AMARYLLIS. an emblem of immortality. — The Globe A. (Oom- > and tin- Cockscomb (q. v.), well- known tender annuals, belong 1" the I ord r. The Globe A. ia much cultivated in 1 ami other Roman Catholic countries for adorning hes in winter, [ta Sowers, which arc of a ag purple, retain their beauty and freshness for as a true native of Britain. Blitum found in waste places near Lo \ A. oleraceus (Chusan Han-tsi), and other species, are used as pol but i i Britain. Wholesome mucila uerally found in the leaves ; hout the order. The seeds of Amari US (called Kiery) and of A. am are gathered as corn-crops in India. — Medicinal rties arc ascribed to some species of the 01 particularly tits and maer (da, which have a high and probably exaggerated reputation in Brazil as cores for many diseases. AMARAPU'RA, or TJMMERAPOORA, a town • left hank of the Irrawaddy, miles north-east from Ava. in lat. 21° 57', long. 06° 7'. It founded in 17S.'!, and made- the capital of the empire, which, with a short interval (ltS'22 — I atinued to be. It wt o the ■ round in 1810. The population at that 1 at 170,000; in 1827, it had sunk to 30,000. In 1830, it was aga a ' 10 t di troyed by an earth- . The whole city is built of bamboo, with the exception of some temples; the most eel' 1 of which is that containing a colossal bronze image of Gaudama. AMARA-SINHA, a celebrated Hindu marian of great antiquity, who wrote a variety of works, only one of which has come down to us, the Amara-Ki sha, or Thesaurus of Amara; some- times called the Trileanda, i. e., the Tripartite. irding the author's life, little is known, nor is the precise period during which he flourished definitely ascertained. Il<' is generally supposed to have been one of the 'nine gems' who adorned the throne of King Vikramaditya I. (56 n.c). But Mr Bentley(/lK '< | \ ilaces him as late as the 11th c. A.D., while Mr Colebrooke assigns the close of the 5th as the most probable. He is known to have been a Buddhist ; and it is universally believed that his writings perished during the fierce persecu- tion to which that sect was subjected by the ortho- dox Brahmins, in the 3d, 4th, and 5th cenl This tradition harmonises with the earliest of the three ages in which he is said to have lived. The Amara-Kosha is a Sanscrit vocabulary, divided into 3 books and 18 chapters, and containing in all about 10,000 words. The words are classed according to the nature of the things signified by them. Almost all the grammarians of Hindustan imitate, translate, or comment upon the work of A. An excellent edition of the Amara-Kosha, with notes in English and an index, was published by H. T. Colebrooke, Serampore, 1808; reprin 1S29 : the Sanscrit text at Calcutta in 1813; and in 1S39 a French translation appeared in Paris. AMARI, MiniKix, an Italian historian and orientalist, was born at Palermo, July 7, 1S0G. At the age of sixteen, he entered a government office; and shortly after — his father being condemned to thirty years' imprisonment for a political crime — the 7 with exi summarily transferred to a situation in "'- where I I four years, and where he pur- sued with the utmost diligence his historical In 18 1- apnea ri d hi I La Out rra dd w ar of the Sicilian Vespers), which 1 ten republished, and i piece of its author. I from its having successfully comb: It! notion, that the terrible massacre so named v result of a deep and ramified conspiracy on the part of the nobles. A. m a letter o • i bin If , as well as from numerous ■■, that it was a popular or national outl occasioned by the tyranny of the for ign rul us, that really brought about the deliverance of Sicily. The I k was quickly prohibited, and, as a consequence, widely read. It was translated into German by Dr Hildesheim, and into English by Lord . I-. A. was now ordered to Maples, but fled to France, where he gave himself nn to the study of Arabic and modern Greel I to 1 ae preparation of his History of the Mn ulmans in Sicily. Atthe revo- lution of 1848, he returned to Palermo, where he had been appointed professor of public law, but shortly after his arrival was elected vice-president of the Ci immittee of war. He was next sent on a diplomatic mission by the provisional government to France and 4. In 1849, he published at Paris a brochure, entitled La Sicile ct les Bourbons, the aim of which was to shew the incompatibility between the rights of the Sicilians ami the pretensions of the Neapolitan sovereign. After the Sicilian insurrection had been quelled, A. took up his residence in Paris, where he I a number of learned papers upon the language and history of the Arabs, in the /.'■ vut . Ik Journal AsiaUque, &c., besides an English translation of the Solwan of Ibn Bjafer (London, 1852). AMARYLT.I'DE.E.or AM\EYLLII>.\'('i:.E. a natural order of Monocotyledonous plants, including many species distinguished 1 of their . They are Berbac is plants, or when, as in the genera Agave and / they form woody stems, (hey have still the character of gij herbaceous plants rather than of shrubs. The part are bulbous-rooted. The leaves are sword-shaped, with parallel veins ; the flowers have spathaceous bracts. The pi rianth is regular, G-cleft, sometimes with a corona. The stamens are 6, arising from the perianth, sometimes cohering by I bases; the anthers bursting inwardly. The ovary is infe lied, with 1, 2, or many anatropal ovules; the stylo is single; the si .'Moled. The fruit is a 3-cclled, 3-valved capsule, or a 1 — 3-seeded berry. The seed is albuminous, with the embryo nearly straight.— There are about 400 known species of this ore of tropical, or sub-tropical, and more sparingly, of t< ate regions — particularly abundant at the Cape of Good Hope. A few species only arc European. Many of tie in are much prized ornaments of our gardens and hot-houses. Amongst these are different species of NaBCISSOS (q. v.), Amakyi.i.is (q. v.), Crdtom (q. v.), Alstbcemebia ( NERINE,COBtrRQIA,BRUKBVIOIA, PANCRATIUM, I'm K- croya, &c. To this order belong the Snowdrop (q. v.) and Snowflakf. (q. v.), and it includes also the American Aloe (Agave, a. v.). AMARYLLIS, a genus of bulbous-rooted plants AMASIS— AMAZON. .A mar His ' sima. of tlip natural order Amaryllidem (q. v.), having a simple G-partite perianth, and containing a large number of sp icie I, na- tives of the wanner re- gions of the globe. Many of them have Sowers of very great heauty. A species of this genus, .1. ,/' . ', v. at to Euro; i America in the end of the 17th c, and has since been in com- mon cultivation as a gar- den-flower. Its flowers are of a beautiful red colour, exhibiting a play of golden gleams in the snnslune. They are J. a/mabUis, A. Jo. ' , and A. vittata are amongst the most admired bulbous-rooted plants. A. 8ami< nets is one of the most hardy species, flowering freely in Guernsey, with a little protection during winter, and commonly called Guernsey Lily, although it is supposed to be a native of Japan. By artificial impregnation, a great number of hybrid forms have been produced in this gi AMA'SIS, a king of Egypt. Of humble origin, he rose to be general under A pries, the last king of the line of Psammetichus. Being sent to put down an insurrection, he joined the rebels, and was proclaimed king (HGO B.C.). He cultivated the friendship of the Gre l.s, opened up to them the commerce of Egypt, previously confined to Naucratis, married a Greek wife, and took a body-guard of Greeks into pay. Pythagoras and Solon are said to have visited him. For his alliance with Polyerates, and the singular reason for which Herodotus makes him break it off, ■ During his reign of 44 years, he I the lity .unl adornment of Egypt. Immediately after his death, the country was conquered by Cambyses of Persia. AMATITLA'N, a district of Central America, near Guatemala city, embosomed in abrupt moun- of volcanic origin. It produces cochineal larg ■!■ AMATJEO'SIS (Gr. amauros, obscure) is a blind- or obscurity of vision caused by disease of the optic nerve, and this cause may be situated either at the origin of the nerve in the brain, in some part of its course, or at its termination in the retina ; and of course the degree of blindness will be in propar- ti hi t" the exl nt these parts are involved by the le. See Oi-tic NERVE. A. may also depend i causes remote from the organ of vision : the suppression of accustomed discharges from tin- body lead to congestion of the vessels of the brain, use A. ; and it may spring from many very causes, if a predisposition to the di This is occasionally hereditary. Beer mentions several oases in One family; for three successive generations, all the females who had not borne blind in middle age; the males shewed a tendency to tin disi at . but did not become A common cause is exposure to bright light or great heat ••unl light, either natural or artificial, ■hum nil in minute objects, and employment of es during the hours which ought to be devoted to sleep. In many instances, a prudent exposure of the eyes to the operation of anne such cause, has been sufficient to extinguish the sensi- bility of the retina ; but, in general, it is from ntiimid over-excitement of the organs of that they begin to fail, and at last become totally unable Tin- heat of the sun, rage, continued stooping, and fevers or 1 cat inflammation, or serous effusion in tin ■■■, ■ poisonous aces cause A. suddenly, as belladonna, stra- monium, and other oar doses; and others, applied to . small quantities, have the same effect, but more slowly. Tobacco may be justly signalised as a poison of this sort, as also mercury and had. i of the body and depressing mental affections also are causes of A. But we can a attribute its occurrence to the influence of any single cause, but to a number of circumstances which have been acting for a length of time upon one individual, either consecutively or together. We recognise the presence of A. by the history of the case and the appearance of the eyes. '1 he latter have generally a vacant, unmeaning stare, dilated pupils, and do not converge towards an object, but appear to be looking steadfastly at something in the distance. The sclerotic or white of the eye is lly altered in colour, and mossed by enlarged blood-vessels. The history of the ease varies with the patient. Among th aptozns are difficulty in calculating distances, as in threading a needle or pouring fluid into a glass; and sometimes there is occasional loss of sight in one eye [amaurosis vaga), confusion of 'vision — sometimes a part of the field of vision will be clear, and part obscured. There are also present spectra or mimcm volitantes, which sometimes are p ag from the existence of insensible patches on the retina. Float- ing specks are merely coincident with the disease. A. is treated by depletion in the robust, altera- tives and tonics hi the feeble, and by those remedies wliieh act upon the nervous system, and counter- irritation by blisters or issues behind the ears, or in the neighbourhood. Except in very recent cases, the prospect of recovery is slight. AMAXI'CHI, the capital of the Ionian island of Maura or Leucadia, is built o of the shallow lagoons that separate the north- a t part of the island from the mainland. The harbour con- structed by the Anglo-Ionian government is pro- tected by a mole, at the end of which is a light- house. It is fitted only for small-craft. A. derives its name from the Greek m ' which the Venetian garrison employed in bringing down the oil and wine from the inland districts to the point t the fort of Santa Maura, w] quently, houses be oi to be erected. Tim town has a very mean the buibliu partly of wood, on account of the frequent .Slight shocks occur not seldonmr than once a month. Behind A. there is an old oliye- ■ o '. extending to the base of the neighbouring lulls, and checkered with cypres irdena The town is ti > i Greek archbishop and of a British governor. Pop. 4000. A'MAZOX, MARAN0.N, or OKEIX VXA. a river which, after traversing nearly the entire i of South America, enters the Atlantic a Brazil and Guiana, by a mouth of about 160 miles in width— a mouth which, though it admits the tide for nearly 500 miles, is yet so far from meeting our ordinary notion of an estuary that it or at least overlays, the to a distance of more than 50 With its various tributaries the I Putumayo, the Yapura, end the Rio Negro from the north, and the i i the Vavari. the Jutay. the Jurua, the Coary. the Purus, the Madeira, the Ti AMAZON— AMAZONS. and tip- Xingo Erom tl 1 ■ • south — the A. drains equal to that rope, and is i itimated to afford an inland navigation of 50,000 miles, a line double t Ii ■ ■ circum- 1 u every i i, tin- A. may well claim t" 1" dy that, in volume of contents as gnished from volume of the St Lav with its con to bi equal to .-ill tin- other bodies of fresh water a ■ down- wards. With tl i on, which as I Lawrence is really a series of l rather nt than real, the Aina as thi- king of rivers, whether trunk be com- pared with trunk, or branches with branches, alike 1 in the area of Viewed as one grand system, the A., fr.nn its sources, from which the Pacific may be seen within a distan E 60 j mprises a course of about 4000 miles; while, gathering its tribute from both Bides of the equator along more than 20* of latitude, it pn south ami north, a longer line of natural com- munication than even between west and east. sing from tin- western range of the And A. i< but little better than a inountain-torrent, till it lias burst through the gorges of the ■ ran."- of th" chain, where it is overhung by peaks that tower thousands of feet above its bed. But, within 300 miles from the Pacific — a journey of about 20 days for loaded mul the branch .In.- Huallaga is practicable for canoes, while, after a run of 325 mill aes navigable for and more and more available as it rolls its steadily swelling tl 1 towards the ocean. Nor is this the remotest point of clear navigation from the sea, for the Maranon itself is estimated by Herndon to carry the clear navigation about one-fifth higher up, amounting in all to 3300 miles. What an these single threads afford of this matchless net-work of inland navigation ! But it is not to its own basin alone, vast as that basin is, that the value of the A. is confined. The Rio Tapajos has its na\ separated only by a portage of IS miles from that of an affluent of the Plata; the Etio Branco, the main tributary of the Rio Negro, water-communi- cation which is only two hours distant from that of the Essequibo ; while the Etio Negro itself is doubly connected with the Orinoco, receiving from it the navigable Cassiquiare (q. v.), and wanting only a ver a portage of six hours to complete a still more useful bond of union, whose superior advan- v. ill certainly one day lead to the necessary improvement. In addition to all this, the outlet of tliis mighty river, besides washin. I If, under nature's guidance, a feeder, as it of that highway of nations, the Gulf Stream. Thus does the A., to say nothing more of its maritime relations, bring its inland navi mediately or immediately, to bear, Chili alone ry country in South America — Venezuela, Ecuador, New Granada, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, the Guianas, and the E ntine Republics. This is not mere prospect; not only has the basin proper of the A. been more or less frequently traversed, but also the various joints that knit it to other basins have been b -' id by experience. The grandest and most singul them all, 1 colored by llumbol.lt. has been placed beyond a doubt by the d of the country. The barge-builders of San I at the entrance of the Cassiquiare into the Rio j sent vessels, not only down the lliu Negro to Para, on the Lower A., but likewise up iss \ngostura, on the Lower Orinoco ; Iving, in their own way. the problem systems pherawere elsewhere deridh than a fable — as a sheer imj il.ihtv. But still the navigation of the A. is only in its ml I'ara. its maritime- emporium, having a business that lis to only 2,000,000 dollars. But the little that exists has been achieved under steward circumstances. badly built and badly rigged, have been worse m the rapids above, all safe and easy for the downward trip, are often rendered m upward voyager by a depth which forbids poling, ilka which, if not actual! in thickly tangled for towing. What a noble field for steam! Brazil and have tl. en this truth. But unfortunately to think more of monopolising the of this nevi 'nan of developing the resources of the country. If opened to all-c the magnificent region of the A. might become the gard n of the world, teeming as it does with game,: ragar, cotton, tobacco, maize, sarsapanlla, cocoa, indigo, grapes, bananas, spices, dyes, drugs, india-rubber, cabinet woods, bu . and precious metals. Yet so feebl] 1 n seconded by man. red and white alike, that Herndon, on his long downward voj got anything better than farinha and salt fish, and even ... not always What is wanted is an infusion of new blood. The colonists, tl I sufficiently indo- lent, di igines as bad citizens and worse slaves. In short, whether for trade or for colonisation, this almost untrodden world is as promising as it is boundless. In the pi i try, every difficulty would vanish. S must there work wonders that it his worked in similar wildernesses. Nor will steam have all the burden to bear. In spite of the of the river, which lias been already stated to drive back the sea, as such, out of sight of land, the tide, as the reader will remember, makes its influ- ence felt for nearly 500 miles from the coast; while the easterly trades are ready to waft the adventurer to his d and, lastly, what is more than all, the v. ind on tie- river, appan that from th - almost invariably upwards, to help the screw or the paddle .- current. A UEAZONS, AM AZONES. According to a very ancient tradition, the A. were a nation of women, who suffered no men to remain among them, but marched to battle onder t ml of their queen, and Eormed for a long tune a formidable state. They held occasional intercourse with the If boys were born r s.nt them to their fathers, or killed them. But they brought up the girls for war, and bm i i their right breasts, that they \ .at. d from bending the bow. this custom, they received the name of A., that is. ' less.' Such is the ordinary tale ; the of which is perhaps to be accounted for by i- r.ports, exaggerated and poeti- cally embellished, had reached the Greeks of the ■ way in which the women of various Cauca- sian districts lived, performing military duties which elsewhere devolved on husbands, and also of the numerous examples of female heroism which, travel- lers inform us, still distinguish the women of that region. In later times, however, the word Amazon has been supposed to have some connection with the Circassian word ' Maza,' signifying the moon, as if the myth of the A. had taken its origin in the worship of the moon, which prevailed on the borders AMBASSADOR. of Asia. Three nations of A have been mentioned by tlie ancients. 1. Tin- Asiatic A., from whom the others branched off'. These dwelt on the shores of the Black Sea, and among the mountains of l lucasus, especially in the neighbourhood of the modern Trebisond, on the river Then (now Termeh). They are said to have at one time subdued the whi da, and to have built i. Ephesns, Cumae, and other c queen, Hippolyte, or, according to was killed by Hercides, as the ninth of the ! imposed on him by Kurystheus consisted in taking f r. mi her the shoulder-belt bestowed on her by Mars. On one of tic ir expeditions, tin' A. came to Attica, in the time of Theseus. They also marched under the command of their queen, Penthesilea, to assist Priam against the < Ira ka They even appear upon the scene in the time of Alexander the Great, when their queen, Thalestris, paid him a visit, in order to become a mother by the conqueror of Asia. 2. The Scythian A., who, in after-times, married among the neighbouring Scythians, and withdrew further into Sarmatia. 3. The African A., who, under the command of their queen, Myrina, subdued the Gorgons and Atlantes, march I thro b Egypt and Arabia, and founded their capital on the Lake Tritonis, but were then annihilated by Hercules. See NageL Geschichte d>:r Amawnen (Stuttgart, 1838). AMBASSADOR is a title by which the highest order of diplomatic ministers is di 1, and the person holding such a high commission may be 1 to be an officer sent by one sovereign power to another to treat on affairs of state. The creden- tials, or letters of credeuce, of an A. are addressed directly by his own sovereign to the sovereign to whom he is sent, and with win mi he has the privilege of personal communication. In the performance of all his diplomatic duties, an A. is understood to represent, not only the affairs, but the dignity and the poi his master ; and by the law of nations, he has many important rights and p the chief of which i nption from the control of the municipal laws of the nation wherein he is to exercise Iris functions, an exemption that is not confined to the A himself, but is extended to all his suite, including not only the persons employed by him in diplomatic services, but his wife, chaplain, and household generally. But there is a dispute among legal writers whether this exemption extends to all crimes, or whether it is limited to such offences as are mala pt-n. as coining, and not to those that are mala in se, as murder. The law of England appears to have formerly allowed the exemption in the restricted sense only; and in the year 1654, during the Protectorate of Cromwell, the Portuguese A. was tried, convicted, and executed, for an atrocious mur- der. But now, according to the general pract this country, as well as that of the rest of Euri is considered that the security of an A. in conducting the intercourse of nations, is of mare importance than the punishment of a particular crime, and therefore few examples have happened iii modern times where .u A. has been punished for any offence. In i to civil suits, the privilege of exemption is clear and undoubted, and has been expressly recognised by an act of parliament, the 7th Anne c, 12, the history of which, as given by Blackstone, is curious. That learned commentator cites the (.pinion of sir Edward Coke, who was disposed to qualify the absolute exemption of ambassadors in civil proceedings, by maintaining, that if an A. to the English court make a contract, which is good according to the law of nations, he shall answer f. or it in England. Blackstone then proceeds: 'But the truth is, so few c any) had arisen, wherein the privilege was either claimed or disputed, even with regard to civd suits, that our law-books are (in general) quite silent uj-.n it, l' 1 ' Anne, when an A. from Pet. r the Great, Czar oJ was actually arrested, an. I • of his coach in London, for ; of £50, which he had there i of applyu hargi .1 upon his privi- i e gave bail to the action, and the next day complained to the queen. The persons who were mined before the privy-conned (of which the Lord Chief-justic was at the same time sworn a member), and seven- teen were committed to prison, most of whom were prosecuted by information in the Court of Queen's Bench, at the suit of the Attorney-general; and at their trial before the Lord Chief-justice, were con- victed of the facts by the jury; reserving the ques- tion of law, how far those facts were criminal to be afterwards argued before the judges; which question was never determined. In the meantime, tl. I resented this affront very highly, and demanded that the sheriff of Middlesex, and all others concerned in the arrest, should be punished with instant death. But the queen (to the amazement of that ■>/ the law of thl and therefore was persn '• would not insist upon impossibilities. To satisfy, however, the cla- mours of the foreign ministers, who made it a com- mon cause, as well as to appease the WTath of Peter, a bill was brought into parliament, and afterwards into a law (the 7th Anne c. 12), to prevent and punish such outrageous insolence for the future ; and with a copy of this act elegantly engrossed and illuminated, accompanied by a letter from the queen, an A. extraordinary was commissioned to appear at Moscow, who declared, Oiat though her maj '.i the 1 1 of the gods, which coi immortal youth and beauty. It was brought by i to Jupiter, and was occasionally bestowed upon such human beings as wen- the peculiar favourites of the gods. A. was also used as a fragrant salve, which the goddesses employed to heighten their beauty; with which Jupiter himself anointed his locks; and which had the property of pn bodies from corruption. Hindu mythology has also (from ". signifying 'without or 'not,' and the Sanscrit root, allied to the Lat. mort, and Greek broC),oi liquor of immortality, that n from the churning of t!i an l.\ the ^..ds; and the gods of the Scandinavian panth 1 wei epn erved in perpetual vigour by eating the apples guard d 1 j [dun. AMBRO'SIAN CHAXT. the choral music of the early Christian Church, introduced from the eastern church into the western by St Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, in the 4th c. ; it was founded on the lirst four authentic modes of the ancient Greeks, and was sung antiphonally. It continued in use until the 6th c, when Pope Gregory the Great reformed the music of the church by introducing the Gn chant. Tlie! 11 another specimen of music by Ambrosius, which is now known oidy in the German- Lutheran Church by Luther's translation of the words. Nun komml der Heiden Heiland; it is beyond a doubt 1400 years old, and remains to this day a beautiful specimen of melody, expressive of filial humility and submission. The A. C. continued to be still sung in the cathedral at Milan long I ry's reformation, and till this day, it is said, it may be heard there. AMBROSIAN LIBRARY, a library in Milan, so named in honour - of St Ambrose, the : of that city. It was established in 1GU9 by the Cardinal Archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a lover of art, who employed leaned men to collect books both in Europe and Asia. This Library was afterwards enriched by the acquisition of the MSS. of the l'inelli collection. Borromeo intended to establish, in connection with the Library, a college of learned men, each having charge of a particular department, whose dutyshould be to make known the works contained in the Library, and as , 1st Strang ra in their researches. The want of funds limited this college to two members, wdio bear the title of Doctores Bibliotheca; Ambrosianoe. The library contains above GD,000 printed books and 15,000 MSS. Among the many rarities belonging to it, lea the I'alimpsests and other as yet un MSS. discovered by Mai". 1 lione, and Mazzu- chelli, it contains a ' Vir- gil,' in which Pet had written an account of his lirst meeting with Laura. A'MRRY.AT'MERY, ALMERY (supposed by some to be a corruption Ambry, Bushden, North- of Almonry), a niche in amptonshire — 14th century, the wall of a church, shut in by a door ; or a small cabinet of wood placed by the side of the altar, for the purpose of holding the vestments and utensils, 192 such as the chalices, basins, cruets, Jfcc, used for the service of the mass. In monastic buildings, ami ins used for vai ious pui poses, such as 1. plate, lun:.iir towels for the monks to dry then '.mIIi before dinner, and the like. In this I he term A. Seems to have hern applied t'i any kind of cupboard which was closed in and locked, and it is so n 1 .1 m Scotland :.t tie- present day. AMBULACRA (from the Latin ambulare, to walk), tie- name given to peculiar organs of locomo- tion with which star-tishes and other EcMrwd . are furnished. They are fleshy, more or less .In Hid terminated by suckers. They pass through orifices is tin- shell or other external integument of tlie animal, and are generally arranged in rows. Those of the Echini, or Sea-urchins, are long enough Ambulacra of Star-fish, As seen in a longitudinal mil vertical section of one of the rays; and three of them in a se on a larger scale, in which they an' shewn in different coiei 1 a, a, a, tubular feet ; 6, 6, o, internal vesiolea ; c, the orguD Which supplies the fluid with Which llicy are filled. to extend beyond the point of the spines, ami by means of them the animal is able to chin' dicular rock. They are tubular, and each has at its base a vesicle, Idled with a fluid which, on the con- traction of the vesicle, is forced into the tube, dilating it to its full extent, whilst, on the contrac- tion of the tube, the fluid returns again into the vesicle. The fluid is n deles, but provided for them by distinct secreting organs. A'MBULANCE, a military term which is some- what differently applied in different countries. In France, an A. is a portable hospital, one of which ii attached to every division of an army in the field, and provided with all the requisites for the medical succour of sick and wounded troops. Such an A. is stationed at some spot removed from immediate danger; and soldiers are sedulously employed after a battle in Beeking out those who have fallen, and conveying them to the A. Baron Lai-ny, during the great wars of the First Napoleon, brought this department of medical business to a high degree of v. nd set an example to the rest of Europe. When England engaged in war with Russia in 1854, lh" A. arrangements, like many others relating to the army, were in a very imperfect state. In the English army, an A. sometimes means a litter for carrying from the field of battle those who have been placed hors de combat ; while at other times the name is applied to a four-wheeled wagon or a two-wheeled cart lifted up for the reception of wounded men. When Lord Raglan was about to be sent out with the army, Dr Guthrie, President of the College of Surgeons, devised a new form of A. cart ; while Dr Andrew Smith, Director-general of the Army and Ordnance Medical Department, invented a new A. watron. Annexed is a figure of Dr Guthrie's A. cart. A MBUL ANCE CORPS— A MENDM EN T. The badly wounded wore laid on it at full length, while tli"-'' slightly hurt sat in front and and on the sides. A stretcher is slung from the r the accommodation of the former. The ' - Ambulance cart. 1 is let down for cases requiring ampu- tation. The hospital chests are lashed under- I my of Smith's A. I and of Guthrie's A. carts were at once made and sent out to tin- Bast; but they were Dot at the proper place when most wanted. After the battle of the Alma, in \ ' i Beers and soldiers wire killed or wounded. Lord Raglan, who was almost without A. and draught-animals, was much I for the means of dealing with his poor og men; the conveyance of them down to pmentto the military hospitals at Scutari, was a work of delay and misery to all concerned. The French, who had 1360 lulled or wounded at the same bati '• i xccllent arrangements for conveying their invalids down to ach; they had a large number of cacolels, which had been suggested to them by their experi- ence in Al i of these consists of a sort . -chair—or rather two easy-chairs — slung in oss the back of a mule: they are com- • to the wounded men, and are available tracks where no wheel-carriage could pass. During the siege of Sebastopol, the English were — in the early months at least— much dil in their A. arrangements by the want of men, draught-animals, forage, and vehicles; but the experience thence gained will doubtless be valuable' in future years. AM T,L : LANCE CORPS. When the A. wagons and carts, noticed in the last article, were ordered for construction, the War authorities made a I for supplying a body of men, to drive the vehicles and to attend the sick and wounded. These men were to constitute an A. C., to which there had D ithing before' analogous, in the English army. The experiment was unsuccessful; and at a later 1 i . ih • A. C. was superseded by the i [ransport Corps; which, sine aclusion of the war, has given way to the -Military Train. See l.\sii l'i: lnsport Corps, -Military Train. AMBULATORY. A name occasionally given in architecture to the cloisters of a cathedral, col- I , or the like. A'MBTJSCADE is one of the manoeuvres adopted in war. II riginal Italian, imboscata ('concealed in a wood'), denotes the general nature of tin- A.; but the meaning is now much more extended, seeing that it applies to any attempt to attack an enemy by lying m wait and coming upon him unexpectedly. In fore .'inn soldiers fought hand to hand frequently than at present, the A. was much resorted to; but the tactics of modern times render it less available. It was by an A. on the part of the revolted sepoys that so many British soldiers were lulled and wounded in that adventure which was known, during the wars of the Indian mutinv, as 13 the 'disaster at Arrah,' in July 1857. An A. is neither an 'attack' nor a 'surprise,' in military language ; it is sometliing more sudden and unex- pected than either. — A another name for ambuscade. AMELANCHIER, a genus of plants of the natural order Rosacea (q. v.), sub-order Pomea, distinguished by having five ovaries, each of which is divided into two cells, with one ovule in each e ripe fruit including 3_5 carpels. It con- of a few species of small trees with deciduous simple leaves, abundant racemes of white flowers, and small fruit of the size of a pea, or a little larger, but soft, juicy, and agreeable. The common A. | is a native of the Alps, Pyrenees, ic. The other species are natives of North America. A. botryapium is sometimes called June-berry, from its fruit ripening in June, before that of any other tree or shrub; and A. ovalis produces a very plea- sant fruit, which makes excellent puddings. The aim ■lanchiers are planted in Britain merely as ornamental trees. They are very hardy. A'M EN", a 1 [el irew word of asseveration, is equiva- lent to 'Yea,' 'Truly,' and has been commonly adopted in the forms of Christian worship. In lea, the A. is pronounced by the congregation at the conclusion of the benediction given at parting. Among the early Christians, the prayer offered by the presbyter was concluded by the word A., uttered by the congregation. Mention is made of the practice in the 1st Epistle to the Corinthians (xiv. 10). Justin Martyr is the earliest of the fathers who alludes to the use of the response. ' In speaking of the sacrament, he says that, at the close of the benediction and prayer, all the assembly respond "A." Accord- ing to Tertullian, none but the faithful were per- 1 to join in the response.' A somewhat, and irreverent practice prevailed in the celebration of the Lord's Supper until the 6th c, after which it ■ continued. ' Upon the reception both of the bread and of the wine, each person uttered a loud "A.;'' and at the close of the consecration by the priest, all joined in shouting a loud "A."' The same custom was observed at baptism, where the sponsors and witnesses responded vehemently. In the Greek Church, the A. was pronounced after the name of each person of the Trinity; and ac the close of the baptismal formula, the people responded. At the conclusion of prayer, it signifies (according to the English Church Catechism) So be it; after the n petition of the Creed, So is it. AMENDMENT is a term used both in judicial and parliamentary proceedings. In the former, it is a ] lower of correction of any errors in actions, or prosecutions, which has been greatly extended of late, and which has largely improved and lied the administration of the law, both in I i and in Scotland. In parliament, the word A. is us.d when it is intended to oppose, vary, or qualify a question or resolution ; and in the case of bills, it is employed as a courteous method of dismissing the bill from any further consideration, by movin 1 of ' now,' it be n ad at the end of three months, six months, or any other term beyond the probable duration of the session. It at to a IS an A. to thequ olutii n declaratory of some principle adverse to that of the 1 II, provided it be strictly relevant, as was lately ifully by Lord John Russell, when he I and carried, as an A. t" the motion far the second reading of the Reform Bill of Lord Derby's government, a n laratory of a principle which the supporters of that measure considered to be subversive of it. 15S AMENTACE.-E— AMERICA. AMENTA'CEiE, according to some botanists, a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, consisting entirely of trees and aural Bowers are unisexual, the male flowers, and vei tho female flowers, disposed in amenta or Catkins fa. v.), and the perianth either wanting or incomplete. This order, which contains I 'known and important trees, is divided into a number of sub- . which by man] hai - be i erected into distinct orders, forming the ' I Lindley. Under A. ai l^e Wu.i.uw), Myric&E (see Cl (see Bibch), Alti called also Balsamacew, but not to be confounded with 1 -. a ■ (see IilQuTDAMBAK) j by some also vxa or CttJ . v.), and I'hrfanae (see Plane), both of ' a from his tad Alliance, associating the former with Juglandacea (sec Waini r), as a distinct a and referring the latter to the See Ukticai i;.r.. On tlie other hand, he unites with the Amental Alliance the order Elaagnacea. See Eleaqnds. AME'NTHES, an Egyptian mythological word equivalent in meaning to the I ord Hades, the unseen world. Plutarch explained it as signify- ing ' tho giving and taking, an interpr 1, but erroneously. A. literally biding '(-place understood). On Egyptian monuments we and the god Anul the souls which, in the form of birds, are escaping from the body through the mouth. Ho conducts the throne of Osiris, who sits as judge, with a council or jury of forty-two persons. The deity, Ami. nt, represented on monuments ly :v female form of Amnion, and her name has no connection with that of A. AME'RICA, one of the four quarters of the globe ; being smaller than Asia, but larger, perhap both Europe and Africa taken together. It is the only one of the four main divisions of the land that led by all the four great oceans — the Northern, the Atlantic, the and the Pacific If Tierra del Fuego and Greenland are included — as ought to be done on geological grounds — A. occupies about 150° of 1 of lat. \ : ng generally, its extreme length may 1 to be on a meridian, and its extreme breadth on a parallel — facts which, in the light of analogy, look more like a law than an accident. As the map will shew, similar coincidences occur in South A. by itself ; in Africa, in Europe, in Asia, and in Australia. As between Asia and A., moreover, it deserves to be I that the meridional semicircles, along which run their respective lengths, form, with an interval of IS! I 1 , one and the same meridional circle. Like the old continent, A. has been divided by nature into two peninsulas — Darien and Suez being the isthmuses, while South A. corresponds with Africa, and North A. with Asia and Europe, to this extent, however, the resemblance is by no means close. In the new world, the whole of the lower peninsula is to the south of the whole of the upper one, while Asia overlaps half the latitude, and more than half the magnitude, of Africa. Of the northern half of A., the southern section, on account of essential differences in character and appearance, is in general contemplated by itself under the name of Central A. — the most convenient limit, perhaps, being a line drawn from the mouth of Rio Bravo del Norte to the lower end of peninsular California; and this line, besides its geographical propriety on both coasts, has the recommendation of marking, on the nearer coast, the international 1M boundary of I Slates and Mexico. Central A., it is to be observed, has a political signification as well ! al one, comprising, in the former the comparatively small states between i New Granada Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. Physically, however, these three subdivisions of A. may be i one, being knit together on the west Bide by a backbone, as it were, of moun- tains, which, under various names and various , stretches from the extreme' south at Cape Horn to nearly the extreme north at the mouth of the Mackenzie. To this mountain, v.- 1 in we shall have occasion to refer under the distiuct heads of .mi.i.r.r.As of Central A., and B , restricting ourselves at present, in accordance with the general aim of this article, to atures of tb chain as may incidentally come under our notice in connection with earth- quakes, volcanoes, climate, or hydrography . with regard to this article generally, the subject as a whole, we shall, as seldom and as little as ii ils, which, even if anticipated here, must still be repeated under the i e leads of their proper iocs In thus treating of A., we shall consider separately nnoejs, its climate, its hydro- ii/ and its COM . but excluding anything like the annals of any individual state — and, lastly, its /, botany, and zoct The moes of A. are to be ■ hi By in the backbone of mountains already mentioned. In South A. they may be said to be exclusively so found, being confined to the Andes . that skirt the Pacific, and to the zuelan spur or branch of the main range. The pplied to ( lentral A. Hut in North A., the energy which produces both i of phenomena app hi ve followed rather the coast, than the continuous chain which d gradually from it — earthquakes being often felt in the maritime towns of I pper Calif rnia, and vol- . having left their traces behind them on the islands of Russian A. The agency in question seems travelled from north to south along the coast, having exhausted itself in its more ancient seats ; and this view derives Support from the obvious formation of the Sandwich Islands, which are as as possible parallel with the west coast of A., between Benring's Strait and the equator, (in this interesting subject we quote from Sir George Simpson's Overland Journey: ' The whole group appears to have been thrown up from the ly volcanic action advancing from the north- i the south-cast, and increasing in force as it led; so that, while island rose after island, w at once in height and in breadth according the power that heaved it upwards from the waters. Thus Bird Island, a barren rock taking its name from its only inhabitants, must be considered as the germ of the archipelago, as the first fruits of a submarine energy that was here only kindling its tires ; while the other links in the chain, Kauai, Won!, a, and Hawaii, not only differ, as I have just mentioned, at once in extent and in elevation, but also present, as they proceed, 1 less evidence of antiquity in their gradually diminish- ing proportions of land capable of cidtivation — a proof the more conclusive, inasmuch as the soil of the whole group undeniably consists of the successive gifts of years and ages and centuries. Moreover, the visible laboratories of the subterranean fire, which are scattered over the archipelago, confirm the same view : the craters are all extinct, excepting on Hawaii; and even on Hawaii, Moima Loa, the AMERICA. most south-easterly of its three great safety-valves, alone bean living testimony to the creative impulse that has called the whole chain into existence, and bears it, too, only through its lateral volcano of Kilauea, which, besides itself looking to the east, appears, by the gradual advance of subsidiary out- j*vn it3 eastern declivities, to be rolling the •i sources of its strength — pcradventiue there to forge fresh islands — under the bed of the ocean.' note. — In comparing A. with the old i tiii'-nt, we must contrast not east and west with ■ titer, but west with west, and east with east — neither Newfoundland with England, nor British Columbia with Kamtchatka, but Kamtchatka Newfoundland, and England with British iliia. Such a comparison shews that the dill'erence lies not, as is often assumed, between the two continents, but between the opposite of either continent within itself. For instance, at Nain, in Labrador, the mean temperature is 7° ; while at Archangel, in Russian A., it is 12' above freezing. This difference of 19° between the east and west coasts of the New World, is otdy a very little less than the difference b the east coast of the New, and the west coast of the r.ir the temperature of Gottcnburg, in Sweden, is only 21° higher than that of Nain. It is to be led, however, that this difference between the opposite coasts of the two continents diminishes as we proceed southwards. New York is only ~' colder than Naples; and Florida has the same temperature iiro. Jn illustration of the contrast between the east and ■ E A., we are ■ traveller already sited, that, at the mouth of the Columbia River, the first half of December presented one deluge of rain after another from the south-cast, this weather winding up on the lGth of the month with a storm of thunder and lightning ; ' while, to mark the difference of climate 1 • two of the continent, the good folks of Montreal, though occupying a lower parallel than ourselves, were deigning it merrily through the clearest and driest of ati, Nor is tin d accord- i the same authority, less palpable in the old continent than in the new. ' To place in the most striking light the contrast in point of climate between the opposite shores of the old continent, Kamtchatka and the British Isles may be said, with sufficient accuracy for this purpose, to lie in the same la; and to present the game area, and even to occupy the same position with respect to the proximity of water; and yet, while the British Isles, with but I aid, feed at least 25,000,000 inhabitants, Kamtchatka, with the help of extraneous supplies, can barely prevent its population of 4000 souls from starving.' But whatever influences may be common to the climates of both continents, the climate of A. is subject to two peculiar influences — that con- 'a prolongation southward, and its backbone of mountains. With respect to the former point, A. advances at least 20° further southward than Africa — fully more than half the interval between the latter and antarctic ice ; so that the southern breezes which, in summer, bring freshness and delight to the I aft cold and misery to Cape Horn. Two of Cook's people, on his first voyage, were frozen to death in Tierra del i towards the end of January — in a month corresponding with our July, anil in a latitude the same as that of Edinburgh. The backbone of moun- tains, again, that other point which peculiarly influences the climate of A, does its work in two ways. Throughout almost its entire course, its height arrests the passage of the clouds and rains. Within and about the tropics, these are borne from the east by the trades ; in the more temperate regions, they are brought from the west by the prevailing counter-currents of air. But in either case, the windward slope of the mountain barrier is a fertile garden, the leeward slope a barren desert. In the more central plateaus, again, of Quito and Mexico, the various terraces present as many climates, and bring together, under the same parallel, all the temperatures and energies of nature. But there exist, more particularly in North A, peculiarities of climate which cannot, perhaps, be • 1 to any known cause. On the opposite sides, for instance, of the r-shed between the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay, antagonistic results are said to shew themselves in winter. On the northern side, the climate is understood to improve as one advances westward, the Saskatchewan, though in a considerably higher latitude, opening earlier in spring than the St Lawrence; whereas, on the southern side, ice forms in New Orleans, at the mouth of the Mis- , strong enough to bear half-grown boys, a thing wholly unprecedented on the corresponding parallel of the Atlantic shore. Even in summer, at least on the northern side of the water-shed in ques- tion, something of a similar change of climate has been observed, for maize, which, in Lower Canada, is a precarious crop, even on the international line of 4.V, regularly ripens, in Red River s ttlement, which, besides 5° more of latitude, is at least 1000 feet higher above i f the sea. With respect to that portion of A. which is best known, a popular misapprehension generally prevails as to the steadiness of its climate in any given season of the year. The Canadian summer, for instance, is supposed to be an unbroken period of tropical heat ; and the Canadian winter to be, in its turn, an unbroken period of hyperborean cold. Now, in both directions, this is a great mistake. The sum- mer of British A is often tropical, and its winter often hyperborean, the extreme ranges of the thermometer, according to the experience of credible informants in localities to the south of London, sometimes being, in one and the same year. lu-i 1 V. above zero, and 52' below it. But this difference of 156°, which is measured probably by an inter- val of six months, is far less remarkable than the differences which a few days may bring forth. The highest range occurred within four days after parlour-fires had been given up ; and the Call on a day which, a year or so befo: thaw. In Montreal its.lt, CG hours, or less, have som exhibited a difference, up or down, of 60" F. in winter ; and even in summer, whether in Lower Canada or in the north an seldom reckon on any other month than July as free from night- In this respect, the Canadian climate may betaken as a sample of the climate of North A. in general, extreme ranges of temperature, as prevailing respectively in summer and winter, being naturally attended by more or less considerable vicissitudes in each individual season. In the tropical regions, however, of A, whether Central or Southern, a singular uniformity of tem- perature does exist on each of the various terraces of the mountain chain. The same parallel, as has been already mentioned, presents at once the torrid, the temperate, and the frigid zones. Such a view of the is. to a certain extent, for in not one of the three cases are the vicissitudes of the respective zones, properly so called, found to shew themselves. Each level is said to be so steady in its temperature as to enfeeble and enervate the inhabitants through the monotony even of that which is in itself good ; ami in such cases, the 195 AMERICA. salutary prescription is to ascend or to descend, for a time, from one terrace to am Hydrography.— With the backbone of mountains as the principal water-shed of A., the riv site shies of the continent are still more di than the climates, Excepting in Central A., the difference in question is enormous. Even in North A., where it is less than in .Smith A., the < utrast is sufficiently striking. On the west side of the Rocky Mountains, the only streams worthy of notice in such a summary as this are the( loloraido, which Hows into the head of the Gulf of California; the mento, which enters the harbour of San I ami tl iiia, which empties itself into the open ocean— three rivers which, if con the waters of the opposite coast, are. in practical value, inferior singly to the Hudson, and collectively to the Rio iiravo del Norte. On the east side, how- ever, there exist rivers to which the Rio Bravo del Norte and the Hudson are but as brooks. To with the extreme north: i ii/ii-, besides draining a large basin on its own side of the Rocky Mountains, draws from beyond them two of its principal feeders, the Peace and the Liarde, burying itself, however, under the pi rennial ices of the Arctic Ocean. Passing, without further notice, the Coppermine and the bish River, of both whi interest is purely historical in a with arctic discovery, we conn ■ to the Nelson, which brings down to Hudson's Bay the Winnipeg and the Red River, two streams bordering respective!] on the head- waters of the St Lawrence and the Mississippi, and also the two branches of the Saskatchewan, which all Imt touch the Bources of the Columbia and the Missouri. Is'ext in order is that long alternation of mighty river and mightier lake that reservoir of half the life-hl I ol the earth — which, under the name of the St Lawrence, gradu- ally becomes a sea. South of the St Lawrence, along the coast, we meet the Atlantic stream of New Brunswick and the United States, all of them valuable beyond their magnitude, and most of th an connected, more or less closely, with the Allegbanies — the .St John, the Penobscot, the Connecticut, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and the Potomac. Round into the Gulf of Mexico, and we reach, besides many second-rate rivers in either direction, perchance the most important stn the face of the globe — a stream which, after uniting the Mississippi and the Missouri under the name of the former, receives on the right the Arkansas and the Eed River, and on the left the Ohio, enriched, as it is, with the tributes of the Wabash and the Tennessee. In South A., again, the difference between cast and west is still more remarkable. On the we t, the Guayaquil, the only stream worth mentioning, is not to be compared even with the rivers that flow fn im the subordinate ranges of Brazd or Guiana; while, on the east, the Andes send down, besides the Mag- dalena flowing into the Caribbean Sea, the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the Plata, into the open ocean across the almost entire breadth of the continent — three networks of inland navigation, which, under the head of the Amazon (q. v.), we have already shewn to be virtually one, and, beyond that, to be virtually linked with the Essequibo of British < ruiana. Nor wdl the disparity between tie- two coasts of the continent be less striking, if the harbours are considered as well as rivers, the external outlets as well as internal channels. On the Pacific, South A. possesses, to the north of Chili, only two ports entitled to the name, Panama and the Guayaquil already mentioned ; while, on the same North A., along a line of 3000 mdes up to British Columbia, presents only five safe and convenient havens — Acapulco, Mazatlan, Magdalena Bay, San U o, and San Francisco. But the Atlantic side presents a contrast to which no language can do To take the divisions as they come: New- foundland has its St •!"' i's, Cape ] l its Louis- burg, Nova Scotia its Halifax, New Brunswick its St Andrews, Mum' its Portland, New Hampshire its Portsmouth, Massachu ' Co tecticut its Newhaven, Rhode Island its New fc, and so on. is 1 his all. While fully a third part of the rivers of Europe and Asia are lost to the commerce of the v, nil at large in the frozen seas of the north, or in such land-locked l Is as tie- Aral and tin- < '; all the considerable rivers of A., with the Mackenzie as tie' i.nly exception, are, more or less, channels of communication between the open ocean and the interior. To take the three grandest examples — The Amazon, with a basin estimated to contain 1.. ",110,1 II lit square miles, is navigable fur steam-Vi ii] i every one of its main branches, nearly to the eastern foot of the Andes; thus comprising Si \'i.il available lines of 2500 miles each, and presenting, as a whole, a network of such lines to the amount of at least ten times that length. The Mississippi, ■ !" as it ii at once to the Alleghanies and to the llocky Mountains, ami between them, more to the north, as far as tie- falls of St Anthony, has been computed to afford to the steam-vessel an unin- terrupted career of 36,000 miles. But perhaps the st Lawrence, it' less extensive, is mure marvellous still Owing to British improvements of its channel, New York and Pennsylvania have virtually a sea- board on their inland shores ; while Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, accessible to ships from the fiulf of St Lawrence by the lakes, and from the Gulf of Mexico by tie- far eclipse, in the heart of a continent, the peculiar boast of ancient Corinth as the mart of two seas. To append a few subordinate examples : nearly all the considerable rivers along the coast between the St Lawrence and the Mississippi possess far more than an average value, in proportion to their lengths, as arteries of urb i aal communication. The Atlantic if the Alleghanies, in particular, presents, as a whole, perhaps twice as many facilities in this way on of equal extent on the face of the earth- facilities, too, which have been not less zealously and successfully improved than those of the St Lawrence. The Hudson has been, at vast expense, and with indomitable energy, connected with the basin of the St Lawrence at three points — on Lake Erie, on Lake Ontario, and on Lake Cham- plain; and the Susquehanna has been in like manner connected with the basin of the Mississippi by a canal which terminates at Pittsburg on the Ohio. But in one part of A., still smaller streams than these last are entitled to particular attention. We allude to those streams, live in number, which pro- mise to vie with each other in connecting together the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. The five rivers in question form parts of tliree different routes. The Atrato of the Atlantic side co-operates with the San Juan of the opposite coast a little below the Isthmus of Darien ; the San Juan of the Caribbean Sea, with the lake of Nicaragua, and with the smaller lake of Leon more to the westward; and, lastly, the Coatzacoalcos of the Gulf of Mexico, with the Tehuantepec of the bay of its own name. To begin with the firtl route: the Atrato and the San Juan flow, in contrary directions, through the slightly undulating country into which the Andes gradually subside as they approach the Isthmus. Their head-waters are said to he near to each other, the Atrato being already navigable for small vessels, and the San Juan, manifestly a considerable stream, , r AMERICA. entering the sea by several mouths, after a course of 160 miles. With such streams separated by such a country, a ship-channel between the two oceans does not by any means appear to be impracticable. Next, as to tin- second route, which, .03 well as the third, is already in actual use as a place of transit : tin- Ban Juan itself, about loo miles long, has a gentle current, which, though in some places impeded by short rapids, is stated to be always navigable throughout for boats of 10 tons, and for much larger vessels to a considerable distance limn the sea. Lake Nicaragua, again, said to measure 14(1 miles by 40, is adapted for ships of any burden, bring fifteen fathoms dee]). At its west end it receives the Tipitapa from Lake Leon, which, with a length of 35 miles, and a breadth of 15, is only 23 f. .1 higher than itself, or 150 above the level of the Pacific. Two schemes seem to be agitated with respect to the more westerly portion of the route — one scheme proposing to avail itself of Lake Leon, and tl i!i i to carry the ship-canal at once from Lake Nicaragua. Lastly, as to the third route, where the intervening land, actually designated as an isthmus, is only 130 miles wide: the Coatzacoalcos alone is said to traverse marly the entire breadth; while the Tehuantepec, which givi name to the isthmus, goes far to complete what the other has begun. The practical value of the enterprise of connecting by navigation the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is already evidenced by the fact, that, in the face of the competition of the last two routes, the Panama Railroad is perhaps the most profitable undertaking of the kind in the new world. In fact, the comple- tion of any one of those three routes for sen ships, would be to realise Columbus's idea of a western passage to the East. Of the Lain i of A. a brief notice will be sufficient. In North A., besides the vast reservoirs of the 81 Lawrence, a line drawn north-west from the centre of Lake Superior, appears, on the face of the map, to intersect a kindred series — LakeWinipeg, Lake Atha- basca, Great Slave Lake, anil Great Bear Lake — the first of the four lieing connected with the Nelson, ami the remaining three with the Mackenzie. It may not be out of place to observe, that the general direction indicated is pretty nearly parallel with the Pacific coast, just as the general direction of the from the "Teat bend at the head of Lake Erie is pretty nearly parallel with the Atlantic . As to the secondary lakes of North- we ( \,. then- name is legion, almost every stream, whether large or small, expanding itself here and there vastly beyond its average width, and being, as it were, a St Lawrence in miniature. One lake, or rather pond, is too singular to be overlooked. On the Athabasca Pass of the Rocky Mountains, where the read, little better than a succession of glaciers, runs through a region of pi rpetua] snow, a small body of water, named by the lie Company's voyageurs as the 'Cot Punch- bowl, 1 sends its tribute from one end to the Columbia, and from the other to the Mackenzie. 'I'" proceed southwards along tin' continent, Centra] A. abounds in lakes. The Leon and the Nicaragua have been already noticed. But such bodies of water are perhaps most numerous on the table land ol M or as it is often termed, the plateau of Anahuac. The largest of r estimated to con- tain 1300 BQUare miles an area which, ho insigniticant in comparison with the of the north, is more than equivalent to a circle of hi miles in diameter. .Many of these reservoirs of the table-land have no outlet. Such is the ease with the various lakes of the valley of M enclosed as they are by mountains at a height of 7471 feet above the sea-level. Of the same descrip- tion, too, is tie- Lake- of Titica- ily the in S. .nth A. Raised by the table-land of Peru ia to a height of 12,846 feet, it yet tli't to tlv . i a ; for the Desaguadero, which empties it, loses itself in the apparently land-locked Lake' Lies to the southward. Ofti body of water, the magnitude is not so well ascertained as its altitude. Besides such round numbers as 16,000 and 6000 square mils, which are never meant to be accurate, one is perplexed to meet statements so minute, and yet so discordant, as 4032 and 2225 square miles. But even estimate is more than equivalent to a square of 47 miles a side — an area which, with a depth rai up to 120 fathoms, excei -I i, perhaps, anything to be found to the south of the basin of the St Law] The vast advantage in point of fluvial communica- tion possessed by the- new world over the- old, has already been adverted to. There is, however, a uydrographical feature in which • divisions of the eastern continent is decidedly supe- rior to A. The coast-line of Europe, in proportion to extent of surface, is incomparably longer than that of even the northern half of the western continent. Tlii.-. is at once apparent on glancing at the two maps. It is surely a suggestive fact, that the two portions of the earth which are best fitted for human inter- course, are also hydrographically so connected as to be beyond comparison the most accessible to each ether. The dividing sea. besides being itself physi- cally by far the narrower of tin- two interconti- nental oceans, is virtually narrowed still more by its end its currents. Along a belt of about 30° on either side of the equator, the easterly trade with its attendant current wafts the \ ". , , i- westward from Africa; while above that belt, the reaction, Tiled and accelerated by the peculiar forma- tion of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of M is ready to carry him round again to Europe, under the double pressure of the Florida stream and its generally prevailing breezes tin' Bouth-west Nor yet can the hydrographies! relations of A. with Asia be denied their proportion of sign influence, linked as the two continents a llehring's Strait, and twice bridged "cean, first by the Aleutian Isles — a continuation of the K miles and Japan — and then by the Polynesian clusters, that series of offshoots, as it were, from the Indian Archipelago. History.— We propose to glance at this under the three heads of Aboriginal Ages, Discovery, and Colonisation. As to the .', Ages, there arises a question, too interesting to be overlooked, and yet too doubt- ful to be solved, as to the origin of the native tribes and peoples of A. Without prejudicing the question (which will be considered under Indians) whether original inhabitants <" A. are to be considered, in an ethnological point of view, as subst an ti ally of ighly probable that they did not all spring from one me primeval band of adventun raj in ether words, that different colo- nies, voluntary or involuntary, must have reached i!i- nev, continent al different times. This view, nothing of the i inn. my of local traditions, seems to be in itself more than probable, when v. er that, through the length and breadth of the universal ocean, even the most insigniticant specks of land had each received, at least, eiie influx of human wanderers. Put. beyond such probabilities, and such I the view in heued by facts, which it is difficult otherwise to explain by diversities of langua different c Uinds. of civilisation, and. all, by monuments, architectural or otherwise, of AMERICA. defunct races of bygone days. On this whence ci me the successive shoal r»J To tliis question no direct answer can he given. We can only Bean the various rontea by which, pre- viously to what we call the discovery of A., the old world was most likely to people the A contin To 1 i with the natural routes on tie- side of the Pacific — Bearing's Strait, the Aleutian and the I 1 . ire can hardly conceive anything but barbarism havin conducted to A. by any one of them. 'II:- country which stretches back from Bearing's Strait K0I3 >a. i. m ..- in- .-i - 1 to be, v rut 1 tli most inhospitable portion even of 8 and, moreover, the strait itself has more prob- ably been a channel of migration fro than from Asia, tie- Tchuktchi of the latter ) ing themselves rather as a branch, than as the stem, of the Tchuktchi of tli again, both to the Aleutian Isles and tie- r Archipelagoes, the successive stepping-stones in either series, in -t adc presumed t so man}' halts for must rather be viewed .13 each a mother-country to a new colony, as each a point of departure for a fresh swarm. Thus would the avating blight of isolation exemplified even in the old world among tie- Laplanders, the Kamb ' and tli-- Sottentots prepare at each deeper and deeper barbarism to land at last on the western shores of A. Furthi r, if civilisation, as certainly appears to have been the case, ever did find its way to A., it must have come ly and immediately from the old world, and that under circumstanci 1 and conditions of by no means a favourable character. In remote times, such :n il it il, or, to speak more, correctly, unintentional visits of Burop ans ami Asiatics may have occurred, as we know to have actually taken place in more modem days. Japanese junks have repeatedly been driven, by stress of v. across the Pacilic to the new world ; and on the Atlantic, the easterly trades, with 1 years after Columbus's earl , wafted tin- to Brazil, during their second to India— the very first, in fact, which they had attempted by ste ring elear of the headlands of Africa. Such incidents, however frequently they might have happened, were much more lil civili.se existing community ones ; and it is at least a curious fact, that the only aboriginal nation ' as in any sense civilised at the date of the Spanish con- quest, pointed in their traditions to such ev we have endeavoured to describ -. Mexico and Peru had each had its Cecrops, or semi-divine ci — the former referring him to the east across the Atlantic, and 11 . across the Pacitic. Sow far such hypotheses may account for the admitted fact-. to conjecture. I luals of om nation have enabled us to brim.; the light of the present to bear on tie- past. Wl consider what William Adams achieved in Japan, two hundred years ago, and what John ' James Brooke have, more recently, effected in the Sandwich Islands and in Borneo, we can p the more easily understand certain undeniable traces and traditions of aboriginal civilisation. Discovery. — 'Whatever may have been the kind and degree of aboriginal civilisation, A. was not destined to be the per; ritance of 1 man. New actors were to appear on the scene, before whom the old possessors were in a great measure to pass away. Previously to the times of Columbus, Europeans had certainly visited A. The Scandinavians, after bavin Iceland in 876 a. c, and Ore- 8, had, by tin- year 1000, discovered far down as 41" .'ill' N. lat., a point near to New Bedford, in the state of Massachusetts. These Scandinavians aftcrwn libmir- , hood— the mother-country, most probably t' Ltervention of Iceland and Greenland, d - an intercourse with down to th o. But these enterprises do not to have left any special impress on the chara prospects of the new continent, being more akin, s, to similar incidents in \ . , earlli t-p the long and well-matun - : the illustrious Genoese. Subsequently bo the I ■ navian discovery, and previous to that of Coin si. uc- to hi i by a i prince. In Cardoe's Histotie of Cambria it is stated that Madoc, son of Owen Gwynnedd, Bail w< itward in 1 17K with a small licet, and after a voyage of several weeks, both in itl inha- bitants and productions from Europe. Madoc is supposed to have reached the coast of Virginia. Neither this, however, if true, nor the earlier Scandi- navian n to have i i the A. of the red and the A. of his white brother. Even if the north- 1 resources worthy of their heroic -, the old world was not yet ripe for the appropriation of tin- new. At the end of the loth c, however, sciouee and politics were alike strengthening Europe for in task Tin- mariner's compass and the astrolabe had facilit.il -vages out of sight of land : while, in almost every country of Christendom, -s were consolid raiment, and promotil rowth of population — a ]"i which ' -iiii the fact that the capture of (Iranada — the last fool of the receded by only a few month of A. Columbus (q. v) set out on his great enterprise to .- the patronage of the crown of . on Friday, the .'id of August 1492 ; at which date, properly speaking, ■ deeply interest- ing history 01 A. Had the Atlantic been broader, or had not the easterly tiv almost on a parallel from the Canaries to the Bahamas, he must have failed in his bold attempt-, and, in fact, those d . li , assisted by a still nearer approach of the two continent I their own value in this respect by carrying ivithout their own consent, to the of Brazil. Nay, Columbus's discovery of A., if not SO ad tlite as unintentional as the Portuguese. It was towards tin that his lne ■ tern course, whose supposed fulfilment still lives in tin- i plication to the new world of the terms Indian and of our subsequent knowlcl America ha to the same desu led to its disce The got t was the aim alike of Davis, el at the north, and of Magellan, Schouten, and Lemaire at the south, to say- nothing of the earlier enterprise of Balboa on tlimus of Darien ; while, under a similar impulse, the French of Canada were ascending lake after lake as nature's ready-made ! the same goal. Even to more r < may these remarks be applied. While the eastern coasts of Africa, and the upper shores of Asia not bearing on the grand question of oriental traffic, were comparatively neglected and forgotten, our own Cook and Vancouver, in quest of a passage AMERICA. between the two oceans, surveyed every nook ami cranny of A. from Columbia River to Behring's Strait. Nor yi t have the aspirations of Columbus and his noble band of successors and imitators been altogether disappointed. That same continent which, in their case, barred a westward advance along nearly the whole interval between the arctic and antarctic circles, has to us already become, or is gradually becoming, more than a substitute for the ocean which it was found so extensively to displace. By means of the railway across the Isthmus of Panama, the Caribbean 8 for passengers or for goods, is virtually nearer to the Pacific than an open channel could have rendered it to any sea-going vessels. Ivor is it merely across the scanty span of Central A. that art is outstripping nature in the race. For, to take one instance, the Grand Trunk Railway runs a steep obstacle, Bt LawTence not excepted, for 1000 miles from the Atlantic to Lake Huron, fully one-third of the entire distance to be accomplished. Since October 11, 1492, the date of Columbus's first discovery, little more than three mid a half centuries have elapsed ; and if we look at the future in the light of the past, it seems not unreasonable to suppose, that, by 1892, the locomo- tive will, within three days, connect together oceans physically as distant from each other as are the Bahamas from the Canaries. But Columbus found something better than what he himself or his successors and imitators looked for. He had discovered a land which, besides eclipsing India in the richness and variety of its commerce, was to confer on Europe a still more solid benefit. Colonisation, which, since the early ages of Greece, had slumbered for 2000 years, received an impetus, which, after building up empires in the West, was to build up others in an East richer far than that which was so long the loadstar of European i tors — an east where, almost without a metaphor, the grass was to be wool, and the stones to be gold, The first-fruits of Columbus's enterprise were the Guanahaui, or Cat Island, being the spot lie landed on the 11th of October 1492. With- out attempting, in so summary a sketch as this, to irish the results of each of his four voyages from each other, it may be sufficient f - reatman, besides Hispaniola, or st Domingo, I Jamaica, and others of the Antilles, discovered colored Central A. from Honduras southward along the coast of Yeragua, and South A. from the mouths of the Orinoco w e stward, as far as Mai It was on this last-mentioned scene of hi that he was followed by Hojeda, whose pilot, Amerigo Vespucci (q. v.), has been allowed t ■ from Columbus the glory of giving his name to the new world. Within twenty years after Columbus's first discovery, Ponce de Leon discovered Florida; and, what was certainly of far more consequence, he ascertained that, through the strait which separ- ated that peninsula from the Bahamas, there con- stantly ran a strong current to the north-east. In 1513, again, just one year later, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien to the Greaf South Sea, or, as it was afterwards named, the Pacific Ocean. About thirteen years before this last event, almost immediately after Columbus's own continental explorations, the interval left between his most southerly point from Honduras, and his most westerly noint from the Orinoco, was, in a great a filled up by the voyage of Bastidas. To the south, ■gain, of the Orinoco, Pinzon and Solis sailed along the continent down to 40° S. lat., between the years 1500 and 1514. The former, after anticipate few months, the Portuguese on the shores of Brazil, had seen the Amazon ; and the latter, sent out for the express purpose of entering, if possible, Balboa's Great South Sea, found his way into the La Plata or Plate, being there slain by the neighbouring natives. Moreover, to return to the northward, by the year 1519, different navigators had between them com- thc examination of the Gulf of Mexico. Within twenty-seven years, therefore, after Colum- irst departure from Spain, the eastern shores of South ana Central A. had been almost continu- ously explored by the Spaniards down to within 15° of the southern extremity of the continent. Nor had other nations been idle in the north. The . on behalf of England, had discovered New- foundland, and portions of the adjacent continent, in 1497. In 1500, the Portuguese, under the Oor- tereals, sailed along the coast of Labrador nearly op to Hudson's Bay, having, it is supposed, entered the Gulf of St Lawrence, long known among them as the Gulf of the Two Brothers. Thus gradually there grew up the opinion, since proved to have been the true and sound one, that any practicable passage between the two oceans must be looked for towards the south of the Plate. Accordingly, in 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of Spain, undertook the voyage in which was dis- covered the strait that bears his name — a voyage which furnished the first instance of the circumna- vigation of the globe. Thus there remained little to be done, unless in the extreme north and the extreme south. In the extreme smith, Schouten, a Dutch navigator, discovered, in 1G10, the passage round Cape Horn ; while, six years thereafter, Lemaire, a mariner of the same nation, through the strait of his own name between Staten Land and Tierra del Fuego. Towards the north, again, the French and English divided the labours and honours of the enterprise between them. Scarcely had Magellan's companions — for he had himself been -returned to Europe, when Vexazzano, mull :• the auspices of Francis I. of France, sailed what are now the Atlantic shores of the states, thereby connecting the of the Cabots with those of Ponce de Leon ; and again, about ten years later, Jacques Cartier, in the service also of the same prince, explored the gulf and river of St Lawrence, penetrating as far to the westward as the island of Montreal In the extreme north, however, the English may be said to have been without a rival. It is unnecessary, in this summary sketch, to do more than mention names :!ieir own story on every map — Davis, Baffin, Lancaster, and Hudson. (See tin Be H To pass now to the western coast of A. The con- querors of Mexico and Peru effected, in a few years, more perhaps than they left behind them for future ages to cflect, ranging along the coast from the southern extremity- of Chili to the peninsula and Gulf of California. Beyond Lower California, the only direc- tion in which there was much to do. the English Drake, whose voyage took pla videdwrtb. niards the credit of having discovered ! California. For nearly two centuries, excepting the half-fabulous voyages of Fonte and Fuca. the Spaniards and the English alike slumbered over their task ; and it was not till towards the close of the ntnry, that Cook and Vancouver co-operated with Spanish and American navigators in (lis; the mystery that had so long hung over the north- west coast of A. To advert to inland discoveries: As early as 1637, within six years after the landing of Pizarro in Peru, and within two after the founding of Buenos Ayr 9, the Spaniards met each other on the eastern borders of Peru, from the opposite shores of the continent ; and. in 1540, within three years more, they sent forth that eastward expedition which ended AMERICA. in Ordlana's expl ftWIMtm, from its source to its month. In the northern half of the were of a much Later date. It was in 1682 that the French fit , j it was in 1771 that II traversed the 'wilderness from Hudson's EJaytothe month of the Ci in 1789 and 1793 that Alexander M the mouth of the river that bears bis name, and hat is now British Colombia, to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Colonisation. — Anions the European powers that colonised A., the most prominent were Spain, Por- tugal, Prance, and England. Spain, of course, took the lead, having with few exceptions, accompli bed it j task before any rival state had entered on its share of the work. In one respect, its colonics differed from all others on the new continent. .Spain alone came in contact with civilisation, such as it was among the aboi ami, accordingly, in the cases of Mexico and Pern, ition required to he preceded by something like regular war ami formal conqu standing this peculiar obstacle, the colonies of Spain grew at first with a rapidity wh ■ ips, has ly found its pan I a in the e congenial case of Australia. As an i 1 1 11 this — for the statement needs no proof — it was colonial resources that armed Corb rro for their respective enterprises. Without the direct and immediate aid, in either instance, of the old country, Cuba, within twi 1, after the fit covery, equipped the conquerors of Mexico; while the town of Panama, only twelvi forth the adventurers that v. jugate Peru. So use degree of vigour and vitality con- tinue. 1 to a ' i tin! Iain's transat I- at ic 1 precisely while they were so oigani ed andcoi as to afford scope to individual ambition. perhaps, was this so ipe snffii and full, for, ment often embar- rassed and blighted thi :hi mes bj ; ous and suspicion But, for a time, it generally found its account in tolerating the unre- 1 liberty, or lie instrument was. therefore, only after law and 01 lished, and the original actors had 1 from the scene, that the authorities of 1 1 stereotyped, as it were, ti. ir de potism along the length and breadth of every colony. From that moment, vigour and vitality nation and torpor. .Still, will lents of pros- perity on every sid-- above the earth and 1>, low it — ' rial interests could not fail to flourish But the soul had fled ; the body alone remained behind. Under these circus h continuing to claim the entire continent to the north, more espe- cially on the Pacific, did very little to enforce its p , To1 mark, New Mexi California were the only exceptions. It was not before 1594 that New Mexico was at all occupied ; and it was not till a century later that the province, after ten years of bush-light ■ while it was only in 17t>7 that the Franciscans, on of Spain, took possession of Upper California. But Spain never abandoned the hope of exl its dominions towards the north-west coast. As late as 1790, that power, while ri Nootka Sound, and acknowledging England's right of planting other settlements, took the precaution, useless as it proved, of expressly reserving a similar right to itself ; and it was only m 1819, nearly thirty later, that Spain formally ceded to the United States all its claims to the coast above the parallel oi -PJ'. See further under the separate head of America, Spanish. soo Tin- efforts of Portugal, in the cause of American i . Portugal, which had doubled, the Cape of Good Hope in the year 1497, v ilously 1 in the East as to allow an a eg any colony to I'.ia/il. 'I h of the oounii j took place in 1500; bul itecolonisa- alyin 1531, or rather 1548. Within 32 years thereafter, in 1580, Bl the I one t,me as Portugal itself, was annexed to the Spanish monarchy, falling, in t! <> new chat into the hands of the revolted Hollanders. In ltilo. lirazil, as well as Portugal, threw oil' the Spanish yoke with the help of the Hutch settlers. lint the continued presence of the latl the progress of the colony. It was only after their expulsion, that the Portuguese, who had lost nearly thing in India, turned their attention more largely to Brazil. It accordingly became tie tlouri h i BS I eeii, to the south oi i settlements ] alol. as the refuge of tie i aganza from French domination, it n about fifty years ago, an impetus which b it. as an independent stale, the most flourishing powi r i A. France, as the claimant to the basins of the St ; ace and tie have pitched camps than to have planted c ; in those vast possessions. She regarded A. chiefly as a supplementary battle-field for England and Every French settlement was but an inert part of a political machine, powerful, indeed, but . e, and anpn dud ive. The | ment was ■ . and the individual subject tiling. Hence, neither Louisiana nor Canada at all realised our idea of a colony, in corrobora- tion of this maybe cited two authentic and ol facts. As an enco it to marriage, rewards and exi re hi Id out to tie i . three children; and the erection of a dwcllin ty arpents (about thirty-two acres) was prohibited by a royal ord In 1762, France gave up Cai oid, and, as an indirect con- power, transferred lee to Spain events whii urly enough, i much to facilitate France's grand schem the seps ration from England of her old colonies. ■ml. the n etic and BUCCeSsful of all in the work of colonisation, was the last in the field among the four powers al< her continental colon y nothing of mdland, Virginia, the i in 1IJII7. just four years after the union of the , 1 and Georgia, the youngest, as late as 17.'!.'S. With bhi e two exceptions, the rent 11 ere, one and all, founded during that 1 ril and religious troubles which, in the mother-cot own history, sent one Stuart to the scaffold, and drove another into 1 [n 1620, Ma achusetts was occupied by tic Puritan fathers; in 1C'23 and 1631 respectively, Hen Hampshire end 1 ; in 163 I, Maryland \ .1. ilic nohli man ; in 1636, I Fsland becai 1 1 be sec- tarian intolerance of Massachua It-; in 1653, North an offshoot from Virginia ; in 1664, New Voik, New Jersey, and Delaware were taken 1 1 lie Dutch; in 1G70, South Carolina was 1 tab- ; and in 1CS2, Pennsylvania was granted to William Pi in, the Quaker, continuing to be a proprie- overnment down to the Revolution. In nearly all these cases, the civil and religious hbcrl- which chii fly the colonists expatriated them were secured by liberal, nay, virtually republican charters. Subject only to the appointment of a governor on the part of the crown, every colony waa • 3 J ^^\ » & k CEAK8ERS LOWDi C AMERICA. practically a state within itself ; and it is a tire fact that the very earliest assertion of legislative i-ity on the part of the mother-country was 7 and 8 Will III. c. 22, which, however, only operated rely l' \d Clinton, composed oi stones and shales ; then The Niagara and Ono with limestones and saline rocks ; and, lastly, The r Period, a richly fossiliferou nicks. The Silurian belli on their southern and western borders dip under the Devonian rocks, which are to a large extent north of lat. 72" N, where they appear to r>st upon the azoic rocks. They have been divided into live periods : Ori i, and Cat/kill. Vast beds of conglomerate overlie the Devonian and form the basis of the CabBONE strata. This formation covers large districts in New . 1 Pennsylvania, and in the Ohio and ippi valleys, with an enormous thickness of limestone, shale, and other beds, which stdl con- tinue parallel to the previous. At the close of tho carbon. . Ii. t lie whole character of North A. was altered by the formation of its mountain systems. No hill higher than Copper Mountain seems to have 1 at this time, although the land occupied much the same area, and had a similar outline as at present. The Professors Rogers, having with perfect success unravelled the contortions of the Appa- lachians, have shewn that the Silurian, Devonian, irboniferous strata, wdiich were originally laid out in horizontal layers, were afterwards pressed on to the north-westward, and folded up till the folds were of mountain height. To similar causes do the AMERICA. Rocky Mountains and the Andes owe their origin — only the directions of the forces are different. The Appalachian fires have long been extinguished ; tiny have, however, left traces of their former violence in the highly metamorphosed .Silurian and Carboni- ferous rocks of New York and Pennsylvania, I were long supposed to be primary granite, &c. The igneous agency, which at lirst raised the western range, is still active at intervals throughout its course. There seems to have been a rest in the deposition of sedimentary strata at this time. The only activity was that of toe earthquake and the volcano. Two whole formations — the Permian and Triassio — have no place in the rock-structure of A. The lirst renewed signs of life are discovered in the sandstones which occupy the valleys on the eastern side of the Appalachians. In these beds, which belong to the Oolitic period, occur the tracks of buds and reptiles, disco vi red and described by Professor Hitchcock. Iii the • 'i:i:i'aci:his beds which follow, evidence is given that the Mexican Gulf extended far up the Missouri Valley, and sufficiently deep to cover Texas and Nebraska with the beds which belong to this formation. The Tcrttatiy formation is developed as a band of about CO miles, forming the south Baity of North A., and stretching from North Carolina to the peninsula of Yucatan, leaving the coast-line only at the delta of the Mississippi Tin's formation occupies a large amount of the surface of South A. From Patagonia to Venezuela it can lie traced occupying the space intervening between the base of the Andes and the azoic rocks of Brazil and Guiana. The older Silurian and ( 'arl loniferous deposits are not found in the positions they occupy in the northern continent; the gneiss, &o, dip directly under the i s.— The valleys of the Amazon and the La Plata, and the mouth of the Mississippi, contain extensive All osits. There only remain two post-tertiary beds, which, however, .-in! of considerable importance — viz., the Boulder CI";/, and the River Terraces or Loess, containing the remains of the mastodon and of the elephant. The boulder clay occurs in the country north of lat. 40° N., and in Patagonia in South A. Its characteristics are the same as that in the old a still' day, containing boulders of all sizes, somo being as much as one or two thousand tons weight. The origin of this remarkable deposit — one of tic most stupendous events in geological history — is still involved in mystery. ill- pampas of Southern A. are covered with a of clay and sand, containing the bones of the me [atherium and mylodon, genera allied to the sloths, and of the glyptodon, a huge armadillo. I'm- details, ■ii \\s. Rock; Moi stains. Botany. On the discovery of A., Euro regarded with astonishment its vegetable and annual productions, so difl m all that thej had en re. 'He. difi rence between the productions of the old and new wo most northern re Around Hie north pole, a region having a flora and fauna which may properly be di D I arctic, includes portions of the three continents of i Asia, and A. ; and many productions are common to these three confine i hout this I whilst those which are peculiar to one, are generally represented in the otl i nearly allied. In A.., this region extends to the northern shores of Lake Superior. The polar hear haunts the arctic regions of the old and new worlds alike; and further south, in both, the b caver builds his dam. and is pursued for his skin. Pine and birch are the chief trees of all the moat northern forests, and struggle on, dwarfed and stunted, towards the regions of perpetual snow ; whilst the berries of different species of Rubus and Vaccinium (bilberry, &c.) are the last fruits which the soil offers to man during the brief summer of the north — alike to the Laplander and quimaux. More to the south, the flora and fauna of A. become more decidedly different from those of the old world; yet the ditl'erence consists not so much in the appearance of new families as in new species, i to speak, those of Europe and of Asia. The forests consist chiefly, as in these contini pines, oaks, birches, and willows; but the pim oaks, and birches, and willows, are not the same as those which cover the plains and mountains eastward of the Atlantic. The same remark applies to poplars, elms, planes, maples, hazels, and other k a and to plants of humbler growth, as roses, brambles, strawberries, bilberries, &c, the pasture . and the common flowers and weeds, ah umbelliferous and cruciferous plants are compara- tively rare. >,ot unfreijuently, also, forms oocur moro completely different from those of the other rs of the world, and these become more numerous as we proceed southward ; although the magnolias, which form so admirable a feature of the flora of the Southern AUeghanies and other southern parts of North A., have recently been found to characterise that of the east of Asia and of the Himalaya Mountains, where magnificent species of rhododendron have also been discovered, rivalling or excelling those which are natives of the I States, and very different from the dwarf shrubs which represent the same genus on the mountains of Europe. It is remarkable that no true species of heath is found in A., although many shrubs of the same family occur, but none of them so strongly exhibiting the social character, or covering tracts, as tl do in Europe. Where the climate begins to assume a tropical character, how- ever, A. is distinguished by the abundance of the Cacti (the prickly pear and its allies), which are found on its plains, often forming the greater part of their vegetation. The species of this order, so far as is yet known, are exclusively American, alt! some of them have been introduced into the v. parts of the old world, and are now very common in the south of Europe an < . The mountains of Mexico are, to a large extent, clothed wii i and pines, most of them, however, different not only from those of the eastern continents, but even from those of the more northern parts of A. I he flora of I hat of Asia and Africa in its although these also are with few exc nt in species; and the species are more abundant than in part of the world. It i like the South A. scarcely exist elsewhere. The forests of I test parts of South A. produce also many remarkable trees of other kinds, among which may be mentioned the b ies of the order Liri.lhidacece (q. v.), one of them known as the cannon-ball tree, id all of i hi in producing huge fruits, with thick hard shells, which are often used for domestic puri whilst within the shell of a particular species are packed together the well-known Brazil Nuts (q, v.) of our shops. In the waters of the same region baa u discovered the Victoria Regia, the most magnificent of water-lilies, and for the growth of which, hot-houses containing ponds of water have been erected in our own country. The for this part of A. are so dense and full of under and the trees so bound together by lianas or twining plants, that they arc in many places impenetrable) and the animals which inhabit them either find their way amoug the branches, or by narrow 203 AMERICA. paths, which thi The i plains of South A., like those of North v.. hi general, much of a Part oi the elevated regions of the Cord within the i irkably chai by the pri ■•. v. Inch form its principal bo1 inical feature, and yield the celebrated b irk. In Mill more eli rated ■ ; i Cal laricB give a i t to :i ition otherwise very similar t.i that ol in it -i general character, and con! unin : i a gentians, and many other plants o common in the old world. The Bora of t'hili presei resemblance to that of New Holland and New Zealand. An -l.< now not unfrequent in our pie rnnds, appears as a representative of the pines; and its afford a large pari of the food of the natives of the district in which it abounds Towards the Strait of Magellan, vegetation again assumes forms similar to those of Europe. The forests coi great part of peculiar Bpecies of beech. Barb different from those of other parts of the world, but very nearly i . , . particularly dant; and with them occur brambles, saxifrages, gentians, primroses, &e. There are also vegetable productions very different and peculiar, Winter's bark, which has obtained some reputation as a medicine. From this region are derived not a few of the fuchsias now SO familiar an ornament ihouses, and cottage windows in in, and which are exclusively American. Maize is one of the most important of I productions of A. It is the only cultivated grain of American origin; it was in cultivation before the discovery of A. by Europeans, by whom, however. its value was soon recognised, and it has now b an important crop in climates suitable for it in all quarters of the world. The other grains b been introduced into A. by Europeans, with the sugar-cane, the banana and plantain, coffee, cotton, flax, and many other plants nov generally cultivated both in the tropical and ten i is. The yam is regarded as amongst its native productions, common to its tropi J i oris with those of other quarters of the world. Tobacco is a native produ - tion of A., the cultivation and use of which extended from it to the old world, and rapidly became pre- valentan mankind. (It is indeed i : ome that there is a i peci s of t indigenous to the furthest cast; but this, and the in of its use there before it was made known from A., are still involved in uncertainty.) But of all the vegetable productions of A., the potato is the most important and useful. We owe to it also the Jerusalem artichoke; and it produ I other plants, valuable for their roots and tubers, as the arracacha, the melloco, &c, the ■ of which has ly yet extended beyond th With them may he men which is not a grain (the seed of a grass), but the Beed of a ng the seeds of the eei Bively cultivated on the high table ■ ■■ Chili and Peru. Tapioca, arrow-root, cocoa, vanilla, pimenta ■ ' r. and < enne pepper, are among itive productions of the tropical parts of A. The Agave (ij. v.) or American aloe, valu, for its iilji-e and it b nue common warm parts of Europe, and in similar climates in other quarters of the globe. The pine-apple is a native of tropica] A., although now natural nearly so, in other fcro and the West Indies produce also many other fine fruits, among which are the guava, dill, rent species of anona or custard-apple, and of granodilla or pas- si. hi llowcr. — The forests of North A. yield much valuable timber, chiefly consisting of different kinds of oak and pine. The Mack walnut and hickory of the 1 > mucl med. The nei bl ing parts of the mainland |\ ; and li. .in Hi., same iv ""ii | I, one ni the nmst useful of dyewoods. The ol South \. produce many valuable , of which perhaps the most deserving of notice are the I . (q. v.) or iilbiri. and the Mora. Brazil wood and Pernambuco wood are ' ... most remarkable productions oi tins region is the ( low-tree (q. v.), the many properties in common with milk, and is used instead of it. The milky juice of i other tn opical A thickens into caoutchouc. — Different parts of .South A. produce . i. v.) or Paraguay Tea, a species of boll of which possess properties similar to those of tea an. ; 1 afford a beverage whi sively i I yet an article of export to of tli" weld; and the Coca (q. v.), a shrub oi which the leaf has been, from I I,, the In. bans as a narcotic. Zoology. In the animal bur .1 as in the vi d and new to Eur when they in fcfo ca> Set here also the difference fr the productions of Europe is not ; as in South Africa or Australia. Ln North A., many of the animal plants, of Europe ited by others of the same genera or A few are i i to 1 old and the new world; and in some which arc now r. iically different, the difference is not so great as readily to attract the notice of unscientific rs. North A. has iis elk and its deers, its oxen (the bison, calbd buffalo in the United stabs, and thei i (the Rocky Mountain ne of them : for their fur), mice, ra wea I . bats, r b tdger , fo ce i, « olves, and I which are the puma and the lynx. The tore power- ful and dangerous than any other of the Is of the new world, and the only very for- midable I prey whi.h it produces, inhabits th" tropical ton ts of South A. The warm parts of Smith A. produce the great tapir, | loths, ant-eaters, ai .; but the elepl ■ iiibtiiius, and boar of the old world, have no more nearly allied The luna and it a , ami og which is the alpaca. liar to South A., inhabiting Andes of < Inli and Peru. I If the animals of the old the most, nearly allied to them is the c which is entirely wanting in the in W ; as WS I ith all its congeners), until it was introduced by Europeans— a sight of wonder and ir to the M id Peruvians who first found themselves oppo ed to Spanish cavalry, but now thoroughly n d, and roaming in vast multitudes on the South American plains. Th of Columbus; it existed in different varietii domesticated animal, and me difficult] mcerning the origin of ties as when those of the old wo Id re considered. The chinchil valuable for its fur, is a small quadruped, peculiar to be i b of C • • opossums of North A the first known of marsupial quadrupeds — i. e., a pouch for their young -and are described as objects of great curiosity by the earlier writers on the new world and its productions. .Monkeys arc numerous in the warm parts of the lew world as well as of the old, and of many species ; but they are not only of different species :> AMEnrrw. from those of Asia and Africa ; tiny form a different section of the monkey family. There are do resembling the orang-outang or chimpanzee, and no baboons; but all of the American monkeys have long tails, and many of them prehensile tails, the of the old world. The absence of cheek-pouches is another character of the American monkeys. Among the birds of A. a: ' me family, vultures {am condor of tl * of many kinds (of which the mocking-bird may be mentioned as a species particularly interest- fcings, warbl 1 are identical in with those' of Europ i or of Asia. F< w things in the natural history of North A. are more remarkable than its multitudinous Hocks of frig* ons. There are I partridge. Of the large gallinaceous birds, the first place in importance most be assigned to the turkey, now so common in a domesticated state in Europe, although in a wild i< has almost disappeared from great part of its native regions. Alectors and curassoes arc large gallina rico, Guiana, and other parts of A. Parrots abound in the tropical forests, and although only one species extends northward into the United States, yet in South A., birds of i amily range to the southern extremity of the nt. Humming-birds are peculiar to A., and are found not only in its tropical but in its tern; regions, of numerous species, and many of them of dazzling beauty, passing like bees from flower to flower, and often constituting a characteristic feature of the scenes in which they abound. Toucans and aracaris are among the other kinds of birds peculiar to A., and are found in South A. alone. Swans, eeese, and ducks, with other waterfowl of many kinds, exist in great numbers in North A., and in the warmer parts the brilliant colours of the flamingo enliven some of the coasts. Serpents are numerous. Among them are boas, remarkable for their great size. Rattlesnakes, the most venomous and dreaded of the serpent tribe, are peculiar to A. Alligators abound in the rivers of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Turtles are caught in great numbers in the Indian seas, and ft turtles abound is tropical rivers. The bull- frog is a native of I I sited States, remarkable for the loud noise which it makes, ami which those who have been accustomed to it from their childhood learn to itewith all that is pleasant iii nature. Tl and rivers of A. abound in lish, of which many arc ion family, the common salmon found as far south as M N. lat. and some arc of the sturgeon f ' : ' ■■ cod-fisheries of the Bank of Newfoundland and of the coasts of Xova Scotia are unequalled in productiveness; and herrings, and other species of the herring family, are taken in cumbers in the same seas. Some rievously infested by mos- quitoes and other insect tribes, the vast numbers of which are extremely annoying, so that son i pi toes on the banks of tropical rivers are rendered almost uninhabitable. Ants and termites, or white ant", are very abundant in some parts of South A. Many Id bees are found in the Brazil, some of them very productive of honey; but the common hive bee was unknown in A. till it was introduced from Europe, ft has now become natur- alised, and is found in the forests far beyond the settlements of white men. The cochineal insect of the opuntia is a native of Mexico and Central A., and the plant on which it feeds has loner \ioe-ti culti- vated there and in the West Indies for its sake. Pi ' Divitriong. — The following are the chief political divisions of America, each of which will cribed in its proper place. In North A., strict^ 1 so called, are | \.. British A. a; commonly understood, i I part rico. In i lentral A. . Mexico, Central A., in its political sense, compris- ing Guatemala, San Salvi lor, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa liica ; and, lastly, a .small portion of Granada. In South A. are New Granada; thence along the Pacific are Ecuador, Peru, Chili, and aboriginal Araucania; while round by Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, the Atlantic i dos Ayres, Uruguay, Brazil, Guiana, and Venezuela — the i ng occupied by Bolivia, Paraguay, and the Argentine Confederation. ; Indies consist of the Bahamas, the i In ater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles. 1 he annexed tables, from the A ' 'utanac for 1859, give the states of America, with their areas and populations. 1. Governments of North Amen Are* hi GoYcrnmcnt*. HUM. Population. Capuals, I lanlab. Araericaccrccolnd; 9,400 ■■rifelS. FliIK'll PoBSS -n , 118 L'. Q St Pierre. Russian America, hangyl. New Britain, "i . York! - Canada .a •■ it, 147,832 999,847 1 Toront i. bee. Canada East, — New Bra i - - ■ 27,700 200,000 Prederlckton. Nova Scotia, &&, pq 18,746 . Halifax. Prince Ed's, [aid., 2,134 1 tteTn. NnwISnnndl&nd, J ^ 57,100 ISO i' 1 St John's. British Columbia, 213,500 . Ft. Langley. United 8. of America, 3,306,834 23,191,876 ■\\ asbingion. United s. of .Mexico, 1, 038,865 . Mexico. San Salvador, ,. . ,. ' i>equc. i.i, . . 44, Granada. Honduras, . . . . . 1 mala, . • temala Costa Rica, . . 25,000 S.in J Mosquitia, ■ rldS. Honduras (Brit, colony), : Balize, Total, . 7,779.218 35,774.498 2. West Indian Gov n GofernmciiU. San ' Duigo IlllVli. 1 Dominica, J .. '-Spanish, Porto Rico, J * V '- British, lad, i Windward Inland*— es, • Grenada, &<:•, St Vincent, Tobago, . St Lucia, Lnward inlands— ■i. . rrat, StCnristpbr.&Anguilla, Nevis, Virgin Islands, . Dominica, Bahama islands, Turk's Island, Bermuda islands, Guadalupe, fee. Martinique St Martin's V 9 St .Martin's S. Sd. 934 134,544 ui,i4a 21 9^00 11 3.500 580 99,311 81 37 U.IKHI 25 9,009 ti.ua 3,669,917 Capital*. ■ "-.in I tomingo, : D in. Spanish Town i Bridgetown. Scarboro'. ■ St John's. Bas-v-torrc. Cbarlestown Roeseau. Nassau. Hamilton. I Port Royal. Wilhemstadt. Christ'nsUidt. La Carcn3gc AMERICA, BRITISH-AMERICANISMS. 3. Governments of South America. Ar*» In Gorvrniatnu. Siiuiro uiu«. 1\ 1 ulillun. C*J>lul». la, RepubllO, 1,116,11011 Caraccas. do. 085,000 Quito, tlo. 1 liui;n.bae;i. do. 2,4UO,OUO Lima. do. 1,439,191 - 1 .'(«",< Mt 1 na. < iriental 1 t 120,000 ' ■ Mic, . 74,00(1 ■ "f, . ; Guiana [British), 78,0011 . . I'iir.m. Galons. (French), . 30,001 Cayenne. , d Isl.inds, ToUl, ill of America, a»: Tort Louis. I AMERICA, Bbxtish. From the small led in the general article above, British A., . is now, in mere extent, at least equal to the Amerii <■, and superior to any otlicr state in the v hemisphere — occupying, as Ith of about 90' of long., and - with more or 1' 98 interruption, over a length of I touch- ing, actually or virtually, every CO power n. w world as in the old, commands nearly every turning-point in ion and c In co-operation with 1 I, NVv, [oundland is p ady 1" link I two oontinenta by a submarine b with the gulf and river of St Lawrence as i 'i A., in i Nova Scotia, New Brui sland, and the Canadas, has received from an advantage in respect of the western trade, which even the en " r hi ! : Halifax, the Bahamas, are so many guardians of the gulf- '. as it is, v, porta of half ,-v continent Jamaica forms the lirst link of a the Caribbean sea; Trinidad fronts tl Orinoco, which is connected by tie < with the Amazon ; Wi '.ready meiit i i another head, fin . its own communication with the 'K ;' and. lastly, at least on tie le, the Falklands, with their Port Egmont, flank alii ' [ate and the Strait of Magellan. R in the Pacific, British .'.. Q influence which. ilutely less, is perhaps relatively greater. At the upper extremity of a coast, which, in some splendid exceptions, is, as n idarly deficient in harbours, NewColumb work of islands from Vancouver's upwards, and its succession of indentations or arm -., 1 ids fair, more especially with its inexhaustible supplies of magnificent timber, to become a congenial base ms for sustaining the maritime greatness of Britain. AMERICA, RussiAJr.— Russian V i the remotest m of the new world, being bounded, on the side of British A., above, between the two bordering oceans, ridian of 141° W., and below, down to the parallel of ;i4° 40' N., by a conventional line to be drawn at a distance of 30 miles from the con- tinental coast. It was discovered by a Russian expedi- tion conducted by Behring (q. v.), which sailed from Kamtchatka in 1741. It is little better than a vast hunting-ground, having, in this aspect, been long held by the Imperial Pur Company, which differs, hov but little from the imperial government itself. Its only town, or rather village, worthy of the name, is New Archangel, on the island of .Sitka. The most i i ography ar Wale-, on Behring's Str ' sonnd, Nor- ton Sound, peninsula of Ala Mount E ES in Si it. AMERICA Spanish. — Spanish A., shrunk, ns it is, into Porto Rico and Cuba, now belongs rather ■ ry than to geography. For many years it embraced absolutely the entire continent, having Brazil, as Spain itself al 1. at a date prior to the intrusion of any i oiropean settlement. But, boundless as it was, it contained, from the beginning, tb its ultimate and irremediabli as hunters aft Is, disdained that steady industry, which, to their English competitors, ary of life ; while tl roountry, by i I I] but its own actual D from public employments, did nothing to prep dependencies feir the rational use of that indi enee which was sure at last to come. At the same time, those very circumstances did tend to prolong the subjection of Spanish A. ; for the colonics their first motive for rebellion in their fidelity to off the yoke of Spain primarily on account of Napoli tand VII. Similarly, Brazil, as I a from French domination, remained faithful to the House of Braganza. AMERICANISMS are words and phrases current in the United States of America, and not current in id. These peculiarities are much more promi- nent in conversation than in writing; indeed, m the American writers that are usually consi cal, it is difficult to detect anything of the kind. The number of absolutely new words introduced iuto tie I nguage in America is remarkably small. As an instance may be !.i utioned < for a secret political assembly. This is a corn of calk-house, a calker's shed in Boston, where triota before the revolution I The term 5 corruption of the French Anglais) is another. The great body of A. consist in giving an unusual sense ting words : as clever, in the sense of amiable, tart for clever; wagon for a very light kind of carriage ; book-store for bookseller's shop ; for wW k for a small river, instead of a small arm of the sea. al divisions of the Union have their characteristic peculiarities. Thus, in the New- t's — Yaukeeland proper — ugly is used for ill-natured; friends for relations (so used also in Scotland) ; and guess for a great variety of things — to think, presume, suppose, Aic. This use of is confined to New England; the inhabitants of New and of the Middle States generally i in the same way ; while those of the Southern States reckon ; and those of the Western ate. Several words current in the Middle are of Dutch origin, as loafer for a vaga- bond, from the Dutch looptn, to run; and for a head workman or employer. The Southern States have fewer peculiarities than any of the other divisions. In the Western States, again, there is hardly any recognised standard of speech, and in some districts 'it would hardly be an exaggeration to say that every prominent person has his own private vocabulary.' The verb to fix is made to do duty for expressing every conceivable kind of action. The use of this word is common all over the Union, but in the West the abuse is carried to the extreme. Help, in the sense of servant, is common to the West and to New England, but is nearly unknown AMERIGO VESPUCCI— AMERSFOORT. in the Middle States. The well-known phrase go a-hcad is a coinage of the West ; it is sufficiently expressive of the leading characteristic of the American people. /'• in a subject, for ' well informed,' is one of a clas3 of metaphors indic- i the prominence of mercantile pursuits. The tendency to the use of slang is excessive' in America, especially in the Western States. ' Every state, every city has its own flash vocabulary ; but it is in the political world that this tendency to cant phrases inost develops itself. Every new I tarty, every new modification of an old party, is lound to have at least one new name, cither assumed If, or attached to it by its opponents.' A variety of causes have been enumerated to account for the existence of those deviations from standard English, such as, the influence of the ludian languages; the various tongues spoken by settlers from Europe other than English : tl nal provincial peculiarities of portions of the I a, &c. But even supposing the Language of the United States were at this moment i;i respect identical with that of England, and to be henceforth unaffected by the importation of foreign elements, the complete identity could not '• pected to continue long. Not only do new circum- stances and wants make new terms necessary, and modify the application of old, but those changes of structure which constitute the organic growth of every living tongue, are evolved more or less rapidly according to the industrial and political activity of that speak it To complain, then, that the in America, or in any of the British aid exhibit deviations from the standard of the mother country, is 03 unreasonable as to complain that an animal should exhibit changes in its coat or its habits when removed from one climate to another. Nothing is more desirable for the interests of humanity than that the language i by all the sections of the great Angli race should continue to be substantially one. All wanton innovations are to be reprobated ; but when a great and diversified community adopt ge any new term or mode of expression, it is to be presumed that the cause lies deeper than any that can be controlled by criticism. As {he Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin do not 1 one-third of the whole population of the United States, it seems wonderful that the E language should have held its ground so well — that it should not have been completely corrupted, or in some places extruded by other tongues. Y- 1 is apparently no danger of this. The original I of New York has disappeared, with the turn of a very few stray words; and although h is still spoken in one-half of the city i Orleans, it has been preserved at the expense of the listing themselves and losing their due influence. The same is the case with those islands dug population that still hold out in Pennsylvania and elsewhere ; and, what is remark- able, the proximity of these Germans has no sen- ■ Elect upon the language of th ■lire ; while, on the other hand, the influence of the English is reducing the la of the Germans to a corrupt patois, swarmii h words. See The English Language in in the Cambridge Essays for 1S.">5: also tfs Dictionary of Americanisms, New York, new ed 185S. AMERIGO VESPUCCI, a naval astronomer, from whom America accidentally received its name born at Florence. March 9, 1461. His father was a notary. The education of A. was intrusted to his uncle, Giorgio Antonio A i monk and apparently a man of superior enlightenment. The youth made but indii ress in his Latin grammar, though he shewed great aptitude and bking for natural philosophy, astronomy, and phy — at that period, f avourite objects of study, on account of their commercial importance. It is not precisely ascertained whi n he tirst went to Spain. We find him there, however, in I in mercantile pursuits. He was at the head of a large Florentine lirm in Seville in when Columbus wa3 making preparations for a second voyage to the new world. The success of the great discoverer inflamed A. with a passion for discover} - , and having abandoned ' business,' he sailed from Cadiz on the 20th May 1499, in the lion command' d by Admiral Hojeda, and, . voyage of thirty-seven days, arrived at that portion of the continent of America now • Cumana, explored the Bay of Paria, lyi the isle of Trinidad and the mainland, and some hundreds of miles along the coast. He returned in the autumn of the same year, but commen second voyage under Admiral Pinzon in December, which resulted in the discovery of a crowd of small islands on the south of the Gulf of Mexico. He was now allured by promises into the service of Emanuel, king of Portugal, and undertook two other voyages with Portuguese ships ; the first on the [ay 151)1, and the second on the 10th of May 1503. His purpose was to sail west- ward, in hopes of discovering a passage to Malacca, the extreme point of discovery in the east. He lost one of his ships ; and it was only after encounter- at perils that the other five four - All Saints' Bay, on the coast of Brazil, The monarch lers that some remains of the ship Victoria, in which A. made his last , should be sus- : in the cathedral of Lisbon, but fulfilled none of the promises which he had made. A. sequently returned to Spain, and in thi succeeded in obtaining the office of piloto-major. He died at Seville on the 22d of February 1512. character oi A. V. hi 1 with a great deal of unmerited obloquy. B accused of endeavouring to claim the honour of discoveries which he never made, and ha commonly regarded as an unprincipled adventurer. Humboldt, however, 1 fully vini him from such aspersions. He had a very i knowledge of various brai and it was on account of his superior attainments in these that he was selected to accompany the expeditions r.s naval astronomer. He was a prompt and skilful inspector of the commissariat whUe under his control ; vigorous, practical, and severe in his demands for i rt of the naval functionaries under him; an earnest navigator and close frii I Iambus in the last years of the ;_r at admiral's life. How America came to I name from him is not quite clear; but it is certain, from Humboldfs i i. that A. himself had nothing to do with it. The name of the new world probably came from Germany. A selection from A.'s narrative of his American voyages found U* way into that country. Martin WaldseemUller of Freiburg in Baden trans- lated it for a booksclli r 3 in Lorraine. As the first account of the wonderful discover}-, it was greedily devoured. Edit lition was printed off, and, according to Humboldt, it was Wald- seemUller who proposed that the new world should be called America in honour of the author. Aft' r- wards, this name was generally employed by fphical writers, and even the Spaniards and .uese adopted it. AM BBSFi H >RT, an ancient town of the Nether- lands, province of Utrecht. It is situated on the 807 AMETHYST— AMMANATE. Eem, which flows in t< > tlic Zuiderzee. There are plantations in the district, and a considerable trade i> carried on both in cotton and :i and ,\r. 1 ] mmunical with Amsterdam, tint 24 miles, by means of i 1 inrt of 1 red municipal privileges in 1259. It was captured in 1483 by the Maxi- milian, in 1672 by Montecuculi, and in 1785 by the : :. Pop. 13,000. A'.M BTHTST, .". varii iy of quartz (q. v.), d from common quartz and rock-cr ly in its lue or ptirplish violei colour— well known ■ h is owing to the pre- sence of a little peroxide of iron or 01 man of tlr- most esteei niartz, being comp bundant, it is mu • to' the true gems. An which often very faint, and is frequently sum- mits or of A. are brought fro; It is, a common mineral in Ehirop occurs in many parts of Scotland. i occurs 1 nterior of 1 and i:i 1 cavities in rocks. Tli aid it to rty of preventing intoxication, and persons much addicted to drinking therefore wore it on their necks. The name is d I word which mineral h that sometimes called the . which is a variety of spinel (q. v.) having an amethystine colour, and is a very valuable gem. — False amethysts made .of glas3 or union, and in general very coarse; but a very perfect imitation can be, and is m ide. A'MHEBST, a sea-port of Tenasserim, on the E. shore of the Bay of Bengal, in lat 16° -1' N"., and long. 07 W E.. at the entrance of the Marti' in. (xt 1826, thi having I by the Burmese, A. was founded, after a special survey of all the avail the commercial capital, being named after the then governor-general of India, and pro I to bean asylum for the m rs, still su'.> '1; but policy, 1 t aUke have in some men , other- wise commodious enough, labours under two serious defects— difficulty of access, and exposure to the Boutb-west monsoon. Even in trad.-, A. has been distanced by Moul at lirst merely to be the mditary station of the territory. Its experts. however, are said to be considerable, con chiefli from the upper basin of the river, and partly of grain from Belu, an island at its mouth. A MHERSTBURG, a town on the river 1 1 which empties Lake St Clair into Lake Erie. It is one of the oldest settlements in Upper Canada, being named from Lord Amherst, who, By the Montreal in 1760, completed what Genera] Wolfe had ' ' n bee in 1759. It occupies the sou! ityofthe province, the tnrning-point of climate and character to the basin of the St Lawrence, the spot where its waters, after having gained southing from the 50th to the 42d parallel, suddenly assume a direction which pretty uniformly carries them back to their oritnlnal latitude above the island of sti. Top. 1300. AMI DOGEX is a substance procured Ly the 20s action of the mi I il potassium on dry gaseous ammonia. The latter contains one atom of mi ims of hydrogen (Nil,), whilst A. to two . mi ' ' very import- ant cl ■• sod 1 a cumber 1 aces closely allied of which, indeed, may bo natural aim AMIENS, an ancient city in the plain of Picardy, and capital ni the department of Somme; it is the [ a bishop and of a court of justice, and has a citadel and fortifications. It posse ' my, a theological seminary, an indnsti public llery, garden, and 1 institutions. Among iblic buildings, the cathedral is a noble , built in 1220, an 1 1 La master- piece of Gothic architecture. Pet r the Hermit A. has con I, and cotton g Is. ribl and car] I the place ov. irity chiefly ■ Peace of A.,' e in this city, , i .-i p Joseph Bonaparte, the Marquis ra, ami Schimmelpennink, and intend d to 1 puted poml England, France, Spain, and Holland. r land retained poasi port at the Cape of i ba k her col public of the Seven Islands was Malta h 1 to the order of 1 John; .Spain and Holland regained tlnir colonies, with lb m of Trinidad and Ceylon; the French quit Rome, Naples, and Elba; and Turkey ■' • the war. I with any i and further difficult i ration and obstin- acy of the 1 id war declared against Bonaparte in 18 '■'■■ AM LET II. or HAMLETH, Prince of Jutland, is said to have lived in the 2d c. b.c. According to IS, he was the son o! and Gerutti ■■ of Ins father by his uncle Fengo, who married Gerutha, he 1 himself a fool his own life. .Saxo relates a number of little t ; A., which are a curious medley of sharp ami lively observation, and apparent madness. We are told that, on one that he was watched, he commenced to crow like a cock and dance idiotically about the apartment, untd b 1, hidden in a heap of straw, a spy, in the person of one of F whom he immedial d; he then so terrili mother by bis reproaches, that she promised to aid him in his intended revenge on his father's murderer, and, according to the old chronicler, really did so. Scandinavian traditions confirm the existence of a prince of this name. A field is still pointed out in Jutland with a tomb bearing the name of A. In the vicinity of Elsinore is shewn the spot where the father of A. v it' 1. Saxo himself does not men- tion thi or circumstances of his death; but H h translator says that be was murdered at a banquet. Most of the 1 ..f Denmark r the history of A. fabulous, but Midler thinks is a substratum of fact in the old myth. It is the source of Shakspeare's tragedy of J> and thus possesses a perennial interest for all the civdised world. A M M AX A'TE, Bartoi.f.me'o, architect and sculp- tor, born at Florence in 1511, died in 1592. He was at first a pupil of Baccio Bandinolli, and afterwards AMMIANUS MARCELLENUS— AMMONIA. of Sansovino at Venice. In 15.50, he married Laura Battiferri of Urbino, a lady celebrated for her poetical gifts. Pope Julius III. employed him in the decora- tion of the Capitol, and Cosmo de Medici appointed him his architect. His principal works are, the statues which adorn the tomb of Sannazar at Maples, the tomb of Cardinal de Monti at Rome, the bridge of the Trinity and several fountains at Florence. He also completed the Pitti Palace, commenced by Brunelleschi, and ornamented the court with three orders of columns, which were subsequently imitated by J. de Brosse in the palace of the Luxembourg at Paris. In the collection of architectural designs in the Florence Gallery, there is one by A., exhibiting the plans of different buildings, by which a city may be rendered at once magnilicent anil convenient His works have all a certain grandeur of character, 1, probably, from his early admiration of Michael Angelo, but are somewhat marred by a quaint mannerism. His bronzes are executed with great delicacy. AM M I A'XUS MARCELLI'NUS, a Roman his- torian of the 4th c, was present in several campaigns in Gaul, Germany, and the cast, and afterwards lived at Rome, devoted to literature. Though a Greek by birth, he wrote in Latin a history of the Roman empire from 91 to 378 A.D., in 31 books, of which 13, containing the years from 91 to 352, are lost. This work, which commenced with the accession of Nerva, may be regarded as a continuation of Tacitus, and though the portions remaining have many faults of style, they are valuable on account of the author's love of truth, his careful descriptions of countries, and events from personal observation, and especially his remarks on Germany. After his time, Latin ceased to be employed by any Roman writer in the composition of secular history. The best edition of A. M. is that by Wagner and Erfurdt, in 3 vols. (Lap. 180S.) AMMON, an Egyptian deity, styled Amun on hieroglyphic monuments, was compared by the Greeks with their supreme deity Zeus. The sacred name of Thebes, A.'s city (' No- Amnion,' in the Old Testament), was therefore translated into Greek by Diospolis. In the temples of this town, his peculiar residence, A. is represented as sitting on a throne, holding the symbols of life and power, and wearing a crown with a peculiar ornament of two feathers, and a band falling behind and hanging down to his feet He was especially the god of Thebes ; though his temples are found in other places, as at Meroe, and over the whole of Nubia and Libya. The name Amun signifies the hidden, unrevealed deity, and, in Egyptian mythology, he held the highest place. His undefined character may serve to explain how other deities were identified with A. After the eighteenth dynasty, we find in hieroglyphics the name Ainun- Ra frequently inscribed, indicating a blending of A. with the sun-god Ra. Similarly, the representation of A. with a ram's head shews the blending of him with Kneph. The worship of A. spread at an early period to Greece, and afterwards to Rome, where he was identified with Zeus and Jupiter. Temples for his worship were erected in Thebes (Bceotia), Sparta, Megalopolis, and other places. AMMON, Cnius. Fred., a German theologian, born January 16, 17C6. died May 21, 1850, is chiefly known by his work on tho Development of Christ as a Universal Religion (4 vols., Leip. 1833 — 1840), in which he argues in favour of such liberal development of doctrine as may keep theology in harmony with the progress of science. A. was a leader of the Rationalist school. He was a man of extensive learning, united with great industry and earnestness, and was generally respected in Saxony, where he resided. — His second son, Fked- Ei:if k AUUURTW A., is well known in Germany as an able physician, and the writer of several works on practical medicine and surgery. AMMO NIA, Hartshorn, or the Volatile Alkali, was one of the few substances known to the chemistry of the ancients ; being referred to by Pliny under the name of vehement odour, which he evolved by mixing lime with nitrum (probably sal ammoniac). It derives its name A. from its being obtained from sal ammoniac, which was first procured by heating camels' dung in Libya, near the temple of Jupiter Ammon. The atmosphere contains a minute quan- tity of A, amounting to 210 — 237 parts in the 10,000,000,000 parts of air, which is equal to 1 volume of A. in 28,000,000 of air. It is likewise present in rain-water in variable proportion. The supply of A. to the atmosphere is its evolution during the putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances, during the vinous fermentation, and the combustion of coal. It is likewise present in respired air, and is therefore a product of the daily wear and tear of the animal system. The principal source of A. at the present time is the destructive distillation of coal, as in gas-making. The materials which pass over from the retort are partly uncondensable and truly gaseous, and these are carried to our gas-jets, and burned; but in other parts they are condens- able, and are received during the purification of the gas, as a mixed tarry and watery liquid. On allowing this liquid to settle, the water portion, containing A., can be separated, and, hydrochloric acid being added to it, there is formed a compound of A. and hydro- chloric acid, called chloride of ammonium, which can be obtained dry, by evaporating the solution down in shallow vessels. Pure A. is manufactured from this impure chloride of ammonium by mixing it with its own weight of slaked lime in a retort, and apply- ing a gentle heat, when the A. as a ga3 passes over, and is received in a vessel containing water. The solubility of A. in water is very great, 1 volume of water dissolving 670 volumes of ammoniacal gas, increasing in bulk, and forming a liquid (liquor ammonia; of the chemist and hartshorn of the shops), which is fighter than water, its density beii The solution of A. is transparent, colourless, and strongly alkaline. In taste it is acrid caustic, and in odour very pungent. Applied to the skin in a concentrated form, it blisters. Exposed to the air, the A. escapes, and the solution thus gets weaker, and, reduced to —40° F, it freezes. As generally obtained, even in the gaseous condition, it is in com- bination with the elements of 1 atom of water, and contains 1 of nitrogen, 4 hydrogen, and 1 (NH 4 0). Dry A. can be procured bypassing the vapour of A., as ordinarily obtained, over fused chloride of calcium, when the water is abstracted, and true gaseous A. is left, having the composition 1 nitrogen, and 3 hydrogen (Ml j. Caseous A. can be "liquefied under pressure and cold, and then yields a colourless, clear, mobile liquid, with the characteristic odour and other properties of A. much intensified. A. combines with acids to form a class of salts which are of considerable importance. Thus, the crystallised sulphate of A. (HO,NH 4 0S0,) is very extensively used as a top-dressing by farmers, and is also mixed with manures where an increase of ammoniacal matter is desirable. The chloride of ammonium is also employed in agriculture ; likewise largely by the Russian peasantry, as a condiment for flavouring food in place of common salt In medicine, the gaseous A. has been rarely used. The solution of A. is employed as a means of rousing the respiratory and vascular systems ; and of the speedy alleviation of spasm. It is also used as a local irritant and antacid. It is serviceable in dyspeptic 2U9 AMMONIACUM— AMMONIUM. complaints with preternatural acidity of stomach and flatulence ; to produce local irritation or destruction of certain parts, and to render comparatively harm- leas the bites of poisonous animals, such as serpents and insects. Ammonium is a hypothetical metal, which is said to consist of 1 volume of nitrogen with 4 of 1 gen. It has never been produced in an isolated state ; but a singular amalgam of A. and mercury may be formed, by subjecting a globule of mercury, surrounded by a little water of ammonia, to the action of the galvanic current : when the galvanic y ceases, this amalgam i3 decomposed into mercury, ammonia, and water. A. may likewise be prepared by acting on an amalgam of sodium and mercury with a solution of chloride of A. A portion of mercury is slightly heated in a porcelain \ . and pieces of sodium introduced, when the sodium and mercury combine, and form an amalgam of sodium and mercury, which is a semi-solid sub- stance, and scarcely occupies more space than the bulk of the mercury employed. If this be intro- duced into a vessel containing a strong or saturated solution of chloride of A. (NH 4 C1), the chlorine combines with the sodium (Na) of the amalgam, forming chloride of sodium (NaCl), and the A. unites with the mercury, form- ing the amalgam of A. and mercury. As the change referred to proceeds, the amalgam increases in size many times, and forms a spongy mass of the consistence of butter, which rises through the saline solution and floats on the surface. The amalgam of A. and mercury very readily decomposes, and hence the difficulty of determin- ing its exact composition. AMMONI'ACUM, or AMMO'NIAC, a gum resin, used in medicine on account of its stimulant and discutient qualities, is obtained from Dorcma A., a plant of the natural order UnibellijcriT, a native of Persia — a perennial, about seven feet high, with large doubly pinnate leaves. The leaves are about two feet long. The whole plant is abundantly pervaded by a milky juice, which oozes out upon the slightest puncture, and which hardens, and becomes A. The A. exudes from punctures made by an insect, which appears in great numbers at the time when the plant has attained perfection. Much of it is sent to India, and it is generally imported into Britain from Bombay, although sometimes from the Levant. It occurs in commerce either in tears, or in masses formed of them, but mixed with impurities. It is whitish, becoming yellow by exposure to the atmo- sphere, is softened by the heat of the hand, and has a peculiar heavy unpleasant smell, and a nauseous taste, at first mucilaginous and bitter, afterwards acrid. It is not fusible, but burns with white crepi- tating flame, little smoke, and strong smell.— It was for some time erroneously supposed to be the pro- duce of a species of Heracleum, the seeds of which were found enclosed in it. — A similar substance is obtained from Ferula Tinrjitana, an umbelliferous plant, growing on light sandy soils in the north of Africa ; and is said also to be obtained from F. Ori- entails, a native of Asia Minor and of Greece. Both these plants have branched stems, and very com- pound leaves, somewhat resembling fennel. It would seem that the A. of the ancients was the gum resin of the Ferula, which has a more faint odour and less powerful medicinal properties than that of the Dorema. A'MMONITES, a Semitic race of people, living on the edge of the Syrian Desert : the descendants 210 of Ben-ammi, the son of Lot (Gen. xix. 3S). They inhabited the country lying to the north of Moab, between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok, i. e. the desert country east of Gad. Their chief city was Kabbatk-Ammon, to which the Greeks afterwards gave the name of Philadelphia. The Israelites wero often at war with them and their other Bedouin confederates. Jephthah defeated them with great daughter. They wero also overcome by Saul, David, Uzziah, and Jotham ; but after the fall of the king- dom of Israel (720 B. a), spread themselves in the districts of Jud.'ea on the east of the Jordan. In 582 they were Bnbdued by the Babylonians. After the captivity, they recommenced their feuds with the Jews, but were conquered by Judas Maccabsus. The intermarriages of Jews with the A., which had been frequent, were prohibited by Nehemiah. The chief deity worshipped by the A. was named Milcom, who in his character seems to have resembled Moloch. Justin Martyr affirms that in his timo tho A. were still numerous. AMMONI'TES, a genus of fossil shells, nearly Ammonites : 1. Ammonites obtusns; 2. Section of Ammonites obtiuus, shewing tho interior chambers and siphunclo ; 3. Ammonites nodosus. allied to the recent genus Nautilus, being, like it, chambered and spiral. The molluscous inhabitant appears to have lodged in the last and largest cham- ber of the shell, the spaces left behind as it increased in size being successively converted into air-chambers, and all connected by a tube (siphuncle), so that tho animal could at pleasure ascend or descend in the Sea ; whilst the transverse plates dividing the cham- ive strength to the whole structure without great increase of weight. A. have long been popu- larly called Cornua Ammonis, from a fancied resem- blance to the horns on scidptured heads of Jupiter Ammon. They are found throughout tho entire series of fossiliferous rocks from the transition strata to the chalk. They abound in the cretaceous and oolitic groups. Particular kinds distinguish particu- lar formations, a circumstance which renders them of particular interest and importance to the geologist. The number of species is very great, considerably above two hundred; and several genera have been constituted, as Baculites, Hamites, Scaphiles, Tn, n ■■//- lies, forming with Ammonites, the family of Ammoni- tida. A. are of very different sizes, from a very small size, to two, or even three or four feet in diameter. The larger ones were in former times ignorantly mistaken for petrified snakes ; and impo- sitions have been practised upon collectors by adding to specimens nicely carved snakes' heads ; whilst the general absence of the heads was popularly accounted for by a legend of a saint decapitating the snakes, and turning them into stone. AMMO'NIUM, now known as the oasis of Siwah, in the Libyan Desert, was in ancient times celebrated on account of the oracle of Ammon, the unfortunate expedition of Cambysos, and the subsequent journeys of Alexander the Great and Cato. Besides the temple of Jupiter, placed in the centre of a grove of palms, the ruins of which still exist, and which AMMONITTS SACCAS— AMNESTY. contained an image of the god, composed of smarag- dus and other gems, A. was remarkable for the palace of its ancient kings, surrounded by a triple wall, in the very heart of the oasis, and for its ' Well of the Sun,' of which the waters were coldest at noonday, and warmest at midnight. Here the Emperor Justinian built a Christian church. The length of the oasis is 15 miles, by 12 broad; it is about 150 miles distant from the Mediterranean, and is situated ill lat. 29" N., and in long. 26° E. AMMC-'NIUS SACCAS, a Greek philosopher, founder of the Neoplatonic School, is said to have been in his earlier days a porter in Alexandria. His parents were Christian, but he himself is said to have abandoned his early religion, in which he had been instructed by Clemens Alexandrinus, and to have devoted himself to the study of heathen phil- osophy under Athenagoras ; although both Eusebius and St Jerome deny that he ever formally aposta- tised from the Christian faith. His great endeav- our was to harmonise, through a comprehensive eclecticism, the various philosophical theories which prevailed in the Roman world, especially those of Aristotle and Plato. He also laboured to amalgam- ate with these the doctrines of the Magi and Brahmans; but instead of boldly announcing the result as his own, he claimed for his system the highest antiquity. His most distinguished pupils were Longinus, flerennius, Origen, and Plotinus, the last of whom, by far the most subtle and profound of the Neoplatonists, always expressed the highest respect for his master. A. died at Alexandria, 241 A.D. He left no writings behind him. A. is the name of several learned men in the later periods of Greek history ; such as A., the master of Plutarch, who lived during the reign of the Emperor Adrian, and, like A. Saccas, taught a species of eclec- ticism in philosophy; A., the Christian philosopher of the 3d c, who wrote a Harmony of the Gospels; A., son of Hermeas, a Peripatetic philosopher of the 5th c, and disciple of Proclus; A., the famous surgeon of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphia ; and A., the Grammarian, who was at lirst high-priest in an Egyptian temple, sacred to the god Apis, and afterwards (3S9 A. D.) became teacher at Constantinople, where he had the church historian Socrates for his pupil. AMMO'PHILA, a genus of Grasses, closely allied to Arundo (see Reed), and distinguished by a spike- like panicle, and by the glumes being nearly equal, keeled, longer than the palem of the single floret, and surrounded at the base by a tuft of hairs. — A. arundinaeea, formerly called Arundo armaria — a grass about 2—3 feet high, with rigid bluish leaves, the edges of which are rolled in, and very creeping roots— is frequent on the sandy sea-shores of Britain and the continent of Europe. It is sometimes called 8 1 14 EtEED or Si \ n Reed, and sometimes Mat Grass, the culms being wrought into foot-mats, coverings for stairs, &c, in the manufacture of which many families residing along the coast of Ireland are employed most of the year. It is also called Marum, Mamtm, <>r Marram, by which name it is designated in laws both English and Scottish, by -which the destruction of it was prohibited under severe penal- ties, because of its great utility in fixing the shifting ■and. In Holland, and in Norfolk, it is extensively employed — along with the Sea Lyme Grass (q. v.) in preserving the banks of sand which prevent the inroads of the sea. It is of little value as food for Oattle, although they eat the very young 1 The fibre has Deen used instead of flax, but is too short. AMMUNITION. Sometimes this name is given to camion and mortars, as wall as to the projectiles and explosive substances employed with them ; but more usually A. is considered to apply to the latter — such as shot, shell, gunpowder, cartridges, fuses, wads, grenades. Muskets, swords, bayonets, and other small-arms are sometimes, but improperly, included under this term. The Royal Laboratory at Woolwich is the place where A. is chiefly prepared for the British army and navy. The cannon-balls may be cast at some of the great iron-foundries in the north ; the shells may be cast or forged in the shell-factory at Woolwich ; the muskets may lie made at Birmingham, and the rifles at Enfield ; the 1 mllets at the shot- factories ; the gunpowder at Waltham-Abbey — and so on ; but the ' making np' of the A. is mostly conducted at the establishment above mentioned. Bags of serge, in enormous number, are cut out and made, and filled to form the cartridges for large ordnance. Bags or tubes of paper are made and rilled to constitute cartridges for small-arms. The tubes and combustibles for war- rockets and fuses are also manufactured. The cart- ridges for small-arms (rifles, muskets, carbines, and pistols) are made in millions ; since it is on those that the main offensive operations of an army depend. It has been calculated by the Woolwich authorities, that a British army of 60,000 men, comprising a fair avcrage of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers, ought to be provided with no less than 18,000,000 bali-cartridges for small -arms, for six months' operations. These would require 1000 A. wagons, and 3600 horses, to convey them all at once. It is therefore deemed better that, under any such circumstances, there should be established entrepOU for supplying the troops from time to time. The wagons constructed for this kind of service will carry 20,000 rounds of small-arm A. each; the cartridges are packed in boxes, and the wagons are drawn by four horses each. Several wagons are organised into an ' equipment,' under the charge of a detachment of artillery ; and there are several such equipments for an army of the magnitude above mentioned — one for each division of infantry, a small portion for the cavalry, and the rest in reserve. It has been laid down that an army of 60,000 men ought to have 2,6SO,000 cartridges with them, besides those in reserve ; and that the convey- ance of such a quantity, with a few forges and stores, would require 150 A. wagons, S30 men, and 704 horses. The equipment would return to the entrepot for a new supply when needed. In the Peninsular War, and at Waterloo, the English used two-horse carts, carrying about 10,000 rounds of small-arm A. each; but a superior kind of wagon has been since introduced. In the field, an infantry soldier usually carries about 60 rounds, put in compartments in his pouch ; the pouch having a separate receptacle for percussion-caps. When the word A. is used in connection with artillery matters, the ' fixed ' A. comprises the loaded shells, cartridges, and carcasses ; whereas the ' unfixed ' are the unfilled case-shot, grape-shot, and shell. During peace, the Woolwich Laboratory serves out little less than a million lbs. of gunpowder annually, in A. for tho army and navy, for purposes of exercising, saluting, &c. : the quantity in war is of course indeterminable. The chief kinds of A. will be found briefly described under their proper headings. A'MNESTY signifies an act of pardon or oblivion, and tho effect of it is, that tho crimes and offences against the state, specified in the act, are so obliterated that they can never again be charged against the guilty parties. Tho A. may be either absolute, or qualified with exceptions. Instances of the latter are to be found in ancient and modern history : thus, Thrasybulus, when ho overthrew the oligarchy in Athens, caused an A. to bo 311 AMNION— AMORITES. proclaimed, from the operation of which the Thirty Tyrants, who had formed the oligarchy, ami sonn' few persons who hail acted under them, were excluded. Again, Bonaparte, on his return from Elba in lSl. r >, issued a decree, which was published at Lyon, declaring an A., from the benefits of which he excepted thirteen persons whom he named. And in our own country, the historical reader "ill be able to recall the act of indemnity passed upon the restoration of Charles II., by which the persons actually concerned in his father's execution, v. a class, excluded from the A. A'MNION is the membrane which immediately invests the embryo, appearing very early in the development of the latter, and adhering closely to it. As gestation proceeds, this membr from its inner surface a fluid which separates it from the foetus. This fluid, the liquor amnii, consists of water, with albumen, salt of soda, ami extractive matters in solution; it has a specific gravity of 1008. It supplies nutriment to the foetus, pi around it an agreeable temperature, and when tion is completed, by projecting the membrane through the os uteri, is the primary agent in opening the way for the foetus. At this time, the A. is thin and transparent, slightly flocculent on the side next its enveloping membrane, the chorion, but smooth on the surface next the fietus. Within it, the latter is suspended in the fluid which not only serves the purposes just mentioned, but protects it from injury. For further particulars, see Embryo, and for many curious superstitions connected with the subject, sec Caul. AJIO'MUJI, a genus of plants of the natural order ScitamimcK [a. v.) or Zinffiberacem distin- guished by perennial stems; the flowers in close heads resembling cones, not upon the leafy but arising by themselves from the root, and little elevated above the ground; the corolla without inner lateral lobes, and with a very large flat lip ; the filament flat, extended beyond the anther, with two lateral lobes, and an emarginate middle lobe. It contains a number of species, natives of tropical countries, and almost exclusively of the eastern hemisphere, of which several yield the CARDAMOMS (q. v.) of commerce, and several the spiee known by the name of Grains or I'ahauim: (q. v.). The genus A. was formerly more extensive, and ini-l :!■!■ ■ 1 . j> -vies now forming the genus Zingiber (see Ginger), &c. AMOO'R, or AMUR, a river formed by the junc- tion (about lat. .53° N., and long. 120° E.) of 'the Shilka and the Argoun, which both come from the south- west — the former rising in Russian Siberia, near the head-waters of the Yenisei ; and the latter in Chinese Tatary, not far from the sandy plateau of Kohi. From this starting-post, the A. presents, on its right, a tolerably symmetrical curve, which, after receiving, at its most southerly point, the Songari from beyond the Wall of China, besides other considerable fin Ins on both sides of cither segment, enters, on nearly its original parallel, the Gulf of Saghalien, about a degree below the Sea of Okhotsk, properly so called. For more minute details, the reader must look forward to the steadily pursued researches of the Russians, who, according to our latest information, had, last season, fixed in position about 120 points in the various sections of the basin of the A. But they have already thrown much light on a stream wliich, always physically interesting, as the only bond of union between the central steppes of Asia and the world at large, is now, by a recent change of its political relations, redeemed from an isolation virtually more thorough than that of any of the tributaries of the Arctic Sea. The Russians, then, have ascertained that the A. offers great facilities 212 ° for colonisation, and still greater for navigation. To begin with the latter. They have traversed by steam, in the season, too, of low water, the entire length upwards to the grand fork of the Argoun and the Shilka, accomplishing the stretch of :;oiki \ . i.,| , or 2000 miles, in 30 days— and that, from want of preparation, in spite of the delay of cutting wood, and tiie difficulty of utilising it when greeii; and they have discovered that even the Chinese, mar in f their motley garrisons, have a fleet of 30 or 40 sailing-craft. With respect, again, to colonisation: while tin' stream itself is said to be stocki'd 1 i li • ■ a fishpond, the Russians have found, more particularly on the Lower A., much land fitted for pasturage and cultivation, whole oceans, as they express themselves, of timber — oak, elm, ash, larch, pine, and maple ; vast supplies of limestone, and decisive indications nf inm ore — the climate, though severe in both its extremes, not being more B0 than in many thriving parts of Russia, whether European or Asiatic But far beyond these merely local considerations, the A. has an extraneous importance, and that not mi rely to Russia itself. Touching, as it nearly does, the Yenisei, it forms a far more available continua- tion of the eastward route through Siberia than the only other possible Hue, which, crossing to the Lena, and following that river to its most easterly point, runs from Yakutsk to Okhotsk, by a wretched bridle-path of 18 days, through a country as rugged as it is inhospitable. Nor is the A. likely to lie less valuable in connection with the south, for there, on an arena where might will be everything, its waters are ready to carry the proverbially aggressive Muscovites within easy reach of the Gulfs ofCorca and Pe-che-le. But it is towards the cast that the A. assumes the most serviceable aspect. Already has it been a channel of traffic between the outside world and Central Asia — carrying down to the former the salted pork of the region of the Baikal, and bringing up to the latter the produc- tions and commodities of more genial climes. This, however, is but as a drop in the bucket to the ambition of Russia. Even now, the significant nanus of Nicholajesk and Petrowsk stand forth as naval stations of the empire— the background, as we have Been, being one huge arsenal of naval of timber, of iron, and doubtless, at pleasure, of hemp. It was at the commencement of the reign of Peter the Great that the indefatigable Russians, with the open ocean — Russia's most special want — looming in their mind's eye, wero arrested on the A. by the Chinese ; and it was fortunate for the Anglo-Saxon race that that gigantic power did not find the fulcrum for putting forth its strength on the Pacific, till England and America had each established a permanent foothold on its shores. Even here, however, Russia has to face its almost universal enemy, the ice of winter. As in the White Sea, as in the Baltic, and as, to some extent, in the Euxine, the frost encumbers this, the newest and noblest outlet; for, in the last four springs, or rather summers, it has chained the A., on an average, down to the 21st of May. A'MORITES, a powerful nation of Canaan, ex- tending on both sides of the Jordan. They wero vanquished by the Hebrews under Moses, and their lands beyond Jordan were distributed among the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh. Their two most famous kings were Sihon, king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. Og was the last of the giants, or at least of that gigantic race, the Rephaim. In Dcut. iii. 11, his iron bedstead is mentioned as measuring 134 f ee t in length ; but the whole of this verse, with the exception of the first clause, is considered by some an interpolation. The Rabbins AMOROSO— AMPHIBIA. hold this bedstead to have been Og's cradle, and aflirm that his full-grown stature was 120 feet ! Joshua subdued, but did not wholly exterminate, the Amorites in Canaan. The residue of this people became tributary under Solomon. (Gen. x. 15 — 20 ; xv. 19—21; Numb. xiii. 2'J ; xxi. 13; Deut. xx. 16; xii. 31 ; Joshua, ix.) AMORO'SO, in Music, affectionately, tenderly. AMO'RPHA. See Indioo. AMORPHOPHALLUS. See Ap.um. AMO'RPHOUS (Gr., a, priv., morphe, form), shapeless. In chemistry, the term A. is used to describe the uncrystallised, in opposition to the crys- tallised, condition of bodies. There are substances winch, in certain conditions, are capable of crystal- lisation, but in other conditions remain A. Thus, pure sugar contains carbon, which appears as an A. substance after the sugar has been burned in a platma crucible. The same substance, carbon, appears in its crystallised form in the diamond. A'MOS, the Hebrew prophet, was a herdsman of Tekoa, in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, and also a dresser of sycamore trees. During the reigns of Uzziah in Judah, and Jeroboam in Israel (about 784 B. a), he came forward to denounce the idolatry then prevalent. His prophetical writings, as given in the Old Testament, contain, in the first six chapters, denunciations of the Divine displeasure against several states, particularly that of Israel, on account of the worship of idols. As Ruckert poeti- cally expresses it, the thunder-storm rolls over all the surrounding kingdoms, touches Judah in its progress, and at length settles upon Israel. The three remaining chapters contain his symbolical visions of the approaching overthrow of the kingdom of Israel, and lastly, a promise of restoration. The style of A., remarkable for its clearness and picturesque vigour, abounds with images taken from rural and pastoral life. The canonicity of the book of Amos is well attested both by Jewish and Christian authorities. Philo, Josephus, and the Talmud include it in the list of inspired writings. It is, moreover, twice quoted in the New Testament (Acts vii. 42, and Acts xv. 16). AMOY', a seaport town of China, in a small island of the same name, in the province of Fo-kien, on the sea-coast, lat. 24° 10' N, long. 118° 10' E. It is one of the chief commercial emporiums of the east, and contains a population estimated at 250,000. It is divided into an outer and inner town, and has an outer and inner harbour, the entrance to the former of which, as well as the inner town itself, is strongly fortified. In 1841, it was taken by the British ; by the treaty of Nan-king, a British consul and British subjects were permitted to reside there. The trade is now open to all nations. The chief imports are rice, sugar, camphor, raw cotton, cotton- twist, and British long cloths ; the exports are tea, porcelain, paper, grass-cloths, &c. Smuggling is carried on extensively. Mr Fortune describes A. as one of the dirtiest towns in the world. AMPERE, AndriS Marie, a distinguished mathe- matician and naturalist, was born at Lyon, January 20, 1775. The death of his father, who fell under the guillotine in 1703, made a deep and melancholy impression on the mind of young A., who for solace in the study of nature and antiquity. In 1805, after lie bad been engaged for some time as private mathematical tutor at Lyon, he was called to Paris, where he distinguished himself as an able teacher in the Polytechnic School, and began his career as an author by his essay on the Mathe- matical Theory of Chances (Stir la Thcorie ilatliC- mabiquA die Jm). In 1814, he was elected as a member of the Academy of Sciences ; and in 1S24, was appointed as Professor of Experimental Physics in the College de France. He died June 10, 1836. Scientilic progress is largely indebted to A, especi- ally for his electro-dynamic theory and liis original views of the identity of electricity and magnetism, as given in his liecuetl d'O iques (Paris, 1822), and his Thforie del Pltinomines Electro-dynamiquea (Paris, 1830). These researches prepared the way for the experiments of Dr Faraday. Several of A.'s writings may be found in the Annul. i de Physiqtu <' di Chvmie. AMPERE, Jean Jacques A.ntoise, son of the above named, Professor of Modern Literature in the college de Prance, at Paris, and member of the French Academy, was burn at Lyon, A. 12, 1800. He acquired a brilliant reputation, on account of the keen and searching character of his manifold literary efforts. After laying the ground- work of his comprehensive studies in Paris, lie pro- ceeded to Italy, Germany, and Scandinavia. In 1S29, when he returned from his travels, he saw no prospect of becoming a professor in Paris, and sc i e. insented to give a course of lectures on the history of literature at Marseille. After the July revolution, he succeeded Andrieux as professor in the College de F ranee, and also took the place of Villemain in the Normal School. In both chairs he taught with great success. lie was especially versed in the knowledge of German literature; while his valuable writings upon China, Persia, India, Egypt, and Nubia, as well as his Levantine voyages, proved that the Ear east itself was embraced within the circle of his studies. A. allowed many of his linguistic and historico-literary investigations to see the light first in reviews, especially the Heme S\ two handles (hence the name, from Gr. amphi, on both sides, and phiro, to carry), and often ending in a sharp point below, for being inserted in a stand or in the ground. Several of this sort, and in an upright position, were found in the cellars at Pompeii The A. was chiefly used for the preservation of various liquids, especi- ally wine, the age of which was marked on tickets affixed to the vessel. There is also evidence that amphorae were employed as cinerary urns and as coffins. The A. among the ancients was likewise a measure for In Greece, it contained about 9 English The Roman amphora was only two-thirds In modern times, Anfora is the Am- phora. liquids. gallons. of the Greek A. name of a wine-measure in Venice. AMPLIFICATION, i.e., enlargement, a term in Rhetoric, meaning that an idea, an opinion, or an inference is presented to the mind, accompanied by accessory circumstances. Its aim is to produce a powerful and vivid impression through tne instru- mentality of epithets, particulars, or other methods of elaboration. Phetorical A is generally produced — 1st, by similitude ; 2d, by contrast ; 3d, by illustrat- ing the universal in the particular ; 4th, by piling up logical arguments. Exaggeration is an i 1 mate kind of A. ; being the result of an undue enlargement of particular facts and circumstances. A'MPLITTJDE, in Astronomy, is the distance of a heavenly body, at the time of its rising or setting, from the east or the west point of the horizon. YVh. n the sun is in the equator (i. c., at the time of either Ami ... . equinox), he rises exactly east, and sets exactly west, and therefore has no A. His A. is at its maximum at midsummer, and again at mid- winter ; and that maximum depends upon the latitude of the place, being 234° a * * ne equator, and increasing to the Arctic Circle, where it becomes 90°. The A of a fixed star remains constant all the year round. AMPULLA was a kind of bottle, used by the Romans for the preservation of liquids. It was made either of earthen- ware or glass, and sometimes, though very rarely, of more costly materials. Great numbers of such vessels have found their way into collections of antiquities. They are generally ' bellied,' i.e., approaching to globular, narrowing towards the mouth, and provided with two handles. They ara frequently mentioned in connec- tion with the baths of ancient times. The A. olearia was a 'bottle of oU' which the Roman took with him when he went to the bath, and with which he anointed himself after his ablutions. Sometimes the oils were perfumed. The A. Remensis (the holy vessel, Fr. la sainle ampoule) was the name of that famous vessel in which was contained the unguent (believed to have been brought by a dove from heaven) that anointed Clovis, king of the Franks, at Rheim3 in 496 A.D., and with which every succeeding monarch of France, down to Louis XVI., was anointed at his corona- tion. The A Remensis was shattered, along with a great many more valuable things, at the revolution of 1789 ; but a fragment of it was preserved by some devout royalist, and handed over at the Restoration to the Archbishop of Rheims. Curious to say, a little of the miraculous substance still remained, which was mixed up with oil, and used to anoint Charle3 X. in 1S23. AMPUTATION (Lat amputo, I lop or prune) is the cutting off of a part which, by its diseased condi- tion, endangers, or may endanger, the safety of the whole body. The A of a limb was in ancient times attended with great danger of the patient's dying during its performance, as surgeons had no efficient means of restraining the bleeding. They rarely ventured to remove a large portion of a limb, and when they did so, they cut in the gangrened parts, where they knew the vessels would not bleed ; the smaller limbs they chopped off with a mallet and chisel ; and in both cases had hot irons at hand with which to sear the raw surfaces, boding oil in which to dip the stump, and various resins, mosses, and fungi, supposed to possess the power of arresting haemorrhage. Some tightly bandaged the limbs they wished to remove, so that they mortified and dropped off; and others amputated with red-hot knives, or knives made of wood or horn dipped in vitriol. The desired power of controlling the haemorrhage was obtained by the invention of the tourniquet (q. v.) in 1674 by a French surgeon MoreH The ancient surgeons endeavoured to save a covering of skin for "the stump, by having the skin drawn upwards by an assistant, previously to using the knife. In 1679, Lowdham of Exeter suggested cutting semicircular flaps on one or both sides of a limb, so as to preserve a fleshy cushion to cover the end of the bone. Both these methods are now in use, and are known as the 'circular' and the ' Hap ' operations : the latter is most fre- quently used in this country. A 'flap' amputation i3 performed thus: The patient being placed in the most convenient position, an assistant compresses the main artery of the limb AMRITISIR— AMSTERDAM. with his thumb, or .1 tourniquet is adjusted over it. Another assistant supports the limb. The m with one hand lifts the tissues from the bone, and transfixing them with a long narrow knife, cuts rapidly downwards and towards the sur- face of the skin, forming a flap ; he then repeats this on the other side of the limb. An assistant now draws up these flaps, and the knife is carried round the bone, dividing any flesh still adhering to it. The surgeon now sawB the bone. He then, with a small forceps, seizes the end of the main artery, and drawing it slightly from the tissues, an assistant ties it with a thread All the Teasels being secured, the flaps are stitched together with a needle and thread, and a piece of wet lint is laid over the wound. An expert surgeon can remove a limb thus in from 30 to 00 seconds. AMRITSI'R, a city of the Punjab, in X. lat 31° 40', and E. long. 74° 45', containing 1 l.j.OHO inhabit- ants. It is said to be larger than Lahore, the seat of government. It is, in fact, the religious metropolis, a distinction which, along with its name, it owesjto its 'pool of immortality,' on an islet of which stands the chief temple of the Sikh faith. A. is a favourite haunt of pilgrims, to protect or to overawe whom Runjeet Singh built a formidable citadel, which the British have strengthened ; and it was the place where, perhaps to bind the slippery Sikhs more firmly, was signed the treaty of 1S46, for ceding to the British the territory between the Beas and the Sutlej. A. is said to be the richest and most pros- perous city in Northern India, being connected with the capital, distant 3G miles to the west, by a canal, possessing considerable manufactures of cotton, silks, shawls, &c., and carrying on considerable trade at once with Hindustan to the south, ami with Central Asia to the north. AMSLER, S.VMrr.i,, professor of the art of engrav- ing on copper, in the Academy of Arts. Munich, was born December 17, 1701, at Scliinznach. in Switzerland, received his first lessons from Lips of Zurich, and afterwards studied under Hess, in Munich. His first great work was an engraving from a Magdalen by Carlo Dolce. In 1810, he went to Rome, where, in several engravings of statues by Thorwaldsen, lie sue -• 1. 1 well in uniting the characteristics of the originals with the simple style of Marcus Antonio. Aided by Barth and Hildburghausen, he engraved a title-page for the Lay of (he Nibelungen, from a design by Cornelius. During his second sojourn in Rome (1S20 — 1824), he began his great work, an engraving of ' Alexander's Triumphal Procession,' by Thorwaldsen. At Munich, in 1831, he finished his large plate of the ' Burial of Christ,' by Raphael, which, with his engraving of a statue of Christ, by Dannecker, displayed the highest qualities of imitative art. These works were followed by a ' Holy Family,' from Raphael, and the ' Madonna di Casa Tempi.' His last great work was an engraving from Overbeck's ' Triumph of Religion in the Arts.' A. died May IS, 1849. His style is marked by a clear and noble treatment of form, rather than by strong contrast of tones. Few engravers have equalled A. in his deep know- ledge and faithful representation of the works of Raphael. AMSTERDAM, or AMSTELDAM (the dam or dike of the Arnstcl), the chief city of the Netherlands, and capital of the province of North Holland, is situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Ij or Y (pronounced Eye), an arm of the Zuiderzee, and is divided by the two arms of the former, and numerous canals, into 95 small islands, connected by 290 bridges. Almost the whole of the city, which extends in the shape of a crescent, is founded on piles. At the beginning of the 13th c, it was merely a fishing-village, with a small castle, the residence of the Lords Oi Amstel. In 1296, on account of the murder of Count FlorUof Holland, the rising town was demolished, and its inhabitants were compelled to leave it. Afterwards, with Arnstelland (the dis- trict on the banks of the Amstel), it was taken under the protection of the Counts of Holland, and under them enjoyed several privileges which contributed to its subsequent prosperity. In 1482, it was walled and fortified. It soon rose to be the first commercial place in the united states of the Netherlands ; m 1585 was considerably enlarged by the building of the new town on the west; and in 1022 had 100,000 inhabitants. This pr osperity excited the envy of its neighbours. The English, under Leicester, in 1587, and William 11., Prince of Orange, in 1050, endea- voured to gain possession of the flourishing city ; but their designs were frustrated by the good manage- ment of the burgomasters of A. In the 17th c, the war with England so far reduced the commerce of A., that in the year 1053, about 4000 houses were uninhabited. Prosperity was restored during the next century, and, though commerce was I tin injured by the disputes with England in 1781 and 1782, it once more revived. The union of Holland with France in 1S10 entirely destroyed the foreign trade of A., while the excise and other new regula- tions impoverished its inland resources ; but the old firms proved strong enough to live through the time of difficulty, and in 1S15 commerce again began to expand. The city has a fine aspect, when seen from tho harbour, or from the high bridge over the Amstel. Numerous church towers and spires rise on every side, to relieve the flatness of the prospect. The old ramparts have been pulled down, and wind-mills for grinding corn, and other purposes, have been erected on the 28 bastions. Rich grassy meadows surround the city. On the west side are a great number of saw-mills. The three principal streets in A., each of which is t%vo miles long, are the Heerengraacht, Keizergi-aacht, and I'rinzensgraacht. Tiny are not surpassed by any in Europe for length, breadth, or general elegance. Along the middle of each, as of the other streets in A., flow canals, the banks of which are lined with rows of trees. The houses are built principally of brick, and some have their gables towards the streets, which gives them a very pictur- esque appearance. In old times, A. was strongly fortified; but now its only defence consists in the sluices, which can flood in a few hours the surround- ing land. A hard frost, however, like that of 1 794 — 5, when Pichegru entered the city, would render even this means of defence useless. The population was numbered at 1S0.O00 in 1S20 ; but in 1857 it amounted to 260,0011, the majority of wdiom are Dutch Calvinism. Of the remainder, the most numerous body are the Roman Catholics, next the Lutherans, and next the Jews. The chief industrial establishments are numerous dock-yards, manufactories of sails, ropes, tobacco, cloth, plush, silks, gold and silver plate and jewellery, colours and chemical preparations, breweries, distilleries, with export houses for corn and colonial produce. Among the public buildings, the Stadhuis, formerly use, 1 as the palace of King Louis Bonaparte, and still re- tained by the present reigning family, is a noble and imposing structure, raised upon 13,059 piles, and extending 202 feet in length, by 206 feet in breadth, surmounted by a roimd tower, rising 327 feet from the base. It is chiefly remarkable for the great hall, 111 feet long, 52 feet wide, and 90 feet high, lined with white Italian marble— an apartment of great splendour. The Nkuxoe Kcrk (New Church), founded in 1408, AMSTERDAM— AMYGDALOID. is the finest ecclesiastical structure in the city, and, as the Dutch think, in Europe. Its chancel is espe- cially admired. It contains the tombs of Admiral de Kuytcr, who sailed up the Med way and burned the English fleet at Chatham ; of the famous Dutch poet Vondel, &c, and of various other notable per- sons. The Old Church (Glide Ki-rk), b'-Ionging to the 14th c, contains several monuments of naval heroes. Literature, science, and recreation are not forgotten in the pressure of business ; for A. has its academy of arts and sciences, an excellent museum and library, several harmonic societies, a botanical and also a zoological garden, and several theatres. The hospital for aged people, the poor-house, house of correction, and orphan asylum, a navigation school, and many benevolent societies, are well sup- ported, and said to be managed on good principles. The moist atmosphere and mephitiu exhalations from the canals, are unfavourable to the health of the city, especially in summer. The New Canal (Xi'iiwe Dii'p), or Grand Ship-canal of North Hol- land, 21 feet deep and 125 feet in breadth, connect- ing the Buiksloot with the North Sea at the Helder, a distanco of 51 miles, so that the perilous navi- gation of the Zuiderzee is avoided, has greatly increased the facility of commerce, as even a ship of the line can pass through its sluices ; and powerful steam-tugs are employed to tow merchant-vessels with their full cargoes out to sea. It is the broadest canal in the world. Its lock-gates exceed in dimen- sions the largest in the docks of Liverpool, and are founded upon piles driven through the mud into sand. Amsterdam is now connected by railway with Rotterdam and the Hague, as well as with Prussia. AMSTERDAM, a barren islet in lat. 38" 53 1 3., and long. 77° 37' E., the home of sea-birds, shell-fish, and seals. It is worthy, however, of notice at once for its structure and its situation. Manifestly of volcanic origin, it still possesses a burning soil and hot springs; and along with its single neighbour, St Paul, CO miles to the north-east, it is about mid- way in the direct lino between the Cape of Good Eoipe and Van Diemen's Land, being also at nearly the same distance from Cape Comorin. A'MULET, any object worn as a charm. It is often a stone, or piece of metal, with an inscription or some figures engraved on it, and is generally suspended from the neck, and worn as a preserv- ative against sickness, witchcraft, &c. Its origin, like its name, seems to be oriental. The ancient Egyptians had their amidets, sometimes forming necklaces. Among the Greeks, such a protective Egyptian Amulet charm was styled phyladerion ; among the Romans, amubtum. This word is probably derived from the Arabic hamuli t ('what is suspended'). The phylacteries of the Jews (see Matthew, xxiii. 5), slips of parchment on which passages of the Law wen written, were evidently worn as badges of piety by the Pharisees ; but were also regarded as wholesome preservatives from evil spirits, and from all manner of harm. From the heathen, the use of amulets passed into the Christian Church, the inscription on them being icltthus (the Greek word for a fish). because it contained the initials of the Greek words for Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. Bee Abbreviations. Among the Gnostic sects, Abraxas stones (q. v.) were much used. Amulets soon became so common among Christians that, in the 4th c, the clergy were interdicted from making and selling them on pain of deprivation of holy orders ; and in 721, the wearing of amulets was sol nmly condemned by the Church. Among the Turks and many other nations of Central every person considers it necessary to wear a pre- servative charm. With the spread of Arabian astronomy, the astrological A. or talisman (q. v.) of the Arabs found its way to Europe. Kopp, a German author, has written a work, Pal Critica, on amulets and their inscriptions. Among amulets in repute in the middle ages were the coins attributed to St Helena, the mother of Constantine. These and other coins marked with a cross were thought specially efficacious against epilepsy, and are generally found perforated, for the purpose of being worn suspended from the neck. — The belief in the virtue of amulets is not yet extinct among the uneducated. AMY'CL^E, an old Laconian town, was situated on the eastern bank of the Eurotas, 20 stadia south- east of Sparta, in a richly wooded and fertile region. It was a famous city in the heroic age, the abode of Tyndarus and his spouse Leda, who bore to Jupiter the twins, Castor and Pollux (called A myda i 1 • the Amyckean brothers), and also Helena. Long after the Dorians had subjugated and peopled the rest of the Peloponnesus, A. continued to be a free Achaean town. It was conquered by the Spartans only before the first Messenian War, and in consequence of a curious and absurd law. The inhabitants were so often agitated by false rumours of the approach of the Spartans, that, growing tired of living in a state of continual alarm, they decreed that no one should henceforth mention or even take notice of these disagreeable fictions. Unfortunately, the Spartans did come at length, and according to the Greek saying, ' A. perished through silence.' Hence the proverb, Amyclis ipsis tacitumior (More silent than A. itself). After its conquest, A. became a village, noted only for its annual festival of the Hyacinthia, and its temple of Apollo, with the colossal statue of the god himself. — A., an ancient city on the coast of Campania, Italy, said to have been built by a colony from the Greek A. It had ceased to exist in the time of Pliny. AMYGDA'LE/E, or DRri'ACE.E, according to some botanists, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, but more generally regarded as a sub-order of Rosace.e. The species are all trees or shrubs. They have the tube of the calyx lined with a disk, the pistil a solitary simple carpel with a terminal style, the fruit a drupe. For other l>otanical charac- ters, see Rosace.e. The bark yields gum, and hydrocyanic acid is present in very notable quantity in different parts, as the leaves, kernels, &c. The A. are chiefly Datives of the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Some of them \ ii Id valuable fruits; and various products of the order are used in medicine. See Ai mom.. Pkach, Xeita- I'lim, CHERRY, and Cim-.r.Y I.ur.Ki. This order or sub-order contains about 110 known species, AMY'GDALOID (from amj/gdahu, an almond), a rock, consisting of a basis of some kind of trap rack, very frequently of greenstone, forming numer- ous roundish or oval cells, which are filled with nodules, often of calcareous spar or of zeolitic minerals. The cells are not of huge size, but even those which are almost adjacent differ much in this respect. The nodules are evidently the result of a sublimation and imperfect crystallisation, under the action of the AMYLACEOUS— ANABAPTISTS. heat which formed the cells. Empty cells often occur amongst those which are filled with minerals. The name A. is sometimes extended to rocks of the same character, although the basis be not of trap. AMYLACEOUS (from amylum, starch), a term used in Chemistry and Botany, and equivalent to starchy. — A. food is food consisting at least in great part of some kind of starch, as arrow-root, sago, &c. — A compound radical, called amyle, is formed by the decomposition of starch in a peculiar fermentation — the amylic fermentation — but to it the term A. has no reference. AMYLIC ALCOHOL. See FuHH, Oil. AMYOT, or AMIOT, Jacqcts, a French writer, well known by his excellent translations of the Greek classics, was born in 1513, and died in 1593. Kacine highly esteemed the translations by A., of which the version of Plutarch is one of the best, and has passed through several editions. — Amiot, Joseph, a celebrated Jesuit and oriental scholar, was born at Toulon in 1718, and lived as a missionary in China from 1750 to the time of his death, in 1701. His knowledge of the Chinese and Tatar languages enabled nim to collect many valuable notices of antiquities, history, language, and arts, in China. Many of his writings may be found in the Mtmoirtt concernants rilisloire, les Sciences et leg Arts da Chinois (15 vols. Paris, 1770—1701). His Diclion- naire Tatar - Mantchou - Franrais was edited by Langles in 1789. A UYRIDA'CE^E, a natural order of dicotyle- donous or exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, natives of tropical countries, remarkable for the abundance of their fragrant balsamic or resinous juice. They have compound leaves, occasionally with stipules and pellucid dots. The flowers are in racemes or panicles ; the calyx persistent, with 2—5 divisions; the petals are 3 — 5; aestivation valvate or imbricated. The stamens are twice or four times as many as the petals. The ovary is superior, sessile, 1 — 5-celled, inserted in a large disk ; the style soli- tary and compound, or wanting ; the stigmas as many as the cells of the ovary ; the ovules in pairs, anatropal. The fruit is hard and (by, 1 — 5 celled, its outer rind often splitting into valves. The seeds are exalbuminous. About forty or fifty species are referred to the order ; but many of them are still very imperfectly known. Some species afford valu- able timber ; but the principal products of the order are fragrant resins and balsams, as Mvriui (q.v.), and different kinds of Frankincense (q.v.), Oi.ii: I B I u (q.v.), Elemi (q.v.), Bdellium (q.v.), Tacamaiiac (q. v.), Balsam of Gileab (q. v.), &c. Among the more important genera of the order may be named Amyris, Balsamodendron, Bosivcllia, and Idea. — Canarium commune, a native of Java, which yields a gum similar in its properties to the 1! u \ u of Copaiva (q. v.), produces also triangular nuts, which are eaten both raw and dressed, and from which an oil is extracted for the table and for burn- ing. Balanites Egyptiaca is cultivated in Egypt for its fruit, a drupe, which is eaten, and from the seeds of which a fat od is expressed, called Zaclmn. ANA, a termination added to the names of remark- able men, to designate collections of their sayings, anecdotes, &c. ; as in the works entitled Haronin,,,', Johnsoniana. Such titles were first used in France, where they became common after the publication of Scaligerana by the brothers Dupuy (Hague, 1066). I n English literature, there are many works of this kind, America, also, has its Washingtoniana. A tolerably complete catalogue of work3 with such titles may be found in Namur's Bibliographic des Ouvrages publics sous le Nom d'Ana (Brussels, 1839). 218 ANABAPTISTS, a term applied generally to those Christians who reject infant baptism, and administer the rite only to adults ; so that when a new member joins them, he or she is baptised a second time, the first being considered no baptism. The name (Gr. to baptise again) is thus owing to an accidental circumstance, and is disclaimed by the more recent opponents of infant baptism, both on the continent and in Great Britain. The origin of the sect cannot be distinctly traced ; but it is manifestly connected with the controversy about infant baptism carried on in the early chureli. Opposition to this doctrine was kept alive in the various so-called heretical sects that went by the general name of Cathari (i.e., purists), such as the W'aldenses, Albigcnses, &c. Shortly after the beginning of the Preformation, the opposition to infant baptism appeared anew, especially among a set of fanatical enthusiasts called the Prophets of Zwickau, in Saxony, at whose head were Thomas Miinzer (q.v.) (1520) and others. Miinzer went to Waldshut, on the borders of Switzerland, which soon became a chief seat of anabaptism, and a centre whence visionaries and fanatics sjiread over Switzer- land. They pretended to new revelations, dreamed of the establishment of the kingdom of heaven on earth, and summoned princes to join them, on pain of losing their temporal power. They rejected infant baptism, and taught that those who joined them must be baptised anew with the baptism of the Spirit ; tiny also proclaimed the community of goods, and the equality of all Christians. These doctrines naturally fell in with and supported the 'Peasant War' (q. v.) that had about that time (1525) broken out from real causes of oppression. The sect spread rapidly through Westphalia, Holstein, and the Netherlands, in spite of the severest persecutions. The battle of Krankenhauscn (see Munzer) crushed their progress in Saxony and Franconia. Still, scattered adherents of the doctrines continued, and were again brought together in various places by travelling preachers. In this capacity, one Melchior Hoffmann, a furrier of Swabia, distinguished himself, who appeared as a visionary preacher in Kiel in 1527, and in Emden in 1528. In the last town he installed a baker, John Mattliiesen, of Haarlem, as bishop, and then went to Strasburg, where he died in prison. Matthiesen began to send out apostles of the new doctrine. Two of these went to Miinster, where they found fanatical coadjutors in the Protestant minister Kothmann, and the burghers Knipperdolling and Krechting, and were shortly joined by the tailor Bockhold of Leyden, and Gerrit Kippenbrock of Amsterdam, a bookbinder, and at last by Matthiesen himself. With their adherents, they soon made themselves masters of the city ; Matthiesen set up as a prophet, and when he lost his life in a sally against the Bishop of Miinster, who was besieging the town, Bockhold ami Knipperdolling took his place. The churches were now destroyed, and twelve judges were ap- pointed over the tribes, as among the Israelites ; and Bockhold (1534) had himself crowned king of the ' New Sion,' under the name of John of Leyden. The anabaptist madness in Miinster now went beyond all bounds. The city became the scene of the wildest licentiousness ; until several Protestant princes, uniting with the bishop, took the city, and by executing the leaders, put an end to the new kingdom (1535). But the principles disseminated by the A. were not so easily crushed. As early as 1533 the adherents of the sect had been driven from Emden, and taken refuge in the Netherlands ; and in Amsterdam the doctrine took root and spread. Bockhold also had sent out apostles, some of whom had given up the wild fanaticism of their master; they let alone the ANABASID/E— ANABLEPS. community of goods and women, and taught the other doctrines of the A., and the establishment of a new kingdom of pure Christians. They grounded their doctrines chiefly on the Apocalypse. One of the most distinguished of this class was David Joris, a glass-painter of Delft (1501 — 1556). Joris united liberalism with anabaptism, devoted himself to mystic theology, and sought to effect a union of Earties. He acquired many adherents, who studied is Book of Miracles ( Wunderbuch), which appeared at Deventer in 1542, and looked upon him as a sort of new Messiah. Being persecuted, he withdrew from his party, lived inoffensively at Basle, under the name of John of Bruges, and died there in the com- munion of the reformed church. It was only in 1559 that his heretical doctrines came to light, when the council of Basle had the bones of Joris dug up, and burned under the gallows. The rude and fanatical period of the history of anabaptism closes with the scandal of Miinster. A new era begins with Menno Simons. (See Menno.) Surrounded by dangers, Menno succeeded, by prudent zeal, in collecting the scattered adherents of the sect, and in founding congregations in the Netherlands, and in various parts of Germany. He called the members of the community ' God's Congregation, poor, unarmed Christians, brothers ; ' later, they took the name of Mennonites, and at present they call themselves, in Germany, Tauf- gesinnte ; in Holland, Doopsgezinden — corresponding very nearly to the English designation Baptists. This, besides being a more appropriate designation, avoids offensive association with the early Anabaptists. Menno expounded his principles in his Fundament- buche von dem rechten Christliehen Glaiibm, l. r i">6 (Elements of the True Christian Faith). Thi3 book is still an authority among the body, who lay particular stress on receiving the doctrines of the Scripture with simple faith, and acting strictly up to them, and set no value on learning and the scientific elaboration of doctrines. They reject the taking of oaths, war, every kind of revenge, divorce (except for adultery), infant baptism, and the undertaking of the office of magistrate ; magistracy, they hold to be an institu- tion necessary for the present, but foreign to the kingdom of Christ ; the church is the community of the saints, which must be kept pure by strict discipline. With regard to grace, they profess universalism, or hold it to be designed for all, and their views of the Lord's Supper fall in with those of Zwingli; in its celebration, the rite of feet- washing is retained. In Germany, Switzerland, and Alsace, their form of worship differs little from the Lutheran. Their bishops, elders, and teachers serve gratis. Children receive their name at birth, baptism is performed in the place of worship, and adidts that join the sect are rebaptiscd. But along with these general principles, there have been endless diversities and splits in the sect, occa- sioned by differences as to strictness of discipline. This cause divided the body, as early as 1554, into the Mild and the Strict Mennonites. The first are known by the title of Waterliinders, from a place in Holland ; the second split again into a multitude of subdivisions, according to minute shades of strictuess, and their several designations, derived from the names of leaders, places, and even peculi- arities of dress (John-Jacob Christians, Buttoners, Hook-and-eyc-ers, &c), bewilder the student of eccle- siastical history. The purity of their lives, however, commanded cwTywhere respect, and their industry made them prosperous ; so that they gradually secured formal toleration in many places. Almost the only split among the early continental Baptists on doctrinal grounds was that winch took place in Amsterdam in lGlil. Armimanism had not been without its influence, especially among the Waterliinders, originally more liberal in their views. A leading congregation accordingly divided into two parties, one (Galenists, from Galcnus, their leader) advocating freer views in doctrine and discipline ; the other (Apostoolists, from Samuel Apostool) adhering to absolute predestination and the discipline of Menno. The liberal party rejected creeds as of human invention, adopted much of the philosophy and theology of England, and exercised no little influence on the intellectual ' progress of Holland. These two parties gradually absorbed the other sections of the Baptists in the Netherlands ; and about the beginning of the nineteenth century, a union took place by which all the congregations now belong to one body. In Holland, there arc about 120 Baptist congregations. In Germany, the Baptists made some attempts in more recent times to extend their church, but without any great success. In 1852 there were in Germany 52 congregations, numbering about 3000 members, more than half of whom belong to Prussia. In that country, various concessions had been made to them early in this century, such as exemption from certain oaths and from military service. They are tolerated in Bavaria, Baden, Wiirtemberg, Meck- lenburg, Russia, France, and Denmark ; but were expelled from Sweden. Wherever they are settled, they are respected as quiet, industrious subjects ; but several German governments have lately imposed restrictions on their exercise of public worship. The reason assigned was the tendency to visionary enthusiasm that had again shewed itself in some congregations. As the representatives of the sect in Great Britain and North America have little or no historical con- nection with the earlier A. of the continent, they fall more properly to be noticed under Baptists. ANABA'SID^E, or LABYRINTHIBRANCH- ID;E, a family of Acanthopterygious Fishes, charac- terised by a remarkable structure of the upper membranes of the pharynx, which are divided into small irregular leaves, containing between them cellular reservoirs. These retain water sufficient to keep the gills moist for a considerable time, and so enable the fish to subsist out of water, and to travel some distance on dry ground ; some of the species, as the Climbing Perch (q. v.) of India (Anabas scandens), climbing steep banks, or even trees, by means of the spines of the fins, tail, and gill-covers. Opkiceplialus marginalus is often seen travelling among the grass in the beginning of the rainy season. The fishes of this family appear to leave the water for various reasons ; but very commonly, it would appear, upon account of the drying up of pools in periodical droughts, their peculiar organisation enabling them to go in search of others. They arc all fresh-water fishes, natives of the south-east of Asia, continent and islands, and of South Africa. The species are numerous, and are arranged under eleven genera. Some of them are much esteemed for their delicacy as food. ANABASIS (Greek), lit. rally, an ascent ■» a march out of a lower into a higher country— the name of two historical works : 1. The A. of i written by Xenophon, which gives a narrative of the unfortunate expedition of the Soungi r Cyrus against his brother, the Persian king Artaxerxee, and of the retreat of his 10,000 Greek allies under the com- mand of Xenophon ; 2. The A. of Alexander, written by Arrian, and giving an account of the campaigns of Alexander the Great. A'NABLEPS (from the Gr. anablcps,to look up), a genus of fishes of the order Malacopteryyii Abdomi- nals, family Cyprinidai of Cuvier — of the family ANACARDIACE.E— ANACHRONISM. Cyprinodontid i (q.v.J of Agassiz — characterised by a structure of the eyes to which there is nothing similar in any other vertebrated animals. This ta in a division of the cornea and iris into two ■hat unequal elliptical parts, by transverse bands formed of the conjunctiva (see Eye), so that the animal appears to have four eyes, and then are really two pupils on each side, the other parti of tin- eye being single. This peculiarity of structure is supposed to be connected with a habit which these are said to have of swimming with the eyes partly out of the water. They are elongated, scaly ashes, with llattisli rounded back, and depressed head. The young are brought forth alive, and in a state of considerable advancement. The best known species, A. telropthalmus, inhabits the rivers of Guiana and Surinam. AXACARDIA'CE/E (TnUEBINTACM of some botanists, and part of Tekebintace^e of others), a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, which abound in a resinous, sometimes acrid and poisonous juice. The leaves are alternate and without dots ; the flowers inconspicuous, usually unisexual. The calyx is generally small and persistent, and has generally five divisions ; the jietals are perigynous, equal in number to the segments of the calyx, imbricated in aestivation, occasionally wanting. The stamens are equal in number to the petals, and alternate with them, or twice as many, or more ; distinct when there is a fleshy disk, cohering at the base when the disk is wanting. The ovary is usually single, free or adhering to the calyx, 1 -celled; the styles 1, 3, or 4, occasionally wanting ; the ovule solitary, attached to the bottom of the cell by a cord. The fruit is usually a drupe, the seed exalbuminous. The order contains about 95 known species, chiefly but not exclusively tropical, amongst which are a consider- able number valuable for the resinous juices and varnishes which they yield, as the varnish of Sylhet, varnish of Martaban, Japan lacker, 4c, and others, which produce wholesome and pleasant fruits. See Cashew Not, 1'istacia, Mastic, Tubpkntihe Tree, Masco, Hog Plum. AN'ACA'RDIUM. See Cashew Nit. ANA'CHARIS, a genus of plants of the natural order 1 1 ' ydrocharidea (q. v.), of which a species, A. aUinastrum (jElodea Canadensis of some botanists), has recently become naturalised in Britain, suddenly appearing in so great abundance as to impede the naviga- tion of some rivers and canals. It is a native of North America, growing in ponds and slow streams ; and is a dark-green, much- branched perennial, entirely floating under water, its flowers only appearing above water for a very short time at the period of fertilis- ation, as in others of the order to which it belongs. It has numer- ous leaves, which are either opposite, or in whorls of three or four, without foot - stalks, 3 — 4 lines long. The sessile in the upper axils, small 2-lobcd spathe ; Anacharis Alsinastrum, linear-oblong, transparent, female flowers are and are enclosed 220 in a the slender tube of the perianth is often two or three inches long, so as to attain the surface of the water, where it terminates in three or six small spreading segments. The male flowers are sel do m observed. The plant was first found in Britain in 1842, by the late Dr Johnston of Berwick, in the lake of Dunse Castle ; and again in 1847 by Miss Kirby, in the reservoirs of a canal in Leicester- shire. It is now very abundant and troublesome in the Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. Its rapidity of "row th is extraordinary. Immense masses disfigure the shallows of the Trent, and cover the beds of the deeps. It strikes its shoots under the mud in a lateral direction for six inches or a foot, and then rises and spreads. The stems are very brittle, and every fragment is capable of growing, so that the means usually adopted to get quit of it serve rather for its propagation. It appears, however, that water- fowl are very fond of it ; and by them, probably, its seeds may be conveyed from one river to another. It has been found that swans may be fed upon it with advantage, and its excessive growth Kept down more effectually in this way than in any other. It is supposed to be a great impediment to the progress of salmon ascending the rivers in which it occurs ; but for Some kinds of fish, it probably affords both food and shelter. The manner of its introduction into Britain is unknown, although it has been con- jectured that it may have escaped from some garden- pond — a conjecture the more doubtful, from tho distance between the localities in which it was first found; but its rapid increase is of great scientific interest, in connection with the important subject of the distribution of species. As being calcidated to block up water-courses, the plant involves some serious economic considerations. ^ AXACHA'RSIS, a Scythian and brother of King Saulios, visited Athens in the time of Solon, with whom he lived on terms of intimacy, but whose abilities for framing a constitution he does not seem to have estimated highly. Incited by a love of learning, he subsequently travelled through several countries. On account of his clearness of under- standing, he was numbered among the seven wise men ; and many sagacious proverbs and sayings were ascribed to him. No other ' barbarian ' ever received the Athenian franchise, The letters which bear his name were written long after his time. It is said that, after his return to his native land, he was put to death by order of the king, who feared the introduction of the mysteries belonging to the Greek religion, in which it was supposed that A. had been initiated. Under the title, Voyage du Jeune Anacharxis en Oria (Travels of the young Anacharsis in Greece), Jean Jacques Barthelemy, a well-known French author (q. v.), wrote a description of Greek life and manners, displaying learning and good taste, but disfigured by many anachronisms. A. is made to visit Athens only a few years before the birth of Alexander the Great, and the features of several distinct periods in Grecian history are confusedly regarded as having been contemporaneous. The book, therefore, will not bear a critical examination ; but it has contributed its share towards an improved knowledge of ancient life, and has given rise to several similar works, such as the Gallus and Charides of Becker. The A. of Barthelemy has been translated into English, and is to be found in most old libraries; it is still a deservedly esteemed work, which may be read with advantage by the young. ANA'CHRONISM, an error in chronology. Sometimes an A. is purposely made for the sake of effect, or to bring certain events within convenient ANACREON-AN.E.STHESIA. compass for dramatic purposes. Shakspeare, in his Julius Ccesar, makes the ' clock ' strike three ; and Schiller, in his Piccolomini, speaks of a 'lightning- conductor' as existing about 150 years before the date of its invention. These discrepancies, however, do not seriously injure the general truth of a poetical work. The A. is more offensive when, in a work which pedantically adheres to the costumes and other external features of old times, we find a modern style of thought and language, as in the old French dramas of Corneille and Racine. In popular epic poetry, A. is a common feature. Achilles is always young ; Helena, always beautiful. In their versions of old classic traditions, the writers of the middle ages converted Alexander, ^Eneas, and other ancient heroes, into good Christian knights of the 12th c. In the Nibehmgen-lied, Attila and Theodoric are good friends and allies, though the latter began to same 40 years after the former. At the end of the poem, the heroine, who must have been nearly sixty years old, and had passed through great affliction and sorrow, is still 'the beautiful Queen Kriemhild.' — Many ludicrous examples of A. may be found in old paintings — e.g., Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in modern costumes. .ANA'CREON, one of the most esteemed lyric of Greece, was born at Teos, a seaport of Ionia, spent part of his youth in Abdera, to which place most of his fellow-townsmen emigrated when the city was taken by the Persians in 540 B.C., and rose- to fame as a poet about 530 B.C. He was patron- ised by Polycrates, the ruler of Samo3, who invited him to his court; and there he sang, in light and flowing strains, the praise of wine and beauty. After the death of Polycrates, he went to Athens (521 B. C), and was received with distinguished honour by Hip- parchus. On the fall of Hipparchus, he left Athens, and probably returned to Teos, from which, during the insurrection of Ionia against Darius, he fled to Abdera, where he died, at the age of 85. Accord- ing to tradition, he was choked by a dried grape. Great honours were paid to him after his death ; Teos put his likeness upon its coins, and a statue was raised to him on the Acropolis of Athens, which represented him in a state of vinous hilarity. Only a few of his poems have been preserved. Of five Books which once existed, only 68 lyrics now exist which bear his name ; but of these, compara- tively few are to be confidently regarded as genuine. They exhibit great simplicity and delicacy of expression, fertility of invention, and variety of illustration. Moore, a poet of congenial spirit, trans- lated the Odes of A. into English verse. ANACY'CLUS. Sec Pellitory of Spaix. ANADYO'MENE ('emerging'), one of the names of Venus ; a painting by Apelles, representing Venus rising from the sea, and wringing her flowing wet hair. Fhryne or Pancaste was supposed to have supplied the model for this master-piece of Apelles. The inhabitants of the island of Cos bought the picture, and placed it in the temple of ^Esculapius. Augustas afterwards bought it for 100 talents of remitted taxes, and placed it in the temple of Venus Genctrix. It is frequently described iu the Greek anthology. AN.E'MIA (from a, privative, and aima, blood) is the condition generally termed poverty of blood, and consists essentially of a diminution in the fibrine, and especially in the proportion of red corpuscles of the blood (see Blood), which in some cases of A. may be so low as 27 in 1000 parts. Persons in an anxmic condition have pale waxy complexions, pallid lips and tongues, and if blood be drawn from them, it forms a clot which is less red, and also smaller in proportion to the serum, than blood from a healthy person. They suffer from palpitations, fainting, and head- aches, sin.ing in the ears, and disturbed vision; and the symptoms may simulate organic disease within the head or of the heart. This A. condition may be induced by repeated losses of blood, or by defective nutrition, or by some cause, as in chlorosis, when the balance is disturbed between the loss and reproduction of the red corpuscles. The curative treatment of A. consists in allowing the patient fresh air, good nourishment, and those materials which promote the formation of the defi- cient elements of the vital fluid. Of these, the prin- cipal is iron, of which there are several preparations. This remedy has, in some instances of chlorosis, doubled the proportion of red blood corpuscles in a very short time. ANjESTHE'SIA (a, privative, and niaOtfsill. sensa- tion) is a term used to express a loss of sensibility to external impressions, which may involve a part or the whole surface of the body. In some diseased con- ditions of the nervous centres, a part of the body may become totally insensible to pain, while in another part, sensation may be unnaturally acute, or be in a state of hyperesthesia. When a nerve is divided, the parts which it supplies lose their sensation ; and in some diseases, as the elephantiasis graxorum, a loss of sensation in patches of the skin is an early and characteristic symptom. This insensibility to external impressions may be either periplural — that is, on the surface of the body — or central, that is, from a cause acting primarily upon the brain or spinal cord ; and some means of temporarily inducing either of these has always been earnestly sought by surgical practitioners. In ancient writers, we read of insensibility or indifference to pain being obtained by means of the Indian hemp (Canabus Tndica), either inhaled fir taken into the stomach. The Chinese, more than 1500 years ago, used a preparation of hemp, or ma-yo, to annul the pain attendant upon cauterisa- tion and surgical operations. Probably, they used the hemp by inhalation. The Greeks and Romans used mandragora for a similar purpose (poiein anaisOtisian) ; and as late as the 13th c, the vapour from a sponge filled with mandragora, opium, and other sedatives was used. The mandragora, however, occasionally induced convulsions, with other alarming symptoms ; and though Bulleyn, an English author (1579), mentions the possibility of putting patienta who were to be cut for the stone into ' a trance or a deepe terrible dreame ' by its use, it gradually became obsolete and banished from the pharma- copoeia ; and although it is probable that surgeons occasionally endeavoured to procure A. for their patients, there was no one means of doing so in general use. John Baptista Porta, of Naples, in his work on Natural Magic (1597), speaks of a quint- essence extracted from medicines by somniferous menstrua, the nature of which he does not mention. This was kept in leaden vessels, perfectly closed, lest the aura should escape, for the medicine would vanish away. ' When it is used, the cover being removed, it is applied to the nostrils of the sleeper, who draws in the most subtile power of the vapour by smelling, and so blocks up the fortress of the senses, that he is plunged into the most profound sleep, and cannot oe roused without the greatest effort. .... These things arc plain to the skilfid physician, but unintelligible to the wicked.' Dr ■Snow BOggestB that the evanescent substance was sulphuric ether, which had been described more than fifty years before. In 17S4, Dr Moore, of London, used compression on the nerves of a Limb requiring amputation, but this method was in itself productive 221 ANAGALLIS— ANAHUAC. of much pain. In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experi- menting with the nitrous oxido or laughing-gas, ii jested its usefulness as an anaesthetic; and m 1.S2S, Hi- Hirkman suggested carbonic add gas. As early as 1795, Dr Pearson had used the vapour of sulphuric ether for the relief of spasmodic •flections of the respiration. The fact that sulphuric ether could produce insensibility was shewn by the American physicians, Godwin (1822), Mitchell (1832), Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834) ; but it was first used to prevent the pain of an operation in 1846, by Dr Morton, a dentist of Boston. The news of his success reached England on 17th December 1846 ; on the 19th, Mr Robinson, a dentist, and Mr Liston, the eminent surgeon, operated on patients rendered insensible by the inhalation of the sulphuric ether. This material was extensively used for a year, when Dr J. Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, discovered the anaesthetic powers of Chloroform (see Chloroform), and introduced the use of it into his own department, midwifery. Since that time, chloroform has been the anaesthetic in general use. Nothing could be more desirable than the power of producing local A. ; but as yet no efficient and satisfactory agent has been discovered. Dr Arnott has indeed shewn that the application of a freezing mixture of ice and salt can render a part insensible to the surgeon's knife; and for dentistry, Mr Morrison, of Edinburgh, has lately introduced an apparatus by which a current of air, at a very low temperature, can be applied to the gum. But the pain of the application is often found little less than that which it is intended to prevent. From various causes, and especially the well-merited confidence of the public in its safety, when skilfully employed, chloroform continues to occupy its high place as one of the greatest blessings granted to man. It is proper, however, to say that it requires to be used under certain precautions, and that in unskilful hands its application may bo fatal. It should be administered only by expert practitioners. See On Chloroform and other A nasthetics, by John Snow, Lond. 1858 ; The Obstetric Memoirs and Con- tributions of Jame3 Y. Simpson, Edin. 1855 ; also an article on Anaesthesia in the Westminsl' Jan. 1859. ANAGALLIS. See Pimpernel. A'NAGRAM (fromtheGreek ana, backwards, and gramma, writing), the transposition of the letters of a word, phrase, or short sentence, so as to form a new word or sentence. It originally signified a simple reversal of the order of letters, but nas long borne the sense in which it is now used. The Cabalists attached great importance to anagrams, believing in some relation of them to the character or destiny of the persons from whose names they were formed. Plato entertained a similar notion, and the later Platonists rivalled the Cabalists in ascribing to them mysterious virtues. Although now classed among follies, or at best among ingeni- ous trifles, anagrams formerly employed the most serious minds, and some of the puritanical writers commended the use of them. Cotton Mather, in his elegy on the death of John Wilson, the first pastor of Boston, in New England, mentions His care to guide bis flock and feed his lambs By words, works, prayers, psalms, alms, and anagrams. The best anagrams are such as have, in the new order of letters, some signification appropriate to that from which they are formed. It was a great triumph of the mediaeval anagrammatist to find in Pilate's question, ' Quid est Veritas ? ' (What is truth ?) its own answer: ' Est vir qui adest' (It is the man who is here). Anagrams, in the days of their popu- larity, were much employed, both for complimentary and for satirical purposes ; and a little straining was often employed in the omission, addition, or altera- tion of letters, although, of course, the merit of an A. depended much upon its accuracy. I. D'Israeli {Curiosities of Literature, vol. iii.) has a chapter on anagrams, which, as an exercise of ingenuity, he ranks far above acrostics. Among a great many considered by him worthy of record, are the following : The mistress of Charles IX. of France was named Marie Touchet; this becamo le charme tout (I charm every one), ' which is historically just.' The flatterers of James I. of England proved his right to the British monarchy, as the descendant of the mythical King Arthur, from his name Charles James Stuart, which becomes Claims Arthur's Seal. An author, in dedicating a book to the same monarch, finds that in James Stuart he has a just master. ' But, perhaps, the happiest of anagrams was produced on a singular person and occasion. Lady Eleanor Davies, the wife of the celebrated Sir John Davies, the poet, was a very extraordinary character. She was the Cassandra of her age, and several of her predictions warranted her to conceive she was a prophetess. As her prophecies in the troubled times of Charles I. were usually against the government, she was at length brought by them into the Court of High Commission. The prophetess was not a little mad, and fancied the spirit of Daniel was in her, from an A. she had formed of her name, Eleanor Daviks. lineal, Daniel! The A. had too much by an I, and too little by an «; yet Daniel and reveal were in it, and that was sufficient to satisfy her inspirations. The court attempted to dispossess the spirit from the lady, while the bishops were in vain reasoning the point with her out of the Scriptures, to no purpose, she poising text against text : one of the deans of the arches, says Heylin, shot her through and through with an arrow borrowed from her own quiver ; he took a pen, and at last hit upon this excellent A. : Dame Eleanor Davies. Acvcr so mad a Ladie ! The happy fancy put the solemn court into laughter, and Cassandra into the utmost dejection of spirit. Foiled by her own weapons, her spirit suddenly forsook her ; and either she never afterwards ventured on prophesying, or the A. perpetually reminded her hearers of her state — and we hear no more of this prophetess.' On a visit to King's Newton Hall, in Derbyshire, Charles II. is said to have left written on one of the windows, Cras ero lux (To-morrow I shall be light), which is the A. of Carolus Hex. ANAHUA'C, a Mexican term, said to signify ' near the water.' Its application is vague in the extreme. It is either a plateau or a ridge. As a ridge, again it oscillates between the continuation of the Kocky Mountains, below lat. 40° N., and that branch of the chain which runs nearly parallel to the upper course of the Bio Bravo del Norte ; and as a plateau, it designates either the whole of the table-land of Mexico or certain portions thereof, more or less extensive, with the capital as a common centre. Practically, if one acceptation is more generally admitted than another, A. may be re- garded as the largest of those plateaus — a defini- tion which, with reference to the number of lakes, seems more peculiarly to suit the etymology of the word. See further, Cordilleras op Central America — a description which, for want of a briefer and better one, may be made to embrace all that less regular section of the backbone of America which lies between the simple formations of the AN AKIM— ANALOGY. Andes to the south and the Rocky Mountains to the north. A'NAKIM, a gigantic race of people, whose stronghold was Kirjath-arba, in the south of Pales- tine. In the opinion of some biblical critics, they were not Canaanites, as they are not included in the list of devoted nations ; others, again, con- clude from the fact that invariably mention is made only of three individuals or families, that the name is appellative rather than gentile, and that the A were merely particular tribes of the wide-spread and powerful Amorites, distinguished for their unusual stature. Be that as it may, the Israelites considered them too dangerous for neighbours, and consequently subjected them to the same stern treatment as the rest. It was the A. whose appearance so terrified the Hebrew spies who entered the Land of Promise from Kadesh-barnea. Those who escaped the sword of Joshua fled to the country of the Philistines; and it has been conjectured that Goliath and the other Philistine giants were their descendants ; a supposition probable enough, when we reflect that the particular places in which the fugitive A. took refuge were Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. The word Anak means a necklace or neck-chain ; and some have supposed that these giants received that name from the circumstance of their wearing such orna- ments proudly round their necks ; others translate the word A by ' long-necked men,' or men with long-stretched necks, i. e., men of great height. The A, nowever, in all probability, immediately derived their name from Anak, the son of Arba. ANAKOLU'THOX is a term employed both in Grammar and Rhetoric, to denote the absence of strict logical sequence in the grammatical construc- tion. Good writers sometimes sacrifice this logical sequence to emphasis, clearness, or graceful arrange- ment. In colloquial speech, nothing is more com- mon than examples of A. ANAL GLANDS. Under this name may be described a large and diversified group of glands, found in many animals, and generally characterised by the disagreeable odour of their secretion. Those to which the name most strictly belongs are of fre- quent occurrence among carnivora and rodents; they consist of follicles which pour their secretion into sacs with muscular walls and narrow orifices, placed one on each side of the anus. According to the most recent investigations, it appears that these sacs are to be considered as prolongations inwards of the common integument, and that two sorts of glands open into them ; one of a lobulated struc- ture, having a fatty secretion, and representing the sebaceous glands of the skin greatly hypertrophied ; the other crowded more at the bottom of the sac, tulmlar, and elaborating the specific secretion. In the hyasna, there is a single sac, which opens by a transverse fissure above the vent There is a gra- dual passage from true A G. to others of a somewhat different character. Thus, there are glands called inguinal in the hare and rabbit — little bare places pouring out an unctuous secretion, which are held to be equivalent to A. G., only not enclosed in sacs. The civet cat has an anal sac on each side of the vent ; and also two other sacs opening by a common outlet in front of the vent ; and from the latter is derived the substance known as civet, which the negroes seek for on the trees where it has been left by the civet cats. The civet gland furnishes a natural link between the A G. and those more closely connected with the genital apertures, called preputial. The most remark- able are those of the beaver, large sacs found both in the male and female, and which furnish the castoreum of commerce. The beaver has true A. G. besides. The sac which contains the musk of the musk-deer lies in the middle line beneath the skin of the abdomen, and opens at the prepuce. The secretion peculiar to badgers, polecats, and skunks, and which they use as an instrument of defence, shielding themselves from their adversaries by an overpowering and intolerable odour, cornea from a pouch situated beneath the tail. In some animals, we meet with secretions similar to some of the above, poured out on other parts of the body. Thus, in the bat there are glands on the face opening above the mouth, which prepare a fetid oily secre- tion ; the so-called lachrymal follicles of ruminants, and the cutaneous glands of the tail of the deer secrete a dark unctuous humour ; and the temporal gland between the eye and the ear of the elephant pours out an oily substance at rutting-time. The peccary has an odoriferous gland on its back ; and the crocodile has a musk-sac under the lower jaw. Anal sacs opening immediately behind the vent are also found in the crocodile and in many serpents. ANALOGUE, a term in Comparative Anatomy. Organs are analogous to one another, or are analogues, when they perform the same function, though they may be altogether different in structure ; as the wings of a bird, and the so-called wings of the flying lizard. Organs, again, are homologous, or homologues, when they are corresponding parts in the skeleton, however different their form and function. Thus, the arms of a man, the pectoral fins of a fish, and the "wings of a bird, are homologues of one another. See Homology. ANA'LOGY, a term originally Greek, and which signifies an agreement or correspondence in certain respects between things in other respects differ- ent Euclid employed it to signify proportion, or the equality of ratios, and it has retained tlus sense in mathematics ; but it is a term little used in the exact sciences, and of very fre- quent use in every other department of knowledge and of human affairs. In Grammar, we speak of the A of language, i. e., the correspondence of a word or phrase with the genius of the language, as learned from the manner in which its words and phrases are ordinarily formed. A., in fact, supposes a rule inferred from observation of instances, and upon the application of which, in other instances not pre- cisely, but in some respects, similar, we venture, with more or less confidence, according to the degree of ascertained similarity, and according to the extent of observation from which our knowledge of the ride has been derived. The opposite to A. is Anomaly (Gr. irregularity) ; and this term is used not only in Grammar, but with reference to objects of Natural History which in any respect are excep- tions to the ordinary rule of their class or kind In the progress of science, analogies have been dis- covered pervading all nature, and upon which con- clusions are often based with great confidence and safety. Reasoning from A indeed warrants only probable conclusions ; but the probability may become of a very high degree, and in the affairs of life we must often act upon conclusions thus attained. Reasoning from A., however, requires much caution in the reasoncr. Yet even when its conclusions are very uncertain, they often serve to guide inquiry and lead to discovery. Many of the most brilliant discoveries recently made in Natural Science were the result of investigations thus directed. Where the proper evidence of truth is of another kind, arguments from A. are often of great use for the removal of objections. It is thus that they are employed by Bishop Butler in his A. of H-ligion, 223 ANALYSIS. Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and of Nature. In Law, reasoning from A. must often, to a certain extent, lie admitted in t )i. • appli- cation of statutes to particular cases. Upon similar reasoning the practice of medicine very much depends. To discover the meaning of any composi- tion, it is also often necessary; the sense of the author in a passage somewhat obscure being in some measure determined according to passages in which he has expressed himself more clearly. The appli- cation of this rule to the interpretation of Scripture is a point "f difference between Protestants and Roman Catholics, the latter insisting upon tin- interpretation of difficult passages by ecclesiastical tradition and authority. The extension of it to the whole Scriptures, however, depends upon the admis- sion of their inspiration ; but this, when fully admitted, warrants a more confident use of analogi- cal reasoning than in the case of the works, or c Yen of a single work, of an uninspired author. Protest- ant theologians have very generally employed, with reference to this rule of interpretation, the phrase 'A. of Faith,' deriving it from Rom. xii. ; but the in. aning of the expression in that verse is disputed. However, the reality of an A. of faith, and the right of reasoning from it, are not affected by any criticism on that verse. ANA'LYSIS (Or.), the resolution of a whole into its component parts. In mental philosophy, this term is applied to the logical treatment of an idea so as to resolve it into other ideas which combine to form it. A judgment or proposition may thus also be analysed. The opposite of A. is Synthesis [q. v.) ; and the opposition of these terms is common in other branches of science as well as in mental philos- ophy. We speak of an analytic method in science, and of a synthetic method : and both are necessary, the one coming to the assistance of the other to secure against error, and promote the ascertainment of truth. The analytic method proceeds from the examination of facts to the determination of prin- ciples ; whilst the synthetic method proceeds to the determination of consequences from principles known or assumed. The test of perfection in a theory is the harmony of the results obtained by the methods of A. and synthesis. Mathematical A., in the modern sense of the term, is the method of treating all quantities as unknown numbers, and representing them for this purpose by symbols, such as letters, the relations subsisting among them being thus stated and subjected to further investigation. It is therefore the same thing with Algebra, in the widest sense of that term, although the term algebra is more strictly limited to what relates to equations, and thus denotes only the first part of A. The second part of it, or A. more strictly so called, is divided into the A. of Finite Quantities, and the A. of Infinite Quantities. To the former, also called the Theory of Functions, belong the subjects of Series, Logarithms, Curves, Ac. The A. of Infinites comprehends the Differential Calculus, the Integral Calculus, and the Calculus of Variations. To the diligent prosecution of mathematical A. by minds of the greatest acuteness, is to be ascribed the great progress both of pure and applied mathematics within the last two centuries. The A. of the ancient mathematicians was a thing entirely different from this, and consisted simply in the application of the analytic method as opposed to tie- synthetic, to the solution of geometrical questions. That which was to be proved being in the first place assumed, an inquiry was instituted into those things upon which it depended, and thus the investi- gation proceeded, as it were, back, until something was reached which was already ascertained, and from which the new proposition might be seen by necessary consequence to flow. A reversal of the steps of the inquiry now gave the synthetical proof of the proposition. The modern mathematical A. affords a much more easy and rapid means of solving geometrical questions; but the ancient A. also afforded opportunity for the exercise of much acute- ness, and was the chief instrument of the advance- ment of mathematical science until comparatively recent times. The invention of it is ascribed to Plato ; but of the works of the ancients on geometri- cal A. none are extant, except some portions of those of Euclid, Apollonius of Perga, and Archimedes. ANALYSIS, in Chemistry, is the term applied to that department of experimental science which has for its object the chemical disunion or separation of the constituents of a compound substance : thus, the resolution of water into its components hydro- gen and oxygen; of common salt into chlorine and sodium; of marble into lime and carbonic acid; of rust into iron and oxygen; of sugar into carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; and of chloroform into carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine — are all examples of chemical A. This department of chemistry, therefore, takes cognizance of the breaking down of the more complex or compound substances into their more simple and elementary constituents, and is antagonistic to chemical synthesis, which treats of the union of the more simple or elementary bodies to produce the more complex or compound. Chemi- cal A. is of two kinds: Qualitative A., which deter- mines the quality or nature of the ingredients of a compound, without regard to the quantity of each which may be present; and i/ua>itilative A., which calls in the aid of the balance or measure, and estimates the exact proportion, by weight or volume, in which the several constituents are united. Thus, qualitative A. informs us what water, marble, com- mon salt, &c, are composed of ; but it remains for quantitative A. to tell us that water consists of 1 part of hydrogen by weight united with 8 parts of oxygen; that marble is composed of 28 parts of lime, and 22 of carbonic acid ; common salt, of 354 parts of chlorine, and 23 of sodium ; turpentine, of 30 carbon, and 4 hydrogen ; chloroform, of 12 carbon, 1 hydrogen, and 1061 chlorine. The divisions of inorganic (mineral) chemistry and organic (vegetable and animal) chemistry have led to a corresponding classification of chemical A. into inorganic A., comprehending the processes fol- lowed and the results obtained in the investigation of the atmosphere, water, soils, and rocks ; and organic A., treating of the modes of isolation, and the nature, of the ingredients found in or derived from organised structures — viz., plants and animals. Both departments afford examples of what are called proximate and ultimate A. Proximate A. is the reso- lution of a compound substance into components which are themselves compound : thus, in inorganic chemistry, marble is resolved into lime (calcium united with oxygen) and carbonic acid (carbon with oxygen) ; whilst ultimate A. comprehends the disunion of a compound into its elements or the simplest forms of matter: thus, lime into calcium and oxygen ; carbonic acid into carbon and oxygen ; water into hydrogen and oxygen. Organic chem- istry affords still better examples of each class : thus, ordinary wheat-flour, when subjected to proxi- mate A., yields, as its proximate components, gluten (vegetable fibrin), albumen, starch, sugar, gum, oil, and saline matter; but each of these proximate ingredients is in itself compound, and when they undergo ultimate A., the gluten and albumen yield, as their ultimate elements or constituents, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus ; and the starch, sugar, gum, and oil are found built up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. A NAM— AX A ST 8 rveral other! inns are in use in chemical treatises : thus, Oat A. i I applii ■ I t' < the processes employed in of the various gases, and is every day becoming of more and more importance and A. includes the smelting of metallic ores, ti .' gold, silvi and. in general, i ig that pertains to the ultimate A. of metallic • ■< and compound tural A. is p jtricl id i p the examination of manures, 1 soils ; Medical or /'/ and i ither animal fluids and juic - and I a .tion of mi - ; whilst ' I A. is the used where great accuracy or nicety of detail is [tared in an A., but where the commercially are determined, as the I >hates, amiiM: Ikaline salts in a sample of guano; ital amount of saline matter in a certain water; the iron in an iron.-iti.in-, the lime in a limestone, &c. A -. sr.v'i n u. ( 'iir.Mi-n:v is that department of chemistry which tikes cognizance of analyses. The analyl >me peculiar apparatus, together with rea ly solutions, by the addition or reaction of which the nature and amount of the ingredients of a compound are determined. AXA'.M, a feudatory dependency of China, in the portion of Further India, comprising, from the Celestial Empire southwards, Tonquin, Cochin China, and part of Cambodia. It lies between lat. 90° and 23 X.. and t> tween long. 102° and 109° E. It3 about 98,000 square miles — considerably more than that of Great Britain ; while its population mated at 5,000,000, all Buddhists, es what is singular enough, about 400,000 Christians. The inhabitant-', howe v er, are not noted for the earnestness of their religious feelings. Their sense of the supernatural manifests itself principally in nee for the dead, whose obsequi I with great splendour. The Anamese lan- guage resembles the Chinese. It is monosyllabic rah, and contains no literature. Whatever of found in A. is borrowed from their 'Celestial' kinsmen in the north. They have a maritime taste, eel in ship-building. The king himself seems p them busy in this way, for, besides having 800 war-craft, he monopolises, by means of 1 Is, the fore of his dominions. The climate is said t^ ! ous, and the soil to be productive— features which, combined as tie with some of the best harbours in the world, reconi- A. alike for commerce and for colonisation. France appears to appreciate, for it is at this moment making its third attempt to j an ascendency in the country, the first havii made as far back as the days of Louis XVI. AN'AMIllTA. See COCCDLDS) I AXA'XAS. E :-le. A X All 1 ilV (from the Cr. a, privative, and arch?, government), the state of society without any regular government) when a country is torn by the I 00 law or authority r Complete A. is n iceesarily rare and of short dura- i . but conditions approaching to it oft- n after revolutions and abuses in government ; and in sueh cas is it is apt to become, as in thi American , a chronic nr permanent evil, attend I tint national d AXARUHICHAS. See Woi.f nsit. A'NAS, a Liimsean genus of bird ' 1 in the order / ' I '■'. ited bird of Cuvier, and divided by n » at ornithologists into a number of genera; one of whi eg the name A., contains the true Ducks, and others c 14 the Sin Scoters [Oid Garrets I , ,■,, shards Hers (AV Shiekttakes ('/'././ 1 vt) and Flamingo the family.' ,ts. Cuvier places them in a family called by ! and d 1 by a thick bill, horny only at the nail-like extremity, and i iwith asoft skin, thi or with small teeth parte id from the mud , often taken into the bill along with it. The lamin i bill, are the chief cha of the old genus A. 8 ducks, sub- sist in great part on small insects; otic and swans, almost exclusively on food, are very numerei d over all parts of the world, some of them very abundant in the polai are important for their feathers or down, others for their flesh and lor their c i domesticated, and are commonly kept for economic uses. .See Du< k, Goose, Swan, Eider, Babnacub, Teal, &c. AXASTA'Sirs I., Patriarch of Constantinople, born in the Becond half of the 7th c He favoured the party of iconoclasts, or image-breakers. He owed his eli ration to t 1 i Leon, who exacted from him a pledge that he would assist in traction of the images. A. kept his word; but having made himself obnoxious to the new emperor, Constantino Copronymus, the latter (743) him, put out his eyes, and marched him I the hippodrome (race-course) mounted on an i his head to the taiL He died in 753. AXASTASH'S. Saint, surnamed i born in 954, and dud in 1044 A Frenchman by birth, he finally r various changes, at the court of n, Duke of Hungary, where he became very influential, and was intrusted with the ccclesie itdon of tie- land. All his energies v. i airing the triumph of the Christian faith. AXASTASH'S I. v ■ I pope, or rather bishop of Rome, in 39S icceeded Siricius, r after the death of Ambrose. Under his pontificate, flourished Chrysostom, Augustine, and Jerome. The most conspicuous act of his life was the reconciliation of the church of Antioch with that of Borne, after a schism of 17 years. Among the attributed t-> A., two are obviously apocrypha] ; the one addn sa d to Nere- nianus; the other, to the German bishops. The lath i- comm faithful to remam stand- ing while thi I read in the churches, that neophytes should only on the recommendation of live bishops, and that the Mani- chieans, who had b I Eroi i !'■ me, should admitted into Germany. But the first of these epistles is posterior to the death of A., and the second, anterior to his accession to the pontificate. A. was vehemently op] 1 to the di l, one of whose work * (Peri Arch in, Le., ' .i aed as heretical. For this, he i - who calls him a man of a holy life, and of an apostol: ' coun- ■ ■ b ild, atCartb I tinonle,] and Toll lo. He died D ■. 1!. 401 A.D. 1 I II. (4!Hi 498), A\en.ii, 01 (911—913), ANA-TA-irs IV. (1153- I ANASTASIUS [., em] ror of the East, was born in 430 a. v., at Dyrrachium, in Epirus, of an ANASTATIC PRINTING ANATOLIA. family. The early portion of his life is . i bo history. On the death of Z prod i nap tat by the senate, and drowned on 1 491, at the age of 60. He or elevation to Ari •■•• of Zeno, whom he married. No monarch was ever more notable for icsies. One of his generals, Vitalian, taking advantage of this unpopular feature of his character, l Thrace, Scythia. and Mo to promi- the ortho- dox bishops whom he hail banish. ■.: himself the title of Governor of Thi ■.1 some good natural at 1 per aed certain praiseworthy actions. Be ne] and degrading spectaolee wher ; . abolished the sale of offio b, the ondoi lestio animals, whi. b days ii 'ii, built a wall on side of i pie to defend it from I ions of the barbarians, constructed aqueducts in the i Hi. rapolis, made a harbour at CsBsarea, and r the 'pharos' or light-house at Alexandria. 1 1 8th July 51S.— Anastasus II., emperor of the .in about the middle of the 7th c, and , 719 A.B. His great aim was to n peace to the church, but his measures led to his deposition. ANASTATIC PRINTING. ANASTATICA. See ROSE OF •! I RICH». ANASTOMOSIS (Gr. the making of a i or opening), an anatomical term used to i the union of the vessels which carry blood or fluids, and also, for convi nience' Bake, the junction of nerves. The veins and to form large single trunks, as they approach ultimate destinations. The arteries break up into small branches, for the supply of the tissues, and mall vessel, again, communicates with others given off above and below. / joint there is very free A., so that ( afety of the limb beyond may not vs. be entirely dependent on the art rial trunk past ing into it, e fc is to all tl .■ ' tractive influences ' of the different motions of the limb. After the main artery has been perma- )\ nently obstructed, the anastomosil sels enlarge, so as to compi nsate for the ut after a time, only those whose course most resembles the parent trunk continue enlarged, and the others gradu- ally regain their ordinary dimensions. An idea of the profusion oi I IfS 1 - mosing system may be formed from the * fact, that if the mnominata art great vessel destined for the supply of the right upper half of the body, I and those on the left side injected with size and vermilion, the injection will flow freely into the arteries of tb arm, through branches as minute as they arc numerous. (Gr., '■ or hung up or anastomos- ing. ANA'TIIE.UA apart — i. c., as con ■ ly sig- nifying some offering or gift to Deity, generally sus- pended in the temple. Thus, we read in Luke xxL 5, that the temple was adorned 'with goodly stones and gifts' {anathemas}). It also Bigmfies a sacrifice to God; and, as the animals devoted to be sacrificed could not be redeemi .1 from death, the was ultimately used in its strongest sense, implying eternal perdition, as in Horn. IX 3; Gal. i id 9; and other places. In the Catholic Church, from the 9th c, a distinction has been made between excommunication and anathematising; the latter 3S6 I lie extrcmo form of denunciation against iders. The synod oi I .; . i i. m n:.o, nod that all tran jree on who refused to submit to di oipline, such as penance, should bo not merely excommunicated, but anathematised, and deprived of every kind of Christian hop., and inn. Such a sentence coidd not be pro- I without the concurrence of the provincial with their metropolitan. See ExOOMMl -i- ANATO'LTA (dr. Anatolc, tb .. from intinople) is the modern nam hlinor; Turkish, Anadoli. It may be cm il.-i ; the bouiidarj line on the east between it and Armenia and Mesopotam natural, cannot be well defined. Thi of the peninsula exceeds 20(1,(1110 eqv ■ i ' It constitutes the western prolongation of the lile-land of Armenia, with its border moun- inges. The interior consists of a great pi or, rather series of plateaus, rising in gradation from •J 100 to 5000 feet, with bare steppes, salt plains, marshes, and lakes; the structure is volcanic, and there are several conical mountains, one of which, b (ArgffiUS), with two craters, rises 10,000 i .hove the plain of Kaisarijeli, which ha i of 1 i 2000 and 3000 feet. The plateau is bordered on the north by a long train of parallel mountains, varying from 4000 to linoo IV t 1 1 t up into groups by cross valleys. These bains sink abruptly down on the north a narrow strip of coast; their slopes towards the ! '• and bare of wood. Similar is the :.!■ oi the border ranges on the south, the it, Taurus, only that they are more continuous and hi , to the north of the Bay of Skan- .1' run or [SSUS, 10 — 12,000 feet, and further to the s— 9000 feet. The west bord rsected by num. rous valleys, opening upon the Archi] ii the highlands of the ancient ('aria, Lydia, and Mysia, to the northern part of which M i Olympus belong. Between the highli i i lie the fertile coast-lands oi tl vers of A. are not considerable; the lai hi] Irmak (Iris), the Kisil lrin.ik ( I and the Sakkarial rius), flowing in Black Sea; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and Minder (Meander) into the iEgean. The dirnaie wears on the whole a south-Kin character; but a distinction must be made of four The central plateau, nearly destitute of (TOO 1 and water, has a not climate in summer, and a cold in winter; the south coast has mild win orching summers; while on the coast of the ■n I here is the mildest of climates and a d Scent vegetation. On the north side, the climate is not so mild, nor the productions of so tropical a kind as on the west; yet the vegetation is most luxuriant, and a D i trtful or richer tract than the coast from the Sea of Marmora to Trebizond, is hardly to be found. The whole peninsula, however, is liable to earthquakes. I i point of natural history, A. forms the transi- tion from the continental character of the I iritime character of the West. The forest- trees and cultivated plants of Europe are seen d with the forms peculiar to the East. 'The I plateau, which is barren, except where thi re i means of irrigation, has the character of an ■ steppe, more adapted f or the flocks and herds of nomadic tribes than for agriculture ; while the coasts, rich in all European products, fine fruits, olives, wine, and silk, have quite the character of the south of Europe, which on the wanner and drier south coast shades into that of Africa. The inhabitants consist of the most various races. ANATOMY. Iha dominant race are the Osmanli Turks, who number about 1,200,000, and arc spread over the country; next to these come the Turkoi nig to the same stock, ami speaking a i of the im These are found chiefly on the table-land, leading a nomadic life: !;>.<■ liordes of nomadic Kurds. Among the moun- tains east of Trebizond are the robber tribes of the ! The population of the towns, in addition to Turks, consists, in the west, chiefly of Greeks and Jews ; and in the east, of Armenians ; the non- Turkish population, along with Europeans in the maritime marts, have the whole commerce of the country in their hands. The whole populal i the peninsula is supposed not to exceed 5,000,000 ; 1 of lS44madc it 10,700,000, ii ing Armenia; but this is thought to be much over- I. The political and social arrangements itch as in the rest of Turkey (q. v.). One peculiarity is the old Turkish system of vassal- dynasties, the Dere-hegs (valley chi .':-;), who, like the feudal lords of the middle ages in Europe, are heri ditary riders and military commanders of their district, under the suzerainty of the sultan. This institution is in greatest force in the north-east of ninsula. The power of these feudal chiefs, however, was broken by Sultan Mahmml. The whole country is divided at present int l or governments, under governors-] ■, again, into several a provinces, under lieutenant-governors. The eyalets are : 1. Khudavendkiar, in the north-west, including ancient Mysia, the west part of Bitbynia, and part of Phrygia; chief town Brussa: '_'. Kastamuni, occupying the middle of the north coast, including ancient l'aphlagonia, the east of Bithynia, and part of l'outus ; chief town, Kastamuni : 3. Tarabosan or Trabezun (Trebizond), the ancient Pontua and Col- chis; capital, Trebizond: 4. Aidin, in the south- the ancient Lydia, ('aria, and Phrygia; capital, or Smyrna: 5. Karaman (Karainania), cast- ward from Aidin, the ancient Lycia, Pamphylia, I i, Lycaonia, and part of Cilicia ; chiel I Kc.niih (iconium): 6. Adana, comprehendii] rest of CUicia, Kataonia, and part of I chief town, Adana : 7. Bosok, the central part of ii insula, ancient (Jappadocia and Galatia, chief town, Bngori or Angora : 8. Sivas, east from Bosok, embracing parts of Pontus and Little Armenia; chief town, Sivas. ANATOMY (Gr.,a cutting up oi t is the ■ of the form and structure of organic b and is practically acquired by separation of the parts of a body, so as to shew their distinct fori. and their relations with each other, it understood as applied to the human body, while the A. of animals is styled ZOOTOMY, and that of plants, The investigation and comparison of I'uetures of the different kinds of organic bodies is styled Comparative A. Theoretical A. i divided into General and Si\ GENERAL A description of the elementary I ' I the systems and organs arc composed, as preliminary to an examii of them in their combined state in the V 1 ' GS then laws of formation and combination, and the changes which they undergo in various stages <>f life. This branch of Btudy may also be styled Structural or An A., and has b en first developed in recent limes, lly by Bichat (1S01) and Borden, who been followed by J. Midler, Goodsir, Mayer, E II. \\ i lier, Schwann, Valentin, and many others. In our day, microscopic investigation has been suc- cessiully applied to the study of elementary texture.-. See Histology, Special A. (styled Descriptive by the French writers) treats of the several parts and organs of the body in respect to their form, structure, and systematic connection or relation with each other. The arrangement of the several parts and organs in an order d , m their similarity in struc- ture or use, constitutes Systematic A. According to this mode of study, which is es«ential as an introduction to physiology, A. has been divided, though not with scientific precision, into six branches of study. 1. Osteology, which treats of the banes, including the cartdages of the joints (ckondrolu_<\ ). i'. Syndesmology, which describes the ligaments, or bands, that unite the bones of various joints. The bones, with their cart I ligaments, form a framework, which supports the external soft parts, and within which the vital pended and protected from injury; are also arranged in a mechanical system as instru- ments of motion. — 3. Ii i in' the muscles, which, by their contractile- | serve to impart motion to the bones and |i while, like the bones, they contribute to form the I of the body, and to protect the internal organs. Their structure also serves to produce the external shape and symmetry. — 4. Ang bes the vessels or ducts, with their complex in t-wi irk and ramifications, spreading over most parts of the body, and divided into two great systems : («), tin 1 blood-vessels with the heart, a fleshy organ pro- pelling the blood through the pulsating vessels or arteries, from which it returns to the heart, after circulation through the vein3 ; (o), the lymphatics, by which a certain fluid (lymph) is brought into union with the blood in the organs styled lymphatic elands, ami is afterwards passed into the veins. — 5. Neurology, or the doctrine of the nerves, describes the nervous system, as divided into, first, the two 1 masses of the brain and the spinal column ; the ramifications of nerves running from the brain and spinal column to almost all points of the surface; and lastly, the order of nerves ha\ peculiar structure, and styled the ganglionic I of nerves. — ii. Splanchnology i or organs funned by combination of t i of veins, nerves, lymphatics, &c, and mostly situated in the cavities of the body. These are divided into live groups, viz. : (o), the organs of sen- sation — sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch; (6), of voice and respiration — nostrils, mouth, larynx, trachea, ami lungs, with the thyroid gland, the thymus gland, and the diaphragm; (c), digestive the mouth, with its salivary gland gullet, the stomach, the intestines, with the liver, spleen, and pancreas^ {d), the urinary organs — r, and urethra; (c), . I i , of both & Special A. may be treated in another mode; by an arrangement made in accordance with natural divisions, or by imaginary hues divid- '■ ■ body into several regions— as the head, :ink, and the extremiti I, the trunk 1 abdomen; and in each of the main regions, several subdi- j i i in nle. This system of arrangement may be styled Topographical a., and is also known BS Si ROICAL A., on account of its importance as the basis of operative surgery. It was the eldest of the Monroes of Edinburgh University who Gist gave this branch of the study its due pTOmini 'I ii several parts and organs of the animal body will be found described under their proper heads. History of A. — It is difficult to determine the i which this science began to be cultivated, but it is probable that from the earliest times some persons took advantage of favourable circumstances W ANATOMY. to acquaint U with it. The Druids, who : once the priests, judges, and physii u ol the people, demanded from tho who i their advice human victims as sacrifices, and were themselves the executioners ; and it is not ui that they availed them of acquiring anatomical knowled prob- able, says Galen, that dSsculapius, who excelled in the treatment of wouqds, dissected for the instruction of his pupils. His d ants, the Asclepiades, cultivated A., or rather zootomy, and founded the three I • ools of Cos, Rhodes, and Guides. The rabbins tell i although among the Jews the touching of a dead body involved ceremonial uncleanness, they ili.l not entirely neglect A., which they studied from the carefully preserved bones ol their an and the necessary manipulations of They counted -is bones, and 365 veins or ligaments, which division, according to the rabbin tion to the 248 precepts of the Mosaic Law that md, and the 365 thatforbid. Honer . chibita a certain amount of anal" knov. lei lunds in the I ! Pythagoras first reasoned physiologically from observations made by him when in Egypt, where he witnessed tie 1 sacrifices, and al yptian methods of embalming. Alcmeon of Crot . disciple of Pythagoras, first d • I animals with the view of obtaining comparative knowl human A. Democritus, who frequented the sepul- chres, probably with anatomical views, pra zootomy, and was en a ed di ecting animals visited by Hippocrates. Hipp" : •'' 1 1, descended in the eighteenth degree from dSsculaphis, and born at Cos in 35 a.m., was tho first author who treats A. as a science. He caused a skeleton of brass to b which he consecrated to tie- IMphiiin Apollo, with the view of transmitting to posterity pi-" ifs of the progress he had made, and of si i mulai .in;; others to the study of A. Ari i lived 3S1 [i.e.'., do ; mil appear to have dissected men; and he states that the parts of man are unknown to them, or that they is nothing certain on the subject beyond what they can draw from the probable resemblance of the corresponding parts of other animal . He firstgave the name aorta to the '.Teat artery. Diodes (380 i;.r.) was the first who treated of the proper manner of conducting anatomical examina- tions for purposes of dem m. But no real pro- gress in A. was made, owing to the n earchea b i confined to animals, till the time ol Erasistratus, who was born at Ceos about 300 B.C., and who was the first to dissect human bodies. II" obtained from Seleucus Nicanorand Antiochus Sob r (he bodies of criminals, and is said to have- dissected some con- demned to death while they were still alive. His writings are lost, but fragments are preserved in the writings of Galen. He made many discoveries, among others, of the lacteal vessels. Herophilus, who lived about the same time, was horn at Cartha carried on his anatomical pursuit I principally at Alexandria, lie also is said to have dissected living subjects. Parthenius, who lived 200 B.C.. published a hunk, entitled On !■'< i the J I "nut n Body. In the 1st c. of the Christian era, the dissection of human subjects was forh under heavy penalties. Rufus the Ephesian, who lived 112 A. P., under the empire of Trajan, taught A. in a more exact manner than had 1 n hit done, and devised a more exact anatomical nomi ture. He made use of animals in his demonstrations, and mentions that 'of old they used for that purpose human bodies.' Galen (131 a.t>.) dissected apes, as being most like human subjects, though he occasionally obtained 228 bodies of chi] din the field , or of persons found murdered, which, however, he was obllj i I to a There was at this time no regularly 1 keleton, as i here « n i a law at Rome forbidding the u ol dead bodii . Galen's writ- hew a knowledge of human A. Soranus had ive knowledge of A., derived from human subjects. Moschion had Borne anatomical illustra- tions engraved. Oribasius compiled more than 70 volumes, the 24th and 25th boing on A., principally fmm Galen. Nemi H , B bop of Nemesus, a town in Phoenicia, cultivated A. at the end of the 4th p., in which also Meletius li\ ed, v. ho « rote a compli te treatise On Hie ifaturi and Structun of Man, Theophilus, a monk, i d in th ■ 7th c. a good abridgment of the A. in. A. made ; uong the U-aba, which is accounted for By their religion prohibitin tact with dead bodies. When the great Arabian physician, Rhazes, was about I i be operated or cataract, he discovered that tie 1 surgeon was ignorant of the structures of the eye, and ri fu d to Bubmit to the operation. Avid una (980 a. n.), born in the province of Khorasan, was a I o beologist, and described some structure a luded to by Galen. A. was now a iglected for a long period, tdl Frederick II., king of Sicily (1194—1250), made a law forbidding any one to practise surgery without hiving first acquired some knowled t A. He founded a chair at the solicitation of Martianus, his chief physician, where tic science was demon- strated for live years; students from all parts crowded to it, and some time alter, a similar school was established at Bologna these twowerelar ly att -tided, but no very material progress was made in A. The university of Montpellier was founded by Pope Nicholas I V. in 1284, and the chair of A. was idled by Bernard Gordon with crest distinction t<>r lars. He published a huge work, called Lilium Medicinal. Mundinus, horn at Milan, 1315, professed \. there, and is i id the real restorer of A. in Italy. He publicly demonstral id it, and published .-> work which was the text-1 1. in tin- academj ol Padua two hundred years after its publication. Then came tiny de Chauliac, who first correctly b d the humerus. Malleus of Grado pub- l J i d several anatomical works about 14S0. Gabriel de Zerbus, in 1495, published a confused and im- perfect work on A. at Verona. The science continued to be studied by surg is such as Vico (1516), Achillinus, and Berenger (Carpi), (1518), who boasted of having dissected at Bologna more than a hundred subjects. Reports were raised that In- dissected living Spaniards, and he lied or wa I exiled to I'Yrrara. Andre" Lacuna (lf)35), Charles L'ticnne, Gonthier (1536), Massa, Driander (1537), Sylvius (1539), Levasseur, and Gesner, were celebrated for A. ; but i pei tally Andrew Vesalius, born 1514, who published it work on A. before b" was 28 years of age. He had the misfortune to open the body of a v< a Spanish nobleman whose heart was found still . and was obliged to make an expiatory mage to Jerusalem. In 1564, the Venetian si mate recalled him to succeed, at Padua, the famous Fallopius, who had just died; on his return, he wa I shipwrecked on the island of Zante, where he was starved to death William Herman of Salisbury wrote, in 1530, Analomia Corpora Humani(A. of Human Body); thou came Ingrassias, and i there of less note. Thomas Gemini of London, in 1545, engraved upon copper the anatomical figures of Vesalius, which had appeared in Germany ujion wood. Gemini sujiprcssed ANATOMY. the name of Vi alius, thou h using hie figures and descriptions. Thomas Vioary, in 1548, is said to be the first who wrote in English on A.; be publi bed Tlf AutjlixhmmCH Trn A. Jn 1561, Gabriel Fallopius pi it with great distinction at Padua, and made many original ui ova in the 17th c, progress was rapid: Hervi 1G1!>, discovered the circulati t the blood, and tin; microscope was < in] il' ■>■ consists in dividing i tarts or organs, bo that their respective forms and positions may be clearly shewn. ( Irgans or parts thus treated are styled Anatomical Prg bones, muscles, vessels, nerves, &e. For example, a bone-preparation is made by clearing away all muscular and other adhesions; the whole stru of the bones, thus prepared and bleached, when connected by wires in its natural order, forms an artificial sh ■'. Fur preparations of parts containing vessels with minute ramifications, injections are employed. Some coloured fluid which has the property of gradually becoming solid, is gently injected into the arteries or other vessels by means of a syringe. Formerly, materials which required a certain degree of warmth to preserve their fluidity were used; but as thi were attended with inconvenience, a great improvi - meut was made by Shaw and Weber, who intro- duced the use of liusecil-oil and turpentine, which, when mixed with certain metallic compounds in due proportions, form a fluid which, after a time, becomes solid in ordinary temperatures. Quick- silver and coloured lime-water arc also used for injection of the finer ves els. Preparations arc cither dried and varnislu .1 or preserved in A series of such specimen - d in proper order, forms an Anatomical Museum. 1 collections made by Buysch, Pan, Loder, Walter, ad William Hunter, Meckel, Sb'mmerin Dupuytren, arc all now public property. is also a splendid collection in the university of Edinburgh, collected and prepared for the most part by John Goodsir. The Coll o 3i tins of Edinbui b a] o possesses a very valuable museum i I pathological preparations. As it is impossible to ., i ve thus all parts in their integrity for any great length of time, artificial copies in wood, and wax have been made with great exactitude, illy in Florence ; and recently AnzOU in Paris has employed papier-mdehe for the same purpose. Put, apart from dissections and preparations of the natural organs, the most ' ad available u e in the study of A. is found in anato engravings and plates on wood and cupper. This was know a in ancient times. Aj i in his works on A. some anatomical drawings, which have been lost In the ltith c, the greatest artists— Leonardo da Vinci. Michael Aiuclo.Pnphacl, Titian, and DUrer gave their aid in desi g nin g ; but few of their works, in this department of art, have bun preserved. Lately, lithograph] he beenei loj ed Among the numer- ous illustrations of A. which we now possess, the ANATOMY— ANAXAGOI5AS. oM works by Vasal (1543),Eustachius (1714V (1685), Albin (1747), Haller (174:: 1766), i ...1 Vicq d'Azyr (1786 1790), may be mentioned Ihe t century baa supplied works of lirst-rate C Idani (Venice, 1801 — 1S14), Mas- 1826), and Jacob (Paris, 1832), and Arnold (Zurich, 1S38). For general use, we may m. Leder (Weimar, 1803), Cloquet 1826), Osterreicher (Munich, 1827 1830), 1830), Bock (Leipaic, 1840), ic, 1S4S) : in Surgical A., the works by Kosenmuller (Weimar, L805), Pirogoff (Dorp, and Gunther (Ha ') : in Pathological A., Jl cki I (Leipaic, 1S17 I , ( i i Paris, 1828 1841), Froa i : Ubers (Bonn, 1832), < i0),and Vo 1843): in i \., i !arus (L it ic, ' 326) and Wa mer (Leipaic, 1841). Amon may bo mentioned those by Lo Richard Quain, in Special A.; by Morton and Maclise, in Surgical A. ; and by Baillie and Bright in 1'atl ANATOMY (in Law). While the study and practice of A., or the art of dissecting the human body, wire necessary to the pursuit of surgical knowledge, there were, until the year 1832, no suffice i ana in Britain of procuring dead bodies for anatomical purposes ; and the conse- quence was, the evasion, an ies even the open violation of the law by persons inf in supplying the surreal i for dissection. The high prices, inde id these subjects, may almost 1 le said to have cr a lucrative and tempting trade, which led to the most atrocious crimes ; and murders, with no other object than the possession of the victim's body for nrgeon's knife, were frequently committed. The notorious case of Burke, tri.'d ana the High Court of Justiciary in Edinl h, in is a horrible illustration of the sfc te oi the law at that time, and of the position in which it surgical practitioners. It was believed that Burke and his associate Hare had been the murderers of sixteen persons, whose bodies they sold to the anatomists. It was their practice to inveigle poor . generally I into their houses, make them drunk, and then smother them. Burke, inform I : by Hare, was condemned for thus disposing of an old woman, and suffered the last penalty of the lav thing a new verb, rice, to the English -E - Polycarpe- »1 ANCELOT— AXUim:. i' j 9, 1794, al Havre, where his father waB clerk i iberoi I The latter being a well-infpnned | man, delighting in vi ea taught h sa from the French poets. A. was from the otended for tion w ith the administration of the navy; and was i mployed, until the revolution of July, in tb Hi-i reputation was first i in 1819 by his tragedy of Louis IX., which i fifty nights in succession, and procured him a p ision o 2(100 francs from the king. His neil km (1823), was not BoweD received. In 1 82 ', app an .Mrs i work which bited the great skill of the author in adopting a r-piece of Schiller to the French Btage. In 1825, he gave to the world an i I in six cant. is. Marie de Brabant; and in 1827, a cl and graceful work, partly prose and partly vei entitled f?ta H - < I ovel in four volumes, The Jl ' drama, was published iii 1828; and Elizabeth of England in 1829. Both of these works were highly successful, though neither met with the brilliant i. cep1 ion of Louis IX. in 1834 appeared /. prunts aux Salons di Paris. The revolution of July deprived him of his pension, and also of his situation as librarian of Meudon ; and for the next ten years, he was compelled to support himself and family by the concoction of numberless vaudevilles, dramas, . anecdotes, &c, sometimes of very ques- tionable morality. In 1841, the French A chose him as the successor of Bonald, Shortly after collection of satires as remarkable for freshness of epigram as for grace of style ami richi versification. In lsis, he published La Bu Q campohc A.'.s i lej oT [tore, Louis IX., is a work of geniti i ; the versification is correct, elegant, and harmonious ; the manners ami characters of the p riod a e deline- ated with great fidelity end brilliancy; the plot is skilfully constructed; and some of the Bceni i are contrived with singular felicity. A'NCHOR, an implement for retaining a ship in a particular spot, by temporarily i bed of a sea or river. Many fi ■■■■■■ is of A. wore made by the ancients ; some were merely stones; others, crooked pieces of v I, wei ttted to make them sink in water. The are supposed to have been used by the G As originally made, the A. had only cue- B arm for penetrating the ground, but a second was afterwards added; it had no stock (presently to be described), and was, on that account, ill for insuring a firm gripe into the ground when lowered. The Creek vessels had several anchors, one of which, called the • sacred A.,' was never let go until the ship was in dire distress; something equivalent to this was long retained in the English navy, but the designation is now dying out. Of whatever form and material the ancient anchors were mad", they were lowered from the skills' sides by ropes — chain- cables being a modern invention. The maritime nations of Europe, and the United States of America, employ anchors bearing deal of general resemblance one to another. A large- sized modern A., regarded irrespectively of improve- ments recently introduced, comprises the following parts: The vertical or supporting beam of the A. is the shank, 11; at the upper end of it is the r and just below the ring is a transverse piece - I the Slock, ss; the other extremity is the crown, c, from which branch out two ar?ii.s or blades, g, in directions nearly at right angles to that of the stock ; each arm spreads out into a broad palm or Anchor. fluke, h, the sharp extremity of which is the ! beat special relation to the holding of the A. in the ground, v. a the \. 1 1 let ■ a the ship's side, the crown first strikes the gr I ; it tin n falls over in such a one end of the round; : | of t be tup ana th i cable one or other of the flol matters act which) to di callyinto the ground, and main- tain a firm hold, (in the firm- thi ads the anchoring of the ship; and a of all the different parts of the A., as well curve of the arms and flukes, are calculated with direct reference to this c lit i The number and weights of and a is British ,..!; ■ (early as follow : .Men-of-war have four anchors- the 'be l bower,' the 'small bower, 1 the ■ i beet,' and the ' spare.' For particular and Bpecial i, th.re are also the 'stream' and the ' kedge.' Smaller vessels have fewer and smaller anchors; and the 'Stream'- A. of a large ship may conveniently serve as the 'bower' for a smaller. There was at one time a rough rule in the navy, that the chid A. should weigh as many hundred weight as the ship l guns ; thus, an 80 ev, t. A. for an 80 gun ship. In the commercial marine there was also a kind of rough formula that the chief A. should weigh one- twentieth part a.s many hundred w. ight as the ship measured in tonnage; thus, 300-ton ship woidd i A. of lo . lit of an A. 10 f.et long used to be laid down at 11*4 cwfc, and that of an A. 11 feet lour, at 30 cwt. It must be borne in mind, however, that these numbers and ratios are no longer strictly reliable, seeing that new forms of A., the use of chain-cables, the introduction of steam-navigation, and the building of Bhips of great magnitude, have rendered many old formulas map- le at the present day. Many important improvements in the shape and construction of anchors have I icon introduced within Lieutenant Rodgers, to ini the strength, without increasing the weight, took out pat at lor hollo anchors; these arc not Strictly hollow, however, for there is a wooden core, which is bound to the iron of the shank by iron hoops. Mr Poring introduced iron shanks made of of Bat bars, instead of solid iron. The same l the strength of the arms, by making them in great pari a curved continuation of of iron which form the shank. The most effective novelty, however, is that intro- duced under Mr Porter' ibout twenty years ago, seeing that it is the basis which supports all Porter's Anchor at 'Work. the subsequent improvements of any note. The arms are pivoted to the stock, instead of '■ rigidly lixed ; and there is a projecting piece, called ANCHORAGE— ANCHORITES. the toggle, on the convex part of each arm. Thes- two additions or; have a remarkable effect on the : tion of the A. The advantages of this A. ov< r those of ordinary make are very considerable. There is less chance of 'fouling,' l>y the cable passing over the exposed fluke of the A., when the ve swinging in a tide-way; there is less danger of injury from the upper peak; the lower peak bites quickly into the most stubborn ground; the A. cannot lod • on : I ick-end; it is stronger in the arm than ordinary anchors; and it is wry con- towed or oil Anion,' th mod of Porter's anchor, since introduced, are those of Ti an and HonibalL lan's, to which most attention is at p directed, has the following advanta Che arm has nt length and curve to di p a and set the palm at such an angle as to insure its biting or penetrating the hardest bott an; the area an face of the palm are greatly increased, offering a pro- portionate resistance in soft ground ; t! projection at the back of the arms is rendered more ve by its form and position ; and the mode in which the upper arm rests on the shank in both the fch and the penetrating power. This been the subject of a long contention between Trotman's Anchor at Work. Mr Trotman and the Admiralty. In 1S.j2. in com- pliance with a requisition from numerous ship-owners and underwriters, the Admiralty appointed a com- mittee, consisting of eleven experienced and impar- tial persons, to make trial of a large numl anchors, with a view of d the relative of various forms and modes of construction. The anchors were to be similar in weight, and wi re to be tested in a great variety of ways — ou shore, and at sea, and in reference to the holding, st sweeping, tripping, fouling, &c There were several itors, all of whom were 1 to the same ions. Every one of the recently invented in hors tried was found to be better than the ordi- Vlinir.dty A. ; and the one which appeared to itest number of good qualities was Trotman's. The patentee naturally expected to derive some commercial advantage from the favour- able report of the committee ; but from 1852 tn 1859, the sui Boards of Admiralty have refused to admit Trotman's A. into the royal navy, except in a few isolated instances. The grounds for this refusal have never yet been satisfactorily made known. The weights of anchors bear, or ought to bear, some definite relation to the tonnage of a ship. Lloyd's ' kimmittee has agreed upon certain ratios to ad, in refere to the large or 'best I anchors and their chain-cabl Mr Trotman prepared a table, shewing the diminished weight of Ins anchors, to render equivalent e r- vi e. The anchors are here supposed to have iron stocks : Ship's Ordinaiy Trotman's 3 Anchors. Anchor*. 1 .. cabin 7 cwt. 5 cwt. 0| inch. ■- ' 12 9 1 . 400 22 17 ■ n • : i i :;l 25 41 . 31 . 1400 o| 2 i. 2000 51 » 40 , 2i . The manufacture of anchors furnished, until recent years, the most formidable exemplification of smith's work anywhere presented, on account of the dimensions and weight of the pieces of iron which had to be welded into one ma I smiths hammers known to our artisans ; and the services of a large number ■ded to weld the metal while in the heated and yielding state. At the present I ver, the operations are wonderfully aided I myth's steam-hammer, which comes down upon the A. with a force greater than that of any available num- ber of sledge-hammers wielded by mi n. At some of the government dockyards, anchor-making i On a great scale; but the larger portion of the supply for the navy is obtained by contract by private firms. A'NCHORAGE is a due or toll levied on the owner or captain of a ship for pi to cast anchor at special anchoring-grounds. In instances, it is payable to the state; but sometimes i in corporate bodies or in indivi- duals. The tariff varies greatly, depending on the size of the ship, or on the value of the cargo, accord- ■ circumstances. In most cases, where a vessel is driven into port by stress of weather, and does not discharge cargo there, it is exempt from this toll Shore-dues differ from A. chiefly in the fact, that a vessel pays duty on entering a certain port or harbour, whether she anchors or not; and, by a singular anomaly, these duties are in certain in- : vested in the corporation of an inland town, many miles distant from th • port in question. A. is a term also sometimes applied to the whole suite of anchoi a belonging to a snip : and still more frequently it has the same sense as anchor-. (q. v.). ANCHOR-GROUND is a part of the bed of the sea, or of a river, suitable for anchoring. It must . too deep, or the cab] too perpen- dicularly, and will be likely to drag the anchor-out of the ground. It must not be too shallow, or the Ship's bottom will be exposed to the hazard of striking at low-water, or when tin ■ Bl D is rough. It must not be too rocky, or the anchor will be liable i ik its flukes by hooking into jagged rocks, and the cable to be severed by rubb I rocky edges. Thus, a combination of favourable eireum- u-y for the selection of a good auchoring-ground. ANCHORITES, or ANCHORETS (Gr. anacho- ; xally, i is who withdraw from so the hermits who began to appear in the Christian Church in the :i.l c, living in solitude, and not, like the monks or cenobites, in communities. 1 >>ii lirst two centuries, Christians generally thou h to withdraw from the world by refusing to participate in heathen festivals and amuses but extreme vi< v. .ulually prevalent, and were connected « itb a belief in the merit of celibacy, of abstinence Erom particular kinds of food, of Belt- ed tortures, &c The persecutions to which Christians v.. >mo into the soli- tude of deserts ; aft rwards, the glory of a life spent in loneliness and austerity became a substit : AKCHOVY-ANCONA. that of the martyr's death. The general corruption of society also caused many earnest and well ing persona to flee from it; the Ascetics (q, v.) first get the example of retiring from cities to rural dis- tricts and villages ; the A. went farther, and hdraw themselves alto m mankind ; and if the reputation of sanctity which was con- I with a life of solitude con e, there can be no doubt that many chose it in the hope of thereby attaining b sanctity. Many ol the A. voluntarily themselves to the vicissitudes of the weather, with- out proper habitation or clothing, restricted them- and scanty fare, wore chains and iron rings, and even throughout many years main- tained painful postures, such as standing on I of a pillar (sec Stylttbs), thll btenment might have Ood of mankind. Paul |q. v.) the Hermit, and Antony (q. v.), were among I most celebrated A. The A. were not able always to preserve their solitude unbroken, I of their sanctity drew many to visit them ; their advice was often sought; and the number of their visitors was much increased by the belief that diseases, \ larly mental diseases, were cured by their Messing. Sometimes, also, they returned for a short tune to the midst of their fellow-men to di livi warnipi . instructions, or encouragements, and were rei as if they had been inspired prophet < Is from heaven. The number of A., however, gradually diminished, and the religious life of convents was red to that of the 'hermitage. The Western Church, indeed, at no time abounded in A. like the i us the reason may in part bo found in the different I climate which manner of life impossible in most parts of Europe that could be pursued for many years in Egypt or Syria. ANCHCVY {Engraidia Enchra a small fish, about a span long, much ; for its rich and peculiar flavour. It is not much longer than the middle finger, thicker in proportion than the hi to which it has a general resemblance j the h sharp-pointed, and the under jaw much shorter than the upper; the scales large, silvery, and removed, the tail deeply forked. It is occasion- ally found on the British coasts, and is sod to be not at all uncommon on the coast of Co vail in the [atter part of summer and b i autumn. It would seem to have been formerly more abund- ant than it now is in the British seas, as several acts of parliament, of the reign of William and . regulated the A. fisheries. It occurs on the Anchovy. coasts of the Baltic and of Greenland, and abounds in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic I of Spain, Portugal, and France, where extensive and very productive fisheries are carried on, par- ticularly in the months of May, June, and July, when the shoals of anchovies leave the and approach the shores for the purpose of spawn- ing. They are fished during the night, and are attracted to the boats by toes. They are in small ban-els, and are much used for sauces, &c. The I tomans made from them a highly valued sauce called garum.— Sardines (q. v.) are often sold as Mi anchovies. — The | belongs to the i (q, v.) or Ii ':'. and v. merly included in Olupea, from which it is i by the more deeply cleft mouth, the wider "gill openings, and more numerous gill rays. All the in all, and most of them tropical. /.'. i abounds in the Strait of Malacca and at the mouths of the Ganges, and is used for making a a at called Hid Fieh in India. ANCHOVY PEAK [Orioa couliflora), e I only known species of a genus somewhat doubtfully referred by Bindley to his order Ban (more generally regarded as a suborder of Mi,. q. v.). It grows in boggy places in the mount i and "i He,- West Indian islands, attains a height of fifty feet, and has great oblou ; i wo or three Ei et in len| th. 5The B .re numerous, on short peduncles, large and whitish, the corolla consisting of four petals, and the calyx •lrcleft. The fruit is an ovate drupe, crowned with it calyx, the stone marked with is fruit is pickled and eaten like tile i hich it much resembles in taste. ANCHUSA. See Alkaxet. ANCHYLOSIS. See Ankylosis. ANCILLON, a French family who, after the revocation of the Edict of l from Metz into Prussia.— David A. studied I ,a, was afterwards pastor of the 1 ned colony at Hanau, and died in Berlin in 1692. — CHABLBS, son of the former, was born at Met/,, July 28, 1659, and died in Berlin, Ji 17ir>. He is known by his writings : Vlrrivocabiliti . lea (1688), and Hiatoire de VEta- ■.'■ . dans lea Etata de ,,'.,, m-ij (1690). — Louis Frederick, grandson of Charles A., was horn in Berlin 1740, and died there or of the French congregation in 1S14. His son Frederick, who rose to be a < of state in Prussia, was l.orn in Berlin, April 30, 1707- In 1702, he was appointed Professor of History in the Military Academy of Berlin, and aft I Royal Historiographer, a post to which he had recommended himself by his work. Tablet < //. mlutiona du 8y 1 '* VEurope i le 15""> Su d (4 vols. Bi rim, 1803—1805). In 1814, he took an admini tratdve post under Hardenberg, and, in IMS, held a very prominent position under Count von Bernstorff. In 1830, when the July revo- 1, he 1 ted the measures of King Frederick William III. for the preservation of peace in Europe. While, like the politicians of Austria, he argued that 'all should be done for the . but nothing by the people;' he also contended forthenecei .. ol | ,'ressive reforms in legislation, in order to prevent all violent collisions between government and popular opinion. His private life was simple and unostentatious. Though thrice married, Et no children. A. died April 19, 1837. His various writings on politics, philosophy, and literature, are chiefly devoted to an exposition of the principles by which he was guided as a statesman. ANCO'NA, the capital of a delegation of the same name in the States of the Church, lat. 43° 3S' N., and long. 13° 35' E. It is situated on a promontory of the Adriatic coast, and ri the form of an amphitheatre, presents a picturesque appearance from the sea. It is the scat of a i, and contains about 29,000 inhabitants, of whom about 5000 are Jews. The harbour, once famous, seems likely to be filled up with much The commerce is much less considerable than it once was, though, in that respect, it is still the most ANCRE— ANDALUSIA. important place in tho States of the Church. Corn, and woollen and silk good3, oils, cordage, bacon, fruits, &c, are the chief exports. A mole of 2000 feet in . built by the Emperor Trajan, and a triumphal the same empi ror, are the most notable monu- iii of antiquity. There are some fine public buildings. One of the most venerable of these is the dral of St Cyriac, built in the 10th e., an scssing the oldest cupula in Italy. Bic are in general mean, and Is narrow. A. is supposed to have been founded by Syracusans who had Bed from the tyranny of Dionysius the Elder, it wa rebuilt by Ni .-uii! i ; tin destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th c. II, ill. rwards became a republic ; but in 1">;J2, Pope Clement VII. annexed it to tin: States of the !i. In 179S, it was taken by tin: French ; but in 1799, General Meunier was obliged to surrender it to the Russians and Austrians, after a long and gallant defence. Since 1815, tho citadel h tin- only fortification. Winn the Austrian troops in 1S31 occupied the Roman frontiers, whose inhabit- Ci then in a state of insurrection, the French ministry determined to neutralise the influence of Austria. A French squadron appeared before the 1 up, and landed 1500 men, who to..!. town on the 22d I I without any nee, the citadel capitulating on the 25th. It remained in their bands till ISo'S, when both French and Austrians retired from the Papal States. In 1S49, a revolutionary garrison in A. capitulated after enduring a siege by the Austrians of twenty-five days. ANCRE, Concino Concini, Baron be Lksigny, : u. d', a Florentine by birth, who came to the French court in the year 1G00, with Maria de' Medici, the wife of Henry* IV., and along with his wife, oraGaligai, ex raised an unhappy influence in promoting the disagreement between the king and . \V!m m, after lb nry"s death, the queen became i ni, Concini, as her favourite, obtained possession reins of government; and in 1613, was made a marshal and prime minister. He pur irquisate of Ancre in Picardy, and to title from it. He became an object of detestation equally to the nobility and the people. A con- : was formed against him, to which the young I . lOuis XIII. was himself privy — Luynes | iig's worthless favourite, being one of the -and he was assassinated in the Louvre in open day, on the 24th of April 1017. His body was privately buried, but was soon disiiii. rred by ipulace, dragged throu and burned fcatue of Henry TV. His wife was soon afterwards accused of witchcraft, which she repudiated, saying that the only sorcery she had employed to influence the queen was ' the of a strung mind over a weak one.' The sneer, how- ■ .. r, did not save her. she was executed, and her sin, deprived of rank and property, was driven from ANOTJS MA'RCIIJS, son of Pompil of King Numa 1'ompilius, was the fourth 1. Full.. wing tin- example of hi Numa, he endeavoured torestorefhe almost forgi ids and the cultivation of the; peace amon ma But, despite his mclina- . he -'. .... t il wars with the in ignbouring Latin tribes, whom he subdued ami reduced to order. These Latins, Niebuhr con- siders to have formed the or rtstthe us, li • fortified the Janioulum, connected it with Home by a wooden bridge, and gai sion of both banks of the Tiber, as far as its mouth, where he founded Oatia as the port of Koine ; he i it was called 'the Ditch of the Quirite3' — a a space between the Cselian Hill ami Mount Palatine; ami built the first Roman prison of whii :. a proof that civilisation had really coram. . much as offences then for- mally e ded as private and personal matters, and wen as crimes against the community. He died in 014 B.O., after reigning twenty-four years. ANCYRA. See A'NDA, a genus of plants of the natural order Eupltorbioccce, the only known species of which, A. BraMlien, it, is a Brazilian tree, with large 3 flowers, and an angular fruit about the size of an ; two round - like- small chestnuts. Thei led 1 ar ci 11 d in Brazil Purg ■ is, are much used medicinally in that country, and are more purgative than those of the castor-oil plant. This quality seems to depend upon a valuable fixed oil, of which twenty drops are a moderate It i3 obtained by pressure. The bark of tin roasted in the lire, is accounted in Brazil a certain remedy for diarrhoea, brought on by cold. The fresh bark, thrown into ponds, is said to stnpify ANDALU'SIA or AXDALUGTA, a fertile province or kingdom in the smith of Spain, lying between 36° 2' and 3S° .'SO' N. lat„ and . and 7° 20' W. long. Having been overrun by the Vandals, it is supposed By some that they gave it the name of Vandalucia or Andalucia ; but the real origin of the name is probably the Land of the West. It is tin; A of the Bible, and was called Tartessus in ancient geography. The Romans named it B from the onver Bstis (the modern Guadalquivir). The Moors founded here a splendid monarchy, which quickly attained a high degree of civilisi Learning, art, and chivalry flourished in ha within commerce. The four great Moorish capitals rille, Cordova, Jaen, an During the darkness of the middle ages, Cordova was 'the Athens of tho west, the seat of arts and sciences;' and later still, under the Spa nia rds, when ' the sun of B I in Italy, paintin arose in a new form in the Velasquez, Murillo, and Cano school of Seville, the finest in the peninsula.' On the north, A. is divided from Estremadui New Castile by the mountain-chains of A Cordova, and Moreno, On the east it is bourn Murcia, and on the wi t by I Atlantic. The south coi I 1 aid from Gibraltar is mountainous; the west, where the Guadalquivir Hows into the Atlantic, is level. A. was esi the richest district of Hesperia, and its former wealth of produce ha3 been indicated by such the ' wine- and the 'gold-purse' of Spain. But, in bed oidy by com] : mall portions of the hilly country on both sides of I dalquivir, where. with c he soil is luxuriantly productive. II re wheat and maize ripen in and yield abundantly. Olives and oranges attain their' greatest height, and vegetation generally s a tropical character. Cotton, sugar-cane, tigs, and batatas flourish in the open air, and the cactus and aloe form impenetrable b I abound. The botany and mini of A. are very rich. The ranges of the Sierra N i principally of primary and secondary formations. In the west, towards Xciiil, cultivation is more sparing, as there is a natural deficiency of .n.l the artificial means of irrigation formerly employed have fallen into disuse. Nearer to the 1 J 234 ANDAMAN'S- ANDERSON. coast lie land still more barren ; and the 1 . steading between the m mths of the Iquivir and the Tinto, ia covered with moving i in the whole, A. is still one erf to ricta of Spain, owing to its del and the abundance of water sup- plied liy its snowy mountains. Its br d o d, and tl>> • moles are superior to those of other countries. T! mountains Bupply the wild cattle exhibited in the bull-fights of Madrid. The natural riches of the t have at various times invil invaders, such as the Phoenicians and the Moors, are regarded as among the most lively, imaginative, and active p ople ol : But they are also consid red by the rest of their countrymen to be the Gascons the bra ra of Spain. Apparently they have never at any time been warlike, since even l.ivy calls them . They are, like all braggarts, extremely credulous, and ar ■. b ole fur their intense superstition. The warship of the * i an extent that the very country is . id of the Most Holy Virgin. 1 Th Spanish mixed with Arabic. The chief town i of A. are named after the four ancient provinces into which it was divided— Seville, • lordova, Jaen, Cadiz, (q. v.). Area 27,217 miles. Pop. 2,800,000. A'NDAMANS, a group of thickly wooded islands towards the east aide of th • Bay of Den nd 14° of N. lat, and about 93 The population is both barbarous and scanty, and bears lance what ver either in physical features or language to the ueighl k luring Asia! i In 1793 the Great Andaman received a Bi . which was withdrawn, however, in 170G. Since 1857, the A. have been ' ' ment for sepoy mutineers, though the design has not, at I, ton an ' scale, be a carrii d into effect. It is only physically, in short, that the A. deserve j mention, not so much from their presenting i any remarkabl a i from their i .i portion of tie- long arch, mostly volcanic, of i .. which, \l rtb Timor at its I'hilip- t , and Formosa, on the one side; and o other side the Sunda Dies, Java, Sumatra, the nd the A.— the outline only requiring • , i,. i i I up in in Jnation, in order to produce a peninsula harmonising more or less with the other ra projections of the world, Hindostan, and s mill America. ANDANTE (Italian), in M : what slow and He and soothing style. This term is often modified, both as to time and style, by the addition of other word i— as A. ■ but pathetically ; A. ca slow, but in a singing style ; A. eon mo!o, slow, but with emotion; A. Ol -low but gracefully: A. slow, with majesty; -*'• '"'■' troppo, slow, but not too much so ; A. pastorale, slow, and with pastoral simplicity. A'NDKKXACIf, a little town belonging to the OZ on the Rhine, in lat. 50 long. 7 J 'Jo' E., was once a Antunnacum, then a residence of the Mem. kings, and afterwards became one of the most flourishing places on the Rhine. The great tower on the north side, the fine old church — with one tower built in the Carlovingian times— and the old gates and walls, give quite a medieval aspect town. It now contains about 3500 people, supported by trade in leather, wine, and corn, and is esp -eially celebrated for its millstones, exported to distant | 2o6 parts of the world, and for its blffttxxn or tot indurated volcanic mud. which, when pulverised and makes a mortar ox cement for constructions undi r wat r. ANDEBSEN, 11 ura » '"':■ gift d po ts that 1 1 was born April 2, 1805, at Od • unen. His father was a poor shoemaker, who used, however, to console himself by and wealth of his family. ' he was for a short time employed in a manufactory. The widow of Bunkeflod, a poet of e e repul charitably adopted him. IK early displayed a I for poetry, and was known in his native place as I.' Hoping to obtain theatre, he went to Copenhagen, but was rej, ; ili an. He was next encoura * for success as a singer ; but had hardly commenced his musical studies when his led. He found generous friends, ho,. to fa Ip him in his distress; and application h of thi in to tl i kin .. he was pi at an advanced school at the public expense, and so his academic education in ls:X Some of Ins . particularly oue entitled The Dying ■ had ah I favourably received, and he now ; ir known by the publication of his Walk to Amai, a literary satire in the form of a humorous narrative. In 1830, he publi ihed the first d volume of his Poems, and in 1831 a set uud r the title of .His I the fruit of a tour in the north of Germany. A pension from the king now enabled him to' vis. i ' .. France, Switzerland, and land he completed his Agm On M. man : and one of his best works. V visalori . a bi ries of seem s di picted in a glowing and full of poetic interest, was the fruit of bi to Italy. Soon afterward i,he produced 0. T. (IS.'iJ), a novel containing vivid pictures of northern sc a id in inner--., which was followed (1837) by an entitled Only '• FiddU •■ in '• T" 1840, he produced a romantic drama, entitled The . as well re lived ; but another drama, /o'/e less successful. In the year ap Picturt !, a imaginative sketches. Exhausted by his labours, he sought r. creation in the ■ 1840 in a somewhat lengthened tour in Italy and it, of which he gave an account i r (1S4'2). After his return, appeared Flower of Fortune, a dramatised fable, and series of tales, some of which had appeared, and by which the popularity of A in( , many. His works b i translated, not only into German, but into English and other languages, although the . i, yle, more than of many ai are unavoidably lost in translation. His Dying i ■ | beer translated into the Lingua Greenland. Besides the works above mentioned, he is the author of Ahasuerus, a mythical drama, and of The Two Baronesses, a tale illustrative of Danish society. ANDERSON, James, LL.D., a writer on politi- cal economy and agriculture, was b irn in l~:;:i at tho village of lienniston, near Edinburgh. He lo his parents when very young, so that the m in- nt of a large farm, which had been in the p sion of the family for a long time, devolved upon himself. Recognising the practical importance of a knowledge of chemistry to a farmer, he attended the chemistry class in the university of Edinburgh, and brought the results of his study to bear on his ANDERSON— ANDES. profession. He invented, at an early period of life, the small two-horse plough without win els, commonly I the Scotch plough, wh i Qy admitted to have been one of the most useful improvements of agricultural im] iced. When only 24 years of age, he went to Aberdeenshire, where he rented a large moorland Ea Here he remained for a considerable time, devoting bis le -ure hours to writing upon agricul- ture. His Bret attempt was a series of essays upon planting, which, under the signature of . le. In 1780, the university of Aberdeen bestowed on him the degree of Doctor of Laws. In 17S4, on accoimt of his pamphlet, entil of the National /'■ • nment to make a survey of the western coast of Scotland, with special reference to that object. He next publication of a periodical called The IS' ■'. v. hicfa was continued for three years ; in 17^7 he went to London, where he pursued his literary avocations with such intense assiduity, that his health gradually gave way. He died on the loth of October 1 A. will deserve a place in any record which details the remarkable advances made by Scotland iculture and other sources of wealth in the latter half of the ISth c. And even in the history of ideas he will deserve a prominent notice, as his Bee ; iie type of many periodical miscellanies of a cheap nature, mingling instruction with entertain- ment, which have since been published. It is also to be observed that, in his essay called A Compa, of Tithe in ih /'/' cf Corn (contained in one of his latest publications, The Recreations of Agri anticipated some important principles subsequently advocated by Malthas, Ricardo, and West, particu- larly the famous theory of rent. ANDEESON, John. F.RJS., Professor of Natural ■ ophy in the university I of the eminently useful institution bearing his name, was born in the parish of Roseneath, Dumbarton- shire, in 17-0. Having lost his father, man, when very young, the care of his red upon an aunt who resided at Stirling. From Stirling, he went to Glasgow Unii I in literature as well as in science, for in his 30th year he was appointed Professor of Oriental Languages. Four years later (1700). he was transferred to the chair of > iphy — an event which, considering his decided i for the exact sciences, must have been not less agreeable to him than fortimate for the world. He entered upon Ins new duties with extra- ordinary ardour. Besides the work of the class, he was indefatigable in studying the application of science to mechanical practice ; visitmg, for this purpose, the workshops of artisans in the town, and Dg, in return for the theories and principles w hich he had to communicate, a full equivalent of mental knowledge. Even this, howei not satisfy him. Inspir •! by a rational philanl he instituted, in addition to his usual class, which was strictly mathematical, one fur the m r persons whose pursuits did not enable them to conform to the prescribed routine of ileal study, lie- continued to teach th 1 it -with reference to the _ iwn, worn by the I students in Glasgow — twice every week, during the session, to the end of his life. In 1780 appeared his valuable work, entitled Institutes of Physics, which went through five editions in ten years. Shortly before the trench revolution, he invented a species of gun, the recoil of which wa3 stopped by the condensation of common air, within the body of the •; but having in 1 to attract 1 of the- British at to it, he proceeded to Paris in 1791, and, beis great friend of In to the National Convention. It was hong up in their hall, with the following inscription over it: 'The v.' Afl rwards, when the allied monarchical forces hail drawn a military cordon around the frontiers of Prance, to prevent the intro- duction of French newspapers into Germany, A. mgeniously suggested the 1 which was J . and proved quite successful, of making small balloons of paper, to which newspaper! manifestoes might be tie-' I. and letting them oil, when il was favonrabl G rmany. A. died 13th January 1790. By Ins v. ill, dated 7th May 170">, le- directed that the whole of b every kind, should he devoted to the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be denominated And v, for the use of the unacademical els Anpebsoh's, or, more commonly, tl ostam T'nivehsity, was originally intended t 1 four colleges — for arts, medicine, law, and thi — besides an initiatory school. Ii ee was to have nine professors, the senior professor ljcin_' tin- president or dean. The funds, however, were totally inadequate to such a plan, and the institution was therefore opened with only a single course • tures on natural philosophy and 1 by Dr Thomas Garnett. This course was attended by nearly a thousand persons of both sexes. In 1798, a professor of mathematics graphy was appointed. The splendid apparatus and library of the founder, which were valued at £3000, added greatly to the advantages of the infant institution, hi 1799, I'r l'.irbeek, the successor of Dr Garnett, commenced the system of giving a familiar • tion of mechanics and genera] science. Hi> attended by 500 artisans, vie. received their instruction gratis. This was t! rigin of mechanics' institutes. Tli • Andersonian Institution by tin- will of the founder, under tin- inspection and control of tie- lord provost, and many other honour- able persons, as ordinary visitors, and under the more : aperintendence of 81 tru^tei s. who are elected by ballot, and remain in office for life. It ■■dually enla here of instruction, and : t. it nearer to the design of the founder. In . lie number of prof essors amounted to 15. It possesses a high reputation at the present day, as a school of medicine in particular. A'NDES, the great mountain-chain of - America, extending in a direction nearly parallel with the Pacific, along almost the whole lent t incut. The chain falls short of the Isthmus of Darien, between which and the Atrato— a river falling into the Caribbean Sea it gradually subsides into a merely undulating country. .also, to fall still further short of the Strait of Magellan, so far as the mainland is concerni d. But, on geological lirst along the islands . and next along that form t: ■• Thus may the chain be fcch from the neighbourhood of the mouth of the Atr.it". ly to Cape Horn, but even to the rocks of Diego Ramirez, In- about 1 miles to the south-west of that promontory. The extreme length, therefore, is from lat. 8° 15' X to lat. 56" 30' S.— compris- ing, of eon- :■. without any allowa: windings or del ations, about -I.'iihi English miles. But to mark the seal.- on which nature has moulded the new world, the A. may be regarded as merely a part of the sufficiently continuous chain ANDES. of about 0000 miles which loses itself near the mouth of the Mackenzie, towards the shores of the Arctic < Icean. In this respect, the old continent can bring nothing into comparison. Position.— Th« A., b aerally in a direction nearly parallel with I closely on that ocean. From the rocl Diego Ramirez to about lat. 40° S., the mountains, whether they are found on ialai ou the mainland, are almost literally wash the surf; while northward from that parallel, Is out, between the chain itself and the a belt of laud n<>t exceeding, in average i 70 or 80 miles. Within the I tiou is narrowest, while above and below it is, in general, Bomewhat more extensive. Che position A. with respect to the Atlantic Ocean pi a striking contrast. To illustrate this, a p is subjoined from Herndon, th cplorer of the Amazon on behalf of the I 1 I rossing from Lima to the head- waters of the Amazon, by the Pass of Antarangra, he writes thus : • Yana- onthewestej the A., at the he 'J:;.J7 feet above the sea dy 28 mil' the oceau that washes the base of the slope on which it is situated ; while Fort San Ramon, at nearly the ' onot be much ban 4(100 miles from its ocean by 1 of the river, and in the river's direct C -"'in miles.' Further, to lively to the west and east of the dividing the former has mated at 180,000 miles, and the latter at twenty times as urn b. II 11 : of the A. has b a already ant . I > a considerable extent, under the heads of the AMAZON and ica. It only remains to observe that from end of the continent to the other, the true and only water-shed, where, is the lie. Not only is the water-shed in question obviously far closer to the west than to the east, but. beyond this, it is, apparently without a single exception, pushed as far westward as possible ; it thus affords the conspicuous and ample of an t universal law in the bj Iro raphy of the earth. Throughout both continents, almost every r-shed] the east than towan st, or, in other .ms in the former direc- bhan in the latter. To cite a few ins! compare, in North America. luri with the Columbia; in Europe, tl leNeva; in the Hoang-ho of China with the Oxus of the Sea of Aral ; and even in A e, as also in Arabia, hydrographies! trace; have been I overlaid by deserts of sand, the plat Sahara and the chain of the Atlas gradually incline, both of them, towards the east, But, 1 shi 1 be invariably found as far as possible to the westward, it necessarily follows, that, wherever are two ranges, the more easterly range cannot also be a continuous water-shed — unless, indeed, it may be regarded as such with respect to the land- I 1 basin of the connected lakes, Titieaea and fjroz, already mentioned under the head of America. With this exception, all the gatherings betwi two ranges, whether the intermediate sp plateau or sierra, have found or formed channels of e ipe — narrow, deep, and dark as they often are — only to that sea which is thirty or forty times more distant than the one at their back. Breadth and Area. — The area, on an estimate, necessarily rough and vague, has been computed to be triple that of the belt of comparatively level land 338 that borders on the Pacific. In other words, the average breadth of the chain is reck thrice that of the belt in question. In a rough way, the 1 may be estimated I 1 west slope < mmences, to iff, or cataracts, on the ea streams. But it is more correct to measure it from the foot of the mountains, properly so called, on the one side to that on the other. The pi the country, which, on such a subject, ought 1 to support the latter of computation. In Lima at hood, Herndon crossed the A., that officer of 'coast' and 'sierra. m each other even | be dividing ridge. The entire distance of the Pass 01' Aiitaran ' the actual road, was S7 miles the lirst ■■■■'. and the remaining -"7 <■ Nor d" action seem to have 1 trary one. From Callao to 1 a line of 44 miles — the rise above tin' 1 level, tolerably on bole way, amounted to 4452 feet, or rather more than 101 feet to the mile ; but the next IS miles, of which about a half still belonged to what 1 an increase of 2850 probably of 200 feet for that part of the tell under the definition of sierra. To give instances of extreme breadths of the A. — an average breadth unattainable — the least breadth, and that in uia, is believed to be 00 or 70 miles ; the greatest breadth, again, pretty nearly on the parallel of Lake Titieaea, and right through the grand plateau of Bolivia, is said to be 400 miles ; and re an intermedial 1 . the breadth from Mendoza, in the basin of La Plata, to Santiago, in given at 140 miles — the former city being 1 he Atlantic, and the latter 2014 In or. to have a definite idea of the bt of the A., the chain must b'- viewed from one end to the other. In doing this, there will be adopti ordinary nomenclature, referring each division of the A. to the particular country through which it may pi Patag dee. — Including the A. of the Fuesian Archipel part of the chain, ex- from lat. 56 S. to lat. 42° S., a distance of ban 0G0 miles, is the narrowest of all, or is, at all events, too irregular to have its breadth accurately estimated, lie Patagonian shore, strictly so called, is breasted, very much like the north- west coast between Fuca's Strait and Mount St EUas, by a number of islands. On; mentioned, the true A. are to be found, or r, ■ the true A. ensist— the continent Dg no footing to the chain till fully 300 miles to th" northward of Cape Horn. Even after the chain ha inland, it by no means can be said to abandon the islands; so that hie, as further to the north, the chain may be regarded as made up of parallel ranges — the main dim being that the intervening valleys, which, to the north, are basins of fresh-water rivers, here present salt-water channels. // Andes, stretching from lat. 42 S. to lat. 24 S., a distance of nearly 1250 miles. Throe nearly the whole of thi3 line, the A. consist of only one range, for the parallel ridges, which run along u the great water-shed and the Pacilic, cannot claim to be any exception to this remark, inasmuch as their highest points do not exceed an elevation of 2500 feet above the level of the sea. This part of the chain, however, presents several 1 ranges, if it does not present any parallel ones of importance. These spurs are to be seen on both sides, though of very duTcrent magnitudes. To ANDES. the wist, they arc akin to the comparatively insig- nificant parallel ranges just noticed, being, if A. at all, merely A. in miniature. But to the cast, the ■pars deserve more consideration. They are two in r, the one branching off l>etween the 33d and :;] t parallels, and the other b tween the 2Sth and 24th. The former, called the Sierra de Cordova, advances like a promontory into the plains of Kio de La Plata, or Pampas, as they are more ally da far as the 65th m. i ami the latter, called the Salta, runs nearly as far to the cast, and in a direction nearly Peruvian And t. — This part of the chain, stretch- ing from lat. 24 8. to lat. B. — a distance about the same as in the last paragraph — is perhaps the broadest of all the divisions of the A. it certainly COntai] st of the plateaus, the plateau of Bolivia, Between the 2Uth and 10th parallels, not far from the city of Potosi, the chain separates into two ranges, known as the East and West Cordilleras of Bolivia; and it i3 the reunion of these l I and 14th parallels, that encloses the land-locked plateau of Titicaca, containing, as is said, 30,000 square miles, or an area equal to that of [reland Immediately above this table-land, the united ranges in question constitute the mountain- group of Cuzco, which, in point of superficial extent, is stated to be thrice as large as all Switzerland. About a degree further north, the chain separates as before, reuniting also, as before. I > the 11th and 10th parallels, so as to embrace the cities of Guanta and Guancaveliea. Hardly have the two ranges reunited, when they mass them- selves into the table-land of Pasco, not quite half the size of that of Titicaca. Further to the north, the chain divides, not into two, but into three ranges, which unite again, on the frontiers of Ecuador, in the group of Loxa, about kit. 5° & A nda of Ecuador. — Immediately beyond the group Of Loi i 4 and :: of • chain divides into two rang' ' again anil 2 27', form the valley of Cuenca; and immediately beyond this is the group of Assuay, with its table- land. Then another plateau of no great extent, and a short stretch of the undivided chain, lead to the vast table-land of Quito, which is said to be subdivided by low hills into five smaller plateaus, two to the east, and three to the west. Towards the north, the table-land of Quito is suc- ceeded by the group of Los Pastos, forming the extreme portion of the A. of Ecuador. Andes qf X "• Oranada. — Beyond the city of Almaguer, the chain breaks off into two ranges, which never again join each other. The range on the west side remains undivided, till it disappears the month of the Atrato, a little to the east of the Isthmus of Darien. But the range on the east, into th ■ .roup of Paramo . ' Papas, to two branches, which, as dis- 'i I'd from the range aforesaid on the west, are styled the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of New Granada. These two contain between them the upper waters of the Magdalena, the eastern separat- ing them from the basin of the Orinoco, and the central dividing them from that of the < n them also they contain several considerable I mds, the principal one being that of Santa l'c de Bogota. ifU. — Under this head must be treated separ- ately the plateaux, the most prominent mounlaiti.% and the pa U M t he altitudes of the lines of pe: snow falling more naturally under the hi Climate, lb iv. as in the case of ! reodth, the chain will be followed from south to north. HEIGHT OP PLATEAUS. Table-land of Titicaca, Croup of Cuzco, Table-land of Pasco, . ■ « Assuay, ■ .. Quito, . , Bogota, Pwt 12,700 11,000 8,968 The average height of these six colossal masses the sea-level is thus 11,000 feet, or consider- ably more than 2 English miles. HEIGHT OF JIOU Fueyian Andes — Cape Horn, . Sarmiento, Andes — Yantelcs, Corcobado, Minchinadom, Chilian Andes — Antuco, Aconcagua, . Deecab . do, Nevado de Chorolque, . ■a Andes — ■ de Potosi, Gnaltieri, Nevado de Chuquibamba, „ Illimani, ■ Sorata, Aualache, Peruvian Andes — Arequipa, . Andes of Ecuador — "mborazo, . Cotopaxi, . Antisana, Pichincha, . Cayambe, Andes of New Granada — Pic de Tolima, . P«t. 3,000 6,800 7,510 8,000 13,000 12,102 16,546 16,040 22,000 21,000 21,150 21,290 18,500 20,320 21,420 18,887 19,137 1 5,922 19,648 1S.314 This last-named mountain is said to be the only one in New Granada that rises above the limit of i*r- petoal snow. All the others appear to fall short of that line. HEIGHT OF i Chilian Andes — La Cumbre, Portillo, Bolivian Andes — Potosi, Las Gualillas, tn Andes— Alto de Jacaibamba, . Lachagual, Antarangra, iff Ecuador — nay, Andes of New Granada- Quindiu, . FcaJ. 12,454 14,305 14,320 15,135 15,480 16,199 11.:.. I These passes will bear a comparison with the loftiest pinnacles in Europe. The last and I a the highest summit of the Pyrenees ly I ; while the last but two, that of Antarangra, 1 lerndon traversed, soars 3S9 feet above Mont Blanc, the Eliminating peak of the Alps. The i variety of surfaei b and levels. They appear to skirt, as often I as practicable, the mountain-torrents ; and, when ANDES. that is invj timoa surmount them by bridges, and avoid them by of n path cut along the shoulder of the overhanging with respect to the mountain-torrents, Herndon, after leaving Am hind him, was enabled t<> avail him i inrce. ' a the traveller,' says he, 'isc lemed, there are not, on the route we have travelled, two ranges of the A. — that is, he has not to ascend and d and then ascend and doso nd another, me that he crosses at Antar is downward, till he however, there are two ranges. He the first or western range have broken their way b t 1 "' b id, makin ; d© p goi i , at the bottom of which the road ■ nerallyrus the i' tnge thousands i above the traveller's head.' In addition to the essential | ich a course, Herndon encountered, on one occasion, an incidental danger, which he thus describes — the scene being a narrow path on- i of an almost precipitous hill: 'Mr Gibbon was riding ahead. Just as he was about to turn a sharp bend, the head of a bull peered round it on the ill scent. When the bull came in full view, he d ; anil we could see th other cattle clustering over his quarters, and hear tl the cattle-drivers, far behind, urging on their herd. 1 happened to be abreast of a slight natural excava- tion; and dismounting, 1 ]>ut my shoulder a my mule's flank, and pressed her into this friendly retreat; but I saw no escape for Gibbon. The bull, with lowered crest and sava i lool ulyon, and actually got his head b fcwi □ the perpendicular wall and the neck of Gibbon's mule. But his saga- cious beast, pressing her haunches hard against the rock, gathered her feet close under her, and turned as on a pivot. This placed the bull on the outside ; and he rushed by at the gallop, followed in single file by the rest of the herd.' In the bridging of the mountain-torrents, a good deal of niil yed. Som chains are suspended from side to side; and some- a rough flooring is laid between projecting beams from either bank, which have pre 1 lixed as solidly as possible. Nature also has done something in this respect to help man, having thrown two bridges of her own over a fearful chasm at Icononzo. The torrent, which they span, falls down a beautiful cataract into a murky crevice— the noisy haunt of nocturnal birds. At a height of ■! I above th'- foaming waters, the two bridges hang in mid-air, both of them, apparently, though in differ- ent ways, the work of an earthquake. The upper on ■ is merely a fragment of the original san must have resisted the shock that formed the rent ; while the lower, probably the most 8 arch in the world, consists of time detached rocks, : justed as to support each other. The loftiest pinnacles of the A., when \ ; from the table-lands, and, still more, when seen from the crests of the passes, lose, to tie the beholder, much of their real altitude. Under such circumstances, not a single mountain p: lii" actual dimensions of Mont Blanc, as over- hanging the Vale of Chamouni. It is only from a distance — best of all, perhaps, from a good offing in the Pacific— that the A. appear in all gigantic proportions. Standing thus on their d, the ino-t rugged and colossal in nature. they almost realise to the spectator the 1 Pyrenees pded on the highest Alps : while, to enhance the grandeur of the scene, the i action, which has heaved the chain into existence, 240 is hen- and there adding to it3 stature a pillar of and flame. 'I/,, geology of th- A. is a little known. It a half a century since Hum- boldt travelled 1 i i ,i and to him we are evt n now chiefly indebted for our knowledge ; them. At that time, geology was in its infancy — its language had not, bi ii ification, at least as it now cxi>ts. unknown, and its facts i d w ith absurd and now li I could, in fact, scarcely ence. It is fortunate that as materials constituting I the A. range — th" ign which nn its back-bone, and the metamorphic rocks which at bulk — our kno, i almost as i 1 explicit GO yi iw, and ; ■ . i .i ; ct to them. Humboldt's observa- asj ioa as ade em ;,. -i rday. Not so as regards the more recent sedimentary formations, i alue of fossils was not then known, and the ■. ideas prevailed as to the i of the stratified rocks. Hence descriptions w ritten at that time are almost valueless to m ittered note i may be gleaned from tlie small number of intelligent travellers who have ly visited these mountains; and to them we are obliged for any of the facts we are able to give ng the deposits referred to. elevation of the A. took place at an epoch to lii' i e-niation of til-' Rocky -Mountains of North America, which are geographically a con- tinuation of them. They are composed, to a very large extent, of stratified metamorphic rocks. It is remarkable that grani in them not as an unstratitied plutomc ruck, but only inter. with the other members of the stratified azoic scries. The true igneous i eitln r to the trappean or volcanic divisions. The grand ridge is everywhere covered with one or other of the varieties of trap (greenstone, clinkstone, basalt, or porphyry). are often broken into columns, and appear at ad - tance like ruined castles, producing a very stnkn g ling through the trap-rocks, there are a num- ber of covering their suurrnits with moic recent igneous rocks. Among tin' mountains spc- citieil above as to altitude, xanteles, Corcobado, Mmchinadom, Antuco, < rualtii I :, Arequipa, Cotopaxi, Antesana, and I'lehiucha belong to this class. Fifty- one volcanoes have been d ed as ei throughout th" whole range. The mountains of for are so extensively and continuously of • origin, that they have been regarded as different safety-valves of one and i burning vault. It is generally maintained that there is a rela- tion between the height of a volcano ami its activity and the frequency of its eruptions. Thus, Stromboli (2957 feet) has continued in a state of activity since the earliest ages, serving the purpose of a light-house to the navigators of the Tyrrhenian Sea ; while a (18,887 feet) and Tunguragua (li;.. r i79 feet) have been aetiv lly onee in a hundred years. Many of these 51 volcanoes have consequently not yet been observed 1 >y Europeans in an active state, in the Quito district there are 111 active, and 7 of doubtful activity ; in Peru and Bolivia, the nil are 9 ami .'! ; in Chili, 17 and 5 : making in all .'i0 active, ami 15 about which there is some uncer- tainty as to their activity. Another characteristic of these volcanoes, resulting from t ! ic alti- tude, is that few of them emit streams of lava. Thus Antisana is probably the only one in the Quito ran,"' that has ejected lava. The force, however, which is repressed apparently by the immense super- incumbent mass which fills the crater, is exhibited ANDES. in a terrific manner when an eruption does take place. Cotopaxi, for instance, the most regular anrl beautiful outlet of this the <_Tnnut without any appar o ler in the succession, except that the varieties of schist depend on the crystalline patent rock below; otherwise, no regidar sequence can be observed; for miles, only granite ami are found, then schist, qua] . 4c., inter- The variety and quantity of the mineral wealth of these rocks is remarkable; with the lion of lead, most of the metals are obtained in large quantities— see below. The topaz, ame- thyst, and other gems are abundant. Lying unconformable with these almost vertical i irphic meks, there occur in the valleys and table-lands, and creepii ase of the moun- reqnire further examination before they ca i ' clearly ood. A. 1 .i nte of the nature of I < will in- arrived at I ling one occur. Tal a on which Bogota is built, which above the sea. He deposits filling up this plain have 1' ient to the present con- not i rily at the present altitude: the whole i • ■ have Imost horizontal rocks, from t B to the i basin consists of many s, limestones, shale, coal, gypsum, and salt. The salt occurs in large quantities, one bed being no 1 i than I'm feet in thickness, and the coal in sufficii nt al - be wrought All rocks have been more or less affe ' proximity to the underlying metamo The molecular action going on below lias in many- places been continued in them, and has induced a :■ at right angles to their planes of stra- ! t patches — some of extent, as the plateau of the Titicaca — cannot yet be referred to any particular geologic epoch. I ' m found near Huanco, in Peru, at tie : of 17,0i»l feet; i ••roiis limestones and sand- have been noticed in Peru at Micuipampa and Huaueavelica. Metah. — The aboriginal term A. is said to have been derived from the Peruvian catfa, which signifies metal in general, or rather, perhaps, cop ticular. Within the limits of the empire of the Incas. mining-tools, evidently not European, have been dug up in various places ; and in one district the ancient Peruvians have left behind them traces of their mining operations at a height of 17,(KK) feet. iver, the term, whatever may- have bees its meaning, appears to have been, at all events, of Peruvian origin, for it does not seem to have been 1 to the great chain of mountains by the aborigines of New Granada. Tl A. are understood to yield every metal used in the arts but lead, and, according to one recent statement, they yield had also. ' is found in Chili, Peru, and New Granada. In Chili, however, it is so little productive, that proverbially a gold-mine is inferior to a silver one, and that, again, to a copper one. In Pern, most abundant between the 0th and 7th parallels; i further south, to the east of Lima, the of Carabayo have l>een recently wrought to "Teat advantage; and further south still, to the east of Titicaca, very rich washings are situated on the river Tipuani. In New Granada, gold-mines are illy so inaccessible as not to bear the expense of working them. The washings, again, thou haps remotely the product of the A., are Confined chiefly to the alluvial soils that lie between the chain and cither sea. Silver also is found in Chili, Peru, and New Granada. In Chili, the most valuable, almost the only very valuable, mines are wrought on th face of the A., not far from the city of Mendoza, already mentioned in conni ction with the breadth of I i Peru, i 1 e J lost productive mines are those of Pasco and PotosL In those of Pasco, which now been open for more than two and a quarter centuries without even approaching to exhaustion, the ore is a mixture of silver and oxide of iron. In the mines, again, of Pi - very has become a proverb, there are said to be no than 5000 exi , while, to all appear- upper crust of the inexhaustible its has been penetrated. In ' I ada.it is with silver as it has been shewn to b< with the mines of the former metal, as well as of the ssible as not to bear the le of working them. M,, ■ is found in <,b:;ro. near the . which lies to the north-v. I taking its nan ' from this metal ; and it is found likewise in Pern, not far from Gnancavelica, a town sit heady stat irth of th" group of Cuzco. The mercury hiefly in combination with sulphur, forming what is called cinnabar. appears to exist only in New Granada; but like the gold-washingfl of that country, it is found rather in the alluvial soils, that have been u from the chain, than in the chain itself. 'y iii Chili, but also in Peru. In the latter country, it is of little account in com- parison with silver; but, in the former, it may be styled the staple metal, or even the staple production. ANDIRA— ANDIRON. The most valuable mines are in tho northern and southern provinces ; in Coquimboand Co] and in the 11 I of Araocania below. Climate. — The climate of the A. is, at every point, affected by three different c rasiderations ; with respect to the length of the chain, p ■ rition with I ot to its breadth, position with n ip ct to its In connection with tl of the chain, the :ons of climate, I peculiar than its variations under either of t£ pecta, are not merely a counterpart of similar changes in other parts of the globe. In the new world generally, . and falls more rapidly in p ti miles to the Atlantic, are almost unifi and sterile. Patagonia and Peru, has something in common •■■ nbling the former in its southern half, and the la'.t. r in its in. To take the Pacific side alone: in the ra parts, showers are only occasional, some- at an interval of three years — the deficiency partly supplied by frequent dews; while, south of lat. 34°, the rains are sufficiently copious to form considerable i In connee', of the chain, the variations of climate stand alone in the zh at a great interval, only by the corn in ( I oierica. The A a familiar air I . it is true, their grada; ii mate. But, sit in round numbers, on about the 45th parallel, they :it only half of the latitude! between the equator and the pole ; while the A. of Quito, before reaching this level, must have seen melting into each other the teni ! linor, and Italy. Taking the snowline of the A. of Quito t of the Alps at 8000, the lower and hotter 10,000 feet of the former have no counterpart at all on the latter. Now, llrndon found Tarma to lie within this 1 precisely at an elevation of 'JT.'SS feet ; and hi saw apples, ries, almonds, grapes, and maize — a state of things not far behind that at the foot of the Al: ice remaining one general observation must close this article, [n an open locality, the naked eye may embrace half a zone, for, to quote a traveller's words, it may look upwards to the barley-field and the potato-patch, and downwards to the sugar-cane and the pine -apple. Perhaps the most striking instance of this more than telescopic vision is connected with the magnifi- cent fall of Tequendama, the single outlet of tho waters of the table-land of Bogota. This fall, 600 f - t high, leaps down from the temperate zone to the torrid, from rich crops of wheat to a few scattered palms. ANDI'RA, a genus of plants of the natural order nlionacaz, bavin almost orbicular, one-e eeded pod. — A. (formerly known yainermu) ( in low savai i the West Indies, and is there called Cabbage Tree or ' Tree. It is a tree of considerable height, having pinnate leaves, I panicles of i lilac flowers. Its bark, called Co " ■ Bark or Worm Bark, is a powerful anthelmintic; and . h it has recently been 1 from the eopecias of Britain, still finds a place in those r countries, along i Bark, the bark of A. relusa (formerly (/■ :• native of Surinam. Similar prop ide in the bark of the allied Geoffroya. Cabbage Bark contains an alkaloid called ■ A'NDIRON, or IIANDIRON,is a term frequently to be met with in inventories of the furniture of old houses; and in some parts of the country is still ir what is more generally known as a fire-dog. Andirons wi - burning wood on an hearth, and consisted of a horizontal bar raised on short supports, with an upright standard at one used, one standing at each side of the hearth, and the logs of wood rested across tho horizontal bara. The upright portions of the A. ANDORRA— ANDRAL. were of various forms, some of them, in later times, i ■ • .1 human figure. More generally, the design was architectural, much ornamented with Andiron. arabesques, and not anfreqtj b the mono- grams of their possessors. The ornamental parts of the A. were sometimes silver, but more frequently copper. ANDO'RRA, a valley in the Eastern Pyrenees, I n the French department of Ariege and Catalonia, in Spain. It is enclosed by moun- tains, through which its river, the Ealira, I to join the Scgre at Urgel ; and its inaccessi- bility naturally fits it for being the seat of the interesting little republic which here holds a kind of semi-independent position between France and Spain. The whole territory contains only 19S square miles, with 17,800 inhabitants, and is divided into six parishes. The capital is Andorra, on the Balira, with a popidation of 2000. Dense forests supply abundance of timber; there is much excellent | re; vines and fruit- trees flourish on the lower grounds, and the mountains contain rich iron-mines; but agriculture is so neglected, and the quantity of arable land so small, that the inhabitants partly depend for corn upon importation from France. A. was declared a free state by Charlemagne, in reward for services rendered to him by its inha- bitants, when he was marching against the Moon, He retained certain rights which Louis le Dchonnaire Bids transferred to the Bishop of Urgel, in 819 A. I)., and which the Bishop of Urgel still exercises. The republic is governed by a sovereign council of twenty-four members, chosen by the people, and the council elects one of its members to be syndic for life, who exercises the chief i'.e power. There are two ju viguiera, of when the first is appointed by France, which exercises a kind of protectorate, and lie second by the Bishop of Urgel. The first viguier is a bman, and the second a native of A. each viguier is an inferior judge called a bailie : but I from his judgment to the viguier, and finally to the Court of Cassation at Paris, or to iscopal College at Urgel. In criminal 1 from the court of the r itself, in which the first - s. The te is derived from lands, and aconaiderable taxes. A sum of %0 francs is paid annually to France, in return for which is granted the privil fcion of corn. An annual payment of 450 livrea is made to the Bishop of Urgel. The manner of life of the Andorrans is very simple. There are schools, but educat io a low state. There is a military or tion. In recent ware, the Andorrans have warmly Supported France. A'NDOvJSR, a market-town of Hampshire, lies in the north-west part of the county, lat. 51" 12' >>'. long. 1° 2S' W. The origin of the town dates from a remote antiquity, as might indeed be suspected from its name, which is a modification of the Saxon i.e., ferry over the river Ande. It is said that the corporation of A. is as old as the time of King John. The inhabitants, amount 6200, are eh* fly supported by their malt-trade, their agriculture, and their traffic in (amber with Ports- mouth. At Weyhill, a few mUes to the west of the town, a fair is held, formerly one of the most cele- brated and important in England. It lasts for six days. The church of A is a new erection, in the early English style of architecture, and cost i'30,000, the whole of which was defrayed by the late rector, the Rev. W. S. Goddard. Various relics of antiquity have been discovered in the vicinity of Andover. (Pop. 1S71— 5500.) A'N DOVER, a township in Ma88ai ■': as tts, about 21 miles to the north of Boston, reaching on the north to the Merrhnac. It is inter ■, while the water-power of its streams is loyed in the manufacturing of I, linen, an Fl nship was incorporated in 1646, just 26 years after the first landing of the Pilgrim Fathers. Its population, by the census of is 6945. A. is famous, even in Massachusetts, for its educational institutions. It has two of a superior description — the Theo- logical Seminary of the Congregationalists, and the ! Academy, instituted within live or six years after the close of the war of independence, tl. the efforts of two brothers from whom it derh name. Both these establishments are liberally con- stituted and well attended ; and the latter in parti- cidar, with its revenue of .£12,000 sterling, would be reckoned very wealthy in any part even of the old world. — Besides this A., there are eleven other places of the same name in the United St ANDRAL, Gabriel, a celebrat d French physi- cian, member of the Institute and of the Academy of Medicine, was born in Paris on the 6th of November 1797. In 1S23 he Bstal repu- by the publication of the first part of lus it M£dicale; in 182S, partly through the ice of M. Boyer-Collard, whose daughter he had married, he was appointed Professor o and in 1830 was advanced to the chair of internal Pathology, a branch of medical science which had always possessed great attractions for him. A., in fact, commenced his investigations with pathological anatomy. He presented to the Academy, at a com- paratively early period of his cai e du Tube 'a the Pathological Anatomy of the Alimentary Canal), which was greatly admired. Besides, he published, in 1S29, a PrtcU I of the same science, which met with striking success ; and his Cliniipte '< treats princip <'■' of the abdomen, and of the brain. In 1839, A. was almost unanimous! by his colli I to succeed Broussais in the chair y and l therapeutics, the highest in I Here he has shewn the vast range of his i l.nowl dgc ; but in oeeu much with the dead body, it is he has not paid sufficient attention to the fore the organs o to • ihibit traces of alteration. Though in his general practice, he has time to write severe.! other works besides ntioned. In ls:;."> appeared his I and considerably enlarged Laen i '-. ur : in 1836 l s ->7. 37, his report to the Academy Star (a Truilemeiit de la I Typholdepar leg Vuryatife; in 1S43 he presented to Ml ANDRE- ANMiK.l'.. i I A'NDRB, .Inns, an unfortunate soldier wh his death under oircnm tani , n his name a pi i b I i ,:. I 1751 of G-enevese parents. At the age of twen entered tin- army, ami soon after joined the British d America, whi re, in a tew years, thron lav.iur of Sir Henry Clinton, he i tant post of adjutant-general, v ii of major. Sir B iry Clinton b on in treat •■ i American gi m i -! \ Id, > ho 1 the ol \'. ■ Point, for thi .. yal to the British uf thi with its ma eluding the whole stock of powder of the Ami rican confidi '1 i'i' cond ,.u his part tu Major A. 'I i conducted by Arnold ami A. under assumed names, and as if it related t<> commerci ' i i.l the treachery was so well concealed, that the Americans had no suspicion whatever of Arnol ,. At last it remained only to Bettle the tun.- and m carrying tin- scheme into execution ; ami these it was determined should be settled in a personal in, between Arnold anil A., i required such an interview, or, more probably, because Clinton hail some misgivings as t i the identity of h i indent various proj I 1 about the interviev having failed, A., at last, on the 20th September I7so, pi iceeded in a I sloop of war— tin- Pultun up tin' Hudson American lines. Tin- original thi .which he was 1 ''•' aold i i < Hint cai ried y to a 1 !. who, not suspecting anything, was for im ..n to Ai no],;. Here a cl of escape opene I for him, but only for a m ly sent, with the papers ton his person, to General V Jamieson, mean- time, having sent word to Arnold of the c 214 ' of A., Arnold tU ,1 to i I . and so saved his A., as a spy taken in the aet, was liable, according of war, to be once. But the rank of lie pa .,! the eircuin- ' ' i l lived i 'i lie case I loard of general officers, to rep with their opinion of the light in which the pi m i ought to be 'i I, and I he pnni hment Hint to 1 'lie' Board found that ho Oil ia to b ' , n, my, and punished with di luoua effort dor to re him n, presented to Wa M no:, irded as a I 1. He i nt ired the ■ I ondi r a fla of trui ; 2. That all at i within the 1 by the ea, On A.'s own authority, ontrary to the tact; and to the Americans it rightly appeared that the | it of tin- off ace ' omunication with the has,, traitor Arnold. All the efforts of Clinton failed to move the American commander. A. \ I [iced I ■ death. itish should surrender 6 But thi dd not think of doing ; the sense of 1 ur win. h, yield rit of war, offered n with Arnold for the 1.1 1 and liberties of liis compatriots, made it impossible r up tie- i unaway traitor to the death that sdier who only went too far in his zeal for lus country. A. suffered death by hanging at Tappan, in the Of New York, on the L'd 'Octoher 1"S(), in his IT. His death n , ' ■ I i'.. ' sympathy. The whole British army went " him ; a. monumi at was en ited to b men j in Westmin ter Mibi y, and in is^l his were disinterred at Tappan, and conveyed to a ■ 76 near his monm b has been written on the subject of A.'s execution. It ha i ofb a b L and recently by Lord Mahon, in 1 '/ ,■■' / (vol. vii.), that Ii : unjust. But a narrative of the circui , they are to be gathered from Lord Mahon's own | shews tliat the American general had no native. [ndeed, the circumstani to shew that A. was not a spy, in the ordinary BI use, all go to prove that he was a spy of the worst sort. 'I I I of Arnold would have been Ann rican can a ; and it is went or lly within the \nieriean lines, ami was captured returning in with the information that was to i that success, is to be held in a better case than the common soldier who steals his way the i tent of his preparations and forces. A wa me and amiable man, of consider- ints; he was a good artist, and . when in En land, to have been known to certain literary circles of his tini". These circum- stances naturally hi I the feeling with which \ his fad ■ .1,1. ; of the Society for tho I Diffusion d Knowledge, voL ii. ; also, in vol. vi of tl fiheS ■ ic ' ■■ ■ ■/ 1 1 S ! of it 'in Lord Mahm's History qf\ Charles J. Biddlc— an essay containing a full narrative of the case, with a discussion of all ' ona of law and duty raised in connection I with it. AXDREJE. .Tun. Vaixnt., a very original thinker and writer, born at Herrenberg, near Tubingen, on I ANDREOSSY— ST ANDREW. the ITIH of August 15S0. II" fcudied at Tubingen, ■pent some time in travelling in the south of uued ecclesiastical preferments in the ' Lurch of hi i country, and dii d on . I line 27, 1654, at Stuttgart, w here hewas cl to the court. Eminently practical in his men! p on, he was grieved to see the principles of Christianity made thei ubji t of mere empty di tions, and all science and philosophy in like m perverted by a frivol asticism. To the cm Tee tie tlii ; ].]•. vailing lendi my of Lis age, & I of his whole life were directed. Hiswr are i markable for the wit and humour, as well as for the learning, acutoncKS, and moral power which they display. He has been long regarded as the founder, or at least the restorer of the order of the Rosicrucians (q. v.); and this opinion is pis supported by reference to three publications — the it Chriftiani Rotenkreuz (1616), the Fama Fraternit ■ is I'. C, i. e., rosea; cruci* (1014), and the Confamo FraternitatAt 1'. 0. (1015), of the iii I i ; wl ion he acknowledged I in If the author, and the other two have so much resemblance to it as ; i be evidently from the same pen. But, however works were misunderstood !>y his contempo- raries, and particularly by those who were inclined to in in religion, his intention in them was cer- ■ mate or promote secret societies of mystics and enthusiasts, lnit to ridicule the follies of the age. lie attacked Rosicrucianism itself in some of his later writings with great severity. Among tli" best of his works are his Mt.ni)>)m$ s. Siilyri- corwm Dialogorwm Ceniuria (1017). His Myth Christiana (1019) is another of the best known. He wrote an allegoric poem called Dii Chri '■"> , :i (of which an edition was published, Stuttg. i an autobiography (Winterthur, 17'Jtl). Herder has done much to extend a knowledge of A.'s works in the present age. ANDREOSSY, Antoim: Francois, Count, was born on March 6, 1761, at Castelnaudary, inLangue- doe, ami u.-i [son of Francois A., who, along withRiquct, constructed the canal of Lai doc m the 17th c. He entered the army as a ii- un- tenant of artillery in 1781, joined the lb vohiti rose rapidlyin military rank, served under Bom in Italy and Egypt, accompanied him on hi retui from Egypt to France, and took part in the ri tion of the ISth Brumaire. Jle was ambassador at n during the peace of Amiens, and afterwards at Vienna, was governor of Vienna when it was in the hands of the French after the battle of Wagram, ami was for some time ambassador at Constant!- nople, from which he was recalled by Louis XVI IT. on the Restoration. He was raised to the p by Napoleon after Ids return from Elba. After the of Waterloo, he advocated the recall of the Bourbons; but as deputy from the department of Aube, li nerally took part with the oppo B i 1 at Montauban on September 10, ls^S. He was a man of eminent scientific attainments, bed himself as a member of the Institute founded at Cairo. One of lus lirst works was the ■ Generate du Canal du Midi (bar. 1800; ii \s i dition, 2 vols., 1805), in which he asserted the right of his great-grandfather to honours long enjoyed by Riquet. Among the most valuable ol his works are his Mimoire hut Vlrruption du Pont- En < in dant . Ins Mhnoxrt . i . i i \hort dt Thra 1812 1814 a! pendant F Annie 1826 (Par. 1828), a work of importance in physical goo raphy. ANDREW, the first disciple of Christ, and tie, wis, like his brother Peter, a fisherman. Previous to 1 i nrist as the Mi 1 ii the Ba] John L 40, 41.) -I A., as an apostle, after the death of Christ, is unknown. Tradition tells us that, ig the gospel in Scythia, Northern Greece, and ESpirus, he Buffered martyrdom on the cross at in Achaia, (;•_' or 70 a. d. A cross formed ns obliquely placed is styled st A.'s Cross. In the early times of the < Ihurch, a spurious supple- fco the Ai ts of the Ap in sects under the title Acta Andrea:. The anniversary of Si A. falls on Novi D A. is the patron saint of Sent land; he is also held in \eneration in Russia, as the apostle who, ace rding to tradition, first | gospel in that country. In both countries there is an order of hood named in his honour. ST ANDREW, or THE THISTLE, a Scottish ordi i- of knighthood, named after the patron of Scotland. Nisbet, with pardonable partiality, it to all other orders, purely military, '< for the antiquity of it, which gives it a phv I ney over all other orders now in being. (Heraldry, Part iv. c. xi., p. 107.) He then cecds, after Iii hop I. ley, to recount the story of the St A.'s Cross having appeared in heaven to Achaius, king of Scots, and Hungus, king of the Picts, as a sign of the victory which they should gain the following day over Athelstane, king of id; and their subsequent vow, when the pro- was fulfilled, to bear it on their ensigns and banners. The recognised date of the order is, how- lier than the reign of James V. Having falbn into disrepute after the Reformation, it was 1 by James II. of Great Britain in 1687, and re-established by Queen Anne December 31, 1703. The star of the Order of the Thistle is worn on Star of the Order of the Thi le. the left side. It consists of a St A.'s Cross of silver embroidery, with rays emanatu the points of the cross, in the centre of which is a thistle of gold and gr< en upon a field of green, sur- rounded by a circl . bearing the motto of der m golden . : The badg i i worn pendent to the i or to a dark-green ribbon over the 1 and tied under the arm. It consists of a figure of st A. with the er 1 and chased on rays ild ; the i i and feel resting upon the ground of enamelled g) n. The collar is of thistles, inter- mingled with rue. By a statute passed in May 1S'J7, the of the »i\ and sixteen knights. The Liters 1C.T. are after the nam I of kni hta of the order. The motto is 'Nemo me impune laoessit.' Nisbet, differ- ■. ['refers 'laces ig more of daring and gallantry.' 245 ST ANDREW— ANDRIEUX. ST ANDREW, The RrjBBUX ObdXR OF, is tho highest in the empire, and was founded I ( in 1698. It is confined t" members of the il family, princes, generals-in-ohief, and others rank. The badge of the order shews on the i hiss enamelled in bin ■, bearing a of the saint surmounted l>y a < ■ I of the cross the letters S. A. 1*. R. [6 us Susaia). On the reverse is a spread eagle, with the legend (in Russian) For i and loyalty, and the name of the saint. Xhi consists of St Andrew's Crosses alternating with imperial crowns. ANDREWS, Lancelot, an emini prelate, was born in London in 151 successively at the Coopers' Free School, Ra: bant Taylors' School, ami Pembroke Hall, i , of which college, after 1 tinguished himself by his industry B I he was in 1676 elected a fellow. On t he accompanied the Earl of Huntingdon to the north of England. His talents attracted the notice of Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's secretary of who appointed him successively to the parsonage of Alton, and the vicarage of St I In 1589 he was appointed a prebendary and canon residentiary of St Paul's, a prebendary of the colle- g'ate church of Southwell, and Master of Pembroke all. The queen next testified 1 i for his gifts and piety by appointing him one of her chaplains in ordinary, and a prebendary and dean of Westminster. He rose still higher in favour with King James, who was well qualified to appreciate bis extensive learning and pecidiar style of oratory. He attended the Hampton Court conferee one of the ecclesiastical commissioners, and part in the translation of the Bible. The , on which he was engaged was the first twelve books of the Old Testament. In 1605 be was con- secrated Bishop of Chichester. In ItiO'J b translated to the see of Ely, and appoint do bis majesty's privy-councillors, both for England and Seotland. To the latter country he the king in 1617, as one of the royal instruments for persuading the Scotch of the superiority of episcopacy over presbytery. In the following -trans- lal. 1 to \\ meliester, when: he died on the , I : 1625. Bishop A. was, with the exception ol the most learned English theolo ianofh it me. Asa ded by bis contempor. unrivalled ; but the excellent qualities of bis dis- courses are apt to sutler much depreeiai i ii judgment from the extremely artificial and frigid character of the style. His principal works his life were two treatises in reply to Cardinal Pcllarmin, in defence of the r princes over ecclesiastical assemblies. His works consist of sermons, lectures, and manuals of devotion. Bishop A. was the most eminent of that m the 17th c. of which the 19th lias a faint revival under the name of Pu 1 i binctive peculiarities were high views ol siastical authority, and of the efficacy of sacraments, ceremonies, and apostobc succession, and e opposition to Puritanism. In bis private hie, A. ingularly pious, meek, and charitable. ANDREWS, Sr, an ancient city of Scotland, is situated on the bay of the same name, in 1'iie- shire, about 10 miles from Cupar, and 44 miles from Edinburgh. Tradition dates the origin of this ■ far back as the 9th c, when St Rcgulus or I said to have taken refuge in this place, then called Mucros, and afterward Kilrymout, bringing -with him some of the bones of St Andrew, which, being en- shrined here, continued to be an object of pilgrimage HA for several centuries. A ea\e on the sea-shore still bears the name of St Kulc. He w nuld rem to have founded a CuMm mom fcery, od which tho h King Constantino, having resigned bis ot about the year 9 '"• Probably al in I the same time, it 1 ami of a prelate, •bishop of the ' 001 'lined to enjoy a i -e among the other bishops, until, in 1471, the see was erected i i rchbishopric, when he bi D pi imat ■. In tie nijl of Ah I., a priory of ■ was founded at St A., which afterwards became one of the chief ecclesias- bablishments in Scotland. The last prior was i : i; eni Moray. In 1 1 10 St A. was on at' 1 a >.. with consent of King David I. ■hedral, COD I 1162, and consecrated in 1318, was sacrificed in 1559 to the frenzied teal mob, an outrage which it is customary to attribute to the preaching of Knox. The i gable, part of the western, and part of the south side 11 ml of the transept, are all that remain of this It was the second cathedral of St A., the first being what is now called St Rule's Church, but was long known as 'the old cathedral 1 Of this interest o I edifice, built between 1127 and 1144, the roofless chancel, and a square tower 108 feet high, are still preserved They arc in the style. The umv. ■ A., the oldest in Scotland, was founded by Bishop Wardlaw in 1410. It con- sists of the United College of St Salvator, founded hop Kennedy in 1456, and St Leonard, 1 in 1512; and St Mary's College, founded by Beaton in 1537. The education in the latter is \ i ly theological. The number of chairs in the colleges which constitute the university is 14, and the attendance of late years has been rather in 200. Tin- castle, onco a very ext and strong building, is now in ruins. It was for some time the residence of I Beaton, Who i I r. !;;. La the ecclesi -I ipolis of Scotland, an ancient Beat of lei and the centre of a COnsid ■ ol the I; i and ■ that period, it ha ! greatly i import ince -, 1 al ii i i ki ellent educational .■ i i . i place still make it an ice for a hi] bly population. Its chief interest i I connected with the past. Here, in the centre of the papal jurisdiction in Scotland, the Reformation first its appearance; Scotland's proto-martyr, Patrick Hamilton, Buffered here in 1527, and < Wiflhart in 1546, and here John Knox first opened his lips as a preacher of the Reformed faith. The trade of St A. is inconsiderable. The harbour is difficult of access, and particularly exposed to tho cast wind. A f' 008 and fishing-boats con- stitute all the shipping of the port. St A. is much lis d as a bathing-place, and the game i is more practised than anywhere else in So< on the Links or downs which stretch along the shore to the north of the town for about two miles. Besides its university, St A. affords singular a for cheap and excellent education in the Madras College, established by the well-known Dr Andrew Bell, which attracts a very large number of pupils, the annual average being about 900. _ The grammar school and commercial school are incor- porated with it. St A. is a royal and parliamentary . and unites with several smaller burghs in returning a member to parbament. The corporation includes a provost, dean of guild, and four bailies. Pop. in 1S51— parish, 6740; parliamentary 1 5107. (1871, parliamentary burgh, 6316.) ANDRIEUX, Francois Guillaume Jean ANDROGYNOUS— ANDRONICUS. Stanislaus, a French writer of comedies, was born -it Melon, .May 0, 1769. In 1708, he was • deputy of the Seine department, and 6 ' If by his speeches on several points of public St. In 1 8D0 he was made Secretary, a I afterwards, President of the Tribunal. From this post he was removed by Bonaparte in 1802, and afterwards devoted himself to literature. During '' political career he had written a comedy, Lea E'uurdis, 1787. From 1803 to 1815 he held a pro- ship in the Polytechnic School, and in 1814 was appointed professor in the College de I Louis XVII i. gave him a place in the 1816, of which lie was made perpetual secretary in 1829. In this position he took an active part in tli'' preparation of the Dlclionnairc de V Ar ilis most popular dramas were Moliire avec ses Amis, /■'■ vteux Fat, and the tragedy of 1 A collection of his esthetic lectures was published the title La Ph des BMes Lettres (I'aris, 1828). He died May 10, 1S33. ANDROGYNOUS (i. e., male-female ; from two words), a term sometimes employed in botany to designate an inflorescence which con. distinct male and female flowers; and more fre- ly in zoology in reference to animals which possess a distinct male and female generative system in the same individual. This is the case with very many of the lower hinds of animals, but is not inconsistent with a necessity for the co-operation of two individuals iu the propagation of the species. Bee Ilr.r.MAi'iiiLouiTi:, Physiology and PEruouuc- •noN. AXDRO'MACIIE, the wife of Hector, was the daughter of King EStion of Thebes,, in Cilicia, and is one of the finest female characters in Homer's During her childhood, Achilles slew her father and her seven brothers. Her love of Hector is pathetically depicted in her address to the hero on his going to battle, and her lamentation over his death [Iliad, and 21). After the fall of Troy, she was given into the hands of Pyrrhus (son of Achilles), who took her away to Bogus, but after- wards surrendered her to Helenus (Hector's brother), by whom she had a son named Cestrinus. A. is the heroine of one of the tragedies of Euripides. ANDRO'MEDA, d d hte* of the Ethiopian king ius, by Cassiopeia, was, like her mother, remarkably beautiful. When Cassiopeia, with motherly pride, boasted that her daughter was more beautifid thau the Nereids, offended deities prayed Neptune to revenge the i lit. Accordingly, the ter- of King Cephcus was ! by a flood ; and a terrible sea-monster ap- peared, whose wrath, the of Amnion declared, could only be appeased by the sacrifice of A. As A. was fastened to a rock, and hft as a prey to the monster, Perseus, returning from his victorious battle with Medusa, saw the tifid victim, and determined to rescue and win her. 1 ravin;: slain the sea-monster, i A. as lus reward. Minerva gave A. a place among the constellations. AXDRO'MEDA, a genus Andromeda polifolia. of plants of the natural order Erieaeea (q. v.), distinguished by a S-valved ale, which split; up through the back of the cells ; anthers with two awns, and a globose corolla with the orifice contracted. The sjiecies, which are pretty numerous, have very much the I appearance of heaths. Most of them are small shrubs, but some attain a considerable size. The only British species is A. occasionally found in] t parts of the country, and common throughout the north of Europe and of North America, a small evergreen shrub with beautiful rose-coloured drooping flowers. It has acrid narcotic properties, and sheep are sometimes lulled by eating it. 'II Ilk- manner poison gosta in Nepaul ; and similar effects are ascribed to A. Mariana and other m in the United States. — A. fasiigiata was observed by Dr Hooker abounding at great elevations in the Himalaya; a humble shrub, resembling the heather of Scotland. The leaves are used as a substitute for tea. See SosRSL-XBXK ANDRONI'CUS, the name of three Byzantine emperors. — A. I., the son of Isaac Comnenus, was one of the most conspicuous characters of his age, which produced no man more brave, more pro!' or more perfidious. His life was full of extraordinary vicissitudes. During part of his youth, he was a prisoner of the Turks in Asia Minor. He afterwards spent some time at the court of his cousin, the Emperor Manuel, and a niece of the emperor became his mistress. He was appointed to a military command in Cilicia; but although his courage, his noble appearance, and his gracious manners made him the favourite of the army, his imprudence and waste of time in dissolute pleasures involved him in aged in a treasonable correspond- ence with the king of Hungary and the German emperor, he was thrown into prison by Manu ' remained t! tweh i years; but at last succeeded in making his escape, and, although not without further extraordinary adventures, reached Kiew, the residence of the Grand Duke Jaroslav. He regained the favour of his cousin by persuading the Russian prince to join him in the invasion of Hungary, and by his gallantry in that war; but incurred his displeasure again by refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Prince of Hungary, the intended husband of Manuel's daughter, as pre- sumptive heir to the empire. He was sent in honour. hment to Cilicia, where he found a new mistress in a sister of the empress. The resentment of the emperor breaking out against him, he sought refuge in a pilgrimage to JerusaJ in. His ions of zeal made his former conduct to be and he was invested with the lordship of Berytus; but '. y became, if po more scandalous than ever in the seduction of Theo- dora, the widow of Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, who lived with him for years as his mistress. The emperor's anger made Palestine unsafe for him, and he fled with Theodora to Damascus, and finally I among the Turks in Asia Minor, with a band of outlaws, making frequent inroads into the Roman province of Trebizond, from which he carried away Theodora and her children were at last taken and sent to Constantinople, and thither he followed, imploring, with a chain about his neck, and iu a form of abject submission, the forgh of the emperor, which he obtained, but was sent to in Pontus. After the death of Manuel, popular indignation was excited against the empress, who acted as regent for her son. Alexius II., and A. was recalled in ll 1 ^'- to deliver the empire from her tyranny. He was appointed guardian of the young IS in the empire. He caused the empress-mother to be strangled, and 217 AXDRONICUS-ANEMOMETER. afterwards ' i dow he : . B one, and restored prosperity to ,; but tyranny and murder were its characi ■ istii • in the capital. II. s.; da bounds to i itification of his reven II who [i .1 him, .'111.1 big ji le rivals rually sanguinary. At last) a destined victim, I .i , i ae of his relatives, having ; i Imivli of St Sophia f"r sanctuary, a i gathered, and a addi a insurrection placed Isaac on the throne, whilst A., now 73 years i put t ■ by the infuriated poi •' horrible mutilations and tortu iber 12, 1185. Hi' was the last of the Comneni that sat on 'rone of Constantinople; but the bug 1 (uki a and Empi cors of Trebii >nd n re d of his sua Manuel. — A. EL, tli ded the throne in 12S3; but after and inglorious reign, was driven from it in 13 his grandson, A. 111., who, after a reign equally inglorious, died in 1341. During these i vince after province was conquered by the Tin ANDRONTCUS— surnamcd Cybrj his birthplace, Cyrrhos in Syria— is said to have erected the octagonal tower call I the Tower of the Winds at Athens, a building of the 3d '>r 2d c. b.c. It probably received its name from figi I the eight principal winds, and from a 1 Triton which surmounted it, and shewed the direc- tion of the wind— the lirst known weather-cock. ANDRONI'CUS of Rhodes, a Pi philoi sopher, lived at Rome in Cicero's time, and employed If in criticising and explaining the works of Aristotle, a great number of which he was pi ans of preserving to us. None of the v, of A. I, . xtant; for the works him are probably the productions of Andronicut Cullislos, a learned Creek of the 15th c, who taught the Greek language in Italy and Pr ANDROPO'GON. SeeliBMON-O] ANEGA'DA, the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, its hit. being about 19' N., and its long. between 64° and G 3° W. It contains about 13 miles, with a scanty population of little more I a : I. It is of coral fori like most islands of the kind, low and bi I 1 y re fs. One reef ill par- ticular, which runs out 10 miles to the south-east, is marked, even on ordinary maps, as the scene of numerous shipwrecks. ANEMO'METER(Gr.a the wind, ami metron, a mi Fr. ant . Ger. Wind- mower), an instrument for mea- suring the strength and . of the wind. Among tin instruments which have been design d for this purpose, that invented by Dr kind ( 1 7 7 -~> A. D.) is still considered to be one of the most convenient and accurate. The accompanying figure gives a representation of it. AH ami i Dare two upright glass tubes about 9 inches ind -,',, of an inch wide, connected below by a much narrower tube. E, varying from -,',-, ' an inch in width. The tube AB is bent at right so as to receive the wind blowing into it itally. A scale, graduated in inches and parts of an inch, is placed between the tubes, and the whole instrument is made to turn round the , L, which can be screwed into a block of E Dr Lind's A. wood by a screw at the bottom. When the in tru- ment is used, water is poured into the tubes until the level in both stands at the middle ■ When ad i upon either column of liquid, the 1 rel of both is accurately the but when the mouth of the tube AB is turned towards the wind, the column in AB is pp ed downwards, and that | roportionably, I the t wo columns ilumn of water which the force i wind sustains. Now. as we know that the pre atmosphere at the earth's surface supports a 1 ; v. ith a force of about 2060 lbs. on the square foot, this instru- ives us immediately the data from which n I the pre ore or force of the v. ind. Thus, the wind to blow with a force sufficient to- raise the our column one inch above the other, we I or about &Vo* lbs, of pressure on the square foot as the force of the wind. The following table gives approximately the tion of the he water in the A. to the and velocity of the wind in winds of different characters. ( odynamics.) Height of Water. Frcsstire per Squiio per lluur. Wind, . • , \ in. lbs. Fresh Breeze, . ! ■ ',;,- .i i<;; . in 1, 1 ., r » - - Tempest, . . 4 „ 03 Of other .;■ t. in use consist of small metal ■ 1 to a horizontal axis, and like a wind-mill. The revolutions .inch in the same way as is seen in the ordinary m met and from this record, within I me, the velocity of the wind is aed. [n mi teorological observatories, or where a coin].', le n .. tern £ ptof the direction and strength of the wind, anemometers of a much more ! nature are employed. I If these, perhaps b complete is that invented by Mr Osier. In his instrumi nt, the force of the wind is ascer- it way from any of the I < we have referred. A brass plate one foot square is L as of springs, and being attached of the instrument, is maintained at right to the .hie. t; m of the wind. This plate, l.y action of the wind, is beaten lade upon the springs, and in so doing, causes a pencil to move rds and forwards on a sheet of paper placed below it. This sheet of paper is made to pass under tion at right angles to its oscilla- ins of clock-work, moves at a uni- form rate, so that the force of the wind at any par- ticular time of the day is recorded with perfect accuracy. A pencil in connection with the vane, I AH J i 4- S 6 7 , 8 9 (0 II 12 Register-sheet of an Osier's Anemometer. and moving in the same transverse line as the former, records the changes in the direction of the ANEMONE. wind; and a third pencil, guided by .1 rain-gauge, the quantity of rain tliat has fallen. Ine preceding sketch, taken from the first half of a daily register-sheet, gives an idea of the kind of record made by an Osier's A. The space between two upright lines indicates an hour; that between two horizontal lines, in the rain-register .J,, of an inch of rain, in the direction of the wind two cardinal points, ami in the force of the wind 1 lb. of pressure on the square foot. Thus, on the day in which these lines were traced, there was in the rain-register, brought over from the i- account, between '1(1 and 15 of an inch ; and during tie- twelve hour3, tlio pencil had only risen one space, indicating a fall of - 05, or £g of an inch, almost entirely between the hours of 3 and 4 in the morning, and immediately before 12 in the day. If tin' day had been very rainy, and the pencil had risen to the top of the register, it would have fallen immediately to the bottom of it, and begun a new- account ; and it might have done so several times iu the course of the twelve hours. This would have been effected by the mechanism connected with the rain-gauge, which enables the gauge to empty itself each time that the pencil reaches the top of the rain- ter. As regards the direction of the wind, it was, during the first six hours, south, veering slightly towards the east ; and for the last six hours, it was tainting decidedly towards the west, being between 10 and 1 1 nearly west. From the line marking the force of the wind, it will be seen that the day was stormy. Between 1 and 2, and at 11, the wind was blowing a very high gale, producing a pressure of upwards of 12 pounds on the square foot ; and between the In mis of -land 5, there was a decided lull, the wind being brisk, but not stormy (2 — 3 lbs.). ANE'MONE, a genus of plants of the natural order Bamu. ■■■' a ■■■■, having an involucre of three divided leaves, more or less remote from the (lower, a petaloid calyx, scarcely distinguishable from the corolla, and soft woolly achenia (see AUHJUUUH), which in some species have tails. The name is origin- ally Greek, and is said to be derived from the word for id, 1 ecause many of the species love very exposed situations. The | ies are numerous, and generally beautiful Most of them flower early iu spring. Tiny are natives of temperate and cold climates, chiefly of the northern hemisphere. One species, A. ■, the Wo 1 d A., is a common native of all parts of Britain, and its wdiite flowers, externally tinged with purple, are an ornament of many a wood- Jand scene and mountain pasture in April and May. Another species, A. Pulsatilla, the Basque Flower, adorns chalky pastures iu some parts of England at the same season. Its flowers are purple and exter- nally silky. The Garden A. is a favourite florist's flower; the varieties are very numerous, and whole works have be< n published on them and their culti- vation, wdiich is most extensively carried on in 1, and has prevailed from a very early period. It is generally supposed that all these varieties have 1 . A. coronaria, and A. •'■'. Both are natives of the Levant; the latter is found also in Italy and the smith of France. By cultivation, the size of the flower is d, if form and colours are m and many of the stamens are often changed into small petals, forming a sort of heart of the llower. The cultivation of the A. requires great attention. It prefers a light soil. The root, which cons clustered tubers, is taken up after flowering. The plant is propagated by parting the roots, or by In the latter way, new varieties are obtained. Seed- ling plants do not flower till the second or third year. — Besides the species which havo been named, others occasionally appear as ornaments of our flower-gardens. A. Apennina and A. pratensis have beautiful blue flowers. They are both natives Anemone coronaria. of the south of Europe. A. ■/■'/"mica, a most beauti- ful species, has recently been introduced from Japan. — The species of this genus are characterised by the acridity prevalent in the natural order to which they lelo ; and the rhizomes of A. nemoroea, and have been recommend' 1 in ol sianate rheu- matism and in taenia. — The genus Htpatica was formerly included in A. Jf. triloba {A. /wpalica), with three-lobed I ra wild in most parts of Germany, and throughout the north of Europe, but is not a native of Britain. It is also found in North America. Varieties of different colours, and both le and double, are among the finest ornaments of our flower-borders in early spring. The plants y apt to suffer from being removed .or having the earth much loosened about them, and must be permitted to remain as much as possible untouched. ANEMONE, Ska. a popular name of the species of Actinia (q. v.) and some other AeHniadce. It seems to have been first applied to them about a century ago by Ellis, one of the most cell investigators of the department of natural hist which they belong, who remarks that 'their tent- acles, being dispo ircles, and I with a variety of bright lively colours, very nearly at the beautiful | 'ine of our most elegantly fringed and radiated flowers, such as the &*rm m* 1 Mesembiyanthemum. carnation, marigold, and anemi ine.' It is only, bow- ever wh.n in th.ir proper element and undisturbed, that the sea-anemones expand their b ..taenia and exhibitf Ity. Winn left dry by the needing I into a jelly-uke mass usually hemispherical or conical, with a puckered hole in ATv-EMONE. p. The most common of all the British of sea-A. is the Actinia M , which 1 its specific name from another floral association. It attach' - and stones from low-water almost to high-water mark, and left by the tide, appears as a liver-coloured or n 1 — 14 inch in diamet* r. whi found t" l>e very smooth and slippery, 1 "iy linn tency. The tentacula, when fully exl length and are nearly of the same colour. An azu , < ac roles the base; and on tli" base are alii wards the cenl which are formed by radiating vertical plat s in the substance of the animal, analogous (although not calcareous) to the calcareous partitions in the . Irepores. Around th the mouth, there is a circle of azure tubercles, like ise beads of the beauty. These arc only to be seen when the mouth is pretty fully expanded. They arc about twenty-live in number in full-grown specimens. Their use is not known, h they have been conjecture.! to be eyes. — A smaller species, Actinia (or Sa;/artia) I olive-green, with snow-white stripes and numerous tentacula, is pretty common on the British shores, inhabiting holes in the rocks, o deserted holes of the Photos, above which its oval disc and ida scarcely rise, and into which it quickly [raws, upon being 1. A number of species inhabit holes as this does. — Actinia (or Bunodes) coriacea, which attains a diameter of two inches, attaches itself to sand-covered rocks, and is much buried in the sand. It is covered with perforated warts, which have the power of .uating to 1 hell, &c. ; so that, when the tide is out, the animal is readily | over by the inexperienced 9 a mere inequality in the surface of the sand, unless some accidental pressure cause it to squirt out water through its tentacula ; . circum- stances, many of the species are very apt to do, sometimes to the annoyance of those who tiously meddle with them.- . ' I is one of the largest and most beautiful British m&r Actinia crassicornis. sea-anemones, being about four inches in height, and fully more when expanded between the t the opposite tentacula. It exhibits great diversity of the most beautiful colours. Ked is usually 250 predominant ; the surface of many is variegated with i r with orange-green and yellow. It occurs almost totally wh colour, sulphur yellow, and br with pale warts like ornamented beads. lour and form are still more abundantly lavished on Dianlhus, a still Actinia Diantlms. species, with very numerous tentacula, which inhabits deep water. — Anthea Cereus is, on some parts of the coast, one of the most abundant sea- anemones. Its tentacula arc from 120 to '200 in number, arc longer than in the Actiniae and are incapable, it is said, of bain '. as in i constantly expanded, and an ■ mpletely at i ' Sfesembrya ly kept in the aquarium. It not place, and its locomotion is rvation. It will I for a considerable time without supplies of food, but accepts morsels of beef or mutton, lish, or if animal food. The tentacula with Sered food first comes in contact attach themselves to it ; those next to them are in motion, as if to support them, if necessary, and a sort of sympathy seem3 to extend even to the most remote ; but except in the case of struggling prey, or of a very large morsel, only a small number of the whole • usually employed in conveying the food into the mouth, or, more properly, into the do not seem to part from it till have fairly lodged it there. Sea -anemones arc extremely voracious, and almost rver has his own anecdotes to illustrate it Dr Johnston relates one which at the same time remarkably illustrates their power of reproducing organs of their own body. ' I had onco brought to me a specimen of Act. crassicornis, that 1 ieen originally two inches in diameter, and that had somehow contrived to swallow a valve of PecU n maxirmu of the size of an ordinary saucer. The si: -. ithin the stomach, wa3 so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so that the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin and flattened like a pancake. All communication inferior portion of the stomach and the niouth was of course prevented ; yet, instead of - an atrophy, the animal had availed itself of what undoubtedly had been a very untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments and an-exd— axeupjsm. its chances of double fare. A new mouth, furnished with two rows of numerous tentacula, was ■ up on what had been the base, and led to the under- stomach : the individual had indeed become a sort imese twin, but with gr e ater intimacy and extent in its unions. (British Zoophytes, i. 235.) As inmates of the aquarium, sea-anemones are apt to prey upon their fellow-prisoners. ' - contact of the tentacula,' says Sir J. <•■ DalyelL 'is the prelude of destruction. Some animals, as if conscious of their inevitable fate, seem paralysed by tiie touch, and yield without a e others, whose size anil strength should insure indemnity, are held in the relentless grasp ; the tentacula crowding n>und, until the victim is speedily swallowed alive.' There appears to be in other marine animals an instinctive horror of the tenta- cula of the sea-A. The hermit-crab will instan- taneously flee out of its shell, if the shell is caught by them. It is now believed that, like the Acalephce (q. v.) and the Hydras (q. v.), the sea-anemones possess a power of benumbing their prey. Sea- worms (Nereides) have been observed first to writhe, and then to become paralysed. Little elliptical capsules are in some species scattered over the whole surface of the body ; in others, confined to the tentacula, or even to their tips. These are furnished with spicula or minute spears, by which it is probable that not only are wounds inflicted, but i is also conveyed into them. The sensations produced by the touch of the tentacula appear to be afferent in the case of different persons, from a mere 'rasping feeling' on the withdrawal of the hand, to a slight tingling, and even to a stinging as by a nettle. The Aiithea Cereus possesses the sting- wer in a much greater degree than the ordin- ary Actinia. Probably the skin of the human hand is in general too thick or hard to be pierced by their fine spicula. Dr A. Waller of Birmingham has recently found, that, on submitting the tip of his tongue to tit pain and stinging, as by a nettle, were the constant result. He has also found that a thin India-rubber membrane grasped by the tentacula retains the microscopic 'poison-darts' sticking on its surface. Some of these are only two or three times the length of the capsule which con- tains them, or at most 100th part of an inch ; but others are much longer, and when within the capsule, are coiled up after the manner of a watch-spring. The capsules are therefore called fdifrous or tliread capsules. This thread is highly elastic, and the expulsion of it, as of the shorter spicula, is effected, Mr Gosse tells us, by organs having this for then- special office. AN-EXD, a maritime term relating to the posi- tion of any mast or boom when perpendicular to the plane of the deck or other level from which it springs. When a top-mast is in its proper place at the head of the lower mast, it is said to be ' an-end.' A'NEUOID (formed in an anomalous way from , |»riv., and nSroBn wet), the name given to abaro- meter invented by M. Vuli of Paris, in which the re of the air is measured without the use of liquid, as in ordinary instruments. The face of the A. barometer, represented in tig. 1, has a diameter of about 5 inches, and the case behind, which con- tains the mechanism, a general idea of which is given in tii;. 2, is about 2 inches deep. The pressure of the atmosphere acts upon a circular metal box, AA, about 3 inches in diameter, and j of an inch deep, which has been nearly exhausted of air, and then soldered air-tight The sides are corrugated in concentric rings, so as to increase their el and one of tkeui is fixed to the back of the brass case which contains the whole. The amount of exhaustion is such that if the sides of the box were allowed to take their natural position, they would be pressed in upon each other, and to prevent this they are kept distended, to a certain extent, by a strong spring, S, fixed to the case, which acts upon the head of the stalk, B, attached to the side next the face. When the pressure of the air increases, there being little or no air inside the box to resist it, the corrugated sides are forced inwards, and when it diminishes again, their elasticity r them to their former place ; and thus the little box becomes a spring extremely sensitive to the varying pressure of the. external atmosphere. Sup- posing the two sides pressed inwards, the end of the spring, E, will be drawn towards the back of the case, and carry with it the rod, EG, which is firmly lixed into it. EG, by the link GH, acts on the bent lever, HKL, which has its axis at K, so that, while the arm, Kid, is pushed to the right, LIv is moved downwards. By this motion, a watch- chain, O, attached at L, is drawn off the little drum, M, and the index-hand, PP, which is fixed to it, would move from the position represented in fig. 1 to one towards the ri_rht. When the contrary motion takes place, a hair-spring moves the drum and the hand in the opposite way. By this mechan- ism, a very small motion of the corrugated sides produces a large deviation of the index-hand, an inch causing it to turn through 3 inches. The A. barometer is graduated to represent the inches of the mercurial barometer, with which, win n carefully adjusted, it almost accurately corresponds. Both from' its small size and construction, it is extremely portable, and it can in consequence give indications in circumstances where the ordinary barometer is of no service. The ' Metallic Barometer ' of M. Bourdon is a modification of the A. principle. -See Manual of Barometers, by J. H. Belville. A'XEURISM (Gr. aneurysmal a dilatation) is a pulsating tumour consisting of a sac or pouch into which blood flows through an opening in an artery. The sac of an arterial A. may be formed in the first instance by one or more of the tunics of the vessel, generally the outer one, the two inner having given 'way. This is caDi d a tnu A., in contradistinction to the false, in which the sac is formed of cellular tissue condensed by the blood flowing into it after a wound has been inflicted on the alter] without Should the sac give way, and the blood among t! 'Jie A. is said to be ■ A. is when the sac communicates both with an artery and a vein ; Aneurismal Varix, when these vessels communicate without any sao intervening ; both of these are generally the results ANGEL— ANGELS. „f Ui rformed by Don I Fata] by til. ir 1 it part, or by bm .1 todi oi blood. Tiny an oared by the ', within the sac, of lilirin from tli — a result the siu-gcon can promote by < ! ing the artery above the A. by compression or by pplyine the latter close to the sac, if the ' variety, but at a distance, if it is lie. Internal aneurisms are tn ated bythosi remedies which moderate the heart's action, as digitalis, &c. A NGEL, an ancient English gold coin, varying in valu a I Sd. to 10s, It • ~,u-- Angel of Edward IV. the figure of the archangel Michael piercing the i upon its obverse. Angels continued to be 1 down to the time of the Commonwealth. ANGEL-FISH (Squati'na A'ngeliu), a fish com- mon on the southern coasts of Britain, aud remark- able for its extreme ugliness. On some parts of the coast, it is called moulcjUh. It is very nearly allied to the sharks, anil wad included by Linna-us in the genus Squalui. See Shark. It is wry vol ; chietly upon fishes. It attains a length of Angel Fish. seven or eight feet; and the body is broad and Battened horizontally. The head is nearly round, and broader than the body, from which it is separated by a very distinct neck; the mouth is extremely and at the extremity of the snout ; the eyes are on the upper part of the head, and are very small ; behind the eyes are large spout-holes ; the skin is i .ugh, and covered with tubercles. The upper parts are of a gray colour ; the under parts, dirty white. The female is said to produce seven or eight young in spring and autumn. ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order I (q. v.), by some botanists divided into two: A., and Ardiangelica. The species are mostly herbaceous and perennial, natives of tli perate and colder regionsof the northern hem: They have bipinnate or tripinnate leaves. Wm> A. ) is a common plant in moi of brooks, and in woods in Britain and throughout many parts of Euro]" k The root is perennial, short, ringed, ami brani hed; it is wliite within, and contains a yellow milky juice. The stem is hollow, li — 5 feet hi^h, often 6 with red : the umbel is convex. Gabdbh A. [A. a biennial plant,! d when not allowed to ripen ,-lica. its set' 1 h flowers in almost spherical umbels. The as high as a man. The fruit straw-coloured. The root is Ion fusiform, an irregular rugose i I and ie root, is aromatic and bitter, contain- ing much p in and ' oil. The root is 1 into the pharmacopoeia as an aromatic stimulant an 11 dis used in nervous aiL and in indigestion and flatulence. It is very little i in. The root of .1. . . ' trit is some- times substituted for it, but is much weaker. — The Garden A. was at one time much cultivated for the blanched stalks, which were used as c 1 ry now is; but its cultivation for this purpose has long been almost entirely discontinued. The tender stalks and midribs of the leaves, candied, are still, he a well-known article of confectionary, and ao agreeable stomachic ; the roots and seeds are employed in the preparation of gin and of ' bitters.' The plant is a vi ry doubtful native of Britain, but is common in many parts of Europe, and even in Lapland and Iceland. The Laplanders not only use it as food, but regard the stalks roasted in hot ashes as an efficacious remedy in pectoral disorders, — The powdered seeds of the Wud A. are used 1 y the country people in some parts of Europe to kill lice. Several species of A. are natives of North America. ANGELICA TREE. See Aralia. A'NGELO, MICHAEL. See Michael Angelo. ANGELS (Gr. messengers), in Jewish and Christian theology, a class of superior spirits, repre- a3 the immediate instruments of Divine Providence. As Scripture contains no complete and systematic account of angels, the belief of the Church respecting them, except in afewpoini been exactly defined. Ithasalway I that A. and human souls, notwithstanding thi ANGER— ANGEB& . of the latter, are distinct ; only Di (q. v.) and a few modern speculators have maintained the contrary. Dionysius, in his divides A. into nine ordcre. Whether there arc- not spirit rth | . no and A., ha3 been a disputed point, As to the nunil>er of A, and tlieir names, the Church in the middl itedly checked the tendency to go beyond the usually received accounts; a i council, in 745 a. k, mentions with reprobation the use of the unwonted names of Uriel, Baguel, - &c. The 11 have all along been in most common use are Mich '. and Hap! The creation of the A. v.. placed, by the l'laton- ising Church-fathers, before that of the material I ; others assigned it to some one of tl days. Equally various were the opinions as nature of the A. The second synod of Nice (787) d them a subtle, ethereal, or firelike body ; the scholastics, on the other hand, and the Lateran Council of 1215, maintained their immateriality ; while others, owing to the appearing of A., mentioned in Scripture, attributed to them the power of assuming momentarily the corporeal form. The poet Nonnus (lived in Egypt in the 5th c.) is the lirst to speak of angels' wu The belief in <;■■ was common both to DS and I W8, and had been reduced to system by J'liilo; and the doctrine was adopted in the ian Church, and defended by Origen and others, founding on Matthew xviii. 10, and Acts xii. 15. It has been cherished by many in all ages and of all parties, but has never been decided on by the Church. Some of the fathers also spoke of good and bad guardian-angels, the former of whom were always ready to prompt to good actions, and to avert evil, while the latter were equally quick in bringing about mischief, wickedness, and calamity. From the belief in the guardianship of A., and their participation in the government of the world, arose naturally the i ; ee of invoking and worshipping them. Many Christian teachers condemned it, appealing to Colos. ii. IS; and the Council of Laodicea, 300, called it disguised idolatry. But after the Council of Xice had conceded that though A. were not to receive divine worship, they receive a reverential obeisance, the practice "ned became more and more rooted, and continues in the G reek and Roman Catholic Churches to this day. A'KGEB is displeasure or vexation accompanied by a passionate di k out in acts or words of violence against the cause of the displeasure ; which must, of course, be a sentient being capable of feeling the infliction. Like most other emotions, it is accompanied by effects on the body, and in this I In y are of a very marked kind. The arterial blood-vessels are highly excited; the pulse, during the paroxysm, is strong and hard, the face becomes red and swollen, the brow wrinkled, the eyi trade, the whole body is put into commotion. The secretion of bile i . and it seems to assume a morbid con istency. In cases of violent pa illy in nervo tement of the organs soon passes tip the other extri ; tot take place till the A. has subsided, when there follows a period of general relaxation. The original tendency much in individuals according to temperament ; but frequent giving way to it begets a habit, and the natural tendency. a the nature of A., it is easy to see that it must be— often at least— prejudicial to health. It frequently gi r, inflammation of the liver, heart, or brain, or mix These effects follow immediately a tit of the passion ; other evil effects come on, after a time, as the consequence of repeated paroxysms — such as paralysis, jaundice, consumption, ami nervous fever. The milk of a mother or nurse in a fit of passion will cause con- vulsions in the child that sucks; it has been known even to Occasion instant death, like a strong pi The controlling of A. is a part of moral discipline. In a rudimentary state of society, its active exercise would seem to be a necessity; by imj>osing some restraint on the selfish aggressions "of one individual upon another, it I he beginnings of social co-operation and intercom-? This is its use, or, as it is sometimes called, its final cause. But the more social intercourse comes to be r customs and laws, the less need is there f vindict- :on of A. It seems an error, however, to suppose that the emotion ever will be- ar that it ought to be — extirpated. Laws then lose their efficacy when they have not this; : for a background ; and it remains a3 a last resource for man, when society, as it does every now and then, resolves itself into its elements. Even in the most artificial and refined states of society, those minor moralities on which half the happiness of social intercourse depends, are imposed upon the selfish, in great measure, by that latent fund of A. man is known to carry about with him ANGERMANNLAND (Swedish, .Engermland, pronounced Ongermland), a province of Xordland, one of the four great divisions of Sweden, extends along the Gulf of Bothnia, and is watered by the river Angermann. Next to Dalecarlia, perhaps, it exhibits the richest variety of wild and beautiful landscape — wood, mount, stream, and ng with the banks of the Khine, the Danube, or the far-famed scenery of Switzerland. In addition, it is one of the best cultivated provinces in Sweden, producing barley, rye, and peas, and abounding in excellent pasturage. The river Angermann, in its lower course, becomes navigable for the largest ships, and broadens out into a lake shortly before discharging itself into the Gulf of Bothnia. The inhabitants are reckoned among the solidest of t! nd are favourably known for their sobriety and industrious habits, on account of which, prosperity is general The chief town of the province is Hcrncesand, with a popula- tion of rather more than 2000, standing on the small island of Herno, and having steam-communication weekly with Stockholm. It is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral-school and literary and printing establishment with Lappish type, public laths, and building docks. It exports linen fabrics, and the Baltic products generally. ANGERS, the ancient Jtdiomagus or Andegavum, formerly the capital of the Duchy of Anjou, and now of the French department of Maine-et-Loire, is situated on both sides of the navigahl Maycnne. not far from its junction with the Loire, lat. 47' W X., long. 0° 33" W. A. is the see of a . and was the seat of a university founded in 1240; instead of which it has now an academy of lass. Lord Chatham and the Duke of Wellington received a portion of their education at the military college which was oni I which is now removed to Saumur. It has also given birth to two Bernier, the traveller, and David, the sculptor. It has also a theo' seminary, an institution fir the deaf and I picture-gallery, and a public library eon; nnaij 25,000 volumes. The nuns of theancii. "■ 81 Louis, about the middle of the 13th a, are situated on rock above the ri\ r. Xh i cathedral of St Martin is a fine building of the Oth c, in the Roman 1 2SJ ANGINA PECTORIS— ANGLER. stylo. ■ • " ' ■■■ weav- j n g > &. 5 on to a considerable extent, ami brandy, Sax, bemp, bon The 11 Top. 41,100. ANGI'NA PECTORIS, or HEART-STROKE, ; i I by inb l) I pain and sense i striction, which occur in | aningatthe bone, or deep in the chest) and exl towards the left shoulder. The fits recur, a patient either 'lies in one of them, or from efi of fluid within the A. 1'. rarely occurs before the fiftieth year, and is caused by some defect in the vascular or nervous supply of the heart itself ; but the ' of the d • has not yet been ascertained, and, indeed, probably varies with the individual The are induced by any excess in diet, by i walking uphill or against a I wind, or by I emotions. As, during the paroxysm, but little can be done, ' whoever is subject to fits of the heart-stroke, should studiously shun all occasions of I his feelings roused or hi interested. If he is prone to anger, he must endeavour to restrain his passion, or must withdraw from scenes likely to awaken it. I contradiction, disappointment, or insult, he had better avoid all disputes in v. I .' meet either one or the other. He must hail a sober, quiet, and temperate life, in which neither the emotions of the soul arc to disturb the fundi the body, nor corporeal affections are allowed to disturb the serenity of the mind.' —Craigic. ANGIOSPE'RMOTJS (from the Greek angeiou, a vessel, and tperma, seed), a term in Botany, applied to phanerogamous plants which have their seeds enclosed in a pericarp. This is the ca~ with the greater part of phanerogamous plants. Those'' have the seeds naked, as the Coni/era: (q. v.), are called Gi/mnosi>ermous. In the Linn.xan system, one of the two orders of the class J 1 called Angi ANGLE (from Lat. anguhu, a corner) mi Geometry, the opening or inclination of two lines that cut or meet one another. If the lines are straight, the A. is I linear. The magnitude of an A. , not upon the length of the lines or legs, but upop Angle. (he A ing. If the legs are suppose I les, ana then gradually opened till thej into one stiM they form a series of gradually increasing angles ; whenhalf-way I hut and r. they contain a right A. Any A. Li a right A. is called acute, and one greater, is • are measured by degrees, of v. ri"ht A. contains 90. The A. made by two i lines (curvilinear) is the same as the A. made by jto the two curves at the point of inter- section. Angles mode by planes with one a need to reetilim When three or more planes meet at the it, the angular space included between them is ca The Facial Angle, on which Camper founded a scheme for i et and sagacity bestowed by nature on the several members of the animal kingdom, was measured by him in the following way: On ht line was drawn from the ear to the base of the nose, and another from the prominent centre of the forehead to the most advan- cing part of the upper jawbone, the head being 254 • In the angle produi ■ may be said to n between the skulls , luit also which are found to i different u led, that nature h I of the animal I Erom the in m0 st In "ich arc found in the human species. Thus it will be found that th ind that it :. becomes of greater extent in proportion as the an are. Thus in which the of forty-two degree i ; in an animal of the same family, which is one of Killing most closely to the human figure, iai angle contains exactly liH ■ N( it to this is the head of the African I ch, as that of the Kalmue, foi Beventy degrees, while the angle discovered in the heads i is contains ei ■ I reset On this ten 4 < in I ! ' i Ea i "I an -!<•, the superior beauty of the Eur i ads; while high character of sublime beauty which is so striking in some works of ancient statuary — as in the head of the Apollo and in the .Medusa— is guru by an angle which amounts to one hundred degrees.' ANGI, I'., Dead. In fortific ttion, where as of the wall is so formed that a small plot of ground in front of it can neither be seen nor defended from the parapet, it is call ,1 a 'dead angle.' See Bastion, Curtain, Foi ion. A'NGLER [Lop?, a fish i common on the British shores, and som I frog, sometimes, from its ugliness and voracity, the It usually attains the size at three feet in length, sometimes live feet. The head is enormously large, depressed, and spinous ; the mouth is of similar proportions (when< Scottish name Wide Gab), and furnished with many sharp curved teeth. The lower jaw is considerably than the upper. The hoily is narrow in comparison with the great breadth of the head, and tapers rapidly to the tail. The whole fish is covered with a loose skin, almost without scales. There are two dorsal fins, which are spinous, and three anterior rays, regarded as belonging to the tirst dorsal, are free and articulated to the head, which are with probability supposed to serve the animal as delicate organs of touch. The nostril tube is clon- ii to a membraneous stalk, capable of spri out like a cup at the upper end, and of being i tion by a very numerous set the bottom of the cup being divided into proj . on which the olfactory nerve is finally ited. There are also numerous worm-like appendages about the mouth, ami by means of end still more of the filaments which rise from the upper part of the head, the creature is supposed to attract small fishes, upon which it seizes. The ANGLES— ANGLING. wonderful stories told upon this point seem to require authentication, yet they are in thems '. no means incredible, and have been current concern- ing this iish and its congeners, since before the days of Aristotle, who mentions them, and says that this fish is called ajislter because of the means by which it procures its food. Yarovll justly remarks of the Stratagem ascribed to the Lophiiu, that it is not more wonderful than that of spiders, which spin and repair their webs to catch insects, upon which they subsist. — The genus Lophius belongs to a family of Acanthopterygious Fishes, called Lophiadce or Lopliioids, and by C'uvier, Pectorales Pcdv.ncu.lali, remarkable for the elongation of the carpal bones, so as to form a sort of wrist, to the extremity of which the pectoral tin is articulated ; so that, by- means of it, these fishes are able to leap suddenly up in the water to seize prey which they observe above them ; and some of them can hop about upon sea- weeds or mud from which the water has retired. They do not suffer so quickly as most other fishes from being out of the water, their gill-opening being very small, and an A. has been often known to devour flounders or other fish which have been caught along with it. The bones are much softer thau those of Acanthopterygious Fishes in general A'XGLKS [Angli), a German tribe of the race of the Suevi, who seem originally to have occupied the country lying on the east of "the Elbe, between the mouths of the Saale and the Ohrr, and moving northwards, to have settled in Schleswig, between the Jutes and the Saxons. Along with the latter the A. passed over in great numbers to Britain, during th ■ 5th c, and ultimately established there I do-Saxon (q. v.) kingdoms of the Heptarchy. I ': ■ mi them England derives its name (Lat. . I Anglo-Saxon, Engla-land). After these migrations from Schleswig, the Danes from the north entered the deserted once in the twenty-four hours, and generally much oftener. If the wmd blows down the river, com- mence at the pool-head, and fish every inch of good water; you may pass over the very rough and very shallow parts, also those which are absolutely dead calm and clear, unless you sec tish rising in them, when, should your tackle be light, there is no harm in taking a throw or two. Dead water, however, when rippled or discoloured, may be angled in with great success.' The following remarks and hints apply chi trout-fishing in streams, and may be found of service to those who follow that delightful recreation. As a rule, fish tip, especially when the water is clear, and the wind not directly down-stream : the advan- tages are, that the fish do not so readily detect the presence of the angler — their heads being d up the water; they are more casdy hooked; and when a large trout is hooked, he may be landed down-stream, thus saving the water above for fur- ther operations. The practice of ungling up-stream is somewhat difficult at first, but a little practice works wonders, and is sure to bring its reward ultimately. Gut should be round, clear, strong, and _/?««; the liner- it is, consistent with strength, the better, as it, scares fewer fish than coarser material Trout-flies for ordinary use in rivers such as Tweed, &c, should be dressed rather sparely, and should be small ; some half-dozen varieties, such as those already enumerated, will be found amply sufficient; and wire we asked to choose three kinds as being more valuable than any others, our choice would incline to a red hackle, a black hackle, and a woodcock- wing dressed with hare-ear body. For turbid Or dark water, however, the size may be increased, and the dressing; be made rather gaudier by the add of tinsel. Practise casting till you can throw your flies like gossamer on the water, and, above all, avoid splashing. The use of a short line will give you great advantage over your tackle. hook themselves in nine out of ten cases, so that striking is unnecessary ; striking is performed 1 v a motion of the wrist, not of the arm, and is only to be learned by practice ; it then comes quite naturally to the angler. Cast frequently ; you get over more ground, and vastly increase your chances of success. Trout generally seize the fly the instant it lights on the water, or the instant after; hence, it is necessary that the angler be on the qui vive in time. Cast above where fistf are likely to lie, and remember that the greater part of your success lies in the art of keeping out of titeir sight. Dull-coloured clothes materially assist in achieving this important desideratum. When fishing with a friend, always come to a distinct agreement, before starting, relative to the division of the water, especially if the stream be small. The true angler returns all smoults, parr, and j small trout to their native element — his maxim | 253 being quality, not quantity. He also keeps his rod well varnished, dries his line and tackle after using, and looks into his tackle-book at least once three mouths during the non-A. -in the ravages of the moth. The be guided in his selection of a rod and tackle by sonic experiei ad; and upon arriving at strange angling quarters, he should place himself in the hands of a resident fisherman, who will guide him to the best easts of the river, A day Bpent in watching the proceedings of an expert angler, is a day and a few hours' lessons in lly-busking, knot-tying, &C, work wanders. And, lastly, let the angler practise courtesy towards all his brethren of the rod, and be ever willing to lend a killing-fly to a needy friend. The principal works on A. are Izaak Walton, StoddarVs Angler's Companion, the article A. in the Encyclopxdia Britannica, Davy's Salmi the angling section of Colquhoun's Moor and the Loch, and Stewart's Practical Angler. The last is perhaps the best work ever written upon trout- fishing as applied to clear water. The angler will also find many useful hints in the number on A. in Chambers'* J nformation for the People. ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH, or AM: LI- CAN CHURCH, a term frequently employed to designate collectively those churches which embrace the principles of the English Reformation. The fol- lowing are, in brief, the views generally entertained of those principles by the members of the Choi in question : By referring the Anglo-catholic Church to the English Reformation, it is not meant that her origin dates from that event, but that her tenets, as she now exists, are those which the Reformation cleared of what she holds to be corrup- tions. For, as the word 'church' itself su — being derived, like 'kirk' in Scotland, from the Greek adjective kuriob', which means ' tlie Lord's' (La, house) — the origin of the Anglican Church is to be traced not to a Roman but to an Eastern source. She claims the name of Catholic — which also is from the Give!. , universal — be- cause she is united, in origin, in doctrine, and in form of government, with the Universal Church as it has existed, with various differences of rites and ceremonies, in all countries and in all Eusebius even asserts that some of the apostles passed over into Britain. Tertullian, who lived in the 2d ft, speaks of places in Britain which, though inacces- sible to the Romans, were subject to Christ : ' Britan- noram inaccessa Romanis loca. Christo vero subd.ta.' At the Council of Aries, 314 A.D., there were three British bishops present; and St Alban suffered martyrdom, under Diocletian, about the close of the 3d e., or nearly three centuries before the landing of St Augustine (q. v.) and his missionaries, 596 a.d. Christianity, however, was driven by the heathen Saxons into the mountainous districts of Wales ; and though Augustine, on his arrival, found no less than Beven bishops and one archbishop in those parts, and though Bertha, queen of Ethelbert,was a Christian, yet the whole Saxon part of the country was in a state of heathenism. The British Church dil from the Roman and other Western Churches, as to the form of administering baptism, and the time of keeping the festival of Easter (sec Easti:i:), follow- ing the customs of the Greek or Eastern Church ; and it was not untd the close of the 7th ft, under Theodore, that the two churches became united. In the meantime, the conversion of Britain wi much due to the labours of St Aidan. the Scottish Bishop of Lindisfern in the north, and of St < Had, the Saxon saint, as to the missionaries of the Roman Church in the south. See Axglo-Saxosa, ANGLOMANIA- ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Nor is this glance at the history of the Anglican Cliurch, in the earlier period of her existence, unim- portant, when we come to consider what and whence are her present form and tenets. From the begin- ning of the 8th to the middle of the lGth c, she me gradually, ami at last completely, assimilated in doctrine and practice to the Church of Rome, as well as subject to her domination ; and the fact of her having at length freed herself from both, is in no small degree due to her having existed, in times, in a state of freedom and purity. It required, a3 we have seen, a struggle of nearly a century to make the British Church conform to the Roman in the matters of baptism and Easter; and it was the same spirit which offered a strenuous, and for some time an effectual, resistance to the peculiar doctrines of the Church of Rome and the claims of papal do- minion. There were always found individuals, some of great eminence, to protest against the former, whilst large sections of the church never ceased to protest t the latter. For a hundred and fifty years Erevious to the Reformation, the doctrines of \Vick- ffe were leavening the body of the Anglican Church. The overthrow of the papal supremacy was indeed effected by Henry VIII. ; but that monarch rather hindered than favoured the reformation of docU appeKed from the rapid progress which it made when Edward VI. came to the throne. The bloody reign of Mary interposed a check to further progress ; and it was not till the accession of Queen Elizabeth that the principles of the Reformation finally triumphed, and the Anglo-catholic Church assumed the form in wluch she has since continued to exist. During the period of more than 800 years preceding the Refor- mation, she became gradually, and at length com- pletely, merged in the Roman Catholic ; at the Reformation, she may be said to have emerged ; when Rome, at the Council of Trent, anathematised all who would not receive her articles, the separation became final, and the positions of the two churches with respect to each other irreconcilably hostile. The doctrines of the Anglican Church are to be found in the Book of Common Prayer (q. v.), which is based upon the second prayer-book of Edward VI., and was settled in its present form 1662 A.D. lb r tenets are more legally defined in the Thirty- nine Articles, which were settled 1562 A. D. (see Articles, Thirty-mne). As distinguished from Rome, she rejects tradition as a rule of faith, though admitting it as to rites and ceremonies, and all her teaching upon the books of the Old and New Testaments, rejecting from them as apocry- phal certain which Rome receives as canonical. She recognises only two sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's Supper, whereas Rome allows five others — namely. I no ition. Orders, Penance, Matrimony, and Extreme Unction; she denies the doctrines of transubstantiation and the propitiatory sacrifice of the mass ; she forbids what Rome practises — the adoration of the Virgin, saints, and angels, and the ace of relics and images; she also denies the Roman doctrines of purgatory and the spiritual supremacy of the pope. It is not, however, to be forgotten that a great part of her liturgy is derived from the missals of tin; Roman Church. As distin- guished from the Presbyterian Churches — e.g., that of Scotland — she is Episcopal, and holds the unbroken succession of her orders from the apostles, as one of her most esteemed privileges; whereas the Presby- terians, especially in Scotland, reject prelacy as a remnant of popery. These do not, however, differ from her materially in essential matters of faith, but f as to the sacraments, the form of administer- m, and the grace conveyed in them; as to i uce of seasons, such as Christmas, Lent, Easter; and as to the forms of public worship, the terians using no set forms. Her differences with the Greek Catholics are less wide than with the Roman, and will be best seen by referring to the article Greek (hi bch, From the Lutherans she differs on the doctrine of consubstantiation in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. From the Calvinists she differs radically as to the extent of the efficacy of Christ's death, they believing only in ' particular,' she in ' universal,' redemption (meaning, of course, not that all men will actually be saved, but that Christ died for all) ; nevertheless, some of her articles, as the 17th, are decidedly Calvinistic. The numerous sects of Wesleyans, Baptists, and Inde- pendents do not differ from her on what they tin m- selves consider essential articles of faith, but chiefly as to the necessity of orders, the grace conveyed in the sacraments, and the forms of public worship and of church government. But since their separation from )i varieties of doctrine and worship have spread among them. Unfortunately, there remains no Gallo-catholic Church with which to compare her. The Anglo-catholic Church embraces in her com- munion the United Church of England and Ireland, the Episcopal Church in Scotland, all the colonial Episcopal Churches, and the American Episcopal Church. All but the latter use the English Book of Common Prayer; in America this nas been slightly altered. The American Church is one of the most flourishing offshoots of the Anglican. It was planted in Virginia, 1607 A.D., but, for nearly two centuries, the mother church in England with- held from her offspring the necessary boon of an episcopacy of her own. It was not till the close of the 18th c. that the first three American bishops were ordained (one by the Scottish bishops in 1784, and two by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishops of Bath and Peterborough in 1787) ; but now this branch of Anglo-catholicism has spread over the greater part of the United States. ANGLOMANIA designates, among the French and Germans, a weak imitation of English manners, customs, &c., or an indiscriminate admiration of English institutions. In German literature, an A. was especially prevalent in the 18th c, when trans- lations of English books became numerous, and were read with great admiration. The Germans have ascribed the sentimental and affected style of some parts of their literature to the influence of the Eng- lish literature of last century. But the A. was harm- less in comparison with the Gallomania, or imitation of French literature and customs, which prevailed in the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, and was developed in the writings of Wieland. A remark- able A. prevailed in France for some time before the commencement of the Revolution. It arose out of political considerations and admiration of English free institutions, but extended to trifles even of fashions and manners, and often became very ridiculous. ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITE- RATURE. The term Anglo-Saxon is of modern "iir forefathers having called themselves and their language English or ^English. The Anglo- Saxon language belongs to the Low-German family of the Germanic languages, and is most nearly related to the Old Saxon, the Old Dutch (or lan- guage of the Netherlands), and the Old Frisian. There were two principal dialects — one spoken in the north of England, which was chiefly peopled by the Angles ; and the other in the south of England, which was chii ily peopled by the Saxons. After 'W i-ed the supremacy over the other states of the Heptarchy in the 8th c, the I Saxon dialect became prevalent as the language of IN \\|>X LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE-ANGLO-SAXONS. md of literature. From the Otli e., laws an 1 I "i to be committal to writin Great set the example of ban i works into Anglo-Saxon. After the Sot man Co -i langoaj place to the Normaa-Fi language court, of courts of justice, of school tly also of the church ; but Saxon continued to be the Ian- nion people, and became tl English language, which was gradually formed during the 12th, 13m, an. I 14th The Anglo-Saxon of the period from I0711 t ■ 1250 has been designated by English philologists the 1 i from 1250 to 1350, and the Middle English from 1350 to 1550. Since the Reformation, the made the subject of study by a few ; . ! an (•'! vols., ITii.'! —1705) must be in. nti .1 as one import- ant work on the subject which the last c produced. In recent times, the know! the language and literature of th - ons has been ere iQy ach an. d by 1 rs of Thorpe, Kemble, I -■■ tl i.-.-n. Pric i, Gui 1 ic Madden, the 1 lonyb Grimm and Leo in Germany. But even now it can scarcely bn said to have received the amount of at- tention which may well be reckon.. 1 due to it, hat it furnishes the basis, and, in point of wo Lutes by far the greater pro- portion, of the English which we .speak. The l> I iionaries are those of Lye, : (2 vols, fol., Lon.l. 177—), and Bo (Lond. 1839); the grammar has be n exhibited by isk Sproglaere (Stockh. IS] 7; h translation by Thorpe, Copenh. 183(1 more perfectly by J. Grimm in his Deutsche <■ malik (4 vols., Gott. 1819—1837). Like Latin. Creek, and mod D German, the An ;lo nage was inflect es of its itions, numbers, and persons of its verbs, being marked bj - 1 hiefly in the linal syllable. These characteristics gradually disap- peared as Anglo-Saxon | which they arc almost unknown. The nature of this process will l.e an from r ' k's excellent Outlines of th* History of the English Language: 'It ha been pointed r Pauli's Alfred, of which two translations have been pub- lished, the one by Wright (Bentley, 1852), whereof a second edition appeared in the following year; and another by Thorpe (Bolm, lSao"). See ENGLISH 1 1 \cv.. ANGLO-SAXONS, the collective name given by historians to the various Teutonic or German tribes which settled in England, chiellyin the 5th c, and founded the kingdoms of the Heptarchy. They consisted for the most part of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The generally received opinion is, that the ANGLO-SAXONS. first of those invaders made their appearance in Britain in 449, hai * orHengt8t,andHorsa or Hois, as their leader. But under die more ing scrutiny of later writers, these famous leaden 1 I into mythical heroes of romance, common to most of the Germanic nations ; and though ict of a great Germanic invasion in I the 5th c. is not doubted, it is believed that this was by no means the earliest period at which Germanic settlements were effected in England. Long pi to this period, a portion of the coast, extendi;! Portsmouth to Wells in Norfolk, was known Saxonicum; but whether in reference to Saxons by whom it was settled, or to roving adven- turers of that race by whom it was ravaged, is still a subject of dispute. The form ■' view is advanced, on apparently satisfactory grounds, by Kemble (8catom in England, vol. i. p. 14). But, however point may stand, the probable truth is, that Britain, which for centuries had been ravaged and partially colonised by Germanic tribes, was finally p duced under their ride, on the departure of the Romans. Of the three tribes mentioned above, the Jutes are 1 lelieved to have been the first comers. Their d settlements were in what is now the I of Schleswig; and the portions of England of whieh 1' y possessed themselves wen' Kent, the Isle of Wight) and the opposite coast of Hampshire. The Saxons, who wi re the next invaders, settled chiefly in the southern and central parts of England — in Sussex, Essex, Middlesex, the south of Hertford, .Surrey, the part of Hampshire not possessed by the Jutes, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and the portion of I 'ornwall which did not remain in the I sion of its former Celtic inhabitants. The Saxons who invaded England probably belonged chiefly to the portion of that great nation, or con- federacy of nations, whose territories lay on the shores of the Baltic— occupying what are now the Duchy of Holstein, the north of Hanover, and the west of Mecklenburg. The third tribe, whose name and nationality afterwards prevailed over the others — the li I did not arrive till a somewhat later period. From 527 to 547. they made a succession of its on the coasts of Suffolk and Norfolk, and latterly, on the country to the ni h i the Humber, and tiie Bouthem part of Scotland between the Tweed and the Forth. Eventually, the obtained p i session of the whole of England, i the portions already mentioned; that is to say, of all the part to the north of the Avon, on the one side, and the Thames on the other — Essex, Midi and part of Hertford excepted. The union of differ- ent bands of these conquerors amongst themselves. with their countrymen who had preo ded them, and with the Celtic population which, though conqi is no reason to suppose was external gave rise to the so-called Heptarchy— the kingdoms of Northtimhria (originally Bemicia and i Kent, Sussex, We sex, Essex, East Mercia. The Heptarchy (q. v.) becomes ; if the provinces of Berniciaand I' ated as separate kingdoms ; but in place o very doubtful if we ought not to diminish the I ber of these divisions, it being very quest if so many as seven states ever pos d, at one L nients. But ropriety of either term b n more doubtful if it be u . as it general] mvey the idea of all these » bound together in a species of on deracy, and The Bretwalda is seel to have been a species of war-king, v and elective chief of all the S i office it waa to lead them forth in their wars against their common enemies, especially tl of Wall i: ! . B a '•■' '• is thrown serious doubts on the existence of the office, and has shewn that the evidence which is adduced in its favour, if not based entirely on 'a piece of vicious phih (\ol. ii. ]>. 12), is at anyrate very slight. I. r, than whom t' ■!o-Saxon history, follows pretty nearly the- opinions to which Rapin and Sharon Turner had ' - who],., there seems reason vo that the Bretwaldaahip never was a permanent and acknowledged . but a mere accidental and temporary preponderance of one state over the others, and a consequent pre-eminence, for the time being, enjoyed by its sovereign. The various independent states into which lii J and had till then been divided, were united by I king of W'esscx, in 827, into the one kingdom of England (the land of the The royal family lex, which was thus raised to what, for the first time, probably, is entitled to be called the kingly dignity, never again lost its supri I ■ ■<■ pt, indeed, during the Danish period (11117 to 1042), till the Norman Conquest ; and to it Alfred the Great (q. v.) belonged. The English constitution, the origin of which is sometimes ascribed to Alfred, was not framed by him, though he restored it and improved it after the deliverance of the country from the Danes in K 1 12. It was essentially the same as that of other Germanic nations, and its germs are to be traced in the account which Tacitus has given of their ■ cal institutions; but was more perfectly developed, l sontinued to flourish in greater purity i the Anglo-Saxons, than in those countries were more immediately subject to influences pro- ceeding from Bome. At the head of the govern- ment was the king (cffliing, CWig, the same word as the German KOnig). The king] I'ice, among the Germanic nations in early times, had reference solely to the tribes or peoples governed, and Devei to the land winch they occupied. During this period, it was naturally elective ; but after the idea of great territorial possessions came to be Erom it, it b ame hi reditai \ . I a form of election, or colour of ascertainin national will, was still retained. The life ol the like that of every other man, was assi l at a price (weregild, q. v.), which was that of an I of royal blood, with a added as the price of his royalty. The first of these Boms went to his family, the second, to ig and Ins dependants possessed other B] id protct • that ' the our of his maiden serf involved a fine of fifty shillinga; while the eorle's female cup-bearer waa ;!y to the amount of twelve, and the ii of six shillings' (Keml The the power of calling b v.), and of layiB i b lit be had not the power i ing the assembly when he had enough of its advice, bo i '■ from the I i , > have been in parliament, Neither was the convocation ol the e at the option of t] a, for powi r was of consulting the 'both of the clergy and laity of tl i Dgdom, and I iblies, he had no function ; nor. it woidd could he im] ■ ■' " ;1 "- with- out tin ircoB "" relations v of firth, called ethcline (the same word with the German .! the orange and other fruits of the warmer tem- perate ■ produced, as well as those which are strictly tropical There is a great abund- ance and variety of wUd animals, and the mouths of the rivers swarm with sharks and crocodiles. The principal rivers are the Coanza and Danda. Much of the country is mountainous. The moun- tains are covered with forests, and are rich in . particularly copper, iron, and silver, which, with wax and ivory, are the principal legitimate exports, although the great trade, almost to the • day, has been in slaves. Feticbism is the prevailing superstition, and circumcision is general the natives. A. might easily be ran V ry productive both of sugar and cotton, but the r in which it has been governed by the has not tended to d. \ ■ red it in 1486, and have had - in it since 148S; but the number of r< Portuguese is very small, and they are almost entirely il to a few spots— forts and comie ' establishments c iHi d/ iraa or fairs. The capital is Loando, or San Paulo de Loando (q. v.). ANGON". a barbed spear Used by many early nations. The Franks, in the 7th c, empl I 1 loth for thrusting and hurling The staves were armed with iron, so as to leave but little of ANGOR A- ANGOSTURA B A 1 1 K. the wood uncovered ; the head had two barbs. When hurled or thrust at an opponent, the head of me fixed in the flesh by means of the barbs. This form of spear was much adopted by - ixon and other Teutonic nations. ANGO'RA, the Ancyra of the ancients, a city in the eastern part of the Turkish eyalet of Bozce, in the mountainous interior of A<;a Minor, and distant from Constantinople about 2211 mile? It is said to have been built by Midas, the son of the Phrygian Gordiua; was a flourishing city under the Persians; became the capital of the Gallic Tectosages, who settled in Asia Minor about 277 B.C. ; was a principal seat of eastern trade under the Romans; and was made the capital of the ! I ace of Galatia Prima, It was the seat of one of the early churches of Galatia, and the scene of two Christian councils held respectively and 368. A decisive battle between the Turks and Tatars was fought near A. in 1402, in which Timur defeated ana took prisoner the sultan Raiazet I. A temple of white marble was erected by the citizens of Ancyra to the Emperor Augustus, •who had greatly beautified the city, and his deeds were recorded in inscriptions upon a number of tablets and the columns of an altar. These in- ions, the Monumenlum Ancyranum, discovered by Busberg in 1553, are important for the elucida- tion of ancient history. They were first printed in Schott's edition of Aurelius Victor (Antw and have recently been edited with notes by Franz and Zumpt (BerL 1845). The present A. is said to contain not more than 20,000 inhabitants, of whom one-third are Armenians. It is famous for its breed Angora Goats. of goats, with beautiful silky hair, eight inches Of this goat-hair, a kind of yarn is mad". known -7j yarn or camel yarn, and of which also a manufacture of camlets is extensively 1 on in A. itself. The name camel yarn has led to mistakes ; it lias no reference to the camel, but is derived from the Arabic word d Of the skin of the A. goat, the fix I ither is made. Many of the animals in this region are characterised by the length and softness of their hair, especially the dogs, rabbits, cats, &c. This peculiarity seems to depend upon the climate, and soon i in Europe. AXGOSTU'RA lat. S° 8' K., and long. 63 55" W., on th of the Orinoco, about 340 miles from its mouths. It tikes its name, which signifies a strait, from its being built at a point where, on both the river is narrowed by riK-ks to a width of 3184 liter having measured three mile3 across at the distance from the sea. The site of A. is only 191 feet above the sea-level — an elevation which, on the intermediate distance as above, yields an average of less than ten inches to the mile. In fact, the bottom of the river in front of the town is lower than the surface of the sea, for, even in the lowest state of the water, it is said to be 200 feet deep, with a margin for floods to the amount of fifty or sixty feet more. Under these circumstances, the bed of the stream must be about t under the level of the I ity, or about 6 under the level o : the sea. When the river does rise to its highest, there are at least portions of the city inundated ; and instances are believed to have occurred in which careless people were devoured by tors in the very streets. Chiefly, as is sup- posed, through the free access of the trade-winds over the flat surface of the country, A. enjoys, in proportion to its latitude, a singularly temperate climate. Even in the hottest season of the year, the thermometer is said seldom to shew more than 86 i • ; wlnle, between the beginning of November and the end of April, it ranges from 77' by day by night The situation of A. is liigldy favourable, in a commercial view. The basin of the Orinoco, which lies nearly all above the town, and is estimated to contain 250,000 square miles, or more than twice the area of the British Isles, is particularly rich towards the north. On that side it reaches very nearly to the coast-line, so as to comprise some of the best parts of Venezuela. Towards the south, again, it consists, in a great measure, of boundless plains, 1 by countless herds of cattle. Over the whole of this vast basin, and that almost equally in both directions, the main stream and its afiluent3 are, with handy any interruptions, navigable to near the foot of the mountains. Owing to the impetuosity of the currents and the obstruction of shoals, sailing-vessels are said to take fifteen days to sail up to A. ; but with steam-navigation these impediments would in great measure disappear. With such advantages of position, A. was a flourishing mart before the commencement of the independence ; but the civil broils materially . ith its prosperity. As far back as 1807, A. had 8500 inhabitants ; ere twenty year; elapsed, ulation had been reduced to little more than a third part of the number. According to later information, however, it was rapidly approaching its former amount. ANGOSTURA BARK, or AN BABE, the aromatic bitter bark of certain trees of the natural order BiMaceee, and tribe Cutpariea, natives of the tropical parts of South America. It derives its name from the town of Angostura, where it is a considerable article of commerce. It was first brought to England in 17SS. It is used in medicine as a remedy for weakness of hi, dianhi ry, and fevers. It is and stimulant The most important of tho trees j t is the Galipca officinalis, which gro^-s ; of Columbia and near the Orinoco. It is a tree of 12—20 feet high, and 3—5 feet in diam ifohate . with oblong leaflets about ten inches long, which, odour of tobacco, and t an inch long, in racemes, white, hairy, and fragrant, The bark contains a chemical nib- yet sufficiently i xamini efficacy is ascribed. It is supposed that a variety of A. B. is ] ' (called by some J; \iata), a maj< stie tree of 00 — in height with fragrant trifoliate leaves more than two feet loi believed to be one of the most valuabl but its use is at I very limited, and has, indeed, in some countries of "Europe, been prohibited, in consequence ANGOULEME AMI U.T. at adulteration with the p i .1. /.'. It differs from the true A. B. m having no smell, in Ha much o . in its inner surface being incapable ol into small laminte, and in 1 upon it bj acids and othi i olarlv in its nuicr crust bem d dark- . or blackish, by nitric acid, whilst thai trn A. B. is rendered slightly orange . AXGOULKME, the ate in Prance, and formerly of tb unois. It is situated on tine I narrow and crooked streets, s nb i ol paper-mills, manufactures of woollen stuffs, linen, and earthen- ware, 4a, and a population of about 20,300. It possesses a royal college, a museum of natural history, and seven] other useful institutions. In the centre of the town stands the remnant < >f the ancient castle of A., in which was born tb Marguerite of Navarre, the authoress of the Hep- tameron, and other works. The railway from Pari to Bordeaux pnsses through it. Much saffron and wine are produced in the neighbourb 1. The province of Anjroumois was in early times a county; but the heir of it, in the beginning of the I 1th c., an adherent of the fin L b, Philip the Fair took possession of it, and it became an ap younger branches of the royal family. It was made a duchy by Frani is L, and was sometimes bestowed upon natural .sons of the French ki Valois, Duke of A., a natural Bon of Charles IX., i distinguished general in the reigns of Henrv IV. and Louis XIII. ANGOULEME, Lo ' ,r. in: li mv, Dw o'j the . Idi I on ol I barles X. of Fran.-, ana Dauphin during his father's reign, was born at illes on Gth August 177o. He retired from France alone with his father at the commencement of the Revolution, and spent some time in military studies at Turin. In August 1792 he entered Ger- many at the head of a body of French emigrants; but the ill success of th> ii own unfit- ness for military command, led to his seeking tran- quillity along with his fai !i. Till 1814 be continued an exile from Frame, wandering from one place to another on the continent, and latterly at with the other members ol bis family iii England. On the entrance of the allies into I he appeared at the British head-quarters at St -lean de Luz, and thence issued a proclamation bo the French army, lie entered Bord, an i British on 12th March, and made liberal promises in the name of bis uncle, Louis XVI II., among which was that of complet religiou liberty. Bewa in the south when Napoleon returned from Elba. He was appointed lieutenant-general of the king- dom, and hastened with such force3 a collect to oppose the emperor; but although he obtained some advantages at Iii b, he d by his troops, was for some days di I unci ., r, and at last sent away in a Swedish mer- chant-vessel to Barcelona. After the se id i tion, be was sent by Louis XVI II. to tl provinci itoi press the political ani move- , and in 1823 lie led the Fn nch army mto Spain, to ].ut an end to the constitution. A man of phlegmatic disposition a i.l mi as ab d all political matters, a tool of the ultra- d the priests. When the revolution took I in July 183U, he signed, along with his father, an abdication in favour of his nephew, th D ; and when the Chambers declared tie family of Charles X. to have forfeited the thron . b -til ■ I • Solyr 1. to i', and to G 3d June 1844. ANGOULEME, M Chahlottb, bter of Louis XVI.. was boi d al Vei on < I i D ember 1778, and i displayed m u i of intelli . with the most ten.'., r .- of i i d through ii. and endured o Ion as sonment, be b I on 25th Di a as bet IT'. 1 "', foi French 1 ' 111 ler lire in 1799, v. tth her cousin, the Due d' V whose subsequent fortun b bared. Shi vived him seven years, and died on 19th Oi 1851. ANGRA, the capital of the Azores, a seaport at the head oi" a deep lav on the south coast of the island of Terceira, lat. 38° :ss N., long. 27° IT \\ . I. is station for ships between Portugal and Brazil and the Last Indies; but the harl.our is very nneii i rpoi ed. It is the seat of tin r igovei aor genera] of the Azores and of the bishop; is well built, hut dirty; strongly fortified, and pie:, i 1 bj a cita- del at the foot of tie- Monte de Brazil; contains a military college aiel a; I, vera] i tt1 Sc and literary societies, a cathedral andnui arches ; and from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants. There is a considerable i sport of wine, cheese, hoi This city furnished an asylum for the Von in 1S30 till the taking of ( Iporto, in 1S33, by Don Pedro. ANGUILLA. See Ebn. AXcril.LA, or LITTLE SNAKE, one of the West India islands, so called, per] ips, from its long and narrow figure. Xext to Anegada, it is the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles. Km; almost due east of the eastern extremity of Porto Rico, in lat, 18i" X., and in long. C.;°— «4° W. It i to England, having an area oi 35 square miles, and a population of about 3000. It is low and wooded; hut its cleared spot- produce , tobaci o M . h arbour, such as it is, is I" t with reefs ; hut there is said to be g 1 and ground in the channel between A. and the I ie of St Martin to the south. ANGUIS. Sec BlJXD-WORH. A'XIIALT, one of the oldest principalities of Germany, situated on the Elbe, the Mulde, and the Saale, and consisting at present of three duchies— A. -Dessau, A-Bernburg, and A-Kiithen, winch, together, contain about 1034 Bquare miles, and lo(>,7tli) inhabitants. It is almost entirely surrounded by the Prussian territories, which intermix with it, and divide it into pot De an. ;: rbst, Bernburg, and ECBthen an principal town--.. The country is mostly level and fertile, producing wheat, tlax, rape-seed, hops, and tobacco. Wine is produced on the Saale. Agri- culture is the chief employment of the people, who are generally Protestants. Part of the duchy of A-Bernburg approaching (the Hans Mountains ) some mineral wealth in iron and mines. A. began to be an independent princi- pality in the first half of the 13th c. It ha I dly, in the course of its history, divided amongst branches of the reigning family. Che present division dates from I of the 17th c. It was divided originally into four parts, but the line of A.-Zerbst has become extinct. The three duchies are independent of each other; but a family compact connects the reigning lines, and in many things they have been accustomed to act together. Some of the princes of A. have been ANHYDRITE— ANIMAL AND ANIMAL KINGDOM. int in the political, military, and ecclesiastical history of i lermany. A'Nll 5TDRITE, a mineral, coi anhy- drous sulphate of lime, with some Blight addition of gea-solt, appeal in m \ era] rai LI Irannlar; found in concretions with a foliated struct i ius; easily broken with a fracture in d parallel fibr : i . lucent : ■!. S] or Culm Spar: 6. Compact, of various shades, white, blue, gray, red. V is converted into gypsum by combination with a certain proportion of water, and, where it is found in large masses, as on the south <>i the liar/. Mountains near Osterode, the surface I \ of gypsum. For building, A. lias no great value, mi at ant of its tendency to this change; hut some of it3 varieties, especially tin- Siliciferous or Vulpenite, found at Vulpino, in Dpper Italy, are used for sculptures, and take a line polish. Winn burned and reduced to powder, it is used as a manure, resembling gypsum in its effects. ANHY'DROUS is tin- term applied to a chemical substance free from water. Thus, ordinary lime-ahel] as it comes from the kiln is simply lime (CaO) without any water, and is called anhydrous lime; but when water is thrown upon tin- lime-shell, the liquid disappears by combination with the lime, which very much increases in volume and becomes d lime (i'ii Kiln). Again, ordinary stucco, before being used by the modeller, contains only lime and sulphuric acid (CaOSO,), with no water, and is therefore anhydrous; but when water is added, and the stucco sets into its mould, it com- bines with two equivalents of water, and becomes hydrated stucco (2H(),CaOS0 3 ). Examples of A. substances are also found amongst liquids; thus, alcohol free from water is called A. Alcohol ; and in like manner we speak of A. Acetic Acid, A. Nitric Acid, &c. ANIMA, Con, in Music ; with animation, in a spirited manner. A'NIMA MUNDI literally signifies ' the soul of the world.' The doctrine contained in this phrase was a favourite one with the early philosophi ■ who conceived that there r ided is nature a force rial, yet not intelligential, which was the source of all physical and sentient life. Plato b Id it impossible for pure spirit the atmospb re in which al il and archetypal ideas could exist - lo hear any relation whatever to matter, and lie therefore supposed the latter to be operated upon by an inferior agency, the A.M. Intli the Stoics, the .1. M. was conceived to be the sole vital fore- in the universe; it usurped the offi pure spirit, and the doctrine became indistinguish- able from Pantheism (q. v.). The notion does not .- m to have h a entertained by th [men, but pp ax i in tlie writing i ol Co i us, and Van Selmont, and, in a mi form, was held by More, Cudworth, and others. ANIMAL AMD ANIMAL KINGDOM. Ac- cording to a very old classification, all bodies are d into tie oms I he mini ral, the id the animal. \ I together as organic, in opp to mineral-, which are tlini ral bodie i as oi in 't ter w ithout internal < inon ising by additions from without, having, with I i excepti I ■ a i arm or size, homogeneous throughout, and wit) of one pari to another. Animal ats, on the contrary, i ost a- individual being , of varum . or an Their existence has a h> ginning ami an end, and at their death they are rep;.' other similar beings developed out of them. The distini I in and plants I us at once in thi ; but among the lower orgai which ha'. at tine cl ' ! among plants. The marl. ions, have as yet been found to exist in all animals, are spontaneous motion, • ace of a itus (it may be only a mouth means "of n The prevalent f uitrog a o i cl is another general cha> . while carbon prevails in plan I not all, the faculty of foco-motion (<[. '. is wanting in some, as i 'phis locomotion is generally effected by appropriate . which are very different in the different classes of animals, as legs, wings, tins, suckers, cilia, &c., sometimes' merely by muscular dilatations and contractions. In the higher animals, it is connected with a special system of bones and muscles, which becomes less and less prominent as we descend in the scale, and at last disappears. Nutrition is effected by swallowing ami digi organic matter by nnans of a mouth, stomach, anil intestinal canal. A part of the food — the namely, which results from d taken up by a system of vessels into the body of the animal, and thrown into the blood, into which, under tin- action of the air in the lungs or gills, it is converted ; the other part is excreted by a second orifice, in some of tin- lowest forms where the month forms tin/ exit. For keeping up a circulation of the blood, which must be brought to all parts of the body for the purpose of nourishment, there is provided a sys- tem of blood-vessels and. in tie higher classes, a heart. .See Hf.aut. Nutrition may, to some i take place also by absorption from the external sur- face ; but this is not considerable except, perhaps, among the lowest classes of animals. The sul I that serve for the nutrition of an animal are . itle r vegetable or animal, and the mouth and other organs I pted accordingly. The number of omnivorous animals is small, ami anion.; these, man has the st latitude of choi i , Propagation or reproduction takes place in a great variety of ways: among the lowest forms, by division, gemmation or budding, and germs; among the more perfect, by generation between two individuals of different sex. Of the two sexes, the mail nguished by superior size and aore brilliant colouring, larger appendaj e . and often sb . Be- sl : male and tale, there are among some ani- mals (bees and ants) neuteJ In some of the lower kinds, tli- individuals are hermapl Se,. Rbprodi cnox. All animals develop gradually, and most of them go tlu'ough one or more changes of form or meta- morphoses. This 1 among insects which go through the four stag larva, pupa, and perfect insect. 'I I ptilea with ni'l- 1 less striking. In tin' higher animals, t' tions through a E ms take place in the ovum, or 1 . birth. In - the embryo turity after the exclusion of the ovum (bails ami amphibia) : in othi I 'ha), within the body of the mother: animal I hind are called vil i o the mother- animal produces b ■ i ' h reproduce the original animal. A somewhat similar peculiai . cd in some insects, as Aphidi s. See Aphis. life of an • . ndent on many oondi- nk warmth, atmospheric .air, and moisture, along with sufficient nourishment. ANIMAL AND ANIMAL KINGDOM— ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. Light al i i- essential t.> many, though moat of the Colourless animals of the lov. can dispell with it. With regard to outward pre are, the is is seen in the condor Boai . 20,0 ■ and the whal oi i it below the surface of the si i. I'm individual animals are I to much na ; often to one circumscribed range of climate, one species of food, one medium. To go beyond limits, though it does not always oc death, yet gives rise to various degrees of degeneracy, from which oven man with all his powers of adapta- tion is net exempt. Most animals give more or less strong indications of mind : in those high in the scale, this mental life rises to intellect capable of cultivation, while, in tin lower classes, it appears as in inedtoafew operations. For communicating with the onto vertebrated animals are provided with a nervous system in connection with a centra] brain nervous system ; the ganglionic nervous system of the lower animals seems to serve this purpose less and less as we descend in the scale. The impres- sions from without are received immediately by the which become more numerous and complex the higher the animal stands in the scale ; among the highest, five senses are usually ied, which are variously developed in different i — in none so harmoniously as in man. Nocturnal sleep, being the means of gathering ;li for the activity of the waking hours, stands in intimate relation to that activity, and tie is wanting in bi nigs low in the scale. Winter sleep, or hybernation (q.. v.), serves many animals instead of migration, to enable them to outlive the cold and hunger of winter. An..' be summer sleep of serpents and crocodiles, which lie buried in the dry mud during the summer droughts of the tropics. Of the other vital manifestations of animals may be mentioned, the faculty of giving light (glowworm, medusa 1 ), and that of developing ei< tncity, both possessed only by a few ; also voice, 1 lelonging almost exclusively to vertebrate animals, and o tni m chiefly to the warm-blooded. A very remarkable peculiarity occurs in some of the lowest kinds of animals, in what may be termed .a composite life ; individuals which separately mani- fest many of the powers of life, being united in part of their frame, many of them together into one living mass. Of this, examples are numerous among the Zoophytes (q. v.), some of which have already been noticed in the article Auvumi It Apart from the transforming and modifying influ- ence of man, the animals ami plants of a district — its fauna and flora — give it life and character. To man himself, animals stand in a variety of relations of the highest importance. Some are directly useful to him for labour, food, the chase, &c. ; others hurt- ful, as destroyers of vegetation, as beasts of prey, as vermin, or by their poisons. — The number of known species of animals amounts at present to about 130,000. To describe and cla ifythi i on scientific principles, is the object of Zoology (q. v.). ANIMAL CHE'MISTRY. The object of re- searches into the chemical nature of animal stances is twofold: Fir. . t > classifying proximate or immediate component ingredients of the animal study their properties, their mutual re] and metamorphoses, and the ultimate elements of which they are composed; second, to investigate the aat go on during the elaboration and assimilation of new materials, and the wearing out and excretion of old — processes that, taken together, constitute nutrition, or the vegetative side of animal life. Without a pretty complete knowledge of the first part, no successful researches can be made in 266 the second ; and it is chiefly owing to the great pro- ■ u made within the hurt thirty years in the knowledge of the chemical propertii animal compounds containing nitro en, that we owe the recent advance in our know Ledge of the eh I I bat advance is not the Ie i decided that we are still far from a complete understanding of them. Tlie . . i il laws of cliene try ere now I into the province of organic nature much further than formerly, and the abrupt partition en the two is removed. It is still ml ..I, J .1 that these laws operate differently within the sphere of organic life 1 , from what they do without; but contented n . that owing to the vital force this could not I e, the now to trace the why and wherefore of this modified action as far as possible. In the animal body, two classes of substances may be distinguished : these that properly compo body, ami those that are • the waj either into it or out of it. The former, or actual components of the body, are, again, of two kinds: 1. Substances that compos the actual tissues of the organs, and in which the vital fin prop ilv to inhere ; the substances, namely, of muscle, of nerve, of brain, of membranes, sinews, and the organic part of the bones. All these agreo in consisting chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with usu- ally minute proportions of sulphur and phosphorus. But in respect of their mode of composition, they fall into two classes — those that yield gelatin boiling, and those that do not. To the former belong the substance of the cartilages, bones, sinews, and skin ; to the latter, the fibrin of the muscles and of the blood corpuscles, the albumen of the nerves and blood, the caseine of milk, &e. These last are the so-called compounds of proteine (q. v.). In the living tissues, all thi i rs are combined with about ! . of water. 2. Besides the above, which are the real aninialiscd or vital substances, the animal body contains substances which are merely deposited in tin; cells and inter- stices of the former for imparting colour, solidity, elasticity, &c. Of this kind are fat, the earthy mutter of the bones, pigment, &c. Whether the minute quantities of common salt and of phosphates that arc found in all parts of animals essentially In lone to tic- constitution of the substance tie associated with, is not yet made out, but it is extremely probable tiny do; at all cents, tiny play a very important part. The substances that are on their way into and out of the body, form on the one hand the contents of the digestive organs, and on the other those of the organs of excretion. The vascular system forms the meansof communication between both and the ice of the body, and the blood is the carrier of all that enters that substance or leaves it. In the digestive organs, accordingly, we find, along with the unaltered materials of the food, the various products of their digestion, and at last the useless refuse, not absorbable by the vascular system, and tin- various Quids — some acid, some alkaline — added lei 1 1 to effect itfi digestion, such as the saliva, ■ juice, and bile. The matters prepared in the digestive organs for being taken up into the blood, either enter the venous system directly, or get there by first going ! i the lymphatic system. This last contain a Quid which is chemically very like the blood, but colourless— the chyle, namely. This fluid and the blood contain the so-called proteine compounds derived from the food, partly in solution, and partly solid in the blood corpuscles. Arterial blood contains, besides, all those salts and other substances that must be supplied for the nourishment of the ANIMAL FLOWER— ANIMAL MAGNETISM. LS organs. The venous system, again, wlii-li brinj i back the blood from the different parte to Hi' I organs, is laden with all the matters that are no longer of use, and mo t therefore be carried to l'i chii excretory organs — the; skin, liver, and kidneys, The dark colour of venous blood ind that its components have undergone a change. But all blood that is on its way both to and from the partB of the body, before it can impart i" Hunt, must pass through the lungs, an 01 which it is brought into extensive contact with atmospheric air, and undergoes a pr. ; of <■-•■. i>l:i- ti producing the following palpable results: The disappearanc f a portion of the inhaled o the substitution of water and carbonic arid in it i ['lace ; the transformation of the dark venous blood and of the chyle into red arterial blood; lastly, the development of heat. Breathing, then, Contributes to nutrition by making the blood lit fur purpose; it is an excretory process, inasmuch as it burns out useless matters and separates them in the form of gases; and at the same lame it produoes heat, without which life could not go on. Sweat, urine, bile, and emanations from the skin and lungs, contain only products of the dec" In n of effete animal substances; many of these products are highly interesting in a chemical point of view, especially una, uric acid, arid bile. It is clear, then, that comparative investigation of the blood in its different states, of the excretions and "lis, can alone give any knowledge of the condition of the vegetative side of the organism; and, accordingly, this kind of investigation has in recent times become of the highest unpen for pathology and diagnosis. See Liebig's famous work on A. C, translated by Gregory, and the i ■\eellent I.nch der Pht/.nolotjischen Ciumie (3d ed., Leip. 1854), by Lebmaun. ANIMAL FLOWER. Si - I, and Ane- (Sea). ANIMAL HEAT is the warmth generated in animal bodies by certain of the changes constantly taking place within them. A certain amount of heat is necessary to the proper performance of the vital functions, and any material increase or de of it from the healthy Btandard, endangers animal life. The temperature thus necessary for the life of the animal is maintained by the action of that life The air and other objects surrounding the animal body being in almost all eases colder than it, are constantly stealing part of its warmth; but within the system there ai proce les incessantly going cm which produce Eri b heat. When the h< at thus i inerated is not di ipal 1 East enough, so that the body tends to become wanner than tie- due degree, the accumulation Snds vent in perspiration, tli ■ evaporation of which carries off the exce is. The power of producing heat, is in relation to the ■ ' in which the : oal is accustomed t" live. It is ,.. iker ei warm climates than in cold, and conse- quently when an animal is removed from a warm to a cold climate, it frequently pines and dies. In most fish and reptiles, commonly termed ded animals.' r ■ temperature differs but little thai of t' 1 BT air in which they live; ti i is the ca-.e with hyb animals the latter pari of tine- torpid i oncution, and With the larva ami |ili|).i of Tie W ere exceptions, however; the thunny, shark, and tain witln i mperature several degrees higher thnn tie- water tiny live in. Man has Hie power, to a greater de thai i warm blooded annuals, of adapting himself to changes of surrounding temperature, especially in temperate hut changeable climates such as that of C.reat i. Jin average standard of heat is from 98° to 100°, varying with circumstances. I after exercise or a hearty meal, and at noonday than at midnight. It also varus in diseased ditions of tin- body, rising to I falling as low as 77' in cholera. But if the body be in a healthy condition, the standard of fa maintained, even when th to such intense heat as are men attending furnaces; on for a short time be exposed to 350° of h'-at without materially ra i th nature of Ins own body, although he will lose weigh necessary for the evaporation. Chabert, who exhibited under the sobriquet of 'the Fire-king,' con] I . ..' r a furnace heated to 500° or ' we know from experiment tha lien of the temperature of his body even a few decrees, would have endangered, and perhaps destroyed bis life. Throughout the animal kingdom, the pov generating heat bears a close relation to the a or sluggishness of the animal. Thus, birds, which are llftlly in action, have the highest temperature (100°— 112°); and the swallow and quick-fli birds, higher than the fowls which keep to I and among insects, the hive-bees and butterllies — so perpetually on the wing — than (ho wl, as some of the beetles. The higher the standard of A. H., the less able is the animal to bear a redn of its temperature ; if that of a bird or inane- reduced .'in\ the \ital changes become slower, languid, ami death ensues. Fish, on the other hand, i'i be enclosed in ice, and yet survive. This heat is also necessary to development ; . i require warmth during incubation : the ovidui r or th" serpent is of a higher tempe r at ur e than the rest of the body. As before mentioned, the source of A. II. is In the vital processes going on within the body; but as to the exact mode in which it is engendered, opi are very much divided. It is usually held t" from chemical action; from th" species of combus- tion that takes place in the union of the oxygen of the atmosphere with the carbon and byd the body. That heat must result. Erom there is no doubt, nor is it less certain that t portions of carbonic acid and of heat evolved at the same time are in close relation. The sou carbon thus burned is still doubtful, tie" must be partly derived from the tissn ions of the food. But the amount of carbonic acid evolved I", count for the a' of heat evolved; therefore, though th" combustion of carbon may be the ■ ■ of A. II.. are probably others, as the hydrogen uniting with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and tin' chang the sulphur and phosphorus of the food illt" acids. See Ki -rii: vnoN and DlOl - ANIMAL MAGNETISM orME'Sl a supposed influence or emanation 1 which onean act upon another, producing wonderful upon Lis body, and controlling his actions and thoughts. It v. as fancied t" have seine ai to the magnetism >>! the loadstone, and hen The term has been used to ihera multitude of manifestations deemed of a wonderful kind, and which have given rise t<> an amoi ..ii and en other subject, Hectro-biology, Odyl pping, Table-talking, Spirit" have 1' as only modifications of the phenomena. The art of inducing the magnetic state, in practised by its discoverer, Steamer, involved the or magnetic tub. iron rods, &c. ; but the more common means have D ANIMAL MAGNETISM. made by the hands of the t from ad of the ' to iwnward, or making hi d or, tie ,'lv feels a or aping i baling over tii- surface, ;ind shortly falls into the m mbling Bomnam- , i on in ten is found capable of being thus affected, to a greater or While in tl. us o the body are liable to be much affected ; the pulsations of the heai : and the respiration are quickened or retarded, and ■ is altered, and that chiefly at the will of tK operator; at his direction, the limbs are made or become endowed with unnatural strength ; one liquid tastes as any other, and is hot or cold, sweet i as the subject u told; in short, every thought, si us in. hi, and movement of the subject be! it of the mi m to the mesmeric theory, the nervous energy of the operator has overpowered that of the subject, as a powerful magnet does a weak one, and the two are in rapport, as it is termed. In some cases, the irie trance assumes the form of clairxh See Somnambulism. It has been clearly established, however, that the notion of a force of any kind whatever proceeding in such cases from a person or fro letising apparatus, is a delusion. The effects, whatevi heir cause somewhere else. Where to 1"' looked for v. i 1. though not fol- lowed up, as early as 17S3, in the report of the com- oners, one of whom was Franklin, appoint d by the king of France to examine the p Mesmer. They report that 'on blindfolding those 1 to be most susceptible t" the iii ' (of this agent), all its ordinary effects were produced when nothing was done to them but when they ned they were n while none of its i were produced when tl ally magne- tised, but imagined nothing was done; thai magnetised tree (on i of Mesmer's modes of operating), nothing happened if the - of the experiment thought they were at a di from the tree, while they were immedi it ly thrown into convulsions if they believed they were near the [though really at a dial t; and that, quentiy, tiu d were pro- ! pun ly by tiu imagina But this part of the science of human rial ilex action of the mental upon the phj I had not then been sufficiently studied, and is not now widely enough known to render the con I of th" reporters a satisfactory explanation of the phenomena; and the fallacies of n though d to many similar exposun Falkoner of Bath, e. g., annihilated the Patent Metallic Tractors of I'crkin, by making wood exactly like them, which produced exactly the same effects), have constantly revived in some ah other. One chief cause of the inveteracy delusion is, that the opponents of mesmeri not distinguish between denying the theory . and the fai to explain ; and have been too ready i i whole to delusion and fraud. It thus happen the most sceptical often become all of a sudd most credulous. Finding that things do actually rhich they cannot explain, and had been omed tn denounce as impost ush to ther extreme, and embrace not only the facts but the theory, audcall this, too, 1 lelieving the i i of their senses. Now, the reality of the greater part of the • -."lis appealed to by the mi must be admitted, though we deny his explan even where their reality mus ii it follow that the mesmerist is not sincere 288 in believing them-, there is only greater room than in any other case for susp aived e direction ■ of appearances of this class was Mr Braid, a Burgeon in M Hypnotism), who di - ambiance of power exerted by one individual o\ er, or by metallic ■ « hole to mi of the ted on by tuggetUon, a principle long known to psyi though never made o prominent as it ought to be, The subject been ably handled in a paper in the is for September 1853 [said to be by Dr Carpenter). The reviewer times t! ni tins princi b. I ordinary ad which mi one thinks wonderful, up to (he miraculous of the so-called ' spiritual ' manifesta- tions. Ideas become associated in our minils by habit or otherwise, and one being awakened brings on . thus forming a tram of thought ; tin in. But impressions from without ul modify these trains, constituting in. While awake and ill a DO condition, the will interferes with and di trains of thought, selecting some ideas to be dwelt upon, and comparing them with others and with present impressions. A comparative inactivity of this selecting and comparing faculty, leaving the How of ideas to its spontaneous activity, produces the state of mind called m. In dreaming and somnambulism, the will and judgment '. oendi '1 ; and under its u iinns the mind becomes a mere autom while external suggestions, if they act at all, act as Upon a machine. Th. se are v, . U-knoWn facts of the i constitution, and independent of mesmerism, though their bearing upon it is obvious. Another fact of like bearing is, the effect oi centrated attention on any object of thought in in! 'i j ing the impr red [his may 1 so far. in morbid states of the nervous system, that an idea or revr vividness of ' ami overpowers : uses. Ideas thus benllle dominant, overriding the im] of the outer world, and carryi I oui into action independently of the will, and even without tin con- ess of the individual. These dominant ideas play a greater part in human actions and bi than most are aware of. 'Expectant attention' iwerfuuy on the bodily organs, and often the individual see and hear what he el I to see and hear, and, without his consciou his muscles to bring it about. These, too, are recognised facts in the sciences of physiology and psychoid Carpenter's Huma i v and Dr Holl Cha ■ Mi ntal P 'ili i] in pies enable us to bi b T and explain a who ' m, the inspiration of tie I Ii , religion i tasies, I tie phj ical excite- iiiiliiit mi 'revivals ' and 'camp-meetings,' belief in witchcraft, possession, and mania, individual ami epidemic. And it is now held that the mam- ma of mesne &&, belong to the same class, and are to be accounted for in the n ay. state is produced by a steady gaze at some fixed object. There is no peculiar virtue in s of the mesmerist or iii a metallic disc, for on the wall will produce the effect. The thing requisite is a monotonous and sustained concentra- tion of the subject's will, producing weariness and vacancy of mind ; and this resembles the condition ANIMAL MAGNETISM -ANTMALCUIJS. that induces reverie and sleep, and leaves thi open to any suggestion, and at the command of any idea th.it maj to possess hint. But that he rned by kit . and not by tb> the mesmeriser, is clear. No with of On: mesmeriser, ■ ' ",.,./ Other ! ' • ■nee or vise; while an idea suggested by putti body in ore, or cyan accidental 1 has the sam rad. If he seems more subject to the will of the mesmeriser than of he was previously impressed with that idea, and is therefore more awake to his lions. It is thus that the operator is enabled ke him t think, and act, and memory, the power over his limbs, or even his own identity, as tl tor dictates. We mu-t with thus i r.'ing to the read.r to apply it in detail. The manifestations connected with table-turning, such of them as are genuine, are explained .'. A Dumb r of indi- viduals sit round a table with their hands resting upon it, having the idea in their minds that it will or may move, the m of the expected movement being greed upon. -_ly, if none of the] ry sceptical, it generally < after a time, daring, and in perfect goo not press. And yet il 1 by a con- trivance of I [ways is pressure, or consciousness of the performers; and this ; .t is to be looked for from the involuntary a dominant idea. zplanation docs not suffice for many of the wondi rs 1. But all such are to be received with suspicion, and without ace i. latere of bad faith. Th disposition to look for something out of the usual course of nature makes them incapable, for the time, mine what actually happens from what atiou3 Hating bo<' as a ring, su m the finger, are all to be accounted for in a similar way: they result from unintentional muscular movement In spirit-rapping, a ' medium ' puts, somehow, the questioner into communication with any d ; spirit he may wish to consult, and the answer is by raps, suj ■ to be mad.' by the spirit. questioner runs a pencil over the letters of the b t, and the raps are given as the pencil comes successive letters forming the words of the r. Many of the 'media' in this species of 'spiritual' manifestation have been proved to be impostors, though it is not necessary to suppose that they are so in all cases ; th ly may as witches did of old. ] doubt, however, that the wonderful revelations they made of things known only to the questioi from involuntary indications made by the latter— by his pausing, without knowing it. r. A variation on communicating with the world of spirits, i in putting the questions to a table, which is manipulated, taming, and gives its answers by rapping with one of its feet, or by rocking, as may 1" i The the i ideal of the p rformers in th j apparent in their own narratives. Would it not otherwise be strange that spirits should reveal heaven to Robert own social theory, while a P man finds the world of spirit by a horror of (Rev. E. Gillson, Table-talking), and to pious Scotch Pres by terians every revelation regarding it is completely in accord- ance with i .Such arc the views of U in regard to itter, may be denominated the 'rationalist' party. But there is a large class of intelligent who hold the explanations ab. be insufficient. After making every sHowani deception, whether intentional or unintentional, ml many undoubted facta p maining which are quite beyond th ,. dominant ideas, or any other of the usually received theories, physical or psychological PI of the cha- racter in question are, therefore, -till the subject of earnest investigation on the part of many both in Great Britain and America. ANIMA'LCUIiE.atermetymologicallyappl to any very small animal, and limited in actual use which are microscopical. Animi in prodigious numbers, and of man kinds, their size being such that multitudes of the] ior all the movements of an acth drop of water; and they alwund almost wherever there is moisture, at least whi organic matter is present The il of Ehrenberg is only l-2000th part of a hi l-24J000th part of an inch in diameter, any drop of water from the stagnant pools a us,' says Professor Rymer Jones, 'from our I from our lakes, or from the vast ocean itself, and Various forms of Anim..' place it under the microscope ; you will find ;' countless living beings moving in all directions with • rable swiftness, apparently gifb d with :ily elude each other in the active dance they keep up Increase the power of your glasses, and you will soon perceive, inhabiting lis, compared to which the former were elephantine in their dimi equally vivacious and equally gifted. Exhaust the art of (J ,0 your eyes to the utmost, until the aching Bense refuses to perceive the little quivering movement that ind ad you will find that you have not exh Nature in the descending scale.' Anim;-. to different > I •'• and the term A. is either applied to them all with refer- ence to their mere size, or it is restricted to those which received from Midler, with whom the idy and classilieatii.n of tie m may be said to have begun, the i, '. and which are by Cuvier made the fifth and last : his fourth great divi- the aniniai kingdom, V.'" 90RIA. The ii-iin- in.'logically considered, is not more appropriate than .' perhaps not quite so much so, .as only a small pro- portion of the animals of this class are actually found in infusions, but it continues to be generally employed by soologiste. Attempts have been made fy them according to their structure, and to assign them their proper places accordingly in the ANIMALCULE— ANIMALS. general arrangement of the .inim.il kingdom ; and ut of them have bean fon under the name Rotiftra (q. v.), regarded as pro- bably belonging to the Articulated division ; another part, formeil into a class called Potygastriea (q. v.), consisting of the been in like manner somewhat doubtfully referred to the Radi- ated division. Agassis onhi class Infunuria as 'an unnatural combis most heterogeneous beings.' He regards many as locomotive Alyce; and of those which arc true animals, he expresses the opinion that 111:1 lis states of other animals, still remain, however, many kinds which are perfect animals. Among the most remarkable dis- modern 1st lie reckoned that of/ in such abundance as to form the principal part of extensive strata. Tliis discovery was mad'- by Ehrenberg, who found the /' r (Polishing- slate or Tripoli) of Bilin to be almost entirely composed of the silicious shields of a minute fossil A., the length of one of which is about ^th of a Fossil Remains of Animalcules which form Tripoli. line, so that about 23 millions of animalcules must one to form a cubic lis 11,000 millions to form a cubic inch of the rock. Ehrenberg suc- 1 in detecting the formation of similar strata in deposits of mud at the l>ottom of lakes and marshes, the mad swarming with living animalcules, My in their turn to be fossihsed. Tin or Mountain Meal of Sweden and other parts of Europe, which is sometimes used as an article of food, is entirely composed of the remains of ani- malcules ; not merely, however, of their E i shields, for it contains a considerable pen of dry animal matter. Some animalcules prefer 3 impregnated with iron, and their death gives rise to an ochreous substance, in which iron is a principal ingredient. ANIMALS, Ckdbdr to. England has the honour of first making this a distinct subject of attention by the formation of societies for its prevention, and by legislative enactments making it punishable. The movement has now extended into France and Germany. Benevolence to A. is a result and a proof of ling civilisation. It is the carrying out to its just limits the principle of sympathy, which first appears when the savage ceases to think exclusively of lumself and learns to identify his tribe with him- self. It is this principle of sympathy, only carried further, that, under Christianity, unites all th< and races of men in one family. And it only requires ition of the faculty at sympathy generally, and the direction of the attention to what the lower animals have in common with man — sensibility, namely, to pain — to make any one feel, thai to inflict that pain, is to sin against bis own . and therefore a dim - I ought to be a 1 object of attention in the training of children. Besides the cruelty to beasts of burden and domestic animals arising from cupidity, many, especially children, torture creatures from thoughtlcs.-ncss tiorance. This, therefore, is one of the many instruction of the head may bo made to mend the heart. It deserves to be re- marked, Qlal extinction of life does not con titate cruelty. Tl: en more cruelty in prolonging the life of an animal than in taking it away. It is the infliction of needless pain or restraint that is the essence of cruelty to si Animals. ( 1:1 iiiv in (in Law). This is an against the criminal law, and has frequently of formed the subject of legislation, the last act of parliament, the 1°. and 13 Vict. c. '.'- [] in 1849), being that which at present regnlat law of England on the subject. By this statute it i, that if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, over-drive, abase, or torture any horse, mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, mule, ass, sbcep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, goat, dog, cat, or any other domestic animal, he shall I a sum not i'5 for every such oi rable before a justice of the peace in a mary way ; and if by any such misconduct he shall injure the animal, or any person or property, a further sum not exceeding £10 to the owner or person injured. The act also inflicts penalties in the case of conveying any such animal in such a manner or position as to subject it to unnecessary pain or Buffering ; and also in the case of bull- baiting, cock-fighting, and the like, and makes a variety of humane- provisions for the regulation of the business of slaughtering horses and other cattle not intended for butcher's meat. Formerly, in Scotland, this offence was punishable at common law — that is, according to the Scotch legal principle, common law as distinguished from statute law — and so late as the year 1826, a man was convicted there of affixing a stob, or prickle armed with iron nails, to the tail of a pony, by which the animal was wounded in the hind and punished with two mouths' imprisonment. But the Scotch law at that time did not view such conduct so much as an act of cruelty to the animal injured, as of 'malicious mischief,' as it was called, and, in fact, regarded such treatment of animals as simply an offence against property. An act of par- liament, however, passed in the year 1850, puts the law on this subject in Scotland on the same f as it is in England. The act referred to contains provisions similar to those enacted by the 12 and 13 Vict, for England ; and in both acts it is declared that the word • animal' shall be taken to mean 'any horse, mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, mule, ass, sheep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, goat, dog, cat, or any other domestic animal.' ANIMALS, W0B8BIP or. The practice of worshipping animals, as well as certain plants and prevailed among many of the nations of anti- quity, and is still common among barbarous tribes. That animals should be held sacred and receive worship, need excite no surprise when we bear in mind the origin of polytheistic worship generally. They are manifestations of power; mysterion actuated by impulses differing from those of man ; and often, by their greater acuteness of sense and more unerring instincts, seeming to possess supernatural knowledge. Besides this general ground, various animals have been asso- ciated with the gods as emblems and in other ways. But a more important source of the superstitions regard bestowed on animals, is the bebef that gods, and spirits in general, often take the form of ani- mals, either temporarily or as a permanent . The doctrine of the transmigration of souls is not confined to India. Kindred notions, though not perhaps reduced to system and formally enun arc ail but universal ; they seem as indigenous in I AXTME— AXKARSTROM. the heart of Africa as on the banks of the < It was as a manifestation of the soul of < I originally, like all the other Egyptian deities, a sun-god — that the sacred bull Apis was worshipped in ancient Egypt. When the Spaniards first visited the coasts of South America, they found a ludicrous kind of animal-worship pr ac tis ed by the natives on the coast of Cumana (Venezuela). 'They held the toad to be, as they said, " the lord of the waters," and therefore they were very compassionate with it, and dreaded by any accident to kill a toad ; though, as has been found the case with other idolaters, they were ready, in tunes of difficulty, to compel a favour- able hearing from their pretended deities, for they were known to keep these toads with care under an earthen vessel, and to whip them with little switches when there was a scarcity of provisions and a want of rain. Another superstition worthy of note was, that when they hunted down any game, before t it, they were wont to open its mouth and introduce some drops of maize-wine, in order that its soul, which they judged to be the same as that of men, might give notice to the rest of its species of the good entertainment which it had met with, and thus lead them to think that if they came too, they would participate in this kindly treatment.' — Helps. A'XIME, a resin exuding from the trunk of the Hymencea Courbaril, a large tree of the natural order Legwminosce, sub-order Ci-ti< >n of the year. Pop. 10,009. ANKYLOSIS (Gr. - iullisis, bending or crook- ing; t- :/"'-, stitl- joint), is a term used in surgery to imply a stiffness in any joint. It is usually the result of disease, which, having destroyed the articular cartilages, leaves two liony surfaces opposed to - - other. Tin- reparative powers of nature cause a union to take place by means of granulations bi them. This bond of union may Income osseous, so as to render the joint perfectly rigid, or it may con- tinue membranous, allowing of a certain amount of a. Some joints, especially the elbow, at apt to become ankvlosed : and in the knee or hip- joints, this osseous A. is reckoned the most favourable termination to disease, as the limb c in thi D afford a rigid support for the trunk. Joints, still' tlinntuh a membra - ius \.. may be forcibly bent, and the bond of union ruptured, so as to restore mobility, or allow of their being placed in a < venienl , \. nf the joints between the ribs and the vertebra 1 is common in advanced age: and there are some cases on record of univ of all the joinl case occurred in 1710 of a child only twenty-three months old with all its joints thus stiffened ; and there arc in various museums specimens of adult bodies in this condition. ANN, or AXXAT, in Scotch law, signifies the half year's stipend payable for the vacant half year after the death of a clergyman, to which his family or nearest of kin have right, under an act of the Scottish parliament passi d m tie- year UlT'J. It is a right that dies not belong to the clergyman himself, but to his next of kin absolutely, and therefore can neither be assigned or disposed of by him nor attached for his debts. Compare Annai S3. ANNA, St, according to tradition, was the daughter of Mathan, priest of Bethlehem, and the wife of St Joachim. After twenty-one yi ars of bar- renness, she is said to have given birth to the Virgin Mary, the mother of the Saviour. Nothing positive is known regarding her life; her name does not occur in the Scriptures, nor even in the writings of the Fathers during the first three centuries. The lirst who mentions her is St Epiphanius, in the 4th e. ; but towards the 8th, she was all but universally invoked. Her body was believed to have been transferred from Palestine to Constantinople in 711) A. I>. ; and her head to Chartres, by Louis de Blois, about 1210 a.d. The inhabitants of Duren (Duchy 272 of Juliers, Germany] also pretend to have a head of St A. ; and a third is believed to be m possession of the church at CJrsitz, in the diocese of WUrzburg, li numerals other churches claim to be equally favoured. The Roman Catholic Church leu ,al in her honour on tie- 26th of .Inly; the Greek, on tie- 9th of December. In Austria, Bavaria, ■: r Catholic countries, this festival is - great importance, In honour of St. A., a fraternity, .-ailed the Fraternity of st A., was instituted in the 13th e. After the Reformation, it. was organised anew by the Jesuits; and in modern tine-, has .me vitality in Bavaria and Catholic Switzerlan L ANXA CAKLOVXA. regent of Russia during the minority oi her son Ivan, was tie- daughl I ,i .polil, Duke of Mecklcnbui , and of Catharine, sister of the Russian empress, Anna [vanovna (q. v.). In 1739, she married Anthony line, Duke of Brunswick-WolfenbUtteL Her son, Ivan, born August 20, 1740, was nominated by the , Anna Ivanovna as her successor. This was done at the instigation of Biron (']■ v.), tin- 's favourite, whose object was to secure the i If; and the empress, on her death- bed, actually appointed him regent, but he continued in power only for a short time. She died on October 28, 17 I", and' his overthrow took place on the 18th of November in tie- same year. A. c. now proclaimed G) id duche i and Regent of Russia; but she shewed no capacity for managing the affairs of a great country, spent her time m indolent enjoy- ments, and resigned herself very much to the ance of one of the ladies of her court, Julia von Mengden. A conspiracy was formed by a party is of raising t-i the throne Elizabeth, daughter --I Peter the Great and of Catharine, and tl ilished on December 0, 1741. Th- infant Ivan was si nt to the castle of ScUIussclburg, where he was - I awards murdered; Anna and her hus- band were condemned to imprisonment for life, and conveyed to Cholmogory, a town upon an island in the Dwina, Dear the White Sea. Sere she bore two children, and died in childbed in 174S. Eer hus- band remained a prisoner for thirty-nine years, and died ill 1780. ANNA COMNE'NA, a learned Byzantine prin- cess, author of one of the most valuable works to be found ill the collection of the Byzantine historians, was the daughter of the Kmperor Alexius I. (Coinnenus), ami was born on December 1, ins.','. sin received the best education that Constanti- nople could give, and early displayed a fondness for literary purBuitB ; but was also habituated from her childhood to the intrigues of the court; and during the last illness of her father, she entered into a scheme, which her mother, the Empress Irene, also favoured, to induce him to disinherit his eldest sur- viving son, John, and to bestow the diadem on her. i j in this, she framed a conspiracy against the life of her brother (HIS); and when her husband, Xn- i-horus Bryennius, a Byzantine nobleman, either from timidity or virtuous principle, refused to join in ps a mately lamented that she had not been born i man, and upbraided him as having the soul of a woman. Her brother spared hex life, but E mushed her by confiscation of her property, which, r, he soon after generously restored. Dis- appointed and ashamed, she withdrew from the court, and sought enjoyment in literature. On the i h.r husband (1137), she retired into a con- vent, where she died in 1148. Her life of her father, entitled Anna Comnena AUxiadot libri 10, is full of professions of careful inquiry and a supreme regard for truth, but ' the perpetual strain of pane- ANNA IVANOVNA— ANNATI S. gyric and apology awakens onr jealousy.' The style is characterised by an elaborate affectation of rhetoric. The best edition is that of Schopen (2 vols. Svo, Bonn, 1839). ANNA IVANO'VNA, Empress of Russia, was born on the 8th February 1693, and was the second daughter of Ivan, the elder brother of Beter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke of Courland, the last of his race, who died in the following year; and she obtained the duchy of Courland for urite, Biron, a Courland' r of low birth. The throne of Russia was offered to her by the Supreme Council on the death of Peter II. in 1730, on conditions which greatly limited the power of the monarchy, but which she soon broke. Her elevation to it was very much owing to the intrigues of the Chancellor Ostermann, who had had the charge of her education, but who disappointed in finding her not grateful and tractable, as he expected. For three years, how- ever, her rule was mild, humane, and equitable. The army was reformed, greater liberty was allowed to the landed gentry, government debts were paid up, and the poll-tax for the serfs lessened ; but her paramour, Biron, having determined to govern the i as well as the empress, a sudden and deplor- able change ensued. This man, a blood-thirsty and avaricious wretch, established something like a reign of terror through the land, lie is said to have banished not less than 20,000 persons to Siberia; numbers were knouted, had their tongues cut out, or were broken alive on the wheel. Eleven thousand perished in tins way. Prince Basil Dolgoruki, and others of his family, Buffered the ignominy of the scaffold. At length the health of the queen gave way. She died on October 28, 1740, and left the throne to her grand nephew, Ivan, with Biron as regent. See El SSIA and Biron. ANNALS. These were at lirst books which ned a record, in chronological order, of the principal events occurring in one or more years. The name is derived from the oldest historical docu- ments of the Romans, the Annates Pontificum, or Annul/:* irasimi, the duty of drawing up which devolved upon the Pontifex Maximum; but these were all destroyed by tin- < Sauls at the sack of Rome, some hundreds of years before the time of Christ After the second Punic War, A. similar to the former ones were composed, not, however, by the priests, but by educated members of the Roman laity, such as 1'abius l'ietor, Calpumius Piso, &c. At a still later period, the term was applied to any historical work that followed the eider of time in its narrations, separating them off into single years — as, for instance, the Annals of TacitU3. ANNAMABOK', a small seaport town, protected by a strong British fort, on the Gold Coast of Africa, in lat. 5° 5' N., long. 1" 5' W., 10 miles east of Cape Coast Castle. In 1807, the inhabitants took part with the Fantees against the Ashantecs, in conse- quence of which the town was attacked by an overwhelming force of the latter, and most of the inhabitants W' re slain. There is little trade in any- thin,' lint gold. The present population is between 4000 and J000. ANNAN, a seaport, and royal and parliamentary burgh, in the county of Dumfra s, an the river of the same name, near its entrance into the Solway Firth. It is neat and well built, and has some cotton and leather manufactures, and a small coasting- trade. The river, which affords excellent salmon- lishing, is spanned by a bridge of three is navigable to within half a mile of the town for vessels of 300 tons. There is regular communica- tion by steamers with Liverpool and Whitehaven, IS and the Clasgow, Dumfries, and Carlisle Railway connects the town with Edinburgh, (Slasgow, and Carlisle. The burgh unites with Dumfries, Ac., in returning one member to parliament Pop. in 1851, 4658. A. was the birthplace of the blind pe>et Dr Blacklock, and the great preacher Edward Irving. ANNANDALE. See Di rBB. ANNA'POLIS, a seaport of Nova Scotia, in lat. 44° 40' N., and long. 65° :;7 \V. It stands on a of the same name that runs into the Bay of Fundy. Its harbour is ezcelli b somewhat It of access. A. is thi old I I ment to the north of the Gulf of Mexico, 1 been established, in 1604, by the French as the capital of their province of Acadia, under the name of Port Koyal. Acadia having been conquered by the English in 171cr head. They have no articulated limbs, but most of them are Erovided with bristles and hairs, often in numerous undies, which are of use to them in locomotion; some, which want these, are furnished with suckers at the extremities, and employ them for this purpose ; some remain fixed in one place. Their bodies arc always soft, and without external or internal skele- ton ; but some of them form for themselves a calcare- ous covering by exudation, others form coverings partly by exudation and partly I i.ition. Their blood is generally red, but not from red corpuscles, as in the vertebrate animals; sometimes it is greenish or yellowish. Their nervous system is simple. Many of them have eyes, and many have tentacula. Most of them live in water, and of these the greater part inhabit the sea. Those which live in water breathe by gills, which are variously formed and placed ; some which are terrestrial, as earthworms, have, instead of gills, numerous amnll respiratory sacs. They are all hermaphrodite; most of them, however, requiring mutual fecundation, and most of them are oviparous. They feed in general upon other animals, and some of them live by sucking blood. They are now divided into four orders : 1. Dorsibranchiata, having gill-tufts disposed regularly along the body, and composed of animals of com- Sandwonn (Artnicola piscalorum). paratdvely active habits; C. Tubicola, having gill- tufts near the head, and provided with shelly or other coverings ; 3. Terrieolo?, destitute of all external app xcept minute bristles, and breathing by respiratory sacs ; 4. Bwtoria, destitute even of bristles, and provided with suckers at the extremities. Of the first order, the Sea-worni centipedes, and Sea-mouse, are examples ; of the second, the Serpula, so often an object of interest in nrium ; of the third, the Earthworm ; and of the fourth, the Leech. ANNUAL, in B nn employed to denote that the duration of the life of a plant is limited to year ; within which the germination of the B led, all the functions of vegetation, the ripening of new seed, and the death of the plant, are included. The whole duration of life in the plants thus desig- nated is indeed generally much less than a year, and in temp >ld climates, falls within the " riod of the summer months. The}-, as well as nerally called biennial, produce flowers and fruit only once. Some species are generally A., hers generally biennial; but whether an indivi- : nt a A. 01 biennial, often depends upon the accidental circumstance of the season at which the ad may therefore be artificially d etermin ed by the time of sowing. Peculiar circum- stances also sometimes convert A. into biennial, or perennial plants; and those which are mere annuals in one climate, are perennial, or even shrubby, in another, of which the Castor-oil plant affords a notable example. Most kinds of corn are the pro- duce of A. grasses ; some of which, however, as wheat, in certain circumstances, prove of longi r duration. The annuals cultivated in our t' gardens are very numerous ; and many 6pccies, both ANNUALS— ANNUAL REGISTER. native and foreign, are among our most beautiful Bowers. A'N N U ALS, the name given to a class of p! and graceful publications, which for some years enjoyed an extraordinary amount of public favour, I d tor Christmas, New-year, and Birthday nis, iii imitation of the Qift-booka so | » the Germans. They were illustral tely engraved prints, from paintings by artists of the highest talent, and con I poetry by most of the best writers of the day. 'I' of them, the Forget-me-not, edited by Fn Shobcrl, was begun in London in 1822. Th and even the tit) pted from I the Messrs Ackermann, the London pub! hers. The following year, two others made t] FViendship'i ublished by Smith and Elder, which had for successive editors, Mr T. K. B Mr Pot e, Mr Thomas Pringle, Mr W. II. Ain and Mr Leitch Ritchie ; and the ' itaining a series of elegant poems on the Month; by the B rv, DrCroly. All tliree, in addition to their liter. pictorial contents, had at first the blank papi t for memoranda, cash accounl ■. &c, which were custom- ary in the Gift Pocket-books of previous times. Tli Literary Souva (r, commenced in ] sj i by Mr .Marie A. Watts, was the lirst to discard these, and to exhibit avast improvement on this class of embel- lished works. I i bli hers vied with each other in their efforts to render their respec: ling year, more and more attractive. The Literary Souvenir was followed by the Amulet, started by Mr S. < '. Ball, and edited by his wife; the II. !; , ■/., a provincial annual; and th ■ /. ' . the latter i din 1 v_!7 by Mr Charles Heath, an eminent engraver, I p to this time, the price of all the A. w.i ; L2& i ach : the .'■-, however, was published at a guinea. Its first editor was Mr YV. II. Ainsworth. The following year, the editorship was offered to .Sir Walter Scott, with a salary of £800, and payment besides for his contributions to its pages, but was declined by him. It was then placed under the charge of Mr F. M. Ueyuolds, who - untinucd to I it formally years. The Keepsake always maintained a high aristocratic character, the contributors preferred being those wdio coidd boast a title. In 1S40, it came out under the editorship of Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley. It was afterwards edited by the Countess of Blessington. So popular did toe A. become, that in ls'j:i no fewer than seventeen were published. In 1S40, the number had dwindled to nine. The Booh eg one of the b the series, was begun in 1 is.;:: by Mr Charl. Hi :ih. The first volume was written by Miss Landon (I.. E. L.), the engravings being principally after drawings by Frank Stone. The volume for 1834 was placed under the editorship of the Countess of Blessing: in. who conducted it to the close of her life. Mr Heath had also the Picturesque A and the Children of tlf Nobility — the latter com- menced in 1838. The Jar. nil, Album, an annual for children, was published by the Messrs Acker] Scientific A. also made their appearance, and the musical world had its Musical Bijou. I Hood started the Comic Annual ; and among popular publications of the class were I Draitnng-room Scrap-book, edited at lirst by Miss in, afterwards by Mis Hewitt, and latt B inourable Mrs Norton; and Scrap-book, edited by Mrs Ellis; the Orii ntdlAi •■ Historical Annual, and the (lift and American productions. At lirst, the A. were all bound up in tinted paper, and enclosed in a i but competition produced a great improvement in their external appearance, as well as in their attractions. Paper gave place to silk ; then followed morocco bindings, and afterwards velvet. ; urns of money expended on the everal departments were enormous. Mr Heath's outlay for the literary portion alone of the second volume of the l\' i less than i If this sum, Sir Wall ' ived iiitmg in it his juvenile drama of the Bousi of Asp fa Mirror, and two other little tales. To main the illustrations formed almost their sole em- ployment. Sums varying from 20 to 150 guineas : to artists for the loan of pictures for engravings, of the size of I inches by ."; and engrai '1 150 guinea i tor the prodi of one plate. For se\ I per annum was expended on t ion of the A., and 150,000 copies of them were sold. The .■■'■in' -ii"' alone was at me 20,000 copies. In their most flourishing . a calculation of their expenses and prnlit.i i ule, which may be here quoted For 150,0 volumes, including the guini which there always two or three, the public paid £90,000, thus distributed; & ■ ■ and • '6000; painters. £3 ; I D 12,000; cop- perplate printer.-, £4000; pi 10 makers, £5500; binders, £9000; silk manufacturers a. el Lather-sellers, £4000; advertising, Ice, £2000; incidental expenses, £1000; publishers' profits, £10,000; retail booksellers' profits, £30,000 Total, £90,000. Alter 1S40, the demand for tb ! \. began to decline. At the best, there had been a sickly senti- mentalism in the bulk of their articles ; and at all events, this class of works had been mainly addn I to the refined and affluent. Letter tastes in litera- ture now began to prevail, and there was a i that A. had had their day. Deserted by public favour, the character both of their engravings and their literary contents became greatly deteriorated, and they cased to have any attraction, eitli literary productions or works of art. Publish' longer found them safe speculations, and gradually discontinued them. They dropped out, one by one, like spcn,t stars, from the literary it. The >■ had been discontinued in 1S34, after the publication of ten volumes. The I' me-not, the first in the field, saw its 22d year. The Book of Biauli) and the Keepsake were the last of ■e. The latter, on the death of the Countess ington, was placed under the editorship of her niece, Miss Power. The Keepsake of lS.jli, the , tags in which were under the superinteni of Mr F. Heath, was the only relic of the past; and in that year it ceased to exist. ANNUAL REGISTER. The first volume of the useful work which bears this name appeared in 1759. Various publications of a similar character had previously existed, such as Beyer's /'■■ of Europe, which was published in monthly numbers and yearly volumes from 1711 to 1739; and the Historical Register, a quarterly publication, in 1710, and concluded in 1738. The A. /■*. & from these in being published once a year, in containing a more full and able historical narra- tive, and in the addition of a literary and miscel- laneous department, including notices of n «• boohs. The undertaking was projected by Robert I 1 the bookseller, assisted by Edmund Burke, who some years wrote the historical narrativi I il to some extent in the preparation of the Register during most of the subsequent part of bis life. Indexes to the work have been published at various periods, and the publication still go regularly. A rival work, entitled Tlie New A. /.'., ANNUITY. was started in 1781 by Dr Kippis. It was edited after his death by Dr Slorgan, and came to a close in 1S25. The Edinburgh A. l:. was commenced in 1808, and terminated in 1827. The histo- rical narrative was for some years written by sir Walter Scott, and afterwards, for a considerable time, by Southey. A similar work was commenced at Paris in 1818 under the title at Atmuam Hi and continued till 1849. The earlier volumes compiled with much:, care and ability, but latterly the work fell off very greatly. Its pi now supplied by the At des 1>< ux Mt publication connected with the well-known review of that name, and compiled with high ability. The American A. J!, is published at New York. ANNUITY, from the Latin annus, a year, is a sum of money paid annually. The term, in its full meaning, expresses an obligation on one party to pay, and a right in another to receive the amount. The nt kinds of annuities that niay exist are as the conditions and fancies of those con- cerned in them ; and it is impossible to define them all. An A. may be for the life of any person, how- ever long that may be, becoming extinguished only by his death. It may be perpetual, so that as each enjoyer of it dies, his heirs may succeed to it. It may be on the life of the survivor of any number of persons — for instance, a father may leave to his five daughters an A. of £500 a year from his estate, to be ed by the latest survivor, so that while the five are alive, they have £100 each ; after the first among them, the lapsed share is distributed among the survivors, giving them £ 125 each ; and so on, the last survivor enjoying the whole £500. On the other hand, each might have a separate A. terminating at her death ; and again, instead of either of these simple arrangements, there might be, and often is, a more complex adjustment, giving the survivors on each death a certain proportion only of the deceased's A. An A. may begin immediately, and stop on a contingency, such as the death of a person to whom the annuitant is heir. It may be 'deferred,' so as to begin to be payable only after the lapse of so many years; and then it may either be payable absolutely in perpetuity, or for a given number of years, or it may be payable to an annuitant oidy for the remaining years of his life, if he survive tie- contingency. It will thus be seen that there is infinite variety in the nature of annuities, and consequently, in the calculations regarding them. The fixed elements of Buch calculations, independently of this variety, are iii themselves double, being vital statistics, and the pmlit or interest of money. As to the former, they can only apply, of course, to the adjustment of annui- ties "ii a Large scale. If a person should sell a A.— that is to say, engage for a sum 4 iwn to pay a certain person an A. for life — no study of vital statistics could make his bargain other than a chance ; and though he went on the most approved . it might occur either that the annuitant dies immediately, having the whole purchase- money as bis profit, or that the annuitant lives to extreme old age, and renders him a great loser by tl gain. But on a large, and especially on a n scale, (lie rale of mortality and the value of life may be so nicely rendered in statistics, that a market may be opened for the purchase and sole of annuities at their exact value— that is to say. : i such a rate that the sum paid hi from time to time rsons purchasing annuities, shall just to pay each annuitant's annual i tics, however, can only be obtain > A very accurate and long-continued registral births, deaths, and marriages I ,n:i; audit is known that the government having adjusted the price of annuities by the celebrated Northampton [q. v.) '1'alilej, mule irgain with their annuitants as a body, and, without being conscious of it until afterwards, sacrificed a considerable amount of public money. The second element, besi . in the calculation of annuities, is the profit or money. If this did not require t<> be conaii an A. of '- ! a year for ten yean would just cost £10. But while paying the A., the person who has engaged for it is drawing the interest oi the mom y. If I an A. of £1 a year for ten years for £10, he be drawing the interest of £10 for the first year, £'J for the second, and so on ; and the annuitant's bargain would be to a like extent disadvantageous. As the interest of money may be various, .-> may lement of the calculation of an A.; and to calculate it with reference to future indefinite varia- tions, is of course impossible. It will be a once that when the variety of kinds of A. have adjusted to different rates of profit, an immense field is opened for calculation. Jt is. in fact. vince of algebraic science in which several men have achieved reputations. The interest, as it is termed, of the national debt is virtually a multitude of perpetual annuities. In a country where there is so much superabundant wealth, there is so vast an amount of capital for which people only want interest, that although the lenders of the money are not repaid by the govern- ment, yet when any one has invested m the funds, if i he wants his money back, he is sure to find a person to take his place at something near to the price paid by him. This woidd not lie the case wi re the quantity of these annuities in the market dis- proportioned to the number desiring to invest in them, and hence it is that when there is depn of trade, and money wanted to me is. the funds fall. The government have the largest held of operation, and therefore it is natural to infer that then- annuities are more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of insurance companii other parties dealing in annuities can be. It may be mentioned, however, that, for the encouragement of the working classes to save and provide for old age and contingencies, government, through the savings' banks, grants small annuities on terms advantageous to the purchasers — that is, at less than then- market value (see SAVINGS' B » Many complicated sets of tables have been pre- pared to facilitate the calculation of annuities. The latest known to us are the Commu ■ on On- Carlisle Mortality «' ::. 34, -!. 5 by David Chisholm, 2 vols., royal 8vo,_1858. The calculations are brought out in decimals. Taking the simp] tables namely, those containing the value of an A. of tl. payable at the end of the first year, and thereafter annually during life — we find the following results, commut decimals into fractional money throuj u -V holm's decimal tables : Value or Amnnrr of £1. \ ■. £ s. J. 5 16 11 '.". 10 Hi 13 •!' 15 16 4 20 15 16 'Jo 15 G 1 3 ' n it 5 ;: . 14 2 ■ 13 7 £ .i. d. 45 12 12 11' 11 11 55 11) 7 11'. 60 8 1 05 7 17 i 70 ti C» 8 1 75 4 19 '.'' su 4 2 1'. In political • :onomy, annuities come within the I rather to consumption ANNUITY— ANNUNGTADA. than to accumulation or reproduction. As the means of attaining a legitimate object, the estab- lishment of an A. may be an ndvantago to the community in benefiting some individual m of it For instance, a man is naturally extrava- gant — ho would spend his heritage immediately, i ime to want, if it were paid tu him in i It is therefore vested in an A. ; the man is kept in comfort, and society is not burdened with a needy member. Women are apt to mismanage by false investments or otherwise any capital sums left at their disposal, and therefore it is often advan- tageous to give them an equivalent in an A. In serving, however, these its legitimate obji will be seen that the money so spent is not in its character reproductive. People do save i out of annuities, but, as a general rule, the object and effect of annuities are in the direction of con- sumption, as contrasted with accumulation. This is often overlooked in settlements, especially by men who have themselves been accumulators. The consumptive effect of an A. will depend much on its coming out of fixed or fluctuating property. Take, as an instance of the former, a landed estate. If the clear rent be paid on annuities, the estate ■will not be improved, and it will be stagnant in the pro- portion so paid. If, out of a thousand a year, nine hundred be thus paid, the owner, out of his remainder of a hundred, is not likely to accumulate sufficient capital to improve the estate and double its value. But fluctuating property may not only be rendered stagnant, but may be destroyed by the burden of injudicious annuities. This is frequently exemplified in disposing of the profits of a business. Different members of a family are portioned off upon it, as if it were a fixed permanent estate ; and consequently, there is not a sufficient balance left to induce any one to give his time and energies to the management of the business. ANNU'ITY, in the law of England, is the right to the yearly payment of a certain sum of money, which is charged upon the person or personal estate of the individual bound to pay it. If it is charged upon real estate, the burden is called a rent, or rent-charge, and not an A. An A. may be created for a term of years, or for the life or lives of any persons named, or in perpetuity; and in the last case the A. is reckoned among incorporeal here- ditaments ; because, although the security is personal only, yet the A. may descend in the same manner as real estate.' By the 53 Geo. III. c. 141, repealing the 17 Geo. III. c. 26, and itself amended by 3 Geo. IV. c. 92, and 7 Geo. IV. c. 75, it is directed, that upon the sale of A. or rent-charge, a memorial of the date and nature of the security, the names of the parties and witnesses, the consideration money, and the manner in which it was paid, and the amount of such A. or rent-charge, shall, within thirty days after its execution, be enrolled in the Court of Chancery, otherwise the security shall be null and void. It is therefore the duty of the grantee of such A. to enrol a memorial of it, or a statement of its particulars, in order to make it available as a security over the property charged. The above statutes do not extend to Scotland or Ireland, nor to any A. or rent-charge given by will, or by marriage settlement, or for the advancement of a child, nor to any A. or rent-charge secured upon freehold, copyhold, or customary lands in Great Britain or Ireland, or in Her Majesty's possessions beyond the seas, or by actual transfer of stock in the public funds, nor to any voluntary A. or rent-charge granted without regard to pecuniary consideration or money's worth, nor to any A. or rent-charge granted by any body corporate or under any authority or trust created by act of parliament. By sec. 8 of the 53 Geo. J II. c. 141, 278 it is declared a misdemeanour, punishable by fine and imprisonment, or other corporal punishment, to procure or solicit any person under twenty-one to grant an A. or rent-charge, or to advance or pn to bo advanced money to him, on consideration of his granting an A. or rent-charge after he is of age. in a recent case in the Irish Court of Chancery, it WU unsuccessfully attempted to extend the act to Ireland, by endeavouring to shew that although the lands on which the A. was charged were Irish, the contract itself for the A. was English. The Lord Chancellor (Napier), in giving judgment, obs' 'Hie imperial legislature might have cut the matter short if it had enacted one and the same law for Inland as for England, which would then have governed this transaction in all its parts ; but the act of the English Parliament before the Union, or of the Imperial Parliament, in terms confined land, could not be extended to Ireland by I construction, so as to make either, or any part of either, a law of this land, and thereby to control the disposition of Irish landed estate.' In Scotch law, an A., as such, may be charged on real estate as well as on personalty. In that sy 1 1 m, it has been simply defined to be a right to a yearly payment in money ; and it may be created either by the payment of the sum of money in the form of a purchase, or it may be secured over land, in which case the creditor, in the event of default of his A., may attach the land charged, claiming in his i for recovery a capital sum out of the land, sufficient to produce an animal interest equal to the A., which annual interest is paid until the expiration of the A., when the capital sum is restored to tho debtor. The instrument by which, in Scotland, tho A. is constituted in either of the above forms, is called a Bond of A.; and before the repeal ol usury laws (bya recent statute, 17 and 18 vict c. Oil), this form of deed was frequently resorted to as a means of securing loans where a high rate of interest was charged; and the same practice prevailed in England. But the last-mentioned act renders all such expedients now unnecessary. ANNUITY-TAX, a local impost for the p:i\ of the salaries of the Established clergy of the city of Edinburgh. It was first established on a limited scale by an act of the year 1661 ; and was ex I in its sphere of operation by an act of the legislature as lately as 1809. It amount d at one time to 6 i" r cent, ou the rents of houses and shops within royalty. It was a peculiarity of this tax that the members of 'the College of Justice,' including the lawyer class generally, enjoyed an exemption from it as a relic of an ancient privilege by winch they were induced to reside and hold the courts of law in Edinburgh. The tax was reduced in ISliO; and, under an act passed in 1S70, it was redeemed by payment of £56,500 by the Corporation to the Edinburgh Ecclesiastical Commissioners. A'NNULET fLat intimitis, correctly anulus, a ring), a term in Architecture for a small fillet or bind which frequently surrounds a column, &c. The A. is several times repeated in the moulding which surmounts the shaft of a Doric pillar, and is placed immediately under the ovolo of the capital. — A., a ring, a charge in heraldry of frequent occur- rence. ANNUXCIA'DA. 1. The religious Order of the Heavenly Annunciation, or of the Nuns of the Annunciation of Mary, was instituted by Victoria Fornare at Genoa in 1682, after the rule of St Augustine. All the convents of the order in France, Germany, and the Netherlands have dis- appeared since the French Revolution. Some still exist in Italy. 2. Another Order of the Annun- ANNUS DELIBERANDI— ANOMALISTIC YEAR. ciation, or of Nuns of Mary's Announcement or the Ten Virtues, wa3 endowed l>y John of Valoi3 at Bourses in 1501, after its separation from Louis XII. In 1514, it was placed uuder the authority of the Franciscans. This order, which extended to lifty convents for the reception of poor gentle- women, was broken up at the Revolution. 3. The Order of Knights of the Annunciation in Savoy- Star of the Order of the Annunciation. {Online Suprema delV Annunciala), known origi- nally as the Order of the Neck-chain or Collar, was instituted in 13G0 by Amadeus VI., Duke of Savoy. It received statutes from Amadeus VIII. in 1409 ; was renewed in 1518 under the name of the Holy Annunciation ; and in 1720 was raised by Victor Amadeus to be the first order of the kingdom of Savoy. The king is always grandmaster. The knights who, since 1720, are not limited in number, must be of high rank, and already admitted to the orders of St Mauritius and St Lazarus. They com- pose only one class. The decoration is a gold Decoration of the Order of the Annunciation. medal, on which is represented tho Annunciation, surrounded by love-knots. It is usually worn suspended by a simple gold chain ; but the proper collar or chain of the order is composed alternately of love-knots and roses. On the roses are en- graved the letters F. K r.. T., which some interpret Fortitudo ejus Rhodvm tenuit, in al defence of Rhodes by Amadeus I., and which others hold to signify, Frappes, entires, . ton.?. Since 1GS0, the knights wear on the left breast a star embroidered in gold. The four supremo ! of the order — the chancellor (always a bishop or archbishop), tho secretary (usually the Minister oJ (fairs), the almoner (usually the king's first almoner), and the treasurer the decoration round the neck, sasp sky-blue ribbon, accompanied by a star on t breast. For details of costumes, &c, see B Book of Orders of Knighthood, p. 250, i ANNUS DELIBERANDI, in Scotch lam meant to signify the period of a year allowed to an heir to deliberate whethi r he would accept the inheritance with the burden of his predecessor's debts. The oanoed on the death of the ancestor, unless in the case of a posthumous heir, when the year ran from the birth of the heir himself. But by a recent act of parliament — tho 21 and 22 Vict. c. 7G, sec. 27— it is provided that all proceedings 'against an apparent li account of his ancestor's debt or obligation, for tho purpose of attaching the ancestor's heritable estate, and actions of adjudication against such heir on account of his own debt or obhgation, for the pur- pose of attaching such estate, may bo insisted on at any time after the lapse of six monUia from the date of his becoming apparent heir, any law or practice to the contrary notwithstanding.' ANOBIUM. See Borer and Death-watch. A'NODE [Gr. ana, upward, and {h)odos, a way], a term introduced into the science of electro-chemical decomposition (electrolysis) by Dr Faraday to late the positive pole, or that surface by which the galvanic current enters the body undergoing decomposition (electrolyte). The negative pole, or that surface by which the current leaves the electro- lyte, is called in the same nomenclature the caOiode [kata, downward, and (h)odos]. Electrode is the general term applied to either of these. The ele- ments of electrolytes are called ions {ion, going). Such as go to the A. receive the name of anions, and those passing to the cathode, cations. Thus, in the decomposition of water by the passage into it of a galvanic current through two platinum plates, the water is the electrolyte ; the platinum plate connected with the copper end of the battery is the A. ; and the one connected with the zinc end, the cathode. The oxygen and hydrogen which are disengaged are the ions; the oxygen separating at the A. is the anion ; and the hydrogen at the cathode, the cation. Anions and cations are more generally known under the name of electro-negative and electro-positive substances ; but as these terms are considered by Dr Faraday to imply certain supposed attractions for the positive or negative Sole, the other terms have been employed by him to escribe simply the part the substances play in electrical decomposition. A'NODYNE (Gr. a, privative, and odyne, pain), a medicine given to assuage pain. Properly, the term is applied to medicines, such as opium, which act ou the nervous system, so as to decrease sensibility and induce sleep. ANOINTING. See Chrism, Cof.o.vatiox, Extreme Unction. ANOMALISTIC YEAR is the interval that elapses between two successive passages of the earth through its perihelion, or point of nearest approach to the sun. If the earth's orbit had a iixed position in space, this period would correspond with that of a sidereal revolution, or the time the earth takes after leaving any point of the heavens to return to it again; but the disturbing influence of Elliptical Orbit the other planets causes the perihelion to advance slowly ( 1 1 " -8 annually) in the direction of the earth's motion ; so that the A. Y. is longer (4 minutes 39 ANOMALY— ANOPLURA. ' i than the sidereal. This will be better understood from the accompanying diagram, in which senta the elliptical orbtt of the earth; S, the sun; A, the perihelion; and AP, the longer axis. When tile earth, after leaving A. oomi S back to it again, after having completed a revolution, it finds the lonj and with it the whole ellipse, advanced to AT., and it has still to describe an arc of 1 1 " • 8 be- second perihelion A'. The length of the A. ST, i 365 days, hour.:, 13 minutes, 49 seconds. It receives its name From the anomaly (q, v.). AXO'MALY (Gr. anomaXia, im gularity), the n i ■ ■ : i lured at the sonbetwei a a planet in any point of its orbit and the last perihelion. In the ii the precedii il P 1"- a planet) ABB' its orbit, S the sun, and A the perihelion, the angle Asp i< the anomaly. It is bo called b it was in it that the first irregularities of planetary motion were discovered. The anomaly was formerly measured from the aphelion, the opposite point ol the ellipse; but from the fact that the aphelia of most of the comets lie beyond the range ol o tion, the perihelion is now taken as the point of departure for all planetary bodii . ANONA. See Cl'STARD-Arri-E. AXOXA'CE.E, a natural order of Did .tyledonous or Exoge is plants, of which the type is the genus Anona. They are trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, generally entire leaves, destitute of stipules; flowers usually green or brown, axillary, solitary, OT two or three together ; the calyx of 3—4 persistent sepals ; the corolla of 6 hypogynous leathery petals, in two rows. The stamens are generally numerous ; the filaments short; the anthers adherent, turned outwards, and with a large 4-i inedive. See Stamen. The carp lally numerous, separate or cohering ; the styles short ; the stigmas simple ; the ovules inverted. The fruit consists of distinct or united carpels, sometimes succulent; the seeds attached to the suture; their external covering brittle ; the embryo minute, in the base of the hard albumen. — There are about 300 known species, mostly natives of tropical countries. They are generally aromatic and fragrant in all thej and some species are employed medicinally ; Q fruit of Xylopia aromatica is commonly u pepper by the African negroes, and was formerly imported into Europe as Ethiopian" IT.pper or i i . Bit Pepper. The flowers of some spe. .'i i tquisite fragrance; others yield delicious fruits. See Custard-Apple and Chertmoter. AXO'NYMOUS (Gr. nameless), a term s to a book the author of which does not give bis name ; when an assumed name is given, the term I'll DON! MOUS is used. Works of this class consti- tute one of the great difficulties of bibliography. Ii literature possesses an excellent THdionnaire ri< nt:il'\ 177S; lli'-li'fi-ht ,■ Ji; i I esp iallj I himself by his oaptoze of th fro I, ^capulco, « nh :i oargo worth r hold adventures, lie returneil I land; and, sailing undetected through the I ; i. ii lay in the < lhannel, arrivi d at Spithead, June l.">, 1711, having circumnavigated the globe after a cruise of Have years ana nine months. Hi; perilous voyage had great importance in extruding the knowledge of navigation and graphy. As a reward for his services, A. was Bear-admiral of the Bine (1744) ; and in 17 47, e fter he had gained a victory over the French admiral, Jonquiere, at Cape Finisterre, was mad I Soberton; and four years later, First Lord of the Admiralty, in which capacity he distinguished him- self not less than at sea. In 1701 he was made Admiral of the Fleet He died June 6, 1762. works have bean so popular as Lord A.'s I ! the World. It has numerous readers in < It was written by Mr B. Robins, from Lord A.'s own materials, and was carefully J by the latter. ANT [FormCca), a Linnaean genua of ITymcnop- terous insects, now divided into several genera, i form a family called Formiciihr. The English name is contracted from Emmet, still also occasion- ally used. Another old English name, not now in at use, is Pismire. The species are numerous, and are generally distributed over temperate and tropical regions. Their habits and instincts are interesting, and have attracted attention from remote ages. Ants are small insects, but of extraordinary mus- cular strength. They carry loads of ten or twelve times their own weight, and display great activity. They have a triangular head; the antenna? are geni- culate; the jaws strong; the ligula or lower lip small, rounded, vaulted or spoon-like ; the thorax compri led at the sides; the abdomen nearly oval, idicle which joins it to the thorax forming in some kinds a single, and in some, a double scale or knot. They live in societies, often very large, which consist, as in bees, of males, females, and neuters. The neuters are females with imperfect ovaries, transformed at an early stage of their existence, and are distinguished into two classes, workers and wldiers, the former constituting the greater portion Ants. 1. Female; 2. Male; 3. Neuter (Worker). of each society, the latter somewhat differing from them in larger size, and larger and more powerful head. The ordinary work of the society is performed by the workers: the principal part in warfare, I or off in si ve, is taken by the soldiers. The male's and females constitute but a small portion of each community. They have delicate glistening wings; but the neuters have no wings, and the thorax is smaller and more compressed. The males are smaller than the females, and the workers are rather smaller than the males. The fema! neuters of some kinds (genera Ponera, My, Attn, and Cryptocerus) are armed with stings ; other 282 kinds (Formiea and Polyergus) have no sting, but have the powi c of i jeoting a peculiar volatile ai id, I oi DO Ai in («|.v.), from a small sac in the abdo- m , n ; by this means effectually repelling many adver- to which the pungent fumes are intoh nimala are soon killed by the vapour of an an! hill; and ■ a. known to retire yelling !. upon hi i eyes, either of the vapour, or of a i of the fluid itself. It is said, that when those ants that are unprovided with a sting their mandibles to inflict a bif . curve round their abdomen, so as to be ready iiuine- diat ly to squirt this acid into the wound. 'Ill" winged ants mostly appear in autumn, and - ■ unmencement of tin cold weather; ■ reiving to found new colonies and perp the race. The neuters pass the winter in I numbers in a torpid state, and resume their activity on the return of spring. The nests of ants, midsummer, are usually found to contain v. I males and females mixed with the wingless neuters, which, however, restrain them, and particularly the females, from making their escape into the air, until the pairing season, when they ascend into it in immense swarms, those from many ant lulls some- times uniting tlnir myriads, rising with incredible velocity in distinct columns, and soaring to a height ' Each column looks like a kind of slender net-work, and has a tremulous undulating motion. The noise emitted by myriads and myriads of these creatures does not ezce 4 the hum of a single wasp. The slightest zephyr disperses them.' They occa- sionally, however, make tluir appearance in such prodigious numbers, that the air is obscured by them. — The pairing of ants is supposed to take place in the air. Some of the females which escape destruction by their enemies, or by tl found new colonies, in which at first they perform the work usually assigned to neuters. Some, how- ever, are seized by the neuters of ant-hills near which they fall, and there is even reason to think that these go out to search for them; they are stripped of i igs, and forcibly conducted to the habitation, the number of whose inhabitants is to be increased by their multitudinous progeny. They are fed and treated with apparent respect, like the queen -bee among bees; but a society of ants, unlike one of bees, often contains numerous females, each thus treated and equally employed in the important work of laying eggs. Unlike the queen-bees, also, they are invariably denuded of their wings; nor is this always done by the neuters, to prevent their escape, but the female ant, after fecundation, has been seen to denude herself of her own wings, as now superfluous appendages. The eggs of ants are so small as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. The mother drops them at random in her progress through the nest ; but the work is, of whom some are always in attendance mi her, immediately seize them, moisten them with their tongue, and iay them in heaps in particular apartments of the nest. They continue to watch them, and to remove them from one quarter of the bo another, apparently in order that they may always enjoy a suitable temperature, and perhaps in order to avoid any excess of moisture. In a few days, the young larva are produced; and these require the unremitting care of the workers, v. h b feed them, disgorging into their mouths, for this purpose, a viscid Bubstance, supposed to be the ordinary food of the species, prepared for their use by a sort of half digestion. They are ah., extremely careful to keep the young brooil clean, by constant application of their tongue and mandibles; and a great amount of labour is dady expended upon them, in conveying them from the inner apartments of the ANT. nest towards the surface after sunrise, when the weather is fine, and back again before sunset, or when the weather becomes cold, or there is a pros- pect of rain. The same care is extended to the pupa?. The larva and pupa an the white objects which the workers are seen hastily seizin carrying off to places of safely, when au ant is broken open; and tin- resemblance of which, particularly of tin pupae, to grains of barley, is supposed to have contributed to the general belief, that ants amass stores of corn for winter food. The larva; have no organs of locomotion. The pup enveloped in delicate silken cocoons, and unlike those of other insects, require assistance to extricate themselves from them when they have attained their perfect state. This assistance also is afforded by the workers. The whole supplies of food for the inmates of the ire brought to it by the workers, The food of some kinds is exclusively or chietly animal, that of others, vegetable. The provisions carried to their nests by the ants of Britain and other temperate countries, are now believed not at all to be in! for winter, when the creatures are entirely torpid, but only for present use ; and it appears to be certain that no kind of grain forms any part of their food. But Colonel Sykea has discovered at Poonah a species of ants (Ada provident), which not only store up provisions, but of which the stores consist of the seeds of a species of millet. To 1 of this kind the allusions in the book of Proverbs seem to be made. Virgfl also speaks of the ant providing against the poverty of old age — Inopi nictuens formica sencctic. [Georg. I. 186) The ant has long been a sort of proverbial type, not only of industry, but of provident care for the future. Some ants, however, collect and carry to their nests substances which are not intended for food, but for the construction of the nest, and particularly for closing its apertures in cold or wet weather. In this way they gather together small heaps of chips of wood, bits of straw, small pebbles, &c. The vegetable substance which ants seem chiefly to use as food is sugar ; and to this, wherever it is to be found, they seem to be guided by a very acute sense of smell. Honey-dew, the saccharine excre- tion of the Aphides (see Aphis), is a favourite food of many species ; and with tins are connected some of their most extraordinary instincts ; for not I they climb the plants on which the aphides abound, that they may obtain this food, but they have been seen to wait beside them for new drops, and even to touch them with their antenna?, in order to cause the drops to How, patting the abdo- men of the aphis on each side alternately and rapidly; the ant, after the drop has been obtained, ; on to another aphis. The whole process has been likened to the milking of cattle. Even more wonderful things are asserted on this subject, as that particular ants seem to regard particular aphides as their own property, and are ready to light in defence of their right to them — that, to secure them for themselves, they convey them from one place to r— and that the Aphis radicum, -. its nutriment from the roots of grass end other plants, is actually kept in large numbers in the of the Yellow Ant (Fan morderthat ysat hand a ppjy of food, these aphides and their eggs shai licitude of the ants equally with their own Things so wonderful are ascertained beyond dispute hi i ;ard to the instincts of ants, that even such is these must not be hastily rejected as incredible, and certainly they express the beliefs of careful and scicutilie observer. Ants which feed upon animal food render important service in clearing away every vestige of the flesh of dead animals, and so preventing corruption J and very bet nail animals hav obtained by burying the animal for a short time in an ant-hill. But ants also attack living animals: insects of comparatively large size fall a prey to and in tropical 1 1 ., and : in II quadrupeds arc sometimes devoured bj vast swarms, which strip the bones of the animal lyolean with wonderful rapidity. Domestic animals, at I- ick, are not safe from them, and man himself regards them with dread. Aleut ninety \ prodigious numbers of a particular kind of ant (/'. sat rad in the island of Grenada. This species makes its nest under the roots of plants, and the sugar-canes were so weakened and injured in consequ- ace, that the plantations became nearly unproductive. ' They descended from the hills like torrents, and plantations, ai well as every path and road for miles, wei filled with them. Rats, mice, and reptiles of every kind became an easy pn them; and even the birds, which they an whenever they lighted on the ground in search of food, were so harassed, as to be at length unable ' t them. Streams of water opposed only a temporary obstacle to their progress; the foremost rushing blindly on certain death, and fresh armies instantly following, till a bank was formed of the carcasses of those which were drowned, sufficient to dam up the waters, and allow the main body to pass over in safety below. Even fire was tried without effect. When it was lighted to arrest their route, they rushed into the blaze in such myriads extinguish it.' A reward of £20,000 was offered in vain for an effectual means of destroying them ; but in 17S0 a hurricane which tore up the canes, and exposed their habitations to a deluge of rain, freed the island from thi3 plague. The habitations of ants are very corioush structed, displaying great ingenuity, although with great diversity in the different species. The great r number of species form their habitations in the round. These rise above the surface in the form ..- Ants (/'. Flam) and Xcst of a dome; hence the name ant-hills commonly given them. The largest ant -hills formed by any British species are those of the large red or horse ants {Formica rufa), which are sometimes a as a small haycock ; but travellers in South ca describe ant-hills of 16 or *-'" feet in height. . outwardly of rude appear- ance — a confused leap of such portable materials as . ithin reach : bit within, it contains nun small apartment , of different sizes, arranged in separate stories, .sen: de< p in the earth, some above its surface, and communicating with each other by ANT- ANTALC IDAS. means oi galleries. Oseiflmade of the earth Vlt ,\ from below to mix •with other materials in the , of the upper pari i called Mason Ants, con- struct habital b » still more elaborate masonry, r -f-y<~ Section of Bank, shewing Nests of the Mason Ant. making use, for this purpose, of soft clay, which they Bpread and mould by means of their man- dibles and feet, appearing all the while to i xamine their work by their antennae. The partition-walla of the galleries and apartments of the /' brunnea are about half a line thick, and about half an inch high ; the roofs are somewhat arched, and pillars are frequent in this marvellous archil M. 1 lull, r saw a working-ant of another species [F.fusca), without assistance, make and cover in a gallery which was two or three inches long, and of which the interior was rendered perfectly concave. There are other species, sometimes called Carpenter Nest of Carpenter Ant. Ants, which make their habitations in the trunks of old trees, gnawing the wood into apartments and galleries, with floors and partitions as thin as card. ,;t jlnni foniH its partition-walls of a sort of papier-indcM of saw-dust, earth, and spider's web. /'. smaragdina, an East Indian species, fonns its nest of a thin silk-like tissue. /'. bupinosa, in ' me, makes a felt of the down which envelops the seeds of the Bombax Criba. An East Indian > Kirbii, forms a globular nest of a congeries of tile-like laminae of cow-dun:, the or exhibiting an assemblage of apartments .in 1 alleriea Some Australian ants form their of the leaves of trees glued toj Ut into the proper position by the united strength of multitudes. Of the ants which form their nests in the ground, some, instead o£ constructing ant-hills, seek the 384 iion of stones, roots of trees, &c. This is .. i !i ..i the Bril i b 1 1 . am with the sugar ant of the West Indies, already mentioned. Many interesting anecdotes are on record illustra- tive of the in tin I Of ants, and of the SB which they Beem to possess. They appear also to have some power of communicating with m which it has been supposed that the antennas are chiefly employed. Some Buch power -I to be ' ary, if we could venture to reason from analogy upon such a subji • t, uot only to their architectural and other ordinary operations, in which many must take part, syste- ■ilv and conjointly, but also in their pred and warlike excursions; fur these also some of 1 1 1 - have. If. during the predatory excursions of the AH" cephalotn (a South American species), an intervening space occurs which they cannot cross, some of the creatures link themselves together — as monkeys, in like eii i have been] nown to do — forming a bridge over which the main body passes. Ants are, in general, both courageous and i ions. Many battles take place among them, both between individuals and large parties ; and after a battle, combatants may be found locked in each other's arms, as having died together in the struggle. More extraordinary than anything i kind, however, is the fact, sufficiently ascertained, that boi of ants go on regular tors carry nil' the larvae and pupae of certain other species, which they carry to their own habitations to re al- and employ them as slaves in the work which might 1 as properly belonging to workers of own race— a fact to which no other at all analogous has yet presented itself in natural history. The species known thus to make and keep slaves are rgut mfescens and Formica aanguinea, both sometimes called Amazon Ants. It has been noted as a curious circumstance that the kidnappers are red or pale coloured ants, and the slaves jet black. 'I he kidnapping excursions take place only at a particular period of the year, when the nests o thi black ants contain the neuter brood. The army of red ants (P. mfescens) marches forth, the vanguard, which consists of eight or ten only, continually changing; and on their arriving at: the nest of the . which ends I of the negroes; and thereu] the red th their powerful mandible-, tear open the now undi fended ant-hill, enter it, and emerge, carrying the pupae in their mouths, with which they return m perfect order to their own nest. The pupa3 are there treated with great care, and spend their lives among the red ants, excavating passages, collecting food, carrying larvae, &e., as if this had been their original destination. The amazon ants are not natives of Britain, although plentiful in some parts of Europe. Formic acid has been > mployed as a stimulant in gout and paralysis, and is so exhibited in continental practice by means of ant-baths, which are prepared by boiling crushed ants, or whole anthills, and immersing the diseased limb in the Termites (q. v.), or White Ants, are very different from the true ants, and belong to the order ANT^E. See Pilaster. ANTA'LCIDAS, a Spartan politician, who made himself conspicuous in a very perilous crisis oi the history of his nation by the skilful character of his policy. Sometime after the 1'eloponncsian War, it seemed as if Athens were destined to regain the supremacy she had lost. The Greek states rallied AtfTANANAETVA— ANTARCTIC OCEAN*. romul her; while Conon, an ahlo and vigilant Athenian admiral, and his ally, Pharnabazi Persian, were everywhere victorious in their naval encounters with the Spartan fleet. It b necessary, therefore, that communications should be entered into with the Persian kins, from whom the confederate Greeks drew their chief resources. A was chosen ambassador to Tiribazus, satrap of Western Asia. On hearing this, the ttheniar alarmed, and sent Conon to frustrate the si of the formi t ; hut Tiribazus took A's part, and the result was, that Conon was thrown into prison, and A. secretly received money to enable Sparta to continue tile war. At first, Artaxerxes, the Pi monarch, was dissatisfied with the conduct of his satrap, recalled him, and ]iut Struthas, a friend of Athi lis, in his place; but through a complication of circumstances, which it is unnecessary to mention, A. was subsequently completely successful in securing the goodwill of Artaxerxes. lie was now appointed admiral of the Spartan fleet, and d by Tiribazus, Ariobarzani , I e., swept the seas until Athens became desirous of peace. For various reasons, SO was ArgOS and Sparta hi Tiribazus therefore assembled deputies from the Greek states, and, in the name of his master Artaxerxes, read the i'ane. us declaration or treaty of peace, to which all the mcmlirrs present agreed, and which is known in history under the name of 'the Peace of Antalcidas,' as being the result of the tatter's able diplomacy. Its three great points were as follow: 1. That all the Gi towns on the mainland of Asia Minor, t with the islands Clazomene and Cyprus, should remain under the protection of the Persian kins. '2. That all other Greek towns, large and small, should be independent ; but that the islands of l.emnos, Imhros, and Scyros should belong to as. .'!. That war should be declared against whatever slate refused to accept these points. After this peace, the history of A. becomes doubtful and obscure. He seems to have lust favour with the Persians, and Plutarch even leads us to suppose that, sickened by misfortune and the loss of reputa- tion, he voluntarily starved hiins. It' to death; hut this story is not credited by scholars, both on accounl of its intrinsic improbability and its apparent disagreement with the statements of other writers. ANTANAN ARIVA', or TAXAXAKIV.V, the 1 city of Madagascar, and seat of the govern- ment. It is situated on a hill, in the midst of a mountainous region, at an elevation of 70(H) feet above the level of the sea. The approach to it from Tamatave, the chief seaport, is extremely I and dillicult, owing to the want of mads. The roj 1 palace occupies the summit of the hill ; adjoining are the dwellings of the chief officers of government ; and below these, covering the slope of the hill, are the houses of the other inhabitants! constructed almost entirely of wood. The uniform shape of the , which are just plain huts covered with brown thatch, gives a sombre appearance to the place, \ I i "parently a species of i ible here and there in the hii hi r part of the city. The people exhibit a considerable aptitude civilised usages; and through the agency of mary enterprii ■. which has been unfortunately ■ d for a tune by the arbitrary edicts of the reigning queen, society is considerably ad\ beyond the savage state. These few particulars are gathered from the work of the Rev. William Ellis (Three Visits to Madagascar, lSoo" — i — 5. London, 185S). A'NTAR or ANTA'RA, a celebrated Aral, chief of the sixth century, one of the seven poets of Arabia, whose prize-poems, embroidered in golden characters on round, wen- hung up on the gate of the Caaba [ 1 ee called MoaVU L e., the .-i. pel the '.-it has descended to our clay, he pants hi* warlike deeds, and his love for Al.ia. Ujb courage and hi during a forty years' warfare between two Aral. and his constancy in love, wi re I i ii mory of his countrymen, and appear to have the groundwork of the volununov called Aniar, commonly i ci bed to Asm:.. reduced to writing as early as the daj 9 of the ' Haroun Alrasliid, in the 8th c. Th i work. has come down to us in a later and much cot form, gives an atn ind faithful picti Bedouin hie, and is rich in rest, although too monotone i fy the taste of the European reader. In the L. favourite th e mes of the professional who haunt r mses. A poetical translation of it into English was made hy 'ferric Hamilton in 1820. ANTARCTIC OCEAN', the aea round the south pole, as the Arctic Ocean 1 1 the sea round the north pole. It is otherwise called tie- Soutl comprising all the sea to the south of the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Paci ic Oceans. In this view, the A. Ocean's northern limit may lie conveni- ently divided into three straight uni 9 ■ th i Cape Horn in South America and Agulhas in Africa; tie- Capi' A_nd- d the southern extremity of the Auckland Islands as an e of New Zealand; and the third, between the southern extremity of the Auck- land Islands and Capo Horn. This appears to form the true boundary of the polar n gionB of the south- ern hemisphere. The most northerly isles which it encloses are Now Georgia, at the mouth of the Atlantic, and Kerguelen's Land, at the mouth of the Indian Ocean. The latter tills its own story in its other title of 'The Island of Desolation;' and the former present' d to I : .. even in the middle of summer, perpendicular cl iffs of ice, and valleys covered with everlasting snow. It is usual, indeed, to d Antarctic Ocean and the eon ocean to the north, a contained each within its own pol . Cut. with re aid to both oceans alik , this definition a] 'pears to tmissible. It is only at two points- tl of the Pacific, and the head of tie- Atlantic that the Arctic Sea can possibly reach the \ at all; while, in point of fa t. ii overlaps it at Behring's Strait hy nearly a degree, and falls several degrees short of it 1 half of Norway and the south-east shore of Green- land. The A. it. again, is nowhere practically limited hy the definition in question : not a single h. i a, . to i 1 ■ the expression long before l res at lat. UG' 3CC S.; nor yel is a single authority consist mt in the use of the arbitrary nomenclature. Th" A. (i. Ins li -a explored, more or less factorily, by various navigatoi . With a few except Ions, however. I'll le "lit: known, the difficulties and dangi rs of its na\ i rendering thorough and continuous investigation ible. The names that will in their propi r place i are N I I. and. Sandwich Land, New South Shetlands, New . I ii leiiiy's Land. Graham's Land, Balleny, Sahrina, and Victoria Land. Taken as a whole, tl bear a very small {iroportion to the extent i i which eml i ialf the latitudes and all the longitudes of the southern hemisphi re, exceed the north, as a glance at the map will shew, l.y ANT-BEAR-ANTELOPE. half of Asia and North America, anil the of Europe. Such of theso lands as ar ible at all tames, have been more or let I ble in connection with the whale an lies. 'I 'In' features of the A. O. itself may be I stated to he constant fogs, baffling currents, innum- od magnificent manifestations of the Aurora Australia. On the coast of Victoria Land, beyond the parallel of 7(1 , two mountains b i ii observed to be of a height alto unequalled in such a latitude — Mt. Terror, of 10,000 feet, and Mt. Erebus, of 12,400. The latter is a volcano, being, it is apprehended, the only menon of the kind in either of the frigid Of the two circumpolar oc lUtherly one has excited much less interest than the northerly. The open passages round the two capes respectively into the Indian Ocean and the Pacific, bavi the very beginning, rendered unnecessary any such voyages as those which, for nearly three centuries, have developed so much patience and fortitude in the heroic explorers of the Arctic shores. ANT-BEAR. See AMT-BA.TKB. ANT-CATCHER and ANT-THRUSH, namc3 given to birds of tropical and sub-tropical countries. which feed chiefly upon ants. They are closely allied to the Thrushes (see Tiiiusii), and are included with them in the family Turdida or Mcrulidm of recent ornithologists. They are distinguished by a straight sub-cylindrical strong bill, hooked at the tip, slender legs, and very short tails. They form the genus MyotMra of Uliger, now subdivided into several genera, one of which, /' ins the I otBuffon — birds of brilliant plus of the south-eastern parts of Asia and the Malayan Archipelago. The true ant-catchers are mostly American, arc of comparatively sober plumage, live among the huge ant-hills, seldom fly, and are re- markable for their sonorous voices, the no i in some species is extraordinary. The] species, known as the K> | ■ (Orallaria /,'■ e), is about the size of a quail, its legs are remarkably long. ANT-EATER [Myrmea/phaga), a gen 1 1 o American quadrupeds belonging to the natural order Edentata. The species are few. They are perfectly toothless, their food being insects, and particularly ants, which they procure in great numbers by thrusting among them a very long cylindrical tongue, covered with a viscid saliva, and then retracting it into the mouth. The head is remarkably eloi with a slender muzzle, and a small mouth. The tongue is doubled up in the mouth when not in use for catching prey. The ears and eyes are very small. The toes differ in number in the different Great Ant-cater (.1/. jubata). species, but are united as far as the base of the claws, which are very large and strong, adapt -d to ' up the habitations of ants. The Great A.-E (.1/. jubala), a native of the warm parts of South America, and called in Demerara the A.-bear, is ■M I ', feet in length from the snout to the i which is more than 2 feet long, and is covered with very long hair. The body is also covered with long hair, particularly along the neck and bai are four claws on each of the fore- id live on tie- hind ones. Tho A.-E. B] ol its time i'i sleep, 1 1 1- ■ long snout coin in the fur of tho breast, tin- hind and fore claws her, and the bushy tail thrown over all, as if for a shade from the sun. It is very m in its habits, and is regarded as a very stupid animal. It has ■ th in its foi I like th" hear, so as to amah an enemy t'i death. The female produces oneiyoung one at a birth, and carries it about for some time on her — Another species, the Tamandua (.1/. Tamand having the same number of claws, has a less elon- gated snout, comparatively short hair, and > tail, is scarcely so largo as a cat, and climbs <|ii I of ii in act food.— The Little or Two- toed A.-E. [M. didactyla) differs from these sp tries not only in the number of its toes, but in other anatomical characters. — Closely allied to this genus instruct id habits is the genus jlfonw, contain- ing the PanooltnB of Africa and India; but instead , the body is covered with strong horny S Pangolin'. — The name A.-E. is given at the Cape of Good Hope to the Orycleropus the Aard-vark or Earth-hog of tho Dutch colonists, a quadruped of about the same size with it A.-E. of America, belonging to the same natural order, and resembling it also in its elongated muzzle and extensile tongue, which it employs in the same way, hut provided with grinding teeth and flat claws adapted for burrowing. It burrows with extraordinary facility, and it is in this way that it bo secure its safety when assailed. It In short hair, and little of it. The cars are moderately long. Ii Is S nocturnal animal, and very timid. — The Echidna of New Holland are sometimes called : iters, from their food and their similarity to the true ant-eaters in their sharp muzzlo I ' ■ tongue ; but they differ much in somo parts of their structure. See l'.< am ANTECE'DENT, a term in Logic, Grammar, and Mathematics. Thus we call a proposition in from which i deduced, or a general principle which sen port of . the A. In (irammar, rd which precedes the relativi mple, 'The man who dies for bis country should be held in honour.' I i " is the A. Tn Mathematics, we speak of the A. of a ratio — i. e., 1' i two terms which compose the ratio. Thus, in the ratio of 4 to 3, 4 is the A. Tho word is also used in the plural in a peculiar sense. ' We know very little of his antecedents' — i.c., of his previous character or conduct. ANTEDILU'VIAN is the word n ed fa) denote ,.r existed before the Flood. The A. ages are those which elapsed before the Flood, and, In ilo cal I i uage, the A. religion means tho i of the patriarchs from Adam to Noah. In y, the 'A. period' has no reference to the i ii in led in the Mosaic narrative, but only to tie' final transformation of the earth by means of water. A.Vl'ELOPE | a genua of Mammalia, belonging to the order of Ruminants (q. v.), and to the hollow-horned section of that order — in which the horns consist of an elastic sheath surrounding a bony process of the skull, and are permanent, not annually renewed. The antelopes have the bony nucleus of the horns solid, not occupied, as in those of goats, sheep, and oxen, to a considerable extent, ANTELOPE. with cells communicating with the frontal sinuses. They are also distinguished from the allied genus of goats by having the chin beardless, and from them and sheep by the horns not being longitudinally angled or rid I. The horns of antelopes are, how- ever, very m a< rally ammlated, or surrounded with thickened rings. The body is «1«nd«w and deer-like, the feet small and elegant, the tail short and tufted, the hair generally short, and the colour often lively. .Some species, however, have comparatively long hair ; and a few which inhabit cold mountainous regions are clothed with wool intermixed with longer and coarser hair, particularly the Chamois (q. v.) of the Alps, Caucasus, &c. ; the Hocky .Mountain Goat (q. v.) of North America ; and the Ciilkc (q. v.) of the Himalayas. Many species have infra-orbital sinuses or tear-pits fa. v.) like deer. The females of many species, as of deer, are destitute of horns ; and if they alone came under observation, it would fficult to nay to which genus they belonged. The size is very various ; I the Guevei or Pigmy A. of Africa (A. pygmtBa) is only 8 to 9 inches high at the shoidders, whilst the largest species measure 5 or 6 feet. Almost all the species of antelopes are peace- timid animals, and are distinguished by their agility and fleetness. Most of them are gregarious. Some inhabit plains ; others are found only in the most inaccessible mountainous regions ; whilst others dwell in jungles and deep forests. North America possesses two or three species, which depart consider- ably, as does also the chamois of Europe, from the typical character of the genus. Europe produces only the Chamois and the Saiga {A. Saiga), the Colus of Strabo, which inhabits the southern plains of Poland and Russia. Asia has a greater number of species ; but they are most numerous in Africa, and particularly in South Africa. The known species amount to more than eighty, which are arranged in sections or groups according to the peculiarities of the horns and other characters, but a satisfactory classification of them is difficult. Some naturalists make a family of Antilopea, and subdivide it into genera, but they are not separated by sufficiently d characters. The flesh of. all antelopes is used id; hence they are much objects of the chase. furnish also great part of the subsistence of I ; of prey in Africa, where some of the species exist in such numbers that, particularly when severe lit occiu's in the regions which they ordi- narily inhabit, dens • and multitudinous herds occa- sionally appear in the interior of Cape Colony, to the terrible devastation of tile crops. Even the saigas of the Tatarian plains congregate in herds of many thousands in the end of autumn. The name A. is sometimes more particularly I to s i ides also known as the ( lomi Indian A., and as the Sasin. It is a native of India and the eastern parts of Asia, and is a beautiful animal, about 2J feet high at the shoulder, with divei horns, bent in a spiral of two or i turns, The hair is uniformly short, i that, as in many other species of A., there are small tufts of bristles on the knees. It inhabits Open plains, and the herds exercise great watchful- ii . Ii ■; fleetness is such that greyhounds chase it in vain ; and it can easily bound over an i I I feet in height, or over a distance of 10 or 12 The flesh is held in small esteem, and the animal is than many of its COD ra an object of the chase. — The Saiga is a much less graceful animal ; its horns are snort, and, as in many of this d first outwards and then inwards, so t' whole outline formed by them resembles that of a lyre. They are used by the Russians and Chinese for the manufacture of many articles of do economy ; and it is chietly for their sake and that of the skin that the saiga is hunted, the flesh having a disagreeable taste, which is ascribed to the saline and aromatic plants of the steppes. — TheDzeren {A. gullurosa), sometimes called le A., and known among the Chinese by a name which fie3 the Yellow Goat, is an inhabitant of thi deserts of Central Asia, the flesh of which is highly esteemed, and which is then f object of tho chaso in these regions. It derives its specific name from a large movable goitre-liko protuberance on the throat of the old males, produced by a dUata- tion of the larynx.— The Addax, or Nubian A. (A. Adilax), which was known to the ancients, and is Addax [A. Addax). mentioned by Pliny, has horns very similar to those of the Indian A., but is a larger animal, less ful, with a slight mane on the neck, a tuft ot long hair on the forehead, and large broad hoofs, ail for treading on line and loose sands. It inhabits tho deserts of Central Africa, and, contrary to the usual habits of tho genus, is said not to be gregarious, but to live in pairs. The Chikara and some other Indian species are dis- tinguished by two additional rudimentary horns in front of the ordinary horns, and immediately over the orbits. The chikara inhabits thick forests and jungles. Like the addax, it lives in pairs ; as do also the Stein-boo (q. v.) of South Africa, an nely graceful species; and the Kleene-boc of the same country (A. pcrpu- .«/«n), a beautiful and active Head of Antilopc Chikara. little creature, with very small horns. The kleene-boc is of a mild and gentle disposition, and extremely capable of domestii The Gazelle (q. v.) of North Africa [A. Dorcas), one of the species known to the ancients, is very fre- quently domesticated ; and from its gracefulness of form, its gentleness of manners, and its bright black eyes, has afforded to the Arabian poets one of most favourite objects of comparison. The - African SPRINO-BOO (q. v.) is another very beautiful species, and is frequently domesticated by the colonists at the C d Hope. Among tho numi COUS species which that country produces may be mentioned also the Blauw-boc [A. leucnphams) ; t-boo (.1. arundina i u») ; and the Caffrarian ( tjcrx (q. v.), [A. Oryx), which somewhat but is quite d m. the Oryx of tl (A. Leueoryx at A, a nati\ ! both sides of tl. — till more worthy of notice among the South African tt in some measure departing from tho strict A. type, is the Eland fa. v.). the largest of all the antelopes— an animal which may yet pro- M antf.nx.e -anthology. bably be found very valuable in domi tication. The (q, v.) la anol hei ble i peci .. allied to I be eland. The NtitOhau (q. v.) of India, and the I ■ • (q, v.) of South Africa, are also among the I □pes, but depart still further from the particularly the latter, bo that a separate genus | ) has been constituted for it. having better claims to be recognised than the other into which it has been pr 1 that the antelopes should be divided. Less different from the ordinary type, but still with a marked approach to a bovine the l'.ri.M.i i (q. v.) of the ancients, a native of the north of Africa, the Arabic name of which signifies wild ox, and the Raima (q. v.) or beest of the Cape of Good Hope, which is 5 allied to it. The Pbono-HORH (q. v.) and the Rocks Mountain Coat (q. v.) are the best known i American species ; and both are found only in the western parts of the continent. It has bi a I posed to introduce the latter, as a wool-bearing I. into the Highlands of Scotland. ANTENNAE, in Zoology, jointed filaments with which the heads of Insect ,< idMyriapoda are furnished, and which are evidently very delicate organs of touch. They are therefore sometime feelers. The name A. is derived from ante, before. The A. are placed on the anterior or superior part of 1 ; the animals appear to feel their way with ..ad to them is ascribed the bee's powerot work- 1 the 'dark. Some suppose that they are also of hearing, and by means of them it would appear that many insects, as bees and ante, have the ['ower of communicating with one another. They ; great flexibility, but differ very much in the number of joints which they contain (amounting BO a times even to 100), in the n I I [th and thickness of their joints, and also in their form, l liliform or thread-like, clavate or club red, &c., in endless variety. ANTEQUE'HA (the . ,,f the Komans), an important town in the province of Andalucia, Spain, is situated in a fertile plain, -to miles west of G ! i. l'o| i. 17.000. The inhabitants are e chiefly in agricultural operations, but also manu- facture baize, silk, cotton, and paper. They are i 1 for their love of bright colours in dress. Although A. is clean and well built, it is rarely vi ted l>v travellers, on account of its lying consider- ably off the high road. As late as 1514, the place pos- sessed, in almost perfect condition, an ancient palace and theatre; but about that time the stones were plundered to build a convent, and only a few were spared, which are now imbedded in the walls of the town. A., like all the other cities of South Spain, was for a while in the hands of the Moors ; but in 1410 it was retaken by the Regent Fernando, who is hence called El Infante it,- A. When the French took the place, during the Peninsular War, they converted a curious old mosque — a relic: of Moorish sway — into a storehouse, and on their departure carried olf with them the magnificent -Moorish armoury. AN'THE'LIA (Gr. anli, opposite, and helios, thi sun ; Ger. Gegensonnen) are luminous rings, I lb an observer on a cloud or fog which lies opposite to the sun. They occur chielly in alpine I and in the polar seas, and are only seen when Bun- .iii.l cloud, or fog, occur at the same' time. They appear in the following way : When, from an elevated position— as the mast of a ship, or the ridge of a hill— the shadow of an observer is projected by the sun on a cloud or fog, he sees the head encircled by a glory or luminous ring, diminishing in bright- ness as it leaves the head as a centre. When the sun shines brightly, and the fog is dense, as many as 888 four concentric rings of this nature are seen by the I- round Hi iw i i his bead, having their < in cent iv in the [ii lint where a line Erom i be Sllll through the eye of the observer meets the fog. \\ hen the phi i assumes this form, the are more or less coloured — the colours of the two inner ril em rally brilliant, those of the third more faint, while those of the fourth are scarcely [i iv ] i ible. This last has an angular radius of about ■lo , and is very seldom * en. It bears frequently the name of the Circle of Ulloa or the White Rainbow. A phenomenon substantially similar to the A. occurs when, the sun being near the horizon, the observer ■ aureola surrounding the shadow of hi east upon grass or emu I with dew. The occurrence of A. is generally attributed to the diffraction (q. v.) of light. ANTHEM (Cr. anti, in return, phone, voice; a ling in alternate pari i . 1 1 1 ■■ . i r I ■ ■ ■ i introduced into the service of the l tish Church after the Reformation, and appointed to be sung daily, at morning and evening service, after the third collect. The words of the A. are taken from the Psalms, or other suitable parte of the Scriptures, and the music is either for solo, soli, or choru . or a mixture of all three. As a specimen of English music, it can only be heard to perfection in Iral service. In its origin, musical construc- tion, and use. it is similar to the motet of tho Romish Church, which name has been retained by the Lutheran Church. See Motet; also AsTiriiosv. ANTHEMIS. See Chamomile. ANTHER. SeeST.\ ANTHEBIDIUM, the name given by some botanists to an organ in • is plants which they suppose to be analogous in its functions to the stamen or male organ of fructification in phanero- gamous plants. Antheridia are variously situated on the surface of plants or within their I Sometimes they are s pie cells; sometimes they are composed of a number of cells, containing a mucila- ginous fluid, and peculiar small I lied Phyiozoa (i|. v.), which at a certain period exhibit active move- like those of animalcules. The antheridia finally discharge Heir contents through an opening; and it is supposed by some that then, conl id with another class of . to which the name 1'istil- I.IIHI'M (<|. v.) has been given, is essential to the pro- duction of spores, tin seeds of cryptogamons plants. lint these lie i be n yarded as at best only provisional, and these views as far from being sufficiently established. ANTHO'LOGY(Cr. fiower-colle ition) is the title usually given to a book consisting of an unconnected series of choice thoughts, whethi c in prose or \ but generally in the latter. Of the collections of this hind made in ancient times, which c I mostly of epigrammatic i ms, the best known are tho Qrt giet. — The first Creek A. was com- piled by Melea r of Gadara, in Syria, about GO B.O. le sides this, there were three or four others I" I ling to periods considerably subsequent to the birth of Christ; but all these earlier anthologi lost. What we now possess are two later collec- tions, one by Constantino Ccphalas in the 10th c, who borrowed largely from one of the earlier antho- . and another by Maximus Planudes, a monk of Constantinople in the 14th c., who, by his less selection from the A. of Ccphalas, rather spoiled than increased the already existing store. The A. of Planudes was first issued in print at Florence in 1494 by a learned Greek, John Lascaris. and for a long time was the oidy one known. It went tlirough successive editions, and received various improve- ments. The latest edition (with the Latin version of ANTHOLOGY. doting, a master-piece of latinity and rapid i tion) was commenced by Bosch in 1 T i * ."» . ami finished inep in 1822. Meanwhile, ' tmasius bad di covered in the Heidelberg library (1606) tli > - only extant manuscript of the older and richer A. of Constantino Ccphalas, which he compared witli that of Planudea, copying out the poems not found in the latter. Duriug the Thirty Years' War, the manuscript was carried to Rome ; hut in 1797, after the \ a s of Tolentdno, the French con- trived to secure possession of it, and brought it to In 1816 it was returned to Heidelberg. After the important discovery of Salmasii; work was often mentioned by the name of the Palatinate ' , or the Vaticano-Palatinate. Portions of it were published by Jensius, Leich, l I Elotz. 'I'll ■ entire coll mented i ili- older poet.-. on monuments and in other work . by Brunch at s i 177i', under the title i from the Old < I, and later by Jacob, under the title of i or Fugitive Pieces of the I i, from the of Brunch), 1704 — 1S14, at J. then, it has been published variously, in whole or part. It is impossible not to a gems. Nowhere is there to be found a i poetic life, greater delicacy of sentiment, a more joyous serenity, a greater abundance of wise, true, humane thoughts, than sparkle in the pages of the ( ; i k A To the poet, it presents the most graceful images and the most exquisite conceptions ; to the ipher, maxims adorned with all the graces of style ; to the historian, monumental inscriptions ; to the philologist, the most varied forms of an imperish- able language ; to all, a charming revelation of anti- cputy. Latin Anthologies. — In 1 573 published at Leyden, in imitation of the Greek A., a Latin A., under the tit! I ta VeterumJ' Gather- ii om the Old Poets), and Pitthuus one at i 1590. A Section was issued at cdam (1759 and 177-'o by I' 1 h r Bunnann the t, under the title Anthologia Velerum orum / !'■ malum (A. of Old Latin ! nil and Poems), a more correct and arranged edition of which was published by Meyer m is:;.-,. Asiatic literature is extremely rich in antli' ' which consist sometimes of extracts from tfa poets, arranged according to the subject, and some- times of 'beauties' of their best poets, with bio- grapliical notices, which are either placed in chrono- 1 order, or according to the countries in which i lived. 1. Arabic Anthologies. — Abu-Tcmam published om the old Arabic songs previous to the ' of Mohammed, arranged them in ten books, and named the entire colli ction after the first consisted of war-songs. //..,..' ..,. .\notln-r famous A. is the Dim, i of the Hudh tribe), an edition of which was published by Kose- i. Abu'l-Faraj of Ispahan (died 96 her in his 5 ik of Songs), all the ancient Arabic songs down to fl 1 I in 1840. Abu'l-Faraj a d the work with a minute commentary, which makes it oik- of the interesting of the old ' raturc. But the richest and most complete A. of the later Arabic > (the l'earl of the World), debi, in which the writers are am: ing to the provinces in which they lived. It has iitcd and enlarged since the period of the original compiler. '.ese and similar national ant' as have been made in almost every pro\ . the Arabic culture and sjieech prevailed. Such, for example, are the numerous Arabico-SpanLsh onc3, though these are but little known. 2. P -. — In the Persian literature, the best known works of this soit ■rat al ■ (Lives of the Poets), by Daulet Shah (died 1495), tl of which are to be f- entire in Hammer's work on Persian (Vienna, 1818), and Alt by Haje-Lutf-Ali-Beg, who lived about IT" 1 ). works give biographical notices of the Persian poets : the first, in chronological order ; the second, in phical order, with specimens from their An A. of the best Persian poetry, arranged accordin ibjects, is given in the . Shuara (a Collet tion of I 3. Ta I'octs who have written in the Tatar— i. e., the Last Turkish or i tai dialect — a collection com] 441 Olograph pecimens of th mpany), by Mir- Alischir (died 1500), and /'■■ . by Sadiki, extending down to the 17th c. 4. Turkish Air' i lie number of antholo- the West Turkish, or, as it is generally called, the Turkish language, is very numerous. The most are — Hesh Eight 1 .i of Adrianople (died 1548); Taskarat a ara (Lives of the Poets), by Latin (died 1582), and. under the same title, a similar work of Ashik Tshelebi (died 1571) ; and the great collection, Sub- dat al-axhaar (the Blossoms of Poetry), by K (died 1021). The substance of these anthologies is to be found in Hammer's History of West T\ y (Pesth, 1830). 5. Indian .', its. — The literature of the Mohammedan population of Hindustan, which is a mere copy of Persian literature, ha3 also several anthologies. The most important, are — Chdzari lira- y Ali Ibrahim, containing biographical notices of 300 Hindustani poets, with specimens of their writings; the collection Beni- sure), by Maim Lai (Calcutta, lS.'iO); and by Kerjn-ed-din (Calcutta, 1845). The substance of these works is to be found in Carcin 'ui et lam (Paris, 1839— 1S47), which, under the idustani by Kerim-cd-din (Delhi, 1S4S). In ■ ■ Hindi, we have a rich collection of songs, by Krishna: 0. ,s Sanscrit literature is not so rich in anthologies as the other oriental 1 f we do not consider the Vedic hymns, and th- collection ; of jiocms which beat I title Sataia (a Century), anthologies] in i is only one work of this kind known— ra, towards the ether lyric, and dramatic poets of India, arranged under . —From the earliest ages, the I tin- custom of sending, along with the yearly tribute to the en. had acq Co lei ted from a great numb 'ill of tli .ntiful. of Songs), one of i ksof the* A I. - 1 .ii VI I, . | - i - | German one, by Kiickcrt, at Altoua, lSoJ. 1 ANTnON— ANTHROPOPnACT. this, tliere 13 Tchao-ming-iot n collection of the finest poems of the lame of the Liang dynasty (502— 5.iG a. l\), ami : ; of the time of the Thang dynasty (018—914 a. k). ANTHON, Cham.es, LL.D., a well-known editor of classics, was born in the city of New York in 1707. At the age of 14, he entered Columbia Col] -, where he pursued his studies with and success for four years. I en orij sally intended for the law, he now passed through a pre- liminary practical instruction in his brother's and in 1819 was admitted to the liar of the supreme court of the state of New York. His time, however, was chiefly devoted to classical literature, for he soon began to acquire a high reputation; and in 1820, when only 23 years of age, he was appointed adjunct-professor of Languages in Columbi I which ollice he held for fifteen years. He now com- menced that series of classical publications which has done so much to make available for popular purposes the erudite researches of European sri >lai Jlis lirst work was a new edition <>f Lem Classical Dictionary, which was almost immediately re-issued in England. In 1830 appeared his larger edition of Horace, quite a novelty in its way. on account of the superabunda 1 1 notes which accompanied the text. In 1S33, he issued a smaller edition, for the use of schools and colleges. Virgil, Gesar, and other ancient writers have been illus- 1 in the same attractive manner. A.'s editions of the classics have acquired an extensive popularity; but scholars are disposed to regard them with a kind of learned aversion, both because of the temp- tations they present to the school-boy to overlook liculties of a knotty passage, and of the super- fluous and often unimportant matter which is digni- fied with the title of 'commentary' or 'notes.' It cannot be doubted, however, that these works have given a healthy stimulus to the rudimentary study of the ancient authors. In 1831, A. reeeiv d the degree of LL.D. from his Alma Mater. In 1S35, he succeeded Professor Moore in the chair of Ian A. has likewise published large works on . geography, Greek and Roman antiquities, mythology, literature, &c. — in all, about 50 volumes. ANTHONY, ST. See ASTOHY, St. ANTHOXANTHIUM. See Veknal Grass. A'NTHRACITE (Gr. antfirax, a coal), a mineral substance of the nature of coal, but consisting of carbon with a inininiuni amount of hydrogen. It is of a black colour, conchoidal fracture, and imper- fectly metallic lustre (hence called glance-coal). It burns slowly, and without flame, and hence is some- times called blind-coal. Its vegetable origin cannot be doubted. Where strata of common coal have been broken through by trap dikes, the coal next the trap is found to bo A, with a gradual transition into the ordinary state ; hence geologists look upon A. as natural coke (q. v.), formed by heat or other process from ordinary coal. A. is used as fuel like coke. It is applied in many places to the burning'of lime and bricks, the reduction of iron, &c. It occurs exten- sively in Ireland, and in some of the coal-fields of England, Scotland, and the continent of Europe; but on the largest scale in the United States. ANTHROPO'LATRY (Or.), a term signifying, according to its derivation, the worship of man, and always employed in reproach. Thus, the early Christians accused the heathens of A., because, in their mythology, men were represented as exalted among the gods, although an apotheosis (q. v.) was in these cases alleged by their worshippers ; and the heathens retorted the charge because of the worship of Christ ; the reply to which was the assertion of his divinity. But the term is chiefly known in ecclesiastical history in connection with the employ- of it by the Apollinariana (q. v.) against tho orthodox Christians of the 4th and 5th centuries, with reference to the doctrine of the 1 human nature of Christ ANTHROPOLOGY (from the Cr. anthropos, man), a term sigm to its derivation, that branch of scicuco which has man forii subject. In its proper sense, it is very comprehensive, and of includes Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology, Ethnology, and even History in the largest sense of ni, with much of Tic cs, &c. It is not in common u •. and v. hi n it is used, is often limited to the subject of the relations between mind and matter, or soul and body, in man. ANTHROPOMO'RPHISM (from the Cr. an- man, and morphS, a form), the application, in a figurative way, to Cod, of terms which properly relate to human beings. Thus, in the Holy Scnpturi read of the eye, the car, the arm, the hand of God ; and of bis remembering, forgetting, &c. Ihis \. appears to arise of necessity from our incapacity of forming conceptions of things spiritual, or finding any terms in which to express them, except by aim derived from things cognizable by our senses, so that even the language of adoration is borrowed from the familiar things of this world. It must be evident, however, that A. employed in an unguarded manner, or too grossly understood, might lead to most i 1 error; and a tendency has manifested itself at various times in the history of the Christian Church, to ascribe to the Divine Being a form and parts like those of men. Thus, the Audaeana (q. v.) or Audi Syrian monastic sect which sprang up in the 4th e., accused, and, it would seem, justly, of holding that God was possessed of a human shape, and that, when the Bible said that 'God created man in his own image.' the words are to be understood of tins shape literally. The same error was at a later period ascribed to the Waldenses, but there is no evil ace of the justice of the accusation. A tendency to may indeed be regarded as always 1 ting, and so requiring to be guarded against in the mind of every man ; but the instances have been rare and isolated, although they have from time to time occurred, in which anthropomorphite views have been fully adopted and openly expressed among Christians. The error of the anthropomorphitea has, however, found countenance from the speculations of philoso- phers. Hobbes, Forster, and Priestley ascribed to the Divine Being a sort of subtile body. Fichte, on the other hand, rejected the very doctrine of the personality of the Divine Being as anthropomorphic, and represented God as the moral order of the universe ; and Sehelling, Hegel, I'cuerbach, and Schleiermacher substituted for the objective person- abty of God a subjective consciousness of God in the human soul. — The term Anthropopa&ism is sometimes employed to denote the ascription to God of human affections and passions, although A, in it3 most general sense, includes this. The language of Scripture, in the many instances of this kind, must be interpreted according to the same general principles which are appUcable in those of A. strictly so called, with the same discrimination of the figurative from the literal, and the same constant recognition of the absolute spirituality and onchange- ablcncss of God ; yet so that important truths conveyed by means of such language, and which it is probable could only be conveyed to us by such language, in accordance with our mental constitu- tion, may not be rejected or obscured. And here, it must be confessed, there is greater difficulty than with regard to A. strictly so called. ANTHROPOPHAGI. See Caxmbais. ANTHUS— ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. ANTHUS and ANTIIID7E. See Piprr. ANTHYLLIS. See KfDKET Vi AXTIARIS anil AXTJAR. See Upas. AXTI'BES (anciently Atilipolix), a fortified sea- f,i the department of the Var, in the B.E of rovence, France, lat. 43° 34' N., long. 7° 8' K. 6200. It lies on the east side of a small neck of land oalled La-Garoupe, not far from tho frontier of i, in a very fertile district, producing wine and fruits. The harbour is only serviceable, how- ever, for small craft It is a military station of the third rank, t naval school, and has con- siderable trade in olives, dried fruits, salt-iish, oil, l be i bovies prepared at A. are held in estimation. The environs of the town are beautifully lens, vineyards, and orchards. old place, having been founded by j of G ks from Massilia (.Marseille), of it was a dependency. In the tin- i Augustus it was elevated to the rank of an 1 1 city, and must have attained a b b 'I are to judge from the ruins that .still exist. After the wreck of the old Roman empire, A. suffered the fate of all classic cii that region, becoming subject to successive tril barbarians frum the north. In tho 9th c, it was by the Saracens; in the 16th c, it was fortified by Francis I. and Henry IV.; during the Austrian War of Succession, it sustained a si three months (1710) ; and in recent times, • some notoriety from having closed its gates against Napoleon, on Iris return from Elba. A XTICHLORE is the name given to commer- cial sulphite of soda by paper-makers. When the tags are reduced to a pulp, they are bleached by chloride of lime (bleaching-powder), which thoroughly soaks the pulp, and is very difficult to wash out. The traces of chlorine thus left in the pulp pass into the manufactured paper, and tend to bleach thewri '» ink which maybe traced thereon. To free the pulp from the residue of the chlorine, some sulphite of soda is employed, and hence the name A., which bterally signifies ' against (anti) chlorine.' A'NTICHRIST (from Gr. anti, against, and •, Christ). The general notion of A., as a jiower opposing itself to the reign of the ah, may be traced back beyond the Christian era. Its origin is perhaps to be found in the pro- phecy of Ezekiel concerning the doom of Gog and E, In accordance with the old saying, ' When is sorest, help is nearest,' the Jews conceived that, immediately previous to the Messiah's reign, national adversity must be experienced in an extreme . and that an agent of Satan woidd appear. who must be overcome before prosperity could be restored. This was A. The idea is adopted in the New Testament, although the term A. occurs in mi plaee of Scripture, except in the First and Second Epistles of John. From such as the prophecies of the Saviour, Matt xm Mark xiii., it has been inferred by some that prob- ably the great truth which this conception was intended to shadow forth was similar to that illus- trated in the life of 'the Man of Sorrows' — that only : h tribulation and strife could the I i i be establish d, that Christ's k like Christ himself, could bo made perfect only And with tlus tin I John in his epistles, and of Paul ill pa seem to embody the same idea, is supposed to accord. Nor is it regarded as a fatal objection to this opinion, that in the Apocalypse the Antichristian power or ited with the great heathen capital Rome, symbolically designated Babylon. But this opinion neither ha3 been nor is generally prevalent. The idea of A. early became asso* with that of the Millennium (ii. v.), retaining a form very similar to that which it had among the Jews the advent of the Messiah ; and popular opinion has always sought to lind for it some actual and definite embodiment, In the cth c, a popular id prevailed, founded on the passage in the Apocalypse, ami 8, that Nero ws 1, and would return in the ch a> b ee the loth c, the prevail nt opinion testants has been that A. is the Roman Catholic Church; an idea entertained even at an earlier pi riod, as by Ludwig of Bavaria, regarding Pope John XXII., by Occam, Wicklil 'ham, and the Bohemian reformer Janow, and which seems vailed to a considerable extent an the Hussites and other opponents of Kome. This opinion has of course luously opposed nan Catholic writers, as by Bossu his comments on the Apocalypse, ably advocat opinion that Pagan Rom Roman Catholics, however, are much divided upon iliject, many of them maintaining that A. is yet to come and 'to raise the last n,' as 'no one has yet appeared to i can apply the character which the infallible Word < declares shall be that of the real A.' — Keenan's I m of the Christian R'iigion. The opinion prevalent among Protestants depends upon the identification of A. with the in Babylon of the Apocalypse, and with other symbolic representations in that book, of a power opposed to the cause of Christ, and also with the ' Wicked' one, the 'Man of Sin,' and 'Son of Perdition,' in 2d These, ii. Thus it is maintained that a definite embodiment of the idea of A. is to be sought in history, and that this is to be found in the Church of Rome or in the Papal power. And Protestants refer to the gradual growth i ! errors winch they regard as culminating in the Church of Rome, as accordant with the declaration of Paul in 2d Thess. ii., that 'tie- I iniquity doth already work,' and with that of John, i now are there many antichrists.' There have been, however, among Protestants eminent opponents of this opinion, ai ig may be named Grotius. His own opinion was 1 gala, the Roman emperor, \ In the Greek Church, the term A. has been under- stood as especially applicable to Mohammed, or to the dominion of the Turks aud Saracens. Almost every great or striking event — the arrival of tho Mllll; the beginning of the Crusades; the 'black death' and other plagues in the 14th c. ; tho career of Napoleon in 1805; and i htical movements of ISIS and 184! d new interpretations "t . 8 of Scripture regarding A. See Revelation, Book of. ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, thename adopted by an association which concentre! A tl tl'orts of the free-trade party in Brita; led tin m to carry the repeal of tho corn-laws, and establish in practice the principle cd i thus accomplished will havo to be i other Hue state- Blent is limited to a brief account of the 1 itself, and i; of workinj . obtain the repeal of the corn-1 lis I before the embodiment of I I -—one dly was founded in London in 1834. In 1S38, Mr Cobden and othi rs pportanitap of the periodical a of the Mai • bamber of Commerce for exposing the deleterious intluence of the restrictive comn J on the manufac- and trade of the country. The Erii free-trade, at the sanio time, occasionally met in ANHGOSTI— AXTIGONUS GONATA& : ami promulgate their i but it was in the be jinning of 1839 coat the of the party was first drawn to a Co appointment of delegates from the manufactur- ing districts to proceed to London, and plea on the legislature. Mr Charles Villiers, now (1! ut of thi leaders! ca ise in the !i of Commons, of which Mr O ly, was not On the I'.'th ol February, Mr Pilhers moved that the House resolve itself into a committee of inquiry on the corn 1 the 12th of March, he moved that certain manufac- turers be heard by council at the bar ol against the corn-laws, as injurious to their private interest, The former motion ed by 342 to 195; the latter, by 361 to 172, Immediately ■ return of the delegates from their i effort, the I. ■•■ ae was formed. Its constitutio from I in Manchi I he for- mation of a permanent union, to be called "The Anti-corn-law League," com] all the towns and district i ] 1 in the d many others as might be in.I m auti-corn- I i he League. ■ i '■ ' from the different local; ; ons to nr etfor Dusin from | rincipal towns repre- • With the vii w to secure unity of action, the central office of the League shall be established in Manchester, to which body shall be into other duties, those oi and recom- competent lecturers, tl ig the ■ pi ration of the public press, and the establishing and conducting of a stampi pose of keening a constant corresp ith the local associations.' It was resolved that, in addition to the funds which local associ ir own t purposes, £5000 should be pul at tit sal of the central body, and that every person, or collection of persons, contributing £50, should have one vote in its deliberations. The League collected distributed large sums of money. Just before its principles became triumphant in" the free-trade legislation of 1S46, it demanded a quarter of a million, which woidd have been supplied had it been ary. It is of the greatest moment that the cause of the success of the League should not be misundc I I : it triumphed not by possessing money, but by ing a scientific truth. It was a great organisation for educating thecountry in politii The leading principles of this science were so little known when the! i, and had b dually prornn! ire its end, that a majority ofth liament who, in 1S41, had 1. I ior the sup- port of protection, were converted to free-trade, the conversion including the prime-minister, Sir Robert Peel The key-note to the literature of the League was struck by the beautiful logical exposition of free-trade in General Thomp of the which, with other tracts, was profusely dispersed over the country, while a large stalf of lecturers aided in the task of education. Thinking to serve their cause in the same manner, the Protec- tionist party, at a meeting held in the Duke of Somerset's house, ou 17th February Is!!. ' The Agricultural Protection Society of G Britain.' Thi3 body had inexhaustible wealth at command, but in reality its exertions only helped to f urthcr the cause of free-trade, by promoting i 1 sion. and prompting people to work out the question for themselves. ANTICO'STI. an island in the Gulf of SI l.aw- with.i light-house at its south i in I. it. 49' 24' X., and long. S3 39 1 W. ttis ited to contain 2000 square miles. Neither to , ler nor to the mariner is A. of any value. It is destitute of harbours, the north shore I . and the south low and bee Id increase the danger, the neighbouring 1 to be cap i i : surface is an alternate rocks and swamps. The only inhabitants are the Jit bouse. A., however, IS of use, or promises SOi in connection with the transmission of subn ipbs across and along the Cult of St Law- It has also been proposed to construct here a harbour of refuge by means of convict labour. ANTIDOTE (Gr. given against), a counter- poison. See Poison - . ANTI'GONB, a character of the heroic a , daughter of (Edipus by his own m fcer to Eteocles, Polynices, and She accompanied her father in his into < lolonus in Attica, and after his death, red; I to Theb. -. Et locles, the king, had banished Ins brother Polynices, who, coming back with an army, '. '■ ' combat Both fell, and Creon, ler their death bad become tyrant of I an edict forbidding their interment. A. alone dared to disobey. She buried Polynices, and i consequence seized by the monster, who shut her in r in the same tomb with her brother, or in terraneous cave, where she perished. This 1 I in, son of Creon, who betrothed to A., into a U d apair that he destro fed himself. A., as the ideal of feminine duty and lilial devotion, has been immortalised by Sophocles in his dramas of (Ediput at Colonus and Antigone. — A., daughter of Kurytion, and wife of Peleus, who 1 herself upon hearing a false report of her e to Sterope, daughter of Acs I US. — A., daughter of Laomedon, and sister of Priam, who, having offended Juno by comparing her own beauty to that of the goddess, had her hair turned into snakes, which so tormented her, that the gods, in compassion, changed her into a stork. AXTIGONUS. Of the numerous persons who bore this name, the most celebrated was the sou of Philip of Elymiotis, and one of the generals of Alexander the < treat. In the division of the empire which followed the death of his master, A. receivi d the provinces of Phrygia-Major, Lyeia, and I'am- phylia. Being accused of disobedience by Pcrdiccas, who wished to gain possession of all the territories left by Alexander, A. entered into alliance with ('rati i us, Antipater, and Ptolenueus, and declared war against Pcrdiccas in .'121 B.C. In the same year, Pcrdiccas was assassinated by bis own soldiers ; but A. carried on the war against Eumenes, to whom Perd bad given rule over Paphlagonia and Cappadoria, Eumenes, and afterwards Seieucus, who reigned in Syria, were deposed by A., whose ambition and cupidity now knew no bound-. Se seized the treasures of Alexander kept at Ecbatana and Sua, which he refused to share with his allies, Ptolemx-us, i m of Antipater), and Lysimachus. All the other generals now allied themselves against him, ;nd a long series of contests took place in Syria, l'hcenicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, which ended with the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia (301 B.C.), when A. was slain, in his eighty-first year. AXTI'GOXUS GONA'TAS was the son of Demetrius Poborcetes, king of Macedonia, and grandson of the great Antigonus. On his father's death, B.C. 2S3, various claimants for the throne ANTIGUA— ANTILLES. appeared, and much confusion ensued, the result of v, hi' h was that the royal power fell into the hands ili-mams ( 'eraunus, who, however, soon aftei perished in a Ijattlc with the Gauls, when A. G. at length became niler of the country (277 B.O.), and governed precariously in that age of intrigue, dis- simulation, and violence, for 33 yean. Ho was twice expelled from his dominions by a hostile force from Epirus, but found refuge and assistance in the Peloponnesus. The close of his career was com- paratively peaceful. He died in 243 B.C. AXTI'GI'A. a West India island, the most important of the Leeward Caribbees (sue An : and tin- residence of the govcrnor-in-clik-f of the British portion of the group. It lies in \\ . between 61" 44' and 61° 68'; and in N. lat, between 17 2 and 17' 13'. Its area is at 110 square miles — equal to 70,400 acres, of which 60,000 are under cultivation. In 1851, the popula- tion of A. was 37,130, yielding to a square mile an average of about :>3S inhabitants. It was first settled in 10o_', having till then remained, in fact, uninhabited on account of the great scarcity of i water. It has twice suffered severely from earthquakes— in 1689 and 1S43; while of hurricanes also, the other heavy scourge of the group, A. has had its full share. Numerous islets, rocks, and shoals border the shore, so that, generally speaking, : is difficult and dangerous. But St John's, the chief town, stands at the head of a safe and capacious bay, which unfortunately, however, does not admit large vessels. English Harbour is, on the whole, a more commodious port, and has been selected as the station of the Royal Mail Steam-packets. It is said to be capable of receiving the largest ships in the British navy. A. is chiefly of tertiary formation. The south and west shew grauwacke, porphyry, trap, breccia, amyg- daloid, and basaltic greenstone; the north ami i exhibit calcareous marl and coarse sandstone, inter- I with blocks of limestone; while the int> nor [■resents argillaceous strata and irregular beds of coarse flint. B ides provisions, generally almost sufficient for its own consumption, A. produces large quantities of BUgar, molasses, and rum. In this respect, the emancipation of the slaves appears to have been rather beneficial than otherwise, as the following table indicates : Commerce. Imports (value), Exports, » Sugar crop (hogsheads), "S (puncheons), Inward shipping (tons), 1851. 15 £198,425 206,464 219535 12,189 14,739 7.177 8,701 22,790 34,439 In connection generally with the emancipai I laves, of whom immediately previous to the abolition of slavery, A. had about 30,000, it to have occupied a prominently creditable position. Immediately after the passing of the unj statute on the subject, the local legislature. - in ; the intermediate and probationary state of atioeahip, proclaimed unqualified freedom for 1st August 1S34 — a bold measure, which proved to judicious as it was humane. ANTI'LLES, a term used to designate gen Che whole of the West India Islands, except the Bahamas. Generally speaking, they stretch east- Erom the Gulf of .Mexico to about the meri- dian of the Gulf of Paria ; then southward i Gulf of Paria itself ; and 1 Gulf of Maracaybo. Primarily, however, they are regarded not as threo sections, but as two — the Greater A., to the north and west; and the I to the east and the south. This distinction, which obviously involves considerations of position as of magnitude, will be found to indicate also a diffei anic structure. The Greater A., reckoning from the west, are : Cuba (Spanish), Jamaica (British), Hayti (ind dent), and Porto Rico (Spanish). nd, in W. long, from 84° 58" to 65* 40', and in X. lat. from 23° 9" to 17° 40' — the higher of these two parallels nly 21' or about 25 miles within the 'I • in the lowest estimate, the area is said to amount to 70,000 square miles. The Greater to be of primitive formation, presenting lofty granitic mountains. In Jamaica, hov, e many hills of calcareous origin. The Lesser A. may be divided into two chains — the eastern, trending round from the eastward of Porto Rico to the Gulf of Paria ; and the southern, stretching away in a direction nearly parallel with that of the Greater A,, along the cos tol Vei as far as the Gulf of Mai With reference to the ]'i. vailing trade-wind, these two chains are respecti'.' ly de .gnatcd the Windward and the Leeward Islands. The Windward Islands, reckoning from the north, come in pretty nearly the following order : Virgin Islands (Danish and British), Anegada (Br Anguilla (British), St Martin I French and Dutch), St Croix (Danish), Saba (Dutch), St Bartholomew h), St Eustatius (Dutch), Barbuda (British), St Christopher's (British), Nevis (British), Antigua (British), Montserrat (British), Deseada (French), Guadaloupe (French), Marie Galante (French), Domi- nica (Pritish). Martinique (French), St Lucia (British), Barbadoes (British), St Vincent (British), Grena- dines (British), Grenada (British), Tobago (British), Trinidad (British). They extend in W. long, from 6.V 30', at the west extremity of the Virgin Isles, to 59 '-ii. at the east extremity of Barbadoes; and in N. lat. from 18 ; 4S', at the north extremity of Anegada, to In 31', at the south extremity of Tril rhaps scarcely equals 5000 square miles, being not materially larger than that of J i alone. — The Windward Islands are other- .1 ii died the Caribbees, from the now extinct race of the ( laribs (q. v.) ; and hence the sea, which they cut off from the open Atlantic, has taken the name of l 'aribbcan. The Leeward I ' ' east, may be given as follow : '; ■ mzuelan), rita (Venezuelan). Ti Venezuelan), I'.laiiqnilla (Venezuelan), Buen Aviv (Dutch), Curacoa I, Aruba (Dutch). They extend in W from 63 1 2', at the east end of the Testigos, to 70 II' at the west end of Aruba; and in N. lat. from 11, at the south of Margarita, to 12 J , at the north of Curacoa. Their entire area cannot ex The Lesser A., as a whole, appear to be d of eoral formation, or origin. Many of them contain extinct craters ; and. though not tute of harbours, their coasts are n ndi red in a great are inaccessible by reason of n The A. | i c rally— but perhaps I I r more so than the Greater— are subject tohurrican earthquakes. Their principal rum, cotton, c I e individual islands wM be found noticed more in detail in their r, spective The name A. is generally supposed to hav given by mistake) Indian Islands. Before v of America by Columbus, a tradition far to the west of the Azores there lay a laud called Antilla, whose position was vaguely indical I in the maps of the early i graphers. Only eight mouths after Columbus's AXTILOPE— ANTIXOMTAXISM. return, we Martyr writing that the i navigator had touchi I be tlic Antill.i- ; and it ia carl tin thi and Hayti win- known as such before a in the Caribbean chain was discovered AXTILOPE. See A ATJTIMONY (in Lat. Stibium; hence the chemieal symbol 8b) is a brittle metal of a flaky, crystalline texture, and a bluish-white colour. It 'is readily reduced to powder 1 V ordinary pulverisation ; heated to 840° V., it fuses, 'and th i being allowed to cool, it solidifies in rhombohedral crystals, which are isomorphous with those of arsenic. Heated in a retort, where tie- 0x3 the air is excluded, ae in an atmosphere of hyd A. volatilises as the vapour 01" the pure metal When raised in temperature in contact with the air, it burns with a white light— combining with the 11 of the atmosphere, and farming copious white fumes of the teroxide of A., or ' flowers of A.' The metal is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, but may be used, in conjunction with bismuth, in the construction of thermo-electric piles. Ex to the air at ordinary ten:; \. does not I ish or rust ; and this property, combined with tie' hardness of the metal a 1 I of it< eomp renders A. of essential service in the useful arts, in the construction of alloys, such as Britannia metal, type 1 and plat'' pewter. It is likewise employed in the preparation of the large concave mirroi i ronomical ol is; and in the easting of 1 m harder and whiter, and to give them a clearer and strongi c sound. 'The principal natural sources of A. arc—;/ V. of commerce, which is the impure tcrsul- of A. (SbS,); and 1 . A., in which it " with silver, . The exti \. from its ores is mainly carried on at Iiiiz, in Germany, where the sulphide of A. is found extensiv< ly, and in Great Britain, which receives its supply of ore from Singapore and Borneo, commonly as ballast The process consists in he. I 1 ude ore, covered with charcoal, on the bed of a furnace, when the sulphide of A. fuses, leaving unmelted the earthy impurities; and thereafter the liquid is drawn off into iron moulds, when- it sr.Ii.lities into cakes or loaves. The latter are powder, iilaeed on the be -I of a reverberatory furnai teated with access of ordinary air containing oxygi n. when the sulphur . ohurous acid (SO.), leaving behind the A. I roxide |. The roasted mass is now mixed with one- sixth of its weight of powdered charcoal moistened with a solution of carbonate of soda, and raised to bright redness in crucibles, when the metal A. trickles to the bottom, and the impurities are left above in the spent flux or scoria, winch is known in the arts by the name of crocus of A. The compounds 01 A. arc numerous: with oxygen it forms (1) i I of A., or while A. ore < 'liters into the composition of tai I (2) anlimonioua acid (SbO ( ), which forms one of the uents of Dr James's powders; (3) 1 5bO ( ), a very insoluble compound, obtained by upon the metal with concentrated nitric With sulphur, A. forms the tersul ired to as a natural ore of the metal, and which when roasted at a temperature sufficient to fuse it, passes into the mixed teroxide and ter- sidphide of A. known commercially as the gl A. A native oxysnlphide, of a pretty red colour, is called red 1 the ordinary sulphide of A. is boiled with potash, or the carbonate of potash, i 'Ives; and thereafter, on boiling, dip h-brown substance, known 1 The liquid from which the dej. lien, if i with hydrochloric acid, throws down an ipitate of ■: .! A. iso a chloride of prepared by ig sulphide of A. and hydro tad to- ll has the common name of butter \. b is j aerally obtained as an oily liquid, of the consistence of melted butter, and of a yellow colour. Mixed with olive od, it is used by gunmakers as o< , to impart a yellow The surface of the metal is ards polished by a burnisher, or coatcil a varni The various compounds of A. are used as medi- cinal agents, both in human and veterinary practice, .iy the tartar enu ie, a compound of teroxide of A., potash, and tartaric acid (SbO,,Ki l,T). ANTIXo'MIAXISM. (Gr. nnti, against, and nomos, law), the doctrine or 1 I Christians ed from obligation to beep the law of God. It is generally n i rded by tin- advocates of the doctrine of justification by faith, as a moi abuse and perversion of ne, upon which it usually professes to be based. From several pa of the New Testament, as Horn, vi, and 'J Pet ii. IS, 10, it would seem that a tendency to A. had manifested itself even in the a] > ; and many of the Gnostic sects ware really antinon ly also some of the heretical sects of the middle ages ; but the term was first used at the time of the Reformation, when it was applied by Luther to the opinions advocated by John Agricola. Agricola bad adopted the principles of the Refor- mation; but in \~r21 he found fault villi Melancthon for recommending the use of the law, and particu- larly of the ten commandments, in order to pi conviction and repentance, which he deemed incon- sistent with the gospel Ten years after, he main- tained in a disputation at Wittenberg, that as men are justified simply by the gospel, the law is in no way necessary for justification or for sanctifii \ntinomian Controversy ' of this time, in which Luther took a very active part, terminated in in a retractation by Agricola; but views more extreme than bis were aft Ivocated by some of the English sectaries of the period of the Commonwealth ; and, without being formally pro- by a distinct sect, A. has been from time to time reproduced with various modifications. It ought, however, to be borne in mind, that tin A. has no reference to t ', but only to tho I so that men who practical 1, ' and violate the known law of God, are not re antinomians ; and it is certain enough that men n ally holding opinions more or 1 antinomiart, have in many cases been men of moral life. It is also to be observed that the term A. has I to opinions dill', 'ring very much from each other. In its most extreme sense, it denotes lection of the moral law as no longer bin upon Christians ; and a power or privilege is a' for the saints to do what they please without pre- judice to their sanctity; it being maintained that to them nothing is sinful; and this is rep fection of Christian liberty. But besides this extreme A., than which nothing can be more repug- nant to Christianity, there is also sometimes 1 natcd by tins term the opinion of those who refuse 1: or to see in the Bible any positive laws binding upon Christians, and regard them as left to ■ ii gospel principles and the constraint of Christian love ; an opinion which, whatever may be thought of its tendency, is certainly not to be deemed of the same character with the other. Probably, the A. that docs not arise out of a dislike AXTLNOUS— ANTIOCHCS. of morality, usually originates in mistaken notions of Christian liberty, or in confusion of views as to the relation between tlie moral law and the Jewish law of ceremonial ordinances. ANTrN6TJS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis, in Bithynia. He was page to 1 I -drian, and the object of bis extravagant affection, accom- panying him in all his travels, but was i drowned accidentally in the river Nile, or as some suppose, committed suicide, from a loathing of the life he led, in 122 A.D. His memory and the grief of the emperor were perpetuated by many statues and bass-reliefs, of which several are very beautiful, especially two now in Rome— one found in the baths, and the other iu the villa of Hadrian. 'In all figures of A.,' says Winckelmaun, 'the face has a rather melancholy expression ; the eyes are itlines ; the prolile is gently sloped downwards ; and the mouth and chin are especially nl.' The city of Besa, in the Thebais, near t<. which A. was elrowned, was also rebuilt by Hadrian, and the name of Antinobpolis conferred upon it, in memory of his favourite. A. was further enrolled amongst the gods, and temples erected to him in Egypt and Greece. A'NTIOCH, the ancient capital of the Greek kings of Syria, was the most magnificent of the sixteen cities of that name built by S< Icucih Xicator. Its situation was admirably chosen. The river Orontes, issuing from the mountains of Lebanon, flows north as far as the 36th parallel of latitude, and then south-west into the Levant. On the left bank of the river, after it has taken this last direction, and at a distance of twenty miles from the sea, lay the famous city, in the midst of a fertile and beautiful plain, ten miles long by five broad. By its harbour, Seleuceia, it had communication with all the maritime cities of the West, while it became, on the other hand, an emporium for the merchandise of the East; for behind it lay the vast Syrian desert, across which travelled the caravans from Mesopotamia and Arabia. On the north, the plain of A. is boimded by the mountain- chain of Ainanus, connected with the south-eastern extremity of Mount Taurus; and on the south, which is more rocky, by the broken declivities of Mount Casius, from which the ancient town was distant less than two miles. In early times, a part of the city stood upon an island, which has now i 1. The rest was built partly on the plain, and partly on the rugged ascent towards Mount I The slopes above the city were covered with vine- . while the banks of the river displayed, an they do even at the present day, a gorgeous pro- fusion of eastern fruit-trees. The ancients called it* A. the Beautiful,' 'the Crown of the East,' &c. It was a favourite residence of the Seleucid princes and of the wealthy Romans, and was famed through- out the whole world for the abundance of its con- veniences and the splendour of its luxury. It received from Strabo the name of Tetrapolis, on account of time new sites having been successively built upon, and each surrounded with a wall. Its public nificent. The principal were — the Palace ; the Senate-house ; the Temple of .1 1 burnished with gold ; the Theatre, Amphitheatre, and Ciesariiun, besides an aqueduct, a pnbh menade, and innumerable baths. At the beginning of the Roman empire, it was as large as Paris, and for many generations after, continued to receive numerous embelhshnients from the emperors. Nor did its glory fade immediately after the founding of Constantinople, for though it then ceased to be the first city of the East, it rose into new dignity as a Christian city. Ten councils were held in it Churches sprang up exhibiting a new style of ture, which soon became prevalent ; and uistantinc himself spent a considerable time here, adorning it, and strengthening its harbour, ia. The Antiochenes themselves, hov. brought about the ruin of their beautiful city. They were famous, above all other people in ancient times, for their biting and scurrilous wit, and for then? . ing nicknames ; and when the Persians, under Chosroes, invaded Syria in 538 A. D., the Antiochenes could not refrain from jesting at them. The Persians took ample revenge by the total destruction of the city, which, however, was rebuilt by Justinian. The next important event in its b was its conquest by the B ithe 7th c. In the dtli c. it was recovered by the Greeks under phorus Phocas, but in 10S4 it again fell into the hands of the Mohammedans. The Crusaders besieged and took it on the 3d of June 1098. At the close of the 13th c, the sultan of Es\ -pt seized it : since then, it has undergone a variety of vicissitudes, and at present forms a portion of Syria, in the eyalet of Aleppo. Its modern name is Antakieh. It exhibits almost no traces of its former grandeur, except the ruins of the walls built by Justinian, and of the for- tress erected by the Crusaders. The houses are generally of stone, and roofed with red tiles ; the streets are narrow ; the manufactures few and imimportant, and the population not more than AXTTOCHUS, a common Greek name, was borne by thirteen kings of Syria, four kings of Commagenc (a small country between the Euphrates and Mount Taurus) , and many other persons of note (see Smith's Dictionari d Roman Siogr r, the first of the Syrian dynasty, or - cicke, as they were called from their founder, was the son of Selencna, the general and one of the successors of Alexander. A. was the fruit of one of those marriages which Alexander cele- brated at Susa between his generals and the prin- cesses of Persia. His mother's name was Apama. From this fact we gather that A. was probably born in 32-1 B.C. For the earlier career of A, see Seleucus. On the murder of his father in 2S0 c. c, A succeeded him in his dominions, but he after- wards permitted Antigonus Gonatas to retain possession of Macedonia on his marrying Phila, a daughter of Seleucus. A. was much occupied in wars with the Gauls, who invaded Asia Minor, and, on one occasion, is said to have gained a victory over them by the help of his elephants, from which circumstance he derived the name of Soter (Saviour). as subsequently killed in a battle with the Gauls (201 B.C.), and was sue- led by his son A. II. This A. is mentioned in the Book of Daniel (xi. G) as the king of the north— the king of the south being Ptolemy, whose dau Berenice. A. bad been compelled to marry. On th of Ptolemy, A. recalled his former wife, Laodice; but she, in r the insult which i received, caused A to be mur. with Berenice end fa x son. A lost the provinces of Parthia and Bactria. But the most distinguished of the Seleu III., surnamed the Great, who was tl I OCUS C.-dlinu i ra with Ptolemy, Phuopator A. was gei successful; and though he was defeated in a battle fought near Gaza, be afterwards, by his \ over the Egyptian general, S lined entire Eossession of 1 '. ' ode-Syria. In this war ted by the Jews, to whom he granted many privileges. Fearing the power of the Romans, A. at length concluded a peace wit!: I I rothed his daughter Cleopatra to the young king Ptolemy, AXTIF.EDOBAPTIST— ANTIPATITY. re her Coale-Syria and Palestine aa a dowry. The formidable enemy win b 1 ped t" i d him ■■'■ oi his Having conquered Philip oi Ma© Romans no longer dreaded a war ( accordingly sint him an embassy, demandin aorrender of the Thracian < of the places which he had conquered from PI whose guardian the Romans had I fn 191 B.O., he was entirely defeated by the consul Acilius Qlabrio at Thermopylae, < Lto return to Asia. Having a second time tried the war, he was defeated by Scipio, who had i over into Asia, and wry severe 1- rms were imposed onhiin. He found so mu In money to pay the tribute the Eomahs demanded, that he w i , led to plunder a temple in Elymo people rose against him, and killed him (187 B.C.). The fat ' of A. was foretold in the Book of Daniel (xL 18, 10). A. i\"., (17.1 —164 B.a)surnami d Epiphanes, ' tyranny and sacrilege, excited the Ji wa to a uuee rection under their leaders Mattathias, Judas Maccabaus, and the other members of thai family. The monstrous life of A. is recorded in the i a. The last of tl V XIII.. snrnamed Asiatieus, wa 1 of his kingdom by Pompey, who reduced .Syria to a Roman province (05 B. c). ANTIP-EPORATTIST. .-. term exactly desig- nating on.- who objects to child-baptism. As such a one, however, is generally known in tliis ci under the name Baptist, see 1 1 \ I ; . . A X TI'PAROS (anciently called Olearos or Oliaros), one of the I I ads, celebrated :ilic cave, is separated from Paros I narrow strait. It contains about 400 inhabi- tants, and forms a part of th" eparchy of Naxos. A.i 7 miles in lei !| ; it is scantily supplied with in the north and west are to] Corn and wine an- cultivated, but not to any great i The principal occupation of the inhabitants is fishing. From Kastron, the only village in the island, the '1; tance to the i about an hour and a halt's ride. Tin cave is not alluded to by any Greek or Roman writer whose works are extant, but must ha\ 1 by the curiosily-hunters o in 1806, Colonel Leake deciphered a Hellenic i tion which contained the names of those who had descended into it in ancient times. It is situated in the side of a mountain on the 8. coast i which is described as a mass of white marble. The top or entrance of the cave has a striking appear- ance; but the sloping descent is rather dan on account of the cord by which the tr being extri mely slippery from constant hui The bottom once reached, and the grotto en there is presented to the eye as dazzling a specimeu of stalactitic formation as can well be conceived— the roof, lloor, and walls of the various ch all glittering with the most gorgeous incrustation, though it is said that the smoke of the torches and the constant lingering of visitors, are sully.) primitive purity of the massive columns. It is l«li ived that there are other caves of equal splendour in the vicinity which have not yet been discovered. The height of the known cavern is 80 feet; its length and breadth more than 300; but it seems the eye can only take in at once a length of 150 feet, ami a breadth of 100. The grotto was first made known to the modern world in 1073, by the t!u u French ambassador to the Porte, M. de Nointel ANTI'PATER. Of the many persons who bore 236 this name in antiquity, the most celebrated v. ,., rala and confidential friends of King Philip o ". When Alexander led his troops into \ along with Tarn had endeavoured to dissuade him from the expedi- tion—as governor of Macedonia. A. dischi , ability, Bupj ..i Thrace and Sparta ; but Olympias, the mother of Alexander, who entertained a di like in A., prevailed on her .son to appoint i ■ Macedonia, Alex prompted also, it L by 1 own of A., con '. but dud before the change was carried I ; and A. was left to share with the government i in Europe. The government oi ' wa i dto hu i ; and i n after, he was called upon , it an alliance of the I With the assistance of Cratems— on whom he afterwards In -towed his daughter Phila in marriage— and to a certain extent, of I .! ,., ,. o bag the alt- ■ to a ij Democracy at Athens was abolished, a gai admitted 'into Munyehia, and the leaders popular party put to death. W hi > D was summoned to the presence of A., he took poi on, which for some 1 ... l and died in the templeof Poseidon (322 B.C.). This war was followed by another with Perdiccas, v. ho was also his son-in-law, in which A. was again successful. A lurder of Perdiccas in 321 B.C., A. was appointed to the supreme regency of the kingdom, and the guardianship of Alexanders children. He died at an advanced age, in B.G 318 or 319, leaving the regency to Polj , ! hon,to the exclusion of his own son Cassander. Tl hi amewere: I. A., second son of Cassander, king of Macedonia, who lived in the 3d. c. II. A., the father of Herod the Gn at He . ,' , . of Pompey and Julius I . Romans, and about the yi ar ■17 b.c. I procurator of Judea. He was poisoned in 43 B.C. 1".' whose life he had . -lil. A., grandson of th son of Herod it by bis fir I wife D prince, who was perpetually conspiring , ! . life of his brothers, until hi b I and Quintilius \ arn . the Bob i of Syria. He was executed in prison five days before B ' and in the same year with the massacre of the innocents at A. was lil: aame of various eminent men in ancient times — physicians, philosophers, historians, mathematician ;. and grammarians. ANTI'PATHY is the term applied to a class of cases in which individuals are disagreeably I by, or violently dislike, things innocuous eable to the majority of mankind, These peculiarities are no doubt sometimes acquired in early life by injudiciously terrifying children with some object, the mental impression becoming perman- ent A large class of persons have an A. to animal food, and from childhood refuse to taste it. In others, again, the aversion is limited to one kind of meat, as veal or pork; others are averse to eggs or milk. Nor is this feeling a conscious caprice, which an exertion of the will might remove ; for it is generally found that contact with the object of the A. is resented by the bodily economy, and symptoms of poisoning are rapidly produced. .Some are atl'eet.-d with these symptoms who have no mental aversion to the article. We read of a countess who had a liking for beef-udder, but directly it touch..! her lips tht'y became swollen. There is also the case of a boy, who, ' if at any time he ate of au egg, his lips AXTIPJlLOGISTIC-AXTTrODES. would swell, in liia face would rise purple and and be would froth at the mouth.' Some medicines affect particular persons dangerously, even when given in very minute doses: a sid ■ I ■ loo "i mercury lias been known to induce a pr tion, with destruction of the jaw-bones. On others, medicines hare a peculiar effect — aatrir purge. Every summer, in Great Britain, persons may be seen with the most distressing irritation of the nasal and palpebral mucous membranes, produced by Hi" exhalations arising from the fields during the inflore ce crop. In others, an asthmatic condition is induced by the s; -ne-. 'I'll' some places has a similar inflni ace on individuals : one gentleman was always attacked with asthma if he slept in the town of Kilkenny, and another rarely escaped a lit of that complaint, if h anywhere else. The most remarkable antipathies are those affect- ing the special senses. Nearly all persons h re a loathing at reptiles, but some few faint on seeing a toad or lizard, others on seeing insects. ' The Duke d Epernon swooned at sight of a leveret — a hare did not produce the same effect. Tycko Brake i at sight of a fox, Henry III. of France at tkat of a cat. and Marshal d' Albert at a pig.' — Hillingen. //■ wring a wet linger drawn on glass, the grinding of knives, or a creaking wheel, is sufficient to pro- duce fainting in some. Siii'ltimj musk or ambergris throws some into convulsions; and we have seen how articles of food affect others — often, no doubt, owing to perverted taste. The touch of anything unusually smooth has the same effect sometimes. Zimmerman records the case of a lady who was thus affected by the feeling of silk, satin, or the velvety skin of a peach. — This subject will be further con- sidered under Idiosyncrasies. . AXTIPHLOGI'STIC (Gr. miti, against, and phlerjo, 1 burn), a term applied to remedies, and also to regimen, that are opposed to inflammation; such as blood-letting, purgatives, low diet, &c. A'NTIPHON, the earliest of the ten Attic orators in the Alexandrine canon, was the son of Sopbilus the Sophist, and born at Bhamnus in Attica 480 B.C. In his youth, the reputation of Gorgias, the most showy and insincere of all the Greek rhetoricians, Was at its height. A. soon became convinced of the worthlessness of that oratory which the fashion of the time so highly valued, and resolved to introduce a new and better kind. He laboured to make liis argument i el ar, solid, and convincinj . so that it might be impossible lor the judges v. In. listened to the sp •'•■ he wrote to refuse their ; to his propositions. His success was unmis- takable. Although he never mule a public appear- ance as a pleader in the courts of justice, but Dted himself with writing speeches for others to deliver, he acquired great influence, which he did not fail to exert Ear tie furtherance of his political principles. To him must be attributed tit- over- i of tli'- Athenian democracy (411 B.C.), and the establishment of the oligarch unentof the Four Hundred; for although Pisander figured pro- minently before the ] pie in tin, revolution, the whole affair, according t" Thucydides — one of A.'s pupils in oratory, and a man admirably fi( judge of such a point was secretly planned by him. The ol I government did not pro per. Dissensions quickly broke out among the Hundred, and six months after, Alcibiades, the brilliant dema ailed. A. was bt to trial for- treason,' in having attempted I peace with Sparta, lb' is Baid to have made a noble f himself. Thucydides affirms that an abler was never made by any man in a similar position. It was 1- B condemned to death; his property wasconfi cated, round, his remains forbidden interment in Attica, and his children fur ever declared incapable "i enjoying civic privileges. Of tie lid orations of A. which the ancients possessed, only 15 have come down to us. Three ol tie atly admired for tie ir clearness, purity, and vigour of expression; the remaining 12 appear t" 01 ool-rhetoric for his pupils. They are not held in equal estimation with the others. ANTI'PIIONY, a name given by the ancient Greeks t<> a pecies of musical accompaniment in the octave, by instruments or voices, in opposition to that executed in unison, which they called / phony. A. is also the name of a specie song, sung by two parties, each n iponding othi r ; a practice which was cultivati d in the early ages oi" tin- lb brews, Greeks, and Romans. Many of tie Psalms of David shew that antiphonal singhi then in use. Its introduction into the Greek Church is ascribed to Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, in the 2d c. ; and Ambrosius, Bishop of Milan, have introduced it into the Western Church, in the 4th c. The dividing of the antiphonies into verses, with rules regarding tin- same, is attributed to Pope Ccelestin in 432. Pope Gregory I., in 590, pre- pared the first regular Antiplniimrinni (see /; Rationale Divinorum Offiaorum, Mainz. 1459). It i ly a custom, which became especially common after the 13th c, to date deeds with the beginning words of the A. (Introitus), which in these tunes served for the day of the month and of the week. The Reformed Christian Churches of Germany and England have still retained a certain degree of antiphonal singing. The chanting of the Psalms in the English cathedral service is an imitation of the ancient antiphony. ANTI'PODES, a word of Greek origin, signifying, literally, those who have their feet ■ other. As applied to geography, the term means 1 1 1 • - inhabitants of any two opposite points of the or, in other words, the dwellers at ti extremities of any diameter of the earth. From this primary relation, there necessarily arise many secondary relations. A. must be on one and the meridional circle, separated from each by half the eireuiiifercuce. Being on one and the same meridional circle, they must differ in long. exactly 180 , with the • ■■ them- as having no longitude at all ; and being sepa- rated from each other by half the circumference, they must be equi-distant from the equator in op] us. Take Edinburgh, as an example, in kit. 55 57' X., and hue.'. '.',' II' W. : its A. must be in lat. 55° ">7 S., and in lon_e 183 11' W., or rather in 170 4!)' E. — which is merely an undistinguishable spot in the Antarctic or Southern 0i in. I u. in lat. 51 30" X.. and long. 0° 5' W. lis A. must be in lat. 51 ' 30 *.. and in long. 180° 5' YV., or rather 1 T it 65 coinciding pretty nearly with a small island to the south-east of New Zealand. This small island. in honour rather of I Ion than of its, i appropriated the term A. as its own peculiar name. Between A. in general thi i other secondary relations. With reference to the earth's daily rotation, the noon ol tl le side must be the midnight of the other ; w hde, with regard to its annual revolution, tie' summer and the autumn of - aide musl be the winter and the spri i.r. With r. t" the I contrast, some explanation may be requited. This, 297 ANTIPOPE— ANTIQUE. for instance, being Wednesday in London, vu last midnight in that city the noon of Tuesday or of Wednesday at A. Islam! ? Tin' answer is, 1li.il. according to circumstances, it may be held to be eitb i the one or the other. In going eastward thai is, in meeting the sun — one, from day to day. an! oi- pates every noon and every midnight in tfa i of 4' of time to 1° of long., or of 12 hi time to ISO" of long. ; so that, on reaching A. I fniiii London by the Cape of Good Hope, the middle of Tuesday night, by Greenwich reckoning, is actually regarded on the spot as the noon of Wednesday. In going westward, again the leading, aa it were; the sun — one, from day t" day, postpones every noon and every midnight in the same proportion as above ; so that, on reaching A. I hind from London by Cape Horn, the middle of Tuesday night, by Greenwich reckoning, is actually regarded on the spot as the noon of Tu In fact, navigators in opposite directions, m at any intermediate point whatever of the earth's cir- cumference, always differ in tlnir computation of time by a whole day, or 24 hours, [i two cases, this has been permanently exemplified : the Spaniards at the Philippines, who have come from the east, are a day behind the Portuguese in Macao, who have come from the west; while, on the north-west coast of America, the Russians from the west are a daj' in advance of the British from the c A'NTIPOPE was a pontiff elected by the will of a sovereign, or the intrigues of a faction, in oppo- sition to one canonically chosen. The emperors of Germany were the first to set up po ir own nomination against those whom the Romans had elected -without consulting them. Otho the Great displaced successively two bishops of Rome; and wlun Sylvester III. had expelled from the capital of Christendom Benedict IX., whose profligacy had compromised in the eyes of all men the honour oi the sovereign pontificate, Conrad IT., king of tier- many, brought back this worthless pastor, who hastened to sell his dignity to Gregory VI. There were now, consequently, three popes, and their num- ber was increased to four by the election of Clement II. in 1046. Shortly after, Alexander II. found a rival in Honorius II.; and in 1080 the same unseemly spectacle was witnessed, when Henry IV. emperor of Germany, elevated to the papal chair Guibert of Ravenna, imder the title of Clement III., in oppo- sition to his implacable adversary, Gregory VII. But after the death of Gregory, Clement was him- self opposed successively by Victor III. and Urban II., and at last died at a distance from I having just beheld the exaltation of Pascal II. as tin- successor of Urban. During the 12th ... antipopes flourished, such as Gregory VIII. and Honorius III. On tho death of the latter, France began to intermeddle in these disgraceful strifes, and upheld the cause of Innocent II. against Anaclet; while the kings of Sicily, on the other hand, fre- quently set up a pontilf of their own against the choice of the emperors. The 13th and 14th centuries swarm with antipopes; but what specially deserves notice is 'the great schism of the W< rt,' produced by these shameless rivalries in 137S — a schism which divided the Church for fifty years. It broke out after the death of Gregory XL, at the elect I i I rban VI., whom the voice of the Roman people, demanding an Italian pope, and not one who should fix his pontificate, like several of his predecessors, at from Rome, had elevated to tin: papa] The French cardinals objected, withdrew to Provence, and elected a new pope, under the name of Clement VII., who was recognised by France, Spain, Savoy, and Scotland; whilst Italy, Germany, England, and the whole north of Europe, H6 supported Urban VI. These two popes excommuni- cated each other ; nor did they even fear to eonipro- t.i their sacred character by the most cruel out- i and i li'- mo t odious in ults. Tho si ucd alter their death, when three popes made tlnir appearance 'in the field,' all of whom i by tho Council of Constance in 111."', and (animal Colonna elected in their room, under the OJ Mart in V. The last antipopc was Clement VIII. With him the schism ceased; but the e\ il ne, and nothing could remedy it. The dogma of papal infallibility had received a mortal wound 'in the house of its friends,' and tho scepticism induced ou this point rapidly extended to others. See Poi'E. A'NTIQU ARIES, Society ot. Under this name, associations of learned men, established for i [elusive purpose of cultivating the study of ant iquii a s, exist in the principal countries of Europe and in America; — at London, Edinburgh, Paris, Rome, \ i in a. • lopenhagen, &c. The London Society of A. 1 its charter in 1751, but had commenced its nni tings as early as 1707 ; minutes began to be kept in 1718. Long previous to this, in 1572, an Antiquarian Society was established by Archbishop Parker and Sir Robert Cotton. It was dissolved about the year 1G04 by King James, whose weak and narrow mind regarded the inquiries of the A. with suspicion. The present 'Society of A. of London' consists of a in ident, a Council of 21, and several hundred Fellows. Tt has published a large number of curious and valuable works, among the most interesting of which is a series of Anglo-Saxon and early English literary remains. The Scottish Society of A. was founded in 17S0. It has published four volumes of ctions, and collected a valuable museum, which is now* become national property, and is arranged for permanent exhibition at the expense of the government. The Sociiti dt» Antiquairea .■■■ took that name in 1S14, having been founded in 1S05 as the Acadtmie OeUique. Willi the change of name, the sphere of the Soci labours was greatly enlarged. It has published many important works. A similar institution is the SociitiS des AnHauaires de Normcmdie, founded at Caen in 1824. The Copenhagen Society of A. is a body of high reputation. See AltClLEOLOGY. ANTI'QUE. As the term ancients is commonly applied to the Greeks and Romans, the word A. 1 1 u led with reference to their works of art, i pe- cially their incomparable sculptures. The A. Style in works of art is distinguished by critics from the Romantic or Medieval, and also from the Modern. The sculpture of the Greeks is characterised by freshness, originality, and ideality; and the phasi 3 it underwent have their parallels in the development of the literature and general culture of that people. In the earliest times, the statues had a rigid, formal character, and looked more like the idols of bar- barous nations than deities in human form ; then came stern, Titan-like forms, corresponding with tho Prometheus of vEschylus; next, the sculptures of Phidias, Polycletes, and Polygnotus — like the char- acters in the dramas of Sophocles — present to us humanity in its purest and noblest ideal forms. Ill ii, as Euripides in poetry left the old domain of destiny, and derived motives and action from ordi- nary human passions, so statuary descended from the ideal to a closer resemblance to the forms of actual life ; as we see in the works of Praxiteles and I.ysippus. Afterwards, when Aristophanes intro- duced comedy, forms of everyday-life began to appear in sculpture ; and thus a gradual transition was made from the art of the Greeks, which was ideal, in the true sense of the word, to that of the Romans, which was real, monumental, and portrait- ANTIQUITIES— ANTISTTTENES. like. The Romans were the realists of the ancient world; their indigenous philosophy was of a popular kind ; their poetry, so far as it was national, was satire; and their works of art may be regarded as ments and portraitures of teal life, quite suit- able for a nation of soldiers, lawyers, aid but vastly inferior to the ideal beauty displayed in the best period oi I hre ian ark ANTIQUITIES. See AbcHjEOLOcy. ANTIRRHINUM. See S.n-apdisacox. ANTISCORBUTICS. See Scurvy. ANTISETTICS are substances which arrest the putrefactive changes that dead vegetable and animal matter is liable to undergo when exposed to air, warmth, and moisture. A. are therefore anti- putrcscents ; and the term il tea the office which I is of the class fulfil [and, against, and sgpHkos, putrefactive). The theory of the of all A. is, that one or two of the three indispens- abl nditions of putrefaction — viz., 1; a moderate warmth, 2, access to air, and 3, moisture — are an or neutralised. Thus, in the preservation of fish in or during transport by railway, they are packed in barrels with ice, which keeps down the rature ; ami though air and moisture gain admittance, yet the putrefactive processes cannot proceed. The sat itive power of cold is observed naturally in the discovery of remains of elephants and other animals imbedded in the ice of the polar regions, and which doubtless have been locked up there for ages. In a less degree, the influ- ence of cold as an antiseptic is observed in the longer time that meat, eggs, and other animal matter fresh in winter than in summer. Again, warmth and moisture may be present, but if the air be excluded, putrefaction d go on. The ordinary mode of preparing preserved meali affords the best illustration of this point. The sub- stance to be preserved is placed in a tin dish covered over, and leaving a very small opening. When the can with its contents is heated, the air which fills up the pores of the solids, and is dissolved in the liquids, is driven oil', and escaping by the aperture in the cover of the dish, haves the contents devoid of air. If the opening be now closed with solder, the air is kept from returning ; and whatever climate fli can of preserved meat be sent to, yet so 1 the tin casing remains good, and refuses to admit the air, so long will the contents continue wholesome and palatable. The common plan of preserving I y rubbing ovi t the shell with tallow or oil, is founded on the prim iple of tilling UP the pores of the shell, so as to deny the admi on of the air. Moisture is likewise necessary for the process of putrefaction. Thus, if the contents of an i thrown out on a plate, and thoroi dm an oven, the whole becomes of a hard, horny consist- ence, and may be kept in this stal s with- out exhibiting the slightest symptom of passing into a putrescent or rotten condition. In the one v.. y may be kept quite fresh by depriving it of moisture. d up in this manner require only to be soaked in oold water, end then when they will present thi mseh in a condition hardly differing in flavour am ' d an ordinary i The more important chemical A. are — Alcohol, Wood spirit, ercasote, pitch-oil, col. '.tannic acid, sulphurous acid, common salt, nitre, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), ive sublimate, ai The manner in which these A. act is very differ- ent. 1. Sulphurous a I i v combining with the oxygen, and thereby deoxidising the substance. . combining with the water of the substance to be tannic acid, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of ibli mate, and arsenic, are useful in forming compounds with the organic matter, which are not so liable to become putrescent as the uncombined organic sub L Alcohol, wood- spirit, common salt and nitre, act in a double way, by combining with the watt r of the putn Bcible sub- stance, and by combining with the substance itself, so as to form a more durable compo Some of the more important uses to which the 1 A. arc applied are— 1. In the preservation of anai I here alcohol, and less often, chloride of zinc, are the agents ; 2. Iu the curing of herring and other fish, where common salt is generally usecl; 3. In alted meat and tongues, where common salt and nitre 1 ; and 4. In the manufacture of size for writing-pap I maker uses sulphite of soda or antiehlore (containing sulphurous acid) to arrest the decomposition of the scraps of hides used in the iuanuf: i ■. In the p. 1 vation of timber, A. are also taken advantage of. The wood is placed in a steam-box, and the air con- tained in its pores being replaced by steam, the whole casing is closed tight, and allowed to cool, when the steam condenses, and leaves a vacuum in and around the block of wood. On the introduction thereafter of one of the A., it finds its way into the innermost pores of the timber. Wood thus pre- pared is not nearly so liable to decay as it ordi- narily is; and the A seem to act here not only directly in withdrawing water, and forming durable compounds, but in offering a poisonous dose to minute plants and animals which tend to house themselves in the wood. The use of sulphate of copper for this purpose was suggested by Bonchar- dat ; of corrosive sublimate, by Kyan (hem process was called Kyanieing) ; and of chloride of zinc, by Sir W. Burnett (hence the term B Using). A XTI'STHENES, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy, was the son of A., an Athenian. The date of his birth is not known, but he fought in his youth at Tanagra (4°.G B.CL), and he survived the battle of Leuctra (371 I), c), and died at Athens at the age of 70. After listening to 1 king of Socrates, he gave up the profession of rhetoric, which he had followed at first as a disciple of -, in order to apply himself wholly I of moral philosophy. He was present at the i of Socrates, and o utors. A. held tlit inly consists in voluntary nee from pleasure, and in a srb m contempt of riches, honours, and even learning. Opinions of still greater extravaganc bed to A, but it is probable that they ware rather extreme views, which he put into the mouths of the inter- locutors in bis dialogues, than expressions of those which he himself entertained, liven in his con- d inn of pleasure, I d Buch as springs from the soul, or i found d on true friendship. In consistency with his teaching, A. appeared as a ..clad in ragged garments an eccentricity Socrates is said to )e . tying, ■I ee your w s through the hols in your i The singularity affected by A. gained many imita- tors, ana anion,- th ml ; i live in a tub, and himself in Cynic \iter the death of Socrates, A. taught moral and practii phy in the Athenian gymnasium CvnosargOB, from which, it is said, his derived its title. 1 1 them a polemical work against Plato— have mosth p risked. Such li as remain have been collected by 399 ANTITHESIS-ANTOMMXl:' III. Imann (A., JPragmenta, Turici, 1842). Bitter A. with the 'imperfect Soci ANTITHESIS [tiltemi, to place, aiiti, against), a figure of speech in which words are placi d h ition to each other, to produce a strong con- trast. Thus Leasing in criticism on a book, 'It contains many good things, and many new ; but ood are not new, and the new are nd I A., when naturally and moderately employed, liveliness to style ; but, like all urea of speech, liecc mies wearisome when too often repeated. ANTITRINITA'BIAN, one whod nies the doc trine of the Trinity. An A. differs from a Uni- tarian only in this respect) that his objection I doctrine mi is made on philosophical, while that of the latter is made on theol grounds'. A Unitarian is ono who accepts the Bible as inspired, hut docs not find in it the doc- trine of the Trinity; an A. is, or may be, a philo- sophical theist, who denies the inspiration of Scrip- ture. Mohammed, from the stand-point of a new and hostile religion, also denied this great Chi dogma. He announced himself, with fierce emphasis, an A.; and his followers to the present day are characterised by the intensity of their monotheism. See Unitarian and Socinian. A'XTITYPE, a Creek word. lit. rally sign a type or figure which corresponds to some other type or figure. In its theological sense, it denotes, not a type, but the person in whom any prophetic type is fulfilled ; thus, Christ is called the A. of the paschal lamb. See T\ i-j:. A'NTIUM, one of tho most ancient cities of Latiiun, stood mi the coast 34 miles S.S.E. from Rome. Being favourably situated for commi roe and piracy, it became, under the Volscians, into « hands it had fallen, one of the most powerful en of rising Koine, until finally subdued (338 B.C.). It became a favourite resort of the wealthy Romans, and some of the most famous remains of ancient art have been discovered among the ruins of their \ illas and palaces ; such as the Apollo ISelvedeiv, and the Borghese Gladiator. It was the birthplace of the Emperors Caligula and Nero; and the latter con- structed a splendid port by means of two moles enclosing a basin two miles in circumference. Remains of the moles still exist, although the basiu is mostly filled up with sand. Antium was completely destroyed by the Saracens during the middle ages ; and it was only in the 17th C, when the port was very partially restored, that the modern village of Porto d'Anzo arose, the population of which docs not exceed 500. Near the village Nettuno, in the neighbourhood, the ruins of a temple of Neptune are discernible under the sea. ANT-LION, the larva of an insect [MyrmeUon formkarium) of the order Neuroptera, remarkable for its habits, which have been carefully observed by some of tin- ablest natural, is of Europe. It inhabits sandy districts, is not known in Britain, and is more common in the south of Europe than in the north. The perfect insect is about an inch long, and has a considerable general resemblance to a dragon- fly. The larva is rather more than half an inch long ; it has a very large abdomen, and a small head, which, however, is furnished with two very In incurved mandibles. It has six legs, but is incapable of rapid locomotion, and gem rally moves backwards. It feeds upon the juices of insects, particularly of ants, in order to obtain which it excavates with the greatest ingenuity a funnel-shaped hole in sandy ground, and lies in wait at the bottom, all but its mandibles buried in the sand. Insects which approach too near to the edge of the hole, then become its prey, by the loose sand giving way, so that they fall down p slope. If tiny do not fall quite to the bottom, but begin to scramble up again, the A. throws sand upon them by jerking its Ant-lion : a, larva; b, perfect insect head, and so brings them back. U employs its head in the lame way to eject their bodies from its pit, after their juices have been sucked, and casts them to a considerable distance; and by the i ans throws away the sand in excavating its hole, first ploughing it up with its body. and then placing it upon its head by means of one of its fore-legs. It always begins by working roimd the circular circum- ference of its future hole, and gradually narrows and dei pens it ; turning quite round after each time that it works round the hole, so as to employ next time the fore-leg of the other side. When it meets with a stone which it cannot remove, it deserts the excava- te and begins another. The pit, when completed, is usually about thirty inches in diameter by twenty in depth. ANTOMMARCHI, Fbancj co, a well-known physician and native of I lorsica, was born in the cc i half of the 18th c. lb owes his celebrity almost entirely to his intimacy with Napoleon Bonaparte during the exile of the latter in St Helena. In 1818, he was induced to leave Florence, \i lure he held the al dissector in the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova of Florence, and to become e physician to the banished emperor. There was at first little cordiality between the two; but subsequently Bonaparte conceived a high regard for his countryman, and at his death left him 100,000 franca. In 1821, A. returned to Europe, and in 1S20 published at Paris l.<< Derniere Moments de work which has been very extensively read. II now became involved in a dispute with bhe heirs of M iscagoi — his old anatomical professor — regarding certain anatomical plates which he announced as on the eve of publication. The heirs affirmed that A.'s lithographed drawings ware mere rom the plates of Mascagni, and the contro- versy went on briskly for some time, till Paris grow tired of it, when it gradually died away and was forgotten. On the breaking out of the Polish revolution, A. departed for Warsaw, where he received the appointment of general inspector of military hospitals. He soon returned to Paris, where he published a cast of Napoleon's head, which he affirmed to have- taken when the emperor was on his diatli-ln d. This declaration again involved him in a hot dispute with the phrenologists, who were not satisfied with the conformation of the cranium, and therefore cast suspicions — some of them appar- ently not altogether ill founded — on the veracity of A's. statements. Harassed by the attacks of his adversaries, and sick of further controversy, A., about 1830, resolved to emigrate to America. He dud at San Antonio, in Cuba, on the 3d of April 1838. ANTON UIJtICH— ANTON] N I ]S. « ANTON' VLTUCH, second BOD of Duke Fcrdi- rmnd Albert of Braunschweig-Wolfenbttttel (till 1735, l i inschweig-Bi tie by which the uiniv . Down in Ru ia), was bom in 1711. When tie Russian Empn ras looking out foT an alliance for b x wee i, \jona I larlov, d klenburg-8chwerin,the influence of Austria led bei to choose A.TJ. I in 17:i.'i, was appointed r regi- and placed in the i pension. The marriage was, however, long delayed. The princess shewed i te for the insignificant character of the bridegr n only married him I with the sen of Biron. The birth of the Prince Ivan took place in 1740, a year after the I About the Bametime, thi i falling dangerously sick, appointed the infant prince her successor, ami Biron regent An x her death, A. U. 1 ible attempts to reverse this apt which only led to the punishment of tl d to ! , ated tli> in, and to his own military degradation. Biron's conduct towards the parents of the infant prince bee ing unbearably insolent, Amu appealed in despair to General Miinnich, who put a sudden end to Biron's sway, 1 the grand-duchess and her husband regents. a few months, Anna ungratefully overthrew Mnnnich. After his fall, as little unity pn between the ministers at the helm as between her- self and her husband, and the government was looked upon as both a foreign and a i bleone. I'll, n came the revolution of the 5th December 1741, wliich in one night raised Elizabeth (q. v.) t" the 16. A. U. and his consort were exiled, and lived long at ( Sholmogory, in the governmentof Archangi 1. Three children were born to 1 ! > ni in exile. Anna died in 1740. Catharine II. offered A. t". his free- dom, but he declined it. I 'ltimately, he grew Mind. The exact year of his death is uncertain, but it is supposed to have taken jilacc about 1780. Catharine often d to his children an asylum in Jutland, where they all died in comfortable circumstances. AN'TONE'LLI, a Roman cardinal and secretary of state, descended from a family of bad reputation, of which several members had been notorious as rubbers or banditti. A. was made a cardinal shortly before the succession of Pope Pius IX., by whom he was appointed Pud ry of State for the Interior, and also Minister of [finance. In these offic i, he gained the confidence of the pope though removed from office by the influence of the l 1 ' ! party, who would not tolerate a priestly policy, he continued to be his constant adviser in troubles which followed th tion of After the flight of the pope to 6a n, he was ited his Chief Secretary, and has since held elm at St Peter's. A. is said to lie 1 I in his admiration of despotism than several of his colleagues, but is accused of fierce rapacity. It is alleged that, conscious of the perils which environ the papal chair, and of its inability long to withstand the opposition of the intellect, morality, and enthu- siasm of the as well as the c tly hoarding up immense sums, and lavishing lucrative olficcs ou his relations. ANTOXE'LLO (of Messina), a painter who holds a prominent position in the Malum art, born probably about 1 1 1 1. in Sicily. In his day, the paintings of Johann van Eyck (of Els enjoyed a wide c lebrity, and several specimens were brought to Naples, where A. saw one of them. Admirine; the new style of oil-painting, he travelled into Flanders, and learned the secrets of the art from Van Eyck. Afterwards, he settled in Venice, and was the first Italian who painted in oil-colours, in which 1' ruction to many artists. He died probably m 1493. His works are now rather scarce. One, in the Musi um at Berlin, bears the date 144.;. ANTONI'N't S, Mabcus A' nuns the son of Annius Verus and Domitda CalvQla, was born at Kome on the 20th of April 12] A.o. Ills original > ith of his fathi i, h grandfather, who no pains to render him at in every art and science. His fine qualities early attracted the notice of the Emperor Badrian, who used to him, not Vi rut, but V- > I onours on him, even while a child. When along with Lucius i '. i lonunod I or of Hadrian ; and Pins, wa ! : ' In ir 140 a. d. he was made consul; and from this period to the death of Pius, in 101 a.h., he continued t" discharge the duties of his various offices with the gi promptitude and fidelity. The relation which sub- sisted I .in and the emperor was of the warmest and most familiar kind. < In his accession to the throne, he strikingly illustrated the magna- nimity of his character, by voluntarily sharing the government (winch Pius had left in his List moments, and the senate offered to him alone) with young Commodus, who henceforth bore the nam Lucius Amelias Verus, and to win mi he gave his daughter Lucilla in marriage. Towards the close of 161 A. l>., the Parthian War and Lucius, a young man of vigorous bodily habit-, nt to the frontiers of the empire, to rep 1 the incursions of the barbarians; but intoxicated th ■ enervating pleasures of the East, he obstinately refused to go beyond Antioch, and intrusted the command of the army to his lieutenant L'assius, who gained several brilliant victories. Lucius re- turned to Rome (166 A. D.), and enjoyed a triumph to which he had no real claim; for all the great achievements of the war were accomplished by his officers, while he was revelling in the most extrava- gant licentiousness. In the meantime, Marcus Aurelius had distinguished himself by th and energy with which he administered affairs at home. A formidable insurrection had long preparing in the German provinces; the Britons were on the point of revolt, and the Cattd waiting for an opportunity to devastate the Rheni sh pro- \\ ithin Rome its If ra jed a p - ' | i i • been brought home b of Luein ; Eri lii fid inundations and i bad laid lax of the city in ruin-- ■ : tnaries in which were kept the supplies of corn, and thus created almost universal distress, which stimulated to an incalculable degree the terror which the citizens entertained of thi ir savage enemies. To allay the popular perturbation, Marcus go forth to the war himself. Becatombs were offered to the.. ids, and the Roman legions set out for the north. Marcus and Lucius were, for the time, completely successful. The pride of the Mar- comanni. and the other rebellious tribes inh. the country between Dlyria and the sources of the Danube, was humbled, and they were compelled to sue for p D 168 LD.J in the year after which Lucius ,h, 1. The contest was renewed in 170 a. r, and may be said to have continued with little intermission during the whole life of the en Although fend ■ th from natural siti..n and philosophic culture, he displayed the OUT in suppressing the revolts of the bar- barians; but in order to accomplish this, he had to enrol amongst Ins soldiery vast numbers of gladiators and slaves, lor his army had been thinned by tho Sill ANTONINUS is were Pan- , outofwhi i the Marcomanni, wl i eequently all luit annihilated in crossing the • : The same fate befell the .lazy most famous as well as the most extraord i hi rii tori is, was the miraculous one gained over the (174 \. i'.). and which gave rise to i H : ) get Christian historians and i Dion i account is, that the Romans were perishing o£ thirst in the heat of summer, when suddenly the cloudless Bkydarkei mndant showers fell, of which the soldiers v advantage when the barbarians attacked, and would cut them to pieces, if a storm of hail and lire had nut descended on the farmer. That some ■ ordinary phenomenon occurred is evident, for there is a letter of Aurelius still extant in which 1 memorates the event; and the was a man incapable of uttering a falsehood, not to m a that there was an entire army living to disprove the statement, if untrue. The effect of this remarkable : was instantaneously and widely felt. The Germanic tribes hurried from all quarters to make their submission, and obtain clemency; but thi have resulted from it nullified by a new outbreak in the East, occa- sioned through the infamous treachery of h wife, which demanded his presence; and though Buffering from failing health, he was obliged to leave Pannoma. Before his departure, however, he I that the ambitious governor, Avidius (,'assius, who 1 against him, and seized the whole of Minor, bad perished by assassination. The Let of Marcus Aurelius on hearing of his enemy's I was worthy of the sub I s of his cha- racter, lie lamented that the Fates had I him his fondest wish — to have freely pardoned the man who had so basely happi- ness. Like Caesar in similar circui but in a more purely humane spirit, he received the head 1 adversary with quite opiposite feel- i to what li aticipated, rejecting the bloody gift with all the loathing of a ben. . are, and even shrinking from the presence of the murderers. On his arrival in the I chibited the same illustrious magnanimity, lie burned the papers of Cassius, without reading them, BO that he not be at liberty to suspect any as traitors; treated the provinces which had rebelled with i reme gentleness; disarmed the enmity, and lied the fears of the nobles who had openly favoured his insurgent lieutenant. While pursuing hi; work of restoring tranquillity, Faustina died in an obscure village at the foot of Mount Taurus; and her husband (and this was perhaps the single frailty of his character), though undoubtedly conscious of her g] mug profligacy and infidelity, paid the most lavish honours to her memory. On his way home, he visited Lower Egypt and Greece, displaying everywhere the noblest solicitude for the welfare of his vast empire, and drawing forth from his subjects, who were astonished at his goodness, sentiments of the profonndest admiration and regard. At Athens, which this imperial pa in philosopher must have venerated as a pious Ji the city of Jerusalem, he shewed a catholicity of intel- lect worthy of his great heart, by founding chairs of philosophy for each of the four chief sects— Platonic, Stoic, Peripatetic, and Epicurean. No man ever laboured more earnestly to make that heathen faith which he loved so well, and that heathen philosophy which he believed in so truly, a vital and dominant reality. Towards the close of the year 17G A. D., he reached Italy, and celebrated his merciful and li triumph on the 23d of December. In the suc- ceeding autumn, he departed for Germany, where 101 disturbances had broken out among the rest- less and volatile barbarians, i fill in Beveral sanguinary [its; but 1 ginally battered by pa and : either i or at 8irmium,onthel7thof March of twenty years. .Marcus Aurelius A. was the (lower of the stoical philosophy. It seems almost inexplicable that so harsh and crabbed a system should have re and gentle an of humanity Is of heathen — we had almost Christian history, can shew. as a modern philosophic I sts, it was be stoicism was the most ! and "f the philosophic theories, and the one which most ■I itself to the rapidly licentiousness of the time, that the .haste heart of the youth was drawn towards it. At twelve avowed himself a follower of Zeno, Epictetus, &c Stoics were bis teachers — Diognotus, A.poU ' . &] I Junius Ro ticiis; and he himself is to be consul the most thoughtful teachers ■ '. Oraton Attuu . I i < i. lius Fronto. His love of learning was insatiable, liven after he had attained to the ' dignity of the state, he did not disdain to school of Sextus of C'lnvronca. Men of letters were his most intimate friends, and I the highest honours both when alive and dead. His range of ing moral-, i athematics, juris- prudence, music, poetry, and painting. Nor must we forget that these ware cultivated not merely in the Sprini lime of his life, when enthusiasm was nee had not saddened his thoughts, and when study was his only labour, but durin tumults of perpetual war, and the distraction nei i s- Barily arising from the ment of so vast an The man who loved peace with his whole ied without beholding it, and yet the cvcrlast- of w ir i" i er tempt d I m to sink into a mere warrior. II" maintained uncorrupted l" the end of his noble life his philosophic and philan- ■ aspirations. After his decease, which was Eelt to I" 1 a national calamity, every Roman citizen, and many others in distant portions of the empire, procured an image or statue of him, which more than a hund after was still found among their me almost an object of p, and was believed to appear in dreams, like quent ( Ihristian ages. I here is one feature in his character, however, which it would be dishonest to pass over — his hostility, namely, to Christianity, lb- was a perse- cutor of the new religion, and, it is clearly demon- strated, was cognizant, to a certain extent at least, of the atrocities perpetrated upon its followers. Numerous explanations have been offered of his conduct in this matter. The most popular one is, that he for once allowed himself to Be led away by evil counsellors; but a dee per reason is to bo found in that very earnestness with which he clung tu th" old heathen faith of his ancestors. He believed it to be true, and to be the parent of tin !■ philosophies which had sprung up out of the same soil : he saw that a new religion, the character of which had been assiduously, though perhaps unconsciously, misrepresented to him, both as an unmoral superstition, and a mysterious political conspiracy, was secretly spreading throughout tho empire, and that it would hold no commerce with the older religion, but condemned it, generally in the strongest terms. It was, therefore, compara- tively easy, even for so humane a ruler, to imagine it bis duty to extirpate this unnaturally hostile ANTONINUS riUS-ANTONTNTJS. sect. Mr John Stuart Mill finds in this tragical error of the great emperor a most striking warning against the dang er of interfering with the liberty hi thou lit. What In: nays is so completely in har- mony with the above conception of the motives of Marcus Aurelius, and is in itself so eloquent, I apology is required in quoting the passage: 'If ever any one possessed of power had grounds for thinking himself tho best ami most enlightened among Ins contemporaries, it was the Emperor Marcus Anrelina, Absolute monarch of (In- whole civilised world, he preserved through life not only the most unblemished justice, but what was less to be expected from his stoical breeding, the tenderest heart. The few fail- .. Iiieli are attributed to him were all on the side of indulgence; while his writings, the highest ethical product of the ancient mind, diner scarcely percepti- bly, if they differ at all, from the most characteristic teachings of Christ This man, a better Christian, in all but the dogmatic sense of the word, than almost any of the ostensibly Christian sow who have since reigned, persecuted Christianity. Placed at the summit of all the previous attainments of humanity, with an open, unfettered intellect, and a character which led him, of himself, to embody in his moral writings the ( 'hristian ideal, he yet failed to see that Christianity was to be a good and not an evil to the world, with his duties to which he was so deeply penetrated. Existing society ho knew to be in a deplorable state. But such as it was, he saw, or thought he saw, that it was held together, and pre- vented from being worse, by belief and reverence of tho received divinities. As a ruler of mankind, he deemed it his duty not to suffer society to fall in pieces, and saw not how, if its existing ties were removed, any others could be formed which could again knit it together. The new religion aimed openly at dissolving these ties: unless, therefore, it ; duty to adopt that religion, it seemed to be hia duty to put it down. Inasmuch, then, as the theology of Christianity did not appear to him true, or of Divine origin ; inasmuch as this strange history of a crucified Sod wan not credible to him, and a system which purported to rest entirely upon a foundation to him so wholly unbelievable, could not be foreseen by him to be that renovating a) which, alter all abatements, it has in fact proved to be ; the gentlest and most amiable of philosophers and riders, under a solemn sense of duty, authorised the persecution of Christianity. To my mind, this is one of the must tragical facts in all history. It is a bitter thought, how different a thing the Christianity of the world might have been, if the Christian faith had been adopted as the religion of the empire, under the auspices of Marcus Aurelius, instead of tho ■ oi Constantino. But it would be equally unjust to him, and false tn (ruth, to deny, that no one plea which can be urged for punishing Anti-christian teaching, was wanting to Marcus Aurelius for punishing, as he did, the propagation of Christianity. No Christian iimre firmly believes that atheism is false, and t aid a to the dissolution of society, than Marcus Aurelius things of Christianity ; he v. all men then living, might have been thought the Host capable of appreciating it. Unless any one who approves of punishment tor tfa i promulgat opinions, Hatters himself that he is a wiser and better man than Marcus Aurelius— 1 v deeply versed in the wisdom of his time— more elevated in Ins intellect above it — more earnest in his search for truth, or more single-ruinded in his devotion to it when found let him abstain from that assumption of the joint infallibility of himself and the multitude, which the great A. made with so unfortunate a result.' ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Tin Ll nines I'n.vrs. a Roman emperor (138 — 1G1 A.D.), was born in the reign of iJoniitian (80 A.D.). The family of A. was dly from Nemautus, now Nlmea, in Gaul A. inherited great wealth, and early gave proof of excellent qualities. In 120 lie was m afterwards was sent by Hadrian as proconsul into Asia, where the wisdom and gentleness of his rule won i a higher reputation than had been enjoyed by any of his predecessors. By his wife Faustina he had four children, of whom three - og a daugh- b r. Faustina, afterwards wife of Marcus Aurelius. In 138 he was adopted by the Emperor Hadrian, in consequence of merit alone, and came to the throne amc year. The reign of A. was proverbially peaceful and happy. In his priva r, he mple, temperate, and benevolent; while in public affairs he acted as the father of Tho persecution of Christians, which was con- tinued during his reign, was partly stayed by his mild measures. He was little i , war, excepting in Britain, where b " Rome, and built a wall between the the Clyde, as a defence against. invasions by the iry inhabitants of the north ; but 1 quently employed in arbitration and general counsel on the affairs of foreign states. 'Happy the nation which has no history.' The reign of A. illustrates this saying, for by tho justice, wisdom, kindliness, and courtesy of the emperor, his vast empire was preserved from the crimes, conspiracies, insurrec- tions, and bloodshed, the recording of which foi the largest part of the historian's work in the dark centuries of the Roman empire. It is said that only one senator wa3 impeached during A.'s lifetime. Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, commemorative of bis Victories in Britain, from one In the British Museum. Literature received great encouragement; the laws were improved; commerce extended; the means of communication were facilitated by the repair of roads, bridges, to.; new sanitary introduced; and a 1 for architecture fost 1 in the citizens. The epithet 1'its was conferred on him on account of his conduct in defending the memory of his predecessor Hadrian against certain dishonouring measures brought forward by the . A. died in ltil a.m. Xhecolumn rai his memory by his adopted son and successor, Mar- cus Aurelius Antoninus (q. v.). was discovered in 17":>, and now exists only in fragments. The so . I Hilar of Antoninus, now in the ■ kmna at Rome, is that raised by the senate in I of Marcus Aurelius, after his victory over the Mareomanni. ANTONPNUS, iTisr.uAnv of {Anlomni arium), a valuable geographical work, containing mes of all the places and stations on the principal and cross reals of the Roman empire. With tl from each other in Roman miles. It lias been usually attributed to the l.i M. Aurelius Antoninus, whence its name. The testimony, however, of the Q ipher .Ethi- cus, author of tho Cotmographia, assures us that MM A NTONTNUS— ANTON IFS. orvey of the Roman empire was com- I ■'. 1 B.i ., iu the consulship of Juliu I I and Mi Antonius, and completed in the ■ ■ \n rustuB, when the results of the survey ri the sanction of tin- state. These results, it is with some probability inferred, are embodii A in this wry, which, it is further suppo I. received additions and amendments in the time of the Antonines. Subsequent imp were made down to the reign of Diocletian. The best editions are those o! Wcsseling (Amst. 4to, 1 735), and 1'arthcy (Curl., 1S4S). ANTOSn'STCrS, W.w oj [A ilonini I ir erected between tii i Forth and Civile by the Romans, in t' to restrain the encroachments of tin' native tribes. A fragment of a Roman pillar, which was at one time iu the university of Edinburgh .'■cution to 14H a. d. The tendenoe of the work is generally attributed to the imperial legate Lollius Urbicus, Its len th was about 27 English miles— the ea tern b being, according to t'.vo dil i i i ii. or at ICinni'l, on the Forth; th at Old Kirkpatrick, or at Dung] ' I on the Clyde. The work consisted of a ditch about '-'it i ad 40 wide, a rampart of earth and stone about 20 feet high and '24 feet thick at the bat •. and on the inner or south side of the rampart a I military road. It was protected by a of nineteen forts, with watch-towers between. The line of the wall may still be traced to a consider- rtent. The most perfect fragments are at Elf Hill, on the moor of Bonnieside, about a mile and a half from C'astleeary ; within the park of Callander . near Falkirk ; and on the slopes at I m not far from the railway station tit I'olmout. It is i '.. wis Dike — a name i more than one ancient ditch and rampart in England. The best accounts of the Wall of Ant' mine are in Hoy's Mi'i'm-ii .1 « THEBES, the father of monachisni, was born about the year 251 a.d., at Koma, near Heraklea, in Upper Egypt His parents wen- both wealthy and pious, and Bestowed on him a n I education. Having, in obedience to what he believed to be a divine injunction, sold his possessions, and proceeds among the poor, he with- drew into the wilderness, where he disc If in all those austerities which have hallowed his memory in the Catholic Church, and farmed the 1 of the monastic life. When 30 years of age, however, di irons of obtaining a di i pose than his situation alibi ' I, he] aetrated further into the desert, and took up his abode in an old ruin on the top of a hill, where he spent twenty years in the most ous seclusion; but, in 3ll5, he was persuaded to t his retreat by the prayers of numerous anchor- v.lio wished to live under his direction. He now founded the monastery of Faioum, which at first was only a group of separate and scattered cells near Memphis and Arsiuoc: but which, nevertheless, may be considered {he origin of cenobite life. The persecution of the < as by Maximian in 311 A.i'., induced St A. to leave his cell, and proceed to Alexandria, in the hope of obtaining the crown of martyrdom ; but having failed in this, he returned to his solitude in the course of a year, which, however, he Boon left, and plunged yet deeper into the desert. At length he found a lodgment on a hill, al day's journey from tb I' I v . i ; but his d i ring his retreat, so pressed him with inate importunities, that he ventured to accompany them back. After many pious i he oi ore left them, and s i became the of thi Nile. In 355, the venerable hermit, then lot years of age, made a journey to Alexandria to dispute with the Arians. He had interviews with Athanasina and other distingui -'■ I; but feeling lii3 end approaching, he retired to his desert home, where he died, 356 a.d. Athanasiua states, in his Life of St A., that the saint wore a . rse shirt of hair, and washed Ins body, which is more credible than the stories he relates of his encounters with the devU, or 20 his miracles. His whole conduct indicates the predo- minance of a glowing and yet gloomy fancy, which is per condition of religious asceticism. Although the father of monachism, St A. is not the ant; any monastic ' rules ; ' those which the monks of the eastern schismatic sects attribute to him are the production of St Basil. He is perhaps the most popular saint in the Catholic Church, Accounts of and miracles are given in the Acta (/rum of the Bollandists, under the date of the 17th January, on which day his festival was kept. Bl Anthony's Fire.— The Rev. Alban Butler, in his Liu ) q) ili, Saints, gives the follow ins account of the origin of this name : ' In 1089, a pestilential ery- sipelatous distemper, called the sacred fire, sw> great numbers in most provinces of France; public prayers and processions were ord red . t this At length, it pi seed I rant many miraculous cures of this dreadful d i those who implored His mercy through thi ion of St A., especially before bis reli Motte St. Didier, mar Yienne, in Dauphinel in which they were deposited was resort., i to by numbers of pilgrims, and his patronage wa lim over the whole kingdom against this disease.' The ' order of Canons Regular of St Anthony,' a religious fraternity, founded about 1090, for the relief of persons afflicted with the fire of St A., survived in France till 1790. St Anthony's Well, a small fountain near the ruined chapel of St A., on the northern slope of Arthur's Seat (q. v.), near Edinburgh. This inter- esting fountain, which consists only of a stone basin, into which water trickles from under an incumbent rock, is celebrated in the Scottish song — ' O, waly, ua!y.' AXTRAI'GUES, Emant i -l.'i Henri De- i.aunav. Count of, a great politician, but very [■ous character, was born at Vivarais, in the department Ardeche, in 1765, and was ed under tin' Abbe' Maury. His superior talents were first displayed in his Memoire sut-les El'- laws Droits <> la '■; leg convex, This bonk, full of daring assertions of liberty, was one of the first sparks of the lire which afterwards rose to such height in the French Revolution. In ITS'- 1 , wh.n A. was chosen as a deputy, he not only defended the privileges of the hereditary aristocracy, but also ranked himself with those who opposed the union of the three estates; while in the discussions on the constitution, he maintained that the royal veto was an indispensable part of good government. After leaving the Assembly in 1790, hewasem] in diplomacy - and Vienna, where he defended the cause of the Bourbons. In 1803 he was employed under Alexander i in an v to Dresden, where' he wrol a brochure, entitled .1 Fragment of i afterwards came to Englai i. d a |uired great influence with Canning. Despite his attachm thi interest of the Bourl dd never win the confidi nceof Louis XY1II. In 1812 he was mun with his wife, at his residence qi ir London, by an Italian servant; who, immediately after the act, committed suicide. ANTRIM, a maritime county in the north-east of Ireland, in the province of Ulster; bounded, X.. by ; W., by the north part of the river Bann, dividing it from Londonderry, an ; ; S., b I river, separating it from the ; S.E., by B Igh; and E. by the Irish Channel. It stands third among the Irish counties in population, but in extent only ninth, i St length is 50 miles; its greatest ANTWEEP— ANVILLE. breadth, 20 ; its extent of sea-coast. 00 mil's. A rea, 1164 square miles. About two-thirda of this is arable; a fourth, barren; ami a seventy-fourth in woods. Pop. in L851, 362,264. Off the aorth coast lie Rathlin Isle and the Skerries; ami off it coast, the Maiden Rooks. The east coast is hilly; and from Lame to Pair Head, parallel mountain-ranges of no great height, ami thud of the county, stretch south-west a consider- able way into the interior, forming a scries of valleys, Opening seaward, called the Gleqs of A. The interior of the country slopes towards Lough Neagh. The highest eminences are — Trostan, 181(1 [set : and Sliereance, ITS- feet. The principal streams are — hi, running north from Lough Neagh into the Atlantic; the Main, winning parallel to but in the reverse direction, into Lough Neagh ; .Mid the Bush, (lowing north into the Atlantic. I and numerous peat-bogs occur in the comity. SiJE- sevenths of the surface of A. consists of ba trap, often alternating with beds of red ochre, and overlying strata of hardened chalk, green-sand, new red UtO i"i', and mica-slate. The I especially the ed and Lough i, of the trap-field, present basaltic columns of varied ami impressive outlines. Tic green '"1 ami new red sandstone crop out along the east and south-east borders of A., and a patch of millstone grit occurs in the north-east corner. Between Bally- and the mouth of the Bairn, Urn assumes very picturesque forms ; and the I Causeway, on the north coast, near the mouth of the Bush, is one of the most perfect examples of colum- nar basalt in the world. Fine salt-mines occur at Duncrue and Carrickfergus ; and a small coal-field near Ballycastle. The sod of A. is mostly light, and the chief crop is oats. In 1S5S, 249,086 under crop, two-fifths being in oa1 . one I lurth in potatoes, and one-fifteenth in wheat. The land is very much subdivided; and the rearing of flax, and the various branches of the linen, cotton, and coarse woollen manufacture, employ a great portion of the people, who unite mechanical and agricultural itions with the best results. In 1851, A. had 3.39 National Schools, attended by 15,746 boys, and 13,017 girls. The principal towns are — Belfast, Lisburn, Eallymcna, Carrickfergus, Larne, and Antrim. A. county returns two members to parlia- ment ; Belfast burgh, two ; and Carrickfergus and Lisburn bur b one. The inhabitants are mostly Presbyterians, the county having been sively colonised from England and Scotland betwei n of Queen Elizabeth and William 111. The original possessors were the O'Neills, who, in linst the Knglis!' it, and be whole country, except Carrickfergus and part of the Glens — held by the Bissets of I It was reduced to allegiance during the reign of Elizabeth, v O'Neill termi- nated the dominion of his race. (1871 A'NTWEltl' (in French, ANVEKS), f the chief city of a province in the I was formed, in 1S14, by a union of the old mar- gravate of A. with the province of M capital of the province which beai and the chief commercial city of Belgium, i on the river Scheldt, and contains 90,000 inhabitants. Its chief public institutions are Sciene ay of Painting and Sculp ire, for- merly known as the Academy of St Mark, a t Surgical School, Naval Arsenal. Museum, and Zoological Gardens. The cathedral, one i t Gothic structures in Europe, is 500 feet in ' by 210 in breadth, with a roof supported by 12") pillars, and a very lofty spire. The interior is enriched by the two greatest of all the pictures of 90S the Eleva! of, and the Descent from the Cross. The Church of St James coo | he monu- ment of tic Rubens family. The trade and manufac- tures of A. aro considerable. The latter 00 chiefly of Bugar, white-lead, cotton goods, point Is, gold and silver lace, &0, It is stall celebrated tor its sewing-silk, black silk stuffs, and printers' ink, as it was in forim r t ami satins. The three annual formerly held at A., have lost all comic importance, and are now represented by two popular I;, (i860— pop. 126,663 | A. is mentioned as early as the Sth c. ; in the [2th ami 13th it gave signs of considerable pro perity, and, in l.Viii. in cd more than 2110,(1110 nits. The union of Belgium with Holland in 1815 was very favourable to the commerce and general prosperity of A. By the revolution of Is.'iO. it was linked to the d.l ni\ of Bel \\ hen the revolutionary party gain d pot le i ion, tin treated to the citadel, and, exasperated by the breach of truce. Which destroyed the arsenal and about thirty bouses. In 1832, a French army of 50,000 men, under Marshal Gerard, appeared before A., to demand the surrender of the citadel, which I Chasse refused. After considerable injury, and the loss of several lives among the d Chasse capitulated, Dec 23,1832. On the 30th of the same month, the Flemish fortification, and the forts Burght, Zwindrecht, and AustroweeL, were surrendered to the Belgian troops, and the Hutch troops were taken to France, as hostages for the surrender of the forts Lillo and Liefkenshoek, cording to BO article in the negotiation of Nov. 15, ls:{], which stipulated that the live citadels held hy the i in eh tro ; i in Bel una ! ould be surrendered. From tin '■ advi rsitiee A has never fully reco under the Belgian gi [tsonceconsi lerabli commerce with the colonies of 11 'II ad h i dually " '" [ ' i .1 ". '.in i. id am and Kolterdam. ANU'IUK, an Egyptian deity, styled Anepu on as, accord- ing to mythology, the son of Osiris and Ni phthys. By the ( : '-, byled Hi rmes or ' I comb ning the Egyptian with the Grecian name. He is represented on monuments as having the I to those of a dog. Bom ■ double crown. A white and yellow cock ' him. Bis office, like that of Hermes Psychop mong the < : was to accompany the ghosts of the I lades (Am to a ist Horus in v ins, under the inspection of As, in the time of the Bom yptian worship had spread beyond Egypt itself, the two of A. and Hermes v. re bleu 1 of the former was found united to the insignia of the latter. ANVILLE, Jean Baptists Borr.crriGNON d\ a riplcr, born at Paris in 1097, i L782. He devoted his whole life to geo- graphical Such was his natural taste for map-drawing, that his first study of the ancient authors induced him to publish, at the age of I a map of Greece. His rare qualit. im the hip of the Ahhe de Songuerue, from whom he received those instructions which were the source of that profound and extensive knowledge he ' ANWARI— AORTA. subsequently acquired. He read the Greek and Latin historians and philosophers, as well as poets, spe- cially noting the names and positions of cities and nations. He advanced the science of geography, not only by the vast number of maps which he exe- cuted, but also by the treatises, full of erudition and of historic and critical details, in which he discussed numerous interesting questions. The works of A. announced by M. de Maine many years ago, were to have been contained in six volumes, exclusive of the volumes of maps. The principal portion was pub- lish, ,1 in 1834 by Levrault. But the death of M. de Maine in 1832 stopped the quarto edition near the end of the twelfth volume, to which the map of Africa was however wanting, although the text had been added, with notes digested from the most recent investigations in that country. A. has left 211 maps and plans, and 7S memoirs, the most of which are d in tin- Hecaeil des Memoires de V Acad des IntcripHolU el Belles-lettres. His best map is that of Ancient Egypt. His Orl/is Veterihus Notus, and Orlns Romanus, are also invaluable. The same remark applies to his maps of Gaul, Italy, and Greece, both ancient and medieval. His maps of modern countries contain all the knowledge attained in his time. His valuable collection of maps was purchased in 1779 by the French government for the Royal Library. ANWARI, a celebrated Persian poet, who flourished during the 12th c, was born in the pro- vince of Khorassau, and educated at the college of Mansur, at Tus. He emerged from obscurity in the course of a night. The story goes that the Seljukido sultan, Sanjar, happened on one occasion to visit Tus, when the imagination of the youthful poet was so excited by the presence of the monarch and hie glittering retinue, that he resolved to write a poem in his praise. By next morning, it was finished, and presented to Sanjar, who instantly placed the fortu- nate youth among his courtiers. A. now began to devote himself to astrology, which was his rum ; for having predicted that in 11S5 or 1186 A.D. a hurricane Would burst over all Asia, overthrow the most solid edifices, and shake the very mountains, and nothing of the sort really occurring, but, on the contrary, an entire year of remarkably tranquil weather, he fell into disgrace, and had to retire to Balkh, where he died in 1 200— 1201 A.D. His poems consist chiefly of lengthy panegyrics, and shorter lyrical effusions. The latter [ghazela] are characterised by simplicity, case, and natural- ness ; but the hosidus, or long poems, are disfigured, like many other eastern poems, by glittering ry and historical conceits. His Elegy on Uie '.'// qf Sanjar tub r In/ tin '■'/ has been translated into English by Captain Kirk- patrick in the 1st volume of Asiatic Miscellanies (Calcutta, 17S5). A'ORIST, a form of the Greek verb by which an action is expressed as taking place in an inl (Gr. aoristos) tune. The Greek language is esp in the past tenses of verbs, having, in addition In tin- t ii es em n to other languages — namely, the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect — the A., which is peculiarly adapted to the narrative style of writing. Tho distinction of first and second A. is purely formal. AO'RTA is the great arterial trunk which, rising from the left ventricle of the b its branches ramifying through the whole body. The A. in man is subdivided by anatomists into the Arch, the ., and the Abdominal A. The arch is a loop with the convexity directed upwards, forwards, - the right side, reaching at its highest part to a level with the second piece of the breast-bone, and then descending to the left side of the third dorsal vertebra. Five arteries arise from the arch — viz., two coronaries, for the supply of the muscular tissue of the heart itself; the innominata; and the left carotid and left subclavian arteries. At the com- mencement of the arch are three small swellings or Aorta : a, ascending arch of aorta; *s, coronary arteries ; 6', innomi- nata artery; o, right subclavian; c, ri:!it carotid; , inferior mesenteric ; t>', spermatic ; q, couuuoa iliac ; r, middle sacral. pouches, the aortic sinuses, below wliich are the thrco semilunar valves or folds of the lining membrane, which prevent regurgitation of the blood back into the heart. The moracic A. extends from the third dorsal vertebra to the diaphragm, gradually getting into the middle line of the spine. The thoracic A. gives off the bronchial arteries (two or three) to supply the tissue of the lungs; and some small branches (tliree or four) to the oesophagus, and inter- costal arteries, to supply the walls of the chest (ten on left, and nine on right side). The al from the diaphragm to the fourth lumbar vertebra, opposite the lower margin of which it divides into the two common iliac trunks. The abdominal A. gives off the two phrenic arteries to the diaphragm ; the coeliac axis, which divides into three branches for the stomach, liver, and e the sup iteric for the small, and part of the large intestine ; the renah (two) ; rcnals (two), one for each kidney ; the spermatic ; the inferior mesenteric, for the part of the lar not supplied by the superior mesenteric; and four or five lumbar arteries, which supply the lower part of the abdominal walls (the loins). Where the A. bifurcates, a small artery, the sacra- B, and passes along in the mid D fish and in animals with large tails,! is a continuation of the A. The above is th i usual arrangement; but oo ally it varies, especially in the number of arteries springing from the arch. The structure of the A. i uiuhr Akteby ; and the comparative anatomy under Heart and Cuu-tlatios. 307 AOSTA— APATITE. Daring festal life tween the arch of Qu A. and the pulmonary artery called tlio <»' "I which ! obliterated after birth. It has bi tin.- velocity of the blood in the tUr arch is 2 rhi ■ the A. of a hor be ! I an 1 in man's, 4 pounds (i oun \. are very Bubji ot to fatty atheroma (q. v.), and in advanced life, to degeneration or deposit of earthy particles, which di r elasticity. Thiai ry liable to Ai ij. v.), which, as may be expected, is generally situated at the curves oi (he .\ . from this disease in the .arch or I . suffer from palpitation vitliin the chest, difficulty of lung, occurring in paroxysms and durin . and shoots of pain through the chi aneur- klfy presses forward, and may completely di >tr . pulsating tiunour, covered only by the akin, may press up into the neck. If low in the chest. the aneurism may compress the thoracic duet, and emaciation. In the abdomeu, the symptoms are pulsation and pain ; but in both situations ani may exist for a length of time with i Li at attention. In some cases, the A. has been found obli- terated, shewing that the lower extremities can be .•applied with blood by the anastomosing brai Sir Astley Cooper and other Burgeons have ti A. for aneurism, but without success. AOSTA, a northern province in the kingdom of Sardinia, sorronn of the Alps, and watered by the river Dora-baltea. I; contains an area of 1233 square miles. The dense pine-woods on the hills, the alpine on the slopes, the plantations of vines, almonds, olfr and mulberry trees in the valleys, and the ores of 1 iron in the bosom i tains, supply occupation and means of sul a population of about 81,000 ; i til the Ian 1 generally is not adapted to the growth of corn, though maize, I valleys. The disease sty] 1 Cn tini in (q.v.) prevails to a lamentable ins are altogether free from Goitre (q. v.). ' of the poorer class emigrate dure into the richer countries in their vicinity, and earn a liveli- hood as chimney-sweepers, i liths. — \. the principal towu, 40 miles X.X.W. i.f Turin, contains 7500 inhabitants, and has a large trade in cheese, hemp, leather, ftc It was in ancient times the chief residence of the Salassi, a brave race of mountaineers, with whom A | in I had to contend on his way into Gaid. They were finally destroyed by Terentiua Varro in the time of Augustus. Monuments of the Roman times— a Well-preserved arch, two gateways, the ruins of .an amphitheatre, and a bridge — still remain. The celebrated baths and mines of St Didier are in the neighbourhood. St Bernard, the founder of the famous hospice which bears his name, was Arch- deacon of A. ; and Ansehn, Archbishop of ( 1 >ury, was born here. APA'FI, Michael I., Prince of Transylvania, was born in 1G32, of an old but decayed family. He accompanied Prince George II. in an expedition ist the Poles in lOoG, but was taken prisoner at the irruption of the Tatar hordes under their khan, iimed Girai. After his release, he went and lived for a short time at his paternal estate ; but in 1661 he was chosen Prince of Transylvania, at the instigation or desire of Ali Pasha, generalissimo of the Turkish forces under Sultan Mahmond I V. Daring the pi laded with Austria, he n and protection ol the Porte, and acquired the to«ns of Olausenburg and Zath- mar. lb- remained faithful t . tin Ottoman power till th o \ H una in 1683. Fortune then changed. The imperial troops penetrated into the i on tie- 12th oi V i I It'sT. A. made a treaty with the emperor at llarkany, by which Transylvania was declared to be Creed 'fox ever' from Turkish suzerainty, and placed ondi i German protection. At Pi i the 1st of July 1688, LTansyrvanian deputies assembled at the national Diet, took the oath of baity to the Eaps- as legitimate monarchs of Hungary. ith of his wife, Anna Bornemitza, in 1CSS, A. had been sorely afflicted both in body and mind, and died (April 15, 1690) on the eve oi a fierce retri- butive war, commenced by his old allies the Turks, who co: Ives '!! used by his desertion of them. His son, Michael II.. bui eded to the H I ils. The Turks, under the vizier Cuprigli, overthrew the imperial army, and took places, such as Nissa, Widdin, Semendria, let, ftc,; but the intestine troubles lan empire hindered them, or rather Count Tekcli, the adventurer whom they were helping, from retaining these towns. The imperial troops subsequently regained everything ; and at length the young Transylvanian prince was inveigled to Vienna, and cajoled into giving up his dominions to Austria in lieu of a pension of 12,000 or 15,000 florins. He died in 1713. A I' \XAGE is not an English legal term, but is 1 iu the French law, in which system it signifies • nient or conveyance by lands and feudal rights to the princes of the royal family, that they may be ording to their rank. (See a long article on this subject in Km.' Diction". : i, which refers to Eottcck and Welcker, : i. by P. A. 1'lizer. See '■ . Merlin" under this 1 tnetimes found in - law-books, the Scotch lawyers having most il from Prance, whose system of laws was so largely imported into Scotland — the Court Id after the plan of the Parliament of Paris. Mr Erskine, in his of tlie Law of Scotland, book i., tit. 4, sec. S, says : ' The A., or patrimony of the Prince of Scot- land, 1; 1 erected into a regality jurisdic- Jled the principality. It is personal to the I son, upon whose death or succession it returns to the crown. The prince has, or may have, his own chancery, from which his writs issue, and may have his own chamberlain and other officers, and managing his revenue ;' and the pies of the . calls this principality the prince's 'pern I personal provision.' In England, the duchy ii wall may be said to lie an A. of the Prince of Wales, in whose person, also, since the junction ■ •f the two kingdoms under the same crown, now i of the l'riuce of Scotland. His royal highness, in fact, when he goes north, ought called, not Prince of Wales, but Prince of Scotland. In common parlance in England, the word A. is loosely used to denote any extra-territorial jurisdic- tion or sovereignty by governments or states ; and even any dignity or right enjoyed by persons of rank. A'PATITE is the scientific and commercial name applied to a mineral mainly consisting of phosphate APE— APELIXS. of lime (bone-earth), and which is in the course of being introduced into the agricultural market as a valu- 1 in the preparation of artificial manures. A. is found in many rock masses, but is especially disseminated in the igneous and older crystalline such as granite, basalt, and greenstone. The clay and soil formed naturally by the disintegration of these rocks, contain, of necessity, the A. in a tine m !>, and thus are enabled to supply growing thereon with one of the most important I of the mineral diet of the members of the ible kingdom. The most extensive natural sources of A. are in Norway, where it is found in reins or fissures in the Syenitic rocks, and from which it is now mined on a large scale, by a British company, and transported to England ; and in the island of Sombrero, where the A. appears to se the greater part of the island. Sombrero is only one and a half miles long, by an average breadth, of three quarters of a mile, and is situated an "est India Islands, about GO miles from St Thomas, and in lab Is- :i.7 \„ and long. 63° 28 \V. 4o.i ii ii i tons of A. have already been abstracted from the island, and used, after being ground to powder, in the United States as a manure. Very large quanti- ties are introduced into this country under the name of Sombrero Guano, and are extensively em- ployed by the manufacturers of artificial manures, in place of ordinary bone-ash. The general treatment to which it is subjected is to reduce it to powder, and act upon the pulverised matter with sulphuric which renders the phosphoric acid in the A. soluble in water, and thereby facilitates its introduction into the plant. In the greater number of cases where the A. or Sombrero Guano is treated in this way, it is mixed with other manures, such as Peruvian Guano, blood, or true bones, and thus a complex substance is manufactured, which is much more acceptable to the plant than the simple A. or mineral phosjiliale itself. The A. from Norway, known in commerce as _'■ .1., is also made up in a similar manner. The great importance of mineral phosphate, in an agricultural point of view, arises from the fact that no mineral substance possesses more influenc the growth of the edible plants, such as wheat, -., than phosphoric acid does ; any cheap source of that substance, therefore, is a When the Norwegian A. was disco in quantity, it was welcomed by the agricultural pul .lie, and immediately influenced the price of all manures. The discovery, however, of the deposits of A. in Sombrero is of even greater importance, from the extent to which the substance is found on the island. Not only do s the A. constitute large bo ,ig from one to twenty tons, and thickly '. but beneath a few feet of -rock, a phosphatie and calcareous tufa is found, which here and there has large n dikes of A. passing through it. Again, occasionally odor-stratum of phosphatie mineral I through, and is observed overlapping or coi 1 surface of the island to the extent of I thousands of square feet at a single place. of A. so extraordinary and abundant. cannot fail to inlhience materially the plants, and this duty it is quickly acc< under various names. The island of Sombrero much phosphatie or bony matter as nt in many millions of oxen, ami repre- . s much manure as would be obtained by the employment of the bones of these cattle ; in another point of view it may be i to the discovery of an area of land extensive enough n fodder 6 - 'i and maintenance of • d iin y millions of oxen. The different varieties of A. contain a little car- ' bonate of lime, filiate of lime, muriate of lime, &c. One of these varieties is known as 1 anotlp ■ occurs both massive and in cr -h are gene- rally small, and are often six-sided prisms, or six- tables — and is found in some of the tin mines ' in Cornwall. - fcc, and in 1 gneiss in different parts both and America, sometimes forming beds associated with 1 >ne, as in Estremadura in Spain. It i- of various colours, more or less green, blue or red, '. sometimes white, and often gray. The proposal to employ it as a manure first excited much interest in 1895, and began to be enterprisingly carried into with happy results— rocks once om at Colophon, on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor ; though Pliny and Ovid call him a Coan, and Stral Lncian an Ephesian. This, however, may simply refer to the fact that he was made a burgess of that town. He flourished in the latter part of tho 4th c. B.C., received his first in-tmction in art in the Ionian school of Ephesus, then studied under Pamphilus of Amphipolis, and latterly under M nd thus he united thi ing of the Ionian with the accurate drawing of ■yonic school. During the time of Philip, A. visit' 1 Mac Ion, where he became the intimate friend of Alexander the Great. It was probably at the Macedonian court that the best days of A. were spent. Pliny relates that on one occasion when Alexander visited A. in his studio, the king exhibited such ignorance of art. that A. rvcomni< him to be silent, as the boys who were grinding the colours were laughing at him. Hut the sami is told of Zeuxis and Megabyzus. He wards visited I where he was familiar with Protog I Al xandria, and Ephesus, The period of his death i- not known; butashepri his art before the death of Thilip. and as his visit to Alexandria was after the assumption of the regal Ptolemy, he probably nourished bet 308 B.C. The most celebrated paint: APKU.KS- Al'KNMNKS. A were his Anadyomene, or Venus Rising from the 8m, witl a shower of silver drops falling rcmnd hex like a \ il "f gauze, the Graces, and similar sul>- I but he cultivated the her m well as the ii ideal portrait of Ah wielding a thunderbolt was highly esteemed, and rved in the temple of Diana si I ■ With reference to this painting, Alezanderaaid : ' Thi only two Alexanders — the invincible ami of Philip, ami the inimitable Alexander of A.' A. is said to have left an incomplete painting of Venus, to which no other painter would presume to give the finishing. touches. The disposition of A. was ramarkabl from envy, and he willingly acknowledged the merits of his contemporaries. Amphion, he said, excelled him in grouping, and Asclepiodorua in perspective, but grace was his alone. On comi: finding that the works of Protogenes were not appreciated by his countrymen, he at one offered him fifty talents for a picture, and Bpread thi that he intended to sell it again as his own. The industry with which he praCt! ed drawing was so great as to give rise to the proverb, Nvila diet sine liihi'i. .Many other anecdotes are related of A. When his pictures were exposed to public view, he used to place himself behind a picture, to listen to the criticisms of the common people. A cobbler having detected a fault in the shoe of one of his figures, it is said that A. instantly rectified it ; but ■when the cobbler, on the following day, extended his criticism to the legs, the painter rushed from his hiding-place, and told the cobbler to stick to the shoes; or, in the Latin version, which has become proverbial, ' No sutor supra crepidam.' A'PENNINES (Ital Appenni'm'; anciently, I.at. Mons Apenitinus), a mountain-chain uninterruptedly throughout the whole length of the Italian peninsula. It lies between 37° and 44" 30' N. lat., and 7° 40' and 18° 20' E. long., and belongs to the system of the Alps, from which it. bra off at the Col de Tenda, near the sources of the Tanaro. From this point, the chain, under the name of the Ligurian A., girdles the Gulf of I in the immediate vicinity of the sea. and then inns inland to a considerable extent, forming the shed between the Adriatic and the Mediten but gradually approaching the east coast, till, in the highlands of theAbruzzi.it isclose upon it; alter which it takes a south-western direction throu dips under the sea at the Strait of Messina, and reappears on the northern coast of Sicily. I' hers divide the A. as follows: 1. Thi North A., from the Col de Tenda in the Maritime Alps to the pass of Borgo San Sepolcro, in the neighbour- hood of Arezzo, on the eastern border of Tu 2. The Central A., from Arezzo to the valley of the Pescara, which tlows between the two Al.ruzzi. 3. The Smith A., from the valley of the Pescara to Cape Spartivento. 4. The Insular A., or the 8 The leading feature of the A., whi they approach the coast, is their extraordinarily steep declivities; while in Middle Italy and adjoining portions of Upper and Lower [tali I terraced plateaus, lower ranges, and finally, ex i coast-plains, mark their gradual descent on the Wi I . The general name for these lower ranges is Sttb- Apennine; but they have a variety of particular itious, such as, the Mountains of Carrara and Seravezza, Pratomagno and Monte Amiata, in Tuscany; the Sabine, Alban, and Volscian moun- tains, in the Papal States; Monte Gargano . south-east coast, north of Manfrcdonia, &c. The ma i n chain of the A does not send off spurs into the Apulian peninsula, or heel of Italy, which, for the most part, is rather level, or only interspersed with detached groups of hills. 310 The direction of the great chain of the A. IB i.n Able to the formation, on the west side, of ich a tho oi the Arno, thi fiber, 1 no, and the Voltumo ; while, on the east side, we iiud nothing but small Btri una, in most cases, destitute of affluents, hurrying down i through wild precipitous valleys. In Northern Italy, the L igurian A, a! the Gulf of Genoa, can only develop on the south puny streams, while the north sends down, then 'i tins of Pii dmont, large tributaries to the Po. The average heighl of the entire chain of the A. is about 4000 feet, which, however, in the north, down to little more than 3500 feet ; and in the mountains of the Abru/.zi, rises to 7000 feet, in Monte I 'orno, the highest peak of the range known under the name of Gran Sasso d' Italia, tlev reach an elevation of 10,200 feet, and in Monte . of 7s.",ll feet. The North A. attain, in Monte Cimone, situated ill the south of Mndena, :i height of 6973 feet J the South A., in Monte Amara, a of 9000 feet; the Insular A., if we exclude the isolated peak of /Etna— -in Pizzo di Case, a height of G500 feet. The A. are crossed by thirteen principal passes : are, proceeding from N. to S. — 1. The Pass of Savona ; 2, of Bocchetta ; 3, of Cisa ; 4, of Monte Cimone ; 5, of Porretta ; 6, of Pietramala ; 7, of Borgo San Sepolcro; 8, of I'urlo ; 9, of Serravalle ; Aquila; 11, of Isernia; 12, of Arcano and Troja ; 13, of Potenza. The prevalent stone is a species of compact limestone, of a whitish gray colour, belonging to tho Jura formation. Resting on the limestone is found a mure recent formation of sand- stone and marl, which is especially abundant in the middle region of the Sub- A., contains an extraordi- nary number of petrifactions, and must be reckoned as belonging to the upper division of the Parisian limestone, i ins, however, frequently crop out. Thus, for instance, on the water-shed of the North and Central A. tl ind transition clay-slate, granwache. slate, &c. The A., G ally tin and N< apolitan, are di tin " In '1 fr all other mountain chains by the rich variety contain. In some p a inexhaustible. Volcanic rocks ; in the middle and southern e where the agency of fire has caused very wonderful formatii tor instance, the crater-lakes of Albano, Nemi Solfatara. i hi | cipal chain exhibits, for the most part, a n appearance; it looks like avast wall, with very fewprojecting peaks to break the dull monotony of the scene, and therefore seldom furnishes on which the eye of the spectator can rest with pleasure. Naki covered with thick dibris, the declivities seem as if scorched by the southern sun. Only in the Abruzzi, in the . and above all, ill the marble mountains of Carrara and Seravezza, do the bold and magnificent forms of the Alp - ' Where the A. — in I so poorly supplied with streams exhibit a trace of Alpine abundance of water, there is no lack of rich pastures and dense forests, but usually only thin grass and wild scrubby bushes cover the stony slopes. The greater number of the roaring forest brooks, in the deep rocky ravines, display, during summer, only a dry bed. Where the mountains dip down to the sea, as at tho Riviera of < fenoa and the Gulf of Naples, a rich, peculiarly southern vegetation clothes the declivities. Gigantic agaves, Indian orange-groves, hint in these northern lands of the splendours of the tropics. Up to 3000 feet of elevation, cornfields, fruit-h. touts, and deciduous oaks are found. Beyond this, all vegetation often ceases APENRADE— APHIS. on the steep anld poetical myth which represi nted fch goddess as springing fr the foam of the sea. See Vim a and An i i i ~. Apkro- festivals celebrated in honour of A., in numerous cities of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. At Paphos, in this island, was her most ancient temple. Woodless sacrifices alone were imagined to pi' i b A., such as flowers, inci Mysteries oi an impure kind formed part of the ceremonial of the aphrodiaia, Aphrodiaia were on doubt held in the other places where A. was worshipped, such as i Tie bes, Ellis, &c, though they are not mentioned. At Corinth and Athena, the aphro- diaia N\> re celebrated principally by prostitutes. APIA'CE^E. See Usibellifi;i; E, APIACERE. See Ad Libitum. APIARY. See Bee. API'CIUS, a Roman epicurean — in the low and common sense of the word —lived in the times of Augustus and Tiberius, and was celebrated for his luxurious table and his acquirements in the Bcience of cookery. When, in pursuit of his favourite study, he had consumed I part of his fortune, and had only some £80,000 left, he poisoned himself, in order to avoid the misery of plain diet. Two other gourmands — one in the time of Pompey, the other in the reign of Trajan — arc mentioned under the name A. The Roman cookery-book, C'"W Apicii dt Obsoniis et i ' / (libri decern), ascribed to A., obviously belongs to a much later time, inasmuch as it abounds in inac- curacies and solecisms. The unknown author has thought proper to recommend hiswork to gourmands by affixing to it the celebrated name of A. A'PION, a Greek grammarian, was born at Os a town in Libya, but educated in Alexandria, which I cted to consider his birthplace, from a desire of being thought a pure Greek. He studied under Apollonins, the son of Archibius, from whom he acquired an admiration of Homer, and afterwards went to Bome, where he succeeded Theon as teacher of rhetoric. He seems to have bi remarkable for his loquacious vanity as for his knowledge. He declared that himself, and every one whom he mentioned, would be held in immortal ' iy, that he was equal to the lirst philosophers I and that Alexandria should be proud of him. On account of his incessant bragging, Tiberius used to call him ' 'ymbalum Mumli(the cymbal of the universe). With the exception of one or two fragments, the whole of A.'s numerous writings are lost. He 312 composed a work on the text of Homer, partly in the form ei i dictionary, which was frequently referred to by subsequent authors; a work on Qgypt, which contained tie story of A nd !/<<• preserved byAulus Gellius; a work against tin- Jews; one in praise of Alexander the G another on the great epicurean Apicius; histories of various countries, A Tins TUJJKRO'SA, formerly included in the genus Glycine, and called '<'. A b Longing to the natural order /.-;/«;/«/ irder Papilt- .having tuberous root-, a twining stein re. I Bowi rs, leathery, 2- valvular legumes, and pinnate leaves, with seven pair of smooth ovato- lanceolate ballets. This plant, which is a native of Virginia, a century been cultivated in botanic gardens in Europe, and has recently been brought into par- notiec on the continent, in a great me: ■ tli _h the French traveller Lamare-Picquot, who, Ins travels in North America, convinced himself of the value of the tubers as an article of food, for which they arc there used to some extent. Various attempts have since been made to cultivate it like the potato; but its cultivation is found diffi- cult, upon account of the length and weakness of tlie twining shoots and the length of the roots. The tubers cooked in steam are free from all acridity and bitterness, and very much resemble potatoes dressed in the same way. They contain more nitrogen than potatoes (4f) per cent.), archy farina cording to an analysis by Payen). A'PIS, the bull worshipped by the ancient I p. tians, who regarded it as a symbol of Osiris, the "i of the Nile, the husband of I sis. and tin 1 great dii inity of Egypt A sacred court or yard was set apart for the residence of A. in the temple of l'tah at Memphis, where a numerous retinue of priests waited upon him, and sacrifices of red oxen «eii- offered to him. His movement , choice of places, and ci of appetite, were religiously regarded as oracles. It 'C7;'", Apis. — Golden Calf. was an understood law that A. must not live longer than twenty-five years. When he attained thi he was secretly put to death, and buried by the priests in a sacred well, the popular belief being that he cast himself into the water. If, however. he died a natural death, bis body was solemnly d in the Temple of Serapis at Memphis, and bacchanalian festivals were held to celebrate the inauguration of a new bull as A. As soon as a suitable animal was found having the required marks — black colour with a white square on the brow; tin; figure of an eagle on the back, and a knot in the shape of a cantharus under the tongue — APIS-APOCRYPHA. he was led in triumphal procession to Nilopolis at the time of the new moon, where he remained forty days, waited upon by nude women, and was after- wards conveyed in a splendid vessel to Memphis. i iophany, or day of diacovi ry, and bis birth- day, were celebrated as high festivals of seven days' duration during the rise of the Nile. The woi inip of the golden calf by the: Israelites in the wilder- ness, and also the employment of golden calves as Symbols of the Deity liy Jeroboam, have lieeii very gen i ally referred to the Egyptian worship of A. ATis, APlDiE. See Bee. A'PIUM. See Celei-.v. APOCALYPSE. See Revei.atiom oi St Johh. APOCALY'PTIC NUMBER is 'the mystical number' GOG, spoken of in the book of Revi (xiii. IS). As early as the 2d c, the Church had found that the name, Antichrist, was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number; while others believed it to express a date. The most probable interpretation is that which was current in the days of Irenseus, and which found the Dumber in the word Lateinos (Latinus). The Roman nation — the mightiest pagan power on earth — was the most terrible symbol of Antichrist, and the number 666 appears in the Greek characters which spell the name. Protestant controversialists very generally support their views by this interpre- tation, applying the prophecy to papal Koine. APOCARPOUS FRUITS, in Botany, are those fruits which are the produce of a single flower, and are formed of only one carpel, or of a number of carpels remaining free and separate from each other. The term is derived from the Greek 'ipo, implying separation, and carpos, fruit. A POCO A POCO (Ital.), in Music, by degrees; by little and little. APOCRE'NIC ACID is one of the products of the natural decay of wood and other plant textures, and is found wherever lignine or woody fibre is decomposing in soils, &c. As A. A. is soluble in water, it follows that rain-water falling on and percolating through soils containing this substance, becomes impregnated with it; and hence, in many natural waters, A. A. is a recognised constituent. A. A. performs an important function in the growth of plants, as there is every reason to believe that it forms one of the stages through which matter travels from dead plants again into the living vegetable tissue. APO'CRYPHA, or APOCRYPITAL WRIT I X( B. The word originally meant secret or concealed, and was rendered current by the Jews of Alexandria. In the earliest churches, it was applied with very different significations to a variety of writings. Sometimes it was given to those whose authorship and original form were unknown ; sometimes to writings containing a hidden meaning; or at other times to BUCh as were objectionable ; sometimes to those whose public use was not thought advisable. In this last signification, it has been customary, since the time of Jerome, to apply the term to a number of writings which the Septua-int had circulated amongst the Christians, and which considered as an appendage to the Old Testament, and sometimes aa a portion of it. The same name his been retained for them in Luther's i of the Bible, w here they are given as additions merely to the Old Testament. The christian Church has fluctuated in its acknowledgment and use of these writings. The Greek Church, at the counoil of Laodicea (360 A. D.), pronounced decidedly against them, excluding them Iroui the canon ; tile Latin Church, on the contrary, has always assigned them, at least since the come I oi Carthagi (397 *■ i>.), a high place as worthy of reverence and i tteem, d olaring them to be of equ I . with the other scrip- tures; which by the council of 1 although they hi d b a in general use as part of the Sacred Scriptures long before. At- nation, thePrnt ei, My i j . t I them ; but in some of the Protestant churches thi y Boon b _-an again to be read in public worship, although in some of them passages occur which decidedly favour Roman Catholic doctrines. The Church of England, in her Articles, enumerates the 1 ks of the A. as books which ' the church doth > ample of life and instruction of manners, but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine.' Some portions of them are, therefore, included in the lessons of the church. By the other Pint, stant churches in Britain, as well as in America, they are completely rejected from public worship. The controversy regarding the A., after slumber- ing for a long period, has been renewed in recent tines bnth in Britain and in Germany. It arose in Britain very suddenly, about thirty years ago, in consequence of a discovery made by some of the most zealous supporters of the British and Foreign Bible Society, that the funds of that society wi part expended in the circulation of the A on the continent of Europe. This was defended on grounds of expediency, because the people of many parts of Europe had always been accustomed to see the A. in their Bibles, but was on the other hand denounced as contrary to the constitution of the society and to principle. livery question relative to the A. was opened up. Many members seceded from the Britisli ami Foreign Bible Society, and new Bible societies were formed. In this controversy, Mr Robert Haldane and Dr Andrew Thomson of Edin- burgh, took a very prominent part as antagonists of the A. and of its circidation. Impartially considered, these apocryphal writings, or at least a part of them, are not of very gn at importance. They have chiefly a historical value, throwing some light on the religious condition of the Jews, from the time when the Old Testa- ment ceases to be our guide, to the Christian era. They are distinguished into: 1st, Those which originated in Palestine, as «7i valuable for its generally pure morality, written in Hebrew about 180 n. c, and translated into Creek about 130 B.o. ; the First Boob oj Maccabees, written about 1 35 n. C., which is of great historical value ; and the valueless 1 k of Judtih: 2d, These whii h Egypto-AIexandrine origin, as the Bookof II the Second oj tifaccaba -. and the addition to /" and 3d, those which bear traces of Chaldaic or Persian influence, as Eera, Tobias, Baruch, and tho addition to Daniel The Book of Wisdom is the crown of. the whole. In old editions of the Bible the A. is sometimes seen I ic bound ib I ween the Old and New Testament. Prom the authorised editions in common use it is regularly excluded ; and, except as a curiosity, it is little known to the generality of readers. What is called the A. of the New Testament con- sists parti] of h tories, and partly of fragments of tradition, or of 4 eh inal I iching, b Ion ing to the first three cestui ii have never da place in the cano i, nor be i advanced by anj that distinction even in tine earliest times. They are of value chiefly to the historical critic. The most important among them are the peeuoVgpspels ; of these, a collection was marie by Fabricius (Ham- burg, 1719). A new edition of the Codec Apoary- pftus X. T., was commenced at Leipsic, ISo-. by Thilo. SIS APOCY.Wi I i; -APOLLO. APOCYNA'CK.i:, or APOCY'NK.E. a natural order of Dicotyledonous plants, ■ .. il!i milky )fl The calyx is usual] tit , i"! istent; the corolla hypogynous, i lows, oftcu with scales in its thro al >1 in bud. Tiler.: are five . which are inserted on the corolla; the anthers (irmly to the stigma, to which the pollen is iiiiinc- i the anthers are 2-celled, and adinally; the pollen is granular. The i are two, each 1 ■celled, or one, which i '-' ovules usually numerous; styles 1 or 2; the is contracted in the middle, and peculiarly charac- teristic of the order. The fruit is a follicle or cap- sule, or drupe or berry, double or single. The seeds have a fleshy or cartilaginous albumen, or (rarely) are ex-albuminous. — There are about 56G known species, chiefly natives of tropical countries. The l'i u- winkle (q. v.) is its only representative in the flora of Britain, a wanderer, as it were, from tie- tropics, yet hardy enough for the climate with which it contend ; the Oi.KANUF.r. (q. v.) and a few others are in the south of Europe. Many species are poisonous; amongst which is the noted Tam.iiix (q.v.) orXANOBKBNAof Madagascar. Some are used in medicine, in India and other countries. A num- ber of species yield Caoitcuouc (q.v.). The milk of others is bland and wholesome, as the Hya Hya or Cow-xiiF.F. (q.v.) of Demerara. Some are used in : ; Wrigma ttnetoria yields indigo of good quality. — A number yield eatable fruits. I beta edulis •. I Carandas in India; Carina m Arabia, and certain species of Carpo called Pisiiajiin in Sierra Leone, and Hancornia. — man cannabmum, Canadian hemp, a herbaceous plant about 4 — 5 feet in height, with unbranched stem, oblong leaves, and lateral cymes of v. bell-sh fihre, which the Indians of North America employ for making twine, i _r-nets, &c. APODAL FISHES are fishes destitute i tml tins, in Apoda are an order of Fishes, in rwise nearly I but in the systems of < timer and other recent naturalists, a less ini] place i ted to this distinctive character. — Eels are an example of A. fishes. APODI'CTIC, a logical term signifying a judg- 01 conclusion which is necessarily true: or. m other words, a judgment of which the opposite is impossible. No A. judgment can be founded on nee, because experience does not supply the idea of an absolute nee. A'POGEE (Or. apo, from, and ge, the earth), pro- perly speaking, the greatest distance of the ear; any of tin- heavenly bodies. Its application, In : r icted to the sun and moon, t \. corre- sponding to the earth's aphelion, and the being the point of its orbit most remote from the earth. A. is opposed to perigee. APOLLINA'RIS, the Younger, Bishop of Lao- dicea in Syria (oo2), and one of the warmest oppo- nents of Ariani n. Both as a man and a scholar. he was held in the greatest reverence ; and his writ- ings were ■ read in his own day. His father, A. the Elder, who was presbyter of Laodicea, was born at Alexandria, and taught grammar, first at Berytus, and afterwards at Laodicea. AYhen Julian prohibited the Christians from teaching the cl the father and son endeavoured to supply the loss by converting the Scriptures into a body of ] rhetoric, and philosophy. The Old Testament was ted as the subject for poetical compositions after the manner of Homer, Pindar, and the liana; whilst the New Testament formed roundwork o in imitation of Plata It is not ascertained what share the father had in work, but as he had a reputation for poetry, hably put the old Testament into I But it was Boil lly as a - n, and a set. tint A. is celebrated. He maintained the doctrine that the io^oa, or dh ine in t "lii place of the rational human soul or mind, and that I ritual- ised and glorified form of humanity. I was condemned by Beveia] synods, especially by the Council of Constantinople (381), on the ground that it denied the true human nature of Christ. The heresy styled Apollinarianism spread itself rapidly in Syria and tin- neighbouring countries, and, after the death of A., divided itself into two sects — the Vitalism, named after Yitalis, Bishop of Antioch ; and the Pole-means, who added to the doctrine of A. the assertion that the divine and human natures u.re so blended as one substance in Christ that his body was a proper object of adoration. On this account, they were accused of sareolatria (worship of the Besjh) and anthropolatria. (worship of man), and also were styled synoiisiaitoi (*w, together, and Etbetance), because they confused together the two distinct substances. The whole CO which occupied a great part of the oth c, is an m of human reason wandering out of its proper sphere. A. must not be confounded with Claudius A., Bishop of llierapolis, in Phrygia (170 a. D.), and who wrote an Apology for the Christian faith, and several other works, all of which are lost. APO'LLO (Gr. Apoi.lon). A. may be regarded as the characteristic divinity of the Greeks, inas- much as he was the in life in its most beautiful and natural forms, and the ideal entative of the Grecian nation. His mild worship, with its many festivals, accompanied as they were by a cessation from all hostilities; his various sacn d placi i, with their m and the general idea of his character, had a wide, ul, and beneficent influence on social ami poli- tical life throughout the states of Greece. )' and Hesiod mention that he was the son of Zeus and Leto, but neither slates whi ! born. The Ephesians believed that both he and Diana, his born in a grove near their city. The rtia, ami the inhabitants 01 . in Attica, also claimed the honour of his birth ; while the Egyptians Beemed to think he properly bi I m ; but the most popular legend was that which made him a native of Delos, one of the Cy. lades, where his mother Leto, followed by the jealous WTath of Juno over land and sea, at length found rest and shelter, and was delivered of bun, inch r the shadow of an olive-tree, at the foot of Mount Cynthus. To spite the Queen of It who was far from being a favourite with the other goddesses, tlnse ] ; ;., tender their services to the weak and wearied Leto. The young A. was much made of. Themis fed him with nectar and ambrosia, the food of the gods, which seems to have suddenly excited the conceit of the infant deity, ach as he surprised his nurse by st iding a lyre, and announcing his intention of henceforth revealing to mortals the will of Jove. The island, proud of having been the birthplace of A., adorned itself with a robe of golden flowers. In ancient hterature A. is described as possessed of many and various powers, all of which, however, are seen on closer inspection to be intimately related to l He is spoken of: 1. 'lhe god of retributive justice, who, armed with bow and arrows, down his glittering shafts upon insolent i^s. In this character he appeal's in the APOLLO BELVEDERE— APOLLOXTTJS. opening of the Iliad. 2. As the instructor of bards, and the god of song or minstrelsy, playing upon the phorminx or seven-stringed lyre, and singing for the diver- deities when engaged in feasting. ". At the god of prophetic inspira- tion, especially in his oracle at Delphi 4. As the guardian deity of herds and flocks. 5. As the god of medicine, who affords help, and wards off evil. In this sense he is represented as the father of ius (^Esculapius),the god of the healing art. 6. As a founder of cities. According to Homer, he assisted Neptune in building the walls of Troy. Cyrene, >. — A., a Greek grammarian, lived about 140 B. C, studied philosophy in Athens, and grammar under Aristarchus ; wrote a work on mythology, giving an arrangement of old myths from the i times to the historical period ; also a gcogra chronicle in iambic verse, and several grammati- cal works. The mythology, which begins with the origin of the gods, probably went down as far as the Trojan cycle, but a portion of it has perished. It has been reckoned by some only an extract from a larger work by A., though this is a mere hypothesis, based on the fact that the legends are given with extreme simplicity and brevity. The work is one of great value to classical scholars. An edit the Bibliotlif.ca of A., in 4 vols., died at Gottingen, 1782 1783, by C. H. G. Heyne. APOLLO'NIUS, the name of several celebrated Greek grammarians and rhetorician-. A., sun LOS (or ill-tempered), of Alexandria, lived in I c. Some of his grammatical works were edited by Bekker. A. was the first who reduced grammar to a system. Ilis reputation was so that Priscian calls him ■ prince of grammarians). — A., son of Archebulus, also of Alexandria, lived in the time of Augustus. and was the author of a lexicon of Homeric words, — A., surnamed Molon, was a teacher of rhetoric at Rhodes, and al res at . where he was high! < lcero and Cesar. — A. of Pbroa, 240 n.c, i-s with Euclid, Ar. id Diophantss, as one of the founders of the mathematical sciences. His work on come sections has been pra Ul APni.i.oNirs Arnr.ncY. partly in the original Greek, partly iii an i A. i'f Rhodb (or of Alexandria, say |, born 285 n. ••., wrote many imar, and an epic poem, i the .1 i i I rather by le i r m i n ^ and iy than bj . ahu, though aome truly artist i pa ' ihiting i iwtn of Medea's love. I itly admired Romans, was translated into Latin by Publius Xerentiua Varro, and « 1. not only in a oner by \ an by I i i by the I i Brnnok and Wellauer (Lerpeie, 1813 1828). APOIiLO'NITJS, opTyaha, in Cappadocia, who lived in the time oi Christ, waaazealou s ni Pythagoras. II lerable number "i disciples, travelled thi a great part of Asia Minor, and endeavoured I ed with the doctrine of the Brahmins. On this journey he stayed for a time in Babylon, was introduced to the Magi, and at last reached the King Phra it . in India, who recommended bun to Jarchas, th I Brahmin. When A. returned from thi- ; ; 18 a wis.- man was greatly increased ; the people regarded him as a worker of miracles and a divine being, and pi D liim at their emits. lie himself seems to laimed insight into futurity, rather than the power of working miraoles. I i Borne be was expelled on a charge of having a young woman from the dead. After extensive travels in Spain, Italy, Gn ece, and Ethiopia, he was 1 of having taken part in an insun against Hi 'in ired before the tribunal, and was acquitted. intimately, he app open '1 a Pytbx school, and continued his teaching until he died, ne iily ' n ■ hundred years old. ' I > was nnii a '"Hit a hundri I j after his death by l'hilostratiis (ij. v.). It i which an outlii f historical facts and the i c of the man are suffi- ciently discerniMe. Bierocles, a heathen stat and opponent of Christianity, wrote, in the 3d C, a work on the life and - \. with a view to prove their superiority to the doctri if Christ, In mod' in times, the English freethinkers Blount and Lord Herbert, and Voltaire in France, have renewed the attempt. APOLLO'NITJS, of Tybe, the hero of i I romance, which enjoyed great popularity in the middle- ages, and was i into almost all the of Wi tern Euro]"'. In it are related the romantic adventures which befell A., a Syrian previous to his m th the daughter of King Alcistrates, of Cyrene. To these are added the wife, who was parted from him by appan nl death, as well as those of his daughter, Tarsia, who was carried off 1 iy pirates, and sold in Mitylene. The poem closes with the reunion of the whole family. The original Greek work no longer ; I nit there are three very early Latin vi of which one was published by Welsi r 150.")) ; another is to be found m the <;• ita Roman- ; and the third in the Pantlwon of Gottfried of Viterbo. Prom this Latin source ha\ the Spanish version of the 18th c., printed in / > Pi ris, 1842), Beveral French versions, in prose and ver.se, as well as several Italian. As early as the 11th e. there was an Anglo-Saxon adaptation of the work, and subsequently various English ones appeared. Shakspeare has treated the subject in his drama of Pericles; he substantially follow I lower, - his narrative on ' ottfi I Ol Viterlio. Three popu- i I neh version of this i red in London in 1510, 1676, and 1607; while the Dutch, in 1498, derived from th I The romance was rendered into ibably from the Otsta Romanorum, by a B ler Neuenstadt' (i.e., \ i al.oiit the year 1300, in the form of a long, at yet, onpuhl Later, we bai A ' . ■ ■ I translated from I lottfried oi Viterbo, and lirst published at Augsburg in 1470. k, in his .son;.' i of Shalctpeare, nam :y as it is given in the Oesta Romanorurn. A modern Gl eh i emslation Ol t] Ls D DO undertaken in 1800 by Qabrii 1 Con inn ,of Ci and several times reprinted al must not be ded with the lost Greek original. A'POLOGUE, a fable, parable, or short story, intend int vehicle of same moral !»■. One of the oldest and I parables is that by Jotham, as given in the Book of 7 I.. Another celebrated A. is that of the ' Limbs and the Body,' related by the patrician Menenius Agrippa. .Esop's fables have enjoyed a world-wide reputation. Luther held such an opinion of the value oi the A. as a vehicle of moral truth, that he edited a n p, for which he wrote a characteristic preface. He says: 'In doing this, I .have especially cared for young people, that they may receive instruction in a style suitable to their age, which is naturally fond of all kinds of fiction ; and 1 have wished to gratify this natural taste with- out indulging anything that is bad.' APO'LOGY. The term is now commonly under- stood as synonymous with an excuse for breach of 'lit, &c., but was originally used as the title of any work written in defence of . . doctrines, as in the A. of Socrala, ascribed to Plato and Xenophon; the A. for the Christians, by Tertullian. and in many other defences of the uis. written by Justin .Martyr. Athenagoras, I a, Theophilus, Oris I us, Minucius Felix, Arnobius, Lactantius, Augustine, Orosius, and others. The attacks parried or retorted in these apoloj works are such as charges of atheism, want of phical know! anti-social tenets, &c. Both the charges and the refutations brought (or- rve to give us an insight into the character 1 of the times when these works were written. Thus, in the A. by Tertullian, it is curious to find a formal argument employed to refute the assertion that the spread of Christianity was the cause of 'earth. (Hakes' and other natural phenomena which had occurred in some parti of the Roman empire. After the fourth century, when the church was made dominant under the Human emperors, apologetical writings were less called for; but Bartholus Edeasenus and Saymundus Martinus wrote against the Jews and the Moham- ln the I 5th c, when the revival of leal ill tianity in apparent opposition to the iy, Marsilius r'icinus wrote in of revel tion ; and some time after the Reformation, the Spread of froi-thinking and scepti- i England v . i by a variety of apolo- works, chiefly maintaining the points that Christianity is a divine revelation, Christ a divine messenger, and his church a divine institution. The defence of Christianity on grounds of i came now to be treated as a distinct branch of 1 y. under t ; I aologet CS. Among the numerous apologetic works by Protestants, may be mentioned those by Grotius (De Veritalt, fcc), Butler (Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed), APONEUROSIS— APOSTLE. Lardner {CredibUitu cf the Oospd J/i*'oral artery or external jugular vein. As soon as possible, purgative inedi- hould be administered. Foi of A., see Paralysis. Tumours within the skull produce symptoms of A. APO'STATE literally designates any one who on, whatever may be his mc . custom, the word is always used in an inju- rious sense, as equivalent to renegade, or one who, in 1. is actuated by unworthy motives. In early Christian thru 1 was applied to those who abandoned their faith in order to from persecution; but it was also applied to such as rejected Christianity on speculative grounds (the Emperor Julian, for instance). .",th c, when heathenism was declining, many who had no sincere belief in ( Christianity, yet made pi it, and wire bapt wi re styled apos- tates. The apostates in tun styled variously Sacrificati. Thnrilieati, ftc., accord- ing to the modes in which they publicly made known their return to heathenism, by offering sacri- fices or incense to the gods of Home. The "Roman Catholic Church at one period imposed penalties on . as of course excommunicated; but some) bis property was confiscated, and he himself banished, or even put to death. It has often been of great moment to the fortunes of a nation that a prince has apostatised. The most renowned instance m D that of Henry IV. of France. In 1833 published, at Erlangen, A Oali variant -■ who in the 16th, \~th, am Protestant to tin: Roman C< m Apostasy is now employed com- monly, and often abusively, as a reproach lor great or sudden changes in political opinions. APO'STLE (Gr. apostolus, sent forth, sent on a mission), any messenger whatever, bul used to denote the twelve disciples whom Jesus sent forth to preach the gospel Their names were Simon Peter, Andrew, John (the son of Zebedee), .lames (his brother), Philip, Bartholomew (called also Nathaniel), Thomas, Matthew (sumamed James (the son of Alpha ius), '11, ad m, and Judas Iscariot. Subsequently, .Matthias was chosen in the room of Judas ; and at a still later i the number of the apostles was further increased by the calling of Paul to the apostli ship. 'I be term is sometimes used in the New Testament in its more general signification. Barnabas i an A. (Acts xiv.). It is a point of controversy M tween the supporters and opp inentsi whether or not the term A., as indicating an office, is appl pt the original twelve, Matthias, and Pan] ; _ maintained, on the one hand, that the office is pi rpetuated in bishops; on the other, that it was temporary and belonged exclusively to those who were witnesses of the resurrection of Christ, and were employed by him to found the Christian Church. Theap issioned by their ' to go forth on their work of evangelisation. during the thud year of his public ministry, tin this on, their labours wen to the .lews, properly so called. Not even the Samaritans, though natives of Palestine, w< re to be the obj theirnl y were earneatl] I out the lost sheep of the house of Israel. The second tune was shortly before the Lord's ascension, when APOSTLES' CREED— APOSTOLIC MAJESTY. their ; mr was indefinitely extended. 'Go, il nations, baptising (hem in Hie name of ther, ami of the Son, and of the Holy < On the day of Pentecost, the ulous gifts fitting them En their arduoos work. And alter evangelising for some years in Palestine, they all departed, with the atom st James, into various quarters ol the globe ; but i of thrir ministry seems to Gave princi- pally comprised the civilised provinc of the i astern ]iart of the Roman empire— viz., Syria, Asia Minor, and Greeoe; though probably i and after him Paul, visit, id Rome. is no historical foundation for the tradition that divided the then known world into twelve parte, each taking one of >'> figment was very likely originated by two circumstances : 1. That the disciples were commanded to go into all the world and preach, the gospel; and 2. That the disciples in point of fact had little personal intercourse with other. Their zeal for thi Son of Christianity left them no time to gratify their inclinations. As a consequence, we hav imperfect accounts of their lives or manner of death. ral apostles are usually represented in medieval pictures with special badges or attributes : St Peter, with the keys; St Paul, with a sword; St Andrew, with a cross ; St James the Less, with a fuller's pole ; St John, with a cup and a H out of it; St Bartholomew, with a knife ; St Philip, with a long staff, whose upper end is formed into a cross; St Thomas, with a lance; St Matthew, with a hatchet; St Matthias, with a battle-axe ; St James the Greater, with a pilgrim's staff and a gourd-bottle ; St Simon, with a saw ; and St Jude, with a club. APO'STLES' CREED. See Ckeed. APOSTO'LIC, or APOSTOXICAL, the general term applied to everything derived din of the apostles. Either case constitutes apostolicity. The Roman Catholic* declares itself the A. Church ; the papal chair the A. chair, on the ground of an unbroken series of Roman bishops, from the chief apostle, Peter. The Church of England, in virtu.- of regular episcopal ordination from the pre-reformation church, claims to be A.; so likewi ■ do the Protestant Ep churches in Scotland and the I'n Apostolic Tradition (see Tradition) claims to have been handed down from the apostles. In the same special sense, the name of A. Council belongs to that conclave of the apostles at Jem Jem (Acts, xv.), about the year 51 or 52 A.D., occ isputes raised at Antioch by Jud as to the admission of uncireumei into the church. Certain congregations or chu also, which were the special scenes of the labours of nostles, bore for centuries the title of A. Churches, more especially those of Jerusalem, OS, Corinth, and Rome. But with th piritual power of the Romish hierarchy, the name A. came to be more and more ezd applied to Rome, and is retained by her, d the energetic protests of the Protestant Chi the term Apostolic See, i.e., the see of postol .' ! ing, the bl n ol as the successor of St Peter ; Apostolic Vicar, the cardinal who represents the pope in extraordinary is; Apostolic Chamber, a council into with the care of the revenues of the see Apostolic Months — January, March, May, July, liber, November — the months in which the pope, according to the Vienna Concordat of 1 4- IS, took possession of the vacant benefices in German y, 318 &c. A papal brief or letter is sty Id A. in the same WW APOsTO'LIC KltKTIIUKW or APOSTOLICI, on in Italy, towards the end of the I ::! U c., to one of those sects which, animated by tho spirit of SO Arnold of Brescia, felt constrained to oppose the worldly tendencies of tho church. Its founder was Gerhard Segarelli, a weaver in Parma. 1, from some cause or Other, by the Fran order, Ins long-con istio medita- L him to the profound conviction that it was above all thin iry to return to the B forms of apostolic life. Accordingly, he went (1260) in the garb of the apostles, as a preacher of and by bis practical discourses gathered many adherents into a kind of free society, b by no oaths. A1 first he managed to avoid any direct in with the dogmas of the church; but after twenty years of undisturbed activity an influence, Segarelli was arrested by the Bishop of Parma ; and in l'-'SG, upon the occasion of his release, Pope Honorius [V. renewed a decree of Pope On X. against all religious communities not du i 1 by the papal chair. In 1290, Nicholas IV. setting himself expressly to oppose the A. B., they, on their side, began avowedly to denounce and its corrupt and worldly church, as the Babylon of the Apocalypse. In 1300, many, both men and women, and among them Segarelli, as having, after abjuration, relapsed into heresy, 1 at the stake. But his cause survived him. Dolcino, a more energetic and cultivated man, up as a priest, who had previously taken an active part in the Tyrol against the corruptions of the church, now hi laded the orphan sect in Italy. Ho the duty of a complete renunciation of all worldly ties, of property and settled abode, &c. Having retreated into Dalmatia, he announced from thence the dawning of a new era, and in 1304, i red in Upper Italy, with thousands of adherents, as the enemy of the papacy — at that time humbled and impoverished by France. In 1305, a him. He fortified the mountain Zebello, iu the diocese of Vercelli, but was, after a gallant defence, coin by famine to submit. After horrible tortures, which re with the utmost fortitude, he was bu In Lombardy and the south of France, remnants of the A. B. lingered on till 13G8. See Krone, Fra iier. (Leipsic, 1844.) APOSTO'LIC CATHOLIC CHURCH. See iRVmOITES. APOSTO'LIC FATHERS, the name given to the immediate disciples and fellow-labourers of tho apostles, and, iu a more restricted sense, to among them who have left wril ad them. The A. F., specially so called, are Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, and Polycarp of Smyrna. It is uncertain whether Papias of BUerapolis, and tho author of tin himself out as the is spoken of in Rom. xvi. 14, were really disciples of the apostles. The writings of the A. F., as to their form and subject, may be looked upon as a continuation of the apostolic epistles, though far inferior to them in spirit. Their main purpose is "Tt to faith and holiness before Christ's i. The writings of the A. F. have been ■ I ie reach of EirJi b readers by the translations of Archbishop wake and Mr Chevallier. APOSTO'LIC MAJESTY, a title hell 1. kings of Hungary, was conferred by Pope Sylvester II., in 1000 A.D., upon Duke Stephen of Hn 1 not only much encouraged the pr of Christianity iu Hungary, but actually preached APOSTOLIC CANONS— APOTHECARIES. himself, in imitation of the apostles. In 175S, the title was renewed by Pope Clement XIII., in favour of Maria Theresa as Queen of Hungary, and con- tinues to be used by the emperor of Austria as king of Hungary. APOSTO'LIC CANONS A-VD CONSTITU- TIONS, both ascribed by tradition to ('! Eomanus, are notes of ecclesiastical customs held to be apostolical, written in the form of apostolic precepts. The Constituiiones Apostolic^, consisting of eight books, were probably composed in Syria, and contain, in the first six books, a comprehensive rule for the whole of Christian life. These were probably written about the end of the 3d c. ; while the seventh book, which is essentially an abridg- ment of them, may has i to the beginning of the 4th c. The eighth book was put together in the middle of the 4th c., for the use of the priests, and only relates to the sacred offices. Interpolations, however, were afterwai d. The Canonea Apostolici, which were also recognised by the church, were composed at a later period. The first fifty, compiled in the middle of the 5th <■., and translated from Greek into Latin by Dionysius the Younger, knowlcdgcd by the Latin Church alone. The Greek Church, on the other hand, accepted the thirty-five canons put forth in the beginning of the 6th c. ; and this became a point of discord between the churches. Both collections were probably looked upon at first as apostolic traditions merely. Later, it came to be believed that they were written down by the apostle3 themselves, it being thought probable that they should have expressed themselves posi- tively about the constitution as well as the dogmas of the church. APOSTO'LIC PARTY, the name given to a party who acted a conspicuous part in the modern history of Spain. They were composed of fanatical Catholics, who were also absolutists so far as the king con- sented to be their instrument. They formed them- (soon after the revolution of 1819) into an A. P., whose leaders were fugitive priests, and whose troops were smugglers and robbers. After taking an active part in all the sub tations, they finally merged (1S30) in the Carlist party. APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION* is a phrase used to denote one or both of tieo things — the deriva- tion of holy orders by an unbroken chain of trans- mission from the apostles, and the succession of a ministry so ordained to the powers and privileges of the apostles. The former is necessarily a matter of fact, to be ascertained by history ; the latter is rather a matter of opinion — the Roman ami Prol Churches, and again individuals and parties in either, Erom each other in their views. See Bishop and Obdom noN. APOSTROPHE (Gr. apodroplii, a turning away, or breaking off) is a rhetorical figure by whicha the course of his speech, and . t 1 sser emotional emphasis, seat) the dead, or inanimate C to mvoU them. When the figure is well managed, it has a tlirilling effect, both in oratory and poetry; but « vagantly introduced, it beconi Examplcsof it abound in the writin | poets and states- men both of ancient and modern times. — A. in gram- mar, is the omission of a letter or letters in a word, the omission being marked by a comma; as 'tis for it is; the comma so employed is also called an .1. APOTHECARIES, in general acceptation, are I persons who keep shops or laboratories for the vending and compounding of medicines, and for the making up of medical prescriptions; but in England, they maybe not incorrectly described as an inferior branch of the medical profession. They are legally entitled to attend sick persons, and prescribe for them, as well as to make up and dispense medicines. It is not, however, usual for them to prescribe medicines to be prepared and supplied by others ; and it may be doubted whether they can do so in London without incurring the penalties of the 14 and 15 Henry VIII. c. 5, by winch the privileges of the London physicians are confirmed and extended — their ordinary practice, in adilition to preparing medicines from a physician's prescrip- tion, being to advise the patient, to prescribe, and make up the required medicine in their own lal (ora- tory. But although an apothecary may attend sick persons, and prescribe for them, he cannot charge both for his attendances and his medicines, but must make his election between the two. It was so ruled by the late Chief-justice Best, in an action by an apothecary, who sought to recover on grounds (see Wilcock on the Medical Profmmon, and the law-cases there collected). Altl. therefore, the apothecary is inferior in professional rank and authority to the physician and surgeon, he is of a higher grade than the chemist and druggist, who merely vends drugs and medicinal compounds, but whose qualification, beyond the payment of a small annual tax by way of licence, does not neces- sarily offer any test or guarantee of skill. Practically, ■."'. r, although it may be matter of surprise and regret that the legislature has not interposed, by any stringent enactment, for the protection of the public against the unskilful and empirical dr tittle or no injury perhaps results from such a state of the law, for the rules of the 'Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain,' incorporated in U rival charter, and the powers of which have been considerably enlarged by a recent statute, 15 and 16 Vict, c. 56, passed on the 30th June 1852, operate as a restraint on ignorance and want of skill. By a still more recent act called ' The Medical Act ' (21 and '2'2 Vict. c. 90, s. 54), provision is made far the preparation of what the act calls 'the British Pharmacopoeia,' an enactment which would be of value in the case of pharmaceutical malpractices, were it not that the next section of the same act expressly exempts from its operation, among others, the ' lawful trade or business of chemists or druggists,' an inconsistency of which perhaps poor persons, who cannot afford to consult a r practitioner, have the chief right to complain. See Chkmist and Dr.rr.niST. The business, or profession, as it maybe called, of an apothecary in England, although neither regulated, nor, indeed, fully recognised, till modern times, has been made the subject of several ancient statutes, and is traceable to a rem I in the history of the healing art 1. Richard el, who died Bishop of London, was stated to have been apothecary to Henry II. ; and it is an accredited tradition," that in 1 dward III. re a pen i of nee a day to t'oursus de ml. an apothecary in Lornl of, and attending bis n -.:■ ;. during his in Scotland. It is," however, improbable tli.it A. were then common, indeed it may be i aether at that time I 1 as a publicly known body at all, for, in 1511, there was passed an act of parlia- ment, the 3 Henry V11I. c. 11, for regulating the but making no mention th" par!. very curious act, the ."1 and 35 Henry VI 11. c. 8 ■ with the then ignorance and cupidity e n surgeons; and ( as a remed}', it provides for the toleration and 310 APOT}iiv\i:ii:s. ti.m of tin' irregular practitioners, who after- d body, acquired the distinctive name of A. e though it lie in ii inn perhaps be n yarded as the real fonndal of the modern apothecary. It certainly shews on its face sufficii recognition of the : i benefit whom it was paw a, tor it the surgeons of London wen not only unskilful anil grasping, but that tiny 'have sued, troubled, ami vexed divert I "ns, as well men as women, whom I endued with tin- knowledge of the nature, kind, ami operation of certain herbs, runts, and waters, ami the using and ministering of them to such as had been pained with customable diseases, as worn m'a breasts 1" in a pin and the web in the eye, uncomes of hands, burnings, scaldings, sore months, tin stone, stran- gury, saucelim, and morphew, and such other like . iid yet the stud persons have not anything for their pains or cunning, but have the same to poor nd God's sake, and of pity and ch lite act, therefore, pro lain, 'That at all forth it shall be lawful to person being the king's subject, having knowledge rperience of the natui -, or of the operation of , by specula- or practice, within any pari of tin- realm of England, or within any other the king's dom to practise, use, and minister in and to any outward [income, wound, apostemation, outward swell- ing or disease, anj herb or herbs, ointments, baths, puttees, and emplaisters, according to their cunning, experience, and knowledge in any of the diseases, sores, and maladies beforesaid, and all other like to the same, or drinks for the stone, strangury, or . without suit, vexation, trouble, penalty, or loss of their goods, tin I tute in tin foresaid third year of the king's most gracious reign, or any other act, ordinance, or statute to tlie contrary Qotwithstand Anciently, the A. were not distil being, in like manner, ondistin- gniahable from the barbers) ; indeed, it rather appears that A. am I re synonymous terms : and it was not till 1617, in the 13th year o) James I., that I bod formed into two distinct c tions by a charter from the king, which, reciting a previous grant to the grocers in 1 GOG. 1 >y which 1 1 1 e t wi i j were expn s&ry ni it L d -lares that I shall, thenceforward, be separate from, and con- stitute a company distinct from the grocers. The privileges conferred by this charter upon the A. ■were afterwards considerably enlarged by an act of parliament, 55 G III. c. 194, to which we shall :tly refer. Bnt even after the charter of James, the London A. appear to have been regarded merely as a trading company, occasionally pp ing the medicines which they sold, thus tresp as it was thought, on the produce of the phj until their right to do so was supported by a lent of the lbmse of Lords, in the case of the • of Physicians against Hose, reversing a previous decision of the Court of Ke I who was an apothecary and freeman of London, had attended one Scale, a butcher, and made up and administered what was not denied to be i roper medicine to him. This, it was contended, half of the physicians, was an infringement of their exclusive privileges, and the King's Bench being of the same opinion, unanimously gave judg- ment for the plaintiffs ; bnt the judgment was reversed by the House of Lords. So generally lished had this branch of the medical profi - eion become, that, in 1S15, the act of parli 55 Geo. 1IL c. 194, to which we have already 320 1 In provide for the sufficiency of Lucation; thus, tor the first time, as it may lie said, placing the A., as a body, on the footing of a libera] profession. This statute, which torn- the pc it ion, pi nd re- iiti.s of the A., after reciting (and for the most part confirming) the charter of James L, by which the A. of London had been distinctively any. proceeds to enact that no a rson shall praci ■ as an apothecary, or act as tint to an apothecary, in any part of En or Wales, unless he shall have been examined by a court of examiners (to be chosen by the master and wardens of the said company, in such manner as the act directs), and ha vi i eedl a certificate of his being duly qualified to practise as such. And with respect to what constitutes such practice cary, it has been judicially determined that anuria of law will look to - ction ."> of the act, which defines certain of the 'lutes and liabilities of the but which ill noway deprives A. of any of their previously acquired privileges. The certifi- cate — for win i be paid for the benefit oi the company's funds— is not to be granted to any person below the age of twenty-one, or who ; served an apprenticeship "f five years to an apothi 1 can produce testimonials of sufficient medical education and good moral : ; and any person practising without such disabled from recovering his ch and for every such offence is, moreover, liable to a penalty of £20, which can be recovered in the county court. It is also provided that — inasmuch as be duty of every apothecary to prepare, with exactness, such medicines that may be dh for the sick by any physician lawfully licensed 'or sell, or Sully compounding or selling any medicines as irected by any pi ' by any l .vfully Licensed, with his initials, shall incur such penalties and forfeitures as therein Bet forth. And further, that the master, wardens, and society of A. for the tin- persons by them appointed, and being not fewer than two, and Iy qualified, may at all reasonable times in the ops of any A. throughout d and Walt s, ami search and i xamine v. lieines and drugs be wholesome, and meet for ts of the realm ; and destroy such as they find to be < and report to the and wardens of the society the n offenders, who are made liable to a tine of £5 for the first, £10 for the second, and £20 for the third offence. Tin- act contains, however, a proviso that therein shall affect the business of a chemist and druggist in the buying, preparing, compound- ing, dispensing, and vending drugs, medicine medicinable compounds, wholesale and retail; nor re with the rights of the universities of Cambridge or Oxford, the College of Physicians or of Surgeons, or the Si " ii t y of Apothecaries, respectively, except a- altered by that act. This act, which was passed on the 12th July 1815, provides for the exemption from its operation of such A. as may have been in practice on or before the first day of August of that year; a class, however, of whom it may reasonably be conjectured re few now surviving. Still, it may without impropriety lie asserted, that there are two classes of A. in I rst, the licentiates of the Apothe- caries' Co.. or. in other words, those qualified according to the provisions of the 55 Geo. III. ; and second, a temporary class, namely-, such A. as were in practice on the 1st day of August 1S15. The A. in Ireland are an exclusive corporation, whose privileges are expressly saved by the recent APOTIIECIA— APPALACHIANS. medical act (the 21 and 22 Viet, c. 00). Although occupying a position corresponding in many respects to that of tin- same body in England, the Irish A. do not appear to have established their rights as mi dical practitioners to the extent to which the ii A. have succeeded in carrying their preten- . the privileges of the Irish A., under their charter, being limited to the vending, preparing, and administering drugs and medicines according to a physician's prescription, although they probably would incur no penalty by giving advice to patients in their own shops. The existing law relating to A. in Inland is con- tain* -d in an act of the I nab. parliament, the 31 Geo. III. c. 34, passed in 1 71*1, and entitnled 'An Act far the moreeffectuallyPreserviiigtli Health of his M . }' Hall in the < 'ity of Dublin, and reg Profession of an Apothe- cary throughout the Kingdom of Ireland.' The preamble turning the tables on the English act, the 34 and 35 Henry III., which reflects so severely on the London surgeons— recites that 'whereas not only many : inconveniences have arisen from the want of a hall amply supplied with medicines of the pur.st quality, prepared under the inspection of persons well skilled in the art and mystery of such preparations, but also frequent frauds and abuses have been imposed and practised on many of his majesty's subjects within the city of Dublin, and the liberties thereof, and in other parts of the king- dom of Ireland, by the ignorance and unskilfulness of divers persons pretending to the art and mystery of an apothecary, to the injury of the fair trader, - appointment of the physician, and the immi- nent hazard of the lives of his majesty's faithful and loyal subjects throughout the realm.' The act proceeds to incorporate the A. as a com- pany, and to erect their hall; the officers of the atdon being a governor, deputy-governor, and thirteen directors, elected from among the members, or any five or more of them, of whom the governor or ivernor should be one, shall be called a of directors, for inspecting and directing all ;d and compound preparations and i ments. rJy section IS, no person, after the 24th June L791, shall be taken as an apprentice, foreman, or shopman to any apothecary in Ireland, untU after examination by the company; and by t! i it is enacted that from and after the same date, ' no person shall open shop or act in the art or ry of an apothecary, within the kingdom of Ireland, until such person shall have been examined iiis qualification and knowledge of the business, by such persons and in such manner as hereinbefore mentioned and required for the examination of ins applying 'to become apprentices or shop- keepers;' a provision that appears to give the Apothecaries' Hall in Ireland a complete monopoly in the vending and compounding of medicines. In Scotland, there is no class of practitioners cor- RnglMi A. The word apothecary a ar, indi ed, to be a gem ric b mi in the medical nomenclature of that country ; the chemists and druggists, who are in general au extremely well educati pectable class, do all the bi connected with the making up of prescriptions, vend;" paring medicines ; but they* are not : Utiouers as in England, although many vi them are surgeons. APOTHE'CIA. Sec Lichens. APOTHE'OSIS, deification, or the raising of a mortal to the rank of a god (Gr. theot). Erom the polytheistic point of view there is nothing monstrous in this idea ; on the contrary, it is quite natural, and a necessary part of the system. Among heathens -.'1 generally, and especially among the Romans, every departed spirit became a deity (see Maxes) ; ' and as it was common for children to worship (privately) the manes of their father-, so was it natural for divine honours to be publl ' / paid to a deceased emperor, who was regarded as the parent of his country.' (8ee Smith , /. alt j .) At tie ' it was called, of a Roman emperor, the body was burnt on a funeral pile, and as the fire ascended, an eagle was let loose to mount into the sky, carrying, as was believed, the soul of the emperor from earth to Many medals are found with the word conxecratio surrounding an altar, with tire on it, and an eagle rising into the air. APPALACHIANS, the general appellation of the great mountain-system— called also the Alleghanies — which stretches from the interior ,,f Maine to tile borders of Alabama, its distance from the sea gradually ranging between al I 100 miles in the north, and about 300 in r > iking generally, this chain may be regardi d as the parent of the Atlantic rivers of the ites on the on the other of the southern tributaries of the St Lawrence, and of the eastern feeders of the Mississippi: it is not, however, the actual lied during its entire length, for it is crossed by the Connecticut, the Hudson, and the Delaware, just as the Himalayas are pierced by the Ganges, and the Andes by the Amazon. The chain, in fact, consists of several ranges generally parallel to each other, which, along with the intermediate valleys that occupy two-thirds of the breadth, form a belt 100 miles wide— its multiform chai ■. developing itself only to the west and south of the Hudson. To take the chief ridges by name, and to begin from the north : the White Hills of Ni -. Hampshire present the loftiest elevations, Moosehillock and Washington being respectively I 6634 feet above the sea. Next in order, the Green Mountains, which, t . lmost cover Vermont, attain, in Killington Peak, a height of 31124 feet; then come tlie B on the east of the Hudson, so striking an object to the voyagers on its waters ; beyond that river, again, we find the Catskill Mountains, which, though of inconsiderable length, contain two eminences — Round Top and High Peak — respectivi ly of 3804 and 371S feet; while, on a terrace of another member of the group, Mountain House, a favourite refuge from its of summer, is ]>erched 2500 feet above the level of the' Hudson. Proceeding onward Kittatinnies extend from the north of New ' as far as Virginia; while nearer to the sea, the Blue lung from .-' me parallel down to North Carolina, or rather below it, is crowned, within the limits of Virginia, by the Peaks of I at an altitude somewhat greater than that of any point between themsc h i i and New Hampshire. . there lie. more to the westward, the All - proper in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and I nilieiland Mountains on the cast border of Kentucky and Tennessee. ill these elc\ one at all approaches the limit of perpetual snow. Y, t France, while ling with England in North America, reg as a wall that w v to exclude her rival from tb 151 Lawrence and the .. however, has virtually levelled the supposed barrier from end to end. Through Maine. New Hampshire, and Vermont runs a railway from Portland to Canada ; by canal or by railway, or even by both abreast, New York has i tie waters of the St Lawrence on at least four principal points between Montreal in tl. and Buffalo in the west ; Pennsylvania has carried to I.ACHIANS. Pittsburg a railway of 248 miles from Hani nnd a canal of 312 miles from Columbia ; while, TOth f ■ ception of little Delaware ooaet have d .'i the A. Hinds in cii.il and iron, gifts of nature to industrious man, which in .ill .ve done so much for civilisation, and which, in our own age, have, with tho aid of steam, more 1 that they had done before: and it is a curious instance of the adaptation of the two worlds to each other, that, while the Spaniard .11 the south, the gigantic counterparts of the central plateau of his own romantic hind, the Englishman, in the north, stumbled, as it v. those same elements of almost creative energy which, within two centuries, were to be so instrumental in placing the daughter next to the mother amon nations of the earth. As an evidence of the actual value of the coal and iron of the A., Pennsylvania— when, hitherto, they have been chiefly found — has recently made more rapid strides than any other state of the Union, having, between the census of 1840 and that of 1850, outstripped in growth of population the >usly more progressive states of Ohio and New York. Nor are iron and coal the only valuable products of the A. To say nothing of the vail many of them as fertile as they are lovely — which separate the parallel ranges from each other, tie mountains themselves yield limestone, marble, slate, building-stone, copper, zinc, chrom a, Geology. — During the Azoic and Palaeozoic periods of the earth's geological history, the district now occupied by the A. was a level plain. These moun- tains date their origin from a period subsequent to the Carboniferous epoch. The Coal measures are the newest upturned bc(U associated with the Appala- chian range ; and as the stratified rocks, with few ex- ceptions, are laid down horizontally, these strata must owe their inclined position to the dislocating agency which elevated the mountains; they, consequently, supply a date anterior to its activity. At the base of the A., on their eastern side, there are a series of red sandstone beds, unconformable to the upturned strata, and occupying the valleys in their original horizontal ity, thus evidently unaffected by tli rupting agency which must have been active prior to their deposition. These beds have been P by geologists to different ages. That they are Old Red Sandstone, as conjectured by Maelure and others, is now universally denied. Hitchcock's supposition that they were Permian, is also considered as refer- ring them to too remote a geological age. W. 1 '•■ Rogers considered them first as members of the Triassic period ; but has since, from evidence adduced from the contained organic remains, shewn reason for relating them to the beginning of the Jurassic period. We thus obtain two grand lit dates — the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods — within which tho A. must have been formed. There are grounds for being even more specific, and referring the period of the dislocating agency to that immediately subsequent to the Carboniferous, repre- I in the stratified rocks of other districts by the Permian series; for the older upturned rocks had not only been ruptured and plicated, but also denuded into the various shapes they now present, before the horizontal rocks were deposited. The late Professor II. t>. Sogers, after years of persevering and devoted study, enunciated a theory of mountain formation based on his examination of the A., which not only explains their structure, but admits of a more or less complete application to the mountain systems of tho world. The many proposed theories of mountain elevation are based upon assumptions which, unfortunately, are not true ; but that is an unimportant matter to the majority of OUT ■ and one, BBVI by the inventors i who allow them- l captive 1 notions on fit Thus, to suppose that mouni levated like in ti of i I matter, is to give to a fluid functions iie properties. Soal o the supposition that the igneous .. . led as solid wi ■ as, separating and lifting the crust, is opposed to the fact, that no b . but generally the closest adhesion, t the line of contact of the igneous and strati- Equally fatal objections can !»• adduced the other theories. Professor Rogers observ- ing that the A. were formed of a series of enormous and comparing this appearance with other d districts, especially in Belgium and Britain, enunciated a theory of their structure, of which the following is a condensed view. irbed strata have a wave-like arrangement, p being in curved, and never in straight planes; and in extensive areas the varying angles of dip exhibit - t more wide regular curves. These undulations are in the form of long parallel waves, their paral- 1 icing in the line of the general trend of the part of the mountain system to which they 1 When different grades of magnitude, as n length, height, and amplitude, occur, the w. :me grade are parallel while the dil grades are not necessarily so. The waves assume three different forms, which are characterised as— Appalachian Range. Symmetrical flexures (a), equally steep on the two slopes; normal flexures (//), having an excess of incurvation on the one side compared with the other; and folded flexures (c), or those with a doubling under of their more incurved slopes, and among which the steepest slopes are generally directed to the same quarters. These three forms, representing different gradations in the flexure, are regular in their succession in disturbed regions, the order being the same as in the diagram — that is, when we start from the most disturbed side, wo go from the folded waves to the normal ones, and from these to the symmetrical ; and in the same order, the waves, as they recede from the folded side, become progressively wider apart and flatter. Resting on these facts, Professor Rogers advanced his view of the s truct u re •i a in the following words : 'The wave-like structure of undulated belts of the earth's crust, is attributed to an actual pulsation in the fluid matter beneath the crust, propagated in the manner of great waves of translation from enormous ruptures occasioned by the tension of elastic matter. The forms of the waves, the close plication of the strata, and the permanent tracing of the flexures, are ascribed to the combination of an undulating and a tangential movement, accompanied by an injection of igneous veins and dikes into the rents occasioned by the bendings. This oscillation of the cnist, pro- ducing an actual floating forward of the rocky part, has been, it is conceived, of the nature of that pul- sation which attends all great earthquakes at tho ' day.' This theory having originated as an explanation of the phenomena of the A., is easy of application to these mountains. They are composed of a series of APPAL ACHICOLA- APPARITIONS. parallel waves, having a general direction similar to the coast-line of the Atlantic Ocean. The line of maximum disturbance is on their eastern limits ; consequently, the folded flexures, with the inversion of their steep sides, are chiefly confined to the great Appalachian valley, and the Atlantic slopes south of it. The flexures of this type impart a prevailing south- east dip to the whole outcrop; their number, and the excessive difficulty of detecting and continuously tracing them, frustrates every attempt at mapping them individually. The flexures of the second type, which curve more rapidly on the one side than on the other, prevail wherever the forces that disturbed the crust were neither excessively intense nor very It is the characteristic form everywhere between the great Appalachian valley and the Alleghany Mountains. It distinguishes not only larger waves which separate the coal — con- taining strata cast of the Susquehanna into special basins — but the minor undulations which throw the coal measures of these basins into groups of lesser saddles and troughs. Undulations of the first or symmetrical type occur beyond the Alleghany Mountains, where two groups of them may be ttished: the one subdividing the bituminous coal-field, with its five very broad waves, into six successive basins ; the other, composed of four equidistant and very straight undulations, traversing parts of Cambria, Indiana, Somerset, and Fayette counties. The strata thus elevated, and forming the A., | belong entirely to the oldest or Pakeozoic division of the fossiliferous rocks. Metamorphic rocks, consist- ins of felspathic, hornblendic, and micaceous gneiss, i and mica-slate, exist on the eastern base of these j mountains, but have not been noticed as forming ! part of the plicated strata of the A. Extensive for- mations of talcose and micaceous slates, indurated clay-slates, and chloritic and stcatitic slates, exist in the more disturbed districts. These are highly metamorphosed members of the older fossiliferous, and must not be confounded with, though they so much resemble, the azoic metamorphic rocks. The Palaeozoic rock3 constitute a vast succession of fossiliferous strata, commencing with the lowest deposits resting on the Metamorphic rocks, and ter- minating with the highest of the Coal strata. Their ate thickness, as measured in Pennsylvania, amounts to 35,000 feet. While exhibiting a remark- able variety of mineral character, they may be classed under the three great divisions of sedimentary rocks — viz., sandstones, slates, and limestones. Intercalated with them, as subordinate layers, there occur deposits of coal, chert, and iron ore. They are all more or less fossiliferous. Coal Measures. — The character of the rocks of the Appalachian district of North America indicates that during the Carboniferous epoch an immense continent 1 on the present site of the Atlantic, which supplied materials for the sandstone and slate. It seems to have had an extensive shallow marshy shore, of such a character as to be able to support the vegetation, which has become, in the com ages, converted into coal. The coal-fields to the far west of the A., in Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and ni, have been connected with the Appalachian coal formation, which includes all the detached basins, both anthracitic and semi-bituminous, of the mountain chain of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, and also the vast bituminous trough lying to the north-west in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. On the eastern slope of the A., the coal, from its proximity to the region of greatest disturbance, has lost nearly all its volatile constituents, and ia con- verted into hard shining anthracite (q. v.). In the I troughs to the westward of the great Appalachian valley, where the forces that disturbed the crust were not so intense, the coal has not parted with such a large proportion of volatile matter, but still is so much altered as to be characterised as semi-anthra- cite. Both the anthracite and semi-anthracite are extensively mined for economical purposes, but their extent as well as their value is of little importance compared with the enormous Appalachian bituminous coal-field. From Northern Pennsylvania to middle Alabama, its length is about 875 miles, and its greatest breadth between Southern Pennsylvania and N orthern Ohio is about 180 miles; it covers an area of 56,000 square miles, and is almost the largest expanse of coal measures in the world A single coal-seam in this field has been traced over an extent of country •J-2"> miles long by 100 broad, shewing a superficial area of 14,000 square miles. The actual .1 workable seams in the deepest part of this basin is estimated at 40 feet ; but when the amount of denu- dation of the upper measures over large districts is taken into account, the average depth of the entire field cannot be more than 25 feet Taking this as the thickness, the amount of coal in this great coal- field would be 1,387,500,000,000 tons. When this is compared with the estimated quantity of coal in the British coal-fields, viz., 190,000,000,000 tons, some conception may be formed of the enormous ■ of coal existing in this district of North America. JfrfoZ*.— Extensive beds of magnetic, hematitic, and fossiliferous iron ores occur in many of the for- mations of the A., from the lov. iorphic gneiss to the highest coal-measures. Iron ore is extensively wrought in Pennsylvania and Ohio, large quantities of the anthracite being used in the smelting furnaces. Veins of lead occur in the Metamorphic rocks, rarely stretching up into the red slate. In the Palaeozoic beds, veins of • and nickel occur in sufficient quantity to be wrought APPALACHICO'LA, a river of the United States, rising in Georgia, and flowing tl Florida into the Gulf of Mexico, or rather into a bay that bears its own name. Beckoning from its remotest sources, the head waters of the Chata- hooche, the A. is about 400 miles long, being navig- able for boats throughout nearly its entire course. It is, however, only at the junction of the Chata- hooche with the Flint that the name of A. is applied to the stream ; and up to this point, a stretch of about 70 miles, there is a sufficient depth of water for steam-navigation ; wliile the tides also ascend for about two-thirds of the distance. — A. is also a seaport at the mouth of the stream above mentioned. Here is shipped the produce of the river-basin, consisting chiefly of large quantities of cotton. APPA'KENT. This term is used to express a number of important distinctions, especially in astronomy. The A. magnitude of a heavenly body is the angle formed by two lines drawn from the ends of its diameter to the spectator's eye ; this obviously depends upon the distance of the body, as well as upon its real magnitude. A planet seen from the surface of the earth seems lower than if seen from the centre of the earth — the former is its A. altitude, the latter its real. A. noon is when the sun is on the meridian ; true or mean noon is the time when the Bun would be on the meridian if his motion in the heavens were uniform and parallel to the equator. See Equation of Time. The daily and annual motions of the sun in the heavens are both A. motions, caused by two real motions of the earth. APPARITIONS. The belief that the spirits of the departed are occasionally presented to the sight of the living, has existed in all ages and countries, and usually declines only when a people have APPARITIOXS_.\l'l'i:\L. advanced considerably in the knowledge of physical conditions and laws. Not that A. then < be n ported - fur this is far but that the mure intelligent part <>f the community are then usually able to explain away the alleged occurrence in some way satisfactory to them not involving the admission of a possible projection of a spirit upon the living sense. Nothing is more certain than that there are con- ditions of the body whi o appearanc as occur to us in uneasy dreams, become sensible to the waking vision. One of these conditions is that of the patient under the disease of delirium tn who not only hears ideal enemies plotting against his life in adjacent rooms or behind thinks ho sees them preparing to do him mi and has 1 n known to jump overboard of a into the sea, in order to i scape tli" danger. In such excitements it is, tho different causes, that an intending murderer thinks he hears the prince of fall " opting him on to cr '< ore him r of the mind' wherewith to end the 1 i I victim. There are also instances of spectral illusions traceable to a simply disordered state of the dig . M. JCicolai, an eminent bookseller in Berlin, fi II, in the early part of the year 1791, in1 ion of spirits, and in that condition neglected 8 Ci ig which he had been ae ustomed to observe. The consequence was bis becoming liable for some d as of phan- tasmata or spectra] figures, which moved and acted him, nay, even spoke to, ai He was fortunately able, not merely to coolly oba rve the phenomena, but to describe them in an paper which he presented to the Philo Society of Berlin. This case may be Baid to have I the basis of a theory of A., advanced by Dr 1'. trier, Dr Hibbert, and others, amounting to this, that they are all to be accounted f"i' by peculiar conditions of the organism of the individual sensible of them. There is certainly a large class of cases which fall readily under this explanatio i ; but, if we are to accept the whole that have been, on more or less good authority, reported, it must be admitto a theory of a more comprehensive nature is still required iu order to satisfy the didy cautious inquirer. I.i t us take, for instance, an apparition story which Dr Hibbert owns to be one of the best authenticated on record. It was thus written down in 1662 by the Bishop of Gloucester, from tie' recital "i tie young lady's father: 'Sir Charles Lee, by his first lady, had only one daughter, of which Bhe i childbirth; and when she was dead, her sister, tin Lady Everard, desired to have the education of tin child; and she was by her very well, educated, till she was marriageable, and a match was eon for her with Sir William Perkins, but ws prevented in an extraordinary manner. Upon a Thursday night, she thinking she saw a light m her chamber after she was in bed, knocked for her maid, who presently came to her, and she asked why she left a candle burning 'in her chamber. Tli said slu' hit none, and there was none but what she had brought with her at that time. Then she said it was the lire ; but that, her maid told her, was quite out ; and she said she believed it was only a dream : : iid it might lie so. and composed herself again to sleep. But about two of the clock sin- was awakened again, and saw the apparition of a little woman between her curtain and her pillow, who told her she was her mother, that she was happy, and that by twelve of the clock that day Bhe shoidd be with her. Whereupon she kuocke :.l for her maid, called for her clothes, and whl I. went into her closet, and came not out again till nine, aud then brought out with her a 1. to her father: brought it to her aunt, tie- Lady Everard, told her what had happened, and ! that as soon as she was dead, it might be sent to him. The lady thought she was suddenly fallen mad, and thereupon sent suddenly away to Chelmsford for a phj ician and butj eon, who both : , ; l .lit the pi' 1 . an i old • no indication of what the lady imagined, or of any sition of her body; notwithstanding the lady let blood, which was done accordingly. And when the young woman had patiently let them do what they would with hi r, Jed that the chaplain might be called to read prayers; and when prayers were ended, she took her guitar and psalm-book, and sat down upon a chair i played and sung so melodiously and admirably, that her mu ic-maater, who was then dmired at it. And near the stroke of twelve, and sate herself down in a gnat chair with arms, and presently fetching a sta ;1 iiing or two, immediately expired, and was olycold, much wondered at by the physician and surgeon. She died at Waltham in Essex, three miles from Chelmsford, and the letter was sent to Sir Charles at his house in Warwickshire, but he i afflicted with the death of his daughter, that he came not till she was buried; but when he came, he caused her to be taken up, and to be buried with other at Edmonton, as she desired iu her Letter.' Dr Hibbert, in treating of this case, concludes that the young lady was consumptive and about to die, and ill this diseased frame of body became the I of an illusion; but these are assumptions directly contrary to what the record bears, and there is, after i IL the : in til r circumstance to be accounted for, that the young lady's death occurred exactly at the i pred -I'd. To a similar purport is the ca oi the wife of Dr Donne, related By Izaak Walton. Donne left his v, ifo pr. ji.iut. in London, ami Wi at - i Hubert Drury to Paris. Two days after arriving there, he stated to Drury that he had had a . wife walking through Ins room, with her hair hanging over her shoulders, and a deail child in her arms. So impressed were they by the incident that thry immediately sent a mi i nj er to Loudon to inquire regarding Mrs Donne's health. The intelligi ace brought by the man was, that she had brought to l«-d of a dead child at the hour her husband thought he had seen her in Paris. In this case, too, if the requisite disordered state of Dr i were granted, the coincidence of the distant event in its i articulars, and in point of time, would remain unaccounted for by Dr Hibbert's theory. That there is an abundance of such cases reported, will not be disputed, in what direction speculation regarding them is to move, if the insufficiency of Dr Hibbert's theory be acknowledged, will probably I on the general tendency of the movements of science. If psychological study were more in repute, and the phenomena of dreaming in particular wen diligently examined, there might be a hope of a satisfactory theory of what are called A . ere the world was many years older. APPEA'L, in the civil procedure of courts of justice, signifies the removal of a suit from one court or judge to another and higher court or judge, in order that the latter may examine the validity of the former's judgment, either affirming or reversing, altering or varying the judgment. A., however, is not a technical term in the procedure of the ish and Irish common law courts. For many years past, a reuonstitution of the English courts of APPEAL. law ami equity lias been impending, Imt wo may notice the present divisions hitherto oh erved in this matter of appeal, for whatever the changes may be, they will 1"- chiefly nominal, and the subject ran be traced under the new nun 1. In the Courts of Equity (or of Chancery), where fjhere is an A. from the judgment of the Ma ter of the Bolls, and from the Vice-chancellors to the Lord Chancellor himself, sitting alone, or concur- rently with him, to the Lords Justices of A. in Chancery, or, if necessary, to the full court, consist- ing of the Lord Chancellor and of the two Lords Ju cea sitting together, and presided over by the former. The jud ment may also, if enrolled, be appealed direct to the House of Lords, without brou ii t be intermediate court. 2. In the Courts of Bankruptcy, the judgments of which may be appealed from now directly to the Court of A. in Chancery, and thereafter to the House of Lords, under certain restrictions. 3. Tii the Court of Probate, there is an A. to the House of Lords, with leave of the court. In the procedure of this tribunal there is also an A. from the county court, where such court has juris- dirtion, to the Court of Probate itself, whose j . nt is final. 4. In the Court of Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, the decision of the Judge Ordinary, sitting alone, may be appealed to the fidl court, whose judgment is final. But in the case of a decree dissolving a marriage, there may be an A. to the House of Lords. 5. In the Admiralty Courts there is an A. to the Privy-council ; but when the Admiralty jurisdiction i in that of the Court of Probate, under section 10 of the 2(1 and 21 Vict. c. 77, the course of A. will probably follow that prescribed for the latter tribu- nal, and the Lords will deprive the l'rivy-council of this appellate jurisdiction. (i. There is also an A. to the l'rivy-council from the following courts and matters : from the courts of India and from the colonial courts generally; and such A. includes the sentences, not only of courts of primary jurisdiction, but also of Courts of A. in tlm colonies ; * from the Lord Chancellor in matters of lunacy or idiocy ; in applications to prolong the term of patents for new inventions; and in making orders in certain cases relative to copyright, pur- suant to the provisions of the copyright acts. Practically, however, as we are told by Mr .Stephen in his Commentaries, all judicial authority of the Privy-council is now exercised by a c privy-councillors, called the Judicial Committee of the Privy-council ; who hear the allegations and proofs, and make their report to Her Majesty in I. by whom the judgment is finally given. In the practice of the common law courts of ml — that is, the Court of Queen's Bench, the Court of Common Pleas, and the Court of Exchequer, or, is is put by Lord Coke, any court whose pro- ceedings are regulated by the common law — the ure by way of A. is. as we stated at the i' ining of this article, technically not so called, but is also called error, the party complaining * As to colonial causes, we arc informed by Blackstonc that the Jurisdiction of the l'rivy-council is * both original and nppellate. Whenever a question arises between two provinces out of tlio realm, as concerning the extent of their charters nml the like, the king in his council exercises original jurisdic- tion therein, upon the principles of feudal sovereignty. And u hie wise, when any person claims an island or a province, in the nature of a feudal principality, by grant from the Ling or his ancestors, the determination of that right belongs to the king (or queen) in council, as was the case of the Derby, with regard to the Isle of Man, in the reign of Queen i etb, and the Karl of Cardigan and others, as representa- tives of the lJuUo of Montague, with relation to the Island of St Vincent, in 17114.' of the judgment being called the plaintiff in error, instead of appellant, and his opponent, the defendant in error, instead of respondent Formerly, the pro- ceedings commenced by suing out a writ of error first to a court of intermediate A., called the Court of Exchequer Chamber, and afterwards by a further writ of error to the House of Lords. Put by the common-law procedure act of 1S52 (15 and 16 Vict. c. 7G, 8. 148), writs of error are abolished, and the mode of review regulated by legal forms which need ad i>e hen- explained, Error also lis to the Queen's Bench in criminal Cases, when, after judgment, it is considered that tie- indictment is bad in substance, or that the judgment is erroneous, or in respect of any other substantial defect . o i the i E the record. A court called tii" Court for Crown Cases i:. lerved, • ing of five judges, disposes ol ease i where tie or court had some doubt at tie- tied as i law. And there is also practically an appeal to a superior court from all magistral points of law. As to redress by way of A. and error against the judgments in the courts of Inland, the procedure is so similar to that employed with respect to the English courts, that we need not here outer into particulars ou the subject. We may simply remark, generally, that the Irish Chancellor, sitting does not appear to exercise any appellate control over courts inferior to his own, such as that possessed by the Chancellor in England ; for, according to the Irish practice, the A., for instance, from the Master of the Bolls, and in the case of proceedings in bankruptcy, is not to the Chancellor himself alone, but to the Court of A. in Chancery, in which tin' Chancellor and a Lord Justice of A. are the appointed judges; and which Court of A. like wsthe Chancellor's own individual judgments. The judg- ments of this Court of A. itself, however, may after- wards l>e reviewed on A. by the House of Lord In criminal procedure, the same act (11 and 12 Vict. c. 7S) applies to Ireland as well as to England. In the procedure of the Scotch courts, there are Mill us appeals in the practice of the sheriff or county courts, and in the proceedings in bankruptcy ; and the House of Lords reviews the judgments of the Court of Session, the supreme civil court of the country, and which tribunal, indeed, it may be Said, Supplies the House with a large portion of its judicial business. This circumstan ! [Uently been remarked on as proving a litigious dispo on the part of the Scotch ; but perhaps I number of Seoteh appeals over English and Irish may be more fairly said to be occasioned by a natural feeling on the part ol in Scotland, that there is a better chance of a nice and critical examination of the judgments appealed against by such judges as pi m tile House of l.o A . who are all law vers of the greatest l earning and eminence, and whose legal and judicial minds have been formed wider a different and larger sy-; jurisprudence and procedure than prevails in land, than there would be to a tribunal com entirely, or for the most part, of Scotch lav. Indeed, it maybe said.th.it although the judicial staff of the House of Lords are chiefly English law- yers, tho system of A. to their lordships from the Scotch courts works extremely well, and gives entire satisfaction to the Scotch people. Some of tb valuable elucidations of the peculiar princip! Scotch law are to be found in the judgments in Scotch appeals by the chancellors and other law lords who. since the union with Scotland, have administered the jurisdiction of the House in the last resort, but who were never in a Scotch court, and, until called upou to discharge such responsible 32S APrF.XZELL-ArPIANUS. functions, had probably never opened a Scotch law-bonk. There is no A. to the House of Lords from Scotland in criminal cases, nor does the above-mentioned act— 1 1 and IS Vict c. 7S, creating a court of criminal A. for ad and Ireland — extend to Scotland. But the i lourt of Justiciary thi re, which is the supreme criminal tribunal, and is composed of seven of the Court of Session, presided over by the Lard Justice General, or Lord President, as lie is wise called, reviews the procedure of all the criminal courts of the country (excepting where such jurisdic- tion is expressly excluded by statute) ; and it is believed that no inconvenience is experienced in consequence of there being no other or further A. from the sentences of these courts. APPENZELL (from AWxUia Oetto), a canton in the north-east <>f Switzerland. Area, 1S2 square miles. Pop. (ls;oi i;i >.<;:;:>. It is divided into two districts — Inuerrhoden and Ausserrhoden, the for- mer of which is peopled by Protestants, the latter by Koman Catholics, and noted for its dense population. The surface is mountainous, especially in the south, where Mont Sen tis attains an elevation of S232 feet. The chief river is the Bittern, which flows through the centre of the canton. A. holds the 13th place in the Swiss confederacy, and furnishes 972 soldiers to the national army. The inhabitants arc chiefly employed in agriculture, cattle-keeping, cotton manufacture -. and i m broidery. They are fond of 1 1 g, music, and athletic exercises, and have the reputatii i being first-rate marksmen. Appenzell, the capital of the canton of the same name, is situated on the left bank of the Sittern, in lat 47° 29" N., and long. 9° 24' E. Pop. 3686. The town is ill built, and has only a small trade in linens. The other towns are xrogen (with a pop. of 2912, and manufactures of linen and muslin), Herisan, &c. APPERLEY, Charles James, the 'Nimrod' of the Qui ■ to, is a writer who deserves men- tion, if not from the intrinsic importance of the subjects on which he exercised his pen, at least from the perfection he attained in the department to which he confined himself. He was the son of a Welsh country gentleman, and was born in Denbigh- shire in 1777. His education at Rugby stimulated his love of field-sports more than his love of the classics. At the age of 24. he married, and want to reside at Hilton Hall, in Warwickshire, whei devoted his energies as exclusively to the cha as the great Nimrod himself could have done. He hunted everywhere in Great Britain. In 1821, he began to contribute to the Sporting Magazine. His clever, gossiping articles were so much relished, that in two years that periodical doubled its circu- lation. The proprietor, Mr Pittman, was of course highly gratified. He remunerated Mr A. hand- somely, kept a stud of hunters for him, and paid the expenses of his sporting tours ; but ' Nimrod ' seems to have been of rather expensive habits, and to have occasionally required an advance of money from his employer. When Mr Pittman died, his relatives entered into a lawsuit with the 'mighty hunter,' for the recovery of tliis money. Nimrod, however, prudently transferred himself to France, where he chiefly resided during the rest of his life. He died on the 19th of May 1843. His best writ- ings are The C/iase, tlte Turf, and Oie Jload, which appeared in the Quarterly Review (1827). APPERT, Ben.iamin Nicolas Marie, a French philanthropist, was bom in Paris, September 10, 1797. He began his course in 1S1G by introducing into several schools a system of mutual instruction, and, in 1820, founded and conducted gratuitously a MM school for the prisoners at Montaigu. Being SUB- i of having aided the escape of tw< U nonfilled in the prison of La Force, he made good use of his opportunities of becoming acquainted with the moral and physical circumstances of prisoners. After his liberation, he prosecuted his benevolent plans with renewed zeal, and undertook a journey through the whole of France, in 1825, to inspect schools, prisons, hospitals, Jto, The results were given in his Journal After the July revolution, he was employed by Louis Philippe to superintend the measures taken for the relief of the indigent classes. In his travels, he visited Belgium, Prussia, Austria, Saxony, and Bavaria, and gave the results of his observations on tnagement of schools, hospitals, prisons, &c, in several works. He also wrote a work entitled : , la i 'our dv Boi Louit 1 and, in his Conferences contre le Systime & rongly d the system of solitary confinement. Though one-sided in some of his views, A. is a sincere, warm-hearted, and practical philanthropist. APPERT, FRANCOIS, a French technologist, the inventor of a method of preserving meat, vegct and other articles of food without the use of salt or other chemical application. This method is fully described in his work L'Art de Conserver tovl>* let Anvmaletet Vegetates (4th edition, Paris, 1S31). Si e ANHSKPTIC. A'PPETITE. See Hunger and Thirst. APPIA'NI, Andrea, styled in his day 'the Painter of the Graces,' was born at Milan, May 2.'(, 1754. His poverty compelled him to gain a sul ence by decorative painting ; but in the course of his travels, he studied the works of great masters, and formed for himself an original style, almost rivalling that of Correggio. At Rome, he devoted his attenl ion to the frescoes of Raphael, and made such progress, that he soon excelled all living artists in ti painting. The best evidences of his genius are found in the cupola of the church of Sta. Maria di ?, ' I o at Milan; and ill the frescoes with which he decorated the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand in 1795. Napoleon I. appointed him court-painter. In return, he executed portraits of the French emperor and several of his generals. His most beautiful frescoes are the paintings on the ceilings of the palace of Milan, which consist of allegorical illustrations of Napoleon's career; and Apollo with thi Muses in the Villa Bonaparte. Almost all the palaces in Italy contain frescoes by A. His fini t oil-painting is Rinaldo in the garden of Armida. The fall of his patron, Napoleon 1., left A. in indigent circumstances. He died November 8, 1S17. APPIA'NUS, a native of Alexandria, who flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He was author of a Roman history, in twenty-four books, of which only eleven are extant. It was not remarkable for anything except the plan on which it was written. Instead of proceeding to exhibit chronologically the growth of the empire, from its rude beginning on the Palatine Hill, to the period when its power held the whole world in awe, which is at once the popular and the philoi method, he divided his work into ethnographic sections, recording separately the history of each nation up to the time of its conquest by the Romans. First in order were the books devoted to the old Italian tribes, and afterwards followed the history of Sicily, Spain, Hannibal's wars, Libya, Carthage, and Numidia, Macedonia. Greece Proper and its colonies, Syria, Parthia, the Mithridatic war, the civil wars, and the imperial wars in Illyria and Arabia. As a historian, A. is a mere compder, and not very accu- rate in his compilation. His geographical knowledge, APPIAN WAY— APPLE. in particular, is singularly deficient, considering, the age in which he lived. One specimen of his blunders will suffice : in his section on Spain, lie states that it takes only half a day to sail from .Spain to Britain. The best edition of A. is that of Schweighaiiser, Leipsic, 1785, in 3 vols. A'PPIAX WAY (Lat. Via Appia), well named by an ancient writer Regina Viarum (the queen of roads), was formed, in part at least, by Appius Claudius Caucus, while he was censor (313 B.C.). It is the oldest and most celebrated of all the Roman roads. It led from the Porta Capena at Rome in a southerly direction to Capua, passing i' Three Taverns, Appii Forum, Terracina, &c. Sub- sequently, it was carried on to Beneventum, Taren- tum, and thence to Brundusinm. It had an admir- ibstructure or foundation, from which all the loose sod had been carefully removed. Above this were various strata cemented with lime; and, lastly, came the pavement, consisting of large hard hexa- gonal blocks of stone, composed principally of basaltic lava, and jointed together with great nicety, so as to appear one smooth mass. The remains of it are still visible, especially at Terracina. The cost must have been enormous, for the natural obstruc- tions are great. Bocks had to be cut through, valleys filled up, ravines bridged, and swamps embanked. A'PPIUS CLAU'DItXS CEASSUS, a Roman decemvir (451—449 b. a). While the other decemviri were engaged in repelling an incursion made by the Si i bines, A. C. and his colleague Oppius remained in 1 tome, with two legions to maintain their authority. Meanwhile, A. C. had been smitten by the beauty of Virginia, daughter of a respected plebeian named Lucius Virginias, who was abroad with the army. By force and stratagem, representing that she was the born slave of Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, A. C. gained possession of the maid. His design was penetrated by Icilius, who was betrothed to Virginia, and who, aided by Numitorius, her uncle, threatened ,o an insurrection against the decemviri. Virginias, hurriedly recalled from the army by his friends, appeared and claimed his daughter; but, after another mock-trial, she was again adjudged to be the property of Marcus Claudius. To save his daughter from dishonour, the unhappy father seized a knife and slew her. The popular indignation excited by the case was headed by the senators Valerius and Horatius, who hated the decemvirate. The army returned to Koine with Virginius, who had carried the news to them, and the decemviri were deposed. A. 0. died in prison by his own hand (as Livy states), or was strangled by order of tlie tribunes ; his colleague, Oppius, committed suicide ; and Marcus Claudius was banished. The Claudia Gens (see Gexs) was one of the most numerous and important of the patrician tribes or clans of Rome ; and besides the sons and grandsons of the decemvir, , there were numerous persons of distinction who bore the name of Appius. A' PPLB [Pyrin main,'!. For the generic character, see Pvnus). This well-known fruit has been very lltiva ed, and by that means it has been very improved. It was extensively colt by the Romans, by whom, probably, it was intro- duced into Britain. The wild A., or Ci:AH-tree. a native of Britain, and very generally found in rate climates of the northern hemisphere, is a rather small and often somewhat stunted-looking tree, with austere, uneatable fruit, yet it is the parent of all. or almost all the varieties of apple so mu< 1 1 for the dessert The A. -tree, even in a cultivated state, is seldom more than 30—40 feet high. It has a large round head ; the leaves are broadly ovate, much longer than the- petioles, woolly beneath, acute, crenate, and provided with glands ; its flowers are always produced, 3— C together, in sessile umbels, and are large, white, rose-coloured externally, and fragrant. The fruit is roundish, or narrowest towards the apex, with a depression at each end, generally green, bat also frequently yellow, light red, dark red, streaked, sometimes even almost black, with the rind sometimes downy, sometimes glabrous, sometimes thickish, and sometimes very thin and transparent, varying in size from that of a walnut to that of a small child's head — the taste more or less aromatic, sweet, or subacid. It is produced on spurs, which spring from branchlets of two or more years l r >wt h, and continue to bear for a series of years. The fruit of the A. is, with regard to its structure, styled by botanists 3,pome (q. v.). The eatable part is what is botanically termed the mesocarp (see I'ki ii), which, in its first development, enlarges with the calyx, the summit of the fruit being crowned at last by the dried 5-partcd limb of the calyx ; the i udocarp being, when ripe, cartilaginous, and containing in its cells hick do not correspond with them in size, but are so free as often to rattle when it is shaken. The A. is now one of the most widely diffused of fruit-trees, and in the estimation of many, is the most valuable of alL It succeeds best in the colder parts of the temperate zone. It is, however, to be met with on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, in Arabia, Persia, the West Indies, &c., but there it^ fruit is as small and worthless as in high northern latitudes. The varieties in cultivation are extremely numerous. They have been classified with great care by recent German writers, by whom the classifica- tion and description of apples, pears, and similar fruits, has been treated as a sort of science, and dignified by the name of Pomology. Metzger, in his descrip- tion of the pomaceous fruits of Southern Germany, describes 89 different kinds of A., all of which are constant, besides sub-varieties. New varieties are continually produced ; and as they are chielly preserved and propagated by grafting — although Apple-blossom. some of them also grow by layers and cuttings— the iually die out. The costanl, from which red the n ostard- mongers, is no longer known. Many varieties are it id by the (Wliins, and I Sams kinds, not ap] for the dessert, are in 1 and others still more acid or austere ■ manufacture The A. is grown in Britain either as a standard, APrLE OF SODOM— APPOINTMENT. an espalier, or a wall-tree, and id variously I It i> i ifted on A. or arab-stocks, but tiawthorn-stoi ks, and is in this way I into hed ! . dwarf I . called the /' :. (in which to graft in order to produce dwarf- , and trees thus dwarfed are often very i tive when little larger than currant or go. bushes. Some of the varieties of ■ than others, and are therefore to 1 cold or exposed situations. Some of the finest kinds succeed well only when the soil and climate are good. Si.nn 1 kinds are much earlier than others, both in flowering and ripening. Thew I of the v bard, durable, and fine- grained. The crab is often planted both as an orna- mental tree and for the sake of its w I. The bark ■is a yellow dye. As a fruit-tree, the A. requires a fertile S"il and sheltered situation. The various uses of the fruit — for the dessert, for b preserving, making jelly, Ac., as well as for making the fermented liquor called eider -are sufficiently well known. Vinegar is also made from it ; and sometimes a kind of spirit, especially in Switzerland -w.abia. It contains ' : ; ■'. which is extracted for medicinal purposes.— The fermented juice of the ('rah A. is called Verjuice. It i- used m cookery, and sometimes medicinally ; also for th purifying of wax Apples are an important article immense, Great quantities are imported into Britain, chiefly from France, Canada, and the northern parts of the United States. Tic A better than most kinds of fruit. B or Biffins are apples slowly dried in ;' uveas, and occasionally pressed till they become soft and flat. They are prepared in great in Norfolk. The Siberian Cit.vn is perhaps the parent, by hybridisation or otherwise, of some of thi A. now in cultivation. Two species partake this nation, both natives i ria, and frequent in gardens in Britain, Pyru of Linnasus, anl Pyrua of Willdenow, which, however, scarcely differ, except that in the former the sepals i of the calyx) are di a the latter they are persistent — a circumstance of very dot importance as a specific distinction. The fruit is sub-globose, yellowish, and rather austere, but is good for baking and for preserves. The Americas Crab or Sweet-scented Crab (P. coronaria) is a native of North A pecially of the southern part of the Alleghanies. it is a small tree with hie, id leavi and white flowers, becoming purple before they drop off, and have a powerful am 'I. rei imbling that of I The fruit is flatly orbicular, of a deep green colour, and sweet scented. It is vi d I made into eider, and also into preserves. /'. on i- ' folia, a native of Carolina, much resembles this, but lias much narrower laves and smaller fruit. The Chinese Crab (P. «p i small tree, a native of China. It is very ornamental when iii Hewer; the flowers being in si - -silc, maoy-th >\\ vr. d 1 of a bright rose-colour. The fruit is irregularly round, about the size of a cherry, yellow, and lit to be eaten, like the medlar, only when in a state of incipient decay. A'PPLE OF SODOM. See SOLANUM. A PPLEBEEEY. See Billabmera. a PPLEBY, the county town of Westmoreland, lies in lat r,i: .':.V N., long. - J J 2ff V7. It is in the north of the county, on the river Eden, which flows past I Solway Firth. A. has two parishes, one on each side of the river, which is here d by an old stone bridge of two arches. There - i in 1 ■ i i, the keep of which, called , Tower, is still i ' nditioil. The Lent and summer held at A. I • ■ .i] the Reform Bill, it returned two mi mbers to parliament. It was then disfranchised, though it still po I'd corporation. Pop. 1989. \ TI'U'.ToN.atown of Wisconsin, in the United , j ,,i' notice chiefly fron :ite of the FOX EiVI :. i Grande Chute, from winch the town some- i'". . i -i.i inn water-] - and at the same t renders the stream navigable for steam-bo whole mi v huh. v. ith th ! .-ml oi a canal between the Fox on the north, and the to the south, is carried all the way from I Michigan to tin- Missi sippL M'l'OClAI'I'TlA, an Italian musical term, il . gating a form of embellishment by insertion of notes of passage in a melody. The A. notes are printed in a smaller character than the lea.hn of the melody, and should always lie given with considerable expression. When they are i b is. d by a performer or singer, tiny nave as an indication oi g 1 or of had taste, 'lie- tune ,,f ;m a. is taken from the essential note to which it belongs, as in the following example : ttten. S» Daycd. A P ; '» * #§©! W For Appocia'to, see Portamento. APPOINTMENT. In the law. if England, there intently reserved in common law conveyi I on a consideration, and in family settle- ments, certain powers, as they arc called, such as of jointuring, selling, charging land with the payment of l \ -. and the sub; ipieut exercise of th. power is culled an A. This A. — which may he in ile either by deed or l.y will — is not considered as an independent conveyance, but is merely ancillary to the deed or instrument in which the power of A. rvc.l, and from which the party in whose favour the A. is made for most purposes derives Ilia title. The Courts of Equity i against a defective A., or defective execution of a power, \* here lied a ' meritorious consideration ' in the person applying for such relief. As to amounts to such meritorious consideration, Lord . hi his work on Powers, lays down that Equity will relieve the following parties: 1. A purchaser, including in such term a mortgagee and lessee; 'J. A creditor; ,'i. A wife; 4. A legitimate child ; and 5. A charity. Put in the ease of a defective A. l.y a wife in favour of her husband, is no relief in Equity; n..r is the Equity extended to a natural child; nor to a grandchild; nor to a father or mother, or brother or i of the whole blood, much less of the half-blood ; nor to a nephew or cousin. Against the legal conse- of an \.. tin Courts of Equity give no aid. In the Scotch law, the expressions re* and faculty to burden correspond to the English ' power of A. ;' and the deed or instrument subsequently executed in virtue of the r. power, is simply described according t" the nature and ipiality of the conveyance so made ; but the term A, is not a technical word in Scotland. APPOINTMENTS— APrBEHTCXI). APPOINTMENTS. The 'A.' of a ship are, collectively, all her various articli a of equipment and furniture. In like manner, the 'A.' of a soldier, especially a trn p rise many miscellaneous necessaries which can come collectively under no other name, but which, in part, will be found noticed under later headings. See Equifmbht, Kit, Knap- sack. APPORTIONMENT is a 1 J tens d from the .'i and 4 Will. IV. c. 22, called the Apportionment Act, which has given rise to much ion in England and Scotland, and the prin- of which may be stated to be thie -that in the event of the termination of a life-interest by death, or of a more limited interest at a fixed period, the current rent or income shall be apportioned or paid over in such a way as to give the personal repre- sentatives of the party, or the party himself, as the case may be, a sum corresponding to the period that i between the last date of payment and the death or other determination of the interest te. But the act has no application to annual Bums payable by any policy of assurance, nor to any case in which a stipulation has been made that no A. shall take place. This act was not on to apply to Scot- laud till the year 18-14, when it was decided by the Court of Session that it did so apply, and the judgment was afterwards affirmed by the House of Lords. But, in consequence of the act being ex- pressed exclusively in the technical phraseology of the law of England, it has given much trouble and diflieidty to the Scotch court3 and Scotch lawyers, whose system of conveyancing, and of real property i ral, is alb>_ erent from the English. In the case referred to in the Court of Session, Lord Jeffrey, who was one of the judges, stated that he was Lord Advocate at the time the act was I, but he had no knowledge of its passing. See an able article on this subject in the Journal of Juruprudt ■'■'• (Scotch) for 1857, voL i. p. 2:>. In English law, A. also takes place where the tenant, under a lease, has been deprived of part of the land out of which the rent issues, by a person : a better title than that of the lessor, or proprietor, or where part of the rent has been surrendered by the tenant to the lessor, or where -posed of the reversion as to part. But where the tenant has been wrongfully deprived by the act of the landlord himself, even of a part of the premises, there can be no A., but the whole rent will be suspended so long as such a state of things continues. A. also obtains in the case of a conveyance of land t-i which the common of pasture is an appurte- nance, the party getting the land being entitled to a proportionate use of the common. APPOSITION, a term in Grammar signifying the annexing of one substantive to another, in tie case or relation, in order to explain or limit the first ; as, M m; Thomas the l: Whole sentences or clauses admit of A.: thus, ' Napoli on sought the way to India through Russia, a stroke of genius.' Sometimes a connecting word i used where logical propriety would require A.; as, the • r the city London. APPRAISERS am. APPB tf'SEMENT. An appraisi t is a person employed to value property, but he must be Licensed for the office. Formerly, und.r the 55 Geo. III. c. 1S4. this annual license- cost only lth-'. ; but by the S and 9 Vict c. "G, s. 1, on the preamble that it is expedient to increase this duty, the provision of the .V, QeO, 111. is ; and a duty of A'2 substituted for the 10*. Such a license must now be taken out yearly by every person, except a licensed auctioneer, who shall exercise the occupation of an appraiser, or who, for in, fee, or reward, shall make any appraise- ment or valuation chargeable by law with any stamp-duty (see I 2d ed, p. 65). _ By an old English statute, passed in I Edward 1., appraisers are enjoined to put a i able price upon goods; and if they a ppraise them too high, they are obliged to take them at their own valuation, and to be answerable accordingly to the creditor for his debt. Appraisement, generally, is the act of valuation made by the appraiser; but in legal application land, this term is used to signify a valuation of goods taken under a distress for i appraisers, who are sworn by the sheritl', under- sheriff, or constable, to value the goods truly, accord- ing to the best of their skill ; and after such appraisement, the goods may be sold at tin price that can be procured. The duties chargeable on appraisements are as follow: Where the amount of such appraisement or valuation shall not exceed £50, the duty to 1 * 2 ■. 6d ; and where it shall exceed £50, and not exceed £100, £0 5 100, .. » 200, n in o 200, . , 500, 15 it 500, 1 o ii The exemptions from such duties arc appraisements or valuations made in pursuance of the order of any Court of Admiralty or Vice-admiral ty. or of any Court of Appeal from any sentence, adjudication, or judg- ment of any Court of Admiralty or Via and appraisements or valuations of any pro made for the purpose of ascertaining the 1 duty payable in respect thereof. The corresponding proceeding in Scotland is known under the term appreciation, which has I as the valuing of poinded or distrait And by the old Scotch law, these goods were valned twice by different valuators — once in the house or on the ground where the poinding took pi I cond time at the market-cross of the local jurisdiction or chief county town. But by the 54 Geo. 111. C. 137, s. 4, one valuation iu the place where the goods are, is declared in every case to be sufficient. APPREHE'ND. To A., in criminal to arrest or seize, in virtue of a warrant or legal authority, an offender taken in the act, or who is suspected. Arrest or apprehension by i without warrant may be I by the foil' persons: 1. By a justice of the peace, who himself A., OX cause to be apprehended, by word oidy, any person committing a felony or breai the peace in his pi ; -'• The shi I coroner; 4. The constable ; 5. By the Larcenj (24 and 25 Viet, c 90), and by the 24 and 25 c. 97, called the Malicious Injuries Act, a \ committing any offence under tl pt that of angling iu the daytime, may imm apprehended without written warrant. Watchmen — either those appointed by the .statute of Win- chester (13 Edw. I watch and on all towns from sunsetting were mere assistants to the it, in virtue of then- office, arrest all offenders, and par- ticularly night-walkers, and commit them till the morning; but not so oow. Any private person, and, a fortiori, & p that is pre-, nt when any t mmitted, is bound by the law to arrest the felon, on pain of fine and imprisonment, if he is negligently permit; escape ; and by 24 and 23 \ ict c 95, tie apprehend any person found committing any a ATTOEITKKD. i the provisions o ■ ■ , or any indict - offence by night; that is, between nine in the evening and six mi the morning of the next day. They may also, in the i i munittinga i justify breaking open d I in pursuit oi him. [7] probable Buapioion, how . being a private person, may arrest the t other p-raon so suspected. And there is tin- distinction Detween the oase that of a private person — that the former is protected, though it should turn out that i>" such i as supp Ihasl a in fast committed by any providing he had reasonable ground for Bus- tle party arrested ; but the latter acts more at his peril, and is not protected unless he can prove an actual commission i well as a reasonable ground for arresting the par- ticular person. It is also to be observed that a private person cannot, on mere suspicion, justify in- akin- open doors, which a constable, though net- ing without a warrant, do. Within the metropolitan police district, a constable may take host warrant, all persons whom he may find, between sunset and the hoar of eight in lorning, loitering or lying about, and unable to give a Batiafaoti iry account of themselves ; or persons charged with aggravated assaults; or pet cms i rainst the metropolitan police acts, address cannot be ascertained. .See 2 and 3 Vict. c. 47, ss. 36, 64, 65. The Scotch law, with n rd (he apprehension of criminals, is substantially the same as the Eng- lish. By the si ed in 45 Geo. III. c. 92, and the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 42, facilities are afforded for the apprehension of criminals in England, Ireland, or Scotland, under warrants issuing from the respective authorities of the three countries, no further for- mality being necessary in the case of English and Irish warrants to be executed in Scotland, and vice versd, than that they should be endorsed by a judge of the territory where they arc to be enforced. And by the (i and 7 Vict. c. 34, provisions are made for tie' apprehension, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, of persons committing treason and felony in Her Majesty's dominions out of the United Kingdom, and vice versd, for the apprehen- sion in such dominions of persons offend 1 iid. Ireland, or Scotland. By section 3, offenders iii\ be committed to gaol until they can be sent back to the place where the offence was committed ; and information of the committal, in writing, under nd of the committing magistrate, accompanied by a copy of the warrant i ed to be given, in Great Britain, to one of Her Maji iy's principal secretaries of state, and in Ireland, to the chief secre- tary of the lord-lieutenant ; and in any other part of Her Majesty's dominions, to the governor or acting nor. By section 10, the important enactment ide, that it shall not be lawful to endorse any warrant for the apprehension of an offender under the act, unless it shall appear upon the face of such warrant itself, that the offence is such, that if com- mitted within that part of Her Majesty's dominions where the warrant is endorsed, it would have mtedin law to treason, or some felony such as 9 of the peace in general or quarter ns iii England have not authority to try, under its — by which the jurisdiction of '1 and quarter sessions is defined— -or unless tons taken appear sufficient to warrant committal for trial. The effect of this enactment is, that the offences for which criminals may be appre- I. under the G and 7 Vict. c. 34, are as follow : Any treason, murder, or capital felony ; or any felony which, when committed by a person not previously convicted of felony, is punishable by i tation for life, or for any of the follow ing sea: I. Misprision of treason. 2. Offences against tho ' i'i title, prerogative, person, or government, or either house of parliament. 3. Offences sub- ject to the penalties of pnemunirc. 4. Blasphemy, and offences again i i le ion. •">. Administering or taking unlawful oaths, ti. Perjury and subornation of perjury. 7- Making or suborning any other per- Bon to make a false oath, affirmation, or declaration, punish i [jury or as a misdemeanour. 8. 9. Unlawfully and maliciously setting lire to crops of corn, grain, or pulse, or to any part of a wood, coppice, or plantation of trees, or to any heath, gone, furze, or fern. lit. Bigamy, and off the laws relating to marriage. 11. Abduc- tion of women and girls. 12. Endeavouring to con- ceal the birth of a child. 13. Offences against any provision of the laws relating to bankrupts and insolvents. 1' i' p" ■ *>", | 1iug, or pubh blasphemous, seditious, or defamatory libels. 16. Bribery. 16. Unlawful combinations and couspira- ezcept conspiracies or combinations to commit any offence which justices or recorder respectively have or has jurisdiction to try when committed by i -on. 17. Stealing, or fraudulently taking, or injuring or d records or documents belong- ing to any court of law or equity, or relating to proceeding therein. 18. Stealing or fraudulently destroying or concealing wills or testamentary papers, or any document or written instrument being or containing evidence of the title to any t ate, or any interest in lands, tenements, or litaments, In 1S43, and next, in 1S70, a statute of 33 and 34 Vict. c. 52, was passed, by which provisions are made for carrying into effect a convention entered into between the British and foreign governments 1 1 - minable at pleasure), for the apprehension of offen- ders in the two countries respectively in cases of murdi r,forgery, robbery, rape, larceny, embetzl obtaining money by false pretences, burglar)/, ail bankruptcy Crimea : frauds hij Imub m, factors, trus- tees, directors; abduction, child-stealing, ar sinking and destroying vessels at sea, &c. This act gets rid of the former practice of passing a sepa- rate act to regulate the extradition of criminals between Great Britain and each country, as nearly all civilised countries have now entered into this kind of confederacy. There is an exception made in favour of fugitive criminals whose surrender is demanded on the ground of offences of a political character; and the condition of surrender always is, that, when taken back to his own country, he shall not be tried for political offences. The law encourages the apprehension of offenders by parties who simply act from a feeling of duty to assist justice. By the 7 Geo. IV. c. 64, s. 23 (amended and extended by the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 55), it is provided that when any person shall appear to any court of oyer and terminer, gaol ry, superior criminal court of a county pala- tine, or any court3 of sessions of the peace, to have been active in or towards the apprehension of any person charged with the various crimes contemplated by these statutes, every such court Is authorised to order the sheriff of the county to pay to the person or persons who shall appear to the court to have i active in or towards fee apprehension of any person charged with any of the said offences, such sum of money as to the court shall seem reason- able and sufficient to compensate such person or persons for his, her, or their expenses, exertions, and loss of time, in or towards such apprehension ; but this power is to be exercised subject to such APPREHEND— APPRENTICE. regulations, as to the rate of allowance, as shall be made from time to time by a principal secretary of state. Provision is also mailc by the- above static usation to the families of those who lot lives in attempting to A. persons charged with criminal offences ; but by the latter of these (14 and IS Vict. c. 55, s. 7), this is not to interfere with the power of the criminal court to order payment to any person who .shall have shewn extraordinary courage, diligence, or exertion, in the apprehension. It only remains to be added, that any wilful obstruction of a lawful arrest or apprehe nsion is esteemed an offence of a very aggravated nature. The modern enactments on this subject will be found in tli passed in 18G1 to amend the law of England and Ireland as to offences against the person, 24 and 2."> Vict. c. 100, by which statute it is provided that whi re any person shall be convicted of any assault upon any peace-officer, or revenue-oliiccr, in the due execution of his duty, or upon any person acting in aid of such officer, or of any assault upon any person, with intent to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension or detainer of the person so assaulting, or of any other in, for any offence for which he or they may be liable by law to be apprehended or detained; Buch assault shall be a misdemeanour, punishable with line, or by imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for any term not exceeding two years. By the before-mentioned statute it is enacted that who- soever snail unlawfully and maliciously shoot at any person, or shall, by drawing a trigger, or in any other manner, attempt to discharge any kind of loaded arms at any person, or shall stab, cut, or wound any person ; with intent, in any of such cases, to resist or prevent the law-ful apprehension or detainer of any person ; shall be guilty of felony, and be punishable with penal servitude for life, or not less than three years, or with imprisonment, with or without hard labour and solitary confinement, for not more than two years. And by the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 19, s. 12, passed for the prevention of offences at night, any one assaulting a person entitled to A. or detain him, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and on conviction, imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for any term not exceeding three years. The same subject is treated in Scotch law- books under the head of Deforcement, which Sir Archibald Alison, in his work on the Criminal Law of Scotland (vol. i. p. 491), says, 'consists in the nice to the officers of justice in the execution of their duty.' It is essential to such deforcement that it should be such as to defeat the warrant or other process which authorises the apprehension. Mere unsuccessful attempts with this view are d under the name of resisting and dbth ticen "f the fats in the execution of their duty. LBE LS r ok ArruF.ni. APPRENTICE is a person described in law- books as a species of servant, and called A. from French verb apprendrt, to learn, because he is bound by indenture to serve a master for a certain t> i in, receiving in return for his BO b action in, or learning his master's profession, art, or I the master, upon the other hand, contracting to instruct the A., and according to the nature of the Blent, to provide food and clothing for the A., and to pay him small wages. Sometimes a premium is paid by the A., or on his behalf, to the master. By a provision of the 5 Eliz. c. 4, which remained in force until a recent pi riod, itwas in general r that every person exercising a trade in England should have previously served as A. to it [or years ; but by 54 Geo. III. c. 90. that provision was abolished, with a saving of the customs and by-laws in London and other corporations ; and the term of apprenticeship is now determined by the mutual convenience of the contracting partus. By the municipal act, 5 and Will. IV. c. 7G, 8. 14 (which does not, however, extend to London), all such customs and by-laws as had the- effect of pro- hibiting trades and occupations to persons who had not served as aj>prentices, were also done away. Apprentices, in general, are bound out by their friends, though with their own consent, tettnSi d by their executing the indentures, without whi' transaction is not binding. To the same effect it is the rule of the Scotch law that although a pupil — that is, a boy under 14, or a girl under 12 years of age — may be a party to an indenture a an A., yet lie must have the concurrence of a parent or guardian, who alone can be liable to the master for the A.'s non-performance of the engagement. An A., on the other hand, who has passed the years of pupil- arity, may effectually enter into an indenture by which he will be personally bound. It has been decided in England that the express assent of an infant A. to the indentures is essential to the con- tract ; and therefore indentures of apprenticeship which had been executed by a father and master, but not by the A. himself, were held invalid. But an infant may bind himself A., because it is for his benefit ; for the same reason, however, he cannot. himself dissolve the contract. When an A. is bound to two partners, on the death of one of them he becomes the A. of the other. There is a class who are bound out by the guardians of the poor, and are called parish appren- tices, whose binding takes place under dit circumstances. For the children of poor persons might formerly, even without becoming parties to the indentures, be apprenticed out by the overseers with the consent of two justices (and may now by the guardians, without such consent), till twenty-one years of age, to such persons as are thought til and these persons were formerly also compel!' take them. But by 7 and S Vict. c. 101, s. 13, the reception of any poor child as an A. is no longer compulsory. A variety of statutes regulate the manner in wliich parish apprentices are to be bound, assigned, registered, and maintained ; a subject which is besides now placed under the paramount c the Poor-law Board, who have power to into new rules, from time to time, as they may think lit ; and provisions arc made by wliich the justices of the peace are empowered to settle disputes between such apprentices and their masters, and to di former from their indentures, upon reasonable cause shewn. Similar powers belong also to the ju in the case of apprentices ii phen'a Comw L ii. p. 210, fourth edition.) It has been decided in England that a corporation cannot make a by-law limiting the number of appit which each member shall tak Buch a regu- lation is deemed contrary to the laws of the land. A mere agreement does not constitute an appran- p ; there must be regular indentures formally executed. By statute S Ann '.indentures of apprenticeship in which the full sum or sums of money receiv paid, secured, or contracted for, are not truly inserted, arc void. But the act does not apply to cases where the sum is inserted in the indentures, though it is a less sum than that which was originally agreed for, and the reduction made to diminish the amount o*" the stamp-duty. In the performance of the contract, a reasonable and equitable view is taken of the relative | of the parties. The master is not bound to the literal and uniform instruction of the A. by ! {lersonally, but under his own superintendence, and ;.y bis own directions, he may avail himself of tho ■U APPRISING— APPROPRIATION CLAUSES. rnce of journi j men, or other persons son ce of business, and even of other apprentices the object of the agreement being (hat the A. shall have the fall I in practising his art, craft, or bade. 'I r hand, although in the position servant to much- extent, is not bound such, bnt may rather be said to be placed under the parental control of the master; and although the master may correct the A.'s faults and d by moJ. rat.- chastisement, he must not be vindictive or cruel ; nor can he ill A. To tl. under an unrepealed anacti I complain to the 81 ions, who decide whether the A. has merited h ; tli- A., howi vi r. li..\ in ; a coi re ponding privilege in the case of bis complainl aj am I hie r. But, by the Scotch law, a i b apj ... ■, e in i bi i le of his pi 'incorrigible.' By the en itom of the i ity of London, nan may turn away his apprentice for g i It was decided by the 1 I on an appeal from Scotland in ls>."7, and reversing the decision of the Court of Si nion, that a indentures bound him 'not to absent himself from his master's business, holiday or week-day, late hours or early, without leave 6j t asked and obtained,' could not be lawfully required to attend his master's shop on Sunday mornings for the pur- pose of shaving customers, bi ch em] was a violation of the old Scotch statutes still in operation, and which were enacted for enf the observance of the Sunday, particular]] fl in 155!t, by which it is provided 'that na i.andy lauboring or wirking be used on the Sonday.' The Lord Chancellor (Lord Cottenham) observed in his judgment that the English law on this . was very similar, referring in particular to 1 harl ; II. e. 7. by which it is enacted 'that no tradesman, artificer, workman, labourer, or other i whatsoever shall do or I \ n a ■ any worldly labour, business, or work, of then- ordinary callings, upon the Lord's Day, or any part thereof, v necessity and charity only excepted.' An A's indenture is determinable by of all i to it ; and a] o by the di ath of the i I ntor of the- latter may bind i \. to another master for the remainder of his term; and lie must also discharge any covi i i. lent for the A.'s maintenance. BO By the custom of Loudon, if the master ... ■ ' L die, (he service must be continued with the widow, if she continue to carry on the trad [n other cases, it is incumbent on the executor I the A. to another master of the same The bankruptcy of the master operates as a d the indenture of the A., who, if he bis paid an A. Ei - to the bankrupt, is entitled to be paid by the court a reasonable sum out of the I By the .Mutiny Act, apprentices enlisting in the army, and concealing their apprenticeship when j lit before a magistrate to be attested, may be d for obtaining money und. 'ences; and if, after the expiration of their apprentii they do not surrender to a recruiting officer, they led as deserters. lhere is some curious historical matter on this subject, relating for the most part to a state of the law now obsolete or repealed, for which i I . ieai Dictionary, under this hi APPRISING Is the old technical term in the 1 law, ami now obsolete, for the process of adjudication. See Adjudication. APPROA'CHES, in military language, are the sunken trenches or excavated roads which are con- 332 stnicted by besiegers. The siege camp being usually at a considerable distance from the fortress or city attacked, the soldiers would be expo ed to immini at dan sr while hastening aero is bell of open country to enter an] breaches made by the large si e j an . were it no! 1 1 iled roads an Srat i along which they may approach. In Borne ca A. are not actual trenches, but merely path I shielded by a piled-up wall of sand-baj woolpacks, or cotton-bales. The most trem i .milniiati i A. ever known in the history of military enterpri e, was at the siege of Seba bopol in I i ii.. I. . than 70 miles of sunken trench, and the employmenl of 60,000 fascines, 80,000 gabions, and 1,000,000 sand-bags, to protect the men working in the trenches and at batteries, See Sap, Sn. ■ A'PPEOBATE and REPROBATE. Tl, rpression in the law of Scotland, which ..i th.. b rules of jui tii e w bich o tend Ivi 3 by their reasonable logic, and which are to be found in all enlighten..! Bystems of juris- prudence. It simply mi a us. that no one can bo permitted to A. and R— that is, to acci pt and reji . i the same deed or instrument. Thus, it a will '■in. hi. purporting to dispose of real and per- "'il property, all of which it directs lii be con- verted into 'money, and in that form either to be equally divided or apportioned among the testators' children, com i dug of a sou or sons, and daughters, should, owing to some Haw or material defect, be invalid for the conveyance of the real estate, which, accordingly, by the operation of the law of d. becomi i theexclu ive property "'' lUr eldest son as his father's heir- the law does not permit the latter to enjoy such i itate, and at tin- same time i ■ benefit under the will in other respects, for this would be simultaneously to accept and reject the same instrument: he must elect between tl. .r.-.i, and either avail himself entirely of Ins at law, as heir, or claim his share ol the whole estate according to the testatoi intention — he cannot do both. Other illustrations might 1 ■ i hewing distinctions t dee per- haps for popular information. The analogous doc- ■ the law of England is called I (q. v.). in ii dei ded bytho House of Lords in 1819, the Lord I hancellor ii3don ti-.ated the rule in tin- Scotch and English legal Bystems as id. n ■ I. observing that it was equally settled in Scotland as i le laud that no person can accept and reject the same instrument ; and he puts the case of a ti stator giving his estate to A, but also giving the estate to which \ would otherwise have been entitled, to B; in that case his lordship stated that courts of equity hold it to be against conscience that A should take the estate bequeathed to him, and at the same time to effectuate the implied condition contained in the will of the testator. The court will not permit hiin to take that which cannot be his but by virtue of the disposition of the will, and at the same time to keep what, by the same will, is ;r. . n, or intended to be given, to another person. It is contrary to the established principles of equity that idd enjoy the benefit while he rejects the condition of the gift. It is chiefly in the case of wills and other t. :,i- mentary dispositions that this legal doctrine mo t illy arises in practice, although there can be tion that both in the English and Scotch OS of law it extends to all other writings, deeds, and instruments. APPROPRIATION CLAUSES, Tin. Thi was the name by which, while the discussion con- tinued, reference was usually made to an important APPROPRIATION CLAUSES. question which occupied a large share of the atten- tion of the legislature and of the public beta years 1833 and 1838. The expectation that the state of Ireland would improve after the pa the Catholic Emancipation and Reform Acts Lad turned out t" be fallacious. Among other grave can lesof complaint left untouched by these measures, was the collection of tithee by the Established Church, and from that can •■ proceeded very many of the evils with which Ireland was then afflicted. To such an extent was the antipathy to tithes carried, that a clergyman who ventured to exact payment by li il mi i ares in the exclusively Catholic coun- did so at the risk of his life. Several clergy- men had actually been assassinated, and Others were so unpopular, that the utility of the Crish Church in three-fourths of Ireland was yed. This was a state of matters which could not bo permitted to last. Coercive measures had been tried, and had failed to produce any amelio- ration, The remedies which then suggested them- selves were three : First, the commutation of tithes into a rent-charge upon land; second, the reduction i.i tin- number of sinecures in the Irish Protestant Church; and third, the appropriation of the surplus revenues of that church to the advancement of the il education of the people. The first of these measures the liberal cabinet of 1833 attempted, but — from leaving the commutation tn take place at the option of the landlord — carried into effect in a manner so unsatisfactory, that no l 1 whatever resulted. The second was carried out with more success. The Irish Church Tempo- ralities Act struck off two archbishoprics, ten bishoprics, and various sinecures, and applied the revenues thus acquired chiefly to supply the place of an impost called 'vestry cess' (analogous to church-rates), which was abolished. This act. how- BVi , .till left the church with an income greatly dis- proportioned to the number of her adherents. The cabinet was divided in regard to the third measure, a majority being in favour of the princii>lc of appro- priation, and a minority, consisting of the Irish Secretary, Mr Stanley (now Earl of Derby), Sir .lame.; Graham, Lord Ripon, and another, being opposed to it. The minority had influence enough to prevent government from espousing the prin- ciple, and even to procure the abandonment of the 147th clause of the Church Temporalities Bill, becau te the oppoi ition asserted, though incorrectly, that it virtually embodied the principle. This was the first of the Appropriation Clauses. Iu the followin vi ir, ItS.'Jl, it had become fully apparent that the tithe act of 1833 had failed, and lie uf Ireland rendered it more imperative than evi t to settle the tithe question. Mr Ward, through- out a steady supporter of the principle of appropri- ation, moved in the House of ('. minions, on 27th May 1834, 'that it was right that the state should regulate the distribution of church property m such a manner as parliament might determine,' This raised the whole question of appropriation, and that greatly to the annoyance of ministers. The split iii tin eel. met Mas well known not to have been healed, and while Mr Ward was speaking, news reached Lord Althorp that the minority bad . i ned. This stopped the debate for the night. The ministers left in office found then relieved of a portion of their difficulties, but as they were aware that the King wa itronglj opposed to the appropriation principle, and that there was no prospect of the House of Lords assenting to it. they » are most anxious to find some i ito 6 mitting themselves in the matter. A commission was accordingly appointed to collect information; and on June 2, Lord Althorp met the Commons, impressed on them how useless it was to discuss a i principle, and on Mr Ward's it I to withdraw Bis motion, moved and carried the previous question by a large majority. The short-lived ministry of 1835, under Sir Robert Peel, was in office when the appropriation question next came before parliament. The Liberals n opposition; and Lord John Eta ell, v. In. had suc- ceeded to the Whig leadei nip in thi < lommons, on Lord Althorp's removal to the House of Lords, was now- prepared to commit bis party to tie appropri- ation principle. Winn Sir Robert Peel brought forward a tithe commutation bill to -it the bungled measure of 1833, Lord John bus-, -II pro- posed two resolutions, which to one of the longest and most important ofthi ntu which have taken place on the qui Hon. < to the one side, the chief speakers were- Ward, Lord Hbwick, Shell, and ( I't lonnell; and on the other, I'. Sir James Graham, and Gladstone. Much of tie- interest which attended the discussion was caused by its involving the whole questioi I.e. b estab- lishments, and by a fear, on the part of the E Conservatives, that the doctrines of utility ' expediency, so freely referred to in connection with the Church of Ireland, might one day be turned against the Church of England. On 2d April 1835, the House of Commons pronounced, by a majority of 33, ' that any surplus which might remain, after fully providing for the spiritual instruction of the members of the Establ lied I hurch of Ireland, ought to be applied to the moral and religious edu- cation of all classes, without distinction of religious persuasion;' and a few days afterwards, a I quent resolution was passed, ' That no settlement of the tithe question woidd be satisfactory unless it embodied the preceding principle.' In consequence of these resolutions, the Conservatives resigned, and the Liberals returned to power. There was now in office a ministry pledged to the appropriation principle. In 1836, ministers bi forward a tithe commutation bill, containing clauses carrying out the principle fully and explicitly. i ' bill passed the Commons, but the A. C. were struck out by the Lords. The lull was thereupon aban- doned. In 1S37, a government tithe commul bill again passed tin- Commons with A. C, and again these clauses were struck out by the Lords. tin the motion of the ministers, the Com rejected the amended bill. After :' i of 1837, the Melbourne ministry found them- selves with a very narrow majority in the Com- mons. The liberal members had made the priation question a prominent topio at tb i but it was too apparent thai En land i land were becoming weary of tne interminable discussions upon Irish affairs. In the the state of Ireland was little bi I with an ng party in the i ; them, there was no prospect of the Lords givir upon the appropriation question. Si sary that something should be den... and the choice of the ministry lay between carrying a commutation bill without A. i'.. and rest oi tion. The former n. The tn 1 intro- duced, and ministers solaced themselves for their di sertion of principle by the reflei tion, that after all them might be i . urplus to appropriate, and that it would therefore be us< less to prolong a col with the Upper House on a matter of no prac- tical impoit conduct emboldened the opposition, and Sir Thomas Acland, on 14th May 1838, moved the recall of the celebrated reaoli of 1835. The di u-i.ii which followed was most ..f the ministers, but ,e.l, L\ a majority of 10, from the humilia- S33 APPROVER— AI'ITI. tion of having the resolutions recalled. A last Of tl ' ii. i|il.- was i 1888, by Mr Ward, who then moved tl i '. into the government tithe Mil. B I more strangely still, by the Irish member*. O'C ; i had spoken of the one n 'appropriation,' -which waa to brinj | red now that nothing would satisfy the tri '< except the total abolition of tithes. II is ted and opposed, .Mr Ward's motion was lost by a large majority. The government tithe mi I tithes were commuted into a rent-charge of three-fourths of their amount. iiter that, they wen- i oil i .1 v.iii p . and the appropriation qui tion, once the tonic of discussion over the whole country, fell into oblivion, until the diaendowment of the Ep Church in Ireland, in I- 1 APPRO YKK, or PROVES, in the law of Bug- land, is a person who had been an accomplice in the perpetration of a crime, but who is admitted to give evidence against the prisoner. It had not so simple and intelligible a manning j„ (]„. ancient practice of the criminal law, in which approvement was a kind of confession of a complicated nature. Where a person in a prosecution for treason or felony confessed the fact before pleading to the indictment, and, at the same time, accused others, his accomplices, of the same crime, in order to obtain hi i pardon, lie was called an A. or /'. Hut, as tin condition of the pardon he thus expected was the conviction of the accomplice he accused, if that failed, the A. received judgment of death upon his own confession. If, on the other hand, the a. ' accomplice was found guilty, the A. was entitled to his pardon ex debito justitkv. But ' this course of admitting approvements,' says Blackstone, writing about a century ago, 'hath Ion" been disused ; for the truth was, as Sir Matthew Hale observes, that more mischief arose to good men by theso kinds of approvements, upon false and malicious accusations of desperate villains, than benefit to the public by the discovery and conviction of real offenders ; and, therefore, in the times when such appeals were most frequently admitted, great strictness and nicety were held therein ; though, since their discontinu- ance, the doctrine of approvements is become a matter of more curiosity than use.' The modern practice is to admit accomplices to give evidence for the prosecution, or, as it is said, to become Queen's evidence, upon an implied promise of pardon, on condition of their making a full and fair confession of the whole truth. The admission, however, of an accomplice to give evidence aj his fellows, requires the previous sanction of the judges of jail delivery, and a motion is usually made at the trial to the judge for leave to admit the accomplice for that purpose. The testimony of an accomplice is in all cases, however, regarded with u-piciou; and unless his statement is corrobo- in some material part by unimpeachable evi- dence, the jury are usually advised by the judge to acquit the prisoner; and if the accomplice, after having confessed the crime, and being admitted as Queen's evidence, does not satisfy the condition on which he was so received by failing to give full information without equivocation, reservation, or fraud, he then forfeits all claim to protection, and may be tried, convicted, and punished on his own -ion. Accordingly, upon a trial at York, towards the commencement of the present century, before the late Mr Justice Buller, the accomplice 1 in his evidence all that he had before con- 1 I, upon which the prisoner waa acquitted. But m = e orjLTed au indictment to be preferred t the accomplice for the samo crime, and on lus pn sion, and other circumstances, he onvicted and executed. The term in the law of Scotland analogous to that of A. is nodus cri:: I the principles on which such socius is admitted, and on which his evidence to the jury, are the same as ii i But the criminal 3cotland go further in pi iir,' and assuring safety to the approver than the b practice does. Sir Archibald Alison, m his " of Vie Criminal Law of Scotland, voL ii., p. 453, says : ' It has long been an principle in our law, that by the very act of . the sarins, and patting him in the box, the cutor debars himself from all title to molest him for the future with relation to the matter libelled. Thi is always explained to the witness by the pre jud • as soon as he appears in court, and conse- quently he gives his testimony under a feelil of absolute security as to the effect which it may have upon himself. If, therefore, on any future occasion the witness should be subjected to a prosecution on account of any of the matters contained in the libel on which he was examined, the proceedings would be at one c . quashed by the supremo court. This privilege is absolute, and altogether independ the prevarication or unwillingness with which the may give his testimony. Justice, indeed, may often be defeated by a witness retracting In previous disclosures, or refusing to make any , Fes- sion after he is put into the box ; but it would be much more put in hazard if the witness was sensible' that bis future safety depended upon the oxt which he spoke out against his associate at the bar. The only remedy, therefore, in such a case, is com- mittal of the witness for contempt or prevaric or indicting him for perjury, if there are sufficient grounds for any of these proceedings. In this i the security of the socius, and the safeguard against the contamination of the sources i is much stronger in this country than in En where it is held that the circumstance of having been adduced by the crown is not a bar to trial, but- only the foundation for a recommendation to the crown for mercy, and is entirely dependent on the witnesses making a full and fair disclosure.' And Sir Archibald mentions a case where a soldier, who was adduced as an A. or socius, and who was under confinement as a military delinquent for the same offence, was nevertheless allowed to give evident-.- ; and upon its being suggested as an objection to the 'a being admitted as a witness, that he would stdl be open to be tried by a court-martial, the court declared that they had the power to protect him from such an ordeal, and that they would not fail to interfere on bis behalf, if he were in any way endangered in consequence of his evidence. It was chiefly on the evidence of an accomplice named William Hare, that Burke the notorious criminal was convicted before the High Court of Justiciary in 1S28. See this case noticed previously in Anatomy. APPROXIMATION', a term commonly used in mathematical science to designate such calculations as are not rigorously correct, but approach the truth near enough for a given purpose. Thus in logarith- mic and trigonometrical tables nearly all the numbers are mere approximations to the truth. The calculations of astronomy generally are of this nature. Even in pure mathematics there are parts in which approaches to the truth, by means of interminable series, are all we are able to gain. The solution of equations beyond the fourth degree can be got only by approximation. APPUI (French), a stay or support. In military APPTJLEIUS— APRICOT. , the points oVA. are such parts of the field of is an; suited to j SH] port or shelter. As i f an army (like the extreme sides of a ! points of resistance to attack, they especially require support or protection, lien it is possible, in localities which serve to obstruct the attacking forces. Lakes, morasses, woods, streams, and steep declivities may thus serve -1. APPULEl'US, or, less properly, APULEIUS, a satirical writer of the 2d c, »;i i born at Madanra, in Africa, where his father was a magistrate, and a man of large fortune. A. first studied at Carthage, which at that time enjoyed a high reputation as a school of literature. A iterwards he went to Athens, where he entered keenly upon the study of phflo displaying a special predilection for the Platonic school. The fortune bequeathed to him at his 's death enabled A. to travel extensively. He visited Italy, Asia, &c, and was initiated into numerous religious mysteries. The knowledge which he thus acquired of the priestly fraternities, he made abundant \ise of afterwards in his Golden Asa. His first appearance in literature arose from a law- suit. Having married a middle-aged lady, named 1'udentdla, very wealthy, but not particularly hand- some, he drew down upon his head the malice of her relations, who desired to inherit her riches, and who accused the youth of having employed magic to gain her affections. His defence {Apologia, still extant), spoken before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa, was an eloquent and successful vindication of his conduct. After this event, his life appears to have been devoted zealously to literature and public oratory, in both of which he attained great eminence. He was so extremely popular, that the senate of Carthage, and other states, erected statues in his honour. The Golden Ass, the work by which his reputation has survived, is a romance or novel, whose principal personage is one Lucian, supposed by some, though on insufficient evidence, to be the author himself. It is generally understood to have been intended as a satire on the vices of the age, especially those of the priesthood, and of quacks or jugglers affecting supernatural powers, though Bishop W arburton, and other critics, fancy they can detect in it an indirect apology for paganism. Its merits are both great and conspicuous, as are also its faults. Wit, humour, satire, fancy, learning, and even poetic eloquence abound, but the style is disfigured by excessive archaisms, and I is a frequent affectation in the metaphors, &c. which proves A. to have been somewhat artificial in his rhetoric. The most exquisite thing in the whole work is the episode of Cupid and Psyche (imitated by La Fontaine). It is supposed to bo an alle- gory of the progress of the soul to perfection. Besides the Apologia and Golden Ass, we have from the pen of A. an Anthology in four books, a work on the Dsenion of Socrates, one on the doctrines of Plato, one on The Universe, &c. A 1. rablo number of his works also are lost. The most recent and careful edition of the who].; of A. is that published at Leipsic in 1S42, by <;. I'. Bildebrand. The Gulden Asz was translated into English by T Taylor (1822), and again by Sir G. Head (lS.il). An English version of the works of A. was published in London, 1853. APRA'XIN, Tuedor M.VTVAVi.vini. a distin- 1 Russian admiral, was born in 1071. When hardly twelve years of age. he ent red the service of the Great, who conceived a gnat attachment for him, which lasted durin lo life of the monarch. In 1000, he took part in the first manoeuvres of the Russian fleet at Taganrog on the sea of Azof. After the year 1700, he became the most powerful and influential person at the court of the czar, who made him chief-admiral of the Russian navy, of which, in fact, A. may be considered the creator. While Peter was G the Swedes in the north, A. was building war-vessels, fortresses, and wharfs i i appointed president of the Admiralty ; in 1708, he defeated the Swedish general, Lubecker, in Inger- mannland, and saved the newiy-l.tnlt city of Petersburg from destruction ; in 1710, he captured tho important town of Viborg, in I inland ; ami in 1711, commanded in tin; Black Sea during the Turkish war. The following year he returned to the north; and in 1713, with a fleet of 200 vessels, he saUed along the coast of Finland, took Hehring- fors and Borgo, and defeated the Swedish The result of his great successes was, that at the peace of Nystadt, in 1721, Russia obtained some most valuable advantages, being confirmed in her possession of Finland, just conquered, and of Esthonia. In spite of his brilhaut reputation, how- ever, he twice suffered an apparent eclipse of imperial favour. In 1714 — 15 he was charged with embezzlement, tried, and condemned to pay a line ; and a few years later, was denounced by l'eter him- self as ' an oppressor of the people,' and again con- demned to pay a line ; but his services were too use- fid to be dispensed with, ami in both instances the czar neutralised the effect of the condemnation, by conferring upon him additional riches and dignities. In 1722, ne accompanied Peter in his Persian war, and was present at the siege of Derbend. His last naval expedition was in 1720, when he repaired with the Russian fleet to Revel, to defend that place against an expected attack by the Engli -h. He died at Moscow, 10th Xovember 172S, in the ~i~V> of his age. A'PRICOT (Prunus Armeniaca), a species of tho same genus with the Plum (q. v.), is a na: Armenia, and of the countries eastward to China and .Japan; a middle-sized tree of 15—20, or even 30 feet high, with ovate, acuminate, and cordate, smooth, doubly-toothed leaves on long stalks ; soli- tary, sessUe, white flowers which appear before the leaves, and fruit resembling the peach, roundish, downy, yellow, and ruddy on the side next the sun, with yellow flesh. The A. was brought into Europe in the time of Alexander the Great, and mi days of the Romans has been diffused over all its western countries. It has been cultivated in land since the middle of the 10th c. It is only in the south of England that it is ever train 1 1 standard, nor is it grown in the more northern parts, even as an espaher, but almost always as a wall-tree. More than twenty kind3 are distinguished, amongst which some excel very much in size, fine colour, sweetness, and abundance of juice. The iloorpark is generally esteemed the finest variety, and the Breda os best suited for standards in the south of England, and in Scotland even for the wall, i in the most favourable situations. — The A. is generally budded on plum or wild cherry stocks. The fruit keeps only tor a very short time, and is eithi t fresh, or made into a preserve or jelly. Apricots split up, having the stone taken out, and dried, are l.rought from Italy as an article of commerce, in particular from Trieste, Genoa, and Leghorn : in tho south of France, also, they are an article of export in rved and candii 1 state. Dried apricots from Bokhara are sold in the towns of Russia, the kern, Is of which are perfectly sweet, like those of tin almond. The kernels are sweet in some kinds, and bitter in others— the bitterness being probably more natural, and the sweetness, as in the almond, the result of cultivation. Generally speaking, they may be used for the same purposes as APRIL- AP8E. almonds, Prom the bitter kernels, which • Prussia acid, the Etai de distilled in i yield a black p similar to Indian ink. 'I'ln- wood oi tier tree is good only for the | I the turner. 1 he Bw \ icon A. i I very much (in- c tnon A. The fruit is us. It is found in Dauphins and Piedmont At Briancon, an nil, called S expi '•!-. L (P also very like tin common A., but small' r in all its parts. The fruit is small. It is a native of Siberia, especially of the southern slopes of tin- mountains of Dahuria. i .'in . A.. I!, -it I. Mni ,.i plum, much ed in sim,. ; .1 1 which, pro- igar, dried, < I in shallow I foi in i a con udi rable article of tra A'PRIL. The Romans gave this month the name of A/tritis, from iifn rire, to open, because ii was the when the buds I a to open; by the Saxons it was called or J h; and by the Dutch Grass-month. The custom one upon o bo itless errand on the month, is perhaps a t< ■ and thither of the Saviour in mi Annas to Caiaphas, and i i Pilate to Ei rod, because during the middle n ' I made the .subject Ii play (a. v.) at Master, which occurs in oi \. It i po ible, however, that ii I Borne old hi athi a fe tivaL The ii. whatever be its origin, of playing off little y, whereby ridicule may be fixed ' i rded individuals, appears to be universal Europe. In Fran! e, thus in ed ' (an A. ii hi. In i i land, such a person i. called an A. fool; in k. Gowk is Hi" Scotch for the i signifies a foolish person. The it in Britain is to send one u] o i for : omething grossly nonsenf ii al as for History of Adam's Grand- father; or i ppointments which are not to that Ins latcllct IS ed, or that there is a spot of mud up When he falls into the snare, the I 1 with a shout of laughter. It is i I i Hindus prai r - preei i lj similar tricks on i of March, when they hold what is called the Huh !•'■ A-PRIO'RI reasoning or demonstration is that w In- h re 1 1 mi ■ - I or id i ml is inde- i i " nee. Eteasoning Er is called i , lasoning. A predilection for one or tin' other . > ning forms it important distinctions anion" ophy. Plato may l ! i i.eUe and Bacon of the A-I\ speculation is more in accordance with the genius of the Germans than with that of ! A-P. philo ophy claims for ons the ch ■ ary truth i, and denies thai there can I riori proof of anything, that kind of reasoning furnishing only a confirmation or verification. te : el I mi that the general notions or principles on A-P. reasoning rests, an thi of experience, and that, therefore, all truth Posteriori grounds. 'RON, This word is t both in mili- and in shipping affairs. The A. of a cannon is a piece of sheet-lead which covers the touch-hole, tied by two pieces of white rope, in ship-budding, of curved timber lixed behind the part of the stem, and just above the fore- ■ ml of the keel ; its chief use is to fortify the item, and connect it inure firmly with t!i>' keel The name of A. is also given to the plank B I at the entrance of a dock, a little higher than to form an abutm t, which the may shut. Al'si: il.it. apsis), a semicircular recess usually 1 at tl cud of the choir or chancel ,,f a romanesque, or what is commonly called in On land an Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Norman church. The i' . i nliar termination to the choir is so and at . been bo clearly established by Herman writers, that we shall endear to in a very few v.. mis. it. is well known that the heathen structure from which the early Chris- borrowed the form of their churches, ws not i ii the Basilica or public hall which served at once [for a market-place and a court of The Basilica, for the most part, H 1 ..gram, at one of the shorter sides of which, opposite to tin- cut ranee, there was a raised platform .! tnieil for the accommodation of the persons 'i Iged in. and connected w it h. the ,]i tnl.ution of Be. This portion of the building was the proto- type of the rounded choir, to v. Inch the name of A. ih at Schwartz, Rhcindorf. was given, and which is still to be Been in so many of the Rhenish churches. For the praetor's chair, which was placed in the centre of this semicircular space, the altar was substituted ; and the steps which led to the seat from which he dispel) ed I ii See, were destined henceforth to lead to the spot whereth' Fountain of all just ice should he worshipped. Many A.'s are to be met with in English churches, an enumeration of which will be found in Mr Parker's excellent Glossary of Architecture. But 1 1 in ture is not only much more frequent, but • tied to be used to a much later period on the nt, we shall describe it as it may still be s.in in almost every little village along the banks of the Rhine. The lower part of the A. is there ii a ally pierced by two or three round arched win- dows, often of irregular size and height, over which there is invariably an external gallery supported by pillars in the form of which the rude idea of a Roman pillar is at once apparent : and the whole is joined to the end of the nave, which rises consider- ably above it, by a mof in the form of the segment of a cone. Where the churches are larger, there is a APSIDES— APULIA. complete row of windows of the same rounded form, divided by pillars similar to those by whioli the gallery is supported, and under them frequently ponding construction, whilst one or two small and irregular holes of the same .i scanty light to the crypt ben e at h . Many of the smaller churches have DO aisles; and tli ■ semicircular A. forms the termination of, or contains the < hancel. The more complete however, such as the minster at Bonn, afford— with the exception ol the septa and the towers, which are later additions— about the n amples to be found on this side tin' Alps of the form of the Etonian basilica, 01 nasi s. Seven & ol the A. :u • to be seen in the earlier ecclesiastical 1*?=^- Church of Dalmeny. tures of Scotland ; as instances, we may men- churches of Dalmeny and Kirkliston in Linlithgowshire, and of Leuchars in I A'PSIDES (Gr. apsis, inection), the two extreme points in the orbit of a planet— one at the -t. the other at the least distance from the nil. The term A. is also applied in the same manner to the two points in the orbit of a satellite nearest to, the othi r farthest from, its primary; % in the case of the moon, to the . A ri lit line connecting these extreme points, is called the line of A. In all the . this line has no fixed position in . iiit makes a forward motion in the plane of tlie orb . i ccepl in the ca i of tb i plan where iding. This fact in the mbit of the earth gives rise to the anomahst (q. v.). This advancin J motion of the line ol A. markable in tin- orbit of the moon, it amounts to 40' 4V 32""2 annually, an revolution thus taking place in rather less ■I- j i'. ii . AP.SLEY, a river of Australia, in the north on "I New South Wales. It Hows into the . ien Pacific about (0 miles to the north-east of Port : ome at its mouth the i ■ .'i' tin' Kf'Leay. A. is also a strait bi a 1 Bathursi I lands, on the north tralia. 11-; length is -is rrdli -, with a width a _- from U to 1 ; and tie' di pth of its channel is from A'PTEROl S INSECTS ar without In the I. order of insects] but more important distinctive characters being found to belong to the insects included in it. it is no longer retained as an order or principal division in the most improved entomological systems. A'PTEKV. he Gr. a, priv., and pi wing), a genus of birds allied to the ostrich and emu. and perhaps more nearly to the extinct dodo. It has a very I ader bill, of wl. Apteryx An. trans. makes a remarkable use in supporting itself when it rests. It has three anterior toes. teriox one which is scarcely developed. The I moderate length, the wings merely rudimentary. The feathers have no accessory plume. 'J I i is more complete than in any other known bird. Only one species is known (.!. about the size of . native of New Zealand. It is a nocturnal bird, and preys on snails, insects, &c. It is much prized for its feathers. The n call it kivl-kivi, from its cry. A'PTHiE are small vesicles formed of the super- ficial layer of a mucous membrane, elevated by fluid secreted by the latter. They are usually whitish in colour, and the fluid may be serous or puriform. At the end of a few hours or da\ apthoos vesicle bursts at its summit, a up, exposing an inflamed and painfid patch of tho mucous membrane. The most common site of A. is nous membrane of the lips and mouth, but ■asionally appear wherever mucous membrane approaches the skin. Infants are liable to an apthous eruption t [. v.). A. in adults are generally tin.- 1 s, or a symptom of disturbance of the digi stive system. In some cases of pulmonary consumption, they form a painful addition to the patient's sufferings. in ordinary- , ' A,, a preparation of borax, or some astringent wash, generally eff< APTJ'LIA, ancient 1. after Capyx, son of ]' now includes the south-eastern part <•! Italy in far as the promontory of Leuea, and also the extreme peninsula ofCa] Here, in ancient times, livid three distinct pen; th" A!- i r Salentini, Dauni or Apulians. Ai • old Latin tradi- i .' of the Apulians. when bai from lllyria, settled in these parts of Italy. I traditions say that Diomedes, the .Etolian, with several other heroes returning from the Trojan war, ■ Italy, and, in his war with the Messapians, 1 by I 'annus, but was afterv depj Lved of I ; put to d .it h. Roman poetry b - : but in In ition is in king of A., though we find the nanus of its principal cities — Arpi, id runic war was for soni i ied on in A. In the present day, \. i ivi styled Puqlia) is merely the name of a im political meaning. The whole territory, including the Neaj . Capitanata, Terra di Han. Terra d'Otranto, but a shadow of its former self, in the time of tli" Greek colonies, under Roman dominii even under the Normans, who took possession of it in lU-lo A. I', 'lie- l nun arc depopulated, ind APURE— AQUARIUM. appeared, and commerce, once so flourishing, away. Agriculture is in a wry low ml the few roads arc infested by banditti. 'i!i people are generally ignorant and super but di for tin ir hospitality to travi A PU'KB, a river of New Granada an which rises in the East Andes, near hit. 7 N., and 72 W. After receiving the Poi and the ii from the north, it joins the Orinoco, in Id. 7 -in' X., and long. 66' -1.7 \V. It wal Nutrias and San I .\!'l RIMAO, a river of Pern, which, after a of ."''in miles, assumes the name, fil Tambo, and then of Ucayali, which again, after a course of 500 miles more, joins tl ,aia to form * . The A proper rises to the north- west of the great table-land of LikoTitii aca, receiving from it. however, no portion of its waters. Among the tributaries of the Amazon, it is one of the most southerly; while among them, it approaches perhaps to the Paeilie. The A., from its source in hit. 10 J S., drains the eastern face of the Andes ■ at 6", till it changes i. i name, as above. in 10" 4ff 8., meanwhile ree. I able affluents, more asp Villcamayo the opposite quarter. The A audi partake nature rather of mountain torrents t' navigable rivers; and even for travelling by their rocky and rugged banks are always dillicult, and often impracticable. Thi ry in climate and productiveness according to their elevation. The upper ones yield wheat and barley, and most of the fruits of Bon ipe ; while the lower, or at least the lowest ones, abound in sugar and cotton, plantains and pine-apples. The basin of the A., as a whole, is said to be the linest part of Pern, and to contain the largest proportion of native population — the best specimens apparently of the aboriginal civilisation. A'QUA FORTIS, literally, strong water, -was the nitric acid, and is still the commercial name of that A'QUA MARINE, a name sometimes popularly given to the Beryl (q. v.). Some green and blue varieties of topaz have also been styled A. A'QUA REGI'NjE, hterally, queen's water, is a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid (oU of vitriol) and nitric acid, or of sulphuric acid and nitre. Either mixture evolves much fumes, and may be used as a disinfectant, as similar mixtures are sold under the name of everlasting disinfectants. A'QUA REGIS, or KEGIA, literally, royal water, is the common name applied to a mixture of 1 part of nitric acid, and •_', 3, or 4 parts of hydro- chloric acid. The general proportion is 1 to 2. The term aqua regia (royal water) was given to the mixture from the power it possesses of dissolving gold, which is the king of Ute metals. AQUA'RIUM, a tank or vessel containing either salt or fresh water, and in which either marine or fresh-water plants and animals are kept in a living state. The name was formerly sometimes given to a tank or cistern placed in a hot-house, and intended fur the cultivation of aquatic plants. The A., as now in use — originally called Vimrinm or .!■. /. and intended chiefly for animals, 1 aely common about twenty years ago. Iv.l to 1860, there was a mania for tin toys: they became not only an aid to study, but a Bourcc hi rational amusement, depending in pi npon the relations discovered by science bi animal and vegetable life, and particularly upon the coi by plants, under the action of light, of the carbonic acid gas given forth by animals, and the consequent restoration to the air or water in 333 which they live ol the oxygen necessary for the oanoe of animal life, The A contain both plants and animals, and in something like a proper proportion. Zoophytes, Anni lides, Mot- lusca,! may thus, with due care, it in health, ami their habits observed. The water must be frequently aerattd, which can be i by taking up portions of it and pouring them m again from a small height The fresh- water \. i Frequently provided with a fountain, whioh continual change of water ; bul even this is the ease, the pi bn of plants I animals is advantageous to the health of both. When sra-wati t i Marine A., a substitute may be made by mixing with rather less than I quarts of spring water .'!.' of common table-salt. \ ouno .Simple form of an grains troy of chloride of magnesium, and 40 grains troy of chloride ol : With can-, tie may be kept g 1 for a long time. No dead animal or decaying plant must b d to remain in it Salt water, artificially prepared, is not lit for the reception of animals at once ; but a few plant first be placed in it, for which purpose some o green alga), Bpecies of L'lva and Conferva, are most suitable. The presence of a number of molluscous auimals, such as the common periwinkle, is d sary for the consumption of the continually gn , and "f the multitudinous B] (seeds), particularly of conferva), which would other- wise soon lill the water, rendering it greenish or brownish, and untrauspareiit, and which may b ling to vegetate ■". erj where on the pebhl on the glass of the tank. In a fresh-water A., molluscous animals of similar habits, such p ni Lyrnnaa or Planorbis, are equally indispensable. For large ! aquaria, tanks of plate-glass are com- monly used ; smaller ones are made of bottle or of crystal. Of course, the plants and animals with whii A. is stocked are various, according to tast' opportunities, or the desire to make particular kinds the subjects of careful and continued observation. Blennies, gobies, and gray mullets are p< ■ kinds of fish most commonly seen in man gold-fishes, sticklebacks, and minnows are fi< i in fresh-water ones. These have the ai tage of being more easily kept in good health than many other kinds, and a further recommendation is found in their small size, and in the line Colours of the gold-fish. The nests of sticklebacks are a sub- ject of unfailing interest. Crabs of various spe and actinia 1 , or sea-anemones, are very generally among the larger inmates of the A. SernuUe con- tribute much both to its interest and beauty, AQUARIUS-AQUATIC. as they spread out their delicate and linely tinted branchiae from the month of their shelly tube, and withdraw within it, quick as thought, upon the best disturbance. Balani, or acorn-shells, are beautiful objects when they are seen opening jummit-i alves, and rapidly stretching out and retracting their little net3. Even periwinkles and . particularly when they are tied by the aid of a maguifying-glass, as they upon the spores of the conferva.- which have be on the glass of the A., 1 . along, with continual opening and shutting at pasture, when ; motions of th< ir mouths may be red, and the singular beauty and brilliancy of command admiration. The if a good magnifying lens adds greatly to the hytes of exquisite forms lours may be watched in the actual processes of life. The feeding of tishes, crabs, sea-anemones, &.C., is a source of amusement, and it is interesting AQUATIC plants and animals are those that live either wbdly or partly in water. The term is very vaguely used, those plants being often called A. which grow in ponds, ditches, &c, although not only their inflorescence, but great part of their foliage, is above the surface 01 the water, as well as those which more completely belong to that element ; and a similar latitude of meaning prevails with, regard to animals. Few phanerogamous (or Aquarium, -ting. even to note how the inmates of the A. occasionally feed "ii their fellow-prisoners. I idea of the A. seems to have originated from Mr Want's invention of the catet which bear his name (see Waiiih \'. Ca Bs), and in which delicate mts grow so well even in towns ; but the late Sir John Graham Dalzell began to keep living marine animals in his house in Edinburgh so early as 1790, and continued to do so till the year 1850. Mr Warrington appears to have been the lirst to Kpenments on it ility, and the name of Mr Gosse is intimately associated with its early development and introduction to popularity as a lavthing. A Mr Price also conducted ime vi ry successful experiments as to the Valance life iii aquaria. The aquaria in the world are those at Brighton and Ham- burg, and there is also one of large diinensions at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. In these the habits of the greater fishes may be studied with advani AQUARIUS, the II' ', the eleventh sign of the zodiac, through which the sun moves in months of January and February. It is also the name of a zodiacal constellation, whose position in the heavens may be found by producing a line in a southerly direction through the stars in the head of Andromeda and the wing of Pegasus. Aquatic plant. flowering) plants exist entirely under water, although there are a few, like the common /. marina, or Grass-wrack, which do so, and produce even their flowers in that condition ; others, of which the greater part of the plant is usually under water, produce their flowers upon, or considerably above, its surface, as those of the genera I'alisneria, Anacharia (q. v.), &c. The leaves, as well as the flowers, of many float upon the water, of which the water-lilies furnish well-known and beautiful examples ; whilst in Ranunculus arjuatUis, that exquisite ornament of our river margins, we have an instance of a kind not unfrequeirt, 01 great dh between the lower leaves which remain submersed, and the upper leaves which float. Of cryptogamous plants, one great order, Alg;e, is exclusively A., and these seem adapted to perform under water all the functions of their life. A. plants are, in general, of less compact structure than is usual in other plants, and are thus lighter and better adapted for rising in their growth towards the surface of the water ; in order to which also some of the alga', as may be seen in more than one of the most common sea-weeds of our coasts, are provided with air- bladders of considerable magnitude. All this is the more necessary, as plants completely A. have gene- rally little firmness of stem, and if their weight made them fall to the bottom, would lie in a mass, as they do when withdrawn from the water, in which, however, they gracefully float, their flexi- bility of stem enabling them to adapt then to waves or which would destroy them if they were more i. c all things in nature harmonised. Many animals, to a considerable extent A. in their habits, must not only breathe air, but are adapted for Bpending great part of their existence on dry land. Such, are chiefly those that seek food in the water. The peculiarities of .structure by which they are fitted for wading, for swimming, for diving, and for remaining under a longer time than other animals can, are very interesting and admirable. Even the fur of the beaver, the otter, the water-rat. and other animals of this description, is not liable to be drenched like that of other quadrupeds ; and the plumage of water- fowls exhibits a similar peculiarity. The feet of many are webbed, BO as to enal i swim with great facility ; and to this the general form, as in water-fowls, likewise exhibits a beautiful adapta- tion. The webbed feet in some, of which the habits are most thoroughly A, as seals, assume the character .\or.\TiNT\ AQUEDUCT. of a sort of paddle, admirably fitted fur use in the , but by meant of which tli move v i ail kwanlly on land. The Eoi m i of whal i . : kably adapted for pi w.it' p; i tead of the limbs by which other rate animal 9 are enabled I i ■ ■ m the or to fly in the air, their aol locomo- tion is the tail, or rather tl part of the ted body it» If, with tho tail as toe 1 1 eat oar, which all I of the concur to move. Remarkable provi made in A. animals of the higher vert- I for the maintenance of the requisite animal heat, by imcter of the furor plumage ; a purpose which blubber of whales ale i mosl , In the coldi r-blooded animals, where no such provi- sion is requisite, the structure of thi lated to the diminished necessity n "•> enation of the blood; and although reptili state must breathe air, most of thi m c in remain long under water « ithout in< and tho many o tals provided with brani liii oi bi bo in 1 ' itself, derfc ig new n, which in i itively little, from the small particles of air with which it is mingled. They cannot Bubsist in water wh deprived of air by boiling. carry down with them into the water id in hairs with which their bodies are abundantly furnishetL AQTTATFNTA, a mode of etching on copper, by which imitations of drawings in Indian ink, and sepia arc produced. On a plate of copper a ground is prepared of black resin, on which the design is tn inipula- with varnish and dilute acid is tl I li, until the desired result is attained. The ■s of A. has fallen into comparative disuse. A'QTJA TOFA'NA, a poisonous liquid which was much talked of in the smith of Italy about the end of the 17th c. Its invention is still a matter of dubiety, but is ascribed to a Sicilian woman named Tofana, who lived first at Pi butwas oblia d, from the attention ol the author- ities having been attracted to her pro take refuge in Naples, she sold the preparation in small phials, inscribed ' Manna o 'las of Bari, 1 there being a current superstition that from the tomb of that saint there Bowed an oil of miraculous • fficacy in many diseases. The poison was especially Bought after by young wives that wished to of their husbands. The number of husbands dying suddenly in Kome about the year 1659, raised suspicion, and a society of young married women was discovered, presided over by an old woman named Spara, who had learned the art of poisoning from Tofana. Spara and four other members of the society were publicly executed. Tofana continued t ■ live to a great age in a cloister, in which she had l tken refuge, but was at last (1709) dragged I and put to the torture, when she confessed having been instrumental to GUI) deaths. According t le account she was strangled; but others affirm that she w.-us still living in prison in lT.'Jo. The A. T. is usually described as a clear, colourless, tasteless, and inodorous Quid ; five or six drop, wi re sufficient to produce death, which resulted slowly and without pain, inflammation, or fever; under a constant thirst, a weariness of life, and an a to food, the strength of the person gradually wasted away. It is even stated that the poison could be made to produce its effects in a determined line. long or short, according to the wish of the adminis- trator — a notion generally prevalent in tho respecting secret poisoning. The most wonderful 310 arc told of the mode of preparing fcbispo m; i implo, 1!," spittle of a person driven nearly mad bj I tickling was hi Id to I" 1 an i i tied i ' lient Later investigations into the real , i the A. T. lead to the belief that it was principally mio. A'Ql' V VI T.K (Lat., water of life) is a 1 to ardi n1 I hi bra f or cu tilled spirit much i! medicine, ■> red a euro for all disorders, and even got the credit of pro- and as Latin was the ton ue employed in the i e of know li dj ■ in tl i torer i health and of life was naturally christened A. V. A QTJEDU< IT (Lat an artificial by which water is COnveyi i along ind plain. Winn an A. is carried across a valley, it is usually raised on arches, and . ■ ' rated ground or hills intervene, a pas a < , or, ii necessary, a tunnel bored for it. Aquedui bs were aol unknown to the Greeks ; but there are no remains of those which tin j cot icted, and the brief notices of them by! B IS, and others, do not enable us to form any distini , notion i i thi ir character. Tl; ol the Etonians imongst the most magnificent of their v. and the noble supply of water which modern Kome derives from the three now in use, of which two are ancient, gives the stranger a very vivid concep- tion of the vast scale on which the ancient city must have be n provided with one of the most important appliances of civilisation and rctiii a nine were employed to pour water into its baths and fountains, The following are the names of the Roman ducts, chronologically arranged : 1. The .1 / ta Appia, begun by and named after Claudius about 313 B. ft It ran a course of between (j and 7 mil being in the neighbourh lol Pali b aa. With the exception of a small portion near the Porta Capena, it was subterranean. No remains of it ei 2. .1 • 1 . constructed about 27.'i B.c. by M. ii,, ji itus. It also was chiefly under- ground, Remains may be traced both at Tivoli and near the Porta Maggiore, Prom the point at which it quitted the river Anio, about L'l) mdes above Tivoli, to Kome, is about 43 n 3. Aqua Maraa, named after the praetor Quintus .. 145 b. c., had its roe bi tween Tivoli and Subiaco, and was i atly about 60 miles long. The noble arches which stretch across the Campagna for some ij miles on the road to i'rascati, are the portion of this A. which was above ground. 4. Aqua Tepula (126 B.G) had its source near '"in, and its channel was carried over the lies of the last-mentioned A. 5. Aqua Julia, I constructed by Agrippa, and named after Augustus 'Jl B. 0. Like the Tepulan, it was carried along the Marcian 'Arches, and its source was also near Tusculuin. Remains of the three last-mentioned aqueducts still exist. 6. Aqua Virgo, also constructed by Agrippa, and said to have been named in consequence of the spring which supplied it having In en pointed out by a girl to some oi Agrippa's soldiers when in of water. The Aqua vergine, as it is now called, is still entire, having been restored by the Popes Nicholas \". and Tins IV. 15C8. The source of the Aqua Virgo is near the Anio, in the neighbourhood ■ e Salona, on the Via Collatina, and about 14 miles from Home The original object of this A. was to supply the baths of Agrippa ; its water now AQUEDUCT. flows in the Fontana Trevi, that of the Piazza Navona, the Piazza Farneso, ami the Barcaccia of the Piazza di Bpagna. The water of the Aqua Virgo is the best in Roma 7. Aqua Alriebina, constructed by Augustus, and afterwards restored by Trajan, and latterly l>y the pop Ibis A," now called the Aqua Paula, is 1 dii the; right bank of the Tiber, and sup- plies the fountains ill front of Si and the Fontana Paolaon the Montorio. Its original object was to supply the Naumackia of Augustas, which : heet of water for the representation of sea- fi S. Aqua Claudia, commenced by Caligula and completed by Claudius, 51 A.D. A line of magnifi- eenl arches which formerly belonged to this stretches across the Campagna, and forms one of the grandest of Roman ruins. It was used as a quarry By Seztus V. for the constmetion of the which now supplies the Fountain of Termini, and various others in different parts of the city. 0. Anio Noma, which was the most copious of all the Roman fountains, though inferior to the Mania in th" solidity of its structure ; it was also the ! m the aqueducts, pursuing a course of no l i than (i- miles. By the two last-ment aqueducts, the former supply of water was doubli <1. In addition to the aqueducts already mentioned, there was the Aqua Trajana, which may, however, Section. Aqua Alexin Irina. be regarded as a branch of the Anio Novus, and several others of later construction, such as the Antoniana, Alezandrina, and Jovia, none of which were to lie compared with the older ones in extent and magnificence. Nor was it for the uses of the capital alone that aqueducts were constructed. The A. of Trajan, at ' Vecchia, which conveys the water a distance in 23 miles, and that in the vicinity of Mar/ana, near Verona, with others that mielit be mentioned. still attest the existence of aqueducts in the smaller towns of Italy in Roman times, Even during the ig period which succeeded, the habit of their construction was not abandoned, that of i Ii iviug been built by the Lombard Duke Tncodolapius in C04. The extraordinary A. by in at Siena is supplied, is said to have occupied two centuries in building; and the mod ' ii A. el I. horn, which is not unworthy of the Roman models after which it was designed, is surpassed in magnilicence by that of Pisa, with its uid arches. In the more distant provinces which fell under the Roman power, aqueducts were likewise constructed— at Nicomedia, E] Smyrna. Alexandria, Syracuse, and in many of tin- towns in Gaul and in Spain. At Merida there are the remains of two aqueducts, of one of which there are thirty-seven piers still standing, with three tiers of arches. But the most magniliceut structure of this class in Spain, in the A. of Segovia, in Old Castile, for which Spanish writers claim an antiquity beyond that of the Roman dominion ; but which, there is , belongs to the time of Trajan. At Evora, in Portugal, there is likewise an A. in good preservation, with a caMdlum or reservoir at its termination in the city, consisting of two ;' the lower one bi d with pillars. But of all the provincial aqueducts, that at Nismes, in Provence, is at once the i liable and tl. The following description of it, which wc transcribe from Mr Murray's excellent Hand-book for France, will convey I vivid ;ion not only of this A. in particular, but of the v.iy interest Inch it j. 'It consists of three rows of arches, i i one • the other, each smaller the one below it; the lowest of six arches, the tier of eleven, and the uppermost of live ; the whole in a simple if not a stern style of architecture, destitute of ornament. It is by its magnitude, and the skilful fitting of its enormous blocks, that it makes an impression on tho mind. It is the more striking from the utter solitude Ul which it stands— a rocky valley, partly CO with brushwood and greensward, with scarce a human habitation in eight) only a few goats brows- ing. After the lapse of 10 c, this colossal monu- ment still spans the valley, joining hill to hill, in a nearly perfect state, only the upper part, at the northern extremity, being broken away. The highest range of arches carries a small canal, about 41 feet high and 4 feet wide, just large enough for a man to creep through, still retaining a thick lining of Roman cement. It is covered with stone slabs, along which it is possible to walk from one end to the other, and to overlook the valley of the Cardon. The height of the Pont du Gard is 1SS feet, and the 1 D the highest arcade S73 feet. Its use was to o to the town of Nismes the water of two springs, '25 miles distant. . . . The conveyance of tins small stream was the sole object and use of this gigantic structure, an end which would no attained by a few iron water-pipes. 1 Neither tin- date nor the builder of the Pont du Gard is known with certainty, but it is ascribed to Agrippa, tho nephew of Augustus; a conjecture which is rendered I probable by the fact of his havi i I the Appian, Marian, and Anieiiian, and constructed the Julian A. at Rome. The importance which the Romans attached to their aqui ducts may be gathered from the fact, that special officers, invested wn siderable authority, and, like all the higher ul attended by I I public slaves, \w reappointed for their superb I Under 1 these 'guardians of the waters,' we are told that, in the tin- - and Trajan, about 7H'I arch and others were employed in attending to the A. These officials were divided into i J, and cording as their duties d to the care of the course of the A., the Castella or n -• rvoirs at its termini, tho pavi ment of the channel, the cement with which it was ci ■ and the like. The construction of aqueducts in recent times is comparatively rare. a. rally conveyed in pipi i; but two instances are worthy of notice- j A., and the Cretan at New York. The former, completed in 1788, is about th; near the city, it is carried over th of 2400 feet, by a number of bold arches, the lar_-- -i of which has a height of 250 feet, and a s\ us ol 115. The Croton A, which conveys the waters of the Croton river for a distance of 38 miles to the city of New York, is one of the greatest undertakings of modem times. It was AQUEOUS HUMOUR— AQUILA. commenced in 1837, and finished in 1842, and is ded to discharge upwards of 60,000.000 gallons in '24 hours. As the magnificence of aqueducts depends upon the height and number of : ■ carry them MTOBB \;dh ys, it may of that under consideration it is statod that Haarlem River is crossed bj seven of which are of GO I of 80 feet, I t from the foundation to the top of il i work. A'QUEOUS HUMOUR is the fluid which occupies the -pace in the eyi en the back of the cornea and the front of the lens, which, in i : il life, is divided into an I chamber by the membra papillaris (q. v.), and in adult life, by the iris. It consists of water, with, at 'ding to Berzelius, about a fiftieth of it~ made up of chloride of sodium and extractive matters held iii solution. Anatomists are not agreed as to the spring of this watery secretion, and are inclined to douht the ace of a special secretins membrane, which used to be taken for granted. Uowi rer, a ' delicate epithelial cells, which exists at the back of (q. v.), is probably concerned in its formation. It is rapidly re-secreted if allowed to escape by any wound in the cornea, and i is formed in such quantity as to cause i of the eye [hydrophOialmia). A'QUEOUS ROCKS. In Geology, every layer which forms a portion of the solid crust of the earth is called a rock, it matters not whether its particles are incoherent, like sod or sand, or com her, like limestone and sandstone — to all alike, irrespective of popular usage, the geologist I the term roch. In this wide sense, the rocks of the earth's crust are cither igneous (q. v.) or sedimentary. These sedimentary rocks have an aqu with the exception of a very limited number, like drift-sand, which are brought into their present position by the action of the wind. I HI IS rocks, whose particles have assumed their i it form in the position they occupy, the mate- rials of the A. II. have evidently bt I from a distance. They owe their origin to some older rock, whose decomposition or destruction has afforded the materials. The parent rock can often be identified. Its distance is indicated by the condition of the materials, whether they arc rounded and water-worn, or angular and sic The agents now at work, and which hav. active in past geological ages, rubbing down and transporting the materials from which these rocks are formed, arc the following : 1 . The sea, dest i the rocks and cliffs, and beaches which form its boundary, and carrying off the eroded D form new rocks below the level of the sea. 'J. Rivers, including the action of their sm tributary rills, and even of the drops of rain, for abrade and carry off the almost imperceptible particles from the surface w here they fall ; and when united, they form the rill with its susp m nt. and these again unite to form the river, which in its course not only retains what it has got, but Op mere from its own bed, and carries all to the sea or lake, to deposit it tie re as a new stratmn. 1 1 i difficult to estimate the influence of this a £ I ttarlea Lyell calculates that the Nile annually Mediterranean :.',7 ll -,7o8,400 cubic olid matter. 3. Glaa rgt. These enormous moving masses of ice are not only loaded with rock-fragments, which are deposited as the ice melts, but are ever abrading the rocks over v hich they pass, and thus supply materials to form new layers. 4. Several stratified rocks have an evidently Ms organic origin, such as chalk, and some lime- stones chiefly composed of animal remains, an table carbon; but even these have been influenced in their formation by water so much as to justify us in classifying them with A. K. .",. 'lie same remark applies to rocks which have . redpitated from a fluid with which tin- mate- rials eari mica] combination, as 1 1 tli beds of salt, gypsum, and calcareous tufa. As the result of these various actions, we have a of rocks which, from their composition, may as Arenaceous, Argillaceous, Galea i I i bou , S 'lute, and Silicious, We must, refer to these terms for the descriptions of I included under them. The arrangement of the A. 1!. dep I tic ir diffcreii - of more importance in modern geology than that depending on their internal con- stitution. When a section of the earth's crust is examined, it is found to be composed of a series of layers which have lien produced in sue, nng this with sections in other districts, it is ' re is a regularity in the ; parts ; for beds of the same structure are found in ut localities, and these occupy the sam tive position to the adjacent beds. A numb observations have shewn that the crust of the earth is composed of a regular series of earthy deposits formed one after another, during successive periods of time. This general induction forms the basis of the following classification. For the description of the included strata we must again refer to the names of the different divisions : I. Tektiary or Kai.nozok- Epoch— 1. Superfi- cial Deposits or Recent Period; 2. Pleistocene Period ; 3. Pliocene or Upper Tertiary Period ; 4. Miocene or Middle Tertiary Period; 5. Eocene or Lower Tertiary 1'' II. Secondary or Mesozoic Epoch — C. < e on Period; 7. Oolitic Period; 8. Triassic Period. III. l'la'ju.v ob I'm. i azoic Epoch — 9. Permian Period; Hi. Car) iferous Period: 11. Devonian or Old led Sandstone Period; 12. Silurian Period; 13. Cambrian Period. AQUIFOLIA'CE/E, a natural order of dicotyle- 0U8 plants, of which the common holly (q.v.) is the best known example, and the only species that is a native of Europe. The order, how- ever, contains more than one hundred specii greater part of which are natives of America, and many of them belong to the tropical and subtxopii i parts of it. The species are all evergreen tan shrubs, with simple, leathery leaves, and without stipules. The flowers are small and axillary, with 4 — 6 sepals, and a 4— G-parted corolla, into which the stamens arc inserted, alternating with its segie The ovary is fleshy and superior, with two or more cells, a solitary anatropal pendulous ovule in each cell, the cells generally becoming bony as distinct stones in the fruit, which is fleshy. The order is allied to Jlliamnacea;, Cdastracea, and Bbtnacece. The most interesting species belong to the genus Ilex, or Holly (q. v.). AQUILA Se A'QUILA, the capital of the Italian pro- vince called Abruzzo Ultra, situated on the r the loftiest of the Apennines, with a population of 10.0011, ranks as a fortified be. the fourth class, though it3 citadel is its only strong point. A. was built by the emperor Frederic II. from the nuns of the ancient Amiternum, a town of . and the birthplace of Sallust the historian. In 1703 it was almost destroyed by an earthquake, in which 2000 persons perished. A is a bishop's see, has civil and criminal courts, and AQUILA— AQUINAS. a Lyceum, ami is considered one of the best built towns in the kingdom. In 1841, much political disturbance took place here, and several of the inhabitants were imprisoned and executed in conse- quence. Altogether, public feeling in this town and province is far more liberal than in most other parts of the kingdom. A'QUILA, Posticus, a celebrated translator of the Old Testament into Greek, born at Sinope. He nourished about the year 130 A. I)., is said to have I ii a relation of the Emperor Hadrian, and to have been lirst a Pagan, then a Christian, and finally a Jew; submitting in his last conversion to '. be peculiar religious ceremony of circumcision. His dm lation of the Old Testament— which appears to have been undertaken for the benelit of his Hellen- ised countrymen — was so literal, that the Jews pre- ferred it to the .Septuagint, as did also the Judni ill sect of Christians, called Ehionites. Only a portion of the work remains, which has been edited by Montfaucon and others. AQUILARIA'CEiE, a natural order of dicotyle- donona or exogenous plants, containing only about ten known species, all of which are trees with smooth branches and tough bark, natives of the I parts of Asia. The leaves are entire ; the perianth leathery, turbinate, or tubular, ii limb divided into four or live segments; the stamens usually ten; the filaments inserted into tin- orifice of tlie perianth ; the ovary two-celled, with two mules; the stigma large ; the fruit a 2-valved cap- sule, or a drupe The order is chiefly interesting as producing the fragrant wood called Aloes Wool [q. v.). AQUILEGIA. See Coi.umbi.ne. AQUILE'JAor AGLAR (earlier.Velia or Aqufla), is a town in Venetia, Italy, at the head of the Adriatic, 22 miles W.N.W. of Trieste. Top. 1480. It is now sunk in utter insignificance, possessing no trade or public buildings of any note, except its cathedral; but in the tune of the Roman emperors, it was one of the most important places north of the metropolis. Its commerce was flourishing, for though .S miles distant from the sea, vessels could n ach ' by canals connecting it with the rivers in its vicinity. It was both the central point of the transit-trade between the north and south of Europe, and 1 ln- key of Italy against the barbarians. Founded by a Roman colony in 181 B. 0., it became a favourite residence of Augustus; and in 16S A.I), was so strongly fortified by Marcus Aurelius, as to be con- : idered the first bulwark of the empire on the north. It was called Soma Secunda, the Second Koine. Here the Emperor Maximin perished; and in the vicinity Constantius lost his life in a battle against I ln-r Constans. When the town was dee by Attila in 452, it had 10,000 inhabitants. It never recovered, although it received some ecclesiastical honours, but has continued slowly dwindling down through all the centuries into deeper obscurity and w ii tchedness. Councils were held at A. in 381,558, 698, and 11S1 A.D. AQUI'tfAS, Thomas, or THOMAS of AQUINO, oin- of the most influential of the scholastic theolo- v. a -■. of tin' family of the Counts of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples, and was born in the Castle of Km ica Secca in 1224. He received the rudiments of his education from the Benedictine monks of Monte-Casino, and completed his studies at the university of Naples. A strong inclination to philo- sophical speculation determined the young nobleman, against the will of his family, to enter (1243) the order of Dominicans. In order to frustrate the attempts of his friends to remove him from the con- vent, lie was sent away from Naples, with the view of going to Erance ; but his brothers took him by force fn. in Ins conductors, and earned him to the paternal 1 1 re he was guarded as a prisoner for two years, when, by the help of the Dominicans, he contrived to escape, and went through France to the Dominican convent at Cologne, in order to enjoy the instructions of the famous Albertus Magnus (q. v.). According to another account, he owed his release from confinement to tin interfi n nee of the em] and the pope. At Cologne he pursued his studies in such silence, that his companions gave him the name of the ' Dumb Ox.' But Albert, his master, i- reporb 1 to have predicted, ' that this ox would one day fill the world with his bellowing.' Thoroughly imbued with the scholastic, dialectic, and Aristotelian philosophy, he came forward, after a few years, as a | teacher in Paris. His masterly application of Qua philosophy to the systcmatising of theology, soon pro- cured hiin a distinguished reputation. It w. however, till 1257, that A. obtained the degree of doctor, as the university of the Sorbonin hostile to the mendicant monks. He vindicated his order in his work, Conhu Jmi'iii/tianUs Dei ! et ReUgionem; and, in a disputation in presence of the pope, procured the condemnation of the books of his adversaries. lb- continu lecture with great applause in Paris, till Urban IV., in 1261, called him to Italy to teach philoso, Uonie, Bologna, and Pisa. Finally, fa I reside in the convent at Naples, where he di the offer of the dignity of archbishop, in order to devote himself entirely to study and lee! Being summoned by Gregory X. to attend the ( leneral < 'i luncil at Lyon, he was surprise)] by death on the way, 1274, at Fussanuova, in Naples. According to a report, he was poisoned at the instigai Charles I. of Sicily, who dreaded the evidence that A. would give of him at I Even during his life A. enjoyed the i consideration in the church. His von decisive weight with it ; and his scholars called him ■Universal,' the 'Angelic Doctor,' and the ' Second Augustine.' A general chapter of Domini- cans in 1'aris made it obligatory on the members of the order, under pain of punishment, to defend his doctrines. It was chiefly the narratives of mil said to have been wrought by A. that indued John XXII., in 1323, to give him a place among the saints. His remains were deposited in the convent of his order at Toulouse. Like most of the other scho- lastic theologians, he had no knowledge of Gr< Hebrew, and was almost equally ignorant of history; but his writings display a great ezpendij ice and dialectic art, set off with the il ible eloquence of zeal. His chief works i ntory on the Four Books oj I , 7. Il'i.-e>'«mma77. putattB el Qvodlii" tales, and Opuscule. 77 eologiea. II a new and scientific foundation to the docti the church's treasury of works of supererogation. to that of withholding the cup from the laity in the communion, and to i iation. Me al o treated i hristian morals according to an arrangement of his own. and oat procured him the I ' flather of Moral l'hilosopbv.' The definiteness, cleami completene a of his method of handling the tin of the church, gave his works a superiority over tie text-book i of the > urlier v . iii s 8ur, - the first attempt at a complete theological system. Accordingly, Pius V., to whom we owe the publication of the complctest collection of A. 's works (IS vols.. Rome, 1670 ; a newer but less tru 16.'i0--41). ranks him with the greatest I teachers of the church. In his philosophical w I 313 AQUITANIA— AP.Al'.IA. the ablest of which i-< ( ., he throws new light on ■ instance of A. .•i Dominican, ami boasted of by his ord their i □ t him. In the 14th c, Duns Scotus (q. v), a I forward as the declared opponent of the do hi A., and founded the philosophicc I i whom the Btood opposed. The Thomists in philosophy to Nominalism (q. v.). although they held tin- abstract form to be the essence of ; they followed the doctrines of as to and disputed the immaculal tion ol tli>- \ irgin. The Scotiste, again, inclined to Et (q. v.), and to the views of the Semipelagiana, and upheld the immaculate conception. AQUITA'ITIA, the Latin nam. 1 of a part of Gaul, originally including the country i Pyrenees and the Garonne, peo trib '. i he divided < ■nil in provinces, added to A. the country lying bi rivers Garonne and Loire. Afterwards, A. pass '1 into the hands — first, of tli iths, ami then of the Franks; and during the Merovingian an independent duchy. Though subjugated by Charlemagne, the duchy again claimed endence under the weak monan Carlovingian dynasty. In 1137, it was unil the crown of France by the marriage of Louis VII. with Eleanor, heiress of A. In 1152, A. became an English possession through the marrii Henry II. with Eleanor, whom Louis had dft and a long series of disputes tuck place I England and France i aich was at i ultimately united to the crown of France I ._. i lharles VII. in 1451. ARABESQUE (Fr.), means merely afi r Ou A -inner ; and, so fa 1, might therefore be general in its application. In practice, however, it is used to characl liar kind of fantastic decoration commonly em] in conjunction with archit 1 which the Spanish Mm, us are snppi have introduced ini Europe. But the species of en- richment to which this term is now applied, w isdvely employed botjh by the Krceks and Komans, the latter. in par- ticular being masters of the The Egyptians, from whom the Moors probably derived their ori- ginal notions of this and other forms of art, also employed it in enriching their mouui. decorations. But the A. of tin- Moors differed from that of the Egypl figures of animals, the repi ataOD of which was forbidd Mohammedan religion, and confining itself entirely to the foliage, Bowers, fruit, and tendrils of plants and trees, curiously and elaborately intertwined. This limitation of the field of A. was again departed from when the decorations wire di- walls of the baths of Titus, Leo X. ; and more recently those Arahes ute PaneL From the Mosque at Coruovx in the time of _ in the housc3 at Hcreulaneum and Pompeii came to form the models of imitation, and the modern A. consists usually of combinations of plants, birds, and Hi :i kinds, including the human I and eml tural variety, but w i thi nit, i ad the bouni nature. Thi n it adm I thi li ding peculiarity of A. ; it is found in Bonn every attempted to give a visible rcpre- ,ii of their fancies, it is spoken of by P. ii form of fancy.' The an .,ii, which Raphael adorned the Vatican, and which he is said imitated from those which he had been instrumental in di the most famous and the most beautiful which tl Id has produced. lies are usually painted, though the term , applied to sculptural representations of similar subjects in low relief. AKA'i'.IA — Called by the inhabitants. Jczirat-al.- (the peninsula of .\.); by the Turks and : , 'm — is the great south- v, , ,1 12 10'— 31° Y lat, and 32 30 - 60 E. lo .. to S. is abo it IS i adth, about 8 '■ 1,230,000 and its population is roughly estimated at I. 1,000. It is , 1 on the X. by Asiatic Turkey; on I by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; on the s". by the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean; and on the W.. by tl It is com with Africa on the N. W. by the Isthmus ol Through the centre of the land, between Mecca and Medina, runs the tropic of Cancer. The name A. has been derived by some from Araba (which means of T hama ; by others, from Eber, a word signifyin ierer'), as the primitive Aim I is were such. This would connect it with the word Hebrew, which has ■ derive i the Hebrew verb Arab, to go down — that is, •inn in which the Bun appeared to Bet to the o dwellers on the Euphrates, There is also , .Vr.'ibah. which means 'a barren and which is occasionally employed in Scrip- ture to denote the border-land between Syria and Arabia. Ptolemy is supposed to be the autl the faimms threefold division into Ara . and Arabia /'• •■ rta — the lirst of which included the whole of the N. W. portion; the second, . rt and south-west coasts ; and the third, the whole of the dimly known interior. This division, however, is not recognised by tin- natives them neither is it very accurate as at present understood, for Petraa was not int n rocky or stony. Ptolemy formed the adjective from the nouri city of Petra (the capital of the kingdom o Nabathteans), whose proper name was Thamud — that is, the rock with a single stream. The word ■ arose from an incom ct tra on ol i. which does not signify 'happy,' but the land lying to the right of Mecca — as Al-Slian (Syria) the land lying 1 I of the same. The divisions of the Arab gcogra] i , r-< ■'- Tour Sine ■ (Desert ol Mount 2. The Hedjaz (Land of Pilgrimage); 3. T\ and Yemen, along the Bed Sea; 4. / ', the along the southern coast; 5. Oman, the king- dom of Muscat; 0. Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf; 7. Nedjed, the (intra! Highlands of Arabia. Our knowledge of the interior of A. is still very imperfect in detail, but its general characteri.-t dly African. The p .rtion of it lies in that great desert zone which stretches from the of the Atlantic to those of the Northern Pacific. The interior, so far as it has yet been explored by Europeans, seems to be a great plateau, AEABIA. in some places reaching a height of SOOO feet The western Border crest of tliis plateau maybe regarded as part of a mountain-chain, beginning in the 1 on, and stretcliing smith to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. From Bab-el- Mandeb another chain runs north-east, paralli 1 1<> the coast to Oman. From the mountain-range on the west, the plateau slopes to the north-east, and farms, in general, a vast tract of shifting sands, intersp rsi d here and there about the centre with various ranges of hills, which, like tli- nop "i th>' peninsula, are generally barren and uninl A- has, on the whole, an African climate. T : surrounded on three sides by the sea, its chains of eclude in a great measure the modifying ace of currents of air from the ocean. In 1 parts of A. hardly a refreshing shower falls in the course of the year, and vegetation is almost unknown: 'in other sultry districts, the date-palm is almost the only proof of vegetable life. Over large sterile tracts hangs a sky of almost I serenity. The short rainy season which occurs on the west coast, during our summer months, fills ]i< riodically the wadis (hollow places) with lit frosts mark the winters in the and north-east. During the hot season, the i (q. v.) blows, but only in the northern part of the land. The terraced districts are more favourable to culture, and produce wheat, barley, millet, palms, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, tamarinds, excellent coffee, and many aromatic and spice-plants, as balsam, aloe, myrrh, frankincense, &c. A. is desti- tute of forests, but has vast stretches of desert fragrant with aromatic herbs, and furnishing admir- able pasturage for the splendid breed of hor Coffee, one of the most important exports, is an indigenous product both of A. and Africa. In the animal kingdom, an African character prevails generally. Sheep, goats, and oxen satisfy the immediate domestic and personal necessities of •habitants, to whom the camel and horse are trusty companions in their far wand I and ostriches frequent the oases of the d the lion, panther, hyena, and jackal hunt their prey. .Monkeys, pheasants, and doves are found in the fertile districts, where flights of 1 often make sad devastation. Fish and turtle abound on the coast. The noble breed of Arabian horses lias been cultivated for several thoi years; but the most characteristic of all animals in the camel, which has been both lly and justly styled 'the ship of the d ft may be [ L as an Arabian animal, for it to be proved that it is not a native of Africa, but has migrated from the peninsula with its master, not found among the figures of animals ancient Egyptian paintings on walls, ■th C, 1 became a favourite study of the Arabs. The tirst who attempted a universal survey of the subject were Masudi, Tabari, Hamza of Ispahan, and Kutvchius the Christian patriarch of Alexandria. Masudi's work is • m W of Gold and were followed by Abulfaraj and George Elmakin (both Christians), Abulfeda, and others. Nuvairi w I Oie Government of the Arab*. Various sections of Arabic histories rlating to the Crusades have been transla- ranch. On the dominion of the Arabs in Spain, several works were written by Abul-Kasem of Cordova (died in 1130), Temiui, 347 ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. \ti nded Doticei we may rater the student of Arabic Literature to the I and others ; but i specially Encyl ' - by Von Bammer (2 vols. Leip. 1804). inately connected, and both founded on the Koran ; I imple and uniform as is generally began to pn v.ul during the Ommaiade dynasty, and the Aristol ophy to be studied by 1 ' quence, the va i ins of the Koran wi re soon vari- ously interpreted, and a li" - dually four only are regarded as orthodox, ' not loss than bated in 1 tani (edited by ( London, 1842). 'I I ; who do li.- tradition, but Bubord I ; the Shafites, who entirely r on and ophy in their treatment o ; thi Camb tdon on points where there is no tradition. The collecti 1 traditions known as t 1 vcs an - and doing i of Moh unmed, and, though pedantic in its details, is in sub more valuable than the Koran. The interpretation of the K.ir.ui cor tdtufc the principal part of education in 1 Samakhshs Baidhawi The conquest of Algiers has rendered thi on, by which an abundance of aramatic and balsamic juices is yielded to man from varion j abstances. The attenl lave been dii to the natural products of their native soil, and those brough of commerce from t : of Malabar, Coyl and Eastern Africa. Hence the wish to distinguish carefully from one another these precious articles of conn which >■ ■ TheBcn Bdicine, when con with reference to it-" scientific development, is ■ tially a creation of the Arabs, to whom the i and, at the same time, one of the richest bout knowledge - thai i Lnd . ■ . ma- had bei a early opened. Chemical pharmacy (see Axchxot) was created by the Aral., whilst to tare also due the Brat off ions arding the preparation and admixture of different rami dial pes of the present day. were subsequently diffused over the Bouth of Europe by the School ol Salerno' (Humboll vol. ii. p. 581, Holm's translation). Pharmacy and '.urally led to botany and eh try. For three centuries— from the 8th to the 11th — a rich scientific culture prevailed. Schoc iphy and medicine sprung up at 3 ban, Firuzabad, Bokhara, Kufa. B Alexandria, Cordova, Sec. In all departments of medical made, except in anatomy. The reason of this exception lies in study of Arabic or Mohammedan law indispensable the fact, that the Koran forbids i ion of French. The result is, that several most important works on that Bubject have appeared of iris press, such as Prids ./■ Juris- prud I; M KhalU-Ibn-Ishah (translated by Perron, Paris, 1848), and Legislation ifui dmtm Sui 1848). Arabian philosophy, which hold the s 'in. n lotion to the Koran as the Si middle ages did to the < In i tian tuxes- that is. it was regarded a rant of faith. I study of the Arabs was the writings of Aristotle, who became known in and subsequently in all Western Europe, through though the a only knew the Greek philos- opher in ti.' made during the tun i ' ■ vial attention was paid to and mi taphysii >. The most distinguished of their philosophical writ lasra, who bed about the beginning of the 9th c. ; Alfa- rabi, who wrote a work Principles in 954 ; Avicenna (died 1036), who combined the study ol m1 metaphysics with that of medicine, and " progress in chi ology, and medical botany; Ibn-Yahya, who acquired a high reputation as an original thinker; Akzhazali (died 1111), who wrote a book entitled /' . all Idolatrous Ph ms ; Abubekr-ibn- Tofail (died lliui), who taught in his philosoj novel Hai-ebn-Yol i;d by Pococke, Oxford, 1671 i thedi velopment of men from animals; and his pupil, Averrhoes, greatly esteemed as an expo Aristotle. For an account of these men and their systems, see Snr les Ecoles Philosophiques dies, h i . 4c., 1 y Sclunulders (Paris, lt>42), and Hitter's Uberunsere Kcnntniss der Arab. Philosophy (Giitt. 1844). Many of these illustrious Arabian philo ins. The great ekill which the Arabs acquired in their knowledge of the uses and prop Of medicinal herbs, is traced by Humboldt to their ■local position. The southern part of Arabia ' is characterised by the highly developed vital force bodies. The most famous writers on medicine are Aharon, Alkendi, Avicenna (q. v.), who wrote the . for a long time the only hand- abject; Alid.cn- Abbas, [shak-ben- Solciman, Abnlkasem, Averrhoes (q. v.), who wrote a complete syst an of medicine ; Ali-bi n In mathematics, the Arab introduction of the i Is and mod ol m now in use, of the chord i nietry), and of a more extended .bra. Astronomy was zealously lis and ol ral i I dova. Alzahan wrote upon o] translated the Elements of Euclid; •ben-Afla fvu mmentary on thi . The Almagest or System of Astronomy by Ptolemy, was translate -I into Arabic i and Sergii as early as 812. In the 10th c Albaten observed the advance of the fine of the orbit ; Moll iiuiii. d-ln ii J obliquity of the ecliptic; Alp. , w rote a thi "iy of the planets; and A bid- 1 1 a an-Ali, onomical in s these advances in the solid branches of the genius of the Arabs continually flowered into Numerous poets sprung up in all lands where the children of the desert had i I table faith. Their verse, however, was not like the rude, simple minstrelsy of a purely patriarchal people ; it gradually allied itself to the prevailing culture, and took,' especially in the epoch of Arabian civilisation, a highly artistic form, bbi, Al.id-Ala, and others acquired a ■ reat reputation for their delicate Idylls; Busiri, for his eulogy of Mohammed; Hamadani, as the fir I to introduce novels in verse (of which he wrote WO under the title of MaMmul), a style of literature which was brought to perfection by liariri ; Azzeddin, for his ingenious allegorical poem, 'The Pirds and the Flowi • .' Besides these, a singularly wild and fantastic prose literature made its appearance, in which the craving for the wonderful and gorgeous, so characteristic of the restless, adventure-loving Arabs, was richly gratified. Romances and legendary tales ARABIAN LANGUAGE— ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS. ded. The most famous of theso arc : Tim ito(q.v.), Th. Antar, The ExpUrit*oftheCham\ i , :md'/7e I. m' tli". Hero. In fact, with the exception of the drama, there was no sort of poetry which the Arabs did not attempt. The effect of this universality and richness in Arabic literature was, that it exercised a powerful influence on modern European i The tales of fays, charms, sorceries, and the whole sua machinery of enchantment passed into the of the West. During the middle agc3 of European history, several of the most popular and 1 Looks were of Arabic origin ; such . and 77 ; , though the Arabians themselves borrowed largely from the Persian stories and I ' All tliis culture of the early ages of Moham- medanism presents a strong contrast to the .. hieli now prevails among the Arabs. The brutal fanaticism of the Turks m; promise; of the East; sunk in stupid indo o oplea await in apathetic resignation ranee anil return to higher of life. Literature furnishes now nothing worthy of notice. Learning spends itself principally in comma liolia, in scholastic discussions on the subject- matter of dogmatics and jurisprudence, and in tedious grammatical disquisitions concerning the old Arabir lerally acute and subtle, but always Unprofitable and unenhvenmg. The swift and mobile genius of the East has departed, and pedantic dnl- i s usurped its place. There are ' Drya even in the desert. A few modern writers have attempted, with more or less success, to imitate European forms of thought and sentiment I may lie mentioned Michael Sabbagh of Syria (/.•' i Arabic and French, Paris, Sheik, Kefaa of Cairo ( T Paris, 1827 : Maimers and ' , i 'aim. 1834 ; YV . ' iairo, 1825) ; and Nasif-Effcndi, of Beirut, who wrote the critical . ations in De Sacy's edition of Hariri (/.' > . l . 1S4S). Amine also possesses a Christian and J literature, which, however, is chiefly ecclesiastical. Its principal ornaments are Eutycliius, Elmakin, and Abuuaraj. Translations of the I'll lie nt were made not from the Hebrew, but from tie- Septuagint, or from Latin versions. In the 1 middle ages, the Spanish Jews employed Arabic for their learned compositions ; and several of the most important works of Moses Maimonides, &c, were lly written in that tongue. The Arabic language, it has been remarked, is at ■7i and noor. Itisnecessarily destitute of innumerable words describing those ideas and ol which only civilisation can develop or produce; but, on the other hand, the rich and nimble fancy I Arabians has multiplied, to an almost incredible extent, the synonyms of their desert-tongue, bo that in some cases several hundreds of expressions are found for the same thing. The Arabic 6 go-called Semitic family of Imignngmi, among which it is di I for its antiquity and soft Bi i . iled into two a northern ittthern. The former, through the mentality of the Koran, became the predominant language of literature and commer lout the who!.- extent of the Arabian dominions ; the latter, called the Himyarite, although in all probability the source of the Ethiopic lai i writing, is known as yet only by a few inscriptions, fee. The rammarian is Abul-Aswad-al-Duli, who flourished under the fourth calif, Ali. The first who reduced the prosody and metre of the Arabian poets to a system, was Khalil-hen-Alimcd- al-Ferahidi of Basra. Al-Jauliari, who died in 1009 A, ii., drew up a dictionary of the pure Arabic s]>ecch, which he entitl- I AlrSihah (' Purrty'), and which is held in high estimation to this day. Mohamincd-bcn- Yakub-al-Firuzabadi, who di L in 1111. was the author of an Arabic Th Ocean '), which is 1 ' in the language, and ha bed into i and Turkish. Jonl alphabetical order, the meaning of t used in Arabic art a ll.s work iblishcd by ETugel (Leip. IS! ■ title i of Arabic 'saws,' apophthegms, 4c, which was published by Frcytag, Bonn, 1838. rhrough the conquests of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain, tlnir ^e became known in Europe ; but notwith- ng the numerous traces of its inllu. >. tongues, it : i after the expulsion of th ■ Moors from Spain. The ■ earnestly took up the the Dutch, in the 17th e. ; after them, . French, and Rngli«h. h , ginning t" a learn a. The modem Arabic of the inhabitants is substantially the same a of the Koran, buttle dually introduced changes in the grammatical forms of the language, similar to those which have occurred in other languages. The purest Arabic is said to be spoken in Yemen, or With the exception of the Roman characters, the Arabic have been more widely diffused than those of any other tongue on the face of the earth. (oiler's Urography, I Arabic Writing. — Like all Semitic writing, this proceeds from right to left. It is borrowed from the old Syriac, and was probably introduced into Arabia by Christian missionaries about the t. In its oldest form it is called Kulic, El na the town of Kufa, on the Euphrates, where the ription of the Koran was busily carried on. Its characters are rude and coarse, and it has particular ils for only sixteen of the twenty-eight Arabic I consonants. This writing, nevi i mtinued and for coins aud inscriptions even later; but in the loth c. it was displaced for common purposes by a current hand- writing, the tfeeJchi, inb luced by Ebn Mukia. the character still in use. In it. the conson- ants which resemble each other are distinguished by and the vowels by strokes over aud under the fine. ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS, tiou of Oriental tales, first made known to \ntonvGalland, a French orientalist, under : at Fans, in 12 volumes 12mo, from 17114 till 1 7 i 7 d by many as the production of the mslator himself, rather than the • as Galland had stated in his dedication. Oriental their authen- il.umg only an obscure place in the literature of the | them from i ;' eloquence or taste - bavins . moral, or philosophical kind ... while the manners and Customs delineated a were different from all received id thus.- of the Mi dem nations— their success totik the critics by surprise. The work became highly esteemed by the public; it filled Europe with its, fame : it had abundance of rcaelcrs, and no lack of Ml ARABIAN NUMERALS-ARABIAN SKA. I w books have boon translated into bo • different I and given di 1 .i number It may be said that, , tales, there haa sprang up a new h oi literature, for their mfhtsnoe on thi ature of the present ilay is easily discernible. Here are found, depicted with much simpln al , the scenes of the town-life of the M prowess of the Arab knight, his passion for adventure, his dexterity, his love and his r the craft of his wires, the h; and the corruptibility of his judges, are all dramatic- ally delineated — far more vivid'.. tod, in fact, than is possible in a book of travels; while I palaces, charming women, lovely gardi exquisite repasts captivate the senses of the i and transport him to the land of w ler an ! ment. Besides entertaining the mind with the loscopic wonders of a teeming and luxurious fancy, which is their most obvious I sure of instruction upon life in general, and id life in particular. And this i- and notwithstanding the fact, that the aspects of society they depict are tar from standing high in the social either as to civilisation or morality. In them no story is to be found that will rank in morality with the story of Joseph and his brethren, simply because the m faith will not admit of that, any nv> the decline of Arab civilisation at the time tl must have been originally promnlgati the tirst translator, having a conviction of a demoral- tendency of this kind, avoided giving ionable parts of some of the stories. The thread of the narrative in these entertainments is generally simple and clear, often leading into the departments of fable, and occasionally into the as of the supernatural and the domains of popular superstition. The tales, even when long, are not tiresome; for they consist of shorter stories branching oil from the main one, i encased within it, the smaller within the largi r, and | ...thin that, Uke the little boxes used by conjurors. For many years all doubt as to the an'' the Thousand and One Nights has be i I MS. copies have been found dttions of the Arabia text have been published. A more thorough acquaintance with medieval and modern Arab life has proven the genuineness of the . and the truthfulness of their general repre- sentation of the mind of the Moslem. In are evident signs of a declension from a I and superior civilisation ; the marvelh supernatural is predominant; despotism in all its forms is manifest ; and a prevalent falsity and insincerity of character visible, not only in the narrative, but in the tone of common conversation, replete as it is with oaths and asseverations. The origin of the work— where and by whom written — is still involved in mystery. Ace ird some, the tales are susceptible of a The most beautiful, and in fancy the ri to hive come from India, the cradle of story and ; the tender and often sentimental lov of Persian origin; while the masterly pictures of life, and the witty anecdotes, claim to I product of Arabia. Throughout, how' is conformable to the character and customs of the town population of Arabia, and to the Moham- medan faith. The Baron do Sacy, in ]S2y, thus statv 1 his opinion on these points. Speaking work he says : ' It appears to me that it was origin- ally written in Syria, and in the vulgar dialect ; that it was never completed by its author ; that, subse- quently, imitators endeavoured to perfect the work. either by the insertion of novels already known, but HO which formed no part of the original collection, or i in or h i whence ari variatio i vable t. Mss. of the coll re added i nti i ■ th much appearance of probability, in , ■ when the work WS ' it is not very i Id, as .t but still that, when "it was brought out. thi '. since no mention of either is made in the work.' i edition was speedily tran lai i of Ear on following t rapidity, some of them with ■ ■. and others with modifications, l.at- ! ' - a superior English ed • carefully revised, and occasionally corrected from At length a new Engli h bran lie Arabic, with copious notes and I artistic embellishments, appeared in 1839. It was o \: of Edward V. : m I I Ionian whose long residence in Egypt enabled hi acquire so thorough a knowledge of the Ian. manners, and customs of the I furnished not only a superior of notes embodying a portraiture ol i abian life at once faithful and vivid. The popidarity of this i book has i i to hundreds of imitations. Among the I ire— Lea Milled Un Jo , nd the OoiUl I d'nu 1 pi rhapsthebestof the English imitations is the of the Genii, by Sir Charles Morell; while th of the German appears to be one got up fron I'erso-Arabic, the Faraj bid tl Sfl dda (Jog Sorrow), a popular work, and ARABIAN NUMERALS or CIPHERS— the characters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 6, 6, 7, 8, !». Properly, they should be styled Hindu or Indian Numerals, I Arabs borrowed tie 1 1 I of notation, Lus. According to account, Herbert (afterwards Sylve fcer ' L) li the use of them from the Moors in Spain i i the 10th c ; others think it mon irdo of ' i OEBRA.) lirst introduced them from the Bast into Italy about 1202. Yet the use of was long in making its way. and was not • before the invention of printing. Accounts con- ■ kept in Roman numerals up to the 10th c. See NuMERAlS and hojt. ARABIAN SEA, ancient'-. the Hcd tSea, that bay of the Indian Ocean which i India on the east and Arabia on the west. Its northern boundary is Beloochistan ; while its natural and convenient limit on the south is a line drawn from Cape Comorin in Hindustan Guardafui in Africa, and tl to the Strait of Bab-el-M; long, it ext 32" at Cape Bab-el- .Man.l'Ii. i i 77 30 at( ipe Comorin; ami in N. lat. from 8° 5' at Cape Comorin, to about 20 at the south-west point of Beloochistan. Including its two great arms, the Red Sea proper and the I' Gulf, it far both north and wi former itis, since the opening of the Suez Canal in ,. ith the Mediterranean Sea. In t aspect the A. S. long occupied a most pro- minent place in the commerce of the world— a place which, after having lost it for more than 300 h the doubling ol of Good Hope in ely in a great measure regained, ightheenterpnseof] i iitalists,the] tian government, and the perseverance of M. Le ARABINE— ARACHIS. In the history of navigation, also, the A. S. proper is specially entitled to notice. It wa3 alone its northern shores that Ncarchus, the admiral of Alexander of Maccdon, conducted the first well authenticated voyage, on a large scale, of exploration and discovery; and across it the trade-winds, blow- in.' alternately from north-east and south-west, were wout to waft the Greeks of Egypt, without either chart or compa s, about the commencement of the in era. w\u., in Buff.] A BABINE is the essential principle of gum- arabic (q, v.), and is obtained pure by adding alcohol to a solution of gum-arabic in water, when the A. is precipitated in white flocculi. AKACAX, or AERACAN, a city of British Burmah, and, till lately, the capital of the province of the same name. It is situat ea 50 miles from the sea, in Iat 20" 42' N., and long. 93° 24' E. Lying in a swampy valley which, on almost every side, is led by hills, A. is subject to febrile disease in •11 its forms. Previous to the lirst Burmese war — •asion which brought it under British dominion — it is said to have contained 1S.00O houses ; while in 1S35, after an interval of less than ten years, its i resented as having been onl . or 10,000 — the decrease being, in a considerable degree, the consequence of its having ceased to be at of government. A. is now, in fact, interest- ing only from its old associations. The moststriking rial of antiquity is its dilapidated fort, consist- ing of three concentric walls such as only a powerful could have constructed. Beyond the limits, too, of this citadel, the town, as a whole, appears to have irrounded by a circumvallation of miles in length, composed partly of steep and ragged emi- nences and partly of artificial works. These defences, which are believed to be several centuries old, the British carried by assault on 1st April 1S25. A'RACAX. rir AKKAi'AX. the most n a of British Burmah, is bounded on the N. by Chittagong, on the E. by Ava, on the S. bj tli \V. by the Bay of Bengal It e in X. Iat. from lo" to 2r~33', and in E. long 92 Iff to 94° 50'. Its extreme length is 290 miles ; and its breadth, from 90 mUes at the N., gradually diminishes towards the 8., so as to yield an average of little more than 45. The area is 14,124 sq. miles. A range of mountains, nearly parallel with the line of coast, the highest point 7000 feet above the sea- bvel, separates A. from Pegu and Upper Burmah. The soil of the northern portion of A. is alluvial ; but the country is hilly, difficult of access, and covered with forest. The province is divided into three dis- tricts — Akyab or Arracan proper, Sandoway, and Kamree. The British conquest of the province has been highly beneficial in everyway. In 1S25 — 1826, the population was only about 10(1,111)0 ; in 1831, it was 173,000, shewing an increase of 73 per a nt. in 5 or I ; i ! i 1 839, it had increased b I 2 L8, ; before 1854, it was upwards of 321,000 ; and in the returns 12, it is state.l to lie 374,126, or 2G months to the square mile. With these results the face of the country and the state of trade fully correspond. Etice and salt constitute the chief articles of e the others are tobacco, Bugar, wood, oil. buffalo hides and horns, elephants' teeth, dried ii b, and edible birds'-nests. The impor British woollens, muslins, cutlery, and i There havo been various indications of a volcanic nature in A. In the islands of Bamree and Cheduba exist springs of muddy water which emit bubbles of gas. Two sew r • earthquakes have taken Ely in 1703 and 1833 — the latter 1 thrown up, in several places, muddy water of a sulphurous smell, and also, on one particular spot, vapour and flame to the height of several hundred feet. Of the mineral resources very little is known. Iron-ore has been found, but not in such quantity and quality as to come into profitable conq with British iron. Coal also exists, which is under- stood to be good, but, from whatever cause, it has not been extensively worked. There are no la the province, nor are there any rivers of much im- portance, though the Aeng, which appears to 1 most available among them, is said to be na\ during spring-tides to 45 miles from its mouth. ARAOA'RI.or ABICABJ [PterogUmus), a of birds closely allied to the Toucans (see Toi and differing from them chiefly in the somewhat ;• hill, which is not so thick as the head. They are generally also of smaller size, and the prevailing colour of their plumage is green, often varied with brilliant red and yellow. Like the toucans, they are natives of the warm parts of South America. ARA'i I'.i:. See A] \ ABACHIS, a genus of plants of the natural order Legum tivesof the warm parts of America, of which, until recently, the only known species was the A. , some- times called the undergro un d kidie 1 more frequently the ground-nut. It also r names of earth-nut, American earth-nut, and man- dubi. It is an annual plant, with hairy pinnate leaves, which have four era are . the standard veined with red. After flower- le flower-st Iks < "lb, into which the pods penetrate, rip round. The pods have a lining of a E in two, three, or four which are about the size of a hazel-nut. of a with a little of the tlavour wh to most kinds of pulse. This plant is now cull in all the warm regions of the 1 ness is such that its cultivation is likely to extend, It WM introduced from Pen into Spain, and thence Vance. It succeeds in favourable situ. i the middle of Prance, where it is sown after all danger of frost is thought to be over, and yields hty to one hundred fold. Its cultivation is ° S41 AR ACHNIDA— AR AC 0. a the western parte of Africa, ami even in tii" interior, that doubts have been therefore 1 uf its Ami hi, of which, how- i ' . ■ seem to be quite i. rhe 1 1 are - mi times < i nr, but more generally boiled or roasted. In New Spain, and in some parts of Africa, they form one : tides of food; lmt the importance of the plant is chiefly owing to the fixed oil contained in L for the purp as olive or almond oil, and i I to for lamps or for the table. This oil is also much in Spain in the man in and lui of til.- seeds yi galli E oil, when expres i id cold ; n beat i i th" quantitj i greater, but the quality inferio The delights in a light and andy, but at the same time fertile, soil, Th up as The I'., it hi i qualities [uorice, for which it is some- age is good food for i Several new species of this ius have b 1 in Brazil. AKV(IiXII>A, or AKACHNTDES (from the fir. i spider), ad ; iculated animal , commo intermediate betwei n insects ami cro They were included by Liniueus I in the order I i have the head and thi rax into one piece, but they differ from them and from inserts in having id in id of which many of them are provided with a of antenna] claws ra. These i as con- l v. i ii .i complex mouth, disappear,how- of the i which have merely a sort of oscis for suction. Some of them breathe l>v means of pulmonary cavil its ; others by trachea?, ■ I upon this difference is foi the primary division of the class into two orders /'"' i trio. Spiders and scor- pions belon ; to the first of these orders, and &c. [Acari] to the second. Some of the A. inhabit water, lmt their mode of respiration is ■ i. -trial animals ; and they seem to carry air with them by means of the hair which COVi ' bodies. The sexes arc distinct. Tiny are oviparous. They have two or more eyes, very ii ly i at; and the relative position of these marks for distinction of genera. I i Jly eight legs, but some have only six. With the exception of the acari, they are solitary in their mode of life, and nmst of them prej la, of which, however, in general, the; Buck the Mood. Some of the lower kinds are parasil icts, and n few live o .".i I vi etable sub tana s. (See Ai rus, > in, Spider, and Tick.) 1 B vciixoin MEMBRANE, one of the three coverings of the brain and spinal cord, is a thin, ' hi : !.r in e, which, l>y its p layer, adheres inseparably to the dura-mater on its outer sid", and more loosely to the pia-mater which is between it and the brain substance. Between the pia-inat-r and the A. M. in some situations there 352 ' are considerable intervals (suli-arachnoid spaces); they are filled with a fluid named oerebro-spinal, the " of which is neo iry to the proper action nervous centres. See CkbEBRO-SpIK w. l'Yum — I'ia-M I i \i:.\l>. a town in the district of A. in Upper rv. It is situated on the i of the Marosh, an affluent of t 1 Th and is also styled Old A., to i i it from New A., which is I on tl ppo ito aide ol the river. A. has a population (1869) of 32,725, including many Jev arc very wealthy It earrn- on a large trade in corn, i, ,', e.. and was at one I et in Hungary, and is even t only infi rior to P I Debreczin. I luring the ITtii e., it was often captured, and at lost dest] Turks, its new fortifications, erect I in 1763, made A. an important position in the revolu- tionary war of ISltl. when it was occupied for a rable time by the Austrian general Berger,who capitulated here in July 1849. From this place b issued his proclamation oi August 11 I in which he expressed in a I terms his of the Hungarian cause for the present. raphe of Vilagos, on the 17th . i lered to the Russians through of G New A., a town in the Banal of Ti tains 4600 inhabitants, including many Germans, who are the principal persons in the place. The district Or province of A. has an ana of 1700 quare miles, and contains 304,713 inhabitants. The eastern district is occupied by a branch-ch the Carpathian mountains, which < tain marble quarries, and mine i eopp r andiron; the v level, and produces wheat, maize, and several varic- of wine, as well as abundance of fruits The inhabitants an i ' Wallachians. AR 'i:t>M!'.Ti:i:. See Arkosd A'KAKAT, Moi'NT, or Jebd-er-rahiM ('Moun- tain of Mercy'), is a granite bill about 15 mil I S.E. of Mecca, which is believed by the Moham- medans to be tin- .'-put where Adam, conducted by I Gabriel, met again his wife Lie, after ;i punitivi ation of 200 years, on account of their disobedience in Paradise. It is not above 20 high, lmt its circuit is a mile and a half. Its lie time of Mohammed from it icene of a yearly procession of the faithful who m it Mecca. Burckhardt, who nessed the procession of ISM, states that not than 70,000 people were present, and that ai li forty different languages were spoken. The principal part of the religiou ■ n j of this pilgrima; a sermon, the hearing of which entitles all to the name and privileges of a Hadji A'RAGO, DomNiQUB, a celebrated Fn och imr and natural philosopher, was born February 26, 1780, at Estagel near Perpignan, in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees. At the early a f s venteen, he entered the Polytechnic School at Paris, where the spirit, promptitude, and vivid intelligence he exhibited in his answers to the questions of !.■ endre, excited the admiration of every one. In 1804, he became secretary to the Observatory at Paris. Two years afterwards, he was engaged, with Riot and others, by the French government, to carry out the measurement of an arc of the meridian, which had been commenced by Delamhre and Mechain. A. and Biot had to i it from Rarcelona to the Balearic Isles. The two savems established themselves on the summit of Mount Galatza, one of the highest of the Catalonian branch of the Eastern Pyrenees. Here they lived for many months, communicating by signals with ARAGO— ARAGON. their Spanish collaborateurs, across the Mediterranean in the little isle of lvica, though many a night the furious tempests destroyed their hot along with the weeks. Vi-itors they had none, except two Carthusian monks, who were wont to come up and spend a portion of the evening in con verse with them. Before A. had completed his calculations, Biot had returned to i I war had broken out betwixt the two nations. A. was now held to be a spy; his rupted ; and with great difficulty he succeeded in making his e [ajctrpa, where olnntarily imprisoned hitnuaW in the i of Belver, d >. At last he obtained his on condition of ] '■'■'■ ■ whieh he did ; but was captured, on his return to France, by a Spanish cruiser, and sent to the hulks at ;. Be was, however, liberated after a time, and sailed once more for France ; but almost as he port of Marseille, a tempest arose which drove tie vessel across the Mediterranean all the way to Algiers. The former dey, to whose demands he had owed his liberation from the hulks, was dead; his successor, a ferocious tyrant, placed i Ins list of -lives, and intended to employ him as interpreter. -After some time, he was released at of the French consul, and, narrowly escaping ax ere by an English frigate, finally found his way to Marseille in July 1S09. As a reward for his suffering in the cause of science, the Academy of Sciences suspended its standing rules in bis favour ; and though only twenty-three years of age, lie was elected member in the plat f Lalande, who had just died, and was appointed Professor of Analytical Mathematics in the Polytechnic School. Afterwards, his attention was devoted more to astronomy, magnetism, galvanism, and the polarisa- tion of light. In 1811, he read a paper to the my, which maybe considered the foundation of 'chromatic polarisation.' In 1S12, he commenced his extraordinary course of lectures on astronomy, & .. which fascinated all Paris — the savans, by their scientific rigour and solidity; the many, by their brilliancy of style. In 1S16, along with Gay ■■■, A established the Annates de CI el de Physique, and confirmed the truth of the undulatory theory of light. In the same year he visited England for the first time, and made the acquaintance of various persons distinguished in science, especially Dr Thomas Yoimg. In ISIS appeared nis Reciteil d'V ■ -, i ' physiques. In 1820, he turned his and inventive genius into a new channel, and made several important discoveries in electro- 1 tied had shewn that a ma ted by a voltaic current pa along a wire. A. pursued the investigation, and found that not onlj n needle, but even non- tic substances, buco as rods of iron or .' ■ subject to deflection also, exhibiting, during rent, a positive ma power, whieh, however, ceased with the cessation of Smne time after, he demonstrated that a bar of copper, and other oon magnetic do when moved circularly, exert a no! on the magnetic needle. For this discovery' of the d velopment of d by rotation, he obtained, in L825, the Copley Medal of the Roj London; and in 1834, when he again visited Great Britain, especial honours were paid to him by the frauds of sen ne- in Edinburgh and Glasgow. Four previous to this Becond visit to Great Britain, red the honour he most coveted — that of made Perpetual Secretary of tin- Academy. It was while holding this office that he wi famous ilogr.i of deceased members, the beauty of which has given him so high a place among I 28 prose-writers. As a politician, also, his career was remarkable. He was a keen republican, and took a prominent part in the July revolution I In the following year he was elected by Per] as member of the- Chamber of Deputies, where ho occupied a position on the extra In the February revolution of lsts, he was chosen a niern- iiincnt. and ap| minister of war and marine. In this 1 lalist party, regarding the constitution of tl States as the 1 ocracy. His popularity in his own pzovinci means of | the discon- population of the from proceeding to lawless and violent measures. On the ijiiestion of the presidency, A. opp< 1 Louis Napoleon, declared bin- !; against the jiolicy of the new ministry, and refused to take the oath of allegiance alter the a of ls.V2. The or, in a letter, paid a high enloghrm on his talents and virtues, ami made I exception in his case. A. did October 3, 1853. In his general character A. was sociable, energetic, and fond of fame. lb- was the intimate friend of Alexander von Humboldt. AitAGO, Jacques Ettetse Victor, brother of the great B I born in 1790. In KS17 he accom- panied the expedition, under Freycinet, in a , round the world. Afterwards, we find him en first at Bourdeaux, and then at Toulouse, in I branches of light literature, industriously writing, in company with other scribes, a multitude of vaude- villes, besides publishing several poems and romances. In the year lS3o, he undertook the management of the theatre at Rouen; but having become afflicted with blindness, he was compelled to resign this post in 1S37. To his early voyage round the world, we owe two very pleasant books of travel: auiour iln Monde (Paris, 1838); 8m , Voyage <■ (Paris, 1S38). In 1849, though deprived of sight, he formed a com- pany of speculators; placed himsi U a1 the hi id of it, and departed for California, to search for gold on a i companions i I him, deserted and disappointed, at Valparaiso. On his return, he published his painful experiences, under the title. Voyage d ' en Calif m !■ i Regions auriflres (Paris, 1851). He died, January 1, 1S55. — A., Etiknxe, another brother of the astro- nomer, was bom 1802, and is well known in France as a popular,/ , and other joiu - - nals. He held an appointment under the prov government, as dil in which he displayed great vigour, promptitude, and sense, and achieved sei 1 reforms; was elected m 'of the National Assembly; was com- promised by the insurrection m June, and sent i for life, [n 1859 he returned to France; and i war wa i mayor i in Nov. 1ST", when appointed Commis the Paris mint. A. .Ii ln, another of the brothers A., bom I7s:>, died 1836, was the republican army in Mexico, and wrote, in Spanish, a h Mexico A RAGON, a province in the north-east of - situated between 40° -' and 42 54' N. lat.. and loii','. •!' Ill' W., and 0° U I ngth from north to south. 190 D Area, 14.7H» square miles. Pop. (1867) 925,773. It is bound.. 1, \. by the 1 iratmg it from France; W.. by Navarre, and Old and V S,, by Valencia, and part of New Castile; and I',., by Catalonia, and part of Valencia. The river n.ls from the northern h of Old Castile, llows through the middle of A. s;3 ARAGUAY— ARAT.TA. in a south-easterly direction, receiving numerous tributaries both from the lofty regions of the Pyre- i , and from the Sierras in the south ; of the ■ , the principal are — the Noguera, which forms the boundary-line between Aragon and Catalonia, i ra. and the Oallega; of the latt eipal are — the Guadalope, the San Martin, and the Sal. m. The province is naturally divided into the ormtry, alongthe Ebro, and the northern moun- tainous district of Upper Aragon. Tho central plain is sterile, poorly supiilied with water, and iut- r- sected by deep ravines [baraneoa). Agriculture is confined to the raising of maize, vines, and olives; but on the sides of the Ebro, where water abounds, rice and other grains are abundantly pro- duced ; and in the valleys of Upper A., which arc at once the most beautiful and fertile of all the Pyre- n in . find a splendid vegetation, and a soil that enables the inhabitants, in spite of tho wretchedness of their agriculture, to grow consider- able quantities of wheat, rye, maize, barley, &c. Tho climate of the province is various; comparatively cool in the mountain-districts, but often very sultry on the plains. Spurs of the Pyrenees strike down into the province a long way. It is between theso that the rich valleys lie, some of them upwards of 20 miles long. The slopes of the hills ithed with forests of oak, beech, and pine, and the felled timber is floated down the rivers into the Ebro, and thence down to Tortosa at its mouth. The minerals of the province are copper, lead, iron, salt, alum, saltpetre, coal, and amber. The manui.i A., pi opled by a brave, active, enduring, but obstinate race, has fri en the arena of sanguinary warfare. It early became a Iloman province; and, on tho fall of the Empire, passed into the hands of the West-Goths, but was conquered by the Moors in tho beginningof the Sth c. Tli- rulers of A., after it had been recovered from the Moors, and united with Catalonia (1137), became | fid ; obtained possession of the Balearic Isles in 1213, of Sicily in 1282, of Sardinia in 1326, and of - in 1440. By the marriage of Ferdinand witli Isabella, heiress of Castdc, in 14G9, the two states of A and I re united, and formed the foundation of tho threat Spanish monarchy. After Ferdinand's death in 1510, the union of the states was made per- it. In the war with the French, 1808 — 9, Sara- the capital of A., was remarkable for its heroic '• under Palafox; and in recentjl Spanish wars, the people of A. have displayed the same i "in -age which marked their conduct on that memor- able occasion. Upper A. was on the side of the queen ; but lower A. generally adhered to the party of Don Carlos. The province is now divided into three departments— Saragossa, Teruel, and Huesca. The chief towns are Saragossa, Calatayud, Huesca, and Teruel. See SakaqoSSA, &c. ARAGUAY', a large river of Brazil, rising in S. lat 18 1 10 1 and W. long. 51° 30'. Like most of the considerable rivers of the country, it flows towards the N. After a course of about 1000 miles to San Joao, it there joins the Tocantins, which again, after a northerly course of 300 miles more, mingles its estuary with that of the Amazon round the Isle of Marajo. Like most of the rivers in this part of BrazU, the A. is of difficult navigation, being frequently interrupted by rapids. ARAL, Lake, next to the Caspian Sea, from which it is separated by the plateau of Ust-Urt, is the largest lake in the steppes of Asia. It lies in Independent Tatary, between 43" 42' and 46' 44' NT. lat., and 58° 18' and 01° 46' E. long. It is fed by the river Sir (the ancient Jaxartes) on the N.E. side, and the Amu (or ancient Oxus) on the 334 SI!. It is shallow, and has no outlet. Its level is 1 17 feet above that of the ' laspian, and 33 feet above that of the Black Sea. Like other lakes which are drained only by evaporation, it is brackish. Owing to the shallowness of he waters, navigation is diffi- cult ; but EtasBian steamers have been lannehi d upon it. and took part u oat Khiva in -':■. i he history of the Sea of Aral is very remarkable, sir Henry Rawlinson and ( Vide have recently coll' uade to it in Creek. Latin. Arabic, and Persian writers, and have -lied the fact that the area it now occupies D dry land twice within historical times — tho Jaxartes and the Oxus then running south of the Seaof Aral to the Caspian. This was, the case during co-Roman period, and again during the I3tn and 14tU centuries after Christ. Su- Henry Raw- linson, in his address to the Royal Geographical . in 1872, stated that the restoration of the Oxus to its old bed was then under the serious con- sideration of tho Puissian government.— See /',,,. }8 of Royal Geographical Society, vol. xi. No. 3, and vol. xvi. No. 4. ARA'LIA, a genus of plants, the type of the natural order Araliacece. This order is dicotyle- donous or exogenous, and consists of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, resembling the 1 (<]. v.) both in their general habit and in their botanical characters, but differing essentially in tho fruit, which is not didymous or formed of two le carpels as in the Umbettiferee. The fruit of the Araliacea? consists of several one-seeded cells, and is often succulent. The order contains about 160 known species, natives of tropical, temperate, and cold climates, generally possessing stimulant and aromatic properties. Poisonous qualities are not developed as in the Umhdlifera. The herbs many species affords good food for cattle, and some are used for human food. The genus Araua con- tains a considerable number of species — trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. It has a succulent fruit, with 5 or 10 cells, crowned with the styles. A. i native of the United States of America, a species of humble growth, having a solitary radical leaf with a trilid stalk and ovate serrated segments, the scape is shorter than the leaf. The root is said to be equal in value to sarsaparilla as an alterative and tonic. A. racemosa, A. spinosn, and A. hispida, also natives of North America, produce an aromatic gum resin. A. spinosa is a stimulant diaphoretic f he berries, infused in wine or spirits, are employed in America as a cure for rheumatism. It is some- times called Toothache-trcc : it also bears the namo of Angelica-tree. It is a native of moist woods in Virginia and Carolina, growing to a height of 10 or 12 fa t. with a single stem, spreading head, doubly and trebly pinnate leaves and ovate leaflets, and is very ornamental in a lawn. A. polaris, found in tho southern island of New Zealand, and in the greatest abundance and luxuriance in Lord Auckland's I -lands, is described by Dr Hooker as a 'very mag- nificent plant,' a herbaceous perennial, 4 — 5 feet high, with large orbicular masses of green foliage and waxy flowers, presenting a very striking appearance. A. . now called Dimorphanthus edulis,is em; in China as a sudorific. Its shoots are very delicate and pleasant when boiled; and the roots, which have an agreeable aromatic flavour, are used by the Japanese as carrots or parsnips are in Europe. Aralias abound in the warm valleys of the Himalaya. dives collect the leaves of many as fodder "for cattle, for which purpose they are of great value in a country where grass for pasture is scarce ; but the o of this food gives a peculiar taste to the butter. Chinese rice paper has been ascertained to be cut from cylinders of the pith of an A. Ginseng (q. v.), the A B AM— ARANJTJEZ. root of a species of Panax, is one of the most important products of the order Araliacea. The vnt roots of Gm ra, or Panke, are i tanning, hut its fleshy leaf-stalks are eaten like those of rhubarb. It has been seen on the sandstone cliffs of Chiloe with leaves nearly eight feet in diameter, each plant with four or fire • enormous leaves. It has been introduced into Britain, and is found to succeed well in the climate of Edin- burgh, The only representatives of this order in the British flora are the Ivy (q. v.), and a small plant called the Tuberous Moschatel (Adoxa moscJiatel- Una). A'llAM. El'cfne, was born in 1704 at Ramsgill, in Yorkshire, His father was a gardener, and could afford to keep A. at school only for a short time; but even while assisting his father, he contrived to gratify his passion for learning. At an early ! of his life he married, and became a inaster, first in Netherdale, and afterwards at Knaresborongh, where he continued to reside till 1745. In the town of Knaresborougli lived one Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, and an intimate acquaintance of A.'s. On one occasion Clarke happened to purchase a quantity of valuable goods, which he easily obtained on credit ; but to the surprise of everybody, he soon after disappeared, and no trace of him could be discovered. Suspicion lighted upon A., not as Clarke's murderer, but as his confederate in swindling the public. His garden was searched, and in it was found a portion of the goods which Clarke had purchased. A. was arrested and tried, but acquitted for want of evidence. He now left his wife at Knaresborongh, and went to London, and other parts of England, in his capacity of schoolmaster ; and in spite of his nomadic mode of life, contrived to acquire a knowledge of botany, heraldry, Chaldee, Arabic, Welsh, and Irish, and planning a great etymological work, to he entitled ' A Comparative Lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic languages,' when i suddenly dragged away from his ushership of Lynn Academy, in Norfolk, and committed to in a charge of murder. The circumstances of the remaining portion of the Btory are pretty well known. In 1759, a skeleton was dug up near Knaresborougli, which the inhabit- ants suspected to be that of Clarke, for they had now come to the conclusion that the unfortunate man had met with foul-play, especially as A.'s wife had, on several occasions, made strange statements to th'- effect that her husband and a man named man, knew more of Clarke's disappearance than they chose to admit. Houseman was now con- fronted with a bone of the skeleton which had been Bred. He very emphatically denied that it 'arke's. People naturally wondered how he re, the hones of skeletons being, to the uneducated eye, so similar in appearance. They convinced that if the skeleton was not Clarke's, Houseman must know whore the latter was, At last he confessed that he had been a spec- of the murder of Clarke by A. and one Terry. II" nuiiicd the place where the body had been L It was searched, the buried skeleton was dug up, and A. was tried at York, for the murder of Clarke, on the 3d August 1759. What I extraordinary an Idat to this trial, is the fact that A. conducted h i own defence. He attacked, with great acumen, plausibility, and curious erudition, the doctrine of circumstantial evidence ; but to no effect, for a verdict of guilty was retained, and he mdemned to be executed Bares days after- wards. In the interval, he confessed his guilt to the clergymen who attended him. While in the condemned cell, he wrote a defence of suicide ; but failed in a practical illustration of the doctrine, which he forthwith attempted. AUASLK'A 'from the Hebrew word Aram, signi- fying the highland in opp ositi on to the lowland of Canaan) includes the whole of the country situated to the north-cast of Palestine. Its boundaries, though not rigorously defined, were as follow l.y .Mount Taurus; EC, by the Tigri \rabia; and W., by Arabia, Phoenicia, and Lebanon. It embraced the countries known to the Greeks by the various names of Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia. The Aramaic lanrfuage, a branch of the Semitic, was common to the whole country, and was divided into two principal dialects — the west Aramaic or Syriac, and the east Aramaic, or, as it is improperly termed, the Chaldee. The former was that spoken almost universally in Palestine in the time of Christ since the Babylonian captivity, the pure Hebrew, in which the whole of the Old Testament, with the exception of a few chapters in Daniel and Ezra, had been written, had gradually given place to the Ara- maic. The Aramaic version of the Bible was that used in Christ's time, who quotes from it, and not from the original Hebrew ; as, for instance, the beginning of the 22d Psalm, which he repeats on the Cross. The Talmud, especially the Babylonian, has a large admixture of Aramaic elements. The Aramaic dialect is, in general, the harshest, poorest, and least elaborate of all the Semitic languages, and has now almost entirely died out, and given place to the Arabic and Persian. Indeed, it is only found living among some tribes in remote districts of the mountains of Kurdistan, and in two or three villages in Syria ; yet it is considered highly probable that it is the root of the whole cluster of Semitic tongues. ARA'XDA, Pedro Pablo Abakca be Bolea, Count op, born in 171S of a distinguished Arago- nese family, at first embraced a military career ; but having evinced a remarkable spirit of observa- tion, he was appointed by Charles III. ambassador to the court of Augustus 111., kins of Poland; which post he tilled for seven years. Alter his return, he was appointed captain-general of Valencia, and in 17GG recalled to Madrid on account of its disturbed state, and the presidency of the Council of t was bestowed on him. A. not only soon restored order in the capital, but limited the power of the Inquisition, procured the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain, and carried the salutary terror of government into the recesses of the Sierra Morena, then infested by hordes of ferocious banditti. Like many other reformers, he was not able fully to carry out his liberal intentions. In 177'!. 1 removed from his high position through the influ- ence of the clergy, the Dominican monks especially, and sent as ambassador to France. Grimaldi suc- ceeded him in his office, and after him Count Florida Blanca; but when the latter lost his office in consequence of court intrigui s, A. returned to his position; soon, however, to lose it again acy of Godoy, Duke of Alcudia, the queen's favourite. He, I '-> remained nt of the Council of State, which he had organised; but upon his expressing his views i ing the war with France, he was banished to his native province of Aragon, where he died in 1 ] ar.vnk \ ahd ai: vm: id.i:. Bee Sptdkr. ARAXJCEZ (a corruption of the Latin .Ira- altar of Jupiter), a town in the provil D. It is situated on the left bank of the lagus, 28 miles south south-east from Madrid, in a beautifully H 1 1 valley, and is now connected with the Spanish metropolis by a railway. The town is built m the Dutch style, has broad and regular streets intersecting each other at right angles, and a MS ARANY— ARA& population of 3800. It is famed for its palaces and i-. The former was long a favourite i spring of the royal family, during which period A. 20,000 inhabitants ; the latter were laid out by Philip II., who built a palace also, for there v la here during his father's time, hut a lire destroyed a n of it, and mere Philip V., who reconstructed the edifice in I style. The present chateau was completed by Charles IV. On account of is, the natives call A. 'the metropolis of Flora,' gardens are intersp t ed with numero nouses, the most celebrated of which is the Casa dd Labrador, ot I I ij Imt their most splendid ornament are the great elm-trees brought from England by Philip II., which thrive m cently. They radiate out from a central plot in twelve distinct rows. A. is known historically for the treaty of alliance concluded here between France and Spain on the l.'ili ..i April 1 77*2, and as the scene of the abdication of Charles IV. on the ISth of .March 1S08. ARANY, J.\\os, next to PetiSfi the most distin- guished of modern Hungarian poets, was born at Nagy-Szalonta in 1819. His father was a poor tit, who spared no pains to get him into the church. In 1832, he eat. red the colli fti Debrcczin, where lie d iguished himself by his diligence; but unable to love of adven- ture, he joined, iii 1836, a company of strolling- players, with whom he travelled about for months, till driven by necessity and an upbraiding conscience, he hurrii a home to do what he could for the support of a now blind and aged parent, I oi some time he was engaged as a Latin tutor; but in 1840 he was appointed notary at Szalonta. He now married, and devoted his whole time to his prof' Winn the Kisfaludy Society of Pesth offered a prize forthe best humorous poem, A. sent in. anonymou ly. his A: i ';•■■■--■ a Mhuluiihiii (The Lost Constitution of the Past). He was successful. Thus emboldened, he ventured, in IS47. to forward to the same society the first part of a Trilogy, Toldi. Struck by the beauty of this purely national effort, tile members published it at their own expense, and again rev. the author. A. soon became a popular favourite. His reputation penetrated even into tie- lowest ranks of the community. In ISIS appeared his Mur&ny Ostroma (Conquest of Mur&ny), which, however, received less attention owing to the political excite- ment of the tune. The j t himself took a Blight part in the revolution, but after the dismal termi- nation of the war, he was allowed to return to his country. Since then he has published a nar- rative poem, Katalin (■Catherine'). Pesth, 1850. Besides which numerous stray pieces ba- in the magazines. Some of his works have I.. . a translated into Herman. ARAI'AI'MA. a genus of fresh-water fishes, the largest known fresh- wat r fishes in the world. Tie \ nid in the rivers of South America, and are sometimes taken in the Rio Negro 1.", i b ngth, and of the weight of 4 CWt Thi taken with the harpoon, and are highly esteem 1 1- both Eresh and salted. Iii . b have begun to form an article of col a in large quantities to Para. The genus A. belongs to the family of Clupesocida, a family of : I ipt ions fishes, allied to the C herring family, and is remarkable for the mosaic work of strong, bony, compound scales with which the body is covered. About six species are known. _ A'RARAT (Airarat, in the old Armenian dialect ; La, the plains of the Aryans), the ancient name of 356 an through which Hows the river Aras or Arax.s. It occupies the centre of the • a of Armenia, belonging partly to Turki i | io i; u ,,,. Notwitli p i i in Cfern is mi. l, where it i .'iii ark rested 'on tl a rat,' it has becomo common to give the name A., not to the entire range, Imt to the i Jli ,i by the Armenians .Ma-sis Leusar — i. e., 'mountain of the ark' (known among the Turks as Aghri p mountain ; ' and amon the Pel Nfih, 'Noah'i mountain'). It. rises in two volcanic known as the Greater and the Lesser Ararat ; the former, which attains the height of 17,215 above the lev! of! t with perpetual snow. It is the highest, elevation of Western and since the war of 1 SL'7 it forms the point Ru oi. Turkish, and Persian ten, In 1840 the form of the mountain n i partially changed by a frightful and di tractive Pn I ion to this period, at the I, lUntain, and at a point where a stream runs wild o e, thi I ""I the village of Argnrior Aguri. It v. led by gat lens and orchards, and inhabited by upwards of 1000 inhabitants. In the ravine, 2300 feet above the village, stood the Armenian convent of St .lames; and 1000 feet high r still, a chapel dedicated to St James. The beaut mild air of the district made Anguri a favi summer resort of the richer inhabitants of I: It was to undergo a great change, however. On the 20th of dune IS lc>, dreadful shocks of earthquake were felt. Great masses oi the mountain were thrown into the plain, the ravine was closed, the convent and chapel disappeared, ami the villi o. and the gardens which surrounded it. were buried under earth, and ice, and with the inhabitants utterly destroyed. Touraefort made a partial ascent of the mountain in 1700; since then, ascents have 1« i n made in 1829 by I' Parrot of Dorpat and his companions; in 1S50 by Colon,! Cle and a large party llf Russians engaged in the Ti i Caucasian triangul.tt ion ; in 1856 by Major I, Stuart; and in 1870 by Dr G. Radde and Dr G. These naturalists, the former of whom is r ol the museum at Tiflis, have carefully explored the mountain and district in which it is situated. See their " Reisen inArmenschen Hochland' [Pelermann't M for 1871, Nos. lit and 12) ; also a letter from Dr Radde in the volume. A'RAS, the ancient Praxes, a river of Armenia, formed by the junction of the Bingol-Su and the Kaleh-Su, and uniting its waters with those , Eur (ancient Cyru | alter a course of about 500 The main stream is the Bingol-Su, which in the Ihiigol-Tagh, in lat. -11' .'III' X.. and U" In' E.; and flowing N.N.E., i.s joined a little below il.isan-kaleh by the Kaleh-Su, after which -the combined str am is called i It then Hows eastward, forming for some time the mi boundary of t!i pro* i li of Kara, till it is '■'ed bj tli' Arpa, which Hows into it from the north. After this, it divides Russian and Turkish Armenia; at some distance to the south of Erivan it turns to the south-east, along the base of Ann. it ; soon after which it receives the waters of the '/.■ a river descending southward past Erivan. Near Djulfa it runs eastward for about fill miles; after which it runs to the north-east for upwards of 125 . ill it is joined by the large river Kur, descend- ill the Caucasus through Georgia. Their united waters, after a short eastward course, turn .suddenly to the south, and fall by three mouths into the Gulf of Kizilgatch, in the Caspian, in lat. 3U° 20' N. ARATUS-ARAUCAPJA. ARA'TUS, op Sicyon, a distinguished I statesman, was born about 271 u.c. Hi3 youth I none the party strifes of his native town, in which his lather, CHnias, met his death ; and ha him aU was only Bared l>y the efforts of his aunt, who had him secretly conveyed to whence he returned, in his twentieth year, and i bed Sicyon from its tyrant. Nicotics, 251 B.C. Sirpported by Ptolema:us Philadelphia, A. restored the republican form of ut to Sicyon, and united it with the Achaiun 1. of which he was appointed general, 245 B.O. Daring his honourable but checkered career, this was conferred on him seventeen times. II great object was to unite the Greek stat' -ut of them :m independent nation; but this LWarted by their mutual jealousies. A. was a brave general, a skilful tactician, and a disint* He died by poison administered to him iimand of Philip 111. of Macedou. Alt ATI'S, of Sou (or Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia), v be about 270 n. a, a Greek didactic poem, entitli a Phcenomena, founded on the astronomical system of os of Cnidos, and appended to it another poem, Diait.iiicift, giving rules far prognostication of the weather. A pure style and correct versification mark both poems, which were translated into Latin by Cicero, Ceesar Germanicus, and Kufus Festus Avienus. A. was a native of the same province as St Paul, who quotes from him in his speech on Mars' Hill : ' For as certain of your own poets have said, We also are his offspring.' The best edition is that by Buhle, 2 vols. Leipsic, 1793—1801. ARAUCA'NIA, that portion of Chili which lies between the Biobio on the N. and the Valdivia on the S. But, though thus embosomed as it were within Chili, it forms an aboriginal state, which is virtually independent of that republic. A. extends in S. lat. from 36 44' to 39° 50', and in W. long, from 70° to 74'' 30' — its length being about 1811 miles, and I ireadth from the shore of the Pacific to the of Hi" Andes being 150. This country, com- 5,000 square miles, is divided from north to south into four parallel regions, vary- ing from each other, with toll darity, in sod and climate. These are the coast region, the plain i. the region of the Lower And ol thi II jlier Andes. The productions of A. are amihvr to those of Chili. The population cannot be accurately estimated on account of the independ- ence of the nation; but from their successful resist- ance to the Spaniards, it must be presumed to be comparatively dense. A. has the proud distinction of being the only portion of the New World that has never received the 5 ■ ike. From the days of Pizarro and inwards, it has uniformly vindicated its freedom — its wars of independence having lasted, with intervals of precarious truce, from 1537 to 177'!- 1568, the Araucanians, tal from tie ir enemy, brought into the field some si ina! lr,,ns of cavalry; and in the war between Chili and Spain, some Araucanian youths of the first rank served as officers iu the republican armies. ARATTCA'RIA, a genus of plants of the natural order C (q,. v.) or Pines, consisting of lofty trees, natives of the southern hemisphere, and pushed by having the male and female Sowers be plants, the pollen of the male Bowers !i,.l in 10— 20 cases pendent from the apex of each seal, the female flowers two under each scale; having one ovule, Th are all ever- ■. the leaves broader than in pines and firs, which, however, {he trees resemble in their manner of growth. A. imbricata, sometimes called the Chili Pixe, a native of the Andes of Chili, forming forests on their v.. t. in declivities, attains a height of 150 feet, the trunk quite straight and free Araucaria imbricata : End of a branch, much reduced, shewing the mode of ramifica- tion, and the manner in which the leaves are imbricated. from knots. The bark of the young trees is studded with leaves from the base upwards, even until 12 or 15 years of age. The branches are in whorls of G, 7, or 8. Young trees have branches almost from the ground; old trees have tall naked stems, with a crown of branches. The female strobde (cone) is li ovate, S — 10 inches in diameter, the terminated by a long awl-shaped point, tie wedge-shaped, and more than an inch in length. The - Araucaria imbricata : Sketched in the Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. outer and inner bark of foil-grown trees are each 4— C inches in thi bark of a onrk- ; the mn.r. fungous and porous. From ind inner hark, and indeed from all parts re, in Hows readily and in L'reat abund- The leaves are I • about 1} meli m length, and ± inch in breadth near the bass, sharp- ARAUJO— ARBALEsTTXA. pouted. The timber is heavy, solid, hud, fibrous, yellowish white, and luTuituiillyviin.il. It is very or Boasts of slops. Tlie rosin, which u white, has a smell like frankincense, and a not unpli It is applied as a plasfa r to con- tusions. The a ed is pleasant t.> the ta to, not onlike the chestnut, and is a most important article t.i the Indians. It is eaten raw. boiled, or roasted. A spirituous liquor is also distilled from it. A single strobile sometimes contains between 200 and 300 Is, and one bee may be seen 1 . ..-■ . I. I with 20 or .'ill of these great strobiles. This Arancaria was intro- duced into Britain in the end of last century, and is now pretty frequently planted, it promises to add a new feature to British landscapes, as other trees of the same order, particularly tin I pruee, have done before, and will probablyprove important in an economical point of view. It is the only species which seems suited to the climate of Britain. A. Brasiliana, the Brazil Pine, has loosely imbri- cated lanceolate leaves, and a looser and more spreading habit than A. imbricate The seeds or nuts are sold as an article of food in Bio Janeiro. The resin which exudes from the tree is mix. I wax to make candles. A. excdta, now called Eutassa exc ltd (and 1 ly ?• am . ' i lie Xorfolk Island Pink, a native of Norfolk Island. New Cale- donia, &c, attains a height of 1G0— 220 feet, free from branches to 80 — 100 feet, and with a trunk sometimes 11 feet in diameter. The wood is white, tongh, close-grained, and so heavy as almost to sink in water. The leaves of the young trees are linear and spreading; those of the adult are ovate, and closely imbricated. The strobiles are ovate, 4 — 5 inches in length. A. Ounninghamii, m... ranked in the new genus Eutassa or Alimgia, the MoBSTON Bay Pink, a native of the shores of Moreton Bay and banks of the Brisbane River in New South Wales, very much resembles the last. It attains a height of GO — 130 feet, and a dial of 4 — 8 feet. The leaves of the adult trees are lanceolate and imbricated. The w<>..d is yellowish, and is used for boat-building, house-carpentry, and the common kinds of furniture. The large seeds of A. BidwilUi are used for food by the natives at Moreton Bay. Certain fossil Cotlifira found in carbonifeTOUi stone have received the nam i Ua. Living- stone found a forest of large silicilicd trees m Zambesi, which Mr Qi mis t specimens, ascertained to 1 d coniferous wood of the Araucanan type.' Fossil trees of the same type occur in the carboniferous strata of Britain. A trunk, for instance, -17 feet long, was found in Craigleith Quarry, near Edinburgh, in 1830. ARAUJO, B'A/Evi i". A'.n. Mo. afterwards Count da Barca, was born at S.i. in the D hood of r..nte de Lima, in Portugal, on the I4tb ly 1754. At the age of 11,' be was Oporto to study under his uncle, who held a high military command there. In 17^7 be wasappo Portuguese ambassador to the Hague. Before entering on his duties, he visit. .1 England, where he omitted no opportunity of obtaining a know of English manufactures, commerce, politic He next proceeded to Paris, where he similarly employed fa - i after bis arrival at the Hague, be found himself entangled in political diffi- culties. The French Revolution bad broken out, but the part which he played in the compl of political affairs which ensued falls to be treated more properly under the History of Portugal (q. v.). At length he threw up his ambassadorship, and travelled through Germany, enlarging the sph his studies. He paid especial attention to minera- logy and chemistry, and was fortunate enough to 358 become acquainted with I W'i.lan.l, Schiller, Herder, ftc After the Peace of Amiens., A. was sent as ambae odor t.. st Petersburg; in 1803 he d to Lisbon, to assume the ..flicc of By of State; and in 1S0G he obtained tho nty in the kingdom. His efforts to introduce ious agencies of civilis- ation, while he occupied this situation, were unremitting. Glass, paper, wool, and cotton manu- factures, received liberal enCi it. But the sudden approach of the French army put an i I to all his improvements. The royal family, which arte had formally dethroned in his victorious proclamation, emigrated to Brazil. A. embarked also, taking along with him a complete printing apparatus, his miucralogical collei ; Werner, and all necessary chemical instruments. During the first years of his residence in the \. w World, lie devoted himself assiduously to scientilic and literary pursuits ; founded a school of medicine and chemistry, introduced the cultivation of tea, an improved machine for sawing wood, and a sugar- alembic, and established a porcelain manufactory. He had also a magnificent garden, the plants of were scientifically arranged. He died on the 21st June 1817. ARATJ'RFj, a town of Venezuela, South America. It is situated in lat. 9° 17' X., long. 60° 28' W., GO mill a E.X.E. of Trujillo, in a region noted for its fi rtility in the production of cotton, coffee, cattle, &c. The town itself is rather handsome, and con- tains 10,000 inhabitants. ARBALEST, ARCU'BALEST, or CROSS- B( )\V, was a weapon much in use during the feudal times. Its recognised position among military amis maybe dated fr.un about the period of Richard I. The smaller kinds of A. were bent by pressing the Arbalest. hand on a small steel lever called the 'goat's foot ;' but the larger kinds were bent by placing the foot in a loop or stirrup at the end of the central shaft, and drawing the cord upwards with the hand. At bow was made very strong, often of steel ; in this form it required a mechanical con- trivance, called a 'moulihev to bind it. Some ordinary arrows wire used with the A, bin . arrows of a shorter and stouter kind, called 'carrials'or 'quarrels,' were employed; the a four-sided pyramidal form of head. Occasionally n balls were shot from the I Arbalests. The art r cross-bowmen, c a quiver with fifty arrows as an armament in of the battles of the 13th c. They were an essen- tial component of armies of that period, taking up their position in the van of the battle-array; some were mounted, some on foot, and they occasionally wore armour. The supply of arrows or quarrels was carried after them to the battle-field in carts. 'I he A. continued to be a favourite weapon in Eng- land throughout the 13th c. ; but in the 14th, it gave way to the long -bow, which was found to be a more convenient weapon in battle. The Ion is described under Bow am. Alkow ; and the ral military system to which it belonged, under Archers and Archery. ARBALESTI'XA, in the military system of the AP.BELA— ARBITRATION. middle age*, was a small window or wicket through which the cross-bowmen shot their quarrels or arrows at an enemy besieging a fortified ] ARBE'LA, now Kil.il or Arl.il, a small town of Assyria, east from Mm nl. famous as having given name to the battle in which Alexander finally defeated Darius, 331 B. c. The battle was really imela (the ' camel's house '), to the north-west of A. ARBITRATION i3 the adjudication by private persons appointed to decide a matter, or matters in controversy, on a reference made to them for that purpose, either by agreement of the disputants or by the order, or on the suggestion, of a court of law. The proceeding generally is called a submission to arbitration, or reference; the parties appointed to decide are termed arbitrators, or referees; and their adjudication is called an award. This mode of set- tling disputes is not only frequently resorted to by ut3 themselves, who are anxious to avoid the delay and expense of proceedings in the public tribunals, but the .Statute-Book bears witness to the oral of it by the Legislature at various times. An old act, the 9 and lb Will. III. c. 15, testifies of A. in strong terms, declaring that ' it hath been found by experience that references made 1 >y rule of court have contributed much to the ease of the subject in the determining of controversies, i ise the parties become thereby obliged to sub- mit to the award of the arbitrators, and it proceeds to authorise and encourage merchants, traders, and others to put an end to their controversies and quar- rels by means of A.; and a modern act, passed in 1S33, the 3 and 4 WO]. IV. c. 42, S3. 39, 40, and 41, contains still more anxious provisions for rendering - nces to A. effectual. Since that act was passed, the practice and feeling in favour of A. has increased, so much so that there are recent statutes which con- tain provisions rendering A, or private reference in certain cases, compulsory. The Railway Acts of 1845, the Public Health Act of 1S4S, and the Common Law Procedure Act of 1S54, are modern examples of this legislative peculiarity. The matters that may be determined by an arbi- trator are all personal disputes and differences which might otherwise be made the subject of controversy in the courts of civil jurisdiction. Thus breaches of contracts generally, breaches of promises of niar- iss, assaults, charges of slander, differ- i respecting partnership transactions or the pur- • price of property, and questions relating to tolls or the right to tithes, may all be referred to A. Qu otions relating to real property may also be referred, such as those relating to the partition of lands of joint tenants or tenants in common, to set- tlements of disputed boundaries — to differences be- i landlord and tenant respecting waste — and to the title to land. Pure questions of law may also j rred to the decision of an arbitrator. An arbitrator may have, therefore, to determine the h tbility of a party on a promissory-note or bill of exchange, or to construe an act of parliament, or to give a judicial opinion on the effect of a will or deed. Actions at Uw, and suits in equity, may y A. ; and this kind of reference may be made at any stage of the proceedings, some- times even after verdict, and probably by analogy, after decree in equity. Questions relating to the future use and enjoyment of property, and future or anticipated differences between parties, may likewise Be referred. A matter, h o w e ve r clearly illegal, cannot be made the subject of a valid reference. But where trans- actions between parties have been brought toa close by a geueral award, apparently good, the courts have refused to re-open them on a suggestion that some illegal item has been admitted in account. There are certain matters which are specially referred to A. by statute. Besides those we have already alluded to, the following matters are all referrible to A. : Questions relating to the expenses of prisoners, under the 5 Geo. IV. c. 85; to the regulation of municipal corjxjrations in England and Wales, under the 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76; to the laws concerning prisons, under the 5 and 6 Vict c. 98; to disputes between masters and workmen, under the 5 Geo. IV. c. 96, amended by the 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 07; to the laws relating to Barings' banks, under the 9 Geo. TV. i. 92, and 7 and 8 Vict. c. S3; to the land rights and other possessions of certain ecclesiastical and col- legiate corporations, under the 2 and 3 WilL IV. c 80; to the management and improvement of epis- copal and capitular estates in England, under the 17 and IS Vict. c. 116; to the conveyance of mails by railways, under the 1 and 2 Vict. c. 98 ; to insol- vents and to insolvency, bankruptcy, and execution, under the 1 and 2 Vict. c. Ho, 7 and S Vict. c. 96, 1 13 Vict. c. 106; to the constitution of com- panies incorporated for carrying on public i takings, under the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 16 ; to the taking of lands for undertakings of a public nature, under 8 and 9 Vict. c. 18; to the metropolitan sewers, under the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 112 (continued and amended by 12 and 13 Vict. c. 93, the 14 and 15 Viet. c. 76, the 15 and 16 Vict. c. 64, the 16 and 17 Vict. c. 125, the 17 and IS Vict. c. Ill) ; to friendly societies, under the 17 and IS Vict. c. 50, and the 18 and 19 Vict. c. 93. Under these acts of parliament, the class of cases which may, or which must, be referred to A., have been greatly enlarged. The railway acts, in par- ticular, have largely contributed to this kind of amicable determination, although the parties in such cases cannot be said to have much discretion in the matter. Under the provisions, again, of the Common Law Procedure Act, 1S54 (17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, ss. 3 and 0), parties may be compelled by the court, ox judge who tries the case, to refer matters of mere account in an action which cannot be conveniently tried in the ordinary way. Among the questions that cannot be referred to A, are matters arising out of the administration of the criminal law in the case of felonies and relating to agreements or transactions against public policy. Felonies and offences of a public nature cannot be referred, became the public safety and good require them to be punished, and for this purpose they can only 1m properly tried in one of the ordinary of the country. With respect to matters which cannot be referred on account of their being against public policy, the rule is so obviously just as not to need illustration. But there are certain misdemeanours which may be either settl. .1 by agreement or by means A, on a principle i ten! application by Chief-justice Gibbs— that where there is a remedy, by action as well as by indictment, a reference of the matter in controversy is good. And in these coses of misdemeanour, a compromise or settlement under a reference may be made, nviction. but with the sanction of the court. As to the parties who may make a reference fa I A.. it may be St :l lly, that every one capable of making a disposition of his property or release of Ins rights may make a submission to an award, and in tins category may be placed a married woman, who has a separate estate settled to her separa and there are even cases where a reference I a husband and wife has been held valid ; and of course a husband may submit to A. differences m ABBTTB.ATIO.V. regp cting lii -4 wife's] Inch has not urate IISC. 1: bhi powers of infants or persons under ■ abmit tn A., there are numerous decisions in courts i>t' law and equity: bnt go upon refinements and nice > ! I nib d for the rional lawyer than for the ordinary reader, and we therefore do not think it 1 any explanation of them in popular article such as tins professes to be. Parti 1 i ' orporations may make n ferencesto A. mi the principles already 1 wording relation iu which they stand to the matter in dispute. Tims • who cannot submit to A. are persons in the following position: Persons who cannot conl 1 women without any estate settled to their separate use; and along with them, as laid down in old ante-reformation 1 ks, person in reli- gion, and persons under durei The] to the incapacity of married women to refer to V when' tin/ husband, by exile, banishment, or other , is; held to be civilly dead, and when he is an alien enemy. To these exceptions it may be added, that in suits respecting the property of chari' Court 01 Chancery will not permit a refi howevi r advisable such a course may seem, unless the attorney-general gives his con It has generally been the opinion of thi 1 I -ion, and held to be the doctrine of the courts, that a reference by the consent of conn 1 I in a cause is binding on his client; and, Lord chancellor Klilon 1 1, that it was for the counsel to consider whether he was authori d to refer, and if so, he (the chancellor) would act ent so given ; and the right and privilege of counsel to mil.' .! reference has beenverj strongly laid down in the Scotch courts. But a \. ry reci at ease in the Court of Common Picas (Swinfen v. Swinfen), where a compromise by counsel was successfully 1 I by the client, has very much unsettled the English law on this subject; and now the feeling of tin Bar II I 1 land is, that it is unwise to refer or compromise a litigation on the independent authority of counsel Submissions to reference may also be made by executors and administrators, by trustees, by the committee of a lunatic, and by the officer of a public company, who is authorised by a statute to sue and be sued in the name of the company. And there are persons especially empowered to refer by the statutes wdiich we have already enumerated. Disputes may lie referred to A. in any m that expresses the agreement or understanding of the parties to be bound by the decision of the arbitrator; and for this purpose no formal subi either verbal or written, is necessary; but the arrangement must be such as manifestly to shew an intention to have the difference concluded by a ■ adjudication in the nature of an But where the submission is in writing, it must lie i 1 due form. A testator, however, cannot exclude his will from litigation by a proviso, that all differences respecting it shall lie referred to A., although it is thought that the parties benefited by the will might themselves so refer, I .speaking, it is advantageous to make the A. 1 a form as that the award may be made a rule of court— that is, may be adopted by a court of law as its judgment on the matter submitted, a pro. that affords an obvious facility in enforcing the award ; and for this purpose it is necessary to make the procedure conformable to the directions of the statutes 9 and 10 Will. III., and :? and 4 Will. IV.. alr.-ady referred to. Where the submission is e verbal or constituted by a private bond or dei liable to be capriciously revoked, and proceedings on the award, in sueh a ease, can only he taken in ili.' ( '..nit of < lhani 'I'lie arbitrator ought 1.. 1..- a person who stands perfectly indifferei d the disputants; but ore no otl I ions for the office. And the choice by parties of the i h ho tie II decide between them, is per- fectly free. Some legal writers have even gone so far as to maintain, tint nut only infants and in 1 women, bnt even idiot, ami lunatics, can lie arbitra- ii nt that everj \- i liberty i he likes best and he cannot afterwards object to the defici of those wdiom he has I lit this, it is clear, i and ili.- policy of the law wi "ly be int' ' I linst BUch extreme cases. It is better I rule to I.', that on the condition that the party selected is of ordinary intelligence, the choice of an arbitrator is absolutely unfettered. The only exception to il is rule is the case of a party who, by office or position, is the person pointed out for the duty under a ce in .1.' by Btatute. In matters "f compli- oati'ilaeei.iints, in. reant ili men are generally pr El d. [n other casi . it is usual to appoint barristers who, I i to judicial investigations, are able to estimate the evidence properly, to confine the examination strictly to the points in question, ami, in making the award, to avoid those informality i of which it might afterwards be ■ I Both time and expense are thus saved by fixing on a professional arbitrator. It has, indeed, been remarked, that an arbitrator should . adeavour to arrive at bis conclusions upon the same rules and principles which would have actuated the court for which he is substituted — a ride of conduct that ly points to the expediency of a lawyer being the r.l But an arbitrator is not bound by the mere rules of practice which prevail in the ordinary courts of justice, and he has been held justified in allowing interest on both sides of an unliquidated account, alt ho b i b a determination was again t. tctice of the Court of Chancery, where the suit, which had been refi I I I been commenced. The proceed I leanai trator; ulated according to the peculiar circ dci ol the submitted, but generally it is advisable to conduct them according to the forms observed in courts of law. and they usually are so conducted. Each of the parties furnishes the arbitrator with a state- ment of his case, which is done by giving him a copy of the briefs on each side; and on the day appointed he pro© eds to hear them (either in | or by their counsel or attorneys), .and to recen evidence on each . ai arlj in the same manner as at an ordinary trial Having so heard the the arbitrator proceeds to make his award, which need not mi . . lor a verbal award is perfectly valid ; but in practice it is usual for the arbitrator to make his award on paper stamped with the proper award stamp, and this he delivers to the successful party. The unsuccc ful party gets a copy of the award on unstamped paper. This award in its . Efei I opi rates as a final and con- i cting all the matter submitted, and it binds the rights of the parties for all time. An award may be set aside on the ground of corruption and fraud in the arbitrator, and for any material irregularity or illegality appearing on the face of the proceedings. But the tendency of the courts is to favour arbitrations and maintain a unless such serious grounds as we have lit erred to substantiated. Wlnre there are two arbitrators, the sul.ii; . often provides that in the case of their differing in opinion the matter referred shall be decided by a ARBOGA— ARBORICULTURE. third person, called an umpire, who is generally appointed under a power t<> tli.it effect, by the arbi- trators themselves. But they cannot make such an appointment unless specially authorised so to do by the terms of the submission. This umpire rehears :!; ei ie, and for this purpose is invested with the i powers as those possessed by the arbitrators, and bound by the same rules. In Scotland an A. takes place in virtue of a written submission executed by the parties i" favour of the chosen referee, who there is called an arbiter, instead of arbitrator, as in England ; and his award is called a decree-arbitral. This submission is in the form of a regular deed, and is said to be general or special, according to the nature of the matters sub- mittal by it, the submission specifying all the parti- culars of the reference, anil the name of the referee — the arbiter's powers and duties, which, in thi h nary case, are of the most comprehensive character tiie specification of the time within which the award or decree-arbitral is to be made — a clause obliging the parties to perform the award under a specified penalty; and other anxious provisions, which are all carefully specified in the submission. The case then proceeds before the arbiter, generally according to the forms observed in the ordinary Scotch courts; and the arbiter makes his award in a very solemn manner, the decree-arbitral comm DCing with a recital of the submission and of all the pro- cedure—and after stating that the arbiter has ripely considered the whole matter, and has 'Coil ami a good conscience before his eyes,' it gives the arbiter's jiii meat, and among other things ordains the sub- mission and decree to be recorded according to the clause of registration in the former, ami the extract from the registry so made forms a judgment which may be put in execution by cither party against the other. The decree-arbitral, like the submission itself, must be executed and attested in the form of a regular deed. Where there arc two arbiters, the submission usually provides, that in the event of their differing in opinion, they shall name an umpire or ovcrsman, as he is called in Scotland, whose judgment is final. In conclusion, and as a remark on A. generally, it only remains to be stated, that of course, from the nature of the case, there can be no appeal on the merits of the dispute submitted to any public tribunal whatever. ARBO'GA, an ancient city in Sweden, in the provin e of Westmannland, on a small river of the same name, by which, with the aid of a canal, the laki llialm.ir and Malar arc united. A. used to be an important commercial town, but it has now sunk into insignificance, and only possesses an hi I interest from the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Of all its church, i I . and chapi Is there only now remain the town and parish church former with an altar-piece of Rembrandt's. Several kings of the family of Vasa have resided here. Church assemblies were held here in 13%, 1412, 1117, 1423, and 1174; diets in 14:!."., 144(1, 1171. 1529, and 1561, in which last year also certain articles, known as the Arboga Article', v, . re passed by which Eric XIV. was enabled to limit the power oi the collies; and in 1625, Gustavus Adolphus issued an edict here, commanding that the copper coin of the realm shoidd contain its full worth of copper. AEBORE'SOENT (from Tat. oroor, a to term applied to plants to signify that they possess either altogether, or in some measure, the ch of trees. Kven the dwarf willows and birch, s, on onfines of polar or alpine perpetual snow, arc described as the A. vegetation of these regions. AEBOKIOTJ i.ti'im; (from Lai arbor, a tree), a 1. - in i < oifj in . tin trultrt at on of I but in i i idly restricted to tic- planting and management oi timber trees, or i mployed as i Ei In ue ,ii |. a t of the cultivation of fruit trees, which is a branch of horticulture or gardening. The ancients practised A. it, but chiefly with the \ tew of beautifying their villas, i public walks in the It is only [or similar purposi -', and on a very limited -e.il,., that A. is yet anywhere practised in Am 44ie planting of timber tiers i..r economical pur- or with a view to profit,! ary whilst nil null forests ai . i 4 even in Britain to an od than the beginning of the 16th ''., nor did n I.. ...me at all general till a much later date. The earl] i laws of England, as of other feudal count™ s, had reference chiefly to eon' Eor 1 of which it was, and in order to the enjoymei that large tracts w re di populated and mto/oraU by the first Norman kin i. Plant for timber and fuel were, however, cerl i olj < England in the 16th c. ; and the importance of tho i ni, eei. we in ..I on public atfc hi ton b av of that period. In the 17th c., the greatly inct .hin mil for oak, for the building both of snips and of houses, gave a new impulse to A., which attract, d more than ever before the attention both of il win n ion t and of the LTcat landowners; the publication of Evelyn's Sylva also did more than any previous work to promote a taste for it It was in this century that nurseries for forest trees wi re first established. It was not until the beginning of the l.sthc. that the first extensive plantations were made in Scotland, nor until towards the end of that century that A. bi general in that country or in Ireland. How much the very landscape has been changed by it great a difference has been made by the i of bleak hills and barren wastes into woods — how much the scene has been changed by the new forms of foreign trees, some of which are now in many districts more abundant than those which are indi- genous, it is not easy to imagine; and how much these changes have promoted and are in improvements in agriculture and increased produc- tiveness of fields, is equally difficult to estimate. The A. of France, Germany, and other parts of Europe, to this day, consists in a I ire of the management of natural forests ; and in th eastern parts of the continent this is almost exclu- sively the case. Without a careful management of tin- natural forests, many districts of France and Germany would soon be destitute of fuel ; bj i of it an increased supply of valuable timber is also obtained ; and extensive domains belonging to the state, or to private proprietors, are rendered much more productive. It is iii Germany that the i a e ineiit of the forests has received the greatest attention, and has been mo .'■ and scientifically conducted. The forest trees of Britain, and of temperate climates generally}, are conveniently divided into two classes — the on i on ■ "iiiferous t pines and firs {NaddhoU, Le.,tne'needlewood'of the Gel in ins), tho other including all other kinds i ! ... the 'leaf-wood' of the Germans); the latter being sometimes subdivided into of which the most important in Britain are oak, ash, dm, beech, birch, hornbeam, sycamore, walnut, and chestnut ; and sqfl '" led tr -. a- willow, poplar. lime, alder, ami horse chestnut Of these ana . and of the soils and situations to which they are adapted, notice is taken in sep irate articles. Plantations are generally formed in Britain by Ml ARBORICULTURE. menu of trees raised from seed in .1 nursery ; but by sowing the seed cm 1I1-' ground intended tor the plantation ; in which oa circumstances permit, a crop of grain is often sown along with the seeds of the trees, as these do not in a] vegetate very soon ; and tho young plants derive Emm the absence of clmkin when the grain-crop is reaped, and from the protec- tion afforded by the stubble. It lias h by some, but there is no sufficient evidence in sup- port of the opinion, that more healthy and vigorous .ire obtained by sowing on the spot than by planting those which have fa 1 in a nursery'. H o w eve r, only very young trees can be planted with advantage, those which have attained iter size requiring a degree of attention far beyond what is possible in plantations even of very moderate extent. The time of planting is from November to February. The most app r o ved mode of planting is in small pits, in which the roots are 1 d in a natural manner, and which are then illy tilled np with earth; but it is often thought sufficient when the tree to be planted is very young, to make a slit for it with the spade, or two slits, one at right angles to the other in the form of the letter T. Other methods are also adopted, par- ticularly for rocky situations, in which the spade cannot be used. Economy is often a consid of great importance in determining the mode of planting. The formation of plantations by the sowing of seed has been more generally practised on the con- tinent than in Britain. In this way the vacancies in the natural forests of France and Germany are Idled up. In this way also great sandy tracts have been covered with wood on the coasts of Bomerauia and of France. This has particularly been accom- plished on a scale of extraordinary magnitude in the downs of drifting sand, between the rivers Adour and Gironde. The operations thi > . by M. Brcmontier in 1789, and deserve to lie mentioned as perhaps the most important operations in -V that ei • been performed in the world. Vast forests of pinaster now occupy what was originally louse sand destitute of vegetation. Too little attention has hitherto been generally paid to the adaptation of the kinds of trees that are planted to the soil and climate; and to this cause many failures in A. are to be ascribed. Some tiv. a grow well even in exposed situations, and arc tit to be employed in these 1 , either to form entire planta- tions, or to occupy the outer part, and so to other trees, which in general are not planted until the outer zone or belt of the most hardy kinds is ■■.hat advanced; some succeed only in rich soils ; some arc incapable of enduring the sea-breeze; others, as the sycamore, the elder, and the pinaster, are comparatively unaffected by it. Some trees Buffer from an amount of moisture from which alders or willows would rather derive advantage; but, in general, the thorough drainage of the land intended for a plantation is one of the circumstances most important to its success. To the necessity of this thorough drainage we must look as compensating, or more than compensat- ing, the influence which woods exercise in condens- ing the moisture of the atmosphere, and in render- ing a climate cold and damp ; marshy soils being in this respect still worse. The shelter afforded by plantations judiciously disposed, whether in belts or otherwise, is also of great importance in render- ing them suitable for that improved agriculture in which thorough drainage is of the first necessity, and which is always productive of amelioration of climate. The influence of plantations is therefore, upon the whole, beneficial, although vast masses of are injurious to climate; and it must be admitted that in some localities the planting of trees 1 ried to excess, so that fields often Buffer, particularly in autumn, from want of free circula- tion of air, and the landscape is often resin, ted to very narrow limits. The remedy in Buch cases is obvious; and it not unfrequently happens that within a short distance new plantations might be formed with every prospect of benefit. Much has been written about the pruning of forest trees, with a view especially to the produc- tion of taller and straighter stems ; and considerable difference of opinion exists as to the extent to which pruning should be practised. It is, h o w e v e r, very .iiv delayed till the branches to be removed have attained too great a size, and is then very rudely performed, to the spoding of the timber rather than to the improvement of it. The prac- tice of leaving mags, instead of cutting branches clean off, has particularly bad effects. Bines and tirs, from their manner of growth, need pruning less than trees of other kinds. When trees have been planted, not merely for profit but for ornament, this ought to be remembered in pruning, which, however, is too often intrusted to persons utterly devoid of taste; and trees which, as they naturally grew, were very beautifid, are so treated with axe and saw that they become deformities instead of adorning the scene. In forming plantations, different kinds of trees aro very generally mixed, although masses of one parti- cular kind arc also frequently planted. It is usual, however, to plant along with those which are destined most permanently to occupy the ground, trees of other kinds as nurses, to be gradually removed as the plantation advances in growth. For this purpose, spruce and larch are more generally employed than any other tree ; althouj.li Scotch bl- and birch are also deemed suitable for certain situa- tions. The removal of some of these nurses affords the first returns of profit from the plantation, which 1 1 afterwards thinned from time to tune. Plantations far mot Lly suffer from being thinned too little, than from being thinned too much. To the want of proper thinning is to be in part ascribed the failure of many of those narrow belts ol 'plan ' 1 mg which are too coi 11 111 Scotland, and which leaving been intended for shelter, very imperfectly serve their purpose, and ; ei in to have suffered from the hardest usage them- s' Ives. The thinning of a plantation which has been allowed to grow too thick, must, however, be very gradually performed, that it may be beneficial, and not injurious. After a sudden thinning, a planta- tion sometimes ceases to thrive, and many trees arc often laid prostrate by the next storm; for tii accommodate themselves both in their roots and branches to the situations in which they glow. A considerable number of years must elapse before any pecuniary return is derived from a plantation, yet this mode of employing soils is often found to be the most remunerative of which they are capable, even without reference to the improvement of adja- cent lands to which shelter is afforded ; and the increased demand for timber in Britain, tot sleepers of railways and other purposes, tends to the still further encouragement of A. The resinous products of pine-woods are not con- sidered as a source of profit in Britain ; but the tar, turpentine, and resin obtained from them in some parts of Europe, form articles of commerce. The great pinaster plantations already mentioned, on the sands between the Adour and Gironde. now yield products of this kind in large quantity. The employ- ment of trees for ornamental purposes belongs not so much to A. as to Landscape Gardening (q. v.). The transplanting (q. v.) of large trees is only practised for ARBOR VIT/E— ARBTJTIINOT. ornamental purposes. Hedgerow trees arc planted chiefly for ornament, although sometimes they may afford useful shelter ; but where this is not the case, can Beldam be reckoned profitable, as they are injurious to crops. Copse or coppice-wood differs so much, hoth in its uses and in the mode of its man- agement, from other plantations, that it must be briefly noticed in a separate article, ARBOR VVTAi ( Thuja), a genus of plants of the natural order Coniferce, allied to the cypress, and consisting of evergreen trees and shrubs with com- pressed or flattened branchleti small, scale-like, imbricated leaves — and monoecious flowers, which have 4-celled anthers, and the scales of the strobiles (or cones) with two upright ovules. — The common Arbor Vita; {Thuja occidental is). A. V. (T. occidenlaUs) is a native of North Ame- rica, especially between lat. 46° and lat. 49°, but has long been well known in Europe. It is a tree of 40^-50 feet high; its branches are horizontally expanded, and the strobiles (cones) small and obo- vate. The young leafy twigs have a balsamic smell, and both they and the wood were formerly in great repute as a medicine; the oil obtained by distilla- tion from the twigs, which has a pungent and camphor-like taste, has been ivo. -ntly recommended as a vermifuge. Hie wood of the stem is reddish. soft, and very light, but compact, tough, and durable, bi aring exposure to the weather remarkably welL The tree is very common in Britain, but planted chiefly as an ornamental tree, and seldom attaining it a size as in its native country. It delights ii 1. moist situations. — The ChtNKSB A. V. ( T. iKs), a native of China and Japan, which is immediately distinguishable from the former Bpecies by its upright branches and larger, almost globose and rough strobiles, is also in Britain, and upon Che continent of Europe, a common ornament of pleasure- grounds J but it does not attain so great a size a, the preceding, and is more sensible of the cold of severe winters. The balsamic smell is very agn The tree yields a resin, having a pleasant odour, to which high medicinal virtues were formerly aserihed : hence the remarkable name ; ! •• in, sig- nifyingTreeof Life), given to this 9pecieB > andeztend< d fa) the genus. Other species are known, but they are less important than these. In its native country, this species also attains the size of a considerable tree. There are Beveral other species of Thuja, some of which seem well suited to the open air in the climate of Britain, and others require the protection of green- houses. Amongst the former are T. plitata, from Nootka Sound; and T. dolabrata, a nati Japan, a tree of gnat height and thickness, and which will not improbably prove the most important of the whole genus. — A tree, common in North America, and there known by the name of White Cedar, is sometimes included in the genus Thuja, under the name of T. spharoidea, but is more gene- rally ranked in the genus Cuprums as C. thyoides. See Cypress. The timljcr is highly esteemed, and an infusion of the scrapings is sometimes used as a stomachic. — Closely allied to the genus Thuja is Oallitris. Bee nvnuarach. ARBROA'TII, ABERBRO'THWICK, or ABERBRO'THOCK, a seaport town in the east of Forfarshire, situated at the month of a stream called the Brothock. Here King William the Lion founded a Tyronensian abbey in honour of Thomas-a-Becket in 1178. The king was inl in it in 1214. In the abbey, Bruce and the Scot- tish nobles met in 1320, to resist the claims of Edward II. to Scotland. Cardinal Beaton was the last of its abbots. Next to Holyrood, the abbey was the most richly endowed monastery in Scotland. It was destroyed by the Reformers in 1560. Its ruins — which are cruciform, 270 by 100 feet — are picturesque, presenting lofty towers, columns, Gothic windows, and a line circular east window, 'the Round O of A.' The chief industries of A. are flax- spinning, jute-spinning, and the manufacture- of sail-cloth. The new harbour, begun in 1841, admits vessels of 400 tons at spring-tides; it is protected by a breakwater. In 1872 the number of vessels belonging to the port was 68 ; tonnage, 10,021. The chief exports are grain, potatoes, tish, pork, and pavement, chiefly from Lower Devonian quarries 8 or 10 miles inland. A. is a royal burgh, and in eon- junction with Montrose, Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie burghs, returns one member to parliament. Popu- lation in 1871 of parliamentary burgh, 19,973. A. is supposed to be the Fairport of The Antiquary, and the Redhead Crags and Coves form some of the scenes in that novel. The famous Bill- rock Light-house stands in the sea, 12 mUes south- east of Arbroath. ARBU'THNOT, Jonx, a distinguished writer and physician, the contemporary and friend oi and Swift, was the son of a Scottish episcopal clergyman, and born at Arbuthnot, in Kinear- dineshire, shortly after the Restoration. He Btudied medicine at Aberdeen, where he took his d A.'s father was obliged to resign his charge at the revolution. His sous' prospects being thus hi in th.ir own country, they were under the sity of going abroad to seek their fortune. John removed soon after to London, and there sup- ported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1607 he published an examination of Dr Woodward's account of the Deluge, win. ii brought him into notice as a person of no common ability. Accident called him into attendance on l'nnce George of Denmark, who thenceforth patronised him. In 1700 he was appointed physician to the queen, anil in 171H was eleeted a member of the Royal ' of Physicians. On the death of Qni D Anne, in 171 I. be lost his situation, ami his circumstances were never BO prosperous afterwards. In 1717, A., along with Pope, gave assistance to Gay in a entitled Vhr» Bo r» after Marriaq . which, how- ever, in spite of having the aid of a trio of wits, proved a complete failure. In 1723 he was I second censor of the Royal College of Physicians ; in 1727 he was made an Elect, and had the honour to pronounce theHarvoian oration for the year. He died ARBUTUS-ARCADIA. at Rampstead, in 1735. A. was one of the leaders in i i of \i its which adorn d I Queen Anne, and « i till more noblj di tinj ai hi d bj I lie rectitude of ins morals and the goodness of his heart He assisted Swift and Pope in the • position of thai brilliant satire, the Memoir* qf M portions of il refer to Bcience and philosophy; and he was un- dly the author of the a lebrated polil the j which has bo often been Imitated. Besides a vera! medii vs, he published Tables iff Q nan, and Measures, Weights, a >< i (London, 1705 1708), a work which was long the best authority on the :. There is also a philosophical po mo bis composition in Dodsley's Miscellanies, entitli d I A'KUUTUS, a minis of plants of the Datura! order I'.i to i c mtauiing a nu- ll- and shrubs, the gn iter part of which are American. The frail is fleshy, 6-celled, many-seeded, usually dotted with little projections, wh o s that of some species lias a sort of resemblance to straw- berries; the corolla is urn-shaped. — A. D'nedo, the Arbutus Uncilo. Stb w\t.i:ui:y Tree, is a native of the south of Europe, found also in Asia and America, and in one loi -lny in tin- British Isles, the Lakes of rlillarney, w new its fine foliage adds much 1" the charm of the scenery. Tt requires protection in winter in the climat - of Paris. In Britain, it is ofl in planted as an ornamental evergreen. It grows to the In 20 30 feet, but is rather a great bush than a Tim bark is rugged ; the leaves oblongo lane "l ite, smooth and shining, bluntly serrated; the Bowers n i Iding, large, greenish white; the fruit globose, of a scarlet colour, with a vapid Bweetish last,., it is. however, sometimes eaten. Of late, excellent alcohol has been made from it in Italy. A wine is made from it in Corsica, which, however, is narcotic', if hi considerable quantity, as the fruit itself is, if eaten too freely. The bark and leaves are astrin- gent. — A. Andrachne is also sometimes cultivated as an ornamental plant in Britain, but is a frosts. Its fruit, and that of A. are eaten in Greece and the east But all the species seem to possess narcotic qualities in greater oi dej i •; the fruit of A. fwrens, a small shrub, a native of Chili, so much as to cause delirium. — A. a, which abounds at Cape Horn ami mi Stat in Island, is an elegant and most pleasing evergreen, very much resembling the myrtle. It grows to the height of .': or -1 feet, and produces small white I . i"!l .Aid by a profusion of red .shining berries, which ornament the bush during winter. Their flavour is insipid, but somewhat astringent. us, they have been made by into tolerable tarts. — A. Uvu ursi, now generally i died Arclottaphylos Uva urei, the Etxn i: \i:ri in. is a small trailing evergreen shrub, common in the Highlands of Scotland and in the Hebrides, and indeed in the northern parts of Europe, Sibi i North America. It '.rows in dry, heathy, ami rocky places. The flowers are in small crowded terminal racemes, of a beautiful rose 1 The berries are austere and mealy; they are said to form a principal part of the foo I of 1 in northern regions. Grouse also feed on them. The diied leave are used as on astringent and tonic mi d ' me, and as such have a place in the pharma- copoeias, being principally employed in chronic affections of the bladder; but tl Vaccinium I'M.* I' 1 " i are often fraudulently substituted for them.- The B] li b I'.i uiberry [A. or Arctostaphytos alpina) is also a native of the northern parts of the globe, a small trailing shrub, with black berrii i about the size of a sloe, relished l>y some, but h- ■'. ii a peculiar taste, which to others is diss able. The plant is found on many of the Highland mountains of Scotland. AKC (Lat. arcus, a how) is any part of a curved line. The straight line joining the ends of an A. is its chord, which is always less than the A. itself. Arc, of circle:; are similar when they subtend equal angles at the centres of their respective circles ; and if similar arcs belong to equal circles, the arcs them- selves are equal. The length of an A. is readily found if the angle which it subtends at the centre of the circle is known, and also the length of the whole circumference. Let the whole circumference be 100, and the angle of an \. 50 . the length of the A. is 300 1 : 50 3 : : 100 : "^Jl 50 = 14 nearly. ARC. 360 Sec Juan oi AKC A. or A UK -SI I ELL, a genus of bivalve shells, and lamello-branchiate mollusca, the type of a family called Arcades, or Arcaceoe, In the true ark-shells, the hin tit, and occupies what at fir tic whole length of the shell, but is in reality its whole breadth, the breadth being greater tit '■ . ih. One species is found on the British sho the species are larger and more numerous in the i warmer chmates, and some of them arc frequently to be seen among the shells employed I ir the ornament of drawing-rooms, &c. Fossil J. are, however, more numerous than recent species, and arc found in various rock systems. ARCADE (Fr.), a row of arches, supported by columns, cither having an open space of greater or less width behind them, or in contact with masonry. Tbo A. in ( lothic corresponds to the colonnade in classical architecture, the difference between them being that, eas the pillars in the colonnade support si ■ architraves, those in the A. support arches. The term A. is .sometimes applied to the row of piers, or columns and arches, l.y which the aisles arc divided from the nave of a church, or by which cloisters, or what are erroneously called piazzas in Britain, are enclosed; but it is more generally confined to those series of smaller arches which are employ d simply for purposes of ornamentation. Arcade of the latter kind are often found surrounding the ' 1 1 1 1 1 . ■ towers of English churches. Of this we have early examples in the church of Middleton Stoney, Oxfordshire, and in the still older ones of Tewkesbury, and Christ Church in Oxford. The term is also applied, improperly, to a glass-covered street or lane, w ith a row of shops or stalls on each side. ARCADIA, the middle and highest part of Pelo- ponnesus, was bounded on the a. by Achaia, on ARCADITTS— ATMir. the E. by Argolis, on the S. by Messenia and ; i, and on the W. by Elis. According to Pausanias, it derived if i name Erom Areas, the son i La da, A. was the I country in the Pelo] U us. It had an ana of 1700 square miles, and was girt round by a circle of mountains, which cut off to a large extent its communication with the rest of the peninsula. Mountains also intersected it in different directions. The western part of what was anciently A., is wild, bleak, and rugged, and was at one time covered with huge forests; the eastern is more fertile, the i ii I aim not I i In 1 1, and the vales more luxuriant. lu ties.- eastern valleys lay all the principal cities of A. The loftiest peak in A.— the loftiest also in the Peloponnesu I (.'yUcne, in the north- ea 1 (778 feet). The chief river was anciently the iua (i|. v.). Originally A. was named Pelasgia, after its first inhabitants, the Pelasgi. Subsequently, is divided into several small states, which I i i onfederation. Of these united states, the chief were Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenos, Pheneus, Psophis, and Megalopolis. The inhabitants, engaged in tending cattle and in hunting among the wild highlands, remained long in a state of barbarism. After civilisation had advanced, and the Arcadians had become known by their love of music and dancing, they still retained some mili- tary spirit, and were sometimes engaged as mer- ,- soldiers. But generally their character accorded with their simple, rural mode of life; though it seems certain that human sacriliees were offered as late as the period of the Macedonian sway. The Arcadians were not remarkable for their intelligence. In fact, an 'Arcadian youth' was a synonym for a blockhead. Pan and Diana were their favourite deities. Ancient and modern i (the latter especially in the time when ials' were popular) have described A. as the land of peace, innocence, and patriarchal manners. AllCA'DITTS, first emperor of the East (395— 40S A. I).), was born in Spain. 383 A. D., and was the son of the Emperor Theodoaius, after whose death the Roman empire was divided into East and West, A. lived in oriental state and splendour, and his dominion extended from the Adriatic Sea to the river Tigris, and from Scythiato Ethiopia; but the real rulers over this vast empire were, first, th Kulinus, and afterwards the eunuch Eutropius, who openly assumed the reins of government and the command of the army, while A. reposed in luxurious indifference. In 399, the eunuch Eutropius was ■ 1 by another usurper, Gainas, who, in his turn, soon fell a victim to his own ambition. After- wards, Budoxia. the wife of the emperor, assumed the supremacy, tine really great man adorned tins period, the virtuous and eloquent Chrysostom, who was persecuted by Budoxia, and through her influei exiled in -In I, on account of his firm opposition to Arianism, which the empress b favoured. Dunn I A., his territories sail red by barbarian incursions, earthquakes, and famine, but nothing could disturb the indif- ference of the monarch. He died, unlamented, 40S A. D. ARCESILA'US, a Greek philosopher, founder of the New Academy, was born at Pitane in .1: >!u, Asia Mi ■, 316 B.o. Be studied philosophy, first under Thcophrastus the Peripatetic, and afterwards under Crantor. After the death of Grantor, A. became the chief master of the Academic party, or those who held to the doctrines of Plato; but he intro- duced so many changes that its philosophic character was completely changed. His great rivals Were the Stoics, whose opinions he attacked, but be does not to have attained any certainty in his own convictions. !(.■ had studied under too many mas- id discussed too many different sy the truth of any. lie denied the Stoical doc- trine of a 'convincing conception,' which he affirmed to be, from its very nature, unintelligible and contra- dictory. He al o denied tin of any suffi- cient criterion of truth, and recommend. I nence from all dogmatic judgments. In practice he maintained that we must act on ground bility. It is not easy to determine satisfactorily what his moral character was. A v. it, a poet, and a man of frank and generous disposition, v i to have captivated nis disciples even more than his philosophy, he has yet been accused by Ins enemii a of the grossest profligacy; and whatever extrava- gance there may be in such an extreme charge, it is tolerably certain that he died of a debauch in Ins Toth year (l'II B. c.). Nevertheless, his adversary Cleanthes, the Stoic, passed tl ulogium on him : ' The morality which A. abolishes in his words, lie re-establishes in bis actions.' AKCH, an arrangement of bricks, Btones, or other materials over an open space, by which they are made not oidy to support each other by mutual pressure, but to sustain an. at weight. We have the excellent authority of Sir < r. Wilkinson for stating that the A. was known to, and used by, the ancient Egyptians ; and that the Assyrians wire acquainted with its principles is placed beyond doubt by the arched gateways so frequently repre- sented in their bass-reliefs. The A. is generally sup- posed to have been unknown to the ( ireeks —a sup- position which becomes very improbable if we hold it to be proved that it was used by nations with whose works they must have been familiar. But that the (Ireeks did not employ it generally in their architectural structures, is certain ; and as it is D certain that the ltomans did, it is to the latter people that the nations of modern Europe are indebted for their acquaintance with its great utility. The intro- duction of the A. by the ltomans gradual!;, i a complete revolution in the architectural forms which they borrowed from the (ireeks. The | minance of horizontal lines gave way by di till, as the Romanesque passed into the ( iothic style, il v. a i superseded by the segments of a ci generally more or less in a perpendicular direction. In its earliest application by the Romans, the A. did not spring from the entablature of the columns, but Morally placed behind them, and rest- d upon separate imposts. Subsequently, this arrangement was departed from, and the V t umed the pc which it has since retained sometimes having an entablature interposed, and mes rising directly Erom the cap column or pier, as in the Romanesque. I very briefly the different forms of the A., it natural to refer to a very simple stn frequently met with in those early edifices in our own country which we are in the habit of as Saxon. It consists Of two stones, their lower end g on rude piers, their tops lean- : otler, and thus formin sides of a triangle, which is capable of support- uperincumbent weight. The me- chanical principles on which the A. depends, though here verj imperfectly employed, scan sufficiently called into play to suggest their more extensive application; and it is i Me that out of this rude c \ . in its later and mora elaboi ' forms, might have developed itself amongst ourselves without hints from sources. Of the A. itself, the following variations of form MS ATtCH. may l>e enumerated: The semicircle (1), the se£- 2), the ellipse (."), which wore the only forma employed by the ancients, ami which ilone were known in medieval architecture up to the time at 3. Ellipse. 4. Stilted A. 5. Horseshoe A. which the pointed A. was introduced. Of these, the still il A. (4), and the horseshoe \. (5), are i li- gations, in both of which the centre or point from which the A. is described is above the line of the impost, but in the former of which the mouldings are continued downwards vertically: whilst in the Utter tliey are slightly inclined inwards, or the curve longed till it meets the impost. The ! shoe A. belongs peculiarly to Arabian architecture (<[. v.), not only from its haying originated simulta- neously with the faith of the Prophet, but from its continuing to be used exclusively by his followers. Next) in point of time, though far surpassing all the others in beauty and variety, is the pointed A., the origin of which is still a subject of antiquarian controversy. The greater or less acuteness o pointed A. depends on the position of the two centre points from which its curved sides are described Its various proportions will be better understood from the accompanying diagrams (6, 7, 8,9) than from any verbal description. 6. Equilateral A. 8. Drop A. 7. Lm. X^N 9. Segmental A. Of the foil arches (10, 11, 12, 13, 14), or arches in which the forms of a leaf are imitated, the first met with in Arabian and Romanesque build- ings. At a later period of Gothic architecture, with 13. Cinquefoil A. 14. Pol; the decorated style, the ogee A. (15) was introduced, and the Tudor or four-cornered A. (Hi) appeared about t! nt of the perpendicular style. 15. Ogee A 16. Tudor A. When first introduced, the proportions of this A. were bold and effective; but it was gradually depressed till the principle of the A. was lost, and its very form was again merged lirst in two and then in one flat stone or lintel over an opening. With the last form of the Tudor A. we thus reach almost the point of departure in the construction of the A., and complete our enumeration of its forms. The Bid of an A. are termed haunches arflanl >, and its highest part is called the crown. The v shaped stones, bricks, or other materials of which an A. is constructed, are called voussoirs (a, a, a) ; the uppermost one of all (h) is called the keystone; the lowest, which iS [J iCI immediately over the im- post, the springer, or spring- ing-stone ; the under or lower side of tho voussoirs, the inlrados ; the upper side, the cxtrados or hack. For the investigation of the mechanical principle of the arch, and of the con- ditions of stability, see Moseley's Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Archit ecture. See also Biudge, Impost, 1'ieu, Bottbess. ARCH, Tiiiimhial, was a structure erected by the ltomans across roads, or at the entrance of 10, 11, 12. Trefoil Arches. Triumphal Arch of Constantine at Borne, three are examples of the trefoil, the fourth of the cinquefoil, and the fifth of the polyfoil, the latter cities, in honour of victorious generals. The original 8M ARCHAEOLOGY— ARCHANGEL. triiimfih.il arch was the Porta Triumphalis, one of the gates of Rome through which the triumphal pro- ■ i entered the city. Among the earliest detacned arches built at Rome was that built by Scipio Africanus (190 B.C.) on the Capitoline Hill. Under tlie emperors, these structures became numerous and magnificent, and were decorated with bass-reliefs and inscriptions. Three of what were properly triumphal arches still remain in Rome, those, namely, of Titus, Septimius Severus, and Constantine. Numerous similar monuments exist also in other parts of the old Roman empire, as at Rimini, Susa, Verona, Ancona, Orange (in France), Capura (in Spain). ARCH^EO'LOGY (Gr. archaios, ancient, and logos, a discourse) is the name now very generally riven to the study which was formerly known as that of ' antiquities.' The term is well enough understood, although its meaning is not at all definitely fixed. In its widest sense, it includes the knowledge of the origin, language, religion, laws, institutions, literature, science, arts, manners, customs— even-thing, in a word, that can be learned of the ancient life and being of a people. When so n led, it comprehends more or less of several branches ol knowledge which are recognised as distinct or odent pursuits, such, for example, as eth- nology, philology, history, chronology, biography, mythology, numismatics. In its narrower but p r- haps more popular signification, A. is understood to mean the discovery, preservation, collection, arrange- ment, authentication, publication, description, inter- pretation, or elucidation of the materials from which a knowledge of the ancient condition of a country is to be attained. These materials will be found to divide themselves into three great classes : (1.) written, (2.) monumental, and (3.) traditional. 1. What may be called written A., may be again sub- divided into palaeography (q. v.), or diplomatics (q. v.) — that is, the science of ancient writings ; and blbli- y (q.v.), or the knowledge of printed books. 2. Monumental A. admits of almost endless sub- divisions, according to the character of the remains to be studied, which may be works of art, such as buildings, sculptures, paintings, engravings, inscrip- tions, coins, medals, seals, armorial-bearings, tapestry, furniture, plate, jewels, enamels, glass, porcelain, pottery ; works of engineering, such as roads, canals, mines, piers, camps, forts, walls ; works of unskilled labour, such as pdlars of unhewn stone, caves, dikes, ditches, mounds of earth or stone ; articles of dress, armour, or personal ornament ; tools, weapons, implements, utensils, machines ; appliances for loco- motion, such as canoes, boats, ships, carriages ; modes of sepulture, such as mummies, sarcophagi, urns, catacombs, graves ; vestiges of man and animals, such as skulls, bones, skins. 3. Tradi- tional A. includes as well the unwritten Ian and oral literature of a people, their dialects, le tales, proverbs, rhymes, songs, and ballads, as those . customs, ceremonies, rites, and superstitions now beginning to be known by the name of ' folk- bin ■.' and formerly called 'popular antiquities.' The study of A. in modern Europe may be held to date from the revival of letters. It w almost exclusively confined to the antiquities of reeks and Romans. About the middle of the 16th c, Medieval A., or the antiquities of the Dark and Middle Ages, began to be cultivated. Egyptian A., or ' I yptology,' as it i3 sometimes called, made comparatively little progress until the discovery of the Roaetta Stone, containing a hilJTignal and tri- literal inscription, which enabled Young in 1819, and Champollion in 1821, to find a key to the hiero- flyphics. The more recent discoveries of ayard, Rawlinson, and others, have already advanced Assyrian A. to a point beyond all expecta- tion. Indian A. has been successfully prosecuted, especially during the last forty years, chiefly by officers of the East India Company. Something also has been done by them and others for Chinese A. Men of letters in the United ; States have devoted their time to the rude and scanty remains of the aboriginal inhabitants of North America. The A. of Central and South America, as it attracted attention much earlier, so its more stately and instructive monu- ments have much better rewarded such inv tions as those of Lord Kingsborough, Messrs Stephens and Catterwood, and others. The study of A. has been largely promoted by the publication, at the expense of the state, in various countries, of the national chronicles, char- ters, and records ; by societies and clubs contri- buting to the same end, or printing essays on questions of A. ; and by the establishment by the state, by associations, or by individuals, of museums for the collection and classification of antiquities. In England, a society for promoting the study of antiquity was founded so early as the year 1572. The irrational jealousy of the govern- ment dissolved it in 1604. It was revived in 17i'7. enlarged in 1717. and incorporated by royal charter in 1751, under the name of the 'Society of Anti- quaries of London.' An attempt to institute a simi- lar society in Scotland was made about 1700 by ' some honourable and knowing gentlemen,' who re to continue their conferences till a complete historical account be made of the nation. But it was not until 17S0 that the Society of Antiquaries of land was incorporated by royal charter. The Royal Irish Academy for promoting 'the study of science, polite literature, and antiquities,' was char- tered in 17S6. The Society of Antiquaries of land, and the Royal Irish Academy, have good museums of national antiquities. The British Museum in London (established in 1753), besides a great collection of early manuscripts and printed books, has galleries of Assyrian. Egyptian, Etrus- can, Greek, Roman, British, and Medieval antiqui- ties. One of the most remarkable collections of antiquities on the continent, is that of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of the North, at Copenhagen, arranged so as to illustrate a favourite theory of the Scandinavian archaeologists — that the primitive antiquities of a country may be assigned to successive ages or periods of stone, bronze, and iron, with as much certainty and precision as the com- parative antiquity of geological strata, or periods of the world's creation, may be determined by the fossils which they are found to contain. The museums of the Louvre and the Hotel de Clunv, in Paris, contain fine collections of Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman antiquities, and an unrivalled collection of Medieval antiquities. The Royal Museum at Naples has gathered together the statins, paintings, vases, household utensils, and other objects recovered during the last hundred from the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii, i long buried cities may be regarded as being in themselves museums of Roman A. ARCHANGEL, the chief city in the Russian department of Archangel, is situated in lat 6±' 32" N., and long. -in= 35" E., about 40 miles above tho junction of the river Dwina with the White Sea; is the seat of an archbishop, and contains 19.936 inhabitants. Its name is taken from the monastery of St Michael. A. commercial city for the north of Russia and Siberia, and is visited by nume- rous vessels — especially British — from July to Sep- r, the port being clear of ice only during that period. The houses are built chiefly of wood ; and their general appearance is far from handsome. The finest edifices are the bazaar or mart, and the m AECHANGEL— AECHBISHOP. marine hospital. A. has an ' college with !i professors, sohc ag and navi- gation, so. 'I'll 1 ' chief articles of trail train-oil, skins, furs, timber, wax, iron, tallow, ii, which is tin 1 1 of the empire and was f..r a long period the only one, was founded in l.'.si, its merchants a oast, as China, and have all th '. During summi r, A. b a conti- nual market. ARCHANGEL (from ft I prefix oreW- --, denoting chief, and term which occurs in the S I anient; and which, according to some, is there t title of our irs an ior in ]i"'. otli. r We read, in the I Jude, of ' ■ ft V, and in Ucv. xii. 7, of ' ml his .' In 1 Thess. iv. 16, we are told that the • ii- Lord at the last day shall ho 'with V. and with th- trump o l hi tip' Holy Scriptures of arc/i- Itho fte plural is popularly as much u ed as tin- singular. The notion of an angelic hierarchy ' i the highest mil to Michael; ami the same notion instian church i b pa ol Scripture which i to indicate different degrees and classes lie hosts, but no clear te\ has been made upon this sub ARCHANGEL, New. £ ARCHBI'SHOP (Cr. arehr, and epitcopos, ov r- is tin' title given to a metropolitan bi hop who superintends the conduct of the bishops m his province, and >pal authority in his own diocese. Th" title arc , in the 3 1 and 4ft i the piw in l held once or twice a year in the chief town of the pro i I idency of I Another cause of th im of planting new I I d, a slight supremacy being still retained by the original over the newly-appointed chief i Oi atal Church, the arch- ed ' metropolitans,' from the tstance first mentioned. En the African I Ihurch, I band, the term used was 'primus.' The ics of the i arly Church •.■ Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, Alexandria, Constanti- nmedthe name of I'"; is an official letter by Justinian, addressed to 'J A. of Rome and Patriarch;' and several i add d to 'Epiph iniu . A. of ad Patriarch.' The synod of Antioch, in 341, assigned to the A the ence over all the bishopries, and a pi over .ill tie 1 bishops of th.- church, who, on i led b Byd of this ority of rank, privileges which a1 a sum il th' character of positive jurisdiction in d matters. Many of these rights i [. . raids th.- end of the 4th tin- 5th centuries, and .still more to the in- 9th. The archbishops still retained ction, in the first instance, over their suffragans not criminal, anil over those who v t to them they acted as a court possessed also the right of calling to ad presiding in, the provincial synods; iperintendence ami power of visitation ovei the bishops of the metropolitan see; the power of enforcing the laws of the church ; the dispensation of indn and the like. The archbishops further enjoyed the honour of having the cro i i .ii rii d before them in their owi pate, even in pp ence of the pope him—if, ami oi wearing the in England, there are two archbishops, of w horn the one has I ry, the cap tal of the ancient kingdom of Cent ; the other at York, the capita] of Nbrftumbria. But thou ruling over a province in place "i ,. n le dio both have enjoyed tin- rank of metropolitan the first, the a. of Canterbury has all alone enj I, not merely pie. .I. nee as tic tstine ami the senior a., but pre-eminent ami universal authority over the whole kingdom. This pi marked in 1 be titles « hich they respectively assume the A. of ( lanterbury being i he Primate of all England [m etprimtu tolius Anglim), whilst the A. of York is simply called Primate ilia). It ii also indicated by the | which they occupy in pro th oi Canter- bury, who has precedence of all the nobility, not. only preceding the A. of York, but th. Chancellor being interposed between them. Previ- ous to the e, in archbishopric in Ireland, the authority of th.- A, of Canterbury exi to that island. The amount of control which to ail A. over tin bishops of In I proT ery accurately defined; but if any bishop introdui i into his dim I guilty of immorality, the A. may Call him to it, and even deprive him. In 1822, the A. of b, who is primate of all Ireland, deposed the ' of Clogher on the latter ground. To the A. of Canterbury belongs the 1 ur of placing He' th'. 1 , n on the sovereign's head at his coronation ; ami the A. of York claims the like privilege in the case of the Queen-consort, whose perpetual chaplain In- i.. Th. province of the A. of York consists northern count;. ami Nottinghamshire. The rest of England ami Wales form the province of the A. of Canterbury. The . of the two are!: ta in which they exercise ordinary episcopal !-• were rei 1. lied by 6 and 7 Will IV. c. 77. The diocese of Canterbury comprises Kent, except the eiu and deanery of Rochester, and some ps transferred by this act; a number of parishes in i : II districts in other dioceses, particularly London. The diocese of the A. of York the' county of York, ■ that portion of it now included in the dioceses of Ripon and Manchester; the whole county of Notting- I riets. In I. id b re are two Protestant and four Roman ' bishops. (If the former, the A. of ' primate of all Ireland; th" A. of Dublin being Primate of Ireland. They formerly sat alternately in the House of Lords; the time bishops who. along with them, represented the Church of Ireland, being chosen by rotation. The i of an A. does not differ from that ip) ; but when he d with his otlice, he is said to be 'enthroned,' whereas a bishop is ' consecrated.' He also writes himself, 'by Divine Providence;' a bishop being, 'by Divine on;' and has the title of ' Grace,' and ' Most Reverend Father in God,' whilst a bishop is • Lord,' and • flight Reverend Father in God.' The A. ii entitled at to all ecclesiastical I in the disposal of diocesan bishops, if not filled up within six months; and every bishop, whether created or translated, was formerly bound to make a legal conveyance to the A. of the next avoidance such dignity or benefice belonging to his see as the A. shall choose. ARCHDEACON— ARCHEGOSAURCS. ARCHDEA'CON (Gr. arch-, and diaconon, servant). An ecclesiastical dignitary whose juris- diction is immediately subordinate to that of the bishop. 'I 'ally was simply the chief of the deacons, who were the attendants and assistants of tin? bishop in church affairs. His dute sisted in attending the bishop at the altar and at ordinations, assisting him in managing the revenues of the church, and directing the deacons in their duties. From being th assistants, archdea- i the 5th c. began to share the bishop's powi re, and step by step attained to the authority which they now enjoy, which from the 9th c. became in many respects distinct from that of the bishop. 1 synods protested against the inn"' but it was continued in the 11th and 12th cen- i the archdeacons were recognised as the influential of prelates. In the 13th <■ . i were limited by the establishment of i lurta. Their dignity and influence is now very much reduced in the Catholic Church. I ily sixty archdeaconries in England, but number ha the passing of the act for carrying into effect the lera (0 and 7 Will. IV. c. 77); and it is probable that under the 'ins of that act they may be still further • 1. No person can be appointed an A. till :i six years complete in pi (.■J and 4 Vict c. 113, s. 21). The duty of parochial visitation has long been regarded as belonging dly to the archidiaconal office, and it was by its exercise mainly that the archdeacons attained to the dignity of ordinary instead of del' jurisdiction. Even in performing this function, however, and in holding general synods or visita- tions, ordering repairs of churches, sad the like, the A. is properly to be regarded as being what the canon law called him. ' the bishop's eye.' The judge of the A.'s court, when he does not pre- side, is called ' the official.' There is an appeal to the Court of the Bishop, or in the case of an A. of an archbishopric, to the Court of Arches. Bee R Dean, Pbib , t g to ■ li and Clergy. Edinburgh, 1857. ARCHDT'KH. A. and Archduchess are titles now taken by all the sons and daughters of the l ria, and by I "lants through the iiia!> radu- un: d by the dukes of Austria, ai £i!ie other i :upire. ink.; Rudolph IV. of Austria, in 1359, called 1 Palatums Archidux, but he was not so styled by the emperor. His brothers, Albert and lid not assume the title after his u h they had occasionally done so in his Tie- third ■Id, howevi ' . ! it. Still he: was addre imply as duke. At last the title was formal 1. or Frederick 1 1 1, in . as duke, was the pient of the imperial gift. Still tie not uniform, for he aft' peaks of himself as duke. ;e was extended to the Tyroban branch of the i the person of Sigismund. The value of the dignity' thus assumed was a cs contention with Bavaria in 15 it to duke it held the 6::: i that archbishop does to bishop. The dukes of Austria claimed to have always had precedence over the other ducal houses, and regarded tie- t.tle as a mere indication of what had been universally acknow- Bavaria, on the other hand, relied on the greater antiquity of its dukedom. The contest was decided by the Emperor Rudolph II. in favour of Austria, the precedence of which has not since been called in question. Other dukedoms claimed the privilege of being so called, but it was invariably denied by the emperor. ARCHEflosAU'RUS, a remarkable fossil sau- rian reptile, so named by Goldfuss {ardcigos, leader ; Archegosaurus : a, section of a looth ; 6, scales. anil Mturos, lizard), as constituting the real begin- niucr of reptilian life, which had previously been • as not extending below the Permian I of rocks. From the it will be seen that the head of th" A. is protected by a firm dermal sk composed of numerous plates, while the internal primary carl mstohavei ontinui .1 una .ell is Battened and triangular, with p -, the from somewhat In. 'I he : mple cones, having a labyrinthio nilar t'l that of the recent . Th. vertebral column remains in an embryonic condition ; the ai peripheral the vertebra are ossified; but the dux which is persistent, is unprotected below. The ribs are slmrt and almost straight, round and in the middle, expanded and flattened at tl. The two pairs of limbs are nearly equal in size, and in structure very much resemble those of the Proteus. .1 They have each four long. Blend which obviously supported a longisn, narrow-pointed i adapted for Bwimming. Externally, the boa; protected by a covering of oblong quadra which have been preserved insoni' Four species ha\ ribed. .• of the A. w shortly d-measures, had a those of a fish under the name of i I' h:;. 1 Meyer first descril ■ / British H 1798), and biographies of Qui i a of England, and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden. A'RCHER FISH, a name given to cei small East Indian fishes of the Acanthopterygious family of Bquamipennes or Chatodontiacs, \ the faculty of projecting drops of water with a at insects, and thereby causing them to fall ..■ water, whi re they are instantl; prey. Toxoles jaculator, one of thi Bah about six orseven inches in length, a nativi ol Javai ad other parts of the [ndian Archi] is that to which the name A. F. strictly appropriated. It can project a drop of water to the height of four or five feet It is the nt species of its genus, but the] . also a Javani possesses the same power, and the Chini keep it in jars for their an. it to ■ its art by pi asecl within its ra ATRCHERS ahd A'RCHERY. Archers are weapons arc the bow and arrow, the ancients specially eminent in this of warfare, we may particularise the Thra- thians, and Humid ■ Arabians, Germans, and tor Frederick II. employed Sara, archers with great effect in his Lombard camp and to them is ascribed the victory at Cort. ■■ in 1'2;I7. The archers belonged to the light troops, and their province was to open the battle. The ror Leo especially lauded the dexterity of the Arabian archers. In later ages, the bow came to be employed in England, where the archers wore li l.t armour, a short sword, and a quiver With : or more arrows. At first, thi fought in small groups; in later years, in large ■. At the battle of Cressy, they formed in divi- sions of 40(10 men, 200 in lino and 41)0 deep. '1 le- archcrs decided the fate of the day in several I . . i iCressy and Poitiers (1350), Agincourt (1415), at (1423), Verneuil (1424), and Rovemay (1429), 'Hi- French archers never equalled the h, in spite of the pains Charles VI. and VII. took with them. The latter organised in 1448 the /'. wie-esre&ers, to which corps evei parish had to contribute one man ; but this mi was attended with so little success that th oduced to take Scottish archers into Ins pay, to make any head against the English. The French i wore a coat of buffalo-hide lined with strong linen, and were accompanied by shield-bearers. In this manner 21 bowmen with their shield-bearers fought under the Count de Foix at the siege of Bayonne in 1451. The archers universally belonged ARCHERS AND ARCHERY. to the Clite of the troops, and received higher pay thau the rest. At one period, the arbalest or cross- bow was more in favour than the long-bow. Abbalbbt. Long after the discovery of gunpowder, we find the bow and arrow still used; as, for ex- ample, at the siege of Capua in 1600 ; and the siege of Peineburg in 1502. .Nay, even in 1572, Queen Elizabeth promised to place at the disposal of Charles IX. 0000 men, of whom the half were archers. The English archers are the subject of frequent mention by our old writers. Chaucer, in his Canterbury T eaks of the archer 'Claddc in cote and hodc of prone, A sheafe of peacock irwea brifthts ami kene, Under lii i bell he bare fill thriftilic. I his take! yewmanlie. His bi wee drooped not with fatheree lowe, And in his hand he bare a mighty bowe.' In a Treatise on Martial Discipline, by Ralph Smithe, written in the time of Queen Elizabeth, we have a picture of the English archer two centuries after Chaucer's time: 'Captens and officers should lie skilful of that most noble weapon the long-bow ; and to see that their soldiers, according to their draught ami strength, have good bowes, well nocked, well strynged, everie Btrynge whippe in their nocke, and in tlie middes rubbed with wax braser, and shut- spare strynges trymed as aforesaid ; man one she! ws, with a case of le defensible against the rayne, and in the same four- and-twi .hereof eight of them should be lighter than tlir- residue, to gall or astoyne the enemye with the hailshot of light arrowes before they shaU come within the danger of their harquebus shot. Let every man have a brigandine or a little coat of plate, a skull or hufkyn, a maulo of leade of live foote in lengthe, and a pike, and the same ing by his girdle with a hook and a dagger.' Among the Asiatic Turks, the Persians, the Tatars, and other nations of the east, as well as the Ameri- can Indians, the DOW and arrow are still u das wea- pons of war. In Europe, they are nearly abandoned for military purposes. The chief differences bi. .' the two kinds of weapon employed by the archers of the middle ages are noticed under Arbalest ; Bow A>D A ' Although archers are still included among the fighting-men of barbarous and semi-barbarous nations ; in England, archery is now nothing more than a i by archery clubs or societies. In this sense, however, archery is expe- riencing a revival, b.ing healthful as an out-door , even if no further useful. Durie reign of Charles II., archery was much pat by the court, Tothill Fields being the chief scene of exercise. After his reign, archery fell into desuetude for about a century. In 1770, Astnn revived archery in the neighbourhood of I Ion; ami very shortly Hi' re were e iveral toxo- 0T archer] formed. The system survived till IT".:. xiodofinac supervened, lasting till 1844. In this last-named year, archery was revived in Yorkshire, and has since gone on extending every year. A recom- mendation to the sport is that ladies can take part in it — one of the f r pastimes of which this can be said. In the modern cise of archery, there are several varieties of contest i tie' antagonistic parties ; but the usual variety is t: ng. In arcl matches, a number of | nerally awarded, the principal being for the greatest number of into any part of the target, and for the nearest approach to the exact centre. The target has a gold spot in the centre, a red ring around this, then a white ring, then a black, and ■ of all a white ring bordered with green. The merit of the shooting consists in a near approach to the exact centre or 'gold' Two I generally used in a match, on op] of the field, each by on i party. The apparatus n used at these archery meetings is represented i Archery Apparatus. 1 cut. 1 is the bow, varying in •. according to the strength of the person who use it; 2 is the arrow; 3 is the quiver, at for holding arrows not immediately in use ; 4 and 5 are the pouch and belt for holding the arrows actually in use. The tassel of the belt serves to clean the arrows when dusty. G is the brace, 1 round the left arm, to protect it from being hurt by the string when shooting ; 7 is the sh< glove, formed to protect the three fingers ui drawing the string. Besides these articles and the . archers are somotimes provided with a large • ailed an 'ascham,' fitted up with tie sary drawers and compartments for the reception of the bow, arrows, string, and other nee accoutrements. In archery competition, the total number and value of each person's hits are registered on a scoring-card. The shots are usually punctured on a card with a pin, as being preferable to pencil or ink ; and the li ining the val the hits, which is increased in pi - they reach the centre, will be seen by the foil example : 1 OF TUE ScoIUXG-C.vr.D. Namci. Gold. Black. Tout Value. A I! Id 1 - 11 "I •••■ 49 It appears by the card that A four in the red, six in the i m the . and thirteen in the i . making a total of thirty-five. 'i' ; by multiplying the hits in the gold by i in the red, by three; in the inner white, by t .. adding a fourth to those in the '. without alteration the Dumber in the outer white. By this process it will appear that A's nui according to the value of each circle, amount to 68, and B's to 48— hence A is the win S '. Hut dit have 1 in I'.'s. and still n the winner, pro shots had lain more towards the gold than B's. 571 ABCIIIL-AllclIII.orlirs. As an instance of the skill which long Hid • practice mayinsui ice A. Ford, who has written an excellent work on Archery, on one ion, out of 144 shots, made 143 hits — 765 score ; on another. 1 il shots, b>7 hits — 809 score; and on anotb , 75hite 555 score, A 'lit IIIL, or O'BCHIL, is a colouring substance obtained from various species of lichens. The A. is not origmally present in the lichens, lmt is developed during a process of putrefaction ami fermentation. The lichens, collected from rocks near the sea, are cleaned, ground into a powder with water, placed in tanks, and ammomacal liquids such as purified gas liquor or stale urine— added ; when, by the combined influence of the ammonia, air, water, and the constituent-; of the lid violet-coloured matter is generated, which appears for a time to dissolve in the water, but finally falls to the bottom of the vat in the condition of a moist powder or paste. The latter is then with : i i ill; or >: ; it consistence. The lichens which yield the best A. in largest quantity, are RocceUa / fuciformis. The former is called the Archil plant, and is obtained in large amount from the Canaries and Cape de Veld Islands, an.l the Levant. Another lichen, Leeanora iartarea, collected from rocks in ly imported into Britain. It is sometimes called cudbear (q. v.), or cudbear lichen, and sometimes white Swedish moss. A. is soluble in water and in alcohol, to cither of which it imparts a violet colour, with a good deal of a >n hue. It is much employed in the dyeing of auks, where a beautiful lilac colour is required; but though a brilliant rich hue is imparted to the silken fabric, the colour is not a permanent t upon by the rays of the sun. Hence the A. is seldom used by itself, and loth is lirst dyed lilac by another colouring matter, and is then passed. through an A. dye, which imparts a brilliant lilac hue to the cloth. A. is seldom employed to dye cotton cloth, but it is often i. along with indigo, in the dyeing of woollen cloth; and besides enabling the indigo colour to go much further, it imparts its p rich tint to the blue or black cloth or yarn im- mersed in it ; the colour, however, so obtained is not so permanent as where the A. is left out. Cudbear (q. v.) and Litmus (q. v.) an' analogous to A., and are obtained from the same lichens. The lichen distinguished by the name of the A. plant or lichen, RocceUa tincta m very sparingly on the southern coasts of England, but abundantly on the shores of the Mediterranean and of the neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, where it often covers rocks near the sea, so as to form what has been likened to a sort of turf upon them. The Spanish name is Orciglia, from which the I Orseilte, the English A. or Orchil, and even the botanical name RocceUa, are derived. It is of a substance between cartilaginous and leathery, round- ish, pretty erect, branching in a dichotomous manner, of a grayish brown colour, with powdery warts (soredia); the apothecia (q. v.) orbicidar, flat, horny, almost black, with a scarcely prominent bordi i. That from the Canary Isles is generally regari the best. It seldom exceeds the thickness of a pin, and about an inch and a half in length. A branched and more slender, prostrate, or pendulous variety (RocceUa hypomecha of Bory de St Vincent) is common at the Cape of Good Hope and in the island of Mauritius, and appears in commerce along with the other, but is of very inferior quality. A variety remarkable for its large size, or perhaps a distinct - {S, Jlaccida), is brought from Lima and other parts of the west coast of South America ; 21-1 it is sometimes as thick as a goose-quill. I G or 8 ad is of excellent quality. All these, and BocceUa ■ generally receive in commerce, and from A.-makers, the name of Ore 1, the different kinds rdingto the countries from which • imported 'lhey are also popularly called Dyer's Moss. S.J perhaps mare A. 01 Or. in Ha Weed of minim ) ■. It differs from J.'. Atnctoria chiefly in being not rounded, but flat, and in having tl very distinctly bordered. It grow. situa- tions, and is also a native of Britain, but abundant only in wanner climates, as on the coasts of Africa. Madagascar, &c. That ola is reckoned of '. quality. lichens from which A. is manufac- tured is the PareJU dHAuvergnt or OneMe de terre (Ground A.) of the French, Variolaria orcina or ■. which is gathered for this purpose in mountainous districts of the south ol I n nee and other parts of the south of Europe, and is also an article of export (with othei I | from to Holland. But the greater facility with which A. of the finest quality can be procured from cics of RocceUa, and the increa ong ahum of the supply from different quarters, particularly from Angola, tend to diminish the demand for other lichens. AKCHI'LOCHUS of Pasos, in I.ydia, flourished about 714 — (i7i> B.C., and is regarded as the lirst of the i Ireek lyre- poets, although the origin of the is claimed for Callinus, a writer who have slightly preceded that of A. Glimpses of his life, especially of the calamities « bich befell him frequently given in his writings. His father's was Teh • mother wasa slave called i At an early age, becoming entangled in political con- i i ■. he abandonedbis native town, and led a colony of the citizens to Thasos, While here, as ho informs us in some extant verses, he lost his shield in a battle against the Thrarians, gh cowi Subsequently banished from Sparta, to which he had gone, some say because he had vindi- cated his conduct in running away from th ■ fight, if the licentiousness of his \ He is said to have gained the laurel-wreath at the Olympic Games by an ode in honour of but this is doubtful. Having returned to Paros, he took part in the war which broke out betwixt it and Naxos. in the course of which he lost his life, in battle or by assassination. The Delphian oracle pronounced a curse upon his slayer. Vai novelty, and satirical bitterness characterised his lyric poems; so much so, that ' Archilocliian bitt r- ness,' and 'Parian verse,' became bywords in ancient times. He scourged his enemies in the most merciless fashion, and always displayed the most malicious skill in selecting for his sarcasm the points on which they were most sensitive. It is said that Lycambes, who had promised his dan le in marriage to A., having failed to fulfil the promise, was so severely satirised by the poet, that, to escape ridicule, both father and daughter h themselves. Among the ancients, A. was ranked with Homer. They dedicated the statues of both on the sane- clay, and placed the head of A. beside that of Homer on the same bust. It is therefore supposed, and with high probability, that there must have been far more in A. than mere vehemence of Even l'lato, who was not likely to err on the side of admiration in such a case, calls him ' the very wise;' and Gorgias, the rhetorician, is reported to have said, when Plato sent forth his dialogues against the Sophists, ' Athens has given birth to a new A.' There must have been strong sense, ARCHIMANDRITE— ARCHIMEDES. and a keen perception of truth in the man, to have won so universal and permanent a reputation. Still the line of Horace — who was a vigorous imi- tator of him in many respects — proves that 'rage' was considered ' the special faculty ' of A. • Arcliilochum proprio rabii'S annarit tntnlo.' Art Poitica, line 79. 1 Rage halh armed Archilochus with his own iambus.' The word famous was in use before the time of A., and was employed to denote a species of rude rail- lery, such as flashed out spontaneously under the inspiring excitement of the Bacchic and other festi- vals. A. was. however, the first to reduce these irregular and capricious effusions to fixed rales. See ! i 9. The semi-pentameter, of which he made abundant use, was called after him ArchUocldan < The fragments extant of bis poetry have been edited by Bergk in his 1' i (Jraxarum (Lripsic, 1S13). ARCHIMANDRITE chief, and mandra, a fold or a convent), the title of the b order of superiors of convents in the Greek Church (see Abbot). The Russian bishops are chosen from among the archimandrit s. ARCHIME'DES, the most celebrated of ancient mathematicians, was born at Syracuse about 287 B.C. He is said to have been a kinsman of King Hiero, thoiiL'h he does not seem to have held any public office, but devoted himself entirely to science. In regard to mathematics, we cannot estimate fully the merits of A. without a more exact knowledge of the state of the science as he found it ; we know, how- ever, that he enriched it with discoveries of the highest importance, on which modern mathemati- cians have founded their methods of measuring curved surfaces and solids. Euclid only considers a few curved figures in relation to one another, but without comparing them with rectilineal surfaces and solids. The theorems necessary to this transi- tion are laid down by A. in his treatises ' on the Sphere and Cylinder,' 'on Spheroids and Conoids,' and ' on the Measurement of the Circle.' His demonstra- t' 'ii that the area of a segment of a parabola is two- thirds of the enclosing parallelogram, is the first real example of the quadrature (q. v.) of a curvilinear space. In his treatise on spirals, he rises to yet higher investigations, which, however, are not very easily understood even by masters of the subject. A. is the only one of the ancients that contributed anything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first established the truth, that a body plunged in a fluid loses as much of its weight as is equal to the weight of ual volume of the fluid. (See the following article.) It was by this law that he determined much alloy the goldsmith, whom Hiero had d to make a crown of pure gold, hail fraudulently mixed with the metal. The solution of ohlem suggested itself to him as lie was enter- ing the bath, and he is report e d to have been so over- 09 to hasten home without waiting to dress, exclaiming: 'I have found it! I have found it!' i -m seems to have]: -nee in the days of A. ; . that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point, he could 1: with rdinary effects of his newly invented machines inspired him. Among the numerous inventions ascribed to A., is that of the endless screw, and th n which the water is made in a manner to ascend by its own gravity. During the by the Romans, he exerted all bis Ltry in the defence of the city. Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch speak with astonishment of the machines with which he opposed the attacks of the enemy. But while giving detailed accounts of his other contri-. . say nothing of his having set fire to the ships by means of mirrors, a story which is not very probable in itself, and rests on later narratives. When the Romans took the city by surprise (212 B.C.), A., according to the tradition, was sitting in the public squar in thought, with all sorts of geomi trieal 1 before him drawn in the sand. As a Roman : rushed upon him, he called out to him not to spoil the circle ! But the rude warrior cut him • According to his own direction, a cylinder enclosing a sphere was engraved upon his tombstone, in com- memoration of his discovery of the relate these solids — a discovery on which he set particular value. When • icero was in Sicily as questor, he dis- c-oven d the tomlj hid among briers. His collected extant works were edited by Torelli (Oxf. I There is a French translation with not' a by V. 1 (Paris, 1808, 2 vols.), and one in German by Xizze (Strals. 1S24). The Ai into English by rn, Von Haanen, Ten Kate, Springer, and let. ARCHITECTURE (Lat. ar&itedum, from the Gr. ifin, the chief fabricator, the architect), the art of buililn: meting. In thiscountry, A. is usually divided into Civil, Military, and Naval. In the pn sent article we shall confine ourselves to the first, the two former head o FoRTmcATioi > under that of Sine BJ M Dl : - Civil A., when taken in the widest sense, may lie regarded either fr artistical, a scientific, or a utilitarian point of view. In the first case, as a m eternal form and sensible expression to mental conceptions or ideas, it is a branch of aesthetics, or of the fine arts properly so called (see Aet), and takes rank with sculpture and painting ; in the second case, it con- sists in a knowledge of certain laws of physical nature, and a consequent power of calling them into play, or counteracting Heir operation, and is conse- quently a branch of that wider department of science to which the name of Meclianio (q. v.) is given ; whereas in the last it becomes a practical art, which has for its object the application of the principles, both artistic and scientific, which A. embraces, to the elevation of national and individual character, and the increase of the physical comfort and well- being of mankind. But though it admits of being thus analysed or separated in thought, it must not be imagined that A. can exhibit in practice any one of these principles to the exclusion of the others. The abstract conception of all-pervading deity, as embodied in ti I k temple — the religious aspira- tion after a personal god, as shadowed forth in the Gothic cathedral — can be realised only in accord- ance with the principles of mechanics, and the most rigorous adaptation of means to ends ; whereas, in an opp n, the kraal of the Hottentot, the hut of the Indian in the American wilderness, or even the vulgar chimney-stalk in the dingy manu- facturing suburb, if properly constructed for their respective pur] II be found to have obeyed such .-csthctical principles as they may have come in contact with. Nature is not self-contradictory ; and art and science, beauty and utility, when rightly understood, are never in conflict. A celebi German writer and thinker (F. Schlegel) has described A. as ' frozen music ;' and the comparison is in accordance with the remarks which we have made ; for music, though apparently the freest and most lawdess, is in reality the most rigorously scientific of the arts. But though a strict adherence to all the principles of A. bo indispensable to every genuine architectural structure, whatever be its object, it by no means follows that equal prominence must be given to each of these principles on every in. If a building has for its primary object the expression and commemoration of such feel- ings as grief, gratitude, devotion, or the like, this object manifestly will be best attained by subordi- nating tb« scientific and utilitarian to the .-esthetic principles of A.; and the reverse will be the case where mere convenience, and also, though in a degree, where convenience, in combination with beauty or magnificence, is sought. It is in a great measure by the prominence which they havi to ono or other of these principles, that different nations have displayed their dii of character in their A. The speculative and poetical chat of the Greeks was exhibited in their temples, whilst their preference of the state to the individual ap- peared in the fact that these structures were di for the worship of the protecting divinity of th by the citizen, not for the worship of a personal god by the individual man. enans, again, terrestrial power and mater. ; I I were the exclusively national aspirations, and quently their A. had their own honour and primarily in view. Thel amphitheatres, and triumphal archesof the B re their own : but mplea which they raisi d in honour of the little else than imperfect copies fro: Greek, with scarcely any i gnable national ch.v iticB. Then, when we come t> medieval < times, though, on the revival of spiritual tendencies, in become prominent, they exhibit themselves under totally different forms; and the distinctions hi ;\ hen and Christian I thought could scarcely i stinctly stated in than they are exhibited to the eye in the 1 37J ARCHITECTURE difference between a Greek temple and a Q cathedral. Even the relation whi I tween i hie A. and A A., q, v.] ; rikin :ly r. d the fad that Mo- li.iiiiii) as but a sort o I Christianity. in appeared in full purity and only in modern times; and then only do we e utilitarian principles of A. finally prevailing over the esthetic. But apart from the mental cha- racteristics and I of a people, there are many other circumstances which modify their A. Of these, one of the most important is climate. Arran r the permanent and comma : the family within door,-! could not 1"' ■ ed to attain much perfection amongst a race like the Gn ' pent in the opi a air ; and the climate of Holland, as well as the genius of the people an r occu- much to do with the fact that the Dutch have rarely risen above a to Fol- lowing thus the peculiarities of national chara circum i Is obvious that the more widely these differ in any two nations, the more dissimilar will he the styles of A. which they produce respectively. Moreover, it is apparent that the higher the stage of national development, the more marked will character which the A. of a people will assume. -\. thus bears a strict analogy to language. Both are an expression of thought, and in the one and in the other, the richness, variety, and precision of the expression wdl be in proportion to the quantity and quality of the thought to 1. Lastly, in the fact that all ■_ of the ruling national ideas and forms of thought of some pie, we perceive the reas >n why a I of several styles should be charai terlessi ; and why this be more and more the case, the more cl the styles compounded, and the greater the equality mongst them. The Doric pillar in and still more, perhaps, the Roman adaptation of it, is the simplest and most rudimentary of all pillars; and what we are in the habit of calling Saxon. simplest and most rudim yles of GotJiic A.; and hence tin- introduction ol T . hi pillars considerably modified into ii or Romanic church, does not awaken feelings of very decided repugnance, whereas an attempt to neequallj thebeautieB of the Parthenon 1 ' ithedral in the same building would be dtably revolting. The limits of the pi article preclude us from presenting to the reader a nit of the origin and development of the different styhs of A.. These will beta under separate heads (s.-e Egyptian A., Into i k A., Gothic A., Arabian A. ; Bee also I'm. vi:, Abchttrave, &c.) ; and all that can be here attempted is to trace the earlier through which A. passed in the historical nations, before it reached the point at which it affoT ans of the feelings or supplying the wants of mankind. 1. The earliest sta^e of monumental A. in part of the world seems to have been that in which it supplied to the tion the mei : a mark on the face of tin' earth, of a nature so ineffaceable as that it shoidd continue to be to future generations. Xo attempt v made to tell a tal of the monu- ment, or by any figure or inscription engraven on it. Apart from the tradition intended to accompany it, it was speechless — confessedly unintcl But it is easy to see how powerful would be the effect of such an erection in pre! I tradi- tion from oblivion, and fixing it down to the parti- cular locality ; for so long as a conspicuous object 376 , which obviously wast! '. of human hands, 1 1 1 - - cause of its . 1 be i abject of curiosity, which could be gratified only by in- which must lead to a reci i rents ■ be commemorated. It was with this view that Joshua (xxiv. 26) took a I Bet it up under an oak that was by the sanctuary of the ■ And said unto all ti Behold, this; hall be a i i us -, for it hath all the words of the Lord.' To this primary class of monuments belong those tumuli or barrows, and conical heaps ol lied cairns, earns, or . which, when tiny occur in B i i of our . but which I by every race at a certain of their progress. The barrow, it is true, is not wholly destitute of architectural an Occasionally it allery leading to a ' • in which the 1 L of rude urns, drinking-cups. and other SJ noes of Roman or Brito-Roman manufacture, trows are always, however, of the rudest and most inartificial construction, and in consider- in, we are only, as it . 2. The earliest da s of erections to which this title can with any propriety be given, are those are commonly spoken of as Druidical temples. I generally of separate stones, often of enormous size, raised on their ends, sometimes in a circle, and at other times so as to enclose which in some eases is roofed in by horizon- tal slabs. These roo D illy of such prodigious wei rise to many con- arding the mechanical means by which, d knowledj they wi I »i the positions in which \ them. ' 1, to us, holly unintelligible remains hi an! ien of great me an air of loomy n i the most eon - to be found is that of : (q, v.), in bury Plain in Will lure. Wherever a Celtic latinii existed, these monuments are to be i Druidici are more common in France I laud : and in I lit be . s and variety in Brittany (q. v.), though none < approach the m , ,-, i,, gom the workmanship of Stonehei I monu- ments of Brittany are of different classes, and received different names — that which is most archi- ing the dolmen, or cror as it is called in : The cromlech consists general i ■ s of perpendicular arranged so as to tit pretty closely to each other, and covered with horizt ihamber, which is all o Igh it upright. But the largest and most perfect specimen o to be : not in Brittany, but in the raj Saumur on the Loire. It m u 80 feet i" length. To the same early stage in the science, though probably to a much earlii r period in I the clopean walls and fortifications which at Tiryns and ntycenai in ' . 9 ; the en walls at Fiesole; and the similar hich are found both in Central and South ::. I iie next stage in advance of that primeval and ,oric one of which the traces arc thus so 1. is that at which the science seems to have culminated in all but the classical nations of ARCHITRAVE-ARGT.SNUR-AtJBE. antiquity, and those races which have had the benefit of their genius and invention. \Vc have here an accurate measurement of parts, and a corresponding division of Che building. The pillar also mal. appearance, though it 18 by no means used with the it exhibit the same variety of form to which it attained in Greek A. Hie stage of which we here speak was attained by the inhabi- tants of Central and Southern America bef discovery by Europeans ; and in Mexico, even by the Toltccans, an earlier race, which had before the Mexicans of the days of Cortes. Peru- vian A. exhibits neither columns nor arches ; but the remains of the palace at Mitla possessed a portico with plain cylindrical columns ; and the wall I with rude sculpture. In the do building at Palenque, a I ina rtifi cial trian- gular arch, formed by courses of stones proj over each other, was found. It is very instructive as shew ing the natural, and, so to speak, in ' character of certain architectural forms at certain I I of national development, to find that the pyramid, which is little more than a regularly con- i n, is met with even more frequently in Mexico than in Egypt; and whether or not we ! it as the primary form of the pagoda of India, it certainly formed the basis both of Mexican and Egyptian A. The discussions which have carried on with so much keenness as to the priority of date of Indian and Egyptian A., lose much of their importance when we find a race, acting in all bility independently of both, starting from the same primary form as the one, and in the discovery of the pillar and the arch, making two of the important of the further steps in advance to which they respectively lay claim. Keeping these facts in view, it would seem, moreover, that something more is required to prove an historical connection bctu een Doric and Kgyptian A. than the circumstance thai the columns winch, they respectively employ possess a base, a shaft, and a capital, or that both are used to support an entablature. Even the long unbroken hori- zontal lines which seem to indicate an affinity 1 1 the architectural styles of Egypt and of Greece, and di rtinguish them both BO sharply from the ' ui A. of medieval Europe, may be the result rather of a similarity of circumstances than an iden- tity of origin. Though th< se styles agree in having columns, and though the columns support horizontal entablatures in each, they disagree in the forms of lumns, in the character of the entablature, and indeed, in almost every other particular. Greek pillars taper towards the top, and the are vertical, in Egyptian buildings the very r case, the pillars being vertical, and the walls sloped. When the effect of a wl building, surrounded by a colonnade, and of an Kgyptian building is considered, a certain similarity appeal in each case being wider tl upper part ; but the result is produced in tl ping tic pillars, and in the other, by sloping the walls, the externa] edges of which form a slightly ace irith 1 I .i; distinction, however, between the A. of I \< , i i Gri e i ists in the stages which, they nely reached. The A. of Egypt n throu lieut a. eh <. and never attained to the lightness, freedom, or >, III' tint e ' ( I : | . ee. | [1 tllC 01 C - I I ll ■ '! ■ forms continued ti to dominate and subdue i i of eii ; in the la! 1 implied on, and owned no laws but its own. It is in this circumstance that the distinction con- b twei n the stage of A. of which Egyptian may be considered the type, and of which Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian A. are also examples, and that ultimate stage which was reached by the Greeks in one direction, and by the vai oic nations in another. Sec- Aiiaiiian A., Byzamim: A., and I Inline A. AIM IlITKAYE (Gr. arch!-, chief; Lat. beam), the lowi St part of the entablature (q. v.), or that which rests immediately ujion the columns. A KCHIVKS. SeeBscoi A'RCII 1 Vi >r.T, the ornamental band or moulding which runs round the lower part of the voussoirs of an arch. A'RCHON, the highest magistrate in Athens. I eminent was originally monarchical ; but on the death of Codrus (q. v.), the Ate to the traditionary ace Ived that i should succeed him with the title of kin/ [basilou), and therefore appj b the title A. (ruler). The office was at first for hi 1 to the fund', of Melon ; but ill 752 B time of i, lliee was i united to t 'ii years ; and in 71 '. the excra Lve claims of Medon's familj to 1 of A. were al to all persons of noble birth ; without distinction of rank (477 B.O.). In 68 office had been made annual, and the muni archons had been extended to nine. The year was named from the first A. ; to the Sd Basileus, belonged the care of religious affairs ; the third v. or commander-iii the remaining six. having to conduct all criminal trials, were styled Tie . or lawgr Among the Jews, during the time of their subjection to the Romans, the title of A. had various meanings ; but wa3 generally given to the members of the Sanhedrim or supreme council. — In the n.\ jargon of the Gnostics, the term A. was frequently employed, and hence one of their sects, especially dto -Tudaism, received the name Ala lie Sec Gnostics. ARCI1VTAS of Tarentnm, one of tin illustrious men of antiquity, flom ' tin- year -tin I B.C. His father's name was Mncsagoras. A. is said to orary of Plal ou one occasion to have saved the life of the latter when the tyrant Dion;. I to put him to death. His public career was glorious. He was seven times elected genera] of his city, though it istomary for the office to be held only for one year; and in every campaign which li • nun- he was victorious. His civil administration was equally fortunate. Affairs of the highest moment were repeatedly intrusted to him; and yet, I deeply skilled 'in philosophy and poll- , a childlike simplicity of charai h r. was drowned on the . s \.'< virtues as conspicuous as his t dent-. He paid the most humane attention t • t ! of his slaves, and although one of t ; is he did not disdain to rattle for the amusemenl lilri n. II problem of the doubling of the cul I reputation of a i. Burner- , ,,i contrii I most wonderful of which was the Bying icon. A Pythagorean in I to have , i on Plato, and some affirm I was indebted to him for tie Only b relate to metaphysics, ethics, logic, and physics. . ARflS-SI R-AT7BE, a small town in the i department of Aube. situated ill lat. N.. long, -1 B 1 E., contains 'J7S4 inhabitants, and i- remarkabl mt of the battle fought here, 20, 21, 1S14, between Napoleon and the ARCOLA-ARCTIC HIGHLANDS. allied forci i under Trince Senti [. The battle, b inn n | w ith seven] dan on the tiding in a general en on the ■ I ;v, whi t retreated over the waa not in itself very important Bui on now formed the plan of operating in the ! of the Allies, and left the road to ing that they would not venture to pi without atl mpl in fir it to se ; ; ir 1 marched, nevertheless, on the capital, an decided the campaign. AKCOI.A, or A'RCOLE, a village on the left in northern Italy, 16 - K.S.IO. of Vi Bonaparte over the Austrian*, lTf-li November 1796. The Austri [oreau from the Rhine, hid begun to 1 ' ■ ' ! '■• appeared at the he id ■ I men, with the main body of which he advanced liero,andthn at m d V< rona. Bonapart . ni ing the dan;;, r, I I ourse of 1 that river I and was thus in a position to threaten the left Hank of Ah army, which was posted at A. \ . leads from llonco across the morasses to A., before reach- ing which, the road cro Alpon by a fended by the Austrian owsky, with fourteen battalions of infantry, and tv. of cavalry. On the 1-JtH ol attacked the bridge with two battalions of ■ diers, Imt I 1 in flank to the Austrian fire, waa ohlij d to withdraw. Bonaparte now the stan I I . and rushed on the followed by the grenadiers; but again the the Austrians, who were in mi than tii" French, made it necessary to draw back. Tin' struggle was renewed on the 16th, with a similar result ; and it was only on the ITtli that the French succeed i fcting possession of A., not, however, by farcin . i, but by sending a column across the Al] , lower down. . ir of the Austrians. On this Alvinzy was 1 to r.treat to Vicenza. It fan with the other column of the An Davidovich. In this series of batt] lost 18,000 a D I Hied, and 6000 prisoners. The French loss was 15,000. ARCON, i Cl u hi: D', a distinguished French ler, born at Pontarlier, 1733, was originally ided far the church, but on manifesting a decided me for the study of Yauban, his lather, an :it jurisconsult, consented to his choice of a iy profession. In 1764, he entered the Mili- -vhool at MCzieres, and, in the followin ■ an engineer. During the E War, he acquired considerable reputation, esj nee of Cassel. His fertility of invention ising, and of the greatest benefit I i of tli" service with which he was con le In all -which, in spite of a very faulty can lie read with plea are' indica- tions of a lively, rich, and vi [ even bold enough to question th certain propositions of the Great Frederick. But nous scheme was that by which h" hoped luce Gibraltar, then in the hands of the I. and defended by Governor Elliot He con . incombustible, and not 1. sink, which, however, were not successful, i this is mainly to be attributed to of his efforts being indifferently supported When the French, under Dumouriez, overran Holland, A. took several strongly-fortified places, amongst others, Breda. After this, he retired from public life, and 1 himself to the literature of his profession. His He. i important work is. Con Mtii- i tur It i For | Paris, 1795), In IT'.'!!, Bonaparte called him to the senate, but ho died the year AROOB DE LA FRONTE'RA, a town on (he T lit bank of the Guadalete, in Andalusia, Spam. Its principal manufacture is that of tan 1 hitler, which was the first established in Andalusia; thread and ropes are also manufactured. Pop, 11,270. A. !'. lias a wild and romantic situation, which nises well with the pictiir. sipic garb of the inhabitants, who still wear tic old national CO I i died Aroos, from being built in the form of a 'bow;' and after Alfonso-el-Sabio had rescued it from tic Moors, it received the addition I frontier position, being in the vicinity of the Moorish kingdom of Gran da. \' t by nature, it was furthermore embattled ad towers, part of which still p and afford a magnificent view of the Honda moun- tains. The ri.h plains that lie below the rocky town are famed in the Spanish ballads for their li i i war-steeds, 'Arcosbarh .' ARCOT, a city of Ilin, lustan, in the presidency of Madras, the capital of the division of the Same name. It is situate. 1 on the right bank of U i Palar, a river which, rising in Mysore, is, in the rainy in, about, half a mile wide before the town. It stands in N. lit. 12' 51', and in E. loni 79 24', and is distant from Madias 05 miles. Besides t! tary cantonment, which can accommodate three nts of cavalry, A. contains some n in a tolerable state of l pair, and the ruins of the Nawaab'e palace. The town and district of A. arc stated to contain 10,042 houses, and 63,474 inhabit A. is chiefly noticeable for its history. It w spot where (live first firmly established his military reputation. With a force of 300 Sepoy. 200 Euro peans, and three field pieces, he marched against A., which was garrisoned by 1100 men ; and after having taken it, he Btood a siege of fifty days against thou- of assailants, amid hardships and privations of every description. Abcot, a division of the presidency of M dras. It is of two parts, the northern and the I outhern, of which the respective areas are 6790 square miles, and 7600, and the respective populations, accordin to the , ,ii ns of IsTI. 2,007,667 and 1,762,525. As most of the rivers are destitute of water in the dry season, there are thousands of tanks in A. , are of an enormous size: that of pak, in particular, measures eight mi] three. These tanks arc indispensable, as well for irrigation as for domestic use. The hot and parching winds from the west, sweeping down the valleys of the I', tern Chaats, are often" fatal to birds on the wing, : nd also to human beings when exposed for any length of time. Glass cracks and llic3 in pieces; anciwoo . splits, and shivers; and from the mutual friction of the sapless trees, spontaneous istion sometimes takes place in the jungles. A'RCTIO means, properly, lyiu ! near the con- ! r. arctos), and hence, northern. ' ratio Circle is a circle drawn round the north pole, at a distance from it equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, or 'J.'U'. The corresponding circle the south pole is the Antarctic Circle. Within each of these circles there is a period of th when the sun does not set, and another when never seen, this period being longer the nearer to the pole. ARCTIC HIGHLANDS, a name sometimes applied, though not very appropriately, to that portion ng ARCTIC OCEAN. of the American continent which lies between Hud- i mouth of the Mackenzie, It has I lie scene of all, or nearly all, the I on with the exploration of a North- I 'assage, from Hearne's discovery of the Copper- down to the recent voyage of Anderson — the ! lomincnfc among the intermediate labourers having been Franklin, Richardson, Back, Dease, i, and Bae. ARCTIC OCEAX, that part of the universal Bea which surrounds the north pole. Its single boundary, that towards tli" south, naturally divides itself into four sections — the northern shop ; respec- tively of the two continents, and the northern limits respectively of the two I inental oceal The A. 0. meets the Pacific at Behring - in about 66' of N. lat., so that here the A. 0. in the Arctic Circle by about oil'. On the side of the Atlantic, again, the common 1 to lie equally independent "i arbitrary definition, for Scoresby Sound almost as definitely terminates the south-east coast of Greenland as North Cape terminates the north-west coast of Europe ; so that, as both extremes are intersected by about the same parallel of 71°, the A. O. here falls short of tli" Arctic Circle by about 4J°. In the Old World, the A. 0., if we include its stretches south of the Arctic Circle, in the White Sea, fully 2°; while at Cape Severo, the most northerly point of Asia, in lat. 7S° 25' X., it falls short of the same by 11° 55'. Lastly, within the of the New World, the A. 0., in its strict acceptation, is everywhere forced back within the I irdi . about 5' at Point Harrow, about 7A° on Barrow's Strait, aud about 3° at the Strait of the Fury and Hecla. The waters of the A. 0., however, may conve- niently be extended beyond these their strict limits. So far as the mere aspect of the map is concerned, s Strait, Ratlin's Ray, and Hudson's Bay may be regarded as gulfs rather of the Atlantic than of the A. 0. Rut if essential characteristics ■nuitted to outweigh mere position, they must be assigned rather to the A. 0. than to the Atlantic. . being all fed by currents from the A. 0., they are all hyperborean in temperature. Even the most southerly of the three illustrates this. While is Straits present, in general, more ice than : Strait or Baffin's Bay, Hudson's Bay itself has been the scene of perhaps the two most abor- tive, if not most disastrous, of all modern ati at northern discovery. On opposite sides of South- ampton Island, Lyons and Back were arrested by impenetrable packs, the one near the Lav of I . and the other off Cape Comfort— the latter point being 1J°, and the former being twice as much, south of the Arctic Circle. Reckoning, Id the bottom of James's Bay, arm of Hudson's, the arctic teas, thus appended to i \. (J. Proper, reach as far south as the parallel idon. Little as is yet known, at least accurately, of the A. II.. ii ■ discovery and exploration have developed sked more i perhaps iration and discovery of all the i Columbus. Without anticipating anything to be said on this subject under tlie separate heads of North-East I'. North-We I and Polar Voyages, it may not be out of place here to state summarily the rativelv easy labours of the Russians while i as it were, from I 'ic rivers to survey their domestic shores. About a century and a qi imultaneoualy sent forth live expeditions to complete, if possible, the North-East Passage. From the White Sea to the Obi. four seasons were consumed ; from tin- Obi to the Y< four sea-ems; from the 5 tli-- Lena, season after season was bth nt in both directions without success ; from the Lena to the Kolyma, six seasons were occupied; fn.ni the Kolyma to the Pacific every effort was fruitless, though the Cossack Desh- neffwas known to have accomplished this part of the enterprise about a century before. Arctic navigation, in fact, h beset by almost every imaginable difficulty and danger. In addition to the peculiar pi rils of ice in all possible states, the adventurer, often Minded by fogs aud snows, has to face, generally without guide or sea the storms, tides, and currents of comparatively unknown waters. If Buch !"■ bis time months of summer, what must be his nine months of winter! Take a general illustration from tl. nil] experience of the most successful of all the- arctic navigators. On the parallel of 7.'i , and under are of 15° degrees below zero of Fab., Captain M'Clure spent the night of 30th Oct 1851 mi the ice, amid prowlir 1 that with- out food or ammunition — his only guide I pocket-compass, which, however, the darl ned by mist and drift, rendered useless. The gallant officer whiled away the time by si three hours on ' a famous bed of soft dry snow,' and by wanderii by the crow's Hi ht, over a surface so rugged as to > It was at the i pedestrian < on very short allowance of food and water, that the adventure took place ; and it had been immediately occasioned by a generous desire of reaching the winter-quarters by a nearer cut, so as to ha warm meal ready for his men ou their arrival.' Notwithstanding the labours and researches of two centuries and a half, very bttle of tin ocean lias been even seen by man. To the north of the Slid parallel, in fact, the A. I >., so far as authentic lence . is ■'. mere blank to geographers, for Parry, in 1827, barely reached In;. 82 -i.V : and Kane, in 1S54, touched only 81° 22', sighting, at the a lofty mountain, which he estimated to lie in -vj J :;<)'. Between i' me points, how- ever, the difference of long, was precisely S5° — Kane having been in 65° 35' W., and Parry "in 19° 2S E. Along the remaining 275° of lung., more than three nts of the circumference, the northern limit 'graphical knowledge falls short, i y point, of the parallel of 83°. Perhaps the actual average of such northern limit, even on the full tale of 300° of long., may not exceed lat. 75 . • as to leave absolutely unknown a circle of ." lat., or nearly 2100 miles in diameter— an area little inferior to that of Europe. This untrodden world, however, is not to be regarded as a continuous Parry, at his furthest point, found not an unbroken field, but separate floes, with more or less of open water between them — the mild- ncs3 of ag indicated by I . at his furthest point - iae his own words, ■ of fifty-four hours in duration, brought a heavy swell from that any drift or other ice. 1 Tins is quit ■ in act already is and Lay are I with pack than the waters i inty with i i itral portion of the A. 0. i- this, that is from it a current, more or ll 9S steady. so in 1 '. Parry, during nearly the whole of hi ' of l v -'7. found tint his place by reckoning was considerably al his place by observation, or, in other words, that ARCTIl M- AKl'FXNFS. his northward progress on ti nutr.ilis.il or leaa by the southward of the g .Mi lure ■ i from t! in ri ni. « nether advancing through open or drifting along at the mercy of the pack. While i turn with tin- m , of the North-Wi Ml lintock has shewn that the discovery must have been anti- i by Sir John Franklin. Succeeding • tions, of which n great Dumber have been equ land, Germany, Ft and D mark, have been mainly dii North Pole. They have n ml contradictory accounts regarding the supposed open polar Bea j 1 I chat! Ireen- island, or rather pel b over! kid and bound to 51 ther bj ■ Of tl atherly porl ioc of thi \. 1 >.. the only Bection that is tolerably well known to tance from the continent is that which washes the north-east of America. It contains, under the tiv name of Polar Archipelago, these islands, or lands: Banks Land, Prince Albert Land, wollaston Land, Victoris Land, Prince Patrick [aland, Prini R I Islands, Melville Island, Cornwallis Island, North Devon, Grinnell Land, North Lincoln, and various others. Off thi World, again, are Spitzbergen, Nova Zenibla, New Siberia, Wrangel Land, 4c. The latest discovery, made by Theodore von Hi in the Bummer ol 1870, is that of King Charles Land, which is described as an extensive tract with numerous sharp p ks, lying to the Spitzbergen, and stretching as far as thi reach between 79 and 78 X. lit. The chi are Lancaster Sound, Barrow's Strait. Smith's Sound, Regent's Inlet, Strait of the Fury and I! i, Wellington Channel, Banks Strait, Prince ol Wales Strait, Sfcc The oh all of them on the mainland, are the Obi, the b 1 nesei, and the Lena, of the first class; the Mackenzie, the STana, the Cndigirka, and the Kolyma, of the second; and many others of the third. 1 b principal production of the A. 0. has been the whale. The whale-fisheries on the v. Spitzbergen, and on both sides of Greenland, • i>< 1 i tn be mentioned, But it may not be generally known, that, according to official returns ai quoted by Admiral Bee : 1 had, in two . drawn more than 8,000,000 of dollars, or upwards of £1,600,000 sterling, from the whale- fishi ry of Behring Sb i'ii the side of Bast Siberia, however; tl" 1 A O. produces a more remarkable article of traffic. Here are found, in the greatest abundance, the b the mammoth. Spring after spring, the alluvial banks of the lakes and rivers, crumbling under the thaw, give up, as it were, their dead ; while the islands lying off the Yana, and even the the sea itself, literally teem with I terious memorials of antiquity. rican half of the A. O., if it cannot of fossil ivory, presents something still more difficult perhaps to be explained. In lat. 7 lat-76 = 15' respectively, Captain M'Clure and Lieutenant Mecham di .of considerable size. Writing of Island. .M'Clure has th.e following]'. ' From the summit of these hills, which high, to their base, abundance of wood is to be found, and in many places layers •■ \ isiblc, protruding 12 or 14 i rm that 1 i people mayjump on them without their break- ing : the largest trunk yet found measured 1 foot 7 inches in diameter' — equivalent in girth to about 5 feet. Again, ' I entered a ravine some mile3 inland, sso and found the north side of it, for a depth of 40 feet, composed of one mai 1 oi wood. Some 01 it was petri- fied, the remaindi r very rotl d, and ning.' Writing of Prince Patrick Island, buried in the east bank of to ing about 8 feet, a tree During 1 moon ] found sev< 1 of a similar kind : circumference of first and Becond tree From the per- 1 irk, and the dist. from 1 1 can be but little doubt thai llv in this country. I sawed one red 1 'ry do le grained, and so imiii . y that we could carry but little of it away.' ARCTIUM. See BrjBDOCK. ATtCTOMYS. See Mabhot. AR1>. or A 1 1 ; I '. a Celtic root, mcaniii' r 'height' bigh), which appears in many call 'A in Ireland and Scot- A'RDEA SeeHKBON. AllDF.CHE, a department in the south of France, takes its name from the river A, which rises in ' 1 vennes, flows toward the south-east through a romantic valley, and falls into the Shone mar Pont-St-Esprit. The department of A. lies between I and Drome, with Loire on the north and Card on the south, and includes the most northern part of ancient Languedoc Its greatest length from north to south is 74 miles; its gi< breadth, 44. The area of the di | 2133 square miles; the population in 1872, 380,277. A. is almost wholly mountainous. In the north- west of the department, the Cevennes cub in the volcanic Mont-Mezene, 5972 feet in height. The variety of the numerous extinct volcanic peaks, deep craters, rug dvall . . mo ol tufa, grottos, rock-labyrinths, ranges of basaltic columns, gigantic dams, &c, give a most extraordinarily picturesque appearance to the scenery. The upland, which has winter for six or eight months, is d> to pasturage; but the terraces aud valleys near the Rhone enjoy a warm climate, and produce good wine (white and red), olives, tigs, almonds, chestnuts, &c There are manufactures of silk, paper, leather, iron, &c. ; and good roads, with water-carriage, facilitate ree. Lead. iron. n inganese, ftc, are wrought. The chief towns are Privas, Aubenas, Bourg, St Andeol. AKDEE' (Ath-air-dee 'Foul on the Dee'), a town in the west of Louth County, Ireland, - river Dee, twelve miles inland. It contains two ; castles— one built about the year 1200, and now used as the town-house ; the other, a square building, and now used as a prison. The chief in corn and other agricultural products. Pop. (1871) 2572. ARDE'NNES, the western division of the slate- plateau of the Lower Rhine. It extends over portions of Belgium, France, and Rhenish Prussia, and con- sists of .! broken mass of hills, for the most part of t 1 levation, « hii I -wards the plains of Flanders, [n early til me was given to the whole of the region I I 1 imbre, a length of about 160 1 the hills is less than 2000 but in 1 font St Hubert attains an elevation of 2300 feet. Large tracts of this region consist not of hills, but of gently undulating plateaus, which are densely covered with oak and beech forests, while other portions are marshy, heathy, and 1 The districts through which the Mouse and other ARDENNES— AREIOP AC PS. rivers flow, present some extraordinary appear- ances. The channel of the river is sometimes bound in by rugged and precipitous cliffs more than 600 feet high. The principal rocks of the A. are clay- slate, grauwacke, quartz, &e., interspersed with extensive strata of primitive limestone. Coal and iron mine3 are wrought in the north-west ; lead, antimony, and manganese are also found. There is little cultivation of grain, but multitudes of cattle anil sheep are i ARDENNES, a frontier department in the north- east of France, bordering upon the provinces of Namur and Luxembourg m Belgium. It formed a part of the old province of rihrnnpagin* I ulth, from east to !ad on the north side, and 180 feet on the east. data on the south-east^ and ; : Eendicular banks of Knaig Wal 50 feet protect the camp on the west. The pr.etorium, oeral's quarter, now called Chapel Hill, rises the level of the camp, but is not exactly in the centre, and is nearly a square of 60 feet each side. Three of the four ' in lloman carnps arc still seen. A subterranean passage is said to have former] I from the prsetorium under d of the K11 u 5. tliis station, on the way to Crieff; may be traced three temporary mps of different - Portio of the ramparts of these camps still exist. A mile west of V. imi eairn of stones ! d, 182 ing, 4o feet broad at the base, and 30 feet in sloping height. A human skeleton, 7 feet long in a stone coffin, was found in it. ARDRO S.sAN", a small seaport town and sum- mer bathing-place in A \i ts rise to the public spirit of the Eglintoun family. Its harliour, wbii h 1 1 shi I n island off the coast, is one of the safest and most accessible on the west coast of Scotland, and ha at vast expense, by the Earls of Eglintoun. There is a large export of coal from this place, and ship- building is carried on to :Ue extent. On a hill above the town stand the ruins of A. I to have been surprised by Wallace when held by the forces of Edward I. Wallace destroyed the garrison, and threw the .a dungeon called ' Wallace's Larder.' Pop. in 1 >T 1 ABE, the unit of the French land-measure, is a square, the side of which is 10 metres .'or 32*809 feet) long (see Metre), and which, therefore, contains 100 square metres = K 176 The n-xt denomination in 1 hng scale is the decare, containing 10 ares ; but the denomination commonly used in describing a quantity of land is 1 100 — -'47 Knglish statute or imperial acres. AREA (Lat.) is a term in mathematics meaning . The calculation of areas, or men- suration of surfaces, is one of the ultimate objects of geometry. The measuring unit is a square inch, a square foot, &c, according to the unit of length. As a figure is thus m by rinding an equivalent for its surface in squares, the process is sometimes called the i/nadrature of the lignre. ARE'CA, a E Palms, containing several , having pinnate leaves and double spathes. The fruit is a fibrous one-seeded drupe, a nut with an outer lil irons husk. A. Catechu, the Pm&xa ' or Betel-nut Palm, is a native of the East Indies, whose nut yields a sort of catechu. See Ca [ This Areca-nut, or Betel-nut, is very much used in all parts of ( • chewing of it with quick- lime and the leaf of the betel-pepper being one of the most prevalent habits of the ]>eople. See Betel. The nut is about the size of a hen's egg ; the fibrous busk about half an inch thick. It is austere and astringent. It is doubtful if it possesses a narcotic powi r, or if this is to be ascribed entirely to the leaf which is used along with it. Areca- nuts form a considerable article of trade in the East. The timl • r of the palm which produces them, and its leaf-stalks and spathes, are als.. US I I . T domestic purposes. The tree is often 40 high, and in geni ral less than a foot in dia The leaves are few, but very large, their 1 more than a yard I iating lozenge is prepared from the . the Cabbage Palm ..i" the W. : Indi i, is a very tall ,100 - . whose huge terminal leaf-bud is and nutritious, and i- for the - ut when it is cut off, the tree is ,1. The stem ■ notwithstanding arkably slender. The nuts arc produced in great numbers ; they are about the size of a filbert, and have a sweet kernel.— A. . the New Zealand Palm, is remarkable as extending southward beyond 1 ihical limits of any :t3 hit 38° 22 8. H a small palm, only from 6 to 10 high, with haves 4 6 f niflor- L .1. '.a native 1 is so called becau le clothing is made from its Bl AREIO'PAGTJS (Gr. for 'Mars' I lill'b amount lying to the Acropolis, at A- and celebrated as the spot where the most ven court of justice in anciei ngs. It is not easy to deternu. rily why the hill obtained its name ; most probably it was on account ARENA— AREOMETER. of sacrifices having been offered there at an early period to the * 1 ■ >«l of War; but all its I importance is derived from the Areiopagitic Council, the origin of which reaches far back into antiquity, and is ascribed by some to the semi mytho] I ips. Orestes, according to tradition, this Court, and it is certain that it must have existed Ion > before the Bret Mesaenian WariT 40 B.O.), for the as, in offering to submit to it sions certain points of dispute, sneak of it, even then, as 'old.' Solon, however, made many clian its constitution, enlarging its sphere of juriso to such an extent that n • be any Ion mere criminal court, and acquired henceforth social and political powers in addition to the former. Before Solon's time. H was strictly oligarchical It now became a tert turn quid h^ tocracyand democracy, the new qualification for office intro- duced by Solon being property instead of birth It thus naturally allied itself with aristocracy, so that n perfectly understand why it should have been conaiden d a check upon the impetuous d i bough it would, perhaps, !"■ fairer to i check upon both extremes. It is not known how many members were included in its council. Th" nine archons — if they had recommended them- selves by a faithful discharge of thi ir dutii ! -were elected life-members of it, Solon made the council * overseers of everything,' and we find instances of tie ir manifold authority in the subsequent hi of Greece. They granted mon y,a1 the time of the Persian invasion, from a reserve treasury of their own, the ordinary public i empty. After the battle ol I uteroneia, they executed all who had deserted their country. I" social matte) . . i 1 1; i ar to have been curiously minute. They officers whom they sent or accompanied into private houses, ou occasion of a festivity, to see that the rooms were not overcrowded; they called to account persons who lived in Bucn riotous extra- vagance that tie ' might be considered 1 inutility, ai ! ' irks of honour on those of an opposite character. Their extendi d itself to in also. Innovations in tl. of the 1 ict of the sacred cei any form, brought the offenders under the t and punishment of the A. It is likewi that they possessed and exerci id great authority in the education of the youn his ment, and that regarding some charitable functions attributed to them, are of dubious v; I ' 1 1 1 il the time of Pericle3, the brilliant and power- ful ruler of the democracy, the A. contini maintain its ancient dignity. He soon discoi however, that it would prove an insurmountable obstacle to the realisation of his designs if not shorn of its privileges. After much and vigorous opposi- tion, he succeeded in carrying a decree (458 B. C), by which, as Aristotle says, the A. was 'mutilated,' anl democratic tribunals acquired supreme autho- rity. It is, however, far from being clear what were changes which Pericles effected, whether he abridged its powers as a criminal, or as a social and political court. From the high estimation in which it was held for centuries after, in the I these capacities, we are inclined to think that it was its social and political supremacy that was destn >yed. bly the A. was made responsible tothedemus, or body of citizens. It lingered in life for a very We hear of it as late as 380 A. n., and it would seem, from the case of St Paul, that it possessed in his day a certain authority in p matters. ARENA, a part of an amphitheatre (so called because it was usually strewed with sand, though 882 when a tit of extravagance seized the Roman i dl I cinnabar ini tead), v. in combats of and wild beasts tool It had four main ei ided by a wall about 1"> feet Inch, so that the Bpeci if ii ly s sic. The name w i d by to any building for exhibitions ol I animal i hip, fee. On the continent, the name I < n to the large summer th for dramatic performances in tl applied also, in a general sense, to any scene of contest or display of power. ARENACEOUS ROCKS. All rocks com entirely, or to a large extent, of grains of sib included under this title. Beds of loose sand occur extensively in the more recent deposits. The ■ either of quartz or flint, are generally watl • and rounded. In older deposits, the grains ol are bound together by- sUieious, calcareous, ai ceous, or ferruginous cements. It is seldom tl rock is composed of quartzy materials alone ; grains or particles of other mineral Bubstances are En qucutly mingled with the grains of quartz. Silvery d ' a absent; and they often occur in layers parallel to the planes of stratifica- tion, causing the lock to split into thin exposing a glittering surface. These are called When grains of IV occur, it is a./ ,: ' quan- tities oi ns matter, either as cement or as distinct grains, occur ; and these are called cal< sandstones. nee of lime can always bo i .1 by the > Effervescence which takes plai e on the application of muriatic or other acid. When me is coarse-grained, it is usually < grit. If the grains are Targe enough to pebbles, it becomes conglomerate <■ if the fragments are sharp and angular, it is called ARENA'KTA or SANDW< IRT, a genua of | of the natural w iphyUeee, differing from Stellaria (Stitchv i i ncllv in 1 petals. The species are numerous, annual and peren- nial herbaceous plants of humble growth, iiat shrubby, natives of the temperate and parts of the world. Some of them are arctic and alpine plants. Many of them are ch in sandy soils. The flowers arc- generally small and inconspicuous, but if closely examined, arc bi i possess no little beauty. A number of species are natives of Britain. A'RErTDAJTj, a town on the south-east coast of Norway, situated near the mouth of the Nid-elf in the bay of Christiania, with a population of 2200. It is built partly on poles, partly on rock, and this circumstance, as well as its situation, gives it a very romantic aspect The bay, which is protected by the island of Trombe, forms an excellent harbour, vours the commerce of the town, which is considerable, in proportion to its size. A. is inter- sected by canals; its exports arc iron from the. neighbouring mines, and wooden articles. Ship- building is also canned on ; and ou a smaller scale, distilleries and tobacco-factories. King Louis Philippe, after the French Revolution, wh i wander- rth as Duke of Orleans, made som here. ATIF/Ni ; or A B ENGA See Gomcto Palm. ARENI'COLA See Axxelida and Saxdworm. AREOMETER [araiot, thin, and metreO, I mea- sure; Fr. m "'/ Ger..4riSi I, called also Hydrometer, an instr which is allowed to float freely in liquids, to deter- mine tin ir sp icific gravity or that of solid belies. By specific gravity (q. v.) is meant the ratio that the AREOMETER. weight of any volume of a substance bears to the weight of the same volume of water. Thus, a cubic foot of alcohol weighs 703 ounces, while the samo quantity of water weighs 1000 ounces ; the specific gravity of alcohol is set down, therefore, as -rVo o" °r ■793. A cubic foot of sulphuric acid weighs 1841 ounces, and has, consequently, a specific gravity of 1*841. These relations are not confined to the par- ticular volume, one cubic foot, of these bodies, but hold for any equal volumes of them. Equal volumes of alcohol, water, and sulphuric acid, have alv, each other the ratio respectively of 793, LOW, and 1841 ; and this is only an instance of the g principle, that equal volumes of different substances have weights bearing to each other the direct ratio of the specific gravities of these substances. This is tie' principle on which areometers with weigh! . or weight-areometers, are constructed. If, how- ever, equal weights of any two of these liquids were taken, it would be found that *70.'i of a cubic foot of water would weigh as much as 1*000 enlao foot of alcohol ; 1*000 cubic foot of sulphuric acid as much as 1*841 cubic feet of water; or *70.'i of a cubic foot of sulphuric acid as much as 1*S41 cubic of alcohol: more generally thus — when equ I weights of two different fluids are taken, the volumes of each are inversely as their specific gravities. On this latter principle depends the use of areometers with scales, or scale-areometers. The BOale-A. is much more commonly employed than the weight. V, and is, in consequence, a much more important instrument. Of the various forms of scale - areometers, that contrived by Gay-Lussac deserves particular notice, from the simplicity of the mode of graduation ; and an account of it will give the best idea of the general nature of such instruments. Fig. 1 gives a representation of it. It Fic.2 Areometer... consists of a uniform glass tube, AB, blown into two bulbs, and D, at the bottom. The lower bulb, D, is loaded with mercury, so that when the instru- ment floats in any liquid, the stem, AB, is main- tained in a vertical position. We shall suppose that the quantity of mercury is so adjusted that when placed in water, the A. sinks to the paint W, which may, in consequence, be called the water-point. According to the principle of Archimedes, the weight of the volume of water displaced by the instrument up to this poinf is equal to thi if the instru- ment. Let us suppose, for the sake of simplicity, that the water so displaced is a cubic inch, the weight of the A. will be that of a cubic inch of water, or 250 grains (more correctly 252*3 grains at (jii° F.). If the a. be now placed in a fluid heavier than water, such as a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, having a specific gravity '; or 1 i'i, it is manifest that if it is sunk again to the water-point, the displaced fluid would weigh ' x of 250 = 312J grains, or 62J grains more than the weight of irument. As much, therefore, of the of the A. must rise above the liquid as will reduce the weight of the di placed liquid to 250 grains, or reduce the volume to J of what it was before. If the stem in this case rises to B, the volume displaced by the part WB 1 the volume displaced by the instrument at the water-point If we consider tl divided into 100 parts, and mark 100 at \Y. B must be a 80, as the A. displaces up to that point I of 100 j and if the intervening space on the stem be divided into 20 equal parts, each of them will corn with -ij, of the water-volume — viz., *0l of a cubic inch, or with y-J^ of the weight of the instrument — viz., 2*5 grains. If the same scale be carried above the point YV, and the divisions marked as asc from 100, the A. will be serviceable likewise for fluids less dense than water, and wdl mark the volumes which it displaces in each of them. The A. thus graduated gives immediately the volumes which it displaces in different liquids ; and from these, seeing that it displaces in every ease a v. of liquid equal to its own, the speci! may be calculated according to the principli stated— viz., that equal weights of two difi fluids have volumes inversely as their specific gravities. If, in a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, the A. stands at 90, according to tie principle, 90 volumes of the mixture wi h much as 100 of water; therefore, its specific gravity or 1'. If, again, in a mixture of spirits and water, it should stand at 110, 110 volumes of the mixture weigh as much as 100 of water, so that its :-\ gravity is I n 1 ' In all cases, then, !' to be divided by the number read on the A . i 1 : icific gravity of the liquid in which it floats. The delicacy of the A. depends on the distance of the divisions on the scale, or on the thinness of the stem compared with the bulbs. An instrument pos- this advantage cannot be male 1 i liquids heavier and lighter than water, for tl would be of an inconvenient 1 ngth ; ami it is usual to construct two areometers one marked with the water-point at the top, and the -. ale descending to 50, for fluids heavier than water; and the - with the water-point at the bottom, and tie ascending to 150, for fluids lighter than water. The scale is generally marked on a slip of paper, which is fixed inside the stem. Qay-Lussaos A. known under the name of ' volumometcr.' All 1 it cannot be surpassed cither for accuracy or smi- . it, is much less used than other instrui of a similar nature furnished with arbitrary s requiring the aid of tables to interpret C The best known of tie \., used in England; and Beaume's A. lopted On the continent. The A. with an equally divided scale is a very ancient instrument; it was known among the Greeks under the name of ' luryllion.' i'ii some areometers the divisions are not at distances, but are so drawn as togi\ , ithout or calculation, the specific gravity of the fluid in which tiny are placed. Although \ery desirable, in practice they do not possess the accuracy of the A. in AIM".'! IPA-APKT.F.rs. p divided liiation i is attended with considerable difBculty. ■ hi be made to determine i th perfect accuracy , and Bucb instrumi ate a! where a reai roxii i employed chiefly to ascertain the a .n.. ol : hi dquora and solutions which occur in the ad manufactures, and very frequ. ntly tin y t iduated witl ! v. in.', null;, brin i, &c. The Alcohol i or Hydrometer of Sikes is an instrument .it" this latter description, ami is in genera] ting tlif strength of spirits. It is uted in fig. -'. BC is a hollow bi isa ball, inted by a flat stem AB, ami loaded below by a short conical stem CD, terminated by the 1 bull) D. It is accompanied I". weights, by which the of tic instrument may lie increased, ami th "t the scale i | i . , ■ ' i r than , in the ; it is furnished with a slit, so as to allow of it being slipped on to the narrowe i part, I '. of the 10 .■ I into 1 1 1 parts, and I and *'"' iment is so adjusted that its indications give of water that must be added to or taken 100 volumes of the mixture under examination ace it to pn i i ohol), whi mixture of nearly equal parts of water ami : Thus, if the A. indicates 11 over-proof, 11 i of water must be added in order to bring the liquid down to proof -strength ; and 100 ili would be reckoned as 111; 100 11 under-proof, would in I i way be charged as 89. very carefulh con d tables tent, in which th and p mix! i . a1 different temperatures, are marked, com i i ol the A. Since the B] -.. it\ of ohol is known, it might be thought, th a mixture of it with water were known, the n of each would also be known. Such, .. r, is not the case, for alcohol and water po a chemical affinity for each other, which causes the combined volumes of the two torn less than the two volumes separately. Thus, 50 volumes of alcohol mi red n tth 60 volumes of water does not make 100 volumes of the mixture, but only 96, ami thereby the specific gravity of the mixture is higher than it would have been if no contraction had taken place. As the law of this contraction i very complicated, the relative proportdi the two in a combination of given specific gravity, ■ tiinated from tables founded upon rimental data. The peculiar feature of areometers with weights is, that instead of a scale, tie v have on] m, to which the A. is in all cases sunk. One of the best-known instruments of this kind is ol Nicholson. It consists of a brass tube, i.i in 3), about 1 inch in diameter, closed and below by conical ends, to the which a wire is fixed, carrying on the top of it a containing the weights ; and to the lower, ok is attached, from which hangs the cup D. The lower part of the cup, D, is also provided with a hook, and the whole instrument is kept vertical, partly by the weight of the cup, and parti] I t of the ball, E, suspended from it. On the a notch, W, is made, to serve as the mark or fixed point to which the A. is sunk. The specific liquids are determined by Nicholson's A. following way : The weight of the A. itself is first ascertained — let it be in a given case 2000 grains S84 ii is then put into water al the temperature 60" F., i i ■ put in, till it is Mink t,, \Y. it i; now removed to the liquid under i ; and if the weigh! reqi I to sink ii ut now to th adard point be ... ravity of ,, .I to I ' ,;" ■ In both Quids, the Bame volume I Ljsplaced, and that is in each i I to : he A. ; but V i lie ind . ■ was 2000 + 100, and in the formi r, 20 re n suit. Nich li m us .1 for finding the I 'vity of fluids ; its u .ut ••, ly restricted to ascertaining that of small solid substances, as gems and small pii minerals. The following example will shew how . , : If in tie- cup Of the A. ■■'' ,1. when placed in water, the gem be put, ami only 440 grains be then n bring the instrument to V\ ,60 grain tnai . : < of the ' n 500 ins v.. re Deeded v. i it. to do the thin I he ai the lower cup, D, and if 460 grains are now d to sink to the standard-point, t 1 "' gem ha thus lost •20 grains of its Wi ight by being immersed in the ling to the principle of Archimedi a (q. v.), these go grains are al o the weight of a equal to that of the gem; so the specific gravity of the . or 3. By revers- eup l>, which is furnished with perforations, to allow ir to the air, and attaching the .. K, to the i it, the Bp cifii .ii.i-i lighter than wati . mine. I by this instrument. The other fonns of i of Fahrenheit, Tralles, .uul l ' 1 1 : i li . For the more accurate determination of the specific gravities of liquids and solids, see IVITV. AEEQTJI'PA, a term primarily applied to a tain in the west Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes, and secondarily to a city at its foot, being from tins, again, extended to a district, a pro a department, and a diocese. 1. The city, which is in lat. 16° IS' S., and m lone 7(1 Is \V.. is th, in Peru, being inferior only to Lima and Cuzco, and is said to contain :S(I IJ tan ts. It carries on a considerable trade both with the interior and by sea. Its port is [slay, on.- of the larger harbours of the republic. 2. The department is bounded X. by Lima ; L\ by Ayacucho, Cnzco, and Punn ; S. by Moquega, which, along with it, forms the diocese; and \\ . by the Pacific. It contains '200,11(10 inhabitants, and is subdivided int.. i I provinces. Like nearly the whole of the maritime region of Peru, it is generally arid and sterile. 3. The mountain is volcauic, of the form of a trun- cated cone, and of the height of 2(>.:>20 feet. Its neighbourhood is f AIILS. See Ad ARETiE'US, a famous physician of Cappadocia, who nourished in the latter half of the 1st, and in the beginning of the 2d century after Christ, lb- is ..I to rank next to Hippocrates in the skill with which he treated diseases; but ho did not, in every iustance, follow the practice of the ' Father of Medicine.' lie was less attentive to 'the natural i' of the system, which he frequently count r- if he thought it desirable ; administered active i ly, employed narcotics, an not object 1 ' lb v, . in fact. IV. his total want of professional bigotry ; and I not committing himself to any particular I oi opinions, in his accuracy in the detail of symptoms and the diagnosis of disease, he is superior to most of the ancient physicians. His great work, written in A I :eth us a— arg all singularly elegant and concise Ionic Greek, is divided into two parte. The first four books treat of the causes and symptoms of acute and chronic dis- eases ; the second, the cure of the same. They are almost in a state of complete preservation, and have been translated into various European lan_ I lining been frequently edited in the original. The finest edition is the Oxford one of 1723, by .T. Wigan; a German translation a] at Vienna (17§0— 1802), and an English by T. F. Reynolds, Lend. 1837. ARETHU'SA. See Aun ARETI'XIAX SYLLABLES are the syllables ut, i . ■ . fa, .-.', I", used by Guido d'Arezzo for his system of hcxachords. ARETI'NO, Potato, an Italian author of the ICth c, was the natural son of a gentleman named I.uigi Bacci, and was bora at Arezzo, in Tuscany, on ;li of March 1492. Banished from his native town, he went to Perugia, where he wrought as a index, and gathered up a few scraps of learn- ing until, seiz dwith a desire ol becoming famous, ; occupation, and wand i j i of various noblemen. At I L himself by his wit, impudence, and the ] apal patronage, which, however, he . lost by writing licentious sonnets. A. now went to the Mi court, where John de' Medici grew bo fond of him that he shared his bed with the adventurer, and even i an opportunity <>f ingratiating 1 with Francis I. at .Milan in 1524 A few years later, he settled at Venice, where be also acquired power- ful friends. The Bi hop of Vii mza not only soothed the irritation of thi V, but also recom- mended him to the Emperor ( bar] »V. The latter, bivalrous rival, Francis, and other great | asioned the fortunate wit, l>esides enriching him with splendid presents. He bkewise obtained considerable sums for his literary efforts. Nature had undoubtedly gifted A. with some fine qualities, but these wire vitiated by Ins love of tal gratifications. His death in 1556 accorded the character of bis life. It is said that while ins heartily at some trilling adventure of one of his abandoned sisters, he fell from a stool, and was killed on the spot. His poetical works include live comedies and a tragedy. The former are full of wit and genuine comic humour; the latter is not without merit. II So " /. have been translated into French under the title of A< des Dames. Besides these, he wrote a number of other pieces, some of which have not been published. nred for him the name of 'the e of Princes;' but it seems clear that be was equally well fitted to be their sycophant. Although the v. ry impersonation of licentiousness, he had the impudence to publish some books of a devotional kind, with the view of obtaining the favour of the pope. ARETI'XO, SriNELl.0, an early Italian painter of . was born at Arezzo in 1316, "r. accord- ing to others, in 1328. Se studied po del i atino; but before he had attained his majority, he had surpassed his master in the vigour and liveli- ness both of his conceptions and colouring. His reputation attained its full bloom after he went to Florence, where he painted in fresco, in the chapel of St Maria Ms J .dents in the life of the Virgin and of St Antonio Abate. The monastery of San Miniate, near Florence, contains to the present day a few of h:s frescoes. He also adorned the monasteries of San Bernardo at \ and Monte Oliveto near Florence. Vat that the finest works of A. were those winch he 25 executed for the Campo Santo at Pisa, illustrating the life of San Ranieri. Of these, however, we have only prints, and cannot therefore judge satisfac- torily. His principal works, still remaining, are those frcm the life of Pope Alexander 111. in the town-hall of Siena. He died in 1408. Throughout all Italy, A. " his invention, the grace and simplicity with which 1 his figures, and the finish of liis style. His Madonnas possessed a remarkable sweetness of expression ; and his colouring was in most cases bold and beautiful Vasari prefers him to Giotto. ARE'ZZO (Ap.tTiLM), the chief city of the Tuscan province of A.. in a fertile valley near the confluence of the Chiana with the lat. 43" 27' N., long. 11° 52 E. It is 3S miles E.S.K. from Florence. A. is ]>erhap3 the oldest town in Tuscany, and formed one of the t . of the it Etruscans. 1 istated by SyDa during the Social War ; and, like Ita'lian cities, was sacked by the < loths when they bur the peninsula. During the contest of I i Ghibellines, in a later age, it l>ccame su to Florence, whose troops defeated those ■ at the battle of Camalaino, in which the poet Dante took part. Arezzo contains 10,000 inhabit- ants; but its extensive walls and numerous el i 1 of its more nourishing period, when it had 30,000. The P as ■ . the Piece, an old church founded on the site of a heathen temple, and the i almost all the other churches, has an uulin de, are its principal public buildings. '1 ral has a splendid high altar in marble by Giovanni Pisano ; and the several churches contain fine <>f the old Tuscan school of painting. These ecclesiastical decorations are contra-fed with the general aspect of the city, which has dark and dirty streets. Its industry is at present at a very low ebb, there being few or no manufactures, and its are not generally favi Italy ; but perhaps no city of its size ever produced a greater number of eel tioned — Maecenas, the famous patron of letters in the time of the Emperor Augustus; Petrarch; Pietro Aretino ; Guido de A., inventor of the gamut; Leonardo de A., the historian ; Ces : the botanist ; Redi. the physician ; Pope Julius III.; the notorious Marshal d'Ancre ; and Vasari, author of TAves of the Painters. Michael Angelo was also born in the vicinity of A. The province of A tains 1268 square miles, with a population of 21! J. The soil is fertile in corn, wine, and oil. ATRGAL A. See Adjutant. AKCAI.I (Ovit At ild sheep of Siberia and Central Asia. It is found from Kam- tchatka to the Himalaya Mountains, where, however, it is only seen in the more elevated regions. ' We Heal of the Arglli Sheep. came suddenly,' says T>r Hooker in his Himalayan Journal, 'upon a » k of ggantic wild sheep, feed- in E on scanty tufts of dl ami grass ; there 9 enty-five of tin se enormous animals, of whose dimensions the term sheep gives no idea; they are W ARGAN— ARGEH8. 1 have immen 'X is said ; up hit their hollows when d bleacl. batten mountains of Tibet. 1 The horns i le are nearly 4 feet long, and 14 inches in circumference at the base, where they are Jar. The general colour is fulvous gray, ;h, with a whitish disk aronnd t' The wool is concealed l>y hair. The name A. is . and was adopted by I iee is alao found on the B Mountains. The Rod horn, is sometimes called the American A. AKGAN [Argania I |, a low spiny i a native of the southern of the kingdom of Marocoo, bearing an ovate drape about the size of a plum, dotted with white, and full of a white milky juice. The Moors extract an oil from the fruit, which they use with their food. ARGAND, A ian and chemist, was burn at Geneva about the middle of the i He was the inventor of the well-kno The chief dillieultics that at: use of lamps as a source of light ■ , in procuru complete combustion of the oil, so as to keep the from smoking; and second, in pp levi I of the oil in the reservoir from sinking as the Combustion goes on. The round cotton-wick, used in the old simple form of lamp, was always attended with smoke and smell. The oils and fits are i ingly rich in carbon, contai. BO per cent. t element, and only 10 to 12 of hyd The round thick column, then, of oil-vapour from the wick of aa old-fashioned lamp, presented le extent of surface to the air ; the ov all the air that could get access was chic!! up in burning the hyd. and a large proportion of the carbon I in the burnt . air as smoke. A.'s improvement was that he I wick in the form of a ring. The flame a hollow cylinder j with a current of air ascending 1 through the insid g surface was don would appear, however, that the lamp did not satisfy the expectations of A., till his younger brother accidental! \ 1 the effect of a glass cylinder, as a chimney over the flame, by which the Same was steadied, a draught created, and the greatest possible amount ol Med. A. was soon involved in a dispute with one Lango of Paris regarding the originality of his inv- He went thither to vindicate his claim, but rather than risk the chances of a lawsuit, he consented to the honour, and a patent was obtained by which LangS and A. alone were authorised to make and s lamps in France for 15 years. The French Revolution, however, destroyed their privi- lege, r. 1 to England After some time, he returned to his native country, a victim to melancholy and fantastic humours, and died on the 21th I 13. ARGATJ'M, a village in the territory of the L It is in lat. 21* 2' N., and in long. 77 on the route, between Ellichpore anl Aurungabad. I ogle claim to notice is that, on 28th November 1 - 3, about two months after the battle of Assaye, Major-general Wellesley here gained another victory over the Mahrattas. To commemorate this . a medal was struck in 1S51, about a year before the death of the illustrious conqueror. Argand Burner. . or A'BGHEL (Solauutmma .!., or -I.), a plant of the natural a piadacerr, a native of Arabia and of the north of Africa.' only because of the fre- quent use of for tin- adulteration of senna. They are lanceolate aud leathery, and may readily be distinguished from genuine senna leaves by their texture, their being downy, their greater heaviness, the comparati ■ the symmetry of their sides, the sides of the true senna ' being unequal. They are acrid, and cause si' and grilling, but a difference of opinion subsists as to their possessing purgative properties. ARGELANDER, Fbxkdbich Wilhelm Ai one of the in" t eminent astronomers of on. was born, March 22, 1799, at Memel. He studied at K '.ere the science of finance tirst attracted him ; but he was subsequently drawn away to that of astronomy by the lectures of Bessel, by i • was i : make calculations and itions. In 1820, he was appointed assistant to in the Konigsberg Observatory, and i >mer at the • of Abo, in Finland. Here he commenced a t . observations on the fixed stars which have a per- ceptible 'proper motion.' His studio were unl uately intarri a fire which destroyed observatory ; but after a tune, he resum a new observatory at I. bed a ue of not less tli shaving ' motions.' This contained the results ol vations at Abo, and received from the Academy of St Petersburg the great Demidov prize. After ng to the university of Bonn in 1S37, A. pub- lished 1 Nova (Berlin, 1843), con- taining celestial charts of the fixe-d stars seen in our hemisphere with the naked eye ; also (in 1S4C) his ins, containing the results of an examination of the northern heavens from lination, and giving the positions of 2! stars. For a con umber of years, A. has been engaged in a so: rvations on the ing work is expected to be the result of these recent studies. ARGE'MONB, a genus of plants of the natural order/' nguished by4-— 6petala,4 — 7 radiating cob i as, and an i ipsule, opening by valves at the point. A. Mexicana, some- times called Mexican l'oppy, is an annual herbaceous plant with large yellow Bowers, and se?sil". waved and sinuated, spiny leaves, variegated with white. It is anal I icoandof the southern parts of the United States, and is now also common in many tropical and sub-tropical countries, in which it lias been naturalised. Its seeds are narcotic, luetic, exhibiting in a strong degree those qualities of the order of which the seeds of the ; are devoid. They are used in the West Indies as a substitute for ipecacuanha, also instead of opium ; and the juice of the plant is employed as a remedy for ophthalmia. — This plant is not unfrequcntly to be seen in flower-borders in Britain ; but in the northern parts, at least, the seed is generally sown in a hot-bed. ARGENS, Jean Baptxste de Botkr, Marquis d', born at Aix, in Provence, June 24, 1704. He was originally intended for a learned career ; but, from a love of adventure, he entered the army at G Fascinated by a certain actress, he elop I n, but was captured, and brought ba Provence. In spite of his glaring breach of disci- pline, he had the good-fortune to be employed in the French embassy to Constantinople, and on his return, re-entered the army. Being disabled by ARGENSOLA— ARGENTINE BEPUBLIC. accidents in military service, and disinherited by his. r, he tried His fortune in authorship, and by hii !.■ , and La PhiloiopkU du E .ondon, ]7.'i7), attracted tin: notice of Frederick II., then I n-princo of Prussia, and became a favourite at court of Prussia when EVederick came to the throne. The kin 1 liiiu chamberlain, and (or of the Art Academy at Berlin, with a salary of GOUO livres. lie was a constant associate of Frederick, who lik ly his frank and vivacious character, but used to tease him on account of las hypochondriacal fits. When almost a narian, he renewed the adventures of his youth by again falling a victim to the charms of an actress, Mademoiselle Cochois, whom he married without Frederick's permission. This and other circumstances irritated the despotic monarch, who deprived A. of his pension. The latter now returned to Provence, and died at Toulon, January 11, 1771. His numerous writings, but especially his J. Esprit Hit/main, Leltr .,■■'. those above mentioned, once enjoyed a considerable reputation. ARGENSOLA Letercio and Bai-.tolom*; Lbonabdo it., two of the first among the Spanish iioets in the 'golden age,' were born at Bar- >astro, in Aragon ; the former in 15G5, the latter in 15GG. They Btudied at the university of Huesca. Lupercio afterwards went to Madrid, while Barto- lome entered the church. In character and for- tune, however, they were closely united through- out the whole of their career. Both were patronised by Maria of Austria, who appointed the one her chaplain, and the other her private secretary. The latter was subsequently made chamberlain to the Archduke Albert of Austria, and Philip III. appointed him historiographer of a. Bartolome was employed by the Count de l.'inos to edit the iJonquUta de las Molucas (Madrid, 1G09); ami when this nobleman was as viceroy of Naples, both the brothers A., who bad acquired fame as poets, attended his court at Nap] Lup-rcio, who then filled the office of Secretary of Si d I ' B 'olomS returned to Spain with the viceroy in 1616, and occupied the position formerly held by bis brother, apher of the kin. i of . where rk left unfinished by ■■io — a continuation of Zurit i " >> Ara- While engaged in this work, he died, February 26, 1631. The collected poems of the two brothers 1634, by the son of Lupercio, and passed through se\ ons. These poems ■ -■) consist of epistles, odes, sonnets, and as and are singularly alike in character. They are imitative of the style of the Latin poets (especially Horace, for which reason the brothers have been ! 'the Spanish II . I display more care originality of invention or ri of fancy. Bartolome A, as a pro ■ the Spanish classics. The style of his i of Zurita is a great advance on the original, especially in oo ARGKNSON, MJlBO Pin:r.E, COMXI D', ■ h statesman, was born in 1606. ding a number of inferior 11 M. de Bretetnl aa Secretary ol to the war minister in 17!-. On tie- death of Hal Fleury, in the whole care of the war then ragin i upon him. mud matters in I condi- tion. The French troops, decimated by BWOld and ■ in full r i the Bhiue ; tho Austriaus already swarmed in Alsace and Lorraine, and the very political existence of France was imperilled ; but the vigorous efforts of A., and his sin- gularly lucky choice of generals, completely changed the fortunes of the war in the course of one year. The theatre of strife was transferred to tho Low Countries ; and after the victories of Fontenoy and of Bergen-op-Zoom, and the investment of Maestricht, peace wa3 secured by the famous treaty of Aix-la-chapelle, . I 7 I . A., however, did not remain inactive. He built new fortresses and repaired old ones, established the MUitaire in 1751, and, by various measures, t to keep alive the military ardour and spirit of the nation. He was ! i illustrious patron of literature. Diderot and D'Alembert dedi- to him their great Encyclopedic. He was the friend of Voltaire, whose fellow-student he had and furnished him with materials for his de Lotos XI I '. On the breaking out of the war again in 1756, his valuable sen-ices were neglected, and next year he was deprived of his office, and ■ to his estate of "Ormes, where he spent six dreary years. It is supposed that this calamity befell him through the machinations of Madame Pompadour, his worst enemy. On her decease, he returned to Paris, where he died in 1701. A'RGENT, the French word for silver, is always used in English heraldry to signify that metal. In engraving shields, it is left white. ARGE'NTEUS CODEX. See Ulftlas. ARGENTINE [Argentina), a genus of small fishes of the family Ualmonidce, of which one is rarely found on the British shores, and two or three are found in the Mediterranean. They are chiefly remarkable for the resplendent silvery lustre of their sides, and the abundance of nacre, the substance used in making artificial pearls-, with which their air-bladder is externally loaded. It consists of a coat of silvery fibres. Upon account of it, are sought after. They are commonly taken in nets along with anchovies or sardines. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, the eon' tion of the Bio de La Plata, or River of S South America — the Latinised epithet an d the Spanish term being merely copy and origu one and the same misnomer. This confedera- tion may be described, accurately enough for the as extending in S. 1 •J'J 3 and -H , and in W. long, bi I I In addition, however, to the thirteen confederated provinces themselves, these limits comprise Buenos Ayrcs. which, 6ince 185' 3, has formed an entirely separate state. Including Bui the wl tangle of 19' of lat. by 13 of 1 to contain r. so that. '.000 as th i Buenos A m> for the thirteen provinces about 900,000 square pules — a sum-total which falls somewhat short of the lly receive,! . times the extent o les, contains only i inhabitants, being not quite an inhabitant to a square mile. This i i said to bo thus distributed among the thirteen prov < To* ( lordova, . Cordova, . 1 Catam;e Catan 60, t Carrie] . - lii.tr ■ Kios, . Parana, . . Jujuy, ) Salta, ( . Salta, 30,000 • 6 Mendoza, Mendoza, 70,000 Rioja, Rioja, . 30.000 3s7 A i:f ! ENTINE REl'UBLIC— AIH ! ES. Vrovince. Capital. San .Tago del Estero, San .Tago, . 100,000 San Juan, 62,000 Santa Fe, . Santa IV, . 40,000 San Luis, . . San Luis, :;2,(>l>il Tucaman, . Tucaman, . Gii.OOO Each of these names will again claim notice in its propel place. The A. K., as a whole, is bonnded on the W. by Chili, on the N. by Bolivia, on the K. by Pi ■ Brazil, Uruguay or Banda Oriental, and Buenos Ayres, and S. bj P . ■ ■■ ■ on ..it the 40th parallel. Excepting the almost purely Indian districts to the west of Buenos Aj i chiefly in the basin of the Rio de La Plata, emb much the larger half of the same. Mountains abound in the north-west; and elevated ranges arc found also in Entre Bios, which is s I as its name implies, between the Parana and the Uruguay. But, with these . nearly the whole country presents boundless plains, alternately with rich pasturage and gi ;antic tl The climat rably being tropical and tempi rater pectively to the north and south of Corrientes (in 27 27' N. lat.). Agricid- ture, however, of every description is very back ward — li -■. perhaps, than -, (j ', 70 - of the surface 1. ing under cultivation. Tie- rearing, in fact, of live stock is the grand business of the country. Millions of cattle wander at will across the plains, or are kept on breeding-estates of vast extent ; and likewise of mules and horses there are immense bands. Besides the Rio de La Plata, which is rati) estuary than a river, and its far-reaching afflu- ents, t raphy of the A. EL compn es the head- waters of sonic southern streams, whi into the open Atlantic, such as tit G o Colorado, the Bio Negro, &c. ; and along the west border, under the shadow, as it were, of the And. s. salt-lakes are common. In connection, doubtless, with this feature in the hydrography, mines of rock-salt exist, and salt here and there abundantly encrusts the plains, both to the satisfaction and benefit of the roaming lnnls. The names of the country and its estuary, as indicating the presence of silver, have been already characterised . nomers ; and though mines of other minerals— such as sulphur and alum— are found in the neighbour- hood of the Andes, yet few, if any, of thi m are wrought. In 1515, .Tuan Piaz da Solis, while searching for a passage into the < l Sea lyseen by Balboa, entered the Bio de La Plata. Iii" 1526, S ba tian Cabot, son of the discoverer ol land, penetrated nearly to the confluence of the Parana and the Paraguay, being arrested by the i pids, which afterwards gave name to Con In 1535, Buenos Ayres was founded, to command, though indirectly, the most practicable channel of the only outlet of the country, a city which, in conjunction with its own colony of Monte Video, on the opposite bank, has virtually monopolised the history of a region equal in extent to Western Europe. Gradually other cities v.. re planted, partly by colonists from Spain, and partly by adventurers from Pi in. gi qi rally giving each its own na its own province; and the grand ..tapis of the country— horses and cattle— had been largely intro- due. .1 In-fore 1552. Down to 1775, the basin of the Rio de La Plata was a d< p ndencyof the viceroyalty of Lima. In that year, however, was erected the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, which, to the basin in question, added Bolivia, under the name of I pper Peru, thus embracing the head-waters of tie- Ami, -.in. and also most of the plateau of a. The year 1S0G ushered in a new order of thincs. Spain, .as an ally of Prance, being at war with England, both Buenos Ayres and Monte Video were occupied by the English a change which, brief as was its duration, virtu- ally sowed the seeds of revolution. The col had felt the inconvenience of belonging to a state left them, in a great measure, to d I Ives ; they had successfully tried their th against a foe more powerful than their own masters; and they had been encouraged not li i bj thi , than by the doings, of their invaders to assert their indi pi udenc . influences were, in fact, instantaneously exemplified. The triumphant militia, after deposing and t spelling the legitimate viceroy for cowardice, elec his stead the French officer who had led tin m to victory. 'Jims had the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres " peculiarly ripe for taking its share in the outbreak, which Napoleon's dethronement of the Henri , in the Spring of 1SHS, almost immeil I .■ occasioned throughout Spanish America. Neither the revolutionary struggles, nor the intestine broils that have been almost without interruption, are entitled to special notice in this article, inasmuch ;.s tin y will more naturally fall under the heads of such sections of the viceroyalty a r form part of the A. 1;., Bolivia, Buenos Ayres, and da Oriental. Two general remarks, however, on the subject may not be out of place. The struggles of inde- .. ;•, at least within the purely Argentine provinces of the viceroyalty, terminated in 1816 - sooner than in any other division of Spanish t. Again, the intestine broils, beyond the example even of Spanish republics, have 1 , ., ,, : .! by peculiar elements of dis d. The tion. consisting chiefly of hunters and herds- men of mixed race, is always as ready for raj line and bloodshed as rent to law and order; the boundless interior has a standing feud with the narrow sea-board, which shuts it out from the ocean ; the Banda Oriental has been a bone of contention between the Brazilians and the Argen- tines ; whil' England and France, with a view to the freedom of commerce, have tin-own their -. I I in favour of its separate and di a\ existi ace. But beyond, perhaps, all these grounds of strife, have li.in the mutual jealousies of Buenos Ayres and Monte Video. While the latter enjoys easier access to the Atlantic, tin former hi long commanded a more practical : el to the vast country behind and above. Recently, however, Buenos Ayres to have lost something of its superiority through the i plorations of the Americans. The following is from tee pen of Lieutenant Pag'' of the ' We have discovered also a new channel between the island Martin Garcia and the Banda Oriental of two feet more water than the old channel contains. The importance attached to tins discovery is not confined to the greater depth of water in the new channel, but it s a political character. Instead of Buenos Amis possessing, as she now claims, exclusive ictiou over the entrance of the rivers Parana and Uruguay, she has, over the new channel, only concurrent jurisdiction with the Banda Oriental. [By the census of 1860, the pop. of the confedera- tion, which, since 1S60, again includes Buenos 1,736,922.) A'RGES, a genus of small fishes, of the family doe, of extreme interest on account of their being frequently thrown out in vest numbers by some of the South American volcanoes, with torrents of muddy water. Humboldt was the lirst accurately to inquire into this wonderful fact, and to describe one of these fishes, which he referred ARGIL— ARGOi.is. to the genus Pimelodes, and called P. eydt pum, It is now called A. cyclopum. He qu i i d from the volcanoes in the neighbour- hood of Quito is sometimea so great, that the stench of their putrefaction is felt at a great distance, and putrid levers are caused ljy it. Thi expelled from craters or from lateral openin an elevation of 10,000 or 17,000 feet above the sea. It is supposed that they exist in lakes within the cavernous recesses of the mountains, but D is positively known on this subject. Their capacity of enduring the high temperature of the water with which they are ejected, has excited much interest. Several species are known, to which the common name of pre&adilla* is given in the country, and which are placed by ichthyologists in the genus A., and the closely allied genera Brontes and .', \rol pus. A'RGIL, clay or white clay, a term now little used, but of which the derivative argillaceous is still in frequent use as descriptive of soils, geological is, &e., and in the name Arriillaceous Slate or Ar Although provoked beyond measure by the narrow bigotry of the court, he did not rush into extremes, but continued a constitutional liberal to the end of hi3 life. In the Cortes held at Seville in 1S23, he voted for the suspension of the royal power ; but after the violation of tho constitution, he fl 1, where he remained till the amnesty of 1 B32. On his return to Spain, being nominated to the Cortes, he was repeatedly made president and vicc- nt of the Chamber of Deputies, and always shewed himself a moderate but unwavering reformer. In July 1S41, on the discussion of the 1 the sale of church property, he delivered himseu strongly against all concordats with the pope. Next to Espartero, he was the most popular man in tho i with the enlightened party. During the regency, he was appointed guardian to the ; queen, Isabella, but died soon after, on the 23d of March 1S44, at Madrid. In his old age, he still exhibited the fiery eloquence that marked his youth. A'RGUJIEXT (Lat. argumentwn), in ! means properly the ground or premiss on which a conclusion is rested ; popularly, it is 'applied to a series of arguments, or to a controversy. Argument- ation is reasoning put into regular shape, with a view to convince or silence an objector. Logicians have given distinctive names to various kinds of nts. Thus, we have the Argumentum ad m, which is no real proof, but only an appeal to the known prepossessions or admissions of the persons style, when a man 1 one method of fraud, he ma}', by an . to his consistency, be driven to uphold another. The A. ad veritatem, again, has no regard to any- thing save objective truth. Next the A. e consensu gentium, or an appeal to the common belief of mankind, which, of course, may be n prove or disprove anything. The A. a I •'■> rests I he supposed safety or prudence of adopting a certain conclusion. It is sometimes used by Boman Catholics against Protestants in the following form : Protestants teach that salvation is possible in any church; this is denied by Catholics: therefore, it is safer to belong to tho Catholic Church, a- the Protestant admits that a man may be saved in that church. Lastly, the Ar a l-aculo (or use of the ci bjectionable, is concise in its style, and has settled many controv. ARGUME'XTCM AD HO'MINEM. See Aboument. A'EGUS, the son of Zeus and Niche, succeeded Phoroneus in rnment of the Peloponnesus, which took from him its name of Argos, as did also rritory of A . surnamed Panoptes had one hundn I -of which were always awake. He wi a enormously j' and on account of the wonderful exploits he formed. Juno appointed him to watch over Io, trans- formed into a cow. Mercury being commissioned by Zeus to carry off the cow. slew A. by stoning him ; . lirst charmed him I playing on the tiutc, and then beheaded him, 3.1 ABGU8— ARGYLE. be eyea of A. to decorate the peacock's tail. — A. the builder of the ship Aryo (sec ABOOHATJIS). A'RGUS, a genus of gallinaceous birds, remark- Qce of plumage. The only known i . formerly called Pna A., and still very generally the A. pheasant The Bides of the head and of the nick arc destitute of : i ; the tail consiai i of twelve feathi i . i which the two middle ones in the male are very much elongated; the secondary feathers of the wings are much longer than the primary. The name A. has allusion to the many beautiful eye-like 1 ••-■•-..-• I . Arg i Pheasant (.1. •< markings which adorn the plumage of the male, and particularly the seco i. The long e condarie i are said to impede the Bight of the bird ; but its wings are much employed to aid it in running. The female is of comparatively tame plumage, not only wanting the eye-like markings, but even the great length of the and of ■ id He tail-feathi rs. The size of th i bird, when divested of its plumage, is not much greater than th of a common barn-door fowl, but the tail- fi athers of the male are nearly four feet long. The A. is a native of Sumatra and other ra I of the p ninmila of Malacca, Siam, &c. It is said to I ad i ven in the northern parts of China. It is impatient of - :, an 1 hasi im been brought alive to Europe. ARGYLL, Ar.riiir.Ai.ii CAMPBELL, MarqctS OP, an eminent political character of the 17th c, was born in LVIS. and succeeded to the earldom of A. in 1638 Already he had given proofs of that strength of religious principle which marked his and ot a perilous union of attachment to the king and of faith in the principle- hdcfa the king made war. In the General Assembly at Glasgow, in November llKJS, he openly took th • side of the Covenanters, and thenceforth becam ■ reco as tle-ir political head. In 1640, he commanded a military expedition throuj h Bad Mar, and Angus, for the purpose of enforcii subjection to the Scotti h Parliament. On the king's visit to Scotland, in lGtl, he found it con- venient to shew peculiar favour to A., and created him a marquis. On the breaking nut of hostilities, ius for negotiate but was finally Lied to take the field. In April 1644, he 1 the royalist forces under the Marquis of Huntly, in Aberdeenshire. He was less suc- i in withstanding the genius of Montrose, on the 2d February 1645, almost annihilated his army at Inverlochy. His estates had Buffet I a ■' Ig year from the rav.'t of the brilliant Cavalier, that a sum of public money rated for Ins support. In August (1646), he went to London, with London and Dunfermline, to treat with the parliament for a mitigation of the articles presented to the king. He was at the same time the bearer of a Becret commission fi' the lane; to treat with the Dul f Richmond and the Marquis of Hertford, on the propriety of a Scottish demonstration in favour of Charles. On the defeat of the ' Engagement' plan, to which he had been decidedly opposed, the government of Scotland devolved on A. and i Presby- terian, leaders. In the parliament of February 1649, Charles II. was proclaimed king, ami at 8 ie, on the 1st of January 1651, A. put the crown on his head. At this time, it was even said that the complaisant monarch intended to marry one of his As head of the Commitfc Estates, A. took i igorous measures to oppose • Irom- wcll's invasion of Scotland, and still adhered to the king, alter the subjugation of the country. Aft r the battle of Worcester, he retired to luvcrary, where he held out for a year against Cromwell's falling sick, he was taken prisoner by General Dean, He refused submission to the Pro- tector, in. took .hi engagement to live peaceably, which he strictly kept. On the Restoration, he re- paired to Whitehall, encouraged by a flattering letter from the Icing to his son. Impeached with th- crime of having submitted to the usurper (to whom lie had I allegiance), he was milted to the T.,v.. ,-, and on the loth February 1661, was brought before itl b Parliai at on i!" 1 charj e of tret i! defended himself with spirit, but in vain. On the 27th May he was executed at Edinburgh— throughout his v o on the scaffold, the dignity of a true nobleman, and the - a Christian. II. on, Archibald, !>rH Earl of L,wa early distinguished by personal . and exhibited great bravery on the disastrous day of Dunbar, where be commanded a regimen! on the royal Bid ■. After Won estei med, like his bo obnoxious to i'i" |i irliamenl iry lead re, i hi > si ecially excepted by < 'roii i wel | from the act of grace w 1654 After much liir.i fcted to i nt, but continued to be clo ly wi On the restoration of Charl II.. he w I '■ into high favour (as a balance to the execution of his father), and unfortunately for his own fame, pal pated in seme of the iniquitous acts of the Scotti b legislature. He had, however, numerous and enemies; and, on the ground of an interci pti '1 li tter, in which he had complained of neglect, he and condemned to dl ath by I for the imaginary crime of la •< maji 'as. The influence of Clarendon restored him to liberty and favour; even the king himself was prejudiced in Ins favour; but a new opportunity was offered to the malice of his enemies, by his explanation in subscribing the in. framed by the i Parliament in 1681. He was indicted for i, and again condemned to death by a jury of his peeis. 'i in- devotion of his wife enabled him to escape from Edinburgh Castle, in -of a pa e; and after remaining concealed ome I me in Derbyshire and the vicinity of London, he fled to Holland, banding in the north of .Scotland, in May 1685, with an armed force, to co-operate in tie- revolt of Monmouth, he was, after a series of fortunes, taken pi i one]-, hastily tried, condemned, and beheaded, June 30, 1GS5. A 1 : 1 3 V LE— ARG YLEs I FI 1 : 1 :. ARGYLFi, Johm C'ampbki.i,, Di'kk of, was born in 1678, and took an important part in political and military affairs in the reigns of Quean Anne and hex successor. As royal commissioner in 1705, be had a principal share in bringing about the Act of Union. As a soldi'-r, he distinguished himself under Marl- borough at Ramifies, Oudenarde, Lille, Client, and Malplaquet. Previous to the change of ministry in 17l<>, A. had been a keen Whig. He now veered with the wind of the court, and became a declaimer against the Duke of Marlborough. As the reward of his apostasy, he was appointed by the Tories generalissimo of the British army in Spain ; but considering himself to have been unhand- ami I. treated by the ministry, he shortly after returned, and finding bis influence greatly diminished, he again became a Whig. His career up to the rebellion of 1715, was most tortuous and unprincipled, and seriously detracts from bis meritorious services dur- ing that critical period. He wa ;. however, completely successful in quelling disturbances, and his services were rewarded in 1718) among other dignities, with an English peerage, and the title of Duke oi Greenwich, j I in restless vanity and ambition, how- ever, constantly prompted him to political intrigues. In 1721 he again played into the hands of the Tories, for the purpose of securing the entire patronage of Scotland. In 1/37 he rose into immense popularity in his own country, by his spirited defence before parliament of the city of Edinburgh in regard to the Tuitions mob. He died on the 3d September 1743. He was a man of lax principles and sellisli character, but possessed of considerable shrewdness and talent, and noted for his kindness and courtesy in private life. '1'he benevolence of Ins disposition procured him the title of 'the Good l>uke of Argylc' ARGY'LE, Hike of. George John J> Campbell, 8th Duke of A., w;is bom in 1823, and succeeded his father in 1847. At the age of 19, his Grace, then Marquis of Lorn, gave evidence of n a] ability in a pamphlet entitled A Letter to the J': ' re from <> Peer's Son, on the subject of the b1 which ended in the disruption of the .Scottish i f] Seven years subsequently, ho gave proof of more extensive study in the same field, by the publication of his Essay on Presbytery, which contains an elaborate historical vindication of the Presbyt Bysi m a< an Pi On taking his seat in the House of Peers, he ire proof of considerable Oratorical ability, and both by the maturity of his judj ne nt and the readiness of his powers, com- manded Hi" respect of that dignified assembly. On the formation of the coalition mini-try by Lord Aberdeen, his Grace was considered of sufficient importance to receive a place in the government, and was invested with the otliee of Lord l'rivv Seal, which he continued to hold in Lord Pal- merston's administration. In November 1855, lie relinquished his office, and accepted that of Post- ma ter-generaL On the fall of Lord Palmerstom's administration, be retired into opposition; but now (1859), on that nobleman's return to the helm, he i: tin accepted the office of Lord Privy SeaL Sis i has distinguished himself not only in polities but in science; to geology, in particular, he Ims devot d much atl ration. En 1854 he was chosen Lord Sector of the university of Glasgow, and in 1855 presided at the meeting o! the British A tion m that city. 1'e is also Chancellor of the university of St Andrews. In lslt he married Lady Elizabeth Georgians Gower, eldest daughter of the Duke of Sutherland, and niece of the Bar] of Carlisle. ARGY'LESIURE [Earra OhaidheaX, West Gael Country), an extensive maritime county in tie of Scotland, including rramen , and a large mainland tract, cut up into in:, alae by arms of the * a. It is I odi d, N. bylnvi rni and S. by the sea; L. by Perthshire, Dumbarton, Loch Long, and Firth of ( I is about 115 mill i,, about CO miles; its extent of coast-line bag to 663 miles, owing to the indentation o - i by numerous loch running inland. Next to [nverni ss, it is the larg 3210 square miles, of which Kiii.'S are occupied by the numerous islands. No | 12 miles from the sea or from I u ;i inland lochs. Theco divided into thi .1 I Argyle, Lorn, Appin, CowaL Morven, and Sunart Th.- chief islands are Mull, Islay, Jirra, Tire. . Lismore, and ( lolonsay. There are upwards of thirty other islands of smaller size. The general aspect of A. is wild and picturesque, I lofty mountains, dee], inland bays, and i pitous coasts. Some fertile vail part is entirely mountainous, and presents some of the grandest scenery in Scotland, as Gl ucoe. The highest peaks are(Ord Trig. Survey) Bedan-ai 3760 feet ; Ben I Irnachan, 3668 ; Bn u hi I l 3341 — all in Lorn; Leu Jma (end of La h I 3319; Ben More (Mull), :il74; Ben Creach (Morven), 2790; North Pap of Jura, 2567. Thech outh) — Loeh Moidart, Loch Sunart, Linnhe Loeh, branching off into Loch lid and Loeh Leven, Loch Fyne, and Loeh Long. There are no rn any size. The streams arc short and rapid, the prineip I : the Urchvy, running through < I orchy into Loeh Awe, and tile Awe connecting that lake with Loch Etive. The inland or fresh-water loclm are Loch Awe and Loeh Lydoch. The rocks of A. are mica-slate, which predominates on the mainland; trap in Mull and Lorn; 1; in [slay and Jura; granite around Loeh Etive and iuKnapdale; patches of lias and oolite in i the isles; and a little old red sandstone v. est of Loch Fyne and in South Cantire. Lea. I oi cur at Strontian (wh be was discovered, and from which i earth called Slrontia and the metal & n are derived), at Tyndrum, and in [slay and Coll A copper-mine exists in [slay. The Basdale and Ballacnulish quarries supply the best roo in Scotland. Coal o I a; fine marble in Tiree, Ac ; excellent i and limestone in most parts of the county. The fertile parts of A. lie alo tli" mountain streams. The soil is mostly a light, sandy, and gravelly loam, al m of rivers, anil gravelly, with a till bottom, on the hill- sides. Sheep and i . is of the farmer. More sheep are reared in A. than in any otic Si itch • and nearly a million acres are in permanent pasture. In num- ber of cattle, A. yields only to the i Aberdeen, Ayr, and Perth. In ls.">7. 8.13,535 b of oats, and 109,657 tons of turnips, w< i abounds in deer and game. I medfor the abundance and quality of its hen Awe abounds in salmon, and in trout unrivalled in size. In many parts of A. the peasantry are still wry that steal every portion of the coast \wth the com- et Scotland. The manufad unim- portant, the chief being whisky, in Campbelton and [slay, and coar e woollen; for home use. The chief towns and i [nverary, Campbelton, ('ban. Dunoon, Appin, I and Tarbert. The three former unite with Ayr and Irvine in ARIA— ARIES. returning c r to parliam returns another. Pop. in 1851, 89,298, repi i [hibita reaae of 11,676 since 1831, which has chiefly 1 from emigration. I 1 Is, 201, with 11.^17 pupi] : of wi ihip, 1 17 -IS of I bnrch, and t ti- • n n • 1 amongst \ [lie principal proprietors are thi Marquis of Breadalbane, a branch of the 1 i be antiquities of A. may be mentioned tlio ruins of tons and ( iron duns, or circular coast. In C re formerly lived the famous M: I of the 1 ted by Jam is HI. (1871 pop. 75,635.) ARIA (An:), in Music, a rhythmical son I from recitatfr - rm was f< ■ 11 r for one or it is now commonly applied to a I in a cantata, oratorio, or i and intended for one voice supported by instrui Arietta, a short melody. Arioso, a passage in the style of the A., often introduced into recitative. A. I '.i i to, a comic song, &e. ARIADNE, daughter of Minos, kin? of Crete, by Pasiphac. When Theseus, v. . ngs of the Athenians for the Minotaur, landed in Crete, A. conceived a passion for the beautiful stranger, and pave him a clew by means of which he threaded the mazes of the labyrinth, and was enabled to slay the monster. For this service, Theseus | ro- 1 to marry her, and she escaped with him, but was slain by Diana on the island of Naxos. — According to another tradition, A. was left aeseus at Naxos, where she was found by us returning from his triumph in India, who was captivated by her beauty, and married her. At her death, he gave her a place ama ids, and a as a constellation in ley. A., as left ! is, and a married to Bacchus, has been a favourite subject with ai ARIA'LDTTS, a deacon of the church of Milan, who flourished during the 11th c. He took a promi- nent part in the ecclesiastical contentions of his times. The Catholic Church in the north of Italy was then very corrupt, a wide-spread licentious- ness, originating from the unnatural institution of priestly celibacy, prevailed. Oireat numbers of the ,' kept concubines openly. Such as looked lly in those days at this flagrant evil, were disposed to consider the strict enforcement of celibacy the only effectual cure. Chief among these reformers stood A., whoso life was one continued scene of violent controversy. Although succes- sively sanctioned by Popes Stephen X., Nicholas II., and Alexander II., he found little sympathy among his brethren, and used to c plain that he couW only get laymen to assist him in liis agitation. Having at length succeeded in obtaining a papal bull of excommunication against the Archbi Milan, a fierce tumult ensued in the city, ■ ants declared against A. and his coadjutors. A. now fled to the country ; but his hiding-place betrayed, he was conve; isle in Lake Maggiore, where he was murdered by the emissaries of the archbishop, and his remains thrown into the lake, June 28, 1060. lie was after- canonised by Pope Alexander II. ARIA'NA. See Aryan l: A'RIANS. See Autos. A'RIAS MOXTA'NUS, Bf.n-edictcs, a Catholic divine noted for his great linguistic attainmen born, 1527, in the village of Frexenul de la Sierra, 391 situated amongst the mountains separating Kstivma- dura from Andaluei.v. He studied tirst at .Neville, and at Alcala de Benares, where he distin- by the ardour he manifested in the I ion of the orient ' Byriac, and Chaldee. He next proceeded on a tour l Italy, France, Germany, England, and the Nether- lands, in the course of which be obtained a know- led of various modern tongues. He was pri at thee ' rated Council of Trent; but on his return to his own country, he resolved to retire into scclu- [ v. hole time to literatui however, Philip II. persuaded him to to Antwerp and superintend the publication of the famous edition of the ',] toil in that city at the suggestion of the printer, Christo- ; initio. After four yi was issued under the title B , On ,'/-', philippi If. Regis I Studio ad Saa '.. Plantinus excudebat. It was rec I with univer I e. The Jesuits, to whom A. was sincerely aud strenuously opposed, alone atb mpted to fasten the charge of heresy on tho author, who made several journ I I » Rome to clear himself of the accusation. Philip [I. rev lh a pension of 2000 ducat I, I stow- ing on him various oilier emoluments. He died at Seville in 1598. His literary works are very nume- rous. They relate principally to the Bible and to Jewish antiquities ; but he also wrote a po> Rhetoric, and a History of Nature. Altl'CA, a seaport of Moquega, the most southerly department of Peru, in lat. 18° 28' 8., and I inj 70° 24' \V. Though it has merely a road it affords safe anchorage to shipping, and is one of the chief outlets of the trade of Bolivia, I D connected with La Pas in that republic by a mule- path which bads acnes the west Cordillera of the Its exports mostly consist of copper, silver, alpaca wool, and guano. A. is subject to intermittent fevers, aud has frequently suffered from earthquakes. It is, therefore, merely a village, though possi sd of a custom-house, a i The had- ing merchants do not reside at A., but at Tacna, about 30 miles up the country, the chief city of the department, with 10,000 inhabitants. ARICHAT, a seaport of Cape Breton Island, in the province of Nova Scotia, in lat. 45 N., and long. Cl° 3' W. It is near the Gut of Canso, which separates Nova Scotia Proper from Cape Breton, being the most southerly of the tliree channels of communication between the Gulf of St Lawrence and the open Atlantic. It has about 17,500 inhabitants, and is largely engaged in fishing. ARIEGE, or ABRIKGK, a river in the south of France, rises in the department of the East Pyrenees, flows through a beautiful vale, and falls into tho Garonne near Toulouse. — Tne department of Asxtoa, which lies along the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, formed a part of the old county of Foix, the terri- tory of Couserans, and the province of Langnedoc, I tided N. and W. by Haute Garonne, E. by Ande, S. by the republic of Andorra and the Pyrenees. It contains some of the highest mountain-summits in France, such as Fontarijente. 9164 feet; Se 9592 feet; Montcalm. 10,613 feet; Bstats, 10,611 feet; Montvalier, !)1'J0 feet. Tho depart mild climate. Area, 1847 square miles. Pop. 270,500. These are engaged chiefly in agriculture, pasturage, iron mines, and the manufac- • woollens, linen, pottery, too. The I lissements are Foix, Pamiers, and St (J irons. Chief towns — Foix, Pamiers, St Girons. A'llIES, the Bam, one of the signs of the zodiac, AKIL— ARIOVISTUS. Including the Brat 30 degrees of the ecliptic measured from the vernal equinox, or that point where the age of the sun across the equator takes place. The vernal equinox, or, as it is also called, t point of A., is constantly changing its posi- tion among the fixed stars, in consequence of the | ion of the equinoxes, moving westward at the rate of .5(1 "-2 annually. It is from this circumstance that the sign A. no longer corresponds with the constellation A., which was the case about 2000 years ago, when the ecliptic was divided into 12 equal part? c is, each named after the group of stars through which at sign A. is in the constellation Pisces, about 30° west of the ori I ; and although the sun at the ill always be at the first po A., yet nearly 21,000 years will elapse before that point will again coincide with the I of the constellation A. A'RIL (arillua), a peculiar covering of the seed in some plants, formed l>y an expansion of the funiculus (the cord which attaches the ovule to the ite), or of the placenta itself. This ex; takes place after fertilisation, and sometimes u the seed entirely, sometimes only partially. In the nutmeg, the A. forms what is called mace. In the spindle-tree (Euonymtis Europmts), it forms the remarkable orange-coloured covering of the seed. AKI'NOS, a river of Brazil, which after a north- west course of 700 miles, enters the Tapajos, itself an allliii'iit of the Amazon, in lat. 9° 30" S., and long. 5S" 2()' \V. ARI'OX, a celebrated lute-player, a native of Methymna, in Lesbos, about 700 B.C., was regarded by the ancients as the inventor of the dithyraml lie According to a tradition first given by Herodotus, and afterwards decorated by the i A. was sent by Periander, rider of Corinth, to Sicily and Italy, and at Tarcntum won the prize in a poeti- cal contest. As he returned laden with gifts in a Corinthian ship, the avaricious mariners determined to slay him and seize his wealth ; of this the poet- musician was forewarned by Apollo in a dream, lie asked for permission to try his skill in music ; and after playing on his lute, threw himself from the deck into the sea. Here several dolphins, chinned by his music, had assembled round the vessel. On the back of one of them the musician rode safely to the promontory of Tamarus, where he landed, and journeyed on to Corinth. The sailors who, arriving afterwards, assured Periander that A. was dead, were confronted with him, when they confessed their guilt, and were crucified. The lute and dolphin were raised among the constella- tions ; and the story became a favourite theme with A. W. SchlegeL. in one of his best poems, gives tlus stoiy of A. ARIO'STO, Ludovico, one of the greatest of ; born at Reggio, September. 1 -' I 'lest son of the military governor of that city. He was bred to the law, but abandoned it i i poetry. However, at an early period of life, he was compelled to exert himself for the support of a i '.-imily, left as a burden on him at the di I ither. His imaginative povi in early life. In 1503, after he had written two lies, with several lyrical poems in Latin and Italian, he was introduci I to th i court of tb dinal Hippolytus d'Este, who employed him in many negotiations. Here, in Ferrara, in the sps ten years, he produced his great po /'■.'■ which was published in that city, in one volume 4to, in 1516, in forty cantos. AM death of the c 1:1. the duke, his brother, invited the poet to his service, and acted to him with great kindness and lilwrality. In the early part of 1521, a second edition of his poems was published, the Orlando Furioso being Btdl in forty cantos. Shortly after, he was commissioned by the duke to suppress an insurrection which had broken out in the wild mountain-district of Carfag- nana ; a task which sceni3 more like a punish- ment than a mark of honour. A., however, sue. in this arduous undertaking ; and after remaining three years governor of the quarter, he retain Ferrara, where lie lived comfortably, nominally in [■vice of his patron, but in reality enji what he highly prized an abundant leisure foi scenting his studies. It was at this time that he composed his comedies, and gave the finishing touch Orlando. At length, in the latter part of 1532, that poem made its appearance in a ; edition, enlarged to its present dimensions of forty- six cantos. He now became seriously ill of a painful internal distemper, of w] a few moot ng, he died on the Cth of June 1533, in his fifty-ninth year, and was buri< d in the church of San Benedetto, at Ferrara, where a magnificent monument indicates the resting-place of his remains. A. is described as a man of noble personal appear- ance and amiable character. His I rioso is a romantic, imaginative epic, marked by great vivacity, playfulness of fancy, and ingenuity in the linking together of the several episodes. It takes its name and its theme from a chivalrous romantic poem by Boiardo, the Orlando Innamoralo. That poem treats of the wars between Charlemagne and the Saracens, confounded as they were by tradition with those of Charles Martel, wherein Orlando, or Roland, stood forward as the champion of l.'i dom. Orlando is the hero of Boiardo's piece, and falls in love with Angelica, a clever and beautiful oriental princess, sent by the Paynim to so cord among the knights of I an armies. The story of this lady being left unfinished in the to Innamoralo is taken up by A., who mikes Iirr fall in love herself with an obscure juvcnilt squire, on which Orlando pets furious, and long continues in a state of insanity. B his great work, A. wrote comedies, satires, sonnets, and a number of Latin poems, all more I marked with the impress of his genius. In I Giamperi, a librarian of Florence, announced that 1 discovered at Argenta, near Ferrara, an autograph manuscript by A., containing a second epic, Jiinaldo Ardtto, describing, like the Orlando, the battles of Charlemagne and his paladins against the Saracens. The manuscript had been mut and contained in a complete form only the cantos 3, 4, 5, while 2 and G were imperfect ; and it was I that the entire poem had consisted of twelve k was published under the title to Ardtto di L. Ariosio, Frammcnti Inediti cati sul .V rinale (Flo; 1S4C). In genius and style, it has been found by critics by no means to accord with the Orlando. Of the Orlando there are three several trans- lations into the I' : the first, by Sir John Harrington, appeared in the year 1634; the second, by John Boole, in \~<'. : and the third by \V. Stewart Rose, in 1823 and following j In the last only is there to 1 ■ fair representation of the feeling and spirit of the ARIOVrSTTJS (probably the Latinised form of army-prince), a German chief, ii and other German tribes, mi, a Gallic people, to assist them in a contest against the .Ldui. Having for the Sequani, A. pleased with their fine country (now Burgundy j, that AKisi'i: ai:istidi:s. he ami hit ■ rmined to abide there. ' foUowed him into GauL where ■ llected an army of 120,000 men. The Gallic people turned now for help towards the ■ nr demanded an interview with A.. who proudly replied, that "he did not Bee what i had to do with Haul.' Afi imC had been treated in the same scorn- ful in i .1 i i ar advanced and occupii I Vesontium (now Besancon), thi city of the Sequani. A furious engagement took place (58 1: i'.). in which Soman disciple, d over I, which were utterly routed. A., with only a few followi d over the Rhine into his own country. His subsequent history is unknown. ARTSPE,the capital of Sonera, the extreme north- di partmenl i ' onfederation. It i1 Sierra Madre, the western range of i R i ky Mountains, on the banks of the So which is said tu lose itself in an inland lake. Its population fa s 7600. 'J he surrounding district abounds in the precious m as also in cotton, wine, grain, and live-stock. ABJ'STA AMD ABI'STATK See AwK. AUISTAKTS (from a Greek word signifying the , an ancient divinity whose worship in the ear- liest times was widely diffused throughout Gr> but whose myth is remarkably ol scure. A ing to the common tradition, he was the son of Apollo ICyi ie,the latl rthe grand-daughter of Pen i I i Thcssaly. Sheis saidtohavi liirth to A. on the coasts of Libya, in Africa, whence the region is alleged to have derived its name of Cyrenaica. Hermes placed the child under the protection of the Hone, the fosterers of i culture, and edu lation. According to another tra- dition. A. was the son of the nymph Melissa, who fed the infant with nectar and ambrosia, and after- intrusted his education to Chiron. The diver- I igend were probably caused by the fusion into one of separate local divin functions were similar, and whose histories were, in ly commingled. After A. left Libya, he w.-nt to '1 hi '- i B itia, v. h eel taught by the Muses thi ding and prophecy, 1 AntonoS, the dan I whom he had several children. After the unfortuz si As son Actaeon (q. v.), he went to < V"s. wli r<- he liln rated the inhabitants from 1 1 drought by en < t- ing an altar to Zeus Icmaus—i.6., the rain-maker. He now returned to his native land; but shortly at'ter, set out a second time on a voyage of I cence. He visited the islands of the .Koan Sea, Sicily, Sardinia, and Magna Grtei every- where traces of his divine b Dignity. A1 last he to Thrace, where he was initiated in the ries of Dionysus ; and alter a brief residence in the vicinity of Mount Euemns, he disappeared frnu the earth. myth is one of an extremely pleasing character, from the invariable beneficence which is attributed to A. It is less disfigured by anthropopatbic errors than most of the myths of Greek diviniti --. A. was .ally worshipped as the protector of vine and olive plant 1 ml herdsmen. He ained men to keep bee-hives, and averted the burnin the sim from the open fields. Later myth , identified A. with the higher gods Z . Apollo, 1 lionysus. ARISTA'RCHUS, of Sasios, a celebrated an- astronomer, of the Alexandrian school, who flourished 2S1 — 264 B.C. All his writings have perished, excepting a short essay on the sizes and I Mm 68 of the sun and the moon. In this ho od of estimating the relative dis- of the sun and Qiemoon from the earth, by the 1 by the two bodii at that moment when the moon is exactly half- Mis. It will 1 e obvious from a glance at the annexi I ' the thre ; I I hen form li d triangle, of v. bich the is at the ri ' MES, then, being observed, it is - i the ratio betwi en EM and ES. This is quite correct in theory; but the imj ibility of determining when the is exactly half-illuminated, ren- ders tho method useless in practice. B ' i, in tie- days of A., there were no instruments for measuring an with anything like accuracy. A. i mated the angle at E at S.'i , an 1 mined EM to be ' , ■ . ES; the truth being that the angle at E (\r only by a fraction of a minute from a right angle, and that EM, the distance of the moon from the earth, is about -, ,',,-, of ES, the distance of - some accounts, A. laid, with tie- Pythagorean school, that the earth moves round the sim ; but this seems to be a mistake. Vitruvius of A. as the inventor of a kind of concave sun-dial. AKISTA KCIIVS. o* s . a gram- marian, who lived, about 150 B.C., in Alexandria) where he- founded a school of grammar and criticism, and educated tie- children of Ptolemy Philopator. His life was chiefly devoted to the elucidation and restoration of the text of the Greek poets, cially of Homer. The form in whii h we now have the Hone ric ]>oi ms pri v rved is in a great measure owing to his judgment and industry. The strict- ness of his critical principles has i ime a general term for a severely just and judicious critic. afflicted with an incurable dropsy, lie ended his life by voluntary starvation at the age of 7'-'. The fragments of his writings that have been pro- s' rved are to lie found scattered through the Scholia on Homer, first published by Villoison (Venice, 17SS). ARI'STEAS, an entirely fabulous character, who may be styled 'the Wandering .Tew' o tradition in ancient Greece. First we find A. teaching Homer; then, some ages afterwards, lorn lit Proeonj . an island in the Sea of Marmora. It is stated that having visited the i pas, the gold-watching griffin, and the li rboreans, he died on his return hone'; but, soon afterwards, a traveller asserted that he had been met and accosted by A. Consequently, neighbours searched the house where the body of A. was supposed to be lying, but it could not be found. Seven years afterwards, he appeared as an author, and wrote a poem entitled An I three books, giving accounts of Northern and (an- tral Asia, which were copied by Herodotus and . After thus establishing himself as a poet, he vanished again; and after 340 years of mystery, red at Metapontum, in the south of Italy, he advised the people to erect an altar to Apollo, and an altar to ' the everlasting A.,' assur- ing them that, when Apollo founded their city, he (A.), in the form of a raven, had accompanied the god, and had assisted in the ceremony. In the early controversy of the Christian Church, heathens some- quoted this tale of A. as a counterpart to the miracles recorded in the New Testament. ARISTI DES, surnamed 'The Jcst,' was the son of Lysimaehus, and descended from one of the best ARISTIPFUS— ARISTOCRACY. in lii sin Athens. He was one of the ten I of the Atheni I the Persians at the battle of Marathon (490 b. a). It had been arranged that each leader (or etralegos) should hold the supreme com- mand for one day; but A., who saw the folly of this want ni unity, induced his companion! to give up their claims, and make Miltiades command' which proved the means of winning the battle. In the following year, A. was chief archon, and in this position, as in every other, secured the j respect of the citizens. Some yean later, probably because be had opposed the plans of Themi that unscrupulous leader brought about the banish- ment of A. It is said thai, whin an illiterate citizen, who did not know him personally, requested him to write his own name on the voting afti II. he asked the man whether A. had injured him. 'No,' said tli'- voter; 'but I am weary of hearing him always styled "the Just.'" A. submitted to the sentence with dignity, praying to the gods, as be left the city, that the Athenians might not have cause to repent of their decision. Only three yeai i later, Xerxes, with an overwhelming force, had invaded Greece. A., hearing that the Greek fleet orrounded by that of the Persians, ha tened fruni.Kgina to apprise Themistoclcs of tin d offer his aid. After taking a prominent part in the battle of Salamis, A. was ri stored to popular favour, and Boon afterwards aided greatly in achieving the victory at Plataea, in which he commanded the Athenians, In -477 B.O. he introduced a change of the constitution, by which all citizens, without distinction of rank, were admitted to political offices As shewing the confidence reposed in A., it is related that Ihemistocles having announced that he had a scheme very advantageous for Athens, but which he could not disclose in a public assembly, A. was deputed to consult with Themistocli s on the sul The plan was to secure the naval supremacy of Athens by burning all the vessels of the other Gn k states, her allies, then lying in a neighbouring harbour. A. reported to the people that nothing could be mure advantageous than the plan of Ihemistocles, but nothing could be more unjust ; and the matter was immediately rejected by the people. After a variety of other public services, A, died in old age, and universally respected, 408 B.C., so poor that it is said his funeral had to be provided for by the public. He left a son and two daughters, for whom provision was made by state bounty. ARISTI'PPUS.thc founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy among the Greeks, was the sun of Ant. nli -, a wealthy gentleman of Cyrene, in Africa, and was burn in that city about the year 424 B.C. Having come over to Greece to attend the Olympic games, he heard so much of Socrates, that he \\ ;i s tilled with an eager desire to see the sage, and hurried to Athens, where he became one of bis pupils. He remained with Socrates up nearly to the last moments of the great teacher, though he does not at any period seem to hive followed his doctrines or his practice. We know that subsequently he was the object of strong dislike, both to Plato and to in i tin- St 'lie. I [e passed a considerable part of his life in Syracuse, at the court of Dionysius, tlie hivni, where he acquired the reputation of a {ihilosophie voluptuary. That his manners must lave been at once extremely graceful and accom- modating, is clear from the saying of li Plato, who declared that ' A. was the only man he knew who could wear with equal grace both tine clothes ami rags.' Diogenes Laerthu rec number of his dicta, some of which take tl of boTtS-motS, and indicate :l sharp, cutting, lively, and self-complacent nature. A. also lived at Corinth, in intimacy with the famous courtesan Lais, but towards the close of his life, be i to have retired to Cyrene. His Arete, seems to have been a person of superior abilities, inasmuch as her father imparted his hading doctrines to lnr, and she to her son, A. tii hence '''«, 'taught by i i, by wln.m they are BUppo ed to have 1 A., in all probability, publial i 1 life, lie prided b n tiding his days in what he conceived ophical manner, than in elaborating a philosophical I for the benefit of the race. The Cyrenaic school, all the teachers of which were probably imbued with the spirit of A., and nn nly carried out his doctrines to tin ir legitimate I i la great contempt for speculative philosophy, and for phy tea] and mathematical knowledge. They confined their invi morals, and formed an el harmony with the gay, self-possessed, worldly, and sceptical character of tlnir master. The chief point ; of the Cyn m were: 1. That all human sensations are either p] or painful, aiel that pleasure and pain are the only eritei good and bad. 2. That pleasure consists in a E and pain in a violent motion of the soul. .';. happiness is simply the result of a continuous of pleasurable sensations. 4. That actions are in themselves morally indifferent, and that men are mil only with tlnir results. Wieland in his historico-philosophical romance, An einige xeinrr ZeUgenotten (A. and Some of his I mporariea), presents us with a charming picture of the life ami opinions of the great philo- sophic sensualist, who stood out in Strong against the gloom and austerity of Antistheni the Cynical school. See Wendt's De 1 i 'yrt naicd {' IBtt 1 i 2). ARISTOr.U'LUS, an Alexandrian Jew who lived under Ptolems us Philometer about 17.' and was considered by the earl. ! as the founder of the Jewish philo ndria. He was long considered the autho: . Commentaries on the Books of Moses which went under his name, bnt it is now admitted that the work in question was the i i of a later Only fragments of it remain It was intended to shew that tie- old Greek writers borrowed from the Hebrew Scriptures; port this theory, num. runs quota fessedly taken from Linns, Musceus, On b which the Christian ap de abundanl I , however, have long bin considered for- geries, inasmuch as they do net exhibit a ti the antique Creek spirit, in the tone and style of the nld Testament \ ei 'Lena r's treatise, /•>-. Ariab do Judtco (Leyden, 180G). ARISTO'CRACY (Or. ari 1.. t . .-mil hratos, power) mean; etymologically the power or government of the worthy; and in the sense which it 01 \ had reference not to a 30 lial cl .... mm. nt in which the the hands of a minority of the ogether of' the slave | ■ which gencrallv existed in antiquity. It is in this al o that wo use it when we speak of the Italian nt' the middle a., a as aristocracies. In order to constitute an A., it was further necessary that the minority which composed it sin mM consist of the highest class, in point not of wealth alone, but of birth and culture ; the government of a minority in numbers simply, being known by the more odious name of an oligarchy. Were the whole government 397 ABISTOGEITON- AKI iTOLOCHIA, of England intrusted to the House of Lord I body were to become vastly mure rous than it is, so long as it did not include half whole adult males, and were not elective, but 1 '1 by .-in A., ai aristocrats in the ant: ; m. In ti.i m A. bund in England, because the which it signifies has always been unknown. I ' ibility, thou a] great influ- ence in the government of the country, l ' - from above or the Commons from below; and thus it is that, though more in;; Bocial influence than in any other country, the I . ■ r assumed the form of a ruling- class. When used with reference to 1 society, the term A. has two significations— a nar- rower and a wider one. Ac© the first, it is nearly synonymous with nobility, hi 1 will be treated of under that head, and its i subdivisions. According to the second, it is synony- mous with gentry, and includes the whole body of the people, titled and untitled, above a certain very indeli- nite social line. Perhaps the nearest approximation which we shall make to a definition of A. in this, its proper English sense, will be by adopting that which Aristotle has given not of • '. but !, or good birth, ' Good birth,' he says, ' is ancient (long inhi rited) wealth and virtue.' ( I lib. iv. c 7.) The question as to the extent to which either of these qualities is requisite to i tute a claim to admission into the ranks of the A., is one to which probably not two persons, i i or without the pale, would return the same answer; but that the absence of either would be a ground of exclusion, is a point o:i re will l No amount of mere wealth will, in general, confer it either on a tradesman or his immediate descendants (see (Jextleman) ; and )y any deeds, however noble, will give it to him who is not the possessor of inherited fortune. Neither Burns the gauger, nor Shaw the life-guards- man, has ever been regarded as an aristocrat, ; y denies that the one was a poet, and the other a hero. But when the claim to 1 ; as an aristocrat has been inherited, it will by the individual himself, however ad\ i liis worldly circumstances, or however ignol conduct; and it is not difficult to imag'u tion of moral tone which woidd confer it even on a ■ ARISTOGEI'TOX. Sec Harmodics and Aris- TOOErroN. AKISTOLO'CHIA, a genus of plants of the natural orcl Jiiacece or A This . which is dicotyledonous or exogenous, consists of herbaceous plants or shrubs, often climbing shrubs, and contains upwards of 130 known species, i a of warm climates, ami particularly abundant in the tropical regions of South America. The are alternate, simple, stall. ' with a stipule ; the flowers axillary, solitary, hermaphro- of a dull colour; the perianth at its 1 ; i the ovary, tabular, sometimes re but generally very irregular; the stamens 6— 1_\ nous (or inserted upon the ovary), distinct, or adhering to the style; the ovary is generally six- '. With numerous ovules ; the style simple, the stigmas radiating, as numerous as the cells of the ovary ; the fruit dry or succulent ; the seeds with a i yo at the base of fleshy albumen. — The genus A. is distinguished by a tubular oblique perianth, generally inflated at the base, the mouth dilated on one side, aud by stamens adherent 393 to the style, so that it is included in the Lin ' ' fly shrubby, and natives of tropical countries, some of them climb: muiits of the loftiest trees. Si I lurope ; on dy, the common Bibthwort (A. < r), occurs up continent as far north as about lat. ?>'.> , and is a land It is a perennial with erect, naked, m — heart-shaped dark- -'.vers stall., d growing to the i from the axils of tin lie tube of the: perianth about an inch long, and of a dirty yellow . It grows chiefly in vineyards, I . . bout the rs of fields, among rubbish, and in waste places. It has a long branching root, with an un- pleasant taste and me 11, which, with the roots of A. rotunda and A . longa, two herbaceous species, natives Aristolochia Clcmatitis. of the south of Europe, was formerly much used in mcdicin I as of great service in cases of difficult parturition, whence th name. roots possess powerful stimulating and those of the southern Bpecies are still used as emmen The root of A. Indira is used in ■: by the Hindoos. — A. serpentaria, Yn;- liiMAN SnakBROOT, is a native of most parts of the United States, growing in woods. It has a fleznous ing heart-shaped very acute leaves. The (lowers are on stalks, wlii from the root ; the oriiice of the p trian- gular. The root has a pern; nous smell, and a pungent, bitter taste. It I I een a 1 remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake. It possesses stimulant and tonic . It forms an article of export from the United States to Etiropc.and bears a high price, being highly est as a medicine in certain kinds of fever. — Its reputa- tasa cure for serpent-bites is shared by i . particularly A. < ' 'co (the i of Colombia), natives of the war:.; r of America. The juice has certainly the power of stupifying, and even of killing serpents ; and it i3 : at a number of species are used by Egyptian s, in order to their handling serpents with 1 South American species seem also to possess medicinal properties analogous to those of the Virginian snakeront. — A. Stplio, a I ing shrub, of 15—20 feet in height, a native of the southern parts of the Alleghany Mountains, is fre- quently planted in the United States, in Britain, and on the continent of Europe, to form shady bowers. AMSTOLOCIIIA— AEISTOI'JIAXIX It has very large heart-shaped leaves (a foot in breadth), of a beautiful green. The llowcrs hang on long stalks ; the tube of the Ecnanth is crooked in its upper part, inflated at the : ad veined with reddish-brown veins, having a sort of resemblance to the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, lor Aristolochia serpcntaria : a, a flower; I, a flower not open, shewing the parts of fructifi- cation, c; d, the Btamens; 0, toe stigmas. which reason the shrub is sometimes calledFipc-shrub, ae, or Dutchman's Pipe. — Ihe tropicals] are distinguished for their beauty and the peculiar forms of their flowers. Some of them are much i i "rnaments of our hot-houses. To the natural order Aristoloc/iiacece belongs also the genus Asaroi. AKISTOT1IANP3, the only writer of the old G comedy of whom we possess any entire works, was the son of one Pbilippus, aud was born at Athens about the year 444 B. c. We know very little of his history. Plato, in his Symposium, relates that he 1 i.l of pleasure — a statement which it is easy to credit when we consider the tendencies of bis profes- sion in all ages. It seems equally clear, however, from the vigorous and consistent expression of his convictions in his various works, and from the fear- less manner in which he assails the political 1 his day, that he was possessed of an honest and inde- nt spirit. He appeared as a comic writer in the fourth year of tile Pi loponni dan war (-1.7 The piece which he produced was entitle.! /' I ianqueters), and received the second prize. It ridiculed the follies of extravagance, and, like all bis subsequent works, was pervaded by a oon of modern life, and an admiration of the an.l mannei i of the earlier generations. Next year, he wmte i b tans, in v. Inch he Bat Cleon, the so-called demagogue, bo sharply, that the latter endeavoured to deprive him of the rights of citizenship, by insinuating that he was not a ri a] Athenian. This, in all prol ability, .save rise to the various traditions of A. baying been bom in B , &c. Fragments of these plays remain. En 425, his A lie first prize. H was written to expose the madness of the til. a Waging between Athens and Sparta, and exhibits the fillings of the rty' in the former city. It is still extant. In 424 api .., the Ki .'.iV.s or Horsemen. It was tb which the poet produced i:i his own name, and evinces the singular boldness of the author. It is levelled a I n, and presents us with a striking picl ad insolent charlatan, and of the fickle, cunning, credulous, and rather stupid precariously ■ ' ■ • : no actor would undertake t influential Cleon, A. himself 1; ! the demagogue. Unfortunately for the characi Cleon, as well as that of the Athenian democracy, these caricatures and n A. have been received as historical pictures. How far they are from the truth, ha; I e shewn by in his Hi r. In 4'_':;, A. produced the Cloud*, which, along with the , are the two most famous of hia comi They exhibit in overflowing richness that fancy, wit, ur, satire, and shrewd insight which charac- eatest of all Greek comic writers. The , however, displays at tb I sane- time the :vs and limitations of A.'s mind. I: school, and to point out its pernicious tendencies. So far well. But A., who was no philosopher, ; his own incapacity to appreciate the highest range of thought and character, by selecting no less a person than Socrates as the most perfect representative of a sophist. A., who was both religiously and politically conservative, had appar- ently no clearer conception of abstract truth than is involved in reverence for the sanctities of the past, the old gods, old traditions, old manners, and old sentiments. He had an instinctive hatred of innovations, and considered all equally pernicious. As he had represented Cleon the reformer as a vulgar innovator and demagogue, ruled by the lowest considerations, he makes the innovating vi Socrates also proceed from corrupt mot perhaps with more craft. Alcibiades is caricatured in this brilliant comedy as a wddly extravagant youth, whose career of ruin is accelerated by the insidious instructions of Socrates ; and a hint is thrown out towards the end of I which unfortunately proved to be the of a ' coming event.' A. represents the fatl r 1 biades as about to burn the philosopher and his whole p/irontis'crion (subtlety-shop) ; and there can be little doubt that this dramatic vilification of the purest of heathen moralists led to that persecution which, twenty years later, culminated in his con- demnation and death. In 422 appeared 1 still extant, in which the popular courts of : are attacked ; aud three years later, in his I ho returns to the subject of the Peloponneaian war, which is ridiculed with great cleverness. In •111 he produced two corned wrmu and the Birds, both of which caricature, in 1 r, the Sicilian ei medi- but which proved to utter a failure. The '■its a civil war of the sex . as the m no of that 111 the l'eloponncsus. In his 1'lutus and . which respectively appeared in 12, true to hi 1 mis ion 1 innovation, he I 1 institutions, and ventured to ridicule Plato, in that, howevi ■, .1 which the philosopher is weak, it— nan political tb I ipidee, andled A. w 1 medies, of w nich only 1 are extant. He is aeknowlc.i id far above all his coat. *S of the 1 and n> in wealth of fancy and language. - ; * ne purest spirit | and Plato himself says that the soul of A. was a temple for the Graces. The ABISTOTELIA— AKISTOTIJB i.ty which he displays in {he mechanical artific wonderful. Pro bo croak choruses, pigs to grunt thro and i i L ol 5 oli i with one i 17' I : re. It only remains to be added, what might naturally be expected, thai ialities in which A. indu I ad at times into ■ ness ami indecency, and that even the gods whom he undertook to defend are treated with levity, and in the most ludicrous lights. The comedies of A. have b i o edited l>v Brunck (1781 1783), Dindorf (17W I Theyhai I into German by Voaa (Brunswick, 1821), and there are sevi ral translations of single plays into English. ABISTOTELIA. E A TtlSTOTLE was born at the I colonial on the west side of the Strymonic ■ (now the (lull of Contessa, in Turkey in Europe), in the year 384 B.C. II belon 1 to a family in which the practice of phy ditary. His fath r, Mikomachu tend and phj of Amyntas 1L, king of Macedonia, father of Philip, d ther of Alexander the Great, A. 1 I both parents while he was quite young, and was it op under the J a ol ; then Bel ■red that Is etion of preparing Iiim [or 1 bi i .ii .'v pro on, and that \\ b knowledge and power of manipulation attached to th" practice of physic at that time, would rank among bis early acquisitions, In after-life, lie occupied hims If largely in th d and v'. I with all the facts thai had 1 derived from tin before him. It seems probable, however, that he early abandoned the intention of following physic as a profession, and aspired to that cultivation of universal knowledge own sake, in which he attained a distinction without parallel in I .' of the human race. Tn his 18th year (367 n.c.) he left Stageira for Athens, th D the Greece and of the civilised world. Plato, on whom he doul had his eye as his chief in<;' then absent at Syracuse in tint cxtraord connecting him as political ai\ is r with the two sue- i despots Dionysius the Elder, and Dionysius the Younger— and with Dion. A .. fore, pursued his studies by I ks, and by th help of any other masters he could lind. dorin three years of his stay. On the return of 1 i his pupil, and soon made his master aware of the remarkable penetration and reach of his t. The expressions said to have I o u Plato imply as much ; for we are told that he of A. as the ' Intellect of the School.' Unfortun there is a total absence of particulars or precise infor- mation as to the early studies of the rising | He remained at Athens twenty years, during the only facts recorded, in addition I - b "lying with Plato, are, that he set up a class of rhi and that in so doing, he 1" came the rival of the celebrated orator and rhetorical teacher, Isocrates, whom he appears to have attacked with It was in the schools of rhetoric that the young men of Athens got the principal part of their tion for public life. They learned the art of ig before the Dikasteries, or courts of law, and the public assembly, with efficiency and elegance ; and in !■! ntally ae,pured the notions of law and policy that regulated the management of affairs at the time. We can easily suppose that A. would look with contempt upon the shallowness — in all that I thought or subject matter— of tho I 1. mi ■hin .. ol v. he'll, doubtll prevailing i rould he in the form o rig artistic rather than p erudite. One of the disciples of ] ending i _; but A., wri to a work (now | rerbs, orded publication of the philosopher, death of I was the oc of L's departure from Athens. It was not i ordinary or I ble that A. should hope to i e i icf of his school, named now know that no other man • had an equal title to thai pre Plato, however, left hi ippus as his or. We may ■ disappoint] thus arising to h.. I circumstance that d but tii lao other reasons that may be ou1 of I is with tho Ionian royal family at a time when the ins and Philip had nto i Whatever may be the explanation, he went in his thirty-si \ rlyl wenty :i Athens, to the Mysi trneus, in Asia Minor, opposite to the island of ] be lived with Hermeias, the chief of the town, a man of singular and . who mquered his dominion for himself from the Persians, at that time masters of nearly all Asia Minor. A. had taught him rhetoric at A ime in return the attached friend and admirer of his teacher. For three years the two lived together in the stronghold of Atarneus; but by : v and Eal e pros . tli" Rhodi in Mi ntor, an officer in the ' i "i the person of Hermeias, put him to death, and ■ in i-t r of all the ] ' i. A. Bed, and took refuge in Mitylen chief city of the neighbouring island of Lesbos. Be also took with him l'yt' I ir of Hen and made her his wife, In a nob] ode, he has commemorated the merits of his friend the to him through the treachery of a Greek renegade, wife, Pythias, died a few years afterwards in Macedonia, leaving him a daugb.1 r of the name. His son, Nlkomachus, to whom he del I his chief work on ethics— called, ill consequence, the ■ i Ethics— was born to hini at a later p riod of his life by a concubine. After two years' stay at Mitylene, he was i (in the year 342 b. c, age 42) by Philip to s son Al xander, then in his fourteenth year. What course of study Alexander was made through, we cannot state. II ■ i ajoyed the ; ol A., for at least thr 1 ..intra ted a strong attachment to his preceptor, which events afterwards converted into bitter enmity. The two finally when Alexander come expedition into Asia (334 B.C.), and A. came from Macedonia to Athens, having recommended to the future conqueror, as a companion in his camp bilosopher Callisthenes, whom h educated along with Alexander. Now at the age of fifty, he entered on the linal epoch of his life ; he opened a school called the 'Lyceum,' from its proximity to the temple of Apollo Lyceius. From his practice of walking up and down in the garden during his . in ■ the other name of his school and s t, tit" Peripatetic. It would appear to have his habit to give a morning lecture to select pupils on the reore abstruse subjects, and one in the evening of a more popular kind to a general audience. He may now be supposed to have composed his principal writings ; but, unfortunately, there is nothing known of the dates of any of them. This crowning period AIUSTOTLE-AIUSTOXF.X r.S. of his life lasted twelve yean. Afb r the death of Alexander, the anti-Macedonian party at Athens ob- ucy, and among other conseoi an accusation was prepared again t A., v. With the fate of Socrates before his i, and in the beginning of 322 b. '., took refuge at Chalcis in Eubi the autumn of the same year, he died, a had lo ■ fflicted with indigestion, and ulti- mately sank under thif m that of 1" many p aally in tii tal doctrine t the Theoi . The Platonic ' ideas ' or 'foi mceived as real ■ mpart- ing all that is commo p urticnlar f i realii : mind. Thus. . i heir mathematics I a from or circl eir sameness to the ideal man. A. wa ■ intrast to I J subjects: he was a mo lector of facts, from whi inductions with more or less accuracy. Plato, on hi- hand, valu 1 facts mi rely in criticising the that he was bent upon demolishing, a as a means of establishing sound thi The writings oi A. may I"- said . braced tli- whole circle of the knowledge of his time, of them are lost ; those that remain refer principally to the following departments. Astronomy, Mechanics, P] of by him at some length ; but here his failure was complete, if we look at his writings from ■liit of view n as the i upon doctrines common among his contemporaries, accep him as principles of reasonin i sound conclusions. II .... of circular motion, of the impo 01 a vacuum, 1 more to confuse than to . ripe for putting I 1 ;s on a is ; for he V ' ortly followed by a scries of men, who both i and reasoned pecting them, and laid the foundation of great subsequent progress — namely, I Apollonius, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, and Hippar- The thirteen books called Metaphysics contain >und thought, but are obscure and de- rranged ; indeed, neither the actual arrangement of th nor the title which they bject to science which he I ophy. 1. i — the ' (Innu's. I .; ion. •_'. Mathematics- that ol and numerical ex ' nitidis, ■ movement, being considered and reasoned upon apart from matter, but not capable of ig apart from matter. 3. The First or II; which studies the essences of ; sal, un- able, and apart from all that change, move- and differentiation which mat rial embodi- The Metaphysics, or First Philosophv, does in fact 26 tli the extreme abstractions or' generalities of nces. It is a collection, partly oi doubts and difficulties, partly of att . n[>on these last refinements of the human mind. It ini many valuable comments on the philosophy of I ami oth rs anterior to or contemporary with A. Th.- gi n. r il t. mi i and subtle which this . w.re hi throughout all tin li appears in a very different light in his great work on Animals, lb- I ,k of genuine observations, and also introduced a method of classification which continues to this day most approved groundwork of zoological classifica- tion. In this work we see perhi e most advanta mind, rarely coupled in tl ■ itude ervation, am ! Hence shewn in his various wnl i ; ends upon one or other of these qua His Organon or Logic is his . ling, and i and nearly the v. ie or schol- . Mr Grotc obsen rt ii. chap. Ixviii.) that 'what was begun 1. and improved by I tied as a part of a comprehensive system of formal loj of A. ; a system which was not onh linary in reference to the processes and control of its time, but which also, having become ins' D I into the minds of instructed men, has con- tributed much to form what is correct in the habits of modern thinking. Thou rn authors j cially by Mr John Stuart Mill in his adm ; into a structure con with the vast increase of know] tension itive method bclongii day — we must recoil' -t. that i : reen the best ! that of A. is hardly so great as that between A. and those who preceded him by a centur; icles, Anaxa Pytha- goreans ; and that . advance o: I hitter commences with S the Human Mind and Body. Memory and the first statement of the laws of Association of treatises on Rhi re the i and still continue to be studii ime remark is appl . ■ie of his greatest works is his p i made by him ■ I States ; ii ipily lost 1 Cere inductii parent in the v however, a singul having read the 1 1 Thucyi ■ to H rodotns is on a | 'tural of both ties.- writers are y himself. The ent distinctions of Matter and Lality, Actuality tiality. are due to \. AKISTO XES I atom, a pupil . ■■:' Opon music. He was extnordi- narily active and versatile in his literary studies, and is said to have composed upwards of 450 tr * i ARITHMETIC— ARIUS. bistory, and philosophy. On the death of An ' ppointed his , and is said to have be morti- Sed wl phrastns was preferred; but this redited by many. He founded a I of musicians, who wore Called after him, AlistOZeneans, and whose distingn istic was tliat they judged of the notes in tie- diatonic scale exclusively by the car, win Pythagoreans determined thi Be mathematically. Except his I qf Harmony, in three 1 ks. which we still possess, only a few fragments of his writings survive in later authors. ARITHMETIC is the sciene numbers (Gr. ariihmos). It is Bomi times divided into theoretical and practical ; the former investigat- ing the properties of numbers and their combinations, tter applying the principles so established, in the form of rides, to actual calculations. Some t the term A. to this art of reckc inin the investigation of the principles t - Among the ancient Greeks and B made little progress, owing to their clumsy mod notation. Few of their writings en the subject have come down to us ; the most important are those of Euclid (7 — 10 B. of tile . Archi- medes, Diophantus, and Nicomachus. After the introduction of the decimal system and tie- Arabic or Hindu numerals (see Numerals), about the 11th c, A. began to assume a new form ; but it was not till the 16th c. that the Doable Rule of Three, or Compound Proportion, was discovered, and decimal fractions were introduced. The invention of Logarithm I in the 17th c. is the last great step in advance that the art has made. Passing over the elementary operations of Addition, &c, the chief heads, sueh as FRAf • I ' PKO- roRTioN, Logarithms, &c., will be noticed in their proper places. ARITHMETICAL MEAN is that number that lies equally distant between two others: thus, the A. M. between 11 and 17 is 14, which is foimd by taking half their sum. ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION is a series of numbers that increase or diminish by a common nee, as 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22; or 12, 10$, 9, 7i, 6. To find the sum of such a series, multiply Hie sum of the first and last terms by half the number of terms. The series of natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c, form an A. P., of which the difference is 1. ARITHMETICAL SIGNS are arbitrary marks or symbols used to denote the operations to be per- formed on numbers, or the relations existing between them. H.x. gr., 7 + 5 indicates that 7 and 5 are to be added together ; 7 — 5, that 5 is to 1 from 7 ; 7° that 7 is to be raised to the fifth / 7 + 5 = 15 — 3, that when 7 and 5 are aer, the result is equal to the difference 1 » 15 and 3. The same signs are also used in A I and an enumeration and explanation of them may be found in almost any treatise on Arithmetic or Algebra. A'RITTS, the celebrated founder of Arianism, •was a native of Libya, and is generally supposed to been born shortly after the middle of the 3d c. About the year 306 A. P., Alexandria was thrown into confusion by the violence of its religious disputes, and in these A. was largely mixed up. At first, he took part with Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, a man who was strenuously opposed to certain notions of discipline entertained by l'eter, Bishop of Alexandria; but afterward he became reconciled to the latter, who in a deacon. The reconciliation, however, was brief. A. once more took the part of Meletius, and was 403 irl bj Peter in < ooe; but the latter dying soon after, Achillas, his sua i '■ bo his office, and i i advanced him to r, 313 A. D. Hi tion re | In- should interpret tin- 8a lj he possessed an abundance of as dng, it is not wonderful that his preaching should have In • popular, and his peculiarities of opinion been vehemently eml i ; t time, however, that A. was brought into collision on a point of d> n't. - oe with bis ecclesiastical superiors, was in 318 a.i>. Alexander, Bishop of ttdria, and successor of Achillas, having in a public assembly of clergy, while Bpeaking of the Trinity, said that it contained one single i or indivisible unity of substance, A. alleged that conception was impossible to the human mind, and accused Alexander of Sabellianism— L e., of destroying the distinction of persons. The dis- pute grew hot, and a conference which was held to settle it only embittered the disputants. In main- taining his ground. A. went beyond bis first state- ment of the absolute di I of i> rson between I. her and the Son; he maintained that the Son was not co-equal or co-eternal with the Father, but only the first and highest of all finite beings, bing by an act of God's fr that he ought not to be ranked with the Father. A. was successful in securir .large is both of the clergy and laity in Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 321 a synod of bishops was held at Alexandria. These deposed and excommuni- cated A., and active measures were taken to let this decision be known over all the Christian churches; Alexander himself wrote numerous letters ( I -. which are still extant), exhorting the bishops not to Hbe'l -.' in eon i the breach was widened To escape pel t, A. ret where he wrote a letter to his friend El Bishop of Nicomcdeia, a city of Bithynia, and not far from Constantinople. Gusebius, one of the influential Christians of his time, wnrnih im ; wrote in his behalf to Paulinus, Bishop of and others; absolved him from the Alexan- drian synod's excommunication; and in 323 con- another synod in Bithynia, which pronounced favourably on A. He even enlisted Constantino on the side of the latter, to this extent at hast, that the half-pagan emperor addressed admonitions to both Alexander and A., assuring them that tie p in dispute was a trifling one, and ought not I voke a serious quarrel. While A. was resi-1 Nicomcdeia, he wrote a theological work in [ and prose, called Thaleia, some fragments of which remain, and indicate an earnest and philosophic mind, but at the same time contain < i which not but pain a believer in the divinity of Christ. The Tludiia is said to have been sung by the Arian neophytes, who thus kindl passions of their adversaries, and inci contest. The comedians, wl i > j lagans, took advantage of the occasion to r the Christian religion in the theatres. The officers of the emperor in several cities wished to repress this profane temerity, but the interference only created greater confusion. It now became impossible for the emperor to remain neutral or indifferent, with safety to self, or to the tranquillity ll a, whom he had appointed mediator betwixt Alexander and A, took part with tie former, and reported unfavourably of A. The result was, that Constantine, in order, as he thought, i t a final settlement of the question, convoked the memorable Council of Nica;a (Nice, q. v.), in Aiirus. Bithynia, 325 a. d. Three hundred and eighteen ( bishops from almost all riarts of the Christian world, but especially from the east, were present, , besides numbers of priests, deacons, and acolytes. Uy expounded and defended his opinions. He declared in the most unambiguous manner that the Son of God was created out of nothing ; that he had not always existed ; that he was not immut- able or impeccable ; that it was through his free- will he remained good and holy ; that if he had chosen, he could as easily have sinned as not ; in a word, that he was a inert' creature and work of the Deity. He further affirmed that the Son of God was not of the same substance with the Father ; that he was not the ' Ward' or' Wisdom,' properly speak- ing; and that the Scriptures only attribute names to him as they do to other created intelli- gences. These propositions ned to with great calmness by the bishops, but the inferior clergy, or at least a majority of them, manifested the most violent opposition. The document con- his confession of faith was torn to pieces his face. however, of a more I i] kind were also employed. Alexander was ably seconded by the young dea m, Athanasius, the equal of A. in eloquence, and in the power of his logic. It was principally by the reasonings of Athan that the Council was persuaded to define, in the most precise manner, the doctrine of the Godhead — vi/.. the absolute unity of the divine essence, and the absolute equality of the three persons. All the bishops subscribed it except two, Theonas of Mar- mariea, and Secundus of Ptolemais, who had the heroism (for it must be considered such) to follow the banished A, into Illyricum. An imperial edict was now issued commanding the writings of A. to be burned, and threatening with capital punishment all who should be convicted of concealing them. This change iu the emperor's senti- ments as to the importance of the doctrine at issue is attributed by some writers to his recognising the will of Heaven in the harmonious consent of so many bishops. A more probable explanation is, that he anticipated the utmost social confusion from the col- li, i. hi of opinions, and resolved to crush that which was at once the youngest and the weakest, hoping thereby to remove the ground of disturbance. He was mistaken, however. At Alexandria, the Arians continued in a state of open insurrection, and began to league themselves with other condemned sects, for the purposes of mutual defence. The great influence of Eusebius was also exerted on behalf of the exiled heretic, as well as that of Constantia, the sister of the emperor, who had herself embraced Arian tenets, and in 32S, permission was granted him to return from Illyricuin. Constantine was very gra- cious, perhaps because he thought the chances of peace being restored to the community were now f eater, for it had been represented to him by usebius that the doctrines of A. did not essentially differ from those of the Nicene Council. In 330 A. D., A. had an interview with the emperor, and succeeded in convincing him that Eusehin 1 id only spoken the truth. Iu the confession of faith which he pre- sented, he declared his belief that the Son w« of the Father 1 lefi ire all ages, and that as the ' \V. ad,' I made all things both in heaven and earth. The emperor was satisfied, and sent orders to Athanasius, now Bishop of Alexandria, to rec into the conummion of the church. Tlii a Athanasius refused to do, and a series of tumults was tli toe. Ha i bius was greatly irritated. H a synod of bishops at Tyre, in 335 A.D., which pro- ceeded to depose Athanasius. The emperor was even prevailed on to remove the latter to Gaul, though he alleged as his reason, that he wished to deliver him from the machinations of his enemies. In the same year, another synod met at Jerusalem, which revoked the sentence of excommunication uttered against A. and his friends. Still the majority of the Christians of Alexandria citing to the doctrines of Athanasius, and resolutely resisted every effort to establish the pinions among them. Disappointed in his expectation*, A., in .'i.'IO A.D., proceeded to Constan- I resented the emperor with another apparently orthodox confession of faith; whereupon orders were issued to Alexander. Bishop of Constan- tinople, to administer to Arius the holy communion on the Sunday following. This was considered a grand triumph by Eusebius and his friends, and when the day arrived, they escorted A, as a guard of honour, through the streets of the metropolis. When about to enter the temple iu which it was intended that he should be I v. ith solemn pomp, he retired a moment to relieve nature, but fainted, and died of a violent hemorrhage. His dis- ciples declared that he had bi i a poisoned, while the orthodox devoutly affirmed that Cod had answered the prayers of Alexander. A. was exceedingly handsome, but the harassing cares of a life spent in a continual struggle with his adversaries, is said to have given him a worn and haggard look. His manners were graceful and modest ; he was noted for even an ascetic abstinence, and the purity of his moral character was never challenged by a single enemy. A. is said to have comj>osed songs for sailors, millers, and travellers, in popular measures, for the purpose of spreading his peculiar tenets ; but no traces of these survive. After the death of A., his followers rallied round Eusebius, now Bishop of Constantinople (338), from whom they were styled Eusebians. The reconciliatory middle party of Eusebius of Casarea (died 340 A.D.), who wished to end the great controversy by abstain- ing from all strict dogmatic assertions on the matter, soon dwindled into m significance between the two contending parties. Constans, who ruled the West after the death of Constantine (337), and Constantius, in the East, made an essay towards re- conciliation; but it failed at the synod of Sard.n (347), where the occidental bishops gathered themselves round Athanasius in support of the Homooiman doctrine (identity ox sameness o/suis(ance),whilein a separate council at PhilippopoUs, the oriental bishops 1 the II:,,noiousian doctrine (implying merely similar, wux). Slight as might appear the verbal difference between the two parties, the bitter- ness of the controversy was intense, and pervaded almost all departments of public and private life. Constantius having, by the death of Constans (350) and conquest over Magncntius (353), gained domi- nion over the west, the Arian cause, which he favoured, triumphed at the synod of Arelate or Aries (353) and at that of Milan" (3o5). These victories, however, were more apparent than real. The Nicene doctrine had still strong support on its side, and was strictly maintained by the banished Athanasius and his friends, while the Antiuicaeans, soon after their triumph, wire divided into at least three parties. The old Arians, also styled An.uueoi, or Heterou rted, in the boldest doctrine of 'distinct su: \rians (a large map" Eastern Church) main; the Homoiousian doctrine of similar substances. A third party held the same doctrine with some qualification. Morally, the victory was leaning to tfie side of the Julian the Apostate (361— 363), in his hatred of the Christian religion, left all parties at liberty to contend as they p with one another, so that they did not interiei his plans. Jovianus and his followers in the west, Valentinianus I.. Gratianus, and Valeutinianus U., M ARKANSAS— ARK OF THE COVENANT. led foil toleration to both parties. ArLinism, at last, was virtually abolished in 1 empire, under I in the east tinianus II. in the i the German ■ the m converting the West u ■ Arian Christianity as early b ered 1" it until 1 1 i • - Bvnod of Toll ! and the Longobards also adopted Arianism; but in all these instances the Nicene doctrine ultimately Lon jobards, who retained the Arian creed uni incon- tias a time by the writhe ! Clarke (li;7. r >— 1729), an in 1752. More recently, a pai ■■trine, ,. ■ i the Wesleyan Methodist Socii ty by l>r Adam Clarke ami a few followers ; but itwas Boon 6 ippn ■ ed by nee. Ture Aril ! ; gradually lnpsi .1 into Unitarianism (q. v.). See Umi.u; ARKANSAS, one of tin' largi of the American Union, baki A Through. mi ■ length, it occu ies the right bank of the Mississippi, bei ited by that stream, towards the cast, from Tens and the th half of MisaissippL It-s boundaries to the south, west) and north are purely arbitrary and conventional, and are best learned from a map. With a length of 240 miles Mela breadth of 224, i A. is 52,198 square i i pretty nearly the same as that of bjigland , out of the equivalent 33,406,720 a very little more than Jj of the whole, or than ! of the lands liable to taxation as L Of th 256,666 acres were in cotti n, 0,513 in In 1858, the population was 331,213, while it had been only 209,639 — the i i eight being about 60 percent A. is a slave state; entire population, the slaves appear to .. rather less than a fourth part : ninally French in ll it was still virtually a wilder! :ion of ma, it came by purcha the United States, wlia ctively that it became lirst a territoiy, and then a state ion. The tow are small, for Little Eoek, which is 1 it, with 3000 inhabitants, is twice as populous as any other place in the In climate and productions A. occupies, as i! an intermediate position between the states of the -ix nations, and have 1 placed as the most Bacred things in the innermost pari of the I ' b only the p i pel mitted to enter. The relation of these to the ark of the Jews has bei d the subject of much learned inquiry, hut has not yi i id satisfactory elucida- The ark appears not to have been brought hack from Babylon, and so never to have t» these No tenure of it appears among red vessels of the tci ntcd on the Arch of Titus. AIIKO'NA, the north-east promontory island of Rtlgen, in the Baltic, almost the most northern extremity of Germany. Its steep clill's chalk and loam, with hori- zontal veins of flint; there is a small deposit of pure chalk towards the east. Myriads of sand-martins build in the chits of these cliffs. Theviewfrom summit extends to the coast of Jasmund on lit. .in the left to the islands ..;' lli.l and M.iiti. The name A. i nt. In the of Saxo Qrammaticus we find it written ma, but its derivation is quite uncertain. On wall or fortified sure in which stood the temple of the Wend deity Swantewit King YVahb mar I. of Denmark, inflict, took po o of the fortress in i 168, burnt the idol and its t mple, and c away its tp house, 75 feet high, was built in ls-J7. A'BKWBIGHT, Sm Richa] d.o lebrated for his inventions in i I i in Lancashire, Dec. 23, 1732. Of humble origin, the yqungest of thirti id. bred to the trade of a 1-' it : aof cultivation were 1760 i.usiness as a barber in Bolton, and became a dealer in hair. A ecret process for dyeing hair, said to have increased considerably the profits \ little is known regarding the first movements of his mind in the mechanical av ion B a cotton-spinnin [pop or Uy led him to take an ii used in that manu- facture. That the development of his in. enuity ws n it, ho\i b\ • r, dt I 1 1 ire imst aumciently proved by the fact, that his first was an attempt to discover I ual motion. Having no i ■ 1 el il iii mechanics, he . named Kay, to assist him in the con traction of his apparatus. About 1707, he seems to have given himself wholly up to inventions in cotto I illowmgyear re he Bet up hi machine, the chiefly of two pail Brat pair mi slowly i and passing the cotton to the other pair, which revolved with such increased velocity as to ■ : I thread tot! Idegreeof fini No previously invi had i able to produce cotto.. !• nt tenuity and irp. An invention, indeed, by Mr Charl of Birmingham, which was I in 1738, but i eeded, di ■ A. of the honour of having been the 1 that he owed anything to this previous attempt, gestdon of the from seeing a red-hot iron I ed by being •Hers. At this time A so poor that he need d to be th a suit of clothes before he could appi ar to vote at an election as a burgess of Preston. Soon after, he removed. to Nottingham, to escape the popular i b had j ilrn en M tor of the >, out of La B fortu- nately fell in with Mr Jedidiah Stnitt of I ited improver of the stoi . who conjunction tner Mr Need. I" 1769 A. Bet up bis first mill, driven ' ook out a pad nt for his invention. Tn 1771 he set up a larger fac- tory, with water-power, at Cromford, inD liabilities of his mind were strik- vinccd in th tnent of the great busi- aow demanded hi Without personal experience, and with no model to aid ■ I. i" I" 1 introduced a system of management BO admirable that it was .- universally adopt I ■ ; ived. In 177 irioua addi- i ■ i , . The -i attending these undertakings stimulated rivals to his patent ; and to such an extent did cotton-spi'.iu in 1781, t" prosecute at o I Efferent manufac- turers. The lirt action against Colonel Mordaunt, backed by a strong combination of Lane .s, wa i lost, Bolely on I 1 that ion in his specification was not suffi- ciently clear and distinct. The other action! abandoned; and, in the ining a stai ■ In :i aen trial, iii 178S diet 'I li.' « I before the Court of Bang's B ach, a few after, wh i the inventions patented was for tl > call I ii i In i Ii ' doubtful evidence of a person named 1 1 combined with tl:: ' of A.'s old assis- tant Kay, the jury di ist him, and his patent was annulled. This was but the formal out- ' an opposition which had from the beginning manu- facturers at first ' Ics yarn. When the yarn was made into calicos n the on that cloth, they strenuo d the measure, but in vain. Popular animosity wae I against th > '.our. but in reality here ; and on on • loved in tho iwerful military and police force, AREES-AEM. without a -word of interference from the I i sense of A., ho overall opposition; and at tin- I atb, in 1792, the value of his p ■ ted to about half a million sterling, In 17m'. he was appointed high-sheriff of Derbyshire : the occasion of presenting an address to tin itulating him on his escape from the k< the maniac Margaret Nicholson, hei he well- merited honour of knighthood. A severe asthma had pressed upon him from his youth ; and a complication of disorders, the result of his busy sedentary life, terminated his honourable career at the comparatively early age of sixty. ARLES (anciently, Arelate), one of towns in France, situated on the left bank of the principal branch of the Rhone, after it has divided into a delta, in the department of Bouches du i . Population of the municipality, 22,971 ; of the town, 14,750. A. carries on a considerable trade. It has manufactures of silk, hats, tobacco, brandy, &c, and forms a market for tin* productions of the surrounding country. It also possesses a college, a naval school, a public library, and a superb museum of antiquities in natural history. The marshes which rendered the district so unhealthy for a long time, have been considerably drained, ami a canal has been formed which connects it with the south coast. Railways also bring it into easy com- munication with Marseille, Avignon, Nlmes, Mont- pellicr, &c. Under the Romans, it was the seat of a prefect ; afterwards, for some time, the residence of the Gothic king, Eurich ; and, in 879. was the metro- polis of the kingdom of Arelate (see BtJBOVHDY). In the early Christian times, several important synods were convened here (311, 354, 452, and 475 A.D.). Among the antiquities of A. are a magnificent amphi- theatre, which could contain between 20,000 and 30,000 spectators ; the ruins of a theatre, also of a palace of Constantine the Great; an obelisk of granite, dug up from the mud of the Rhone in 13S9; a burial-place (the Elysian Fields) used by the Romans ; and a medieval cathedral, in t 1 Roman style, with a splendid portal ai ARM, the upper extremity of the 1 consists of two portions — the A., strictly so called, and the forearm ; the former having one bone, the humerus (1), which moves freely by a globular head upon the scapula, forming the shoulder-joint; and the latter having two bones, the radius (3) and ulna (2), which move on the lower end of the humerus, forming the elbow-joint, and below, with the carpus, forming the wrist The humerus is attached by a loose capsular liga- ment to the scapula, allowing great freedom of motion ; and were it not for the muscles passing into I and K, would be frequently dislocated, but i it is supported by these muscles on all side Bones of the Human Arm. oept underneath or oppo- site the armpit, into which the head of the bone is often driven. The roundness of the shoulder is due to the head of the humerus, so that any displacement is accompanied by a flattening, which at once suggests the nature of the accident. On the shoulder is a large trian- gular mnscl fcoid, which lifts the A. from the side. At the back is the triceps, which extends the forearm; in front are two mils Bex or bend it — the biceps, and the bracbj ; and on each side below are n forearm and hand ; while on each side More, the great muscle of the back (latissimus dorsi) and that of the chest (the pectoralis major) are inserted on each side of a groove, wherein lies one of the ten- dons of the biceps (q. v.). The motions of the ulna don or bending effected by the biceps, and extension or straightening by the brschiahs an and the triceps, its projections D and A I movements into corresponding • ons on the humerus. The movemi the band are principally doe to the red as, ! of which rolls at C ami H upon the ulna at F and I urning the palm downwards (pronation), or restoring the palm upwards (supination), these Human Arm : abc, deltoid muscle ; rf, coraco brachials muscle ; r, r, triceps ; r. i, extensors of wrist and long supinator of the hand ; /.m, flexor of fingers and radial and ulnar Fides of the wrist, and /, palm of the hand, or palmaris longus ; p, palmarls brevls; q, palmar fascia ; o, biceps. movements being effected by muscles, two for each movement, which taking their fixed points from the humerus and tdna, pull the radius round on the latter. The elbow-joint is ginglymoid or hinge-like, and therefore has lateral ligaments; but it is extremely liable to dial ktions, often accomi by fracture, especially in the voung. The accident followed by severe inflammation, the joint is very apt to stiffen, thereby seriously (gee Anky- losis) deteriorating from the usefulness of the limb ; it is, therefore, unadvisable to keep the limb too long in any one position after such an injury. This joint is also very liable to disease; but as this is confined to the ends of the bones, the small portions of the latter affected can be readily cut out, and the arm be restored to usefulness and mobility in a few weeks. The upper extremity is supplied with blood by ABM— ARMADA. the brachial artery, the continuation of the axillary trunk. The veins collect into large superficial trunks, which unite at the bend of the elbow, at which situation one is frequently selected fur venesection, and then pass on to the axillary, on the out the cephalic vein, on the inner side by the basilic. The nerves pas3 down as large cords by the side of the artery, and divi ■ to their ultimate distributions; the musculo-spiral soon passing round at the back to appear on the outside, and become the radial and posterior interosseous nerves ; hind the internal condyle, N, for which it has obtained the term ' funny bone,' from the electric-like thrill which passes along the arm when the nerve is struck or pressed. The median, as its name inches, keeps a middle course with the artery. In wounds of the forearm, the bleeding is often excessive, but may be at once controlled by pressure on the brachial artery, on the inner side of the biceps. The arm affords excellent illustrations of some of the principles of mechanics. The insertion of the I so near, as will be seen, to the fulcra or centres of motion, involves a loss of power in the usual sense of the word ; there is, however, a corre- sponding gain in velocity at the end of the lever; and for most of the purposes to which the hand is put, agility is of far greater moment than dead strength. ABM. In maritime language, besides the obvious application to weapons of warfare, this term is applied to each extremity of a bibb, or bracket, attached to the mast of a ship for supporting the trestle-trees. The same name is also given to a part of the anchor. See Anchor. — In military Ian the infantry, the cavalry, the artillery, and the rs are each called ' an A. ' of the service — equivalent to branch or department. ARMA'DA, a Spanish word signifying simply an armed force, but applied specially to the great Spanish fleet which invaded England in 1588. The king of Spain, Philip II., had resolved to strike a decisive blow at 1 1 uot interest, by conquer- ing England, which Pope Sixtus V. had ma.! to him. The ports of Spain, Portugal, and other maritime dominions belonging to him, had long resounded with the noise of liis preparations, and the most eminent Catholic soldiers from all parts of Europe flocked to take a share in the exped The Marquis of Santa-Croce, a sea-officer of ion and experience, w.as destined to con the fleet, which consisted of a hundred and thirty . of greater size than any that had been hitherto seen in Europe. The Duke of Parma was to conduct the land-forces, 20,000 of whom were on boai ships of war, and ." ■ assembled in the Net herlan ds , ready to be transported into England ; so that, as no doubt was entertained of succ fleet was ostentatiously styled the Invinc Nothing could ex.eed the terror and consternation which seized all ranks of people in England upon the news of this terrible A. being under sail to invade tie in. A squadron of not more than thirty ships of the line, and those very small in comparison, was all that Elizabeth had to oppose it by sea; and it was considered impossible to make any effectual . as by land, as the Spanish army was composed of men well disciplined and long inured to danger. But although the English fleet was much inferior in number and size of shipping to that of the enemy, it was much more manageable, while the dexterity and " of the mariners v ly superior. Lord Howard of Effingham, a man of great valour ipacity, took upon him the command of the navy ; Drake, Hawkins, and her, the n. ...id seamen in Europe, served under him ; while another squadron, consist- ingof forty. i lish and Flemish, commanded by Lord Seymour, lay off Dunkirk, in order to inter- cept the Duke of l'arma. Such was the preparation made by t ' . ; while all the Protestant powers of Europe regarded this enterprise as the critical event which was to decide for ever the fate of their religion. In the meantime, while the Spanish A. was preparing to sad, the admiral, Santa-Croce, 1 likewise the vice-admiral, Paliano ; and the a nd of the expedition was given to the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a person utterly inexperienced in sea affairs ; these unexpected circumstances served, in some measure, to frustrate the design. Some other accidents also contributed to its failure. Upon leaving the port of Lisbon, the A. next day met with a violent tempest, which sank some of the smallest of the ships, and obliged the rest to put back into the harbour. After some time spent in refitt.i Spaniards again put to sea, where they took a fisher- man, who gave them intelligence that the English fleet, hearing of the dispersion of the A. in a storm, had returned to Plymouth, and that most of the mariners were discharged. From this false intelli- gence, the Spanish admiral, instead of going to the coast of Flanders, to take in the troops stationed there, resolved to sail directly to Plymouth, and destroy the shipping laid up in the harbour. But Effingham was very well prepared to receive him, and had just got out of port, when he saw the Spanish A. coming full sail towards him, disposed in the form of a hall-moon, and stretching sewn miles from the one extremity to the other. The English admira 1 by Drake, Hawkins, and I'r attacked the Spaniards at a distance, pouring in their broadsides with admirable dexterity. They did not choose to engage the enemy more closely, because they v. inferior in number of ships and guns, as well as in weight of metal ; DOT could they pretend to board such lofty \ >ut manifest disadvantage. In this action, however, two Spanish galleons were disabled and taken. As the A. advanced up the Channel, the English still followed and infested its rear ; and as their ships continually d front different ports, they soon found them- m a capacity to attack the S] . more nearly, and accordingly fell upon them while they iking shelter in the port of Calais. To increase their confusion, Howard selected eight of his smaller vessels, which, after tilling them with combustible materials, he sent one after another, as if th been fire-sliips, into the midst of the enemy. The Spaniards, taking them for what they seemed to bo, at ly bore off in great disorder; while the ting by their panic, captured or destroyed about twelve ship3. The Du 1 Sidonia being thus driven to the coast of Zealand, I council of war, in which it was resolved, that, as their ammunition began to fail, a t had 1 great damage, and as the l'arma had refused to venture his army under their protec- tion, they should return to Spain by sailing round the Orkneys, as the winds were contrary to then- passage directly back. y proceeded northward, and were follow ,.:i-lish fleet as far as Flamborough II they were terribly shattered by a storm. - s of the ships, having 5000 men on board, were afterwards cast away on t!. and the coast of Inland. Of the v.i ' A,. ii:t\ pa only returned to Spain, and these in a wretched condi- tion. The seamen, as well as the soldiers who remained, wi rcome with hardships and npirited by their discomtitur u with accounts of the de.s;>eratc ARMADILLO— \i:.MACir. nous violence of that i rhioh they were Burroui LRMADI'LLO of mammalia of the ■ Le., toothli truly toothless, Imt having feeble teeth d apart from each other, and one jaw lit into the interatii of the other. The number of the teeth is differ* at in different species. The muzzl. ted, and the I ith and slender, with a glutinous adapted to the capture of ants and other in manner of the ant-i . I i i ig am Ue, like theirs. The Bhort and ng and burrowing, by means of which they B — burrowing in sand or soft earth with such rapidity that it is almost impossible out, and ind only be done ing till they i d. that which peculi- . a h i the A., and in which thi i from all the other mam: pt the i \yphorus (<|. v.), is the bony armour with which the body is covered, and which consists of pal plates not articulated, united on the head to form a solid covering, and similarly to form solid bi over the shoidders and the haunches ; and hi Arm; these, d freedom of n bod species protecting also the tail. Armadill only on inset-, but on vegetable and i of almost every kind, which by decomposition or otherwise ha ; a sufficient softness. of them prefer vegetable food, othi ion. They are all natives of 1 < temperate parts of South America, in the wood I pampas of which they at They are timid an ! ve, although, when they are incautiously assailed, injury may be r from their claws. Their flesh licacy, ilarly that of the species which fei d vegetable food. The largest species is fully three ive of the tail ; the smallest, not above ten inches. The species ai the genus has Keen divided into a nun . which some natural: nto genera, naming the family Loricata (Le., To this family belongs also the genus CM American. Fossil remains of gigantic armadillos have been found in the pleistocene strata ith America, forming the genus Gbjplodon of ' so named from the fluted teeth. AllMADI'LLn is also the scientific name of a a of the order Itopoda of I This is one of the genera usually included und popular name of Woodlouse, and one of which aerally known by that of Slater. The armadillos derive their name from the 408 scaly:' their body, in which an analo found to thi mailed quadrupeds of South Ami 'Hey have, in a remarkable degree, the nol bing but the plates of the ' the name of J 'ill .me of i at one . puted to iw accounted ry. A rrao- dillo. I en damp places, under stones, &c, in Britain. ARMA'GH, a small inland county in 1 Ireland; bounded N. by Lough Neagh, E.by I S. by Louth, W. by Si Us .'._' miles, and breadth l'o. It is i th i>> size ot the Irish counties; area, square it four-fifths being ar .'JOth part in woods. I e is hilly in the south, and undulating in the centre, attaining in Slieve Grullion, in the south-west, tlie height of 1S93 feet. The other chief heights are the X.wry i . 1385 Eeetj the Axmagh-breague Hills, 1200; and Mullyash, 1034. Thi country bordering upon Lo i is low and boggy, and the Louth i i • the south end of A. The prin- cipal i ilile in their lower parts, are the 1 pper Bann, So\i i outof Down north-west for ll it eni i ; and the I Ii, in iis lower part, separati • \. I The rocks of A. are — ] i ian in the south and middle of the county; the trap of Antrim, with the underlying greensand, around Portad me in the I of the i ry the I lallan ; granite in i ith-east; and ry strata bordering Lou Chi Soil is fertile except in the oities. Cn i 179,598 acres— nearly half the county i being oats, pol v. heat, and ' le si ock in thai year was I, . 72,176 cattle, 8043 sheep, 21,647 pigs. The ■ ■ di I. popula- L to e tops, hedgerows, i thickly scattered farm in ls.31, 196 of 6308 in ten i county is mostly in the diocese of ui ns three i i oi parliament inty, and one for the city. chief towns are A.. Lurgan, Portadown, and Xewry. (1871— pop. lVl.eOO.) Armagh, the capital of the county of A., in a car- bonifero i north-west of the county. It is situated round the base and on the slopes nf a geni le eminenc -. b its oi iginal nam", Ard-Magha,' the high field.' It is v. oi lime- The only cdilicc of other material is the IraL which is built of red sandstone, and is rm— 184 by 119 feet — crov. i central eminen led to occupy the site of that 5th c. It has recently i repaired and bei at the cost it Lord Primate, Lord Beres- ford. 1 ■ i on I b in a th-east and of A. .V new Gothic Roman Catholic cathe- dral occupies the principal height to the north, and matial palace that to the south. Thi .' hospital for forty patients, maintain the pp ie, and alu imn for four A. is the seat of the Archil pi opal see of the Primate and M n of all ii «ho baa an ol 12,087 : i I 'op. of the town in 1S51, 9300. (Ia71 — pop. ot c.ty, TSOO.i AEMAGNAC— ARMED SHIP. The chief mi lis linen- weaving. A., from the year 495 to the lit Ii c, was the metropolis of 1 at Eamania, 2 miles to tile i . 1 as a school of theology and literature — its college being the lirst iu Europe. After the Reformation, it suf) in th I Irish; and i lined only i uses in 1705. ARMAGH \c [Agar Arenumia to old name of a district in the smith of iiich at one j i o have i aded from the valleys of the sees to the Garonne. It is now in in the departmi I o BLautes 1';, I Gers. The remarkably I rial land, producing grain and of win'', and also favourable ap into an ' >rd . proprietors. The principal branch of trade is the iun of the brandy known hi commerce as , which rivals those of Cognac and Saintonge. The pita! is Lectoure, on the with 2879 inhabitants. To the south of it lies An- town of the department of ' Pop., 7942, The people are noted for their simplicity, strength, and bravery ; hut, on the other hand, they are extremely credulous and ignorant. were highly valued in war. The A. family, descended from the old Merovignian king, Clovis, played an important part in Flench history. A'ltMAMEXT 1 name for the wei of war employed in sea and land battles ; all the , . : .ng called the A. of a ship or an army. ARMANSPERG, .Tes. I.rn\v.,Cou>-T of, formerly nt of the government in Greece, was born in Lot er Bavaria in 1787, and early < mbraced an admini- strative and diplomatic career. On the accession of King Louis to the throne, A., who had already occu- pied sevral important posts, was summoned to ih, where, rapidly ruing from one dignity to another, he at he i minister of finance and of foreign affairs. In both capacities he proved active and successful ; but he drew upon himself the hatred of the Camarilla by his : .position to ' 'I as by his attempts to identify himself with the decidedly liberal party. tence was that, in 1831, he lost his and in lb.- same year was appointed ambassador to London, but preferred retiring to his family estate. •.er, he could not resist the king's re] request that he would undertake the formation of ! . and accordingly, I ho, A. landed at Nauplia in January 1833. Bot four years be was at the head of pub! I Greece derived many benefits from his administration ; but the heat of and court intrigues led to his di and 1 Ore ee in March 1837. Since that i livid in retirement upon b I teggendorf. AliMATO'LES, a body of Greek militia, lirst 1 under the reign of Sultan Selim 1. the beginning of the 16th c. They were intended tlie fertile plains from the rava the A'.'- ,."/'',' (mountain robbers of Thessaly), who had never been entirely conquered by the Turks. The A. themselves wi re originally Ulephts, but r their i.ation when th torphosed them into a sort of military police. Th t" da a- care. The \\ hi I into districts (cd 1 under the sup rvision of a chief of these mihtia, who, however, had himself to receive ordeis from a Turk ': it although brigandage of led them in the light of brothers, inasmuch as they had a common origin and faith ; both i country; and the sentiment of pab rruled every other a a. This sympathy at last appear' alarmed. . I desi I to the A. the Mohammedan AI 1 . of the Creeks, v.l. , r , did not a btt! ■ to hasten the i which the treaded. The moment it broke out, tl tional ' i distinguished A'RMATTTRE . armour; Ger. anker). ni A. is applied ;•> tfa ■ pii ci 9 of soft iron that are placed at the extremities or poles of magnets to . e their magnetic power. When magnets are '. to remain any length of time without appendages, in consequence of the disturbing influ- ence of terrestrial i derably in strength ; but when they are provided with them their magnetism is kept in a state of constant activity, and thereby shielded from this distui b son of this is found in two facts well known in the science of magnetism — viz., that when a piece of soft iron is brought into contact with the cx- tremity of a magnet, it is itself induced to become t the unlike' poll i of two diffi dly attract each other. Referring north pole, N, of the hoi magnet, S HS, acting on the arma- ture, «», induces it to become a magnet, having its south p> and its north pole, «, at the ■ rtremity. -. irtue of it i , affinity, powerfully attracts tie north pole, n, thus formed, and its own inducing iutlti to heighten tie' ma jnetic condi- tion previously induced in the armature by th - pole X. The A., from the combined ai of both poles of the hors' magnet, is thus converted into a powerful magnet, with its poles lying in an i i to that of the primary I-" 1 i, i ' original magnet is. in consequence, brought into contact with • > mi making, favourable to the maintenance of it It is due to mutual attractions that a much I lit can 1" I from the A. thus phv v. hat th.' single pol bain. Bar maj ai • 9 maj i e armed in -. iy by laying them • itn their unlike poles towards ■nitics by two pice ah as a compass-needle, is free to take up I required by the magnetism of the earth, the earth itself plays the part of an armature. ARMED SHIP, in the official language of the Soya] Xa\y. occupii - a. sort of medium p lip and a man-of-war. It is a private vessel, hired occasionally by the Admiralty for a special pu I commissioned for a temporary period. The duty is usually that of guarding some pa t. or attending on a particular fleet, dining a time of war ; and while SO employed, it is . I equipped like ouc of the smaller ships-of-war in the Royal Navy. 400 ARMENIA. ARMENIA, .1 high table-land on the southern of the Caucasus, stretching down towards - [t ha bad different bonndarii various centuries of its history. It is scat of one of the oldest civilised peoples in the '. the Armenians, who inic family of nations. Thi contain nothing certain beyond the facts that, in ancient times, they were governed by ind < nt kings, but afterwards became tributary to the That dim p riod which . myth and history begins, in the L, about tl 1 I King Dikran, or '1 I of the Sa d the independence of the kingdom. The last king of this dynasty was slain in battle Alexander the Great, who conquered the country. After Alexander's death, A. passed thr es of fortune under the . who 1018 over it. Of these, two — Artaxias and Zariadres — made themseh cut of their sovereign, Antiochus the Great, during ime when he was 1 t with Romans, 223—190 B.O. They divided the province into two districts — Artaxias tak Major (that part of the country lying E. Euphrates), and Zariadres A. Minor (the part to tie' W. of that river). The dynasty of Artaxias did not reign long; for about the middle of the 2d c. E. c, we tind A. Major in the possession of a branch of the Parthian Arsacidas, Of which the powerful king was Tigranes the Great, who added to the conquests made by his predecessors in Lower Asia and the region of tie I I . Syria, idocia, and A. Minor; defeated the Parthians, and took from them Mesopotamia and other coun- tries. He lost all these territories by his war with the Komans, into which he was led by h;s father-in- law Mithridates, king of Pontus. in 63 d.c. After this, the assaults of the Komans from the west ever growin >rous, and those of the Parthians from 1' . tened the downfall of A. Major. The successors of Tigranes became tent) partly on the one nation and partly on the other, while internally the nobles broke through the restraints of a feeble monarchy, ami claimed the privileges of petty kings. fJnder Trajan, A. Major was for a short time a Roman province. Its subsequent history exhibited an unbroken series of tumults and wars, of violent successions to the throne, despotic reigns, and rapid decay. In 232 A. n. the province was conquered by the Sa? who held possession of it 28 years, until Tiridates 111., the rightful heir, was restored I - ae by Roman assist It was about this fan became the religion of A., which was thus the first nation to embrace the new religion. TirM If had been converted by St Gregory the Illuminator as early as about 276 a. d. The old religion of Armenia had for its basis the doctrines of Zoro- aster, with a curious intermixture of Greek 1 , and of ideas peculiar to the country. It is in that the Armenians worshipped as their mightiest gods, Aramazt and Mihir (the Ormuzd and Mithras of the old Persians); lint they had also a 1 Venus, whom they styled Anaitis. and other deities, to whom the}' offered animal sacrifices. This change of creed, however, mad- no in ment in the political circumstances of the falling state. The Byzantine Greeks on one side, and the Persians on the other, regarded A. as their prey; and in 428, Bahram V. of i'> ia made A. a province of the empire of the Sassanides, and with the deposition of Artasir the dynast was brought to a close. The rule of the Sassanides 410 in A. was 1 ly by their sanguinary but In 632, the unhappy country was subject and Buffered terribly di ith the Byzantine emperors. In 886 a.i>.. Aschod I.. > old and powerful Armenian family. DSCi nded the ounded rd Armenian dynasty Under them \. | lerons till tin- 11th c, divisions and internal nntrv ; till at length the ' murdered tin 1 last monarch of the " I of the kin' d "in. while the Tories and Kinds made them- the rest — only one or two of the native princes maintaining a perilous independence. In 1242, the whole of A. Major was conquered by the Mongols, and in 1472 br, Afterwards the western part fell into the hands of the Turkish sultan. 81 In. 1 1. fate of A. Minor was hardly better. The by founded by Zariadres prevailed to thi of Tigranes the Great, of A. Major, who conquered the country about 70 is. c. Afterwards A. Minor was subjugated by the Romans, and made a Raman province. On the d into eastern and western, it became attached to the former, and shared in all its changes of fortune until near the close of the 11th c. At this time A. Minor — which had long been a place of 1 for many who had Bed of the Turks and Persians in the 1 1 province — was again raised to independence by Rhapen (a 1 A. Maj '■ nt of the Ba ' it dae). His successors extended their dominion . . ■ 1 .ia and loeia, and took a prominent part in the Crusades. This dynasty ruled prosperously until 1374, when A. Mia 1 by the Egyptian sultan Schaban. Since that time A., with the exception of the parts which Russia has won in the present oentury from 1 which are b governed, ha I subject to the d the Turks and Persians. No bis, the Armenians have steadily pn nationality, both in its and moral lineaments ; faith; and even — tb nigh only a relic of their ancient culture — a higher civilisation than their eon The political storms which devastated I during the middle ages, and the persecutions of the n many of the inhabitants from their homes. This is the reason why we tind them scattered over all Asia and Europe. En Hungary, Transylvania, and Galicia they number 10,000. They are very numerous in Ru a. but most of all in Asia Minor, and in the neighbourhood of Constantinople, where they number 200,000. The greater part of A. is an elevated table-land. Its area is estimated at 90,000 Bquare miles; pop. 1,000. It is watered by the rivers Kur, Aim-, Joruk, Euphrates, and to a slight extent by the Tigris. The lakes which lie within this moun- tainous region are Van, Urumiyah, and Sevan. The Armenian plateau, on the eastern side of which the volcanic range of Ararat lifts itself, forms the 1 point of several mountain-chains, such as Taurus and Antitauras, the mountains of Kurdistan, and those which run north to the Black Sea. It exhibits numerous traces of having been subject to volcanic agency, and even yet — as was shewn by the severe earthquake of the summer of 184(1. and the recent (1S59) total destruction of Erzerum — possesses an internal volcanic activity. The climate in the higher regions is hot in summer and cold in winter, but in the valleys it is more tern] The country labours under a great scarcity of wood, and in some parts is sterile, through a deficiency of ARMENIAN CHURCH— ARMENIAN LITERATURE. water ; in other parts the soil is extremely fertile, producing rice, hemp, flax, tobacco, wine, cotton, and many varieties of fruit. Cattle breeding and grazing are more extensive than agricrdtur'-. 'i I contain iron, it, and naphtha. The number of the inhabitants of par* Armenian is reckoned at n arly 1,000,000, bat tbi admixture of Tu . Kurds, 4c. Armenians b i finest variety of the [ndo Their int ' inarkable, as is shewn both by then- literature, and tlicir singular dexterity in bll Still, long centuries of ojipression have exerted a withering influence on their Dative strength of character, so that the mass of those who rein home are sunk in superstition and ignorance. They profess Chri rincipal towns in A. are Erivan (q.V.) and Akhalzikh (both 1 Russia). Akhalzikh has a population of 12, 13,000, is fortified, and adorned by a mosque and many Armenian churches. It possesses a coll. library, and has trade in silk and these there are in Turkish A., Erzeram, Van, 4c. (q. v.) ARME'NIAN CHURCH. Christianity appears to have been introduced into Armenia as early as the 2d c, for, according to tradition, Dionysius, Bishop of Corintli. ■. le to the Armenian Christians, who were then under the authority of a bishop named Meruzanea. It was first firmly estab- bout the end of the 3d c. by the apostolical exertions of Bis: (q. v.), who converted Tiridates (see AhmKHXa). The Bible was translated into the Armenian language in the 5th c. After this period great animation pn in the A. C. Numbers flocked to the colleges at Athens and Constantinople. In the ecclesiastical controversy concerning the twofold nature of Christ, the Armenian Christians held with the physites (q. v.); refused to ackni authority of the Council of Chalcedon ; an stituted themselves a separate church, which took the title of Gregorian from Gregory himself. For a spirit of scientific inquiry, especially in theology, manifested itself among them to a far \ it than in the other Eastern churches. Tin I divine is Nerse3 of Klah, be] c, whose works have been repea; iied. The most recent edition was issued in Venice, 1S33. The Gregorians have continued to entertain a deeply roote.i arch. It is true tii" Roman Catholic popes have at various times (1145, 1341, 1440), when the Armenians accepted hammedans, tried to persuade them to recognise the papal supre- macy ; but, for tl it, only the nobles con- liile the mass of the people clung ins, as we see from the com- plaint OI I accuses the A. C. of 117 errors of doctrine. There is a sect rtians in Italy, Poland, Galicia, a, and Marseille. These recognise the spiritual sovereignty of the p I man Catholic Church, but have their own form of church-government. On the irruption of the Persians into Armenia, at the begin- tlie 17th c, many of the inhabitants were to become Mohammedans, but by far the •X number remained true to their ancient faith. The A. C. has never scrupled ( under the protection of the Porte agah aggressive demands of the I and recently of Ru t the intrusions of Catholic and Protestant missionaries. Its i s f rom that usually styled orthodox, in attr one nature ( I and holding that the Spirit proct-e Father alone ; the latter doctrine, r, being hi Id by it in common with the 'orthodox Greek Church,' all : ran,- to the theology of the western churches, the 'seven sacraments,' it entertains the peculiar notions that at baptism one must 1* b;.i three times, and as often dipped ; that confirma- tion is to be conjoined with baptism ; that the Lord's Supper m d with pure wine avened bre Ij that the la: being handed roie be dipped in the fomi'-r ; and that extreme unction is to be adn ecclesiastics alone, and that immediately after (and not before) their death. It believes in I of saints, but not in purgatory. It exceeds the Greek Church in the number of its fasl ' has fewer religious festivals. These; however, are more enthusiastically kept. Divine service is held in Turkey chiefly by night. Mass is celebrated in the old Armenian language; preacb carried on in the new. It3 sacerdotal const differs little from the Greek. 'Jin- head of the church, whose title is Catholikos. miadzin, a monastery near Erivan, the capital of Russian Armenia. To this place every Armenian must make a pilgrimage once in his life. The monks of this church follow the rule of St Basil. The War- tabieds form a peculiar class of ecclesiastics ; they live like monks, but are devoted exclusively to learning. Secular priests must marry once, but none are at liberty to take a second wife. ARME'NIAN LITERATURE. Previous to the introduction of Christianity by < !regory(3 the Armenians had adhered to the Assyrian or Medo- Persian system of culture; but excepting a few old songs or ballads, no remains of that early period exist. After their conversion to Christianity, the Greek language and its literature soon became favourite objects of study, and in; ithors were translated into Armenian. (See Weni AuctorumGr&eorumversionibusAr' nods, ,\ . I ■ 1S42.) The Armeniae as an alphabet of its own, consisti intro- duced by Mi sr .bin 406. The most flourishing period of A. L. extends from the 4th to the 14th c. The numerous Armenian theological writers and chroni- clers of this era supply materials fora 1; East during the n i which have nil been too much neglected. These Armenian writers fenerally copied the style of the ' k and Jyzantine authors ; but in ac to facts and they are superior to oriental historians. In the 14th •■.. literature todechni'.and few remarkable works were after produced; but since the time of their disp the Armenians have pr ! literature ; and wli — in Amsterdam, Lemborg, Leghorn, Venice, kan, M pie, Smyrna, Ispahan, Madras, or Calcutta — the printing-office is a] a feature in their colonies. Armenian settlement is that of ..riits (q. v.), on the island of The Bible translated into An ti Man (tl .ant from the text of th at] by Miesrob and his scholars (411 A.D. highest model of classic style. ns of several Greek air. t the sam. have been partly preserved, and contain some wnt- which the originals 1 ranicle of E i of P Homil . Basd the Great, and Fphraim Sj I i ral old geographi- cal and historical works I Among philosophical and theological writers may be AEMEEIA— ARMIES. •itat'T of Aristotle, Eanik, and Jo I The i Armenian Saints, 12vo1b. Ven. 1 v I is many .■: ' ■ ' I i [n ■ ry and i, \. I,, is poor. Somal, in bis work i 1829), of A. T,. to the Ind . but baa many p It is 1 Armenian, I -<• of literature, is no longer a livin into four dialects, contains many Turkish woi grammatical constructions. AKME'RIA. See Thrift. ARMFELT, Gustaj Maubttz, s Swede, whose public hie was characterised by strik- ol fortune, wa i the • Baron Armfelt, and born at .Tuva, in th< vern- of Alio, on the 1st of April 17">7. Having, a i ler of the ro I ; . displayed activity and zeal in opposing the machii of the nobles, who were at that period III., the latter appreciated He of bis services, and appointed him to in the Bervice of the Crown Prince. During the war betB . eden and liussia ( 1 7SS tin), in which he was commander of one of the three divi- ih army, 1 I spirit, and advanced still higher in the of the monarch. He defeated a Russian force at Snmma. near FYedrikshamm ; and as mili- tary representative of ' ad the honour of '■■ 14th of August 1790. On the 16th of March 1792, Gustavuswas ted. B .Mind, though mortal, did not iployed the . al that el death in drawing up a codicil to bis v. ill. by which the brother, Charles, ia, during tl 1\'., A. b m, and member of pointed to advise with The Duke of Sudermania, however, ' look the idea of a ch upon b of action, and found means to licit, the conditions of which he ■ intended to ol . scious that his influence was rap He i rarely permitted to seethe youn at last, after a secret interview with 1 as ambassador to Naples in July 1792. i Ital ! i con ce with a parties in Sv, ' throw i: ag the S l G Th • • ■ mdence I. A- fled to F ; . and afterwards to ■. He was condemned, durin high treason, and stri; goods and one of his . the beautiful I Rudenskold, was rah] It.. brutal ag publicly 'infamous,' exposed on a scaffold for some houi I in a house of correction for life. horror of such an atrocity in language suffii c period, he to accept office undi throne. In 1799, Gustavus IV. i the crown at the age of i id A. was 1 to all his honours. In 1805, he was appointed governor-general of Finland : and in h army rai- the invasion of Norway; but his plans w completely frustrated, that he was compelled to ! the invasion of Sweden by the bucci I was in consequence i I u the follow Hi" 1 lntion tool i. the Duke i iii his place, and \. v. as ut of the Mihtai I lint shortly after, being implicated in in.-, he wa flj to I '. where he livid during tin- remainder of his life in high honour. Tin- till' oi I ount was conferred on hini, he was i .. univei i. president of the Board of Finnish Affairs, and member of the Russian senate. J [< at T i on the 19th August 1814, ARMIDA, one of the most prominent ■ I Tai o's Ji rusah m D< Kw reck . t the holy city, Satan held a council to d . bing the plans of thi CI warriors, and A., a very beautiful sorceress, was emploi ■' Kinaldo and I Rinala - lacted by A. t" a n i where, in her splendid palace, surrounded byd ful gard.ns and pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot his vows, and tl. to which hi d his life. To liberate him from his voluptuous bonda lengerB from the Christian army — Carlo and Dbaldo — came to the island, bringing a talisman so powerful that the witchery of I .id. Rinaldc escaped, but was followed by i, in battle, incited several wai 1 ' rushed into •d d by Rinaldo, who then .1 bis love to her, persuaded her to bi a Christian, and vowed to be her faithful knight. n made the subject of an l.\ I rluck .". ARMIES, armed forces under regular military isation, employed for purposes of national or defence. An army may comprise the iployed by 1 : ■ only a portion under a particular commander. Whi a an armed force is under no constituted authority, and i its organisation and discipline, it cannot i thy of the name of an army, and may be little better than a hord iditti. Of this nature arc the / FzLLTBOSTEBS) in which certain | of the of the United States free h long s of experience, the princip] military organisation, and the 1 i which A. . cially amenable, have gradually reachi 1 a gree of perfection. The primitive wars among barbarous people are always depem the fin [the wilderness for 1 and uccessful if an enemy can be atl I unawares, despoiled, and carried into slavery. a time, war advances to the position of an ai ; is conducted by men who have received a c training. An army becomes an instrument uoi for varn enemies, bul Eor ing countries. | : position of an army is not reached ; for the defence of a country requires more military skill, perhaps, and a better or i an attack. In the several historical articles in this /.' i : io the chief natdoi of ! modern times, the wars in which thi d i . . fcly notj tion; but it seems desirable, in the a neans of rendering intelligible certain minor details scattered through the work, .•• a brief description of the chief points in which the A. of different states or countries have 1 in constitution. ABIDES. ARMIES, Ascjebt:— Egyptians. — The mi traortlinary conqueror among the Egyptians, Scsos- tris or Rhamscs, lived sixteen centuries before the Christian era ; and although the evidence for his of valour is very questionable, there is reason ieve that the organisation of his A. can be pretty accurately traced. His father, Amcnophis, laid the foundation for the military glory i When the latter was born, Amcnophis caused all the male children who were born on the same day as his son, to be set apart as a special body, to be reared tor a military life ; they were taught everything that could strengthen their bodies, increase their co and develop their skill as combatants and leaders; and were to consider themselves bound as the chosen dep companions of. the young Indue time Sesostxis became kin and then he formed a sort of militia, distribute d as military colonist', ■ : i land t<. maintain himself and hi this militia had been drilled to militar Sesostris headed them as an army for military con- quest in Asia, and placed the chosen band ioned as officers over the different sections of the army. Persia [n the creat days of the 1' ii- army consisted of cavalry, ere distinguished for their bravery and impe- of attack The infantry were little better than an armed mob. The war-chariots, too, ; calculated to strike terror when dashing into hostUe ranks, were available only on level ground. As to the numbers of men composing the great Persian A., the statements are too wild to be trustworthy. Allowing for :dl exaggeration, however, it is cer- tain that the Persian A. were very large. When Darius was oppi Bed to Alexander the Great, his army t down at various numbers — from 750,000 to 1,000,000 men. The king was in tie- centre, sur- ■1 by his courtiers and body-guard ; the Per- sians and Susians were on the left ; the Syrians and Assyrians on the right. The foot-soldiers, forming the bulk of the army, and armed with lis, were formed in deep squares or masses ; the horsemen were in the intervals between the squares, and on the right and left Hanks; and the chariots and elephants in front. introduced many important changes in A, both in the i and in the manoeuvres, livery man, in the earlier of the country at least, was more or I r, inured to a hard life, taught to bear arms, and expected to light when called upon. The lead- ■i in each state paid attention to organisation and tactics in a way never I . armies, but a sort of national militia, that .Marathon, Tlatoa, and Mycale. So far as ted the arrangement of A., the 1. oflz (q. v.), a [articular foot-soldiers, j i -. eon. Jit ranks, one behind another; thi and rear ranks I picked men, and the intermediate ranks of 1 ten in each rank depended on the ;\\ aUa I he commander. Thi ars, short swords, and A then ions. — The Athenians madi ii the Lace, in the differ- ent kinds of troops forming their A. They had heavy infantry, constituting the mi n for the phalanx, and armed \. . and shields ; infantry, employed in skirmishes and in ing the phalanx, and" armed with light javelins and shields; a sort of irregular infantry, who, with javelins, bows and arrows, and slings, harassed the enemy in march, and performed other sen-ices analogous in some degree to those of sharpshooters dern army. It is recorded that Miltiad Athenian hero at M the 'double- quick march,' to increa.s ..turn of a phalanx when rushing on the enemy. ana. — Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander t I .city to see that he could not van ji -i so long as he adopted the same format: set about He have a standing an. L of a militia ; to have at command a set of men whose trade was lighting, instead of citizens who traders and soldiers by turn. Asa further cl it had 1 fa a phalanx . ixt i □ n points front- rank, forming a bristling array of steel tcrri 1 encounter. Besides these heavy infantry, were light troops marshalled into smaller bodi more ai kinds of cavalry— heavy, armed v. ith pik led by cuirasses of iron-maU ; li with lances; and irregidar. ana. -This nation introduced the army-for- mation of columns, much deeper than broad, or having more men in file than in rank. A new kind of tactics was introduced in accordance with ii mation; the movement being intended to pierce the enemy's line at some one- throw them into confusion. Itomans.- 1 warriors initiated changes in army matters, which had a wide-spread influence ( n the nations of the civilised world. About the period 200 B.G, every Roman, fri m the age oi 4G, was liable to be called upon to serve as a soldier ; men were preferred ; but all were avaU- able up to the middle-time of life. Tlu-y went vere drilling and discipline, to tit like for marching, lighting, camping, working, carrying, and oth. .ties, livery year the Senate decreed the formation of army corps, deputing this duty to the consul or p sent up the names men. and tribunes selected a cci; See Lecio.v The Roman had many excellent militar;, great facility of movement ; if battle uioimpaired ; a qui when forced to J ; a readii to varying circui. ..sity in a; fighting the enemy even while infantry were armed with javi I : the lighter troops wi I javelins ; sive armour comprised shield , lives. cient nations which had no dist feature A KM IKS, M: i ,i . m. irked the dividin I ; he barium : attacked en all sides thi oi c i migl in which tin to 'k'- r.). What all li.. i :. all demanded to share m uiore or less equal. Hence arose a division of the 413 AKMIKS. conquered territory ; lands were held from thi i : ndent sovereignty. \\ hi n Euro out of the wrecks of tlu I ments put on a p i. The king con] maintain a standing army, for his barons or feudal o? allowing him too power. He could only strengthen himself by obtain- ing their aid on certain terms, oar by allowing them to weaken themselves in in1 ■■!-, to which they had always much proneneas. Each baron had a small army composed of his own militia ox retainers, avail. i tie at short notice. The cont these small armies, sometimes combined and some- times isolated, make up the greater part of the wars of the middle ages. Of military tactics or strategy, there was very little ; the campaigns were desultory and indecisive; and V were pained more by individual valour than by any well-concerted One great exception to tin's military feudalii furnished by the Urtuada (<).▼.). Bo far as concerns A., however, in their organisatio these expeditions effect ttle. The military forces which went to the Holy Land were little than armed mobs, up] oaticism, but not at all by science or discipline. Numbers and individual bravery were left to do the work, com- bination and forethought being disregarded. A much greater motive-power for change, daring the ml was the invention of gunpowder. When men could fight at a greater distano before, and on a system which brought mei " to the aid of valour, everything connected with the military art underwent a revolution. Histori- cally, however, this great change was not very apparent until after the period usually denominated the middle ages. The art of making good cannon and hand-guns grew up gradually, like other arts; and A. long continued to depend principally on the older weapons— spears, 6 ai rows, axes, maces, swords, and dag During the greater part of the 14th and 15th centuries, the chief A. v> • re those maintained by the Spaniards and the Moors on one European I ground, by the English ami the French on another, and by the several Italian republics on a third, in those A., the cavalry ided as tie arm. The knights and their horses alike were frequently covered with plate or chain armour ; and the offensive weapons were lances, swords, ds an! battle-axes. A kind of light cavalry was some- times formed of archers on smaller horses. As to army-formation, I still little that could deserve the name ; there was no particular order of battle : how he could best dis- ,h himself i ! valour; and to each was usually attached a ng him as a second during the contest. Sometimes it even happened that the fate of a battle I to depend on a combat between two knigl its. No attempt was made, until towards the close of the 15th c., to embody a system of tactics and manoeuvres for cavalry ; and even that attempt was of the most primitiv Nor was it far otherwise with the foot-soldiers ; they were gradually becoming acquainted with the use of firearms; but, midway as it were between two systems, they observed neither completely ; and the A. in which they served presented very little definite organisation. ARMIES, Modern. The formation of standing A. may be said to have introduced the I military system. When the remarkable exp Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc) had enabled I VII. to check the victorious progress of the Eng- lish in France, he set about remodelling his army. 414 dual changes, and amid great difficulty, he converted bis - [Mined standing army. Daring the reign of hie son, Charles vi 1 1, (lis'; 1 conducted a w ■ II- dy (1 111 I), in sup] pretensions which he had to the throne of N.u The c] Le 1 Charles VH. was not simply that of substituting a compact standing army i medley of feudal troops and of In aries; feudalism itself gave way under the inllu- ence of this combined with other reform: n is concerned the actual formation and line of the standing A. above noticed, a were from time to time introduced : pistols and carbines were given to the cavalry; cuirasses were worn by the heavy troopers; and were introduced. During the Thirty Years' \\ ar (1G18— 1G48), Gustavus Adolphus and WaUenstem 1 opposite modes of dealing with ma- infantry : the former spread them out to a width, and only six ranks in depth ; when pth of v to thirty ranks. Frederick the (went, in the next century, introduced a most c system of tactics and drilling ; insomuch that when he could manoeuvre, he nearly always won his. battles; but when the result d OS bold and unexpected onslaughts, he was more frequently a loser than a winner. The great military leader in the early part of the present century, Napoleon B ate, made a larger use than any previous ■■I'll general of the method of man ips with great celerity, beating the enemy in detail before they could combine in one spot. It is desirable to present, in the most condensed form, a few statistics of the actual A. of En leaving to future articles, under the names of the ! countries, cities, and battle-fields, all details concerning special A. and military encounters. We shall select for this purpose the year 1S53, when the A. of Europe had not yet been augmented 1 military operations in Russia (1854—1856), India (1857— 1858), and I I), and brought up to an al amount. oe. — The 86 departments of France form an equal number of nulitary districts, each p under a general of brigade; and these are grouped into 24 divisions, each under a general of an with his staff and administrative machinery. active troops comprise the following corps : 340 battalions of infantry (line, light, chasseurs, Zouaves, Turcos, &c), averaging about 1100 men eai into 105 regiments and 26 single or uncombincd bat- talions, and making about 380,000 foot-soldiers in all ; Gl regiments of cavalry (carbiniers, cuirassiers, dragoons, lancers, hussars, chasseurs-a-cheval. spahis. &c), averaging about 1400 men each, and amounting in the aggregate to 86,000 troopers ; 17 regiments of artillery (foot, horse, fortress, and pon- . and other allied corps raising the in of men to about 60,000 ; 3 regiments and some companies of engineers, with sappers and miners, al iout S000 men ; 5 squadrons of military transport men; and about 3000 men en in various sanitary and artisan duties — making the whole active army about 550,000 men. In t peace, however, the battalions are never up to the h indicated in this enumeration. There is an i te number of troops for home-service, com- gendarmerie, veterans, and national gas Prussia. — The Prussian army maybe said to have had its birth in the time of Frederick the Great ; it at one time comprised 200,000 of the best troops in Europe, At the present day, it bears a ratio to the whole population scarcely equalled by that of ARMIES. any other country in Europe ; but this is owing to the peculiar constitution of the landwhr. fne infantry comprises guards, line, first landwehr, and second landwehr. The guards form 4 regiments of aliuut 3000 men each, and an extra battalion of rilles ; they consist of the finest and tallest men in the army. The line comprises 32 regiments of 3000 men each ; three-fourths musketeers, and the others ra armed with rifles ; together with 32 extra ions of 1000 men each, -t landwehr, or landwehr of the first levy, consists of men who have already served their time in the fine regiments, and who, during time of peace, are only required to manoeuvre for a few weeks with the line once in two yean. They are about as numerous as the line ; each line regiment having a landwehr regiment attached to it, bearing the same number, and brigaded with it ; and the same may be said of the guards and the landwehr guards. The second landwehr, or land- wehr of the second levy, consists of men between 32 and 39 years of age, who have already their time in the line, and who are only to be employed at home in case of war ; they number somewhat over 80,000. If the exigencies of the state required the arming of all these guards, line regiments, and first and second landwehr at once, i would have 375.000 infantry. The cavalry comprises cuirassiers, hulans, hussars, and dragoons on active service ; with corresponding regiments of first and second landwehr. The total strength of cavalry is 70,000. The artillery comprises 19,000 men, in 9 regiments ; there is no separate landwehr of artillery ; but each regiment has landwehr officers and men attached to it, to strengthen it in time of need. The engineers, pioneers, pontoniers, and trans- port corps, amount collectively to 35.000 men. If all these military forces were armed at once, Prussia would have an army of half a million of men : an immense force for a country with 16,000,000 inhabitants. The Austrian infantry compri- 77 regiments, besides 26 separate battalions. Every line regiment has a number ; but it is more usually known by the name of some prince or general, to whom it is said to belong— 62 of the regunents are lin., 4 chasseurs, and the rest border infantry. The 'inients are enormous, being each 0700 men, in 6 battalions ; the border or military frontier infantry (a peculiar kind of military colonists) is in regiments of about half this strength. The cavalry is in two divisions — German or heavy, ami Hungarian or light. The heavy comprises ments of cuiras-iers and S of dragoons; the light comprises 12 of hulans and 12 of hussars. All !'t regiments are named after princes and generals. The heavy cavalry regiments number about 1200 men each; the light about 1S00. The artillery comprises 14 field, rochet) and coast artillery regiments, averaging about 2400 men each ; 9 14.000 artillerymen employed in fortress and laboratory service. The engineers comprise ■ lions of sappers and pioneers, or about 1 1,000 men in all. Altogether, Austria could send 450,000 nun into the field, leaving 200,000 at home to guard fortresses, depots, ic. Owing tot' result of the late conflict with France and Sardinia, Austria, it i d, is now (September 1859] ■■ d in organising her army on a new footing. I and Prussia, besides own interests as independent nations, are mi of the general Germanic Confederation, which consists i -ly 40 distinct states and independent cities. In time of war. all these are bound to assist each other, whenever the diet or parliament sunm. Frankfort for that purpose shall have agreed to such a course by vote ; and in this case, even- state sends a precise ratio or contingent as its contribu- tion towards the federal army. By an agreement made in 1842, the ratio is to be 1 per cent of the whole population for an active army, and an extra J per cent, for reserve. This amounts to al*>ut men active, and 150,000 reserve, or 45 her. It has been often doubted among ry men whether an army thus singularly constituted would prove efficient in a severe war"; the test of experience has yet to be , bear on this matter. Host of the German states k. small armies independent of the contingents which they are bound to send to the federal army required. Jlusxia. — There is no army in Europe which 1 further from its nominal strength than that ia ; the actual number of fighting-men being far short of that which is entered on paper. The active army comprises 108 very large infantry ments, besides separate battalions ; 01 regiments of cavalry ; 11 divisions of artillery; and num miscellaneous troops. There are generally 5 bat- talions, of 1000 men each, to an infantry regiment. The cavalry regiments average about 1300 men each. The total strength of the infantry is 5 . men; of the cavalry, 80,000; of the arl 44,000 ; of the engineers, 12,000— or 676 This, it will be rememl ered, is the active army ; besides which are the first and second resen • garrison corps, the invalids, the gendarmerie, the Ian, and the military colonists. The enormous total exceeds 1,200,000 men, besides the uncertain number in the 800 companies of invalids. It is believed, however, by competent authorities, that Russia could not easily bring into the field more ' i i.OOO to 600,000 men at one time, so many are the drawbacks from the above papa Denmark. — The Danish army comprises 23 bat- talions of guards, line infantry, light infantry, and chasseurs ; 27 squadrons of dragoons and hi 2 regiments of artillery ; and a small cn_ The whole amount to 23,000 men. But this is the peace establishment ; there is a great power of augmentation in wartime by calling out the reserves. Denmark enters into the Germanic Confederation to a small extent, in virtue of her possession of Holstein and Lauenburg. ' n anil Norway. — The Swedes are fond of military display; they hate conscription, but will cheerfully enlist. The army is kept small, for the sake of economy ; but it could readily be increased. It is classified into recruited troops, 8000 incorporated troops, 33,000 ; I troops, 95.000; and the Gothland militia, 8000. recruited troops form the chief part of the r or standing arm}-. The Norwegians, although under me ldng, maintain a separate army of about ' men. urn and Holland.— The Belgian army com- prises 18 regiments of line, carbiniers, and chasseurs- a-pied ; 7 regiments of coin and chasseurs-a-chcval ; 4 regiments of artillery, with a few extra companies and batteries ; 1 regi- ment of engine is : and 1 of gendarmerie. The whole amount to 62, which can be rai 100,000 by calling out army comprises 9 regiments and a lev. of grenadiers, chasseurs, and line infant] ments of dragoons and cl -cheval; 5 ; and a few The whole amount to 52JKH) men ; but there is I power of augmentation by niihtia conscripts and rest rve levies. Sardinia.— This state has been forced into a somewhat distinguished military position, partly by AKMILLARY SPHERE- ARMINIUS. Meal relations, and partly by the warlike of the prince c the House of 8avoy. Tie- army comprises 20 regiments of line infantry; 1 • • battalions of bersaglian or rifli men ; 10 ] cavalry; ;s i artillery; and a fen thousand and sanitary The total is about 48,000; b a power of raising this to 100,000 by call Turkey. — The strange condition of the Ottoman empire the army, for it is hard to say v. hether i b Principalities belong to Turkey or not ; while the tributary Asiatic and African pasl Idom 1"' I on for furnishin I I 1 force active and i has been down at little less than half a million of men; but these figures are worth very 1 A. of Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Papal Stat s, the small Italian i not of sufficient exti nl to m i d s parate here. It is true that Switzerland, by a law enabling the federal Btatea to draw to aim extent on the male population between 20 and 44 years of age, can raise a very formidable arm army only exists in skeleton in time o . Africa, ami America, with a few not such as need be no our information < them is too relied on. The Bri tit ly is at the i turn- in: ling i thorough n i ex the in- mutiny of 1857 185 found noticed in a later portion of this work. The United States army is singularly small for so inhabitants having a tutional jealousy of standing A. army barely exceeds 1 prodigious militia i parate and full r of 1 Britain is Ad the various matters relating to the I u and tactics of A., will be found succinctly i. appropriate ARMI'LLARY SPHERE [armilla, a ring), an tion of as, ami of tlm mot the heavenly bodies, as seen by at earth. It consists of a number of rings fixed to so as t I the principal circli aovahle round the polar axis within a meridian and horizon, as in 1 < d globe. It wa of such rin I with sights that Hip I other a ni liners in rations, and we find even Tycho BranC mall of his planetary observations with the help of such runicut. The A. S. is, however, ii as an aid to instruction in astronomy, and in this t is generally supplanted by i I globe. The object aimed at in the A. 8. will 1" [•stood by reference to the eel ! in the diagram. Supposing tie observer on rth to be in the centre of the sphet on which he stands shuts out from 1 lower half of the heavens, or the part lying bi low the horizon 1111. The hemisphere above him may be led as divided into two equal portions, an m and a western, by the meridian MM. through the pole 1', ami the zenith Z. of which •tern half is shewn in the figure. Tie- pole is Bupposedto be elevated above the b and its elevation i 1 by the arc NP, or the t above the north point; and the appear to rotate round an axis PQ, of which 1' is one 416 extremity; the south pole, Q, the other extremity, being below tie- horizon. The meridian MM the horizon 1111, an- the only circles which - tain a fixed position with regard to the observer. of the other leading celestial circli thei traator or equinoctial LL, extending from the of the horizon, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, n and < \ \. although rotating withr laintain p -ition with regard to the horizon : while K K. is cons' and position towards it. I n > pole, cutting the equator at right angli called circles of declination. The CU through the vernal equinox op (see Ann s), is denomi- nated the equinoctial colure;and thai passing th 'i be solstitial colore. The circles just named, together with the Antarctic Circle, corresponding rings in the A. S. If S be a star, the following are the iven to the arcs which determine its position . ' lis : cp\~. Bight asci a SV, Declination; SP, Polar distance; SZ, Zenith e; XS, Altitude; (XN + ISO"). Azimuth, d from the south pole westward. ARMI'NIUS, Jacobus, the tout bmini- anism, was born at Ondewater (Old Water) in 1560. His real name in Dutch was James Barmensen ; but in accordance with the prevailing custom ami scholars in those days, he Latinised it. His father was a cutler, and died when A. was a child. After a preliminary education at I (in 1575) a course of study at the newly foi in- of Leyden, where he remained for six and where he bi ems to have acquired a reputation, for the Amsterdam lertook t-i bear the expense of his further studies fi - ' i iition that he would not p out of their city unless permitted to do so. In 1582, he went to Geneva, and received the instruc- i Beza, tin- most rigid of < lah Here he made himself odious by the boldness with which the logic of Peter Ramus, in opposition to that of the Aristotelians of (i and in consequence had to retire to Basle, v his fame must have preceded him, for he was ol faculty of Hivinity in that university the ARMINIUS. ■ of doctor gratis, which, however, he did not venture to accept, on account of liis youth. At be studied under Gyrnfflua. He subsequently (1586) travelled into Italy. On his return to Amsterdam (1588), he was appointed minister. Shortly after this, he was commissioned to 6 the doctrine of Beza, regarding predestination, t the changes which the ministers of Delft had on it. A. carefully examined both sides of the question, but the result of his study was, that he himself began to doubt, and at last came to adopt the opinions he had been commissioned to confute. Some time after tins change of view, he came, in the course of his expositions, upon the Epistle to the Romans, the most explicitly doctrinal in the Ni w Testament, and the 8th and 9th chapters of which have always been considered the strongholds of aism. His treatment of this epistle excited much dissatisfaction, and involved aim in sharp tes with his orthodox hn thren. Still his views as yet, either ambiguously or vaguely expressed, i least, had not attained to that dear consistency they subsequently acquired, for in 1604 he was made SOT of theology in the university of Lcyden. The 'greatest enemy of A. was Francis Gomar, ie in the univi rsity of Lcyden. In the r 1604, the latter attacked his doc- trines, and from that hour to the end of his life, A. I in a series of bitter disputes with his opponents. The odium tlieologiaim was never exhibited in more unmingled purity. Arminius ■el, in substance, that God bestows forgiveness and eternal life on all who repent of their sins and believe in Christ; he wills that all men should attain salvation, and only because he has from eternity foreseen the belief or unbelief of individuals, lias he from eternity determined the fate of each. On the other hand, Gomar and bis party, appeal- ing to the Belgic Confession and the II idelberg Catechism, maintained, that God had, by an eternal decree, predestinated what persons shall, as being 1 to salvation, he therefore awakened ' to I mice and faith and by grace made to persevere therein ; and what persons snail, as being rejected bail), he left to sin, to unbelief, and to perdition. , J i vkkami: oi Saints. Wlni i erce disputes were continuing, A., v. ho was not destitute either of friends or influence, was created rector mwjnijkus of the university, but Bed the honour on the Sth of February 1606, office only for one year. All the pulpits in Holland now fulminated against him. th, in L608, A. himself applied to the states of Holland to convoke a synod for the purpose of settling the controversy; but, worn out with care and disease, he died, on the 19th of October 1609, it was held, leaving seven sous and two daughters by his wife, Elizabeth ReaeL, daughter of it ReaeL, a judge and senator of Amsterdam. I can be no do%bt that A. himself was much I \rniiiiian than his followers. He had DOi matured his opinions sufficiently to elahorate a com- Dti-Calvinistic doctrine, though it is i that the conclusions at which his : as stated in the famous ' Five Articles'- are the logical and legitimate results of h teaching. He always complained, hi nted ; but this is invari- ably the fate of . lists, and the penalty of controversy. A. was an extremely good man, as even his enemii a allow ; his abilities were al order ; his thinking is clear, bold, and vigorous; markably methodical, and his scholarship table, if not profound. After the death of A., his followers ; strength, and boldly asserted their views, but still » remained in a minority. In 1010, they presented to the assembled states of the province of Holland a ' lo monstrance '—from which they •II' monstrants' — which contained the following pro- positions : 1. That God had indeed made an eternal decree, but only on the conditional terms that all who believe in Christ shall 1« saved, while all who refuse to believe must perish; so that predestination is only conditional. 2. That Christ died for all men, but that none except believers arc really saved by his death. The intention, in other words, is univer- sal, but the efficacy may be restricted by unbelief. 3. That no man is of himself able to ex. i saving faith, but must be born again of God in Christ through the Holy Spirit 4. That without the grace of God, man can neither think, v. ill, nor do any- thing good; yet that grace does not act in men in an irresistible way. 5. That believers are able, by the aid of the Holy Spirit, vici a; but that the question of the possibility of a fall from grace must be determined by a further i lamination of the Scriptures on this point. Thi3 last jioint, left as an open question, was decided by the Remonstrants in the affirmative soon afterwarrls (1611). Whereupon the I (Calvinists) put forth a strong 'Counter--. I strance,' asserting plainly absolute pr> and reprobation. After several fruii the states of Holland, in January 1014, acting under the advice of Oldenbarneveld, a learned Hugo Grotius, issued an edict of full I ation for both parties, prohibiting at the same time the continuance of the controversy. The Counter- remonstrant3 (or Calvinists) refused to submit t edict, and the strife soon became so furious, that in 1617, or soon afterwards, the Arminians found it necessary to guard themselves from personal violence by appointing a safeguard of militia-men ( I! gelders). The controversy now met strife of party politics. The ambitious M took advantage of the passions of the majoi crush his oppouents of the republican party, leaders were adherents of the Anninian docl Several Arminians were put to death — among the aged senator Oldenbarneveld, May 13, 1619 — while Grotius and others were imprisoned. In these circumstances, the Synod of Port wa (1618 — 1019), attended by selected representatives from the Netherlands, England, Scotland, the Palatinate, Switzerland, Nassau, East Friesland, and Bremen. From this convocation (January II, 1619), the thirteen Anninian pastors, with the learned and eloquent Simon Episcopns at their head, were excluded. The doctrines of the Counter-remon- strants were embodied in ninety-three canons ; the Uelgic Confession and the I confirmed as authorities for the reformed churches of the Netherlands ; and three hundred Arminians (chiefly preachers) were expelled In consequence of this decision, 1 shelter in ffiance, Bolst in, England , &c. Afterwards, under ] Henry, the Maurice (1630), they were tol rated in B ! indin 1634 Episcopns i his theological college in Am-t rdam. ■ that time, the B Aa (or Armini a ns ) in Ho ! md have ini lined mo ' : re towards freedom of thougl & '»dc- pendeni ivemment The rejection of all creeds and confi ions; the free interpret of the & . a preference of moral to doctrinal teaching; Avian views respecting the Trinity; the : ..,,n of the oi original sin and ness, and the view mints ma or ceremonies : all these and other i 1 linl oi belief display the same tendency ARMISTICE-ARMOUR. which is found in their church polity, annual oonference on ecclesiastical affairs i (insi'il .-I ministers and lay-deputies, and taki in June, alternately at Amsterdam and Rotterdam. The number of Remonstrants is DOW only about 6000, and is still d ta 18 8 they had 84 . gations with 40 preachers in Holland. 1829, only 20 congregations with 21 preachers. He largest society of A is in Rotterdam, and numbers only 600 members. Although the Arminians are thus dwindling away as a distinct body, their ten* I ation have been adopted with neater or fees modi- on by several other Christian denom n Ur.iimmsrs. BAPTISTS) j as well as by multi- tudes of the individual members of tlt"< ■ CO whose formularies are Calvinistic (see i'm.vim-m . They are also very prevalent in the Church of Rome. A'RMISTICE, a suspension of hostilities b two armies, or two nations at war, by mutual mcnt. It sometimes takes place when both are exhausted, and at other times when an endeavour to form a treaty of peace is being made. A particular example will best illustrate the nature of an A. I >n the -")th of February 1S56, the representatives of England, France, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia. Turkey, and Russia, met in congress at Paris, to consider the terms of a treaty of peace which should terminate the war at that time going on between five of the above-named powers. The British nation was very unwilling to suspend hostilities during the sitting of the congress — partly on account of the numerous failures of diplomacy in the preceding year, and partly because Russia was suspected of only wishing to gain time. It was agreed, however, at the first sitting, in conformity with the laws of nations and the usages of war, that an A. should be de to be announced by telegraphic message to the com- manders in the Crimea, and to hist until the 31st of March. During that period of about one calendar month, the hostile armies were to remain strictly at peace, but the fleets of the allies were to continue their blockade of Russian ports. The information reached the generals late on the 28th of February. On the morning of the 29th, a white Hag was hoisted in the Russian camp outside Sebastopol; Russian officers assembled around it; and a glitter- ing cavalcade of British, French, and Sardinian officers proceeded thither. The accredited officers compared notes, found the terms of the A. clear, agreed on a boundary-line between the hitherto hostile forces, and formally gave pledges for a cessation of E The courtesy of civilised nations at once succeeded to the horrors of war; the Russian commander gave a magnificent entertainment to the allied com- manders, and was entertained in turn ; the soldiers ' fraternised,' by little gifts of tobacco, and ludicrous attempts at conversation, across a small stream which formed part of the boundary-line ; and a few British officers were permitted to make excursions into the interior of the Crimea. The A. ended on March 31, not by a renewal of hostilities, but by the signing of a treaty of peace. A'RMORER. The old meaning of this word has nearly passed away with the system to which it belonged. The armour-smiths, or makers of armour, were among the most skilful workers in metal during the feudal times ; but flieir trade afterwards fell away. In the year 1690, the workmen-armorers of London, in a petition to parliament, complain their trade was well-nigh ruined. Armorers, in a somewhat different sense of the word, belong to the British army and navy at the present time. There are armorers to every 418 ut, not to make armour, but to repair arms, it one t" each troop of om each company of infantry. The A. is paid one penny per month for taking to pieces and cleaning the lock of each Soldier's musket. There is ■ regular tariff of prices for every minute detail of repair in tie carbines, and rifles, and in I id ramrods. A school for training 'A. -sergeants' has re tablishcd in London, to supply one artificer to each battalion, who shall have a certain degree of control over the ten or twelve company- re in the battalion. On shipboard, the A. is a warrant-officer, who has charge of all the muskets, pistols, cut! ng-pikes, &c., which ho is expected to and in ready order. He i I i by a subordinate called the ' V. mate;' and boti skilled in the general routine of smith's work. ARMO'RICA, the country of the Armorici, i. e., ' the dwellers on t hi It. or, on or near ; and a), the name by which the people oceii > it of Gaul between the Seine and tie- Co u own to Coesar. At a later period, the name A. was confined to the country afterwards styled Britannia Minor, or Bretagne (q. v.). A'RMORY may mean a storehouse for arms ; but the name is also often applied to a collection of ancient armour and weapons — such as those in the Tower of London, in Sir Samuel Meyrick's mansion at Goodrich Court on the Wye, and in Warwick A'RMOTJR is a general name for the appa rsonal defence, as contradistinguished from arms or weapons of offence. Little of it is worn by soldiers at the pres rat day, seeing that hand-to- hand conflicts, in which it is especially serviceable, are rather exceptional in modern warfare. It was before the invention of gunpowder that A. — often called in England by the name of harness— was especially used. All the ancient nations who occupy a place in history were accustomed to adopt one or other of the defensive clothing or implements which collect- come under the denomination of A. Leather- A. was sonn! I ; but brass, iron, and other metals were preferred. Some of the more luxurious leaders had much silver and gold in their A. In the Bible, shields, helmets, breastplates, and gn are mentioned among the articles of A. borne or worn by the Israelites and their opponents. The classical writers — Homer, Xenophon, Herodotus, Tacitus, Varro, &c— supply abundant evi- dence of the use of A. among the nations concerning whom they wrote. It is believed that the early Britons bore little or no other A. than shields. Tie Anglo-8aions were more fully provided. At different times before the Norman Conquest they appear to have had four- cornered helmets; lorica} made of leather; scale- A. ; leathern helmets ; wooden shields covered with leather ; sheep-skin shields ; conical caps or helmets of metal ; pectorals or neck-guards ; breast-guards of undressed hide ; flat-ringed A. ; byrnes or tunics of overlapping pieces of leather; close- fitting cuirasses of leather, and sometimes of strong linen ; leg-guards of twisted woollen cloth ; shields of various sizes, from half a yard to a yard and a half in length ; and casques having more or less resemblance to the ancient helmets. When the Danes were in Britain, they had at first no other A. than leathern neck-pieces, which descended some way over the shoulders and chest ; and greaves or shin-pieces for the legs. In the time of Canute or Knute, however, they adopted a kind of A which ARMS— ARMSTRONG. Sir Samuel Meyrick supposes them to have borrowed from the Norsemen or Norwegians. It comprised a tunic, with a hood and long sleeves; p ant alo o ns ■which covered feet as well as legs; and sugar-loaf shaped helmets or skull-caps, with attached which hid nearly the whole face except the eyes. All these were probably made of leather ; but most of the surfaces were strengthened by macles or mascles, a perforated net-work of steel With William the Conqueror came in the 1;' A. which were at that time prevalent among the knights and soldiers of the continent of Europe, and which became afterwards more or less combined with the A. previously known in England. William himself occasionally wore a hauberk of riug-A This kind of A. was much worn during his reign, the ring! usually attached to a foundation of I i dons variety of ring-A., called the haul K had the tunic and breeches all in one piece. The helmets were generally conical, with a nasal or nose guard descending from the front. A distinct ring-A., I lioat, was often worn on the legs. The I was generally kite-shaped, unlike the oval shields carried by the Anglo-Saxons. Gradual changes in these various portions of A. were made between the reigns of William Rums and John. Under Henry III., we find stitched and padded hauberks and chausses, called 'am de pnurpointerie; suits of ring-A.; greaves or shin -pieces of steel; poleyns or knee -guards; vamlnaces or arm-guards ; jacks, jaques, or jackets, made of leather, and worn over the ring-A. ; inter- laced ring-A., of oriental invention, not requir- ing to be stitched to any garment or foundation ; helmets, visors, and skull-caps of various forms ; and chanfrons, or A. for the head and face of horses. During Edward III.'s reign, iron plate-A. was much used by troopers, in the various forms of helmet, breast-plate, gauntlet, and greaves. In the 14th c, chain-mail fell into disuse, and was succeeded by plate-A. ; this last-named kind became more and more complicated, and reached its greatest pitch of elaboration iu the reign of Richa rd III. During the times of Henry VU. and VIII., the A. was some- times fluted, often elaborately engraved, and even damascened or inlaid with gold. Under Jame3 I., the knightly ideas of the feudal times gave way, and the use of A declined ; a knight armed cap-il- pic was a rarity. Charles I. tried to revive its use, .Suit of Armour, presented by the Emperor Maximilian to Ilenry VIII. but he had few followers ; and the days of Cromwell may be regarded as the last in which A. was worn to any com (tent by the regular soldiers. Helmets and cuirasses are still worn by the three i ats of Household Cavalry (Life-guards and guards), but more for show than for service. Tlie chief A. will be found 1 described and illustrated under the proper hea I ARMS, or weapons of offence, may be di into two great classes — those that act by n of gunpowder, and those that do not. Of arms that act otherwise than by explosion, the greater part have been in me from the earliest times; they include the bow and arrow, slin_', pike, spear, lance, dart, javelin, dagger, axe, mace, spiked or knotted club, scythe for chariots, dirk, bayonet, sword, cutlass, &c, together with such artillery as the ballista, catapulta, and battering-ram. Wea- pons depending on the use of gunpowder arc of two kinds — those that can be held in the hand, and those that are too heavy to be portable. In the first class, we find the names of the hand-cannon, hand-gun, arquebus, haquebut, demi-haque, match!. lock, firelock, currier, snaphauncc, caliver, esclo- pette, petronel, dragon, hand-mortar, dag.tricker-lock, carbine, fusil, fowlingpiece, blunderbuss, p musket or musquet, musketoon, rifle, &c. In the second class, more usually included under the name of artillery, we find the springel, war- wolf, bombard, cart -of -war, culverin, derm - culverin, serpentine, falcon, sakcr, cannon, howitzer, petard, carro mortar, rifled cannon, war-rockets, &c. The more important of these are briefly noticed under the proper head The Adjutant-general of the British army watches the state of the A. in all the regiments and at all the stations, receives reports on their condition, supplies all deficiencies, and insures readiness for immediate service. Each regiment makes a report to him on these subjects yearly. If the commanding officer of a regiment ascertains that a new supply of A. is needed for the men under him, or a supply of anything in relation to the A, he notifies the fact to the army agent for the regiment, who acts in many ways as a sort of factor or middleman. See Age>"T, Army. The agent applies to the War- office. The Secretary of State for War, if satisfied that the demand is proper, writes an order for the supply ; this order is sent to the Adjutant-general, who acts as the second in influence under the Commander-in-chief ; and then the store-keepers or ordnance officers receive orders to furnish the supply. fS, ARMORIAL BEARINGS, or SIGNS, are the names given to such devices as when painted on a shield form a coat. These terms in popular speech include all the accompaniments of a shield — viz., the crest, helmet, and where such exist, the supporters, &c See these terms. See also III BAUDOT. ARMS, Assumptive. See Heraldry. ASMS, Bells of, are tents, mostly of a corneal shape, for containing the small-arms for each com- pany in a regiment of infantry. The tent is frequently painted with the colour of the facings of the regi- mental uniforms. ARMS, I Arms. ASMS, Serjeant at. See Serjea>t-at-Arms. ARMS, STAND ok. A stand of A. is the complete set necessary for the equipment of one soldier, whether horse or A'RMSTRONG, .Ions-, physician an born about 17(1!) at Castletown, a pastoral parish in Roxburghshire, of which Ins father was minister. He studied medicine at the university of Edinburgh, where he took t! '•'■ I'-. February 4. IT.'!"-". Soon after, he commenced practice in London, and became known by the publication of a iveral (b and medical essays. In 17.57 he published a very objectionable poem, The Economy of Love, which injured his reputation for a time. Hi3 principal ARMSTRONG. work, The Art i / Pres rving Health, a didactic poem in blank vane, extending through four books, appeared in 1744. In 1746 he was appointi i .Mil to the hospital fur sick and lame soldiers. In 1761 he published a volun i 8 17"'.'i, a poetical epistle on I in 1758, a volume of prose essays of no great merit. In 1760 In- was appointed physician tut In- forces in < rermany. In 17til appeared from his pen D rru On peace in 17G.'i, he returned to London, ami resinned practice. In 1771 lie made a continental tour with l'u- 'li. the painter, an account of which he published, with the title of .1 Short /' some Parts of France (Mi i y Lancelot t / ' Bis 1 1 i work was a volume of medical essays. I [e contributed to Thomson's ' WJe .;/' i four stanzas at the end of the first part, descriptive of the diseases r. suiting from sloth. Died 7i i' 177'.'. A. was the friend ol Thomson, Mallet, Aaron Hill, Dr Young, Wilkes, and the principal wits and literary men of the period. I 1 in'' been indolent, and splenetic man, ' win. quite detested talk;' kind h.-arted withal, and of frugal habits, having 1. ft £3000, Bared out of a .small and precarious income. His fame rests entirely on The Art of Preserving Health, his other works being now only known by name. A'RMSTRONG, John, an eminent physician and medical writer, was horn 8th May 1784, at Ayres ill, where his fat! 't of some;.. 1 He studied medicine at the university of Edinburgh, and in E M.D. lie commenced ce at Bishop-Wearmouth, and in 1811 was i physician to the infirmary at Sunderland. In 1816 ho published a work on Typhus, which greatly extended his , l His res ins the < of febrile dis- eases having made his name well known in the metropolis, he was induced, in February ISIS, to remove to London, where his practice became exten- sive, and he was elected physician to the Fever Hospital. In 1821, in concert with Mr Edward Grainger, he established a medical school in Webb Street, Borough, where he lectured on the practice of physic. 11" also delivered a course of lectures on Materia Medica. In 1S2G he joined Dr Boot and Mr E. Bennett in establishing a new school of medicine in Dean Street, Soho, but shortly after relinquished his connection with it. He died of con- sumption, 12th December 1829, aged 45. Excl devoted to the duties of his profession, Dr A. was very successful in the elucidation ..f medical science. His works are numerous, and he contributed various papers to the medical journals. lbs 1. inserted in the Lancet m 1825, were published in a separate form after his death, with the following title, Lectures on (he Morbid Anatomy, Nairn tit of Acuti mid Chronic J' , the late John Armstrong, M.D. Edited by Joseph Six — one of his pupils. (London, 1834, 8vo.) A'RMSTRONG, Sm \Vii.n\MCro! ..r. uol various mechanical inventions, and particularly that of a gun of extraordinary power and precision, was born in 1810 at Newcastle, where his father was an eminent corn-merchant, and in 1851 tilled the office of mayor. A. was educated at the school of Bishop- Auckland ; but his peculiar mental powers were chiefly cultivated by the opportunities which his father's tastes gave him at home, of acquainting himself with chemistry, electricity, and mechanics. Though the natural bent of his mind was to some profession in which these sciences would hav. available, he readily yielded to his father's wishes, and was articled to Mr Armourer Donkin, au . minent solicitor in Newcastle, who, at the expirar liis time, adopted him as a partner. A In h i if duty enabled A. to give his excellent general powers Of mind to business ; but he devoted much of his leisure to his favourite pursuits, and his inventive faculty was constantly active. About 1S3S, observing one day a little stream descending along a height near and driving but a single null, he thought to how much more purpose it might be applied hydraulically, and thus was led into a course of experimenting, which resulted in bis producing a much improved hydraulic engine, of which a descrip- tion was given in the Mechanics' Magazine for April 18, 1840. Following up this invention with a view to practical applications, he gave to the world, in Is-lo, a hydraulic crane, which has proved to be of eminent utility in raising weights at harbours and in warehouses. The discovery of electricity in steam by a workman at a fixed engine on the Cramlington Railway in 1840, had meanwhile led A. into a new path, and in 1842 he brought to perfection an appa- ratus for producing electricity from steam, which was soon after introduced into the Polytechnic In- stitution in London. The evolution of the electricity depending in reality on the friction sustained by the small quantity of water wdiich accompanies the steam in its discharge, the great merit of A.'s in\> :i- i - oi lie . i the form he gave the orilieu through which the steam passed, A friend, writing of A. at this time, remarked that he ought to hi re an engineer, so great evidently were his talents for mechanical Bci ai .-. 'Plain, simple, and unassum- ing , no on ai first sight could form any idea of the depth of thought and vast amount of scii knowledge which he possesses, and which arc ac panied by a straightforwardness and consistency truly admirable.' A change of profession v. such a es ie inevitable, and few were surprised soon after being elected a member of the Royal in IShi. A., in conjunction with some . mmenced the Klswick Engine-works. i liment is upon a large scale, hitherto chiefly employed in producing hydraulic cri i . L accumulators, and bridges, for use in Great Britain, the continent, and India, but now embracing also works for the production of ordnance for the \ eminent. In 1S54. while war was raging in the Crimea, the War-office v. d by many inventors to make trial of new forms of cannon and projectiles. Mr Armstrong, one of the number, attracted the atten- tion of the authorities, and was employed to make explosive apparatus for blowing up the ships sunk at Sebastopol. This led him soon afterwards to consider improvements in ordnance, and he di \ i» i a form of breech-loading cannon, combining many peculiarities in structure and action. He received encouragement to make a few field-pieces on his new method, lie made lengthened experiments on the strength of iron and steel, on the relative merits of cast and wrought iron, on the best number of grooves in rifling, on the best pitch or twist for these grooves, on the most convenient modes of loading at the breech of the gun, on the mechanism for I ing the recoil, on the best form and structure of shot and shells, and on the fuses best suited for igniting the shells during their flight. Most of the early experiments were made with guns throwing 6-Ib. and 18-lb. shot and shells, and subsequently 32-lb. shells, and this larger gun may be taken as a type of the whole. It is built up with small pieces of the very best wrought-iron, to avoid flaws or faults, and to insure strength, light- ness, and durability. It is made in 3-feet 1. r Bars of wrought-iron, 2 inches wide, are hi to whiteness, twisted spirally round a steel bar or ARMY— ARMY ADMINISTRATION. core, ami welded; other liars are ' r these in a similar way, but with an opposite turn of the spiral; a third, and perhaps a fourth coating follow, according to the thickness and strength needed. Another heating to whiteness precedes a thorough welding of all the layers of bars by a steam-hammer. The ends of two of these 3-feet pieces are then nicely trimmed and adjusted, placed in contact, and bound the enormous pressure of a wrought-iron ting shrunk on while at a white heat. By varying the Dumber and length of these sections, a gun of any length is made. The internal core is then • I, and the bore of the gun is rifled by i te machinery. The rifle-grooves are so small and dose as to be upwards of ft in number ; their pitch or twist is such as to make a complete circuit in .1 gun Hi feet long. The breech of the gun is wholly distinct, and constructed in a different way ; it can be drawn backward by unscrewing, and has a hole through its centre Cor introducing the shot or ml the charge. At first, the inventor adopted a steel interior for his gun ; but now he relics w holly on the toughest wrought-iron. The projectile employed with this gun may be solid shot, shell, case-shot, or canister-shot ; but the shell is that to which most interest is attached. It is about three diameters in length ; and thus a 32-Ib. shot or shell can be fired from a gun of much smaller caliber than if it were spherical. The shell is built up of about 50 separate pieces of cast-iron, very accurately and enveloped in an iron sheath. Outside of it are two bands of lead, soft enough to be forced into the rifled grooves of the gun, and thus to acquire the rotatory movement 1 >y which the straightness of Bight is so much insured. The actual results obtained by a gun such as is above described are almost incredible. An ordinary- long 32 pounder weighs 57 cwt. ; Armstrong's 32 pounder weighs 26 cwt The former requires In lb.of powder as a charge; for the latter 5 lb. will suffice. The former will send a shot or shell 3000 yards ; the range of the latter exceeds 9000 yards, or 5^ One particular A. gun has been fired 3500 times without exhibiting any Haw or failing ii vi r before even approached in gunnery. At 4000 distance, a target 9 feet square can be hit in) times out of 100. At 1000 yards' distance, the A. gun will hit < very time an object so small a3 to be 1 56 times out of 57 by an ordinary 32 pounder, by the same gunner in the two cases. The fuses attached to the shells are so exquisitely adjusted that the shell can be made to burst either ly on leaving the gun, or half way on its path, or when it strikes an object ; in the last-named case, a sack of ill afford the necessary concussion; and yt, so close is the structure, that an uneli'i.' -1 -hell has been fired completely tl 9 feet of solid oak without the pieces separating. For naval u . thi mall diameter of. the gun will allow anal] | and thus lest i t lie seamen-gunners are exposed. The gun-carriages, for ship or garrison use, have a sloping slide oh which the gun runs w/< to lessen the recoil, and down which it runs again by its own gravity after tiring. The shells to be directed again-: are so formed, and provided with fuses of such a kind, as to explode exactly when striking the hull, and when the r nt made will be most mischievous. Although the wonderful effects of the A. gun rel 32 pounder, the principal experimental researches were made with one much smaller, but not less WOrthj -on. It had re oi onlj LI inchi and i nough to be lifted about (without its i or three men. [t had eight sph ' . makiiv; one turn in 12 feet. When fired at a timber butt measuring 5, I ' IS is little gun propelled shot v. bich the av I on from the centre of the butt being little more than 1 foot laterally; whereas an ordinary brass 6 pounder, whii parallel as to weight, and nearly U one particular i tion, tile Armstrong shot, bare] 2 took the am yards. '1 : pounder gun introduced many improvements on this little o pounder; and the improvements in still 1 is up to 100] When Mr »-nt much of his time and thoughts during four years on this subject, the government, supported by the strongly expressed opinions of ai I rs of all raj d to Becure tl rimentaforthe nation. Mr Armstrong offered to the government, without any stipulation, not only all his past invention also all such as he might hereafter di led to arrangements which the ministers in parlia- 'laracterised as liberal and patriotic on his part; and the terms thus suggested by Mr Arm- accepted. An office wa3 created for him, that of I tteer of Rifled Ordnance, for seven years provisionally ; and a certain amount of salary was determined on. in consideration at once of his past inventions and of his future sen-ices. 1 been i isedat New- i-'lyne and Woolwich, which will render possible the production of mi as per annum, Sir YV. <:. Armstrong (the honotu hood having I c red on 1 reni 1 out reasons why foreign govern- ments must necessarily be, for a lone period, unable to surmount the mechanical difficulties of the manufacture of these guns. See Kiflkii ASMS. ARMY. Referring to Ai EVAL, and MOD] i;N) and to liiinisu Al:MV for, brief historical notices of national military forces, and leaving to other portions of this work all details concerning the formation and tactics of such i it may be well to mention here certain distim in the application of the name A. lA.is encamped or in cantonments, for the protection of the different passes or roads which lead to the town or other place to be protected. A Sieg A. is ranged around or in front of a fortified place, to capture it by a regular process of besieging. A A., either independent of or auxiliary to a siege A., is intended to prevent all ingress and egress at the streets or gates of a be! An A. oj 01 up an advanced tion, and by celerity of movement kee] watch on all the manoeuvres of the enemy. An .1. of Reconnaissano has a i d duty at a parti, alar time and place, to ascertain the strength and position of the enemy's i s. A Flying A. : body of horse and foot, moving . to alarm the enemy, and to i .sons. Any one of these may be forced into an engagement in the field ; bui are all more subsidiary to the Main A., by which the gn in the licld are usually conducted, ARMY ADMINISTRATION. The whole of netted with the raising, cl. paying, maintaining, and controlling of the 1 army, are included in the term A. A. They ai i military command and discipline. supreme command of the British army ; bul iry of state for War is ler responsible repn lentative in all that concerns administration— the Commander-in-chief being her 4.1 ABUT AGENT— ARMY WORKS CORPS. r li itive in matters relating to military organ- isation anil discipline. The Secretary is the organ through whom the wishes oi i rccon- with the wishes aurl intentions of pari Until the war with Russia in 1854, the administra- t i departments were much scattered; their defec- t organisation led in great part to the miseries suffered by the British troops in the Crimea ; but ii ..' they an all consolidated under th" Secretary of State for War. See War Dei\\i:tmi:n r. ABKY AGENT. S e Agxht, Aniv. ARMY ESTIMATES. In thi [ every year, the British government having formed a plan concerning the extent and appliances of the mili- tary force for that year, the War-office Bends to the Treasury a series of accounts setting forth tli' probable cost of en rythin i These accounts are called the A. E. If they arc approved by the Treasury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer adverts to these, along with other in his annual ' financial statement,' made to the House of Commons in its capacity as guardian of the public purse. In preparing the A. E. the tary of State for War to the heads of all departments under him for detailed accounts of their probable requirements. Another functionary then incorporates and adjusts these into a whole ; they are submitted to the Treasury ; and, if ■ ved, are presented to the II - • A. E. Should the Commons grant the money, the Account- ant-general of the War-office makes the requisite drafts or demands from time to time ; and the Trea- sury authorises the Paymaster-general of the Forces to honour these drafts. The money itself is in the Bank of England ; this establishment receives a certain annual sum from the government for managing such financial matters. The A- E. arc drawn up in conformity with a model which differs little from year to year. There are certain great headings, each comprising many minor divisions : viz., Land Forces and Militia (numbers, pay, allowances, and miscellaneous charges) ; Civil Establishments (administration, manufacturing establishments, civil departments) ; Supplies (clothing, provisions, forage, warlike stores) ; Works and Buildings (barracks, fortifications, &c.) ; Educational Establishments (schools, chaplains, libra- ries, &c.) ; Non-effective Services (half-pay, retiring allowances, pensions, &c). These are not exactly the technical names of the several headings ; but they will be more intelligible to general readers. The various items are more or less sifted by the House of Commons ; and any one or more of them can be refused altogether, or granted in diminished amount. The A. E. for 185'J— 69, which may be cited here as an illustrativo example, refer to the period from April 1, 1859 to March 31, 18(5:). The total number of British troops pr ivided for estimates is 229,557 ; but as 100,902 are char the East Indian treasury, as being required for India service, the House of Commons was asked only to provide for the remaining 122,655. The horses are 24.0G9, of which 11,321 are for India ser- vice. Without going into any details, we will simply give the amounts under the six great headn. Pay and allowances, .... £4,5 Civil and manufacturing departments, 1,171 .7 17 Clothing, provisions, forage, warlike stores 2,121,692 Barracks, fortifications, buildings, . 1,33 701 Educational and religious charges, . 268,532 Reduced and retired pay, pensions, rewards, 2,147,505 4:2 £11,568,060 ARMY LIST is the name of a pub] by authority of the War-ofh'cc. ft 00 the names of all commissioned officers in the British army, arranged according to the dates of (heir commissions. Then come the officers of the I India Company's service— or, now, that por- tion of the Queen's army which belongs exclu- sively to India. Next the names of all who hold military honours or staff appointim id ■■. The bulk of the work, however, is taken op . enumeration of all the regiments in the Queen's army, and all the officers in each regiment, arranged according to the numerical rank of the re gim e nts. To this are added lists of the officers of the Rifle Brigade, Colonial Corps, Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, [loyal Marin b, Commissariat, and Irmy Medical Department; and of officers retired on full- pay and on half-pay. The A. L. for 1859 eon the names of little less than 14,000 commit officers. Another work of similar but non-official character, Hart's A. L., by a more com 1 arrangement of type, gives all the information contained in the official list, and much in addition. ARMY SCHOOLS. The colleges, academies, and schools relating to military matters in this country may be grouped into two classes— those intended to increase the military efficiency of the officers and men ; and those which bear relation to the ordinary school -tuition of soldiers of the ranks and their children. The principal of those in the first group are the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the School of Instruction at Chatham, the Department of Artillery Studies at Woolwich, the School of Artillery at Shocbury, the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the Royal Artillery Institution at WoqL- wich. The chief among the second group are the Royal Military Asylum (better known as the Duke of York's School), the Regimental Schools, and the Garrison Schools. Chelsea College ox Hospital is an asylum for veterans, not a school of instruction. Most of these educational establishments will be found briefly described in this work, cither under the names- of the places where they exist, or of the arm of the service to which they belong. ARMY WORKS CORPS. When the British generals engaged in the Crimean war, in the later months of 1854, knew that the siege-army would 1 d to winter outside Sebastopol, grave difficulties were presented to their notice. The distance from the landing-place at Balaklava to the front of the imp was not less than eight miles; ami the only road was a mud-track, almost impassable in wet weather. How to get the heavy pins, the shot and shell, the provisions, and the general stores, up to the front, was a question not easy of solution. The 1 soldiers were too few even for the ordinary military duties, and yet they were called upon for s of an extra and arduous nature. When icts became known in England, a suggestion was made that an 'Army Works Corps' should be formed, to consist of strong and etlicient railway excavators, Cornish miners, and well-sinkers ; that these should have with them all the tools and appli- ances for making roads and digging wells; and that should be accompanied by travelling \ shops and skilled artisans, to effect that which might more skill than physical labour. The imme- diate necessities of Lord Raglan, in regard to bring- ing up supplies, were met by the construction of a railway from Balaklava to the heights outside ■pol, by special contract with Messrs Peto and Brassey; but the large amount of bodily labour continually needed for various services, led to the formation of the A. W. C. The raising and ARNAULD. organisation of this force were intrusted to Sir Joseph l'axton. As soon as lie had obtained 1000 efficient men, he sent them out; and their value was so soon felt by Lord Raglan, that other detachments gra- dually followed, until the corps comprised 3800 men in the later months of 1S55. The men wei i well, and they worked well ; and as their engage- mart related only to the special duties connected with the siege-camp, the country was not saddled v. itli any burden after the need for these : had ceased. They did not require to be drilled for their duties, like sappers; and they were ready for work at once, as artisans or labourers. There were some ca3es of disagreement between the men and employers, after the whole of the British had returned from the Crimea, in a matter of wai but this was a question of detail, and did not affect the usefulness of the corps. The experience gained has been valuable, as shewing in what way, under special circumstances, ordinary workmen and la- bourers may be employed as assistants to a military force. ARNAULT), ANCliLiQUE, a daughter of Robert Arnauld d'Andilly, was bom on the 2Sth November 1624. From her earliest years, she exhibited an extraordinary force and resoluteness of character, and excited much anxious speculation concerning her future career among her relatives. When not quite twenty years of age, she became a nun at l J ort-Royal des Champs, where she had been edu- cated by her aunt, Marie Jaqueline Angelinas Arnauld, sister of the great Arnauld. Nine years after, she was made subprioress ; and on removing some years later to Port-Royal de Paris, she held the same office. During the persecution of the Port- J loyalists, A. A., by her piety and courage, sustained the spirit of the sisterhood. The whole family, male and female, were determined Jansenists. and none more so than Mother Angelique de Saint- Jean (her conventual name). She had much to endure, but she met misfortunes with earnest intre- pidity. A royal order was issued to break up the nunnery. The police arrested the inmates, who were dispersed in various convents throughout France, and constant efforts were made by the Jesuits to induce them to sign the ' Formulary of Alexander VII.' A. A. was alone exempted from listening to their arguments and solicitations, her 'obstinacy' being supposed invincible. At length, by command of the Archbishop of Paris, the nuns were restored to Port-Royal des Champs ; but for 6ome years they were subjected to a strict surveil- lance by soldiers, who watched all their movements, and allowed them no intercourse with persons out of the convent. In 1009, however, was issued the edict of Clement IX. for the peace of the church, which was a kind of compromise on this vexed question of Jansenism and Jesuitism. The nuns received back the privileges of which they had been stripped, and a n.tilutid their society anew. A. A. was again 1 prioress. In 1078, she was made abbess. The next year, her protectress, tho Uuchesse de Longueville, dud. and the persecution recommenced, by the prohibition to receive any more novices. Still AngSlique did not despair. She consoled the nuns, ami exerted all her influence with persons in power, but with little effect. At last she sank under a complication of griefs, and expired on the '29th of January 1081, having behind her as bright and beautiful a memory as any of her country^ She was learned without being pedantic, pious with- out bigotry, and gentle to others in proportion as she was severe to herself. A. A. wrote several works, tile most valuable of which is Mtmoiret pour d la I'e' dt la .'/'/■ Sfaru Ana I Id de Madeleine, Ht'farmatrice de Port-Royal. ARXAII.ij, Antoink, the greatest advocate of his time in France, was barn at Paris in 1660t He was descended from an ancient family of Auvergne, which had distinguished itself both in ami and military affairs. A. was not less remarkable for his eloquence than for his probity. His zealous defence of the university of Paris again-; 1:7.11 won for him a wide celebrity. It Wl printed in 1717. He published another work against the Society of Jesus, and several tractates of an earnest political character. The Jesuits accused him of being a Huguenot, but the accusation was unfounded, for he had no personal predilection in favour of Protestantism as a distinct religious sys- tem. He had several children, who formed the nucleus of the Jansenists and Port-Koyalists. He died 29th December 1019. ARNAULD, Antolne, known as 'the great A.,' the twentieth and youngest son of the preceding, was born at Paris, February 0, 1612. Although originally intended for the bar, he could not conceal his dislike of the legal profession, and was in consequence dedicated by his mother to the service of the church. Entering the Sorbonne, he became a pupil of Lescot, the confessor of Cardinal Richelieu, and afterwards Bishop of Chartres. Lescot initiated him into the scholastic theology ; but his attention having been drawn to the writings of Augustine, he soon conceived an admiration for that profoundest of the early Christian thinkers which he ever after retained. It was Augustine, he himself admitted, who first shewed him the great difference between the two states — that of a nature whole and sound, and that of a nature corrupted by sin. In 1641, the Sorbonne wished to receive him into their society, on account of his extraordinary piety and talents, but Cardinal Richelieu opposed this. In the following year he was ordained a priest, and in 1643 he published a work entitled De la Friquente Communion, which was received in the most favour- able manner by all except the Jesuits, who had taken alarm at the virtues of A., and were already attempt- ing to defame one whom they instinctively felt to ho a reproach to their order. As a consequence of this publication, he was now admitted 'of the Society' of the Sorbonne. A. not only replied to the aspersions of the Jesuits in his Avertissement, but also sent forth a work which was the prelude to a long and fierce contest with his adversaries, Thtologit Moral* des Jvsuites (Moral Theology of the Jesuits). But the hatred of the latter was not confined to literary libels ; they advised the chancellor of the So: to carry the dispute to Rome, ,whither A. would be obliged to follow and defend himself. In this scheme, however, they were defeated. A. now buried himself in seclusion for twenty-one years, during which period, however, his pi almost continuously active. In 16-14 appeared his Hon de VEijlise sur la I' [Opinion of the Church on the Doctrine of Penitence). It was a reply to the attacks which the J< -nits had against his 1'iy/innt Communion. A. was still entangled in the disputes which aroso out of this treatise, when he became involved in another controversy that coloured the whole of his - quent career, and may be said to have won for him his position in liistory. This was the great Jansenist controversy. In 1(510 had appeared a posthumous of Jausenms. Bishop of Ypn tinw ; sen J '• Jlumame ■,;,,.,■ ,t .7 It laid down with a rigour equal to that of Calvin the doctrines of pre- dion, the corruption of human nature, and the depravity of the will. It was specially in! as a counteractive against tho lax principl AKXAULD— ARNDT. morality of the Jesuits, many of whom, and espe- cially their great champion, U extreme Pelagian views of the freedom of the human will, which they had cunningly interwoven their 'scarlet-coloured' web of ethics. The work, in the meantime, was condemned bj VIII.. on the 1st of August 1641. A., who i led its vital importance in the existing state of things, boldly ventured t<> of the papal bull. He pub- ral pamphlets, closing with a first and second It is to the honour of the religion of A., however, that it was not always controversial Whenever a moment of a: permitted him. he occupied it in writing such works Era Correction, La . La VerM "' la Religion, De la Foi, de ranee, el de la C'hariti, and the Man uel d> 6T1 ' in ' Augustine. He also varied these occupations by I I iting into Latin his Frequt nt Com nm ion, and by the composition of his A < I . Dcscartis Mcdilationes, aud several tractates. la addition to his literary labours, he undertook the direct inn of the nuns of Port-Royal des Champs, a convent of which his sister, Marie Jaqueline AngC'lique Arnauld, was abbess. In this retreat he was surrounded by many friends, thirsting like himself for the quiet pleasures of study, some of whom have left their mark in the world, such as Pascal, Nicole, &c. Here they wrote in common numerous excellent works. A. executed parts of the rale Baitonnte, Elerni nls de ' /•. In 1649 the Jansciiist con- y broke out more fiercely than ever. The Auguetinu&olHiB Bishop of Ypres was again attacked and condi mned by the Sorbonne and the pope. A. replied iu his Considerations. In 1G5;i appeared what he conceived to be his best work, L'Apologie pour let Saints Peres. For the next half-dozen years he was engaged in constant and painful disputes ; yet, in spite of the polemical character of his lrfe, the im- pression of his piety and earnestness was deepened in the mind of the nation ; and on reading some of his compositions, even Alexander VII. is reported to praised the author, and to have exhorted liim for the future to despise the libels of his adversaries. During the strife he published La Concorde des and V Office du Saint-Sacrement. In 1655— 5G, for prudential reasons, he left his retreat at Port-Royal ; about the same time he was expelled from the Sorbonne and the faculty of theology. Iu 1G56, the war with the Jesuits was renewed — not, however, by A. in person. An unknown knight with closed visor had ridden into the lists — the great I I. Under the nom deplume of Louis de Mon- talto, he discharged his scorpion wit against the Jesuits for about a year and a half in the Provincial Letters. A. furnished him with materials ; but, in 165S, he took the field in proprid persona, by publishing his Cinq Ecrits en faveur des Cures de Pan Casuisles reldches. In 16G2 appeared La Xuuvclle //■ risie (of the Jesuits) ; iu IGli'J the first volume of his Morale Pratique (of the Jesuits), the last of which was not published until the year of his death. A., who was a sincere Catholic after his fashion, next had a theological controversy, properly so called, with the reformed minister Claude, the consequence of which was his volume, Du Senversement de la Morale de J. C. par la Doctrine des Calvinistes touchanl la Justification (1072). Iu 1675 he returned to the subject in his Impiiti de la Morale des Calvin- istes. Some years previous to this, A. had enjoyed the peace of Clement IX., which put a stop for the time to the Jansenist controversy. He had been uted to the papal nuncio and to the Grand Monarque, both of whom flattered him highly; but 42* the Jesuits, who could not breathe freely in his pre- sence, used their utmost efforts to prejudice Louis against him, and at last the king issued an ordi !. L hid himself for some time, but finally withdrew into Belgium. He felt his exile keenly, though honoured by many k I influential . and could not rest in one city, but wan- to place, ever display*. II of mind and the same polemical y. It is strange that this man, who was celebrated amongst his friends for equanimity gentleness of heart, should have been so bitter in his controversies, even with his friends, for li against bis enemies only, but against Pascal. Domat, his protector, Pope Innocent XL, and his old friend, Pare Malebranche. So earnest was he for the truth— which earnestness had no doubt he< a greatly intensified ; .Hon ami controversy — that he could never thoroughly realise the idea, that there in lit be truth on the other side also, lie died at Brussels, 8th August 1694 His v. whi.h amount to upwards of 100 volumes, were published at Paris, 1775-1783. ARNAULD, Robert d'Axdiixy, the eldest son of Antoine Arnauld, the advocate, and brother of the great Arnauld, was born at Paris in 1588. He was a person of considerable consequence at the French court, where his influence was ever exerted dally. Balzac spoke very highly of him. At the' age of fifty-five, he quitted the hustle of the world for the solitude of Port-Royal des Champs. where he devoted himself to religious history ami ;ihy. His chief works are translation.-. Iich as those of the Confessions of St Augustine, and of the History of the Jews, by Josephus. The latter work is esteemed nmr eh nit than accurate, how- ever. In 1G68, appeared Ins translation of the Lives of the Holy Fathers of the Desert, and of several' Saints; and in 1670, that of the works of St Theresa. He was likewise the author of some pieces of religious verse. He died 27th Si pti mber 1071. ARND, a German Protestant cl ; om at Ballenstadt, in the d knhalt, in 1555, 1 Lutheran pastor at Quedlinburg, Brunswick, and elsewhere, and died at Cello, in Hanover, in 1621. As a man he was remarkable for his piety and active benevolence ; but he is chiefly known for a work entitled True Christianity (Wahres Christenthum), which was translated into most European langn and is yet popular in Germany. Its object is ' edifi- cation'— the promotion of practical religion ; and it is v.i ill n with great warmth and unction, and in a strain of piety bordering on mysticism. It has been called the Protestant i Kempis, and its author the Fenclon of the Protestant Church. Then- is an English translation by W. Jaques (Lond. 1815, 2 vols.). ARNDT, Euxst Moritz, professor in the univer- sity of Bonn, and for the last half century one of the leading political writers of Germany, was born in the island of Riigen in 1769. He gave up the clerical profession, for which he was at first intended, and after travelling over great part of Europe, became, in 1806, Professor of History in Greifswalde. Here, among other writings, he published his 11 of Serfdom in Pomerama, for which he was for- mally denounced and accused by several nobles. In his Spirt* oft/ie Times (Altenb. 1S07), he attacked Napoleon with such boldness, that, after the battle of Jena, he had to take refuge in Stockholm. Returning under a feigned name, he resumed his functions at Greifswalde in 1S10 ; but war becoming imminent, he resigned the following year, and became an active co-operator with the minis ter, Yon, AENE— ARNICA. Stein, and other patriots, in throwing off the foreign yoke. His numerous fngj tings, full of y and fire, contributed not a little to rouse and sustain the spirit of Germany for the war of libera- tion. His best poems belong to this period, and several of them have itional son_ | \ on, Leip. 1850.) His song, What is the German' 8 Fatherland? is sung wherever German is a. In 1818 lie was made professor of modern y in the new university of Bonn, but became involved in 1819 in the prosecutions for what were t<,' and was suspended. U acquitted on trial, he was made to retire, bis salary. After twenty years' suspen- se was restored in 18-11). His writings are numerous: we may mention his Beschreibung und i /, I nstln, &c. (Leip. 1S26); tion of his n an und fur seine I vols. Leip. 1845) ; and L'rinir aus dem aussern Leljen (3d ed. Leip. 1842). He was elected a member of the German national assembly in 1848, but seceded from it along with the whole i i (q. v.) party in 1849. He powerfully sup- Eorted the party who advocated a constitutional creditary monarchy, ami took a prominent part in the appointment of the Archduke John as regent, and in the fruitless deputation to Berlin to offer the 1 ia. After the dissolution of the Frankfort Assembly, A. did not cease in his fugitive writings to advocate I :' the German 1 party. (He died 29th January 1860.) AENE, Thomas AmrsTiNE, Doctor in Music, one of the best and d I of English com- posers, was born in London, 1710, ancl received nis early education at Eton. His father, who was an upholsterer, intended to educate him for Hi'- bar; but the love of music was too strong to be restrained. Young A. became skilful as a violin-player, forming his style chiefly on the model of Corelli ; ami his zeal in the study of music induced his sister (afterwards celebrated as Mrs Gibber) to cultivate her excellent voice. He for her a part in his first opera, Rosamond, which was first performed with great success in ]'■'•'.',. Next followed his comic operetta, Tom '% or the Opera of Operas ; and afterwards his Comxts (1738), which displayed greater cultivation of style. He married a singer, I 'ia Young (1740); and after a successful visit to Ireland, was engaged as composer to Drury Lane Theatre, and wrote vocal pieces for the Yauxhall concerts. The national air, Rui '••, which was originally in a popular perfi ■nuance, TheMasqueqfA Ifred, was of his composition. He composed also two oratorios, the opera Eliza, and another, Arlaxerxes, in the Italian style ; but his genius was better adapted to simple pastoral melody than to gnat dramatic compositions. He died in London, 1778. AIJNKE, or AI.'XA, the largest animal of the ox kind yet known. It is a native of India, Skull and Horns of Arncc. and is found chiefly in the forests at the base of the Himalayas and in the north-eastern pro- vinces, never descends low plains. It lly regarded by naturalists as a wild variety of the buffalo; but Mr Vasey thinks 'our infor- mation on the subject not j feet high, simple or little branched, with few leaves, hearing on the sum- mit a head of flowers of a dark golden yellow, often 424 ARNIM— ARNOLD. two inches in breadth. It flowers from June to August, forms an ornament of mountain meadows Arnica montana. in Germany and Switzerland, and is found upon the continent as far south as l'ortugal, and as far north as Lapland, but is not a native of Britain. A'RNIM, Elizabeth von, better known as Bettin a, wife of Ludwig Aclxim von Arnim (q. v.), was born in 1785 at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. From her child- hood excitable and eccentric, an early and profound impression was mado upon her mind by the suicide of her friend, the Canoness von Gunderode. The next great event of her life was her devoted attach- ment to, and intimacy with Goethe, at that time a man of nearly sixty. Their correspondence, entitled Goethe's Letters to a Child, was published in 1835, and translated by Bettina into English. Her letters are poetical, graceful, and fascinating, though often careless and extravagant, and abound in graphic sketches of men of the time. Goethe turned many of these letters into verse. Bettina's later works were semi-political in their character, aud like hex earlier, full of fantastic beauty. She lived to a good old age, dying in 1S59. A'RNIM, Karl Otto Lcdwic vox, a well-known writer of travels and other works, was born at Berlin 1779. After studying at Halle and Gottingen, li travelled at different times over the most of Europe, and was employed on the embassies at Stockholm and London. His Fl uridine Bemcrkungen eines fliichitigen Reisenden (Passing Eemarks by a Passing Traveller, 6 vols., Berk 1S37— 1850), is recommended for its clear elegant style, as con- trasted with the lumbering and involved writ the 'Academic' school. A. also wrote in I Napoleon's Conduct towards Prussia (Lond. 1S14), and published German National Melodies, with German and English text (Lond. 1816). He is the author of a play and several poems. ATtNIM, Ludwio Achxm vox, a fantastic but original German writer of romances, was born in 426 Berlin, January 20, 1781. After devotin;; i ,. , ■■ i . i ' ii an imaginative author with which, though based on the principles of the new poetic school which had then risen in Germany, indicated, neve rt h el ess , that the author could strike out a way of his own. His ough Germany afforded him an oppor- tunity of catching the peculiarities of popular his in its various provincial manifestations. Be was i ally interested in the old popular poetry, and np among his countrymen a wanner sympathy for it by the publication, along with Clemens I Boy's Wonderhorn (Heidelberg, 1800 j In 1809 appeared the II I t ion of novels; in 1810, the romance, entitled 77- /'. / Repentance of the Countess Dolores; in 1811, Halle ana Jerusalem, the Sports of a .lures of a Pilgrim, in which last his humour took a very saucy turn. In 1817, he published the Crown . a work oharae- terised by its originality, richness of fancy, and vivid portraitures. The later years of his life were spent partly in Berlin and partly at his estate Dear Dahme, where he died, Jan. 21, 1831. A'KNO, next to the Tiber the most considerable river of Central Italy, rises on Mount Falterona, an offset of the Apennines, at an elevation of 4444 feet above the level of the sea, and 25 miles north of Arezzo. It flows through the deep and fertile valley of Casentino, in a south-east direction; enters the richly cultivated plain of Arezzo, where it receives ter of the Chiana ; then flows in a north-west and north course through the upper valley of the A. [Valdarno), one of the most delicious parts of Tuscany; afterwards it receives the Sieve, its 1 tributary, and turns its course toward the west, flowing past Florence, Empoli, and through the town of Pisa. The whole length of its course is about 140 miles. In old times, the embouchure of the A. was at Pisa; now it is about four or live miles distant, in lat. 43" 41' X., and long. 10° 1.". 10. It is navigable for barges as far up as Florence, but in the summer season even this frequently becomes impossible. The Italian poets speak of ' the golden A. ; ' but, in truth, its waters have mostly the unpleasant colour of milk and coffee mixed together. The A. is noted for the rapid aud destructive character of its inundations. The most memorable are those of September 1537, when the whole of the Valdarno was laid under water, which rose to the height of 8 feet in some parts of Florence ; and of IT!", tie- latter being^ caused by the long con- ce of the sirocco, wdiich completely melted the snows on the Apennines. ARNOLD, or ARNALD, or Brescia, was a of that town, and was distinguished by the success with which he contended against the corruptions of the clergy in the early part of the 12th c. He was educated in France under Abelard, and adopted the monastic life. By his preaching, the people of his native place wen 1 against their bishop, and the fermentation and insurrectionary spirit spread ever a great part of the country, when he was cited before the second Lateran Council, and banished from Italy. He retired to France, but experienced the bitter hos- tility of St Bernard, who denounced him as a violent enemy to the church. He thereupon took refuse in Zurich, where he settled for several years. Mean- while his doctrines exerted a powerful influence in Rome, which ended in a general insurrection against the government, whereupon A. repaired thither, and endeavoured to lead and direct the movement. He exhorted the'people to organise a government similar ARNOLD. to the ancient Roman republic, with its consuls, tribunes, and equestrian order. But they, provoked by the treachery and opposition of the papal party, and disunited among themselves, gave way to the grossest excesses. The city, indeed, continued for ten years in a state of agitation and disorder. Lucius II. was killed by the populace in an insurrection in ] I !", ,-ind Eugenius III., to escape a similar fate, fled into France. These violent struggles were subdued I le Hadrian I V., who, feeling the weakness of his temporal authority, turned to the spiritual, and resorted to the extreme measure of laying the city cinder excommunication, when A., whose party be- came discouraged, and EeD to pieces, took refuge v. ith certain influential friends in Campania. On the arrival of the emperor, Frederick I., for his corona- tion, in 1155, A. was arrested, brought to Rome, hanged, his body burned, and the ashe3 thrown into the Tiber. A'RXOLD, Joimnv, a miller of Newmark, who lived in the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, and gave rise to a remarkable legal process. He com- ld to the king that his landlord, by making a pond, had taken away water from the mill ; that he (A.) had therefore refused to pay rent for the mill, of which he held a lease ; but had been condemned In pay by the unanimous decisions of two legal courts. The king took up the case, and regarding it as an oppression of the poor, reversed the decisions of the courts, dismissed his high-chancellor, impri- soned several other officers of justice, and gave orders that restitution should be made to the miller, i fterwards, the king died, and under Frederick William II. the case was more coolly investigated, when the result was that the condemned chancellor and other official persons were exonerated from all blame in the matter, and the miller was recompensed by the state for loss of time and money. A'RNOLD, Matthew, a living English poet, the eldest son of the late Dr Arnold of Rugby, was born on the 24th December 1822, and educated at Winchester and Rugby. In 1840 ho was elected scholar of Balliol College, Oxford; in 1844 he obtained the Newdegate prize for an English poem ; in IS 15 he was elected a fellow of Oriel College ; and in 1846 he became private secretary to Lord Lans- downe, which office he held for several years. In 1851 he espoused Frances, daughter of Mr Justice Wightm&n, and about the same time was appointed one of Hex Maji -sty's Inspectors of British Schools. Two yean ago, he was elected Convocation Professor of Poetry at Oxford. Mr A. has been before the world now as a poet for several years, and his success lias been considerable. Although he has not achieved popularity, his position in literature is established, is his works become better known, admiration in will increase. If he has failed to obtain the ise of the noisy many, he is rewarded by the f the judicious few. The strain of his . calm and thoughtful ; his style is the reverse of florid ; deep culture and a certain severity of have subdued every tendency to a gay or a passionate exuberance. As a poet, he has little sympathy with the present ; his muse has hitherto ited in the remoteness and repose of the int world. In his eloquent and voluminous s, he advocates the return of poetical art to the antique forma. Mr A. practises his own creed. tory of 3ohrab and Rustum is as old as • r, a later production, and a3 yet his most considerable and perhaps finest poem, is a story of the ■; and the tra blished last year, is an attempt to naturalise in English literature the form of the Greek drama — an attempt induced, says its author, ' by a passion for the great masters, and an effort to study them without fancifulness.' A'RNOLD, Thomas, D.D., hcad-mast.r of Bogfcy School, and the author of a J/iilory of Borne, was born June 13, 1795, at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight. In 1803 he was sent to Warminster School, in Wiltshire, but was removed in 1 v7 t . the public school of Winchester, where he remained till 1811, when he was elected a scholar of Corpus Christi ml. In 1M5 he was elected fellow of Oriel College, and he gained the chancellor's prize for the two university essays, Latin and English, for the years 1815 and 1817. As a bo3', we are told he was shy ami retired; ae a youth, disputatious, and somewhat bold and unsettled in his opinions; but before he left Oriel, he had won the good opinion of a college which at that time boasted of such names as Copleston, Davison, Whately, Keble, Hawkins, and Hampden. He took deacon's orders in 1818, and the year after settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he occupied himself in preparing pupils for the university. In 1820 he married Mary, youngest daughter of the Rev. John Penrose, rector of borough, in Nottinghamshire, and sister of one of his earliest school and college friends, Trevenen Penrose. About ten years were spent in this quiet and comparatively obscure life ; he was preparing himself for the arduous post he afterwards occupied ; he was maturing his opinions, and he had also already commenced his great literary undertaking, the History of Rome. It was a period which he himself was accustomed to look back upon with some feel- ing of regret. His letters at this epoch reveal to us a fine ambitious spirit bending cheerfully to the task of tuition, more useful than glorious ; they also prove to us that those views of a religious and political character which afterwards distinguished him, were being matured in the privacy of Laleham. ' I have long had in my mind,' he thus writes to a Mr Blackstone, 'a work on Christian politics, or the application of the Gospel to the state of man as a citizen, in which the whole question of a religious establishment, and the education proper for Chris- tian members of a Christian commonwealth, would naturally find a place. It would embrace also an historical sketch of the pretended conversion of the kingdoms of the world to the kingdom of Christ in the 4th and 5th centuries, which I look upon as one of the greatest tours oVadresse that Satan ever played. .... 1 mean that by inducing kings and nations to conform nominally to Christianity, and thus to get into their hands the direction of Christian society, he has in a great measure succeeded in keeping out the peculiar principles of that ( from any extended sphere of operation, and insuring the ascendency of his own.' 1 1 somewhat sportive and familiar manner, the principle which he afterwards contended for with so much earnestness, that there should be a Christian laity, a Christian legislature, a Christian g ment ; by which he did not mean a system of laws or government formed in the manner of the Puritans, out of texts of Scripture, rashly applied, but imbued with the spirit of Hie New Testament and of the tee* ' hrist It was at Laleham also that A first became acquainted with Niebuhr's History ■/ Some. This was an era in his life. It produced a revolution in his historical views, and his own Hutonj of Rome became modelled almost too faithfully on that of the great German. From Laleham he was called to undertake the :s duties of the head-mastership of I School. On these he cDtered August 1628 init us to dwell upon the d of that system of public education which he perhaps AKKOTT-AKNOTTO. carried to its perfection We ran only take notice of the high ' moral and i bich ho pre- served the boys. He had the tact to make : both Loved and feared I 1 aided with , ..| .' te public op I. 'In at further prool i rbon was immediately i say so, that is quit'- I I . ir ward ;" ami there up in i a general feeling that ii [A. a] beal .' (in one occasion, when he had I lied to semi away -. he said: 'Itisnotnecessai this should be a school of 300, or ino, or of 60 boys, but ii ary that it should he a Bel i | But the school was very far from occupying the of A. The History •■/ Bonn on; he took part in all the great of the political and theological In politics he was a whig, without 1 red — aswe need hardly say — by the ties of party. In the theol discussions of the day. he was chiefly distill I I iad views he hail adopted of the nature of a Christian church. As already intimated, it was his leading idea that a ChritHom , a clu- '< ought to be synonymous expres- sions. He would never tolerate that use of the w..rd church which limited it to the clergy, or implied in tfc ■ peculiar ox any trai ■• The priett was unknown to him in tl I in com- munity, this placed him at once in antagonism ti Church party; and even clergymen of the Low Church complained that he did not set sufficient vain i their sacred order. Bui all men, of whatever party, admitted and admired the zeal with which he taught that the full spi tianity should permeate the whole of our civil or d life. It he Beemed to lower the altiti it was only ■ would raise the 1 of the laity, lie was convinced that 'the founders of our present constitution in church and state did truly consider them to I the Christian nation of England to be the chui England ; the head of that nation to be, for that vi tv i head of the church.' It may be doubted whether this is rpiite historical 1 but it certainly presents a noble theory t i imagination. In domestic life, Dr A. was most happy ; here he was distinguished by unfailing cheerfulness and amiability. In 1832, he purchased Fox Eow, a small estate between Bydal and Ambleside, and it was in this charming retreat that I I in the vacations, anion t the family circle, his own uiiin- l-'ox How has become a classical spot to every tourist. For a brief time he held a place in the I of the London University ; he resigned the seat on finding that he could not introduce some ni' which he had at heart. In the year 1842, he red from Lord Melbourne the offer of the Regius Professorship of Modern History at Oxford. Tins appointment he accepted with peculiar gratifi- cation. He delivered some introductory lectures, which were heard with enthusiastic interest ; and it was his intention, on his retirement from Rugby, to enter with zeal upon the duties of his professorship. But this and all other literary enterprises were cut short by a sudden and most painfid death. The last vacation was at hand, the Fox How was to be taken in a fev. when he was seized w-ith a fatal attack of spasm of the heart. Few biographies end more abruptly or more mournfully ; but the sufferer met his death 424 with perfect fortitude and the full hope of a Chris- tian. He died June 12, 1842. Hispnncipal works . , ions ; the History qj ■ end ol tin- second ' ' r; and an editv His miscellaneous contributions to literature arc too numerous to be mentioned. A'KXOTT. Nui. M.I)., was born in 17ss at Arbroath, but his family-home was] ■ rMon- i I tcated at the Grammar . ! i, atiy at Mai College in the sam : id the advantage of Btudying natural philosophy under Professor Copland, one of the most successful expounders of mecharj 1 ence then living. A. made choice of medicine as a profession; and after goil U dical course at i.h rdeen, he went to London in ism;, wli lie 1 the pupil "1 Sir Eve ratal ■ ni of SI G II" pital. After Bpending some years in the naval service of tho ny, he settled in 1811 as a mi practit;. With the exception of the valley of the Lippe, the whole di partment belongs to thi of the Lower Rhine. Only in a few of the valleys is there good arable soil ; on the other hand, t! timber, more than a third of the whole area consisting of forests. But the principal resources of the district are its shbterrani on riches, in coal, iron, had, silver, 4c. Its abundant water-power has also led to the establishment of numerous factories, mills. 4c Aknsbeko, the chief town of the depart:* situated on the Bhur, 44 miles south-east from MUnster; pop. 4500. It haB several manufactures, such as liin ii. broadcloth, potash, iVe. In the orchard below the castle is still pointed out the spot where the famous Femgerichte (q. v.) of A. was held. A'RNSTADT, thi chief town in the principality of Schwarzb rhausen, is situated in a picturesque conn banks of the Gera, twelve miles south of Erfurt, and has a population of 5820. It is one of the oldest Thuringian c:' existence being traceable as far back as 7^4 a.i>. Formerly it was the chief emporium for the trade in fmit and timber between the fertile lowlands and the Thuringian forest region, but is now a manufacturing town, employing a very considerable lands in wea making, br pottery, &c. A rich vein of rock-salt has been recently discovered in the neighbourhood of the town, and a new copper-min opened. AROMA, a term ? •metimes employ 1 to desig- nate- those substances the extremely min of which are suppo i of smell so as to produce particular odours, and frequently as synonymous with odour. The particles iliri'used through the atmosphere, and affecting the olfactory nerves— if the theory of particles of matter so diffused be correct — must indeed be extremely minute, as rous substances such as musk, the smell of which is felt at a consul rable distance, continue to diffuse their odour, and according to this theory, these particles, for years, without sensible diminution See Smelling. The term A. is usually employed only with reference to particular kinds of odours, not easdy defined or distinguished in Thus, we speak of the A. of roast-meat, and of or aromatic smell of hyssop, mint, and other plants. Aromatic smells are very characteristic of some natural orders of plants, as Labiata (Mint, 4c.) and Compositcc (Milfoil, &c). They have been very generally eh. i depend upon essential oils, but resins are often equally aromatic. ABOMATIC YIMCCAU differs from ordinary vinegar (which is acetic acid diluted with water) in ling certain essential oils which impart an fragrance. It is generally prepared by aihling the oils of cloves, lavender, roc maiy, and //!!/« (and sometimes camphor) to crystal- by distilling the acetate of ten retort an and treating the liquid which passes over with the fragrant oils mentioned above. A. V. is a very pleasant and powerful perfume; it is very volatile, and when snuffed up by the nostrils, is a powerful excitant, and hence is serviceable in fainting, languor, head- ache, and nervous debility. A. V. is generally placed on a sponge in a smelling-bottle or in a rumi- . it can also be pin \ liquid in phials; and a drop or two allowed to evaporate into a i oit odour. The liquid must, however, be isly dealt with, as it is a very corrosive nice. AEOXIA. See Cp.AT.re AROO'STOOK, a river v. I in the north of Maine, falls into after a course of about 120 miles. 11 mection with t! agitated qui stion of the north Lritish America and tl ARPAD, the national hero of 1- as the son of Amos, the leader under whom the Magyars lirst gained a footing in Hungary. He v,.is i on his father's death in 889, and by a course of incessant and mostly successful warfare with the .nis, Wallachians, Moravian tended them : of the Magyars on all sid< a. He also made more than one successful incursion into ARPEGGIO— ARRACK. Ji nit '.ni>. and returned laden with 1 II ■ died in 907, leaving his son in possession of the supremo command. The A. ilyn I it in the male lino with Andreas III. m 1301. A. yet lives in the popular Bongs of the country, and hifl history, even in the oldest chronicles, is mixed b a deal of legendary matter. ARPE'GGIO, in Music, a chord of which the notes are given, not contemporaneously, but in succession. From any one chord, several forms of A. may be produced. Bass-chords thus treated form an Albarti Bass, so named from Domenico Alberti (1730 — 1740), a popular singer and player, who often played the bass in this style. All l'EXT was the old French land-measure, mdine to our acre. The name is from the ancient Gallic aripamu, which was identified by Columella with the Roman actus, or half j >■■■ Almost every parish had an A. of its own. The comparative value of the three most in use will be seen in the following table : French Hectares. Acre, English imperial or statute, 0' U Arpent, of Paris (V35 n d'ordonnancc, . . 048400 n common, . . . 040000 ARPI'NO, the Arpinum of the ancients, a town of the kingdom of Naples, the birthplace of Cicero and Caius Marina, is situated in the province of Terra di Lavoro, 05 miles north by east of Naples. It stands on the lower ridge of a lofty hill, some 6 miles to the left of the river Garigliano, the ancient Liris. The old town, in early Roman times, was built on the top of a steep rock, forming part of the territory of the Volscians. Many r of the ancient structures are still to be seen, especially a cyclopean wall, which runs along the northern brow of- the hill occupied by the present town, and extending to the ancient citadel. About the year 188 B.C., the citizens received the freedom of the city of Rome, with all its privileges, and Arpinum, during the later years of the republic, nourishing municipal town. The population of A is 12,048. Manufactures of ii cloth, parchment, paper, and leather ate carried on. The town has a charming appearand: from the highly picturesque character of the surrounding woods and mountains. Iron, white marble, variegated red marble, and marble of a yellowish colour, are got in mines and quarries in the neighbourhood. A'RQUA, a village in the delegation of Padua, Venice, 12 miles south-west of Padua, in the heart of the Euganean Hills. Pop. 1200. Petrarch's furniture is still preserved in the house in which he di d here (July 18, 1374), and his monument of red marble is to be seen in the churchyard. ARQUEBUS, or HA'RQTJEBUS, was the first form of hand-gun which could fairly be compared with the modern musket. Those of earlier date were fired by applying a match by hand to the touch-hole ; but about the time of the battle of Morat, in 1476, guns were used having a contriv- ance suggested by the trigger of the a) or cross-bow, by which the miming match could be applied with more quickness and certainty. Such a gun was the A Many of the yeomen of the guard were armed with this weapon, on the first formation of that corps in 1485. The A. being fired from the chest, with the butt in a right hue with the barrel, it was difficult to bring the eye down low enough to take good aim; but the Germans soon introduced an improvement by giving a hooked form to the butt, which elevated and the A. then obtained the d the liaquelnU. Soldiers armed with Arquebusicr. of weapon were designated arquebusiers and haque- the former were common in the El army in the time of Richard III., the la\ that of Henry VIII. ARRACA'CHA (Arracaclia escuhnta), a plant of the natural order UmbiUifera; a native of tho elevated table-lands in the neighbourhood of Santa Fe de Bogota and Caraccas, and of regions of similar cli- mate in other parts of tropical America. It is much culti- vated in its native country for its roots, which are used as an esculent. The root divides into a number of parts, which resemble cows' horns or large carrots. When boiled, they are firm and tender, with a flavour not so strong as that of a parsnip. The plant is very like hemlock, and has a similar . Humboldt, in- deed, referred it to the genus m (Hemlock), but it has since been made the type of a new genus. The flowers are in compound umbels, and are of a dull purple colour. The A. was at one time very strongly recommended as a substitute for potatoes ; it was introduced into Britain through the exertions of the Horticultural Society, and its cultivation perseveringly attempted ; but it has been found unsuitable to the climate of Britain and of other parts of Europe, where it has been tried, perishing on the approach of tho frosts of winter without having perfected its roots. The dry weather of summer is also unfavourable to it. 'Die climate of the south of Ireland resembles that of its native regions more than any other in the British Islands. It seems to require a very regular temperature and constant moisture. There arj probably some parts of the British colonies in which . would be found a very valuable plant. In deep loose soils, it yields a great produce. It is generally propagated, like skirret, by offshoots from the crown of the root. By rasping the root and g, a starch, similar to arrow-root, is obtained. — There is another species of the same genus, A. moseJmta, a native of the same regions, the root of which is uneatable. ARRA'CK, RACK, or RAKI, is an alcoholic liquor or spirit, largely prepared, and extensively Arracaclia. I AJ1RAG0NITE— ARRAIGNMENT. partaken of, in India and other parts of the East, the Indian Archipelago, the Moluccas, and the Philippines ; in Africa ; in Chili, South America, and in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. The term A. is often used in eastern countries to designate any ardent spirit, but there are two prin- cipal varieties — viz., that prepared from palm-trees, and that procured from rice, which is also named rice-spirit. Many species of palm-tree ye juice which constitutes the raw material for the manufacture of A Tins sap or juice may be drawn from the tree by making an incision near the top, when the sweet sap exudes, and is collected ; or by taking the partially developed spathe of the palm- tree (the part from which the flower and fruit are produced), tying it tightly mar its attachment to the and then cutting off the end of the spat). collecting the sweet juice which flows away from the !. In either case, a milky-looking substance is obtained, which tastes, when fresh drawn, like the milk of the cocoa-nut ; but which, when allowed to stand for a short time, passes into a state of fermen- tation ; the liquid becomes alcoholic and acid, and in a few days an intoxicating liquor is left in the fer- menting vessel, called palm wine or toddy, which on distillation yields A The amount of milky sap and A. thus yielded by a single palm-tree ranges from 2 or 3 pints to 100 pints in the 24 hours. A. is likewise prepared from rice, which is first treated with water, allowed to germinate or sprout to a slight extent, then heated and dried, and.lastly placed in vessels with water, where it ferments as in ordi- nary beer-brewing (q. v.). Though A is little known in Britain, it is so extensively employed in other countries, that it appears probable that it is partaken of by more human beings than those who taste the produce of the vine (wine and brandy) or the barley and whisky). In the desert Sahara of Africa, the soil is enlivened here and there by fertile oases, where clusters of date palm-trees stud the earth ; and these not only supply food to the inhabi- tants, but in the flowering season the A also, which is greedily partaken of by the Arab Mohammedans, and is to be found in every domicile. On tie coast of Africa, the oil-palm is likewise resorted to for its juice to make A. ; whilst in India, the date and fan palms are principally placed under contri- bution. In the islands of the Pacific Ocean, the cocoa-nut palm is resorted to; and in Java, very large quantities of ardent spirit, or A., are prepared from rice. In Ceylon and Siam, the A. is manufac- tured from the cocoa-nut palm and from rice. The Chinese, who prepare and part ike of A. in consider- able quantity, get the credit of manufacturing the ' md of distilled A., known as the A. of liatavia. tter owes its excellence to the manner ill which the somewhat disagreeable flavour characteristic of ordinary A. is a little more than neutralised by the ad- dition of cinnamon and anise-seed, and subsequently by very careful distillation. The inhabitants of Mada- fascar attempt to overcome the unwelcome flavour y the addition of the leaves of a species of tre- nd the Asiatics generally add the bark of a kind of thorny acacia, called Patlaij. Whilst the C quantity of A. is consumed where it is manufactured, a smaller amount is exported. I ley- Ion despatches from its shores 700,000 gallons every year, of which England receives about 30,000 gallons. In Britain, A. is seldom used by itself, but is occa- sionally employed to impart an agreeable flavour to punch. An imitation A. is prepared by dissolving benzoic acid in nun, in the proportion of 20 grains of the former to 2 pounds of the (otter, A'RRAGONITE, a mineral essentially consisting ofcarlionate of lime, ami in chemical composition with calcareous spar (q, v.), but differing from it in the form of its crystals, of which the prim- ary form is a rhombic prism with angles of 110' Hi' and 63° 44', the secondary forms being generally prismatic and pyramidal. The effects of heat on them shews another difference, A. being reduced to powder by a heat in which calcareous spar remains unchanged. Such differences between minerals of the same chemical composition appeared very impro- bable, and when Stromeyer, in 1813, detected the presence of a little carbonate of strontia in A., they were immediately ascribed to this as their cause ; but it has since been shewn not only that the quantity of strontia is very small, variable, and therefore to- be regarded as accidental, but also that the differ- ences between the two minerals maybe account. I lor by difference of temperature when crystallisation was taking place. A appears to be the product of a crystallisation taking place at a higher temperature than that in which calcareous spar is produced ; and accordingly it is frequent in volcanic districts and in the neighbourhood of hot springs, as at Carls- bad. It is frequently found in trap-rocks, as in Scot- land. It derives its name from the province of Aragon in Spain. It sometimes occurs stalactitic. Its crystals are sometimes prisms shortened into tables, sometimes they are lengthened into needles. Twin crystals (machs) are very common. Satin Spar is a variety of it, in which the crystals are of a tine fibrous silky appearance, and combined together into a compact mass. Flos Jerri (L e., flower of iron) is a name given to a coralloidal variety which sometimes occurs in iron mines. A'RRAH, a town in the district of Shahabad and the presidency of Pengal, in lat. 25 31' N., and long. 84 43' E. It is situated in a fertile country, and us 2775 houses, with a population of at least 15,000. It is on the route between Dinapoor and Ghazeepore, 25 miles W. of the former, and 75 E. of the latter. During the mutiny of 1857, A became in variety and intensity of interest second ilt, 900 or 11)00 feet high, succeeds. Further south lies Whiting Bay, near which are two cascades llll) and 50 feel high respectively. At the south a I point of A. is ttildonan I astle, opposite which is the small isle of l'ladda, crowned by a light-house. Largo caverns occur in the cliffs ol the south end south-west coasts. In one of these, the 'King's in the basaltic promontory of Druimo Robert the Bruce hid himself for ometime. ED Vale, opening into Druimodune Bay, is the most fcrtde part of A. Loch limza, a hay in the north end of A., runs a mile inland, and is a herring i 0U& Tie re is daily communication with A. by means of steam-boats from the Clyde, the ports touched at being Brodick and Lamlash. The geology of A. is almost unique, and displays a greater succession of strata than any oilier part of the British Isles of equal extent. The south- east half of A. consists of Devonian extending from the east coast 4 or 5 mil and running south-west from Brodick beyond the I -, and of trap rocks and c ifcrous strata, which oe Id! and western portions. The aorth-wi t half consists of a central ■ nucleus, in. ' I e Goatfell, border 1 on the \. i st by a tract of mica and on the north, east, and south by lower Silurian rocks, which, again, have a ran of Devonian sandstone on the east and smith. Lias and oolite lie on the mica-slat-, only rivulets in A., and one of them tumble !i. Some level parts in the south half of A. are fertile. The chief crops are oats and pot I ' , ' >. I I ■. ai d oats : t 1. The greater part of A. belongs to the Duke of Hamilton, v> hose Beat is A. forms i art of the count] i I tWO pOl ' I Mllties OCCUr, BUI cairns, unhewn obelisks, monumental stones, end Druidical cir ral stone coffins in a cairn 200 feet in circumference. Loch I , now in ruins, was formerly a residence i Scottish kings. A'URAN, Sor-rn Isles of. Those are three small islands lying north- we.-t and south-east . the entrance to Galway Bay, about 4 miles off the west coast of Ireland, and 27 west of Galway city. They form t of A., and give the title of i the Gore family. Total ana, 1 1.2s; acres. The principal or west island, Inishmore, is 7 miles long and 2 broad ; Inishinain, or ' Middle Isle,' comes next; and then Inishere to the south-cast. Pop. iu 1851, 3333, of which number 2312 inhabit 1 Inish- The islands consist of the carboniferous lime- stone of the bed of Galway Bay. I'n mi this 1 lay tie y gradually rise to the height of 100 to 200 feet on the west side, ending in cliffs facing the Atlantic. Most of the land is cultivated, but in a very primitn The chief crops are rye, oats, and , Most of the inhabitants engage in fishing; and thee or wicker-work skill is still to be seen h Like on the west coast of Ireland, they ai ject to families from parching rainless in August, destroying the potato-crop. Anc these islands formed an important ecclesiastical seat, containing at one time 20 churches and monasl Inishmore was the centre of these, still known as Aran-na-naomh. or ' Arran of tie- Saints.' Many pilgrims still visit the old shrines and relics scattered b the islands. St Kenanach Church, built in 7 i c, still exists, all but its stone roof, a as the stone oratories and little bee-hive stone huts of the monks of the Gth and 7th centuries. The military antiquities are not less remarkable, consist- ing of nine circular cyclopean fortresses of unhewn ARRANGING— ARREST. uncemented stones (portions of the walls still being I high), supposed to have been built in the 1st c. by the Fir-Bolg or BelgEe. The largest of these, Dun-Aengus, on a cliff in Iniahmore, 220 feet high, is one of the most magnificent barbaric monuments in Europe. AK HANGING, a term in Music which means lapting of a piece of music so as to be performed on an instrument or instruments different from those for which it was originally composed, as when orches- j tral or vocal compositions are set for the piano- forte, or the reverse. An arrangement is often a j in- re lifeless transposition of the original, the only guiding principle being the mechanical possibility of performance. Of this kind are most of the piano- forte arrangements of i the orchestral works of Mo ii. fee— partly from the arranger working merely for hire, and partly from a mistaken reverence for, and fear of altering, the original. It is different when an arranger, who thoroughly comprehends the spirit of the original, takes advantage of the peculiar ion afforded by the new form of station, to reproduce as ruuch as possible the original effects. In this last respect, the arrange- ments of Franz Liszt have excelled all others, although in some cases he may have overstepped the boundary of propriety. See Pot-Poirki and Fantama. ARRAS (the ancient Nemetacum), a fortified town and capital of the department of Pas-de- I ( lalais, as it was formerly of the province of Artois, ' in France. It is situated on the banks of the , partly on an eminence, and partly on a I plain, and consists of four divisions — the city, upper | town, lower town, and citadel. It is a principal station on the French Northern Railway, distant from Paris by this route 134 miles, and from Brus- , i , 97. The pop. (1856), 21.9S4. The houses are of hewn stone, and in the lower town they are handsomely built and uniform ; the streets straight and wide, set off with several tine squares, and many j beautifid public buildings. Among the principal edifices are the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the resi- j dence of the prefect, the town-hall, the theatre, and , the public library. A . ranks as a fortified town of the third class, its ations being the first that were constructed by the celebrated Vauban, according to his own system. It has been the seat of a bishop since 390 A. D., and two ecclesiastical couneds have been held hen —une in 102."), the other in 1490. The corn-market of A. is the most important in larth of France. Its principal manufactures are iron-ware, woollen and cotton goods, hosiery, lace, pottery, and leather. Its trade, which is consider- able, is in corn and llour, od, wine and brandy, with the industrial products of the city. It appears from the writings of Jerome that A. marfcahln tor its woollen manufactures in his time; and afterwards, during the middle ages, it was I "-try; indeed, the name of the town was transferred to this article of manufacture, and arras was the name given in England to the richly figured hangings that adorned the halls of the kings and the ban hi I 182, a. with Artois was ceded by the states of the Netherlands to Louis XI. of France; but the inhabitants having revolted, the king laid e the town, stormed it. and slew or expelled tie n whom he replaced by others brought from all parts of his dominions, ordering the city to be thencefor- ward called . to obliterate the very name of A. Soon afterwards (1493) it was ceded to Maximilian of Austria, and was possessed by the Spanish branch of the House of Hapsburg till 104o, 28 when Louis XIII i .k it after a long siege. By the treaty of the l'\ renei -. it was finally ceded to France. A Buffered much in the time of the first French revolution, especially in the year ]~'X',. Robespierre, the Terrorist, was a native of the town. ARRA'VER, a tit] n to certain military officers in England in the early part of the 1.3th c. There were two of them in each county, sometimes called Commissaries ol i I rs. Their duties were set forth in an ordinance of Henry V., from the terms of which it appears that the arrayers were army inspectors, or, rather, militia inspectors, and in some sense precursors to the modern lords- lieutenant of COUlli ARREST is a legal term used both in criminal and eivd process. Criminal A. has already been sufficiently considered under the word APPRKHHHD (q. v.); and in civil procedure it may be simply defined to be the execution of a judicial or preroga- tive order, by which the liberty of the person may be restrained, and obedience to the law compelled In the practice of the Court of Chancery, a defendant may be arrested for his contempt in not putting in his answer to a bill tiled against him ; and suitors generally who disregard the rules of that tribunal are liable to feel its power in this respect. But in its ordinary legal acceptation, A. is used to signify the enforcement of the judgment or order of a court of law, in order to satisfy justice. In the execution of such judgment, the party against whom it has been given may be arrested by means of a writ of capias ad satisfaciendum, as it is called, the purpose of which is to imprison the body of the debtor till he pays the debt or damages and costs. It is directed to the sheriff, commanding him to take the body of the debtor, and have him at Westminster immediately after execution thereof, to make the plaintiff satis- faction for his demand. This writ might, until lately, issue for a judgment debt of any amount; but by the 7 and S Vict c. 96, s. 57. it is provided that it shall not issue in the case of a debt not i ng £20, exclusive of costs; subject, however, to this proviso, that where such debt should appear to the judge trying the cause (being a judge of the superior courts, or a barrister or attorney) to have been incurred under false pretences, or with a frau- dulent intent, or without a reasonable assurance of being able to pay or discharge the same, it shall be lawful for such judge to order the defendant to be taken and detained in execution upon such judg- ment, as if the act had not passed. And it ha- since provided by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 127. and 10 and 11 Viet. c. 102, s. 2, that judgment debtors to the extent above mentioned may be summoned before the Insolvent Court in London, or the county court for the district in the country (as the case may require), and thereupon I to pay the debt by instalments or otherwise; and further, that in case of their non-compliance with such order, or of its appearing to the court that they have been guilty of fraud in contracting the debt, or of having con- tracted it without reasonable prospect of being able to pay the same, they may lie committed to prison for forty days, and the imprisonment under such com- mittal shall not operate in satisfaction or discharge of the debt. A defendant may also be arrested under a writ of as follows — where a plaintiff swears by affidavit that he has a cause of actio a defendant to the amount of £20 or upwards, or has sustained damage to that amount, and that there is reason : ; that ,i is about to quit the country, an order is made by a judge—and such order maybe made at anytime between the commencement of the action 433 ARREST OF JUDGMENT— ARRESTMENT OF WAGES. and final judgment -whan the writ in question issues, doe to the person making use of die arrestment bv in- sheriff to arri I the defendant who -. Until he has ■ iv ' ol the pi ifFs demand The | nee to tins writ i • V ii i. o. lid. Formerly, a defendant might be arrested on what is called - that is, 18 issuing at the cum during the progress of a suit; but by the act just referred to, ' lined. Under such and .similar authority, A. may be made of Hi There are - r, who are exempted by privfli ristle below the point. — 'l be aame -V is from the Greek arrhen, male, and alii* r, an awn. A. aven- n (Avena dalior of Linna?us, also known as Halm ■ nv ) is a com- mon grass in Britain. It is sometimes called Oat- like Grass, from the re- semblance to the coarser kinds of oats in the general appearance of the panicle. In France, it is very much cultivated for fodder, and is often called French Eye-grass. It has, how- ever, no affinity to the true Rye-grass (Lolium). It is a tall perennial grass, 2 — 3 feet high, becomes luxu- riant early in the season, and continues long pro- ductive. It is, however, a , , ., rather coarse grass, and has Arrhcnatberum: % somewhat 'bitter saline a, panicle, reduced; b, root and t t it ■ t „ ,„.«„*. lower part of culm, reduced ; UstL ' 1C lb "°* s0 acce P 1; - c, a single spikclet, natural able to cattle as many ™e« other grasses, and is there- fore generally regarded by British agriculturists as unworthy of cultivation on the best soils; but it is found suitable for some comparatively arid situations, and to form a coarse herbage under trees in plantations. — A variety or Eering from it in having a knotted or bulbous base to the stem, i of a simple fibrous root, is called by some 1 man. It is also common in Britain, but is a very inferior and owing tot] icter of its roots, difficult of extirpation from lands in which it appears as a weed. AHRIA'HTJS, Kiwirs, a native of Nicomedia, in Bithynia, born about 100 A.D. He became a disciple of Epictetus, tic stoic philosopher, and, under bis instructions, a WBJ I of tlcit system. On briiejie alio tiie earliest products of his pen, the learni d men of Athi . ily with them, and honoured him with the free-' i their city. A. had chosen Xenophon as his mo composition, and hence the Athenians called him the young Xenophon. In 124 a.i>. he was intra- due, ,i to the Emperoi Hadrian in Greece, who con- ferred on him the freedom of the eternal city. He was appointed prefect of ( 'appadocia in tic 186. Under Antoninus Pius, the successor of Hadrian, he was promoted to the consulship. But some four years afterwards, lie appears to have retired from pub] 1 devoted himself to lit' rature in his native place. As the pupd and friend of Epictetus, he edited the Manual of Ethics i by his master, and wrote the Lectures of I n eight books, of which only four have b i,ad in Schwedg- /'icletece Mm vol ni. 1827). He wrote also '/'/• Oonvenations of tut, a work which has been lost, except a few uts. The most important work by A. is the A naba i r, or // if Ali.niDih r the Great, which has come down to us entire, all but a gap in the 12th chapti r of the 7th book. This book is our chief authority on the subject of which it treats, and is a work of great In close connection with it, A. wrote his/nrfi'«n ,/. giving an account i Other writings by A., bis letter to I he' nan on /he Coasts of tlie L'uxine Sea, and another, A Voyage round the Coasts of Of, Bed ue valuable with regard to ancient geography, is still another work by our author — a Trea- i the Chase (A | —in which, as well as in the Anabasis, he has imitated Xenophon. A. was one of the best writers of his day. His works bear the marks of care, honesty, and correct- ness ; and they were numerous, tho I have not been handed down to our tune. All that we are possessed of appear to have had translations into Latin. There is a good French translation of the Anabasis by Chaussard, with commentary, 3 vols. (1S02), and also a good one of the Lectures of '■ tus by Thurot (1838). The best critical edition of A. is that by Midler (Paris, 1846). ARRO'BA, a weight commonly used in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and in the principal Spanish and Portuguese colonics. In the first of these countries, it is equivalent to the English quarter of a cwt, or 2S lbs. ; it is nearly the same in Portugal, &c. In Spain, the A. is also a measure for wine, brandy, &c, and contains four of rair quarts. ARRONDISSEMEXT (from the French arron- dir, to make round), the subdivision of a French Department (q. v.). ARROW. See Bow AMD Arrow. ARROWHEAD (fiaaitfaria). a genus of plants of the natural order Alismaceoz, distinguished by uni- sexual flowers, having three herbao three coloured petals, numerous stamens, ami numer- ous carpels, which arc compressed, one-seeded, and on a globose receptacle. They are aquatic plants, natives of very different climates, from the trop the cold regions of the world. — The t (S. «" is a beautiful aquatic, a native of England, with arrow-shaped leaves which arface of the water. It is on i plants which lyed an undesi rved repj as cures for hydrophobia. The conns (or - dried and powdered, have sometimes been used for food, but have an acrid unpleasant taste.— The -i: A. (8. Siih iiiis) is a native of China, and has long 1 cultivated in that country and Japan for its eatable conns, which, in a mewhat acrid, but abound in starch. It has arrow-shaped acut • 1 av. 9, and a branched poly- gonal Bcape [ess stem). I and ponds. It is one of the plants sometimes culti- vated in tanks in the hot-houses of Britain. ARROW-HEADED CHARACTERS. oRM. ARROW-HEADS. See EU-AbBOW-HKAD8. A'RROW-ROOT is a variety of starch extracted from the roots of certain plants growing in tropical «3i ARROW-ROOT. countries. It. is a fine starchy farina, much i as a delicacy, and as an easily digestible Ei children and invalids. It is obtained from the tuberous roots— or more correctly, the tool tocks of different species of the h aus, Ma I ing to the natural older Mara characterised by solitary ovules, a llcshy style curved downwards, branching stems, and white flowers. The species chiefly yielding it is M. arundinacea, a . of tropical America, cultivated in the West India Islands, and growing about two with ovato-lanceolate somewhat hairy lea' of small flowers on 2-flowered stalks, and globular fruit about the size of currants. The roots (or rhizomes) contain a large proportion of farina. Ihey .'Mi' ..It'll 1 !l. '!■■ 111. Ml • • 1 n r, jointed, and almost white, covered with pretty large paper-like scales. Th curve so that the points rise out of the earth, and form new plants. They are dug up when a year old, washed, carefully i led, and reduced to t milk] pulp. Mills for this purpose have hern introduced; but in Jamaica the roots are usually reduce 1 by beating in deep wooden mortars ; in Bermuda, by mi ins of a wheel-rasp. The pulp is then mixed with much water, cleared of fibres, by means of a sieve of coarse cloth or hair, and the starch is allowed to settle to the bottom. The water dissolves, and so removes the greater part of the albumen and salts, the starch Arrow-root (M. arundinncca). a, tubers; b, leaf and flowers ; c, stamen and style. qui. Uly settling down as an insoluble powder. Suc- cessive washings are employed for further purifica- tion. The A. is finally dried in the sun or in drying-houses, great care being taken, fay means of gauze, to exclude dust and insects. The careful peeling of the roots is of great importance, a the skin contains a resinous matter, which imparts a .!; i reeal.].' Il.i\ ..Mr In \ . w itli \\ 1 lit ll It is alh.Wed to mix. Great care is taken to preserve the A. from impurities; and the knives us.. I in peeling the roots, and the shovels used in lifting the A., are made of German silver. The West Indian A., most esteemed in the market, is grown in Bermuda ; the next, and almost equal to it, in Jamaica. The Bast Indian A. is not in general so highly valued, perhaps because substitutes for the genuine A. more fro- ,|u. nth receive thai name. The Mai linacea . . however, cultivated to nine . teiil both in the East Indies and in Africa. M. Tndica, which was supposed to be distinct from M. arundinacea, is now regarded as s mere variety of it, with perfectly smooth leaves. It is cultivate.! both in the Bast .in.l in .1.1111. li.a. .'.. is obtained also from M. AUouyia and M . nob&is in the West Indies, and fr .1/. ramotwrima in the East. The amount of fecula or starch present in the roots of the Maranla varies according to age, and runs from 8 per cent., in those of the young plant, to 26 per cent, when full grown. The latt. r :, d v, hi n iii" plant is in to 12 month I old ; and I lie roots then present the following composition in 1(10 parts: Starch, fecula, or arrow-root, . . . 2C Woody lihre, li Albumen, 1J Gummy extract, volatile oil, and salts, 1 Water, 654 A. is exported in tin cases, barrels, rfr boxes, carefully closed up. It is a light, opaque, white powder, which, when rubbed between the fli produces a slight crackling noise, like that heard when newly fallen snow is being made into a snow- ball Through the microscope, the particles are s vii tn be convex, more or less elliptical, sometimes obscurely triangular, and not very different in ... The dry farina is quite inodorous, but when dis- solved in boiling water, it has a slight peculiar sin. II. and swells up into a very perfect jolly. Potato-starch, with which it is often adulterated; may be distinguished by the greater size of its particles, their coarser and more distinct rings, and their more glistening appearance. Refined Bago floor is us.d for adulteration, many of the particles of which have a truncated extremity, and their surface is irregular or tuberculate.l. A. is also sometimes adulterated with rice-starch and with the common starch of wheat-flour. Not less than 400,000 lbs. of A. are annually imported into the British Isles. As an article of diet, it is often prepared for invalids and children by merely dissolving it in boiling-water and flavour- ing with sugar, lemon- juice, wine, &c. It is also often prepared with milk, made into puddings, &c. Winn most simply prepared, it forms a lighl meal, which, however, is not very nutritious. See Ni nuiiox. A farina somewhat similar to A., and partly known by the distinct name of Toun-li-x-mnis, is d from some species of the allied genus Canna (q. v.). But East Indian A. is in part obtained from the tubers of Curcuma angwiijolia. Other species of Curcuma (see Tl BMZBIO), as ('. ■ i. i '. leucorhiza, and C. rubescens, also yield a similar farina ; the same tubers which, when young, yield a beautiful and pure starch, yielding turmeric when old. In Travancore, this starch is a principal part of the food of the inhabitants. The young tubers of the Galangal (q.v.), (Alpinia Galanga), r plant of the same natural order [ScUamini a ). are another source of this farina. — A farina some- what resembling A., and often sold under that name, is . .i>t. mi. .1 from different species of the natural order ( 'i/ra./.i.'. ... as from the dwarf fleshy trunks of Zinnia U //»/.., Z '. furfuraa a, and Z. pumUa in the West Indies, and from the large seeds of Dion edule in the lowlands of Mexico.— The starch of the Cassava, Manihot or Manioc (see Manioc), is some- times imported into Europe under the name of Brazilian A. Potato-starch, carefully prepared, is sometimes sold as English A. ; and the farina obtained from the roots of the Arum maculalum ARROYO MOLIN'OS— ARSEXIC. (see At.um). as Portland A. Otaheite A. is the starch of Tanca (q. v.) pinnalijida. — All these, as well as Oswego and Chicago corn-flour — the starch of or Indian corn — are so nearly allied to true A. as not fco be certainly distinguishable by chemical tests; but the forma of the grannies differ, so that they can be distinguished by the microscope. ] name A. is commonly said to have had its ii from the use of the fresli roots by the Smith American Indians a.-s an application to wounds to counteract th i BE cl of p u med arrowa; and the id juice bas been recently recommended as an antidote to poisons, and a cure for the stn bites of venomous insects and reptiles. But it is not improbable that the name is really another form of Ara, th'- Indian name. \ KltO'YO MOLI'XOS, a village in Estremadura, Spain, noted as the scene of General Guard's com- e by Lord Hill on the 28th October Isll. General Girard had been sent out by Soult on a plundi ring foray with 5000 mi n, when he was il early in the morning by Lord Hill, who ie off at Alcuescar ; the natives of i had the good sense not to betray the presence of their deliverers. With a couple of regiments, the 71st and !>2d, the English g< in ral dn bed through the rain upon the enemy, who lied in all din leaving behind everything, arms, packs, &c. 1300 prisoners were taken; the whole artillery, colours, baggage, &c. French historians (Thiers, &c), how- ever, maintain that the battle was 'undecided,' and that their countrymen only retreated in good order, under the pressure of much larger forces. ARRU' ISLAXDS, a group lying about SO miles to the south of the west part of New Guinea, extend- ing in S. lat. from 5° 20/ to 6' 55', and in E. long. from 134' 10' to 134° 45'. The largest of the cluster is ill miles long and "20 broad. The inhabitants, many of them said to be Christians, are a mixed Malaya and Melanesians or oriental negroes. British goods, to the annual value of £30,000, are imported into Dobbo, a mart on the island of Warud, mostly by Dutch and Chinese merchants — tin returns being chiefly pearls, mother-of-pearl, and trepang, which abound on a coral-reef to the east. In position and formation, these islands appear to be rather Australian than East Indian. ARSA'CES, a name common to several Parthian and Armenian kings. The accounts concerning them which have been transmitted to us by the ancient historians are exceedingly vague, confused, and contradictory ; and modern criticism has found itself unable to reconcile or simplify the conflicting statements. The two most important members of tin dynasty of the Scythian Arsacidaj were A. I. and A. VI." AnSAi i I. , I he founder of the Parthian monarchy, flourished in the 3d c. B.C., under the reign of \iili..ehus-Tlieiis. An atrocious insult offered to his brother Tiridates by Pherecles or Agathocles, Macedonian satrap of the country, is said tn have tired his spirit, and driven him to rebel. The Mace- donians were expelled, 266 r.i . A ntiochus, embroiled in a war with Egypt, could not immediately find time to attempt the recovery of this portion of his dominions. Seleucus, the son of Am made two unsuccessful expeditions against the insur- chief, in the last of which he was taken prisoner. A. I. now acquired regal power, built a city called Kara, on the minuitain Zapaortenon, developed the internal resources of his new king- dom, and endeavoured to organise it; and, after the conquest of several countries, died at a great age. Such, at least, is the account given by rosidonius, &c. ; but Arrian states that A. died after a reign of two years, and that his broth) r Tiridates succeeded him, under the name of A. II., and ruled for thirty- seven years, whence we may conclude that many of the acts attributed to tie- founder of the Parthian kingdom were the work of Ins successor. ,i is VI.. or MlTHBXDATEB L, flourished about the middle of the 2d e. B, c. II 1 the territories of the Partbians by the conquest of Bactria ; and is even supposed to have penetrated into India, and subdued the nations between the Bydaspes and Indus. In the year 138 bli ed and took irisoner ] or, king of Syria, whom, however, 1 bestowing on him his daughter in marriage. He was a just and merciful prince, and an enemy to luxury. A'RSEXAL is the name given to a great mili- tary or naval repository, when- the munitions of war are to some extent manufactured, but more particu- larly stored until required for use. Every royal id, every magazine, every armoury, is to some extent an A.; and therefore the meanin_' of the word is not quite definite. In France, thi arsenals are at Cherbourg, Brest, and Toulon. In England, although Deptford is a considerable storehouse for naval clothing and provisions, and Weedon and the Tower gnat repositories for mili- tary stores, the only establishment vast • to deserve the name of A. is at Woolwich, is truly a remarkable and important place. In the spring of 185!), when war was raging in Italy between the French and Sardinians on one and the Austrians on the other, and when an un- easy feeling pervaded our own country, there were for a short time more than 10,(1(10 men employed in Woolwich A. There were at that time nearly 12.000 pieces of iron ordnance in store, of \ 7000 were of modern make and of heavy calibre. This store was supplementary to that which is always kept at the dockyards of Woolwich, Chatham. Sheerness, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Pembroke. There were resources at the A. for bringing forward, fitting, and issuing these r guns at the rate of 200 per week, or double this number on an emergency; and many hundreds were within a brief period shipped thence, to strengthen our forts in the Mediterranean, in the colonies, and around the coasts. All the shot and shell used down to the period of the Crimean war, were ordered of private makers; but the charge was bo enormous during the early months of that war. that the government resolved to try the manufacti Woolwich; this was done, with a very manifest savin.' of expi use. It has been calculated that the A., when at lull work, could produce large shot and shell with six times the rapidity with which those missiles were used by the British outside Sebastopol during the eleven montl I hese ohsen do not apply to rifles or muskets; none of these weapons are made at Woolwich Then- have been times, however, during the year 1859, when nearly a rifle-bulIetB were in store at the A. The Armstrong _uns (described under that head- ing) are, at the period of printing this sheet, being made at the A., 9, 12, and is poundi is, in sufficient number to supply all our field-artillery batf ins and ships' guns, of this construction, I f or t nt m ition. It is i di udab i that there are 15,000 great guns on board the ships of the Queen's navy, besides a number vary- ing from 15,000 to 20,000 at Wo. Iwich and in the dockyards. A'RSEXIC is the name applied in popular language to a well-known substance, Arsenious Acid (q. v.), but, strictly speaking, the ARSENICAL MINERALS— AR8ENI0US ACID. Ilia body which in part enters into the composition of the poison. Th A. is rarely bond bee in nature, but in a stab- of com- bination it 00CUTB largely (see Aio-i \ie \i, Mr-; The metal is generally prepared from arsenions acid (AsOj) by mixing it with ii lit of char- coal, placing the mixture in a wall-COVei and subjecting the whole to heat, when the metal , and condenses in the uppi r part or cover of the crucible. Metallic A. is very brittle, can easily be reduced to powder by hammering, or even pounding in a mortar; and when a freshly cut surface is examined, il | a brilliant dark steel-gray In fcre, which, hi readily tarnishes on exposure to the air. The as such, is not considered poisonous, hut when intro- duced into the animal system, it is there faintly Native Arsenic. acted upon by the juices, and in part dissolved, at the same time, exhibiting poisonous properties. When heated in the open air, it burns with a peculiar bluish flame, and emits a characteristic alliaceous odour. The only use to which the metal A. is applied in the arts is in the manufacture of lead a of the various sizes, when its presence in small ty in the lead renders the latti r much more brittle than it ordinarily is. Of all the compounds of A. the most important is the one already alluded to— namely, Arsenious Acid which is an oxide of A. With sulphur, A. forme two important com- Eounds: Realgar (AsS ), a red. transparent, and nttle substance, which is employed in the Eacture of the signal-light called H and Orpimeni (AsS 3 ) or King's Yettov, 6 at of a yellow colour. With hydrogen, A. forms iuretted hydrogen (AsH,), a very poi gas, and one which has been fatal to chemists. ARSENICAL MINERALS occur chiefly in primitive rocks, and fit metalliferous minerals. — Nai •'. although nowhere very abundant, is not unfrequently found in mines in Europe, Asia, and America, generally with sulphur and metallic sulphurets. In atTyndrumin Perth hire. It has usually a fine granular character. It. is 1 if ever, quite pure, usually containing a little anti- mony and iron, and not unfrequently a very little silver or gold- -A very similar, and c mine- ral, found in similar situations, is known as J and consists of about two parts of mi tal- enic, and one of metallic antimony. At , or Ar Ivor, is another very rar ral, consists of arsenic and iron, but con- taining also about 13 per cent, of silver and a little antimony. — Arsenic-f/lance, found at Harienb Saxony, and containing about 3 per cent, of bismuth. has the remarkable property of taking lire at the 438 flame of a candle, 1 Acid occurs native is a few localities in Germany and France, and as a miner;'.! A\ which perhaps too closely resem! designation oil its salts. — Ar*' Bother com- nic and Oxygen ( V- 1 1 |, containing more oxygen than arsenious acid, although it does not itself occur native, is not unfrequant in the form of compounds with copper and had [A of cop- per and lead), which enter into the composition of a r of minerals, none of them so abundant as to be of any importana . \xa \ A. M. are also to be ranked the compounds of arsenic with Bulphur, par- ticularly Orpimeni (q. v.), Realgar (q. v.), and Dimor- phine, a rarer mineral than the othi r two, and fore less important. But the most important A. M., because of their use as ores of arsenic, for the preparation of white arsenic, or arsenious acid, are ii which arsenic is combined with nickel and cobalt. One of these is ! Pyrites, or Leuco- . found in various mines of the continent of Europe, and containing arsenic, iron, sulphur, uii !. I, and cobalt, in somewhat various proportions— the . . always the principal constituent. It generally occurs massive.- Mi pidcel, which fre- quently occurs in rhombic crystals, but often also massive, differs from it in containing a considerable quantity of silver, BO that it is used both as an ore of arsenic and of silver. It is found in many of the tin-mines of Cornwall, and is pretty frequent in different parts of the world. — Nickdwt consists of nickel and arsenic, and is used as an ore of nickel, and also for the preparation of white arsenic. — Cobcd- ihi< and SmdUine — the former consisting of cobalt, sulphur, and arsenic; the latter, of cobalt and e -are used for the preparation of blue colours for porcelain and stoneware. Both are found in Cornwall; they occur also in some of the mines of the continent of Europe, and in other parts of the world.- The presence of arsenic in a mineral may commonly be detected by the alliaceous odour which it emits before the blow-pipe. ARSE'NIOUS ACID is the arsenical compound most familiarly known. It is obtained principally during the roasting of the arsenical nickel ores in Germany in furnaces communicating with thus. When the arsenic of the ore burns, it passes into the condition of A. A. (AsO,), and rising as vapour into the somewhat cool Hue, is there deposited as a grayish powder, known by the names of 8m . Flowers of Arsenic, Poison-flour, or Rough A. A. In this condition, the A. A. is con- taminated with some impurities, from which it may be separated by introducing the gray powder into an egg-shaped vessel, and applying heat at the lower end, when the A. A. rises in vapour, and coin in the cool end as a transparent glassy or \n nee. Ordinary A. A. of the simps (which is what is popularly known as arsenic) is a white crystalline powder, which feels decidedly gritty, like line sand, when placed between the teeth, to. It is very heavy, so much so as at once to be noticeable wl paper or bottle containing it is lifted by the hand, it is soluble in water to the extent of 1 part of A. A. in about 100 parts of cold water, and 1 part of A. A. in about 10 parts of boiling water. As ordinarily sold in quantities under 10 lbs. in weight, the A. A. is required by law to be coloured with ■jL- of its weight of indigo, or /.,- of its weight of soot; the object of the admixture being to any liquid to which the A. A. might be added with a murderous intent, of a black or bluish-black One, and thus indicate the presence of something unusual. In packages of 10 lbs. and upwards, A. A. is allowi d to be sold in the pure white crystalline form without ARSENIOUS ACID. color.-it.ion. When placed in a spoon, or other vesael, and heated, the A. A. volatilises, and con- denses in crystals on any cool vessel held above. By this means, it can be distinguish',! from Ordinary flour, which, whin li. -;it . 1 1, would char, and leave a coal behind; ami from chalk, stucco, baking oda, tooth-powder, and other white substances, when heated, remain in the vessel as a non-vo! itile white residue. Again, when A. A. is placed on a red-hot cinder, and the escaping vapours cautiously brought under the nostrils, the strong alliaceous odour characteristic of arsenic is given off. The mode in which A. A. comports itself, when thrown upon water, is likewise peculiar. Instead of at onee descending through the water like sand, the A. A., notwithstand it dentita i. p. | r. 3*70), par- tially floats en the surface, as win at-lhmr does ; and that portion which sinks in the water, rolls itself into little round pellets, which are wetted only on the outside, and contain much dry A. A. within. The solution of A. A. in water is recognised by three tests : 1. Ilydrnsulphurie arid and hydrochloric acid produce a yellow jireeipilnle. of sulphurct of . (AsS ,), soluble in ammonia. 2. Ammonio-sulphatc of copper, an apple-green precipitate of arsenite of copper (2CnO,As0 3 ). 3. Ammonio-nitrato of silver, a yellow ■/irn-i/n'iiite of arsenite of silver (2AgO,As0 3 ). In many cases, A. A. is used as a means of destroy- ing animal life, hut, happily, the processes for tiie detection of the poison in organic mixtures and in the animal tissues are so unerring and trustworthy, that it is hardly within the range of possibility that an animal can be destroyed by the administra- ti f A. A. without very decided evidence of the existence of the poison being obtained on examina- tion of the various parts of the animal structure ; indeed, it may be safely said that there is no limit to the detection of the poison, as even after the animal structure has been so far decomposed that little remains, yet still the poison, from its inde- structibility, survives, and will indicate itself clearly, on the application of the several test-. For the isolation and recognition of A. A. in organic mixtures, such as the controls M f a stomach, three processes may be followed. The method generally pursued, and that upon which greatest depend'- i.: placed, i ; called Ken: ell's process, from the name of its discoverer. The manner of its application is to treat the organic mixture with water sufficient to render it thin, then add fa chloric acid to the extent of one-eighth of the volun f the liquid; apply heat, and when the whole has been raised & near the boiling-point, introduce clean, newly burnished pieces of copper in i ni of wire, gauze, or foil. H A. A. be present in the mixture, a steel gray coating of metallic arsenic will form on the surface of the copper. This appan lit tarnishing of the copper may tab place when no A. A. is in the nurture, and may 1"- pro- duced by salts of mercury, antimony. ,\c. B V II . . by sulphur compounds, and even occasionally by Eatty matters. Po d h between the coal formed by A. A. and I | 1 |, v n (hcr sub- stances, the copper is taken oat of the mi washed with water, to remove acid; immersed in ether, to die olve off any adherent fatty m dried between folds of blotting-paper; iutii into the lower end of i • 1 1 J la test-tube, and there Cautiously heated. The metallic arsenic I driven off by the heat from tl o) the copper, rises in vapour into the upper portions of the test-tube ; there meets the oxygen of the air, with which it combines, forming A. A. (AsO A, and thereafter deposits itself ou the inner surface of the cool part of the tube in little glistening crystals. On allowing tie- tube to cool, adding water thereto, and applying heat, the water diss- of A. A., yielding a solution, to separate portions of which the liquid tests mentioned above may be successfully applied This process may hi. be employed in the detection of A. A. in animal I .-us in the liver, spleen, kidneys, &c., by first dividing the animal matter into small pieces, and M' tl after treating with wal and copper. The precautions which require to be exercised in trying this process arc that hydrochloric acid and copper are themselv from A. A. Hydrochloric acid has long been known to be liable to contain at times a very sensible proportion of the poison, and it is therefore n sary, before using the acid in any experiment, to make a preliminary trial with dilute hydrochloric acid, into which, when heated, a piece of copper is immersed ; and if no tarnishing occurs after a quar- ter of an hour's trial, the acid may be A from contamination with arsenical compounds. The liability of copper to contain arsenic has only very recently (August 1859) assumed importance in con- ne lion with a trial for murder by slow poisoning with arsenic, which took place in 15ritain. In this case, a considerable amount of copper was dissolved during the testing, and supplied the poison in tity enough to produce a faint coating on a piece of copper which was subsequently introduced into the Liquid. The result was that A. A. was a1 declared to be present in the material under exami- nation ; but further experiments demonstrated that the copper itself had afforded the arsenic. To free copper from any arsenic which it may contain originally, it is only necessary to heat the copper over a gas or spirit-lam]) flame, when the arsenic volatilises, and leaves the copper uncontaminatcd \ ith. The other two processes for the detection of A. A. in organic mixtures are — 1. That recom- mended by Marsh, in which the material is treated with dilute sulphuric acid and metallic zinc in 1. Marsh's process. 2. Berzclius's process. a gas -generating apparatus, when the ai combining with hydrogen, forms an n (A-Il 1. from which, in the act of : , the tic -i Jlic arsenic, and subsequently A. A., can be i d; and 2. That known as lerseliu ■ hich dry arsenical com td heated in a con- stricted tube, when tie metal arsenic is pro which in its torn i into A. A. by heating in a wide test-tube. The pTooossoa of Marsh ana Bereehae are not so generally followed as that of Remsch ; but in each and all it is absolutely MS ARSTNOE— ARSON. necessary, in order to avoid the possibility of mistake, (ll that metallic arsenic be obtained from th nil mixture; (2), that the metallic arsenic be converted into A. A. : and (3), that this A. A., treated with water, should yield a solution which will give the three liquid tests mentioned previously. A. A. forms compounds (salts) with alkalies and other bases, which are called Araenites. Sonn of the ■ are employed in commerce and medicine. A. A., boiled with a solution of potash, or carl ate of potash, forms an arsenite of potash, used in medicine, and known as Fonda's Solution. The more largi ly beep-dipping mixtures are com] 1 o v A., Boda, sulphur, and soap, which, when used, are dissolved in a large quantity of water, and thus constitute essentially dilute solutions "f arsenite of soda. A compound of A. A. and the oxide of copper, called the arsenite of copper, or > . is a pigment largely used by painters as a pretty and cheap green paint. The same- substance is extensively employed in the manufacture of com- mon green paper-hangings for the walls of rooms; and recent inquiries would lead to the belief that rooms covered with paper coated with this green arsenite of copper, are detrimental to the health of human beings residing therein, from the readiness with which minute particles of the poisonous pig. ment are- detached from the walls by the slightest friction, are diffused through the room, and ultimately ito the animal system. Another green pigment is named Scliweinfnrtk Green, and contains A. A., oxide of copper, and acetic acid, and is a double arsenite and acetate of copper. Aksenic (Absenious Acid), Properties of, as a Drug, - A. has long been used as a medicine. When taken into the stomach, it is soon absorbed into the blood, and circulates with that fluid, exhi- biting great power over certain diseases, especially skin diseases, as psoriasis, lepra, eczema (q. v.), &C. It is also classed among the tonic minerals, and given for nervous disorders, especially those that are periodic. Of late it has been much recommended for rheumatism; and Dr Jjegbie, of Edinburgh, i h rs I li il among the remedies for chorea (St Vitus' ihuiee) it holds the foremost place. In ague, also, and remittent fever, as well as in other disorders origin- ating from the same source, A. and quinine are our chief remedies. They are considered to act as lives of the blood. The usual method of administering' A. is in small doses (from three to live drops) of the liquor arsenicalis, largely diluted with water, twice or thrice in the day. Arsenic is imes given combined, with iodine and mercury (I lonovan's solution). When given in the doses above mentioned, for eight or ten days, symptoms of poisoning bi an to appear; the skin becomes hot, the pulse quick, the eyelids hot and itchy; the tongue has a silvery ap] ui.i -. the throat is dry and sore, the gums n Ollen and tender; and if the treatment is persisted in, salivation ensues, and then come- nausea, vomit- ing, diarrhoea, nervous depression, and faintness (Begbie). The quantity necessary to destroy life, of course, varies. Dr Christison records the case of a man who died in six days, after taking thirty grains of the powdered white A. ; but a much small r dos will prove fatal; a girl was killed with two grains and a half of A. contained in two ounces of fly- According to Dr Swaine Taylor, a niedieal witness is justified in stating, that under circum- stances favourable for its operation the fatal dose for an adult is from two to three grains. Death from a us dose of A. may occur in a few hours, or after the lapse of days. A woman, aged 56, used a solution of A. in water to cure the itch; she expe- rienced severe suffering, and died after two years, 440 hii eg had symptoms of arsenical poisoning all that .Hi:'. A. has been used frequently as a slow poison, the ymptoms being attributed to inflammation of the from natural causes. Fortunately, in most cases its detection is easy. Orlila found A. in the soil of cemeteries, a fact which has created some discussion among tozicologists. A. is used by anato- mists as an antiseptic, but is dangerous, as it is apt into cuts on the hands, ami under the Anger nails, ami cause disagreeable symptoms, it is stafc d that in some countries, especially in Styria, A. is taken by the young female peasants to increa e their personal attractions ; a state at which prob- ably amounts to this, that experience of its tonic and other qualities induces some individuals to proscribe for themselves a medicine which ought only to be administered by a skilful an I C, hand. That A. can be taken habitually for any I M Hi of time, woidd seem a physiological inipossi- bility; and yet such statements are made on what appears to lie unquestionable authority. See Chambers's Journal, Vol. V. p. 90, and VI., p. 46; also Johnston's Chemistry qf Common Life. No effective chemical antidote for A. has yet been discovered. In case of an overdose, or of intentional poisoning, the following treatment is recommended : Evacuate the stomach by the stomach-pump, using lime-water; administer large draughts of tepid and water, chalk and water, or lime-water; avoid the use of alkalies, but administer charcoal and liy.lrated sesquioxide of iron; bleed freely; take a tepid bath, and use narcotics. If the fatal symptoms be averted, let the patient for a long time subsist wholly on farinaceous food, milk, and demulcents. ARSI'NOE, the daughter of Ptolemy I., king of 1'gypt. and of Berenice, was born about 316 B.C., and married in her sixteenth y u o. the aged l.ysim- achus, king of Thrace, whoso eldest son, Agatho- eles, had already wedded bys.uidra, the half sister of A. Desirous of securing the throne for her oxen children, A. prevailed on her husband to put Agathocles to death ; the consequences of which crime, however, were fatal to tlu-Thracian monarch; for l.ysandra, having fled with her children to Seleucus in Asia, managed to induce him to declare war against her unnatural father-in-law. Lysimachus was shun, and Seleucus seized the kingdom. A. now Bought refuge iii Macedonia, which, however, was also taken possession of by Seleucus; but on the assassi- nation of the latter, after a few months, by Ptolemy Ceraunus, the half-brother of A., she received a hypocritical offer of marriage from Ptolemy, who wanted to destroy her two sons, lest they should prove formidable rivals to his ambition. She con- sented to the union, and opened the gates of the town in which she had taken refuge, but her children wen- butchered before her eyes. She then tied to Egypt (279 B.C.), where she married her own brother, Ptolemy II. Philadelphns. These unna- tural unions subsequently became common among the Greek kings of Egypt. It does not appear that A. had any children by her brother, though sin- was regarded by him with the deepest affection, lie named several cities, and also an entire district, by her name. After her death, he ordered Dinochares, tin architect, to build a temple to her memory, and roof the edifice with loadstones, so that her iron statin- might seem to float in the air. A'KSIS and THE'SIS (Gr. raising up, and laying down), a term in music applied to the rising and falling of the hand in beating time. It is also applied to the elevation and depression of the voice in speaking. A'RSON, or, as it is called in Scotland, u'ilfuljire- ARSON— ART. raising, is. in the laws of all civilised countries, a capital crime of the deepest atrocity ; for it involves in its consequences not only destruction of property, but also the destruction of, or at least an indifii n ai e to, the life or lives of others, which can only he imputed to (In' iibi! wicked and malignant spirit, In the criminal law of England, it is a felony, ana has been described as the malicious and wilful burning of the house or building of another man. It is essential to the offence that the house or building burned should be that of another; for although it is a misdemeanour to destroy one's own house by lire, especially in a town, or where other buildings i contiguous, which are thereby put in danger, such an oil. nee does not amount to a felony, strictly BO called. To constitute och felony, there must he .in actual burning; for no intent, however clear, would suffice at common law to support a charge of A. This crime is the subject of two recent statutes die I Vict. c. 89, and the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 02), the provisions of which considerably modify and enlarge the doctrines of the common law on the subject. The first of these acts (amending two others, the 7 and 8 Geo. IV. e. 30, and the 9 Geo. IV. p. 56) enacts that whoever shall unlawfully and maliciously let lire to any dwelling-house, any person being therein, shall be guilty of felony, and shall suffer death. Also that whoever shall unlawfully and maliciously set fire to any church or chapel; or to any chapel for the religious worship 01 persons dissenting from the United church of England and Ireland; or to any house, stable, coach-house, out- house, warehouse, otlicc, shop, mill, malthouse, hop-oast, barn, or granary ; or to any erection used in carrying on any trade or manufacture, or any branch thereof, whether in possession of the offender or any other person — with intent, in any of these cases, to injure or defraud any person, shall be guilty of felony; and he is liable to penal servitude for life, or not less than fifteen years, or to imprisonment not exceeding three years. Doubts having been con- ceived upon this act, whether its provisions extended to the setting lire to a hovel or shed not appendant to any house, it was afterwards provided, by 7 and 8 Vict. c. 02, that whoever should unlawfully and maliciously set fire to any hovel, shed, or fold; or to any farm-building; or any building or erection used in farming land— whether the same, or any of them lively, shall then be in the possession of the offender, or the possession of any other person — with intent thereby to defraud any person, shall bo guilty of felony, and he is liable to a like punishment. Moreover, that whoever shall unlawfully and mali- ciously set lire to any hay, straw, wood, or other table produce, being in any farmhouse or farm-build- ing ; or to any implement of husbandry, being in any farmhouse or farm-building; with intent to set tire to n'li farmhouse or farm-building, and to injure or defraud any person, shall be liable to the same punishment as for setting fire to the farmhouse or i. ii in building itself; and every male so offending, under eighteen, shall be also liable, at the discretion of the court, in addition to any other sentence, to be whipped. Again, unlawfully and maliciously, by any overt act, to at tempi to set lire to any building, stack, or steer, or vegetable produce, of such kind and with such intent that if the oil. in .• were com- plete, the offender would be guilty of felony, and liable to penal m rvitude for Life (though such build- i i i ek, steer, or vegetable produce be not actii ilk set on fire), is deemed felony ; and is punishable with penal servitude for fifteen years; or imprisonmenl for two years, with the same addition in respect to whipping, if the offender be a male under eighteen. And lastly, if any person shall maliciously set tire to any station or other building belonging to any railway, dock, canal, or other navigation, he is guilty of felony ; and he is liable to penal servitude for life, or any term not less than three years; or to be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for any term not exceeding three years ; and if any person maliciously set fire to any gi being in any building, the setting fire to which is felony by act of parliament, he is guilty of felony; and he is liable to penal tor any term not exceeding ten years, nor less than three years, or to be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for any term not exceeding three yi at Servants in'lnl of negligently setting fire to houses and buildings, shall, I.. I I Geo, III. c 78, s. 84, forfeit £100, to be di i ribub A i g the sui by the churchward, o , ill ich prop .rtions osto such churchwardens shall seem just ; and in cose of defaidt, shall be committed to jail or the house of correction for eighteen months, to be kept to hard labour. It has been laid down in Scotland, that if the fire has been wilfully kindled, it matters not how cir- cuitous may have been the mode of operation selected, although the injury intended to have been done was not the actual burning of the house, but some inferior mischief. And it IS the law of both countries, that if the proprietor of a house set fire to it while in possession of a tenant holding under a lease, the crime of A. is completed; and in Scotland, the same has been ruled where the house was occu- pied by a party having a life-interest in it. By the 29 Geo. III. c. 4G, an act which applies to Scotland as well as England, it is enacted, that if any person shall maliciously and unlawfully set in- to, or in any wise destroy, any ship or vessel, whether the same be complete or in an unfinished state, or shall maliciously and unlawfully set fire to, cast away, or in anywise destroy any ship or v. ssel, with intent thereby to prejudice any owner or part owner of such ship or vessel, or of any goods On board the same, or any person that hath under- written, or shall uinl. rwrite any policy of insurance upon such ship or vessel, or on the freight th or upon any a Is on board the same; ever* offender shall suffer death as a felon.* Both in England and Scotland, it is a considi aggravation of the offence where the burning is to i insurers. ART. The word A. is here meant as designating what is more specifically termed Fine A., being opposed to the useful arts, or the industrial for supplying the common neci ssities of life, faint- ing and Poetry arc line arts; Agriculture, and .Medicine are useful arts. The great end of A. is to give pleasure, bu kind of pleasure is peculiar and circumscribed. There are many of our enjoyments that no artist would ever think of attemp .vide. The gratifications of eating and drinking, of exercise and repose, warmth and In. i, form a class in contrast with the pleasures of music, sculpture, or the drama. It is a matter of some in.. U to draw the line l.etwei n tlies,- |».. regions of OUT pleasurable suscep- tibility ; indeed, it is not char that a precise line can be drawn. Certain peculiarities can be assigned as disqualifying circumstances, such that any mode of pleasure labouring under them is debarred from entering into \. ; But after we have allowed for these, there will remain a disputed border-laud, on which no general criterion will hold. The various indul ences called sensual are the • It is curious, as pointed out by sir Archibald Alison In his work on the Criminal Law of "Scotland (to!, i. p. 441), that the mbaaqnant act, 7 and 8 Vlot c SO, which r mittl the pro- visions of the above statute, is only applicable to England. ART. examples of contrast to the pleasures of A. In the firs! place, as cur frame is constituted, these bodily functions, while incidentally ministering to our pi i» the main snl nee, and being in the first instance guided fur that special i ad, tfa y do not rank among our gratilications as such; in the second place, they are connected with the production I is repulsive and loathsome, which mai purity as sources of pleasure; and in the thud place, they are essentially confined in their influence i i the single individual; for the Bociabilitj ol the table is an element superadded. Now, a mode of pleasure subject to one or more of I tions may belong in an eminent degree to the list of utilities, and eoustitute an end of industry, but does nut rdiiic under the class we are new considering. Wealth is disqualified by tie third com ■ieh as, u hue in the shape of money, it is con- finedto some le | tor. The same maybe said of the pleasures of Power and Dignity. Affection is too exclusive to come under tin- a head. Anything so restricted in it.s sph action as to constitute individual property, and give occasion to envy and jealousy, is not a pi aimed at by the producer of Fine A. ; for there do exist objects that can give us deli; li primary end, that have no disagreeable or revolting accom- paniments, and whose enjoyment is not restrict d to a single mind ; all which considerations obviously the rank of such objects in the scale of our enjoyments. The landscape, the glowing sunset, the BOng of the lark, the flowers of the field and the garden, yield unalloyed pleasure, and create no mono- poly. The painter, sculptor, and musician aim at corresponding effects. The eye and the ear arc the chief avenues of artistic delight ; the other senses are more or less in the monopolist interest. Moreover, one imp feature in the somewhat capricious attribute termed ment, attaches more particularly to the objects of these two senses; namely, the power of protracted enjoyment without fatigue. A coarse, effect is one that is intense and pungent, but too exhausting to be kept up ; such is a noisy clash of loud instruments in a musical performance, or a tale of overdone mar- vels. To remove all the fatiguing accompi ail and thereby tone down the exciting influence, while aingas much as po le really pleasurable part, is to refine upon the effect, and prod higher work of art. Now, in the lensations oi and smell generally, the stimulus is apt to be oi short duration ; the pleasure is said to pall toon. Yet there are degrees in the case; some of the choicer odours can affect us for hours together with a gentle and pleasing sensation. But it is the ear, and perhaps still more the eye, that ran remain open to ble stimulation for the greatef length o and taking this fact along with the sinning nature of their i 1 i for the artist striving so earnestly towards th in of those two senses. The sensual elements can be brought into A. by being i ed in th id< a, in place oi t» bag enjoyed in the reality. A painter or poet may d , : a feast to our minds, and impart a pi that differs essentially from the del' of i and drinking. The imagined repa i bing to do « ii li our bodily necessities ; the i ni-nts can be kept out of view ; an I anj number of persons may share in the effect the elements of wealth, power, dignity, and affection, which in their actuality want the liberal character of the true artistic delight; if we can only derive ire from the spectacle of them in the hands of the select number of their possessors, they become US i i I an enjoyment that can be shared by the general i te the blue akj , or the towering p ik. It is the fact that mankind tind a charm in QOntem- ivealthy, the powerful, the elevated, the illustrion . tin' beloved; and accordingly Buoh ele- incuts are fnely adopted into ai n ■ oha If all the sensual gratifications CO artis- i io bj being contemplated in i tely thought of. a^ in the above i should have the means of distinctly circumscribing t f the beaut and ox re oil in j a difficult problem. It would be admissible for the poet or painter to suggest any of those i pleasures to the mind by descriptive t In -. and he would t hereby elevate them into the | of ait. But we find that every mod mai iti- fication is not open to this ideal presentation. I ird i itin and drinking, exception is taken against the too free alln ion to those pleasures; while the sensuality of love is hardly to be Bug- •; I'.l through the most distant allusion. Wl revel in tales of mere tender emotion of parental ad "f [Hire affection - but those other ; i ; are kept at the utmost distance; aid be said to be revelling in sensuality, if we were : to indulge in the imagination of those species of delight There is no help, therefore, but to con ider that there are conn ntional and arbitrary limitations of the sphere of the artist, rendering it quite impos- sible to draw any clear and universal boundary-line between the beautiful and the agreeable generally. Sublimity, I'.eanty, (Iraee, Harmony, .Melody, Pathos, Ideality, Picturesqueness, Proportion, Ordi r, Fitness, Keeping, and the Ludicrous— though they do not all relate to the so-called lumili/nL an all involved in the circle of pleasures now before as . and it is quite obvious that no one fact can run through this variety of designations. Then- mu i be ■ multitude of agents operating to i tuce these different illl] . i I : ' 1 1 ! I I' ' I I 1 1 ' i lea only by attaching in common to the sssthetio class of compositions. Doubtless, severs! of these names may be employed to mean the same thing, being, in fact, partially synonymous terms ; a I Beauty ami Grace Proportion, Fitness, and Keeping; but hardly any two I inns are synonymous throughout, and tin tinct conceptions implied in Subli- mity, Beauty, Picturesqueness, i < id the Ludicrous. Among the elementary sensations and emotions of the human mind that are of a pleasurable kind, a certain number may enter at once into the < iposi- b are the pli id and sight, the emotion of surprise, and plot-iutcrcst. Others may enter by ideal presentation; as the ; of the remaining senses, and the fear, tend ascibility, power. The feelings more specific to A. are the by Harmony under its various '•'■ ai ■ i wi st ly combined, we have the I art; the painter has a similar aim in refer- ence to colours and forms; end 80 through all the Bine Vrts, this quality is found recurring as the crowning work of the artistic hand. Nothing is so itablj included within the circle of the te I bj I i l or beautiful as finely struck harmonies, melo- ' i :ords. What! rei else maj I e included in a composition, it is the admission of these' that charm, although it would be a 1 to < i c with other elements of interest hi to art and to every-day life, Story is 1 ■ Romance and Poetry; sweetness in the separate sounds is requisite for good Music; and colour in itself imparts lesthetic pleasure apart from nous union. The agreeable effect designated by Fitness takes ART. rank with the artistic pleasun ; we may call it the tic of the useful. Winn a work is not only done effectually, lmt done with th nee of ease, or the total absence of restraint, difficulty, and pain, we experience a i quite different from Hi' Ltd Faction growing out of the end ati Much of the pleasure of architectural support is referrible to this source. Among the susceptibilities touched by artistic arrangements may be noticed the sense of Unity in multitude, at d a great number of things are brought under a comp ign,aswhen a row m pillars is crowned bj a pediment. The use of simple figures the rcle, square, &c. — for end ; and arranging a host of individuals, has the tendency to ma] ended whole out of a numerous host of particulars. In all large works abounding in detail, we crave for sun 'ain the total, while surveying the parte. A building, an oratorio, a poem, a history, a dissertation, a speech, should i cernible principle of order throughout; the discernment of which gives an artistic pi even in works of pure utility. The craving for Variety and Novelty is a powerful • of the human mind, and makes itself i ally apparent in the appreciation of works of A. The greatest works cease to please after a time, and temporary fashion may occasionally lord it over the perennial in taste. In looking at the Fine Arts individually, we may divide them into two classes, by drawing a distinc- tion of some importance as i question of an artistic standard. The one class contains the effvMve arte, or those which consist of mere out- I of the inward spontaneity, regulated by the ill e\ of the display on the sense of the beholder or listener. Music is a good example. The spontan- eous effusions of the human voice, and those pr pted by the various emotions, are corrected and tuned by the ear into melody and harmony, and after this process has been often repeated, pleasing airs and compositions are the result. It is tie with the Dance, considered as a line art. In like manner, dramatic gesture and display, and the of elocution and line address, are the m ' promptings rendered pleasing by being changed and d tor that express end. The first movements are mere random, but the delicate sensibility of the beholder causes some to be suppressed, and others b it out, until a really pleasing eiiiiiliin.il i i .ill bed with the purely effusive, arc the so-called arts, or those that involve the representation of some of the appearances of the outer world. Such are Painting, Sculpture, and i In tin ■■■■•. the artist, while still aiming at ets, is trammelled with a new coiiili ly, a certain anion it oi fidi lity to his anal In tli lis. The in. i imitai le condition of gratifying the ear; but a painter chooses his Bubje I from nature, and although he must contrive I the p if col ur, outline, and ing, he i i so w ith a object copied. The poet, in depicting the life of fidelity to this i ■ ■ ' ition is apt to k. and mar the pi' Would iso be derived from the poetry itself. It is not so much that truth is a the irl pleasure, as that falsehood is a stumbling-blo the way; for even the imitative arts are only so in part. There is no imitation in th" met) cad. 11 ii a or . and yet thi se often constitute the main charm. So a certain licence of fantastic effusion is allowed to poets, subject to no rides but ring of pleasure. The creation of imaginary worlds, when ted to ; and the criterion of fidelity to the actual is accordingly laid aside for the time. The various arts of I and Design are for the most part i bough occasionally imitative. Architecture is not in any way imitative ; the coincidence bei i Qotmo roof and the intermingling foliage of a double row of . ' . .'I'llt. These ob are necessary in order to qualify the current maxim, that Nature i artist's standard, and Truth his el condi- tions that, in their strictness, apply only to sc the scientific man that would never d from nature, and should care for truth above other i' ^t's standard his end is refined pleasure; he m but it is to select what chimes in with 1 of arti i and pass b; Ee is not bound to adhere to nature even in b displays; his own tast alters isle at his will. The student of science, on the other band, must embrace every fact with open arms. If a nauseous fungus or loath- some rat meet the eye of a natural bound to record it as faithfully and minutely as he would dilate on the violet or the nig] When a painter adopts the human figure as a basis for stting forth harmonies of colour, beauties, and form, and picturesqueness of grouping, he ought not to jar our sense of consistency by a wide departure from the usual proportions of humanity. Still, we do not look for anatomical exactness ; we know that the studies of an artist do not imply the know]' a professor of anatomy; but we expect the main features of the reality to be adhered to. In like maiiinr, a poet is not great because he exhibits human nature with literal fidelity; to do that makes the reputation of a historian or mental philosopher. The poet works by his i cadences, his touching simili 3, Ins graceful narra- tive, and his exaltation of reality into of ideality; and if in all this he .'voids serious mistakes and gross exaggerations, he succeeds in his real vocation. attempt to reconcile the artistic with the true — art with nature— has given birth to a peculiar school, in whose productions a restraint is put upon the Bights of pure imagination, and which clan merit of informing the mind as to tl of the world, while the various emotions of lei I i Fairyland, the Arabian Nights, and the Roman .dry. we have the list, with his pictures of urine nun and i i. In pain nave natui i ;i. and animals r with BCrup- aess. The sculptor and i exercise the that shall hand down to future pees the p. ments of the men and women of ; atiou; inly of natui ' i element ill artistic education ; and the a I the exfi ig purpose. It is probablj ii lore strict h raditiona of truf reality, that has caused the singular inv Inition of definition of art. But while fidelity, in the imitative class of arts, is to be looki d upon, a stuini I ■ barm, herein we derive from it a sort i iy be call I drawn 1 ling towards one who has attended to the same objects .13 ourseh who has seized and put into vivid prominence what 443 ART. we have felt, without ever having expressed. The coincidence of mind with mind is always productive of the agreeable effect of mutual sympathy, and, in some circumstances, there is an additional effect of pleasing surprise. Thus, when an artist not ■ produces in bis picture those features of th one, but includes all the minuter • ! that escape the notice of the generality, we sympathise with his attention, we admire his powers nation, and become, :. bis pupils, in extending our study and knowledge of nature and life. We feel a pungent surprise at discovering, for the time, what has been long before our eyes; and .so tin- minute school of artists labour at this species iu" effects. Moreover, we are brought forward as of the execution of a distinct purpose; we have to see whether he that is bent on imitation does his work well or ill ; and if our verdict is favourable. our admiration is excited accordingly. There i-. too, a certain exciting effect in the reproduction of some appearance in a foreign material, as when a plain surface is made to yield the impression of solid effect, and canvas or stone imitates living Inn Finally, the sentiment of reality and truth, as opposed to fiction or falsehood, appealing to our practical urgencies, disposes us to assign a value to every work in which truth is strongly aimed at, and to derive an additional satisfaction when fidelity of rendering is induced upon the charms peculiar to A. Thus imitation — which, properly speaking, is a mere accident attaching to Sculpture, Painting, and l and has no place in Music or Architecture — may become the centre of a small group of agreeable or acceptable effects. These effects are the more prized, that we have been surfeited with the purely a We turn refreshed from the iniddlc-age romance to the graphic novel of our own time. Besides being a source of pleasure, art is frequently spoken of as having an elevating ami refining influ- ence on the mind and character ; for wliich reason it is considered a proper object of public encourage- ment in it. munities. This circumstance is owing to the higher nature of artistic pleasure as above described, th-' taste for which helps to rescue mankind from the exclusive dominion of sensual and i enjoyments. At the same time, we must admit that the devotion to art may be H i i; n the effect of withdrawing n much from the urgency of practical life, rendering a prey to political despotism, as v. indifferent to moral principle. Instances are not wanting to justify this remark. See Dugald Stewart's Philosophi . Part II., and Bain on the Emotions and tit'- Will, p. -17. ART, HrsTORY of. The history of the and development, growth and decline of beautiful artistic forms, constitutes a portion of tin- history of civilisation. As regards each particular p the history of their efforts to conceive and express absolute perfection, or what is commonly called ideal beauty, in form and colour, is, with the single tion of the history of their speculative opinio; most reliable test of the stage of progress which they have attained. Nor is it as an indication of their command over physical nature, of the abnndai their externa] resources, or even of their intellectual activity alone, that the history of the art of a people is thus important. It determines their moral, and even, in a certain sense, their religious position, for the inseparable connection between the beautiful and the good is in no way more clearly manifested than in the fact, that the first inroads of demoralisa- tion and social disorder are invariably indicated 1 ly a diminution in the strength and purity of artistic forms. It has been usual to include under the term history of art merely the history of the arts of form, 411 in. lading architecture, but exedading, of coarse, poetry and music, though these latter, again, are illy included when we speak of the tine arts. See isx. The classical nations of antiquity were not insen- sible to the importance of ti u development of that rich artistical life which they had originat d, and we accordingly find the germs at artistic history in Pliny, Qnintilian, Pausamas, and others. In the middle ages, ever] trace of ■ geni ral historical treat- ment o ■ . though casual remai 1 incidental notices on the subject of artists and the arts arc abundant, particularly in such works .... .|. v.), who is commonly known as -the Librarian,' in consequence of his having filled that office at the Vatican in the 9th e. But a history of art, in the sense which we have here assigned to the term, made its appi in tin' world for the first tune on the revival of in the 15th and 16th centuries; when thi tic treasures of the heathen world, which had mankind as novelties, fell to be con with that peculiar t\ pe which art had assumed Christian influences during the middle ages, on the one hand (see BrzAjnam Ami, and on the other with that rich harvest of bean invention which ripened during the long lives of Leonardo da Vinci (q. v.) and Michael Angelo (q. v.), in the period of which Raphael's (q. v.) short career may be regarded as the noon-day. Whilst Vasarj (q. v.) traced the great epochs of Italian art. from a biographical point of view only it is true, in his celebrated work ; the students of classical literature collected such expres- sions of opinion on artistic subjects as the wi ancients contained, and Palladio, Ligorio, i. and others measured ancient buildings and instituent members. In this way a vast of information on artistic subjects was bri together. But though the materials which might rved for a history of art were thus supplied, it was a long time afterwards before anything like- proper historical treatment arose; and the know- led of ancient art which had been gained, was applied t > their respective purposes by artists o one hand and philologists on the other. As regarded modern art, the biographieal method of Vasari was d to, and to this circumstance we are indebted for the innumerable artistic anecdotes which have been preservi d. The remarkable variations in style which exhibited thems een the loth and tnries, gave rise to a species of historical treat- ment which had for its object the discovery of the com- mon features by which the artists of the respective periods were distinguished. But the history of style, strictly speaking, begins with Winckelmann (q. v.), who was the tirst to divide ancient art into epochs, . trace its connection with the general h of human progress. It was from this period that the history of art came to be regarded as a branch of the history of civilisation. Even where the biographical method continued to be followed, it was henceforth with this difference that the division into schools took the place of mere chronological arrangement. The strongly classical tendency which exhibited itself towards the end of last century, and the romantic reaction and consequent admiration for the middle age which succeeded, though both must be reg irded as one-sided influences, had an imques- effect in calling attention to what was really great in the artistic productions of these lave periods ; and during the present century, the history of art has gradually assumed a more im- portant place as a department of general hist< iry. It was only in very recent times, however, that a com- plete artistic history appeared in Kugler's Handbook of Vie HUlory of Art, which has been partially ART EXHIBITIONS— ART UNIONS. translated into English, and edited by SirCharles East- il work, which isvery excellent, tie immense mass of material which the subject offered has been arranged in periods, and treated in such a manner as to present a sketch which is complete in itsi.ll, whilst at the Same time its connection with and dependence on general history, social, political, and philosophical, are carefully indicated throughout. Alongside of Kugler's history, that of Schnaase falls to be mentioned — a work less directed towards 18 of narration than to a philosophical and historical account of the origin of the \ styles, and tl Hon with each other. Kin- keTshi m art has unhappily ren incomplete. Waagen'a works on art and artists in ad, France, and the other countries by which Germany is surrounded, are the best artistic hand- ■ller. Those which have reference .land have been translated. There are many other historical works of importance on special departments and separate schools of art, monographs and the like, but, with the exception of Starling's ■of tit- ArtitU of Spain, and I- his Works, very few belong to our own literature. Alt? EXHIBITIONS. Public displays of the works of living artists, with the view of affording gratification and instruction to the community on the one hand, and on the other, of procuring pur- chasers for the works exhibited, have taken place in most of the principal towns of Europe, for more than a century and a half. Though now for the most part connected with Art Unions (q. v.), A. E. are thus in reality much older institutions. Still, as the offspring of a necessity which did not exist in earlier times, they are essentially modern. So long as artists were chiefly patronised either by the church, by their respective governments, or by indi- viduals of sovereign rank, their works were placed either in churches, in public buildings, or in palaces, and were thus continually exhibited to the public; but when private patronage came to be their chief support, and their works, if sold at all, were certain to i buried in private houses, the necessity for making arrangements by wliich they could be dis- to the public either before they were disposed of, or afterwards with the consent of their owners, became apparent. We have mentioned under Art Unions that, till aided by these latter institutions, A. E. for the most part did not succeed in effecting the objects which their promoters had in view. The it collective art exhibition was probably that of the members of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Rome; anything of the kind which had pre- being confined to the works of a lenticular artist and his pupils, enriched per- haps by a few contributions from his fri thing of this earlier character probably attached to these Roman exhibitions ; and the first art exhibition, in the sense in which we now under- stand it, seems to have been that of the French my in 1673. From 1745, down to the period of the Revolution, this exhibition, which from its commencement had been confined to the woj lie mbers of the took place biennially. During the Revolution it was thrown open to foreign artists, and in 1796 it was again made annual. An exhibition was attempted in England in lTiin, but it was not till lTii'.i that the regular exhibitions of the Royal Academy commenced. They have since gone on, not only without interruption, but with a .. The number of works exhibited in 17tl0 was only 130, the mini exhibitors being 69; in that of 1S.V.I there were works exhibited bj '.'Is artists. The annual revenue which the Academy derives from the fee of one shilling paid by each visitor has also been steadily increasin,- : in 1855 it amounted to about £8000. The exhibition of the Scottish Academy, which is the second in importance in this country, has since 1826, To turn, 178 works v. " ntributors ; the exhibition of 1859 consisted of 745 works, which were contributed by291 artists. The annual revenue of the Scottish Aca- demy derived from this source ex< Is i Jihmi. The only other exhibition of the same class in the United Kingdom is that of Dublin, which is support ed by an annual grant from government — the exhibitions of London ami Edinburgh being merely furnished with rooms . overnment expense. Several private societ ! i on, however, have exhibitions KCt similar objects, and conducted on similar princi- ples. Of! the British Institution, the Society of British Arti-ts. the National Institu- tion, the Society of Painters in Water-colours, and its rival, the New Society of Painters in Water-colours. There are also exhibitions in several of tli vincial towns, such as Manchi ■•• r, Liverpool^ Glas- gow, ike. On the continent, wherever an academy of art exists, there is now an exhibition, which takes place for the most part annually, but sometimes biennially. In New York there is a permanent exhibition of the works of DUsseldorf artists; and from thence they are frequently carried for exhibi- tion to the provincial towns of the Union. The London Exhibition of 1851, commonly known as the Oreai not only on a larger scale, but introduced new features into these displays. Though confined to industrial objects and works of art. it gave an impulse to A. E. strictly so called, which shewed itself almost simultaneously in the great international artistic exhibition of Brussels ; and even those exhibitions which have been formed more closely on its model — those of Dublin in 1853, and of New York in the same year — have not excluded the tine arts in any of their forms. See Exhibitions. ART UNIONS. Tliese institutions, which have for their object the promotion of a livelier interest in, and more liberal patronage of, the fine arts on the part of the general public, have gone far in modi in times to supply the place of that encourage- ment which, at an earlier period, they received from princes and prelal The origin of A. U, though claimed by the Germans, seems really to belong to the French, and to be traceable to the stirring days of the first Napoleon. From France they passed over into Belgium, where they at once took root, and established themselves even in the less important they were introduced into ay. The Art Union of Malini a dates from 1812, which is eleven years anterior to that of Munich. But it was in Germany that the importance results which A. U. were capable of produ- cing first became apparent, and it was from Germany that they were earned i: 1. The Art Union [KtmeCverein) oi Munich was established in 1823, and became the model of most of those which afterwards arose. The example of Munich was speedily followed (at the suggestion, we believe, of no less distinguished a personage than Alexander von Humboldt) by Berlin, and shortly thereafter by Dresden, I Breslau, Hallierstadt, *Vc. ; and m less than ten tie re were few of the largi r towns of Germany in which A. U. were not to be found. But the most important of all the A. U. of Germany is that which was established at DUsseldorf in 1829, for the Rhine provinces and Westphalia, The DUsseldorf Asso- ciation has aimed at higher objects than A. U. have usually had in view, either in Germany or in England, and has been instrumental in promoting the I tiou of monumental works of art of the highest ART UNIONS. I n the space of twenty yean Emm its insti- (1849), it had expended on works of art what in i lermany was i rued am of ■ I Ier8,equivali i ami had been the means of placing 24 altar-pi veil paintings on a large scale in public buildings, of which the frescoes in the council chambera at Elberfeld and at Aiz-la-Chapelle may at examples. The Associate lilorf also publishes an art M). Other associations nave imi- i.t without success, the Association of Due- seldorf in directing their attention to the promotion of great works. The Bohemian Association at i has been peculiarly meritorious in tins ; and those of Berlin and of commendation for the zeal with which the first promoted the erection of Kiss's magnifi- cent group of the Amazon on the Bteps of the \ln enm at Berl n, and the second urged on the completion of what already, in its nail I condition, is the greatest architectural monument of the cathi dral of I 'ologne. The linn iit of permanent galleries of art in the cities to which they respectively beloi I I in Germany as one of the higher A. U. ; and in this they have been recently followed in this country, as, for example, in Edinburgh. In Munich there is already a very noble collection of modern works of art, which have been brought together in this manner; and another of the same description is in course of formation in Berlin. lies also exist in Dresden. I Breslau, .Stettin, &c. Groups of associations have also been funned in Germany for the promotion and encouragement of extensive works. The v. group, or cycle, as it is called, includes Hanover, lebur ■. Halle, ( lutlia, Brunswick, and Cassel; the eastern, Danzig, Konigsburg, Stettin, &c. This arrangement, by which the influence of these associations on the highest class of art urn : be vastly augmented, seems worthy of imitation in this country. Scotland, as is not unusual where the suggestion comes from a continental somve. pive. ileii Engl in the establishment of A. U. ; the first that was formed in Britain being that of Edinburgh in L834. The cause of its introduction was not so much the hope of bettering the condition, as the necessity ef I l ing the utter extinction of everything beyond tive art. Portrait-painting continued to furnish the means of living to those who practised it with success; and those who represented familiar occupations or popular customs, i limited iment; but it was found that pre- cisely as the artist rose in the scale of artistic endea- vour, and tended in the direction of ideal art. the sympathy and interest of his countrymen, and sequently his own remuneration, declined. The I Academy "f London, and the academies which had been formed after tl del in Edinbur b and in Dublin, notwithstanding the annual exhibi- tions which they had institute 1. had entirely failed to remove this cvd. Private purchasers Wi to be found; and in Edinburgh it was calcn i ver more than £300, and sometimes as Uttle IS, were expended in the purchase of pictures exhibited by the Academy, and even th cant sums were usually paid for pictures of the very cla Ekewhere, matters were even worse. Mr Cash, a wit n ias examined before the select com- mittee of the House of Commons on A. V. in 1845, stated that previous to the establishment of the art union in Dublin, 'in four years, during the exhibition of the works of the Royal Hibernian Academy, 30*. only were expended on the patronage of art.' •Thirl} tell i i annually ?' asked the chai 'No, 1 replied the witness ; 'thirty shillu, entire si I ■.' Tin- . o el ili. Seotti nun was immediate; and to its founders the public are is no small d indebted for the I 9 which art has in this country during the last twenty years. 'A Qnua] fund,' says the .secretary, in bis state- ibove ineni i to the purchase of paintings and sculpture, and to the disseminatio l i edily I, which in tin- course of nine years amounted 1 i than £36 900. During the same p 771 paintings, 40 pieces of sculpt inc. and about 3 from engraved pi a distributed Of 1 'I inn.' .Sillee | li : muni funds of the Edinbur a A ... Mi . e inued steadily to increase; and itspromoti i < as the results of their disinten I i labours, have had in atisfaction to see a school of art spring up around them which is probably second to those of M and DUsseldorf alone. Our limits preclude ns from entering into I y of tl : hi r lies in n which have been fo i the model of the parent institution of Edinburgh ; but some conception of the success which has attended them tiered from the fact, that in l$5fl it was calculated that they had expended not less than the enormous sum of a million sterling on the incut, of art. In addition to this direct expenditure, what is a very remarkable, and was to most i probably an unexpected result, was, that the patron- private individuals, in place of diminishing, greatly increased, both in Edinburgh and I Ion, the ] in. Before concluding etch ot the rise of these very remarkable insti- , it is proper to mention the art union of New- York, i I in 1838, which now support galleries with works of art in that city, and the members of which have had the wisdom to establish an intimate relation and lively ol works between their own institution and that of DUssel- dorf. As regards the constitution of A. tj., the follow- ing arrangements may be stated to he common to them all. Each member, in return Eor an annual contribution (in Britain, usually a guinea), receives i nt, which acts as his ticket in the loth iv by which the vvorl i of art, pur- with the sum thus contributed, are distri- buted ' II;. , a fix I proportion ol the contributions is retained and devoted to the preparation of an ei ig, which is 1 to those who have drawn blanks in the totti ry. The engraving is usually executed by a local engraver, after a work of the local school intended to be patronised. The association further makes provi ion tor an exhibition, either permanent, as at Munich, or annual, as in London and I'din- i consisting mainly of the works of local though most associations now admit those of \ diversity of practice has existed as to the mode of distributing the funds of the unions, and much controversy has taken place l.etv n their is. The tirst, common on the con- tin, at, and adopted in Edinburgh, consists in putting the wl collected for each year into the hands of a committee of gentlemen, win i for their supposed aesthetic acquirements and impar- tiality, and requesting them to select the pictun other works of art afterwards to be distributed to 1 be subscribers by lot ; the second is the London plau of distributing the money itself by lot, and then per- mitting, or rather compelling, the prize-holders to expend it on the pictures exhibited, the selection of the pictures, however, being left to their own taste ARTA— ARTEMISIA. and judgment. If the object of these institiii to culti higher than that which exists in the general community for the time being, the advantages of the first over the Second of these modes of distribution seem scarcely to admit of ques- tion. The subject was eagerly canvs i Ih orethe select committee to whose labours we b referred, and their report was to the effect that the constitution of the Ed ociation was pre- ferable t" that of the London Union. The principle ..I' Hi- A. U., under some modifications, but retaining itribution of prizes by lot, has been extended , '^ of art manufactures, but not lull! .1., with the success which has attended it when limited to the fine arts, strictly so called. See EutLmmoNB. A'RTA, the ancient Amfrraa'a, a town of Albania, in hit. :;!!' 8' NT., and long. 20" 50' I ■:., seven miles from the northern coast of the gulf to which it gives name, and thirty-nine miles south from Janina. It stands on the left bank of the river Arta, tin! ancient AractMs, whence the modern name. It is tie' see of a bishop, and is governed by a bey. It I... ; i con ideral le trade, and some manufactures, chiefly of cloths ami leather; thefloccata, or 'shaggy . m ,' alluded to in Byron's earlier poems, is , esteemed ; but the town has never recovered in mi tlir disasters of 1828, when it was stormed by the (link patriots under Marco Botzaris. Portions of the old walls, which were of great strength, and th,- foundations of the Acropolis, are the only .if Hellenic times. Remains of the lower ■ ist in a convent founded 845 a.d. by the Empress Theodosia. The ancient city of Ambracia, founded by a Corin- thian colony about 63.5 B.C., was at one time a flourishing independent state, with a considerable 1 1 1 1 limy. It was ruined in the struggle with the Ainphiloehians. and subsequently became subject til lulqi of Macedon. Pyrrhus made it the capital of Epirus, after which it fell into the hands of the . EH . ili .in i, and lastly of the Romans. A'UTA, Gulf of, an arm of the Ionian Sea, 25 miles long and 10 wide, forming part of the boundary In tween Turkey and Greece. Under its ancient name of the Ambraciot Gulf (.S'/hh.i Arnbra- cius), it separated Epirus and Acamania. At its entrance on the south is the promontory of La Punta, the ancient Actium (q. v.). ARTABA'ZUS, the name of several distinguished Persians in . of the Achsemenidae. When Xerxes e Lva used against Greece, A. led the Par- tisans and Ohorasmx At a later period be warned Mardonius, but in vain, against engaging in battle at Plata a ; ami on the first indications 01 dl withdrew his own division, amounting to 40,01'" mi a, from the field, and succeeded, though with great difficulty, in forcing his waj through the wilds of ily, Macedonia, tod Thrace to Byzantium, where be oro d to ^suv Subsequently, he acted rotiator between the Spartan Pausanias and .Xerxes.- Another A. was general under the Persian king, Artaxerxes Me , and revolted \ii.a ■.. i es Ochus in 356B.O. For this offence he appears to have been forgiven ; and subsequently we find 1 accompanying King Darius after the battle of Arbela. Alexander rewarded his fidelity by appointing him satrap of Bactria, AKTAN'I'lIi:. See Math o. All TA.XI'.'RXES, the name of several P A. I., Burnamed Longimanut, the second son of Xerxes, escaped from the cons])iracy of Artaban and others, and ascended the tin in 465 b.c. His long reign, extending to 425. was marked by a decline of power. — A. II., surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his fathi I 1 If., in 406 is. <: Alt. r gaining the victory over hi« brother < 'yrus, he involved in war with Sparta, which ■ with the Antalcidean Treaty of Peace. He died in' 361. — A. III., surnamed Ochua, was the son and .ii the true style of oriental i 838 B.C, < me of his most daring exploits took place in Egypt) where he caused the divine bull Apia 1 slaughtered and cooked as ordii, . \. III. was poif I in 338 by hi em h Bagoas. It is said that his flesh was eaten by cats, and that hilts Hilars were m kde of hi bon .. ...under of the new Persian dynasty of the Rnwianidir (which ml. il from A.D. 226 to 651) was nam ARTEDI, Petf.i:, a celeb] was born on the 22d of February 1705, at Aniunl, in the province of inland, Sweden. I first designed for the church, and en1 red the mm i r: ity ni l ]. al ■'. intending to pursue thi course of philosophy and theology ; but he soon abandoned all thought of the ministry, and b himself to medicine. In 1728, Linns as went to Upsala, to study the same science, and a intimacy sprung up between the young men. They worked together, and to a certain extent, on the prin- ciple of a division of labour. Physiology, chemistry, and mineralogy they pursued in common; but to t'u A. added ichthyology, and Linmeus orni- thology and entomology. In 1734, A. saded for England, and Linnsus went to Lapland, each having made the other his heir and [A. iimriliinti, including a variety which has been called A. Qattica), a native of salt- marshes in Britain and other parts of Europe, possesses similar , : , and is occasionally used for the same purposes ; as also Roman Wm;«- wool. [A. Pontica), & native of the middle and south of Europe, but not of Britain Taetabiah Wokm- wooi) (A. Sanlonica), a native of Tatary, Persia, and other parts of the East; and Inhian WORMWOOD [A. Iniica), a native of the Himalaya, abounding at Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium). elevations of 2000 — G000 feet. Indian wormwood grows to tin- height of 12 feet. It is considered in India a powerful deobstruent and antispae lie. Tree Wormwood (.1. arborescent), a native of the south of Europe and the Levant, is also larger and more shrubby than the common wormwood, which, in characters and qualities, it much resembles. — The dried flower-buds of a number of species of A. are sold under the names of WoSMBEKD and of Semen Contra, Semen Cina?, Semcncine, &c, and have long 448 been in much repute as an anthelmintic. A. Santowica, and A. Sieberi (or .1. Contra), a native of I'alestine, are believed to yield much of the worm- eed which is brought from the Levant, also A. Judaica, a native of the East and of Barbary, which is regarded as the principal source of the Barbary wormseed. The Bower-buds of .1. glomer- ata, A. Lerchicaui, and A. poMciJlora, natives of the banks of the Vo]e a , ;l iv also said to form pari of the wormseed of the shops ; and those of A. VMiana arc collected in the northeast of Persia, and form the Semen Cina Levanticum or Semen Cinct in grains. The Bower-buds of .1. oteruleseens, a Mediterranean plant, which is said to have been found on the sea- coasi of England, form the anthelmintic called Semen Si riphn or Barbotine. Those of .1. camphoraia, another native of the south of Europe, are used in the same way. Even those of A. Absinthium and A. vulgaris are used under the name of worm ed. The plants from which the bitter aromatic liquor called tkctrait, Eau, or Crime d? absinthe is prepared, arc small low'-growing species of A. (A. mutellina, A. glacialis, A. rupestris, A. spicala, fee.), found on the Alps, and known to the inhabitants of the Alps by the name of Oenipi. 'This liqueur, generally diluted with water, is sometimes used by persons so devoted to the pleasures of the table that they cannotwait for the natural return of appetite, and also by those who really suffer IV weakness of diges- tion. It is a useful and agreeable stomachic, and is very popular in France.- Mugwort (A. vulgaris), a common native of Britain and of the I tinent of Europe, often found about ruins and in waste places, grows to the height of 3—4 feet, with pinnatitid leaves and somewhat racerucd small (lowers, which have each five florets of the ray. It emits, when rubbed, an agreeable smell, and has a bitter taste In Germany, the young shoots and leaves are used in cookery for seasoning. It is used also for the same medicinal purposes as wormwood, but is weaker. Its leaves, and those of some of the other species, are used as fomentations for cleansing and healing wounds. — SOUTHERNWOOD (A. Abrotanum) is a shrubby plant with long straight stems, 3 — 4 feet high, the lower leaves bipinnate, upper leaves pinnate, their si i ts hair-like. It is a native of this south of Europe and middle parts of Asia, and has long been a favourite plant in cottage- gardens in Britain. It lias an aromatic and pleasant odour. The leaves are used to drive away moths from linen; and in some parts of the continent of Europe, as an ingredient in the manufacture of beer. The smell of this plant appears to be pecu- liarly disagreeable to bees, which retreat from it; and a little branch of southernwood is sour efficaciously used when they arc swarming, to pro- mote their ascent into the new hive placed over them. — Tarragon (A. Dracuncvlus) is a perennial plant, a native of Siberia, which has also long been cultivated in gardens in Britain. It has a branching Stem 1 1 '. feet high, with narrow leaves. It is fragrant, and has an aromatic smell and taste. The leaves and tinder tips are a favourite ingredient in pickles. An infusion of the plant in vinegar is used as a fish-sauce. — The leaves of A. Maaer- anjiatana are regarded in India as a valuable sto- machic, and are also used in anodyne fomentations. — Moxa (q. v.) is prepared by the Chinese from the leavi s of A. Moxa and other species, the whole surface of wdiose leaves is covered with a thick down. — A. acetica, a Persian species is said to have a strong odour of vinegar. A'RTERY (Lat. aer and terO), named from the old idea that these tubes were air-carriers. Arteries are the vessels through which the blood passes from the left side of the heart to the tissues. The structure ai:ti:i;y— ARTESIAN WELLS. of an arterial tube is very complex, and a section of it may 1"- roii'_dily subdivided into three layers, called the coats of the artery : an external, which is ■ V Subdivisions of Arterial Wall ""'• dj } interna!. 0. Fibrous, V. Fenestrated, 6. Areola ':} 3. Muscular, ) „;..,. •i. Elaatio, ) m,ddle - external. and distensible; a middle, which is muscular, con- tractile, and brittle ; an internal, also brittle, smooth, and transparent, being lined with epithelium on the gidewa bed by the blood. The tube is also en v in cellular tissue, termed the sheath of the A. When an A. is wounded by a sharp instrument, the effect varies with the direction of the cut. Thus, if idin.il, the edges may not separate, and the wound may heal without much bleeding; if oblique or transverse, the edges gape, and a nearly circular orifice allows of a profuse hemorrhage. If the A. bo completely divided, its walls do not collapse like those of a win, but puss through certain changes provided by nature to prevent fatal bleeding. 'I he cut orifice contracts, and also retracts into its cellular sheath; this checks the Bow of blood, a clot of which shortly forms on the outer .side; then another forma inside the vessel ; and together, they the Bow, till the cut edges of the A. have ( to throw out lymph (see \mh ion), and heal as wounds of ot; When an A. is com- pressed by a ligature, the brittle inner and middle coats crack, curl inwards, and heal. See Hi.m D1NQ, The arteries of the human body are all offsets, more or less direct, of the aorta. As each main trunk i : into a portion of the body, it divides into two principal divisions: one, which breaks up into branches for the supply of the tissues in the vicinity —the A. of supply ; and another, which passes almost hrani I i supply the parts beyond — the A. of transmission. These, however, anastomose (q. v.) freely, so that the distant tissues are not solely dependent for their supply on only one arterial trunk. Thus, the femoral A. divides in the groin into the profunda, or ■ I, to supply thigh, and the ' femoral, to supply the leg below the ha n, the common carotid divides into external carotid, to supply the neck and 1 and the in'' run! carotid, to supply the brain. Although arteries have generally the same distri- bution or arrangement of branches! they occasionally vary, and thereby are apt to puzzle a I anatomist. Mr Thomas Sunn of I. on. Ion. an excel- lent human anatomist, lias lately shewn that these .'i alies in arterial distribution are all governed by the law of arterial distribution just mention d, a fact which not only simplifies the study of ai anatomy, but assists the operative surgeon out of p. i pie one p.' .i • Che princi] will be considered under their distinctive names. The best 29 authority on arteries is the splendid work of E. Quain. ABTE'SIAN WELLS are perpendicular borings into the ground, through which water rises, from various depths, according to circumstances, above of the soil. hty of obtaining water in this way in a particular district depends on its geological structure. All rocks contain mi less water. ins rocks receive water mecha- nically, and according to their compactness and purity, part with a larger or smaller proportion of it. A cubic yard of pure sea-sand can contain, in addi- tion to the quantity of dry sand wl s that about one-third of its bulk of water. It. part with nearly the whole of this into a well sunk in it, and regularly pumped from. Chalk and rocl . composed of fine particles, closely compacted r. contain as large a proportion of water ; but from the power of capillary attract i none of this water would be drained into a well sunk in such rock. From the existence, however, of numerous crevices in chalk through which the water freely ilows, and from the general presence of a larger quantity of water than the porous rock is able to retain, wells sunk in chalk often yi Id water. There is yet a third clas3 of rocks, which are perfectly impervious to water: such are clays, which arc absolutely retentive, neither allowing water to be obtained from them nor to pass through them. When such rocks occur in Basins (q. v.) 1 in such order that pervious impervious ones, it is evident that if a perforation is made through the retentive barrier-bed in the lower portion of the basin, the water contained in the v. strata will rise through the bore to a height rj ing upon the pressure of water which has ae latcd in the confined sloping space betwi ■ impervious beds. The explanation will be more evident by a reference to the accompanying which may be con a diagrammatic : of the London basin. There is here a number of porous beds, b, b, composing the cretaceous mea resting on the impervious gault, aa, and Section of the London Basin. again, arc covered by tb i i qually impervious series of the London clay, ee, which form the strata on the surface, and extend to i hie depth. Che ed of the chall in the higher grounds around London ; the water falling - bole area of these exposed i sinks into the moi and would, in course of time, by continued accessions, till up the basin, were it not prevented by the clay above. J'.y driving a lore. such a force as to be propelled 88 the surface. The pressure required to ell'ect this ha calculated to exceed 50 atmo me bottom of the bore. The water has a constant temperature ol M 7 F. It is believed that the Chinese have been long it. .1 with artesian wells. They have been in r centuries in Austria, especially in the ■ bourhood of Vienna, where they are very abundant. No knowledge existed as to their source, and conse- v the boring'for them m en ed in and conducted in a rude and empirical manner. An ■nun was made till a bed of clay was reached ; on this a perforated mill-stone was laid, and through the hole the clay was bored until water rose. As soon as geology took the position of a science, and the theory of A. W, was propounded, the engineer was able, after the geological survey of a district, to discover whether a supply of water could there be obtained in this way. A] districts formerly dry and arid have received a plentifid supply of water by means of such wells, and many more applications have yet to be made : it seems likely that erelong Africa's deserts may thus be converted into fertile plains, In an official report of the Algerian government for 1S56— 1857. it is stated that artesian borings have been executed in the Sahara of the province of Constantino with remarkable success. The first attempt, after a few weeks' labour, produced a constant si forming a perfect river, and yielding 4010 quarts of water per minute, at a temperature of 78° F. Several other wells have been sunk with equal success. The result is likely to be beneficial not only to the country materially, but also to the character and habits of its nomadic Arab inhabitants. Several tribes have already settled down around these wells, and forming thus the centres of settlements, have constructed villages, planted date-palms, and entirely renounced their previous wandering existence. A. \Y. have supplied a portion of the data upon ■which the internal temperature of the earth lias been calculated. They have their origin below that zone which is affected by the changing sup' rature of the seasons, aud consequently the water is of a constant temperature. Thus the Grenelle artesian well has a temp; rature of 81° 7 F., while the mean temperature of the air in the cellar of the Paris Observatory is only 53°. MM. Arago and Walferdin observed the temperature as the Work proceeded, and found that there was a gradual and regular increase downwards. The latter gentleman has recently made a series of very accurate and careful observations on the temperature of two borings at Creuzot, within a mile of each other, commencing at a height of 1030 feet above the Bea, and going down to a depth, the one of 2678 feet, the other about 1900 feet. The results, after every possible caution had been taken to insure correctness, gave a rise of 1° F. for every 65 f« t down to a depth of 1800 feet, beyond which the rise was more rapid, being 1° for every 44 feet of descent. ARTEVELDE, Jacob, a brewer of Ghent, cele- brated as a popular leader in the 14th c. In the war between England and France, he gave his aid to the former, while the counts of Flanders sup- ported the latter. A., after gaining great advantages over the party of the nobles, went too far when ne proposed that the son of Edward III. of England should be elected Count of Flanders. For this the Flemings were not prepared, and, in consequence, A. was" killed in a popular insurrection, August 10, ISO II' son Philip, in 1881, was leader of tho I of Ghent in their civil war against Bl and gained a victory over Count Louis. The Eterwards assisted by Charles VI. of France, and l'hdip A. was defeated and slain in the battle of Rosbeke, 13S2. The history of A. has bei D times treated dramatically. In England, Henry Taylor, a living writer of eminence, has produi beautiful ' closet-play,' entitled Philip Van Art A/BTHTJB, Kino of the tribe of ancient I Silures, lived in the beginning of the 6th e. He i round him the remains of the British tribes, now driven into the west of England, and bravi ly defended the liberty and faith of his people a the encroaching and conquering pagan A nglo-c! under Cerdic. Lancashire and the north-west seems to have been the scene of the first part of his cs afterwards it lay in the south, where he fought the battles of Llongborth, supposed to be Portsmouth, and Badon, identified by some with Bath. In a battle with his own nephew, Modrcd, who bad revolted, fought on the Camlan, in Cornwall, in 642, A. was mortally wounded, and being conveyed to Glastonbury, died, and was buried there (in insula Avalonia). Tradition preserved the memory of tho place of bis interment; and Giraldus Cambrensia relates that he was present when the tomb was opened by command of Henry II., and the bones and sword of the monarch found. Thus much may, perhaps, be received as history. But this last struggle of the Celtic peoples before they were nationally extinguished, became the groundwork of a multitude of heroic legends, which spread from Wales and Bretagno (Armories the whole Romanic and Teutonic worlds, and for centuries furnished favourite themes for the poets of the middle ages. In the lays of the Welsh bards, supposed to he as early as the Gth and 7th cen- times (although no manuscript is extant of older date than the 12th a), the national hero A. and his brave companions arc celebrated. It is in tho chronicles of the 9th c. (Nennius) that the li ary additions begin to develop themselves, and the magician Merlin comes into association with A. According to the romances, A.'s father, Uther, con- ceiving a passion for Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, was changed by Merlin into the like- ness of Gorlois, and A. was the result. After his father's death, A. became paramount leader of tho British, vanquished the Saxons in a number of battles, and made victorious expeditions to Scotland, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and even to 1 where he defeated a great Roman army. During his absence, his nephew, Modred, revolted, and seduced Ginevra or Guinevere, Prince A.'s wife. A. return- ing, fell in a battle with his nephew ; but ace' to popular belief, he is not dead; his sold went into a raven, and he will yet reappear. His habitual residence was at Caerleon, on the Usk, in Wales, where, with his beautiful wife Guinevere, he lived in Splendid state, surrounded by hundreds of knights and beautiful ladies, who served as patterns of valour, breeding, and grace to all the world. Twelve knights, the bravest of the throng, formed the centre of this retinue, and sat with the king at a round table — the ' Knights of the Bound Table.' From the court of King A. there also went knights to all countries in search of adventures — to protect women, chastise oppressors, liberate the enchanted, enchain giants and malicious dwarfs, was their knightly mission. The description of these adventures, the scene of many of which is laid in what is still called the Brazilian forest in Bretagne, forms the subject of the innumerable romances about A. and his knights that abounded in all the languages of the A Welsh collection of stories called the ARTHUR'S SEAT— ARTICLE. Afabinogion, supposed to !>o of the 14th c, ami lately translated into Engl b by Lady Charlotte Guest, gives an idea of the Arthurian legends that circulated in the native land of tile In France, whither the subject first found its way, the 'knights of the round table' became the ideal of that splendid and courtly chivalry, which there reached its acme in the 12th c. Early in that century, the chivalric romancee of France became known in Germany, and there the rather lifeless and wearisome matter of the Arthurian legends assumed a more animated and artistic form in the Pnr-iral <,f Wolfram of Eschcnbach, '/ I tolt of Gottfried of Strasburg, Bret and Iva in of llartmann, and Wigcdois of Wirnt. The most renowned of the heroes of the Arthurian school are Peredui (I'arzival or Perceval), Tristan or Ti Iwein, Erec, Oawcin, Wigalois, Wigamur, Cauriel, and Lancelot. From France, the Arthurian romances spread also to Spain, Provence, Italy, and the Nether- lands, and were also retransplantcd into England. It was only towards the end of the middle ages that these legends made their way through Germany to the Norse and Slavonic ] pies. As early as the midiUe of the 12th c., Geoffrey of Monmouth (q.v.) — pro- fessing to translate from a history of Britain written in the British tongue, and found in Armorica or Brittany, but more probably himself weaving into a kind of connected history the popular tales current in Wales, of which he was a native, and in Armo- rica — had written the story of King Arthur in Lntin prose, but without many of the embellishments it subsequently received from the Romancers. One of the publications that issued from the press of Caxton (14S5), was a collection of stories by Sir Thomas Malory, either compiled by him in English, from various of the later French romances (such as The Prophecies of Merlin ; The Quest of the St Graal; The llomance of Sir Lancelot of the Lake; The i if , Sir Tristram, &c). or translated directly from an already existing French compendium. A reprint of Caxton's Kynge Arthur, with an intro- duction and Notes, by Robert Southey, was issued in 1S17 {The Ilyrth, Life, and Actes of Kyng Arthur; of his Noble KnyglUes of Vie Sound Table, &c, 2 vols. 4to). The name of King A. was given during the middle ages to many places and monu- ments supposed to have been in some way associated with his exploits, such as ' Arthur's Seat' near Edinburgh, 'Arthur's Oven' on the Carron near Falkirk, &e. What was called the sepidchre of his queen was shewn at Meigle, in Strathniore, in the 16th c. The interest of the legends about Kin,' A. and his knights has recently been revived by the publication of Tennyson's Idylls of t/ie King (1869). See Turner's History of the A nglo-Saxons, Appendix ; Warton's History of English Poetry; RitBon s King Arthur; Do la Villemarque, Conies Populaires dee i Bretons (2 vols., Paris, 1842) ; Grasse, Die Orosse Sagenkreise des Afittetalters (Leip. 1842). ARTHUR'S SEAT, a hill in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh, which rises to the height of t above the level of the sea. The ascent is easy, and the prospect from the top unrivalled A. S. is supposed to derive its name [ram the British king of that name. When the hill r. this appellation is not known; but as early as the close of the 15th c, Kennedy, the Scotch poet, mentions ' Arthur Sate or ony hicher hill.' The hill is formed of a mass of trap of various species, upheaved through the oarboniferous strata 01 Central Scotland, and presenting on the Wl i- and south sides, at the height of 570 feet, a perpen- dicular range of precipices, called Salisbury Cl 60 to 80 feet high. The trap is in tabular masses, and has elevated and hardened the carboniferous sandstone, shale, and limestone beds, which dip east, and crop out on the das being broken through and overflowed by the trap-rocks. In the centre of the hill, the trap often encloses fragments of sandstone, and divides it by veins. The central and upper part of the hill, and the remarkable columns called 'Samson's Bibs,' consist of basalt To determine the density of tie- earth, a series of observations was made in 1855 by Lieutenant-colonel James of the Ordnance Survey, on the attraction of A. S., or the amount of deviation from the vertical caused by its mass on the plumb-line. Calculation made the mean density of the whole earth (water being 1), or about twice the mean specific gravity of the rocks forming the hill, which experi- ment gave as 2710. ARTICHOKE [C'ynara Scolymus), a thistle-like perennial plant, now growing wild in the south of Europe, but probably a native of Asia. The genus Gynara belongs to the natural order Composite, sub- order Cynarocephala; and is distinguished by the bracts of the involucre being fleshy at the base-, and emarginate, with a hard point, and the receptacle fringed. C. Scolymus has the radical leaves 3 — i feet ■ Artichoke. (Head of flowers.) long, somewhat spiny, some of them pinnatifid, some undivided The stem is two or three feet high, branched, with large heads of violet-coloured | times white) thistle-like flowers at tie summits of the branches. The involucre is tumid, and consists of fleshy, roundish-ovate, crenate, acu- minate, imbricated scales. The seeds are ilongatcd and quadrangular, with smooth and firmly attached pappus. The plant has been Ion- eultiv.it. d for the sake of the delicate succulent receptacles of the heads of flowers, taken before the flowers expand, which are boiled and eaten, or, on the continent of Europe, eaten raw with suit and pepper. The part used is Inch is called the cheese in thistles by children, and is sometimes e:. ten by them. The tender central leaf-Stalk is also occasionally Used in the same way as that of the Cardoon. Several vai are in cultivation, differing in the more 01 spiny leaves, and the more or less globose form of the head. Artichokes are generally propagated by rooted slips or suckers in spring. 'I hese are ] is rows about four feet asunder, and two feet apart in the row. Tie- A. bed continues productive for several d is an excellent manure.— v.) belongs to the same genus. — The .li i:i -ah i A. (q.V.) is a totally different plant. ARTICLE (Lat. aiiiculus, a joint) signifies in ill ARTICLE— ARTICLES OF WAR. general a part of a systematic whole. Thus, we apeak of the several articles of a confession; the articles of war; a leading article, &c. The use of A. as a grammatical term arose as follows. In such a sentence as, • II. ■ found that (or the) man that he was looking for,' the Greeks con- ! die defining particles as connecting the two parts of the sentence, and called them joil ■. Lat. artiatli) ; the name was subsequently confined to the first of the two, the other being called the relative. In English, there are two articles — thedefin and the indefinite a or an; and other modern languages have correspond in,' words. But articles arc not essential to language. Hie Latin had no articles, and the Greek, as well as the older < lermanic M Gothic and Old Noise, e.g., had only the definite A. ' In no language,' says Dr Latham, ' in its oldest stage, is then giving, in its primary sense, the idea of an or of the. As tongues become modern, some word with a >/• sense is used to express the relation. In the course of time, a change of form takes place, corresponding to the change of men The definite articles originate uniformly in demon- strative pronouns. Eng. lite is only a weakened funn of tliat (Anglo-Sax. that). The same is the case with md Fr. le, Ital. il and lo, and Sp. el, are all from the Lat. tile, 'that.' In like manner, an or a is from the old form of one (ane) ; Ger. ein is M and a ; and so are Fr. ten, Ital. and Sp. uno, both from Lat. unus = one. In the Scandinavian tongues, the article is attached to the end of the word; the Danish, for example, I lie kinu' ; hus-et, the house. A'KTICXES OF V7AB are regulations made for the government of the military and naval forces of the country. Tliey are of three classes — 1. Those relating to the army, including therein the forces in according to the provisions of the 21 and 22 Vict. c. 106 ; 2. Those relating to the marine forces ; and 3. Those relating to the navy. I. .1. of IT. for the Army. — These are ! I OD8 or ordinances issued under the authority of anual MrrnNY Aci (q. v.), and which Articles that act provides shall be judicially taken notice of by all judges and in all courts whatsoever ; and copies of the same printed by the Queen's printer shall, as soon as may be after the same shall have beeniua'l" and established by Her Majesty, be trans- mitted by Her Majesty's Secretary-at-war to the : of Her Majesty's superior courts at West- minster, Dublin, and Edinburgh respectively, and also to the governors of Her Majesty's dominions abroad ; provided that no person within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or within the British Isles, shall by such A. of W. be subject to be kept in penal servitude, or to suffer any punishment extending to life or limb, except for crimes which the act expressly declares shall be so punishable. And for the enforcement of such A. of W., a power is given to the crown to erect, or grant authority to convene, courts-martial with the jurisdiction to try and punish offences according to the Articles themselves and the provisions of the Mutiny Act. In order, however, to limit as far as possible the power conceded to the crown in this matter, it is enacted that nothing therein contained shall be construed to exempt any officer or soldier from being proceeded against by the ordinary course of law ; and that where he is accused of any offence against a subject of the realm, punishable by the known laws of the land, he shall be delivered over to the civil magistrate. The military offences against which these A. of W. are directed, relate to the soldier's duties and obligations ; to crimes and offences and their punishments ; to couits-martial ; and to military rank. The military crimes and offences referred to are those against divine worship, mutiny, and insubordination, desertion and absence without leave, offences in the field, camp, garrison, or quarters j drunkenness, disgraceful conduct, false p turns, billets and carriages, and miscellaneous ■-. By the 3d of these Articles it is ordered that every recruit shall, within ninety-six hours after recruiting, have the 40th* and 46th of the Articles read to him, and shall, within ninety-six hours, but not sooner than twenty four hour-. the following oath before some qualified authority : '/ do make oatli. That J xcill be faithful and true allegiance to her Majesty, / will, as in duty bound, honestly and faith- fully defend her Majesty, her heirs and successors, in person, crown, and dignity, against all enemies, ana "-ill observe and obey all orders of her Mi her heirs and successors, and of the g< officers set over me. So help me Ood.' Tin- 160th article also deserves notice. It is to the effect, that whenever any military forces shall have embarked on board ships of war or transports, the officers and soldiers of such forces shall, from the time of embarkation on board ship, strictly conform themselves to the laws and regulations established for the government and discipline of the ship ; and shall consider themselves, for these necessary pur- poses, under the command of the senior officer of th" particular ship, as well as under the superior officer of the fleet (if any), to which such ship belongs. See A. of W. for the Marine Forces. 2. . I . of W. for the Marine Forces are the regulations made under the authority of another annual Mutiny hich relates exclusively to the royal marine forces ; but, unlike the A. of W. for the army, they do not issue directly from the crown, but ar> by the Lord High Admiral of the navy, or by the commissioners for executing that office, and they are ly authorised so : t sec- tion of the last-mentioned Mutiny Act. With this exception, they are in themselves very much the same as the A. of \\ T . for the army. They relate exclusively, hov< iver.to the marine forces while on ialty is very anxiously expressed in the preamble of the act, which proceeds on the recital that ' the said forces may frequently be quar- tered, or be on shore, or sent to do duty, or be on board transport-ships, or merchant-ships, or ve or they may be under other circumstances in which they will not be subject to the laws relating to the government of Her Majesty's forces by sea.' Of course, while on board, and doing duty in any of lb r Majesty's ships or vessels in commission, the marines, like the other naval forces, are subject to the A. of W. made for the government of the navy. .3. A. of IF. for the Navy. — In regard to such articles or regulations, the navy is differently situ- ated. Unlike the army or the marine forces on shore, the navy is not controlled or governed by any annual Mutiny Act, but the A. of W. relating to it are contained in, and expressly enacted by, an old act of parliament, the 22 Geo. II. c. 33, which, with some slight alterations, still supplies the law of the sea-service. The first naval A. of W. authorised by parliament were those contained in the 13 Chas. II. c. 9, which was said to have been drawn up by Admiral Montague, afterwards Earl of Sandwich, with the approbation of Lord Chancellor Clarendon and other distinguished members of the privy council. • This is evidently a mistake, for the 40th article relates to the misconduct or commissioned chaplains. It would appear to be more reasonable that the articles to be read to the recruit should be those relating to mutiny and insubordination, being from the 41st to the 46th inclusive. ARTICLES, THE SIX— ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, But that statute and its subsequent supple- mentary acts were all repealed liy th.; -J.: i:. i II. c. 33. See Mr Prendergast's Law of iht Xai-u, 1852, Part I., p. 15. ARTICLES, THE SIX, often mentioned in the ecclesiastical history of England in the 10th c, were articles imposed by act of parliament in 1539, when Henry VI 1 1, being displeased with some of the bishops most favourable to the Reformation, their opponents for a time regained the ascendency. These A. asserted the doctrine of transubstant declared communion in both kinds not to be neces- sary, condemned the marriage of priests, enjoined the continued observance of vows of chastity, and sanctioned private masses and auricular confession. The act imposing them was popularly called 'the six-stringed whip.' Severe penalties were appointed for writing or speaking against them, and for abstaining from confession or the sacrament at the accustomed times, for priests failing to put away their wives, and for persons writing or speaking against the doctrine of transubstantiation. Arch- p Cranmer vainly opposed the act in the House of Lords : the king was resolute to have it passed. Its severity was mitigated by a subsequent act of his reign (1544), and although it continued substan- tially unrepealed, it was transgressed with impunity even by ecclesiastical dignitaries. ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, are the articles of religion which were agreed upon by the archbishops and ; of both provinces and the whole clergy in the convocation held at London in the 4th year of Elizabeth, 1562, under Archbishop Parker. To have a clear view of the liistory of these im- portant articles, we must go back to the promul- gation of the original ones, forty-two in number, in the reign of Edward VI. Tile council appointed by the wifl of Henry YJII. to conduct the govern- ment during the king's minority, was for the most part favourably disposed towards the Reformed opinions, and the management of church affairs devolved almost entirely upon Archbishop Cran- mer. In the year 1549, an act of parliament was 1. empowering the king to appoint a commis- sion of 32 persons, to make ecclesiastical laws. Under this act, a commission of S bishops, 8 divines, liana, and 8 lawyers (amongst whom were Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper, Coverdale, Scory, Peter Martyr, Justice Hales. 4c.) was appointed in 1551, and one of its first acts was to draw up a code of articles of faith. These were forty-two in number, and were set forth by the king's authority in 1553. Strype and Burnet make it appear that these forty- two articles were agreed upon in the convocation that was sitting in 1552, but this was not the case. Fuller, speaking in his quaint way of this convoca- tion, declares that it had 'no commission from the king to meddle with church business, and,' he adds, 'every convocation in itself is born deaf and dumb, so that it can neither hear nor speak con- I complaints in religion till first Bfhphatha, "Be thou opened," be pronounced unto it by royal authority. However,' he continues. ' this ion is entitled the parent of those forty-two articles which arc printed with this title, Articuli (/<; quibus in Synodo Londinensi 1552 a. i>. intn-r aKot eonceneral' To these a was prefixed the Catechism, and there is no > Of ( 'ranner having had the principal hand in their composition ; for he owned before Queen Mary's commission that they were his doing. But immedi- ately after their publication, Edward died, and one of the first acts of the convocation summoned with the parliament in the lirst year of ' Mary, was to declare that these forty-two articles had not been set forth by the agreement of that House, and that they did not agree thereto. In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her sister. In 1559, Pari, installed in the sec of Canterburv, an.l immediately the other vacant Sees were tilled op And now came a fresh opportunity of drawing up some articles of faith which might serve as a test of orthodoxy in the i. ied Church. Parker applied himself to this work, and for the purpose, revised the forty-two i of King Edward, rejecting four of "them entirely, and introducing four new ones, viz., tl 12th, 29th, and 30th as they now Hand, and alter- ing more or less seventeen others. This draft i laid before the convocation which met in 1562, further alterations were made; and .. 40th, and 42d of King Edward's, which treated of the resurrection, the intermediate state, and the doctrine of the final salvation of all men, were finally rejected. The 41st of King Edward's, which condemned the Millcnarians, was one of the four which Parker omitted. Thus the articles were reduced to thirty- nine. They were drawn up and ratified in Latin, but when they were printed, 33 was done both in Latin and English, the 29th was omitted, and so the number was further reduced to thirty-eight From these thirty-eight there was a further omis- sion, viz., of the first half of the 20th article, which declares that ' the church hath power to rites and ceremonies, and hath authority in contro- 9 of faith.' As all the records of convoca- tion perished in the great fire of 1GGG. it is very dilticult to ascertain how these omissions arose. However, in 1571, the articles once more under- went revision. Archbishop Parker and Bishop Jewel made a few trifling alterations, and th 2 being restored, the convocation which w, sitting ratified them both in Latin and English, and an act of parliament was passed in that year com- pelling the clergy to subscribe ' such of them as only concern the confession of the true Christian faith, and the doctrine of th : its.' There still, however, remained some difficulty as to which was the authorised copy, some of the copies being printed with, and others without, the disputed clause of the 2Uth; but this was finally settled by the canons passed in the convocation of 1004, which left the thirty-nine articles as they now stand. - H;s Ma- jesty's Declaration,' which precedes them, and direct 9 that they shall be interpreted ' in their literal and grammatical sense,' was prefixed by Charles I. in 1G2S. It may be interesting to know from what sources the thirty-nine articles are derived. Some of them, as the 1st, 2d. 2.1th, and 31st, agree not only in their doctrine, but in most of their wording, with the Confession of Augsburg. The 9th and 1 Gth are clearly due to the same source. Some of them, as the 19th, 20th, 25th, and 34th, resemble, both in doctrine and verbally, certain articles drawn tip by a commission appointed by Hi nry VI II.. ami annotated by the kings own hand. The 11th article, on justification, i- a .inmer, but the latter part of it only existed in the arti< 1562, '111- 17th, on predestination, may be traced to the writings of Luther and Melancthon. The thirty-nine articles hav.- been described as 'containing a whole body of divinity.' This can hardly be maintained. They contain, however, what land holds to be a fair scriptural account of the leading doctrines of Christianity, together with a condemnation of what she COS to be the principal errors of the Church of Rome, and of certain Protestant sects. As far as they go (and there are many thing's unnoticed by them) they are a legal definition of the doctrines of the Church of England and Ireland; though it is to the Book 4M ARTICULATA— ARTILLERY. of Common Prayer that members of that commiminn bok for the genuine expression of her faith. Tiny wen adopted by the convocation of the Irish Church : i L6SS, and by the Scotch En opal ( Imrch at the of tin- 1st], century. Corpus Ohritti Colle Cambridge, contains the only copies of tit* A. ■ i > manuscript or print that are of any authority. Amongst them are the Latin manuscript of th 1662) and the En li h manuscript of the A. of 1671, eaoh with the signatures of the archbishops and bishops who subscribed them Bee An Account of tlie Thirlii-iiinc A., by Dr Lamb. For other 'Articles,' see Lambeth, Perth, and Smai.kald. AKTICULA'TA or ARTI'CULATED ANI- MALS, one of the great primary divisions of the Animal Kingdom, according to the system of Cu< r, who in this is followed by recent naturalists generally. The term indicates not the possession of articulated members, but the articulated structure of the whole body, The A. arc composed of segments articulated or jointed together in a line, each segment being formed of one or more rings, which in some appear externally as mere transverse folds in a sol but are often covered with a hard substance similar in chemical composition to the bones of vertcbrated animals. To this the muscles are attached, and it has sometimes received the name of an external skeleton — a name perhaps suggestive of closer and more numerous analogies to the bony {rami of the vertcbrated animals than actually exist. In some of the A. the rings are almost equally deve- loped; in others, the difference is very great. They are divided into those which have, and those' which have not articulated members ; the first subdivision including Insects, Araclinida, Crustacea, and Myri- apoda; the latter, Annelida and Entozoa. Some naturalists rank Cirrhopoda (Barnacles, Acorn-shells, &c.) among the A., and regard them as intermediate between these two subdivisions ; others follow Cuvicr in placing them among the Mollusca. The Rotifcra (or wheel animalcules) are also placed by some in the second subdivision of the A., but tleir right to be so placed is by no means well established. It is in the iirst subdivision only that the rings are very dis- tinctly grouped in what are called segments of the animal; and even in the Myriapoda (Centipedes, Juli, &c.) they often seem little else than mere repetitions of each other; whilst in some of the Crustacea, as the Crabs, the trunk becoming i in a hard envelope, the segments become immovably united, so that they no longer appear as distinct. A few only of the lowest A., however, are destitute of a distinct head, in which are placed the eyes and other organs of special senses, with regard to which there is considerable difference in the different classes. In it also they usually have jaws for g their food and cutting or tearing it to pieces. Their jaws do not open vertically, as in vertebrate animals, but laterally; and there are frequently several pairs of them. Some, however, have the mouth adapted merely for suction. The alimentary tube often proceeds in a Straight line from one extremity of the body to the other ; and when it is convoluted, its convolutions are usually few. There is no proper heart; but instead of it, we find a I veasd, a tube carried along the central line of the body near the back or upper side, and divided in a manner corresponding with the division of the into rim;s and segments; a general con- nection being thus maintained, whilst each segment or each ring has to a certain extent a sj of circulation for itself. Respiration is effected either by gills (brancldoe), which is the case in those A. that live in water, or by air-tubes (tracliea;) and sacs; and the aeration of the blood 454 taking place not merely in one or two, but in many ring's, great mutcnlaT power anil activity untamed without ,-v very active tnrculation. The muscular power is, indeed, greater in proportion to the size in the A. than in any other animals. I he Mood is usually white: in some of the Annelida alone it is red ; but this colour (see Annelida) does not indicate any approach to the higher classes of animals, although even Cuvicr appears to have d it as a ret igning to the Annelida the iirst place among the A. The nervous - exhibits a great similarity throughout the win il- of the A., and corresponds in its general plan with their system of circulation. It consists of a aeries ol : muses or ganglia, arranged m a chain along ■ilral line of the body On the under side of the animal. A ganglion in the head is often termed the brain, and from it proceed the optic nerves and other nerves of the Bpei i I; but it by no means perfectly corresponds to the brain in ver- tebrate animals. There is usually a ganglion tor each ring. The ganglia themselves are double or composed of two halves, more or less distinctly separated; the connecting cord also is double. In those A. which have arti- culated limbs, the ganglia are largest in the parts of the trunk with which the limbs are connected, whilst they almost disap- pear from the more unim- portant rings ; in the Crabs, and some other tail- less or very short-tailed Crustacea, they are con- densed into two masses. The remains of tie \. in the fossiliferous rocks are numerous, althonj b so fragmentary and imper- fect that the determination of genus and species is impossible, and their complex organisation cannot be thoroughly investigated. It is evident, however, that many of them differed much from any animals now known to exist, and changes can be observed from one geologic period to another; the great Crustacean family of the Trilobites (q.v.),for example, being found only in the palaeozoic rocks. Markings, which are regarded as the tracks and burrows of marine worms, appear among the earliest traces of animal life. ARTI'CULATE SOUNDS. Sec Letters. ARTI'LLERY The various meanings given to this word render it desirable that the read r I hould know- under what headings in the Bncydopadia to look for information on the subject. Sometimes A. means large cannon or ordnance of every kind ; sometimes it includes the shot and shell as well as the cannon ; sometimes it applies to the soldiers, officers and men, who manage the large cannon in military battles and sieges ; sometimes it designates the soldiers as well as the cannon, the personnel as well as the mali-riel. In the present work, the large I of ordnance, as a class, are described under CANNON; while the specialties of each kind will be found briefly noticed under such headings as Car- ros ide, Howitzer, Gun, SCobtab, Shell-quit, &c ; and in some cases under the names of the inventors, as Armstrong Quit, Lancaster Gun, &c. By this arrangement, we shall be enabled to confine the word A. to such articles as relate more especially to mound of the service — the skilled soldiers who have to deal with large pieces of ordnance in Nervous System of an Insect. ARTILLERY COMPANY— ARTILLERY CORPS. land-warfare. It may, however, be well hero to explain that the term Equipment of A. is applied to a com- bination of men, materiel, and horses, suitable for coast-defences, siegea, or the arming of fortified pasts. There are several kinds of equipments of light A., under the names of horse, field, rocket, lain, and reserve; and others of heavy A., for the attack and defei fco« i i and fortified places. 'lii e various equipmei i rally divided into smaller collections called batteries fa. v.), for more easy control and manceuvring. Brief explanations will be found under nearly all the names here indicated, (See War-Sbrvk i i, to Si m I n:.vr.) ABTI'LLERY COMPANY, Honourable, is the oldest existing volunteer corps in Britain. Four military bodies— the A. C, the Sergxi Arms, the Yeomen of the Guard, and the ; and in 1079, they added to it atheoretical school at Douai. At present, France has no fewer than nine such establishments. Saxony had an A. school in 1700 ; but the other German states were more tardy in this work. In Prussia, the artillery and engineer schools are combined ; but in most of the European states, a separation between these two arms of the science is made. In schools of A., the officers' studies comprise matlie- . as much of physics and chemistry as is necessary to the duties of the artillerist, field and i " nnanent fortification, garrison-warfare, field- tactics, military history and topography, military surveying and sketching, drawing from the model, he practical exercises include the serving and of guns and mortars, the laying out and constructing of field-batteries, and the operations of the laboratory and A. workshop. The head-quarters for A. instruction in England ARTOCARPACE.E-ARr.M. are at Woolwich. A Royal Military Academy was lished there in 1741, to impart professional instruction to the i and engineers belonging to the royal army. The Last India Compas t h i • i i- A. cadets to this Academy from ll 1798 to 1810 ; but afterwards, they maintained a separate ilishment at Addiscombe. At the present day, the students in the Academy are recruited by fair open competition. They enter between the ages of seventeen and twenty ; and tiny remain two years, or such longer time as may lit them to pass an examin- ation for the Royal A. or Engineers. The sons i tary officers are admitted on lower terms than those of other persons. The liuaneial control is under the Secretary of State for War ; but the Commander-in- regulates the discipline and internal arrange- ments. There are about 40 professors, led masters, and instructors of various kinds. I this Royal .Military Academy, there is at Woolwich a Department of A. Studies, for the instruction of junior officers of A., and for facilitating their visits to the fortifications and public works of foreign countries. There is also a Select Comm duties are not so much educational as experimental; it is a small establishment Cor examining and report- ing on the numerous inventions relating to artillery, brought before the War-office.* The establishment at SAoi bury 1 1 inate to the head- quarters of at Woolwich, is intended to experiment upon ordnance, gunpowder, and projectiles, and to < young A. officers in some of their duties. ARTOCARPA'CEiE, a natural order of Dicotyle- donous plants, of which the Bread-fruit (Artocarpus incisa) is the type; very nearly allied to that of Horaces (Mull.ru !■ s, Figs, &c), and. like it, by many botanists regarded as a sub-order of Urticaci a (Nettles, &c). The botanical distinction between ArtocarpacesB and Moraceaj lies chiefly in the straight embryo and large cotyledons of the former. The fruit is often a 1 (a single succulent fruit formed of the i gated germens of a whole spike of flowers), as in the case of tli- Bread-fruit (q. v.). There are upwards Bread-fruit [A- incisa). of fifty known species, natives exclusively of the The milky juice of some yields <'mut- i ' (q.v.); and that of a few Bp Ciea is so bland lite for milk (see Cow - Tin i :). The juice of others is, however, very • This committee baa recently in the summer of IBM) been remodelled, or rather superseded by a new urbanisation. poisonous, as that of Antiaris toxicaria, the Antjar Jioison, one of the -poisons called I pas by the eda are always wholesome ; and those of the Mmanr/a of tie it of Africa, and of Brotimum ■• a the West Indii eaten as nuts. The fibrous bark of the Bread-fruit Tree is made into cloth in the South Sea Islands, and that of other spec: ,s capable of being used in the same way. The bark of Anliaris •i is need in Western India for making sacks, which are formed by cut! branch of the dimensions of the sack wanted, and simply turning back and drawing off the bark after it has been soaked and beat' n, tie- being sawn off so as to leave a little portion to form the bottom of the sack. The fibrous bark of C'ecropia peltala, or Trunipetwood, is used for era in tropical Ami rica. The stem and branch very hollow, and are used for wind-instruments. The wood of some species is valuable, as that ol Brosimum or Piraiinera Guianensis, the Snake- wood of TJemerara. ARTOIS was formerly a province of France, bounded by Flanders and Pieardy. and almost ending with the modern department de-Calais (q.v.). The capital of A. was Arras. Louis IX., in 123!), made A. a county, and gave it to his brother Robert, who was succeeded by fa Robert II., surnamed Posthumous, who died in 1302. Afterwards it passed into the hands of Flan- ders and Burgundy, but was ceded to Fran treaties in 1659 and 1678. Charles X , in his early life, and also after bis abdication, was known by the title of Count d'Artois. ARTS, Degrees ix. The term 'Arts,' or ' Liberal Arts,' as b chnically applied to certain studies, came into use during the middle ages, and on the ■ lishment of universities, the I ulty of Art-' denoted those who devoted themselves to Science and Philosophy, as distinguished from the faculty of Theology, and afterwards of .Medicine and Law. The number of ' Arts' embraced in the full mi course of learning was seven: Grammar, 1 Rhetoric (constituting the Trivium), Music, Arith- metic, Geometry, and Rhetoric (the I The terms Master and Doctor were originally applied synonymously to any person engaged in teaching. In process of time, the one was restricted i liberal arts, the other to Divinity. Law, and Medi- When regulations wen- established to prevent unqualified persons from teaching, and an initiatory stage of discipline was prescribed, these terms became significant of a certain rank, and of the possession of certain powers, and were called gradus, 'steps' or 'degrees.' Th of the initiatory Stage, said to have 1 a first instituted by Gregory IX. (1227—41), conferred the title of baclielor (q.v.), and an additional course of discipline and examination was necessary to obtaining that of . The title of Mast r of Arts originally implied ht, and even the duty of publicly teaching of the branches included in the faculty of Arts; a custom which is still retained, to some extent, in the German universities, but has fallen into disuse in Britain and France, whi nearly will be more fully considered under the general hi ad of Degree. AHUM, a genus of Monocotyledonous i natural order Araa a or A This order consists of herbaceous plants, soino of which are >i ad shrubby plants, somo of which are arl h irescent, and some climb by aerial roots, clinging to the trees of tropical forests. The ithing at the base, convolute in bud. usually with branching veins. The dowers are male and •157 ARUN— Al'J N l >!.!.. female, naked) arranged apon a ipadia, which is illy enclosed in a tfiaihe (q. v.) •, the mala Bowers at the upper part of the spadix, and the flowers at its base. The stamens are definit • or indefinite in number; the anthers s.^ nearly so, and turned outwards. The ovary generally one-celled, many-seeded; the stigma ses- The fruit is succulent, the seeds pulpy, the embryo in the axis of lleshy or mealy albumen, w.th a lateral cleft in which the plumule lie albumen, however, is wanting in some plants of the •. -As thus defined, this order contains almost 20 I known species, natives chiefly of tropical tries, but some of the herbaceous kinds belong to colder climates. — The limits of the order are, bow- ever, sometimes extended, so that it includes as sub- orders TyphaeetE, PitHactot, &c. — The genus .4. has a convolute Bpathe ; the spadix naked at the point In some species, a stench like that of carrion is pro- duced during flowering, as well as a remarkable heat. Flowers, in general, are slightly wanner than the air around them, the heat being produced by tie of oxygen with some starch-like ingredient in the sap of the petals, or other parts of the Bower ; for flowers, instead of absorbing carbonic acid gas and giving off oxygen in the sunshine, like the L -, absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid, like the lungs of animals. But (lowers, in gem nil, are only one degree, or one degree and a half, wanner than the air, whereas the flowers of some of the Arums and nearly allied plants are sensibly warm to the touch, and that of A. cordi/ulium has been Arum maculatum. «, lcavr* ,t:ul root ; b, gpathc, with base of ppadix exposed ; c, iruic. found to have a heat of 121 1 F., while that of the ir was only 66 F. — The only British species is A.maculii/um, ClCKOW-riNT or WAKE-KOBIM, which is abundant in England and in most parts of Europe, growing chiefly in moist shady woods and under hedges. It has a tuberous perennial root ; its leaves are all radical, on long stalks, strongly arrow- ' often spotted ; the spathe greenish yellow, enclosing a rather short violet or brownish red spadix It produces scarlet berries, 1—2 seeded, about the size 1 upon the spadix. The root has a burning acrid taste, which, however, it loses in drying or boiling. In a fresh state, it is a drastic purgative, too violent for medicinal use ; ami, imbed, it, aa well as the ' n active poison ; yet a nourish- ing farina is prepared from it, aft r tie- acrid juice unmoved. This farina is a pure starch, and .in in England by the name at Portland Ba o or Portland Arrow-root h toaci" extent in the isle of Portland, where also the tubers (conns) themselves are eaten by the country-people. A COSmetio, called Cypress Powder, is made from them in France, ami tie v an rland as a substitute for soap. They e 1. a quantity of to which their I to be owing. Tiny lose gnat part of their acridity in drying, and wen- formerly used i en ee a stimulant in impaired digestion, a diuretic in dropsies, and an expectorant in chest complaints. The plant is ev i iltivated in India for food. — .-1. Indicum is al ni'i h cultivated in Bengal for its esculent stems and small pendulous tubers. — Acridity in the juice, and the presence of an amylaceous substance of very nutritious quality, from which the acrid juice is easily separated, are characteristics of many plants of this order, particu- larly species of Oa and Colucasia, much used for food in warm countries, under the names Cocco (q. v.), Eddoss, &C— .! us ecanpeaa (A. campanulatutii), called Ol by the B very much cultivated in some parts of India for its roots (flat underground corms), which fonn a very important article of food ; yet in a fresh state it is i so acrid that it is employed as an external stimulant, ' and is also used as an emmenagogue. Other species of Amorphcmatlus are still more powerfully stimu- lant. — Two large species of Ariscema, another genus very closely allied to A., were found by l>r Hooker to afford food to the inhabitants of the Sikkim Himalaya at an elevation of upwards of 10,000 feet. Their tuberous roots are bruised by means of wooden pestles, and thrown into small pits with until the commencement of acetous fermenta- tion, when the acridity is mostly dissipated ; but the process is so imperfect that cases of injury from the poisonous juice are frequent. The tubers of An I of Linnaeus), a native of the United States, and there known as Dragon-root and Indian Turnip, yield a pure white starch like that of A. maculatum. Then- medicinal uses an- similar ; they are employed as a stimulant of the ns. — The Dragon-plant, A. Dracunculu.t, a native of the south of Europe, is not uncommon in gardens in Britain, although it has a carrion-like smell, and its emanations are apt to produce head- ache and other disagreeable effects. It lias a singu- lar appearance — straight stalks, three feet high, curiously spotted like the belly of a snake. — 'Ihe peculiar acridity of the Aracece is most remarkably displayed in the DtniB Cane (q. v.). A'BTTN, a river rising in St Leonard's Forest, middle of North Sussex, and after a course of 35 miles, falling into the I liannel. A canal unites it with the Wcy, a feeder of the Thames. A'ltTXPEL, a small town 5 miles inland from ' the mouth of the Aran, in a tertiary and chalk dis- trict, on the south side of the South Downs, in the S.W. of Sussex. It consists mainly of a very steep rising from the right bank of the Aran to the I summit of a hill crowned by a castle. The Aran is navigable for vessels of ISO tons up to the town. Park and timber are the chief exports. Pop. in 1851, 27-18. It returns one member to parliament. It is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, and twelve Dors. The castle, from its site, is a striking ', and was built soon after the Norman con- guest, It is an oblong, including 54 acres within its ARUNDEL MARBLES— ARYAN BACK. walls. It was laid in ruins during the civil wars of Charles I., but, being the baronial residence of the Dukes of Norfolk, the late duke restored it to its former Gothic magnificence. The keep, containing the dungeon, is a circular Norman tower of imposing strength. (1871— pop. 2936.) A'RUNDEL MARBLES, part of a collection of ancient sculptures, formed about the beginning of the 17th c. by Thomas Howard, Earl of Al and presented in 1GG7 to the university of Oxford, by his grandson, Henry Howard, afterwards Duke of No Ik. The principal portion of it is the 'Parian Chronicle,' consisting of the fragments of an inscrip- tion in marble, supposed to have been executed in the island of Faros, about 2C.3B.C In its perfect state, this inscription contained a chronological table of the principal events in Grecian history from the time of Cecrops (1582 B.C.) to the archonship of tus (2G4 B.C.). The chronicle of the last ninety years is lost, and the extant portion of the inscription is much corroded and defaced. This curious and interesting monument, the authenticity of which has been questioned and vindicated with almost equal ingenuity and learning, was pur- chased for the Earl of Arundel, along with many other relics of antiquity, at Smyrna, by Mr (after- wards Sir William) Petty. The inscription, and all the other principal sculptures in the Oxford Collec- tion, are to be found fully illustrated in the relative publications of Selden, Prideaux, M.iittaire, and Chandler, under the various titles of Marmora Arundd'.iana and M. The nobleman whose name is associated wita ancient marbles is worthy of remembrance, independ- ently of his general merits, as the first of his order land who liberally encouraged the fine arts, and communicated the influence of his own taste and enthusiasm in their cultivation to a wide circle of imitators and successors. Among the scholars and on whom his liberal patronage was specially bestowed, were Francis Junius the Younger (his libra- rian), and Oughtred the mathematician, Wenceslaus Hollar the engraver, whom he brought over to Eng- land, VandyeK and Inigo Jones, and the sculptors Stone.Lc Sceur,and Faneili. His collection of works of art, for the supply of which, from the treasures of antiquity, he I the services of two distin- guished men of letters, Evelyn and Petty, rivalled tileries of princes. After his death, it was unfortunately dispersed, and many of its choicest ires were for ever lost sight of. His collection of sculpture alone, when entire, numbered 37 statues, lata, and 250 inscribed marbles, besides altars, sarcophagi, fragments, and gems. A'RTJNDEL, THOMAS, Archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry V., born in 1353, was the second son of Robert Fitz- Alan, Earl of Arundel and Warren. He was first Archdeacon of Taunton, and at the early age of ■ ;. -i >ne, he v. i npe's appointment, con- secrated Bishop of Ely. In 1388, he was, by the luthority, transferred to the arcbiepisco] of York, B i for some years Lord High Hiving leu banished the kingdom for talcing a leading part in the first attempt made to deliver the nation from the hard II., he was honourably n at Borne, and by Pop B .- nominated Arch- bishop of St Andrews, with a promise of fotore pre- ferment in England. In 1396 be was enthroned, rest pomp, as Archbishop of Canterbury'. He of the Lollards and followers of Wickliffe, and a chief instrument in procuring the horrible act for the burning of heretics i D Heretico i, passed ill the reign of Henry IV. He even carried hi9 bigotry so far as to solicit from the pope a bull ft up WicklihVs bones, which, in. He also procured a synodal constitution, which forbade the transla- tion of the Scriptures into the vulgar tongue. Amongst others whom he caused to be convicted of heresy, and sentenced to the flames, was Lord Cobham, one of the principal patrons of the new sect, at the commencement of the reign of Henry V. Soon after, A. was seized with an inflammation in the throat, which proved fatal. He died 20th February 1413. ARU'NDO. See Er.ro. ARVI'COLA. See Vole. ARYAN RACE, ARYAN LANGUAGES. The name Aryan (less properly, Arian) Race or Aryan Family of Nations is now generally used to designate that ethnological division of mankind othei called Indo-European or Indo-Gernianic. It consists of two branches, geographically separated, an eastern and a western. The western branch comprehends the inhabitants of Earope, with the exception of the Turks, the Magyars of Hungary, and the Finns of Lapland (see Eceope) ; the eastern comprehends the inhabitants of Armenia, of Persia, of Afghanistan, and of Northern Hindustan (see Hindustan). The evidence on which a family relation has been estab- lished among these nations is that of language. Between Sanscrit (the mother of the modern Hindu dialects of Hindustan), Zend (the language of the ancient Persians), Greek (which is yet the lai of Greece), Latin (the language of the Romans, and the mother of the modern Romanic languages, L e., Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian), Celtic (once the language of great part of Europe, now confined to Wales and some parts of Ireland and Scotland), Gothic (which may be taken as the ancient type of the Teutonic or Germanic languages — including English — and of the Scandinavian), and Slavonic (spoken in a variety of dialects all over European Russia and a great part of Austria), the researches of philology have within the present century established such affinities as can be accounted for only by supposing that the nations speaking them had a common origin. No one of these nations, whether existing or historical, can claim to be the parent nation of which the others are colonies. The relation among the languages mentioned is that of sisters — daughters of one mother, which perished, as it were, in giving them birth. No monuments of this mother-language have been preserved, nor have we any history or even tradition of the nation that spoke it. That such a people existed and spoke such a tongue is an inference of comparative philo- the process of reasoning being analogous to that followed in the kindred science of geology. The geologist, interpreting the inscriptions written by the tinker of Nature herself upon the rock-tablets of the earth's strata, carries us back myriads of aires before man appeared on the scene at all, and enables us to be present, as it were, at creation itself, and see one formation laid above another, and one plant or animal succeed another. Now languages are to the ethnologist what strata are in geology ; dead res have been well called his fossils and tions. By skilful interpretation of their indications, aid d by the li lit of all other available monuments, he is able to spell out, with more or less probability, the ethnical records of the past, and thus obtain a glimpse her' and there into the gray cloud that i the dawn of the ages. D these linguistic monuments are consulted as to the primitive seat of the Aryan nations, they point, as almost all ethnologists are agr Central Asia, somewhere probably east of the AS-ASA. Caspian, and north of the Hindu Blush and Parana- There, b i atenor to all Bnrapeao history — while Europe was perhaps only a jungle, or, if inhabited at all, inhabited by akin to the Finns, or perhaps to the American Indians— dwelt that mother-nation of which we have Bpoken. From this centre, in obedience to a law of movement which has continued to act through all history, successive migrations took place towards the north-west. The first : warm Conned the Celts, who seem at one time to have occupied a great part of Europe ; at a considerably Utter epoch came the ancestors of the Italians, the Greeks, and the Teutonic peoples. Allthi le would seem to have made their way to their n< v Hunts through l'ersia and Asia .Mil mg into Europe by the Hellespont, and partly, p between the Caspian and the Black Sea, The stream that formed the Slavonic nations is thought to have taken the route by the north of the I At a period subsequent to the last north-western migration, the remnant of the primitive stock would seem to have hroken up; part poured southwards through the passes of the Himalaya and Hindu Rush into the Punjab, and became the dominant race in the valley of the Ganges; while the rest Bettled in Persia, and became the Modes and 1 'ersians of history. It is from these eastern members that the whole family takes its name. In the most ancient Sanscrit writings (the Veda), tl ■ :i . style themselves Aryans; and the name is preserved in the classic Am. a tribe of ancient Persia, Aria, the modern Herat, and Ariana, the name of a district compre- hending the greater part of ancient Persia, and extended by some so as to embrace Bactriana. Ariana, or Airyana, is evidently an old Persian word, preserved in the modern native name of I <. Airan or Iran. Arya, in Sanscrit, signifies 'excellent,' 'honourable,' being allied probably to the Greek on'(stos), the best. Others conn with the root or (Lat. arare, to plough), as if to distinguish a people who were tillers [carers) of the earth from the purely nomadic Turanians or The several members of this ethnological group will receive special notice each in its place. As to the hypothetical mother-nation — the primitive Aryan stock before separation, it might seem impos- sible to affirm anything beyond 11 mi re existence and locality. But the ethnologist doe; not con- t. nt himself with this. In an admirable essay on Comparative Mythology (Oxford Essays, 1856), Pro- fessor Max Midler has drawn a picture of the Aryan family while yet one and undivided, in which the state of thought, language, religion, .and civilisa- tion is exhibited in a multitude of details. Where the same name for an object or notion is found used by the widely spread members of the family, it is justly inferred that that object or notion must have been familiar to them while yet resident together in the paternal home. It is in this way established, that among the primitive Aryans not only were the natural and primary family relations of father, mother, son, daughter, hallowed, but even the more conventional affinities of father-in-law, mother- in-law, sister-in-law ; that to the organised family life there was superadded a state organisation with rulers or kings ; that the ox and the cow constituted I le chief riches and means of subs: and that houses and towns were built. One general observation made by Midler is so interesting that we take the liberty of quoting it entire. ' It should be observed,' he says, ' that most of the terms connected with chase and warfare differ in each of the Aryan dialects, while words con- nected with more peaceful occupations belong generally to the common heir-loom of the Aryan language. The proper appreciation of this fact in its 1 bearing will shew how a similar remark made by Niebuhr, with regard to Greek and Latin, requires a very different explanation fr that which that great scholar, from his more rc.-tre t. d point of view, was able to give it. It will shew that all the Aryan nations had led a long life of peace before tiny separated, and that their language acquired individuality and nationality as each colony in search of new bonus new generations Ecu new terms connected urtth tic warlike and adven- turous life of their onward migrations. Hence it is that not only Greek and Latin, but all Aryan lan- oave their peaceful words in common; and hence it is that they all differ so strangelj in their warlike expressions. Thus the don m nerally known by the same name in England and in India, while tin- wild beasts have different mine ., in Greek and Latin.' In this mainly pastoral life, the more important of the primitive arts were known and exercised : fields & and ground into meal ; food was cooked and baked; cloth was woven and sewed into and the use of the metals) even of iron, was known. The numbers as far as a hundred had been named, the decimal principle being followed. The mime for a thousand had not come into requisition until after the i a, for it . in the different Aryan tongues. Finally, it was among the yet undivided Aryans, while ab did not yet exist, while every word was a metaphor, and the setting of the sun, for example, could only be expressed by his growing old and dying, that those stories of gods, E roes, and monsters originated, which, with more or 1 variety, but still with a family-likeness, formed the pagan mythology of every member of the group. as was the designation both of a Roman n (called also libra) corresponding very nearly to an English pound (q. v.), and also of a coin made of the mixed metal firs or bronze. The As (coin) originally no doubt weighed a (Roman) poimd ; but it was gradually reduced to -,' (Y of a pound, and even lower. It is thus difficult to assign any fixed value to the As. About 27U B.C., the denarius (= 8.'d.) contained 10 ases ; so that the value of the As was then a little more than 3 farthings ; when 16 ases went to the denarius, the value was about a halfpenny. It was by the sestertius (q. v.) that money was reckoned at Rome. The oldest form of As usually bore the figure of an ox, a sheep, or other domestic animal [peats) ; from which it is usually supposed that the Latin word for money, pecunia, is derived. A'SA, son of Abijah, and grandson of Rchoboam, was the third king of Judah. At the beginning of his reign, he was very young, and his character appa- rently undeveloped, for he allowed his grandmother, Maachah, to encourage idolatry; but on assuming the reins of government, one of his earliest ad . i to remove her from all authority ' because she had made an idol in a grove' (1 Kings, XV. 13 ; 2 Chron. xv. 16). His zealous efforts to extirpate the vices and impieties ASA DULCIS— ASARABACCA. of the people were on the whole successful. He took away the Sodomites out of the land, ami the altars of the strange gods, broke the images, and cut down the groves. For the next tin yean, be derated him- self to strengthening the defences of his kingdom, and organised a magnificent army of more than half a million, which seems to have been looked upon as a menace by other monarchs, for one of these, Zcrali the Cnshite, took the initiative, and penetrating through Arabia Petraa, invaded Judah, but was defeated with immense slaughter. Before the battle commenced, Asa had invoked the aid of Jehovah; and some time after the victory, he and all his people l into a solemn covenant 'to seek the i God '>f their fathers with all their heart and with all their soul' (2 Chron. XV. 12). Pea' ! . twi nty years in the kingdom, but in the 35th year of Asa's reign, war again broke out between him and Baasha, king of Israel. He sought and obtained the aid of the Syrian monarch, Benhadad, but at the expense of 'the treasures of the house of the Lord;' and although successful against his ad\ i he was indignantly upbraided and threatened by the prophet Hanani for not relying on Jehovah alone. Asa, flushed with success, threw the prophet into prison, and, it would appear, ' in his oppressed some of the people at the same time — per- haps those only who si' led with Hanani, for we know- that at his death the nation honoured liim with a splendid funeral ; and the sacred historian pays the highest tribute to his memory, declaring that ' A V I heart was perfect with the Lord all his days. 1 He d from 955 to 914 B. c. A'SA DULCIS (i.e.. Sweet Asa), a drug in high among the ancients as an antispasmodic, deobstruent, and diuretic ; also for supposed virtues of the most extraordinary kind, such as neutralising the effects of poison, curing envenomed wounds, restoring sight to the blind, youth to the aged, &c. i He was estimated by its weight in gold. The a of Cyrene caused a figure of the plant pro- ducing it to be struck on the reverse of their coins, and it was sometimes called !.<■ \ r ' 'yn naicum. The enus Thapsia (of the natural order tlmbelltfi c"), either T. Oarganica, or a nearly allied species, T. Silphium — perhaps the drug was pro- duced by both. They arc natives of the south of Europe and of I'.arbaiy, and appear to be VI ry active purgatives. ASAFCE'TIT)A.orAS7 it was retaken by the Saracens, but aftci I (1192) fell into the hands of ltichard Cceur de Lion. Subsequently, being more than one d and repaired during the wars between Richard and Saladin, it was reduced to desolation by Sultan Bibarsin 1270. The ruins of this ancient city occupy an eztei semicircular eminence, sloping gently to the i but abrupt and steep towards tho sea. Part I walls are still standing, with the remains of ( . churches, a palace, and several edifices of more ancient date, which attract the notice of the traveller and the antiquary. A'SCARIS, a genus of Entozoa, or intestinal worms, of the order Xanatvidca of Zeder, Cuvier, &c, and of the division Stertlmintha of Owen. The ascarides have a body approaching to cylindri- cal, but thickest in the middle. They inhabit the intestines of animals. The species are numerous. One of the best known is A. lumbricoida, ofl I called the common round worm, which occurs in tho intestines of man and of some of the lower an as the hog, ox, horse, Jtc, and which often oce. severe disease, and sometimes death, particularly when it ascends from the intestines to the Btomach. Its presence even in its most ordinary situation m the small intestines, is attended with unfavourable effects upon the general health; and the greater the number present — which, however, is not usually large— the greater, of course, is the injury ; alti when they remain in the intestines, worms of tins species are less injurious and less annoying than other, and even much smaller intestinal worms. In subjects otherwise diseased, they occasionally find their way out of the intestines into the clot ed cavities of the body, and even pass through ulr parts of the external integument ; but the mouth is formed only for suction, and is provided with no Ascaris lurnbricoides (male). One-third of the true linear dimensions ; a is the head of the worm. means of boring through the healthy intestine. An immense number of remedies (anthelmintics or ver- mifuges) have been proposed and used in or expel this parasite, some of which are very effe They do not in general kill the worms, but act by making their dwelling-place disagreeable to them Vermifuge). It is, however, remarked by Kiichenmcister, in his work on Parasites, that tho ASCARIS— ASCENSION. treatment of cases cf this description is as yet purely empirical, because, although there must he a condi- tion of the intestinal canal which favours the thriv- ing of worms, we are by no means certain what it is. The A. lumbricoid':s is ordinarily, in size and uiith of Ascaris lumuricoidcs, magnified. tubercles *presid out, with cockscomb-like Iteriof to them, and the entrance to the intestinal canal. appearance, pretty much like the Common Earthworm [J/umbriqu terabit), from which resemblance it has received its specific name, although the resemblance is rather in general form than in more essential characteristics. It has been seen fifteen inches in length. Its mouth consists of three fleshy tubercles, winch can be spread out upon the intestine to form a broad circular sucker, and within which there is a small tube capable of being protruded. The ali- mentary canal consists of a muscular gullet and stomach, and a thin-walled intestine. Between the muscular layers of the body is produced a pale ii oily matter, with a strong and very peculiar odour, which is gradually communicated to spirit in which the worm is preserved. The males are smaller than the females, and much more rare. The females produce eggs in great numbers ; but it is uncertain if ever they are developed within the intestine in which the parent worm resides. They are certainly capable of being developed elsewhere, and probably voting enter the intestines of the animals of which they are eventually to be the parasites, after having spent a certain stage of their existence in very different circumstances : the worm in a very young state having never been found in the intestines of man or of quadrupeds, the situation of its perfect development. The inhabitants of damp valleys are believed to suffer more than others from the A. ieoida. It is said also to be particularly frequent in persons who are much accustomed to eat raw leaves and roots ; and it has been supposed that the young may exist, perhaps in an encysted state, in the bodies of insects or other very small animals which are accidentally eaten along with such food, as the young tapeworm finds its way into the human intestines from its residence as a creature of very different size and form in the flesh of the sheep or the pig. The once prevalent idea of the equivocal generation of these worms is now com- pletely abandoned. A. vermkulari* is another species usually referred to this genus, and is the only other species trouble- some to mankind. It ia known as the Thread-worm or Maw-worm, and is very common both in children and adidts. It infests chiefly the lower part of the intestines, and particularly the rectum, great numbers being often present together, and occasioning intoler- itching, irritation, and loss of sleep, alt! there is not in general much serious injury to health. The same anthelmintics employed against other intestinal worms are found efficacious also in the expulsion of this; and clysters are often employed with great success. The thread-worm is white, not more than half an inch in length, the male much less. Some recent authors of high reputation have separated this species from A., and call it Ozyurit Ascaris vcrmicularis (male). Magnified twenty-five diameter? ; a, the'mouth. Ascaris vcrmicularis (female). Magnified eight diameters. vermiadaru, bat the term Ascaridea is often employed in medical works with exclusive reference to it ; and indeed this name, derived from the Greek askarizo, to jump or move briskly, probably owes its origin to the liveliness of motion which this S] exhibits. It has been recently discovered that its nervous system is very highly developed, consisting of many ganglia, with connecting and ramifying cords. ASCE'iS'SIOX, one of the comparatively few single islands on the globe, being about SOO miles to the north-west of St Helena, and almost as far to the south south-west of St Matthew. It is said to have received its name from the circumstance of its having been discovered by the Portuguese on Ascension-day. It is nearly in the middle of the South Atlantic, the lat of its fort being 7° 55' 55" S., and its long. 14° 25 5" \V. A. is S miles long by 6 broad ; its area being about ire miles. Though it was discovered as early as 1501, yet it remained uninhabited till 1S15, when, in connection with Napoleon Bonaparte's detention in St Helena, the English took possession of it Even now the population, about 400, ia chiefly mili- tary. Like St Helena, it is of volcanic origin, and generally mountainous — one peak rising to a height I feet. Owing to the extreme dryness of the climate, which, however, is healthy, the surface is nearly destitute of verdure. Among indigenous productions are the tomato, castor-oil plant, and pepper; and various European v. ■_ re suc- cessfully cultivated. The chief exports of A. are turtle and birds' eggs — 10,000 dosena of the latui having occasionallybeen collected in on£ week. ASCE'N'SIOX, Richt (Lat ateauio," a. rising; Ger. gerade au/titagung),ihe name given in astronomy to one of the arcs which determine the position relatively to the equator of a heavenly 1 celestial sphere, the other being the declination Armii.i.akv Si'HERE. It is the arc of the equator ASCENSION-DAY- ASCETICISM. intero pted 1" bween the first point of ! and tl"' point at which the circle of the equator. Measured always from west to east, right A on the heavi i ascertained by mi instrument and clock. The transit instrument its meridian passage, and the b the time at which this takes place. When the first point of Aries is in the meridian, the clock stands at i> hours, minutes, Beconds, and it is so arranged as to indicate 24 sidereal hours, the time that elapses between two sucoi ivep i of that point. The reading of the clock, thei , at the i of any heavenly body gives its right A. in time, and this, when multiplied by 15, gives the same in degrees, minutes. and seconds. The right A. is I given, however, in time. The old term, oUiqiu A., ven to the right A. of the point "f the equator that rose simultaneously with the heavenly body ; and the dilference of the oblique and right A. was called the ' ascensional differ! ASCE'NSION-DAY, or HOLY THURSDAY, one of the great religious festivals of the I pal, and also of the Roman Catholic Church. It 1 nn t!i" fortieth day aft I I and is intended to commemorate the ascension of Christ into heaven. It is one of the six days ring in the year for which the Church of England appoint psalms, and the same chun : ' amends it as a fitting day for the receiving of the communion. Ascension-day has been ved from the earliest tin instian Church. St Augustine believes it to been instituted cither by the apostles Ives, or the primitive bishops sue, eding them. Connected witli the religious observances of tins ■ire certain civic ones, which in some p England and Scotland are continued to this day voids, or riding A their religious connection is apparently fo] Sec Rogation Days and l'l i [iATIONS. ASCE'TICISM. Among the Greel denoted tie- ex ireise and discipline practised by the athletes or wrestlers, who had to harden thi a- bodies by exertion and to avoid all sensual and effeminating indulgences. In the schools of the philoso i illy of the Stoics, the same word signified the practice of mastering the desires and passions, or of severe virtue. In these senses it passed into the language of the early I 'hri-tians. lie language of St Paul in comparing the Christians to wr who had to contend with Satan, the world, and the flesh, contributed to this. Hut the philosophy of the time had more to do with it, which held the D » of mind from matter to be the means of union with Cod; or, at least, that the refraining from all luxurious pleasure was the way to res-tore the soul to its original purity. To understand the vast influ- ence that ascetic ideas have exercised on the Chri religion, we must look beyond the bounds of its hi t iry. Their root lies in the oriental notion, that the Absolute or All is the only real existence that individual phenomena, especially matter in all its shapes, are really nothing, and are to be di and avoided, as involving the principle of separation from the Absolute. The East, accordingly, is the native soil of A. The glowing imagination of oriental carries the practice of it to a monstrous extravagance, as is seen in the frightful self- tortures of the yogis and fakirs, the suicides in I'd Ganges and under the wheels of Jugger- nautli. and the practices now or recently prevalent of offering children in sacritice, and of burn- ing widows ; most of which, however, have been ly suppressed by the efforts of the British imi at Buddhi m, which ta as a kind of puritan revival or reformation — the methodism i I idian religion carried the principle beyond its previous bounds. In atemning the world; in its inculcating a life litude ami beggary, mortification of the body, and al 'in all uncleauness and from all ait and detached as] am this ' Vi >w' (seo Bt wins'.! and NntV w \i. 1 the more moral and rational : in to these extravagances; and the earnest ans sought to confine it to monogamy of the priests, abstaining from the llesh of swine and from . rigid punr. . i a, mod ad frequent contemplation of death (which were arrangements inr bringing l" n brance, even in the midst of festivities). The o rtainly milder forms of A., but tin- principle i line. It i< in tli this fore-history that wo must ler Judaic and tin a ascetici an. In the 1 mind, especially in Egypt, circumcision, ing of all uncleanness. and fasting, were humil; and in tie- Mosaic iditions of the favour of tin- holy Jehovah. Voluntary vows, abstaining even from lawful food, wine, &c were held to have a special purifying, consecrating efficacy, particularly for prophets ami men of special callings. But s. 1 on con- tinued fnr long foreign to the sobriety of Judaism, and even ha into established practice only shortly before Christ, in Palestine among the Essenes (q. v.), in Egypt among the Therapeutae (q. v.); though doubt! ' A. had become more loomy since the exile in Babylon. A. was far less congenial to the reflective nations nf the West, above all to the cheerful Greeks. A Greek felt himself entitled to enjoyment as well as Is; hence I Ireek n ligious Ei t ivals were p i i by cheerfulness. The only exception appi ira i' I-- the Eleusinian mysteries, which never took hold of the pi ople generally, and t 1 nf the Pythagorean fraternity, 'lie attack ratio school upon the body as the prison erf the soul a view n [rnnding "in- of th — and the extravagant contempt fur the elegs and even dee. ie n ; of life, professed by the I I r Stoics and Cyi were no genuine fruits of the popular Greek mind; and we must also ascribe to the infusion of oriental philosophy the ascetic ten- s of Neoplatonism, hi holding abstinence from flesh and from marriage as chief conditions of : .mi into the divinity. It was into the midst of these ideas that < hris- tianity was introduced The. I .wish converts brought with them their convictions about fasting. Fasting and Nazaritie observances were thought sanctifying preparatives for great undertakings; and the incul- cation of abstinence from marriage, on the ground of tie- expected speedy re-appearance of Christ, falls in with the same notion, namely, that the flesh, that is, the sensuous part of our nature, is the seat of sin, and must therefore, before all things, lie rigorously chained. The old oriental traditions of A. ; the spirituality of Christianity, pointing away from to heaven ; opposition to the corruption of the heathen world ; the distinction made between belief and kie as a hi -her and lower stage of intel- ligence, Lading tn a corresponding distinction of a higher and lower stage of virtue: all combined to make the Christians of the first two centuries hold aloof from the world and its wisdom, and favour abstinence from marriage, more especially on the part of the clergy. This ascetic spirit began as early ASCHAFKENBUBG— A8CHAM. as the commencement of the 2d c. to court trial in i-ilous practice of men and women living to er under vows of continence. We find Cyprian dissuading from the dangerous experii and even t lie authority of the church interpo ■ ect, But during the first three centuries no irrevocable vows yet hound the devotees to a life- long A. Fasting was also comparatively rare. lint the tendency to outward mi 18 now began to grow stronger. The inward and spiritual life of tli^ Christians had greatly declined ; and if ion bl ly persecutions had driven indi- viduals from human society into the deserts, the growing secularisation of the church, after Christi- became tbo state religion, had the same effect to a still greater di graft All this paved the mii of A. — namely, mon- asticism (q. v.); and the church found herself com- . tide of opinion within and without to recognise this form of A., and to take it under her protection and care. From the African Church, represented by Tertullian and Augustine, a spirit of gloomy and crushing I deeper and deeper over the Western Church generally, intensifying the ascetic tendencies, and leading to stdl more marked separation from a cd world. There w< re not wanting healthier as Jovianus, Yigilantius, and others — to raise their voices a ting, monkery, and the outward works of A. generally ; but such protests rain, and became ever rarer. From the 11th c, the Cathari, Waldenses, and other sects, though ascetics themselves in a way, aded the external A. of the church; the Petrarch fought on t ale; and so did Wickliffe, Huss, and Jerome of Prague, in their premal i * a1 reformation. After a pre- liminary skirmish by Erasmus, the struggle was di (rided in the reformation of the 16th c. The fundamental principle of that movement, that salva- tion is secured by justification through faith, and not through dead works, struck at the root of monkery and mortification in general. But the victory has not been so complete as is often assumed. The ascetic spirit often shews itself still alive under various disguises even in Protestantism. The Mennonites inculcat d a rigid A. ; and with the Shakers of America, celibacy IS practi-i d as a virtue. ence of A. is to hold self-denial and suffering to be meritorious in the sight of Cod, in and for itself, without regarding whether it promotes in any way the good of others or the improvement of the individual's own character. In this light, many traits presented by Puritanism, Methodism, and nam appear ascetic It is not impossible that tarianism, total a! and other recent austerities, though advocated on other grounds, recommend, themselves to the feelings of many from their falling in with this deep-seated pro- pensity to A.; which seems a relic of that dread of lignity of the invisible and supernatural which haunts the human mind in an unenlightened and savage state. Even in the Romish Church, ascetic practices have been modified in recent times; fastings are less is, and the self-sacrifice of conventual life is directed to beneficial ends. Mohannnedanisin has undergone the same change. In the Greek Church, monasticism had always a milder form. Asc ! I A I ' 1 ' EH BTJ KG, the chief town on the right bank of the Maine, in E the line name flat oil 1 N.. Ion;. '.) 7 E). It is built upon an eminence thy and attractive situation ; but tin' streets are narrow, alar, and slope steeply towards the river. The castle of Johannisburg, built between 1005 — 1014, 80 by Johann S< hwoikhardt, Elector of Mentz, and the favourite hunting residence of many of his suc- cessors, forms a quadrangle, with towers at each corner, and overlooks the whole town. Besides the to church, the military barracks, and the town-hospital, A. possesses a Roman villa, built by the late King Louis, in imitation of the Castor and Pollux edifice discovered at Pompeii. It is celebrated for its manufacture of coloured papers, besides carry - i considerable trade in wood, building-stone, , wine, Ac Pop. 8500, principally Catholics. A. existed as early as the invasion of Germany by the Romans, who built a .In 974, Otto I., Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, founded the collegiate church, which greatly increased the prosperity of the place. After Otto's death, it came into the possession of the archbishops of Mentz, and remained with them until the dissolution of the Germanic empire. In 1814, along with the princi- pality of which it is the capital, it was cd 1 Bavaria by Austria. ASCHAM, Roger, a distinguished English writer and classical scholar, was born in 1515 at Kirby Wiske, in Yorkshire. He received his early educa- tion in the family of Sir Anthony Wingfield, and in 1530 entered St John's College, Cambridge, whi took his degree of M.A. in 1536. The study of the classics, especially Greek, had recently been revived Caml I '-, and the natural bent of A. inn him with ardour to these studies. His reputation as a classical scholar soon brought him nun pupils; and there being at that time no Greek chair, he was appointed by tin- university to read lectures in tin public schools. He at first opposed the then new method of pronimciation which is still used in England; but afterwards adopted and defended it. i ire hours were devoted to music, penmanship, in which he excelled, and archery. In defence of tli litter art, he wrote, in 1544, a treatise enl Toxopldlu.1, the pure English style of which, inde- pendently of its other merits, ranks it amo classical pieces of English literature. For this tl which was dedicated to Henry VIII., he was rewarded with an annual pension of £10, equivalent to about £100 of our present money. About the same time, he was appointed university orator. In 154S, on the death of his former pupil, Grinds!, he was called to supply his place as master of languages to the Lady Elizabeth. In this office he gave the faction; but at the end of two years abruptly resigned it, on account of some offence he had taken at some persons in the princess's house- hold. That he did not lose favour at court, howei er. is manifest, from his having soon after been appointed secretary to Sir Richard Morysine, ambassador to the court of Charles V. He spent three years in '■■ . ad publish : nit of his ol in that country. He also made a short tour in Italy. During his absence, he had been secretary to Edward VI. On his return, after the of the king, the interest of Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, secured his appointment to tin office under Mary; his pension also was doubled. His prudence anil moderation pres rved him from offending by his Protestantism. After the death of Elizabeth retained him at court in tin- doable capacity of secretary and tutor, which In- discharged till his" death, in 1568. His principal woil,. . a treatise on classical education, was published in 1571 by his widow. His Latin letters and poems have been frequently reprinted. The of the former is that of EUstob (Oxford, To an edition of his English works. I Rev. .1. Bennet (1707). is prefixed a life by Dr Johnson.— ASCHAM, a case for the reception of the bow, arrows, strings, and other accoutrements of the 4*>5 ASCHERRLEBEN— ASCIDIA. archer, derive* its name from the author of the ! itus. ASCHERSLE'BEX, a town in the circle or me name, in the Prussian province irg.lat.51 46' N., long., ll' 27' E. It is river Eine, is 7 Hides distant from burg, and has a population of 11,6X10. He inhabitants arc chiefly occupied in agriculture and ling, but its trade is not very important. It iwever, considerable manufactures of woollens, linens, earthenware, &c. In the vicinity are the ruins of the old burgh of Ascania, the original seat of the House of Anhult. ASCTDIA, a Linnxan genus of marine mollusca, much restricted a i bat the type of a family called Ascidiadce. Thenain is also comniouly employed to designate all those timicated mollusca which form the order Saccobrar, " , or in which respiration is carried on by i if gill-sacs [branchial sacs); and these are divided into Compound and Solitary Ascidians [A g- gregala and Svlitaria). The ascidians, along with ■'■', are acephalous, or destitute of a bead, and are i uelosed, not in a shell, but in an elastic tunic with two orifices, composed of a sub- stance apparently identical with the cellulose of plants, consisting only of carbon and hydrogen. Within the external tunic is a muscular membrane, regarded as corresponding to the mantle of other mollusca, and the openings of which agree with those of the tunic. The greater part of the cavity of the mantle forms a branchial sac, the lining of which, folded in various ways, constitutes the gills Mai); and into it currents of sea-water arc continually brought by the respiratory movements, ng out through the vent or anal orifice. Multitudinous cilia in the mouth and branchial sac, cause by their action this continual flow of water. The motion of the cilia is apparently quite involun- tary. By this flow of water, the particles of food ite for the animal are brought in, so that the aeration of the blood and the supply of the stomach are carried on together and by the .same means. The or gullet opens from the branchial sac, which is indeed regarded as probably an expansion of the upper part of it — a dilated pharynx. Under the branchial sac is the stomach ; and the alimentary canal, which is more or less tortuous, finally returns upon itself, so that the two orifices are not far separate. The liver consists of follicles produced into tubes, and communicating with the stomach by a single opening. There is a heart and a circulation of blood, with the remarkable peculiarity of alter- nations in its course, the cir- culation every now and then ng and being re. The transparency of many of the ascidians permits tie other internal movements to be easily observed. The ner- ••3 vous system is very simple, consisting of a single ganglion, situated Detween the mouth and the anal orifice, and which sends out filaments to both of them, and other branches over „ ; the surface of the mantle. The Ran?lw;i ; it, the mantle ., ,. e . . external tunic mantle is capable ot contract- being removed). ing suddenly to eject a jet of water, and along with it any body the presence of which is disagreeable. It also contracts and ejects water, if the animal is touched, and this appears to be the only means of defence Nervous System of Ascicha. mouth ; b, vent ; which these creatures possess. There' is no trace of eyes or of other organs of spec The ascidians are found in all seas, and often constitute an important part of the food of fishes. Some of them are occasionally used as human !iia microcosmus on the shores of the Medi- terranean. Many of them arc very small, but some attain a size of five or six inches in diameter, and when touched, eject water to a considerable height, of them to about three feet. They are all fixed by the base, in their mature state, to Bone substance, as a rock or seaweed ; sometimes 1 Section of Social Asciilian. a, mouth; 6, vent; e, stomnch ; il, intestinal canal; e, common tubular stem. intervention of a stalk or peduncle. In come kinels [Social Atcidians), the peduncles of a ni of individuals are connected by a tubular stem, and to some extent they have a common circulation of blood, although each has its own heart, respiratory apparatus, ana digestive system; and if a ligature is drawn around the peduncle of one so as to cut it off from the common circulation, circulation place in it as in a solitary ascidian. In other kinds (more strictly called Compound Ascidians — which ition, however, is by some authors applied 086 just described, whUst these are called Aggregate Ascidians), the tunics of many are united into a mass, and they form systems like zoop! The compound system sometimes bears a lance to an actinia. Very frequently it forms a slimy crust upon alga;, shells, &c, or projects in globular or conical masses, 'more like a lamp of inanimate matte-r than a being endowed with vitality ' — ' a curious and interesting internal organisation, veiled by the coarsest exterior.' The individuals are sometimes connected by a gelatinous flesh, which consists of cellulose, and there is sometimes a calca- reous deposition in this connecting substance as in the compound polypes. The individuals in these systems have always sprung by gemmation from one, and both the solitary and compound ascidians ate by eggs. The young have the pov active locomotion, resemble tael- poles in form, and swim by means of a vibratile tad, which disap- pears when they settle, being usually detached by contra i at the base. The sexes are sup- posed to be distinct only in some of the ascidians. The ovaries arc usually large and the ova are Asci(Uan (Y0Un „,. carncel away 1 y the stream which passes through the animal. It is in the sol ascidians that the highest organisation is to be observed, and in which alone a distinction of sexes appears. In them, a muscular ring surrouno mouth, and can be closed to exclude what is unfit to enter. Within this aperture there is also a of tentacula, short and simple, or I and minutely divided. In the compound ascidians, gemmation does not begin till the single animal has been fully developed; thereafter, bud after ASCLEPIADACEJE— A SCLEPIADES. bud is produced, according to the plan upon which the compound system is constructed, and ' I creative force of the germ-mass finally exhausts itself in the formation of male and female organs, in which that force is again mysteriously renewed under it3 two forms of the spermatozoon and the germinal vesicle, by the combination of which the reproduc- tive cycle again begins its course.' The name Ascldian Zoophytes {Zoophyt" la) has been used to designate those zoophytes or polypes which form the class Polyzoa of Thomp- son, liryozoa of Ehrenberg, and which in certain res of their organisation resemble the A., although in other respects they widely differ from them. The Alcyonidium and Alcijone.Ua, already noticed in the article Alcyonium, belong to this class. See Polypi: and Zoophyte. ASCLEPIADA'CE-E, or ASCLEPIA'DE.E. a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, mostly shrubs, often with twining stems, almost always with milky juice. The leaves are entire, and have cilia between their stalks in place of stipules. The flowers are peculiar in their structure, although trical and regular. The calyx is divided into live segments, the corolla into live lobes ; there are live stamens, and the stigma has five angles. The filaments are usually united so as to form a tube, which is generally furnished with a coronet of peculiar hood-shaped appendages ; the anthers are two-celled, the pollen grains cohering in wax-like masses, which fall out of the anther cells, and become attached to glands at the angles of the stigma; there are two ovaries and two styles very close together, and often very short, with one dilated stigma common to both. The fruit consists of two follicles, or, by abortion, of one only, having m-.iuerous imbricated seeds with thin albumen, the if the seeds terminating in long down. There are nearly one thousand known species, chiefly Vincctoxicuin officinale. a, root ; b, fruit ; c, a f Ingle wed. natives of warm climates. Some of them arc culti- vate ■! in gardens and hothouses, upon aoconnt of their curim* or beautiful flowers, among the most familiar of which are some of the species at Asclepias (q.v.) or Swallow-wort; perhaps none of them is more highly or deservedly esteemed than Stephanolis • of which equals its h and which, since its introduction into British hot- houses, has been sought for the bridal-garlands of the highest aristocracy. No hothouse climber is better Known than lloya carnosa, at each flower of which a drop of honey is always fom A number of species are medicinal, as Indian Sar- saparilla (q.v.), (Ihemidesmus Indicus) ; Modal ropU gigantea), so highly prized in the East Indies; Sarcoslemma glauaan, the Ipecacnai Venezuela; Tylopliora aslhmalica and emetica, the roots of which are used as emetics, and in smaller doses as cathartics, and the former of which is reckoned among the most valuable medi- cinal plants of India ; Cynanehum aculum, which yields a purgative called Montp li,_ T Scammony, and xicum officinale, which possesses similar pro- perties. Argel (q.v.), much used for adulterating senna, belongs to this order. — The down of the seeds is sometimes employed as a substitute for silk or cotton (see Asclepias) ; and the stems of not a few species afford useful fibres, as those of the Asclepias Syriaca (see Asclepias), the Mudar (q.v.) and other species of Calolropis, natives of India and Persia, Hoya viridiflora, llolostemma Rheediannm, &e. The Mudar or Yercum fibre is very highly extolled by Dr I'oyle (Fibrous Plants of India). The bark of Marsdenia tenacissima, a small climbing-plant, yields a fibre called Jetee, of which the Rajmahal moun- taineers make bowstrings, remarkable for their great elasticity, which they are supposed in some measure to owe to the presence of caoutchouc. The fibre of if. Eoylei is used in Nepal. OrlhanOiera viminea, which grows at the base of the Himalayas, and has long leafless wandlike stems of ten feet in height, yields a fibre of remarkable length and tenacity, and which is supposed to be peculiarly suited for rope-making. The fibres of Lepl" iana and Periploca aphyllum an in Sinde for making the ropes and bands used in wells, as water does not rot them. — The milky juice of most species of A. is acrid, but in some it is bland, and they are used for food, as is the milk itself of the Kiriaghuna or Cow-plant of Ceylon [Oymnema ion). A few speeies, as Marsdenia tinctoria, a native of Silhet, yield indigo of excellent quality. The flowers of the genus Stapdia have a strong smell of carrion, and flies sometimes lay their eggs upon them, as it were by mistake. — Xo species of A. is a native of Britain. — The order is generally 1 as nearly allied to Apocynaceas. ASCLEPI'ADES, a Greek physician, born at Prusa, in Bithynia, who flourished daring the early part of Cicero's life. He has been confounded with several other persons of the same name, and, in con- sequence, our accounts concerning him are both confused and contradictory. He seems to have wandered about considerably before he finally settled at Rome, as we read of his being at Alexandria. Parium on the Propontis, and Athens. It is not known either when he was born or when he died. A. was opposed to the principles of Hippocrates in medicine. Pliny, who professes very little respect for him, reduces his medicinal remedies to live : abstinence from flesh, abstinence from wine under certain circumstances, friction, walking, and ' tion ' or carriage exercise, by which he proposed to open the pores, and let the corpuscles which c disease escape in perspiration ; for his leading doctrine was, that all disease rose from an inharmonious dis- tribution of the small, formless corpuscles of which the body was composed. He is said to have been very popular with the Romans on account of his pleasant and simple cures. His maxim was, that a physician ought to cure surely, swiftly, and agreeably '46: ASCLEPIAS-ASniTX. I ich, unfortunately, is not alv . e b c-n the first w bo distin- ■ I and elm. nl. i . bul in i no\i ledge of anal very alight. The fragments of his which remain have been • I together, corrected, ami published bj ■ I BiOiyni Frag- (Weimar, 179S). Asri.F.'Pl vs.m-sw UXOYV-WORT.agenusof plants, the ty] f the natural order At Tin- corolla is wheel-shaped and reflezed; the < . and each of its hooded tips ho i a horn. The eldom cl mbi twining herbaceous plants with opposite, whorled, or alternate leaves. They are mostly A The flowers are disposed in simp].' umbels i> the leaf-stalks. — A. Syriaca, Syrian or Vii Swallow-wort, sometimes called Virginian Silk, u i to be a native of North America, and not of Syria.;: gposed. It is frequently cultivated in flower-gardens. It has an unbranched stem 4 7 feet high ; thick, ovate leaves, covered with a down "ii the underside; and huge, .'till,.'!, nodding umbels of many dull red flowers, which dil strong and sweetish odour. The whole plant is full of an acrid white milk, which contains caouti The young shoots are eaten in North America like those of A. sdpitacea are in Arabia. A brown well-tasted sugar is prepared in Canada from the flowers ; an. I tin- Bilk-like down of the seeds A for the manufacture of textile fabrics, either alone, . ■. 1 1 1 r wool or silk, but is mon Erequi ul Lj i oployed for the preparal ion o ana for stuffing mattresses and pillows. The plant , to be chiefly valuable for the fibi of its stalks, which is used for the manufacture of !. cloth, ropes, • in many parts of North America, and upon account of which it has been lvcniiiiiii'iiili d for general cultivation in Europe. The fibre is said to lie of very superior quality. The plant rapidly extends by its creeping roots, and readily becomes a weed, where it lias been intro- duced. — The roots of several other North American species are used as diaphoretics and expectorants, as I. arnata, A. tuber — ..'.■. The latter is a very ornamental garden-flower, and is called Butterfly \Y. ed and Pleurisy Hoot in the I faited state-, where it is frequent on stony and sandy grounds. A. called W ild [p cacuanha in the West I, and a deeoction of it is used by the n as an emetic and purgative. A'SCOLI (anciently. Asculum Picenum), an old episcopal city of Italy, the capital of a delegation in the states of the Church, hit. 42' 50'N.,long. 13° .';7 E. It is built on a hill, on the right bank of the Tronto, which forms the boundary between the a and Neapolitan territories. Pop. 11,000. From the Adriatic, it is distant 16 D from Ancona, 53 south. Its harbour (Porto d'Ascoli) has some coasting-trade, and is defi aded by two forts. The town is beautifully situated, commanding a fine view of the fertile valley tl 1. which the river Hows, and of the rugged Apennines, which lure rise to an elevation of 7212 feet. In ancient times, it was inhabited by the Piceni, lendants of a colony of Sabines, who main- tained their independence against the Romans until 2GS B.C. Nearly two centuries after, they took a prominent part in the SocialWar; and ou the taking of their town byPompeius Strabo, were subjected severest punishments. The town was finally annexed to the Papal States by Pope Clement V, in 1426. ASELLI, ASELLIO, or ASELLIUS, CaSPAB, a a physician, was born at Cremona about the year 1581. a mili- tary Burgeon, but afterwards became p anatomy and surgery at Padua, In 1622, while at Milan, where he was in the habit of spending a portion of his time, b.. discovered the lacteal i- i A. time, anatomj bad i uppo ed that the chyle wa i >m the intestines into the liver by the mesenteric vein . Happening oneday s ■ .1: lect a living dog, he noticed tor the fit the multitude of little vessels, which such up the nutritive portion of the f I. At Brat, he took them for mrves, and did not pay particular tdon to them; but on pricking one with the point of his ' white liquid spurted out. and til" : iovi ■. B : bed on him in a moment. I Ce r, never to have understood or described them with co curacy. Jb- died at tl "t 46, leaving a tn iti e on the subject of his ry, winch was published a year aft It is entitled /;. Linlihiis, .lift' l.ucl. i I . . ,. , Quarto Vasorum M< arai rum Gem n . Aw. Invento, itio, and has .-' v. ral timi i been r It is curious to reflect that such nan as Gaspard HoUhianand Harvey zealously combated theopi of A. It was nearly half a century before pi sional men admitted that a great discovery had bei □ made in anatomy. See La( ii.ai.s. ASE'LLTJS, in Ichthyology, a generic name now 1, but. by which the cod and other Oadidce were formerly sometimes designated Itisrel in the pharmacopo ias, in the name of • 'od- liver Oil, OU "in jecorit asclli. — The same generic name is now employed m :l different department of natural history, to d te ■< genua of small Isopod Crusta- ceans, i i which, .1. atpiaticuB, is common in in Britain, and is sometim s called the Water 1 big louse. This genus is the type of a family, Asd 1 A'SES. The singular of this name in Old Not As, pi. Aesir; in Gothic, Ann : in Saxon The A. are a race of gods in Northern Or Scandina- vian Mythology (q. v.), though not the oldest, yet the most powerful, like the Jupiter d] mgthe Greeks. Tiny are usually considered as numbering twelve gods, and as man . The gods are - Odin, Thor, Baldur, Niord, F-reyr, Tyr. Bragi, Eeim- ilal, Widar, Wali, Oiler, and Forscti; the best known of the goddesses— Frigga, Freyja, [dnnna, ECira, and Saga. The worship of the A., or the Odm reli| , was rooted not only among the nation; of Seamh navia, but amen,' the Germanic races generally, at li ast in its outlines. P.esides other traces, ]iroofs of its prevalence are to be found in a multitude of Gothic, Saxon, and ( lid High German proper D many of which continue still in use, though then con ■ * with German paganism passes imperceived: Oswald, Esmond, Oswin, Anselm, Ansgar, &c ASGILL, John, an eccentric English litterateur, born about the middle of the 17th c. He studied for the bar, and at intervals during the whole oi his checkered life transacted legal buainesa in some form or other; but having early displayed a predilec- tion for writing political pamphlets, he soon I.. involved in spite of his cleverness, in serious pecu- niary difficulties. Fortunately for him, parliament had just passed an act (1699) for the resumption of forfeited estates in Ireland, and commissioners were appointed to settle claims. A bright vision flitted across the mind of the much-harassed man. He sailed for the sister isle, and found the whole coun- try wrangling in lawsuits. His talents, and the favour of the commissioners, secured to him a lucrative practice; and he even acquired sufficient influence to obtain a seat in the Irish parliament, Some time, however, before taking possession of ASGILL-ASH. his seat, A. had published a most extraordinary pamphlet, entitled An Argument proving that, ling to the Covenant oj Eternal Lift fixated ■in tin- Scripture), Man may be translated henet into that Eternal Lij ■.■<;/ ttii-.ni/li Death, although the Humane Nature qf Christ liims.'i r.iii.f ik, i tint, be translated t> ! i he had i through Death (17(10). Much to A.'s surprise, the public Hew into a v oat this absurd production; the Irish parliament voted it a blasphemous libel, and the astonished author was expelled from the House after four days. In 1705, A. returned to England, and entered the Engh h pari' unent as mi mber for Bramber, in Sussex But the i mi" of his unlucky pamphlet haunted him perpetually, and at last proved a Nemesis ; for the EnglishHou • living to be not less virtuous than tb [ri h one, took up the treatise, condemned it to be burnt by the common hangman, as profane and blasphemous, and expelled A. on the 18th December 1707. After this his circumstances rapidly grew worse, until at last he found something like peace in the King's Bench and the Fleet, between which two pi lursions were confined for the term of his natural life. Here he continued to practise professionally, and — for he never succeeded in over- coming this weakness — to indite innumerable pam- phlets on political and theological topics. He died in November 17oS. ASH [Fratxinus), a genus of trees belonging to the natural order I ; , and distinguished by very imperfect flowers, in which the calyx is obsolete, and the corolla either wanting or 3— 4-partite ; the greatest in trees of which the growth has been rapid, as it exhibits the cliaracteristic toughness in Common Ash. fruit is a samara, a seed-vessel foliaccous at the extremity. The leaves are deciduous, and are pinnate with a terminal leaflet. There are about . mostly natives of Kuropc and of North America, The Common Asn (/•'. excelsior) grows wild in the middle and south of Europe and north .. It is an undoubted native of Britain. The flowers are quite naked ; the leaves have live or six pairs of leaflets. The flowers appear before the and the tree is not covered with [eaves until I a is far advanced, losing them again early in autumn. It is, however, a most beau- tiful and umbrageous tree, highly ornamental in parks ; but i" parks or hedgerows it is extremely injurious to the era i or crops immediately around it. It rises to the height of 100—150 feet, ally with a smooth stem. The wood is white, tough, and hard, much valued by wheel-wi cart-wrights, coach-makers, joiners, and turners. It is also excellent for fuel. Sometimes it bei ilar in the disposition of its fibres, and finely veined, and is then prized by cabinet-makers. The Wood of the young trees is almost as valuable as that of the old. Indeed, the value of the timber is 'im. the highest degree. The A. prefers a loanrj but grows in almost any, and succeeds in situa- tions too elevated or too exposed for most other trees. It has of late been extensively pi in elevated situations in some parts of the north of Scotland, and there, in the more sheltel grows to a large size. Cultivation has produced and perpetuated a number of varieties, of which the most remarkable are the Weeping A., with I o bent almost straight down to the ground : the 1 .1., with dark-grei n wrinkled or leaves; and the / d A., a very curious variety, with many or all of the leaves simple (not pinnated), which has been erroneously regari I Common Uh. a, tt branch with loav. lcr..bljr larger scale than the haves and Dl some botanists as a distinct ad named F. rheSMALL-u A. [F. pan ' I are both natives of the shores of the Mediterra and are very graceful and ornamental trees. — The AMi-.r.HWN A.. or Win r; a), is readily I from the Common A. by its lighter The flowers fa calyx, and tile leailets are shortly stalked and entire ASIIANTI— ASHBURTON. I of the Connnon A. being sessile and sen bundant in New Brunswick and Canada, but i ;re to the south of New Jersey. The trunk often rises more than forty feet tin The wood is used for the same pur] th.it of the Common A. — Tho Bed A., or Bi lcb \. (/'. its), is very similar, but of e, and has a deep brown bark. It is moat abundant in Pennsylvania. Maryland, and Vh ■ ially in swampy ground,— -The Black A., or Water A. of tlir Nisw Kngland States, New Brunswick, ■ sambucifolia), is a lar™o tree with budfl of a deep blue colour. — The Blue A. of Ohio, Kentucky, Ten &c. {F. rjitadranpulata), is also a lit e tree. The branches arc quadrangular, tl hoots having on the angles four membranes which extend thi ir whole length.— Tho Green A. (/•'. juglandifolia), readily recognised by the brilliant green of its youii" shoots, is chiefly found in the middle states ; and the Carolina A. (F. OaroKniana), remarkable for the great size of its ballets, chiefly in I states. Besides these, North America produces a considerable number of other species or vat The wood of all of them is used for somewhat similar purposes to that of the Common A. — In the south of • ■ grows the Manna A., or Flow i htm; A. (/•'. Ornus, called Ornus Europcca by some botanists), whose flowers have a 4-partite calyx, and four small ydlowish-white petals. The tree has mucli I blance to tho Common A. From it the sub called Manna (q. v.) is obtained by means of trans- verse incisions in the bark ; but in very favourable situations, it flows spontaneously during the greatest "f summer. Manua is chiefly colic ilia and Sicily. A nearly allied m . /■'. ■. a native of Greece and the Islands, yields it also in perhaps equal quantity. The Common A. is said Bometimes to produce the same exudation in the same warm climates. The .V. is the BoWAN Ti;i;i; (q. V.) ivnt natural order. Its resemblance to the A. is chiefly in its leaves. The A. has a peculiar importance in Scandinavian 'logy. The first man and v i d were \ k and Ehnbla (Ash and Elm). The court of the gods is represented in the Edda as held under an A., called Yggdrasil (q. v.). Connected, perhaps, with traditions is the superstitious belief in A. ; as a charm against witchcraft and magic. ASIIANTI', or ASHANTl o kingdom in AVestern Africa, on the north of the Gold i . near the British settlement of Cape Coast Ca lat. C°— 8° N., and long. 0°— 3° W. A. is the most powerful state of Upper Guinea. It is mountainous, v. II watered, and healthy, except inthe lower alluvial lets. The principal rivers are the Volta and the Assinic. The population is estimated at about a million. The land is extremely fertile; 00 indeed, with wild luxuriant forms of vegetation, and producing maize, millet, rice, yams, tobacco, cocoa, the pine-apple, and other lino fruits, with dye-woods, and timber. The principal exports old-dust and palm-oil, together with slaves. The natives are remarkable for their skill in certain s of manufacture; their cottons are beautiful, > their earthenware and sword-blades. The capital is Coomassie (q. v.). The kingdom of A. was founded between 1730 7 10 by a barbarian conqueror, who established a kind of feudal sovereignty over the adj states. In their course of conquest over the 1 the Ashantecs became involved in war with the British (1807— 1826), aud were finally driven from the sea-coast, and confined within their inland terri- Missionarics who have resided in A. describe the people as exceedingly sanguinary in their disposition and in their rob [lies, but and cl edby a bij l d . which surround i sacrifices arc said to be very common. To celebrate the funeral of a ■ n I per onage, nui of slaves are massacred. On the death of a royal re formerly gnat; but h the influence of the authority Coast Castle, and that of the missionaries, tie happily on the decline. A mission to A. has been maintained by the We leyan Missionary i sinco 1811, and with encouraging prospects of suc- cess. A BHBOUIINE, a mull town in a rich district near the left bank of the river Dove, in the v. Derbyshire. It lies on a steep south slope, with hills on the north. It lias a cruciform church, as old as the 13th c., with triplet lancet windows, which was restored in 1845 at the cost of £5000. Pop. in 1S51, 2418, chielly engaged in the cotton, I tee, and iron manufacture, and in the chet malttra in 1644, the parliamentary troops ted those of Charles I. ASHBURTON, Lord, (Alexander Bartno), born in 1774, a younger son of Sir Francis 1 1 Bart., was, in early life, for many years con daily i i i the United States and the is, iii the service of the great London mer- cantile house founded by his father. On the death of the latter, in 1810, he becamo the head of the firm of Baring Brothers & Co., and in 1812 M. P. for Taunton, lie repp that place, Callington, and Thetford, on the liberal i. till 1831, and in 1832 was return North Kssex as a i re. In the short administration of Sir Robert Peel (1834 Pi ident of the Board of Trade, and Master of the Mint, and wa i created Baron A. by patent in April 1S35. This title bad been oonfi rred, in April celebrated lawyer, John Dunning, who had married Alexander Baring's aunt, and it 1 extinct on the death of his cousin, the second Lord A., in 1S23. In 1842, Lord A.'s knowledge of busi- and thorough ace ■ with Anc institutions, customs, and mo : ight, caused him to be a] ' for to the United States, to settle the north-west bom question, and other disputes, that then tie involve the two countries in war. In An same year, he concluded tic famous treaty of Wash- ington, commonly called the A. Treaty, by which the frontier line between the state of Maine and Canada was definitively agreed to. By this treaty, twelfths of tli" disputed ground, and the British settlement of Madawaska, were given to the Ohitt A . and only five-twelfths of the ground to Britain; but it seemed a better military f roc: d included heights cole . lie St Lawrei which the award of the king of lb ' who bad been chosen arbiter, bad assigned to the Americans. By the 8th and t)th articles, pro\ ir putting an end to the African slave- trade ; and the tenth article provides for the mutual extradition of suspected criminals. Lord A. op de, but strongly supported the penny-pi system when first proposed by Lowland Hill in 1837. He formed a valuable collection of old paintings. His death took place May 13, 184S.— His eldest son, William Bingham Baring, I Lord A. of this creation, born in 1700, and edm at i Iriel College, Oxford, entered parliament in 1836, as member for Taunton, and in September 1S41 was ited Secretary to the Board of Control. In try 1845 he becalm I neral of the Forces, and Treasurer of the Navy. Iu 1855 he was ASHBURTOX— ASHMUX. made Commander of the Legion of Honour, 'for '•rs rendered to commerce, (lie died ISIJ4.) A'SITJiURTOX, a small town, two to three miles east of the river Dart, in the south of Derail It mainly consists of two paved streets crossing each other. It has a church in the perpendicular style, with a town- '.)! fi-.-t high. I'op. in 1851, .'ll.'S, but decreasing ; employed in the mines, slatc- qnarries, and serge manufacture. The town returns one member to parliament. A'SHBY-DE-LA-ZOU'CH, a small town near the source of the Mease, a tributary of the Trent, in the north-west of Leicestershire. Pop. in 1851, 3762, chiefly engaged in the. manufacture of stockings, hats, and iirebricks, and in iron-smelting works and collieries. A canal 30 miles long, without a lock, connects the town with Coventry in Warwickshire. Geologically, the district is carboniferous; and near the town, in the coal-field, there are saline springs, containing common salt in greater proportion than the sea, and also bromine. The ruins of A. Castle, once a vast and lofty pile, stand on a height on the south side of the town. Mary, Queen of Scot once confined in this castle. St Helen's Church, an ancient structure with a tower, is the burying- place of the Hastings family, as well as of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, the founder of the sect called the Countess of Huntingdon's Connection. A'SHDOD. SeeAzoTUS. ASHES, the remains of animal and vegetable after burning. It is not strictly correct to speak of the ashes of a mineral. When lead, for instance, is exposed to heat, it turns to dross, which has the appearance of A., but is merely the lead combined with oxygen. In the same way, volcanic A., a3 they are called, are only a finer kind of pumice-stone, the solidified scum of molten lava. 1'he ashes of organic substances destroyed by lire consist of the fixed salts contained in these sub- stances. In land-plants, the most important are salts of potash, along with silica and lime ; in sea- plants, soda takes the place of potash. By lixiviation of the A., the potash or soda is dissolved and sepa- rated from the insoluble mass, and is then purified by crystallisation. The A. of sea-plants contain also more or less iodine. Peat and turf ashes con- tain, besides alkalies, more or loss clay and sand : the same is true of pit-coal, which sometimes contains iron. At ono time, the A. or inorganic ingredients of 5 'Lints were considered unessential to their existence, 'iit the progress of vegetable chemistry has taught that a certain proportion of saline food is abso- lutely necessary to the development of plants. The is of the A. of the different kinds of vegetable substances has since become of great interest. The A. of animal bodies do not differ greatly from those of vegetables. Bonc-A. consist i tially of lime muted with phosphoric acid. This bone-earth is very valuable as manure for grain. La well-wooded countries, A. from burnt wood form an article of considerable trade. They are much used in the arts, as Boap-bcdling, bleaching, dyeing, glass- making, fee. Wood- A. are also used in washing and other domestic processes, as a cheap preparation of h (q. v.). The covering of the head with A. fall common sign of mourning among eastern nations, indicative of the very deepest disbn a. in of this are mentioned in Scripture. Penitents in the early Christian Church signified their sorrow and humiliation in like manner, by standing at the door of the church in 'sackcloth and ashes.' See Ahh-Wedneday. ASllI'ORD, a small town on the west of the confluence of the two upper branches of the river Stour, near the middle of Kent. Pop. in 1851, which has largely increased from its having I the junction station of three great lines of railway. Damask is manufactured here. A'SHLAR, or A'SHLEB, building-stone squared and hewn, as dist i from rubble, or i which are used as they come from the . ; being dressed. A. is laid in regular courses in building, and nous kinds, according to the stylo of working that side of the stone -1 1- Asldar. wfaiob is to form the facing of the wall. Thus, there are tooled A. — the marks of the tooling being either random or in grooves; polislied A., in which the face of the stone is rubbed smooth ; and rustic A., in which only the joints are accurately hewn, the face of the stone being left projecting irregularly. * riers apply the term A. to squared stones before 1« ing hewn. In old documents, the term ai under a variety of forms, such as achlere, ashelar, aslure, and estlar. ASHLEY, Lord. See Shaftesbury. ASHMOLE, Elias, a celebrated antiquary, was born at Lichfield on the 2.3d May 1617. In when only sixteen years of age, be commenc study of law, and five years after, he was admitted to practice as a solicitor in Chancery. During the civil wars, he embraced the side of +kc Ro\ and was appointed captain in Lord Ashley's regiment, and comptroller of the Ordnance ; but at the same time exhibited his love of study by joining Brazcnose College, Oxford, where he sedulously applied himself to mathematics, natural philosophy, astronomy, and astrology. In 1046, he became acquaint' '1 several famous astrologers; amongst others. William Lilly, whose conversation had a great charm for him ; and in 1650, ho published a work of Dr I to which la- subjoined a treatise of his own. Continu- ing with singular perseverance his I in this dim region of superstitious philosophy, he was Lin the course of two or three yi ars, to hisThealnimChjm iocured for him a high reputation, and the friendship even a like "John Selden. In 165S, appeared his Way to Bliss, a work on the philosopher's stone — the last he published in connection with astrology. At the restoration of King Charles various ho and emoluments were conferred upon him. In 1682, he presented to the university of Oxford a very fine on of rarities, which properly, howevi longed to certain persons of tie name of Tradesoant In this transaction he exhibited a rather mean ambi- i !i>n to i cclui I ml owners of the cabinet of curiosities from participating in the honour of the gift, and posterity has unfortunately gratified his wish by calling "it the Ashmolean Museum. He died May L8, 1G'.12, leaving behind him a quantity of manuscript, a considerable portion of which has since been published. ASIIMI'N, .1 Enrol, an American ph was born at Champlain, in the state of New Y oil;, in IV'.M. He ws I with a view to the Christian ministry; but eventually became editor, ASIITAROTH— Asia. in Washington, of a monthly magazine rail in this periodical he advocated the ■ ing a colony of liberated negroi i on U i of Africa, tn 1821 he publi bed a life of the Rev. I Bacon, who had fallen a victim to i il attempt to real I ws in the previous l rnmgthe difficulties which surrounded a at planting a settli mi al in A. resolved to d g t work. Receiving an apjp ata of i Colonisation Society, he conducted a lib from Baltimore, landed at Cape Meson eat of the infant ■. . in the antumn of 1822. Dr Ayr s and the i ui the Society having meanwhile abandoned the settlement from severe illni assumed the Buperintendi ace of affairs as the sole i ol that body. Here, for more than six year . he d voted his powers and his life to the , on a fair and solid basis, thi full of hope fur the American negro. He si great courage and tact in opposing the united forces natives at the outset of his a at, and no less ability in after-negotiations with by which the colony acquired very inns to its territory. His health at becoming sadly impaired, he hade adieu I A, in March 1828, and land d al N . ■■•■ ha 1 en, I it, in a state of great i xhaustion. Afb i tval, he relapsed, and died on the 2Sth An u t ISL'S, in I 1 , thirty-fifth year. His remain ho o a public funeral. A memoir of bis life, bj i;. I:. Gurley, appeared at Washington in 1 335. A'SHTAEOTH. ! rABTE. A'SHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, a in a carboniferous dis South Lancashire. Pop. in 1851,5679 iged in id in the cotton manufai A'SHTON-UNDEE-LINE. a town in the oi Lancashire. Pop. in 1851, 29,791. It i one member to parliament. It is a gnat cotton manufacture. The population i employed in bleaching, dyeii • printing, in collieries, and in the manufacture of machines, . &c To the west oi the town is a large moss or shakii! f bog, containing fir-tr full of turpentine, and black oak, with a loamy bottom at the depth of 10 feet. ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent (q. v.), so called from the Roman Catholic ceremony ol ing ashes on the head as a sign of penitence. This custom, probably introduced t >y Gregory the Great (590— 0U4), was sanctioned by I' Cell tin 111. in 1191, and afterwards generally prevailed. I mass, the ashes were consecrated on the altar, sprinkled with holy water, and signed three with the cross, while the pri I the words, Mi mn alo quod 1 1 it • , ■ in ctneri m . v (' Remember that thou art dust, and must return to dust!') Next, th.y were strewed on the heads of the officiating priests, the clergy, and the 11 d people. 'I I. i to lie those ol the palms consecrated on the preceding Palm Sunday (q. v.) — The Protestant Church in German] not celebrate A. In the Church of England, it is rved by the stricter members, but without anything of the ceremony from which it derives its name; and the comminalion — a series i tions against impenitent offenders — is appointed to be read in the service for this day. A SI \, In largest division of land on tin- generally regarded as the birthplace of the human race, and the most ancient seat of civilisation. Its 472 superficial area, including islands, hi at from lti to 20,000,000 square miles, and as popu- lation at 650,000,000. Tins i tinent lies the i-it hi hemisphere, while its world of i is across the equator on th On three iinded by the ocean; but on the west, is partially conn a and Europe. The continental ms n four 1 ue idea in i lie formed of its vast extent 1 iy the calculation that, thou contains more than half of 1 1 , the number of its inhabit i n 'ill its area, ipe a > be aid to he three times more densely populated. The i al i I 33,000 miles in length ; and o el east, is diversified by seas, bays, and affording advantages to navigation and comu to e of A i. but mfi rior to fcho ed by Europe and America. < in the -ale, the Dardanelles and the Si a of Marmora may irded a< but a si ption of the i nils nf Europe and A. which form the i the old world. Hon ntai Configuration. L ST., by the Arctic Ocean ; EX, by the Pai ic Oi in; S.,by ■ i 1 1 Black Si a, Archipelago, Med Red Sea. i (n the i osular land of Kamstchatka is separated from Ninth An only by the narrov. Strait. On the si mi h- e of numerous islands — Sumatra, Java, ii , .■. extends tov tralia. The body of the continent may be regarded trapezium, of 'which the offa peninsulas, beai i i.i \. ' . erytbing is on a n gigantic de. 'I sola of Arabia, is four turn trance. On the wesl da of A. Minor, or Anatolia, divided from Europe bytl . , I ira, i . u ll.s, with the Black Sea on the north, and ant mi the smith, (in the outh ol A., the ilar configuration may 1"' divided into principal masses, corresponding to the southern coa I ol Eun ipe : Arabia may 1 dered as a counterpart to Spain; Italy, with its neighbour- Sicily, i- i pr iii> I by Hind i; and. as in Europe, the broken llrccian peninsula is connected with A. by a bridge of numerous islands i in A., the Eastern Peninsula (or fn ages), lying between the Hay of Bengal and the ' binese Sea, is i icted with An tralia on the south-east by the vast East rn Archipelago. This win-Id of islands is divided into the I of the Philippine Islands. Borneo, I Molucca Is], latra and .lava, Timor anil the numerous adjoining isles. The east COD A. is characterised by the deep ind of the Pacific Ocean in the CI Yellow Sea, and of Japan, Okhotsk, and Kanistchatk ■ fringed with numerous islands, and peninsula of Corea, the island of Saghalien, at peninsula of Kamstchatka, On the north, the Sibe- rian coasts are also deeply indented ; but rather by the embouchi ■ rivers than by arms o i be whole length of continental A., from the Dardanelles to the Japan Isl ads, is 61 i ! b ; its breadth, from Malacca to the nortl i] f Siberia, is 5300 miles; with its islands it extends ii 10* S. lat. to 78 N., and from L'0' E. I 190 E. or ITU W". Such an extent of surface must include all varieties of soil, climate, and production. 1 „, I, cn»Ha£RS lOHUON JtDlHBURGH ASIA. Verb ' •••ration. — Equally grand are the features of this continent when regarded vertically: it has the most extensive lowlands, the most immense table-lands, the highest chains of mountains, and Up- most elevated summits in the world ; tracts doomed to everlasting snow or scorching sterility, salubrious valleys of continual verdure, and noisome jus the rankest growth. The table-lands of Asia o two-fifths of the whole continent. I extremity is 2000mues broad; the western, less than 1000. The whole mass may be regarded ing of two pari ted, or, to nected by the lofty, snow- I mountain-isthmus of the Hindu I ions are styled respectively: 1. The l n Plateau, including the Table-land of Tibet and the Di Gobi; 2. The Western I" or Table-land of Iran. The former, a vast four- aided mass, considerably larger than the whole area of Europe, extends 2800 miles from the mountain chain, Hindu Cosh, to the Tonquin Gulf in China, (tn the south, tin- i divided from the plains of Hindustan by I lya .Mum. have a mi so height of 18,000 feet, while several of their summits rise from 25,000 to 29,000 feet the level of the sea. Even the passes over this enormous range of maintains are almost as high as the summit oi (font Blanc. Sere Dhwalagiri supposed to be the Mont Blanc of the Himalayas, and with precisely the diem, viz., 'white i 27,60i of the Andes far below ; while Kinchin p to 28,1 78 I ] : lieved to be lit in the world, attain of 29,002 feet Cultivation is found at 10,000 feet the sea; while flocks graze Borne 401 In CShinese-Tatary and Til round is cultivated at a height only 20 tot than the summit of M On tie i \ the table-land of Tib mountain Yun-ling and Khing-khaii, which, towards the are connected with wild Chinese alpine which little is known ; while, towai h, they extend into another mountainous region, where the rn chain of Shangpe-ahan i Pacific Ocean a wall of rock 3000 feet high. On the north, the chain of the Altai Mountain miles long, and divided into several groups, forms the boundary between the great plateau and the plain of Siberia, which is larger than the whole area of Europe. The Western riateau, or Table-land of Iran, rises generally about 5000 feet above the sea; but in parts to ~(«)i) feet; descending again, however, in the central and southern parts, wle re it spreads out into sandy and gravelly plains, to 2 i and 1200 feet. It has been divided into three sections : the l'l r Iran proper : th'- Median-Armenian Al] and the Anatolian Table-land. The jir.i (he long levels of the Barman empire, through which i rrawady, and the rich i ons of Cam- bodia and Siain. 6th, The OHntat lowlands, corn- east at Lckin, and cxtondm south as the Tropic of Cancer, containing ^10,000 i seven times the size of Lom- bardy. It is watered by a copious river-sysi rous canals, and may bo n ; in productiveness all other parts of Hi" world. Hydrography. — The hydrography of A. d as striking a variety as the structure of its land. The alpine regions send down in some dn torrents of water, which form rivers almost rivalling in mi ificence those of America, and which flow for hundreds of miles through plains of I I fertility. On the other hand, there are ^ ing tracts, like the deserts of Africa, destitute of water, and doomed to eternal sterility. Only one considerable sheet of water, Lake Hamoon (q. v.), refreshes the high table-land of Iran. The Ioti of Turan contains the Caspian Sea (q. v.), the I of all lakes, and Lake Aral (q. v.). In the valley of Cashmere lies Lake Ular, 40 miles in < fcrcnce, and the only considerable sheet of water in tli" Himalaya chain. At the northern base of' this mountain-chain. Lake Palte is remarkable for its ir form. In Tibet and the Altai Mountains, lakes are very numerous. i in" df the most striking characteristics of Asian river-Systems is found in its double rivers, or two i I rising in the same region, flowing in I Earallel directions, and either uno arly so, efore entering the sea. Among thi • twin rivers may lie mentioned — the Sihon and Gihon, flowing into Lake Aral; the Euphrates and Tigris, in We, tern A., surrounding the plain of Mesop uniting at Koona, and together ito the d Gulf; the Ganges and Brahmaputra; and the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho, in China, rising i ach other, then -widely separated in their courses, but again approaching each oiler, and both falling into the Yellow Sea, only 100 miles apart. The six great river-systems of A., compi rivers which will be found fully noticed under their ■ ■, are — the Mesopotamian, that of North-west India, that of North-east India and Tibet, the Indo-Chinese, the Chinese, and the Siberian. The first comprises the two famous streams, the Tigris and Euphrates, The second comprises the Indus with its tributaries. The third system com ■ i Brah- maputra and Ganges, 'the fourth system comprises the rivers of the tndo-l la; the chief of which are the Irrawaddy, the Martaban or 6 tie- Me-nam, and the Me-king or Cambodia. The fifth system is the Chinese. It comprises four great .streams, all of wlrich flow in an eastern or ni n into the Pacific: the Hong-kiang, Canton Biver; the Yi ti (or Son of the i) ; tli" Hoang-ho, or Yellow Liver; and the Amur. The tern compri- rh b ria, the principal of which are the Obi, the \ • nisei, and the Lena. They all have their sources in the Altaian Mountains; flow north, or nearly so; and for 800 or 900 miles before their embouchure, traverse a dreary, flat, monotonous waste, until r sluggish waters creep into the Frozen S Geology. — The geological structure of Asia is so complex, the different formations are so broken up and scattered, that a general description would be unintelligible. We must refer to separate notices, 471 where the geological structure and phenomena of circum tricts will be given m detail, and ader will, in this way, be enabled to form a on of the geo] i as a whole. i a \. Hum l, Sxbkri \. fee, Natural History. — The vast extent of A., and i's great diversities of climate, naturally lead us to expect in it a great variety of natural prodni both animal and vegetable. This expectation is heightened when wo consider how completely this vast continent is divided into sepal ns by mountain ranges of great altitude, and how exten- sive the mountainous tracts themselves are, as well as the great extent of the elevated plateaux or table- lands, ami when we add to these considerations that of the peculiar character of wide regions— wastes of sand- es— and extensive districts of which the soil is strongly impregnated with salt Accord- ingly, we find, both in the flora and fauna of Asia, all the var i derations might 1 pect. eirt of the continent, ho differs comparatively little in its productions from the corresponding parts of Europe and America. It exhibits the same arctic flora, with differences compa- ly inconsiderable. Lines, birches, and v. form, as in the other continents, the last forests of the north; but upon account of the more climate, they do not reach a limit so northerly as in I particularly in the west of Europe. Some of the c immon plants of Europe are abundant as far east as Kamstcnatka: the Crowberry ( truiii nigrum), so plentiful in the moors of Scotland, is still more plentiful throughout Siberia; the same Vaccinia (Bilbi tries, &c | and S tin (Brambli abound in tl atkan forests as in those of Scandinavia. There are, however, interesting dif- ference i Heaths are comparatively rare in Asia, its flora agl respect with that of America, than with that of Europe. The larch, which in Europe occurs only on the central mou Is far northward at the mouth of the Obi to the utmost lin < irescent vegetation ; prol lably a mere variety of the sal . althon h it has distinct. In Kamstchatka, a dif- ferent kind of birch replaces the common birch of Europe as a forest tree, and t in lent from that of the south of Europe. Siberia in its less I ' gions produces a luxuriant \ tion, of which herbaceous plants of unusually largo size for a cold or temperate climate are a charac- teristic feature; as species of Rhubarb, Angelica, and Cow-parsnip (Heracleum), some of wine i are now well known in Britain. It is indeed from the central and ea tern temperate parts of Asia that the cultivated species of rhubarb are derived, and from the same region the rhubarb root, so vain medicine, is brought. In the abundance of'. ae (Currant rmer parts of I resemble North America, although most of the species arc different. To the south of the Altaian Mountains, the flora of Asia corresponds in part with that of the great eastern plain of Europe; but it exhibit liarities which may in some measure be ascribed to the saline character of large districts, the stony or sandy desolation of others, and the elevation of the great central plateau. The flora of Asia Minor and of Syria has a general resemblance to that of the south of Europe, although exhibiting also featuri I which belong rather to that of India or of A Shrubby Labiates are particularly characteristic of this region, from which not a few of them have found their way into the gardens of Europe and of other parts of the world, upon account of their fragrance, their medicinal qualities, or their use for ASIA. the grateful seasoning of food. The tropical llora of b a abound i inti i v. bich yield Era. ;rant I and resins, particularly ot the natural order Amyri- dacetx. Indeed, both the warmer temperate and the tropical regions of Asia excel other parts of the world in the number and variety of the odoriferous drugs which they produce, with odours of the most various characters, from myrrh and frankincense to asafcetida. Arabia lias long been noted for the production of , which is now also pretty extensively cultivated in other warm parts of A. The date-palm is as characteristic of Arabia as it is of Egypt. Acacias and mimosas also abound.— The flora of Persia in part resembles that of Arabia, although it is less I, and the altitude of its mountains giv< boil in some places an extremely different character. — The abundance of Scitamincai is regarded as particularly characteristic of India ; and plants of this order yield . galangal, cardamoms, turmeric, and other i of commerce, amongst which not the least important is a kind of arrow-root. Its Lef/uminos'.e very numerous, both herbaceous and shrubby, Or arborescent, many of them exhibiting great beauty of foliage and splendour of flowers ; some producing kinds of pulse; others timber, gum, medicines, ftc. The number of valuable medicinal plants which ; to the Indian flora is very great, as is also that of dyewoods; and it abounds m fine fruits, of which the mango and mangosteen may lie particu- larly noticed. L'ucurbitacew (Gourds) are very uume- as are also trees of the genus Ficux (Fig), of which produce caoutchouc, and amongst which are the sacred pcepid and the banian-tree, larkable for the roots which descend from its branches to become new stems, and for the extent of ground which it canopies. Palms are numerous in the tropical) parte of A., and particularly in its south-eastern regions, but less numerous than in the tropical parts of South America. The cocoa-nut is one of the most common palms in the vicinity of the sea. Some of the Asiatic palms are valuable for the sago which they yield. The natural order Dipteracece is one of those that are peculiar to India and South-eastern A., and includes some of the noblest timber-trees; but the Indian teak, so valuable for ship-building, is of the order Verbenacea:. The llora of the Eastern Peninsula, Siam, Cochin- China, and the south-eastern part of A. generally, differs c iderably from that of India, and exhibits, ible, a richer variety. The change from the Indian llora is still greater in the islands, and a 1 .lance to that of Polynesia and of Australia ! I to appear. The bread-fruit takes the place congener, the jack of India. These regions ice nutmegs, clove a, and other spices. The it, yielding cinnamon, cassia, and camphor. Gutta-percha has recently been added to the number of the most valuable exports. China and Japan have many plants peculiar to Ives, and arc remarkable for the pre the Ternstrasmiaeece, the natural order to which the tea-plant and the camellia belong. It is scarcely necessary to mention how extensively tea cultivated in China, and how important it is in the commerce of the world. The diversity of ■, however, both in China and Japan, is so considerable, as to imply no small dive; productions. In like manner, the Bimalaya Moun- tains possess a flora very different from that of the Indian plains, and which in some of its characteristic features, particularly in the prevalence of large rhododendrons and magnolias, has been found remarkably to agree with the Bora of the southern parts of the United States; whilst at still greater altitudes there is a strong i blance to that of mure northern regions, or of the I " opean Alps; to with them the d ilar scarcely, if at all different from the cedar of Lebanon. .The moun- tains of Java also produce oaks and other ling those ol rate zone, although the species are peculiar. But many parts of A. have as yet been very imperfectly explon d. Many of the ct of Europe are known to be natives of A., and others are su| to be so. As the cradle of the human r. scene of the earliest civilisation, it is natural to suppose that it supplied the first fruits and other lie productions which man sought to improve by cultivation ; and of some which, as the apple and the cherry, are probably natives of Europe, it seems probable that the first improvi d were introduced from A. We do not know with certainty of what part of the earth some of the principal cereal plants or grains are natives — as wheat, barley, oats, and rye ; but there seems great probability in the supposition that they are of Asiatic origin. l'ice certainly is. It has been cultivated from time immemorial in some of the warm parts of A. ; and its introduction into other quarters of the world is comparatively recent. Maize — introduced from America — is now to be reckoned among the most important cultivate. 1 plants of A., and its cultivation is rapidly extending, as is that of the potato. Wheat, oats, bail • beans, pease, and buckwheat, are the principal of regions similar in climate to those in which they are cultivated in Europe. Barley and buck are ctdtivated in the 1 limalayas at the extraord elevation of almost L2j000 feet, and crops of barley are to be seen even at 15,000 feet above the sea. Millet of different kinds, durra, and other grains of inferior importance, are cultivated to some extent in India and other warm regions; also diffi kinds of pulse. The banana and plantain arc of the same importance as in other tropical count and the yam and cocco or eddoes contribute largely to the supply of human food. The si cane is cultivated in the warm parts of A., but not with so much spirit or success as in America, although it is a native of the East and not of the West Indies. Pepper is one of the i productions of the East Inches, and is ertei cultivated. Tobacco, whether or not any I of it is indigenous to A., is now produced in quantities. Indigo is extensively cultivated in India, and the opium peppy too extensively. iiL species of cotton are natives of India, and have long been cultivated there and in China. Hemp is cultivated in India, not for its fibre, but to afford the means of intoxication; and flax chiefly for the oil of its seeds; but both lx are exten ' for their r parts of A.; and India and the other ti regions produce many plants valuable for their ■ which are species oi (yielding the jute • Among tndia mum, valui d fox the oil of its seeds. It seems probable thai we are indebted to the warmer temperate parts of A. not only for the orange, the lemon, and all the other spei the genus Citrus, but also for the olive, the | ami nee icot, the tig. the mulberry, and He- mm . . the fruits now I and cultivated. China and Japan being 'the seats of an ancient civilisation, many useful ' cultivated tin re, v.loeh have scarcely \ .t found their way into other parts of the world. Floriculture has been pi. there wi ty from a i fuity; and varieties of Hydrangea, Camellia, T: ASIA. Chrysanthemum, Ac, haw, from time immei been Bcarcely if at all less numerous than those of the tulip and hyacinth in Holland. The A. is not less tnl I ban its botany. Amongst domestic animal;, important are the ox and buffalo, the sheep, the , the camel, and the elephant. A number of species of ox ami buffalo are natives . from more than one of which the do appear to ha\ id Very distinct from all tl thers is tin- yak of Tibet, a creature which is oi use to tin' inhabitants i ated regions of the Himalayas, and is to them almost what the reindeei the Laplander. The sheep and natives of the mountainous parts of Central A. The horse and the ass seem to be] met and all of these have been domesticated from the The camel is of incalculable value a i a beast of burden in the it ami at, ami as affording tie' means of travi . Itis used prim : ...nth- west of A. anil in India. The elephant is a native of the tropical parts of A., lmt is of a different species from that of Africa. The reindeer constitutes the chief wealth of some of the tribes of the north. Dogs are also used by some of the Siberian tribes for drawing their sledges. Different races of dogs are domesticated in different parts of A . and a small kiml is fattened for its flesh in I but in the Mohammedan parts of A., the dog is aed an unclean animal, and is known chiefly as a prowler about towns ami villages, ami a devourer of offal The tropical parts of A. abound in mo of which the spi tin in a i with 1 , and ■ ■...■■ with short toils, but none with prehensile tails, like the sapajous of America. Many are altogether tailless, and a is the orang-outang, found in the rn islands. A much larger ape, called ago, has been said to exist in Borneo, but it is still a doubtful species. The same warm i abound in bats, many of whic feed upon fruits, not upon insects. The flying o is anothi r remark Indian Archipelago. Bears am found in all of A. — the white bear in tl. north, and other formidable species in thi parts; whilst the tropical regions prodi are by no means ferocious, and feed chiefly on insects, fruits, and honey. Badgers are also found in A., and quadrupeds of several other plantigrade genera, allied to the bear, but of ■" imparativi I J size and inoffensive habits, as tin & i hi] Panda ■-) of the north of lie! ! aturongs | of Malacca and tl ■.—Animals ■>! the Wea I family I If are numerous, among which the Tel lu (.'/ pa) of Java rivals the skunks of A in the horrible stench with which it surrounds or del . More important are the ami the sea otter, pursued in the north rn n account of their furs.- Of the Dog family, or Canidce, A. has not only wild dogs, hut also . foxes, hya nas. and jackals; tin ahouu ly in the col latter in the w ons. The arctic fox inhabits the most northerly shores and islands. The v. parts of A. produce a number of species of the allied family of the Viverridce, among which are the niangouste or Indian ichneumon— famous, like the in ichneumon, for the destruction — and i from which is obtained a celebrated perfume. — Of feline animals, the most dreadful are the lion and tiger; the latter of which is peculiar to 476 * l A., abounding in the warm regions of the south . id the mountains and deserts which separate India from ; but, on the contrary, advi to the to which the lion ad\ and even to the confines of Siberia. Tl I. out id many other cats, some of them and dangerous, are found in A., especially in the i parts of it. Among them may he nnin tali, or hunting-leopard, tamed I'm' tin . i "ha.— A few small marsupial (or pouched) quadrupeds I i found in the Mo] and form one of the links by which the natural of A. is i .etid with that of Australia. — on the contrary, are numerous in all parts of A., and many spei peculiar to it. Squirrels, marmots, rats, i , &.c, imon in all except the most northerly • i brown rat, now so common in Europe, i to have emigrated from Persia so recently s lStli e. ! abound in a and the Tatarian deserts, of which the jerboa is also an inhabitant. Porcupines are frequent in the warmer parts of A., and the beaver is i north. — Of Edentate quadrupeds, the Pan- golins (Mania) alone are Asiatic, and these arc confined to the tn ins. —Of Pa there are. besides the elephant, the horse, &c, already mentioned, several species of rhinoceros, wild boars, the be I tapir ; all. except tie- wild hoar, natives of 1 b 11 . interesting facts, how- A with the natural history ot bundance of remains of the mammoth, or f el. pliant, in the cold t par) of Sib ria, it still affording a considerable supply of ivory. — Of ruminating I I those of the < kind, already mentioned, and the sheep and goat, there are deer, antelope or musk-deer. The reindeer ami elk are natives of Sibi r south, the spi . er are much more numi and tli ■ same countrii i produce manj sp antelop . are found in al and southern parts of the contii I of t native of the highest mountains, yielding tin i prized perfume from which it dem A. possesses vul , owls, . and other birds of the crow kind, b . dm ks ' . various . and many othi at its . some of them abounding even in the coldest regions. Albatrosses are very numerous on the iiatkan shores; flamingoes on those of the more south rn co Pigi ins abound, and them is the turtle-dove. The gouras of the birds of the pigi on family, of which one species is almost as large as a turkey. are many kinds of thrush, finch, warbler, bunting, sparrow, and other birds identical with or allied to those of Kurope, among which is the nightingale, often mentioned ly tin- Persian poets, ami many also, particularly in the wain which are peculiar and characteristic. Of the be mentioned the splendid birds of paradise of the south-eastern islands, peacocks, phi The gallinaceous birds of Asia are numerous, and from tliis continent, ware probably derived t ; poultry of otlnr parts of the earth. The abund- ance of the parrot tribe constitutes a point of r between tin- tropical parts of Asia ami i L coun : ih inhabits the deserts of Aral well as of Africa. The cassowary is found in the south-eastern islands. The edible swallows' u t Indian coasts have long been celebrated. — and other saurian reptiles are very abundant ASIA. in the warmer parts of Asia at crocodiles ■vials infest the rivers of the East Indies. Be . pythons, and other great serpents, are found in the tropical regions, whi ice also many venomous serpents. The cobra da capcllo is one of the most dreaded. But the temperate parts of Asia also venomous i upents, scarcely less dan of the East Indian tortoises are remarkable for reat magnitude, and turtles are found in the seas. — Both the salt and fresh waters ol produce many kinds of fish. ; of the rivers of Siberia supply an important part of the food of it • inhabitants. T! well known in Britain, is a native ofChina. Nome of the • the tropical pa ia have attracted attention from the peculiarity of their form or habits. life is exceedingly abundant in the warm parts of Asia, as in all other warm countries. Bees are numerous, and honey is produced in great quan- . Of other insects, it seems or ' iry here to mention the silk-worm, which was intra I'r.m Asia into Europe ; and the locust, which some- n at tracts of the Asiatic countries borderi Mediterranean and the Blacl and occasionally extends its ravages into regions further west. Of molluscous animals, the deserves particular notice, upon account of til'' important pearl-tisherics which exist in different ■ ky.—The whole pi ipulation, consi I 650,000,000 p v he divided into the ' lian, Aryan, and Semitic groups. The first oi les all the peoples and tribes in tlie east, north, and south-east of Asia; the seeo ARYAN Race) embrac a the inhabitants of Northern India, oistan, Persia, and part of Asiatic Turkey; the third includes the Syrian, Hebrew, and Arabian races (see Ethnology). A further subdivision and classification may be made as follows: 1. The East-Ast , includ- ing the i 1 oples of Tibet, China, Japan, Corea, Indo-Chinese peninsula; all alike in the use of monosyllabic languages. This last pco2>le, however, must be subdivided into Western and i. the former comprising the inhabitants of B irman empire. Pegu, Laos, and Siam, I es with the Hindus; and the latter, com- prising the inhabitants of Tonquin, Cochin-China. mbodia, have affinities with the Mongi of Tibet and China. 2. The T"' . includ- Turkomans, Mongols, and Tungusians, who ere spread OVI r the v. -land of Central nd the neighbouring lands in the north. The Turkoman family is divided into three sections — the lirst including the east Turkomans, inhabiting nd, Kl: \.i. Balkh, and t a ; the I including the so-called Tatars of the Urals ami the neighbourhood of Astrakhan and Kazan ; the third including the Turks or Osmanli. With the exception of a few small tribes in Siberia, all the Turkish varieties are .Mohammedan the Arabic alphabet, and employ numerous Arabic in their dialects. 3. The S including the Samoiedes, people of Kamstchatka, tc., speaking languages which have only recently b tudied by philologists. 4. Tlie Malay-Poly- group, mixed with Australasian negritos, are spread over all the islands of Polynesia and the Indian Archipelago. Tin- Malayan people of Java, Sumatl I . the peninsula of Malacca, the Sunda Islands, Moluccas, and Philippines, have an incipient literature, which has been formed under Modem and (since the ltith e.) under Euro- pean influence. The South Sea islanders are clearly d into two races by physical form, colour, and language. One race is "allied to tlie Australasian to the Malayan. In most of tie- islands, there is a partial intermixture of the two races, but generally the distinction is lable that all the copper-coloured ; to the same family with the people of the Indian Archipel •".. The Daxan group, including all the people employing the Tamul Carnal -, all having a certain measure of civilisation and a literature. (i. The Indo-Oermcaiie or Aryan group, marked and idi I by the three i | ,. r8 i ani and Armenian. About thirty distinct nations, each having a peculiar dialect and literature. ],. the first subdivision ; the second ii of Beloochistan, Afghan :, and Euro the third, the Armenians. All these families have cres partly written in dead languages— the Sanscrit, Pali, '/, in. 7. The heterogeneous tribes inhabit i i affinities are not yet settled. 8. The Semitic g including all 9 whose languages are i to the Hebrew and Arabic. B ' .; The same Asian characteristic of variety and wide found in the en in the countries and tribes of people : the Brahmin- ical religion of India; the doctrines of Buddha, Confucius, and of Lao-tse in China; the worship of the Grand Lama in J several varieties in Arabia, Persia, and India; the rude heathenism of the north ; the various s native Christians in Armenia, Syria, Kurdistan, and India; the Creek Church in Siberia; tie other forms of faith or religious profession display ad contrasts nearly as striking as those of Asian geography. Christianity, now the religion of Europe and America, owes its origin t i For an account of the exist Asia, see articles MOHAMMEDANISM, HINDUISM, Buddhism, Lamabm, &c. Git e — The number of people civilised — in the Asiatic sense of the word — is far greater than that of wild and nomadic hordes; but cultur when arrived at a certain point, assumes a station- ary character, widely differing from the restless intcl- I activity and industrial progress of Europe. The laws of states, families, industry, comi art, and science are, in India and (lima, so many branches of one fixed and permanent reli system, which has maintained its sway through many centuries, and woidd long remain unch I if left undisturbed by European influence. The Arabs, Persians, and Turks, collectively known as the Easterns, are distinct in civilisation from the Hindus and Chinese. The institution of slavery among tie' former, of caste among the Hindus, and the civil and political equality of China, are uishing marks. The Turk is a monotheist and fatalist ; the Hindu is cither a mystical ran- thcist or polytheist, acknowledging a multitude of gods ; the Chinese is rather a utilitarian moralist Industry. I try and commerce of the Asiatic continent bear no adequate proj>ortion to its capabilities— such as they are, they will be bed under the different counl /' fcical institutions of A. present to us some striking contrasts. Wh barbarous hordes in the north live almost without the idea of government, and scarcely know that the Russian czar claims them as bis subjects; and the nomadic trib then khans or sheiks, have a sort of patria nment, subordinate to higher powers ; the most extreme forms of monarchy and despotism have existed among the more cultiv.u d rerament of China is an absolute monarchy in form. but. in fact, is strictly limited by the force of tradition. The emperor is apparently i<7 MIXOR— ASMAXXSHArSEX. unlimited in authority; but it is an essential duty of an emperor to rule exactly a banded down by liis ancestors. Reverence for r. .ra and their institutions is, therefore, the sole presiding and conservative principle whi BO long preserved the great Chinese empire from ■d changes. A., now so passive, anciently took nt in the great movements of the world's /; contended against Egypt and G afterwards contributed to the of the Macedonian and Roman empires. irth of the Caspian Sea, came thi hordes of the Huns who spread themselves abroad over Europe. The armies of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane overran the Slavonian plains, while the Arab califs, with their fanatical troops, established their religion and government in three quarters of the world. Under the Osmanli fell the eastern Romas empire, and still the Turk maintains a political position in Europe, but one now becoming vi ry feeble and insecure. In proportion as Europe Lvanci d, A. has declined in political power, I I ■ countenance the theory of a gradual movement of the spirit of civilisation and progress from the tern world. It would appear that at future changes in the destinies of Asiatic as must proceed from European influence. The P . Spaniards, Dutch, and French have acquired possessions in India, but all are now insignificant when compared with the vast ter- ritory under British government. The following from Johnston's Gazeiteer (cd. 1859 existing political divisions, with their extent and population, as nearly as the data will permit : Arabia, China Troper, including the I i,,!, Formosa, Hainan, Loo Choo, .... Chinese Empire, assumed De- pendencies of Tibet, Mongolia, Mantchuria, Korea, . . Japan, Further India, or India beyond the Gannts : Anam or Coebin-Cbina, ^vith Tonquin and part of Cam- Burmah, and part of ) or CatbJ, J . Peninsula, Slum* Afghanistan, .... bistan, .... KaflrsUin, .... 'Hilary or Turkestan .i, . Khok:in, .... Koondooz, .... Khirgbta Dominion, Persia or Iran, r.r.iTisn possessions in asia Hindustan : Bengal Presidency, North-West Provinces, Madras Presidency, llombay Presidency, tales in Madras, Bombay Ceylon (Island), fqnii. 1,200,000! 1,700,000! . 235,000 450,000! 325,652 85,571 144 i 120,065 582.518 51,8118 57,375 23,310 Population. 8,000,0 91 35,000,000 ! 30,000,0 I 6,000.000 ! 8,iKki.iKin 5,120,000 Not known, - m oi 8,000,000 ! 094 .325 (01,087 .752.975 ,393,400 1,500,000 6t«t«. ■ ropultUon, BIUTi EONS IN ASIA. Further India : E. Btnlti Settlement*-- Tcn- assenm, Puto I'enang, i'ro- vinic, Wcllcsley, and t, B. Archipelago and Malacca, I 60s; Labuan, , lions Kong, 1,073 2:0 I 188 800 ■ 5,486,750 [ 508.8CO 57.421 f 81,44? ■ 3,34 1 I 81,154 400,000? 38,000 •'.0 : 2,048,000 lfi,f 150,000 French Possessions in India i Chanderna^or, . . Kankal Fondicherry, nuu Asia: Goa,Damatm, Dili, &c. (in India*, Settlement* In the Islands Solor, Timor, Midon, . Macao (China), * • . Russian Asia .- Siberia , Transcaucasia, &c, . . Ottoman Asia .- Syria,, .... Mesopotamia, . . Assyria 478 A'SIA MlXOll, the ancient name of what is now called Anatolia (q.v.). Here, in Ionia, was the early seat of Grecian civilisation, and here were the countries of Phrygia, Lycia, Caria, Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Lydia, Pamphylia, Isauria, Cilicia, Galatia, iocia, &c, with Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna, ami many other great anil famous cities. Here, from the obscure era of Semiramis (about 2000 years B.C.), to the time of Osman (about i300 a. p.), the great) t conquerors of the world contended for supremacy; and here took place the wars of the Medcs and OS with the Scythians; of the Greeks with the Persians; of the Romans with Mithridates and the Parthians; of the Arabs, Seljoks, Mongols, and Osmans with the w, ab Byzantine empire. It was here that Alexander the Great and the Romans successively contended for the mastery of the civi- lised world. But, notwithstanding all these wars, ; the country still continued to enjoy some measure of prosperity till it fell into the hands of the whose military despotism its ancient civilisa- tion has been sadly brought to ruin. ASKEW, or ASCOUGH, Anus, one of the suf- ferers for Protestant opinions at the dawn of the Reformation in England. Having embraced the views of the reformers, she was turned out of doors by her husband, a gentleman of Lincolnshire, and a zealous Roman Catholic. On this she went up to London to sue for a separation ; but was event- ually arrested on a charge of heresy, and was examined by the Bishop of London and others on the doctrine of transubstantiation, the truth of which she denied. After further examination and torture by the rack, she was burned at the stake, in Smithfield, July 1G, 1546. ASMANNSHAU'SEN, a village in the jurisdic- tion of Biidesheim, Nassau, is famed for the wine which is produced on the slate-mountains in its vicinity. Of this there are two kinds, red and white, the former of which is greatly preferred. It has a rich red colour, like Burgundy, possesses a rare aromatic flavour, and is noted for its uncommon ASMODEUS— ASPAEAGUS. strength and fire. But it retains its excellent qualities only about three or {our years; after which, year liy year, it becomes weaker, and loses its colour. The choicest sort, which is preferred by connoisseurs to all the other red wines of the Khine, and even to Burgundy itself, is cultivated in the ducal vineyards at Wiesbaden. ASMODE'US (properly, Asciimedai, 'the de- stroyer'), an evil genius or demon mentioned in the later Jewish writings. A. was described as the author of many evils. In the Book of Tobit (q. v.). he is represented as slaying the seven husbands of Sara, and hence, in modern times, has been jocularly spoken of as the destroying demon of matrimonial happiness. In the Talmud, A. is described as the prince of demons, and is said to have driven Solomon from his kingdom. ASMON^E'ANS. See Maccabees. ASP {asj)isj, a venomous serpent, tho name of which has come down from ancient times ; the vague descriptions of ancient authors, however, causing uncertainty as to the species. It is very jlly supposed to be the Naja ffaje, the El Ilaje or Haje Nasher of the Arabs, which is very common in Egypt, Cyprus, &c, and often appears in hiero- ic and other sculptures as one of the sacred animals of ancient Egypt. It is sometimes from 3 to 5 feet in length, of nearly equal thickness throughout, with a gradually tapering tail ; brown- ried with dark and pale spots; the sea the neck, back, and upper surface of the tail slightly carinated ; the tail about one-fourth of tho whole length of the animal. The neck is capable of con- siderable dilatation, through the distension of its loose Naja Haje. Bkin, although not so much as that of the nearly apello of India {X"jeen made fiom the fermented 1" rries. ; shoots of e other species are also eaten, as those of A. Unui/olius, : ■ Asparagus. a, a vountr shoot ; '», flowers ; r, the upper end of n stem, shewing branches, leaves, and fruit (all reduced). -. and A. dttnu, natives of the south of ■■■•; the last of which is much used in and Portugal as a salad, in soups, and as a ible. On the other hand, the sprouts of the Bitter A., A. scaber, which is very similar to the Common A., are uneatable, on account of their great bitterness. ASPA'RAGUS STONE. See Apatitk. ASPA'SIA, one of the most remarkable women of antiquity, was the daughter of Axiochus, ami born at Miletus. The circumstance that in Athena all foreign women, whatever their character, were equally esteemed, or rather .1. and that children, even when begotten in wedlock, were held illegitimate, has originated the erroneous notion that A. was a courtesan. She cert linly broke through the restraint which confined Athenian matrons v, ■ elusion of their own homes ; for after her union v nil Pericles, who had parted from his first wife by own consent, her house became the rendezvous of all the learned and distinguished people in Athi D . soften visited her. Her eloquence and know- of politics were extraordinarily great. II i 1— though, strictly speaking, the At! ■ mill have refused this appellation to Pericles ; honoured with the title of Olympian while she herself was dignified with the name of Juno. Prom the com and others; she - 1 much injustice. It was Hermippus, the comic poet, who took advantage of a temporary irritation of the Athenians against Pericles, to A. of impiety; but the eloquence of the great ■ ' d fined the enmity of the judgi procured her acquittal. Her influence over Pericles must have been singularly great, although this isly been exaggerated, and even carica- The brilliant b . -torically accurate phanes charges hi r with the origin both of the Samian and Peloponnesian war, the latter on account of the robbery of a favourite maid who be Ion her. Plutarch vindicates her against such accusa- tions; and Thucydides, who details minutely the causes of the Peloponnesian war, does not once mention her name in connection with these. After th of Pi i cles, A. married 1. dealer (an important, lucrative, and dignified pro- fession in ancient times), who, through hi came an eminent man in Athens. The name of A. was, after her death, applied to many wi accomplishments and amiability. A si'l'.i "I's, in ' . are certain positions of b toi 'Mother, as seen from the earth. In the days of re five -Conjunction (u 1 by the symbol £), ('). uuartile (□), Trine (a). Opposition ((f). I WO planets are in conjunction when they ha same longitude ; the aspect is sextile when tie (in" apart ; quartile, when the distance is 90° ; trine, when it . 120 : end at 180 they are opposite I another, or in opposition. Astro] bed to it influence over tie- fate oiindft and of nations. The only two of the terms now in use are conjunction and oppom A'SPEN, orTREMIJLOUS POPLAB [Po\ Pi PI Ui), a tree which grows plentifully in Europe and in Siberia. It is a native of Britain, and is frequent in Scotland, where it is found even at an elevation of 1500 feet above the sea. It has ed the specific name tramila, from i" with which its leai iwn into a tremu- Otion by the slightest breath of wind— a pro- pcrty for which, indeed, the aspen-leaf has become n [Populus tremula), reduced. a, a portion of a branch with calkins; b, do., with leaves. bial The leaves are nearly orbicular, but broadly toothed, so as ai: ! libit angles. The irks are cornier- ed, which favours the readi- ness of i rows quickly, with a straight stem, reaching to a height oi from GO to 80, oi loo feet. In unfavourable situations, it becomes dwarfish. The wood is soft, porous, light, white, and smooth ; it does not make good fuel, but is very fit for the turning lathe, and i specially for being made into troughs, trays, pails, &c. It is deemed excellent for arrows. If the stem be peeled and allowed to dry before it be cut down, the s harder, and is then capable of being used as timber for the interior of houses; and on tins accoimt the tree is of great importance in many dis- tricts, and the more so as it succeeds in any soil, although it prefers one wlrich is moist and gravelly. The bark contains a great quantity of a bitter alka- loid, Salicin. The charcoal made from this tree can be used in the manufacture of gunpowder. — Populus ASPERGILLUS— ASPHALT. la, a very similar species, a native of North America, is called the American A. It is re- garded by some as a mere variety. Very similar, also, is another North American species, P. gnatdi- dentata. ASPERGI'LLTJM, a remarkable genus of Lamel- libranchiate Conchiferous Mollusca, in which the shell has the form of an elongated cone, terminating at the larger end in a disk, which is pierced with numerous small tubular holes, the little tubes of the outer range being largest, and forming a sort of ray around it. The animals of this genus are borers, some of them living in sand, others bur- rowing in stone, wood, or thick shells. A. Javan urn is popularly called the Watering-pot, and the same resemblance has suggested the name A. (from the Latin aspago, to sprinkle). The most interesting circumstance in the structure of the shelly tube of A. is the presence of two small valves, incorporated in the sub- Aspergillum. stance of the tube, to which they a, the disk with holes; bear a very small proportion. «lveV Ud ' m ' ;m ' U " V 'They there form the stamp,' says Owen, 'of its true affinities, but subserve as little any ordinary final purpose as the teeth buried in the gums of the fcetal whale.' The affinities are with mollusca inhabiting bivalve shells. A rudimentary bivalve shell is found, in like manner, cemented iuto the shelly tube of the fossil Ten which bored the drift-wood of the London clay. There is also a genus ASPERGILLUS in Botany, containing many of the small fungi commonly known by the name of Mould (q. v.), which occur on decay- ing substances of various kinds. Some of the species are peculiar to diseased animal tissues. ASPERN, or GROSS A'SPERN, a villa < of ia, on the left bank of the Danube, 5 mils E.N.E. of Vienna. Pop. about 700. This village and the neighbouring one of Essling are celebrated as the scene of a sanguinary battle in the summer of 1S09, between the French army under Napoleon I. and the Austrians under Archduke Charles. After the battle of Eckmiihl, in which the Austria!: defeated, the Archduke retired to the left bank of the Danube, leaving the road to Vienna open to the French. ( in the 12th of May 1809, the French army una, when the Archduke concentrated his forces on the opposite bank of the river. Napoleon , threw bridges nver the river, and on the 21st the French army b ;an crossing to the attack. The Austrians at first seemed to give way ; but when about half the French had crossed the river, they I to the charge, and almost BOrroui the enemy in the narrow plain between the two villages. Here ensued the battle of Aspern, a terrific conflict, the grand object of the contending hosts being the possession of the villages. At the close of the day, it remained undecided ; but next morning it was renewed with fury on either side, when, after terrible slaughter, Napoleon ordered a red ranks retired to the little island of Lobau, in the middle of the river, whence they afterwards slowly withdrew to the right bank. The loss on the Bide of the Austrians was given at 4000 killed, and 16,000 wounded; that of the French at double that amount. Marshal Lannes, the most daring among the French generals, was am slain. Both the villages were reduced to heaps of nuns. 31 ASPE'RL'LA. See Woodruff. ASPHA'LT.orASPIIA'LTOI.isthe name given to a bituminous substance of a solid consistence. See Bitu.mkn. It probably owes its origin to veget- able matter which has been subjected to a slow process of decomposition or decay, resulting in the production of a bituminous coal, from which, by volcanic agency, the A. has been distilled and diffused over the neighbouring district. The largest natural deposit of A. is in the island of Trinidad, where the plain known as the Pitch Lake is found. See Trinidad. The A. from Trinidad is largely used for ships' bottoms, and is reputed to kill the teredo or borer, which proves itself so very destructive to the wood of ships in tropical regions. A. is also found on the shores of the Dead Sea in large quantity, and is known to the Arabs by the name of Ilajar Mousa, or Moses's Stone, ft likewise occurs in South America at Goxitambo near Cuenca, in Alsace, and other parts of the European continent, in East Lothian and Fifeshire (Scotland), in Shropshire, &c. During the manufacture of coal-gas, much tarry matter is evolved from the retort, and is received in the coolers or condensers. If this tar be subjected to partial distillation, naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and an artificial A. is left behind, wliich possesses the principal properties, and can be employed for the majority of purposes to which native A. is applied. The various kinds of A have a pitchy odour, are of a black or dark-brown colour, but do not sod the fingers ; are insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol ; but are in great part dissolved by ether, od of turpentine, and naphtha. Petroleum (q. v.), or Rock OH, is a native liquid bitu- men, which largely exudes from crevices in rocks in many districts, and is essentially A. dissolved in naphtha. The specific gravity of A. is very near that of water, ranging from 1000 to 1100. When set fire to, it burns readily with a smoky flame, and is often used in the smaller gas-works as fuel, by being allowed to run very slowly into the furnace-fires. A., besides being employed for coating the exterior of ships' bottoms, is also used, in a heated condition, for saturating timber which is intended for piles in the construction of breakwaters, river-bridges, and other situations where the combined action of the air, water, and minute animals would soon render ordinary wood rotten and useless. Wooden houses may be preserved in the same manner by a coating ot A. applied externally; and ground-flooring placed in damp situations is much the better of the spaces between the planks being rilled up with A. About 1840, A. began to be generally used for foot-pavements in cities, and also fur floors of cellars and outhouses. For purposes of this nature it is heated in portable boilers, into which, at a certain stage of the preparation, there is po quantity of thoroughly dried sand, gravel, or powdered iie, which is well mixed with tho liquid A. rture is then spread on the spot prepared for id when cool, forma a hard kin 1 of pavi (if this method of farming footways, high ea tions were at first formed ; but latterly the process hi asphalting has gone out of use in En g l a nd , as it is found not to 1»- so durable as stone, and there- fore, in ordinary circumstances, more i '■-. In Paris, however, a ph ilting is still extensivel] tised in the more spacious thi The better kinds of A. are used in the manufacture of k varnish, which is employed in forming the enamel wliich coats the variety •>( leather known \. is not of itself used in it its natural solution in naphtha, vis., 3 a valuable agent when applied either lly or internally. The synonyms c.i A. are— ASPHODEL— ASPHYXIANTS. ■ Pitch, Mineral Pitch, Jews' Pitch, Dead Sea Bitumen, Compact Bitumen, Trinidad Bitumen, and Maltha. ASPHODEL {Asplio'delus), a genus of plants which has by many botanists been made the type of a natural order Asphodelea>, now, how ever , gener- ally regarded as forming part of the order Li 'I'll e Asphodelea; are either fibrous-rooted or bulbous- 1. Among the latter, are onions, hyacinths, squills, star of Bethlehem, &c. ; among the former, asparagus, A., &c. The roots of the asphod •^ *J&M*i KVS \ \P A > White Asphodel. fleshy and thick. The species are not very numer- ous, and are mostly natives of the countries around the Mediterranean Sea. The Yellow A. {A. luteus) and the White A. (A. albue) have long been known in Britain as garden-flowers. The yellow A. has an unl.ranched stem 2—3 feet high, much CO by the sheathing bases of the long narrow leaves. The leaves of the white A. are all radical, and its flowers are in branched clusters. Both species flower about the time when spring passes into summer. ASPHYXIA (Gr.) means literally a cessation of the pulsation from any cause, but is usually applied to the condition resulting from the blood in the body no longer being brought into the proper illations to the atmospheric air by respiration, so as to allow a sufficiently free exchange of carbonic acid for i. See Respiration-. A, or suspended respira- tion, may result from several causes. No air, or but a scanty supply, may be admitted, as in strangula- *' on > drowning, choking, or disease in the windpipe ; the chest may be prevented from expanding either from a superincumbent weight or paralysis, as when a man breaks the upper part of his neck above the phrenic nerve, thus paralysing the diaphragm ; and again, although there may be every capacil respiration, the air itself may be in fault, and contain too little oxygen in proportion to other eli ments, as carbonic acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, which act as poisons when inhaled. Aquatic animals may be it.'.l either by depriving the wati inhabit of oxygen, or impregnating it with the gases just mentioned. As this condition of A. advances, in drown otherwise, the small vessels of the lungs 1 gorged with blood, which the hurt has no longer power to force freely through them, the right side of the heart and pulmonary artery become filled with blood, wliile but little returns to the arterial or left side of the heart. n becomes pallid, except in such vascular parts as the lips, cheeks, and finger-tip . become blue; and soon the blood, no longer aerated, produces the phenomena of poisoning by carbonic acid. After some slight convulsive movements, the person becomes insensible, the pulsations of the heart grow gradually feebler, and at last cease altogether. In man this occurs in from a minute and a half to five minutes. Some persons, no doubt, as the Ceylon divers, can by habit do without a fresh supply of air for a longer period ; and some diving animals have an arrangement of blood-vessels by which they are enabled to be under wat i for a long time. Restoration of asphyxiated persons may be attempted with hopes of success at a very long period after apparent death. The object of all methods is of course to rill the lungs with fresh air. The most efficient is that of the late Marshall Hall : lay the person down at once with his head on his left arm, open the mouth, and draw the tongu. for- wards, then roll him gently over towards the left till he is nearly quite over on his face, then on back again, making the body by its own v compress the chest, which, on expansion by its . city, (ills with air. Repeat this about 15 times in a minute. This remedy has of late nearly super. 1.1 all others for the restoration of still-born infants and other asphyxiated persons. It should be pcrs. in for a long time, especially in cases of drowning, as even after an hour it has been successful ASP II Y'X IAN TS. Chemical substances enclosed in shells or other projectiles, and which act by produ- cing a suffocating and poisonous effect. The French secretly made experiments with asphyxiating shot at Brest in 1851. The principle of these missiles seems to have been to carry into an enemy's ship the means of generating deadly gases which would suffocate the crews between decks. Scientific artil- lerists dread and discountenance these novelties ; they have learned to regard war almost as a mathe- I science, or, at any rate, as an elaborate application of such science ; and they see nothing but savage cruelty in the ' diabolical chemistry ' of asphyxiants. General Sir Howard Douglas, in a late edition of his Naval Gunner;/, says: 'The author learns, with great regret, that some awful experi- ments have been made with fearful success, in the royal arsenal, with asphyxiant projectiles, combining in a frightful degree incendiary with suffocating effects.' Adverting to sick and wounded men on board a ship-of-war, he exclaimed : ' What shall be said of that inhuman system preparing for naval warfare in this age of enlightened humanity, which would advisedly, purposely, and deliberately con- sign the whole of these, and all other survivors, to indiscriminate death or inutdation ? A ship may bo sunk in action ; yet there is always time to remove the sick and wounded, and save the survivors ; but who shall approach a ship on fire to rescue her crew from the sudden and awful effects of that merciless .WIDIOI and barbarous system, the object of which is to set fire to her at heart, and, if possible, blow her up?' The Earl of Dondonald, Captain Norton, Mr Mac- intosh, and many other inventors, have within the last few years brought asphyxiating compositions before the notice of the English Admiralty and War- office ; and the French are known to possess many such in store. Some of these compositions are liquids which burn fiercely, and unite wood and canvas readily ; some arc contained in shells which, on bursting, scatter the suffocating and burning sub- stances all around ; and some assume other forms. ASPI'DIUM. See Fern, Male. ASPIXW ALL, a town in New Granada, virtu- ally, howevi r, a colony of the United States. It is situated at the Atlantic extremity of the Panama Railway, in lat. 9° 22" X., and long. "'.> '5.7 W., being about 8 miles to the north of the old Spanish port of Chagres, 49 miles from Panama, and equi- distant from the great trading capitals of Valparaiso and San Francisco. From its commanding position as a place of transit, A. is one of the busiest and most prosperous towns in the New World. It mono- polises the benefits of the traffic in both directions, to the almost utter exclusion of the rapidly anama. Already the great link between the Atl mtic and the west coasts of America, it promises at no distant day to connect that ocean with Aus- tralia, India, China, and Japan. A'SPIRATE, the name given to the letter h in grammar, as marking, not an articulate sound, but a ing (Lat. spiro, I breathe). It is also applied to a class of consonants. There is felt at once to be a relation, accompanied by a difference, between p and/, t and tli, &c. To express the difference, the ■: called the first of such a pairpsiVon (bare), the second dasu (rough) ; the Latin grammarians adopted the terms lene and aspirate, probably from the erroneous notion that the difference consists in the addition of the sound of /;. There being no sound and no character in Latin corresponding to the Greek S (Meta),the Romans represented it by th; and this misleading expedient is continued for repre- ss ■nting this aspirate and several others in all the alphabets derived from the Roman. According to some, the word ought to be asperate, i. e., ' roughened.' Of the sixteen mutes in a complete system (see Letters), eight are lene, each having its correspond- ing aspirate. Lene— p, b, t, d, /.-, g, s, z. Aspirate— f, v, tli(m), th[ine),ch, gli, sh, zh. Q-y^» In the corresponding — > i words of allied languages, nothing is more common than the interchange of an aspirate and a lene : Ex., Lat pater, Eng. father ; Gr. thura, Ger. thitr, Eng. door; Lat. cap(ut), Fr. chef, Eng. chief; Ger. weib, Eng. wife. Aspirated letters are also frequently interchangeable with one another : thr tlier, a wild beast, is in Lat. fera; Lat. /ucerc, to do, be- comes in Span, hacer. ASPIRATOR is the name of an apparatus em- ployed to draw air or other gases through bottles or other vessels. It is of great ' use in the examination of gases by the analytical Aspirator. chemist. Thr simplest form of the apparatus is that represented in the figure, where A is a large vessel capable of being filled with water, having a tulw with stop-cock at B, a second tube with stop-cock at C, and a thermometer introduced at D. In working, the apparatus is filled with water ; the tube C is attached to the vessels through which the gas is to be drawn ; and the stop-cocks at C and li l>eing opened, the weight of the water escaping at 15 acts as suction, and draws in the gas from the tube C and the attached bottles or other .vessels. The thermometer at D denotes the temperature of the water, and subsequently gas, contained in the reservoir, while the upright turn of the tube B keeps any air from entering the reservoir by that route. — A more complicated form of A., but one which is much more convenient to experiment with, is that known as Brunncrs' .\ . ; the principle of action, however, i3 the same. ASPLE >"IUM, a genus of Ferns, of the order or sub-order Polypodiacece. The species are numer- ous, and widely diffused both in the northern and southern hemispheres. Many of them are of great beauty ; and the small size of some recommends them to cultivators of ferns who find themselves much limited as to space. Some of the species bear the English name Spleenwort, as A. Trkho- manes, A. viride, A. Adiantum-nigrum, &c, having been formerly supposed efficacious in removing obstructions of the viscera. From the same cir- cumstance the name A. (Gr. a, privative, and sj'len, the spleen) is derived. They have now fallen completely into disuse, but were at one time very much employed, chiefly in the form of a syrup like CapUUnrt (q. v.i, and were administered not only in cases of cough, asthma, diseases of the liver, and cutaneous diseases, but even in stone and gravcL But perhaps none of them was so extensively used as the species which is styled in old books Common Spleenwort (A. Ce'terach), now the type of a distinct genus, and known as Ce'terach officinarum. Some of them, as A. Trkhomanes and A. Adiantum-nigrum, are frequently called Maidenhair. A, Tricliomanet is a very beautiful little fern, common on rocks and old waus m Britain, and most parts of Europe, found also in some parts of Africa, and in Jsorth America. A very common British species, A. Euta-muraria, is popularly known as Wall-rue. ASS (Equus Asinus), a well-known quadruped, usually referred by naturalists to the same genus with the Horse (q. v.), but which it has recently been attempted to make the type of a distinct genus {Asinus), including all the solid-hoofed quadrupeds (Solidungula or E'juida, see Horse) except the horse itself. The distinction is founded on the short hair of the upper part of the tail and the tuft at the end of it, the darker stripes with which the colour is marked, and the absence of the hard horny warts which are found on the hinder-legs of the horse, although the fore-legs exhibit warts in a similar position. The long ears of the A. are one of the characteristics of the species, but they are longer in domestication than in a wild state. It is usually also distinguished by a black cross over the should- ers, formed by a longitudinal and a transverse streak, the general colour being gray ; but when the general colour is darker or lighter than usual, the cross is often less apparent, or to be observed with difficulty. The facial line is arched. Some uncertainty still exists as to the origin of the domestic A. ; a number of wild races having been described, s me of which arc perhaps, like the wild horses of America, the progeny of animals that have escaped from domestication. The probability, however, appears to be that the A. is a native of Central Asia, where it is found in a perfectly wild state, in Tatary, Mesopotamia, Persia, 4c, on the 4-3 ASS— A8SAI bank* of the in in-, and even to the southern extremity of Hindustan; but its range does not extend so far northward as that of the wild horse — a circumstance which may perhaps partly ■ f..r the inferiority of the d in northern climate?. The wild A. is found both in mountainous districts and in plains; vast t r. p. >j.s mam over the great Asiatic deserts, migrating, according to the season, in summer, as far northward as the Ural ; in winter, southward to the borders of India. It is fond of bitter and saline herbage, and of bl h water. It was tirst accurately described by Pallas, under the name Koulan, which it hears on the high steppes around the Caspian Sea. It was, however, well known to the ancients, and is called Onager and Asinus sylreslris by Pliny, who also mentions, under the name II • anothei Hemiomia), a native of the same regions, non- called the Kiana, or the DaggeOud. The latter name appears to be of Turkish origin, and to signify Mountain A., but seems to be sometimes applied to the one of these specic3 and sometimes to the other. This seems also to be I I a some of their other i astern names, as Knur or Ge is a source of no little confusion. — The cross on the shoulders is less observable in the Koulan than it usually is in the domesticated A. It ought also to be mentioned that, in one remarkable particular, the domesticated A. agrees with the Eq Hemioitus, and ditfers from the Koulan, the infra-orbital foramen of the skull bring situated much lower. But the Kiang neighs like a horse, and the other brays. The harshness of the voice of the A. is ascribed to two small peculiar cavities situated at the bottom of the larynx. The allusions to the wild A. in the Old Testament, and particularly in Job xxxix., naturally excite the surprise of readers acquainted only with the dull domestic drudge, the emblem of patience and stolidity; but to this day they atifully appropriate to the wild A. of 'the wilderness,' which has the 'barren land' or 'salt places' for its dwel- ling, and ' the range of the mountains' for its pasture. — The wild A. has a short mane of dark woolly hair, and a stripe of dark bushy hair nil lie ridge of the back from the mane to the tail. It has longer and carries its head higher than the domestic A. Its troops have always a leader. It is a high- spirited animal, very fleet and very wary, trying to the utmost the powers of the hunter. It is a prin- cipal object of the chase in Persia. tlesh is i as venison is in Europe, and it is accounted the noblest of game. Xenophon, in his Ait describes the wdd A. as swifter of foot than the horse, and its flesh as like that of the red deer, but more tender. The domestic A. is also, in Arabia. Persia. Syria, and other eastern countries, a much finer animal than as it is usually seen in Europe, although in the favourable influence of a more genial climate upon its development is visible, perhaps also of better treatment, the A. lining more highly valued. The A. is much used for riding in the East. Judges v. Ill, we learn that, at a very early period, the great were accustomed to ride' upon white asses, and a preference is given to white asses in t' to thi3 day. The A. has been domesticated from the earliest times ; but it does not seem to have been introduced into Europe till a comparatively recent date. In Britain, it is employed chietiy by i or, but might probably with advantage be much more generally employed than it is. Its price is scarcely one-twentieth of the price of the horse, and it can be kept at one-fourth of the expense, :ing in the coarse herbage which other animals reject, and satisfied with comparatively scanty fare. 484 The obstinacy ascribed to the A. seems to 1,.- very generally the result of ill treatment ; and pro\ The Wild Ass. as it has become for stupidity, it is probably quite equal in intelligence to the horse. There are two hybrids between the A. and the horse — the Mule (q. v.). bred between the male A. and the mare; and the HlNNY (q.v.), the offspring of the horse and the female A. The niilk of the A. contains more sugar of milk and less caseine than that of the cow, and is therefore recommended as a nutritious diet in of weak digestion. Its usefulness in cases of con- sumption has been long known, and it was often prescribed as a kind of specific when that disease was treated on principles very different from those which regulate its treatment now, and when very nutri- tious food was not usually prescribed to consumptive paties The leather called Shagreen (q.v.) is made by a peculiar process from the skin of the A., which also affords excellent leather for shoes, and the best material for drums. The bones of the A., which arc- very solid, were used by the ancients for making flutes. ASSAI, a beverage very much used at Pari ami other places on the Amazon, and which is prepared from the fruit of certain species of palm nearly allied to the Cabbage Palm of the West Indies. See Ai.ua and Cabbage Palm. The A. palms are remarkably slender trees ; the most common ! | [Eutt rpe oleracea of Martius) rising to the height of sixty or eighty feet, with a smooth stem only about ASSAL— ASSASSINS. JU Assai Palm {Euterpe oltracea). four inches in diameter. The fruit is small, in size ami colour resembling sloes, but is produced in great i it y upon branch • . which are thrown out horizontally beneath crown of leaves. It < of a hard seed, with a very thin covering of a firm pulp h. The tree grows in swamps flooded by the high Boys climb the trees for the fruit, upon which warm water is poured, and by rubbing and kneading a 1 is procured, consisting simply of the pulp of the fruit and water, which is ■.ntly vended in the streets of Para, and of which the inhabitants are extremely fond. This is A. It is a thick, creamy liquid, of a purplish colour, and a flavour like that of a freshly gathered nut. It is commonly used along with the bread made from Manioc (q. v.), called farinha, and cither witli or without sugar. Half the population of Pari make a daily meal of A. and farinha ; and upon this hundreds are said chiefly to subsist. — The stem of the A. palm is some- times used for poles and rafters, and its terminal bud as a cabbage or as a salad with od and vinegar ; but it is too much valued upon account of its fruit to be often cut down for these purposes. — An- other species, Euterpe Cat ingot, is found in forests of a dry sandy soil and very peculiar vegetation, known as Catinga forests. Tin/ beverage made from it is sweeter than the common kind, but the produce of the tree is much smaller. ASSA'L, an important salt-lake in the east of Africa, 25 miles south-west of Tajurrah, the chief t of Add, lat. 11° 40' N., long. 42° 40' E. Its length is 8 miles ; its breadth, 4. It lies in a land remarkable for its wdd, waste, and sterile character. A. is enclosed on all sides but the east by hills, and is nearly 700 feet below the level of the sea. Abys- sinian caravans resort to it for the purpose of carry- ing off the salt which incrusts its shores like ice, ees to the depth of half a foot It ha supposed that it was at one time connected with the Bay of Tajurrah. ASSA'M, a province at the north-east extremity of British India, stretching in X. lat. from 25° 40' to2S° 17', and in II long- from '.Hi" 40' to 97° 1', and contain- ing 710,000 inhabitants on an area of 21,805 Bouare miles. It form3 part of the basin of the Lower Brahmaputra, and is intersected also by about sixty other oven. Being thus irrigated, as it were, by nature, A. abounds in wood, and is very fertile. Among its indigenous productions is the tea-plant, which, under the management of a joint-stock com- pany, promises to be at once beneficial to the country and profitable to the shareholders. The other pro- ducts are rice, mustard, gold, ivory, amber, musk, silver, iron. lead, p broleum, and 00 Bengal the principal i re woollens, fabrics, salt, opium, glass, earthenware, tobacco, Sc. In 1820, at the .close of the first Burmese war, A. was ceded to the British. The upper portion of the [ province, however, was conferred, as a separate Eriucipality. on the native rajah, whom the Burmese ad expelled; and it was only in 1838, that, in consequence of hismisgovernment, the entire country was actually placed under British administration. Since then, the province has exhibited a noticeable improvement, for which, considering that tile popu- lation is barely 33 to the square mil", there is still, however, almost unlimited scope. The great evil is the prevalence of earthquakes, few months passing without a shock or two. The people, however, seem to think lightly of them — the only one that is specially remembered as being of extraordinary severity having occurred as far back as 1807. A. is divided into rjpper and Lower, which are again subdivided into districts. Gowhati is the only town worthy of the name. One of the most striking features of A. is the abundance of wild animals, such as tigers, rhino- ceroses, leopards, buffaloes, and elephants. Of the elephants, not less than 500 are annually caught ; and, when tamed, bands of them may be seen, harm- I cows, in the charge of a single attendant. The forests teem with game, and the rivers with fish. ASSAS'SINS, a military order, a branch of the secret sect of the Ismaelites (q. v.). The secret doctrines of these Ismaelites, who had their head- quarters in Cairo, declared the descendants of 7 the last of the seven so-called imaums, to be alone entitled to the califate; and gave an allegorical interpretation to the precepts of Islam, which led, as their adversaries asserted, to considering all positive religions equally right, and all actions morally indif- ferent. The atrocious career of the A. was but a natural sequence of such teaching. The founder of these last, Ilassan-ben-Sabliah-el-Homairi, of Persian descent, and imbued with the free-thinking I tendencies of his country, had, about the middle of the 11th c, studied at Xishpur, under the celebrated ' k, and had subsequently obtained from Ismaelite dais, or religious leaders, a partial insight 1 into their secret doctrines, and a partial conse- 1 cration to the rank of dai. But on betaking him- self to the central lodge at Cairo, he quarrelled with the heads of the sect, and was doomed to banishment. He succeeded, however, in making his escape from the ship, and reaching the Syrian coast, after which he returned to Persia, everywhere collecting adherents, with the view of founding, upon the Ismaelite model, a secret order of his own, a species of organised society which should be a terror to his most powerful neighbours. In 1090, Hassan conquered the fortress of Alamut, in the Persian district of Kudbar ; and continued to increase in ill, intimidating princes and governors by a series of secret murders, and gaining possession of several fortified castles, with their surrounding territories, both in the mountain range south of the Caspian, in Kuhistan, and in the moun- tains of Syria (Massiat). The internal constitution of the or.'ler, which had some resemblance to the orders of Christian knighthood, was as follows : First, as supreme and absolute rider, came the Sheikh-al-jebal, the Prince or Old Man of the Moun- tain. His vicegerents in .lebal, Kuhistan. and Syria lie three V . or grand-priors of the or.l.r. Next cam - which last were not. however, initiated, like the former, into every stage of til nd had no authority as teachers. To the uninitiated h I 1. .'.. the devoted: 1 of resolute youths, the ever ready and blindly obedient executioners of the Old Man of the Mountain. Before lie as igned to them their ' tasks, he used to have them thrown into a state of ASSAULT— ASSAY. -, . by the intoxicating influence of the B (the hemp-plant), ■which ciroumBtanoe led toth l 1 1 Wound- in h. ASSAT, or ASSA'YING, is the process employed in determining the proportion of pure metal in a metallic ore or in an alloy. This method of analysis is more generally followed in tin on of compounds of silver and gold, but is likewise resorted to in the investigation of ores of iron, copper, tin, zinc, bismuth, antimony, mercury, and lead. In manufactured articles, also, such as I plate and gold-plate, some foreign metal (gi a copper) is present, to impart hardness to the metal ; and in Great Britain, each article is assayed at the I loldsiniths' Hall, previously to being sold, so as to determine the exact richness of the metal whereof it is made. In .the A. of compounds containing silver, the apparatus employed is a cupel — a small CnpeL basin-shaped vessel of the form and size of the figure, made of bone-ash ; and a muffle, composed of lire-clay, about S inches in length and 3 to 4 inches in diameter, shaped like a miniature railway-tunnel, tlt'll is- Muffle. open at the one end, A, closed at the other end, B, and having numerous slits or air-boles, C, along the side. The more simple A. of sdver consists in the examin- ation of argentiferous lead ore. By a preliminary process, the sulphur is separated (see Lead) ; and weighed fragments of the mixed lead and silver being placed on cupels, the latter are introduced into the muffle, which has been previously heal id ill a furnace, where it still remains. The fire is then increased, and air being admitted to the muffle, the oxygen of the air unites with the lead, forming oxide of lead (PbO), which in part volatilises through the openings in the side of the muffle, and in other part sinks into the porous bone-earth of which the cupel is made. Whilst the lead is thus carried away, the silver remains behind as a molten metallic globule, and when the last traces of lead-fumes leave the silver bead, the latter suddenly lightens, and imme- diately thereafter becomes brilliant and white. <0i being slowly allowed to cool, the globule of silver may be weighed, and the amount of pure metal ASSAY. thus determined. The use of the cupel during this process has led to the term aipellation being cm- ployed in place of A. When silver contains copper, which it does in ordinary coinage and silver-plate, it becomes necessary to mix lead with the alloy before attempting to separate the copper. The manner in which the lead is generally added is to roll the alloy of silver and copper in a piece of sheet-lead or ! ad-foil, and place the whole package on the cupel. During the heating in tho muffle, the lead oxidises as usual, and in part passing into the bone-earth of the cupel, carries the copper with it. The amount of lead required to effect the separation of copper from silver in this way is given in tho following table : Rt. n ^. r .t „f sii.-r Amount ofCoppcr Quantity or Load Quantlryof Loadln iIoIp.S AUoylnOu. NffoMar, for One TWallnn t.. tlinl In One Pun. f^ PnnofAlloy. ol Copper. 1000 -ft part. 950 50 3 parts. 60 to 1 900 100 7 „ 70 . 1 800 200 10 it 50 » 1 700 300 12 ■ 40 , 1 000 400 14 „ 35 ™ 1 500 500 16 to 17 » 32 » 1 400 000 16 » 17 „ 27 i. 1 300 700 16 „ 17 „ 23 ■ 1 200 800 16 . 17 „ 20 ,. 1 100 900 16 ■ 17 ■ 18 ■ 1 ■ copper 1000 16 , 17 ,, 16 , 1 The metallurgic chemist, while performing an A., can determine, by the examination of the stains on the cupel after the process has been finished, what metal may have accompanied, and been separated from, the silver, even in minute quantity. Thus, lead alone imparts a straw-yellow or orange stain ; copper, a gray or dark-brown tint ; and iron, a black stain. During the A. of silver by the foregoing or dry method, a certain loss of metal generally occurs, which averages 2 parts in 1000 ; and this circum- stance has induced the authorities in the mints of Great Britain, France, and other European kingdoms, as well as the United States, to adopt a humid process for tho A. of silver, which will determine the value of a silver alloy to within 05 (or half a part) in 1000. The humid or wet A. consists in dissolving the compound of silver in nitric acid of density 125, and thereafter adding a solution of common salt (chloride of sodium, NaCI), which causes the precipitation of the chloride of silver (AgCl) in white flocculi. The common salt is made of a definite strength, and is poured out of a measured or graduated vessel, till all further pre- cipitation of the silver ceases, when the amount required of the solution of common salt is read off, and by a simple calculation its equivalent in pure silver is obtained. The A. of gold ores is conducted in a manner .similar to that of sdver. When the ore contains gold, lead, and copper only, it suffices to mix more lead with it, ami heat in the cupel in the muffle furnace, when the lead and copper sink into the cupel, and tho gold forms a globule on the upper surface. Tho proportion of lead required is regu- lated by the amount of copper present in the alloy. Proportion of Gold contained In One Part of tho Alloy. 1000 thousands 900 . 800 700 Cf nitric acid on the i streak serves still further u a mi determining the purity of the metal, u thi readily dissolves the copper and silver, and ild. ASS.VYE, a village in the territory of the Nizam, lat -'0° 18' N., and loo 7fi B5 I. I inda in the doab, or fork, of t lie Joah and Kaitna. A. claims notice chietly as the scene of tli victory of the Duke of Wellington, then major- 1 Wellesley, won on the 23 1 Sep) imber 1803. The British troops in action were only about 4500, while the Mahrattaa under Scindia and the of Berar numbered 50,000, of whom 10,000 were commanded by French officers. 9S pieces of cannon, 7 standards, all the baggage, and a large part of the ammunition of the Mahrattas f el] into the hands of the conquerors, whose military supremacy was soon acknowledged over a great portion of India. In 1851 a medal was struck in commemoration of the victory. ASSEERGHU'E, a fort situated on an isolated mountain at the north-east angle of the presi of Bombay, in lat. 21* 26' .V. and long. 7ci 26 E. Its elevation above the base of the mountain is estimated at 750 feet. Its extreme length and breadth are n . 1100 l 600 yards; from the irregularity, however, of the outline, the computed at not more than .100,000 square yards, or somewhat less than -j'^th of a square mile. With the exception of two avenues of ascent, both of them difficult and strongly forti: everywhere terminated by a carefully scarped pre- cipice, varying in height from SO to 100 feet. This formidable fastn> a twice taken by the British— first in 1803, and finally in 1819. ASSEMBLY ! . in the conduct of an army, is the second beating of the drum before a nuuvh, at which the soldiers strike their teuU if encamped, roll them up, and stand to arms. ASSE'MBLY, GENERAL, in Scotland, Ireland, and the United i totes the highest court of the Presbyterian Church. It differs from the Anglican Convocation at once in its constitution and in its powers, representing as it does both the lay and the clerical elements in the church, and possessing supreme legislative and judicial authority in all matters purely ecclesiastical. The General A. of the Established Church of Scotland Co of representatives, clerical and lay, from all the presbyteries of the church. The royal bur. Scotland also return elders to the General A. of the Established Church, and each of the Scottish universities sends a representative. The Assembly meets once a year, in the middle of May, at Edin- burgh, ami sits for ten days. Its deliberations are presided over by a Moderator, whose election is the first step in the proceedings, after a sermon by his predecessor. In former times, this office was some- times filled by laymen : among others, in 1567, by George Buchanan. In modern times, the moderator is always a clergyman. S4 presbyteries, composing 16 synods, return members to the General A. of the Established Church of Scotland Its relation to the state is represented by a royal commissioner, who exercises no function in the A. beyond that of adding by his presence the sanction of the civil authority to its proceedings. The other functionaries are a principal and a deputy clerk, both clergymen, a procurator, and an agent. All business not des- patched during the session of the A. is referred to a commission, with the moderator as convener, which meets immediately after the dissolution of the A., and again quarterly. The General A. of the Free Church of Scotland, which has 16 synods U8 comprising 71 pr. and of the Irish Presby- terian I .-imil.-irly constituted, the principal point of dil ace of tli commissioner. See Pm •, BaBKEEB Ai r. fee. ASSEMBLY, Xa'tioxal (France). The States- I (q.v.), convoked by Louis XVI. of Franca, I May 5, 17S0, consisted of the two privi- le i d orders, cliTL'y and nobles, and of the tin or commons. The privileged orders refusing to join tlie third estate and deliberate in a i imlier, the latter, of its own authority, June 17 the title of Aaiemblec Rationale, and the righi in the name of France. The court attempted tc i this resolution in a royal sitting, JnilS -.'! ; but the deputies of the third estate, along with the I rs of the other two orders, had bound tie in- ly oath not to separate until they had given France a constitution, and had declared every attempt at violence on the part of the court, tan They refused to quit the common hall, aud the court yielded, and commanded the nobles aud clei join the National A. This was the beginning revolution, and the A. proceeded with rapidity to metamorphose old France. The aboli- tion of all privileges on the 4th August was followed by that of hereditary jurisdiction, of restraints on religion and the press, and by the ttionof the Eights of Man (q.v.). In February 1790, the monastic orders were suppressed, and ail remnants of feudalism swept away ; in March, .■nd the opj ilt-tax were d ; in June, all orders and titles of nobility. In July, non-catholics had the property confiscated from their ancestors restored: Jews were relieved from personal taxation ; and game-laws done away. A decree of October 18 abolished the cruel cri penalties of Louis XIV. In January IT'.'l all cor- porations and guilds were abolished, and free-trado introduced. In February, political rights were con- ceded to Quakers ; in May, the customs at city gates were abolished; in June, the torture; the violation y of letters was also declared criminal. In September, all citizens, of whatever colour or religion, received political rights. The principles on which the Assembly proceeded were the sovereignty of the people, the independence of the communes, the limitation of the royal | through a conditional Veto (q.v.), the separation of the political authorities, and the responsibility of rs. Accordingly, the A., shortly after it was constituted, declared that to it alone, subject to the royal veto, belonged the legislative power. Several decrees, in September 1789, determined that the legislative body should form only one chamber, and should be renewed every two years ; other decrees declared the king inviolable, and the throne inalien- able. A decree of 7th Xovember forbade the deputies to undertake the place of ministers ; in December, the new organisation of the communes was b January 1790, France was divided into departments ; m April, trial by jury was introduced; in May, it was declared that the right of war and peace belonged to the nation alone, that is, to the A. In regard to finance, which had been the imme- diate cause of the Assembly's being convoked, the reforms were equally thorough. It was decreed at the outset that taxes were to be apportioned and raised without regard to rank or person. Then followed the approval of a loan of SO millions of francs. A decree of Xovember 17S9 ordered the publication of the public accounts ; another in December estab- lished a national bank. In March 1790 appeared the first law sanctioning the sale of 400 millions worth of the national domains; and in April, another ordering the issue of cusignata (q. v.) on the A^F.MBLY OP DIVINES-A8SER. national property ; in October, these assignats were declared to bear no interest. These measures were followed, in the beginning of 1791, by a series of laws regarding coining, taxation, encouragement to indus- try, revenue-management, &e. A committee of the A. appointed to reform church matters, made a complete overturn of the old ecclesiastical system. After a declaration that Catholicism had ceased to be the state religion, tithes were abolished, and church rty confiscated. Church ornaments and valu- ables were appropriated as patriotic gifts to the state; the civil jurisdiction of the bishops was taken away, and monks and nuns were freed from their vows. The clergy were put under a civil constitu- tion. Each department was a see, and the com- munes ruled and paid bishop and cures. All the wi re amenable to the civil courts, without I to the pope or the interference of any ecclesi- astical authority whatever. Every clergyman had to take an oath accepting this constitution, which ] 1 t p the emigration of a number, and subsequently to enactments of excessive rigour against refractory trea iiuertnentSs). The A. having thus laid the revolution on a foundation of 3250 decrees, and having sworn to the new constitution, and got it accepted by the king, closed its sittings, September 30, 1791. nam its having framed the constitution (which lasted only 12 months), this assembly is usually called the Constituent A. It made way for the LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY, which was to reform the civil and criminal laws in accordance with the spirit of the n ew constitution. A decree had provided that no member of the Constituent should be returned to the Legislative A. But the democratic party received such preponderance at the elections, that the A. forgot its mission from the very first, and commenced a war with the remnants of the royal authority, which ended, August 10, 1 7'.'-, with the over- throw of the throne and the suspension of the king. The constitution had provided for an appeal to the nation in extreme cases, and the Legislative A. now exercised that right by convoking a National Con- • (q.V.), which, being invested with the powers of the sovereign, was to decide on the fate of the monarchy, and remodel the whole political system. The title of National A. has been assumed by various other parliamentary bodies, originating in popidar commotions, and aiming at radical political changes ; as the French A . that met after the revolution of February 1S4S, and organised the republic, and which was likewise followed, April \s['j, by a Legislative A. (see France) ; the German National A. at Frankfort (see German) ; and the Prussian National A. LSSE'MBLY OF DIVINES, or WEST- MINSTER ASSEMBLY, a celebrated convo appointed by the Long Parliament for settling the doctrine, liturgy, and government of the Church of Rnglanrl. It consisted of 121 clergymen and 30 lay- men— 10 of whom were lords and 20 commoners — together with 4 clerical and 2 lay commissioners from the Church of Scotland. Among the more .aisled of the divines were Usher, Sannder- son, Reynolds, Brownrigg, Ward, Twisse, Lightfoot, (iataker, Burges, Goodwin. Calamy, and Wye J of the laymen, t, the two Vanes, Rouse, Wliitelocke, St John, and Maynard. The Scottish olivines were Henderson, Gillespie, Ruther- ford, and Baillie. 26 of those whose names were contained in the ordinance calling the Assembly, which was dated 12th dune 1643, never appeared at the discussions, one or two of them having died about the time of the first meeting, and the others fearing the displeasure of the king. To supply the place of these absentees, 21 additional members, j called the superadded divines, were summoned to attend. This notable Assembly held its first meeting on the 1st of July 1043, and continued , to sit till the 22d February 1649, during which time it had met 11G3 times. Its most import- ant work was concluded long before that time. One of the first things it did was to give its sanc- tion to the Solent against j which Dr Burges alone stood out for several days. J The Presbyterians formed a large majority in the Assembly, and exercised a corresponding influence on its decisions. In doctrine, the members were almost unanimous; but on the subject of church government, opinions extremely opposite were main- tained with keenness, especially on the question touching the sphere and limit3 of the civil | in matters ecclesiastical. The principal fruits of its I deliberations were the Directory of Public Worship, J submitted to parliament April 20, 1644; the Con- • of Faith, October and November 1040 ; the I Shorter Catechism, November 5, 1647 ; and the j Larger Catechism, September 15, 1648. These seve- ral formularies, which contain a clear and rigid embodiment of Calvinistic theology and Presbyterian church government, constitute to this day the autho- rised standards of the Presbyterian churches of Scotland, Ireland, and England. The Directory of Public Worship was ratified by both Houses of par- t, October 2, 1044, and the doctrinal part of the Confession of Faith in March 1048. An order of the House of Commons, October 13, 1647, ordained | that the Presbyterian form of church government should be tried for a year, but no further legislation I followed. What has hitherto been known as to the I details of the proceedings of this remarkable convo- cation, has been derived chiefly from the Letters of Baillie, and Lightfoot's Journal, no complete account being known to exist ; but the minutes of its meetings, or great part of them, are reported to have been discovered quite recently. See Hetherington's History of the \\~>Mmin$ter Assembly (1843). ASSE'NT, ROYAL, is the regal act by which the sanction of the crown to bills which have passed through both Houses of parliament is given. See Royal Assent. ASSER, John - , the learned and congenial bio- grapher of Alfred, was a monk of St Davids, from the Latin name of which, Meat no, he is termed in the old records Asserius Menevensis. About the year 8S0, his reputation for learning and piety procured him an invitation to the court of Alfred, where he resided at intervals during the rest of the king's life, assisting him in his studies, and enjoying an affectionate confidence, of which he seems to have been every way worthy. The king promoted him to various dignities, and finally made him bishop of Sherburn. The Saxon Chronic! the date of his death to the year 910. Several works have, with more or less authority, been attribn A. The only one undoubtedly his, by which we can now judge of him as a man and a writer, is his Aunales Rerum OtsUavm Adfredi Magni. This simple and most interesting narrative was first pub- lished in 1574 by Archbishop Parker. Its trust- ' worthiness has recently (1S42) been questioned by Mr Thomas Wright, in the article ' Asser' of his j Biographia Britannica Litteraria. This gentleman has assuredly made the most of the objections to its lity that can be legitimately urged. Lingard and Dr Pauli have rep] . and, at present, Ineral impression of scholars of Anglo-Saxon literature is that there is no good reason for doubting v and fidelity. The best edition is that of Wise (Oxf. Svo. 1722). M ASSES-ASSIGNATION. ASSES, Feast op. Sec Fools, Feast of. ASSE SSED TAXES. These are duties assessed and charged upon the people, ander i of numorous acts of parliament. i with the t.'i Coo. III. c. 90. Tlio duties asm under this branch of taxation are those on inhabited houses, male-servants, carriages, horses, and mules, dogs, horse-dealers, hair-powder, armori:il bearings, :me. The duty on inhabited houses v. stituted, by the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 30, for a former tax on windows. The A. T. are colder i ! I ment of the Commissioners of Inland I 3i e T- ASSE'SSORS may be defined as persons who are sometimes associated with judicial function::! in the argument and procedure before them, and to advise their judgments. They are called A., because, according to the Latin derivation and literal meaning of the word, they sit side 5y side with others. They may lie usefully i by per- sons in judicial stations whose previous education and pursuits scarcely qualify thorn for the duties cast upon them. A. are usually barristers or advo- cates learned in the law, and familiar with judicial proceedings. By the 5 and G William IV. o. 7f>, commonly called the Municipal Corporation Act, it is, by section 37, enacted that the burgessi annually elect from among those qualified to be coun- sellors, two auditors and two A., the former to audit the accounts of the burgh, and the latter t< i the burgess List. In the ecclesiastical law < if England, a bishop, who is a spiritual judge, is assisted by his ■llor, as tho episcopal assessor, and who, in fact, holds courts for the bishop. But in the case of a complaint against a clergyman for any ecclesias- tical offence under the Church Discipline Act (the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 80), the bishop is directed to inquire into the matter, assisted by three A., of whom the dean of his cathedral, or one of his archdeacons, or his chancellor,' must be one, and a Serjeant at law. or an advocate who has practised five years in the court of the archbishop of the province, or a barrister of seven years' standing, another. The judges of the common law courts, and the tt's counsel, being Serjeants, are, as a condition of their offices, A. of the House of Lords, advising the House on points of law which may be propounded to them by their lordships. A'SSETS. This is one of those terms in the law of England which in itself bears evidence of a Norman origin. It is derived from the French word assez, or more exactly, in Norman-French, asstlz, ' enough ' or ' sufficient,' signifying the property of a deceased person, which is sufficient in the hands of his executor and heir for the payment of his del its and legacies. In strictness, therefore, the term is not applicable to the property of a person who dies intestate, and without any debts to be paid. In general acceptation, however, it is understood to mean the property left for distribution by a deceased person, whether testate or intestate ; and in com- merce, and also in bankruptcy and insolvency, the term is used to designate the stock in trade and entire property of all sorts belonging to a merchant or to a trading association. A. are either personal or real, the former compre- hending snch goods, chattels, and debts as devolve on the executor; and the latter including all real estate, whether devised or descending to the heir at law. In connection with this distinction, A. are also saiil to be A. by descent, and A. in hand, the former of these being recoverable from the heir to whom the land descends, and so far as such lands will extend— A. in hand, again, signifying such property as a person leaves to his executors sufficient for the 430 clearing of burdens and bequests affect u sonal estate. A. are also in their nature either legal . according to the nature of tho remedy may be used by creditors against the executor or heir. Where there are several creditors of I itor is bound to pay him who first judgment for his debt ; and he cannot resist on tin- ground that nothing will be left for tin m. If, after exhausting tile whole A. which ■me to his hands, by the payment of debts in due order, he be afterwards sued by a creditor remaining unpaid, he is entitled to protect him If by an allegation that he has fully administered, or ally by a plea of ptene admmstramtj and upon this plea the creditor is entitled to judgment that he shall be paid out of any other A. that shall come to the defendants, which is called a judgment of A. in fuluro. A. is not a technical term in Scotland, but it is leless much used in the legal business of that country. ASSI'DIANS. See Chasidim. ASSIE'NTO, i. c., treaty, a word specially applied to a compact between Spain and some foreign nation, according to which the Spanish government conferred upon the latter, under certain conditions, the monopoly of the supply of negroes for its American colonies. It was Charles I. of Spain who first concluded an A. with the Flemings. !ar compact was entered into with tho Genoese (15SO A.D.), the Portuguese (1696), and on the accession of Philip V. to toe Spanish throne in 1 7< 12, with the French Guinea Company, which from that time took the name of A. Company, upon the understanding that for ten years it should have tho ve right of annually importing 4800 negroes of both sexes to the continent and islands of Spi America. The A. was next transferred to England at the peace of Utrecht in 1713, and made over by government to the South Sea Company for 30 years, permission being also granted to the company to send yearly, during the term of contract, a ship, carrying 50(1 tons of goods, to these Spanish colonies. The misunderstandings that grew out of this last clause contributed not a little to the war that broke out between the two nations in 1 739. At the peace of Aix la-chapelle in 1748, the English company having still four years to run, their rights were guaranteed to them ; but they relinquished them at the Madrid Convention of 1750, upon the payment of £100,000, and the concession of certain commercial advantages. ASSI'GN, To, in Law, signifies to transfer or grant over to a third party a security, a right of credit, or other right, whether in possession or in reversion, granted by a party indebted or under obligation to the party assigning. The words of assignment are to A., transfer, and set over, and they operate to t both real and personal property. A chose en action (q. v.), contrary to the ancient principle, can now be assigned in England indirectly by the com- mon law, and directly according to the recognised principles of the courts of equity. Besides this general application of the word, as a technical term in conveyancing, both in England and Scotland, it is also employed in England in judicial procedure, where the decision of an inferior court is brought under review, and in proceedings in bankruptcy. See Assignment, Assignation, Assignment of Error, Bankruptcy. ASSIGNATION is a legal term in Scotch con- ing, analogous to the English word Assign- ment (q.v.j, by means of which the nolder of any right, or the creditor in any obligation, or the proprietor of any subject not properly feudal (see Feudal t), transfers his right or estate to a third ASSIGNATION— ASSIGNATS. party. Tlie party making the A. is called the cedent, and the party in whose favour the A. is made is called the assignee or cessionary, and the act of assignment thus made is irrevocable, an element in the deed which has been traced to the practice of the French law, a source from which the Scotch lawyers of the 16th c. borrowed so much — the Court ion itself being a mere copy of the Parliament of Paris. A direct conveyance of a debt in France was termed un transport; the granter, cidant ; and the grantee, cessionnaire ; and these terms, derived from a Latin origin, were introduced into the Scotch law ; and hence the names of the parties to an A, as we have stated. Unlike the English commondaw view of the assignment, the Scotch A. has the effect of investing the assignee with the whole right, which was in the cedent, although, according to the ancient practice, the A- gave, not simply the sum or subject aed, but also the deed or written evidence of the right or thing assigned, a form arising from the circumstance of the instrument having been regarded as of the nature of a mandate or power of attorney to the assignee to make his claim and to act as in right of the cedent. In modern practice, however, it is usual to employ simply the terms ' assign, convey, and make over,' which correspond with the real character of the deed. In order, however, to complete the A., it must be intimated to the common debtor — that is, the party originally indebted to the cedent— and so essential is this intimation, that in the case of competing claims against the right interest or estate assigned, the A. first intimated will be preferred to one prior in date, but posterior in the date of intimation. Such intimation ouL'ht to be made by a Notary Public (q. v.), but other formal notice of the A. is sometimes admitted. But there are certain assignations which require no intimation, such a3 the endorsement of bills of exchange, adjudication (q. v.), which is a judicial A., and marriage, which is , ; and the same is the rule with regard to all right and estate assigned under the operation of the bankruptcy laws. In Scotch agricultural leases, assignees are generally excluded expressly. But although A. is the strict Scotch term for assignment, the latter is in Scotland the technical term for the transference of certain property, such as property in copyrights, patents, and registered v oooo la. A'SSIGNATS. After appropriating to national s the land belonging to the church, the French National Assembly (see Assembly, National), instead of bringing it into the market at a time of insecurity, when its value was depreciated, issued bonds on the security of it, which were called assignats, as representing land assigned to the holder. This paper-money consisted chiefly of notes for 100 francs (£4) each, though many of them were'for sums as low as ten or five francs, and even lower ; and the first issue amounted to 400 million francs. The first A., which were issued in the spring of the year 1790, bore interest ; but subsequent issues did not. Tho facility of this plan of providing government income led to its being repeatedly had recourse to, as the Sroperty of wealthy emigrants — persons who aban- oned their country in alarm — fell into the hands of the riders, and was confiscated, till the amount rose to the enormous sum of 45,578 million francs, besides a great number of forged A. manufactured Zoida 33 Mai *79Z- (fiumeydolA E59 -£-'" *."*<& ia Domaines ^aJionaux'. ^Assignat j ) ova b J.o-axu^porteur. PfSw Facsimile of Assignat abroad, and smuggled into the kingdom. The value of the A. naturally soon began to decline, and confidence once gone, the declension became fearful. In June 1793, one franc in silver was worth three fraucs in paper ; in August, it was worth six. The state took the most extreme measures to compel the acceptance of A. at their full nominal value. Tho effects of these were to cause the A. to flow back into the public treasury, to raise the prices of all commodities, and to make every one averse to have any dealings with the state. One of these consequences was attempted to be met by fixing a maximum of prices. But no one could compel pro- ducers and dealers to produce and sell at a loss ; so that all business became disorganised. At last the value of A. came almost to nothing. Millions of individuals had suffered incalculable loss, and only a few who had bought public lands with the A. that cost them little or nothing, had enriched then: at the expense of the community. In March 17'.><>, a louis d'or (24 francs) brought 7200 francs in A. After this, they were withdrawn from the currency M ASSIGNEE l\ BANKRUPTCY ASSISI. in 1700. and redeemed, at -V.tli of their nominal value, by mandate, a new kind of paper-money, which enabled the holder al one to take possession of publio lands at the estimated value, while A. could only be offered .it a sale. The mandate also to a seventieth of their nominal value, and were returned to government inpayment of taxes or of land. At length, in July 1 7;*<>. the system of paper- credit, so obstinately peni ted in by government and so disastrous in its results to the public, came to an end. A law wa 1 p d, declaring that every one was entitled to transact business in wh circulating medium he pleased; that the mandate should be taken at tluir current value ; and that the taxi a be received either in coin or mandate at that rate. The A. were executed on a coarse kind of paper, and, as will be seen by the accompanying fae-simile, the devices were so meagre as to be easily counterfeited. ASSIGNEE' IN BANKRUPTCY. See I BUPTCT. ASSIGNMENT, in the law of England, is the name given to a conveyance by which the party making the A. transfers or grants over, for a suffi- cient consideration, a right in expectancy, in Bion, or other right not in possession, such as a bond, a debt, or other chose 01 - v.). In En land, according to the strict rule of the old common law, no such right could he assigned or granted over, because such a proceeding was thought to be an encourage- ment to litigation. The only exception 1 general rule was in the case of the crown, which might always either grant or receive a (A by A.; and now the proceeding is in constant prac- tice, the courts of equity, making the rule il elf give way to the expedi< acy of facilitating the trans- fer of property, having directly sanctioned the prac- tice : and even in the courts of common law the application of the ancient principle is evaded. Mort- gages may be assigned : indeed the right to make ii a transfer is one of the properties of amo security. A. is also the proper mode of assurance or yance for passing leasehold estates fur years, and other chattel property; and by the S anil !l Vict. c. 106, s. 3, it is enacted that all assignments made after the 1st of October lS4."i, not being an it which before the passing of the act might have been created without writing, shall be void at law, unless made by deed. But a mere note in writing, if didy signed by the parties, will neverthe- less be supported in equity as an agreement, and pass an equitable interest to the assignee. It also appears that a parol or verbal lease for a term not exceeding three years, and valid as such within the Statute of Frauds (q. v.), may be assigned by a simple note in writing, if impressed with a proper stamp. Copy- right is assignable; indeed, by the 5 and G Viet. e. 45, s. 3, copyright is expressly given to the author and hit assigns ; but it is not required, like a patent right, to be in every case under the seal of the pro- pi 1 etor, it being enacted by section 13 of the act that an A. properly entered in the book of registry at Stationers' Hall shall be as effectual as if made by deed. In regard to the right of A. generally, it may be laid down that the property in things personal is transferable with absolute freedom ; and if they are d under a condition which is either repugnant to the gift itself, or against the policy of the law- such as a prohibition to dispose of the property assigned — the condition is void. There are some cases, however, where the right of alienation is, in respect of the incapacity of the owner, suspended : as to which it wdl be sufficient to remark that the law with respect to the disability of infants, insane 4M persons, and persons under duress, applies in general onalaswell as to real property. A married woman, too, is in general under an absolute ... ni-fer of thin ;a personal ; for, with the exception of her equitable interest in pro- perty settled in trust expressly for her separate use, the goods and chattels which she ma\ havepot at the time of marriage, or subsequently acquired, by the gen. ral rule of law, to her husband. Then are also some few cases where, in iv pect of the nature of the interest itself, its alienation irately prohibited. Thus, generally, the pay or half-pay of a military or naval officer, or tin- salary of an officer of trust, is, on a principle of public policy, not assignable, the object being to to such persons even against tin ir own improvidence, the possession of those means which are essential to the maintenance of their station and the performance of their duties. The sale or transfer of public appointments themselves is also, in general, contrary to the policy of the law, and in most cases ly prohibited. See Stephen's Comment vol. ii. p. 43. An A. of goods and chattels is frequently made by a Bill of Sale fa. v.). Bills of Exchange (q. v.) and Promissory Notes (q. v.) are assigned by cndorscini nt. The corresponding term in the Scotch law is Assignation (q. v.). But in that system, A. is the legal ami technical word for the transference of pro- perty in copyrights, patents, and registered vessel-. ASSIGNMENT OF ERROB is the technical statement of certain grounds on which the judgment of a court of law is sought to be reviewed by a higher tribunal : but by the Common Law Procedure Act (15 and 16 Vict. c. 50.. s. 15'2), it is now limited to the case where the defendant in error intends to rely in support of the judgment on the proceeding in ermr being barred by lapse of tunc, or by release of error, or other like matter of fact. Sec Aj and Error. ASSI'GNS, or, in Scotch law, ASSIGNEES, is al name given to parties in whose favour an : nation (q. v.) is 1 ASSIMILATION. See Nutrition. ASSINIBOI'A, the district round Led River 1, ient. It takes its name from the Assiniboine iim r. as the settlement itself does from the river into which the Assiniboine flows. See Bed RivXR IENT. ASSINIBOI'NE, a river in the Hudson's Bay Territory. Near kit. 50° X., and long. 96« \v., it fall's from the north-west into the Bed River (q. v.), wdiich discharges its waters into Lake Winnipeg. ASSI'SI (Assisium), a town of Italy, in the Papal States, in the delegation of Perugia, is built upon a steep hill, in 45° £? N. lat, and 12" 33 K. long. Pop. about ollllll. It is surrounded by a wall 1 1 1 1 1 1 . ' d with towers, and overhung by a lofty citadel in ruins. It is the birthplace of St Francis, who here founded the t.'onvento Sacro, the first monas- tery of the Mendicant order that bears his name, a large and beautiful structu re, and one of the earliest specimens of the Gothic style of architecture in Italy. The church and the galleries of the monastery contain line paintings by Cimabue, Giotto, and other old masters. Besides the Convcnto Sacro. there are eleven other monasteries in A. Of these, the 1 is the Portiuncula, which has a richly decorated church, with a cupola by Vignola. In the last century, this place was a great resort of pilgrims, \ isiting the tomb of the saint, of whom one hundred thousand are said to have been assembled here on one day. ASSIZE— ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS. A. occupies the site of the ancient Assisium, a municipal town of Umbria, ami presents the remains of the forum, the baths, and the aqueducts of the of the Romans. In the piazza, or square, there stands a beautiful portico of the ancient temple of Minerva, com istingof fluted Corinthian columns and a pediment. There are abundance of olive-trees, and some fine mineral springs in the vicinity. The town has given title to a bishop since 240 A.D. It has manufactures of needles and : ASSI'ZE, 'I'll is word, literally signifying a' sitting' or 'session,' is a term used in the principal European vstems, and very much in the same sense, or rather senses in all, for it has more than one distinctive meaning. As is common with regard to most of our ancient legal technicality, the Latin language, in the first instance (assideo), and then the French (asms), appear to have led to its introduction into the phra- seology of the law of England, and, it may be added, also of Scotland, although in the latter country it has a more limited application in judicial procedure than in England, A. being in Scotland the old tech- nical expression for a jury. In England, this word may also signify a jury, and it is sometimes used to denote an ordinance, decree, or law. But in modern practice, it is commonly applied to the sessions or sittings of the judges of the superior law-courts, held perioecoming overcast, we think of rain as about to follow, the notion of rain not having previou -ent to our mind. When we hear the church-bells, we are apt to think of the crowds in the street, or of some of the other circumstances of public worship. When we pass a house.wc are reminded of its occupier; and ne a person we know, we may be carried iu thought to his office, and from that to other persons holding the office, and so on. If an object is before my as a mountain, 1 am said to receive an impres- sion or sensation of it. in consequence of the actual presence of the thing ; but it is possible for me to remember the mountain, or to have an idea of it, when far away from the reality, in which case there must be some power in the mind itself, ditlcrent 493 ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS. bom the susceptibility to present objects, a power of reviving, or resuscitating those Btal first induced by contact with the actual. B the sights, anil sounds, and touches caused by con- tact With real things, we are gratify occupied with sounds, and touches remembered, anticipated, or imagined, which is to live in a world of ideas ; and it is in this world that the process termed Associa- tion has its sphere. When an idea is brought before the mind without its original, as when I picture to my mind the late Duke of Wellington, the circum- stance is owing to the mention of his name, or of some incident connected with him ; and my remem- brance of his personal appearance, as I have seen him when alive, is said to be the result of an associa- tion existing in my mind between two ideas, so that the one is able to recall or restore the other. The association between names and things comprehends one of the most extensive applications of the | in question. The circumstances under which one idea brings forward another into the view are principally these two — viz., first, previous jyroximity ; and second, is. The terms ' Contiguity ' and ' Similarity ' d in Mental Philosophy to express them. The first is exemplified in the examples of association given above ; for in most of those it will be found that the conjoined notions have been frequently in the view at the same time, in consequence of which they have, as it were, grown together, or become part of the same whole. Thus, we nave often noticed the darkened sky followed by a shower; the two have occupied the attention simultaneously, and in virtue of some power belonging to our mental framework, they have cohered into an inseparable couple or aggregate in the mind. This is proximity. or contiguity. When one idea suggests another which was never in company with it before, it is generally through the force of some likeness between the two. I meet an old man in the street with a very peculiar face, which reminds me of the bust of Socrates. These two things had never accom- panied one another in my mind before, and therefore it could not be the force of proximity that made the second to arise at the instigation of the first ; but there was a certain amount of likeness or similarity n the old man's features and the feat Socrates, as represented to us in the bust ; and it is a fact of our constitution, no less certain and no less important than the foregoing, that in cases where sometlung now before the mind has a strong cast of resemblance to something formerly observed or con- I by us, but not at present thought of in any way, the present is apt to recall that past idea, what- ever it may be. By the force of likeness, the travel- ler in new countries is constantly reminded of the scenes and objects familiar to him, and so is induced to draw comparisons beween the one and the other. Identification and comparison both imply that things are brought together by virtue of their similarity, they not having been in company before. The principle of proximity operates most in Memory, Habit, and Routine ; similarity has to do with invention and originality, and is essential to the processes of Reason and Imagination. Law of Contiguity, — The principle of association by proximity is not confined to ideas. We must state it in a more comprehensive form, in order to comprise the full sphere of it3 application ; for our mechanical habits are formed through the very same ] lower of our constitution that enables us to recall or remember ideas. The taught movements of a soldier or of a skilled workman are connected together so firmly that one succeeds to another almost of its own accord. Everything of the nature of acquisition supposes a plastic property in the human system, giving permanent coherence to acts that have been performed together. The following is a general statement of the law under consideration : Actions, Sensations, States of Feeling, and Ideas, n /- impressions. If the mind worked only by the principle of con- tiguity, nothing would ever occur to us except in some connection already formed. But some explana- tion is necessary as to the precise relationship sub- sisting between the two distinct forces of mental resuscitation, in order to shew at once their distinct- aesa aud their connection. When the cohesive link between any two contiguous actions, sensations, or i 9 confirmed by a new occurrence or repetition, it is perfectly obvious that the present impression must revive the sum-total of the past impressions, or reinstate the whole mental condition left on the occasion immediately preceding. Thus, if I am dis- ciplining myself in the act of drawing a round figure with my hand, any present effort must recall the state of the muscular and nervous action, or the pre- cise bent acquired at the end of the previous effort, while that effort had to restore the condition at the end of the one preceding, and so on. But this rein- statement of a former condition by a present act of the same kind, is really and truly a case of the principle before us, or of like recalling like ; and without such recall, the progressive adhesion of contiguous things would be impossible. It would appear, therefore, that similarity is tacitly assumed in the operation of contiguity, and is indispensable to the process by which our acquisitions are gradually built up. Why, then, do we set op the associating force of likeness as something independent and dis- tinct ? To answer this question, we must advert to the fact, that in those eases where the same impres- sion is deepened by every new repetition, the old and the new arc not merely similar, they are identical, and the resuscitation takes place without fail, and «N ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. as a matter of course. But in going deeper into the explanation of the human intellect, we encounter many classes of similars, where there is not absolute identity, but the mixing up of a certain amount of diversity with the likeness actually existing. The botanist classing together all the plants of the same order, as, for example, the Rosacea, has to be struck with the occurrence of certain common characters — viz., the properties that distinguish the order — in the midst of great varieties in all other respects. It is important that he recognise these general marks, whether the plants be trees or shrubs, whether they I poisonous or wholesome, and under many other diversities. It is exceedingly important in science, in the business of life, and even in the creations of fine art, that the mind should take cognizance of likeness surrounded by unlikencss; which is the case that renders it necessary to characterise as distinct the associating force now under discussion. In the case of perfect identity between a present and a past impression, the past is recovered, and fused with tin- present, instantaneously and sun [y. So quick and certain is the process, that we lose sight of it altogether; we are scarcely made aware of the existence of an associating link of similarity under such circumstances. But when we pass from perfect to imperfect or partial identity, we are more readily led to perceive the existence of this link of attraction between similars, for we find that the restoration sometimes docs not take place ; eases occur where we fail to be struck with a similitude: the spark of resuscitation d< >. , not pass between the new impression and the old dormant one. Then it is thai we recognise differences between different minds ; one man tracing resemblance and making' out identity better than another. Moreover, we can assign lea- sons connected with the culture of the individual, which partially explain superiority or inferiority in this important faculty; just as we have pointed out the conditions favourable to the rapid growth of the adhesive bond of proximity. The failure in rein- stating an old impression by virtue of a present one like it, is solely ascribable to the want of perfect identity. When in some new presentation of an object, the old familiar form is muffled, obscured, distorted, disguised, or in any way altered, it is just a chance if we recognise it; the amount of [is still remaining will have a tendency to revive the object, while the points of difference or unlikencss will operate against the revival, and tend to restore things of their own kindred. If we hear a musical air that we are accustomed to, the new impression revives the old as a matter of course ; but if the air is played with complex harmonies and accompani- ments which are strange to us, it is possible that the elfect of these additions may be to check our recognition of the melody; the unlike circumstances may repel the reinstatement of the old experience more strongly than the remaining likeness attracts it. If our hold of the essential character of the melody is but feeble, and if we arc stunned and con- founded by the new accompaniments, there is every probability that we shall not be put upon the old mental track made by the same air; in other words, we shall not identify the performance. A few examples may next be given, to shew the workings of this associating power, and the conse- quences thence arising. The intellectual operations k nown under the names Classification, Generalisation, Induction, and Deduction, all proceed upon the dis- covery of likeness among things lying wide asunder in space and time, and very often veiled by diversity. Thus, in order to include in one list all the species of the rose, botanists have had to trace the characters of the genus tlirough its various members, wherever they occur, and under the greatest differences in 496 pect It takes a keen identifying faculty— that is, a strong natural tendency for the resurrection of like to meet like — to see the resem- blance of some of these species to the rest; and it has happened in many department; of tmowled e that a class has remained incomplete for a time, purely from the disguised character of some of (he individuals. So in the process termed induction, by which B general law is arrived at by comparing instances of it everywhere, there must be an attrac- tion of similars, in order to bring together in the mind tlie collection of particulars that the induction is based upon. Thus. Newton assembled in his view the vai parent bodies that he had found in the course of his experiments to refract or bend li hi Btrongly, his only intellectual instrument for do I so being the bond of likcm operating as a power of recall. Having looked at them in companj . he Baw that some were remarkable for their weight ■ lie gravity, and others for containing inflam- mable ingredients; upon which he raised the general induction, connecting these two properties with high refrangibility. Then, deductively, he applied tins generalisation to the diamond, which refracts light more than any other known substance ; and as it is not a heavy material, he extended the other infer- ence to it - namely, that it was made up of some inflammable material, an inference afterwards con- firmed by the discovery that it is crystallised carbon. Many of the greatest discoveries in science have turned on the identification of modes of action never before supposed the same, as when Franklin was si ruck with the resemblance between the atmos- pheric thunder and lightning and the phenomena of common electricity. Another wide field for the operation of the same principle, is the region of illustraim a whereby two things widely remote are brought together, in the view either to elucidate one another, or for the sake of ornament and poetic effect. Most men of genius in literature and poetry have contri- buted original illustrations, similes, metaphors, or comparisons in the course of their compositions. Shakspeare carries the palm in this faculty. The writings of Bacon are remarkably rich in those that serve the purpose of exposition. Science is with him the 'interpretation' of nature: final causes are 'vestal virgins;' they have no fruit: fallacies are ' idols.' Edmund Burke, another master of illustrative comparison, has termed revolutions the • medicine' of the state, and regular government its ' food.' If we inquire into the circumstances that render one mind more prolific in new identifications and comparisons than another, apart from difference of original capacity, we must refer mainly to the fact, that the one has had the greater previous familiarity with the class of things thus brought up by the attraction of similarity. A mathematician is the most likely person to bring up comparisons from mathematics ; a botanist is prepared to identify plants ; a travelled man provides illustrations from foreign countries; a historian, from history. The sailor is notoriously rich in nautical simdes and illustrations. When any one not specially versed in a subject is yet prone to draw upon it profusely in i be w ay of comparison, we must then refer to great natural endowment as the sole explanation. But our space does not allow us to dwell further on the subject. (For the full exemplification of both the ting principles and of the complications that thev L'ive birth to, see Bain on T/ie Senses and the Intellect) The earliest known attempt to lay down the laws whereby thought succeeds to thought, is that contained in Aristotle's treatise on Memory. He ASSOUAN— ASSYRIA. enumerates three different principles of mental citation — viz., Similarity, Contrariety, and Co- adjacency. He has been followed by most other philosophers as regards all the three principles. It is now, however, clearly Been and generally admitted, that contrariety is not an independent associating force. When a thing suggests its opposite or con- trary, it will be found that the two have been pre- viously together in the mind, and have therefore acquired a mutual hold by contiguity. Such, for example, is black and white, wet and dry, health and sickness, prosperity and adversity, &c. Con- tram s, in fact, have a natural inseparability; they are of the class of relatives like father and son, which imply each other necessarily, and have no meaning except by mutual reference. It requires no new principle of our constitution to account for ST1 ti i this particular case. Moreover, whi D tluu : an- strongly contrasted with one another, as hi b position before a fall, the mind is greatly imp] with the shock of transition, and so retains a lively recollection of the sequence, having by that means i, neat r tendencj to pass from the one to the other. Thus, then, the enumeration of Aristotle is reduced to the two principles that we have now expounded, Hobbes recognised the principle of contiguity as the foundation of reminiscence ; but the Aristotelian philosopher, Vives, who wrote in the 14th c, was the lirst to specify in minute detail the various circum- stances that determine the adhesive bond of recollec- tion. Hume's enumeration is well known to have comprised the three principles of resemblance, con- tiguity, and causation, which he illustrates as Follows: ' A picture naturally leads our thoughts to the original, [resemblance]. The mention of one apartment in a building naturally introduces an inquiry or discourse concerning the others, [conti- guity]. And if we think of a wound, we can scarce forbear reflecting on the pain which follows it, [causation].' Causation, however, is merely a case of contiguity ; so also wc may say of Order in Place, and tinier in Time, which have been given as distinct principles. An attempt has been made to generalise Similarity into Contiguity, but without success. For a full and critical view of the history of these laws, see Sir W. Iton's edition of ReicL ASSOtXA'N, ESSUA'X, or F.SWA'X, the ancient i town of Upper Egypt, on tic cast bank of the Nile, near the borders ol Nubia, I in miles south of Thebes, in lit. 24" 5' 30" N., and long. 32° 55' E. There are few remains existing of the ancient city. Some granite columns present themselves among the but do not seem of an early date; and part of a temple still remains with a dilapidated portico. town-wall, that part which lies to the south of the old town is still standing; and beyond it is meteryof A., where there are numerous tombs, mostly cenotaphs, with Arabic inscriptions. In the i hbourhood there arc several granite quarries, i u of them remarkable for remains of ancient rials that had been cut from the rock, and partially hewn, and for antique inscription tablets, announcing the removal of blocks and the reign of the I it monarch by whose orders they had been cptarricd. The environs of A. are and sandy ; but the palm thrives, and the dat , which ai xcellcnt, form the. staple of the trade. Some traffic is carried on in senna, hi una, charcoal, wicker-baskets, and sla' The ancient name Syene is the Coptic word aouan or SlUin, signifying ' opening ; ' and the mod. is formed by adding the Arabic e', 'the,' softened into <•.*, viz., Ks-suan, ' the opening.' A. and its vicinity are highly interesting to geologists and 32 mineralogists ; that kind of granite called syenite receives its name from the town, ASSUMPTION, a village and river of Lower Canada. About 8 miles below the village, the river Sows into the St Lawrence, or rather into the Ottawa, nearly opposite to the lower extremity of the island of Montreal. — A., or Asuncion, is also the name of the capital of Paraguay, on the left bank of the river of that name, ft has a population of 8000, and has a trade in hides, tobacco, timber, wax, and Paraguay tea. Tie- city was founded in !.",:;."; by the Spanish, and soon became a place of importance, though not of beauty, being ill built, dirty, and disagreeable. The surrounding country is rich in pastures, and also produces crops of wheat, maize, sugar, tobacco, honey, wax, Sec. ASSU'MPTION OF THE VIRGIN MART. A festival of the Koni lit ireh. [n the 7th c, the idea originated that the soid and body of the Virgin had been carried up to heav !st and his angels. The Roman Catholic Church, therefore, has, ever since that period, kept the loth of August in memory of Mary's translation into glory; although, from the 4th e. until then, it had kept tie- sal in memory of her death. Liguori, in his QU Mary, gives a very minute account of the circum- stances of her Assumption. ASSU'RANCE. See Ixsuiia- ASSURANCE, Common-, is del iribed bj stone as the legal evidence of the translation of property, whereby every man's estate is assured to him, and all controversies, doubts, and difficulties are either prevented or removed. For an account of these common assurances or < mil . as they are generally termed, see Deed and Convey i A'SSYNT, a mountainous, moorish, and very ragged district or parish, 25 miles long, and 15 broad, in south-west Sutherlandshire. It mostly con a net-work of rocky heights, interspersed with a multitude (200) of dark, motionless tarns or pools, of various sizes, villi some larger lochs, the 1. Loch Assynt, being 111 miles long and 1 The district consists of gneiss, Silurian roc!: primitive limestone. There are a dozen mountains 3000—3500 feet high. Some of the mountains are ■ I, lead,, d I bom a and protruding rocks like patches of snow. The mountains have frequently the form of artificial pillars and c and are the remains of an enormous denud of the nearly horizontal strata of the d Soil Veinn is a perfect sugar-loaf, towei 2000 feet above a n 1 ■■_ Ed bible laud of 800 to 1000 feet above the sea. In Advii, k I on a promontory on the cast side of Loch A., the famous Marquis of Montrose was confined in 165 k ASSYRIA (called Athura on Persian cum inscriptions, and Assura on the Median) v. northernmost of countries that occupied tin- Mesopot i innded X. by the Nipli.it a Mountain | of Anne the a., by Susiana and Babylonia; on the !■:.. by .Media ; and on the \V.. according to some. '. . but more correctly by the water-shed of the Euphrates, for many Assyrian ruins are found to the west, of the Tigris, It 'was thus about 2S0 miles I om north to south, and rather more th : Erom ea t to west This plain i ■ by mountain-chains en I ; . and watered bj the Ti rris ami its affiuei two of which— the Zab rivers -lay the finest part of the country. ■ A" H V boundary-land' between the Semitic people and Iran, it became t ; political i Its extraordinary fertility enabled it to support a large population. The high degree of ASSYRIA. and civilisation reached by its inhabitants in very early times is attested not only by ancient wi but by the extensive rains of mighty cities, by the canals and contrivances for irrigation, and by the many proofs— furnished by recent excavations— of an acquaintance with the arts and sciences. The, ruins of many citie3 are grouped around Nineveh ; while lower down, the Tigris exhibits an almost unbroken line of ruins from Tekrit to Ba Under the Mohammedans, this fine, country is now almost a desert History. — Ancient authorities differ widely from each other respecting the rise and progress, the extent and the duration, of the Assyrian empire. is, a Greek of ('nidus, court-physician to Artaxerxes Mncmon, is quoted by various ancient writers ; and liis information, though utterly incredible and fabulous, has been followed by most classical historians, and by the whole series of ecclesia ticaJ writers. Many ingenious but futile attempts have been made to reconcile his history with the Scrip- ture narrative. Bcrosus, a priest of liel at Baby- lon, who wrote about 268 B.C., and Herodotus, differ widely from Ctesias, but are confirmed in many important particulars by the Bible, and by the con- tinually increasing evidence derived from cuneiform inscriptions'. In the Bible narrative, we are. told that Nineveh was founded by Aashur from Babylon (G a. \. 11). The latter city, therefore, must have been the capital of a more ancient empire, as Berosus . and recent discoveries go far to prove, though Greek writers maintain the reverse. The next not. have of A. does not occur till 771) B.C., when Pul, king of A., invaded Palestine, but was bought off by Menahem, king of Israel. Tiglath-pileser, who succeeded Pul (738 B.c), conquered Syria, and carried off many of the Jews into captivity. Next, Salman- t (730 i. ) subdned I rael, which, at the instiga- tion of the Egyptians, had refused to pay tribute, The next is .Sennacherib (718 B.O.), who atl it, and threatened Judah under Sezekiah. He lain by his two sons, and succeeded by his son Esarhaddon, who was also master of Babylon (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11), which, under Nabonassar, had been independent of Nineveh since 717. Very little credit is to be attached to the expedition of Holofernes recorded in the book of Judith. After this, the empire appears to have gradually decayed, until at last, in the reign of Sardanapalus II., or Saracus, a league was formed for its destruc- tion between Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, and Cyaxares, king of Media, which was strength- ened by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar, son of the former, to Nitocris, daughter of the latter. The war and siege are said to have been interrupted by an invasion of the Scythians, which drew off Cyaxares; but at length Nineveh was taken and destroyed about G06 B.C., or, according to Bawlinson, 625. In the time of Darius Hystaspes. A. rebelled without success in conjunction with Media. In the time of Herodotus, the capital had ceased to exist ; and when Xenophon passed it, the very name was forgot, though he testifies to the extent of the deserted city, and asserts the height of the, ruined walls to be 150 feet. Probably in this height is included the elevation of the river-bank and of the mound on which the wall stood. An inconsiderable town serins to have existed on its ruins in the reign radius ; and the last notice we have of Nineveh in the classics is in Tacitus. According to the Greek legends, the Assyrian empire was founded by Ninus. To this monarch bis consort Semiramis are ascribed expeditions on an incredibly magnificent scale against Bactria, Ethiopia, and India." Wc are told that Semiramis 4J8 led an army of 3,000,000 infantry, .100,000 cavalry, and 100,00(1 chariots, and a fleet of 2000 ship was encountered by forces more numerous still, and defeated ; that she returned to Nineveh, wheo soon afterwards died, and was reckoned anion;; the gods, and was succeeded by her son Ninyae prince. The succeeding part of the 1 ns related by Ctesias is equally false, though that managed to make the ancient world credit to his narrative in preference to tb Herodotus. He gives a list of monarchs from to Sardanapalus, which is now considered to be a clumsy forgery. According to him, for thirty gi tions after Ninyas, the kings led a life of luxury and ace in their palace; the last of them, Sarda- . made a vigorous defence against Arbaces, the rebel governor of Media, but finding it impos- sible to defend Nineveh, he set fire to his palace, and burnt himself with all his treasures ; this event took place 1300 years aftcrNinua. Now, I represents Nineveh to have perished nearly three centuries before the real date, which was about ()!>."> B. c, and is utterly incompatible with Scripture. Herodotus assigns to the empire a duration of 020 years, and Berosus of 526. In order to reconcile these conflicting accounts, historians have supposed that Nineveh was twice destroyed, but this supposi- tion is now generally rejected. However, that Nineveh was actually destroyed by fire, is proved from the condition of the slabs and statues found in its ruins, which shew the action of intense heat. A. became a Median province, 605 B.C., and after- wards, in conjunction with Babylonia, formed one of the satrapies of the Persian empire. In 331 B. c, at Gangamela, near Arbela, in A., Alexander defeated Darius Codomannus. In 312 B.C., A. became part of the kingdom of the Seleucido, whose capital was Seleucia, on the Tigris. It was after- wards subject to the Parthian kings, whose capital was C'tesiphon, and was more than once temporarily in possession of the Romans. When the P monarchy of the Sassanides was destroyed by the successors of Mohammed, A. was subject to the califs. Their seat was Bagdad from 762 a. D. till 1258. It has been under the Turks from 1G38, at which period it was wrested from the Persians. We shall now proceed to mention a few historical points that have been satisfactorily asccri from the cuneiform inscriptions. For these we are indebted to Rawlinson's Herodotus. It has not been ascertained when A. first became independent of Babylon (q. v.). The scat of govern- ment was first at Asshur (now Kileh-Slterrjat), on the right bank of the Tigris, 60 miles south of the capital, Nineveh. At this place have been found the bricks and fragments of vases bearing the names of the earliest known Assyrian kings, for Ninus and Semiramis are to be considered as mere inventions of Greek writers. The earliest known king is Bel-lush, one of a scries of four. These reigns probably occupy from 1273 to 1200 B. c. Of the next series of six, the names of five are recorded on the famous Kileh-Shergat cylinder, the earliest purely historical document as yet discovered in Mesopotamia. The fifth king of this series, Tiglath- pdescr I., records on this cylinder his own annals, and traces back his ancestors thus : ' Tiglath-pileser, the illustrious prince, whom Asshur and lb have exalted to the utmost wishes of his heart, who has pursued after the enemies of Asshur, and has subjugated all the earth — the son of Assuur-rish-ili, the powerful king, the subduer of foreign count) i< , he who has reduced all the lands of the M world — the grandson of Mutaggd-nebu, whom Asshur the great lord aided according to the wishes ASSYRIA. of his heart, and established in strength in the government of A. — the glorious offspring of Asshur- ed to them at the will of the writer, an i xpla- nation being previously given what the signification is to be. The Greek grammarians, or critics, used the A. to mark a passage that had bei-n unjustly suspected, but was to be held as genuine, Or a passage in any way remarkable ; the oh marked an interpolated or an objectionable n passage. ASTEROIDS. See Planetoids. ASTERol'UY'LLITES (Gr. aster, a star, and jahyllon, a leaf), a generic name, under which are included many of the moat abundant fossil plants of the coal-measures. The leaves are arranged in a bed manner around the stems or branches, The A. are ranked among the exogenous or dieoty- nis fossils, but they are of doubtful affinity, and the exact determination of their place in the system has not yet been accomplished. A'STIIMA is a disease characterised by the breathing, previously natural, becoming difficult, and accompanied by wheezing and a distressing sense of tightness in the chest. A. generally aj at first after some inllammatory affection of the respiratory mucous membrane, and more especially in those who have led dissipated lives. In others, it i lily hereditary, and frequently affects members of the same family. A. may be habitual, or may occur in spasms, generally preceded by some premonitory symptoms, as in some by great drowsi- ness ; others, says Dr Hyde Salter, ' know 1 ly extreme wakefulness and unusual mental activity and buoyancy of spirits; and I knew one case in which an attack of ophthalmia occurred.' The spasms may occur at any hour; but in nine- teen out of twenty cases tiny waken the patient from sleep between three and four in the morning. The horizontal position facilitating the flow of blood to tin 1 right Mib- of the heart, and therefore to the lungs, tlie disadvantage at wliich the muscles of respiration are placed, and the greater readiness with which sources of irritation act durii) explain this fact. Persons subject to A. scarcely dare fail any imprudence in diet; if they continue aw: upper is fairly digested, and the stomach i may go to Bleep fearlessly, and have : The asthmatic paroxysm is thus described by Dr Salter, the latest authority on this common but terrible disease : ' The patient 1-d and sleeps two or three hours, becom 1 in his breathing, and begins to wheeze, so as ken those in adjoining rooms. He awakes, changes his position, falls asleep again and again, and the miserable light between A. and sleep may go on, till the increased Buffering doea not allow the patient longer to forget himself for a moment; he I wide awake, sits up in bed, throws li forward, plants his elbows on his knee , and with head and elevated should its for breath like a dying man.' If the spasm is protracted, the oxygenation of his b] 1 is imperfectly performed, owing to the Bcanty supply of air, and his extremities get cold and blue, but at the same- tine- the violent muscular efforts at respiration cover him with sweat. The pulse is always small. The muscles ol the back ami neck 1 to the ribs, act as extraordinary muscles of respiration. The chest enlarges during the paroxysm, but in it there is almost perfect stagna- tion of air. The respiratory tubes affected si small, and the parts at which they are so const i -tantly shifting. The remedies for A. are numerous, but not to be di p tided on. They consist in paying attention to the digestive system, and in anti-spasmodics, either taken internally or by inhalation. A'STI (Asia Pompeia), a city of Piedm nil. in the government of Alessandria, lies on the left bank of the Tanaro, on the line of railway from Turin to Genoa, 26j miles B.8.E. of Turin. Pop. 25,200. It is a large town, with walls considerably dilapidated, and the streets generally very narrow and irregular. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a court of justice and a royal college. There is carried on a con able trade in silk and woollen fabrics, leather, ami hats, as well as in wines and agricultural produce. A. is a town of high antiquity, having been famous for its pottery before its capture by Hie Gauls in 4U0 B.C. On the occasion of its being again taken and destroyed in an irruption of the Gauls, it was rebuilt by Pompey, ami received the name of Asta Pompeia. In the middle age-. A. was one of the most powerful republics of Upper Italy. It was captured and burnt by the Emperor Frederick I. in 1155 ; and after a series of vicissitudes, it came into the possession of the Visconti of Naples, by whom ceded to the French, in whose hands it remained till the middle of the lGth c, when it came into the possession of the Dukes of Savoy, as it still remains. — The province of Asti, one of the six subdivisions of the government of Alessandria, is bounded on the W. and N. by the province of Turin, S. by Alba, 8. E. by Alessandria Proper, and N. E. by the province of Casale. The surface is hilly and picturesque. The soil rests upon limestone abound- ing in fossils, ami is fertile, producing corn, fruit, and wine. It is celebrated for a fine white wine ling champagne, called vino iVAsti. Silk is ■ me of its most important products. Top. 118,709. . 1-71 pop. of city, 31,033.) ASTOX, Li'iSE, a German authoress of some note, but principally known for her zeal in behalf of the ' rights of women.' She was born in the vicinity of Halberstadt, and at an early age was married to a wealthy English manufacturer. Their union was not happy ; perhaps her peculiar views of , and of the proper position of her sex contri- buted to the estrangement of their sympathies. After separating from her husband, she attracted public attention, especially in Berlin, by appearing on the streets in man's dress, smoking cigars, &c. This conduct brought her into several collisions with the police, and she was twice forced to leave the city. During the Schleswig-IIolstein war, however, she found a nobler sphere for her woman's nature, and displayed the greatest heroism and self-sacrificing devotion as an hospital nurse. She has written various books, the principal are — Wild ASTOR— ASTRAGALUS. Hoses (Berlin, 1S4G), and Freischarlcr- Reminiscenzen (L-ip. 1849), each of which contains twelve lyrical poems, none remarkable for ability ; Heine Emanci- pation, Verweisung, und Reclilfertigung (My Emanci- pation, Exile, and Vindication, Brussels, 1846) ; a novel, Ans dim Leben einer Frau (The Biography of a Woman, Hamburg, 1847) ; Revolution und Contre- revolution (Mannh. 1849). In the beginning of 1851, she married Dr Meier of Bremen. ASTOR, JoriN Jacob, an enterprising merchant, founder of the ' American Fur Company,' was born in a village near Heidelberg, in Germany, 1763. After spending some years in London, he sailed to America in 1783, and soon invested his small capital in furs. By economy and industry, he so increased his means that after six years he had acquired a for- tune of 200,000 dollars. Although the increasing influence of the English Fur Companies in North America was unfavourable to his plans, he now ventured to fit out two expeditions to the Oregon territory — one by land, and one by sea — the purpose of which was to open up a regular commercial inter- course with the natives. After many mishaps, his object was achieved in 1811, and the fur-trading station of Astoria (q. v.) was established ; but the war of 1812 stopped its prosperity for a time. From this period A.'s commercial connections extended over the entire globe, and his ships were found in every sea. He died March 29, 184S, leaving property amounting to 30,000,000 dollars. He left a legacy, amounting to 350,000 dollars, for the establishment of a public hbrary in New York. (Washington Irving s Astoria.) ASTO'RGA, Emanueix d\ a musician, celebrated partly on account of his personal history, was born in Sicily in 16S0. His father, a baron of Sicily, in the contest respecting the annexation of the island to Spain, was delivered over to the enemy by his own mercenary soldiers, and was executed in 1701 ; while his wife and son (Emanuele) were barbarously compelled to witness the tragedy. The wife died on the spot, and the son fell into a state of uncon- sciousness. Afterwards, through the interest of the Spanish Princess Ursini, he was educated in a monastery at Astorga in Leon, from which he 1 his name. Here he especially devoted himself to music, and made such progress that, in a irs, he was invited to the court of the Duke rma. His patron, erroneously suspecting that Lughter was receiving the addresses of the musician, sent him away to the court of the Emperor Leopold. After Leopold's death, A. travelleel through a great part of Europe, and it is supposed that tie died in a Bohemian monastery. II - best work is the Stabat Mater, a masterly com- position, of which the original score is still preserved in Oxford. ASTO'RIA, originally a fur-trading station on left bank of the Columbia, near the Pacific, ; its name from its founder, John Jaco! , • .... York. It demands notice here chieHy as having been a main point in the American claim to the Oregon Territory (q. v.). ASTIIAI'.AI), a town in the north of Persia, capital of the province of the same name, is built at the foot of the northern slope of the Elbruz Mountains, on a small river which runs into A. Bay, at the south-east extremity of the Caspian, from which it is distant 20 miles. Lat. 3G J 50" N., long. 54' 31' E. It was long the residence of the Kajar princes, from whom the present Shah of l'ersia is descended ; but on account of its situation in a remote corner of the kingdom, it was not advanced to the dignity of the metropolis of Persia. Teheran, at the foot of the chain of mountains which separates Iran from Mazanderan, became the capital ; and since then the importance of A has con ably sunk. It is still enclosed by a dry ditch and mud-wall, 3 miles in circumference, but its great towers have disappeared. Trade is small. The causeway constructed by Shah Abbas is, how- ever, kept in good repair, and connects A. with Khorassan, Afghanistan, 4c. Pop. varies from 4000 to 40,000, on account of the unhealthincss of the place during the summer rains. ASTRyE'A, daughter of Zeus and Themis, or of Astneu3 and Aurora, was the goddess of justice, the last of all the goddesses who left the earth when the golden age had passed away and men began to forge weapons and perpetrate acts of violence. She took her place in heaven as the constellation Virgo in the zodiac. — Greek art usually represented her with a pair of balances in her hand, and a crown of stars on her head. — A. is also the name of one of the Planetoids (q. v.). ASTR.E'A. See Coral and Madrepore. ASTRA'GALUS, a bone of the foot, which, by a convex upper surface and smooth sides, forms, with the leg-bones, the hinge of the ankle-joint. Its lower surface is concave, and rest3 on the os calcis, or heel- bone, to which it is attached by a strong ligament In front, it has a round head, which rests in the concavity if tin scaphoid, another bone of the tarsus, and upon an elastic ligament, its pressure upon which gives in a great measure the necessary elasticity to the foot : it is at this joint that inversion and eversion of the foot take place. It will be seen that the A. is a bone of great importance to the member, as it supports the weight of the body in stantling, and enters into most of the movements of the foot. It is occasionally displaced, generally in front of the outer ankle. ASTRA'GALUS, a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminosw, sub-order Papilionacece. The tagalua Coi-ticus. pod is more or less perfect! are pinnate, with a terminal leaflet The 8] are numerous, natives chiefly of the temperate and m A STBAKH AN— ASTROC ARYUM. ba of the Old World, shrubby, and often or unarmi '1 and herbaceous. A nam yield the sub Tragacanth (q.v.), or Gum 'IV. nth. annual, native of the south of Europe, with upright branching stems, is cultivated in ay, Germany, and other parts of Europe, for da, which are roasted, ground, and used as a ate for caffi ■. or mix id with it to improve its flavour.— The Sweet Milk-vetch, or Wild Liquorice [A. {/' of Britain and other parts ope, perennial, with Ion and i thick roots, \. bich | rate d i I he Boil, and almo I -terns, three feet in lei aionally cultivated for f I of cattle a very .abundant herbage. Cattle are not fond of it at first, hut are said to become fond of it after accustomed to it for some time The roots have iiat of the sweetness of liquorice. AKTRAKIIA'N, originally a province of the 1 empire, hut united with the Russian empire in [554 At present, A. forms one of the south- east governments of Russia in Europe, and is A "ii tli S. by the Casp , i ,d the is; en tin' W., by the country of the Don Cossacks; on the x., by the government <>.' Saratov; and on the E., 1 . :i, 50,000 ii 10. The province of A. is almost entirely a barren the only fertile portions ei of the Volga, which divides the province into two equal parts. Salt is procured from tie- marshes of the steppes, con iderable num- bers of cattle are reared, and the annual value of the sturgeon-fishing in the '■ much as •_' rubles (about £400,000). The climate varies from 70 F. in summer, to 13 in winti r. The population is composed of diverse elements — Russian, Tatar, ' oian, Bokhareae, Persian, and Hindu. Astrakha'n, the chief town of the government of the same name, is situated on an island of the Volga, and ni :ir tin- Caspian Sea, in lat. 46° 21' N., and long. 4S" 4' E. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and an Armenian bishop; has thirty- i Greek, two Roman Catholic, one Protestant, and two Armenian churches; til teen mosqi Indian temple, a gymnasium, a seminary for | a botanical garden, ami many manufactories. Pop. 30.4S0. The houses are mostly of wood, and irre- gularly built. The fisheries in the Volga supply occupation to great numbers of the inhabitants of A. and its neighbourhood. The principal exports are leather, limn and woollen goods, salted sturgeon, caviar, and isinglass. Imports consist chiefly of nibroidered silken goods from Persia, silk stud's, woollen goods, rice, rhubarb, raw sill., i &c. From July to October, the neighbourhood of A. is frequently visited by swarms of locusts. — A. is the name of a tine description of fur, the produce of a variety of sheep found in Bokhara, Persia, and (1SG7— pop. 47,839.) A'.STRAL SPIRITS. The star (Gr. aslron) and fire worship of the eastern religions rested on the doctrine, that every heavenly body is animated by a pervading spirit, forming, as it were, its soul ; and this doctrine passed into the religio-physical theories of the Greeks and Jews, and even into the ( Ihristian world. In the demonology or spirit-syst Christendom in the middle ages, A. S. are corn of sometimes as fallen angels, sometimes as souls of departed men, sometimes as spirits originating in fire, and hovering between heaven, earth, and hell, without belonging to any one of these provinces. Their intercourse with men and their influence were variously represented, according to the notion formed 504 ° of their nature. As the belief in spirits and witchcraft reach e M. in the 15th . nologists, or special students of this subject* loies of that wild pel I ; and A. S. v.. . occupy the first rank among evil or demoniacal spil tl however, ami others attributed to every human being an . spirit, or sidereal elemi at, in which the hums i or spirit prop r, i I thought to inhere, and v, Inch luvi for a t rson dies. ASTRI'NGENTS, medicines employed for the purpose of contracting the animal fibres and canals, so as to check fluxes, hemorrhage, and diarrhoea. The drugs most commonly used as A. are alum, catechu, oak-galls, rliatany-root, &e. Many of the vegetable A. owe that property, in whole or in part, to tannin. A Bi ree of cold is a powerful astringent. ASTROCA'RYTJM (from the Gr. orfron, a star, and karyon, a nut), a genus of Palms, of which ahout n species are known, natives of fcn I America, remarkable for the abundance of acute and fan pines— in some cases, afoot long — with which almost every part — stem, leaves, spat he, and fruit-stalk — is armed. They have beautiful pinnated leaves ; some of them are lofty, others are of very moderate height, as 8—15 feet, whilst some are almost or altogether stemless. The fruit of some species is eatable a juicy pulp covering a stony seed — as the fruit of the MtTftUMURO \: p emble a melon in flavour, has a sort of line ky odour, and is highly esteemed. It is a palm of only about 8 — 12 feet high, abundant about Parii and elsewhere on the Amazon. Cattle roam the forests in quest of its fruit, and swine fatten on the seed, which they crush with their teeth, although to break it requires a smart blow of a hammer, and in hardness it Tucum Palm [A. vulgarc). almost resembles vegetable ivory. Another edible fruit is that of the Tucuma' palm (A. Tucuma), abundant in the same regions. These fruits are about an inch long, the Murumuru ovate, the Tucuma ASTROLABE— ASTRONOMY. almost globular. The Tucuma palm IS 30—40 high, the stem encircled with nai of black spines, which are disposed with beautiful Rtcmless Palm [A. acauh). t, spadix, with ipathe forming a hood over fruit; c, fruit, about onc-litth natural size. regularity. Tlie Tn cm palm [A. mdgare), a species ijuiti- distinct from the Tucunift, and more lofty, is of great importance to the Indians, and in placi 3 where it is not indigenous, is cultivated with care for the sake of the epidermis of its unopened 1 of which they make cordage, very useful for bow- Mini i, lishing-nets, &c. The fibre is at once fine, and durable, and may yet perhaps become important as an article of commerce. Beautiful hammocks are made of tucuni thread, which are sold at about £3 each, or if ornamented with feather- work borders, at twice that sum. Martins, in his great work on Palms, has, by mistake, repri the Tucuma instead of the Tucum palm as yielding tin i lib iv. See Wallace, I'nlm Trees of the Am".,,, ,. Lend. 1853. The fibre is obtained by cutting down the terminal bud or column of unopened leaves v hi li i ii i from the centre of the crown of foliage. The tender leallets are then carefully stripped of then- epidermis, in pale, ribbon-like pellicles which shrivel up almost to a thread. These are tied IE bundles, and dried, and are afterwards twisted into thread, or made into thicker cords, by mere rolling and manipulation. A STROLABE (from two Greek words signifying 'to take the stars'), the name given by the Greeks to any circular instrument for observing the stars. ( nvuitr rings, arranged as in the Arniillary sphere (i[.v.), were used for this purpose. A projection of the Bphi re upon a plane, with a graduated rim and . for taking altitudes, was known as an A. in the palmy days of astrology, and was the badge of the astrolo er. The A. has been superseded by the more perfect instruments of modern astronomy. ASTRO'LOGY meant originally much the same 7, 'the knowledge of the si u ■.-.' but was at length restricted to U ienoe of predicting future events, especially the fortunes of men, from the po itions of ime heavenly bodies. This was con- the higher, the real science ; while the mere knowledge of the stars them places and m itions (astronomy), was, till a very recent period, cultivated mostly with a view to (jndici J A. is one of the most ancient forms of superstition, and is found prevailing among the nations of the East (Egj ptians, Chaldseans, II nidus, Chinese) at the vi rj dawn of history. The Jews became much addicted to it after the captivity. It spread into the West and to Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. Astrologers played an important part at Rome, they were ' A ' 'haldteacs and Mathe- maticians; and though often banished by the senate and emperors under pain of death, and otherwise persecuted, they ns; the fifth, of children; the sixth. Of health; the i ™g eighth, of death, or the upper portal; the ninth, of ,,; the tenth, oi i "th, of friends and benefactors; the twelfth, of enem of captivity. The position of the twelve hou a given time and place— the instant of an individual s birth. Ei ro construe! such a plan was to i H ■ nativity. The ; had different powers, the sta I as it contained the part of the heavens about I it was called the point of the ecliptic cut by its upper boundary was thi scope. Each house had one of the heavenly bodies as its lord, who was strongest in his own house. ASTRONOMY (Cr. aatron, a star, nemos, a law) ASTRONOMY. teaches whatever is known of (he heavenly bodies. ly divided undar thn ■ ■ . ' ' •' .1., including the exact ruination of {he numerical and geometrical ele- ments of the heavenly bodies — that is, their distances, :. magnitudes, the figures they describe in their motions, &c. 2. Physical A., or the nature "f the powers or forces that carry on the heavenly motions, the laws that they observe, and the Cal ulation of the motions from a knowledge of i laws. ."!. Sidereal A., or whatever is ascer- the universe of the fixed star;. Practical A. might form another division, which would include a knowledge of the various astro- nomical instruments; and a familiarity generally with the rules and calculations by which the re- results are deduced from observations. Such parts of this extensive subje deemed Buited to the present work, will be found under their appropriate heads, such as i utcu, Transit Instrument, Aberration op Light, Refraction, Parallax, Kqcatob, Pre- cession, Time, Solas System, Sun, Libration, 1'i.am i , I V-. in Stars, Comet, &e. A brief sketch of the history of astronomical discovery is all that can be attempted in the present article. The history of A. dates from a very early period. It is the most ancient of all th The < liinese, Hindus, Chaldfeans, Egyptian , and even the 1 .i eks, are known to have investigated the b< very long before the Christian era. Rut with the four nations, A. may be said to have been a sentiment rather than a science— a vague notion built up out of crude speculations, rather than a correct theory founded on systematic observation. I i China, A. was intimately associated with state politics; the Indians, (Tialdaang, and Egyptians it a matter of religion ; and each of these nations applied it to astrological purposes. In I '■" S alone was it prosecuted for its own » The Chinese, Chakkeans, Hindus, and Egyptians each claim the honour of having been the first students of A., and each has had advocates to sup- port its claim. TheTirvalore tables (asserted by the Hindus to belong to an epoch of 3102 years B.C. — the commencement of the Cali-yug, or iron age, of lie ir mythology — at which period a conjunction of the sun. moon, and planets is said to have occurred) are, so far as their date is concerned, altogether unre- lial lie. Modern calculations have conclusively proved that no such conjunction could possibly have place at the time specified ; and the elements of the tables are, in the general opinion of scientilic men, of a character far in advance of the actual observa- tions of that period. There is no doubt that the epoch is fictitious — that the date of these tables is fixed much earlier than their internal evidence justifies; but it is matter of dispute whether they were the result of the observations of Hindus them- selves at some later period before the Christian era, or whether they were constructed after that era from data furnished to them by the Arabs or Greeks. Those who hold the former view, quote the well- known mathematical attainments of the Indians, and their aversion to intercourse with foreigners, as ai [uments in its favour; those who support the latter, point out that the tables are a mean between those of Ptolemy and Albategnius, or Al Ratani, a distinguished Arabian astronomer, and therefore likely to have been derived from these two sources. who are interested in the question of tin n.ility of these tables, may refer to Delambre, and to Railly's Hist, de VAslronomie Indiemie. \The Chinese have astronomical annals claiming to go back 2S57 years B.c In these there is little 606 of anything but of the appearance of 01 I I and solar eclipses ; and regarding the latter pheno- iley ti M nothing, save the fact and date of their occurrence. Professional astronomers were compelled to predict every eclipse under pain of The popular idea was, that an eclipse was a mmister having e\ on the sun, and it was customary to make a great noise, by shouting, beat- ing of gongs, ftc, in order to frighten it away from its solar prey. The many eclipses which the t !] report have been recalculated, but not more than one anterior to the tii f Ptolemj old be vej ifii d. At an early period, however, the Chinese appear to have 1 inted with the luni-solar cycle of ii years (introduced into Greece by M ton, and since known as the Metonic Cycle), and they had also divided the year into .'iiloj days. Solstitial observances are said to have been made by a gnomon in the 11th c. B.C. To the burning of all lie books by one of their princes (Tsin-l'hi- Hong-Ti), 221 B.C., the Chinese attribute the loss of many theories, or methods previously ill use. The precession of the equinoxes was not known to the Chinese until 400 a.d., but long prior to that they were familiar with the motion of the planets. I ii mass of evidence seems in favour of the \ plains of Chahhea being the primal seat of observa- tive A. The risings and settings of the heavenly bodies and eclipses were subjects of observation and notation by their priests at a very remote period. Simplicius and Porphyry mention that Aristotle had transmitted to liim from Babylon, by order of Alexander the Great, a catalogue of eclipses observed during 1903 years preceding the conquest of that city by the Macedonians. Ptolemy gives six of the eclipses from this catalogue, but the earliest does not extend further back than 720 B.C. The probability there- fore is, that the statement of Simplicius, as t ■ their early date, is .hi i \.i cation. In these observations, the time is only given in hours, and the part of the diameter eclipsed within a quarter; but rough as they are, they are the earliest reliable observations extant ; and a comparison of them with modern observations, led Halley to the discovery of the doc- trine of the moon's acceleration — that is, that she now moves round the earth with greater velocity than formerly. It is remarkably illustrative of their habit of diligent observation, that the Chalda-ans were acquainted with the cycle of G5S5J days, (lining the moon makes about 223 synodical revolu- tions, and experiences the same number of eclipses, alike, too, in order and magnitude, comparing cycle with cycle. The clepsydra as a clock, the g noil for determining the solstices, and a hemispherical dial for ascertaining the positions of the sun, were used by the Chalda'ans, and they have the credit of the invention of the zodiac and the duodecimal division of the day. The Egyptians, it is supposed, were the first instructors of the Greeks in A. They do not, how- ever, appear to have observed much for themselves. The meaning of what data they have left behind them can be guessed at only in a few instances. No mention is made by Ptolemy of the idea ascribed to them, that the planets Mercury and Venus moved round the sun ; the probability therefore is, Ptolemy not being likely to overlook such a novel theory, that they entertained no such notion at the time of Ins visit, but that it is an after-thought of more recent ages. From the accuracy with which some of the pyramidg^ face the cardinal points, there is a supposition that they must have erected for astronomical purposes; but if it bo is stated, that Thales taught the Egyptians how to find the height of the pyramids by the shadow, and that the latter informed Herodotus ASTRONOMY. that the sun had twice been seen to rise in the west, the conclusion is that the A. of the ancient Egyptians was very meagre and absurd. I ]i to this time, A. is little else than tradition. The Greeks have the honour of derating it into a I reliable history, and to the dignity of a science. , ^Thales (010 B.C.), the founder of the Ionic school, laid the foundation of Greek A. He it was who lirst propagated the theory of the earth's sphericity. here he divided into five zones. He predicted the year of a great solar eclipse, but this it is now ed he must have casually succeeded in '1" n the Creeks at this time having no observa- tions of their own to guide them — by means of the ( Ihaldsean Saros, or period of eighteen years and ten days, which gives a regular recurrence of eclipses. He made the Greeks, who, prior to his time, were content to navigate their vessels by the Great B — i rough approximation to the north— acquainted villi the 1 set constellation of that name, a much better guide for the mariner. His system, however, I deal of absurdity. Among other i I, he held that the stars were composed of lire, and that the earth was the centre of the universe. The successors of Thales held opinions which" in many respects are wonderfully in accordance with modern ideas. Anaximander, it is said, held that the earth moved about its own axis, and that the moon's light was reflected from the sun. To him is also attributed, on somewhat slender authority, the belief in the grand idea of the plurality of worlds. Anaxagoras, who transferred the Ionic school from Miletus to Athens, is said to have offered a conjec- ture that, like the earth, the moon had habitations, hills, and valleys. Pythagoras (500 B.C.), who was the next astro- nomer of eminence, was very Ear in advance of his | ''ssors. He promulgated, on grounds fanciful enough, the theory, the truth of which, however, has been since established, that the sun is the centre of the uy world, and that the earth circulates round it. Pythagoras also first taught that the morning and evening star were in reality one and the same planet, But the views of Pythagoras met with little or no support from his successors until the time of Copernicus. Between Pythagoras and hint of the Alexandrian school, nearly a C luple of centuries later, the most prominent names in astronomical annals are those of Meton (432 B. a), who introduced the lani-solar cycle, as already intimated, and in conjunction with End ed B sol Idee at Athens in the year 42-1 B.C.; (.'allippus (.'!:>!) n. c.i, who improved the Metonic 1 ; Eudoxus of Cnidus (37(1 B.C.), who brought into Greece the year of 3G5J days, and wrote some works on A.; and Xicctas of Syracuse, who lotted to have taught the diurnal motion of the earth on its axis. To the Alexandrian school, owing its existence to the munificent 1'tolemies, we are indebted for the first systematic observations in A. Hitherto the truths of A. rested on no better evidence than the conjectures of sagacious minds, and these being I to the I fltimony oi Che senses, met with but lit nee from the world. The Ale, andrian school originated a connect i leriescf obser- vations relative to the constitution of the uni 'I in- positions of the fixed stars were determined, the paths of the planets carefully traced, and the solar and lunar inequalities more accurately lar distances were calculated with instrument-; Mutable to the purpose by trigono- metric d methods, and ultimately the school of Alexandria presented to the world the first ; of 1 1 lorctical astronomy that had ever comprehended an entire plan of the celestial motions. wc know to be false, and inferior to the Pythagorean notions ; but it had the merit of being founded upon and patient observation of phenomena, a principle which finally brought about its own destruction, while the previous theories wen residts of pure hypothesis. The most interesting circumstances connected with the early history of the Alexandrian school are the attempts made to determine the distance of the earth from the sun, and the magnitude of the terres- trial globe. Aristarchus of Samos— the pioneer of the Copernican system, as Humboldt calls him— is In iiithor of an ingenious plan to ascertain the former. See Abistabciius of S.\" Among other eminent members of this school were Timocharis and Aristyllus, who made the observa- tions, which, together with observations of his own, enabled Hipparchus (q.v.) to discover the precession of the equinoxes; Eratosthenes (q.v.), who was the first who attempted to determine on true principles the magnitude of the earth, and to clear, as Hum- boldt expresses it, 'the description of the earth from its fabulous traditions;' and Autolycus, whose books on A. are the earliest extant in the Greek langi We have now arrived at by far the greatest we have yet met in astronomical science — that of Hipparchus of Bithynia (160—125 B.C.), and hen- may be .said to begin the real written history of scientific A. ; for not until his era were there facts correct enough and sufficient in number upon which to build a system. Hipparchus was a1 a theorist, a mathematician, and an observer. He catalogued no less than 1081 stars. This is the first reliable catalogue we have. He discovered, as we have already mentioned, the precession of the equi- noxes ; he determined with greater exactitude than his predecessors had done, the mean motion, as well as the inequality of the motion of the sun ; and also the length of th var. lie also determined the mean motion of the moon, her eccentricity, the equation of her centre, and the inclination of her orbit ; and he suspected the inequality afterwards discovered by Ptolemy (the evection). He invented processes ana- logous to plane aud spherical trigonometry, and was the first to use right ascensions and declinations, which he afterwards abandoned in favour of latitudes and [ongitud <. for more than two centuries and a half after the demise of this indefatigable astronomer, we meet with no name of note. Ptolemy (130—150 A. D.) is tic- next who rises above the mass of medic S being a practical astronomer, he was accom- plished as a musician, a geographer, and mathema- tician. His most important . rj D the libration or cvccti.m of the moon. Be also WBS , t to point out the effect of refraction. He led and improved many of the theories of Hipparchus, and was the founder of the false system known by his name, and which was universally das tin- true theory of the universe, until the hes of Copernicus exploded it. Hie Ptolemaic -. expounded in the Oreai CoU rttoa, or, as it Ued by the aoal . the ' from which most of our knowledge of Greek A. is h\r in the centre of the universe, making the entire heavens revolve inn. With Ptolemy closes the originality of the Greek school. His successors were men of no mark, con- fining themselves for the most part toi to comments on earlier writers. It is to the Arabs that we owe the next advances in A. They com- vations 70'- A. I)., in the reign of the Caliph Al Mansur, who gavo great a agement to bis successors, the ' good Haroun Alraschid ' and Al Mauioum, both of KONOMY. whom wit. them] elves diligent students of A. For four centuries, the Arabs prosecuted the study of i he cience with assiduity, out they are chiefly meri- ts as observers. They had tittle capacity for ' iti.in, and throughout held the Greek theories in superstitious reverence. They, however, mined with much mare accuracy than the Greeks had done the pi mi axes, the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the solar i ami the length of the tropical year was ascertained within a few Beconds of the truth. The most illus- uf the Arabian school were Alhategnins or Al Batani (8S0 A.D.), who discovered the motion of the solar apogee (see Anomalistic Ykab), and who was also the first to make use of sines and sines instead of chords; he corrected the Gri ' itions, and was altogether the most dis- ti ahed observer between EipparchuB and the Copernican era ; and Ibn-Yunis (1000 a, d.), an excel- lent mathematician, who made observations of great importance in determining the disturbances and nicities of Jupiter and Saturn, and v. ho was irst to use cotangents and secants. In the northern part of Persia, an observatory was erected l>y a descendant of the renowned warrior ' bis Khan, where some tables were constructed by Nasir-Eddin ; and at Samarcand, Ulugh B grandson of Timur, made, in 1433 A. D-, many obser- vations, and the most correct catalogue of stars which, up to his time, bad been published. In the 13th c., A. was again introduced into i Europe, the first translation from the Ahiinijdsl being made under the Emperor Frederick EL of Germ ay, about 1230 ; and in 1252 an impulse was given to the science by the formation of astrono- tables under the auspices of Alfonso X. of Castile. An Englishman, named Holywood (Sacro- bosco), in 1220 wrote a 1 »h ik of gnat repute in its day on the spheres, chiefly abridged from Etolemy; and among others who did much to promote a taste for A. were Purbach (1460), Regiomontanus (John Muller), who died in 1476, and Waltherus, a pupil of the latter, who made numerous observations of I We now come to the illustrious name of Coper- ,'nicus (b. 1473, d. 1543), to whom was reserved the grand honour and the dinger — for there is ever i in bringing old notions into disrepute by luring in» systems of truth— of exploding the Ptolemaic idea, and of promulgating a correct though imperfect theory of the universe. His system is in some part a revival and systematic application of the opinions said to have been held by Pythagoras. It makes the sun the immovable centre of the uni- around which all the planet in con- centric orbits. Mercury and Venus within the earth's orbit, and all the other planets without it. in the ( lopernican theory, there war.' many of the old notions which have since been exploded It is a current l'ii I thai Cop micus, afraid to state bold; I odox views of the universe as those he eat r- t, i ve them forth in the form of an hypothesis. Humboldt, in his second volume of Cosmos (p. 345), that he did so. This distinguished authority : 'The languag of Copernicus is powerful and ad bursts forth from his inmost convictions, and thus sufficiently refutes the ancient opinion, that brought forward the system which is b 1 by his name, as an hypothesis made for the convenience of calculating astronomers, or for one which has but a probable foundation.' The same author also i the popular notion that Coper- nicus died a few hours after receiving a printed copy of his book. He was broken down in body and mind when his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies was brought to him, but he did not die until 'many days afterwards, on the 24th May 1643.' Among the contemporaries of Copernicus were biieinlmld, who coustl-iieled the I'niliiiic tables; Recorde, who was the first to write on Lin En ! Ii ; ami .Nonius, a Portuguese, who invented a method for dividing the cio •■ 1 be study of A. was a] i much aided about this time by the liberality of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cass. I, \\ illiam I \ . I ' !■ illy the most industrious observer and cnii- i n .ietic.il astronomer from the time of the Arabs to the latter half of the 16th c. was Tycho I'.i ilic (b. 1546, d. 1001). Considerabl bum at- taches to him on account of his repudiation of the Copernican system, but it should not be forj that in the time of Tycho that system was not supported by the conclusive c video. aow in possession of. Tyeho's :-\ |. m. which made the sun move round the earth, and all the other pi round the sun, they moving with it round the earth, explained all natural phenomena tin D ol equally wall, while it must have appeared more prob i Lie than the crude and, at that era, undemon- strable theories of Copernicus. Tycho BrahS com- piled a catalogue of 777 fixed stars, mine perfect than any that had previously appeared. He made the first table of refractions, and discovered tho variation and annual equation of the moon, the inequalities of the motion of the nodes, and the inclination of the lunar orbit, and rejected the trepidation of the precession, which had hitherto injuriously affected all tallies. He also made some interesting cometary investigations. To his researches arc mainly due the discovery by Kepler (b. 1671, d. 1630) of those famous laws which have rendered bis name immortal. See KeI'I.kii's Laws. To Kepler is due the credit of divesting the Copi I in tern of its absurd Kepler is also said to have had some notion of the i.ivilation. Galileo (lalilei (b. 15G1, d. 1G42) first applied the "!> ■ (w inch he made from a geni ral des riptdon of the instrument of Hans Lipperhey of Holland, who was the first inventor of the telescope) to the investi- of the heavens, lb- was rewarded by the i iy of the inequalities mi the n u's surface. The important discoveries of the four satellites of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn — not then distinctly recog- nised as a cil pots on the sun, and the cres- cent form of Venus, followed in quick succession. For propagating the Cojiernican doctrine of the world, Galileo incurred the displi asure of the priests, and was compelled by the Inquisition to retract his opinions. But the eternal laws of nature are not to be sus- pended by the recantation of a philosopher for. the tyranny of priestcraft. The earth moved grandly on round the sun in spite of both; and scientific truth was now t Id to remain in the restrictive leading-strings of any ecclesiasticism. The next great epoch in the history of A. brings us to England and Newton (b. 1642, d. 1727). In the interval, practical A. had profited busily by the logarithms of Napier; the mathematical resea .it. s; the application of the telescope to the quadrant by Gascoigne, an Englishman, and after- wards by Auzout and Picard; by Bomer's discovi ry of the progressive motion, and measurement of the velocity, of light; by the invention of Vernier; and the application of the pendulum to clocks by Buy- gens, who also brought into use the spiral spring, and made some valuable observations on the and satellites of Saturn ; as well as by the inv tions of Norwood, Horrocks, Hoi ike, Hevelius, Gilbert, Leibnitz, and Dominicus L'a-sini, to the last of v. hom especially the scientific world owes much. Among ASTUR— ASTURIAS. a variety of other valuable observations anil dis- coveries may be mentioned lu3 thorough inv the zodiacal light, his di-termination of the rotations of Jupiter and Mars, and of the motions of i's satellites from their eclipses, his di» of the dual character of Saturn's ring, and also of four of his satellites. Newton's fame rests urTon" ■ v. rv of tlic law of gravitation, upon which mmon belief is he was li i t.. speculate by the fall of an apple, Newton announced his discovery in the /'. a in 1 1 j > 7 , which was briefly that matter is attracted by, or gravitates feo, every other particle of matter, with a force ly proportional to the squares of their dis- tances. I b mi of this grand conclu said to have BO 01 Newton that he had to suspend his calculations, and. all in a friend to the few arithmetical computations that were incom- This discovery is perhaps the grandest effort of human genius of which we have any record. Newton also made the important discovery of the i. volution of comets round the sun in conic sections, d the earth's form to be an oblate spl a theory of the moon and tides, in\ fluxions, and v rote upon Opi While the foundations of physical A. were thus broadly laid by Newton, Elamsteed — the first nomer royal at Greenwich, to whom, untd recently, scant justice has been done -and Halley were greatly improving and extending the practical tment of the science. To the former we arc indebted for numerous observations on the fixed stars, on planets, satellites, and comets, and for a catalogue oJ 2884 stars. His H l forme. I i ni « era in sidereal A. Dr Halley, who suc- 1 Flamsteed as astronomer royal. the accelerated mean motion of the moon, an.l laltties in Jupiter and Saturn, but he is most I for Ids successful investigations into the motions and nature of comets. His successor was Dr Bradley, who, in the year of Newton's death, made the important discovery of the aberration of light, which furnishes the only direct an.l conclusive proof we have of the earth's annual motion. To lii in also weave indebted for our knowledge of the nutation of the earth's axis. He was, besidi unwearied observer, and left behind him at his death upwards of 00,000 observations. Altogether, Bradley s is deservedly one of the most honoured names in modern A. Dr Maskelyne, who was ated to the observatory after Bradley, origi- & Almanac. Merely to mention the names of men who from the death of Bradley to the present time have added. by theory and practice, to our knowledge of A., would extend this synopsis much beyond the limit m ' it. If the ISth c. opened with lustre derived from the physical demonstrations of on, it closed magnificently with the telescopic of Sir William HerscheL who add ■(Our universe a primary planet (Uranus) with its satellites, gave two more satellites to Saturn, n the milky-way into countless myriads of stars, and unravelled the i nebula; and of double and triple stars. Laland, I l.acaille, and Delambre, in the latter half of the 18th c did much by their researches and analyses to system and improve the science of A. The instrumental means of observation were also, during that time, 1 in his great work the Mtcaniqvt Ctleate (1799 — ISiks). gave what further proof was needed of the truth and sufficiency of the Newtonian theory. The 19th c. opened \wth tl . of the four small planets Ceres, in 1801, by Piazza ; Pallas and Vesta by Olbers— the former in 1802, and the latter in 1807 ; and Juno, by Harding, in 1804. In 18-15, Hencke discovered the lifth of this group revolving n Mars and Jupiter, to which the name oi a was given ; and up to the present time (1859), di toidsfq. v.) have been disco The greatest event of the century has been the dis- of the planet Neptune in 1846. Observations upon Uranus had shewn the n of that planet to present great irregular could not be explained by the action of Jupiter and Saturn; and after carefully examining the analyti- cal tin nits, Leverrier, a young academi- cian of fiance, in the summer of lS4C,"pui . the elements of an undiscovered planet, the cause of the perturbations. He boldly predicted its exist- ence, calculated its mass, and referred to its place in the heavens ; and scarcely a month afterwards, on the 23d of September, the hitherto core : I Neptune) was found by M. Galle of Berlin. But it has only been by accidental circumstances that France has the honour of this remarkable achievement. Mr Adams of Cambridge had ai at residts more perfect than those of Leverrier, and had communicated them to Mr ( hallis, professor of A. at Cambridge in September lf>45, a year before the discovery of the planet, and nearly a year before blication of Leverrier' s final calculations. Mr ( li.illis, it appears, commenced a search for the planet on July 2!ith. and on August 4th and 12th, he actually seized the planet, and recorded two positions of it, but did not recognise it, through not comparing his observations, which a pressure of occupation, and an impression that the discovery required a much more exfe ive search, prevented. But for this, and the non-publication of the Cam- bridge mathematician's results at the time they were forwarded to Mr Airy in October 1S45, the honour- able position of M. Leverrier would have been occupied by Mr Adams, and that of M. dalle by Mr Challis. century so far. however, has been chiefly remarkable for its laborious efforts to correct, systematise, and extend the results of former dis- coveries. Admirable and extensive catalogues of stars, double stars, and of nebulae, have been i and optical and other instruments in use by the astronomer have been brought to what now appears. almost a state of perfection, Lord Rosse's rerlectingf telescope, with a speculum six feet in diameter, being/ the triumph of modern mechanical and matheniati* cal skill. The speculations which have excited moss attention within recent years are the Nebular Hypo-' thesis (q. v.) and the Plurality of Worlds (q. v.). A'STUR. See Falconid.e and Goshawk. ASTTJ BIAS, a northern province of Spain, bounded on the E. by Santander, on the S. by 1. in, on the W. by < lalicia, and on the N. by the Bay of Biscay. The low lulls of Leon and • Ha Castile rise gradually to the mountain-chain which forms the south boundary, and towers to a height of about 1 1,000 feet in the summit PeRa-de-Peilarando. The main road from Leon to Ovi - over the mountain-chain at l'ajarcs. The northern slopes are broken by steep and dark valleys or chasms, which are among the wildest and most picturesque in Spain. The summits of the mountains are covered with snow even as late in the year as August. The climate ds damp ; clouds hang almost continually about tl them the fogs of the Atlantic. From the mass of calcareous rock, marble crags rise from 200 to more than 400 feet. The principal kinds of wood are oak. chestnut, silver and Scotch lirs. Some of the i. rests in the remoter districts are very superb. Alpine pastur- age decks the slopes, and a richer covering of green ASYLUM— ATACAMITE is fnmi'l iii the narrow valleys. In the wider valleys, the aofl yielda barley, wheat, maize, figs, olives, grapes, oranges. The coasts have good 'n I minerals of the province are i, iron, lead, cobalt, arsenic, antimony, and The pasturage of the higher valleys supports an excellent breed of homes, with numerous horned A. was never firmly occupied by the Aral afforded a place of refuge to the Goths in the 8th c. Here the famous Pelayo was made king in 718 A. D. ; and his successors, after contending success- fully against the Arabs, were made kings of Leon in the ll)th c. The Astnrian still boasts of his independence as a free hidalgo, and is simple in its and brave, but less industrious and : ociable than his neighbours in Biscay anil (lalicia. Many Asturians leave their province to seek a livelihood in other parts of Spam, and after saving money, return to dwell among their native hills and valleys. They have been termed the Swiss of Spain; and they are equally faithful anil fond of money. Among them, the Vuijueros form a distinct caste, inter- marrying among themselves, and leading a nomadic course of life, speniUng the winter on the sea-coast, and the summer on the hills of Lcytariegos. OvrjEDO, tlie capital of A., has, since 1833, gh name to the whole province. The other CO able towns are the ports Gijon and Aviles. whole area of A. includes about 2148 square miles, with a population of 510.000. The eldest son of the Spanish kin,' has the title of Prince of A., professedly an imitation ol the I Trince of Wales, having been taken at the solicita- tion of the Duke of Lancaster in l.;s. when his daughter married the eldest son of Juan I. ASY'I.T'M, a place of refuge. In ancient times, sacred places, especially the temples and altars of the | "ds, were appointed as asylums to which crimi- nals, as well as persecuted individuals, might flee for refu e; an 1 to molest them in such places was d I . . an impiety. An analogous 13 found in the laws of the Jews as describi 1 in the 35th chapter of Numbers, where six 'cities of are appointed for p rsons guilty of man- slaughter. Among the Greeks in early times, these ms might be sometimes useful in preventing hasty retribution ; but in the course of time they were so much abused that their sanctity was in a great measure disregarded. Thus Pausanias, who lied to the altar of Minerva, was taken and slain there by the Lacedaemonians, and in other cases the refugee was compelled to leave the A. by tire or starvation. In Homo, the Emperor Tiberius abolished all such places of refuge from law, excepting those in the temples of Juno and /Esculapius. The custom of allowing to real or supposed criminals a place of safety in temples, was also adopted by the Christian Church. In the time of Constantine the Great, the churches were made asylums ; and Tbeo- dosius II. extended the privilege to all courts, alleys, gardens, and houses belonging to the church. In 681 A. D., the synod of Toledo extended the privi- lege of A. to a space of 30 paces around every church. In the lawless periods of the middle the inllucnce .of the church often prc\ deeds of gross injustice and violence ; but the sanctity of churches was abused by criminals ; and this led to several modifications which gradually- destroyed the privilege of Sanctuary (q. v.). In England, it was abolished by acts passed in 1534 and 1697. The word A. is now applied to places of shelter for unfortunate or destitute persons, and especially to hospitals for the insane. See L' A SYMPTOTE (Gr. not coinciding), a line that C10 approaches nearer and n me curve without ever meeting it. Ail example of an A. will 1 under Hyperbola. As another illustration, let All lie a straight line which can be produced to any length towards B. Take any point, ( ', without tho line, and draw a perpendicular I , any Asymptote. distance, D, beyond the line ; set off any equal dis- tances, E— 1, 1—2, 2—3, &c, along .Mi ; and draw • 'I,/, i "2d", I 13d", ic., making Id, 2d', 3d to ED. Now, it is evident that each of the points i/, d', &c, is nearer to the line AB than the one to the left of it ; if, therefore, a curve is traced through these points (the curve is called i -'), it must continually approach the line AB. On tho other hand, it is evident that the curve can D ' II ; for a line drawn from C to any point iu AB, however distant that point, must, whan pro- . cross AB. AB is thus an A. to the curve. To the senses, indeed, the curve and lino soon become one, because all physical or sensible lines ireadth. It is only -with regard to maihem lines (see Line) that the proposition is true; and the truth of it has to be conceived by an effort of puro reason, for it cannot be repre. ATA'OAMITE, an ore of copper, fonn on the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, especially <>n o - i erupted in the years 97, 1804, 1820, and 1822. It occurs abundantly in sone pa of South America, as at Atacama in Peru which it derives its name; at J: Santa and other district , and at Sari in Bolivia, where it is associated in veins with r. The natural varieties of A. are crystallised, ■-, and pulverulent or granular. The in or compact variety is usually reniform, with a fibrou i structure. The crystals are short and needle-si the primary form is a rhombic prism. It has been sometimes described as a chloride of copper, but incorrectly ; and sometimes as a hydrocldorate (muriate) of copper; it is rather to be regarded as a combination of protoxide of copper with chloride of copper. It is a rich and productive ore, contain- ing about 55 to GO per cent, of copper. The percent- age composition of various specimens of A- is as follows : Copper Muriatic ,,...„. _„,„, Protox.dc. Acid. ^ atcr - TotoL Compact atacamite, 72-0 1G3 117 100 765 110 12-5 100 Sandy atacamite, . . 70'S 115 180 100 Crystallised atacamite, 73-0 16-2 10-8 100 A. often forms on the surface of copper exposed to the air or sea-water ; and the greenish incrusta- tion observed on antique bronze utensds, wei and other articles, and commonly known as the - nolnlis, is composed of this salt. On some antique bronzes from Egypt the A. is crystalline. Atacamite is worked in South America as an ore of copper ; and considerable quantities are sent to England to have the metal extracted therefrom. See G'oppee. ATAHTJALPA— ATE. ATAHTJATjPA, the favourite son of Huayna Capac, Inca of Pern, who died in 152;;, about seven years before Pizarro's arrival in Pom. The mother of A. not being of the pure Inca blood, her son was formally excluded from inheriting the throni his handsome figure, bold spirit, and quick intelli- gence so won upon the affections of his father, that on his death-bed he declared it to be his will that A. should receive as his portion the ancient kingdom of Quito (recently conquered), while Huascar, his son, should possess Peru. For five years the brothers lived on terms of real or apparent friend- ■hip ; but at length the restless ambition of A., who was constantly aspiring to new conquests, excited the uneasiness of Huascar, who, in an evil hour, v, .1 , induced to send an envoy to his brother, with instructions to require him to render homage for lii; kingdom of Quito. A. fired at the proposal, and war was instantly declared. Placing himself at the head of the army of veterans which his father fa id left him, he invaded Peru, and in the spring of 1532 completely defeated Huascar on the plains of Quipaypan, in the neighbourhood of Cuzco, the native Peruvian metropolis, only a few months before the arrival of the Spaniards. Huascar was taken prisoner, and confined in the strong fortress of Xauxa. Then followed, according to Garcilasso de 2a, a series of atrocious massacres of all in n ran tin' blond of the Incas; but his statements are so monstrous, and possess so little congruity, that they are rejected by Prescott as intrinsically incredible. In the meantime, the Spaniards had disembarked at Tumbez; and after a long, brave, and perilous march through the unknown country, I'izarro, at the head of his two hundred cavaliers, approached the victorious camp of A., where he found some fifty thousand men assembled. By a daring but diabolical stratagem, Pizarro obtained possession of the person of the king, who had come to visit him in a friendly spirit. a priest was explaining the Christian religion, and the power of the pope over all the kingdoms of the earth, and how the pope had presented Peru to the Spanish monarch, m whose name they had come, A., indignantly interrupting him, told him that the pope (whoever he was) must be a crazy fool to talk of giving away countries which were not his own. When he inquired on what authority BUch claims were made, the priest pointed to the mi wdiich A. dashed the book on the ground, and the fields began to fill with Indians. The moment was critical. The crime which Pizarro had resolved upon the night before must be executed then or never. He waved a white scarf, which was the signal agr 1 upon. The mysterious artillery poured in death into the terrified masses of Peruvians, while the Spanish cavalry rode them down with merciless fury. Confusion seized the natives; they submitted— being unarmed — to this horrible butchery, only anxious to save their sacred Inca; but all their effort! to accomplish this proved un- availing, and after exhausting hours in the miserable work of murder, the inhuman Spaniards succeeded in capturing him. A. was treated with a great show of kindness at first, and more especially when he d, as a ransom. ' not merely to cover the floor, but to fill the room in which he stood with gold h as he could reach.' When A.'s brother, Huascar, who was still a prisoner, heard of this, he offered still more advantageous terms far himself. To prevent this, A. had him secretly assassinated. The golden treasure which was to constitute the ransom of A. now began to pour in, and at length A. demanded his freedom. ThisPisarro refused to grant, and accused A. of plotting against him. The result, after much base treachery on the part of the Spaniard, was a mock-trial, in which A. was con- demned to b • burned. On the 29th of August 1533, lie was led to the stake, but on agreeing to be ed, 1 his sentence was commuted to death by strangulation. ATALA'NTA, a mythical personage, the c 1 ter of Jasus and Clymenc, was born in Arcadia, and '.led as a huntress, well skilled in the use of the bow and arrow. Her father, who had v. a son, exposed her, while an infant, on Mount Parthenios, where she was found near the entrance of a cave by hunters, who are said to have bi her up, and afterwards restored her to her pal While living as a wild mountain-maiden, she slew the centaurs Rhcecus and HyUeus. After- wards, she sailed with the Argonauts (q. v.) to Colchis, and took a prominent part in the chase of the Calydonian boar (q. v.). She had many suitors, but was merciless in the conditions which she imposed on them. Being the swiftest of mortals, she offered to become the wife of him that should outstrip her— the penalty of defeat being death. At length she was conquered by a trick of one Meilanion, wdiom she was compelled to marry. He obtained from Venus a gift of three golden apples, which he successively dropped in the race ; and A. was so charmed by their beauty, that she could not refrain from stooping to gather them, and so lost. — Mention is made of anode r A. in Greek ant - to whom a different parentage is assigned, but ling whom the myth is essentially the same. ATAHAIPU', a term signifying Devil's Rod: It is applied to one of the most singular eminences in the world, a granite pyramid in British Gil which ris s abruptly from the plain about 900 wooded for rather more than one-third of the height, but bare thence to the peaked summit. ATCIIAPALAYA, a branch of the Mississippi at its delta. It forms so large an angle with the main river, that, after a course of only 130 miles, it enters the Gulf of Mexico, 120 mile to the west of New Orleans. From the Bed River, which enters the Mississippi just above its own point of departure, the A. had r.eeived so much drift-wood, as formed at last a stationary raft 10 miles long, 220 ; broad, and 18 feet deep — an obstacle to navigation which the state of Louisiana required four years to remove. ATCIIKE'X, or A< 'IIKK'X, the capital of a nearly extinct independent kingdom of the same name in the north-west of the large island of Sumatra, is situated on a river a few miles from the sea. and surrounded at a distance by ranges of hills. 5° 35' N., long. 95° 45' E. Top. uncertain. The entrance from the sea is rather dangerous, as a bar stretches across the delta, and, at best, is only possible for small-craft, so that the trade which it carries on with Singapore and a few other places, in camphor, benzoin, betel-nut, pepper, sul- phur, cotton cloths, and gold-dust, is inconsiderable. A. has a pretty look, a short way off, on account of the houses, wdiich are separate, being girt in many luxuriant fringe of trees, while the environs are beautifully adorned in I as us - way. ATCHE'VEMKNT is a term nearly equivalent to armorial bearings, and is often used when speaking of the arms of a deceased person as displayed at his funeral or elsewhere. In this sense it is more com- monly used in its abbreviated form of Hatchment ATI'. I Homer, the daugl.t r -or of Kris, as Hesiod says— was a vengeful 9, ever attending dumoima, or transgression of law, though the herself prompted men to such. She was banished from Olympus by Jove, whom sho 611 ATELES-ATIT. bail incited to take an oath of which he subsequently .1. 8he tlun travelled to and fro over the rapidity, always intent on exercising a perni :io upon mankind, lint, he follow i 1 by thi benevolent d i hi irs of Jo\ a, who healed tho had been afflicted by A. The tragic writer di Bribe A. as tli Ideas of retribution. Thru- re] i tations almost identify her with Nkjd IS and ElilN'. A'TELES (Gr. incomplete), a genua of American monkeys, of the division wita . tils, to which the name Sapajous (q. v.) i metim ively applied. In the genus A., the head is round, ana the facial angle about (i rnmentfor the Workmen. This establishment acted on the doc- trine, that all workmen were entitled to have a living provided for them on a certain uniform scale. They did not forcibly abolish private employment, but they held out inducements which made workmen leave and employers break up the existing establishments. Consequently, nearly all the Parisian workmen threw themselves ou the government, and others Hocked in from other quarters in alarming numbers. It was found that these crowds of meu, who claimed the privilege of employment by the state, had very little idea of the duty of working, even were there distinct employment for them. Bat when the body had increased to considerably above a hundred thousand, the government found that they had this ever-increas- ing mass to feed, and nothing to feed them with, since trade thus meddled with was in reality mined. It was consequently found necessary to put an end to the system, and the result was the bloody battle of Paris, which brought about the restoration of despot- ism. One incidental experiment will perhaps best explain the ruinous tendency of the whole system. In the 1 1 ."• t • ■ I < 'liehy, 1600 tailors were assembled to ma for the new g The mi n wars ive among them for the completed « .! i an army-contrai tor n oul I have di manded. In the mean tine-, they were paid two francs a da] of nee money; th i i be divided among ll the end. The men were buoyed up with the notion that they were to receive not only their own . bul the indefinite and enormous sum i ed to form the profit of ti tracto] . thai h ] Idom i da about 3 per cent. Their disappointment was reat when they found nothing to divide. There v. 9 in fact, a loss. When paid their two francs— not much more than half what they obtained when employed by ractor— they were paid more than tie- value of 1 bonr and the profit of the transaction to i rctty obvious. Bach man working for himself, and paid for his work on the competitive ' I' iii, exerted himself; but when one man':-, exi i tions went virtually for nothing, unless he got the 1499 others to exert themselves to the same amount, all were alike lazy. ATKI.I.A \ r, FabulcB a kind of popular drama in Rome, first introduced from Atella, a town in C mis Capua and Naples. After th" Greek drama ii -I been brought to Pome by Livius Andron i Atettana were still retained as interludes and after-pieces. They are not to be confounded with the Gre I drama, although the character of both was to some extent the same. In the latter, figured; while the former personated real Oscan characters. The Ufacchus and Bucco i .1' liana maybe considered the origin of the modern Italian arlecchino (harlequin), and other characters of the same stamp. They were the favourite characters; spoke the Oscan dialect, and excited laughter by its quaint old-fashi 1 words and phrases. The A. were neither so dignified as the com/alia pralextata, nor so low as the ay, tabernaria, but indulged in a kind of genial and decent drollery. The caricature win at first always it, and though quizzical, it did not lapse into obscenity, like the nit'mt. Ri pectable Roman youths, who could not appear as actors in the regular Gn '. drama without losing COSte, were allowed to take parts in the .1. A lew fragments of these popular farces have been collected by Bothe in his Poetarum Latinorum Scenicorum Fragmenta (Leip. 1834). See also Munk, De Fabulis At U (Leip. 1840). A TEMPO (Ital.), in time. A term used to that, after some short relaxation in the time, (former must return to the original degree of movement. A TE'MPO CUU'STO (Ital), in correct time. A term used to denote that, after a recitative, the pi rformer should keep the music true and correct, which, during the recitative, had been altered to suit the action and passion of the scene. A'TESHGA (the Place of Fire), a spot on the peninsula of Apsheron, on the west coast of the f laapian Sea. It is considered sacred by the Go- or Persian Fire-worshippers, who visit it in numbers, and bow before the holy flames which issue from the bituminous sod. It is about a mile in diameter, and from its centre, in clear dry weather, creeps forth a blue llame (caused by the ignition of the naphtha), which shines with great brightness by night. ATEU'CHUS. See Beetle and Scarab.eis. ATH, or AATH, a strongly fortified town in the Province of Hainault, Belgium, situated on the lender, in lat. 50' 36' N., long. 3' 46' E. It has an ATHABASCA— ATI! AN WAX CREED. arsenal, hospital, and college, and important manu- factures of linen, c-ili <, lace, gl j , large hammers, &c, and carries on a brisk trad''. Pop, 10,000. Tin: ancient church of St .lulicn in A. is noted for its extraordinarily high towi r. The town has been several times besieged and taken : in 1697, by < 'atinat and Vauban ; in 1 7' '<», by the allied forces under tin- Dutch general Owerkerke ; in 174.), by the French after a snort siege ; and in 1702, by the forces of the Republic under BernerOD. ATHABA'SCA, a river and ! ' north- rtof the great basin of the M . therefore, beyond the v, properly so called. The rises in the Rocky .Mountains near Mount Bl I p lint in the range. It source is the small lake, already mentioned under tin- head of AMERICA as the Commit I ' i Is its tribute at once through the A. to the Frozen Ocean, and through the Columbia to the Pacific. Its general course is north-east, till, after passing throngh A. Lake, or rather crossing i end, it turns towards the north-west, and, after a course of 30 or 40 miles, unites with the Peace River, from beyond the Rocky Mountains, to farm tie' slave River, which, again, after pa G re Lake, takes the name of the Mackenzie. — Lake A. receives nearly all its waters i \. riv.r, ami is probably unique in this, that its principal feeder traverses not its length but its breadth, and that not in its middle, but at its extremity. The lake's single outlet is the river A 59 CT., and the long, between 106° and 112° W., the length 230 miles, and the average width 20. ATHALI'AII, the daughter of Ahab. king of Israel, married Jehoram, king of Judah, who SS5B.C. After the death of her son Ahaziah, who succeeded him, but reigned for only one year, she paved her own way to the throne by putting to death (as she supposed) all the seed-royal ' But Jehosheba, the daughter of king Jehoram, sister of Ahaziah, took joash, the son of Aha- hini from among the king's sons, who were slain.' The young prince thus rescued was privately educated in the temple, and, after A. had reigned six years, the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash on the throne (S7S c. a). A., hearing the noise attending the coronation, hastened to the temple, where the people were shouting, 'God save the king!' As she looked round in astonish- ment on the young king, whom she had supposed to be d i, surrounded l,y priests, Levites, rulers, captains, and a rejoicing multitude, she 'rent her elothi - i i : !i ; treason!"' By the command of tin- high-priest, she was led out of the temple, and slain in tile gateway of the palace. The i of Baal, with its altars and images, was broken down. This narrative (2 Kings xi. ; 2 Chronicles xxi. 0, xxii. lo -12, xxiii.) is the subject of Racine's drama. .1'' ATTTA \AKT( ', a king of the YV, whose settlements I on the north bank of the Lower Danube, in the 4th c. Having taken advan- of th/ weakness of the Roman empire when iperial armi ing the lion of Procopius, war v a against him by the Emperor Valena A. ricuy on the defensive during two campaigns, in which the Romans gained no advantage over him; but in the third year of the war (369 A.I'.), he hazarded a general battle, and was defeated, whereupon he sued for ad, with that object, had a confer- ence with Valens in a boat on the Danube. P Was concluded, .and A. had his attention occupied in 33 settlin ut of the Arian contro- ple, when ti advance of tie n ,,„. alarmed the Gothic nation. A. attem .re the eastern borders of his kingdom; but the Huns forced the passages of the Dni per, i Goths, and advan great force into the plains of Dacia. When, i 37 1. the Western Goths were received by the Romans as and had settlements granted them on the south of the Danube, A., with a part of his people, refused to accompany them, removing to th and fortifying himself against the new enemy. In 380, however, he » d to retire, when he hospitality .ire, and removed to Constantinople, where he met with a cordial and honourable reception by the Em] At this time died Fritigern, the king of the Goths that had settled on the south of the Danube ; and A. being made king of tin- whole Weal I nation, concluded a treaty of peace, in behalf of the whole, winch had tie- efii ■ t of incorporating that people- with the other subjects of the empire. He died at Constantinople in 381. ATHANASIAN CREED, the third of the three oecumenical symbols, derived its name from its com- position being attributed to Athanasius ; it is also known, from its initial words in Latin, as the creed •/•in ViiH. The first part of this creed contains a detailed exposition of the Trinity ; the second, the doctrine of the incarnation. Modern criticism has called in fpiestionthe title of Athanasius to be considered the author of this creed. It was known as early as the beginning of the 6th c, but not imder its present name. It is spoken of as ' Athanasius's Tract on the Trinity,' in some Articles of the middle of the Sth c, and is supposed to be alluded to, ' as the Faith of the holy prelate Athanasius,' in the Council of Autun. about 670. Athanasius himself makes no mention of this creed, although its doctrines are essentially his ; nor do any of the church fathers. Other two circumstances speak against its authenticity : it is in Latin, and Athanasius wrote in Greek ; the :ons, again, are different from those used by Athanasius in speaking of the same things. By Protestants, therefore, and even by most Catholics, its Athanasian origin has been given up, and i1 duction has been assigned with m lity to the Sth e., and to Caul ; Hilary. Archbishop of Aries (about 430), being conjectured to be the author. The title of Athanasian probably became attached to it during the Arian controversy in Gaul, as being an exposition of the system of doctrine which was I to tie- Arian system, and which would naturally be called Athanasian from its chief pro- pounder. It was received into the public officestif lie Church in the 7th c, and by the middle of the 10th c. it was adopt d at Rome and all over the West. In Britain, it was probably in use as early as 800. The Creel; Church was late in receiving it. and a-n not without altering the article concerning the ' Procession of the Holy (.host.' The Reformers adhered to the A. C, and Luther called it 'a bulwark of the Apostles' Creed.' Even those churches do not in any way acknowledge it as a symbol (as tie- Presbyterian Churches of Britain and America, as well as the Independents) generally accept its nes. The A. C. is the most rigid and intolerant of the three Catholic symbols, and has given rise to much controversy; and though still generally I as I atlioh, -. the r- _.ml fnee had for it has declined. The points m this creed that give offence to some are defended by others, on tie- plea that it was not drawn up for the sake tuitously d- ulative ATHANASIUS— ATHEISM. truths, but to counteract other dogmas which were li 11 t • l> d in," ■i'.iu-ly herd Hand, in his of tin Atltanasian Creed, says : 'The use of it wiM thought sup< there are any Arians, Photmians, Sabellian donians. Ap • .riaiis. or EuU chians. in ader these heads.) With t to what arc called the 'damnatory i ' (the clauses, namely: 'Which Faith i and nndsfiled, without 3 iubt be shall perish everlastingly;' and: 'This is the < 'atholic faith, which except a man believe faithfully, he can- not be saved'), the churches which adopt tie do not mean by them to imprecate curses, but to declare, as a logical sequence of a true faith necessary to salvation, that those who do D the true faith are in danger of perishing ; as it is said, Mark xvi. 10, 'He that bebeveth not shall be damned.' These clauses are also held to apply to those who deny the substance of the Christian religion, and not infallibly to every person who may 1"' in i ot a i to any I I Alexandria (301 A.D.). His next controversy was with the heathen .subjects of Julian, to whon patriarch, by his zeal in opposing their religion, had made himself very oil Do was compelled again to tlee from Alexandria remained concealed in the Theban desert until 363, when Jovian ascended the throne. After holding office .'again as patriarch for oidy a short space of time, he was expelled anew by the Arians, under the Emperor Valens. A. now found refuge in the tomb of his father, where he remained hidden f< nir months," until Valens, moved by petitions from tho orthodox Alexandrians, restored the patriarch to his see, in whieh he continued till his death in 373 A. D. A. was the leading ecclesiastic in the most trying period of the history of the early Christian Church. l£is ability, his conscientiousness, his judicious- ness and wisdom, his fearlessne33 in the storms of opposition, his activity and patience, all mark him out as an ornament of the age, as well as the most influential public character in matters of religion. i twenty years of his life were spent either in exile, or what was equivalent to it, yet his prudence and steadfastness, combined with the support of a large party, crowned his exertions with Complete success. He was a clear thinker, and as a speaker, was distinguished for extemporaneous on, force, and persuasiveness. Ills writings are polemical, historical, and moral; all marked by a style simple, cogent, and clear. The polemical works treat chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of our Saviour, and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. lie- earliest edition of the collected works of A. iu the original Greek appeared in two volumes, folio, at Heidelberg in 1000. It was accompanied with a Latin translation. The most complete edition is that published at Padua in 1777. A.'s Four Ora- tions against the Arians, and his Oration against the re translated by S. Parker (Oxford, 1713) ; also, his Treatise on the Incarnation of the Word was translated by W. Whiston, forming part of that gentleman's Collection of Ancient Monuments Relating to the Trinity and Incarnation, London in 1713. The Epistles of A. in defence of the Nicene Creed, and on the Councils of Ariminum and Seleucia, together with liis first Oration against the Arians, were translated, with notes, by the Rev. John Henry Newman, Oxford (1S42). A'THEISM, a word of modern formation, from Gr. atheot, 'without God,' signifies the doctrine of those who deny the existence of a God. The term atheist conveys such terrible associations to almost all minds, that there is perhaps no reproach from which men shrink more ; and yet it has been freely applied by the zealous of all ages to those whose notions of the invisible powers differed from their own. The imputation is the most damaging that can be made, and it requires only a little ingenuity to make out a case of constructive A. from any set of opinions at all differing from the common. Thus, the ancient Greeks accused some of their phdosophers ATHELNEY— ATIIF.N'S. of A. though they did not deny the existence of a divinity, but only rejected the common notions of a plurality of gods. And in the Christian Church, after the doctrine of the Trinity hnd been fixed and i, those that denied the divinity of Christ were not unusually branded as atheists. The horror in ibis name is strikingly shewn in the way it is repudiated by the adherents of pantheism (q. v.), who reject a pi I and substitute the idealised principle of order tliat pervades the universe. It is hardly to be d however, that the idea associated with the word God has hitherto involved personality as its very essence ; and except for th I purpose of avoiding odium, there could be little propriety in retaining the word when the notion is so completely alt The view of those who, like Kant, believe it impossible to demonstrate satisfactorily the existence of God, though it must be held on other grounds, is ■ >sition to the dogmatic A. of those who attempt to disprove that existence. ATHELNEY, Isle of, a marsh at the junction of thi- rivers Tone and Parret, in the middle of Somer- setshire. Here Alfred, when driven from his throne, hid from his enemies, and founded, in 888, a abbey, now entirely gone. Anion,' the many relics found in this spot is a ring of Alfred's, preserved in the Oxford Museum. The name Athelney means 'island of the nobles,' or ' royal j island.' ATHELSTAN, the grandson of Alfred the Great, | rn about S'J.5 A. D., and was the lirst Saxon monarch who took the title of king of England, Alfred himself only assuming* that of king of the j Saxons. He was crowned at Kingston-upon- | Thames in 925, and seems to have possessed both . great ambition and high talent. It is supposed that his design was to unite in subjection to his single sway the entire island of Britain. His resources, i', were not equal to the undertaking, and he had to content himself with the acquisition of portions of Cornwall and Wales. On the death of Sigtric, kins of Xorthumbria, who had married one of nis daughters, A. took possession of his dominions. This excited the alarm and animosity of the neigh- bouring states, and a league, composed of Welsh, Scotch, and Irish, was formed against the English kins, for the purpose of placing Aulaff, the son of , on his father's throne. A fierce and decisive battle was fought at Brunenburgh, in which the were utterly defeated, and which became famous in Saxon song. After this, the reputation of A. spread into the continent. His sisters were A into the royal families of France and ny, and he himself enjoyed the greatest nee and consideration. At home, he exhibited interest in the welfare of his people, improved the laws, built monasteries, and encouraged the translation of the Bible into the vernacular. He died at Gloucester on the 25th October 941, in his 47th year. A.THENJETJM (Gr. Atlienaion), the Temple of Minerva (Gr. Allan') at Athens, which was fre- quented by I"" to, learned nun, and rhetoricians, who there read aloud their works. — The A. in Home was a school or college erected, by the Emperor Hadrian, for the study of poetry and rhetoric, with a ■ ■■ staff of professors. It existed for a long period. In the time of Theodosius II., it had three professors of oratory, ten of grammar, five of sophistry or dialec- tics, one of philosophy, and two of jurisprudence. — In modern times, the name A. has been revive,! as an appellation for certain literary institutions, and also as a collective title for literary essays and r< A. is the title of two weekly journals of literature and the fine arts— one published in London, the other in Paris. ATIIKN.i: T" - bom at Naue pt He bred at the close ! ' ird century. His work, entitle! of the Learned), in : but of which we possess the first two, and parts of the th th, and fifteenth only in an abridged form, is very in1 ing, as it has preserved for us copious fragments of old writers, and treats, in 1 of almost all >ics of ancient Greek man- ie rs, private and public life, arts, sciences, 4c. It is not a work indicative of any high ability ; the author, for the most part, appears in the ch: of an agreeable, well-read, epicurean gentl excessively fond of Ht- i of scandal and cookery. He tells many stories to the disadvantage of people whom history praises; but these we are by no means bound to believe, nor, indeed, is he a man whose opinions are worth much on any subject; but as a melange of literary, social, and domestic _ • p. the value of the work is unrivalled. A. appears to have read enormously ; he states that ho had made extracts himself from 800 plays of the middle comedy alone. But his dialogue is pro] lumbering ; and his work is not irradiated by a gleam of genius, and has only achieved immortality through being a store-house of miscellaneous informa- tion, that otherwise would have been lost to the race. The best editions are by Schweighauser (14 vols. Strasb. 1801—1807), and Dindorf (3 vols. 1 S J7). There is an English translation of A. in Bohn's Classical Library (:; vols. Lond. 1854). ATHEXA'GORAS, an early Christian philo- sopher, who taught first at Athens, and afterwards at Alexandria. He is one of the oldest of the apologetical writers, and is favourably known by his Legatio pro ' which he addre> the Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the year 177 A. D. He therein defended the Christians against the monstrous accusations of the heathen, viz.. thai were guilty of atheism, incest, and cannibalism. His work is written in a philosophical spirit, and is marked by great clearness and cogency of style. We likewise possess a valuable treatise of his on the resurrection of the dead. ATHENA'IS, an Athenian of distinguished beauty, the daughter of Leontinos the Sophist, was born about the close of the 4th c, A.D. She received from her father a superior education, being skdled in Greek and Latin literature, rh astronomy, geometry, and the science of arithmetic After his death, she repaired to Constantinople, to obtain justice for the harsh treatment to which her brother subjected her. Here her beauty and intelli- gence made her the favourite of Augusta l'ulcheria, sister of Theodosius II., who considered that she would make an excellent wife for the emperor. In 421, A. having been baptized and named Eudocia, was married to Theodoeius, and in 43S, made a splendid pilgrimage to Jerusalem, bringing with her, on her return, the supposed relics of the first martyr, Stephen. Afterwards, she lost the favour of Pulcheria — the real manager of affairs — and was banish, d from the court. She then retired to Jerusalem, where she suffer, d many persecutions, aud died, in tlie odour of sanctity, 40(1 a.d. A. wrote an epic poem on the war of Theodosius a the Persian . and - tal other metrical works which have not been preserved. ATHENS ital of the ancient state of Attica, is said to have been founded by Cecrops, about 1551) B.C., and styled Cecropia; but even the ancients themselves doubted this tradition. Equally 414 ATHENS. uncertain a the story tint it was first 9tyled A, in honour of Athene, during the reign of Enchthonius. The ancient citadel waa situated on t ,15 i with a Hat summit, I SOI dually, as ; tion in. reased, A ext ■■■■ iful plain below. This increase is have 1 I by the orgai twelve Attic tribes into a political confi or union by Tin I i ightest figure that Bhines through the ' dark ages : of Attic history. Tl of A. mar the Gulf of Saronica, oppo: ii coast of the Pelopoi is favourable I tof naval power. The city, was distant four or five miles from the sea. possessed three harbours, all situated on the south-v . connected with it by walls. The oldest of harbours was Phalerum. It was also the neai ty, and accessible at all times by a d 'i I tocles. $A whole rocky peninsula termed the Peir importance strategetically. The two last harbours ■were connected with the city by the famous 'long walls,' of which we read so much in At history. They were forty stadia, or nearly five miles in length. Two streams Mowed in the vicinity of A.; on the cast side, the Dissus, whic of the city; and on the west, the O ud a half beyond the walls. To the west 1 .. 8 'amis, with I on the north-west, Phyla; and Decelea on the north, Marathon on the north-east, and Hymettus i south. All i coast rose splendid build The whole of th by the Acropo!. all the most glorious monuments of A. wer 1. First rose the 1'artheuon (q. v.), or Temple of Minerva, a pi! even now, after the lapse of centuri among the wonders of the world. The Propyl. i a, all built of white marble, formed the entrance to the Parthenon. Close to it, on the north side of the Acropolis, rose the Kreehtheiiun, the mo of all Athenian sanctuaries, and connected with the oldest religious history of the city. The whole of it was destroyed by the Persians, but was restored during the Peloponnesian war. Its nuns still exist, and allow us to form a very correct idea of its external form and structure. In some points, it differed from all other examples o tuple . But it would be tedious and unprofitable to mention in detail all those magnificent buildings which were the glory of ancient Athens. It is sufficient to say, that gods were never more superbly honoured in any land. Thai, enthusiastic love of the beautiful animated the Athenians, turning their religion into an art, and making worship an education in tics, is nowhere so clearly visible as in their reli- gious architecture. Their mythological faith stood daily before their eyes in monumental splendour, for almost every deity had his temple or shrine in the Two of the finest buildings— the Tern Theseus, and that of ■ is — were on the outside of the city; the first to the north- second to the south. The former was both a temple and a tomb, inasmuch as it held the remains of Theseus himself. It was built about 40-j B. c, and was therefore older than the Par- thenon. It had the privilege of an asylum for slaves, and the large space of ground which it enclosed was frequently used as a muster for the Athenian s Idiery. It was built of the favourite Pentelic marble, in the Doric style of architecture, and is the best preserved of all the monuments of aucient Athens. For centuries it was a Christian church, appropriately enough dedicated S16 1 ivahrous hero of the 'dark lity, as '1'ln sens had been of the ■ dark ages' of Attic history ; but is now the n; 1 :m of the city. Hie Temple of Jupiter, of Co mna are still extant, to th t of the A the right bank of the I adour, tures. Immense sums of money were expended uj from the time when it was commenced by Peisis- . until it was completed by Hadrian, a period quently sus- I alls it 'a struggle with time.' At the tin. I the city, it was fortunately only 1 ginning to be built, and so I 'Miction. I of it as a work of despotic grandeur, and equal to the pyramids of Egypt. Th ited by rj<> fluted columns, CI feet in height, and more than 6 feet in diameter. It v. and 171 broad, and contain. of the Olympian Jupiter in -\ try and gold, the work of Phidias. Besides these wonders of art, the city contained places of interest of which the memory will perpe- tually remain — the Academy where Plato, whose lay near it. ga\ i bis lessons in a grove of ; rees adorned with statues; tradition alleged it to have belonged originally to Academns. Ii p- Burronnded it v. ith a wall, and Cimon adorned it with walks, fountains, and ol The Lyceum, the most important of the Athenian gymnasia, where Aria! and, near to this, the Cynosarges, where Antisthenes the Cynic uded bis 'harsh and crabbed' doctrine; the hilloi't I . ' here the ] tost venerabl of judicature wa I the Prytaneum, or About a quarter of a mile to tl of the Acropolis rises a low hill, which marks the locality of the Pnyx, a pi at lembly, forming a large semicircular arc at the base by a line tune wall, from which proj a pedestal, carved out of the rock, aud ascended by steps. This most I I een pre- served almost in its . and, as we look around, we are carried 1 times when some six thousand Athenian citizens were here assembled, the orator, standing upon the pedestal, could survey the Acropolis, with all its temples, the vene- \reopagus, and li 'ended < if Attica, with corn-fields, olive- grounds, and vineyard s. V. in its most nourishing period, num free citizens; from which we may calculate that it contained about 200,0011 inhabitants. More than two thousai , I over the nl city, and still its remains excite the admi- i of the world. The Turks surrounded it with wide irregular walls, partly built out of the ruins of the old walls, and containing many fragments of columns. Of the Prop] lit wing, or le of Victory, was destroyed in 1656 by the ion of a powder-magazine Six columns, with lofty arches, remain to mark the site of the opposite wing. The interior of the Parthenon was used for some time as a Turkish mosque. limns remain on the cast of the front. colon- nades at the sides; and of the back pediment, the combat of Minerva and Neptune sculptured, nothing remains save the head of a sea- horse, and two decapitated femal pediment in front. to the group representing the birth of Minerva are pre- in the British Museum, and ju.-i as master-pieces of ancient sculpture. Of all the statues which the Parthenon contained, only one, ATHENS. that of Hadrian, has been preserved. Binned as it has been, the general aspect of the Parthenon is still sublime. Of the Erechtheium (or Temple of Neptunus Erechtheius) considerable vestiges remain, especially the beautiful female figures styled Caryal The situations and vast extent of the two theatres may still be traced, though grain is now grown in the arenas. AH these remains belong to the polis. In the city below, there are no su memorial. The Horologium, or octagonal Temple of the Winds (built by Andronicus Kyrrhestes), has been well preserved ; but a few fragments found in broken walls are all that remain to did Gymnasium built by Ptolema B id the city, the attention of the s]>ectator is arrested by the sublime ruins of the Temple of .Jupiter I llympos. riptions have been found here and there, sometimes buried in the earth. The sculptures on the friezes of the interior of the Temple of Theseu -. have been well preserved, while the rnal sculptures are almost utterly destroyed. A Turkish burial-place A Temple of the Winds, Athens. now occupies the hill where the Areiopagus held its sittings. The site of the Lyceum is indicated only by scattered stoues, and a modern house and occupy the place of the Academy. Scarcely anything remains to shew the ol 1 ace of the harbours us, Phaleros, and Munychia. It is probable that, in the time of Pausanias, many structures remained belonging to the period before the Persian war, as Xerxes, during bis short time of mastery over A., would scar I cen able to ■y more than the fortifications and principal Themistocles, in his rest of the city, had chiefly a regard to utility; Cimon attention to its decoration; but Pericles far led them in the magnific nee of his di which v. r ( i vast to be carried into effect i times. The civilisation, spreading from A. as its e ntr. , raised Macedon and other states int gerous rivalry. The defeat at Ch.-eroneia was as fatal to the fine arts as to the liberty of the Athenians. the works at the Peirasus had 1 n destroyed Hi. tli" naval power, and with it the whole political importance of A., rapidly declined. It is true that the city was treated leniently by its con- querors; t' and statues were pri from violation, and A., with all the trophies i centuries of greatness, remained under the Antonines ; but the free national spirit of the Athenians had departed for ever, and slowly, but surely, the fine arts shared the fate of Grecian liberty. Their trea- which bad b le Roman emj illy stolen away by various thievish collectors, especially for the decoration of Byzan- tiuni, or were destroyed bj seal and barbarian invasion. About 420 A. le. the ancient religion an lof A. had entirely disappeared ; afterwards, the schools of philosophy were closed by Justinian, and Greek mythology gradually for - ok the place us. and the Parthenon was • 1 into a ! church. The surviving industry of A. was injured by I Roger of Sicily, who removed its silk manufactures. I In 14oG, A. fell into the 1 consummate its degradation, under the low, - I Turks, the city of Athene was regarded as an appanage of the harem, and governed by a black eunuch. The Venetians, having captured the city in 1CS7, intended to carry away as a trophy the ry from the west front of the Parthenon, but shattered it in their attempt to it. In 1688, I into the hands of the Turks, and the work of d ilition now proceeded rapidly. The grand remains of antiquity were used as quarries to supply mat for all ordinary building-, and. in the course of another century, the eitj- was reduced to its lowest point of degradation. Modern A. (styled by the Turks Athina or Setines) is now the capital of the new kingd Greece. Previous to t I 1^-1), it was a provinei i inferior importance, the seat of a Greek metropolitan bishop, and under the ■tion of the Turkish governor in Eul oea. In 1S21, the war of hberation commenced, and the Turks surrendered Athens in the following year; l it in 1826, and took the Acropolis m 1^-7. After this it was left in ruins until 1830, when Attiea was declared united with I the protocol of the London Conferen c e. In 1S34, Otho, the son of the bavarian monarch, who had been elected to the sovereignty of the new king- dom, removed his residence from Nauplia I A. Improvements now proceeded rapidly : Turkish manners and customs disappeared; mptible a houses and crooked streets were sup. -v ones — among which the B Bolus, -. and New Stadion streets are consjpii and. in 1836, the foundation of a new palace was laid. The municipal affairs of A. are no* lated by a D irehos) and council el by the citizens. Besides other public institutions, modern A. 1 is a gymnasium, a library enriched with many donations from France and Germany, and a university, where about 39 professors and tutors are A.THEN8— ATHLT.INE. I I li lumber of students is betwc '. Several interesting works hav.- I i en printed in A. The French ( baa founded aii Archa-olngical Institute, and several mil Bocieties have appointed agents here. A. hi no trade except in walking-sticks and smoking-tubes made of blackthorn, \\b~l — pop. 44,510.) Political History of A. — It was the Ionic race that manifested most signally the distinguishing characters of Greek civilisation ; and of this portion of Hellas, A., in the brilliant part of its history, stauds out most prominently. According to tradi- tion, its political power was first establis] as, king of Attica, who made A. the metropolis. Here he instituted the great popular festival of the Panathenrca, and, by encouraging settlements in the city, greatly increased its population. He divided the citizens into three classes : hi il lility, agricu] I and mechanics. Until the death of t'odrus in 1068 B.C., A. was governed by kings ; aft OS elected from the nobility. The time of g office was limited to ten years in 752 B. c, one year in 6S3 B.C., when nine arehons were annually elected, one being called tin caxA Is holding 10,000 E As soon ken that the ball had d tlie bottom, the line was cut an I sing* on the reel measured, tie- difference between that and the original length ben depth of the ocean. This plan was not | without various calculations as to currents, velocity of descent, &c., which have since been made, and which have rendered deep-sea soundings something It is, that the ocean is not above half the depth it was formerly supposed to lie. Th depth of the North A. yet dis- covered is 25,000 ; !;i i .. The deepest part, in the opinion of Lieutenant Maury, is probably between the parallels of 35* and 40 N. Int., and immediately to the southward of tie- Grand Banks of Newfoundland. A remarkable and 10,000 to 12 000 lace of tie- sea, extends along the bottom of the A. from Cape Clear in Irelai Race in Newfoundland, a distance of 1640 miles. A specimen of the nature of this plateau was brought up by a beautiful sounding-apparatus, the invention of a United States officer, which detaches the sinking-weight as soon as it touches the ground, and is so contrived that it brill specimens of the bottom along with it. When examined by the microscope,. this specimen was found to be chiefly composed of little calcareous shells (Foramiitifam). No particle of sand mingled with Lieutenant Berryman has since found in tliis track obsidian, pumice, &c\, forming a line of volcanic cinders 100 miles long. Upon this p] A. Telegraph cable, unfortunately in a useless condition. Leaving out of account the coasts, the ' shallowest in what the Portuguese call the M o(q.v.),or' bract extend- ing from the 3nth meridian to the Bahama Islands, i the parallels of 30° N. and 19" N.. densely covered in many parts with gulf-weed nni, nm). See Gclf-weed. The bottom of the A, as .shewn in a map executed t Maury, is a series of ridges. The first ridge nearest the shore is less than GOOO feet beneath the surface of the sea ; the second ridge is r. at a depth of 12,000 feet ; the third, at a depth of 18,000 feet ; and the fourth, at This last ridge rises over di pths yet unfathomed. between the Bermudas and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In the intertropical portion of the A., the trade- winds (q. v.) regularly prevail ; beyond this, the winds are variable. On an average of six years, the \ from Liverpool to New York, by sailing-veasels, takes not less than 40 days, while the return v is accomplished in 23 days. The difference of time out and home is entirely due to the prevalence of south-west winds in the North A. The A. abounds with fish; herring and cod fishing , important branches of industry in Northern Join: '''of. and Lieutenant Maury's i Geography of '/<• Si a, afford detailed infor- mation regarding the temperature, winds, currents, navigation, &c. of the A. 0. ATLANTIC TETLEGB \I'!I. History of. In 1842, Professor Morse of N w Sork, having bed a submarine cal and Covernor's Island, Boston, and succeeded in transmitting an electric- current from one end to the other. I his opinion that it I be possible to effect an electrical cemmuni b the sea. After further ns, ho announced i vtary of I ry of ted States, 'that a telegraphic communica- tion on his plan might with certain I. -In d irs prior to that, Sir William O'Sh-e J proof that inveyed through water, by depositing a cable in the bed of the rlooghly; but it was the successful .submarine telegraphic undertakings of the Messrs Brett, who. in .Tun a 'I ral Oceanic T< Ii graph Company,' with the object among others of joining this country ATLANTIS -ATLAS. '.iii'-riivi by means of a teli on the Atlantic Ocean, and six yeara often ad with Frai ph, Hi that first fairly c I the pnblia mind the Ni w Wi it be put on ■■■ b i i . ! i with the Old. The lantic I an pre- 1 the most imposing obstacle to this . ness of communion ; l.nt when it was dis- ed that between Ireland and Newfoundland the bottom of the Atlantic, at a depth of not more than two miles In Lav tin' surface, a fine broad platform (see A i t), seemingly so specially formed by nature for the purpose of electrical communication, that in -Maury at on e '.lit the T< I' • graphic Plateau, the project of an Atlantic marine cable assumed a practicable form. In 1854, the colonial government of Newfoundland passed aa act incorporating ai to establish ■ communi Id ami ■ I it by a sub idy, and by gr ml M Thecoloni I so conferred upon the company the exclusive righl of lax ic line upon the coast under its jurisdiction. ivernnnnts of Prince Edward's Island and ■to of Maine mail.' similar concessions; and authority for certain subsidiary operations in I al 10 obtained. 'Tin- 1 y, incorj d under tie of 'The New York, Newfoundland, and graph Company,' commenced operations by uniting St John's in Newfoundland with 1 lib d States and British North America, done, numerous preliminary experiments were under- i liy eminent electricians and engineers, in order to determine the amount of retarding force which inducted and disguised electricity were likely to oiler to the transmission of currents along submarine wires of unu oal 1- Qgth. Having by these i , 20(10 in number, tried with 62 different kinds of cable, determined the one best adapted for the conveyance of electricity through such a length, and at such a depth in the Atlantic, the next was the formation of a more influential com] In 1856, 'The A. T. Company,' to which all the c ml irred on the old company ! ! with a capital of £350,000. 'The iments of Great Britain and the United Stati s ill y aided the company, guaranteeing, by a con- tract of 25 years' duration, to pay to the company, until such time as its dividend t lachi '1 l> per cent., a subsidy of £14,000 a year, and of .i'10,000 subse- quently. They also agreed to furnish ships for laying down the cable. The cable, which weighed about a ton per mil . equal to 14 cut. in water, was composed of a strand of seven wires of pure copper, coated with ite layers of gutta percha, wrapped over with hemp saturated with pitch and tar, and linally bound round with iron wins, 332,500 miles of iron and r wire being employed in its construction. It was deposited in the holds of the Agamemnon, a line-of- battle ship supplied by the Bril ment, and I A iagara, a splendid frigate fun . and the two vessels started if grand mission. After two unsuccessful at- l during the years 1S.37 and 1S58, the expedition started again for mid-ocean, whence the ships were to start, paying-out towards opposite shores, on the 1 7th of July 1858. The cable was united and low a Lou i 29th of the same month; and the Agamt : ; lauding a severe gale of wind, an. itia, having successfully laid her portion of it, on the morning of the 5th of August, 'lie Niagara about the same time arrived in Trinity Bay, ■midland, and science had annihilated space between the Old World and the New. On the 17th August, the extremities of tie- cable having been put in connection with the recording-instru- ments, the following message was Sashed through the ocean in thirty-live minutes: ' Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory t-< God in the highest; on e l ] and g 1-will towards men.' Messages and replies from the Oueen to the President of the United Si ites, from tie- -Mayor of London to the .Mayor of New Vork, &c, followed. But on the 4th of September, the at \ ah nt in became unintelligible. One ci mi- ne ici: : oi '--reat impoi le, in reference to this collision between the Atlantic steamers, the Buropa and Arabia ; this single ii. . . I the commercial world £50,000, which would doubtless liave been .'pent in extra insurance on the Teasels and ear oes thus delayed. (The cable of 185 having become useless, two other lines were laid in 1865 and 1866, and these two now connect Great Britain with North Ame- rica. A third cable Was laid in INi'.Un.ni ,'rancc to the United States, and various other Iran at lantic lines are projected or in progn a. See Tl lbgraph.) ATLA'NTIS, according to ancient traditio name of a vast island in the Atlantic Ocean. 1 1 is first mentioned by Plato, win i represents an Egy] itian prie t as describing it to Solon, but, of course, accord- ing to Plato's view of the matter. In this descri ption, H ared as an island larger than Libya and Asia Minor taken together, and lying off the Pillars of Hercides in the Atlantic Ocean. Plato gives a 1 lean- tiful picture of the interior of this imaginary land, and enriches it with a fabulous history. Some early writers supposed that the Canary Islands were the remains of the old A. ; for Plato had stated that at the close of the long contest which its inhabitants maintained against the Athenians, nine thou and years before his time, the sea suddenly engulfed the island, and had ever since been (innavigable, by reason of the shoals of mud created by the sunken island. Some found it in the Scandinavian penin- sula; others (first Bircherod in 16S5) have Bup] that Phoenician or Carthaginian merchant-ships had been driven by storm on the coast of America, and that the supposed vast island of A. mentioned by Plato, as well as the great unnamed island spoken of by Pliny, Diodorus, and Arnobius, may have been the New World. A'TLAS is that piece of the human vertebral column which is nearest to the skull ; in other words, it is the first cervical vertebra. It may be known from the other six by its being without a body or spinous process, by its being a mere irregular bony ring, partly divided into two unequal parts by a constriction ; this division in the recent subject is completed by a ligament, the part in front being occupied by the tooth-like process of the second cervical vertebra, and that behind, by the t marrow. On each side, the ring is very thick ; it is smooth and cupped above to receive the condyles of the occipital bone. The corresponding parts below are flat, and rest on the second cervical vertebra. The A., with the occipital bone, forms the joint on which the head moves in bowing ; and turns on the pivot of the second cervical vertebra, when we look from side to side. A TLAS, according to Hesiod's Thcogony, one of the Titans, the son of Iapetus and Clymene, and brother of Mencetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. Apollodorus, however, states him to have been a son of Asia, and Hyginus, a son of ./Ether and ( 1 aea. He married Pleone, daughter of Oceanus (or I (esperis, his own niece), and became the father of the Pleiades. As leader of the Titans, he attempted ATLAS— ATMOSPH E 1 1 E. to Btonn the heavens, and for this supreme a was condemned by Zeus to bear the vault of heaven on bis head and hands— the sting of this aological punishment obviously boin^, that A. compelled to support what he unrated to destroy. The later writers, however, rationalise yth, and state that A. v My kin.; v. ho bad great skill in astronomy, and only tried to : heaven intellectually.— In consequence of the it views which made the vault of heaven rest on solid pillars or other supports, the nam originally mythological and cosmogonie, was intro- duced into geography. Mercator, in the lGth c, save the name A. to a collection of maps ; pn because the figure of A. supporting the heavens had been given on the title-pages of such works. A'TLAS, a mass of mountain-land in the western part of North Africa. Herodotus mentions a smoking mountain of this name situated on the south-west of the Little Syrtis, and twenty .1 journey westwards from the Garamantes, si vied by the natives the ' j iven.' By later writers, after the time of Polybius, the name A. was always i to the chain of mountains in North-west ■ [tending from the island of Cerne (now through Mauritania, and tana (now Fez and Marocco), and including the heights di persed through the region of i. It is divided into the Little Atlas ami the i Atlas; the former denominating a secondary in the country of Sous, and the other, the mountains of Marocco. The A. is not properly a mountain-chain, but rather a very irregular mountainous mass of land formed of many chains running in various directions, meeting in mountain- knots, or connected by yokes, or short chains of inferior height, and diversified still further by d solitary mountains and groups of mountain-. The A. attains its greatest height (13,000 feet) in Marocco, the only part where it rises above the snow-line, and obtains the name of Jebel-el-Thelj, i wy Mountains. I: aks are Miltsin — 27 miles south-east of the city of Marocco— Biba wan. and Tagherain. The most southern chain di-. here from the central mass bears the nam' or. The heights approach the sea, and form promontories jutting out into the Atlantic. From Marocco, the A. gradually decreases in height Is the cast. In Algeria, the elevation is only 7673 feet; in Tunis, 4170 feet; and in Tripoli. 3200 The whole mountain-system is intersected by the valley of the Muluia river, which Hows thl irth-east part of Marocco, and falls into the Mediterranean. The slopes on the north, west, and south are covered with vast forests of pine, oak, cork, white poplar, wild olive, &c. The valleys arc well watered and capable of cultivation with The A. seems to be chiefly calcareous in its isition. The mineral wealth remains, however, I wholly unexplored, t' hi r, iron, lead, antimony, &C., are stated to exist in abundance. A'XMOSPHEBE (Gr. atmoa, vapour, q | is the name applied to the gaseous en . surrounds the earth. The existence of an A. T of vital importance. We owe to its influence the possibility of animal and able life, the modifying ami retaining of solar heat, the transmission of sound, the gradual shading . into night, the disintegration of rocks, and tu of weather phenomena. In conse- nt' tlie action of gravity, the A. assumes the da] stratum concentric with the heavily on its surface. It exhibits, in common with all fluid bodies, the usual charac- teristics of hydrostatic pressure, but its internal condition differs from that of a liquid inasmuch H it s particles repel each other, and can only be held in proximity by external force. From this circumstance, it follows that the volume of any portion of air varies much more under the influence ■ ' ■ i ■ than that of an equal volume of water; hence, tie stratum of air nearest the earth ions, where, from their being subjected to tie: weight of a smaller mass of superincumbent air, the repulsive f irticles has freer play. That air possesses weight, is illustrated by the following simple experiment, If a hollow glass globe of 5 or inches in diameter be weighed first, when filled with air, and then, after the air has been extracted from it by means of the air-pump, it will, when thus exl than it did before, and the difference of the' two results will represent the weight of the quantity of air which has been withdrawn. It hat determined by Biot and AragO that 100 cubic inches of dry air, when the barometer is at 30 inches, and the thermometer at 00° Fahrenheit, weigh .'il/074 grains. The law of Archimedes (see A fiiiMiri.E OF), that a body immersed in a fluid loses a part of its weight equal to the the volume of fluid displaced by it. finds its appli- cation in the A. in water. If a glass globe filled with air and closed be suspended at the extremity of the beam of a delicate balance, and be kept in equilibrium by a brass weight at the other extremity, and if the wlee placed i t the receiver of an air-pump, and the air extracted, the equilibrium previously existing in air will be disturbed, and the larger body will Ijecome the heavier. The reason of this is, that wien first weighed, they each lose as much of their own weight as that of the respective volumes of air displaced by them, and are therefore made buoyant, though in different degrees, the ball with tl i olume having the greater buoyancy. In a vacuum, they are deprived of this buoyancy, and the larger body, suffering the greater loss, becomes sensibly heavier than the other. In like manner, a balloon filled with heated air or hydrogen gas is 1 than the volume of air displaced by ir. It is there- fore forced upwards till it reaches a stratum of such density that the weight of the volume of air there displaced by it equals the weight of the balloon itself. In this stratum it will remain poised, or move horizontally with the currents to which it may "sed. In endeavouring to determine the farm of the atmospheric envelope, it is ni ceasaryto bear in mind that, according to the law of fluid-pressure, in order to produce a state of equilibrium at the level of the sea, the pressure of the A. must be equal at that level over the whole of the earth's surfac ■. Gravity acts with less force on the air at the equat . on that at the poles, in consequence of the spheroidal form of the earth. It has there, in addition, to id with the centi .tirely fails at the poles, and which has a. tendency to lighten the air by a • trary to that of gi i to produce the same pressure at tie- level of tie- si i. the atmospheric 1 1,...- must b than that at 1 that the A. must therefore possess the form of an oblate spheroid, whose oblateness is con- ; Ban that of the earth itself. The greater heat at the tropical regions most also have tile etl'eet of Hi- 1 of the A. has n-.t \. t been determined. That it must have a certain limit, is evident from the consideration that there must be a point at which gravity ou the one hand, and centrifugal 5:3 ATMOSPHERE "ii the other, are poised, and beyond which I : ii met force, particles would be borne away from the earth. As, however, the law of the diminution of temperature, which materially affects the repulsive action, is unknown for the upper regions "f the air, it is impossible to the height of t ti« ■ atmo from the relation i of t! he upon which dependence can be placed is derived from the mathematical data founded t in height than the column of water, or about 30 inches. From the more co rem lumn, mercury has been a indard for atmospheric pres- sure, and is employed in our ordinan (q. v.). A i, i colon E 30 inches in I and 1 square inch in seel m 15 lbs. (more rately, 14-73 a column of atmospheric air of the i on. The word A. i< often employed t i bis weight or pressure on a square inch of surface, so that when ik, in SIi ihanics, of the pressure of steam on a boiler as amounting to three atmo a pressure of 45 lbs. on the square inch. The sure on a square inch being thus ascertained, we have merely to multiply it by the number of square inches on the earths surface to obtain the total weight of th" A. It amounts to H'67085 trillions . or about of the earth' i It must be observed that the height of tin column is not a constant quantity. as ii ■ with the latitude, the season of the year, and the hour of the day. At London, its mean height i '.".I vs inches; at Paris, 29'92 in hi . The pressure of the A. in the northern hemisphere increases as we recede from the equator, reaching a maximum at 30 N. lat, and decreasing from 30 t<> 65°, where n begins to rise. The greater height at 30° is said to be due to tl 1 ition of air at that latitude by the action of the trad ! . As the the earth's surface increases the rarity of the air above it, and causes the air at the top oi column to overflow, we would expect that, during rometer would stand at a mil in summer, and a maximum in winter. In i however, although the barometer i in mid- winter, there is another maximum in mid-summer, making thus two minima — one in spring, the other in autumn. This arisi s from the part which watery vapour plays in the pressur i of the atmo phi re. The heat of mid-summer introduces into the air quantity of moisture, in the form of elastic \ which, adding its pressure to that of the dry air, raises what would otherwise be the minimum baro- metric column to a higher point than that at H hich it stands in spring and autumn. Similar causes affect the pressure of the A. during the 24 hours of y. There are two maxima— one at )o A.M., the other between 10 and 11 P.M.; and two minima — at 4 a.m. and 4 p. m. Very slight variations indicate ristence of atmospheric tidal waves ; but this subject is still involved in some obscurity. The ire of the A. exerei important influen on the ini tno! thi human frame. A i ordinary stature is ex] I to a pressure of about 14 tens; but as the air permeates the whole bs equally in all directions, oo inconvenience is found to result from it. Erom experiments instituted by the brothers Weber in ay, it lias been osci rtainedthat the hi the thigh and arm bones are kept in their sockets by the pressure of the A. ; and in balloon ascents the offers from bleeding at the nose, lips, and even eyes a fact that would seem to indi- cate that the strength of the Moo,; | is been ■ d with reference to atmospheric pressure. ■' nf i:,, a. Recent chemical lies give the following as the mean composi- tion of 100 volumes and of 100 air: en, i, . Carbonic acid, \ 79-02 20-94 . 004 lll(ll)l) fir ii"s. Tost 2310 0-06 loo-oo Besides the substances just named, other gaseous matters occur, but in quantities so small as not ily to increase the bulk of the A., such as ammonia and ammoniacal salts, carburetted and sulphuretted hydrogen, carl, ride, sulphurous dphuric acid, nitric acid, and perhaps iodine, and even the presence of which are ; I and meteorological i . Roughly ing, then, dry air may be said to consist of 4 volumes of nitrogen and 1 of with a slight admixture of carbonic acid, and a mere trace of several other substances. As, however, the air of the A. is lever found dry, we must add to the con- stituents air d watery vapour, the amount of which is constantly i I according to loca- lity, weather, wind, and temperature. It is I that of looo grains of atmospheric air, the pro tion due to aqueous vapour varies from a minimum of 4 to a maximum of 1G grains. By far the most active chemi i cm titnent of the \. is 0x3 the agency of which are owing the existence of animal life, the maintenance of combustion, the rust- ing of metals, and the occurrence of several other chemical phenomena too numerous to be detailed. A small portion of this oxygen occurs in the form of ozone (q. v.), a modification which, according to recent chemical discoveries, plays an important part in tho chemistry of the A. The nitrogen which forms the bulk of the A. possesses few chemical properties of importance, hnt performs the important part of diluting the oxygen, which, if it occurred alone, act with too gri iy. The presence of carbonic 1 air is shewn by the produc- tion of the white carbonate of lime in lime-water influence. Carbonic acid is led in all processes where carbonaceous matter li with the oxygen of the air, such as in animal respiration, in combustion, in fermentation, in putrefaction, and similar processes. The green of plants, on the other hand, possess, in ie of sunshine, the power of decomposing carbonic acid into its elements, absorbing the c for their own tissues, and restoring the oxygen to the A. in its original purity. Between the processes above mentioned, on the one hand, and the action of plants on the other, the quantity of carbonic acid m the air is kept nearly constant. From the table ATM(i.s|-Jll.l:i: ATMOSl'IIEIUC HEEi TIUCITY. it will be seen that lO.iino volumi - of atmospheric air contain I volumes of carbonic acid. If it occurred in eh larger proportion, b in poisonous, ii beconi" dang to animal life; ami if it occurred in a miicli less proportion, the vegetable world would lark its requisite nourishment. The other of which a trace is always or onl\ times found in atmo pheric air, are difficult to deti et in the air itself, but arc generally found d d rain-water, more especially in thai fallen immediately after a long drought. Of these, by far the most important ana widely diffused are i and ammoniacal salts, which are of essential import- ance to I i conomy, because, (lis in the rain, they furnish plants with the nil i for the production of their flowers ami fruit. Nitric acid is detected in the air after thunder-storms, sulphuretted hydrogen in the tainted air of sewers and such like places, and sulphurous nml sulphuric acid only in the neighbourhood of chemical or smelting works. A considerable quantity of carbonic oxide and carburetted hydrogen e cap onconsumed from our furnaces; and although the latter gas is in addition given off to the air in marshy and bituminous districts, the two occur in almost inappreciable quantity in the atmosphere. ]u addition to its gaseous constituents, the A. contains solid substances in a state of exceedingly fine division, the presence of which is rev aleu in the sunbeam. Many of these minute pai being the seeds of plants or e gs of animals, must exert an important influence on the organic sub- stances on which they may finally settle, inducing in many of them the conditions of disease or putrefaction. \\ le in the composite nature of the A. was first discovered, it was supposed to be a chemical combination of nitrogen and oxygen, but further inquiries have rendered this opinion highly im- probable. When any two bodies unite with each other chemically, the substance which results from their combination invariably possesses pro- D which the original constituents did not possess. Now the atmospheric union of oxygen and nitrogen is distinguished by no properties which may not be attributed individually to these gases. We have, then, in this respect, no indication that the atmospheric combination of oxygen and nitrogen is a chemical one. Again, when any composite d .eii in water, the proportion of the ingredients dissolved in it is exactly the same as that in which they occur in the compound itself; but this is oot the ' e with air dissolved in water, which is found to be richer iii oxygen than atmospheric air. Now, as oxygen dissob readily in water than nitrogen, it is manifest that this hireer propnrti..n o] n ■-,. from both gases acting independently of each other in respect to the water, a condition that would be impossible if they w ere in chemical Prom the e and other corroborative is considered to be simply a mechanical com- bination of the gases contained in it. This, however, does net pi \ en i he ^, from having a uniform com position, as might at first si Jo be supposed; for :ie mixed with each o inter- mingle thoroughly throughout r space occupied by tttem. Loi i may temporarily affect the relative proportion of the atmospheric ingredients, but the changes are so minute as to require the most delicate anal to d ATMOSPHERIC ELKCTIil CITY. Franklin was the first to establish the identity of the light- ning of the heavens with the i irk. By his famous lute-experiment, he ascertained thai the thunder-cloud assumes on electrical condition precisely similar to that of the conductor of an electrical machine, and that the same mechanical and igfa in a different degree, to botl 'l directed by this disc rvi ry to the A. E, as displayed in the thunder cloud, ha - i tnce thi n bi to the electrical condition in all the different states of the weather. It is now found that the air is sensibl is overcast with thunder-clouds, but when the weather is clear, or when no thunder-clouds are of A. 10., in the latter circumstanci means of very delicate electroscopes (q. v.). These instruments are con- structed for i i roll iii the open air, or in a room, in conjurn b an apparatus on iof of the house for collecting the electricity. Mowing are some of the r 1 from Sons: Winn the sky is char and free from clouds, the A. E. is alwa\ do an elec- troscope exposed to tie- acta n of the air with po iin electricity. On the- other hand electricity of the ground is found to I This was shewn in a very ingenious way by Volto, who, by catching the tin.- .-pray of a fountain on the plate of a straw electroscope, found the straws to diverge with the negative electricity communicated to them by the water, which was necessarily of the same character as that of the ground. It. is from this fact that electroscopes, or tie colli appa- ratus connected with them, must not be by the neighbouring trees or buildings, th negative electricity of which materially affects the indications given, and it is due to the same fact that no A. E. is discovered in the middle of a wood, or in a room, however high the ceiling. Under a clear sky, the t n-iMii of tic A. E. is found to increase as we i i in lower aerial strata being less electrical than the higher. Becquerel proved this by a simple experi- ment on the plateau of Mount St Bernard. On a piece of oiled suk he placed a silk tl d with tinsel, one end of which, terminated by are 1 connected with the rod of a straw > tectroso i the other end was ted to an arrow arm .1 with a metal point. When the arrow was sh it In mtally, the straws shewed no divergence; but when the arrow was shot upwards, they opened as H and diverged most when the arrow, in asci disengaged the ring from the rod of the , | The same fact is shewn in the following way : When a very delicate electroscope is adjusted for any par- ticular position, it will, when elevat I a f. w feet above that position, give i on of positivi tricity, and when placed a I n fe i below, it will be 1 negatively. En clear weather, likewia A. E. is found to be subject to certain daily | nil variations, and app ars to ha\ i two maxima and two minima in the course of twenty-four hours. The first maximum takes place a she!: sunrise, and the second shortly after sunset ; the fust minimum shortly before sunrise, and tie in the afternoon, when the heat of the day is greatest. 'I he cause of tie e p riodical changes is attributed to the formation and tion of watery vapour in the atmospl ly after sun- ■..:,: ,, of the an-, and a. ■! n - a- a conductor, trans- mits the electricity of the hi her strata towards the surface of the en i tirst maxi- mum. As 1 1 the day i the air s hss and less moist, and h>s s. in i , its een eel ng po ' when the atmosphere is hotb : and place. After sunset, a rapid re, and the lowi r strata ar I with moisture, which causes a - maximum at the be lining of night. Before sunrise, U9 ATMONI'llKllH' i:\IIAVAY-ATOM. the deposition of dew becom so tl int the positive electricity of tin- lower strata is transmitted to the soil, causing a minimum at that time. It seems to hold gi a rally that anything which tends toinci-i lower strata, such: vapour m a visible form, increa the sainr time the A. E., and hence it is that in time of mist the electrical tension is higher than u ■weather. I o be attributed to th fact that the A. E. is greatest in January, a in June, the former month I I and misty, and the latter warm and clear. J n cloudy fl the electroscope is affected sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and is than in clear weather. The electricity of rain. hail, , Chlorine, Chromium, . Cobalt Copper (Cuprum), Oidymium, Erbium, Fluorine, Qlucinum, Golil (Aurum), gen, Ibnenium, lodillc, Tridium, .... Iron (Ferrum), Lanlanium, Lead (Plumbum), Lithium, inm, Id ineee, Mi i iny (Hydrargyrum), it, , Nickel, an, • ii, mium, . Oxygen, Palladium, bonis, Platinum, 1 N 1400 17506 Os 9941 1242-62 s-oo 100-00 Pd r,:;-2i 665-47 P 32-02 400-30 l't 9.S-.-.(i 123208 K :;s on 487-00 Bo 5216 651-96 i:.i 52-11 651-39 Se 39-62 495-28 Si 21-30 26700 Ag IDS 110 135000 Na 22-97 2S7T7 St 43-84 54802 s lGOO 20000 Ta Te G40S S01-76 Tb Th 743-86 Sn 58-82 735-29 Ti 24-12 301-55 W 9401 1183-30 u 0000 750-00 V 0S-46 855-84 Y Zn 32-52 406-59 Zr 33-58 419-73 whole figures fur all the A. \\\, it has been suggested that hydrogen, though still represented by 1. should be halved in value, so as to possess one-half the that it now possesses. If this suggestion bo carried out, the following would then be the A, YV. of a i "■■•>■. elements : Hydrogen, gen, I 'hlorine, i lion, Iron, 100 16-00 7100 12-00 56-00 ATO'NEMENT. Sin violates the ground of union, which the personal creature has, by nature, with the holy God. 'The act of sin is one of separa- tion; the act begets the state of sin, the state con- firms and repeats the act. The doctrine od treats of the mediation necessary for restorii union between God and man, which has l>cen lost by sin. The A., therefore, mi the funda- mental doctrine in every religion of sinful ere. In the Christian religion, it manifestly occupies this central position; for the Christian doctrine of the A. is but the explanation of its great historic fact — the embodiment in one person of the Divine and human natures in perfect agreement. In the person of Christ, God and man are atoned: He is their Atonement. So fundamental is the doctrine of the atonement in the Christian religion, that it does not, like many other doctrines, form a ground of distinction among the different bodies into which the Christian world has been divided. All churches may be said to be equally orthodox on this point. The Church of Pome, the Greek Church, the various Protestant churches — established and dissenting— all agree, taking their standards as a criterion, in resting the sinner's hope of salvation on the mediatorial work or atonement of Jesus Christ. Nevertheless, there have been from the very beginning of speculative Christian tin and still continue to be, within the bosom of the 1 churches, various ways of conceiving and explaining the exact nature and mode of operation of this mediatorial work. What follows is a brief sketch of the historical development of these speculations. Christianity differs from heathenism in the clear perception which it has of the antagonism sin has introduced between God and man. Heathenism but vaguely conceives of this variance, and consequently Las but an ill-defined notion of the atonement re- quired, the notion Beldam containing more than the idea of a reconciled union of the individual man with nature and the universal life. Even v. hen- its myth- ical divinities assume personality, it is but an personality without any concrete reality of life, and consequently without any real significance for the conscience. In this state, the abject subject in in to nature pp sphere of conscious free. loin ■• "I, and demands an A. with one who is Lord both of nature aal man. In Judaism, man stands above nature, in conscious on to a persona] God, whose written law- exhibits the requirements of His relationship man— requirements which are m rer met, and which only make bun fearfully conscious of the over- ling breach between him and his God. Thus ... awakened the sense of guilt, and the desire for an A.: a desire it. could never satisfy. The ig demands of these ever -unfulfilled ce constantly acknowledged by its . which expressed the hidden ground of Jewish hope, and prophetically pointed to its future manifestation. But whilst the Holy Scriptures, throughout the ATONEMENT. Old Testament, exhibit the making of an A. by us sacrifice (Lev. xvi. 21 ; xvii. 11) ; and the both of the Buffering and the dehveranoe of many by the sins and \ one, was common to all antiquity, the idea of the sutfering and i j declared in the n of the prophets (Luke xxiv. -10 ; Isaiali 1 . ; I i xxii.), and not entirely hidden from the more thoughtful and devout contemporaries of Jesus (Luke ii. .'!!: John i. 29), was one which was foreign to the Messianic faith of the great body of the people. IntheNewTesI nt,Chri I is everywhere exhi- bited as one sent from God for the salvation of the world (John iii. 10, 17); and as the condit it of man, of his obtaining this salvation, we read of the requirement of \ faith, and reformation (Matt. iv. 17; V. .'!, 11; vi. 12; Mark xvi. 10; Luke xv. 11), whilst, on the part of God, as conditioning and mediating B ness of sin , re life of Christ upon earth conceived of as cm 1 severally its individual features (Acts v. ."1 ; Kom. iv. 25; viii. 3-1); but more especially His as a ransom for our sins (Malt. xx. 2S; xxvi. 28), as a vicarious sacrifice (1 Peter i. 19; 2 Cor. t. 21), by which we are red lemed from the bond sin (1 Tim. ii. G; Gal. iii. 13; 2 Peter ii. 1), and i. v. 19; 1 ' I John i. 7), and eternal life and peace with God (John X. 11; Col. i. 20). Christ is therefore the Mediator between God and man (1 Tim. ii. f>). having made peace through the blood of His cros3 (Col. i. 20) ; the propitiation for our sins (1 John ii. 2; iv. 10); and our high-priest who oilers Himself a sacrifice to reconcile us with God (Heb. ii. 17; v. 1; ix. 28). Moreover, < I Might that God lias in Christ reconciled the world with Himself (Kom. v. 10; Col i. 22; 2 Cor. v. 10). In accordance with this full and explicit teaching of Holy Scripture, we tind that the sufferings and death of Christ were e\ i ry and essential importance in His work o n ; but notwithstanding this, we look in vain throughout the early centuries of the Christian Church for anything like a systematic development of the doctrine of the Atonement. The germs of the doctrine e but without, any logical connection or clearness. ' On this heal t sen a twofold mistake — some- times the existing beginnings of many la; borated dogmas have been overlooked ; or, on the other hand, it has been attempted to point out with literal distinctness church doctrines as if already developed.' The early church fathers dwell with a sort of inspired devotion upon those facts of the gospel which represent Christ as the sacritice for our sins, as the ransom paid for our redemption, as our deliverer from the power of Satan, as the restorer to mankind of whatever was lost by the fall of Adam ; but they seM to shew how these blessed results connect themselves with the sufferings and death of Christ; neither do they shew in what manner the A. has objectively been made, nor how it is brought to the experience of its individual subjects. The narrow limits of this article will not allow its to specify the many ways in which the su and death of Christ were regarded in relation to their A for sin. During the first four centuries there appeared no certainty of opinion as to whether they were a ransom-price paid to God or to the devil. The latter supposition is the more prevalent, and is shared in by Origen and St Augustine. G of Nyssa explains this opinion by saying, that the devil consented to receive Jesus as a ransom, because he regarded Him as more than an equivalent for all 130 those under his power; but that, notwithstanding his Bubtilty, he was outwitted, for, owing to the humiliation in which Chi fully rec nil i Sim as the Son oi God, and oonse- quently was himself deceived. But bavin to receive Him as a ransom for mankind, b naly deprived of his dominion over man, whilst he could not retain .ie«us when li Him to be the Holy ( Ine of ( I tormented by His holin Athanasius first of all successfidly controverted this notion, and maintained that the ransom was paid to God. He argued that as God had thr. B to punish transgressors with death. He could but ■ His threat. But then it was not becoming the character of God to allow I In purpose in the creation of man to be frustrated by an imposition practised up nhimbythedeviL Theonlyex] therefore, which remained for his delivi was the incarnation and sacrifice of the I OS in his stead, by which the justice and veracity of would be maintained, man delivered, the law fulfilled, and the power of the devil brob .i. 1 1 h.-s often been stated that Tertullian uses the term satisfaction with respect to Christ's A. for sin, but this is incorrect, for although he employs the term, lie never does so in the sense of a vicarious satisfac- tion, but only in the sense of making amends for our own sins by confession and repentance. These elemental and mythical conceptions of the doctrine of the A. remained in a most imperfect and i her undeveloped condition, until the acute and genius of the Piedmontese Archbishop of Canterbury reduced them to order, and pn them in logical consistency. We must regard Anselm, tin ■ the author, at least as to its form, of the doctrine of vicarious satisfaction, which, under various modifications, has ever since continued to be held as the orthodox doctrine of the church. The following is, in all essential respects, his state- ment of the doctrine : The infinite guilt which man had contracted, by the dishonour 01 his sin against the infinitely great God, could be atoned for by no mere creature ; only the God-man Christ Jesus could render to God the infinite satisfaction required. God only can satisfy Himself. The human nature of Christ enables Him to incur, the infinity of His divine nature to pay, this debt. But it was incum- bent upon Christ as a man to order His life accord- ing to the law of God; the obedience of His life, therefore, was not able to render satisfaction for our guilt. But although He was under obligation to live in obedience to the law, as the Holy One he was under no obligation to die. Seeing, then, that He nevertheless voluntarily surrendered His infinitely precious life to the honour of God, a recompense from God became His due, and His recompense consists in the forgiveness of the sins of His brethren. — In this form of the doctrine we are taught the necessity of an active vicarious satisfaction ; but Anselm nowhere teaches the passive satisfaction, he nowhere says that Christ endured the punishment of men. Nor do we find in his writings the develop- ment of the subjective side of the doctrine — namely, how the satisfaction rendered to God mediates the A. in the experience of the believer. Subsequent to the time of Anselm, and prior to the Reformation, there are two views of the A. which divide the opinions of this period : the one regarding the peculiar manner in which it was accomplished as absolutely necessary, and deriving its efficiency from its objective nature ; the other supposing a subjective connection between the sufferings of Jesus and the price of redemption, because this was best fitted to effect the moral transformation of men. According to Anselm, the satisfaction rendered by ATONEMENT. Christ was greater than the guilt for which He atoned; and it needed to be greater, for the pay- ment of the debt due to God gave men no claim to the favour of God. Thomas Aquinas and his followers maintained Augustine's opinion of the infinite value of the blood of Christ rendering it more than sufficient; while the Scotists main; that it was sutlicient only because God was pleased to regard it as sufficient But in the period between Anselm and the Reformation, little or no progress was made in the development of this doctrine. We now come to the period of the Reformation, when the objective speculations of the schoolmen are it under the subjective requirements of human soids, and the doctrine of the A. is viewed in thi.s In the writings of Luther, one will only with difficulty arrive at his intellectual apprehension of this doctrine in its scientific form ; but setting out with the consciousness of sin, one will ever; discover how he realised that in Christ all sin is ' vanquished, killed, and buried, and righteousness remaineth a conqueror and reigneth for ever.' The an outline of the Lutheran doctrine, as laid down in the Concordicnformd : It is alone by faith wc can receive the blessings presented to us in the gospel by the Holy Ghost. Faith justifies, because it appropriates the merit of Christ. There- fore, the righteousness which is imputed to the believer, simply by the grace of God, is the obedience, the suffering, and the resurrection of Christ, by which He has satisfied the claims of the law, and atoned for our sins. For as Christ is not merely man, but God and man in one person, He was, as Lord of the law, no more subject to it than He was subject to suf- fering and death. For this reason, His twofold nee — that which He rendered, on the one hand, by His suffering and death ; and, on the other, by His righteous fulfilment of the law on our behalf— is imputed to us, and God acquits us of our sins, and regards U3 as just, in view of His complete obedience in what He did and suffered. This obedience em- braces the entire existence of Christ upon earth, and is so complete that it fully covers the disobedience of men, so that it is not reckoned against them for con- lemnation. Christ is our righteousness, therefore, only in so far as in His entire person the most perfect obedience is exhibited, which He was able to render in that He was neither God alone nor man alone, but both in one, God and man. According to Calvin : if one asks how Christ has reconciled us with God, and purchased a righteousness wliich made Him favourable to us, it may In: answered generally, that He accomplished this by the whole course of His obedience. But although the life of Clirist is to be regarded as paying the price necessary fur our deliverance, the Scriptures ascribe our redemp- tion especially to His death. Calvin attached importance to the particular mode of His death — any other mode of death would not have rendered the same satisfaction to God. He, however, says little or nothing about Christ's fulfilling the law for us, but dwells upon His delivering us from its curse. He does not, therefore, exhibit His active obedience sepa- rated, as an essential part of His satisfaction for sin, from His passive obedience. The importance attached to the obedience of His life arises from its natural and ary connection with His Buffering and - And the great importance attached to His deatli is drawn rather from the view of its subjective neces- sity, than from the idea of the divine righteous namely, that without such a death there would have been no sutlicient ground for the subjective realisa- tion of deliverance from sin and guilt. Calvin's view differs from that of the Lutheran ConcordUi- in that he docs not regard the relationship of God to man merely from the stand-point of punitive and satisfying righteousness, which always leads to the merely negative notion of a Redeemer from guilt and punishment, but looks upon Christ as the highest Mediator, through whom the nature of God is communicated to man. There was a necessity for Christ's incarnation, not merely because, apart from the suffering of the God-man, the divine righteous- ness coidd not be atoned, but also because, without such a divine Mediator, there could be no vital rela- tion between God and man. ' Had man remained free from all taint, he was of too humble a condition to penetrate to G od without a Mediator.' While the reformers established the doctrine of the A. on the theory of Anselm, and extended it so as to make the sufferings of Christ include the Divine curse, and introduced distinctions between Christ's active and passive obedience, Socinus endeavoured to prove the falseness of Anselm's theory. He shares with the Protestants the subjective principle, which the period of the Reformation established, but developed it in a one-sided manner. Socinianism its man as attaining to oneness with himself and with God by his own moral energy. It rejects that idea of the righteousness of God which makes it impossible for Him to forgive sin without a satisfac- tion, as imposing finite limitations upon the divine Being ; and also objects to the doctrine of satisfaction, on the ground that satisfaction for sin i ness of sin are incompatible with each other ; and, moreover, objects that sin and punishment are of so personal a nature as not to allow of their being trans- ferred. It further opposes the doctrine of the active and passive obedience of Christ, on the ground, that the one excluded the other. Another objection maintained the actual impossibility of Christ's rendering the supposed satisfaction for sin. The doctrine it sought to establish in the place of the one it attempted to overthrow may in brief be stated as follows. Man is reconciled to God by repentance and reformation. Only from an act of man changing his disposition, and not from an act of God changing His relation to man, follows his reconciliation with God. God is in Himself ever the same towards man — reconciled from all eternity ; man alone has to assume a new relation ; as soon as he does this, he is immediately reconciled ; by this act of his will, he is at one with God. Only in man's moral state is there any obstacle to his recon- ciliation. This greatest and holiest accomplisliment, the reconciliation of man with God, is achieved by an act of his will. In this purely subjective theory, repentance occupies the place of faith in the orthodox doctrine, and faith becomes identical with obedience ; for repentance and reformation are regarded as but the two sides of the same act of the will. It follows from this that justification is of works as well as reconciliation. A necessity for the sufferings of Christ is shewn for the following objects— that He might become our example ; better lifted to render us help ; that we might have a pledge and guarantee of the Divine forgiveness; and as conditioning His resurrection and ascensio We must now hasten to the form of this doctrine among ' Modern Calvinists,' without attempting fur- ther to exhibit the links in the chain of its historic connection. ' Modern Calvinism' represents the A. as that satisfaction for sin which was rendered to God. in His public character as moral governor of the world, 1 y the peril et obedience unto death of our Lord Jesus Christ. The nature of this satisfaction was a moral, not a pecuniary satisfaction. It preserves to the moral government of God its authority, whilst its tendency is to secure the forgiveness of sin. The value of the BuflB rim • Christ consists in their tendency to uphold the Divine moral government ATONEMENT, unimpaired whilst pardon is extended to those who i than in their intrinsic lence, which, though essentia] 1", did not constitute thnr value-, i i a moral necessity for < : Bufferings and death ob taclea to the be towment of pardon had to be removed— the influence of the Holy spirit had to bi cored. The whole contents of Christ's earthly existence, ami both His active and passive obedience a distinction which is unsupported by the word of God must be led as i tributing to the A. which lit- made. Oi the actual Bufferings of Chris! immediately attend- ing His death, it would be unpardonable to speak with confidence, so little has been revealed. It may. however.be considered — whether the Savioi privation of His Father's countenance may not have been indirectly caused rather by His awful and afflict- ing sense of the evil of sin, than otherwise'.' the 'Extent' of the A., there i< a broad distinction to be made between the stiff the A., and its efficiency. It may be true thai Jehovah did not intend to exercise that influence of the Holy Spirit upon all which i- necessary to secure 1 1 1 ■ - Balvation of any one, but as the A. was to become the basis of ril government, it WS I I hat it should he one oi infinite worth, and so m itself ade- quate to the salvation of all S e, on this poinl "i Extent' of the A., the art. Ej . I'inii- i i i si: and I'mvkks.U.. in ' represents the modified view of the doctrine as advocated by 1 >r Payne, and as held, in all essential by such men as Pye Smith and WardlaW, which in its earlier form, and as found in the writings of Owen and Edwards, maintains that the A. was made only for the elect ; and that its necessity with respect to them arose out of the et.inal justice Of I oid. which required that every individual should receive bis i t;a id, conse- quently, that the sufferings of Christ endurance of punishment equivalent in amount of Buffering, if not identical in nature as Owen main- tains — with that to which the elect were exposed; and, moreover, that the mentor b dience of Christ in fulfilling the law, imputes a righteoune - to those for whom the A. secures salvation, which ivea them a chum to the reward of righteousness. Our space will not allow us to present to the reader tic various forms which this doctrine is made i i in the philosophic theologj ol Germany from Kant to the present time. See N i We must, therefore, confine sentati i those views of the doctrine advocated by our own countrymen in our own time, which may fairly represent the present state of opinion with respect to this fundamental doctrine. Let us begin with the view of modern I'nita- rianism, which may very clearly and fairly he pre- sented in the words of one of its most able living advocates, the Rev. Professor John .hum < Tayler: "•There is one mediator between (led and men, the man Christ Jesus." This can only refer to unrivalled pre-eminence, not to exclusive function. For all higher minds do, in fact, mediate between their less gifted fellow-creatures and the great s of the invisible world. This "owe" is a human mediator, "the man Christ Jesus" — not a being from another sphere an angel or a God — but a brother from the bosom of our own human family. •• lh gave himself a ransom for all" who embrace His oilers and will hearken to His voice. He brings from (oid a general summons to repent; and with that He conveys, through faith, a spiritual power to shake off the bondage of sin. and put on the freedom of a new heart and a new life. He is a deliverer from the power of sin and the fear of death. This is the end of His mediation. This is the redemption 53i of which He paid the price. His death, cheerfully met in the inevitable sequence of faithful duty, was only one among many links in the chain of in tru- mentalities by which that deliverance was effected. It was a proof such as could be given in no other way, of trust in God and immortality, of fidelity to duty, and of love for mankind. In those who ; : v contemplated it, and saw all that it implied, it awoke a tender res] Be of gratitude and confidence, which softened the obdurate hear! opined it, to serious impressions and the quickening es of a religious spirit. 1 Professor Jowett advocates an opinion peculiarly his own, if, indeed, language so confessedly vague and indefinite can be said to embody an opinion. It is this : ' that the only sacrifice, A., or satisfaction with which the Christian has to do, is a moral and spiritual one ; not the pouring out of blood upon the earth, but the living sacrifice "todothy wilLO God;" in which the believer has part as well as his Lord ; about the meaning of which there can be no more question in our day than there (Vaa in the Si I ages.' — ' Heathen and Jewish sacrifices rather shew us what the sacrifice of Christ was not) than what it was. They are the dim, vague, rude, almost bar- barous expression of that want in human nature which has received satisfaction in Him only. Men are afraid of Something ; they wish to give away something ; they feel themselves bound by some- thing ; the fear is done away, the gift "tiered, the obligation fulfilled in Christ. Such fears and can no more occupy their soids ; they are free to had a better life; they are at the end of the old world, and at the beginning of a new one.' -The work of Christ is set forth in Scripture under many different figures, lest we should rest in one only. His death, for instance, is described as a Hansom. It is not that God needs some payment before He will set the captives free. Hansom is deliver- ance to the captive. 'Whosoever committeth sin is the servant of sin.' Christ delivers froi 'If the Son shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed.' To whom? for what was the ran om paid ? are questions about which Scripture is silent, to which reason refuses to answer. A remarkably original work has been i i within the last few years by the low John M'Leod Campbell on the subject of the Atonement. Sis views are as follows : The work of the Son of Cod, who came to do and did the will of His Father, must, in view of the deliverance which He wrought, irdcd as twofold : first, as dealing with man on behalf of God, and second, as dealing with Cod on behalf of man. In dealing with man on behalf of God, Christ I d to us the Father in His relation to a sinful world, shewed us what our sins were to God, vindi- cated in the world the father's name, and witni I to the excellency of that will against which we were rebelling. In thus revealing the will of the Father towards sinful men, He necessarily became a man of sorrow and suffering, but these arose naturally out of wdiat He was, and the relation in which He stood to those for whom He suffered ; and to the holiness and love of His very nature must we refer their awful intensity and immeasurable amount. He suffered what He suffered just through seeing sin and sinners with Cod's eyes, and feeling in refer- ence to them with God's heart. By what Eesuffi red, He condemned sin, and revealed the wrath of God against it. His holiness and love taking the form of suffering, compose the very essence and adequacy of His sacrifice for sin. Again, in dealing with God on behalf of man, tiro oneness of mind with the Father which towards man took the form of condemnation of sin, became in ATONLMEXT. His dealing with the Father in relation to us a perfect confession of our sins, which was a perfect Amen in humanity to the judgment of God on the sin of man. Such an Amen was due in the truth of all things, due on out behalf, though we could not render it, due from Him as in our nature and 'un- true brother. II'- who was the truth, could not be in humanity and not ntter it ; and it wag necessarily a first step in dealing with the Father "ii our behalf. This confession of our sins by Hin as the Son of God and the son of man in one person, could perfectly real vl "f man's alienation, was a peculiar development of the holy sorrow in which He bore tl:.- burden of our sins; and which, like His sufferings in confessing His Father before men, had a severity and intensity of its own. But apart from t ; sent in that com humanity o! I to the divine condemnation of sin, is necessarily con- ditioned by the reception of the full a] and realisation of the wrath of G I as of the sin which it comes forth into His soul ami spirit, into the bosom of the divine humanity. and, so receiving it, He responds to it with a perfect ■-, and in that perfect response He absorbs it. For that response has all the elements of a perfect repentance in humanity, for all the sin of man — a perfect sorrow — a perfect contrition — all the ele- ments of such a repentance, and that in absolute perfection ; all — excepting the personal consciousness of sin — and by that perfect response or amen to thi mind of God, in relation to sin, is the wrath of God rightly met, and that is awarded to divine justice which is its due, and could alone satisfy it. This confession of the world's sin by the Head and Represi ntative of humanity, was followed up by His intercession as a part of the full response of the mind of the Son to the mind of the Father — a part of that utterance in humanity which propitiated the mercy by the righteous way in which it laid hold of the hope for man which was in God. ' He bore tin-- sins of many, and made intercession for sors.' The Eev. F. D. Maurice professes to hold a purely biblical theology, as opposed to the theologies of con- sciousness, which he repudiates. His doctrine of the A. is the answer which the Bible gives to the demands of a sin-smitten consciei nner requires, and is content to be told on the authority of Scripture, that the Son of God has taken away sin. Una in God is the gospel for all men. The sinner wants to 1 I that God has spoken, I fe has declared Himself the Reconciler, and ^ to be shewn how and in whom He has accomplished that work on his behalf. To this question Sow and in whom the work of reconciliation has been accomplished?— Mr Maurice . in effect and almost in words as follows: The will of God is Bet forth in the Bil ' til a will whieh is good to all, and the ground of all that is right, true, just, and gracious ; that it also sets forth tie- Son fi <■"'! as being cue in will. purp.. substance with tin- Father, and that His who on earth was an exhibition of. and itoHis Father's will; that the Son of God was 1. nun, the Root and Bead of humanity, and the source of all light and righteousness in man: that being thus one with God and one with man. He brought tin- will of God into our nature, fulfilled it in our nature perfectly, and carried it down into the lowest condition into which it had fallen through sin; that 111 the fulfilment of this will iu our nature, as its head, I 1 gs, enduring that wrath, or punishment, which proceeded from Holy Love, thus realising, on the one hand, the SOU "1 the world, and on the other, tin- consuming fury of the holiness of the love of God — with an anguish which only a perfectly pure ami holy Being, who is also a perfectly sympathising and grace i an feel: that the ' iu-ist Jesus was for ti tiie object of ' hi r's continual complacency — a complacency fully drawn out by tie death of the cross— which so out to view the uttermost of self-sacrifice which lay hidden in the divine and consequently that He exhibited humanity, in its atoned for. reconciled. In tins way, to Mr Maurice, is < Ihrist -th'- Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world.' Finally. Dr Trench, who maybe regarded as fairly representing the prevalent views of th,- and thoughtful men of tie- present day holding ortho- linions, speaks as follows : ' 'lie- pirit o cries out for something deeper than repentance, con- . amendment of life; something which shall reach further back ; which shall not be clogged with sinful infirmities, as his own repentance ( the very best must be. Men cry for some work to rest upon, which shall not be their work, but which shall be God's ; perfect, coin: I y feel that there must be something which God has wrought, not so much in them as./-//- then, : they yearn for this, for A., propitiation, ransom, and conscience purged from ■ lead works by the blood of sprinkling; a rock to flee to which is higher than they, than their I ance, than their faith, than , even than their new life in the spirit. New, this rock is Christ ; and John the Baptist point 1 to this rock, when, to those about him who longed after more than amendment of life, he exclaimed, in the memorable words : "Behold the Lamb of Cod which taketh away the sin of the world." ' Christ's sacrifice was vicarious — He died not merely for the good of, but in the room and in the stead of others, tasted death for them. He did'this of His own free will. He saw that nothing else wotdd overcome their sinful perversity and wilful obduracy, and that this would be effectual to d Christ t""k upon Himself the penalties of a sinful world, and His self-sacrifice is only not righteous, because it is so much better than righteous, Because it moves in that higher region where law is no more known, but only known no more because it is transfigured into love. Vicarious suffering is the law and condition of all highest nobleness in the world. It is this which God is continually demand- 's 'proving theme '■• - lliselect as they freely own themselves tie of love to the last penny of the requirements which it But the sufferings and death of Christ were not merely vicarious, they were a!- i ; And thus atoning or setting tit one, bringing together the Holy and the unholy, who could not have been reconciled in any other way. It is not maintained that God could have pleasure in the sufferings of the innocent and the holy, and that innocent and "holy His own Son; but only that He must have the hi_ uv in the love, the patience, the those Bofl Him the opportunity o ng, which but for those He never could have displayed. I sublime the will of God permitted the Father to say, ' 1 have found a ransom.' Christ satisfied herein, no; the divine anger, but the divine craving and yearning after a p rfi t holin isness, and obedience in man; which craving no man had satisfied, but all h The read further and fuller infor- mation on this so' following works, which have been consult el and used in the preparation of this article : I "i der i Base's ' index's M.1 ATRATO-ATTACHM EXT. Christliche DogmengescJiicJde ; Gieseler's Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschiclile ; Hagenbach's Lehrbuch the Death of Christ, and Of the Death Payne's Lectures on Divine Sovereignly; Oh.il Institutes of Theology : Wanllaw's Systematic logy; Campbell's (.Mm M'Leod) Nature of the Atonement, &c. ; Taylor's (J. J.) < ' Faitii and Duly (Discourse on 'Christ the Med: Maurice's Theological Essays; Jowett's St I .first and 8 nd editions (Article 'On ment and Satisfaction'); Trench's Five Set (sermon on ' Christ the Lamb of God '). ATRA'TO, a river of New Granada, more import- ant from its position than from its magnitude. It has already been mentioned under the head oi America in connection with the scheme of opening a communication by water between the Atlantic and the Pacific. The main stream falls into the Gulf of Darien by 9 mouths— the quantity of water, from the almost daily rains, being large in proportion to th drained, which does not, at the utmost, exceed 300 miles by 75. Of the 9 mouths, the third in rank, the Boca Coquito, appears to offer the most avail- able facilities for improving the navigation. About 220 miles above this entrance, opposite to Quibdo, the A is 850 feet wide and S feet deep at the shal- lowest parts, while the entire fall to the sea a\ less than 3 inches to a mile. Unfortunately, bow- ever, the A. itself cannot advantageously be followed thus far, because, as one advances to the the intervening ridge to the west, and its streams towards the Pacific become less and less practicable. But a comparatively convenient route has been surveyed through the munificence of Mr P. M. Kelley, a private citizen of New York. Ascending the Boca Coquito as before, this route leaves the main stream at a distance of 63 miles from the sea, following the Truando, one of its western affluents, for 36 miles more without impediment or interrup- tion. From this point on the Truando to the Pacific there would still remain 32 miles ; and it is only on this section that any serious difficulties would be found. The heaviest work woidd be a tunnel of 3} mdes in length. According to the plan, the canal would be without a lock; and its termini would require but little improvement to render them excel- lent harbours. Thus would the A. realise the destiny which Humboldt chalked out for it upwards of 50 years ago. ATRI'P. An anchor is said to be A. when it is just drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direction. A top-sail is A. when it is just started from the cap. A'TRIPLEX. See Cuexopodiace-E andORACHE. A'TRIUM, in Roman Architecture, was the covered court or entrance-hall which formed the chief part of a Roman house. It was lighted from the roof, which sloped towards an opening in the centre (the compluvium), through which the rain- water flowed into a kind of cistern situated on the floor [iheimpluvium). On both sides, passages led to the several chambers. Its size was in proportion to the other parts of the house. After the burning of 1 tome in the reign of X'ero, great attention was paid to the decorations of the entrance-halls or Atria. Here the female slaves were engaged in weaving and other domestic occupations, under the superintendence of their mistress. Family pictures were preserved in the A, it also contained the nuptial couch, and it 634 served as a general waiting-room for visitors and The Atria of tho temples were used as places of assembly of tho senators, and for other public meetings. A'TROPA. See Belladonna. ATROPHY (Gi •. want of nourishment ; from a, irishment) is a morbid animal or vegetable life, residting in at nutrition of the body, or part of the body, and B consequent decay and waste of its substance. not applied to the mere withholding the requisite supply of nutriment, but to the condi- by various diseases that affect tho body. See Nutrition, also Digestion, Dyspepsia, .TROPHY. A'TRYPA, a genus of fossil brachiopod or lamp shells, having a close resemblance to the well-known Terebratuta. It possessed a perforation for the pas- sage of the peduncle, by which the animal attached to foreign bodies. This foramen is not visible in all examples of the same species, from the beak touching and overlying the umbo of the other valve ; the animal was, therefore, probably free dm portion of its existence. The name (derived from a, it, and trypa, foramen) was given to this genus by Dalman, as he erroneously supposed that the perforation was entirely absent. Judging from the markings on the interior of the shell, the animal seems to have differed little from the recent Rhyn- conella, except that it had large calcareous spines for the support of its labial I s. A. is a strictly paleozoic brachiopod, the solitary Permian species being the last representative of the genus. Of the 17!) described species, 100 are Silurian, 56 Devonian, 22 Carboniferous, and 1 Permian. ATTACHE (French), a subordinate or assistant. The term is generally applied to young diplomatists v ho accompany embassies. ATTACHMENT is an English legal term, signi- fying the form of process, by the authority of which the person or the goods of a debtor may be seized in satisfaction. As a proceeding against the person, it is a species of criminal process, and has the force of much that will be found under Apprehend (q. v.) ; but in strictness, it means a process issuing from a court of record against a person guilty of a contempt, or, more properly, of a judcial con- and who is punishable in a summary manner court in whose presence, against whose autho- rity. or against whose writ3 the contempt has been overtly '• Thus, in Hawkins's Pleas of I ,'. such contempts are thus classed : 1. Disobedience to the Queen's writs ; 2. Cont in the face of a court ; 3. Contemptuous words or writings concerning a court ; 4. Refusing to comply with the ndes and awards of a court ; and 5. For- gery of writs, or any other deceit tending to impose on a court. Parties are also liable to the process of A. as for a contempt of court where, in an arbitra- tion (see Arbitration) the award having been made a rule of court under the 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 15, the parties refuse to obey the same. In Chancery, there may be A. of the person for judicial default or other offence to the court, as, for example, where a defendant fails to put in his answer or proper plea to the plaintiff's bill of complaint. The only other process of A. against the person which it is necessary here to notice, is the non-attendance in court of a witness, who in such event is considered to have committed a contempt of court, and to be liable to be punished for such contempt by attachment. An action may also be brought against such defaulting witness at the suit of the aggrieved party, on account of any loss or damage occasioned by the non-attendance. ATTACHMENT— ATTAINDER. The proceeding by A. of goods resembles in some respects the Scotch diligence or process of arrest- ment. See A i: i: Ivstm BUT. The best I I we can give of it, in this sense, is th.it relating to the power of a judgment creditor to recover under hi ment. liy the 17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, it ii ]>i" id a tli.it the judgment creditor may apply to the court or a judge for a rule or order to have the debtor orally examined as to the debt; owing to him by any third party, or garnishee, as he is called (see Garnishee), and also for an order that all such garnishee debts be attached to answer the judgment debt, the service of which order has the effect of binding or attaching the debts in the garnishee's hands. ATTACHMENT, Foreign. See Foreign Attachment. ATTA'CK, in military warfare, is an advance upon the enemy, with a view of driving him from rug position. It may cither be an attack in the open field or an attack upon a fortress. In an attack in the open field, the general first ascertains the sin I position of the enemy, by means of a reconnaissance or of spies. He then seeks to discover at what point the enemy can make the least resistance ; which is generally on one or other flank. He next arranges to concentrate his chief strength upon this particular point; and to mask his real intention i Igned operations in other places. He then attacks with energy and force ; his troops advancing without halt till near i no ' b to Use tni ir weapons with the greatest effect. The more the attack has the character of a 'sur- ! ,' the greater the probability of its success. In order to make this success as much felt as possible, and to be provided also against unforeseen disaster, the attacking body shonld be followed at a distance by a n erve; a neglect of this precaution has frequently caused the entire failure of an attack. Various forms have been devised for the attack ; but generally the parallel or frontal is the one made use of. Frederick the Great, however, won most of his battles by the oblique attack, in which one wing is more advanced than the other. The first Napoleon fed, by means of his heavy columns, to pene- trate and break up the enemy's centre. Another mode combines an attack on one flank as well as in front, by two separate corps ; so as either fco into the enemy's rear, or to perplex him as to bis retreat. A skilful general will he guided by circum- stances in his selection among these several modes of operating. An attack by night might act most signally as a surprise; but as this requires a Very exact knowledge of the ground, an attack at early dawn is generally prefi m d. The different arms of the service reml c own kind of aid during an attack. First conic the skirmishers, or perhaps whole battalions of light and active troops, whose rifles or long-range commence tile firing. Then come the main b infantry in heavy column ; tliey halt within musket- shot, lire, and charge with the bayonet— the skir- mishers meanwhile deploying round to the rear of the column, but holding themselves in readiness to harass the enemy's flanks, English troops esp excel in the attack by bayonet in line; but I armies, for the most part, rely more upon the momentum of a compact and heavy column in an attack. There are positions in which the cavalry attack, with its shock and the use of the sword, is more efficacious than that of the infantry. The troopers approach at a trot, break into a gallop at a ace of one or two hundred paces from the enemy, and endeavour by their weight and impetuosity to force the enemy's line. There are many forms of cavalry attack, according to the nature of the ground and the position of the enemy. The artillery, work- ing at a distance, often begin an attack long before the infantry and cavalry can come up, hart and con • enemy. At 80 distance, the artillery pour out shot and shell, and try t<> silence tl lemy's guns, so as to make way for the attack of the infantry ; while the ■t -charge is being made, the artillery keep in check tl dry. If the attack succeeds, the infantry and artillery take up the ground recently occupied by the enemy, leaving the cavalry and riflemen to maintain a pursuit ; but if it fail, the artillery and cavalry lake' up such positions as will cover the retreat of the infantry. In an attack upon a fortress, the operation is a part of that of besieging (see Siege) ; but very often intienchments are attacked in the open field. Such, an attack has tho character of a surprise, ■when the works are approached under cover of and an attempt is made to break into them on all sides. In such case, there is a reserve corps, which is rapidly brought up when wanted ; but the attacking corps retire behind the reserve, if repulsed. Tho artillery post themselves on the pro- longation of the line of works, and try to (bslodge the enemy's guns and gunners; or pour a con- centric lire sufficient to breach the works. The infantry advance as close as will enable them to fire upon the gunners. When the enemy's fire is sdenccd, the engineers (under cover of the artil- lery) proceed to remove palisades and all other obstacles, and to bridge over ditches and openings. Then follow the operations of the storming- p analogous to those noticed under Assault. ATTAI'NDER is the legal consequence of judg- ment of death or outlawry, in respect of treason or felony. It is said to have been derived from the Latin word atlinclus, attaint, stained, and it is followed by forfeiture of estate, i rsonal, and by corruption of blood ; and generally it imports the extinction of civil rights and capacities. Thus, an attainted person cannot sue in a court of justice; he loses all power over his property; and he is by his A. rendered incapable of performing any of the duties, or enjoying any of the privileges of a free citizen. But absolute and severe as tli sequences of A. seem to be, they have their limits, lu regard to the attainted person, neither the govern- ment nor the crown can exercise absolute or capri- cious authority; everything must be don to I al and constitutional principle and rule, and for the ends of public justice alone. Formerly, an attainted person could net give evidence in a court of justice; but that disability in England has been 1 by the 6 and 7 Vict. c. S5, and in Scotland by the 15 and 1G Vict, c. 27. We have stated that the immediate consequences of A. are forfi iture of estate and corruption of blood. The forfeiture is of estate real ami personal ; tho latter, indeed, maybe forfeited by mere conviction alone, and without A., no sentence or jud necessary to infer it, But A. is essential to the for- feiture of real estate, as to which the most ! A. occurs in treason, where the attainted man for- feit; to the crown all his lands and freehold inherit- ance, whether fee e-tail. and all his rights of entry on lands and tenements of freehold tenure, for ever vested in the crown : and also the profits of all lands and tenements of freehold 1 nine which lie had m his own right. This forfeiture' ward to t' a com- ! ; and yet il does not take effect unless there be \.e. :, if a traitor dies before judgment, or is killed in open rebellion, or is capi- tally punished by martial law, the; A. operates no forfeiture of lands, for he never was attainted of ATTAINDER— ATTKKTURV. m. T.iit to this there is a curious exception oned liy I'dackstonc viz., tli.it where the chief-justice of the Court of Queen's Bench in p r- tin' supreme coroner of all Rngland, upon the view of the hoily of one killed ill op. n i. hellion, records the fact, and returns the record into his nun court, both lands and goods shall be forfeited. A. tor felony involves the forfeiture of all chattel interest absolutely, and the profits of all fie. -hoi. 1 estates during life; and hy A. for murd hold lands of the offi ndi i held in fee-simple at forfeited to the crown for a year and day. with power to the crown of committing upon them what ;i plea es, See Waste. This doctrine of year and day, and VKLtU, applied, until recently, to anj felony whatever, .• ■ i i ;eeption of tre; ion. But now, by the 64 Geo. DDL c. 145, no A. for felon; — except in the cases of treason or murder, or of abetting, procuring, or counselling the same— shall extend to tin- disinheritance of any heir, nor to the prejudice of any pi rson othi c than the right or title of the ull'ender himself during his own life. The other consequence of A. — viz., corruption of blood, is anxiously and learnedly treat law-books, and in Blackstone's Commentaries j but the ancient law on the subject has been so much narrowed in its application by modern legislation as to have lost much of its importance; and, indeed, this doctrine of corruption of hi 1 was in modi rn times always looked upon as a peculiar hardship, at I as regards the family of the offender; and now, by the statutes ~>l Geo. 111. c. 145, already referred to, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 100, and 13 and 14 Vict. c. 00, whatever savoured of inhumanity or harshness under the ancient system has been effec- tually removed; in fact, it may be stated that, excepting in the cases of treason and murder, the law of corruption of blood, so far as the family of the offender are concerned, has ceased to form pari of the law. Besides A. by the operation of law as al ove stated, there have been frequent in tances ol attainders by express legislative enactment, as to v, hich, see Bill ojj Ateaindj The Scotch law of A., consequent on a conviction for treason, corresponds to the English doctrine; and although the word A. is not a Scotch technical term in regard to crimes other than treason, the for- feitures consequent on conviction and judgment are very much the suae as the English. ATTAI'NDEl!, Bui OP. See Bill op Att.ux- ATTAI'XT, WRIT or, was anciently a mode of inquiring whether a jury had given a false verdict, which has been abolished hy the 4 Geo. IV. c. . r >i>. A. is, however, still in use to some extent as a tech- nical word in the law of England ; thus, there is the plea of autrefois A., or of a former attaindi r, for the same crime, and now regulated by the 7 and 8 Ceo. IV. o. 28, s. 4. In the old Scotch criminal law. A., or altaynl, signified a conviction, or being convicted. ATTAEE'A, a genus of Palms, comprising a number of species, natives of the tropical parts of South Ann nea. They have in general lofty Cylin- drical smooth stems, but there are some stemless species. The leaves are huge and pinnate. The fruit has a dry fibrous husk, enclosing a nut with three cells and three Beeds. The leaves of some species are much used for thatching, and those of some are woven into hats, mats, &c. The nuts of and of A. s/>eriiixa are burned to dry the India-rubber obtained from the Sijilionia duxlini, which acquires its black colour from their smoke. The haf-stalks of A./unifera, which is found in the southern maritime provinces of Brazil, and is there 636 called Piassaba, yield a fibre much used for cordage. The ("Op II made of it are very strong, and extr.tii. ly durable in salt water. The Piassaba palm of the northern parts of Brazil, however, is totally differ- ent, and much of the Piassaba (q. v.) fibre imp irted into Britain is obtained from it. The fruit of A. funifera, known hy the name of Coquilla mil. as an ostrich's egg, and supplies a kind l Lie ivory, used for making umbrella handles, . The fruit of A. compta, the Pindova or Indaj.i palm, is of the size of a i's i | '. and the I are eatable. It is a stately and beautiful tree, with a wide-spreading crown. A'TTAR. See Otto. ATTEMPT to commit a felony or criminal offence is in many instances equally cognizable b; nal tribunals with the completed crime itself. See ii.i 1 ION, Fei.onv, Mi -hi nn 01 . A'TTERBURV. Praui i . Bi bop of Rochester, was born on the 6th of March 1662, at Milton, near Newport PagneL. in r.uekinghamshire, and educated at Westminsti c School, from which, in L680, he passed to ( Ihrist I fhurch, < ixford. In 1GS7, he gave proof of that ready controversial talent which distinguished him through life, in a reply- to a pseudonymous attack on Protestantism by Obadinh Walker, master of University College, Disappointed in his expectation of succeeding to his father's rectory, in 1693, he sought a wider held of distinction, tor ambition seems to have stimulated his efforts rather more than the love of souls, and in London his rhetorical [lowers soon won him reputa- tion. He became a royal chaplain, minister of |!r dewell, and l.-.-l hi. i' of Si liridc s. In 1698, a temporary sensation was created in the learned world by the appearance of the Hon. ( lharles Boj le'a ination of Dr Bentley's Dissertations un the . qf Pliaiaris and On FaUi ■ ■■ This but shallow and malicious performance was in reality composed chiefly by A., who had been the young nobleman's tutor at Christ Church. In 1700 he di in. i'i '"d himself in a controversy witb Dr Wake and others regarding the powers and privi- [i of convocations. A.'s zealous and caustic of the eccle is tical against the civil authority, procured him the thanks of the lower Souse oi ' onvocation, and the degree of D.D. In 171M, he was promoted to the deanery of Carlisle, on which occasion he subjected himself to just obloquy by attempting to procure an alteration in the date of his predecessor's resignation, which happened to interpose a temporary obstacle to his appointment, tn 1707 he was made a canon of Exeter; in 1709, preached at the Rolls Chapel; ill 17 11 1 lie Was ell.. n proloentor to the lower House of lation, and in the same year he had th hand, according to the common belii E, in d up the famous defi i ..." I >r Sacheverel] ; in 1712, he became Dean of Christ Church, where, however, his turbulent and combative spirit had meanwhile involved him in bo many controversies, that there was no peace until he was removed; in 1713, he was made Bishop of Rochester and Dean of West- minster. It is supposed, not unreasonably, that lired to the primacy ; but the death of Qui en Anne extinguished his hopes in that direction. His known character and Jacobite leanings made him no favourite with George I. In 171"> he n to sign the bishops' declaration of fidelity, and some of the most violent protests of the Peers tb inment measures proceeded from his reckless pen. His deep complicity in a suc- if plots for the restoration of the .Stuarts, brought down upon him at length the chai treason, and, in August 1722, be was committed to ATTESTATION— ATT I! \. the Tower. A bill of pains and penalties wa i brought in tn tin' 1 1 "i E Commons, and passed in the I ,; by a majority of 83 to 43. A., who had d b If with great ability, was deprived of all bis ecclesiastical offices, incapacitated from holding any civil or spiritual office in the king's dominioi condemned to perpetual banishment. There is no doubt of the fact that A. was implicated in b able plots, but the legal proof on which this a was founded cannot be regarded as sufii ieni I i justify its severity, ha June 1723, he quitted England tor France, and after a short stay at I ■ : i Is, finally settled in Paris, where he died, February 15, 1732. in his i idle, he maintained o mdence with hi-s friends, and took an active part in the abortive conspiracies: of the Jacobites. His fame as a writer is founded on his sermons, and his letti i i to Pope, Swift, i c ; as a letter-w riter, indeed, he has seldom been surpa I. ATTESTATION, in conveyancing, is the verifi- cation of the execution of deeds and wills by witnesses; bene.- the clause at the end of these ni i laments which immediately precedes the signa- tures of the witnesses, is called the A. clause. See DEEDS, Wilis, Witnesses. In the Scotch practice, the corresponding clause is called the testing-clause. See Testing-clavsi:. A'TTIC, a term in Architecture, employed to designate a low story rising above the cornice tint terminates the main elevation of a building; in domestic architecture, it is usually applied to sky- lighted rooms in the roof. A'TTICA, one of the political divisions or states of Ancient Greece or Hellas, of which Athens was the capital. The territory is of triangular shape, having its north-east and south-west sides washi d by the s"a, while on the north it is connected with the mainland. In ancient times, it was bounded on the VY. by Megaris and the Gulf of Saronica; on the S., which ran out into the 'marble steep' of Sunium, by the.l'.gcan Sea; on (lie K., by the iEgean Sea; and on the N., by Bcootia, from which it is separated by a lofty range of hills, the most famous part of which was formerly called Citlueron. Ancient A. was thus walled in from the rest of Greece. The two principal rivers were the Cephissus and Ilissus; and if they exhibited the same features in ancient times as they do now, must have been mere mountain-torrents, dry in summer. The unfruitfulness of the soil, and the by of water, compelled the inhabitants occa- .iMinMv to send out colonies. According to ancient tradition, the Aborigines of A. were first civilised under I lecrops, who is said to have come hither from S.ns, at the mouth of the Nile iii Egypt, about 1550 B.C. ; and to have introduced the Culture of olives, and of several species of grain, as also to have implanted milder manners, and taught tin- WOrshi Hi lie is stated to have divided the country into 12 communities or states. This, however, was not the only division known in early A. A still older d into phylai, or tribes, existed, a i also a minute subdivision into demoi, or townships, By Theseus, Alliens was united with the ■ s of A. under one government, of which Athens was made 1;i. i at. After this union of the several stat, s, the whole d \. shared in the fortune i of Athens (q. v.), and, under Vi ipa ian, became a Roman province. On tin- division nf the Etonian empire, A. naturally fell into the hands of the Greek emperors. In 396 a.h., il was captured by Alarie. king of the Goths. What may have been its population La ancient times, it is impossible to determine precisely. Clinton estimates it at upwards of half a million, but this is probably exaggerated. At the present day, A., with Megaris and .E,ina. forms a di partment or government in the kingdom of Greece. The surface try is broken into hills and narrow pi i t considerable hills are— ti t; EIat6,4629; Pentelicna, famous for its marble in ancient times, of a white brilliant .-ad ji rdnrable i b Meter, 388-1 ; Hymettus, 3506. The largest plains extend in the neighbourh i of Athens and Eleusis. As early as the time of Solon, A. was well cultivated, and produced wine and coin. Mount llvimttus was ted en- it - bee I and horn j , and m tals were found in the range of Laurinm. Pi , olivi . ami grapes are still cultivated. Goats and sheep find Suitable e; but the country d>. produce much grain. The modern population of A. is S7,00O. See Leake on the J' A'TTICUS, Tins PoMPONIUS, one of the most aobli and generous men in ancient Home, was born in 111!) B.C., or a few years before tin- birth ol I His excellent education, during which h i the companionship of Torquatu , theyoui and Cicero, developed, at an early age, a love of knowledge, which was increased during his stay in Athens, where h- ri m lined many years, glad to be separated from the political distractions of his native land. After 65 B.C., when he was induced by Sulla to return to Home, he still devoted himself i to study and the pleasures of £ to take any part in political affairs. Yet he was by no means without influence on public m lived on terms of familiar intercourse with ; statesmen, and freely gave his counsel, which was generally sound and wholesome, while it was always benevolent. He was a man of great wealth, having been left a large inheritance by Ins father and his uncle, which he greatly increased by jud mercantile speculations. His mode of life was frugal. When he was informed that a disorder under which he was labouring was mortal, he voluntarily si himself, ami died in 32 B.C. Among his personal friends, Cicero held the first place. The A n written by A., were highly commended by his contemporaries. They were especially valuable on account of containing genealogical histories of the old Etonian families. A. was one of those men (tut uncommon either in ancient or modern timi whom line culture and a fortunate social position had highly developed the faculty of goo : I Ee bad no creative genius, but was possessed of such di that he could detect tin- Haw that ■ have been invisible to Cicero, livery author was anxious to secure his favourable opinion. None ol his writings have been preserved. His biography is found in Cornelius Nepos, and in Cicero's 7 to .1. A'TTILA (Or. Etsd; Hungarian, Kih ' , conjec- tured to have been originally titles of honour), king Huns, was the BOO of '-Mmidzuk, a lluu of the royal blood, and in 434 A.r>. succeeded his uncle S i Chief Of countless hordes scattered over the north of Asia and Europe, lb brother Bleda, or r.l.idel, who shared with him the supreme authority II the Huns, was put to death by A. in III or • li;, ld. The Hun, re ardedA.with superstitious ■ l t Ihristendom with superstitious dread, as the 'Scourge of Cod.' It w 1 that he was armed with a supernatural sword, which belonged to the Scythian god of war. which must win dominion over the whole world. It is not known i tod 1 was tirst apt- A. He is said to have received it from a hermit in Caul. The whole race of Huns was regarded same light. In an inscription at Aijiulcia. written a short tune before tin' siege in 452, they are described as iiumiiuntia pcecatorum JtagtUa tthe 3 ATTOCK-ATTORNEYS. threatening scourges of sinners). The Vandals, Ostrogoths, Qepidse, and many of the Franks, under his banner 1 , and in a short time his dominion extended over the peoj rmany and Scythia — i. e., from tlic frontiers of Gaul to those of ( lun a. In 447, after his unsuccessful campaign in Persia and Armenia, he advanced through Qlyria, and devastated all the countries between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Those inhabitants who were not destroyed were compelled to follow in bis train. The Emperor Theodosins collected an army to oppose the inundation of the barbarians, but in three bloody engagements fortune declari I him. Constantinople owed its safety solely to its fortifications and the ignorance of the enemy in the art of besieging ; but Thrace, Macedon, and Greece were overrun; seventy flouri were desolated, and Theodoaius was compelled to cede a portion of territory south of the Danub to pay tribute to the conqueror, after treach attempting to murder him. In 451, A. turned bis course to the West, to invade Gaul, but was hi re boldly confronted by Aetius, leader of the Roman . and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, who compelled him to raise the siege of Orleans. He then I to Champagne, and in the wide plain of the Mam — called anciently the Catalaunian Plain — wo meet the enemy. The army of the \\ I, under Aetius and Theodoric. i d tb c ■■.■• ;o In Huns near the site now occupied by the city of Chalons-sur-Marne. Both annus strove to obtain the hill of 1 lerate height which rises mar Mury, and commands the field of battle, and after a terrible contest, the ranks of the Romans and their allies, the Visigoths, wen- broken, A. now regarded victory as certain, when the Gothic prince, Tliorismnnd, immediately after his father had fallen, assumed the command, and led on the brave Goths, wh burning to avenge I i ' : ath of Theodoric. Their charge from the height into the plain was irresistible. On every side the Huns were routed, and A. with difficulty escaped into his encampment. This, if old historians are to be trusted, must have been the most sanguinary battle ever fought in Europe; for it is staled by contemporaries of A., that not less than 252,000 or 300,000 slain were left on the field. A., having retired within bis camp of Wagons, collected all the wooden shields, saddles, and other I into avast funeral pile, resolving to die m the rather than surrender; but by the advice of Aetius, the Roman general, the Huns were allowed t I without much further loss, though theywei i pur- sued by the Franks as far as the Rhine. In the following year, A. had recovered his strength, and made another incursion into Italy, - Aquileia, Milan, Radua, and other cities, and i the terrified inhabitants into the Alps, Apennines, and the lagoons of the Adriatic Sea, where they founded Venice. The Roman emperor was hi and Rome itself was saved from destruction only by the personal mediation of Pope Leo I., who visited the dreaded barbarian, and is said to have subd 1 his ferocity into awe by the apostolic majesty of his mien. This deliverance was regarded as a miracle by the affrighted Romans, and old chroniclers relate that the apostles Peter and Raul visited the camp of A., and changed his purpose. By 453, however A. appears to have forgotten the visit of the two beatitied apostles, for he made preparations for another invasion of Italy, but died of haemorrl the night of his marriage with the beautiful Qdiko. His death spread consternation through the host of the Huns. His followers cut themselves with knives, shaved their heads, and prepared to celebrate the funeral rites of their king. It is said that his body was placed in three coffins — the first, of gold ; 538 the second, of silver; and the third, of iron; that the caparison of his horses, with his arms and ornaments, were buried with him ; and that all, the i ; who were employed to make his grave were death, so that none might betray the resting- placo of the king of the Suns, Jornandes describes A. as having the Mongolian characteristics— low stature, a large head, with small, brilliant deep-seated eyes, and broad shoulders. There i an b - little doubt that circumstances conspired, in the case of A., to give a certain largeness to his barbaric conceptions, which made him a most formidable foe to the civilisation of Europe. A'TTOCK, a town and fort of the Punjab, on the li Et or east bank of the Indus, Iat. .':.'! 64' X.. long, 7°.' W E. Rop. 2000. A. stands within the limil s of the fort, which 13 itself a parallelogram of StIO yards by 100. The place was established by the Emperor Akbar in 15S1, to defend the passage of the river. In modern warfare, however, it is no longer a position of strength, being commanded by the neighbouring heights. A tunnel under the Indus at A. is in court i of construction. The situation of A. is important, whether in a commercial or in a military view. It is at the hi ad of the steam-boat navigation of the [ndu . being 940 from its mouth ; while about 2 miles above it, the Cabul River, the only considerable affluent of the Indus from the west, is practicable for vessels of 40 or 50 tons to a distance of 50 miles. The valley, again, of this last-mentioned stream, present- ing, as it does, the best approach to the east and south from Central Asia, has been the route of nearly all but the maritime invaders of India from of Alexander the Great downwards. Taxila, where the Macedonians crossed the Indus, is supposed to have been the same as Attock. ATTO'RXKY, in its general meaning, is one appointed by another to act for him in his absence, the authority for so acting being expressed by a deed called a Rower of Attorney. ATTO'RNEYS and SOLICITORS are those legal practitioners who conduct litigation in courts of justice, preparing the cause for the barristers, or counsel, as they are called, whose duty and privi- is to plead and argue on behalf of the con- tending parties, and who in open court have its exclusive audience. A. and S. also practise convcy- , or the preparation of legal deeds and instra- , and they manage a great deal of other general business connected with the practice of the law, for which, as well as for the discharge of all their duties, they are highly remunerated by a lixed and liberal scale of charge. Theirs is, indeed, an extremely important, influential, and lucrative profession, and the well-employed attorney, and the ' family solici- tor,' are expressions which readily suggest the idea of acute intelligence, along with comfort and affluent means. They are called A. as practitioners in the courts of common law-, because the attorney is one wdio is put in the place, stead, or tarn of another. Formerly, when prosecuting or defending, suitors were obliged to appear personally in court; but now, on principles of convenience, A. may represent, and be made to prosecute or defend any action or suit in the absence of, the parties. They arc called' S. in the Courts of Chancery, according theoretically to the more gentle (but not less absolute) compulsion of equity. S. also is the name usually given to this profession when they transact family or other gene- ral business out of court, and in their own chambers. A. and S. are admitted by the superior courts, of which, therefore, they are officers, having many privileges as such, and they are, in consequence, ATTORNEYS AND SOLICITORS. peculiarly subject to the censure and control of the judges. 'J 1 1" statutes relating to this branch of the legal profession being numerous and complicated, were amended and consolidated by the G and 7 Vict. c. 73, by which it is enacted that no person shall act as an attorney or solicitor in any court of civil or crimi- nal jurisdiction, or in any court of law or equity in England or Wales, unless he shall have been admitted, enrolled, and be otherwise duly que according to the provisions of the act. And it baa been decided that the person who acts as an attor- ney without being properly qualified, is liable to be indicted for a misdemeanour. There is an exception, r, to the rule of admission as stated, con- tained in a subsequent act, the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 101, 8. GS, which provides that clerks or other officers to any board of guardians under the poor laws, may commence or defend proceedings before magistrates, in special or petty sessions, or out of sessions, with- out being qualified as attorneys. And by the 20 ami 21 Vict. c. 39, facilities are afforded for the admis- sion and enrolment in England of A. and S. of those colonial courts where the English system prevails. To entitlo a person to admission as an attorney and solicitor under the above act, the G and 7 Vict. c. 73, it is required : 1st, That he shall have served — having been duly bound by contract in writing so to do — with some practising attorney or solicitor in id or Wales, a clerkship Of live years; or — if i ill have taken a degree, under such circum- stances as in the act mentioned, at Caml Oxford, Dublin, Durham, or London — a clerkship of three ycar3 ; and 2d, That in addition and subse- rutly to such service, he be examined by, or by ection of, one or more of the judges at West- minster, or (in the case of a solicitor) by the M of the Rolls, touching his articles, sen-ice, fitness, and capacity to act; and the judges (or Master of the Boll i, as the case may be), upon being satisfied by such examination, or by the certificates of ex- aminers appointed by them, of the competency of any candidate for admission, shall administer to him Bitch oath OS specified in the act, viz., 'that he will truly and honestly demean himself in practice,' and also the oath of allegiance ; and after such oaths, shall cause him to be admitted as an attorney of the said courts of law at Westminster, or as solicitor of the High Court of Chancery, as the case may be, and his name to be enrolled as an attorney or soli- citor of such courts. It is moreover enacted, that there shall bo a registrar of A. and S., whose duty it shall be to keep an alphabetical list or roll of all A. and S., and to issue certificates as to persons who have fa en duly admitted and enrolled; and the duties of this office are by the act committed to the ' Incorporated Law Society,' until some person shall be appointed in their room. Such a certificate from istrar, of due admission and enrolment, must Luced to the proper authorities, by any person desirous of pract : i attorney or solicitor, i he can obtain the stamped certificate required by the Stamp A.i 1. ."m< teo. III. c. 1S4, authorising him tise lor the ensuing year ; and in order to obtain such registrar's certificate, a declaration in writing, signed l>y the attorn.. of practising, or by his partner, or in Bome cas. s by bis London . containing his name and address, the courts of which he is an admitted attorney or solicitor, and the date of his admission, must be delivered to the registrar. And if any attorney or solicitor shall practise in any of the courts aforesaid, without having obtained a stamped certificate for the current year. he shall be incapable of maintaining any ad suit to recover his fees or disbursements for business done under such circumstances. The same statute also contains the following regulations, among others of less general informa- tion : That no attorney or solicitor shall have more than two clerks, bound by contract in writing, at one and the same time ; nor any such clerk after he shall have left off business. That all persons admitted as A. of one of the superior courts of law at V; may, upon production of a certificate thereof, be admitted in any other court of law in England or , upon signing the roll of the same ; and that persons admitted as S. in the High Court of Chancery may in like manner obtain their admis- sion in all other court3 of equity, and in the Court of Bankruptcy. That no attorney or solicitor, who shall be a prisoner in any jail or prison, may commence or defend any action, suit, or prom eding in law, equity, or bankruptcy ; or maintain any action for fe business done during such his confinement ; and that no practising attorney or solicitor shall be a justice of the peace in England or Wales, except in counties or towns corporate having justices by charter or other- wise. And that no attorney or solicitor shall commence an action or suit for his fees or charges in respect of any business whatever, until after the expiration of one calendar month after a bill of his costs and charges, signed by such attorney or solicitor, shal 1 have been delivered to the party to be charged ; and such party may, on a proper application, obtain an order lor referring such bill to be taxed ; and for staying all proceedings to recover the amount thereof in the meantime. An order may also be obtained directing an attorney or solicitor to deliver his bill (when he has not done so) ; and also an order for his delivering up, upon payment of what is due, all deeds, papers, and documents in his possession or power touching the business in such bill comprised. It is provided, however, that the act shall not extend to the exami- nation, admission, rights, or privileges of any per- son appointed to be solicitor to tl. .Cus- toms, Excise, Post-office, Stamp-duties, or any other branch of the revenue ; or to i uitor of the city of London ; or the assistant of the council for the affairs of the Admiralty or Navy j or the soli- citor to the Board of Ordnance. (See Stephen's Commentaries, vol. iii. p. 308, ct seq.) The position of A. and S. in Ireland, like the system of law and practice in that country generally, is so like that of the same profession in England, that it is unnecessary here to give any details respecting them. The corresponding professional class in Scotland is a numerous one, and of various qualities and degrees. The chief and most privileged body among them are tho Writers to tlie Signet (q.v.), who, the Solicitors before the Supreme Courts, conduct all the business before these tribunals, although tho latter have not the privileges of the former, nor are they so influential a body. They are both, how- ever, on a footing of equality as practising A. or S., or law-agents, as they are called in Scot- land, and they arc both admitted by the Court of Session, and have tho ei .lit of condu legal business before that tribunal and the other superior courts ; and they have facilities also for practising before all the inferior courts of tho coun- try. The provincial attorney class in Scotland are variously denominated as writers and solicitors, tho former being the more general name among them. But in Aberdeen they have assumed the name of advocates— a name, however, bywhich they must not be confounded with the Faculty of Advocates at tho Scotch bar. The Aberdeen advocate is neither moro nor less than a country attorney. These provincial Scotch practitioners are not admitted in that coun- try by the superior courts, but by the various sheriffs or county courts witliiu whoso jurisdiction they practise their profession. M ATTORNEY-GENERAL— ATWOOD'S MACHINE. ATTORNEY-GENERAL, th-. title by -which, in England and Inland, the first ministerial law- officer of the crown is known. The A. is ap- 1 by letters patent. His office corresponds in many respects to that of the Queen's Advocate in the Court of Admiralty and of the Lord A d v< i -at ■ in Scot- land (. educated at Cambridge, became fellow and tutor of Trinity College in that univer- sity, published a few treatises on Mechanics and Engineering, and died in 1807. It is found that a body falling freely, passes through 10 feet in the first second, 64 feet in the first two seconds, 144 feet in the lirst three seconds, and so on. Now, as these spaces are so large, we should require a machine of impracticable size to illustrate the relations just mentioned. The object of A. M. is to reduce the scab- on which gravity acts without in any way altering its essential features as an accelerating force. Themachin essentially of a pulley, P (see rig. 1), moving on its axis with very little friction, with a fine silk cord passing over it, sus- taining two equal cylindrical weights,/; and ;/, at its extremities. The pulley rests on a square wooden pillar, graduated on one side in feet and inches, which can be placed in a vertical position by the levelling-screws of the sole on which it stands. Two . A and B, slide along the pillar, and can be fixed at any part of it by means of lixn. screwB. One of these stages, A, has a circular hole cut into it, so as to allow the cylinder, p, to pass freely t on ingh it ; the other is unbroken, and intercepts the e of the weight, A series of smaller weights, partly bar-shaped, partly circular, may be placed on the cylinders in the way represented in rigs. 2 and 3.. A pendulum usually accompanies the machine, to beat seconds of time. The weight of the cylin- ders, p and g, being equal, they have no tendency to rise or fall, but are reduced, as it were, to masses without weight. When a bar is placed on p, the motion that ensues is due only to the action of AUBE— AUBER. Atwood's Machine. gravity upon it, so that the motion of the whole must be considerably dower than that of the bat falling freely. Suppose, for instance, that /> ani i each 74 ounces in weight, and that the bar is 1 . the force acting on the sys- tem — leaving the friction and inertia of the pulley out of account — would be fa of gravity, or the whole would move only 1 foot in the first second, instead of 10. It the bar be left free to fall, its weight or mov- ing force would brin.: its own mass through 10 feet the first second ; but when placed on p, this force is exerted not only on the mass of the liar, but on that of p and , and put the two in such a position that the lower surface of the bar shall be horizontally in the same plane as the point of the seal', and lie the stage A at 1 inch. When allowed to descend, tic' bar will accompany the weight, p, during one second and for 1 inch, when it will be arrested by the stage A, after which ;. and g will continue to move from the 1 iituni they have acquired in passing through the first inch. Their velocity will now lie found to i be uniform, being 2 inches per second, lllus- the principle that a falling body acquires, at tic end of the first second, a velocity per second equal to twice tlio space it has fallen through. Exp. -■ — Take, instead of the bar, the <:■ weight, place the bottom of /) in a line with tic point, and put the stage B at 04 inches. Since the weight accompanies )> throughout its fall, we have in tins experiment the same conditions as in the ordinary fall of a body. When let off, the bottom of the cylinder, p, reaches I inch in 1 second, 4 in 2 seconds, 9 inches in :; seconds, 10 in 4 seconds, 25 inches in 5 seconds, 40 inches in 7 Is, and 01 inches and tic- stage in S seconds — shewing that the spaces described are as the bo, of the times. Exp. .'!. If the bar be placed as in / 'tap, 1, and the st \i- fixed at 4 inches, the bar will accompany the weight, p. during two seconds, and the velocity acquired in that time by p and ;/ will bo 4 inches per second, or twice what it was lu the sane manner, if the stage A be placed at 9, 10. 25, to. inches, the velocities acquired in falling through these spaces would be respectively C, 8, 10, &c. inches — two inches of velocity being acquired in each second of the fall. From this it is manifest that the force under which bodies fall is a uniformly accelerating force — that is, adds equal increments of velocity in equal times. By means of the bar and the stage A, we are thus enabled to remove the accelerating force from the ; at any point of its fall, and then question it, as it 3 to the velocity it has acquired. AUBE, the name of a river and a department of France. The river A., a tributary of the Seine, rises i'l.day, on the plateau of Langri ■ : Hows in a north-west course by Rouvres, La Forte, Bar, and Arcis ; and falls into the- Seine at Pont-snr • after a course of 90 miles. — The department of A, which occupies the southern part of tic- old province of champagne, and a small portion of Burgui bounded on the N. by the Marne ; on the 11 I Haute-Marae ; on the s.W. by the ¥onne; and on the N.W. by the Seine-et-Marne. The eastern part s to the basin of thcA.: the w basin of the Seine. Area, 2351 square miles. Pop. 261,673. The climate is mild, moist, and changeable ; but on the whole healthy. A great portion of tl. is arable land. The north-east is chiefly applied to pasturage; but the south-east is far more fertile, rich in meadow-land and forest, and pro- ducing grain, hemp, rape, hay, timber, and wine. in minerals, the. department possesses little besides limestone, marl, and potters' clay. The chief manufactures are woollen cloth, cotton and linen goods, ribbons and stockings, leather, parchment, &c. The sausages and bacon of A. have long famous. Troyes is the capital of the department. AUBEXAS, a town in France', in the department of Ardeche. It is picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Ardeche, 14 miles south-west from liivas, in the middle of the volcanic region of Vivarais. It looks well from ad but the streets, with the exception of one traversed by the diligence, are narrow and crooked, the squares and the houses very irregularly budt. An old and rapidly decaying wall, flanked with towers, the town, which contains an ancient castle. A. is the principal mart for the sale of chestnuts and silk in the department. Several important fairs are also held here. It possesses in addition maud silk, paper, cotton, coarse cloths, leather, &c, the machinery of the mills being driven 1 ly water. I " - ■ j ■- 7410. AUBER, Daniel Francois Esprit, a composer of operas, was born at Caen in Normandy, January 29, 17S4. His father was a printaeller in I and being desirous that his son should d himself to business, he sent bim to London to acquire a knowledge of the trade. Buthisirn dstiblep 1 for music obtained the upper-hand, a short stay, he returned to Fans. A 1 positions may be noticed — the concertos for violoncello, ascribed to Lamare tic I ; the concerto for the violin, played by Mazas with applause at the Conservatory ot Music, Paris; and the comic op . with a modest accompani- ment for two violins, two altos, and a bass. These works Wei.' very successful ; but A., ospir greater things, now devoted himself to a •. study of music under Cherubim, and wrote a for four voices. His next work, the opi 1.1 /. - , (1 313), 1. red that A. grew disheartened, and resolved to abandon the idea of reaching eminence as a musical con However, the death "f his father compelled him to be dependent on his own resources; and in 1819 appeared /.. -dovx, which was also unsuccessful; but in La J: IfetatM he laid tho foundation of his subsequent fame. In all these early essays, as well as in tho opera of Emma (1821), be displayed an original style; but afterwards he became an imitator of Rossini, Ml ATTBIGNE— ATJBTJSSON. one! disfigured his melodies with false decorations nml strivings for effect All his later works, i ing La Muette de Porliri (Masaniello), pr< in 182S, are written with an assumed manni l.ut in a li_ht and flowing style, with many piquant melodies which have made the tour of The operas Leicester (1S22), La Neige (1823), Le Concert d la Com; and LSocadie (1824), Le Macon (1825), Fiorclla (1S2G), LaFiancCe (1829), Fra Diavolo (lS.'iO), were followed by a series of lighter works: L'Flixir aV Amour, Le Dieu it la Jiajadire, Lea Faux Monnayeurs, &c. ; the cu le Bai Masavi, Le Lac det Fe\ Le Chcvalde Bronze, Lc.i Diamante de la Couronne, La Part du Viable, La Birene, and BTaydSe, exhibit- in;,' the same popular qualities as their predecessors; but their interest is evanescent, as they arc d in d pth of thought an His later works . re Jenny Bell (1855), and ifanon Leseaut (1S5C). 1 1! L842, A. w . ; appoinl ■■ i director of th C tory of Music, Paris. (He died May II, 1871.) AUBIGNE, Merle d\ See Merle d'Atoigite\ ATJBIGNE, Theodore Agrtppa d', a famous French scholar, was born on 8th February 1550, near Pons in Saiutonge. At an early period, he exhibited a remarkable talent for the acquisition of 1 uages. Although come of a noble family, he inherited no wealth from his father, and conse- quently chose the military profession. In 15G7, he Qguished hims If by bis services to the Protest- ant cause, and was subsequently rewarded bj IV., who made him vice-admiral of Guienne and Bretagne. 11m severe and inflexible character fre- quently embroiled him with the court ; and al I death of Henry, he betook himself to Geneva, where he spent the remainder of his life in literary studies. He died April 2'J, 1030. His best known work is his Histoire Unirersclle, 1550— 1G01 (Amsterdam, 1616—1620), which had the honour of being burned in .France by the common hangman, as also his Ilistoire Secrete, terite par lui- mSme (1721). A. was possessed of a spirit of biting satire, as is proved by his Confession Catholique du Sieurde Sancy, and his -4 ventures du Baron deFccneste. AUBRY BE MONTBIDIER, a French knight who lived in the times of Charles V., and, as tradi- tion says, was assassinated in the forest of Bondy by Bichard de Macaire in 1371. The latter became suspected of the crime on account of the dog belong- ing to the deceased Aubry invariably displaying towards him the most unappeasable enm i I was therefore required by the king to fight with the animal in a judicial combat, which was fatal to the murderer. This tale was afterwards, under the titles of A uliry's Dog, The Wood of Bondy, The Dog of Montargis, frequently acted, the ' dog ' always gaining the greatest share of applause ! Alter being performed with success at Vienna and Berlin, it was appointed to be played at the Weimar Theatre, of which Goethe was the manager; but the poet resigned his office before the dog made his dibiU. AU'BURN, the name of 23 places in the United States. Of these, the most important is in the state of New York, on the railway between Albany and Buffalo. It is in lat. 42' 53' N., and long. 70 ' -10' W. Bop. about 12,000. The outlet of Owasco Lake, ■which is two or three miles to the north, flows through the town, furnishing a water-power which is employed in mills of various kinds, and in manu- factures of wool, cotton, carpets, iron, and paper. A. abounds in seminaries of education, but is perhaps most widely known for its state prison. The building itself is a large structure of stone ; while the wall that encloses it is 30 feet high, and 500 long, on each of its four sides. The number 542 of convicts sometimes exceeds 600 ; and their I is said to be generally equal to the expenses of the establishment. AUBUSSOX, I . grand master of tho ordi r of St John of Jerusalem, was born in 1423 of an ancient and noble French family. His early his- tory is imperfectly known, but lie is said to have borne arms, when very young, against the Turks in ars in Hungary, and to have distinguished himself by the mil ad valour he displayed. Hire he acquired that intense antipathy to the ' Infidels ' which subsequently animated his whole public career, and gave a peculiar bis I to bis ambi- tion. Having returned to France, he aocompan I the dauphin in his expedition against the Swiss, and was instrumental in securing their defeat at the battle of St Jacob near Basle. His mind, however, constantly reverted to the ominous encroachments in the East of tho drea< 'nan, and at last olved to betake himself to Rhodes, where he d himself among the brotherhood of Christian i ■!. Now, his history emerges into clear light, and assumes a very considerable importance. He swept the Levant, and chastised the pirates who prowled perpetually among tho Greek isles, obtaining the approbation and regard of the grand master. In 1458, by his ardour and address ho succeeded in forming a kind of Christian league between tho French monarch and Ladislaus, king of Hungary, against Mohammed II. This was the great aim of A.'s life, the ' idea' which continually possessed him — viz., the necessity of a vast organisation of all Christendom to overthrow the power of the Turks. Step by step, through long years, he won his way to supreme power in his order. In M70, he was elected Grand Master. It was a critical period for the civi- lisation and religion of Europe. Constantinople had recently been taken and the Byzantine empire do- I by Mohammed II. Every day the conqueror marched further wi t. Thrace, Macedonia, Central Greece, Servia, Wallanhia, Bosnia, Uegropont, Lesbos, and the islands of tho Adriatic, had been succes- sively conquered by him. Proud of his rapid glories, and sustained by an immense prestige, the sultan threatened to dictate terms from Bomo to the entire West. Rhodes, however, stood in his way, the sentinel isle of Christianity, on the great maritime route between Asia and Europe. Mohammed saw that the battle between the two faiths must begin here ; and in May 1480. a Turkish army of 100,000 men, commanded by a Greek renegade, Pakeologos, landed in the island, and commenced to besiege the town. Two desperate assaults were made. The Turks, however, were compelled to desist, and sailed away, leaving 9000 dea I. Mohammed was enraged, and planned a second expedition, which was interrupted by his death at Nicomedeia in Asia Minor, May 1481. After this, A. took a leading part in the religious diplomacy of the papal court, and received from the pontiff many honours and privileges. Meanwhile, he exerted himself to impn ive and strengthen the internal organisation of the brotherhood, enriching the diplomatic code of his order with several wise statutes and regulations relative to the election of dignitaries, the finances, &c., and exciting great admiration throughout Christendom. In 1501, he was appointed general- issimo of tho forces of the German emperor, the French king, and the pope, against the Turks ; and in spite of his great age, he enthusiastically entered on his duties, and sailed to attack Mitylene ; but the expedition failed on account of the discordant aims which the various belligerents had in view. Broken by disappointment and vexation, the grand master returned, and died at Rhodes in July 1503, at the age of 80. AUCH— AUCTION. AUCH, the capital of the department of Gere, in the south of France, situated on the river Gers, 42 miles west of Toulouse, lat. 43° 38' N., long. 0" 35' E. gap. 7'J4-'. It is the seat of an archhishop, and ,C3 a museum of natural science, together with an old and beautiful cathedral, the painted iws of which arc greatly admired. Its chief re woollen and cotton stuffs, fruits, wine, and brandy. In ancient times, it was called EUmberis; and at a somewhat later period took its name from the Auscii, whose chief town it was. In the 8th c., it became the capital of Gascony, and later, of the county of Armaguac. AUCHE'NIA (from the Gr. awhoi, the neck), a genus of ruminating quadrupeds, of whieh the (Jama | and the Alpaca (q.V.) are the best known. The gcmi3 is ex* ! nth American; indeed, the species occur only on the lofty ranges of the Andes. They are nearly allied to the camels, and 1 as their representatives in the They form, along with them, the family Camdidm (see Camel), and were included by Linmcus in the genus Camelus. They agree with the camels in certain important anatomical charac- ters, particularly in the structure of the stomach ; and also resemble them very much in general form, in the long neck, small head, prolonged and movable upper lip, and small apertures of the nostrils. They differ from them partly in dentition, and partly in the more cloven feet and movable toes. The nails, also, are stronger and curved, and each toe is sup- ported behind' by a pad or cushion of its own ; by all which the feet are admirably adapt the rocky heights which the animals inhabit. Con- siderable doubt exists as to the number of species The Llama and the Vicugna (q. v.) are uni- ty admitted to be distinct; but it is not so certain that the Alpaca is more than a mere \ of the llama, or that the Guanaco ('[.v.) or Huanaca is not the llama in its wild Btate, although the ration of M. d'Orbigny, who resided long in then- native country, that in no circumstances do these animals breed together, is of great importance with nee to this question. As to the Hue; Chilihueque — the Chilian sheep of some old authors — perhaps too much dependence has been placed on imperfect descriptions, aud further information would seem to be requisite ere any place can be a to it. — The genus A. is by some naturalists called Llama. AUCHTERA'EDEH, a Tillage in the south-cast of Perthshire, on the west side of the S Central Railway. Pop. (1S51) 2520, chiefly employed in cotton-weaving. The popular opposition to the presentee to the church of A. originated (1S39) the struggle which ended in the secession from the ( linreh of Scotland and the formation of the Free Church in 1343. AU'CKLAND, Bishop, a small town in the middle of the county of Durham. Pop. (1851 It stands on an eminence, 140 feet above the plain of the Wear. A. contains the abbey-like palace of the Bishop of Durham. AU'CKLAND, Lord, Wii.hvm Edbn, an able statesman and diplomatist, third Bon of Sir Robert Eden, Bart., of West Auckland, Durham, born in 17-H, educated at Eton and Oxford, and called to the bar in 170S. In 177'-. he became I'nder-seere- tary of State, and one of the directors of Greenwich Hospital ; was chosen M.P. for Woodstock ; and in March 1 77t> appointed a lord of trade. In 177 . was nominated, with the Earl of Carlisle and ' i nor Johnstone, a commissioner to treat with the insurgent colonists of North America, but without success. When the former was, in December 1780, named Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, he accom- panied him as chief secretary, and remained there till April 1782. Accredited in 1785 minister pleni- potentiary to the court of France, he concluded a commercial treaty with that country in September and in the following August signed a conven- tion for preventing disp d the subjects of the two crowns iu the East Indies. In 178S, he went as ambassador to Spain ; and on hi3 return in Ootob 17 iras created an Irish peer as Baron A. In 171)0 he was ai • i Holland, and in .May 1703 was CI 1798 to 1801, lie was joint Postmaster-generaL He died suddenly. May 2-i, 1814. A. was the author of the /'/ tAe Penal Law (1771, 8vo); Four Letters, addressed to the Earl of Carlisle, on temporary political subjects (177!'i ; !,'■■ marks on t/ie A ' War (1705); 8\ on the Income-tax (1790); Speccft in Support of the Union toitli Ireland (1800) ; and other pamphlets. AU'CKLAND, Earl OF.GEor.cn Ede.v, Governor- general of India, son of William Eden, Lord Auck- land, born August 25, 17S4, was c the bar in 1S09 ; succeeded his father in 1814 as Lord A. ; and in November 1833 was appointed, in Ear] < 1 rev's stration, President of the Board of Trade and Master of the Mint. In July following, in Viscount Melbourne's lirst mi Lord of the Admiralty. He vacated that office in November of the same year, but was appointed to it again in 1S4G. In 1S35, he went out to India as governor- general, on which occasion he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Bath; and in 1839 advanced a step in the peerage, being created Earl of A. anl Baron Eden. He returned to England in 1S-11, and in 1S43 was elected president of the Asiatic Society. He died unmarried, January 1, 1S49, when the earldom became extinct, and the barony of A. devolved on his brother, Robert John Eden, born in 1S04; Bishop of Bath and Wells, 1S54. AU'CKLAND, the capital of New Zealand, stand- ing on the more northerly island in lat. 36" 50' S., and long. 174° 50' E. A. was founded in 1S40, and by 1S56 it contained 7000 inhabitants. In 1S57. the imports were £271,613, and the exports £', Ships inwards were GO of 10,420 tons ; and outwards, 47 of S402. The native vessels register) d v. averaging rather more than 20 tons each. The tem- perature appears to be sin table. The mean of the coldest month is' 51° P., and that of tho warmest 08 . Annual depth of rain is 45J inches; and the days with rain are 100. AU'CKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands to the south of New Zealand, being about the 51st parallel S., and the 167th meridian" E. The largest of them measures 30 miles by 15. It lias two good harbours, and is covered with the I tation. The A. I. arc valuable chietly as a wha! Suence, as it were, of the 1'acilic and Southern Oceans. AU'CTION (Lat audio). The character of this convenient mode of offering property for sale is correctly indicated by the name. The Latin word audio meaus 'an increasing or enhancement,' and an A. is an arrangement tor increasing the price by exciting competition amongst purchasers. What is called a Dutdi Auction, in which the usual mode of proceeding is reversed, the property King offered at a higher price than the seller is willing to accept, and gradna I till a purchaser is found, is thu all in the original and | sense of the ten.:. ; of Komai is said to have been lirst introduced for the pi 113 AUCTIONEER— AUDE. of disposing of spoils taken in war. Soon A said to take place .-»'' haM (under the spear), from the custom of sticking a spear into tin- ground, probably to attract purchasers to the spot "Condi- oi Sale,' or -Articles of Roup, as they are called in Scotland, constitute the terms on the seller oilers his property, and form an in! part of tho contract between seller and puri contract is completed by the offer or b on the part of the purchaser, and the acceptance by the seller or his representative, which is formally i by the fall of the auctioneer's oi I mmer, the running of a Band-glass, the burning i inch of candle (hence tin- term 'sale by the caudle '), or any other means which may have specified in the condition; of sale. These conditions or articles ought further to narrate honestly and fully the character of the object or the oa1 the ripht to bo transferred, to regulate the manner of bidding, pre Bribe the order m which ■ arc to be preferred, and to name a person who skill be empowered to determine disputes between bidders, and in cases of doubt to declare which is the purchaser. Before the sale commences. I conditions, which are executed on stamped paper, are read over, or otherwise intimated to intending purchasers. The conditions, thus published, < be controlled by any verbal declaration by the auctioneer. The implied conditions, which, in addition to those thus expressed, are binding on the seller and purchaser in all auctions, are : 1. That the seller shall not attempt to raise the price by means of fictitious offers, but shall fairly expose his goods to the competition of purchasers ; and 2. That the purchasers shall not combine to suppress com- petition. Much doubt has arisen as to the lawful- ness of biddings for the exposer. The exposer may set a price below which the thing is not to be sold, wh!.h is best and most openly done by fixing an upset price, or he may expri ly: rve to h a power to offer, 'lint if the sale is declared to be without reserve, or at the pleasure of the com- pany, the plain meaning and effect of this, even in England, is held to be to bar all biddings in behalf of the seller.' 'In Scotland, the law condemns absolutely such interference.' 'It has been said, that if there be no upset price, and no agree- ment to sell at the pleasuro of the company, the owner may bid, but that is not law, or is at least too broadly laid down.' Bell's Commentariet, i. 97, edit. 1S5S. The A. duties were repealed by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 15. AUCTIONEE'R, the person who conducts an auction (q. v.). The A. is in a certain sense the agent both of seller and purchaser, and by the EaU of his hammer, or by writing the purchaser's name in his book, he binds him to accept the article at the price indicated. The A. may also, and fre- quently does, act as agent for absent purchasers, or for persons who have instructed him to make biddings for them during the sale. In both i however, the purchaser must be bond fide, others ise the A. would himself become a ' puffer.' As to the circumstances in which he may bid foi see Auction. Where the A. declines or omits to disclose the siller's name, he undertakes his ri sibilities to the purchasers. To the seller, again, he is responsible for ordinary skill, assiduity, and prudence. Every A. pays an annual duty of £10 to government for Iris licence, which must be renewed on the 5th July; though there are certain judicial sales which may be conducted by bailiffs without licence (see 19 Geo. III. c. 50, s. 3, and later Stamp Acts). AU'CUBA, a genus of plants of the natural order 511 lit (q. v.), of which the only known I pi I. ./,> onica, an evergreen shrub resembling a laurel, but with dichotomous or vi n icillate yellow bran and, as seen in Europe, always with pal' curiously mottled with yellow. It is dioecious, produces its small purple flowers in summer, and ripens its fruit, a small red drupe, in .March. It is a native of China and Japan, and was originally Introduced into Britain as a stove-plant, but is found to bo at least as hardy as the common laurel, and is now a very common ornamental shrub, especially in the suburbs of large towns, a sort of ituation for which it i irly adapted, as it isverj little liable to suffer injury from smoke. It is often called the Variegated Laurel The mottled appearance of the leaf is said, however, not to belong to the plant in its ordinary natural state; but only uii sty has yet been brought to Europe, and of it only the female plant. AUD^E'US, AuDi'rs (or, according to his native Syriac name, Udo), the founder of a religious sect in Mesopotamia, flourished during the 4th c. Ho commenced by accusing the regular clergy of world- liness, impure morals, &c, and is said to have opposed to their manner of life a strict asceticism, until his conduct seemed dangerous to the welfare of tic church, when be was excommunicated. His disciples, who were pretty numerous, now clung more closely to him. and he wa el ot" 1 their bishop. In 33S A.I'., he was banished to Seythia, where he instituted a kind of rival church, and ii died about 370 a. d. Our knowledge both of his character and opinions is derived solely from inimical authorities, such as Augustine, Athanasius, &C, and is therefore to be accepted with caution. But his labours amongst the tierce barbarians in the i I, am acknowledged to have been beneficial, and one writer, Epiph&nius, states that he ought to be con id red schUmatical, but not h relieaL But if I iding feature of his system wa is all a dei ided tendency to anthropomorphism, we cannot see — according to the principles upon which the church usually proceeded why he should not have called, lb- is said to have held that the lani nage of the Old Testament justifies the belief that God has a sensible form- a doctrine di heretical in all ages of the church's history. This particular tenet took firm hold on many minds, and in the subsequent century, was widely spread through the monasteries of Egypt. AUDE (A (ax), a river in the south of France, rises in the east Pyrenees, not far from Moot Louis ; flows for some time parallel to the canal of Languedoc ; and falls into the Mediterranean miles east-north- e i. of Narbonne, after a course of more than 120 miles. AUDE, a maritime department in the south of France. It comprises some old ' counties ' which for- iii, rly constituted a portion of the province of Langue- doc. Pop. 282,833. Area, 2438 square miles. The southern part of A. is mountainous, but the gl portion of it belongs to the valley of the lower A. and il innl of Languedoc. Its northern boundary is formed by the Black Mountains, the most southerly of the Cevennes. The coast is Hat, with no bays or roadsteads, huts- vend lagunea The climate. is warm, but variable. The mountains are compos, d of granite, while the soil of the plains is chiefly calcareous, and about tho coast— where salt and soda are procured — is extremely fcrtde, producing cereals, olives, fruits, and wines. A. is rich in iron and coal, and mineral springs. The woollen and silk manufactures are of considerable value. There is liken ise a considerable export of corn, honey, &c. The chief town is Carcassone. AUDEBERT— AUDITORY XERVE. AUDEBERT, JeaM Baptistf, a distinguished French naturalist, was born in 17">!> at Rochefort; studied t ! • • • arts of de dgn and painting at Paris; ami in *aily lift; attained a d< ice as a miniature-painter. Indulging a predilection for the study of natural history, ne was much employed by naturalists in painting the more rare and beautiful i in their collections. In 1800, after having d England and Holland for the purpose of making sketches, he published at Paris, on his own account, a splendid volume, which raised him at once to celebrity, both as a painter and author. This work, tie- // Qal 'opilh t- i Nat oral 1 1 ! tonkeys, Lemurs, and Flying Lemurs), was a large folio, with 62 coloured plat , remarkable alike for their truth and beauty. His nielli or-printing in oil, which was then novel but now common, was to dis- i M the colours on one p] 1 of using a to plate for each colour. His use of gold and I in the illustrations and letterpress was then new as it is attractive. In his Hisloiri «k I 1 l ■ , et des rops (Natural History of Humming-birds, .lacunars, and Promeropses), he succeeded by the same process in giving to his plates even a greater brilliancy and finish. He died in 1S00. AUDITOR. The name given to certain officers appointed to examine accounts in behalf cither of the government, of courts of law, of corporate private persons. — Audit-office. In 1785 public auditors were appointed, under the title of ' Commis- sioners For Auditing the Public Accounts,' by25Geo. 1 1 1, e. 62, by which the patents of Lord Sondes and Lord Mountstnart, as auditors of the *mj were vacated, the sum of £7000 per annum being made payable to each of them for life, in lieu of a percentage which had been paid (hem on the it of expenditure audited. Many BUDB statutes have been passed for the purpose of extend- ing and defining the duties of these commissioners, and regulating the business of the audit-office. The commissioners of audit are empowered to call on all public accountants to account for moneys or stores intrusted to them; and should they fail to do so, are required to certify their names to the Remem- of the] chequer, and the Attorney-general of England or Inland, or the Lord Advocate of Scot- land, in order that they may he proceeded against as defaulters. These proceedings, however, may be stayed for a time by the Lords of the Treasury, by whom tli" whole arrangements of the audit-office are controlled, on the application of the accused. The its of the Ordnance, of the Army and Navy, and the Land Revenue, are now subjected to exami- nation in the audit-otliee. By 2 Will. IV. c. 99, the •ns of the Commissioners of Public Account in Ireland were transferred to the Commis- sioners for Qreat Britain. The present establish- ment at the audit-office consists of a chairman, five commissioners, a secretary, and a large number of tors and examiners. The patronage is in the 1 of 1 he i !■ ury. Auditor o* the < !oi bt of 0K, in Scotland, is an officer whose duties con- sist in taxing the costs of suits in which expenses are found due, a remit being mail" to him for that purpc . • ithi ■■ by a division of the court or a Lord Ordinary. The auditor returns a report to the judge or court making the remit, by whom decree il for the amount of the taxed ace.' .,. . Objec tions to the auditor's report may be stated to the judge or court. The nomination of the auditor is in ice being hi Id The auditor cannot practise b court, on pain of deprivation. The p office are -u nters to the signet, and solicitors before the 35 Supreme Courts in Scotland. In the inferior courts an officer with corresponding powers is usually appointed by the court in which he officiates. The office ol auditor of the Court of Session corresponds in many respects to that of the taxing-masters in 1 mcery, and of the masters of the Bench and Common I ' AUDITOR Y NERVE. By anatomists, the A. -V is associated with the facial, and is the seventh in order of origin from the drain, counting from before backwards. The seventh pair consists of the portio dura or facial, the portio mollis or auditory, and a small intermediate portion. The portio mollis apparently commences by some white streaks in the floor of the fourth ventricle ; it then runs forward to the back of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and enters the internal auditory meatus. The facial then leaves it to pass along the canal I the Aqueductus Fallopri, and the auditory divides into two portions, which diverge — the smaller stcrior for the semicircular canals and the vestibule, the other for the cochlea. Those entering the semicircular canals divide into five branches, forming at last a nervous expansion somewhat analogous to the retina. Figs. 1 and 2 represent the A. X. (1) dividing into its two portions, the lesser branch supplying the semicircular canals (2), the larger branch supplying the cochlea (3). Fig. 1 repre- the semicircular canals of the left side, with their bony rings round the membranous labyrinth. In this figure, the cochlea is cut in half longitudin- ally from base to apex, shewing a section of the spiral canal, with the nerve proceeding up through its Fig. 1. —Left Auditory Nerve. axis. Fig. 2 represents the membranous labyrinth (2), with the bony framework cut away, and with the cochlea opened so as to shew the manner in which the ie rve spn ads out in the spiral lamina. Several theories have been held at different periods with regard to the manner in which the nerves ter- minate in the cochlea, and how sound is transmitted from tie- latter to the brain. The latest, and that which is at present entertained by most phj gists, is that of M. Schultze. It has been shewn by . that whi n a nerve in connection withamuscli upon by a succession of very rapid strokes from the little hammer of a tetan- motor, and when the strokes have arrived at a i number in tie- b cond, a stimulus is sent .citing the muscle to action. It is in the same way that M. S, hult/e supposes the impression of sound to in' propagated to the nerves of the cochlea, by means of a series of little tetan- calledthe t . thof Carti, who discovered them. They are situated in thc> spiral lamina, which rates the spiral canal in the interior of the cochlea ALDLEY— AUER. into an upper and B lower half or scala. The spiral lamina consists of an ptum, next I cintral axis of the cochlea, and of a membranous Fig. 2. — Eight Auditory Nerve. layer, which prolongs the osseous septum to the outer wall of the cochlea, thus completing (lie spiral lamina. This membranous septum is double, and between its layers there is a chamber which contains the teeth of Corti, ranged side by side throughout the whole length'of the spiral lamina, and gradually getting shorter from base to apex, like the strings of a harp or pianoforte. The chamber is filled up by a tremulous jelly-like fluid. The diagram, fig. 3, represents a perpendicular section of the spiral a Fig. 3. c, the osseous jopttim grooved for the passage of the cochlear nerve '<, wbl a terminates by a free end inside the chamber c, along the floor of whicn it lies for a short distance; d, d are the two layers of the membranous septum. Lying in con- tact with the end of tho nerve la the enlarged extremity of a rod e, which is connected in a flail-like manner by the hinge /to another rod, which is fixed at#. lamina. When tho waves or vibrations of sound strike against the bone's of the head, those bones are caused to vibrate ; this vibration is transmitted through the head to the bones of the cochlea, which in turn set in motion the tremulous jelly which tills up the membranous chamber, c. AU'DLEY, Sir James, one of the original knights of the Order of the Garter, founded in 1344 by Edward III., on his return from France after the victory of C'ressy, was frequently in personal attendance on Edward the Black Prince, whom he accompanied to France in 134C. He was so conspicuously brave at the battle of Poictiers, that the prince retained him as his own knight, and declared liim to be the bravest soldier on his side. He conferred on him an annual revenue of 500 marks, which A. immediately gave up to his squires. This act of disinterestedness becoming known, the Black Prince conferred a further annual sum of GOO marks upon him. A. also accompanied the Black Prince into Spain, and in 1 309 the office of seneschal of Poitou was conferred upon him. He took part in the capture of La-Loche-sur-Yon in Poiton, same year, and da attended his funeral obsequies at Poictiers. AUDRAN, d'.r.AT.D, one of the most was born at Lyon in 1640. Hebeloi to a fain: 1 i I lor its excell in tins department <>i art. After a time i esiaence at Rome, where he studied under Carlo Maratti, and acquired a high reputation by his engraving of Popo at IX., he was recalled to Fran e 1 Inert, and was appoint 1> his majesty Louis XIV. B engraved the principal works of Lebrun, with whom he lived on terms of the closest friendship. His master- pieces are a series of engravings illustrating the ader. He died at Paris 1703. AUDUBON, John Jams, a distin- guished American ornithologist, \. in Louisiana, United States, in M where his parents, who were both French, had settled on a plantation. His father, who was himself an ardent lover of nature, hii> with his wife and child, on a bird-ski expedition. The following year, he visited Florida for a like purpose ; and for many years after he continued his ornithological researches among th- an woods, to t ' t of his ordinary ] tter he finally abandoned; ami in 1S'24 he went to Philadelphia, where he was introduced to Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, who so warmly encouraged him in his plans that lie determined on publication. After two years' further exploration of the forests of his native country, he to Europe with the view to secure sub.-, i for lu.s work on The Birds of America. He met with a warm reception from such men as Herschel, Cuvier, Humboldt, Brewi t er, Wilson, aud Sir Walter Scott. The issue of his work was commenced shortly after, each bird being delineated life-size. The coloured engravings were chiefly executed by the late Ah- W. H. Lizars of Edinburgh. The work was completed in S7 parts, elephant folio, containing 1 IS plates. While the work was in process of pubh in this cotmtry (it was finished in 1S39), A. ie\ America three times, in order to make fun lea- researches. In 1831, he began the publication of his American Ornitlioloijical Biography in Edinb which was also completed in 1S39. In 1839, A. finally returned to America, where, in 1S44, he pub- lished a reduced edition of liis works. Assisted by Dr Buchanan, he also published The Qi/"< ; A merica, and a Biof/raphy of American Quadrupeds. He died, January 27, 1851, in his 71st year. AU'ER. Alois, director of the National Printing- office at Vienna, was born May 11, 1813, at W. ! . in Upper Austria, and was trained in a printing establishment of his native town to be a compositor, corrector, and manager. He thus went through all the grades of his profession. During his scanty leisure moments, A. employed himself in aequo knowledge of French, Italian, English, and otn r languages, in which he underwent an examination AUERBACH— AUGMENTATION. in 18.35 and 1S3C, before the university of Vienna. dliaut appearance on this occasion opened up ibition the probability of a professorial chair. In October 1S37, he was appointed professor of Italian in the college at Litiz, in Upper All Here he laboured assiduously in public; and private ing, and published a variety of useful , on a system peculiar to himself. In 1839 ho set out on his travels through Germany, Switzerland, France, and England, collecting mate- rials for his favourite art. On his return he was ited, in 1841, to the office which be now holds. As asp tphical learning, and the resources of the o bis care, A. has printed and published tl ' , in- Lord 'i Prayer in K'iman types (Vienna, 1844); Lords Prayer in 200 languages, with their national alphabets (1SI7). & - Naii i:i:-1'i:inting. AU'ERBACII, BbbTHOLD, a popular Gorman author, of Jewish extraction, ten, in the WUrtembero Black Forest, February 28, 1812. Be received his education at Carlsruhe, Stuttgart, Tubingen, Munich, and Heidelberg. Having at an early period abandoned the study irish theology, he devoted liis attention to literature. His first publications, Judaism and 'teratwre (Stuttg. 1836), and a translation of the works of Spinoza, with a critical life of bis author (5 Vols. Stuttg. 1S41), had a philosophical tendency. In his Educated Citizen (t'arlsruhe, i Village Tales of the Black Forest d himself to the portraiture of ■, and succeeded well. The Village Tales were translated into English, Swedish, and Dutch, and were generally admired. One of his later publications, Schrifi und Volk (Literature and the 1 , 1S4G), discusses the relation in which litera- ture stands to the mas3 of the people. AU'GEAS, or AU'GEIAS, according to one account, the son of Helios and Iphiboe, but accord- others, of Phorbas and Hermione, was king of Elis, and renowned for his wealth in oxen, of which he fed 3000 head in his stables. When the dung of these animals had been allowed to accumidate for many years, Hercules was commissioned by Eurystheus to cleanse the Augean stables in one day, and was promised as payment a tenth part of the oxen. -Hercules accomplished the task, by turning the courses of the rivers Peneus and Alpkeus through the masses of ordure. When A. refi pay the stipulated wages, a war ensued, and A. was slain by Hercules. The fable of the Augi hi stables often serves as an allusion in declamations on political corruptions, &c. U'OEREAU, Pierre Francois Charles, Duke i dial and peer of France, one of the mo t. brilliant and intrepid of that band of general I whom Napoleon gathered around himself, was inan,andwasborn21stOctoberl757- serving some time in tho French carabiniers, into which he enlisted at the age of seventeen, he entered the Neapolitan service, in which he remained until 17n7. when he settled in Naples as a fencing- master. With other French residents, he ted from that city in 1702, and immediately volunteered into the French revolutionary army intended for the repulsion of the Spaniards. Bis 18 were so conspicuous, that in less than three i made general of a division. In 1705 he accompanied the army to Italy, where he greatly distinguished himself, especially in the field, but also in the council. He took an active part and gained much glory in the 1 Lodi, Ci i i ! one (for which Eoveredo, Bassano, &e. In 1707 he was appointed to the command of the Army of the Rhine ; but in a few months after, the Directory not liking the spirit played there, made him commander of the tenth division at Perpignan. This post he resigned in 1799, when he was elect council of the Five Hundred. In 1801 he received the com- mand of the army in Holland, and was active m several engagements. In 1804 he was made a marshal; and in the following year he commanded a division of the army which reduced the Vorarlberg ; and was afterwards ■ i I Wetzlar, , Eylau; also in Italy (1 a (1810); I Bavaria, and Saxony (1813). He died of water in the chest, June 11, 1S1G. ATT'GITE (from Gr. auge, brilliancy), or PY'- ROXENE (from Gr. pyr, lire, and xenos, a guest), a mineral very nearly allied to Hornblende (q. v.), which has, indeed, by some mineralogists been d as a variety of it, although the distinction between them is undeniably important, as charac- terising two distinct series of igneous rock i of 47—56 per cent, of silica, 20—25 per cent. of lime, and 12—1!) per cent of ma ■ mag- nesia sometimes giving place in whole or in p protoxide of iron, and some varieties containing a tittle alumina, or a little protoxide of manjam specific gravity is 3195— 3525. It is hi by acids, or not at all. It is usually of a greenish colour, often nearly black. It crystallises in six or a, Common Augite ; b, Green Augite. eight-sided prisms variously modified ; it often occurs in crystals, sometimes often in grains or scales. It is an essential component of many igneous rocks, particularly of Basalt (q. v.), Dolerite fa. v.), and A.-porpkyry (see Pokpiiyry), from which chiefly it derives its importance as a mineral species. A. Rock, consisting essentially of A. alone, occurs in the Pyrenees. A. is a common mineral in the bap-rocks of Britain and other countries. It is rarely associated quartz, in which respect it differs from hornblende, but very often with labradorite, olivine, and leucitc. Fluorine, which is generally present in small quantity in hornblende, has never been detected in A. Tho form of the crystals is also different in the two minerals, as well as their cleavage ; but or Gustav Rose of Berlin has endeavoured to shew that the difference between A. and hornblende arises only from the different circumstances in which crystallisation has taken place, and that A. is the production of a comparatively rapid, and hornblende of a comparatively slow cooling. Be regards some of the varieties as intermediate His views have been supported by experiments, and by a comparison of A. with certain crystalline substances occurring among the scorisB of foundries. — Diopside, Sa/ilite, 'Ccolite are varieties of A. — Diallage (rp v.) and Ifyperstliene (q. v.) are very nearly allied to it AUGMENTATION, in Heraldry. Sec Hxs> AI.IM1Y. AUGMENTATION, in Music, is the reproduction of a melody, or principal subject of a composition, in the course of the progress of the piece, in i AUGMENTATION-AUGSBURG CONFEsMi i\\ greater length than those notes in which the d is lirst introduced. The tempo remains unaltered A. is of great importance in the treatment of the subjects, or themes, for fugues, and when cleverly i reduces great effects. AUGMENTATION, PbOOTBS of, in Scotch 1 iw, is an action in the Court of Teinds (q. v.) by the minister of a parish against the titular, or beneficiary, and heritors, for the purpose of procuring an in to his stipend. The moderator and clerk of the presbytery to which tfa belongs must also he called as partus, l'.y -IS Geo. III. c. I3S, it is enacted that no A. shall be granted till the expiration of 15 years from any A. previous to the act, nor till the expiration of 20 years Ei im any A. subsequent to the act. A period of 20 yi ITS must thus elapse between each augmentation. The amount of the A. is fixed, or modified, as it is termed, in grain or victual; the stipend itself being paid in money, according to the tiars' prices (q.V.) of each year. In addition to the ment or modification of a suitable stipend, regard being had to the state of the teinds, the i of the parish, the expense of living, and the like ,-i process of A. has the further object in view of locaUing the stipend so modified i. e., of assigning it in due proportions to the heritors or parties in possession of the tithes. This latter object is attained by means of what is called a scheme of locality— i. e., an allotment of the stipend modified to the several parties liable therefor. This is prepared at the instance of the second junior Lord Ordinary (q.v.), on a remit from the Teind Court. The last conclusion in a summons of A. is for a suitable sum, or increase to the sum already allowed, for communion < li mi nts— i.e., for bread, wine, and other necessaries for celebrating the sacrament of the Lord's Supper after the Presbyterian fashion. When there is not a suf- ficient amount of teind to bring the stipend of the minister up to E150 per annum, with £8, 6 id. for communion elements, it is provided by . r >0 Geo. III. c. St, and 5 Geo. IV. c. 72, that the n >!iii' shall be paid by the Exchequer. In addition to their stipend, ministers have right to a manse and glebe, or a provision of £50 annually in lieu of them. See Stipend, Glebe, Manse; see also I'aui.iami.muiy t'ui ki'ii. AU'GSBURG, historically one of the most notable cities in Germany, is situated in the angle between the rivers Wertaeh and Lech, and is the chief city of the circle of Swabia and Neuburg, in the kingdom of Bavaria. The population is about 38,000. Though presenting an antique and rather deserted appearance, A. has numerous fine buildings, and especially one noble street, the ' imperial' Maximilian Strasse, adorned with bronze fountains. Various buildings are associated with historical events of world-inte- rest. The industry of A. is reviving ; several cotton and woollen factories are in operation, as well as ma mifactories of paper, tobacco, and machinery. Its gold and silver wares still retain their ancient n ,,n tation. The once flourishing art of copp is extinct; but printing, lithography, and bookselling have taken a new start. The AlU/emeine Zeilung, or Augsburg Gazette, the most widely circulated paper in » iermany, is published here. Banking and stock- jobbing aiv extensively carried on; and it is still the emporium of the trade with Italy and Southern Germany. It is the centre of a system of railways connecting it with NUrnberg and Leipsic, with Switzerland, Munich, &c. The foundation of A. was the 'colony' planted by the Emperor Augustus, 12 B.C., after the conquest of the Vindelici, probably on the site of a former residence of that people. £13 It was called Aug ' licorum, and hence the present name. It became the capita] of tin vince of Kha tia, was laid waste by the Huns in the 5th c, and came next under the dominion of the Prankish kings. In the war of Charlemagne with Tha ilo of Bavaria, it was again destroyed. After the division of Charlem i m s empire, it came under the Duke of Swabia; but having become already rich by commerce, was able to purchase gradually many privileges, and finally became, in 1276, a free city 01 the empire, it now rose to greater consc- than ever, and ha I reached the summit of ii j prosperity by the end of the 1 Ith c. About this time ( I 368), its aristocratic government was set aside for a democratic, which last.-d for l"o years, till the aristocracy, favoured by Charles V., regained the ascendency. A. continued in inence f or its commerce" manufactures, and art, till the war between i In. hi V. and the Protestant league of Schmalkald [1540). Along with Niirnberg it formed the empo- rium of the trade between Northern Europe and the south, and its merchants were princes whose ships were in all seas. See FCGGER. It was also the c, ntie of German art as represented by the Holbeins, Burkmair, Altdorfer, and others. Many diets of the empire ware held iii A., and the leading events of the Reformation are as ociated with its name. The discovery of the mad to India by the Cape, and of Am rica, turned the commerce of the world into new channels, and dried up the sources of A's prosperity. li lot its freedom with the abolition of the German empire in 1806, and was taken possession of by Bavaria. (1871— pop. 51,2S4.) 1 1 GSBURG CONFESSION, the chief standard of faith in the Lutheran Church. Its history is the following. With a view to an amicable arrangement of the religious split that had existed in (iermany since 1517, Charles V., as protector of the church, had convoked a diet of the empire, to meet at Augs- burg, 8th April 15HO, and had required from the Protestants a short statement of the doctrines in which they departed from the Catholic Church. The Elector, John, of Saxony, therefore, in March, called on his Wittenberg theologians, with Luther at. their head, to draw up articles of faith, to lay before him at Torgau. The commissioned doctors took as a basis, in so far as pure doctrine was concerned, that had been agreed to the previous year at conferences held at Marburg and Scnwabach, in the form of resolutions of the Lutheran reformers of ( : ermany against the doctrines of Zwingli. These doc- trinal articles supplemented, and with a practical part newly added, were laid before the Elector at Torgau. Melanchthon then, taking the Torgau articles as a foundation, began in Augsburg, in May, and with the advice of various Protestant theologians, as well as princes and other secular authorities, composed the document, which he first called an Apology, but which in the diet itself took the name of the A. C. Luther was not present in Augsburg, being then under the ban of the empire, but his advice was had recourse to in its composition. The Torgau articles were in German ; the Confession was both in German and Latin; and Melanchthon laboured incessantly at its improvement till it was presented to the emperor, June 25. The character of Melanchthon, in the absence of Luther, had led him, in setting about the composition of the document, to aim at main- taining a spirit of love, forbearance, and mediation, as wall as the utmost brevity and simplicity. Its object, which only became gradually apparent after the meeting of the diet, was, in the first place, to give a collected view of the belief of the Lutheran Protestants, aiming at the same time at refuting the calumnies of the Catholics, and at laying a foundation for measures of reconciliation. AUGSBURG INTERIM— AUGURIES AXD AUSPICES. The first part of the Confession contains 21 articles of faith and doctrine : 1. Of God; 2. Of Original Sin; 3. Of the Son of God ; 4. Of Justification ; 5. Of Preaching; G. Of New Obedience; 7 and 8. Of the Church; 9. Of Baptism ; 10. Of the Lord's Supper ; 11. Of Confession ; 12. Of Penance; 13. Of the Use of Sacraments ; 14. Of Church Government; 15. Of Church Order ; 16. Of Secular Government ; 17. Of Christ's Second Coming to Judgment ; 18. Of Free Will; 19. Of the Cause of Sin; 20. Of Faith and Good Works ; 21. Of the Worship of Saints. The second and more practical part, which is carried out at greater length, contains seven articles on disputed points: 22. On the Two Kinds of the Sacrament ; 23. Of the Marriage of Priests; 21. Of the Mass; 25. Of Confession ; 26. Of Distinctions of Meat ; 27. Of Conventual Vows; 2S. Of the Authority of Bishops. This document, signed by some six Protestant princesand two free cities, was read before the emperor and the diet, 25th Jane 1630. Melanchthon, not ag upon the Confession as bin Jim', began shortly after to make some alterations in its expression ; at last, in l.">li). he published a Latin edition [Confessio I i which there were important changes and additions. This was especially the case with the article on the Lord's Supper, in which, with a view to conciliation, he endeavoured to unite the views of the Lutherans and Calvinists. This gave rise subsequently to much controversy ; orthodox Lutheranisin repudiated the alterations of Melanch- thon, and long continued to subject his memory to great abuse ; though it is clear that Melanchthon and his adherents contemplated no substantial departure in doctrine from the original Confession. It is not certain that the form of the Confession found in the Lutheran standards is identical with the unaltered A. I '., as the two original documents — German and | Latin — laid before the diet have been lost. The ' chief distinction between the orthodox Lutherans and the reformed churches of Germany lias all along been adherence to the ' unaltered ' or to the ' altered 1 Confession. It was even a matter of controversy whether the ' reformed ' were entitled to the rights secured to the Protestants by the Religious Peace of Augsburg, concluded in 1555, on the ground of the ' unaltered' Confession. — Though the A. C. is still formally a