LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 

PSYCHIC 
 
 AND 
 
 ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 OF 
 
 MAN'S PHYSICAL 
 UPRIGHTNESS 
 
 Published by the Author 
 
 849 lancoln Avenue 
 PASADENA, CAX,., U. S. A. 
 
PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC 
 
 RESULTS OF MAN'S 
 PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS 
 
 "There can be no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except 
 in absolute veracity of thought and action and in a resolute facing of 
 the world as it is, with all garment of make-believe thrown off." 
 THOS. H. HUXLBY. 
 
 Published by the Author 
 
 849 Lincoln Avenue 
 
 PASADENA, CAL. 
 
 U. S. A. 
 
 Printing and Binding by Appeal Publishing Company 
 Girard, Kansas 
 1906 
 

PEEFACE. 
 
 The title correctly indicates the contents of these essays, 
 in which the origin of some of the more important mental, 
 moral, social, economic and political conditions of today 
 has been traced to the physical peculiarities of our brute 
 ancestors. 
 
 Nothing except what competent scientists regard as set- 
 tled has been taken for granted, but generally speaking it 
 has been demonstrated, that from these peculiarities, such 
 conditions had to follow as inevitable results. 
 
 In chapters one to eight, inclusive, our brute ancestors 
 are considered as they were in the period before they had 
 learned to use sticks and stones. In chapter nine this limi- 
 tation has been disregarded. 
 
 Dealing with problems so closely related to the fates 
 of vast numbers of people alive today our judgments tend 
 to be colored by our sympathies. Foreseeing this danger, 
 the author has carefully guarded against it by aiming at a 
 cold, judicial attitude of mind, to which human beings are 
 no more than numerals in a calculation, or lines and angles 
 in a geometrical figure. 
 
 The aim has been to make the argument conclusive in 
 the eight earlier chapters, suggestive in the ninth. 
 
 T. W. HEIKEMAK 
 
 Pasadena, Cal., 1906. 
 
 153720 
 
Copyright by 
 
 T. W. Heineman, Pasadena, Calif. 
 1906. 
 
PART I. 
 
 NATURAL SELECTION OF HUMAN INTELLIGENCE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. Brute-man's Disabilities and Perils. 
 
 CHAPTER II. The Means of Escape. 
 
 CHAPTER III. Forcing the Growth of Intelligence. 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 BRUTE-MAN'S PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND PERILS. 
 
 With wider recognition of the influence of heredity on 
 character and destiny, the interest in the genealogy of the 
 human race naturally increases. Darwin's "Descent of Man" 
 indicated clearly enough the direction in which to look for 
 our ancestors, but knowledge of facts bearing upon the sub- 
 ject was, in his day, still too fragmentary for the general 
 acceptation of his theory. Since then, several of the miss- 
 ing links in the chain have been supplied and the discovery 
 of Eugene Dubois has been especially significant. 
 
 For the thigh-bone, teeth and part of a skull, which 
 he found in an ancient dry river bed of the Island of Java, 
 were more like the corresponding parts in the human skele- 
 ton than any other bones or parts of bones obtainable from 
 the quadrumana. Obviously these remains belonged to an 
 extinct species intermediate between man and the most man- 
 like anthropoid apes of today. Pithecanthropus is the name 
 given to this extinct species, and some naturalists have gone 
 so far as to assume that this discovery has supplied the 
 last of the missing links, in the chain of descent from gib- 
 bon to man. 
 
 But no assumption of this or any other kind, with 
 reference to the descent of man, is needed, as a foundation 
 or otherwise, to sustain the coherent syllogisms presented in 
 the following chapters, which are based on the proposition: 
 "that all higher types of life have been derived, or are de- 
 
8 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 scended, from lower, and that man's origin is no exception 
 from this unalterable rule." 
 
 For evidences and arguments sustaining this law con- 
 verge from every branch of the natural sciences, and from 
 all the widely divergent fields of inquiry in which natur- 
 alists and investigators have been engaged, and although 
 these evidences and arguments have been frequently con- 
 tested and with great ability, they have always been vindi- 
 cated in the end. 
 
 Hundreds of institutions of learning, experts by the 
 tens of thousands, competent observers and thinkers, authors 
 by the hundreds of thousands, have contributed corrobora- 
 tive facts and conclusive lines of reasoning. Tests and tests 
 of tests, series after series, practically innumerable, have 
 been applied, until finally the consensus of the competent 
 has become unanimous. 
 
 Does this assert the evolution of man from lower forms 
 of life? It does assert his descent, or derivation, but not 
 his evolution. To assert the evolution of any organic type 
 from another, is a misuse of language, apt to lead to mis- 
 apprehension. 
 
 The term evolution is properly applied only to that pro- 
 cess by which inorganic and organic masses or individuals pro- 
 gress, by dissipation of motion and concentration of matter, 
 from more or less indefinite incoherent homogeneity, towards 
 more definite coherent heterogeneity, which, among organic 
 forms of life, implies a greater degree of specialization and 
 adaptability. Such a process in sexually reproducing organ- 
 isms obviously cannot be continuous from generation to gener- 
 ation. For a new individual of a new generation springs 
 from the conjugation of the sperm cell of one organism with 
 the germ cell or ovum of another. This conjugation is the 
 beginning of the evolution of a new organism, and not a 
 
OF MAN S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 
 
 continuation of the evolution of either or both of the organ- 
 isms from which these two different cells have come. Thus 
 higher forms of life are not evolved, but derived, descended 
 from lower, by variation, through sexual reproduction. 
 
 Limiting consideration in this place to the more im- 
 portant among his external physical traits, man is distin- 
 guished from the quadrumana mainly by: 
 
 1. Arms proportionally shorter; 
 
 2. Finger tips, fingers, and thumbs, in the upper ex- 
 tremities, mainly specialized to sensations of touch as dis- 
 tinguished from the corresponding organs of the quadrumana, 
 which are almost exclusively adapted to prehension and 
 locomotion ; 
 
 3. At the lower extremities, feet distinguished from 
 hands, by having the hallux unopposable, because of the 
 shape of the entocuneiform bone, and long enough to serve 
 as a fulcrum, standing or walking, which, in connection 
 with the position of the occipital foramen magnum, just 
 back of the centre of the base of the skull, and the double 
 curvature of the spinal column, is the essential condition on 
 which physical uprightness depends; 1 
 
 4. Proportionally larger and more muscular lower or 
 posterior limbs; 
 
 5. A body more slender in proportion, with smaller 
 
 1. Most scientists continue to call the posterior extremities of 
 apes, including those of the troglodites, hands, and all apes quad- 
 rumana. This view has been adhered to in these essays. 
 
 There is, however, good anatomical reason for classifying these 
 extremities, with Huxley, as feet. But since functionally they are 
 hands, almost to the same extent as the anterior pair; and since 
 the troglodites, according to some observers, usually walk on the 
 knuckles of these members, and according to others, on the inside 
 edges, it seems moi 3 rational to retain the former classification in 
 these essays, at leaf . 
 
10 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 thoracic cavity, therefore, necessarily less capacious viscera 
 and vitals; 
 
 6. A larger cranium, therefore, more room for brains ; 
 
 7. Ear lobes and chin; 
 
 8. Glossy bare epidermis covering almost the entire 
 body, in lieu of the hairy hide of the quadrumana and 
 quardrupeda. 
 
 It has been asserted with great confidence that at one 
 time all men had hairy bodies; that the wearing of artifi- 
 cial coverings, first skins and then clothes, made hair un- 
 necessary and interfered with its healthy growth; and that, 
 therefore, men now have smooth skin, without hair. It is 
 asserted that the exceedingly rare appearance of men with 
 hairy bodies, and the prevalent hairiness of the Ainos of 
 Japan, is proof that at one time the bodies of all men were 
 hairy. There is not a particle of evidence that hairiness 
 ever was general among men. The exceedingly rare appear- 
 ance of a hairy man and the exceptional existence of one 
 hairy nation is no evidence; nor is the existence of fine, 
 almost invisible hair all over the body; nor is the hairiness 
 of the six months old human embryo. These facts can only 
 be considered as evidence that by variation the "genus homo" 
 has descended from hairy non-human brutes. 
 
 Nor is it reasonable to suppose that the wearing of 
 artificial covering has caused a hairy ancestry to bring forth 
 a hairless progeny, for this is taking the transmission of 
 acquired traits for granted. 
 
 Hairy coats collect and harbor fleas, lice, and similar 
 insect pests on the bodies of animals, and also disease germs, 
 and here these multiply prodigiously. The secretions of the 
 skin furnish ideal culture media for these germs, and the 
 crawling and hopping insects carry them around. Thus it 
 requires but a slight accidental scratch or cut to cause the 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 11 
 
 germs to invade the bodies of their hosts and to spread 
 devastating epidemics in herds or entire races. 
 
 Hairlessness, which under natural conditions is such 
 an inestimable adjunct to cleanliness, is, therefore, caeteris 
 paribus, of great survival value and this fact makes it very 
 probable, if not certain, that this trait was naturally selected 
 in the human race. At least it produces such a strong pre- 
 liminary case in favor of this conclusion, as to throw upon 
 those who deny it, the onus of proving the contrary. 
 
 It is otherwise with the quadrumana, when in their 
 natural habitats. Woodticks, jiggers and the other insect 
 pests found on the trunks and branches of forest trees and 
 shrubs, cannot live and propagate in hair or fur. The in- 
 sect's and disease germs, which are dangerous to brute life, 
 are plentiful in moist and wet regions on the ground, but 
 not on the trunks or branches of trees. Hairlessness, there- 
 fore, has no survival value for apes. 
 
 It is, however, quite rational to believe that the wear- 
 ing of artificial covering would make hairy men lose their 
 hair, but the offspring of such would not, therefore, be born 
 less hairy than their parents. Again, if men were formerly 
 hairy and had only become hairless by the wearing of arti- 
 ficial covering, then those tribes and nations which have 
 never worn artificial covering would still be hairy. But some 
 of the savages of Africa and Australia, and some of the 
 natives of India, have gone naked since time immemorial, 
 and still do so up to date; yet they are as free from hair 
 as the people of Europe. Finally, why in common sense 
 should creatures covered with fur or hair be supposed to 
 wear artificial covering? 
 
 Distinguished by the eight differences above noted from 
 the genera, most nearly related, the "genus homo," as a new 
 type of life, had to share in the struggle for existence, bat- 
 
12 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC EESULTS 
 
 tling with the unthinking, unfeeling forces of nature, and 
 with great numbers and varieties of creatures fiercer and 
 more powerful than he, which, in addition, were naturally 
 armed and provided with means for protection, escape and 
 rapid multiplication. Was he well fitted for the trial? Few 
 if any brutes, were less so. 
 
 The adaptations by which animals when not other- 
 wise disadvantaged survive in the struggle for exigence may 
 be broadly classified under these four heads : 1st Means 
 of offense and defense; 2nd Means of protection; 3rd 
 Means of escape; 4th Means of multiplication. Under all 
 these heads, hardly a creature among the higher mammalia, 
 birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects, would rank as low, for 
 natural endowment, as man's brute ancestors did before they 
 had learned the use of sticks and stones. 
 
 Considering the four classes of adaptations, in the order 
 above stated, we find that: 
 
 Firstly, most creatures are naturally armed for offense 
 and defense. They have horns, tusks, claws, stings, fangs, 
 talons, poisons, sharp teeth, protruding jaws, etc., where- 
 with either to defend themselves against enemies, or to at- 
 tack and pursue their prey. Man has none of these. 
 
 Secondly, most creatures possess heavy fur, thick hides, 
 or both, or some equivalent of these, which protect their 
 bodies from scratches, cuts or abrasions, which thorns, nee- 
 dles, stones, etc., or antagonists in the original habitats, 
 might otherwise inflict. These means also protect them 
 against changes of temperature, and from biting winds and 
 biting enemies; from snow, hail, rain, etc. Man has no 
 protection of this sort. 
 
 Thirdly, the hairy bodies of many creatures match well 
 with the prevailing tints in their usual habitats, and are, 
 therefore, ready means of concealment from their enemies 
 
OP MAN'S PHYSICAL UPKIGHTNESS. 13 
 
 or prey. This increases their chances of escape and for 
 obtaining sustenance. Primitive man's hairless, glossy, un- 
 clad, bare skinned, tall, upright body, made him a particu- 
 larly prominent, easily perceived mark. The absence of 
 hide and fur, which carnivora are forced to strip off before 
 they can devour other creatures, made primitive man an 
 easy, therefore, attractive morsel for these predatory crea- 
 tures. 
 
 Proportionally to the size of his body, the viscera of 
 man are less capacious than those of most other mammalians. 
 He is, therefore, forced to take food oftener and cannot 
 uninterruptedly sustain efforts for as long a period as his 
 enemies or competitors. This is an enormous disadvantage 
 in the struggle for existence. 
 
 Fourthly, in the matter of multiplication, nature has 
 excessively discriminated against man, for the period of preg- 
 nancy in our race is exceptionally long, and the number of 
 offspring born at one birth is as low in our case as in any. 
 
 Besides the above mentioned deficiencies in natural en- 
 dowment, man is afflicted with numerous special infirmities, 
 among which may be noticed the absence of valves from the 
 vense-cavae and from the iliac, hsemorrhoidal and portal veins. 
 Quadrupeds have no need of these valves in these blood 
 vessels, but the lack of them in man produces frequent cases 
 of congestion, strangulation, illness and death. Many hu- 
 man beings are incapacitated annually, or lose health and 
 even life, by femoral and inguinal hernias, brought on and 
 aggravated by the upright attitude. The frontal exposure 
 of man's femoral artery, brought on by uprightness, annu- 
 ally demands many victims, even in these days of medical 
 and surgical skill. In the primary ages of brute-man's 
 existence, the sacrifice of life from these causes must have 
 been enormous. 
 
14 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 The disadvantages above recited react with like severity 
 upon all specimens of the race., irrespective of sex or age. 
 Others must now be explained which are more dangerous 
 to survival than these, although they directly affect preg- 
 nant women only. 
 
 The females of quadrupeds may, during pregnancy, 
 carry a numerous litter of young in their bodies, and yet 
 without experiencing an appreciable degree of increase in 
 effort, or in inconvenience: they can run away from pur- 
 suing enemies, make chase to capture prey, or collect suste- 
 nance. For the foetal burden is near the ground, horizon- 
 tally distributed over the entire length of the abdominal 
 muscles. These in turn are supported from above by the 
 full strength of the vertebral column, to which, on the prin- 
 ciple of the arch or truss in architecture, the abdominal 
 muscles are attached by intermediate tissues. Even if a 
 quadruped stumbles or falls, its under side is so close to 
 the ground that the risk of injury is comparatively small. 
 
 It is very different with the pregnant female of the 
 human race. The erect attitude concentrates the pressure 
 of the foetus, supporting tissues, and enlarged uterus, at the 
 lower forward end of the abdomen, making the bearing of 
 offspring an exceptionally incapacitating strain upon almost 
 every movement, thus increasing the risks of being overtaken 
 by enemies, starving from inability to capture prey or gather 
 sustenance, and of injury or death in consequence of falls 
 or even stumbles. 
 
 In quadrupeds the anterior, posterior, lateral, peritoneal 
 and round ligaments firmly support the uterus and prevent 
 it from pitching too far forward towards the diaphragm, 
 but the upright attitude interferes with their doing this 
 service, in the case of human females, which accounts for 
 the frequency in our race, of painful and dangerous illness 
 
15 
 
 from prolapsus uteri. The same position and shape of the 
 pelvic bones, which makes parturition easy and painless in 
 quadrupeds, becomes in the human race the prolific cause 
 of suffering and death to mothers and offspring. With so 
 many odds against it, how did the human race escape ex- 
 tinction? It will be the purpose of several subsequent chap- 
 ters to find a rational and sufficient answer to this question. 
 
16 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 THE MEANS OF ESCAPE. 
 
 The announcement made in the preface, that all but 
 the last chapter in these essays should be devoted to the 
 conditions of brute-man,, before he became familiar with 
 the use of sticks and stones, indicates where this inquiry 
 should end, but leaves the period uncertain in which it 
 should begin. This, however, is suggested by the use of the 
 terms, brute-man, two-footed upright brute, etc. 
 
 For, when our ancestors had so far differentiated from 
 the genera most closely related to them that they could no 
 longer be classified with them, but were a species by them- 
 selves, were brute-men, then they became subject's for the 
 line of investigation followed in these essays. 
 
 When a creature supplied at the posterior extremities 
 with two feet, distinguished from hands by the modified 
 form of the entocuneiform bone and by having the hallux 
 as a fulcrum, and at the anterior with two hands and with 
 the occipital foramen magnum a little back of the centre 
 of the base of the skull ; that is to say, when a brute, which 
 although closely related to the quadrumana, was yet not 
 fitted for tree life or climbing, but adapted instead to up- 
 right walking or standing, made its first appearance on 
 earth, then was the beginning of the human race and of 
 the period to which these pages are devoted. 
 
 In the last chapter attention was directed to a few of 
 the many disabilities and perils with which the human race 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 17 
 
 was loaded down, when ifr made its first entry in the strug- 
 gle for existence. 
 
 Any one of these is ordinarily sufficient to doom a type 
 of life to rapid extermination. When two or more of them 
 apply to the same variety, speedy extinction is certain, un- 
 less their effects are counter-balanced by a rapid and copious 
 rate of multiplication. 
 
 The "genus homo," however, was afflicted with all these 
 disabilities, perils and infirmities, and with still others to 
 be mentioned hereafter, while at the same time the rate of 
 multiplication in our race, is almost the slowest known and 
 the farthest removed from copiousness, if the elephant, eagle 
 and a few other instances are excluded ; and it is noteworthy, 
 that these exceptions, although supplied with natural means 
 of offense, defense, protection and escape, exist only in 
 scanty numbers, not very far removed from extinction. 
 
 Humanity's survival, therefore, falls little short of be- 
 ing miraculous, and can only be accounted for by the high 
 average of intellectuality attained. Until a degree of this 
 had been reached and applied to the use of sticks and stones, 
 if our race was to survive at all (and it has), it must un- 
 avoidably have remained in the interval, in such close prox- 
 imity to extinction as to be continuously on the verge of it. 
 escaping only by a very narrow margin. 
 
 As an objection to the above it may be assumed, how- 
 ever, that a superior type of intelligence already distinguished 
 the very first specimens of man's upright brute-ancestors, 
 and that these began immediately to use sticks and stones, 
 and that, therefore, the interval above mentioned may never 
 have existed. 
 
 To many people a literal interpretation of the bible story 
 of Eve, the serpent, and the tree of knowledge, still seems 
 sufficient authority for the first part of this assumption. As 
 
18 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 a poetic allegory it is a work of unique charm. But anything 
 so absolutely contrary to the whole trend of experience can- 
 not be made acceptable to impartial, rational minds, by even 
 the most charming of poetic allegories. It is irrational to 
 assert the extraordinary without evidence, and there is not 
 a particle of evidence to support either the story or the a- ' 
 sumption: It is furthermore a settled principle triat^ttew' 
 types or new traits do not come into existence suddenly. 
 Whenever investigated, it has always been successfully dem- 
 onstrated that they start from small beginnings which pri- 
 marily emerge, through variation, by sexual reproduction. 
 Then if they have survival value, natural selection keeps on 
 accumulating them from generation to generation until they 
 become prominent, typical. 1 
 
 Intelligence was the last achievement of life, the func- 
 tion of a structure vastly more complex and unstable than 
 any that had existed before. To assume that a superior 
 type of this faculty should have appeared on the scene full- 
 fledged, is not science, nor reason; it is superstition. It is 
 to assert a monstrous nullification of the order of nature. 
 
 Eeferring to the second part of the assumption; it can 
 not be denied, that a two-footed upright brute is organ- 
 ically better fitted for the clever use of clubs and missiles 
 than the quadrumana are, and if creatures so fitted under- 
 stand the use of these appliances, then they are well pre- 
 pared for the struggle for existence, though otherwise sadly 
 disadvantaged. 
 
 i. Thinking of higher animals only, the possibility was overlooked that the text might be 
 construed into a sweeping assertion of the applicability to all forms of life, of the principle enun- 
 ciated above. The insertion of the words, "among higher animals, 1 ' limits the language as 
 required by the present state of knowledge 
 
 On comparing higher animals with plants, the comparatively low degree of organization of 
 the latter, in which distinctive individuation can hardly be said to have begun, their frequent propa- 
 gation by budding, grafting, slipping and, more yet, the fact that in most plants the reproductive 
 organs are mere special adaptations of the structures otherwise devoted to nutrition, lead the 
 mind, in their case, to expect sudden mutations of type or trait from changes in nutrition, eto. 
 But in higher animals the reproductive organs are so highly differentiated from all other 
 structures of the body to such an extent segregated and isolated from the functions and activities 
 appertaining to the individual, as distinguished from race life, that August Weissman, and other 
 distinguished scientists, have pointed out that it is utterly inconceivable that the reproductive 
 substance could be significantly modified by any of the ordinary influences of the environment 
 during the life time of an individual. 
 
 Darwin himself was so impressed with this that he professed hesitation and but small 
 confidence in his own theory of Pangenesis; considered it as a temporary expedient only. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 19 
 
 Brutes quickly learn the advantage of those means of 
 offense and defense which nature has supplied to their bodies. 
 But to teach them the use of artificial appliances requires 
 either a developed hereditary instinct, or long training joined 
 to a high degree of intelligence. Could the two-footed 
 upright brute from the beginning have reasoned out the ad- 
 vantages of sticks and missiles and the manner of handling 
 them? 
 
 This is the first part of the assumption over again, for 
 it presupposes a degree of intelligence utterly unthinkable 
 in the case of these primitive brutes. Only by being 
 repeatedly put through the several steps in the process, 
 can brutes be taught new tricks or habits. Civilized man 
 teaches children and ignorant adults. But wild brutes have, 
 with a few exceptions, such as when parent birds teach their 
 young how to fly, only nature for a teacher. And how could 
 nature teach a brute to go through the motions of breaking 
 off a branch, trimming branchlets off for a stick, then grasp- 
 ing and uplifting it and striking blows, not at random, but 
 carefully aimed, at a definite object, with premeditated pur- 
 pose? Then to realize in mind what it had accomplished, 
 and by what means, and to retain the remembrance of it, as 
 an inducement to repeat these actions voluntarily in future, 
 is unthinkable in the case of the stolid, primitive, two-footed 
 brute. 
 
 The unimpressionable stolidity of savages, even, is a 
 well-known fact, and it has been demonstrated that, on the 
 average, this stolidity differs directly as the time distance 
 from civilization. How dense then must have been the dull- 
 ness of our brute ancestors ! 
 
 Nature teaches by frequent repetitions of incidents (so- 
 called accidents) which directly induce, step by step, the 
 various consecutive, coherent motions or actions which, when 
 
20 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 compounded in a certain order with duly adjusted emphasis, 
 constitute a habit or habitual mode of action. Any person 
 who imagines that a complex and lengthy series of accidents, 
 such as would be competent to induce a stolid brute to go 
 through the motions and mental changes recited in the last 
 paragraph but one, could be repeated in the same order, and 
 with like emphasis, so frequently in the experience of that 
 brute as to teach him the habit of making those motions 
 deliberately, recklessly abuses the representative faculty. 
 
 It is very different, however, with an instinct; for this 
 originates by variation, through heredity and selection. In 
 sexually reproducing organisms variation is the cause of an 
 infinite variety of living forms and of the structural arrange- 
 ments within their bodies. No specimen among these organ- 
 isms and structural arrangements is in every particular ex- 
 actly like any other. The vast majority of them is either 
 not at all, or at best but poorly, adapted to their environ- 
 ing conditions. At rare intervals specimens occur which are 
 specially and wonderfully adapted. This applies to races, 
 individuals, organs, tissues and structural arrangements. It 
 applies to the nervous system and to nerve substance and to 
 structural arrangements of nerves. 
 
 Among the rarely occurring structural arrangements of 
 nerves there have happened some which are capable of ini- 
 tiating motions, which, under suitable conditions, favor the 
 reproduction and survival of the type of organisms possess- 
 ing these structures and performing these motions. Such 
 nerve structures are the causes of so-called instinctive actions, 
 which, being selected, are then transmitted as race instincts. 
 
 The wonderful instinct of a certain wasp, which stings 
 a particular kind of caterpillar in nine definite places, just 
 where the nine principal ganglia of the creature are situated, 
 and then deposits its eggs in the body of the animal, is of 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 21 
 
 this sort. The stinging of the nine ganglia completely par- 
 alizes the caterpillar, but does not kill it. The grubs, devel- 
 oping from the eggs deposited in the body, feed on the liv- 
 ing flesh of their host and are thus enabled to survive. These 
 caterpillars live in hot countries. If, instead of being par- 
 alized, they were stung dead, then their flesh would rapidly 
 putrefy and the young wasp grubs, instead of being nour- 
 ished by wholesome food, would be poisoned. That kind of 
 wasp would become extinct. 
 
 Undoubtedly myriads of varieties of wasps died out be- 
 cause they did not sting in the exact places where the nine 
 ganglia are located. At last one kind was born with nerve 
 structures so precisely adjusted that the nine stings were 
 performed in the exact localities where the nine ganglia 
 are situated. That kind of wasp has survived. Thus nature 
 works out these wonders in infinite time, with infinite variety, 
 through infinite waste, by natural selection. 
 
 Can reason supply any explanation of so wonderful an 
 instinct? Indeed the explanation seems obvious. There 
 must exist a natural attractive affinity (chemical or other- 
 wise) between the substance in the wasp's sting and the 
 substance in the caterpillar's ganglia. This affinity, ordi- 
 narily inactive or only potential, becomes active when stimu- 
 lated by the wasp's catching sight of that kind of caterpillar. 
 
 But the teaching of a habit to a creature, by many 
 repetitions of a series of accidents, is a very different mat- 
 ter. This has neither infinite time to work in nor infinite 
 variety to work with, but is limited in its educational possi- 
 bilities: to the lifetime of the creature it works on; to the 
 narrow capacity of that brute's intelligence; to the vicissi- 
 tudes of its stolidity and inattention, and to the infinitely 
 great improbability of a series of natural accidental induce- 
 ments being frequently repeated exactly alike in quality and 
 
22 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 in the order of their occurrence, under similarly adjusted 
 environing circumstances. 
 
 But one of these two-footed upright brutes, in an effort 
 at climbing, might grab a branch for support, and then this 
 branch might accidentally break off and remain in the brute's 
 hand. Would not that teach him the use of a stick ? By no 
 means ! To begin with, there are many times many chances 
 that the branch would not be suitable for a stick, on account 
 of branchlets. Then what should make the brute retain it 
 in his hand? Not any intellectual expectation of making 
 use of it. That is inconceivable in advance of experience, 
 and to assume antecedent experience is to beg the question. 
 And since all wild creatures avoid avoidable efforts, it is 
 more than likely that brute-man would drop the stick im- 
 mediately upon becoming aware that he had missed his hold. 
 Furthermore, on the branch breaking, the recoil would startle 
 the brute and perhaps make him angry or afraid, and all 
 the more likely to drop the stick. To teach him the use of 
 a stick, it would have to be further assumed, that, imme- 
 diately after grabbing it and after the recoil from breaking, 
 another accident made him accidentally lift the arm and 
 then strike a blow. Then, by further accidental coincidence, 
 the blow would have to fall just in the right place, on some 
 creature or object happening to be there, at the exactly 
 right moment, and that this combination of exact accident's 
 achieved so impressive a result in the life of the creature 
 as to determine his stolid nature to remember and volun- 
 tarily repeat these actions on future occasions. He would 
 have to say to himself: "This is a stick. Sticks come from 
 trees, when you want to climb and happen to miss. Sticks 
 must first be lifted and then brought down violently. That 
 kills some animal good to eat, or one that might have killed 
 and eaten me, unless I had first struck it with the stick." 
 
OF MAN^S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 23 
 
 Then this complex series of coincident and precisely ad- 
 justed accidents must be repeated frequently before a single 
 man-brute could acquire the habit. 
 
 Even so comparatively simple an accident as that a 
 grabbed branch, fit for a stick, should break off and remain 
 in the hand, not to mention the subsequent series of necea- 
 sary accidents, must have remained of exceedingly rare oc- 
 currence in the life of any one of our two-footed ancestors. 
 For they were not fitted for tree life. Their two feet made 
 them unfit for it. Their proper habitat was the solid earth. 
 On this their conditions were sufficiently against them, but 
 up in the branches of trees, apes, serpent's and felines had 
 them at much greater disadvantage. 
 
 The assumption that brute-man used sticks as weapons, 
 before his intelligence had made considerable advance, is 
 for these reasons untenable. 
 
 Passing from sticks to stones, it seems even more im- 
 probable that the two-footed brute should have learned the 
 use of missiles from the frequent repetitions of accidents 
 competent to induce the motions involved in the seizing and 
 throwing of stones at a mark. 
 
 For, while standing or moving, the hands of the two- 
 footed upright creature dangle from eighteen to thirty inches 
 above ground, and at that elevation can never come accident- 
 ally in contact with stones. When in a sitting or horizontal 
 attitude, the accidental contact with stones is more probable; 
 but what accident should induce a brute to lift, swing, and 
 throw a stone at a definite mark, with a definite purpose, 
 in advance of experience? While the contact might be acci- 
 dental, it is utterly unthinkable, that from a sitting or pros- 
 trate position, the lifting, swinging, throwing, etc., could 
 be so. It must, if occurring at all, in those positions always 
 be on purpose. And purpose presupposes antecedent expe- 
 
24 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 rience, which is begging the question. This applies equally 
 to sticks and stones. 
 
 The same line of reasoning applies here, a fortiori, which 
 was followed in detail in the matter of sticks, and it leads 
 to the same conclusion, viz., that such an assumption is un- 
 tenable. 
 
 And yet it is a well-known fact that apes use sticks and 
 missiles. Their natural relation to these appliances, however, 
 accounts for this fact, in a way which is not applicable to the 
 man-brute. For whether resting or moving in his natural 
 habitat, among the aboriginal forests, an ape is distinguished 
 from the two-footed upright brute by generally having one 
 or more of his hands grasping the branches of trees. From 
 the weight of his body or the muscular pressure of his 
 hands, it must frequently happen, that one of these branches 
 breaks and remains in a hand. Nor would he then be as 
 liable to receive the recoil and consequent perturbation as the 
 man-brute. For he supports himself by holding on with 
 several hands to various parts of a tree. With the frequent 
 natural repetitions of such incidents, it seems not at all im- 
 probable that an occasional coincidence might induce the 
 lifting of a stick and striking of an accidental blow. There- 
 fore, would the two-footed brute not, but the ape might, be 
 taught the use of sticks, in the natural course of events. 
 
 As to missiles, it should be further observed, that apes 
 are almost continually among the branches of trees, where 
 fruits and nuts grow and where dead branches occur, and 
 that, therefore, it cannot be a rare experience for these 
 creatures to observe a fruit, nut or dead branch break off 
 and fall to the ground. Occasionally a fruit or nut, singled 
 out or seized by one, may drop; or a branch which is held 
 may break. Then, if the falling object happens to strike 
 a creature below, that is a lesson in the effect produced by 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 25 
 
 missiles. Actions done ordinarily for a purpose are some- 
 times playfully repeated without a purpose. So fruits and 
 nuts may be plucked playfully and with no purpose of eat- 
 ing them, and then dropped. This might teach how use 
 can be made of fruits and nuts for missiles. Sometimes a 
 fruit or nut after being plucked, may prove unsatisfactory, 
 and then the ape may throw it away in anger. Whether the 
 thing so thrown away strikes another creature or not, it is 
 very likely to teach a lesson in the effect of missiles. It fol- 
 lows, therefore, that accidents and incidents of frequent oc- 
 currence, in the natural course of events in an ape's life, are 
 particularly favorable to making these creatures familiar 
 with the nature and uses of clubs and missiles, but tlie very 
 opposite is true with reference to the two-footed upright 
 ancestors of man. 
 
 It is all the more wonderful, and calls for explanation, 
 that apes handle these artificial tools and weapons so rarely 
 and so clumsily, while evidence is not lacking that primi- 
 tive man in the paleolithic period already used them uni- 
 versally and skillfully. In their natural habitats, up among 
 the branches of the forest trees, apes, by the possession of 
 four hands, to which, in the case of a large division, a pre- 
 hensile tail is added, are the supreme masters of the situa- 
 tion and have no need of arming themselves artificially. 
 Even if they happen to be on the ground and there meet 
 with a creature they wish to capture, or one they are afraid 
 of, it is ordinarily far more easy for them, and far more 
 promising of success, to swing themselves up among their 
 native branches and do battle from above; and travellers 
 tell of Orangs and Gorillas which, from a low hanging 
 branch on which they rest, watch for creatures that pass un- 
 derneath. Then they reach out, grab the passer around the 
 
26 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 throat and lift him from the ground until he dies from suffo- 
 cation. 
 
 The occasions are very rare when sticks or missiles are 
 of any real use to apes. Neither have they the intelligence 
 to suspect the multiform potential applicability of those 
 articles. Besides, they are not organically fitted to make 
 skillful use of them. The difference between their bodies 
 and that of the two-footed upright brute is sufficient to make 
 them rather clumsy and inaccurate in handling them. Such 
 habits have no survival value for them. 
 
 For these reasons, though they had learned their appli- 
 cability long before the upright brutes, yet they have never 
 become articles of common use among them, nor have they 
 ever improved themselves in the manner of handling them. 
 
 How were the upright brutes taught to avail themselves 
 of these arms and tools? It seems probable that they learned 
 their application from observing the clumsy and rare use 
 made of them by their ape relatives. Since it has been 
 proven that these habits could positively never have been 
 acquired by the occurrence of accidents or incidents in the 
 natural course of events, they must have been learned by 
 some indirect method. No other indirect method is so sim- 
 ple, so natural, so suggested by the facts known in this case. 
 Therefore, on the rule of parsimony, this explanation should 
 not be rejected until a better one has been found. 
 
 This leads to a discussion of the nature of the imita- 
 tive faculty. This inheres in the nervous system, and directly 
 differs in degree as the sensitiveness of its owner. It tends 
 to reproduce in him motions which he has observed in other 
 creatures, and does this because the perception of these mo- 
 tions in another excites the corresponding nerve tracts in 
 the perceiving individual. Sympathy differs from this fac- 
 ulty only in this, that it reproduces feelings, emotions and 
 
Off MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 27 
 
 thoughts perceived in another. But since apes live in trees 
 and the man-brute on the ground; since the former are well 
 fitted by nature for the struggle for existence and the latter 
 are not; the opportunities must have been few and rare when 
 our brute ancestors could observe these habits, so as to be 
 induced to imitate them. Neither would our brute ancestors 
 be likely to perceive how these habits could be made useful, 
 seeing that apes handle sticks and missiles clumsily. Only 
 after many generations, when a higher order of intelligence 
 enabled our ancestors to reason from the clumsy movements 
 of apes to the great possibilities of the skillful use of clubs 
 and missiles does it seem probable that the brightest of them 
 may have experimented how to handle them. 2 
 
 2. Sir John Lubbock in "The Origin of Civilization, etc.," tells 
 of monkeys which use stones to crack nuts, of one who used a 
 stick to open a lid of a box, and that the house of the Chimpanzee 
 is equal to some of the rude habitations of savages. 
 
 Margaret Selenka, who with her husband, Emil, spent con- 
 siderable time in the aboriginal forests of the Sunda Islands, for 
 the purpose of observing the habits of the Anthropoids, reports a 
 most interesting incident. They had for a long time made unsus- 
 cessful attempts to capture a living specimen of the Gibbons. Sud- 
 denly, one day, when in the forest, she touched his arm and pointed 
 to a female with her baby crouching on one of the upper branches 
 of a tall tree. Quickly he aimed his rifle and fired, and the wounded 
 female still holding her baby dropped to the ground near the trunk 
 of the tree. Immediately thereafter they perceived a large crowd 
 of male and female Gibbons of various ages scamper away from 
 that part of the forest and disappear. Then they set to work to 
 capture the wounded female, who fought furiously, and while they 
 were thus occupied their attention was attracted by a noise much 
 like the approach of a crowd of people, and on looking in the direc- 
 tion, perceived a troop of about fifteen tall, full-grown Gibbons, 
 all males, making directly toward them with gestures of fierce 
 anger. The rifle being unloaded, they had no desire to encounter 
 these angry brutes and fled precipitously, observing from the 
 distance that the troop proceeded no further than the wounded 
 female and her young, which they lifted up tenderly and carried 
 away. Evidently these males had simply taken their females and 
 youn^ to a place of safety and then returned to rescue their wounded. 
 
 The same travelers report that it is an inspiring sensation to 
 hear the sound of the long-drawn-out musical laughter with whiHi 
 
28 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 Hundreds or thousands of generations must have passed 
 before that status was reached! 
 
 This impartial discussion of the assumption, stated on 
 page 17, shows the same to be without foundation in either 
 fact or reason, and utterly untenable. 
 
 We may, therefore, with increased confidence, resume the 
 argument where we left it. 
 
 The possession of superior intelligence would, in the 
 struggle for existence, surely prove to be of incalculably 
 great advantage to any kind of creature, and since all other 
 types of life now existing, excepting ours, have survived with- 
 out it, it is certain that special causes, prevailing exclusively 
 in our race, must have been at work to produce the marvel- 
 ous phenomenon of human intelligence. 3 
 
 the gibbons salute the dawn of daylight; that it entirely relieves 
 the sense of extreme isolation, which human beings are apt to feel 
 when sojourning during lengthy periods in the depth of the aborig- 
 inal forest. 
 
 3. If it be contended that there exists an inter-dependence be- 
 tween two feet, hands and the other structures on which the upright 
 attitude depends, on the one side, and the possession of a high 
 degree of intelligence, on the other, then the reply is, firstly: That 
 this phase of the argument will be part of the subject matter of 
 the next chapter; secondly, That there cannot be any direct de- 
 pendence one on the other, but only an interdependence between 
 intelligence and the elevation above ground of the organs of sight, 
 hearing, smell and touch, and that the extent of this elevation is 
 dependent on the upright attitude. 
 
 The scope of these sense organs, except touch, for mathematical 
 reasons increases as the squares of their elevations above the ground. 
 But since the impediments to the passage of light and sound in- 
 crease very rapidly, the nearer the surface of the ground is ap- 
 proached, therefore, the real ratio of increase is much greater than 
 the ratio above stated and probably at least equal to the cube of 
 the altitude. 
 
 No observer of four-footed animals can have failed to notice 
 that the mentally energetic and intellectually superior among 
 them make frequent efforts to elevate their heads for the purpose of 
 hearing and seeing, more especially, when their curiosity or appre- 
 hension is aroused, having learned, by experience no doubt, the 
 advantage of this mode of conduct. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 29 
 
 The extent' of the survival value, of any new trait or 
 faculty appearing in a race, depends on these three factors: 
 1st. The urgency of the need for it. 2nd. The range of its 
 applicability. 3rd. The existence of incentives to its use. 
 Need is not a direct incentive to use, for it takes experience 
 and intelligence to perceive and remember the relation ex- 
 isting between the need for something and the activity of 
 the faculty competent to supply the need. 
 
 Surely the disabilities, infirmities and perils of primi- 
 tive man sufficiently established the urgency of the need 
 of any faculty which had survival value; and no other fac- 
 ulty is of such universal, infinite applicability in adjusting 
 a creature to it's environment as intelligence. Therefore, to 
 show the overwhelming survival value of intelligence in the 
 case of the primitive brute ancestry of the human race, it 
 only remains necessary to ascertain whether or not, during 
 the long interval referred to, there existed anything in the 
 organism of man's bin te ancestors which would be a natural 
 and continuous incentive for the active use of intelligence. 
 
 It is probable, from the disabilities named in Chapter I 
 and the absence of hair, fur and thick hide, that during this 
 long interval our brute ancestors frequently served as a choice 
 article of diet for the great contemporary monsters and 
 carnivorae, which rarely permitted isolated specimens to reach 
 that age when the bones have hardened sufficiently to make 
 them difficult to masticate. 
 
 This inference derives strong support from the extreme 
 scarcity of human fossils. At the same time it offers a plausi- 
 ble explanation of this unique phenomenon. 4 Under such 
 
 4. Organic remains can only be fossilized when air, germs, 
 water, etc., are excluded, or when the remains have been hermetic- 
 ally sealed. But this applies to all such remains equally, an d, there- 
 
30 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 circumstances, if any of our brute ancestors of that period 
 were distinguished by any peculiarity, not possessed by other 
 creatures, tending to stimulate them in the use of whatever 
 degree of intelligence they were endowed with, then this 
 slight difference in incentive to it's use might offer a point 
 of departure, a plane of cleavage, where the small end of the 
 wedge of natural selection might enter, and this, in prac- 
 tically infinite time, might lead to a degree of intelligence 
 such as is displayed by the most advanced minds of our gen- 
 eration. 5 
 
 fore, does not explain the unique scarcity of fossil human remains, 
 neither can this be explained by the assumption that the upright 
 brute is the most recent form of mammalia. For in the scarcity of 
 human fossils we have very nearly the only evidence and argument 
 to support the above mentioned assumption. This would be reason- 
 ing in a circle. If it is contended, however, that the upright brute 
 is the most evolved form of life, and that for this reason it follows 
 from the theory of evolution, that it must be the most recent, then 
 the reply can be justly made, that by the most evolved form is 
 meant, "the form most adapted to its environment," and that the 
 first chapter of these essays proves most conclusively that the 
 upright brute, of all mammalian types at the time of its first ap- 
 pearance, was the least adapted to its natural environment. That 
 adaptation only came after the unadapted natural form was sup- 
 plemented by artificial means, viz, clubs and missiles. It is not at 
 all improbable that the two-footed brute is a variation from a kind 
 of brutes now extinct, which were the ancestors of the quadrumana, 
 as well as of the bipeds. This, in fact, is a belief expressed by 
 Charles Darwin and a number of his most eminent contemporaries 
 and followers. On this theory the human type may be the more 
 ancient of the two and it requires evidence to prove its assumed 
 recency. 
 
 5. To account for the wonderful survival of the two-footed up- 
 right brute, it has been suggested that, in the earlier generations, 
 before the expansion of intelligence and the adoption of sticks and 
 missiles had taken place, our ancestors dwelled in some favored spot 
 where no fierce or powerful competitors or enemies existed; that 
 there they acquired a high order of intelligence and became proficient 
 in the use of tools and weapons, and then issued forth to conquer the 
 earth. This is obviously a purely arbitrary guess suggested by the 
 story of the garden of Eden. Only a miracle could have kept such re- 
 treats from t>eing overrun, by man's competitors and enemies, or 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 31 
 
 For when, during a long period, measured in this case 
 probably by hundreds of thousands, if not millions of years, 
 destructive agencies eliminate the great majority of certain 
 creatures before they can reach the reproductive age, then 
 natural selection is able to work on a very small margin, 
 and still by the accumulation of many of these small mar- 
 gins from generation to generation, through many ages, to 
 accomplish astonishingly cumulative results. For natural 
 selection affects both sexes, and the small margin, possessed 
 by each individual joining in the reproductive act, gives to 
 the offspring a hereditary tendency of two such small margins. 
 The old story of the grains of wheat asked for by the in- 
 ventor of the game of chess, is a striking illustration of the 
 stupendous cumulative possibilities of such a process of ad- 
 dition, which makes progress as the powers of two. 6 The 
 nature of this incentive will be discussed in Chapter III. 
 
 from leaving to posterity some evidence of the former existence of 
 these asylums. Furthermore, the unique and enormous expansion 
 of human intelligence would seem miraculous, if the helplessness of 
 our ancestry and the absence of such hypothetical safe retreats had 
 not been the inevitable exciting cause of it. 
 
 6. The story runs that the inventor, when requested to name 
 his own reward, asked for two grains of wheat for the first square, 
 double that for the second, double that for the third, and so on to 
 the sixty-fourth. To express, in grains of wheat, the price of the 
 sixty-fourth square, requires a figure of twenty-two integrals, and 
 by doubling this figure the price of all the sixty-four squares is 
 obtained. From an 'estimate of 200 grains of wheat to the cubic 
 inch, obtained by trial, it follows that for 1,000,000 grains it takes 
 three cubic feet, and the whole number of grains of wheat neces- 
 sary to pay the reward requires a space of 20,000,000 cubic miles 
 to contain them. To form an idea of so enormous a quantity of 
 wheat it may be helpful to state that it would be sufficient to cover 
 the whole surface of the earth, both land and water, to a depth of 
 about 300 feet. 
 
32 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 FORCING THE GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE. 
 
 In the two previous chapters the aim has been to make 
 it clear to the reader that, firstly,, with the beginning of those 
 slight physical differences which distinguish mankind from 
 the quadrumana, the race would have been doomed to speedy 
 extermination except for the wonderful progress of human 
 intelligence ; secondly, that a higher type of intelligence, like 
 all other new traits, must have emerged from small begin- 
 nings through variation by sexual reproduction; thirdly, that 
 a special incentive must have existed in the human race, 
 which is not found in any other, to make our brute ancestors 
 exercise their intelligence, more extensively than other gen- 
 era do. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that the higher eleva- 
 tion of the organs of sight and hearing increases their poten- 
 tial availability directly as the square of their distance from 
 the earth, and that in the human race this exceeds the height 
 at which most other creatures, even those much larger than 
 man, habitually carry these sense organs. 
 
 The largest quadrupeds, which habitually carry their 
 eyes higher than man, excepting possibily the giraffe, are yet 
 at a disadvantage compared with him, because in looking 
 backwards or sideways his head pivots easily on the erect 
 vertebral column. While they, in executing these movements, 
 have to curve or even double the joints in the backbone hori- 
 zontally. Thus has the upright attitude directly caused man 
 to survey a wider field of vision, sound and odor, and, there- 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 33 
 
 fore, to perceive a greater variety of phenomena in his en- 
 vironment than do any of his competitors. This constant 
 influx of a much greater variety of experiences cultivates 
 activity and energy of the mental processes, and educates 
 in the knowledge of the relations and connections between 
 phenomena,, and thus the upright attitude is erected into a 
 constant incentive to the use of the mental faculties. 
 
 For escape from danger, for pursuit of prey, for getting 
 food, shelter, etc., this tendency to notice a greater variety 
 of objects, if properly used, has much survival value. This 
 value differs among creatures quantitatively, exactly as their 
 intelligence; thus, if there is less intelligence, 1 (less percep- 
 tion, less adapted conduct influenced by such perception,) 
 then there is less survival value. If greater intelligence, then 
 greater survival value. Therefore, given conditions in which 
 the great majority perish before the reproductive age, and, 
 caeteris paribus, only the most intelligent of both sexes sur- 
 vive. A very small margin of intelligence above that pos- 
 sessed by others is sufficient to make them survive. These 
 most intelligent specimens of one generation, according to 
 the law of progressive accumulations explained in the last 
 paragraph of Chapter II, would then reproduce a new gen- 
 eration, inheriting a still higher order of intelligence; of 
 which, again, the most intelligent only would survive to re- 
 produce another generation inheriting still another increase 
 of intelligence, and so on for many, many generations. 
 
 Thus the incentive supplied by the erect stature is, by 
 itself, sufficient to account for the emergence from varia- 
 tions, by selection, of a very intelligent type of humanity, 
 
 1. The word intelligence is used in the text, to designate the 
 faculty by which experiences are acquired, preserved, compared, 
 classified, etc., and combined into conceptions, inferences, conclu- 
 sions, etc. 
 
34 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 much more competent to battle in the struggle for existence 
 against the odds arising out of its unique organism, than 
 earlier generations were, but it does not explain the exist- 
 ence of a creature so enormously in advance of every other 
 in intelligence as to acquire undisputed supremacy on earth, 
 and the control of those inexorable forces of nature, which, 
 although they were once the merciless masters of every living 
 thing, our ancestors included, are now our tools and slaves 
 to serve us as we choose. To account for this other causes 
 must be searched for. 
 
 When looking at specimens of nude art one is often im- 
 pressed with the grace and dignity of the human form in 
 the upright attitude. Oblivious of the efforts and pains it 
 costs babies, invalids and tired people to maintain this posi- 
 tion, the mind, at such times, is likely to dwell only on the 
 natural ease and unconcern with which it comes to healthy 
 persons. Indeed, those unfamiliar with anatomy, may per- 
 haps be surprised to learn that the muscles, tendons, bones, 
 nerves, etc., concerned in maintaining this attitude, consti- 
 tute. a mechanism of higher complexity and greater adapta- 
 bility than any found among the higher mammals below 
 man. This wonderful adaptability of the human organism 
 to the rarest and most delicate mutations in the environment, 
 becomes most strikingly impressive, when we reflect on the 
 fact that the bodily part's above indicated interact and co- 
 operate with arms, hands, thumbs, fingers, limbs, feet and toes. 
 
 The creatures below man can, on the contrary, only re- 
 spond to comparatively few general and fundamental de- 
 mands made on them by the environment, such as recur with 
 comparative regularity and frequency, to which they attempt 
 to adjust themselves by defense, flight, pursuit, retirement to 
 shelter, etc. Nor is the high degree of adaptability possessed 
 by man required in their case. For their bodies are supplied 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 35 
 
 with natural coverings, which change in density to corre- 
 spond with the variations in the climates of their habitats. 
 Besides this they are supplied with natural means of offense,, 
 defense, and escape, and, therefore, susceptible to only a 
 minimum of risks, as compared with the maximum to which 
 brute-man was exposed. 
 
 For these reasons did the survival of the two-footed 
 brute depend from the very beginning, much less on the 
 natural adaptation of his organism to his environment, but 
 much more on the adjustment of his conduct to those changes, 
 both great and small, in the constantly varying order of the 
 environment which occur from moment to moment. Con- 
 duct such as this cannot be accomplished by creatures less 
 fitted than man for an almost infinite variety of compound 
 concerted movements. 
 
 Before the bearing of the above facts on the increasing 
 growth of human intelligence can be fully appreciated, men- 
 tion must be made of a peculiarity of nerve cells. Other 
 cells, when worn out by functional activity, die, are cast 
 off and replaced, by new cells. Nerve cells, on the contrary, 
 do not ordinarily die from exhaustion by functional activity, 
 nor are then cast off and replaced by new cells, but merely 
 shrivel, and subsequently, after being nourished, expand 
 again, fill out, and resume their functional activity. 
 
 Memory, habit, and character, probably depend on this 
 structural permanence of nerve cells, (see Appendix, Note 1) 
 but we are not here concerned with the physical basis of con- 
 scious memory, etc., rather with a peculiarity of the D^rvous 
 system which may perhaps be designated as its unconscious 
 memory, and described as follows: When externally ini* 
 tiated currents of nerve force, after moving along afferent 
 nerves and through various ganglia and centers, pass through 
 consciousness, issuing thence through judgment and will, to 
 
36 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 move along efferent nerves, into muscular tissues, producing 
 correlated, concerted motions thereby, that is to say, conduct, 
 then if, later, externally initiated currents cause the above 
 recited series of actions to be repeated, from time to time, 
 then the whole series, if repeated often enough, becomes 
 organized in the nervous system, in such manner that, upon 
 merely accidental repetition of a term in it, the whole 
 series is re-enacted in its original order, but without the 
 exercise of judgment or will, and often without consciousness. 
 
 If the series is simple, consisting of few terms, then 
 very few repetitions suffice; if it be complex, consisting of 
 many terms, then more numerous repetitions are required 
 before the organization is accomplished. 
 
 It follows, then, that the few, simple, often repeated 
 and similar adjustments, which creatures below man are 
 competent to perform, will quickly become organized, and 
 that, therefore, the occasions must be rare when their incipi- 
 ent intelligence, will, or judgment is called into action. 
 
 By contrast, the almost infinite variety of highly com- 
 plex, coordinated actions, by which alone human life can 
 be maintained, demands the frequent exercise of all these 
 faculties, to their utmost capacity. And since the extent 
 of adaptation must necessarily be proportioned to the degree 
 of development attained by these faculties; therefore has 
 their higher development important survival value. Thus 
 does the complexity of the human body favor the growth and 
 selection of an ever increasing human intelligence, and thus 
 have the physical disadvantages under which our ancestors 
 labored become the factors by which their intelligence was 
 pushed forward. Let the reader bear in mind that this com- 
 plexity of organism is an inseparable concomitant of the 
 upright attitude, and a condition precedent on which the 
 possibility of this posture depends. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 37 
 
 The sense of touch is the only means by which creatures 
 may become intimately acquainted with the qualities or attri- 
 butes of things. 
 
 By touch we become aware of size, form, hardness, soft- 
 ness, roughness, smoothness, rest or motion, sharpness, dull- 
 ness, hollowness, solidity. None of the other senses can 
 directly inform us of these attributes of things, but certain 
 impressions on the other senses are invariably connected with 
 experiences of touch which do directty inform us of these 
 qualities. Because of this invariable connection,, our minds 
 automatically infer these qualities from impressions made 
 on the other senses, even when the direct evidence from the 
 sense of touch is absent. It may seem as if by sound, hol- 
 lowness and solidity could be distinguished, but if touch 
 had not beforehand taught us the nature of hollowness or 
 solidity, the respective sounds could never teach us that 
 lesson. Touch, even here, supplies the primary experience. 
 
 By sight we can only distinguish lights, shadows, and 
 colors. If touch had not previously made us familiar with 
 things and their qualities, the seeing only of lights, shadows, 
 and colors would give us little, if any knowledge of their 
 nature. 
 
 The feelings of muscular tension produced by expan- 
 sions and contractions of the iris, also those caused by the 
 shiftings of the axial direction of the eyes, may seem capa- 
 ble of directly inducing knowledge of size, form, etc.; but 
 we perceive this to be an error when we reflect that the 
 former movements are caused by changes in the amount or 
 intensity of light, that the latter indicate relative location 
 only, and that objects differing widely in magnitude may. 
 at different distances, if they subtend the same angle of 
 vision, look as if they were the same in size. A line of rea- 
 soning similar to the above would apply, a fortiori, to the 
 
38 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 senses of sound, smell and taste. It follows then, that touch 
 is the only sense by which we acquire primary experience 
 and familiarity with things and their qualities. 
 
 'Never before, but only after, this original experience 
 and familiarity has been acquired, can the other senses save 
 us from the slow and sure process of identification by touch. 
 Often a glance or a sound, more rarely a taste or a smell, 
 will instantaneously inform us of a thousand things, quali- 
 ties, relations, possibilities, originally made familiar by touch. 
 Thus these other senses, and more especially sight and hear- 
 ing, are merely useful in extending and multiplying the 
 uses of the sense of touch. Sometimes the sensations re- 
 ceived through sight and hearing inform us of the nature 
 and qualities of objects great distances away. At other times 
 they leave us seriously in doubt as to these. In such cases 
 we aim to approach near enough to touch, and when we 
 have touched, the information obtained by the sensations of 
 contact we regard as absolutely trustworthy. Thus all our 
 knowledge primarily depends on the sense of touch. Our 
 other senses would leave us forever deplorably ignorant of 
 the nature of the world around us were it not for the acute- 
 ness of this sense, specialized in our hands, fingers and 
 thumbs. 
 
 How was the unique superiority and acute sensitiveness 
 of the human sense of touch originated and preserved? 
 Whether running, walking, jumping, climbing, or standing, 
 the human body is supported in an upright attitude by rest- 
 ing, by means of the legs, on the soles of the -feet. This 
 prevents the finger tips, fingers, and hands from becoming 
 calloused, or from having their sensitiveness impaired by 
 frequent contact with the ground, or by friction or concus- 
 sion against it, or by serving as supports to the body. Their 
 use can thus become more exclusively devoted to handling, 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 39 
 
 pulling., pressing, feeling; the latter being an ever present, 
 unavoidable element in every one of these other actions. 
 
 Thus a sensation indicating the nature and properties 
 of the things touched accompanies every use made of the 
 finger tips, fingers, and hands. We learn the nature and 
 properties of our environment while we handle, pull, press, 
 etc., and our knowledge increases in spite of carelessness and 
 inattention, by every use made of hands, fingers and finger 
 tips. Given an ignorant and helpless brute, with the human 
 body, and the upright attitude naturally follows. Given the 
 upright attitude and, caeteris paribus, the growth, cultiva- 
 tion, preservation and selection of an ever more acute, 
 more sensitive sense of touch is assured. No other creature 
 has this advantage; none ever could possess it, without com- 
 bining in its physique the upright attitude, with the com- 
 paratively short arms, fingers, thumbs, and hands as formed 
 in the human body. 
 
 How much sense of touch do the creatures below man 
 possess? Aside from the elephant and the quadrumana, 
 hardly any. The elephant has a refined sense of touch in 
 the finger-like organ at the end of his trunk, but, being 
 equivalent only to one isolated finger, its educative use and 
 scope is very limited. Yet, there are good reasons for the 
 supposition that, by virtue of it, the elephant has developed 
 into the most intelligent of all beasts below man. It would 
 cause much suffering and incapacity to quadrumana if they 
 possessed a developed sense of touch in their finger tips and 
 thumbs. For these, in their case, tounh the ground or the 
 tree in locomotion. Not delicate skin, covering a fine net- 
 work of specialized sensitive nerves, is needed here; but, on 
 the contrary, tough, thick skin, callosities, and nails to pro- 
 tect against cuts, scratches, etc. Therefore natural selection 
 seems to have eliminated, in these four-handed creatures, 
 
40 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 whatever acuteness the sense of touch may have formerly 
 
 Other sub-human mammalia can hardly be supposed 
 to possess any sense of touch worth mentioning. Their 
 thickly calloused toes, armed with long, sharp nails, etc., 
 cannot be supposed to supply sensations indicating the quali- 
 ties of things they come in contact with, more definitely 
 than we experience when, in a certain social game, we are 
 blindfolded and made to examine the faces of persons by 
 means of a long-handled spoon held in the hand. 
 
 Some of the quadrumana can stand erect, but it is not 
 a natural or comfortable position for them. Most birds 
 naturally have an erect posture, but only rudimentary sense 
 of touch. Bats seem to possess acute sense of touch, but like 
 the feelers of insects, etc., it is adapted only to the avoid- 
 ance of collisions, and not at all to the making of fine dis- 
 tinctions, as is the human touch. 
 
 Cats, rats, mice, many snails and insect's, and some other 
 animals have long hairlike processes on their faces, popu- 
 larly supposed to be organs of touch, called feelers. They 
 can, however, serve no such purpose as the human fingers 
 and thumbs, because of the isolation of the protruding fibres 
 and the distance between them. 
 
 That, caeteris paribus, the acuteness of the sense of 
 touch depends on the coexistence with it of the upright atti- 
 tude, has important bearings on subsequent arguments. 
 
 It appears then, that man alone has specialized, in his 
 finger tips and thumbs, a highly developed, acute sense of 
 touch, adapted to distinguish a wide range of sensations, 
 indicating many and various properties and powers possessed 
 by the objects in his environment; knowledge of which must 
 forever remain inaccessible to the rest of the living world. 
 This unique power possessed by man, obviously has great sur- 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 41 
 
 vival value, which differs in individuals according to the de- 
 gree of the general intelligence possessed by them. Here, 
 then, we have come upon a third and greatest of the agen- 
 cies which forced the growth of human intelligence. 
 
 Thus the emergence of an ever higher intelligence has 
 been forced, in the human race, by the convergence of three 
 separate causal agencies, viz., the erect body, the excep- 
 tionally complex organism on which the possibility of the 
 erect body depends, and the highly specialized sense of touch 
 which is impossible without the erect body, and, therefore, a 
 unique feature, peculiar to the human race. For this rea- 
 son has it been impossible in the past, and seems impossible 
 for all future, that any living creature of any past or pres- 
 ent type, could ever develop an intelligence, comparable in 
 extent, or quality, to that possessed by average humanity 
 since the dawn of history; but, many thousand generations 
 before that dawn, man's growing intelligence had already 
 become an important element in his make-up, on which his 
 survival depended. 
 
 Thus the conclusion is reached that those same slight 
 structural changes, on which the upright attitude depends, 
 and which brought so many evils upon our two-footed brute 
 ancestors, were also the efficient agencies to force the won- 
 derful growth and manifold expansion of the primitive in- 
 telligence with which they were originally endowed. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 
 
 OF THi 
 
 VERS 
 
 OF 
 
 43 
 
 PAET II. 
 
 OTHER PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 CHAPTER 
 CHAPTER 
 CHAPTER 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Survival Value of Hiding. 
 
 Survival Value of Temporary Support. 
 
 Survival Value of Permanent Support. 
 
 The Family, Monogamic Marriage, Eco- 
 nomic Dependence of Woman, The 
 Home. 
 
 Complementariness of Sexes on Lines Not 
 Belated to Reproduction. 
 
 Concerning the Origin of Warfare and the 
 Division of Mankind into Classes and 
 Masses. 
 
 NOTE I. 
 NOTE II. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 On Memory. 
 On Altruism. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 45 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SURVIVAL VALUE OF HIDING. 
 
 Reptiles of the crocodile type can do considerable injury 
 with their tails; and horses, asses, and their congeners, pos- 
 sess a mighty means of defence in the hoofs of their hind 
 legs. Allowing for these and a few other unimportant ex- 
 ceptions, it may however be laid down as a general rule 
 that for attack, protection, and defence the forward end of 
 quadrupeds is the effective part. For protection we find here 
 the shoulders, breast bones, fore legs, and skull, which form, 
 figuratively speaking, a strong rampart or protecting screen 
 behind which the lungs, heart, stomach, and other viscera and 
 vital blood vessels, may repose in comparative security. 
 
 Being in addition shielded by the dorsal bones and 
 vertebrae from above, by the hip bones and hind legs from 
 behind, these vital organs are practically free from liability 
 to direct injury by either an attack, collision, or impact, 
 unless it comes from underneath. In this forward end are 
 also situated the natural armaments of the creature, that is 
 to say, the means for inflicting injury and death. Here 
 are the sharp incisors for biting and tearing; the tusks, 
 horns, fangs, claws, etc. Therefore, if a four-legged brute 
 can but manage to keep his front turned towards his an- 
 tagonists, his vitals are in the safest possible position, and 
 his powers for inflecting injury and death are at the points 
 of greatest availability. 
 
 The same holds true of birds; but by no means of the 
 two-footed upright creature, primitive man, Mother Mature, 
 
46 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 which has so bountifully supplied other mammalia with 
 the means of offence, defence, protection, and escape, had left 
 him naked and entirely unprovided. Hampered besides by 
 a deficiency of valves in the blood vessels where they are 
 needed, and a surplus where they are worse than useless, 
 with exceptional liability to femoral and inguinal hernia, 
 with his vitals, including the femoral artery, prominently 
 exposed right in front, his condition was desperate indeed. 
 The more so, since these exposed pails .are situated at nearly 
 the same elevation above ground as the sharp teeth, tusks, 
 horns, claws and other natural means of offense, possessed 
 by his most common competitors and enemies. Even sheep 
 and goats and other timid or poorly armed creatures which 
 he probably pursued for prey, long before he domesticated 
 them, might claim these advantages over him. 1 
 
 In those early days, before our brute ancestors had 
 learned to arm themselves artificially, the struggle for ex- 
 istence among the higher mammalia, in so far as it depends 
 on race and individual competition, must inevitably have 
 been of far greater severity than indicated by present ap- 
 pearances. 
 
 Wild brutes were much more abundant in tropic, semi- 
 
 1. It has not been thought necessary to include the frontal ex- 
 posure of the reproductive organs among the disadvantages of the 
 upright attitude. But it is a feature, unique in the human race. 
 In quadrupeds these organs are concealed and protected equally 
 with the vitals, and by the same means mentioned before. 
 
 Does not this frontal exposure of the reproductive organs ex- 
 plain the existence of a psychic peculiarity which distinguishes the 
 human race from other brutes, viz, sex modesty? This explanation 
 is the simplest and most natural and conforms to the rule of 
 parsimony. 
 
 Chastity is quite a different thing. Fojr it refers to the ex- 
 clusive reservation of the reproductive organs of one individual. 
 to the use of a special individual of opposite sex. Only the abso- 
 lute power of man over woman could have originated and selected 
 such a trait. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 47 
 
 tropic and temperate climates, than they are found today. 
 For, since those times, there has been an agency at work, 
 incalculably more destructive of mammalian life than all 
 other known causes, viz., the murderous ingenuity and en- 
 ergy of our artificially armed brute-ancestors. Other pred- 
 atory brutes, even the fiercest and most cruel among them, 
 take life or inflict bodily injury, only when impelled by the 
 primary instincts of self or race preservation. They kill 
 creatures of other races than their own, for food. They de- 
 fend their own bodies and their lives against the aggressions 
 of enemies. They fight with the males of their own race 
 for the possession of females. They defend the food they 
 have captured, the places in which food or water may be 
 found, the security of the cave, nest or other abiding place, 
 which they have occupied or constructed, and the bodies or 
 lives of their females and young, against any aggressors. 
 But a primary instinct or necessity is always the motive or 
 cause of any and all their destructive activities. Obviously, 
 therefore, the results of their life destroying energies must 
 be narrowly limited in extent, so long as life in general 
 remains abundant; and it must remain thus, when no other 
 destructive agencies are at work. For all the higher mam- 
 malia are admirably fitted for the struggle for existence, 
 by being abundantly supplied with means for offence, defence, 
 protection, escape and rapid multiplication. 
 
 But now there enters upon the scene a creature most 
 miserably discriminated against by the physical forces of 
 the universe. A creature absolutely void of all natural means 
 of offence, defence, protection, escape, and with a pitiably 
 slow rate of multiplication. A creature afflicted with numer- 
 ous perilous natural disabilities, infirmities, defects and dis- 
 advantages of physical structure. A creature by nature ut- 
 terly unfit' for the physical struggle for existence, and kept, 
 
48 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 therefore, during many times many generations, close to the 
 limit of extermination,, escaping only by a very narrow 
 margin; naturally selected, therefore, during these long gen- 
 erations, on the line of greatest muscular strength, greatest 
 agility, greatest toughness, greatest courage, ferocity and 
 cunning. 
 
 This creature, after a long period, learns artificially to 
 arm himself with clubs, missiles and with fire, and applies 
 all the qualities slowly acquired by selection to the use and 
 handling of these artificial appliances. He kills not only 
 for the purposes above mentioned, which move other creatures 
 thereto, but he kills and tortures for pastime, for amuse- 
 ment, for practice in the skill and art of killing and maim- 
 ing and for the fun of competing with others practicing the 
 same art and skill. All this practicing cultivates his pas- 
 sion for such activities, and that passion must be fed by 
 more practice, and so it grows and increases. "It's a grandly 
 beautiful day, full of life and joy, let's go and kill some- 
 thing" is an exclusively and distinctively human sentiment, 
 improperly ascribed to the English nation. 
 
 And how innumerable are the applications and exten- 
 sions of this love for killing, maiming and torturing. Man 
 kills to exterminate pests; to stop interference with his 
 claim of supreme control of the earth and of its resources, 
 and of the application of all that lives and grows on it, to 
 his own special whims, uses and purposes. He kills some 
 creatures for their feathers, others for their hides, others 
 for their furs, still others for their horns, antlers, tails, 
 tusks, jaws, brains, livers, testicles, or even for the oils, fats 
 and other secretions of various glands, etc. He not only 
 kills, but exterminates whole races and genera. Only the 
 infinitely small have thus far baffled his ingenuity and pas- 
 sion for killing. Man follows these cruel and destructive 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 49 
 
 practices, has the character adapted to them even today, 
 after being for at least several thousand years under the in- 
 fluence of "religion,, law, government, social and family rela- 
 tions, industry, commerce, cooperation, art, literature, educa- 
 tion, etc., etc." What must have been his character and 
 conduct before any of these agencies had even begun to 
 modify them? What must they have been when the most 
 miserable and helpless brute of all was, by the use of clubs 
 and missiles, suddenly transformed into the most powerful? 
 What fearful wholesale destruction of life must have inev- 
 itably resulted therefrom? There are still other, though 
 lesser, reasons for affirming, that mammalian life must have 
 been indescribably much more abundant on earth in the period 
 prior to this change in the estate of our brute-ancestors, 
 than it has been since. 2 
 
 Quite a number of species and varieties of mammalian 
 creatures have been exterminated by man within the last 
 two centuries. Many more, not now existing, we find men- 
 
 2. It is note-worthy that, in our time, the sport of hunting is 
 most indulged in by the so-called upper classes; those who have 
 wealth, power and social position, and who usually are the sup- 
 porters and professors of some so-called religious creed, which they 
 pretend to derive from the gentle Nazarene. Of all so-called sports, 
 however, fishing seems the most cruel. To enjoy having a living 
 creature dangle for hours in agonizing and hopeless struggles, until 
 the last spark of life ceases, displays a refinement of fiendishness 
 which can hardly be excused on the plea of thoughtlessness. 
 
 To man also belongs the distinction of having exercised the 
 greatest ingenuity in the invention of wonderfully cruel tortures for 
 his fellowmen, and in lengthening the lives of the sufferers so as to 
 be able to inflict more tortures. And this has been done in the 
 name of religion; but evidence is not lacking that the real objects 
 in such cases were pelf and power. 
 
 It is also remarkable that man is the only living thing which 
 lends itself to being disciplined into surrendering all self-control and 
 then, at the command of another, inflicting agonies and death on 
 fellow creatures, which have done him no harm, possess feelings like 
 his own, and against which he has not the slightest reason for re- 
 sentment. 
 
50 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 tioned in the literature of earlier centuries; and it seems 
 worth while considering whether the accounts given in myths, 
 traditions and earliest literatures of the monsters and dragons 
 of the primal age, killed by heroes, are not more rationally 
 explained than heretofore by believing them to be accounts, 
 tainted by the inaccuracy and tendency to exaggeration of 
 untutored minds, but yet of creatures which have really 
 existed and have been exterminated by man. 
 
 Many instances are credibly reported since historic times, 
 when certain districts were, for a decade or two, stripped 
 of all human population, and later found over-crowded with 
 many kinds of wild mammalian brutes. 
 
 Because it is not true, therefore, can it not be fairly 
 objected, to a small part of the above argument, that cats, 
 which have caught mice, sometimes show as cruel a disposi- 
 tion as man. Whenever cats hunt mice, they are moved 
 thereto by the primary instinct of a carnivorous animal. 
 The playing of the cat with the mouse, before killing it, is 
 obviously the artificial result of domestication, which supplies 
 the cat with more than enough food to satisfy hunger, and 
 yet cannot abolish the primary instinct, which makes her 
 catch mice. Then domestication cultivates in the cat the 
 desire for human approbation, and to obtain this she shows 
 off her pranks with the live mouse. Besides, a cat has not the 
 intelligence which would restrain cruelty by a sense of the 
 suffering inflicted. 
 
 To recapitulate: The natural enemies and competitors 
 of man's brute ancestors, are all so well supplied with means 
 of offense, defense, protection, escape and multiplication, that 
 the ordinary natural agencies, which tend to keep life within 
 bounds, were insufficient to prevent their increase to the ex- 
 tent of crowding the area over which our early progenitors 
 had scattered. When these latter had learned the use of 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 51 
 
 clubs and missiles, however, they devoted themselves to the 
 destruction of life with such wonderful ability and passionate 
 energy and perseverance, that the contrast between the re- 
 dundancy of mammalian life before that period and its 
 scarcity afterward, must have been enormous. 
 
 The conclusion then is safely established, that when 
 our brute ancestors first learned the use of clubs and mis- 
 siles, they lived in a habitat densely crowded with mamma- 
 lian life, among which the larger carnivora must have been 
 a numerous class, because the creatures on which they habitu- 
 ally feed were so very plentiful. 
 
 A crowded habitat necessarily implies severe and close 
 competition for the primary necessaries of existence, such 
 as food, drink, shelter, opportunity to reproduce, etc., etc. 
 Severe and close competition is the condition which makes 
 the struggle for existence most intense. When the struggle 
 for existence is the intensest, natural selection is most exact- 
 ing. Only the most competent among the races and varie- 
 ties survive, and within these, again, only the most compe- 
 tent individuals. Such conditions could only react favora- 
 bly upon the average excellence and numerical strength of 
 the higher mammalia, which are so well provided with 
 means of offence, defence, protection, escape and multipli- 
 cation. But our brute ancestors, while selected most ex- 
 actingly with reference to strength, toughness, agility, cour- 
 age, ferocity and cunning; and while existing by ones, twos 
 and small family groups scattered over a large territory, 
 could, obviously, maintain their lives only by the almost 
 unremitting exercise of all their physical powers, under the 
 direction of their rapidly increasing degree of cunning. 
 
 And what was the general character of the conduct by 
 which these few succeeded in maintaining a brief existence 
 against such fearful odds? Self -evidently cunning could 
 
52 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 not be exercised, in the manner in which it is used today. 
 They were probably not fighting against each other, unless 
 on exceedingly rare occasions. They could not outwit their 
 fellows, competitors, or enemies, by shrewd bargains, keen 
 deceptions, legal trickery, etc. Clearly, their cunning could 
 only be made available in directing their conduct in 
 contests with or in nights from enemies or competitors, pur- 
 suit of prey, securing food or drink, and selecting places 
 for shelter and maintaining these against other creatures 
 trying to dispossess them. These limitations of conduct 
 imply violently energetic running, striking, kicking, jump- 
 ing, leaping, etc., on the physical side, and alert, circumspect 
 and cleverly concerted arrangement of these motions on the 
 mental side. Evidently only the most competent could main- 
 tain themselves by such conduct. The lame, the halt, the 
 infirm, malformed, deformed, or those in any way hindered, 
 hampered, impeded or interfered with by any physical de- 
 parture from compactness, coordination, or perfect adapta- 
 tion to violent movements, were evidently incapacitated 
 utterly unable and unfit to maintain their lives in the strug- 
 gle. And what is the bearing of these conclusions on the 
 survival chances of the human brute-females in the last 
 stages of pregnancy? 
 
 Evidently the natural protrusion and extreme disten- 
 sion of the abdomen, at such times, intensified the risks 
 arising from the exposure of the vital parts. The increase 
 in weight, bulk and pressure, in the lower forward part of 
 the pelvic region caused the body to be easily unbalanced. 
 The anterior, posterior, lateral and round ligaments, which 
 in quadrupeds prevent the gravid uterus from pitching too 
 far toward the diaphragm, are at least insufficient, if not 
 entirely unadapted to such a purpose, in the upright human 
 female. Accurately adjusted and sudden, vigorous, or vio- 
 
OP MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 53 
 
 lent motions and efforts are, therefore, if not impossible, 
 at least so very dangerous to the life of the mother and 
 embryo,, as to be incompatible with race survival. But it 
 has been demonstrated above that such movements were 
 absolutely necessary to maintain and obtain the barest pri- 
 mary daily necessities of existence. If, then, none of these 
 actions necessary in defense of life, pursuit of prey, of food, 
 or in obtaining water, or in escaping from enemies, were 
 possible to the pregnant females, how could they then save 
 their lives by intellectually initiated conduct at all? The 
 race was doomed, and its higher intelligence utterly una- 
 vailing, unless they could thus save themselves. 
 
 The males, immature females and virgins might be 
 ever so able to preserve their lives, yet that could not secure 
 the survival of the race, for in the end, this unavoidably de- 
 pends exclusively on the preservation of the pregnant females 
 and embryos. And since the pregnant females were pro- 
 hibited by their condition from resorting successfully to any 
 of the modes or class of actions before mentioned, there re- 
 mained but one line of intellectually initiated conduct pos- 
 sible for them with chance of success, and this was the selec- 
 tion of suitable places for their own concealment. Cseteris 
 paribus, and in average cases, only so long as they continued 
 in concealment might their lives and those of the embryos 
 within them remain available for the perpetuation of the race. 
 
 Even if it had not been demonstracted in a previous 
 chapter, that the assumption, that man's two-footed brute- 
 ancestors used clubs and missiles from the very beginning, 
 is utterly untenable; that is to say, if this supposition, for 
 the sake of argument, is assumed to be true, that would not 
 avail the brute-woman in the last stages of pregnancy. For 
 the violent motions required, in the effective defensive use 
 of these weapons, would be as dangerous to the lives of the 
 
54 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 females and embryos as the enemies against which they were 
 supposed to use them. 
 
 How did the needful tendency to hide arise in the 
 natural course of events? During the last three or four 
 weeks or months of pregnancy,, the violent efforts required 
 from them in contests with competitors and enemies, or in 
 attempts to escape from them by flight, must daily have 
 become more difficult of execution, more barren of success, 
 more productive of painful and distressing symptoms to the 
 females, until the limits of endurance were reached. At this 
 point the victims, under an overwhelming sense of their 
 desperate helplessness, would be unable to prevent their nat- 
 ural intrepidity from giving way to a supreme desire for 
 seeking safety by hiding. For this impulse had been increas- 
 ing, paripassu, with their helplessness. A tendency to hide 
 during the last stages of pregnancy under conditions then 
 existing, obviously had great survival value. After coming 
 into existence, either in the manner above outlined or in any 
 other, it would, therefore, gain strength and fixity by nat- 
 ural selection. The validity of the above arguments is not 
 affected by any assumed brevity or length of the female's 
 period of incapacity, whether it lasted days, weeks, or months, 
 nor by the degree of it. The unavoidable admission of some 
 impairment of their full vigor, for a brief or long period, 
 is sufficient to sustain them. 
 
 Conditions similar to those above alluded to, which made 
 the hiding habit of the pregnant females a necessity in the 
 primeval era of the human race, do not exist in the case of 
 the anthropoid apes. It is true that these creatures can 
 stand and move about in an almost erect attitude. How- 
 ever, they have not feet (distinguished by the hallux forming 
 a natural fulcrum in walking), but hands, on their lower 
 or posterior extremities; nor is their foramen magnum situ- 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 55 
 
 ated, as in man,, as it must be for convenient and natural 
 uprightness, a little behind the centre of the base of the skull. 
 It is, therefore, more natural and far more easy for them 
 to be, and move about, on all fours. Their pregnant females, 
 in this latter attitude, are no more liable to injury from 
 falls and stumbles, and their vitals no more exposed, than 
 those of 'ordinary quadrupeds or baboons. The extraordi- 
 nary great capacity of the thoraxic cavity of these animals, 
 and the massive strength of the bony structures surround- 
 ing it, and the adaptation of the pelvic bones and ligaments 
 to keeping the uterus securely and comfortably in position, 
 give them an advantage in the struggle for existence: to 
 which another must be added, viz., their long, strong arms 
 and limbs, supplied at the extremities with hands, specially 
 adapted to grasping and holding on to branches, which give 
 them chances of escape, only surpassed by flying creatures. 
 And these latter are at a disadvantage compared with them, 
 for it requires constant and great effort to sustain themselves 
 in the air ; but apes and anthropoids can be at rest and com- 
 fortable after escaping to a place of security in the trees, 
 and can live and feed and breed there. Their hairiness and 
 tough hides protect them against injuries from accidents, 
 violence, changes of temperature or climate, and at the same 
 time their color makes concealment easy for them, when in 
 the foliage of their natural habitats. In no way are there 
 any parallelisms between their condition and that of the 
 dangers and disabilities of the child-bearing human female. 
 To sum up the argument: the perils and disadvantages 
 resulting from the upright attitude would have determined 
 the struggle for existence against the survival of man, if 
 his superior intelligence had not initiated various modes of 
 conduct, competent to balance, partly balance, or more than 
 balance, the physical advantages possessed by his competitors 
 
56 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 and enemies. None of these modes, however, although use- 
 ful to other members of the race, could be made available 
 for the pregnant females. There remained, to them, there- 
 fore, but the one saving resource of continued concealment. 
 However, as no kind of creature can escape extinction unless 
 its pregnant females are preserved, and since the human 
 race has survived, therefore, the conclusion is justified that 
 at a very early stage in the existence of our race the females 
 acquired the habit of concealing themselves during a part 
 of the period of pregnancy, and that this was one of the 
 means by which the race escaped extinction. 
 
 A point has been reached here, where a differentiation 
 in habits and activities on the sex line may be looked for, 
 because the males had no occasion to practice self-conceal- 
 ment, but could continue active lives in the open. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SURVIVAL VALUE OF TEMPORARY SUPPORT. 
 
 Animals in a state of nature may usually find drinking 
 water in ample quantities, in fixed locations, and contained 
 in hollows which are self-replenishing. Creatures which have 
 found water are, therefore, but rarely compelled to go in 
 search of new places or supplies, but may, whenever neces- 
 sity or desire prompts them, provided they possess the in- 
 telligence to recall the whereabouts, return to the spot where 
 they first slaked their thirst. Moreover, the act of drinking 
 is of comparatively brief duration. It is therefore not neces- 
 sary for feeble or timid creatures, which are hunted by the 
 more powerful, to run special risks in relieving their thirsti- 
 ness, for during the hours when their enemies are drinking 
 they can avoid the places where water is found, and resort 
 to them at other times. 
 
 The case stands differently with food. The competition 
 for this is usually far more severe, and the quantities of it 
 are not self-replenishing with available rapidity. Many 
 brutes, therefore, are obliged to expend much time and en- 
 ergy, and to risk both limb and life in obtaining and con- 
 suming food. Brute-man must be included in this class. 
 For he could not feed on grass or herbage, as cattle do, nor 
 could he maintain a fruit diet with anything like the ease 
 of monkeys, squirrels, or other tree-inhabiting brutes. For 
 his upright attitude, and feet unadapt'ed to clasping, grasp- 
 ing, or holding on, particularly unfitted him for tree life. 
 
 His teeth, which can neither be said to be specially fitted 
 
58 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 for a particular diet nor extremely unsuited to any kind, 
 possessed for these very reasons a limited and yet valuable 
 degree of adaptability to an almost infinite variety of foods, 
 more so than those of any other creature. That is to say, 
 primitive man was better fitted than any other animal for 
 what is termed omnivorousness. Nor can it be doubted that 
 this came about by natural selection. For being, in the 
 struggle" for existence, physically at so enormous a disad- 
 vantage, if he had been limited to one or a few articles of 
 food, his competitors, feeding on the same kinds, being so 
 much better fitted, would so easily have gained the advant- 
 age over him as to drive him out of the field of competition, 
 and thus lead to the extermination of the race. 
 
 Being able, however, to subsist on almost any kind of diet, 
 though not nearly so well on any particular kind as the 
 creatures which competed with him for it, it must soon have 
 become natural for him to take a little of one description 
 here, and a small quantity of another kind there, as oppor- 
 tunity favored, or risks were minimized. Intelligence would 
 in various ways assist effort in this sort of conduct. Withal 
 it is evident, however, from the many disadvantages under 
 which he labored, that he had to satisfy his hunger usually 
 in the midst of many dangers, and at the expense of much 
 time, effort, and ingenuity. The greatest possible degree of 
 adaptability to the utmost variety of foods, and a disposition 
 to take only a comparatively small quantity of any particular 
 kind at a time, would, therefore, be naturally selected. 
 
 In the last chapter it was ascertained that the pregnant 
 human females could preserve their lives only by hiding and 
 remaining in concealment during the whole period of their 
 incapacity. The question therefore arises, how would they, 
 during this time, obtain food and water? As to water, the 
 %uery may be dismissed, for it has been seen above that 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 59 
 
 creatures of intelligence could manage to obtain this at 
 times when the act was not dangerous to them, and it is 
 thinkable that the pregnant human females would ascertain 
 such times and make use of them wisely and stealthily. 
 But as to food, the question remains unanswered. With ref- 
 erence to time,, it is evident that they must go in search 
 of food during daylight. For their eyes were not nearly as 
 well fitted for seeing in the dark as those of their enemies 
 and competitors, nor had they an acute sense of smell to 
 guide them, and their food was hard to find and scattered. 
 Next, regarding the locations for finding food: these are 
 easily classified as situated within their places of conceal- 
 ment and without. If without, then the females would have 
 to leave their asylums, and, during the long search for food 
 and while consuming it, expose themselves to the assaults 
 of their enemies and competitors; therefore, the benefits 
 of concealment would be lost, the pregnant females would 
 perish, and the race could not survive. 
 
 If within, then there are again but two contingencies. 
 Either the food supplies must exist naturally within their 
 retreats or they must be brought there artificially. Let us 
 firstly consider the possibility of hiding in localities where 
 supplies of food existed naturally. Such places quickly be- 
 come the most frequented haunts for creatures of various 
 types, and therefore utterly unfit for concealment. For this 
 very reason they also become the favorite hunting grounds 
 of carnivora, therefore totally unsafe as abodes for the help- 
 less and incapacitated. All other possibilities by which the 
 pregnant human females might have obtained their food 
 being exhausted, the only possible conclusion is that it must 
 have been brought artificially within their hiding places. 
 We need not consider the alternative of food being carried 
 within their asylums by the females themselves, for this 
 
60 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 could obviously not be done unless they went in search of 
 it outside their retreats, which has been disposed of above. 
 
 If some one says: The females may, in anticipation 
 of pregnancy, have stored food in places of concealment, then 
 the reply is, that this either takes a perfected instinct for 
 granted, which is contrary to the facts, or else assumes a 
 degree of systematized knowledge and planning out of the 
 question in brute-man. 
 
 Having ascertained the utter futility of every other alter- 
 native, we are now face to face with this most remarkable 
 conclusion, that the genus homo, when still in its earlier 
 brute condition, escaped extinction only because food was 
 placed within the hiding places of the pregnant females by 
 some artificial agency outside their own persons; that a race 
 has survived, multiplied, and become supreme master of the 
 earth, harnessing even the almighty forces of nature to the 
 chariot of civilization, which is the offspring of a helpless 
 brute that could not possibly have escaped extermination if 
 it's hiding females had not, during a portion of their period 
 of pregnancy, lasting several days, weeks or months, been 
 artificially provided with food within their retreats. 
 
 Miracles are by their nature excluded from any discus- 
 sion which lays the least claim to being rational. The hy- 
 pothesis that some non-human brutes had regularly, for 
 many generations, gathered food fit to nourish human fe- 
 males, and brought it to them within their asylums, may, 
 therefore, be unhesitatingly rejected. For it postulates a 
 marvel without precedent, a miracle greater far than any 
 the ingenuity of the theologians has ever invented. No liv- 
 ing creature, unless it be a human being, can reasonably 
 be supposed to have acted in a way which calls for such accu- 
 rate adjustments of means to ends, unless by a perfected 
 instinct, which would have taken many thousands of genera- 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 61 
 
 tions to emerge by natural selection into efficiency. During 
 the period of its inefficiency the human race would have 
 perished, and if there had been such an instinct, some traces 
 of it's former existence would surely have been discovered 
 before this. Since neither has happened, the hypothesis is 
 too absurd for consideration. It is, therefore, certain that 
 human beings must have provisioned the females in their 
 retreats, and the questions arise, were they male or female, 
 or sometimes of one and sometimes of the other kind ? What 
 was the relation between them and the females they fed ? 
 
 When man had learned the use of clubs, missiles and 
 fire, in other words, when he had learned artificially to arm 
 and warm himself, his survival was no longer in question, 
 but abundantly secure. Higher intelligence applied to the 
 use of these aids, and his wonderful adaptation to handle 
 them skillfully, secured him advantages far outweighing the 
 infirmities, disabilities and perils brought upon him by his 
 physical uprightness. Even a pregnant female, with fire, 
 clubs and stones within reach, and with vigorous habits en- 
 gendered by living in the presence of frequent dangers, might 
 make some sort of defense against some of brute-man's ene- 
 mies and competitors. 
 
 But the problems discussed in these essays, be it dis- 
 tinctly remembered, refer to that long period which com- 
 mences with the first appearance on earth of the two-footed 
 man-brute, and which ends when he began to arm himself 
 artificially. It has been demonstrated that gregariousness 
 would have operated against his survival during this period. 
 The habitual collection in crowds or numbers of such help- 
 less, vulnerable creatures, so easy to kill, without risk to 
 their assailants; so easy to discover from the distance; so 
 easy to eat without the hindrances interposed by woolly, 
 furry, and hairy hides; could only have led to wholesale 
 
62 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 slaughters by their enemies., and, therefore,, taking the slow 
 rate of reproduction into account, to the speedy extermina- 
 tion of the race. These reasons justify the conclusion that, 
 during the epoch here discussed, creatures of the "genus 
 homo" were found mostly wandering in search of food or 
 hiding by ones and twos, and that so many as an adult male 
 and female, with two or three of their young, was a rare 
 and risky gathering. 
 
 Could the advantages have outweighed the risks of gre- 
 gariousness? By no means. Unprovided with even the 
 smallest means of offence and defence, what resistance could 
 such creatures offer? Though assembled in great numbers, 
 what possible injury or pain could they inflict upon their 
 powerful enemies, armed with fangs, tusks, teeth, horns, 
 poison glands, claws, talons, etc., protected by thick hide, 
 shaggy fur, scales, etc., etc., Evidently none worth men- 
 tioning. Even the goat, the deer and the sheep have horns 
 and sharp incisors and progna^eous jaws, shaggy fur, and 
 thick hides. The little peccary has vicious teeth in its pro- 
 truding jaws. With these it can bite and tear and do this 
 in places about the feet and legs, which a taller antagonist 
 finds it hard to protect. The backs and heads of these little 
 creatures, which are the only parts of their bodies exposed 
 to an antagonist, are protected by the skull, vertebrae and 
 ribs, and by stiff, prickly bristles. What a contrast from the 
 man-brute's tall, bare-skinned body, fully exposing his vitals 
 to his enemy. 
 
 The only possible use that such creatures could get out 
 of gregariousness lay in this, that one might watch while 
 the others rested or sought food. But, compared with the 
 added risk of wholesale slaughter, this was small gain to a 
 creature unable to feed on grass or herbage. The greater 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 63 
 
 safety was in remaining scattered, for the enemies of man 
 reproduced far more rapidly than he. 
 
 Gregariousness did not begin to have survival value for 
 man until he had learned to arm himself artificially. 
 
 Consideration of answers to the questions asked above 
 may now be resumed. To perform the actions under dis- 
 cussion, a human being or human beings, must feel some 
 sympathetic interest in the dangers and sufferings of the 
 females. 1 Now what sort of human beings would answer to 
 these requirements? and in what relation would they stand 
 to the pregnant females ? Would adult females, standing 
 in the relation of friendship answer? Friendship can only 
 arise in the associated (social) state, among creatures hav- 
 ing at least occasional brief periods of peace and leisure 
 to give opportunities for the amenities and joys, the experi- 
 ences of similarity or complementariness of tastes, activities, 
 etc., in which the sentiment of friendship has its roots. It 
 seems, therefore, self-evident that such a thing as a long- 
 enduring, steadfast, self-sacrificing friendship, without an 
 instinctive basis, was utterly impossible to the scattered few 
 of the race under the conditions then prevailing, which re- 
 quired the utmost efforts from even competent members, to 
 barely maintain existence; and this reasoning discriminates 
 with equal validity against either male or female friendships. 
 
 1. It is exceedingly improbable that the males had any notion 
 of the reproductive results of cohabitation until long after permanent 
 sex unions had become quite common. Nothing in the act of repro- 
 ducing suggests the result to either sex. Even the female has no 
 coherent chain of feelings to teach this mysterious connection; and 
 from the consciousness of the male the knowledge is still more 
 remote. 
 
 The reader must be warned against assuming that the connec- 
 tion between the gratification of the attraction between the sexes 
 and the birth of offspring, as now generally understood by adult 
 civilized human beings, was known or even suspected until long 
 after permanent unions had become very common in human societies. 
 
64 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 There remains,, then, but one kind of human being, and 
 but one relation which answers these requirements a rela- 
 tion, among sexually reproducing creatures, as old as life 
 itself, as strong as the intensest of all instincts, the deepest 
 of all passions, abundantly capable of drawing and holding 
 two human beings of opposite sex together an instinct which 
 unites them during that period of their lives when their 
 bodies come nearest to physical perfection which, although 
 by nature only fitted to enforce compliance with racial need 
 of reproduction, has yet in man acquired the power of ele- 
 vating his intellectual faculties to their highest possibilities, 
 *f evoking and maintaining in him the heroic atttiude of 
 mind, of arousing sublime and beautiful emotions, of initiat- 
 ing bold aesthetic and artistic conceptions and the most benefi- 
 cent and admirable aims. 
 
 When this powerful instinct in those primitive times had 
 drawn a male and female together, there did not then, as 
 now, exist legal, conventional or educational influences to 
 mitigate or modify the force of the natural attraction, nor 
 was there any dissimilarity in tastes, necessities, occupa- 
 tions or modes of life to cause them to leave each other's 
 company in the intervals between the periodic stimulations 
 of the instinct. In other words, there was an active, pow- 
 erful force continually drawing them together and nothing 
 to draw them apart. 
 
 Neither was it likely, when an attraction had been once 
 established between two of opposite sex, that the affection of 
 either would become alienated through the intervention of 
 a more favored specimen of the other sex. For the num- 
 ber of living individuals of the race was very small, and for 
 these few it had survival value to remain scattered by ones 
 and twos, or at most in small family groups. It is, therefore, 
 a safe conclusion that after two of opposite sex had been 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 OF MAN'S PHYSic^ci^g^jg^^^sr 65 
 
 companions they would remain so unless the exigencies of 
 pregnancy parted them. Until that time, that is, during 
 many days, weeks or months, they would hunt together, bat- 
 tle against common enemies, seek food, eat, drink, sleep 
 and rest together. In this way, and during this long time 
 of companionship, they would become more and more ac- 
 customed to each other's natures and habits, until little by 
 little, through progressing pregnancy, the first feeble symp- 
 toms of approaching incapacity would begin to show in the 
 actions of the female. A little less efficiency and agility in 
 taking her share in the contests with enemies, a little less 
 ease in holding her own in flight from enemies or in the 
 pursuit of prey. This would gradually and almost imper- 
 ceptibly force the male, without comprehending the mysteri- 
 ous cause which produced the changes in his consort's actions, 
 to do a little more and a little harder fighting than before, 
 and, for a little distance, to follow the prey alone when the 
 female had fallen behind; to carry a little larger share of 
 the food captured or collected to the common resting place, etc. 
 
 Thus, as, by slow degrees, her share in life-sustaining 
 actions diminished, his would increase, and yet her portion 
 in the results would not be less. This process would continue 
 until she would be unable to give assistance to her mate in 
 any violent encounters. Even before this, however, efforts 
 to keep up her part in the fight and in the chase would make 
 her liable to suffer pain from over-exertion for hours or even 
 days. These tendencies would culminate in her being finally 
 forced to remain in concealment while he would go forth 
 alone in search of food and prey, portions of which he would 
 be likely to bring to the place of her concealment', because 
 the habit had been established during the long months of 
 companionship. (See Appendix, Note 2, "On Altruism.") 
 
 So very gradually had his share in the efforts increased 
 
66 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 without diminishing her participation in the food, that after 
 she remained behind in concealment the surrender to her 
 of a portion, sufficient for her support, would hardly be per- 
 ceived by him as a change. In no other way is it natural, 
 in no other would it be rationally thinkable, that food could 
 have been provided for the pregnant females in concealment. 
 It was brought to them by their male consort's. Since only 
 in this manner could it come to pass: since the survival of 
 the race depended on its occurrence, and since the race has 
 survived, therefore, the conclusion is warranted that it hap- 
 pened in this way. 
 
 Such conduct is not confined to the human race, but has 
 been observed among baboons and anthropoid apes; and 
 male birds have been known to bring food to their mates 
 during the period of incubation. Nor need one search far 
 for the cause of this habit. Evidently it had survival value, 
 especially in the case of man. For, in the struggle for exist- 
 ence, the tendency would be to preserve and multiply fami- 
 lies in which the males had a disposition favorable to this 
 trait, and, on the contrary, to eliminate those in which they 
 had not. Natural selection, therefore, accounts for the fact 
 that this habit has now become well nigh universal in the 
 race. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 67 
 
 CHAPTEK VI. 
 
 SURVIVAL VALUE OF PERMANENT SUPPORT. 
 
 i 
 
 Parental wealth tends to lengthen the helpless infancy 
 of offspring, and parental poverty to shorten it. For motion 
 is always in the line of least resistance. When wealthy par- 
 ents continue to provide for their offspring, long after the 
 natural necessity for it has ceased, the infancy of the chil- 
 dren lengthens by relaxation of the efforts which otherwise 
 would be made by the young creatures. Contrariwise, when 
 savage or poor parents lack resources, and are, therefore, 
 obliged, in the search for them, to abandon their children 
 before they are able to take care of themselves, under the 
 operation of the same law, the helplessness of infancy is 
 shortened by the putting forth of earlier efforts. 
 
 Thus far has the progress of civilization in large measure 
 been characterized by progressively greater concentrations of 
 wealth in the possession of certain classes. It is, therefore, 
 reasonable to assume that among these classes, at least, the 
 duration of helpless infancy has been lengthening ever since 
 the beginning of civilization. 
 
 Here is not the place to discuss the question whether 
 "the growth of human intelligence" has also contributed to 
 lengthening helpless infancy in the human species, as con- 
 tended by John Fiske. Whether it has or not, this is cer- 
 tain, that from the very first appearance of brute-man on 
 earth, helpless infancy must have endured in this race longer 
 than in any other. This follows as an unavoidable conclu- 
 sion from physical uprightness, which involves a very com- 
 
68 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 plex and delicate coordination and cooperation of many 
 widely differentiated structures, bones, tendons, muscles, 
 nerves, etc. It is, therefore, possible only after all these 
 various parts have been developed, by exercise, into a con- 
 siderable degree of precision and efficiency in their adjust- 
 ments. 
 
 The arrangements subserving locomotion in most other 
 animals are comparatively simple. Very little strength and 
 precision, and but a small degree of coordination of four 
 very similar, if not almost equivalent movements, is re- 
 quired to enable young quadrupeds to balance their bodies 
 and move about. But in man, muscles about the back, chest, 
 abdomen, neck and head, and in the toes, feet, limbs, hips 
 and arms, must accurately cooperate in balancing the body 
 for standing or moving about in the erect attitude. And 
 because of this degree of complexity, this variety of cooper- 
 ating organs and coordinated muscular contractions, a higher 
 degree of precision in functioning is necessary in the human 
 race, which can be attained only by allowing a longer period 
 for development, that is to say, a longer infancy. And this 
 reasoning and this conclusion applies to the "genus homo" 
 from the time of its first appearance on earth, for the up- 
 right attitude has distinguished it since then. 
 
 During the lengthy period of their helpless infancy the 
 human offspring had to be nourished, cared for, and pro- 
 tected by their parents, or perish. The survival of the race 
 depended upon the disposition of the parents, or of at least 
 one of them, to assume for a lon^ period the burthen of 
 providing the little ones with nourishment and protection. 
 Whether the burthen was assumed by one or by the other, 
 or by both, its assumption must have proved to be a very 
 serious hindrance in the struggle for existence, to whichever 
 accepted it. The survival of the race makes us certain that 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 69 
 
 on the average the parent's of the race have not shirked their 
 duty in this matter. Because of the naturally closer con- 
 nection of the mother with the child, and of the feeding of 
 it for a longer period by a natural secretion from her body, 
 it is safe to assume that this burthen of feeding, caring for 
 and protecting the child after the flow of milk had ceased 
 or become inadequate for the nourishment of the rapidly 
 growing offspring, fell upon the mothers of the race. The 
 former process would gradually, unavoidably, blend into the 
 latter. But how could the mother provide for her own main- 
 tenance and that of her child, care for it, protect and carry 
 it in arms, and yet enter into the struggle for existence 
 with any chance of success? And on her success depended 
 the survival of the race! A female quadruped, a few days 
 after delivery, may go in search of food unhindered by the 
 offspring trotting at her heels. If enemies appear, the mother 
 faces them, and the little ones keep at a safe distance or 
 go into temporary hiding until the battle is over. Even if 
 a young one is occasionally captured by an enemy, or dis- 
 appears, the loss is not important to the race, for large litters 
 are frequently reproduced. 
 
 But in the human race, one child, once a year, during 
 a few years, comes very near being the limit of reproduc- 
 tive capacity, and this one, during the long period of its 
 helpless infancy, has to be carried in arms by the mother 
 whenever she goes in search of aliment, or it must be left 
 behind unprotected and unprovided. Evidently, then, the 
 survival chances of mother and offspring are not much, if 
 any, better, after the birth of the laiter, than they would 
 have been shortly before, had not the male consort then 
 come to the relief of the sorely troubled female. And in 
 this case now under discussion, the same sort of relief must 
 have come from the same source. 
 
70 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 Such a proceeding had very decided survival value, and 
 any families in which the male consorts showed a disposi- 
 tion to provide food and protection for their mates and off- 
 spring must have been selected for preservation, while those 
 which were lacking in it were left to die out'. Nor could 
 natural selection neglect the extent or quality of this dis- 
 position. For if the males of certain families had a dispo- 
 sition and capacity to provide well and liberally and for a 
 longer period, then the females and offspring had a chance 
 to grow stronger, healthier, and better fitted for the struggle 
 for existence, and those families, therefore, had the best 
 chance of survival. 
 
 Nor does the matter end even here. For it can hardly 
 be doubted that, in that epoch, the unrestrained reproduc- 
 tive instinct and the necessities of the race admitted of but 
 short intervals, for the competent among the females, be- 
 tween the end of the helpless infancy of one child and preg- 
 nancy with the next; so that natural selection would sift 
 out only those families for preservation in which the males 
 were naturally disposed to provide for their females and 
 offspring, as long as the reproductive period of the female, 
 and the helplessness of any of the offspring lasted. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 71 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE FAMILY, MONOGAMIC MARRIAGE, ECONOMIC DEPENDENCE 
 OF WOMAN, THE HOME. 
 
 The existence of four peculiar institutions,, unique in 
 the human race: the family, monogamic marriage, the eco- 
 nomic dependence of woman, and the home, have been ac- 
 counted for in the preceding chapters. 
 
 All four were traced to the earliest period of man's 
 existence, and to physical uprightness, through the survival 
 of the- fittest, as a cause. 
 
 A vast amount of evidence, drawn from the reports of 
 travelers who have lived for many years in barbarous or 
 semi-savage communities, in order to study their customs, 
 beliefs, and traditions, has been adduced by some writers in 
 support of the contention that the tribal commune and the 
 clan ante-date the family. 
 
 How can such a view be reconciled with the apparently 
 conclusive evidence furnished in preceding chapters, that 
 family relations closely resembling those of the present day, 
 prevailed during the very dawn of human existence on earth ? 
 Only on the hypothesis (and it is legitimate to answer one 
 hypothesis with another) that the modern type of family is< 
 a form of atavism, developed within the tribe or clan, after 
 these social aggregates had supplanted the primitive family, 
 by being of higher survival value. How could this come 
 to pass? 
 
 When the use of clubs and missiles had developed the 
 predatory type of men, who preyed upon their own race, 
 
72 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 the existence of family groups, each, consisting of a helpless 
 woman and her children, from which the able-bodied male 
 had to absent himself to go in search of food, became exceed- 
 ingly precarious and liable to be wiped out suddenly or 
 scattered. 
 
 The members of numerous family groups, which in time 
 of peace had spread over considerable territory, in escaping 
 from their predatory fellow men, by running away in many 
 different directions, would tend to meet, in large numbers, 
 at the natural intersections of their various lines of flight, 
 and communes, tribes and clans might, under favorable con- 
 ditions, arise out of these gatherings. 
 
 After tribes and clans had existed for many generations, 
 and had gradually attained a high degree of organization 
 and of internal security, then governmental, conventional, 
 and ethical ideas may have resuscitated family groups, prac- 
 tically "de novo." For even the memory of their primitive 
 existence may have been obliterated. 
 
 There should be noted, however, a fundamental differ- 
 ence which exists between the attractions which hold the 
 family united, and the external coercive influence which 
 bring and keep the members of tribes or clans together. 
 These latter may be likened to compression. 
 
 Love, affection and mutual interdependence are the in- 
 trinsic factors which, through desire, voluntarily unite the 
 members of a family group; by attractions akin to those 
 which draw the ultimate particles of a substance to each 
 other. But as a driving wind in winter will gather the 
 individually beautiful snow crystals in shapeless heaps or 
 drifts, so it required the coercive force of common danger 
 to induce primitive human beings to exchange the natural 
 freedom of individual and family life for the restraints of 
 the tribe or clan. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 73 
 
 Can it be asserted that the existence of tribe or clan 
 absolutely ante-dated the earliest primitive human families? 
 Not without denying the upright stature of the human race 
 and its unavoidable consequences. For human individuals 
 were the only material from which the tribe or clan could 
 be formed. These individuals could not be anything else 
 than the offspring of human parents of upright stature. 
 During the long helpless infancy of such offspring, they and 
 their mothers had to be supported by the father or perish. 
 Support of mother and offspring, by the father, during a 
 lengthy period, constitutes genuine family relations. There- 
 fore, can the absolute priority of the tribe or clan not be 
 asserted, without implying a denial of the existence of phys- 
 ical uprightness in man, which is absurd and contrary to 
 the hypothesis. 
 
 That beautiful relation between two people of opposite 
 sex, known as monogamic marriage, has, heretofore, usually 
 been looked upon as one of the latest results of governmental, 
 religious, and conventional regulations, enforced only within 
 the highest types of civilized societies. From the preceding 
 chapter, however, a very different view of the subject seems 
 rational, namely, that this form of sex relation is the neces- 
 sary result of permanent support by the male, and scantiness 
 of population, which prevailed during the earliest periods 
 of brute-man's existence. 
 
 During subsequent eras of warfare, the level of the adult 
 male population may sometimes have fallen so very low that 
 polygamy was the only remedy which could save the race 
 or the tribe from extinction. It is possible that such epochs 
 occasionally lasted for so many generations that the former 
 existence of monogamic marriage was only remembered, if 
 at all, as a tradition, or a reminiscence from a former golden 
 age. This ideal, in subsequent periods of peace, may then 
 
74 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 have been resuscitated and reinforced by governmental, re- 
 ligious,, and conventional regulations,, and this would account 
 for its present existence. 1 
 
 The original economic dependence of woman, mentioned 
 in the last chapter, began only when the infirmities of the 
 final stages of pregnancy had made it impossible for her to 
 obtain her own food supplies and defend herself against ene- 
 mies. It, therefore, could not possibly influence her in her 
 choice of a consort, which necessarily had to occur long 
 before that time. 
 
 The kinds of economic dependence which have existed 
 since historic times are of a very different nature. While 
 indirectly traceable, like every other peculiarly human insti- 
 tution, to man's physical uprightness, "marriage by capture, 
 feudalism and man-made laws" must be assigned as directly 
 responsible for their existence. By taking from woman her 
 natural right of free choice, in matters sexual, and conferring 
 this power exclusively upon man, this sort of economic de- 
 pendence has brought many evil consequences upon the race, 
 detailed mention of which is inappropriate in an essay of 
 this kind. Yet it cannot be doubted that, for a long time 
 to come, many men and women will continue to join in 
 marriage, mainly prompted by the desire of making a com- 
 fortable home and raising a family of children. And to 
 accomplish this creditably, requires the whole time and en- 
 ergy of the mother, during the greater portion of her mature 
 life. The earning of the living for the family during this 
 period, naturally and equitably falls upon the father, becomes 
 his special function. And division of labor has its advant- 
 
 1. It seems strange that the obvious fact that family relations 
 and monogamic marriage have existed in the human race ever since 
 its advent, should be called in question, seeing that they are found 
 among the anthropoid apes. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 75 
 
 ages in this department of life, as well as in others. But, 
 under such circumstances, love and community of interests 
 are the basis of the arrangement, and evil consequences, if 
 any exist, are obviously minimized. The father's knowledge 
 of his economic power must give way to his sense of obliga- 
 tion, and the mother's sense of dependence can hardly be 
 any greater than that existing between equal business partners, 
 under normal arrangements. The force of economic condi- 
 tions, however, seems to be already tending towards a readjust- 
 ment of existing sexual relations. For the increasing com- 
 plexity of socio-economic conditions, and more still the con- 
 centration of economic power in the hands of the few; the 
 increasing demands of an ever more complex order of society ; 
 the increasing facilities for satisfying the demands of the 
 reproductive instinct in an illegitimate way; the rapid decay 
 of all reliance upon the supposed supernatural sanction for 
 marital unions all these causes cooperate to produce an 
 ever increasing number of bachelors and spinsters and to 
 lessen the opportunities for attractive marital relations. As 
 the number of unmarried women increases, more and more 
 of them are forced into industrial, self-supporting occupa- 
 tions, and the demand for increased opportunities of this kind 
 will rapidly become more urgent, and is bound to make itself 
 heard.^ Even animals of comparatively low organization and 
 intelligence resort to nidincation during the mating season. 
 But the love of home in the human race is more deeply 
 rooted. It springs from the very structure of man's organism. 
 For this structure made the hiding habit of the females, and 
 the support of mother and offspring by the male, absolute 
 necessities on which the survival of the race depended. And 
 these two habits made a permanent and secure abiding place 
 for the family as unavoidably necessary for the survival of 
 the race, as those habits themselves were. 
 
76 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 COMPLEMENTARINESS OF SEXES ON LINES NOT RELATED TO 
 REPRODUCTION. 
 
 On comparing the males and females of any of the 
 higher mammalian genera, except man, with each other, there 
 is discovered a broad sameness in the structures and func- 
 tions not related to reproduction, and an equal fitness of both 
 sexes for the various activities demanded by the average race 
 life. This fitness is but slightly impaired for the females, 
 during a very brief period, just before and after giving birth 
 to the young. 
 
 In the human race, however, physical uprightness has 
 produced a very different state of affairs. By enforcing, 
 during periods of varying length, a separation of the sexes, 
 it has initiated in them a divergence of habits and activities 
 in opposite directions. For, seeking food to support them- 
 selves, their females and young, the men could not remain 
 in the security of the places where the former were con- 
 cealed, but had to come forth into the open to meet the hard- 
 ships and dangers of the struggle for existence, by fierce 
 self-seeking activities, including the battling with powerful 
 and ferocious competitors and enemies. This demanded agil- 
 ity, audacity, ferocity; the determination to possess and con- 
 quer, no matter at what cost of blood, or pains to self or 
 others, and heartless disregard for the sufferings of others, 
 that is to say: destructive, disruptive, cruel egoism. 
 
 Upon the females in concealment devolved the propa- 
 gation of the race, To succeed in this they had, firstly: to 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 77 
 
 guard the secrecy of their places of concealment. A timid, 
 cunning disposition was suited to this. Secondly: to pre- 
 serve the lives of their young. This required patience, ten- 
 derness, sympathy, conservative constructive self-surrender. 
 
 It is obvious, from the above, that the set of qualities 
 required by the females is the antithesis of that required by 
 the males. One set can exist in an individual, only by the 
 exclusion of the other. The growth, increase, or develop- 
 ment of one set in a person, therefore, implies the decrease 
 or decay of the other. Since both sets of sex traits favor the 
 survival of the race, therefore, was their ever greater devel- 
 opment fostered by natural selection. In other words, the 
 ever farther differentiation of the sexes in opposite directions 
 had a vast survival value. 
 
 The complete race life requires both sets, and since, in 
 these latter days, this differentiation is almost universal in 
 mankind, and the partial possession of both sets of qualities 
 by one individual is of very rare occurrence, therefore, must 
 many individuals, of both sexes, be necessarily but imperfectly 
 fitted for the full race life, if in this present age they are with- 
 out the comradeship of a person of the other sex and the con- 
 sciousness of this imperfection seems unavoidable, though 
 evidenced only by general unrest and dissatisfaction. 
 
 This sensitiveness of each sex to its own imperfections is 
 necessarily associated with perception of the proficiency of 
 the other in these wished-for qualities. That is to say, there 
 exists in each sex a sense of its own incompleteness, associated 
 with a belief that the qualities which are lacking can be found 
 in the other. 
 
 Therefore, must an individual of one sex, on the average, 
 become attractive to the other, nearly in the same degree 
 as he or she possesses the special sex qualities of his or her 
 own sex. In other words, a man will be attractive to women 
 
78 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 proportionate to his manliness, and a woman attractive to 
 men in proportion to her womanliness. In this way has 
 sexual selection aided natural selection to increase and accen- 
 tuate sex traits in the human race, widening the difference 
 between the sexes. 
 
 .Now observe that these special sex qualities, although, 
 in the unending chain of cause and effect, the remote results 
 of reproductive activities, were yet, from the very beginning, 
 separate and independent of the instinct, and of the attrac- 
 tion originated by it. Note further, that from generation to 
 generation, under the influence of natural selection* and sexual 
 selection, aided by the process which Herbert Spencer calls 
 "Multiplication of Effects," this differentiation of the sexes 
 has reached wider and wider fields of human interest, in the 
 realms of actions, thoughts, and feelings, until in this age 
 there seems to remain hardly a thing, the reactions of which 
 on men, do not more or less differ from its reactions on 
 women, and which is not by the reactions received from man, 
 differently affected than by those which reach it from woman. 
 
 To illustrate : Let a manly man and a womanly woman 
 look at the same great work of art, or the same grand scene 
 in nature; they will be attracted by different features of it, 
 and will have aroused within them different thoughts and 
 emotions, different motives for differing actions. Let them 
 read the same poem or other literary production, and the 
 results will differ similarly. Equally so, if both have the 
 same problems in politics, economics, religion, ethics, business, 
 or daily conduct presented for decision. 
 
 And in every such case the angle of divergence between 
 the persons of different sex will be the same as that indi- 
 cated by that first separation of the sexes, when the male 
 confined himself to the struggle for existence, and the female 
 to the propagation of the race. Mark now the truism : that 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 79 
 
 the range of activities of the human body and mind, and the 
 joys of doing, thinking, feeling, are deepened, pah passu, 
 with increase in the perceptions of more details in the phe- 
 nomena that affect us, and with multiplication of the sub- 
 jective activities they provoke. 
 
 Since, by reason of the differentiation here under con- 
 sideration the female perceives, in nearly all phenomena pre- 
 sented, some details which the- male does not, and, therefore, 
 acts, thinks, feels, in some respects as the male does not, and 
 vice versa, therefore, can each by itself act, think, feel, only 
 incompletely with reference to the wonderful variety of things 
 in this universe, which are more, if not x doubly more, com- 
 pletely available to the dual human molecule man and 
 woman united in close, intimate comradeship. So that the 
 single life can never be commensurate with the magnificent 
 and beautiful possibilities of human action, thought, and 
 feeling; can never rise to the full dignity of the human 
 destiny; but must unavoidably fall short of it. 
 
 The complete life, the highest of which we are capable 
 in usefulness, in beauty and in joy, can only be reached in 
 the joint life, close intimacy, and comradeship of two of 
 opposite sex. 
 
80 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CONCERNING THE ORIGIN OF WARFARE AND THE DIVISION OF 
 MANKIND INTO CLASSES AND MASSES. 
 
 Individual character may be defined as the principles 
 from which the uniformities in a creature's conduct or ac- 
 tions arise. These principles are determined by the intrinsic 
 nature of the creature, but the actions derive their specific 
 quality from the functional adaptation of the external organs. 
 And the external organs are visible. Therefore, can the 
 character of an animal be ordinarily known by its external 
 appearance. 1 
 
 1. Mimicry in nature, which misleads animals by external ap- 
 pearances with reference to the character of creatures, depends for 
 its survival value on the validity of this rule. To illustrate: A cer- 
 tain harmless fly escapes from enemies by looking in color and form 
 like a dangerous, stinging wasp, and another by looking like a 
 leaf, etc. 
 
 The character of the fly remains harmless, after variation 
 has changed it in appearance to a stinging wasp. If, after- 
 wards, the enemies of this fly disappear, because afraid to feed 
 on this dangerous looking wasp-like thing, then the wasp-like ap- 
 pearance of this kind of fly tends also to disappear, in the course 
 of a few generations, by a process, which may be explained as fol- 
 lows: When most of the flies of this species were being born look- 
 ing harmless, then there appeared here and there by variation an 
 isolated specimen, looking like a wasp. The harmless looking kind 
 would be eaten by enemies before reaching the reproductive age, 
 but the wasp-like would escape and reproduce. In the next genera- 
 tion, therefore, the number of the harmless looking would be dimin- 
 ished; that of the wasp-like increased. In the course of a few 
 generations the harmless looking kind would be so scarce as to 
 seriously affect the food supply of their enemies, which would either 
 have to depart from that locality or die from starvation. In 
 either case, the harmless looking variety would begin to increase in 
 numbers, from generation to generation, until their enemies would 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 81 
 
 For example: The long, sharp claws, great protruding 
 jaws, long dirk-like incisors of the lion, his powerful muscles 
 and frame, the shaggy mane protecting his front these ap- 
 pearances indicate what kind of conduct may be expected from 
 such a creature. The long, slender legs, graceful body, and 
 large eyes, do the same for the character of the deer. The long 
 and mobile ears, low body, muscular haunches, show the 
 character of the rabbit or hare; and so on, almost through 
 the whole range of animal life. 
 
 It could not be otherwise, for if those outward organs, 
 on which creatures depend for their reactions with the ex- 
 ternal world, did not correspond with their character, on 
 which the nature of these reactions depends, then such ani- 
 mals could not adapt themselves to their environment long 
 enough to live to maturity. Such types would die out in 
 remarkably short time. 
 
 To apply this rule safely to man requires great care 
 in distinguishing between his artificial and natural appear- 
 ance. For civilized people have become so thoroughly used 
 to the extreme artificialities of the conventional kinds of 
 toilets and dress 2 that they are involuntarily more impressed 
 
 be attracted by the ample food supply and the reverse of the process 
 would begin, and so on. 
 
 It is note-worthy that when one type begins to diminish, it be- 
 comes harder for both sexes of that kind to find mates of their own 
 variety and that this difficulty increases the rapidity with which 
 the other type tends to predominate. 
 
 Would careful consideration of the process above described not 
 justify distinguishing the harmless looking flies as "the ordinary 
 hereditary," or "true" race type ? And the wasp-like, as the ex- 
 ceptional "false" type, which owes its existence to natural selection 
 when the race is crowded by its enemies and will tend to disappear 
 whenever these enemies of the race are overcome? This law of na- 
 ture should be kept in mind by the reader, for, although, the con- 
 ditions in the human race are far more complex, yet the law applies. 
 
 2. The word "toilet" is used here to signify artificial changes 
 in the appearance of hair, head, face, etc., to distinguish these from 
 dres*, which appertains to coverings for the body. 
 
82 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 by alternations or deficiencies in these than by slight physio- 
 logical variations. Just think how the absence of a necktie 
 from a gentleman's attire, or of shoes and stockings from 
 a lady's feet, would startle the average conventional person! 
 
 The bodies of civilized persons are usually concealed 
 by artificial coverings, and the head and face are transformed 
 by the toilet and the labors of the barber and hair dresser. 
 However, these trifles contributed by tailor, barber and their 
 like, can not indicate the manly characteristics in the nature 
 of a person rather would punctilious care bestowed on them 
 be significant of absence of these. 
 
 Artificiality in externals is not confined, however, to 
 contemporaneous civilized people. It has been practiced ever 
 since history began by nearly all those who could afford 
 it, and even savages and barbarians disfigure the natural 
 beauty and dignity of the human body by various familiar 
 devices. 
 
 Greek statuary and the comparatively naked bodies of 
 the natives of Africa, and of the coolies of India, come near- 
 est to showing the natural appearance of man. 
 
 And what sort of race character does this imply? viz., 
 the utter absence of means of offence, defence, protection 
 and escape; the exceptional vulnerability; the liability to 
 numerous injuries and perils, from which all other creatures 
 are free; the exceptionally high elevation and mobility of the 
 head, where the senses of sight, hearing, smell and taste 
 are located ; the complexity of the organism suggesting a wide 
 range of possible compound, concerted motions, and the ele- 
 vation above ground of the hands implying a refined sense 
 of touch? 
 
 To brutes this appearance would suggest extreme inof- 
 fensiveness. To the mind of man, if not prepossessed, it 
 indicates extreme adaptability, fitness for wide and varied 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 83 
 
 observations, with exceptionally high qualifications for intel- 
 lectually comparing, compounding and enjoying this great 
 variety of experiences, this beauty and grandeur in the world, 
 and for applying these experiences to ever fuller understand- 
 ing and to finer adaptations of conduct to environment. 
 
 Peaceful disposition; docility; the bodily capacity to 
 do many different things; the intellectual ability to appre- 
 hend great possibilities, and to entertain great far-off pur- 
 poses during lengthy periods and to direct efforts in the line 
 of their attainment such are the characteristics implied by 
 the visible appearance of the natural human body. 
 
 A combination wonderfully well adapted to the highest 
 forms , of productive, not to say creative, cooperation : add 
 to thafe the habit of individual industry which is comparable 
 to atomic forces, the effect of which, though insignificant 
 when exercised by one atom alone, becomes irresistible when 
 a common impulse causes great numbers to co-operate; and 
 we have a potential agency by which the eternal, infinite, 
 relentless forces of the universe and the resources of nature 
 may be brought into the service of sentient life; and this 
 earth, transformed from being a place of hopeless toil and 
 misery for millions, into a real home for the entire human 
 race, to the maintenance of which in peace, plenty and hap- 
 piness for all, each could contribute his best voluntary ef- 
 forts, and in return receive an equitable share in the gen- 
 eral wealth produced by all. 
 
 This is the sublime destiny humanity can attain. How 
 is it that it has so sadly fallen short of it? 
 
 For this there are several reasons, the first being that, 
 as explained in Chapter VflJ only among the females could 
 the character above delineated survive during the long ages 
 before men had learned to arm themselves artificially, while 
 they were still crowded by their powerful brute enemies and 
 
84 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 competitors. During this period natural selection eliminated 
 from among the males those which arose from generation to 
 generation endowed with these beneficent characteristics, and 
 only the fiercely combative, imbued with destructive egoism, 
 survived. Among these, however, in accordance with well- 
 known tendencies of sexual reproduction, a small number 
 must have sporadically appeared, endowed with a combina- 
 tion of the characters of both sexes. This was the heroic 
 type of man. 3 
 
 Possessed of immense muscular power, great agility, 
 indomitable courage, fierce combativeness, great cunning, reck- 
 less disregard of wounds and of the danger of meeting death, 
 and equal indifference for the blandishments of glory or 
 reward: endowed with deep and sensitive sympathy for the 
 feeble and helpless of his own race this type was preemi- 
 nently fitted for the severest tests of bravery, skill and en- 
 durance. Such heroism, however, was evidently only avail- 
 able for defensive warfare against the brute enemies of man- 
 kind. Aggressive warfare directed against the feeble and 
 defenseless of our own race, instigated by greed or lust of 
 power or riches, was obviously impossible with such men. 
 Such characters would prove a help, and could never be a 
 hindrance, to the attainment of humanity's sublime destiny. 
 But there were others, possessing the same fierce combative- 
 ness, without the safeguards supplied by sympathy. 
 
 When these two types of men began to arm themselves 
 
 3. The reader must be. warned against the error of inferring 
 from the above, that the personnel of humanity as it exists today, or 
 as it has existed in the past, is divisible into two sharply contrasted 
 types, one exclusively displaying the true race character and the 
 other the robber type. 
 
 Occasionally individuals oeour, exclusively displaying the traits 
 of either one or the other of those types, but the great majority 
 combine some of the traits of both types in their personalities, and 
 of these it can only be said, that the traits of either the one or the 
 other type predominate in their characters. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 85 
 
 artificially with sticks and stones, what a wonderful trans- 
 formation this brought about! What a contrast between 
 the helpless, miserable two-footed upright brute and the 
 hero armed with club and stones ! Such a type of men, sup- 
 plied with these artificial weapons, for which their organism 
 had such wonderful natural adaptation, was easily a match 
 for the fiercest and most powerful among their brute ene- 
 mies and competitors. 4 
 
 With the acquisition of ever better skill in the use of 
 clubs and missiles, and with improvements made from time 
 to time in their form and quality, there came an end to the 
 perils and disabilities which had kept the race close to the 
 verge of extermination. Security had come at last, and 
 with it increase in numbers. Matriarchal and Patriarchal 
 groups were in process of formation. Natural selection, in 
 so far as it arises from struggles with brute enemies and 
 competitors and that is the whole of it in the ordinary ac- 
 ceptation of the phrase no longer eliminated the patient, 
 the gentle, nor those fitted for constructive self -surrender 
 among the men. Some of this latter class probably began 
 about this time to engage in industry, by the shaping of 
 crude tools, arrows, stone axes, etc. 
 
 The domestication of animals, the beginnings of efforts 
 at the cultivation of the soil and of the accumulation of small 
 stores of fruits, nuts, and other necessaries of existence 
 beyond immediate wants, are usually placed by anthropolo- 
 gists in these periods. The decisive battles with brute ene- 
 mies had been fought and won. That chapter in the history 
 
 4. It seems likely that the myths and traditions of the heroic 
 age, of which more or less voluminous traces are found in the earliest 
 records of every nation, have more truth in them than is generally 
 believed, and that they have been derived from the tales, transmitted 
 from generation to generation, of memorable deeds of valor really 
 performed by the most brave, cunning, and physically largest and 
 strongest among our earliest stick and stone using ancestors. 
 
86 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 of the race was closed. Man was supreme master on earth. 
 Henceforth, if anything, except some great convulsion of 
 nature, was to threaten the existence or hinder the progress 
 of the race in the direction of its sublime destiny, then it 
 could not come from without, but had to arise within the race. 
 The fearful devastations produced by man's life-destroy- 
 ing ability and ingenuity were briefly illustrated in an earlier 
 chapter. When, by the activity of these traits, the complete 
 subjugation of man's brute enemies and competitors had 
 been accomplished, then the opportunities for the exercise 
 of these traits had also been thereby greatly reduced. These 
 faculties, however, remained potentially in full force, and 
 in accordance with a well established psychological law, they 
 craved action all the more because of the recent strenuous 
 activity. 
 
 The great lesson of science and morality had not yet 
 been learned, that the energy and ingenuity formerly dis- 
 sipated in these destructive actions, if devoted to voluntary 
 co-operation in productive industry and exchange, would ac- 
 complish stupendous improvements in the happiness of the 
 persons thus engaged, and in the general progress of all 
 humanity towards its sublime destiny. Nor is this self-evi- 
 dent truth even today appreciated by more than a small 
 minority of persons. 
 
 It follows then, that only opportunity or temptation 
 were lacking to turn these fearful agencies of suffering and 
 destruction against the feeble and defenseless in the human 
 race. 
 
 Both the opportunity and the temptation came quickly 
 enough. For action is always in the line of least resistance 
 or greatest attraction. It has been mentioned in an earlier 
 paragraph of this chapter, that about this time some of the 
 "hominidae" began to gather small accumulations of the 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 87 
 
 necessaries of existence, in or near their family retreats, for 
 future use. These little supplies furnished temptation and 
 opportunity. Nothing is more attractive or tempting to 
 animals than ready-made supplies of the necessaries of ex- 
 istence, or objects of desire. The possible supplies, out of 
 sight, and hard to find, and to be gathered only as the result 
 of laborious, persistent, risky efforts, can not be nearly as 
 attractive or tempting to them as ready-made accumulations 
 within sight. Here, then, was opportunity, temptation, and 
 the line of greatest attraction. 
 
 It was not in the least difficult or dangerous for arti- 
 ficially armed, fiercely combative men to overcome the re- 
 sistance of the helpless females and young, who were some- 
 times, and in some places, left, during all the day, as sole 
 defenders of these accumulations. So this was also the line 
 of least resistance. 
 
 At first such attacks were probably few and rare. For 
 the very fact of the existence of small accumulations relieved 
 some of the men from the necessity of going daily in search 
 of food, and by the premises in this argument, man's pow- 
 erful brute enemies were sufficiently subdued at that period, 
 so that there was no need of going daily in pursuit of them. 
 
 The males inclined to these depredations, however, would 
 not venture on them on days when the other men were with 
 their families. Only isolated cases would occur, when rov- 
 ing males, finding that the protecting men had gone away 
 from retreats in which accumulations existed, would dare 
 to make raids on them. This was the line of greatest temp- 
 tation, attraction and least resistance. They would make 
 attempts to enter the retreats to possess themselves of thf 
 supplies. The females and young would make determined 
 but inefficient resistance, and would be easily overcome in a 
 contest with strength and ferocity, during the progress of 
 
88 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 which some of them may have been killed and others wounded. 
 
 It must be left to the imagination of the reader, what, 
 if any, scenes of terror and rapine followed the success of 
 such raids, during the long day, before the men, the right- 
 ful owners of these supplies, returned to their plundered re- 
 treats, and wiiether the ingenuity of these predatory males 
 had made sufficient progress, in that early period, to support 
 the supposition that the more determined of the resisting 
 females and young were bound and gagged with long strands 
 furnished by trailing or creeping plants, or with stringy ma- 
 terials derived from the bodies of animals that had been 
 killed. 
 
 The probability is that, late in the day, possibly after 
 dark, and loaded with the spoils of the hunt, the men belong- 
 ing to the plundered habitations would return, and that 
 then, provided the robber males had remained there, the real 
 battle began. 
 
 To sum up the argument : For many hundred genera- 
 tions, a cruelly combative character had been naturally se- 
 lected among men. For several generations at least there 
 had been, in the work of subjugating man's powerful brute 
 enemies, active occupation for this disposition. This very 
 activity, however, had gradually minimized the opportuni- 
 ties for its exercise in that line, and thus produced and en- 
 forced an inactivity of these faculties and powers, formerly 
 so active. Such a condition was decidedly irksome and hard 
 to bear for the combative type of men. 
 
 Then, with all the force implied by least resistance and 
 greatest attraction, came the opportunity and temptation for 
 exercising these traits within the race. Is this not ample 
 and sufficient proof that they were used in this way ? Namely : 
 that many of the artificially armed men, about this time, be- 
 gan to make attacks on the accumulated stores deposited 
 
OP MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 89 
 
 within the retreats of the helpless females and young, with 
 the result stated above. 
 
 It is admitted here that some unimportant portions of 
 the last arguments were unavoidably of a speculative nature, 
 and that nothing more than greatest probability and con- 
 formity to the rule of parsimony can be affirmed in support- 
 ing them. This, however, is sufficient to throw the burthen 
 of proof on those who deny their truth. Since this line of 
 thought is full of valuable suggestions and extremely inter- 
 esting, it seems permissible, in this closing chapter, to pur- 
 sue it a little further. 
 
 Deeds of justice, altruism, or beneficence, naturally at- 
 tract but little attention. They are done under the influence 
 of those complex mental states which are found only among 
 the morally developed. They seek seclusion, not notoriety 
 nor distinction. These latter are the desire of low, selfish, 
 vain natures. Justice and beneficence choose privacy for 
 their activity. Their purpose is for others, whose feeling-, 
 would be wounded by display. Only false pretenders to deeds 
 of justice or beneficence choose publicity or display: Be- 
 sides, display diverts and distracts from the concentration 
 of purpose and delicacy of touch involved in deeds of gentle- 
 ness, justice, beneficence. Furthermore, since sympathy de- 
 pends on similarity of nature, only the just, beneficent, and 
 altruistic by nature can be influenced by perceiving deeds 
 of this kind. And since motion is always in the line of least 
 resistance or greatest attraction, therefore, do deeds of this 
 kind attract but little attention, and lead still less to imi- 
 tation or repetition by others. 
 
 But it is otherwise with selfish, sordid, cruel acts. Their 
 example, like fire in the dry herbage of a prairie, when the 
 wind blows, spreads with fearful velocity and force. For 
 every creature has selfishness as a primary instinct. There- 
 
90 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 fore, if a cruel, selfish, unjust act is but successful, then the 
 evil example appeals to the lowest nature of every one. Here 
 is the successful attainment of some object of greed or pas- 
 sion, by the easiest and most direct means, and this attracts 
 every low nature, and whatsover there is low even in a high 
 nature. This is the line of greatest attraction and least 
 resistance. 
 
 Therefore, it can safely be taken for granted that the 
 example and success of the first few of these robber raids, 
 above mentioned, led to the rapid extension and multiplica- 
 tion of such enterprises, until they became well nigh uni- 
 versal and continuous within the area inhabited by man. 
 Even some of the men whose retreats had been plundered, 
 being deprived of home and loved ones, might, in the bitter- 
 ness and despair of their feelings, drift into following a 
 predatory life. 
 
 When introracial warfare had thus become general, all 
 human beings, except the predatory men themselves, suffered 
 from the prevailing state of insecurity. Only the few ma- 
 triarchal and patriarchal groups, which existed in that period, 
 may have been able to offer successful resistance to these 
 raids. But as has been shown in earlier chapters the far 
 larger number of human beings of that time lived in isolated 
 families. The females and young of these, if they escaped 
 slaughter and captivity, were driven from their retreats and 
 dispersed. 
 
 Terror-struck and running away from their enemies, with- 
 out knowing whither, crowds of these fugitives coming from 
 many different directions would tend to meet at the cross- 
 ing points of their various lines of flight. And at these they 
 may sometimes have been reenforced by some of their own 
 men searching for them, or retreating from their despoiled 
 homes. The coming together of large numbers of fugitives 
 
91 
 
 who all suffered the same kind of injuries from the same 
 enemies would naturally move them to make common cause, 
 and large numbers would give them a sense of power, and 
 move them to united action against their enemies. In this 
 way the origin of promiscuous groups and hordes is accounted 
 for, and these may afterwards have developed into clans and 
 tribes. To be effective, all these aggregates required leaders, 
 and the fiercest, most energetic and cunning would naturally 
 become head men. The internal peace of the human race 
 had been broken. After that it consisted of hostile groups. 
 Each group hated every other. Anthropologists teach that 
 to belong to another group was punished with death on 
 sight, and that tribe marks were cut or pricked into the 
 skin of the forehead, or some other prominent part of the 
 body, so. that fellow tribesmen might know each other as 
 such and not engage in mortal combat, when they met by 
 accident. 
 
 The stronger and more energetic of the groups made war 
 upon the weaker, to rob, subjugate, or destroy them. Nor 
 was there peace between the members of a group. They were 
 divided into factions by jealousy, ambition, and greed. Fear 
 of external enemies and of their own leaders was all that 
 held these groups together. Comparative security from out- 
 side enemies they secured, but at the expense of the most 
 precious of man's possessions, viz., personal liberty. Co- 
 operation was no longer voluntary, nor for mutually benefi- 
 cent aims. Thereafter it was forced, and devoted to war- 
 fare. Fear of external enemies, dread of the leaders, and 
 desire for their favor and protection, led by easy steps to the 
 subjugation of the many to the will of the few. Thereafter 
 there were rulers and ruled. The ruled, if but permitted 
 to retain their lives, would willingly give service and obe- 
 dience to the rulers. 
 
2 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 Henceforth tribal and clan existence had survival value, 
 in proportion to the progress made by the many towards im* 
 plicit submission to the will of the leaders and their usual 
 ring of favorites. Large tribes and clans with able headmen 
 might enjoy a degree of comparative internal security. During 
 such times productive industry and division of labor had a 
 chance to begin. 
 
 But from that time until this day the robber-type ha* 
 retained control of political, economic and conventional af- 
 fairs and humanity has never succeeded in ridding itself of 
 the division into the ruling, exploiting, luxuriously living, 
 non-producing classes and the ruled, exploited, poorly living, 
 producing masses. 
 
 To account properly for this fact, the argument would 
 Have to be carried so very far beyond the limits of the epoch 
 here discussed, that a merely general mention of some of the 
 more important factors in the problem must suffice. 
 
 Productive activities and progressiveness in economic 
 methods require the true human race characteristics (see note 
 1 to this chapter), viz., sympathetic amiability, docility, in- 
 dustry, intellectual capacity, inventive ingenuity. To rule 
 others, demands the robber-type of false race character, viz., 
 self-seeking, unsympathetic, remorseless egoism. 
 
 Warfare since time immemorial has been nearly 
 ubiquitous and perennial within the territory populated by 
 man. The comparatively few and brief intermissions of 
 peace, have usually been confined to periods during which ag- 
 gressive communities were slowly recovering from the ex- 
 haustion produced by previous conquests, or during which 
 conquered people were gathering strengtli to struggle for 
 freedom. 
 
 The " artificial state of society," which has existed for 
 many ages and still prevails, has been gradually but persist- 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 93 
 
 ently built up during thousands of years, along lines favorable 
 to the supremacy of the classes and their maintenance by the 
 sacrifice of the masses. 
 
 The consolidations of clans and tribes into nations and 
 of nations into empires has been accomplished by wholesale 
 assassinations, through armies, navies, etc. 
 
 Political repression of the masses of advanced nations 
 has been carried on by legislation and judicial administration 
 in the interest of the classes. 
 
 By unequal and indirect taxation, by tariffs, private 
 monopolies of vital necessities and natural resources, etc., 
 economic pressure has been brought to bear on the masses. 
 
 Pulpit, platform, press, school, conventional regulations, 
 etc., have been some of the instruments by which the ruling 
 classes have molded opinions, beliefs and moral standards 
 into conformity with their interest's. 
 
 The ingenuity, which, among producers has led to in- 
 ventions, discoveries, progress in art, science, mechanics, etc., 
 in the ruling classes has tended to ultra-refined modes of de- 
 ception, treachery, cruelty, etc. 
 
 Greed, hypocrisy, self-indulgence have been cultivated 
 into great efficiency. 
 
 Special codes of ethics to guide the conduct of rulers to- 
 wards the ruled, have been ingeniously elaborated to justify 
 the practice of fiendish tortures, basest treachery, etc., includ- 
 ing among others, similarly atrocious, maxims like these: 
 
 "That when the people become restive under oppression 
 and the authority of the rulers seems in jeopardy, they may 
 make promises and the most sacred pledges to the people, with 
 the deliberate purpose of breaking them as soon as the danger 
 is past." 
 
 "That it is virtuous and honorable to deceive rebels by 
 any means, no matter how heinous." 
 
94 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 That "no considerations of humanity or pity are ap- 
 plicable to rebels." 
 
 And rebels are "people who resent or resist the rule of the 
 rulers." 
 
 Whether this resentment or resistance has arisen from the 
 unbearable despotism and wickedness of the rulers, or from 
 the outraged higher sense of justice, duty or honor of the re- 
 bellious persons makes no difference in the operation of these 
 maxims. 
 
 By these means and others, it has been brought about, 
 that the utilization of the forces and resources of nature, 
 made possible by the ever greater and swifter progress of 
 human genius and industry, has up to date, served almost 
 exclusively to increase the wealth and power of the ruling 
 few and the helplessness and misery of the many. Thus man- 
 kind remains divided into classes and masses. 
 
 And the masses by hundreds of generations of subjection 
 have acquired a habit of submitting without murmur or resist- 
 ance. They have been falsely taught that this is the law of 
 nature and religion, that : "The poor ye have always with you" 
 that it is right for them and their religious and moral duty 
 to submit cheerfully. And popular judgment, therefore, con- 
 demns those who in righteous indignation object, protest or 
 resist. 
 
 For this reason the occasions are now rare when the 
 ruling classes resort to wholesale slaughter to impress the 
 masses, with the wisdom of submission and the futility of 
 resistance. 
 
 But when, as in Russia, centuries of atrocity, have driven 
 millions of the masses into courting death in an almost hope- 
 less struggle, rather than live under the established rule ; or 
 when diamond fields and gold mines have excited the extreme 
 cupidity of the robber-type, as in South Africa, and if the 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 95 
 
 resources of hypocrisy and betrayal, in the subtilty of which 
 the classes so greatly excel the masses, fail to secure submis- 
 sion,, then the wholesale slaughter of the innocents begins. 
 And even historians and poets are found, which are not above 
 degrading their noble callings, by paeans of glorification, to 
 the hireling, false pretense heroes, engaged in such inglorious 
 assassinations. 
 
 It is not intended by the above to imply that the 
 robber-type of men is confined to the ruling classes. Hav- 
 ing been naturally selected during many generations, by its 
 own evil influence on social, political and economic environ- 
 ment, it is but too much in evidence among the masses. 
 
 Nor should the last paragraph but one be interpreted as 
 singling out the English people, nor even the British govern- 
 ment, for condemnation. For the English people has fre- 
 quently been the champion of liberty. Nor can it be justly 
 asserted that the British government, even when in the hands 
 of Tories or Conservatives, is more brutally aggressive against 
 weaker people, taking opportunities into consideration, than 
 the other great powers are. The example of the Boer War 
 was selected as an illustration, because it is fresher than other 
 such incidents in the memory of contemporaries. 
 
 If any adequately informed readers doubt whether the 
 phrase "artificial state of society" used in the twentieth 
 paragraph above, correctly designates the system under which 
 humanity exists in this age, then it is only necessary to re- 
 mind them, that healthy organization, natural order, like 
 growth, proceeds from the attractions existing within that 
 which grows, that which is being organized, that which is at- 
 taining a higher form of order ; it never results from external 
 pressure. Mere increase of mass, with or without closer con- 
 tact, when produced by external pressure, can never lead to 
 healthy growth, to natural order ; it remains always artificial, 
 
96 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 forced. This applies, a fortiori, to organic matter, and su- 
 premely to human beings. Our present order of society, 
 being the result of force and being held together by force, 
 is, therefore, artificial. 
 
 Only when the inhabitants of the earth shall be habitu- 
 ally under moral self-control, but free from human coercive 
 interference; when a long reign of justice shall have pro- 
 duced an era of implicit confidence; when sympathy shall 
 have led to national and international application of the 
 principle of voluntary co-operation in matters of production, 
 distribution and administration only then shall we have a 
 natural order of society, and an approach toward our sub- 
 lime destiny. 
 
 Although these conclusions and those reached in earlier 
 chapters, obviously have deep and vital bearings on the prob- 
 lems in ethics and public policy, which in our present age 
 are so urgently pressing for solution, yet ought these rela- 
 tions not to be considered in this place, because they appertain 
 to departements of knowledge and periods in time clearly out- 
 side the field here discussed. 
 
 The true nature of some of the evils from which society 
 suffers and their cause has been traced. It remains for hu- 
 man genius and heroism to find the remedies and bring them 
 into action. 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 97 
 
 APPENDIX NOTE I. 
 
 ON MEMORY. 
 
 We become aware of memory when fainter repetitions 
 of former experiences arise in the mind, seemingly discon- 
 nected from the causes which primarily produced them. 
 For instance, suppose the sounds of a church bell are heard 
 ringing on a summer evening, in a meadow surrounded by 
 hills. The sensations of sounds heard, of sights seen, of soft 
 breezes fanning the cheeks, of fragrance in the nostrils, are 
 directly connected with the causes which then and there 
 produce them. After some days suppose a witness of this 
 scene wishes to describe it to an evening party of 
 friends. Faintly, the sensations arise again in his mind, 
 seemingly disconnected from the causes which originally pro- 
 duced them some days before. No church bells are ringing, 
 yet faintly in his mind he is aware of their sound. No land- 
 scape of meadow and hills glowing in the sunset greets his 
 eyes in the artificially lighted room where he is speaking, 
 but within his mind arises again a faint likeness of the scene 
 he wishes to describe. No flowers are in the room, yet as 
 he describes, he seems to experience a faint semblance of 
 their fragrance, and a feeling of well being and content, sim- 
 ilar to that felt, on the evening when he witnessed the scene, 
 again comes over him. This we call memory our recol- 
 lection, or remembrance of those experiences. 
 
 Whence and how, apparently disconnected from tho 
 causes which produced the primary impressions, do these 
 manifestations arise again in the mind? To find an answer 
 
98 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 to this question, consideration must first be given to the 
 problem, how the real causes produced the primary impres- 
 sions. 
 
 The sound waves from the vibrations of the bells af- 
 fected the auditory nerves. The vibrations of light trans- 
 ferred by meadow, hills, sky, landscape to the invisible ether 
 were by this transmitted to the neiTes of sight. The infini- 
 tesimally small particles of odorous matter exhaled by flow- 
 ers, etc., into the atmosphere, affected the olfactory nerves. 
 The motions of the breeze reacted upon the nerves of touch 
 located under the skin of the face, neck and hands, and all 
 these reactions affecting the nervous system as a whole, caused 
 the general feeling of well being and content. It is obvious 
 then, that all the original experiences were produced by 
 external causes acting on nerves. 
 
 But this does not explain how the subsequent fainter 
 repetitions arose in the mind of the speaker, after the exter- 
 nal causes had for many days ceased to act on his n-?rves. 
 This mystery can not be explained except by one hypothesis : 
 that when the external causes were producing the original 
 experiences, they simultaneously effected alterations of a 
 more or less permanent nature in the organism of the wit- 
 ness, and that, so long .as these alterations remain, whenever 
 a current of nerve force moves through these altered parts, 
 then it is modified by the existence of these alterations in 
 such ways as to reproduce in consciousness a more or less 
 vivid repetition of the original experiences. 
 
 An analogy may prove helpful. Suppose two people 
 conduct a conversation in presence of a phonograph. This 
 instrument has a cylinder with a covering sensitive to sound 
 waves. By some mechanism the cylinder is made to revolve 
 while the conversation is in progress, so as to present, from 
 moment to moment, a succession of different parts of its 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 99 
 
 surface to the sound waves. The sound waves produce per- 
 manent marks on the surface of the cylinder, and when 
 thereafter it is made to revolve, these marks cause sound 
 waves to arise, which reproduce the words and the peculiari- 
 ties of the voices, as they were in the original conversation, 
 only somewhat fainter and modified by the imperfections of 
 the instrument. The repetitions of the conversation by the 
 instrument would be impossible unless the sound waves from 
 the original conversation had left permanent alterations 
 (markings) on the cylinder. If the marked cylinder is taken 
 out of the machine, and one which has not yet been used 
 is substituted, would it not be preposterous as well as impos- 
 sible, to imagine that any sound of the conversation before 
 mentioned could become audible thereby, even though the 
 cylinder was revolved for ever and ever? 
 
 Leaving analogy and applying the same line of reason- 
 ing to our problem, it follows that memory depends on the 
 structural permanence of the nerve cells. If nerve cells 
 died when exhausted by functional activity, like the other 
 cells, and were then replaced by new cells, memory would be 
 inconceivable, if not impossible, for the new cells could not 
 any more produce the old experiences than the new cylinder 
 of the phonograph could repeat the conversations which had 
 made markings on the other. 
 
 Two other hypotheses to account for memory have been 
 current. The first differs from the one above detailed, in 
 that it supposes the alterations or markings to occur in the 
 tissues surrounding the nerve cells. This can hardly be 
 maintained in the absence of evidence to sustain it. 
 
 For it is an obvious fact that the external causes act 
 directly on the nerves. If they act at all on the tissues sur- 
 rounding them, (and this is so far not known,) they can 
 
100 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 only do it indirectly. This can, therefore, not claim to be 
 more than a mere guess. 
 
 The other may be described as follows: From each 
 kind of external causes the impulses are transmitted to special 
 nerves located in special parts of the body, and these nerves 
 are specialized to receive impressions of that kind only. By 
 this hypothesis, do these impulses produce no permanent alter- 
 ations or markings on these nerve cells. But because these 
 cells are specialized to this class of phenomena only, there- 
 fore, whenever a current of energy passes through them then 
 the sensations which distinguish that special kind of exter- 
 nal cause are revived, and this is supposed to account for 
 memory. 
 
 If this is true, if the external causes do not alter or 
 mark the nerves which are specialized to their service accord- 
 ing to .this conjecture, then why could not these nerves cause 
 the experiences, which distinguish the external causes to 
 which they are devoted, before they have been acted on by 
 them? By the hypothesis they are the same before as after. 
 What need then for experience, education, study? Let a 
 current of Jprce flow at birth through the infant's nerve 
 cells and k^wMste will at once possess all the wisdom and 
 general ability that a lifetime could possibly give. What 
 strange, absurd hypotheses may pass current while they re- 
 main unchallenged! 
 
OE MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 101 
 
 APPENDIX NOTE II. 
 
 ON ALTRUISM. 
 
 The support of brute-woman by brute-man,, which was 
 discussed in Chapters V and VI, seems to constitute the 
 first instance of conscious human altruism. 
 
 The love of the mother for her child has frequently been 
 upheld as the original and highest form of altruism in nature. 
 But is it ? Altruism has been denned as "devotion to others." 
 Surely the mother is devoted to her child, and the child being 
 another, this is a true form of altruism. But with refer- 
 ence to time, is it the first? Evidently not. For in sexually 
 reproducing creatures before a mother can have a child, the 
 child must have a father. As shown in Chapters V and VI, 
 the human father made efforts to provide for the mother, 
 before the child was in existence, and the mother, with ref- 
 erence to the father being another, this constitutes a form 
 of Altruism, antedating the mother's devotion to her child. 
 
 So far as it is possible to know, this must have been 
 the first form of conscious human altruism. Which of the 
 two is the higher form? By which criterion can conscious 
 altruism be graded as higher or lower? Obviously by mo- 
 tive! What is the motive of the mother's devotion to her 
 child? Can it be called motive at all? May it not be de- 
 scribed as purely instinctive ? Up to the time of birth, the 
 child is within the mother's body. Her devotion to it during 
 that period can hardly be distinguished from self-devotion. 
 Then, when the child's internality changes to externality, 
 the devotion to it is a continuation of the former feelings, 
 
102 PSYCHIC AND ECONOMIC RESULTS 
 
 therefore, hard to distinguish from instinct. It must nec- 
 essarily grade very low by the criterion of motive. How was 
 it with the devotion of brute-man when he provided for the 
 necessities of his female mate? It cannot be denied that 
 originally male and female were attracted to each other by 
 reproductive instinct. But, as has been illustrated in the 
 foregoing chapters, there grew up, during the long months 
 of comradeship, from intimate acquaintance, laboring, re- 
 joicing and suffering together, a fellow feeling, unavoidable 
 under such conditions, between natures susceptible to it, and 
 closely akin. The high development of this trait in later 
 times, is evidence that the susceptibility to it existed from 
 the first. Then when he brought food to the woman in 
 concealment, who can say that fellow feeling was not the 
 most powerful among the complex motives of the man-brute ? 
 If it be asserted that the desire to indulge the reproduc- 
 tive instinct was the sole motive, the answer is, that this 
 could not be so because, at that period, females will not 
 submit >to it. Man's ancestors, during the era here referred 
 to, were nothing more than intelligent brutes, and no female 
 brute will permit the male to indulge at such a time; (last 
 stages of pregnancy). This is a rule, almost without excep- 
 tion among wild brutes. That it is different with some men 
 now living in civilized communities, is no reason for believ- 
 ing that anything like it occurred with brute-man. Indeed 
 this which now sometimes does take place between men and 
 women is obviously the result of civilization. For during 
 many generations civilized women have abjectly depended 
 on the men who supported them for a mere chance to live. 
 Many such men have sexually selected their consorts with 
 sole reference to abject submission in this matter of inter- 
 course. How could the well attested greater rarity of this 
 kind of abuse among savage people be otherwise accounted for ? 
 
OF MAN'S PHYSICAL UPRIGHTNESS. 103 
 
 It appears, then, that fellow feeling and sympathy were 
 present, if not predominant, among the complex motives 
 which induced the devotion which the human male-brute dis- 
 played, when he provided for the needs of his female con- 
 sort in concealment. This constitutes a true case of con- 
 scious altruism and ranks higher, by the criterion of motive, 
 than the mother's devotion to her child. As to priority in 
 time, and superiority in motive, does the devotion of the 
 lover to his bride outrank the mother's love for her child? 
 
 This conclusion, however, would not justify an infer- 
 ence that the complex, refined, and evolved altruism of the 
 women of today is inferior to the average altruism of men 
 of the present age, but it would support the opinion that in 
 its original undifferentiated form the altruism of the human 
 male-brute would be more readily transformable into the in- 
 tellectually initiated higher forms of this tendency, such as: 
 devotion to high principle, to justice, to truth, to classes, 
 foreign nations, humanity, to life, in general to 
 
 That thread of the all-sustaining beauty, 
 Which runs through all and does all unite, ^ 
 
 and it seems that the consensus of historic and contemporary 
 experience supports this view. ' 
 
 APPENDIX NOTE 111. 
 Variation and Fluctuation in Higher Animals. 
 
 Kach gelation 
 
 ^ffjaSS^gStSSaf^S^^^'SSSS 
 
 the P^ei'tal typ^Thi^is " variat '. n "-* "!i Ht^'A.*.^ . hich 
 are "acquired"' during the life time of an indivi 
 
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