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 ENGLISH COMPOSITION; 
 
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 tliiltl) 
 
 EDINBUKGH: 
 
 OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. 
 LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. 
 
 1854. 
 
RUDIMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION; 
 
 DESIGNED AS 
 
 A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 CORRECTNESS AND PERSPICUITY IN WRITING, 
 AND TO THE STUDY OF CRITICISM: 
 
 WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES. 
 
 /or Ujt Ise 0f Srl)00ls. 
 
 BY ALEXANDER REID, LL.D., 
 
 Head Master of the Edinburgh Institution ; Author of " Rudiments of 
 English Grammar," " A Dictionary of the English Language," &c. 
 
 . 
 
 Itntl) Cftittril BH *>o;r . ^ i 
 
 
 EDINBUEGH: 
 
 OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. 
 LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. 
 
 1854. 
 
DR REID'S EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 
 
 RUDIMENTS of ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 18mo, 6d. cloth. 
 RUDIMENTS of ENGLISH COMPOSITION, fcap 8vo, 2s. bound. 
 DICTIONARY of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 12mo, 6s. Gd. bound. 
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 PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BO YD, 
 TWEEDDALE COURT, HIGH STREET, EDINBURGH. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IN the following Work, the Author has attempted to 
 supply a want, which he has himself long felt in the 
 course of his professional labours, namely, a Practical 
 Introduction to the Composition of the English Lan- 
 guage. It is designed as a Sequel to the ordinary text- 
 books on Grammar; while it is, at the same time, so 
 arranged, that it may be studied with advantage, even by 
 those who have been but imperfectly instructed in that 
 department of education. Part I. is meant to guide to 
 correctness in Spelling, Punctuation, the Use of Words, 
 and the Structure and Arrangement of Sentences; 
 Part II., to correctness and perspicuity in Style, and to 
 a tasteful use of ornament in writing; and Part III., 
 to the practice of the preceding Rules and Exercises in 
 various kinds of Original Composition. If the Author 
 has at all succeeded in realizing his own intentions, the 
 book will be found useful in teaching such as are their 
 own instructors, or have time for only a school educa- 
 tion, to express their ideas with sufficient perspicuity 
 and taste for their purposes in life ; while to those who 
 are to have the advantage of making higher attainments 
 in learning, it will serve as a practical initiation into 
 the critical study of the English Language and Litera- 
 ture. 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 The Exercises, which form the largest and most im- 
 portant portion of the Work, have generally been se- 
 lected from books of classical authority ; and no small 
 labour and care have been spent in adapting them to 
 the purposes for which they are intended. With regard 
 to the mode of teaching them, the Author begs to sug. 
 gest, that they should all be written by the Pupils; 
 when convenient, the short sentences in the class,, and 
 the longer passages at home, to be afterwards examined 
 and corrected by the Teacher. Advanced Pupils, fami- 
 liar with Part I., may use Part II. in the class, and 
 write the Exercises in Part III. at home. The Author 
 has been careful to intimate when the Exercises may 
 be multiplied from the ordinary lessons of the Pupils ; 
 and he would only suggest farther, that Teachers should 
 prescribe only the best models in the language. 
 
 In conclusion, the Author has to state, that as his 
 ambition has been to produce a useful rather than an 
 original book, he has availed himself freely of all the 
 materials within his reach. He has especially to ex- 
 press his obligations to the works of Murray, Walker, 
 Irving, Smith, M'Culloch, Parker, and Smart. 
 
 EDINBURGH, November 1838. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 INTRODUCTION, ... 9 
 
 PART I. 
 
 I. SPELLING. 
 
 SECTION I. Capital Letters, . . , .10 
 
 II. Capital letters (continued), . . 12 
 
 III. Rules for Spelling, ... 13 
 
 II. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 SECTION I. Comma, .... 17 
 
 II. Semicolon, . . . .19 
 
 III. Colon, .... 20 
 
 IV. Period, ..... 22 
 
 V. Point of Interrogation, &c., 
 
 III. USE OF WORDS. 
 
 SECTION I. Elliptical Sentences, . . .25 
 
 II. Variety of Inflection, ... 28 
 
 III. Words to form Sentences, . . 29 
 
 IV. Words to form Sentences (continued), . 31 
 
 V. Derivative Words, ... 32 
 
 VI. Words to be used with other words, 
 
 VII. Synonymous Words, . .34 
 
 VIII. Variety of Expression, . . 35 
 
 IX. Variety of Expression (continued), . 36 
 
 X. Words suggested to form Sentences, . 37 
 
() CONTENTS. 
 
 IV. STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Page 
 SECTION I. Variety of Construction, 
 
 II. Variety of Construction (continued), . 45 
 
 III. Simple Sentences, ... 47 
 
 IV. Abridgment of Complex Sentences, . 48 
 
 V. Abridgment of Complex Sentences (continued), 50 
 
 VI. Variety of Structure, ... 52 
 
 VII. Variety of Structure and Expression, . 53 
 VIII. Complex Sentences, . . 54 
 
 IX. Amplification of Sentences, . .56 
 
 X. Ideas suggested to form Sentences, . 58 
 
 V. ARRANGEMENT OP SENTENCES. 
 
 SECTION I. Variety of Arrangement, . . 61 
 
 II. Variety of Arrangement (continued), . 62 
 
 III. Variety of Arrangement (continued), . 64 
 
 IV. Expression of Ideas, . .66 
 V. Expression of Ideas (continued), 63 
 
 VI. Expression of Ideas (continued), . . 74 
 
 VII. Expression of Ideas (continued), . 77 
 
 VIII. Expression of Ideas (continued), . . 78 
 IX. Expression of Ideas (continued), . ib. 
 
 PART II. 
 I. STYLE. 
 
 SECTION I. Purity of Style, . . . .79 
 
 II. Propriety of Style, ... 82 
 
 III. Precision of Style, . . .85 
 
 IV. Critical Examination of Sentences, . 88 
 V. Clearness in the Structure of Sentences, . 90 
 
 VI. Unity in the Structure of Sentences, . 93 
 
 VII. Strength in the Structure of Sentences, . 96 
 
 VIII. Harmony in the Structure of Sentences, . 101 
 
 IX. Critical Examination of Sentences (continued), 103 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 II. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Page 
 
 SECTION I. Metaphor, . . . .105 
 
 II. Comparison, . . . 107 
 
 III. Allegory, .... 108 
 
 IV. Personification, . . . 109 
 V. Apostrophe, . . . .111 
 
 VI. Hyperbole, . . . . 113 
 
 VII. Antithesis, . . . .114 
 
 VIII. Climax, .... ib. 
 
 IX. Errors in the Use of Figurative Language, 115 
 
 X. Critical Examination of Passages, . 117 
 
 PART III. 
 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 SECTION I. Narrative Essays, . .119 
 
 II. Descriptive Essays, . . . 121 
 
 III. Miscellaneous Essays, . . . 123 
 
 IV. Miscellaneous Essays (continued), . 128 
 V. Miscellaneous Essays (continued)) . 131 
 
 List of Subjects for Essays, . . . 133 
 
RUDIMENTS 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 COMPOSITION is the art of expressing ideas in written 
 language. 
 
 To compose correctly, it is necessary to have a prac- 
 tical knowledge of Spelling, Punctuation, the Use of 
 Words, and the Structure and Arrangement of 
 Sentences. 
 
 To compose with perspicuity and elegance, it is also 
 necessary to have a practical knowledge of the various 
 qualities of Style, and of the use of Figurative Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 To be able to write with facility, it is further neces- 
 sary to have considerable practice in Original Compo- 
 sition. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 I. SPELLING. 
 
 SPELLING is the art of expressing words by their pro- 
 per letters. 
 
 Letters are of two forms, capitals and small letters. 
 
,10 SPELLING. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS are used in the following situa- 
 tions : 
 
 I. The first word of every sentence. 
 II. The first word of every line of poetry. 
 
 III. The first word of a quotation in a direct form. 
 
 IV. The names of the Supreme Being. 
 
 V. Proper names, and adjectives derived from 
 
 proper names. 
 VI. The names of the days of the week, and of the 
 
 months of the year. 
 
 VII. Any very important word ; as, the Reforma- 
 tion. 
 
 VIII. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0. 
 IX. Generally the name of an object personified. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Correct the errors in the following passages : 
 
 I. The love of praise should be kept under proper subordina- 
 tion to the principle of duty, in itself, it is a useful motive to 
 action; but when allowed to extend its influence too far, it cor- 
 rupts the whole character, to be entirely destitute of it, is a de- 
 fect, to be governed by it, is depravity. 
 
 How many clear marks of benevolent intention appear every where 
 around us ! what a profusion of beauty and ornament is poured 
 forth in the face of nature 1 what a magnificent spectacle presented 
 to the view of man ! what a supply contrived for his wants ! 
 
 On whom does time hang so heavily, as on the slothful and 
 lazy ? to whom are the hours so lingering ? who are so often de- 
 voured with spleen, and obliged to fly to every expedient, which 
 can help them to get rid of themselves ? 
 
 II. Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
 bliss in vain from earth is sought ; 
 bliss, a native of the sky, 
 never wanders, mortals, try ; 
 there you cannot seek in vain, 
 for to seek her is to gain. 
 
SPELLING. 11 
 
 III. An ancient heathen king, being asked What things he 
 thought most proper for boys to learn, answered : " those which 
 they ought to practise, when they come to be men." a wiser than 
 this heathen monarch has taught the same sentiment : " train up 
 a child in the way he should go, and, when he is old, he will not 
 depart from it." 
 
 A celebrated philosopher expressed in his motto, That time was 
 his estate : An estate, which will produce nothing without cultiva- 
 tion ; but which will abundantly repay the labours of industry. 
 
 IV. There lives and works 
 
 a soul in all things, and that soul is god. 
 the lord of all, himself through all diffused, 
 sustains, and is the life of all that lives, 
 these are thy glorious works, parent of good ! 
 almighty ! thine this universal frame ! 
 
 V. Our fields are covered with herbs from holland, and roots 
 from germany ; with flemish farming, and Swedish turnips ; our 
 hills with forests of the firs of norway. the chestnut and the pop- 
 lar of the south of europe adorn our lawns, and below them flourish 
 shrubs and flowers, from every clime, in. great profusion, arabia 
 improves our horses, china our pigs, north america our poultry, 
 and spain our sheep. 
 
 VI. We left home on monday morning, arrived at liverpcol 
 on tuesday, went to manchester, by the railway, on Wednesday, and 
 reached this place on thursday evening. 
 
 Blessed that eve ! 
 
 the sabbath's harbinger, when, all complete, 
 in freshest beauty, from Jehovah's hand, 
 creation bloom'd ; when eden's twilight face 
 smiled like a sleeping babe. 
 
 VII. The first monarch of great britain and Ireland, after the 
 revolution of 1688, was william the third, the reign of his suc- 
 cessor, queen anne, was rendered remarkable by the victories of the 
 duke of Marlborough on the continent of europe, and the union 
 between england and Scotland. 
 
 VIII. I am monarch of all i survey, 
 
 my right there is none to dispute ; 
 from the centre all round to the sea, 
 i am lord of the fowl and the brute. 
 
12 SPELLING. 
 
 IX. o solitude ! where are the charms 
 
 that sages have seen in thy face ? 
 better dwell in the midst of alarms, 
 than reign in this horrible place. 
 
 The hope of future happiness is a perpetual source of consola- 
 tion to good men. under trouble, it soothes their minds ; amidst 
 temptation, it supports their virtue ; and, in their dying moments, 
 it enables them to say, " o death ! where is thy sting ? o grave ! 
 where is thy victory ?" 
 
 SECTION II. 
 CAPITAL LETTERS (continued). 
 
 Prove and illustrate the following propositions by 
 quotations, either in prose or poetry : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Human life is short and uncertain. 
 
 "As for man, his days are as grass ; as a flower of the field, so 
 he flourisheth ; for the wind passeth over it, and it is gone ; and 
 the place thereof shall know it no more." 
 
 " Where is to-morrow ? In another world. 
 For numbers this is certain ; the reverse 
 Is sure to none." 
 
 " It is recorded of some eastern monarch, that he kept an officer 
 in his house, whose employment it was to remind him of his mor- 
 tality, by calling out every morning, at a stated hour, ( Remember, 
 prince, that thou shalt die.' The contemplation of the frailness 
 and uncertainty of our present state appeared of so much import- 
 ance to Solon of Athens, that he left this precept to future ages : 
 6 Keep thine eye fixed upon the end of life/ " 
 
 " Ah ! what is life ? with ills encompassed round, 
 Amidst our hopes, fate strikes the sudden wound : 
 To-day the statesman of new honour dreams, 
 To-morrow death destroys his airy schemes." 
 " As he that lives longest lives but a little while, every man may 
 be certain that he has no time to waste." 
 
SPELLING. 13 
 
 " Be wise to-day ; 'tis madness to defer : 
 Next clay the fatal precedent will plead ; 
 Thus on, till wisdom is push'd out of life."* 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. To be good is to be happy. 
 
 2. Vice brings misery. 
 
 3. We were not made for ourselves only. 
 
 4. The real wants of nature are soon satisfied. 
 
 5. Pride was not made for man. 
 
 6. Contentment is great gain. 
 
 7. The good alone are great. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 RULES FOR SPELLING. 
 
 Correctness in Spelling is to be acquired chiefly by 
 attending to the practice of the best modern writers and 
 lexicographers. 
 
 The following are a few of the general principles to 
 be observed in the spelling of words : 
 
 I. Monosyllables ending with/, I, or s, preceded by 
 a single vowel, double the final consonant; as, 
 
 The only exceptions are, Of, if, as, gas, is, has, was, yes, his, 
 this, thus, us. 
 
 II. Monosyllables ending with any consonant but/, 
 /, or s, preceded by a single vowel, do not double the 
 final consonant ; as, Bud, cup, man. 
 
 The exceptions are, Add, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd. 
 
 III. When words ending with silent e, take an affix 
 
 * Exercises like this will be useful, not only for teaching practically 
 the use of Capital Letters, but also for making Pupils acquainted with 
 the manner in which different authors have expressed themselves on the 
 same subject. 
 
14 SPELLING. 
 
 beginning with a consonant, the e is retained ; as, Pale, 
 paleness; peace, peace/w/. 
 
 Except Awe, awful ; due, du/# ; true, truly , abridge, abridg- 
 ment ; acknowledge, acknowledgment ; judge, }udgment. 
 
 IV. When words ending with silent e, take an affix 
 beginning with a vowel, the e is omitted ; as, Cure, 
 cmable ; love, loving. 
 
 1. When silent e is preceded by v, or by c or g soft, the e is 
 retained before able ; as, Move, moveable ; peace, peaceable ; 
 change, changeable. 
 
 2. When silent e is preceded by g soft, it is retained before 
 ous ; as, Courage, courageous. 
 
 3. When silent e is preceded by c soft, it is changed into i 
 before ous ; as, Grace, gracious. 
 
 V. When words ending with y preceded by a con- 
 sonant, take an affix, they is generally changed into i; 
 as Merry, merriment; happy, happiness; cry, cried. 
 
 1. When y is preceded by a vowel, it is not changed into ; 
 as, Boy, 'boyish. 
 
 2. Y is not changed into * before the affixes ing and ish ; as, 
 Carry, carrying , baby, babyish. 
 
 3. Y preceded by a vowel, is changed into i, in Daily, 
 gaiety, gaily, laid, paid, said, slain, their, theirs. 
 
 4. When a word ending with ty, takes the affix ous, the y is 
 changed into e; as, Beauty, beauteows pity, piteous. 
 
 VI. When monosyllables, and words accented on 
 the last syllable, which end with a single consonant 
 preceded by a single vowel, receive an affix beginning 
 with a vowel, the final consonant is doubled ; as, Begin, 
 beginner; wit, wiUj/. 
 
 1. When a diphthong precedes the final consonant, it remains 
 single ; as, Toil, toiling, 
 
 2. The final consonant also remains single, when the accent 
 is not on the last syllable ; as, Offer, offerm#. 
 
 Except Apparel, apparelled; cancel, cancelled ; cavil, cavil- 
 ler ; coral, coralline ; counsel, counsel/or ; crystal, crystalline ; 
 drivel, driveler , duel, duellist ; gravel, gravelled ; grovel, 
 grovellinff , jewel, jeweler ; level, levelling ; libel, libeller ; 
 
SPELLING. 15 
 
 marvel, marvellous; model, modelled; revel, revelling; rival, 
 rivalling ; travel, traveler. 
 
 VII. When words which end with a double conso- 
 nant, receive an affix, both the consonants are generally 
 retained ; as, Scoff, scoffer ; success, success/^/. 
 
 Words ending with //, generally drop one / before an affix 
 beginning with a consonant ; as, Full, fulness ; skill, skilful. 
 
 VIII. In words of more than one syllable, c hard 
 is used as a final letter only when it is preceded by /or 
 ia; as, Music, maniac. 
 
 1. In monosyllables, c hard is always accompanied by k; as, 
 DecAr, locAr. Except Lac, zinc. 
 
 2. A word never ends with c hard, or cfc } when preceded by 
 a diphthong ; as, Book, hawk. 
 
 IX. When words of more than one syllable are 
 written partly on one line, and partly on another, they 
 are divided only at the syllables; as, Con-tentment, or 
 content-ment. 
 
 All the letters in monosyllables are written on the same line. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Correct the errors in the following sentences : 
 
 I. It is no great merit to spel correctly, but a great defect to do 
 so incorrectly. Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the topp 
 of his staf. Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively 
 refined. 
 
 II. In the names of druggs and plants, the mistake of a word 
 may endanger life. The finn of a fish is the limb, by which he 
 balances his body, and moves in the water. Many a trapp is laid 
 to ensnare the feet of youth. 
 
 III. In all our reasonings, our minds should be sincerly em- 
 ployed in the pursuit of truth. Rude behaviour and indecent 
 language are peculiarly disgracful to youth of education. A judi- 
 cious arrangment of studies facilitates improvment. Wisdom only 
 is truely fair : folly merly appears so. 
 
 IV. Every thing connected with self, is apt to appear desireable 
 in our eyes. Errors are more excuseable in ignorant than in well- 
 instructed persons. We were made to be servicable to others, as 
 
16 SPELLING. 
 
 well as to ourselves. An obligeing and humble disposition is 
 totally different from a servile and cringeing spirit. Our natural 
 defects of body are not chargable upon us. 
 
 V. We should subject our fancys to the government of reason. 
 We shall not be the happyer for possessing talents and affluence, 
 unless we make a right use of them. If we have denyed ourselves 
 sinful pleasures, we shall be great gainers in the end. We may be 
 plaiful, and yet innocent. When we act against conscience, we 
 become the destroiers of our own peace. 
 
 VI. When we bring the lawgiver into contempt, we have in 
 effect annuled his laws. By defering our repentance, wo accumu- 
 late our sorrows. We have all many faillings to lament and amend. 
 There is no affliction with which we are visitted, that may not be 
 improved to our advantage. 
 
 VII. Restlesness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoy- 
 ment of peace, and for the performance of duty. The arrows of 
 calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue. The road to the 
 blisful regions is as open to the peasant as to the king. A per- 
 verse and willful disposition is at once unamiable and sinful. 
 
 VIII. The vessel is a total wrec : the goods which have been 
 saved, will be exposed to publick auction. Can you name the 
 twelve signs of the zodiak ? Ransac the drawer for my stoc. The 
 man of true fortitude may be compared to a castle built on a roc, 
 which defies the attacs of the surrounding waters. 
 
 IX. Divide the following words, writing part of each 
 at the end of one line, and the remainder at the begin- 
 ning of the next : 
 
 Ancient, ashes, beneficent, capricious, cherish, coalition, coeval, 
 dangerous, epistle, February, gridiron, heinously, idleness, jocu- 
 larly, knighthood, lapidary, musician, nominative, optical, phy- 
 sician, qualify, receive, sovereign, transient, union, voluntary, 
 women, yeomanry, zealous. 
 
 Write the following sentences from dictation : 
 Neglect no opportunity of doing good. Neither time nor mis. 
 fortunes should erase the remembrance of a friend. The acknow- 
 ledgment of our transgressions must precede the forgiveness of 
 them. Let us show diligence in every laudable undertaking. 
 Judicious abridgments often aid the studies of youth. We must 
 resolutely perform our duty, however disagreeable. Few reflections 
 
PUNCTUATION. 17 
 
 are more distressing than those which we make on our own ingra- 
 titude. Strait is the gate, and narrow the way, that lead to eternal 
 life. There is an inseparable connexion between piety and virtue. 
 The harvest truly is plenteous, but the labourers are few. Inte- 
 grity conducts us straight forward, disdaining all crooked paths. 
 To be faithful among the faithless, argues great strength of prin- 
 ciple. A steady mind may receive counsel ; but there is no hold 
 on a changeable humour.* 
 
 II. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 THE POINTS used in Composition are the Comma (,), 
 the Semicolon (;), the Colon (:), the Period (.), the 
 Point of Interrogation (?), the Point of Exclamation (\), 
 the Dash ( ), and the Parenthesis (). 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 COMMA. 
 
 I. When two or more words folio w one another in 
 the same construction, commas are placed between 
 them ; as, ' Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic 
 prince.' 
 
 1. When two words in the same construction are joined by a 
 conjunction, they do not require a comma between them ; as, 
 ; lleligion purifies and ennobles the mind.' 
 
 2. When words in the same construction follow each other in 
 pairs, a comma is placed between each pair ; as, * Truth is fair 
 and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and constant.' 
 
 II. When a sentence consists of two or more mem- 
 bers or clauses, they are separated by commas; as 
 ' Virtue supports in adversity, and moderates in pros- 
 
 " The Teacher will find, that to make his Pupils write from dictation, 
 is the best mode of giving them a practical knowledge of Orthography. 
 He may multiply exercises at pleasure from any reading-book. 
 
 B 
 
J8 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 perity;' < His father dying, he succeeded to the estate;' 
 ( To 'confess the truth, I was greatly to blame.' 
 
 When a relative pronoun immediately follows its antecedent, 
 or when the sentence is short, the comma may be omitted ; as, 
 * He who cares only for himself, has but few pleasures ;' c Can- 
 dour is a quality which all admire.' 
 
 III. Words denoting the person or object addressed, 
 and words placed in apposition, are separated from the 
 rest of the sentence by commas; as, ' My son, give 
 me thy heart ;' ( Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was 
 eminent for his knowledge and zeal.' 
 
 When nouns placed in apposition are single, or form only one 
 proper name, they are not separated by commas ; as, e The 
 emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book.' 
 
 IV. Words or clauses which express opposition or 
 contrast, are generally separated by commas; as, ' He 
 was learned, but not pedantic ; ' Though deep, yet 
 clear.' 
 
 V. The modifying words and phrases, nay, however, 
 finally, in short, at least, &c., are usually separated from 
 the context by commas ; as, * Finally, let me repeat 
 what I stated 'before ;' * A kind word, nay, even a kind 
 look, often affords comfort to the afflicted.' 
 
 VI. Words supposed to be spoken, or which are 
 taken from another writer, but not formally quoted, 
 are preceded by a comma; as, * It hurts a man's pride 
 to say, I do not know/ 
 
 Words directly spoken or quoted, are marked by inverted 
 commas above the line ; as, " My dear son, 1 ' said Phocion, " I 
 entreat you to serve your country as faithfully as I have done." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Supply the points omitted in the following sentences: 
 
 I. Self- conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects 
 of many a youth. Plain honest truth needs no artificial covering. 
 To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the whole of 
 our duty. Vicissitudes of good and evil of trials and consolations 
 
PUNCTUATION. 19 
 
 fill up the life of man. Health and peace a moderate fortune and 
 a few friends sum up the elements of earthly felicity. 
 
 II. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the understand- 
 ing deadens the moral feelings and degrades man from his rank in 
 creation. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and 
 constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. Peace of mind 
 being secured we may smile at misfortunes. To say the least they 
 have betrayed great want of prudence. 
 
 III. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy principal study. 
 To you my worthy benefactors am I indebted under Providence 
 for all I enjoy. Come then companions of my toils let us take 
 fresh courage persevere and hope to the end. Hope the balm of 
 life soothes us under every misfortune. The patriarch Joseph is an 
 illustrious example of chastity resignation and filial affection. 
 
 IV. He who is a stranger to industry may possess but he can- 
 not enjoy. The goods of this world were given to man for his 
 occasional refreshment not for his chief felicity. Though un- 
 avoidable calamities make a part yet they make not the chief part 
 of the vexations and sorrows which distress human life. 
 
 V. Be assured then that order frugality and economy are the 
 necessary supports of every personal and private virtue. I pro- 
 ceed secondly to point out the proper state of our temper with 
 respect to one another. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to 
 mutual enjoyment. I shall make some observations first on the 
 external and next on the internal condition of man. 
 
 VI. Vice is not of such a nature that we can say to it hitherto 
 shalt thou come and no further. One of the noblest Christian 
 virtues is to love our enemies. Many too confidently say to them- 
 selves my mountain stands strong and shall never be removed. 
 We are strictly enjoined not to follow a multitude to do evil. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 SEMICOLON. 
 
 I. When a sentence consists of two parts, the one 
 complete in itself, and the other added as an inference, 
 or to give some explanation, they are separated by a 
 semicolon; as, ' Economy is no disgrace ; for it is bet- 
 ter to live on a little, than to outlive a great deal/ 
 
20 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 A semicolon is sometimes put between two clauses, which 
 have no necessary dependence upon each other : as, f Straws 
 swim at the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom.' 
 
 II. When a sentence consists of several members, 
 each containing a distinct proposition, yet having a de- 
 pendence upon some common clause, they are separated 
 by semicolons; as, * Philosophers assert that Nature 
 is unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaust- 
 ible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will always 
 be progressive; and that all future generations will 
 continue to make discoveries, of which we have not the 
 slightest idea.' 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Supply the points omitted in the folio wing sentences: 
 
 I. The passions are the chief destroyers of our peace the storms 
 and tempests of the moral world. Heaven is the region of gentle- 
 ness and friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. The path of 
 truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood is a perplexing 
 maze. Levity is frequently the forced production of folly or vice 
 cheerfulness is the natural offspring of wisdom and virtue. 
 
 II. That darkness of character where we can see no heart those 
 foldings of art through which no native affection is allowed to pene- 
 trate present an object unamiable in every season of life but parti- 
 cularly odious in youth. To give an early preference to honour 
 above gain when they stand in competition to despise every advan- 
 tage which cannot be attained without dishonest arts to brook no 
 meanness and to stoop to no dissimulation are the indications of a 
 great mind the presages of future eminence and usefulness in life. 
 As there is a worldly happiness which God perceives to be no other 
 than disguised misery as there are worldly honours which in his 
 estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which in his 
 sight is foolishness. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 COLON. 
 
 I. When a sentence consists of two parts, the one 
 complete in itself, and the other containing an additional 
 remark, the sense but not the syntax of which depends 
 
PUNCTUATION. 21 
 
 on the former, they are separated by a colon ; as, ' Study 
 to acquire a habit of thinking : no study is more im- 
 portant.' 
 
 II. When the sense of several members of a sentence, 
 which are separated from each other by semicolons, 
 depends on the last clause, that clause is generally se- 
 parated from the others by a colon; as, 'A divine 
 legislator uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty 
 governor stretching forth his arm to reward or punish ; 
 informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the 
 righteous, and of indignation and misery awaiting the 
 wicked: these are considerations which overawe the 
 world, support integrity, and check guilt.' 
 
 III. When an example or a quotation is introduced, 
 it is sometimes separated from the rest of the sentence 
 by a colon ; as, c He was often heard to say : " I have 
 done with the world, and I am willing to leave it." ' 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Supply the points omitted in the following sentences: 
 
 I. Virtue is too lovely to be immured in a cell the world is the 
 sphere of her action. Do not flatter yourself with the hope of per- 
 fect happiness there is no such thing in the world. The three great 
 enemies to tranquillity are vice superstition and idleness vice which 
 poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions superstition which 
 fills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with tedious- 
 ness and disgust. 
 
 II. If he has not been unfaithful to his king if he has not 
 proved a traitor to his country if he has never given cause for such 
 charges as have been preferred against him why then is he afraid 
 to confront his accusers ? By acquiring an humble trust in the 
 mercy and favour of God through Jesus Christ by doing or at least 
 endeavouring to do our duty to God and man by cultivating our 
 minds and properly employing our time and thoughts by governing 
 our passions and our temper by correcting all unreasonable expec- 
 tations from the world and in the midst of worldly business habitu- 
 ating ourselves to calm retreat and serious reflection by such means 
 as these it may be hoped that through the divine blessing our days 
 shall flow in a stream as unruffled as the human state admits. 
 
22 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 III. All our conduct towards men should be influenced by this 
 important precept " Do unto others as you would that others should 
 do unto you." Philip III. king of Spain when he drew near the 
 end of his days seriously reflecting on his past life and greatly 
 affected with the remembrance of his misspent time expressed his 
 deep regret in these terms ec Ah how happy would it have been for 
 me had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years that I have 
 held my kingdom." 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 I. The period marks the end of a sentence, unless it 
 is interrogative or exclamatory ; as, ' Cultivate the love 
 of truth.' 
 
 II. The period is used after abbreviations ; as, 
 ' K. C. B., Knight Commander of the Bath.' 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Supply the points omitted in the following passages : 
 
 I. The absence of evil is a real good peace quiet and exemption 
 from pain would be a continual feast 
 
 The resources of virtue remain entire when the days of trouble 
 come they remain with us in sickness as in health in poverty as in 
 the midst of riches in our dark and solitary hours no less than when 
 surrounded with friends and cheerful society the mind of a good 
 man is a kingdom to him and he can always enjoy it 
 
 If we look around us we shall perceive that the whole universe 
 is full of active powers action is indeed the genius of nature by 
 motion and exertion the system of being is preserved in vigour by 
 its different parts always acting in subordination one to another the 
 perfection of the whole is carried on the heavenly bodies perpetu- 
 ally revolve day and night incessantly repeat their appointed course 
 continual operations are going on in the earth and in the waters 
 nothing stands still 
 
 II. Constantino the Great was advanced to the sole dominion 
 of the Roman empire A D 325 and soon after openly professed the 
 Christian faith 
 
 The letter concludes with this remarkable postscript " P S 
 
PUNCTUATION. 23 
 
 Though I am innocent of the charge and have been bitterly per- 
 secuted yet I cordially forgive my enemies and persecutors" 
 
 The last edition of that valuable woik was carefully compared 
 with the original MS 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 POINT OF INTERROGATION, &C. 
 
 The point of Interrogation is used after sentences 
 which ask questions ; as, ' Who will accompany me ?' 
 
 The point of Exclamation is used after expressions 
 of emotion ; as, ' O Peace ! how desirable thou art !' 
 
 The Dash is used to mark a break or abrupt turn in 
 a sentence ; as, 
 
 ' Here lies the great False marble, where? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here.' 
 
 The Parenthesis is used to enclose an explanatory 
 clause or member of a sentence, not absolutely necessary 
 to the sense, but useful in explaining it, or introducing 
 an important idea; as, 
 
 * Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
 
 Virtue alone is happiness below.' 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Supply the points omitted in the following passages : 
 
 We wait till to-morrow to be happy alas why not to-day shall 
 we be younger are we sure we shall be healthier will our 
 passions become feebler and our love of the world less 
 
 Beauty and strength combined with virtue and piety how lovely 
 in the sight of men how pleasing to Heaven peculiarly pleasing 
 because with every temptation to deviate they voluntarily walk in 
 the path of duty 
 
 On the one hand are the divine approbation and immortal honour 
 on the other remember and beware are the stings of conscience and 
 endless infamy 
 
 As in riper years all unseasonable returns to the levity of youth 
 ought to be avoided an admonition which equally belongs to both 
 
24 USE OF WORDS. 
 
 sexes still more are we to guard against those intemperate indul- 
 gences of pleasure to which the young are unhappily prone* 
 
 III. USE OF WORDS. 
 
 WORDS are divided, according to their use in expressing 
 ideas, into nine classes ; namely : 
 
 I. Articles, or words which limit the signification 
 
 of other words. 
 II. Nouns, or names of persons, places, and things. 
 
 III. Adjectives, or words which qualify nouns. 
 
 IV. Pronouns, or words used in place of nouns. 
 V. Verbs, or words which affirm. 
 
 VI. Adverbs, or words which qualify verbs, adjec- 
 tives, or other adverbs. 
 
 VII. Prepositions, or words which show the rela- 
 tion of one thing to another. 
 VIII. Conjunctions, or words which connect words 
 
 and sentences. 
 
 IX. Interjections, or words which express sudden 
 emotion. 
 
 The following are the changes of termination or form, 
 which words undergo in expressing ideas : 
 
 I. The Indefinite Article is written a, before words 
 beginning with the sound of a consonant ; an, before 
 words beginning with the sound of a vowel ; as, A 
 book, a youth ; an army, an hour. 
 
 II. Nouns change their termination to express Num- 
 ber; as, Book, books , box, boxes; hero, heroes; city, 
 cities; knife, knives; ox, oxen; cherub, cherubm ; 
 mouse, mice. 
 
 Nouns change their form to express Gender ; as, 
 
 * Punctuation may be also taught by making the Pupils write and 
 point passages from dictation. 
 
USE OF WORDS. 25 
 
 Abbot, abbm; father, mother; man-servant, maid- 
 servant. 
 
 Nouns change their termination to express Case ; as. 
 Parent, parent's. 
 
 III. Adjectives change their form to express Com- 
 parison ; as, Safe, safer, safety great, greater, greatly 
 useful, more useful, most useful ; good, better, best. 
 
 IV. Personal Pronouns change their form to express 
 Number and Case; as, He, his, him; they, theirs, 
 them. 
 
 Possessive Pronouns change their form to express 
 Number ; as, My, our. 
 
 The Relative Pronoun who changes the termination 
 to express Case ; as, Who, whose, whom. 
 
 The Demonstrative Pronouns change their form to 
 express Number; as, This, these; that, those. 
 
 V. Verbs change their termination to express Num- 
 ber ; as, He writes, they write. 
 
 Verbs change their termination in the singular num- 
 ber, to express Person ; as, I write, thou writes/, he 
 writes. 
 
 Verbs change their form to express Time and Mood ; 
 as, Write, wrote, writing, written. 
 
 VI. Adverbs change their form to express Compar- 
 ison ; as, Soon, sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, 
 most nobly ; well, better, best. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 
 
 Supply the words omitted in the following examples : * 
 
 I. flower. apple. house. honour. gar- 
 den. fields. rainbow. clouds. variety. 
 Rhine. abbess. Pope. pens. ornament. 
 
 sun. earthquake. Thames. rivulet. conti- 
 
 nent, laws. 
 
 II. A good . A wise . A strong . An obe- 
 
26 USE OF WORDS. 
 
 dient . A diligent . A happy . Shady 
 
 A fragrant . The verdant . A peaceful . An 
 
 affable . The king's . The duty, 
 
 discovers a little . is the of and 
 
 III. A sea. The tempest. A 
 cavern. streams. A winter. doves. 
 The firmament. breezes. An counten- 
 ance. A agreement. war. An 
 
 subject. A resolution , , and . A 
 
 mind is an treasure. 
 
 IV. am sincere art industrious. is disinterested, 
 honour them. encourage . commend 
 
 assisted . completed journey. fears will detect 
 
 . Let improve . was choice ? 
 
 books are ? best friends are , tell of 
 
 faults, and teach how to correct 
 
 V. Vice misery. your lessons. The book 
 his : it mine. Her work her credit. Your conduct 
 their approbation. All talents to . not of the 
 favours you . It a great blessing to pious and vir- 
 tuous parents. Whatever also the heart. They 
 who nothing to , often relief to others by 
 
 what they . we to the chambers of sick- 
 
 ness and distress, we frequently them with the 
 
 victims of intemperance. 
 
 VI. The task is performed. We resolve, but 
 perform. He has been diligent, and deserves 
 
 to succeed. We are and formed, 
 
 will they arrive ? shall we stop ? the lark 
 
 sings ! is no greater felicity, than to be able to look 
 
 on a life and employed. 
 
 VII. They travelled France Italy. 
 
 virtue vice the progress is gradual. W T e are often our 
 
 wishes, and our desert. this imprudence he was plunged 
 
 new difficulties. The best preparation all the uncertainties 
 futurity, consists a good conscience, and a cheerful submis- 
 sion the will Heaven. 
 
 VIII. My father mother are in town, my brother is 
 in the country. We must be temperate, we would be healthy. 
 
 he is often advised, he does not reform. pros- 
 
 perity adversity has improved him. Her talents are more bril- 
 
USE OF WORDS. 2J 
 
 liant useful. There is nothing on earth stable to assure 
 us of undisturbed rest, powerful to afford us constant pro- 
 
 tection. 
 
 IX. Virtue ! how amiable thou art ! me ! what shall 
 
 I do ! Thou who reignest above ! ! I have been too 
 
 often occupied with trifles. ! the delusions of hope. , 
 
 Simplicity! source of genuine joy. ! how the tempest rages ! 
 
 ! how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity ! 
 
 I. An youth lamented, terms of sincere , the 
 
 death of most parent. His companion 
 
 to console by reflection, he had behaved the 
 
 deceased duty, tenderness, respect. " I thought," 
 
 replied the , " whilst parent was ; but I - 
 
 , with pain sorrow, instances disobedience and 
 
 , for which, ! it is late to atonement.'* 
 
 2. On a morning summer, two bees forward in 
 
 of honey ; the wise temperate, the careless and 
 
 They soon at a garden with 
 
 herbs, the most flowers, the most fruits. 
 
 They regaled with the various that spread 
 
 before : the one his thighs, at intervals, provi- 
 
 sions for the against the winter ; other revelled in 
 
 , without to any thing his present 
 
 At they a wide-mouthed phial, hung beneath 
 
 bough a peach-tree, with honey ready tempered, and 
 
 exposed to their in most alluring . thought- 
 
 less epicure, in of his friend's , plunged 
 
 into the vessel, resolving to himself in the of 
 
 sensuality. His philosophic , on the other , sipped 
 
 little caution ; being of danger, off to 
 
 and flowers ; where, by the of meals, im- 
 
 proved his relish the enjoyment them. the evening 
 , he upon his friend, to inquire he would 
 
 to the hive ; but he found him in sweets, he 
 
 was as to leave to enjoy. Clogged in his , en- 
 
 feebled in his , and his frame enervated, was 
 
 just able to his adieu ; and to with his 
 
 breath, that a taste pleasure quicken relish 
 
 life, an indulgence to destruction. 
 
 3. Time is a trust to us by , of 
 
28 USE OF WORDS. 
 
 we are the depositaries, are to an at the 
 
 last. That of it, which has to us, intended 
 
 for the of this world, for those the 
 
 Each of these to occupy, in the of our time, 
 
 that which properly to it. The of hospi- 
 
 tality pleasure not interfere the of 
 
 necessary ; and we call necessary , should not 
 
 upon the , which is to devotion. To every 
 there is a , and a for every under the 
 
 If we till what to be done , we 
 
 the morrow a burden belongs to . 
 
 We the wheels time, and them from us 
 
 along . He every plans, the 
 
 of the clay, follows that , carries on a thread 
 
 will him through the of the most life. The 
 
 orderly of his time like a ray of , which 
 
 itself all his affairs. But where no is laid, 
 
 the disposal of is merely to the of inci- 
 
 dents, things lie together one chaos, admits 
 
 of distribution review. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 VARIETY OF INFLECTION. 
 
 Write out the following passages, changing, when 
 the sense will permit, the articles ; the number, gender, 
 and case of the nouns and pronouns; the degree of 
 comparison of the adjectives and adverbs ; and the 
 number, person, mood, and tense of the verbs : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Seldom do we talk of ourselves with success. If I condemn 
 myself, more is believed than is expressed. If I praise myself, 
 much less. 
 
 Seldom do / talk of myself with success. If I condemn my- 
 self, more is believed than / express. If I praise myself, much 
 less. 
 
 You will seldom talk of yourself with success. If you condemn 
 yourself) more is believed than you expressed. If you praise 
 yourself, much less. 
 
USE OF WORDS. 29 
 
 Seldom does a man talk of himself with success. If he con- 
 demns himself, more is believed than he expressed. If he praises 
 himself, much less. 
 
 Seldom do men talk of themselves with success. If they con- 
 demn themselves, more is believed than they Expressed. If they 
 praise themselves, much less. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. No man ever did a designed injury to another, without doing 
 a greater to himself. 
 
 2. A man who gives his children a habit of industry, provides 
 for them better than by giving them a stock of money. 
 
 3. Solicitude in hiding failings makes them appear the greater. 
 It is a safer and easier course frankly to acknowledge them. A 
 man owns that he is ignorant ; we admire his modesty. He says 
 he is old ; we scarcely think him so. He declares himself poor ; 
 we do not believe it. 
 
 4. The desires of man increase with his acquisitions. Every 
 step which he advances brings something within his view which 
 he did not see before, and which, so soon as he sees i% he begins 
 to want. When necessity ends, curiosity begins ; and no sooner 
 are we supplied with every thing that nature can demand, than we 
 sit down to contrive artificial appetites. 
 
 5. Does a man reproach thee for being proud or ill-natured, 
 envious or conceited, ignorant or detracting ? Consider with thy- 
 self whether his reproaches are true. If they are not, consider 
 that thou art not the person whom he reproaches ; but that he re- 
 viles an imaginary being, and perhaps loves what thou really art, 
 though he hates what thou appearest to be. If his reproaches are 
 true ; if thou art the envious ill-natured man he takes thee for, 
 give thyself another turn ; become mild, affable, and obliging, and 
 his reproaches of thee naturally cease. His reproaches may indeed 
 continue, but thou art no longer the person whom he reproaches.* 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 WORDS TO FORM SENTENCES. 
 
 Take the following words, and connect and arrange 
 them so as to make sense: 
 
 * The Teacher may multiply these exercises from any text-book. 
 
30 USE OP WORDS. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Prompts, others, relieve, compassion, to, wants, the, of, us. 
 Compassion prompts us to relieve the wants of others. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Heart, has, in, true, its, politeness, the, seat. 
 
 2. Unwilling, pain, a, give, to, good, is, mind. 
 
 3. Evils, great, is, by, a, human, ourselves, proportion, of, 
 created. 
 
 4. Vanity, if, greatness, our, flatters, our, multiplies, it, dangers. 
 
 5. For, preparing, another, in, world, this, must, life, we, 
 duties, the, neglect, of, not. 
 
 6. Amiable, there, and, is, more, nothing, respectable, life, in, 
 than, human, humble, benevolent, character, man, the, of, a, 
 truly, and. 
 
 7. In, multitudes, obscure, the, stations, most, broils, are, 
 petty, in, not, less, their, eager, by, nor, passions, tormented, 
 their, less, contend, than, if, they, princely, for, which, prize, 
 were, the, honours. 
 
 8. Parent, anxious, with, does, what, the, care, hen, together, 
 call, her, and, offspring, them, wings, her, with, cover ! Suggest, 
 mother, does, to, your, this, you, of, not, the, sight, and, tender, 
 ness, affection ? Helpless, watchful, infancy, protected, her, care, 
 you, in, period, the, of, nourished, when, milk, she, with, you, her, 
 and, move, to, your, taught, limbs, and, accents, its, tongue, un- 
 formed, to, your, lisp. Childhood, in, your, griefs, she, your, 
 little, over, mourned, delights, in, your, rejoiced, innocent, healing, 
 to, sickness, administered, the, balm, in, you, and, mind, of, in- 
 stilled, the, wisdom, into, love, your, truth, and, of, virtue. 
 
 9. Ancient, in, times, attire, woman, a, strange, in, Rome, her, 
 at, appearance, made, and, to, came, king, the, books, to, nine, 
 sell, offering, her, which, composing, she, of, own, were, said. 
 Seller, not, the, abilities, the, knowing, or, sibyls, she, of, cele- 
 brated, the, was, that, in, one, fact, found, fail, whose, never, to, 
 were, prophecies, to, them, at, he, buy, refused, first. Upon, 
 departed, she, this, and, books, of, burning, three, her, again, re- 
 turned, remaining, price, the, demanding, same, the, for, six. 
 Impostor, dismissed, being, as, once, an, more, departed, she, 
 again, more, burning, three, remaining, she, those, again, with, 
 returned, as, still, asking, the, before, same. King, behaviour, 
 inconsistency, the, surprised, at, the, woman's, of, the, augurs, 
 
USE OF WORDS. 31 
 
 consulted, the, do, that, to, they, what, advise, might, him. Nine, 
 much, the, him, buying, blamed, not, they, for, and, purchase, 
 commanded, to, him, at, price, remaining, whatever, the, three, 
 had, they, were, to, be. Historians, the, woman, say, after, three, 
 thus, volumes, selling, and, the, delivering, prophetic, king, con- 
 tained, the, having, they, admonished, what, pay, to, attention, to, 
 special, him, vanished, from, before, and, after, never, was, seen. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 WORDS TO FORM SENTENCES (continued). 
 
 Supply such words as are necessary to make sense of 
 the following exercises : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Old, age, joyless, dreary, season, arrive, unimproved, corrupted, 
 mind. 
 
 Old age will prove a joyless and dreary season, if we arrive at 
 it with an unimproved or a corrupted mind. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. No, errors, trivial, deserve, mended. 
 
 2. Work, dull, performance, capable, pleasing, neither, under- 
 standing, imagination. 
 
 3. When, Socrates, fell, victim, madness, truth, virtue, felL 
 
 4. Gay, pleasing, sometimes, insidious, dangerous, companions. 
 
 5. Taste, useful, knowledge, provide, great, noble, entertain- 
 ment, other, leave. 
 
 G. Anxious, votary, riches, negligent, pleasure. 
 
 7. Perseverance, laudable, pursuits, reward, toils, effects, cal- 
 culation. 
 
 8. Changes, continually, place, men, manners, opinions, cus- 
 toms, private, public. 
 
 0. Religious, unjustly, romantic, visionary, unacquainted, world, 
 unfit, live. 
 
 10. Talent, useful, success, business, puts, reach, accidents, 
 quality, possessed, cool, temper, common, language, discretion. 
 
 11. Celebrated, relates, countryman, pass, river, loitering, 
 banks, foolish, current, rapid, discharge. Stream, flowed, in- 
 
32 USE OF WORDS. 
 
 creased, torrents, mountains; must, for, ever, because, sources, 
 derived, inexhaustible. Idle, irresolute, youth, books, wastes, 
 play, precious, deferring, improvement, first, easy, accomplished, 
 but, difficult, longer, neglected. 
 
 12. Few situations, terribly affecting, Brutus, father, judge, 
 life and death, children, justice, condemn, nature, spare. Young 
 men, nothing, themselves, conscious guilt, sentence, silence, agony. 
 Other judges, pangs, nature, repress, pity. Brutus, lost, softness, 
 countenance, tone, firm resolution, demanded, sons, defence, 
 charged. Three, times, no answer, executioner, " Now, part, the 
 rest." Saying, resumed, air, determined, nor, sentiments, paternal, 
 imploring, people, complaints, young, preparing, alter, tenor, 
 resolution. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 DERIVATIVE WORDS. 
 
 Make out a list of derivatives from the following 
 primitive words, and then write a sentence, either 
 quoted or original, containing each of them : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Act, actor, actress, action, active, activity, actively, actual, 
 actually, actuary, actuate, counteract, enact, exact, exactly, exactor, 
 exactness, exaction, inaction, inactive, inactivity, overact, react, 
 reaction, transact, transaction. 
 
 I scarcely know how to act in the matter. Like a dull actor 
 now, I have forgot my part. Who is the most celebrated actress 
 of the present day ? Both the body and the mind should be kept 
 in action. The steward is an active man of business. Do not 
 remit your activity. We are all actively employed. Every man 
 is daily guilty of actual transgression. How often is old age 
 actually arrived before we suspect it. The actuary of the court 
 died very lately. Our passions too frequently actuate our con- 
 duct. Counteract the mischief by doing all the good you can. 
 It is enacted in the laws of Venice. I now exact the penalty. 
 John was here exactly at the hour. Exactions and exactors over- 
 spread the land. You have performed the task with great exact- 
 ness. I lie in a refreshing kind of inaction. Inactive youth will 
 
USE OF WORDS. 33 
 
 be followed by profitless old age. Virtue concealed is inactivity 
 at best. You overact when you should underdo. The son reacts 
 the father's crimes. The action and reaction are equal. My 
 father transacted business in the office to-day. Give me a minute 
 account of all your transactions. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Art, 
 
 2. Cede. 
 
 3. Claim. 
 
 4. Err. 
 
 5. Firm. 
 
 6. Heir. 
 
 7. Join. 
 
 8. Just. 
 
 9. Mediate. 
 
 10. Migrate. 
 
 11. Mission. 
 
 12. Move. 
 
 13. Note. 
 
 14. Part. 
 
 15. Pure. 
 
 16. Serve.* 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 WORDS TO BE USED WITH OTHER WOBDS. 
 
 Make out a list of adjectives and verbs which may 
 be used with the following nouns, and then write a 
 sentence, either quoted or original, containing each of 
 them : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Man, brave, civil, contentious, deceitful, eminent, foolish, 
 generous, humane, learned, natural, peculiar, notorious, virtuous ; 
 acquit, become, condemn, deny, involve, oppose, polish, quarrel, 
 reason, sleep, vex, work. 
 
 A brave man fears no danger. The man at the gate was very 
 civil. A contentious man is a disagreeable companion. We can 
 place no confidence in a deceitful man. My agent is a very emi- 
 nent man. Go from the presence of a foolish man. True charity 
 makes men generous and humane. Our clergyman is a very 
 learned man. The natural man receiveth not the things of the 
 spirit. The man is notorious for his wickedness. There is some- 
 thing peculiar about the man. A virtuous man will shun even 
 the appearance of evil. Acquit yourselves like men. I dare do 
 all that may become a man. Condemn no man unheard. I deny 
 that I am the man. Few men have been involved in greater diffi- 
 
 * These exercises may be greatly increased in number, if the Pupil 
 has any knowledge of Greek and Latin primitives. 
 
 C 
 
34 USE OF WORDS. 
 
 culties. Let us boldly oppose them, man to man. A man's man- 
 ners are polished by intercourse with good society. It little be- 
 comes erring man to quarrel. Man reasons, brutes act from in- 
 stinct. Man dies to us, but he only sleeps to God. Men vex 
 themselves in vain. Nature in men capacious souls hath wrought. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Apple. 
 
 2. Bread. 
 
 3. Change. 
 
 4. Death. 
 
 5. Elephant. 
 
 6. Face. 
 
 7. Habit. 
 
 8. Law. 
 
 9. Manner. 
 
 10. Night. 
 
 11. Piety. 
 
 12. River. 
 
 13. Song. 
 
 14. Way. 
 
 15. Word. 
 
 16. Zeal.* 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Collect the synonymes of the following words, and 
 write a sentence, either quoted or original, containing 
 each of them : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 House, building, dome, edifice, fabric, pile, structure, abode, 
 dwelling, habitation, mansion, residence, family. 
 
 Houses are built to live in, not to look on. This building was 
 erected at great expense. Approach the dome, the social banquet 
 share. The edifice was too large for them to fill. The oldest 
 fabric in the neighbourhood is situated among these trees. The 
 pile overlooked the town, and drew the sight. There stands a 
 structure of majestic frame. But I know thy abode, and thy 
 going out, and thy coming in. His dwelling is low in a valley 
 green. He through their habitations walks, to mark their doings. 
 He left his wife, his children, his mansion, and his titles. These 
 ruins were once the residence of a king. The night made little 
 impression on myself; but I cannot answer for my whole family. 
 
 * These exercises may be varied, by causing the Pupils to make out 
 lists of nouns which may be used with verbs, adverbs which may be 
 used with adjectives, &c. 
 
USE OF WORDS. 
 
 35 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Adorn. 
 
 2. Adversary. 
 
 3. Billow. 
 
 4. Class. 
 
 5. Comfort. 
 
 6. Command. 
 
 7. Deceive. 
 
 8. Gallant. 
 
 9. King. 
 
 10. Mock. 
 
 11. Name. 
 
 12. Peasant. 
 
 13. Sea. 
 
 14. Stroke. 
 
 15. Work. 
 
 16. Yoke, 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 Vary the expression in the following sentences by 
 changing the parts of speech : 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Wisdom is better than riches. To be wise is better than to 
 be rich. The wise are better than the rich. 
 
 2. Be humble in your whole behaviour. Always behave your- 
 self humbly. Behave yourself with humility on all occasions. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Piety and virtue will make our whole life happy. 
 
 2. Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth. 
 
 3. The eager and presumptuous are continually disappointed. 
 
 4. Friendly sympathy heightens every joy. 
 
 5. Praise is pleasing to the mind of man. 
 
 6. To deceive the innocent is utterly disgraceful. 
 
 7- A family where the great Father of the universe is duly 
 reverenced, where parents are honoured and obeyed, and where 
 brothers and sisters dwell together in affection and harmony, is 
 surely a most delightful and interesting spectacle. 
 
 8. The man who distributes his fortune with generosity and 
 prudence, is amply repaid by the gratitude of those whom he 
 obliges. 
 
 9. Men are too often ingenious in making themselves miserable, 
 by aggravating to their own fancy the evils which they endure. 
 They compare themselves with none but those whom they imagine 
 
 * With advanced Pupils, the synonymes may be arranged into com- 
 mon, poetical, technical, scientific^ &c. 
 
36 USE OF WORDS. 
 
 to be more happy, and complain that upon them alone has fallen 
 the whole load of human sorrows. Would they look with a more 
 impartial eye on the world, they would see themselves sur- 
 rounded with sufferers, and find that they are only drinking out of 
 that mixed cup, which Providence has prepared for all. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 VARIETY OF EXPRESSION (continued.) 
 
 Vary the expression in the following sentences by 
 using synonymous words and phrases : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Wrath kindles wrath. Anger inflames anger. Strife begets 
 strife. One angry passion excites another. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The avaricious man has no friend. 
 
 2. It is not easy to love those whom we do not esteem. 
 
 3. Few have courage to correct their friends. 
 
 4. Passion swells by gratification. 
 
 5. The great source of pleasure is variety. 
 
 6. Knowledge is to be gained only by study. 
 
 7. Listen to the affectionate counsels of your parents ; treasure 
 up their precepts; respect their riper judgment; and enjoy, with 
 gratitude and delight, the advantages resulting from their society. 
 
 8. Come, let us go forth into the fields ; let us see how the 
 flowers spring; let us listen to the warbling of the birds, and 
 sport ourselves upon the new grass. The winter is over and gone ; 
 the buds come out upon the trees, and the green leaves sprout. 
 The young animals of every kind are sporting about ; they feel 
 themselves happy ; they are glad to be alive ; they thank Him 
 that has made them alive. They can thank Him in their hearts, 
 but we can thank Him with our tongues. The birds can warble, 
 and the young lambs can bleat ; but we can open our lips in his 
 praise : we can speak of all his goodness. Therefore we will 
 thank Him for ourselves, and we will thank Him for those that 
 cannot speak. 
 
USE OF WORDS. 37 
 
 9. Sir Isaac Newton possessed a remarkably mild and even 
 temper. This great man, on a particular occasion, was called out 
 of his study to an adjoining apartment. A little dog, named 
 Diamond, the constant but incurious attendant of his master's re- 
 searches, happened to be left among the papers, and threw down 
 a lighted candle, which consumed the almost finished labours of 
 some years. Sir Isaac soon returned, and had the mortification to 
 behold his irreparable loss. But with his usual self-possession he 
 only exclaimed, " Oh, Diamond ! Diamond ! thou little knowest 
 the mischief thou hast done."* 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 WORDS SUGGESTED TO FORM SENTENCES. 
 
 Let one Pupil name a subject, and each of the others, 
 at the suggestion of the Teacher, successively give a 
 word or phrase. 
 
 Let the words and phrases be written down as they 
 are suggested, and afterwards re- written so as to make 
 sense : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Name a subject. The horse. A noun common to the horse 
 and all other animals of the same kind ? Quadruped. An adjec- 
 tive descriptive of some property in the horse ? Beautiful. An 
 adverb to increase the signification of beautiful. Most. Is the 
 horse the most beautiful of quadrupeds ? He appears to be so. 
 
 The horse, quadruped, beautiful, most, appears. 
 
 A noun which refers to the largeness or smallness of the horse ? 
 Size. A noun applicable to his skin $ Smoothness. A noun ap- 
 plicable to his motions $ Ease. A noun applicable to his shape $ 
 Symmetry. Adjectives descriptive of the horse, to qualify these 
 nouns ? Fine, glossy, graceful, exact. What do all these proper- 
 ties entitle the horse to ? Distinction. 
 
 Size, skin, smoothness, motions, ease, shape, symmetry, fine, 
 glossy, graceful, exact, entitle, distinction. 
 
 * Pupils may be exercised, according to the two preceding sections, 
 on their daily reading-lessons. 
 
38 
 
 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Of all quadrupeds the horse appears to be the most beautiful. 
 His fine size, the glossy smoothness of his skin, the graceful 
 ease of his motions, and the exact symmetry of his shape, entitle 
 him to this distinction.* 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Dog. 
 
 2. Ostrich. 
 
 3. Whale. 
 
 4. Gold. 
 
 5. Copper. 
 
 6. Man. 
 
 7. Body. 
 
 8. Mind. 
 
 9. Solomon. 
 
 10. Alfred. 
 
 11. Sun. 
 
 12. Moon. 
 
 13. Air. 
 
 14. Rain. 
 
 15. Earth. 
 
 16. Wood. 
 
 IV. STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 A SENTENCE is any number of words joined together 
 in such a manner as to form a complete proposition. 
 
 Every complete proposition or sentence contains a 
 subject, or thing spoken of, and a predicate, or what is 
 said of the subject. 
 
 When the affirmation is not limited to the subject, a 
 complete proposition or sentence also contains an object. 
 
 The subject of a sentence is always a noun, or two 
 or more nouns joined together ; a pronoun, or pronouns ; 
 the infinitive of a verb ; or a part of a sentence. 
 
 The predicate is always a verb, or a clause contain- 
 ing a verb. 
 
 The object is always a noun, a pronoun, the infinitive 
 or present participle of a verb, or a part of a sentence. 
 
 The principal rules to be observed in joining words 
 together in sentences, are as follows : 
 
 I. A verb agrees with its subject or nominative in 
 
 them vary the expression according to Sections VIII. and IX. The 
 exercises in this Section may be extended to any length. 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 39 
 
 number and person; as, ' I write? ' He reads? 
 * They learn! 
 
 1. Collective nouns are followed by verbs in the singular or 
 in the plural number, according as unity or plurality of idea is 
 expressed ; as, ' The nation is powerful ;' c My people do not 
 consider.' 
 
 2. When the infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is used 
 as the subject of an affirmation, the verb is in the third person 
 singular; as, c To obey their parents is the duty of children.' 
 
 3. Two or more nominatives in the singular number, joined 
 by the conjunction and, take the verb in the plural ; as, ' John 
 and James are at school.' 
 
 4. Two or more nominatives in the singular number, joined 
 by or or nor, take the verb in the singular ; as, c Either John 
 or James is at school.' 
 
 5. Two or more nominatives in different numbers, joined by 
 or or nor, take the verb in the plural ; as, c Neither the boys 
 nor I are in fault.* 
 
 6. When two or more nominatives in the same number, but 
 of different persons, are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with 
 the last ; as, ( Neither thou nor I am in fault.' 
 
 7. When two or more nominatives of different persons are 
 joined by the conjunction and, the verb agrees with the first per- 
 son in preference to the second, and with the second in preference 
 to the third ; as, ( You and I have learned our lessons ;' c You 
 and he ha ve received your reward.' 
 
 8. When two nouns in the singular number are connected by 
 the preposition with, or by such words and expressions as like, 
 as well as, &c., the verb is in the singular ; as, ' Diligence, with 
 sobriety, secures independence ;' c Caesar, as well as Cicero, was 
 eloquent.' 
 
 9. A noun or a pronoun joined to a participle, without being 
 dependent on any other word in the sentence, is in the nomina- 
 tive absolute ; as, f The wind being favourable, we set sail.' 
 
 II. The indefinite article is placed before nouns in 
 the singular number only ; as, ' A day ;' ' An hour.' 
 
 The definite article is placed before nouns in either 
 the singular or the plural number; as, ' The year; 
 ' The seasons. 
 
40 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1. The indefinite article is placed before nouns signifying more 
 than one, when they are used collectively ; as, ' A dozen ;' { A 
 score.' 
 
 2. The indefinite article is placed before nouns in the plural 
 number, when they are qualified by numeral adjectives ; as, ' A 
 hundred pounds;' c A few books.' 
 
 3. When several nouns are connected, some of which take 
 a before them, and some an, the indefinite article is repeated 
 before each of them ; as, e A horse, an ass, an ox, and a mule.' 
 
 4. When two or more nouns or adjectives are connected, the 
 article is placed only before the first of them, if they are applied to 
 the same person or thing ; as, e The pious and learned Newton.' 
 
 5. When two or more nouns or adjectives are connected, the ar- 
 ticle is placed before each of them, if they are applied to different 
 persons or things ; as, ' The brave Sydney and the generous 
 Howard.' 
 
 6. The definite article is sometimes placed before adverbs in 
 the comparative degree ; as, 6 The more diligently you learn 
 your lesson, the sooner will you be able to repeat it.' 
 
 III. Nouns or Personal Pronouns applied to the 
 same persons or things, are put in the same case ; as, 
 1 Paul the apostle' 
 
 1. A noun and a personal pronoun applied to the same per- 
 son or thing, cannot be nominatives to the same verb : thus, 
 ' Julius Cassar, he was killed in the senate-house,' ought to be, 
 c Julius Caesar was killed in the senate-house.' 
 
 2. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a part of a 
 sentence ; as, c You read very indistinctly, a habit which you 
 should endeavour to correct.' 
 
 3. A noun or a pronoun which answers a question must be in 
 the same case with the noun which asks it ; as, ' Who told you ? 
 HeS c Whose books are these ? Mine. 1 
 
 IV. When two nouns, or a noun and a pronoun, 
 denote the possessor, and the thing possessed, the name 
 of the former is put in the possessive case ; as, ' My 
 brother's book.' 
 
 1. The name of the thing possessed is sometimes omitted ; 
 as, 'He went to see St Peter' V that is, ' St Peter's Church.' 
 
 2. When the possessor is described by two or more nouns. 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 41 
 
 the sign of the possessive is generally put after the last ; as 
 ' John the Baptist's head.* 
 
 3. When the thing possessed belongs to two or more, the 
 sign of the possessive is put after each ; as, ( It was my father's, 
 mother's, and uncle's opinion.' 
 
 4. The objective case with of is frequently used instead of 
 the possessive ; as, c A servant of my father.' 
 
 5. When the thing is only one of a number belonging to 
 the possessor, both the possessive case and of are used ; as, c A 
 servant of my father's.' 
 
 V. Every adjective qualifies a Noun expressed or 
 understood ; as, ' A wise man ;' ' Few were present.' 
 
 1. Adjectives sometimes qualify the infinitive mood, or a part 
 of a sentence ; as, ( To see is pleasant.' 
 
 2. Adjectives of number qualify nouns in the singular or 
 plural, according as they signify one or more ; as, ( One book ;' 
 6 Six slates.' 
 
 3. The adjectives each, every, either, neither, qualify nouns 
 in the singular number ; as, c Every stranger has left the city.' 
 
 4. Every qualifies a plural noun when the things which it 
 denotes are spoken of collectively ; as, ( Every twelve years. 9 
 
 5. The definite article and an adjective are sometimes used 
 instead of the adjective and a noun ; as, c The good alone are 
 great/ 
 
 6. Adjectives which express number indefinitely are fre- 
 quently used without nouns ; as, ( AU were invited ; but some 
 have refused to come.' 
 
 7. Adjectives in the comparative degree are followed by than 
 when opposition is signified, and by of when selection is im- 
 plied ; as, c Wisdom is better than riches ;' f James is the 
 younger of the two brothers.' 
 
 VI. Pronouns agree in number, gender, and person, 
 with the nouns which they represent; as, ' The master 
 sits at his desk ;' * The scholars learn their lessons.' 
 
 1. When two or more pronouns are used in place of the same 
 noun, they are put in the same number, gender, and person : 
 thus, ( Thou hast done me a great favour, for which I am much 
 obliged to you,' ought to be, { You have done me a great favour, 
 for which I am much obliged to you.' 
 
42 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 2. The pronoun it, when the nominative to a verb, is applied 
 to persons as well as to things ; to the first and second persons 
 as well as to the third person ; and to the plural number as well 
 as to the singular ; as, 4 It is the king ;' c It was /;' f It was 
 not you? f It was the men who were here this morning.* 
 
 3. Relative pronouns are of the same number, gender, and 
 person with their antecedents ; as, c /, who am still your friend, 
 will not desert you ;' c Let the monitors, who are ready, begin.' 
 
 4. When the relative refers to two antecedents of different 
 persons, it agrees with the one or the other, according as the 
 meaning of the sentence requires ; as, c I am the general who 
 gives the orders to-day ;' /am the general, who give the orders 
 to-day.' 
 
 5. The relative which is generally used instead of collective 
 nouns, even when they represent persons ; as, ( The committee, 
 which met to-day, was unanimous.' 
 
 6. The relative which has sometimes a part of a sentence for 
 its antecedent ; as, { He is in great distress, which I am sorry to 
 hear.' 
 
 7. The demonstrative pronouns this and that agree with their 
 nouns in number ; as, i This book, these books ;' ' That map, 
 those maps.' 
 
 VII. Active verbs govern the objective case; as, 
 ' If ye love me, keep my commandments? 
 
 1. The present participle is sometimes used absolutely ; as, 
 ' Properly speaking, there are no exceptions.' 
 
 2. When the present participle is used as a noun, it generally 
 takes an article before it, and of after it ; as, ' In the keeping of 
 thy commandments there is great reward.' 
 
 3. When the present participle is preceded by a noun in the 
 possessive case, or by a possessive pronoun, it does not take the 
 article before it ; as, ( Your going away at this time is very in- 
 convenient.' 
 
 VIII. The verb to be has the same case after it as 
 before it ; as, * It is //' * You believed it to be him! 
 
 IX. One verb governs another in the infinitive ; as, 
 { I desire to learn;' ' He is waiting to see you.' 
 
 1. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by a noun or 
 an adjective : as, c Your desire to improve is commendable.' c It 
 is delightful to behold the setting sun.' 
 
STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 43 
 
 2. The infinitive mood is sometimes used absolutely; as, 
 ' To tell you the truth, I do not know.* 
 
 3. The infinitive mood is preceded by the preposition to, ex- 
 cept after the verbs bid, can, dare, feel, hear, let, make, may, 
 must, need, shall, see, arid will. 
 
 X. Every adverb qualifies a verb, adjective, or other 
 adverb, expressed or understood ; as, * Wisely said, ex- 
 ceedingly good, very well/ 
 
 1. The adverbs hence, whence, thence, do not require from 
 before them, as each of them contains in itself the power of that 
 preposition; as, ' Whence, 1 that is, ( from what place, came you?' 
 
 2. Two negatives make an affirmation: thus, e I do not take 
 none, means, c I take some.'' 
 
 XL Prepositions govern nouns and pronouns in the 
 objective case; as, ' From me; 9 ' With us;' ' On the 
 table: 
 
 1. Prepositions also govern the present participles of verbs ; 
 as, c By applying to your studies, you will acquire knowledge/ 
 
 2. Prepositions are sometimes placed before adjectives and ad- 
 verbs ; as, c At present ;' c By far the best.' 
 
 3. Prepositions are frequently omitted, especially before nouns 
 denoting time, space, and dimension, and before the personal 
 pronouns ; as, Once a day? ( He ran two miles: 1 ( This wall 
 is six feet high ;' < Tell me the truth.' 
 
 4. The preposition to is omitted after like, near, &c. ; as, 
 c He is like his father ;' The school is near the church.' 
 
 5. The idiom of the language requires particular prepositions 
 after certain words and phrases ; as, c A prejudice against ,* 
 4 An abhorrence o/;' An aversion to. 9 
 
 XII. Conjunctions join the same cases of nouns and 
 pronouns, the same moods and tenses of verbs, similar 
 parts of speech, and the clauses or members of sentences ; 
 as, * John and James are come ;' ' I saw him and 
 her ;' ' They read and write well ;' ' A wise and 
 virtuous man ;' * We should live soberly and honestly;' 
 f Keep thy tongue from evil, and thy lips from speaking 
 guile.' 
 
 1. When the relative pronoun follows the conjunction than. 
 
44 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 it is put in the objective case ; as, His father, than whom 1 
 never knew a better man, is dead.* 
 
 2. Some conjunctions have their correspondent conjunctions : 
 thus, both is followed by and, either by or, neither by nor, though 
 by yet, &c. ; as, c Both you and I saw it ;' c Though he was 
 rich, yet for our sakes he became poor.' 
 
 XIII. Interjections are joined to the objective case 
 of pronouns of the first person, and to the nominative 
 of pronouns of the second ; as, 6 Ah me !' c O thou !' 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Vary the construction in the following sentences by 
 changing the subjects, the predicates, or the objects : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Temperance in eating and drinking is the best preservative of 
 health. To be temperate in eating and drinking is the best preser- 
 vative of health. To eat and drink temperately is the best preser- 
 vative of health. The best preservative of health is temperance in 
 eating and drinking. The best way to preserve health is to eat and 
 drink temperately. Temperance in eating and drinking best pre- 
 serves health. Health is best preserved by temperance in eating 
 and drinking. To eat and drink temperately is the best way to 
 preserve health. Temperance in eating and drinking promotes 
 health. Health depends upon temperance in eating and drinking. 
 Health is promoted by temperance in eating and drinking. Health 
 is promoted by eating and drinking temperately. We must eat and 
 drink temperately to preserve health. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is required of all 
 men. 
 
 2. To grieve immoderately shows weakness. 
 
 3. Timid men fear to die. 
 
 4. That it is our duty to be just and kind to our fellow -creatures, 
 admits not of any doubt in a rational and well-informed mind. 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 45 
 
 5. To cultivate piety towards God, to exercise benevolence to- 
 wards others, and to be of a pure and humble mind, are the sure 
 means of becoming peaceful and happy. 
 
 6. By observing truth you will command esteem. 
 
 7. The changing of times and seasons, and the removing and 
 setting up of kings, belong to Providence alone. 
 
 8. It is a great support to virtue, to see a good mind maintain 
 its patience and tranquillity under injuries and affliction, and cor- 
 dially forgive its oppressors. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION (continued). 
 
 Vary the construction of the following passages, by 
 changing the first or second person into the third, or the 
 third into the first or second : 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " I thank thee," cried the dying consul ; " and may the gods 
 recompense thy piety. But as for me, all is over, and my part is 
 chosen. Do not, therefore, by attempting to persuade a desperate 
 man, lose the only means of procuring thine own safety." 
 
 The dying consul thanked him, and prayed that the gods might 
 recompense him for his piety. But as for himself, he said that all 
 was over, and that his part was chosen. He therefore entreated 
 him not to lose the only means of procuring his own safety, by 
 attempting to persuade a desperate man. 
 
 2. Xantippus told them that their armies had been hitherto over- 
 thrown, not by the strength of the enemy, but by the ignorance of 
 their own generals. He therefore only required a ready obedience 
 to his orders, and assured them of an easy victory. 
 
 " Allow me to tell you," said Xantippus, " that your armies 
 have been hitherto overthrown, not by the strength of the enemy, 
 but by the ignorance of your own generals. All, therefore, that I 
 require is a ready obedience to my orders, and I assure you of an 
 easy victory." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1 . I come now to speak upon what, indeed, I would have gladly 
 avoided, had I not been particularly pointed at, for the part I have 
 
46 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 taken in these proceedings. It has been said by a noble lord on 
 my left hand, that I likewise am running the race of popularity. 
 If the noble lord means by popularity, that applause bestowed by 
 after-ages on good and virtuous actions, I have long been strug- 
 gling in that race : to what purpose, all-trying time can alone de- 
 termine. But if the noble lord means that mushroom popularity 
 which is raised without merit, and lost without a crime, he is much 
 mistaken in his opinion. I defy the noble lord to point out a single 
 action of my life, in which the popularity of the times ever had the 
 smallest influence on my determinations. 
 
 2. The decemvir then began to excuse himself, saying, that he 
 was willing to give liberty to all deliberations upon the question, but 
 could not bear an oration, which, leaving the point in debate, only 
 seemed calculated to promote sedition : that he and his colleagues 
 had received an unlimited power from the people, till the great 
 work of forming the laws was finished, during which they were re- 
 solved to act to the extent of their power, and then would be 
 answerable for their administration : he therefore demanded, that 
 they should have a power of levying and commanding the forces 
 that were to be sent against the enemy. 
 
 3. *With regard to my poverty, the king has, indeed, been justly 
 informed. My whole estate consists of a house of but mean appear- 
 ance, and a little spot of ground, from which, by my own labour, 
 I draw my support. But if, by any means, thou hast been per- 
 suaded to think that this poverty renders me of less consequence 
 in my own country, or in any degree unhappy, thou art greatly 
 deceived. I have no reason to complain of fortune : she supplies 
 me with all that nature requires ; and if I am without superfluities, 
 I am also free from the desire of them. With these, I confess I 
 should be more able to succour the necessitous, the only advantage 
 for which the wealthy are to be envied : but small as my posses- 
 sions are, I can still contribute something to the support of the 
 state, and the assistance of my friends. With respect to honours, 
 my country places me, poor as I am, upon a level with the richest : 
 for Rome knows no qualifications for great employments but virtue 
 and ability. She appoints me to officiate in the most august cere- 
 monies of religion ; she intrusts me with the command of her 
 armies ; she confides to my care the most important negotiations. 
 My poverty does not lessen the weight and influence of my counsels 
 in the senate. The Roman people honour me for that very po- 
 verty which king Pyrrhus considers as a disgrace. They know the 
 many opportunities I have had to enrich myself without censure ; 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 4? 
 
 they are convinced of my disinterested zeal for their prosperity : 
 and if I have any thing to complain of, in the return they make 
 me, it is only the excess of their applause. What value, then, can 
 I put upon thy gold and silver ? What king can add any thing to 
 my fortune ? 
 
 4. Pericles maintained that they had failed in nothing of their 
 duty, as they had given orders that the dead bodies should be taken 
 up ; that, if any one were guilty, it was the accuser himself, who, 
 being charged with these orders, had neglected to put them in 
 execution; but that he blamed nobody; and that the tempest, 
 which came on unexpectedly at the very instant, was an unanswer- 
 able apology, and entirely discharged the accused from all guilt. 
 He demanded that a whole day should be allowed them to make 
 their defence, a favour not denied to the most criminal ; and that 
 they should be t&ed separately. He represented that they were not 
 in the least obliged to precipitate a sentence wherein the lives of the 
 most illustrious citizens were concerned : that it was, in some 
 measure, attacking the gods, to make men responsible for the winds 
 and weather : that they could not, without the most flagrant ingra- 
 titude and injustice, put to death the conquerors, to whom they 
 ought to decree crowns and honours, or give up the defenders of their 
 country to the rage of those who envied them : that if they did so, 
 their unjust judgment would be followed by a sudden but vain re- 
 pentance, which would leave behind it the sharpest remorse, and 
 cover them with eternal infamy.* 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 
 Sentences are either simple or complex. 
 
 A simple sentence contains only one proposition. 
 
 A complex sentence consists of two or more simple 
 sentences so combined as to make but one complete 
 proposition. 
 
 Divide the following complex into simple sentences : 
 
 * These exercises, and those which follow under Sections III. IV. 
 V. VI. and VII. may be multiplied from any text-book of history. 
 
48 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Friendship improves happiness, and abates misery, by doubling 
 our joy, and dividing our grief. 
 
 Friendship improves happiness. Friendship abates misery. 
 Friendship doubles our joy. Friendship divides our grief. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Modesty is not properly a virtue, but it is a very good sign 
 of a tractable disposition, and a great preservative against vice. 
 
 2. Thousands, whom indolence has sunk into contemptible 
 obscurity, might have attained the highest distinctions, if idleness 
 had not frustrated the effect of all their powers. 
 
 3. At our first setting out in life, when yet unacquainted with 
 the world and its snares, when every pleasure enchants with its 
 smile, and every object shines with the gloss of novelty, let us be- 
 ware of the seducing appearances which surround us, and recollect 
 what others have suffered from the power of headstrong desire. 
 
 4. The Romans, fleeing in great consternation, were pursued by 
 the enemy to the bridge, over which both victors and vanquished 
 were about to enter the city in confusion. All now appeared to be 
 lost, when the sentinel, who had been placed there to defend it, 
 opposed himself to the torrent of the enemy, and, assisted only by 
 two more, for some time sustained the whole fury of the assault, 
 till the bridge was broken down behind him ; when plunging with 
 his arms into the Tiber, he swam back to his fellow-soldiers. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ABRIDGMENT OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 The clauses of a complex sentence are either princi* 
 pal or secondary. 
 
 The principal clause is that which contains the lead- 
 ing proposition ; and it must express a complete idea, 
 even when separated from the rest of the sentence. 
 
 A secondary clause is a simple sentence, or part of a 
 sentence, modifying the principal clause. 
 
 Secondary clauses may be divided into Adjective, 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 49 
 
 Relative, Participial, Adverbial, Connective or Con- 
 junctive, Absolute, Apposition, Parenthetical, &c. 
 
 An adjective clause is introduced by an adjective. 
 
 A relative clause is introduced by a relative pronoun. 
 
 A participial clause is introduced by a participle, 
 which describes some other word in the sentence. 
 
 An adverbial clause is introduced by an adverb. 
 
 A connective or conjunctive clause is introduced by 
 a conjunction. 
 
 An absolute clause is not dependent upon any other 
 word or words in the sentence. 
 
 An apposition clause contains a noun placed in ap- 
 position with the word or clause going before. 
 
 A parenthetical clause is enclosed by a parenthesis. 
 
 Abridge the following passages by writing only the 
 principal clauses, making each a separate sentence : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Socrates, though primarily attentive to the culture of his mind, 
 was not negligent of his external appearance. His cleanliness re- 
 sulted from those ideas of order and decency, which governed all 
 his actions. 
 
 Socrates was not negligent of his external appearance. His 
 cleanliness resulted from his ideas of order and decency. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. A horse, having been insulted by a stag, and finding himself 
 unequal to his adversary, applied to a man for assistance. The 
 request was easily granted ; and the man, putting a bridle in his 
 mouth, and mounting upon his back, soon came up with the stag, 
 and laid him dead at his enemy's feet. The horse, having thus 
 gratified his revenge, thanked his assistant. " Now," said he, " I 
 will return in triumph, and reign the undisputed lord of the forest." 
 " By no means," replied the man, " I shall have occasion for your 
 services, and you must go home with me." So saying, he led him 
 to his hovel, where the unhappy steed spent the remainder of his 
 days in laborious servitude ; sensible, too late, that revenge may 
 cost a great deal more than it is worth. 
 
 2. A youth, who lived in the country, and who had not acquired, 
 either by reading or conversation, any knowledge of the animals 
 
 D 
 
50 STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 
 
 which inhabit foreign regions, went to a neighbouring city to see 
 an exhibition of wild beasts. " What is the name of that lovely 
 animal," said he to the keeper, t( which you have placed near one 
 of the ugliest beasts in your collection, as if you meant to contrast 
 beauty with deformity ?" " The animal which you admire," re- 
 plied the keeper, "is called a tiger; and, notwithstanding the 
 meekness of his looks, he is fierce and savage beyond description. 
 But the other beast, which you despise, is in the highest degree 
 docile, affectionate, and useful. For the benefit of man, he tra- 
 verses the sandy deserts of Arabia, where drink and pasture are 
 seldom to be found, and will continue several days without susten- 
 ance, yet still patient of labour. The camel, therefore (for such is 
 the name given to this animal), is more worthy of your admiration 
 than the tiger, notwithstanding the inelegance of his make, and the 
 two bunches upon his back : for mere external beauty is of little 
 estimation ; and deformity, when associated with amiable disposi- 
 tions and useful qualities, should not preclude our respect and ap- 
 probation." 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 ABRIDGMENT OF COMPLEX SENTENCES (continued). 
 
 Abridge the following passages by writing in each 
 sentence the principal clause, and such secondary clauses 
 only as the sense in ay require: * 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney, at the battle near Zutphen, was wounded by 
 a musket-ball, which broke the bone of his thigh. He was carried 
 about a mile and a half to the camp ; and being faint with the loss 
 of blood, and probably parched with thirst, through the heat of the 
 weather, he called for drink. It was immediately brought to him : 
 but as he was putting the vessel to his mouth, a poor wounded 
 soldier, who happened at that instant to be carried past him, looked 
 up to it with wistful eyes. The gallant and generous Sidney took 
 the bottle from his mouth, and delivered it to the soldier, saying, 
 " Thy necessity is yet greater than mine." 
 
 * In exercises like this, the Teacher may suggest whether the second- 
 ary clauses should be adjective, relative, participial, adverbial, connec- 
 tive, absolute, apposition, or parenthetical. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In one of those terrible eruptions of 'Mount ./Etna, which 
 have often happened, the danger of the inhabitants of the adjacent 
 country was uncommonly great. To avoid immediate destruction 
 from the flames, and the melted lava which ran down the sides of 
 the mountain, the people were obliged to retire to a considerable 
 distance. Amidst the hurry and confusion of such a scene (every 
 one fleeing and carrying away whatever he deemed most precious), 
 two brothers, in the height of their solicitude for the preservation 
 of their wealth and goods, suddenly recollected that their father and 
 mother, both very old, were unable to save themselves by flight. 
 Filial tenderness triumphed over every other consideration. 
 " Where," cried the generous youths, " shall we find a more precious 
 treasure than they are, who gave us being, and who have cherished 
 and protected us through life ?" Having said this, the one took up 
 his father on his shoulders, and the other his mother, and happily 
 made their way through the surrounding smoke and flames. All 
 who were witnesses of this dutiful and affectionate conduct, were 
 struck with the highest admiration ; and they and their posterity 
 ever after called the path which these young men took in their re- 
 treat, " The Field of the Pious." 
 
 2. Among other excellent arguments for the immortality of the 
 soul, there is one drawn from its perpetual progress toward perfec- 
 tion, without a possibility of ever arriving at it, which I do not re- 
 member to have seen opened and improved by others, who have 
 written on this subject, though it seems to me to carry very great 
 weight with it. How can it enter into the thoughts of a man, 
 that the soul, which is capable of such immense perfections, and of 
 receiving new improvements to all eternity, shall fall away into 
 nothing, almost as soon as it is created ? A brute arrives at a 
 point of perfection that he can never pass : in a few years he has 
 all the endowments he is capable of; an4 were he to live ten thou- 
 sand more, would be the same thing he is at present. Were a 
 human soul thus at a stand in her accomplishments ; were her fa- 
 culties to be full blown, and incapable of farther enlargement ; I 
 
ana in tne very uegnmiug m 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 VARIETY OF STRUCTURE. 
 
 Vary the structure of the following sentences by 
 changing the form of the clauses : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The boy, attentive to his studies, is sure to excel. The boy, 
 who is attentive to his studies, is sure to excel. The boy being 
 attentive to his studies, is sure to excel. The boy is sure to excel, 
 as he is attentive to his studies. The boy is sure to excel, if he 
 be attentive to his studies. By being attentive to his studies, the 
 boy is sure to excel. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 
 
 2. The king, who had never before committed an unjust action, 
 dismissed his minister without inquiry. 
 
 3. He descended from his throne, and ascended the scaffold, and 
 said, " Live, incomparable pair." 
 
 4. She was deprived of all but her innocence, and lived in a 
 retired cottage with her widowed mother, and was concealed more 
 by her modesty than by solitude. 
 
 5. The dry leaves rustled on the ground, and the chilling winds 
 whistled by me, and gave me a foretaste of the gloomy desolation 
 of winter. 
 
 6. The trees were cultivated with much care, and the fruit was 
 rich and abundant. 
 
 7. The lion and the eagle are both possessed of great strength, 
 and exercise dominion over their fellows of the forest. Equally 
 magnanimous, they disdain small plunder, and only pursue animals 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 53 
 
 worthy of conquest. Solitary, they keep the desert to themselves 
 alone : it is as extraordinary to see two pair of eagles in the same 
 mountain, as two lions in the same forest. They keep separate 
 to find a more ample supply, and consider the quantity of their 
 game as the best proof of their dominion. Bred for war, they are 
 the enemies of all society ; alike fierce, proud, and incapable of 
 being easily tamed. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 VARIETY OF STRUCTURE AND EXPRESSION. 
 
 Vary both the structure and the expression of the 
 following sentences : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A wolf let into the sheepfold, will devour the sheep. A wolf 
 being let into the sheepfold, the sheep will be devoured. If we 
 let a wolf into the fold, the sheep will be devoured. The wolf 
 will devour the sheep, if the sheepfold be left open. If the fold be 
 not shut, the wolf will devour the sheep. Slaughter will be made 
 amongst the sheep, if the wolf get into the fold. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Gentleness corrects whatever is offensive in our manners. 
 
 2. All mankind must taste the bitter cup, which destiny has 
 mixed. 
 
 3. The places of those who refused to come, were soon filled 
 with a multitude of delighted guests. 
 
 4. He who lives always in the bustle of the world, lives in a 
 perpetual warfare. 
 
 5. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability. 
 
 6. You have pleaded your incessant occupation ; exhibit the re- 
 sult of it. 
 
 7. Industry is not only the instrument of improvement, but the 
 foundation of pleasure. 
 
 8. The advantages of this world, even when innocently gained, 
 are uncertain blessings. 
 
 9. When you behold wicked men multiplying in number, and 
 increasing in power, imagine not that Providence particularly fa- 
 vours them. 
 
54 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 10. Charity consists not in speculative ideas of general benevo- 
 lence, floating in the head, and leaving the heart, as speculations 
 too often do, untouched and cold. 
 
 11. The squadron, if it merit that name, consisted of no more 
 than three small vessels, having on board ninety men, mostly sailors, 
 together with a few adventurers. The admiral steered directly for 
 the Canary Islands, and then, holding his course clue west, left the 
 usual track of navigation, and stretched into unfrequented and un- 
 known seas. The first day, as it was very calm, he made but 
 little way ; but on the second he lost sight of land ; and many of 
 the sailors, already dejected and dismayed, began to beat their 
 breasts and to shed tears. Columbus comforted them with assu- 
 rance of success, and the prospect of vast wealth in those opulent 
 regions whither he was conducting them. After a voyage of four 
 weeks, the presages of land became so numerous and promising, 
 that, having offered up public prayers for success, he ordered the 
 sails to be furled, and strict watch to be kept, lest the ships should 
 be driven ashore in the night. A little after midnight the joyful 
 sound of land, land, was heard from the mast-head ; and, as soon as 
 morning dawned, they beheld an island about two leagues to the 
 north, whose flat and verdant fields, well stored with wood, and 
 "watered with many rivulets, presented to them the aspect of a de- 
 lightful country. As soon as the sun arose, all the boats were 
 manned and armed, and they rowed towards the coast with their 
 colours displayed, warlike music, and other martial pomp. Colum- 
 bus was the first European who set foot in the New World which 
 he had discovered : he landed in a rich dress, and with a naked 
 sword in his hand. His men followed, and kneeling down, they 
 all kissed the ground they had so long desired to see. They next 
 erected a crucifix, and prostrating themselves before it, returned 
 thanks to God for conducting their voyage to such a happy issue. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 Combine the following simple into complex sen- 
 tences, making the secondary clauses adjective, relative, 
 participial, adverbial, connective, absolute, apposition, 
 or parenthetical, as the sense may require : 
 
STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 55 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The wall of China is evidence of a rich nation. The wall of 
 China is evidence of a populous nation. The wall of China is 
 evidence of an effeminate nation. Men of courage defend them- 
 selves by the sword. Men of courage do not defend themselves by 
 bulwarks. 
 
 The wall of China is evidence of a rich and populous nation ; 
 
 should therefore endeavour to turn this particular talent to our ad- 
 vantage. We should consider the organs of speech as the instru- 
 ments of understanding. We should be careful not to use the 
 organs of speech as the weapons of vice. We should be careful 
 not to use the organs of speech as the tools of folly. 
 
 6. The benevolent John Howard settled his accounts at the close 
 of the year. He found a balance in his favour. He proposed to 
 his wife to make use of it in a journey to London. He proposed 
 to make use of it in any other amusement she chose. " What a 
 pretty cottage for a poor family it would build !" was her reply. 
 This charitable hint met his cordial approbation. The money was 
 laid out accordingly. 
 
 7. A farmer stept into a field to mend a gap in one of the fences. 
 At his return he found the cradle turned upside down. He had 
 left his only child asleep in the cradle. The clothes were all torn 
 
56 
 
 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 and bloody. His dog was lying near the cradle besmeared also 
 with blood. He immediately conceived that the dog had destroyed 
 his child. He instantly dashed out the dog's brains with the 
 hatchet in his hand. He turned up the cradle. He found his 
 child unhurt. He found an enormous serpent lying dead on the 
 floor. The serpent had been killed by the faithful dog. The 
 courage and fidelity of the dog preserved the life of the child. The 
 courage and fidelity of the dog deserved a very different return 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 AMPLIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Amplify the following sentences by introducing se- 
 condary clauses : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The man of true fortitude may be compared to a castle built on 
 a rock : the man of a feeble and timorous spirit, to a hut placed on 
 the shore. 
 
 The man of true fortitude may be compared to a castle built on 
 a rock, which defies the attack of surrounding waters : the man of a 
 feeble and timorous spirit, to a hut placed on the shore, which every 
 wind shakes, and every wave overflows. 
 
STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 5? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Good or bad habits generally go with us through life. 
 
 2. Nothing in this life is more estimable than knowledge. 
 
 3. It is one of the melancholy pleasures of an old man to re- 
 collect the kindness of friends. 
 
 4. The certainty that life cannot be long, ought to awaken 
 every man to the active prosecution of whatever he is desirous to 
 perform. 
 
 5. To maintain a steady and unbroken mind, marks a great and 
 noble spirit. 
 
 6. Compassionate affections convey satisfaction to the heart. 
 
 7- Virtue must be habitually active ; not breaking forth occa- 
 sionally with a transient lustre, but regular in its returns ; not like 
 the aromatic gale, but like the ordinary breeze. 
 
 8. To sensual persons hardly any thing is what it appears to be. 
 There are voices which sing around them. There is a banquet 
 spread. There is a couch which invites them to repose. 
 
 9. By disappointments and trials the violence of our passions is 
 tamed. In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the 
 active and the suffering virtues. 
 
 10. An idle man is a mere blank in creation. He cannot engage 
 himself in any employment or profession ; h^ can succeed in no 
 undertaking ; he must be a bad husband, father, and relation ; and 
 he must be a worthless friend. 
 
 11. Veturia at first made some hesitation to undertake the office 
 of an intercessor, knowing the inflexible temper of her son, and 
 fearing that he would only show his disobedience in a new light. 
 She at last, however, set out from the city, accompanied by many 
 of the principal matrons of Rome, with Volumnia, her daughter- 
 in-law, and her two children. Coriolanus was resolved to give 
 them a denial, and called his officers round him to be witnesses of 
 his resolution ; but when told that his mother and his wife were 
 among the number, he instantly canr down from his tribunal. At 
 first the tears of the women deprived them of the power of speech ; 
 and the rough soldier himself could not refrain from sharing in 
 their distress. Coriolanus now seemed much agitated by contend- 
 ing passions. His mother seconded her words by her tears ; his 
 wife and children hung round about him ; while the fair train, her 
 companions, added their lamentations. Coriolanus for a time was 
 silent; till at length he flew to take up his mother, crying out, 
 " Thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son !" 
 
58 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 IDEAS SUGGESTED TO FORM SENTENCES. 
 
 ^ Let the Teacher propose a subject, and each Pupil, at 
 his suggestion, successively express an idea upon it. 
 
 Let the ideas be written down as first expressed, and 
 afterwards re-written in simple or compound sentences, 
 as the sense may require : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Write about Silver. Name some of its properties. It is bril- 
 liant. It is sonorous. It is ductile. Where is it found ? In 
 various parts of the world. Particularly in South America. At 
 Potosi. What are its uses ? It is coined into money. It is manu- 
 factured into silver-plate. 
 
 Silver is a brilliant, sonorous, and ductile metal. It is found in 
 various parts of the world, and particularly at Potosi in South 
 America. It is coined into money, and manufactured into silver, 
 plate. % 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Iron. 
 
 5. Corn. 
 
 0. Music. 
 
 13. Sabbath. 
 
 2. Oak. 
 
 6. Paper. 
 
 10. Pyramids. 
 
 14. Scriptures. 
 
 3. Bee. 
 
 7. Tiger. 
 
 11. Abraham. 
 
 15. Soul. 
 
 4. Silkworm. 
 
 8. Day. 
 
 12. Paul. 
 
 16. Wisdom. 
 
 V. ARRANGEMENT OP SENTENCES. 
 
 THE ARRANGEMENT of words in sentences is either 
 grammatical or rhetorical. 
 
 Grammatical arrangement is the order in which 
 words are usually placed in speaking and writing. 
 
 Rhetorical arrangement is that order of the words, 
 in which the emphatical parts of the sentence are 
 placed first. 
 
 The rhetorical arrangement is used chiefly in poetry and im- 
 passioned prose. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 59 
 
 The principal rules for arranging words in sentences 
 are as follows : 
 
 I. In sentences grammatically arranged, the subject 
 or nominative is generally placed before the verb; as, 
 * The birds sing ;' ' To obey is better than sacrifice.' 
 
 In sentences rhetorically arranged, the subject or no- 
 minative is often placed after the verb; as, ' Shines 
 forth the cheerful sun; 9 ' Great is Diana of the 
 Ephesians/ 
 
 The nominative is also placed after the verb in the following 
 instances : 
 
 1. When the sentence is interrogative ; as, c Do riches make 
 men happy ?' 
 
 2. When the sentence is imperative ; as, ( Go thou.' 
 
 3. When a supposition is expressed by an ellipsis ; as, 
 ( Were it true.' 
 
 4. When the sentence begins with there, here, c. ; as, 
 ' There was a commotion among the people;' ' Here are five 
 loaves.' 
 
 5. In such phrases as, said he, replied they, c. 
 
 II. The article is always placed before the noun, 
 whose signification it limits ; as, ' A table ;' ' An ink- 
 stand ;' ' The book.' 
 
 1. When the noun is qualified by an adjective, the article is 
 placed before the adjective ; as, ' A large house.' 
 
 2. The indefinite article is placed between the noun and the 
 adjectives many and such; and also between the noun and all 
 adjectives which are preceded by as, so, too, and how; as, 
 fc Many a man has attained independence by industry and per- 
 severance ;' Such a misfortune has seldom happened ;' i So 
 great a multitude ;' ' How mighty a prince !' 
 
 3. The definite article is placed between the noun and the ad- 
 jective all; as, c All the people are assembled.* 
 
 III. In sentences grammatically arranged, the ad- 
 jective is generally placed before the noun which it 
 qualifies ; as, c A beautiful tree ;' ' A swift horse.' 
 
 In sentences rhetorically arranged, the adjective, when 
 
60 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 it is emphatic, is sometimes placed at the beginning of 
 the sentence ; as, ' Just and true are all thy ways.' 
 
 The adjective is frequently placed after the noun in the fol- 
 lowing instances : 
 
 1. When it is used as a title ; as, { Alexander the Great.' 
 
 2. When other words depend upon it ; as, ( A man generous 
 to his enemies.' 
 
 3. When several adjectives belong to one noun ; as, ' A man 
 wise, just, and charitable. 9 
 
 4. When the adjective expresses dimension ; as, < A wall 
 ten feet high. 9 
 
 5. When it expresses the effect of an active verb ; as, ( Vice 
 renders men miserable. 9 
 
 6. When a neuter verb comes between it and the noun or 
 pronoun ; as, c It seems strange.* 
 
 IV. The pronoun of the third person is placed after 
 that of the second ; and the pronoun of the first person 
 after those of the second and third ; as, * You and / 
 will go ;* ' Shall it be given to you, to him, or to me ?' 
 
 V. In sentences grammatically arranged, the active 
 verb is generally placed before the word which it go- 
 verns ; as, ' If you respect me, do not despise my 
 friend.' 
 
 In sentences rhetorically arranged, the active verb is 
 frequently placed after the word which it governs ; as, 
 ' Silver and gold have I none.' 
 
 The active verb is also placed after relative pronouns; as, 
 ' He is a man whom I greatly esteem. 9 
 
 VI. In sentences grammatically arranged, the infin- 
 itive mood is placed after the verb which governs it; 
 as, * He loves to learn? 
 
 In sentences rhetorically arranged, the infinitive 
 mood, when emphatic, is placed before the word which 
 governs it ; as, c Go I must, whatever may ensue.' 
 
 VII. Adverbs are generally placed immediately 
 before or immediately after the words which they 
 qualify ; as, ' Very good ;' ' He acted wisely? 
 
 Adverbs, when emphatic, are sometimes placed at the 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 61 
 
 beginning of a sentence ; as, ' How completely his pas- 
 sion has blinded him !' 
 
 VIII. Prepositions are generally placed before the 
 words which they govern ;' as, * With me ;' * To them.' 
 
 In familiar language, prepositions are sometimes placed after 
 the words which they govern, and even at a distance from them ; 
 as, * Such conduct I am at a loss to account for. 1 
 
 IX. Conjunctions are placed between the words or 
 clauses which they connect ; as, ' Come and see ;' ' Be 
 cautious; but speak the truth.' 
 
 1. Conjunctions of one syllable, with the exception of then, 
 are always placed first in the clauses or sentences which they 
 connect ; as, ' Virtue is praised by many, and doubtless would 
 be desired also, if her worth were really known : see, then, that 
 you do as she requires.' 
 
 2. Conjunctions of more than one syllable (with the excep- 
 tion of whereas, which must always be the first word in the 
 sentence or clause), may be transferred to the place where they 
 are most agreeable to the ear in reading ; as, c Piety and holi- 
 ness will make our whole life happy ; whereas sinful pursuits 
 will yield only a few scattered pleasures. Let us diligently 
 cultivate the former, therefore, while we carefully abstain from 
 the latter.' 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Vary the arrangement of the following sentences by 
 transposing the members or clauses : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 I had long before now repented of my roving course of life, but 
 I could not free my mind from the love of travel. 
 
 Of my roving course of life I had long before now repented, 
 but from the love of travel I could not free my mind. 
 
 I could not free my mind from the love of travel, though I had 
 long before now repented of my roving course of life. 
 
 From the love of travel I could not free my mind, though of 
 my roving course of life I had long before now repented. 
 
62 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The Roman state evidently declined in proportion to the 
 increase of luxury. 
 
 2. For all that you think, and speak, and do, you must at the 
 last day account. 
 
 3. The greatness of mind which shows itself in dangers and 
 labours, if it wants justice, is blamable. 
 
 4. It is a fact, about which men now rarely differ, that the 
 paper-mill and the printing-press are inventions for which we 
 cannot be too thankful. 
 
 5. In all speculations upon men and human affairs, it is of no 
 small moment to distinguish things of accident from permanent 
 causes. 
 
 6. He who made light to spring from primeval darkness, will, 
 at last, make order to arise from the seeming confusion of the 
 world. 
 
 7. Early one summer morning, before the family was stirring, 
 ^ an old clock, that, without giving its owner any cause of com- 
 * plaint, had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, suddenly 
 
 stopped. 
 
 8. Those things which appear great to one who knows nothing 
 greater, will sink into a diminutive size, when he becomes ac- 
 quainted with objects of a higher nature. 
 
 9. Let us not conclude, while dangers are at a distance, and do 
 not immediately approach us, that we are secure, unless we use 
 the necessary precautions to prevent them.* 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT (continued}. 
 
 Change the grammatical into the rhetorical arrange- 
 ment in the following passages : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 You may set my fields on fire, and give my children to the 
 sword ; you may drive myself forth a houseless, childless beggar, 
 
 * Exercises similar to those under Sections I. II. III. IV. V. and 
 VI. may be prescribed from the reading-lessons of a class. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 63 
 
 or load me with the fetters of slavery ; but you never can conquer 
 the hatred I feel to your oppression. 
 
 My fields you may set on fire, and my children give to the 
 sword ; myself you may drive forth a houseless, childless beggar, 
 or load with the fetters of slavery ; but the hatred I feel to your 
 oppression never can you conquer. 
 
 EXEKC1SES. 
 
 1. All the Jews, who knew me from the beginning, if they 
 would testify, know my manner of life from my youth, which was 
 at the first timong mine own nation at Jerusalem, that I lived a 
 Pharisee after the straitest sect of our religion. 
 
 2. I shall neither attempt to palliate nor deny the atrocious 
 crime of being a young man, which the honourable gentleman has 
 with much spirit and decency charged upon me ; and I will not 
 assume the province of determining whether youth can be attrib- 
 uted to any man as a reproach. 
 
 3. I weep for Caesar, as he loved me ; I rejoice, as he was 
 fortunate ; I honour him, as he was valiant ; but I slew him, as 
 he was ambitious. 
 
 4. The Redeemer has made his followers free from the bondage 
 of fear. He has disarmed death of his sting, by making an atone- 
 ment for their sins ; and he has secured to them the victory over 
 the grave, by rising as the first fruits of them that sleep. 
 
 5. Slavery ! disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, still, thou art a 
 bitter draught ; and thou art no less bitter, though thousands in 
 all ages have been made to drink of thee. Liberty ! it is thou, 
 whom all worship in public or in private, whose taste is grateful, 
 and ever will be so, till nature herself shall change. No tint of 
 words can spot thy snowy mantle, nor chymic power turn thy 
 sceptre into iron. The swain, with thee to smile upon him as he 
 eats his crust, is happier than his monarch, from whose court 
 thou art exiled. 
 
 6. The noon of day is calm. The inconstant sun flies over the 
 green hill. The stream of the mountain comes down red, through 
 the stony vale. O Morar ! thou wert tall on the hill ; fair 
 among the sons of the plain. Thy wrath was as the storm ; thy 
 sword, in battle, as lightning in the field. Thy voice was like 
 thunder on distant hills. But how peaceful was thy brow when 
 thou didst return from war ! Thy face was like the sun after 
 rain ; calm as the breast of the lake when the loud wind is hushed 
 into repose. Thy dwelling is narrow now ; the place of thine 
 
61 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 abode is dark. O thou who wast so great before ! I compass thy 
 grave with three steps. 
 
 7. Thou wast, not long since, what I am now, one of the actors 
 in this passing scene. I lent a pitying ear to all thy sighs, and 
 my heaving bosom beat responsive to thy sad complaints. My 
 tears were mingled with thine in the hour of affliction ; and, when 
 joy brightened thy countenance, my heart felt a kindred pleasure. 
 I sat with thee, or walked by the way, and held sweet converse. 
 My soul was knit to thee by the ties of cordial amity and soft en- 
 dearment. Thou hast now left me to mourn the loss of thee in 
 pensive silence. I drop the tender tear on thy hallowed grave, 
 and bid thy sacred ashes rest in peace. I shall join thee in thy 
 dark abode erelong, thy companion in the dust, till we be called 
 forth to stand in our lot in the end of days. I was united to thee 
 in life ; I shall soon lie in the same cold arms of death ; and (O 
 transporting thought !) we shall rise together, to feel no more the 
 agony of parting. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT (continued). 
 
 Change the following passages of poetry into prose, 
 making such alterations, both in arrangement and in 
 structure, as the meaning and harmony of the sentences 
 require : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A solitary blessing few can find ; 
 
 Our joys with those we love are intertwin'd ; 
 
 And he whose wakeful tenderness removes 
 
 Th' obstructing thorn which wounds the friend he loves, 
 
 Smooths not another's rugged path alone, 
 
 But scatters roses to adorn his own. 
 
 Few can find a solitary blessing ; our joys are intertwined with 
 those wliom we love ; and he, whose wakeful tenderness removes 
 the thorn which wounds his friend, not only smooths the rugged 
 path of another, but scatters roses to adorn his own. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Heav'n gives us friends to bless the present scene ; 
 Resumes them, to prepare us for the next. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 65 
 
 All evils natural are moral goods ; 
 All discipline indulgence on the whole. 
 
 2. Never man was truly blest, 
 But it composed and gave him such a cast, 
 As folly might mistake for want of joy. 
 
 3. Riches are oft by guilt and baseness earn'd. 
 But for one end, one much neglected use, 
 Are riches worth our care (for nature's wants 
 Are few, and without opulence supplied) ; 
 This noble end is, to produce the soul ; 
 
 To show the virtues in their fairest light, 
 And make humanity the minister 
 Of bounteous Providence. 
 
 4. But yonder comes the powerful king of day, 
 Rejoicing in the east. The lessening cloud, 
 The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow 
 Illumed with fluid gold, his near approach 
 Betoken glad. Lo ! now, apparent all, 
 Aslant the dew-bright earth, and colour'd air, 
 He looks in boundless majesty abroad ; 
 
 And sheds the shining day, that burnish'd plays 
 
 On rocks, and hills, arid tow'rs, and wand'ring streams 
 
 High gleaming from afar. 
 
 5. No radiant pearl, which crested fortune wears, 
 No gem, that twinkling hangs from beauty's ears, 
 Nor the bright stars, which night's blue arch adorn, 
 Nor rising suns, that gild the vernal morn, 
 
 Shine with such lustre, as the tear that breaks, 
 For others' wo, down virtue's manly cheeks. 
 
 6. Fear not when I depart ; nor therefore mourn 
 I shall be nowhere, or to nothing turn ; 
 
 That soul which gave me life was seen by none, 
 Yet by the actions it design'd was known ; 
 And though its flight no mortal eye shall see, 
 Yet know, for ever it the same shall be ; 
 That soul, which can immortal glory give 
 To her own virtues, must for ever live. 
 
 7. But most by numbers judge a poet's song ; 
 
 And smooth or rough, with them is right or wrong ; 
 
 E 
 
68 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 In the bright muse, though thousand charms conspire, 
 Her voice is all these tuneful fools admire ; 
 Who haunt Parnassus but to please the ear, 
 Not mend their minds ; as some to church repair, 
 Not for the doctrine, but the music there. 
 
 8. 'Tis hard to say, if greater want of skill 
 Appear in writing, or in judging ill ; 
 
 But, of the two, less dangerous is the offence 
 To tire our patience, than mislead our sense ; 
 Some few in that, but numbers err in this ; 
 Ten censure wrong, for one who writes amiss. 
 A fool might once himself alone expose ; 
 Now one in verse makes many more in prose. 
 *Tis with our judgments as our watches, none 
 Go just alike, yet each believes his own. 
 
 9. Of chance or change, O let not man complain, 
 Else shall he never, never cease to wail ; 
 
 For, from the imperial dome, to where the swain 
 Rears the lone cottage in the silent dale, 
 All feel the assault of fortune's fickle gale ; 
 Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doom' d 
 Earthquakes have raised to heaven the humble vale, 
 And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entomb'd, 
 And where the Atlantic rolls wide continents have bloom'd. 
 
 But sure to foreign climes we need not range, 
 Nor search the ancient records of our race, 
 To learn the dire effects of time and change, 
 Which in ourselves, alas ! we daily trace. 
 Yet at the darkened eye, the withered face, 
 Or hoary hair, I never will repine : 
 But spare, O Time, whatever of mental grace, 
 Of candour, love, or sympathy divine, 
 Whatever of fancy's ray or friendship's flame is mine. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 EXPRESSION OF IDEAS. 
 
 Let the Pupil express the ideas contained in the 
 following passages, in sentences of his own construction 
 and arrangement : 
 
h< 
 k: 
 al 
 
 sa 
 is 
 h 
 th 
 
 2. Listen to the affectionate counsels of your parents ; t* 
 up their precepts ; respect their riper judgment ; and er' 
 gratitude and delight, the advantages resulting from t v 
 Bind to your bosom, by the most endearing ties, 
 and sisters ; cherish them as your best companio 
 variegated journey of life ; and suffer no jealc 
 tions to interrupt the harmony, which should 
 you. 
 
 3. Nature expects mankind should 
 
 The duties of the public care. 
 
 Who's born to sloth ? To p 
 
 The ploughshare's annual t 
 
 Some at the sounding any- 
 Some the swift-sliding si 
 
 Some, studious of the v 
 
 From pole to pole our 
 
 While some, with ge 
 
 With head and ton.' 
 
 Thus, aiming at or 
 
 Each proves to all 
 4. Common reports, if ridi< 
 confuted by neglect. Serious 
 a suspicion of somewhat at bo 
 you silence her, if you be silen 
 breath with blowing her own t 
 
bat no man can promise himself perpetual exemption from 
 
 is a truth obvious to daily observation. Nay, amid the 
 
 *he scene in which we are placed, who can say that for 
 
 ,ippiness is secure ? The openings through which 
 
 ed are so numerous and unguarded, that the very 
 
 see some messenger of pain piercing the bul- 
 
 Our body may become the seat of incurable 
 
 '.y become a prey to unaccountable and ima. 
 
 e may sink in some of those revolutionary 
 
 "i so often the treasures of the wealthy : 
 
 our brow, blasted by the slanderous 
 
 ids may prove faithless in the hour of 
 
 ed from us for ever: our children, 
 
 lay be torn from us in their prime ; 
 
 deeply by their undutifulness and 
 
 uncertainty of worldly blessings, 
 
 inst repose thy confidence ? or 
 
 *r against, the inroads of ad- 
 
 s (continued). 
 j owing passages, express- 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Alfred, reduced to extremity by the Danes, who were spreading 
 devastation all over England, was obliged to relinquish the ensigns 
 of his dignity, to dismiss his servants, and to seek shelter, in the 
 meanest disguise, from the pursuit and fury of his enemies. He 
 concealed himself under a peasant's habit, and lived some time in 
 the house of a neat-herd, who had been intrusted with the care of 
 some of his cows. There passed here an incident, which has been 
 recorded by all the historians, and was long preserved by popular 
 tradition ; though it contains nothing memorable in itself, except 
 so far as every circumstance is interesting, which attends so great 
 virtue and dignity reduced to so much distress. The wife of the 
 neat-herd was ignorant of the. condition of her royal guest; and, 
 observing him one day busy by the fireside in trimming his bow 
 and arrows, she desired him to take care of some cakes which were 
 toasting, while she was employed elsewhere in other domestic af- 
 fairs. But Alfred, whose thoughts were otherwise engaged, ne- 
 glected the injunction ; and the good woman, on her return, finding 
 her cakes all burned, rated the king very severely, and upbraided 
 him, that he always seemed very well pleased to eat her warm 
 cakes, though he was thus negligent in toasting them. 
 
 Alfred, having been driven from his throne by the Danes, was 
 forced to seek refuge, under the disguise of a peasant, in the house 
 of one of his own neat-herds. Here occurred an incident, which 
 both tradition and history have preserved. One day, as Alfred was 
 sitting by the fire trimming his bow and arrows, the wife of his 
 host, who did not know that he was the king, desired him, while she 
 was otherwise occupied, to attend to some cakes that were toasting ; 
 an injunction, which the monarch, who was thinking of far different 
 matters, neglected to obey. " You have allowed the cakes to 
 burn, by your carelessness," said the good woman, on her return ; 
 " but you seem always very well pleased to eat them." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, was far from being happy, 
 though he abounded in riches, and all the pleasures which riches 
 can procure. Damocles, one of his flatterers, was one day compli- 
 menting him on his power, his treasures, and his royal magnifi- 
 cence, and affirming that no monarch ever was greater or happier 
 than he. " Hast thou a mind, Damocles," says the king, " to 
 taste this happiness, and know, by experience, what the enjoy- 
 
70 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 merits are of which you have so high an idea ?" Damocles gladly 
 accepted the offer. Upon this the king ordered, that a royal ban- 
 quet should be prepared for him, and a gilded couch, covered with 
 rich embroidery. Side-boards, loaded with gold and silver plate of 
 immense value, were arranged in the apartment. Pages of extra- 
 ordinary beauty were ordered to attend his table, and to obey his 
 commands with the greatest readiness and the most profound sub- 
 mission. Fragrant ointment, chaplets of flowers, and rich per- 
 fumes, were added to the entertainment. The table was loaded 
 with the most exquisite delicacies of every kind. Damocles was 
 intoxicated with pleasure. But in the midst of all his happiness, 
 as he lay indulging himself in state, he sees let down from the ceil- 
 ing, exactly over his head, a glittering sword hung by a single hair. 
 The sight of impending destruction put a speedy end to his joy 
 and revelling. The pomp of his attendants, the glitter of the 
 carved plate, and the delicacy of the viands, ceased to afford him 
 any pleasure. He dreads to stretch forth his hand to the table. 
 He throws off the garland of roses. He hastens to remove from 
 his dangerous situation ; and earnestly entreats the king to restore 
 him to his former humble condition, having no desire to enjoy any 
 longer a happiness so terrible. 
 
 2. A nightingale, that all day long 
 
 Had cheer'd the village with his song, 
 Nor yet at eve his note suspended, 
 Nor yet when eventide was ended, 
 Began to feel, as well he might, 
 The keen demands of appetite ; 
 When, looking eagerly around, 
 He spied far off, upon the ground, 
 A something shining in the dark, 
 And knew the glow-worm by his spark. 
 So, stooping down from hawthorn top, 
 He thought to put him in his crop. 
 The worm, aware of his intent, 
 Harangued him thus, right eloquent : 
 " Did you admire my lamp," quoth he, 
 " As much as I your minstrelsy, 
 You would abhor to do me wrong, 
 As much as I to spoil your song : 
 For 'twas the self-same Pow'r divine 
 Taught you to sing, and me to shine ; 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 7-* 
 
 That you with music, I with light, 
 Might beautify and cheer the night." 
 
 The songster heard this short oration, 
 And warbling out his approbation, 
 Released him, as my story tells, 
 And found a supper somewhere else. 
 Hence jarring sectaries may learn 
 Their real interest to discern ; 
 That brother should not war with brother, 
 And worry and devour each other ; 
 But sing and shine with sweet consent, 
 Till life's poor transient night is spent ; 
 Respecting, in each other's case, 
 The gifts of nature and of grace. 
 
 3. Philip, king of Macedon, is celebrated for an act of private 
 justice, which does greater honour to his memory than all his public 
 victories. A certain soldier, in the Macedonian army, had, in 
 various instances, distinguished himself by extraordinary acts of 
 valour, and had received many marks of Philip's approbation and 
 favour. On a particular occasion, he embarked on board a vessel, 
 which was wrecked in a violent storm, and he himself cast on the 
 shore naked and helpless, with scarcely any signs of life. A Ma- 
 cedonian, whose lands were contiguous to the sea, came opportunely 
 to be witness of his distress, and with all possible tenderness flew 
 to the relief of the unhappy stranger. He bore him to his house, 
 laid him on his bed, revived, cherished, and comforted him ; and, 
 for forty days, supplied him freely with all the necessaries and 
 conveniences, which his languishing condition could require. The 
 soldier, thus happily rescued from death, was incessant in the 
 warmest expressions of gratitude to his benefactor, and assured 
 him of his interest with the king, and of his resolution to obtain 
 for him, from the royal bounty, the noble returns which such ex- 
 traordinary benevolence deserved. He was at length completely 
 recovered, and was supplied by his kind host with money to pursue 
 his journey. Some time after, he presented himself before the king; 
 he recounted his misfortunes, magnified his services, and, having 
 looked with an eye of envy on the possessions of the man who had 
 preserved his life, was so devoid of every feeling of gratitude, as 
 to request the king to bestow upon him the houses and lands where 
 he had been so kindly and so tenderly entertained. Unhappily, 
 Philip, without examination, inconsiderately granted his infamous 
 
72 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 request. The soldier then returned to his preserver, and repaid 
 his kindness by driving him from his settlement, and taking im- 
 mediate possession of all the fruits of his honest industry. The 
 poor man, stung with this instance of unparalleled ingratitude, 
 boldly determined to seek relief; and, in a letter addressed to 
 Philip, represented his own and the soldier's conduct in a lively and 
 affecting manner. The king was instantly fired with indignation : 
 he ordered that justice should be done without delay ; that the pos. 
 sessions should be immediately restored to the man, whose chari- 
 table offices had been thus horribly repaid ; and that the soldier 
 should be seized, and have these words branded on his forehead, 
 " The Ungrateful Guest." 
 
 4. Oft has it been my lot to mark 
 
 A proud, conceited, talking spark, 
 
 With eyes that hardly serv'd at most 
 
 To guard their master 'gainst a post ; 
 
 Yet round the world the blade had been, 
 
 To see whatever could be seen. 
 
 Returning from his finish'd tour, 
 
 Grown ten times perter than before ; 
 
 Whatever word you chance to drop, 
 
 The travell'd fool your mouth will stop : 
 
 " Sir, if my judgment you'll allow 
 
 I've seen and sure I ought to know" 
 
 So begs you'd pay a due submission, 
 
 And acquiesce in his decision. 
 Two travellers of such a cast, 
 
 As o'er Arabia's wilds they pass'd, 
 
 And on their way, in friendly chat, 
 
 Now talk'd of this, and then of that, 
 
 Discours'd a while, 'mongst other matter, 
 
 Of the chameleon's form and nature. 
 " A stranger animal," cries one, 
 
 " Sure never lived beneath the sun : 
 
 A lizard's body lean and long, 
 
 A fish's head, a serpent's tongue, 
 
 Its foot with triple claw disjoin'd, 
 
 And what a length of tail behind ! 
 
 How slow its pace ! and then its hue 
 
 Who ever saw so fine a blue ?" 
 
 " Hold there," the other quick replies, 
 
 " 'Tis green I saw it with these eyes, 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. J3 
 
 As late with open mouth it lay, 
 
 And warm'd it in the sunny ray ; 
 
 Stretch'd at its ease the beast I view'd, 
 
 And saw it eat the air for food." 
 " I've seen it, sir, as well as you, 
 
 And must again affirm it blue ; 
 
 At leisure I the beast survey'd, 
 
 Extended in the cooling shade." 
 
 " 'Tis green, 'tis green, sir, I assure ye." 
 
 " Green !" cries the other in a fury 
 
 " Why, sir, d'ye think I've lost my eyes ?" 
 
 " 'Twere no great loss," the friend replies ; 
 
 " For, if they always serve you thus, 
 You'll find them but of little use." 
 So high at last the contest rose, 
 
 From words they almost came to blows ; 
 When luckily came by a third : 
 
 To him the question they referr'd ; 
 
 And begg'd he'd tell them if he knew, 
 
 Whether the thing was green or blue. 
 
 f( Sirs," cries the umpire, " cease your pother ; 
 
 The creature's neither one nor t'other : 
 
 I caught the animal last night, 
 
 And view'd it o'er by candle-light ; 
 
 I mark'd it well, 'twas black as jet 
 
 You stare but, sirs, I've got it yet, 
 
 And can produce it." " Pray, sir, do ; 
 
 I'll lay my life the thing is blue." 
 
 " And I'll be sworn, that when you've seen 
 
 The reptile, you'll pronounce him green." 
 
 " Well then, at once to ease the doubt," 
 
 Replies the man, " I'll turn him out ; 
 
 And when before your eyes I've set him, 
 
 If you don't find him black, 111 eat him." 
 
 He said ; then full before their sight 
 
 Produced the beast, and, lo ! 'twas white ! 
 
 Both stared ; the man look'd wondrous wise, 
 
 " My children," the chameleon cries, 
 
 (Then first the creature found a tongue), 
 
 " You all are right, and all are wrong : 
 
 When next you talk of what you view, 
 
 Think others see as well as you ; 
 
74 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Nor wonder if you find that none 
 Prefers your eyesight to his own." 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 EXPRESSION OF IDEAS (continued). 
 
 Let the Pupil amplify the following passages, ex- 
 pressing the ideas in sentences of his own construction 
 and arrangement : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 In whatever state I am. I first of all look up to heaven ; I next 
 look down upon the earth ; I then look abroad into the world : and 
 thus I learn where true happiness is placed ; where all our cares 
 must end ; and how very little reason I have to repine or to com- 
 plain. 
 
 In whatever condition or situation Divine Providence places me, 
 I first of all look up to heaven, and reflect that my principal busi- 
 ness here is to get to that blest abode. I next look 'down upon the 
 earth, and call to mind that, when I am dead, I shall occupy but a 
 small space in it. I then look abroad into the world, and observe 
 what multitudes there are, who, in every respect, are less fortunate 
 than myself. . Thus I learn where true happiness is placed ; where 
 all our cares must end ; and how very little reason I have to repine 
 or to complain. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Our needful knowledge, like our needful food, 
 Unhedged, lies open in life's common field, 
 And bids all welcome to the vital feast. 
 
 2. A fox, being inclined to play a practical joke upon his 
 neighbour the stork, asked him to dinner, which he caused to be 
 served up in broad shallow dishes. The stork, perceiving the 
 trick, took no notice, but, at parting, pressed the fox very much 
 to return the visit. When the day arrived, and he repaired to his 
 appointment, reynard was very much displeased to see the dinner 
 served up in long narrow-necked glasses. " They that cannot take 
 a jest," said the stork, " should never make one." 
 
 3. Alexander the Great, having taken Sidon, ordered one of his 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 7^ 
 
 generals to bestow the crown upon the citizen who seemed to be 
 most worthy, when he offered it to two brothers in whose house he 
 was quartered. Both, however, refused it, stating that it was con- 
 trary to the laws for any one to wear the crown, who was not of the 
 royal family, and, at the same time, recommending Abdolonymus, 
 whom misfortune had reduced to the necessity of cultivating a small 
 garden in the suburbs of the city. Abdolonymus was weeding his 
 garden, when the messengers went to him, and at first thought that 
 they were insulting his poverty, when they saluted him as king ; 
 but at last he was prevailed upon to go to the palace, and accept 
 the regal office. Pride and envy created him so many enemies, 
 that Alexander sent for him, and inquired with what temper of 
 mind he had borne his poverty. " I pray," replied Abdolony- 
 mus, " that I may bear my crown with equal moderation." 
 Alexander was so highly pleased with his answer, that he con- 
 firmed him in the throne, and added a neighbouring province to 
 his government. 
 
 4. Once I beheld a captive, whom these wars 
 Had made an inmate of the prison-house, 
 Cheering with wicker-work (that almost seem'd 
 To him a sort of play) his dreary hours. 
 I ask'd his story : in my native tongue 
 (Long use had made it easy as his own), 
 He answer' d thus : Before these wars began, 
 I dwelt upon the willowy banks of Loire : 
 I married one, who, from my boyish days, 
 Had been my playmate. One morn, I'll ne'er forget 1 
 While busy choosing out the prettiest twigs, 
 To warp a cradle for our child unborn, 
 We heard the tidings, that the conscript-lot 
 Had fall'n on me : it came like a death-knell, 
 The mother perish'd, but the babe survived ; 
 And ere my parting day, his rocking couch 
 I made complete, and saw him sleeping smile, 
 The smile that play'd upon the cheek of her 
 Who lay clay-cold. Alas ! the hour soon came 
 That forced my fetter'd arms to quit my child : 
 And whether now he lives to deck with flowers 
 The sod upon his mother's grave, or lies beneath it 
 By her side, I ne'er could learn : 
 I think he's gone ; and now I only wish 
 
76 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 For liberty and home, that I may see, 
 
 And stretch myself, and die upon that grave. 
 
 5. Androcles, the slave of a noble Roman, who was proconsul 
 of Africa, having fled into the deserts to escape punishment for 
 some offence, went into a cave, in which he had scarcely seated 
 himself, when a huge lion entered, and, coming up to him, laid its 
 paw upon his lap. When he had recovered from his fright, he 
 pulled out a large thorn, which he observed had caused the lion's 
 foot to swell ; upon which the grateful animal went away, and soon 
 after returned with a fawn, which it had just killed. For many 
 days he was supported in the same manner ; till, tired of this savage 
 society, he determined to give himself up to his master. He was 
 condemned to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre at Rome. 
 When the day at last arrived, and every thing was ready, a mon- 
 strous lion sprung from its den ; but it no sooner saw Androcles, 
 than it fell to the ground, and began to lick his feet. It was his 
 friend of the African deserts ; and the spectators having heard the 
 story, interceded for the slave, who was immediately set at liberty, 
 and received the lion as a present. He used to lead it through the 
 streets of Rome, the people saying to one another, as they passed, 
 " This is the lion, who was the man's host; this is the man, who 
 was the lion's physician.'' 
 
 6. Then Commerce brought into the public walk 
 The busy merchant ; the big warehouse built ; 
 Raised the strong crane ; choked up the loaded street 
 With foreign plenty ; and thy stream, O Thames, 
 Large, gentle, deep, majestic, king of floods ! 
 Chose for his grand resort. On either hand, 
 
 Like a long wintry forest, groves of masts 
 
 Shot up their spires ; the swelling sheet between 
 
 Possess'd the breezy void ; the sooty hulk 
 
 Steer'd sluggish on ; the splendid barge along 
 
 Row'd regular, to harmony ; around, 
 
 The boat, light-skimming, stretch'd its oary wings ; 
 
 While deep, the various voice of fervent toil 
 
 From bank to bank increased ; whence, ribb'd with oak, 
 
 To bear the British thunder, black and bold, 
 
 The roaring vessel rush'd into the main. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 77 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 EXPRESSION OF IDEAS (continued). 
 
 Let the Pupil write from the following hints, ex- 
 pressing the ideas in sentences of his own construction 
 and arrangement : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The Rein-deer ; in what countries found ; importance to the in- 
 habitants ; what animals it supplies the place of; in what respects ; 
 what got from it ; what trained to draw ; mode of travelling. 
 
 The rein-deer is a native of the icy regions of the north, where, 
 by a wise and bountiful arrangement of Providence, it exists for 
 the support and comfort of a race of men, who would find it im- 
 possible to subsist among their frozen lakes and snowy mountains, 
 without the advantages which they derive from this inestimable 
 animal. To the Laplanders, the horse, the cow, and the sheep, are 
 unknown ; but the rein-deer supplies the place of them all. It 
 supplies the place of the horse, in carrying them over tracks that 
 would otherwise be impassable ; that of the cow, in affording them 
 milk ; and that of the sheep, in clothing them. Its flesh affords 
 excellent food ; its very sinews supply them with thread ; and there 
 is scarcely any part of the animal that is not, in some way, condu- 
 cive to their comfortable existence. The rein-deer are, at an early 
 age, taught to draw the sledge, which is an extremely light sort of 
 carriage, that can be used only in winter, when the ground is cov- 
 ered with snow. The person who sits in it, guides the animal with 
 a cord fastened to its horns, and drives it with a goad. The Lap- 
 lander will in this manner travel about thirty miles a- day, without 
 forcing the rein-deer to make any extraordinary effort. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The Camel; where found; the varieties of this animal found 
 in some countries ; description of countries in which found ; what 
 got from it; what its special use; how adapted for travelling; its 
 docility ; anecdotes of the camel. 
 
 2. The Cotton-plant ; where cultivated ; how raised ; what it 
 yields ; how produce gathered ; how prepared ; cotton-manufac- 
 tures ; where carried to greatest perfection ; by what means ; im- 
 provers of cotton-manufactures ; influence upon comfort, habits, 
 and civilisation of mankind. 
 
78 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 
 
 3. Fable of the Boy and the Butterfly ; why he pursued it ; 
 where and how he tried to seize it ; where at last he caught it ; what 
 the butterfly an emblem of ; moral of the fable. 
 
 4. Regulus ; by whom taken prisoner ; for what purpose sent 
 to Rome ; what advice gave to the Romans ; why he gave this 
 advice ; what he had pledged himself to do ; what he did in con- 
 sequence of this pledge ; what he suffered ; of what virtue an 
 extraordinary example. 
 
 5. Who are our neighbours ; in a literal sense ; in the Scriptural 
 sense ; who taught us this ; in what parable ; what gave rise to it ; 
 the circumstances of the parable; the practical lessons which it 
 teaches. 
 
 6. A Waterfall ; the surrounding country ; the approach ; the 
 stream above ; the banks ; the precipice ; the fall ; the noise ; the 
 foam ; the mist ; the pool beneath ; the course ; a comparison ; a 
 quotation. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 EXPRESSION OF IDEAS (continued). 
 
 Let the Pupil write from memory the substance of 
 the lessons read in the class, expressing the ideas in 
 sentences of his own construction and arrangement.* 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 EXPRESSION OF IDEAS (continued). 
 
 Let the Pupil write from memory the substance of 
 what has been told or read by the Teacher, or of lectures 
 or sermons which he may have heard, expressing the 
 ideas in sentences of his own construction and arrange- 
 ment.t 
 
 * The exercises under this and the following Section are necessarily 
 left to the Teacher. 
 
 -|- The Teacher will find it of great use, in teaching his Pupils fluency 
 of expression, to make them do orally what they are required to do in 
 writing in the two preceding sections. 
 
STYLE. 79 
 
 PART II. 
 
 I. STYLE. 
 
 STYLE is the peculiar manner in which ideas are ex-, 
 pressed in language. 
 
 The most important quality in a good style is per- 
 spicuity. 
 
 Perspicuity of style depends upon the choice of 
 words and phrases, and the structure of sentences. 
 
 Perspicuity in the use of words and phrases, requires 
 purity, propriety, and precision. 
 
 Perspicuity in the structure of sentences, requires 
 clearness, unity, strength, and harmony. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 PURITY OF STYLE. 
 
 Purity of style consists in the use of such words and 
 constructions as belong to the idiom of the language, 
 and are sanctioned by the use of the best authors. 
 
 To attain purity of style, avoid I. Grammatical 
 errors; II. Foreign, obsolete, and new-coined words 
 and phrases. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Correct the grammatical errors in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 
 
 2. If the privileges to which he has an undoubted right, and 
 has so long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be 
 flagrant injustice. 
 
 3. The religion of these people, as well as their customs and 
 manners, were strangely misrepresented. 
 
80 STYLE. 
 
 4. Whether one person or more was concerned in the business, 
 does not yet appear. 
 
 5. The mind of man cannot be long without some food to 
 nourish the activity of his thoughts. 
 
 6. They ought to have contributed the same proportion as us, 
 yet we gave a third more than them. 
 
 7. Who should I meet the other evening but my old friend. 
 
 8. Those sort of favours do real injury under the appearance of 
 kindness. 
 
 9. I saw one or more persons enter the garden. 
 
 10. Every person, whatever be their station, is bound by the 
 duties of morality and religion. 
 
 11. The conspiracy was the easier discovered from its being 
 known to many. 
 
 12. The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable 
 than those of the senses. 
 
 13. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and should 
 be his chiefest desire. 
 
 14. Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 
 
 15. I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is him from 
 whom I have received so many favours. 
 
 16. The confession is ingenuous, and I hope more from thee 
 now, than I could if you had promised. 
 
 17. Each of these words imply some pursuit or object relin- 
 quished. 
 
 18. No nation gives greater encouragement to learning than we 
 do ; yet, at the same time, none are so injudicious in the application. 
 
 19. I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in that 
 particular. 
 
 20. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 
 
 21. The not attending to this rule is the cause of a very com- 
 mon error. 
 
 22. His vices have weakened his mind, and broke his health. 
 
 23. They could not persuade him, though they were never so 
 eloquent. 
 
 24. We need not, nor do not, limit the divine purposes. 
 
 25. The greatest difficulty was found of fixing just sentiments. 
 
 26. The error was occasioned by compliance to earnest entreaty. 
 
 27. You know the esteem I have of his philosophy. 
 
 28. He is resolved of going abroad. 
 
 29. Neither the one nor the other shall make me swerve out of 
 the path, which I have traced to myself. 
 
STYLE. 81 
 
 30. Though conformable with custom, the practice is wrong. 
 
 31. This remark is founded in truth. 
 
 32. Every office of command should be intrusted to persons on 
 whom parliament can confide. 
 
 33. The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their own 
 power. 
 
 34. He was accused with having acted unfairly. 
 
 35. Their conduct was agreeable with their profession. 
 
 36. She has an abhorrence to all deceitful conduct. 
 
 37. The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to 
 their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon 
 counsel.* 
 
 II. Correct the errors in the use of foreign, obsolete, 
 or new-coined words and phrases, in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. The king soon found reason to repent him of provoking 
 such dangerous enemies. 
 
 2. The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the 
 subject. 
 
 3. The queen, whom it highly imported that the two monarchs 
 should be at peace, acted the part of mediator. 
 
 4. Removing the term from Westminster, sitting the parlia- 
 ment, was illegal. 
 
 5. All these things required abundance of finesse and delicatesse 
 to manage with advantage, as well as a strict observance after 
 times and seasons. 
 
 6. The hauteur of Florio was ve^ disgracious, and disgusted 
 both his friends and strangers. 
 
 7. When I made some a propos remarks upon his conduct, he 
 began to quiz me ; but he had as lief let it alone. 
 
 8. The gardens were void of simplicity and elegance, and ex- 
 hibited much that was glaring and bizarre. 
 
 9. They thought it an important subject, and the question was 
 strenuously debated pro and con. 
 
 10. It irks me to see so perverse a disposition. 
 
 11. They have manifested great candidness in the whole trans- 
 action. 
 
 * If his Pupils have not been thoroughly instructed in Grammar, 
 the Teacher may revert to the Rules of Syntax, on which he will find 
 abundance of exercises in all the ordinary text-books. 
 
 F 
 
82 STYLE. 
 
 12. It is difficult to discover the spirit and intendment of some 
 laws. 
 
 13. It grieveth me to look over so many blank leaves in the 
 book of my life. 
 
 14. Methinks I am not mistaken in an opinion, which I have 
 so well considered. 
 
 15. Let us not give too hasty credit to stories which may injure 
 our neighbour : perad venture they are the offspring of calumny or 
 misapprehension. 
 
 16. It is grievous to think with what volupty two or three 
 eminent personages have opiniatred the inchoation of such bar- 
 barisms. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 PROPRIETY OF STYLE. 
 
 Propriety of style consists >i the selection of such 
 words and phrases, as the usage of the best authors has 
 appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express. 
 
 To attain propriety of style, avoid I. Vulgar ex- 
 pressions, and the injudicious use of technical terms; 
 II. The omission of any words which are necessary to 
 complete the sense; III. The use of the same word 
 in different senses ; IV. Equivocal or ambiguous 
 words; V. All words and phrases, which are unin- 
 telligible, inapplicable, or less significant, than others, 
 of the ideas which you mean to convey. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Correct the vulgar or technical expressions in the 
 following sentences : 
 
 1. He is not a whit better than those whom he so liberally 
 condemns. 
 
 2. The meaning of the phrase, as I take it, is very different 
 from the common acceptation. 
 
 3. The favourable moment should be embraced, for he does not 
 hold long of one mind. 
 
STYLE. 83 
 
 4. I exposed myself so much among the people, that I had like 
 to have gotten one or two broken heads. 
 
 5. He is very dexterous in smelling out the views and designs 
 of others. 
 
 6. You may perceive, with half an eye, the difficulties to which 
 such conduct will expose you. 
 
 7. This performance is much at one with the other. 
 
 8. Every year a new flower, in his judgment, beats all the old 
 ones, though it is much inferior to them both in colour and shape. 
 
 9. His name must go down to posterity with distinguished 
 honour in the public records of the nation. 
 
 10. If all men were exemplary in their conduct, things would 
 soon take a new face, and religion receive a mighty encouragement. 
 
 11. Learning and arts were but then getting up. 
 
 12. It fell out unfortunately, that two of the principal persons 
 fell out, and had a fatal quarrel. 
 
 13. Most of the hands were asleep in their berths, when the 
 vessel shipped a sea that carried away our pinnace and binnacle. 
 Our dead-lights were in, or we should have rilled. The main- 
 mast was so sprung, that we were obliged to fish it, and bear away 
 for the nearest port. 
 
 II. Supply the words which are necessary to make 
 the sense complete, in the following sentences : 
 
 1. Let us consider the works of nature and art with proper 
 attention. 
 
 2. He is engaged in a treatise on the interests of the soul and 
 body. 
 
 3. Some productions of nature rise in value, according as they 
 more or less resemble those of art. 
 
 4. The Latin tongue, in its purity, was never in this island. 
 
 5. For some centuries, there was a constant intercourse between 
 France and England, by the dominions we possessed there, and 
 the conquests we made. 
 
 6. He is impressed with a true sense of that function, when 
 chosen from a regard to the interests of piety and virtue. 
 
 7. The wise and foolish, the virtuous and vile, the learned and 
 ignorant, the temperate and profligate, must often, like the wheat 
 and tares, be blended together. 
 
 III. Correct the improper use of the same word in 
 different senses, in the following sentences : 
 
84 STYLE. 
 
 1. An eloquent speaker may give more, but cannot give more 
 convincing arguments, than this plain man offered. 
 
 2. They were persons of very moderate intellects, even before 
 they were impaired by their passions. 
 
 3. True wit is nature dressed to advantage ; and yet some 
 works have more wit than does them good. 
 
 4. The sharks, who prey on the inadvertency of young heirs, 
 are more pardonable than those, who trespass upon the good 
 opinion of those, who treat them with great confidence and respect. 
 
 5. Honour teaches us properly to respect ourselves, and to vio- 
 late no right or privilege of our neighbour : it leads us to support the 
 feeble, to relieve the distressed, and to scorn to be governed by de- 
 grading and injurious passions : and yet we see honour is the 
 motive which urges the destroyer to take the life of his friend. 
 
 IV. Correct the equivocal or ambiguous expressions 
 in the following sentences : 
 
 1. When our friendship is considered, how is it possible that I 
 should not grieve for his loss ? 
 
 2. The eagle killed the hen, and eat her in her own nest. 
 
 3. It may be justly said, that no laws are better than the 
 English. 
 
 4. The pretenders to polish and refine the language have 
 chiefly multiplied abuses and absurdities. 
 
 5. The adventurers, instead of reclaiming the natives from their 
 uncultivated manners, were gradually assimilated to the ancient 
 inhabitants, and degenerated from the customs of their own nation. 
 
 6. Solomon, the son of David, who built the temple of Jerusa- 
 lem, was the richest monarch that reigned over the Jewish people. 
 
 7. The Divine Being heapeth favours on his servants, ever 
 liberal and faithful. 
 
 V. Correct or omit such words and phrases, in the 
 following sentences, as are unintelligible, inapplicable, 
 or less significant than others, of the ideas which they 
 are intended to express : 
 
 1. I seldom see a noble building, or any great piece of magni- 
 ficence and pomp, but I think, how little is all this to satisfy the 
 ambition, or to fill the idea, of an immortal soul. 
 
 2. Yet when that flood in its own depth was drown'd, 
 It left behind it false and slipp'ry ground. 
 
STYLE. 85 
 
 3. That man is not qualified for a bust, who has not a good 
 deal of wit and vivacity, even in the ridiculous side of his char- 
 acter. 
 
 4. And, in the lowest deep, a lower deep 
 Still threatening to devour me, opens wide. 
 
 5. No less than two hundred scholars have been educated in 
 that school. 
 
 6. The attempt, however laudable, was found to be impracti- 
 cable. 
 
 7. He is our mutual benefactor, and deserves our respect and 
 obedience. 
 
 8. Vivacity is often promoted by presenting a sensible object to 
 the mind, instead of an intelligible one. 
 
 9. The house is a cold one, for it has a north exposition. 
 
 10. The proposition for each of us to relinquish something was 
 complied with, and produced a cordial reconcilement. 
 
 11. It is difficult for him to speak three sentences together. 
 
 12. The negligence of timely precaution was the cause of this 
 great loss. 
 
 13. Disputing should be always so managed, as to remember 
 the only end of it is truth. 
 
 14. We have enlarged our family and expenses, and increased 
 our garden and fruit orchard. 
 
 1 5. By proper reflection, we may be taught to mend what is er- 
 roneous and defective. 
 
 16. The good man is not overcome by disappointment, when 
 that which is mortal passes away, when that which is mutable 
 dies, and when that which he knew to be transient begins to 
 change. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 PRECISION OF STYLE. 
 
 Precision of style consists in using such words only, 
 as are necessary to express distinctly the ideas which 
 we mean to convey. 
 
 To attain precision of style, avoid I. Superfluous 
 expressions ; II. Tautology, or the unnecessary repe- 
 tition of a word or an idea in the same sentence; 
 
86 STYLE. 
 
 III. The improper use of words, which, though com- 
 monly employed as synonymous, are really different in 
 signification. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Omit the superfluous expressions in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. This great politician desisted from, and renounced his de- 
 signs, when he found them impracticable. 
 
 2. Though raised to an exalted station, she was a pattern of 
 piety, virtue, and religion. 
 
 3. The human body may be divided into the head, trunk, 
 limbs, and vitals. 
 
 4. His end soon approached, and he died with great courage 
 and fortitude. 
 
 5. Poverty induces and cherishes dependence ; and dependence 
 strengthens and increases corruption. 
 
 (j. There can be no regularity or order in the life and conduct 
 of that man, who does not give and allot a due share of his time to 
 retirement and reflection. 
 
 7. His cheerful, happy temper, remote from discontent, keeps up 
 a kind of daylight in his mind, excludes every gloomy prospect, 
 and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. 
 
 II. Correct the tautology in the following sentences : 
 
 1. The first day was spent in forming rules of order, and the 
 second day was spent in presenting resolutions. 
 
 2. The birds were clad in their brightest plumage, and the 
 trees were clad in their richest verdure. 
 
 3. The occurrence which the sentinel told the sergeant, he told 
 the captain, who told it to the general. 
 
 4. Notwithstanding the rapidity with which time passes, men 
 pass their lives in trifles and follies ; although reason and religion 
 declare, that not a moment should pass without bringing some- 
 thing to pass. 
 
 5. He used to use many expressions not usually used, and 
 which are not generally in use. 
 
 6. The writing which mankind first wrote, was first written on 
 tables of stone. 
 
 7. Our expectations are frequently disappointed, because we 
 
STYLE. 87 
 
 expect greater happiness from the future, than experience autho- 
 rizes us to expect. 
 
 8. No learning that we have learned, is generally so dearly 
 bought, or so valuable when it is bought, as that which we have 
 learned in the school of experience. 
 
 9. The brightness of prosperity, shining on the anticipations of 
 futurity, casts the shadows of adversity into the shade, and causes 
 the prospects of the future to look bright. 
 
 III. Correct the following errors in the use of words 
 commonly employed as synonymous : 
 
 1. Would you say that he is trust-worthy who has abandoned 
 his friends, relinquished all hope of regaining their esteem, and 
 forsaken even the pretension of being called an honest man ? 
 
 2. The secretary left the place of trust he held under govern- 
 ment, gave up his party, quitted his parents in affliction, and de- 
 serted the kingdom for ever. 
 
 3. I detest being in debt ; I abhor treachery. 
 
 4. The king is happy who is served by an industrious minister, 
 ever active to promote his country's welfare, nor less sedulous to 
 obtain intelligence of what is passing at other courts, than diligent 
 to relieve the cares of his royal master, and assiduous to study the 
 surest methods of extending the commerce of the empire abroad, 
 while he lessens all burdens upon the subjects at home. 
 
 5. A patriot acknowledges his opposition to a corrupt ministry, 
 and is applauded ; a gentleman confesses his mistake, and is for- 
 given ; a prisoner avows the crime of which he stands accused, and 
 is punished. 
 
 6. A hermit is severe in his life ; a casuist rigorous in his appli- 
 cation of religion or law ; a judge austere in his sentences. 
 
 7. Buchanan's history is genuine ; but there are some doubts 
 regarding the authenticity of Ossian's poems. 
 
 8. The earl, being a man of extensive abilities, stored his mind 
 with a variety of ideas ; which circumstance contributed to the 
 successful exertion of his vigorous capacity. 
 
 9. By the habit of walking often in the streets, one acquires a 
 custom of idleness. 
 
 10. Philip found an obstacle to managing the Athenians, on 
 account of their natural dispositions ; but the eloquence of De- 
 mosthenes was the great difficulty in his designs. 
 
 11. He is master of a complete house, which has not one entire 
 apartment. 
 
88 STYLE. 
 
 12. An honest man will refrain from employing an ambiguous 
 expression ; a confused man may often utter equivocal terms with, 
 out design. 
 
 13. This man, on all occasions, treated his inferiors with great 
 haughtiness and disdain. 
 
 14. Galileo discovered the telescope ; Harvey invented the cir- 
 culation of the blood. 
 
 15. He is a child alone, having neither brother nor sister. 
 ] 6. A man may be too vain to be proud. 
 
 17. The traveller observed the most striking objects he saw ; 
 the general remarked all the motions of the enemy. 
 
 18. I am amazed at what is new or unexpected; confounded 
 at what is vast or great ; surprised at what is incomprehensible ; 
 astonished by what is shocking or terrible. 
 
 19. He died with violence ; for he was killed by a sword. 
 
 20. A prudent man employs the most proper means for suc- 
 cess ; a wise man, the safest means to avoid being brought into 
 danger. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Write a critical examination of the following sen- 
 tences, commenting particularly on the purity, pro- 
 priety, and precision of the style : 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " Man, considered in himself, is a very helpless, and a very 
 wretched being." 
 
 This sentence exhibits a very correct choice of words for express- 
 ing the ideas which the author means to convey. The first word, 
 " man," is an appellative for the human race, and is universally 
 employed in this sense by the best authors. (f Man considered in 
 himself," signifies, man as existing by himself, and unconnected 
 with his fellow-creatures. In this state, says the author, he is " a 
 very helpless being." The term u helpless" denotes here, the 
 want of power to succour himself : and surely it is evident that, 
 if man were left to himself in infancy, he would perish ; and if he 
 were altogether detached from society in manhood, he could not 
 procure for himself either the necessaries or the comforts of life. 
 
STYLE. 89 
 
 But man, " considered in himself/' is not only a very helpless, 
 but also " a very wretched being." The term " wretched" is ge- 
 nerally used as synonymous with unhappy or miserable ; but, in 
 this passage, it is more expressive of the meaning of the author, 
 than either of these words would have been. Unhappy denotes 
 merely the uneasiness of a man, who may be happy if he pleases ; 
 as the discontented are unhappy, because they think others more 
 prosperous than themselves. Miserable is applied to persons 
 whose minds are tormented by the stings of conscience, agitated 
 by the violence of passion, or harassed by worldly vexations ; and, 
 accordingly, we say that wicked men are miserable. But (e wretch- 
 ed," derived from the Saxon word for an exile, signifies literally, 
 cast away or abandoned. Hence appears the proper application of 
 the word in this sentence : for man, if abandoned to himself, 
 might indeed exist in a solitary state without being either unhappy 
 or miserable, provided his bodily wants were supplied ; though he 
 certainly would be a very " wretched" being, when deprived of all 
 the comforts of social life, and all the endearments of friends and 
 kindred. 
 
 2. " Education is the most excellent endowment, as it enlarges 
 the mind, promotes its powers, and renders man estimable in the 
 eyes of society." 
 
 This sentence, though it contains many pompous words, is a 
 very remarkable example of the want of propriety in style. Edu- 
 cation is not an " endowment ;" for an endowment is a natural 
 gift, as taste or imagination. Education does not "enlarge" the 
 a mind ;" though it may, in a figurative sense, enlarge its capaci- 
 ties. Education cannot " promote" the mental " powers" them- 
 selves ; but it may promote their improvement. Neither does it 
 follow, that, because a man has improved his mind by education, 
 he is on that account " estimable ;" for esteem is produced only 
 by intrinsic worth ; but a man may be rendered more respectable 
 by a good education. The sentiment which the author intended 
 to convey should have been expressed thus: "Education is the 
 most excellent attainment, as it enlarges the capacities of the 
 mind, promotes their improvement, and renders a man respectable 
 in the eyes of society." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The great end of prudence is to give cheerfulness to those 
 hours, which splendour cannot gild, and acclamation cannot exhil- 
 arate. 
 
90 STYLE. 
 
 2. To dread no eye, and to suspect no tongue, is the great 
 prerogative of innocence ; an exemption granted only to invariable 
 virtue. 
 
 3. Arbitrary power I look upon as a greater evil than anarchy 
 itself, as much as a savage is in a happier state than a slave at the 
 oar. 
 
 4. Whoever is in the least acquainted with Grecian history 
 must know that their legislator, by the severity of his institutions, 
 formed the Spartans into a robust, hardy, valiant nation, made 
 for war.* 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 CLEARNESS IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Clearness in the structure of sentences consists in 
 a perspicuous arrangement of the words and members. 
 
 To attain clearness of style, avoid ambiguity I. In 
 the position of adverbs ; II. In the position of clauses 
 and circumstances ; III. In the position or the too 
 frequent repetition of pronouns. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Correct the errors in the position of adverbs, in 
 the following sentences : 
 
 1. The works of art receive a great advantage from the resem- 
 blance which they have to those of nature, because here the simili- 
 tude is not only pleasant, but the pattern is perfect. 
 
 2. By doing the same thing it often becomes habitual. 
 
 3. Not to exasperate him, I only spoke a few words. 
 
 4. Sixtus the Fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of 
 books at least. 
 
 5. We do those things frequently, which we repent of after- 
 wards. 
 
 * These examples and exercises, and those which follow under Sec- 
 tion IX., have been introduced, to show how the Teacher may best 
 lead his Pupils to attend minutely to style, whether for the purpose of 
 acquiring- what is excellent, or avoiding- what is faulty. He may pre- 
 scribe similar exercises, when suitable passages occur in the books 
 which his Pupils are perusing. 
 
STYLE. 91 
 
 6. Raised to greatness without merit, he employed his power 
 for the gratification solely of his passions. 
 
 7. I was engaged formerly in that business, but I never shall 
 be again concerned in it. 
 
 8. By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single 
 object, but the largeness of a whole view. 
 
 1). If Louis XIV. was not the greatest king, he was the best 
 actor of majesty, at least, that ever filled a throne. 
 
 II. Correct the errors in the position of clauses and 
 circumstances, in the following sentences* 
 
 1. I have settled the meaning of those pleasures of the imagina- 
 tion, which are the subject of my present undertaking, by way of 
 introduction, in this paper ; and endeavoured to recommend the 
 pursuit of those pleasures to my readers, by several considerations : 
 I shall examine the several sources whence these pleasures are de- 
 rived, in the next paper. 
 
 2. Fields of corn form a pleasant prospect; and if the walks 
 /ere a little taken care of that lie between them, they would dis- 
 play neatness, regularity, and elegance. 
 
 3. I have confined myself to those methods for the advancement 
 of piety, which are in the power of a prince, limited like ours, by 
 a strict execution of the laws. 
 
 4. This morning, when one of the gay females was looking 
 over some hoods and ribands, brought by her tirewoman, with 
 great care and diligence, I employed no less in examining the box 
 which contained them. 
 
 5. Since it is necessary that there should be a perpetual inter- 
 course of buying and selling, and dealing upon credit, where fraud 
 is permitted or connived at, or has no law to punish it, the honest 
 dealer is often undone, and the knave gets the advantage. N 
 
 6. As the guilt of an officer will be greater than that of a com- 
 mon servant, if he prove negligent, so the reward of his fidelity 
 will be proportionably greater. 
 
 7. Let the virtue of a definition be what it will, in the order of 
 things, it seems rather to follow than to precede our inquiry, of 
 which it ought to be considered as the result. 
 
 8. The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a 
 compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house, upon 
 the death of his mother, ordered all the apartments to be flung 
 open, and exorcised by the chaplain. 
 
 9. This work, in its full extent, being now afflicted with an 
 
92 STYLE. 
 
 asthma, and finding the power of life gradually declining, he had 
 no longer courage to undertake. 
 
 10. The witness had been ordered to withdraw from the bar, in 
 consequence of being intoxicated, by the motion of an honourable 
 member. 
 
 III. Correct the errors in the position or the too 
 frequent repetition of pronouns, in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. These are the master's rules, who must be obeyed. 
 
 2. They attacked the Duke of Northumberland's house, whom 
 they put to death. 
 
 3. It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the point. 
 
 4. He was taking a view, from a window, of the cathedral of 
 Litchfield, in which a party of the royalists had fortified them- 
 selves. 
 
 5. It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents 
 of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us 
 against, but the good providence of our Heavenly Father. 
 
 6. Thus I have fairly given you my opinion, as well as that of 
 a great majority of both houses here, relating to this weighty 
 affair^ upon which I am confident you may securely reckon. 
 
 7. We nowhere meet with a more splendid or pleasing show in 
 nature, than what appears in the heavens at the rising and setting 
 of the sun, which is wholly made up of those different stains of 
 light, that show themselves in clouds of a different situation. 
 
 8. From a habit of saving time and paper, wiiich they acquired 
 at the university, many write in so diminutive a manner, with 
 such frequent blots and interlineations, that they are hardly able 
 to go on without perpetual hesitation or extemporary expletives. 
 
 9. Lysias promised to his father never to abandon his friends. 
 
 10. They were summoned occasionally by their kings, when 
 compelled by their wants and by their fears to have recourse to 
 their aid. 
 
 11. Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, 
 and think that their reputation obscures them, and that their com- 
 mendable qualities do stand in their light ; and therefore they do 
 what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of 
 their virtues may not obscure them. 
 
STYLE. 93 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 UNITY IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Unity in the structure of a sentence consists in 
 making one leading thought connect its different parts. 
 
 To attain unity in the structure of sentences,, avoid 
 I. Changing the scene or actor during the course of a 
 sentence ; II. Crowding into one sentence things which 
 have so little connexion, that they may be divided into 
 two or more sentences; III. All unnecessary paren- 
 theses ; IV. Extending a sentence beyond what seems 
 its natural close. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Correct the errors arising from the change of the 
 scene or actor, in the following sentences: 
 
 1. A short time after this injury, he came to himself; and the 
 next day they put him on board a ship, which conveyed him first 
 to Corinth, and thence to the Island of Egina. 
 
 2. The Britons, daily harassed by cruel inroads from the Picts, 
 were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence; who conse- 
 quently reduced the greater part of the island to their own power, 
 drove the Britons into the most remote and mountainous parts ; 
 and the rest of the country, in customs, religion, and languages, 
 became wholly Saxon. 
 
 3. By eagerness of temper, and precipitancy of indulgence, men 
 forfeit all the advantages which patience would have procured ; 
 and, by these means, the opposite evils are incurred to their full 
 extent. 
 
 4. All the precautions of prudence, moderation, and condescen- 
 sion, which Eumenes employed, were incapable of mollifying the 
 hearts of these barbarians, and of extinguishing their jealousy ; and 
 he must have renounced the virtue and merit which occasioned it, 
 to have been capable of appeasing them. 
 
 5. He who performs every employment in its due place and 
 season, suffers no part of time to escape without profit ; and thus 
 his days become multiplied, and much of life is enjoyed in little 
 space. 
 
 C. Desire of pleasure ushers in temptation, and the growth of 
 disorderly passions is forwarded. 
 
94 STYLE. 
 
 II. Correct sucli errors, in the following passages, 
 as arise from crowding into one sentence things which 
 have no intimate connexion: 
 
 1. The notions of Lord Sunderland were always good ; but he 
 was a man of great expense. 
 
 2. Cato died in the full vigour of life, under fifty ; he was na- 
 turally warm and affectionate in his temper ; comprehensive, im- 
 partial, and strongly possessed with the love of mankind. 
 
 3. In this uneasy state, both of his public and private life, 
 Cicero was oppressed by a new and deep affliction, the death of his 
 beloved daughter Tullia ; which happened soon after her divorce 
 from Dolabella, whose manners and humours were entirely dis- 
 agreeable to her. 
 
 4. The sun approaching melts the snow, and breaks the icy 
 fetters of the main, when vast sea-monsters pierce through floating 
 islands, with arms that can withstand the crystal rock ; whilst 
 others, that of themselves seem great as islands, are by their bulk 
 alone armed against all but man, whose superiority over creatures 
 of such size and force, should make him mindful of his privilege 
 of reason, and force him humbly to adore the great composer of 
 these wondrous frames, and the author of his own superior wisdom. 
 
 5. I single him out among the moderns, because he had the 
 foolish presumption to censure Tacitus, and to write history him- 
 self; and your lordship will forgive this short excursion in honour 
 of a favourite author. 
 
 G. Boast not thyself of to-morrow ; thou knowest not what a 
 day may bring forth : and, for the same reason, despair not of to- 
 morrow ; for it may bring forth good as well as evil ; which is a 
 ground for not vexing thyself with imaginary fears ; for the im- 
 pending black cloud, which is regarded with so much dread, may 
 pass by harmless : or though it should discharge the storm, yet 
 before it breaks, thou mayest be lodged in that lowly mansion 
 which no storms ever touch. 
 
 III. Correct the errors in the use of parentheses, in 
 the following sentences : 
 
 1. Disappointments will often happen to the best and wisest 
 men (not through any imprudence of theirs, nor even through the 
 malice or ill design of others ; but merely in consequence of some 
 of those cross incidents of life which could not be foreseen,) and 
 sometimes to the wisest and best concerted plans. 
 
STYLE. 95 
 
 2. Without some degree of patience exercised under injuries, 
 (as offences and retaliations would succeed to one another in end- 
 less train,) human life would be rendered a state of perpetual hos- 
 tility. 
 
 3. Never delay till to-morrow, (for to-morrow is not yours ; and 
 though you should live to enjoy it, you must not overload it with 
 a burden not its own,) what reason and conscience tell you ought 
 to be performed to-day. 
 
 4. We must not imagine that there is in true religion any 
 thing which overcasts the mind with sullen gloom and melancholy 
 austerity, (for false ideas may be entertained of religion, as false 
 and imperfect conceptions of virtue have often prevailed in the 
 world,) or which derogates from that esteem which men are gene- 
 rally disposed to yield to exemplary virtues. 
 
 5. It was an ancient tradition, that when the capitol was founded 
 by one of the Roman kings, the god Terminus (who presided over 
 boundaries, and was represented according to the fashion of that 
 age by a large stone) alone, among all the inferior deities, refused 
 to yield his place to Jupiter himself. 
 
 IV. Correct such errors, in the following passages, 
 as arise from extending the sentences beyond what 
 seems their natural close : 
 
 1. Religious instruction could never be appointed to give such 
 empty, insignificant delight as this : nor doth it in the least attain 
 its proper end, unless it influences men to forget the preacher, and 
 think of themselves; unless it raises in them, not a superficial 
 complacency, or an idle admiration, but an awful solicitude about 
 their eternal welfare, and that a durable one. 
 
 2. The first could not end his learned treatise without a panegyric 
 on modern learning and knowledge in comparison of the ancient ; 
 and the other falls so grossly into the censure of the old poetry, 
 and preference of the new, that I could not read either of these 
 strains without indignation, which no quality among men is so apt 
 to raise in me as sufficiency, the worst composition out of the pride 
 and ignorance of mankind. 
 
 3. All the world acknowledges the JEneid to be most perfect in 
 its kind ; and, considering the disadvantage of the language, and 
 the severity of the Roman Muse, the poem is still more wonderful ; 
 since, without the liberty of the Grecian poets, the diction is so 
 great and noble, so clear, so forcible, and expressive, so chaste and 
 
96 STYLE. 
 
 pure, that even all the strength and compass of the Greek tongue, 
 joined to Homer's fire, cannot give us stronger and clearer ideas 
 than the great Virgil has set before our eyes ; some few instances 
 excepted, in which Homer, through the force of genius, has ex- 
 celled. 
 
 4. Whether we may run such length, as to assert that every 
 creature has some concern in every dispensation that happens, 
 there is no occasion to examine ; but our idea of infinite goodness 
 warrants us to suppose, that the course of nature or fortune could 
 not be altered in any particular, without a loss of happiness some- 
 where or other ; and this supposition will necessarily infer an in- 
 tercourse of interests between the known world and the unknown. 
 
 5. Here it was often found of absolute necessity to inflame or 
 cool the passions of the audience ; especially at Rome, where 
 Tully spoke, and with whose writings young divines (I mean those 
 among them who read old authors) are more conversant than with 
 those of Demosthenes ; who, by many degrees, excelled the other ; 
 at least as an orator. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 STRENGTH IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Strength in the structure of a sentence consists in 
 such a disposition of its several words and members, 
 as may give each of them its due weight and force. 
 
 To attain strength in the structure of sentences I. 
 Divest them of all redundant words and members ; 
 II. Attend particularly to the use of copulatives, rela- 
 tives, and all the particles employed in transition and 
 connexion ; III. Place the most important words in 
 the situation, in which they will make the strongest 
 impression ; IV. Avoid, as much as possible, placing 
 a weaker assertion or proposition after a stronger one ; 
 V. Never conclude a sentence with an inconsiderable 
 word ; VI. In the members of a sentence where two 
 objects are either compared or contrasted, preserve some 
 resemblance in the language and construction. 
 
STYLE. 97 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Divest the following sentences of all redundant 
 words and members : 
 
 1. Suspend your censure so long, till your judgment on the sub- 
 ject can be wisely formed. 
 
 2. I look upon it as my duty, so far as I am enabled, and so 
 long as I keep within the bounds of truth, of duty, and of decency. 
 
 3. How many are there by whom these tidings of good news 
 were never heard ! 
 
 4. He says nothing of it himself, and I am not disposed to 
 travel into the regions of conjecture, but to relate a narrative of 
 facts. 
 
 5. Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal 
 love and esteem of all men. 
 
 6. This is so clear a proposition, that I might rest the ( whole 
 argument entirely upon it. 
 
 7. I intend to make use of these words in the thread of my fol- 
 lowing speculations, that the reader may conceive rightly what is 
 the subject upon which I proceed. 
 
 8. These points have been illustrated in so plain and evident a 
 manner, that the perusal of the book has given me pleasure and 
 satisfaction. 
 
 9. I was much moved on this occasion, and went home full of 
 a great many serious reflections. 
 
 10. This measure may afford some profit, and furnish some 
 amusement. 
 
 11. Less capacity is required for this business, but more time is 
 necessary. 
 
 12. The combatants encountered each other with such rage, 
 that, being eager only to assail, and thoughtless of making any de- 
 fence, they both fell dead upon the field together. 
 
 13. Thought and language act and react upon each other mu- 
 tually. 
 
 14. It is impossible for us to behold the divine works with cold- 
 ness or indifference, or to survey so many beauties, without a secret 
 satisfaction and complacency. 
 
 15. Neither is there any condition of life more honourable in the 
 sight of the Divine Being than another, otherwise he would be a 
 respecter of persons, which he assures us he is not. 
 
 G 
 
98 STYLE. 
 
 II. Correct such errors, in the following passages, as 
 arise from the improper use of copulatives, relatives, 
 and particles employed in transition and connexion : 
 
 1. The enemy said, I will pursue, and I will overtake, and I 
 will divide the spoil. 
 
 2. There is nothing which promotes knowledge more than steady 
 application, and a habit of observation. 
 
 3. As the strength of our cause does not depend upon, so neither 
 is it to be decided by, any critical points of history, chronology, or 
 language. 
 
 4. The faith he professed, and which he became an apostle of, 
 was not his invention. 
 
 5. Their idleness, and their luxury and pleasures, their criminal 
 deeds, and their immoderate passions, and their timidity and base- 
 ness of mind, have dejected them to such a degree, as to make 
 them weary of life. 
 
 6. For the wisest purposes, Providence has designed our state to 
 be checkered with pleasure and pain. In this manner let us re- 
 ceive it, and make the best of what is appointed to be our lot. 
 
 7. In the time of prosperity, he had stored his mind with useful 
 knowledge, with good principles, and virtuous dispositions. And 
 therefore they remain entire, when the days of trouble come. 
 
 8. The academy set up by the cardinal to amuse the wits of 
 that age and country, and divert them from raking into his politics 
 and ministry, brought this into vogue ; and the French wits have 
 for this last age been in a manner wholly turned to the refinement 
 of their language, and indeed with such success, that it can hardly 
 be excelled, and runs equally through their verse and their prose. 
 
 9. And then those who are of an inferior condition, that they labour 
 and be diligent in the work of an honest calling, for this is privately 
 good and profitable unto men, and to their families ; and those 
 who are above this necessity, and are in a better capacity to main- 
 tain good works properly so called, works of piety, and charity, and 
 justice, that they be careful to promote and advance them, accord- 
 ing to their power and opportunity, because these things are pub- 
 licly good and beneficial to mankind. 
 
 III. Correct such errors, in the following sentences, 
 as arise from the improper position of the most import- 
 ant words : 
 
STYLE. 91) 
 
 1. I have considered the subject with a good deal of attention. 
 upon which I was desired to communicate my thoughts. 
 
 2. Whether a choice altogether unexceptionable, has in any 
 country been made, seems doubtful. 
 
 3. The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with 
 Homer, but his invention remains yet unrivalled. 
 
 4. Although persons of a virtuous and learned education may 
 be, and often are, drawn by the temptations of youth, and the 
 opportunities of a large fortune, into some irregularities, when they 
 come forward into the great world, it is ever with reluctance and 
 compunction of mind, because their bias to virtue still continues. 
 
 5. If, whilst they profess to please only, they advise and give 
 instruction secretly, they may be esteemed the best and most 
 honourable among authors, with justice perhaps now, as well as 
 formerly. 
 
 6. Ambition creates seditions, wars, discord, and hatred. 
 
 7. Sloth pours upon us a deluge of crimes and evils, and saps 
 the foundation of every virtue. 
 
 8. The ancient laws of Rome were so far from suffering a Roman 
 citizen to be 'put to death, that they would not allow him to be 
 bound, or even to be whipped. 
 
 9. Every one who puts on the appearance of goodness, is not 
 good. 
 
 10. Let us employ our criticism on ourselves, instead of being 
 critics on others. 
 
 11. This fallacious art debars us from enjoying life, instead of 
 lengthening it. 
 
 12. How will that nobleman be able to conduct himself, when 
 reduced to poverty, who was educated only to magnificence and 
 pleasure ? 
 
 13. When they fall into sudden difficulties, they are less per- 
 plexed than others in the like circumstances ; and when they en- 
 counter dangers, they are less alarmed. 
 
 IV. Correct such errors, in the following sentences, 
 as arise from placing weaker assertions or propositions 
 after stronger ones : 
 
 1. Charity breathes longsuffering to enemies, courtesy to stran- 
 gers, and habitual kindness to friends. 
 
 2. Gentleness ought to diffuse itself over our whole behaviour, 
 to form our address, and to regulate our speech. 
 
100 STYLE. 
 
 3. The propensity to look forward into life, is too often grossly 
 abused, and immoderately indulged. 
 
 4. The regular tenor of a virtuous and pious life will prove the 
 best preparation for immortality, old age, and death. 
 
 5. Sinful pleasures blast the opening prospects of human feli- 
 city, and degrade human honour. 
 
 6. In this state of mind, every employment of life becomes an 
 oppressive burden, and every object appears gloomy. 
 
 7. They will acquire different views, by applying to the honour, 
 able discharge of the functions of their station, and entering on a 
 virtuous course of action. 
 
 8. By the perpetual course of dissipation in which sensualists 
 are engaged ; by the riotous revel, and the midnight, or rather 
 morning hours, to which they prolong their festivity ; by the ex- 
 cesses which they indulge ; they debilitate their bodies, cut them- 
 selves off from the comforts and duties of life, and wear out their 
 spirits. 
 
 V. Correct such errors, in the following passages, as 
 arise from concluding the sentences with inconsiderable 
 words : 
 
 1. May the happy message be applied to us, in all the virtue, 
 strength, and comfort of it ! 
 
 2. This agreement of mankind is not confined to taste solely. 
 
 3. Such a system may be established, but it will not be sup- 
 ported long. 
 
 4. The doctrine of the Trinity, is a mystery which we firmly 
 believe the truth of, and humbly adore the depth of. 
 
 5. The country loses the expense of many of the richest per- 
 sons or families at home, and large sums of money are carried 
 abroad, which the great stock of rich native commodities can 
 make the only amends for. 
 
 6. It is absurd to think of judging these poets by precepts 
 which they did not attend to. 
 
 7. Shall the narrow-minded children of earth, absorbed in low 
 pursuits, dare to treat as visionary, objects which they have never 
 made themselves acquainted with ? 
 
 8. In like manner, if a person in broad day-light were falling 
 asleep, to introduce a sudden darkness would prevent his sleep for 
 that time, though silence and darkness in themselves, and not 
 suddenly introduced, are very favourable to it. This I knew only 
 
STYLE. 101 
 
 by conjecture on the analogy of the senses, when I 
 these observations ; but I have since experienced it. ' - 
 
 9. The general idea of good or bad fortune creates some con- 
 cern for the person who has met with it ; but the general idea of 
 provocation excites no sympathy with the anger of the man who 
 has received it. Nature, it seems, teaches us to be more averse to 
 enter into this passion, and, till informed of its cause, to be dis- 
 posed rather to take part against it. 
 
 VI. Correct such errors, in the following sentences, 
 as arise from not preserving some resemblance in the 
 language and construction of the members, in which 
 two objects are either compared or contrasted : 
 
 1. I have observed of late the style of some great ministers 
 very much to exceed that of any other productions. 
 
 2. The old may inform the young ; and the young may ani- 
 mate those who are advanced in life. 
 
 3. Force was resisted by force, valour opposed by valour, and 
 art encountered or eluded by similar address. 
 
 4. The laughers will be for those who have most wit ; the 
 serious part of mankind for those who have most reason on their 
 side. 
 
 5. There may remain a suspicion that we over-rate the greatness 
 of his genius, in the same manner as bodies appear more gigantic 
 on account of their being disproportioned and misshapen. 
 
 6. A friend exaggerates a man's virtues ; an enemy inflames 
 his crimes. 
 
 7. The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; 
 the fool when he recommends himself to the applause of those 
 about him. 
 
 8. He embraced the cause of liberty faintly, and pursued it 
 without resolution : he grew tired of it, when he had much to 
 hope; and gave it up, when there was no ground for apprehen- 
 siqp. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 HARMONY IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Harmony in the structure of a sentence consists in 
 the smooth and easy flow of its words and members. 
 
102 STYLE. 
 
 . ,Td r attain;harmoi'y in the structure of sentences, 
 pay particular attention both to the selection and to 
 the arrangement of the words, preferring such as are 
 free from harshness of sound, combining them in the 
 way most agreeable to the ear, and taking care that the 
 cadence or close be not abrupt or unmusical. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Correct such errors, in the following sentences, as 
 arise from want of harmony in their structure : 
 
 1. Sober-mindedness suits the present state of man. 
 
 2. As conventiclers, these people were seized and punished. 
 
 3. It belongs not to our humble and confined station to censure, 
 but to adore, submit, and trust. 
 
 4. Under all its labours, hope is the mind's solace ; and the 
 situations which exclude it entirely are few. 
 
 5. The humbling of those that are mighty, and the precipitation 
 of persons who are ambitious, from the towering height that they 
 had gained, concern but little the bulk of men. 
 
 6. Tranquillity, regularity, and magnanimity, reside with the 
 religious and resigned man. 
 
 7. Sloth, ease, success, naturally tend to beget vices and follies. 
 
 8. By a cheerful, even, and open temper, he conciliated general 
 favour. 
 
 9. We reached the mansion before noon : it was a strong, 
 grand, Gothic house. 
 
 10. By means of society, our wants come to be supplied, and 
 our lives are rendered comfortable, as well as our capacities en- 
 larged, and our virtuous affections called forth into their proper 
 exercise. 
 
 11. Life cannot but prove vain to such persons as affect a dis- 
 relish of every pleasure, which is not both new and exquisite, 
 measuring their enjoyments by fashion's standard, and not by 
 what they feel themselves, and thinking that if others do not ad- 
 mire their state, they are miserable. 
 
 12. By experiencing distress, an arrogant insensibility of tern- 
 per is most effectually corrected, from the remembrance of our own 
 sufferings naturally prompting us to feel for others in their suffer- 
 ings : and if Providence has favoured us so as not to make us 
 subject in our own lot to much of this kind of discipline, we 
 
STYLE. 103 
 
 should extract improvement from the lot of others that is harder ; 
 and step aside sometimes from the flowery and smooth paths 
 which it is permitted us to walk in, in order to view the toilsome 
 march of our fellow-creatures through the thorny desert. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF SENTENCES (continued). 
 
 Write a critical examination of the following pas- 
 sages, commenting particularly on the clearness, unity, 
 strength, and harmony, in the structure of the sen- 
 tences : 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " If we consider the works of nature and of art, as they are 
 qualified to entertain the imagination, we shall find the latter very 
 defective in comparison of the former ; for, though they may 
 sometimes appear as beautiful and strange, they can have nothing 
 in them of that vastness and immensity, which afford so great an 
 entertainment to the mind of a beholder." 
 
 In this sentence, the subject of discourse is the a works of nature 
 and of art." These the author first considers together, and then 
 draws a conclusion, that the latter are very inferior to the former. 
 Having completed one distinct proposition, he should here have 
 ended his first sentence. But, instead of doing so, he proceeds to 
 the proofs of his conclusion ; and thus introduces another propo- 
 sition, which, to preserve unity of thought, should have been stated 
 in a sentence by itself. If the author had expressed himself in 
 two sentences, rather than in one, we should have had a much 
 clearer idea of the subject. Besides, by such a division, an im- 
 provement would have been made in the perspicuity of the Ian- 
 guage ; as it is not very obvious at first whether the pronoun 
 " they" refers to the works of nature or of art. 
 
 2. " I can more readily admire the liberal spirit and integrity, 
 than the sound judgment, of any man who prefers a republican form 
 of government, in this or any other empire of equal extent, to a 
 monarchy so qualified and limited as ours. I am convinced, that 
 neither is it in theory the wisest system of government, nor at all 
 practicable in this country. Yet, though I hope the English con- 
 stitution will for ever preserve its monarchical form, I would have 
 
104 STYLE. 
 
 an implicit submission to the laws only ; and an affection to the 
 magistrate, proportioned to the integrity and wisdom with which 
 he distributes justice to his people, and administers their affairs." 
 
 In these sentences, every idea is expressed with the utmost 
 brevity ; every word is significant, and none is introduced but 
 what is requisite to convey the meaning. The mind is entertained 
 with some new thought in every member of the sentence; while 
 the words employed are chosen with accuracy, and the ideas are 
 expressed with decision. The style, indeed, is destitute of smooth- 
 ness and elegance ; but, as it was the intention of the author to 
 convince the understanding, he has therefore adopted vigorous 
 expressions and short sentences, which are best adapted to make 
 a forcible impression on the mind. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The English are naturally fanciful, and very often disposed, 
 by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent 
 in our nation, to many wild notions and visions, to which others 
 are not so liable. 
 
 2. By soothing those inequalities, which the necessary difference 
 of ranks and conditions has introduced into society, religion not 
 only reconciles us to the highest eminences of life, but leads us to 
 consider them as affording to the social world, that sublime con- 
 trast which the landscape derives from the diversity of hill and 
 dale, and as sending down those streams of benignity which refresh 
 and gladden the lower stations. 
 
 3. The usual acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two differ- 
 ent things, and not only calls the followers or votaries of them by 
 several names of busy and idle men, but distinguishes the faculties 
 of the mind that are conversant about them, calling the operations 
 of the first wisdom, and of the other wit, which is a Saxon word 
 that is used to express what the Spaniards and Italians call ingenio, 
 and the French esprit, both from the Latin ; but I think wit more 
 peculiarly signifies that of poetry, as may occur upon remarks on 
 the Runic language. 
 
 4. There are few personages in history who have been more 
 exposed to the calumny of enemies, and the adulation of friends, 
 than Queen Elizabeth ; and yet there is scarcely any whose repu- 
 tation has been more certainly determined by the unanimous con- 
 sent of posterity. The unusual length of her administration, and 
 the strong features of her character, were able to overcome all pre- 
 judices; and, obliging her detractors to abate much of their in- 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 105 
 
 vectives, and her admirers somewhat of their panegyrics, have at 
 last, in spite of political factions, and what is more, of religious 
 animosities, produced a uniform judgment with regard to her 
 conduct. 
 
 II. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE LANGUAGE in which ideas are expressed may be 
 either plain or figurative. 
 
 Language is said to be plain, when it is to be under- 
 stood according to its literal and ordinary signification ; 
 as, ( A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adver- 
 sity/ 
 
 Language is said to be figurative, when, either by 
 the words employed, or by the peculiar manner of their 
 application or arrangement, ideas are expressed with 
 the addition of circumstances which render the impres- 
 sion more strong and vivid ; as, ' To the upright there 
 ariseth light in darkness? 
 
 Figures in language are divided into two kinds, 
 figures of words or tropes, and figures of thought. 
 
 In tropes, the words are employed to signify some- 
 thing different from their original and ordinary mean- 
 ing ; as, ' A clear head ;' ' A hard heart.' 
 
 In figures of thought, the words are used in their 
 literal meaning, but are not applied or arranged in the 
 ordinary manner; as, ' Awake, O sword) against my 
 shepherd.' 
 
 The figures of words and thought, which most fre- 
 quently occur, are, Metaphor, Comparison, Allegory, 
 Personification, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Antithesis, 
 and Climax. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 METAPHOR. 
 
 Metaphor is a figure founded on the resemblance 
 of two objects, the name and properties of the one being 
 
106 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 ascribed to the other ; as, ( Thy word is a lamp unto 
 my feet.' 
 
 The following rules ought to be observed in the use 
 of metaphors : 
 
 I. Metaphors should be suited to the nature of 
 the subject of which we treat, being neither 
 too numerous, too gay, nor too elevated. 
 II. Metaphors should never be drawn from objects 
 which are mean or disagreeable. 
 
 III. Metaphors should be founded on points of re- 
 
 semblance, which are neither far-fetched, nor 
 difficult to be discovered. 
 
 IV. Metaphors should be expressed in simple and 
 
 appropriate language. 
 
 V. Metaphors should not be mixed together in the 
 same sentence, nor crowded on the same 
 object. 
 
 VI. Metaphorical and plain language should not 
 be so interwoven, that part of a sentence 
 must be understood figuratively, and part 
 literally. 
 VII. Metaphors should not be too far pursued. 
 
 Express the following ideas in metaphorical lan- 
 guage : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 It was now growing dark, and objects could not be distinctly 
 seen in the twilight. 
 
 Now came still evening on, and twilight grey 
 Had in her sober livery all things clad. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The water of the lake was without motion. 
 
 2. He could not be seen on account of the darkness of the 
 night. 
 
 3. The grass grows in the meadows in spring, and summer 
 soon succeeds. 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 10? 
 
 4. There are scenes in nature, which are pleasant when we are 
 sad, as well as when we are cheerful. 
 
 5. The number of people who are alive, is small compared with 
 those who have died. 
 
 6. Wise men may suffer hardships in the present world, and 
 foolish persons must find trouble. 
 
 7. Perfect taste knows how to unite nature with art, without de- 
 stroying the simplicity of nature in the connexion. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 Comparison, or Simile, is a figure founded on the 
 resemblance of two objects, the one being likened to 
 the other; as, 'The actions of princes are like those 
 great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but 
 the springs of which have been seen by few.' 
 
 The following rules ought to be observed in the use 
 of comparison : 
 
 I. Comparisons should not be drawn between ob- 
 jects, the resemblance of which to one an- 
 other is either too near and obvious, or too 
 remote and faint. 
 
 II. Comparisons should not be drawn from images 
 which are disagreeable or profane. 
 
 III. Comparisons, when used for the purpose of illus- 
 
 tration, should be taken from objects better 
 known than those to be explained. 
 
 IV. Comparisons, when used for embellishment, 
 
 should be drawn from objects that are import- 
 ant and dignified. 
 
 Find comparisons for the following objects : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A troubled conscience. 
 
 A troubled conscience is like the ocean when ruffled by a storm. 
 
108 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. A virtuous man slandered by evil tongues. 
 
 2. Mournful yet pleasant music. 
 
 3. An elevated genius employed in little things. 
 
 4. Hope and fear alternately swaying the mind. 
 
 5. He who has no opinion of his own, and the man of decision. 
 
 6. A mind formerly settled in its principles, disturbed by doubt, 
 
 7. The death of the virtuous man. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ALLEGORY. 
 
 Allegory is a figure founded on resemblance, one 
 subject being represented by another analogous to it : 
 as in the following passage from the 80th Psalm, in 
 which the people of Israel are represented under the 
 image of a vine : 
 
 c Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out 
 the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and 
 didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills 
 were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were 
 like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and 
 her branches unto the river. Why hast thou then broken down 
 her hedges, so that all which pass by the way do pluck her ? The 
 boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field 
 doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of hosts ; look 
 down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine.' 
 
 The principal rule to be observed in conducting an 
 allegory, is, that the figurative and literal meaning be 
 not inconsistently mingled. 
 
 Represent the following subjects by allegories : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Luxury and Avarice. 
 
 There were two very powerful tyrants engaged in perpetual war 
 against each other, one of whom was named Luxury, and the other 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 109 
 
 Avarice. The aim of each was nothing less than universal mon- 
 archy over the hearts of mankind. Luxury was entirely guided 
 by the advice of Plenty ; Avarice conducted himself by the coun- 
 sels of Poverty. While these two great rivals were contending for 
 empire, their conquests were very various. Luxury got possession 
 of one heart, and Avarice of another. The father of a family 
 would often range himself under the banners of Avarice, and the 
 son under those of Luxury. The wife and husband would fre- 
 quently declare themselves on opposite sides ; nay, the very same 
 person would sometimes join with the one in his youth, and revolt 
 to the other in his old age. The wise men of the world, indeed, 
 took part with neither ; but, alas ! their numbers were not con- 
 siderable. At length, when the two potentates had wearied them- 
 selves with waging war upon one another, they held a private in- 
 terview, at which they agreed upon this preliminary to an accom- 
 modation, that each of them should immediately dismiss his privy 
 counsellor. When things were thus far adjusted towards a peace, all 
 other differences were easily settled; insomuch, that for the fu- 
 ture they resolved to live as good friends and confederates. For 
 this reason, we now find Luxury and Avarice generally taking 
 possession of the same heart. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Truth and Falsehood. 
 
 2. Diligence and Idleness. 
 
 3. Prudence saves from many a misfortune ; Pride causes many. 
 
 4. Modesty and Assurance. 
 
 5. Emulation and Envy. 
 
 6. Virtue is to be attained only by labour, difficulty, and wise 
 
 counsel. 
 
 7. Human life a voyage. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 PERSONIFICATION. 
 
 Personification, or Prosopopoeia, is that figure by 
 
 which life and action are attributed to inanimate objects ; 
 
 as, 'What ailed thee, O thou sea, that thou fleddest?' 
 
 There are three degrees in personification, namely, 
 
 I. When some of the properties or qualities of living 
 
/ 
 
 J2 
 
 110 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 creatures are ascribed to inanimate objects; 
 as, ' The thirsty ground ;' ' The angry ocean/ 
 II. When inanimate objects are represented as act- 
 ing like living creatures; as, 'The mountains 
 skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs.' 
 III. When inanimate objects are represented either 
 as speaking to us, or as listening when we 
 address them ; as, 
 
 ' Ask we for flocks these shingles dry, 
 And well the mountain might reply, 
 f To you, as to your sires of yore, 
 Belong the target and claymore.' ' 
 
 e Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
 Tell, if ye saw, how came I thus, how here ?' 
 
 The principal rule to be observed in the use of this 
 figure, is, that we should not deck the objects personi- 
 fied with fantastic and trifling circumstances. 
 
 I. Personify the following subjects in the first de- 
 gree : 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Waves ; rain. 
 
 The hungry waves ; the joyous rain. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. A brook ; a waterfall ; the wind ; a tempest ; time ; fortune ; 
 adversity. 
 
 2. The earth ; the woods ; the mountains ; the sun ; the 
 moon ; the stars ; science ; art ; industry. 
 
 3. Spring ; summer ; autumn ; winter ; heat ; fire ; an earth- 
 quake ; cold ; snow ; hail ; frost ; ice. 
 
 4. Idleness ; mirth ; folly ; intemperance ; pleasure ; pain ; 
 disease ; death ; the grave ; charity ; hope ; faith ; joy. 
 
 II. Personify the following subjects in the second 
 degree : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 He drew his sword. 
 
 The sword leapt from its scabbard. 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 11] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He is asleep. 
 
 2. The fire has been extinguished. 
 
 3. The shadows caused by night pass away. 
 
 4. The air is so soft that we are induced to take a walk. 
 
 5. The sun cannot be seen through the clouds. 
 
 6. He who is pleased with natural scenery, can find instruction 
 and entertainment in every object which he sees. 
 
 III. Personify the following subjects in the third 
 degree : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Contentment. 
 
 Contentment ! thou parent of felicity ! thou faithful companion 
 of hope ! if thou shouldst take up thine abode in my bosom, in 
 vain may fortune wreck me on inhospitable shores. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Hope. 
 
 2. Peace. 
 
 3. Light. 
 
 4. Pity. 
 
 5. Sleep. 
 
 6. Eternity. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Apostrophe is that figure by which we turn from 
 the subject, and address the absent or dead, as if they 
 were present or alive, and were listening to us ; as in 
 the following passage : 
 
 c And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber 
 over the gate, and wept ; and as he went, thus he said, O my son 
 Absalom ! my son, my son Absalom 1 would God I had died for 
 thee, O Absalom, my son, my son !' 
 
 The principal rule to be observed in the use of apos- 
 trophe, is, that it should not be loaded with studied 
 ornament, nor extended too far. 
 
112 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Introduce apostrophe into the following passages : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 I knew him, Horatio ; a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent 
 fancy; he hath borne me on his back a thousand times. Here 
 hung those lips that I have kissed I know not how oft. Where be 
 his gibes now ? his gambols ? his songs ? his flashes of merri- 
 ment, that were wont to set the table in a roar ? 
 
 I knew him, Horatio; a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent 
 fancy: he hath borne me on his back a thousand times. Here 
 hung those lips that I have kissed I know not how oft. Where 
 be your gibes now ? your gambols ? your songs ? your flashes of 
 merriment, that were wont to set the table in a roar ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. I cannot but imagine the virtuous heroes, legislators, and 
 patriots of every age and country, are bending from their elevated 
 seats to witness this contest, as if they were incapable, till it be 
 brought to a favourable issue, of enjoying their eternal repose. 
 Let these illustrious immortals enjoy that repose ! Their mantle 
 fell when they ascended ; and thousands, inflamed with their spirit, 
 and impatient to tread in their steps, are ready to swear by Him 
 that sitteth upon the throne and liveth for ever and ever, that they 
 will protect Freedom in her last asylum, and never desert that 
 cause, which they sustained by their labours, and cemented with 
 their blood. 
 
 2. Strike the harp in praise of Bragela, whom I left in the isle 
 of mist, the spouse of my love. Doth she raise her fair face from 
 the rock to find the sails of Cuthullin ? The sea is rolling far 
 distant, and its white foam will deceive her for my sails. My love 
 will retire, for it is night, and the dark wind sighs in her hair. 
 She will retire to the hall of my feasts, and think of the times that 
 are past ; for I will not return till the storm of war is gone. 
 
 3. Thus passes the world away. Throughout all ranks and 
 conditions, c one generation passeth, and another generation cometh ;' 
 and this great inn is by turns evacuated and replenished by troops 
 of succeeding pilgrims. The world is vain and inconstant. Life 
 is fleeting and transient. When will the sons of men learn to think 
 of it as they ought ? When will they learn humanity from the 
 afflictions of their brethren ; or moderation and wisdom, from the 
 sense of their own fugitive state ? 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 113 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 HYPERBOLE. 
 
 Hyperbole, or Exaggeration, is that figure by which 
 an object is magnified or diminished beyond its natural 
 bounds ; as, ' I will make thy seed as the dust of the 
 earth ; so that if a man can number the dust of the 
 earth, then shall thy seed also be numbered ;' * He pos- 
 sessed a field of smaller extent than a Lacedaemonian 
 letter/ 
 
 The following rules ought to be observed in the use 
 of hyperbole : 
 
 I. A hyperbole should never be introduced in the 
 
 description of any thing ordinary and familiar. 
 
 II. A hyperbole cannot be introduced with propriety 
 
 till the mind of the reader is duly prepared. 
 III. A hyperbole should be comprehended in as few 
 words as possible. 
 
 Represent the following subjects by hyperbole : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 An interesting and impressive speech. 
 
 His speech was so deeply interesting and impressive, that the 
 very walls listened to his arguments, and were moved by his 
 eloquence. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The brightness of a lighted room. 
 
 2. The splendour of a dress ornamented with jewels. 
 
 3. The number of persons in a crowd. 
 
 4. The quantity of rain which falls in a shower. 
 
 5. The thirst of an individual by the quantity of liquid he con- 
 sumes. 
 
 6. The size of a country by the rising and setting of the sun. 
 
 7. The affliction caused by the death of a distinguished indi- 
 vidual. 
 
 H 
 
114 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 ANTITHESIS. 
 
 Antithesis, or Contrast, is a figure of arrangement, 
 by which two objects or sentiments are represented in 
 opposition ; as, ' If you regulate your desires accord- 
 ing to the standard of nature, you will never be poor ; 
 if according to the standard of opinion, you will never 
 be rich.' 
 
 The principal rule to be observed in the use of anti- 
 thesis, is, that it should be introduced sparingly, and 
 only when the points of contrast are obvious and na- 
 tural. 
 
 Represent the following subjects in antithesis: 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A wise man and a fool. 
 
 A wise man endeavours to shine in himself; a fool to outshine 
 others. The former is humbled by the sense of his own infirmities ; 
 the latter is lifted up by the discovery of those which he observes 
 in others. The wise man considers what he wants ; and the fool 
 what he abounds in. The wise man is happy when he gains his 
 own approbation ; and the fool when he recommends himself to 
 the applause of those about him. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Pride and humility. 
 
 2. Temperance and exercise. 
 
 3. Cheerfulness and mirth. 
 
 4. Discretion and cunning. 
 
 5. True modesty and false. 
 
 6. True honour and religion. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 Climax is a figure of arrangement, by which every 
 succeeding object or circumstance is made to rise above 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. J15 
 
 that which preceded ; as, ' It is highly criminal to bind 
 a Roman citizen; to scourge him is enormous guilt; to 
 kill him is almost parricide; but by what name shall I 
 designate the crucifying of him ?' 
 
 Arrange the members in each of the following pass- 
 ages so as to form a climax : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 What a piece of work is man ! in action how like an angel ! 
 how noble in reason ! in apprehension how like a god ! how infinite 
 in faculties ! in form and motion how expressive and admirable ! 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Nothing can be more worthy of us, than to contribute to the 
 happiness of those who have been once useful, and are still willing 
 to be so ; to be a staff to their declining days ; to make the winter 
 of old age wear the aspect of spring ; to allow them not to feel the 
 want of such enjoyments as they are now unable to procure ; and 
 to smooth the furrows in the faded cheek. 
 
 2. The history of every succeeding generation is this. New ob- 
 jects attract the attention ; new intrigues engage the passions of 
 men ; new actors come forth on the stage of the world ; a new 
 world, in short, in the course of a few years, has gradually and 
 insensibly risen around us ; new ministers fill the temples of reli- 
 gion ; new members the seats of justice. 
 
 3. It is pleasant to command our appetites and passions, and to 
 keep them in due order, within the bounds of reason and religion, 
 because that is empire ; it is pleasant to mortify and subdue our 
 lusts, because that is victory; it is pleasant to be virtuous and 
 good, because that is to excel many others ; it is pleasant to grow 
 better, because that is to excel ourselves. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Correct the following errors in the use of figurative 
 language : 
 
116 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. No human happiness is so serene as not to contain any alloy. 
 
 2. Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the 
 thickest gloom. 
 
 3. There is a time when factions, by the vehemence of their own 
 fermentation, stun and disable one another. 
 
 4. Let us be attentive to keep our mouths as with a bridle ; and 
 to steer our vessel aright, that we may avoid the rocks and shoals 
 which lie every <where around us. 
 
 5. I can never enough admire the sagacity of this country for 
 the encouragement given to the professors of physic. With what 
 indulgence does she foster up those of her own growth, and kindly 
 
 thnse that come from abroad ! Like a skilful fardener, 
 
 Clouds that may dim his sublunary day, 
 But cannot conquer : even the best must own, 
 Patience and resignation are the columns 
 Of human peace on earth. 
 
 7. The bill underwent a great number of alterations and amend- 
 ments, which were not effected without violent contest. At length, 
 however, it was floated through both houses, on the tide of a great 
 majority, and steered into the safe harbour of royal approbation. 
 
 8. Since the time that reason began to bud, and put forth her 
 shoots, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in every 
 breast, without a moment's suspension or pause. The current of 
 ideas has been always moving. The wheels of the spiritual engine 
 have exerted themselves with perpetual motion. 
 
 9. The man who has no rule over his own spirit, possesses no 
 antidote against poisons of any sort. He lies open to every insur- 
 rection of ill humour, and every gale of distress. Whereas he who 
 is employed in regulating his mind, is making provision against all 
 the accidents of life. He is erecting a fortress, into which, in the 
 day of sorrow, he can retreat with satisfaction. 
 
 10. A great eastern conqueror wrote, in the following terms, to 
 a prince whose dominions he was about to invade : " Where is 
 the monarch who dares resist us ? Where is the potentate who 
 does not glory in being numbered among our attendants ? As for 
 thee, descended from a sailor, since the vessel of thy unbounded 
 ambition has been wrecked in the gulf of thy self-love, it would be 
 proper that thou shouldst take in the sails of thy temerity, and cast 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 117 
 
 the anchor of repentance in the port of sincerity and justice, which 
 is the port of safety ; lest the tempest of our vengeance make thee 
 perish in the sea of the punishment thou deservest." 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF PASSAGES. 
 
 Write a critical examination of the following pass- 
 ages, commenting particularly on the figures of speech 
 and thought : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 1. " Things light or lovely in their acted time, 
 But now to stern reflection each a crime ; 
 The withering sense of evil unreveal'd, 
 
 Not cankering less, because the more conceal'd ; 
 All, in a word, from which all eyes must start, 
 That opening sepulchre, the naked heart, 
 Bares with its buried woes.'* 
 
 In this passage the poet describes figuratively the agitation of 
 the mind, when suffering the pangs of remorse. Pie represents its 
 feelings under the metaphor of a wasting disease, which withers 
 and corrodes the frame, till it extinguishes life, and reduces its 
 victim to a putrid corpse, from which the spectator starts back with 
 horror. In like manner, the agonizing reflections of a guilty con- 
 science distract the soul to such a degree, that the wicked man is 
 forced to disclose the evil deeds which he has committed ; whereby 
 he is rendered a much more disgusting object, than a dead body 
 that must be consigned to the sepulchre. 
 
 2. " Sir, he may live ; 
 I saw him beat the surges under him, 
 
 And ride upon their backs ; he trode the water, 
 Whose enmity he flung aside, and breasted 
 The surge most swolTn that met him." 
 
 In this description, a most incredible hyperbole is introduced. 
 How is it possible for a person to ride upon the back of a wave, 
 or tread water under his feet ? What kind of enmity can surges 
 have, and how can a person fling it from him ? The incongruity 
 of this figure shows that hyperboles should never be used, unless 
 they are suitable to the subject which they are intended to illus- 
 trate. 
 
118 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1 . There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
 Which, taken at the full, leads on to fortune ; 
 Omitted, all the voyage of their life 
 
 Is bound in shallows and in miseries. 
 
 2. The chief in silence strode before, 
 
 And reached that torrent's sounding shore, 
 Which, daughter of three mighty lakes, 
 From Vennachar in silver breaks, 
 Sweeps through the plain, and ceaseless mines 
 On Bochastle the mouldering lines, 
 Where Rome, the empress of the world, 
 Of yore her eagle wings unfurl'd. 
 
 3. There is a joy in grief, when peace dwells with the sorrowful. 
 But they are wasted with mourning, O daughter of Toscar, and 
 their days are few. They fall away like the flower on which the 
 sun looks in his strength, after the mildew has passed over it, and 
 its head is heavy with the drops of night. 
 
 4. Men must acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning 
 their eye inwards, in order to explore the interior regions and re- 
 cesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep thought, the private 
 seats of fancy, and the wastes and wildernesses, as well as the more 
 fruitful and cultivated tracts of this obscure climate. 
 
 5. As from some rocky cliff the shepherd sees 
 Clustering in heaps on heaps the driving bees, 
 Rolling and black'ning, swarms succeeding swarms, 
 With deeper murmurs and more hoarse alarms ; 
 Dusky they spread a close-embodied crowd, 
 And o'er the vale descends the living cloud. 
 So, from the tents and ships, a length'ning train 
 Spreads all the beach, and wide o'ershades the plain ; 
 Along the region runs a deaf 'ning sound ; 
 Beneath their footsteps groans the trembling ground. 
 
 C. A very shower 
 
 Of beauty is thy earthly dower ! 
 Twice seven consenting years have shed 
 Their utmost bounty on thy head : 
 And these gray rocks, this household lawn, 
 These trees, a veil just half withdrawn, 
 
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 119 
 
 This little bay, a quiet road 
 That holds in shelter thy abode ; 
 In truth, together you do seem 
 Like something fashion'd in a dream.* 
 
 PART III. 
 
 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 THE various kinds of ORIGINAL COMPOSITION, in which 
 the preceding Rules and Exercises may be practised, 
 are Narrative, Descriptive, and Miscellaneous Essay s.^ 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 NARRATIVE ESSAYS. 
 
 Narrative Essays relate events, which should be 
 recorded in the order of time ; and facts, which should 
 be mentioned in the order of place. 
 
 Write narrative essays from the following detached 
 sentences : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Cincinnatus. 
 
 Cincinnatus was chosen consul. 
 
 He had for some time lived in retirement, cultivating a small 
 farm. 
 
 He regretted that his assistance should be required. 
 
 He resolved to side with neither the patrician nor the plebeian 
 faction. 
 
 Having restored tranquillity, he returned home. 
 
 * The Teacher should direct the attention of" his Pupils to the figures 
 which occur in the course of their ordinary reading, and occasionally 
 prescribe exercises upon them after the manner of the above. 
 
 f* The Teacher may occasionally vary the exercises in Original Com- 
 position, by making his Pupils write them in the form of LETTERS, 
 which ought to be composed in a more easy and familiar style than re- 
 gular Essays. 
 
J20 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 An assembly having been appointed for choosing another con- 
 sul, the senate fixed upon Quintius Cincinnatus. This noble 
 Roman had, for some time, given up all views of ambition, and 
 retired to a little farm, where the deputies of the senate found him 
 holding the plough, and dressed in the humble attire of a labour- 
 ing husbandman. Preferring the charms of country retirement to 
 the fatiguing splendours of office, he appeared but little elevated 
 by the dignity which was offered to him, and rather testified a con- 
 cern that his aid should be wanted. Having taken a tender leave 
 of his wife, he departed for the city, where he found the two parties 
 violently inflamed against each other. The new consul, however, 
 resolved to side with neither ; but, by a strict attention to the in- 
 terests of his country, instead of gaining the confidence of faction, 
 endeavoured to secure the esteem of all. By his moderation, hu- 
 manity, and justice, he at length restored to the people that tran- 
 quillity, which he so much loved himself; when he again renounced 
 the splendours of ambition, and returned with increasing relish to 
 the enjoyment of his farm. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Cincinnatus was chosen dictator. 
 
 He was the only person on whom his countrymen could depend. 
 
 As before, he was found labouring in his field. 
 
 He was astonished, but not elated, by the unbounded power 
 offered to him. 
 
 He nominated Tarquitius, another poor man, his master of the 
 horse. 
 
 Cincinnatus delivered his country, and resigned the dictatorship 
 in fourteen days. 
 
 He was content with temperance and fame. 
 
 2. The city of Falerii was besieged by Camillus, general of the 
 Romans. 
 
 A schoolmaster decoyed the children of the principal citizens 
 into the Roman camp. 
 
 He told Camillus that the possession of these children would 
 soon make the citizens surrender. 
 
 Camillus replied, that the Romans loved courage, but hated 
 treachery. 
 
 He ordered the schoolmaster to be whipt into the city by the boys. 
 
 The citizens immediately submitted to the Romans. 
 
V 
 
 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 121 
 
 3. The city of Troy was taken by the Greeks. 
 
 The conquerors permitted every free citizen to choose any one 
 thing which he valued most. 
 
 jEneas carried away his household gods. 
 
 The Greeks gave him permission to take what he valued next. 
 
 He raised his aged father upon his shoulders. 
 
 The Greeks then gave him leave to carry away all his property. 
 
 4. Damon was condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius. 
 He was permitted to go home to settle his affairs. 
 
 Pythias offered to submit to death if his friend did not return. 
 The tyrant blamed Pythias for his foolish confidence. 
 At the very hour Damon arrived. 
 
 Dionysius pardoned Damon, and begged to be honoured with 
 the friendship of two such worthy men. 
 
 5. After the battle of Cressy, Calais was besieged by Edward 
 III. 
 
 Provoked by the resistance of the inhabitants, he ordered them 
 to choose six of their number to be put to death. 
 
 While all were struck with horror at this sentence, Eustace de 
 St Pierre offered himself for one. 
 
 Five more soon joined him ; and they came with halters about 
 their necks to Edward. 
 
 He ordered them to be executed; but his queen pleaded so 
 powerfully for them, that he pardoned them. 
 
 The queen not only entertained them sumptuously in her own 
 tent, but sent them back loaded with presents. 
 
 6. David was bora at Bethlehem. 
 
 He was sent to the camp to inquire for his brothers. 
 He was provoked to hear the Israelites challenged by Goliah. 
 He slew their champion with a stone thrown from a sling, and 
 the Philistines fled.* 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS. 
 
 Descriptive Essays give an account of persons, ani- 
 mals, places, objects, &c. 
 
 * The Teacher can be at no loss for additional subjects of Narrative 
 Essays. After his Pupils have had some practice in original composi- 
 tion, he may discontinue giving them detached sentences, especially 
 when the narratives are taken from Scripture history. 
 
122 
 
 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 Write descriptive essays on the following subjects : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Nice. 
 
 A description of Nice ; the extent of the city and county ; the 
 situation of the city ; its appearance and fortifications ; scenery 
 and productions of the adjacent country. 
 
 I am at last settled at Nice, and have leisure to give you some 
 account of this very remarkable place. The county of Nice ex- 
 tends about eighty miles in length, and in some places it is thirty 
 miles broad. The length of the city does not exceed two miles, 
 nor is the breadth of it, in any part, above one. It is bounded by 
 the Mediterranean on the south, and wedged in between a steep 
 rock and the little river Paglion, which descends from the moun- 
 tains, and washing the town walls on the west side, falls into 
 the sea, after having filled some canals for the use of the in- 
 habitants. The city of Nice is built in the form of a triangle, 
 the base of which is towards the sea. On the west side, it is 
 surrounded by a wall and rampart ; on the east, it is overhung 
 by a rock, with the ruins of an old castle, which, before the inven- 
 tion of artillery, was reckoned impregnable. When I stand upon 
 the rampart and look around me, I can scarcely help thinking my- 
 self enchanted. The small extent of country which I see, is cul- 
 tivated like a garden. Indeed, the plain presents nothing but gar- 
 dens, full of green trees loaded with oranges, lemons, citrons, and 
 bergamots, which make a delightful appearance. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The apostle Paul; his birthplace; by whom educated; in 
 the opinions of what sect ; on what occasion first mentioned in 
 Scripture ; for what then remarkable ; his conversion ; subsequent 
 history ; for what distinguished. 
 
 2. Julius Caesar ; his family ; his great rival ; his conquests ; 
 his great power ; his death and character. 
 
 3. Jerusalem; its situation; remarkable localities in the city 
 and neighbourhood ; when first mentioned in history ; to whom 
 originally belonged ; when the citadel taken by the Israelites ; by 
 whom made the capital ; the most famous of its public buildings ; 
 how many times taken and plundered ; the most remarkable events 
 in its history ; by whom destroyed ; by whom rebuilt ; present 
 state. 
 
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 123 
 
 4. Rome ; by whom founded ; on what built ; most famous 
 public buildings mentioned in history ; extent and population in 
 the time of Augustus; present state. 
 
 5. The elephant; where found; size; appearance; food; ha- 
 bits; utility. 
 
 6. The seasons ; appearances of nature ; operations ; amuse- 
 ments, &c., at the different periods of the year.* 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS. 
 
 Miscellaneous Essays may treat of any subject which 
 is interesting or instructive. 
 Write miscellaneous essays from the following heads : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 On Amusement. 
 
 I. It is a great mistake to suppose that amusement should form 
 the business of life. 
 
 II. The original meaning of the terms amusement, relaxation, 
 and recreation, may convince us of this. 
 
 III. That which is made the business of life ceases to be 
 amusement. 
 
 IV. Rich and poor must be employed, or be unhappy. 
 
 I. It is very often taken for granted by young people, that 
 amusement is the principal object of life ; and this opinion is fre- 
 quently carried to so great an excess, that pleasure seems to be the 
 ruling principle which directs all their thoughts, words, and actions, 
 and which makes the serious duties of life heavy and disgusting. 
 Such an opinion, however, is no less absurd than unhappy, as may 
 
 * As recommended in the preceding- note, the Teacher may discontinue 
 giving hints, when his Pupils have had some practice in writing De- 
 scriptive Essays. When they have a competent knowledge of geography 
 and local history, narration and description may be combined by mak- 
 ing them write imaginary excursions, travels, &c., either in the form of 
 Essays, Letters, or Journals. 
 
124 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 be shown by taking the other side of the question, and proving 
 that there is no real enjoyment without labour. 
 
 II. The words commonly used as synonymous with amusement, 
 are relaxation and recreation ; and the precise meaning of these words 
 may help us to take a correct view of this subject. Amusement 
 signifies an occasional forsaking of the muses, or the laying aside 
 of our books when we are weary with study. The idea of relaxa- 
 tion is taken from a bow, which must be unbent when it is not 
 wanted, that its elasticity may be preserved. Recreation is the 
 refreshing of our spirits when they are exhausted with labour, that 
 we may be ready, in due time, to resume it again. From these 
 considerations it follows, that, to use a common expression, the idle 
 man who has no work, can have no play ; for, how can he leave 
 the muses, who is never with them ? how can he be relaxed, 
 who is never bent ? how can play refresh him, who is never ex- 
 hausted with business ? 
 
 III. All rest presupposes labour : hence, when amusement be- 
 comes the business of life, its nature is changed. He that has no 
 variety, can have no enjoyment : he is surfeited with pleasure, and 
 in the bitter hours of reflection, would find a refuge in labour it. 
 self. Indeed, it may be observed, that there is not a more miser- 
 able being, than a young person who has nothing to do but find 
 out some new way of putting off time. 
 
 IV. We sometimes hear it said of poor men, that if they do not 
 work, they shall not eat ; and a similar remark may be made upon 
 the rich, who, if they are not in some respect useful to the public, 
 are almost sure to become burdensome to themselves. A blessing 
 goes along with every useful employment : it keeps a man on good 
 terms with himself, and consequently in good spirits, and in a ca- 
 pacity of being pleased with every innocent gratification. As la- 
 bour is necessary to procure an appetite to the body, so must there 
 be some previous exercise of the mind to prepare it for enjoyment. 
 Indulgence on any other terms is false in itself, and ruinous in its 
 consequences. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. On History. 
 
 I. History a most interesting and useful branch of study. 
 II. History a representation of human character; the record of 
 human experience. 
 
 III. The various kinds of information which we derive from 
 the study of history. 
 
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 125 
 
 IV. Some of the great moral lessons which history teaches.* 
 2. On Parental Affection. 
 
 I. Parental affection implanted by Providence for the preser- 
 vation of the species. 
 
 II. We are, therefore, indebted for it to the great Father of all. 
 
 III. Remarkable instances of parental affection. 
 
 IV. The corresponding duty of children. 
 
 3. On Generosity. 
 
 I. Generosity is doing more than we are obliged to do. 
 II. We must do justice to escape the censure of the laws; 
 but to be generous we must do more than the laws require. 
 
 III. Christian morality is true generosity. 
 
 IV. Generosity produces generosity. 
 
 V. Remarkable examples of generosity. 
 
 4. On Politeness. 
 I. The origin of the term. 
 II. The ordinary acceptation of it. 
 
 III. Politeness ought to express that benevolence artificially, 
 which religion requires in reality. 
 
 IV. What Christian maxim is the foundation of all true po- 
 liteness ? 
 
 V. Correspondence between politeness and religion. 
 
 5. Sympathy. 
 
 I. What is sympathy ? 
 II. It at once supports and adorns human nature. 
 
 III. It guards our infancy, instructs our childhood, and per- 
 forms all the kind offices of friendship in riper years. 
 
 IV. It consoles us in our last moments, and defends our charac- 
 ter after death. 
 
 V. A person without sympathy, and living only for himself, 
 is the basest and most odious of all creatures. 
 
 6. On Education. 
 
 I. Education consists not only in acquiring knowledge, but 
 in the formation of such habits as determine the character. 
 
 * It may at first be necessary for the Teacher to assist his Pupils in 
 amplifying these heads. He may also suggest examples, and other illus- 
 trations, especially when they occur in the course of their ordinary studies. 
 
126 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 II. The station of men in society^ more dependent on educa- 
 tion than on birth or fortune. 
 
 III. Fortune may descend to us from others ; but education 
 must be acquired by ourselves. 
 
 IV. Alexander the Great said he was more indebted to his 
 tutor Aristotle, than to his father Philip. 
 
 V. The superiority of one man to another, owing more to 
 education than to nature. 
 
 VI. How many have remained in inferior situations, who 
 might have risen to eminence, but for the want of education ! 
 
 VII. Much may be done in the way of educating themselves 
 afterwards, by those whose education has been neglected in child- 
 hood and youth. 
 
 VIII. We ought to cherish gratitude to the friends who have 
 bestowed upon us this blessing, and respect for the institutions at 
 which we ourselves have been educated, or which place education 
 within every one's reach. 
 
 7. On the Love of Order. 
 
 I. Order is of the utmost importance in the affairs of life. 
 II. A love of order is a love of beauty, propriety, and har- 
 mony, in the material and in the moral world. 
 
 III. A love of order appears in the regulation of our expenses, 
 in the spending of our time, in the choice of our company, and 
 even in our amusements. 
 
 IV. Arguments for orderly habits from the Scriptures. 
 
 V. Connexion between the love of order and other virtues. 
 
 8. On Affectation. 
 
 I. Affectation is apparent hypocrisy. 
 II. It has its origin in vanity. 
 
 III. Affectation hurts the pride of others, by endeavouring either 
 to impose upon them or to excel them, and therefore makes them 
 its enemy. 
 
 IV. Nothing more exposes affectation than contrasting it with 
 its opposite. Affectation wears a disguise, is a double character, 
 and creates suspicion ; simplicity is what it appears to be, has a 
 unity of character, and creates confidence. 
 
 V. Affectation is a folly by which we gain nothing but contempt. 
 VI. An affected character may be compared to a palace built 
 of ice. 
 VII. Affectation tarnishes the most shining qualities. 
 
v 
 
 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 9. On Composition. 
 
 I. The general meaning of the word, its application to parti- 
 cular arts, and the branch of study to which it is usually limited. 
 
 II. The importance of studying composition, knowledge being 
 of little use without the art of communicating it. 
 III. The best means of acquiring this art. 
 
 10. On Conversation. 
 
 I. Ability to converse little appreciated, because of familiar 
 use. 
 
 II. The improvement derived from conversation. 
 III. The pleasure derived from conversation. 
 
 11. On Reading. 
 
 I. Reading compared with conversation. 
 
 II. Reading more conducive to improvement than ordinary 
 conversation. 
 
 III. Its effect upon the mind of the student. 
 
 IV. Its effect upon his language. 
 
 12. On Memory. 
 
 I. Memory the storehouse of the mind. 
 II. To some not a treasury of things, but a lumber-room of words. 
 
 III. What ought to be the effects of observation, discourse, 
 and reading ? 
 
 IV. To what persons will memory bring constant causes of 
 regret and misery ? 
 
 V. To whom is it a never-failing spring of pleasure ? 
 
 13. On Curiosity. 
 
 I. Curiosity a useful or a pernicious principle, according as 
 directed. 
 
 II. What we owe to well-directed curiosity. 
 
 III. The effects of ill-directed curiosity. 
 
 IV. Character of a person notorious for ill-directed curiosity. 
 
 14. On Filial Duty. 
 
 I. The earliest virtue we can practise. What may be rea- 
 sonably hoped of the child that displays it. 
 
 II. It is a virtue of the heart : it has also the sanction of the 
 understanding. 
 
 III. Remarkable examples of filial duty. 
 
128 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 15. On Patriotism. 
 
 I. A sentiment inculcated by nature; for as we naturally 
 prefer our kindred to ordinary acquaintances, and the latter to 
 strangers, so do we prefer our native country to every other. 
 
 II. How this sentiment should operate. 
 III. Remarkable examples of patriotism. 
 
 16. On the Art of Printing. 
 
 I. When and by whom discovered and improved. 
 II. In what way has it operated in the diffusion of knowledge ? 
 
 III. What have been its effects ? 
 
 IV. What benefits may we yet hope from it ? 
 
 17. On Knowledge. 
 
 I. We are provided with faculties for acquiring knowledge. 
 II. What may be inferred from this ? 
 
 III. The advantages of extensive knowledge. 
 
 IV. The dangers of false or pernicious knowledge. 
 
 18. On Obedience. 
 I. What depends upon obedience ? 
 
 II. When does it cease to be a duty ? 
 
 III. The evils of disobedience. 
 
 IV. The most remarkable example of obedience. 
 
 19. On Self -Denial. 
 
 I. Consists in abstaining from present indulgence for the 
 sake of greater expected good. 
 
 II. A great principle both of religion and of morals. 
 
 III. To a certain extent necessary to real enjoyment. 
 
 IV. Remarkable examples. 
 
 20. On Piety. 
 
 I. Necessary to virtue. 
 II. Necessary to happiness. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS (continued). 
 
 Write miscellaneous essays according to the following 
 method : 
 
Jj COMPOSITION. 129 
 
 I. The DEFINITION : state the subject distinctly, 
 and, if necessary, explain it by a formal definition/ a 
 paraphrase, or a description. 
 
 II. The CAUSE: show what is the occasion of the 
 subject, or from what it proceeds. 
 
 III. The ANTIQUITY, or NOVELTY: show whether 
 the subject was known in ancient times ; in what state 
 it was, if known ; and in what state it is in modern 
 times. 
 
 IV. The UNIVERSALITY or LOCALITY: show whether 
 the subject relates to the whole world, or only to a 
 particular portion of it. 
 
 V. The EFFECTS: examine whether the subject be 
 good or bad ; show wherein its excellence or inferiority 
 consists ; and point out the advantages or disadvantages 
 which arise from it. 
 
 On Friendship. 9 
 
 I. Friendship is an attachment between persons of congenial 
 dispositions, habits, and pursuits. 
 
 II. It has its origin in the nature and condition of man. He 
 is a social creature, and naturally loves to frequent the society, and 
 enjoy the affections, of those* who are like himself. He is also, 
 individually, a feeble creature, and a sense of this weakness renders 
 friendship indispensable to him. When he has all other enjoy, 
 ments within his reach, he still finds his happiness incomplete, 
 unless participated by one whom he considers his friend. When 
 
 * This subject, and those which follow, may also be proposed in the 
 form of questions ; thus : 
 I. What is friendship ? 
 II. What is the cause of friendship ? 
 
 III. What was anciently thought of friendship, and what examples 
 are on record ? What is friendship seldom remarkable for in modern 
 times ? 
 
 IV. Is friendship confined to any particular rank in life, or state of 
 society ? 
 
 V. What are the benefit* of true, and the evils of false friendship? 
 
 I 
 
130 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 in difficulty and distress, he looks around for advice, assistance, 
 and consolation. 
 
 III. No wonder, therefore, that a sentiment of such importance 
 to man should have been so frequently and so largely considered. 
 We can scarcely open any of the volumes of antiquity without 
 being reminded how excellent a thing is friendship. The exam- 
 ples of David and Jonathan, Achilles and Patroclus, Pylades and 
 Orestes, Nisus and Euryalus, Damon and Pythias, all show to 
 what a degree of enthusiasm it was sometimes carried. But it is 
 to be feared that, in modern times, friendship is seldom remarkable 
 for similar devotedness. With some it is nominal rather than 
 real, and with others it is regulated entirely by self-interest. 
 
 IV. Yet it would, no doubt, be possible to produce, from every 
 rank in life, and from every state of society, instances of sincere 
 and disinterested friendship, creditable to human nature, and to 
 the age in which we live. 
 
 V. After these remarks, to enlarge on the benefits of possessing 
 a real friend appears unnecessary. What would be more intole- 
 rable than the consciousness that, in all the wide world, not one 
 heart beat in unison with our own, or cared for our welfare ? 
 What indescribable happiness must it be, on the other hand, to 
 possess a real friend ; a friend who will counsel, instruct, assist ; 
 who will bear a willing part in our calamity, and cordially rejoice 
 when the hour of happiness returns ! Let us remember, however, 
 that all who assume the name of friends are not entitled to our 
 confidence. History records many instances of the fatal conse- 
 quences of infidelity in friendship ; and it cannot be denied that 
 the world contains men, who are happy to find a heart they can 
 pervert, or a head they can mislead, if thus their unworthy ends 
 can be more surely attained. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. On Government. 
 
 2. On War. 
 
 3. On Youth. 
 
 4. On Old Age. 
 
 5. On Dramatic Entertainments. 
 
 6. On Books. 
 
 7. On Travelling. 
 
 8. On Poetry. 
 
 9. On Painting. 
 
 10. On Music. 
 
 11. On Commerce. 
 
 12. On Gaming. 
 
 13. On Chivalry. 
 
 14. On Philosophy. 
 
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 131 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS (continued). 
 Write miscellaneous essays according to the follow- 
 ing method : 
 
 I. The PROPOSITION, or NARRATIVE : where you 
 show the meaning of the subject, by amplification, pa- 
 raphrase, or explanation. 
 
 II. The REASON : where you prove the truth of 
 the proposition by some reason or argument. 
 
 III. The CONFIRMATION : where you show the un- 
 reasonableness of the contrary opinion, or advance some 
 other reason in support of the former. 
 
 IV. The SIMILE: where you illustrate the truth of 
 what is affirmed, by introducing some comparison. 
 
 V. The EXAMPLE : where you bring instances 
 from history to corroborate the truth of your affirma- 
 tions, or the soundness of your reasoning. 
 
 VI. The TESTIMONY: where you introduce pro- 
 verbial sentences, or passages from good authors, which 
 show that others think as you do. 
 
 VII. The CONCLUSION : where you sum up the 
 whole, and show the practical use of the subject, by 
 some pertinent observations. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Virtue is Us own reward. 
 
 I. Virtue consists in doing our duty to God and our neighbour, 
 in opposition to all temptations to the contrary. Such conduct 
 is so consonant to the light of reason, and so agreeable to our 
 moral sentiments, and produces so much peace of mind, that it 
 may be said to carry its reward along with it, even if unattended 
 by that recompense which it generally meets in the world. 
 
 II. The reason of this seems to lie in the very nature of things. 
 Ths all-wise and benevolent Author of nature has so framed the 
 soul of man, that he cannot but approve of virtue ; and has an- 
 nexed to the practice of it an inward satisfaction, that mankind 
 may be encouraged to become virtuous. 
 
 III. If it were not so, if virtue were accompanied with no self- 
 satisfaction, we should not only be discouraged from practising it, 
 
132 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 but should be tempted to think that there was something very 
 wrong in the laws and the administration of Providence. 
 
 IV. But the reward of virtue is not always confined to this in- 
 ternal peace and happiness. As, in the works of nature and art, 
 whatever is really beautiful, is generally useful ; so, in the moral 
 world, whatever is truly virtuous, is at the same time so beneficial 
 to society, tnai it seldom goes without some external recompense. 
 
 V. How has the approbation of all future ages rewarded the 
 virtue of Scipio ! That young warrior had taken a beautiful cap- 
 tive, with whose charms he was greatly enamoured ; but, rinding 
 that she was betrothed to a young nobleman of her own country, 
 he, without hesitation, generously delivered her up to him. This 
 one action of the noble. Roman has, more than all his conquests, 
 shed an imperishable lustre around his character. 
 
 VI. Nor has the approbation of mankind been limited to the 
 virtuous actions of individuals. The loveliness of virtue generally 
 has been the constant topic of all moralists, ancient and modern. 
 Plato remarks, that if virtue were to assume a human form, it 
 would command the admiration of the whole world. A late writer 
 has said, " In every region, every clime, the homage paid to virtue 
 is the ^ame. In no one sentiment were ever mankind more gene- 
 rally agreed." 
 
 VII. If, therefore, virtue is in itself so lovely; if it generally 
 commands the approbation of mankind ; if it is accompanied with 
 inward peace and satisfaction : surely it may be said to be Jts own 
 reward ; for, though it must be acknowledged that it is frequently 
 attended with crosses and misfortunes in this life, and that there is 
 something of self-denial in the very idea of it ; yet, in the words 
 of the poet, is 
 
 " The broadest mirth unfeeling folly wears, 
 .Less pleasing far than virtue's very tears." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Delays are dangerous. 
 
 2. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 
 
 3. Well begun is half done. 
 
 4. Perseverance generally prevails. 
 
 5. Necessity is the mother of invention. 
 6*. Custom is second nature. 
 
 7 Honesty is the best policy.* 
 
 * The exercises on these subjects may also be written in the form of 
 fictitious narratives. 
 
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 133 
 
 LIST OP SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS. 
 
 1. History and character of Abraham. 
 
 2. - Joseph. 
 
 3. Moses, &c. 
 
 4. Description of Athens. 
 
 5. London. 
 
 6. Paris, &c. 
 
 7. Biography of Pompey. 
 8. Columbus. 
 
 9. Napoleon Bonaparte, &c. 
 
 10. History of a hat. 
 
 1 1. a pin. 
 
 12. a shilling, &c. 
 
 13. Tour through Great Britain. 
 
 14. : France. 
 
 15. Spain, &c. 
 
 16. Journal of a voyage round the world. 
 
 17. Different forms of government. 
 1 8. religion. 
 
 19. Adaptation of animals to the countries in which they live. 
 
 20. vegetables to the situation in which they 
 
 grow. 
 
 21. Arrangement of mineral strata. 
 
 22. Invention of the mariner's compass. , 
 
 23. the telescope. 
 
 24. the steam-boat, &o, 
 
 25. Sculpture. 
 
 26. Architecture, &c. 
 
 27. Justice. 
 
 28. Prudence. 
 
 29. Temperance. 
 
 30. Fortitude. 
 
 31. Courage. 
 
 32. Hospitality. 
 
 33. Ambition. 
 
 34. Benevolence. 
 3,i. Magnanimity. 
 
 36. Patience, 
 
 37. Truth. 
 
 38. Prejudice. 
 
 39. First impressions. 
 
134 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 40. Reason and instinct. 
 
 41. Progress of error. 
 
 42. Knowledge is power. 
 
 43. Public opinion. 
 
 44. The senses. 
 
 45. The mental powers. 
 
 46. The law of gravitation. 
 
 47. An effect presupposes a cause. 
 
 48. Five minutes too late. 
 
 49. The Castaway. 
 
 50. Life, reign, and character of James 1. of Scotland. 
 
 51. Cyrus the Great, and his contemporaries. 
 
 52. Summary of Scripture History. 
 
 53. Typical character of the Old Testament. 
 
 54. Evidences of Christianity. 
 
 55. Influence of Christianity on the social condition of mankind. 
 
 56. Immortality of the soul. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 Printed by OLIVER <fe BOVD, 
 ?<ld;ilc Court, High Street, Edinburgh. 
 
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