. 
 
 MJJf 
 
 tt * 
 
 14
 
 W. IRVING CROWLEY 
 
 Spanish Interpreter 
 
 Edison Building 
 U. S. N. Aid for Information CHICAGO
 
 ELEMENTARY 
 
 SWEDISH GRAMMAR 
 
 BY 
 
 A. LOUIS ELMQUIST 
 
 Northwestern University 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 THE ENOBERG-HOLMBE1RG PUBLISHING CO. 
 1914
 
 Copyright 1914 by 
 A. Louis Elmquist
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Under present conditions the chief aim of one writing 
 a Swedish grammar from the point of view of English- 
 speaking persons should be to give an accurate and clear 
 statement of the facts. The question of this or that 
 modern method must as yet, at least, remain secondary. 
 Moreover, the presentation as well as the contents must 
 be such that the grammar can be used to the fullest ad- 
 vantage by students with very different qualifications. 
 
 This book has been written to meet the point of view 
 of the student who knows nothing at all about Swedish, 
 no previous knowledge of the language being taken for 
 granted. As a matter of fact, however, the book will 
 be used largely by students already able to understand 
 simple Swedish. It has therefore seemed unnecessary to 
 lay so much stress on the translation exercises as it 
 would otherwise perhaps have been well to do. Those 
 already able to read Swedish will naturally begin at 
 once reading the available text-editions in connection 
 with their work in the grammar. For these, also, re- 
 production in connection with this reading, and original 
 composition, will be most profitable. 
 
 The grammatical material has with few exceptions 
 "been presented connectedly (see page 14). This will 
 make possible the acquisition of a clear view of the en- 
 tire subject, and will facilitate reference. In many cases 
 the long lessons will have to be divided; in connection 
 with the reading in the text-editions this will present 
 no difficulty.
 
 IV 
 
 I want to call special attention to the material given 
 under the headings PRONUNCIATION, ORTHOGRAPHY, 
 ACCENT and COLLOQUIALISMS. A considerable part of 
 this will in perhaps most cases be used to the greatest 
 advantage in connection with a review or a more ad- 
 vanced study of the grammar. The book is so constructed 
 that there is no need of including any part of this in 
 the first study of the book. It is my hope, however, 
 that users of the book will at all times draw abundantly 
 from the important material therein contained. 
 
 Under the heading PRONUNCIATION in each lesson 
 are listed the words from that lesson that are likely to 
 give difficulty, particularly to non-Swedes. Reference is 
 usually made to the introduction on pronunciation, or to 
 my Phonology. I think it is desirable for students who 
 already speak the language to acquire a real knowledge 
 of the rules of Swedish pronunciation. This could not 
 have been accomplished so well by the use of phonetic 
 transcription, which I might otherwise have employed, 
 had the types been available. The introduction on pro- 
 nunciation, too, has been so constructed that it should 
 invite real acquisition rather than a purely formal sur- 
 vey. My Phonology of the Swedish Language, a book of 
 about fifty pages that will be published before January, 
 1915, goes into the subject in more detail, still dealing 
 only with essential things. I retain in the introduction 
 on sounds the customary terms "hard" and "soft" 
 vowels, notwithstanding the expressed preference on the 
 part of some for the terms "back" and "front". The 
 use of these latter terms in the connection in which 
 "hard" and "soft" are used would be incorrect in treat- 
 ing of the modern language (see Noreen, Vart Sprak y 
 Vol. I, page 389). Owing to a misunderstanding it be-
 
 came impossible to use anywhere the customary mark of 
 the grave accent in marking the irregular position of the 
 stress. My use of the sign ' therefore does not necessarily 
 signify the acute accent; it simply marks the position of 
 the stress. I have relegated to the Phonology all men- 
 tion of the differences between the older and the new 
 orthography. 
 
 In the attention given to ACCENT (acute and grave) 
 in each lesson, I hope I have made this difficult subject 
 more accessible than heretofore. In connection with this 
 detail the brief account given in the introduction should 
 be thoroughly mastered. A considerably more complete 
 treatment of accent will be found in my Phonology. 
 Owing to the great lack of uniformity in accentual 
 matters in Sweden there will in some instances, no doubt, 
 be differences of opinion. I have in no case either in 
 the matter of accent or pronunciation, nor, indeed, any- 
 where else in the grammar given preference to my own 
 local inclinations. 
 
 Another radical departure from all other similar works 
 is in the attention I have given to the spoken language. 
 It cannot be emphasized too strongly to persons also 
 speaking English that it is in a great many details in- 
 correct in speaking Swedish to use the language of the 
 books. On the other hand it is not incorrect to use the 
 colloquialisms in speaking to anybody. Notwithstanding 
 the urgent suggestion of eminent scholars that I use the 
 terms "higher style" and "lower style", I have decided 
 to retain the terms "spoken language" and "written 
 language". This I have done because I am convinced 
 that the terms chosen are pedagogically better under ex- 
 isting conditions among users of the language of our 
 country. I have wanted to say to the student: "This
 
 VI 
 
 is the language you will find in the books, but that is 
 the way you'll have to talk." The American would 
 hesitate to use a form of speech said to be lower stylist- 
 ically. There is at present in Sweden a growing ten- 
 dency to use more of the characteristics of the spoken 
 language in the written. Among the best writers I 
 would call attention especially to Selma Lagerlof in this 
 connection, particularly in the recent revised edition of 
 her works (for text-editions, see Appendix V). No 
 small amount of the material mentioned under colloquial- 
 isms in this grammar is frequently found also in books. 
 While I have in many instances called attention to this, 
 my failure to do so must not be taken to mean that the 
 word, form or construction in question does not occur 
 also in the written language. In the case of colloquial 
 matters pertaining only to certain sections of the country, 
 I have not aimed in every case to specify the locality. 
 No teacher will want, perhaps, to emphasize all the collo- 
 quialisms mentioned; this is particularly true of local 
 matters of the kind just referred to, none of which, how- 
 ever, is to be avoided as dialectical by persons already 
 using them. For persons not using them I can, on the 
 other hand, see no reason for striving to acquire them. 
 It should be found a valuable exercise to have students 
 recast into colloquial form Swedish of a more literary style 
 of composition. In dealing with matters stylistic I have 
 practically ignored archaic, poetical and dialectical details. 
 One should not lose sight of the fact, then, that the 
 Swedish-American has no little difficulty in distinguish- 
 ing between spoken and written Swedish. In speaking 
 Swedish he has, however, two further difficulties: (i) In 
 most cases his parents while in Sweden used a form of 
 Swedish that was rather dialectical, and the Swedish-
 
 vn 
 
 American is therefore likely to reveal dialectical traits to 
 an extent to which persons in Sweden who are in simi- 
 lar circumstances to those that he is now in would not 
 do it. But there are (I state this emphatically) not a 
 few localisms usages covering a large or important 
 area which are entirely permissible, and in no way 
 objectionable. Most cultured Swedes speak a form of 
 Swedish that is colored and enriched with such local- 
 isms, and which usually reveals the locality from which 
 they come. (2) American Swedes have allowed the 
 language of this country to influence their Swedish in 
 three leading directions: (a) pronunciation, in that they 
 to a large extent substitute American-English sounds for 
 the corresponding Swedish ones, and tend to use the acute 
 accent in all words; (b) vocabulary, in that they to a 
 large extent substitute American-English words for 
 Swedish words; (c) idiom, in that they transfer or trans- 
 late American-English idioms directly into Swedish. In 
 Sweden such speech must clearly be avoided. For a 
 bibliography on this subject, see Appendix V. 
 
 The following friends I herewith thank heartily for 
 their kindness in reading the proofs and offering many 
 valuable suggestions: Professor Adolf Noreen and Decent 
 Olof Ostergren of the University of Upsala, Professor 
 Jules Mauritzson of Augustana College, Professor George 
 T. Flom of the University of Illinois, Dr. Lee M. Hol- 
 lander of the University of Wisconsin, Professor Louis 
 Baker of Lawrence College, President David Nyvall of 
 North Park College, Professor Gustav A. Peterson of 
 Bethany College, Professor Albert E. Egge of the State 
 College of Washington, Professor Joseph Alexis of the 
 University of Nebraska, Mr. Carl O. Sundstrom of the 
 Lake View High School, Chicago, Mr. E. W. Olson of
 
 VIII 
 
 Rock Island, 111., and my colleagues Professor James Taft 
 Hatfield, Dr. F. A. Bernstorff, Dr. George V. McCauley 
 and Dr. Ronald S. Crane. Valuable suggestions have 
 also come from Mr. John T. Halhvachs and Miss Edith 
 A. Mohney, with whom I have had the pleasure of using 
 the proofs in class- work. To my colleagues Professors 
 George O. Cur me and W. F. Bryan I am grateful for 
 their readiness to discuss with me at all times matters 
 of general grammar and English grammar. I am under 
 obligations to Albert Bonniers Forlag of Stockholm for 
 their good will in connection with my reprinting selec- 
 tions from Swedish literature published by them. 
 
 A. LOUIS ELMQUIST 
 Evanston, Illinois, 
 January, 1914.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Note. Besides the usual vocabularies and exercises, each lesson 
 contains, in addition to the contents as given below, a discussion 
 of ORTHOGRAPHY, PRONUNCIATION, ACCENT (acute and 
 grave), and COLLOQUIALISMS, based on the material contained 
 in each lesson. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PRONUNCIATION I 
 
 Alphabet. 
 
 Stress. 
 
 Accent. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Sounds. 
 
 SYLLABICATION 12 
 
 CAPITALIZATION 12 
 
 PUNCTUATION 13 
 
 CONSPECTUS OF CONTENTS OF LESSONS 14 
 
 LESSON 
 
 I. Gender 15 
 
 Singular of adjectives (also denna, delta). 
 
 Indefinite article (also min, din, er). 
 
 Present indicative singular of hava, vara. 
 
 Uses of personal pronouns du, ni, han, Aon, den, del. 
 
 II. Definite article (postpositive) 22 
 
 Present indicative. 
 
 Possessive pronouns vdr, er. 
 
 Use of personal pronouns / and ni. 
 
 III. Declension 28 
 
 Genitive. 
 
 First Declension. 
 
 Plural of adjectives and possessive pronouns (also dessa). 
 
 Genitives of personal pronouns of the third person. 
 
 IV. Second Declension 34 
 
 Past tense of hava, vara. 
 
 IX
 
 V. The adjective, definite form 40 
 
 Prepositive definite article. 
 
 Past tense of weak and strong verbs. 
 
 VI. Third Declension 46 
 
 VII. Fourth Declension 53 
 
 Strong verbs, past tense; principal systems. 
 Negatives. 
 
 VIII. Fifth Declension 6c> 
 
 Irregularities in declension. 
 Foreign forms. 
 
 IX. Syntax of the noun (genitive, indefinite article, defi- 
 nite form ) 70 
 
 X. Future time 81 
 
 Order of words. 
 
 XI. Adjectives 91 
 
 XII. Comparison of adjectives loo 
 
 XIII. Adverbs 108 
 
 Comparison of adverbs. 
 
 XIV. The verb 117 
 
 First Weak Conjugation. 
 
 Personal Pronouns. 
 
 Reflexive pronouns (personal and possessive). 
 
 XV. Second Weak Conjugation 1 28 
 
 Third Weak Conjugation. 
 
 XVI. Strong Conjugation 1 38 
 
 XVII. Subjunctive 148 
 
 XVIII. Passive 158 
 
 Deponents. 
 
 XIX. Compound verbs 1 70 
 
 Reflexive verbs. 
 Impersonal verbs. 
 
 XX. Participles iSo 
 
 Infinitives. 
 Imperative. 
 
 Syntactical remarks (past for present; progressive). 
 XXI. Auxiliaries 192
 
 XI 
 
 XXII. Personal pronouns 202 
 
 Possessive pronouns. 
 Demonstrative pronouns. 
 
 XXIII. Relative pronouns 214 
 
 Interrogative pronouns. 
 
 XXIV. Indefinite pronouns 227 
 
 XXV. Numerals 239 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 I. Distribution of various types of nouns in the different 
 
 declensions 248 
 
 II. The postpositive article 249 
 
 III. Use of -e as an ending. Male sex 252 
 
 IV. List of strong and irregular verbs '. . . . 253 
 
 V. Bibliography 263 
 
 VOCABULARIES (Swedish-English, English-Swedish) 270 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 299 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 309 
 
 NOTES AND CORRECTIONS 322
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Note. For a more complete account of Swedish pronunciation 
 the student is referred to the author's Phonology (see the an- 
 nouncement in the preface of this book); reference is frequently 
 made to this work in the grammar. 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 1. The Swedish alphabet is the same as the English, 
 with the addition of the three vowel-characters a, a, b 
 (capitals, A, A, 0) after z. In Swedish, y is used only 
 as a vowel. Q and w occur only in proper names; z, 
 only in proper names and in a few words of foreign origin. 
 For the names of the letters of the alphabet see 20. 
 
 STRESS. 
 
 2. The first syllable has the main stress, with the 
 following principal exceptions: 
 
 (1) Very many words of foreign origin; as, april' 
 April, tea'ter theater. 
 
 (2) Words with the prefixes be-, ge- and (usually) 
 for-, which are stressed on the syllable following the 
 
 prefix; as, berafta relate, geva'r weapon, fbrsb'ka try. 
 
 (3) Verbs ending in -era and nouns ending in -inna, 
 -essa- stress the first syllable of these endings; as, stude'ra 
 study, Idraririna (woman) teacher, prinses'sa princess. 
 
 (4) Nouns ending in -eri stress the last syllable; as, 
 bagerf bakery.
 
 2 ACCENT 
 
 (5) Some adjectives of more than two syllables ending 
 in -lig, and many ending in -tsk, stress the syllable 
 immediately preceding; as, egen'tlig real, poli'tisk political, 
 mora'lisk moral. 
 
 (6) Many native compounds stress some syllable other 
 than the first; as, densam'ma the same, kanhari da perhaps, 
 varan 'dra each other, any'o anew, farra'l farewell, tillba'- 
 ka back, atmin' stone at least, omin' tetgbra defeat, frus- 
 trate, Gbtebor'g Gothenburg, Karlskro'na. 
 
 Note. In this grammar the position of the stress is in- 
 dicated whenever it rests on some syllable other than the first; 
 the stress-mark is placed after the long sound ( see 7). 
 
 ACCENT. 
 
 3. Accent is a combination of various phases of stress 
 and tone. In pronouncing an English word of two 
 syllables, let us say "houses", the second syllable, 
 besides having much weaker stress, has either lower or 
 higher tone than the first. Similarly, during the pro- 
 nunciation of a monosyllabic word, as "house", the 
 voice either sinks or rises. Swedish words accented as 
 in English are said to have the acute accent. But Swedish 
 has another very different kind of accent called the 
 grave accent. 
 
 4. Swedish employs three different tones: high, middle, 
 low. Dissyllabic words having the acute accent have 
 high tone on the first syllable, and low tone on the 
 second; the second syllable has the weakest stress possible. 
 Dissyllabic words having the grave accent begin with 
 the middle tone and sink to the low tone on the first 
 syllable, rising to the high tone on the second syllable; 
 the second syllable has a degree of stress noticeably 
 stronger than that of the corresponding syllable of words 
 with the acute accent.
 
 ACCENT 3 
 
 Trisyllables with the acute accent have high tone on the 
 first syllable, and low tone on each of the other two; 
 trisyllables with the grave accent have middle tone on the 
 first syllable, low tone on the second, and high tone on 
 the third. Trisyllables, whether they have the acute 
 or the grave accent, have on the second syllable the 
 weakest stress possible, and on the third syllable a 
 degree of stress noticeably stronger. 
 
 Words not stressed on the first syllable have accentual 
 conditions identical with those described, beginning with 
 the syllable that has the main stress. All syllables pre- 
 ceding the main stress have low tone, -whether the rest 
 of the word has the acute or the grave accent; if there 
 is only one syllable preceding, it has the weakest stress 
 possible; if there are two, the syllable immediately pre- 
 ceding the main stress has the weakest stress possible, 
 while the first syllable has a degree of stress noticeably 
 stronger. 
 
 5. Swedish employs the acute accent in monosyllables 
 (as stol chair, sjon the lake), and the grave accent in 
 words and forms of two or more syllables (as stolar 
 chairs, tala speak, talade spoke). However, by excep- 
 tion, the acute accent is used also in a number of words 
 and forms of two or more syllables; namely, 
 
 (1) Most words of foreign origin, whether stressed on 
 the first syllable or on some other; also many native 
 words not stressed on the first syllable. Examples: juni 
 June, genus gender, koffert trunk, tea'ter theater, berdfta 
 relate, stude'ra study, egen'tlig real, poli'tisk political, 
 tillba'ka back. 
 
 (2) Most words ending in -el, -en, -er; as, Aker field, 
 f&gel bird, vatten water, vacker pretty, simpel simple, 
 over over, eller or.
 
 4 QUANTITY 
 
 (3) The following inflectional forms: (a) The pres. 
 sing. ind. act. ending in -er; as, kbper buys, (b) Plurals 
 of the Third Declension that have modified or shortened 
 the vowel; as, hdnder, plur. of hand hand; getter, plur. of 
 get goat, (c) Most comparatives ending in -re; as, 
 hogre higher, (d) The definite form of all nouns and 
 forms of nouns having the acute accent; as, stolen, def. 
 of stol (acute accent); hdnderna, clef, of hander (acute) 
 hands; kofferten, def. of koffert (acute) trunk. 
 
 QUANTITY. 
 
 6. Stressed vowels are long if final or if followed by 
 only one consonant, but short if followed by more than 
 one consonant. All unstressed vowels are short. Ex.: 
 (Long) se see, tal speech, tala (first vowel) speak. 
 (Short) tall pine, fast firm, falsk false, tallar pines, tala, 
 (second vowel) speak, gosse boy. 
 
 Note. I. All vowels followed by a single j or x are short^ 
 and very often vowels followed by final m or n; i is short in the 
 endings -ikel, -ipel, -itel; moreover, in a few individual words the 
 vowel is short, though followed by only one consonant. Ex.: nej 
 (usually a dipthong; cf. 12) no, sex six, hem home, han he, ar- 
 tik'el article, kapit'el chapter, lite I title, april' April, dotna judge, 
 frukost breakfast, hade (a usually short) had. 
 
 2. Vowels followed by rd, rl, rn and (in a few cases) by rt 
 are long; for examples see 13, 3. In cases like brunt, n. of brun 
 brown, vags, gen. of vag road, and lekte, past tense of leka play, 
 where the second consonant belongs to an inflectional ending 
 added to a word with a long vowel, the vowel remains long, unless 
 the addition of the ending results in a double consonant (as vii 
 white, n. vitt; mota meet, past tense motte; leda lead, past tense 
 ledde}. 
 
 7. In Swedish, consonants, like vowels, may be long 
 or short. The long consonant-sound is particularly notice- 
 able when occurring between two vowels; as, falla fall, 
 mamma mamma, hattar hats.
 
 VOWELS 5 
 
 All consonants not following immediately upon the 
 stressed vowel are short. The consonant (if there is 
 one) following immediately upon the stressed vowel is 
 long if the vowel is short, but short if the vowel is long. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 Note. Long vowels in Swedish do not have the vanish so 
 common in English. Moreover, vowels retain their natural sound 
 before r. 
 
 8. The vowels a, u, a, o have a different quality of 
 sound when long and when short. 
 
 (1) a. Long a has a sound between that of the 
 stressed vowels in "father" and "saw". Ex.: av of, off, 
 hat hate, bra well, tala (first a) speak. 
 
 Short a = the first "a" in "aha". Ex.: aft' that, 
 hatt hat, tala (second ) speak, tacka thank. 
 
 Note. Special care should be taken to pronounce clearly un- 
 stressed a, which is very common in endings. 
 
 (2) u. Long u has no English equivalent. Placing 
 the tongue in position for the beginning of "a" in 
 "ate", round the lips (without protrusion) so that they 
 are almost closed. Ex.: ut out, hus house. 
 
 Short ic almost = the final vowel in "value", minus 
 the y-sound. Ex.: kung king, honung honey. 
 
 Note. Swedish u never begins with the sound of Eng. con- 
 sonantal "y", as in English "use", "unite"; as, universite't uni- 
 versity, musi'k music, tnuse'utn museum. 
 
 (3) a. Long a almost = the beginning of "o" in 
 "rope". Ex.: ga go, bat boat. 
 
 Short a = "o" in "obey". Ex.: l&ng long, gatt gone. 
 
 (4) 6. Long o = "6" in German "bose". Placing 
 the tongue in position for Swedish e (see 9, i a), 
 round the lips as for "o" in "rope". Ex.: do die, sot 
 sweet, bga eye.
 
 6 VOWELS 
 
 Short b = "6" in German "Cotter". Placing the 
 tongue in position for Swedish a (see 9, 5), round 
 the lips as for "oo" in "book". Ex.: dbtt died, soft 
 (n.) sweet, bppen open. 
 
 9. The vowels e, i, o (when not = a), y, a have the 
 same quality of sound when long as when short. O is 
 used also to represent the ^-sound; e, also to represent 
 the a-sound. 
 
 (1) e. a) E has a sound between that of the vowels 
 of "hit" and of "hate". Ex.: het hot, se see; hett (n.) 
 hot, sett seen, begri'pa understand. 
 
 b) Unstressed (short) e in endings = "e" in German 
 "Gabe". Ex.: gosse boy, vatten water, vacker pretty, 
 
 f&gel bird, fames is found. 
 
 c) Short e very often, long e rarely, has the sound 
 of a (see 9, 5). Ex.: denna this, eller or, sex six, 
 septem'ber (the first two ^'s) September; med with, det 
 that, erfara experience. 
 
 (2) i. / = "i" in "police". Ex.: i in, livlite, fri 
 free; sitta sit, fritt (n.) free, in in, juli July. 
 
 (3) o. a) O almost = "oo" in "shoot". Ex.: god 
 good, bo live; bodde lived, hon she. 
 
 b) Short o very often, long o frequently, = d. Ex.: 
 ofta often, gott (n.) good, doktor doctor; son son, sova 
 sleep, katalo'g catalog. 
 
 (4) y. This almost = "ii" in German "iiber", but is 
 closer to Swedish i. Placing the tongue in position for ' 'ee' ' 
 in "see", round the lips as for "oo" in "book". Ex.: sy 
 sew, ny new, frysa freeze; nytt (n.) new, lyfta lift, 
 syster sister. 
 
 (5) a. This almost = "ai" in "air". Ex.: ar is, 
 lasa read, rat straight; satta put, ratt (n.) straight.
 
 DIPHTHONGS, CONSONANTS 7 
 
 10. HARD AND SOFT VOWELS. The vowels are divided 
 into: (a) hard vowels: a, o, u, a; (b) soft vowels: e, i,y, a, b. 
 
 11. VOWEL-MODIFICATION. In a number of instances 
 we find related forms having in one case hard vowels, 
 in the other soft vowels; this change from hard to 
 soft vowels is known as vowel-modification (or mutation). 
 Compare Eug. man, men; mouse, mice. 
 
 In Swedish, a and a, when modified, become a; o be- 
 comes b; 21 becomes y. Such an interchange of hard and 
 soft vowels occurs: (a) between the singular and the 
 plural of some nouns; as man man, plur. man; gas 
 goose, plur. gass; bok book, plur. backer; (b) between 
 the positive and the comparative and superlative in a 
 few adjectives; as, stor large, stbrre, stbrst; ung young, 
 yngre, yngst; (c) between the past tense and the in- 
 finitive of a few verbs; as, valde, past tense of valja 
 choose; salde, past tense of salja sell. 
 
 DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 12. Swedish has few diphthongs, and these primarily in 
 words of foreign origin. Ex.: nej (pron. ndj") no, maj 
 May, pojke boy, hbjd height, augus'ti (= "ou" in 
 ''house") August, reumatis'm (in this word eu = 0j") 
 rheumatism. 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 13. The following consonants differ in sound from the 
 corresponding English sounds: 
 
 (1) Swedish r is very unlike our usual American "r"; 
 it is trilled, resembling "r" in "three". Ex.: fara 
 go, er your, fbrr before. 
 
 (2) The dentals (d t t, /, , j) are made a little 
 farther forward toward the teeth than in English, and
 
 8 CONSONANTS 
 
 usually with the blade of the tongue; in the case of /, 
 moreover, the tongue is not hollowed. Ex.: du you, 
 tala speak, dal valley, mi now, sa so. 
 
 (3) The combinations rd, rt, rl, rn, rs represent simply 
 another kind of d, t, /, n, s, made with the tip of the 
 tongue, farther back than Eng. d, t, 1, n, s; no r is 
 heard, except, frequently, in the case of rl. These sounds 
 are called supradentals, because they are made "above" 
 (farther back than) the dentals. Ex.: hard hard, hjdrta 
 heart, harlig glorious, barn child, vers verse. 
 
 (4) The Swedish sound corresponding to Eng. "sh" 
 differs from this; there is a narrowing between the tongue 
 and the roof of the mouth at two places, combining the 
 tongue-positions of Swedish supradental s and of a spirant 
 lying between "ch" in German "Nachte" and in "ich". 
 It is normally, but not usually, written sj. Ex.: sju 
 seven, sjal soul, skilja (here sk = sj) separate, stjarna 
 (stj = sj) star, musta'sch (sc/i = sj) mustache, pensio'n 
 (si sj,- pron. pangsjo'n*) pension, missio'n (ssi = sj) mis- 
 sion, passage'rare (here g = sj) passenger, lektio'n (here 
 ti = sj) lesson. 
 
 14. G, k and sk, when followed by a stressed soft 
 vowel or by an unstressed soft vowel preceding the 
 main stress, have the sounds of Swedish j (= Eng. con- 
 sonantal "y"), tj (= Eng. "ch") and sj, respectively. 
 Ex.: gbra do, giva give; gick, past sing, of ga go; kbpa- 
 buy, kar dear; ske happen, skynda hurry; gcncra'l general, 
 kemi' chemistry. 
 
 G, k, sk otherwise have the sounds of Eng. "g" (as in 
 "g")> "k", "sk", respectively; but-see further details in 
 19, 2 in the case of g. Ex.: ga go; gav, past tense 
 of giva give; glas glass, taga take, eg en own, dag day; 
 ko cow, krypa creep, rbka smoke, vaken awake, tak
 
 CONSONANTS 9 
 
 roof; skall shall, skriva write, vdska bag, fiskcn the fish, 
 Ask fish. 
 
 Note. Observe manniska human being, and kanske perhaps, 
 in which sk = sj. 
 
 15. Gj t kj, skj, which are always followed by hard 
 vowels, = Swedish y, tj, sj, respectively. Ex.: gjorde, 
 past tense of gbra do; kjortel skirt; skjuta shoot. 
 
 16. Initial d, h, /, g are silent when followed by j. 
 Ex.: djur animal, hjdrta heart, ljus light; gjorde, past 
 tense of gbra do 
 
 Otherwise silent consonants occur chiefly in the fol- 
 lowing cases: (a) / is silent in vdrld world, karl man 
 (but not in the proper name Karl, where, on the con- 
 trary, r is very often silent); (b) g in morgnar, plur. of 
 inorgon morning; (c) d in aldst oldest, handske glove, 
 iriidgard garden; (d) n usually when preceded by m or 
 the sound of ng (written g in this case) and followed 
 by d, t, s; as, lugnt (pron. lungt, not lungnf), n. of 
 lugn calm; hdmnd revenge; vagnshjul (pron. vangs-, not 
 vangns-*) wagon-wheel. 
 
 17. Initial g and k are not silent before n; as, gnaga 
 gnaw, kna knee. 
 
 18- Swedish b, d, g, v, when followed by t or s, are 
 usually pronounced p, t, k, f, respectively, except in the 
 genitive singular and the passive singular when a long 
 vowel precedes (as vags,. fogs}. Ex.: absolu't absolute, 
 Jialvvags 1 half-way, byggs is built, Cuds 1 God's, tids 1 nog 
 time enough, grovt coarse. Note particularly the follow- 
 ing: lagt and sagP, supines of Idgga lay, saga (usually 
 pron. soya) say; bragte, bragt, past tense and supine of 
 bringa bring; hbgfi,^hogsfi, neuter and superlative of hog 
 high.
 
 10 CONSONANTS 
 
 19. ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE CONSONANTS: 
 
 (1) c. a) Swedish double k is written ck; as, icke not, 
 ock also. But in one word, och and, it is written ch. 
 
 b) Aside from this use, c occurs only in words of 
 foreign origin: i) = Swedish s, when followed by the 
 soft vowels e, z, y; as, centra' I central, cirka about, 
 cykel cycle; 2) = k, when followed by c (= s)\ as, 
 accen't (pron. aksen'f) accent. 
 
 c) Ch = Swedish sj; it occurs only in words of 
 foreign origin; as, chokla'd chocolate. Cf. also a, above. 
 
 (2) g. a) G = Swedish j: i) before stressed soft 
 vowels and unstressed soft vowels preceding the main 
 stress (for examples see 14); 2) usually after / and r; 
 as, berg mountain, Sver(i)ge (i always silent) Sweden, 
 talg tallow. 
 
 b) G = Swedish sj t when followed by e or / in a 
 number of words of foreign origin; as, passage' rare pas- 
 senger, gent' genius. 
 
 c) G usually = Swedish ng (see 19, 5 b) when fol- 
 lowed by n; as, vagn (pron. vttftgn) wagon, regna to rain. 
 
 d) G is silent before/ (see 15; 16); also in morg- 
 nar (see 16 b). 
 
 e) Otherwise g has the sound of "g" in "go'* 
 (for examples see 14). 
 
 (3) j. y nas the sound of English consonantal "y"; 
 as, jag I, skilja separate. 
 
 (4) k. Double k is written ck; see 19, i a. 
 
 (5) n. a) N = Swedish ng (see below): i) before 
 k, as in English; as, tanka think; 2) often before other 
 consonants (except n) in words of foreign origin; en = 
 ang; as, annon's (pron. anong's) advertisement, pensio'n 
 (pron. pangsjo'n) pension.
 
 CONSONANTS 1 1 
 
 b) Ng = Eng. "ng" in "singer" (not "ngg", as in 
 "finger"); as, sjunga sing, finger finger. 
 
 (6) s. a) Swedish s never has the sound of "z", as 
 in Eng. "roses". 
 
 b) Stj, sch, si, ssi have the sound of Swedish sj 
 (for examples see 13, 4). 
 
 (7) t. a) Tj = "ch" in "church"; as, tjdna serve, 
 tjugu twenty. 
 
 b) Ti: i) = sj, when followed by o and preceded 
 by a consonant (except r); as, lektio'n lesson, subskriptio'n 
 subscription; 2) = t-{-sj, when followed by o and pre- 
 ceded by a vowel or r; as, static 'n station, portio'n por- 
 tion; 3) = /+ s-\- z . sometimes s-\- i, when followed by a 
 or e; as, initiati'v initiative, patien't (pron. pasien'f) 
 patient, aktie (usually pron. aksie) share. 
 
 (8) w. W has the sound of v; as, Walli'n. 
 
 (9) x. X never has the sound of "gz", as Eng. "x" 
 often does when it precedes the stressed vowel; as, 
 exa'men (x = ks~] examination ("x" here = "gz"). 
 
 (10) z. Zhas the sound of Swedish s; as, zink zinc, 
 zon zone. 
 
 20- THE NAMES OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET 
 are: a, be, se, de, e, dff, ge, hd, i, ji, kd, all, dmm, dnn, 
 o, pe, ku, drr, ass, te, u, ve, ve (= w), dks, y, sdta, d, 
 d, b. 
 
 The sound represented by sj is called sje-ljudet; tj, 
 tje-ljridet; ng, dng-ljudet. 
 
 The names of the letters of the alphabet as here given 
 are pronounced like regular Swedish words, except that 
 g in ge usually has the sound of "g" in "go"; e and o 
 have here their normal quality (not = d, d~); the final 
 (stressed) vowels are long.
 
 12 SYLLABICATION, CAPITALIZATION 
 
 SYLLABICATION. 
 
 21. Compounds are divided into their component parts. 
 Ex.: miss-tag mistake, er-halla receive, be-rdt'ta relate, 
 bak-om behind, hand-skrift manuscript. 
 
 22. In simple words: (a) after the vowel having the 
 main stress, a consonant standing between two vowels, 
 or, if there is more than one, the last consonant of a 
 consonant- group standing between two vowels, goes with 
 the following vowel; as, ta-la-re speaker, ic-ke not, svens- 
 kar Swedes, stbr-re larger, hbgs-te highest, nytt-ja use; 
 (b) before the vowel having the main stress, so many 
 consonants as are capable of standing at the beginning 
 of a Swedish word, go with the following vowel; as, 
 a-dres's address in-du-stri' industry. 
 
 Note. Sj, sch and sk (representing the j/'-sound) are not 
 divided; as, tnanni-ska human being, vys-sja lull, galo-sch'er rubbers. 
 Ng (when representing a single sound) is usually not divided, 
 but goes with the preceding vowel; as, mdng-a many. X usually 
 goes with the preceding vowel; as, l&x-a lesson. 
 
 CAPITALIZATION. 
 
 23. The pronoun / you, is always written with a 
 capital letter; sometimes also ni, obj. e(de~)r, j-ou, poss. 
 e(de)r your, in letters as a sign of respect; more rarely, 
 du, obj. dig, you, poss. din your. 
 
 24. Otherwise capitals are employed less in Swedish 
 than in English. A small initial letter is employed in: 
 
 (1) titles (except when used in direct address); as, herr 
 Andersson Mr. Anderson, profes'sor Lundel'l Professor 
 Lundell. 
 
 (2) words derived from proper names, both adjectives 
 and nouns; as, amerika'n (an) American, amerika'^isk 
 American, hitera'n (a) Lutheran, lutersk Lutheran, stock- 
 holmare inhabitant of Stockholm.
 
 PUNCTUATION 13 
 
 (3) names of days (including holidays) and months; 
 as, sbndag Sunday, jul Christmas, april' April. 
 
 (4) in all but the first word in proper group-names, 
 unless the posterior words in question are proper names 
 in themselves; as, Forenta sta'terna (secondary stress on 
 the second syllable of forenta) The United States, At- 
 lan'tiska ocea'nen the Atlantic Ocean, Svenska akademi'en 
 the Swedish Academy, Karl den sto're Charles the Great. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 25. After an abbreviation containing the last letter of 
 the word for which it is an abbreviation, no period is 
 used; as, hr (= herr) Mr.; dr (= doktor) Dr.; jfr 
 (= jamfor) cf . ; d:o (= dito) ditto. 
 
 26. The semicolon is employed less than in English, 
 the exclamation point more. 
 
 27- The comma is employed more than in English. 
 It is generally used between clauses of all kinds that 
 contain both a subject and a predicate. Ex.: Kom, om 
 du kan. Come if you can. Han fick, vad han behbvde. 
 He got what he needed. Jag vet, att du kan gbra det, 
 om du rill. I know that you can do it if you want to. 
 ftokcn, sow du kbpte, kostade tva kronor. The book that 
 3 T ou bought cost two crowns.
 
 CONSPECTUS OF CONTENTS OF 
 THE LESSONS. 
 
 The following summary of contents shows at a glance the 
 arrangement of topics in the lessons; those desiring to study the gram- 
 mar by topics rather than by lessons will find in the column to 
 the right references to all the earlier discussions of the topics 
 standing opposite. Lesson V, containing only material treated 
 more fully in later lessons, is omitted in the column to the left. 
 
 LESSON TOPICS 
 
 I. N i GENDER, ARTICLES (ex- 
 II. / cept prepositive). 
 
 m.1 
 
 IV. NOUN: declension; genitive; 
 VI. I 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 declension; 
 VII. I irregular nouns; foreign 
 VIII. forms; syntax. 
 IX.J 
 
 X. ORDER OF WORDS. 
 XI.^ ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS; 
 XII. i> comparison of adjectives 
 XIII.J and adverbs. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 VERBS: 1, "2 and 3 Weak 
 
 XV. Conjugations; Strong Con- 
 
 XVI. jugation; subjunctive; pas- 
 
 XVII. sive; deponents; compound 
 
 XVIII- verbs; reflexive verbs; im- 
 
 XIX. personal verbs; participles; 
 
 XX. infinitive; imperative; syn- 
 
 XXI. J tax; auxiliaries. 
 
 XXIL>, PRONOUNS: Personal, pos- 
 
 XXIII. J> sessive, demonstrative, rela- 
 
 XXI V.J tive, interrog., indefinite. 
 
 XXV. NUMERALS. 
 
 TREATED EARLIER 
 (V, prepositive article) 
 
 (VII, position of negatives) 
 
 (I, sing., indef.; Ill, plur., 
 
 indef.; V, definite adj. and 
 
 prepos. art. ; VII, negatives) 
 
 (I, pres. sing, of vara, hava; 
 
 II, present tense; IV, past 
 
 of vara, hava; V, past 
 
 tense; VII, past tense of 
 
 strong verbs, systems; X, 
 
 future ) 
 
 (I, du, ni, han, hon, den, del; 
 
 II, /, ni; III, genitive; XIV, 
 objective and reflexive; I, 
 mm, din, er; II, vdr, er; 
 
 III, plur.; XIV, reflexive; 
 I, denna, deita; III, dessa)
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 GENDER. 
 
 28. The Swedish language has two genders, common 
 and neuter. 
 
 (1) Of common gender are names of living beings and 
 most names of inanimate objects; as, gosse boy, flicka 
 girl, lampa lamp, stol chair. 
 
 (2) Neuter are many names of inanimate objects; as, 
 hus house, bord table. 
 
 Note. i. A few names of living beings are neuter, by excep- 
 tion; as, barn child, fruntimmer woman, far sheep, bi bee. 
 
 2. Observe that while in English the names of inanimate ob- 
 jects are regularly neuter, they are in Swedish partly of common 
 and partly of neuter gender. Note also that "common", as used 
 of Swedish in this book, does not mean that a word may be either 
 masculine or feminine (as in English "teacher", "friend"), but 
 simply that it is not neuter (non-neuter gender). 
 
 3. The distinction between neuter and common gender has 
 nothing to do with sex, but is purely grammatical; articles and ad- 
 jectives have a different form in the singular when connected 
 with neuter nouns than when connected with common-gender 
 nouns. 
 
 4. Words of common gender that are names of living beings, 
 are in most grammars, according as the sex is male or female, 
 said to be of masculine or of feminine gender, or they are called 
 common-gender masculines and common-gender feminines. This 
 so-called natural gender is, however, of very little importance, 
 except as regards the use of the personal pronouns correspond- 
 ing to "he" and "she". See 36.
 
 1 6 ADJECTIVE, INDEFINITE ARTICLE I 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 29- An adjective modifying a common-gender noun in 
 the singular is left unchanged; as, brun stol brown chair, 
 denna stol ar brun this chair is brown. 
 
 An adjective modifying a neuter noun in the sin- 
 gular adds -// as, brunt hus brown house, detta hus ar 
 bnmt 1 this house is brown. 
 
 30. Especially in the case of the articles and many 
 pronouns containing n, the neuter is formed by substi- 
 tuting / for n; as, denna, n. detta this. 
 
 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 31. The indefinite article is: 
 
 Common gender en^ 
 Neuter ett J &) al 
 
 Examples: en stol a chair, en vacker lampa a beautiful 
 lamp, ett hus a house, ett vackert bord a beautiful. table. 
 
 32. Similarly, possessive pronouns ending in n substi- 
 tute / in the neuter: 
 
 Common min- 
 Neuter mitt 
 
 Ex.: min stol my chair, mitt hus my house. 
 Note. Observe that Swedish min and din, er represent both 
 "my" and "mine", "your" and "yours", respectively. 
 
 33. SUMMARY: In adjectives, articles and pronouns 
 t is the sign of the neuter singular. 
 
 z' 2 l dhP. er ~\ 
 
 at \ my> mme ditt, ert\ 
 
 1 In Swedish, as in Latin, predicate adjectives as well as attributive 
 adjectives are inflected. In German, predicate adjectives remain uninflected. 
 
 2 In en, min. din the vowel is short though followed by only one con- 
 sonant; see 6, note 1, and Phonology ISb (concerning Phonology see 
 the note preceding 1 in this book I. The substitution of tt for in ett. ditt. 
 mitt is therefore only orthographic, since the common-gender forms are pro- 
 nounced as though written enn. ;/'. dinn.
 
 I VERBS, PRONOUNS I/ 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 34. The present indicative singular of the verbs vara- 
 to be, and hava (frequently shortened to ha) to have: 
 
 jag \ I am jag I have 
 
 du, ni \ar you are du, ni \har you have 
 
 han 1 , hon 1 , den 1 , det J he, she, it is han, etc.J he has 
 
 THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 35. The pronoun Su (and the corresponding possess- 
 ive din) is used in familiar address 2 , i. e., in speaking to 
 relatives, friends 3 and children. The pronoun ni (and 
 its possessive er) is formal. Du and ni are both translated 
 "you" 2 ; so din and er are rendered by "your", "yours". 
 
 36. Han he, and hon she, are used as the correspond- 
 ing pronouns in English. Den is used in referring to 
 inanimate objects of common gender. Det is used in re- 
 ferring to inanimate objects of neuter gender. Both den 
 and det are rendered into English by "it". In brief: 
 
 I han he 1 
 
 _. t- animate 
 
 Common -j kon shej 
 
 h 
 
 37- OBSERVE THE PRONUNCIATION OF: denna, detta, 
 den, det ( 9, i c); hon ( 9, 3 a); bord, barn, stort (n.), erf 
 (") ( 13. 3);><T ( T 9> 3); icke, flicka, Backer, och ( 19, 
 i a). Notice the quantity in min, din, han, hon, den, 
 en, men- ( 6, note i; Phonology 18 b); bord, barn 
 ( 6, note 2); brunt, crt, stort ( 6, note 2). 
 
 1 The vowel in han, hon, den is short; see 37. 
 
 2 In poetry, and in prose in the elevated style, du and din are used in 
 addressing any person. These pronouns are also employed in addressing 
 the Deity. In these cases, English uses the corresponding pronouns "thou" 
 and "thine". 
 
 3 Between friends, du is normallj' used only after a definite agreement 
 to use it; of. 39, 2 end. 
 
 - , inanimate 
 Neuter det
 
 1 8 INDEFINITE ARTICLE 
 
 38. ACCENT: (i) Swedish words of two or more sylla- 
 bles have the grave accent (see 3; 4; 5); as, denna, 
 delta, flicka, gosse, hava, vara, litcn. Some words of 
 two or more syllables, however, have the acute accent. 
 These exceptions are indicated in the following lessons 
 tinder the heading of ACCENT 1 . The distribution of the 
 grave and the acute accent in the various grammatical 
 categories, as presented in each lesson, is also consid- 
 ered. 
 
 (2) Of the words occurring in this lesson, vacker has 
 the acute accent. 
 
 39- PRINCIPAL COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken 
 language denna (n. delta} is followed by the noun in the 
 definite form (see 40; 41); as, denna stolen > delta huset. 
 In place of denna (n. detla) the spoken language usual- 
 ly, and the written language sometimes, employs den 
 ha'r (n. det ha'r), which is also followed by the noun in 
 the definite form. 
 
 (2) In the written language ni (and the corresponding 
 possessive er) is regularly used as the formal pronoun 
 of address in the singular. In the spoken language, 
 however, this is very often not considered quite polite, 
 particularly in addressing superiors, and many people ob- 
 ject to its use, though much less now than formerly. 
 Instead of ni the spoken language generally, and the 
 written language sometimes, employs the title of the 
 person addressed, with or without the name. For the 
 possessive er the genitive (see 55) of the title or of 
 the name is used. When the name does not follow, the 
 definite form (see 40; 41) of the title is used, which 
 
 1 Concerning the position of the main stress in Swedish, see 2 and note. 
 The question of stress is treated in notes and foot-notes, whenever comment 
 is necessary, and not under ACCENT.
 
 I INDEFINITE ARTICLE 19 
 
 may be preceded by herr 1 (Mr.) or/;-/; 1 (Mrs.). When 
 the name follows, the indefinite form is used in the case 
 of most titles; some, however, may have either the definite 
 or the indefinite form, while others are always put in the 
 definite form. Ex.: Var bor herr (=Mr.) Andersson nu? 
 Where do you live now 2 ? \ ad sagcr profes'sorn^ (^pro- 
 fessor) (or herr prof cs' sorn, or profcs' sor z Ljungmark) om 
 saken ? What do you say about the matter ? Hur gam- 
 mal ar redaktb' rens (=editor) son f How old is your son ? 
 
 When addressing a person whose name or title is not 
 known, froken* is used in the case of unmarried women, 
 and frequently min herre, min fru in the case of men 
 and married women, respectively. To use simply herrn 
 and frun is considered somewhat vulgar. 
 
 In order to avoid the use of these cumbersome titles, 
 it is customary even for people of but slight acquaintance 
 to agree that they will use the familiar pronoun dn (and 
 the corresponding possessive dhi) in addressing each 
 other 5 . 
 
 (3) Inte is in the spoken language regularly used in- 
 stead of icke. See further 100. 
 
 (4) Of the forms hava and ha, the spoken language 
 uses only the shorter, while the written language uses 
 either hava or ha. 
 
 (5) On a colloquial use of the possessive pronouns 
 see 67, 4.' 
 
 1 Concerning the small initial letter see 24, 1. 
 
 2 Or, "Where do you live now, Mr. Anderson?" Similarly in the other 
 cases. 
 
 3 As in English, so in Swedish, words used as titles before proper 
 names are relatively unstressed; accordingly, the stress on the syllable indi- 
 cated is in this instance relatively -weak. 
 
 4 Cf. 69, note 4. 
 
 5 L'deea tort titlarna dispense with titles, as it is called. See page 17, 
 foot-note 3.
 
 20 
 
 INDEFINITE ARTICLE 
 
 (6) In easy speech the final consonant-sound is dropped 
 in jag, det, och and dr, which are then pronounced re- 
 spectively ja, da (or de}, a and a. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. Gender is indicated in the vocabularies only in the case 
 of neuter nouns, which are not nearly so numerous as those of 
 common gender. It is important to remember which nouns are 
 neuter. 
 
 bord n. table 
 brtin brown 
 den (. det) it 
 denna (n. detta) this 
 din (n. ditt) (familiar), 
 
 your, yours (sing.'} 
 du (familiar}, you (sing.} 
 en (n. ett) a, an 
 er (formal}, your, yours 
 flicka girl 
 gosse boy 
 han he 
 
 ha(va) (sing, har) have 
 hon she 
 bus n. house 
 
 icke not 
 
 jag / 
 
 lampa lamp 
 
 liten small, little 
 
 men but 
 
 rnin (n. mitt) y/, mine 
 
 ni (formal}, you 
 
 och dwrf 
 
 pa 
 
 stol c//tfzr 
 
 stor large 
 
 vacker beautiful, pretty 
 
 var u'here 
 
 vara (sing, ar) fe 
 
 EXERCISE I-. 
 
 ^4. i. Jag har ett stort bord. 2. Jag har en lampa 
 pa mitt bord. 3. Den ar vacker. 4. Mitt hus ar stort, 
 men det ar icke vackert. 5. Denna stol ar brun. 6. Hon 
 ar en vacker flicka. 7. Er gosse ar stor. 8. Har ni en 
 stol och ett bord? 9. Ar ert bord brunt ? 10. Detta hus 
 ar icke ditt. u. Ar din lampa vacker? 12. Var ar 
 din gosse? 13. Har du ett hus? 14. Ar det vackert?
 
 ! INDEFINITE ARTICLE 
 
 i i He has a table and a chair. 2. Is your (famil- 
 iar) chair brown? 3. He is a large boy. 4- Have you 
 (/*m/) a lamp on your table? 5 - My house is beauti- 
 ful but not large. 6. This girl is beautiful. 7. Where 
 is your (form.} house? 8. This house is mine. 9. 1 
 is not yours (/*.) 10. Is your (/*.) lamp small? 
 ii. Mine is large. 12. You (/*.) are a little girl. 
 13. Is your (/*r/.) lamp beautiful ? 14. He has a beau- 
 tiful house. 15- It is large. 
 
 - ! The order of words in a Swedish sentence correspond9 pretty well 
 
 if, l^y 
 
 (C ft.
 
 22 DEFINITE ARTICLE n 
 
 LESSON II. 
 THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 40- The definite article is not a separate word as in 
 English, but is an ending added to the noun; as, stol chair, 
 stolen the chair; hus house, huset the house. Its forms are: 
 
 COMMON NEUTER 
 
 Sing, -en, -n -et, -t 
 
 Plur. -na, -a, -en 
 
 Nouns with the definite article thus affixed are said to 
 be in the definite form. When no article is added, the 
 noun is said to be in the indefinite form 1 . 
 
 41. The singular forms -en, -et are used chiefly with 
 words ending in a consonant (see examples in 40); -n, -t, 
 chiefly with words ending in a vowel; as, flicka girl,y?/V- 
 kan the girl; gosse boy, gossen the boy; rike kingdom, 
 riket the kingdom. 
 
 In the plural there is no such distinction of gender; it is 
 largely the nature of the preceding sound that determines 
 which form of the article {-na, -a or -en} is to be used. 
 
 Note. Further details about the use and distribution of the 
 various endings are given in subsequent lessons. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 42. The present indicative of: 
 INFINITIVE vara to be ha(ya} to have 
 Sing, jag, etc., ar jag, etc., har 
 
 Plur. m aro we are m ha (Jiavd) we have 
 
 / aren you are / han {haven) you have 
 
 de aro they are de ha (Jiava) they have 
 
 1 Care should he taken not to confuse the term "indefinite form" with 
 "indefinite article."
 
 II VERBS PRESENT TENSE 23 
 
 43. The present indicative active of all 1 other Swedish 
 verbs is conjugated in one of the following three ways: 
 
 INF. tala to speak skriva to write bo to live 
 
 Sing, jag, etc., talar jag, etc., skriver jag, etc., bor 
 Plur. vi tala vi skriva vi bo 
 
 I talen I shriven I bon 
 
 de tala de skriva de bo 
 
 44. Only a few verbs, namely those whose infinitives 
 do not end in -a, are conjugated like bo. Bxcept when 
 compounded, these are all monosyllabic. Compare the 
 forms of bo with the shorter forms of ha(va), 
 
 45. In all moods and tenses (not only in the present in- 
 dicative) the second person plural of all verbs ends in -en or 
 -n. However, this form is of very limited use (see 49). 
 
 46. In the present indicative active, observe that (i) 
 the singular ends in -r, which is preceded by -a or -e, 
 except in verbs of the type of bo; (2) in all verbs except 
 those of the type of bo, the first and third persons plural 
 end in -a; (3) in all verbs, including those of the type 
 of bo, the first and third persons plural are identical 
 in form with the infinitive. But notice vara, pres. plur. 
 aro, which is an exception. 
 
 47- The progressive and emphatic verb- forms of Eng- 
 lish are in Swedish rendered by the simple verb: 
 
 he is writing"! 
 
 he does write I han skriver 
 
 he writes 
 Likewise in negative sentences and questions: 
 
 he is not writing! . 
 
 , , .. f nan skriver icke 
 
 he does not writej 
 
 1 Except most of the auxiliaries. 
 
 2 Observe that the negative follows the finite form of the verb in both 
 languages.
 
 24 PRONOUNS II 
 
 is he writing? 1 . 
 
 }- skriver hail*. 
 does he write? 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 48. Possessive pronouns denoting more than one pos- 
 sessor: vdr, n. vdrt, our, ours; <fr, n. ert, your, yours. 
 
 49- The plur. pronoun / is used only in the more 
 elevated style. In other forms of style and in conversa- 
 tion, ni (identical with the formal sing, pronoun ni) 
 is used in place of /. Accordingly, / talen, I shriven, f 
 bon are used only in the elevated style. The plur. ni has 
 its verb in the singular (nitalar 2 , etc.), though the plur. 
 verb (nitalcPt etc.) often occurs in the written language. 
 
 Note. i. In the plural pronouns of the second person (/, ni, 
 possessive er) there is no distinction between familiar and formal 
 address. 
 
 2. Observe also that the plural possessive er is identical with 
 the formal singular possessive er. Similarly in English, "you", 
 "your" are used both of one and of more than one. 
 
 50- ORTHOGRAPHY. The pronoun / you, is capital- 
 ized. This distinguishes it from the preposition i (see 
 the vocabulary). 
 
 51. PRONUNCIATION: blonima ( 9, 3 *) \giva ( 14); 
 Sverige (i silent), spelled also Sverge, ( 19, 2 a 2). 
 
 52. ACCENT: (i) All dissyllabic forms that are the 
 result of the addition of the definite article to mono- 
 syllabic nouns, have the acute accent; as, hasten (from 
 hast}, stolen (stol} , brevet (brev), huset (lius). On the 
 other hand, observe the grave accent in gossen (from 
 gosse}, blomman (blomma), riket (rike}. That is, the ad- 
 
 1 Observe the inverted order of the questions, as in English. 
 
 2 For the sake of convenience these forms are not included in the verb- 
 paradigms. The student should constantly bear in mind that these are the 
 usual forms for the second person plural. Pronouns of the second person 
 plur. are, however, by the nature of things, not of frequent occurrence.
 
 II DEFINITE ARTICLE 25 
 
 dition of the definite article does not change the nature 
 of the accent of the word or form to which it is added. 
 For further illustrations see the various declensions. 
 Cf. 5, 3 d. 
 
 (2) All verb-forms of more than one syllable have the 
 grave accent in all tenses and moods 1 , except that pres- 
 ent indicative singular verb-forms ending in -er have 
 the acute; as, sitter ', skriver, giver. 
 
 (3) Of the words mentioned in this lesson 2 , not taking 
 into account inflectional forms, eller and Sverige have 
 the acute accent. 
 
 53. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken language a 
 plural subject is regularly followed by the singular form 
 of the verb 3 , the plural verb-form never being used. Ex.: 
 m talar, ni talar, de talar; m dr, ni dr, de dr. More- 
 over, the pronoun / is not used in the spoken language 
 (see 49). 
 
 (2) In place of giver, giva, the spoken language reg- 
 ularly uses ger, the written language frequently ger, 
 plur. ge, gen, ge. 
 
 (3) In the definite form of the singular of neuters, 
 the spoken language of some parts of Sweden omits the 
 final -// as, huse for huset. 
 
 (4) In easy speech, dent (pronounced dom, i. e. damm}, 
 the objective form of de (see 186), is in some parts of 
 Sweden used as the subject; as, dom a for de dro. 
 
 (5) In conversation de is pronounced di, and mycket, 
 my eke. 
 
 1 A few verbs, however, have the acute accent in all forms. See 66, 3. 
 
 2 In the following lessons the acute accent will be indicated only in the 
 case of -words occurring for the first time in each lesson. 
 
 3 But a predicate adjective is in the plural (see 60) if the subject is p\\i- 
 ral; as, aV (r) bruna, (de aro bruna) they are brown.
 
 26 DEFINITE ARTICLE II 
 
 (6) In easy speech rod is pronounced ro, and //// is 
 frequently pronounced tc. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. It will be found most convenient to learn the gender 
 of nouns by repeating and memorizing the definite form of the 
 singular. 
 
 blomma flower kvinna woman 
 
 bla blue lang long 
 
 bo (sing, -r) live (=dwcll) mycket adv., very 
 
 brev n. letter plocka (sing, -2^') pick, gather 
 
 de (plur. of han, lion, den, rike n. kingdom 
 
 det) they rod red 
 
 dar there sitta (sing, -er) sit 
 
 eller or skriva (sing, -er) write 
 
 gata street Sverige n. Sweden 
 
 giva (sing, -er 1 ) ^'z'<? tala (sing, -ar) /a/, s/><?a& 
 
 har here till /0 
 
 hast horse vi o> 
 
 i ?X z'w/<? var our, ours 
 I jy0 (plur."} 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 A. i. Var hast ar mycket vacker. 2. Har ar en bla 
 blomma. 3. Blomman ar icke bla. Den ar rod. 4. Gos- 
 sen bor i ett mycket stort hus. 5. Kvinnan sitter pa 
 stolen och skriver 2 ett langt brev. 6. Sverige ar ett stort 
 rike. 7. Gossen och flickan aro pa gatan. 8. Sitter 
 icke gossen pa stolen? 9. Flickan giver kvinnan brevet. 
 10. Bo de har eller dar? n. De ha en brun hast. 
 12. Var aren I? 13. Gossen plockar en vacker blomma. 
 14. Denna gata ar lang. 15. De giva brevet till kvinnan. 
 
 1 That is, giv-er, tlock-ar. , 
 
 2 In cases of this kind, English usually omits the conjunction and uses a 
 participle for the second verb.
 
 n DEFINITE ARTICLE 27 
 
 B. i. I am writing 1 a long letter. 2. He is sitting 
 on my chair. 3. Is the flower blue or red? 4. The 
 boy is giving the flower to the woman. 5. This king- 
 dom is very large. 6. Is this street very long? 7. Here 
 is a letter. 8. Where do you (plur.} live? We live in 
 this house. 9. Is the horse there? 10. The boy and 
 the girl live in Sweden, n. This horse is ours. Where 
 is yours (plur.} ? 12. The lamp and the letter are on the 
 table. 13. Are you writing a letter to the boy ? 14. Have 
 they a large house? 15. They are not talking. 
 
 1 See 47.
 
 28 DECLENSION III 
 
 LESSON III. 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 54. Swedish nouns are divided into five declensions 
 according to the formation of the plural: (1) -or, (2) -ar, 
 (3) -er, (4) -n, (5) plural without ending. 
 
 Note. The definite form of the plural is made by further 
 adding the proper plur. definite article (see 41, end); as, flicka, 
 plur. flicker, def. plur. flickorna the girls. 
 
 55. THE GENITIVE. Swedish has the same cases as 
 English. The genitive of all nouns is made by adding 
 -s to the base-form, indefinite or definite, both singular 
 and plural. No apostrophe is used. See examples in 
 the following note and in 59. 
 
 Note. In Swedish as in English, adjectival words (e. g., adjec- 
 tives, adjective pronouns, indefinite article) have no genitive end- 
 ing; as, en liten flickas docka a little girl's doll, min lararirinas 
 stol my teacher's chair, denna flickas syster this girl's sister. 
 
 56. In English the genitive case is normally used 
 to express possession or connection only in the case of 
 living beings. In Swedish it is freely used also of in- 
 animate objects; as, 
 
 Animate: the girl's hat flickans hatt 1 
 
 Inanimate: the color of the book bokens farg 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 57. The First Declension (plur. -or} contains only 
 nouns of common gender. To this declension belong 
 almost all nouns that end in -a?. The plural is formed 
 
 1 Never hatten flickans: the genitive stands first. The following noun has 
 indefinite form, though definite in meaning. 
 
 2 The principal words ending in -a that do not belong to the First 
 Declension are the neuters oga eye. ora ear (see HO) and hjiirta heart (see 
 
 longs to the Third Declension (see page 47. foot-note 2).
 
 HI FIRST DECLENSION 29 
 
 by dropping -a and adding -or; as, flicka girl, \>\\vc . flicker ; 
 lampa lamp, plur. lampor. 
 
 Note. This declension contains also a few nouns not ending 
 in -a: ros rose, plur. rosor; vdg wave, plur. v&gor; toffel slipper, 
 plur. toff lor 1 . 
 
 58- DEFINITE FORM. The definite sing, adds -n; the 
 def. plur. adds -na; as, tampan, lamporna. 
 
 Note. Ros and v&g add -en in the def. sing., rosen, v&gen; 
 toffel adds -n, toffeln*. In the plural, -na is added, rosorna, vagor- 
 na, tofflorna. 
 
 59- Examples of the First Declension are: gata street, 
 kvinna woman. 
 
 INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE 
 
 SING, gata gatan kvinna kvinnan 
 
 Gen. galas gatans kvinnas kvinnans 
 
 PLUR. gator gatorna kvinnor kvinnorna 
 
 Gen. gators gatornas kvinnors kvinnornas 
 
 ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS. 
 
 60. An adjective modifying a noun of either gender 
 in the plural adds -a to the uninflected form; as, langa 
 gator long streets, gatorna dro langa the streets are long, 
 bordet och stolen dro bruna the table and the chair are 
 brown. 
 
 61. This is also the case with possessive pronouns 
 when denoting possession of more than one object: plur. 
 mina, dina, era (denoting either one or more than one 
 possessor), vara. 
 
 62. For the third person, the genitives ham his,/ten- 
 nes her, hers, dess (gen. of den, def) its, deras their, 
 theirs, are used in place of possessive pronouns. These 
 
 1 Cf. G8, note 2. 
 
 2 Cf. 69, note 1 b.
 
 30 FIRST DECLENSION III 
 
 genitives, not being adjectival forms, are invariable, and 
 have no ending when used with neuter or plural nouns. 
 Note. These genitives are not used in the predicate when the 
 word for which they stand is the subject of the clause. Karl plockar 
 hans blomma can not refer to Carl's flower, as is possible in the 
 English: "Carl is picking his flower." On the contrary, the 
 possessive pronouns may also refer to the subject. Ex.: Han 
 plockar min blomma. He is picking my flower. Jag plockar min 
 blomma. I am picking my flower. This subject is treated more 
 fully in 1 88. 
 
 63. The plural of denna, detta is dessa these. 
 64- Adjective inflection summarized: 
 
 COMMON NEUTER COMMON NEUTER 
 
 Sing, unchanged -/ stor large stort 
 
 Plur. -a stora 
 
 65. PRONUNCIATION: farg ( 19, 2 a 2); sjunga 
 ( J 3> 4* J 9> 5 b); manga ( 19, 5 b); om ( 6, note i; 
 Phonology i8a). For the quantity in stols, etc., see 
 6, note 2. Observe the change of quantity in min 
 (niitf)'. mina; din {ditf)\ dina. 
 
 66. ACCENT: (i) All forms of all words in the First 
 Declension have the grave accent, except the monosyllables 
 ros and vag, which have the acute accent in the def. 
 sing. 1 (rosen, vagen*), and toffel, which has the acute accent 
 in the indef. and def. singular. See 5, 3 d; 5, 2. 
 The plurals ro$or(na), vagor(na}, however, have the grave 
 accent; tofflor(na) has either the grave or the acute. 
 
 (2) The plural of adjectives and possessives has the 
 regular grave accent; as, Idnga, manga, mina. This is 
 also the case with adjectives of more than one syllable 
 stressed on the first syllable and which have the acute ac- 
 
 1 The monosyllabic indef. sing, ros and vag also have the acute accent. 
 Notice is taken only of \vords and forms of more than one syllable having 
 the acute accent.
 
 Ill FIRST DECLENSION 31 
 
 cent in the singular; as, vacker (acute), butvac&ra (grave). 
 
 (3) Verbs with the first syllable unstressed (as bcrat'ta) 
 have the acute accent in all forms in the greater part of 
 Sweden. 
 
 (4) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, bcrat'ta, 
 fagel, toffel and under have the acute accent. 
 
 67. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Dessa, as the singular dcnna 
 (n. delta), is in the spoken language followed by the noun 
 in the definite form. Instead of dessa the spoken lan- 
 guage usually, and the written language sometimes, em- 
 ploys dc hii'r (very often pron. di hd'r}, Cf. 39, i. 
 
 (2) The spoken language almost always substitutes a 
 prepositional phrase for the genitive in the case of inani- 
 mate objects. See 119; 134, 2. 
 
 (3) In the spoken language the use of the genitive 
 dess is avoided. Either the genitive of the def. form of 
 the noun for which dess would stand, is used instead, or 
 the expression is changed so that the use of a genitive 
 is not necessary. Cf. also 67, 2. Even in the written, 
 language dess is of less frequent occurrence than "its" in 
 English; cf. 62, note. 
 
 (4) In the spoken language (primarily in easy speech) 
 the possessive pronouns and the genitives of the third 
 person personal pronouns are sometimes placed after the 
 noun, which is then put in the definite form, except in the 
 case of words indicating relationship, and frequently hustru 
 wife. When used in the genitive case, the possessive 
 pronoun, and not the noun, has the ending -s. Ex.: gos- 
 sen in in my boy, far min my father, bror mins backer 
 my brother's books, hustru(ii) hans his wife.
 
 32 FIRST DECLENSION III 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. The following words belonging to the First Declension 
 have been given in previous vocabularies: blomma, flicka, gata, 
 kvinna, lampa. 
 
 In the following vocabularies the declension is indicated by 
 Arabic numerals. Words belonging to a declension not yet treated 
 are left undesignated. The declension of these is indicated in the 
 notes preceding the vocabularies in Lessons IV, VI, VII and VIII. 
 
 berat'ta {sing, -ar) tell, relate lararin'na (1~) (woman*) teacher 
 
 bok book manga plur,, many (inuch} 
 
 deras their, theirs om about, in, during 
 
 dess its prinses'sa (1) princess 
 
 docka (1) doll ros (1) rose 
 
 duva (1) dove, pigeon saga (1) tale, story, fairy-tale 
 
 flyga (sing, -er) fly sjunga (sing, -er) sing 
 
 fura (1) fir-tree skog forest, woods 
 
 fagel bird skola (1) school 
 
 farg color syster sister 
 
 gren branch toff el (1) slipper 
 
 bans his under under 
 
 hatt hat vag (1) wave 
 
 henries her, hers vaxa (si?ig. -er) grow 
 
 EXERCISE III. 
 
 A. i. En liten fagel sitter pa grenen och sjunger 1 . 
 2. Furorna aro stora. 3. Duvan flyger till skogen. 
 4. L/ararinnan ar i skolan 2 . 5. Hon berattar en saga 
 om en vacker prinsessa. 6. Blommor vaxa i skogen. 
 
 7. Lararinnans syster ar i skogen och plockar 1 blommor. 
 
 8. Hennes fagel bar en vacker farg. Den ar bla. 
 
 9. Gossen skriver i en stor bok. 10. Han skriver om 
 Sverige. n. Dessa rosor aro roda. 12. Ar din dockas 
 
 1 See page 26, foot-note 2. 
 
 2 Observe the def. form of the noun. Cf. 125.
 
 Ill FIRST DECLENSION 33 
 
 hatt brun eller rod? 13. Tofflorna aro under ert bord. 
 14. Aro vagorna mycket stora? 15. Flickornas lara- 
 rinna talar om Sverige. 16. Blommorna aro pa din 
 lararinnas bord. 
 
 B. i. The girls' teacher 1 is sitting under a large 
 branch. 2. She is telling a story about a little bird. 
 3. Is the story beautiful? 4. Where do these roses grow? 
 5. Do many fir-trees grow in Sweden? 6. The girl's 
 doll has a blue hat. 7. Have the teachers many flowers? 
 8. This wave is not large. 9. His slippers are red. 
 10. Are their pigeons flying to the woods? n. Is the 
 woman's letter on my table? 12. Your sister is speak- 
 ing about the color of the book. 13. The girl's doll has a 
 beautiful house. 14. My sister's teacher lives in their 
 house. 
 
 1 See page 2S, foot-note 1.
 
 34 SECOND DECLENSION 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 68. The Second Declension (plur. -ar) contains only 
 nouns of common gender. To this declension belong: 
 
 (1) A large number of monosyllabic nouns ending 
 in a consonant; as, stol chair, hast horse. 
 
 (2) A few monosyllabic nouns ending in a vowel; 
 as, sjb lake, & river. 
 
 (3) Most nouns of common gender ending in un- 
 stressed -e, -el, -en, -er; as, gosse boy, fag el bird, socken 
 parish, syster sister. 
 
 (4) Nouns ending in -dom, -ing, -ling, -ning, -ujig 
 and a few other suffixes; as, sjukdom sickness, homing 
 king, morgon morning, sommar summer, fjaril butterfly. 
 
 Note. i. Nouns ending in unstressed -e drop this before add- 
 ing -ar; as, gosse, plur. gossar. 
 
 2. Nouns ending in unstressed -el, -en, -er drop the vowel of 
 the suffix before adding -ar; as, fagel, plur. fdglar; socken, plur. 
 socknar; syster, plur. systrar. 
 
 3. Also in a few other cases the vowel of a suffix is dropped 
 before -ar: sommar summer, plur. somrar; morgon morning, plur. 
 morgnar; afton evening, plur. aftnar; djdvul devil, plur. djavlar. 
 
 4. Moder mother, and dotter daughter, besides dropping the vowel 
 of the suffix, also modify (seen) the root-vowel, plur. modrar, 
 dottrar. 
 
 5. Moder is generally contracted to mor in the indefinite singu- 
 lar 1 . Herre gentleman, becomes herr (Mr.) when used before 
 a proper noun 8 or before another title; as, herr Johansson Mr. 
 Johnson. Konung king, has also the form kung, plur. kungar. 
 
 1 But the def. sing, and the plural (indef. and def.) are never so contract- 
 ed (cf. 69, note 1 b, and page 35, foot-note 2). See the paradigm, 7O. 
 On the contrary, note k(on)ungen, k(.on)unear. k(on)unearna. 
 
 2 Observe also furste prince, but furst Bismarck: cf. 106, note 2.
 
 IV 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION 
 
 35 
 
 69. DEFINITE FORM. The definite sing, adds -en or 
 -n; the def. plur. adds -na. 
 
 Note. i. The ending - is used: (a) after vowels; as, gosse, 
 gossen; d, an; (b) after unstressed -tf/ 1 , -er z ; as, fdgeln, system. 
 
 2. A few suffixes add either -en or -; as, sommar(e)n, fja- 
 ril(e)n. 
 
 3. Herre has def . Herren (herren] when it means "the Lord" 
 ("ruler", "lord"), but herrn when it means "the gentleman". 
 
 4. Some nouns ending in -en drop the vowel of the suffix and 
 add -en; as, sockcn parish, def. socknen. But of frokcn young 
 lady, and a few other words, the definite form in the singular is 
 the same as the indefinite. 
 
 5. In the written language -ne is frequently met with as the def. 
 ending of the plural. While most writers of the present day al- 
 ways use -na, some employ -ne with nouns of this declension re- 
 ferring to persons of the male sex; others, with all nouns whose 
 plurals end in -ar, irrespective of sex; cf. 107, note 5. Formerly 
 the ending -ne was used much more than now, and in the works 
 of the older writers, it was regularly employed with a certain 
 class 3 of nouns. 
 
 70. Examples of this declension are: halt hat, & river, 
 gosse boy, f&gel bird, socken parish, fro ken young lady, 
 mo(de)r mother, morgon morning, sommar summer, fjdril 
 butterfly. 
 
 INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE 
 
 Sing, halt flatten a an 
 
 Plur. hattar hattarna Aar Aarna 
 
 Sing, gosse gossen 
 Plur. gossar gossarna 
 
 Sing, socken socknen 
 Plur. socknar socknarna 
 
 fagel 
 faglar 
 
 fdgeln 
 faglarna 
 
 frbken 
 fro knar 
 
 frbken 
 frbknarna 
 
 himmeln himlt 
 s modren, doth 
 
 n or himmelen. 
 en are sometimes used. 
 
 1 Otkimmcl heaven, the def. form is 
 
 2 Instead of modern, dottern, the forms ; 
 Cf. 107, note 1 and foot-note. 
 
 3 Nouns that according to an older (now only dialectical) gender-system 
 were masculine, though not names of living beings.
 
 36 SECOND DECLENSION IV 
 
 INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE 
 
 Sing. ?no(de~)r modern morgon morgoncn 
 
 Plur. modrar mbdrarna morgnar morgnarna 
 
 Sing, sommar sommar(e}n fjaril fjaril(e)n 
 
 Plur. somrar somrarna fjarilar fjarilarna 
 
 Note. The genitive, which is always regular (except as stated 
 in 112; 119, end), is omitted here and in subsequent paradigms. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 71. Past tense of vara and ha(va}\ 
 
 Sing, jag, etc., var jag, etc., hade 
 
 Plur. m voro z'i hade 
 
 I voren I haden 
 
 de voro de hade 
 
 72- ORTHOGRAPHY: sommar, somrar (see Phonology 
 1 8 a). Concerning titles see 24, i. 
 
 73. PRONUNCIATION: homing ( 9, 3b); socken (usu- 
 ally the o of 9, 3 a); morgon (g here not = Swedish/); 
 morgnar ( 16 b); djavul ( 16); sjuk, sjb ( 13, 4). 
 The a of hade is usually short ( 6, note i). For the 
 quantity in faglar, froknar, modrar, etc., see Phonology 
 14 B 2 b. Sjbn, def. of sjb, is pronounced with a 
 short vowel; cf. 6, note i. 
 
 74. ACCENT: (i) Observe that the def. sing, of 
 monosyllables ending in a consonant (as stolen, hasten} 
 has the acute accent, while the plural, both indefinite 
 and definite, has the grave accent (as stolar, hastar; 
 stolarna, hastarna). 
 
 (2) Some nouns of the Second Declension with the suf- 
 fix -^/have the acute accent in the singular, both indefinite 
 and definite (as fagel, fageln}; others have the grave 
 accent. All nouns with the suffix -en have the acute
 
 IV SECOND DECLENSION 37 
 
 accent in the indef. and def. singular. So also have 
 those ending in -er, with the exception of moder, dot- 
 ter and syster, which have the grave accent. 
 
 The nouns that have the acute accent in the singular, 
 have, however, the grave accent in the plural, according 
 to the rule. 
 
 (3) For the accent of verbs see 52, 2. 
 
 (4) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, socken,frbken, 
 over, pengar(na) and Bjbrkman have the acute accent. 
 Stockholm has either the acute or the grave accent. Bade 
 usually has the grave, but sometimes the acute, accent. 
 
 75. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Kung is more common in 
 the spoken than in the written language. 
 
 (2) Of sommar(e}n and fjdril(e)n, the longer forms 
 are used in the written language, the shorter in all forms 
 of style, including the spoken language. 
 
 (3) The form mor is more common in the spoken 
 than in the written language. 
 
 (4) In the spoken language the indefinite form of 
 socken may be used also as the definite. 
 
 (5) In the spoken language -ne does not occur in the 
 use mentioned in 69, note 5. 
 
 (6) Remember that the spoken language has vi, etc., 
 uar. See 53, i. This holds good for all tenses. 
 
 (7) In Central Sweden drottning is generally pro- 
 nounced dronning. 
 
 (8) In easy speech var was, were, is pronounced va, 
 and aldrig, aldri. Instead of dag, dagen, dagar, easy 
 speech employs da, dan, dar 1 . In the plural morgnar, g 
 is usually not heard (see 16 b); in easy speech, g may 
 be omitted in the singular also (pron. morron}. 
 
 1 In the written language dar is on a higher level, stylistically , than iia(n).
 
 SECOND DECLENSION 
 
 IV 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. The following words belonging to the Second Declension 
 have been given in previous vocabularies: fagel, gosse, gren, hatt, 
 hast, skog, stol, syster. 
 afton (2) evening; i afton herre (2) gentleman, 
 
 hos with, by, at the house of 
 komma (sing, -er) come 
 konung, kung (2) king 
 moder, mor (2) mother 
 dag (2) day; i dag to-day; inorgon (2) morning; pa mor 1 - 
 om dagen in the day-time gonen in the , this 
 om in, during, about 
 pengar (2) plur., money 
 sjuk sick, ill 
 sjukdom (2) sickness 
 S J ( 2 ) lake, sea 
 sock en (2) parish 
 soramar (2) summer; i - 
 this ; om -en in the 
 a (2) river 
 over over, across 
 
 this evening; om aftonen 
 
 in the evening 
 aldrig never 
 bade . . och both . , . and 
 
 djavul (2) devil 
 
 dotter (2) daughter 
 
 drottning (2) qiieen 
 
 fjaril (2) butterfly 
 
 fru (2) wife, lady, Mrs. 
 
 fran from 
 
 froken (2) miss, (young) 
 
 lady, Miss 
 hemma at home 
 herr Mr. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. 
 
 A. i. Konungen och drottningen bo i Stockholm. 
 2. Var ar Stockholm? 3. Min syster var hos froken 
 Bjorkman i dag. 4. Har ar ett brev fran herr och fru 
 Johansson 1 . 5. Froken var icke hemma. 6. Hade de 
 manga pengar? 7. Dessa socknar ha manga sjoar. 
 8. Faglarna sitta pa grenarna och sjunga. 9. Pengarna 
 aro hemma. 10. Hade hon manga dottrar ? n. Fjarilen 
 sitter pa blomman. 12. Faglarna flyga over an. 13. Bade 
 herrn och frun voro hemma i dag pa morgonen 2 . 
 
 1 Johnson. 2 I dag pa morgonen this morning.
 
 IV SECOND DECLENSION 39 
 
 B. i . Sweden has many large lakes and many rivers. 
 2. Your mother was not at home. 3. Where are the 
 butterflies? 4. Are the doves flying across the lake? 
 5. Mr. and Mrs. Lind do not live there. 6. The horses 
 are coming from the river. 7. The lake is beautiful in 
 the summer. 8. The girls' mother was sick. 9. Does 
 Miss Bjorkman live with Mrs. Lind? 10. The gentle- 
 man's sister is coming 1 this evening, n. Where does 
 the King of Sweden live? 12. The boy had many 
 butterflies. 13. The parish is not large. 14. Mrs. Lind's 
 daughters were never at home in the evening. 
 
 1 Both English and Swedish sometimes use the present tense to indicate 
 future time, as here.
 
 40 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 76. INDEFINITE FORM. The forms of the adjective 
 given in the previous lessons ( 29; 60) are used when the 
 accompanying noun has indefinite meaning or when the 
 adjective is a predicate adjective. This is called the in- 
 definite form of the adjective. 
 
 77. DEFINITE FORM. An adjective modifying a noun 
 with the definite article has the ending -a 1 for both 
 genders, singular and plural; as, stora. This is called 
 the definite form of the adjective. 
 
 78. THE PREPOSITIVE DEFINITE ARTICLE. The definite 
 form of the adjective (followed by a noun with the definite 
 article) is regularly 2 preceded by another definite article, 
 which is called the prepositive definite article. The article 
 appended to the noun (see 40) is known as the post- 
 positive definite article. The forms of the prepositive def- 
 inite article 3 are: 
 
 COMMON NEUTER 
 
 Sing, den del 
 
 Plur. ~dT~ 
 
 79. SUMMARY. When used with a noun that has the 
 definite form, the adjective must be put in the definite 
 form (-a), and is preceded by the prepositive definite 
 article; as, den vita hasten the white horse, del hbga huset 
 the high house, de langa gatorna the long streets. 
 
 Note. Further details about the formation and use of the 
 definite and indefinite adjective are given in Lesson XI. 
 
 1 Identical with the plural of the indefinite form. 
 
 2 Except as stated in 149. 
 
 3 Observe that the prepositive definite article is identical in form with 
 the personal pronoun den, det, de.
 
 V VERBS PAST TENSE 41 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 80. THE PAST TENSE OF WEAK VERBS. Review hade 
 in 71. Past indicative active of tala speak, bygga 
 build, kbpa buy, bo live: 
 
 Sing, jag, etc., talade byggde kopte bodde 
 
 Plur. vi talade byggde kopte bodde 
 
 I taladen byggden kbpten bodden 
 
 de talade byggde kbpte bodde 
 
 The past tense of most Swedish verbs ends in -adc, 
 -de, -te or -dde. Observe the dental consonant (d, /) in 
 each ending; cf. Eng. lose, lost; call, called. The past 
 tense is never monosyllabic. Such verbs are known as 
 -weak verbs. There is no change for person except in the 
 second person plural, where -n is added. 
 
 81- THE PAST TENSE OF STRONG VERBS. Review var 
 in 71. Past indicative active of skriva write: 
 Sing, jag, etc., skrev 
 Plur. vi skrevo 
 I skreven 
 de skrevo 
 
 Some of the verbs most frequently used (though fewer 
 in number than those referred to in 80) form their 
 past tense by changing the root vowel; as, skriva, past 
 skrev. No tense-sign is added; the past sing, is monosyl- 
 labic, unless compounded. Cf. Eng. run, ran; break, 
 broke; fall, fell; sing, sang. Such verbs are known as 
 strong verbs. 
 
 Note. Almost all strong verbs with long i as the root-vowel 
 in the pres. inf., have long e in the past tense. Those having 
 some other root-vowel than long i in the pres. inf., have some 
 other vowel than long e in the past tense. The various systems 
 of vowel-change in the formation of the past tense of strong verbs 
 are treated in subsequent lessons.
 
 42 VERBS PAST TENSE 
 
 82. Verbs ending in 
 
 -r in pres. sing. ind. act. have past tense in -dde, 
 -ar in pres. sing. ind. act. have past tense in -ade, 
 
 -de 
 
 -er in pres. sing. ind. act. have past in 
 
 no tense-sign, but 
 
 vowel-change 
 Examples are: 
 
 PRES. SING. PAST SING. 
 
 bor bodde 
 
 Weak talar talade 
 
 bygger byggde 
 
 kbper kbpte 
 
 Strong skriver 1 skrev 
 
 83- ORTHOGRAPHY. Concerning svensk, tysk see 24, 2. 
 
 84- PRONUNCIATION: nej ( 12); svensk (9, i c); 
 son ( 9, 3 b); GbteboSg ( 19, 2 a); kbpa ( 14); hbgt 
 ( 1 8). The prepos. def. article is pronounced like the 
 personal pronoun (see 37). For the quantity in van, vem- 
 see 6, note i. Concerning the quantity of the vowel in 
 kbpte see 6, note 2. Observe the change in the quan- 
 tity of the vowel in verbs of the type of bo, bodde. 
 
 85. ACCENT. For the accent of the def. form of adjec- 
 tives, cf. 66, 2. For the accent of verbs see 52, 2. 
 
 86. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) The spoken language gener- 
 ally avoids the use of endast, employing in place of it bara> 
 which is also frequently used in the written language. 
 Another literary word with the same meaning is blott,- 
 this is not used in speaking. 
 
 (2) The colloquial forms of the prepositive article def, 
 ^correspond to those of the personal pronoun; see 39, 6; 
 
 1 Observe that all strong verbs have -er in the pres. sing., but that not 
 all verbs with -er in the pres. sing, are strong.
 
 V THE ADJECTIVE 43 
 
 53, 5. When used as the sign of the infinitive, att 
 is generally pronounced a. Observe the similar pronun- 
 ciation of av in (5) below, and of och ( 39, 6). 
 
 (3) In a large part of Sweden the past tense ending in 
 -ade drops -de in easy speech; as, tala spoke, for talade. 
 
 (4) The definite staden is in the spoken language 
 usually shortened to stan, and in easy speech stad is 
 pronounced sta. 
 
 (5) In easy speech kdpte (past of kopa) is often pro- 
 nounced with short b; observe that there is in this case 
 change in the quality as well as in the quantity of the 
 b. In easy speech av is in some parts of Sweden pro- 
 nounced d; in others, av. In easy speech the k is not 
 pronounced in the neuter forms svenskt, tyskt. In Cen- 
 tral Sweden the vowel of son is frequently pronounced 
 short. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. The following weak verbs have occurred in previous 
 vocabularies: berat'ta (-ade), plocka (-ade), tala (-ade), bo (-dde), 
 hava (hade 1 ), vaxa (-te). In the case of verbs forming their past 
 tense in a way already discussed 2 , the past tense will be indicated 
 instead of the pres. sing.; see 82. 
 
 att 3 conj., that; (also used endast only 
 
 before infinitives) to flagga ( 1 ) flag 
 
 av of, from gul yellow 
 
 bro (2) bridge hog high, tall 
 
 bygga (-de) build ja yes 
 
 den (. det,//?^r. de) the kopa (-te) buy 
 
 1 Irregular. 
 
 2 That is, for this lesson, weak verbs, and strong verbs with the vowel- 
 change i; e. 
 
 3 "Att" with infinitives is in Swedish omitted much more often than to in 
 English; see 24-2, 1. As in English, "att" (= that) is frequently omitted, 
 particularly in the spoken language.
 
 44 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 lida (led) suffer svar hard, difficult, severe 
 
 ligga (sing, -er) lie, be tro (-dde) think, believe 
 
 situated tycka (-te) think (= be of the 
 
 ne j no opinion} , fancy ; tycka om' 1 ///[<? 
 
 rida (red) rwk tysk German; -a //*<? German 
 
 son &? language; pa -a / German; 
 
 stad Yy, Aw en tysk (2) a German 
 
 svart /<:/ vem who? , whom? 
 
 svensk Swedish; -a ///^ vit z'/Y<? 
 
 Swedish language; pa van friend 
 
 -a m Swedish; en vanin'na (1) (woman} friend 
 
 svensk (2) a Swede 
 
 EXERCISE V. 
 
 A, i. X.r det stora huset ditt? Ja, det ar mitt. 
 2. Sveriges flagga ar bla och gul. 3. Jag tycker om 
 den svenska flaggan. 4. Tycker ni icke, att den ar 
 mycket vacker? 5. Min van byggde det hb'ga huset. 
 6. Tror du, att din vaninnas mor kommer 2 i dag? 7. Gote- 
 borg 3 ar en stor stad. Var ligger Goteborg? 8. Skrev 
 du ett brev pa tyska? 9. Tycken I om att bo i staden ? 
 10. Var bar du den gula rosen? Den ligger pa det 
 vita bordet. n. Vi tyckte, att de talade svenska. 12. Vem 
 byggde bron over an? 13. Tycker ni icke, att denna 
 blomma ar vacker? 14. Den stora flaggan ligger pa din 
 lararinnas bord. 15. Tyckte ni, att staden var vacker? 
 16. Jag trodde, att ban var var van. 17. Modern trodde, 
 att hennes son var sjuk. 18. Vi kopte de vita duvorna 
 i dag pa morgonen. 19. De vita fjarilarna sitta pa 
 blommorna. 20. Deras son led av en mycket svar sjuk- 
 dom. 21. Gossarna redo pa den svarta hasten. 
 
 1 Observe the order in: "Jag tycker icke om eula. blommor." "Tycker du om 
 gula blommor?" 
 
 2 Cf. page 39, foot-note. 
 
 3 Gotebor'g, the cit3" of Gothenburg.
 
 V THE ADJECTIVE 45 
 
 B. i. His mother was not there. 2. Did the boys not 
 write a long letter? 3. Did you live in the city? 4. The 
 red flowers grew in the woods. 5. I picked the red rose 
 this morning 1 . 6. Do you not think that the Swedish 
 flag is beautiful? 7. The birds are flying under the 
 bridge. 8. Who bought the red slippers? 9. The girls 
 were writing a letter to the Swedish princess. 10. Do 
 you like the white flowers? No, but I like the red 
 roses, ii. Do you think that their mother is at home 
 to-day? 12. The lamp is on the yellow table. 13. My 
 sister's friend does not speak Swedish. She speaks only 
 German. 14. The blue flag is on the bridge. 15. Is the 
 large lake beautiful? 16. The German gentleman wrote 
 a letter in Swedish. 17. Who built the large yellow 
 house? 1 8. They lived in this parish. 19. Were you 
 speaking German? No, we were speaking Swedish. 
 20. We bought the yellow birds in the city. 21. The 
 high house is hers. Do you think that her house 
 is pretty? 
 
 1 Cf. 18 in Exercise A.
 
 46 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 87- The Third Declension (plur. -er) contains nouns of 
 both genders, but primarily nouns of common gender. 
 Almost all neuter 1 nouns of this declension are of foreign 
 origin, as are also very many of the nouns of common 
 gender. To this declension belong 2 : 
 
 (1) Many monosyllabic nouns (almost all of common 
 gender) ending in a consonant; as, bok book , fa rg color, 
 stad city, van friend, vin (n.) wine. 
 
 (2) Many nouns of more than one syllable ending in 
 various suffixes 3 ; as, handelse occurrence, konstnar* artist, 
 solda't soldier, mdnad month, bageri' (n.) bakery, muse' - 
 um (n.) museum. 
 
 Note. i. Nouns ending in unstressed -e drop this vo\vel 
 before adding -er; as, biblioteka'rie librarian, plur. bibhoteka' ri cr ; 
 handelse occurrence, plur. handelser; fiende enemy, plur. jicndcr. 
 
 2. The few nouns of this declension that end in unstressed -el, 
 -er drop the vowel of the suffix upon adding -er; as, tnuskel mus- 
 cle, plur. muskier; neger negro, plur. negrer. 
 
 3. Nouns ending in -ium and -eum drop -um before adding -er; 
 as, laborato' rium laboratory, plur. laborato' rier ; muse'um museum, 
 plur. muse'er. 
 
 1 Of the neuters that do not belong to this declension, those ending in a 
 vowel belong to the Fourth Declension, and those ending in a consonant, to 
 the Fifth. 
 
 2 Some nouns otherwise having no plural, or, in a few instances, having 
 a plural according to another declension, form aplural ending in-er denoting 
 "kinds of", "brands of" in the mercantile sense; as, i>i n (n.) wine, te (n.) tea, 
 fro (n.; also 4) seed. 
 
 3 The commonest suffixes are: (1) common-gender, -else, -hct, -skat, -ati, 
 -nad, -niir, beside a large variety of suffixes in words of foreign origin; 
 (2) neuter (foreign origin), -eri', -e'um, -ium. Nouns ending in -/ -i' are partly 
 neuter, partly of common gender. 
 
 4 Konstniir may, though less frequently, also be pronounced with the 
 stress on the final syllable.
 
 VI THIRD DECLENSION 47 
 
 4. A number of words 1 (chiefly monosyllabic ) of this declension 
 modify (see u) the root-vowel; as, hand hand, plur. hander; 
 son son, plur. soner; bonde peasant, plur. bonder. 
 
 5. In a few words a long vowel of the singular is shortened in 
 the plural; as, get goat, plur. getter; not nut, plur. natter. Some 
 have both shortening and modification of the root-vowel; as, bok 
 book, plur. backer; fot foot, plur. fatter. 
 
 6. A few loan-words, especially all that end in -or, shift the 
 stress in the plural; as, dok'tor doctor, plur. dokto'rer; profes'sor 
 professor, plur. professo'rer. 
 
 7. Special attention is called to the fact that the Third Declen- 
 sion contains a very large number of loan-words. Most couinion- 
 gender nouns of foreign origin in Swedish, and some neuters, form 
 their plural with -er. If of more than one syllable and most of the 
 nouns of foreign origin have more than one syllable they are 
 generally stressed on some syllable other than the first; as, arm 
 army, biblioteka'rie librarian, profes'sor professor, solda't soldier, 
 bageri' (n.) bakery, muse'um (n.) museum. Accordingly, most 
 common-gender nouns that do not stress the first syllable, belong 
 to the Third Declension. 
 
 88. DEFINITE FORM. The definite singular adds -en 
 (-) or -et (-/) according to the gender; the definite 
 plural adds -na. 
 
 Note. i. Nouns ending in -el, -er, -or add -n; as, muskeln\h& 
 muscle, negern the negro, profes'sorn the professor. 
 
 2. Common-gender nouns ending in unstressed -e z add -n; as, 
 biblioteka'rie , def. biblioteka'rlen; handelse, def. handelsen. 
 Common-gender nouns of more than one syllable ending in a 
 stressed vowel add either -en or -n; as, arm?" army, def. arme'(e)n; 
 fotografi' photograph, def. fotografi'(e)n. See 93, i. 
 
 3. The very few neuters of this declension that have an un- 
 stressed final vowel, add -t; as, fangelse 3 prison, def. fangehet. 
 Neuter nouns ending in a stressed vowel add -et; as, bageri' 
 bakery, def. bageri' et. 
 
 1 For a complete list see Phonology 33. 
 
 2 Note also the irregular histo'ria history, story, def. hisio'rien. plur. histo'rier. 
 
 3 With very few exceptions, words with the suffix -else have common 
 gender. See page 4i, foot-note 3.
 
 4 8 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 VI 
 
 4. Nouns ending in -ium and -eum drop -um before adding 
 -et; 1 as, laborato'rium, def. laborato'riet; muse'utn, def. muse'et. 
 
 89- Examples of this declension are: farg color, van 
 friend, bok book, vin (n.) wine, manad month, handelse 
 occurrence, muskel muscle, solda't soldier, doktor doctor, 
 fotografi' photograph, bageri' (n.) bakery, muse'um (n.) 
 museum. 
 
 INDEFINITE 
 
 DEFINITE 
 
 INDEFINITE 
 
 DEFINITE 
 
 Sing, farg 
 Plur. fdrger 
 
 fargen 
 fdrgerna 
 
 van 
 vanner* 
 
 vannen 
 
 I'dnnerna 
 
 Sing, bok 
 Plur. backer 
 
 boken 
 bbckerna 
 
 vin (n.) 
 viner 
 
 vinet 
 vinerna 
 
 Sing, manad 
 Plur. manader 
 
 manaden 
 manaderna 
 
 handelse 
 ha ndelser 
 
 hdndelsen 
 hdndelserna 
 
 Sing, muskel 
 Plur. muskier 
 
 muskeln 
 musklerna 
 
 solda't 
 solda'ter 
 
 sol da' ten 
 solda'terna 
 
 Sing, doktor 
 Plur. dokto'rer 
 
 doktorn 
 dokto'rer na 
 
 fotografi' 
 fotografi ' er 
 
 fotografi' (e^n 
 fotografi' erna 
 
 Sing, bageri' (\\.} 
 Plur. bageri'er 
 
 bageri' et 
 bageri'erna 
 
 muse'um(\\.^) 
 muse'er 
 
 muse'et 
 muse' erna 
 
 90. ORTHOGRAPHY: van, vdnner, vannen (6, note i; 
 Phonology 18 b). "Upsala" is in Sweden usually 
 spelled Uppsala, but sometimes Upsala. In words of 
 foreign origin ending in stressed final e, and in inflec- 
 tional forms of such words, the position of the stress is 
 always indicated, the mark being directly above the c; 
 as, armS, arm/(e)n, arm/er. Similarly, in some proper 
 names; as, Tegner, Linne. 
 
 1 Or they may remain unchanged; as. det anato'miska must'iim the anatom- 
 ical museum. 
 
 2 As the vowel ofriin is short, the change to a double consonant '-mriiKner 
 is not parallel to that ofbak: backer. See 90.
 
 VI THIRD DECLENSION 49 
 
 91- PRONUNCIATION: bonde ( 9, 3 a); muse'um ( 8, 2, 
 note); get ( 14); oni ( 6, note i). For the quantity in 
 negrer, etc., see Phonology 14 B 2 b. Observe the 
 change of the vowel in quality as well as in quantity in 
 not, nbtter; doktor, dokto'rer (second 0) ; profes'sor, pro- 
 fesso'rer (second o). 
 
 92. ACCENT: (i) Monosyllables of the Third Declension 
 have the acute accent in the def. sing.; as, fargen, bokcn, 
 z'inet. 
 
 In the plural most of these have the grave accent; as, 
 fdrger, vdnner. But all nouns that modify or shorten the 
 root-vowel of the singular in forming the plural (except 
 soner), and a few other nouns, have the acute accent; 
 as, backer, stdder, getter, natter. Even bonde, which in 
 the singular has the grave accent, has the acute in 
 the plural, bonder. Many nouns have either the grave 
 or the acute accent, generally in different localities; 
 as, I'incr, saker. 
 
 As the addition of the definite article does not change 
 the nature of the accent of the form to which it 
 is added, sbnerna has the grave accent, bockerna, the 
 acute, etc. 
 
 (2) Nouns stressed on the last syllable in the indef. 
 sing, have the acute accent both in the def. sing, and 
 in the indef. and def. plural; as, soldo,' ten, solda'ter, 
 soldo! tcrna; fotografi' en , fotografi' er , fotograflerna; bageri'et, 
 bageri'er, bageri'erna. 
 
 (3) All nouns of the Third Declension ending in -el, 
 -er have the acute accent in all forms, indef. and def., 
 both singular and plural 1 ; as, muskel, muskier (jia) ; neger, 
 negrer {no) . 
 
 1 On the contrary, nouns with these suffixes belonging to the Second De- 
 clension have the grave accent in the plural; see 74, 2 end.
 
 50 THIRD DECLENSION VI 
 
 (4) Profes'sor has the grave accent, butprofesso'rer, the 
 acute. Doktor may have either the acute or the grave 
 accent in the singular; in the plural it has the acute 
 
 (dokto'rer} . 
 
 (5) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, neger, musket 
 and Amc'rika have the acute accent. Doktor and laborato'- 
 rium may have either the acute or the grave accent. Muse- 
 um usually has the acute accent, but sometimes the grave. 
 
 93. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Forms like fotografi'en occur 
 primarily in the written language; those like fotografi'n, 
 primarily in the spoken language. Except in the case 
 of those ending in -z, the shorter form is frequently used 
 also in the written language. 
 
 (2) Neuters ending in a stressed vowel frequently 
 have only -t in the def. form. 
 
 (3) In easy speech brbd is pronounced brb. Hand is 
 in easy speech pronounced hann, which is used also as 
 the def., for handen. The def. sing, of manad is not 
 infrequently shortened to mdnan, and the plural to 
 manar, but this less often. 
 
 VOCABULARY . 
 
 Note. The following nouns belonging to the Third Declension 
 have occurred in previous vocabularies: bok, farg, son, stad, van. 
 
 arme 1 (3) army fiende (3) enemy 
 
 bageri' . (3) bakery fot (3) foot 
 
 bibliote'k n. library fotografi' (3) photograph 
 
 biblioteka'rie (3) librarian fangelse n. (3) prison 
 
 bonde (3) peasa7it for for, to 
 
 brod n. bread get (3) goat 
 
 doktor (3) doctor hand (3) hand 
 
 dricka (sing, -er) drink handelse (3) occurrence 
 
 1 See 90.
 
 VI THIRD DECLENSION 51 
 
 konstnar 1 (3) artist not (3) nut 
 
 laborato'rium;z.(3) labora- ovan 2 (3) (personal} enemy 
 
 tory profes'sor (3) professor 
 
 muse'um n. (3) museum pa on, in 
 
 muskel (3) muscle sak (3) thing, matter, affair 
 
 manad (3) month solda't (3) soldier 
 
 neger (3) negro som 3 who, whom, that, which 
 
 nu now vin n, (3) wine 
 
 EXERCISE VI. 
 
 A. i. Konungen bar manga soldater i armen. 2. De 
 svenska bonderna ha icke manga getter. 3. Doktorn 
 och konstnaren dricka vin. 4. Professorn, som du tala- 
 de oin, ar pa laboratoriet. 5. Bibliotekarien och pro- 
 fessorerna voro vanner, men nu aro de ovanner. 6. Ne- 
 gern beriittade handelsen for fienderna. 7. Soldaterna 
 kopte brod i bageriet. 8. Var voro notterna ? 9. Stock- 
 holm, Goteborg och Malmo aro svenska stader. 10. Bi- 
 blioteket i Uppsala ar stort. n. Den tyska herrn har 
 bade svenska och tyska bocker. 12. Fienderna redo till 
 staden pa bondernas hastar. 13. Doktorn ar pa museet. 
 14. Fotografien ligger pa bordet. 15. Fienderna voro i sta- 
 den en manad. 16. Musklerna i handerna aro icke stora. 
 17. Den sjuka kvinnan ar hos doktorn. 18. Bonderna 
 ha icke manga bocker. 19. Negrerna i Amerika 4 bo i 
 staderna. 20. Gossar och flickor tycka om fotografier. 
 21. Professorns bocker aro hos bibliotekarien. 
 
 1 See page 46, foot-note 4. 
 
 2 The prefix "o-" (together with "in-", "im-") in Swedish corresponds to 
 the Eniilish nn- (in-, im-). The prefix "o-" is stressed. Further examples 
 
 obebodd uninhabited, odelbar indivisible, omojlig
 
 52 THIRD DECLENSION VI 
 
 B. i. The prison in this city is not beautiful. 2. The 
 peasants picked nuts in the woods. 3. The professor 
 was in the library and the doctor was in the laboratory. 
 4. The king has a horse which is very beautiful. 5. The 
 birds are sitting on the girl's hand. 6. The soldiers are 
 drinking wine. 7. The peasants are giving the enemies 
 bread. 8. The boy's hands and feet are not large. 9. The 
 professors are not in the city in the summer. 10. The 
 enemy does not like our armies, n. The librarian and 
 the doctor are enemies. 12. The negroes are giving the 
 boys nuts. 13. Do the women buy bread in the bak- 
 eries? 14. Sweden does not have many large cities. 
 
 15. The artist and his friends w r ere in the museum. 
 
 16. Is the photograph beautiful? 17. Where are the 
 laboratories? 18. The bakeries in this city are not large.
 
 VII FOURTH DECLENSION 53 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 FOURTH DECLENSION. 
 
 94- The Fourth Declension (plur. -n) contains only 
 neuter nouns. To this declension belong most neuters 
 ending in a vowel; namely, 
 
 (1) A few monosyllabic neuters ending in a vowel; 
 as, bi bee, fro seed, kna knee. 
 
 (2) Neuters of more than one syllable ending in an 
 unstressed vowel 1 (chiefly -<?); as, rike kingdom, apple 
 apple, forhal'lande circumstance, hjarta heart, pia'no piano. 
 
 95- DEFINITE FORM. The def. sing, adds -et or -t; 
 the def. plur. adds -a 2 . 
 
 Note. I. Nouns ending in an unstressed vowel add -// as, 
 apple, def. applet; hjarta, clef, hjartat; pia'no, def . pia'not. Those 
 ending in a stressed vowel add -et or -/; as, kna, def. kna(e)t. 
 See 105, i. 
 
 2. Monosyllables may also, though less often now than before, 
 form the def. plur. by dropping 3 - and adding -en; as, bien 
 (= bina}. 
 
 3. Of hjarta heart, there is no def. plur. form in common use. 
 As far as possible, the written language avoids expressing the 
 definite meaning of the plural of this word, but it employs hjdrtana 
 (see 105, 2) if the def. plur. must be expressed. 
 
 96- Examples of this declension are: bi bee, apple 
 apple, hjarta heart, pia'no piano. 
 
 1 There are few exceptions, the leading ones being ora, oga ( 110), fdneel- 
 ie (3 Decl.1, kilo (5 Decl.), and a few foreign -words ending in -ma. Neuters 
 of more than one syllable that have a stressed final vowel, belong to the 
 Third Declension; see page 46, foot-note 3. 
 
 r ecenson; see page , oo-noe . 
 
 2 Observe that the resulting -na, while here embracing also the plural 
 ending, is identical in form with the def. article of the plural in the first 
 three declensions. 
 
 3 In reality is not dropped; the def. form in question is based on an 
 older plural form bi (identical with the singular), to which -en was added;
 
 54 STRONG VERES VII 
 
 INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE 
 
 Sing, bi Met apple applet 
 
 Plur. bin bina (bien*} dpplen dpplena 
 
 Sing, hjdrta hjdrtat pia'no pia'not 
 
 Plur. hjartan \Jijdrtand\ pia'non pia'uona 
 
 STRONG VERBS. 
 
 97- In Swedish, as in English, there is a great variety 
 
 of vowel-change in the formation of the past tense of 
 
 strong verbs 1 (cf. 81 and note). The most numerously 
 
 represented systems of vowel-change in Swedish are: 2 
 
 PRESENT PAST 
 
 (1) long i long e 
 
 (2) short i short a; plur., short n 
 
 (3) u t y b 
 Examples: 
 
 (1) skriva write skrev 
 
 (2) finna find fann, \A\\r.funno 
 
 (3) bjuda offer bjbd 
 sjunga sing sjbng 
 flyga fly flog 
 
 98. All strong verbs that have z, u or y as the root-vowel 
 in the infinitive 3 (and in the pres. sing.), form the past 
 tense according to the systems given in 97. To this 
 there are only two exceptions: giva give, past gav, past 
 plur. g&vo; and Hgga lie, past lag- These two verbs, 
 and those having in the infinitive some other root-vowel 
 than z', u or y, form the past tense according to various 
 
 1 E. g., in English: run, ran; eat, ate; fall, fell; shoot, shot; break, 
 broke; tear, tore; bite, bit; drive, drove; bind, bound; sing, sang; give, 
 gave. 
 
 2 A more complete account is given in Lesson XVI. 
 
 3 For further illustrations see the note preceding the vocabulary of this 
 lesson.
 
 VII FOURTH DECLENSION 55 
 
 systems. As each of the last named systems is represent- 
 ed by only from one to three or four verbs, these can 
 best be learned individually. 
 
 99. The past tense of all strong verbs is conjugated 
 like skrev in 81. Notice, however, that in system (2) 
 the root-vowel of the past plur. differs from that of the 
 past sing. This is the case also with a few of the 
 individual verbs referred to in 98, end; as, giva, past 
 gav, past plur. gavo. Cf. var, plur. voro, in 71. 
 
 Sing, jag, etc., skrev fann bjbd sjbng flog 
 
 Plur. vi skrevo funno bjbdo sjbngo flbgo 
 
 I skreven funnen bjbden sjbngen flbgen 
 
 de skrevo funno bjbdo sjbngo flbgo 
 
 NEGATIVES. 
 
 100. Swedish has three words meaning "not": icke, ej 
 and inte. The written language employs icke, frequently 
 interspersing ej. 1 The spoken language regularly uses 
 inte, which also occurs in the written language, particu- 
 larly in dialog. 
 
 101. POSITION OF, X NEGATIVES. In principal clauses the 
 negative is placed after the finite form of the verb, as 
 in English, but in subordinate clauses it is placed before 
 the finite form. Ex.: Han dr icke hemma. He is not 
 at home. Hon sdger, aft han icke dr hemma. She says 
 that he is not at home. 
 
 102. ORTHOGRAPHY: komma, kom, kommo ( 6, note i; 
 Phonology 18 a). Tegner ( 90, end). 
 
 103. PRONUNCIATION: /ova, sova ( 9, 3 b) ; hjarta ( 16); 
 kna ( 17); Tegnlr ( 19, 2 c); liem, Sven ( 6, note i). 
 
 1 Not infrequently both icke and ej occur in the same sentence. Ex.: Detta 
 marker liitt den. som farso'ker att fora ett samtal med naffon. som han icke ser. och 
 som ej ser honom. This will readily be observed by one -who tries to carry on 
 a conversation with someone whom he does not see and who does not see him.
 
 56 FOURTH DECLENSION VII 
 
 In saga, g usually =// in Holgersson, gj or g (as in 
 g&). Observe the change in the initial consonant-sound 
 in giva, gav. 
 
 104. ACCENT: (r) Monosyllables of the Fourth Declen- 
 sion have the acute accent both in the def. sing, and def . 
 plur.; as, bief, bina (bien). Words of more than one 
 syllable have the grave accent in all forms (as rike, riket, 
 riken, rikena), with the exception of a few words (as 
 fbrh&riande, pia'no, which latter may also have the grave 
 accent; observe that both of these words are stressed on 
 some syllable other than the first). 
 
 (2) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, vatten , fbr- 
 hal'lande, Holgersson and Fritiof have the acute accent; 
 pia'no has either the acute or the grave accent. 
 
 105. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Forms like knaet occur pri- 
 marily in the written language; those like kndt, primarily 
 in the spoken language. 
 
 (2) In the spoken language, hjartana is used as the 
 def. plur. of hjarta. 
 
 (3) The spoken language, not employing plural verb- 
 forms (cf. 53, i) has no vowel-change such as that of 
 fann, plur. funno. 
 
 (4) In the spoken language, sa may be used for sade. 
 
 (5) Aven belongs to the written language; likewise 
 ock, which is synonymous with it. In place of these, ock- 
 sa 1 , which also occurs in the written language, is used in 
 speaking. In easy speech, med (pronounced ma) is em- 
 ployed beside ocksa. When these adverbs modify another 
 word, aven is placed before the word; ocksa, before or 
 after (the latter primarily in the spoken language); ock 
 and med, after. 
 
 1 Acute or grave accent.
 
 VII 
 
 FOURTH DECLENSION 
 
 57 
 
 Summary: 
 
 Written 
 ock (after) 
 dven (before) 
 ocksa (before) 
 
 Spoken 
 
 ocksa (after) 
 
 Easy Speech 
 
 ocksa (after) 
 med (after) 
 
 (6) In easy speech, god and trad are pronounced go, tra. 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. "Rike", belonging to the Fourth Declension, has occurred 
 in a previous vocabulary. 
 
 The strong verbs that have been given in previous vocabularies 
 are: 1 lida (past, led), rida (red), skriva (skrev), sitta (satt, plur. 
 sutto), dricka (drack, plur. drucko), sjunga (sjong), flyga (flog), 
 giva (gav, plur. gavo), ligga (lag), vara (var, plur. voro), komma 
 (koin 2 , plur. kommo). 
 
 arbeta (-ade) work 
 arbete n. (4) work 
 
 hjarta n. (4) heart 
 halla (holl) hold, keep 
 inte not 
 jo 5 yes 
 
 jord (2) earth, ground 
 kna n. (4) knee 
 lova (-ade) promise 
 lasa (-te) read 
 lofte n. (4) promise 
 minne n. (4) memory, remi- 
 niscence 
 
 natt (3, plur. natter) night; 
 om -en during the night; 
 i uatt 6 to-night 
 
 1 Learn the past tense of these verbs as here given. 
 
 2 Observe that while "komma" and "sova" do not change the vowel in 
 the past tense, they ha ve the other characteristics of a strong verb; note also 
 "vara". 
 
 3 See 28, note 1. 
 
 4 See page 46, foot-note 2. 
 
 5 "Jo" is used in place of "j a" in answer to a question containing a negative. 
 
 6 Never used with the meaning of "this evening", as is the Eng. to-night. 
 
 barn n. 3 child 
 
 bi n. 3 (4) bee 
 
 bjuda (bjod) offer, invite 
 
 da then, when 
 
 ej not 
 
 finna (fann, plur. funno) 
 find 
 
 fro 4 ii. (4) seed 
 
 forhal'lande n. (4) circum- 
 stance, condition 
 
 god good 
 
 liem n. home; adv.. home
 
 58 FOURTH DECLENSION VII 
 
 naste n. (4) nest saga, (irregular; -er, past sade) 
 
 ock also say 
 
 ocksa also trad n. tree 
 
 pia'no n. (4) piano r vatten n. -water 
 
 resa (-te) travel, go apple n. (4) apple 
 
 sova (sov 1 ) sleep aven also 
 
 EXERCISE VII. 
 
 A. i. Han lovade att skriva, men ban holl icke 
 loftet. 2. Han arbetade om natten och sov om dagen. 
 3. Konstnaren sade, att ban icke arbetade i dag pa. 
 morgonen. 4. Frona lago i jorden. 5. Duvorna flogo 
 hem om aftouen. 6. Faglarna ha nasten i skogen. 
 7. Karl och Johan 2 funno nastena. 8. Forhallandena i 
 Sverige voro svara, da Johansson reste till Amerika. 
 9. Bonderna bjodo soldaterna brod och vatten. 10. Dessa 
 gossar tycka om pianon. n. Bockerna lago pa ditt bord. 
 12. Gossarna och flickorna sutto i skolan och laste om. 
 Nils Holgersson. 13. Fienderna lago i skogen och sovo. 
 
 14. Skrev icke professorn ett stort arbete om Sverige? 
 
 15. Vi tycka, att pianot ar vackert. 16. Han sade, att 
 fageln icke var i nastet. 17. Sade gossen, att han icke 
 tycker om att resa? 18. Gossarna drucko vatten. De 
 gavo aven hastarna vatten att dricka. 19. Sven sade, 
 att han icke tycker om att plocka notter. 
 
 B. i. He says that the work is not difficult. 2. He 
 liked to read good books when he was small. 3. Did 
 these good apples grow on this tree? 4. The nights 
 were very long then. 5. Where did the boys find the 
 nuts? 6. The bees were sitting on the flowers. 7. The 
 child was sitting on the doctor's knees. 8. Do butter- 
 flies have hearts? 9. Have you many books on your 
 
 1 See page 57, foot-note 2. 2 John.
 
 VII FOURTH DECLENSION . 59 
 
 table? 10. The piano is both large and beautiful, n. I 
 thought that he came home this morning. 12. Do 
 pigeons have nests in the woods? 13. The apples are 
 good. 14. The boys were reading Tegner's works in 
 school 1 . They like to read "Fritiofs Saga". 15. He 
 had many reminiscences of 2 Sweden to talk about. 
 16. Are the apples on this tree yours? 17. They prom- 
 ised to work to-day. Did they keep this promise? 
 1 8. The seed is very large. 19. Birds like seeds. 
 
 20. The boy has a nest which he found in the woods. 
 
 21. His home is also yours. 
 
 1 See 12 in Exercise A. 2 Use "fr&n".
 
 60 FIFTH DECLENSION VIII 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 FIFTH DECLENSION. 
 
 106- In the Fifth Declension (plural without ending) the 
 indef. plur. is identical in form with the indef. sing., except 
 in the case of the words in (3) below, which modify the 
 root-vowel. Compare English "sheep" , "swine", "deer". 
 To this declension, which contains nouns of both genders 
 (primarily neuters), belong: 
 
 (1) Almost all 1 neuters ending in a consonant; as, 
 bord table, hus house, fbnster window, smultron wild 
 strawberry, genus gender. 
 
 (2) Nouns of common gender ending in -are and -ande; 
 as, larare teacher, resande traveler, ordforande chairman. 
 
 (3) A few nouns of common gender that have vowel- 
 modification (seen) in the plural 2 : broder brother, 
 fader father, man man, gas goose, mus mouse, lus louse, 
 plur. broder, fader, man, gass, moss, loss (the last two 
 with irregular vowel-modification). 
 
 (4) Nouns (chiefly of common gender) indicating 
 measure 3 ; as, mil mile, fofi foot, turn 6 inch, meter meier, 
 kilo (n.) kilogram. Man has plur. man 6 when denoting 
 a group of persons (primarily soldiers) thought of as a 
 whole; as, fern tusen man five thousand men, en har pa 
 10,000 (read tio tusen} man an army of 10,000 men. 
 
 1 The Third Declension contains a small number of neuters ending in a 
 consonant, partly monosyllables, and partly words of more than one syl- 
 lable; see 87, 1 , and page 46, foot-note 3. See, in addition, 111. 
 
 2 Cf. Eng.: brother, brethren; man, men; goose, geese. 
 
 3 Cf. Eng.: "I put in ten ton of coal last month." 
 
 4 \Vheny^ does not indicate measure, it belongs to the Third Declension, 
 plur. fdtter. 
 
 5 Tutu may be either of common or of neuter gender. 
 
 6 When individuals are thought of, the plur. man is used.
 
 VIII FIFTH DECLENSION 6 1 
 
 (5) Foreign nouns, including names of peoples, ending 
 in -er (common gender); as, bota'niker botanist, egyp'tier 
 Egyptian. 
 
 Note. i. The long vowel of the sing., besides being modified, 
 is shortened in the plur. of gas, plur. gass; mus, plur. moss; /us, 
 plur. loss. 
 
 2. Broder and fader are generally contracted to bror and far in 
 the indef . sing. 1 Words in -are, when used before a proper noun, 
 usually drop the -e ; as, skomakar (== shoe-maker) Karlsson (some- 
 times, skomakare Karlsson] Mr. Carlson. But in the case of 
 kejsare emperor, the -e is always dropped before a noun; as, kejsar 
 Wilhelm. Cf. 68, note 5. 
 
 107. DEFINITE FORM. The definite singular ends in 
 -et (-/) or -en (-), according to the gender. The def- 
 inite plural ends in -en or -na. The plural form -en is 
 used for both genders when a consonant precedes, except 
 that common-gender nouns ending in -er add -na. Al- 
 so the nouns ending in a vowel add -na. Ex.: husen, 
 smultronen, mdnncn, gassen, brbderna, bota' nikerna , ord- 
 forandena. 
 
 Note. i. Common-gender nouns ending in -e and -er z add -n 
 in the def. sing.; as, lararen, brodern, metern, bota'nikern. 
 
 2. The few neuters ending in an unstressed vowel add -t; as, 
 kilot the kilogram. 
 
 3. Neuters ending in -us employ the indef. sing, and plur. also as 
 the def. sing, and plur.; as, genus gender, indef. and def. singular and 
 plural 3 . 
 
 4. Almost all* neuters ending in -el, -en, -er drop the vowel of the 
 suffix before adding the sing, -et or the plur. -en; as, hagel, hail, def. 
 
 1 But the def. sins, and the plural (indef. and def.) are never so contract- 
 ed u1. S 107, note 1, and foot-note 2 on this page). See the paradigm, 108. 
 Cf. <>S, note 5, and page 34, foot-note 1. 
 
 2 Instead of fadern. brodern. the forms fadren. brodren are sometimes used; 
 cf. page 35, foot-note 2. 
 
 3 Cams sometimes has the Latin plur. g-crit-rn. which is user! perhaps more 
 often -with def. than with indef. meaning. 
 
 4 Not, however. si,fen silk, sidenet ; bucken basin, Hickcaft. backi-m-n: f.iffcr 
 paper, fatfcrei, tatteren.
 
 62 
 
 FIFTH DECLENSION 
 
 VIII 
 
 sing, haglet, def. plur. haglen; vapen weapon, vapnet, -capncn; 
 fonster window, fonstret, fonstren 1 . 
 
 5. Words ending in -are drop the e of -arena ; as, /drama for la- 
 rarena. In the written language, but not in the spoken language, 
 -ne is in this case frequently used to form the def. plural of nouns 
 referring to persons of the male sex. This was the practice for- 
 merly more than now. Cf. 69, note 5. 
 
 6. For the def. plur., most nouns ending in -ande substitute the 
 prepositive definite article followed by the corresponding present 
 participle, which is identical with the noun (cf. 150); as, de re- 
 sande (for resandena). 
 
 108- Examples of the Fifth Declension are: bord (n.) 
 table, smultron (n.) wild strawberry, fonster (n.) win- 
 dow, genus (n.) gender, larare teacher, ordforande chair- 
 man, bota'niker botanist, bro(de)r brother, man man, 
 gas goose. 
 
 INDEFINITE DEFINITE 
 
 Sing, bord (n.) bordet 
 Plur. bord borden 
 
 INDEFINITE DEFINITE 
 smultron (n.) smultronct 
 smultron smultronen 
 
 Sing, fonster (n.) fonstret genus (n.) 
 Plur. fonster fonstren 1 genus 
 
 Sing, larare Idraren ordforande 
 
 Plur. larare lararna (-ne) ordforande 
 
 Sing, bota'niker bota'nikern bro(de)r 
 Plur. bota'niker bota'nikerna broder 
 
 Sing, man 
 Plur. 
 
 man 
 
 j i)3 
 
 mannen 
 
 gas 
 gass 
 
 genus 
 genus 
 
 ordfbranden 
 ordforandena 
 
 brodcrn- 
 broderna 
 
 gasen 
 gassen 
 
 1 Fonster sometimes uses as the def. plur., fonsterna. Similarly, frttntinnner 
 woman, has jruntimren or fruntimmerna: tiller pill, has tiltren or fillerna. 
 
 2 See foot-note 2 on the preceding page. 
 
 3 Or ,,,an; see 1O6, -t. 
 
 4 The change from to nn is only orthographic (see Phonology 18). 
 On the contrary, the change from s to S s in f ds. ess is due to a change in 
 quantity.
 
 VIII IRREGULARITIES IN DECLENSION 63 
 
 IRREGULARITIES IN DECLENSION. 
 
 109. A few common-gender nouns (chiefly monosyllab- 
 ic) ending in various vowels, form their plural by add- 
 ing -r; as, ko cow, plur. kor; sko shoe, skor; t& toe, 
 tar; hustru wife, hustrur. 
 
 The def. sing, adds -n; the def. plur. adds -na; as, 
 kon, korna; hustrun, hustrurna. 
 
 110. The two neuters bga eye, and bra ear, form their 
 plural by dropping -a and adding -on, plur. bgon, oron. 
 
 The def. sing, adds -t; the def. plur. adds -en; as, 
 bgat, bgonen. 
 
 111. Some nouns form their plural in several (usually 
 two) different ways: (i) A large number of neuters of 
 foreign origin ending in a consonant (chiefly nouns of 
 more than one syllable) may belong either to the Fifth 
 or the Third Declension. Ex.: adjektiv adjective, distrik't 
 district, demerit element, kapita'l capital, palat's palace, 
 poe'm poem, proble'm problem, verb verb, hotel' I hotel, bi- 
 bliote'k library. (2) Various other instances of two different 
 plural forms 1 for the same noun are: huvud head, plur. 
 huvud (def. huvudeii), or huvuden (def. huvudena); ham- 
 mare hammer, plur. hammare or hamrar; harad district, 
 township, plur. harad or hdrader. 
 
 112. Proper names ending in an s-sound do not add -.? 
 in the genitive. 2 In writing, however, an apostrophe is 
 
 1 In some instances a difference in meaning is connected with the differ- 
 ence in form in the plural. This is the case with/ /. plur. fatter or fyt: man. 
 plur. ,,,nn or man: /rd'seed, plur. fron (_= seeds) or frotr ( kinds of seeds; 
 see page 46, foot-note 2). Note also ea ng walk, plur. eangar: gang time, 
 plur. ganger: bolt book, plur. biickcr: bok beech, plur. bokar: not note, plur. no- 
 tcr:notsc\ne,-p\ur.notar: bank bank, plur. banker: tank (sand)bank, plur. 
 bankar: skilnk gift, plur. skanker: skiink sideboard, plur. skdnkar: and so on, in 
 the case of a few others. 
 
 2 Concerning the genitive of common nouns ending in an s-sound, see 
 119, end.
 
 64 IRREGULARITIES IN DECLENSION VIII 
 
 very frequently (but less now than formerly) used to in- 
 dicate the case; as, Joharines (older and biblical form 
 of Johari) John, Joharines' evange'lium The Gospel Ac- 
 cording to St. John; Part's 1 beld'gring the Siege of Paris. 
 
 113- FOREIGN NOUNS. Some loan-words retain their 
 foreign plural; as,faktum fact, plur. fakta; exa'men exam- 
 ination, plur. exa'mina; neutrum neuter, plur. neutrer or 
 neutra; prono'men pronoun, plur. prono'men, prono' miner 1 
 or prono'mina. 
 
 Of these, the indefinite form is used also as the defi- 
 nite, both in the singular and (foreign) plural. Ex.: De 
 perso'nliga prono'mina the personal pronouns. Futu'rums 
 bety'delse kan ock uttryckas genom hjalpverbet skola och pres. 
 inf. (read presens infinitiv) med att. The future idea 
 (literally, "the meaning of the future tense") may also 
 be expressed by the auxiliary skola and the present in- 
 finitive with att. But those that also have Swedish 
 plurals, i. e., are naturalized, may have the definite ar- 
 ticle; as, neutret, prono' minet 1 . 
 
 Some foreign nouns, especially biblical names, retain 
 their foreign genitive; as, Matte'us Matthew, Matte'i evan- 
 ge'lium The Gospel According to St. Matthew; Paulus 
 Paul, Pauli brcv The Epistle of Paul; Kristus Christ, 
 gen. Kristi; Jesus Jesus, gen. Jesu; Nationa' Imuseiim Na- 
 tional Museum, Nationa' Imusei samlingar the collections 
 of the National Museum; filosofi'e* doktor Doctor of Phi- 
 losophy; media' ne 1 doktor Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 114. ORTHOGRAPHY: man, mannen, man, mannen; 
 hem, hemmet, hemmen; hammare, hamrar (6, note i; 
 Phonology 18); gas, but in the plural giiss on account 
 of the shortened vowel. 
 
 1 Notice the change from e to /, in accordance with Latin; cf. exa'men, 
 exa'mina. Recent Swedish text-books frequently retain the e. trono'menet. 
 
 2 This-<? = Latin "-ae".
 
 VIII FIFTH DECLENSION 65 
 
 115. PRONUNCIATION: (a) 1 neutrum (Phonology 35); 
 egyp'tier ( 14; 19, 7b3); ex a' men (19, 9); kilo, genus 
 ( 14); kejsare ( 14; 12); evange'lium (Phonology 49, 4, 
 note); Wilhelm ( 19, 8); turn, fern ( 6, note i). 
 
 Observe the change in the initial consonant-sound of 
 gas, gass. For the quantity in vapnet, etc., see Phonology 
 i4B2b. (b) Paulus (12); poe'm, proble'm (Phono- 
 logy 20, 2); medic? ne (19, i b i); kan ( 6, note i); 
 Nationa! Imuseum ( 19, 7 b 2); perso'nliga (Phonology 
 14 B 2 c); huvud (Phonology 14 A 3). 
 
 116. ACCENT: (i) In the Fifth Declension monosylla- 
 bles of both genders with more than one syllable in the 
 def. form, have the acute accent in both the def. sing, 
 and plural 2 ; as, huset, husen; mannen, mdnnen. Similar- 
 ly, the monosyllables of 109 have the acute accent in 
 the def. plural; as, korna. Also nouns with the stress 
 on the last syllable have the acute accent in the def. 
 sing, and plural; as, bibliote'ket, bibliote' ken . 
 
 (2) Almost all words of this declension ending in the 
 suffixes -el, -en, -er, have the acute accent. Important 
 exceptions are broder and fader, which, however, have 
 the acute accent in the plural, broder, fader. 
 
 (3) Words of more than one syllable with the acute 
 accent have this in all forms; as, fbnster (sing, and 
 ^\VLr.~),fdnstret, fbnstren (fbnsterna). 
 
 (4) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, the following 
 have the acute accent: (a) 1 genus, kilo, vatten, vapen, ha- 
 gel, prono'men, fonster, meter, tusen, egyp'tier, Egyp'ten, 
 
 Gottland, Lappland. Evange'lium , exa'men , genom and Wil- 
 helm may have either the acute or the grave accent. Bota'ni- 
 
 1 The words given under (a) occur in the vocabulary and exercises: those 
 under (b) occur only in the text of the grammar (exclusive of foot-notes). 
 
 2 Similarly in the colloquial forms (see 117, 4), Ausena, bibliote'kena, etc.
 
 66 FIFTH DECLENSION VIII 
 
 ker and neutrum usually have the acute accent, but 
 sometimes the grave. (b) Johan'nes, MattJus, Paulus, 
 Karhson, bela'gring, bety'delse, perso'nlig, presens. 
 
 117. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Observe that -ne is not 
 used for the def. plur. in the spoken language (see 107, 
 note 5). 
 
 (2) In the spoken language, words ending in -are drop 
 e in the def. sing; as, skomakarn. In Southern Sweden, 
 however, the uncontracted form is more usual. 
 
 (3) In a large part of Sweden, neuters drop the -t in 
 the def. form; as, huset, pronounced huse; cf. 53, 3. 
 But in the genitive the / is always pronounced (see, 
 however, 134, 2); as, husets. 
 
 (4) In a large part of Sweden, -a is added to the def. 
 plur. ending -en 1 ; as, hus, def. plur. husena; bord, bor- 
 dena; barn, barnena; hagel, haglena; so also g&s, def. 
 plur. giissena. Similarly in the case of bga, bra, def. 
 plur. bgona, brona. 
 
 (5) Neuters ending in -er almost always add -na in 
 the def. plur. in the spoken language; as, mbnsterna (for 
 mbnstren, from monster pattern); papperna (for papperen, 
 from papper paper) ; pulverna (for pulvren, from pulver 
 powder). Some of these frequently add -na also in the 
 written language; see page 62, foot-note i. 
 
 (6) In the case of many neuters (particularly foreign 
 words) ending in a consonant which have double plural 
 forms without difference in meaning, belonging either to 
 the Third or the Fifth Declension (see in, i), the spoken 
 language prefers the plurals ending in -er, while the 
 written language prefers the plurals without ending. 
 
 1 In those parts of Sweden where - is added, the def. plur. of all nouns 
 ends in -na: as, jtickorna, gossarna. sakerna, knuna, husena, fonsterna. gassena, 
 dffona, korna.
 
 VIII 
 
 FIFTH DECLENSION 
 
 67 
 
 (7) Far and bror are more common in the spoken lan- 
 guage than in the written. Cf. 75, 3. 
 
 (8) In place of man, plur. man, the spoken language 
 generally uses karl 1 . 
 
 (9) In the spoken language, huvud has the forms hin'C, 
 def. huvet; plur. huven, def. Imvena. 
 
 (10) In the spoken language, Gottland and Lappland 
 are usually pronounced Gottlan and Lapplan, respectively. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. The following nouns belonging to the Fifth Declension 
 have occurred in previous vocabularies: barn, bibliote'k, bord, 
 brev, brod, hem, hus, trad, vatten; also fot (with the plural -er; 
 cf. page 60, foot-note 4). 
 
 No declension is indicated for nouns that cannot readily be used 
 in the plural. 
 
 bota'niker (5) botanist 
 broder, bror (5) brother 
 egyp'tier (5) Egyptian 
 evange'lium n. (3) gospel 
 exa'men (plur. exa'mina) 
 
 examination 
 fader, far (5) father 
 faktum n. (plur. 
 
 falla (foil) fall 
 fern Jive 
 
 fonster n. (5) window 
 genus n. (5) gender 
 gas (5) goose 
 hagel n. (5) hail, hailstone 
 hustru (plur. -r) wife 
 jordgubbe 2 (2) (cultivated) 
 strawberry 
 
 kejsare (5) emperor, Kaiser 
 kilo n. (5) kilogram (2.2 Ibs.} 
 ko (plur. -r) cow 
 larare (5) teacher 
 man (5) man, husband 
 meter (5) meter (jp inches) 
 mil (5) mile (6.8 Bng. miles") 
 namn n. (5) name 
 neutrum n. (3 or nentra) 
 
 neuter 
 
 ordforande (5) chairman 
 prono'men n. (3, 5 or prono'- 
 
 mina) pronoun 
 resande (5) traveler 
 sko (plur. -r) shoe 
 skomakare (5) shoemaker 
 
 1 The /is silent, and the vowel is long; see 16 a. 
 
 2 "Gubbe" means "old man".
 
 68 FIFTH DECLENSION v:il 
 
 smultron n. (5) (wild} straw- tyg n. (5 or 3) doth 
 
 berry ta (phir. -r) /fe 
 
 smor n. butter vapen w. (5) weapon 
 
 turn (sometimes .) (5) fA 6 (2) island 
 
 tusen thousand oga w. (/!><for. ogon) f_y<? 
 
 tva /zev ora w. (plur. oron) <?ar 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. 
 
 A. i. Botanikern och hans broder voro i skogen och 
 plockade smultron. 2. Nils Holgersson salt pa en 
 gas och red over Sverige. Gassen reste manga mil oni 
 dagen 1 . De flogo fran Skane till Lappland. Gassen vo- 
 ro aven pa Gottland. 3. Gottland ar en stor 6. Var 
 ligger denna 6 ? 4. Egyptierna bo i Egypten 2 . 5. Bor 
 icke kejsar Wilhelm i Berlin 8 ? 6. Soldaterna funno fien- 
 dernas vapen under traden. 7. "Mitt" ar neutrum av 
 pronominet "min". 8. Haglen folio till jorden om nat- 
 ten, men de voro icke kvar 4 , da morgonen kom. 9. Ha 
 gassen tar ? 10. Barnen tyckte, att examina voro svara. 
 ii. Fadern kopte skorna av skomakaren. 12. Kor ha 
 stora ogon. 13. L,ararna sutto i skolan och talade om 
 barnen. 14. Kons namn ar icke vackert. 15. Notterna 
 folio fran traden. 16. Tva resande kommo till Uppsala 
 i dag pa morgonen. 17. Skomakarens hustru kopte fern 
 kilo smor 5 av en bonde, som har tva kor. 18. Gossens 
 namn ar Johan. 19. Tycker ni om bruna ogon? 
 20. Grenen ar fern turn lang. 21. Svenskan har tva 
 genus. 22. "Oga" och "ora" aro neutra. 
 
 B. i. The examination was not difficult. 2. The peas- 
 ants have cows and horses. 3. "Delta" is neuter of 
 
 1 Many miles a day. 5 Observe that Swedish does not use 
 
 2 Egyp'ten Egytt. the genitive or a preposition in sucli 
 
 3 Berli'n. expressions. 
 4, Kvar left, remaining there.
 
 VIII FIFTH DECLENSION 69 
 
 "denna". 4. Strawberries are red. 5. Botanists like 
 flowers and trees. 6. The children's eyes are brown. 
 7. Swedish children do not have brown eyes. 8. "Jag" 
 and "du" are pronouns. 9. Trees, flowers and straw- 
 berries grow in the woods in summer 1 . 10. The birds 
 flew from tree to tree. n. The men found the weapons 
 in the house. 12. The cows drank the water. 13. The 
 lake is a mile long. 14. The emperor does not live in 
 this city during the summer. 15. The woman bought 
 five meters of 2 cloth. 16. Peasants do not buy butter. 
 17. The geese drank the water which the peasant gave 
 the cows. 1 8. The pronouns "han" and "hon" are not 
 neuters. 19. The chairman's brothers are librarians. 
 20. Do children like (cultivated) strawberries? 
 
 1 Use the def. form of the -word for summer, 
 
 2 See 17 in Exercise A, and foot-note.
 
 70 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 
 
 118. THE GENITIVE. A few further illustrations of the 
 more extensive use of the genitive in Swedish (see 56) 
 are: 1 husets tak the roof of the house, diktens forfat'tare 
 the author of the poem, Jmsets agare the owner of the 
 house, beraf telsens slut the end of the story, bokens par- 
 mar the covers of the book, Rysslands kejsare the Czar 
 of Russia, 777.2 (read sjtttton hundra sjutfitvd') ars rci-o- 
 lutio'n the revolution of the year 1772, pa fern mils av- 
 stand at a distance of five miles, en arans man a man 
 of honor, Finlands forlus't the loss of Finland, Ame'rikas 
 upptackt the discovery of America, pa Karl XII. -s (read 
 tolftes) tid in the time of Charles XII, vart modcrsmals 
 studium the study of our native tongue, ett fyra vaning- 
 ars hus a four-story house, bordcts ben the legs of the 
 table, vid krigets slut at the end of the war, stjarnans 
 fall the fall of the star, klassens Idrare the teacher of 
 the class, klassens basta gosse the best boy in the class, 
 vid arets bbrjan at the beginning of the year, en fern ars 
 flicka a girl of five years, vid tva ars alder at the age 
 of two years, Kronobergs t Ian the district of Kronoberg, 
 Stockholms stad the city of Stockholm, Sveriges rike the 
 Kingdom of Sweden, Lunds universite't the Universit}' of 
 Lund. 
 
 In place-names, in the case of certain common ex- 
 pressions (cf. the examples immediately preceding), no 
 genitive ending is added if the proper noun ends in a 
 vowel or in certain consonants (including s; see 112); 
 
 1 Not all the genitives in the following examples denote possession or 
 connection. 
 
 2 Kronoberg ma.v be stressed Kro'noberg or Kronober'g.
 
 IX SYNTAX OF THE NOl'N 71 
 
 as, Orebro' Ian the district of Orebro, Mora socken the 
 parish .of Mora, Uppsala universite't the University of Up- 
 sala, Kalmar Ian the District of Kalmar, Vastera's stad 
 the town of Vasteras. Falu gruva the mine of Falun, 
 from Falun, and Trollhdtte kana'l (= canal), from Troll- 
 hattan, are irregular. 
 
 119- Swedish may, however, also use a prepositional 
 phrase instead of the genitive, especially when the word 
 denoting possession or connection is the name of an in- 
 animate object, but some other preposition than av of, is 
 generally used. Ex.: 1 taket p& husct the roof of the 
 house, for/at' tarcn av (or ////) dikten the author of the 
 poem, dgaren av (till} huset the owner of the house, slutet 
 av (pd~) berdt'telsen the end of the story, pdrmarna pa bo- 
 kcn the covers of the book, kejsaren over (av) Ryssland the 
 Czar of Russia, revolutio' nen (av) 1772 the revolution of 
 the year 1772, pa ett avstand av fern mil at a distance of 
 five miles, en man av dra a man of honor, Viktor dr 
 kusfn till Adolf Victor is Adolph's cousin, en god van 
 till mi n far a good friend of my father's. 
 
 This substitution 2 is especially common in the case of 
 common nouns ending in an s- or st-sound; as, taket pd 
 ctt hits the roof of a house, doften av en ros the fragrance 
 of a rose. Cf. 112. 
 
 120- In some expressions where English has the prep- 
 ositional phrase, Swedish uses merely the base-form, 
 especially after nouns of weight, measure, number and 
 kind; as, ett glas kallt vatten a glass of cold water, tva 
 koppar kaffe two cups of coffee, tre par vita skor three 
 
 1 The following examples include cases of animate beings. The first 9 
 examples correspond to the first 9 of 118. 
 
 2 The genitive may also be avoided by the use of the def. form. Ex.: Ekor- 
 renjagas for fiilsens skull (instead of for sin t.tls skull). Squirrels are hunted 
 for the sake of their fur. Blixtens snabbhet (for en blixts snabbhet) the rapidity 
 of lightning.
 
 72 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 
 
 pair of white shoes, ett par vita skor a pair of white 
 shoes, ett par backer a couple of books, en hop manniskor 
 a lot of people, en shock ander a flock of ducks, en flaska 
 black a bottle of ink, en tunna rag a measure (=4 bush- 
 els) of rye. 
 
 When the following noun has definite meaning, a prep- 
 osition (av of) must be used; as, tva koppar av delta, 
 kaffe two cups of this coffee, ett par av bbckerna a couple 
 of the books, en tunna av min basta rag a measure of 
 my best rye. 
 
 Observe also juni manad the month of June, den fcm- 
 te april' the fifth of April (cf. den femte dennes, 270), 
 staden Berli'n the city of Berlin. 
 
 121. Especially in the spoken language, but sometimes 
 also in the written, a form resembling the genitive is used 
 to signify some one's family, house or business, much 
 as in English. Ex.: Jag kbpte smbret hos Meli'ns. I 
 bought the butter at Melin's. Hon ar hos Anders sons. 
 She is at the Anderson home. Skall du ga till Bcrg- 
 strbmsf Are you going to Bergstrom's? Nar man gar 
 fbrbi' fiskarns, ser man en vik av sjbn. As you pass the 
 fisherman's cottage, you can see a bay of the lake. Jo- 
 hanssons voro icke dar. The Johnsons were not there. 
 
 122. Until and during the earlier part of the Old Swedish 
 Period (Old Swedish = about 1225 1526) the preposition 
 till to, was regularly followed by the genitive case, and not 
 by the base-form, as now. In a fairly large number of 
 phrases this old use of the genitive still obtains, but 
 now only certain nouns can be used in the genitive with 
 till. These phrases usually have a specialized meaning, 
 and the preposition is in most cases not to be translated 
 "to"; as, till lands by land, till sjoss 1 by sea, ga till sjbss. 
 
 \ See 132, a.
 
 IX SYNTAX OF THE NOUN 73 
 
 go to sea, ga till sangs go to bed, ligga till sangs lie in 
 bed, ga (sitta} till bords sit down (sit) at table, -vara till 
 hands be at hand, ga till motes go to meet, vyssja till 
 somns lull asleep, till fots on foot. 
 
 Notice that only the indefinite singular is used in 
 these expressions, and that the reference is therefore 
 never to a particular object. 
 
 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 123. Swedish omits the indefinite article before a pred- 
 icate noun denoting occupation, profession, state or 
 nationality. Ex.: Han ar larare (skomakare, engelsmari). 
 He is a teacher (a shoemaker, an Englishman). Han 
 ar bror (vdn~) till bibliotcka' rien. He is a brother (a friend) 
 of the librarian. Da jag var barn when I was a child. 
 Hon ar anka. She is a widow. 
 
 The article is in such cases omitted also when som as, 
 is used. Ex.: Som barn var han blyg. As a child he 
 was bashful. Jag varde'rar honom som manniska. I ap- 
 preciate him as a man (human being). Karl XII (read 
 tolfte} visade framstaende egenskaper som harforare. Charles 
 XII displayed excellent qualities as a general. 
 
 But if the noun is further defined (e. g., by an adjec- 
 tive or a clause), or, more precisely 1 , if the personal 
 characteristics are emphasized, and not the class, the 
 article is used. Ex.: Han ar en framst&ende vetcnskaps- 
 man. He is a prominent scientist (scholar). Han ar en 
 duktig larare. He is a good teacher. Han ar en van, som 
 man kan lita pa. He is a friend that one can depend upon. 
 
 1 The presence of a modifier is not necessary. Ex.: Du ar ett barn. Yon 
 are a child. A. iir en narr. A. is a fool. Jag betrak'tar honom SOM en van. I con- 
 siiler him a friend. On the other hand: MCmnen av oss har som litet barn for- 
 tju'st lyssnat till sin matters rost. nur hon uttliist skona dikter. Many a one of us 
 Tins as a little child listened with fascination to his mother's voice as she 
 read beautiful poems.
 
 74 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 
 
 124. The indefinite article is also omitted in various 
 other phrases. Ex. : Jag fick brev (soar) frdn Karl i dag. 
 I received a letter (an answer) from Carl to-day. FrA- 
 getecken sdttes eftcr direk't fraga. A question-mark is 
 placed after a direct question. Jag har huvndi-drk. I 
 have a headache. Han dog dr 1870 (read adcrton Jnindra 
 sjuttio). He died in the year 1870. Falla offer for fall 
 a victim to, fd anstdllning get a position. 
 
 On the other hand, Swedish sometimes uses the indef. 
 .article where English does not; as, //// en del in part. 
 
 THE DEFINITE FORM OF NOUNS. 
 
 125. The definite form is frequently used in the case of 
 abstract nouns and of nouns denoting material 1 , or a class 
 in its entirety (generic use). Ex.: Livet dr kort. Life is 
 short. Mdnniskan dr dbdlig. Man is mortal. Guld(cf) 
 dr dyrbarare an jdm(ef). Gold is more valuable than iron. 
 Forsik 'tighet dr av noden. Caution is necessary. Han ta- 
 lar i so nine n. He talks in his sleep. Ma lyckanfolja erf 
 May good fortune attend you. Nbdcn har ingen lag. 
 Necessity has no law. Fattigdom^eii) dr en hard lott. 
 Poverty is a hard lot. Ljuset dr snabbare an ljudct. 
 Light travels faster than sound, l^anans inakt the force 
 of habit, efter dbden after death, av natural by nature, 
 allt ifrd'i? ungdomen from youth, sprakcts nrsprnng the 
 origin of language. 
 
 Note also the following expressions, in which the noun 
 in the def. form is used in a general sense: Han gar t 
 kyrkan varje sondag . He goes to church ever}' Sunday. 
 Go, i skolan go to school. Det dr inte trevligt aft bo i 
 stadcn pa sommaren. It is not pleasant to live in the 
 city in summer. Bnikar du inte ga pa tea' tern? Are you 
 
 1 \Yith nouns denoting material the indef. form is the more common.
 
 IX SYNTAX OF THE XOIN 75 
 
 not in the habit of going to the theater? Mot aftoncn 
 toward evening. Dei dr klart som dagen. It is plain as 
 da5'light. Klockan fern five o'clock. Middagen dr Jdrdig. 
 Dinner is ready. 
 
 126. The definite form is used in expressions with dis- 
 tributive meaning; as, manga mil om dagen many miles 
 a day, fcd kronor i vcckan two crowns a week, fern kro- 
 nor mctern five crowns a meter, en krona stycket one crown 
 each (apiece). 
 
 127- Iu the case of nouns referring to parts of the 
 body or to wearing apparel, Swedish may, when the con- 
 text makes clear the meaning, use merely the definite 
 form of a noun, where English has a possessive pronoun 
 and a noun. 1 Ex.: Vad har du i fakan? What have you 
 in your pocket? Han stod ddr mcd hatten i handen (or 
 i hand). He stood there with his hat in his hand. 
 Han ryckte p& axlarna och drack under tystnad sitl te. 
 He shrugged his shoulders and drank his tea in silence. 
 
 So also with nouns denoting relationship, when the 
 relatives are not those of the person speaking nor of the 
 person spoken to. Ex.: Han gay brodern en rocker bok. 
 He gave his brother a beautiful book. Vad fadern pd- 
 bbrjat, fortsatte sbnerna. The sons continued what their 
 father had started. Stina dr lika vacker som system. 
 Stina is just as pretty as her sister. Han har ingatt som 
 deldgare i fader ns affd'r. He has become a partner in 
 his father 1 s business. Sven reste till Ainc'rika. Fbrdfdrar- 
 na sbrjde mycket, men sonen kom old rig hfm igen' . Sven 
 "went to America. His parents grieved much, but their 
 son never returned home. But observe: Mor dr icke 
 hcmma. Mother is not at home. Min bror dr sjuk. My 
 
 1 Or Swedish may use the possessive tor genitive), as English. Bat 
 see $ 62. note.
 
 76 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 
 
 brother is sick. Din bror ar en duktig larare. Your 
 brother is a good teacher. Hur star del till med far? 
 How is my (or, your) father? 
 
 128. Swedish employs the definite form in the case of 
 many geographical names; 1 as, Ostersjbn the Baltic (liter- 
 ally, "the East Sea"); Malaren, Hjdlmaren, Vanern, Vat- 
 tern, the names of the four large lakes in Central Sweden; 
 Dalarna, one of the 25 provinces of Sweden; Kolmar- 
 den, a large forest on the boundary of the provinces 
 Ostergotland and Sodermanland. Notice also Turki'et 
 Turkey. Swedish regularly uses the definite article with 
 names of streets; as, Drottninggatan "Queen Street". 
 
 129. When used with a proper noun, titles are some- 
 times put in the definite form; in the case of some titles, 
 however, either the definite or the indefinite form may be 
 employed, while others are always left in the indefinite 
 form (especially those ending in -al, -or, -or] ; as, prin- 
 ses'san Ingeborg Princess Ingeborg, prostcn Lundel'l Rev- 
 erend Lundell, doceyi't^ (or docen'teifi, = lecturer) Sitndcn 
 Mr. Sunden, profes'sor* Cederschiold Professor Cederschiold, 
 herr Johansson Mr. Johnson. Cf. 39, 2. 
 
 130. In some instances, Swedish has the indefinite form 
 where English employs the definite article; as, i juni ma- 
 nad in the month of June, ar 1912 (read nitton hundm 
 tolv) (in) the year 1912, tala sanning speak the truth, 
 i nar-varande stund at the present moment, ga at ratt hall 
 go in the right direction. Ar du saker pa, att dct ar ratt 
 adres's? Are you sure it is the right address? Till nu 
 behan'dlade grupp libra de flesta av dessa ord. Most of these 
 words belong to the group just treated. Fbre'ningcn 
 sammantrader pa vanlig loka'l mandag kl. 8 (read klockan 
 
 1 English tises the def. article similarly. But observe that some of the 
 examples differ from English usage. 
 
 2 See page 19, foot-note 3.
 
 IX SYNTAX OF THE NOUN 77 
 
 dtta). The Society will meet in the usual place, Mon- 
 day at 8. 
 
 131. ORTHOGRAPHY \juni ( 24, 3); engelsman ( 24, 2); 
 titles ( 24, i); Linncgatan, Tegner ( 90). 
 
 132. PRONUNCIATION: (a))/r/fo( 14; Phonology 24, 2, 
 note); Esai'as ( 12); Tegner (19, 2 c); Hjdlmaren 
 ( 16); engclsk ( 19, 5 b); Lagerlbf (Phonology 42, 
 note). Observe the shortened vowel in till sjbss as com- 
 pared with the normal genitive (en) sjbs; similarly in //// 
 fots. (b) manniska ( 14, note); stjdrna ( 19, 6 b); do- 
 cen't ( 19, i b i); Cederschibld ( 19, i b i ; schi = sch, 
 19, 6b); Karl ( 16 a); anka ( 19, 5 a i); an, igen' 
 ( 6, note i); prost ( 9, 3 a); revolution (Phonology 
 54, 4 b); ljus, ljud ( 16); nniversite't ( 8, 2, note); 
 april' ( 6, note i); dbdlig, vanlig (Phonology 14, 
 B 2 c). 
 
 133. ACCENT. The following words have the acute ac- 
 cent: (a) forfat'tare, feber, liter, ddrfbr, varfbr, engelsk, 
 Smaland, Ndrke, Sbdermanland , Sbnnland, Svensson, Lon- 
 don. Engelsman, Varmland, Vdnern and Vattem have 
 either the acute or the grave accent. (b) fordl'drar, 
 fbre'ning, fbrsik' tighet, bcriit' tclse, behan'dla, vdrde'ra, son- 
 dag , in an dag, iniddag, jnni, stndium, offer, sdker, efter, 
 Ryssland, Finland > }"iktor, Kalinar, Turki'et. Hundra 
 and sjutti(p) usually have the acute accent. Adolf and 
 tea'tcr may have either the grave or the acute accent. 
 
 134. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken language, 
 opp is in the greater part of Sweden used in place of npp. 
 
 (2) The spoken language almost always employs a prep- 
 ositional phrase instead of the genitive to express posses- 
 sion or connection in the case of inanimate objects 1 . Fre- 
 quently a compound noun is used in place of the geni- 
 
 1 A prepositional phrase is often used also in the case of living beings.
 
 78 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 
 
 tive + noun (as bordsfbtterna, bokparmcii) , or an adjective 
 is used for the genitive. 
 
 (3) The use of the s-form of nouns treated in 121 be- 
 longs primarily to the spoken language. 
 
 (4) Vad is generally pronounced i-a; the long a of z-a 
 is frequently shortened and, particularly when the word 
 is used as an interrogative 1 pronoun, also changed in 
 quality (cf. Phonology 30). In the spoken language, 
 particularly in easy speech, vid is pronounced ve (short 
 vowel, unstressed). 
 
 (5) Ostergbtland ', Varmland and Smaland are in the 
 spoken language usually pronounced without the final 
 d. Sbdermanland is in the spoken language generally 
 shortened to Sormland, where, as in the case of the 
 words just mentioned, the final d is usually silent. 
 
 (6) On the pronunciation of Drottninggatan cf. 75, 7. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 ben n. (5) leg, bone feber (2) fe-ccr 
 
 biskop (2) bishop ficka (1) pocket 
 
 dnktig abt&, good fa {irregular; sing, -r; past 
 
 dar there, where fick, phir. fingo) receive, 
 
 darfor therefore, for that get 
 
 reason forfat'tare (5~) author 
 
 en (n. ett) 2 one glas n. (5) glass 
 
 engelsk English; -a tJie kaffe n. coffee 
 
 English language; pa kopp (2) cup 
 
 -a in English kosta (-ade) cost 
 
 engelsman (5; plur. -man) krona (1) crown (= 2~ cents'), 
 
 Englishman croii'ii 
 
 1 / ~,ij may be either an interrogative or a relative pronoun; see Lesson 
 XXIII. 
 
 2 The forms are identical with those of the indefinite article, but the 
 latter is unstressed, while the numeral en is stressed.
 
 IX SYNTAX OF THE NOUN 79 
 
 kyrka (1) chunk sung (2) bed 
 
 liter (5) liter ( = 1.76 pints) till to t of, by 
 
 Ian n. (5) district trappn (1) stair; en trappa 
 
 inellan between upp <?;/ //^ second floor; tva 
 
 ord ?/. (">) icord -or upp # ///^ third floor^- 
 
 par ?^. couple; (/>) />a/r upp ?c/> 
 
 pa of, to, on vad what? , what 
 
 rik r/V//; rik pa rich in, varfor avi>/ 
 
 abounding in vid #/, ^y, z'w 
 
 soin 5 yrke w. (4) trade, occupation 
 
 EXERCISE IX. 
 
 A. i. Deras bror ar bibliotekarie. Ar ban en duktig 
 bibliotekarie ? 2. Han bor ett par engelska mil fran 
 Condon. 3. Malaren ar rik pa oar. Tycker ni icke, att 
 Malaren ar en stor sjo? Jo, och den ar aven mycket 
 vacker. 4. Min van bar feber. 5. Svenssoii ar skoma- 
 kare till yrket. 6. Hennes far far fern kroner om dagen, 
 dar ban arbetar. 7. Broderna bodde vid Linnegatan fern 2 , 
 tva trappor upp. 8. En liter jordgubbar kostar en krona. 
 9. Varfor bar du inte skorna pa fotterna? 10. Stock- 
 holm ligger mellan Malareu ocb Ostersjon 3 . n. Mannen 
 kopte ett par tofflor av skomakaren. De kostade endast 
 fern kroner paret. 12. Hustrun och barnen sutto till 
 bords, da vi kommo. 13. Smoret kostade en krona kilot. 
 14. Mora socken ar i Dalarna. 15. Joban lag till sangs 
 tva dagar. 16. Forfattaren far en krona ordet. 17. Sverige 
 ar rikt pa 4 sjoar. 18. Johan gav modern tva kroner om 
 dagen. Darfor tyckte hon om sonen. 19. Vad ar ordets 
 genus? 
 
 1 On the first floor is "p4 nedra (or, nedre) botten" or "i bottenv&ningen". 
 
 2 Linne'gatanfem 5 Linng St. Observe the order. 
 
 3 The Baltic. 
 
 ; -i,is in.
 
 So SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 
 
 B. i. The legs of the table are high 1 . 2. The shoe- 
 maker's wife bought two kilograms of butter at Palmer's. 
 3. The boys are in school now. 4. Hjalmaren is the 
 name of 2 a large lake that lies between Vastmanland, 
 Narke and Sodermanland. 5. Selma Lagerlof lives in 
 Falun in Dalarna. Her home was in Varmland when 
 she was a child. 6. I bought five meters of the red 
 cloth. This cost two crowns a meter. 7. Esaias 3 Tegner, 
 who is the author of "Fritiofs Saga", was bishop of 
 Vaxjo, a little town in the district of Kronoberg in 
 Smaland. 8. The strawberries cost two crowns a liter. 
 
 9. The boys found a couple of good apples on the tree. 
 
 10. Is the doctor an Englishman? n. He has two 
 crowns in his pocket. 12. Did you drink a cup of coffee 
 or a glass of water? 13. Stockholm is beautiful 4 . 
 14. Was she pretty as a child? 15. We lived on the 
 second floor. 
 
 1 Use"lang". 3 Esai'as. 
 
 2 Pa. 4, See page 79, foot-note 4.
 
 X FUTURE TIME 8 1 
 
 LESSON X. 
 FUTURE TIME. ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 135. Future time is usually expressed by the present 
 tense when the context shows that the reference is to 
 future time. Ex.: Han kommer i kvall. He is coming 1 
 this evening. Jag ar hemma i morgon klockanfem. I 
 shall be at home to-morrow at five o'clock. Reser die 
 snart? Are you going to leave soon? 
 
 In many verbs, namely those that denote transition 
 from one condition or action to another, or which point to 
 the attainment of a result 2 (that is, denote a change of 
 some kind), the present may be used to express future 
 time without such context. Ex.: Jag somnar nog. I'll 
 fall asleep, no doubt. Blir han frisk? Will he get well? 
 Det blir bra. That will be fine. Du fuller. You'll fall. 
 Far jag svar p& brevet? Shall I get a reply to the let- 
 ter? Jag ialar inte om det for nagon. I shall not tell 
 anyone. 
 
 136. Future time may also be expressed by means of 
 auxiliaries followed by the infinitive: 
 
 (i) Very often by the present of komma followed by 
 ait to, with the present infinitive. This auxiliary-future 
 is conjugated as follows: 
 
 1 Observe that English also sometimes uses the present tense to ex- 
 press future time. 
 
 2 These are called TERMiNATrvE VERBS. Ex.: I bought you a book. The 
 boy hit the window with a ball and broke it. I lay down on the couch 
 and soon fell asleep. He wounded his enemy. I have written a few letters. 
 Please remind me if I forget to light the lamp. The boy fell off the fence. 
 
 On the other hand, verbs that denote an action as going on, and which do 
 not point to its beginning or end, or to the result of the action (that is, 
 do not denote a change of any kind), are called CURSIVE VERBS. Ex.: I have 
 a beautiful book. I admire his good qualities. He is sleeping. He was 
 lying on the ground. I hate (love) him. It rained all day. Many verbs 
 may be at one time terminative, at another, cursive.
 
 82 FUTURE TIME X 
 
 Sing, jag, etc., kommer aft tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva} 
 Plur. vl komma att tala (.bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva) 
 I kommen att tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva) 
 de komma att tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva} 
 Ex.: Han kommer att resa i morgon. He is going 1 to 
 leave to-morrow. Det kommer att regna snart. It is 
 going to rain soon. Sjukdomen kommer nog att vara 
 lange. The sickness will no doubt last long. Han kom- 
 mer att bli vald med stor majorite't. He will be elected 
 by a large majority. 
 
 (2) Comparatively seldom by the forms of skola fol- 
 lowed by the present infinitive (without att}: 
 Sing, jag, etc., shall tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva) 
 Plur. vi skola tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva) 
 I skolcn tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva} 
 de skola tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva) 
 
 Note. i. Observe the vowel-change in shall, skola. Cf. 138, 
 note 2. Also the quantity of the vowel is changed. 
 
 2. Notice that skall does not end in -r (see 46, i ). The same is 
 true of vill in 137 and of kan in 138. Corresponding to this, notice 
 in English the absence of -s in the third person singular of "shall", 
 "will" and "can", as compared with " (he) runs", "(he) calls". 
 
 3. Shall with the present infinitive is of very frequent occur- 
 rence, but it comparatively rarely expresses pure futurity. It 
 usually expresses decision, determination or command. These 
 ideas necessarily point to future time, but the futurity is secondary. 
 
 137. There is in Swedish nothing corresponding to the 
 English distinction between "shall" and "will" in the 
 different persons. The Swedish verb corresponding in 
 form to Eng. "will" is vilja, but this always means "want 
 to", "wish to" or "will" (when this implies volition), 
 and it is never used to express futurity. It is followed by 
 the present infinitive without att to. Its forms are: 
 
 1 Note the use of "go" as an auxiliary of the future in English.
 
 ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 Sing, jag, etc., vill 
 Plur. m vilja 
 
 I viljen 
 
 de vilja 
 
 PAST 
 
 mile 
 
 mile 
 
 villen 
 
 mile 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 Sing, jag, etc., blir 
 Plur. vi bli(va) 
 I bliven 
 
 bUv 
 
 blevo 
 bleven 
 
 jag, etc., 
 vi kunna 
 I kunnen 
 
 de bli(va) 
 
 blevo 
 
 de kunna 
 
 138. The forms of the verbs bli(va) become, be, and 
 kunna can, be able, are: 
 
 PAST 
 
 kan kunde 
 kunde 
 kunden 
 kunde 
 
 Note. I. Cf. the present of bli(va) with that of ha(va] in 42. 
 2. Observe that there is vowel-change in the present of kunna, 
 similar to that in the past tense of finna in 99. 
 
 ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 139- INVERSION. Normally, the subject precedes the 
 verb in declarative sentences, just as in English. But 
 in principal clauses 1 this order is inverted, the verb 2 
 being placed before the subject in the following cases: 
 
 (i) If any word or words belonging to the predicate 
 (as adverbs, adverbial phrases, the object, a predicate 
 adjective or a predicate noun) precede the subject. 3 Ex.: 
 
 1 In direct questions, inversion takes place (see page 24, foot-note 1). un- 
 less the subject is an interrogative word, or is modified by an interrogative 
 word. Further, questions introduced by manne or containing the adverb / 
 do not have inversion. T'x.: I'cm sade detta? "Who said this? Vilkendcra 
 viigen iir vackrast ? Which way is the prettiest ? Manne han kontmer ? Will 
 
 Concerning inversion in connection with the imperative see 243, note 3. 
 
 2 That is, the finite form of the verb. 
 
 3 Note that there is much more freedom in the order of words in 
 Swedish than in English. In principal clauses, words belonging to the 
 predicate are very often placed first, and, as a result, inversion is very 
 common. Almost any word can be placed at the beginning of a prin- 
 cipal clause, to indicate transition from -what has gone before, or for 
 emphasis.
 
 84 ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 Sedan skrev han ett brev. Afterwards he wrote a letter. 
 / Stockholm kbpte jag ett bord. I bought a table in Stock- 
 holm. Glad var han inte. He was not glad. Peng a r 
 har han nog. You may be sure he has money. Bro- 
 dern ar han and pa. He is angry with his brother. In- 
 te vet jag det. I'm sure I don't know. 
 
 (2) If a subordinate clause precedes the principal 
 clause. Ex.: Om han icke ar sjuk, (so) kommcr han. 
 If he is not ill, he will come. Nar klockan var atta, kom 
 han hem igen' . He came home again when it was eight 
 o'clock. 
 
 Note. i. When inversion has taken place, the negative, if 
 there is one, follows immediately upon the subject. Ex.: Om 
 han ar sjuk, (sd) kommcr han icke. If he is ill, he will not come. 
 (Cf. Han kommcr icke. He will not come.) 
 
 2. Da then, when, dar there, where, dit thither, whither, are 
 used both as adverbs and as relative conjunctions. When they are 
 conjunctions, the normal order follows. When used as adverbs, 
 they cause inversion when they stand first in the clause. Ex.: 
 Da kom han. Then he came. Da han kom, var jag icke hemma. 
 When he came, I was not at home. 
 
 3. When a subordinate clause precedes the principal clause, the 
 latter is very often introduced by sd then, especially after a con- 
 ditional clause. See 146, i. This sd is in most cases left untrans- 
 lated in rendering into English. See the examples in 139, 2; 140. 
 
 140- In the condition of a conditional sentence, the 
 conjunction om if, may be omitted. In this case inver- 
 sion takes place. Ex.: Om han kommer, sd ar det bra. 
 Kommcr han 1 , sd ar det bra. If he comes, it will be well. 
 
 In other cases, inversion does not take place in subor- 
 dinate clauses. 2 Ex.: Inte kanjag veta, vilken bok du vill 
 
 1 Observe that this conditional clause is in form the same as a question. 
 
 2 Except, frequently, in clauses introduced by aft, \\-hichhaveinversionjust 
 
 the predicate, or another subordinate clause, is inserted immediately after 
 the conjunction. Ex.: Han sadc. ait fa tre dagar hade han icke fatt nagon
 
 X ORDER OF WORDS 85 
 
 ha. I'm sure I don't know which book you want. (Cf. 
 Vtiken bok z'ill du ha? Which book do you want?) See 
 also the illustrations in 139, 2. 
 
 141. The rule given in 101 holds also for 1 (i) airing* 
 never, and the other words that have negative force 3 ; 
 (2) adverbs referring to indefinite time 2 ; as, ofta often, 
 alltid always, snart soon; (3) certain adverbs belonging 
 to the whole clause; as, vdl no doubt, nog no doubt, 
 surely. 
 
 Words which thus vary their position in principal and 
 subordinate clauses are called movable words. Ex.: 
 Backer, som icke aro inbundna, aro icke starka. Books 
 that are not bound are not strong. Plan far sallan till 
 staden. He rarely goes to town. Jag vet, att han sallan 
 far till staden. I know that he rarely goes to town. 
 Jag har indenting sett. I have seen nothing. Han sd- 
 ger, att han ingenting har sett. He says that he has 
 seen nothing. (On the contrary: Jag har sett nagonting. 
 I have seen something. Han sager, att han har sett na- 
 gonting. He says that he has seen something.) Han 
 
 mat. He said that be had not had any food for three days. Mamma kom ut och 
 re fade, att nu rar det fdrdigt. Mother came out and said that it was ready 
 now. Urmakaren tastod, att ett sadant ur kunde ineen annan eora. The 
 watchmaker asserted that no one else could make such a watch. Han visste. 
 att om han gav efter for trottheten. sa var han fdrlo'rad. He knew that he 
 would be lost if he yielded to his weariness. 
 
 (as also icke) may stand first and cause inversion in the regular -way (see 
 139, 1). In the auxiliary-tenses, e. g., in the future, the auxiliary is the 
 finite form of the verb. 
 
 2 Observe that English, contrary to the practice in Swedish, frequently 
 places temporal adverbs of indefinite time between the subject and the verb 
 when the latter is used in the simple tenses. Ex.: He often came for a visit. 
 Han kom ofta to. beso'k. He always told the truth. Han talade alltid tanning. 
 He never wrote home. Han skrcv aldrig hon. But in the case of auxiliary- 
 tenses, the adverb stands after the auxiliary in English as well as in Swed- 
 ish. Ex.: He has never written home. Han har aldrig skririt hem. 
 
 3 If the negative word is an adjective, the word it modifies (which must 
 be in the predicate in the cases under consideration) goes with it.
 
 86 ORDER OF WORDS X 
 
 kom lyckligtvis i tid. He fortunately came ill time. Jag 
 har ing en ujiderriittelse haft. I have had no information. 
 Du borde ingen mat fa. You ought not to get any food. 
 
 142- Swedish to a large extent places the modifiers of 
 a noun between an article (or adjective pronoun) and the 
 noun, where a similar order is not possible in English. 
 Ex.: en fore'ningcns medlem a member of the society, 
 varje dess del every part of it, denna deras egenskap this 
 quality of theirs, nagra mina vanner some friends of mine, 
 denna min anmarkning this remark of mine, en win yng- 
 re systcr a younger sister of mine, det efter win mcning 
 basta stycket the piece that in my opinion is best, syssel- 
 satt med utarbetandet av en annu langt ifra'n avslutad, 
 vidlyftig nysvensk grammaii'k engaged in the writing of 
 a large Modern Swedish grammar that is as yet far from 
 finished, en grupp av med -varan' dra effer vissa princi'per 
 inti'mt associe'rade ord a group of words closely associated 
 with each other according to certain principles. 
 
 Similarly, it is quite regular to place words between 
 att and the infinitive. Ex.: Vanan att uti lasning av 
 god litteratu'r soka vila och vederkvickelse the practice of 
 seeking rest and recreation in the reading of good liter- 
 ature. 
 
 Note. Negative adverbs, ingenting nothing, and the object when 
 modified by a negative word, are regularly placed between att and 
 the infinitive. Ex.: Att aldrig tala osanning never to tell a lie. 
 Att ingenting saga a'r battre an att saga ndgot dumt. It is bet- 
 ter to say nothing than to say something foolish. Att inga van- 
 ner ha dr en star olycka. It is very unfortunate not to have any 
 friends. Det ar bra att icke vara sjuk. It is well not to be sick. 
 
 143- ORTHOGRAPHY: kunna, kan, kunde (Phonology 
 1 8 b); vill, vilja (Phonology 17). 
 
 144. PRONUNCIATION: (a) regna ( 19, 2 c); igen' 
 ( 14); om ( 6, note i); snart (6, note 2). Observe
 
 X FUTURE TIME, ORDKR OF WORDS 87 
 
 the change in the initial consonant-sound in ga, gick. 
 (b) princi'p, associe' ra ( 19, i b i); l&sning (Phonology 
 14 B 2 c>. 
 
 145. ACCENT. The following words have the acute 
 accent: (a) forsik'tig, vdder, Linder. Oskar has either 
 the acute or the grave accent. (b) associe'ra, fbre'ning, 
 yngre. Vilken may have either the acute or the grave 
 accent. 
 
 146. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Particularly after clauses 
 other than conditional clauses (see 139, note 3), sa is 
 much more frequently used in the spoken than in the 
 written language. Ex.: Eftersom du inte vill folja med, 
 sd far jag val gd ensam. Seeing that you don't want 
 to go along, I suppose I'll have to go alone. 
 
 (2) Shall is in the spoken language pronounced ska 
 (vowel short when not stressed), which is then also 
 used for the plur. skola. 
 
 (3) In the written language both the longer and 
 the shorter forms of bli(va) are used; in the spoken 
 language, only the shorter forms. Cf. 39, 4. 
 
 (4) Of sedan afterwards, there is also a shorter form, 
 sen (vowel usually short). In the written language, se- 
 dan is of more frequent occurrence; in the spoken lan- 
 guage, sen. 
 
 (5) The word-order described in 142, beginning, be- 
 longs to the written language only. 
 
 (6) In the spoken language, kvalln is in many parts of 
 Sweden used as the def. form of kvall. 
 
 (7) In the spoken language (primarily in easy speech), 
 alltid, fbrsik'tig and fbrsik'tigt are pronounced allti, fbr- 
 sik'ti, fbrsik'tit. Kunde is in easy speech pronounced 
 kunne.
 
 88 
 
 FUTURE TIME, ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 all t id always 
 
 bliva (blev) become, be, get 
 
 bra adj. and adv., well 1 , 
 
 good, fine 
 det it* 
 
 frisk well (=not sick) 
 forsik'tig careful 
 glad glad, happy 
 ga (irregular*; sing, -r; 
 
 past sing, gick, plur. 
 
 gingo) go 
 igeii' again 
 i ga'r yesterday 
 i mor'gon to-morrow 
 klocka (1) clock; kloc- 
 
 kan ett (at) one tf dock; 
 
 klockan tva (af) two 
 
 o'clock 
 kunna (kunde) can, be able 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 kvall (2) 
 
 kvall 
 
 surely 
 
 evenng; 
 
 this evening 
 nog enough; no doubt, 
 ofta often 
 om if, whether 
 regna (-ade) rain 
 sedan, sen afterwards, 
 
 after 
 
 skola shall 
 snart soon 
 
 somna (-ade) go to sleep 
 svar n. (5) answer, reply 
 svara (-ade) answer, reply 
 sa so, then 
 vilja (ville) want to, wish to, 
 
 vader ;/. (5) weather 
 val well; no doubt, I suppose 
 atta eight 
 
 Observe the following series: (i) adverb, (2) adverb 
 or relative conjunction 4 , (3) interrogative (used also in 
 indirect questions). 
 
 TIME W T HEN PLACE WHERE 
 (i) nil now har here 
 
 PLACE WHITHER 
 hit here ( hither) 
 (lit there (= thither) , 
 where ( = whither) 
 vart where? 
 
 (w'hither?) 
 
 1 Swedish "bra", like English well, is also frequently used in the sense of 
 frisk" (not sick). 
 
 2 Used, e. g., in sentences such as: it is raining det regnar. 
 
 3 Cf. "fa" in the vocabulary of Lesson IX. 
 
 4 See 139, note 2. 
 
 5 "Da" also frequently has the meaning since. 
 
 (2) da then, w/ien 5 dar there, where 
 
 (3) nar when? Also var where? 
 used as rel. conj.
 
 X FUTURE TIME, ORDER OF WORDS 89 
 
 EXERCISE X. 
 
 A. i. Om sommaren aro dagarna langa. 2. Nu kom- 
 mer gossen. 3. Har bor jag. Var bor du? 4. Om du 
 vill, sa kommer jag i morgon kvall klockan atta. 
 5. Kommer froken Linder att sjunga i kvall? 6. Da jag 
 kom, sutto de och laste. 7. Om du skriver i morgon, 
 sa blir det bra. 8. I morgon kvall klockan atta skola 
 vi resa. 9. En god van till min bror reser till Amerika 
 i morgon. 10. Nar jag kom, lago gossarna och sovo 
 under tradet. u. Var han inte hemma ? Nej, men ban 
 kommer val snart. 12. Vi komma att resa i morgon 
 klockan fern. 13. I gar var Sven dar. I dag kommer 
 han hit. 14. Anders 1 sade, att jag far svar i dag. 15. I 
 dag pa morgonen fick jag brev fran herr Lundgren. 
 1 6. Nar han kommer till staden, far han fern kroner om 
 dagen. 17. Skall ni rida hem nu? 18. I dag pa mor- 
 gonen var jag i kyrkan. Vart gick du sedan? Sedan 
 gick jag hem. 19. Du far snart svar. 20. Blir ni glada, 
 om ni far dessa bocker? Nej, bockerna vilja vi inte ha. 
 21. I Stockholm ar det vackert. 22. Kommer han, sa 
 far du brev i dag. 23. Oskar ar sjuk, men han blir val 
 frisk snart. 24. Om du vill, sa skall du fa ett par sto- 
 lar. 25. Gossen sade, att han aldrig ville ga dit igen. 
 26. Far jag bockerna? 27. Du finner nog glaset. 28. Har 
 du nog smor pa brodet? 
 
 B. i. Are you going to buy the horse? 2. I shall 
 soon fall asleep. 3. If I get an answer from my brother 
 to-day, I shall write a long letter this evening. 4. He 
 will soon get well. Did the doctor say that he will soon 
 get well? 5. Do you think it is going to rain? 6. Our 
 friends came at eight o'clock. 7. The boys will no doubt 
 find many nuts in the woods. 8. I am going to like
 
 90 FUTURE TIME, ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 this house. 9. Your mother gave my brother these nuts. 
 10. If he is not careful, he will get sick. n. If you 
 give your sister your apple, you shall have 1 a crown. 
 Then I can buy many apples. 12. Then the shoemaker's 
 wife went to L,undgren's and bought a kilogram of 
 butter. 13. The boy has two pair of shoes. His 
 father bought this pair 2 yesterday. 14. Are you coming 
 here this evening? 15. The doctor's sister is going to 
 sing to-morrow evening. 16. When is the professor 
 coming here again? 17. It is well that summer is here. 
 18. Why did the boys go home again? 19. We couldn't 
 come yesterday evening, but if the weather is fine 
 ("vackert"), we shall come to-morrow evening. 20. They 
 wanted to fly, but they couldn't. 21. Birds can fly. 
 22. The children were always happy in school 3 . 23. She 
 said that her brother is not sick now, but that he will 
 get sick if he is not careful. 
 
 1 Have= receive. 
 
 2 Place the Swedish for this fair first in the sentence. 
 
 3 Place the Swedish for in school first in the sentence.
 
 XI THE ADJECTIVE . 91 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 147- It has been seen ( 77; 79) that adjectives 
 used with nouns (attributive adjectives) have the definite 
 form (-a) when the noun has definite form. The def- 
 inite form of the adjective is also used when the noun- 
 has definite meaning without being definite in form; 
 namely, 1 
 
 (1) after genitives and possessive pronouns; as, gossens 
 (hans, mill) stora bror the boy's (his, my) big brother; 
 
 (2) after demonstrative pronouns 2 ; as, denna langa dag 
 this long day; 
 
 (3) before proper names; as, den hcliga Birgit'ta Saint 
 (literally, "the holy") Birgitta, del rika Ame'rika wealthy 
 America; 
 
 (4) in direct address; as, kdra syster dear sister. 
 Note. Egen, when it means "own", never has the definite 
 
 form 3 ; as, gossens egen bror the boy's own brother, ditt eget* hem 
 
 1 Another case of the use of the def. adj. with a noun that has def. mean- 
 ing, though indef. in form, is represented by examples such as the following, 
 \vheretheadjectiveisaparticiple: nyss cite'rade arfrete the work just cited, 
 avan angirna flan the plan stated above, enligt bifogade cirknlii'r according 
 to the enclosed circular. Similarly, in the case of the superlative. Ex.: I S e- 
 nasic nuinmer av Stockholm* Dagblad !n the last number of S. D. Han nick in 
 tii narmaste ka/c'. He entered the nearest cafe". For further examples see 
 Lesson XII. 
 
 '2 Most demonstratives are followed by a noun in the definite form, as 
 is also </,-,; in the spoken language. If an adjective modifies the noun, the 
 adjective is of course put in the definite form; no prepositive definite 
 article is used in this case (cf. 77; 7S; 79). See 39, 1. and Lesson XXII. 
 
 pronouns, but these cases are of infrequent occurrence; as, j llK okckliga 
 wiinniska I unhappy being; i -silken vadliga. Surd de ej deltogo in which perilous 
 journey they did not take part. 
 
 3 In the plural there is no distinction between the def. and the indef. form. 
 
 4. Concerning the lorin see j l.~,l, 1.
 
 92 THE ADJECTIVE XI 
 
 your own home. But when egen means "peculiar", "strange", it 
 has the definite form in the regular way, as, det ar eget, att 
 han icke kommer it is strange that he doesn't come, ett eget salt a 
 peculiar manner, hans egna> satt his peculiar manner, hans egna 
 stil his peculiar handwriting, but hans egen stil his own hand- 
 writing. 
 
 148. In all other cases the indefinite form is used 
 with attributive adjectives. Predicate adjectives are 
 always put in the indefinite form. 
 
 149- We have seen ( 78; 79) that when an adjec- 
 tive is used with a noun in the definite form, the pre- 
 positive article is used with it. Contrary to this rule, 
 however, the prepositive article is in a large number of 
 phrases omitted before the definite adjective 2 followed by 
 a noun in the definite form, particularly in certain com- 
 mon phrases, and when the adjective expresses location; 
 as, svenska spraket the Swedish language, i norra delen 
 in the northern part, Allan' tiska ocea'nen the Atlantic 
 Ocean, ForentcP sta'terna The United States, Mindre Ad- 
 en Asia Minor, bestam'da artikeln the definite article, 
 tredje* gangen the third time, femte upplagan the fifth 
 edition, i fria hi/ten in the open air, gula febern the yel- 
 low fever, i sista minu'ten in the last minute, se spoken 
 mitt pA ljusa dagen see ghosts in broad daylight, rena 
 sanningen the plain truth, ligga pa bara golvet\\^ on the 
 bare floor, i bvre vaningen in the upper story, hbgra si- 
 dan the right side, Svenska akademi'en the Swedish Acad- 
 emy, svenska flaggan the Swedish flag. 
 
 1 Concerning the form see 151. 6. 
 
 2 Or indeclinable adjective (see 153) used with def. meaning. 
 
 3 The second syllable of Forenta has more stress than eithe^ of the other 
 two, but the main stress in the group-compound is on the first syllable of 
 stater no.. 
 
 4 On the other hand, a cardinal numeral, -when used with a noun in the def. 
 form, must be preceded by the prepositive article. Kx.: j lt g kofte de tv& 
 harden i Gotebor'e. I bought the two tables in Gothenburg.
 
 XI THE ADJECTIVE 93 
 
 Note. The words hel whole, halv half, and sja.lv himself, herself, 
 etc., are never preceded by the prepositive article when followed 
 by a noun in the definite form; as, hela dagen the whole day, 
 halva mdnaden half the month, sjalva drottningen the queen 
 herself, sjalva doden even death. 
 
 150. Swedish and English employ different methods 
 of expression in using adjectives with the noun under- 
 stood, English in most cases requiring "one" or "ones" 
 after the adjective. Ex.: Vill du ha en stor bok? Nej, 
 jag mil ha en liten. Do you want a large book? No, I 
 
 want a small one. Vill du icke ha den stora? Do you 
 not want the large one? Jag hade rivit sbnder min nya 
 rock; jag fick ga ut i den gam la. I had torn my new 
 coat; I had to go out in the old one. 
 
 The adjective in the definite form preceded by the 
 prepositive article may be used as a noun. See further 
 151, 8 b. In this case it has the regular genitive 
 in -s. Ex.: den sjuka the sick woman, den sjukas feber 
 the fever of the sick woman. 
 
 151. Notes on the inflection of adjectives: 
 
 1. Adjectives ending in unstressed -en substitute t l for n; as, 
 liten small, n. litet; oppen open, n. oppet. 
 
 2. Those ending in -d substitute for this (a) -/, if a consonant 
 precedes or if the syllable is unstressed; as, blind blind, n. blint; 
 hard hard, n. hdrt; mild mild, n. milt; godhjartad kindhearted, 
 n. godhjartat; alskad beloved, n. alskat; (b) -tt, if a stressed 
 vowel precedes; as, god good, n. gott; glad glad, n. glatt; rod 
 red, n. rott. 
 
 3. Those ending in -dd substitute -tt for this; as, hogljudd vo- 
 ciferous, n. hogljutt; bebod'd inhabited, n. bebot't. 
 
 1 Cf. 30. In adjectives, is changed to t only after e. and this only in 
 unstressed syllables, not, for example, in ren clean, gctne'n common, low, 
 allmiin common. In pronouns the change takes place also after stressed 
 vowels (dt-nna, e/ftfa) and after unstressed vowels other than e: as, nagon 
 any, 11. naeot: annan other, n. annat. But the pronominal adjective sadan 
 such, has n. sat/ant.
 
 94 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 4. Adjectives ending in -t preceded by a consonant do not add 
 /, but remain unchanged; as, srart black, n. srart ; stolt proud, 
 n. stolt; intressan't interesting, n. intressan'i ; trott tired, n. trott. 
 
 When the adjective ends in a single / preceded by a vowel, 
 another / is added; as, vit white, n. vitt; sot sweet, n. soft. In 
 a few adjectives of foreign origin, however, no / is added; as, 
 aku't acute, n. aku't; konkre't concrete, n. konkre't. 
 
 5. Adjectives ending in a stressed vowel double the / of the 
 neuter ending; as, bid blue, n. bldtt; ny new, n. y//;/rz free, n. fritt. 
 
 6. Adjectives ending in unstressed -al, -el, -en, -er drop the 
 vowel of the suffix before adding the -a of the indefinite plural 
 and of the definite fonn; as, gammal old, indef. plur. and def. 
 gantla; ddel noble, ddla; op pen open, oppna; vacker beautiful, 
 vackra. 
 
 7. For the indef. plur. and the def. of bid blue, and grd gray, 
 either blda or bid, grda or grd may be used. 
 
 8. Instead of the ending -a of the indefinite plural and of the 
 definite fonn, -e is used: 
 
 (a) For euphony, after -ad (in adjectives and past participles 1 ) 
 and -dst (in superlatives 2 ); as, del godhjartade barnet the kind- 
 hearted child; den barhuvade flickan the bareheaded girl, de bru- 
 nasfe ogonen the brownest eyes. 
 
 (b) When adjectives in the def. sing, used as nouns refer to 
 persons of the male sex; as, den sjuke the sick man, but den sju- 
 ka the sick woman; den gamle the old man, but den gam! a the 
 old woman; den gamles hus the old man's house. So also when the 
 adjective follows the word it modifies; as, Karl den store Charles 
 the Great, Karl den stores* rike the empire of Charles the Great; 
 Olov den helige Saint Olof (literally, "Olof the Holy"), Oskar 
 den andre Oscar II, Katari'na din andra Catherine II, Sigrid den 
 
 fagra Sigrid the Fair. 
 
 (c) In the written language, but rarely in the spoken language, 
 it may also be used with adjectives whenever the noun modified 
 refers to a person of the male sex. This substitution is more com- 
 mon in the def. sing, than in the def. plur., while in the indef. 
 plur. it occurs only rarely, in the more elevated style. Ex.: den 
 
 1 Those of the First Weak Conjugation; see Lesson XIV. 
 
 2, Most superlatives end in -asl, some, however, in -st: see the next lesson. 
 
 3 Observe the genitive; cf. 150, end, and 67, 4.
 
 XI THE ADJECTIVE 95 
 
 gode kcjsarcn the good emperor, win gode van, herr Pettcrsson 
 my good friend, Mr. Peterson, den skone ynglingcn the beautiful 
 youth, den Ivcklige inanncn the happy man, den (idle hjiilten the 
 noble hero, kare broder dear brother; but kiira inoder dear moth- 
 er, win goda syster my good sister, heliga Birgit'ta Saint Bir- 
 gitta. 
 
 152. The forms of the adjective liten small, little, are 
 irregular; for the plural, a different root is used: 
 
 INDEFINITE DEFINITE 
 
 Sing, litcn, \\. litct I ilia 
 
 Plur. stud 
 
 153. Some adjectives are indeclinable, especially those 
 ending in -a, -e, -cs; as, bra good, well, akta genuine, 
 ode desolate, friimmande strange, foreign, utvartcs exter- 
 nal; also all present participles and all comparatives, 
 which end in -e (see 163; 238). Some indeclinable 
 adjectives can be used only in the predicate; as, de dro 
 slakt they are related. 
 
 154. ORTHOGRAPHY: gammal, gamla (Phonology 1 8) ; 
 Mindrc Aticn, I\'arl den store, etc. (see 151, 8 b) ( 24, 4). 
 
 155. PRONTNCIATION: (a) hard ( 6, note 2); sjalv 
 ( 13, 4); //<;<,'/ (55 1 8); halvt, hcligt (18, and Phonolo- 
 gy 38); hbgljudd (compound, 16); intressan't, konkrc't 
 (Phonology 49, 3 b). For the quantity in egna, ddla y 
 etc., see Phonology 14 B 2 b. Observe the change 1 in 
 the quantity of the vowel in: i'it, ~citt; ny, nytt; fri, fritt. 
 Observe the change 1 of the vowel in quality as well i;s 
 in quantity in: god, gott; glad, glatt; hog, hbgt; rod, 
 roll; sot, soft; bid, blatt. (b) Birgit'ta (g not = j ) ; ar- 
 tik'cl ( 6, note i); ocea'n ( 19, i b i); skbn ( 14). 
 
 150. ACCENT: (i) Adjectives ending in unstressed -d 
 and -a- (as <?</</, vacker) have the acute accent in the 
 
 .i-rtiiiiiMhe slioru-m-i! v.'\vcl before the double consonant see 6, 
 note 2. Observe that kiigt irregularly lias a short vowel.
 
 9 6 THE ADJECTIVE XI 
 
 indef. sing., while those ending in unstressed -en (as 
 bppen, Uteri) have the grave. All adjectives, including 
 those that have the acute accent in the indef. sing., 
 have the grave accent in the a-form 1 ; as, adla, vackra, 
 bppna , ' gamla , bruna . 
 
 However, adjectives of more than one syllable that in 
 the uninflected form are stressed on the last syllable, 
 have the acute accent in the a-form; as, konkrdta, be- 
 botfda, aku'ta, intressan'ta. 
 
 (2) The following words have the acute accent: (a) 
 ddel, Norge, Ryssland. (b) artik'el, sbnder, atlan'tisk, 
 Pettersson, Mindre Asien, Sigrid. Ovre may have either 
 the acute or the grave accent. 
 
 157- COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Bear in mind that in the 
 spoken language -e rarely occurs in the use mentioned 
 in 151, 8 c. 
 
 (2) The use of the def. form of the adjective alone 
 with the prepositive article ( 150, end) is in general 
 less common in the spoken than in the written language. 
 Den vise fruktar ej doden the wise man does not fear 
 death, is usually changed to den, som ar vis, or, en vis 
 tnanniska (karl). 
 
 (3) In the spoken language, litet (n. of liteii) is pro- 
 nounced lite. In some parts of Sweden, final t of -ct is 
 not pronounced in the neuter of adjectives; as, fge(f) 
 own, peculiar, mule(f) cloudy. 
 
 (4) In the spoken language, land, especially in com- 
 pounds, usually has the final d silent (cf. 134, 5); as, 
 Ryssland, Vastergbtland . In easy speech the final d is 
 not pronounced in blind. Primarily in easy speech, helig, 
 heligt are pronounced heli, helit. 
 
 1 That is, in the indef. plur. and in the def. form. The substitution of -* 
 for -a (see 151, 8) does not change the accent.
 
 XI 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 97 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 mild wz'/a?, gentle 
 
 ny tt^a> 
 
 obeb od d x uninha bitcd 
 
 slakt {indecl. pred. adj.} re- 
 lated; med related to 
 
 stolt proud; over proud of 
 
 satt w. (5) manner, way 
 
 sot sow/ 
 
 trott tired; pa //ra/ of 
 
 trottna (-ade) become tired- 
 pa get tired of 
 
 ulvartes (indecl. ) external 
 
 ar n. (5) jj/^r 
 
 adel 7/<?<5/<? 
 
 akta (indecl. ) genuine, pure r 
 true 
 
 a'lskad beloved 
 
 ode (indecl.) desolate, deserted, 
 uninhabited 
 
 oppeii 
 
 aku't acute 
 bebod'd inhabited 
 blind blind 
 
 egen own; peculiar, strange 
 fri free 
 
 frammande (indecl.) for- 
 eign , strange 
 for too 
 gammal old 
 
 godhjartad kindhearted 
 gra gray 
 halv half 
 hel whole, entire 
 helig //0/y 
 hard //art/ 
 
 hogljudd loud, vociferous 
 intressan't interesting 
 konkre't concrete 
 ka'r dear 
 land n. (5) land, country 
 
 EXERCISE XI. 
 
 y4. i. Ar kaffet for sott, eller ar det icke sott nog? 
 2. Amerika ar ett fritt land. 3. Det ar mycket intres- 
 sant att resa i ett frammande land. 4. Ett blint barn 
 gick pa gatan och sjong. 5. Sade du, att du inte tycker 
 om bla ogon? 6. Selma Lagerlof reste till det heliga 
 landet. Sedan skrev hon "Jerusalem" 2 . 7. Fadern tyckte 
 aldrig, att hans eget barn var for hogljutt. 8. En sko- 
 makare, som arbetar hela dagen, ar trott, nar aftonen 
 kommer. 9. Fonstren voro oppna hela kvallen. 10. Pro- 
 
 1 See page 51, foot-note 2. 
 
 2 Jeru'salem.
 
 98 THE ADJECTIVE XI 
 
 fessorn ar forfattare till ett nytt arbete, som ar mycket 
 intressant. n. Landet lag ode. 12. Vattnet ar gott. 
 13. Ett barn, som ar trott, sover bra. 14. Da sommaren 
 kommer, trottna barnen pa bockerna. 15. Nar jag 
 kom dit, var den gamle icke hemma. 16. Denna lilla 
 flicka ar endast tva ar gammal. 17. Om clu kommer, 
 sa bli barnen mycket glada. 18. Karl och hans syster 
 sutto vid bordet och laste halva dagen. 19. Delta trad 
 ar icke manga meter hogt. 20. Da gossarna blevo stora, 
 reste de till frammande land och kommo aldrig hem igen. 
 21. Ett kart barn har manga namn. 22. Sitter fageln 
 vid ditt oppna fonster? 23. Detta stora rike, som ligger 
 mellan Norge 1 och Ryssland 2 , ar Sverige. 24. Flickan 
 ar trott pa systems lilla docka. 25. Var icke professorns 
 nya bok intressant? Jo, men icke den gamla. 26. Lilla 
 Stina blev glad, da hon fick den vackra hatten. 27. Om 
 denna klocka icke ar bra nog, sa far du en ny. 
 
 B. i. The gray house is very old now. It was new 
 when I was a boy. 2. His little girls are kind hearted. 
 3. This hat is too large. 4. When they were small, they 
 lived in Vastergotland. 5. John and Carl are not related, 
 are they 3 ? No, John is not related to Carl. 6. The 
 soldiers are proud of the noble king. 7. Do you not 
 think that Swedish books are interesting? 8. Mr. L,und- 
 gren is a true Swede. 9. The professor found the land 
 uninhabited. 10. He always thought that his own work 
 was not good enough, n. I have a dear friend who is 
 very sick. 12. The kindhearted little boy wanted to 
 give the old woman a crown. 13. Have you your blue 
 book in school? 14. This large city has many long streets. 
 15. Is your friend's new house high? 16. Do you think 
 
 1 Norway* 
 
 O r> 
 
 3 Render are they by "val". The word-order is "aro val icke".
 
 XI THE ADJECTIVE 99 
 
 that it is going to rain all 1 day? 17. The new teacher's 
 old books were interesting. 18. He always has one 
 window open. 19. Where did you find these pretty 
 flowers? 20. Afterwards the island lay deserted. 21. The 
 old man's house is small. 22. Little Carl has beau- 
 tiful eyes. 23. Is it not strange that he thinks that his 
 own name is not pretty? 24. I received an interesting 
 letter this morning. 
 
 1 Use a form of "hel".
 
 100 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 158. The comparative is made by adding -are, and the 
 superlative by adding -ast, to the uninflected form of 
 the positive; as, rik rich, comp. rikare, superl. rikast. 
 
 Note. i. Adjectives ending in unstressed -el, -en, -er drop 
 the vowel of the guffix before adding -are or -ast; as, adel noble, 
 cidlare, adlast; oppen open, oppnare, oppnast; vacker beautiful, 
 vackrare, vackrast. 
 
 2. Also a few indeclinable adjectives ending in unstressed -a 
 may be compared. They drop -a before adding -are, -ast; as, noga 
 particular, nogare, nogast; akta genuine, aktare, aktast. Nara 
 near, close, is irregular, having the forms, comp. narm(a)re l , 
 superl. narm(a]st l or nast. 
 
 159- In the following adjectives the comparative is 
 made by adding -re, and the superlative by adding -st. 
 All these modify (see n) the root-vowel of the posi- 
 tive if this is hard. 
 
 grov coarse, thick grbvre grbvst 
 
 Jidg high, tall hog re hbgst 
 
 lag low liigre liigst 
 
 lang long liingre langst 
 
 stor large, great storre stbrst 
 
 trang tight, narrow trangre trangst 
 
 tung heavy tyngre tyngsl 
 
 ung young yngre }'Hgst 
 
 Note. When lag signifies "low" in a moral sense, it is com- 
 pared regularly, Idgare, lagast. Also grov and trang sometimes 
 have -are, -ast. 
 
 160- Two adjectives in forming their comparative add 
 -rre, before which the long vowel of the positive is 
 shortened and modified:
 
 XII 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 101 
 
 fa, plur., few farre 
 
 smd 1 , plur., small smdrre 
 
 161. A few adjectives employ a different root for the 
 comparative and superlative: 
 
 god good 1 
 
 bra good, wellj 
 dalig poor, bad 
 
 ond angry, evil 1 
 , 6 , J ' L 
 
 <?/a bad, naughty j 
 
 gammal old 
 ///r;* small 
 mycken much 
 
 bast 
 
 samst 
 
 varst 
 
 mindre 
 mer(a) 
 
 manga, plur., many 
 
 , fle 
 
 didst 
 minst 
 mest 
 (de) fiesta 
 
 Note. God, in the meaning "good (tasting)", and ond, when 
 it means "angry", are compared godare, godast, ondare, ondast- 
 Also elak, and, rarely, ddlig may have the forms in -are, -ast. 
 
 162. A few comparatives and superlatives, chiefly such 
 as designate place, have no positive. They are derived 
 from roots not used as adjectives. In these the compara- 
 tive ends in -re, and, in almost all, the superlative ends in 
 -rst. In framre, framst, yttre, ytterst, bvre and overst a 
 hard vowel has been modified. The principal ones are: 
 
 (bak hind, back) 
 (bort away, off) 
 (fram forward) 
 (fore before) 
 (in in) 
 (ned down) 
 (under under) 
 (ut out) 
 (pvan above) 
 
 bakre rear, posterior bakerst 
 
 bortre farther borterst 
 
 framre fore, anterior framst 
 
 fbrre (-a) former fbrst 
 inre inner innerst 
 
 nedre lower, nether nederst 
 undre lower underst 
 
 yttre outer ytterst 
 
 bvre upper overst 
 
 1 Stna is used as the plural of liten (see 152). Sma may also have mindre. 
 inst as its comparative and superlative; cf. 161.
 
 102 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 Also the comparative se(d)nare l latter, later, and the 
 superlative se(d}nast latest, or sist last, latest- employing 
 the endings -are, -ast, are derived from a root not used as 
 an adjective, sedan, sen (vowel usually short) afterwards. 
 
 163- The comparative is indeclinable (see 153); as, 
 en biittre stol, ett battre hits, battre stolar, de battre stolarna. 
 
 When used as a noun after the prepositive article 
 (cf. 150), the comparative adds -s in the genitive. Ex.: 
 Den yngres arbete ar bast. The work of the younger is best. 
 
 164. When used as a predicate adjective (not pre- 
 ceded by the prepositive article), the superlative has its 
 original form (-ast, -st) and is invariable. Ex.: Dcnna 
 blomma (detfa barn} ar vackrast. This flower (this child) 
 is the prettiest . Dessa blommor dro vackrast. These flowers 
 are the prettiest. 
 
 In all other cases, i. e., when used attributively, or alone 
 after the prepositive article, superlatives in -ast add -e 2 
 (see 151, 8 a), those in -st add -a 1 (or -e; see 151, 8 b 
 andc). When used substantively, it has the regular 
 ending -5 in the genitive. Ex.: Den vitaste blomman ar 
 den vackraste. The whitest flower is the prettiest. Det 
 stdrsta huset ar icke alltid det bdsta. The largest house is not 
 always the best. Svens yngsta syster ar tre ar. Sven's 
 youngest sister is three years old. Han ar den dldste av 
 oss. He is the oldest of us. Det dldsta av barnen ar 
 en gosse. The oldest of the children is a boy. Ndrmaste 
 granne bodde pa en mils avstand. The nearest neighbor 
 lived a mile away. I senaste mimmer av Stockholms Dag- 
 
 1 This word, which is opposite in meaning to f'drre, farst. should be care- 
 fully distinguished from sen (vowel long) late, tardy, slow, comp. saiarr 
 superl. senast. 
 
 2 These forms of the superlative are really the definite form of the adjec- 
 tive, but observe the extended use of the definite form of the superlative 
 as illustrated in the examples.
 
 XII COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 103 
 
 blad. In the last number of S. D. Ndsta manad next 
 month, ett sista forso'k a final trial. In cases such as the 
 last, the prepositive article is usually inserted between 
 the indef. article and the adjective; as, en den skbnaste 
 ntsikt a most beautiful view. 
 
 165. The comparative and superlative ideas may be, but 
 usually are not, expressed by using mera and mest with 
 the positive in the case of all adjectives, though less 
 frequently those whose comparative ends in -re. 
 
 Some adjectives, 1 especially those of more than one syl- 
 lable ending in -ad, -?, -se, -es, -isk, and all participles, both 
 present and past, never have the endings of comparison, 
 but use only mer(a\ mest; as, godhjlirtad kindhearted, 
 mcr(a) godhjiirtad, mest godhjdrtad; partisk partial, mer(a) 
 partisk, mest partisk; ode desolate, mer(a) ode, mest ode. 
 
 166. The superlative is often used of two objects com- 
 pared. Ex.: Hans hogra hand dr starkast. His right 
 hand is the stronger. Vilken av dina tva soner ar yngst? 
 Which of your two sons is the younger? Den mest lovan- 
 de sokanden av de tva (bland de tre) the most promising 
 of the two (three) applicants; den storsta delen av applet 
 (also when cut into two pieces) the larger half of the 
 apple. 
 
 167- The comparative and the superlative are some- 
 times used absolutely 2 , without any idea of real com- 
 parison, to denote a rather high degree and a very high 
 degree, respectively. Superlatives formed with mest can 
 also be so used, but rarely comparatives with mer(a). 
 Superlatives used absolutely may or may not be pre- 
 
 1 All indeclinable adjectives, with the exception of those that end in -a. 
 {cf. 158, note 2), belong here; also many that can be declined. 
 
 2 This use is of much less frequent occurrence in English. Ex.: the lower 
 classes, higher education, Greater New York. Your task is a most arduous 
 one. See also the translation of the Swedish examples.
 
 104 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII 
 
 ceded by the prepositive definite article, but the accom- 
 panying noun almost always has the indefinite form. 
 Ex.: En Idngre promena'd a (rather) long walk, en aldre 
 herre an elderly gentleman, de nyare spraken modern 
 languages. Denna sanning ar accepte'rad av de flesta mera 
 framstaende psykolo'ger. This truth is accepted by most 
 of the leading psychologists. Med sforsta rioje with the 
 greatest pleasure, baste broder dear brother (friend), 
 Det gjorde inte den minsta nytta. It didn't do the least 
 good. De aro de bdsta vanner. They are the best of 
 friends. Delta gjorde han i sforsta valmening. He did 
 this with the best of intentions. Han sade henne nagra 
 de utsbktaste artigheter. He paid her some very fine com- 
 pliments. En den mest h&rdnackade kamp a most stub- 
 born fight. 
 
 168. PRONUNCIATION: (a) 1 ovan ( 9, 3 b); fram 
 ( 6, note i); didst ( 16 c); kogst ( 18); grovt, grbvst, 
 lagt, lagst ( 18, and Phonology 38). Observe the 
 shortened vowel in stbrre, sforst, farre, smarre; also inforre, 
 yttre, flest, mest. In kogst (and fbrre) there is a change 
 both in the quantity and the quality of the b. (b) gjorde 
 ( 15; 16); acccpte'ra ( 19, i b 2); psykolo'g ( 9, 3 b, 
 and Phonology 50, note 2); noje ( 6, note i). 
 
 169- ACCENT: (i) Dissyllabic comparatives formed with 
 -re or -rre have the acute accent, except that forre has 
 the grave accent, and nedre, undre and bvre may have 
 either the acute or the grave accent. Flera and mera 
 rarely have the acute accent. Superlatives ending in 
 -erst have either the acute or the grave accent. 
 
 (2) The following words have the acute accent: (a) for- 
 sb'ka, promene'ra, partisk, Danmark, Finland, Oland* 
 (b) accepte'ra, nummer. 
 
 1 Including words prominent in the lesson.
 
 XII 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 170. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Ned down, is used in 
 the written language, but tier primarily in the spoken 
 language. 
 
 (2) Taga and pres. sing, tager are employed in the 
 written language; ta, tar, primarily in the spoken lan- 
 guage. 
 
 (3) In the spoken language, mycket (n. of mycken} is 
 pronounced my eke; cf. 157, 3. 
 
 (4) In easy speech, med, dalig, dalig t, ond are pro- 
 nounced ma, dali, ddlit, onn. Grovt is in easy speech 
 often pronounced groft (vowel short, quality unchanged). 
 Concerning Finland and Gland see 157, 4. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 bortre farther noje n. (4) pleasure 
 
 dalig poor, bad ond angry, evil; pa angry at 
 
 do {irregular; pres. sing. partisk partial, prejudiced 
 
 promena'd(3)pr0menade, walk 
 
 promene'ra (-ade) walk, prom- 
 enade 
 
 stilla (indecl.') still, quiet 
 
 ta(ga) (tog) take 
 
 trang tight, narrow 
 
 tung heavy 
 
 ung young 
 
 ut 1 out; ga ut och ga go out 
 for a walk 
 
 ute 1 out, out of doors 
 
 an than 
 
 annu still, yet 
 
 ovre tipper 
 
 -r; past dog) die 
 elak bad, naughty 
 fa, plur., few 
 forso'k n.(5) attempt, trial 
 forso'ka (-te) try, attempt 
 grov coarse, thick, large 
 hur(u) how 
 lag low 
 med with 
 
 mot against, to, toward 
 m y eke n much 
 noga (indccl.) particular, 
 
 accurate 
 
 namligen namely 
 nara (indecl.} near, close 
 
 1 For the distinction in meaning between "ut" and "ute", see 172, 
 2, note.
 
 106 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII 
 
 EXERCISE XII. 1 
 
 A. i. Oland och Gottland aro Sveriges storsta oar. 
 2. Ar du icke stolt over att 2 vara svensk? 3. Den lille 
 gosseti blev ond pa brodern. 4. Vara trad aro grovre an 
 era. 5. Det ar battre att vara den forste an den siste. 
 6. Stockholm ar den storsta av Sveriges stader. 7. Yiit- 
 teru liar endast en storre 6, namligen Visingso 3 . 8. Nu ar 
 han forsiktigare. Darfor ar han aveu friskare. 9. Sveii 
 gick med Olov till narmaste stad for att 4 kopa en 
 battre hast. 10. Bade Sverige och Finland aro rikare pa 
 sjoar an Danmark 5 och Norge 6 . n. Skomakaren bor i 
 det bortersta huset. 12. Den sjuka ar samre i dag an 
 hon var i gar. 13. Da Strindberg dog, var han Sveriges 
 storste forfattare. 14. Karls aldsta syster och hans yngsta 
 bror aro ute och ga. 15. Det roda huset ar lagst. 16. De 
 fiesta gossarna i skolan aro bade aldre och storre an. 
 Johan. 17. Skola vi icke ga ut och ga? 18. Den framste 
 gossen ar storst. 19. Tog du icke en langre promenad i 
 dag an i gar? 20. Han ar elak mot system, men annu 
 varre mot den frammande gossen. 21. Sedan han kom 
 hit, ar han bade friskare och gladare. 22. De voro ute 
 och promenerade hela kvallen. 23. Jag vill ha den 
 oversta boken. 
 
 B. i. Your name is still longer than mine. 2. The 
 highest trees are not always the thickest. 3. Glass is 
 heavier than water. 4. In old cities the streets are often 
 narrow. 5. The best butter is not too good. 6. The 
 
 1 This exercise contains some words given in the discussion of the gram- 
 
 2 When Swedish uses a preposicion followed by "att" and the infinitive, 
 English usually has a preposition with the gerund, but sometimes an. 
 infinitive. 
 
 3 Pronounced "Visingso''' or "Vi'singso". 
 
 4 "For att" with the infinitive denotes purpose. 
 
 5 Denmark. 
 *> Norway.
 
 XII COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 107 
 
 white doves are the prettiest. 7. This chair is the 
 heaviest that I have. 8. Do j'ou think that your old 
 house is more beautiful than my new one? 9. Sweden 
 is larger than Norway, but Norway is more beautiful. 
 10. Now the days are longer than the nights, but soon 
 the nights will be the longer, n. These two apples 
 are the reddest. 12. How many names have you? 
 Only two. Then I have more names than you. 13. His 
 fever is worse again to-day. 14. These trees are the 
 smallest. 15. I shall go if the weather becomes better. 
 1 6. English has more neuters than Swedish. 17. Do you 
 wish to go out for a walk? 18. The black table is 
 lower than the brown one. 19. This author thinks that 
 his own books are the most interesting. 20. Their oldest 
 daughter is only five years old. 21. Why is the shoe- 
 maker more particular with your shoes than with mine? 
 22. The lake became more quiet in the evening. 23. I 
 thought I was old then, but now I am still older.
 
 108 ADVERBS 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 171- Of most adjectives, the form in -/ may be used as 
 an adverb; as, adel noble, adelt nobly; vacker beautiful, vac- 
 kert beautifully; sot sweet, sbtt sweetly; mycken much, 
 mycket much, very; liten small, litet a little. 
 
 172. Besides these adverbs there are a great many 
 others, formed variously: 
 
 1. Primitive adverbs and their compounds; as, nej no, 
 nu now, har here, bort away, off, hari herein. Adverbs 
 compounded with har, ddr, var are very numerous. 
 
 Note. I. In general, compound adverbs of the kind mentioned 
 in 172, i, have the main stress on the last syllable when they 
 stand at the end of a declarative sentence; as, hari' , dart'. Other- 
 wise the first syllable is stressed. 
 
 2. Pronominal adverbs compounded with a preposition are often 
 used in place of a pronoun governed by a preposition. These com- 
 pounds are, however, not used in referring to persons, and are 
 used less freely in referring to a plural than to a singular noun. 
 Ex.: (Personal) Jag har ej hort ndgot ddrom. I have not heard 
 anything about it. (Demonstrative) Daremot ar intet att itiz'an- 
 da. There is nothing to say against that. Harav foljer, att tri- 
 anglarna maste vara kongruen'ta. From this it follows that the 
 triangles must be congruent. Dari har han ratt. He is right in 
 that. (Interrogative, direct and indirect) Varpa beror detta? 
 What is the cause of this? (Literally, "On what does this depend?") 
 Del ar icke liitt att saga, vari denna skillnad besta'r. It is not 
 easy to say what this difference consists of. (Relative) Detta ar 
 en frdga, varom i senare tid mycket talats. This is a question 
 about which much has recently been said. Egil larde sina soner 
 manga idrotter, vari han sjiilv var mastare. Egil taught his sons 
 many sports in which he himself excelled. 
 
 2. Adverbs formed with various suffixes; as, -a (as hem- 
 ma at home); -e (lite out); -an {redan already); -om
 
 XIII ADVERBS, COMPARISON 109 
 
 (stiindom at times); -deles (alldeles entirely); -ledes (sdledes 
 consequently); -ligen (natnlig'en namely); -lunda (^annor- 
 lunda differently); -vis (lyckligtvis fortunately). 
 
 Note. Some adverbs ending in -a, -e and denoting place where, 
 are formed from adverbs denoting place to which; as, hem home, 
 hemma at home; bort away, off, forth, borta away; ut out, ute 
 out, out of doors; in in, inne within, in the house; upp up, uppe 
 up, above; ned, ner down, nere down, below; fram forth, to one's 
 destination, framme there, at one's destination. 
 
 3. A number of adverbs, especially compounds, end in 
 -s, which is really the genitive ending. These are not felt 
 as genitives, but as adverbs. Ex.: alls, in the expres- 
 sions alls icke or icke alls not at all; dels partly; Jmndratals 
 by hundreds; hur dag's (at) what time (literally, "how 
 of the day"); liggdags bed-time; halvvdgs half-way. 
 
 In adverbial expressions of time, the preposition i is in 
 a few cases followed by an adverbial genitive in the 
 indefinite singular. These expressions refer to the latest 
 previous time of the kind denoted by the noun. Only 
 certain words can be used in this way, not, for example, 
 vecka week, manad month, ar year. Instead of -s, the 
 endings -as, -se are used in some words. Ex.: i sbndags 
 (mandags, tisdags, onsdags, torsdags, fredags, Ibrdags) 
 last Sunday (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, 
 Friday, Saturday); i somras (/wstas, vintras, vdras*) last 
 summer (autumn, winter, spring), from sommar, host, 
 vinter, var; i julas last Christmas, from jul; i morse 1 this 
 (past) morning, from morgon. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
 
 173. Almost all adverbs formed by adding -t to the 
 uninflected form of the adjective may be compared. 
 Their comparatives and superlatives are the same as the 
 comparatives and superlatives (uninflected form) of the
 
 1 10 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS XIII 
 
 corresponding adjectives; as, adelt nobly, ddlare more 
 nobly, ddlast most nobly; sott sweetly, sbtare, sbtast; hbgt 
 high, loudly, hbgre, hogst; langt far, Idngre 1 , Idngst; 
 mycket much, very, mera, mest; gott well, bdttre, bast. 
 
 Most of the indeclinable adjectives ending in unstressed 
 -a, and having forms of comparison, are also used as 
 adverbs. Their comparatives and superlatives are the 
 same as those of the corresponding adjectives; as, noga 
 accurately, nogare, nogast; ndra near, ?idrm(a)re 2 , 
 ndrm(a}st^; sakta slowly, saktare, saktast. 
 
 174- Of other adverbs, only a few can be compared: 
 
 1. fort fast, quickly fortarc fortast 
 Idnge long, a long time Idngre 1 Idngst 
 ofta often oftare oftast 
 
 2. The following employ a different root 3 for the com- 
 parative and superlative: 
 
 brct welll 
 
 \ battre* bast 
 
 val wellj 
 
 gdrna gladly hellre heist 
 
 ilia badly vdrre vdrst 
 
 3. The superlative forms given in 162 are in the 
 uninflected form used also as adverbs. Of sedan , both 
 the comparative and the superlative forms are used as 
 adverbs. 6 The same is true of fbrst, of which the ad- 
 verbial comparative is fbrr, and not forre. 
 
 1 Llingreis the comparative both of the adjective lang (see 159), and of 
 the adverbs langt far (see 173) and lunge long ( 174). 
 
 2 See page 100, foot-note. 
 
 3 Adverbs ending in -/ that employ a different root for the comparative 
 and superlative are included under 173. 
 
 4? Bra is also used in the sense of '"very", "rather", "prettv". In this 
 
 5 Satire is the comparative both of the adjectives fa j, bra, and of the 
 adverbs eo tt, bra, viil: see 161; 173. 
 
 6 Cf. page 102, foot-note 1. The adverb corresponding to sen late, tardy, 
 slow, is sent, senare, senast.
 
 XIII COMPARISON OF ADVERBS III 
 
 Note. The other adverbs capable of the idea of comparison 
 have mera, mest. Ex.: De fiesta tala tnycket mera ologiskt &n 
 dc sjalva tro. Most people talk much more illogically than they 
 themselves believe. 
 
 175. EXPRESSIONS USED IN CONNECTION WITH THE 
 COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND 
 ADVERBS. Allt followed by a repeated (or single) com- 
 parative is equivalent to the doubled comparative of 
 English, denoting an increasing degree. Ex.: Han blir 
 allt forstdn'digare mcd tiden. He is becoming more and 
 more sensible as time passes. Den blev allt mindre och 
 mindre. It became smaller and smaller. 
 
 The adverbial "the", used with comparatives, is ren- 
 dered by desto or dess; the correlatives "the . . . the", 
 by ju . . . dess, desto or (more rarely) ju. The first 
 clause (introduced by the adverb ju~), being the subor- 
 dinate clause, does not have inverted order; the second 
 clause (introduced by one of the adverbs dess, desto, jii} is 
 the main clause and has inverted order. Ex.: Ju liingre 
 de betrak'tade jatten, desto stbrre syntes han for deras ogon, 
 och desto mindre och kraftlosare fbrefbllo de sig sjalva. The 
 longer they looked at the giant, the larger he appeared 
 to their eyes, and the smaller and weaker they felt. Ju 
 forr, dess hellre the sooner the better, dess bdttre so much 
 the better. Observe also icke desto mindre nevertheless. 
 
 Allra followed by the superlative is equivalent to the 
 superlative with "of all", to "very" followed by the 
 superlative, and to the simple superlative, in English; 
 as, den allra stbrsta boken the largest book of all, min 
 allra biista hast my very best horse, allra fbrst first of 
 all, det allra bdsta the very best, den allra hcligaste 
 the most holy, de allra flesta most of them. 
 
 Equality is expressed by lika (likasa~) . . . som (just) 
 as ... as, or, primarily after a negative, sd . . . som so ...
 
 112 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS XIII 
 
 as. Ex.: Johan ar lika gammal som Karl. John is as 
 old as Carl. Han ar icke sa stor som Karl. He is not 
 so large as Carl. En sten sa stor som ett hus a stone as 
 large as a house. Observe the phrase sa snart som mbj- 
 ligt as soon as possible. Som may be omitted in a num- 
 ber of cases. Ex.: Sa fort du kan as soon as you can, sA 
 mycket han vill as much as he wants to. Du far taga sa 
 manga du, behb'ver. You may take as many as you need. 
 A lower degree is expressed by mindre less, and minst 
 least, with the positive, as in English. 
 
 176- ORTHOGRAPHY: fram, framrne; hem, hemma; in, 
 inne, darinne (Phonology 18). Concerning jul, son- 
 dag, mandag, etc., see 24, 3. 
 
 177- PRONUNCIATION: (a) fort ( 9, 3 a); lyckligtvis, 
 htir dag's, liggdags, halvvags, till dbd's, sbndags (inan- 
 dags, etc.) ( 18, and Phonology 38). The vowel in 
 dags {-dags}, -vags, dbds is short in these expressions, 
 though long in dag, etc. (b) kongruen't (Phonology 
 49, 3 b); ologiskt (second o, 9, 3 b). 
 
 178- ACCENT: (i) The accent of dissyllabic compara- 
 tives ending in -re and superlatives in -erst is the same 
 in the case of adverbs as in adjectives. See 169, i. 
 
 (2) The adverbial compounds referred to in 172, i, 
 and notes, have the acute accent. 
 
 (3) The following words have the acute accent: (a) mn- 
 ter and the names of the days of the week (sbndag, sbn- 
 dags, etc.). Desto, allra and salcdes usually have the 
 grave accent. (b) betrak'ta, fbrstan'dig, behb'va. 
 
 179- COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken language, 
 oppe is in the greater part of Sweden almost always used 
 in place of uppe, as opp for upp. So ner, which is some- 
 times found also in the written language, particularly in 
 dialog, is used for ned; but nere has no alternative form.
 
 XIII 
 
 ADVERBS 
 
 (2) Most adverbial compounds (see 172, i, and notes) 
 are avoided in the spoken language. Ddri har han rdtt 
 is in the spoken language usually expressed det har han 
 rdtt i. 
 
 (3) Dess, which is also very common in the written 
 language, is generally used in the spoken language in 
 place of dcsto. The use of ju in the principal clause 
 (and therefore in both clauses, since ju regularly in- 
 troduces the subordinate clause) belongs to the spoken 
 language, and is particularly common in proverbs. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. In the vocabularies, adverbs formed from adjectives by 
 adding -t will not be given if the adjectives from which they are 
 derived are already known. 
 
 alldeles entirely 
 
 allra of all, very 
 
 alls at all 
 
 allt more and more 
 
 annorlunda differently} 
 
 bort away, off 
 
 borta away; da'r borta 
 over there 
 
 dels partly 
 
 dess, desto the (adv.} 
 
 dari in that 
 
 dod dead; (2) death; till 
 dods 1 to death, fatal 
 
 fort fast, quickly 
 
 fram forth, to one's desti- 
 nation ; fram till up to 
 
 framme there, arrived, at 
 one's destination 
 
 garna gladly, fain 
 halvvags half-way 
 hundratals by hundreds; 
 
 hundreds of 
 
 hur dag's {at} what time 
 hari in this 
 host (2) autumn; i host 
 
 this autumn; i -as last 
 
 autumn 
 ilia bad, badly 
 in in; in i into 
 inne within, in the house; 
 
 inne i in; da'r inne in 
 
 there, within 
 ju the {adv.} 
 liggdags bed-time 
 lika, likasa (just} as 
 lyckligtvis fortunately 
 
 1 See 122.
 
 H4 ADVERBS 
 
 lange long, for a long time sa so, thus 
 
 morse; i morse this (past} saledes thus, accordingly 
 
 morning salunda thus, in this manner 
 
 mycket much uppe up 
 
 mojlig possible varom about which, about 
 
 ned, ner down what 
 
 nere down vecka (1) week 
 
 redan already vinter (2) winter; i this 
 
 ratt right; ha(va) ratt be winter; i vintras last winter 
 
 right var (2) spring; i var this 
 
 sakta (hided.} slow; adv., spring; i -as last spring 
 
 slowly val well 
 stundom at times 
 
 The names of the days 1 of the week are: 
 
 sondag Sunday torsdag Thursday 
 
 mandag Monday fredag Friday 
 
 tisdag Tuesday lordag Saturday 
 onsdag Wednesday 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. 
 
 A. i. Borta bra, men hemraa bast. 2. Faglarna 
 sjdngo vackert. 3. Sven och hans far gingo bort. Mo- 
 dern och system voro hemma hela dagen. 4. Det blir 
 snart host. 5. I sondags reste jag till Malmo. Jag kom 
 fram klockan atta pa morgonen. Sa snart jag kom fram, 
 gick jag till min gamle van Nyblom. L,yckligtvis var 
 han hemma, men han var annu icke uppe. 6. Sjuk- 
 donien ar icke till dods. 7. Dar borta i det gula huset 
 bodde vi i somras. Nej 2 , ar det mojligt! 8. Vi voro 
 ute och promenerade i onsdags kvall. 9. Den sjuke ar 
 battre nu an han var i morse. 10. Ju mera gossen fick, 
 dess mera ville han ha. n. Oni du talar saktare, sa 
 
 1 These belong to the Second Declension. 
 
 2 '' Xej " here means "really". This is a frequent use.
 
 XIII ADVERBS 115 
 
 blir det batlre. Ja, jag skall forsoka 1 tala sa sakta som 
 mojligt. 12. I dag rod, i niorgon dod. 13. Hur dags 
 gick du hemifran 2 ? Klockan var fern, tror jag 3 . Och 
 du var redan f rani me klockan atta? 14. Sigtuna ar en 
 intressant liten stad, som ligger vid Malaren halvvags 
 mellan Stockholm och Uppsala. 15. Dar inne sutto kvin- 
 iiorna och drucko kaffe. 16. Gamle Bjorklund dog i 
 morse klockan fern. Han hade lidit 4 lange av en svar 
 sjukdom. Sttindom blev den sjuke mycket glad. Da 
 ville han heist sitta uppe och beratta sagor for barnen. 
 Salunda satt han i gar kvall lange uppe och talade med 
 de sma. Till sist blev han trott. Det var da redan ligg- 
 dags, och aven barnen gingo darfor till sangs. Men pa 
 morgonen voro barnen annu icke uppe, da deras mor 
 kom in och sade, att den gamle var dod. 
 
 B. i. We went to the woods last Tuesday 5 and picked 
 flowers. 2. It was already five o'clock. 3. The boys 
 tried to walk faster, but they became more and more 
 tired. 4. I didn't believe my friend when he said it, but 
 he was right. 5. The weather was not at all beautiful 
 last summer. It rained entirely too much. 6. The bird 
 flew down from the tree. 7. When they arrived at their 
 destination 6 , they were no doubt still more tired than we. 
 8. My house is just as large as yours, but it is not so 
 beautiful. 9. The sooner you believe that I am right, 
 the better. 10. I shall be glad to go 7 with your friends. 
 Fortunately I am not at all tired yet. At what time 
 are they coming? u. Your sister sings better now than 
 before. 12. The boys sat in the house all day because 8 
 
 1 See 24-12, 1. 6 Arrive at one's destination komnia 
 
 2 From home. fram. 
 
 3 Note the inversion. 7 Translate / shall be glad to go by 
 -i Had suffered. "jag K& r earna". 
 
 5 Place the Swedish for last Tues- S Because darfor att. 
 
 Jay first in the sentence.
 
 Il6 ADVERBS XIII 
 
 it rained. 13. I came as soon as possible. 14. Did you 
 arrive at your destination yesterday morning 1 ? 15. Old 
 Johnson was the very best friend of the children. 
 16. The chairman spoke louder and louder. 17. They 
 walked farther to-day than yesterday, but it didn't take 
 so long. 1 8. When it rained, the boys went into the 
 house. 19. The woman went up to the table and took 
 the money. 20. It is raining too much this spring. I^ast 
 spring it didn't rain at all. 
 
 1 Yesterday morning i g&r morse.
 
 XIV CONJUGATION 1 17 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 THE VERB. 
 
 180. It has been seen ( 80; 81) that Swedish verbs 
 are divided according to the formation of the past tense 
 info weak verbs and strong verbs. 
 
 (A) WEAK VERBS. While weak verbs in forming their 
 past tense all have in common the addition of an ending 
 containing a dental consonant (</, f) followed by e, yet 
 they fall naturally into three groups: (I) those that 
 have the tense-characteristic -de preceded by a 1 ; (II) those 
 that have only the tense-characteristic -de, which after 
 certain consonants becomes -te; (III) those that double the 
 d of the tense-characteristic. Verbs whose past tense 
 ends in 
 
 -ade (talade) belong to the First Weak Conjugation, 
 -de or -te (byggde, kbpte) , to the Second Weak Conjugation, 
 -dde (trodde), to the Third Weak Conjugation. 
 
 (B) STRONG VERBS. These are characterized by vowel- 
 change in the formation of their past tense, no tense-sign 
 being employed. This group will be spoken of as the 
 Strong Conjugation. 
 
 181. PAST PARTICIPLE AND SUPINE. In the case of 
 weak verbs, the common-gender form of the past parti- 
 ciple can be found by dropping the final -e of the past 
 tense, the neuter being formed by changing the -d (-dd) of 
 
 1 This a belongs to the stem, and so the tense-ending is in real- 
 ity -de here just as in the Second Weak Conjugation. The steins of the va- 
 rious conjugations, illustrated by the verbs mentioned on this page, are: (I) 
 tala: (II) &vw. kof: (III) tro: (Strong) skriv. Observe that in the First and 
 Third Weak Conjugations the stem is identical with the infinitive, while in 
 the Second Weak Conjugation and in the Strong Conjugation, a is added 
 to the stem to form the infinitive. The stem is in all conjugations the same 
 as the singular of the present imperative.
 
 Ii8 CONJUGATION XIV 
 
 the common-gender form to -t (-/O 1 . Those ending in -/ 
 are not changed in the neuter 2 . The endings of the past 
 participle, then, are: (I) -ad, n. -at (talad, n. /a/a/); (II) 
 -d or -t, n. -t (byggd, n. byggt; kbpt, n. kbpf); (III) -dd, n. 
 -// (trodd, n. trotf). The Strong Conjugation has in the 
 past participle the ending -en, n. -^/ 3 , which is added 
 directly to the stem 4 (skriven, u. skrivef). 
 
 The neuter of the past participle of all verbs is used 
 after the present and past tense of 7/a(m) 5 have, to form 
 the present perfect and the past perfect, respectively; as, 
 jag har talat I have spoken, jag hade /a/a/ I had spoken. 
 Observe that English similarly employs the past partici- 
 ple in the formation of these tenses. In both languages 
 it has in this case active, and not passive, meaning. 
 
 When so employed in Swedish, the neuter of the past 
 participle is called the Supine. In the Strong Conjugation, 
 i is substituted for e in the neuter of the past participle 
 when used in this way. The endings of the supine are 
 accordingly in weak verbs (I) -a/, (II) -/, (III) -//, and 
 in the Strong Conjugation -it. 
 
 182. OMISSION OF THE AUXILIARY. In dependent claus- 
 es the auxiliary is very often omitted in the present per- 
 fect and past perfect, the supine alone being used 6 (see 
 191, i). The context shows whether the supine 
 has present perfect or past perfect meaning. Ex.: Har 
 ar en liten bok, som jag skrivit i sommar. Here is a 
 little book that I have written this summer. Jag trodde, 
 att han trbttnat. I thought he had grown tired. Nar 
 
 1 As in adjectives; see 151. 2 a, and 3. 
 
 2 As in adjectives; see 151 , 4. 
 
 3 As in adjectives; see 151, 1. 
 
 4 Concerning root-vowel of past participle and supine see 2O1, note 1. 
 
 5 As in English, this is used both as an auxiliary and as an independ- 
 ent verb. 
 
 6 But never in conditional clauses with O m omitted; cf. 140.
 
 XIV FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION 119 
 
 del slutat rcgna, skola vi g& ut och ga. When it has 
 stopped raining, we shall go out for a walk. Striden 
 rasade, dnda tills solen gatt ned. The battle raged until 
 the sun had set. Om vi varit for sik' tig are, skulle delta 
 ej ha hiint. If we had been more careful, this would 
 not have happened. Vadfadern pabbrjat, fortsatte sbnerna. 
 The sons continued what their father had started. 
 
 183- SUMMARY. (A) Weak Conjugations: 
 
 INF. PRES. PAST PAST PART. SUP. 
 
 I. tala talar talade talad, n. talat talat 
 
 II. a) bygga bygger byggde byggd, n. byggt byggt 
 
 b} kbpa kbper kbpte kbpt, n. kbpt kbpt 
 
 III. tro tror trodde trodd, n. trott trott 
 
 (B) Strong Conjugation: 
 
 skriva skriver skrev striven, n. skrivet skrivit 
 
 Note. To facilitate the formation of the various tenses, it is 
 desirable to know in the case of all verbs: (i) the present infini- 
 tive, (2) the past sing. ind. (and the past plur. if its stem-vowel 
 differs from that of the singular), and (3) the supine. These are 
 called the principal parts of a verb. Ex.: tala, talade, talat; 
 bygga, byggde, byggt; kopa, kopte, kopt; tro, trodde, trott; skriva, 
 skrev, skrivit; finna, fann, funno, funnit. 
 
 FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION. 
 
 184. The First Weak Conjugation contains about 
 five-sixths of all Swedish verbs, though many of the 
 verbs that are most commonly used belong to other con- 
 jugations. To the First Weak Conjugation belong: 
 
 (1) Almost all weak verbs that before the -a of the 
 infinitive have a consonant preceded by a hard 1 vowel; 
 as, kalla call, bruka use, fraga ask. 
 
 (2) All verbs having a vowel before the -a of the 
 infinitive; as, roa amuse, fbrny'a renew. 
 
 1 See 10.
 
 120 FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION. XIV 
 
 (3) Almost all verbs derived from other words by 
 means of a suffix containing a consonant; as, gulna turn 
 yellow, from gul yellow; vidga widen, from vid wide. 
 
 Note. Most verbs of foreign origin belong to this conjugation. 
 Observe especially the verbs ending in -e'ra; as, stude'ra study, 
 telefone'ra telephone. 
 
 185. Example of the active indicative of the First 
 Weak Conjugation: kalla call. 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 FUTURE 1 
 
 jag, etc., kallar 
 
 kallade 
 
 kommer att kalla 
 
 vi kalla 
 
 kallade 
 
 komma att kalla 
 
 I kallen 
 
 kalladen 
 
 kommen ait kalla 
 
 de kalla 
 
 kallade 
 
 komma att kalla 
 
 PRES. PERF. PAST PERF. FUTURE PERFECT 3 
 
 jag har kallat hade kallat kommer att hava kallat^ 
 
 vi hava kallat^ hade kallat komma att hava kallat 
 I haven kallat haden kallat kommen att hava kallat 
 
 de hava kallat hade kallat komma att hava kallat 
 
 INFINITIVES*: Present, kalla; present perfect, ha(va) kallat 
 SUPINE: kallat 
 
 Note. i. The future perfect is formed by the auxiliary-verb 
 /comma, followed by the perfect infinitive with att 3 . The future 
 perfect is rarely used, the present perfect being employed instead. 
 Ex.: / morgon ha vi bott heir jamt ett dr. By to-morrow we shall 
 have lived here exactly a year. Jag har strax slutat. I shall be 
 through very shortly. Nar jag har last boken, skall du fa den. 
 When I have read the book, you may have it. 
 
 2. Concerning irregularities in conjugation see 191, 3. Cf. al- 
 so J94, 3 and 4; 203, 3 and 4; page 131, foot-notes i and 3. 
 
 1 Sometimes skaU kalla. etc.; see 136, 2. 
 
 2 Or the shorter forms of hara m ay be used: viha kallat. jag kommer att ha kallat. 
 
 3 Sometimes skall ha(va) kall.it, etc.; cf. 136, 2. 
 
 4 These forms of the infinitive are given here because they are used in the 
 formation of the compound tenses. Infinitives are treated more fully in 
 Lesson XX.
 
 XIV PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 121 
 
 PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 18G. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. la Swedish, as in English, 
 the personal pronouns have a special form when used in 
 the objective case. 
 NOM. OBJ. NOM. OBJ. NOM. OBJ. 
 
 jag img 
 
 du dig 
 
 cr 
 
 han honom 
 
 hon henne 
 
 Z7 OSS 
 
 /, ni eder, er 
 de dem 
 
 den, del = Norn. 
 
 Note. Den, del, as the English "it", has no special form for 
 the objective case. 
 
 187. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. The objective forms of 
 the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, 
 both singular and plural, may also be used reflexively, 
 referring back to the subject. In that case they are 
 translated "myself", "yourself", "ourselves", "your- 
 selves". Ex.: Skadade du dig? Did you hurt yourself? 
 (Cf. Skadade han dig? Did he hurt you?) 
 
 For the third person, however, a special pronoun sig 
 is employed to convey the reflexive idea. Of this there 
 is necessarily no nominative form. It is used in refer- 
 ring back to a subject of either gender, singular and 
 plural, and is rendered into English by "himself", "her- 
 self", "itself", "one's self", "themselves". It thus 
 corresponds to "sich" in German and "se" in Latin. 
 Ex.: Gossen {djuret, gossarna} skadade sig. The boy 
 (the animal, the boys) hurt himself (itself, themselves). 
 
 Note. In translating from English into Swedish, the reflexive 
 "himself", etc., must be carefully distinguished from the intensive 
 pronoun "himself", etc., which in Swedish is an entirely different 
 word, sjalv, n. sjalvt, plur. sjalva. Ex.: Han gick sjalv. He 
 went himself. Plan byggde huset dt sig sjalv. He built the house 
 for himself. De Jlcsla /a/a mycket mera ologiskt an de sjalva tro. 
 Most people talk much more illogically than they themselves be- 
 lieve. En furste m&ste forst ochframst kunna behar'ska sig sjalv.
 
 122 REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 A ruler must in the first place be able to control himself. Smd 
 barn bruka icke kalla sig sjalva "jag". Little children are not 
 in the habit of speaking of themselves as "I". 
 
 188. REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. The possess- 
 ive pronouns of the first and second persons may also be 
 used reflexively, as in English. For the third person, how- 
 ever, Swedish does not employ hans, hennes, dess, deras 
 (cf. 62, note), corresponding to the English "his", 
 "her", "its", "their", but uses for all these 1 a special re- 
 flexive possessive pronoun denoting either one or more 
 than one possessor, sin, n. sitt, plur., when denoting pos- 
 session of more than one object, 2 sina. It thus corresponds 
 in use to the Latin "suus", but not to the German "sein", 
 which is equivalent to the Eng. "his" and "its", and 
 which is used as these, both reflexively and non-reflex- 
 ively. EX.: Gossen skadade sin hand (jsina hander). The 
 boy hurt his hand(s). De kbpte sin hast i staden. They 
 bought their horse in town. But observe: Gossen skada- 
 de kans hand (hander). The boy hurt his (=some one 
 else's) hand(s). De kdpte deras hast. They bought their 
 (=some other people's) horse. Observe that in the fol- 
 lowing sentences Eng. "his" is ambiguous: Johan har sin 
 bok. John has his (= his own) book. Johan har hans bok. 
 John has his (== some one else's) book. 
 
 189. PRONUNCIATION: (a) 3 sin, dem ( 6, note i) ; hononi 
 (Phonology 14 A 3; 22, 4); djur ( 16); berg ( 9, i c); 
 fattigt, byggt, sjaht ( 18, and Phonology 38). Ob- 
 serve the long quantity of the vowel in: lekte, past 
 tense of leka ( 6, note 2); gulna, hardna (Phonology 
 14 B 2 c). In vitt, n. of vid, the vowel is shortened 
 
 1 Also for "one's", "hers", "theirs". 
 
 2 Observe that the sing. s i n , n. . may denote either one or more than one 
 possessor, but only one object possessed. The plural sina may denote one or 
 more than one possessor, but always the possession of more than oneobject. 
 
 3 Does not include words occurring in Exercises Cand D.
 
 XIV FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION 123 
 
 ( 6, note 2). (b) Stjdrnhok ( 19, 6 b); tjugu ( 19, 7 a). 
 
 190. ACCENT: (i) In the greater part of Sweden, verbs 
 in -e'ra have the acute accent in all forms (cf. 66, 3). 
 
 (2) The following words have the acute accent: (a) 
 aker, varifran (cf. page 125, foot-note ^}, forny'a, stude'ra, 
 tele/one' ra, Fridolf. Framfor, when stressed on the first 
 syllable (see page 124, foot-note 3), usually has the 
 grave accent. The objective eder usually has the acute 
 accent. (b) histo'ria, behar'ska, heller, Henrik. 
 
 191. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) The omission of the 
 auxiliary in the present perfect and past perfect belongs 
 almost exclusively to the written language. 
 
 (2) In the spoken language the fut. perf. is not used. 
 
 (3) A number of verbs of the First Weak Conjuga- 
 tion, most of which have / or n before the -a of the 
 infinitive, may in the spoken language have the endings 
 -tc, -t and -/ of the Second Weak Conjugation (cf. 
 kopte, kopt, kbpt) instead of -ade, -ad and -at, in the past 
 tense, the past participle and the supine, respectively; 
 as, talte, talt, talt instead of talade, talad, talat. Simi- 
 larly, dda divide, spela play, mena mean, tjana serve, 
 lana borrow, visa show, koka cook, etc. In the case of 
 compound verbs containing these verbs as final com- 
 ponents, the shorter form is still more common than in 
 the simple verbs. All other forms of these verbs than 
 those mentioned are regular, following the First Weak 
 Conjugation; accordingly, always talar. 
 
 (4) In a large part of Sweden the past tense ending in 
 -ade of the First Weak Conjugation drops -de in easy speech; 
 similarly the supine drops -/. Ex.: Han svara inte. (Han 
 svarade icke.} He did not answer. Ja tala mil Johan i gar. 
 (Jag talade med Johan i gar.} I spoke to John yesterday.
 
 124 FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION XIV 
 
 (5) Instead of the objective forms of the personal pro- 
 nouns in the singular, easy speech employs certain un- 
 stressed (enclitic) pronouns: 'en or 'n instead of honom 
 and den 1 , ' 'et or 't for det 1 , 'na for henne. The use of 
 the forms '# and 'f is similar to that of the correspond- 
 ing forms of the postpositive definite article (see 41). 
 Ex.: Ja sag' en i gar kvdll. I saw him (it) last night. 
 Pick du't? Did you get it? Ja tror'na inte. I don't 
 believe her. Tycker du om' et? Do you like it? Vill du 
 ha'n, sa ttfn. Take him (it) if you want him (it). 
 
 (6) In colloquial speech, mig, dig and sig are pro- 
 nounced as if spelled mdj, ddj, sdj. In the spoken lan- 
 guage (primarily in easy speech), dem is in some parts of 
 Sweden pronounced dom, i. e., damm. In easy speech, 
 the objective form dem, pronounced dom, is in some parts 
 of Sweden used in place of the nominative de. Ex.: 
 Dom a inte hemma nu. {De dro icke hemma nu.} They 
 are not at home now. Primarily in easy speech, fattig, 
 fattigt are pronounced fatti, fattit. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. In this and the following vocabularies the conjugation 
 of weak verbs will be indicated with Roman numerals: (I), (II), 
 (III). Strong verbs will be designated by (STR.). 
 
 The following verbs belonging to the First Weak Conjugation 
 have appeared in previous vocabularies: arbeta, berat'ta, kosta, lova, 
 plocka, promene'ra, regna, somna, svara, tala, trottna. 
 berg n. (5) mountain, hill, dal (2) valley 
 
 rock det 2 there 
 
 bruka (i) use, be accus- djur n. (5) animal 
 
 tomed to fat tig poor 
 
 back (2) brook f ram for 8 before, in front of 
 
 1 See 186, note. 
 
 2 Concerning the use of this see page 12G, foot-note 4. 
 
 3 Stressed "fram'for" or, more rarely, "framfo'r".
 
 XIV 
 
 FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION 
 
 125 
 
 fraga (1) question; (i) ask 
 
 {a question} 
 forny'a (i) renew 
 gulna (i) turn yellow 
 gang (3) time; en gangotice 
 hav n. (5) sea, ocean 
 hojd (3) height 
 kalla (i) call, summon 
 leka (ii, -te) play 
 mellan between, among, in 
 
 the midst of 
 morkbla dark blue 
 plats (3) place 
 roa (i) am use 
 se (irregular; pres. -r; past 
 
 sag) see, look; se pa look 
 
 at; se u't 1 look, appear 
 sed(an) after, afterwards; 
 
 for . . . sedan 2 ago 
 
 sig refl., himself, herself, etc. 
 sin (. sitt) r<?/?., ^/y, iier(js) t 
 
 its, one's, their (s) 
 sjalv self, himself, herself, etc. 
 skada (1) injury; (i) hurt 
 strimraa (1) streak, band, line 
 stude'ra (i) study 
 telefone'ra (i) telephone 
 till adv., more t in addition 
 titmne (2) hour 
 t raff a (i) meet 
 varifran 3 from where, from 
 
 which 
 vid wide 
 vidga (i) widen 
 aker (2) field 
 at for, to 
 ang (2) meadow 
 
 anka (1) widow 
 EXERCISE XIV. 
 
 Note. All new words occurring in Exercises A and B will be 
 found in the vocabulary of each lesson. For unfamiliar words 
 found in Exercises C and D the general vocabulary must be con- 
 sulted. Words in brackets [ ] are to be omitted in translation. 
 
 A. i. Barnens mor ar anka. Hennes man dog i vint- 
 ras. 2. Gossen bar arbetat hela dagen. Darfor bar bans 
 far lovat att giva honom en ny hatt och ett par vackra 
 skor. 3. Det bar regnat balva veckan. Jag tycker, att 
 det ar nog nu. 4. Karl gav sina tva vackraste bocker 
 at system. 5. Det roade dig val att traffa honom en 
 
 1 Predicate adjectives, and some other -words, are regularly placed be- 
 tween these two words; as, ban ser sjuk ut he looks sick. 
 
 2 Adverbs and adverbial phrases denoting time are placed between "for" 
 and "sedan"; as. for tv;l ar sedan t:u-> y:\irs ago: for lange sedan Ijng ago. 
 
 3 Stressed "va'rifran" or "varifra'n".
 
 126 FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION XIV 
 
 gang' till 1 ? 6. Doktorn sag pa barnet. Han sade, att 
 det sag mycket sjukt ut. 7. Den fattiga ankans lilla 
 flicka brukade sjunga mycket vackert. 8. Telefonerade 
 du sjalv? 9. Nar Erik studerat tyska ett par ar, kunde 
 ban tala det mycket bra. 10. Roade ni er i skogen? 
 ii. Korna aro ute pa angen. 12. Violanta 2 och Fridolf 
 tyckte allra bast om att leka vid backen. 13. Nar de 
 roat sig i vattnet ett par timmar, gingo de hem. 
 14. Vill-du inte ha en kopp kaffe till 3 ? 
 
 B '. There 4 was once a poor widow who lived in a 
 little house high 5 up on a mountain with her two 
 little children, Fridolf and Violanta. The house was 
 situated in the midst of large trees, but before it [there] 
 was an open place from which they could look far 6 away 
 across forests, fields and meadows, heights and valle3"S. 
 But farthest 6 away they saw a dark blue streak, and 
 that 7 was the ocean. 
 
 C. Allaredan finns det 4 manga historier 8 om greve 
 Henriks dumhet, och han ar inte mer an nagra och 
 tjugu 9 ar gammal. Man kan 10 tala om hur han under- 
 holl 11 Anna Stjarnhbk pa ett sladparti for nagra ar sedan, 
 "Du ar vacker, du Anna," sade han. "Du pratar, Hen- 
 rik." "Du ar den vackraste i hela 12 Varmland." "Det 
 
 1 En gang till once more. 
 
 2 Violan'ta. 
 
 3 En kopp kaffe till another cut of coffee. 
 
 4, Observe: det ar there is, there are: det var there was, there -were. Compare 
 the phrase, det finns there is, there are: det fanns there was, there mere: see 
 235, note. These expressions -with the verb in the singular may be 
 followed by a noun in the singular or plurnl. 
 
 5 Use the form in -t of the corresponding adjective. 
 
 6 See 173. 
 
 7 Det. 
 
 8 See page 47, foot-note 2. 
 
 9 Nagra och tjugu ar some twenty odd years. 
 
 10 The use of "kan*' here is idiomatic; translate, feofle sometimes talk. 
 
 11 See "underhalla" in the general vocabulary. 
 
 12 Here, as frequently when in the definite form, to be translated all.
 
 XIV FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION 127 
 
 ar jag visst inte." "Den vackraste pa sladpartiet ar du 
 i alia fall." "Ack, Henrik, det ar jag inte heller. "- 
 "Ja, men nog ar du vackrast i denna slailen. Det kan 
 du da 1 inte neka." Nej, det kuncle hon inte. Ty 2 greve 
 Henrik ar inte vacker, ban. Han ar lika ful som dum. 
 D. i. They used to relate many stories about her. 
 2. They thought that their own parish was the most 
 beautiful in all Sweden. 3. I have promised to tell a 
 story to the children. 4. When it had rained a whole 
 week, I became tired of it. 5. The children had been 
 amusing themselves at the river all day. 6. I saw both 
 him and her yesterday. 7. He had built his house him- 
 self. 8. He has promised me the book many times. Do 
 you think that he is going to keep his promise? 9. The 
 sea is dark blue. 10. It looks as if it is never going to 
 rain again, n. If he hasn't gone to sleep, I want to 
 talk to him. 12. I asked my friend if he did not want 
 to meet them once more. 13. If he has not answered, I 
 shall write another 3 letter. 
 
 1 When unstressed, this word must be variously translated, according to 
 the context. Here it means surdy. at least. 
 
 2 In the spoken laguage "fur" is used in place of "ty". 
 
 3 Cf. page 126, foot-note 3.
 
 128 SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION XV 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 192. SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION. With very few ex- 
 ceptions, all verbs belonging to this conjugation have a soft 
 vowel in the stem. 1 The past tense is formed by adding 
 -de to the stem (see p. 117, foot-note), and the past parti- 
 ciple (common-gender form), by adding -d. But after voice- 
 less 2 consonants (k, p, t, s) the d of these endings becomes 
 voiceless by assimilation 3 , past tense -te, past part. -/. Com- 
 pare in Eng.: call, called; fear, feared; but laugh (pron. 
 laf), laughed (pron. laft); bake, baked (pron. bakt). Ac- 
 cordingly, this conjugation is divided into two classes: 4 
 
 a) Verbs whose stems end in a voiced 2 consonant; 
 these have -de, -d; as, bygga build, byggde, byggd (n. 
 byggf); Jidra hear, horde, hord (n. horf). 
 
 b) Verbs whose stems end in a voiceless 2 consonant; 
 these have -te, -t; as, kopa buy, kopte, kbpt (n. kbpf)\ leka 
 play, lekte, lekt (n. lekf); resa travel, reste, rest (n. rest); 
 vaxa grow, vaxte, vaxt (n. vdxt}. So also a few 5 verbs 
 with stems ending in n; as, begyn'na begin, past begyn'te. 
 
 1 Most verbs belonging to this conjugation are derived from other 
 words, many of which belong to other parts of speech. Of these the stem- 
 vowel is regularly modified, unless already a soft vowel; as, viilja choose, 
 elect, from -ual choice, election; krona crown, from krona crown; viirma make 
 warm, from varm warm; vlita make wet, from vat wet; hysa. to house, from 
 hus house; br'dnna burn (trans.), from brann, past tense of brinna burn (in- 
 trans.); s'litta set, from satt, past tense of sitta sit. By no means all Swed- 
 ish verbs with a soft root-vowel belong to the Second Weak Conjugation. 
 Especially noteworthy as exceptions are the verbs of the Strong Conjuga- 
 tion with i or y as the stem-vowel (see 201). 
 
 2 Concerning the meaning of this term see Phonology 37. 
 
 3 Concerning assimilation see Phonology 38 and note (end). 
 
 4, Except for the past indicative and the past participle, the inflectional 
 forms are alike in both classes. 
 
 5 There are, altogether, five of these verbs, the others being bryna whet 
 krona crown, r'dna experience, and synas seem, appear (concerning the -s of 
 synas see 221). A few verbs with stems ending in / sometimes have -te: as, 
 tala endure, talde or talte.
 
 XV SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION 129 
 
 Note. Verbs whose stems end in d l or t preceded by a conso- 
 nant do not add another d or /; as, scinda send, sande, sand (n. 
 sant); gifta marry, gifte, gift (n. gift}. But verbs with stems 
 ending in d or t preceded by a vowel have the regular endings; as, 
 leda lead, ledde, ledd (n. left); mota meet, motte, mott (n. mott}. 
 
 193. Examples of the indicative active of the Second 
 Weak Conjugation are: bygga build, kdpa buy. 
 PRESENT PAST PRESENT PAST 
 jag, etc., bygger byggde kbper kbpte 
 m bygga byggde hop a kdpte 
 I by g gen byggden kdpen kbpten 
 de bygga byggde kdpa kbpte 
 FUTURE: kommer (komma, kommen, komma} att bygga, kdpa 
 PRESENT PERFECT: har (liava, haven, hava 2 } byggt, kbpt 
 PAST PERFECT: hade (hade, haden, hade} byggt, kbpt 
 FUTURE PERFECT: kommer (komma, kommen, komma'} att 
 
 ha(va) byggt, kbpt 
 
 INFINITIVES: bygga, ha(va~} byggt; kbpa, ha(va'} kbpt 
 SUPINE: byggt, kbpt 
 
 Note. Verbs whose stems end in r preceded by a long vowel 
 have no ending in the singular of the present indicative; as, hora 
 hear, pres. sing, hor, not horer; gora do, gor; lara teach, learn, 
 lar. So also three verbs whose stems end in /.- tdla endure, 
 tolerate, tdl; mala grind, mal; gala crow, gal. The plural is 
 regular, hora, gora, lara, tdla, mala, gala. 
 
 194. IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND WEAK CON- 
 JUGATION, (i) A few verbs add to the stem in the 
 infinitive and in the pres. ind. a j which does not reap- 
 pear in the other tenses: 3 
 
 1 In every case preceded by n. 
 
 2 Also the shorter forms may be used. 
 
 3 But some verbs -with j in the pres. inf. retain this throughout; as, skonja. 
 discern, past skonjde: f'dlja follow, past foljde: holja cover, past holjiie. 
 Others may retain or lose it; as, sv'dlja swallow, sv'dljde, sometimes svalde: 
 tlimja tame, tamde. tdmde or t'dmjde.
 
 130 SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION XV 
 
 INFINITIVE PRESENT PAST* SUPINE 
 
 skilja separate skiljer, skilja skilde skill 
 
 stbdja support stdd(J)er 2 , stbdja stbdde stbtt 
 
 In most verbs of this kind there is in the infinitive 
 and present indicative a modified vowel that does not re- 
 appear in the other tenses, the corresponding hard vowel 
 being used instead. The most important of these are: 
 gliidja gladden gldder 1 , glad/a gladde glatt 
 
 smbrja grease, oil smbrjer, smbrja smorde smort 
 spbrja ask, hear sporjer, spbrja sporde sport 
 
 sdlja sell sd/j'er, sdlja sdlde salt 
 
 vdlja choose vdljer, vdlja valde valt 
 
 vdnja accustom vdnjer, vdnja vande rant 
 
 (2) Also a few verbs 3 without this j have in the infini- 
 tive and present indicative a modified vowel that does 
 not reappear in the other tenges: 
 
 gbra do, make gbr, gbra gjorde* gjort* 
 
 sdtta set, put sdtter, sdtta satte satt 
 
 Two verbs, in addition to changing the vowel, drop a 
 consonant in forming the past tense; this consonant 
 reappears in the past participle (pronounced g} and in 
 the supine (pronounced /). 
 
 lagga lay, put Idgger, Idgga lade* lagt 
 
 saga say sdger, saga sade* sagt 
 
 1 The past participle of each verb can be found by dropping the final e of 
 the past tense. 
 
 2 Observe that gl'dder omits the j in the singular; some verbs, as stSJjer, 
 are pronounced and written with or without j. 
 
 3 The auxiliaries tSr (see 258) and bora (see 259) are omitted here. 
 Toras dare, with past tense tordes. supine torts, is omitted here because its 
 ending has not yet been discussed (see 221). 
 
 4 Note the orthographic change from e to g j : cf. 14, 15. 
 
 5 In lligga. sliga and hava (see 19-t. ."). th._> past part, can not be formed 
 by dropping the e of the past tense, their past participles being lagd. sagd. 
 havd. Some verbs do not have the past participle.
 
 XV SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS 131 
 
 One verb with z in the inf. and pres. ind. substitutes 
 a for this in the other forms, also changing the fol- 
 lowing consonant-sound ( to k) : 
 
 INFINITIVE PRESENT PAST SUPINE 
 
 bringa bring bringar 1 , bringa bragte bragt 
 
 (3) A few verbs are irregular only in the supine; as, 
 Ici'a live, exist lever, leva levde levat 
 he fa be called heter, heta hette hetat 
 
 (4) A few verbs may follow: #) either the Second or the 
 First Weak Conjugation; as, bringa^; see also 191, 3; 
 b) either the Second Weak Conjugation or the Strong 
 Conjugation; as, gala (see page 139, foot-note i); see also 
 203, 4. 
 
 (5) Most of the auxiliaries 2 , though more or less irreg- 
 ular, have forms resembling those of the Second Weak 
 Conjugation; as, 
 
 kunna can, be able kan, kunna kztnde kunnat* 
 
 ha(va}* have har, ha(va} hade haft 
 
 vilja want to, will vill, vi/ja ville velat* 
 
 Also veto* know, is very irregular: 
 
 veta veP, veta visste vetat* 
 
 THIRD WEAK CONJUGATION. 
 
 195. The Third Weak Conjugation contains verbs 
 whose infinitives ( = the stem) end in a stressed 5 vowel. 
 
 1 Observe the pres. sing, bringar. following the First Weak Conjugation; 
 also tbe other forms may follow this: see 194-, 4. 
 
 2 Only the auxiliaries already familiar to the student in the past tense 
 are given here. When the others occur (Lesson XXL), reference to this par- 
 agraph will be made. See also page 130, foot-note 3. Veta. though not an 
 auxiliary, is put here on account of the absence of the r in the present singu- 
 lar like that in kan. vill: cf. 136, 2, note 2. 
 
 3 Supines according to the First Weak Conjugation as in (3) above. 
 
 4, This verb can properly be considered as belonging to this conjugation 
 only when hade is pronounced with a long vowel; see 195, note 1. 
 5 Stressed final vowels are long.
 
 132 THIRD WEAK CONJUGATION XV 
 
 These verbs, which are not numerous, are monosyllabic, 
 unless compounded. Examples of the active indicative 
 of this conjugation are: tro believe, sy sew. 
 PRESENT PAST PRESENT PAST 
 
 jag, etc., tror trodde syr sydde 
 
 vi tro trodde sy sydde 
 
 I tron trodden syn syddcn 
 
 de tro trodde sy sydde 
 
 FUTURE: komrner (komma, kommen, komma) atttro,-sy 
 PRESENT PERFECT: har (Jiava, haven, hava) trott, sytt 
 PAST PERFECT: hade (hade, haden, hade) trott, sytt 
 FUTURE PERFECT: kommcr (komma, kommen, komimt) 
 
 att ha(va~) trott, sytt 
 
 INFINITIVES: tro, ha(va) trott; sy, ha(va~) sytt 
 SUPINE: trott, sytt 
 
 Note. i. When the a of hade is pronounced short, which is usu- 
 ally the case, the verb ha(va) have, belongs formally to the Third 
 rather than the Second Weak Conjugation, the single d being only 
 an orthographic irregular! ty. This verb is irregular, however, in 
 having hava besides ha; moreover, its supine and past participle 
 follow the Second Weak Conjugation 1 . 
 
 2. Not all verbs whose infinitives end in a stressed vowel belong 
 to the Third Weak Conjugation, the others being irregular verbs 
 belonging to the Strong Conjugation; see the next lesson, 203, i; 
 cf. 203, 2. 
 
 196. ORTHOGRAPHY: (i) Observe that verbs whose 
 stems end in mm or nn drop one of the double consonants 
 when followed by the endings -de, -d or -/. glow in a, 
 glbmde, glbmd, glbmt; kanna, kande, kdnd, kant; begyn'na, 
 begyn'te, begyn't; see Phonology 18. 
 
 1 There are no other irregularities in the Third Weak Conjugation, except 
 that tva wash, may follow the Strong Conjugation in the past participle 
 and supine, in this case also changing the stem, tvagen or tvadd, t-'agit or 
 tvatt.
 
 XV SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS 133 
 
 (2) Observe that while the supines sagt, lagt and bragt 
 are written with the character of a voiced 1 consonant, 
 which is pronounced voiceless 1 , haft, from hava, is both 
 pronounced arid written with a voiceless consonant. 
 
 197. PRONUNCIATION: (i) skilja ( 14); gjorde, gjort 
 ( J 5); hjalpa ( 16); sagt, lagt, bragte, bragt, hastigt ( 18, 
 and Phonology 38 and note); tradgard ( 16 c). Ob- 
 serve the changes in the pronunciation of g in saga, sagd, 
 sagt. In stbdja, stbdde, mbta, mbtte the quality as well 
 as the quantity of b changes; similarly in the case of a in 
 hava, hade (when short), haft. 
 
 (2) The addition of the endings -de, -te, -d, -t to a con- 
 sonant preceded by a long vowel does not cause this 
 vowel to be shortened, except 2 when the resulting con- 
 sonant-combination is dd or /// as, Icda, ledde, ledd, lett; 
 gladja, gladde, gladd, glatt; stbdja, stbdde, stbdd, stbtt; mbta, 
 mbtte, mbtt; hcta, hctte. Cf. 6, note 2. On the con- 
 trary, a few verbs have a long vowel in the past tense, 
 past part, and supine, though that of the present is short: 
 smbrja, smorde, smord, smart; spbrja, sporde, spord, sport; 
 valja, lalde, vald, valt; vanja, vandc, vand, "cant. So also 
 in lade, sade, the past tense of lagga and saga, and in 
 -eclat, the irregular supine of vilja. In the Third Weak 
 Conjugation the addition of endings containing dd or tt 
 causes the stem-vowel to be shortened; as, sy, sydde, 
 svdd, svff; tro, trodde, trodd, trott. 
 
 198. ACCENT, (a) begyn'na, Tyskland, tradgard (usu- 
 ally). (b) stbvel, Ater. Sadel (acute or grave accent). 
 
 199- COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken language, 
 gladja and stbdja are usually pronounced without the j, 
 glada, stbda. Frequently, on the contrary, verbs with j 
 
 1 For the meaning of "voiced" and "voiceless" see Phonology 37. 
 
 2 Note also the quantity-variations in the forms of hava. a.ndveta.
 
 134 SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS 
 
 in the present have it also in the other forms; as, valjde, 
 valjt; smorjde, smorjt. 
 
 (2) In the spoken language, sa and la are generally 
 used in place of sade, lade. 
 
 (3) Vilja is frequently pronounced villa, and velat 
 sometimes mllat. 
 
 (4) In easy speech, kdpte and kbpt may be pronounced 
 with a short vowel. 
 
 (5) The verb begyn'na is not of frequent occurrence, be- 
 ing used chiefly in the elevated style; elsewhere borja (i) is 
 used. Bringa belongs primarily to the written language. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. Verbs belonging to the Second Weak Conjugation and 
 having -de in the past tense will be designated by (Ha), those 
 having -te, by (lib). 
 
 The following verbs belonging to the Second Weak Conjugation 
 have occurred in previous vocabularies: (Ha) bygga, saga, kunna, 
 (hava); (II b) forso'ka, kopa, leka, lasa, resa, tycka, vaxa. In 
 addition, note vilja, skola (see 252). The following verbs of the 
 Third Weak Conjugation have occurred previously: bo, tro, (hava). 
 
 begyn'na ( 1 1 b) begin glad j a ( 1 1 a) please, give plcas- 
 bringa (nb or i) bring ure (to), cheer; det glader 
 
 bat (2) boat m ig / a in glad; gladja sig 2 
 
 bara (STR., bar, plur. (at) rejoice (at, in} 
 
 buro) carry, bear, wear glbmma (na) forget 
 
 gala (na 1 ) crow gora (na) do, make 
 
 gifta (nb) marry; gifta hastigt rapidly, quickly 
 
 sig 2 (med) be married heta (nb) be called, be (one's) 
 
 (to), marry name 
 
 1 Or STR.; see page 139, foot-note 1. 
 
 2 The reflexive pronoun here and in the similar cases below varies accord- 
 ing as the subject is first, second or third person; as, jag gifter mig, du gifter 
 dig, nan, hon gifter sig, vi gifta oss, de gifta sig.
 
 XV SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS 135 
 
 hjalpa (nb) help 
 
 liora (na) hear 
 
 kalla (1) spring 
 
 kanna (na) know, feel 
 
 leda (na) lead, guide 
 
 leva (na) live (= exist) 
 
 lagga (na) lav, put; 
 lagga sig 1 lie down, go 
 to bed 
 
 lara (na) teach, learn 1 ; 
 lara sig learn 
 
 mala (i ia :j ) grind 
 
 medan while 
 
 raota (lib) meet, encounter 
 
 ro (in) row 
 
 sexton sixteen 
 
 skilja (na) separate, dis- 
 tinguish 
 
 smorja (na) grease, oil 
 
 spinna (STR., spann, plur. 
 spunno) spin 
 
 sporja (na) ask, learn, hear 
 
 stodja (na) support, lean 
 
 sy (in) sew 
 
 salja (na) sell 
 
 sanda (na) send 
 
 satta (nb) seat, set, place, 
 put; satta sig sit down 
 
 tradgard (2) orchard, gar- 
 den 
 
 tvatta (i) wash 
 
 tala ( i la) endure, tolerate, bear 
 
 ull wool 
 
 veta (na, visste) know 
 
 valja (na) choose, elect 
 
 vanja (na) accustom 
 
 EXERCISE XV. 
 
 A. i. Den gatnla gumman 4 salde ull och kopte sedan 
 brod at sina snia barn. 2. Jag visste, att de voro fattiga 
 och forsokte darfor att hjalpa dem litet 5 . 3. Nar han 
 lart engelska, reste han till Tyskland 6 for att lara sig 
 tyska. 4. Jag vet icke, orn jag kan vanja tnig vid dessa 
 forhallanden. 5. Den gamle lararen hor inte, vad du 
 sager. Kan du inte tala litet hogre? 6. Vad har ni gjort 
 i skolan i dag? 7. Nar bariien lagt sig,' satte modern sig 
 pa en stol och laste i en bok. 8. Jag har vetat det lange. 
 9. De sina ha lekt i tradgarden hela dagen. 10. Jag har 
 sport, att han gift sig med en rik anka. n. Det lilla bar- 
 
 1 See page 134, foot-note 2. 
 
 2 Lt-arn = "lara" or "lara sig". 
 
 3 Also STR. in the supine and 
 past participle. 
 
 4 Woman. 
 
 5 A littU. 
 
 6 German)
 
 136 SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS XV 
 
 net ledde den blinde, nar ban var ute i staden. 12. Det 
 glader mig att hora, att du hade ratt. 13. Nar han rott 
 baten ett par timmar, trottnade han. 14. Vad heter du? 
 Jag heter Lina. 15. Han hade val glomt, att de valt 
 honom till ordforande. 16. Gossen har redan tvattat sig 
 om handerna 1 . 17. Berggren tal icke att se sina ovan- 
 ner. 18. Det glader mig att hora, att du ar frisk igen. 
 
 B. Up on the mountain where the house was situated 
 [there] was a spring, which rapidly grew into' 2 a brook. 
 At this brook the mother washed the wool which she had 
 spun 3 , while the children played in the water or made 
 small boats which they put down into the brook. 
 
 When the children became larger, they began to help 
 their mother with her work. Fridolf carried water from 
 the spring and worked in the orchard. Violanta learned 
 to 4 sew and spin. During the winter she sat in the house 
 and spun, but when spring 5 came, her mother sent her 
 with the wool to the brook, to 6 wash it. She was now 
 sixteen years old and was a tall and beautiful girl. 
 
 C. Han" hade varit 8 i Munkeryd pa besok 9 hos lag- 
 mannens for nagra ar sedan. Ridande 10 hade han kommit 8 
 burit hog hatt, gula byxor och blanka stovlar 11 och suttit 8 
 styv och stolt i sadeln. Vid ankomsten gick allt val. 
 Men da han skulle rida bort igen, hande sig 12 , att en av 
 de nedhangande kvistarna i bjorkallen slog av honom 
 hatten 13 . Han steg av, satte pa sig hatten och red ater 
 fram under sarnma kvist. Ater blev hatten avslagen 14 . 
 
 1 Washed his hands. 9 Beso'k. 
 
 2 Till. 10 Present participle. 
 
 3 Supine, "spunnit". 11 The vowel of "stovel" is usual- 
 
 4 "Att" may be used, but need not. ly short. 
 
 5 Use the def. form; cf. 125, end. 12 It hatf'ncd. 
 
 6 "For att". 13 Knocked o.fT his hat. 
 
 7 The Count of Exercise XIV C. 14 Past participle; see the vocabu- 
 
 8 For ending of supine in strong lary. 
 verbs see 181; cf. 201, note 1.
 
 XV SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS 137 
 
 Det upprepades 1 fyra ganger. Lagmannen gick till sist 
 fram till honom och sade: "Om bror skulle rida 2 pa 
 sidan om kvisten nasta gang?" Femte gangen kom han 
 lyckligen forbi 8 kvisten. 
 
 D. i. They were visiting friends in Stockholm. 2. I 
 know who he is, but I do not know him. 3. His 
 brother was married a few years ago. 4. One of the 
 branches struck him in the eye. 5. He put on his hat 
 and rode away once more. 6. Do you want me to 
 repeat 4 what I said yesterday? 7. When I met them the 
 first time, they were walking on this side of the street. 
 
 8. Did you go past an old house with a red roof? 
 
 9. When the peasant had sold the cow, he bought three 
 goats. 10. The good woman went into the poor man's 
 cottage and put ten crowns on his table, u. What was 
 your father's name? 12. They sat in the cottage spinning 6 
 all winter. 13. The branches of the birches are very 
 pretty in spring. 14. If you sit down on the chair over 
 there, I shall tell you 6 the story; 15. He said that he 
 had put the book on your table. 16. He did as well 
 as lie could. 17. I do not know whether he has lived 
 a happy life. 18. Have you learned your lessons yet? 
 19. It began to rain before I went to bed. 20. Do you 
 think that you can accustom yourselves to the conditions 
 in this country? 21. He hasn't much to be happy over. 
 22. Have you forgotten what you did? 
 
 1 V'.is repeated. 5 Do not use a participle in Swed- 
 
 2 Suttose you riJc. ish. 
 
 3 Forbi'. 6 For dig. This phrase is in Swed- 
 
 4 Translate as if: Do you -wish that ish placed after the word for story. 
 1 shall re feat . . .
 
 138 
 
 STRONG CONJUGATION 
 
 XVI 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 STRONG CONJUGATION. 1 
 
 200- Learn the principal parts of the following strong 
 verbs, arranged according to the vowel of the past sin- 
 gular: 2 
 
 PAST 
 
 bar, plur. buro 
 
 skar, plur. skuro 
 
 stal, plur. stulo 
 
 svalt, plur. svulto 
 
 gav, plur. g&vo 
 
 bad, plur. bado 
 
 var, plur. voro 
 
 tog 
 
 for 
 
 drag 
 
 svor, plur. svuro 
 
 kom* 
 
 sov 
 
 lag 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 \bara carry 
 \skara cut 
 [f7<z/a steal 
 svalta* starve 
 giva* give 
 bedja 5 ask, pray 
 vara 1 be 
 (taga* take 
 \fara go, travel 
 \drago? draw, pull 
 svar(j)a swear 
 fkomma 1 come 
 \sova 1 sleep 
 
 ligga lie 
 
 SUPINE 3 
 burit 
 skurit 
 stulit 
 svultit 
 givit 
 
 be ft (bcdit*) 
 varit 
 tagit 
 far it 
 dragit 
 svurit 
 kommit 
 sovit 
 legat* 
 
 1 Concerning the membership of the Strong Conjugation nothing further 
 can be said than that it contains, besides the individual verbs mentioned 
 in 200, a number of verbs having {, u or y as the root-vowel. Strong verbs 
 have been treated above, 81; 97; 98; 99; 180 B; 181. 
 
 2 The brackets embrace the verbs that form groups with identical 
 vowel-change throughout. See also page 139, foot-note 1. 
 
 3 The form of the past participle will in almost all cases be clear from 
 the supine. For a further discussion of the past participle see 240; 241. 
 
 4 Intransitive. Svalta. may also be conjugated according to the Second 
 Weak Conjugation, in which case it is either transitive or intransitive. 
 
 5 See 203, 2. 
 
 6 This form is used in the meaning "pray". 
 
 7 Note that in komma and sova. there is no vo wel-change. Of vara. the vowel 
 of the past sing. = that of the present; so in varda (page 139, foot-note 1). 
 
 8 Concerning the plur. kommo see Phonology 18. 
 
 9 Note the irregularity; see 203, 3.
 
 XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 139 
 
 INFINITIVE PAST SUPINE 
 
 ata eat at atit 
 
 \ldta let, sound lat latit 
 
 \grata weep grat gratit 
 
 falla fall foil fallit 
 
 halla hold Iwll hallit 
 
 201. All other 1 strong verbs follow one of four sys- 
 tems of vowel-change, arranged here according to the 
 vowel of the present: 
 
 (1) All strong verbs with long i as the root- vowel, 
 except gh'a, have i e z, as in 
 
 skriva write skrev skrivit 
 
 (2) All strong verbs with short i as the root-vowel, 
 except ligga, have i a, plur. u, u, as in 
 
 finna find fann, plur. funno funnit 
 
 (3) All strong verbs with u (long and short) as the 
 root-vowel have u b 21, as in 
 
 bjuda offer bjbd bjudit 
 
 sjunga sing sjbng sjungit 
 
 (4) 2 All strong verbs with y (long) as the root-vowel 
 have y b u, as in 
 flyga flog flugit 
 
 1 This does not take into account a few verbs that may be either weak 
 or strong (see 203, 4), and which -would belong under 200. Most such 
 verbs are of relatively infrequent occurrence and many of them are in ordi- 
 nary style used more in the weak than in the strong forms; in some instan- 
 ces, one or more of the strong forms of these verbs are archaic. These verbs 
 will offer no difficulty when met with, especially as most ofthem follow fiara 
 ortaga. having as the root-vowelu or<i. Ex.: befra'va (Ila or STR.) bury;^-/ 
 (Ila or STR. ) crow; sm'dlla. (Ha or STR.) make a report, bang; skillva (Ha or 
 STR.) tremble; smulta(\\\* or STR.) melt; Kta (lib or STR., past lott. luto, supine 
 lutit} run. Observe also the irregular verb varda (rart, rordo, past part, vor- 
 den) become, which, except in the elevated style, is used only in the past sin- 
 gular. Finally, the irregular verbs of 203, 1 are not here taken into account. 
 
 2 Class -t may be combined with 3, if desired; see 97.
 
 140 
 
 STRONG CONJUGATION 
 
 XVI 
 
 N o t e _ i. The vowel of the supine of all regular strong verbs 
 is the same as that of the infinitive, except that it is changed to 
 u in all verbs having in the infinitive i, y or a (except in gira 
 and ata}. Among irregular verbs, note ligga, legal; sld. slagit 
 ( 203, i end); see also 203, 3. 
 
 2. Observe that in some of the systems mentioned in 200, 201, 
 there are three different vowels, in most of the others, two, while 
 komma and sova have one and the same vowel throughout. 1 When 
 there are three different vowels: (a) The vowel of the past plur. 
 differs from that of the past sing., but is the same as that of 
 the supine. This is the case with verbs of the type of finna, and all 
 verbs having a as the root-vowel, except ata. All these have in the 
 past plur., and all but svarja have a in the past singular, (b) The 
 vowel of the past plur. differs from that of the past sing., but the 
 vowel of the supine is the same as that of the present, in bedja 
 and giva. (c) The vowel of the past plur. is the same as that of 
 the past sing., but the vowel of the supine differs both from that 
 of the past tense and that of the present. This is the case with verlrs 
 of the type olflyga, and in ligga ( with weak supine ) and sld (203, i ) . 
 
 When there are two different vowels, the vowel of the past 
 plur. is the same as that of the past sing., and that of the supine 
 is the same as that of the present, except in the case of raya. 
 
 202. Examples of the active indicative of the Strong 
 Conjugation are: skriva write, finna find. 
 
 PRESENT PAST PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 jag, etc., skriver skrev finncr 
 
 jann 
 
 i)i skriva skrevo finna 
 
 fnnno 
 
 I skriven skreven finnen 
 
 funnen 
 
 de skriva skrevo finna 
 
 fun no 
 
 FUTURE: kommer (komma, kommen, koinia 
 
 aft skriva, 
 
 finna 
 
 
 1 It will be well to bear in mind that all verbs that lu 
 
 ive ,1 i:i the pas 
 
 sing., have in the plural a. vowel different from that of the 
 
 
 no others, with the exception of srurj'a (szv>; jv;.. - 
 
 
 vowel is in all instances u, except in the case of^W. 
 
 :r xot 
 
 with i, y or a (except Ufa) as the root-vowel in the present, and (b) the verbs 
 bedja andj/i (203, 1).
 
 XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 141 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT: har (hava, haven , hava) skrivit , funnit 
 PAST PERFECT: hade (hade, haden, hade) skrivit, funnit 
 FUTURE PERFECT: komincr (komma, koinmcn, kornma) aft 
 
 ha(va} skrivit, funnit 
 
 INFINITIVES: skxiva, ha(va) skrivit; finna, ha(va) funnit 
 SUPINE: skrivit, funnit 
 
 Note. Verbs whose steins end in r add no ending in the 
 singular of the present indicative; these are bdra, fara, skara and 
 svara (for svarja). So also in the case of stjala. Cf. 193, note. 
 
 203. IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE STRONG CONJUGA- 
 TION, (i) Six strong verbs, with infinitives ending in a 
 stressed vowel, have in the present indicative the same 
 endings as the verbs of the Third Weak Conjugation. 
 On account of their similarity to this conjugation in the 
 present, they also add -// in the supine, but the past 
 tense remains strong. These are: 
 
 INFINITIVE PRESENT PAST SUPINE 
 
 stA stand star, std, stdn, sta stod statt 
 
 do die dor, do, don, do dog dott 
 
 le smile ler, le, ten, le log left 
 
 se see scr, sc, sen, se sag sett 
 
 fa get fur, fa } fan, fa fick, fmgo 1 fait 
 
 ga go gar, ga,gan,ga gick,gingi l gatt 
 
 The verb sla strike, hit, is similar to these in the inf. 
 and pres. ind., but has a strong supine, slagit: sla; star, 
 si a, sldti, sla; slog; slagit. 
 
 (2) Five of the verbs included under 200, 201, have a 
 shortened form in the inf. in addition to the full form: 
 bedja, be; giva, gc; bliva 1 , bli; tag a, ta; drag a, dra. Ending 
 in a stressed vowel, these, too, naturally add in the pies, 
 ind. the same endings as the verbs of the Third Weak 
 
 1 Observe the consonant-change in the plural. 
 
 2 Ct". j 138; 2<)1, 1.
 
 142 STRONG CONJUGATION XVI 
 
 Conjugation. On account of their similarity in the pres. 
 to the irregular verbs just mentioned, and to the verbs 
 of the Third Weak Conjugation, these also have formed 
 supines in -it, which, however, except in the case of bett 
 and gett, are considered dialectical. See further, 207, i. 
 INFINITIVE PRESENT PAST SUPINE 
 
 bed/a (be} bcder l (ber}, etc. bad, bado bett (bedit-) 
 giva (ge~) giver (ger~) , etc. gav, gavo givit (gett} 
 bliva (bit) bliver(blir},e\.c. blev blrcit 
 
 taga (to) tager (tar) , etc. tog tagit 
 
 draga (drd) drager(jdrar) y etc. drog dragit 
 
 (3) In a few verbs the supine is irregular; as, nysit 
 or nusit (but usually nyst; see 203, 4) from nvsa 
 sneeze; suttit or setat, from sitta sit; tigit or tegat, from tiga 
 be silent; legal, from ligga lie. In a few cases, verbs 
 belonging to other conjugations have a strong supine; as, 
 krympt (tr. or iutr.) or krumpit (intr.) from krympa shrink; 
 tvagit or tvatt, from tva wash (see p. 132, foot-note). 
 
 (4) A number of verbs may follow: a) either the Strong 
 Conjugation or the First Weak Conjugation; as, simma 
 swim, past sam or simmade*; tvinga compel, past tvang 
 or tvingade*; b~) either the Strong or the Second Weak 
 Conjugation; as, nysa sneeze, past nos or nyste; sviilta 
 starve, past svalt or svalte (see page 138, foot-note 4); vdxa 
 grow, which frequently has strong forms in the past 
 plur. and supine, vuxo, -vuxit; particularly common is 
 the past participle vuxen. For further illustrations see 
 page 139, foot-note i. In a few cases, a difference in 
 meaning accompanies the difference in conjugation; as, 
 sluta, past slot closed, past slutade stopped. 
 
 1 Note the dropping of the /. the form bedter is rare. 
 
 2 See page 138, foot-note 6. 
 
 3 Pres. ind. sing, simmar or simmer. 
 4, Pres. ind. sing, always trtnear.
 
 XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 143 
 
 204. ORTHOGRAPHY: komma, kom, kommo, kcinmit; 
 simma, sain, summo, summit (Phonology 18). 
 
 205- PRONUNCIATION : (a) skdra, skdlva, skynda ( 14); 
 stjala ( 19, 6 b); ihja'l (compound, 16); kna ( 17). 
 (b) Euro'pa (Phonology 35). Observe the changing 
 initial consonant-sound in giva, gav; skdra, skar; skdlva 1 , 
 skalv; stjala, stal; ga, gick. In most strong verbs the 
 quantity of the vowel is the same throughout the entire 
 system, but there is change of quantity in 2 ligga-> Idg; 
 svdrja, svor; lbpa v , lopp; fa, fick; ga, gick; varda 1 (vowel 
 long; sometimes short, with changed quality), vart (vowel 
 short, with changed quality). 
 
 206- ACCENT. The following words have the acute 
 accent: (a) forsvin'na, begra'va, nedfor (see page 145, foot- 
 note 2). Brattom and kbrsbar may have either the acute or 
 the grave accent. (b) Strdnder(iia') has the acute accent; 
 numera may have either the acute or the grave accent. 
 
 207- COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the case of the verbs 
 mentioned in 203, 2, the shorter forms occur primarily 
 in the spoken language; but particularly be, ber, ge, ger 
 and bli, blir are also frequently used in the written lan- 
 guage, except in the more elevated style. The supine 
 belt is used in all kinds of style, while gett belongs pri- 
 marily to the spoken language; the corresponding supines 
 of bli, ta and dra are dialectical. 
 
 (2) In the past tense of a number of strong verbs the 
 final consonant, when preceded by a long vowel, may be 
 omitted in easy speech: ga(v), va(r), dro(g~), slo(g~), 
 la(g}, sd(g}, sto(d) 3 , etc. 
 
 (3) In the greater part of Southern Sweden the supine 
 in -it is pronounced like the neuter of the past part., -r//in 
 
 1 See page 139, foot-note 1. 
 
 2 In addition, in the wenk supines of the verbs of 203, 1 and 2. 
 
 3 In place of stod the form stag is used in a l;ir,u;e part of Sweden.
 
 144 STRONG CONJUGATION XVI 
 
 the rest of Sweden it is usually pronounced as spelled, 
 though in Stockholm and a number of other places it loses 
 the final -t l in easy speech; as, vari for varit. Similarly, 
 the final t of the past part, is omitted in some parts of the 
 country (including Stockholm); as, give(f); cf. 157, 3. 
 
 (4) In the spoken language, n&gonsin is usually short- 
 ened to nansin. Cf. nan for nagon in Lesson XXIV. 
 
 (5) Of verbs that may be either strong or weak, the 
 spoken language in most cases prefers the weak forms. 
 
 (6) In verbs of the type of flyga, easy speech fre- 
 quently has the same vowel in the supine as in the infin- 
 itive: flyga, flog, flygit. 
 
 (7) Tva is used only in the elevated style, tvatta being 
 the word otherwise employed. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Note. The following verbs belonging to the Strong Conjuga- 
 tion have occurred in previous vocabularies: bjuda, bliva, bara, 
 dricka, do, falla, finna, flyga, fa, giva, ga, halla, komma, lida, 
 ligga, rida, se, sitta, sjunga, skriva, spinna, sova, taga, vara. 
 all (. allt, plur. alia) all boja (na) bend; boja sig* 
 bakom 2 behind bend, stoop 
 
 bedja (STR.) ask*, request, draga (STR.) draw, pull 
 
 pray; om ask for fall n. (5) fall, waterfall 
 
 blommande blooming fara (^^ go, journey , travel 
 
 blasa (nb) blow flyta (STR.) float, flow 
 
 brusa (i) roar, rush tram, forth, along 
 
 brattom in a hurry; ha forsvin'na (STR.) disappear 
 
 brattom be in a hurry, grata (STR. ) weep 
 
 be busy han from here, away 
 
 1 Cf. 191, 4. 
 
 2 "Ba'koni" or "bakom"'. 
 
 3 Never used in the meaning "ask a question". 
 
 4 Bend as translation for "boja" is transitive, while it is intransitive 
 when it translates "boja sig".
 
 XVI 
 
 STRONG CONJUGATION 
 
 145 
 
 ihja'l to death 
 
 kna n. (4) knee 
 
 kvar 1 left, behind, remain- 
 ing 
 
 korsbar n. (5) cherry 
 
 korsbarsblomma (1) cher- 
 ry-blossom 
 
 korsbarstrad n. (5) cher- 
 ry-tree 
 
 le (iRREG. STR.) smile 
 
 lata (STR.) let, sound; 
 lata bli leave off, let 
 alone, cease 
 
 mot against, towards 
 
 nedfor 2 down 
 
 nysa (STR. or 1 1 b) sneeze 
 
 nagonsin ever 
 
 simma i^'STR.) swim 
 
 skynda (i) hurry; skynda sig 
 
 hurry 
 
 skara (STR.) cut 
 sluta (i) finish, end, stop; 
 
 (STR.) shut, close 
 sla (IRREG. STR.) strike, hit 
 stjala (STR.) steal 
 sta (IRREG. STR.) stand; sta 
 
 till 3 be, do 
 
 svalta (STR. or 1 1 b) starve 
 svar(j)a (STR.) swear 
 tiga (STR.) be silent 
 tvinga (i 0rSTR.) compel 
 tva (ni) wash 
 vidare/urt/ier, more, on 
 vild wild 
 vind (2) wind 
 
 ata (STR.) eat 
 EXERCISE XVI. 
 
 A. i. Manga av soldaterna svulto ihja'l under 4 vintern. 
 2. Oin du icke liar brattom, sa skall jag be dig sitta kvar 
 litet langre. 3. Nar det slutat regna, skola vi ga ut och 
 ga. 4. Jag vet, att ban gjort det, men- jag ar icke ond 
 pa honoin. 5. Da lion kommit ned till backen, lade hon 
 sig pa kna och tvattade ullen. 6. Det sag ut, som om 
 hon hade mycket brattom. 7. Nar hon slutat, skynda- 
 de hon sig nedfor berget for att traffa brodern. 8. Se- 
 dan gingo de till en liten tradgard, som deras moder hade 
 kopt, och plockade korsbar. 9. Om varen hade de tyckt, 
 att korsbarsblommorna voro det vackraste, de nagonsin 
 
 1 Used as in: sitta kvar remain sitting, sta kvar remain standing, etc. 
 
 2 "Ne'clfor" or (infrequently) "nedfo'r". 
 
 3 fsedasin: Hur star det till (tneddig)? How are you? Hmv do you do? 
 4, During.
 
 146 STRONG CONJUGATION XVI 
 
 sett, och nu tyckte de, att korsbaren voro de biista, de na- 
 gonsin atit. 10. Vi bado honom lata bli alt gb'ra det. 
 ii. Hur star det till hemma? 12. Vi tego. 13. Om det 
 icke blaser for mycket i morgon, sa skola vi fara tit pa 
 landet. 
 
 B. When it had become spring, she went to the brook 
 one day with her wool. She was lying on [her] knees, 
 bending 1 over the water which rushed down toward the 
 falls. It seemed as if all the waves were in a hurry to 
 get 2 down the mountain and out toward the meadows 
 and fields. 
 
 Violanta lay still for a long time 3 looking 4 at the water, 
 and then 5 she asked the brook: "Whither are you hur- 
 rying away 6 ?" Then the brook answered: "To the wild 
 waves of the sea". To the wild waves of the sea," and 
 rushed on. 
 
 Behind Violanta [there] stood a blooming cherry-tree. 
 When the wind blew, many of the white blossoms fell 
 down into the brook and floated away 8 . "Whither are 
 you floating away. Whither are you floating away, you 
 pretty, white flowers?" asked Violanta, when she saw 
 the flowers floating 9 along on the water. "To the wild 
 waves of the sea. To the wild waves of the sea", an- 
 swered the cherry-blossoms and disappeared. 
 
 C. Da talade gumman om, att det en gang skulle ha 
 legat ett slott norr om Stora Djulo pa en backe, dar det 
 
 1 Bojd. 6 Han. 
 
 2 Att komma. 7 Use the genitive, not a. preposi- 
 
 3 Translate for a long time with tional phrase, 
 one word. 8 Bort. 
 
 4 Do not render with a participle. 9 Translate with the infinitive. 
 
 5 Sa.
 
 V. IRVING 
 
 XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 147 
 
 numera inte fanns annat an l skog, och framfor det 2 slot- 
 tet skulle ha legat en skon lustgard. Sa. hade det en 
 gang hiint, att en, som kallades herr Karl, och som pa 
 den 2 tiden styrde hela Sormland, hade kommit resande 3 
 till slottet. Och sedan han hade spisat och druckit, 
 hade han gatt ut i lustgarden, statt dar bade lange och 
 val 4 och sett ut over Stora Djulo sjo och de vackra 
 stranderna. Men bast han stod dar 5 och gladde sig at 
 det, som han sag, och tankte for sig sjalv, att det inte 
 fanns vackrare land an Sormland, sa hade han hort 
 nagon sucka helt djupt alldeles bakom honom. 
 
 D. i. The book has been lying on the table all the 
 time. 2. Have you ever seen the royal palace in Stock- 
 holm? 3. If you have been in Stockholm, you have 
 seen the most beautiful capital in Europe 6 . 4. What has 
 happened over there? 5. At that time there was nothing 
 but woods here. 6. The naughty boys stole cherries 
 from the old man's orchard. 7. He bent the branch un- 
 til it broke. 8. I have caught a cold. I have been 
 sneezing all day. 9. How are you to-day, uncle? 10. He 
 smiled when I told him that I had wept. n. I asked 
 him to hurry. 12. We took our knives and cut off all 
 the small branches. 13. Formerly the water flowed much 
 more slowly than now. 14. They disappeared among the 
 trees. 15. When he had been standing a long time ad- 
 miring the shores of this lake, he said that he had nev- 
 er seen anything more beautiful. 16. I sighed when I 
 heard that he had died. 17. The little boy asked for 
 an apple. 
 
 1 Inte annat an nothing but. 4 Bade lange och va\/ r a lone time 
 
 '2 Den. det that, demonstrative 5 Bast han stod dar just as he was 
 
 pronoun; note that the following standing there. 
 
 noun is in the definite form. 6 Euro'pa. 
 3 Present participle of "resa".
 
 148 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 208- The subjunctive ends in -e in all persons, both 
 singular and plural; to this the second person plural 
 adds the usual -, and ends in -en 1 . In all conjugations 
 the present and past subjunctive can be found by sub- 
 stituting -e for the plural ending of the corresponding 
 tense of the indicative. 2 Weak verbs have no special 
 form for the past subjunctive, but employ the past in- 
 dicative, which in such verbs already has the ^-ending 
 characteristic of the subjunctive. 
 
 The auxiliaries md 3 , matte* may, and skidle^ should, 
 would, with the infinitive may be substituted for the 
 subjunctive in most of its uses. 
 
 The subjunctive ending in e may conveniently be 
 called the e-subjunctive , and that formed by means of 
 auxiliaries the aitxiliary-subjunctive. 
 
 Note. i. Verbs whose infinitives end in a stressed vowel 
 (Third Weak Conjugation and the irregular strong verbs of 203, 
 I 5 ) do not form the present ^-subjunctive, but have only the auxil- 
 iary-subjunctive. 
 
 2. Strong verbs which in the plural of the past indicative have 
 a root-vowel differing from that of the past singular, employ the 
 root-vowel of the indicative plural both in the singular and plural 
 of the ^-subjunctive. 
 
 1 As has been seen, -en (or -) is the ending for the second person plural 
 in all moods and tenses. 
 
 2 Except in the case of vara, pres. ind. plural ara. subj. vare. The past 
 tense is regular, subj. vare. 
 
 3 Observe that ma. like the other auxiliaries (cf. 136, 2, note 2) does not 
 add -r in the singular. Matte is its past tense in form, but is not used to 
 express past time. 
 
 4 The form skulleis the past tense of skall: cf. 194, 5, and 252. 
 
 5 Cf. also the shorter forms in 203, 2.
 
 XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 149 
 
 209. The forms of the present 1 ^-subjunctive illustrated 
 by verbs of the various conjugations are: 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 STRONG IRREG. 
 
 jag, etc., alske 
 
 leve 
 
 o_ 
 
 blive 
 
 give 
 
 o_ 
 
 vi alske 
 
 leve 
 
 0* 
 
 blive 
 
 give 
 
 i* 
 
 I dlsken 
 
 leven 
 
 -t 
 
 3 
 
 bliven 
 
 given 
 
 
 de alske 
 
 leve 
 
 n 
 
 D* 
 
 blive 
 
 give 
 
 o> 
 pu 
 
 In place of the present ^-subjunctive, the present aux- 
 iliary-subjunctive, consisting of ma or matte with the 
 present infinitive, may be used: 
 
 jag, etc., ma (or matte) dlska, leva, fro, bliva, giva, sta 
 vi ma (matte} dlska, leva, fro, bliva, giva, sta 
 I man (matten*) dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 
 de ma (matte) dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 
 
 210- The forms of the past 2 <?-subjunctive are: 
 I. II. III. STRONG IRREG. STR. 
 
 bleve gave stode 
 
 ,. . bleve gave stode 
 
 Same as the past indicative. .. 
 
 bleven gaven stoden 
 
 bleve gave stode 
 
 In place of the past ^-subjunctive, the past auxiliary- 
 subjunctive, consisting of skulle* with the present in- 
 finitive, may be used: 
 
 jag, etc., skulle dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 
 vi skulle dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 
 I skullen dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 
 de skulle dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 
 
 1 The present subjunctive may also be called the optative, because It al- 
 most always expresses wish. Outside of the third person singular, theforms 
 given are very rarely used. 
 
 2 Those who call the present subjunctive "optative", call the past sub- 
 junctive simply "subjunctive". 
 
 3 Skulle both "should" and "would"; cf. $ 137, beginning.
 
 150 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 
 
 211. There is no present perfect ^-subjunctive, the 
 present perfect auxiliary-subjunctive, consisting of in& or 
 mtffc with the perfect infinitive, being used instead; as, 
 jag nid (or m&tte) ha(vd) alskat, etc. 
 
 212- For the past perfect ^-subjunctive the forms of 
 the past perfect indicative are used 1 ; in place of this, the 
 past perfect auxiliary-subjunctive, consisting of skullc 
 followed by the perfect infinitive, is very often employed; 
 as. J a S h**^ akkat or jag skulle ha(va~) alskat, etc. 
 
 USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 213. The use of the <?-subjunctive is rather limited, 
 the auxiliary-subjunctive 2 being employed in many cases 
 where German and Latin would have the subjunctive. 
 Even in most constructions where Swedish does employ 
 the ^-subjunctive, the auxiliary-subjunctive is used inter- 
 changeably with it. In the present tense the auxiliary- 
 subjunctive is more common than the ^-subjunctive; in 
 the past tense it occurs frequently in the case of some 
 constructions, while others require the ^-subjunctive and 
 do not allow the substitution. 
 
 The present and past subjunctive do not, except very 
 rarely, denote different kinds of time as do the cor- 
 responding tenses of the indicative. In the subjunctive, 
 both these tenses refer to present or future time. In 
 general, the present subjunctive is used of an action 
 that may take place, the past subjunctive of one that 
 cannot or is not likely to take place. The past perfect 
 subjunctive refers to past time, and is used of an act 
 that did not take place. 
 
 1 In subordinate clauses the supine alone may be used; cf. $ 182. 
 
 2 Other auxiliaries besides ma. matte and fkttUe are used to express ideas 
 that in German and Latin require the subjunctive. The auxiliaries ma 
 matte, skulle are used extensively also in constructions where Swedish could 
 not have the ^-subjunctive. See Lesson XXI.
 
 XVTI THE SUBJUNCTIVE 151 
 
 214. WISH, (i) A wish that can be realized is ex- 
 pressed by the present ^-subjunctive, or by the auxiliaries 
 md, mdtte with the present infinitive, mdtte imparting 
 more vividness to the wish and usually implying fear 
 that it may not be realized. As there is no present 
 perfect ^-subjunctive, a wish that may have been realized 
 is expressed by these auxiliaries with the perfect in- 
 finitive. Ex. : Lange leve konungen! Long live the king. 
 Md det g& honom vdlf May he prosper. Mdtte del bli 
 battre snartf I hope things will get better soon. M&tte 
 jag hinna fram i tid! I hope I'll get there in time. 
 Matte ingen olycka ha hant honom! I hope no misfortune 
 has befallen him. 
 
 (2) A wish that cannot be realized, or is not likely 
 to be realized 1 , is expressed by the past ^-subjunctive when 
 the reference is to present time, and by the past perfect 
 ^-subjunctive when the reference is to past time. One of 
 the expressions o att, ack om would that, is very often 
 used to introduce such wishes. Ex. : Ack, omjag vore ung 
 igen'f O that I were young again. O, att jag aldrig sett 
 honom! O that I had never seen him. Ack, omjag bara 
 hade vetat det! Or, Hade jag bara vetat det! If I had 
 only known it. Om han dndd ginge snartf I do hope 
 he will go soon. Finge jag bara fern minu'ter p& mig! 
 I wish I could have just five minutes more time. 
 
 215. UNREAL CONDITIONS. In unreal conditional sen- 
 tences (conditions contrary to fact), in which the con- 
 clusion depends upon a condition that cannot be fulfilled, 
 or is not likely to be fulfilled, the verb, both that of the 
 subordinate clause (the condition) and that of the principal 
 clause (the conclusion), is put in the -past <?-subjunctive 
 
 1 These -wishes have the word-order of subordinate clauses (see Jf 14O. 
 nd; 1O1; 1-H,. See \ 14O. beginning. When the past perfect is used, the 
 auxiliary kade may be omitted (cf. page 15O, foot-note 1).
 
 152 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVH 
 
 if the reference is to present time, and in the past per- 
 fect <?-subjunctive if the reference is to past time. In the 
 principal clause 1 the auxiliary skulle with the infinitive 
 is very often used in place of the ^-subjunctive. 2 Ex.: Oni 
 du gave mig boken, sd bleve jag glad. If you gave me 
 the book, I should be glad. Vore jag icke trott, sd ginge 
 jag pa tea' tern. If I were not tired, I should go to the 
 theater. Om jag hade pengar, sd skulle jag resa. I should 
 go if I had the money. Om du hade kommit hit i gar, 
 hade du traffat en gammal bekan't. If you had come here 
 yesterday, you would have met an old acquaintance. 
 Jag skulle ha kbpt Auset, om dct icke varii sd gammalt. I 
 should have bought the house if it had not been so old. 
 The condition may be expressed by an adverbial phrase, 
 or it may be omitted. Ex.: Med din hjdlp vore det mojligt. 
 With your assistance it would be possible; / sd fall fore 
 jag strax. In that case I should leave 'at once. Ett 
 dussin av dessa skulle kosta mig fern kronor. A dozen of 
 these would cost me five crowns. 
 
 Closely related to these are hypothetical comparisons 
 introduced by som (om), sasom (0;)> lik(a)som (om') as 
 if, just as if, which also are followed by the past or 
 past perfect ^-subjunctive. If om is omitted, the subject 
 and verb of the subordinate clause are inverted (cf. 140). 
 Ex.: Du kommer, som om du vore kallad. You are coming 
 as though called. Han behan'dlar mig, som om han vore 
 min husbonde. He treats me as if he were my master. 
 Rocken var sd vat, som om den hade legat i vatten. The 
 coat was as wet as if it had been lying in water. Han 
 bar sig at, som om han hade varit galen. He acted as if 
 he had been crazy. 
 
 1 But not in the subordinate clause. 
 
 2 Observe that English regularly employs "should" and "would" in the 
 principal clause.
 
 XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 153 
 
 216. SUMMARY: 
 
 ^-SUBJUNCTIVE AUX.-SUBJ. 
 
 Present 1 Realizable wish md, matte 
 
 I Unrealizable wish 
 Unreal condition, a) princ. cl. ' skulle 
 b) subord. cl. - 
 Hypothetical comparison 
 
 217- ORTHOGRAPHY: ensam, ensamma; annan, andra 
 (Phonology 18). 
 
 218. PRONUNCIATION: (a) vdrld' ( 16 a). Observe 
 the long quantity of the vowel in mogna, scgla (Pho- 
 nology 14 B 2 c); nagra (cf. Phonology 14 B 2 b). 
 In indite the vowel is shortened. In liksom the vowel is 
 sometimes long, but frequently short. (b) dagakarl 
 ( 1 6 a); skogsbacke ( 18). 
 
 219. ACCENT, (a) Funde'ra has the acute accent. Ocksa, 
 tea'ter and tillsam' mans have either the acute or the grave 
 accent. Liksom may have the grave or (less often) 
 the acute accent. (b) Behan'dla has the acute accent. 
 
 220. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) 111 the spoken language the 
 use of the ^-subjunctive is very limited, while in easy speech 
 it is rarely used. In cases where the written language 
 employs only the ^-subjunctive, the spoken language 
 generally employs the indicative. When the written 
 language may employ either the <?-subjunctive or the aux- 
 iliary-subjunctive, the spoken language prefers the ( 
 latter, or, in some cases, uses the indicative. Ex.: 
 Om jag fick, sa for jag med samma. If I could, I 
 should go this minute. Om jag var kung, sd skulle du 
 bli drottning. If I were a king, you should be a queen. 
 Ack, om jag fick ga utf I do wish I could go out. Du 
 kommer, som om du -var kallad. You are coming as 
 
 1 Concerning the present perfect see 211.
 
 154 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 XVII 
 
 though called. Jag sade till honom, att om han mile 
 komma med taget, sa fick han skynda sig. I told him he 
 would have to hurry if he wanted to catch the train. 
 
 (2) In place of the n. intet, the spoken language em- 
 ploys the form inget. 
 
 (3) The words varje and sasom belong primarily to 
 the written language. 
 
 (4) For nagon and annan, easy speech may use the 
 shorter forms nan and ann. 
 
 (5) Concerning bara see 86, i. Concerning bbrja 
 see 199, 5. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 ack oh, o, alas 
 
 annan (n. annat, />/#/*. and 
 
 def, andra) other 
 bara only, just 
 bar n. (5) berry 
 borja (i) begin 
 ensam alone 
 funde'ra (i) think, ponder; 
 
 pa meditate about 
 galen mad, crazy 
 genast at once 
 Gud God 
 hjalp help 
 
 handa(na) happen, befall 
 ingen (tt. intet, //r. inga) 
 
 no, no one, none 
 lik(a)som as, just as 
 liv n. (5) life 
 lycklig happy 
 
 mogen ripe 
 
 mogna (i) ripen, grow ripe 
 
 nagon (n. nagot, plur. nag- 
 
 ra) some, any, some one, 
 
 any one 
 o oh, o 
 
 ocksa also, too 
 olycka (1) misfortune 
 resa (nb) raise; resasigm^, 
 
 raise one's self, get up 
 ropa (i) call out, shout, cry, 
 
 call 
 
 segla (i) sail 
 skratta (i) laugh 
 slatt (3) plain 
 stalle n. (4) place 
 sucka (i) sigh 
 sasom as, like 
 tea'ter (2) theater
 
 XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 155 
 
 tillsara'mans together varje every, each 
 
 tyst silent, quiet varld (2) world 
 
 underlig strange \ curious, alska (i) love 
 peculiar 
 
 EXERCISE XVII. 
 
 A. i. Ora jag kunde, sa ville jag nog. 2. Ack, om 
 det snart bleve var! 3. Om jag vore kung, sa skulle 
 du bli drottning. 4. Gud give oss ett gott nytt ar! 
 5. Otn det icke blaste, sa skulle vi fara ut pa sjon och 
 segla. 6. De sutto dar underligt tysta och sago ut over 
 ha vet. 7. Korsbaren se ut, som om de vore tnogna, 
 men de aro icke goda. 8. Det finns ingen i hela varl- 
 den, som vet detta. 9. Om det icke vore vackrare pa 
 andra stallen, sa skulle jag genast resa hem igen. 10. Var 
 det nagot 1 , du ville saga? n. Hade han bara gjort som 
 jag sade, sa hade det varit battre bade for honom och 
 andra. 
 
 B. The mother and her children lived a happy life 
 together in the little house up on the mountain. When 
 the cherries had begun to ripen, Fridolf and Violanta 
 were sitting together one day under the cherry-tree by 
 the brook. "Listen 2 , sister," said the boy, "do you 
 think that there is 3 any more beautiful place in the 
 world than this?" "I don't know," answered Violanta. 
 "But there are 3 none in the whole world who are as 
 happy as we," said Fridolf. "Well 4 , who knows?" 
 replied Violanta. "We don't know how others are situ- 
 ated 5 ." "But every day is happy with us, and all days 
 are alike 6 here." "Yes, all days are alike here," said 
 Violanta and sighed. 
 
 1 Observe the omission of the 4 Ja. 
 relative; cf. $ 281. 5 Ha det. 
 
 2 Hor du. 6 Are alike likna varan'dra. 
 
 3 Det finns.
 
 156 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 
 
 Just then 1 some ripe cherries fell down from the tree 
 into the brook and floated away. "Whither are you 
 sailing away? Whither are you sailing away?" cried 
 Violanta. "To the wild waves of the sea. To the wild 
 waves of the sea," answered the cherries and disappeared. 
 
 Violanta got up and looked out over the broad 2 
 land below her. The wind was blowing 3 over the plain, 
 and very far away she saw the dark blue streak. ' 'The wild 
 waves of the sea. The wild waves of the sea," Vio- 
 lanta said 4 slowly. "I too want to go to them." 
 
 Fridolf laughed. "You won't go away from mother 
 and me and from our dear little home up here 5 among 
 the cherry-trees," he said*. Violanta did not answer, 
 but Fridolf saw that there was 6 something that she was 
 pondering over. She began to be 7 so strangely quiet and 
 preferred to sit 8 alone at the brook and look out over 
 the broad land at her feet. 
 
 C. Da hade han vant sig om och sett en gamnial 
 dagakarl, som stod bojd over sin spade. "Ar det du, 
 som suckar sa djupt," hade herr Karl sagt. "Vad har 
 du att sucka over?" "Jag ma val sucka, som ska 9 
 ga har octi arbeta i jorden dag ut och dag in," hade da 
 dagakarlen svarat. Men herr Karl hade ett haftigt 
 humor 10 , och han tyckte inte om att folk klagade. "Har 
 du inte annat att klaga over?" hade han ropat. "Jag 
 sager dig, att jag skulle vara nojd, om jag finge ga 11 och 
 grava i Sormlands jord i all min tid." "Matte det ga 
 ers na.de sa, som ni onskar," hade dagakarlen svarat. 
 
 1 I detsam'ma. 7 Be bli(va). 
 
 2 v d- 8 Preferred to sit salt heist. 
 
 3 The wind was blowing det Waste. 9 See 146, 2. 
 
 4 Invert in translating. 1O Humo'r. 
 
 5 Ut here har uppe. 11 See 24-5, note 2. 
 
 6 There -was det var.
 
 XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 157 
 
 Men sedan sade folk, att herr Karl for det talets skull 
 efter doden inte hade fatt ro i sin grav, utan var natt 
 brukade komma till Stora Djulo och grava i sin lust- 
 gard. Ja, nit fauns det varken slott eller lustgard mer 
 dar borta, utan dar de en gang skulle 1 ha legat, var det 
 nu bara en vanlig skogsbacke. Men om nagon skulle ga 
 genom skogen en mork natt, sa kunde det handa, att 
 ban finge syn pa lustgarden. 
 
 D. i.I should go with you if it were not raining. 
 2. May he never return. 3. I shouldn't be eating the 
 cherries if they were not ripe. 4. You have nothing to 
 complain about. 5. If I were not so old, I should be 
 able to work more. 6. Would you be satisfied if he 
 gave you a crown? 7. He used to come every night. 
 8. He had no peace in his grave. 9. May you soon 
 recover. 10. If it were dark, you would see nothing, 
 n. May no misfortune befall them. 12. If my parents 
 permitted me, I should become a sailor. 
 
 1 Were said to.
 
 158 THE PASSIVE XVIII 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 THE PASSIVE. 
 
 221. The passive is formed by adding -s to the active 
 forms. In the auxiliary-tenses (future, present perfect, 
 past perfect and future perfect) this is affixed to the 
 supine or infinitive, and not to the auxiliary. The final 
 -r of the singular of the present indicative active is dropped 
 before the -s of the passive. Examples of the passive 
 inflection are: 
 
 PRESENT: I. II. III. STRONG 
 
 jag, etc., kallas kbpes tros bj tides 
 
 m kallas kbpas 1 tros bjudas^ 
 
 I kallens kbpens Irons bjudens 
 
 de kallas kbpas tros bjudas 
 
 PAST: 
 
 jag, etc., kallades 
 
 kbptes 
 
 troddes 
 
 bjbds 
 
 m kallades 
 I kalladens 
 de kallades 
 
 kbptes 
 kbptens 
 kbptes 
 
 troddes 
 troddens 
 troddes 
 
 bjbdos 
 bjbdens 
 bjbdos 
 
 FUTURE: kommer att kallas, kbpas, tros, bjudas 
 PRESENT PERFECT: har kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits 
 PAST PERFECT: hade kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits 
 FUTURE PERFECT: kommer att ha(va) kallats, kbpts, trotts, 
 
 bjudits 
 INFINITIVES: kallas, ha(ya~) kallats; kbpas, ha(va) kbpts; 
 
 tros, ha(va} trotts; bjudas, ha(va) bjudits 
 SUPINE: kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits 
 
 1 Observe that the first and third persons plural differ from the singular 
 in the present indicative only in the case Of the Second Weak Conju- 
 gation and the Strong Conjugation.
 
 XVIII THE PASSIVE 159 
 
 PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE: 1 
 
 I. II. III. STRONG 
 
 jag, etc., kallcs hopes ^ bjudes 
 
 vi kallcs hopes |! bjudes 
 
 I kallcns kopens ^ bjudens 
 
 de kalles hopes bjudes 
 
 Or, mA {matte} kallas, kbpas, tros, bjudas. 
 
 PAST SUBJUNCTIVE: 
 
 I. II. III. STRONG 
 
 bjbdes 
 
 Same as the past indicative. 
 
 bjodens 
 
 bjbdes 
 
 Or, skulle kallas, kbpas, tros, bjudas. 
 
 Note. i. In the singular of the present indicative passive, the 
 e of the ending -es (Second Weak Conjugation and Strong Conju- 
 gation) is very often dropped, unless the nature of the preceding 
 sound makes this impossible; as, kop(e)s, Fior(e}s, giv(e)s,finn(e}s; 
 but, l&ses. Cf. 225, note 2. 
 
 2. The past participle, though passive in meaning, does not have 
 -s. But the supine (= the neuter of the past participle in a special 
 use, which is active in sense) adds -s in the passive. 
 
 3. Agent is expressed by av by. Ex.: Han blev overgiven av 
 sina vcinner. He was deserted by his friends. Fordom valdes 
 konungen av folket. Formerly the king was chosen by the people. 
 
 4. When no agent is expressed, Swedish sometimes uses the in- 
 definite pronoun man one, they, people, with the active forms of 
 the verb, where English would have the passive; as, man sager 
 or del siiges it is said. See 304. Ex.: Del var ett fruntimmer, 
 som svimmadc. Man bar ut hcnne i nasta rum. A woman faint- 
 ed. She was carried into the adjoining room. 
 
 222. The passive idea may also be expressed by 
 means of an auxiliary combined with the past participle. 
 This can conveniently be called the auxiliary-passive, 
 
 1 The f-subjunctive is rare in the present passive. Cf. page 149, foot- 
 note 1, end.
 
 160 THE PASSIVE 
 
 and that formed by the addition of -s, the s-passive. The 
 auxiliary is put in the form corresponding to the tense 
 wanted for the passive. The past participle agrees with 
 the subject in gender and number. 1 
 
 The auxiliary most used is bli(ya), which may be 
 employed with all verbs. In the past singular, vart (see 
 228, 5), from varda 1 , maybe employed instead of blev; 
 the other forms of varda are used only in the elevated 
 style, and have an archaic coloring. 
 
 Cursive verbs (see page 81, foot-note 2) may employ 
 vara as their auxiliary. When bliva is used with such 
 verbs it often calls attention to the beginning of the 
 action, while vara emphasizes its duration. 
 
 Note. i. The auxiliary bliva, when used in the present tense, 
 generally expresses future time; cf. 135, end. 
 
 2. The auxiliary-passive and the .s-passive are on the whole 
 used interchangeably, without much difference in the shade of 
 meaning. Ex.: Laroboken har anvants (har blivit anvand, har 
 varit anvand) har snart i fern dr. The text-book has been used 
 here almost five years. In the present tense, however, the 5-forms 
 are the more common, except when the reference is to future time, 
 in which case bliva is usually employed. Ex.: Har hdlles val. (An) 
 election is held here. / morgon blir han installe'rad som profes'scr. 
 To-morrow he will be installed into his professorship. Myckct 
 dterstdr, innan allt blir ordnat. Much remains before everything 
 is adjusted. Especially is the .s-passive regularly used in general 
 statements, rules and directions. Ex.: Min klocka drages npp 
 varje dygn. My watch is wound every twenty-four hours. Stold 
 sfraffas med fangelse. Theft is punished with imprisonment. Ob- 
 serve the frequent use of this form also in recipes, where English 
 employs the imperative: Applena skalas, skaras i bitar, och karn- 
 
 1 On the formation and inflection of the past participle see the references 
 given in 24-0; 241. Care should be taken not to confuse the past par- 
 ticiple with the active supine (= the neuter of the past participle, slightly 
 modified in the case of strong verbs). The past participle has three forms, 
 the supine only one. Ex.: Han blir (iir) illskad, det blir alskat, de bliva ahkade. 
 But han (det) har alskat. de ha alskat; cf. 181. 
 
 2 See page 139, foot-note 1.
 
 XVIII 
 
 THE PASSIVE 
 
 161 
 
 huscn tagas bort. Peel the apples, cut them in pieces and remove the 
 cores. Note also: Forva'ras pd kyligt slalle. Keep in a cool place. 
 
 223. The forms of the auxiliary-passive are: 
 
 PRESENT: ALL VERBS CURSIVE VERBS 
 
 jag, du, /tan, hon, den blir bjuden, dlskad dr dlskad 
 
 det blir bjudet, dlskat ar dlskat 
 
 i-i bli(z'a} bjudna, dlskade dro dlskade 
 
 I blii'en bjudna, dlskade dren dlskade 
 
 de bli(va~) bjiidna, dlskade dro dlskade 
 
 PAST: 
 
 jag, etc., blev (rarf) bjuden, dlskad var dlskad 
 
 dct blev (yarf), bjudct, dlskat var dlskat 
 
 z'i blez'O bjudna, dlskade voro dlskade 
 
 I blci'en bjudna, dlskade voren dlskade 
 
 de blez'O bjudna, dlskade voro dlskade 
 
 FUTURE: kommer aft bli(ya^) bjuden, kommer alt vara 
 
 dlskad dlskad 
 
 PRES. PERF.: har blivit bjuden, dlskad har varit dlskad 
 PAST PERF.: hade blivit bjuden, dlskad hade varit dlskad 
 and so on, in the other forms. 
 
 Note. The English expressions consisting of the verb "be" 
 and the past participle are not always passives. We have passives 
 in cases like the following: A large house is being built over 
 there. How many houses are built annually in this city? If the 
 knife is broken while in my possession, I shall pay you for it. The 
 farm was sold last year. Very often, however, "be" is an inde- 
 pendent verb followed by a past participle used like any predicate 
 adjective. Ex.: That house is built of brick. My knife is broken. 
 The farm was already sold. The sheet of paper that you gave me 
 was torn half-way across. His life was insured for fifty thousand 
 dollars at the time of his death. When the subject in such sen- 
 tences is made the object, these expressions correspond, not to 
 the present, but to the present perfect. In case of doubt as 
 to whether a construction is passive, change it into the correspond- 
 ing construction with the subject used as the object; if the
 
 1 62 THE PASSIVE, DEPONENTS XVIII 
 
 tense does not remain the same, it is not a passive. These non- 
 passive constructions call attention to the fact that the act is com- 
 pleted and is not going on, that a result which has been reached re- 
 mains in present time. If the past tense is used, the meaning is 
 that the result which had been reached remained in past time. In 
 the present perfect and past perfect, the meaning is that the result 
 has been present or had been present, often with the implication 
 that it is no longer there. Ex.: Bordet har van'/ mdlat rotf (en 
 gdng}. The table was (once) painted red. 
 
 In Swedish, these expressions are rendered by vara, correspond- 
 ing to Eng. "be", and the past participle. In Swedish, and so in 
 English, the terminative verbs (see p. 81) are used in this way. Ex.: 
 Brevet ar skrivet. The letter is written. Han &r sdrad. He is 
 wounded. Huset var redan byggt. The house was already built. 
 
 Observe, then, that the Eng. "be" combined with the past 
 participle of terminative verbs frequently has a meaning not passive, 
 but that one and the same auxiliary is used in both cases. In 
 Swedish, on the other hand, an entirely different word, bliva (or, 
 in the past sing., vart) is used as the auxiliary of the passive. 
 Vara, corresponding to Eng. "be" may be employed only in the 
 case of cursive verbs. 1 Vara with the past participle of terminative 
 verbs is not a passive. 
 
 224. SUMMARY: 2 In English, 
 
 PASSIVE NON-PASSIVE 
 
 CURSIVE " be " + past part . 
 
 TERMINATIVE "be" + past part. "be" + past part. 
 
 In Swedish, 
 
 CURS, -s; bliva (yarf) , vara -f- past part. 
 
 TERM. -s;bliva (varf) -f- past part. vara -f- past part. 
 
 225. DEPONENTS. 3 Many verbs have s-forms with 
 active meaning, (i) Of some verbs that have both active 
 and passive forms used in the regular way, the .y-forms 
 
 1 As the number of transitive cursive verbs is rather limited, the passive 
 use of the auxiliary vara. is not of frequent occurrence. 
 
 2 For examples see 221, 223 and note. 
 
 3 On the participles of deponents see 238, note 2. and f 240. note 2. 
 Concerning the imperative of deponents see 243, note 1.
 
 XVIII DEPONENTS 163 
 
 may also be employed in an active sense, but generally 
 with some distinction of meaning from that of the active 
 forms. S-forms so used are called deponent forms. These 
 are used absolutely, that is, without an object expressed. 
 Most of them mean "to harm" or "to annoy" one in some 
 way. Ex.: Han nyps. He's pinching me (some one). 
 Den har hasten bits. This horse bites (is in the habit of 
 biting people). Det brdnns. It's hot. (You'll burn 
 yourself. It has the characteristic of burning anyone 
 that touches it.) Johan sldss 1 . John is hitting me (some 
 one). De sldss 1 for sitt land. They are fighting for 
 their country. En soldo,' t> som svalter, sldss 1 d&ligt. A 
 starving soldier is a poor fighter. 
 
 (2) In the case of many verbs there are no active 
 forms, the ,y-forms being the only ones used, and these 
 always with active meaning. Such verbs are called depo- 
 nent verbs. A number of these are even transitive, and 
 may take an object. Ex.: andas breathe, hoppas hope, 
 minnas remember, lyckas succeed. Har kan man andas 
 frisk hift. Here we can breathe fresh air. 
 
 Note. i. A number of deponent forms and a few deponent 
 verbs are used (in the plural) with reciprocal 2 meaning. Ex.: 
 Hastarna bitas. The horses are biting each other. Vi hjalptes 
 at. We helped each other. De mottes. They met. Vi traffades 
 i gdr. We met yesterday. De klappas och kyssas. They caress 
 and kiss each other. De brottas. They are wrestling. Karl och 
 Johan sldss 1 . Carl and John are at blows. Some have reflexive 2 
 meaning; as, gladjas 3 rejoice. When ambiguity would arise, the 
 use of the s-forms as passives is generally avoided in the case of 
 verbs that employ these forms more often with reciprocal or 
 
 1 Note the short vowel and the double j. 
 
 2 These could be called reciprocal and reflexive deponents, to distinguish 
 them from the other deponents. The reflexive idea may also be expressed 
 by a pronoun (see 233); similarly the reciprocal idea (see 264-, note 8). 
 
 3 This form is identical in meaning with the reflexive expression gliidja 
 sis: see page 13-fc, vocabulary, and 233, note 3.
 
 1 64 THE PASSIVE XVIII 
 
 reflexive than with passive meaning; as, bliva slagen be struck, 
 bliva retad be irritated, bliva skilda dt be separated; cf. sldss fight, 
 retas tease, skiljas at part. 
 
 2. Deponents usually have -s in the singular, and not -es; cf. 
 221, note i. Verbs of the Second Weak Conjugation and the 
 Strong Conjugation of which the s-forms may be used either with 
 passive or active meaning, drop the e in the present singular when 
 the sense is active, but very often have -es when the sense is 
 passive (cf. 228, 4). See the examples above, nyps, bits, brdnns. 
 Ex.: Tr&den bites av. The thread is bitten off. Hunden bits. 
 The dog bites. Potatisen rives. The potato is grated. Katten 
 rivs. The cat scratches. 
 
 226. PRONUNCIATION: djup ( 16); tidigt ( 18). 
 
 Ifra'n may be pronounced with the a long or short 
 (with different quality). 
 
 227- ACCENT: (i) Acute: (a) tillba'ka. (b) fbrva'ra, 
 installe'ra. When stressed on the first syllable, fmmat 
 almost always has the acute accent; detsam'ma and pota- 
 tis have either the acute or the grave accent. 
 
 (2) The singular of the present indicative passive end- 
 ing in -es usually has the grave accent, but it may also 
 have the acute accent. 
 
 228. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) On the whole, the spoken 
 language prefers the active construction to the passive. 
 This is especially the case when the agent of the action is 
 expressed. Ex.: Raven skbts (blev skj uteri) av jagaren. The 
 fox was shot by the hunter. Coll.: Jagaren skbt raven. 
 The hunter shot the fox. When the agent is not indi- 
 cated, the passive is more freely used, though the indefinite 
 pronoun man often takes its place (see 221, note 4). 
 
 (2) When the passive construction is used in the spoken 
 language, the auxiliary-passive is generally employed, 
 while the s-forms with passive meaning are avoided. 1 
 
 \ Except in the infinitive. Ex.: Rocken behtfver lagas. The coat needs to 
 be mended.
 
 XVIII THE PASSIVE 165 
 
 Particularly rare in the spoken language, except in de- 
 ponents, is the s-form of the supine, that is, of the pres- 
 ent perfect and past perfect tenses. Ex.: Rocken har blivit 
 lagad (not har lagats) av skrdddaren. 1 The coat has 
 been mended by the tailor. 
 
 (3) When 5- forms occur in the spoken language, they 
 usually have reciprocal or ordinary active meaning. Indeed, 
 the spoken language uses deponent forms far more fre- 
 quently than the written language, especially those with 
 ordinary active meaning. 
 
 (4) Verbs having either -es or -s in the singular of the 
 pres. ind. passive usually have -es (though often -s} in the 
 written, and -s in the spoken language. Cf. 221, note i. 
 
 (5) In a large part of Sweden the auxiliary vart occurs 
 very frequently in the spoken language, while in others 
 (e. g., in Southern Sweden), it is not used in speaking. 
 Though this auxiliary is primarily colloquial, it is em- 
 ployed also in the written language. 
 
 (6) In the present singular of deponents ending in -s 
 (for -es), a long root-vowel is shortened; as, nyps, bits; 
 cf. slass. In easy speech, a long vowel is sometimes 
 shortened also in the passive ending in -s; as, hbrs, kbps. 
 
 (7) Middag is in the spoken language usually pro- 
 nounced without the g. On tidig, tidigtci. 146, 7. 
 In easy speech, tillba'ka may be pronounced teba'ka. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 alltjam't- always, constantly, bred broad, wide 
 
 continually bredd (3) breadth, wideness 
 
 andas (i) breathe bredvi'd beside 
 
 bita (STR.) bite; bitas bite brottas (i) wrestle, struggle 
 
 1 Or still better: Skrdddaren har laeat rocken. The tailor has mended the 
 coat, Cf. 228, 1. 
 
 2 Or al'ltjamt.
 
 i66 
 
 THE PASSIVE 
 
 XVIII 
 
 na (in) reach, arrive at 
 
 sak (3) thing> matter 
 
 skaka (i) shake 
 
 smaningom by degrees, gradu- 
 ally 
 
 springa (STR.) run 
 
 stiga (STR.) walk, step; stiga 
 upp get up 
 
 susa (i) murmur, whisper, 
 sough 
 
 soka (nb) seek, look for 
 
 tidig early 
 
 tillba'ka back 
 
 tills until 
 
 ty for 
 
 tanka (nb) think; - pa 
 think of 
 
 ur out of, from; ut ur out of 
 
 vakna (i) awake 
 
 viska (i) whisper 
 
 vanta (i) wait, await, expect 
 
 branna (na) burn (/r.) 
 djup deep; n. (5) depth 
 folja (uz) follow; foljas at 
 
 accompany each other, go 
 
 together 
 
 hoppas (i) hope 
 klappa (i) knock, rap, clap, 
 
 caress; -s, recipr. dep., 
 
 caress each other 
 kyssa (lib) kiss; -s, recipr. 
 
 dep., kiss each other 
 locka (i) entice, tempt 
 lyckas (i) succeed; be suc- 
 cessful 
 
 langsam slow 
 middag (2) mid-day, noon, 
 
 dinner 
 
 rainnas (na) remember 
 mork dark 
 narra (i) fool, deceive; -s, 
 
 dep., fib 
 nypa (STR.) pinch; -s, dep., 
 
 Pinch 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. 
 
 A. i. Du brukar aldrig ga sa bar tidigt 2 , om jag 
 minns ratt 3 . 2. Vem blev vald till ordforande? 3. Kors- 
 barstraden skakades av vinden. 4. Nar lian tyckte, att 
 han vantat lange nog, gick han hem. 5. Rom 4 blev icke 
 byggt pa en dag. 6. Ma han lyckas i allt 5 . 7. Han 
 sages vara 6 sjuk. 8. Minns du, vem det var, som du tala- 
 
 Pron., 9, 3 a. 
 
 overal'lt 1 everywhere 
 
 1 Or stressed on the first syllable. 
 
 2 As early as this. 
 
 3 Correctly, rightly. 
 
 4 Ro 
 
 5 Everything. 
 
 6 Observe the omission of "att"
 
 XVIII THE PASSIVE 167 
 
 de med? 9. Jag blev narrad. 10. Om du vantar tills jag 
 kommer, sa skola vi hjalpas at. u. Fienden var nu 
 slagen. 12. Jag hoppas, att du gbr sa gott 1 du kan. 
 13. Huset saldes i gar. 14. Gossarna slass. 15. Mid- 
 dagen var redan aten. 16. Grenarna bojdes av vinden. 
 17. Kunde vi icke traffas pa nagot stalle i morgon for 
 att talas vid om 2 de bar sakerna? 18. Har ban lyckats 
 finna sin bok ? 19. Foljdes ni at till Stockholm? 
 20. Varfor blev han satt i fangelse? 21. Vi traffades pa 
 teatern i gar kvall. 22. Vad tanker du pa? 
 
 B. One morning when Fridolf and his mother awoke, 
 Violanta was gone 3 . They looked for her everywhere, 
 they waited from morning till 4 noon and from noon till 
 evening, but she did not come. 
 
 Then the mother went to the brook and asked it: "Can 
 you tell me 5 who 6 has lured my little girl away?" 
 "The wild waves of the sea. The wild waves of the 
 sea," sang the brook and hurried on. Then she looked 
 up into the cherry-tree and asked: "Will she never come" 
 back? Will my child never come 7 back?" Then the 
 cherry-tree shook its crown and whispered: "The wild 
 waves of the sea. The wild waves of the sea." 
 
 But then the mother and Fridolf wept, for they felt 8 
 that they would 9 never again 10 see Violanta. 
 
 Early one autumn morning 11 Violanta had awakened. 
 She got up and went out of the house quietly, and put 
 her shoes on 12 outside. Then she began to run. She 
 followed the brook until she reached the valley. There 
 
 1 See 175, end. 7 Use the present tense. 
 
 2 To talk over. 8 Kande med sig. 
 
 3 Borta. 9 Skulle. 
 
 4 Till. 10 Mera. 
 
 5 Tell me saga mig. 11 Autumn morninf hostmorgon. 
 
 6 Vetn som. 12 Put on tog pa sig.
 
 168 THE PASSIVE XVIII 
 
 the brook flowed more slowly. Gradually it grew in 
 depth and width until it flowed like a broad river through 1 
 the silent, dark forest, where the high trees soughed 
 above it. Violanta ran beside it constantly. I shall fol- 
 low 2 it, she thought 3 . I shall follow 2 it wherever 4 it goes. 
 Then I shall no doubt reach them at last 5 , . the wild 
 waves of the sea. 
 
 C. "Jo, det ska 6 jag saga dig," sade gumnian, "att min 
 egen far en gang sag den. Han kom gaende 7 genom 
 skogen en sommarnatt, och plotsligen sag han bredvid 
 sig en hog tradgardsmur, och ovanfor den skymtade han 
 de raraste trad 8 , som var 9 sa tyngda av blommor och 
 frukter, att grenarna hangde langt ut over muren. Far 
 gick helt sakta framat och undrade var tradgarden hade 
 kommit if ran 10 . Da oppnades hastigt en port i muren, 
 och en tradgardsmastare kom ut och fragade om far inte 
 ville se hans lustgard. Karlen hade spade i hand och 
 bar ett stort forklade 11 som andra tradgardsmastare, och 
 far skulle just folja honom, nar han kom att kasta en 
 blick pa hans ansikte. Med detsamma 12 kande far igen 
 den spetsiga paunluggen och pipskagget. Det var all- 
 deles herr Karl, sadan 13 far hade sett honom avbildad pa 
 tavlor pa alia herrgardar, dar far hade 14 . 
 
 D. i. Your friend seems to be satisfied with his new 
 work. 2. A large hole had been made in the glass. 
 3. When he returned, the gate had been opened by an 
 old man. 4. The chair has been painted at last. 5. Boys 
 
 1 Genom. 9 See 53, 1. 
 
 2 Use the present tense. 10 Ifra'n. 
 
 3 Order? 11 In the spoken language shortened 
 * Vart. to fdrklii (vowels short). 
 
 5 Till sist. 12 Med det sa m' ma all at once. 
 
 6 See 146, 2. 13 Sadan such as. 
 
 7 Present participle. 14 The speaker is here interrupted. 
 
 8 See 167.
 
 XVIII THE PASSIVE 169 
 
 that fight are naughty. 6. English is spoken in America. 
 7. Do you know when these flowers were picked? 8. He 
 will be hurt if he does not look out. 9. I hope that he 
 will do it as well as he can. 10. They didn't remember 
 who he was. n. Does your neighbor's dog bite? 12. We 
 shall meet again to-morrow, I hope 1 . 13. He was struck 
 by a bullet in the last war. 14. Shall we not help each 
 other? 15. He is breathing very heavily. 16. Is he not 
 ashamed now? 17. You have aged much. 18. In the 
 evening we went to church 2 together. 
 
 1 Order? 
 
 2 See 125.
 
 170 COMPOUND VERBS XIX 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 COMPOUND, REFLEXIVE AND IMPERSONAL 
 VERBS. 
 
 229. COMPOUND VERBS. From the point of view of 
 the relation between the components, verb-composition 
 is of two kinds: 
 
 (1) CLOSELY ATTACHED. Ex.: berat' ta relate, wider- 
 visa instruct, anga concern, omtala relate. Cf. in Eng., 
 begin, understand, upset. The verb proper stands last, 
 and the two components can not be separated by other 
 words. The components are written together without 
 intervening space, as one word. Except in the case of 
 the prefixes be- and for-, the affix 1 is stressed, the 
 verb proper having secondary stress. 
 
 (2) LOOSELY ATTACHED. Ex.: tala om' relate, ga an' 
 do, be allowable, tycka om' like. Cf. in Eng., get off, 
 set out, look over. The verb proper stands first, and 
 the two components can be separated by other words. 2 
 In writing, a space is left between the two components, 
 as between two words. The stress rests on the affix 1 , 
 the verb proper being unstressed. 
 
 230. There are three types of compound verbs: 
 
 (1) INSEPARABLE compound verbs are those whose 
 components are always closely attached; the components 
 cannot be separated by other words. Ex.: berat' ta relate, 
 undervisa instruct, anga concern. Det angar ingen. That 
 does not concern anyone. 
 
 (2) SEPARABLE compound verbs are those whose com- 
 ponents are always loosely attached; the components can 
 
 1 The term "affix" includes both "prefix" and "suffix". 
 
 2 See 230, note 2.
 
 XIX COMPOUND VERBS 171 
 
 be separated by other words. Ex.: tycka om' like, g& 
 an' do, be allowable. Jag tycker om' honom. I like him. 
 Den dar boken tycker jag visst icke om' . I certainly do 
 not like that book. Jo, det gar an' . Yes, that's all right. 
 Det gar nog an'. That will do, no doubt. 
 
 (3) INVERTIBLE compound verbs. Many compound 
 verbs may have either the closely or the loosely attached 
 form of composition, without change of meaning. The 
 affix is stressed whether it precedes or follows the verb 
 proper. Ex.: om'tala or tala om' relate, ge'nomlasa or lasa 
 gc'noni read through. Ex.: Man hade igen'stlingt (or 
 stangt igen') luckan. The shutter had been closed. Under 
 gravningen pa'traffade han (or traffade han pa'} en urna. 
 While digging, he came upon an urn. In some cases, 
 however, such verbs usually have figurative meaning when 
 closely attached, but literal meaning when loosely attached. 
 Ex.: Han a'vbrot samtalet. He discontinued the conversa- 
 tion. Han brot a'v happen. He broke the stick. 
 
 Note. i. In the past participle the components are always 1 
 closely attached, in all types of compound verbs (even the sepa- 
 rable). Ex.: Han brot a'v happen. Happen ar avbruten. Alia 
 tycka om' honom. Han ar allmdnt (universally) omtyckt. But the 
 supine does not show this peculiarity. Ex.: Han har brutit a'v 
 happen. Jag har alltid tyckt om' honom. Concerning the present 
 participle of compound verbs see page 180, foot-note. 
 
 2. In the loosely attached form of verb-composition the two 
 components are, except in the case of a few verbs, not separated 
 by the object. "Ex.: Jag lade ne'd pennan. I put the pen down. 
 Jag lade ne'd den. I put it down. Hon bad oss att ej glomma 
 bor't henne. She told us not to forget her. Det ar lika bra att 
 plocka a'v baren, sow att grasparvarna skola ata up'p dem. It is 
 just as well to pick the berries as to let the sparrows eat them. 
 
 The components are separated by many adverbs. Ex.: Jag la- 
 de icke ned pennan. I did not put the pen down. Jag lagger aid- 
 rig ned pennan. Han lagger nog ned pennan. Cf. p. 172, foot note i. 
 
 1 To this there are few exceptions (primarily in the spoken language).
 
 172 COMPOUND VERBS XIX 
 
 Note also separation such as the following: Ndr solen har g&tt 
 ne'd, och luften blir avkyld, stiger ofta dimma upp. When the 
 sun has set and the air becomes cooled off, fog often rises. Gdr 
 del inte an'? Won't it do? Hugger man ned skogen i ett land, 
 forsam'ras klima'tet. If the forests in a country are cut down, the 
 climate suffers. 
 
 3. Some separable compounds have the same components as 
 inseparable compounds, but with entirely different meaning, 
 being, in fact, different verbs. These are not included under the 
 term "invertible" compounds. Ex.: anga concern; ga an' do, be 
 allowable; avga depart, leave; ga a'v break (intr. ). Cf. Eng., 
 overlook, look over; upset, set up. 
 
 Similarly, some separable compounds have the same components 
 as invertible compounds; as, utse or se u't elect, choose; se u't 
 look, appear. 
 
 4. Compound verbs having the loosely attached form must 
 be carefully distinguished from a simple verb followed by a preposi- 
 tional phrase. The affix of the verb-compound is stressed, while 
 the preposition is unstressed. 1 Ex.: Han brot a'v happen. He broke 
 the stick. Hanbro't av brodet. He broke (a piece) of the bread. 
 En sats innehaller alltid en sak, som man ta'lar om, och en safc, 
 som man talar om'. A sentence always contains one thing that 
 one talks about, and one thing that one tells. Bonden hal'sade p& 
 konungen. The peasant greeted the king. Karl XII brukade 
 hdlsa pa' has bonderna. Charles XII used to visit the peasants. 
 
 231. The following prefixes are always closely attached 
 (inseparable): be-, bi-, enl-^, er-, for-, gen-, har-, miss-, 
 sam-, urn-, und-, van-, veder-, a-. 
 
 Adverbs and prepositions may be either closely or 
 loosely attached (inseparable, separable or invertible). 
 
 Note i. Adjective compounds are usually invertible; as, rod- 
 mdla or mala rod paint red. Some, however, are inseparable; as, 
 godkanna approve. 
 
 1 Except, usually, when a personal pronoun follows the preposition. 
 Ex.: G& inte ifr&'n mig. Do not go away from me. The affix is not infre- 
 quently unstressed owing to the sentence-rhythm. Ex.: Jag lade ic'ke ned 
 
 2 This prefix, which occurs only in one verb, entle'diga dismiss, is usually 
 unstressed (cf. 229, 1), but sometimes stressed.
 
 XIX 
 
 COMPOUND VERBS 
 
 173 
 
 2. Noun compounds are usually inseparable; as, r&dfrdga con- 
 sult. Some, however, are invertible; as, aktgiva or giva ak't pay 
 attention. 
 
 232- Compound verbs do not differ in their inflection 
 from simple verbs, except as indicated above. A synopsis 
 of the invertible verb omtala, tala om, relate, is here given. 1 
 
 CLOSELY ATTACHED 
 Pres. jag omtalar 
 Past omtalade 
 
 Future kommer att omtala 
 Pres. Perf. har omtalat 
 Past Perf. hade omtalat 
 Fut. Perf. kommer att ha(va~) 
 
 omtalat 
 5-Passive: 
 Pres. omtalas 
 
 Past omt&lades 
 
 Future kom mer a tt om talas 
 Pres. Perf. har omtalats 
 Past Perf. hade omtalats 
 Fut. Perf. kommer att ha(vd} 
 
 omtalats 
 
 Auxiliary-Passive: 2 
 Pres. blir omtalad 
 
 Past blev omtalad 
 
 Future kommer att bli(va) 
 
 omtalad 
 
 Pres. Perf. har blivit omtalad 
 Past Perf. hade blivit omtalad 
 Fut. Perf. kommer att ha(va~) 
 
 blivit omtalad 
 
 LOOSELY ATTACHED 
 talar om 
 talade om 
 
 kommer att tala om 
 har talat om 
 hade talat om 
 kommer att ha(va~) talat 
 om 
 
 talas om 
 taladcs om 
 
 kommer att talas om 
 har talats om 
 hade talats om 
 kommer att ha(va) talats 
 ont 
 
 1 The stress is on om, om- in every case. 
 
 2 Observe that the auxiliary-passive, being formed with the 
 ciple, has no loosely attached forms; see 230, note 1. 
 
 ist parti-
 
 174 REFLEXIVE VERBS XIX 
 
 REFLEXIVE VERBS. 
 
 233. A reflexive verb is one that has as its object a 
 reflexive pronoun (see 187), that is, a pronoun refer- 
 ring back to the subject; the subject is both the doer 
 and the recipient of the action. Reflexive verbs are 
 used much more extensively in Swedish than in English. 
 They are most conveniently divided into two groups: 
 
 (i) REFLEXIVE FORMS. Any transitive verb whose 
 sense permits may be used with reflexive meaning, 
 through the addition of the reflexive pronouns; as, 
 tvinga sig force one's self, skada sig hurt one's self. Ex.: 
 En bra karl hjdlper sig sjalv. A good man helps himself. 
 
 Frequently the verb has a developed meaning when 
 used in the reflexive forms. Particularly often do the 
 reflexive forms have the intransitive meaning correspond- 
 ing to the transitive meaning of the non-reflexive forms. 
 In these cases English almost always uses merely an 
 intransitive verb, 1 without the reflexive pronoun. In 
 many verbs the English idiom differs from the Swedish 
 also in other respects. Examples of difference in idiom 
 are: gifta sig marry (intr.), be married; glddja sig 
 rejoice; tvdtta sig wash (intr.), wash one's self; bbja sig 
 bend (intr.), stoop; lagga sig lie down, go to bed; sdtta 
 sig sit down, be seated; befin'na sig be, do (intr.), fare; lara 
 (sig}^ learn; erinra sig remember; fbrky'la sig catch a cold; 
 kliida sig dress (intr.), dress one's self; rora sig move 
 (intr.); andra sig change (intr.); akta sig take care, be 
 on one's guard; vdnda sig turn (intr.); visa sig appear. 
 
 1 Many English verbs are either transitive or intransitive; as, bend, 
 move, change, turn. As this is much less frequently the case in Swedish, 
 care must be taken not to transfer the English idiom to Swedish, incor- 
 rectly . 
 
 2 Thi 
 242,1. 
 
 rectly . 
 
 2 This verb may also be used intransitively without sig- See example,
 
 XIX REFLEXIVE VERBS 175 
 
 erinrar mig hans utseende. I recollect his ap- 
 pearance. Vi satte oss i skitggan. We sat down in the 
 shade. Jag kanner mig trbtt i dag. I feel tired to-day. 
 Angrar han sig ? Does he repent? 
 
 (2) REFLEXIVE VERBS. Some verbs are used only re- 
 flexively, that is, they are never used without a reflex- 
 ive pronoun; as, begi'va sig betake one's self; misstaga 
 sig be mistaken; fbrhas'ta sig be over hasty, act under 
 the impulse of one's first feelings. 
 
 Note. i. There is no reflexive passive. 
 
 2. The intensive pronoun sjalv (see 187, note) may be used 
 with the reflexive pronouns, but only for emphasis or contrast. Ex. : 
 Enva'r kanner sig sjalv bast. Each one knows himself best. 
 Man bor alska sin ndsta nier an sig sjalv. One should love one's 
 neighbor more than one's self. 
 
 3. Swedish sometimes uses the ending -s to express the reflexive 
 idea (see 225, note i); as, gladjas (= gladja sig-) rejoice; nar- 
 mas (= narma sig} approach; skammas be ashamed. 
 
 234. The inflection of these verbs is regular, but care 
 must be taken to employ the proper reflexive pronouns 
 in the various persons, singular and plural. 
 PRESENT PAST 
 
 jag misstager mig misstog mig 
 
 du misstager dig misstog dig 
 
 ni misstager er misstog er 
 
 /tan, /ion, den, det misstager sig misstog sig 
 i'i misstaga oss misstog o oss 
 
 I misstagen eder misstogen eder 
 
 de misstaga sig misstogo sig 
 
 FUTURE jag kommer aft misstaga mig 
 PRES. PERF. jag har misstagit mig 
 PAST PERF. jag hade misstagit mig 
 FUT. PERF. jag kommer att ha(va) misstagit mig
 
 176 IMPERSONAL VERBS XIX 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 235- Impersonal verbs 1 are used more extensively in 
 Swedish than in English. They are of various types: 
 
 (1) Verbs referring to the phenomena of nature; as, 
 det regnar it is raining, i gar rcgnade det it rained yes- 
 terdaj r , det snbar it is snowing, det fryser it is freezing, 
 det har askat it has been thundering, det blaser it is 
 windy, det ar varmt it is warm, det ar mbrkt it is dark, 
 det ar sommar it is summer. 
 
 (2) A large variety of other expressions; as, det knac- 
 kar somebody is knocking, det ringer there is a ring, det 
 rbr sig something is moving, det gdller concern, be at 
 stake, det bar av go. Hur star det till vied dig? How 
 are you? Det varker i armen. I have a pain in my arm. 
 / detsam'ma knacka.de det pa hans dorr. Just then there 
 was a knock at his door. Det brinner i byn. There is 
 a fire in the village. Han arbetar, som om det gdUde //- 
 vet. He is working as if it were a matter of life and death. 
 
 (3) In the case of many verbs, many of these even 
 intransitive 2 , the ^-passive may be used impersonally. Ex.: 
 Det dansades hela natten. There was dancing all night. 
 Har maste stigas hbgst f'orsik' tigt. You have to step very 
 carefully here. Det malas och fejas over allt i huset. 
 The whole house is being painted and cleaned. Det 
 Idses, arbetas och dies i samma rum. They eat, work 
 and sleep in the same room. Men runt ikring sores, 
 angslas av oroliga sinnen, anas av hjdrtan, som Idngta. 
 Och det grates mot brngotl, som kantats vied spetsar, och 
 det skrattas i drbmmar . . . 3 But round about, people 
 
 1 Some of these (impersonal forms) may also be used with a personal 
 subject; others (impersonal -verbs), only as itnpersonals. 
 
 2 In fact, most intransitive verbs can be used impersonally in the passive. 
 
 3 Quoted from Levertin Samlade Skrifter, vol. Ill, p. 207.
 
 XIX IMPERSONAL VERBS 177 
 
 are sleeping, there is worrying by restless minds, fore- 
 boding by hearts that long. And some are weeping 
 on pillows that have been bordered with lace, and some 
 are laughing in their dreams . . . 
 
 Note. Det is also used as an expletive, anticipating the sub- 
 ject of a verb, corresponding to Eng. "there". In Swedish, contrary 
 to the practice in German, the verb is always put in the sin- 
 gular, irrespective of the number of the following noun, that is, 
 the verb agrees with the formal, and not with the real subject. 
 Ex.: Det var en g&ng en liten gosse, som . . . There was once 
 a little boy who . . . Det bar rdtt mdnga svenskar hdr i staden. 
 There are rather many Swedes living in this town. Det har gatt 
 manga somrar sedan dess. Many summers have passed since 
 then. Det syns ansikten bakom fonsterrutorna. Faces appear 
 behind the window-panes. Hade det hant ndgotf Had anything 
 happened? Det hade fallit mycket sno. Much snow had fallen. 
 
 Note especially the expressions det finn(e)s (rarely and stiffly, 
 dctgii'cs; somewhat more frequently det ges} and det ar, denoting 
 mere existence. Det ar is more definite than det finns. Ex.: Det 
 gives sanningar, som ej kunna javas. There are truths that can 
 not be challenged. Det finns mdnniskor, som icke hava ndgot 
 samretc. There are people who have no conscience. Har finns 
 (det) sd mycket att titta pd. There is so much to look at here. Det 
 fauns fartyg av mdnga olika slag. There were ships of many 
 different kinds. Jag undrar om det finns levande varelser dar. 
 I wonder if there are living beings there. Det fanns inga bil- 
 jet'ter kvar. There were no tickets left. Det finnes 64 (read sex- 
 tify'ra) rutor pa ett schackbrade. There are 64 squares on a 
 chess-board. Det finnes mdnga gossar, som heta Karl. There 
 are many boys whose name is Carl. Det finns mdnga utlanning- 
 ar i Stockholm. There are many foreigners in Stockholm. Det 
 ar ingenting annat att gora an . . . There is nothing else to do 
 than . . . Det ar mdnga, som tro det. There are many who 
 believe that. Det var en gdng tre pojkar, som gingo i samma 
 skola. There were once three boys who attended the same school. 
 
 236. ACCENT: 1 Verbs containing the unstressed pre- 
 fixes be- and for- have the acute accent in all forms 
 
 1 Uists of words having tbe acute accent will now be discontinued, ex- 
 cept as the words may occur in the grammar lesson (outside of examples).
 
 1 78 VERBS-COMPOUND, REFLEXIVE, IMPERSONAL XIX 
 
 in the greater part of Sweden; 1 as, befin'na, begi'ra, fbr- 
 ky'la, forhas'ta. 
 
 237. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the case of invertible 
 compounds the written language to a large extent pre- 
 fers the closely attached form, 2 while the spoken language 
 in the case of most verbs regularly employs the loosely 
 attached form. 
 
 (2) Very many inseparable compound verbs belong pri- 
 marily to the written language. 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. 
 
 Note. Beginning with this exercise, the general vocabulary 
 must be consulted for unfamiliar words and idioms. 
 
 And the river grew and grew. At last it reached a 
 large lake, and hurled itself into its waves. Violanta 
 followed the shore of the lake. At the opposite end of 
 the lake, the river came forth again, stronger and fresher, 
 as if it had gathered new strength from its water. 
 
 But here [there] was 8 a mill. High up on the stairs 
 above the wheels stood the miller himself. He was round 
 and white as a flour-bag, and beside him stood his three 
 little children, round and white as freshly-baked wheat- 
 rolls, and with eyes as black as raisins. 
 
 When the miller caught sight of the girl who came 
 running, he called to her: "Whither away 4 , little girl, 
 so early in 5 the day?" "To the wild waves of the sea," 
 answered Violanta, and ran on. "O wait a little and 
 calm yourself!" cried the miller. "No waves can be 
 wilder than the waves in the river, but I have never- 
 
 1 The forms in -er(as befin'ner.forky'ler^avz the acute accent everywhere. 
 
 2 Even in the written language the closely attached form of invertible 
 compounds is in most forms of style much less common now than formerly. 
 
 3 Use a form of "ligga". 
 
 4 For away use the impersonal "det bar av": "Vart bar det av ?"
 
 XIX VERBS COMPOUND, REFLEXIVE, IMPERSONAL 179 
 
 theless forced them to turn the mill-wheels and grind 
 the grain. And you may be sure things are jolly here. 1 
 There is dancing 2 and work 2 the whole day." 
 
 Violahta stopped. She heard the mill-wheels rumble 
 and clatter. She heard people laughing 3 and singing 3 
 in the mill. "If you want to enter 4 my service," said 
 the stout miller, "you shall get plenty of food and drink, 
 and a new dress for 5 Christmas." "What are the dress- 
 goods like?" 6 asked Violanta. "You can see 7 that then," 
 answered the miller and laughed. 
 
 Violanta entered 8 the service of 9 the miller. The 
 wheels went night and day. Bag after bag of the very 
 whitest flour was carried up. The miller was just as 
 friendly and good as he was stout, and his wife was still 
 more friendly, and still more fat. 
 
 The only ones who did not work were the little chil- 
 dren. They sat on the flour-bags most of the time eat- 
 ing 10 wheat-rolls, played [at] hide-and-seek among the 
 bags, or stood looking 10 at the mill-wheels. 
 
 1 Du ma tro, att bar gar det 6 What are . . . like hurudant ar. 
 lustigt till. 7 Can see far se. 
 
 2 Use the impersonal passive. 8 Tog. 
 
 3 Use the infinitive. 9 Hos. 
 
 4, Komma i. 1O Do not use a participle in Swedish. 
 
 5 Till.
 
 1 80 PARTICIPLES XX 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVES, IMPERATIVE. 
 
 238. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. The present participle 1 
 ends in -ande, but verbs whose infinitives end in a 
 stressed vowel (Third Weak Conjugation and irregular 
 strong verbs) have -ende; as, talande, kopande, finnande; 
 but troende, seende. 
 
 The present participle is indeclinable (see 153), but 
 it has -s in the genitive when used as a noun; as, en 
 dbendes sista ord the last words of a dying person. Ibland 
 kunna vi t. o. m. (= till och med} pa stilen gissa oss till 
 den skrivandes yrke. Sometimes we can even guess the 
 writer's occupation from his handwriting. 
 
 When employed as an adjective, the present participle 
 may be compared by means of mer(a), mest. 
 
 Note. i. The verbs giva (ge), ha(va}, bli(va), be(dja), ta(ga], 
 dra(ga] employ only the longer form (see 203, 2) in the present 
 participle. 
 
 2. The present participle of deponents .ends in -ande (-ende}, 
 but a few have the ending -andes when not used attributively. Many 
 have no present participle. Ex.: Minnandes (from minnas} sitt 
 lofte infann han sig, ehuru han ar en dldrande (from dldras) 
 man. Remembering his promise, he came, although he is getting 
 well along in years. 
 
 Likewise a few verbs that are not deponents may in certain expres- 
 sions end in -andes, which, however, in all such cases is more collo- 
 quial than -ande. Ex.: Han kom dkande(s}. He came driving. 
 Hon skyndade till fonstret for att se efter, vem soin kom dkande. 
 She hurried to the window to see who came driving. 
 
 1 In the case of compound verbs, only the closely attached form can be 
 employed when the present participle is used attributively; in other cases 
 the loosely attached form of composition is possible. Tagande av hatten, 
 steg jag at sidan for att liimna flats at den gatnle. Taking off my hat, I stepped 
 aside to make room for the old man. Dagarnas avtagande langd the di- 
 minishing length of the days.
 
 XX PARTICIPLES 181 
 
 239- The present participle is used 1 : (i) As an adjec- 
 tive, attributively or predicatively. As is the case with 
 many adjectives, so some adjectival participles can be used 
 adverbially. 2 Ex.: De funno ett sovande barn. They found 
 a sleeping child. Hon sag p& honom med en forskande och 
 djup blick. She looked at him with an enquiring and pen- 
 etrating glance. Karl XII vann lysande segrar. Charles 
 XII won brilliant victories. De akande lyckades rad- 
 da sig, men hast och sldde forsvun'no i vaken. The occu- 
 pants succeeded in saving themselves, but the horse and 
 sleigh disappeared in the hole (in the ice). Hasten rik- 
 tade en blick pa honom, som var bade bedjande och fore- 
 braende. The horse directed at him a glance that was 
 both suppliant and reproachful. Kolden dr bitande. The 
 cold is piercing. Adv. : Han talade svenska flytande. He 
 spoke Swedish fluently. Det var kvdvande hett. It was 
 stiflingly hot. 
 
 (2) As a modifier of both subject and verb. Ex.: Hon 
 gick tiggande kring landet. She went about the country 
 begging. Pojken sprang gr&tande hem. The boy ran 
 home weeping. Han svarade skrattande. He answered 
 laughing. De kommo akande i en droska. They came 
 riding in a cab. Han foil av vagnen och blev liggande i 
 diket, tills folk kom och hjdlpte honom. He fell off the wagon 
 and lay (remained lying) in the ditch until people came 
 and helped him. 
 
 Note. i. Where English uses the participle to tell the circum- 
 stances under which the act of the main verb takes place (time, 
 cause, concession, etc.), Swedish usually employs a subordinate 
 clause instead, or coordination. Ex.: Being ill, I decided to stay 
 at home. Emedan jag var sjuk, beslu'tade jag att stanna hemma. 
 Or, Jag var sjuk och beslu'tade (ddrfor] att stanna hemma. 
 
 1 The present participle is used much more sparingly in Swedish than in 
 English. 
 
 2 The pres. part., being indeclinable, does not add -/ -when used as an
 
 1 82 PARTICIPLES XX 
 
 2. After the verbs hora and se, Swedish does not use the parti- 
 ciple, as English may do. Ex.: Jag horde dem tala. I heard 
 them talking. Jag har hort honom berom'mas som talare, I have 
 heard him praised as a speaker. Det blcv sd tyst, sd tyst i ruin- 
 met, att jag horde mitt hjarta sld. It became so very quiet in the 
 room, that I heard my heart beating. On the use of the infinitive in 
 Swedish, where English idiom requires the verbal noun, see 242, 2. 
 
 3. As English uses the participial ending -ing, so Swedish em- 
 ploys -ande, -ende in the formation of verbal nouns. Ex. : Det var ett 
 fasligt springande fram och tillba'ka. That (or, there) was an awful 
 running back and forth. Tankandet forsiggar i allmanhet mycket 
 snabbare an talandet och horandet. Thought is usually much 
 more rapid than speech and hearing. 
 
 4. Swedish does not employ the participle in the formation of 
 a progressive form, as English does; see 47; 245. 
 
 240. PAST PARTICIPLE. In weak verbs the past par- 
 ticiple can be found by dropping the -e of the past 
 indicative; on the formation of the past part, of strong 
 verbs see 181, and cf. 201, note i. 
 
 Note. i. Transitive verbs, both cursive and terminative (see 
 page Si, foot-note 2) have past participles, which have passive mean- 
 ing; as, en krossad tallrik a broken plate, en aktad medborgare a 
 respected citizen. Also intransitive terminative verbs have past 
 participles; their meaning is active; as, en bortflugen fagel a bird 
 that has escaped. The meaning of the past participle varies as follows: 
 Transitive terminative action completed, passive: funnen 
 
 Transitive cursive action going on, passive: alskad 
 
 Intransitive terminative action completed, active: kommen 
 
 Intransitive cursive no past participle 
 
 2. Most deponents have no past participle. 
 
 3. On the supine as connected with the neuter of the past 
 part., see 181. On the past part, of comp. verbs see 230, note i. 
 
 241. The past participle is inflected and used like an 
 adjective (see 151); when used substantively, it adds 
 -5 in the genitive. Ex.: Var alskade kommg our be- 
 loved king. Jag har en hund, kallad Kato. I have a 
 dog called Cato. Segern ar mmnen (cf. 223, note).
 
 XX PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE 183 
 
 The victory is won. Rummcn dro fbre'nade genom en 
 smal gang. The rooms are connected by a narrow pas- 
 sage. Observe 1 den dndrade tiden. Notice the change 
 in time. Min rock dr utsliten. My coat is worn out. 
 Frdn den tid, da runorna utgjorde det enda slags skrift, 
 som stod vara forfdder till btids, hava m i regel blott kort- 
 fattade uppteckningar beva'rade. From the time when the 
 runes were the only kind of writing at the disposal of 
 our ancestors, we have as a rule only brief records pre- 
 served. Den dlskades namn the name of the loved one. 
 
 Note especially its use in forming the auxiliary- passive; 
 see 222. 
 
 Note. The past participle of terminative verbs, both transitive 
 and intransitive, denotes an action as completed (see 240, note i). 
 In 223, note, we have seen the past participle of transitive 
 terminative verbs used in a passive sense with vara, to denote a 
 result attained in the past as remaining in the present. 
 
 The past participle of intransitive terminative verbs may be 
 used in an active sense (cf. 240, note i) with vara, to denote a 
 result attained in past time as remaining in the present. Ex.: 
 V&ren dr kommen. Spring is here. Sdngen ar tystnad. The 
 singing has ceased. Blomman ar vissnad. The flower is with- 
 ered. Ar han a'nnu icke dterkommen? Has he not returned yet? 
 (Isn't he back yet?) Angaren ar sjunken. The steamer has gone 
 down. Han var redan gdngen. He was already gone. Nar han 
 vaknade, var mdnen uppgdngen for langesedan. When he awoke, 
 the moon had long been up. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 1 
 
 242. The leading differences between Swedish and Eng- 
 lish in the use of the infinitive are: 
 
 The future infinitive, which is of rare occurrence, is formed by means of 
 inf. komma, followed by the pres. inf. with att (rarely with skola and the 
 
 . inf.); as, komma att tala, komma att kallas. Ex.: Drojer Siljans tillfrysning 
 janua'ri. anses den komma att utebliva hela vintern. If (Lake) Siljan does 
 freeze during January, it is thought probable that it will not freeze all 
 ter. The present and perfect infinitives have been given in the para- 
 digms under the various conjugations, 185; 193; 195; 202; 221.
 
 1 84 INFINITIVE 
 
 (1) Swedish much more frequently uses the infinitive 
 without att to 1 , many Swedish verbs being followed by 
 the infinitive with or without att, while the correspond- 
 ing English verbs require "to"; as, lova promise, synas 
 seem, appear, tanka intend, borja begin, bedja ask, bnska 
 wish. Ex.: Vi Idra oss alia {att) tala, innan vi lara (atf) 
 skriva. We all learn to talk before we learn to write. 
 Han bad mig (att) skriva genasfi. He asked me to write 
 at once. Jag tanker (att) resa i morgon. I intend to 
 leave to-morrow. 
 
 (2) Swedish in several constructions employs the in- 
 finitive where English has the verbal noun: 
 
 (a) Many prepositions can be followed by att and the 
 infinitive when the subject of the infinitive is the same 
 as that of the leading verb 3 . The English idiom requires 
 a preposition with the verbal noun, and sometimes the in- 
 finitive with "to" (but without a preposition 4 ). Ex.: 
 Han gick forbi' utan att halsa. He passed without 
 greeting. Ingen tankte p& att vila. No one thought of 
 resting. Efter att ha last brevet, kastade han det i elden. 
 After having read the letter, he threw it into the fire. 
 Men de sovo, utan att ett bgonblick stbras av oljiidet. But 
 they slept, without being for a moment disturbed by the 
 noise. Fiskare utmarka sig ofta for stor skicklighet i att 
 segla. Fishermen often display great skill in sailing. 
 
 1 As in English, so in Swedish, most auxiliaries are not followed by the 
 sign of the infinitive. 
 
 2 Or, Han bad mig, att jag skulle skriva genast. 
 
 3 When the subject of the infinitive would not be the same as that of the 
 leading verb, Swedish uses after the preposition, att that, and a finite form 
 of the verb. Ex.: Och utan att jag markte det, sloto sig inina iigon. And my eyes 
 closed without my noticing it. Han avliigsnade sis, utan att nagon visste diir- 
 fiiti' . He went away without anyone's knowing of it. 
 
 4 The Swedish prepositions that may be thus used are much more nu- 
 merous than is the case in French and German. This use hardly occurs in 
 English; but observe: "There is nothing to do except to go along." "He 
 is about to go."
 
 XX INFINITIVE 185 
 
 Ankan livndrde sig med aft sticka, sy och tvdtta. The 
 widow supported herself by knitting, sewing and wash- 
 ing. Du far vdlja emcl'lan att sitta stilla och att bli ut- 
 visad. You may choose between sitting still and being 
 dismissed. Genom att vara sparsam, blir man rik. One 
 becomes rich through saving. Jag dr stolt over att vara 
 svensk. I am proud of being Swedish. Jag trottnade pd 
 att vdnta. I became tired of waiting. Jag dr glad over 
 att vara hemma igeri . I am glad to be at home again. 
 Han strdvar efter att bliva rik. He is striving to become 
 rich. Hunden var rddd for att bada. The dog didn't like 
 to have his bath. 
 
 (b) When Swedish has the infinitive depending on a 
 noun, English frequently uses the verbal noun preceded 
 by the preposition "of". Also after adjectives, English 
 sometimes uses the verbal noun. Ex.: Jag hade nbjet 
 (atf) mottaga ert brev. I had the pleasure of receiv- 
 ing your letter. Konsten att bli rik the art of becoming 
 rich; faran att uppskjiita the danger of procrastinating. 
 Aran av att ha utfbrt ett sadant arbete dr stor. The 
 honor of having completed such a work is great. Boken 
 dr icke vdrd att lasa. The book is not worth reading. 
 
 (c) A number of English verbs may be followed either 
 by the infinitive or the verbal noun; a few are regularly 
 followed by the verbal noun. Swedish idiom in all such 
 cases requires the infinitive. Ex. : Han undvek att svara 
 mig. He avoided answering me. Hon har upphort att 
 sjunga. She has ceased singing (to sing). Han har slu- 
 tat att arbeta. He has stopped working. 
 
 Note. i. Swedish sometimes uses the infinitive (with the subject 
 in the objective form in the case of pronouns) in indirect state- 
 ment, where English idiom requires a clause. Ex.: Jag tror mig 
 hava ratt. I believe that I am right. Han s&geY sig hava lidit
 
 1 86 INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE XX 
 
 mycket. He says that he has suffered much. Man pastod honom 
 vara skyldig. People declared that he was guilty. Jag ansermig 
 uppfylla min skyldighet. I feel that I am doing my duty. Jag 
 tyckte ntig hora en stamma. I thought that I heard a voice. 
 
 Both Swedish and English employ the infinitive when the main 
 verb is passive, but Swedish does not use att to. Ex.: Han sades 
 hava lidit mycket. He was said to have suffered much. Han pd- 
 stods vara oskyldig. He was declared to be innocent. 
 
 2. The auxiliary of the 'perfect infinitive is not infrequently 
 omitted in the written language, the supine alone being used. Ex.: 
 Karl XII horde dtervant tidigare. Charles XII ought to have 
 returned sooner. Hon skulle icke hort honom, om han talat. She 
 would not have heard him if he had spoken. Den synes varit 
 skriven for Idnge sedan. It seems to have been written long ago. 
 
 3. In Swedish, as in English, purpose is frequently expressed 
 by the infinitive with att to, when the subject of the purpose 
 clause is the same as that of the main verb. In Swedish, however, 
 the preposition for is usually placed before att. Ex.: Jag har 
 kommit hit for a,tt tala rued dig om ett och annat. I have come 
 here to talk to you about a few things. Da reste han sig uppfor 
 att gd. Then he got up to go. Ett lejon hade lagt sig att sova, 
 men vacktes plotsligt. A lion had lain down to sleep, but was 
 suddenly awakened. 
 
 4. Concerning the exclusive use of the infinitive in Swedish after 
 the verbs se and hora, see 239, note 2. 
 
 5. Concerning word-order in connection with the infinitive, see 
 142, end, and note. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 243. Second person singular. 1 The mere stem of the 
 verb is used (see page 117, foot-note). Its forms are 
 accordingly: (i) tala, (n) kbp, (in) tro, (STR.) fain. 
 
 First person plural: lat (or latoni) oss tala, kopa, tro,finna. 
 
 Second person plural. This is identical with the cor- 
 responding form of the present indicative: talen, kopen, 
 
 1 The imperative singular is employed more extensively than the pro- 
 noun du is; in addressing persons to -whom du would not be used (but the 
 title), the title in direct address is sometimes added in speaking.
 
 XX IMPERATIVE, SYNTACTICAL REMARKS 187 
 
 tron, finnen. It occurs chiefly in the elevated style; out- 
 side of this the singular imperative is generally used also 
 for the plural. 1 
 
 Note. i. The imperative of the passive can not be used. Depo- 
 nents (see 225) add -s to the forms given in 243; in the forms 
 that have an auxiliary, the -s is added to the dependent infinitive 
 (cf. 221). Ex.: Minns detta ! Remember this. Ldt oss min- 
 nas detta! Let us remember this. Nyps inte ! Don't pinch. 
 Sparkas inte! Don't kick. 
 
 2. Formerly all Swedish verbs except those whose infinitives end 
 in a stressed vowel had the ending -ont in the first person plural 
 of the imperative. This is now archaic, and is used only in certain 
 forms of style (primarily in the ecclesiastical style). Only Idla, 
 employed as the auxiliary in the first person plural imperative, 
 may now end in -om; but even this has archaic associations, and 
 the singular Idt is generally used instead. Ex. : Tackom och lovom 
 Herran z ! Let us thank and praise the Lord. Ldtom oss bedja. 
 Let us pray. Ldtom oss skarskdda vardera slaget for sig. Let 
 us examine each kind by itself. Ldt oss lamna det heir amnet. 
 Let us leave this subject. 
 
 3. The subject of the imperative is not frequently expressed, but 
 when used, it follows the verb-form. Ex.: Skotnier, sd skall jag 
 skuta wig. You take care of yourself, and I'll take care of my- 
 self. Kom dti, det tir inte farligt. Come on, it's not dangerous. 
 Kotn dn (pointing to a certain one), men inte ni andra. You 
 come, but not the rest of you. 
 
 SYNTACTICAL REMARKS. 
 
 244. PAST FOR PRESENT. Swedish sometimes uses the 
 past tense of the verb vara in exclamations, where the 
 English idiom requires the present. This use of the past 
 tense emphasizes the first impression, which is already 
 past. Coming to something which one considers beauti- 
 
 1 The use of the singular imperative for the plural is accordingly higher 
 stylistically than the use of the indicative singular for the plural; it should 
 be remembered that the sing, imperative replaces a form with the ending 
 ~en, which is limited to the elevated style. 
 
 2 Archaic for Herren.
 
 1 88 SYNTACTICAL REMARKS 
 
 ful one could say: Det var vackert! That is beautiful. 
 (How beautiful!) Further examples are: Det var tit- 
 markt! That is fine. Det var en vacker blomma! What 
 a pretty flower. Det var en otack dimma, det har! What 
 a nasty fog this is. Det var ledsamt, att du skall resa! 
 I am sorry you are going. Det var roligt, att du kan 
 komma! I am glad you can come. Det var da besyn'- 
 nerligt, att jag inte kan finna boken! It is strange that I 
 can't find the book. Det var roligt att gora er bekan't- 
 skap! I am glad to make your acquaintance. 
 
 245. PROGRESSIVE. Swedish does not, like English, 
 have a special way of expressing the progressive idea 
 (see 47). But when the idea of continued action 
 is very prominent, Swedish uses halla pa or halla p& 
 med be engaged in, be occupied with, with att and 
 the infinitive of durative 1 verbs. Ex.: Han haller pa 
 (med} att ata. He is just eating. Han holl pa att mala 
 huset. He was engaged in painting the house. Han 
 haller pa att raka sig. He is just shaving. 
 
 Note. i. When emplo}*ed with point-action 2 verbs, halla pa 
 means "be near", and the idea is not progressive; in this use halla 
 pA med does not occur. Ex.: Gossen haller pa att drunkna. The 
 boy is near drowning. Jag holl pa att glomma det. I was near 
 forgetting it. Han holl pa att bryta av sig benet. He was near 
 breaking his leg. Jag holl pA att tappa klockan, I was near 
 dropping the watch. 
 
 2. To emphasize the progressive idea Swedish sometimes places 
 before a verb another durative verb such as sitta, std, ligga, 
 
 1 Durative (or progressive-action) verbs are such as represent an act or 
 condition as simply progressing, without thought of any temporal limita- 
 tion; that is, it may go on indefinitely; the mind's eye follows the progress 
 of the act. Durative verbs are to a great extent identical with cursive verbs 
 (see page 81, foot-note 2). 
 
 2 Point-action (or congressive-action) verbs are such as represent an act 
 "with temporal limitations, thought of simply as an occurrence; the progress 
 of the act is not before the mind's eye, but the entire act is viewed as a whole 
 and reduced, as it were, to a point in the mind's eye. Point-action verbs 
 are to a great extent identical with terminative verbs (seep. 81, foot-note2).
 
 XX PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE 189 
 
 ga , connecting the two verbs with och. Ex.: Han ligger ccJi 
 sovcr. He is sleeping. Jag salt och skrev, dd du kom. I was writing 
 when you came. Nu st&r du och pratar dumheter. Now you are 
 talking nonsense. V ad sitter du och tanker pdf What are you 
 thinking of? Han gar och tigger. He is begging. 
 
 In the spoken language also hdlla pd may be so used. Ex.: 
 Han haller pa och ater. He is eating. 
 
 240. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) The present participle is less 
 used in the spoken than in the written language, espe- 
 cially in the construction mentioned in 239, 2. The 
 spoken language prefers hon gick och tiggde to hon gick 
 tiggande. 
 
 The past participle is on the whole less employed in 
 the spoken than in the written language, except in the 
 use mentioned in 223, note, and in the auxiliary- 
 passive, which is in the spoken language usually em- 
 ployed in place of the ^-passive. 
 
 (2) The infinitive in indirect statement is not used in 
 the spoken language, which employs instead an indicative 
 clause introduced by att that, which may be omitted, as 
 in English (cf. page 43, foot-note 3). Ex.: Jag tror, 
 (a//) jag har ratt (for Jag tror mig 'hava ratf). I be- 
 lieve (that) I am right. 
 
 (3) The polite colloquial language (largely also the 
 written language) tends to avoid the use of the impera- 
 tive. Primarily in the spoken language, various expres- 
 sions are used with the imperative to make it sound less 
 harsh when a stern or harsh effect is not desired. Ex.: 
 Gor del, sd dr du snail. Please do that. Also, om jag 
 
 far be if I may ask, is so used. Note also: Var sd god 
 och gbr det. Var snail och gor det. A question may take 
 the place of the imperative. Ex.: Vill ni vara sd god 
 och gbra det?
 
 190 PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE XX 
 
 (4) The use of the past for the present (see 244) 
 belongs primarily to the spoken language. 
 
 (5) On the colloquial use of h&ller p& och see 245, 
 note 2, end. 
 
 EXERCISE XX. 
 
 Violanta was a strong and powerful girl who worked 
 cheerfully 1 , and all liked her. On Saturday evenings 
 when the work of the week was finished and the wheels 
 stopped, the people got permission to dance on the meadow 
 above the fall. The miller's servant played the fiddle. 
 He played faster and faster, to see how lightly Violanta 
 could whirl about and how high she could jump, and 
 then he laughed and said: "I believe you are swifter 
 than the mill-wheels themselves." 
 
 When Christmas came, all the people got their pay 
 and in addition a Christmas present. Violanta got a 
 pair of new shoes and also the dress-goods which the 
 miller had promised her. 
 
 [During] the entire Christmas period things were 
 lively 2 in the mill. There were visits 3 from other mills, 
 and all the boys that came were anxious to* dance with 
 Violanta. She was so young and beautiful, and could 
 dance like a whirlwind. The miller's servant had to 
 bring out 5 the fiddle all the time 6 , but while he played, 
 his eyes followed Violanta, and every time she went past 
 him, he sent a friendly word after her. 
 
 Then it happened one evening when Violanta was 
 dancing, that her braid fell down. She ran aside 7 to 
 braid it again, but when she came past the miller's serv- 
 
 1 Cheerfully med liv och lust. 5 Had to brine out maste fram med. 
 
 2 Gick det muntert till. 6 All the time standigt. 
 
 3 Det kom beso'k. 7 Aside sin vag. 
 
 4 Villegarna.
 
 XX PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE 19 1 
 
 ant, he cried out: "Well 1 , look at the wild waves of 
 the sea." "What do you mean by 2 that?" asked Vio- 
 lanta and stopped. "I mean only that your locks are 
 fluttering and rolling like the waves of the sea," he 
 said. But his words reminded Violanta of something that 
 she had forgotten, and after that evening she was not 
 as before. She went to her work more quietly, and no 
 longer danced with the same joy 8 . 
 
 When spring came, Violanta often went to the meadow 
 above the fall and sat down on the little bench under 
 the large blooming bird-cherry trees. * While she sat there 
 alone one evening, the miller's servant came walking 
 and asked that he might 4 sit beside her on the bench. 
 
 1 Nej. 3 Med samma lust. 
 
 2 Med. 4, Asked that he mieht bad att fa.
 
 1 92 AUXILIARIES 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 AUXILIARIES. 
 
 247. Several Swedish auxiliaries have somewhat more 
 complete forms than those of English, particularly in the 
 perfect system. The difficulty is thus in a number of 
 instances due to the English rather than the Swedish idi- 
 om. Most of the auxiliaries (all that are not strong) 
 have a past tense belonging to the Second Weak Con- 
 jugation 1 (see 194, 5). Their inflection is more or 
 less irregular. In several instances, moreover, forms 
 that have endings characteristic of the past tense are 
 used with present meaning. 
 
 248. Ha(va) (for conjugation see 194, 5, and 195, 
 note i) is in the simple tenses used with the supine of 
 all verbs to form the tenses of the per feet system. See 181. 
 
 Note. As an independent verb, hava means "have",. "possess"; 
 in this case it has also a present perfect tense, etc.; a.s,jag har haft. 
 
 249- Vara (see 200) may be used with the past 
 participle of transitive cursive verbs to form the auxil- 
 iary-passive. See 222. 
 
 Note. i. Vara is also employed as an independent verb, 
 meaning "be". Note especially its use with the past participle of 
 terminative verbs, both transitive (see 223, note) and intransitive 
 (see 241, note). 
 
 2. There is also a verb vara, conjugated according to the First 
 Weak Conjugation, meaning "last". Ex.: Stormen varade i fern 
 dagar. The storm lasted five days. Sd lange det varar as long 
 as it lasts. Det varade ej lange, innan jag m&rkle delta. It was 
 not long before I noticed this. 
 
 250. Bli(va) (see 138; 201, i) is employed with the 
 past participle of transitive verbs, to form the auxiliary- 
 passive. See 222. 
 
 1 One, far, has no past tense. Ma, maste. far and tor have no infinitive.
 
 XXI AUXILIARIES 193 
 
 Xote. i. The forms of bliva may be united with the present 
 participle of some verbs of position; as, bliva liggande fall pros- 
 trate, come to lie (there), remain (lying there); bliva sittande get 
 stuck, stick, remain seated, keep one's seat; bliva stdende stop, 
 come to a stand, remain standing. 
 
 2. As an independent verb, bliva means "become", "remain". 
 Ex.: Han blir nog frisk. He will get well, no doubt. Han blev 
 strax and. He at once became angry. Bliv ddr du dr. Stay 
 where you are. Hum lange blir du har? How long are you 
 going to stay here? Note especially the expression Idta bli, used 
 with att and the infinitive, or independently of an infinitive, mean- 
 ing "cease", "leave off". Ex.: Ldt bli! Don't. Ldt bit det dar! 
 Stop that. Ldt bli mig! Let me alone. Ldt bli att tala! Stop 
 talking. Don't talk. 
 
 251. Varda (see page 139, foot-note i) may be employed 
 in the past sing., in place of bliva t with the past participle 
 of transitive verbs, to form the auxiliary-passive. See 
 
 222. 
 
 Note. Varda (in the past singular) may be used as an inde- 
 pendent verb, and is in this case also limited to certain localities 
 (cf. 228, 5). Ex.: Han vart and. He became angry. 
 
 "2.") '2. Skola, pres. skall, skola; past skulle 1 ; supine skola f. 
 It denotes: 
 
 i. Futurity. The present of skola is sometimes used 
 with the present and perfect infinitive of verbs, to form 
 the future and future perfect tenses; see 136, 2; 185, 
 note i, and page 120, foot-note 3. The past of skola 
 followed by the present infinitive frequently denotes time 
 as future to a definite time in the past. 3 Ex.: Vi skulle 
 just ga till bords, da du kom. We were just going to 
 sit down to table when you came. Han sade, att han 
 skulle rcsa som i dag. He said that he was going to 
 leave to-day. 
 
 1 Cf. 194., 5. 
 
 2 Of infrequent occurrence. 
 
 3 Such past future time may be past, present or future to present time.
 
 194 AUXILIARIES 
 
 2. In the principal clause of an unreal conditional sen- 
 tence, skulk followed by the infinitive may be used in 
 place of the past ^-subjunctive. See 2 15. In this and 
 the following uses, skulle does not refer to past time. 
 
 3. Volition. Ex.: Vad skalljag gora f What shall I do? 
 fag skall ha del, trots honom. I will have it in spite of 
 him. Han skall, anting en han mil eller inte. He shall, 
 whether he wants to or not. Jag shall aldrig gora sa 
 mer. I will never again do that. Du skall icke driipa! 
 Thou shalt not kill. Aven om han ber mig pa sina bara 
 knan, sa shall han straffas. Even if he asks me on his 
 bare knees, he shall be punished. 
 
 4. Duty, obligation: Du skall vara radd om din halsa. 
 You ought to take good care of your health. Det skulle 
 du inte ha gjort. You should not have done that. Ni 
 skulle ha svarat honom, att . . . You should have answered 
 him that . . . Man skulle straffa honom. He ought to 
 be punished. 
 
 5. Reputation, general opinion: Hon skall vara mycket 
 rik. She is supposed to be very wealthy. Han skall 
 hava rest till Ame'rika. He is said to have gone to 
 America. 
 
 Note. i. The past perfect of skola is hade skolat. But Swedish 
 idiom prefers skulle ha (vantat) (cf. English) to hade skolat 
 (vanta} should have (waited). 
 
 2. Skola may also be used independently of an infinitive, par- 
 ticularly in the spoken language; the omitted infinitive in most 
 cases expresses motion, and there is an adverb or an adverbial 
 phrase to show its direction or end. Ex.: Jag shall hem. I shall 
 go home. Jag skall till stadcn i morgon. I shall go to town 
 to-morrow. Vart skall du han? Where are you going? Vad 
 
 shall du med den dar bokenf What do you want that book for? 
 
 Vad skulle han dar? What business had he there? Jag skall 
 upp klockan fyra i morgon bittida. I shall get up at four o'clock 
 to-morrow morning. Fram skall jag. I'm going to get there.
 
 XXI AUXILIARIES 195 
 
 253. Ma, matte 1 (does not refer to past time): 
 
 1. Ma and matte are used to express a wish, in place 
 of the ^-subjunctive. See 209; 214, i. 
 
 2. Ma (not matte} is used to express concession 2 . Ex.: 
 Det ma sd vara. It may very well be. Du ma gbra 
 som du vill. You may do as you please. Nu md fien- 
 derna gdrna komma. Now the enemy may come. 
 
 3. Matte (not ma} may express likelihood, supposition: 
 Det matte vara hemskt. It must be grewsome. Nu matte 
 han val vara framme. He must be there by this time, I 
 should think. Det matte val ej vara mojligt. It can't be 
 possible, can it? Den dar karlen matte vara stark. That 
 fellow must be strong. Hon matte vara sjuk. She must 
 be sick. Det har bldcket matte vara daligt. This must be 
 poor ink. 
 
 Note. There is another verb md (pres. mar, md; past mddde; 
 supine mdtt), belonging to the Third Weak Conjugation, which 
 means "do", "feel". Ex.: Hur mar du? How are you? 
 
 254. Kunna (see 138; 194, 5) denotes: 
 
 1. Ability. Ex.: Jag kan icke finna boken. I cannot 
 find the book. Jag kunde icke komma i gar. I couldn't 
 come yesterday. Du kunde nog komma, om du ville. 
 You could no doubt come if you wanted to. Jag har ej 
 kunnat hora ett ord. I have not been able to hear a 
 word. Denna lista hade latt kunnat goras langre. This 
 list could easily have been made longer. 
 
 2. Possibility: Jag kan misstaga mig. I may be mis- 
 taken. Det kan vara sant. It may be true. Sadant kan 
 hdnda. Such things will happen. Jag kunde just tro del. 
 I might have known that. 
 
 3. Permission: Nn kan du ga. Now you may go. 
 
 1 Cf. 194-, 5. 
 
 2 Rarely, the ^-subjunctive is so employed in the present tense.
 
 196 AUXILIARIES XXI 
 
 4. Habit, repeated action: Har kan vara mycket varmt. 
 It is sometimes very warm here. Han kunde sitta i timtal 
 och skriva. He would sit writing by the hour. 
 
 Note. i. The past perfect of kunna is hade kunnat. But 
 Swedish idiom prefers kunde ha (vantat] (cf. English) to hade 
 kunnat (vanta). Ex.: Jag kunde ha gjort (or hade kunnat gora) 
 det, men jag ville inte. I could have done it, but I didn't want to. 
 
 2. Kunna may also be used without a following infinitive 
 (="know"). Ex.: Kan du d in laxa ? Do you know 1 your lesson? 
 Han kan engelska. He knows English. 
 
 255. Vilja (see 137; 194, 5) denotes: 
 
 1. Volition. Ex.: Jag vill ga. I want to go. Jag bad 
 honom komma, men han ville inte. I asked him to come, 
 but he didn't want to. Han mile, att jag skulle vanta. 
 He wanted me to wait. Gbr som du mil. Do as you wish. 
 Hur mycket vill du ha f How much do you want ? Vad 
 mil du, att han skall gora ? What do you want him to 
 do? Vill du vara sa^god och hjalpa mig? Please help me. 
 Min klocka mil inte ga. My watch won't run. Veden vill 
 inte brinna. The wood won't burn. Det vill saga that is. 
 
 2. Modest statement: Jag ville heist traffa honom i dag. 
 I should prefer to see him to-day. Du ville vdl inte vara 
 snail och be honom komma f Would you kindly ask him 
 to come? 
 
 Note. Vilja is frequently used independently of an infinitive, 
 particularly in the spoken language; cf. 252, note 2. Ex.: Det 
 vill jag inte. I don't want to (do it). Jag vill dig vdl. I wish 
 you well. Vad vill du mig? What do you want with me? Hunden 
 vill in. The dog wants to get in. Vart vill ni? Where do you 
 want to go? Vill du medf Do you want to go along? 
 
 256. Maste 2 , supine mast. Maste refers to past as well 
 as to present and future time. Ex.: Nu mas te jag ga. 
 Now I must go. Du mdste komma genast. You'll have 
 
 1 Other words meaning "know", but not usable here, are vetci. kiinna. 
 
 2 Cf. 194-, 5.
 
 XXI AUXILIARIES 197 
 
 to come at once. Jag kunde ej komma, ty jag mastc 
 skriva brev. I couldn't come, for I had to write some 
 letters. Jag hade mast vanta, om jag velat traffa honom. 
 I should have been obliged to wait if I had wanted to 
 see him. 
 
 Note. i. For the missing infinitive, other verbs must be em- 
 ployed, as nodgas, vara tvungen. 
 
 2. On fd lov alt see 262, 2 end. 
 
 3. Mdste is sometimes used without a dependent infinitive, par- 
 ticularly in the spoken language; cf. 252, note 2; 255, note. Ex.: 
 Jag m&ste hem. I must go home. 
 
 257. Lar, plur. lara, expresses relatively certain like- 
 lihood or probability, generally such as is based on report. 
 Ex.: Han lar vara hemkommen. People say that he has 
 returned. Vi lara fa krig. They say that we are going 
 to have war. Jag lar aldrig mera frterse honom. I am 
 not likely to see him again. Han lar vara sjuk. He is 
 reported to be sick. Du lar ha sagt detta. You are 
 reported to have said this. 
 
 258. Tor, plur. tora,- past torde 1 . Both tor and torde 
 refer to present time; tor is less frequently used, being 
 somewhat archaic. Also this word denotes likelihood or 
 probability (a lesser degree than that denoted by/ar). 
 Ex.: Han tor komma snart. He will perhaps come 
 soon. Det torde icke vara omojligt. I dare say it would 
 not be impossible. Ni tor veta, vad jag menar. I dare 
 say you know what I mean. Som man torde erinra sig as 
 will probably be remembered. Denna asikt torde vara 
 ratt alhnan. This view is no doubt pretty general. Ytter- 
 ligare exem'pel torde vara overflodiga. Further examples 
 are hardly necessary. 
 
 Note. This idea is very often expressed by adverbs; as, nog, 
 allt, visst. 
 
 1 See 194, 2 and 5, and page 130, foot-note 3.
 
 198 AUXILIARIES XXI 
 
 259- Bora, pres. bor, bora; past borde 1 ; supine bort. 
 Borde almost always 2 denotes the same kind of time 
 as bor. This word denotes: 
 
 1. Duty, propriety. Ex.: Du borde skammas. You ought 
 to be ashamed. Man bor halla sitt lofte. One should 
 keep one's promise. Han borde ing en mat fa. He ought 
 not to have any food. Bor jag gbra del? Ought I to do 
 that? Det hade i sa fall bort uttryckligen sagas if ran. It 
 ought in that case to have been expressly stated. 
 
 2. Expectation, calculation: Taget bor vara har om fyra 
 minu'fer. The train should be here in four minutes. A 
 little later: Nu borde del vara har. Now it ought to, 
 be here. 
 
 Note. The past perfect of bora is hade bort, but Swedish 
 idiom prefers borde ha (vantat) (cf. English) to hade bort ( vanta ). 
 Ex.: Han borde ha gjort (or hade bort gora} del. He ought to 
 have done it. Delta borde dttnin' stone ha omnamnts. This ought 
 at least to have been mentioned. 
 
 260. Lata (see 200) is used to express: 
 
 1. The first person plural of the imperative in the 
 form lat (or latoni) with the infinitive. See 243. 
 
 2. Permission and concession: Jag lat honom ej gora 
 det. I didn't let him do it. Lat honom sova. Let him 
 sleep. Lat det vara. Let the matter rest. Never mind. 
 Lat sa vara. Granted. Very well. Lat vara, att . . . 
 What though . . . Cf. lata bit; see 250, note 2 end. 
 
 3. "Cause some one to do a thing." Ex.: Jag har latit 
 dig vanta. I have kept you waiting. Jag har latit sy 
 mig en rock. I have had a coat made. Jag Hit laga roc- 
 ken. I had my coat mended. 
 
 1 See 194, 2 and 5, and page 130, foot-note 3. 
 
 2 Except sometimes in subordinate clauses.
 
 XXI AUXILIARIES 199 
 
 Note. There is another verb Idta conjugated in the same way, 
 meaning "sound". 
 
 261. Komma (see 200) expresses: 
 
 1. Futurity, with att and the infinitive. See 136, i. 
 
 2. "Happen to", almost exclusively in the past tense. 
 Ex.: Han kom att ga forbi' . He happened to pass by. 
 Jag kom att rora vid karaffi'nen, och sa foil den i golvet. 
 I happened to touch the water-bottle, and (then) it 
 fell to the floor. 
 
 3. "Cause some one to do a thing." Ex.: Han kom 
 mig att tro den dar histo'rien. He got me to believe that 
 story. Lejonets rytande kom askadarna att darra. The 
 roaring of the lion caused the spectators to shudder. 
 
 Note. As an independent verb, komma means "come". 
 
 262. Fa (see 203, i) expresses: 
 
 1. Permission. Ex.: Far jag ga? May I go? Far man 
 rbka hdrf Is smoking permitted here? (Lit.: May one 
 smoke here?) Det far du icke. No, you must not. Inga 
 oforskamdheter, om jag far be. No insolence, please. 
 
 2. Necessity: Du far stanna hemma. You will have to 
 stay at home. Man far t&la mycket har i varlden. One 
 has to put up with a great deal in this life. Som gosse 
 fick han ofta svalta. As a boy he often had to go with- 
 out food. Han kommer att fa vanta. He will have to 
 wait. Om du ej hade haft intradesbiljett, hade du fatt stan- 
 na utanfor. If you hadn't had a ticket, you would have 
 had to stay outside. Jag hade rivit sbnder min nya rock; 
 jag fick ga nt i den gamla. I had torn my new coat; I 
 had to wear the old one. Frequently fa lov att 1 is used 
 with the same meaning. 
 
 1 Fa lav may also, especially in questions, mean "get permission". Ex.: 
 F&rjae lw ? May I ? Om jag far l<rv if I may.
 
 200 AUXILIARIES XXI 
 
 3. With the infinitive of the verbs hora, se, vcta it 
 denotes the beginning of the action of these verbs. Ex.: 
 Jag fick veta det i gar. I learned of it yesterday. Vi fa 
 se. We shall see. Sd snart jag far se honom. As soon as 
 I see (catch sight of) him. 
 
 4. "Get some one to do a thing." Ex.: Jag fick 
 honom inte att saga ett ord. I couldn't get him to say a 
 word. 
 
 Note. As an independent verb, fd means "get", "receive", 
 "obtain". 
 
 263. COLLOQUIALISMS. After the supine of modal aux- 
 iliaries (sometimes also of other verbs) the spoken lan- 
 guage frequently employs another supine in place of the 
 normal infinitive. Ex.: Jag har inte kunnat hbrt (for 
 hora) ett ord. I have not been able to hear a word. Jag 
 hade bort sagt (for saga) det foru't. I ought to have said 
 it before. Flickan hade fatt salt (for s'dlja*} sina tdndstickor. 
 The girl had succeeded in getting her matches sold. Om 
 jag bara hade kunnat sluppit (for slippa) ifra'n det har. 
 I wish I could have gotten out of this. 
 
 EXERCISE XXI. 
 
 At first he sat there for a long time and was silent, 
 as if it were hard for him to utter that which 1 he 
 wanted to say, but at last it came. He then asked Vio- 
 lanta humbly whether she would not be able to love 
 him a little, and become his wife. 
 
 If Violanta promised to become his wife, he would prom- 
 ise to make her whole life as happy as a dance. "Why, 
 we two are 2 as [if] made 3 for each other," he said. Vio- 
 lanta seemed surprised, almost a bit frightened. She had 
 never thought that she and the miller's servant were as 
 
 1 Som om han hade svart att 2 Vi tva aro ju . . . 
 
 komma fram med, vad ... 3 Use a form of "skapa" (i).
 
 XXI AUXILIARIES 2OI 
 
 [if] made for each other. But when she looked at his 
 face and saw how sincerely he meant it, she asked him 
 to come early the next morning 1 to the same place, and 2 
 she would give him her answer. And with that he would 
 have to be satisfied. 3 
 
 Early the next morning before the sun was up, Vio- 
 lanta went down to the meadow by the river. She bent 
 down over the waves so that the foam blew into her 
 face 4 . "Whither are you hurrying away?" she whispered. 
 "Whither are you hurrying away?" "To the wild waves 
 of the sea. To the wild waves of the sea," answered 
 the river and rushed on. "Oh, yes," said Violanta aloud 
 and spread out her arms. "I too am going there." 
 
 And then she tied her kerchief about her hair and 
 began to run a > fast as she could along the narrow path 
 which led through the pastures along the river. 
 
 When the sun rose, the miller's servant rose also, and 
 went down to the meadow by the fall. Not finding Vio- 
 lanta there, 5 he smiled and thought: "She'll come, all 
 right . The sun has just risen." He sat there until the 
 noonday sun glowed on the water, and when she still was 
 not to be seen 7 , he sighed and thought: "She will come, 
 no doubt 6 . The sun has not yet set." But when the 
 sun at last set, he wept and thought: "She will never 
 come." And she never came. 
 
 1 Nasta morgon. 5 Use a clause -with a finite form of 
 
 2 Sa. the -verb; see 239, note 1. 
 
 3 Och darmed mAste ban lAta 6 Nog. 
 
 sig noja. 7 IVas not to be seen icke syntes till. 
 
 4 Into her face henne i ansiktet.
 
 202 PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS XXII 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 PERSONAL,, POSSESSIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 264. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. These 
 have the following forms: 
 
 NOM. 
 
 fag 
 
 du 
 ni 
 han 
 hon 
 den, det 
 vi 
 I, ni 
 j a 
 
 OBJ. 
 mig 
 dig 
 er 
 honom 
 henne 
 = Nom. 
 
 OSS 
 
 eder, er 
 
 GEN. 
 
 POSSESSIVE 
 min, mitt, mina 
 din, ditt, dina 
 er, ert, era; (eder, edert, cdra 
 
 hans 
 hennes 
 dess 
 
 
 
 vdr, vart, vdra 
 eder, edert, edra; er, ert, era 
 
 The special reflexive for the third person, singular 
 and plural, is: 
 
 sig - sin, sitt, sina 
 
 Note i. On the use of these pronouns see 32, note; 35; 36; 
 49; 61; 62; 186 ff.; cf. 127. 
 
 2. The neuter det may be used to represent any word or ex- 
 pression. Ex.: Pojken hade fallit i vattnet, men han tordes inte 
 tala om det. The boy had fallen into the water, but he didn't 
 dare tell it. Det ar farligt att profete'ra, och jag vagar det inte. 
 It is dangerous to prophesy, and I don't dare do it. Han ar ingen 
 
 forfat'tare, men han onskar bli det. He is not an author, but he 
 wants to be one. Om nagon kanner sig sjuk, ar han det natu'r- 
 ligtvis. If anyone feels sick, he is sick, of course. 
 
 3. In constructions for emphasis with det ar, det var, followed 
 by a personal pronoun and a relative clause, the personal pronoun 
 is put in the objective case by attraction, if the following relative 
 is the object, that is, if the personal pronoun in the unemphatic 
 construction would be the object; the relative pronoun is usually
 
 XXII PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 203 
 
 omitted. Ex.: Dct ar dig, han vill traffa. 1 (Cf. Han vill traffa 
 dig.) You are the one he wants to see. Det ar dig, han ar ond 
 pd. 1 You are the one he is angry at. Det ar oss, han talar om. 1 
 He is talking about us. Det var henne, jag sdg i g&r. She is 
 the one I saw yesterday. 
 
 4. On the use of adverbial compounds in place of personal pro- 
 nouns depending upon a preposition, see 172, i, note 2. 
 
 5. In the second person, a genitive E(de)rs occurs with a few 
 titles; as, E(de)rs majest&'t Your Majesty, E(de}rs ndd Your Grace. 
 
 6. Particularly before derogatory words, Swedish generally uses 
 a possessive pronoun of the second person (rarely one of the first 
 person), in cases where English employs the personal pronoun; as, 
 din lymmel you rascal, era bytingar you urchins, era stackare you 
 wretches, ditt dumhuvud you blockhead. 
 
 7. The plural form of the possessive pronouns 2 used without a 
 following noun may be preceded by the prepositive definite arti- 
 cle; these expressions embrace the members of the family, relatives, 
 and persons, of one's immediate surroundings: de mina, de di- 
 na, de vara, de sina; gen. dc minas, etc. But de e(d)ra cannot 
 be so used. Ex.: Hur star det till med de dina? How are your 
 people? Det var hemskt att sitta ensam i sena kvallen for hen- 
 ne, som nyss hade dromt sig omgiven av alia de sina. It was 
 grewsome to sit alone in the late evening for her who had just 
 dreamt herself surrounded by all her kindred. 
 
 8. The pronoun varan' dra each other, one another, is used 
 with the plural verb-forms of transitive verbs to express the recip- 
 rocal idea. 3 Varan'dra is used either of two or more than two. 
 In the genitive it adds -s. Ex. : De alskade varan'dra. They 
 loved each other. Vi fa hjiilpa varan'dra. We shall have to 
 help each other. / likncn varan'dra. You resemble each other. 
 
 9. On the use of sjalv see 187, note, and 149, note. Sjalv 
 may omit t in the neuter, particularly in certain phrases; as, av 
 sig sjalv, for sig sjalv. Ex.: Barnet gdr det av sig sj&lv. The 
 child does it of its own accord. 
 
 1 Cf. Det ar du, som vill triiffa honom. Det ar du, som iir ond fa honom. 
 Det dr ri. som tala out honom. 
 
 2 The genitives of the personal pronouns of the third person cannot he 
 so used. 
 
 3 In a number of verbs, Swedish employs the ending -s to express the 
 reciprocal idea; see 225, note 1.
 
 204 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS XXII 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 265. GENERAL RULE. Adjective pronouns, like adjec- 
 tives, are not inflected in regard to case, but substantive 
 pronouns have a genitive ending in -s. Pronouns that can 
 be used either substantively or adjectively may have the 
 genitive when used as nouns but not when employed as 
 adjectives. This rule applies to all the classes of pronouns 
 treated in the following pages (demonstrative, relative, in- 
 terrogative, indefinite). Observe also the objective plural 
 form dem of the demonstrative, used only substantively. 
 
 266. The demonstratives are denna this, this one 1 , 
 den that, that one, den hd'r this (one), den da'r that 
 (one), samma the same, densam'ma* the same. Sannna 
 is used only as an adjective; the others are used both 
 substantively and adjectively. They have forms as follows: 
 
 COMMON NEUTER PLURAL 
 
 denna (-<?) delta dessa 
 
 *denn&s* (-<?-0 ^-deltas *dessas 
 
 den 
 *dess, *dens 
 
 del 
 *<&ss 
 
 dc 
 *der&s 
 *dcm 
 
 den iia r 
 
 del ha' r 
 
 de Jiii'r 
 
 den da'r 
 
 del da'r 
 
 dc dar 
 
 samma (-^) 
 
 samma 
 
 samma 
 
 densam'ma (-<?) 
 *densam'mas (-es) 
 
 detsam' ma 
 *dctsam' mas 
 
 desanfma 
 
 ^desam' mas 
 
 1 See foot-note 3, page 227. 
 
 2 Some write 'den samma, using densamma only in the use described in note 6. 
 
 3 The forms preceded by an asterisk are used only substantively (see 
 265). When these pronouns are employed substantively, all the forms 
 given are used; when they are employed adjectively, only the forms not 
 preceded by an asterisk are used.
 
 XXII DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 205 
 
 Note. i. The forms ending in -e, -es (denne, samme, den- 
 sam'me) are used when the reference is to persons of the male sex. 1 
 Cf. 151, 8 b and c. Ex.: Denne gosse ar sjuk. This boy is 
 sick. Det ar samme man, jag sag i g&r. It is the same man I 
 saw yesterday. Han ar alltid densam'me. He is always the same. 
 
 2. The genitive dess, which is used only in referring to things, 
 is rare as a demonstrative; when this form occurs, it is usually the 
 genitive of the personal pronoun (see 264; 67, 3). The geni- 
 tive dens is used only when a determinative (restrictive) clause 
 follows (see 267); it refers to persons. 
 
 3. On the use of den ha'r, den da'r, see 273, 5, with reference. 
 These pronouns have no genitive even when used substantively, and 
 no objective plural, to correspond to the forms dess, deras, dem 
 of the pronoun den. Ex.: Tag de Mr. Take these. De ddr rill 
 jag inte ha. I don't want those. 
 
 4. Densam'ma (-<?) is almost always used substantively, samma 
 (-e) only as an attributive adjective. Observe that densam'ma, 
 though used substantively, does not have an objective form in the 
 plural, corresponding to dem, from den; cf. the preceding note. 
 The ending is in both these words that of the ordinary definite 
 form of the adjective. Ex.: Ar den dar boken densam'ma, som lag 
 pa ditt bord i g&r? Is that book the same one that lay on your 
 table yesterday? Varje morgon borjar samma tragna arbete vid 
 samma tidiga timme. Every morning the same hard work begins 
 at the same early hour. Vi kommo pd samma gang. We came 
 at the same time. For further examples see note i. 
 
 5. In referring back to a word that is not in the subject-relation, 
 dcnna is often used as a personal proncun of the third person, in 
 order to preclude ambiguity, the personal pronouns (/tan, Aon, den, 
 del, de) usually refer to the subject of a previous clause. Ex.: Fa- 
 dern skrev till sin son, att denne mdste resa hem. The father wrote 
 to his son, that he (the son) had to come home. D& objek'tet 
 utgores av ett perso'nligt prono'men, stdr delta alltid i objekliv. 
 When the object consists of a personal pronoun, it (the pers. pron.) 
 is always in the objective form. Om en hast skyggar for en veloci- 
 pe'dryttare, bor denne genast stiga av. If a horse shies at a cyclist, 
 he (the cyclist) should at once dismount. Cf. Om en velocipe'dryt- 
 
 1 In the dictionaries these pronouns will be found under the forms denne.
 
 206 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS XXII 
 
 tare moter en skyggande hast, bor han genast stiga av. If a cy- 
 clist meets a timid horse, he should at once dismount. 
 
 6. Densam'ma is sometimes used in place of the personal pro- 
 nouns of the third person, particularly in long sentences; when sc 
 employed, it is usually for variety or for clearness. Jag sprang till- 
 ba'ka till skrivbordet, drag ut den Idda, dar jag en gdng lagt ned 
 nyckeln, och borjade leta efter densam'ma. I ran back to the 
 desk, opened the drawer into which I once had put the key, and 
 began to look for it. Ehu'ru framstallningen av ellip'sens natu'r 
 egen'tligen tillhor formlaran, torde det dock vara lampligt att heir 
 redogorafor densam'mas forna'msta typer. Although the descrip- 
 tion of the nature of ellipsis really belongs to accidence, it is per- 
 haps in order to give here an account of its leading types. 
 
 267- VARIOUS USES OF DEMONSTRATIVES. Besides its 
 ordinary demonstrative use, of which an example is given 
 in 268, the pronoun den may be used as the antecedent 
 of a determinative (restrictive) clause. 1 In this case it 
 is usually rendered into English by "he" or "the one", 
 when used substantively, and by "the" when used adjec- 
 tively. The genitive singular is in the determinative use 
 dens, which form can be u.sed only in this way. 2 Ex.: Den 
 asikten, att solen gar runt om jorden, ar langesedan bvergivcn. 
 The theory that the sun passes around the earth is long 
 dead. Det land* m kalla vart the land we call ours. De 
 prono'mina, 3 m nu tala om, kallas determinate va. The pro- 
 nouns we are now talking about are called determinative 
 pronouns. Jag har den dran att gratule'ra. Allow me 
 to congratulate you. (Lit.: I have the honor . . . ). 
 Den, som kommer sist, far inte mycket. The one who 
 comes last won't get much. Den ar adlast, som forst 
 racker handen till fdrso'ning. He is noblest who first ex- 
 tends his hand in reconciliation. De, som aro rika, 
 
 1 Also other pronouns may be so used, but such use calls for no comment 
 in the case of these, there being no difference in idiom between the two 
 languages. 
 
 2 Cf. 266, note 2. 
 
 3 Relative pronoun omitted; see 281.
 
 XXII DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 207 
 
 dro icke alltid lyckliga. Those who are rich are not always 
 happy. Ratta dig efter dens rad, soni vill ditt basta. 
 Follow the advice of him who wishes you well. Start 
 ar deras antal, som blivit svikna. I/arge is the number 
 of those who have been deceived. 
 
 Note. I. The neuter singular of demonstratives may be used 
 as the subject, irrespective of the number and gender of a predicate 
 noun. Ex.: Detta ar sanima hund, som jag sdg i gar. This is the 
 same dog I saw yesterday. Det har ar en gammal bok. This is 
 an old book. Det dar var en bra hast. That is a good horse. Det 
 arinin bror. That is my brother. Det ar 1 alia stolar, z jag har 
 kunnat anskaffa. Those are all the chairs I have been able to 
 get. Ar 1 det dina barn? Are those your children? Detta ar 1 
 svarta korsbdr. These are black cherries. 
 
 2. The neuters det and detta may be used to represent any word 
 or expression. Ex.: Jag ar gammal. Det (= gammal) ar du for 
 restcn ocksa. I am old. So are you, for that matter. Han ar 
 skomakare. Det var hans far ocksd. He is a shoemaker. So 
 was his father. Man bor gora sitt basta. Det kan vem som heist 
 gora. One should do one's best. Any one (at all) can do that. 
 Han vill bli lakare, men det passar han inte till. He wants to 
 be a physician, but he isn't cut out for that. 
 
 3. On the use of adverbial compounds in place of demonstra- 
 tives depending upon a preposition, see 172, i, note 2. 
 
 268. When these demonstratives are used as adjec- 
 tives, the following noun is put in the definite form, 
 except in the case of denna (-e) and samma (-e~). Ex.: 
 Den tavlan ar vackrast. That picture is the prettiest. Bor 
 du i det har husct? Do you live in this house? On the 
 other hand: Detta ar mitt sista ord i denna sak. , This is 
 my last word in this matter. Denna vackra stad ar 
 Sveriges huvudstad. This beautiful city is the capital of 
 Sweden. Det ar samme man. It is the same man. Vi 
 kunna ju ga samma vag. We might go the same way. 
 
 1 Note that the verb is in the singular, and not in the plural, as is the 
 case in German. 
 
 2 See page 206, foot-note 3.
 
 208 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS XXII 
 
 Note. i. Den is followed by the noun in the indefinite form 
 when it is the antecedent of a determinative (restrictive) relative 1 
 clause. Ex.: De gossar, som vilja folja med, fd rack a upp handen. 
 The boys who want to go along may hold up their hands. Kellgren 
 angrcp haftigt de* svenska skalder, som icke diktade efter franska 
 monster. Kellgren attacked vigorously the Swedish poets that did 
 not write after French models. De former, av vilka ovriga bil- 
 das, kallas temaformer. The forms from which the rest are made, 
 are called the principal parts. Den sak, (som) du taladc om the 
 matter you were speaking of. Jag har sett del stdlle, varonfi du 
 talar. I have seen the place you are speaking of. Del arbete, 
 varmed 3 du ar sysselsatt, synes aldrig bli fdrdigt. The work in 
 which you are engaged seems never to become finished. Atskilli- 
 ga Idnord behdl'la den plura'l, de ha i det sprdk, varifrdn 3 de 
 lanats. Several loan-words retain the plural-ending they have in 
 the language from which they have been borrowed. Den tid, dd 
 vapen och verktyg huvudsakligen gjordes av sten, har kallats sten- 
 dldern. The period when weapons and implements were made 
 chiefly of stone has been called the Stone Age. Den bok, jag nu 
 laser z, ar rolig. The book I am now reading is amusing. Den 
 plats, dar han tillbragt natten. The place where he has (or had) 
 spent the night. Den dag skall komma, dd du far dngra detta. 
 The day will come when you will be sorry for this. 
 
 2. On the form of adjectives that follow demonstrative pro- 
 nouns (except those of 269) see 147, 2. 
 
 269. OTHER DEMONSTRATIVES. In addition to the 
 pronouns of 266, the following adjectives have demonstra- 
 tive meaning: sadan such; likadan* similar, of the same 
 sort; dylik such, similar. These are never put in the def- 
 inite form. Both adjectives and nouns following these have 
 the indefinite form. These pronouns may be preceded by 
 
 1 Including clauses introduced by a relative adverb of time or place. 
 But the demonstrative den is almost always (except in certain phrases) 
 followed by the noun in the def. form -when a clause introduced by att (fol- 
 lowed by the indicative) follows. Similarly, -when an infinitive follows the 
 noun, the latter rarely has the indefinite form. See the examples in 267. 
 
 2 Note that de is not the prepositive article here, which it would be if the 
 noun had definite form; the meaning of the sentence would then be different. 
 
 3 See 281, note 3. 
 
 4? Li'kadan or likada'n.
 
 T LKY 
 
 XXII DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 209 
 
 the indefinite article; observe in this case the difference in 
 word-order in connection with the English "such". Ex.: 
 Sadana djur har du veil aldrig sett fbru' t. I suppose you 
 have never seen such animals before. En sadan bok such 
 a book. Han ar ej en sadan, som du tror. He is not such 
 a one as you think. Sddant duger icke. Such a thing 
 won't do. Han talade om vadret och annat dylikt. He 
 talked about the weather and other things like that. 
 
 270. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS. Note the following 
 expressions connected with demonstratives: det gbr (ar) 
 detsam'ma it doesn't matter, it makes no difference; z" det- 
 sam'ma just then, at that moment; med detsam'ma at 
 once; till dess till then; innan dess before that; sedan 
 dess since then; cf. dess (battre}, 175; den trettonde den- 
 nes the thirteenth instant. 
 
 271- SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS USES OF "DEN". 
 In previous lessons we have seen den employed: 
 
 (1) adjectively, as the prepositive definite article 
 (forms, den, det, de)\ 
 
 (2) substantively, as a personal pronoun (forms, den, 
 det, de, dem, dess, deras~). In both these uses it is 
 unstressed. 
 
 Thirdly, we have in this lesson seen it employed as a 
 demonstrative pronoun. As such it may be used either 
 adjectively or substantively. When used adjectively, its 
 forms are identical with those of the prepositive definite 
 article. When used substantively, it has forms identical 2 
 with those of the personal pronoun. The demonstrative 
 pronoun is stressed (except, frequently, in the use men- 
 tioned in 267). In short: 
 
 1 In addition, certain of the substantive forms of den may be used as 
 a relative pronoun; see the following lesson. 
 
 2 The demonstrative pronoun has, in addition, the form dens: see 266, 
 note 2.
 
 210 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS , XXII 
 
 ADJECTIVE USE SUBSTANTIVE USE 
 (den, det, de) (den, del, de, dem, dess, deras) 
 
 Stressed: Demonstrative Demonstrative 
 Unstress. : Prepos. article Personal pronoun 
 
 212. ACCENT. Sadan has the acute accent. Samma 
 and densam'ma may have either the acute or the grave 
 accent; varan' dra usually has the grave accent. Eder 
 (objective) usually has the acute accent; eder (possess- 
 ive) usually has the grave accent. 
 
 273- COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Colloquial matters relating 
 to pronouns have been treated above, 39, i, 2 and 6; 
 53, 4 and 5; 67, i, 3 and 4; 191, 5 and 6. 
 
 (2) In easy speech the objective form of the personal 
 pronouns may be used after an and som. Ex.: Han dr 
 dldre an mig. He is older than I. 
 
 (3) Primarily in the spoken language the personal pro- 
 noun as a subject is often repeated. Ex.: Han dr inte 
 dum, han. He is not such a blockhead either. Din 
 stackars mor har aldrig sett nagot annat an Vdrmland, 
 hon. Your poor mother has never seen anything else 
 than Varmland. 
 
 (4) The objective form eder of the personal pronoun 
 belongs to the elevated style, er being the form other- 
 wise used. On the contrary, the forms eder, edert, edra 
 of the possessive pronoun are employed beyond the limits 
 of elevated style, occurring not infrequently in the ordi- 
 nary written and spoken language beside the shorter 
 forms er, ert, era. Easy speech, however, always has 
 the shorter forms of the possessives. 
 
 (5) Den ddr is in the spoken language and frequently 
 in the written language used instead of the demonstra- 
 tive den; cf. 39, i.
 
 XXII DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 211 
 
 (6) The genitives dess and dens are not used in the 
 spoken language; cf. 67, 3, on the use of dess as gen- 
 itive of the personal pronoun of the third person. 
 
 (7) When denna is employed in the spoken language 1 
 (cf. 39, i; 67, i), it is regularly followed by the noun 
 in the definite form. 
 
 (8) In the spoken language, den is followed by the 
 noun in the definite form also when it is the antecedent of 
 a restrictive relative clause (cf. 268, note i). In place 
 of den followed by the noun in the definite form, merely 
 the definite form of the noun is preferred in the spoken 
 language when the noun is not modified by an adjec- 
 tive. Ex.: Ge mig boken, som ligger darbor'ta. Give me 
 the book that is lying over there. Jag bar in alia mina 
 saker i rummet, dar jag skidle bo. I carried all my things 
 into the room where I was to live. 
 
 SUMMARY: 
 
 WRITTEN SPOKEN 
 
 [den boken, som, or 
 (Without adj.)<fr bok, som \boken, som 
 
 (With adj.) den nya bok, som den nya boken, som 
 
 (9) The demonstrative pronoun dylik is foreign to the 
 spoken language. So also expressions like den trettonde 
 demies ( 270). 
 
 (10) In the spoken language, samma en is frequently 
 used in place of the substantive densam'ma. The use of 
 denna and densam'ma, mentioned in 266, notes 5 and 6, 
 is entirely foreign to spoken Swedish. 
 
 (u) In easy speech, sadan may be shortened to s&n 
 (vowel long or short). 
 
 1 In the spoken language, denna is used chiefly in Southern and Western 
 Sweden.
 
 212 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS XXII 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. 
 
 But Violanta followed the course of the stream through 
 pastures and groves, over fields and plains. And then the 
 river came to a long range of green hills. When Violanta 
 and the river arrived at the other side [of] the hills 1 , 
 [there] lay a beautiful region before them. Meadows full 
 of tall grass and fragrant flowers spread out under oaks 
 and linden-trees, and right on 2 the very prettiest meadow 
 [there] was a large white house in a flower-garden. 
 
 Violanta saw that in the shadow of a large chestnut - 
 tree [there] reclined a woman in an easy-chair reading 
 a book. She was tall and slender, and very pale. Her 
 black eyelashes cast a shadow on her white cheeks, and 
 over her black hair she had a violet-colored veil. Her 
 dress was of the softest silk 3 . 
 
 She lay so quiet that Violanta at first thought that 
 she was sleeping. But all of a sudden she looked up 
 with a pair of large, thoughtful eyes. "Come closer," 
 she said with [a] gentle voice and extended her hand. It 
 was a slender, white hand, on which 4 [there] flashed a 
 blue jewel. "Whither are you running in the summer's 
 heat 5 ?" she asked. Violanta stopped, warm and out of 
 breath 6 . "To the wild waves of the sea," she answered. 
 "Oh yes," 7 said the beautiful lady and smiled, "so 
 many go that way 8 , but they rarely come back. You had 
 better stay 9 with me; I may need 10 you, and it is good 
 to be here; the longer you stay with me, the more it 
 will please you." 
 
 1 Pa andra sidan kullarna. 6 Out of breath andfadd. 
 
 2 Mitt pa. 7 Jasa. 
 
 3 Use prepositive, but no post- 8 Place the Swedish for that way im- 
 positive, article mediately after smiled. 
 
 4, On -which varpa. 9 Stanna du hellre. 
 
 5 Sommarvarpie. 10 Jag kan beho'va.
 
 XXII DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 213 
 
 Then Violanta asked in what way 1 she could help 
 her, for she thought that this was a good place. "Well, 
 you see 2 ," answered the stranger, "I lie here quietly 
 under the trees. I can see both the sky and the earth 
 and the river; and I can read about all the wonders of 
 nature in this book. But I lack one thing. 3 I cannot 
 walk, but must always lie still." 
 
 1 PA vilket satt. 3 Men ett fattas mig. 
 
 2 Invert, "ser du".
 
 214 RELATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 274. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1 T fle relative pronouns 
 are som, vilken, vad, den, den' dar and the genitive vars. 
 
 275. Som, which is used only substantively, is the 
 relative pronoun occurring most frequently. It is inde- 
 clinable, and may be used in referring both to persons 
 and to things, and to nouns of either gender or number, 
 both in the subject and object relation. But it cannot 
 stand in the genitive relation, the other relatives that 
 have genitive forms being used instead. It may be gov- 
 erned by a preposition, but the preposition must always 
 follow, standing at the end of the clause. As a rule, the 
 use of the other relative pronouns is avoided when som can 
 be used. Ex.: Han ar en van, som jag kan lita pa. 
 He is a friend on whom I can depend. Alia, som kanna 
 Jionom, veta aft han ar palitlig. All who know him, 
 know that he is reliable. Detta ar ett dmne, som ar svart 
 att behan'dla. This is a subject that is hard to treat. 
 For further examples see 267; 268, note i. 
 
 Note. After superlatives, and personal and indefinite pronouns, 
 som is the relative regularly used. Ex.: Detta ar den vackraste 
 stad, som jag nagonsin sett. This is the most beautiful city I 
 have ever seen. Ingen, som vill ga, beho'ver stanna hemma. No 
 one who wants to go, need stay at home. Ar det ndgon, som vet 
 det? Is there anyone who knows it? 
 
 276. Vilken, which may be used either adjectively 
 or substantively (usually the latter 2 ), referring either to 
 persons or things, has the following forms: 
 
 1 Concerning indefinite relatives see 309. 
 
 2 Vilken is the only adjective pronoun among the relatives in Swedish, 
 but, as in English, adjectival relatives are not of frequent occurrence.
 
 XXIII RELATIVE PRONOUNS 215 
 
 COMMON NEUTER PLURAL 
 
 vilken v it kef* vilka 
 
 *vilkens l *vilkets* *vilkas 
 
 This pronoun is not of nearly so frequent occurrence 
 as som. However, when an adjectival relative pronoun 
 is needed, vilken must be used. As a substantive pro- 
 noun it must be employed in place of som when the 
 antecedent is a clause. 4 Ex.: (Adj.) Sverige slot sig 1835 
 till England och Frankrike, vilka stater da voro Rysslands 
 fiender. In 1855 Sweden allied itself with England and 
 France, which countries were at that time hostile to Russia. 
 (Subst.) Konung Erik frigav sin broder Johan, vilkefi han 
 sedan angrade. King Eric released his brother John, 
 a thing which he afterwards regretted. 
 
 Note. i. To some extent, vilken (in its substantive use) and som 
 are used interchangeably. 5 In some cases, vilken may even be used 
 to advantage: (a) Its use sometimes prevents ambiguity. Because 
 it is inflected, it is generally clear what the antecedent is, while 
 with som this may be doubtful. Ex.: Fonstren p& huset, vilka vi 
 bctrak'tade. The windows which we were looking at in the house. 
 Ett miirkligt tidens tecken tiro ocksd de stravanden till inforande 
 av ett geme'nsamt varldssprdk, vilka Idnge Idtit hora av sig. A 
 notable sign of the times are also the attempts to introduce a 
 universal language which have long been heard of. (b) Sometimes 
 it may be advantageously used for the sake of euphony, when 
 som, as a relative or as a conjunction, stands near. Ex.: Hans 
 slaktingar, som nu kornmit hit och vilka han ej sett pd lange, 
 aro mycket rika. His relatives, who have now come here, and 
 whom he has not seen for a long time, are very wealthy, (c) If 
 a governing preposition cannot be placed at the end of the clause, 
 vilken must be employed. Moreover, some people (unneces- 
 
 1 Concerning the meaning of the asterisk see page 204, foot-note 3. 
 
 2 On the substitution of t for in the neuter see 3O; 151, 1, and p. 93, 
 foot-note. 
 
 3 This form is rare; see 276, note 2. 
 
 4 In such cases, n&eot som may be used instead, but never som alone. 
 
 5 Authors differ much in the extent of their use of vilken, many employing 
 it freely beside sont. in no way limiting themselves to the uses here specified.
 
 2l6 RELATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 
 
 sarily) object to placing prepositions at the end of the clause, 
 preferring to put them before the relative, in which case 
 vilken must be used. 1 Ex.: Denna egendomliga stilart tvang 
 honom till djarva ordskapelser, av vilka de fiesta torde std en- 
 staka inom vdr litteratu'r. This peculiar style forced him into 
 many bold word-coinages, most of which are unique in our literature. 
 Den sak, om vilken vi talade the matter about which we were 
 speaking. 
 
 2. Vars (see 277) is frequently used in place of the genitive 
 singular (especially in the neuter) of vilken, and sometimes, though 
 much more rarely, in place of the genitive plural. Examples of 
 the genitive of vilken: Enkla kallas ord, vilkas delar icke hava 
 ndgon egen bety'delse. Words whose parts have no meaning of 
 their own, are called simple. 
 
 211- Vars, which, being a genitive, can be used only 
 substantively, is employed chiefly in referring to a sin- 
 gular antecedent, but sometimes also to an antecedent 
 in the plural. The antecedent may be of either gender, 
 referring either to persons or to things. Since som cannot 
 be used in the genitive relation, and since the genitive 
 of vilken is not of .particularly frequent occurrence, it 
 follows that vars is the word usually employed to express 
 the genitive idea in the case of relative pronouns. Ex.: 
 Ingen, vars samvete ar vaket, kan handla sa. No one 
 whose conscience is awake can do that. V&rda det trad, 
 i vars skugga du sitter! Care for the tree in the shade 
 of which you sit. 
 
 278. Vad, which is used only substantively, is neuter 
 singular. When it is used as the subject of the clause, 
 som is almost always added. This pronoun has two uses: 
 
 (i) Meaning "that which", including its antecedent. 
 Ex. : Vad du sdger, ar sant. What you say is true. 
 Sag alltid, vad som ar sant. Always say that which is 
 true. Vad som mest oroade inig, var mina fienders tyst- 
 
 1 See 281, note 1.
 
 XXIII RELATIVE PRONOUNS 217 
 
 nad. That which disturbed me most was the reticence 
 of my enemies. Mycket av vad hon sag misshagade hen- 
 ne. Much of what she saw displeased her. Vad fadern 
 paborjat, fortsatte sonerna. The sons continued what their 
 father had started. Vad Anders mest angslades for, var 
 exerd'sen. That which A. was most worried about was 
 the military drill. 
 
 (2) With allt all, as the antecedent. 1 When vad is gov- 
 erned by a preposition, the preposition must in this case 
 follow at the end of the clause. Ex.: Det ar allt, vad 
 jag har hbrt om honoin. That is all that I have heard 
 about him. Allt, vad jag fbrr glatt mig at, var nu borta. 
 All that I had formerly delighted in was now gone. Min 
 bror lyckas i allt, vad han agnar sig dt. My brother is 
 successful in everything to which he applies himself. 
 Den ddrgossen villehava allt, vad han sag. That boy wanted 
 everything he saw. Allt, vad som hittills ndmnts sasom 
 verkande atskillnad i sprakct, fick bkad kraft genom skrif- 
 ten. All that has hitherto been mentioned as producing 
 a distinction in language, got fresh impetus through the 
 art of writing. 
 
 279. Den, which is used only substantively, is not of 
 frequent occurrence. When used, it is employed chiefly 
 for variety or euphony. It is inflected like the demon- 
 strative den (see 266), but can not be used in the 
 genitive, nor as subject. Its forms, then, are den, det 
 (these used only in the object relation) and dem. The 
 neuter form is very little used. This pronoun is rare 
 as indirect object. It refers more often to persons than 
 to inanimate objects. When den is governed by a prep- 
 osition, the preposition must follow at the end of the 
 clause. Ex.: En man, den alia bevi'sa aktning a man 
 
 1 After allt, also som may be used as a relative pronoun. Ex.: Allt ar ej 
 guld. som glimmar. All is not gold that glitters.
 
 218 RELATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 
 
 whom all respect. Kungen lovade mig sitt portraft, det 
 jag en tid efterat fick mottaga. The king promised me his 
 picture, which I received some time later. Om fienden en 
 g&ng skulle anfalla oss, det Gud fbrbju'de, maste han Jin- 
 na oss rustade. If the enemy should ever attack us, 
 which Heaven forbid, he must find us prepared. Det 
 held var henne annu som en dr'dm, den hon sag in i och 
 forlo'rade sig i. It was still all as a dream to her, into 
 which she looked and in which she lost herself. Jag 
 namner detta sdsom villkor, dent jag ej mil eftergiva. I 
 state these as conditions that I do not want to withdraw. 
 Alia planer, dent han icke fatt fidlborda all the plans that 
 he has (or, had) not been able to carry out. Perso'ner, 
 dem alia hederliga manniskor avsky persons whom all 
 honorable people detest. 
 
 280. Den' dar, 1 which is used only substantively, is 
 not of frequent occurrence. When used, it is employed 
 chiefly for variety or euphony. It is inflected like the 
 demonstrative den da'r (see 266), having the forms 
 den' dar, de't ddr, de 1 dar, and no genitive; note, how- 
 ever, the difference in the syllable stressed. 1 It can be 
 used practically only as the subject. It is employed perhaps 
 more freely in referring to persons than to inanimate ob- 
 jects. Ex. : Rastlos sdsom en, den dar skall bbrja en lang resa. 
 Restless like one who is about to start on a long journey. 
 Detta far sta sdsom ett pastaende, det dar for/at' taren efter 
 beha'g kan antaga eller forkas'ta. This may stand as an 
 assertion which the author can adopt or reject as he likes. 
 Den narvarande tiden fbreter ganska manga tecken, de dar 
 tyda pa fara. The present time shows very many signs 
 that point to danger. 
 
 1 In connected speech the stress on den is weaker than when den diir is 
 pronounced by itself. Not infrequently, owing to the stress-conditions 
 of surrounding words, this (weak) stress is shifted to ddr. and den becomes 
 unstressed.
 
 XXIII RELATIVE PRONOUNS 219 
 
 281. GENERAL REMARKS ON RELATIVES. Relative 
 pronouns -introducing restrictive clauses may be omitted 
 when they would be in the object relation (both direct 
 and indirect). They may also be omitted when depend- 
 ing on a preposition; this then stands after the predicate. 
 Ex.: Var dr den ddr boken, jag gav dig? Where is that 
 book I gave you? Var dr den, jag gav dig i somras? 
 Where is the one I gave you last summer? Det var min 
 bok, dti tog. It was my book you took. Den bok, jag nu 
 laser i, dr rolig. The book I am now reading is amusing. 
 Man bar uppfylla de Id/ten, man givit. One should ful- 
 fill the promises one has made. Blommorna, jag fick, 
 satte jag i vatten. The flowers that I received, I have 
 placed in water. Var dr fagelboet, du talade om? Where 
 is the bird's nest you spoke of? Hdr dr den gosse, du 
 gav applet at. Here is the boy you gave the apple to. 
 Vem var det, du hdlsade pa ? Who was it you greeted ? 
 
 Note. i. Som, den and vad (when used after altt] cannot be 
 preceded by a preposition. When these relatives are governed by 
 a preposition, this must stand at the end of the clause. For exam- 
 ples see under the various relatives, and 267; 268, note i. 
 
 Vilken, while usually preceded by a governing preposition, if 
 there is one, may have it at the end of the clause. Ex.: Det ar- 
 bcte, med vilket du sysselsatter dig (or vilket du sysselsatter dig 
 med}, dr mycket modosamt. The work in which you are engaged 
 is very difficult. 
 
 Vad (when = "that which") is usually, but not always, followed 
 by the preposition. 
 
 2. In proverbs and legal language the relative is sometimes 
 omitted after den, when it would be the subject. The verb in the 
 (few-clause stands last. Ex.: Den ilia, gor, han ilia far. He who 
 does ill, fares ill. Den ndgot spar, han ndgot har. He who saves 
 something, has something. Den det gor, straffas med boter. He 
 who does that is liable to a fine. 
 
 3. On the use of adverbial compounds in place of relatives de- 
 pending upon a preposition, see 172, i, note 2.
 
 220 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 282- The interrogative pronouns are vem who, whom; 
 vilken which, who(m); vad what; vad for {en} what kind 
 of (a), what; vilkendera which, which of two (or, them); 
 /nirudan 1 of what kind. 
 
 283- Vem is used only substantively, as a singular' 2 
 pronoun, referring to persons. It may stand either in the 
 subject or object relation (= "who", "whom"). It has a 
 genitive, veins. Ex.: Vem har bppnat dbrren? Who has 
 opened the door? Vem kan vara glad under sadana fbr- 
 hal'landen? Who can be glad under such conditions? 
 
 Vem kommer i kvdll? Who is coming this evening? Vem 
 Till du trajfa ? Whom do you want to see ? Veins tins 
 ar delta? Whose house is this? Vems ar den dar has- 
 ten? Whose is that horse? 
 
 284. Vilken (for its forms see 276) is used both 
 adjectively 3 and substantively, referring either to persons 
 or things. Ex.: Vilken bok vill du ha? Which book do 
 you want ? Vilka voro hans vdnner ? Who were his 
 friends ? Vilka dro dina fbrdl'drar? Who are your par- 
 ents? Vilken av dein har kbpt huset ? Who of them has 
 bought the house ? Vilken menar du? Whom do you mean? 
 Vilkens ber'dftelse tycker du bast oni ? Whose story do you 
 like best? 
 
 285. Vad is generally used substantively, as neuter 
 singular, referring to things. It has no genitive. Ex.: 
 
 Vad sade du ? What did you say ? Vad gor du ? What 
 are you doing? Vad vill du ha? What do you want? 
 Vad nytt? What news? 
 Sometimes it is used as an adjective (indeclinable), 
 
 1 Also stressed on the last syllable. 
 
 2 Very rarely as a plural. 
 
 3 As an interrogative, -silken is much more frequentl3' used as an adje-
 
 XXIII INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 221 
 
 modifying nouns of either gender in the singular, rarely 
 nouns in the plural. Ex.: Vad ratt har du att gbra 
 delta? What right have you to do this? Vad nytta hade 
 du dara'v ? What good did you have from it ? Pa vad 
 grund handlade han sa f For what reason did he do that ? 
 Vad fbrdelar har du dara'v? What advantages have you 
 from it ? 
 
 281). Vad for en, n. vadfbr ett, is used both adjectively 
 and substantively. When employed substantively, the 
 plural is vad for ena; as an adjective, the plural is vad 
 for. In all forms, vad may be separated from for with 
 intervening words. There is no genitive. Ex.: Vad for 
 en konimg hade Sverige pa den tiden ? What king did 
 Sweden have at that time? Vad har du for en halt? 
 What sort of a hat have you? Vad for ett arende har 
 dit ? What is your errand? Vad ar det for gossarf 
 Who are those boys ? Vad ar du for en ? Who are you ? 
 (What sort of a fellow are you?) Vad ar ni for ena? 
 Who are you (plnr.)? 
 
 Before nouns that on account of their meaning can- 
 not have the indefinite article, en and ett of the forms vad 
 for en, vad for ett are omitted. Ex.: Vad ar det har for 
 smbr (vatten*)? What sort of butter (water) is this ? Vad' 
 var det for folk? What sort of people was that? Cf. the 
 omission of en in the plural. 
 
 287. Vilkendera, 1 n. vilketdera, is generally used sub- 
 stantively, sometimes also as an adjective, in which case 
 the following noun is in the definite form. On account of its 
 meaning it can be used only in the singular. It refers to one 
 of certain definitely known objects, very often, but not 
 always, two in number. The genitive is vilkenderas, vil- 
 kctdcras. Ex. : Vilkendera far jag ? Which may I have? 
 
 1 Cf. 306.
 
 222 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 
 
 Vilketdera huset kbpte du? Which of the houses did 
 you buy? Del bbr vara ett av dessa tre. Valj vil- 
 ketdera 1 ! It ought to be one of these three. Decide 
 which. Har ar en bok; dr det Gerdas eller Axels, sag 
 mig, mlkenderas det dr 1 . Here is a book; is it Gerda's 
 or Axel's, tell me whose it is. 
 
 288. Hiirudan, n. hurudant, plur. hurudana, is used 
 only as an adjective. Ex.: Hiirudana skor kbpte du? What 
 kind of shoes did you buy? Hurndanl ar vattnet? How 
 is the water? 
 
 289- GENERAL REMARKS ON INTERROGATIVES. (i) In 
 indirect questions the forms of the interrogatives given 
 above are used only in the object relation. When an inter- 
 rogative is the subject of an indirect question, som is al- 
 most always added. Ex.: (Direct.) Vem har tag-it den? 
 Who has taken it? (Indirect; subject.) Jag vet ickc, vem 
 som har tagit den. I don't know who has taken it. (In- 
 direct; object.) Jag vet icke, vem han sbkte. I don't know 
 whom he was looking for. Further examples of inter- 
 rogatives as subjects of indirect questions are: Plan frd- 
 gade, vad som hade hdnt. He asked what had happened. 
 Jag vet inte, vems kreatur som ha betat har. I don't 
 know whose cattle have been grazing here. Vet du, vilkcn 
 vag som ar genast? Do you know "which way is the 
 shortest? Se efter, vem som ringde pa tambu' rdbrren. Look 
 and see who rang the door-bell. Jag vet icke, vilken som 
 kommer. I do not know who is coming. Jag vet nog, vad 
 som vore bra for honom. I know what would be good for 
 him. I fa ord fick hon veta, vad som hdnt och vad (obj. ) dran- 
 gen hade gjort. In a few words she was told what had hap- 
 pened and what the man-servant had done. Vet du, 
 vad for folk som har bott har? Do you know what sort 
 
 1 Indirect question.
 
 XXIII INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 223 
 
 of people have lived here? Pa sa satt finner man, -vilket 
 av de bada objek'ten som m&ste ga fore det andra. In that 
 way one can tell which of the two objects must stand 
 before the other. Vilkendcra formen som kan tankas un- 
 derforstadd, far ses av sammanhanget. Which form is im- 
 plied, must be gathered from the context. In cases like 
 jag vet inte, vent det dr, vein is not the subject. 
 
 (2) In both direct and indirect questions, prepositions on 
 which interrogatives depend, very often stand at the end 
 of the clause. Ex.: (Before.) At vem gav han ring en f To 
 whom did he give the ring ? (At end.) Vem gick han sedan 
 till? To whom did he go afterwards ? Jag vet icke, vem han 
 gick till. I don't know whom he went to. Vilket hus bor du 
 i ? Which house do you live in ? Vad tanker du pa ? 
 What are you thinking about? Ing en vet, vem den giri- 
 ge samlar at. No one knows for whom the miser col- 
 lects. Vilka bocker satter du mest vdrde pa? Which 
 books do you value most? Vem har du fatt boken ifra'n? 
 From whom have you gotten the book? 
 
 Note. Concerning the use of adverbial compounds in place of 
 interrogative pronouns depending upon a preposition, see 172, I, 
 note 2. 
 
 290. ACCENT. Vilken may have either the grave or 
 the acute accent. 
 
 291. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) On the whole, relative 
 clauses, as other subordinate clauses, are used more 
 sparingly in the spoken than in the written language; 
 the spoken language frequently substitutes two coordinate 
 clauses or two sentences. 
 
 (2) The relative pronoun vilken is foreign to spoken 
 Swedish. 1 Where in the written language its use is ad- 
 vantageous to the style, or necessary for grammatical 
 
 1 Not so the interrogative vilken.
 
 224 RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 
 
 reasons, the spoken language in the former case uses sow, 
 in the latter it employs some other construction. Exam- 
 ples of the latter: Han fick 100 (read hundra) kroner, 
 vilken summa han skulle anvanda efter eget beha'g. Spoken 
 language: Han fick 100 kronor, och den summan skulle 
 han (fa) anvanda efter eget beha'g. He received 100 
 crowns, which sum he was to use as he liked. Han fick 
 100 kronor, vilket gjorde honom stor gladje. Spoken lan- 
 guage: Han fick 100 kronor, och det gjorde honom stor 
 gladje. He received 100 crowns, which afforded him 
 great pleasure. 
 
 (3) The relative pronoun vars is not natural to the 
 spoken language, which in the case of the genitive idea 
 usually employs some other manner of expression than the 
 relative construction. Ex.: Han fick 100 kronor, vilkas 
 (or vars} anvandning han sjalv fick bestam'ma. Spoken 
 language: Han fick 100 kronor, och anvandning en fick han 
 sjalv bestam'ma. He received 100 crowns, about the 
 disposal of which he himself could decide. 
 
 (4) The relative pronouns den and den' dar are not used 
 in the spoken language. 
 
 (5) In the spoken language the preposition regularly 
 stands at the end of a relative clause. In the written 
 language, on the contrary, it frequently precedes the 
 relative pronoun; this is due to the frequent use of the 
 relative vilken in the written language. 
 
 (6) While prepositions governing interrogative pronouns 
 frequently stand at the end of the clause in the written 
 language, this is to a greater extent characteristic of the 
 spoken language. 
 
 (7) Vad for ena (plur.) is used substantively both in 
 the spoken and in the written language; in the spoken 
 language it may also be used adjectively.
 
 XXIII RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 225 
 
 (8) In the spoken language, a shorter form hurdan^ 
 may be used for hurudan. 
 
 (9) Concerning the pronunciation of vad see 134, 4. 
 
 (10) In easy speech the interrogative vilken is frequently 
 pronounced vicken. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIII. 
 
 And then' 2 she related how she formerly had roamed 
 about everywhere. No forest had been too dense for her 3 , 
 no mountain too steep. She wanted to see and know 
 everything 4 in nature, she wanted to reach everything 4 . 
 
 But one day she had wandered high up on a moun- 
 tain, and out on a ledge she had caught sight of a little 
 flower which she had never seen before. It was very beau- 
 tiful. It grew so far out over the abyss that she had at 
 once understood that it would be hard to reach, but she 
 could not turn her eyes from it, and her heart beat loudly 
 with 5 longing to pick 6 it. 
 
 Then 2 she crept cautiously on [her] hands and feet 
 out towards the abyss to pick the flower. She was already 4 
 so close to it 7 that she was extending her hand to take it, 
 but then her foot slipped, and she fell. When she regained 
 consciousness 8 , she found herself lying with [a] broken 
 hip-bone. 
 
 "And now," she said to Violanta, "I cannot even pick 
 the flowers in my own orchard. But you, who are young 
 and healthy, you can climb up to the heights 9 I cannot 
 reach, and press into the thickets where I have never 
 been. You shall fetch me the most hidden flowers 9 , 
 
 1 Acute accent. 7 So close to it den sa nara. 
 
 2 Sa. 8 Ater kotn till medvetande. 
 
 3 Hade varit henne for tat. 9 Use prepositive, but no post- 
 4- Place first in the clause. positive, article. Look for other (un- 
 .". AY. designated) cases of this kind in this 
 Att fa plocka. exercise.
 
 226 RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 
 
 the most beautiful butterflies, and then I shall tell you 
 the most wonderful things about them. You don't dream 
 of the secrets that are written in the smallest little 
 stone; every flower has its own word to say." 
 
 Violanta listened to the fair lady. Her voice was so soft, 
 and her eyes so beaming, and around her resting-place the 
 violets smelled so sweetly. "Yes," said Violanta, "I want 
 to stay here with you. But what shall I call you ? I don't 
 know what your name is 1 ." "Call me Penserosa," said 
 the stranger. 
 
 And so Violanta entered the service of 2 beautiful 
 Penserosa. And everything that she found on her wander- 
 ing she had to bring home. Then Penserosa told Violanta 
 with beaming eyes about everything she had found. It was 
 as if the flowers which she had picked and which already 
 began to wither, again became fresh* and told about the 
 place where they had grown, and about everything they 
 had seen and heard from the moment they peeped forth out 
 of the earth. The dead butterflies again became living. 
 The very stones muttered words which Penserosa could 
 understand and explain. Everything in nature became 
 so new and wonderful. 
 
 1 Vad du heter. 2 Kom i tjanst he
 
 XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 227 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1 
 
 292. Nagon, n. nagoP, plur. nagra, some, some one 3 , 
 something, any 4 , any one, anything, a few. Nagon is used 
 either as adjective or noun. Gen. ndgons, ndgras.** Ex.: 
 Nagon visslade. Some one whistled. Jag gav gossen nagra 
 slantar. I gave the boy a few pennies. Har han nag on Tan? 
 Has he any friend? Nej, han haricke nagon. No, he hasn't 
 any. Ndgra av mina vanner ha varit hdr i eftermiddag. 
 Some of my friends have been here this afternoon. Har du 
 nagot nytt att berat'ta 9 Have you anything new to tell? 
 Alt ingenting saga ar battre an att saga nagot dumt. It is bet- 
 ter to say nothing than to say something foolish. For 
 further examples see 294. 
 
 Note. Concerning n&gondera see 306; concerning ndgonting 
 see 307. 
 
 293. Ingen 6 , n. inteP, plur. inga, no, no one, nothing. 
 It is used either as adjective or noun. Gen. ingens. In place 
 of ingen, icke nagon may generally be used; in some cases, 
 however, especially at the beginning of a clause, ingen must 
 be employed. Ex.: Ingen vet, vart han gick. No one 
 knows where he went. Ingen regel utan undantag. No 
 rule without exceptions. Han ar ingen forfai'tare, men han 
 
 \ For convenience, some words and uses not strictly indefinite in mean- 
 ing have been here included. 
 
 2 On the substitution of t for in the neuter, cf. 3O; 151, 1, and page 
 93, foot-note. Notice the form intet (not ineet); see 31 1,1. 
 
 3 On the use of "one" in English in the case of adjectival words used sub- 
 stantively, see 150; 305, note 1. Note also the addition of "-thing" in 
 "something", etc. 
 
 4 English uses "any" primarily in interrogative, negative and conditional 
 clauses. 
 
 5 Only the genitives in fairly frequent use are given here and below. If 
 the genitive is not given (;isin this case the neuter nagots), it means that 
 the omitted form(s) are either not.used. or used only rarely. On the use of 
 the genitive see $ 56. 
 
 G Concerning word-order see 141, and 142, note.
 
 228 INDEFINITE I'RONOrNS 
 
 iviskar bli dct. He is not an author, but he wants to 
 become one. Gosscn liar inga biommor krar. The boy has 
 no flowers left. Ingcns nisiktcr roro battrc an bans. No 
 one's prospects were better than his. For further examples 
 see 294. 
 
 Note. Concerning ingc.ndcra see 306; concerning jn 
 see 307. 
 
 294. Annan, n. annat 1 , plur. and def. andra 
 other, else (this meaning frequently after nag on, /; 
 It is used either as adjective or noun. Gen. annans, 
 Ex.: Vill du ha den andra ha f fen ? Do you want the other 
 hat? Han bar i dt annat hits ni(. He lives in another 
 house now. Skulle vi ickc tola om nagot annat? Should we 
 not talk about something else ? Jngcn annan rar hcninia. 
 No one else was at home. Ar dctta bord stori nog, cllcr ;/// 
 du ha dt annat? Is this table large enough, or do you 
 want another? Hans forst&n'd rar lika gott som nagon 
 annans. His mind was just as good as any one else's. 
 Numcra harskar en licit annan mcning bland sprakforsk- 
 arna. Now an entirety different opinion prevails among 
 philologists. Dessa ord bcty'da nagot licit annat. These 
 words have an entirely different meaning. Intct av 
 dcssa ord /iar, sd z'itt man rr/, nagot ctymolo ghkt sam- 
 inanliang mcd nagot av de andra. None of these words 
 has, as far as is known, an}- etymological connection with 
 any of the others. For further illustrations see 305. 
 
 Note. i. Observe that Eng. "another" means either "a differ- 
 ent (one)" or "one more". Swedish en annan means "another" 
 only in the sense of "a different (one)". 
 
 2. Various expressions connected with annan: en och an'nan, n. 
 ett och an'naf, a few, some, some few, something, one or two 
 things; en cllcr an'nan, :i. cit cllcr an'nat, some one or other, 
 
 1 Cf. page 227, foot-note 2. 
 
 2 On the use of - c , cf. 151. S, b and c. The same reference applies to 
 similar cases in other pronouns below.
 
 XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 229 
 
 something or other. These have a (rare) genitive when used sub- 
 stantively, en och an' nans, en eller an'nans. Ex.: Vi t sprdkade om 
 ett och annat. We talked about various things. En och annan 
 gang a few times. Han var frdnvarande av en eller annan an- 
 ledning. He was absent from one cause or another. On varari- 
 nan see 295, note 2.Andra (-e) is also used as an ordinal nu- 
 meral; see 312; 318. On the reciprocal varan'dra see 264, 
 note 8. 
 
 295. Var, n. vart, each, every. Var is used almost only 
 as an adjective, modifying nouns in the singular. The cor- 
 responding noun is enva'r, n. ettva'rt l (ra.r&) or var och. 
 en', n. vart och et't; sometimes also en och va'r, n. ett och va'rt 1 
 is used. Gen. enva'rs, va'rs och en's. Ex.: Var har sin sed. 
 Each one has his own way. Var gang jag kommer dit 
 every time I go there. De resa till Euro' pa vart dr. They 
 go to Europe every year. Enva'r vill bliva gammal, men 
 ingen vill vara det. Everyone wants to become old, but 
 no one wants to be old. Det vet var och en. Everyone 
 knows that. Var och en av pojkarna fick berdfta en histo'- 
 ria. Each of the boys had to tell a story. Denna ar 
 Idmpad efter vars och ens smak och lynne. This is suited 
 to each one's taste and disposition. 
 
 Note. i. Observe the expressions var sin, n. var sitt, plur. 
 var sina. Ex.: Vi Jingo var sift apple. We got each an apple. 
 Jag gav gossarna var sitt apple. I gave the boys each an apple. 
 De sutto pd var sin sida av bordet. They were sitting on oppo- 
 site sides of the table. De gingo dt var sitt hall. They parted 
 (went in opposite, different, directions). 
 
 2. Varan'nan,n. vartan'nat, means "every other'', "every second". 
 So var tre'dje, n. vart tre'dje, every third; var fja'rde, n. vart 
 fja'rde, every fourth, etc. In the substantive use, -s is added in 
 the genitive. Ex.: Bdten gar varan' nan dag. The boat leaves 
 every other day. On varan'dra see 264, note 8. Concerning 
 vardera see 306. 
 
 3. Varen'da, n. varten'da, every, every one. It is used as a (singu- 
 lar) adjective. For the corresponding noun, en, n. ett, is added. 
 
 1 Or the vowel may be short, cttvar't, ett <xk vaSt.
 
 230 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 
 
 296. Varje every, each, indeclinable adjective 1 , used 
 with noun^ in the singular. Ex.: Varje gata ar lika 
 -vacker som denna. Every street is just as beautiful as this 
 one. Han stannade vid -varje hus. He stopped at every 
 house. Varje sarskilt fall each individual case. 
 
 297. All, n. allt, plur. alia, all. This may be used sub- 
 stantively only in the neuter singular and in the plural. 
 Gen. (plur.) alias. When Eng. "all" means "whole", 
 it must generally be rendered by heP in Swedish, but 
 sometimes by all. Ex.: Han talade om' allt. He told- 
 everything. All mjblk ar vit. All milk is white. Alia 
 blevo sjuka. All became sick. AH (or hela~) varldcn tr/ 
 det. All the world knows that. Av allt (or hela") mitt 
 hjarta with all my heart; pa allt satt in every way; en 
 gang for alia once for all. 
 
 Note. Concerning all ting see 307. 
 
 298- Mdngen, n. mangel, plur. manga, many a, many. 
 This is used either as adjective or noun. Gen. mangens^ 
 mangas. Ex. : Mangen gang many a time. Manga av gossar- 
 na voro trbtta. Many of the boys were tired. Det bbr /if/a: 
 "Han ar stbrre an jag," men mangen sager: "an mig." 
 One should say, "He is larger than I," but many a one 
 says, "than me." Mangen yngling drbmmer om bragder. 
 Many a youth dreams of achievements. / alhnanhet kan 
 -under samtal mera utelamnas an i skrift, som skall komma 
 inf or mangas bgon. More can usually be omitted in con- 
 versation than in writing, which is intended to come 
 before the eyes of many. Enligt mangas uttal accord- 
 ing to the pronunciation of many. 
 
 Flera (-<?) more, several (when there is no idea of 
 comparison). In the meaning "more" there is also a 
 
 1 Rarely used as noun: litet av varje a little of everything. 
 
 2 Cf. 149, note. 
 
 3 See page 227, foot-note 2.
 
 XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 231 
 
 shorter form fler. Flera is comparative of manga. Gen. 
 fieras, fleres. Ex.: Han gjorde delta pa fleras bega'ran. 
 He did this at the request of several. Flera fartyg hava 
 anlant. Several vessels have arrived. 
 
 Fiesta (-) most, the majority, is the superlative of 
 manga. Gen. -s. A noun following fiesta is indefinite 
 in form when there is no idea of comparison; otherwise 
 it has definite form. Ex.: De fiesta voro redan g&ngna. 
 Most of them were already gone. De fiesta tala mycket 
 mera ologiskt an de sjalva tro. Most people speak much 
 more illogically than they themselves think. De fiesta 
 ittanniskor anse sig ha alldeles tillrackligt reda pa sitt mo- 
 dersmal. Most people consider themselves sufficiently 
 familiar with their native language. De fiesta fallen av 
 sjukdomen ha intraffat pa Kungshohnen. Most of the cases 
 of the disease have occurred in K. Jag hoppas, att mina 
 uppgifter i de fiesta fall skola befin'nas korrek'ta. I hope 
 that my statements will in most cases be found correct. 
 
 299. Fa few, indeclinable plural. Fa is used either as ad- 
 jective or noun. Note the expression nagra fa a few. The 
 comparative isfdrre. Ex.: Fa veta del, och iznnu farre borde 
 veta det. Few know it and still fewer ought to know it. 
 
 300. Bada, bagge, both, used either as adjectives 
 or nouns. Gen. -s. When bada and bagge are used as adjec- 
 tives, the accompanying noun practically always has definite 
 form, unless a demonstrative or possessive pronoun, or a 
 genitive, is used in connection with the noun. They are 
 often followed by tva for emphasis. Ex. : Bada gossarna 
 spr ungo bort. Both the boys ran away. De voro bada gamla. 
 They were both old. Bada tva kommo for tidigt. Both 
 of them came too early. Bagge dessa foran' dringar both 
 of these changes; bada dessa fragor both of these 
 questions.
 
 232 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 
 
 Bada and bdgge are rendered into English by "two" 
 when they have the position and construction of definite 
 adjectives, that is, when they stand between the pre- 
 positive def. article and a noun in the def. form, or 
 between a genitive, possessive pronoun or demonstrative 
 pronoun and a noun in the indef. form. Ex.: De b&da 
 gossarna dro brbder. The two boys are brothers. Hen- 
 nes kvarlevande bada systrar Bernhardi'na och Wilhelmi' na 
 dro respekti've 82 (read attitva'} och 80 (read &ttw) dr. 
 Her two surviving sisters B. and W. are 82 and 80 years 
 old, respectively. De bada foreg&ende kapiflen the two 
 preceding chapters; de bdgge forsta ordningstalen the two 
 first ordinals; dessa bada gravar these two graves; m bada 
 (cf. page 91, foot-note 2) we two; en av de bdgge (cf. 
 150, end) one of the two. 
 
 Note. Concerning bddadera, baggedera, see 306. 
 
 301. Somlig, n. somligt (also somt}, plur. somliga, 
 some. Gen. somligas. It is used either as adjective or sub- 
 stantive. The singular is used almost only with names 
 of materials and with abstract nouns. Ex. : Somligt vin 
 dr ndstan vitt. Some wine is almost white. Somliga voro 
 
 for stora. Some were too large. Somliga mdnniskor bli 
 formd'gna utan att arbeta. Some people become wealthy 
 without working. AH Idsa somlig skdnlitteratur kan i vissa 
 avseenden jdmforas med att drbmma. The reading of some 
 literature can in certain respects be compared with 
 dreaming. 
 
 302. Enda (_-e) only, only one. This has the regular 
 definite form. It is used either as adjective or substantive; 
 as a substantive it is always preceded by the indefinite or 
 definite article. Gen. -s. Ex.: Detta dr den enda stolen, som 
 dr kvar. This is the only chair that is left. En enda son an 
 only son. Han dr enda sonen. He is the only son. Hanfick 
 icke en enda. He did not get a single one. De voro deenda,
 
 XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 233 
 
 som icke kommo. They were the only ones who did not 
 come. 
 
 303. Egen, n. eg-ef 1 , plur. egna, own; only the indefinite 
 form is used in this meaning; see examples, 147, note. 
 Swedish egen, while usually preceded by a genitive or a 
 possessive pronoun as the English "own", frequently 
 stands alone, a use which in English is rare and archaic. 
 Ex.: Jag talar av egen erfarenhet. I speak from personal 
 experience. Han bor i eget hus. He lives in a house of 
 his own. Jag har sett det med egna bgon. I have seen 
 it with my own eyes. De lappar, som icke hava egna 
 renar, bitrada dem, som hava sadana. The Laps who do 
 not have reindeer of their own, assist those who do. 
 Manniskorna varde'ra det frdmmande mycket mera an det 
 egna. People value that which is foreign much more 
 than what they themselves have. 
 
 304. Man 2 one, we, you, they, people. Singular. It is used 
 only substantively, as subject. When Swedish has man fol- 
 lowed by a transitive verb, English often uses a passive 
 construction. For the objective relation, the pronoun en 3 
 is used, and for the genitive, ens s . The reflexive is sig, 
 and the reflexive possessive, sin (see 187 f., and page 
 122, foot-note 2). Ex.: Man kan inte gama tiga, nar folk 
 ljuger pa en, i syrinerhet om ens vanner bbrja tro pa fbrta'- 
 let. One can not very well remain silent when people lie 
 about one, especially if one's friends begin to believe the 
 slander. Man bbr gbra sitt basta. One should do one's best. 
 Man misstager sig latt. People easily make mistakes. 
 Man briikar ropa "Stig in/" , narnagon knackat pa ens dorr. 
 It is customary to say "Come", wh^n someone has rapped 
 at one's door. Man vet icke, vad som kan handaen. You 
 
 1 See page 227, foot-note 2. 
 
 2 Used less extensively than "man" in German. 
 
 3 These have something of a colloquial coloring; cf. 311, 3 end.
 
 234 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 
 
 don't know what may happen to you. See also 221, 
 note 4. 
 
 305- Den ena(-*),n. det ena, the one. This is used either 
 as adjective or noun. Gen. -s. Den ena sdva'l som den andra 
 one as well as the other. Han gick fran den ena till den 
 andra. He went from one to the other. Den ena gossen var 
 lat, den andra flitig. One of the boys was lazy, the other 
 industrious. Concerning en see 304. 
 
 Note. i. In using adjectives as nouns, Swedish does not add 
 en, corresponding to the English use of "one"; as, "this is a good 
 one", "anyone", "this one". See 150. 
 
 2. On the interrogative v ad for en see 286. On en as numeral 
 see 312. On en och annan, en eller annan, see 294, note 2. 
 
 306. Compounds with -dera 1 : 
 
 endera, n. ettdera, either, one of them 
 nagondera, n. nagotdera, either, one or other 
 ingendera, n. intetdera, neither 
 vardera, n. vartdcra, each 
 baggedera, badadera (more rare), both 
 These are generally used as nouns; they have the reg- 
 ular genitive, enderas, ingenderas, etc. When they are em- 
 ployed as adjectives, the following noun has definite form. 
 They refer to certain definitely known objects, very often, 
 but not always (except for baggedera, badaderd) two in 
 number. Ex.: / Ame'rika sokte de lycka och guld, men 
 funno intetdera. They sought happiness and gold in 
 America, but found neither. Inom vardera av dessa tre 
 kategori'er erhallas tre underavdelningar. In each of these 
 three categories there are three subdivisions. Har behan'd- 
 las varidera av dessa bada fall sarskilt for sig . Each of these 
 two cases is here treated by itself. Vartdera av dessa fyra 
 uttryck each of these four expressions. Om AB icke ar 
 
 1 Cf. vilkendera. 287. Etymologically, -dera means "of them".
 
 XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 235 
 
 = (read lika med} AC, sd maste endera vara stdrre. If AB 
 is not equal to AC, one of them must be the larger. Stun- 
 dom star etidera objek'tet frdmst i satsen. Sometimes one of 
 the objects is placed first in the clause. Latom oss skarskada 
 vartdera slag et for sig. L,et us examine each kind by itself. 
 Differen'sen i frag a om ljud eller bety'delse eller badadera 
 ar our spr ung lig . The difference in regard to sound or 
 meaning, or both of these, is not original. Ingendera 
 kan klaga. Neither can complain. N&gondera kommer val. 
 One of them will come, no doubt. 
 
 307- Compounds of -ting: nagonting something, any- 
 thing; ingenting 1 nothing; allting everything. They are 
 used only substantively, as neuter singulars. Ex.: Han 
 sade ingenting. He said nothing. Att ingenting saga ar 
 bdttre an att saga nagot dumt. It is better to say nothing 
 than to say something foolish. Har dr nagonting gott. 
 Here is something good. 
 
 308- The interrogative pronouns (see 282) followed 
 by som heist are used as indefinite pronouns. When they 
 are used adjectively, the noun which they modify is 
 placed between the interrogative pronoun and som heist; 
 as, vilkcn gosse som heist any boy. Ex.: Det kan vem som 
 heist gbra. Any one can do that. Du far taga vilken bok 
 som heist. You may take any book. Vadretma bliva huru- 
 dant som heist. No matter what the weather may be. 
 
 Note. The indefinite pronouns ndgon and ingen may also be 
 followed by som heist: ndgon som heist any (one) at all, ingen 
 som heist no (one) at all. 
 
 309. The interrogative pronouns may also be used as 
 indefinite relatives 2 , either alone or followed by an or heist. 
 When they stand in the subject relation, som is added 
 
 1 Concerning word-order, cf. page 227, foot-note 6. 
 
 2 In this use the pronouns are stressed, but not -when used as interroga- 
 tives. When 'dn, heist follow, however, these are sometimes stressed instead.
 
 236 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 
 
 (cf. 278; 289, i). Ex.: Bega'r, vad du vilL Ask what- 
 ever you wish. De valde, vein de ville, till homing. They 
 chose as king whomever they wished. Vilken vag dii an 
 far, sa blir resan trevlig. Whatever way you go, the 
 journey will be pleasant. Jag kommer att resa, hurudant 
 vadret an blir. I shall go, whatever the weather will be. 
 Vem som har gjort det, sa bbr han straffas. Whoever has 
 done it, he should be punished. De ofredade, vem de matte. 
 They molested whomever they met. Han hade standig 
 framgdng, vad heist han tog sig for. Whatever he under- 
 took, he had constant success. 
 
 310. ACCENT: Allting has the acute accent. Andra 
 usually has the grave accent. 
 
 311. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken language 
 the form inget is used as the neuter of ingen, in place 
 of the written intet. 
 
 (2) The indefinite pronouns enva'r, en och var, varje, bag- 
 gedera, badadera and bada (but not bdgge) belong prima- 
 rily to the written language. 
 
 (3) In the spoken language, de 1 they, is very often used 
 instead of man. Ex.: De sager, att han har rest till Ame'rika. 
 They say that he has gone to America. En may in easy 
 speech be used in place of man, that is also as subject, but 
 this use is rather dialectical. Ex.: En* vet inte, hur en ska' 
 fa varmt i rummena, nar de 1 a? sa kallt ute. One doesn't 
 know how to get the rooms warm when it's so cold 
 outside. 
 
 (4) In the spoken language, the singular mangen is 
 not employed except in proverbs. 
 
 (5) In easy speech, nagon and annan may be shortened 
 to n&n, ami, nagot to nat. So nagonting becomes nan- 
 
 \ Pronounced di (see 53, 5). Also doin (= dan} may be used. 
 
 2 En may include the speaker, which de does only very exceptionally.
 
 XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 237 
 
 ting. Cf. 273, ii. Ex.: En ann a 1 s& go 1 som en ann. 
 One man's as good as another. In Central Sweden, n&got 
 may in easy speech be pronounced n&ge. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIV. 
 
 Violanta never grew weary of sitting 1 at Penserosa's 
 feet and listening to the words of wisdom that passed 
 out from her mouth. The longer Violanta lived there, 
 the more she liked to be there. She wanted to become 
 acquainted with 2 all the secrets of nature, and for that 3 
 a whole life-time was not long enough 4 . 
 
 Summer passed like a single day of sunshine. Then 
 one evening an icy cold breeze blew over the river, and 
 the first withered leaves came whirling down from the 
 chestnut-trees, "Oh," said Penserosa and sighed, "that 
 was the first greeting of winter. Now it will soon drive 5 
 us away from here. Now the storks and swallows and 
 ducks will fly 5 away, but you, Violanta, you will always 
 stay 5 with me, won't you 6 ?" "'Always', that is a hard 
 word," answered Violanta. "I'll promise 5 nothing." 
 "In that 7 you do right," said Penserosa and looked 
 grave. "For you would not keep it." 
 
 Violanta became red in her face. For, to be sure 8 , one 
 can say such things about one's self, but one doesn't like 
 to hear others say them. "Why don't you think that I 
 would keep my promise?" asked Violanta. "I [can] see 
 that by 9 your eyes" , answered Penserosa, and looked deep 
 into her eyes. 10 "In there 11 are 12 all the wild waves of the 
 
 1 See 242, 2 a. 7 Adverbial compound; cf. foot 
 
 2 Become acQ. -with lara kanna. note 3. 
 
 3 Dartill. 8 To be sure nog. 
 
 4 H'as long enough rack te. 9 Pa. 
 
 5 \VhattenseinSwedish? See 10 Sag henne djupt i ogonen. 
 135. 31 Darinne. See foot-notes 3 and 7. 
 
 6 Use "val". 12 Ga.
 
 238 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 
 
 sea." "The wild waves of the sea. The wild waves of 
 the sea," sang 1 the forest above her head. "All the wild 
 waves of the sea. All the wild waves of the sea," roared l 
 the river at her feet. "Oh, yes," sighed Violanta, 
 "the wild waves of the sea. It is to them [that] I long [to 
 go] . 2 If I could only get to see 3 them once. I want to 
 see them. I want to reach them, all the wild waves of the 
 sea." 
 
 When Violanta awoke [the] next morning 4 there was a 
 storm 5 . She dressed quickly and ran out. The storm 
 took hold of 6 her dress, lifted her like a leaf, and she 
 whirled over the plain into the forest. "The wild waves of 
 the sea," roared 1 the forest. "The wild waves of the sea," 
 stormed 1 the river. She flew onward like a wild swan with 
 her veil fluttering like wings behind her. From the forest 
 she came out upon the open heath where there grew neither 
 trees nor bushes, and there she went 5 along with double 
 speed. The storm carried her onward, nearer and nearer 
 to the sea. Her feet scarcely touched the ground, and she 
 could no longer breathe. All of a sudden a blast of wind 
 threw her down, and she lay 7 under a ridge of sand, un- 
 conscious. 
 
 1 Use impersot 
 
 river, etc. stormed, it went. 
 
 2 See 264, note 3. 6 Took hold of tog i. 
 
 3 Get to see f& se. 7 Blev liggande; see 250, note 1,
 
 XXV 
 
 NUMERALS 
 
 239 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 312. CARDINALS 
 
 ORDINALS 
 
 i. 01, n. ctt, one 
 
 Jbrsta (-e) first 
 
 2. tl'd (t'COlHC, til} 
 
 andrcP {-e} 
 
 3. tre (trenne*) 
 
 tredje 
 
 4. fyra 
 
 fjarde 
 
 5- fem 
 
 femte 
 
 6. sex 
 
 sjette 
 
 7- sju 
 
 sjunde 
 
 8. a/Ya 
 
 dttonde 
 
 9 . /0 
 
 nionde 
 
 10. tio 
 
 tionde 
 
 II. ^/Z'# 
 
 elfte 
 
 12. /o/z; 
 
 tolfte 
 
 13. tretton 
 
 trettonde 
 
 14. fjorton 
 
 fjortonde 
 
 15. femton 
 
 fein tonde 
 
 1 6. sexton 
 
 sextonde 
 
 17. sj ut ton 
 
 sjuttonde 
 
 1 8. aderton 
 
 adertonde 
 
 19. nitton 
 
 nit tonde 
 
 20. tjugii, tjugo 
 
 tjugonde 
 
 21. /Jug-uen' 1 , n. tjuguet't 
 
 tjugiifbr 1 sta (-<?) 
 
 22. tjUglltvA' 
 
 tjuguan' dra (-^) 
 
 30. tret tio, tretti 
 
 trettionde 
 
 31. tretti(o)eri > n. /r<?/- 
 
 tretti(o^)fdr / sta 
 
 40. fyrtio, fyrti^ 
 
 fyrtionde - 
 
 50. fcmtio^femti 
 
 femtionde 
 
 1 Or, tjugoen'. tjugotva' , etc. 
 
 
 2 Pronounced fdrti, fortionde. 
 
 
 3 Cf. 294. 

 
 240 NUMERALS 
 
 60. sextio, sexti sextionde 
 
 70. sjuttio, sjutti sjuttionde 
 
 80. attio, atti Attionde 
 
 90. nittio, nitti nittionde 
 
 100. O//) Jmndra hundrade 
 
 101. hundra en, n. hun- hundrajbr 1 sta 
 
 dra ett 
 
 200. tva hundra tva hundrade 
 
 211. tva hundra elva tva hundra elfte 
 
 1,000. {ett} tusen tusende 
 
 1,165. ett tusen ett hundra ett tusen ett hundra sex- 
 sex ti ( o }fem ti ( o)/em te 
 1,000,000. en millio'n 
 2,000,000. tva millio'ner 
 
 REMARKS ON THE CARDINALS. 1 
 
 313. When used as adjectives the cardinals are inde- 
 clinable, except that en has the neuter ett. This is 
 declined also in compound numerals. Ex.: en gosse 
 one boy, ett bord one table, tretti(o~)eft ar och tjiiguen' 
 dagar thirty-one years and twenty-one days. 
 
 When occasionally employed as nouns, cardinals have the 
 usual genitive in -s; as, de Adertons beslu't the decision of 
 the Eighteen (of the Swedish Academy). Det ar ej ens 
 skull, att tva trata. It is not the fault of one that two 
 quarrel. 
 
 Note. When hundra and tusen are used as nouns, they may 
 also have the forms hundrade and tusende, which are neuters of 
 the Fourth Declension; these are in ordinary style used chiefly 
 in the definite form; as, det forsta tusendet the first thousand. 
 
 314. Tvenne and trenne are not infrequently employed 
 in place of tva and tre, but they never occur in compound 
 
 1 See also page 92, foot-note 4.
 
 XXV NUMERALS' 241 
 
 numerals; as, tvenne (or tva} ganger two times, but only 
 tjugutva* . I vardera av dessa tre orter har jag tillbragt 
 omkring' tvenne drtionden. In each of these three places 
 I have spent about two decades. 
 
 Tu is in certain expressions used in place of tv&; as, 
 pa tu man hand in private, alone; de unga tu the young 
 couple; det ar icke tu tal om den saken there is no doubt 
 about that matter; ett tu tre 1 suddenly; ett } tu, tre, used 
 in counting before something is to happen; klockan ar tu 
 (or tvdi) (tu in this case not used in Gotaland) it is two 
 o'clock. Cf. the adverb itu' in two, in pieces; as, skara 
 itu' cut in two; ga itu' break (intr.). 
 
 Note. Concerning bdda, bagge, see 300. 
 
 315. Tretti, fyrti, etc., for trettio, fyrtio, etc., are used 
 freely; except in the elevated style; in compound numer- 
 als the shorter form is particularly frequent; as, trettien' , 
 fyrtitre' . So also in the case of ordinals; as, trettifdr 1 ' sta , 
 fyrtitre'dje. 
 
 316 Hundra and tusen are usually preceded by ett ex- 
 cept in counting. Before hundra, however, ett may be 
 omitted at the beginning of a compound numeral; as, ett 
 hundra en or hundra en, but always ett tusen ett hundra en. 
 
 Och is not employed to connect hundreds with tens. 
 
 317- Cardinals are in certain cases used after nouns 
 where ordinals followed by the noun would be more 
 natural, as in English; as, sid. 8 (read sidan atta, or sid 
 atta) page 8; ar 1913 (read nitton hundra trettoii) (in) the 
 year 1913; kap. 7 (read kapit'el sju} chapter 7. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE ORDINALS. 
 
 318- The ordinals forsta (-e~) and andra (-e~) have the 
 form of weak adjectives; the others are indeclinable ad- 
 jectives, ending in -<?/ cf. 153. A following noun always
 
 242 NUMERALS 
 
 has the def. form; the ordinals are also generally preceded 
 by the prepositive def. article, but not always; see 149. 
 
 When used as nouns, ordinals have the usual genitive 
 in -s; as, Karl den tolftes bedrifter the feats of Charles 
 the Twelfth. Den tredjes anforande var bast. The ad- 
 dress of the third speaker was best. 
 
 Note. i. As in English, only the last member of a compound 
 numeral is an ordinal; as, tjugufor'sta. 
 
 2. The ordinals are sometimes written with the arabic numeral 
 alone, sometimes with the ending indicated; as, den 7 juni June 7, 
 den 6:e, den 2:0, den io:de, den i:sta, 3 pers. sing. 
 
 VARIOUS FORMATIONS CONNECTED WITH 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 319- FORMED WITH CARDINALS: (i) Once, twice, 
 etc. For these, Swedish employs the cardinal with gang 
 time, plur. ganger; as, en gang^, tva ganger, tre ganger. 
 
 (2) Simple, double, two-fold, triple, etc. The Swedish 
 word for "simple" is enkel (n. enkelt, plur. enkld}-, that 
 for "double" is dubbel (n. dubbelt, plur. dubbla}. Above 
 two 2 , -dubbel, or, less frequently, -faldig (n. -/, plur. -a) 
 is added to the cardinal; as, tredubbel or trefaldig, fyrdubbel 
 or fyrfaldig. 
 
 (3) One by one, by twos, eto. Swedish expresses the 
 distributive idea by means of the repeated cardinal with 
 och between, or by adding i sander to the cardinal; as, 
 tva och tva or tva i sander. 
 
 (4) Kinds of. Swedish expresses this idea by means 
 of the neuter word slag kind, with an added -s; as, eft 
 slags, tva slags, tre slags, manga slags. 
 
 1 When en sang means "once", "one time", en has more stress than cane. 
 When gang has the greater stress, this phrase means "once (upon a time)". 
 
 2 Even in case of "two", similar compounds may be used: tvadubbel, tva- 
 faldig. Enfaldig is not equivalent to enkel. but means "simple-minded", 
 "foolish".
 
 XXV NUMERALS 243 
 
 (5) Swedish uses tal (n.) number, to denote the decade 
 or century; as, 8o-talet the eighties, the period (18)80-89; 
 i8oo-talet the nineteenth century, the period 1800-1899. 
 
 Tal also denotes an approximate number; as, ett tio- 
 tal about ten. 
 
 Tal is used with an added -s in a few expressions like 
 hundratah hundreds (of); tusentah thousands (of); as, 
 hundratals flugor hundreds of flies. 
 
 (6) Names of the numerals, particularly through 
 "twelve", are formed by adding to the cardinal the ending 
 -a, before which an unstressed vowel is dropped. These 
 are nouns of the First Declension. Ex.: en etta a figure i, 
 en tvda, en fyra, en nia; fyran the figure 4, nian; tva treor 
 two threes. Note also* en femma a five-crown bill; en tia 
 a ten-crown bill; en femtia a fifty-crown bill; en sexa a 
 light supper. Sjttttio fern' man drfbrse'nad. (Train) number 
 75 is behind time. 
 
 320. FORMED WITH ORDINALS, (i) First(ly), second- 
 (ly), etc. For these ideas Swedish uses the expressions 
 for det fbrsta,for det andra, etc. 
 
 (2) Fractions. One-half is cnhalv. Ex.: Man kan ga 
 en hah mil pa en timme. You can walk half a mile in 
 an hour. Ett halvt apple half an apple. Note also: ti'd 
 och en halv timme two hours and a half; en hah'timme 
 half an hour. 
 
 Denominators above two are formed by adding del part, 
 plur. delar, to the ordinals; as, en tredjedcla. third, tva tred- 
 jedelar two thirds, en fjdrdedel, en sjundedel. In the case of 
 ordinals ending in -onde, -de is dropped before -del, except 
 in the elevated style; as, en at ton (^de^) del, en nion{de}del, en 
 tretton(de}del; so also in hundra(de}del, tusen^de^del. 
 
 When used before a noun, the ending -dels is added to 
 the ordinal both in the singular and plural; as, ett fjardc-
 
 244 NUMERALS XXV 
 
 dels ar a quarter of a year, tre fjardedels ar three fourths 
 of a year; but en fjardedel av Aret a quarter of the year, 
 tre fjardedelar av aret three fourths of the year. 
 
 Note. i. In place of en och en halv, halvan'nan, n. halv(t}an'nat 
 is frequently used; so, though much more rarely, halvtre'dje for 
 tvd och en halv, etc. A following noun is put in the singular. 
 
 2. In place of fjardedel, kvart (5) is in some cases employed; 
 when it stands before a noun, -s is added; as, en kvarts timme a 
 quarter of an hour; en kvarts mil a quarter of a mile. 
 
 3. Observe: den forre the former, den senare the latter. 
 
 4. On varan'nan, var tre'dje, etc., see 295, note 2. 
 
 EXPRESSIONS OF TIME AND DATE. 
 
 321- TIME OF DAY. Note the following expressions: 
 Hur mycket ar klockan? \ 
 
 Vad ar klockan? I What time is it? 
 
 Hur dags ar detf 
 
 Klockan ar eft {fern}. It is one (five) o'clock. 
 Klockan ar hah fern. It is half past four. 
 Tio minu'ter over fern. Ten minutes past five. 
 En kvart over fern. A quarter past five. 
 En kvart fore (/, //'//) fern. A quarter to five. 
 Klockan fattas tio minu'ter ifyra. It is ten minutes to four. 
 Klockan ar tre kvart pa fern. It is a quarter to five. 
 Klockan ar mer, an jag trodde. It is later than I thought. 
 Kom klockan ett (halv ett, fern). Come at one (half past 
 
 twelve, five). 
 
 Vid femtiden. (At) about five o'clock. 
 Pa slaget fern (or, klockan fern preci's). Five o'clock sharp. 
 Klockan slar (har slagtt} fern. The clock is striking (has 
 
 struck) five. 
 
 322- DATE, ADDRESS: 
 
 Den 5 (read femte~} juni. The fifth of June. June 5. 
 Ar 1913. (In) the } r ear 1913. 
 Drotfninggatan 16. 16 Queen Street.
 
 XXV NUMERALS 245 
 
 323. ACCENT. Tusen has the acute accent. Tretti{o~) 
 nitti(p}, and hundra usually have the acute accent, but 
 sometimes the grave. 
 
 324. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) Except in case of inten- 
 tional rendition of the written form, mo, tio and tjugo (-?/) 
 are pronounced me, tie, tjuge. Tretti, fyrti, trettifor'sta, 
 etc., are the forms generally used in speaking, and also 
 in reading. Except in careful speech, aderton 1 is often 
 pronounced arton. Fyrti(p) is pronounced fbrti? 
 
 (2) The words tvenne and trenne are not used in the 
 spoken language. 
 
 (3) In easy speech, fjarndel is used in place oifjardedel. 
 The longer forms ending in -dedel are not employed in 
 the spoken language except for emphasis; as, niondedel. 
 
 (4) On the whole, compounds with -dubbel are more 
 common in the spoken language, while those with -faldig 
 are more common in the written. To a certain extent, 
 however, there is a difference in meaning, and not in 
 style, -dubbel being used of measure, -faldig of time. Ex.: 
 Vi fick tredubbla lexor. We got lessons three times the 
 usual length. Mangfaldiga g Anger many many times. 
 
 (5) In the written language, en och en, etc., are pre- 
 ferred to en i sander, etc., which are more colloquial. 
 
 (6) In easy speech, tjuen' , tjutva' , etc., are often used 
 instead of tjugeeri , tjugetva' , etc. 
 
 EXERCISE XXV. 
 
 At first she did not know where she was. Everything 
 about her was desolate. But then she .got up and went 
 
 1 The pronunciation of aderton as spelled is more common than a similar 
 pronunciation of nio, trettio, tjugo. 
 
 2 The remark on the pronunciation of fyrtt(o), though not belonging un- 
 der colloquialisms, is included here for the sake of completeness; see also 
 page 239, foot-note 2.
 
 246 NUMERALS XXV 
 
 farther out on the sand. She saw something blue lying 
 behind the ridges. It was the sea. 
 
 But the storm had died away, and the sea was entirely 
 calm. As far [as] she could see [there] was 1 not a sign 
 of land, not a boat, not a ship. Clear to the outermost 
 horizon all was one single glittering, quiet expanse of 
 blue 2 . 
 
 "This is not the sea," thought Violanta. "It is the 
 sky." And she went clear down to the edge of the water 
 and put the tip of her shoe in the water. "Is this the 
 sea," said Violanta again and looked about her 3 . "I 
 hadn't imagined the sea like that 4 . Shall I never get to 
 see you, all the wild waves of the sea?" 
 
 But, behold. Then it grew dark at the horizon. The 
 outermost line of the sea became dark blue, then coal- 
 black. A whole host of little rippling waves flowed 
 forth. Then Violanta laughed and clapped her hands 5 . 
 "Now they are coming. Now they are coming, the wild 
 waves cf the sea." Then the whole sea raised itself, 
 dark blue and roaring, and came in large columns toward 
 the shore. "The wild waves of the sea," said Violanta. 
 "They are glorious to look at." But nevertheless she 
 felt a shudder. 
 
 But then the waves rose and stretched up 6 their necks. 
 They became green, they became dark blue, they became 
 coal-black. They all got white foam on the tops. With 
 [a] furious noise they roared against the shore. "Ugh, 
 ugh," whispered Violanta, "they are awful, the wild 
 waves of the sea." But the sea rose higher and higher. 
 The waves became [as] high as houses, as churches, 
 as steeples. There were black abysses between them. 
 
 1 Use "finnas". 4, Like that sa. Place first. 
 
 2 Ettanseofbluf blatt. 5 Tr.: "clapped in the hands". 
 
 3 Sag sig omkring'. 6 Strackte pa.
 
 XXV NUMERALS 247 
 
 They crept together, and rose up, sprang forward 
 like tigers, roared like wild lions, howled like evil spirits. 
 Then Violanta lifted her arms in terror to the sky. 
 "The wild waves of the sea," she cried. "The wild 
 waves of the sea. Whither shall I flee?" She turned to 
 get away, but the sea was after her. The waves knocked 
 her down. She uttered only one single shriek, and then 
 she disappeared in the deep. And the waves danced 
 above her, tugged at 1 her, and crushed her, laughed 
 and sang, shouted and howled. "Do you know us now?" 
 they called out to her as 2 she was floating like white 
 foam over the deep. "Do you know us now? All the 
 wild waves of the sea."
 
 248 NOUNS SUMMARIES APP. I 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF NOUNS 
 IN THE DIFFERENT DECLENSIONS. 
 
 1. MONOSYLLABLES are distributed as follows: 
 
 DECL. ENDING IN GENDER EXAMPLES 
 
 1 consonant common only ros, vdg 
 
 2 cons., vowel common stol, sjo 
 3- consonant com., few n. z<>;/, vin 
 
 4 vowel neuter kna 
 
 5 consonant neuter, few com. hits, mil 
 Irreg. (-r) vowel common sko 
 
 2. NOUNS ENDING IN A VOWEL are distributed as follows: 
 
 A) Monosyllables (various vowels): 
 
 DECL. GENDER EXAMPLES 
 
 2 common sjo, d 
 
 4 neuter kna, bi 
 
 Irreg. common sko, td 
 
 B) More than one syllable: 
 
 a) Stressed final 3 com., neuter arme, bageri' 
 vowel (various 
 vowels) 
 
 b) Unstr. final 1 common flicka 
 
 vowel (-a in 1 2 common gosse 
 
 decl.; in the 3 com., few n. handelse 
 
 others, -e, with 4 neuter apple, hjarta 
 
 few exceptions 5 com.,fewn. larare, kilo 
 
 in 4 and 5) Irreg. common hustru 
 
 Note i. In general, nouns ending in unstressed e belong to the 
 Second Declension if of common gender, but to the Fourth if they 
 are neuter. But note particularly in the Third Declension nouns 
 ending in -else and -arie, and in the Fifth those ending in -are, 
 -ande. 
 
 Note 2. In general, neuters ending in a vowel belong to the Fourth 
 Declension (which contains only such), while neuters ending in a 
 consonant belong to the Fifth. The Third Declension contains not
 
 APP. I, II SUMMARIES, POST-POS. ARTICLE 249 
 
 a few neuters ending in a consonant, and some ending in a vowel, 
 practically all of foreign origin. 
 
 Note 3. Final stressed vowels remain upon the addition of a plural 
 ending beginning with a vowel; as, sjo, plur. sjoar; bageri' , plur. 
 bageri'er. Final unstressed vowels (that is, -a and -e) are dropped 
 upon the addition of a plural ending beginning with a vowel; as, 
 flicka, plur. flickor; histo'ria, plur. histo'rier; gosse, plur. gossar; 
 handelse, plur. hiindelser. 
 
 3. NOUNS ENDING IN -EL, -EN, -ER are distributed as follows: 
 
 COMMON COMMON COMMON NEUTER 
 
 -EL 1, only toff el 2, fagel 3, muskel 5, hagel 
 
 -EN 2, socken 5, vapen 
 
 -ER 2, moder 3, neger 5, fonster 
 
 Note i. There are in the Fifth Declension a few common- 
 gender nouns ending in -er; as, broder, meter, bota'niker. 
 
 Note 2. The vowel of the endings -el, -en, -er is dropped upon 
 adding a plural ending beginning with a vowel; as, toffel, plur. 
 tofflor; socken, plur. socknar; neger, plur. negrer. 
 
 4. VOWEL-MODIFICATION. The following nouns, almost all 
 of common gender, modify the vowel in connection with the for- 
 mation of the plural: 
 
 2 Decl.: modcr, dotter. 
 
 3 Decl.: and, bok, bonde, fot (also plur. fot), hand, land (also plur. 
 
 land), natt, rot, son, stad, bokstav, strand, tand, and a 
 few less common nouns (for complete list, see my Pho- 
 nology). 
 5 Decl.: broder, fader, tnan, gds, lus, mus. 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 THE POSTPOSITIVE ARTICLE. 
 
 1. RULES FOR THE USE OF THE VARIOUS FORMS: 
 
 A) SINGULAR 
 
 ( i ) -en is used with all common-gender nouns ending in a con- 
 sonant, except those ending in unstressed -el, -er, -or; see (2) 
 below; cf. also (3), note. Ex.: ros, def. rosen; naff, natten; man, 
 mannen.
 
 250 POSTPOSITIVE ARTICLE APP. II 
 
 Note. Most nouns ending in unstressed -en use the indefinite 
 form also as the definite (see Appendix II, 2). A few, however, 
 drop the e of the suffix and add -en; as, socken, def. socknen; 
 oken, oknen. 
 
 (2) -n is used with all common-gender nouns ending in an 
 unstressed vowel, with monosyllables ending in a vowel (stressed), 
 and with all nouns ending in unstressed -el, -er, -or. Ex.: flicka, 
 def. flickan; gosse, gossen; handelse, handelsen; larare, Idraren; 
 hustru, hustrun; d, An; ko, kon; toffel, toffeln; fdgel, fdgeln; 
 muskel, muskeln; moder, modern; neger, negern; bota'niker, 
 bota'nikern; profes'sor, profes'sorn. 
 
 (3) ~( e ) n i s used with nouns of more than one syllable ending 
 in a stressed vowel; these are nouns of foreign origin belonging to 
 the Third Declension. Ex.: arme", def. arme'(e)n; fotografi' , foto- 
 grafi'(e)n. 
 
 Note. In addition, -(e)n is employed with a few nouns end- 
 ing in / and r; as, sommar, def. sommar(e)n; fjiiril, def . fja- 
 ril(e)n. 
 
 (4) -et is used with all neuter nouns ending in a consonant and 
 with all of more than one syllable ending in a stressed vowel (which 
 colloquially may have only -/); these latter are of foreign origin 
 and belong to the Third Declension. Ex.: hus, def. huset; bageri' 
 bageri'et. 
 
 Note i. Nouns ending in -el, -en, -er drop the e of these 
 suffixes upon adding -et. Ex.: hagel, def. haglet; vapen, vapnet; 
 fonster, fonstret. 
 
 Note 2. Nouns ending in -turn and -eum drop -um before add- 
 ing -et; as, laborato'rium, def. laborato'riet; muse'um, muse'et. 
 
 (5) -/ is used with all neuter nouns ending in an unstressed 
 vowel. Ex.: fang-else, def . fangelset; apple, applet; hjarta, hjar- 
 tat; pia'no, pia'not; kilo, kilot; oga, ogat. 
 
 (6) -(e)t is used with all monosyllabic neuter nouns ending in 
 a vowel (stressed). These belong to the Fourth Declension. Ex.: 
 kna, def. kna(e)t. Cf. also under (4). 
 
 SUMMARY FOR THE SINGULAR. Nouns ending in 
 CONSONANT add -en (but -n after unstr. -cl, -er, -or} 
 
 (but -en or - after a few suffixes) 
 -et
 
 APP. II POSTPOSITIVE ARTICLE 251 
 
 VOWEL, unstressed -n 
 
 -t 
 
 stressed, monosyllables. ...- 
 -(*)/ 
 
 str., more than one syll. -(e)n 
 -et 
 
 OBSERVE: Common-gender nouns in -el, -er retain the vowel 
 of the suffix upon adding -n; common-gender nouns in -en drop 
 the vowel of the suffix upon adding -en, or, in most cases, use 
 the indef . form as definite. Neuter nouns in -el, -en, -er drop the 
 e of the suffix upon adding -et. 
 
 B) PLURAL. The general rule is: 
 -na after a plural ending in r 
 -a after the ending -n 
 -en when the plur. indef. = sing, indef. 
 
 In detail: 
 
 -na is used after r: (i) after the plural endings -or, -ar, -er, -r. 
 Ex.: flickorna, gossarna, bageri'erna, korna. 
 
 (2) after common-gender nouns ending in -er which add no 
 plural ending. Ex.: broderna, bota'nikerna. 
 
 (3) after a vowel in the Fifth Decl.;but the vowel is dropped; 
 as, larar(e}na. (In addition, -na is used in cases like sokan- 
 dena, after a vowel, where there is no r.) 
 
 -a is used with plurals formed by adding -n (except ogon, oron). 
 Ex : bina. 
 
 -en is used with nouns which add no plur. ending (both genders), 
 except as above; -en is used also with ogon and oron. Ex.: 
 harden, gassen, ntannen, ogonen. 
 
 Note. Nouns ending in -el, -en, -er drop the e of the suffix 
 upon adding -en. Ex.: haglen, vapnen, fonstren. 
 
 2. NOUNS USING THE INDEFINITE FORM ALSO AS THE 
 DEFINITE: 
 
 (i) Verbal abstracts (common-gender) ending in unstressed -an; 
 as, borjan, predi'kan, undran, traktan, langtan. Ex.: Den hem- 
 ska klagan hade icke forstum'mats, Att sjalva borjan vacker 
 intres'se eller nyfikenhet, ar ju da nodvandigt.
 
 252 THE ENDING -E, MALE SEX APP. Ill 
 
 (2) Most common-gender nouns ending in unstressed -en; as, 
 froken, borgen, exa'men, myrten, leka'men, tenta'men, ordcn. 
 Ex.: Ar froken hemma? 
 
 (3) In general, neuter words of foreign origin ending in un- 
 stressed -us and -um (usually not -ium and -earn). Ex.: genus, 
 kasus, faktum, centrum. 
 
 Note. Do not confuse the idea of nouns using the indef. form 
 also as the definite (that is, using the indef. form when most 
 nouns would be in the def. form) with that of nouns being indef. 
 in form although definite in meaning (that is, in constructions 
 where all nouns would be indef. in form although definite in 
 meaning). 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 USE OF -E AS ENDING. MALE SEX. 
 
 1. The ending -e is used instead of -a in referring to persons of 
 the male sex in the following cases: 
 
 a) Denne, samme, densam'me. 
 
 b) Adjectives used as nouns preceded by the prepositive definite 
 
 article. 
 
 c) Attributive adjectives, mostly in the def. sing., less often in the 
 
 def. plur., rarely in the indef. plural. 
 
 d) Sometimes in the def. plur. of words whose plural ends in -ar, 
 
 and with nouns of the Fifth Declension ending in -are (e of 
 suffix dropped). 
 
 2. The ending -e is always (that is, for both genders, and irre- 
 spective of sex) used in place of -a in the following cases: 
 
 a) Past participles in -ad. 
 
 b) Superlatives in -ast. 
 
 Note. Observe also that some indeclinable adjectives end in 
 -e; as, ode. Note especially present participles in -ande, -ende, 
 and comparatives in -are, -re.
 
 API'. IV 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 253 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 LIST OF STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Note. The following list has been compiled principally from 
 "Svenska Akademiens Ordlista" (7 ed.). 
 
 Forms that follow the rules of the grammar are usually not 
 given (as, past participle, present singular and plural, gal, far, 
 sdnde, gifte, etc.). In cases like bliva, bli, the pres. sing, is 
 blircr or blir. The past plural is given only when it differs from 
 the past singular. Irregularities in the present tense and the past 
 participle are, among other matters, treated under REMARKS. 
 No account is taken of the imperative and the present participle. 
 
 Among irregularities are included also verbs that are conjuga- 
 ted in full, or in part, according to more than one conjugation. 
 In the case of the Weak Conjugations, only the number (I, Ila, 
 lib, III) has usually been given (under the second column). These 
 numbers mean that the verb has all the forms belonging to the 
 conjugation in question, except as modified under REMARKS. 
 Forms belonging to different conjugations are (except in the in- 
 finitive and under REMARKS) put in different lines, but in the 
 case of the Weak Conjugations, numerals representing two or more 
 conjugations are usually put together; as, I or Ila. 
 
 ( ) = colloquial * = poetical p. p. = past participle 
 
 [ ] = rare t = archaic 
 
 INFIX. PAST SUPINE 
 
 bedja, be bad, bado 
 
 bedit 
 bett 
 
 begrava begrov begravit 
 
 Ila 
 
 begynna begynte begynt 
 
 bekvama I or [Ila] 
 belopa lib 
 
 [belopp, belu- belupit 
 PO] 
 
 MEANING 
 
 ask, pray 
 
 bury 
 
 begin 
 induce 
 amount to 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 Pres. sing, beder or 
 ber; pres. plnr. 
 bedja or be; pass. 
 bedjes orbedes; be- 
 dit, 200; p. p. 
 bedd 
 
 lib instead of Ila
 
 254 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 APP. IV 
 
 IN FIN. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 betala 
 
 I, Ila or lib 
 
 
 pay 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 bida 
 
 I 
 
 
 bide 
 
 
 
 *bidde 
 
 *bitt 
 
 
 
 binda 
 
 band, bundo 
 
 bundit 
 
 tie, bind 
 
 
 bita 
 
 bet 
 
 bitit 
 
 bite 
 
 
 bjuda 
 
 bj6d 
 
 bjudit 
 
 offer, invite 
 
 Supine and p. p. also 
 
 
 
 
 
 tbudit, fbuden 
 
 bliva.bli 
 
 blev 
 
 blivit 
 
 become, be 
 
 
 bringa 
 
 I 
 
 
 bring 
 
 I*res. always -ar 
 
 
 bragte 
 
 bragt 
 
 
 
 brinna 
 
 brann, brunno 
 
 brunnit 
 
 burn 
 
 
 brista 
 
 brast, brusto 
 
 brustit 
 
 break, burst 
 
 
 bryna 
 
 brynte 
 
 brynt 
 
 whet 
 
 lib instead of Ila 
 
 bryta 
 
 brot 
 
 brutit 
 
 break 
 
 
 bara 
 
 bar, buro 
 
 burit 
 
 carry, bear 
 
 
 bora 
 
 borde 
 
 bort 
 
 ought 
 
 
 b6ta 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 pay a fine 
 
 
 dela 
 
 I or (lib) 
 
 
 divide 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 dimpa 
 
 damp, [dumpo] 
 
 [dumpit]/a// 
 
 draga, 
 
 drog 
 
 dragit 
 
 pull, draw 
 
 
 dra 
 
 
 
 
 
 dricka 
 
 drack, drucko 
 
 druckit 
 
 drink 
 
 
 driva 
 
 drev 
 
 drivit 
 
 drive 
 
 
 drypa 
 
 drop 
 
 drupit 
 
 drip 
 
 
 drapa 
 
 lib 
 
 
 kill 
 
 Also p.p. [drapen] 
 
 
 fdrap, fdrapo 
 
 [drapit] 
 
 
 
 dvaljas 
 
 dvaldes 
 
 dvalts 
 
 dwell 
 
 
 dyka 
 
 lib or I 
 
 
 dive 
 
 
 
 dok 
 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 dott 
 
 die 
 
 
 
 dog 
 
 
 
 
 dolja 
 
 dolde 
 
 dolt 
 
 conceal 
 
 
 falla 
 
 foil 
 
 fallit 
 
 fall 
 
 
 fara 
 
 for 
 
 farit 
 
 go, travel 
 
 
 fika 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 seek to 
 
 
 finna 
 
 fann, funno 
 
 funnit 
 
 find 
 
 
 flyga 
 
 flog 
 
 flugit 
 
 fly 
 
 
 flyta 
 
 flot 
 
 flutit 
 
 flow, float 
 
 
 fnysa 
 
 lib 
 
 
 sniff 
 
 
 
 fnos 
 
 [fnusit] 
 

 
 APP. IV 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 255 
 
 INFIX, 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPIXE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 frysa 
 
 fros 
 
 frusit 
 
 freeze 
 
 
 fralsa 
 
 lib or I 
 
 
 save 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 fa 
 
 
 fatt 
 
 get 
 
 P.p. ater-f add, fan- 
 
 
 fick, fingo 
 
 
 
 gen 
 
 fasta 
 
 lib or I 
 
 
 fasten 
 
 
 forena 
 
 I 
 
 
 unite 
 
 P. p. also *forent; 
 
 
 
 
 
 cf. Forenta sta- 
 
 
 
 
 
 terna 
 
 forgata 
 
 tforgat 
 
 forgatit 
 
 forget 
 
 No past plur. 
 
 forlana 
 
 I or [lib] 
 
 
 grant 
 
 
 fornim- 
 
 fornam, for- 
 
 fornum- 
 
 perceive 
 
 
 nia 
 
 nunnno 
 
 uiit 
 
 
 
 forsmada 
 
 I 
 
 
 scoff at 
 
 
 
 tforsmadde 
 
 tforsmatt 
 
 
 
 forsona 
 
 I or *IIb 
 
 
 atone for 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 forsvinna 
 
 
 
 disappear 
 
 See svinna 
 
 forvarva 
 
 I or Ha 
 
 
 acquire 
 
 
 gala 
 
 gol 
 
 galit 
 
 crow 
 
 
 
 Ha 
 
 
 
 
 gitta 
 
 gittade 
 
 gittat 
 
 care 
 
 Pres. always -er; 
 
 
 gat 
 
 
 
 no plur. of gat 
 
 
 gitte 
 
 
 
 
 giva, ge 
 
 gav, gavo 
 
 givit 
 
 give 
 
 
 
 
 (gett) 
 
 
 
 gjuta 
 
 got 
 
 gjutit 
 
 pour, cast 
 
 
 glida 
 
 gled 
 
 glidit 
 
 glide 
 
 
 gladja 
 
 gladde 
 
 glatt 
 
 gladden 
 
 Pres. glader, gladja 
 
 gliifsa 
 
 lib or I 
 
 
 yelp 
 
 
 gnaga 
 
 Ha or [I ] 
 
 
 gnaw 
 
 P.p. also [gnagen] 
 
 
 
 [gnagit] 
 
 
 
 gnida 
 
 gned 
 
 gnidit 
 
 rub 
 
 
 gripa 
 
 grep 
 
 gripit 
 
 seize 
 
 
 grata 
 
 grat 
 
 gratit 
 
 weep 
 
 P. p. in for-graten 
 
 grava 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 dig 
 
 
 
 tgrov 
 
 
 
 
 ga 
 
 
 gatt 
 
 go 
 
 P. p. gangen 
 
 
 gick, gingo 
 
 
 
 
 galda 
 
 I 
 
 
 pay 
 
 P. p. also gulden, 
 
 
 
 
 
 legal 
 
 galla 
 
 Ila or I 
 
 
 geld 

 
 256 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 APP. IV 
 
 INFIX. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 gora 
 
 gjorde 
 
 gjort 
 
 do, make 
 
 
 hava, ha 
 
 hade 
 
 haft 
 
 hart- 
 
 Prcs. sing, har or 
 
 
 
 
 
 thaver; present 
 
 
 
 
 
 plnr. hava or ha; 
 
 
 
 
 
 p.p. havd 
 
 beta 
 
 hette 
 
 
 be called 
 
 Prcs. -er 
 
 
 
 hetat 
 
 
 
 hiuna 
 
 hann, hunno 
 
 hunnit 
 
 reach, h art- 
 
 
 
 
 
 time 
 
 
 hja'lpa 
 
 lib 
 
 
 help 
 
 
 
 fhalp, fhulpo 
 
 thulpit 
 
 
 
 hugga 
 
 hogg 
 
 huggit 
 
 chop, hew 
 
 
 halla 
 
 holl 
 
 hallit 
 
 hold 
 
 
 hava 
 
 Ha 
 
 
 heave 
 
 
 
 fhov 
 
 fhavit 
 
 
 
 idas 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 
 
 Icke idas = be too 
 
 
 
 idits 
 
 
 lazy to 
 
 klinga 
 
 I 
 
 
 ring, sound 
 
 Pres. -ar 
 
 
 *klang, *klungo 
 
 *klungit 
 
 
 
 kliva 
 
 klev 
 
 klivit 
 
 stride} climb 
 
 
 klyva 
 
 k!6v 
 
 kluvit 
 
 cleave, split 
 
 
 klacka 
 
 Ilb 
 
 
 clack 
 
 Klacka = hatch, on- 
 
 
 klack 
 
 
 
 ly lib 
 
 klada, 
 
 kladde 
 
 klatt 
 
 dress 
 
 
 (kla) 
 
 
 
 
 
 knipa 
 
 knep 
 
 knipit 
 
 pinch 
 
 
 knysta 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 grumble 
 
 
 knyta 
 
 knot 
 
 knutit 
 
 tie 
 
 
 koka 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 cook 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 komina 
 
 kom 
 
 kom m it 
 
 come 
 
 Past plur. spelled 
 
 
 
 
 
 komrno 
 
 krympa 
 
 lib 
 
 
 shrink 
 
 P. p. also kruinpen; 
 
 
 
 krumpit 
 
 
 str. forms not tr. 
 
 krypa 
 
 krop 
 
 krupit 
 
 creep 
 
 
 krysta 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 strain 
 
 
 krava 
 
 kravde 
 
 kravt 
 
 demandpay- 
 
 
 
 [kravde] 
 
 [kravt] 
 
 ment 
 
 
 krona 
 
 kronte 
 
 kront 
 
 crown 
 
 lib instead of Ila 
 
 kunna 
 
 kunde 
 
 
 can 
 
 Pres. kan, kunna 
 
 kunnat
 
 APP. IV 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 257 
 
 INFIX. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 kvida 
 
 kved 
 
 kvidit 
 
 moan 
 
 
 
 kvidde 
 
 
 
 
 kvada 
 
 kvad 
 
 kvadit 
 
 sins 
 
 No plur. 0/"kvad 
 
 
 kvadde 
 
 
 
 
 kvalja 
 
 kvaljde 
 
 kvaljt 
 
 nauseate. 
 
 In latter meaning. 
 
 
 kvalde 
 
 kvalt 
 
 trouble 
 
 usually kvalde, 
 
 
 
 
 
 kvalt 
 
 le 
 
 
 lett 
 
 smile 
 
 P.p. in be-ledd 
 
 
 log 
 
 
 
 
 ledas.ledsleddes 
 
 letts 
 
 dislike 
 
 
 leva 
 
 levde 
 
 
 live 
 
 Pres. -er; p. p. in 
 
 
 
 levat 
 
 
 be-levad 
 
 lida 
 
 led 
 
 lidit 
 
 suffer, go on 
 
 
 Hgga 
 
 lag 
 
 
 lie 
 
 Pres. -er; p. p. in 
 
 
 
 legal 
 
 
 for-legad 
 
 lita 
 
 I 
 
 
 depend 
 
 Pres. -ar or [-er] 
 
 
 [litte] 
 
 
 
 
 
 [let] 
 
 
 
 
 ljuda 
 
 Ijod 
 
 ljudit 
 
 sound 
 
 In the meaning 
 
 
 [*I] 
 
 
 
 "utter" , always I 
 
 ljuga 
 
 Ijog 
 
 ljugit 
 
 tell a lie 
 
 
 ljuta 
 
 Ijot 
 
 ljutit 
 
 
 
 Ljuta doden = die 
 
 Ivfta 
 
 lib or [I] 
 
 
 lift 
 
 
 lyss 
 
 lyddes 
 
 lytts 
 
 listen 
 
 Pres. sing, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 plur. lyss 
 
 lada 
 
 Ila or [I] 
 
 be connected Pres. always -er 
 
 
 
 ladit 
 
 with 
 
 
 lana 
 
 I or (lib) 
 
 borrow, lend Pres. always -ar 
 
 (lass) 
 
 (laddes) 
 
 (latts) 
 
 pretend 
 
 Pres. sing, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 plur. (lass) 
 
 lata 
 
 lat 
 
 latit 
 
 let, sound 
 
 P. p. in tillaten 
 
 lagga 
 
 lade 
 
 lagt 
 
 lay 
 
 P. p. lagd 
 
 
 
 
 
 is said to 
 
 Pres. lar, lara 
 
 lona 
 
 I or (lib) 
 
 
 pay 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 lopa 
 
 lopp, lupo 
 
 lupit 
 
 run 
 
 P. p. in for-lupeu 
 
 
 lib 
 
 
 
 
 mala 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 grind 
 
 Also p. p. nialen 
 
 
 
 malit 
 
 
 
 mana 
 
 I or [(lib)] 
 
 
 urge 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 mena 
 
 I or (*IIb) 
 
 
 mean 
 
 Pres. always -ar
 
 2 5 8 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 APR IV 
 
 INFIX. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 mista 
 
 lib or I 
 
 
 lose 
 
 Pres. always -er 
 
 
 
 maste 
 
 mast 
 
 must 
 
 See 256 
 
 
 
 matte 
 
 
 may, might 
 
 Ma; see 253; ma be, 
 
 
 
 
 
 feel, belongs to III 
 
 mala 
 
 Ha or lib 
 
 
 say 
 
 Archaic, except in 
 
 
 
 
 
 an-, for-, gen-mala 
 
 niga 
 
 neg 
 
 nigit 
 
 curtsy 
 
 
 njuta 
 
 njot 
 
 njutit 
 
 enjoy 
 
 
 nypa 
 
 nop 
 
 nupit 
 
 pinch 
 
 
 nysa 
 
 lib 
 
 
 sneeze 
 
 
 
 nos 
 
 [nysit.nu 
 
 
 
 
 
 sit] 
 
 
 
 nasta 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 stitch 
 
 
 pipa 
 
 pep 
 
 pipit 
 
 pipe 
 
 
 plaga 
 
 I 
 
 
 be used to 
 
 Pres. sing, often plar 
 
 rida 
 
 red 
 
 ridit 
 
 ride 
 
 
 rinna 
 
 rann, runno 
 
 runnit 
 
 run, flow 
 
 
 rista 
 
 I or [lib] 
 
 
 cut 
 
 
 rista 
 
 lib or [I] 
 
 
 shake 
 
 
 riva 
 
 rev 
 
 rivit 
 
 tear 
 
 
 ropa 
 
 I or (*IIb) 
 
 
 cry, call 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 ryka 
 
 rok 
 
 rukit, [ry- smoke 
 
 
 
 kit] 
 
 
 
 
 lib 
 
 
 
 
 ryta 
 
 rot 
 
 [rutit, ry- roar 
 
 
 
 tit] 
 
 
 
 raka 
 
 I or [(lib)] 
 
 meet, happen Pres. always -ar 
 
 radas 
 
 raddes 
 
 
 fear 
 
 
 
 
 [radits] 
 
 
 
 rodj a 
 
 rodde 
 
 rott 
 
 clear 
 
 Archaic for roja 
 
 rona 
 
 ronte 
 
 ront 
 
 experience 
 
 lib instead of Ila 
 
 se 
 
 oAry 
 
 sett 
 
 see 
 
 P. p. sedd 
 
 simma 
 
 sag 
 sam, summo summit 
 
 swim 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 sitta 
 
 satt, sutto 
 
 suttit 
 
 sit 
 
 P. p. in for-sutten, 
 
 
 
 setat 
 
 
 [for-suten] 
 
 sjuda 
 
 sjod 
 
 sjudit 
 
 boil 
 
 P. p. sjuden or [su- 
 
 
 
 
 
 den] 
 
 sjunga sjong 
 
 sjungit sing
 
 APP. IV 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 259 
 
 INFIX. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MKAXIXG 
 
 P^. MARKS 
 
 sjunka 
 
 sjonk 
 
 sjunkit 
 
 sink 
 
 
 skapa 
 
 I or (*IIb) 
 
 
 create 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 skava 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 scrape 
 
 P. p. also skaven 
 
 
 
 skavit 
 
 
 
 skilja 
 
 skilde 
 
 skilt 
 
 separate 
 
 
 skina 
 
 sken 
 
 skin it 
 
 shine 
 
 
 skira 
 
 I or Ila 
 
 
 clarify 
 
 
 skjuta 
 
 skot 
 
 skjutit 
 
 shoot 
 
 
 skola 
 
 skulle 
 
 
 shall 
 
 Pres. skall, skola 
 
 
 
 skolat 
 
 
 
 skona 
 
 I or (*IIb) 
 
 
 spare 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 skrida 
 
 skred 
 
 skridit 
 
 move 
 
 
 skrika 
 
 skrek 
 
 skrikit 
 
 cry, shriek 
 
 
 skrinna 
 
 I 
 
 
 glide 
 
 
 
 skrann, skruu- 
 
 skrunnit 
 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 
 
 
 skriva 
 
 skrev 
 
 skrivit 
 
 write 
 
 
 skrympa 
 
 lib 
 
 
 become 
 
 P.p. also skrumpen 
 
 
 
 skruuipit 
 
 wrinkled 
 
 
 skryta 
 
 skrb't 
 
 skrutit 
 
 boast 
 
 
 skvatta 
 
 lib 
 
 
 squirt 
 
 Strong form not 
 
 
 skvatt 
 
 
 
 transitive 
 
 skalva 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 tremble 
 
 No plur. of skalv 
 
 
 skalv 
 
 
 
 
 skara 
 
 skar, skuro 
 
 skurit 
 
 cut 
 
 
 slinka 
 
 slank, [slunko] 
 
 [slunkit] 
 
 slink 
 
 
 slinta 
 
 slant, [slunto] 
 
 [sluntit] 
 
 slip 
 
 
 slippa 
 
 slapp, sluppo 
 
 sluppit 
 
 not to have 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 slita 
 
 slet 
 
 slitit 
 
 tear 
 
 
 sluka 
 
 I 
 
 
 devour 
 
 
 
 slok 
 
 slukit 
 
 
 
 sluta 
 
 slot 
 
 slutit 
 
 close 
 
 
 sluta 
 
 I 
 
 
 finish, end 
 
 
 
 slot 
 
 
 
 
 sla 
 
 slog 
 
 slagit 
 
 strike 
 
 Cf. sites fight 
 
 smita 
 
 smet 
 
 smitit 
 
 sneak 
 
 
 smyga 
 
 smog 
 
 sniugit 
 
 steal, slip 
 
 
 smalla 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 make a re- 
 
 Strong form not 
 
 
 small 
 
 
 port 
 
 transitive
 
 260 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 APP. IV 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 smalta 
 
 lib 
 
 
 melt 
 
 Strong forms not 
 
 
 smalt, smulto 
 
 smultit 
 
 
 transitive 
 
 smorja 
 
 smorde 
 
 smort 
 
 grease 
 
 
 snida 
 
 I 
 
 
 carve 
 
 Pres. -ar or -er 
 
 snyta 
 
 snot 
 
 snutit 
 
 blow the nose 
 
 
 snarja 
 
 snarjde 
 
 snarjt 
 
 ensnare 
 
 P. p. also *| snard 
 
 
 *fsnarde 
 
 
 
 
 *sona 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 atone for 
 
 Pres. always -ar; 
 
 
 
 
 
 cf. forsona 
 
 sova 
 
 sov 
 
 sovit 
 
 sleep 
 
 
 spara 
 
 I or Ila 
 
 
 save 
 
 
 spela 
 
 I or (*IIb) 
 
 
 play 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 spinna 
 
 spann, spunno 
 
 spunnit 
 
 spin 
 
 
 spricka 
 
 sprack, sprucko 
 
 spruckit 
 
 crack 
 
 
 sprida 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 spread 
 
 
 
 spred 
 
 
 
 
 springa 
 
 sprang, sprungo sprungit 
 
 run 
 
 
 spritta 
 
 spratt, [sprutto] 
 
 [spruttit] start, jump 
 
 spratta 
 
 lib or I 
 
 
 rip, dandy- 
 
 Spratta - kick, 
 
 
 
 
 ize 
 
 sprinkle, only lib 
 
 sporja 
 
 sporde 
 
 sport 
 
 ask, learn 
 
 Pres. sing. pass. 
 
 
 
 
 
 sporjes, sporjs or 
 
 
 
 
 
 (fspors) 
 
 sticka 
 
 stack, stucko 
 
 stuckit 
 
 stick 
 
 Sticka = knit, be- 
 
 
 
 
 
 longs to I 
 
 stiga 
 
 steg 
 
 stigit 
 
 step 
 
 
 stinga 
 
 [stang],stungo 
 
 stungit 
 
 sting 
 
 
 stinka 
 
 stank, [stunko] 
 
 [stunkit] 
 
 stink 
 
 
 stjala 
 
 stal, stulo 
 
 stulit 
 
 steal 
 
 
 stjalpa 
 
 lib " 
 
 
 upset 
 
 Strong form not 
 
 
 [*stalp] 
 
 
 
 transitive 
 
 strida 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 fight 
 
 
 
 stred 
 
 stridit 
 
 
 
 stryka 
 
 strok 
 
 strukit 
 
 stroke 
 
 
 stupa 
 
 I 
 
 
 fall 
 
 
 
 stop 
 
 
 
 
 sta 
 
 
 statt 
 
 stand 
 
 P. p. in over-stan- 
 
 
 stod 
 
 
 
 den,for-stadd 
 
 stadja 
 
 stadde 
 
 statt 
 
 engage 
 
 Pres. sing, stadjer 
 
 
 
 
 
 or stader
 
 AFP. IV 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 261 
 
 INFIX. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 stodja 
 
 stodde 
 
 stott 
 
 support 
 
 Pres. sing, stodjer 
 
 
 
 
 
 or stoder 
 
 suga 
 
 sog 
 
 sugit 
 
 suck 
 
 
 supa 
 
 sop 
 
 supit 
 
 drink 
 
 
 svida 
 
 sved 
 
 svidit 
 
 smart 
 
 
 svika 
 
 svek 
 
 svikit 
 
 disappoint 
 
 
 svinna 
 
 svann, svunno 
 
 svunnit 
 
 vanish 
 
 Cf. forsvinna 
 
 svalja 
 
 svaljde 
 
 svaljt 
 
 swallow 
 
 
 
 [svalde] 
 
 [svalt] 
 
 
 
 svalta 
 
 svalt, svulto 
 
 svultit 
 
 starve 
 
 Strong forms not 
 
 
 lib 
 
 
 
 transitive 
 
 svarja, 
 
 svor, svuro 
 
 svurit 
 
 swear 
 
 Pres. svarjer or 
 
 svara 
 
 
 
 
 svar 
 
 syna 
 
 I or [(lib)] 
 
 
 examine 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 synas 
 
 syntes 
 
 synts 
 
 seem 
 
 lib instead of Ila 
 
 syra 
 
 I 
 
 
 make sour 
 
 Syra = be sour, Ila 
 
 saga 
 
 sade 
 
 sagt 
 
 say 
 
 
 salja 
 
 salde 
 
 salt 
 
 sell 
 
 
 samjas 
 
 samdes 
 
 samts 
 
 agree 
 
 Pres. samjes or 
 
 
 samjdes 
 
 
 
 sams 
 
 satta 
 
 satte 
 
 satt 
 
 set 
 
 
 taga, ta 
 
 tog 
 
 tagit 
 
 take 
 
 
 tala 
 
 I or (*IIb) 
 
 
 speak 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 tiga 
 
 teg 
 
 [tigit] 
 
 be silent 
 
 Pres. -er; p.p. for- 
 
 
 
 tegat 
 
 
 tegad 
 
 tjusa 
 
 I or *IIb 
 
 
 charm 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 tjuta 
 
 tjot 
 
 tjutit 
 
 howl 
 
 
 tjana 
 
 I or (*IIb) 
 
 
 serve 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 trivas 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 thrive, get 
 
 
 
 
 trivits 
 
 on 
 
 
 tryta 
 
 trot 
 
 trutit 
 
 come to an 
 
 P.p. in ofor-truten 
 
 
 
 
 end 
 
 
 ftrada 
 
 Ila 
 
 
 tread 
 
 Pres. trader or trar 
 
 tvinga 
 
 tvang, tvungo 
 
 tvungit 
 
 compel 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 tva 
 
 III 
 
 
 wash 
 
 P.p. tvagen or 
 
 
 
 tvagit 
 
 
 [tvadd] 
 
 tala 
 
 Ila or lib 
 
 
 endure 
 
 
 talja 
 
 taljde 
 
 taljt 
 
 count 
 
 Talja = cut, always 
 
 
 talde 
 
 talt 
 
 
 taljde, taljt
 
 262 
 
 STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 APP. IV 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 PAST 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 MEANING 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 tamja 
 
 tamde 
 
 tamt 
 
 tame 
 
 
 
 ta'mjde 
 
 tamjt 
 
 
 
 
 tamde 
 
 tamt 
 
 
 
 
 
 torde 
 
 
 be likely to 
 
 Pres. tor, tora 
 
 toras 
 
 tordes 
 
 torts 
 
 dare 
 
 Pres. tors 
 
 vara 
 
 var, voro 
 
 varit 
 
 be 
 
 Prcs. ar, aro 
 
 varda 
 
 vart, vordo 
 
 
 become, be 
 
 P. p. vorden. 222 
 
 veta 
 
 visste 
 
 
 know 
 
 Pres. vet 
 
 
 
 vetat 
 
 
 
 vetta 
 
 vette 
 
 
 face 
 
 Pres. -er 
 
 
 
 vettat 
 
 
 
 vika 
 
 vek 
 
 vikit 
 
 give way 
 
 
 vilja 
 
 ville 
 
 
 want to 
 
 Pres. vill, vilja 
 
 
 
 velat 
 
 
 
 vina 
 
 ven 
 
 vinit 
 
 sough 
 
 
 vinna 
 
 vann, vunno 
 
 vunnit 
 
 win 
 
 
 visa 
 
 I or (lib) 
 
 
 show 
 
 Pres. always -ar 
 
 vrida 
 
 vred 
 
 vridit 
 
 twist 
 
 
 vraka 
 
 lib 
 
 
 throw 
 
 
 
 *vrok 
 
 
 
 
 valja 
 
 valde 
 
 valt 
 
 choose 
 
 
 valta 
 
 lib or I 
 
 
 upset 
 
 Forms of I not^in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 transitive; valta 
 
 
 
 
 
 = roll, only I 
 
 vain j as 
 
 vamjdes 
 
 va'mjts 
 
 nauseate 
 
 Pres. vamjes 
 
 
 vamdes 
 
 vamts 
 
 
 
 vanja 
 
 vande 
 
 vant 
 
 accustom 
 
 
 vaxa 
 
 lib 
 
 
 grow 
 
 P. p. also vuxen 
 
 
 plur. vuxo 
 
 vuxit 
 
 
 
 yra 
 
 I 
 
 
 be delirious 
 
 Yra = drift, Ila 
 
 ysta 
 
 I or lib 
 
 
 make cheese 
 
 
 ata 
 
 at 
 
 atit 
 
 eat 
 
 
 oka 
 
 I or (lib) 
 
 
 increase 
 
 Pres. always -ar
 
 APP. V BIBLIOGRAPHY 263 
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 The following is a list of the leading works helpful in the 
 further study of the Swedish language. The books that are par- 
 ticularly adapted for this purpose have been indicated by an aster- 
 isk. The orthography has been indicated, wherever important. 
 
 TEXT-EDITIONS. 
 
 The following text-editions, edited with English notes (and 
 
 introductions) and Swedish-English vocabularies, are at the present 
 
 time (Jan. i, 1914) obtainable or in preparation. They are here 
 
 enumerated in the approximate order of difficulty. 
 
 *LAGERLOF: Selections from Selma Lagerlof's* Nils 
 Holg'erssons underk>ara resa g'enom Sverig'e, edited 
 with vocabulary and notes by A. LOUIS ELMQUIST. Stock- 
 holm, 1912. Pages 187 (of this, text, 131). New orthography. 
 Twelve short stories. 
 
 *GEIJERSTAM'S Mina PojKar, edited with vocabulary and notes 
 by JOSEPH ALEXIS. Rock Island, 1911. Pages 165 (of this, 
 text, 128). New orthography. 
 
 *LAGERLOF'S En Herrg'ardssagen, edited with vocabulary 
 and notes by A. Louis ELMQUIST. Stockholm, 1910. Pages 
 194 (of this, text, 149). New orthography. 
 
 *LAGERLOF: Valda Berattelser, edited with vocabulary and 
 notes by JULES MAURITZSON. Rock Island, 1913. Pages 153 
 (of this, text, 115). New orthography. Selected short stories. 
 
 *NYBLOM'S Det Ringer, edited with vocabulary and notes by 
 A. LOUIS ELMQUIST. Stockholm, 1910. Pages 73 (of this, 
 text, 51). An older orthography. Comedy in one act. 
 
 *HEDBERG'S Pa Torpa Card, edited with vocabulary and 
 notes by CARL J. BERGMAN. In preparation. 
 
 *RUNEBERG'S FanriK. Stals Sagner, edited with introduc- 
 tion, vocabulary and notes by A. LOUIS ELMQUIST. In prep- 
 aration. New orthography.
 
 264 BIBLIOGRAPHY APP. V 
 
 *TEGNER'S Frithiofs Saga, edited with introduction, notes 
 and a bibliography by GEORGE T. FLOM. Chicago, 1909. 
 Pages 24 (introduction) and 202 (of this, text, 174). An older 
 orthography. Illustrated edition. 
 
 *TEGNER'S Fritiofs Saga, edited with introduction, vocabu- 
 lary and notes by A. A. STOMBERG. Rock Island, 1914. 
 Pages 197 (of this, introduction, 12; text, 114). New orthography. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 *ELMQUIST, A. LOUIS, Phonology of the Swedish Lan- 
 guage. In press. New orthography. A detailed presentation 
 of Swedish pronunciation. Intended for use as a text-book 
 in schools. 
 
 *LYTTKENS, I. A., & WULFF, F. A., SvensK Ordlista med 
 uttalsbetecKning . . . och med stavning enligt 
 19O6 ars circular. Lund, 1911. Pages 59 (introduction) 
 and 456. New orthography. 
 
 LYTTKENS, I. A., & WULFF, F. A., SvensK uttals-ordboK. 
 Lund, 1889. Pages 68 (introduction) and 373. Much attention 
 is given to the variations of pronunciation in different forms 
 of style and in different localities. 
 
 LYTTKENS, I. A., & WULFF, F. A., SvensKa SpraKets 
 Ljudlara. Lund, 1885. Pages 351 (sounds), 115 (accent). 
 
 *DANELL, GIDEON, SvensK. Ljudlara. Stockholm, 1911. 
 Pages 83. Considerable attention is given to phonetics. 
 
 *NOREEN, ADOLF, Vart SpraK (see under grammars). Vol- 
 umes I and II deal with Swedish phonology. 
 
 KOCK, AXEL, SvensK AKcent. Lund, 1878-1885. 2 volumes. 
 Pages 211, 524. 
 
 KOCK, AXEL, Die Alt- und Neuschwedische accen- 
 tuierung. Strassburg, 1901. Pages 298. 
 
 GRAMMARS. 
 
 *NOREEN, ADOLF, Vart SpraK, nysvensK grammatiK 
 i utforlig framstallning. Lund, 1903. This work, 
 which is to embrace 9 volumes, is in process of publication. 
 Volumes I (pages 579), II (pages 491), V (pages 706) and 
 a part of III (pages 160) and VII (pages 96) have been pub-
 
 APP. V BIBLIOGRAPHY 265 
 
 lished up to January i, 1914, and are purchaseable. The most 
 
 comprehensive and up-to-date work on the subject, and one of 
 
 the greatest works ever published. 
 *BECKMAN, NATANAEL, SvensK SpraKlara. Stockholm, 
 
 1904. Pages 278. A highly interesting, clear, and modern 
 
 presentation. 
 *REBBE, CARL, SvensK SpraKlara. Stockholm 1912. Pages 
 
 152. A very attractive and useful little book. 
 
 SUNDEN, D. A., SvensK SpraKlara i sammandrag. 
 20 edition, revised by K. F. Sundn, a son of the author. Stock- 
 holm, 1912. Pages 268. Some valuable new material has been 
 incorporated in this latest edition. 
 
 LINDHR, N., Reg'ler och rad angaende svensKa spra- 
 Kets behandling i tal och sKrift. 3 edition. Stock- 
 holm, 1908. Pages 231. 
 
 BRATE OCH LINDVALL, SvensK SpraKlara. Stockholm, 
 1907. Pages 190. Cf. BRATE, SvensK SpraKlara. Stock- 
 holm, 1898. Pages 235. For a valuable review on this latter, 
 see Noreen, "Pedagogisk Tidskrift," 1898. 
 
 SWEET, HENRY, Sounds and forms of spoKen Swed- 
 ish. In ''Transactions of the Philological Society", 1877-1879 
 (pages 457-543)- London, 1879. 
 
 *SPRAK OCH STIL (see under JOURNALS, below) contains many 
 valuable articles dealing with Swedish grammar. 
 
 STYLE. WORKS DEALING WITH THE DIFFER- 
 ENCES BETWEEN WRITTEN AND 
 SPOKEN SWEDISH. 
 
 *CEDERSCHIOLD, GUSTAV, Om svensKan som sKrift- 
 spraK. 3 edition. Lund, 1911. Pages 253. An interesting 
 and very valuable presentation of the differences between 
 spoken and written Swedish. 
 
 CEDERSCHIOLD, GUSTAV, SpraK i SpraKet. Stockholm, 
 1909. 2 volumes. Numbers 163 and 164 of "Verdandis sma- 
 skrifter". Pages 51 and 28. 
 
 *SPRAK OCH STIL (see under JOURNALS, below) contain? much 
 material on this subject. See also LYTTKENS-WULFF,
 
 266 BIBLIOGRAPHY APP. V 
 
 SvensK Uttals-ordboK (under PRONUNCIATION, above). 
 All the grammars mentioned above emphasize stylistic differ- 
 ences more or less. 
 
 DICTIONARIES. 
 
 *WENSTROM & HARLOCK, SvensK-E,ngelsK OrdboK. 
 Skolupplaga. Stockholm, 1908. Pages 880. An older orthography. 
 
 BJORKMAN, C. G., SvensK-EngelsK OrdboK. Stockholm, 
 1902. Pages 1360. An older orthography (older than that of 
 the preceding book). 
 
 *LINDGREN, ERIK, E,ngelsK-SvensK OrdboK. Skolupp- 
 laga. Stockholm, 1909. Pages 673 and 50 (proper names). An 
 older orthography. 
 
 SUNDEN, D. A., OrdboK ofver svensKa spraKet. Stock- 
 holm, 1892. Pages 415, 692. 
 
 DALIN, A. F., OrdboK ofver svensKa spraKet. Stock- 
 holm, 1850, 1853. Two volumes, pages 896, 772. 
 
 *OSTERGREN, OLOF, is the author of a Swedish-Swedish dic- 
 tionary now (January I, 1914) in press, or shortly to go to 
 press. Being written by one who is an authority on stylistic 
 matters, this book will be a most valuable lexicographical help 
 to the student of Swedish. 
 
 SVENSKA AKADEMIENS OrdboK ofver svensKa spra- 
 Ket. Lund, 1893 . This invaluable work, -which will embrace 
 a large number of volumes, is in process of publication. Up 
 to the present time (January i, 1914) there has appeared: A 
 Blifva and C Dikta. The letter A embraces 2780 columns 
 (two columns to the page); of B, 3200 columns have been 
 published; C embraces 304 columns; of D, 1344 columns have 
 appeared. There are at present three bound volumes, while 
 volumes IV and V are almost full. As the work is being pub- 
 lished at the rate of two small sections a year, the annual out- 
 lay is very small. Notwithstanding the comparatively small 
 portion of the complete work as yet available, the dictionary 
 is already an extremely valuable work of reference. 
 
 SVENSKA AKADEMIENS Ordlista ofver svensKa spra- 
 Ket. 7 edition. Stockholm, 1903. Pages 327. A standard 
 work of reference showing the inflection of words, but not 
 giving definitions. An older orthography.
 
 APP. V BIBLIOGRAPHY 267 
 
 LUNDELL, J. A., SvensK Ordlista. Stockholm, 1893. Pages 32 
 
 (introduction) and 384. 
 LYTTKENS & WULFF; see their dictionaries given above under 
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 *MOREN & VON FRIESEN, Ordlista. Stockholm, 1906. 
 
 Pages 38. Shows the differences between the present orthog- 
 raphy and that used prior to the year 1906. 
 STURZEN-BECKER, V., SvensK Ordlista. Stockholm, 1906. 
 
 Pages 60. Purpose same as the foregoing. 
 QSTERGREN, OLOF, 5OOO frammande ord med uttal 
 
 och forKlaring, 2 edition. Stockholm, 1909 Number 146 
 
 of "Verdandis smaskrif ter" . Pages 61. 
 EKBOHRN, O. M., 6O.OOO frammande ord och namn 
 
 tilliKa med deras harledning ocK uttal. 4 edition. 
 
 Stockholm, 1902, 1904. Pages 424, 378. 
 
 JOURNALS. 
 
 ^PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE ADVANCE- 
 MENT OF SCANDINAVIAN STUDY. Publications free to 
 members of the Society. Annual membership fee, one dollar. 
 The back numbers, which extend back to 1911, can be pur- 
 chased separately. Applications for membership may be sent 
 to the Editor, Prof. Geo T. Flom, University of Illinois, Ur- 
 bana, Illinois. Among other things, the publications contain 
 articles dealing with Swedish grammar and literature, of value 
 to students of the language. The announcement of books pub- 
 lished and about to be published on Scandinavian subjects 
 (both in this country and in the Scandinavian countries) 
 deserves special mention. 
 
 *SPRAK OCH STIL, tidsKrift for nysvensK spraKforsK- 
 ning. Upsala, Sweden. This journal is devoted entirely to 
 the study of the Swedish language. Valuable and varied 
 contents, contributed by the leading scholars of Sweden. The 
 annual subscription is for America, including postage, $1.50. 
 Subscription may be sent to Prof. A. Louis Elmquist, North- 
 western University, Evanston, 111., who is the representative 
 of the journal in America. There are four or five numbers 
 a year. The back volumes, which extend back to the year
 
 268 . BIBLIOGRAPHY A PP. V 
 
 1900, can be purchased for $1.00 per volume. The editors 
 are: Olof Ostergren, Bengt Hesselmau, and Ruben G:son Berg. 
 
 AMERICAN SWEDISH. 
 
 Persons born in this country, and speaking Swedish, in almost 
 all cases speak a form of the language that has been much influ- 
 enced by (American-)English. In the case of these the study of 
 the Swedish of Sweden can hardly be successful unless they under- 
 stand the nature and extent of this influence. The works here 
 named deal with this subject. 
 
 BERGER, V., Vart spraK. E,tt bidrag till Kannedomen 
 om engelsKa spraKets inflytande pa svensKa 
 spraKet i AmeriKa. Rock Island, 1912. Pages 64. 
 ANDREEN, GUSTAV, Del svensKa spraKet i AmeriKa. 
 Stockholm, 1900. Number 87 of "Verdandis smaskrifter." 
 Pages 1 8. 
 
 BERG, RUBEN G:SON, SvensKan i AmeriKa. Studier i 
 de utvandrades spraK. In SPRAK OCH STIL, vol. IV 
 (1904), pp. i, ff. Tillagg, Vol. V (1905), pp. 250, ff. 
 ELMQUIST, A. LOUIS, Ett och annat rorande svensKan 
 i America. In SPRAK OCH STIL, vol. XI (1911), pp. 17, ff. 
 ELMQUIST, A. LOUIS, Anders. In "Vinterrosor," Chicago, 1911, 
 pp. 35, ff. A sketch attempting to show how the language- 
 mixture has in actual life originated. 
 
 ZETTERSTRAND, E. A., EngelsKans inflytande pa det 
 svensKa spraKet i AmeriKa. In "Ungdomsvannen," 
 Rock Island, 1904 (pp. 179, f.; 204-207; 243, f.; cf. also pp. 
 348, ff.). 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 STEFFEN, R., SvensK Litteraturhistoria. 2 edition, Stock- 
 holm, 1907. Pages 270. 
 
 WARBURG, KARL, SvensK Litteraturhistoria i samman- 
 drag. 7 edition. Stockholm, 1907. Pages 172. Illustrated 
 edition, 1908. Pages 219. 
 
 SCHUCK, HENRIK, & WARBURG, KARL, Illustrerad 
 SvensK Litteraturnistoria. 2 edition. Stockholm, 1911- 
 1912. Two volumes, pages 549 and 667.
 
 APP. V BIBLIOGRAPHY 269 
 
 ISBERG, A. R., SvensK Litteratur i urval (152(b ). 
 Stockholm, 1911. Pages 747. An excellent anthology of 
 poetry and prose in one volume. 
 
 STEFFEN, R., OversiKt av svensKa litteraturen. Stock- 
 holm, 1906-1908. 5 volumes, pages 264, 390, 494, 297, 327. 
 Selections from the literature of the different periods. 
 
 SVERIGES NATIONALLITTERATUR, 15OO-19OO. Edited by 
 Henrik Schiick and Ruben G:son Berg. 26 volumes. 
 
 SVKNSKA VITTERHETSSAMFUNDET. SvensKa Forfat- 
 ta.re. Stockholm, 1910 . Critical texts of authors after 
 1526 with notes dealing with style, language, literature and 
 biography. 
 
 TEXT-EDITIONS, see above. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 GRIMBERG, CARL, Sveriges Historia i sammandrag 
 med DanmarK ocri Norge Stockholm, 1907-1910. 5 vol- 
 umes, pages 692. Abridged edition, 1908-1910. 2 volumes, 
 pages 380. 
 
 BERGGREN, P. G., Sveriges Historia. Stockholm, 1906. 
 Pages 197. 
 
 MAPS AND ATLASES. 
 
 COHRS', Atlas ofver Sverige. 8 edition. Stockholm, 1908. 
 
 23 maps. Index, 32 pages. Each map about 7 by 9 inches. 
 GODTKOPS-RESKARTA ofver Sverige, prepared by N. P. 
 
 PETTERSOX. Stockholm, 1910. Map about 23 by 24 inches; 
 
 special map of Gota Canal. Obtainable in several styles. 
 HE LA SVERIGE for 1.5O. 16 Kartor ofver Sveriges 
 
 landsKap. Stockholm, 1912. Each map, 6 by 8 inches. 
 EX-KROXAS-KARTA OFVER SVERIGE samt speciaJ-Karta 
 
 ofver Gota Kanal. Stockholm, 1908. This map is 23 
 
 by 27 inches. Obtainable in several styles.
 
 NOTE TO THE VOCABULARIES. 
 
 Gender is indicated only in the case of neuter nouns (n.). De- 
 clension is indicated by Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). No de- 
 clension is given in the case of nouns that are not used in the 
 plural. Vowel-modification is indicated by placing the modified 
 vowel after the declension-number; as, hand (3, a). In the case 
 of further irregularities the full plural form is given. 
 
 Of strong verbs (STR.) the principal parts are given. In the 
 case of weak verbs the Conjugation is indicated by Roman numer- 
 als, I, Ha (past tense, -de), lib (past tense, -te), III. See also 
 list of strong and irregular verbs, APPENDIX IV. 
 
 The stress, whenever not on the first syllable, is indicated by ' 
 placed after the long sound; this mark does not necessarily signify 
 acute accent. Only the principal stress is indicated. 
 
 For references to the grammar (pronunciation, acute and grave 
 accent, forms, etc.), see the INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 270
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 2 7 i 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 A 
 
 Ack ok/, of, alas 
 
 afton (2) evening; i this ; 
 
 om -en in the evening 
 aku't acute 
 alclrig never 
 
 all all, every; allt everything 
 allaredaii already 
 alldeles entirely 
 allra of all, very 
 alls at all 
 
 allt more and more; see all 
 alltid always 
 alltjam't (or al'ltjamt) always, 
 
 constantly, continually 
 andas, dep., (I) to breathe 
 Anders Andrew 
 andra, sec annan 
 ankomst arrival 
 annan (n. annat, plur. and def. 
 
 andra) other 
 annorlunda differently} 
 ansikte n. (4) face 
 arbeta (I) to work 
 arbete . (4) work 
 artne (3) army 
 att, con/., that; to (with inf.] 
 av of, from, by; off 
 avbilda (I) to image, represent 
 avslagen, past part, of avsla to 
 
 knock off 
 
 backe (2) hill 
 bageri' n. (3) bakery 
 bakom (or bakom') behind 
 
 bar, see bara 
 
 bara only, just 
 
 barn n. (5) child 
 
 be, see bedja 
 
 bebod'd inhabited 
 
 bedja, be (STR., bad, bado, belt) 
 
 to ask, request, pray; om 
 
 ask for 
 
 begyn'na (lib) to begin 
 ben n. (5) bone, leg 
 berg . (5) mountain, hill, rock 
 berat'ta (I) to relate, tell 
 beso'k n. (5) visit 
 bi n. (4) bee 
 bibliote'k n. (5) library 
 biblioteka'rie (3) librarian 
 biskop (2) bishop 
 bita (STR., bet, bitit) to bite; 
 
 bitas, dep., bite 
 bjuda (STR., bjod, bjudit) to 
 
 offer, invite 
 bjodo, see bjuda 
 bjorkalle" (main stress on first 
 
 syllable) (3) birch-lined ave- 
 nue 
 
 blank bright, polished, clean 
 blev, bleve, blevo, see bliva 
 bli, see bliva 
 blick (2) glance 
 blind blind 
 blir, see bliva 
 bliva, bli (STR., blev, blivit) 
 
 to become, get, be 
 blomma (\) flower, blossom 
 blommande blooming 
 bla blue
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 blasa (lib) to blow 
 
 bo (III) to live (= dwell} 
 
 bok (3, bocker) book 
 
 bonde (3, 6) peasant 
 
 bor, see bo 
 
 bord . (5) table 
 
 bort away, off 
 
 borta away; dar otw there 
 
 bortre farther, further; borterst 
 farthest, furthest 
 
 bota'niker (5) botanist 
 
 bra, adj. and adv., good, fine, 
 well 
 
 bred broad, wide 
 
 bredd (3) breadth, wideness 
 
 bredvi'd beside 
 
 brev 11. (5) letter 
 
 bringa (I or lib, bragte) to bring 
 
 bro (2) bridge 
 
 broder, bror (5, broder) brother 
 
 bron, see bro 
 
 bror, see broder 
 
 brottas, dep., (I) to wrestle, 
 struggle 
 
 bruka (I) to use, be accus- 
 tomed to 
 
 brun brown 
 
 brusa (I) to roar, rush 
 
 brattom in a hurry; ha(va) 
 to be in a hurry 
 
 branna (Ila) to burn (tr.) 
 
 brod n. (5) bread 
 
 broder, see broder 
 
 burit, see bara 
 
 bygga (Ha) to build 
 
 byxor, plur., trousers, breeches 
 
 bade both; bade . . . och both 
 . . . and 
 
 bado, see bedja 
 
 bat (2) boat 
 
 back (2) brook 
 
 bar n. (5) berry 
 
 bara (STR., bar, buro, burit) 
 
 to carry, bear, u'car 
 bast best; conj., just as 
 battre better 
 bocker, see bok 
 boja (Ha) to bend; sig bend, 
 
 stoop 
 
 bojd bent, bending 
 bonder, see bonde 
 borja (I) to begin 
 
 dag (2) day; i to-day; i pa 
 morgonen this morning; om 
 -en in the day-time, a day 
 
 dagakarl (2) workman 
 
 dags; huru (at) what time 
 
 dal (2) valley 
 
 Danmark Denmark 
 
 de (plur. of den, etc.} they, the 
 
 dels partly 
 
 dem (obj. plur. of den, etc.) 
 them 
 
 den (det, de, dem) the, it, that 
 
 den ha'r this, this one 
 
 denna (detta, dessa) this, Ihis 
 one 
 
 deras their, theirs 
 
 dess (gen. of den) its 
 
 dess, desto the (adv.) 
 
 dessa these; see denna 
 
 desto, see dess 
 
 det it, the, that, there; see den 
 
 detsam'ma; med all at once 
 
 detta, see denna 
 
 dig, see du 
 
 din (ditt, dina) (familiar} your, 
 yours (sing.)
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 273 
 
 dit there (= thither] 
 
 ditt, see din 
 
 djup deep 
 
 djup n. (5) depth 
 
 djur n. (5) animal 
 
 djavul (2) devil 
 
 docka (1) rfo// 
 
 dog, see do 
 
 doktor (3, dokto'rer) doctor 
 
 dotter (2, 6) daughter 
 
 draga, dra (STR., drog, dragit) 
 
 to draw, pull 
 dricka (STR., drack, drucko, 
 
 druckit) to drink 
 drottning (2) queen 
 druckit, drucko, see dricka 
 du (dig) (familiar} you (sing.) 
 duktig able, good 
 dum stupid 
 dunihet (3) stupidity 
 duva (1) dove, pigeon 
 da then, when; surely, now, at 
 
 least 
 
 dalig poor, bad 
 dar there, where; dar borta over 
 
 there; dar inne in there, 
 
 within 
 
 darfor therefore, for that reason 
 dari in that 
 do (1RREG. STR., dog, dott) 
 
 to die 
 dod dead 
 dod (2) death; till -s to death, 
 
 fatal 
 dottrar, see dotter 
 
 efter after 
 
 egen own; peculiar, strange 
 
 Egyp'ten Egypt 
 
 egyp'tier (5) Egyptian 
 
 ej not 
 
 elak bad, naughty 
 
 eller or 
 
 en (ett) a, an; one 
 
 endast only 
 
 engelsk English; -a the English 
 
 language; pa -a in English 
 engelsman (5, a) Englishman 
 ensam alone 
 
 er (formal) your, yours 
 er, see ni 
 ers your 
 ett, see en 
 
 evange'lium n. (3, -e'lier) gospel 
 exa'men (exa'mina) examination 
 
 fader, far (5, fader) father 
 
 faktum n. (fakta) fact 
 
 fall n. (5) case, event; i alia 
 
 fall at all events, anyhow 
 fall . (5) waterfall 
 falla (STR., foil, fallit) to fall 
 fann(s), see finna 
 far, see fader, fara 
 fara (STR., for, farit) to go, 
 
 travel 
 fattig poor 
 feber (2) fever 
 fern five 
 femte the fifth 
 fick, see fa 
 ficka (1) pocket 
 fiende (3) enemy 
 finge, see fa 
 finna (STR., fann, funno, funnit) 
 
 to find; -s to be, exist; det 
 
 finns there is, there are 
 fjaril (2) butterfly
 
 274 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 (i)'/ 
 
 fiesta; de most (of the, of 
 
 them), most people 
 flicka (1) girl 
 
 flyga (STR., flog, flugit) to fly 
 flyta (STR., flot, flutit) to flow, 
 
 float 
 
 flogo, see flyga 
 folk n. (5) people 
 fort fast, quickly 
 fot (3, f otter; 5, diff. meaning) 
 
 foot 
 
 fotografi' (3) photograph 
 fram forth, forward, on, up, 
 
 to one's destination; fram till 
 
 up to 
 
 framfor before, in front of 
 framme there, at one's destina- 
 tion, arrived 
 
 framat (or frama't) forth, along 
 fredag (2) Friday 
 f ri free 
 frisk well 
 fritt, see fri 
 
 fru (2) lady, wife, Mrs. 
 frukt (3) fruit 
 fraga (1) question 
 fraga (I) to ask (a question) 
 f ran from 
 frammande, indecl. adj., foreign, 
 
 strange 
 
 framst foremost 
 
 fro n. (4; 3, diff. meaning) seed 
 froken (2) (young) lady, miss, 
 
 Miss 
 
 ful homely 
 funde'ra (I) to ponder, think; 
 
 pa meditate about 
 funno, see finna 
 fura (1) fir-tree 
 
 fyra four 
 
 fa (IRREG. STR., fick, fingo, 
 fatt) to receive, get, be per- 
 mitted to 
 
 fa, plur. , few 
 
 fagel (2) bird 
 
 far, see fa 
 
 fatt, see fa 
 
 fangelse n. (3) prison 
 
 farg (3) color 
 
 folja (Ha) to follow, accompany; 
 -s at, recipr. dep., accompany 
 each other, go together 
 
 folio, see falla 
 
 fonster n. (5) window 
 
 for for, to; too; for att (in order) 
 to; for . . . sedan, see sedan; 
 for . . . skull, see skull 
 
 fb'rbi' past 
 
 forfat'tare (5) author 
 
 forhal'lande n. (4) circumstance, 
 condition 
 
 forklade n. (4) apron 
 
 forny'a (I) to renew 
 
 forsik'tig careful 
 
 forst first 
 
 forsvin'na(STR., -svan'n, -svun'- 
 no, -svun'nit) to disappear 
 
 forso'k n. (5) attempt', trial 
 
 forso'ka (lib) to try, attempt 
 
 fotter, see fot 
 
 gala (Ha or STR.) to crow 
 
 galen mad, crazy 
 
 gammal old 
 
 gata (1) street 
 
 gav, see giva 
 
 genast at once 
 
 genom through
 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 275 
 
 genus n. (5) gender 
 
 get (3, getter) goat 
 
 gick, see ga 
 
 gifta (lib) to marry; sig 
 
 (nied) be married (to], marry 
 gingo, see ga 
 giva, ge (STR., gav, gavo, givit) 
 
 to give 
 
 gjort, see gora 
 glad glad, happy 
 gladde, see gladja 
 glas . (5) glass 
 gladja (Ha, gladde) to please, 
 
 give pleasure (to), cheer; 
 
 sig (at) rejoice (at, ttt) 
 glomnia (Ha) to forget 
 god good 
 
 godhjartad kindhearted 
 gosse (2) boy 
 gott, see god 
 grav (2) grave 
 gren (2) branch 
 greve (2) count 
 grov coarse, thick, large 
 gra gray 
 grata (STR., grat, gratit) to 
 
 weep 
 
 grava (Ha) to dig 
 grovre, see grov 
 Gud God 
 gul yellow 
 
 gulna (I) to turn yellow 
 gunima (1) old woman 
 ga (IRREG. STR., gick, gingo, 
 
 gatt) to go, walk; ga ut och 
 
 ga go out for a walk 
 gang (3) time; en once 
 gar; i yesterday 
 gar, see ga 
 gas (5, gass) goose 
 
 gatt, see ga 
 
 gavo, see giva 
 
 garna gladly, fain 
 
 gass, see gas 
 
 gora (Ha, gjorde) to do, make 
 
 Gotebor'g Gothenburg 
 
 H 
 
 ha, see hava 
 
 hade, see hava 
 
 hagel n. (5) hail, hailstone 
 
 halv half 
 
 halvvags half-way 
 
 han (honom) he 
 
 hand (3, a) hand 
 
 hans his 
 
 har, see hava 
 
 hastigt rapidly, quickly, suddenly 
 
 hatt (2) hat 
 
 hav n. (5) sea, ocean 
 
 hava, ha (hade, haft) to have 
 
 hel whole, entire, all 
 
 helig holy 
 
 heller either; icke heller neither 
 
 heist; vilja to prefer to, like 
 
 best to 
 
 helt wholly, very 
 hem . (5) home 
 hem, fl^z-., home 
 hemifran from home 
 hemma at home 
 hen nes, her, hers 
 herr (2) Mr., Sir 
 herre (2) gentleman, master 
 herrgard (2) estate, manor 
 heta (Hb) to be called, be one's 
 
 name 
 
 histo'ria (3, histo'rier) story 
 hit here (= hither} 
 hjalp help
 
 2 7 6 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 hjalpa (lib) to help; -s at help 
 each other 
 
 hjarta n. (4) heart 
 
 hon (henne) she 
 
 honom, see ban 
 
 hoppas, dep., (I) to hope 
 
 hos with, by, at the house of 
 
 humo'r n. (5 or 3) temper 
 
 hundratals by hundreds, hun- 
 dreds of 
 
 huru, hur how, dags (at] 
 what time 
 
 hus n. (5) house 
 
 hustru (-r) wife 
 
 halla(STR.,h611, hallit) to hold, 
 keep 
 
 hard hard 
 
 haftig violent, hasty, impetuous 
 
 ban from here, away 
 
 handa (Ha) to happen, befall 
 
 handelse (3) occurrence 
 
 hander, see hand 
 
 hanga (Ha) to hang 
 
 hant, see handa 
 
 har here 
 
 hast (2) horse 
 
 hog high, tall, loud 
 
 hogljudd loud, vociferous 
 
 hojd (3) height 
 
 holl, see halla 
 
 hora (Ha) to hear 
 
 host (2) autumn-, i host this 
 autumn; i -as last autumn 
 
 I 
 
 i in, into 
 
 I (eder) you (plur.) 
 
 icke not 
 
 ifra'n from 
 
 igen' again 
 
 igen'kiinna (Ha) to recognize 
 
 ihja'l to death 
 
 ilia ^rf, badly 
 
 in *'/ in i into 
 
 ingen (intet, inga) no, no one> 
 
 none 
 inne within, in the house; inne 
 
 i in ; dar inne in there, within 
 inte not 
 intressan't interesting 
 
 ja yes, well 
 jag (mig) / 
 jo yes 
 Johan John 
 Johansson Johnson 
 jord (2) earth, ground 
 jordgubbe (2) (cultivated) straw- 
 berry 
 
 ju the (adv.) 
 just just 
 
 K. 
 
 kaffe . coffee 
 
 kalla (I) /0 ta//, summon 
 
 kan, s<?tf kunna 
 
 karl (2) man 
 
 kasta (I) fo throw, cast 
 
 kejsare (5) emperor, Kaiser 
 
 kilo n. (5) kilogram ( = 2.2 Ids.) 
 
 klaga (I) to complain 
 
 klappa (I) to knock, rap, clap, 
 
 caress; -s, recipr. dep., caress 
 
 each other 
 klocka (1) clock; -n ett (at] one 
 
 o'clock; -n tva (at) two o'clock 
 kna n. (4) knee 
 ko (-r) cow 
 kom, see komma
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 277 
 
 komma (STR., kom, kommo, 
 kommit) to come; att shall, 
 will, happen to; fram arrive 
 
 konkre't concrete 
 
 kons, see ko 
 
 konstnar (orkonstna'r) (3) artist 
 
 konung, kung (2) king 
 
 kopp (2) cup 
 
 kor, see ko 
 
 kosta (I) to cost 
 
 krona (1) crown, crown (=27 
 cents] 
 
 kunde, see kunna 
 
 kung, see konung 
 
 kunna (kunde, kunnat) to be 
 able, cati 
 
 kvar left, remaining, there, be- 
 hind 
 
 kvinna (1) woman 
 
 kvist (2) twig, bough 
 
 kvall (2) evening; i this eve- 
 ning 
 
 kyrka (1) church 
 
 kyssa (lib) to kiss; -s, recipr. 
 dep., kiss each other 
 
 kalla (1) spring 
 
 kanna (Ha) to know, feel; 
 igen' to recognize 
 
 kar dear 
 
 kopa (lib) to buy 
 
 korsbar n. (5) cherry 
 
 korsbarsblomma (1) cherry-blos- 
 som 
 
 korsbarstrad n. (5) cherry-tree 
 
 laborato'rium n. (3, -o'rier) labo- 
 ratory 
 
 lade, see lagga 
 
 lagnian (5, -man) district judge 
 
 lagt, see lagga 
 
 lampa (1) lamp 
 
 land . (3, a; 5) land, country 
 
 le (STR., log, lett) to smile 
 
 led, see lida 
 
 leda (Ha) to lead, guide 
 
 legat, see ligga 
 
 leka (lib) to play 
 
 leva (Ha) to live (= exist} 
 
 lida (STR., led, lidit) to suffer 
 
 ligga (STR., lag, legat) to lie, 
 be situated 
 
 liggdags bed-time 
 
 lika (just] as 
 
 lik(a)som as, just as 
 
 likasa (just] as 
 
 lilla (-e), see liten 
 
 liten (litet, lilla, sma) small, 
 little 
 
 liter (5) liter ( = 7.76 pints} 
 
 litet a little; see liten 
 
 liv . (5) life 
 
 locka (I) to entice, tempt 
 
 lova (I) to promise 
 
 lustgard (2) pleasure-garden, 
 park 
 
 lyckas (I) to succeed, be suc- 
 cessful 
 
 lycklig liappy 
 
 lyckligen safely 
 
 lyckligtvis fortunately 
 
 lag low 
 
 lag, lago, see ligga 
 
 lang long 
 
 langsam slow 
 
 langt far
 
 2 7 8 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 lata (STR., lat, latit) to let, 
 
 sound; bli leave off, let 
 
 alone, cease 
 lagga (Ha, lade, lagt) to lay, 
 
 put; sig lie down, go to bed 
 lagst, see lag 
 Ian n. (5) district 
 lange long, for a long time 
 langre, see lang, langt, lange 
 lara (Ha) to teach, learn; sig 
 
 learn 
 
 larare (5) teacher 
 lararin'na (.1) (woman) teacher 
 lasa (lib) to read 
 lofte n. (4) promise 
 lordag (2) Saturday 
 
 M 
 
 mala (Ha) to grind 
 
 man (5, a; special meaning -m&a) 
 man, husband 
 
 man one, they, people 
 
 med with, to 
 
 medan while 
 
 inellan between, among, in the 
 midst of 
 
 men but 
 
 mera, mer more; longer 
 
 meter (5) meter (=39 inches) 
 
 middag (2) noon, dinner 
 
 mig, see jag 
 
 mil (5) mile (Swedish mile = 
 6.8 Eng. miles) 
 
 mild mild, gentle 
 
 min (mitt, mina) my, -mine 
 
 minnas, dep., (Ha) to remember 
 
 minne n. (4) memory, reminis- 
 cence 
 
 mitt, see min 
 
 moder, mor (2, modrar) mother 
 
 mogen ripe 
 
 mogna (I) to ripen, grow ripe 
 
 mor, see moder 
 
 morgon (2) morning; i niorgon 
 
 to-morrow; i dag pa -en this 
 
 morning 
 
 morse; i this (past) morning 
 mot against, to, toward 
 mur (2) wall 
 
 muse'um n. (3, muse'er) museum 
 muskel (3) muscle 
 mycken much 
 mycket much, very 
 ma may 
 
 manad (3) month 
 mandag (2) Monday t 
 manga, plur., many 
 matte may 
 mojlig possible 
 mork dark 
 tnorkbla dark blue 
 mota (lib) to meet, encounter 
 
 N 
 
 namn n. (5) name 
 
 narra (I) to fool, deceive; -s, 
 
 dep., to fib 
 natt (3, a) night; i to-night; 
 
 om -en during the night 
 ned, ner down 
 nedfor (or nedfo'r) down 
 nedhangande hanging down, low 
 neger (3) negro 
 nej no; really 
 neka (I) to deny 
 ner, see ned 
 nere down 
 
 neutrum n. (3 or neutra) neuter 
 ni (er) (formal) you 
 nog enough, no doubt, surely
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 279 
 
 noga, indecl., accurate, partic- 
 ular 
 
 Norge Norway 
 
 norr north 
 
 nu now 
 
 numera now, nowadays 
 
 ny new 
 
 nypa (STR., nop, nupit) to pinch; 
 -s, dcp., pinch 
 
 nysa (STR., nos, nysit, or lib) 
 to sneeze 
 
 nytt, see ny 
 
 na (III) to reach, arrive at 
 
 nS.de grace 
 
 nagon (nagot, nagra) sow*?, aj/, 
 someone, anyone 
 
 nagonsin tfz^r 
 
 nagra, see nagon 
 
 namligen namely 
 
 nar <t'A6' 
 
 nara, indecl., near, close 
 
 narmaste, superl. of nara 
 
 nast ^;r/ 
 
 naste . (4) nest 
 
 nojd satisfied 
 
 noje . (4) pleasure 
 
 not (3, notter) #^ 
 
 obebodd uninhabited 
 
 och awfl? 
 
 ocksa a/5O, too 
 
 ofta o/?^w 
 
 olycka (1) misfortune 
 
 om around, about, concerning, 
 
 in, of, during, if, whether 
 omtala (I) to relate, tell 
 ond angry, evil; pa angry at 
 
 (with) 
 
 onsdag (2) Wednesday 
 
 ord n. (5) word 
 
 ordforande (5) chairman 
 
 oss, sec vi 
 
 ovanfor above 
 
 ovan (3) (personal} enemy 
 
 pannlugg (2) hair on the fore- 
 head, tuft, fringe 
 par n. (5) pair; ett a couple of 
 partisk partial, prejudiced 
 pengar, plur., (2) money 
 pia'no n. (4) piano 
 pipskagg 11. (5) imperial 
 plats (3) place 
 plocka (I) to pick, gather 
 plotsligen suddenly 
 port (2) gate 
 
 prata (I) to talk, chat, talk non- 
 sense 
 
 prinses'sa (1) princess 
 profes'sor (3, -o'rer) professor 
 promena'd (3) promenade, walk 
 promene'ra (I\ to walk, prome- 
 nade 
 prono'men (3, 5 or -no'mina)^ro- 
 
 noun 
 pa on, in, at, of, to 
 
 rar rare, exquisite 
 
 red, redo, see rida 
 
 redan already 
 
 regna (I) to rain 
 
 resa (lib) to travel, journey, go; 
 
 raise', sig rise, raise one's 
 
 self, get up 
 resande (5) traveler 
 rida (STR., red, ridit) to ride
 
 280 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOC ABf L ARY 
 
 rik rich; pa rich in, abound- 
 ing in 
 
 rike . (4) kingdom 
 
 TO (III) to row 
 
 ro peace 
 
 roa (I) to amuse 
 
 Rom Rome 
 
 ropa (I) to ca#, ta// out, shout, 
 cry 
 
 ros (1) rose 
 
 rctt, 5 ro 
 
 Ryssland Russia 
 
 ratt right; hava fo r^A/ 
 
 rod r^rf 
 
 S 
 
 sade, see saga 
 
 sadel (2) saddle 
 
 saga (1) tate, story, fairy-tale 
 
 sagt, 5^ saga 
 
 sak (3) thing, matter, affair 
 
 sakta, indecl., slow, slowly 
 
 samma the same 
 
 satt, see sitta, satta 
 
 satte, see satta 
 
 se (IRREG. STR., sag, sett) to 
 see, look; se pa look at; se ut 
 look, appear 
 
 sedan, sen afterwards, then, af- 
 ter, since, ago; for . . . sedan 
 ago 
 
 segla (I) to sail 
 
 sen, see sedan 
 
 sett, see se 
 
 sexton sixteen 
 
 sida (1) side 
 
 sig himself, herself, etc. 
 
 simma (I or STR., sam, summo, 
 summit) to siuim 
 
 sin (sitt, sina) his, her(s), etc. 
 (reflex.} 
 
 sist last; till at last, finally 
 sitta (STR., satt, sutto, suttit) 
 
 to sit 
 sjuk sick 
 
 sjukdom (2) sickness 
 sjunga (STR., sjong, sjungit) to 
 
 sing 
 
 sjalv self, himself, herself, etc. 
 sjo (2) lake, sea 
 sjong, sjongo, see sjunga 
 ska (= skall), see skola 
 skada (1) injury 
 skada (I) to hurt 
 skaka (!)/<? shake 
 skall, see skola 
 skilja (Ha, skilde) to separate, 
 
 distinguish 
 sko (-r) shoe 
 skog (2) forest, woods 
 skogsbacke (2) wooded hill 
 skola (skulle, skolat) shall, will 
 skola (1) school 
 skonmkare (5) shoemaker 
 skor, see sko 
 skratta (I) to laugh 
 skrev, see skriva 
 skriva (STR., skrev, skrivit) to 
 
 write 
 
 skull; for . . . skull on account of 
 skulle should, was to, was said 
 
 to; see skola 
 
 skymta (I) to catch a glimpse of 
 skynda (I) to hurry, hasten; 
 
 skynda sig hurry 
 skara (STR., skar, skuro, sku- 
 
 rit) to cut 
 skon beautiful 
 slagen, see sla 
 slog, see sla 
 slott . (5) castle, palace, chateau
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 281 
 
 sluta (I) to finish, end, stop; 
 (STR., slot, slutit) to shut, 
 close 
 
 sla (IRREG. STR.. slog, slagit) 
 lo hit, strike, knock, defeat; 
 -ss, recipr. dep., to fight 
 
 slade (2) sleigh 
 
 sladparti n. (3) sleighing-party 
 
 sla'kt, indecl. pred. adj., related; 
 med related to 
 
 sliitt (3) plain 
 
 smultron n. (5) (wild} straw- 
 berry 
 
 sma, plur. of liten 
 
 smaningom by degrees, gradually 
 
 sinor n. butter 
 
 stnorja (Ha, smorde) to grease, 
 oil 
 
 snart soon 
 
 socken (2) parish 
 
 solda't (3) soldier 
 
 soin it.' ho, whom, that, which; as 
 
 soinmar (2) summer; i this 
 summer; om -en in the sum- 
 mer 
 
 sommarnatt (3, a) summer night 
 
 somna (I) to go to sleep 
 
 somras; i last summer 
 
 son (3, 6) son 
 
 sova (STR., sov, sovit) to sleep 
 
 spade (2) spade 
 
 spetsig pointed 
 
 spinna (STR., spann, spunno, 
 spunnit) to spin 
 
 spisa (I) to eat, dine 
 
 sport, see sporja 
 
 springa (STR., sprang, sprungo, 
 sprungit) to run 
 
 sporja (Ha, sporde) to ask, 
 learn, hear 
 
 stad (3, a) city, town 
 
 stiga (STR., steg, stigit) to step, 
 
 walk; av dismount; upp 
 
 get up 
 
 stilla, indecl., still, quiet 
 stjala (STR., stal, stulo, stulit) 
 
 to steal 
 stod, see sta 
 stol (2) chair 
 stolt proud, haughty; over 
 
 proud of 
 stor large 
 strand (3. a) shore 
 strimma (1) streak, band, line 
 strander, see strand 
 stude'ra (I) to study 
 stundom at times 
 styra (Ila) to govern, rule 
 styv stiff, rigid 
 sta (IRREG. STR., stod, statt) 
 
 to stand; till be, do 
 statt, see sta 
 stader, see stad 
 stalle . (4) place 
 stodja (Ha, stodde) to support, 
 
 lean 
 
 storre, see stor 
 storst, see stor 
 stovel (2) boot 
 sucka (I) to sigh 
 susa (I) to murmur, whisper, 
 
 sough 
 
 suttit, sutto, see sitta 
 svar n. (5) answer, reply 
 svara (I) to answer, reply 
 svart black 
 svensk Swedish; -a the Swedish 
 
 language; pa -a in Swedish; 
 
 en svensk a Swede 
 Sver(i)ge Sweden
 
 282 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 svulto, see svalta 
 
 svar hard, difficult, severe 
 
 svalta (STR., svalt, svulto, svul- 
 
 tit, or lib) to starve 
 svar(j)a (STR., svor, svuro, svu- 
 
 rit) to swear 
 sy (III) to sew 
 syn sight; fa pa to catch 
 
 sight of 
 syster (2) sister 
 sa so, thus, then, as, (or omit) 
 sadan such 
 sag, sago, see se 
 salde, saldes, see salja 
 saledes thus, accordingly 
 salunda thus, in this manner 
 sasom as, like 
 
 saga (Ha, sade, sagt) to say, tell 
 salja (Ha, salde) to sell 
 samre worse; see dalig 
 sanda (Ha) to send 
 sang (2) bed 
 satt n. (5) manner, way 
 satta (lib, satte) to set, put, 
 
 place; sig sit down 
 soka (lib) to seek, look for 
 sondag (2) Sunday 
 sot sweet 
 
 taga, ta (STR., tog, tagit) to take 
 
 tal n. (5) speech, words 
 
 tala (I) to talk, speak; om, 
 
 see omtala; -s vid speak to each 
 
 other 
 
 tavla (1) picture 
 tea'ter (2) theater 
 tego, see tiga 
 
 telefone'ra (I) to telephone 
 tid (3) time, life 
 
 tidig early 
 
 tiga (STR., teg, tegat) to be si- 
 lent 
 
 till to, of, by, at, as; more, in 
 addition 
 
 tillba'ka back 
 
 tills until 
 
 tillsam'mans together 
 
 titnme (2) hour 
 
 tisdag (2) Tuesday 
 
 tjugu twenty 
 
 toff el (1) slipper 
 
 tog, see taga 
 
 torsdag (2) Thursday 
 
 trappa (1) stair; en upp on 
 the second floor; tva trappor 
 upp on the third floor 
 
 tro (III) to think, believe 
 
 trang tight, narrow 
 
 trad n. (5) tree 
 
 tradgard (2) garden, orchard 
 
 tradgardsmur (2) garden wall 
 
 tradgardsmastare (5) gardener 
 
 traffa (I) to meet; -s to meet 
 
 trott tired; pa tired of 
 
 trottna (I) to become tired; -- 
 pa to get tired of 
 
 turn, common or n., (5) inch 
 
 tung heavy 
 
 tusen thousand 
 
 tvinga (I or STR., tvang, tvun- 
 go, tvungit) to compel 
 
 tva two 
 
 tva (III) to wash 
 
 tvatta (I) to wash 
 
 ty for, because 
 
 tycka (lib) to think, be of the 
 opinion, fancy; om like 
 
 tyg . (35 5) cloth 
 
 tynga (Ha) to weigh (down)
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 283 
 
 tysk German; -a the German 
 language; pa -a in German 
 
 Tyskland Germany 
 
 tyst silent, quiet 
 
 ta (-r) toe 
 
 tala (Ha) to endure, tolerate, 
 bear 
 
 tanka (lib) to think; pa think 
 of 
 
 U 
 
 ull wool 
 
 under under, beneath, during 
 
 underhalla (STR., -holl, -hallit) 
 to entertain 
 
 underlig strange, curious, pecu- 
 liar 
 
 undra (I) to wonder 
 
 ung young 
 
 upp up 
 
 uppe /^ 
 
 upprepa (I) to repeat 
 
 ur 0/ tf/~, from; ur out of 
 
 ut out; ga och ga to go out 
 for a walk 
 
 utan without; but 
 
 ute out, out of doors 
 
 utvartes, indccl., external 
 V 
 
 vacker beautiful, pretty 
 
 vad what 
 
 vakna (I) to awake 
 
 vald, valt, see valja 
 
 vanlig ordinary 
 
 vapen n. (5) weapon 
 
 var where 
 
 var every 
 
 var, 5^^ vara 
 
 vara (STR., var, voro, varit) /o fo 
 
 varfor a/Ay 
 
 varifran (or varifra'n) from 
 where, from which 
 
 varit, see vara 
 
 varje every, each 
 
 varken; ... eller neither . . . 
 nor 
 
 varoni (or varom') about which, 
 about what 
 
 vart where (= whither) 
 
 vatten n. (5) water 
 
 vecka (1) week 
 
 veni who, whom 
 
 veta (lib, visste, vetat) to know 
 
 vi (oss) we 
 
 vid at, by, in, to 
 
 vid wide 
 
 vidare further, more, on 
 
 viclga (I) to widen 
 
 vilja (II, ville, velat) to want to, 
 will; hava want 
 
 vill, ville, see vilja 
 
 vin n. (3) zfz'w^ 
 
 vind (2) wind 
 
 vinter (2) winter; i this win- 
 ter 
 
 vintras; i last winter 
 
 visst surely, certainly 
 
 visste, see veta 
 
 vit white 
 
 vore, voro, see vara 
 
 vag (1) wave 
 
 var our, ours 
 
 var (2) spring; i /Aw spring 
 
 varas; i last spring 
 
 va'der n. (5) weather 
 
 val zt'<!//, no doubt, I suppose 
 
 valja (Ha, valde) & choose, elect 
 
 van (3) friend 
 
 vanda (Ha) to turn; sig turn 
 
 vanin'na (1) (woman) friend
 
 28 4 
 
 SWEDISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
 
 vanja (Ha, vande) to accustom 
 
 vant, see vanda 
 
 vanta (I) to wait, await, expect 
 
 varld (2) world 
 
 varre, comparative of elak 
 
 vaxa (lib) to grow 
 
 yngst, comparative of ung 
 yrke . (4) trade, occupation 
 
 a (2) river 
 
 aker (2) field 
 
 an, see a 
 
 ar 11. (5) jy^ar 
 
 at for, to, at 
 
 ater again, once more 
 
 atta 
 
 adel noble 
 
 akta, indecl., genuine, pure 
 aldre, comparative of gammal 
 aldst, superlative of gammal 
 
 iilska (I) to love 
 alskad beloved 
 an than 
 
 ang (2) meadow 
 anka (1) widow 
 annu j////, jr/ 
 apple n. (4) apple 
 ar, a'ren, aro, 5^^ vara 
 ata (STR., at, atit) /o 
 aven also 
 
 6 (2) island 
 
 ode, indecl., desolate, deserted, 
 
 uninhabited 
 oga . (ogon) ^j/^ 
 6'nska (I) to wish 
 oppen open 
 oppna (I) to open 
 ora . (oron) t-ar 
 Ostersjon 77;^ Baltic 
 over oz/<?r, across, about 
 overal'lt (or overallt) everywhere 
 overst uppermost 
 ovre upper
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 A en (ett) 
 
 able; be kunna (kan; kunde, 
 
 kunnat) 
 
 about om, kring, omkring', over 
 above over, ovanfor 
 abyss avgrund (3) 
 accustom vanja (Ha, vande) 
 across over 
 
 addition; in dartill {or -til'l) 
 admire beun'dra (I) 
 after efter, fran 
 afterwards sedan, sen 
 again igen', ater, mera 
 against emo't 
 age aldras (I) 
 ago for . . . sedan 
 alike; be likna (I) varan'dra 
 all all, hel; all of a sudden plots- 
 
 ligt 
 
 almost nastan 
 alone ensam 
 along fram, framat (or -a't), 
 
 langs 
 
 aloud hogt 
 already redan 
 also aven, ocksa 
 alii'ays alltid 
 among bland, mellan 
 amuse roa (I); one's self roa 
 
 sig 
 
 an, see a 
 and och 
 another en annan (annat), en 
 
 . . . till 
 
 answer svar n. (5) 
 answer svara (I) 
 
 any nagon (nagot, nagra) 
 
 anything nagonting, nagot 
 
 apple apple n. (4) 
 
 arm arm (2) 
 
 army arme" (3) 
 
 around runt om 
 
 arrive (at one's destination} 
 
 komma fram (kom, kommo, 
 
 kommit) 
 
 artist konstnar {or -na'r) (3) 
 as som, sa 
 
 ashamed; be skammas (Ha) 
 ask fraga (I); bedja, be (bad, 
 
 bado, bett); ask for bedja om 
 asleep; fall somna (I) 
 at vid, hos, pa, till; at all alls; 
 
 at first forst; at last slutligen, 
 
 till sist; at once genast; at 
 
 home hemma 
 author forfat'tare (5) 
 autumn host (2); morning 
 
 hostmorgon (2) 
 awake vakna (I) 
 away bort, borta, ban, undan; 
 
 away from fran 
 ait'ful forfa'rlig 
 
 back tillba'ka 
 bag sack (2) 
 bakery bageri' n. (3) 
 Baltic Sea (the) Ostersjon 
 be vara (ar, aro; var, voro, va- 
 rit); bliva, bli (blev, blivit); 
 finnas (fanns, funnos, fun- 
 nits); sta till (stod, statt); be 
 situated ligga (lag, legat)
 
 286 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 beaming stralande 
 
 beat sla (slog, slagit) 
 
 beautiful vacker, skon 
 
 because darfor att 
 
 become bliva, bli (blev, blivit) 
 
 bed; go to lagga sig (lade, lagt) 
 
 bee bi n. (4) 
 
 befall handa (Ha) 
 
 before forr, framfor (or -fo'r), 
 
 innan 
 
 begin borja (I); begyn'na (lib) 
 behind bakom (or bakom'), efter 
 behold se (sag, sett) 
 believe tro (III) 
 below under 
 bench bank (2) 
 bend boja (Ha), boja sig 
 bending bojd 
 berry bar n. (5) 
 beside bredvi'd 
 best bast 
 better battre 
 
 between mellan, emel'lan 
 birch bjork (2) 
 bird fagel (2) 
 
 bird-cherry tree haggbuske (2) 
 bishop biskop (2) 
 bit; a litet 
 bite bita (bet, bitit); bitas 
 black svart 
 
 blast of wind vindstot (2) 
 blind blind 
 blooming blommande 
 blossom blomma (1) 
 blow blasa (lib); spruta (I) 
 blue bla; dark morkbla 
 boat bat (2) 
 book bok (3, bocker) 
 botanist bota'niker (5) 
 both . . . and bade . . och 
 
 boy gosse (2) 
 
 braid flata (1); flata (I) 
 
 branch gren (2) 
 
 bread brod n. (5) 
 
 break ga sender (gick, gingo, 
 
 gatt) 
 
 breathe andas (I) 
 breeze bris (3) 
 bridge bro (2) 
 bring fora (Ha) 
 broad bred, vid 
 broken bruten 
 brook back (2) 
 
 brother broder, bror (5, broder) 
 brown brun 
 build bygga (Ha) 
 bullet *x\& (1) 
 bush buske (2) 
 but men, utan 
 butter smor n. 
 butterfly fjaril (2) 
 buy kopa (lib) 
 djj/ av, vid, med 
 
 call kalla (I); call (out) ropa (I) 
 
 z/w lugn 
 
 calm lugna (I) 
 
 can kunna (kan; kunde, kunnat) 
 
 capital huvudstad (3, a) 
 
 careful forsik'tig 
 
 carry bara (bar, buro, burit); 
 
 fora (Ha) 
 cast kasta (I) 
 catch ; a cold f orky'la sig ( Ha ) ; 
 
 sight of ib. syn pa (fick, 
 
 fingo, fatt) 
 cautiously forsik'tigt 
 chair stol (2) 
 chairman ordforande (5)
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 287 
 
 cheek kind (3) 
 cherry korsbar n. (5) 
 cherry-blossom korsbarsblomma 
 
 (1) 
 
 cherry-tree korsbarstrad n. (5) 
 chestnut-tree kastan'jetrad n. (5) 
 child barn n. (5) 
 Christmas jul (2); period jul- 
 
 tid; present julklapp (2) 
 church kyrka (1) 
 city stad (3, a) 
 clap klappa (I) 
 clatter klappra (I) 
 clear anda 
 
 climb stiga upp (steg, stigit) 
 closer narmare 
 tfo/A tyg . (3; 5) 
 coal-black kolsvart 
 coffee kaffe . 
 cold kail; ozlf/* a forky'la sig 
 
 (Ila) 
 
 color farg (3) 
 column kolon'n (3) 
 come komma (kom, komnio, 
 
 kommit) 
 
 complain klaga (I) 
 condition forhal'lande n. (4) 
 constantly alltjam't (or alltjamt) 
 cost kosta (I) 
 cottage stuga (1) 
 country land n. (3, a; 5) 
 couple <?/"ett par 
 course lopp n. (5) 
 cow ko (-r) 
 
 creep krypa (krop, krupit) 
 crown krona (1) 
 crown krona (lib) 
 crush krossa (I) 
 cry out ropa (I) 
 cultivated, see strawberries 
 
 cup kopp (2) 
 
 cut skara (skar, skuro, skurit); 
 off skara av, avskara 
 
 dance dans (2; 3) 
 
 dance dansa (I) 
 
 dark mork; grow morkna (I); 
 
 dark blue morkbla 
 daughter dotter (2, 6) 
 day dag (2); day of sunshine 
 
 solskensdag (2) 
 dead dod 
 dear kar 
 deep djup 
 deep djup n. (5) 
 dense tat 
 depth djup n. (5) 
 deserted ode, indecl. 
 desolate ode, indecl. 
 destination; at frarnme; to 
 
 fram 
 
 die do (dog, dott) 
 difficult svar 
 disappear forsvin'na (-svan'n, 
 
 -svun'no, -svun'nit) 
 district Ian n. (5) 
 do gora (gjorde, gjort) 
 doctor doktor (3, dokto'rer) 
 dog hund (2) 
 doll docka (1) 
 double dubbel 
 doubt ; no nog 
 dove duva (1) 
 
 down ned, ner, nedfor(0r -fo'r) 
 drca>n of ana (I) 
 <//r5.y klanning (2) 
 dress klada sig (Ha) 
 dress-goods klanningstyg .(3; 5) 
 drink dryck (3)
 
 288 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 drink dricka (drack, drucko, 
 
 druckit) 
 drive jaga (I) 
 duck and (3, a) 
 during om 
 
 E 
 
 each other varan'dra 
 early tidigt 
 earth jord (2) 
 easy-chair vilstol (2) 
 eat ata (at, atit) 
 edge of the zwaferstra 
 eight atta 
 
 emperor kejsare (5) 
 end ande (or anda) (2) 
 enemy fiende (3); (personal) 
 ovan (3) 
 
 English engelsk, engelska 
 
 Englishman engelsman (5, a) 
 
 enough nog 
 
 entire hel 
 
 entirely alldeles 
 
 Europe Euro'pa 
 
 #<? ens 
 
 evening afton (2); kvall (2); this 
 i afton; in the om aftonen 
 
 ever nagonsin 
 
 every varje, var 
 
 everything allt 
 
 everywhere b'veral'lt (or overallt' 
 
 evil ond 
 
 examination exa'men (-a'mina} 
 
 explain forkla'ra (I) 
 
 extend stracka ut (lib) 
 
 eye 6'ga n. (ogon) 
 
 eye-lash ogonhar n. (5) 
 F 
 
 face ansikte n. (4) 
 
 fair skon 
 
 'all fall . (5) 
 
 'all falla (foil, fallit); asleep 
 
 somna (I) 
 
 c ar langt (langre, langst) 
 r arther \-idare, langre 
 fast fort 
 fat fet 
 father fader, far (5, fader) 
 
 / kanna (Ha), kanna med sig 
 fetch hamta (I) 
 fever feber (2) 
 few; a nagra 
 
 rf/tf fio'l (3) 
 field aker (2); fait . (5) 
 fight slass (slogs, slatts) 
 
 rf finna (fann, funno, funnit) 
 fine vacker 
 finish sluta (I) 
 ^?r5^ forst; at forst 
 fir-tree fura (1) 
 yfotf fern 
 ^a^- flagga (1) 
 flash blixtra (I) 
 flee fly (III) 
 ./foa/ flyta (not, flutit) 
 ^?oor/ ow 2fA^ second en trappa 
 
 upp; on the third tva trap- 
 
 por upp 
 flour mjol . 
 flour-bag tnjolsack (2) 
 ^?ozt; flyta (flot, flutit) 
 flower blomma (1) 
 flower-garden blomstertradgard 
 
 (2) 
 
 flutter fladdra (I) 
 fly flyga (flog, flugit) 
 fly fluga (1) 
 foam skum n. 
 follow folja (Ha) 
 food mat
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 289 
 
 foot fot (3, f otter; in special 
 meaning, 5) 
 
 for till, ty, for 
 
 force tvinga (I or tvang, tvungo, 
 tvungit) 
 
 forest skog (2) 
 
 forget glonima (Ila) 
 
 formerly forr 
 
 forth fram 
 
 fortunately lyckligtvis 
 
 forward fram 
 
 fragrant doftande 
 
 fresh frisk 
 
 freshly-baked nygraddad 
 
 friend van (3); (woman} van- 
 in'na (1) 
 
 friendly vanlig 
 
 frightened forskrac'kt 
 
 from fran, av; from which var- 
 ifran (or -fra'n); from here 
 harifran {or -fra'n) 
 
 full full 
 
 furious valdsam 
 G 
 
 gate port (2) 
 
 gather samla (I) 
 
 gentle mild 
 
 gentleman herre (2) 
 
 German tysk; the German lan- 
 guage tyska 
 
 get fa (fick, fingo, fatt); bliva, 
 bli (blev, blivit); komma (kom, 
 kommit) ; / to fa; get up re- 
 sa sig (lib), stiga upp (steg, 
 
 stigit) 
 
 girl flicka (1) 
 
 give giva (gav, gavo, givit) 
 
 glass glas . (5) 
 
 glittering stralande 
 
 glorious ha'rlig 
 
 glow gloda (Ha) 
 
 go ga (gick, gingo, gatt); is go- 
 ing to kommer att; go out for 
 a walk ga ut och ga; go to 
 sleep somna (I) 
 
 goat get (3, getter) 
 
 gone borta 
 
 good god, bra, snail 
 
 goose gas (5, gass) 
 
 gradually smaningom 
 
 grain sad 
 
 grass gras n. (5) 
 
 grave gray (2) 
 
 grave allvarlig 
 
 gray gra 
 
 green gron 
 
 greeting halsning (2) 
 
 grind mala (Ila) 
 
 ground mark 
 
 grove lund (2; 3) 
 
 grow va'xa (lib); dark mork- 
 
 na (I); weary trottna (I) 
 
 H 
 
 hair har . (5) 
 
 hand hand (3, a) 
 
 happen handa (Ila) 
 
 happy glad, lycklig 
 
 hard svar 
 
 hat hatt (2) 
 
 have hava, ha (har; hade, haft); 
 have to maste 
 
 he han 
 
 head huvud . (-en or 5) 
 
 healthy frisk 
 
 hear hora (Ila) 
 
 heart hjarta n. (4) 
 
 heat varme 
 
 heath hed (2) 
 
 heavy tung (tyngre, tyngst) 
 
 height hojd (3)
 
 2QO 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 help hjalpa (lib); each other 
 
 hjalpas at 
 her henne; hennes; refl., sin 
 
 (sitt, sina) 
 
 here bar; hit ( = hither} 
 hers hennes; refl., sin (sitt, sina) 
 herself sig; sjalv 
 hidden dold 
 
 hide-and-seek kurra gomma 
 high hog (-re, -st) 
 hill kulle (2); backe (2) 
 him honom 
 himself sig; sjalv 
 hip-bone hoft (3) 
 his hans; sin (sitt, sina) 
 hole hal . (5) 
 home hem; at home hemma 
 home hem n. (5) 
 hope hoppas (I) 
 horizon horison't (3) 
 horse hast (2) 
 host har (2) 
 /w5 bus . (5) 
 Aozf huru, hur 
 A0a// tjuta (tjot, tjutit) 
 human life manniskoliv . (5) 
 humble odmjuk 
 hurl kasta (I) 
 hurry skynda (sig) (I); fo in a 
 
 ha brattom 
 hurt skada (I) 
 
 /jag 
 zVjv isande 
 if om 
 
 imagine tanka sig (lib) 
 * i, om, pa; in there darin'ne; 
 in addition dartill (or dartil'l) 
 interesting intressan't 
 
 into in, in i, till 
 
 island 6 (2) 
 
 it den (det); det 
 
 its dess; refl., sin (sitt, sina) 
 
 itself sig; sjalv 
 
 jewel adelsten (2) 
 John Johan 
 Johnson Johansson 
 yoy lust 
 
 yw^ hoppa (I) 
 
 just nyss; ys/ //a 1 ;/ i detsain'ma; 
 just as lika, likasa 
 
 /fe<?^> halla (holl, hallit) 
 kerchief halsduk (2) 
 kilogram kilo w. (5) 
 kindheartcd godhjartad 
 king konung, kung (2) 
 kingdom rike n. (4) 
 knee kna . (4) 
 knife kniv (2) 
 knock sla (slog, slagit) 
 know kanna (Ha); veta (vet; 
 visste, vetat) 
 
 laboratory laborato'rium n. (3, 
 
 -o'rier) 
 
 lady dam (3) 
 /a* sjo (2) 
 lamp lampa (1) 
 land land n. (3, a; 5) 
 large stor (storre, storst) 
 /a^/ sist; at till sist, slutligen 
 laugh skratta (I) 
 lead fora (Ha) 
 lea/blad n. (5); lov . (5) 
 lara (Ha), lara sig
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 2 9 I 
 
 ledge klippavsats (3) 
 
 leg ben n. (5) 
 
 lesson laxa (1) 
 
 letter brev n. (5) 
 
 librarian biblioteka'rie (5) 
 
 library bibliote'k . (5) 
 
 lie Hjrga (lag, legat) 
 
 life Hv n. (5) 
 
 life-time inanniskoliv . ; livstid 
 
 /(/* lyfta (lib) 
 
 /z^vW/y latt 
 
 like som 
 
 /z'/te tycka om (lib) 
 
 linden-tree lincl (2) 
 
 line rand (3, a) 
 
 //<? lejon n. (5) 
 
 listen lyssna (I) 
 
 liter liter (5) 
 
 #///* liten (litet, lilla, sma); 
 a litet 
 
 live bo (III); leva (Ha) 
 
 living levaiide 
 
 lock lock (2) 
 
 long lang (langre, langst); long, 
 for a long time lange; no lon- 
 ger icke langre 
 
 long langta (I) 
 
 longing langtan 
 
 look se (sag, sett); se ut; look 
 at se pa; look for soka (lib); 
 look out akta sig (I) 
 
 loud hog 
 
 love alska (I) 
 
 low lag (lagre, lagst) 
 
 loyal trogen 
 
 lure locka (I) 
 
 M 
 
 make gora (gjorde, gjort); ska- 
 pa (I) 
 
 man man (5, a); karl (2); old 
 
 gubbe (2) 
 
 many manga, plur. 
 march marsche'ra (I) 
 March mars 
 marry gifta (lib); be married 
 
 gifta sig 
 me mig 
 
 meadow ang (2) 
 mean mena (I) 
 meet mota (lib); tra'ffa (I), traf- 
 
 fas 
 
 meter meter (5) 
 midst; in the of mellan 
 mile mil (5) 
 mill kvarn (2) 
 miller mjolnare (5); miller's 
 
 servant mjolnardrang (2) 
 mill-wheel kvarnhjul . (5) 
 mine, see my 
 misfortune olycka (1) 
 Miss froken (2) 
 moment ogonblick n. (5) 
 money pengar, plur. 
 more mera, mer; flera (-e); till 
 morning morgon (2); this i 
 
 clag pa morgonen, i morse 
 most mest; fiesta (-e); most of 
 
 the time for det niesta 
 mother moder, mor (2, modrar) 
 mountain berg n. (5); bergshojd 
 
 (3) 
 
 mouth mun (2) 
 Mr. herr (2) 
 Mrs. fru (2) 
 much mycket 
 
 museum muse'um n. (3, -e'er) 
 must niaste 
 mutter mumla (I) 
 my min (mitt, mina)
 
 292 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 N 
 
 name namn n. (5) ; be one's name 
 
 beta (Hb) 
 narrow trang (trangre, trangst); 
 
 smal 
 
 nature natu'r (3) 
 naughty elak 
 near na'ra 
 neck hals (2) 
 negro neger (3) 
 neighbor granne (2) 
 neither . . . nor varken . . . eller 
 nest naste n. (4) 
 neuter neutrum n. (3, neutrer; 
 
 neutra) 
 never aklrig 
 
 nevertheless anda, i alia fall 
 new ny 
 next nasta 
 night natt (3, a) 
 no nej; no doubt nog, va'l; no 
 
 longer icke langre, icke mera 
 no ingen (inget, inga) 
 noble a'del 
 noise brak n. 
 none ingen (inget, inga) 
 noon middag (2) 
 noonday sun middagssol 
 nor eller; see neither 
 Norway Norge 
 not icke, ej, inte 
 nothing ingenting; but icke 
 
 annat an 
 now nu 
 nut not (3, notter) 
 
 o a 
 
 oak ek (2) 
 
 ocean bay n. (5) 
 
 o'clock klockan; (at) eight 
 
 klockan atta 
 o/&\', pa, till, oni, i 
 
 Off 9* 
 
 often ofta 
 
 oh ack 
 
 old gamtnal (aldre, aldst) 
 
 on pa, om, i; vidare 
 
 once en gang; more en gang 
 
 till; at genast 
 one en (ett); man 
 one's se/f&ig; sig sjalv 
 only endast, bara, blott 
 only enda (-e) 
 onward framat (or frama't) 
 open 6'ppen 
 open oppna (I) 
 opposite motsatt 
 or eller 
 
 orchard trad gar d (2) 
 other annan (annat, andra) 
 our, ours var 
 out ute, ut; out of (ut) ur; out 
 
 of breath andfadd 
 outermost ytterst 
 outside ute, utanfor 
 over over; there dar borta 
 own egen 
 
 P 
 
 paint mala (I) 
 pair par n. (5) 
 palace slott n. (5) 
 /ate blek 
 
 parents foral'drar, plur. 
 parish socken (2) 
 particular noga, indecl. 
 pass ga (gick, gingo, gatt); 
 
 otit ga ut, utga 
 past forbi' 
 pasture hage (2)
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 293 
 
 path stig (2) 
 
 pay Ion (3) 
 
 peace ro 
 
 peasant bonde (3, 6) 
 
 peep forth titta fram (I) 
 
 people folk n. (5) 
 
 period, see Christmas 
 
 permission tillatelse 
 
 permit tillata (-lat, -latit); lata 
 
 photograph fotografi' (3) 
 
 piano pia'no n. (4) 
 
 pick plocka (I); bryta (brot, 
 brutit) 
 
 pigeon duva (1) 
 
 place plats (3); stalle n. (4) 
 
 plain slatt (3) 
 
 play leka (lib); spela (I) 
 
 please beha'ga (I) 
 
 plenty of fullt upp med 
 
 pocket ficka (1) 
 
 ponder (over} funde'ra (pa) (I) 
 
 poor fattig 
 
 possible mojlig 
 
 powerful kraftig 
 
 present, see Christmas 
 
 press tranga (Ha) 
 
 pretty vacker 
 
 princess prinses'sa (1) 
 
 prison fangelse n. (3) 
 
 professor profes'sor (3, professo'- 
 rer) 
 
 promise lofte . (4) 
 
 promise lova (I) 
 
 pronoun prono'men n. (553; pro- 
 no'mina) 
 
 proud (of) stolt (over) 
 
 put satta (satte, satt); lagga (la- 
 de, lagt); sticka (stack, stucko, 
 stuckit); put on taga pa (tog, 
 tagit) 
 
 quickly hastigt 
 
 quiet, quietly stilla, tyst 
 
 R 
 
 rain regna (I) 
 
 raise resa (lib); lyfta (lib) 
 
 raisin russin n. (5) 
 
 range as (.2) 
 
 rapidly hastigt 
 
 rarely sallan 
 
 reach na (III) 
 
 read lasa (i) (lib) 
 
 receive fa (fick, fingo, fatt) 
 
 recline ligga (lag, legat) 
 
 recover bliva bra (blev, blivit) 
 
 red rod 
 
 region trakt (3) 
 
 relate berat'ta (I); tala om (I), 
 
 omtala 
 
 related (to) slakt (med), indecl. 
 remember komma iha'g (koui, 
 
 kommit) 
 
 remind (of) paminna (om) (Ila) 
 reminiscence minne n. (4) 
 repeat upprepa (I) 
 reply svara (I) 
 resting-place viloplats (3) 
 return atervanda (Ha) 
 ride rida (red, ridit) 
 ridge as (2); of sand sandas 
 
 . (2) 
 right ratt; be right hava ratt 
 
 (hade, haft); on mitt pa 
 
 ripe mogen 
 I ripen mogna (I) 
 
 rippling krusig 
 
 rise stiga upp (steg, stigit); ga 
 upp (gick, gingo, gatt); resa 
 sig (lib); lyfta sig (lib)
 
 294 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 river a (2); flod (3) 
 
 roam vandra (I) 
 
 roar brusa (I); dana (I); vrala 
 
 (I); ryta (rot, rutit) 
 roll rulla (I) 
 roof tak n. (5) 
 rose ros (1) 
 round rund 
 royal kunglig 
 rumble dana (I) 
 run springa (sprang, sprungo, 
 
 sprungit) 
 rush brusa (I) 
 
 sail segla (I) 
 
 sailor sjoman (5, a) 
 
 same samma (-e) 
 
 sand sand 
 
 satisfied nojd 
 
 Saturday lordag ( 2 ) ; evening 
 
 lordagskvall (2) 
 say saga (sade, sagt) 
 scarcely knappt 
 school skola (1) 
 sea hav n. (5) 
 second, see floor 
 secret hemlighet (3) . 
 see se (sag, sett) 
 seed fro n. (4; 3) 
 seem synas (lib); se ut (sag, sett) 
 self sja'lv 
 
 sell salja (salde, salt) 
 send sanda (Ha); skicka (I) 
 service tjanst (3) 
 set ga ned (gick, gingo, gatt) 
 sew sy (III) 
 shadow skugga (1) 
 shake skaka (I) 
 shall komma att; skola (skall) 
 
 she hon 
 
 ship skepp n. (5) 
 
 shoe sko (-r) 
 
 shoemaker skomakare (5) 
 
 shore strand (3, a); of lake 
 
 sjostrand 
 should skulle 
 
 shout skrika (skrek, skrikit) 
 shriek skrik n. (5) 
 shudder ry string (2) 
 sick sjuk 
 side sida (1) 
 sigh sucka (I) 
 sight; catch 0/fa syn pa (fick, 
 
 fingo, fatt) 
 sign spar n. (5) 
 silent tyst; be tiga (teg, tegat) 
 silk silke n. (4) 
 sincerely arligt 
 sing sjunga (sjong, sjungit) 
 single enda (-e) 
 sister syster (2) 
 sit sitta (satt, sutto, suttit); 
 
 down satta sig (satte, satt) 
 situated; be ligga (lag, legat) 
 sixteen sexton 
 sky hinimel (2) 
 sleep sova (sov, sovit); go to 
 
 somna (I) 
 slender smart, smal 
 slip glida (gled, glidit) 
 slipper toffel (1) 
 slow(ly) sakta; smaningom 
 small liten (litet, lilla, sma; min- 
 
 dre, minst) 
 smell dofta (I) 
 smile le (log, lett) 
 sneeze nysa (nos, nysit; or lib) 
 so sa 
 soft mjuk; mild
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 295 
 
 soldier solda't (3) 
 
 so me nagon (nagot, nagra) 
 
 something nagot 
 
 soon snart, fort 
 
 sooner forr 
 
 sough susa (I) 
 
 speak tala (I) 
 
 speed fart 
 
 spin spinna (spann, spunno, 
 
 spunnit) 
 spirit ancle (2) 
 spread breda (Ha); out breda 
 
 sig 
 spring var (2); this i var; last 
 
 i varas 
 spring kalla (1) 
 spring springa (sprang, sprungo, 
 
 sprungit) 
 stairs trappa (1) 
 stand sta (stod, statt) 
 stay stanna (I) 
 
 steal stjala (stal, stulo, stulit) 
 steep brant 
 steeple tornspira (1) 
 still a'nnu (or annu'); stilla 
 stone sten (2) 
 stop stanna (I) 
 stork stork (2) 
 storm storm (2) 
 storm storma (I) 
 story histo'ria (3, -o'rier); saga(l) 
 stout tjock 
 
 strange underlig; egen 
 stranger (den) okanda (-e) 
 strawberries; (wild) smultron 
 
 n. (5); (cultivated} jordgub- 
 
 be (2) 
 
 streak strimma (1) 
 stream flod (3) 
 street gata (1) 
 
 strength kraft (3) 
 
 stretch stracka'(IIb) 
 
 strike sla (slog, slagit) 
 
 strong stark 
 
 such sadan 
 
 summer sommar (2); in (during) 
 
 the om sommaren ; last i 
 
 sotnras; summer's heat som- 
 
 marvarme 
 sun sol (2) 
 sunshine solsken . 
 surprised forva'nad 
 swallow svala (1) 
 swan svan (1; 2; 3) 
 Swede (en) svensk (2) 
 Sweden Sver(i)ge 
 Swedish svensk; the language 
 
 svenska; in pa svenska 
 sweetly ljuvligt 
 swift rapp 
 
 T 
 
 table bord n. (5) 
 
 take taga, ta (tog, tagit) 
 
 talk tala (I) 
 
 tall lang.hog 
 
 teacher larare (5); (woman) 
 
 lararin'na (1) 
 tell berat'ta (I); saga (sade, 
 
 sagt); tala om (for) (I), om- 
 
 tala 
 ten tio 
 
 terror skrack 
 than an 
 that att; som, vad; det, den 
 
 (det, de) 
 the den (det, de); ju, dess, des- 
 
 to; see 40 
 theater tea'ter (2) 
 their deras, sin (sitt, sina)
 
 296 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 them dem 
 
 themselves sig, sjalva 
 
 then da, darefter (or -ef'ter), se- 
 
 (da)n, sa 
 there dar, det, dit (= thither}; 
 
 over dar borta 
 these dessa 
 they de, man 
 
 thick grov (grovre, grovst) 
 thicket skogsdjup n. (5) 
 thing ting n. (5); sak (3) 
 think tanka (lib); tycka (lib); 
 
 tro (III) 
 
 this denna (detta, dessa) 
 thought tanke (2) 
 thoughtful tankfull 
 three tre 
 through genom 
 throw kasta (I) 
 
 tie binda (band, bundo, bundit) 
 tiger tiger (2) 
 till till 
 time tid (3); gang (3); at that 
 
 pa den tiden; at what 
 
 huru dags; a long lange 
 tip spets (2) 
 tired (of) trott (pa); become 
 
 (of) trottna (pa) (I) 
 to till, for, att, for att, med, pa, 
 
 vid, mot 
 to-day i dag 
 together tillsam'mans 
 to-morrow i morgon 
 tongue tunga (1) 
 too for, ocksa 
 top topp (2) 
 touch bero'ra (Ha) 
 toward(s) mot 
 town stad (3, a) 
 train tag n. (5) 
 
 tree trad n. (5) 
 
 true akta, indecl. 
 
 try forso'ka (lib) 
 
 Tuesday tisdag (2); last i tis- 
 
 dags 
 
 tug slita (slet, slitit) 
 turn vanda (Ha), vanda sig; 
 
 driva (drev, drivit) 
 two tva 
 
 U 
 
 ugh hu 
 
 uncle farbror (5); morbror (5) 
 
 unconscious utan medvetande 
 
 under under 
 
 understand forsta' (-sto'd, -stat't) 
 
 uneasy orolig 
 
 uninhabited obebodd 
 
 until tills 
 
 up upp, uppe; up on pa; up to 
 
 fram till 
 upon pa 
 us oss 
 
 use bruka (I) 
 useful nyttig 
 usual vanlig 
 usually vanligen 
 utter uppgiva (-gav, -gavo, -gi- 
 
 vit) 
 
 V 
 
 vacant ledig 
 valley dal (2) 
 veil sloja (1) 
 very mycket, allra, sjalv 
 vicinity narhet 
 village by (2) 
 violet vio'l (3) 
 violet-colored violet't 
 visit beso'k n. (5) 
 visit beso'ka (lib) 
 voice rost (3)
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 297 
 
 W 
 
 wagon vagn (2) 
 
 wait vanta (I) 
 
 walk ga (gick, gingo, gatt); go 
 
 out for a ga ut och ga 
 wander vandra (I) 
 wandering vandring (2) 
 want to vilja (ville, velat) 
 war krig n. (5) 
 warm varm 
 wash tvatta (I) 
 wafer vatten n. (5) 
 water vattna (I) 
 wave vag (1); bolja (1) 
 way vag (2) 
 we vi (oss) 
 weak svag 
 
 weapon vapen n. (5) 
 weary; grow trottna (I) 
 weather vader . (5) 
 Wednesday onsdag (2) 
 vecka (1) 
 
 grata (grat, gratit) 
 weigh vaga (Ha) 
 ze/// val, bra, gott; frisk; ja, jo 
 wet vat 
 zf/ml vad 
 wheat vete 
 
 wheat-roll vetebulle (2) 
 zf//<?<?/ hjul . (5) 
 when nar, da 
 where var, dar 
 wherever ( = whither') vart 
 whether om 
 which som; from varifran (or 
 
 -fra'n); o varpa (or -pa) 
 while medan 
 whirl virvla (I); aoow/svinga 
 
 sig (I) 
 
 whirlwind virvelvind (2) 
 
 whisper viska (I) 
 
 white vit 
 
 whither vart 
 
 a/Ao vem, som 
 
 whole hel 
 
 z# A_y varfor (or -fo'r) 
 
 widow anka (1) 
 
 zercVftA bredd (3) 
 
 Zf//^ hustru (-r) 
 
 wild vild 
 
 zf/// konima att, skola, vilja (vil- 
 le, velat) 
 
 wind vind (2) 
 
 window fonster n. (5) 
 
 ze/zW vin n. (3) 
 
 wing vinge (2) 
 
 winter v inter (2) 
 
 wisdom visdom; words of vis- 
 domsord 
 
 wish to vilja (ville, velat) 
 
 with med; hos 
 
 wither vissna (I) 
 
 withered vissen 
 
 within inom 
 
 without utan 
 
 woman kvinna (1) 
 
 wonder under n. (5) 
 
 wonder undra (I) 
 
 wonderful underbar 
 
 woods skog (2) 
 
 wool ull 
 
 word ord . (5); words of wis- 
 dom visdomsord 
 
 work arbete n. (4) 
 
 work arbeta (I) 
 
 world varld (2); jord (2) 
 
 worse varre 
 
 would skulle 
 
 write skriva (skrev, skrivit)
 
 298 
 
 ENGLISH-SWEDISH VOCABULARY 
 
 year ar n. (5) 
 yellow gul 
 yes ja, jo 
 
 yesterday i gar; morning i gar 
 morse 
 
 yet annu (or annu'), an 
 
 yield vika (vek, vikit) 
 
 you du (dig); ni (er); I (eder) 
 
 young ung 
 
 your, yours din (ditt, dina); er, 
 
 eder 
 yourself dig, er, eder
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 299 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 Note. References are to paragraphs unless p. (= page) precedes 
 reference; n. = note; fn. = foot-note. Coll. = colloquial. 
 
 abbreviations, use of period, 25 lativein predicate, 164; numer- 
 ablaut, see vowel-change 
 abstract nouns, def. form, 125; 
 
 abstract nouns in -an, def. = 
 
 indef., Appendix, II, 2, i 
 accent (acute, grave), 3; 4; 5; 
 
 see also under heading AC- 
 
 als, 313; 318); predicate adj. 
 indefinite, 148; predicate adj. 
 inflected, p. 16, fn. i; p. 25, 
 fn. 3; predicate superlative un- 
 inflected, 164; comparison, 158- 
 167; see also proper adjective 
 
 CENT in each lesson; for adverbs, 171; 172; comparison, 
 
 stress, see stress 
 
 action, see terminative, cursive, 
 point-action, durative, com- 
 pleted 
 
 acute, see accent 
 
 1 73', T 74; pronominal adv. com- 
 pounds, 172, i, n. 2 (cf. 264, 
 n. 4; 267, n. 3; 281, n. 3; 289, 
 n.); order of (movable) ad- 
 verbs, 141; see negatives 
 
 address, familiar and formal, agreement, of predicate adj. 
 
 35; 49', and n. i; coll. (use of 
 title), 39, 2; p. 17, fn. 2 and 
 3; def. adj. in address, 147, 4; 
 street-address, 322 
 
 with subject, p. 16, fn. i; p. 
 25, fn. 3; of verb with subject, 
 coll., 53, i; after det, 235, n.; 
 267, n. i; p. 207, fn. i 
 
 adjective, 29; 60; 64; 76-79; 147- alphabet, i; names of letters, 20 
 153; indefinite form, 29; 60; 64; animate vs. inanimate, gender, 
 76; 151; definite form, 77-79; 
 151; no cases, 55, n.; gen. form 
 
 when used substantively, 150, 
 
 28, i, and n. r (cf. p. 35, fn. 
 3); pronouns, 36; genitive, 56; 
 118; 119 (coll., 134, 2) 
 
 end; 163; 164; cf. 265; use of apostrophe, with proper nouns 
 
 def. form, 77; 147; p. 91, fn. 
 i and 2; use of indef. form, 
 
 in s-sound, 112; otherwise not 
 used in genitive, 55 
 
 76; 148; omission of prepos. ar- article, see indefinite article, def- 
 ticle, 149 (cf. p. 91, fn. i); inite article (form), preposi- 
 
 used as nouns, 150; notes on 
 inflection, 151; form in -e, 151, 
 n. 8; declension of liten, 152; 
 indecl. adj., 153 (comparison, 
 
 158, n. 2; 165; p. 103, fn. i; 
 used as adv., 173, end; super- 
 
 tive definite article 
 auxiliaries, 247-263 (with refer- 
 ences to other parts of the 
 grammar); conjugation, also 
 194, 5 (cf. p. 23, fn. i ); omis- 
 sion of att, p. 184, fn. i; auxili-
 
 300 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 aries of future, 136; auxiliaries 
 of perfect system, 181; 185, n. 
 i ; omission of auxiliary of pres- 
 ent perf. and past perf., 182; 
 p. 118, fn. 6; p. 150, fn. i; p. 
 151, fn.; coll., 191, i; auxiliary 
 of perf. inf. omitted, 242, n. 2; 
 auxiliary-passive, 222; 223; cf. 
 224; coll., 228, 2; auxiliary-sub- 
 junctive, 208, ff.; 213, ff.; coll., 
 
 220, I 
 
 base-form, used for English 
 prepositional phrase, 120; geni- 
 tive for base-form, 121 
 
 borrowed words, see foreign 
 
 brands of, see mercantile 
 
 capitalization, 23; 24 
 
 case, 55; see genitive, objective 
 
 class, see generic 
 
 colloquialisms, see under. head- 
 ing COLLOQUIALISMS in 
 each lesson 
 
 comma, 27 
 
 comparative, see comparison 
 
 comparison of adjectives, 158- 
 167; -are, -ast, 158; -re, -st, 
 159-162 (accent, see 5, 3 c; 
 vowel-modification, see n, b); 
 indeclinable adjectives, 158, n. 
 2; cf. 165 and p. 103, fn. i; 
 declension of comparative, 163 
 (cf. 153); declension of super- 
 lative, 164; comparison with 
 tnera, mest, 165; superlative 
 in case of two objects com- 
 pared, 166; absolute use of com- 
 parative and superl., 167 
 
 comparison of adverbs, 173; 174 
 
 completed action, past partici- 
 ple, 223, n.; 241, n. 
 
 compounds, stress, 2, 6; syllabi- 
 cation, 21 ; compound adverbs, 
 172, i, and n. i and 2 (coll., 
 
 179, 2); compound verbs, 229- 
 232; closely and loosely at- 
 tached verb-composition, 229; 
 inseparable, separable and in- 
 vertible compound verbs, 230; 
 inseparable, separable and in- 
 vertible prefixes, 231; past par- 
 ticiple, 230, n. i; present par- 
 ticiple, p. 180, fn.; coll., 237 
 
 concession, 253, 2; p. 195, fn. 2 
 
 concord, see agreement 
 
 conditions, omission of om, 146 
 (cf. 215, end); use of sd, 139, 
 n. 3 (cf. coll., 146, i); con- 
 trary to fact, 215; 216 
 
 congressive-action, see point- 
 action 
 
 conjugation, 180-183; system of, 
 82; i So; 183; weak verbs, 80; 
 
 180, A; strong verbs, 81; 180, 
 B; vowel-modification, n, c; 
 see also First (Second, Third) 
 Weak Conjugation, Strong 
 Conjugation, present, past, 
 passive, etc. 
 
 consonants, quantity, 7; pronun- 
 ciation, 13-19 
 contrary to fact, see conditions, 
 
 unreal 
 
 conversation, see colloquialisms 
 cursive action, p. Si, fn. 2; 222; 
 cf. 223, n.; p. 162, fn. i; 224; 
 240, n. i; cf. p. 188, fn. i 
 date, expressions of, 322 
 declension, 54-56; see First (Sec- 
 ond, Third, Fourth, Fifth) De- 
 clension; for irregular nouns,
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 301 
 
 see nouns; vowel-modification, 
 11, a; distribution of various 
 types of nouns inthe different 
 declensions, Appendix I 
 
 definite article, see definite 
 form of noun, prepositive def- 
 inite article 
 
 definite form of adjectives, see 
 adjective 
 
 definite form of nouns, 40; 41; 
 54, n.; rules for use of various 
 forms, Appendix II, i; i decl., 
 58; 2 decl., 69; 3 decl., 88; 4 
 decl., 95; 5 decl., 107; accent, 
 5, 3 d; 52, i; -^omitted (coll.), 
 53, 3; def. form. = iudef. form, 
 Appendix II, 2; 69, n. 4 (coll., 
 75, 4); p. 48, fn. i; 107, n. 3; 
 113; after demonstratives, 268; 
 denna (coll.), 39, i; vilken- 
 dera, 287; bdda, b&gge, 300; 
 -dera, 306; def. form with poss. 
 pron. (coll.), 67, 4; def. form of 
 titles, 39, 2; 129; syntax of def. 
 form, 125-130; abstract, mate- 
 rial, class (generic), 125; dis- 
 tributive meaning, 126; in place 
 of possessive pronoun, 127; 
 geographical and street names, 
 128; titles, 129; def. meaning 
 though indef. in form, see in- 
 def. form of nouns 
 
 demonstratives, 265-271; coll., 
 39, i; 273, 5-1 1; sddan, lika- 
 dan, dylik, 269; form of fol- 
 lowing noun and adj., 147, 2; 
 268; 269; special substantive 
 forms, 265; the ending -e, 266, 
 n. i; dess, dens, 266, n. 2; 
 den Mr, den dar, 266, n. 3; 
 
 densamma, sanima, 266, n. 4; 
 denna, as pers. pronoun, 266, 
 n. 5; densamma, as pers. pro- 
 noun, 266, n. 6; neuter with 
 predicate noun of any gender 
 or number, 267, n. i; neuter 
 representing any expression, 
 267, n. 2; determinative use of 
 den, 267 (coll., 273, 8); 266, 
 n. 2; 268, n. i ; adverbial com - 
 pounds, 267, n. 3; summary of 
 uses of den, 271 
 
 dentals, 13, 2; after r, 13, 3 
 
 deponents, 225; reciprocal and 
 reflexive, 225, n. i; participles, 
 238, 11. 2; 240, n. 2; impera- 
 tive, 243, n. i; coll., 228, 3 and 
 6 
 
 determinative pronouns, see 
 demonstratives 
 
 diphthongs, 12 
 
 distributive meaning of def. 
 form, 126; numerals, 319, 3 
 
 durative action, 245, and n. 2; 
 p. 188, fn. i 
 
 easy speech, see colloquialisms 
 
 elevated style, /, 49; du, p. 17, 
 fn. 2; see also colloquialisms 
 
 emphasis, order, p. 83, fn. 3; 
 emphatic verb-forms, 47 
 
 exclamation point, 26 
 
 familiar, see address 
 
 feminine, 28, n. 4 
 
 Fifth Declension, 106-108; cf. p. 
 46, fn. i; in, i (coll., 117, 6) 
 
 First Declension, 57-59 
 
 First Weak Conjugation, 184; 
 185; 1 80, A; irregular verbs, 
 185, n. 2; 191, 3 (coll.); stem, 
 p. 117, fn.
 
 302 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 foreign words, alphabet, i; 
 stress, 2, i; 87, n. 6 and 7; 90 
 (<?); accent, 5, i; diphthongs, 
 12; c, 19, i b and c; n, 19, 5 
 a 2; foreign forms of nouns, 
 113; p. 61, fn. 3; p. 64, fn. i 
 and 2; foreign nouns in 3 decl., 
 87, and n. 7; cf. p. 46, fn. 3; 
 in 3 and 5 decl., in, i (coll., 
 117, 6); nouns in -ma, p. 53, 
 fn. i; -er in 5 decl., 106, 5; 
 neuter of foreign adj. in -t, 151, 
 n. 4; verbs, 184, n. 
 
 formal, see address 
 
 Fourth Declension, 94-96; cf. p. 
 46, fn. i 
 
 fractions, 320, 2 
 
 future, present used for future, 
 135; auxiliary-future, 136; past 
 future, 252, i; cf. 261, i 
 
 future perfect, 185, n. i; p. 120, 
 fn. 3; coll., 191, 2 
 
 gender, 28 (cf. 41; 60); gram- 
 matical gender, 28, n. 3; nat- 
 ural gender, 28, n. 4; names 
 of towns, etc., p. 79, fn. 4; di- 
 alect, p. 35, fn. 3; distribution 
 of gender in declensions, see 
 the declensions; gender as dis- 
 tributed in types of nouns in 
 the various declensions, Ap- 
 pendix I 
 
 generic use of def. form, 125 
 
 genitive, 55; paradigm, 59; prop- 
 er nouns, 112; 1 1 8, end; for- 
 eign gen., 113, end; also of in- 
 animate, 56; 118 (coll., 134, 2); 
 use of prepositional phrase for 
 genitive, 119 (coll., 134, 2); 
 base-form of nouns indicating 
 
 measure, etc., used for gen., 
 120; genitive of titles in place 
 of possessives, 39, 2; followed 
 by def. adj., 147, i; gen. of 
 personal pronouns, 62; gen. 
 used for base-form, 121; till 
 with gen., 122; in adverbs, 172, 
 3; no gen. of adjectival words, 
 55, n. (cf. 67, 4, coll.) 
 
 geographical names, def. form, 
 128 
 
 grave, see accent 
 
 hard vowels, 10; cf. n 
 
 holidays, names of, capital., 24, 3 
 
 hypothetical comparison, 215; 
 216 
 
 imperative, 243; of deponents, 
 243, n. i; form in -om, 243, n. 
 2; order with subject expressed, 
 243, n. 3; same as stem, p. 
 117, fn.; coll., 246, 3 
 
 imperfect, see past 
 
 impersonal verbs, 235; s-form 
 (passive), 235. 3 
 
 inanimate, gender, 28, 2, and n. 
 2; 36; p. 35, fn. 3; gen-, 5^ (coll., 
 67, 2); 118; 119; coll., 134, 2 
 
 indefinite article, 31; p. 22, fn.; 
 no genitive, 55, n.; syntax of 
 (omission), 123; 124 
 
 indefinite form of adjectives, 
 see adjective 
 
 indefinite form of nouns, 40; p. 
 22, fn.; titles, 39, 2; 129; in- 
 def. form after denna, sain- 
 ma, den (determinative), 268 
 and n. i; p. 208, fn. i; de 
 fiesta, 298; indef. form, though 
 def. in meaning, 147; p. 91, fn. 
 i; 268, n. i
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 303 
 
 indefinite pronouns, 292-309; 
 special substantive forms, 265; 
 indefinite relatives, 309 
 
 indirect statement, infinitive, 
 242, n. i; coll., 246, 2 
 
 infinitive, 242; cf. 44; 46, 3; p. 
 117, in.; future inf., p. 183, 
 fn.; use and omission of aft, 
 242, i; inf. with prepositions, 
 etc., 242, 2; indirect statement, 
 242, n. i (coll., 246, 2); aux- 
 iliary of perfect inf. omitted, 
 242, n. 2; purpose, 242, n. 3; 
 after hora, se, 239, n. 2; words 
 placed between att and inf., 
 142, end, and n. 
 
 inseparable, see compounds 
 
 intensive pronoun, see sjalv 
 (index of words) 
 
 interrogative pronouns, 282- 
 289; special substantive forms, 
 265; with som as subject sign, 
 289, i ; position of a governing 
 preposition, 289. 2; with som 
 heist (= indefinites), 308; ad- 
 verbial compounds, 289, n. 
 
 inversion, 139; 140; om omitted, 
 140; 215, end; questions, p. 83, 
 fn. i; imperative, 243, n. 3 
 
 invertible, see compounds 
 
 kinds of, see mercantile 
 
 literary, see colloquialisms 
 
 living beings, see animate 
 
 loan-words, see foreign 
 
 male sex, 28, n. 4; 69, n. 5; 107, 
 n. 5; 151, n. 8, b and c; 266, 
 n. i; Appendix III, I 
 
 masculine, 28, n. 4; p. 35, fn. 
 3; cf. male sex 
 
 material, nouns of, def. form, 
 
 125; p. 74, fn. i 
 
 measure, nouns indicating, 106, 
 4; use of base-form, 120 
 
 mercantile plural, p. 46, fn. 2 
 
 modal, see auxiliaries 
 
 modification of vowels, u; 2 
 decl., 68, n. 4; 3 decl., 87, n. 4 
 and 5; 5 decl., 106, 3; list of 
 nouns, Appendix I, 4; compar- 
 ative, 159-162; II conj., p. 128, 
 fn. i; 194, i and 2 
 
 monosyllabic infinitives, verbs 
 with, 44; cf. 46; 195 and n. 2; 
 203, i and 2; coll., 207, i; no 
 pres. ^-subjunctive, 208, n. i; 
 never -om in imperative, 243, 
 n. 2 
 
 monosyllabic nouns, 68, i and 
 2; 87, i (cf. n. 4); 94, i; 109; 
 distribution of monosyllables 
 in various declensions, Appen- 
 dix I, i; accent with def. ar- 
 ticle, 52, i (cf. 5) 
 
 months, names of, capital., 24, 
 3; base-form for gen., 120, end 
 
 mutation, see modification 
 
 negatives, 100; order, 101; 141; 
 139, n. i; 142, n.; use of jo, p. 
 57, fn. 5 
 
 nouns, syntax, Lesson IX; irreg- 
 ular nouns, 109, ff.; see the 
 various declensions (First, 
 Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth), 
 proper nouns, genitive, gen- 
 der, foreign words, declension, 
 etc. 
 
 number, see measure, singular, 
 plural
 
 304 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 numerals, 312-322; list of cardi- 
 nals and ordinals, 312; remarks 
 on cardinals, 313-317; remarks 
 on ordinals, 318; formations 
 connected with cardinals, 319; 
 formations connected with or- 
 dinals, 320; expressions of time, 
 321; date, address, 322; vise of 
 prepositive article, p. 92, fn. 4 
 
 object, see order 
 
 objective case, 186; 187; 264; 
 coll., 191, 5; in indirect state- 
 ment, 242, n. i; after det &r 
 (var), 264, n. 3; after an 
 (coll.), 273, 2 
 
 optative, p. 149, fn. i 
 
 order of words, 139-142; p. 83, 
 fn. 3; cf. p. 21, fn.; inversion, 
 139; inversion with om omit- 
 ted, 140; see also inversion; 
 subordinate clauses, 140; nega- 
 tive words, 141; p. 23, fn. 2; 
 101; 139, n. i; movable words 
 (including negative words), 
 141; p. 85, fn. i; modifiers, 
 142 and n.; coll., 146, 5; att 
 with inf., 142; questions, p. 83, 
 fn. i; imperative, 243, n. 3; 
 wishes, p. 151, fn.; compound 
 verbs, 229; 230; position of ob- 
 ject, adverbs, etc., in loosely 
 attached form of verb-compo- 
 sition, 230, n. 2; position of 
 verb in rel. clause with rel. 
 subject omitted, 281, n. 2; prep- 
 ositions with rel. and interrog. 
 pronouns, 281, n. i; 289, 2; gen- 
 itive and noun, p. 28, fn. i; 
 possessives after noun (coll.), 
 67, 4; street names and num- 
 
 bers, p. 79, fn. 2; order with 
 dd, dar, ndr, 139, n. 2; ock, 
 ocksd, aven, med, 105, 5; for 
 . . . sedan, p. 125, fn. 2; se 
 . . . ut, p. 125, fn. i; vad . . . 
 for, 286; vilken . . . som heist, 
 308 
 
 orthography, see under heading 
 ORTHOGRAPHY in Lessons 
 II, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, 
 X, XI, XIII 
 
 participle, past, 240; 241; cf. 221, 
 n. 2; coll., 246, i; -ade, 151, n. 8 
 a; comparison, 165; connection 
 with supine, 181; p. 160, fn. 
 i; compound verbs, 230, n. i; 
 deponents, 240, n. 2; in auxili- 
 ary-passive, 222; cf. 223, n. 
 
 participle, present, 238; 239; 
 coll., 246, i; compound verbs, 
 p. 180, fn.; indeclinable, 153; 
 comparison, 165; clause in 
 place of circumstantial parti- 
 ciple, 239, n. i; with prepos. 
 article, 107, n. 6 
 
 passive, 221-224; ^-passive, 221; 
 222, n. 2; auxiliary-passive, 
 222; 223; distinction in use be- 
 tween 5-passive and auxiliary- 
 passive, 222, n. 2 (cf. coll., 228, 
 2); -(e)s, 221, n. i (cf. 225, n. 
 2; accent, 227, 2); substitutes 
 for passive (man, 221, n. 4; see 
 man in index of words; active, 
 coll., 228, i); agent, 221, n. 3 
 (cf. 228, i, coll.); past partici- 
 ple, 221, n. 2 (see participle); 
 past part, used as adj., 223, n.; 
 impersonal use of ^-passive, 
 2 35 3; imperative, 243, n. i;
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 305 
 
 coll., 228, 1-6; the so-called 
 false passive, or quasi-passive, 
 223, n. 
 
 past, weak, So; 180, A; strong, 
 Si; 99; 180, B; past of vara for 
 present, 244 (coll., 246, 4); 
 -a(de), coll., 191, 4 
 past perfect, 181; cf. 182 
 perfect, see present perfect, past 
 
 perfect 
 
 period, in abbreviations, 25 
 personal pronouns, 264 (coll., 
 273- i-4); 35; 36; 495 us of n eu- 
 ' ter del to represent any expres- 
 sion, 264, n. 2; dct &r, detvar 
 (emphatic) with objective, 264, 
 n. 3; (de)rs, 264, n. 5; din 
 lymmel, 264, n. 6; reciprocal! 
 264, n. 8; intensive, see sjalv 
 (index of words); genitive, 62 
 (cf. 67, 3 and 4, coll.); 186 (cf. 
 187); coll., 39, 2; coll., 191, 5 
 and 6; dcnsamma, 266, n. 6 
 (coll., 273, 10); denna, 266, n. 
 5 (coll., 273, 10); pers. pronoun 
 repeated, 273, 3 (coll.); ad- 
 verbial compounds, 264, n. 4 
 pluperfect, see past perfect 
 plural, endings, 54 (for details, 
 see the First, Second, Third, 
 Fourth, Fifth Declension); 
 plural without ending, 54; 106; 
 nouns with more than one plu- 
 ral, p. 46, fn. 2; ii i ; p. 63, fn. 
 i (coll., 117, 6); plural subject 
 with singular verb (coll.), 53, 
 i ; vowel-modification, n, a; 68, 
 n. 4; 87, n. 4 and 5; 106, 3; 
 shortening of vowel, 87. n. 5; 
 106, n. i; stress-shift, 87, n. 6 
 
 point-action, p. 188, fn. 2; 245, 
 n. i 
 
 polite, see address 
 
 possessive pronouns, 264; 32; 
 48; 61; also reflexive, 62, n.; 
 188; reflexive possessive (sin), 
 1 88; after noun (coll.), 67, 4; 
 followed by def. adj., 147, i; 
 preceded by prepos. article (de 
 tnina), 264, n. 7; used for 
 pers. pronoun (din lymmel}, 
 264, n. 6; def. form used for 
 poss., 127; see genitive of per- 
 sonal pronouns 
 
 postpositive definite article, 
 see definite article (form) 
 
 prefixes, stress, 2, 2 (for accent, 
 cf. 5, i); see compounds 
 
 prepositions, with inf., 242, 2 a; 
 following rel. pronoun, 275; 
 276, n. i c; 278, 2; 279; 281, and 
 n. i; coll., 291, 5; following in- 
 terrog. pronoun, 289, 2; coll., 
 291, 6; prep, phrase used for 
 gen., 119; coll., 134, 2; till 
 with gen., 122; prep, in pro- 
 nominal adv. compounds, 172, 
 i, n. 2 
 
 prepositive definite article, 78; 
 79; with indef. noun, 167; omit- 
 ted, 149; cf. p. 91, fn. i 
 
 present, 43; cf. 44-46; used to 
 express future time, 135 
 
 present perfect, 181; cf. 182; 
 used for future perfect, 185, 
 n. i 
 
 principal parts, definition of, 
 183, n.; principal parts of 
 strong and irregular verbs, see 
 Appendix IV
 
 306 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 progressive, 47; 245; 239, n. 4 
 
 progressive-action, see durative 
 
 pronominal adverbs, 172, i, n. 2 
 
 pronouns, no gen. of adj. pro- 
 nouns, 55, n.; gen. of substan- 
 tive pronouns, 265; pronouns 
 in address, see address; see 
 personal, possessive, demon- 
 strative, relative, interrogative, 
 indefinite, reflexive, intensive, 
 reciprocal deponents 
 
 pronunciation, stress, 2; accent, 
 3-5; quantity, 6; 7; vowels, S-n; 
 diphthongs, 12; consonants, 13- 
 19; pronunciation of letters of 
 alphabet, 20; see also Lessons 
 I-XVIH under heading PRO- 
 NUNCIATION 
 
 proper adjectives, capital., 24, 2 
 
 proper nouns, gen. of, when 
 ending in s-sound, 112; gen. of 
 place names, 118, end; with 
 def. adj. ,.147, 3; proper group 
 names, capital., 24, 4; cf. 24, 2 
 
 punctuation, 25-27; see also 
 apostrophe 
 
 purpose, 242, n. 3 
 
 quantity, 6; 7; see also frequent 
 remarks under heading of 
 PRONUNCIATION in Lessons 
 I-XVIII 
 
 questions, order, p. 83, fn. i; 
 no auxiliary-verb, 47 
 
 reciprocal deponents, 225 n. i; 
 cf. 228, 3 (coll.); pronoun, 
 264, n. 8 
 
 reflexive pronouns, personal 
 and possessive, 187; 188; 264; 
 233; 234 
 
 reflexive verbs, 233; 234; reflex- 
 
 ive deponents, 225, n. i; cf. 
 
 233, 3 
 
 relationship, nouns indicating, 
 def. form instead of possess- 
 ive, 127 
 
 relative pronouns, 274-281; spe- 
 cial substantive forms, 265; rel- 
 ative omitted, 281, and n. 2; 
 followed by adj. in def. form, 
 p. 91, fn. 2; use of rel. clauses, 
 coll., 291, i; adverbial com- 
 pounds, 281, n. 3; see also in- 
 definite relatives under indefi- 
 nite pronouns 
 
 restrictive, see determinative 
 
 Second Declension, 68-70 
 
 Second Weak Conjugation, 192- 
 194; 180, A; irregular verbs, 194; 
 191, 3 (coll.); stem, p. 117, fn. 
 
 semicolon, 26 
 
 separable, see compounds 
 
 singular verb with plural sub- 
 ject, coll., 53, i; with ni, 49 
 
 soft vowels, 10; cf. n; 14; 19, 
 i b; 19, 2 b 
 
 spoken language, see colloquial- 
 isms 
 
 stem-vowel of verbs, p. 117, fn. 
 
 street-names, def. form used, 
 128, end 
 
 stress, 2; cf. 3; 4; <?, 90; titles be- 
 fore proper names, p. 19, fn. 3; 
 prefix o-, p. 51, fn. 2; adverbial 
 compounds, 172, i, n. i; affix 
 in compound verbs, 229; 230; 
 stress-shift in nouns, 87, n. 6 
 
 Strong Conjugation, 200-203; Si; 
 97-99; i So, B; 181; irregular 
 verbs, 203; p. 139, fn.; stem, 
 p. 117, fn.
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 307 
 
 style, see colloquialisms 
 
 subjunctive (^-subj. and aux- 
 iliary-subj.), 208-216; forms, 
 208-212; meaning of tenses, 213; 
 wishes, 214; unreal conditions 
 and hypothetical comparisons, 
 215; summary, 216; passive, 
 221; p. 159, fn.; no present 
 subj. of verbs whose inf. ends 
 in stressed vowel, 208, n. i; 
 vowel of past subj. in strong 
 verbs, 208, n. 2; coll., 220, i; 
 for concession, see concession 
 
 superlative, declension of, 164 
 (cf. p. 102, fn. 2); absolute use, 
 167; -astc, 151, n. 8 a; used with 
 indef. noun, 167; p. 91, fn. i; 
 superlative of two objects com- 
 pared, 166; vowel-modification, 
 ii, b; see comparison 
 
 supine, 181 (cf. p. 160, fn. i); 
 vowel of supine in strong verbs, 
 201, n. i; cf. coll., 207, 6; 
 used alone in present and past 
 perfect, 182; cf. p. 150, fn. i; 
 p. 151, fn. (coll., 191, i); su- 
 pine alone in perfect inf., 242, 
 n. 2; supine after auxiliary in- 
 stead of infinitive, coll., 263; 
 -at, coll., 191, 4; -it, coll., 207, 3 
 
 supradentals, 13, 3 
 
 syllabication, 21; 22 
 
 syntax, of noun, Lesson IX 
 
 tense, see present, past, present 
 perfect, past perfect, future, 
 future perfect 
 
 terminative action, p. Si, fn. 2; 
 223, n.; 224; 240, n. i; 241, n.; 
 p. 188, fn. 2; 249, n. i 
 
 Third Declension, 87-89; p. 53, 
 
 fn. i, p. 60, fn. i, cf. in, i 
 (coll., 117, 6); accent, 5, 3 b 
 
 third person singular, without 
 ending -r, 136, n. 2; 193, n.; 
 202, n.; p. 148, fn. 3; cf. pas- 
 sive, 221 
 
 Third Weak Conjugation, 195; 
 180, A; irregular verbs, 195, n. 
 i; p. 132, fn.; stem, p. 117, fn. 
 
 time, expressions of, 321 
 
 titles, capital., 24, i; used in 
 address, coll., 39, 2; def. and 
 indef. form, 129 (cf. 39, 2); 
 lagga bort titlarna, p. 19, fn. 
 5; unstressed, p. 19, fn. 3; herr, 
 68, n. 5; furst, p. 34, fn. 2; 
 -ar(e), 106, n. 2; with imper- 
 ative, p. 186, fn. 
 
 tone, 3; 4 
 
 umlaut, see modification 
 
 unreal conditions, 215; 216; 
 clauses of hypothetical com- 
 parison, 215; 216 
 
 verbal noun, 239, n. 3 
 
 verbs, stem-vowels, p. 117, fn.; 
 see Conjugation, First (Second, 
 Third) Weak Conjugation, 
 Strong Conjugation, Subjunc- 
 tive, Infinitive, etc., progres- 
 sive, action, reflexive, past, 
 present perfect, vowel-change, 
 etc.; irregular verbs, see under 
 the various conjugations and 
 Appendix IV 
 
 vowel-change in strong verbs, 
 81; 97-99; 200; 201; cf. p. 57, 
 fn. 2; p. 138, fn. 7; 136, n. i; 
 138, n. 2 
 
 vowels, quantity, 6; pronuncia- 
 tion, 8; 9; hard and soft, io;mod-
 
 308 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 ification, n; diphthongs, 12 wish, 214; summary, 216; p. 149, 
 
 weak verbs, 80; 180, A; see fn. i; order, p. 151, fn. 
 
 First (Second, Third) Weak word-order, see order 
 
 Conjugation written language, see colloqui- 
 
 weight, see measure alisms
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 309 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 Note. References are to paragraphs, unless preceded by p. 
 (=page); fn. = foot-note; n. = note. 
 
 The accent (i. e., primarily the acute accent) is given only for 
 words whose accent has been mentioned in the lessons; ac. = acute; 
 gr. = grave; acgr. = acute or grave. Reference is rarely made to 
 the paragraph in which the accent is given. 
 
 For the pronunciation, reference is made not to the paragraph in 
 which each word is mentioned in the lessons, but to the place in 
 the introduction on sounds or the Phonology to which reference 
 is there made. A reference to pronunciation is preceded by pr.; 
 Phon. = Phonology. 
 
 Coll. = colloquial; orth. = orthography. Other abbreviations will 
 be clear. For compounds in -dag(s) see this. 
 
 acceptera, ac.; pr., 19, 
 
 alltid, order, 141; pr., 
 
 arme', orth., 90 
 
 i bz 
 
 coll., 146, 7 
 
 artikel, ac.; pr., 6, n. i 
 
 -ad, 3decl., p. 46, fn. 
 
 allting, ac.; 307 
 
 associera, ac.; pr., 19, 
 
 3 
 
 alltjamt, stress, p. 165, 
 
 i bi 
 
 -a(de), past, coll., 191, 
 
 fn. 2 
 
 -a(t), supine, coll., 
 
 4 
 
 Amerika, ac. 
 
 191, 4 
 
 aderton, pr., coll., 324, 
 
 -ande, pres. part., 238; 
 
 atlantisk, ac. 
 
 i; p. 245, fn. i 
 
 verbal noun, 239, n. 
 
 att (=to), omission, 
 
 adjektiv, decl., in, i 
 
 3; 5 decl., 106, 2; 107, 
 
 242, i; cf. 242, n. i; 
 
 Adolf, acgr. 
 
 n. 6; Appendix I, 2, 
 
 purpose, 242, n. 3; 
 
 a/ton, 68, n. 3 
 
 n. i 
 
 pr., coll., 86, 2; 
 
 aj, pr., 12 
 
 andra, usually gr.; 
 
 (=that), inversion, 
 
 aldrig, order, 141 ;pr., 
 
 318; see annan 
 
 p. 84, fn. 2; omission, 
 
 coll., 75, 8 
 
 annan, 294; coll., 311, 
 
 coll., p. 43, fn.3;246, 
 
 all, 297; cf. allt 
 
 5; en , 294, n. i; en 
 
 2 
 
 al Ira, usually gr. ; with 
 
 och(eller) , 294, n. 2 
 
 au, pr., 12 
 
 superl., 175 
 
 april, pr., 6, n. i 
 
 av, 119; 120; 221, n. 3; 
 
 alls, 172, 3 
 
 -are, compar., 158; 5 
 
 pr., coll., 86, 5 
 
 ullt, adv. with corn- 
 
 decl., 106, 2; 107, n. 
 
 t>, pr., 18 
 
 par., 175; pronoun, 
 
 5; Appendix I, 2, n. i 
 
 bakom, stress, p. 144, 
 
 with vad, 278, 2; p. 
 
 -arie, decl., Appendix 
 
 fn. 2 
 
 217, fn.; cf. all 
 
 I, 2, n. i 
 
 bakre, compar., 162
 
 3 io 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 bank, decl., p. 63, fn. i 
 
 bid, inflex., 151, n. 5 
 
 Cederschiold, pr., 132, 
 
 bara, coll., 86, i 
 
 and 7 
 
 b 
 
 barn, gender, 28, n. i; 
 
 bok, plur., accent, 92, 
 
 f/i, pr., 19, i a and c 
 
 pr., 6, n. 2; 13, 3 
 
 1587, n. 5; p. 63. fn. i 
 
 , pr., 19, i a and 4 
 
 be, 203, 2; pres. part., 
 
 bonde, plur., accent, 
 
 d, pr., 13. 2; cf. 13, 3; 
 
 238, n. i; coll., 207, 
 
 92, i;pr., 9, 3 a 
 
 silent, 16 and c; 18 
 
 i; see bedja 
 
 bord, pr., 13, 3; 6, n. 2 
 
 </, pr., coll., 75, 8; 
 
 be-, accent, 236; stress, 
 
 bort, borta, 172, 2, n.; 
 
 p. 37, fn. 
 
 2,2; 229 ,i;insep., 231 
 
 bortre, compar., 162 
 
 dagakarl, pr., 16, a 
 
 bedja, 200; 203, 2; p. 
 
 botaniker, usually ac. 
 
 </oo-.y, adv., 172, 3; 
 
 142, fn. i; p. 138, fn. 
 
 bra, 153; compar., 161; 
 
 -dag(s), ac., 178, 3; 
 
 6; pres. part., 238', n. 
 
 174, 2 
 
 pr., 18; Phon. 38; 
 
 i; coll., 207, i 
 
 bringa, 194, 2 and 4; p. orth., 24, 3 
 
 begrava, ac.; conjuga- 
 
 131, fn. i; coll., 199, Danmark,&c. 
 
 tion, p. 139, fn. i 
 
 5; bragt(e), pr., 18; de, coll., 53, 5 (pr.); 
 
 begynna, ac.; conj., 
 
 Phon. 38, n. 
 
 191, 6; 311, 3; see<fe 
 
 192, b; coll., 199, 5 
 
 bro(de}r, accent, 116, 
 
 -<fe/, -dels, fractions, 
 
 behandla, ac. 
 
 2; 106, 3 and n. 2; p. 
 
 320, 2; coll., 324, 3 
 
 beharska, ac. 
 
 61, fn. i and 2; coll., 
 
 rf<?/a, coll., 191, 3 
 
 behova, ac. 
 
 iij. 7 
 
 dels, adv., 172, 3 
 
 belagring, ac. 
 
 bror, see broder 
 
 dent, pr., 6, n. i;coll., 
 
 berg, pr., 9, i c; 19, 2 
 
 bryna, p. 128, fn. 5 
 
 191, 6; see dfe, <fe 
 
 a 2 
 
 brat torn, acgr. 
 
 den, article, 78; per-- 
 
 beratta, ac. 
 
 brod, pr., coll., 93, 3 
 
 sonal, 36; 1 86, andu.; 
 
 berattelse, ac. 
 
 byggt, pr., 18; Phon. 
 
 264; pr., 9, i c; 6, n. 
 
 betrakta, ac. 
 
 33 
 
 i; coll., 191, 5; de- 
 
 betydelse, ac. 
 
 bdda, 300; coll., 311,2 
 
 monstr., 266; 267; 268 
 
 bi, gender, 28, n. i 
 
 bddadera, 306; coll., 
 
 and n. i; cf. 281, n. 2; 
 
 bi-, insep., 231 
 
 3". 2 
 
 coll., 273, 8; relative, 
 
 bibliotek, decl.^ in, i 
 
 bdde, usually gr. 
 
 274; 279; 281, n. i; 
 
 Birgitta, pr., 155, b 
 
 backen, def. sing., p. 
 
 coll., 291, 4; summa- 
 
 Bjorkman, ac. 
 
 61, fn. 4 
 
 ry, 271; p. 209, fn. i; 
 
 bli, see bliva 
 
 bcigge(dera} seebdda- 
 
 see de, det, dein, 
 
 blind, pr., coll., 157, 4 
 
 (dera) 
 
 dess, dens, deras 
 
 bliva,20$, 2; 138; pres. 
 
 bara, 200 
 
 den dar, demonstr., 
 
 part., 238, n. i; aux- 
 
 battre, p. no, fn. 5 
 
 266, and n. 3; coll., 
 
 iliary, 250; 222; coll., 
 
 bora, 259 
 
 2 73 5'. relative, 274; 
 
 207, i 
 
 borja, coll., 199, 5 
 
 280; stress, p. 218, fn.; 
 
 blom-ma, pr., 9, 3 a 
 
 c, pr., 19, i 
 
 coll., 291, 4 
 
 d/0tf,coll.,86, i 
 
 cc, pr., 19, i b 2 
 
 den ena, see en
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 den Mr, 39, i; 266 and 
 
 detsamma; i , 270; 
 
 -dubbel, 319, 2; p. 242, 
 
 n. 3 
 
 see densamma 
 
 fn. 2; coll., 324, 4 
 
 denna, pr., 9, i c; 266; 
 
 delta, representing any 
 
 dylik, 269; coll., 273, 
 
 268; cf. 267, n. 1-3; 
 
 expression, 267, n. 2; 
 
 9 
 
 coll., 39, i; 273, 7; p. 
 
 see denna 
 
 dd, 139, n. 2; p. 88, fn. 
 
 211, fn.; as pers. 
 
 dig, coll., 191, 6; see 
 
 5; p. 127, fn. i 
 
 pronoun, 266, n. 5; 
 
 du 
 
 ddlig(t), compar., 161 
 
 coll., 273, 10; -e, 266, 
 
 din, pr., 6, n. i; 65; 
 
 and n. ; pr. , coll. , 1 70, 4 
 
 n. i 
 
 capital., 23; 264; 32; 
 
 ddr, 139, n. 2 
 
 dennes, idiom, 270; 
 
 35; in poetry and ele- 
 
 darfor, ac. 
 
 coll., 273, 9 
 
 vated style, p. 17, fn. 
 
 darinne, see in 
 
 dens, 266, n. 2; 267; 
 
 2; coll., 39, 2 end 
 
 do, 203, i 
 
 coll., 273, 6; see den 
 
 distrikt, decl., in, i 
 
 dodlig, pr., Phon. 14, 
 
 den samma, p. 204, 
 
 dit, 139, n. 2 
 
 B2 C 
 
 fn. 2 
 
 djup, pr., 16 
 
 dods, see till 
 
 densanima, acgr.; 266 
 
 djur, pr., 1 6 
 
 ^,90 
 
 and n. 4; as pers. pro- 
 
 djavul, pr., 16; decl., 
 
 -^, 3 decl., p. 46, fn. 3 
 
 noun, 266, n. 6; coll., 
 
 68, n. 3 
 
 -e in adj., 151, n. 8; 
 
 273, 10; -e, 266, n. I 
 
 d:o, 25 
 
 coll., 157, i; cf. Ap- 
 
 -dera, indefinite pro- 
 
 docent, pr., 19, i b i; 
 
 pendix III 
 
 nouns, 306 
 
 as title, 129 
 
 ^-subjunctive, 208; 
 
 deras, 62; 264; not re- 
 
 doktor, accent, 92, 4 
 
 concession, p. 195. 
 
 flex., i 88; see den 
 
 and 5; decl.. 87, n. 6 
 
 fn. 2; pass., p. 159, 
 
 dess, personal, 62; 264; 
 
 dom ( = dent), coll., 
 
 fn.; coll., 220, i 
 
 not reflex., 188; coll., 
 
 53,4 
 
 eder, 264; accent, 272; 
 
 67, 3; demonstr., 266 
 
 -dom, 2 decl., 68, 4 
 
 capital., 23; coll., 
 
 and n. 2; idiom, 270; 
 
 dotler, accent, 74, 2; 
 
 273, 4; see / 
 
 coll., 273, 6; see den 
 
 decl., 68, n. 4; p. 35, 
 
 (de)rs, 264, n. 5 
 
 dess, adv. with comp., 
 
 fn. 2 
 
 efter, ac. 
 
 175; coll., 179, 3 
 
 dr, 25 
 
 cgen, 303; 147, n.;pr., 
 
 desto, usually gr.; see 
 
 dra(ga), 200; 203, 2; 
 
 coll., 157, 3 
 
 preceding word 
 
 pres. part., 238, n. i; 
 
 Egypten, ac. 
 
 dct, pr., 9, i c (coll., 
 
 coll., 207, i and 2 
 
 egyptier, ac.; pr., 14; 
 
 39. 6); expletive, 
 
 drottning, coll., 75, 7 
 
 19. 7 b 3 
 
 235, n.; representing 
 
 Drottninggatan, coll., 
 
 ej, pr., 12; negatives, 
 
 any expression, 264, 
 
 134, 6 
 
 100; p. 55, fn. 
 
 n. 2; 267, n. 2; det ar, 
 
 du, capital., 23; use, 
 
 -el, distribution of 
 
 with objective, 264, 
 
 35; p. 17, fn. 2 and 3; 
 
 nouns in various de- 
 
 n. 3; coll., 191, 5; see 
 
 39, 2 end; 264 
 
 clensions, Appendix 
 
 den 
 
 dubbel, 319, 2 
 
 1,3
 
 3 I2 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 elak, compar., 161 
 
 ent-, 231 and p. 172, j Fain (gruva), 118, end 
 
 and n. 
 
 fn. 2 \far, szz fader 
 
 element, decl., in, i 
 
 entlcdiga, p. 172, fn. 2 l/ara, 200 
 
 eller, ac. 
 
 envar, 295; coll. ,311, 2 fattig(t), pr., 18; 
 
 -else, 3 decl., p. 46, fn. 
 
 ^, 32; 35', 48; 49. n - 2; 
 
 Phon. 38; coll., 191,6 
 
 3; p. 47, fn. 3; Ap- 
 
 264; coll., 39, 2; 273, 
 
 feber, ac. 
 
 pendix I, 2, n. i 
 
 4; see /, m, eder 
 
 fern, pr., 6, n. i 
 
 en, pr., 6, n. i; article, 
 
 er-, insep., 231 
 
 filosofie, 113 
 
 31; numeral, 313; 
 
 -er, distribution of 
 
 Finland, ac. ; pr., coll., 
 
 stress, p. 78, fn. 2; 
 
 nouns in various de- 
 
 157,4 
 
 pronoun, 304; coll., 
 
 clensions, Appendix 
 
 firings; del ,235, n. 
 
 311, 3; p. 233, fn. 3; 
 
 1,3 
 
 fjdrdedel, 320, 2 and 
 
 cf. 305, n. i; en i s&n- 
 
 -era, accent, 190, i; 
 
 n/2; coll., 324, 3 
 
 der, en och en, coll.. 
 
 stress, 2, 3; i conj., 
 
 fjdril, 69, n. 2; coll., 
 
 324,5 (cf.aig, 3);* 
 
 184, n. 
 
 75, 2 
 
 och annan, see an- 
 
 -eri, stress, 2, 4; 3 
 
 yfera (-^), rarely ac.; 
 
 nan; en och var, 295; 
 
 decl., p. 46, fn. 3 
 
 298 
 
 coll., 311, 2; denena, 
 
 -(e}s, pass., 221, n. i; 
 
 fiesta (-e), 298 
 
 305; v ad for en, see 
 
 225, n. 2; coll., 228, 4 
 
 /or/, pr., 9, 3 a; corn- 
 
 vad 
 
 Esaias, pr., 12 
 
 par., 174, i 
 
 en, pr. ( = ang), 19, 
 
 -essa, stress, 2, 3 
 
 fot, decl., 87, n. 5; 106, 
 
 5a 2 
 
 'et, pronoun, coll., 
 
 4; p. 63, fn. i; till 
 
 'en, pronoun, coll., 
 
 191. 5 
 
 fots, pr., 132 
 
 I9L 5 
 
 eu, pr., 12 
 
 fotografi, def., coll., 
 
 en, distribution of 
 
 -eum, 3 decl., 87, n. 
 
 93, i 
 
 nouns in various de- 
 
 3; 88, n. 4; P- 46, fn. 3 
 
 fratn,fratnme, pr., 6, 
 
 clensions, Appendix 
 
 Europa, pr.,Phon. 35 
 
 n. i; orth., Phon. 18; 
 
 1,3 
 
 evangelium, acgr. ; 
 
 172, 2, n. 
 
 enda (-e), 302 
 
 pr., Phon. 49, 4, n. 
 
 framfor, usually gr.; 
 
 endast, coll., 86, i 
 
 examen, acgr. ; pr. , 19, 
 
 stress, p. 124, fn. 3 
 
 -ende, pres. part., 238; 
 
 9; decl., 113; p. 64, 
 
 fravndt, almost always 
 
 verbal noun, 239, n. 3 
 
 fn. i 
 
 ac. 
 
 endera, 306 
 
 fa(de}r, decl., 106, 3 
 
 fri, inflex., 151, n. 5 
 
 cnfaldig, p. 242, fn. 2 
 
 and n. 2; p. 6r, fn. i 
 
 Fridolf, ac. 
 
 engelsk, ac.; pr., 19, 5 
 
 and 2; coll., 117, 7; 
 
 Fritiof, ac. 
 
 b 
 
 accent, plur., 116, 2 
 
 fru, with titles, coll., 
 
 cngelsman, acgr. ; 
 
 faktum, decl., 113 
 
 39, 2 
 
 orth., 24, 2 
 
 -faldig, 319, 2; p. 242, 
 
 fruntimmer, gender, 
 
 enkel, 319, 2; p. 242, 
 
 fn. 2; coll., 324, 4 
 
 28, n. i; def. plur., 
 
 fn. 2 
 
 fall a, 200 
 
 p. 62, fn. i
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 313 
 
 frdmre, coinpar., 162 
 
 174, $;forre, accent, 
 
 W, compar., 161 and 
 
 fro, decl., p. 46, fn. 2; 
 
 169, i ; denforre, 320, 
 
 n.; pr., coll., 105, 6 
 
 p. 63, fn. i 
 
 3 
 
 Gottland, ac.; pr., 
 
 froken, ac.; title, 39, 
 
 forsiktighet, ac. 
 
 coll., 117, 10 
 
 2; def., 69, n. 4 
 
 forsiktig(t), ac.; pr., 
 
 grov, compar., 159 and 
 
 f under a, ac. 
 
 coll., 146, 7 
 
 n.; grovt, grovst, pr., 
 
 furst(e], title, p. 34, 
 
 forsta, 318; seeforr 
 
 18; Phon. 38; coll., 
 
 fn. 2 
 
 forstdndig, ac. 
 
 170, 4 
 
 fyrti(o], pr., p. 239, 
 
 forsvinna, ac. 
 
 grd, inflex., 151, n. 5 
 
 fn. 2; 315 
 
 forsdka, ac. 
 
 and 7 
 
 fyrtionde, pr., p. 239, 
 
 forvara, ac. 
 
 grata, 200 
 
 fn. 2 
 
 foraldrar, ac. 
 
 gulna, pr., Phon. 14 B 
 
 fd, verb, 203, i; aux- 
 
 -, pr., 13, 4; 14-18; 19, 
 
 2 C 
 
 iliary, 262; fd lov 
 
 2; silent, 16 and b 
 
 gd, pr., 144, a; 203, i; 
 
 (att), 262, 2 end; p. 
 
 A r a/a, 194, 4; p. 139, fn. 
 
 progressive, 245, n. 2 
 
 199. fn. 
 
 i; 193. " 
 
 gang, decl., p. 63, fn. 
 
 fd, 299; compar., 160 
 
 gaminal, orth., 154; 
 
 i; with numerals, 
 
 fdgel, ac. 
 
 compar., 161 
 
 319, i; p. 242, fn. i 
 
 ,/ifr, gender, 28, n. i 
 
 gav, coll., 207, 2; see 
 
 gds, 106, 3 and n. i; 
 
 fdngelse, p. 53, fn. i 
 
 -z'z/a 
 
 orth., 114; pr., 115, a 
 
 fdrg, pr., 19, 2 a 2 
 
 ^, see giva 
 
 gdrna, compar., 174, 
 
 fonster, ac.; def. plur., 
 
 ge-, stress, 2, 2 
 
 2 
 
 p. 62, fn. i 
 
 gen-, insep., 231 
 
 gdra, 194, 2 
 
 for, coll., p. 127, fn. 2; 
 
 genom, acgr. 
 
 Goteborg, pr., 19, 2 a 
 
 for att, purpose, 242, 
 
 genus, ac.; pr., 14; 
 
 h, silent, 16 
 
 n. 3; for . . . sedan, 
 
 decl., 107, n. 3; p. 61, 
 
 ha, see Aaz/a 
 
 p. 125, fn. 2 
 
 fa. 3 
 
 Aaofc, pr., 73; 195, n. 
 
 for-, accent, 236; 
 
 get, accent, plur., 92, 
 
 i; p. 131, fn. 4 
 
 stress, 2, 2; 229, i;in- 
 
 i; pr., 14; decl., 87, 
 
 hagel, ac. 
 
 sep., 231 
 
 5 
 
 halv, 320, 2; 149, n.; 
 
 forena, coll., 191, 3 
 
 giva, pr., 14; 103; 200; 
 
 -t, pr., 18; Phon. 38 
 
 f owning, ac. 
 
 201, i; 203, 2; 238, n. 
 
 halvannan, halvtre- 
 
 Forenta staterna, 
 
 i; coll., 207, i; det 
 
 dje, 320, n. i 
 
 stress, p. 92, fn. 3 
 
 gives, 235, n. 
 
 halvviigs, 172, 3; pr., 
 
 forfaitare, ac. 
 
 &', Pr-, 15 
 
 18; Phon. 38 
 
 forhdllande, ac. 
 
 gjorde, gjort, pr., 15; 
 
 hammare, decl., in, 
 
 fork lade, coll., p. 168, 
 
 16 
 
 2; orth., Phon. 18 
 
 fn. ir 
 
 glddja, 194, i;p. 130, 
 
 han, pr., 6, n. i; Phon. 
 
 fornya, ac. 
 
 fn. 2; coll., 199, i 
 
 18, b; 264; 36; see ho- 
 
 fdrr,forre,forst, 162; 
 
 gn, pr., 17; 19, 2 c 
 
 notn, hans
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 hand, 87, n. 4; pr., 
 
 Hjalmaren, pr., 16 
 
 Aora, with inf., 239, n. 
 
 coll., 93, 3 
 
 hjdlpa, pr., 16 
 
 2; y<2 A0ra, 262, 3 
 
 handske, pr., 16, c 
 
 hjarta, pr., 16; 95, n. 
 
 hostas, 172, 3 
 
 /tans, 62; 264; not re- 
 
 i and 3; p. 28, fn. 2; 
 
 i, in adv. phrases, 172, 
 
 flex., 188; see han 
 
 coll., 105, 2 
 
 3 
 
 hastigt, pr., 18; Phon. 
 
 Holgersson, ac.; pr., 
 
 /, 49; 264; capital, 23; 
 
 38 
 
 103 
 
 cf. 50; coll., 53, i 
 
 hava, conj., 42; 71; 
 
 Aow, pr., 9, 3 a; 6, n. i; 
 
 -i, 3 decl., p. 46, fn. 
 
 195, n.; p. 130, fn. 5; 
 
 Phon. 18, b; 36; 264; 
 
 3; coll., 93, i 
 
 194, 5; p. 131, fn. 4; 
 
 see henne, hennes 
 
 icke, 100; p. 55, fn.; 
 
 238, n. i; auxiliary, 
 
 honom, pr., Phon. 14 
 
 coll., 39, 3 
 
 181; 248; coll., 39, 4 
 
 A 3 and 22, 4; coll., 
 
 if ran, pr., 226 
 
 hel, 149, n.; cf. 297 
 
 191, 5; see han 
 
 igen, pr., 6, n. i; 14 
 
 helig(t),pr., 18; Phon. 
 
 hofell, decl., in, i 
 
 ihjal, pr., 16 
 
 38; coll., 157,4 
 
 hr, 25 
 
 -/<?/, pr., 6, n. i 
 
 heller, ac. 
 
 hundra, usually ac.; 
 
 ilia, coinpar., 174, 2 
 
 he lire, 174, 2 
 
 316; 313, 
 
 tm-, p. 51, fn. 2 
 
 Atf/^, 174, 2; 308; 309; 
 
 hundrade, 313, n. 
 
 z, inne, 172, 2, n.; 
 
 p. 235, fn. 2 
 
 hundratals, see -tal(s} 
 
 orth., Phon. 18 
 
 /*, hemma, 172, 2, 
 
 hur(u)dan, stress, p. 
 
 in-, p. 51, fn. 2 
 
 n.; orth., Phon. 18; 
 
 220, fn. i; 282; 288; 
 
 -/, 2 decl., 68, 4 
 
 pr., 6, n. i 
 
 coll., 291, 8 (accent, 
 
 ingen, 293; cf. 294; or- 
 
 henne, coll., 191, 5; 
 
 p. 225, fn. i) 
 
 der, 141; 142, n.; in- 
 
 see hon 
 
 hustru, decl., 109; cf. 
 
 get, coll., 311, i 
 
 hennes, 62; 264; not 
 
 coll., 67, 4 
 
 ingendera, 306 
 
 reflex., iSS; see hon 
 
 huvud, pr., Phon. 14 
 
 ingenting, 307; order, 
 
 Henrik, ac. 
 
 A 3; coll., 117, 9; 
 
 141; 142, n. 
 
 herr, title, coll., 39, 2; 
 
 decl., in, 2 
 
 -inna, stress, 2, 3 
 
 129; not capital, 24, 
 
 hdlla, 200; pd, pro- inne, see in 
 
 i ; cf . herre 
 
 gressive, 245 and n. 
 
 inre, compar., 162 
 
 Herran, p. 187, fn. 2 
 
 i and 2 
 
 inte, 100; coll., 39, 3 
 
 herre, decl., 69, n. 3; 
 
 hard, pr., 6, n. 2 intet, see ingen 
 
 68, n. 5; see min 
 
 hdrdna, pr., Phon. 14 intressant, pr., Phon. 
 
 -het, 3 decl., p. 46, fn. 
 
 B 2 c 49, 3 b 
 
 3 
 
 Mr-, insep., 231 -*>/, pr., 6, n. i 
 
 heta, 194, 3 
 
 harad, declension, -is&, stress, 2, 5 
 
 himmel, def., p. 35, 
 
 in, 2 -z(0> supine, coll., 
 
 fn. i 
 
 hog, compar., 159; 207,3 
 
 historia, ac.; decl., p. 
 
 hdg(s~)t, pr., 18 -itel, pr., 6, n. i 
 
 28, fn. 2; p. 47, fn. 2 
 
 hogljudd, pr., 16 itu, 314
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 315 
 
 -turn, 3 decl., 87, n. 3; 
 
 koka, coll., 191, 3 
 
 Lagerlof, pr., Phon. 
 
 p. 46, fn. 3; 88, n. 4 
 
 komma, 200; p. 57, fn. 
 
 42, n. 
 
 j, pr., 19, 3; quantity of 
 
 2; auxiliary, 261 ; fut., 
 
 /o^T", pr., 18; Phon. 38 
 
 preced. vowel, 6, n. i 
 
 136, i; fut. perf., 185, 
 
 and n.; orth., 196, 2 
 
 ja, see jo 
 
 n. i; kommo, orth., 
 
 land, pr., coll., 157, 4 
 
 jag, pr., 19, 3; coll., 
 
 Phon. 1 8 
 
 Lappland, ac.; pr., 
 
 39, 6; 264 
 
 kongrtient, pr., Phon. 
 
 coll., 117, 10 
 
 Jesus, gen. Jesu, 113 
 
 49. 3 t> 
 
 le, 203, i 
 
 jj/h 25 
 
 konkret, pr., Phon. 49, 
 
 leva, 194, 3 
 
 jo, p. 57. fn- 5 
 
 3b 
 
 -lig, stress, 2, 5 
 
 Johannes, ac. 
 
 konstnar, stress, p. 46, 
 
 ligga, 200; 201, 2; 203, 
 
 /, in questions, p. 83, 
 
 fn. 4 
 
 3; progressive, 245, n. 
 
 fn. i; with com par., 
 
 konung, -kung, pr., 9, 
 
 2 
 
 175; coll., 179, 3 
 
 3 1>; 68, n. 5 
 
 likadan, 269; stress, p. 
 
 jul, capital., 24, 3; i 
 
 Kristus, gen. Kristi, 
 
 208, fn. 4 
 
 julas, 172, 3 
 
 US 
 
 lik(^a]soin, usually gr. ; 
 
 juni, ac.; capital., 24, 3 
 
 Kronoberg, stress, p. 
 
 pr., 218, a; with sub- 
 
 k, pr., 14; 17; 19, 4 
 
 70, fn. 2 
 
 junctive, 215 
 
 Kalmar (Ian), ac.; 
 
 krympa, 203, 3 
 
 lika(sd] . . . som, 175 
 
 118, end 
 
 krona, p. 128, fn. 5 
 
 Linder, ac. 
 
 kan, pr., 6, n. i;orth., 
 
 kunde, pr., coll., 146, 
 
 -ling, 2 decl., 68, 4 
 
 Phon. 18, b; see kun- 
 
 7; see kunna 
 
 Linnd(gatan), orth., 
 
 na 
 
 kung, see konung 
 
 90 
 
 kanske, pr., 14, n. 
 
 kunna, 138; 136, n. 2; 
 
 /z'tew, inflex., 152; 151, 
 
 kapital, nr, i 
 
 '94. 5; P- I2 6, fn. 10; 
 
 n. i; compar., 161; 
 
 karl, pr., 16, a; coll., 
 
 auxiliary, 254; see 
 
 pr., coll., 157, 3 
 
 117, 8 
 
 kan, kunde 
 
 liter, ac. 
 
 Karl, pr., 16, a; A'ar/ 
 
 kvart(s], 320, n. 2 \.ljud, pr., 16 
 
 </<? store, orth., 24, 4 
 
 kvall, def., coll., 146, //>, pr., 16 
 
 Karlsson, ac. 
 
 6 London, ac. 
 
 Kalarina, ac. 
 
 kyrka, pr., 14; Phon. /o^a, pr., 9, 3 b 
 
 kejsar(e], pr., 14; 12; 
 
 24, 2, n. /.<>, 106, 3 and n. i 
 
 106, n. 2 
 
 kopa, pr., 14; kopt(e}, lyckligtvis, order, 141; 
 
 z7o, ac.;pr., 14; decl., 
 
 coll., 86, 5 
 
 pr., 18; Phon. 38 
 
 106, 4; p. 53, fn. r 
 
 korsbcir, acgr. 
 
 lag, compar., 159 and 
 
 kj\ pr., 15 /, ])r., 13, 2; cf. 13, 3; 
 
 n.; l&gt, pr., 18; 
 
 kn, pr., 17 silent, 16 and a 
 
 Phon. 38 
 
 a, pr., 17; def., 95, 
 
 laboratorium, acgr.; 
 
 l&g (verb), pr., coll., 
 
 n. i; coll., 105, i 
 
 87, n. 3; 88, n. 4 
 
 207, 2; see ligga 
 
 ko, decl., 109 
 
 lade, coll., 199, 2 
 
 Idng, compar., 159
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 lata, 200; auxiliary, 
 
 middag, ac.; pr., coll., 
 
 mdngen, pr., 19, 5 b: 
 
 260; imperative, 243 
 
 228, 7 
 
 298; coll., 311, 4; 
 
 and n. 2; lata bli, 
 
 mig, pr., coll., 191, 6; 
 
 jiianffd, compar., 161 
 
 250, n. 2 end 
 
 see/a?- 
 
 manne, order, p. .S3, 
 
 lagga, 194, 2; p. 130, 
 
 mil, 106, 4 
 
 fn. i 
 
 fn. 5; pr., 197, 2; see 
 
 tnin, pr., 6, n. i; 65; 
 
 mds/e, 256 
 
 lade, lagt 
 
 Phon. 18, b; 32; 264; 
 
 matte, see ma 
 
 lagst, pr.,iS;Phon.3S 
 
 min frn, min herre, 
 
 mcinniska, pr., 14, n. 
 
 Icinge, compar., 174, 
 
 coll., 39, 2 
 
 monster, def. plur.. 
 
 i ; langre, p. no, fn. i 
 
 mindre, minst, i6i;p. 
 
 coll., 117, 5 
 
 lar, auxiliary, 257 
 
 101, fn.; 17 
 
 , pr., 13, 2; 19, 5; cf. 
 
 Idsning, pr., Phon. 14 
 
 Mindre Asien, ac.; 
 
 13, 3; silent, 16, d; 
 
 B2C 
 
 orth., 24, 4 
 
 quantity of preced- 
 
 Id pa, p. 139, fn. i;pr., 
 
 miss-, insep., 231 
 
 ing vowel, 6, n. i 
 
 205, b 
 
 mo(de}r, accent, 74, 
 
 ',', pronoun, coll., 
 
 m, quantity of preced- 
 
 2; 68, n. 4 and 5; p. 
 
 191, 5 
 
 ing vowel, 6, n. i 
 
 35, fn. 2; coll., 75, 3 
 
 -nad, 3 decl., p. 46, 
 
 -ma, nouns ending in, 
 
 mogna, pr., Phon. 14 
 
 fn. 3 
 
 P- 53, fn. i 
 
 B 2C 
 
 Nationalmuseum, pr., 
 
 mala, 193, n. 
 
 mor, see 'moder 
 
 19, 7b2; gen., 113 
 
 man, 106, 3 and 4; p. 
 
 Mora (socken), 118, 
 
 ned, 172, 2, n.; coll., 
 
 60, fn. 6; orth., 6, n. 
 
 end 
 
 170, i; 179, i 
 
 i; Phon. 18; coll., 
 
 morgon, decl., 68, n. 
 
 nedfor, ac.; stress, p. 
 
 H7, 8 
 
 3; pr., 73; 16, b;coll., 
 
 145, fn. 2 
 
 man, pronoun, 304; 
 
 75,8 
 
 nedre, acgr., 169, i; 
 
 221, n. 4; coll., 311, 
 
 morse, 172, 3 
 
 compar., 162 
 
 3; cf. 228, i 
 
 mus, 106, 3, and n. i 
 
 neger, ac. 
 
 Matteus, Mattei, ac.; 
 
 museum, usually ac.; 
 
 nej, pr., 12; 6, n. i; p. 
 
 "3 
 
 pr., 8, 2, n.; 87, n. 3; 
 
 114, fn. 2 
 
 med, 105, 5; pr., coll., 
 
 88, n. 4 
 
 ner(e), see ned 
 
 170, 4 
 
 muskel, ac. 
 
 neutrum, usually ac.; 
 
 medicine, pr., 19, i b 
 
 mycken, compar., 161; 
 
 pr., Phon. 35; 113 
 
 i; "3 
 
 mycket, pr., coll., 53, 
 
 ng, pr., 19, 5 b; syllab- 
 
 men, pr.,6, n. i; Phon. 
 
 5 
 
 ication, 22, n. 
 
 18, b 
 
 ma, 253; 208; 209; 21 1 ; 
 
 ni, 35; 49; 264; coll., 
 
 mena, coll., 191, 3 
 
 214; p. 148, fn. 3; p. 
 
 39, 2; capital., 23 
 
 mer(a], tnest, accent, 
 
 150, fn. 2 
 
 -ning, 2 decl., 68, 4 
 
 169, i; 161; 165; 167; 
 
 mdnad, coll., 93, 3; 
 
 nio, coll., 324, i; p. 
 
 173; 174, n. 
 
 j'uni (etc.) , 120, 
 
 245, fn. i 
 
 meter, ac.; 106, 4 
 
 end; 130 
 
 nog, order, 141
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 317 
 
 noga, compar., 158, n. 
 
 ond, compar., 161 and 
 
 r, pr., 13, i and 3; note 
 
 2; 173, end 
 
 n.; pr., coll., 170, 4 
 
 preceding 8 
 
 Norge, ac. 
 
 opp, coll., 134, i 
 
 rd, pr., 13, 3; quantity 
 
 not, p. 63, fn. i 
 
 oppe, coll., 179, i 
 
 of preceding vowel, 
 
 numcra, acgr. 
 
 Oskar, acgr. 
 
 6, n. 2 
 
 nummcr, ac. 
 
 ovan, pr., 9, 3 b 
 
 regna, pr., 19, 20 
 
 ny, 151, n. 5 
 
 palats, in, i 
 
 revolution, pr., Phon. 
 
 nysa, 203, 3 and 4 
 
 papper, def., p. 6i,fn. 
 
 54, 4 b 
 
 nagon, 292; cf. 294; p. 
 
 4; coll., 117, 5 
 
 r/, r, pr., 13, 3; quan- 
 
 93, fn.; coll., 311, 5; 
 
 partisk, ac. 
 
 tity of preceding 
 
 ndgra, pr., Phon. 14 
 
 Pa it 1 us, Pauli, ac.; 
 
 vowel, 6, n. 2 
 
 B 2 b 
 
 pr., 12; 113 
 
 ros, declension, 57, n.; 
 
 nagondera, 306 
 
 pengar, ac. 
 
 58. n. 
 
 ndgonsin, coll., 207, 4 
 
 personlig, ac.; Phon. 
 
 rs, pr., 13, 3 
 
 ndgonting, 307; coll., 
 
 14 B 2 c 
 
 rt, pr., 13,3; quantity 
 
 3". 5 
 
 Pettersson, ac. 
 
 of preceding vowel, 
 
 -#r, 3decl., p. 46, fn. 
 
 piano, acgr.; 94, 2; 95, 
 
 6, n. 2 
 
 3 
 
 n. i 
 
 Ryssland, ac.; pr., 
 
 nara, compar., 158, n. 
 
 pillcr, def. plur., p. 
 
 coll., 157, 4 
 
 2; 173, end; p. 100, fn. 
 
 62, fn. .1 
 
 rp'rf, pr., coll., 53, 6 
 
 jAVr'r/r, ac. 
 
 poem, in, i; pr., 
 
 n)a, p. 128, fn. 5 
 
 ndje, pr., 6, n. i 
 
 Phon. 20, 2 
 
 s, pr., 13, 2; 19, 6; cf. 
 
 not, plur., accent, 92, 
 
 prcsens, ac. 
 
 13,3 
 
 i ; 8 7) n. 5 
 
 princip, pr., 19, i b i 
 
 s-form, deponents, 
 
 o-, p. 51, fn. 2 
 
 prinsessa, title, 129 
 
 225; reflexive, 233, n. 
 
 ocean, pr., 19, i b i 
 
 problem, decl., in, i; 
 
 3 ; see s-passive 
 
 och, pr., 19, i a; coll., 
 
 pr., Phon. 20, 2 
 
 ^-passive, 221; 222, n. 
 
 39, 6; with numerals, 
 
 professor, accent, 92, 
 
 2; cf. 224; cf. 225, n. 
 
 3165319. 3 
 
 4; 87, n. 6; title, 129; 
 
 i and 2; impersonal, 
 
 ock, coll., 105, 5 
 
 capital.. 24, i 
 
 235, 3; coll., 228, 2 
 
 ocksa, acgr.; coll., 105, 
 
 promenera, ac. 
 
 sade, coll., 105, 4; see 
 
 5 
 
 pronomen, ac.; 113; p. 
 
 saga 
 
 offer, ac. 
 
 64, fn. i 
 
 sadcl, acgr. 
 
 ofta, order, 141; corn- 
 
 pros/, pr., 9, 3 a; title, 
 
 sagt, pr., 18; Phon. 38 
 
 par., 174, i 
 
 129 
 
 and n. 
 
 oj, pr., 12 
 
 psykolog, pr., 9, 3 b; 
 
 sak, accent, plur., 92, I 
 
 ologiskt, pr., 177, b 
 
 Phon. 50, n. 2 
 
 sakta, compar., 173, 
 
 om, omitted, 140; 215; 
 
 pulver, def. plur., 
 
 end 
 
 pr.,6, n. i; Phon. 18, 
 
 coll., 117, 5 
 
 sai-, insep., 231 
 
 a 
 
 <?. i 
 
 samma, acgr.; 266 and
 
 318 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 n. 4; 268; coll., 273, 
 
 9; 149, n.;i87, n.; 233, 
 
 smorja, 194, i; pr., 
 
 10; satnnte, 266, n. i 
 
 n. 2 
 
 197, 2 
 
 sch, pr., 13, 4; 19, 6 b; 
 
 sjo, pr., 13, 4; till 
 
 snart, order, 141; pr., 
 
 syllabication, 22, 11. 
 
 sjoss, pr., 132, a 
 
 6, n. 2 
 
 se, 203, i; with inf., 
 
 sk, pr., 13, 4; 14; syl- 
 
 socken, ac.; pr., 73; 69^ 
 
 239, n. 2; fa se, 262, 
 
 labication, 22, n. 
 
 n. 4; coll., 75, 4 
 
 3; se . . . ut, p. 125, 
 
 ska(ll),co\\., 146, 2 
 
 som, relative, 274; 275; 
 
 fn. i 
 
 -skap, 3 decl., p. 46, 
 
 cf. 277; cf. 276, n. i; 
 
 sedan, compar., 162, 
 
 fa. 3 
 
 p. "215, fn. 5; 281, n. 
 
 end; 174, 3; p. 102, 
 
 skilja, pr., 14; 194, i 
 
 i; after allt, p. 217, 
 
 fn. i; p. no, fn. 6; 
 
 skj\ pr., 15 
 
 fn.; coll., 291, 2; sign 
 
 coll., 146, 4', for . . . 
 
 sko, 109 
 
 of subject, 278; 289, 
 
 sedan, p. 125, fn. 2 
 
 skogsbacke, pr., 18 
 
 !; 39! som heist, 308 
 
 scgla, pr., Phon. 14 B 
 
 skola, 252; future, 136, 
 
 sow, with subjunctive. 
 
 2 C 
 
 2, and n. 1-3; coll., 
 
 215; with obj., coll., 
 
 sen, see sedan 
 
 146, 2 
 
 273,2 
 
 scnare; den , 320, n. 
 
 skulle, subjunctive, 
 
 sotnlig, 301 
 
 3 
 
 208; 210; 212; 215; p. 
 
 seminar, 68, n. 3; 69, 
 
 si, pr., 13, 4; 19, 6 
 
 149, fn. 3; p. 150, fn. 
 
 n. 2; orth., Phon. 18, 
 
 siden, definite, p. 61, 
 
 2 ; see skola 
 
 a; coll., 75, 2 
 
 fn. 4 
 
 skynda, pr., 14 
 
 somras, 172, 3 
 
 sig, 264; 187; 304; pr., 
 
 skalva, pr., 14; p. 139, 
 
 somt, 301 
 
 coll., 191, 6 
 
 fn. i 
 
 son, 87, n. 4; accent, 
 
 Si grid, ac. 
 
 skiink, p. 63, fn. I 
 
 plur., 92, i; pr., 9, 3 
 
 simma, 203, 4; p. 142, 
 
 skara, pr., 14; conju- 
 
 b; coll., 86, 5 
 
 fn. 3 
 
 gation, 200 
 
 sova, pr., 9, 3 b; 200; 
 
 sin, pr., 6, n. i; 264; 
 
 sko'n, pr., 14 
 
 p. 57, fn. 2; p. 138, fn. 
 
 iSS; p. 122, fn. i and 
 
 s/oV),3i9, 4 
 
 7 
 
 25304 
 
 slog, pr., coll., 207, 2; 
 
 spcla, coll., 191, 3 
 
 sist, 162, end 
 
 see sld 
 
 sporja, 194, i;pr., 197, 
 
 sitta, 203, 3; progress- 
 
 sluta, 203, 4 
 
 2 
 
 ive, 245, n. 2 
 
 sld, 203, i; sldss, 225, 
 
 ssi, pr., 13, 4; 19, 6 b 
 
 sj, pr., 13, 4; syllabi- 
 
 and n. i ; see slog 
 
 stad, accent, plur.. 92, 
 
 cation, 22, n. 
 
 slcikt, adj., 153 
 
 i ; coll., 86, 4 
 
 sjuk, pr., 13, 4 
 
 <!, 152; compar., 
 
 stj, pr., 13, 4; 19, 6 b 
 
 sjunga, pr., 13, 4; 19, 
 
 160; p. 101, fn. 
 
 stjcila, 200; 202, n.; pr., 
 
 5b 
 
 Smdland, ac.; pr., 
 
 19, 6 b 
 
 sjuttio, usually ac. 
 
 coll., 134, 5 
 
 stjarna, pr., 19, 6 b 
 
 sjalv, pr., 13, 4;-^,pr., 
 
 swalla, p. 139, fn. i 
 
 Stjarnhok, pr., 19, 6 b 
 
 18; Phon. 38; 264, n. smalta, p. 139, fn. i 
 
 Stockholm, acgr.
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 319 
 
 stod, pr., coll., 207, 2; 
 
 salja, 194. i 
 
 7 a; coll., 324, i and 
 
 p. 143, fn. 3 (stag) 
 
 sallan, order, 141 
 
 6; p. 245, fn. i 
 
 stor, com par., 159 
 
 sander; i , 319, 3; 
 
 tj&na, coll., 191, 3 
 
 strdnder, plur., ac. 
 
 coll., 324, 5 
 
 toffel, ac. ; 57, n. ; 58, n. 
 
 sfudera, ac.; 184, n. 
 
 sdtta, 194, 2 
 
 trenne, 314; coll., 324, 
 
 sfudiutn, ac. 
 
 So ( de ) rm an land, ac . ; 
 
 2 
 
 std, 203, i; progress- 
 
 coll., 134, 5 
 
 tretti(o), usually ac.; 
 
 ive, 245, n. 2; see stod 
 
 sonder, ac. 
 
 315; p. 245, fn. i; 
 
 stodja, 194, i; p. 130, 
 
 /, pr., 13, 2; cf. 13, 3 
 
 coll., 324, i 
 
 fn. 2; coll., -199, i 
 
 -t omitted, coll., su- 
 
 Trollhatte (kanal), 
 
 stovel, ac.; pr., p. 136, 
 
 pine and past part., 
 
 118, end 
 
 fn. ii 
 
 207, 3; def. sing., 53, 
 
 trdng, compar., 159 
 
 Sven, pr., 6, n. i 
 
 3; adjectives, 157, 3; 
 
 and n. 
 
 srcnsk, pr., 9, i c; 
 
 my eke t, 53, 5 
 
 tra(d), pr., coll., 105, 
 
 svenskt, coll., 86, 5; 
 
 V pronoun, colL, 191, 
 
 6 
 
 orth., 24, 2 
 
 5 
 
 tradgdrd, usually ac. ; 
 
 Si'cnsson, ac. 
 
 ta(ga], 200; 203, 2; 
 
 pr., 16, c 
 
 Si'er(i)ge,ac.;pr., 19, 
 
 238, n. i; coll., 207, i 
 
 /, 314 
 
 2 a 2 
 
 tala, coll., 191, 3 
 
 turn, pr., 6, n. i; 106, 
 
 svcilja, p. 129, fn. 3 
 
 -tal(s), 172, 3; 319. 5 
 
 4; gender, p. 60, fn. 5 
 
 svalta, 200; 203, 4; p. 
 
 te, p. 46, fn. 2 
 
 tttng, compar., 159 
 
 138, fn. 4 
 
 teater, acgr. 
 
 Turkiet, ac.; 128 
 
 svdr(j)a, 200; pr., 205, 
 
 Tegne"r, pr., 19, 2 c; 
 
 tusen, ac.; 313, n.;3i6 
 
 b 
 
 orth., 90 
 
 tusende, 313, n. 
 
 synas, p. 128, fn. 5 
 
 telejonera, ac.; 184, n. 
 
 tvenne, 314; coll., 324, 
 
 syster, accent, 74, 2 
 
 //, pr., 13, 4; 19, 7 b 
 
 2 
 
 s<l, with subordinate 
 
 tidig(t], pr., i8;coll., 
 
 tvinga, 203, 4; p. 142, 
 
 clause, 139, n. 3; 
 
 228, 7 
 
 fn. 4 
 
 coll., 146, i; sd . . . 
 
 /?*-, 203, 3 
 
 tvd, with bdda, bagge, 
 
 som, 175 
 
 till, pr., coll., 53, 6; 
 
 300 
 
 sadan, ac.; 269; p. 93, 
 
 with gen., 122; till 
 
 /yd, verb, 203, 3; p. 
 
 fn.; coll., 273, ii 
 
 dods, pr., 18; 177, a; 
 
 132, fn.; coll., 207, 7 
 
 sdlcdcs, usually gr. 
 
 Phon. 38 
 
 tvatta, coll., 207, 7 
 
 sdsom, coll., 220, 3; 
 
 tillbaka, ac.; pr., coll., 
 
 />>, coll., p. 127, fn. 2 
 
 sdsoni (om], with 
 
 228,7 
 
 Tyskland, ac. 
 
 subjunctive, 215 
 
 tillsammans, acgr. 
 
 <ys/fc(/0, orth., 24, 2; 
 
 saga, pr., 18; 103; 197, 
 
 -#-, 307 
 
 pr., coll., 86, 5 
 
 i and 2 ; Phon . 38 and 
 
 tio, coll., 324, i 
 
 td, 109 
 
 n.; 194, 2; p. 130, fn. 5 
 
 #, pr., 19, 7 a 
 
 /<!/a, p. 128, fn. 5; 193, 
 
 saker, ac. 
 
 tjugo, tjugu, pr., 19, 
 
 n.
 
 320 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 tiimja, p. 129, fn. 3 
 
 var, past of vara, pr., 
 
 137; 136, n. 2; orth., 
 
 for, 258 
 
 coll., 207, 2 
 
 Phon. 17; auxiliary, 
 
 loras, p. 130, fn. 3 
 
 z/am, 34; 42; 46, 3; 71; 
 
 255; coll., 199, 3 
 
 u, pr., 8, 2, n. 
 
 200; p. 138, fn. 7; pr., vilken, acgr.; relative, 
 
 urn-, insep., 231 
 
 coll., 39, 6; subjunc- 
 
 274; 276; 281, n. i;p. 
 
 und-, insep., 231 
 
 tive, p. 148, fn. 2; 
 
 215, fn. 5; coll., 291, 
 
 under, ac. 
 
 auxiliary, 249; in pas- 
 
 2; interrog., 282; 284; 
 
 undre, -acgr., 169, i; 
 
 sive, 222; 224; p. 162, 
 
 p. 223, fn.;p. 220, fn. 
 
 compar.. 162 
 
 fn. i; with past part., 
 
 3; pr., coll., 291, 10 
 
 ung, compar., 159 
 
 223, n.; 241, n.; past 
 
 vilkendera, 282; 287 
 
 -ung, 2 decl., 68, 4 
 
 for present, 244 (coll. , 
 
 rin, p. 46, fn. 2; ac- 
 
 universitet, pr., 8, 2, 
 
 246, 4) 
 
 cent, plur., 92, i 
 
 n. 
 
 varandra, usually gr.; 
 
 vinter, ac.; vintras, 
 
 upp(e], 172, 2, n.; 
 
 264, n. 8 
 
 172,3 
 
 coll., 134, i; 179, i ' 
 
 varannan, var tredje, 
 
 visa, coll., 191, 3 
 
 Up(p}sala, orth., 90; 
 
 etc., 295, n. 2 
 
 Visingso, stress, p. 
 
 universitet, 118, 
 
 varda, pr., 205, b; p. 
 
 106, fn. 3 
 
 end 
 
 138, fn. 7; p. 139, fn. 
 
 v&g* 57, n.; 58, n. 
 
 -us, def., 107, n. 3 
 
 i; auxiliary, 251; in 
 
 var, 48; 61; 264 
 
 ut(e), 172, 2, n. 
 
 passive, 222; 224; 
 
 vdras, 172, 3 
 
 z>, pr., 18 
 
 coll., 228, 5 
 
 riidcr, ac. 
 
 va, see z/arf, var 
 
 vardera, 306 
 
 val, order, 141; corn- 
 
 backer, ac., 66, 2 
 
 varenda, 295, n. 3 
 
 par., 174, 2 
 
 vad, relative, 274; 278; 
 
 varfor, ac. 
 
 valja, 194, i; pr., 197, 
 
 281, n. i; interrog., 
 
 varifrdn, ac.; stress, 
 
 2 
 
 282; 285; pr., coll., 
 
 p. 125, fn. 3 
 
 van, pr., 6, n. i; orth.. 
 
 134,4; vadfdren(a], 
 
 varje, 296; coll., 311, 2 
 
 Phon. 18, b 
 
 282; 286; coll., 291, 7 
 
 vars, 274; 277; 276, n. 
 
 Viincrn, acgr. 
 
 van-, insep., 231 
 
 2; coll., 291, 3 
 
 vanja, 194, i; pr., 197, 
 
 vanlig, pr., Phon. 14 
 
 vatten, ac. 
 
 2 
 
 B2C 
 
 veder-, insep., 231 
 
 vardera, ac. 
 
 vapen, ac. 
 
 vem, pr., 6, n. i; 282; 
 
 varld, pr., 16, a 
 
 var, pronoun, 295; var 
 
 283; p. 220, fn. 2 
 
 Vdrmland, acgr. ; 
 
 och en, 295; var sin, 
 
 verb, in, i 
 
 coll., 134, 5 
 
 295, n. i; en och var, 
 
 veta, 194, 5; p. 131, fn. 
 
 Vastergotland, coll., 
 
 coll., 311, 2; var 
 
 2; fa veta, 262, 3 
 
 157, 4 
 
 tredje, etc., see var- 
 
 vi, 264 
 
 Vast eras (stad), 118, 
 
 annan 
 
 vid, pr., coll., 134, 4 
 
 end 
 
 var, adv., pr., coll., 
 
 Viktor, ac. 
 
 Vattern, acgr. 
 
 75,8 
 
 vilja, 194, 5; 197, 2; 
 
 ya^ra, 203, 4
 
 INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 w, i; pr., 19, 8 
 
 a, i; pr., 9, 5; n 
 
 o, i; pr., 8, 4; ii 
 
 Wilhchn, acgr.; pr., 
 
 Sdel, ac. 
 
 oga, 1 10; p. 28, fn. 2; 
 
 19, 8 
 
 akta, 153; compar., 
 
 P- 53. f- i 
 
 x, pr., 19, 9; quantitv 
 
 158, n. 2 
 
 <?;', pr., 12 
 
 of preceding vowel, 
 
 didst, pr., 1 6, c 
 
 Oland, ac.; coll., 170, 
 
 6, n. i; syllabication, 
 
 an, pr., 6, n. i; with 
 
 4 
 
 22, n. 
 
 obj. personal pro- 
 
 ora, no; p. 28, fn. 2; 
 
 y, i;pr., 9, 4; ii 
 
 noun, coll., 273, 2; 
 
 P- 53, fn. i 
 
 yngre, ac., 169, i 
 
 with indefinite rela- 
 
 Orebro(lcin), iiS.end 
 
 yttre, ac.; com par., 162 
 
 tive 309 
 
 Ostergdlland, coll., 
 
 z, use, i; pr., 19, 10 
 
 anka, pr., 19, 5 a I 
 
 134,5 
 
 a, i; pr., 8, 3; n 
 
 ar, aro, see vara; 
 
 <?z/^r, ac. 
 
 d, see att, av, och 
 
 coll., 39, 6; ate* ar, 
 
 overallt, stress, p. 166, 
 
 d-, insep., 231 
 
 235, n. 
 
 fn. i 
 
 dkcr, ac. 
 
 a/a, 200 
 
 ovre, acgr., 169, i; 
 
 dter, ac. 
 
 aven, coll., 105, 5 
 
 compar., 162
 
 3 22 
 
 NOTES AND CORRECTIONS. 
 
 6, note 2. It must not be inferred that the a of fijarfa in 13, 3 
 is long. No examples of a long vowel before rt were intended to 
 be given; art is an example. 
 
 9, i b. Unstressed e in endings is also like the "a" in "ago". 
 
 39, i. It must not be inferred that den heir is in the written 
 language followed by the noun in the indefinite form. 
 
 90. In a few words, not very common, ^ sometimes occurs 
 also medially, though usage varies. In proper names, however, 
 medial ^ is more common, as in Tegn^r, the example given in the 
 grammar. 
 
 124. Omit the example: Han dog ar 1870. 
 
 Page 97, vocabulary. Land may also have the plural Hinder. 
 
 Page 128, foot-note 5. In addition to the verbs here listed as 
 irregularly belonging to lib, there are a number of verbs that in 
 the spoken language may have the forms of lib, though belonging 
 to other conjugations. See 191, 3. 
 
 214, 2. The inversion, when om is omitted, should perhaps 
 have been expressly stated (cf. 215, end); it is referred to (, 140, 
 beginning) in the foot-note. 
 
 229, 2. Read: "The verb proper normally stands first, . . ." 
 In case of emphasis the affix may stand first. 
 
 281, note 2. Observe that also the verb in the principal clause 
 stands last in two of the examples given. 
 
 289. Read: "When an interrogative is the subject, or modi- 
 fies the subject, of an indirect question, ..." I am referring to 
 adjective pronouns and the genitive of the interrogatives. 
 
 297, line 4. When hel means "all", it is always in the defin- 
 ite form; cf. page 126, foot-note 12. 
 
 Appendix I, 1. From the use of the word "only" in the case 
 of the examples of monosyllables in the First Declension, it must 
 not be inferred that also the other examples are the only ones. 
 Similarly in Appendix I, 3. 
 
 Appendix I, 2 B b. The example hustru, given under Irregular, 
 is purposely omitted from the generalizing remarks in the column 
 to the extreme left.
 
 University of California 
 
 SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 Return this material to the library 
 
 from which it was borrowed.
 
 A 000 029 780 4